u CO I V V W > A 2 00 NOlXfUlXSNI NVINOSHXIWS S3 CO — * > 2 CO 2 avaan libraries Smithsonian institution Nounius 2 CO HI C LI B RAR I E$ O SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOimillSNI nvinoshxiws S3iavaan LIBRARI INSTITUTION NOlinillS 2 CO H LI B RAR ES SMITHSONIAN CO INSTITUTION c H CO UJ — w&\ cr *2 HI < *3 c/ K7 cc m NOimillSNI NVINOSHXIWS NOIXfiXIXSN! i nvinoshxiws saiuvusn 2 o o 2 vNs LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN' 2 ' INSTITUTION Noixnxixs LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN institution mai inn iqkii mwimoqu iiiaio uwu a i ^ vv^ ^ ft*'' ^ > *' 2 > ’ 2E CO ' »*'■'* ~Z to Z ^ JOSHIIWS S3 lava an LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI Z CO O z NVINOSHJLIWS S3 CO rHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIlfUUSNI NVIN0SH1IWS ssiavaan BR ARIES SMITHSONIAN INS moshims ssiavaan librar SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVIN0SH1IIAIS FHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVIN0SH1IINS S3 I a Va 8 II CO LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INS co I0SH1IWS DC saiavaan LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN z o 3 co INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI z I o CO Z NVINQSH1IIAIS S3 o nvinoshihns S3 1 ava 9 II tv LIBRAR I ES SMITHSONIAN INS moshiiws saiavaan libraries Smithsonian institution NoiiniusNi NVIN0SH1IWS S3 CO THS0N1AN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVINQSH1IWS S3 I ^ VH a 1 1 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN NOSHimS S3 1 ava an LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVIN0SH1IINS S3 THSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI co x to O V^ltiS^> NVINOSH I IIA/S > Z MWMfln LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN _ $0(r - *4 JOURNAL of the Bombay Natural History Society Vol. 81, No. 1 Editors : J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole & A. N. D. Nanavati APRIL 1984 Rs. 45 m T’- NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors by observ- ing the following instructions: 1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publication to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published elsewhere, should not be submitted. - ♦ i 2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered. 3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be underlined. 4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identifica- tion has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collect- ed. 5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8.20 x 5.60 cm (No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper. 6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on Bristol board. 7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alpha- betically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books not underlined (roman type), thus : Banerji, M* L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55(2): 243-268. Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay. Titles of papers should not be underlined. 8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958). 9. Synopsis : Each scientific paper should be accompanied by a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words. 10. Reprints : Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders for additional reprints should be in multi- ples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and packing. 11. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a mem- ber’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s. Hombill House, Editors, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society . VOLUME 81(1) : APRIL 1984 Date of Publication : 9-8-1984 CONTENTS Page Some aspects of the Biology and Ecology of Narcondam Hornbjll ( Rhyticeros narcondami). By S. A. Hussain. ( With one coloured & five Black-and-W hite plates and five text- figures) • • 1 Seasonal variation in the population of Acrida exaltata Walk, at Aligarh. By Shamshad Ali. ( With seven text-figures ) .. 19 Larval culture of the Hermit Crab Clibanarius aequabilis var. merguiensis De Man (Decapoda, Anomura, Diogenidae) reared in the Laboratory. By Venkatray N. Nayak. ( With seven text-figures ) . . 29 Tourist activity and behaviour of the Leopard Panthera pardus fusca (Meyer, 1794) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. By M. R. Chambers, Charles Santiapillai and N. Ishvvaran. {With two text-figures ) . . 42 Some observations of scarce birds in Nepal. By N. J. Redman, F. Lambert and R. Grimmett . . 49 Spawning of some important cqldwater fish of tfie Garhwal Himalaya. By S. P. Badola and H. R. Singh. {With a plate) . . 54 Reproduction biology of the Soft-furred Field Rat, Rattus meltada pallidior (Ryley, 1914) in the Rajasthan desert. By B. D. Rana and Ishwar Prakash. {With three text-figures) . . 59 Flowering plants around the holy shrine of Kedarnath, Uttar Pradesh. By J. K. Semwal. {With a text-figure) . . 7! Observations of the reproductive biology of the Indian Chameleon, Chamaeleo zeylanicus (Laurenti). By L. A. K. Singh, L. N. Acharjyo and H. R. Bustard 86 New records and hosts of Aphid parasitoides (Hymenoptera: Aphidiida) from Kashmir, India. By R. C. Bhagat . . 93 Host plants of the Fruit Flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) of the Indian sub- continent, exclusive of the sub-family Dacinae. By Mohammad Zaka-ur-Rab 99 Observations cn the length-weight relationship of the fish Rasbora daniconius (Ham.-Buch.). By V, Y. Thakre, and S. S. Bapat. {With two text-figures) .. 105 Influence of atmospheric temperature and humidity on the variations in seasonal abundance and phenology of Micrcnecta striata Fieber. By T. C. Banerjee, A. S. Mondal and T. K. Nayek. {With seven text-figures) .. 110 Further contribution to the Flora of Buxa Forest Division, Jalpaiguri District (West Bengal). By J. K. Sikdar and Rolla S. Rao. {With a text-figure) .. 123 New Descriptions: A new species of Soiichus L. (Asteraceae) from south India. By M. Chandra- bose, V. Chandrasekaran and N. C. Nair. ( With seven text-figures ) .. 149 Description of two new species and one new record of Cryptostigmatid Mites (Acari: Oribatei) from Maharashtra, India* By A. K. Sanyal. (With four text-figures) . . 151 A new species of Ophiorrhiza (Rubiaceae) from Andhra Pradesh. G. V. Subba Rao and G. R. Kumari. ( With six text-figures ) 156 Description of a new genus and some new species of tcrrenticole Diptera of the northwest Himalaya. By B. K. Kaul. ( With thirty-four text-figures) 158 Three new species of genus Isoetes L. from Rajasthan, India. By C. B. Gena and T. N. Bhardwaja. ( With a pi ate) . . 165 A new 'Sim pi ocos Jacq. ( Symplocaceae) from southern India. By A. N. Henry, R. Gopalan and M. S. Swaminathan. ( With seven text-figures) . . 169 Reviews: : 1. Sunlight and Shadows. (Divyabhanusinh Chavda) .. 172 2. The IUCN Aphibia-Reptilia Data Book — Part I. (P. Kannan) , . 174 3. Symbiosis in the Mango-hopper: A study in Comparative Cytopathology. (T. S. S. Dikshith and R. K. Varshney) .. 175 4. Supplement to Duthie’s Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain and of the adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan Tracts. (A. R. Daruwalla) .. 176 Miscellaneous Notes : Mammals: 1. Record of the Fulvous Fruit Bat, Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest, 1820) from Sikkim, with notes on its interesting feeding habit and status. By R. K. Ghose and D. K. Ghosal (p. 178); 2. A feeding association between a Heteropteran Bug and Langurs. By Paul N. Newton (p. 180); 3. White dots on the legs of Barking Deer. By J. Mangalraj Johnson (p. 182); 4. A note on cannibalism in desert rodents. By A. P. Jain (p. 182); 5. Bandicoot rat seizing a snake. By N. C. Nandi (p. 183); 6. Record of a foetus of the Unless Black Porpoise from Goa Coast. (With six text-figures). By M. Hafeezullah (p. 183). Birds: 7. Cattle Egrets (Bubulcus ibis) feeding on cicadas on trees. By S. G. Monga and Pan ish Pandya (p. 186) ; 8. Unusual plumage in a Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis coro- mandus (Boddaert). By Natin Jamdar (p. 187); 9. Some notes on the Indian Reef Heron. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 188); 10. Exceptionally large eggs of the common House Crow, Corvus s. splendens Viell. By S. G. Monga (p. 189); 11. Laboratory observations on the incubation period of the Indian Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosa (Temminck). ( With a text- figure). By C. Salimkumar and V. C. Soni (p. 189); 12. Seasonality and occurrence of birds in the Eastern Ghats. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 191); 13. A curious experi- ence with a small Minivet ( Pericrocotus cinnamomeus) . By Sadiq A. Futehally (p. 191); 14. Frequency and duration of incubation of the eggs for Aegithina tiphia. By H. Daniel Wesley (p. 193); 15. Hypsipetes madagascariensis sinensis (La Touche): a first record for India. By S. Dillon Ripley and S. A. Hussain (p. 195); 16. The diagnostic plumage characters of the Redheaded Babblers Stachyris ruficeps and S. rufifrons. By C. J. O. Harrison (p. 197); 17. Behavioural response of a male Magpie-Robin ( Copsychus saularis Sclater) to its own song. By E. Narayanan (p. 199); 18. Mouse, a nest-parasite of Baya Weaver bird ( Ploceus philippinus L.). ( With three text-figures) . By D. Regupathy and T. A. Davis (p. 200). Fishes: 19. First record of the freshwater Grey Mullet. Rhinomugil corsula (Hamilton) from Maharashtra. By M. S. Pradhan and D. F. Singh (p. 202); 20. Preliminary observa- tions on the migratory behaviour of the Garhwal Himalayan Mahseer. ( With a text-figure) . By Prakash Nautiyal and M. S. Lai (p. 204). Insects: 21. The spider as bee enemy. ( With a text-figure) . By A. K. Thakur and O. P. Sharma (p. 208); 22. New records of Aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) from Uttar Pradesh. By Basant K. Agarwala. D. Ghosh and D. N. Raychaudhuri (p. 211); 23. New record of insect pests infesting Kastnri Bhendi. Hibiscus abehnoschus Linnaeus, a medicinal plant. By R. Rajashekhargcuda, M. C. Devaiah and Suhas Yelshetty (p. 212); 24. A new record of Neopheosia fasciata (Moore) on apple. By Ramesh Chander (p. 213). Other Invertebrates: 25. On a glossiphonid leech. ( With three text-figures) . By H. V. Ghate (p. 214); 26. Studies on the biological control of two common vector snails of Punjab by predatory insects. By H. S. Bali. Sawai Singh and Sunita Sharma (p. 216); 27. Necrophagous habit in the Giant African Snail, Aehatina fulica fulica Bowdick. (With a plate). By A. K. Das and R. M. Sharma (p. 219). Botany: 28. A contribution to the vegetation of Chaibasa (North), Singhbhum Dist. (North Bihar). By Dilip Kumar Biswas (p. 221); 29. Occurrence of Desmodium seorpiurus (Swartz) Desvaux in Western India. (With five text-figures) . By V. D. Vartak and M. S. Kumbhojkar (p. 224); 30. Identification and distributional note of a few species of Epilo- bium Linn, in India. By G. S. Giri and R. N. Banerjee (p. 227); 31. Cucumis melo Linn, in Punjab — a taxonomic reappraisal. By M. Sharma (p. 229); 32. On the identity of two species of Oldenlandia L. (Rubiaceae). By D. B. Deb and Ratna Datta (p. 232); 33. Ceropegia pusilla Wight et Arn. (Asclepiadaceae) in Hoshiarpur District (Punjab). By Anil K. Goel and Surendra Singh (p. 233); 34. Two noteworthy plants from West Bengal. By S. N. Das and S. C. Roy (p. 234); 35. Abnormal flowering of Agave angusti- folia Haw. ( With a plate). By Anand Kumar and P. G. Diwakar (p. 235); 36. Gregarious flowering of Carvia callosa Bremek and Nilgirianthus reticulatus Bremek at Amboli. By Ulhas Rane (p. 236); 37. Pteris scabripes Wall, ex Hook. — a new find from India. By S. R. Ghosh (p. 237); 38. Studies in Leguminosae XXX - — Further contributions to Dalbergia L. f. and Denis Lour. {With three text-figures) . By K. Thothathri (p. 238). \ J. Bombay nat. Hist, Soc 81 Plate Narcondam Hornbills: Female above; Male below JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1984 APRIL Vol. 81 No. 1 SOME ASPECTS OF THE BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF NARCONDAM HORNBILL ( RHYTICEROS N A RCONDA Ml ) S. A. Hussain1 2 ( With one coloured & five Black-and -White plates and five text -figures) Introduction Two species of hornbills of the genus Rhyti- ceros are represented in the Indian sub-conti- nent- Of these R. undulatus occurs in north- eastern India, Burma down to Malay penin- sula and the Mergui Archipelago. The other, R. narcondami is restricted to Narcondam, an off lying island in the Andaman group. Very little is known about the biology and ecology of the latter. Hume (1873) on an expedition to the Andaman group collected several horn- bills from Narcondam and named it narcon- dami. Prain (1893), St. John (1898), Cory (1902) and Osmaston (1905) visited Narcon- dam subsequently to collect specimens. The last spent five days, (the longest period of time spent in the island by a visitor), in search of stands of the timber tree Pterocarpus dal- 1 Accepted January 1984. 2 Project Scientist, Avifauna Project, Bombay Natural History Society. bergoides. He also made some notes on the fauna and flora including Hornbills, whose number he estimated to be about 200. No further information on the hornbills was avail- able until two of my colleagues at the BNHS* Robert B. Grubh and R. J. Pimento visited the island briefly in 1969. Abdulali (1971) visited the island in the following year and spent a few hours to collect specimens. In 1972 along with Mr. N. J. George of Prince of Wales Museum, I visited the island at the instance and direction of Mr. Humayun Ab- dulali. We visited South and North Andamans and Narcondam island from 4th March to 25th April 1972 and the field data and speci- mens collected by us were reported in the Journal (Abdulali 1974). The Narcondam island (the name Narcondam is derived from Sanskrit Naraka — Hell; Kundam — Pit, — an obvious reference to the origin of the island which is believed to have been an active vol- cano not long ago) is difficult to approach, except during the months of March, April JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 and May when the sea around is comparati- vely calm. The present paper records observations made by me during my stay on Narcondam from 16th March to 14th April 1972, and the sub- sequent observations on the two hornbill chicks brought back which lived in captivity at the Society’s premises. T axonomical notes : Hume (1873) while describing narcondami stated that it resembled R. plicatus of Borneo and due to the difference in size as well as the absence of a zoogeographic connecting link between these species gave the former the sta- tus of a species. Baker (1927) treated it as a full species in the absence of intermediates and stated that systematists may consider it to be a small island race of R. plicatus of which R. everetti of the Moluccas was thought to be an intermediate form. Blyth (1845) had in the meantime, described subruficolUs from N Burma, which he differentiated from R. plica- tus ruficollis by the absence of any ridges on the sides of bill and by its smaller size. Peters (1945) accepted this nomenclature and consi- dered subruficolUs a valid race of plicatus. Sanft (1960) who has authoritatively reviewed the family Bucerotidae, did not accept subru- ficollis as a race of plicatus preferring to synonymise it with undulatus. His argument was that undulatus and subruficolUs are from 3 Sanft, (IBIS 95: 702-703) after studying 16 museum specimens of R. undulatus, R. subruficolUs and intermediates argued that the ranges of the two overlap with the intermediates showing characteristics of the both, and therefore subruficolUs is synony- mous with undulatus. However, Elbe! ( Condor 71 (4) : 434-435) on the evidence of the mellophaga present in the above two species concluded that subruficolUs is distinct from undulatus and is closer to plicatus. the same ancestral stock, differing only in deve- lopmental stages as well as localised varia- tions. One of the main differences is in the structure of the bill i.e. presence of ridges on the side of the basal half of the bill (= undu- latus) and absence of it (= subruficolUs) , which according to him, are linked with sexual matu- rity and tend to develop as the bird becomes older. The difference in body size, accord- ing to him, was ecologically linked to the types of habitats in which they occur. Thus the larger birds of the mountainous region are undulatus and the smaller occurring in low hill zones subruficolUs ■ However, he had overlook- ed two other distinct characteristics that differentiate the two. The colour pattern of the head and neck of males, colour of gular pouch, and presence or absence of a black band on throat. These patterns are ap- parently not linked with ecological distribu- tion. Are they then linked with age? Does the yellow colour of gular pouch in S and black band on the pouch in both female and male develop as they grow older?3 (Table 1). A 16 year old specimen of R. p. subruficolUs at the San Diego zoo shows all the characteri- stics of the typical ruficollis with blue gular pouch without the black band (K. C. Lint, pers. comm.). Under these circumstances the taxonomic and zoogeographic position of nar- condami is quite intriguing. If one were to accept Sanft’s proposition, narcondami is a smaller form showing immature characters of undulatus isolated in the islands long ago and gradually evolving into the present form (ende- mic?) and in the process losing the adult characteristics of the undulatus. On the other hand, the plicatus link theory, with the recogni- tion of subruficolUs as a distinct subspecies of the former, would perhaps open up a new line of possibilities on the zoogeography of the re- gion. Another species which perhaps raises 4-* ECOLOGY OF NARCONDAM HORNBILL 3 Fig. 1. Distribution of Hornbilis in SE Asia (After Sanft 1960). JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Table 1 R. undulatus R. p. subniftcollis R. narcondami Bill Wing Weight Head & Neck Gular pouch Distri- bution Side of mandibles ridged at base 458-505 $ 9 2.500 gm $ dark brown crown and hindneck-almost black lower down. Throat & upper neck whitish Bright yellow with black band 8 Dark blue and black band 9 NE India, Burma. Singapore, Sumatra, Java & Borneo side of mandibles smooth at base 420-445 $ 9 1.900 gm 8 rufous head & hind neck, white on throat Pale blue $ 9 Without black band S. Burma. SW Thailand Sumatra, Borneo side of mandibles smooth at base 303-305 $ 285-287 9 600-750 gm $ rufous head and neck Pale blue $ 9 without black band Narcondam I. similar questions is R. everetti an endemic of Sumba islands, SE Asia (Fig. 1). There are similarities in the evolution of these two species. Both are endemic to small islands, are smaller versions of neigh- bouring forms, and have distinct morpho- logical characters (Fig. 2). Ali and Ripley (1970), followed Peters’ nomenclature and call- ed it R. ( undulatus ) narcondami. Flowever, Ripley (1982) after seeing the live specimens in the BMHS and personal discussions with me agreed that narcondami is closer to plicatus than undulatus. Kemp and Kemp (1975) mention the long-hop flights of the SE Asian hornbills which sometimes cross the sea to offshore islands. These hornbills have been observed to take off from the mainland and fly in “follow the leader” formation for some distance straight out over the sea and return eventually to the starting point. Is this behaviour then an instinctive urge of a long forgotten “migra- tory” habit? The significance of the white tail in these hornbills which can be seen from long distances and which may probably act as a visual stimulus for the following hornbills, is worth noting. Physiography and vegetation : Narcondam island (13°30' N; 94°38' E) is situated c 500 km NW off Mergui archipelago and c 300 km SW of the Gulf of Martaban off the Burmese mainland, and c 125 km east of North Andaman in the Andaman and Nicobar group of islands in the Bay of Bengal. The island has a total area of about 682 hectares and is a part of a submerged chain of mountains in the Andaman archipelago. Narcondam is one of the two off-lying volcanic islands in the eas- tern sector of the group. It rises abruptly from the sea to a height of c 750 m sloping west- eastwards with a succession of steep spurs emanating from the main summit which is situated on the western portion of the island. The very mountainous nature of island (there 4 ECOLOGY OF NARCONDAM HORN BILL Fig. 2. Ridges and gular black band is absent in plicatus plicatus, everetii everetti and narcondami. Latter two are 1/3 the size of undulatus with plicatus being intermediate (see text). Abbreviations : A — Ridges; B — Black band. <$ R. EVERETTI CARL P. 6 R. NARCONPAMI (5 R. PLICATUS JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 is virtually no continental shelf around the is- land) provides no landing place except for a small boulder-strewn bay on the southern side, which also provides the only small flat bit of ground for camping. A small spring in the bed of a dry nallah about 25 m above the sea level is the only fresh water source in the is- land known so far. Climate : The climate of the Andaman group of is- lands is tropical wet and humid with daily temperatures ranging from 27.8°C maximum and 21.8°C minimum. The rainfall is heavy both during SW and NE monsoons, lasting from May to October. Cyclonic storms occur during this period with rough weather con- ditions prevailing almost throughout the season. The average annual rainfall recorded for 17 years at Mayabunder (12°55' N; 92°55' E) the nearest weather station to Narcondam, is 3055.5 mm with an average of 13.4 rainy days per year. The month of July recorded highest average (538.5 m / 18.7 rainy days) and March lowest (4.8 mm / 0.4 rainy days). Vegetation: Parkinson (1923) and Thothathri (1960, 1962), and Balakrishnan (?) give some de- tails of the flora of the Andaman and Nico- bar group of islands. Prain (1893) described some aspects of the flora of Narcondam. The vegetation structure of the Narcondam island is more or less similar to that of the tropical N Andaman group. The vegetation can be divided into three categories (a) littoral (b) deciduous /evergreen and (c) moist evergreen. The very limited ‘shoreline’ of the island con- tains Ipomoea biloba, Scaevola koenigi. Hib- iscus tiliaceus, Panclanus sp., Thespesia popu - Inea, Barringtonia speciosa and Sterculia rubiginosa. Introduced plants like Coconut, Papaya and Banana grow wild in this zone. The lower hills immediately following the ‘shoreline’ have both deciduous and evergreen trees. Some of the typical plants of this zone are Terminalia catappa, T. bialata, Parishia in- si gnis, and Cary ota mitis interspersed with numerous thorny creepers. The flora in the higher zones of the hill contains evergreens like Dipterocarpus sp-, Sideroxylon sp.. Ficus sp. etc. The vegetation still higher and close to the summit appears to be moist evergreen, with numerous epiphytes. Some of the seeds collected from a hornbifl’s nest were later identified as Anamirta cocculus, Capparis sepiaria, C. tenera var. latifolia, Garuga pin- nata, Amoora rohituka, Terminalia catappa and Ixora brunniscens. Apart from these, seve- ral other fruiting trees including the ones men- tioned above no doubt occur in the island. Mammals : No large mammals have been recorded in the island. Large rats ( Rattus sp.) obviously introduced, are common around the landing bay. Giant fruit bats (Ptcropus melanotus satyrus ) are common and other smaller bats may also occur. Reptiles : One of tne commonest snakes seen in the island is the flying snake Chrysopelia paradisi which is mostly arboreal. On the seashore oc- casionally sea snakes Laticauda colubrina are encountered. The giant water monitor Var anus salvator is common in different parts of the island. One specimen, which was collected, measured 1 m and weighed 4.5 kg. Skinks, Mabuya tytleri, Lygosoma maculatus and lizards, Cnemaspis kandiana, Cyrtodactylus rubidus and Phelsuma andamanense (endemic to Andamans) are common. Land Crabs ( Car disoma hirtipes ) are very 6 J . Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate i Hussain: Rhyticeros narcondami Above : Narcondam island from western side. The central peak is perpetually under a shroud of cloud. Below : Male feeding female (and young) at nest ‘B\ (Photos'. Pat Louis) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Hussain: Rhyticeros narcondami Plate II Above : Debris from nest ‘A’ (27/3/1972). Below : A week old chick from nest (27/3/1972). ( Photos : S. A. Hussain) ECOLOGY OF NARCONDAM HORN BILL common throughout the island, occuring even higher up in the hills. Of the invertebrates, Danaidae; Nymphalidae; Lycaenidae (Butter- flies); Chryoschroa ignita, Mimila prenceps (Beetles); and spiders of the families Heterop- idae, Aregiopidae, and Thomsidae are record- ed. Results An attempt was made to locate as many nests of the hornbill as possible and to census the population. A regular count of all the hornbills seen each day was made (see table 2). Increase in number of the females sighted may be due to their emergence from nest confinement after a successful brooding. It was not possible to identify all the nesting trees though a few nests were spotted on Sideroxylon sp. and Sterculia sp. Most of the nests were dis- covered from the debris and excreta and seeds below the nest-trees while a few others by observing the movements of the male bringing food to the nest. Table 2 NARCONDAM HORNBILL Date No. of $ seen No. of $ seen No. of nests No. of 8 9 at nest 17 / iii/76 25 Nil 3 3(3) 18 19 Nil Nil — 19 26 Nil 2 2(3) 20 14 Nil Nil — 21 28 1 (with $ ) Nil — 22 31 4 ( 2 with 8 ) Nil — 23 8 Nil Nil — 24 11 4 1 — 25 16 2 Nil — 26 14 3 1 H8) 27 19 4 (2 with 8 ) Nil — 28 16 2 1 H8) 29 59 11 Nil — 30 72 28 1 — 31 40 10 — — l/iv/76 31 9 — — 2 59 14 — — 3 13 2 — — 4 42 12 — — 5 39 11 — — 6 21 8 — — 7* — — — — 8 48 9 — — 9 23 4 — — 10 52 11 — — * Rain Note : The birds were counted randomly each day. The numbers may be biased on certain days as the birds congregating in feeding trees were counted as well as males on feeding forays may have been counted several times over ! 7 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 3. Nest ‘A’ sketch 8 ECOLOGY OF N A RCON DA M HORN BILL Nesting site : A rough estimate of the heights of the nests observed varied between 2.4 m to 15.2 m. Two nests situated at 2.5 m and 2.74 m respectively were studied in detail. The nest ‘A' (Fig. 3) was situated on the outer bend of one of the main boughs of a tree facing west. The en- trance, though not concealed, was not easy to spot as the ground below the nest sloped down- wards steeply. The outer rim of the hole breadthwise measured 30 cm. Depth from the entrance to inner wall about 180 cm gradually tapering inwards. Nest i.T (Plate I) was on a bare tree facing east situated about 22.9 m from nest ‘A’. The ground rose into a steep ascent in front of the nest which enabled one to gaze directly into the nest hole from a cer- tain height. The entrance measured about 25 cm with a depth of about 149 cm. The flooor of the nest was horizontal. The contents re- moved from nest ‘A’ weighed 1360 g and con- sisted of eight varieties of seeds apart from feathers and powdered plaster. Some of the seeds were identified by the Botanical Survey of India. The female and the young in the nest sat with their tail held up vertically. (They con- tinued to remain in this posture for quite some time even after they were removed from the nest.) The female attended to nest sanitation after every feeding visit of the male. She was observed tossing out what appeared to be the excreta of the young with her beak while she herself turned around and forcibly ejected her own excreta. On 6th April one of the chicks in the nest ‘B’ was seen making feeble attempts to defecate by bringing the anal region to- wards the nest entrance. Thereafter both the chicks regularly defecated in this manner. Behaviour at nest : The male starts fetching the food just be- fore sunrise. No marked territorial behaviour by the breeding pair was observed. Occasio- nally an alien male or female was tolerated in the vicinity of the nest (i.e- on the same tree) though the minimum distance measured bet- ween two nests was about 22.8 m. Frequency of feeding varies with distance covered to the foraging tree. The shortest time recorded was 10 minutes and the longest 30 minutes. On arrival the male always perched on a particular branch of a tree depending on the direction of his arrival. If undisturbed, he would fly directly to the nest-hole, perching on a con- venient branch or clinging to the nest itself and proceed feeding the female. The food is coughed up, brought to the tip of the beak which is inserted into the slit opening and is offered to the female. The number of the in- sertions depends on the size of the food brought in. Large berries are offered piecemeal while smaller ones, whole. No attempt was made to retrieve the food that fell down in the course of feeding. A minimum of 10 insertions were counted when berries offered were large and a maximum of 93 when they were smaller. Some times the insertions are ‘false' when the female is not ready to receive the next berry. (Is she in turn feeding the young?) All this time the young would keep calling continuous- ly. Once the feeding was over the male would clean his beak on the branch a few times and after preening himself for a while fly away on the next foraging trip. In the beginning of my observations the male refused to approach the nest in my pre- sence. He kept flitting from branch to branch and finally flew away. Fie seemed to rely on sight and showed no reactions to normal sounds but was wary of human voice. This particular male did not allow me to observe from any position below the line of its nest but allowed me to remain in full view at a dis- 9 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL LUST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 * tance of about 13-7 m, above the line of its nest. (This was possible as the ground rose upwards from the nesting tree). It was not possible to ascertain the roles of the male and the female in nest building. The female in the nest ‘A’ was seen tamping the plaster of her nest by applying material with the sides of her bill on 18th March. The female sheds her flight feathers in the nest. The female taken out of the nest ‘A’ had 3rd, 4th and 5th primaries on the left wing and 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th on the right in moult. The rest had fallen. Of the tail the 3rd pair was in moult. She weighed about 680 g, while the bill measured 108 mm, tarsus 43 mm, tail 198 mm, (moulting). She was found to be incap- able of flight. General behaviour Call : In flight, adults of both sexes emit a con- tinuous ‘Ka . . ka . . ka’ to the accompani- ment of wheezing laboured wingbeat. When alarmed, the male at nest-site calls a halting ‘ko . . kokokoko . . ko . . kok . . ko kok kok kok’ etc. The female inside the nest is generally silent, but sometimes utters a single ‘krwak’ if the male is late in offering the next morsel during the course of a feeding. If alarm- ed herself she emits a repeated ‘Kraawk kok kok’ resembling the alarm call of a frightened domestic fowl. The young inside the nest call feebly ‘chew . . . chew . . . chew’ continuously like a squeaking sewing machine in operation, especially when the male is feeding. Courtship : On 27th March four males and three females were seen perching on different branches of a Ficus tree. All were calling simultaneously- One pair ( d* $ ) was more active than the others. The female, which perched on the lower portion of a horizontal branch assumed begging posture towards the male perched a little higher next to her on the same branch. The male though silent now, occasionally a gave ‘krawk’ call and ‘touched’ the female’s bill and hopped away. Twice the male brought out a berry and offered it to the female. This went on for some- time as both kept hopping from branch to branch and finally flew away together. Several pairs ( d $ ) were seen together in the different parts of the island. This suggests that court- ship was still in progress. Relations with other animals : No predators have been recorded so far but rats and water monitors are the only large animals/ reptiles in the islands. Flying snakes ( Chrysopelia paraclisi ) are very common and on one occasion one was observed passing on branches very close to a hornbiH’s nest con- taining a female and young. Once several hornbills were seen mobbing a whitebellied Sea Eagle ( Haliaeetus leucogaster) from tree to tree. Abdulali (op. cit.) also mentions similar occurrence earlier. A koel ( Eudynamys scolopacea ) was also seen being chased by a hornbill. Human presence in the island is a re- cent phenomenon and though the impact of their presence throughout the year could not be assessed it may be assumed that the nesting pattern of the hornbill, may be affected as they would avoid nesting on lower available sites due to disturbance /predation by man. Development of the young : The egg (only one obtained) was earthy brown in colour. This may be due to staining. It measured 33 x 45 mm and weighed 28 g- The same nest contained a chick about a week old. It weighted 75 g and measured 130 mm from tip of the beak to vent (Plate II). The 10 J . Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate III Hussain: Rhyticeros narcondami On 26/4/1972 ‘A’ on right, ‘B’ on left. ( Photo : Courtesy Indian Express, Madras) Above: ‘A7 <3* on 13/11/1972 c 9 month old. Below : ‘B’ $ on 13/11/1972 c 9 month old. ( Photos : S. A. Hussain) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate IV Hussain: Rhyticeros narcondami ECOLOGY OF N ARC ON DAM HORN BILL body completely naked except about 10 rudimentary rectal barbs in an arc immediately above and between the anus and the oil gland. Similar barbs, numbering about 23 along the basal half of the wing along the alar tract. The upper mandible from gape to tip was c 25 mm, and the lower c 27 mm. The depth of the bill c 13.5 mm and the tarsus measured c 16 mm, the eyes were completely closed. Both the egg and the chick were preserved. The exact age of the two other chicks obtain- ed could not be ascertained though it is as- sumed that the interval of hatching between the two was about 10 days, but this factor needs further investigation. The present obser- vations on the growth were made from the date (13 April) the birds were removed from the next. Of the two, one was considerably larger and ultimately turned out to be male. It was not possible to ascertain the sexes of them at this stage as both seemed to have similar plumage i.e. rufous on head and neck. The chicks were named ‘A’ and ‘B’ for the sake of convenience of description through various stages of deve- lopment. (It became apparent in the final stages of growth that smaller ‘B’ though it started of with the rufous plumage of a male, acquired black plumage of the 9 after the post-juvenile general moult and thereafter be- came a full-fledged female). Descriptions of development recorded for the period April 1972 — March 1973 etc are given below. Body measurement and weights are given separately (see Figs. 4 and 5). The actual dates of measurements vary, though taken roughly dur- ing the middle of each month- There are some obvious gaps in data as I was away on other assignments during that period. Both the parents and chicks, kept in a make- shift cage were brought to Port Blair and then on to Madras by ship and then to Bombay by passenger train. The parent male died on board ship one week after capture. He had re- fused to eat. The female accepted food occa- sionally but did not feed the young which were kept in the cage along with her. The young however, fed voraciously. The female escaped from the cage when an enthusiastic reporter from a daily newspaper in Madras tried to photograph it in my absence. Though the news- paper sent out an appeal through its columns for information, she was never found and was believed to have died somewhere in the city of Madras. The chicks were brought to Bombay and were temporarily kept at Hornbill House. A cage measuring c 12' x 20' x 8' was subsequently built in the compound adjacent to Hornbill House and the pair remained there till their death 6 years later. Development : 13 th April 1972 : ‘A’ — Rufous feathers on crown. Auriculars in sheath. Lores, area below the eye, nasal groove, hind-neck chin, throat and upper breast naked. The colour of skin in these areas smalt blue and rest of the area pinkish yellow. Vent, lower abdomen patchily feathered. All feathers in sheath. Upper tail coverts and lower back with a few barbs. Wing coverts well developed- A few feathers on the tarsus — oil gland swollen, and a line of feathers encircling it. Stomach greatly dis- tended. Wing and tail in moult. Bill waxy yellow. Gular pouch pale blue. Eyelashes well developed. Irides pale blue. Soles of feet pale blue. Wing 153 mm. Bill 72 mm, tarsus 47 mm, tail 96 mm. ‘B’ — A few barbs appearing on the crown, nasal groove; whole back, breast, abdomen naked. Wing coverts fully grown. A few tufts of feathers around oil gland. Bill 58, tarsus 41 tail 58, weight 380 gm. Behaviour : Call monotonous and conti- 11 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 81 nuous chew, chew, chew . . . Both ignored their parents and vice versa, though kept in the same enclosure. Defecation was carried out by stretching the neck out, raising the wings, projecting the anal region and stepping back- wards towards the edge of the enclosure. When on an open ground, the ‘stepping back’ is con- tinued till the faeces is discharged. Picking up and throwing about whatever object found nearby- Pecking at the toes of the observer (resemblance to seeds?). Both voracious caters, were fed on creamcracker biscuits, bananas, and other fruit. May 1972 : ‘A’ — A line of rufous feathers in pin immediately below the gular pouch. Auriculars fully developed. Feathers on vent and abdomen fully developed. Upper back and lower hind neck patchily feathered. Base of the upper mandible swollen, showing a faint trace of wreath (furrow). Bill waxy yellow ex- cept at the base where it is reddish. ‘B’ — Crown, ear coverts, upper and lower tail coverts fully developed. The feathers adjoining these areas in pin. September 1972: ‘A’ — All body feathers fully grown. Crown and nape dark rufous. Throat sulphur-yellow, grading into rufous to- wards the upper breast where it meets the black of the abdomen. The feathers of abdomen and tarsus softer than those on the back, wing coverts and scapulars. Gular pouch light blue. Bare skin around the eye smalt blue. Bill waxy yellow, the basal tinge of red increased in tone. A gap of about 2 mm bet- ween the mandibles about 8mm from the tip. kB’ — - All body feathers fully grown. Fea- thers adjacent to the gular skin appear blackish. Lower neck where the black of abdo- men merging with the rufous of the neck seems to extend upwards. A few feathers on the crown have a barred appearance. The rufous feathers on the head and neck dark greyish on the basal half. November 1972: ‘A’ — Swollen casque of the wreath broad at forehead tapering towards the tip, about 72 mm in length. Depth of the bill including the wreath 50 mm. ‘B’ — Feathers on the crown (Centre streak) turning darker. A line immediately below and along the gular pouch black. Another streak across the ear coverts extending down to hind neck blackish. Swollen casque 50 mm. Depth of the bill including the casque 42 mm, gap between the mandibles about 2 mm. December 1972 : ‘A’ — Depth of the bill 72 mm. Tip of the swollen casque blunted due to wear. ‘B‘ — Black feathers in sheath in a line above the eye (almost a central streak). Simi- lar streaks below the eye and extending up- wards from the black feathers in the abdomen and breast- Another line of black feathers ex- tending upwards from the upper back towards the crown. Rest of the neck area dark brown, depth of bill 43 mm, wreath 50 mm. March 1973 : ‘A’ — Depth of bill 54 mm, 2 central tail feathers and 7th primary moult- ing. No body moult. ‘B’ — Extensive dropping of body and flight feathers. Heavy body moult. All the feathers moulting in the head and neck area black. From March 1973, onwards the plumage of ‘R' showed a marked overall tendency to be- come black. By the end of May the moulting was over. The moulting of the wing and tail feathers was irregular. Both the birds shed their flight feathers irregularly, sometimes even freshly moulted ones. Powdered calcium sandoz was added to the regular diet during this period. By this time ‘B’ attained the full adult female plumage. In August 1973 the transverse band on the wreath turned opaque and developed a soft ECOLOGY OF N ARCON DAM HORN BILL Fig. 4. wrinkled depression where small blood capil- laries were seen. Soft parts : Colour of the irides remained pale grey in both and ? throughout while the eye lids of & turned red in colour. Bare skin around the eye and the gular pouch blue. Measurements of wing, bill, tarsus, and tail were noted at intervals (Fig. 4). Weights were also noted for the same period (Fig. 5). The measurements of wing and tail were discon- tinued after March 1973, as their tips were either breaking or wearing out as the birds constantly flew around in the cage. Food and behaviour in captivity : Both were fed on suttoo (powdered roasted Bengal gram) mixed with glucose powder and a few drops of ABDEC, supplemented with fruits like bananas, apple, guava, jamun ( Syzigium jambolana ) marshmelon, mango and sapota, hardboiled eggs and chopped meat was given in the initial stages. 13 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Fig. 5. Weights of chicks (blank area — male, shaded area — female) In Tockus hombills nestling weight reaches a peak at the completion of body growth indicated by tarsus and ulna measurements. Thereafter weight declines erratically untill about fledging time and once: again rises to a constant level (Kemp 1976). Figs. 4 & 5 indicate here that the body growth had reached a peak around the beginning of April and Fig. 5 indicates possible fledging Sporadic jerky movements of the head, a trait also observed in adults in the wild state. Occasionally tossing up the head and rubbing the crown on upper back. An occasional fruit or a morsel of food would be brought up and swallowed again. Hard seeds are regurgitated, preening is done throughout the day at irregular period around mid-May. intervals. Head is scratched by extending the wing, and bring up the leg over it, (indirect scratching) . ‘A’ ( cf ) was aggressive towards ‘B’ (?) and would not allow it to come near, often attacking and chasing it around the cage. There was no significant change in plumage 14 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Hussain: Rhyticeros narcondami Plate V Above : Male about 4 years old. Below : Male & female before the ‘fight’. ( Photos : S. A. Hussain) ECOLOGY OF NARCONDAM HORN BILL or body size / weight in the following years, but in February 1977 the iris of male appeared to change colour from grey to reddish. At the same time the female began to show interest in a nest box (prepared from a sawn-off tree trunk) placed inside the cage. The male how- ever did not show any sign of breeding con- dition. The female became more aggressive and finally both had to be separated by a partition inside the cage. It was possible that the female was imprinted on humans and re- garded the male as a threat to pair bond (A. C. Kemp, per. comm.). The female continued to be aggressive towards the male even after the normal breeding season (March-May) was over and finally on 8th March 1978 she manag- ed to sneak across the partition and attacked the male gripping his throat in her beak till she was separated with considerable effort. The male died the following day. The female was later sent to the Zoological Park at New Delhi where she died within two months of arrival- Discussion The very limited scope of the study carried out in Narcondam island restricts any detailed discussion. One of the factors that restricted a more detailed and systematic enquiry was that the expedition was mainly aimed at collecting biological specimens and as such most of the time was spent in that direction. However, it was possible to document, both in the wild as well as in captivity, some hitherto unknown aspects of the biology and ecology of the Narcondam Hornbill. Ecological status : Random estimates made by the earlier visi- tors to the island, i.e. c 200 birds is much less than what I believe to be the actual population. Daily counts were made by me during my ‘collecting’ forays (not more than 2 km in various directions in the island) and the birds seen in flight as well as on trees were recorded. The highest counted in one day was 72 males and 28 females (see table 2). These numbers include a point count made on a feeding tree where the hornbills were mobbing a white belli- ed sea eagle. My one month long stay in the island gave me the impression that there are more than 200 birds in the island. All the earlier visitors landed there in the months of March- April which happens to be the breeding period when most of the females would have been confined to nest-holes. However the figures mentioned in the above table cannot be in- terpreted statistically to project the probable population size since the factors contributing •to the regulation of population in the island are not known. What, then, is the optimum population and what is the factor that regu- lates it? The apparent (?) absence of large predators in the island (including until recently, man) abundance of food resources with perhaps some degree of competition for resource from other frugivores in the island such as Green Imperial Pigeon ( Ducula aenea). Pied Imperial Pigeon (D. bicolor ) and the Giant Fruit Bat, provides an ideal ecological niche for a suc- cessful survival of a species like the hornbill. This is borne out by the fact that the Narcon- dam hornbills raise two chicks while most other larger species of Rhyticeros are able to raise only one chick (Kemp 1979). Com- petition for nesting sites during the breeding season may restrict the actual breeding success as the hornbills do not excavate nest holes. The severe cyclonic storms that lash these is- lands destroy a great number of older nesting trees, even causing mortality of brooding females /chicks confined in nest-holes- The com- petition for nesting sites may actually be acute 15 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 in the island as evidenced by the fact that two of the nests studied were as low as 2.5 to 2.7 m from the ground. Another possible regulat- ing factor may be perhaps the very insular na- ture of the species where in-breeding is discour- aged among siblings. The female chick's as- suming male plumage upto fledging period may actually be a mechanism evolved for this pur- pose. Was the antagonistic behaviour of the male towards the female initially and then the female towards the male once she attained breeding condition in captivity a part of the behaviour pattern evolved in the wild state to discourage mating among siblings? All this, is of course hypothetical and needs to be studied. Conservation outlook Island ecosystems are, in a way, living . laboratories for the study of evolution. The very simplified nature of the isolated islands provide us with an insight into the complexity of nature at work. Some of the factors that contribute to such systems are competition, predation, physical environment and their effect on the insular nature of small popula- tions inhabiting these (Diamond 1982). If any one of these factors is jeopardised there is a danger of such populations becoming vulner- able to extinction. It has been demonstrated repeatedly elsewhere that the single most im- portant cause for species extinction on oceanic islands has been predation by alien elements including man. The vulnerability of the endemic birds is emphasised by the fact that most of the birds listed in the IUCN’s Red Data Book occur in islands. It is estimated that in the past 400 years two hundred of the estimated 220-odd species and subspecies of birds which have be- come extinct have been island forms. Most of these became extinct either because of the loss of habitat or when the population size was too small to compete with alien competitors and predators, or even some catastrophy such as disease. Where does the Narcondam hornbill stand under the present ecological conditions? It is definitely not facing the danger of extinction as yet but it is vulnerable and some conserva- tion strategy has to be evolved to protect the species from possible future exposure to the factors mentioned above. Even if one were to make a liberal estimate of the total population of the hornbills to be about 400 it will be per- haps too small a number to cope with ecologi- cal disasters like an outbreak of an epidemic or an extensive destruction of habitat. What, then could be the strategy to ensure the safety of this unique species? First of all a complete ecological study of the hornbill is necessary to understand its status. Conservation measures based on such a study will be one of the answers to the ques- tion. Captive breeding, which has been success- fully carried out with several endangered bird and animal species elsewhere, is a tempting prospect- However, it may not be necessary in the case of Narcondam hornbill. On the con- trary, it would be much better to find out other islands within the Andaman group having simi- lar ecological structure and introduce the birds there. There are about 300 islands in the Andaman group of which about 60% are uninhabited. In the north Andaman group, which are close to Narcondam, there are seve- ral off-lying islands like Landfall, East, Inter- view and Barren having close affinities with the ecological conditions in Narcondam. A third alternative is to provide suitable artificial nesting sites in the island itself. In conclusion it may be suggested that once the need to conserve the species against pos- sible extinction is sufficiently acknowledged, the following strategy may be instituted : 16 ECOLOGY OF NARCONDAM H0RNB1LL 1. Studying the complete ecology of the Narcondam Hornbill. 2. Emphasis on study of ecological require- ment, food niche, and the nesting suc- cess in the island. 3. Study of the habitat, vegetation struc- ture and faunistic composition in the island. 4. A comparative assessment of habitats of nearby islands. 5. Experimental capture and transfer of a few pairs of hornbills to alternate sites under careful supervision. 6. Monitoring the progress of introduced populations in their new habitats. 7. Declaring Narcondam and the island /s selected for transfer of the species as completely protected. Acknowledgements Under the direction of Mr. Humayun Abdulali, who first initiated the series of col- lecting expeditions to the Andaman and Nico- bar islands, Robert B. Grubh and R. J. Pimento of BNHS spent a few days on Nar- condam. They collected several specimens of the hornbill and attempted a rough count of its population. In 1971 Mr. Humayun Abdulali himself paid a fleeting visit to Nar- condam and took a few more specimens. Since then, following a spurious territorial claim by Burma, a police picket of 16 men has been posted on the island posing a poten- tial threat to the bird. Therefore, I am par- ticularly grateful to Mr. Abdulali for the opportunity he provided me for this trip to Narcondam under the Charles McCann Ver- tebrate Zoology Fund for a field study of this unique species while it is still relatively safe and plentiful. I am also grateful to Mr. Har- mender Singh, the then Chief Commissioner, and Mr. S. Vajpayee, Chief Secretary of Andaman Administration; Mr. V. N. Singh IPS the then Superintendent of Police, Mr. Fred Burns, Manager, WIMCO (since deceas- ed); Mr. Bhaktawar Singh, Dy SP; the Master and crew of Police boat M. V. Jawahar (who cheerfully dropped us at Narcondam) the Radio Officer and the Police party, including the cheerful Nicobarese policemen for their as- sistance in various ways, Mr. N. J. George, of Prince of Wales Museum was of great help in collecting specimens and Mr. Pat Louis, who arrived with his cameras, provided a photo- graphic cover to the trip. I am grateful to the then Honorary Secre- tary of the Society Mr. Zafar Futehally, and the Dynacraft Machine Co. for providing the cage for the hornbills at BNHS. Mr. J. C. Daniel and Dr. Salim Ali gave all encour- agement in my studies. Dr. A. C. Kemp of Transvaal Museum, S. Africa read through the manuscripts and gave useful suggestions and advice on hornbill studies and shared his knowledge about SE Asian hornbills. My col- leagues at the BNHS, specially, Messrs R. J. Pimento and Umapratap Singh helped in car- ing for the hornbills. The expenses for feeding the hornbills were met from a grant from Salim Ali/Loke Wan Tho Ornithological Re- search Fund. Mr. Carl D’Souza and Miss Usha Ganguli helped with graphs and sketches- References Abdulali, H. (1971) : Narcondam island and (1974) : The fauna of Narcondam notes on some birds from the Andaman islands. island. Part I. Birds, ibid. 71: 496-505. J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 68(2): 385-411. Ali, Salim & Ripley, S, D. (1970): Handbook JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 of the Birds of India & Pakistan. Vol. 4, O.U.P., Bombay. Baker, E. C. S. (1927): Fauna of British India, Birds. Vol. 4, London. Taylor & Francis, London. Blyth, E. (1845): Notices and descriptions of various new and little known species of India. Journal of Asiatic Soc. of Bengal 14 : 173-212. Cory, C. P. (1902) : Some further notes on Nar- condam Hornbills (R. narcondami) . J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 14: 372. Diamond, J. M. (1982): Population processes operating on Islands. Island Management Sympo- sium 12 Aug. 1982, ICBP XVII World Conference, Cambridge. Hume, A. O. (1873): Novelties, Stray Feathers 1: 411. Kemp, A. C. (1976) : A study of Ecology Beha- viour and systematics of Tockus Hornbills (Aves: Bucerotidae) . Transvaal Museum, Pretoria. (1979): A review of Hornbills: Biology and Rediation. The living bird, 1978 Annual. & Kemp, M. I. (1975): A report on a study of Hornbills in Sarawak, with comments on their conservation. WWF Report. Osmaston, B. B. (1905): A visit to Narcondam. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 16: 620-622. Parkinson, C. E. (1923) : A forest flora of Anda- man Islands. Simla. Peters, J. L, (1945): A checklist of the birds of the World. Prain, D. (1893) : On the flora of Narcandam and Barren Islands. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 62: 39-86. Ripley, S. D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan. 2nd Ed. Bombay Natural History Society. Sanft, K. (1960) : Bucerotidae. Das Tierrich 76. St. John, J. H. (1898) : Some notes on Narcon- dam Hornbill. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 212-214. Thothathri, K. (1960): Studies on the flora of Andaman Islands. Bull. Bot. Surv. of India 2:357- 373. (1962): Contribution to the flora of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, ibid. 4:281-296. 18 SEASONAL VARIATION IN THE POPULATION OF AC RIDA EX ALT AT A WALK. AT ALIGARH1 Shamshad Ali2 (With seven text-figures) The population level of Acrida exaltata over three years (1974-76) at Aligarh has been discussed. Information is furnished on seasonal variation, intra and inter year fluctuation and life cycle in natural conditions. Climatic conditions exert marked in- fluence on the rise and fall of population. The timing of the various life history events (i.e. oviposition, hatching and maturation) varies widely from year to year depending upon the particular sequence of climatic conditions prevailing throughout the entire grasshopper cycle. Introduction Acrida exaltata Walk, is a serious pest of cotton and tobacco. Besides cotton and to- bacco, it also attacks rice, sugarcane, potato and grasses. It has long been recognized that the wide fluctuations periodically occurring in acridid populations throughout the world are closely linked to weather conditions (Parker 1935, Dempster 1963). The major weather factors involved are apparently temperature and precipitation. In some characteristically very dry regions, rainfall may be the principal limit- ing factor in grasshoppers distribution through its influence on food (Scharff 1954), breeding behaviour (Uvarov 1956). Putnam (1954) said that grasshoppers outbreak usually coincide with extended period of hot, dry weather. Des- camps (1975) studied factors influencing the distribution and abundance of acridid popu- lation in general. Studies were made to note the seasonal 1 Accepted July 1980. 2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology, A.M.U. Aligarh. Present address : Assistant Professor, Institute of Biology, University of Constantine, Algeria. variation in the population of Acrida exaltata Walk., due to various environmental factors at Aligarh. Material and Method The field observations were undertaken for three years from January, 1974 to December, 1976, during different months of the year. The samples of hoppers and adults were obtained by sweeping. A standard net was used for collection. The insects were collected in the morning on every tenth day for an hour from the acridid field station (Scindia Fort, Ali- garh). Meteorological records were obtained from the weather station. Department of Physics, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. Data on peak density recorded each month in the area for the period (1974-76) were used for analysis. These monthly peaks were then analysed for the three months, each con- stituting four seasons. Winter (December to February), Spring (March to May), Summer (June to August) and Autumn (September to November). Only the mean values of various seasons were considered to reveal intra and inter year fluctuations. The reason for using 19 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 seasonal instead of monthly population was to obtain ‘nil’ population values, invariably en- countered for months at a time, specially during Winter and Spring seasons. Inter year fluctuation was measured by the deviations of the seasonal mean from that of annual mean for three years. Comparative be- haviour of two types of fluctuations was also studied. Studies were made on the life history of Acrida exaltata Walk, under natural condi- tions. Observations Topography : The geographical position of Aligarh is 27° 53' 38"N. Latitude and 78° 04' 30"E. Longitude. The district of Aligarh lies in the upper Doab of the Ganga and Jamuna rivers. Climate : Aligarh experiences tropical monsoon type of climate. The year is generally divi- ded into the following three seasons — 1. The cold weather: Winter (Late Octo- ber to February), 2. The hot weather season: Summer (March- June), 3. The season of general rains: (Mid- June-September). During winter the temperature is generally low. The mean maximum temperature is 80°F, however, the mean minimum temperature re- mains around 50°F. The prevailing direction of wind during the season is from West and North-West to South and South-East. The winds are generally light with an average speed of 2 miles/hour. These winds are supposed to be of continental origin and are mostly dry. The month of December and January are the coldest and often register light rains due to western disturbance otherwise the weather is generally fine and pleasant due to bright and sunny days with clear sky. The month of May and June are the hottest with mercury shoot- ing sometimes upto 115°F, however, the mean maximum temperature is 115°F and the mean minimum temperature 65°F. Strong dust rais- ing hot and dry westerly winds during day time is common feature of the summer. The peculiar phenomenon of the summer is the frequent occurrence of dust and thunder storms with an average velocity of 30-40 miles /hour gales. The humidity sometimes falls to 2 or 3% whereas the general level is 20%. With the onset of monsoon generally by late June, the direction of winds is reversed due to low pressure area developed in the north western India. With the arrival of the humid oceanic currents from the Arabian Sea as well as from the Bay of Bengal, the tempera- Table 1 Average monthly rainfall at Aligarh (1974-76) Year January February March 1 . April May y c 3 (in mm) July August Seplembe October Novembc Decembei 1974 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 20.9 31.8 230.9 193.4 5.5 19.6 0.0 17.2 1975 19.4 10.0 0.7 0.0 23.7 74.1 247.9 146.4 312.6 68.1 0.0 0.0 1976 0.0 13.0 5.0 11.8 22.6 35.7 354.4 426.4 73.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 SEASONAL VARIATION IN THE POPULATION OF ACR1DA EXALTATA 120 ioc£ -o E 80 2 > 60 & O' 40 c if 20 Days FIG-1 CLIMATIC DATA 1974 ture falls and the air becomes cool. The mean monthly temperature falls to 80°F in July. The relative humidity increases to 70-74% R.H. The sky is generally overcast in the rainy season. This season receives nearly 90% precipitation of the whole year and the mean seasonal ranfall is 25" (Table 1 and Figs. 1, 2 and 3). Vegetation : Water penetration plays an impor- tant part in determining the distribution of vegetation. Scindia Fort is rich in green veeetation. Abundance of food is available for feeding by grasshoppers, and is surrounded by cultivated crop fields. It was found that hoppers and adults were most abundant during and after the monsoon period (July-October) due to the optimum ecological conditions, particularly temperature, relative humidity and food for their develop- ment and biological activities. As is evident from Figs. 4, 5 and 6 the population was lowest in winter (December-March) and summer (May-June). This is due to slow reproductive activities during this period. Copulation was observed to be higher in July to October, Ovi- position was also higher. Egg pods laid during April to June, hatched after the monsoon showers in July since suffi- 2\ JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 cient moisture was available for the develop- ment of eggs. But during the heavy rains, hatching of eggs decreased, but again increased in August to October. The population of hop- pers and adults was at its maximum from July to October, but decreased in subsequent months due to the advent of winter (Figs. 4, 5 and 6). This decrease continued till February. Seasonal Life History at Aligarh under Natural Conditions : Copulation : From 15th March to 31st Octo- ber. Maximum in July, August and Sept- ember. Oviposition : From last week of March to middle of November. Maximum in August and September. Hatching : From first week of March to Dec- ember last maximum hatching was observ- ed during the months of August and September. Hopper Stage : Found throughout the year. Large number of nymphs were found during the months of August, October and March. Adults were found throughout the year. Large number of adults were found in Octo- ber, November and April. Climatic conditions were suitable for the re- production only for a short period at the end of the dry season. During the rainy season, it results in rapid growth of grass cover, which favours the grasshopper; the temperatuie and humidity remain favourable for about two months. However, the heavy rains in July and August increased soil humidity and the Oothecae were destroyed and from November temperature frequently falls below the thre- Days FIG. 2 CLIMATIC OATA 1975 22 SEASONAL VARIATION IN THE POPULATION OF ACRIDA EXALTATA 100 »> • «S> TJ • «* 80 i <2 60 I QC 40 ^ c 01 u 20 l F M A M J J A Days FIG- 3 CLIMATIC DATA 1976 S 0 N 0 shold for development. During the dry season, low temperatures induce degeneration of the oocytes, disrupt spermatogenesis and change the sex ratio in adult populations. It was found that the populations in the area was maintain- ed only by migration from other localities. Inter and Intra Year Fluctuations : Apparent intra year fluctuation of the mean peak density populations in respect of the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn seasons are shown for three years from 1974-76 in Fig. 7. The highest peak usually occurs during the Autumn season with the characteristic sharp fall in the next winter. However, for the years 1975-76 Summer peaks were maximum. Discussion In the present three year study, the rela- tionship between egg production and tempera- ture was particularly apparent during the month of September which showed extremely variable climatological conditions from year to year. September is a transitional period bet- ween Summer and Winter, when rapid change in temperature again occur. In order, grass- hoppers may take advantage of the optimum egglaying periods during mid Summer and so attain their maximum reproductive potential, it is essential that they mature early in the season. Early maturation is dependent upon a continued sequence of high temperatures through all stages of development extending even back to the previous fall following depo- sition of eggs. Continued high temperatures permit rapid development of nymphs to the adult stage followed by advanced matu- rity, early mating and oviposition. On the other hand, a complete reversal of the weather patterns just outlined, with consistently low 23 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 240 i "" ■ ■ Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec FIG-4 MONTHLY POPULATION -1974 ■24 Number SEASONAL VARIATION IN THE POPULATION OF ACR1DA EXALTATA 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 □ Nymphs ■ Adults Jan Feb Mar Apr MayJun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Oec FIG- 5 MONTHLY POPULATION -1975 25 Number JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo! . 81 240 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec FIG. 6 MONTHLY POPULATION -1976 26 Number SEASONAL VARIATION IN THE POPULATION OF ACRIDA EXALT AT A Winter Spring Summer FIG. 7 SEASONAL POPULATION 74 7 5 76 Autumn (1974-76) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 temperatures through the various stages of growth and development will result in drastic reduction of the number of eggpods laid. In eggs laid after mid September the percentage of hatching was drastically reduced, these eggs while still apparently viable showed only minor embryonic development. Similar observations were made by Suslik (1975), who observed that seasonal dispersal of grasshopper was found to depend on the height of the grass stand, and population den- sity varied at different times of the year. Pick- ford (1970) gave the reason for population increase as due to favourable environmental conditions, which resulted in increased fecun- dity and survival of more eggs Randell and Mukherji (1974) observed that increase in population was due to high temperatures at the time of egglaying. Temperature during peak population density was highly significant (Edwards 1960). Increase in population due to high temperature at the time of egglaying was also supported by Ran- R E F E Albrecht, F. O. (1956): Limitations des effectifs chez un acridien. Influece de la secheresse du sol sur les oeufs de Nomadacris septemfaciata (Serv.). Locus ta, 4 : 1-21. Cassimir, M. (1962): History of outbreaks of the Australian plague locust, Chortoicetes termini- fera (Walk.) between 1933 and 1959, and analysis of the influence of rainfall on their outbreaks. Aust. J. Agric. Res., 72(4): 674-700. Dempster, J. P. (1963) : The population Dyna- mics of grasshoppers and locusts. Biol. Rev., 38: 490-529. Descamps, M. (1975): Etude du penplement acri- dien de 1 Etat de veracruz (Mexique). Folia Ento- mologica Mexicana. 31/32 : 3-98. Edwards, R. L. (1960): Relationship between grasshopper abundance and weather conditions in Saskatchewan, 1930-58. Canad. Ent., 92(8) : 619-624. Parker, J. R. (1935): Factors largely responsible for years of grasshoppers abundance. Proc. World’s Graon Exhibition Conf., Ottawa, 2: 472-473. dell and Mukherji (1974). Heavy rain in an outbreak area gave rise to increase in popula- tion (Cassimir 1962). Descamps (1975) studied factors influencing the distribution and abun- dance of acridid population in general. This study on seasonal variation indicates that in Acrida exaltata Walk. Populations in- directly affected by climatic factors through their effects on the sexual activity of the adults. It is clear that mating is restricted or even curtailed during periods of cool, cloudy wea- ther. Acknowledgements I am highly indebted to Prof. S. M. Alam, Head, Department of Zoology, A. M. U. Aligarh for providing financial assistance and encouragement. Thanks are also due to Mr. Abdul Qayyum, Department of Physics, A. M. U. Aligarh for his help in collecting climatic data and to University Grants Com- mission, New Delhi for providing financial assistance. R e n c e s Pickford, R. (1970): The effect of climatic fac- tors on egg survival and fecundity in grasshoppers. Proc. International Conf. Acridids: 257-260. Putnam, L. G. (1954): Development in grass- hopper research and control in Canada. Rep. 6th Common. Ent. Conf., London: 133-137. Randell, R. L. & Mukherji, M. K. (1974): A technique for estimating hatching of natural egg population of Melanophus sanguinipes (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Canad. Ent., 106(8): 801-812. Scharff, D. K. (f954) : The role of food plants and weather in the ecology of Melanoplus mexica- nus mexicamis Sauss. J. econ. Ent., 47 : 485-489. Suslik, V. (1975) : Disperzia, abundanica a bio- rnasa konikovz celade acrididae (Orthoptera) na pasienkupri Basukej staavnica. Biologia Czechoslo- vakia, 39(11) : 847-851. Uvarov, B. P. (1956): The locusts and grass- hoppers problem in relation to the development of arid lands. The Future of Arid Lands, 43: 383-389. 28 LARVAL CULTURE OF THE HERMIT CRAB CUBAN ARIUS AEQUABILIS VAR. MERGUIENSIS DE MAN (DECAPOD A, ANOMURA, DIOGENID AE ) REARED IN THE LABORATORY1 Venkatray N. Nayak2 (With seven text-figures) The paper describes the complete life history of an intertidal hermit crab, Clibanarius aequabilis var. merguiensis, as observed in the laboratory. The larvae pass through four zoeal stages and a glaucothoe stage. All the developmental stages are fully illustrated and described. Characters of generic importance are listed. Introduction The present paper deals with the complete larval history of Clibanarius aequabilis var. merguiensis de Man as observed in the labo- ratory. Materials and Methods An ovigerous female of C. aequabilis var. merguiensis was collected on September 16, 1974 from a tide pool of Kinkade rocky shore along the west coast of India, and was kept in a glass trough containing filtered sea water until the larvae hatched out on 28th September 1974. The larvae were separated into groups of 5 per bowl with approximately 150 ml of sea water. Newly hatched Artemia nauplii were added as food. Every day the larvae were transferred to fresh sea water. Exuviae and the dead larvae were removed regularly and were preserved in a special preservative (Thakur 1960). During the course of the ex- periment the temperature ranged from 25° to 28°C and salinity about 25 ppt. 1 Accepted September 1981. 2 Department of Marine Biology, Kamatak Uni- versity, Kodibag, Karwar-581 303. Present address : Government Arts and Science College, Karwar- 581 301, India. The larvae were dissected in 5% glycerine under a binocular microscope. All the draw- ings were prepared with the aid of a camera lucida. The total length of the larva was measur- ed from the tip of rostrum to median posterior margin of telson. The carapace length was measured from tip of rostrum to postero- dorsal margin of carapace. The term ‘stage’ is used herein in the sense of instar or inter- moult. The eggs are oval, violet to pinkish (when young) turning transparent and pale when about to hatch; egg size ranged from 0.37- 0.44 x 0.30-0.38 mm. Results The larvae of Clibanarius aequalibis var. merguiensis de Man reached the glaucothoe after passing through four successive zoeal stages in about 22 days after hatching. A sum- mary of the various instars and duration of instars is shown in Table 1. Table 1 Larval stage Duration in days I zoea 6 — 8 II zoea 4 — 7 III zoea 5 — 8 IV zoea 6 — 9 Glaucothoe None moulted to crab 29 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Fig. 1. First zoea, Clibanarius aequabilis var. merguiensis de Man. a, entire larva; a 1? rostrum; b, antennule; c, antenna; d, mandibles; e, first maxilla; f* second maxilla; g. first maxilliped; h, second maxilliped; i, third maxilliped; r, telson. THE HERMIT CRAB CLIBANARIUS AEQUABILIS VAR. MERGUIENSIS Chromatophores : The chromatophores of the larvae are of diffuse type, giving orange yellow to red appea- rance to the larvae. The chromatophores are stellate with mainly orange, crimson red and light yellow components. Description of larval stages : First Zoea (Fig. 1) Carapace length: 1.0 mm; Abdomen length: 1.2 mm Rostrum beak like, acutely pointed at the tip and broad at the base, projects beyond the antennule and antenna (fig. 1, a); eyes sessile; carapace smooth, rounded on postero-lateral angle, 4 exopod setae each on first and 2nd maxillipeds; third being rudimentary; abdomen nearly as long as carapace, inclusive of rostrum; telson process formula 7+7, 1st slightly laterally situated and blunt, finger-like. Antennule (fig. 1, b) with 2 terminal aesthe- tascs and 2 unequal setae; inner ramus repre- sented by a long, plumose seta. Antenna (fig. l,c): Endopod nearly 2 /3rd the length of scale, with 3 terminal setae; scale, long and narrow with 11 plumose setae; endopod and scale distinctly articulated to peduncle; pedun- cle with a minutely serrated ventral spine on the distal margin. Mandibles (fig. l,d) asym- metrical and stout; ventral plate with 4-5 large but unequal teeth in the middle, whereas the dorsal provided with several unequal small teeth all along the edge. First maxilla (fig. l,e): Coxal endite with 6 setae of which 3-4 simple and others bristle-like; basal armed with 2 serrated spines and one short spine-like seta; unsegmented palp with 2 terminal and 1 subterminal setae. Second maxilla (fig. l,f): Coxal and basal endites bilobed; proximal of coxal with 5 terminal and single sub- terminal setae; distal with 3 terminal and 1 subterminal; proximal of basal with 4 and distal with 3 terminal and a short sub- terminal setae; endopod with 2 groups of 2 setae each; scaphognathite bears 5 marginal plumose setae. First maxilliped (fig. l,g): Endopod nearly as long as exopod, 5-segment- ed, setation being, 1, 2, 1, 2 and 4+1 (outer) distalwards; exopod 2-segmented with 4 nata- tory setae; basis with 8 setae as in figure. Second maxilliped (fig. l,h): Endopod 4- segmented, 3rd being the longest, setation, 2, 2, 2 and 4+1 (outer) distalwards; exopod as in first maxilliped; basis with 4 setae as illus- trated. Third maxilliped (fig. 1, i) rudimentary and uniramous. Abdomen (fig. 1, a) 5-seg- mented, segments smooth and broader than long. Telson (fig. 1, r) broader than long, pro- cess formula 7 + 7; 1st finger-like process arti- culated and situated laterally; 2nd reduced ‘anomuran’ hair; 3rd to 7th, plumose setae; 4th being the longest, 7th alone spinose on the outer margin; posterior margin of telson and median notch fringed with microscopic hairs. Second Zoea (Fig. 2) Carapace length 1.2 mm; Abdomen length 1.6 mm Larvae increase in size; eyes stalked; num- ber of setae on exopod of first two maxillipeds increased to 6; exopod of third maxilliped well developed with 5 setae, but endopod bud-like; telson process formula 8 + 8. Antennule (fig. 2, b): Peduncle with 3 long plumose setae at its distal margin; outer ramus now distinctly articulated with peduncle, bear- ing 2 aesthetascs (of which one is quite pro- minent) and 3 unequal setae. Antenna (fig. 2, c) : No considerable change over previous stage. Mandible (fig. 2, d) : No change except for a slight increase in size and prominence of teeth. First maxilla (fig. 2, e) : Coxal endite and endopod unchanged; basal now with 4 serrated spines and 2 short setae. Second maxilla (fig. 2, f ) : Coxal and basal endites 31 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 a, entire larva; b. antennule; c, antenna; d, mandibles; e, first maxilla; f. second maxilla; g, first maxiliiped; h, second maxilliped; i, third maxilliped; r, telson. 32 THE HERMIT CRAB CLIBANARIUS AEQUABILIS VAR. MERGUIENSIS with 7 + 4 and 4-5 + 3 setae respectively; scaphognathite now with 6-7 marginal setae; no change in endopod. First maxilliped (fig. 2, g) : Exopod with 6 natatory setae; addition of a plumose seta each on the outer margin of first 3 segments of endopod. Second maxi- lliped (fig. 2, h): Exopod as in 1st maxilliped; addition of 1 seta each on 2nd and 3rd seg- ments of endopod. Third maxilliped (fig. 2, i) : Exopod well developed, partially 2-segmented with 5 natatory setae; endopod as indistinct bud. Telson (fig. 2, r) : Slightly broader than long; process formula 8 + 8; median pair being spinulose distally. Third Zoea (Fig. 3) Carapace length: 1.4 mm; Abdomen length: 1.7 mm Zoeae increase considerably in size and can be distinguished by the following characters: antennal endopod with a single seta; 3rd maxi- lliped now with 6 setae; 4 pairs of pereiopod buds developed; abdomen 6-segmented; telson process formula 8 + 1 + 8, 4th process reduced to a spine; uropod biramous. Antennule (fig. 3, b) : Peduncle with 4 long, plumose and 4 fine hair-like setae distally; inner ramus separated from peduncle; outer now with 3 aesthetascs and 4 unequal setae. Antenna (fig. 3, c) : Endopod elongated, reach- ing upto the tip of the scale and with a single seta; scale with 12 setae. Mandible and first maxilla (fig. 3, d & e) as in previous stage. Second maxilla (fig, 3, f) : Coxal and basal endites with 8 + 4 and 4 + 3 setae respectively; scaphognathite with 10 plumose setae; no change in endopod. Maxillipeds (fig. 3, g, h & i): No change in 1st and 2nd; exopod of 3rd with 6 natatory setae; endopod slightly elongated. Pereiopods (fig. 3, k) : Four pairs of rudimentary buds clearly seen. Abdomen (fig. 3, a): Sixth segment separated from tel- son; Telson (fig. 3, r) : Somewhat rectangular in shape; process formula 8 + 1 + 8; 4th pro- cess now reduced to an unarticulated spine; all the processes plumose except the 1st and 4th, somewhat spinose at the tip. Uropods (fig. 3, r) biramous, with a functional exopod and a rudimentary endopod; exopod with 8 plu- mose setae on its posterior margin; endopod present as bud. Fourth Zoea (Figs. 4 & 5) Carapace length: 1.7 mm; Abdomen length: 1 . 9 mm This stage exhibits following advanced features over the previous stage: inner ramus of antennule now gets distinctly separated from peduncle; mandibular palp developed as rudi- mentary bud; 5 pairs of pereiopod buds; 4 pairs of pleopod buds; endopod of uropods functional. Antennule (fig. 4, b) : Peduncle now with 4 long plumose and 3 hair-like setae distally; inner ramus clearly separated and tip devoid of setae; outer with 3 aesthetascs and 4 un- equal setae terminally. Antenna (fig. 4, c) : Endopod 2-segmented, about l\ times longer than scale and with a single terminal seta. Scale with 13 marginal setae. Mandible (fig. 4, d) : Palp developed as bud.FzV.st maxilla (fig. 4, e) : No change except for the addition of a plumose seta on the coxal endite. Second maxilla (fig. 4, f ) : Coxal and basal endites with 8-9 + 3 and 4-5 +5 setae respectively; endopod being unchanged; scaphognathite fringed with about 14 setae. Maxillipeds (fig. 5, g, h & i) : 1st and 2nd unchanged; endopod of 3rd segmented with a terminal seta. Pereiopods (fig. 5, k) represented as 5 pairs of elongated buds showing partial segmentation, 1st being chelate and 5th subchelate. Abdo- men (figs. 4, a & 5, 1) : Four pairs of pleopods present as buds from 2nd to 5th segments. Telson (fig. 5, r) : Process formula 8+1 + 8; 4th process still present, but reduced. Uropods 33 3 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Fig. 3. Third zoea, Clibanarius aequabiiis var. merguiensis de Man. a, entire larva; b, antennule; c, antenna; d, mandible; e, first maxilla; f, second maxilla; g, first maxilliped; h: second maxilliped; i, third maxilliped; k, pereiopods; r, telson. THE HERMIT CRAB CLIBANARIUS AEQUABILIS VAR. MERGUIENSIS Fig. 4. Fourth zoea, Clibanarius aequabilis var. merguiensis de Man. a, entire larva; a1? rostrum; b, antennule; c, antenna; d, mandibles; e, first maxilla; f, second maxilla. 35 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Fig. 5. Fourth zoea, Clibanarius aequabilis var. merguiensis de Man. g, first maxilliped; h, second maxilliped; i, third maxilliped; k. pereiopods; 1, pleopod; i, telson and r1? uropods. THE HERMIT CRAB CLIBANARIU5 AEQUABILIS VAR. MERGUIENSIS (fig. 5,1*0: Both exopod and endopod func- tional; exopod rather oval with 9-10 plumose setae; endopod with 4-6 setae. Glaucothoe (Figs. 6 & 7) Carapace length: 1.2 mm; Abdomen length: 1 .9 mm Rostrum short and broad at the base; abdo- men about 1J times the length of carapace; chelipcds more or less equal; eye-stalks nearly twice as long as broad and almost reaching the distal end of antennular and antennal peduncle; ophthalmic scales small; fourth and 5th pereiopods smaller, subchelate and chelate respectively; 4 pairs of biramous pleopods; uropods slightly unequal. Antcnnule (fig. 6, b) : Peduncle 3 -segment- ed, first segment somewhat globular, second and third segments somewhat cylindrical; outer ramus 5-segmented with 0, 5-6, 4 and 2 aesthe- tascs respectively on 1st to 4th segments, distal wards and 3-4 setae on 5th, in addition to few simple setae on 2nd and 3rd segments. Antenna (fig. 6, c) : Peduncle 5-segmented; scale with 3 outer marginal and 2 distal setae, reaching nearly to the distal margin of 4th segment, with a pointed process on the outer distal angle; 9-segmented flagellum with 0, 3, 3, 3, 4, 3, 4, 5 and 7 setae from 1st to 9th segments distalwards. Mandible (fig. 6, d) : As in adult; palp 3 -segmented with about 12 bristle-like setae distally on terminal segment. First maxilla (fig. 6,e): Both coxa and basis membranous bordered with setae and plumose hairs; coxa with about 19 setae and basis 15-17 setae; inner margin of basis with 2 simple setae; endopod short and unsegmented with a short knob-like projection terminally on the outer side bearing a single seta; inner margin with 1 or 2 setae. Second maxilla (fig. 6, f) : Similar to adult except that palp is simple; scaphogna- thite well developed and fringed with about 50 setae. First maxilliped (fig. 6, g) : As in adult, except that exopod lacks the terminal flagellated portion. Second maxilliped (fig. 6, h) : Of the endopod segments merus is the longest as in adult; exopod shows distinct flagellated and nonflagellated portions, flagellat- ed portion 3 -segmented bearing 5 to 6 plumose and a few simple distal setae. Third maxilliped (fig. 6, i) : Distal 2 segments of endopod bear many setae, remaining 3 segments with 2 + 2, 2+1 and 4 + 1 setae distalwards; the flagellated portion of exopod do not show clear segmen- tation and with 6 plumose setae terminally. Pereiopods (fig. 7, k2-5): First pair of cheli- peds (fig. 7, kj), as in adult, distinctly chelate, in almost horizontal plane; merus is the lon- gest segment; carpus somewhat triangular, 1 /3rd the length of merus; propodus longer than broad and devoid of tubercles; fingers hoofed; dactylus more or less equal to propo- dus in length with slightly curved but somewhat hoofed tip; few scattered setae on all segments but no spines and tubercles. Second pereio- pods (fig. 7, k2), more or less similar; seg- ments long and cylindrical; propodus is the longest segment; carpus 1/2 the length of pro- podus; dactylus nearly Jth the length of pro- podus, unlike in adult wherein dactylus is 1.7 times propodus, with 2-3 spinules on its poste- rior margin. Third pereiopods (figs. 7. k3) similar to the second leg except for 2-3 spinu- les on its posterior margin. Fourth pereiopods (fig. 7, k4) quite small, smaller xhan fifth leg; merus and carpus more or less of equal length; propodus as broad as long and with about 4-6 pectinate granules and tufts of setae distally; dactylus claw-like with no spines but bearing tufts of setae and a long seta. Fifth pereiopods (fig. 7, k5) minutely chelate; merus being the longest segment; carpus nearly 2/ 3rd the length of merus and bears few setae on either mar- gins; anterior part of propodus and proximal part of dactylus show corneous granules; the 37 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Fig. 6. Glaucothoe of Clibanarius aequabilis var. merguiensis dc Man. a, lateral view of entire larva; a1? dorsal view of entire larva; b, antennule; c, antenna, d, mandible; e, first maxilla; f, second maxilla; g, first maxilliped; h, second maxi lliped; i, third maxilliped. 38 T THE HERMIT CRAB CLIBANARIUS AEQUABILIS VAR. MERGUIENSIS Fig. 7. Glaucothoe of Clibancuius aequabilis var. merguiensis de Man. kj, cheliped; k2, second pereiopod; k„. third pereiopod; k4, fourth pereiopod; k5 fifth pereiopod; 1, pleopod; r. telson and uropod; rv telson JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 latter forming a chelate structure with dacty- lus; very long setae both on propodus and dactylus. Abdomen (fig. 6, a) nearly \\ times as long as carapace; 6-segmented; 2nd to 5th segments with a pair of pleopods each. Pleo - pods (fig. 7, 1) biramous with a long pedun- cle; a setose exopod and 2 hooks in the inner margin of endopod. Telson (fig. 7, r) some- what obtuse, slightly broadening anteriorly, with about 9 plumose setae on its plain poste- rior margin and 2 pairs of small simple setae laterally and dorsally and a pair of submar- ginal setae posteriorly. Uropods (fig. 7, r) well developed; both the rami being somewhat rectangularly triangular and armed with cor- neous granules on the posterior end; with 14 plumose setae on the posterior and inner lateral margins of exopod and about 11 on posterior margin of endopod. Discussion Based on the hitherto described larvae, the features of generic importance of Clibanarius may be summarised as under for first zoeal stages : carapace and abdominal somites smooth; rostrum long, broad at the base, blunt or acutely pointed at the tip; reaching beyond the antennule and antenna, beak-like; antennal scale without a terminal spine, endopod with three long plumose setae; telson deeply notched; first process laterally situated, blunt, finger-like except for C. erythropus wherein it is a small spine. Of the three species wherein published in- formation on the laboratory reared larvae in the genus Clibanarius is available, the larvae of C. vittatus (Lang & Young 1977) pass through 5 zoeal instars, rarely 4, whereas, C. infraspinatus (Shenoy & Sankolli 1977) and C. padavensis (Shenoy & Sankolli 1975) pass through 4 zoeal instars before a glaucothoe. Thus, stage to stage comparison is possible with only the latter two species. The first stage larva of Clibanarius aequa- bilis var. merguiensis differs from those of C. padavensis and C. infraspinatus in the following: the posterior border of telson along with the notch fringed with fine hairs; exopods of first and second maxillipeds two- segmented; outer margin of endopod of second maxilla without hairs. Also, the larvae of the present species differ from other larvae in seta- tion of appendages. The third zoea of Clibanarius aequabilis var. merguiensis differs from those of C. pada- vensis and C. infraspinatus in the telson, having an unarticulated spine as the fourth process in the present species as against a minute tubercle in C. infraspinatus and C. padavensis. Shenoy & Sankollii (1977) consider the re- duced fourth process of C. infraspinatus as a generic character. However, in the larvae of C. vittatus (Lang & Young) and C. aequabilis var. merguiensis (present species) the fourth process changes into an unarticulated spine and retains its prominence throughout the zoeal stages. Hence the reduced fourth telson pro- cess in C. infraspinatus should not be consider- ed as a generic feature. The glaucothoe of Clibanarius aequabilis var. merguiensis exhibits generic features sum- marised by Shenoy & Sankolli for C. infra- spinatus (1977). The differences observed are mainly in the armature of appendages, hence a detailed comparison is not made. Ack nowledgements I am thankful to K. N. Sankolli and Shakun- tala Shenoy, Taraporevala, Aquarium, Bombay, for checking the drawings, and to the Kama- tak University for providing laboratory faci- lities. Also, thanks are due to Dr. V. B. Nadkarni, Head of the Department of Zoo- 40 THE HERMIT CRAB CLIB AN ARIUS AEQUABILIS VAR. MERGUIENSIS logy, Karnatak University, for his valuable by an award of Junior Fellowship from the suggestions. The research work was supported C.S.I.R., which is gratefully acknowledged. References Lang, W. H. & Young, A. M. (1977) : The larval development of Clibanarius vittatus (Bose) (Crusta- cea: Decapoda: Diogenidae) reared in the labora- tory. Biol. Bull. 152: 84-104. Shency, Shakuntala & Sankolli, K. N. (1975): Metamorphosis of an estuarine hermit crab, Cliba- narius padav crisis de Man, in the laboratory (Deca- poda, Anomura). Bull. Dept. Mar. Sci. Uni. Cochin VII (3): 671-683. (1977): Laboratory culture of the hermit crab Clibanarius infraspinatus Hilgendorf (Crustacea, Decapoda, Anomura). Proc. Symp. Warm Water Zooplankton: 660-670. Thakur, M. K. (1960): A new technique for preserving prawn larvae. Curr. Sci. 29: 128. 41 TOURIST ACTIVITY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE LEOPARD PANT HERA PARDUS FUSCA (MEYER, 1794) IN THE RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA1 M. R. Chambers2, Charles Santiapillai3 AND N. ISHWARAN4 (With two text -figures) The activity of the leopard ( Panthera pardus fusca) was carefully monitored in three areas of Block I of the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka, from July 1979 to June 1980. In 67 hours of observations there were 16 sightings. Despite few records, the following conclusions were made: — (a) leopards had two activity peaks, early morn- ing and late evening; (b) leopards were seen more frequently in the drought months; (c) leopards were not seen with the same frequency in the different areas; (d) sight- ings were short, mostly 10 seconds or less, and (e) most sightings caused obvious disturbance to the leopards. Tourist activity in the Park mav account for these characteristics of leopard behaviour. Introduction In Sri Lanka the leopard, once widespread, is now mainly limited to the country’s major National Parks, and there are probably no more than a few hundreds remaining in the country (Santiapillai et al. 1982). The National Parks are visited by large num- bers of tourists and the wildlife authorities are concerned that these visitors may be having harmful effects such as altering the behaviour and distribution patterns of ungulates and carnivores. In the Ruhuna National Park the leopard is confined mainly to forested areas, and direct 1 Accepted, June 1983. 2 Department of Biology, University of Papua New Guinea. 3 Department of Zoology, University of Perade- niya, Sri Lanka. 4 Department of Zoology, University of Perade- niya, Sri Lanka. observations on the animal are not easy. Sight- ings are frequently brief and restricted to early morning and late afternoon periods of activity. The present study reports an attempt to make brief sightings of the leopard of quantitative value so that reasonable inferences may be made concerning its behaviour and abundance. In addition, good quantitative data on leopard sightings may be useful for measuring future changes in leopard behaviour and/or abun- dance. The study area The Ruhuna National Park is situated in the arid south-east corner of Sri Lanka (for- merly Ceylon). The annual rainfall is less than 1000 mm unequally spread throughout the year. There is a prolonged drought from June to September, a marked rainy season from Octo- ber to December and intermittent rains from January to May. The Park is 1,160 km2 and is 42 THE LEOPARD IN THE RU HUN A NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA divided into several Blocks. The present study was carried out in Block 1, the main tourist area of the Park which currently attracts about 90,000 visitors each year. Most tourists enter in the early morning or late afternoon. The vegetation of Block 1 consists principally of climax riverine forest, thorn scrub (degraded climax forest) and grasslands (edaphic climaxes maintained by seasonal floodings and by ungulate and small mammal grazing pres- Fig. 1. Map of Block I, Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka showing the locations ( • ) of the leopard sightings in the main study Areas A, B & C. 43 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81 sure). The predominant vegetation is a dense thorny scrub through which visibility rarely exceeds 20 m and is frequently much less. The grasslands of Block 1 are found throughout the area although more commonly in the cen- ' tral and coastal regions. They are small in size, the largest being about 0.5 km2. The Park supports a large biomass of herbi- vores, the most important being spotted deer ( Axis axis Erxleben), water buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis L.), elephant ( Elephas maximus L.), wild pig ( Sus scrofa L.), sambar ( Gervus uni- color Kerr) and the black-naped hare ( Lepus nigricollis F. Cuvier). The leopard is the only large carnivore in the Park and in Sri Lanka. For a fuller description of the Ruhuna National Park see Comanor (1971) and Mueller-Dom- bois (1968 and 1972). Methods All observations were made between July 1979 and June 1980. During the course of our studies on the herbivores of the Park (Bala- subramaniam et al. 1980, Santiapillai and Chambers 1980, 1981 and 1982, Santiapillai et al. 1981 and 1982) we travelled extensively in Block 1. For the purposes of studying the leopard population. Block 1 was divided into three Study Areas A, B and C (Fig. 1). Area A comprised the main road running the length of Block 1 from the entrance at Palatupanu to its termination at the Yala bungalow and all roads east of this. Area B comprised the central roads and Area C the northern roads. A fourth major road running along the western side of Block 1 was not surveyed frequently enough to be included in this analysis although leopards have been seen there. Each day was divided into 2-hour time intervals from 0600 to 1800 with an additional interval later than 1800 h. The amount of time spent travelling in each Study Area was carefully logged and whenever a leopard was sighted the following information noted:- date, time, duration of sighting, minimum distance from the leopard and its behaviour during the sighting. Every effort was made to reduce disturbance during the sighting and each sighting was continued until the leopard disappeared from view. Results The total observation time within the Park was 4020 minutes (67 hours) and there were 16 leopards sighted (l/4.2h). For ease of comparison, sighting frequencies are reduced to a standard unit of number of sightings per hour of observation. (a) Pattern of daily sightings The total amounts of time spent on the look- out for leopards in each time period, together with the number and frequency of sightings, are given in Table 1. The data show two peaks of activity each day, a smaller one between 0600 and 0800 h (0.43 sightings /h) and a second larger one after 1800h with a frequency of sightings (0.79/h) double that of the morn- Table 1 Number and frequency of leopard sightings in EACH TIME INTERVAL, RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK, JULY 1979 to June 1980 Time interval Minutes of obser- vations Number of Frequency sightings of sight- ings (no./h) 06. CO-08. 00 415 3 0.43 08.00-10.00 820 1 0.07 10.00-12.00 475 1 0.12 12.00-14.00 385 0 • — 14. CO-16. ©0 340 0 — 16. 00-18. GO 830 1 0.07 From 18.00 755 10 0.79 44 THE LEOPARD IN THE Rli HUN A NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA ing. The leopards in Block 1 were therefore mainly active after 1800h, and most of these sightings were made after sunset (about 1830 h). There may also be considerable activity before 0600 h. The activity peaks, at least during the daylight hours, were very short indeed. Between 0800 and 1 800 h there were only three leopard sightings in 2850 minutes (0.06/h) and none between 1120 and 1755 h. (b) Seasonal variations in sightings The frequency of leopard sightings during the dry season, wet season and the period out- side the peak dry season are given in Table 2. Table 2 Seasonal variation in the frequency of leopard SIGHTINGS, RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK, JULY 1979 TO June 1980 Season Minutes of obser- vations Number of Frequency sightings of sight- ings (no.|h) Peak dry season 920 7 0.46 (July /Aug) Peak wet season 815 0.22 (Nov/Dec) Period outside peak dry season 3100 9 0.18 (Nov/June) These frequencies varied with season. Leopards were seen most frequently during the drought months of July and August (0.46/h). During the wet season (November and December) sightings were 0.22/h and for the whole of the period outside the drought. 0.18 /h. It was therefore apparent that leopard behaviour varied between dry season and the rest of the year. (c) Frequency of sightings in the Study Areas The total observation times together with the number and frequency of sightings in each of the three Study Areas are given in Table 3. Table 3 Variation in the frequency of leopard sightings in the study areas of Ruhuna National Park, July 1979 to June 1980 Area Minutes of observations Number of sightings Frequency of sightings (no./h) A 2415 9 0.22 B 890 5 0.33 C 715 2 0.17 Leopards were seen most frequently in Area B (0.33/h) and least in Area C (0.17/h). It was not possible (because of the few sightings and seasonal and daily variation in sighting frequencies) to assess whether or not the diffe- rent rates from the Areas reflected chance observations or real differences in leopard be- haviour and/or abundance. A possible indica- tion of the differences between Areas A and B was the frequency of early morning sightings (0600 to 0800 h). In Area A no sightings were made during 190 minutes, whereas in Area B, 3 leopards were seen in 225 minutes. Similarly nearly all night sightings (after dusk) were in Area A. These observations tend to suggest that leopards avoided the busy roads of Area A during the daylight hours but came to them after sunset once the tourists had left the Park. (d) Duration of sightings The duration of each of the 16 sightings is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 2. The total duration of all 16 sightings was 896 seconds and the average 56 seconds. If the one long sighting of 600 seconds is excluded, the average duration of the remaining 15 was 20 seconds. 45 Number of Sightings JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81 12 Duration (s) of Sightings Fig. 2. Histogram showing the duration and frequency distribution of leopard sightings in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka, from July 1979 to June 1980. Ten of the sightings were of 10 seconds or less. These generally very short sightings were in marked contrast to the long ones noted by Eisenberg and Lockhart (1972) and Mucken- hirn and Eisenberg (1973) that averaged from 8 to 10 minutes in the Wilpattu National Park, Sri Lanka. Of the 16 sightings there were 12 (75%) in which the leopard was obviously alarmed by us. In the remaining 4 the leopard was appa- rently unconcerned by the sometimes close encounters with the vehicle. On two occasions leopards strolled with 5 m of the jeep without apparently being aware of its presence. 46 THE LEOPARD IN THE RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA Discussion The leopard sightings documented here form a part of our studies on the fauna of the Ruhuna National Park. In anticipation of in- frequent sightings we attempted to collect the data in such a way that it would be possible to draw conclusions about leopard behaviour, possible disturbance by tourists and to provide baseline information for comparison with future studies. During the year we recorded only 16 sightings in 67 hours of travels along the roads and tracks of the Park. Although this was not an ideal data base from which to make interpretations, several tentative conclu- sions can be drawn. Firstly, leopards had morning (06.00 to 08.00) and evening (after 18.00) activity peaks. Between these periods there was very little observed activity. Such a daily behavi- our pattern is typical of large carnivores. FIow- ever the daylight activity peaks were shorter than those observed by Eisenberg and Lock- hart (1972) in Wilpattu National Park, Sri Lanka. This had considerably fewer visitors than Ruhuna. It was possible therefore that daytime leopard activity in Ruhuna was cur- tailed by the early morning and late evening rush of visitors to the Park. More detailed studies would be required to show if leopards were active in the daytime but in areas away from the roads. The results also show that leopards were seen more frequently during the July /August drought than at any other times of the year. One possible reason for this is that Ruhuna was closed to visitors at this time. Consequently very few vehicles were in the Park and the leopards were less frequently disturbed. Since the normal reaction of the leopard on seeing or hearing a vehicle was to disappear quickly into the adjacent scrub, it follows logi- cally that the fewer vehicles in the Park the greater the chance of seeing leopards on or by the roadside. The drought season was also the leopard breeding season (Santiapillai et al 1982) and therefore the animals may have been more active and wider ranging at this time which could account for more frequent sightings. Other possible explanations for increased frequency of sightings at this time — loss of leaves by much of the scrub vegetation and changes in prey distribution — were unlikely to account for them. This was because all sightings were in open spaces — on roads, verges or grasslands and therefore unaffected by increased visibility into the scrub. Similarly during the drought one of the leopard’s main prey species (spotted deer) moved into the scrub away from the roads (Balasubramaniam ei al. 1980). If the leopards followed them closely, reduced sightings would be expected at this time. The average duration of leopard sightings in Ruhuna was 56 seconds and the majority were 10 seconds or less. These short observa- tion periods were undoubtedly due to the facts that virtually all sightings took place on or by roads and that the leopards moved quickly into the scrub when disturbed. Large numbers of vehicles travelling within the Park therefore virtually ensured that very few leopards would be seen. The affinity of leopards for roads has long been documented (Storey 1907). The results of this study suggest that at Ruhuna this affi- nity was such that daily and seasonal behavi- our patterns were to some extent at least gear- ed to human activity on the roads. The data collected during this study gave no information on the density of leopards in Ruhuna. The frequency of leopard sightings however, especially when related to time of the 47 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81 day and locality, provide baseline information that can be used to monitor any future changes in numbers. Any significant increase or de- crease in the leopard numbers would be ex- pected to show up as corresponding changes in the frequency of sightings during a similar future survey, providing the behaviour of the leopards was unchanged. Acknowledgements We wish to thank Professors K. D. Arud- pragasam and H. Crusz of the Universities of Refer Balasubramaniam, S., Santiapillai, C. & Cham- bers, M. R. (1980): Seasonal shifts in the pattern of habitat utilization by the spotted deer ( Axis axis Erxleben 1777) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. Spixiana 3: 157-166. Comanor, P. L, (1971) : An analysis of the woody scrub vegetation of Ruhuna National Park, Ceylon. Tropical Ecology (India) 72: 209-222. Eisenberg, J. F. & Lockhart, M. (1972) : An eco- logical reconnaissance of the Wilpattu National Park, Ceylon. Smithsonian Contrib. zool. 101. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Muckenhirn, N. & Eisenberg, J. F. (1973): Home ranges and predation of the Ceylon leopard (Panthera pardus fusca). In: Eatob, R. (ed.). The World Cats, volume 1. World Wildlife Safari, pp. 142-175. Mueller-Dombois, D. (1968): Ecogeographic analysis of a climate map of Ceylon with particular reference to vegetation. Ceylon Forester 8: 39-58. (1972) : Crown distortion and elephant distribution in the woody vegetation of the Ruhuna National Park, Ceylon. Ecology 53: 208-227. Santiapillai, C. & Chambers, M. R. (1980): Aspects of the population dynamics of the wild pig Colombo and Peradeniya respectively for their help and encouragement in our Ruhuna studies. We also wish to thank Mr. Childers Jayawar- dhana. Assistant Director of the Department of Wildlife Conservation for his help and hospi- tality during our visits. We are grateful to the National Science Council of Sri Lanka for financial support. Our thanks to Mr. Tissa Alagoda of the Department of Zoology, Uni- versity of Peradeniya for technical assistance. Finally we wish to thank Dr. Brian Mitchell of the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Banchory, Scotland, for helpful comments and criticisms. ENCES (Sus scrofa L.) in the Ruhuna National Park. Spixiana 3: 239-250. Santiapillai, C. & Chambers, M. R. (1981): Observations on the Sambar ( Cervus unicolor Kerr 1792) in the Ruhuna National Parte, Sri Lanka, Ceylon Journal of Science 14: 193-205. (1982): The social organisation and calving patterns of the water buffalo (Bubal us bubalis L.) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. In: Workshops on water buffalo research in Sri Lanka, SAREC report R. 3. Published by the Swedish Agency for Research Co- operation with Developing Countries, Stockholm, pp. 59-67. Santiapillai, C, Balasubramaniam, S. & Cham- bers, M. R. (1981): A preliminary study of bark damage by cervids in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. Spixiana 4: 247-254. Santiapillai, C., Chambers, M. R. & Ishwaran, N. (1982) : The leopard ( Panthera pardus fusca Meyer 1794) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka and observations relevant to its conservation. Biological Conservation 23: 5-14. Storey, H. (1907): Hunting and shooting in Cey- lon. (Reprinted 1969). Tissara Prakasakayo. Dehi- wela, Sri Lanka. 48 SOME OBSERVATIONS OF SCARCE BIRDS IN NEPAL1 N. J. Redman2, F. Lambert3 and R. Grimmett4 Sightings of three species of birds previously unrecorded in Nepal are documented. Brief details of a further eleven species of ornithological significance to Nepal are also presented. Introduction From December 1978 to February 1979 the authors, R. Filby, C. Murphy and L. Norton visited Nepal to observe birds. C. Murphy and N. J. Redman made a return visit from April to June 1979. During these two periods 585 species of birds were identified, three of which: Baer’s Pochard Aythya baeri , Sanderling Calidris alba and Common Gull Larus canus, were recorded for the first time in Nepal. The main purpose of this paper is to document these sightings. Brief details are also given of other species seen for which there are very few pre- vious Nepalese records or for which informa- tion on breeding or unusual behaviour was gathered. A wide variety of habitats and altitude zones in central and eastern Nepal was visited. Areas of significant ornithological interest included the Jomosom trek (January), Helambu/Gosain- kund trek (May), Kathmandu Valley, central tarai, Ilam district and Kosi Barrage. The latter proved to be of particular interest since many scarce species were found here, including all three new species for Nepal. We visited Kosi 1 Accepted March 1983. 2 I Westfields, Saffron Walden, Essex. " 15 Bramble Rise, Westdene, Brighton, Sussex. 4 12 Hobbs Way. Rustington, Littlehampton, W. Sussex. Barrage on four separate occasions, 10-13 February, 20-21 February, 17-20 April and briefly on 23-24 April. During these four short periods totalling eight full days, the majority of our time was spent in areas on the north side of the barrage. New Species for Nepal baer’s pochard Aythya baeri (Radde) Baer’s Pochard was first identified on 12 February 1979 when two males and one female were seen on open water just north of the Kosi Barrage amongst a flock of several hundred Aythya spp. On 20 February we saw this species again and counted at least 17 males and 3 females. Prolonged observation of both sexes was possible and comparisons were made with accompanying Tufted Duck A. fuligula , Common Pochard A. ferina and Ferruginous Duck (White-eyed Pochard) A. nyroca. In shape Baer's Pochard was comparable to Ferruginous Duck and Common Pochard, and intermediate in size. Males were readily identifiable by the com- bination of iridescent green head and rich chestnut breast, unlike any other Aythya species. Other features included white belly, dusky brown flanks, white under-tail coverts and gleaming white eye. Females were similar ir coloration to the males but duller, the 49 4 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 dusky head showing only a slight greenish gloss. At a distance, female Baer’s Pochard appeared confusingly similar to other female Ay thy a species. Common Pochard and Tufted Duck, however, both lacked white undertail coverts and Ferruginous Duck could generally be separated by its uniform chestnut coloura- tion, less white on the belly and flanks, and smaller size. Baer’s Pochard breeds in eastern Siberia wintering primarily in eastern China. In the Indian sub-continent, Ripley (1982) states that it is an uncommon and erratic winter visitor to Manipur, Assam and associated states, Bangladesh and Bengal; also recorded from Bihar and Maharashtra. Ali and Ripley (1978) suggest that it may be less rare than records indicate. There are no previous records from Nepal and this species was not seen at Kosi in the subsequent three winters (C. and T. Tnskipp in lift.). sanderling Calidris alba (Pallas) A single Sanderling was discovered at Kosi Barrage on 11 February 1979 feeding on a mudbank with nine Dunlin Calidris alpina and fifty Little Stints C. minuta. It was not seen on subsequent days. In size it was considerably larger than Little Stint and about the same as Dunlin but with a shorter, straight bill. Bill and legs were black. The very pale plumage, pale grey above and pure white below, served to distinguish the bird at some distance. A small black shoulder patch and black primary tips were also noted, and in flight it showed a more prominent white wing bar than Dunlin or Little Stint. A distinctive feature was its rapid feeding action. All the observers are familiar with this species in Europe. Sanderling breeds in the Arctic, wintering on coasts almost throughout the world. Although a regular winter visitor to the coasts of India, it has apparently not been previously recorded inland in the subcontinent (Ali and Ripley 1980). Our sighting constitutes the first record from Nepal. common gull Lotus canus Linnaeus On 12 February 1979 a Common Gull was found amongst a group of Black-headed Gulls L. ridibundus resting on a sandbank at Kosi Barrage. It remained in the area all day and allowed direct comparison with the Black- headed Gulls and also with Brown-headed Gulls L. brunnicephalus and a single adult Slender-billed Gull L. genei. It was still pre- sent on 21 February. Despite its rarity in Nepal, Common Gull is a familiar bird in Europe and was readily identified by all the observers as a first-year bird. In appearance it was an elegant, medium- sized gull with a rounded head and a small yellowish bill with a dark tip. The head, neck and underparts were white with some faint brownish markings on the sides of the breast and head. A pale whitish oval patch on the closed wing contrasted with the grey mantle. The protruding primaries were dark brown and the legs were pale yellowish. In flight it showed a broad whitish band across the inner wing, contrasting with the brown flight feathers. The tail was white with a broad dark terminal band. The Common Gull was easily separated from all other gulls present by its size, shape and colour of bare parts. Black-headed Gull was noticeably smaller and slimmer with red- dish bill and legs. Brown-headed and Slender- billed Gulls, although of similar size, were different in shape and also had reddish bills and legs. The only species of gull likely to cause confusion within the Indian subcontinent is the Herring Gull L. argentatus, but this species is considerably larger and deeper- 50 SOME OBSERVATIONS OF SCARCE BIRDS IN NEPAL chested with a more angled head and much stouter bill. Its wings are broader and flight heavier. Common Gull is a widely distributed and abundant holarctic species breeding across the northern palearctic and moving south in winter. Surprisingly it has rarely been recorded from the Indian subcontinent. It is not included in Ali and Ripley (1981) or Ripley (1982) and the only records from the Indian subcontinent of which we are aware are two individuals from the Punjab area of Pakistan: L. J. Djiksen, F. Koning and A. Vittery saw an adult at Rasul Barrage on 27 January 1974 and A. Vittery identified a first winter bird at Rawal Lake, near Islamabad on 17 February 1974 (A. Vittery, pers. comm.). Our sighting represents the first record from Nepal. Subse- quently, an adult in winter plumage has been observed at Phewa Tal near Pokhara on 21 January 1981 (del-Nevo and Ewins 1981). Other records of outstanding interest fulvous whistling duck (Large Whistling Teal) Dendrocygna bicolor A single individual of this species was iden- tified amongst a flock of 1500 Lesser Whistling Duck (Teal) D. javanica at Kosi Barrage on 12 February 1979. This record constitutes the only sighting of Fulvous Whistling Duck in Nepal this century. Although overlooked by recent authors, a Hodgson specimen from Nepal is listed by Sharpe (1894). The speci- men is still present in the British Museum and was located by C. Inskipp in 1981. In the Indian subcontinent this species is scattered widely, but sporadically in many areas and everywhere rather scarce. It is apparently more common in Bengal and Bangladesh (Ali and Ripley 1978). ruddy shelduck Tadorna ferruginea A pair with 8 newly-hatched young was present on a lake at Gosainkund on 27 May 1979 at an altitude of approximately 4300 m. This represents the first positive breeding re- cord for Nepal (R. L. Fleming Jr., pers. comm. ) . white-tailed (sea) eagle Haliaeetus albicilla Seven birds were seen from December to February including three at Kosi Barrage. An adult at Begnas Tal near Pokhara on 2 Janu- ary 1979 was seen to catch a Purple Gallinule (Purple Moorhen) Porphyrio porphyrio in flight. The gallinule was subsequently dropped and defied repeated attempts at recapture by diving. Attacks on flying birds are apparently rare (Cramp et al. 1980). black-tailed godwit Limosa limosa A flock of 29 was seen at Kosi Barrage on 18 April 1979. In the 19th century Hodgson obtained at least one specimen in April and five between mid- August and late October (no year given), from the Kathmandu Valley. He wrote: “small flocks feed by day on chours or moist cultivated plots”. J. Scully obtained a specimen on 7 September 1876 or 1877 in the Kathmandu Valley (Scully 1879), stating that “the godwit is a winter visitant to the Nepal Valley, but does not appear to be common there”. In this century, a single bird was obser- ved in the Kathmandu Valley in August 1978 (Fleming et al. 1979) and a specimen was taken at Chobar on 30 August 1981 by H. S. Nepali. There have been at least five other re- cords at Kosi Barrage in Spring since 1979 (C. and T. Inskipp in lift. 1983). little owl Athene noctua A single Little Owl was found at Kagbeni in the upper Kali Gandaki Valley on 14-15 January 1979 at an altitude of approximately 2800 m. This species was first recorded in Nepal 51 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 in July 1978 when two specimens were collect- ed in Dolpo (H. S. Nepali pers. comm.). It has been seen subsequently at Kagbeni and nearby at Muktinath by several observers (C. and T. Inskipp in litt. 1983). Indian cliff swallow Hirundo jluvicola Up to ten birds were present at Begnas Tal near Pokhara on 3 January 1979. This consti- tutes the second record from Nepal, the first being a single bird at Kosi on 10 April 1975 (Fleming et al. 1979).. There have been at least five subsequent records (C. and T. Ins- skipp in litt. 1983). rufous-bellied robin Tarsi ger ( Erithacus ) hyperythrus A pair was feeding young on 24-25 May 1979 at about 3500 m on the west side of the Gandak-Kosi watershed. The nest was not seen but was sited on or close to the ground at the side of a shady wooded ravine. A second female was found nearby. Fleming et al. (1979) state that the species is known from the Kosi- Gandaki watershed ridge eastward but there have subsequently been several records west to the Kali Gandaki (C. and T. Inskipp in litt. 1983). The nest is undescribed (R. L. Flem- ing, Jr., pers. comm.). EYE-BROWED THRUSH (DARK THRUSH) T urdus obscurus Two birds were identified at Kokarna in the Kathmandu Valley on 20 December 1978 amongst a flock of thrushes comprising five species. Excluding a Hodgson specimen of unknown origin this was the first record of this species for the Kathmandu Valley. All other records are from East Nepal (C. and T. Inskipp., pers. comm.). dusky thrush T urdus naumani An adult was found at Lete in the Kali Gandaki Valley on 22-24 January 1979 in the company of a flock of sixty Dark-throated Thrushes T. ruficoilis. A second bird, duller in plumage and presumed to be in first winter plumage, was discovered on 4 February 1979 at Gokarna in the Kathmandu Valley, also amongst a flock of Dark-throated Thrushes. In the 19th Century at least two specimens were obtained by Flodgson in the Kathmandu Valley in January (Gray and Gray 1846, Seebohm 1881). The only subsequent reference to Dusky Thrush in Nepal is a report of large parties on Nagar Jong at about 1500 m in Spring 1948 and a few in the Kathmandu Valley the following winter (Proud 1949). There have been several individuals reported since our observations, in both the Kali Gandaki and Kathmandu Valleys (C. and T. Inskipp in litt. 1983). In the Indian subcontinent, Dusky Thrush is stated to be an irregular winter visitor, rare in the west and more frequent in the east (Ripley 1982). yellow-browed tit Sylviparus modestus An occupied nest hole of a pair of Yellow- browed Tits was found on 2 May 1979 on the slopes of Phulchowki in the Kathmandu Valley, at an altitude of 2000 m. The pair was feeding young. This was only the third nest ever discovered of this species. Full details have already been published (Lohrl 1981). SCARLET-BACKED FLOWERPECKER Dicaeum cruentatum A male and two females were seen at Dharan in East Nepal on 21 April 1979. This is only the second record of this species in Nepal (Fleming et al. 1979). Acknowledgements We are indebted to Carol and Tim Inskipp for providing valuable information on the 52 SOME OBSERVATIONS OF SCARCE BIRDS IN NEPAL status and distribution of birds in Nepal and for commenting on an earlier draft of this paper. Thanks are also due to Bob Fleming Refer Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1978): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1 (2nd edition). — (1980) : Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 2 (2nd edition). Bombay. (1982): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 3 (2nd edition). Bombay. Cramp, S. et a/. (1980) : Birds of the Western Palearctic. Vol. 2. Oxford. Del-Nevo, A. & Ewins, P. (1981): Bird Watch- ing in Nepal, 7th December 1980 — 19th February 1981. Unpublished. Fleming, R. L. et al. (1979) : Birds of Nepal, (2nd edition). Kathmandu. Gray, J. E. & Gray, G. R. (1846) : Catalogue of the specimens and drawings of Mammalia and Sr. and Bob and Linda Fleming for much assistance and encouragement during our stay in Nepal. ENCES birds of Nepal and Tibet, presented by B. H. Hodg- son, Esq to the British Museum, London. Hodgson. B. H. (undated). Original paintings held in the Zoological Society of London Library. Unpublished. Lohrl, H. (1981) : “Zur Kenntnis der Laubmeise, Sylviparus modestus”. J. Orn. 122 : 89-92. Proud, D. (1949): Some Notes on the Birds of the Nepal Valley. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 695-719. Ripley, S. D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan. 2nd edition. Bombay. Scully, J. (1879) : Contribution to the Ornitho- logy of Nepal. Stray Feathers 8: 204-368. Seebohm, H. (1881) : Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the British Museum. Vol. 5. Sharpe, R. B. (1894): Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the British Museum. Vol. 23. 53 SPAWNING OF SOME IMPORTANT COLDWATER FISH OF THE GARHWAL HIMALAYA1 S. P. Badola2 and H. R. Singh3 {With a plate ) The present study gives an account of the spawning of some important coldwater fish of the Garhwal Himalaya. Most of them have one breeding season and breed in summer, monsoon and postmonsoon months. However, Schizothorax species show a long spawning season (July to January) and their breeding is at a peak from Sept- ember to November. Puntius chilinoides and P. hexastichus spawn twice a year during two different but relatively short spawning periods, May-July and December-January. Increased pH and flooding (turbidity) is necessary for the spawning of Noemaeheilus, Glyptothorax, Pseudecheneis and Tor species of the Garhwal streams. High concen- tration of dissolved oxygen and relatively low pH are necessary for the spawning of Schizothorax, Labeo and Barilius. Besides flooding and varying values of pH and oxygen content of the waters, a varying suitable temperature is also necessary for the spawning of these species. The natural breeding grounds of these fishes are also disturbed by the transportation of timber in the Garhwal rivers. There is little or no information available on the breeding habits of coldwater fishes of the Garhwal Himalayas. Hence this study was undertaken. Material and Methods The period of spawning as inferred by the presence of mature ova and testes in the body cavity was confirmed by actually finding the spawn, fry and fingerlings. In some cases the ova attached to stones, lying in a particular breeding place were collected and counted (Plate 1). The breeding site of a particular fish was decided by the occurrence of its eggs and fry in that place. The temperature, pH, depth, gradient, current, and dissolved oxygen 1 Accepted December 1980. 2 Department of Zoology, Government Postgra- duate College, Rishikesh, Dehra Dun. 3 Department of Zoology, Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal. (U.P.). of the water in the breeding ground were re- corded. The specimens were collected and exa- mined from different snow-fed and non-snow- fed rivers and streams. This study was made in respect of the fol- lowing fishes: Schizothorax sinuatus (Heckel), S. plagio- stomus (Heckel), S. richardsonii (Gray), Tor tor (Ham.), T. putitora (Ham.), Labeo dyo- cheilus (McClell.), L. dero (Ham.), Barilius bendelisis (Ham.), B. vagra (Ham.), B. barna (Ham.), Puntius chilinoides (McClell.), P. hexastichus (McClell.), Noemaeheilus monta- nus (McClell.) M. multifasciatus (Day), N. rupicola (McClell). Glyptothorax pectinopterus (McClell.), and Pseudecheneis sulcatus, (McClell.). 1. Schizothorax sinuatus, S. plagiostomus and S« richardsonii. These species are most common in snow-fed rivers and streams of this region. It was found that they start spawn- ing gradually from July and end in January. 54 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Singh: Spawning of coldwater fish Plate Above : Showing fish ova attached to stones. Below : Showing destruction of ova in the breeding ground by timber logs X SF AWNING OF SOME IMPORTANT COLDWATER FISH The peak spawning period was observed in September-October and November. In these months the water velocity, temperature, and dissolved oxygen remain quite favourable for their breeding. They breed in shallow running semistagnant water along the banks of the rivers among gravel and stone. The eggs re- main attached to stones in batches. The water temperature of the breeding ground ranged between 7.8 and 15.6°C, the atmospheric temperature was 12.9° to 31.2°C, pH of water was between 7.0 and 8.2 dissolved oxygen 9.0 to 18.1 ppm. The depth of breeding ground varied from 25 to 32 cm. The gradient was less and velocity was observed to be 0.496 metre /second. 2. Tor tor and T. putitora: These species spawn from April to July when the water of Alaknanda becomes turbid due to the melting of snow at the peaks. They move from the deeper waters or lower regions upward for breeding. This type of local movement was noticed right from April, when the water starts becoming turbid. It is believed that mature specimens travel upstream from Rishikesh or Hardwar, first to the upper reaches of the Ganga and then to Alaknanda and Bhagirathi for breeding. The eggs are laid on and under stones at a depth of 35 to 50 cm where the gradient is less. The water temperature of the breeding place was from 15° to 17.5°C, atmospheric temperature 26.1° and 31.2°C, pH of the water 7.0 to 8.2 and dissolved oxy- gen 9.0 to 9.9 ppm. The fertilized eggs were slightly brown in colour and found attached to the stones and rocks and other objects such as logs, etc. However, we could not get adult Tor species in Alaknanda after July- August when only large number of fry and fingerlings were found in the backwaters and sidestreams of the Alaknanda and Bhagirathi rivers. It appears that after spawning the adults move down the Ganga probably due to the effect of the low water temperature. Thus we could observe the breeding only from April to July. 3. Lafoeo dyocheilus and L. dero : These two species abound in Alaknanda, Bhagirathi and Finder, etc. from March to June when they come from Ganga for the purpose of breeding. During these months, they are found with mature gonads. The eggs are laid on and among the stones towards the bank of the river at a depth of 30 to 35 cm in slow running water. The water temperature in the breeding grounds was 12.6° to 17.5°C, atmospheric temperature 26.8° (in April) to 31.2°C (in June), maximum pH was 8.2 and dissolved oxygen from 9.3 to 9.9 ppm. The velocity of water was 0.616 to 1.234 metre /sec. Thus, they prefer clear shallow water for breeding. The fertilized eggs were somewhat greenish in colour. 4. Bardins bendelisis9 B. vagra and B. barna : These species always prefer small rivers and streams, where the water is clear and shallow with high percentage of dissolved oxygen. They do not survive in polluted water. In this investigation it was found that these species breed from April to June. The breed- ing grounds were observed in Nayar, Khoh and in the side stagnant waters of Alaknanda. These small fishes are found schooling in abundance and lay their eggs in shallow pockets of water under stones and weeds (algae), as well as in the sand mixed gravel bed at a depth of 15 to 28 cm. The water tem- perature of the breeding grounds ranged from 20.5° to 22.5°C with the pH from 7.0 to 7.3. The dissolved oxygen was 9.5 to 10.2 ppm. The water was semistagnant, with low velocity (0.197 to 0.204 metre/second) and less gra- dient. 5. Puntius chilinoides and P. hexastichus : The two species are very common in Nayar, 55 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Mandakini and Pindar rivers and their breed- ing period was noticed to be from May to July and December to January. However, the actual breeding grounds of these species could not be located. But from the fry it was esti- mated that they breed in shallow water under stones and rocks, with the water temperature at 8.9°C, pH of water 7.0 and dissolved oxygen 16.8 ppm. The gradient and velocity of water was also low. 6. Noemacheilus momtanus, N. rupicola and N. multifasciatus : These species spawn from July to August in small streams and rivulets. Being small in size, their breeding ground could not be located. But it is almost definite that they breed in small streams and rivulets and not in large snow-fed rivers like Alaknanda, Bhagirathi, etc. 7. Glyptothorax pectinopterus : This species breeds from April to August and is quite com- mon in streams throughout the year. In Alak- nanda, Bhagirathi and Pinder, etc. it occurs in abundance in the rainy season. Probably having been swept in from small streams and rivulets by the swift current. Its breeding niches could not be observed due to the increased water level and velocity (2.493 metres | second). 8. Pseudecheneis sulcatus : P. sulcatus is found in snow-fed streams all the year round, but in Alaknanda, Pindar, Bhagirathi and Jam una it is available after April, when the water becomes turbid. Its spawning period was observed to be from April to August. The mature testes are branched. In female the abdomen is bulged out by large number of eggs. However, its breeding ground could not be located due to the high speed of water in the rainy season. Destruction of eggs During the course of this study it was found that the breeding grounds in Alaknanda and Nayar are disturbed by the floating of timber logs (Plate 1). In winter and summer the log- ging is most common in Alaknanda and Nayar. In this period most of the fishes are in spawn- ing stage, for instance Schizothorax species breed from September to January and the Puntius species from December to January. The Tor and Labeo species breed from April to June-July. Wc have noticed that the logs that float in the main current of the river sometimes reach the banks of the river and strike the stones and rocks, and thus crush thousands of eggs and disturb the natural breeding grounds. It was estimated that about 26% eggs are damaged by this type of trans- portation of the timber. (Table 1). Table 1 Destruction of fish eggs by timber in Alaknanda River Spot Nature No. of sub- stratum Total eggs examined No. of living eggs No. of damaged eggs Percen- tage of damaged eggs. 1. Stony 347 235 112 32.27 2. Stony 286 160 126 44.05 3. Stony & rocky 360 292 68 18.88 4. Stony 198 178 20 10, 10 5. Stony 307 307 nil nil 6. Stony & Rocky 401 401 nil nil Discussion According to this study most of the fishes of the Garhwal Himalaya breed in the summer and monsoon months. However, only Puntius chilinoides and P. hexastichus breed twice a year, i.e., from May to July and December to January. Of all the species included in this study, Schizothorax spp. have the longest 56 SPAWNING OF SOME IMPORTANT CO LOW A TER FISH breeding period ranging from July to January. Their breeding is at peak during September to November, the eolder days of the year, when the water has ample amount of dissolved oxygen (about 18.1 ppm). According to Jhin- gran (1975), S. richardsonii of Himachal Pradesh spawns from March to June. Bhat- nagar (1964) in his studies on Bhakra reser- voir fishes has reported that Schizothorax plagioslomus breeds in July-August and Dec- ember- January. However, our observations are that the Schizothorax species of the Garhwal waters do not spawn intermittently. Probably one reason for the availability of the Schizo- thorax in the snow-fed rivers and the streams throughout the year is that the fish has a long and continuous breeding period. The other reasons are the favourable water spread and a large amount of dissolved oxygen. Bhatnagar (1964) has reported that the T. putitora of the Bhakra reservoir first spawns in July and this activity continues intermit- tently throughout the year. According to Karamchandani et al. (1967), T. tor of Nar- bada river has a prolonged breeding season which commences in July- August and conti- nues upto December with peak breeding from July to September. Some other studies on the breeding of the Tor species of the other re- gions arc of Khan (1939), Qasim & Qayyum (1962), and Sehgal et al. (1971), and accord- ing to them Tor species spawn two to three or more times a year. But our studies show that the Tor tor and T. putitora of the Garh- wal hills spawn once a year, i.e. from April to July. These species come to the Alaknanda and Bhagirathi from the Ganga for breeding, ft appears that the presence of suitable isolated and well protected breeding grounds, the high amount of dissolved oxygen and the abundance of insect larvae in Bhasirathi and Alaknanda waters, which form the food of these species are some of the factors that attract Tor for this breeding migration. Bhatnagar (1964) described the spawning of Labeo dero in July and according to him flooding was necessary for its breeding. How- ever, our observations indicate that L. dero and L. dyocheilus of Garhwal rivers prefer shallow water for breeding. Similarly Barilius bendelisis, Barilius barna and Barilius vagra were also found to breed in shallow pockets of clear waters. According to Khanna (1958) and David et al. (1967), the presence of flood water in the breeding ground and a current of moderate intensity were essential for breed- ing and increased pH did not seem to be necessary for fish breeding. Mookerjee (1945) pointed out that change of pH may be one of the principal factors which may induce carp to spawn. Das & Das Gupta (1945) stated that although an increased pH and high oxygen content of water play an important role in the spawning of carps, they have no independent position. However, our observations indicate that high pH and flood water were necessary for the breeding of Glyptothorax pectinopte- rus, Pseudecheneis sulcatus and Noemacheilus species of this region. But high oxygen con- tent. relatively low pH values and mild velo- city of the water were essential for the breed- ing of Schizothorax, Labeo, Puntius and Bari- lius species of the Garhwal streams. On the basis of this study it may be pointed out that a suitable temperature is also necessary for the breeding of the different species. 57 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 References Bhatnagar, G. K. (1964) : Observations on the spawning frequency of certain Bhakra reservoir fishes. Indian J. Fish. 1 : 285-502. Das, K. N. & Das Gupta, B. N. (1945) : Breeding of the Principal carps in Bengal. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 11: 324-327. David, A., Govind, B. V., Rao, N. G. S. & Raj- gopal, K. V. (1967) : Fish seed resources of some rivers in South India. Indian J. Fish. 74(1-2) : 54-84. Jhingran, V. G. (1975): Fish and Fisheries of India. Flindustan Publishing Corporation (India), Delhi. Karamchandani, S. J., Desai, V. R., Pisolkar, M. D. & Bhatnagar, G. K. (1967): Biological in- vestigations on the fish and fisheries of Narbada river (1958-66). Bull. Cent. Ini. Fish. Res. Inst. Bar- rack pore (10) : 40p. Khanna, D. V. (1958): Observations on the spawning of the Major carps at a Fish Farm in Punjab. Indian J. Fish. 5(2) : 282-290. Mookerjee, H. K. (1945) : Factors influencing the spawning of principal carps in India. Symposium on “The factors influencing the spawning of Indian carps*’. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India. 11: 312-315. Qasim, S. Z. & Qayyum, A. (1962): Spawning frequencies and breeding seasons of some fresh water fishes with special reference to those occurring in the Plains of Northern India. Indian J. Fish. S(l) : 24-43. Sehgal, K. L., Shah, K. L. & Shukla, J. P. (1971) : Studies on some aspects of cold water fisheries in Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir (1966-67) (M.S.). 58 REPRODUCTION BIOLOGY OF THE SOFT-FURRED FIELD RAT, R ATT US MELT AD A PALLIDIOR (RYLEY, 1914) IN THE RAJASTHAN DESERT1 B. D. Rana2 and Ishwar Prakash3 (With three text-figures ) Introduction The soft-furred field rat, Rattus meltada is distributed throughout India. It is found abun- dantly in the crop fields of the south-eastern region of the desert (Rana and Prakash 1980). It usually inhabits irrigated crop fields but is also found in grasslands on heavier soils. This species is one of the economically important among crop inhabitants and inflicts losses to standing crops and grain stores of cereals, chiefly wheat, jowar ( Sorghum vulgare) and bajra (Pennisetum typhoides). Thus, keeping in view, its economic importance, an attempt has been made to study its ecological rela- tionships in the desert environment (Rana 1981) and in this paper its reproduction bio- logy is described. The Study Area Bisalpur (25°7'N, 73°10'E), is situated in western Rajasthan, on the south-eastern fringe of the Thar desert, very near to Aravalli ranges. The mean maximum and minimum temperatures are observed to the order of 32.8°C and 20.0°C respectively. The average amount of precipitation received is about 500 mm but 90 per cent falls during Julv- 1 Accepted October 1981. 2 Rodent Biologist. 8 Professor of Eminence, Central Arid Zone Re- search Institute. Jodhpur- 342 003 (Rajasthan), India. September period. The vegetation is rich due to the water retaining capacity of sandy loam. Rodents were trapped in a protected grassland and from surrounding crop fields. Two crops are raised in the region: rainfed, July to Octo- ber and irrigated, November to March. There- fore, green food is available to rodents for the greater part of the year, except from April to June. Material and Methods The Soft-furred field rat, or the metad, Rattus meltada pallidior (Ryley, 1914) were collected every month at Bilaspur from Janu- ary 1978 to December 1979. Soon after their collection, they were weighed, sexed and dis- sected. Ovaries were checked for the number of corpora lutea and uterine horns for im- planted embryos in freshly killed material. The teats in females were also examined for any sign of lactation. Epididymal smears were examined for the presence of sperms and uterine horns for an indication of embryonic mortality. The testes and ovaries were weighed to the nearest 0.001 g on a semi-micro Mettler balance. Results MALE FECUNDITY Epididymal smear Sexual maturity of male metads was attain- ed at 45 g body weight during both the years 59 BODY WEIGHTS ( q ) JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. HI * MALE WITH SPERMS v MALE WITHOUT SPERMS o FEMALE WITH GORPQRALUTEA x FEMALE WITHOUT CORPORALUTE A »©@l 90< to* T- ■ T T ■ . ■ ^B3ua"B»gf J FMAM J JASOWDJFMAMJASONO • ------ — 197© — — » i~ — — • 1979 — Fig. 1. Gross body weights of R. m. pallidior during 1978 and 1979. of study (Fig. 1). However, a few metads weighing 70 to 73 g during 1978 and 1979 res- pectively did not exhibit sperms in their epidi- dymis. It may possibly be due to regression of the testes. The regression of the testes dur- ing a part of the year has also been observed in many rodents (Asdell 1946). Prasad (1961) and Jain (1970) also found regressed testes in T. i. cuvieri and T. i. indica respectively. The present study points out that in male R. m. pallidior the reproductive activity does not cease completely during winter as pregnant 60 MEAN PAIRED TESTES WEIGHTS MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL (mm) REPRODUCTION BIOLOGY OF THE SOFT-FURRED FIELD RAT Q Z 450* 400- 350 300 250 200 1 50-* 100 50J • PERCENT FEMALE PREGNANT * PERCENT MALE FECUND MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL 1978* 1979 Fig. 2. The breeding intensity of R. m. pallidior in relation to the mean monthly rainfall. PERCENT MALE FECUND — k MEAN PAIRED TESTES WEIGHT 00i 80 •60 )0- 30* 50- *0* o z Z) o yj u. LU o CE U a. Fig. 3. The male fecundity rate and mean paired testes weights of R. m. pallidior. 61 ; JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 The weights of right and left testes were, there- fore, pooled. The paired testes weight, differed significantly (F = 13.38, P < 0.05) between months. They were found to be maximum during June to October and lowest during Dec- ember. During 1979, two peaks in paired testes weight, one during March and the other in the months of August to October was observed. However, the lowest testes weights were re- corded during January (Fig. 3). The mean monthly paired testes weights run parallel to the per cent fecund males during both the years of the study. FEMALE FERTILITY Ovary weights The mean paired ovary weights of adult metads exhibits two main peaks, one during March to May and the second during June to October period during 1978 (Table 2). Lowest weights were observed in December, soon after attaining their peak level in Septem- ber, which may be due to ovarian refractoriness during winter. Similar trend in the variations of ovary weights was found in 1979 (Table 3). Table 1 Monthly testes weights (mean + se) of R. m. pallidior Months Right 1978 Weight of testes (g) Left 1979 Right Left Jan. 0.3225+0.10 0.3394+0.10 0.2402 +0.04 0.2453+0.05 Feb. 0.3160+0.18 0.2925 +0. 14 0.4182+0.11 0.3695 + 0.35 Mar. 0.5210+0.00 0.6630+0.00 0.5520+0.04 0.5452+0.04 April 0.3306+0.05 0.3327+0.04 0.3623 + 0.08 0.3441+0.08 May 0.4320+0.23 0.4145+0.19 0.4036+0.22 0.4156+0.20 June 0.6700 + 0.19 0.6620+ 0.19 0.5135+0.06 0.4816+0.03 July 0.6543+0.06 0.6269 +0.08 Collection was not made Aug. 0.8685+0.35 0.9050+0.30 0.5741+0.04 0.5754+0.01 Sept. 0.6590+0.00 0.5930+0.00 0.4574+0.25 0.6787+0.30 Oct. 0.3275+0.06 0.3050+0.04 0.8725+0.11 0.8212+0.08 Nov. 0.4710+0.08 0.4150+0.01 0.3914+0.05 0.3962+0.05 Dec. 0.2211+0.08 0.3129+0.09 0.4079 + 0.65 0.3826+0.59 metads were found throughout the two years (Fig. 2). The male metads were found to be fecund throughout the two years. But the maximum rate of fecundity (100 per cent) was observed from March to October, 1978. Thereafter, it reduced to 50 per cent in the month of Dec- ember. Surprisingly, a minor peak in January was also observed. During 1979, two peaks of fecundity rate, one during spring and the second in monsoon seasons, were recorded. A comparison of fecundity rate between the two years revealed that it remained at higher rate during 1978 (50 to 100 per cent) as com- pared to that of 1979 (35 to 100 per cent). The proportion of fecund males during both the years was also found to be closely similar to that of pregnancy rate in the population (Fig. 3). Testes weights Mean monthly weights of right and left testes did not differ significantly from each other in any of the months during the two years except during March 1978, when the right testes was found to be lighter than the left (Table 1). 62 REPRODUCTION BIOLOGY OF THE SOFT-FURRED FIELD RAT Table 2 Prevalence of pregnancy and ovary weights of R . m. pallidior during 1978 Months Total number of females collected Number of adult female metads Prevalence of pregnancy Paired ovary weights (Mean±SE) Not pregnant Pregnant Pregnant & lactating January 4 2 2 0.50 0.0135± .005 February 3 1 2 - 0.66 0.0150± .007 March 2 - 1 1 1.00 0.0220± — April 2 - 2 - 1.00 0.0213± .006 May 2 1 1 - 0.50 0.0215±0.007 June 5 2 3 - 0.60 0.0310± .001 July 5 - 5 - 1.00 0.0452± .005 August 2 - 2 - 1.00 0.0441± .004 September 2 - 2 - 1.00 0.0463± .001 October 2 - 1 1 1.00 0 . 0267 ± .002 November 7 5 1 1 0.28 0.0172± .002 December 7 4 3 — 0.42 0.0101± .004 Prevalence of Table 3 PREGNANCY AND OVARY WEIGHTS OF R. m. pallidior during 1979 Months Total number of females collected Number of adult female metads Prevalence of pregnancy Paired ovary weights (Mean±SE) Not pregnant Pregnant Pregnant & lactating January 8 7 1 _ 0.12 0.0173± — February 8 5 3 - 0.37 0.0273±0.002 March 10 2 7 1 0.80 0.0377±0.002 April 4 2 1 1 0.50 0.0229±0.002 May 4 1 3 - 0.75 0.0276±0.001 June 4 2 2 - 0.50 0.0176±0.001 August 4 - 4 - 1.00 0.0596± 0.006 September 3 - 3 - 1.00 0.0663±0.005 October 6 2 3 1 0.66 0.0263±0.001 November 13 8 4 1 0.38 0.0221 ±0.001 December 24 19 5 - 0.20 0.0200±0.003 Production of ova Sixty-eight pregnant females exhibited 282 corporalutea in right ovary and 238 in left ovary, which are significantly different (x2(i) = 3.60, P < 0.05) from each other, ova pro- duction being more in the right ovaries. During 1978, the right ovary (110) possessed signifi- cantly (x2G)=7.40, p < 0.01) larger num- 63 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 ber of corporalutea than the left (73, Table 4). However, during 1979, the difference was not significant (Rt. 172: Lt. 165, x2(i)=0.14; Table 5). The production of ova per pregnant female varied from 5.50 to 10.00 (av. 6.53) during 1978 and 5.00 to 12.00 (av. 8.25) during 1979. The average number of ova produced Table 4 Pre-implantation losses in R. m. palliclior during 1978 Number of embryos Number of corpora lutea Pre-implanation losses Mths. — — — — — Right Left Total Right Left Total Mean±SE Right Left Total % Jan. 5 3 8 6 5 1 1 5.50±0.50 1 2 3 27.2 Feb. 5 4 9 6 6 12 6.00+0.00 1 2 3 25.0 Mar. 7 6 13 8 7 15 7.50+0.50 1 1 2 13.3 Apr. 4 'j J 7 6 5 11 5.50+0.50 2 2 4 36.3 May 4 3 7 6 4 10 10.00±0.00 o 1 3 30.0 June 9 O J 12 14 5 19 6.33+0.91 5 2 7 36.8 July 19 5 24 22 7 29 5.80+0.89 3 2 5 17.2 Aug. n 1 5 12 9 5 14 7 . 00+0.79 2 - 2 14.2 Sept. 7 6 13 8 7 15 7. 50±0. 68 1 1 2 13.3 Oct. 5 6 1 1 6 9 15 7 . 50±0. 50 1 3 4 26.6 Nov. 5 4 9 7 6 13 6.50+0.65 2 2 4 30.7 Dec. 10 6 16 12 7 19 6. 33±0. 82 2 1 3 15.7 Total 87 54 141 410 A 73 183 6. 53 ±0. 98 23 19 42 22.9 Table 5 Pre-implantation losses in R. m. palliclior during 1979 Number of embryos Number of corpora lutea Pre-implanation losses Mths. — — — Right Left Total Right Left Total Mean±SE Right Left Total % Jan. 3 2 5 4 1 5 5.00+0.00 — — _ Feb. 10 9 19 14 13 27 9.00±0.00 5 5 10 37.0 Mar. 27 25 52 32 30 62 7 . 75±0. 59 5 5 10 16. 1 Apr. 7 6 13 10 7 17 8.50+0.28 n J 1 4 23. 1 May 9 12 21 13 12 25 6.05+Q.00 6 9 36.0 June 9 8 17 13 11 24 12,00+0.00 4 A J 7 29.0 Aug. 12 11 23 19 18 37 9.25+0.47 7 1 14 37.8 Sept. 10 9 19 15 13 28 9.33+0.45 5 4 9 32.2 Oct. 11 10 21 15 16 31 7.75±0.75 4 6 10 28.6 Nov. 12 13 25 17 18 35 7.00+0.70 5 5 10 28.6 Dec. 15 16 31 20 26 46 9.20+0. 89 5 10 15 32.6 Total 125 121 246 172 165 337 8. 25±2. 35 49 49 98 29.08 64 REPRODUCTION BIOLOGY OF THE SOFT-FURRED FIELD RAT Table 6 Transfer of blastocyst Female nos. Corpora lutea Right Left Embryos present Right Left Transfer of blastocyst 1 2 3 1 4 From right 14 4 3 3 4 — do — 15 4 5 3 6 — do — 24 4 1 3 2 — do — 50 2 6 3 5 From left to right per pregnant female did not vary significantly between months and between seasons except during winter when it was significantly (p < 0.01) lower than that in the summer season during both the years (Tables 4 & 5). The high production rate of ova during summer months may be due to influence of day length which is maximum in this period in the desert region. The mean number of produced ova (8.2) during 1979 did not differ significantly (x2G) = 0.2416) than that of 1978 (6.5). Transfer of blastocyst The transfer of blastocyst was investigated by comparing the number of corpora lutea and the actual number of embryos in both the ute- rine horns. Out of 68 pregnant females exa- mined during both the years, in five cases the transfer of blastocyst was observed. In female nos. 1, 14, 15 and 24 the blastocyst was trans- ferred from right to left, whereas, in female no. 50, it was transferred from left to right (Table 6). Transfer of blastocyst was also re- ported in Cutch Rock Rat, Rat t us cutchicus (Prakash et al. 1973). Implantation rate in right and left uterine horns During 1978, the number of implanted em- bryos was significantly higher (x2(i)=7.72, P < 0.05) in the right uterine horn. However, no significant difference (x2(!)=0.26) was found between right (125) and left (121) im- planted embryos during 1979. After pooling the embryo numbers for both the years of Table 7 Distribution of litters of various sizes in the monthly collection of R. m. pallidior during 1978 Months Frequency of occurrence of litters No. of implanted embryos 3 4 5 6 7 Total number of embryos Mean±SE Jan. 1 — 1 — _ 8 4. 00±0.66 Feb. - 1 1 - - 9 4. , 50±0. 64 March - - - 1 1 13 6. ,50±0.61 April 1 1 - - - 7 3. ,50±0.01 May - - - - 1 7 7. 00 ± — June 1 1 1 - - 12 4, 00±0.42 July - 3 1 - 1 24 4. 80±0.69 Aug. - - 1 - 1 12 6. ,00±0.51 Sept. - - - 1 1 13 6. ,50±0.58 Oct. - - 1 1 - 11 5, , 50±0. 56 Nov. - 1 1 - - 9 4, ,50±0.61 Dec — 1 1 - 1 16 5, ,33±0.86 Total 3 8 8 3 6 141 5, 03±0. 89 65 5 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Table 8 Distribution of litters of various sizes in the monthly collection of R. m. pallidior during 1979 Months Frequency of occurrence of litters Number of implanted embryos 4 5 6 7 8 9 Total number of embryos Mean±SE Jan. — 1 — — — — 5 5.00±0.00 Feb. - 1 1 - 1 - 19 6.33±0.93 Mar. 1 1 2 2 1 1 52 6.50±0.56 Apr. 1 - - - - 1 13 6.50±0.50 May 1 1 2 - - - 21 5 . 25±0. 51 June - - - - 1 1 17 8.50±0.85 Aug. 1 - 2 1 - - 23 5.75±0.62 Sept. - 1 - 2 - - 19 6.33±0.62 Oct. - 3 1 - - - 21 5. 25 ±0. 39 Nov. 2 2 - 1 - - 25 5.00±0.63 Dec. 1 1 — 2 1 - 31 6.20±0.73 Total 7 11 8 8 4 3 246 6. 15±1 . 87 study, it is observed that the embryonic rate in right uterine horn is significantly (x2(x) = 4.24, P < 0.05) higher than that of left uterine horn (Tables 4 & 5). Prevalence of pregnancy Pregnant females were found during the two years of the study but the intensity of repro- duction activity in the metad population was more during 1978 in which the pregnancy rate of 100 per cent was observed during 6 months, whereas, during 1979 it was only for two months. The period of maximum breeding activity (March-September, 1978) coinciding with the occurrence of larger litter size also. During 1979, however, 100 per cent pregnancies occur- red during August-September, the period of maximum precipitation, but the largest litters occurred during February to June only. It is also observed that after a low pregnancy rate during winter, a peak occurs during spring, followed by a low during summer and then again with a peak during monsoon (Tables 2 & 3) — a typical reproduction cycle observed in other desert rodents also. Litter size Litter size varied from 3 to 7 (av. 5.03) and 4 to 9 (av. 6.15) during 1978 and 1979 respectively (Tables 7 & 8). The two yearly average was found to be 5.69 while in 1978 the larger litter size was scattered over the period March to September, they were restrict- ed to the February- June period in 1979. Smallest litters were observed during the win- ter (November to January). Super-foetation One female R. m. pallidior bore four em- bryos in the left uterine horn, their mean crown rump length was 25 mm (new born young ones measure 34 mm in crown rump length). But the right uterine horn carried two embryos (crown rump length = 5 mm) which were quite healthy. Considerable difference in the size of embryos in the two uterine horns, suggests 66 REPRODUCTION BIOLOGY OF THE SOFT-FURRED FIELD RAT that the second conception might have occur- red around 9 to 12 days of first pregnancy (gestation period is 20 days, Bindra and Sagar, 1968). This phenomenon in metad is probably being reported for the first time though it is common in mice (Barnett and Munro 1970), in Indian gerbil, T. i. indica (Jain 1970) and in the shrew, S. m. sindensis (Rana and Prakash 1979). Lactation Out of all the pregnant females collected during both the years, during the period. March-April and October-November, seven female metads (10.3 per cent. Tables 2 & 3) were found to be pregnant as well as lactating. The difference between the first year (3 preg- nant & lactating) and latter year (4 pregnant & lactating) did not vary significantly. The pre- sence of pregnant and lactating females in the collection suggests the possibility of occurrence of postpartum oestrus in R. m. pallidior and therefore, a regular littering throughout the breeding season is logical. In various species of small mammals, the presence of postpartum oestrus has been reported earlier (Prakash et ai. 1973, Asdell 1946, Barnett and Little 1968). Embryonic Mortality Pre-implantation loss Pre-implantation losses were judged by com- paring the number of corporalutea and the implanted embryos whereas, post-implantation losses were judged by identifying resorbed and mummified embryos in the uterus. In the sample of metads, the former type of mortality accounted for 22.9 and 29.0 per cent of the total number of ova produced during 1978 and 1979 respectively. The preimplantation mortality ranged from 13.3 per cent to 36.8 per cent during 1978 and 16.1 to 37.8 per cent in 1979 (Tables 4 & 5). The intensity of loss of ova during both the years was more in right (72) than in the left (68) uterine horn, the difference was, however, not statistically significant. Thus, the average annual pre- implantation mortality amounted to 26.92 per cent. Post-implantation loss One female (body weight, 54 g) bore four embryos, two in each uterine horn (their crown rump length was measured to 12-15 mm). Two in left horn were in healthy state but the two in right uterine horn were in mum- mified stage. Out of 387 total implanted em- bryos examined in this study, only 0.51 per cent account for post-implantation loss. In another case, a female during December possessed one embryo in right and three in left uterine horn. These four embryos were found to be resorbed, which amounts to 1.03 per cent loss. The total post-implantation loss comes to 1.55 per cent. Annual Productivity The number of young produced by an adult metad during the breeding season can be deter- mined by dividing the number of days of breed- ing season by number of days of gestation period (Prakash and Taneja 1969). The period of gestation in R. m. pallidior is 20 days (Bindra and Sagar 1968), and applying the data from this study we find that (365/20 = 18.20) litters can be produced by a female in a breeding season. Correcting this figure by multiplying it by the average prevalence of pregnancy (18.20 x 0.51 = 9.28), the number of litters per adult female comes to 9.28 Multiplying this with 5.69, the average num- ber of embryos per pregnant female during 67 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 the breeding season, it appears that (9.28 x 5.60 = 52.80) young ones can be produced by a female annually. If the pre-implantation (26.92 per cent) and post-implantation (1.55 per cent) losses are accounted for, the figure is corrected to 52.52 young per female per year. Discussion Rattus meltada is essentially a sub-mesic species, distributed all over the Indian plains but its subspecies, R. m. pallidior occurs in the arid and semi-arid zones of northern India (Prakash 1975). Its frequency of occurrence is poor in arid zones but it is found in fair numbers on the foothills and in desert areas which receive over 500 mm rainfall annually. Its breeding season appears to be similar to those rodents inhabiting tropical regions of the country and not that of the Saharo-Indian rodents which breed during winter as stated by Bodenheimer (1957). It breeds throughout the year with two peaks, one during spring and the other during monsoon and two lows, one during summer and the other in winter, the latter shows very low pregnancy rates as well as smallest litter size. Our study area at Bisalpur, on the foothills of the Aravalli ranges, does not experience severe climatic and vege- tational fluctuations as the low rainfall areas do. The metads being nocturnal and fossorial are not exposed to severities of climatic con- ditions. Secondly in this area, due to the pre- sence of irrigation cropping, green food is consumed by them for the greater part of the year. Experiencing these environmental condi- tions R. m. pallidior maintain rather a high prevalence of pregnancy rate with bimodal peaks, one in spring and the other in monsoon. It is surprising, however, that R. meltada in- habiting similar environmental conditions in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Pakistan breed from March to October only (Bindra and Sagar 1968, Guraya and Gupta 1975, Srivastava 1966, Smiet et al. 1980). In southern India, however, R. m. meltada breeds all the year round (Blanford 1888-91, Lloyd 1909, Chan- drahas and Krishnaswami 1974). In Uttar Pradesh and Punjab the non-reproductive state of female metads and low breeding rate at our study area during winter may be due to the partial quiescent state of ovary. After this re- fractory period, their inherent physiologic activity is accelerated causing a spring peak in pregnancy rate in R. m. pallidior. The breeding activity slightly decreases during May and June, the hottest months of the year. Second main peak then occurs during the monsoon season. These two peaks well coincide with the availability of green food to R. m. pallidior which in turn influences their repro- ductive activity. R. m. pallidior , the northern subspecies of metad was even able to maintain a fairly high (50 to 80 per cent) prevalence of pregnancy during summer of 1978 and 1979 at the study site, when the air temperature was high and the relative humidity was low. The maintenance of a relatively high rate of repro- duction during summer is presumably a reflec- tion of the rodent’s efficient eco -physiological adaptive mechanisms to cope with the arid environment. The mean litter size of R. m. pallidior was 5.69 which is slightly lower than 6.0 report- ed by Bindra and Sagar (1968) at Ludhiana, but more or less equal to that of Kanpur metads (5.7, Srivastava 1966). However, the lowest litter size was reported by Lloyd (1909) in India as a whole. A comparison of mean litter size and lati- tudes of the localities revealed that it was the lowest, 4.8 in Karnataka (latitude 12°), and the highest, 6.0 in Punjab (latitude 30°) and 68 REPRODUCTION BIOLOGY OF THE SOFT-FURRED FIELD RAT a mid position was occupied (5.7) by Bisalpur field metads (latitude 25°). Thus, a relation- ship between litter size and latitude exists, which was larger in Northern than in Southern India, irrespective of wide variations in their geographical range. Another very interesting point emerged out of this study is the occurrence of superfoeta- lion which is not recorded in any other species of R. meltada in India. Annual productivity of R. m. pallidior is comparatively higher, 52.52 young ones /year than other species of desert rodents such as R. cutchicus (19.96, Prakash et al 1973). T. i. indica (17.75, Jain 1970); and more or less equal to R. norvegicus (53.4 young/adult female/year; Southwick 1966). Acknowledgements We are grateful to the Director, Dr. H. S. Mann for providing necessary facilities and constant encouragement throughout the course of this study, to Dr. P. K. Ghosh, Head of Division of Animal Studies for various useful suggestions. Thanks are also due to staff mem- bers of Cartography Section of the Institute for drawing. The assistance of Sarvashri R. P. Mathur, B. K. Soni and Mala Ram during field work are also acknowledged. Summary The Soft-furred field rat, Rattus meltada pallidior (Ryley) were snap trapped every month during 1978 and 1979 at Bisalpur R E FE Asdell, S. A. (1946) : Patterns of mammalian reproduction. Comstock Publishers. Ithaca, N.Y., xi+670. Blanford, W. T. (1888-91): The fauna of British Tndia. including Ceylon and Burma. Mammalia. (25°7'N, 73°10'E) situated on the fringe of the Thar desert in India. The male R. m. palli- dior were found to be fecund in every month from January 1978 to December 1979. The fluctuations in testes weights coincided with the number of pregnant females. The left testes of adult rodents collected over two years were observed to be heavier than the right. The average testes weights were also found to vary significantly (P < 0.05) from month to month. The production of ova ranged from 5.5 to 10.0 (av. 6.5) and 5 to 12 (av. 8.2) during 1978 and 1979 respectively. The maximum number of ova per pregnant female metad was produced during the period of maximum preci- pitation. The implanted embryos per pregnant female varied from 3 to 7 and 4 to 9 during 1978 and 1979, average being 5.03 and 6.15 respectively. Embryonic mortality before implantation was found to be 22.9 and 29.0 per cent dur- ing 1978 and 1979 respectively and due to mummification and resorption 0.51 per cent and 1 . 03 per cent respectively. Considering these losses, litter size and pre- valence of pregnancy during both the years, the annual production was estimated to be 52.52 young ones per annum. R. m. pallidior litters all through the year. The prevalence of pregnancy was found to be broadly correlated with the day length. Maxi- mum production appears to have been influ- enced by the level of nutrition which was found to be maximum during monsoon due to availa- bility of green forage in the desert. E N C E S Taylor and Francis, London. Barnett, S. A. & Little, M. J. (1968) : Concep- tion and parturition of mice at two temperatures. /. Reprod. Fertil. 15: 295-304. Barnett, S. A. & Munro, K. M. H. (1970) : 69 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Superfoetation of mice. Nature, 227 : 1343-1344. Bindra. O. S. & Sagar, Prem (1968): Breeding habits of the field rat, Rattus meltada. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 65: 477-481. Bodenheimer, F. S. (1957) : The ecology of mam- mals in Arid Zone. In: Human and Animal Ecology, Review of Research, Arid Zone Research, UNESCO, Paris, 8: 100-137. Chandrahas, R. K. & Krishnaswami, A. K. (1974) : Ecology of the Soft-furred field rat, Rattus meltada meltada (Grey) in Kolar, Mysore State. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 447-457. Guraya, S. S. & Gupta, S. (1975) : Observations on the reproductive biology of the Soft-furred field rat ( Millardia meltada ). Proc. All India Rodent Seminar, Ahmedabad, 70-75. Jain, A. P., (1970): Body weights, sex ratio, age structure and some aspects of reproduction in the Indian gerbil, Tatera indica indica Hardwicke, in the Rajasthan desert, India. Mammalia 34: 416-432. Lloyd, R. E. (1909): The races of Indian rats. Rec. hid. Mus. 3: 1-100. Prakash, Ishwar, (1975): The ecology and zoo- geography of mammals. Chapter XIX in “Environ- mental Analysis of the Thar Desert” (Edited by Dr. R. K. Gupta & Dr. I. Prakash) . English Book Depot, Dehradun: 448-467. Prakash, Ishwar, & Taneja, G. C. (1969): Re- production biology of the Indian desert hare, Lepus nigricollis dayanus Blanford. Mammalia, 33: 102-117. Prakash, Ishwar, Rana, B. D. & Jain, A. P. (1973) : Reproduction in the Cutch Rock Rat, Rattus cutchicus cutchicus in the Indian desert. Mammalia, 37: 452-467. Rana, B. D. (1981): Ecological studies on Soft- furred field rat, Rattus meltada pallidior (Ryley, 1914) with special reference to its feeding and breeding habits, population structure and interspecific relation- ship in mixed population of small mammals (Un- published Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Agra Univ., Agra) . Rana, B. D. & Pra-kash Ishwar, (1979): Repro- ductive biology and population structure of the house shrew, Suncus murinus sindensis in western Rajas- than. Sauget. Kunde, 44: 333-343. Rana, B. D. & Prakash Ishwar, (1980): The metad — a serious rodent pest of Indian Agriculture. Indian Farming, xxxix(10: 21 & 23. SouTHWiCK, C. H. (1966): Reproduction, morta- lity and growth of murid rodent populations. Proc. Indian Rodent Symp., Calcutta USAID & John Hop- kins CMRT, New Delhi, 152-176. Smiet, A. ., Fulk, G. W. & Lathiya, S. B. (1980) : Rodent ecology in sugarcane in lower Sind, Pakistan. Acta Theriol., 25: 81-87. Srivastava. A. S. (1966): Rodent control for in- creased food production. Rotary Club (West) Kanpur, 1-52. 70 FLOWERING PLANTS AROUND THE HOLY SHRINE OF KEDARNATH, UTTAR PRADESH1 J. K. Semwal2 (With a text-figure) This paper gives an account of the angiospermic flora of Kedarnath, which is an alpine zone in Garhwal Himalaya. A list of 262 species of flowering plants represented by 149 genera and 52 families is given from 3200 to 3800 metre altitude a.s.l. The dominant families of the area are: Ranunculaceae, Brassicaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Rosaceae, Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Ericaceae, Primulaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Lamiacea, Polygonaceae, Orchidaceae, Liliaceae and Poaceae. Introduction Garhwal Himalaya is famous for its vegeta- tion and some of the noblest peaks of the world mountain system namely, Nanda Devi, Kamet, Trisul, Dunagiri, Chaukhamba, Nil- kantha, Badrinath, Kedarnath and others. Kedarnath is the first among the Holy ‘Panch (five) Kedars’ of Uttarakhand, the other four being Madmaheshwar, Tungnath, Rudranath, and Kalpeshwar respectively. Mandakini river has its origin from Kedarnath glacier, and con- fluences with Alaknanda at Rudraprayag and Bhagirathi at Deoprayag whenceforth it is named ‘Ganga’. The explored area lies in bet- ween 30° 40-45' N and 79° 0-5' E. The main rock components are of crystalline and meta- morphic nature like other parts of the Hima- layas (Fig. 1). Compared with other sectors of the Hima- layas, this region is humid. The characteristic feature of Kedarnath is the presence of marshy habitats, clothed with the typical marshy vege- tation consisting of Primula munroi, J uncus v i ...... {. j ■ . * _ ... 1 Accepted May 1982. 2 High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Centre, Garhwal University, Srinagar- 246 174. spp. Triglochin palustre, sedges and species of Epilobium and others. Callitrache verna is a delicate aquatic herb floating on the water surface of ditches in these marshy localities. In this region timberline zone is not conspi- cuous, as is observed in most of the alpine re- gions of Garhwal Himalaya, however, the dis- tributional pattern of the common taxa is the same. The trees other than Betula utilis are present up to the elevation of 3200 m or slightly more according to the aspect of the slopes. The tree population is very scarce at the upper limits and gradually increases in density to- wards lower elevations. The major elements of temperate forests are Aesculus indica, Lyonia ovalifolia, Fraxinus excelsior, Buxus walli- chiana and species of Acer, Pyrus, Carpinus, Quercus and Rhododendron. The tree species reaching the highest limit are Betula utilis, Syringa emodi, Viburnum foetens, Prunus cor- nuta, Abies pindrow, Taxus baccata and species of Acer, Pyrus and Rhododendron associated with the shrubs like the species of Berberis, Spiraea, Rosa, Cotoneaster and climbers like the species of Clematis, Smilax and occasion- ally Codonopsis. Elaegnus umbellata and Pyrus lanata can be seen here and there on road sides up to 3000 m along with Piptanthus 71 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 72 Fig. 1. / LOWERING PLANTS AROUND THE HOLY SHRINE OF KEDARNATH nepalensis , Cotoneaster affinis and some others. Unlike other alpine zones of the western Himalayas pure stands of the scrubs of Rhodo- dendron campanulatum are lacking in this part. The pattern of seasonal appearance of vari- ous plant species in this alpine zone is similar to that of Tungnath (Semwal et al, 1981). The vegetation of the glacial bed is quite distinct compared to that of the meadows and marshy lands. The species found in these habitats are tufted and very much reduced in size forming the continuous interwoven matted cushions on the grounds. Androsace villosa and Arenaria per- levis are the typical examples of such vegeta- tion, Primula nivalis , P. minutissima and Helerpestes sermentosa are found in rock crevices in these harsh habitats. The plant species on boulders and dry rocky faces are the species of Sedum, Lychnis, Potentilla, Arcyosperma, Rheum, Senecio, Ligularia, Seli- num. Goody era and many others. The vege- tation of the ravines is constituted by the species of Pedicularis, Epilobium, Impatiens, Polygonum and Rumex etc. Chamaenerion latifolium and Polygonum affine are the most attractive species of the ravines. Danthonia cumins ii is the dominant alpine grass on steep slopes like in other alpine zones. This alpine zone was previously explored by M. A. Rau during the last week of Sept- ember 1958 (Ran 1961). He recorded about 53 species of flowering plants from Kedarnath. T have been working on the alpine flora of Tungnath (Semwal. 1981; Semwal et al, 1981; Semwal and Gaur, 1981). During the course of these studies it was considered useful to ex- plore the neighbouring alpine zones for com- parison. Collections were made during early Tune 1978 and late July 1981. The specimens were compared with the authentic specimens of the ‘Herbarium of Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle Dehradun’ (BSD) and are de- posited in the herbarium of Garhwal Univer- sity, Srinagar, U.P. Bentham and Hooker f.’s system is followed with slight modifications as proposed by Hutchinson (1973) in the arrangement of families. The little known taxa recorded in the pre- sent work are, Circaeaster agrestis, Gentiana albicalyx, Cypripedium elegans and Herminium pugioniforme. Circaeaster agrestis was collect- ed from an elevation of 3200 m and the other three were collected between 3500-3600 m alti- tudes. Enumeration DICOTYLEDONS Ranunculaceae Aconitum heterophyllum Wall, ex Royle Herb with dull green purple veined flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7210. Anemone narcissifolsa Linn, var polyanthes Finnet et Gagnep. White flowered hairy herb on rocks. July, 1981. Semwal 7242. A. oMusiloba D. Don Herb in meadows with white and blue flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7157. A. rivularis Buch.-Ham. Large herb with white flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7167. A. tetrasepala Royle Herb with cream -white flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7179. Caltha palustris Linn. Marshy herb with brilliant-yellow flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7156. Clematis barbellata Edgew. Climbers, sometimes spreading on grounds in alpine slopes, flowers purplish. June, 1978. Semwal 7168. Halerpestes sarmentosa (Adms) Kom. et Klob Small glabrous herb with yellow flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7221. 73 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Oxygraphis polypetala (Royle) Hook. f. et Thoms. Scapose glabrous herb with yellow flowers and persistent calyx. June, 1978. Semwal 7138. Ranunculus diffusus DC. Glabrascent herb with yellow flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7162. R. hirtellus Royle Herb abundant in marshy meadows, flowers yellow. June 1978. Semwal 7159. Thalictrum alpinism Linn. Small glabrous herb with minute, drooping purple flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7211. T. minus Linn. Erect herb with purplish flowers. July, 1981. Semwal, 7234. Berberidaceae Berberis edgeworthiana Schneid. Tall shrub with yellow flowers, spines few. June 1978. Semwal 7169. B. jaeschkeana Schneid. Spinous shrub with yellow flowers. July, 1978. Semwal 7184. Podophyllum hexandrum Royle Herb with palmate leaf and drooping fruit, very rare. July. 1981. Semwal 7212. ClRCAEASTERACEAE Circaeaster agrestis Maxim. A small glabrous herb growing in crevices, perianth very much reduced, rare. July, 1981. Semwal 7213. Papaveraceae Meconopsis aculeata Royle Aculeate herb with sky-blue flowers, in ravines. July, 1981. Semwal 7217. M. robusta Hook. f. et Thoms. Robust herb with light yellow flowers, not common. July, 1981. Semwal 7171. Fumariaceae Corydaiis cornuta Royle Spreading yellow flowered herb. July 1981. Semwal 7165. C. cashmeriana Royle Small delicate herb with bulbous base and blue flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7136. C. govaniana Wall. Tufted herb with yellow flowers. June 1978. Semwal 7147. C. vaginans Royle Glabrous herb with yellow flowers. July, 1981, Semwal 7215. Brassicaceae Arcyosperma primulifoSium (Toms) O. E. Schulz Lithophytic white flowered herb. June, 1978. Semwal 7141. Barbarea vulgaris R. Br. Erect herb with yellow flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7158. Draba gracillima Hook. f. et Thoms. Weak herb with minute yellow flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7142. Lepidium ruderale Linn. Glabrous herbs with fruits. July, 1981. Sem- wal 7208. Megacarpaea polyandra Benth. Large herb with dull white flowers. July 1981. Semwal 7371. Sisymbrium wallichii Hook. f. et Thoms. Herb with white flowers with long pods. July 1981. Semwal 7219. Thlaspi andersosiif (Hook. f. et Thoms.) O. E. Schulz Herb with white flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7148. 74 FLOWERING PLANTS AROUND THE HOLY SHRINE OF KEDARNATH VlOLACEAE Viola biflora Linn. Small herb with yellow flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7214. V. serpens Wall. Herb with violet flowers. June, 1978. Sem- wal 7170. Caryophyllaceae Arenaria perlevis (Williams) Handl.-Mazz. Lithophytic white flowered herb. July, 1981. Semwal 7222. Cerastium vulgatum Linn. Herb with white flowers. June, 1978. Sem- wal 7127. Gypsophila cerastioides D. Don Herb with pink streaked flowers. July 1978. Semwal 7105. Lychnis indica Benth. Herb with fimbriate petals. June, 1978. Sem- wal 7172. L. nutans Benth. Pubescent herb with purplish flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7254. L. pilosa Edgew. Herb on rocks with white flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7246. Sagina saginoides (Linn.) Karsten Dark green glabrous white flowered prostrate herb. June, 1978. Semwal 7114. Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke Large glabrascent herb with greenish- white flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7220. Stellaria uliginosa Edgew. et Hook. f. Apetalous spreading herb. July, 1981. Sem- wal 7185. S. cherleriae (Fisch.) Williams Cushioned herb with white flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7223. S. himalensis Majumdar Glabrous herb with bright-white flowers. June, 1981. Semwal 7191. S. patens D. Don Diffused herb with white flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7301. Hypericaceae Hypericum hookeriana Wt. et Arn. Small shrub with large yellow flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7312. H. nepaulense Choisy Herb with yellow flowers. July, 1981. Sem- wal 7224. CtERANIACEAE Geranium coliinum Stephan ex Willd. Glabrous herb with dark pink flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7227. G. pa lustre Linn. Large glabrascent herb with pink flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7235. G. wallichianum Sw. Straggling herb with pink-purple flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7236. Balsam i naceae Impatiens amplexicaulis Edgew. Erect pink flowered herb. July, 1981. Sem- wal 7303. I. giandulifera Edgew. Tall herb in ravines with dark pink flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7309. I. thomsonii Hook. f. Marsh herb with umbellate pale flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7248. Kutaceae Skimmia laureola Sieb. et Zucc. Prostrate shrub, flowers greenish. June, 1978. Semwal 7186. 75 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Aceraceae Acer acuminatum Wall, ex D. Don Tree with white flowers and pink winged fruits. June, 1978. Semwal 7199. A. caesium Wall, ex Brandis Large tree, flowers white. June, 1978. Sem- wal 7188. Fabaceae Astragalus chlorostachys Lindl. Erect herb with yellow flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7225. Lotus corniculatus Linn. Decumbent herb with yellow or orange flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7241. Parochetus communis Buch.-Ham ex D. Don Prostrate herb with blue flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7187. Piptanthus nepalensis D. Don Pubescent shrub with yellow flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7189. Trifolium repens Linn. Herb with white flowers in globose heads. June, 1978. Semwal 7174. Trigonella pubescens Edgew. ex Baker Diffused herb with yellow flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7125. Rosaceae Cotoneaster acuminatus Lindl. Erect shrubs, flowers white. June, 1978. Semwal 7175. C. rotundifolius Wall, ex Lindl. Procumbent shrub with pinkish-white flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7226. Fragaria nubicola Lindl. ex Lacaita Herb with white flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7128. F. daltoniana Gay Stoloniferous herb with dark green leaves and white flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7119. Geum urbanum Linn. Erect herb with yellow flowers. July, 1981, Semwal 7302. G. datum (Royle) Hook. f. Leaves forming rosette, flowers large, yellow and drooping. July, 1981. Semwal 7255. Potentilla cuneifolia Betrol. Base shrubby, leaves glabrous, trifoliate, flowers yellow. July, 1981. Semwal 7228. P. arbuscula D. Don Shrubs on rocks with yellow flowers. July 1981. Semwal 7243. P. argyrophylla Wall, ex Lehm. Herb with silvery trifoliate leaves and yellow flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7304. P. atrosanguinea Lodd. Herb with crimson-red flowers, abundant, June, 1978. Semwal 7159. P. doubjouneana Camb. Glabra scent herb on rocks with trifoliate leaves and yellow flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7229. P. fulgens Wall, ex Hook. Silky herb with yellow flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7176. P. mkrophylla D. Don var. commutata Hook. f. Herb, leaves green-glaucous above and pubescent beneath, flowers yellow. June 1978. Semwal 7149. P. polyphylla Wall, ex Lehm. Pubescent diffused herb with yellow corym- bose flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7262. Rosa macrophylla Lindl. Erect shrubs with large pink flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7177. R. sericea Lindl. Shrub with white flowers. July, 1978. Sem- wal 7230. 76 FLOWERING PLANTS AROUND THE HOLY SHRINE OF KEDARNATH Rubus nutans Wall. Creeping shrubby herb with white flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7178. R. pedunculosus D. Don Rambling shrubs with light pink flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7183. Sibbaldia cuneata Hornem. ex O. Ktze. Creeping, base shrubby, flowers minute yellow. June, 1978. Semwal 7123. S. micropetala (D. Don) Hand.-Mazz. Diffused herbs with minute yellow flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7315. S. purpurea Royle Similar to S. cuneata but with pentafoliate leaves and pink flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7102. Spiraea bella Sims. Shrub with light pink flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7263. S. canescens D. Don Shrub with white flowers. July, 1981. Sem- wal 7319. S. vestita Wall, ex G. Don Herbs, leaves pinnate, flowers greenish- white. July, 1981. Semwal 7249. Saxifragaceae Chrysospleniuni tenelium Hook. f. et Thoms. Delicate creeping glabrous herbs with small green-yellow flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7132. Parnassia nubicola Wall, ex Royle Glabrous herb with single, sessile, cauline leaf, flowers solitary, terminal. July, 1981. Sem- wal 7207. Saxifraga brachypoda Wall. var. fimbriata (Wall.) Engl, et Irmsch. Tufted herbs with yellow flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7247. S. bmnoniana Wall, ex Sternb. Stoloniferous with solitary yellow flowers. July, 1981. S. diversifolia Wall, ex DC. Erect glabrous herbs with corymbose yellow flowers. July, 1981 Semwal 7305. S. pallida Wall, ex DC. Herb with white flowers. July, 1981. Sem- wal 7250. Gross ulariaceae Ribes glaciaSe Wall. Shrub with unisexual purplish flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7117. Crass ulaceae Seduin bupleuroides Wall, ex Hook. f. et Thoms. Fleshy herbs with purplish-red flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7203. S. heterodontum Hook. f. et Thoms. Fleshy herbs with greenish or yellowish flowers. June, 1981. Semwal 7118. S. imbricatuni (Edgew.) Walp. Herb on rocks with dull yellow flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7232. S. qtiadriffduni Pall. Densely tufted herbs with small red flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7206. S. trullipetaluin Hook. f. et Thoms. Herbs on boulders with yellow flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7233. Callitrichaceae Callitriche verna Linn. Delicate aquatic herbs floating on water surface. July, 1981. Semwal 7306. Onagraceae Chamaenerion latifoSium (Linn.) Sw. Herbs with beautiful purple-pink flowers in glacial beds. July. 1981. Semwal 7238. 77 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY . Vol. 81 Epilobium iaxum Royle Erect glabrous herbs in marshy localities. July, 1981. Semwal 7307. E. palustra Linn. Herbs with pinkish-white flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7317. E. royleamini Hausskn. Herbs with pink flowers. June, 1981. Sem- wal 7180. Apiaceae Acronema tenera Edgew. Small herb in crevices with minute purplish flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7239. Bupleurum longkaule Wall, ex DC. Glabrous procumbent herb with brownish- black flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7308. Heracleum brunonis (DC.) C. B. Clarke Erect herb on rocky slopes with white flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7318. Selinum candoSSei DC. Robust aromatic herbs with white umbels. July, 1981. Semwal 7279. S. vaginatum C. B. Clarke Herb in marshy places with dark-green glossy leaves and white flowers July, 1981. Semwal 7310. Trachydium roylei Lindl. Herb in the meadows with white flowers and black tipped fruits. July, 1981. Semwal 7369. Yicatia coniifolia DC. Glabrous herb with fruits. June, 1978. Sem- wal 7152. Y. millefolia (Klotzsch) C. B. Clarke Herb with small flowered umbels. June, 1978. Semwal 7164. Caprifoliaceae Lonicera asperifolia (Decne) Hook. f. et Thoms. Shrub with yellow flowers. June, 1978. Sem- wal 7130. L. myrtillus Hook. f. et Thoms, var depressa Rehder Decumbent shrub with white flowers. June 1978. Semwal 7121. L. obovata Royle ex Hook. f. et Thoms. Shrub with white corolla gibbous at the base. June, 1978. Semwal 7116. Yiburnum foetens Decne Small tree with white flowers and red drupes. June, 1978. Semwal 7181. Rubiaceae Galium acutum Edgew. Spreading herb with minute greenish-white flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7240. G. asperuloides Edgew. Decumbent herbs with dull white flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7244. G. mollugo Linn. Scabrous herbs with whitish flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7311. G. rotundifolium Linn. Decumbent herbs, leaves in whorls of four, flowers white. June, 1978. Semwal 7182. Valeria naceae Yaleriana hardwickii Wall. Herb with white flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7197. Dipsacaceae Morina Songifolia Wall, ex DC. Spinous herbs with pink flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7245. Asteraceae Anaphalis cuneifolia Hook. f. Herbs with cuneate leaves and white flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7190. A. nepalensis (Spreng.) Handl-Mazz. Woolly herbs with lanceolate leaves and white heads. July, 1981. Semwal 7341. 78 FLOWERING PLANTS AROUND THE HOLY SHRINE OF KEDARNATH A. royleana DC. Woolly herbs with dirty white heads. June, 1978. Semwal 7196. Artemisia roxburghiana Besser var. grata Hook. f. Erect herbs, leaves green above and white beneath. July, 1981. Semwal 7348. Aster peduncularis Wall. Herbs with violet flowers. July, 1981. Sem- wal 7358. Cicerbita cyanea (D. Don) Beauv. Lithophytic herbs with blue flowers. July, 1978. Semwal 7355. C. macrorhiza (Royle) Beauv. Lithophyte, flowers purple-blue. July, 1981. Semwal 7350. Dubyaea hispida (D. Don) DC. Hispid herb with yellow heads. July, 1981. Semwal 7352. Erigeron muttiradiatus (DC.) Benth. et Hook. f. Erect herbs with violet heads. July, 1981. Semwal 7363. Gerbera lanuginosa Benth. var. pusilla Hook. f. Small herb with solitary white heads. June, 1978. Semwal 7153. Leontopodium himalayanum DC. Woolly herbs with dull white heads. July, 1981. Semwal 7346. Ligularia amplexicaulis DC. Robust herbs with large glaucous leaves and yellow corymbose heads. July, 1981. Semwal 7354. L. sibirica Cass. var. racemosa (DC.) Kitamura Herbs with yellow racemose heads. July, 1981. Semwal 7366. Myriactis javanica (Bl.) DC. Erect herbs with purple heads. June 1978. Semwal 7175. Saussurea hypoleuca Spreng. Herb with drooping solitary heads. July, 1981. Semwal 7367. S. lappa (Decne) Sch.-Bip. Erect herb with purplish heads. July, 1981, Semwal 7356. S. leontodontoides (DC.) Lipsch. Herbs with sessile, purple heads. July, 1981. Semwal 7365. S. obvallata (DC.) Sch.-Bip. Robust aromatic herb with large translus- cent floral leaves. July, 1981. Semwal 7360. S. piptatkera Edgew. Erect herb with simple leaves and purplish- violet heads. July, 1981. Semwal 7364. S. taraxacifolia Wall, ex DC. Aromatic herbs, acaulescent or almost so, heads purple. July, 1981. Semwal 7359. Senecso chrysanthemoides DC. Erect herbs with yellow corymbose heads, July, 1981. Semwal 7320. S. kunthianus Wall, ex DC. Aromatic herbs, leaves white tomentose below, heads yellow, corymbose. July, 1981. Semwal 7314. Taraxacum officinale Weber Glabrous scapose herb with solitary yellow heads. July, 1981. Semwal 7313. Campanulaceae Campanula cashmeriana Royle Herb with blue flowers. June, 1981 Semwal 7139. Codonopsis rotundifolia Benth. Climber with purple veined flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7370. Cyananthus lobatus Wall, ex Benth. Glabrous herb with black calyx and dark blue flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7368. Ericaceae Cassiope fastigiata D. Don Stem tufted, flowers drooping, white. June, 1978. Semwal 7139. 79 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Gaultheria nummularioides D. Don Decumbent shrubs, leaves with brown hairs on ventral surface, flowers light pink. June, 1978. Semwal 7161. G. trichophylla Royle Glabrous wiry herb with light pink flowers and sky blue fruits. July, 1981. Semwal 7135. Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don Creeping shrub with light yellow flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7160. R. arboreum Sm. Small tree with large, red flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7193. R. campamilatum D. Don Large shrubs with pale-purple flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7198. R. lepidotum Wall, ex G. Don Small shrub with purplish-red flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7199. Primulaceae Androsace lanuginosa Wall, ex Roxb. Spreading herb with lilac flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7316. A. villosa Linn. Herb in glacial beds, forming dense cushions, flowers purple-lilac. July, 1981. Semwal 7264. Lysinsachia prolifera Klatt. Prostrate herb with pale-purple flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7259. Primula denficulala Sm. Sea pose herb with pink-purple to pale-lilac flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7133. P. minutissima Jacq. ex Duby Small herb in crevices with blue, solitary flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7106. P. munroi Lindl. Marsh herb with white flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7155. P, nivalis Pall. var. moorcroffiana (Wall.) Pax. Densely mealy herb with floral buds. June, 1978. Semwal 7104. P. reidii Duthie Hairy herb with cream-white flowers, on rocks. July, 1981. Semwal 7254. Oleaceae Syringa emodi Wall, ex Royle Small tree with fragrant white flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7272. Gentianaceae Gentiana albiealyx Burkill Small, stemless herb with imbricate leaves and white flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7101. G. argentea Royle ex D. Don Herb with blue flowers, abundant in mea- dows. June, 1978. Semwal 7111. G. capitata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Glabrous herb with light blue flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7107. Swertia ciliata (G. Don) B. L. Burtt Erect herb with purple flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7260. S. cuneata D. Don Herb with blue flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7281. S. speciosa D. Don. Robust glabrous herb with purple streaked, lurid-green flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7324. POLEMONIACEAE Polemonium coerufeum Linn. Herb, flowers blue. June, 1978. Semwal 7122. Bor AGIN ACE AE Hackeiia uncinata (Benth.) C. E. C. Fischer Herb with blue flowers, yellow at the centre. July, 1981. Semwal 7261. Lindelofia longiflora (Benth.) Baill. Herb with intense blue drooping flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7325. 80 FLOWERING PLANTS AROUND THE HOLY SHRINE OF KEDARNATH Myosotis sylvatica Hoffm. Hirsute herb with light blue flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7201. Onosma emodi Wall. Hispid herbs on rocks with pink tipped flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7251. Trigonotis rotundifolia (DC.) C. B. Clarke Abundant in meadows. Herb with blue flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7109 and 7202. SCROPH U LARIACEAE Euphrasia platyphylla Pennell Small herbs with white flowers in terminal spikes. July, 1981. Semwal 7252. Hemiphragma heterophyllum Wall. Spreading herb with dimorphic leaves, pink flowers and red fruits. July, 1981. Semwal 7266. Pedicuiaris hoffmeisteri Klotzsch Glabrous herb with yellow flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7253. P. pectinata Wall, ex Benth. Erect herb with purple flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7327. P. punctata Decne Ravine herb with purple-red flowers. July, 1981, Semwal 7322. P. rhinanthoides Schr. ssp. [abellata (Jacq.) Prain In meadows. Herb with purple flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7323. Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth. Glabrous prostrate herb with bluish flowers and bladdery seeds. June, 1978. Semwal 7108. Scrophularia calycina Benth. Robust herb with green flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7115. S. himalayensis Royle ex Benth. Glandular herbs with greenish flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7257. Veronica cana Wall. Erect herbs, flowers violet in terminal race- mes. July, 1981. Semwal 7291. V. macrostemon Bunge ex Ledeb. Herb, flowers white in terminal clusters. July, 1981. Semwal 7321. Lamiaceae Ciinopodium umhrosum (M. Bieb.) Koch Erect herbs with purple flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7296. Nepeta nervosa Royle ex Benth. Herbs with blue flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7265. N. govaniana Benth. Aromatic herbs with yellow flowers. July. 1981. Semwal 7278. Phlomis bracteosa Royle ex Benth. Robust herbs with purple flowers. July. 1981. Semwal 7299. P. macrophyila Wall. Hirsute herbs with purple flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7298. Prunella vulgaris Linn. Herbs with dimorphic purple flowers. July 1981. Semwal 7256. Salvia hians Royle ex Hook. Viscid herbs, flowers blue. July, 1981. Sem- wal 7292. Stadiys sericea Wall. Aromatic herbs with pale-purple flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7300. Plantaginaceae Plantago himalaica Pilger Scapose glabrous herbs with green flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7151. POLYGONACEAE Oxyria digyna Hill Glabrous herbs in ravines, flowers pink or greenish. July, 1981. Semwal 7267. 81 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Polygonum affine D. Don Tufted herbs with creeping woody rootstock and red and pink flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7326. P. alpinum All. Robust erect herbs with panicled white flowers. July 1981, Semwal 7338. P. aniplexicaule D. Don Spreading herbs with crimson-red flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7297. P. delicatulum Meissn. Glabrous annual herbs, flowers pale-white. July, 1981. Semwal 7287. P. filicaule Wall, ex Meissn. Strigose annual herbs with pink and white flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7347. P. glaciale Hook. f. Annual herbs, flowers green and pink. July, 1981. Semwal 7344. P. macrophylluni D. Don Scapose herbs with red flowers in dense spikes, abundant in the marshy meadows. July, 1981. Semwal 7284. P. mmicifolium Royle ex Bab. Herb with purple and green flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7293. P. sinuatum Royle Creeping herbs, flowers pink in solitary glo- bose heads. July, 1981. Semwal 7289. P. vaccinifolium Wall, ex Meissn. Shrubs with pink flowers on rocks. July, 1981. Semwal 7343. P. viviparum Linn. Herb with bulbils, flowers light pink in spikes. July, 1981. Semwal 7329. Rheum moorcroftianum Royle On rocky slopes. Herb with large leaves, pink flowers and trigonous fruits. July, 1981. Sem- wal 7342. R. emodi Wall, ex Meissn. On rocks. Robust herbs with panicled white flowers and winged fruits. July, 1981. Semwal 7283. Rumex acetosa Linn. Glabrous herbs with pink-purple flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7143. R. nepalensis Spreng. Erect herbs with greenish flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7269. Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia pilosa Linn. Erect herbs with yellow or dull purplish involucral leaves around the cyathia. July, 1981. Semwal 7328. E. stracheyi Boiss. Herbs with tuberous roots and green cyathia. July, 1981. Semwal 7150. Urticaceae Parietaria debilis Forst. Annual diffused herbs, flowers minute, greenish. July, 1981. Semwal 7277. Piiea wightii Weddel var. roylei Hook. f. Small herbs, flowers pink in terminal cymose clusters. July. Betulaceae Betula utilis D. Don Deciduous tree with greenish spikes. July, 1981. Semwal 7330. Fagaceae Quercus semecarpifolia Sm. Large trees with green nuts. July, 1981. Semwal 7268. Salicaceae Salix elegans Reichb. Deciduous shrubs with catkins. June, 1978. Semwal 7163. 82 FLOWERING PLANTS AROUND THE HOLY SHRINE OF KEDARNATH S. fruticulosa Anderss. Shrubs, catkins with seeds embedded in white wool. June, 1978. Semwal 7131 and 7144. S. karelinii Turez ex Stschez Decumbent shrubs, catkins brownish-purple. June, 1978. Semwal 7146. S. fiindleyana Wall, ex Anderss. Prostrate shrubs with yellow catkins. June, 1978. Semwal 7145. MONOCOTYLEDONS Orchidaceae Cypripedium elegans Reichb. f. Herb with a pair of leaves and nodding solitary purple flower. June, 1978. Semwal 7166. Goodyera fusca Hook. f. Herbs, leaves mottled white, flowers white in spikes. June, 1978. Semwal 7173. Hemiinium lanceum (Thunb.) Vuijk Small herbs with pale yellow spikes. In- meadows. July, 1981. Semwal 7220. H. monorchis (Linn.) R. Br. Herb with green flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7218. H. pugioniforme Lindl. ex Hook. f. Herbs with minute greenish flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7216. Malaxis muscifera (Lindl.) O. Ktze On rocks. Herbs with yellowish flowers in dense spikes. July, 1981. Semwal 7280. M. acuminata D. Don Beautiful herb with purple flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7209. Orchis chusua D. Don Herb with purple flowers, very rare. July, 1981. Semwal 7331. O. latifolia Linn. Erect herb with palmate tubers and pink flowers, rare. June, 1978. Semwal 7124. SCITAMINACEAE Roscoea alpina Royle Herb on rocks with purple-violet flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7334. Haemodoraceae Aletris pauciflora (Klotzsch) Hand.-Mazz. Small herbs with white flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7296. Iridaceae Iris kumaonensis Wall, ex G. Don Attractive herbs with bright blue flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7129. Liliaceae Ointonia udensis Trautv. var. alpina (Kunth ex Baker) Hara Herbs with naked scapes and white flowers in terminal umbellate corymbs. July, 1981. Semwal 7276. Fritillaria roylei Hook. Herb with solitary terminal nodding greenish or pale-purple flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7137. Gagea lutea Schultz, f. Herb with yellow flowers. June, 1978 Sem- wal 7140. Nomocharis oxypetala (Royle) Balf. f. ex W.E. Evans Herb with nodding yellow flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7271. N. nana (Klotzsch) E. H. Wilson Herbs with purple-blue flowers. July. 1981. Semwal 7273. Polygonatum multiflorum All. Herb with alternate leaves and white flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7295. 83 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 P. verticillatum All. Herb with whorled leaves and white flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7288. Smilacina purpurea Wall. Herb with purple flowers. July 1981. Semwal 7275. Smilax vagiuata Decne Climber with small purplish flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7335. Trillium govanianum Wall, ex Royle Herb with dark purple flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7134. JUNCACEAE Juucus himalensis klotzsch et Garcke On rocks. Herb with dark brown flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7353. J. membranaceous Royle ex D. Don Herbs, flowers white in terminal heads. July, 1981. Semwal 7336. Luzuia multiflora (Retz.) Lej Herbs with brownish-grey flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7285. JUNCAGINACEAE Triglochih palustre Linn. Marsh herb with pale-green flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7214. Araceae Arisaema jacquemontii Blume Herbs, spa the green. July, 1981, Semwal 7282. A. wallichianum Hook. f. Herbs, spathe purple. July, 1981. Semwal 7286. Cyperaceae Carex nivalis Boott Sedges, dark brown inflorescence. July, 1981. Semwal 7205. Kobresia nitens C. B. Clarke Sedges, spikes green. July, 1981. Semwal 7332. POACEAE Agrostis canina Linn. Erect grass on rocky slopes, spikelets pur- plish. July, 1981. Semwal 7349. A. niunroana Aitch. et Hemsl. Grass in meadows and rocky slopes. July, 1981. Semwal 7362. A. pilosuia Trin. Grass with purple spikelets. July, 1981, Sem- wal 7339. Calamogrostis emodensis Griseb. Grass in rocky slopes. July, 1981. Semwal 7340. C. pseudopliragmites (Hall, f.) Koel. Robust grass with brownish spikes. July, 1981. Semwal 7351. Dantkonia cuminsii Hook. f. Dominant alpine grass in steep slopes. July, 1981. Semwal 7333. Deyeuxia holciformis (Jaub. et Spach.) Bor Robust grass on rocks, July, 1981. Semwal 7361. D. puldiella (Griseb.) Hook. f. Tall grass with purplish spikes. July, 1981. Semwal 7357. Festuca kashmlriana Stapf Grass in meadows with green spikes. July, 1981. Semwal 7345. F. vaSesfaca Schleich. ex Gaud. Grass in moist localities. July, 1981. Semwal 7274. Phleum alpinum Linn. Marsh grass, spikes green. June, 1978. Sem- wal 7120. Poa supina Schrad. A common grass, spikes green. June, 1978. Semwal 7112. 84 FLOWERING PLANTS AROUND THE HOLY SHRINE OF KEDARNATH ACK NO WLEDGE ME NTS I am grateful to Dr. A. N. Purohit, Director, High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Cen- tre, Garhwal University, for providing facilities and encouragement. I am indebted to Dr. R. D. Gaur for valuable guidance and to Mr. J. K. Rawat for his help during plant collection. Refer Hutchinson, J. (1973) : The Families of Flower- ing Plants (ed. III). Oxford. Rau, M. A. (1961): Flowering plants and ferns Note added in proof : The author, Dr. J. K. Semwal, Scientist at the Central Institute of Medi- cinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow was a promis- ing young taxonomist who had made significant contribution to the exploration of alpine flora of the Garhwal Himalayas. Dr. Semwal died in the field during a recent exploratory trip in the Garhwal Himalayas — Editors. Thanks are due to Dr. U. C. Bhattacharyya, Deputy Director, B.S.I., Northern Circle, Dehra- dun for providing herbarium facilities. I am also thankful to Mr. A. K. Goel and Surinder Singh of the same institution for their assist- ance in plant identification. Financial assistance from CSIR, New Delhi in the form of a Senior Research Fellowship and Post Doctoral fellow- ship is gratefully acknowledged. e n c e s of north Garhwal, Uttar Pradesh, India. Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 3: 215-251. Semwal, J. K. (1981): Taxonomical Survey of Tungnath and Ecophysiological Studies of some selected Plants of the Region. D. Phil, thesis, Uni- versity of Garhwal (Unpublished). Semwal, J. K,, Gaur, R. D. & Purohit, A. N. (1981) : Floristic pattern of Tungnath — An alpine zone in Garhwal Himalaya. Acta Bot. Indica, 9: 110-114. Semwal, J. K. & Gaur, R. D. (1981): Alpine flora of Tungnath in Garhwal Himalaya. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78: 498-512. 85 OBSERVATIONS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE INDIAN CHAMELEON, CHAMAELEO ZEYLANICUS (LAURENTI)1 L. A. K. Singh2, L. N. Acharjyo3 and H. R. Bustard4 The Indian chameleon, Chamaeleo zeylanicus was studied in Orissa, in captivity and in the wild. Captive specimens were housed in enclosures with ample vegetation, and maintained on an insect diet. Smallest female with functional ova was 375 mm in length. Mating occurred during the last week of August, and egg laying in October. The shape and size of the nest depended on the suitability of the ground. On soft fine sand the nest was an oblique hole, 22 cm in depth, 9 cm in diameter at the mouth. The eggs were 15-22.5 mm x 9-12 mm x 1. 0-2.0 gm. There was indication of increase in size and weight of the eggs during incubation. Hatching occurred after eight months in June when small insects were available in large numbers. In three of the four cases reported, the female died within 1-42 days after egg laying. Females move less and are more territorial. Females are intolerant of close approach of other chameleons of either sex except of suitor males during a period of a few days when they are ready to mate. Mating is preceded by display by female and ‘chase and escape’ beha- viour between the male and the female. Display by female and male (against other males) included assumption of deep green body colouration with dark spots and blotches, lateral flattening of the body, and hissing with open mouth. Introduction The Indian chameleon, Chamaeleo zeylani- cus, an oviparous species, is distributed from Punjab in the north to Sri Lanka in the south (Boulenger 1890, Parshad 1914, Smith 1935, Deraniyagala 1953). Knowledge of the species’ reproductive biology was based on Trench (1912). Then considered to be Chamaeleon calcar at us, Trench (1912) studied the beha- viour of a male and female in captivity. Both 1 Accepted March 1983. 2 Gharial Research and Conservation Unit, Tiker- pada, 759 122, Orissa. Present address: National Chambal Sanctuary, Post Box 11, Morena 476 001 (M.P.). 3 Nandankanan Biological Park, Barang 754 005, Orissa. 4 Present address: Airlie Brae, Alyth, Perthshire PHI 1 8 AX, Scotland, U.K. individuals were obtained from ‘Jubbulpore, C. P.’ (= Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh). Derani- yagala (1953) has provided preliminary data on the habits, reproduction and dimensions of male and female individuals. Biswas and Acharjyo (1977), while giving a general ac- count on the ecology and biology of some reptiles occurring in and around the Nandan- kanan Biological Park, Orissa gave the species’ distribution in Orissa, clutch sizes and egg measurements. The solitary habit, procryptic behaviour and appearance make C. zeylanicus difficult to study in the wild, and it is difficult to keep for long periods in captivity without elaborate arrange- ments. Observations made on aspects of the reproductive biology in captivity and in the wild are presented in this paper. 86 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE INDIAN CHAMELEON Materials and Methods Two of us (LAKS and HRB) observed the species at and around the Gharial Research and Conservation Unit, Tikerpada (GRACU) within the Satkoshia Gorge Sanctuary situated in 84°47'E longitude and 20°35'N latitude, and LNA observed it at the Nandankanan Wildlife Sanctuary, in 86.25°E longitude and 20.25°N latitude. All the observations were made between 1975 and 1980. Chameleons reared in captivity at GRACU were kept in enclosures used for rearing croco- dilians. One enclosure was 23.7 x 4.9 x 2.6m and another 12x12x2.5m with ample vege- tation cover inside. The chameleons reared at NBP were in an enclosure measuring 4 x 3 x 2.5m. All specimens were maintained on an * insect diet, and were measured and sexed when received. The base of the tail is somewhat swollen in males due to the hemepenes, which can be extruded by applying gentle pressure from back to the front. Captive observations are based on four females — three at GRACU (CF1, CF3 and CF4) and one at NBP (CF2), and three males (CM1, CM2 and CM3) at GRACU. Obser- vations in the wild are based on one male (WM1) and two females (WF1 and WF2) at Tikerpada. Courtship observations were made from WM1, WF1, CF1, CM1 and CM3. Data on nesting are recorded from CF1, CF2, CF4 and WF2, and on the clutch size and female-size from WF2, CF3 and CF4. Egg biometrics and information on changes of these during in- cubation were obtained from clutches obtained from WF2, CF2 and CF3. Eggs were incubat- ed in sand, kept moist at approx. 7% water by weight. No attempt was made to record the nest temperatures although the ambient tempe- rature in a standard Stevenson Screen fluctuat- ed between 4.5°C and 46.0°C, since the dura- tion of incubation included winter and summer seasons. Observations on hatchlings were made possible from the nest laid by CF4 the precise location of which was not known until actual hatching took place. Courtship and Mating Courtship behavious was observed during the second week of August. During this period CM1 became markedly territorial towards the other males, CM2 and CM3, displaying a deep green colour with black blotches and spots and hissing loudly with laterally flattened body as has been described for C. gracilis by Bustard (1967). Frequently CM1 was also seen chasing the other males trying, and actually biting these, particularly on the flanks as reported for C. gracilis (Bustard 1967). Initially the female was not receptive to any of the males and it moved away with vigorous rocking movements or displayed hissing with open mouth and laterally flattened body. This ‘chase and escape’ behaviour between the territory-holding male and CF1 persisted for a week except during heavy showers and at night when these chameleons used to perch asleep on the same plant at a distance of at least 15 cm. Courting records from the wild included observation of the ’chase and escape’ behavi- our between WM1 and WF1 over two days. On the morning of the third day, at 0600 hours these had moved and could not be traced. Mating was observed in captivity only once in the morning at 1000 hours. It lasted about three minutes. CM1 was partly over the back of CF1, holding it with all four limbs. CM1 had also bent down its hind quarters down below CF1. Both appeared motionless. After mating CF1 confined itself to a large Butea 87 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 superb a and after a week it became territorial and displayed at CM1 and the other males, which kept away from the Butea. During the period CM1 and CF1 were courting they did not eat but later they fed voraciously. The female, however, showed low appetite after about a month, and completely stopped feeding 55 days after mating. Nesting LNA observed CF2 on 3.10.75 at about 16.30 hours when it was unsuccessfully trying to dig a nest hole inside the enclosure. After several unsuccessful diggings, by 07.15 hours on 5.10.75 it had already laid the eggs and was covering the nest. Five eggs were still partly visible. The female was deep green and facing away from the nest with its tail held in the air. Two different types of limb actions were observed during covering the nest. In one, both fore limbs, acting alternately, drag- ged the soil close to the hind limbs, which, also acting alternately, pushed the soil back over the eggs. In the other type of limb action, the limbs of only one side acted at a time — the fore limb brought the soil near the hind limb of its side which in turn shifted it over the nest. During covering of the nest the female often rested for short periods and changed to the limbs of the other side. On a few occa- sions it also attempted to collect soil from stony areas on either side of the nest. When the female was covering the nest it reacted to any disturbance with puffed body and hissing with open mouth, the display directed towards the source of disturbance. At about 11.30 hours covering of the nest was complete. Thereafter the female appeared tired and inactive and remained within 2 m of the nest. At about 14.00 hours on 6.10.75, the day after egg laying, it was found dead near the nest. On autopsy no more eggs were obtained from the body. On excavation of the nest, 34 eggs were collected. The nest was almost saucer shaped, 17 cm diameter and 5 cm in depth. CF1 was observed while nesting in captivity on 20.10.75. About a week before this the female was restlessly moving in the enclosure. Suspecting that it was ready to lay eggs, a 25 cm thick sand-bed was provided but CF1 con- structed its nest 4 m away from this. The de- tails of nest construction were not recorded. However, after laying the eggs and covering the nest it too appeared exhausted and refused to eat. It was found dead on 2.11.75, 13 days after egg laying. At about 2200 hours on 14.10.77 a group of fishermen of the Tikerpada village had located WF2 on the sand of a nearby stream. They kept the chameleon under a bucket and brought it to GRACU on the next morning. It had moist sand smeared all over the limbs and head. On questioning, the fishermen in- formed that “it had dug a hole in an attempt to escape out of the bucket cover”. On an exa- mination at the spot the hole was found to be obliquely dug, 10 cm deep and 7 cm dia- meter at the mouth. On digging it further 32 eggs were recovered within 15-20 cm depth from the surface. About 20 m away on the bank there was a ‘pit’, 12 cm deep and 9 cm diameter at the mouth. Further away from this another equal-size pit was located among the bushes. Both these pits were dug oblique to the ground and presented a superficial re- semblance to the actual uncovered nest with the eggs. However, these were not fresh and it could not be ascertained if these were dug by WF2. Eggs collected from the nest by WF2 were kept under incubation in an enclosure in two divided batches. The female, also kept in the 88 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE INDIAN CHAMELEON same enclosure, refused to accept any food and died after 42 days, on 25.11. 77. The nest of CF4, which was discovered after the young hatched, was dug in sand and was 22 cm deep and 10.5-11.0 cm in diameter at the bottom. Like other females which had nested, CF4 also died in captivity. Since the exact date of egg-laying was not known, the date of the death cannot be related to nesting. The Eggs At an early stage of development the ova are pinkish in colour. At postmortem on 4.6.77 a female, outside the present study sample, contained over fifty developing ova, all pinkish in colour and 1-3 mm in diameter. The female measured 375 mm in total length, 175 mm in snout-vent length and 105 gm in weight. Gravid females had yellowish-red patches on the lower half of the body and thus were readily recognised. Such females also had a skinny appearance with extended abdomens where eggs could be felt when the abdomen was gently palpated. CF3, a freshly killed female received at GRACU on 3.10.75, measured 200 mm for SV (snout-vent) and weighed 153.5 gm. The tail was missing as it had been removed for medicinal use. The oviducts contained 40 eggs, weighing in total 43.0 gm (mean 1.075 gm). A sample of ten eggs measured as below: 5 eggs were 19 x 12 mm, 2 eggs 19.5 x 12 mm, 1 egg each 20 x 12 mm, 21 x 11 mm and 22.5 x 11 mm. The eggs were fully formed with white shell, clearly on the point of deposition. The eggs from the clutch laid by CF2 were 1 .0-1 . 1 gm in weight, 15-18 mm in length and 9-11 mm in breadth. The female was not measured. Of the 32 eggs collected from the clutch of WF2 31 were normal — 18.15-20.0 mm in length, 10.5-11.5 mm in breadth and 1.25- 2.0 gm in weight, and one was smaller than the rest — 16.0 mm x 9.0 mm x 1.0 gm. CF4, measuring 170 mm in SV, 380 mm in total length and weighing 115 gm had laid a clutch of 34 eggs. (Table 1). Incubation and Development Eggs of none of the clutches obtained from CF1, CF2, CF3 and WF2 hatched. However, measurements and weights of eggs from the clutches of CF2, CF3 and WF2 showed slight increase in size and weight during incubation (Table 2). The study could not be pursued since the eggs spoiled due to rotting or ant- invasion. Table 1 Size of three female Chamaeleo zeylanicus and their clutch size Female Chameleon Date measured Total body length (mm) Snout-vent length (mm) Body- weight (gm) Clutch size (no.) CF3 3.10.75 — 200 153.5 (with eggs) 40 CF4 18.9.77 380 170 115 (with eggs) 34 WF2 14.10.77 365 170 72 (no eggs) 32 89 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Table 2 Change in the egg size and weight of eggs of C. zeylanicus artificial incubation Chameleon no. Stage of incubation (weeks) No. of eggs measured Egg length (mm) Egg breadth (mm) Egg weight (gm) CF3 0 10 19.0-22.5 11.0-12.0 1.075 av. 2 10 19.0 12.0 2.0 CF2 0 10 15.0-18.0 9.0-11.0 1.0-1. 1 4 10 17.0-19.0 11.0-12.0 1.3-1. 5 11 3 19.0-21.0 12.0-13.0 2.0-2. 3 WF2 0 31 18.25-20.0 10.5-11.5 1. 2-2.0 5 12 21.5-22.75 12.2-13.2 1. 5-2.0 9 7 22.2-24.0 13.0-14.0 2. 5-3.0 Hatching Between 21.6.78 and 23.6.78 nine living and two dead chameleon hatchlings were found close to the nest of CF4. Upon examination of the nest the following information was record- ed. At the surface the nest had two small open- ings, through which the hatchlings had escap- ed. The openings were approx. 1 . 5 cm in dia- meter and 2.0 cm apart. Hatching had taken place in the early morning of 21.6.78 because inspite of a 29 mm rain during the previous night the holes were not blocked with sand. The nest contained a total of 34 eggs of which white and empty shells numbered 15 (hatching of 44.1%), black empty shells indi- cating early fungal attack in 7 eggs (20.5%), eggs with early embryonic mortality 5 (14.7%) and with late embryonic mortality 7 (20.5%). Dead late- stage embryos were found in the egg with limbs folded and directed forward and tail coming forward almost to the neck and twisted round it from its left. The tongue was slightly protruded in all dead embryos. The Hatchling When discovered, the hatchlings were green in colour, showing slow rocking movements like the adults. Defensive behaviour was also like the adult — laterally flattened body, assumption of black blotches over the green coloration and hissing with low noise from open mouth. The hatchlings were different from the adults in not possessing the casque although the head at this presumptive area was slightly convex. Four live hatchlings measured 70.0- 72.5 mm (total length), 33.0-34.5 mm (SV), and seven hatchlings weighed 6.5 gm (mean 0.92 gm). Discussion Bustard (1965, 1966a) provided the details of colour, body shape and behaviour in C. hohnelii and C. bitaeniatus to distinguish the sexes. There is, however, no noticeable sexual dichromatism in C. zeylanicus , except that gravid females exhibit yellowish-red blotches 90 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE INDIAN CHAMELEON on the lower half of the abdomen. Trench (1912) has also mentioned of a change in the colour of his female chameleon during the period following mating. But Deraniyagala (1953) has not mentioned any such colour difference in the sexes although he has noted that males are larger than the females. The gravid female colouration advertises the condition of the female and is a direct parallel to the dominant and non-dominant colour patterns shown by C. hohnelii (Bustard 1965). Presumably it has a similar function of pre- venting unnecessary interaction /conflict situa- tions by preventing males making unnecessary mating attempts which could be rebuffed. As described for C. hohnelii, C. bitaeniatus and C. gracilis (Bustard 1965, 1966a, 1967), in C. zeylanicus too, colour display plays an important role in social behaviour. Female C. zeylanicus, like most Chamaeleo species, are intolerant of close approach of other chameleons of either sex except for suitor males during a period of a few days when they are ready to mate. Actual mating is preceded by a prolonged ‘chase and escape’ behaviour which is explicable in an analogy to other vertebrates (Manning 1972) where because of the solitary nature, the first response of a potential mate to the other’s approach may show elements of attack and escape Since coloration has not been observed to be a sex- advertising sign in C. zeylanicus at this stage of the life, the immediate response of a terri- tory-holding female to a male is of that to- wards an intruder. This response results in display. Later, following a male’s continued attempt at contact, the response is escape. Perhaps some chemical communication comes into play at a still later stage to effect mating. Bustard (1965) mentions for C. hohnelii that the tendency for males to wander may be important in increasing the probability of their locating mates, since they are solitary animals. Similar to the above observation, for C. zey- lanicus too, we believe that the males wander more than the females because during this study and from our unpublished records we noticed many more males than females — an obser- vation also recorded by Biswas and Acharjyo (1977). Male displays are directed only to other males competing or thought to be competing to court a female. Such male displays include close approach, pausing to inflate and hiss, and attacks on the flanks. These male displays have also been recorded by Bustard (1965) in C. hohnelii. Females on the other hand move less. The post-mating male avoidance behaviour of the female is highly pronounced. Trench (1912), who had also noticed this, stated: after mating the female “showed rage if the male came near her, rocking her body to and fro and gaping at him with faint hissings. He on the other hand would fly in ludicrous terror falling head long from his perch if she came near, as though paralysed.” Position taken during mating — male hold- ing the female with all four limbs — is similar to the description given earlier by Trench (1912) for this species (C. zeylanicus) and by Schreiber (1912) for C. chameleon. Bustard (1963) for Microsaura pumila and Bustard (1966a) for C. bitaeniatus. Fully formed eggs were seen in autopsy of females during the middle of September but egg laying began only between the 1st and 3rd weeks of October. Actual laying of eggs occur- red after two days of digging — an observa- tion also recorded by Trench, who, however, mentioned egg-laying in November. The differ- ence in this may be due to the difference in latitude. (Trench made his observation at Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh at approx. 23 °N 91 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 and 80°E.) Deraniyagala (1953) have mention- ed of a female captured at Marichchukate in November, 1933 that contained 22 eggs. Deraniyagala (1953) have noted that the gestation period is one month for C. zeylanicus. In the present study the gap between mating and egg laying is from six to eight weeks. In the present study four females have been noted as dying after egg laying. CF2 died after the day of nesting, CF1 after 13 days, WF2 (caught from the wild) after 42 days, and for CF4 the gap period is not known. The shape and size of the nests depended on the nature of the ground in which these were dug. When the ground was of soft, fine, sand the nest was an oblique hole up to 22 cm deep and 9 cm diameter at the mouth, but when the ground was hard the nest was wider (17 cm) and shallower (5 cm). About two days of unsuccessful digging may precede actual completion of nest digging and egg lay- ing. Egg sizes provided for the species by Trench Refe Biswas, S. & Acharjyo, L. N. (1977): Notes on ecology and biology of some reptiles occurring in and around Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa. Rec. Zool. Surv. India , 73 : 95-109. Boulenger, G. A. (1890): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burmah. Reptilia, Batrachia. Taylor and Francis, London. Bustard, H. R. (1965) : Observations on the life history and behaviour of Chamaeleo hohnelii (Stein- dachner). Copeia 7965(4): 401-410. (1966a): Observations on the life history and behaviour of Chameleo bitaeniatus Fischer. Herpetologica, 22(1): 13-23. (1966b) : Notes on the eggs, in- cubation, and young of the Bearded Dragon, Amphi- bolurus barbatus barbatus (Cuvier). Brit. J. Herpe- tol. 5(10): 252-259. (1967): The comparative behavi- our of chameleons: fight behaviour in Chameleo (1912) are 13 x 7 mm, by Smith (1935) 19 x 12 mm, by Deraniyagala (1953) 18-19 x 12- 12.5 mm, and by Biswas and Acharjyo (1977) 16-19 x 10-12 mm. In the present study the measurements recorded were 15.0-22.5 x 9-12 mm x 1. 0-2.0 gm. From Table 2 it is noted that during incubation the eggs tend to in- crease in size and weight as is observed in agamid eggs (Bustard 1966b). Since the chameleonidae are considered to be a descen- dant from agamid stock, certain behavioural similarities as pointed out by Bustard (1965) are expected. The incubation period was eight months, which is apparently timed so that the hatchlings emerge when there is abundant small insect food at the onset of the monsoon in June. Ack nowledgement We wish to record our gratitude to the staff and villagers who helped immensly in obtain- ing chameleons. E N CES gracilis Hallowell. Herpetologica, 25(1) : 44-50. Deraniyagala, P. E. P. (1953): A colored atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon. Vol. II: Tetrapod Reptilia. Ceylon National Museum Publication, The Ceylon Government Press. Manning, A. W. G. (1972): An Introduction to Animal Behaviour. The English Language Book So- ciety and Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd., London. Parshad, B. (1914): Extension of range of the chameleon. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 23: 370. Schreiber, E. (1912): Herpetologica Europea. Jena. G. Fischer, 960 pp. Smith, M. (1935) : The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. II. Sauria. Taylor and Francis, London. Trench, C. C. (1912): Notes on the Indian chameleon (Chamaeleon calcaratus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 21: 687-689. 92 NEW RECORDS AND HOSTS OF APHID PARASXTOIDS (HYMENOPTERA: APHIDIIDAE) FROM KASHMIR, INDIA1, 2 R. C. Bhagat3 New records of Aphidiid parasitoids; reared from various aphid species together with records of new host aphids of earlier recorded Aphidiid species in Kashmir are pre- sented. 12 species of aphid parasitoids are new to India and 5 species new to Kashmir. Host-Parasitoid list is added, showing 87 different couples of host/parasitoid. Introduction Aphidiid parasitoids are internal parasites of aphids. Earlier the aphid parasitoid fauna of Kashmir has been studied by Dharmadhikari & Ramaseshia (1970); Rishi & Zutshi (1973 & 1979); Shuja Uddin (1973-1974, 1975 & 1978) and Stary & Bhagat (1978). These papers record a total of 19 Aphidiid species from the valley of Kashmir. Additional Aphidiid parasitoids are being recorded from this region in this paper. 12 species which have been recorded as new to India and are marked with an asterisk and 5 species newly recorded from Kashmir are marked with a double asterisk and a number of additional new aphid hosts of some already recorded parasitoids are marked with a dagger. The total number of aphid parasitoids known to occur in Kashmir is 36. The aphid parasi- toid species have been obtained by random collecting and breeding of parasitized aphid samples from different localities and habitats of Kashmir. The 87 different host/parasitoid 1 Accepted February 1981. 2 Part of Ph.D. thesis approved by the Kashmir University for award of degree. 3 Entomology Section, Sericulture Research Cen- tre, (J&K), Mirgund, Post Bag No. 30, Kashmir, India. Present address'. Lecturer, P. G. Dept, of Zoology, The University of Kashmir. Srinagar- 190006. India. couples recognized for the first time in India during the present study are incorpo- rated in he Host-Parasitoid list. For the host aphid nomenclature, Eastop & Hille Ris Lam- bers (1976) has been followed. Observations *1. Aphidius areolatus Ashmead Hosts : Periphyllus aesculi Hille Ris Lam- bers, Lai Mandi, Srinagar, 30. v. 1976, from Aesculus indica; Periphyllus vandenboschi Hille Ris Lambers, Khilanmarg (Gulmarg), 28. vi. 1976, from Acer caesium. *2. Aphidius avenae Haliday Hosts : Chaetosiphon glaber David, Raja- singha and Narayanan, Shankaracharya hill, Srinagar, 26.x. 1975, from Rosa sp.; Macro - siphum sp.. Peri Mahal, Srinagar, 7. v. 1977, from Rosa macrophylla; Myzaphis turanica Nevsky, Kangan, 28. v. 1978, from Rosa sp. *3. Aphidius eglanteriae Haliday Hosts : Chaetosiphon tetrarhodum (Walker), Dachigam, 15.vi. 1976, from Rosa macrophylla ; Myzaphis rosarum (Kaltenbach), Lai Mandi, Srinagar, 5. v. 1977, from Rosa webbiana. **4. Aphidius ervi Haliday Hosts : Microlophium evansi Theobald, Ari- zal, Beerwah, 12.vii.1977, from Urtica dioica; Acrythosiphon sp., Hazratbal, Srinagar, 18.V.1978, from Vida sativa. 93 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 *5. Aphidius gifuensis Ashmead Hosts: Aphis affinis Del Guercio, Manasbal, 15.iv.1977, from Mentha longifolia ; Aphis sp., Harvan, 21 .x. 1975, from Nepeta salvifolia; Aphis sp., Hazratbal, Srinagar, 3.vi.l978, from Veronica persicae; Aphis sp., Naseem Bagh, Srinagar, 4.vi.l978, from Vicia sativa. 6. Aphidius matricariae Haliday f Hosts: Aphis sp., Oberoi Palace, Srinagar, 3.xi.l978, from Cynoglossum glochidatum; Microlophium car nosum Buckton, Srinagar, 3.xi.l978, from Urtica dioica; Capitophorus elaeagni van der Goot, Peri Mahal, Srinagar 22. ix. 1975; from Carduus edelbergi. *7. Aphidius salicis Haliday Hosts: Aphis sp.. Peri Mahal, 16. v. 1976, from Dioscorea deltoides ; Cavariella biswasi Ghosh, Basu and Raychaudhuri, Zabervan, Srinagar, 25. v. 1975. from Ferula jaeschkeana. **8. Aphidius smithi Sharma & Subba Rao Hosts: Acrythosiphon sp., Gulmarg, 8.vii. 1977, from Ranunculus muricatus; Acrythosi- phon sp., Naseem Bagh, Srinagar, 28. v. 1978, from Medicago sativa. 9. Aphidius uzbekistanicus Luzhetzki t Host: Impatientinum impatiens dalhousi- ensis Verma, Lolab Valley, 3.x. 1977, from Impatiens. sp. 10. Aphidius spp. Hosts: Aphis farinosa Gamelin, Khilanmarg, 28. vi. 1976, from Salix aegyptica; Capitopho- rus sp., Chararisherief, 13.vi.1977, from Car- duus sp.; Chaetosiphon sp., Dachigam, 25. v. 1977, from Rosa sp., Lachnus tropicalis (van der Goot), Zabervan, Srinagar, 16. v. 1977, from Pinus wallichiana; Rhopalosiphum nym- phaeae Linneus, Hazratbal, Srinagar, 15 . v. 1977, from Nymphaea alba. 11. Diaeretiella rapae (M* Intosh) t Hosts: Brevicoryne brassicae (Linnaeus), Srinagar, 23.x. 1975, from Brassica oleracea var. acephala; Uroleucon sonchi (Linnaeus), Srinagar, 30. v. 1976, from Sonchus oleraceous. 12. Ephedrus persicae Froggatt t Hosts: Chaitophorus populeti (Panzer), Peri Mahal, Srinagar, 25. v. 1975, from Popu - lus caspica; Melanaphis donacis (Passerini), Hazratbal, Srinagar, 25.x. 1976, from Arundo donax; Tetraneura sp., Ducksum 17. vi. 1977, from Ailantus altissma. 13. Ephedrus plagiator (Nees) | Hosts: Prociphilus sp., Zabervan, Srinagar, 25. v. 1975, from Lonicera quinquelocularis; Tetraneura sp., Ducksum, 17. v. 1975, from Ailantus altissma. *14. Ephedrus salicicola Takada Hosts: Cavariella sp., Srinagar, 30. vi. 1975, from Salix babylonica; Eumyzus sp., Kangan near Prang, 28. v. 1977, from Nepeta cataria. **15. Lipolexis gracilis Forster Hosts: Acyrthosiphon rubi Narzikulov, Haz- ratbal, Srinagar, 7.vii.l975, from Rubus fruti- cosus; Aphis affinis Del Guercio, Bandipore, 4.viii.l975, from Mentha aquatica, and Hai- gam, 3 . viii . 1977, from Mentha sylvestris; Aphis gossypii Glover, Cheshamashi, Srinagar, 30. viii. 1975, from Zinnia elegans; Aphis crac- civora Koch, Hazratbal, 6.vii.l975, from Robinia pseudoacacia. *16. Lysiphlebus (Phlebus) confusus Tremblay & Eady Hosts: Aphis nr. intybi (Koch), Harvan near Dachigam, 30. vi. 1975, from Cichorium inty- bus; Chaitophorus niger Mordvilko, Chitamar, Bandipore, 4. viii. 1975, from Populus caspica; Sipha ( Rungsia ) maydis Passerini, Hazratbal, Srinagar, 15. viii. 1976, from Sorghum hale- pense. **17. Lysiphlebus (Phlebus) fabarum (Marshall) Hosts: Acyrthosiphum rubi Narzikulov, Hazratbal, Srinagar, 7. viii. 1975, from Rubus fruticosus; Aphis craccivora Koch; Srinagar, 7. viii. 1975, from Robinia pseudoacacia; Aphis 94 NEW RECORDS AND HOSTS OF APHID PARASITOIDS fabae solanella Theobald, Zeetyer, Srinagar, 31 . viii . 1975, from Rumex nepalensis; Aphis nr. salviae Walker, Shankaracharya hill, Sri- nagar, 6.ix.l975, from Salvia moorcraftiana. *18. Monoctonus crepidis (Haliday) Hosts : Liosomaphis atra Hille Ris Lam- bers, Kokernag, 23 .v. 1977, from Berberis pseu- doumbellatus; Liosomphis sp., Cheshmashahi, 12.V.1976, from Berberis zebbiliana . 19. Praon abjectum (Haliday) | Hosts: Aphis farinosa Gmelin, Srinagar, 28. iv. 1976, from Salix babylonica; Aphis gros- sulariae nr. pollinosa Walker, Kokernag, 15.x. 1977, from Epilobium hirsutum; Aphis sp., Har- van, 21.x. 1975, from Nepeta salvifolia; Mela - naphis donacis (Passerini), Hazratbal, Srinagar, 14.x. 1976, from Arundo donax ; Myzaphis rosarum (Kaltenbach), Kokernag, 23. v. 1977, from Rosa sp.; *20. Praon dorsale (Haliday) Hosts: Amphicercidus tuberculatus David, Narayanan & Rajasingha, Dachigam, 25 .v. 1977, from Lonicera quinquelocularis; Macrosipho- niella sanborni (Gillette), Cheshmashahi, Sri- nagar, 18.V.1976, from Chrysanthemum mori- folium. **21. Praon nympheae Subba Rao and Sharma Hosts: Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae (Lin- naeus), Nagin Lake, Srinagar, 15.V.1977, from Nymphaea sp. 22. Praon volucre (Haliday) f Hosts: Aphis sp., Cheshmashahi, Srinagar, 4.x. 1975, from Lespedeza sp.; Hyalopterus arundinis (Fabricius), Srinagar, 26. v. 1975, Prunus domestica; Hyalopterus pruni (Geof- froy), Nagin Lake, Srinagar, 9.vii.l975, from Phragmites communis; Hypermyzus lactucae (Linnaeus), Srinagar, 5.vi.l976, from Son - chus oleraceus; Macrosiphum sp., Srinagar, 30.V.1976, from Rosa sp.; Myzaphis turanica Nevsky, Kangan, 28. v. 1978, from Rosa sp.; Liosomaphis atra Hille Ris Lambers, Nishat Garden, Srinagar, 23. v. 1976, from Berberis pseudoumbellatus; Uroleucon sp., Verinag, 15 .viii. 1977, from Sonchus asper. 23. Toxares deltiger Westwood |Hosts: Betacallis sp., Aharbal, 5. viii. 1975, from Conium maculatum; Eumyzus sp., Kan- gan, 28. v. 1977, from Nepeta cataria; Ovatus nr. crataegarius Walker, Gulrnarg, 3.vii. 1975, from Mentha longifolia; Prociphilus sp., Aharbal, 5.vii.l977, from Lonicera quinque- locularis. 24. Trioxys (Binodoxys) acalephae (Marshall) f Hosts: Aphis affinis Del Guercio, Bruj- homa, 13.ix.1975, from Mentha sylvestris; Macrosiphum sp., Zabervan, Srinagar, 7.V.1977, from Rosa sp. 25. Trioxys (Binodoxys) brevicornis (Haliday) fHost: Chaitophorus pakistanicus Hille Ris Lambers, Naseem Bagh, Srinagar, 28. iv. 1976, from Salix babylonica. 26. Trioxys (Binodoxys) centaureae (Haliday) t Hosts: Capitophorus elaeagni (Del Guer- cio), Chararisharief, 13.vi.1977, from Macro - siphoniella artimisae (Boyer de Fonscolombe), Shankracharya, Srinagar, 6.ix.l975, from Arte- misia indica; Macrosiphoniella sp., Chesha- mashahi, Srinagar, 18.iv.1976, from Achillea millefolium. 27. Trioxys (Binodoxys) indicus Subba Rao and Sharma t Hosts: Aphis affinis Del Guercio, Dachi- gam, 25.V.1975, from Mentha sylvestris; Aphis fabae solanella Theobald, Prang near Kangan, 20. v. 1977, from Rumex nepalensis; Aphis gossypii Glover, Shopian, 5.vi.l977, from Urtica dioica , and Hazratbal, Srinagar, 14. vi. 1977, from Melia azedarach; Aphis pomi De Geer, Naseem Bagh, Srinagar, 14. vi. 1975, from Pyrus malus; Eriosoma sp., Hazratbal, Srinagar, 22. vi. 1975, from Cotoneaster aitkin- sonii; Macrosiphoniella pseudoartemisiae 95 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Shinji, Shankracharya, Srinagar, l.v.1975, from Artemisia absinthium; Macrosiphum sp., Srinagar, 8. v. 1975, from Rosa brunonii ; Min- darus japonicus Takahashi, Khilanmarg 28. vi. 1976, from Abies pindrow; Paraphorodon sp., Hariparvat, Srinagar, 21.V.1976, from Punica granata. *28. Trioxys (Trioxys) compianatus Quilis Hosts: Acyrthosiphum pisum Harris, Naseem Bagh, Srinagar, 30. iv. 1978, from Lathyrus aphaca; Therioaphis sp., Hazratbal, Srinagar, 30. iv. 1978, from Vida sativa. *29. Trioxys (Trioxys) pannonicus Stary Host: Macrosiphoniella nr. artemisiae Boyer de Fonscolombe, Shankracharya, Srinagar, 6.ix.l975, from Artemisia absinthium. 30. Trioxys (Trioxys) rishii Stary and Bhagat t Hosts'. Aphis craccivora Koch, Srinagar, 25. vi. 1975, from Robinia pseudoacacia; Aphis pomi De Geer, Hariparvat, Srinagar, l.v.1976, from Malus sylvestris; Capitophorus elaeagni Shankracharya, Srinagar, 16.vi.1976, from Car- duus sp,; Phorodon cannabis Passerini, Hand- wara, 5.ix.l977; from Cannabis sativa. *31. Trioxys (Trioxys) shivaphis Takada Host: Shivaphis celti Das, Emporium Gar- den, Srinagar, 15. v. 1978, from Celtis australis. Aphid host — Parasitoid list ACYRTHOSIPHON A. pisum (Harris) Trioxys ( T .) compianatus Quilis A. rubi Narzikulov Lipolexis gracilis Forster Lysiphlebus (P.) fabarum (Marshall) Acyrthosiphon sp. Aphidius ervi Haliday Aphidius smithi Sharma & Subba Rao AMPHICERCIDUS A. tuberculatus David et al. Praon dorsale (Haliday) APHIS A. affinis Del Guercio Aphidius gifuensis Ashmead Lipolexis gracilis Forster Trioxys ( B .) acalephae (Marshall) Trioxys (B.) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma A. craccivora Koch Lipolexis gracilis Forster Lysiphlebus (P.) fabarum (Marshall) Trioxys (T.) rishii Stary & Bhagat A. fabae solanella Theobald Lysiphlebus (P.) fabarum (Marshall) Trioxys ( B .) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma A. farinosa Gamelin Praon abjectum (Haliday) Aphidius sp. A. gossypii Glover Lipolexis gracilis Forster Trioxys (B.) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma A. grossulariae Kaltenbach Praon abjectum (Haliday) A. nr. salviae Walker Lysiphlebus (P.) fabarum (Marshall) A. nr. intybi Koch Lysiphlebus (P.) confusus Tremblay & Eady A. pomi De Geer Trioxys (B.) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma Trioxys ( T .) rishii Stary 8c Bhagat Aphis spp. Aphidius gifuensis Ashmead Aphidius matricariae Haliday Aphidius salicis Haliday Praon abjectum (Haliday) Praon volucre (Haliday) BETACALLIS Betacallis sp. Toxares deltiger Westwood BREVICORYNE B. brassicae (Linnaeus) Diaeretiella rapae (M’Intosh) CAPITOPHORUS C. elaeagni (Del Guercio) Aphidius matricariae Haliday Trioxys (B.) centaureae (Haliday) Trioxys (T.) rishii Stary & Bhagat Capitophorus sp. Aphidius sp. 96 NEW RECORDS AND HOSTS OF APHID PARASITOiDS C A V ARIELLA C. biswasi Ghosh. Basu & Raychaudhuri Aphidius salicis Haliday CavaricIIa sp. Ephedrus salicicola Takada CHAETOSIPHON C. glaber David, Rajasingh & Narayanan Aphidius avenae Haliday C. tctrarhodmn (Walker) Aphidius eglanteriae Haliday Chaetosiphon sp. Aphidius sp. CHAITOPHORUS C. niger Mordvilko Lysiphlebus (P.) confusus Tremblay & Eady C. pakistanicus Hille Ris Lambers Trioxys (B.) brevicornis (Haliday) C. populeti (Panzer) Ephedrus persicae Froggatt ERIOSOMA Eriosoma sp. Trioxys ( B .) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma EUMYZUS Eumyzus sp. Ephedrus salicicola Takada Toxares deitiger Westwood HYALOPTERUS H. arundinis (Fabricius) Praon volucre (Haliday) H. pruni (Geoffroy) Praon volucre (Haliday) HYPERMYZUS H. lactucae (Linnaeus) Praon volucre (Haliday) I MP ATI ENTINUM I. dalhousiensis Verma Aphidius uzbekistanicus Luzhetzki LACHNUS L. tropical is van der Goot Aphidius sp. LIOSOMAPHIS L, atra Hille Ris Lambers Monoctonus crepidis (Haliday) Lisomaphis sp. Monoctonus crepidis (Haliday) MACROSIPHONIELLA M. artcmisiae (Boyer de Fonscolombe) Trioxys ( B .) centaureae (Haliday) M. nr. artemisiae (Boyer de Fonscolombe) Trioxys (T.) pannonicus Stary M. pseudoartcmisiae Shinji Trioxys ( B .) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma M. sanborni (Gillette) Praon dorsale (Haliday) Macrosiphoniella sp. Trioxys (B.) centaureae (Haliday) MACROSIPHUM Macrosiphum sp. Aphidius avenae Haliday Praon volucre (Haliday) Trioxys ( B .) acalephae (Marshall) Trioxys (B.) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma MELANAPHIS M. donacis (Passerini) Ephedrus persicae Froggatt Praon abjectum (Haliday) MICROLOPHIUM M. carnosum (Buckton) Aphidius matricariae Plaliday M. evansi Theobald Aphidius ervi Haliday MINDARUS M. japonicus Takahashi Trioxys ( B .) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma MYZAPHIS M. rosarum (Kalenbach) Aphidius eglanteriae Haliday Praon abjectum (Haliday) M. turanica Nevsky Aphidius avenae Haliday Praon volucre (Haliday) OVATUS O. nr. crataegarius (Walker) Toxares deitiger Westwood PERIPHYLLUS P. aesculi Hille Ris Lambers Aphidius are ol at us Ashmead P. vandemboschi Hille Ris Lambers Aphidius areolatus Ashmead 97 7 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 8/ PARAPH GRODON Parapiiorodon sp. Trioxys ( B .) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma PHORODON P. cannabis Passerini Trioxys ( T .) rishii Stary & Bhagat PROCIPHILUS Prociphilus sp. Ephedrus plagiator (Nees) Toxares deltiger Westwood RHOPALOSIPHUM R. nympliacae (Linnaeus) Aphidius sp. Praon nympheae Subba Rao & Sharma SHIV APHIS S. celti Das Trioxys (T.) shivaphis Takada SIPHA S. maydis Passerini Lysiphlebus ( P .) confusus Tremblay & Eady TETRANEURA Tetraneura sp. Ephedrus persicae Froggatt Ephedrus plagiator (Nees) Refer Dharmadhikari, P. R. & Ramaseshia, G. (1970): . Recent records of aphidiids (Hym. Aphidiidae) in India. Tech. Bull. Commonw. Biol. Control. 13: 83-89. Eastop, V. F. & Hille Ris Lambers, D. (1976): Survey of world’s aphids. DR. W. Junk. b. v. The Hague. Rishi, N. D. & Zutshi, V. (1973): New records of aphids and their parasitoids from Kashmir. Proc. Sym. On Oriental Entomology, Calcutta, (Abstract). (1979) : Records of parasitoids of aphids from J & K with notices on their bio-control potentials. Proc. of Sym. Recent Trends in Aphidological Studies. 81: 45, Bhubane- shwar. (Abstract). Shuja-Uddin (1973): Three species of Trioxys THERIOAPHIS Therioaphis sp. Trioxys (T.) complanatus Quilis UROLEUCON U. somclii (Linnaeus) Diaeretiella rapae (M’ Intosh) Uroleucon sp. Praon vol acre (Haliday) Ac.K NOWLEDGF.MENTS I am indebted to Dr. D. N. Fotedar, Head, P. G. Department of Zoology, University of Kashmir, for providing the necessary working facilities. Many thanks are due to Dr. P. Stary, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, Prague, for confirming some aphid parasitoid speci- mens. The help rendered by Dr. V. F. Eastop, British Museum (Natural History) and Dr. (Late) D. N. Raychaudhuri, Calcutta Univer- sity in connection with identification of some aphid specimens is gratefully acknowledged. I am also thankful to Dr. A. R. Naqshi, Cura- tor, Botany Department, University of Kashmir for identification of plant specimens. e n c e s Haliday (Hymenoptera : Aphidiidae) recorded from India. Indian J. Ent., 35: 9-14. (1974) : Three species of the genus Toxares Westwood (Aphidiidae: Hymenoptera) from India with a note on the genus. Indian J. Ent., 36: 268-274. (1975) : Two new species of Aphi- diidae (Hymenoptera) from India. Rev. Zoo\. Surv. India. 68: 415-420. (1978): New record of Ephedrus campestris Stary (Aphidiidae: Hymenoptera) from India. Indian J. Zool. 6(1) : 60-61. Stary, P. & Bhagat, R. C. (1978): Records and description of aphid parasitoids from Kashmir, India (Hymenoptera. Aphidiidae). Acta Ent. bohemoslov. 75: 387-393. 98 HOST PLANTS OF THE FRUIT FLIES (DIPTERA: TEPHFJTID AE ) OF THE INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT, EXCLUSIVE OF THE SUB-FAMILY DACINAE1 Mohammad Zaka-ur-Rab2 In the Indian sub-continent (including India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bangla- desh), the Tephritidae are represented by 60 genera and 138 species, out of which 56 genera and 102 species belong to sub-families other than the Dadnae. Very little work has been done on the biological aspects of the non-Dacine Tephritidae of the region. This can be gauged from the fact that out of 102 species comprising this group, host plants of only 21 species are known with any degree of certainty. In the present paper, an attempt has been made to place on record the information hitherto available about the known cultivated as well as wild host plants of the larvae of non-Dacine Tephritidae of the region. Introduction The Tephritidae represent a family of rather conspicuous looking flies whose larvae are entirely phytophagous and show intricate ana- tomical as well as behavioural adjustments for successfully leading such a mode of life. The only exception perhaps is the Australian teph- ritid Rioxa termitoxena which breeds in the burrows of the tree-dwelling termites, Masto- termes darwiniensis and Calotermes irregularis, the larvae subsisting on a foul smelling liquid lying within the termite tunnels. Another close- ly related example is that of Rioxa modestum (Fab.) which was recorded by Bezzi (1913) as having been bred from decaying wood at Calcutta in West Bengal. In the Indian sub-continent, the Tephritidae are represented by 60 genera and 138 species out of which 56 genera and 102 species belong to sub-families other than Decinae. 1 Accepted August 1980. 2 Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim Univer- sity. Aligarh. India. Very little work has been done on the bio- logy of the non-Dacine Tephritidae of the region. This can be gauged from the fact that out of 102 species comprising this group, host plants of only 21 species are known with any degree of certainty. Even where we know something about the host plants of any parti- cular species, it seems that the total range of the latter has not been adequately explored. Members of the sub-family Trypetinae are mostly fruit feeders although some of them also cause galls or damage seed pods etc. The fruit feeders mostly live on the fleshy portions of wild and cultivated fruits but do not damage their seeds. However, those species which cause galls considerably reduce the vigour of their host plants and can be effectively utilised as biological control agents for combating harm- ful weeds. Use of Procecidochares udlis for controlling the Crofton weed, Eupatorium adenophorum, in Hawaii, Australia, New Zea- land, India and Nepal, is one such example. Members of the sub-family Tephritinae, on the other hand, usually infest flower heads of various plants and destroy the seeds develop- 99 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 ing therein. While this may amount to serious economic losses in cultivated crops by reduc- ing the seed yields, a large proportion of these species can serve as useful biological control agents for keeping the reproductive potential of noxious weeds under effective check by destroying their seeds. It is now widely known that a number of plant pests are able to survive and multiply on wild plants which serve as their alternative hosts. For an effective control of such pests it is obviously useful to have as much informa- tion as possible about their wild alternative hosts. This is also highly desirable in view of the role played by such wild hosts in the multi- plication and augmentation of populations of parasites and predators of various economic pests. The following text is an attempt to place on record the information hitherto available about the cultivated as well as wild host plants of the larvae of fruit flies (exclusive of sub- family Dacinae) of the Indian sub-continent comprising of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bangladesh. Sub-family trypetinae Anoplosnus flexosus Bezzi Cultivated host: Morus sp. (Misra 1920, Kumaon, U.P.; Mathur and Singh 1959). Wild host: Unknown Carpomyia vesuviana Costa Cultivated host: Zizyphus jujuba Lam. (-Z. mauritiana Lam.) (Batra 1953; Narayanan and Batra 1960; Pruthi and Batra 1960; Usman and Putta- rudraiah 1955; Fletcher 1920, 1917; Khare 1923; Basha 1952). Wild host: Zizyphus nummulavia W. and A. (Batra 1953; Narayanan and Batra 1960; Pruthi and Batra 1960). Z. vulgaris Lam. (=Z. sativa Gaertn., Z. jujuba Mill.) (I reared this fruit fly from infested fruits of Z. vulgaris at Srinagar, Sopore, Bandipur and Baramulla in Kashmir where these trees grow wild. This is the first record of C. vesu- viana from Kashmir, as well as from this host in the Indian sub-continent). Note: This fruit fly is widely distributed throughout the sub-continent, and is found where-ever Zizyphus trees grow. Ceratitella asiatica Hardy Cultivated host: Unknown Wild host: Loranthus longiflorus Desv. (Hardy 1967, at Kahuta, Pakistan, infesting fruits). Ceratitis capitata (Wied.) Cultivated host: Prunus persica Stokes (Munro 1938, bred from peach at Pusa, Bihar in 1907 but not subsequently reported). Wild host : Unknown Ceratitis sp. Cultivated host : Unknown Wild host: Dendrocalamus giganteus Munro (Mathur and Singh 1959, larvae boring in new shoots). Chaetellipsis paradoxa Bezzi (= Poecilis judicauda Bezzi) Cultivated host: Unknown Wild host: Bambusa burmanica Gamble (Bhasin, Roonwal and Singh 1958, breeding in damaged shoots, larva tunnels on outside of node between epidermis and culm sheath). Chelyophora ceratitina (Bezzi) (= Stictaspis ceratitina Bezzi) Cultivated host: Unknown Wild host: Dendrocalamus strictus Nees 100 HOST PLANTS OF THE FRUIT FLIES (Mathur and Singh 1959, infesting shoots). Bamboos (Bhasin, Roonwal and Singh 1958, infesting green shoots, larva completely eats out the soft tissue leaving only the culm sheath; Flet- cher 1920, at Pusa, Bihar). Chelyophora striata (Froggatt) Cultivated host : Unknown Wild host: Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. (Bhasin, Roonwal and Singh 1956, infest- ing green shoots). Dendrocalamus giganteus Munro D. strictus Nees (Mathur and Singh 1959, larvae boring in shoots; Fletcher 1920, Sri Lanka, infesting shoots). Craspedoxantlia ocfopusictata Bezzi Cultivated host: Centaur ea americana Nutt. (Menon, Kapoor and Mahto 1968, Delhi, breeding in flowers). Wild host: Gonicaulon glabrum Cass. (Senior- White 1922, Nagpur, infesting flowers). Gastrozona melanista Bezzi Cultivated host: Unknown Wild host: Ficus sp. (Usman and Puttarudraiah 1955, Chikmag- lur, infesting wild figs). Myfopardalis pardalina (Bigot) Cultivated host: Citrullus vulgaris Schrad. Cucurbita maxima Duch. C. pepo L. Cucumis melo L. C. sativus L. (Janjua 1954; Janjua and Samuel 1941; Pruthi and Batra, 1960; Narayanan and Batra 1960). Wild host: Cucumis trigonus Roxb. (Misra 1920, at Pusa, Bihar; Janjua 1954; Pruthi and Batra 1960; Narayanan and Batra 1960). Note: This fruit fly has been recorded from all parts of Pakistan except Sind, and is a very serious pest of cultivated melons parti- cularly in Baluchistan. Reports of its occur- rence in various parts of India, however, have been rather few and far between. It appears likely that such chance records were based on infested fruits imported from Pakistan. Phaeospilodes bambusae Hering Cultivated host: Unknown Wild host: Bamboo (Hering 1940, Coimbatore, bamboo shoots). Procecidochares utilis Stone Cultivated host: Unknown Wild host: Eupatorium adenophorum Sprengel (Kapoor and Malla 1978, at Kathmandu, Nepal, causing gall formation at junction of two leaves or leaf petiole; Kapoor, Malla and Ghosh 1979). Rhacochlaena cassiae Munro Cultivated host: Cassia fistula L. (Bhasin, Roonwal and Singh 1958, larvae boring in pods). Wild host: Unknown Sub-family tephritinae Acanthiophsles helianthi Rossi Cultivated host: Carthamus tinctorius L. (Bhatia and Singh 1939, Delhi, infesting flowers; Narayanan and Batra 1960). Centaurea americana Nutt. (Menon, Kapoor and Mahto 1968, Delhi, infesting flowers; I found it infesting these flowers at Srinagar, Kashmir. This also hap- 101 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 pens to be the first report of this fruitfly from Kashmir). Wild host: Unknown Isoconia bifaria Munro Cultivated host: Unknown Wild host: Barleria sp. (Munro 1947, at Coimbatore, infesting pods). Stylia sororcula (Wied.) Cultivated host: Dahlia sp. (D. Pinnata Cav.?) Coreopsis drummondi Torr. and Gray C. grandiflora Hogg (I bred this fruitfly from the above flowers at Aligarh, U.P.) Wild host: Coreopsis sp. Bidens sp., and other Compositae. (Hardy 1964, Nepal, infesting seeds). Tephritis cardualis Hardy Cultivated host: Unknown Wild host: Carduus edelbergii (= C. nutans) (Hardy 1974, Swat Distt., N.W.F.P., Pakis- tan, breeding in flower heads). Tephritis tribuiicola Senior- White Cultivated host : Unknown Wild host: Thistle (Senior- White 1922, Shillong and Mawph- lang, Assam). Trupanea amoena (Frfld.) Cultivated host: Tagetes erectus L. Chrysanthemum indicus L. (Trehan 1946, at Lyallpur, Pakistan, infest- ing flowers). Wild host: Veronia cinarea Less. (Tehran 1946, at Pusa, Bihar, infesting flowers) Trupanea stellata Fuessly Cultivated host: Calendula officinalis L. (Nirula 1942, at Delhi, infesting flowers). Wild host: Unknown Host plant — Fruit fly list Species Isoconia bifaria Munro Host ACANTHACEAE Barleria sp. BAMBUSEAE Bambusa burmanica Gamble B. vulgaris Schrad. Bamboo Dendrocalamus giganteus Munro D. strictus Nees Chaetellipsis paradoxa Bezzi Chelyophora striata (Froggatt) Chelyophora ceratitina (Bezzi) Phaeospilodes bambusae Hering Ceratitis sp. Chelyophora striata (Froggatt) Chelyophora ceratitina (Bezzi) Chelyophora striata (Froggatt) 102 HOST PLANTS OF THE FRUIT FLIES COMPOSITAE Bidens sp. Calendula officinalis L. Carduus edelbergii (= C. nutans L.) Carthamus tinctorius L. Centaurea americana Nutt. Chrysanthemum indicus L. Coreopsis drummondi Torr. & Gray C. grandiflora Hogg Coreopsis sp. Dahlia sp. (D. pinnata Cav.?) Eupatorium adenophorum Sprengel Gonicaulon glabrum Cass. Tagetes erect us L. Veronia cinarea Less. CUCURBITAE Citrullus vulgaris Schrad. Cucumis melo L. C. sativus L. C. trigonus Roxb. Cucurbita maxima Duch. C. pepo L. LEGUMINOSEAE Cassia fistula L. LORANTHACEAE Loranthus longiflorus Desv. MORACEAE Morus sp. RHAMNACEAE Zizyphus jujuba Lam. (= Z. mauritiana Lam.) Z. nummularia W. & A. (= Z. rot undifolia Lam.) (= Z. microphylla Roxb.) Stylia sororcula (Wied.) Trupanea stellata Fuessly Tephritis cardualis Hardy Acanthiophilus helianthi Rossi — do — Craspedoxantha octopunctata Bezzi Trupanea amoena (Frfld.) Stylia sororcula (Wied.) — do — — do — — do — Procecidochares utilis Stone Craspedoxantha octopunctata Bezzi Trupanea amoena (Frfld.) — do — Myiopardalis pardalina (Bigot) — do — — do — — do — — do — —do — Rhacochlaena cassiae Munro Ceratitella asiatica Hardy Anoplomus flexosus Bezzi Carpomyia vesuviana Costa — do — 103 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Z. vulgaris Lam. (= Z. saliva Gaertn.) (= Z. jujuba Mill.) ROSACEAE Prunus persica Stokes UR TIC ACE AE Ficus sp. Carpomyia vesuviana Costa Ceratitis capitata (Wied.) Gastrozona melanista Bezzi References Bash a, J. M. G. (1952) : Experiments on the control of fruit borers on jujuba. Indian J. Ent., 14: 227-238. Batra, H. N. (1953) : Biology and control of fruit-flies in India. Indian J. agric. Sci., 23: 87-112. Bezzi, M. (1913): Indian Trypaneids (fruit-flies) in the collection of the Indian Museum. Mem. In- dian Mas., 3: 53-175. Bhasin, G. D., Roonwal, M. L. & Singh, Bal- want (1958) : A list of insect pests of forest plants in India and the adjacent countries. Part 3. Indian For. Bull. (N. S.), No. 171: 1-128. Bhatia, H. L. & Singh, Mohan (1939) : Acan- thiophilus helianthi Rossi a new pest of safflower in Delhi. Indian J. Ent., 1: 110. Fletcher, T. B. (1917) : Annotated list of the Indian crop-pests. Proc. 2nd Ent. Meet., Pusa 18: 307. (1920): 2. Annotated list of Indian crop-pests. Proc. 3rd Ent. Meet., Pusa, 1: 33-314. Hardy, D. E. (1964) : Diptera from Nepal. The fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae). Bull. Brit. Mus. ( nat . Hist.) Entom, 15: 145-169. (1967): Studies of fruitflies asso- ciated with mistletoe in Australia and Pakistan with notes and descriptions on genera related to Peril amp- sis Bezzi. Beitr. Ent., 77(1/2): 127-149. (1974): A new Tephritis from flower heads of thistle in Pakistan (Diptera: Tephritidae). Proc. Hawaiian ent. Soc., 27(3) : 373-375. Hering, E. M. (1940) : Eine nueu fruchtfliegen als Bambus schadling (Diptera). Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., 5(11): 322-23. Janjua, N. A. (1954) : Biology of the melon-fly Myiopardalis pardalina Big. (Riptera, Trypetidae). Indian J. Ent., 16: 227-229. & Samuel, C. K. (1941): Fruit pests of Baluchistan. ICAR Misc. Bull., No. 42: 1-41. Kapoor, V. C. & Malla, Y. K. (1978): The in- festation of the gall fruit-fly, Procecidochares utilis (Stone) on Crofton weed, Eupatorium adenophorum Sprengel in Kathmandu. Indian J. Ent., 40(3) : 337- 339. Khare, J. L. (1923) : Ber fruit (Zizyphus jujuba) and its fly pest. Bull. Agric. Res. Inst., Pusa, No. 143: 1-16. Mathur, R. N. & Singh, Balwant (1959): A list of insect pests of forest plants in India and the adjacent countries. Part 5. Indian For. Bull. (N.S.), No. 171(4) : 1-165. Menon, M. G. R., Kapoor, V. C. & Mahto, Y. (1968): Centaurea americana as a new host plant record for the fruit flies, Acanthiophilus helianthi Rossi and Craspedoxantha octopunctata Bezzi in India. Indian J. Ent., 30(4) : 316. Misra, C. S. (1920) : Index to Indian fruit pests. Proc. 3rd Ent. Meet. Pusa, 2 : 564-595. Munro, H. K. (1938): Studies on Indian Trype- tidae. Rec. Indian Mus., 40: 21-37. (1947) : African Trypetidae. Mem. Ent. Soc. S. Africa, No. 1: p. 111. Narayanan, E. S. & Batra, H. N. (1960): Fruit flies and their control. ICAR, New Delhi: 68 pp. Nirula, K. K. (1942): Trypanea stellata Fuessly. a new pest of some Compositae in India. Indian J. Ent., 4 : 90. Pruthi, H. S. & Batra, H. N. (1960): Some im- portant fruit pests of North-West India. ICAR Bull., No. 80: 1-113. Senior-White, R. (1922) : Notes on Indian Trype- tidae. Mem. Dept. Agric. (Ent. Ser.), 7: 97-98, 156- 164. Trehan, K. N. (1946): Biological observations on Trypanea amoena Frfld. Indian J. Ent., 8: 107-109. Usman, S. & Puttarudraiah, M. (1965): A list of the insects of Mysore including mites. Dept. Agric. Mysore (Ent, Serf), Bull. 18: 1-194 104 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP OF THE FISH RASBORA DA NIC ONI U S (HAM.-BUCH.)1 V. Y. Thakre and S. S. Bap at2 ( With two text-figures) The present paper deals with the study of length-weight relationship in a cyprinid fish, Rasbora daniconius. The equations expressing this relationship in both the sexes of the adult fish are further studied to verify cube relationship (Le Cren 1951) between these two measurements. To see whether the two regression equations obtained here, one in the case of each of the females and the males, differ significantly from each other, the test of analysis of covariance is performed. Introduction Since growth generally contributes to the in- crease of both, length and weight of a fish, the length-weight relationship is an inte- resting aspect of study to establish the statistical relationship between these two measurements. This relationship was expressed by earlier wor- kers by the cubic formula, W = aL3, wherein it is suggested that the weight (W) of the fish is equal to the product of the cube of the length (L) and a constant (a). Crozier and Hecht (1913) found this cubic law inadequate to explain the length-weight relationship in fishes. The general assumption that the weight of the fish varies as the cube of its length did not show accuracy in the empirical results. Allen (1938) supported the cube law in case of fish which maintain the same shape. Therefore to be able to explain the varying power value of L in case of fish available in nature in general, many workers adopted the parabolic equation of the form. 1 Accepted October 1981. 2 Department of Zoology, Marathwada University, Aurangabad. 431 004, Maharashtra State, India. vV = aLb. Mile (1936) and Martin (1949) in this connection found that the power values of b usually varied between 2.5 and 4 in different fishes. Le Cren (1951) revealed that as retaining either of the shape of the body outline, or of the constant specific gravity of the tissues is almost an impossible event, the rela- tionship may depart from cube law proposed for an ideal fish. Hence he admitted the use of b power formula and also pointed out the superiority of b power formula over cubic formula for the reason that the former besides being useful in finding out weight and length measurements may also be used for indicating the condition factor or ponderal index, spawning season and the taxonomic differences and events in the life history, such as, metamor- phosis and the onset of maturity. Materials and Methods Adult specimens, freshly collected from river Kham, near Aurangabad were brought to the laboratory, cleaned under tap water and im- mediately after removing the body moisture with the help of blotting paper, their weight and total length measurements were noted ac- 105 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 curately. The sex was recorded by opening the abdomen. Thus 3085 adult specimens, com- prising 2152 females in the range of 36-160 mm and 933 males in the range of 36-123 mm were considered in this study. The indeterminants below 36 mm. being very rare in catch, could not be obtained regularly and sufficiently and therefore, they were not included in the pre- sent study. The length-weight data of females and the males were then analysed separately and grouped into various length groups of 10 mm size interval. The mean values of length and weight representing each length group were then calculated in respect of the number of specimens in each length group. These mean values were used in the calculation of length-weight relationship. The general parabolic form of equation, W = aLb was used to show the statistical rela- tionship between length and weight. Since the weight-length ratio is a power relationship, logarithms were used, so that the exponential relation could be expressed by a linear equa- tion : Log W = Log a + b Log L which corresponds to the regression line equa- tion, Y - a’ + bX. where, Y = Log W. X = Log L — are the two variates and a’ = Log a and b — are the constants. Thus, the above equation with weight (W) and length (L) in logarithmic form can be treated as the equation of regression line, Y = a’ + bX, wherein the values of constants, a ’ and b are to be determined. The following equations have been used for this purpose. S xy H Y — b S X b = and a' = — "S x2 n where X and y are the logarithmic forms of length and weight respectively and n, the num- ber of the group samples, x and y are the devia- tion values of X and Y respectively from their mean i.e. X — X = x and Y = Y = y. The calculated value of Y for each size group was then estimated by substituting the values of X and the constants a' and b in the equation, y = a' + bX. The equation, W = aL\ showing exponential relationship between length and weight was expressed, in females and males, separately. W was calculated for every mean total length (L) and the relation- Fig. 1. Graph showing length-weight relationship in female R. daniconius. Fig. 2. Graph showing length-weight relationship in male R. daniconius. 106 LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP OF RASBORA DANICONIUS ship between these two measurements is shown graphically for females and males in Figs. 1 and 2 respectively. Results The equations showing the relationship bet- ween length and weight in females and males are expressed as below: ther the two regression equations obtained above differed significantly from each other. The test was performed by the method of analysis of covariance (Snedecor 1961). Parti- culars of the analysis of covariance are given in Table 1. It is evident therefrom that the length-weight relationships both in females and males do not differ significantly at 5% and 1% level of significance. Table 1 Comparison of the regression lines of the length-weight relationship in R. damconius TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE BY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE Sr. No. Source of varia- D.F. tion S x2 S Y2 £ xy Regres- sion coeffi- cient Deviation from regression D.F. S.S. M.S. Calcu- lated F Tabu- lated F Remarks 1. Females 12 0.4022 4.1316 1.2679 3.1524 11 0.1347 2. Males 8 0. 1982 2.0577 0.6380 3.2190 7 0.0040 5% in 3. Deviation between from indi- 18 0.1387 0.0077 245.9 Fe- vidual re- (15 d.f.) males gressions and and within 248.0 males sexes. 15.4 (20 d.f.) do not 4. Differences differ between re- 1 0.0005 0.0005 1% in signifi- gressions. between cantly 5. Deviation 20 0.6004 6.1893 1.9059 3.1744 19 0.1392 6157 from total (15 d.f.) regression. and 6209 (20 d.f.) Females: W = 0.003980 L3,1524 Males : W = 0.003007 L3-2190 and in the linear form of regression line equa- tion as: Females: Log W = — 2.4002 + 3.1524 LogL Males : Log W = — 2.5218 + 3.1290 LogL The data of length-weight relationship for females and males were analysed to test whe- The extent of association between X and Y values also was tested by estimating the co- efficient of correlation (r). For females the r was found to be 0.9836 (d. f. 12, r, 5% = 0.532 and r. 1% = 0.661) and for males 0.9991 (d. f. 8, r, 5% = 0.632 and r, 1% = 0.765). This showed that in both the sexes r was perfectly significant indicating a good asso- 107 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81 elation between the two measurements of length and weight. The regression coefficient, b is 3.1524 in case of females and 3.2190 in case of males. Both the values of b are slightly greater than 3 and thus closely, if not perfectly, support the cube law. With a view to see, whether the regression coefficient b differed from 3, the ‘t’ test (Ostle 1966) was performed. In females V was found to be 2.9308 (d. f. 11, t. 5% = 2.201) and in males 5.2771 (d. f. 7, ‘t’, 5% = 2.365). The ‘t’ test revealed significant differ- ence of b from 3 at 5% level of significance in both the sexes, thus showing thereby ‘b’ slightly higher than 3. The calculated value of W for every mean L has been graphically depicted in Figs. 1 and 2 in case of females and males respectively. Both the graphs are curvilinear. The observed values of weight for different size groups, shown as encircled dots, are seen to lie close to the respective calculated values of weight. As can be seen from Figs. 1 and 2 both females and males upto 80 mm in length in- crease in weight at a lesser rate than in the subsequent size groups. This may be attributed to the slow gonadal growth generally found in the first time breeders. Discussion The present results coincide with the obser- vations of several workers. Prabhu (1955) worked on length-weight relationship of Trichiu- rus haumela and inferred that the weight in- crease in proportion to its length showed a normal pattern (the value of b was noted as 3.0819). Bhatnagar (1963) worked on Puntius kolus and found that the values of ‘b’ were slightly higher than 3 in males and females but not so in juveniles. Misu (1964) and Nara- simhan (1970) worked on the length-weight relationship of Trichiurus lepturus, the former from East China Seas and Yellow Sea and the latter from Kakinada, India, and showed that there was a deviation from the so called cube law and weight of the fish increased at a rate higher than the cube of the length. Chatterji et al. (1977) worked on the length-weight rela- tionship of a carp, Labeo bata and showed that the fish did not strictly follow the cube law and the weight increased at a rate more than the cube of the length. Acknowledgements We are thankful to Dr. R. Nagabhushanam, Professor and Head, Department of Zoology, Marathwada University, Aurangabad for his constant encouragement and help. References Allen, K. R. (1938) : Some observations on the biology of the trout (Salmo trutta ) in Windemere. J. Anim. EcoJ. 7: 333-349. Bhatnagar, G. K. (1963) : On some aspects of biology of Puntius kolus (Sykes) of the Tungabhadra reservoir. Indian J. Fish., 10(2) : 500-520. Chatterji, A., Siddiqui, A. Q. & Khan, A. A. (1977): Length-weight relationship of a carp, Labeo hata (Ham.), Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 86(3): 189- 194. Crozier, W. J. & Hecht, S. (1913): Correlation of weight, length and other body measurements of the weak fish, Cynoscion regalis Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish., 33. Hille, R. (1936) : Age and growth of the cisco, Leucichthys artedi (Le Sueur) in the lakes of the north-eastern highlands, Wisconsin. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish., 48: 211-317. Le Cren, C. D. (1951): The length- weight rela- tionship and seasonal cycle in gonad weight and condition in the perch (Perea fluviatilis ) J. Anim. Ecol., 20: 201-219. Martin, W. R. (1949) : The mechanics of envi- ronmental control of body form in fishes. Univ, 108 LENGTH -WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP OF RASBORA DANICONIUS Toronto Stud. Biol., 58, Publ. Ontario Fish. Res. Lab., 70: 1-91. Misu, H. (1964): Fisheries biology on the rib- bon fish, Trichiurus lepturus in the East China and Yellow Seas. Bull. Seikai. Reg. Fish. Res. Lab., 32: 1-58. Narasimhan, K. A. (1970): On the length-weight relationship and relative condition in Trichiurus lep- turus Linneaus. Indian J. Fish., 77(1-2) : 90-96. Ostle, Bernard (1966): Statistics in Research: Basic concepts and Techniques for research work. Oxford and I.B.M. Publishing Co., Calcutta, 16. Prabhu, M. S. (1955) : Some aspects of the bio- logy of the ribbon fish, Trichiurus haumela (Fors- kal). Indian J. Fish., 2(1): 132-163. Snedecor, G. W. (1961): Statistical methods ap- plied to experiments in Agriculture and Biology. (Indian Edition). Allied Pacific Private Ltd., Bom- bay, India, pp. 534. 109 INFLUENCE OF ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY ON THE VARIATIONS IN SEASONAL ABUNDANCE AND PHENOLOGY OF M1CRONECTA STRIATA FIEBER1 T. C. Banerjee, A. S. Mondal and T. K. Nayek2 ( With seven text-figures) Catches of Micronecta striata F. in a light trap surrounding the Crop Research Farm were continually obtained at different seasons over twenty-one months. Numerical abundance during the different seasons varied consistently, leading to the occurrence of well-defined peaks in September 1978, and March, June and October 1979. The data were compared with the prevailing conditions of atmospheric temperature and humidity. Observed variations in local abundance and activity were fairly associated with the seasonal changes in both the parameters. Annual simple correlations were significantly negative (P ^ 0.05) with maximum temperature and indifferent with minimum temperature. More of the variations (59.01%) in the activity of M. striata were related to the changes in maximum relative humidity (P ^ 0.01) than that of the minimum one. Variance analysis suggested that a little alteration in the moisture content of the air during night might induce considerable changes in the activity of the species population. ecological conditions become favourable (Banerjee and Choudhuri 1980). The local status and phenology of Micro- necta striata Fieber in relation to tropical weather conditions are comparatively less known. This paper, attempts to consider the local abundance and phenology of the insect species, by means of a light trap, in relation to the tropical conditions of atmospheric tem- perature and humidity. Material and Methods The material of this investigation comprised the adults of a phototropic nocturnal insect, M. striata Fieber (Hemiptera: Corixidae) which was collected continually over twenty- one months (April 1978-December 1979) by a light trap in the Crop Research Farm, Uni- Introduction Seasonal variations in distribution and abun- dance of the tropical insects are largely condi- tioned by variations in the environmental para- meters, particularly the weather that produces profound influence on the phenology of the species concerned (Dobzhansky and Pavan 1950, Andrewartha and Birch 1954, Williams 1961, Owen 1969, Gibbs and Leston 1970, Bigger 1976, Wolda 1978b). In such areas with six pronounced seasons, as most of eastern India, the numerical strength of insects de- creases during summer and winter but, it in- creases during autumn and spring when the 1 Accepted September 1980. 2 Ecology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Burdwan, Burdwan 713 104. West Bengal, India. 110 SEASONAL ABUNDANCE AND PHENOLOGY OF MICRONECTA STRIATA Fig. 1. Seasonal variations in distribution and abundance of the captures of M. striata in a light trap. versify of Burdwan (23°16'N and 87°54'E). The insect is widely distributed and one of the most abundant species in the group. It lives submerged in water clinging with its hind legs to various objects (Popham 1943, Pruthi 1969) but swarms in the air for various biological activities. Trapping covered the time between half-an- hour before sunset and half-an-hour after sunrise everyday. Certain unavoidable circum- stances arising out of power failure, mechani- cal defects, etc., however, caused interruptions in the continuous trapping for 8 nights in 1978 and 14 nights in 1979. The numerical strength of the catch (i.e. local abundance X activity) differed from night to night probably due to the prevalence of variable weather conditions which produced occasionally considerably large or small collections. The five-day run- ning mean was adopted to avoid swamping effects produced by the excess captures on the small ones. Ill JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. SI The data on the seasonal variations in abundance and activity of the species popula- tion, as measured by the light trap catches, were maintained in the laboratory in the fol- lowing morning and expressed as mean log catch ± 1 S.E. per night (Williams 1937, Beall 1938). This logarithmic transformation of the nightly capture made the assumed linearity more plausible since each transforma- tion reduced the range of the variable con- cerned. In practice, one was added before taking logarithm of each of the dependent variable (i.e. log n+1) to mitigate any zero catch. The influencing atmospheric environmental parameters considered for the study were the maximum temperature and minimum relative humidity of the day preceding the night of capture, and the minimum temperature and maximum relative humidity on the night of capture. These were taken by the Meteorolo- gical Branch at Burdwan under the Directo- Fig. 2. Seasonal changes in abundance, as mean log catch per night, of M. striata against the corresponding changes in atmospheric maximum and minimum temperature (Vertical lines represent one standard error on either sides of the mean). 112 SEASONAL ABUNDANCE AND PHENOLOGY OF MICRONECTA STRIATA rate of Agriculture, Government of West Bengal, which operated a constantly recording thermo-hygrograph. The correlation and regression co-efficients were worked out to enquire into the relations between the dependent and independent varia- bles (Bailey 1959). The annual ‘b’ values were further employed to forecast the average amount of change in each weather factor that would precisely be required for a unit change in the dependent variable. Since the interpre- tation of such simple relationship was compli- cated by simultaneous relations existing with- in the matrix, the analysis of variance was resorted to for examining the extent of con- tribution made by each of the influencing parameters, so as to account for the total sum of squares of the deviations in the dependent variables. Results Variations in seasonal abundance : It was observed that a collection of 745211 adult individuals of M. striata was continually caught over twenty-one months. The composi- tion of the captures differed from 2 47 009 in 1978 to 4 98 202 in 1979. Figure 1 presents the variations in the local abundance of the insect, as indicated by the light trap captures, for each month sampled. The proportional capture shows the increase during September- October (40.7%-33 .4%) in 1978 and Sept- ember-November (16.9%-30.6%) in 1979. Despite such increases, the numerical strength of the species population varied con- sistently, leading to the occurrence of well- defined peaks in September 1978, and March, June and October 1979. These peaks probably represent the abundance contributed by the cycling of life-processes of the species popu- lation in the locality, and increased local acti- vity induced by the prevailing circumstances in which the catches occurred during those months. Variations in activity in relation to temperature : The variations in the seasonal abundance, as mean log catch per night, in relation to recorded changes in temperature parameters, have been presented in figure 2. The swamping effects, produced by occasional excess cap- tures resulting in substantial change in the proportion on three and two nights in Sept- ember 1978 and October 1979, respectively, were reduced by the treatment of running loga- rithmic mean. It would, thus, be noticed that the peaks were shifted from September to October 1978 and October to November 1979 (cf. Fig. 1). The larger values in the curve during Octo- ber 1978, and March, June and November 1979 indicated associations between the activity of the insect species resulting in higher cap- tures and the respective maxima and minima of take-off temperature that ranged from 30.86°C to 23.68°C, 31.98°C to 18.64°C, 36.56°C to 25.91°C and 30.86°C to 19.22°C. In spite of such associations, the seasonal varia- tions in phenology ought not to be considered as the only contribution of temperature para- meters. Still, much of the variations in the occurrence of such events might be ascribed to the changing influence of ambient tempera- ture conditions of the plots during certain months. The correlation and regression coefficients between the temperature parameters and the captures of M. striata have been presented in table 1. The V values with maximum tem- perature were significantly positive in August, September and December 1978, and in Febru- ary and December 1979. Similarly, the V values with minimum temperature were signi- ficantly positive in December 1978, and Febru- 113 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 ary, September and December 1979; and nega- tive in July 1979. Besides, the average ‘r’ value for 1978 was significantly negative (P 0.05) with maximum temperature; whereas, two years’ average correlations were insignificantly positive with regard to both the parameters. The linear relationship between the captures of the insect and the temperature parameters 114 Fig. 3. Scatter diagram with regression lines showing relationship between the captures of M. striata and atmospheric maximum temperature (for 1978, Y = 5.2833-0.115 x and 1979, Y = 0.5936 + 0.0355 x). SEASONAL ABUNDANCE AND PHENOLOGY OF MICRONECTA STRIATA may also be shown graphically in the form respective regression constants for maximum of scatter diagrams (Figs. 3 and 4). The slope temperature ( — 0.115 for 1978 and 0.0355 of the fitted lines in each diagram indicated for 1979) and minimum temperature ( — 0.012 Fig. 4. Scatter diagram with regression lines showing relationship between the captures of M. striata and atmospheric minimum temperature (for 1978, Y = 1.8878 — 0.012 x and 1979, Y = 1.0778 + 0.0304 x). 115 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Table 1 Correlation and regression coefficients between the captures (log n+1) of M. striata and the ATMOSPHERIC MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURES Maximum temperature (°C) Minimum temperature (°C) 1978 1979 1978 1979 Corr. Reg. Corr. Reg. Corr. Reg. Corr. Reg. January — — 0.5377 0.4593 — — • -0.1658 -0.0560 February — — 0.7191* 0.1327 — — 0.9404*** 0.3829 March — — 0.1395 0.0183 — — -0.0281 -0.0040 April 0.1278 0.0314 0.3869 0.2014 0.3160 0.0684 -0.1036 -0.0660 May 0.1942 0.0467 0.1762 0.0867 0.3010 0.1067 -0.3614 -0.4115 June -0.3919 -0.0711 -0.6261 -0.1018 -0.1577 -0.2298 -0.4885 -0.4033 July 0.6983 0.6193 0.4875 0.4386 0.2237 0.3972 -0.7497* 1.1175 August 0.7091* 1 . 3989 0.6551 0.7598 -0.0464 -0.0761 -0.1179 -0.3288 September 0.8638** 0.6434 0.0420 0.0515 0.4873 0.7780 0.9632*** 1.5825 October 0.6968 1.3882 -0.5818 -0.6406 -0.2030 -0.1007 -0.5670 -0.4719 November 0.288 0.2151 -0.0155 -0.0110 -0.1855 -0.0626 -0.0056 -0.005 December 0.9071** 0.7552 0.8601** 0.5376 0.7893* 0.4649 0.7420* 0.5496 Annual -0.4062* -0.1150 0.1890 0.0355 -0.0632 -0.0120 0.1777 0.0304 Average of 1978 and 1979; Corr. = 0.0061 Reg. = : 0.0013 Corr. = 0.0787 Reg. = 0.014 Significant differences are indicated by *(P ^ 0.05), *=• HP < 0.01) or *** (P 0.001). Table 2 Correlation AND REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN THE CAPTURES (LOG N+1) OF M. striata and the ATMOSPHERIC MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM HUMIDITY PARAMETERS Maximum Humidity (%) Minimum Humidity (%) 1978 1979 1978 1979 Corr. Reg. Corr. Reg. Corr. Reg. Corr. Reg. January — — -0.5363 -0.3825 — — -0. 3640 -0.0287 February — — -0.0803 -0.0164 — — -0.7379* -0.0320 March — — -0.7354* -0.0837 — — 0.0236 0.0009 April -0.3924 -0.0714 -0.1373 -0.0411 -0.2665 -0.0095 -0.3558 -0.0607 May -0.3131 -0.0573 0.3567 0.0972 -0.4411 -0.0267 0.8498** 0.2123 June 0.271 0.0149 0.8084* 0.0689 0.4972 0.0154 0.5936 0.0301 July 0.3086 0.1332 -0.2733 -0.0692 -0.8891** -0.2083 -0.0460 -0.0460 August -0.5684 -0.4599 -0.1663 -0.1104 0.6098 0.1607 -0.5582 -0. 1478 September -0.8020* -0.4985 -0.6791 -0.5115 -0.9864*** -0.1380 -0.4632 -0.4632 October -0.5435 -0.2769 —0. 9747* * * -0.557 -0.7342* -0.1011 0.0822 0.0233 November 0.7076* 0.1430 -0.7944* -0.0664 -0.0339 -0.0016 -0.7443* -0.0353 December 0.6872 0.3002 -0.3196 -0.0642 0.1084 0.0231 -0.6003 -0.0618 Annual 0.4781** 0.1871 0.0361 0.0105 0.3079 0.0160 -0.0622 -0.0038 Average of 1978 and 1979 : Corr. = 0.1806 Reg. = = 0.0579 Corr. — 0.1006 Reg. = 0.0057 V Significant differences are indicated by *(P ^0.05), **(P ^ 0.01) or ***(P ^0.001). 116 MEAN LOG CATCH PER NIGHT SEASONAL ABUNDANCE AND PHENOLOGY OF MICRONECTA STRIATA Fig. 5. Seasonal changes in abundance, as mean log catch per night, of M. striata against the corresponding changes in atmospheric maximum and minimum relative humidity (Vertical lines represent one standard error on either sides of the mean). for 1978 and 0.0304 for 1979). The positive ‘b’ values for 1979 with both the parameters suggested that the average change of 8.5°C or 9.9°C in the respective atmospheric maximum and minimum temperatures would precisely be required for a unit change in the activity of the insect species. Variations in activity in relation to relative humidity : Figure 5 shows the seasonal changes in abundance of M. striata as mean log catch per night, in relation to corresponding changes in the moisture content of the air. It would be noted from the figure that the average mini- 117 MEAN |»OG CATCH PER NIGHT JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 0—0 1978 1979 n 68 70 80 90 I MAXIMUM R.H. C *7 118 Fig. 6. Scatter diagram with regression lines showing relationship between the captures of M. striata and atmospheric maximum relative humidity (for 1978, Y = 0.1871 x - 15.419 and 1979, Y = 0.8717 + 0.0105 x). • O MEAN LOG CATCH PER NIGHT SEASONAL ABUNDANCE AND PHENOLOGY OF MICRONECTA STRIATA Fig. 7. Scatter diagram with regression lines showing relationship between the captures of M. striata and atmospheric minimum relative humidity (for 1978, Y = 0.6903 + 0.016 x and 1979, Y = 1.9246 - 0.0038 x). 119 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 mum relative humidity fluctuated violently (34.52%-74.46%) in contrast with that of the maximum one (82.55%-94.2 6%). Even then, the increases in local activity and abundance of the insect species during October 1978, and March, June and November 1979 were asso- ciated with the respective maxima and minima of local humidity parameters ranging from 92.57 to 71.6%, 82.55 to 39.17%, 86.36 to 55.9% and 89.7 to 58.7%. Simple correlations with the maximum rela- tive humidity indicated that these were signi- ficantly positive in November 1978, and June 1979; and negative in September 1978, and March, October and November 1979 (Table 2). Similarly, the V values with minimum relative humidity were significantly positive in May 1979; and negative in July, September and October 1978, and February and Novem- ber 1979. Besides, the average V value for 1978 was significantly positive (P 0.01) with maximum relative humidity; whereas, two years’ average correlations were insignificantly positive with regard to both the humidity parameters. Figures 6 and 7 indicate through scatter diagrams the linear relationship between the captures of the insect species and the humidity parameters. The regression constants with the humidity parameters indicated that the average changes of 1 . 6% or 28 . 8% in the atmosphe- ric maximum relative humidity during 1978 or 1979, respectively and 18.9% in the atmos- pheric minimum relative humidity during 1979, would precisely be required for a unit change in the activity of the species population. It ought to be evident from the above that the change in the activity of M. striata was somewhat influenced by the seasonal changes in temperature and humidity conditions of the Table 3 Analysis of variance of the captures (log n+1) of M. striata against the environmental parameters (Table values at 5% and 1% points are 4.35 and 8.10. with fx = 1 and f2 = 20, respectively) Sources of variation Sum of squares Degrees of freedom Mean squares. Variance ratio (F) Regression of max. temp. 0.0177 1 0.0177 0.0396 Residua] 13.5074 20 0.6749 = 98.8% or 0.2% explained Regression of min. temp. 1.7346 1 1.7346 Residual 11.7905 20 0.5895 = 87.18% or 12.82% explained 2.942 Regression of max. rh. 7.98 1 7.98 Residual 5.5451 20 0.2772 = 40.99% or 59.01% explained 28.7878 Regression of max. rh. 2.8509 1 2.8509 Residual 10.6742 20 0.5337 = 78.93% or 21.07% explained 5.3417 Total 13.5251 21 — — 120 SEASONAL ABUNDANCE AND PHENOLOGY OF MICRONECTA STRIATA air. From the analysis of variance (Table 3), it may also be observed that a larger portion (80.08%) of the variations in the insect’s acti- vity was ascribed to the humidity parameters, particularly to the maximum one (59.01%), than that of the temperature parameters. The unexplained portion of the variations is ascrib- able to some other factors, such as rainfall, wind, food, etc. which are excluded from this purview. Discussion No matter what abundance and activity the light trap catches reveal, much of the repre- sentation of these catches in this paper is speculative because variations in the capture result from changes in the level of local abun- dance, and from the nature and extent of local activity induced by the prevailing environment (Bowden and Gibbs 1973, Banerjee 1977). It is, therefore, thought particularly useful to study the phenology of the species population that gives rise to the variations in seasonal captures in relation to the climatic conditions of the place. Notwithstanding the source population, one trap at a single location was used to record events that involved variations in local abun- dance and activity of the insect species. The numerical change in abundance of the insect species between different times, as reflected Refer Andrewartha, H. G. & Birch. L. C. (1954): The Distribution and Abundance of Animals. Uni- versity of Chicago Press, Chicago. Bailey, N. T. J. (1959): Statistical methods in biology. The English Universities Press Ltd. Loud., 200 pp. Banerjee, T. C. & Choudhuri, D. K. (1980) : Studies on the seasonal variations of the swarming of the males of Dorylus labiatus (Hymenoptera : Formicidae) in relation to some environmental fac- by the light trap samples for all the seasons of the insect’s activity, suggest its range of selective preference to the optimum environ- mental conditions. Seasonal fluctuations in abundance and activity of insects depend on biotic as well as on climatic factors. The periods of large catches of the insect during September, Octo- ber and November were related in some way to the prevailing local conditions of tempera- ture and humidity. Temperature differences showed negative or indifferent correlation with the observed variations in the activity. Much of the variations (59.01%) in activity of M. striata was associated with the changes in the maximum relative humidity content of the air even though both of the influencing humidity parameters were considered for this study. This suggests that the insect, which is primarily an aquatic one, depends more on the moisture content of the air during night for its activity than on any weather factor; and slight altera- tion in such a parameter may induce consider- able change in the activity of the species popu- lation. Acknowledgement We are thankful to Prof. D. K. Choudhuri for providing facilities to one of us (ASM) to work in the department. E N C E S tors. Rev. Ecol. Biol. Sol. 17: 217-227. Beall, G. (1938) : Methods of estimating the oopulation of insects in a field. Biometrika, 30: 422-439. Bigger, M. (1976): Oscillations of tropical insect population. Nature, Lond. 259: 207-209. Dobzhansky, T. & Pavan, C. (1950): Local and seasonal variations in relative frequencies of species of Drosophila in Brazil. /. Ariim. Ecol. 19: 1-14. Gibbs, D. G. & Leston, D. (1970): Insect pheno- 121 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 81 logy in a forest coca farm locality in West Africa. /. Appl. Ecol. 7: 519-548. Owen, D. F. (1969): Species diversity and sea- sonal abundance in tropical Sphingidae (Lepidop- tera). Proc. Roy. ent. Soc. Lond. (A) 44: 10-12. Popham, E. J. (1943) : Ecological studies of the commoner British Corixidae. /. Anim. Ecol. 12: 124- 136. Pruthi, H. S. (1969): Text book on Agricultural Entomology. ICAR publication, New Delhi, India, 977 pp. Williams, C. B. (1937): The use of logarithms in the interpretation of certain entomological pro- blems. Ann. Appl. Biol. 34: 406-414. (1961) : Studies on the effect of weather conditions on the activity and abundance of insect populations. Phil. Trans. 224: 331-378. Wolda, H. (1978a) Seasonal fluctuations in rain- fall, food and abundance of tropical insects. J. Anim. Ecol. 47: 369-381. (1978b) : Fluctuations in abundance of tropical insects. Amer. Natur. 112: 1017-1045. 122 FURTHER CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI DISTRICT (WEST BENGAL)1 J. K. SlKDAR2 AND ROLLA S. RAO3 ( With a text-figure ) The paper presents an enumeration of 500 taxa belonging to 109 families of Angio- sperms. Of these 424 species of Dicotyledons are spread over 306 genera and 93 families and 76 species of Monocotyledons over 58 genera and 16 families. All the taxa recorded here may be considered as further additions to sedges and grasses by Chaudhuri (1959) and the species from Buxa Division given by Ghosh & Ghosh (1977). In this paper a small number of collections made earlier but not worked out and reported earlier from this Division, are added along with extensive collec- tions by me (J. K. Sikdar) from Buxa Division in different seasons during the years 1974-77 while working out the ‘Flora of Jalpaiguri District’. Topography and general features of Buxa Division (D), earlier work, with recent additions on new, interesting and little known species, for India, Eastern India and West Bengal are given under introduction. In the systematic enumeration nomenclature, localities with reference to forest ranges and field numbers are given. Introduction Of the four Forest Divisions in Jalpaiguri District, Buxa Division (D) is situated at the eastern-most part, 26°16'-26°41'N and 89°26 - 89°55'E, bounded by Assam state in the east, Coochbehar forest division (in Jalpaiguri Dis- trict) in the West, Bhutan in the north and Coochbehar District in the South. The Forest Division is mostly a plain land with the excep- tion of Buxaduar hills under the Buxaduar forest range (D5) with Sinchula (— 1917 m) as the highest point. 1 Accepted February 1982. 2 Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah 711 103. Present address : Dept, of Botany, Kakdwip Vidyasagar College, Post Nabad- wip, Dist. Nadia (W.B.). 3 Formerly Jt. Director, Botanical Survey of India and also Professor & Head of the Deptt. of Botany, Andhra University, Waltair. Now Honorary Director, CSIR & UGC Research Schemes and Principal In- vestigator, D.S.T. Project on District Floras of Andhra Pradesh. The continuous stretch of reserve forest of Buxa Division (D) is divided into 7 forest ranges namely Nimati (Dl), Damanpur (D2), Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Jainti (D4), Buxaduar (D5), Raidak (D6) and somewhat isolated block Bholka (D7). The forest Divisional Office is now at Rajabhatkhawa, a few kilo- meters from Alipurduar town. The forests of the Division cover an area of about 420.98 sq. km., out of the total forest area of nearly 1087.5 sq. km. of Jalpaiguri District. Besides ‘Sal’ ( Shorea robusta ) timber, the most important industry in this Division is Tea plantation and production of ‘tea’ ( Camellia sinensis ) by 27 Tea estates. In Jalpaiguri District, Buxa Forest Division (D) is floristically rich and significant when compared to the other three forest divi- sions. With the Himalayan region as the north- ern boundary and the high rainfall zone of Assam along the eastern part, there is every possibility of extension of distribution and 123 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 migration cf interesting plant species to the dis- trict through Buxa Division (D). The Alipur- duar-Buxa road also presents a picturesque view with ‘Sal’, ‘Saj’, ‘Champ’, ‘Sida’ and other trees growing high on both sides of the road. In the Buxa and Sinchula forest areas, varieties of Orchids and ferns grow well. Buxaduar hills offer a splendid view all round. Numerous rivers and streams intersect the extensive tracts of ‘Sal’ and other forests reaching up to the hills. With its interesting topography and unique geology and vegetation, Buxaduar range (D5) forests harbour several interesting species. The forests of this Division can be divided into (1) Semi-evergreen forests, (2) Moist deciduous forests, (3) Dry deciduous forests, (4) ‘Sal’ forests (Plantations), (5) Grasslands and (6) Riverain forests, thus clarifying to some extent the various forest types as presented by Cham- pion and Seth (1968). The Forest Division is made up of alluvium with deposits of coarse-gravel near the hills on the north, sandy clay and sand along the course of rivers. The beds of Buxa hills consist of variegated slates, quartzites and dolomites. The average annual rainfall is 3925.1 mm (154.33") in the Division with a slight increase on the north-eastern part (towards Buxaduar hills). The floristic account and notes on the plants of Buxa Forest Division (D) are quite limited. They are (1) Gamble’s (1878) list with many tree species of undivided Jalpaiguri district, (2) Prain’s Bengal Plants (1903) from North Bengal in general without any mention of Jalpaiguri district, (3) a list without precise localities by Cowan and Cowan (1929), (4) notes on sedges and grasses by Chaudhuri (1959), (5) a brief sketch on the vegetation of Jalpaiguri district, based on limited collec- tions during 1962 from Rajabhatkhawa Forest Range (D3) of this Division and Apalchand Forest Range of Baikunthapur Forest Division by Mukerjee (1965) with an addition of a few orchids and ferns from Buxa Division (1972 a; 1972 b), (6) K. P. Biswas’ Book (upto Ericaceae 1967) with a few species from Raja- bhatkhawa (D3) and Buxaduar (D5), but without any precise localities and (7) a list of 145 species (collected by V. Narayanswamy and party in 1949 and mostly identified by them but not published) by Ghosh and Ghosh (1977). Subsequently during 1974-77, Sikdar under the guidance of Rolla Rao, carried out careful field studies systematically, covering forest Ranges of all the Forest Divisions of Jalpaiguri district as Research Scholar of the Botanical Survey of India and prepared a de- tailed flora of the district (Ph.D. thesis, 1980). While the major flora work is under prepara- tion, Sikdar along with others published brief notes on whatever interesting plants of the Divi- sion and other neighbouring areas that have been scrutinised earlier. They are Sikdar (1976; 1979; 1981a; 1981b; 1982), Sikdar & Ghosh (1978; 1979; 1981a; 1981b), Sikdar & Maiti (1979; 1981a; 1981b) and Sikdar & Maji (1981). Besides, the other published notes on the plants of the Division are by Ghosh & Maiti (1978) and Krishna & Dutta (1979). It is therefore evident that data on the plant resources of the Buxa Forest Division (D) is very meagre and hence an attempt is now be- ing made to present a good account on the plants of the Forest Division with specific loca- lities etc. together with a map and other de- tails, purely based on the collections made by Sikdar during his field studies in 1974-77. Several interesting taxa, not recorded earlier from (1) West Bengal, (2) Eastern India and even from (3) India, but collected from the Division and published by Sikdar as new re- cords for those areas are included in this work 124 FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI DIST. Fig. ]. 125 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. SI with special markings as **’ for (1), ***’ for (2), ‘***’ for (3). The species described re- cently from the Division are marked with V. To mention a few interesting points of the geo- graphical distribution of the so called ende- mics: Amblyanthopsis bhotanica (C. B. Clarke) Mez, an extremely rare and rather endemic species supposed to be confined to small patches in the sub-Himalayan foot hills of the tropical semi-evergreen zone of Bhutan with specific ecological habitat, is now collect- ed after a span of nearly one and half cen- turies after its type collection in 1838, from very near to the type locality in the Buxaduar Forest Range (D5) practically on the Indo- Bhutanese border. Since type collection from Bhutan in 1837-38, Senecio bhot C. B. Clarke had been collected only twice from Bhutan. Then in 1975, one of us (Sikdar) collected the plant from Indian main land for the first time in Buxaduar forest Range (D5) of Jalpaiguri district. If it is assumed that S. bhot is a plant of recent introduction to the Duars, it indi- cates a gradual extension of its distribution southwards from subtropical Bhutan into the tropical sub-Himalayan foothills of North Bengal. Acanthus carduaceous Griffith is a scarcely known species once considered to be endemic to Bhutan but now known on the basis of recent collections by Sikdar to be gradually extending westwards towards Dar- jeeling district and also southwards along Jal- paiguri district (Buxa Division) of North Bengal. Aganosma gracilis Hook, f., an inte- resting rare species said to be confined to Sikkim, North Bengal (possibily Darjeeling district) and Meghalaya (Khasi hills), has now been collected from Buxaduar hills (D5) near- ly fifty years after Cowan’s report (1929). Sikdar (in press) made some critical observa- tions on these little known species, Amblyan- thopsis bhotanica, Senecio bhot and Aganosma gracilis. Besides these, two new species have recently described from Buxa Division (D) i.e.. Dal - bergia duarensis by K. Thothathri (1972) on the basis of Heawood’s collection of 1891 from Alipurduar (D3) and Ophiorrhiza seshagiriana by Sikdar & Maiti (1981) based on Sikdar’s own collection from Buxaduar Forest Range (D5). The present survey was conducted by one of us (J. K. Sikdar) during different seasons between the years 1974 to 1977 as a part of the project work “Flora of Jalpaiguri District” of Central National Herbarium, Howrah (CAL). Thus in the present paper 388 species (including varieties and subspecies) collected by Sikdar during 1974-77 and also a few by others which have not been worked and pub- fished so far, excluding however the species noted by Chaudhuri (1959) and Ghosh & Ghosh (1977) from Buxa Division (D) (to avoid repetition), are presented as additional data covering 500 taxa of Angiosperms distri- buted under 109 families (Dicotyledons 424 species under 306 genera and 93 families; Monocotyledons 76 species under 58 genera and 16 families). In the enumeration below, the locality is specifically indicated by a symbol in the brac- ket which refers to the Forest Division (D) and number of the Forest Range as given in the map (Fig. 1). Each locality is however, represented by a field number /numbers in respective order. All the collections noted in the paper are available in the Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah (CAL) ex- cept B. Krishna’s collections which are depo- sited in the Herbarium of Industrial Section, Botanical Survey of India (BSIS). 126 FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI DIST. Systematic enumeration DICOTYLEDONS Ranunculaceae Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex DC. Chunabhati (D5), 900 m, Sikdar 993. Naravelia zeylanica (Linn.) DC. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 806; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7077. Ranunculus diffusus DC. On way to Sinchu (D5), 1800 m, Sikdar 6955. Magnoliaceae Talauma hodgsoni Hook. f. & Thoms. On way to Buxaduar (D5), 550 m, Sikdar 4607; Near Buxaduar range office (D5), 625 m, Sikdar 943. Annonaceae *Desmos dumosus (Roxb.) Safford On way to Tobgaon (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 4632. Miliusa roxburghiana (Wall, ex Griff.) Hook. f. & Thoms. On way to Buxaduar (D5), 500 m, Sikdar 4593. Menispermaceae Stephan ia japonica (Thunb.) Miers Poro (Dl), Sikdar 923. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook. f. Thoms. On way to Sinchu (D5), 1500 m, Sikdar 4686. Papaveraceae Araemone mexicana Linn. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7027 ; Raima- tong (D5), Sikdar 7028. Brassicaceae (=Cruciferae) Brassica juncea (Linn.) Czern. & Coss. Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4098; Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4206. Rorippa indica (Linn.) Hiern. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6984. Capparidaceae Capparis olacifolia Hook. f. & Thoms. Way to Tobgaon (D5), 750 m, Sikdar 4634. Cleome viscosa Linn. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7030. Violaceae Viola arcuata Bl. Ramiti (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 4689. Viola pilosa Bl. Chapchikam, on way to Sinchula (D5), 1400 m, Sikdar 4613. Bixaceae Xylosma longifolium Clos Poro (Dl), Sikdar 831. Caryophyllaceae Drymaria cordata (Linn.) Willd. ex Roem. & Schult. Damanpur (D2), Sikdar 781; South Raja- bhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 904; Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4627; Tashigaon (D5), 600 m, Sikdar 4238. Polycarpon prostratum (Forssk.) Asck. & Schweinf. South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6976; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7036. 127 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol 81 Theaceae Camellia kissi Wall. Buxaduar (D5), 650 m, Sikdar 4052. Schima wallschii (DC.) Korthals Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 1000; Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4639. Saurauiaceae Saurauia fasciculata Wall. Way to Sinchu (D5), 1700m, Sikdar 6953. DlPTEROC AR P ACE AE Shorea robusta Gaertn. f. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7049. Vatsca lanceaefolia Bl. Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 460 Malvaceae Abutiion indicum (Linn.) Sweet Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7080. Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn. Moynabari, Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4142. Malvasfrum coromandelimim (Linn.) Gracke Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7081. Malvaviscus conzattii Greenman. Garam (D2), Sikdar 883. Sida acuta Burm. f. Bhutanghat (D6), 300 m, Sikdar 4100. S. cordifolia Linn. Near Buxaduar (D5), 750 m, Sikdar 6929. Tiliaceae Grewia serrulata DC. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 901; North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4148. Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 760; Garam (D2), Sikdar 894; North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4175. Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus sikkimensis Masters Chapchikam, on way to Sinchu (D5), Sikdar 6913. OxALIDACEAE Biophytum sensitivum (Linn.) DC. Tashigaon (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4041; Way to Buxaduar (D5), 700 m, Sikdar 7084. Oxalis comiculata Linn. Way to Tobgaon (D5), 900m, Sikdar 4620. Balsaminaceae Impatiens baisamina Linn. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7011; Tashi- gaon (D4), 800 m, Sikdar 4005. I. exilis Hook. f. Buxa to Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, V. Nara- yanswami 2613. I. trilobata Coleb. Mahakalguri, Alipurduar (D3), E. A. Hea- wood 65. I. tripetaia Roxb. Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1627; Buxa to Chunabhati (D5), 850 m, V. Narayanswami 2613. Rutaceae Citrus auruntium Linn. Lapchakhawa (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 950. Ciausena excavata Burm. f. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6978. Glycosmis arborea (Roxb.) Correa Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4140; South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4211; South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4246; Buxaduar (D5), 650m, Sikdar 6925. Todalia asiatica (Linn.) Lamk. Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4643; Way to Sinchula (D5), K. Biswas 2071. 128 FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI DIST. SlMAROUBACEAE Picrasma javanica Bl. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6985; Buxa to Jainti (D4), V. Narayanswami 3016. Burseraceae Garuga pinnata Roxb. Way to Buxaduar (D5), 500 m, Sikdar 7085. Meliaceae Amoora wallichii King. Poro rest house campus (Dl), B. Krishna 204. Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4248. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7039. Toona ciliata Roem. Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 467; 475. Walsura tubulata Hiern. Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 6936; Chuna- bhati (D5), 950 m, Sikdar 4652. Celastraceaf. CeSastrus paniculatus Willd. Chikoh (D2), Sikdar 906. Eunymus frigidus Heyne ex Wall. Road to Murichom, 39th Mile (D5), 1600 m, V. Narayanswami 2788. Salacia roxburghii Wall, ex Hook. f. Tobgaon, on way to Buxaduar (D5), 850 m, Sikdar 4616. Rhamnaceae Rhamnus nepalensis Wall, ex Roxb. South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 274; Lapchakhawa (D5), 850 m, Sikdar 4061. Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk. North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4147. Z. rugosa Lamk. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7086. VlTACEAE Ampelocissus barbatus (Wall.) Planch. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2445. Cayratia japonica (Thunb.) Gagnep. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 801; Buxa-Bhutan road (D5), 1200 m, V. Narayanswami 2586. Cissus adnata Roxb. Garam (D2), Sikdar 869; South Rajabhat- khawa (D3), Sikdar 7091. Tetrastigma dubium (Laws.) Planch. Tobgaon (D5), 1400 m, V. Narayanswami 2677; 2679. T. lanceolarium Planch. South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4265. T. mmispermum (Laws.) Planch. Tobgaon (D5), 1400 m, V. Narayanswami , 2674. Leeaceae Leea edgewarthii Santapau Way to Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4640. L. indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7093; Jainti (D4), V. Narayanswami 3000. L. macrophylla Roxb. ex Hornem. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6992. Sapindaceae Aphania rubra (Roxb.) Radik. South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4213. Dimocarpus longan Lour. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7095. Sapindus laurifolia Vahl Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7094. Hippocastanaceae Aesculus assamica Griffith Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 68; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 459. 129 9 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Sabiaceae *Sabia paniculata Edgew. ex Hook. f. & Thoms. North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4178. Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidental Linn. Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 447. Mangifera indica Linn. Buxaduar (D5), 600 m, Sikdar 7096. Semecarpus anacardium Linn. f. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7191. Moringaceae Moringa oSeifera Lamk. Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 455. Labaceae (=Papilionaceae) CSItoria ternatea Linn. Chengmari (D7), Sikdar 7041. *Crota!aria huinifusa Grah. Mahakalguri, Alipurduar (D3), E. A. Hea- wood 113. C. pallida Ait. Moynabari (D6), Sikdar 4146; North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4150; Buxaduar (D5), 8000m, Sikdar 4625. *Dalbergia duarensis Thoth. Mahakalguri, Alipurduar (D3), E. A. Elea- wood 104. Bo stipulacea Roxb. Damanpur (D2), Sikdar 920; Bhutanghat (D6), 310 m, Sikdar 4085. Besmodium caudafum (Thunb.) DC. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 824; Garam (D2), Sikdar 881; South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4219. Do gangeticum (Linn.) DC. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 809. Bo heterocarpon (Linn.) DC. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 784; 800. B, tiliaefolium (D. Don) Wall, ex G. Don Poro (Dl), Sikdar 839. D. triangulare (Retz.) Merr. Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4075. DoSichos biflorus Linn. Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4239. DysoSobium tetragonum Prain Alipurduar (D3), E. A. Heawood 36. Indigofera stachyoides Lindl. Way to Sinchu (D5), 1600 m, Sikdar 6911; Ramiti, on way to Sinchu (D5), 1400 m, Sikdar 4021. Panchyrhizus angulatus Rich. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 608. Pueraria subspicata Benth. Garam (D2), Sikdar 873. Uraria rufescens (DC.) Schindl. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 816. Caesalpiniaceae Bauhinia acuminata Linn. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 805. Caesalpinia cucullata Roxb. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 844; Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4121. Cassia siamea Lamk. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 918. C. tora Linn. South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4227. Phanera purpurea (Linn.) Benth. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4243. Piliostigma malabaricum (Roxb.) Benth. Central Raidak (D6), Sikdar 4134. Mimosaceae Acacia chundra (Roxb. ex Rottler) Willd. Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4097. A. peimafa (Linn.) Willd. Way to Santrabari (D5), 300 m, Sikdar 6922; Buxa to Tobgaon (D5), 750 m, V. Narayan- swami 2662; Tobgaon (D5), 800 m, K. Biswas 3221. 130 FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI DIST. A. sinuata (Lour.) Merr. Road to Murichom, Buxaduar (D5), 1700 m, V. Narayanswami 2801. A. torta (Roxb.) Craib. South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4247. Mimosa intsia Linn. Buxa (D), V. Narayanswami 2626. M. pudica Linn. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 761; Garam (D2), Sikdar 895. Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6986. Rosaceae Duchesnea indica (Andr.) Focke South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4197; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 468. Potentilla sundaica (Bl.) O. Kuntze Ramiti, Buxaduar (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 6916. Prunus persica (Linn.) Stokes Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4590. Pyrus communis Linn. Buxaduar (D5), 800m, Sikdar 6963. Rubus ellipticus Smith Way to Sinchu (D5), 1700 m, Sikdar 6958. Philadelphaceae Dichroa febrifuga Lour. Sinchu (D5), 1800 m, Sikdar 4690; Way to Sinchu (D5), 1700 m, Sikdar 6943. Escalloniaceae Itea macrophylla Wall. On way to Sinchu (D5), 1350 m, Sikdar 4677. Crassulaceae Kalanchoe integra (Medik.) O. Kuntze Lapchakhawa (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 967 ; Chunabhati (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4002. Sedum multicaule Wall. Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 4664. COM BRET ACE AE Combretum flagocarpum C. B. Clarke Buxaduar (D5), 900 m, Sikdar 962; Way to Tobgaon (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4622. Myrtaceae Eugenia formosa Wall. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2472. Syzygium cumini (Linn.) Skeels Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 479. S. obSatum (Roxb.) Wall, ex Cowan & Cowan. Tashigaon (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4020. S. samarangense (Bl.) Merr. Rajabhatkhawa ((D3), Sikdar 7106. Melastomataceae Medinilla rubicunda (Jack) Bl. On way to Sinchu (D5), 1400m, Sikdar 4696. Melastoma malabathricum Linn. Garam (D2), Sikdar 851; Poro (Dl), Sikdar 766; Buxaduar (D5), 900 m, Sikdar 7107. M. normale D. Don Way to Tobgaon (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 4637; way to Sinchu (D5), 1700m, Sikdar 4699. Osbeckia crinita Benth. ex C. B. Clarke Way to Sinchu (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 6942. O. nepalensis Hook. Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 453. O. nutans Wall, ex C. B. Clarke Buxaduar (D5), 900 m, Sikdar 4051. Oxyspora paniculata (D. Don) DC. Way to Sinchu (D5), 1700 m, Sikdar 4687. 131 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Lythraceae Ammannia baccifera Linn. South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4203. Lagerstroemia speciosa (Linn.) Pers. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6983; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 491. Rotala indaca (Willd.) Koehne South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4209. Onagraceae Ludwigia ociovalvis ssp. sessiiiflora (Micheli) Raven North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4154; South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4226. L. perennas Linn. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 830; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4244. CUCURBITACEAE Coccisiia grandis (Linn.) Voigt Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7112. Ciscumis melo Linn. Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4240. Diplocydos palmatus (Linn.) Jeffrey Tashigaon (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 4031. Hodgsonia macrocarpa (Bl.) Cogn. 21 mile from Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Nara- yanswami 2325. Melothria leucocarpa (Bl.) Cogn. Tashigaon (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 4023. Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7125. Mukia maderaspatana (Linn.) M. Roem. Damanpur (D2), Sikdar 911; North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4164. ScehhiHi edule (Jacq.) Sw. Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 957. Solena heterophylla Lour. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 772. Trichosanthes bracteata (Lamk.) Voigt Buxa-Bhutan road (D5), 1700 m, V. Nara - yanswami 2770. T. truncata C. B. Clarke Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2420. T. waMidiiana (Ser.) Wight Buxa-Bhutan road (D5), 1400 m, V. Nara- yanswami 2961. Begoniaceae Begonia nepaiensis (A. DC.) Warburg On way to Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 934; way to Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, K. Biswas 1930. B. palmata D. Don On way to Sinchu (D5), 1800 m, Sikdar 4678; Buxa-Bhutan road (D5), 1300 m, V. Narayanswami 2600; way to Sinchu (D5), 1400 m, K. Biswas 1985. B. rubro-venia Hook. f. Buxaduar (D5), 900 m, Sikdar 4050; Buxa- Bhutan road (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 2576; Tob- gaon (D5), 1150 m, V. Narayanswami 2692. B. xanthina Hook. On way to Sinchu (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 4018. Cactaceae Opontia elatior Mill. Buxa to Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, V. Nara- yanswami 2654. Molluginaceae Glinus lotoides Linn. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7113. Apiaceae (=Umbelliferae) CenteSla asiatica (Linn.) Urban. Lapchakhawa (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 945; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 484. 132 FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGUR1 DIST. *Eryngium foetidum Linn. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6979; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2364. Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 4671; On way to Sinchu (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 6964; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), K. Biswas 3069. QenantSie javanica (Bl.) DC. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7005; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2464; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 4 66 Caprifoliaceae Viburnum colebrookianum Wall, ex C. B. Clarke Garam (D2), Sikdar 865; North Rajabhat- khawa (D3), Sikdar 6998; Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1711; 21 miles from Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2353. Sambucaceae Sambucus canadensis Linn. Buxaduar (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4029. Rubiaceae Borreria articularis (Linn, f.) F. N. Williams Garam (D2), Sikdar 866; Poro (Dl), Sikdar 792; South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4273; Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4184; Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 947; Tashigaon (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4057. Hedy otis pinifolia var. caespitosa Wall, ex G. Don Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 31. Ixora nigricans R. Br. ex Wt. & Arn. Poro, 16km from Rajabhatkhawa (Dl), B. Krishna 457. Leptodermis lanceolata Wall. On way to Sinchu (D5), 1600 m, K. Biswas 2017. Meyna iaxiflora Robyns Buxa, north-west & north-east (D5), 800 m, V. Narayanswami 2722. Morinda angustifolia Roxb. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 763; Garam (D2), Sikdar 864; South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4262; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2382; Buxa to Santrabari (D5), 650 m, V. Narayan- swami 2860. Neanotis wightiana (Wall, ex Wt. et Arn). W. H. Lewis Poro (Dl), Sikdar 802; Garam (D2), Sikdar 867; Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4118. +Ophiorrhiza seshagirlana Sikdar et Maiti Way to Sinchu (D5), 1800 m, Sikdar 4681. Uncaria sessiSifmctus Roxb. South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4208. Vangueria spinosa Roxb. Buxa (D5), 800 m, V. Narayanswami 2722. WendSandia pendula DC. Chunabhati (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 986; 987. Xeromphis sninosa (Thunb.) Keay Garam (D2), Sikdar 885; South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4194; Jainti (D4), V. Narayan- swami 3009; Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1682; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 493. Asteraceae (= Compositae) Adenostemma lavenia (Linn.) O. Kuntze Poro (Dl), Sikdar 822; Damanpur (D2), Sikdar 915; Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4192; Tashigaon (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 4014. Ageratum conyzoides Linn. South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4193; Tashigaon (D5), 1000m, Sikdar 4055; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 214. Artemisia nOagirica (C. B. Clarke) Pamp. South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4225; Buxaduar (D5), 900 m, Sikdar 952; Tashigaon (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4064. 133 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 81 Bidens biternafa (Lour.) Merr. et Sherff ex Sherff Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4106; Buxaduar (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 951. Blumea Sanceolaria (Roxb.) Druce On way to Buxaduar (D5), 700m, K. Biswas 1793. Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore Damanpur (D2), C. R. Das 41. Edipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn. Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4228; North Raja- bhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6993. Elephantopus scaber Linn. Poro (Dl) Sikdar 817. Emilia sonchifolia (Linn.) DC. Garam (D2), Sikdar 856. Erechtites valerianifolia (Wolf) DC. North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4167; 21 miles from Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2309; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 233. Eupatorium odoratum Linn. Garam (D2), Sikdar 869; Poro (Dl), Sikdar 787; Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4112; South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4256; Tashigaon (D5), 1250 m, Sikdar 4054; Near poro rest house (Dl), B. Krishna 238. Laetuca dolichophylla Kitamura On way to Buxaduar (D5), 850m, Sikdar 7825. Laggera aurita Sch.-Bip. Near poro rest house (Dl), B. Krishna 495. Mikania cordata (Burm. f.) Robinson var. indica Kitamura Garam (D2), Sikdar 861; Poro (Dl), Sikdar 812; Central Raidak (D6), Sikdar 4236, South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4186; Lapchakhawa (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4046. ***Senecio bhot C. B. Clarke Buxaduar (D5), 950m, Sikdar 973; Ramiti (D5), 1400m, Sikdar 4017; Tashigaon (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 4068. Sigesbeckia orientalis Linn. Lapchakhawa (D5), 1200m, Sikdar 958; Buxaduar (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4035; Tashi- gaon (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 4060. Sphaeranthus indicus Linn. Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4237. Spilanthes paniculata Wall. South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4275; Lapchakhawa (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 954; Tashigaon (D4), 1100 m, Sikdar 4039. Synedrella nodiflora (Linn.)) Gaertn. South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 755; Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4258; Tashigaon (D5). 1100 m, Sikdar 4079; Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 4629. Tagetes erecta Linn. Tashigaon (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 4012; Tashigaon (D5), 1000m, Sikdar 4070. *Thespis divaricata DC. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6977. Tithonia diversifolia (Henusl.) A. Gray Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4105; Buxaduar (D5), 1100m. Sikdar 978. Tridax procumbens Linn. Garam (D2), Sikdar 882. Vernonia cinerea (Linn.) Less. Garam (D2), Sikdar 853; 860. V. saligna DC. Tashigaon (D4), 1000 m, Sikdar 4049; Bhutanghat (D6), 300 m, Sikdar 4113. Y. volkameriaefolia DC. Way to Sinchu (D5), 1700 m, Sikdar 6949. Wedelia wallichii Less. Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4110; Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4189; North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6982. Xanthium strumarium Linn. Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4094; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 495. Youngia japonica (Linn.) DC. Buxaduar (D5), 700m. Sikdar 6923. 134 FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI DIST. Lobeliaceae Lobelia angulata Forst. Lapchakhawa (D5), 1250 m, Sikdar 945; Buxa-Bhutan road (D5), 900 m, V. Narayan- swami 2502. L. zeylanica Linn. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4263. Vacciniaceae Agapetes saligna (Hook, f.) Hook. f. Way to Sinchu (D5), 1800 m, Sikdar 4691; Tobgaon (D5), 1250 m, V. Narayanswami 2698. Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zeylanica Linn. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 813; Lapchakhawa (D5), 850 m, Sikdar 4661. Primulaceae Lysimachia decurrens Forst. f. Buxa-Bhutan road (D5), 1250 m, K. Biswas 2592; Buxa northwest (D5), 900 m, V. Nara- yanswami 2734. Myrsinaceae ***Amblyanthopsis bhotanica (C. B. Clarke) Mez On way to Sinchu (D5), 1700 m, Sikdar 4683. Ardisia crispa (Thunb.) A. DC. Way to Sinchu (D5), 1700 m, Sikdar 4684. Maesa chlsia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Way to Sinchu (D5), 1400 m, Sikdar 6941; Sinchu (D5), 1700m, Sikdar 6952; Way to Bhutan from Buxaduar (D5), 1500 m, Sikdar 6945. M. indica (Roxb.) A. DC. Garam (D2), Sikdar 892; South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4221; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), K. Biswas 1555; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 482. Symplocaceae Symplocos laurina (Retz.) Wall, ex G. Don Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 472. Oleaceae Jasminum amplexicauSe Buch.-Ham. ex G. Don South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4251; Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 955. J. dispermum Wall. Way to Sinchu (D5), 1750 m, Sikdar 4682. J. scandens Vahl. Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 478. Ligustrum rohustum Bl. Way to Sinchu (D5), 1750 m, Sikdar 6940. Apocyanaceae *Aganosma gracilis Hook. f. Chunabhati (D5), 1600m, Sikdar 4660. Allamanda cathartica Linn. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 765; Chunabhati (D5), 1100m, Sikdar 4663; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 449. Alstonia scholaris (Linn.) R. Br. Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 498. *Anodendron paniculatum A. DC. Around Poro forest (Dl), B. Krishna 464. Catharantbus roseus (Linn.) G. Don. Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4190. Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) Alston Buxaduar (D5), 1100m, Sikdar 7042. Holarrhena antidyseoterica (Roth) A. DC. Way to Buxaduar (D5), 600m, Sikdar 4598. Ichnocarpus frutescens (Linn.) R. Br. South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4216. Nerium indicum Mill. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7058. Plumeria rubra Linn. Buxaduar (D5), 100 m, Sikdar 6920. Rauvolfia serpentina (Linn.) Benth. ex Kurz Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4086. 135 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Tabernaemontana divaricata (Linn.) R. Br. ex Roem. et Schult. Santrabari (D5), Sikdar 924; Bhutanghat (D6), 350 m, Sikdar 4119; South Rajabhat- khawa (D3), Sikdar 4252. Tracheiospermum lucidum (D. Don) K. Schummann Way to Sinchu (D5), 1700 m, Sikdar 6960. Wrightia coccinea Sims Way to Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 7167; Buxa to Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, V. Narayan- swami 2612. W. tomentosa (Roxb.) Roem. et Schult. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6989. Asclepiadaceae *Ceropegia anguistifolia Wight Mahakalguri, Alipurduar (Dl), E. A. Hea- wood 73. Dischidia benghalensis Coleb. Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4668. Hoya arnottiana Wight Buxaduar (D5), 1200 m, K. Biswas 1738. H. lanceolata Wall, ex D. Don On way to Ramiti, Buxaduar (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 7166; on way to Sinchula (D5), 1700 m. K. Biswas 2024. *H. obcordata Hook. f. On way to Sinchula (D5), 1700 m, K. Bis- was 2001. Marsdenia tinctoria R. Br. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 807; South Rajabhat- khawa (D3), Sikdar 4267; Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1684. Periplocaceae Cryptolepis buchananii Roem. et Schult. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), K. Biswas 1717. C. sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), K. Biswas 1561; 1574; Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1654; Buxa to Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, V. Narayanswami 2656; Alipurduar (D3), C. R. Das 73. Menyanthaceae Nymphoides cristata (Roxb.) O. Kuntze Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4074. H YDROP H YLLACE AE Hydrolea zeylanica (Linn.) Vahl Poro (Dl), Sikdar 770; Garam (D2), Sik- dar 854. Bor AGIN ACE AE Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 470. Heliotropium indieum Linn. Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 497. H. strigosum Willd. Garam (D2), Sikdar 849. CONVOLVULACEAE Argyreia hookeri Clarke Poro (Dl), Sikdar 838; Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4111. Erycibe laevigata Wall, ex C. B. Clarke Way to Sinchu (D5), 1800 m, Sikdar 6937. Evolvulus nummularius (Linn.) Linn. Way to Buxa (D3), C. R. Das 80. Ipomoea batatas (Linn.) Lamk. Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4195. Merremia hederacea (Burm. f.) Hall. f. Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4230. M. umbellata (Linn.) Hall. f. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 94. Porana paniculata Roxb. Buxaduar (D5), 1150 m, Sikdar 4040. P. racemose Roxb. Ramiti, Buxaduar (D5), 1250 m, Sikdar 4019. 136 FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI DIST. CUSCUTACEAE Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 837; Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4241; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 471. SOLANACEAE Brugmasia suaveolens (Humb. & Bonpl. ex. Willd.) Bercht. & Presl Buxaduar (D5), 800m, K. Biswas 1922. Capsicum frutescens Linn. Bhutanghat (D6), 350m, Sikdar 4102. Cestrum nocturnum Linn. Chunabhati (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 997. Datura metel Linn. Way to Santrabari (D5), Sikdar 6928. Nicotiana piumbaginifolia Viviani Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7059. Physalis minima Linn. Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4099; South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4174. Solaniim erianthum D. Don Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4133. S. khasianum C. B. Clarke South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4182; North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6991; on way to Tobgaon (D5), 1200 m, K. Biswas 2046; Alipurduar (D3), C. R. Das 75. S. nigrum Linn. South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4183. S. torvum Sw. Garam (D2), Sikdar 847; South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4149; Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4215. SCROPHULARIACEAE Limnophila chinensis (Osbeck.) Merr. Damanpur (D2), Sikdar 907. L. sessiliflora (Vahl.) BI. Cheko (D2), Sikdar 917; Poro (Dl), Sikdar 752 North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4155; South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4229; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), K. Biswas 1640. *Lindenbergia hookeri C. B. Clarke ex Hook. f. et Thoms. Way to Buxaduar (D5), 650m, K. Biswas 1755. L. indica (Linn.) Vatke Buxaduar forest (D5), 750 m, Sikdar 969. L. muraria (Roxb.) Bruhl On way to Buxaduar forest (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 946. Lindernia ciiiata (Colsm.) Pennell South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4279; North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6995. L. cordifoSia (Colsm.) Merr. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 777; South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4210; 4236. L. procumbens (Krock.) Philcox South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4235. L. pusilla (Willd.) Boldingh South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 428. L. rueSlioides (Colsm.) Pennell Poro (Dl), Sikdar 778. Mazos pumihis (Burm. f.) Steenis North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6981; Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4630. M. surculosus D. Don Way to Ramiti, Buxaduar (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 6951. Scoparia dulcis Linn. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 793; South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4185; Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4037. Torenia diffusa D. Don Poro (Dl), Sikdar 788. Gesneriaceae Aeschynanthus hookeri C. B. Clarke Tobgaon (D5), 1200 m, K. Biswas 205. A. parviflora (D. Don) Spreng. Lapchakhawa (D5), 1250 m, Sikdar 948; Ramiti (D5), 1400 m, Sikdar 4700. 137 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81 Lysionotus serrata D. Don Lapchakhawa (D5), 1150m, Sikdar 979; Tobgaon (D5), 1250 m, K. Biswas 2063. Bignoniaceae Jacarandra acutifolia Humb. & Bonpl. Buxaduar (D5), 800m, Sikdar 4666. Acanthaceae * Acanthus carduaceous Griff. Ramiti, Buxaduar (D5), 1400m, Sikdar 4034; Way to Sinchula (D5), 1450m, K. Bis- was 2032. Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 949. Barleria strigosa Willd. Bhutanghat (D6), 300 m, Sikdar 4096. *Dianthera virgata (Wall, ex Nees) C. B. Clarke Lapchakhawa (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 972. Dicliptera roxburghiana Nees South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4250; Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4080; North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4165; Buxaduar (D5), 700 m, Sikdar 935; Ramiti (D5), 1600 m, Sikdar 4010; Tashigaon (D4); 1000 m, Sikdar 4065. Eranthemum nervosum (Vahl) R. Br. ex Roem. Sc Schult. Bhutanghat (D6), 325 m, Sikdar 4116. E. splendens (T. Anders.) Bremek. & Nanneng- Bremk. Buxaduar (D5), 1200m, Sikdar 990; Way to Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, K. Biswas 1914. Hygrophila polysperma (Roxb.) T. Anders, Poro (Dl), Sikdar 769; Bhutanghat 300 m, Sikdar 4083; Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4173. H. salicifolia (Vahl) Nees Poro (Dl), Sikdar 758. Lepidagathis incurva Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Poro (Dl), Sikdar 767; Garam (D2), Sikdar 871; Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4082; Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4199; Tashigaon (D4), 1100m, Sikdar 4048. Mackaya macrocarpa (Nees) Das South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4191. Nelsonia canescens (Lamk.) Spreng. Buxa-road (D3), K. Biswas 1600. Phaulopsis dorsiflora (Retz.) Santapau Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4268. Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus (Roxb.) Nees Poro (Dl), Sikdar 776; South Rajabhat- khawa (D3), Sikdar 4276. Rungia pectinata (Linn.) Nees Poro (Dl), Sikdar 818; Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4157; Bhutanghat (D6), 400 m, Sikdar 4077; Buxaduar (D5), 900m, Sikdar 929; Tashigaon (D4), 1100 m, Sikdar 4043. *StrobiIanthes anisophyllus T. Anders. Way to Buxaduar (D5), 900 m, Sikdar 932; Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 966. S. boerhavioides T. Andr. Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar , 936. S. coloratus (Nees) T. Andr. Lapchakhawa (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 980; Ramiti (D5), 1400 m, Sikdar 4013. Thunbergiaceae Thunbergia grandiflora (Roxb. ex Rottl.) Roxb. South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4278; Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4653. Verbenaceae Callicarpa macropbylla Vahl Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4214. Clerodendrum indicum (Linn.) O. Ktze. South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4260. *C. philippinum Schauer Chunabhati (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 995; Buxa- duar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 4026; Chunabhati (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4591. 138 FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURJ DIST. C. serratum (Linn.) Moon Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 451. C. viscosum Vent. Way to Buxaduar (D5), 650 m, Sikdar 4614. C. wallichii Merr. Buxaduar (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 981; Buxa- to Chunabhati (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 989. Gmeljfia arborea Roxb. Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 450. Holmskioldia sanguinea Retz. Santrabari (D5), 500 m, Sikdar 933; Bhutan- ghat (D6), 300 m, Sikdar 4114; Tashigaon (D5), 850 m, Sikdar 4067. Lantana camara Linn. Way to Buxaduar (D5), 900 m, Sikdar 925; Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 4611. Premna coriacea C. B. Clarke Way to Buxaduar (D5), 600 m, Sikdar 6934. Vitex heterophylla Roxb. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7060. Lamiaceae (=Labiatae) Achyrospermum wallichianum (Benth.) Benth. ex Hook. f. South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4246; Buxaduar (D5), 825 m, Sikdar 940; Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1635. Ajuga maerosperma Wall, ex Benth. Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 984; Tashi- gaon (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4006; Ramiti (D5), 1500 m, Sikdar 4030. A. macrospemia Wall, ex Benth. var. breviflora Hook. f. Way to Sinchula (D5), 1500 m, K. Biswas 2002. Anisochilus pallidus Wall. Buxaduar (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 974; Tashi- gaon (D5), 1250 m, Sikdar 4015. Anisomeles indica (Linn.) O. Ktze. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 819; Garam (D2), Sikdar 845; Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4081; Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4169; Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 992. Colebrookea oppositifolia J. E. Smith Buxaduar (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 988. ElshoStzia blanda Benth. Lapchakhawa (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 971; Chunabhati (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 999; Tashi- gaon (D4), 1250 m, Sikdar 4069. E. fruticosa (D. Don) Rehder Tashigaon (D5), 1250m, Sikdar 6902. Gomphostemma parviflontm Wall, ex Benth. Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1612. Hyptis suaveolens (Linn.) Poit. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 791; South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4168; Lapchakhawa (D5), 1050 m, Sikdar 4045. Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 34. L. lavandulaefolia J. E. Smith Garam (D2), Sikdar 857; Moynabari (D6), Sikdar 4144. L, mollissima Wall, ex Benth Poro (Dl), Sikdar 111. Plectranthus japonicus (Burm. f.) Koidz Ramiti (D5), 1600m, Sikdar 4011. P. striatus Benth. Ramiti (D5), 1600m, Sikdar 4008. *Pogostemon auricularius (Linn.) Hassk. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 757; Alipurduar (D3), E. A. Heawood 52. P. benghalense (Burm. f.) O. Ktze. Buxaduar (D5), 700 m. Sikdar 939. *P. elsholtzioides Benth. Buxaduar (D5), 950 m, Sikdar 926; Buxa- duar (D5), Sikdar 970. P. tuberculoses Benth. Lapchakhawa (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 4062; way to Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, K. Biswas 1756. Teucrium viscidum Bl. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7008. 139 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 81 Plantaginaceae Plantago erosa Wall. Way to Sinchu (D5), 1600 m, Sikdar 6914. Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia diffusa Linn. Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4089. Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera Linn. Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4090; South Raja- bhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4272. A. bidentata Bl. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 774. Aerva sanguinolenta (Linn.) Bl. Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4141; Tobgaon (D5), 1200 m, K. Biswas 2045. Alternanthera sessilis (Linn.) DC. Cheko (D2), Sikdar 916; Poro (Dl), Sikdar 753; Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4095; Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4156. Amaranthus spinosus Linn. Garam (D2), Sikdar 855. Celosia argentea Linn. Moynabari (D6), Sikdar 4145; Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4231; 4234. Cyathula prostrata (Linn.) Bl. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 773; Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4188; Tobgaon (D5), 1200 m, K. Biswas 3240. Deeringia amaranthoides (Lamk.) Merr. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 825; Tashigaon (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4024; Bhutanghat (D6), 250 m, Sikdar 4107. Basellaceae Basella alba Linn. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7062. POLYGONACEAE Persicaria barbata (Linn.) Hara North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4152; Bhutan- ghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3077; 3083. P. capitata (Buch.-Ham.) H. Gross Buxaduar (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 956; 985; way to Sinchu (D5), 1400 m, Sikdar 4698; Buxa- Bhutan road (D5), 1200 m, V. Narayanswami 2541. P. chinensis (Linn.) H. Gross Poro (Dl), Sikdar 751; Garam (D2), Sikdar 889; Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4166; South Raja- bhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4254; Lapchakhawa (D5), Sikdar 965; Buxa to Bhutan-road (D5), 1000 m, V. Narayanswami 2495. P. hydropiper (Linn.) Spach South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4238; South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4245; Poro (Dl), Sikdar 890; Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1613. P. kawagoeana (Makino) Nakai Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4162; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7009; 21 miles from Rajabhat- khawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2354; 2307; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 10. P. microcephala (D. Don) H. Gross Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1687. P. nepalensis (Meissn.) H. Gross Poro (Dl), Sikdar 790; Buxaduar (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 953; Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4078. P. orientale (Linn.) Assenov. Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3082. P. posumbu (D. Don) H. Gross Garam (D2), Sikdar 875; Poro (Dl), Sikdar 779; Buxa near station (D3), V. Narayanswami 2872; Buxa to Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, V. Narayanswami 2633; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2399. P. mibescens (Bl.) Hara var. acuminatum (Franch. et Sav.) Hara Poro (Dl), Sikdar 799; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 9. 140 FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI DIST. P. runcinata (Buch.-Ham.) H. Gross Ramiti (D5), 1400 m, Sikdar 4007; way to Ramiti (D5), 1250m, Sikdar 6915. P. strigosa (R. Br.) Nakai Garam (D2), Sikdar 862; Chikoh (D2), Sikdar 914. *P. viscosa (Ham. ex. D. Don) Nakai Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 11; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 496. Polygonum assamicum Meissn. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 786. P. barfoatum Linn. var. gracile (Danser) Stewart Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4088. Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Sinchu (D5), 1600 m, Sikdar 6939. R. trisetifer Stokes Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7063; Raja- bhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 12; Rajabhat- khawa depot road (D3), V. Narayanswami 2401. PlPERACEAE Peperomia heyneana Miq. Way to Sinchu (D5), 1800 m, Sikdar 6956; Buxa to Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, V. Nara- yanswami 2637; Buxa to Bhutan border (D5), 1800 m, V. Narayanswami 2750. Piper chaba Hunter 21 miles from Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2335. P. diffusion Vahl Buxa-Bhutan road (D5), 850 m, V. Nara- yanswami 2490. P. gamblei C. DC. Buxa-Bhutan road (D5), 1400 m, V. Nara- yanswami 2774. P. griffithii C. DC. Lapchakhawa (D5), Sikdar 949. P. mullesua D. Don Way to Sinchu (D5), 1500 m, Sikdar 4697. P. pedicellosum Wall, ex C. DC. Way to Raimatong (D5), 600 m, Sikdar 6931. P. peepuloides Roxb. Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 937; Buxa to Tobgaon (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 938; Buxa- duar (D5), 950 m, Sikdar 4058; Tobgaon (D5), 1200 m, V. Narayanswami 2707. P. trioicum Roxb. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 775; Garam (D2), Sikdar 897; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7076. Chloranthaceae Chloranthus officinalis Bl. Garam (D2), Sikdar 891; Poro (Dl), Sikdar 823; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7014; Raja- bhatkhawa (D3), K. Biswas 1556; 1569; 21 miles from Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayan- swami 2345. Myristicaceae *Kneina erratica (Hook. f. et Thoms.) J. Sinclair Way to Buxaduar (D5), 600 m, Sikdar 4594. K. linifolia (Roxb.) Warb. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 921. Lauraceae Cinnamomum glanduliferam (Wall.) Meissn. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), K. Biswas 2222. Litsea chartacea (Wall, ex Nees) Hook. f. Way to Sinchu (D5), 1750 m, Sikdar 6949. L. nionopetala (Roxb.) Pers. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2450; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 480. Phoebe lanceolata (Wall, ex Nees) Nees Tobgaon (D5), 1000 m to 1600 m. K. Biswas 2074. Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus conferta Roxb. North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4179. 141 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 E. pyriformis Hook. f. Buxaduar (D5), 800m, Sikdar 4658; Raja- bhatkhawa (D3), K. Biswas 1558. Lora NTH ACEAE Helixanthera ligustrina (Wall.) Danser Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 4654; 4664; Buxa N. W. (D5), 800m, V. Narayan- swami 2730. Macrosolen cochinchinensis (Lour.) van Tiegh. On way to Buxaduar (D5), 600 m, K. Biswas 1710; 1910; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 38; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 483. Santalaceae Henslovia heterantha (Wall.) Hook. f. et Thoms, ex A. DC. Tobgaon (D5), 1400 m, V. Narayanswami 2697 ; Buxa to Bhutan road (D5), 1000 m, V. Narayanswami 2762. Euphorbiaceae Baliospermum corymbiferum Hook. f. Way to Buxaduar (D5), 700 m, Sikdar 4599. B. montaiium (Willd.) Muell.-Arg. Bhutanghat (D6), 325 m, Sikdar 4093. Bischofia javanica Bl. Mahakalguri, Alipurduar (D3), E. A. Hea- wood, s.n. Breynia rhamnoides (Retz.) Muell.-Arg. South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4269. Bridelia monoica (Lour.) Merr. Poro (D2), Sikdar 836; Central Raidak (D6), Sikdar 4139; South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4259. B. stipularis (Linn.) Bl. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 797; Central Raidak (D6), Sikdar 4138; North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4170. Claoxylon khasianum Hook. f. Garopara, Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 90. *C. longipetiolatum Kurz North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6997. C. polot (Burm. f.) Merr. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7015. Croton bonplandianus Baill Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4585; Raja- bhatkhawa towards Alipurduar (D3), C. R. Das 74. Endospermum chinense Benth. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2356. Eriococcus hamiltonianus (Muell.-Arg.) Hurusawa et Tanaka Buxaduar (D5), 850 m, Sikdar 4606; North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6994; Buxa- Santrabari (D5), 700 m, V. Narayanswami 2932. Euphorbia hirta Linn. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 780; Garam (D2), Sikdar 850. E. pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotz. Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 931. Glochidion arborescens Bl. Sinchu (D5), 1450 m, Sikdar 6904. G. multiloculare Voigt Poro (Dl), Sikdar 832. Hemicicca glauca (Muell.-Arg.) Hurusawa et Tanaka Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 19. Jatropha curcus Linn. Buxaduar (D5), 850 m, Sikdar 4621. Kirganelia reticulata (Poir.) Baill. Buxaduar (D5), 650 m, K. Biswas 920. Mallotus philippinensis (Lamk.) Muell.-Arg. Damanpur (D2), Sikdar 919; Chunabhati (D5), 1100m, Sikdar 4001; Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4160. Manihot esculenta Crantz. Buxaduar (D5), 850 m, Sikdar 4032. *Ostodes paniculata Bl. Ramiti, Buxaduar (D5), 1400 m, Sikdar 467 6; Buxa to Bhutan road (D5), 1200 m, V. Nora - yanswami 2572. 142 FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAJGURI DIST. Phyllanthus urinaria Linn. Garam (D2), Sikdar 872; Poro (Dl), Sikdar 759; South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4270, Ricinus communis Linn. Garam (D2), Sikdar 841. Sauropus androgynus (Linn.) Merr. Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 977; Raja- bhatkhawa Depot road (D5), V. Narayanswami 2441. S. pubescens Hook. f. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 756. Urticaceae Boehmeria hamiltoniana (Wall.) Wedd. Lapchakhawa (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 975. B. macrophyila D. Don Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, K. Biswas 1923. B. malabarica (Wall.) Wedd. Tobgaon (D5), 1600 m, K. Biswas 2066. B. platyphylla D. Don On way to Buxa road (D3), 600 m, K. Biswas 1905. B. scabrella (Roxb.) Gaud. Garam (D2), Sikdar 898. B. ternifolia D. Don Way to Sinchu (D5), 1800 m, Sikdar 6908. Elatostema hookerianum Wedd. On way to Sinchula, Bhutan border (D5), 1700 m, K. Biswas 1986. E. lineolatum Wight Way to Tobgaon (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4638; Tobgaon (D5), 1200 m, K. Biswas 2056. E. platyphyllum Wedd. Way to Tobgaon (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4644. Girardinia zeylanica Decaisne Tobgaon (D5), 1250 m, K. Biswas 2069. Pilea scripta (Ham.) Wedd. Garam (D2), Sikdar 846. Pouzolzia indica var. angustifolia Wedd. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7006. P. zeylanica (Linn.) Benn. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 815; North Rajabhat- khawa (D3), Sikdar 7007; Garopara, Raja- bhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 94; Mahakalguri, Alipurduar (D3), E. A. Heawood 6. Urtica parviflora Roxb. Buxaduar (D5), 750 m, K. Biswas 1921. Ulmaceae Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. Rajabhatkhawa, Jainti river beds (D3), Sikdar 8115. Cannabinaceae Cannabis sativa Linn. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7012. Moraceae Artocarpus chaplasha Roxb. Way to Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, K. Biswas 1757. A. lakoocha Roxb. Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1636. Ficus auriculata Lour. Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 4662. F. benghalensis Linn. Buxaduar (D5), 800m, Sikdar 6927. F. curtipes Corner Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4201; Buxa road (D3), K . Biswas 1665. F. hirta Vahl Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 485. F. prostrata Wall, ex Miq. Buxaduar (D5), 800m, K. Biswas 1161. Madura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2404; Damanpur (D2), C. R. Das 54. Streblus asper Lour. Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 456. 143 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Fagaceae Quercus lanceaefolia Roxb. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 835; Garam (D2), Sikdar 893. Salicaceae Salix tetrasperma Roxb. Garam (D2), Sikdar 886; North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4176. MONOCOTYLEDONS Hydrocharitaceae Nechamandra alternifolia (Roxb.) Thwait. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7205. Orchidaceae *Ascocentrum micranthum (Lindl.) Holtt. Buxaduar (D5), 850 m, Sikdar 4665; Buxa to Bhutan road (D5), 1150 m, V. Narayan- swami 2647. Clenogyne dichotoma Salisb. Near poro rest house (Dl), B. Krishna 493. Coelogyne ochracea Lindl. Way to Sinchu (D5), 1650 m, Sikdar 6919; Buxa to Bhutan road (D5), 1600 m, V. Nara- yanswami 2548; 2754. Dendrobium formosum Roxb. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7221. D. moschatum (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. Way to Santrabari (D5), Sikdar 8112; Buxa to Chunabhati (D5), 1100 m, V. Narayanswami 2618. D. pierardi Roxb. Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 499. Eria flava Lindl. Buxaduar (D5), 850 m, Sikdar 6906; Buxa to Bhutan road (D5), 1200 m, V. Narayan- swami 2529. Luisia brachystachys Bl. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6999. *Pholidota articulata Lindl. var. griffithii (Hook, f.) King & Pantl. Way to Buxaduar (D5), 750 m, Sikdar 4615; Buxa to Bhutan road (D5), 1200 m, V. Nara- yanswami 2559; Tobgaon (D5), 1400 m, V. Narayanswami 2709; 2731. P. imbricata (Roxb.) Lindl. Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4669; Buxa to Bhutan road (D5), 1100 m, V. Narayan- swami 2539; 2753. Rhynchostylis retusa (Linn.) Bl. Tashigaon (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 6905; Buxaduar (D5), 1100m, Sikdar 1819. ZlNGIBERACEAE Alpinia malaccensis (Burm. f.) Rose. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7004; 21 miles from Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Nara- yanswami 2359. Musaceae Musa paradisiaca Linn. Raimatong (D5), 600 m, Sikdar 7091. Amaryllidaceae Zephyranthes tubispatha Herb. Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4617. Hypoxidaceae Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3107. Liliaceae Alium cepa Linn. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7085. Asparagus racemosus Willd. Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4092. 144 FLORA OF BUXA. FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI D1ST. PONTEDERXACEAF. Monodioria hastata (Linn.) Soims. Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 463. Comm ELI N ACE AE Floscopa scandens Lour. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 811; North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4153. Arecaceae (=Palmae) Calamus leptospadix Griff. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7239; Daman- pur (D2), Sikdar 7217. C. tenuis Roxb. Damanpur (D2), Sikdar 7221. C. viminalis Willd. var. fasciculata Becc. ex Hook. f. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7154. Caryota urens Linn. Buxaduar forest (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 7189. Wallichia densiflora Mart. Raimatong (D5), S. K. Mukerjee 1395. Pandanaceae Pandanus furcatus Roxb. Buxaduar to Santrabari (D5), 650 m, Sik- dar 6933. Araceae AmorphophalStis campanulatus (Roxb.) Bl. ex Decne Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4122. Pothos scandens Linn. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7016; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2407. Smilacaceae SmiSax lancaefolia Roxb. Way to Sinchu (D5), 1650 m, Sikdar 6959; Buxa to Santrabari (D5), 700 m, V. Narayan- swami 2857. POTAMOGETONACEAE Potamogeton crispus Linn. South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4212. Cyperaceae Carex stramentitla Boott ex Bockeler Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1645 (5 sheets); Near Buxaduar (D5), K. Biswas 2037 (5 sheets). Cyperus ferevifolius (Rottbl.) Hassk. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7013. C. iria Linn. Way to Buxaduar (D5), 550 m, Sikdar 7025; Buxa-Santrabari (D5), 300 m, V. Narayan- swami 2908. Fimforisfylis aestivalis (Retz.) Vahl Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2485; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 5. F. dichotoma (Linn.) VahL Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 97. *Pycreus sframineus C. B. Clarke Near Buxaduar (D5), K. Biswas 2037. POACEAE (- GRAMINEAE) Acroceras zizanioides (H.B.K.) Dandy Garam (D2), Sikdar 899. Axonopus compressus (Sw.) P. Beauv. Buxa-Santrabari (D5), 200 m, V. Narayan- swami 2940. Brachiada ramosa (Linn.) Stapf Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7187. B. reptans (Linn.) Gard. et Hubbard Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3094. Capillipedium asslmile (Steud.) A. Camus Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3068. Chloris dolichostachya Lagasca Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3018. Cyrtococcum accrescens (Trin.) Stapf Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3104. 145 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81 C. patens (Linn.) A. Camus Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7138; Buxa- Santrabari (D5), 350 m, V. Narayanswami 2910. Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf Buxa prison (D5), 800 m, V. Narayanswami 2980. Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7073. D. sanguinalis (Linn.) Scop. Rajabhatkhawa Depot road (D3), V. Nara- yanswami 2451; 2484. Echinochioa colonum (Linn.) Link. Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4181; Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3111. Eleusine coracaaia (Linn.) Gaertn. Garam (D2), Sikdar 878; 879. Eragrostis coarctata Stapf Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7048. E. dianrhena (Schult.) Steud. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7071. E. nigra Nees ex Steud. Buxa-Bhutan road, 36th mile (D5), 1200 m, V. Narayanswami 2562. E. pilosa (Linn.) P. Beauv. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7072. E. tenella (Linn.) P. Beauv. ex Roem. et Schult. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7070. Eriocfiloa procera (Retz.) C. E. Hubb. Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3087. Eulalia trispicata (Schult.) Henr. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), K. Biswas 1560. Hemarthria compressa (Linn, f.) R. Br. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7000. Microstegium vagans (Nees ex Steud.) A. Camus Garam (D2), Sikdar 863. Neyraudia ansndinacea (Linn.) Hiern. Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1679. N. reynaudiana (Kunth) Keng ex Hitchc. Bhutanghat (D6), 350 m, Sikdar 4120. OpSismenus bunnanii (Retz.) P. Beauv. Bhutanghat (D5), 300 m, Sikdar 4116. Ottochloa nodosa (Kunth) Dandy Bhutanghat (D6), V . Narayanswami 3108. Panicum no tat um Retz. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 798; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), K. Biswas 1562. P. paludosum Roxb. North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7074. P. repens Linn. Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3087. Paspalum scrobiculatnm Linn. Buxa-Bhutan road, 36th mile (D5), 1200m, V. Narayanswami 2554; Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3075. Poa annua Linn. Sinchu, near Bhutan (D5), 1800 m, Sikdar 6918. Pogonatherum crinituin (Thunb.) Kunth Jainti Dak bunglow (D4), V. Narayanswami 3004; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 103. Polytoca digitata (Linn, f.) Druce Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3109. Sacciolepis indica (Linn.) A. Chase Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R . Das 7; 21 miles from Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2365. Setaria gSauca (Linn.) P. Beauv. Santrabari (D5), 200 m, V. Narayanswami 2904; Buxa-Santrabari (D5), 250 m, V. Nara- yanswami 2936. Sorghum halepense (Linn.) Pers. Poro (Dl), Sikdar 776. Sporobolus diander (Retz.) P. Beauv. South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4271; Alipurduar (D3), C. R. Das 78; Buxa-santra- bari (D5), 200 m, V. Narayanswami 2917. S. fertilis (Steud.) W.D. Calayton Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7047; 21 miles road from Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayan- swami 2349. 146 FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI D1ST. Themeda caudata (Nees) A. Camus South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4198. Zea mays Linn. Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4602; Raja- bhatkhawa depot road (D3), V. N or ay an- swami 2457. Ack no wledge m e n ts One of us (J. K. Sikdar) wishes to express his deep sense of gratitude to Prof. R. S. Rao, Andhra University, Waltair (ex Jt. Director- in-Charge, Botanical Survey of India) for his constant help and guidance during the work at the Central National Herbarium, Howrah. Sincere thanks are due to Director, Botanical Survey of India for the award of Junior Research Fellowship to one of us (J. K. Sikdar) during the period of which this work has been carried out and to Deputy Director, Central National Herbarium, Howrah for the facilities to work in the herbarium. References Biswas K. P. (1967): Plants of Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas, Vol. 1. Calcutta. Champion, H. G. & Seth, S. K. (1968): A revised survey of the Forest Types of India, Delhi. Chaudhuri, A. B. (1959) : A short note on the distribution of grasses and sedges of the Buxa Divi- sion, West Bengal. Indian For. 85 : 468-472. Cowan, A. M. and Cowan, J. M. (1929) : The trees of Northern Bengal including shrubs, woody climbers, bamboos, palms and tree ferns being a revision of the list by Gamble, Calcutta. Gamble, J. S. (1878) : List of trees, shrubs and large climbers found in the Darjeeling District, Ben- gal. Calcutta (2nd ed. 1896). Ghosh, R. B. and Ghosh, Ajoy (1977): Some additions to the Flora of Buxa Division of Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal. Bull. bot. Soc. Bengal 31: 78-83. Ghosh, B. and Maiti, G. G. (1978): Occurrence of three taxa in West Bengal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 ( 2): 525-526. Krishna, B. and Dutta, Ratna (1979): New plant record for West Bengal. Bull. bot. Surv. India 27(1-4): 211 (1981). Mukerjee, S. K. (1965): A sketch of the vegeta- tion of Jalpaiguri District of West Bengal, ibid. 7 : 134-137. (1927a): Orchids of the plains of north Bengal, ibid. 14: 92-103. (1972b) : Fern flora of the plains of North Bengal. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal. 14: 111-131. Prain, D. (1903): Bengal Plants. 2 Vols. London (Rep. ed. 1963 — Botanical Survey of India). Sikdar, J. K. (1976): A note on Amblyanthopsis bhotanica (Myrsinaceae) from India. Bull. bot. Surv. India 18: 244-246 (1979). (1979) : Two plant records for West Bengal. Geobios 6: 90-91. — — (1980): Studies on the vegetation and flora of Jalpaiguri District, West Bengal. Ph.D. Thisis. Calcutta University, (Unpublished). (1981a): Some new plant records for West Bengal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78( 1) : 103-106. (1981b): Notes on some plant re- cords for Bengal, ibid. 75(2) : 419-421. (1982) : Notes on the occurrence of some plants of West Bengal, ibid. 79(3) : 563-566. (In Press) : Some observations on three little known species endemic to Bhutan and northeast India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. and Ghosh, R. B. (1978): Sene- cio bhot Clarke — An interesting taxon for Indian Flora. Geobios 5 : 86-88. (1979): A little known plant of West Bengal, ibid. 6: 287-288. — (1981a): A note on Sabia paniculata Edgew. ex Hook. f. & Thoms, from West Bengal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(3) : 626-627. (1981b): A taxono- mic survey and systematic census of Tree Legumes of North Bengal. Indian J. For. 4(3) : 224-229 (in part) . AND Maiti, G. G. (1979) : Two new 147 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 81 records of compositae from West Bengal. Bull. bot. plant from West Bengal, ibid. 78(3): 635-637. Surv. India 27(1-4): 218-220 (1981). and Maji, S. (1981): Some note- (1981a): A new worthy plants from West Bengal, ibid. 78(3): 628- species of Ophiorrhiza (Rubiaceae) from India. J. 630. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(1): 143-145. Thothathri, K. (1972): Studies in Leguminosae (1981b) : Acanthus XIX — New Dalbergias from the Eastern Hima- carduaccous Griff. — A scarcely known endemic layas. Bull. bot. Surv. India 14: 189-192. 148 NEW DESCRIPTIONS A NEW SPECIES OF SONCHUS L. (ASTERACEAE) FROM SOUTH INDIA1 M. Chandrabose, V. Chandrasekaran and N. C. Nair2 {With seven text-figures) Sonchus jainii sp. nov. Herbae erectae, 30-75 cm altae, glabrae; radices at caules laticibus lacteis. Folia 2-16 x 1 . 0-4 . 5 cm, spiralia, approximata in parte inferiore, remota in parte superiore; folia infera anguste oblonga, sinuate lobata vel pinnatificla segmentis ovato-acutis vel oblongo- obtusis, interdum simplicia, glabra, re- curvata secus margines, ad apices acuta, ad bases auriculata; folia supera simplicia, ovato- lanceolata, subintegra, recurvata secus margines, glabra, ad apices acuta vel acuminata, ad bases amplexicaulia auriculis acutis. Inflores- centia terminalis capitulis racemose fasciculata vel paniculata. Capitula ± 1 . 7-2 . 0 cm longa, 1 . 5-2 . 0 cm diametris, lutea, campanulata, homogama floribus totis ligulatis, pedunculata; torus parum depressum. Bracteae involucri 6-15 x 2. 5-4.0 mm, multiseriatae, coriaceae, glabrae praeter apicem aliquot pilis, obtuse acuminatae; bracteae involucri externae gra- datim breviores, ovatae vel ovate-lanceolatae; bracteae involucri interiores longiores, oblongo- lanceolatae. Flores lutei, hermaphroditi. Tubus corollae 6-7 mm longus, linearis, fauce extra sparsim pubescenti; limbus 6-7 x 2 mm, anguste oblongus, apice 5-dentato, dentes ± 0.5 x 0.3 mm. Antherae ± 2.5 mm longae, lineari- 1 Accepted October 1982. 2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003. oblongae, connatae; ft la ± 1 mm longa, libra, glabra. Ovarium ± 1.5 x 0.9 mm, lineari-oblongum, costatum extremis umbabus truncatis, glabrum; stylus ± 1 cm longus, linearis, glaber praeter prope apicem; stigma bifidus, brachia ± 1.7 mm longa simplicia. Pappus 8-10 mm longus, can- didus, leviter heteromorphus pilis crassis et subtiliter capillaceis. Achenia ±5x1 mm, brunnea, lineari-oblonga, compressa, valde 4- costata nervis duabus longitudinalibus inter- mediis inconspicuis, levia, glabra. (Figs. 1-7). Holotypus Chandrabose 69015 (CAL) et isotypi Chandrabose 69015 (MH. Acc. Nos. 117706, 117707, 117708, 117709, 117710, 117711) lecti apud Konalar, Anamalai, Dist. Coimbatore in statu Tamil Nadu die 18-11- 1980. Sonchus jainii sp. nov. Erect herbs 30-75 cm high, glabrous; roots and stems with milky latex. Leaves 2-16 x 1-4.5 cm, in spirals, close in the lower portion, dis- tant above; lower ones narrowly oblong, sinuately lobed or pinnatifid with ovate-acute or oblong-obtuse segments, sometimes simple, recurved along the margins, glabrous, acute at apex, auricled at base; upper ones simple, ovate-lanceolate, subentire, recurved along the margins, glabrous, acute or acuminate at apex, amplexicaul at base with acute auricles. Heads ± 1.7-2 cm long, 1.5-2 cm across, yellow. 149 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Figs. 1-7: Sonchus jainii sp. nov. 1. Plant. 2. L. S. of Head. 3. Involucral bracts. 4. Ligulate flower. 5 Androecium. 6. Gynoecium. 7. Achenes with pappus hairs. 150 NEW DESCRIPTIONS campanulate, homogamous with all ligulate flowers, pedunculate, in terminal fascicled race- mes or panicles; torus slightly depressed. In- volucral bracts 6-15 x 2.5-4 mm, many-seriate, coriaceous, glabrous excepting a few hairs at the tip, obtusely acuminate; outer ones gra- dually shorter, ovate or ovate-lanceolate; inner ones longer, oblong-lanceolate. Flowers yellow, bisexual. Corolla tube 6-7 mm long, linear, sparsely pubescent at throat without; limb 6-7 x 2 mm, narrowly oblong, 5-toothed at apex, teeth ± 0.5 x 0.3 mm. Anthers ± 2.5 mm long, linear-oblong, connate; filaments ± 1 mm long, free, glabrous. Ovary ± 1 . 5 x 0 . 9 mm, linear-oblong, ribbed, truncate at both ends, glabrous; style ± 1 cm long, linear, glabrous except near the tip; stigma bifid, arms ±1.7 mm long, simple. Pappus 8-10 mm long, dull- white, smooth, faintly heteromorphic with thick and finer capillaceous hairs. Ache- nes ±5x1 mm, brown, linear-oblong, com- pressed, strongly 4-ribbed with 2 faint longi- tudinal nerves in between, smooth, glabrous. (Figs. 1-7). The holotype Chandrabose 69015 (CAL) and isotypes Chandrabose 69015 (MF1. Acc. Nos. 117706, 117707, 117708, 117709, 117710, 117711) were collected in Konalar, Anamalai, Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu on 18-11- 1980. This interesting taxon obviously represents a member of the tribe Lactuceae (Syn.: Cicho- rieae), but we found it difficult to place our new species in the appropriate genus, as this perennial species exhibits: achenes longer, narrowed at both ends; and pappus of finer capillaceous smooth hairs intermixed with thick smooth hairs. F. G. Davies after exa- mining the specimen remarked, “ It does seem to be near Sonchus, and at present I would not be certain whether it belongs in this genus or not. There are some rather odd pere- nnial Sonchus species and it may be a new one of these". We, however, treat it as a species of Sonchus L. as suggested by F. G. Davies of the Kew Herbarium. This species grows on the grassy slopes at an altitude of about 2050 m. This species is named in honour of Dr. S. K. Jain, Director, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah for his contributions to the taxonomy of Indian plants. Ack nowledgements Our grateful thanks are due to Dr. F. G. Davies, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England for his expert opinion on the specimen and to Dr. V. J. Nair, Systematic Botanist, Bota- nical Survey of India, Coimbatore for render- ing Latin translation. DESCRIPTION OF TWO NEW SPECIES AND ONE NEW RECORD OF CRYPTOSTIGMAT1D MITES (ACARI: ORIBATEI) FROM MAHARASHTRA. INDIA1 A. K. Sanyal2 (With four text-figures) Introduction 1 Accepted December 1982. 2 Zoological Survey of India, 14, Madan Street, During the course Of studies on the oribatid Calcutta-700 072, India. mite fauna, of Maharashtra two new species 151 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 namely, Haplacarus bhadurii and H. maha- rashtraensis and one species namely Javacarus kuhnelti as new for the state were recorded and are described in this paper. The specimens were collected by me and are deposited in the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Family Lohmaniidae Haplacarus bhadurii sp. nov. (Figs. 1-2) Colour of the body and legs yellowish brown; length of the body 667 [x, width 333 ix. The body is covered with a fine transparent cerotegument ornamented with a microsculp- ture of knob -like refractive papillae arranged in rows. These papillae are absent from the prodorsum, from the ventral plates and from dorsal surfaces of the legs. The integument beneath the cerotegument bears a fine micro- sculpture of regular punctations; this is clearly seen on parts of the body where the papillate microsculpture is lacking on the cerotegument. Dorsum. Fig. 2. Venter. (Length 667 152 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Dorsal and ventral views of the holotype are given in Figs. 1 and 2. Prodorsum : Prodorsum finely foveolated; rostral tectum is entire, not incised. Lateral margins of prodorsum have an angular con- tour. Rostral setae inserted close together on dorsal surface of rostrum, 2-3 times longer than their mutual distance. All prodorsal setae markedly foliate, smooth; rostral, lamellar, interlamellar and posterior exo-pseudostigmatic setae measure 69-86 g long; anterior exo- pseudostigmatic setae slightly longer, measuring 103 g. Sensillus pectinate with 7 branches. Slightly broad prodorsal transverse band pos- terior to the pseudostigmatic region. Notogaster : Notogaster bears 9 rows of papillae, interpapillar region of notogaster covered by fine microsculpture of punctations. The arrangement of these papillae shows a striking resemblance to the description of Javacarus kuhnelti Ralogh, 1961. There are 32 notogastral setae, neotrichy absent, all setae markedly foliate and smooth. The setae mea- sure 69-103 g\ tips of the setae ps1 strongly curved inwards. Gnathosoma : Infracapitulum with 4 pairs of setae comprising a, mlf m2 and h\ smooth, not markedly foliate. Ventral region of podosoma : Coxisternal setal formula 3- 1-3-4, setae smooth, not mark- edly foliate, arranged in usual manner as shown in Fig. 2. Genito-anal region : Distinct aggenital plate, triangular, located at the anterolateral margins of the genital plates; genital plates undivided, no transverse suture, each v/ith 10 setae com- prising 4 antiaxial and 6 paraxial. Broadly rectangular pre-anal plate, much wider than long. Adanal-anal plates fused, no longitudinal suture, adanal-anal setal formula: 4-1, adanal setae slightly foliate, anal setae shorter and more slender than adanals; posterior adanal seta longer and tips not curved inward; fissures ia, ip and ill seen on ventral view as narrow slits. Leg : All tarsi monodactyle. Holotype : Adult $ India: Maharashtra, Buldana, Rajur, 8. i. 1982, ex soil with decom- posed leaves. Paratype : 1 $ same data as for holotype. Remarks : The new species is closely related to Haplacarus foliatus Wallwork, 1962 but strongly differs from it in the arrangement of the knob like papillae on notogaster, having sensilla with less number of branches, shorter in, micro-punctations and also in having straight tips of posterior adanal seta. The species is named in honour of Dr. A. K. Bhaduri, an oribatologist. HapSacamis maharashtraensis sp. nov. (Figs. 3-4) Colour of the body and legs yellowish brown; length of the body 632 g, width 316 ju,. The body is covered with a fine transparent cerotegument beautifully ornamented with a microsculpture of regularly arranged knob-like refractive papillae. The microsculpture is ab- sent from the prodorsal and notogastral trans- verse bands, from antiaxial margins of ventral plates and from dorsal surfaces of the legs. The integument beneath the cerotegument bears a fine microsculpture of regular puncta- tions, this punctation is clear where the re- fractive papillae are absent. Dorsal and ventral views of the holotype are given in Figs. 3 and 4. Prodorsum: Rostral tectum is entire not incised. Lateral margins of prodorsum have an angular contour. Rostral setae inserted close together on dorsal surface of rostrum, about 3 times longer than their mutual dis- tance. All prodorsal setae are markedly foliate and bear small barbs except anterior exo- pseudostigmatic and posterior exo-pseudostig- JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 matic setae; length of the prodorsal setae varies from 57-92 sensillus is pectinate with 7 branches; broad prodorsal transverse band posterior to the pseudostigmatic region. Notogaster : There are 32 notogastral setae; neotrichy absent; all setae markedly foliate. h2, h3, pslf ps2 and ps3 with fine barbs, other setae smooth. The setae measure 60-115 /a; setae pst rather thicker than the remaining. Notogaster bears 10 transverse bands, which are represented by clear bands of the cerote- gument devoid of papillae. Haplacarus maharashtraensis sp. nov. Fig. 3. Dorsum. Fig. 4. Venter. (Length 632 54 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Gnathosoma : Infracapitulum with 2 pairs of setae, short, not moderately foliate, finely barbed. Ventral region of podosoma : Coxistemal setal formula: 3- 1-3-4, finely barbed, not markedly foliate, arranged in usual manner as shown in Fig. 4. Genito-anal region : Aggenital plates distinct, triangular, located at the anterolateral margins of the genital plates, genital plates undivided, no transverse suture, each with 10 setae com- prising 4 antiaxial and 6 paraxial. Preanal plate rectangular, much wider than long. Ada- nal-anal plates fused, no longitudinal suture, adanal-anal setal formula: 4-1, adanal setae long, finely barbed; anal setae more slender and shorter than adanals; posterior adanal setae longer and with strongly incurved tip; fissures ia, ip, and ih seen on ventral view as narrow slits. Leg\ All tarsi monodactyle. Holotype : Adult 9, India: Maharashtra, Buldana, Rajur, 8. i. 1982, ex soil with decom- posed leaves. Paratype : 1 9 , same data as for holotype. Remarks'. The species is closely related to Haplacarus foliatus Wallwork, 1962 but differs sharply in the presence of barbed setae on notogaster and ventral plate, sensilla with less number of branches, difference in the shape of the notogastral bands and 2 pairs of barb- ed setae on infracapitulum. Refer Balogh, J. (1961): An outline of the family Lohmaniidae Berl. 1916. (Acari: Oribatei). Acta. Zool. Acad. Sci. Hungarici, 7: 19-44. Bhattacharya, T., Bhaduri, A. K. and Ray- chaudhuri, D. N. (1974) : Soil Oribatid mites from Santiniketan, Birbhum. West Bengal — I (Acarina: Lohmaniidae). Oriental Ins., 8( 3): 281-289. Key to the Indian species of Haplacarus 1 . Notogastral papillae arranged in rows; all setae smooth; posterior adanal setae without incurv- ed tips bhadurii sp. nov. — Notogastral papillae regularly distributed and form distinct bands; setae smooth or barbed; posterior adanal setae with strongly curved inward tips 2 2. Setae barbed maharashtraensis sp. nov. — Setae smooth foliatus bengalensis Bhattacharya et al. Javacaras kuhnelti Balogh Javacarus kuhnelti Balogh, 1961. Acta. Zool. Acad. Sci. Hungarici, 7: 19-44. Javacarus kuhnelti, Bhattacharya et al., 1974, Orien- tal Ins., 8(3 ) : 286. Javacarus kuhnelti, Mishra et al., 1980, Sci. & Cult., 46: 225. Material examined : 3 adult 9 9 , India : Maharashtra, Buldana, Gondhankhera, 10. i. 1982, ex soil with decomposed leaves. Remarks'. The material from Maharashtra agrees with the drawings and descriptions of Javacarus kuhnelti Balogh, 1961 except in the length of the body which is slightly larger in the present specimens. Ack no wledge m e n ts I am grateful to Dr. B. K. Tikader, Director, Zoological Survey of India, for facilities. Sincere thanks are also due to Dr. S. K. Bhatta- charyya and Dr. S. K. Gupta, Arachnology Division, Zoological Survey of India, for encouragement. EN CES Mishra, S., Bhaduri, A. K. and Raychaudhuri, D. N. (1980): New records of soil oribatid mites (Acari, Oribatei) from Orissa, India. Sci. & Cult., 46: 225-227. Wallwork, J. A. (1962): Some Oribatid from Ghana X. The family Lohmaniidae. Acarologia, 4 (3): 457-487. 155 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81 A NEW SPECIES OF OPHIORRHIZA (RUBIACEAE) FROM ANDHRA PRADESH1 G. V. Subba Rao and G. R. Kumari2 (With six text-figures) Ophiorrhiza chandrasekharanii sp. nov. Ophiorrhiza fasciculata D. Don affinis, sed foliis parvioribus; pagina supera folii sparsim scabra; petiolis brevioribus; stipulis brevioribus et angustioribus; pedunculis brevioribus, ful- votomentosis; bracteolis paucioribus, multo brevioribus, sparsim pubentibus, differt. This species is allied to Ophiorrhiza fasci- culata D. Don but differs from it in having smaller leaves; sparsely scabrous upper leaf surface; much shorter petioles; shorter and narrower stipules; shorter fulvous tomentose peduncles; fewer, much shorter and sparsely pubescent bracteoles. Herbs up to 32 cm tall; stems pubescent, more so towards upper region. Leaves up to 11.2 x 4.6 cm, oblong, oblong-lanceolate or ovate, membranous, scabrous above, glaucous beneath, pubescent on nerves, shortly acumi- nate, narrowed at base, margins shortly ciliate; petioles up to 1 . 5 cm long, tomentose; stipules up to 11x3 mm, narrowly deltoid, acuminate, pubescent. Flowers white, yellow on drying, faintly scented, in axillary and terminal ful- vous tomentose corymbs or subcorymbs up to 5 cm across; peduncles up to 4.5 cm long, fulvous tomentose; bracteoles up to 4 mm long, few, persistent, narrow, acute, pubescent, ciliate, midrib obscure. Calyx: tube up to 2 mm long, fulvous tomentose; lobes up to 1 . 5 mm long, narrow, acute, pubescent, per- sistent. Corolla ribbed, pubescent without, 1 Accepted December 1982. 2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-461 003. glabrous within up to 1 mm from base, the rest crispate pubescent within with a row of long white hairs bordering the glabrous por- tion; tube up to 9 mm long; lobes up to 2 mm long, acute. Stamens 5, epipetalous, included, attached at about the middle of the glabrous portion of corolla tube; anthers up to 2 mm long; filaments 1.5 mm long, glabrous. Disc epigynous, of 2 large lobes, minutely glan- dular. Ovary 2 loculed, ovules many on basal ascending placentas; style 2 mm long; stigma 1 . 5 mm long, narrowly lanceolate, acute, 2 lobed; lobes connate. Capsules up to 8x3 mm, obcordate, compressed, patently pubes- cent, girt by calyx limb. Seeds many, minute, angled. The holotype Subba rao 30049 (CAL), iso- types Subba rao 30049 (MH) were collected at Vankachinta, Visakhapatnam District, Andhra Pradesh on 1st June, 1968. The specific epithet is in honour of Dr. N. Chandrasekharan Nair, Joint Director, Bota- nical Survey of India, Southern Circle, Coim- batore for his keen interest in the work on Flora of Visakhapatnam District and his con- tribution to the taxonomy of Indian plants. Ack nowledgements We are grateful to A. P. Forest Department for their help for visiting their forest areas, to the authorities of Central National Herba- rium (CAL) and Sri D. C. Mondal for scru- tiny of the specimen, to Dr. V. J. Nair for latin translation, to Dr. N. C. Nair, Joint Director, Southern Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore for his help and encourage- 156 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Figs 1-6. Ophiorrhiza Chandrasekhar anii sp. nov. 1. Plant. 2, A part of the inflorescence. 3. Flower. 4. Corolla split open. 5. Gynoecium. 6. Fruit. 157 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 ment and to Dr. A. N. Henry, Regional Bota- India, Coimbatore for helpful suggestions and nist. Southern Circle, Botanical Survey of discussion. DESCRIPTION OF A NEW GENUS AND SOME NEW SPECIES OF TORRENTICOLE DIPTERA OF THE NORTHWEST HIMALAYA1 B. K. Kaul2 ( With thirty -jour text -figures) Beasomia sexdecima, gen. et sp. nov. (Diptera: Psychodidae) and Blepharocera alhnicota sp. nov. and B. rahlaea sp. nov. (Diptera: Blepharoceridae) are described. The type specimens are deposited in the collection of the School of Entomology, St. John’s College, Agra, U.P. India for onward transmission to Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Genus Beasomia gen. nov. male: Head transverse oval; antenna with 15 segments; first segment cordately oval with dense lamellae of long setae, third segment with a ventral pectinal brush of short conspi- cuous row of setae and two modified apical spines; flagellar segments without ‘S’ shaped chaetae. Palpus four segmented nearly equal to the length of antenna. Third longitudinal vein ending below wing tip; tip of wing pointed. Rs with four branches; distal part of Cu elon- gate. Sc reduced, wing base normal not dis- proportionately rounded or distended. Genitalia with three pairs of appendages. Female antenna 16 segmented. The affinity of this new genus to other known genera is shown in the follow- ing key. Subfamily Psychodinae Key to genera modified from Brunetti (Brunetti 1912) 1. The third longitudinal vein ending exactly at the wing tip . . 2 1 Accepted April 1983. £ Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishva Vidyalaya, Regional Research Station, Kukumseri, Palampur- 176 062, India. The third longitudinal vein ending just below the wing tip 3 2. Membrane of wing never considerably covered with scales, these being confined to small wing spots. Flagellar joints of antennae without con- spicuous ‘S’ shaped chaetae. Male genitalia with two pairs of appendages Psychoda Latr. Membrane of wing with considerable areas cover- ed with scales. Flagellar joints of antennae with distinct ‘S' shaped chaetae. Male genitalia with three pairs of appendages Parabrunettia Bran. 3. Anterior basal angle of wing not abnormally extended, flagellar joints of antennae without or inconspicuous ‘S’ shaped chaetae. Male geni- talia with two pairs of appendages Pericoma Walk. ‘S’ shaped chaetae on flagellar joints of antennae present or absent. Male genitalia with three pairs of appendages 4 4. Anterior basal angle of wing very dispropor- tionately rounded and distended, so that the auxiliary and first longitudinal veins are very much removed from the costal margin. Mem- brane of wing wholly covered with scales. Flagellar joints of antennae with conspicuous ‘S’ shaped chaetae Brunettia Ann. 158 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Figs, 1-12. Beasomia sexdecima gen. et sp. nov. $ $ : Length 2.60 nun $ : 3 mm $ . 1. 9 wing; 2. $ wing; 3. $ hind leg; 4. $ middle leg; 5, $ foreleg; 6. $ antenna; 7. $ genitalia; 8. $ antenna; 9. $ hindleg; 10. $ middle leg; 11. $ foreleg; 12. $ palpus. 159 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Anterior basal angle of wing normal; ‘S’ shaped chaetae on the flagellar joints absent, instead first antennal segment clothed with dense lame- llae of long setae above, the third segment bears ventraily a pectinal brush of short, con- spicuous setae and apically with two elongated, flattened spines, of which one is long and other about half the first in length Beasomyia gen. nov. Type species: Beasoinia sexdecima sp. nov. Beasomia sexdecima sp. nov. (Figs. 1-12) male: Length of body, including genitalia, 2.60 mm; brown, abdomen and legs yellowish- brown, head brown, transverse oval, 1 . 60 times as wide as long. Antennae (Fig. 6), 2.30 as long as head and nearly equal to palpus, 15 segmented; first segment very stout, cordately oval, nearly 1.30 as long as thick, clothed with dense lamellae of long setae above; the second nearly oval 1.70 as long as thick, 0.40 times the length of the first; the third elongate, cor- date, wider basally than apically, 0.90 times the second, bears ventraily a pectinate brush of short conspicuous row of setae, apically with two elongate, flattened, modified spines, of which one is long and other about 0.50 its length; fourth segment oval, 0.60 the third; segments 5 to 13 more or less oval, but gra- dually becoming shorter and more slender; fourteenth subglobose; terminal segment flask- shaped, with a neck as long as the enlarge- ment. Palpus (Fig. 12), four segmented; first segment short, nearly 3 times as long as thick, second long, uniformly cylindrical, about 1.70 the first, third uniformly cylindrical, distinctly longer than the second, fourth equals the third but more slender. Legs densely setose; fore leg (Fig. 5) : femur about 7 as long as thick, tibia 1 . 25 the femur, tip of tibia dentate and with long subacute spines; tarsus nearly equal to tibia, first tarsal segment nearly 0.50 the tibia and 0 . 50 the total length of tarsus; second 0.30 the first; third 0.75 the second; fourth 0.6 the third; fifth 1.50 the fourth; claw sim- ple, almost straight, empodium small. Middle leg (Fig. 4) : femur similar to fore femur; tibia 1 . 25 the femur, tip of tibia dentate and with long subacute spines; tarsus nearly equal to tibia, first tarsal segment distinctly more than half the tibia, and nearly 0.60 the total lensth of tarsus; second 0.30 the first; third nearly 0.60 the second; fourth 0.80 the third, fifth equal to third and 1 . 25 the fourth; claw simple, almost straight, empodium small. Hind leg (Fig. 3): femur similar to mid femur, tibia 1 . 40 the femur, tip of tibia dentate and with subacute spines; tarsus 0.80 the tibia; first tarsal segment nearly 0.50 the tibia and near- ly 0.60 the total length of tarsus; second 0.30 the first, third nearly 0.60 the second; fourth 0.80 the third; fifth equal to third and 1.25 the fourth; claw simple, almost straight, empo- dium minute. Wing (Fig. 2): 3.1 mm; 2.20 as long as wide; anterior branch of second longitudinal fork nearly at the middle; fourth longitudinal fork a little before the middle, as in figure. Genitalia (Fig. 7): with three pairs of appendages as in figure. female: Length of body including oviposi- tor 3 mm. Antenna (Fig. 8), 16 segments; first segments 1.40 as long as thick, the second uniformly cylindrical, about 2 as long as thick, the third a little over half the second, the fourth 0.6 the third, fourth to fifteen almost similar, moniliform, sixteenth flask shaped, neck 0.75 the enlargement. Wing (Fig. 1): 3.8 mm; 2.7 as long as wide, rest as in male. Fore leg (Fig. 11): femur cylindrical, 7.5 as long as thick; tibia little longer than femur; tarsus a little longer than tibia, first tarsal segment about 0.50 the tibia, the second 0.36 the first, the third 0.75 the second, the fourth 0 . 66 the third, fifth 1 . 40 the fourth. Middle 160 NEW DESCRIPTIONS leg (Fig. 10) : femur a little longer than the fore femur, uniformly cylindrical, 8.0 as long as thick; tibia 1.25 femur; tarsus subequal to the tibia; first tarsal segment half the tarsus, the second about 0.40 the first, the third 0.55 the second, the fourth 0.8 the third, the fifth 1.50 the fourth. Hind leg (Fig. 9): femur distinctly longer than the midfemur, tibia 1 . 40 the femur; tarsus 0.85 the tibia; first tarsal segment 0.40 the tibia, the second 0.33 the first, the third 0.66 the second, the fourth 0 . 66 the third, the fifth 1 . 50 the fourth. Claw in all the legs simple and curved. Ovipositor simple, 0.33 the abdomen; Holotype , allotype $ , dissected on slides. India: Himachal Pradesh : Palchan (Kulu Valley), 2900 m, 4.x. 1970, B. K. Kaul. Family: Blepharoceridae Blepharocera alhiticola sp. nov. (Figs. 13-23) female: 5.70 mm. Body dark brown dor- sally, yellowish brown ventrally, legs predomi- nately brown, venation brown. Head viewed in front (Fig. 17) width nearly 1.15 the height (excluding rostrum) with a bunch of stout bristles between the root of antenna and the border of the ventral eye. Antenna (Fig. 18) filiform, length 1 . 30 times the head width, 15 segmented, first segment 1.60 as thick as long, second 0.80 the first and 1.20 as thick as long, third 1 . 40 the second and 2 . 00 as long as thick, fourth 0.70 the third, fifth 0.80 the fourth, fifth to fourteenth subequal, fifteenth 1 . 60 the fourteenth. Eyes densely pubescent, contiguous, transversely bisected by a mode- rately narrow band, dorsal eye orange, width 2.50 times the length and almost equal to the length of the ventral eye; ventral eye black, nearly 1.70 as long as wide, with more and smaller ommatidia than on the dorsal eye. Rostrum 0.83 the height of head, labrum elongate and serrate, mandibles well developed and serrate mesially; hypopharynx serrate at the distal half; palpus (Fig. 17) clothed with spines as in figure, 5 segmented, first and second segment subequal, third 1 . 60 the second, fourth 1 . 20 the third, fifth a little longer than the fourth. Wing (Fig. 13) 6.70 mm; 2.60 as long as wide, Ri+2+3 ending at 0.80 of the wing length, R1+2+3-R4 cross vein almost equal to Rg-Mj cross-vein, R* and R5 starting at basal 0.43 of the wing length; M3 incomplete, 0.20 the length of Mp, Cu-An space nearly 0.40 the Mi-Cu space; anal lobe as far as 5 . 40 times the Cu-An space from An. Halteres nearly equal to the first two abdominal seg- ments, stalk yellow, knob brown. Legs long and slender. Fore leg (Fig. 16): femur long; tibia 0 . 80 the femur; tarsus a little longer than tibia; first tarsal segment about 0.50 the tibia, second 0.50 the first, third 0.50 the second, fourth a little shorter than the third, fifth sub- equal to the fourth; claw (Fig. 19) slightly curved. Middle leg (Fig. 15); coxa (Fig. 20) with a spur; femur equal to forefemur; tibia 0.80 the femur; tarsus slightly longer than tibia; first tarsal segment 0 . 50 the tibia, second about 0.50 the first, third 0.60 the second, fourth 0.60 the third, fifth a little longer than the fourth; claw (Fig. 23) simple and slightly curved. Hind leg (Fig. 14) : femur 1.33 the midfemur; tibia 0.90 the femur, tar- sus a little shorter than 0.80 the tibia; first tarsal segment about 0.4 the tibia, second 0.33 the first, third 0.6 the second, fourth and fifth subequal, each a little shorter than the third; claw (Fig. 22) simple, slightly curved. Abdomen nearly 0.70 the body, ovipositor (Fig. 21) with a pair of appendages as in figure. Holotype $ on slide, India: Himachal Pradesh : Parini (Kulu valley), 2000 m, 15.vi. 1972, B. K. Kaul. This species can be differentiated from 161 11 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL LUST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Figs. 13-23. Blepharocera alhnicola so. nov. $ : Length 5.70 mm. 13. Wing; 14. hind leg; 15. middle leg; 16. fore leg; 17. head viewed in front; 18. antenna; 19. fore claw; 20. middle coxa; 21. ovipositor; 22. hind claw; 23. middle claw. 162 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Figs. 24-34. Blepharocera rahlaea sp. nov. S : Length 6 mm. 24. wing; 25. hind leg; 26. middle leg; 27. fore leg; 28. hind claw; 29. antenna; 30. head viewed infront; 31. middle claw; 32. genitalia; 33. middle coxal spur; 34. fore claw. 163 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 B. autumnalis Kaul (Kaul 1971) by the absence of stout bristles on the frons, different pro- portions of antennal and palpal segments and in the structure of genitalia. The species also differs from B. tertia Kaul (Kaul 1971) in the proportions of the antennal and palpal seg- ments and different structure of genitalia. Blepharocera rahlaea sp. nov. (Figs. 24-34) male: 6.00 mm. Body blackish-brown, legs dark brown, wings hyaline, veins brown, hal- teres stalk pale brown, knob dark brown. Head viewed infront (Fig. 30) oval, width 1.33 the height (excluding the mouthparts). Antenna (Fig. 29) 1.25 the head width, filiform, 15 segments, first segment short, length 0.60 the thickness, the second about 1 . 70 the first and a little longer than thickness, the third subequal to the second but more slender, the fourth 0.70 the third and as long as thick, fifth to seventh subequal, each a little longer than the fourth, eighth to eleven segments subequal each a little longer than the seventh, the twelfth and the thirteenth subequal to the seventh, the fourteenth subequal to the fourth but more slender, the fifteenth longest, twice the fourteenth. Eyes contiguous, transversely bisected by a narrow band; the dorsal eye orange, width 1 . 24 the length, the ventral eye black, oval 1.60 as long as wide, with the ommatidia smaller than on dorsal eye. Rostrum about 0.70 the height of head; labrum nar- rowly elongate, mandibles absent, palpus clothed with small spines, 5 segmented, first segment stout, as long as thick, second 1 . 80 the first and twice the thickness, third thrice the second, fourth equal to the third, fifth longest 2.70 the fourth. Wing (Fig. 24): 5.80 mm, 2.75 as long as wide, Ri+o+s ending at 0.90 the wing length; R1+2+3-R4 cross-vein slightly longer than R5-Mi cross-vein; M3 in- complete 0.22 the length of Mx; Cu-An space 0.40 the M4-Cu space; anal lobe as far as 6 times the Cu-An space from An. Halteres long reaching the second abdominal segment. Legs long and slender. Fore leg (Fig. 27): femur long and slender, tibia 0.87 the femur, tarsus about 1 . 20 the tibia, first tarsal segment about 0.50 the tarsus, the second 0.40 the third and subequal to the fifth, claw (Fig. 34) simple evenly slightly curved about 0.75 the fifth tarsal segment. Middle leg (Fig. 26) : coxal spur (Fig. 33) present; femur 1.10 the fore femur; tibia about 0.70 the femur; tarsus about 1 . 30 the tibia, first tarsal segment a little less than 0.50 the tarsus, the second 0.50 the first, the third 0.60 the second, the fourth 0.50 the third and subequal to the fifth; claw (Fig. 31) simple curved and 0.60 the fifth tarsal segment. Hind leg (Fig. 25) : longest, femur relatively stout, 1.35 the midfemur; tibia 0.88 the femur; tarsus 0.70 the tibia, first tarsal segment 0 . 6 the tarsus, the second about 0.3 the first, the third 0.55 the second, the fourth 0.6 the third and subequal to the fifth; claw (Fig. 28) stout, simple, evenly curved. Abdomen 0.7 the body; genitalia (Fig. 32) claspers stout, terminal segments emargi- nate throughout, clothed with long spines, rest as in figure. Holotype on slide, India: Himachal Pra- desh: Rhala (Kulu valley), 3200 m, 5.vi.l972, B. K. Kaul. This species comes close to Blepharocera tertia Kaul (Kaul 1971) but differs in its larger size, different proportions of antennal and palpal segments, and in the structure of geni- talia. Acknowledgements I am thankful to Dr. M. S. Mani, Emeritus Professor of Entomology, School of Entomo- logy, St. John’s College, Agra, India, for his valuable advice and guidance. I am grateful to Dr. Tashi Dawa, Officer in-charge, H. P. 164 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Krishi Vishva Vidyalaya, Regional Research viding the facilities for the preparation of this Station, Kukumseri (Lahaul valley) for pro- paper and to Mr. Hans Raj Saini for his help. References Brunetti, E. (1912): Diptera: Nematocera Fauna Himalaya V. Description of some new Diptera: British India, 155-157. Psychodidae and Blepharoceridae. Oriental Ins. 5 Kaul, B. K. (1971): Torrenticole Insects of the (3): 401-434. THREE NEW SPECIES OF GENUS ISOETES L. FROM RAJASTHAN, INDIA1 C. B. Gena and T. N. Bhardwaja2 (With a plate) Seven species of the genus Isoetes have been recorded from India (Pant & Srivastava 1962, Goswami & Arya 1970). The genus is well represented in Rajasthan (Mital 1969, Gena et al. 1976, Mishra & Bhardwaja 1978). Taxo- nomic comparison of Rajasthan material of this genus with the known Indian material and descriptions of species reported since the publi- cation of Pfeiffer’s monograph in 1922 (Sven- son 1944, Morton 1945, Taylor et al. 1975, Rury 1978) has indicated that at least three of the taxa in Rajasthan could be accorded status of new species. The morphological fea- tures of these new species are now being described : Isoetes rajasthanensis sp. nov. (Figs. 1-4) Planta terrestris; rhizomorpha typica 2-lobata; folia 7.5-12 cm longa, filis peripheralibus nullis; labium nullum velum tres-quadranti ad totum sporangium tegens. Megasporae trimor- phicae, reticulationibus, 330-350 pm, 250-280 1 Accepted December 1982. 2 Pteridophyte Biology Lab.. Department of Botany, Government College, Ajmer 305 001, Rajas- than, India. pm, 180-210 pm diam.; megasporae articulatae/ connatae plerumque; microsporae dimorphicae, laeves, 25-30 pm, 18-22 pm diam. Plants terrestrial, 7.5 to 12 cm in height (Fig. 1), growing near the margins of streams and on moist soil. Rhizomorph typically 2 lobed (Fig. 2). Leaves 15-39, limb cylindrical, base expanded showing membranous margins, peripheral strands absent. Ligule elliptic with mucilaginous hairs on margins and apex. Labium absent. Velum covering three fourths or almost entire sporangium. Megasporangia elongate (4 x 2 mm) or ovate (3 x 2 mm); sterile cells absent. Megaspores trimorphic, dark brown when wet and white when dry. Megaspores ranging between 330 to 350 pm in diameter. Exine with branched ridges (Fig. 3). Bodily fused megaspores are of common occurrence. Microsporangia rare, elongated (3 x 1 .5 mm), microspores dimorphic (Fig. 4), dark brown when wet and creamy white when dry; large microspores 25-30 pm in diameter, small 18-22 pm in diameter, exine smooth. Fertile : July to September. Type : Anadera point. Mount Abu, Rajas- than, India, growing on moist ground near the margins of streams. Collector, C. B. Gena (CBG/T-6, Oct., 1976). Deposited at the her- 165 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81 barium. Botany Department, Punjabi Univer- sity, Patiala, India (PUN. 3241). Isotypes : Herbarium, Pteridophyte Biology Lab., Department of Botany, Government College, Ajmer, India (No. PBL/75/I-9/727), CAL & US. Paratypes : Mainal (Chittorgarh), Rajas- than, India growing near the margins of a stream during rainy season. Of the Indian species /. rajasthanensis is comparable to /. sampathkumaranii Rao in size, absence of peripheral strands and velum characters but differs from the latter in the characters of mega- and microspores. More- over, /. rajasthanensis happens to be the only small sized species with a velum covering three fourths of the sporangium and possessing trimorphic megaspores. According to Pfeiffer’s (1922) scheme /. rajasthanensis falls under reticulatae section with affinities to /. engelmanii A.Br. but can be distinguished from the latter by its habit (terrestrial Vs. submerged), ligule (elliptic Vs. cordate), velum (almost complete Vs. very narrow), nature of megaspores (polymorphic Vs. dimorphic), megaspore exine (reticulated Vs. honey combed) and microspores (dimor- phic Vs. monomorphic) . Isoetes reticulata sp. nov. (Figs. 5-7) Planta terrestris; rhizomorpha 2-lobata; folia 4-10 cm longa, fills peripheralibus nullis; labium nullum, velum fere totam sporangium tegens. Megasporae dimorphicae, reticulation- bius ramosissimis, 230-245 pm, 170-180 ^m diam; megasporae articulatae/connatae omnino nullae. Plants terrestrial, 4-10 cm in height (Fig. 5) growing on moist soil. Rhizomorph 2 lobed rarely 4 lobed (Fig. 6). Leaves 6-24, limb cylindrical, base expanded, peripheral strands absent. Ligule elliptic with straight mucilage- nous hairs on margins and apex. Labium absent. Velum almost covers entire sporangium, except for a basal arched slit. Megasporangia circular (1.5 x 1.5 mm). Sterile cells absent. Megaspores dimorphic; black when wet and white when dry. Megaspores ranging between 230 to 245 in diameter, Exine with richly branched reticulations (Fig. 7). Joined or fused megaspores are totally absent. Microsporangia not observed. Fertile : July to September. Type : Atru (Kota), Rajasthan, India grow- ing on wet gravelly soil during the monsoon. Collector, C. B. Gena (CBG/I-12, Sept., 1975). Deposited at the herbarium. Botany Depart- ment, Punjabi University, Patiala, India (PUN. 3243). Isotypes : Deposited at Herbarium, Pterido- phyte Biology Lab., Department of Botany, Government College, Ajmer, India (PBL/75/ 1-9/732), CAL & US. Paratypes: Jhalawar, Rajasthan, India, near the margins of a stream. This species resembles /. panchananii Pant & Sriv. in having dimorphic megaspores with reticulations but differs from the latter in size (upto 10 Vs. 24 cm), velum length (complete Vs. half) and megasporagium shape (circular Vs. oval). Moreover, the sporangial wall of /. panchananii is typically brown spotted while that of I. reticulata is plain. /. reticulata is the only Indian species of this genus with well defined reticulations on megaspores and hence derives its specific name. /. reticulata falls under the section Reticu- latae of Pfeiffer (1922) and may be compared with /. tuckermanii A. Br. but differs signi- ficantly from the latter in features of habitat (terrestrial Vs. submerged), ligule (elliptic Vs. triangular), velum (complete Vs. one-third), sporangia (circular Vs. oblong) and megaspore 166 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate Gena & Bhardwaja: New sp. of Genus Isoetes Figs. 1-11. Morphological features of three new Indian species of Isoetes. Figs. 1-4. /. rajasthanensis sp. nov. 1. Habit; 2. Bilobed rhizomorph; 3. Megaspores showing branched rides and bodily fused megaspores, x 400; 4. Dimorphic microspores. x 300. Figs. 5-7. I. reticulata sp. nov. 5. Habit; 6. bi-and tetra-lobed rhizomorph; 7. Mega- spores showing branched reticulations, x 400. Figs. 8-11. I. tuberculata sp. nov. 8. Habit; 9. bi-and tri-lobed rhizomorph; 10. Mega- spores showing round tubercles, x 400; 11. Dimorphic microspores, x 400. NEW DESCRIPTIONS wall ornamentation (branched reticulations Vs. parallel ridges). Isoetes tuberculata sp. nov. (Figs. 8-11) Planta aquatica; rhizomorpha 2-3-lobata; folia 30-45 cm longa, filis peripheralibus; labium veil bene evolutum, velum nullis. Megasporae trimorphicae, 525-550 /im, 460-470 /xm, 339- 345 /xm diam.; tuberculis rotundatis, megasporae articulatae/connatae rarenter; microsporae di- morphicae et laeves, 21-24 jam, 16-18 diam. Plants aquatic; 30-45 cm in height (Fig. 8) growing in ponds and ditches; rhizomorph 2 or 3 lobed (Fig. 9). Leaves 9-33, cylindrical but upper side flattened, base expanded show- ing membranous unequal margins reaching up- wards upto one-third of the leaf length, possess- ing 4 main and 28 accessory peripheral strands. Many simple or branched tricho-sclereids present in the air cavities; Ligule cordate with curved mucilagenous hairs on margins and apex. Labium well developed with fringed margin and covering lower half of the ligule. Velum absent. Megasporangia circular (5x5 mm) or obovate (9x7 mm). Sterile cells absent; megaspores trimorphic, ash coloured when wet and white when dry; ranging between 338-550 pm in diameter, exine with large round tuber- cles (Fig. 10). Joined and fused megaspores rare. Microsporangia obovate (9x7 mm) microspores dimorphic, dark brown when wet and light brown when dry; ranging between 16-24 jam in diameter, monolete, exine psilate, smaller microspores with a papillate structure on one side (Fig. 11). Fertile : July to October. Type : Atru (Kota), Rajasthan, India, grow- ing in temporary ponds and ditches during the monsoon period. Collector, C. B. Gena (CBG/ 1-2, Sept., 1973). Deposited at the Flerbarium, Botany Department, Punjabi University, Patiala, India (PUN. 3242). Isotypes : Herbarium, Pteridophyte Biology Lab., Department of Botany, Government College, Ajmer, India (PBL/74/I-9j720), CAL & US. Paratypes : Salpura, Bhanwargarh (Kota), Dausa (Jaipur) and Ghana (Bharatpur), Rajasthan, India growing in ponds and ditches during rainy season. Isoetes tuberculata resembles /. indica Pant & Sriv. in size, number of leaves and poly- morphic nature of megaspores but differs from the latter in the ornamentation of megaspores (round tubercles Vs. pointed tubercles) and triradiate rays (simple Vs. bifurcated). According to Pfeiffer’s (1922) scheme /. tuberculoma falls under Tuberculatae section and shows affinities with /. coromandelina Linn, f. in having round tubercles on megaspores but can be easily distinguished from this species in being smaller in size (30-45 cm Vs. 60-80 cm), ligule (cordate with curved mucilagenous hair on margin Vs. elliptic and devoid of marginal hairs), nature of megaspores (poly- morphic Vs. dimorphic), exine ornamentations (tuber culated Vs. Cobwebby) and microspore nature (dimorphic Vs. monomorphic) . An artificial key for the identification of all the Indian species of genus Isoetes including the new species is given below: Key A. Adult plants more than 25 cm long, labium well developed, velum absent, peripheral strands and tricho-sclereids present : B. Megaspore exine with round tubercles C. Megaspores dimorphic Exine tubercles closely packed, microspores monomorphic with smooth exine /. coromandelina Linn. f. CC. Megaspores trimorphic Exine tubercles even sized & rounded micro- spores dimorphic with smooth exine and 167 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 the smaller microspares with a large Papilla on one side I. tuberculata sp. nov. BB. Megaspore exine with pointed tubercles Megaspores trimorphic, triradiate rays branched, microspores trimorphic with tuber- culate exine I. pantii Goswami & Arya AA. Adult plants less than 25 cm long, labium absent, velum present, peripheral strands and tricho-sclereids absent : E. Megaspores tuberculated F. Megaspores monomorphic Mature megaspores dark brown, velum complete, microspores monomorphic and spiny I. sahyadrii Mahabale FF. Megaspores dimorphic Mature megaspores ash coloured, velum rudimentary, microspores monomorphic and muricate I. dixitei Shende EE. Megaspores reticulated G. Megaspores dimorphic H. Velum partial. I. Mature megaspores black, exine with branched ridges I. panchananii Pant & & Sriv. II. Mature megaspores ash coloured, Refer Gena, C. B., Mital, P. L. & Bhardwaja, T. N. (1976): Isoetes in Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 559-562. Goswami, FI. K. & Arya, B. S. (1970): A new species of Isoetes from Narsinghgarh, Madhya Pra- desh. J. Indian bot. Soc. 49: 32-37. Mishra, S. & Bhardwaja, T. N. (1978): Isoetes in Rajasthan, India. Fern. Gaz. 11: 429-430. Mital, P. L. (1969): Ferns and Fern-allies of Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 31-42. Morton, C. V. (1945) : A new species of Isoetes from Columbia. Amer. Fern. J. 35: 48-49, exine with a net work of ridges I. sampathkumaranii Rao HH. Velum complete Mature megaspores black, exine with branched reticulations I. reticulata sp. nov. GG. Megaspores trimorphic Velum almost complete, mature mega- spores dark brown, exine with branched ridges I. rajasthancnsis sp. nov. Acknowledgements Thanks are due to Prof. N. P. Vadehra, Principal, Government College, Ajmer for pro- viding laboratory facilities. Prof. K. M. Matthew of St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchirapalli, India rendered the latin description. Dr. Eric E. Karrfalt of Brooklyn College, New York, U.S.A. was kind enough to forward some material of American species of this genus for comparison. The University Grants Commis- sion, New Delhi, India provided financial assistance for this survey. e n c e s Pant, D. D. & Srivastava, G. K. (1962): The genus Isoetes in India. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India. 28- B: 242-280. Pfeiffer, N. E. (1922) : Monograph of the Iso- etaceae. Ann. Missouri Bot. Garden. 9: 79-232. Rury, P. M. (1978) : A new and unique, mat form- ing Merlin's grass ( Isoetes ) from Georgia. Amer. Fern. J. 68: 99-108. Svenson, H. K. (1944): A new Isoetes from Ecuador. Amer. Fern. J. 34: 121-125. Taylor, W. C., Mohlenbrock, R. H. & Murphy, J. A. (1975): The spores and taxonomy of Isoetes butleri and 7. melanopoda. Amer. Fern. J. 65: 33-38. 168 NEW DESCRIPTIONS A NEW SIMPLOCOS JACQ. (SYMPLOCACEAE) FROM SOUTHERN INDIA1 A. N. Henry, R. Gopalan and M. S. SWAMINATHAN2 ( With seven text-figures ) Symplocos nairii sp. nov. Symplocos cordifolia Thw. affinis, sed foliis parvioribus; floribus parvioribus, solitariis vel in racemos fasciculatis (racemis usque ad 2 cm longis); axe racemi glabro et staminibus 30-35, differ!. Holotypus ( Henry 68830, CAL) et isotypi {Henry 68830, MH-num. ace. 118671-118679) in Muthukuzhivayal in ditione Kanniyakumari in statu Tamilnadensi, India, ad altitudinem c. 1400 m, die 27-9-1980 lecti. Paratypi {Henry 70370, MH-num. acc. 118680-118691) in Upper Kodayar, versus viam ad Muthukuzhivayal, die 21-3-1981 lecti. Allied to S. cordifolia Thw. but differs in: leaves smaller; flowers smaller, solitary, or clustered in racemes up to 2 cm long; axis of racemes glabrous; and stamens 30-35. Shrubs or trees up to 8 m tall; branches terete, glabrous, terminal end of young shoots often angled. Leaves up to 12x7 cm, alter- nate, elliptic to oblong or ovate, glabrous, recurved and minutely glandular-dentate along margin, obtuse to acute at apex, cordate or somewhat obliquely cordate at base; midrib grooved above, prominent beneath; nerves 8-12 pairs, faintly prominent beneath; petioles 2-4 mm long, grooved above, swollen at base. Flowers axillary, solitary or clustered in race- mes up to 2 cm long; axis of racemes glabrous; bracts and bracteoles up to 11x4 mm, persis- 1 Accepted January 1983. 2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003. tent, ovate to cordate, appressedly hairy with- out, glabrous within, acute to acuminate at apex. Calyx tube 1-2 mm long, glabrous; lobes 5, each 2-4 x 1 . 5-2 mm, imbricate, subequal, ovate, rounded, appressedly hairy without, glabrous within. Corolla lobes 5, white, each 3-4.5 x 1-2 mm, connate at very base, glabrous. Stamens 30-35, in five alternipetalous groups; filaments 2-5 mm long, connate towards the base; anthers globose, bilocular, introrse, de- hiscing longitudinally. Disc 5-glandular, gla- brous, surrounding the conical sericeous style base. Ovary inferior; style 4 mm long; stigma capitate, punctiform. Drupes 8-20 x 5-6 mm, cylindrical to ellipsoid, smooth, crowned by the persistent calyx-lobes. Holotype {Henry 68830, CAL) and isotypes {Henry 68830, MH — acc. nos. 118671- 118679) were collected at Muthukuzhivayal in Kanniyakumari Dt., Tamil Nadu, India, at an altitude of about 1400 m on 27-9-1980, Paratypes {Henry 70370, HM — acc. nos. 118680-118691) were collected from Upper Kodayar, on the way to Muthukuzhivayal, on 21-3-1981. In evergreen forests; rather rare. We are pleased to dedicate this species to Dr. N. C. Nair, Joint Director, Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore for his significant contributions to Indian Botany. Ack no wledge m e n ts We are thankful to Dr. V. J. Nair, Systematic Botanist for rendering the latin translation and Dr. J. L. Ellis. Systematic Botanist for kindly 169 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81 Figs. 1-7. Symplocos nairii sp. nov. 1. Flowering twig; 2. Leaf; 3. Flower; 4. Flower-Corolla and Stamens removed; 5. Corolla split opened; 6. Gynoecium; 7. Drupe. NEW DESCRIPTIONS verifying the sheets of Symplocos spp. in CAL. The valuable publications of Dr. H. P. Noote- boom, Rijksherbarium, Leiden, viz. , “Revision of Symplocaceae of the Old World (1975)” and Symplocaceae in “A revised handbook to the Flora of Ceylon” (edited by M. D. Dassa- nayake — 1981) were used to advantage by us for identifying this species. 171 REVIEWS 1 . SUNLIGHT AND SHADOWS. An Indian Wildlife Photographer’s Diary. By M. Y. Ghorpade. pp. 158 (30x25 cm), with 87 Black-and- White photographs. London, 1983. Victor Gollancz Ltd. Special Indian Price Rs. 175/-. At the turn of the century Africa saw Cherry Kearton’s trail blazing “Land of the Lion” which put wildlife photography on a permanent and sound footing. We did not have to wait long. F. W. Champion burst upon the Indian scene with two books “With a camera in Tigerland” and “Jungle in Sunlight and Shadow” of remarkable quality published half a century ago. They have endured the test of time and can justly be claimed as the begin- ning of wildlife photography in the sub- continent. The equipment used was primitive: Plate cameras, trip wires and electrically fired flash lamps using flash powders are all echoes from a distant past. Yet the range of his work has remained a standard for all to emulate. After 50 years his photographs appear to be almost contemporary. The subsequent period however has not produced books of abiding quality on wildlife photography except perhaps for Yella Kolfler whose work was left unfinished as a result of an unfortunate and fatal accident which took her away in her prime. We now have Ghor- pade’s work which bears an unmistakable Championesque title and quality. The book has 87 black and white photo- graphs and its text is a narrative of the author’s experiences primarily in 8 sanctuaries and National Parks of the country. His style is direct, simple and it amply shows his will- ingness to share his technique and experience with the reader. But its value lies by far in the photographs it contains. The author has purposely chosen the medium of black and white photography because it gives a greater scope for self-expression and it is indeed a more difficult medium to work with than colour. Yet he has succeeded in producing photographs of ‘top’ quality, his manifest goal. His basic equipment is medium format Hasselblad camera (unlike most wild- life photographer’s 35 mm equipment) which enables him to enlarge his pictures without attendant loss of quality expected with 35 mm negatives. Unlike some of the photographers of today Ghorpade did not have access to sophisticated equipment such as electronic beams, photo- electric shutters, and custom built cameras. Yet he has succeeded in taking bird pictures of a rare quality. Brahminy mynah (p. 26) and spotted owlet in flight (p. 31, photograph- ed by the author’s son) are both works of patience and systematic approach which have paid off. Indian great horned owl with a mouse hanging from its beak and its three young in the background (pp. 28-29) is the best bird picture in the book. It has retained depth and detail rarely found in a flash light picture. The photograph of Narshimhaswamy Gorge of Sandur (p. 32) has an Ansel Adams like conception except of course, the human figure and it has not quite the grand master’s touch. 172 REVIEWS “Panther approaching the hide” (p. 33) is the only mammal picture in the book taken with a flash and it reminds one of F. W. Champion’s photographs though most of the latter’s pic- tures have a frontal view because of the trip wire method. Elephants are rather strongly represented in the book. “Mother elephants scrubbing babies” (p. 40) is an interesting and uncommon re- cord. By far the best photograph in the book is “Tusker in the rain” (p. 42). The author’s description of the circumstances in which this photograph was made is instructive in the sense that some of the finest wildlife pictures are taken in totally unexpected and unplanned situations. Here you have an elephant, a good tusker, obviously enjoying the rain and yet so statuesque in its bearing that it reminds one of a Konarak sculpture. This picture has ably caught a brief, fleeting moment of perfection. Tiger, as is usual in books on Indian Wild- life, takes the largest share. Out of 87 photo- graphs, 14 go to this cat ! “Tiger on the rock” (p. 71) is a study in serenity. The bush in the background sending out branches at the back of the animal’s head gives the picture a regal bearing quite unique. A Tigress and her cub frolicking in the water with their prey (pp. 82- 83, 84, 86 photographed by the author’s son) is a rare record of animal behaviour. The big male lion at Gir (pp. 94-95) photo- graphed in the evening light makes a superb picture. The angle of light throws sunlight and shadows on the animal’s body and the picture springs to life. Every whisker on the lion’s face stands out in slanting light. Its hair of the mane and ears are equally sharp. Quite simply, it is a study in majesty. The big male rhino (p. 112) stands out beautifully against the background of water and vegetation. The picture is crisp, every fold of the animal’s skin and wrinkles on its nose stand out. This ani- mal’s horn is about the largest I have seen on an Indian rhino. Our time appears to be that of transition for Indian wildlife photographers. We are slowly opting out of Shikar while wanton destruction of habitat and of animals by poachers still goes on. Our photographers have taken over from where the hunters and shikaris have left off. Consequently, more often than not, they tend to photograph animals which would have been hunted earlier. Ghor- pade is no exception, for the animals portray- ed in his book fall squarely in this category. The book does not have a single picture for example, of lesser cats or rodents not to men- tion snakes, butterflies etc. I suppose transi- tion from wildlife photography to Nature photography will take its own time. The author has selected photographs from a span of over 20 years of photography and yet the number of species represented are in- deed few. The section on Bharatpur could surely have had a much larger representation, he has not included a single bird of prey. Deer and Antelope though represented (and there is only one picture of a Gazelle) are not quite what one would have expected. After all they are far easier to photograph than say tigers. The book consists of the author’s experiences in the various sanctuaries and its chapters are so titled. One would have thought that in order to give an ocular account of the jungles and topography some photographs of these should surely have been included. Their ab- sence has made the book singularly uni- dimensional. “Sunlight and Shadows” is elegantly pro- duced and as costs go these days it is reason- ably priced. Each and every photograph selected for it is indeed of ‘top’ quality. If anyone has trapped’ the range of light’ effec- 173 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 tively in Indian wildlife photography, it is Ghorpade. His work will long remain unsurpassed. In fact, with the ever increasing thrust towards colour photography, this book may well be the last of its kind. It is said, “sight is a faculty; seeing, an art”. Few are blessed with the capa- city to see and Ghorpade is one of them. DIVYABH AN U SI N H CHAVDA 2. THE IUCN AMPHIBIA-REPTILIA DATA BOOK — Part 1 Com- piled by Brian Groombridge. pp. xliii + 426 (24x 16 cm), Switzerland, 1982. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), Price £ 12.00. This book is on endangered threatened and inadequately known species of turtles and crocodiles of the world and the Tuatara Lizard of New Zealand area. This is the first volume of a fresh Red Data Book series on Reptiles and Amphibia. The earlier work of Rene Honegger (1979) had become out of date due to extensive data gathered at the Conservation Monitoring Centre of IUCN during the past few years. The book under review is the result of an admirable attempt at evaluation and compilation of data in works published upto early 1982. Of the 83 taxa dealt with in this book, 12 species (5 Sea turtles, all 3 species of Indian crocodiles, 2 terrapins and 2 tortoises) occur in India. The sea turtles have a very wide distribution. The Gharial and the Marsh croco- diles are limited to India and a few adjacent countries. Of the remaining 4 testudenes the Travancore Tortoise ( Geochelone travancorica) and Kavalai Forest Turtle ( Heosemys silvatica ) are known only from the hilly forests of south-west corner of India viz . Kerala. Baiagur baska, the estuarine turtle is known from Flooghly River, Bangladesh, Burma, Thai- land, Malaya and Indonesia. This is said to breed on some islands in Sunderbans, which is possibly its only breeding ground in India. Geochelone emys is a South east Asiatic tortoise of hill forests perhaps the largest form of this genus in Asia and arguably the most threatened species. The compiler has listed in the first few pages, the 83 taxa he deals with under (i) Systematic Order (ii) Red Data Book survival status category (endangered, vulnerable, rare, inadequately known etc.) and iii) Zoogeographical and country-wise distri- bution. These lists have obviously been pre- pared after a very thorough and painstaking compilation and evaluation of all available data and have added to the value of this work. Separate accounts on each of the 83 taxa are given under clear subheadings such as distribution, survival status of populations (this often in the form of a country wise re- view), habitat and ecology, threats to survival, conservation measures already taken and pro- posed, captive breeding etc. which have faci- litated a very clear and highly readable pre- sentation. The pride of place in these reviews is given to marine turtles, most of which are on the endangered list and which have attract- ed considerable world- wide attention during the past few years. The Compiler’s ‘Remarks’ in the concluding part of these reviews are main- ly on taxonomic position of the species, mostly non-committal and nowhere definitive, which could have been easily left out from these otherwise excellent reviews. Mr. Groombridge has undoubtedly achieved much more than preparing an “expanded 174 REVIEWS treatment of taxa in this volume to reach and influence readers outside the con- servationist and environmentalist World”. His effort has resulted in an admirable source of material for all who may be interested in reptiles in one way or another. It is hoped that this book would induce further worldwide in- terest in reptiles which remain, inspite of the recent spurt in publications concerning them, much less known than mammals and birds. P. KANNAN 3. SYMBIOSIS IN THE MANGO-HOPPER: A STUDY IN COMPA- RATIVE CYTOPATHOLOGY. By Syed Mahdihassan. pp. iv + 40 (21x14 cm), with 13 colour plates, Karachi, 1978. Published by the Author. Price US $20. A result of ‘no less than ten years’, the booklet on the symbiotes of a cicadellid (jassid) insect, with its beautiful and meticu- lously drawn coloured figures of the cellular structures, is indeed an outcome of devoted research. The insect, commonly called a mango- hopper, has been studied from a different perspective and the phenomenon of symbiosis has been discussed at length with other homo- pterous insects. The insect is known to carry two symbiotes, one a thick rod-shaped bacte- rium and other a micrococcus. Then all sorts of cell-inclusions, and nuclear and protoplasmic debris, exposed with selected stains, have been described and illustrated in detail. Isolation of symbiotes and their metabolic roles; specificity of host-plants of the insect to the symbiosis; cellular structures and the types etc. have been elaborated, to substantiate various inter- connected aspects of the subject. The study also touches upon author’s thoughts on some other insects, thus (i) the relationship of the pigment lac-dye with the presence of yeast symbiotes in the lac insect Kerria lacca ; (ii) production of beta-carotene and the melanin formation in the fulgorid Oliarus cuspidatus ; (iii) the high cytochrome content of the pink coloured tympannal muscle of the common ‘sing cicada’; and (iv) the isolation of a bacterium which is not self- luminescent, but a mutant of which produces luciferin when the firefly offers luciferase, for emitting light to signal the female; etc. are some of the very interesting aspects of the book. Dr. Mahdihassan, now about 90 years of age, is well known for his more than 100 re- search papers (albeit many controversial) on different aspects of the lac insects, the first of which appeared in 1919. Inspite of his ‘hobby’ of research in lac-entomology, however one cannot ignore his professional achieve- ments — that he is a former fellow of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore; D. Phil, from Giessen (Germany); Diploma-holder in Agriculture from Oxford; and one who retired as the Head of Biochemistry Division of the Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Karachi. Symbiosis in the insect pathology has been a major field of specialization for Mahdihassan and in the present book he has been able to discuss his findings vis-a-vis the works of P. Buchner, K. Sulc and H. J. Muller etc. We checked from elsewhere that even as early as 1947, Mahdihassan researched C. viridis and its symbiotes ( Curr . Sci., 16: 58-59). A word about the name and distribution of the subject-insect. Mahdihassan has called it Cicadella viridis. However, a search through 175 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo /. 81 the taxonomic catalogues of this group by one of us (RKV) revealed that the valid name of this species is Tettigella viridis (Linnaeus, 1758) which belongs to the Family Tettigel- lidae (Cicadelloidea, Homoptera). A typical jassid of faded yellowish colour and of about 1 cm length, this species is very common in Europe and many other countries like Japan (where Esaki reported it to be injurious to the rice plants). However, it has been rarely reported from the Indian region earlier. Thus, Mahdihassan’s discovery of it from all over Pakistan, India and Bangladesh is interesting. The National collections of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, possess specimens from Kyusha Is. (Japan) and Minsk (U.S.S.R.). Another word about the 13 colour plates (with 3-20 figs, each), which have been ex- plained in the text with meticulous details of description, and which speak of the book as a useful reference to research workers, specially those interested in the study of micro-organisms, biochemistry, stain technology, cell inclusions and their relationship with insect pathology. The lean book covers elaborate descriptions of different kinds of cell inclusions seen in the insect body and the author has presented the work in his own specialized way ! The printing of colour plates (the author reports that drawings were made with camera lucida and later painted with water colour), is evidently a costly and technological hurdle. However, it is to the credit of Mahdihassan that he has even earlier published papers (on symbiosis in the membracid Tricentrus assamensis, etc.) with coloured plates, in journals like Archiv fur Protistenkunde and Pakistan J. Sci. Indus. Res. He has discussed therein the importance of coloured plates, comparing it with the black & white plates, though he had to wait for several years to get the former published. The huge cost of printing the coloured plates of this booklet has been borne by the sons and daughter-in-laws (all medicos) of the author, and in lieu he has happily dedicated the mono- graph to them ! Colour plate Nos. 4, 6, 7, 8 have come out very nicely, but plate No. 2 has not synchronized well in our copy. There are errors of proof-reading here and there, and some references are incomplete, which could have been avoided. However, ‘symbionts’ have been called ‘symbiotes’ throughout by the author. The conclusions drawn by the author in this study may be debatable, yet it goes without saying that it is an interesting book describing various facets of symbiosis and intricacies. The senior scientist of this subcontinent, hence, deserves appreciation for producing this mono- graph, which should find a place in the scien- tific libraries and on the study table of students and research workers. T. S. S. DIKSHITH AND R. K. VARSHNEY 4. SUPPLEMENT TO DUTHIE’S FLORA OF THE UPPER GANGE- TIC PLAIN AND OF THE ADJACENT SIWALIK AND SUB- HIMALAYAN TRACTS. By M. B. Raizada, pp. 355 (21 x 15 cm). Dehra Dun, 1976. M/s. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh. Price not stated. Duthie’s Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain yan Tracts was originally published in three and of the Adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himala- volumes between the years 1903 & 1920, and 176 REVIEWS reprinted in two volumes in 1960 by the Botanical Survey of India. The area dealt with in this flora encompasses approximately 1,96,000 sq. miles. It is a heterogeneous area, both topo- graphically and climatically, including such diverse regions as the whole of the Upper Gangetic Plain upto the boundary of Bengal in the east, the Siwalik Hills, the sub-Himalayan tracts from the Jamuna to the Gandat, Malwa Plateau, Eastern Rajputana and a part of Punjab in the neighbourhood of Delhi. As explained in the introduction, the pre- sent author has written a supplement to this flora because countless new genera and species have been collected and described from this area since the completion of the older flora. The supplement includes a total of 585 species from 105 families. Most of these are new additions whereas a few are nomenclatural changes from Duthie’s Flora. Sources of the supplement comprise specimens collected from the area by the author over a period of 40 years, specimens extant in the Herbarium of the Forest Research Institute (DD), the Herbarium of the Northern Circle of the Bota- nical survey of India, Dehra Dun (BSD), and the Central National Herbarium (CAL); and recent papers published by the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, and the Botanical Survey of India. The supplement covers plants culti- vated in gardens and public parks as well as introduced weeds. The family Gramineae is not included. The names of the families and their sequence have been retained as in Duthie’s Flora. How- ever, the delimitation of the families is accord- ing to Hutchinson and the spellings of the taxa are according to the International Codes of Botanical Nomenclature (1966 & 1972). Under the families, genera and species are arranged alphabetically. Each species contains first the nomenclature and synonymy, a brief description, list of exsiccatae, flowering and fruiting times and world distribution. Unlike Duthie’s Flora, vernacular names have not been provided in the supplement. In the case of some species, the author has given critical notes on the distribution as well as affinities with other taxa. Dr. Raizada’s supplement contains three new species and 34 new combinations. Further, three new names have been proposed. The nomenclature has been worked out in meti- culous detail and in each case, he has ex- plained and justified the nomenclatural change. A detailed bibliography, an index of Latin names and a short list of corrigenda and addenda complete the work. The book has some minor drawbacks in the list of specimens examined for each species, the author has not made clear where the specimen is deposited. In many instances, no herbarium has been mentioned. In others, reference is made to Dehra Dun Herbarium and it is left to the reader to decide between DD and BSD. There are also a number of spelling errors, both technical and non-techni- cal. A map of the area covered by the Flora and the supplement would have been a wel- come addition. In conclusion. Dr. Raizada’s book is of his usual high standard and it will prove most useful to persons and institutions interested in floristic studies. A. R. DARU WALLA 177 12 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1. RECORD OF THE FULVOUS FRUIT BAT, ROUSETTUS LESCHENAULT 1 (DESMAREST, 1820) FROM SIKKIM, WITH NOTES ON ITS INTERESTING FEEDING HABIT AND STATUS In Indian limits, the Fulvous Fruit Bat, Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest, 1820), is known from the Himalayan foothills of north- eastern India and Uttar Pradesh to the southern Peninsula (Blanford 1891, Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1951, Brosset 1962, Khaju- ria and Ghose 1970, Khajuria 1979, Rook- maaker and Bergmans 1981). According to Prater (1965, p. 179), though this habitual cave-dwelling species of the tropical region is found as high as 2150 m. in the temperate zone of the Himalayas, the extant literature does not record its occurrence in Sikkim. However, during a recent field survey in the northern part of that State, two specimens of the Ful- vous Fruit Bat were collected in a mist-net, and they constitute the first authentic record of its occurrence in Sikkim. The specimens were collected at Teen-ku- Pokhari which is a hill stream pool in the Hee Gyathang reserve forest on the western slope of the Tista Valley, about 17 km. WSW of Mangan, the District Headquarters of North Sikkim. The lower parts of the valley here has extensive cultivation. The higher slope, hold- ing the reserve forest, sustains luxuriant middle hill montane forest. The weather as recorded in the field on col- lection date are: Temperature: Max. 19°C; Min. 11°C. Relative Humidity (%): Max. 80; Min. 47. Data on their size together with their in- teresting feeding habit and status, are given below : Material: Id, 1$ (subad.): Teen-ku- Pokhari, c. 1829 m, Hee Gyathang, North Sikkim; 9 January 1982; R. K. Ghose coll. Measurements’. External: 1 cf : Forearm: 84.7. Skull: Occipitopremaxillary length : 37.6; postmolar length: 23.2; cranial width: 15.5, zygomatic width: 24.1; bulla: 4.5; m2-m2: 12; O-C1: 8.3; M3: 1.6x1; O-M2: 14.5. These bats, in hundreds, were noticed to fly and dive repeatedly over the water surface of the hill stream pool, which was full of small fish and tadpole, during evening and night. With night scope and spot light they were observed to be scooping up something from the water. It was believed that they were catch- ing fish. This is corroborated by the gut con- tent of the male specimen netted which showed the presence of undigested bone pieces and muscle fibres of fish, and some muscle fibres of fish were collected from the teeth of the female. This is in sharp contrast to its usual fruit-eating habit. The three kinds of small hill stream fishes collected from the place were identified as Garra gotyla (Gray), Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland), Schizopyge progastus (Mc- Clelland), all belonging to the family Cypri- nidae. The anuran tadpoles could not be properly identified. Some tropical species of bats that visit the temperate zone of the Himalayas in spring and summer, migrate to warmer areas in winter. The few that have adapted themselves to the cold climate and do not migrate, either 178 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES hibernate or show a temporary period of in- activity due to the severity of low tempera- ture. It is interesting to note that the population of the Fulvous Fruit Bat under re- port did not migrate, nor did it show any discomfort due to the low temperature. More- over, it has adapted itself to eating-fish, most probably due to the scarcity of fruits in the surrounding forests during the severe cold weather in January. This bat should normally have migrated to a place where fruit which is its usual diet, is available, but it is of interest to note that instead it has developed a new food-habit. Blanford (1891), reported Rouse - ttus amplexicaudatus (E. Geoffroy, 1810) feeding on exposed molluscs at Moulmein, Burma. Blanford (op. cit.) regarded Rousettus am- plexicaudatus and Rousettus leschenaulti con- Zoo logical Survey of India, 8. Lindsay Street, Calcutta 700 087, April 13, 1983. Refer Blanford, W. T. (1891) : Fauna of British India, Mammalia, pt. 2. London (Taylor and Francies). Brossett, A. (1962) : Studies on the bats (Chirop- tera: Mammalia) of central and Western India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 59(1): 1-57. Ellerman, J. R. and Morrison-Scott, T. C. S. (1951): Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mam- mals. London. Khajuria, H. (1979) : Studies on the bats (Chiroptera: Mammalia) of M. P., India, pt. 1. Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ. paper No. IS, pp. 1-59. specific. Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951), however, treated them as separate species. In a recent work Rookmaaker and Bergmans (1981) pointed out that the Burmese species of the fruit bats referred to in literature as Rousettus amplexicaudatus are actually Rouse- ttus leschenaulti. They (Rookmaaker and Berg- man, op. cit.) also mentioned some morpho- metric variations in some specimens of Rouse- ttus leschenaulti, which overlap those of Rousettus amplexicaudatus. The measurements of M3 in our male specimen is also within the range of that of R. amplexicaudatus (1.1- 1.7 vs. 1. 7-2.1) in R. leschenaulti as men- tioned by Rookmaaker and Bergmans (op cit.). It would, therefore, appear that a detailed study on the taxonomic characters of the Ful- vous Fruit Bats might be of interest. R. K. GHOSE D. K. GHOSAL EN CES Khajuria, H. and Ghose, R. K. (1970): On a collection of small mammals from Darjeeling Dis- trict, West Bengal. J. Beng. nat. Hist. Soc., 56(1) : 15-36. Prater, S. H. (1965): The book of Indian ani- mals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Rookmaaker, L. C. and Bergmans, W. (1981): Taxonomy and geography of Rousettus amplexicau- datus (Geofroy, 1810) with comparative notes on sympatric congeners (Mammalia, Megachiroptera) . Beaufortia, 34 ( 1) : 1-29. 179 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81 2. A FEEDING ASSOCIATION BETWEEN A HETEROPTERAN BUG AND LANGURS Animals have often been observed to scavenge food wasted by primates (e.g. Elder & Elder 1970, Glander 1979, Newton in prep.), but all such associations appear to be oppor- tunistic and facultative. Observations from central India, presented here, suggest an obligate commensalism in which bug nymphs feed solely on fruit dropped by monkeys from one tree species. Scattered through the sal ( Shorea robust a) or moist deciduous forest surrounding the cen- tral meadows of Kanha Tiger Reserve (Mandla District, Madhya Pradesh) are isolated boulder- strewn hillocks vegetated with mixed (dry deciduous) forest. On one of these hillocks (locally called “chattans”) 1 km. east of Kanha Forest Village (at 22° 17' 15" N, 80° 30'03" E) “kosum” trees ( Schleicher a oleosa, Sapin- daceae) fruited in May, June and July, strad- dling the end of the hot season and early monsoon. Their green ovoid fruits are 2. 5-3.0 cm in diameter and, within a hard coat, con- tain a pulpy, acidic, mucilaginous arillus sur- rounding oily cotyledons (Brandis 1874). Common langurs, Presbytis entellus, Colobinae, when feeding on these fruits, rejected and dropped to the ground the coat with some of the arillus coating the inside surface. Frequent feeding by langurs resulted in a considerable quantity of fruit debris accumulating below the canopy. During May, June and July of 1980, 1981 and 1982 I noted that beneath all fruiting kosum trees on the chattan, there were large popu- lations of the bug Leptocoris augur (Fabricius 1781) (Hemiptera, Rhopalidae). None were observed from August to April inclusive in any year. During the hot season (May to mid- June) the bugs, mainly nymphs, were found exclusively below the kosums with none more than 1 metre from the canopy’s vertical projection to the ground. Nor were the bugs found more than 1 metre up the tree bole. On 18 June 1981, 510 nymphs and adults of L. augur were counted below the canopy of a single tree (approximately 50 m2 cross- sectional area). The majority of the bugs were aggregated at the fruits with their probosci extended into the exposed mucilaginous arillus. Bugs congregated at intact fruits but did not feed, being unable to reach the mucus through the hard coat. When I broke open a monkey felled fruit, in the manner of a langur and placed it below the canopy, twenty bugs con- verged on the fruit within two minutes. Although most tree species in the area fruit- ed in the hot season, the bugs only occurred below kosums and was the only species noted scavenging the fruits. The bugs, which also occurred below fruiting kosums on adjacent chattans, were rarely seen to utilize other food sources such as the leaves of bamboo, saplings and herbs. Since opened fruits are dropped only by langurs the bug is dependent on the primate for processing an otherwise inacces- sible food source. These observations suggest that during the hot weather the bug is mono- phagous and host specific. However with the arrival of the monsoon (23 June in 1981) the behaviour of L. augur changed dramatically. The bugs, now mostly matured into imagos, dispersed from the kosums and were found scattered over the chattan feeding on grasses, herbs and saplings. They were not found in the tree canopies or the surrounding sal forest and were no longer aggregated below kosums. The sudden disper- sal of bugs coincided with the arrival of the 180 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES monsoon and not with the browning of the fruits, which mostly occurred in late June. Langurs continued to feed on the drying brown fruits and a few bugs remained below the kosums scavenging the reduced quantity of arillus present on the fruit debris. These observations suggest a commensalism in which during the hot season L. augur, most- ly as nymphs, may be obligatorily dependent on langurs for their food. With the arrival of the monsoon, the vegetation flushes, the climate ameliorates and the bugs are ‘released’ from the association, dispersing from the kosums. Concurrently they switch from being frugivor- ous specialists to phytophagous generalists. An additional advantage in living beneath kosum trees is that the microclimate is relatively benign owing to the leafed canopy. Most other sympatric tree species are leafless during this season and therefore, below their skeletal canopies, associating bugs would be subjected to high heat stress and water loss (tempera- tures to 44°C in shade). I suggest that the bug’s dependence on a Department of Zoology, Animal Ecology Research Group, South Parks Road, Oxford 0X1 3P5, U.K., October 20, 1983. Refer Brandis, D. & Stewart, J. (1874) : Forest flora of north-west and central India. London. Wm. H. Allen & Co. Elder, W. IT. & Elder, N. L. (1970): Social grouping and primate associations of the bushbuck ( Tragelaphus scriptus). Mammalia 34\ 356-362. Glander, K. E. (1979) : Feeding associations bet- shady tree and a prodigal primate evolved to facilitate its survival and growth during the invertebrate depauperate, hot, dry summer. The selective advantage of this shift in life history, from the usual pattern of nymphal development in the monsoon, may be that the nymphs avoid the competition, predation, para- sitism and funsal attack which are at their worst in the monsoon. However, if L. augur, is an obligate commensal, it is dependent on the vagaries of langur ranging and feeding, for the survival and growth of its nymphs. Acknowledgements I am very grateful to Drs. M. W. Ridley, M. R. W. Rands, M. J. Coe, M. S. Boyce, B. A. C. Don and C. W. D. Gibson for helpful comments, Mungal and Mohan Baiga for field assistance, Madhya Pradesh Forest Department for permission to work in Kanha and for their co-operation and to the S.E.R.C. (U.K.) for financial support. The bug was kindly identified by Dr. W. R. Dolling of the B. M. (NH), London. PAUL N. NEWTON E N C E S ween howling monkeys and Basilisk lizards. Biotro- pica 77(3) : 235-236. Newton, P. N. (in prep.) : On the ecology and associations of chital (Axis axis) and Common lan- gurs (Presbytis entellus) in Kanha Tiger Reserve, Central India. D. Phil, thesis. Oxford. 181 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo I. 81 3. WHITE DOTS ON THE LEGS OF BARKING DEER I had kept an orphaned muntjac for over one year in my house (Wildlife Warden’s Bun- galow) at Shencottah, before the animal was taken to the Wildlife orphanage at Mundan- thurai. The animal was brought to me when it was about 15-25 days old. Wildlife Warden, Mudumalai Sanctuary, Udhagamandalam 643 001, October 25, 1982. It had conspicuous white dots on its legs just above the hoofs. This aspect of coloration has not been mentioned in Prater’s book of Indian animals and on the animal in the colour plate (Plate 68). J. MANGALRAJ JOHNSON 4. A NOTE ON CANNIBALISM IN DESERT RODENTS Cannibalistic propensities have been noted in various small mammals by several workers (Prakash 1964, Gupta and Agarwal 1968, Ghosh 1970, Purohit and Bohra 1973). Most of the instances reported on cannibalism, how- ever, pertain to laboratory maintained rodents. The shortage of food has been regarded to be the main cannibalism inducing factor in rodents. I have handled breeding and rearing of Tat era indica, Meriones hurrianae , Rattus ineltada, Rattus cutchicus, Rattus rattus , Golunda ellioti in laboratory. Irrespective of any shortage of food and water (provided ad libitum) these rodent species exhibited partial to full cannibalistic activity on new born young. Some times only mother and just born litters were left undisturbed in large breeding cages with ample greens as well as dry food and Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur - 342 003, April 16, 1983. water, even then, complete devouring of litters occurred. These observations probably rule-out the possibility that only the paucity of food induces cannibalism. Further, cannibalism may not be regarded as an inborn habit because in several instances, more than one rodent caught in the same live trap, have not re- vealed this phenomenon. Therefore, devouring of litters by the mother under optimum living conditions can be explained in the man-made and artificial environment of the laboratory is considered a stress reaction — the stress of captivity. In the natural habitat of rodents such stressful conditions probably do not occur and hence such devouring of litters may not happen. This fact is confirmed by observations made on the burrowing patterns of field rodents where no such damaged young are encountered. A. P. JAIN 182 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Ghosh, R. K. (1970) : Cannibalism in the house- rat, Rattus r. rufescens (Gray.) Labdev. J. Sci. Tech., 8B: 170-171. Gupta, P. D. and Agarwal, V. S. (1968) : Canni- balism in Indian five striped squirrel, Funambulus pennanti. Sci. Cult., 34: 185. Prakash, I. (1964) : Eco-toxicology and control of the Indian desert gerbil, Meriones hurrianae Jer- don. II. Breeding season, Litter-size and Post-natal development. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61 : 142-149. Puroeiit, K. G. and Bghra, O. P. (1973): Obser- vations on factors inducing cannibalism in the House rat, Rattus rattus rufescens , Z. angew. zool., 60: 405-408. 5. BANDICOOT RAT SEIZING A SNAKE At dusk on March 15, 1982 when a fresh- water snake, Enhydris enhydris Schneider, was moving at the water’s edge of a roadside ditch at Kakdwip, 24-Parganas, West Bengal, a large Bandicoot rat, Bandicota indica (Bechstein) suddenly came out of a nearby bush and caught the snake. I focussed a 3 -celled torch on the spot and saw that the Bandicoot was moving in to the bush holding the snake at about its anterior quarter of the body. I went close to the site but could neither locate the rat nor the snake. It is believed that the rat might have seized the snake as food. Like all other rats the Zoological Survey of India, Kakdwip Field Station, Kakdwip-743 347, 24-Parganas, West Bengal, September 27, 1983. R E F E i Behura, B. K. (1958) : A musk shrew attacking a snake. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55: 552, Chakraborty. R. & Chakraborty, S. (1982): Food habit of large Bandicoot rat, Bandicota indica Bandicoot rats are omnivorous and feed on household refuse, on grain and vegetables, and occasionally attack poultry (Prater 1965). Chakraborty and Chakraborty (1982) reported from the analysis of the gut contents that B. indica accepts a wide spectrum of animals, right from insects to amphibians. Behura (1958), however, reported a musk shrew attacking a snake. Rats are, as a rule, known to be seized and swallowed by snakes. Perhaps this is the first occasion I have known of a Bandicoot rat seizing a snake. N. C. NANDI ENCES (Bechstein) in the fields of West Bengal during rainy season. Rodent Newt. 6(4) : 27. Prater, S. K. (1965): The book of Indian ani- mals. Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay. 6. RECORD OF A FOETUS OF THE FINLESS BLACK PORPOISE FROM GOA COAST ( With six text- figures) On the morning of February 20, 1980, when Vasco-da-Gama (Goa), I saw some fishermen collecting samples of fish on the beach of butchering a shark-like, smooth-bodied, black 183 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Foetus of Neophocaena phocaenoides Fig. 1. Entire foetus, lateral view; Fig. 2. Head, frontal view; Fig. 3. Head, lateral view (enlarged); Fig. 4. Tail with tail-fluke; Fig. 5. Inguinal region of belly, genital orifice covered by rod-like papilla; Fig. 6. Inguinal region of belly (rod-like papilla of genital orifice pushed aside). Abbreviations : A — Anus; B — Blowhole; BAM — Bulging of Auditory Meatus; BE — Bulging of Eye; DR — Dorsal Ridge; EM — Extra-embryonic Membrane; GO — Genital Orifice; P — Papilla; RP — Rod-like Papilla; TF — Tail-fluke; UC — Umbilical Cord. 184 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES animal. It had no dorsal fin, and the tail flukes were horizontal. There was a pair of wing- like flippers at the position of pectoral fins, and the head was abruptly round. The pieces of flesh the fishermen were making had a thick layer of blubber beneath the skin. The viscera had the uterus containing a foetus. The gut was examined and a rare trematode was re- covered which is being reported separately. The foetus with the umbilical cord was enveloped in a transparent sac richly supplied with blood vessels and was clearly seen through it. Later, it was identified as *Neophocaena phocaenoides (Cuvier) in the light of the obser- vations made in the field as well as the foetus which has developed the main external features of the adult. The identification was confirmed by the Mammals Section, Z.S.I., Calcutta. The Finless Black Porpoise or the Little Indian Porpoise, Neophocaena phocaenoides (Cuvier), occurs in the coastal waters of India. Pillay (1926) and Dawson (1959) recorded its occurrence off Trivandrum and Malpe res- pectively. Balan (1976) reported a female juvenile of this cetacean from Calicut. Dawson (1959) also reported four embryos of this animal. The present female foetus, whose account is given below, was recovered from its mother caught near the mouth of Zoari river off Vasco-da-Gama (Goa). The creamy white foetus was completely enveloped in the extra-embryonic membrane profusely supplied with blood vessels when it was recovered from the uterus. The head is abruptly round and is roughly triangular in outline. The crescentic blowhole (nostril) is median and central in position. The head is * Neomeris Gray, 1846 is junior homonym being preoccupied by Neomeris Lamouraux, 1816. Palmer (1899) rechristened it as Neophocaena. Also see Hershkovitz in Smithsonian Inst. Bull.: 246. at right angles to the horizontal axis of the body. The snout is a bit drawn and appears beak-like. The eyes are beady and completely closed, and are situated at a distance behind the angle of the mouth. Behind the eye is the bulging of the auditory meatus but an external aperture is absent. There are four papillae on either side of the upper lip arranged in a line parallel to that of the mouth opening. The three anterior ones are close to each other while the fourth one is slightly distant. The head is marked off from the body by a slight narrowing of the intervening space suggestive of a neck. Near the beginning of the body there is a pair of pectoral flippers. The triangular dorsal fin is characteristically absent. Instead, the back of the body has a long depression in which minute scales are embedded in the skin. This is a characteristic feature of the foetus of the Finless Black porpoise. The tail tapers behind the dorsal depression and is streamlined. The tail flukes are horizontal and there is a notch in the middle. The tail flukes are stretched outwards and the posterior edges are semi- circular. The middle line of the tail is slightly ridged dorsally and ventrally. The ventral ridge extends up to the anus while the dorsal ridge extends up to the depression. The genital orifice is covered by a muscular rod-like flap inserted at the anterior corner of the orifice. The anus is situated behind the genital orifice. On either side of the reproductive opening there appears a very faint trace of a slit which is the seat for mammae. The important body measurements are given below: Length of body from anterior extremity of head to notch of tail fluke 100 mm Width of body at the position of umbili- cal cord 24 mm Length of head 28 mm Width of head at level of eyes ...19mm 185 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Blowhole across 5.5 mm Mouth opening 7.5 mm Angle of mouth to centre of eye 5 mm Width of the base of insertion of flippers . . 6 mm Length of flippers from centre of base of flippers 15 mm Length of tail from anus to notch of tail fluke 38 mm Distance from the anterior margin of the genital orifice to the attachment of the umbilical cord 14 mm Tail fluke across 16.5 mm Length of tail fluke from beginning to notch 11 mm Length of umbilical cord 50 mm Like the present foetus, Dawson’s (1959) specimens measuring 93 mm and 98 mm have more or less beakless snout, and the mouth opening is almost vertical, but in the 155 mm long foetus the snout assumed roundish appear- ance and opening of the mouth became slanted. In Balan’s (1976) female juvenile specimen measuring 669 mm long, the snout is comple- Desert Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Jodhpur-342 006, February 16, 1982. tely round and the mouth opening is horizontal as in the adult animal. The colour of the dorsal surface is black while that of the ventral sur- face is pale. Thus, as the developing foetus grows in age, the colour of the body changes from creamy white to deep greyish black, and the somewhat beak-like appearance of the snout changes to beakless condition as in the adult. Acknowledgements I am thankful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for providing faci- lities, and to the Deputy Director-in-Charge, Desert Regional Station, Jodhpur for taking kind interest in the study. The author is also thankful to Dr. V. C. Agarawal, Superintend- ing Zoologist, Z.S.I., Calcutta for help in the identification of the foetus. Thanks are also due to Mr. S. A. Basit, photographer, for pre- paring the photographs. M. HAFEEZULLAH References Balan, V. (1976): A Note on a juvenile Indian Dawson, E. (1959): On a Large Catch of the Porpoise, Neomens phocaenoides (Cuvier) caught off Finless Black Porpoise, Ncomeris phocaenoidcs Calicut. Indian J. Fish. 23 ( 1&2) : 263-265. (Cuvier). /. mar. bioi. Ass. India, 7(2): 259-260. 7. CATTLE EGRETS ( BUBULCUS IBIS) FEEDING ON CICADAS ON TREES On a recent trip to the Borivli National Park (18th April 1982) with Mr. Humayun Abdulali, we stopped to watch a number of cattle egrets ( Bubulcus ibis) scattered over a large tree ( Garuga pinnata) which was in fruit and which had many cicadas calling therefrom. As we watched, the egrets were seen to stalk along a branch and when near enough, jab at the cicada after swaying the head two or three times from side to side presenting (as Drs. Salim Ali & Ripley have said in the handbook 1 p. 67) a comical appearance. Egrets have been known to feed on blue- bottle flies from nectar-yielding flowers of 186 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Salmalia and Erythrina and even from toddy pots hung up on date palms, but we do not recall having read of their stalking cicadas along the branches of trees. The cicadas were extremely numerous call- ing from many trees and we later saw more egrets in small parties of 3 to 5 perched on trees in different places apparently for the same Madhurima Society, M. G. Road, Kandivli (West), Bombay-400 067. C/20 Kastur Mahal, Sion, Bombay-400 022, August 21, 1982. purpose. Though they were unable to catch the insects settled on the under surface of the branches on which the egrets were perched, this appears to be another instance of the adaptability of this bird which has no doubt helped it to retain its numbers around Bombay, and also to establish itself in different parts of the world. S. G. MONGA PARVISH PANDYA 8. UNUSUAL PLUMAGE IN A CATTLE EGRET BUBULCUS IBIS COROMANDUS (BODDAERT) On 6th June 1982, while visiting the Borivli National Park with Mr. Humayun Abdulali, we stopped to watch a large number of Cattle Egrets B. ibis coromandus (Boddaert) feed- ing in a semi-flooded grass field by the road. We counted 17 in all-white and 22 in breeding plumage. The latter group included a strik- ingly coloured bird which had the usual yellowish orange plumes on its head and breast, pale pink legs with the rest of the body a delicate rosy pink, and with abso- lutely no trace of white anywhere. A reference to Thomson’s dictionary of birds (1964, page 643) reveals a note to the effect that the plumage of some birds does not depend upon any structural character but on the infiltration of the feathers with chemi- cal substances derived from the natural food 27A/1, Civil Lines, Nagpur, June 16, 1982, of the species, the absence of which in capti- vity may lead to loss of colour. There is pink suffusion in the plumages of some birds like Flamingos (Phoenicopteridae) and Goosanders ( Mergus merganser) that live on small aqua- tic animals. This phenomena does not appear to have been observed in the Cattle Egret (B. ibis coromandus) and it would be interesting to see how long the colour remains and whether it appears in other individuals also. I under- stand from Mr. Abdulali that he recently noted several species of flamingos at Slimbridge, U.K. which had quantities of “Carotin” includ- ed in the food offered to them. Each species acquired the red or pink in that part of the plumage peculiar to itself, the distribution being presumably genetically controlled. NITIN JAMDAR 187 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 9. SOME NOTES ON THE INDIAN REEF HERON The Indian Reef Heron is found throughout the maritime habitat of Gujarat. In Kathiawar peninsula I have observed it in its central portion and along the Kuteh coast. It is, how- ever, not restricted to the coast. The breeding season is a prolonged one commencing from February and ending about August depending upon local conditions. The peak season appears to be from March to May. The two most prominent phases of this heron are, the white and slaty-grey forms which vary from sooty to grey. Both sexes are seen in these phases. I have seen pairing of white with white and slaty with slaty as the more common combinations. Nevertheless, I have seen white x slaty and vice versa and with grey forms. In the Gulf of Cambay the slaty forms are seen more. What is surprising is that although both parents may be slaty, their young may be white or mixed and the same with white parents, or both young may be slaty or slaty and white in the same nest. Some of the slaty and grey forms have white patches on one or both wings in adults and young alike. All these varied phases may sometimes be seen in one Heronry, the gene- tics of which require scientific study. The young of white forms often have black or grey featherings but slaty young do not invariably have this pattern. The fledglings of the dark slaty form are usually light grey colour with whitish underparts. I have seen groups of white forms frequently in the Gulf of Kutch and North-west Kathiawar than in South-east Kathiawar. The composition of a breeding colony is that the species prefers to nest together and may monopolise an entire tree, yet, I have seen them nesting with other herons, storks, white ibises and cormorants. The trees select- ed depend upon the suitability of the site and I have even seen them nesting in Neem trees. Trees in which large Fruit Bats roost are used by all the above mentioned birds but not cormorant. The white form of the Reef Heron is easily distinguished from the Little Egret by its stou- ter bill, colour of lowest mandible and also posture. The nesting in trees or groups of trees by this heron in urban areas is preferred pro- bably because of suitability of type of trees and closeness to their feeding grounds. Never- theless, I have seen them nesting away from urban areas throughout the coast where there wer e mangrove forests, now denuded or heavily cut in many places and to provide browse for camels and fuel-wood. There is no doubt that in such sites the breeding is later, from May onwards. In the littoral, especially in the Gulf, I find sea-food abundant for shore birds and reef herons take full advantage of the situation specially during spring tides when tides in the gulf have high incidence of rise and fall. A very interesting observation during the breed- ing season in the gulf especially in the muddy and murky silted waters and in estuaries is the feeding behaviour. Most of the food gathered is during the ebbing, ebb and flow of tides and not during full flood at which time there is a marked lull in feeding of young in the heronry. At full tide, the mud flats and sands are covered by water and feeding habitat though it may appear exten- sive, food itself is submerged and in murky water in which it is less visible and more difficult to obtain. In monsoon, these herons visit jheels and tanks and streams although much of their food is taken in gulf, bays. 188 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES creeks and estuaries and consists of Mud- Skipper, Fish, Prawn, Crab, Eel and other marine and aquatic animal life, and in the vicinity of fishermen. Although, feeding of nestlings takes place at day and night, much depends upon tidal timings. The heronry as 26 Lotus Court, Jamshedji Tata Road, Bombay-400 020, May 6, 1982. mentioned by other writers is fairly silent. Crows are a scourge to nesting birds and yet the parents alternately guard their eggs and nestlings carefully. Predation by raptors is negligible but young that fall to ground are often killed by pariah dogs, cats and jackals. K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI 10. EXCEPTIONALLY LARGE EGGS OF THE COMMON HOUSE CROW, CORVUS S. SPLENDENS VIELL. On 15th April 1982, I saw a pair of house crows (Corvus s. splendens) complete their nest in a copperpod tree in my garden at Kandivli, Salsette, in North Bombay. For the next two days there appeared to be no activity around the nest but on the 18th April it contained one egg. This appeared extraordinarily large that I took it. Again for two days there was no activity and I thought that the nest was deserted. But on the 21st April morning there was another large egg which I took, to be followed by a third egg on the 22nd April. The three eggs measured and weighed as follows : - Madhurima Society, M. G. Road, Kandivli (West), Bombay-400 067, September 7, 1982. 1. 47.55 x 25 mm 17 gm 2. 44.2 x 26.75 mm 15.5 gm 3. 43.55 x 25 mm 14.2 gm Stuart Baker (1932) in nidification of BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE (Vol. I, pp. 18) gives the average size of 200 eggs as 37.2 x 27 mm (maxima 44.1 x 27.4 mm and 41.1 x 29.1 mm; minima is 30.4 x 25.4 mm and 32.0 x 23.0 mm). The eggs obtained by me thus are appre- ciably larger than those noted earlier and may be worth recording. I am sending the eggs for the Society’s collection. S. G. MONGA 11. LABORATORY OBSERVATIONS ON THE INCUBATION PERIOD OF THE INDIAN BLACK IBIS PSEUDIBIS PAPILLOSA (TEMMINCK) (With a text -figure) Ali and Ripley (1968) have mentioned that of the Indian black ibis. In the course of our there is no record of the incubation period studies on Indian black ibis, we have been 189 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 DAYS Fig. 1. Left ordinate (O) shows decrease in weight of egg in milligrams. Right ordinate (0) shows weight of egg in gms. regularly checking a nest near the University Campus, Rajkot, from March 1982. Two eggs laid by the bird, however, were found missing. So the third egg which was laid on 29th March was brought to the laboratory, and was incubated using an oven. The tempera- ture was kept constant at 37 °C. One petridish of 10 cm diameter filled with water was Department of Biosciences Saurashtra University Rajkot-360 005 (India), May 18, 1982. placed at the bottom of the oven. The egg was rotated at regular intervals. It was weighed everyday in the evening. The chick hatched on 30th April, at 0900 A.M. The incubation period was 33 days. The weight of the egg had decreased constantly, but the decrease in the weight was not linear (Fig. 1). C. SALIMKUMAR V. C. SONI 190 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Reference Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1968) : Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press, Bombay. 12. SEASONALITY AND OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS The Errata on p. 240 of the Journal for April 1982 regarding the “Seasonality and Occurrence of Birds in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh” 76(3) 1979 pp. 379-422 reminds me that when I wrote to Mr. Trevor Price, I also mentioned the improbability of the thousands of swifts (once counted as 8500) “undertaking daily migration throughout winter from the palm trees in the coastal plains to over the Ghats” being Palm Swifts ( Cypsiu - rus parvus) as recorded (l.c., p. 410) . 75, Abdul Rehman Street, Bombay-400 003. September 11, 1982. In March 1982 I was invited to the Eastern Ghats Environmental Seminar and one day we drove from Vizagapatnam to Lamasinghi. The paucity of Palm Swifts inspite of the abun- dance of the Borassus Palm (though all had their “heads” closely trimmed) was very strik- ing. Could this lack of roosts have changed the habits of the Swifts and got them to collect elsewhere in large numbers ? Or were the birds not palm swifts at all ? HUMAYUN ABDULALI 13. A CURIOUS EXPERIENCE WITH A SMALL MINI VET (. PERICROCOTUS C1NNAMOMEUS) At about 9.30 a.m. on the morning of 8th May 1982, a chick, presumably unable to fly, was picked up on the ground behind our bungalow at Kihim, Alibag tal., Kolaba (now Rigadh) Dist., Maharashtra on an open piece of sandy ground under Casuarinas. It was very lethargic in its movements and made no effort to escape handling by several people who were guessing at its identity. We brought it to the house about 50 yards away and put in in an open cheese tin lined with Casuarina leaves. At 10 a.m. it drank 10/15 drops of milk delivered soaked in cotton wool. This appeared to liven it up. It now started to utter sharp high notes at regular intervals. At noon it was brought outside into the open, it perched on the edge of the tin and was fed with bread crumbs soaked with milk. It continued to call. At 12.30 p.m., just three hours after it was found, it fluttered out of the tin and fell to the ground about 10 feet away, to be imme- diately joined by the parents, who had pre- sumably also been calling and had thus esta- blished contact. They indulged in a display of affection by fluttering close to the chick and nudging it right and left. 191 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY, Vol. 81 A jungle crow suddenly appeared and lurched towards the chick which was saved only by human intervention. The parents screeching loudly enticed the crow away by each trailing a wing in flight, keeping about 4 feet apart and 3 feet off the ground keeping just out of reach. The crow kept snapping at one or the other but they managed to draw him about 20 yards away. The tin with the chick was then moved to an open table in a covered verandah. The parents re-established contact and started feed- ing it with insects. The crow appeared once again but was chased away by the parents helped by a pair of dayals who dive-bombed the crow, actually hitting the crow on more than one occasion. The Minivets also managed to remove a few feathers from the crow’s nape making him a marked character in the neighbourhood. For protection from the crow, the tin was placed inside a breed-cage 18" x 10" x 10" and the hinged door left open. For some time both parents fluttered round the cage not daring to go in, but at about 1 . 30 p.m. they had overcome their fear and started feeding the chick. The food brought in con- sisted of green grasshoppers, white and colour- ed moths, large spiders, etc. The feeding continued throughout the after- noon and evening, the parents soon having become accustomed to ignoring the constant movement of children, servants and others within about 5 feet of the cage. Our observa- tion post was about 20 feet away and the chick and the cage were always visible. During the course of the day the number of feedings was not counted but quite often the chick was satiated and refused to grab and swallow the food which was then taken away and eaten by the parents. Both parents appear- ed to be equally interested in bringing the food and while the pair would presumably go in different directions to look for food, it was seldom that both would come back carry- ing it. If one returned with food, it would wait until the other also arrived and they would then approach the chick together, one perching about 10 feet away at a slightly higher level, while the other did the feeding. In the evening at about sunset the parents disappeared, the chick went to sleep and we shut the cage door. On the following morning we opened the door when it was still dark. The parents arrived at about 6.25 a.m. and after making an initial contact and assuring that the chick was still there, went away and brought back the first morsel of food at about 6.40. The human in- terest and interference appeared to have in- creased a bit too much and we moved the cage about 15 yards away and hung it from a tree. The parents kept going to the old place with food, and failed to locate the new site. We therefore brought back the cage and fenc- ed it off from the rest of the verandah with an old chik curtain. This appeared to be satis- factory and feeding was resumed. A palm squirrel appeared on the roof at about 7.30 a.m. and the female dived and chased it away. Throughout the morning the feeding continued and at about 11.30 a.m. the chick encouraged by the parents fluttered out of the cage. As it appeared helpless, we put it back but at about 12.15 p.m. the parents again wheedled it out and it flew for a short distance. It was then coaxed to enter heavier undergrowth and then they all disappeared. In the short while that we had the bird under observation, the chick appeared to have grown to one-and-a-half times the original size and was certainly much stronger and more active when it flew away. It was all a most interesting experience. The 192 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Minivets lay 2 to 3 eggs at a time. What being fed at the same time, and was there a happened to the other chicks ? Were they also final re-union ? C/o. N. Futehally & Co., SADIQ A. FUTEHALLY 19, Bank Street, Bombay-400 023, August 12, 1982. 14. FREQUENCY AND DURATION OF INCUBATION OF THE EGGS FOR AEG1TE1IN A TIPHIA Material and Methods : A pair of Iora were observed in their breed- ing activities from March 22, 1979 and April 27, 1979 in Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu. In- cubation of the eggs began with the laying of the first egg on March 27, 1979. rhere were two eggs in the nest, the second egg having been laid on March 29, 1979. Both the mem- bers of the pair were observed closely for two days — on April 4, 1979 and April 7, 1979 — from the first change of duty at 6.40 a.m. till the female sat on the eggs for the night at 4.30 p.m and 5-05 p.m. respectively. The nest with the two eggs was placed at a height of 20 feet from the ground at the parting of three outer twigs of a neem tree. The obser- vation was made with a pair of binoculars 8 x 30 mm. Field 7.5°. Results and Discussion : The results of the observations made on April 4, 1979 and April 7, 1979 were tabu- lated and given in Tables 1 & 2. The data for the first day showed that dur- ing the period between 6.40 a.m. and 4.30 p.m. the male was on the eggs six times with an average sitting duration of 53 mts and a total of 318 mts for the day. The female bird sat five times with the duration averaging at 54.4 mts and a total of 272 mts. The male had spent longer time on the eggs during the day than the female. For the second day the data showed a trend similar to that of April 4, 1979, the male warming the eggs six times with a total dura- tion of 325 mts at an average of 65 mts and the female performing it five times for 300 mts at an average of 60 mts- It was obvious that there was alternate care of eggs by the two sexes. The brooding by the female less by a sitting and for shorter total duration during the day than the male did not indicate a shift to the male the bur- den of incubating. For assuming that the female rose up for the days at 6.40 a.m. on April 5, 1979 and April 6, 1979 the average duration in minutes for the night shifts would be 832.5 mts for the female. Conversely, the male and the female were out of the nest alternately for a total of 272 mts and 318 mts respectively, the female for- aging for 46 mts more than the male (Table 1). On April 7, 1979 they showed a similar trend, the female having been away from the nest for 25 mts more than the male (Table 2). Could it be argued that the female was spending more time out of the nest to gather enough food to meet the energy requirement during the night for production of warmth for the eggs? A closer study of the tables suggests that the male bird had spent more time away than the female bird. On both the days under study, the female was away feeding six times. But the average time dura- 193 13 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Table 1 Duration (in minutes) of incubation for each sitting; 4-4-1979 Duration in minutes of Time of Time of Duration in minutes of incubation by the male arrival — male arrival — Female incubation by female 6.40 A.M. 50 8.05 A.M. 7.30 A.M. 35 30 9.35 A.M. 8.35 A.M. 60 40 11.25 A.M. 10.15 A.M. 70 45 1.24 P.M. 12.10 P.M. 74 48 2.45 P.M. 2.12 P.M. 33 105 4.30 P.M. 318 272 Table 2 Duration (in minutes) of INCUBATION FOR EACH SITTING; 7-4-1979 Duration in minutes of Time of Time of Duration in minutes of incubation by the male arrival — male arrival — Female incubation by the female 6.40 A.M. 55 8.10 A.M. 7.35 A.M. 35 30 9.40 A.M. 8.40 A.M. 60 45 12.00 Noon 10.25 A.M. 95 100 2.25 P.M. 1.40 P.M. 45 25 3.55 P.M. 2.50 P.M. 65 70 5.05 P.M. 325 300 tion for which she was away from the nest was 53 mts, 1.4 mts less than for the five for- aging trips of the male for the first day. The corresponding time scales for the female for the next day were 64.16 mts and 4.16 mts respectively. It was evident that the male was spending more time, on the average, on for- aging than the female though the number of trips he made was fewer by one than his mate. This might be a necessary exercise for him 194 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES because he had to sit on the eggs six times the total duration of which exceeded that of the female’s- Conversely, the data also suggests that the length of time the female spent on foraging increased from about noon until her sitting on the eggs for the night. The total period for the second set of three foraging for the first day was 198 mts which was 78 mts more than that for the three earlier trips that day. The corresponding values for the second day were 195 mts and 65 mts. It appears as though the female was preparing for the night’s brooding, storing enough energy in her body. This argument, however, has the dis- advantage that it does not consider the fact that the male was free to forage from the moment he was last relieved from duty by the female at 4.30 p.m. and 5.05 p.m. on the two days of observation. Hence it cannot be said with certainty that the female gathered more food for the nights than the male did for his roosting. Professor of Zoology, Bishop Heber College, Tiruchirapalli-620 017, Tamil Nadu, December 22, 1981. Conclusion : The male and the female iora share the duty of incubating the eggs, both taking turns to sit on them. During the day the male in- cubates for longer duration than the female. The female sits on the eggs for the night. The male appears to spend more time on the average on collecting food than the female. However the female incubates for much longer duration when the day and night sittings are taken together. Nevertheless, it is not certain if the female accumulates and spends more energy on incubation than the male does- Two more thoughts that occur and need verifica- tion are that (1) the periodic shifts might be to dissipate the extra thermal energy generated during incubation; and (2) the out-of-the nest sojourn may have the additional purpose of keeping themselves oriented to the familiar nature environment. H. DANIEL WESLEY 15. HYPSIPETES MAD A GASCA RIENSIS SINENSIS (LA TOUCHE): A FIRST RECORD FOR INDIA In late 1981, my wife and I joined Dr. Salim Ali and colleagues from the Bombay Natural History Society in an ornithological survey of the Namdapha Wildlife Reserve, Tirap Dis- trict, Arunachal Pradesh. On 20 December 1981, we were fortunate to obtain a specimen of an apparently adult female of the bulbul Hypsipeles madagascariensis sinensis (La Touche), a first record for India. The Black Bulbul, H. madagascariensis , is a wide-ranging species that occurs from Mada- gascar to Afghanistan, India, southeast Asia, China and Taiwan (Deignan 1960). Sixteen subspecies are currently recognized (ibid.), and of these, four have been recorded from India: psaroides, ganeesa, humii and nigrescens (Ripley 1982). The resident population in Arunachal Pradesh is nigrescens, a bird that is 195 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. SI mostly slaty blue-grey with a black crown, malar streak, nape and tail. The bird that we collected differs markedly from nigrescens, and closely resembles, in plumage and dimensions, specimens of sinensis examined at the U. S. National Museum and American Museum of Natural History (Table 1). Unlike nigrescens, our bird is rich blackish with slight iridescent highlighting on the dorsum, and fine scalloping of pale grey on the belly and vent. In this respect, it agrees with the known female plumage of sinensis, and no other (Mayr 1941). The male of the subspecies ambiens is Table 1 Measurements of Hypsipetes madagascariensis (females only) Subspecies N Wing Tail Indian Specimen 1 122 93.5 sinensis 5 116-129 92.5-103 ambiens * 116-121 97-103 * Measurements by Mayr (1941), at least 5 speci- mens included. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 20560, U.S.A. Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaiteed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay-400 023, June 22, 1983. Refe Deignan, H. G. (1960): Pycnonotidae (Oriental), p. 221-300 in E. Mayr and J. C. Greenway (eds.) Checklist of Birds of the World. Museum of Com- parative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. Mayr, E. (1941) : Die geographische Variation similar, but the female ambiens, which we examined, is grey ventrally, very distinct. A number of well defined local isolates of H. madagascariensis have evolved in the moun- tainous region of SW China and North Burma (Mayr 1941). Sinensis is one of several sub- species whose breeding range occurs in this area. To date, sinensis has been recorded breeding in NW Yunnan and adjacent Hsikang (Salween-Mekong Watershed), and it has been recorded as a migrant dispersing into Laos and Thailand. The new record in eastern Arunachal Pradesh represents a range exten- sion of 200 km to the west of the bird’s known breeding habitat. Considering the known dis- persal capabilities of Hypsipetes madagascari- ensis, this distance is not extraordinary. Given that the population of ambiens is re- corded as breeding in the area between the range of sinensis and Arunachal Pradesh, one might expect to find the occasional individual of this other subspecies occurring in north- eastern India, as well. Further ornithological surveys of this frontier region would be profitable. S. DILLON RIPLEY S. A. HUSSAIN ENCES der Far bung stypen von Microscelis leucocephalus. Journ. f. Ornith. 89: 377-392. Ripley, S. D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Second Edition. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. 196 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 16. THE DIAGNOSTIC PLUMAGE CHARACTERS OF THE RED- HEADED BABBLERS STACHYRIS RUFICEPS AND S. RUFIFRONS In 1847 Blyth described a new small babbler, Stachyris ruficeps: a drab olive bird with a slender tapering bill and rufous cap. He stated that the crown was ferruginous, the lower parts whitish with a fulvous tinge on the sides of neck and breast, and the chin and mid- throat white. In his catalogue of birds of the Asiatic Society’s museum (Blyth 1849) he indicated that the holotype was a specimen from Darjeeling collected by C. S. Bonnivie. A similar description was used by Horsfield and Moore (1854) in their catalogue of birds of the East India Company’s museum, based on specimens collected by B. H. Hodgson. Hume (1873) described a new species, S. rufifrons, from Burma. It was differentiated from S. ruficeps in having, inter alia, the rufous of the head extending to the occiput, and in lacking the yellow tinge to the underside which Hume stated was present in ruficeps. Haring- ton (1915) described the subspecies S. rufi- frons ambigua from Assam, and commented on the published descriptions of S. ruficeps, querying the reference to a white throat. Sub- sequently S. rufifrons ambigua has been found occurring north to the foothills of Sikkim (Ali & Ripley 1971). On present information and specimens there appear to be two sibling species. The more northerly Red-headed Babbler S. ruficeps occurs in Taiwan, through much of China and south into northern Vietnam with an isolated population in southern Vietnam, into the hills of north-west Burma and the Indian border, and through the eastern Himalayas. The Red- fronted Babbler S. rufifrons is a southern species occurring from Borneo and Sumatra, north through Malaya into northern Thailand and southern Burma, through the hills of western and northern Burma, and along the Himalayas. I have not found any evidence to support Deignan’s proposal (Peters 1964) to regard ambigua and rufifrons as separate species. E. C. Dickinson has suggested (in litt.) that Deignan was influenced by problems of appa- rent sympatry in northern Thailand (Deignan 1945) which were resolved by retaining S. rodolphei Deignan 1939 as a full species. How- ever, in Peters’ Checklist Deignan (1964) lists a series of apparently allopatric subspecies of rufifrons / ambigua but divides them into two species. There is material of both in the British Museum (Natural History) and I can find no characters for such a specific separation, nor any statement by Deignan concerning the speci- fic characters of his S. ambigua which might justify such a separation. Where ruficeps and rufifrons overlap in general range there is usually an altitudinal separation with rufifrons at lower altitudes. However, there may be some degree of alti- tudinal overlap and in the collection of the British Museum (Natural History) there are specimens of both species labelled Darjeeling. The two species are generally similar but two diagnostic characters are apparent. S. rufifrons has a chestnut cap extending back no further than the hind-crown and usually with some indistinct dark streaking along the feather shafts, while S. ruficeps has a uniform chestnut cap extending right back to the nape where it merges with the mantle, not “sharply defined” from it as stated in Ali and Ripley (1971). S. rufifrons has a white throat, usually with some fine blackish streaks along the feather shafts, and this is separated from the rest of the underside by a transverse zone of 197 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81 slightly rufous buff colour which also borders the throat. S. ruficeps has a very pale throat, usually with a faint yellow tint, which merges gradually into ochraceous-buff on the upper breast and cheeks. The yellowish suffusion of the underside and back, making the latter appear greener, is referred to in most recent literature but is variable in character, and is absent over most of the underside in some Chinese subspecies. Mr. H. Abdulali has recently queried (pers. comm.) Blyth’s description of the type of S. ruficeps as having a white throat when it should be pale yellow, the white throat being regarded as a character of S. rufifrons. I have not been able to trace the present location, if any, of the holotype of the former species. Horsfield and Moore (1854) used specimens collected by B. H. Hodgson which in the absence of the holotype of S. ruficeps provide information on the type of material available at the time. Some of these Hodgson specimens from the East India Company’s museum are now in the collection of the British Museum Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1971) : Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 6. Bombay, London & New York: Oxford U.P. Blyth, E. (1847): Notices and descriptions of various new or little known species of birds. J. Asiatic Soc. Beng. 16: 452. (1849) : Catalogue of the birds in the museum of the Asiatic Society. Calcutta: J. Thomas, Baptist Mission Pr. Deignan, H. G. (1945): The birds of Northern Thailand. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mils. 186 : 1-64. (Natural History) and these lack a yellow suffusion, and are therefore white-throated. This might be attributed to later fading and exposure to light, but a specimen of ruficeps from Hodgson which appears to have come straight to the museum and was registered in 1859 (no. 1859. 3.4.267) is wholly without yellow colour and has a white throat, while other specimens collected only a little later still retain the yellow. It is possible that a preservation technique was used which affected the lipochrome pigments but not the melanins. There is therefore a strong possibility that Blyth’s type specimen may have lost its yellow colour prior to being described. The fact that he refers to fulvous colour at the sides of the throat and breast, and does not refer to a rufous-buff transverse zone on the upper breast which would have been present in rufifrons, appears to confirm that the specimen he des- cribed was in fact ruficeps. His reference to a white throat would not therefore affect the nomenclature of these species. C. J. O. HARRISON Harington, H. H. (1915) : Notes on Indian Tima- liides and their allies. Pt. 4. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 23: 614-657. Horsfield, T. & Moore, F. (1854): Catalogue of the birds in the museum of the Hon. East India Company. Vol. 1. London; W. H. Allen. Hume, A. O. (1873) : Stachyris rufifrons sp. nov. Stray Feathers 1 : 479-480. Peters, J. L. (1964): Checklist of birds of the world. Vol. 10. Cambridge, Mass.: Mus. Comp. Zool. Sub-department of Ornithology, British Museum (Natural History), Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 6AP, (U.K.), September 3, 1982. References 198 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 17. BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSE OF A MALE MAGPIE-ROBIN (COPSYCHUS SAU LARIS SCLATER) TO ITS OWN SONG The observations were carried out during May 1982 at Pazayannur village in the Trichur district of Kerala. A pair of magpie-robins had nested in a bulbless street lamp-shade and the favourite singing perch of the male magpie-robin was the electric wire leading to the lamp post. The recording of the song was done by suitably placing a battery operated portable cassette tape recorder with a built-in microphone on first floor veranda of a build- ing with grills almost on all sides which per- mitted birds to enter and leave easily. From this vantage point an excellent view could be obtained of the lamp post nest of the magpie- robins as well as a 50 year old peepul tree located 60 feet from the veranda but whose branches reached to within 20 feet of it. Dur- ing the period of this observation the peepul tree was fruiting and was frequented by many species of birds. The recordings included the calls and songs of all the singing birds of the vicinity, but the song of the male magpie-robin predominated especially during early mornings. During a test replay of about an hour’s recording at very low volume the male magpie-robin sitting on the electric wire about ten feet away was found to puff up on hearing its own song. This was followed by a direct flight towards me when I was holding the recorder, and a few swift criss-cross flights close over my head with pecking attempts. In order to see the bird’s reaction to other birds singing its song, three dummy bird models, one resembling as closely as possible a magpie-robin and the other two resembling a myna ( Acridotheres tristis) and a black drongo ( Dicrurus adsimilis) respectively were set up prominently on the grill at 15 feet in- tervals and the recorder replaying the male magpie-robin song was placed close to each dummy one after another. In these experiments the magpie-robin tended to ignore the dummies altogether. In the first instance the robin landed within three inches of the recorder, ignoring the dummy robin, puffed up several times while hopping around the recorder subjecting it to close scrutiny. No attempt was made to attack the recorder itself. With the other two dummies the reaction was progressively less pronounced with the bird appearing in the balcony in a puffed up state but without bothering to examine the recorder further. These observa- tions were made from a concealed place be- hind a window of a nearby room. A complete disregard for the visual image (stuffed bird) and a keen attraction for the source of the sound was clearly evident. Prolonged observations showed that the behavioural response of the male magpie-robin to its own song had three phases. The imme- diate response was anger with the bird puffing up and flying straight towards the source of the song in a clearly aggressive manner. On the replay being continued the initial anger and aggressiveness was followed by a period of confusion with the bird perching and flying restlessly in the vicinity of the source while attempting to sing. Repeated exposures to its own song accustomed the bird to it and was even found to stimulate it to sing. Henry (1975) has mentioned somewhat similar behaviour during encounters between rival male magpie- robins with the birds attempting to outsing each other. In the present observations the pro- longed exposure to its own song acted only as a stimulant for the male magpie-robin to 199 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81 sing. Such artificially stimulated songs were of shorter duration and seemed less inspired. There was no attempt to outsing the tape recorder. Whether this muted behavioural reaction was due to the bird having recognised the song as its own or having realised the mechanical origin of the song remains to be found out. Entomologist, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu, August 9, 1982. Only the fixed station song (Salim Ali 1960) that elaborately was sung by the male magpie-robin in the mornings between 5.30 and 6.30 were played back in these experi- ments. I am grateful to Dr. Rachel Reuben, Deputy Director, Vector Control Research Centre, Pondicherry, for suggestions. E. NARAYANAN References Ali, Salim (1969) : Birds of Kerala. Oxford Uni- Henry, G. M. (1975) : A Guide to the Birds versity Press, Bombay. of Ceylon. London. 18. MOUSE, A NEST-PARASITE OF BAYA WEAVER BIRD (. PLOCEUS PHI LIPPI N US L.) ( With three text-figures) During my field surveys for indigenous palm species, I came across a few Baya weaver bird ( Ploceus philippinus) colonies nesting on tele- graph wire (Fig. 1). Baya nesting on telegraph wires or on live power lines have been re- corded by Ambedkar (1970), Betts (1952), Davis (1971, 1978) and Kirkpatrick (1952). A colony on telegraph line noticed by Deva- danam, Ramnad District, Tamilnadu in early July 1981, revealed a curious phenomenon. By May- June, the nests were deserted by the weaver birds since the breeding season was already over by them. But a number of nests were found parasitized by a species of mouse (Mus sp.) common in Tamilnadu, for its breeding purpose (Fig. 2). Watching about a dozen semi-adult mice moving around the deserted Baya nests was a spectacular sight. To satisfy my curiosity, I pulled down some nests with a bamboo pole, when alas ! dozens of still younger mice fell down from different nests in the sugarcane field below. However, none of them could walk along the wire even for a short distance. Eventhough I have not seen an adult passing along the wire in order to have ground con- tact for foraging, I was told by eye witness that the mice move from the nests to the ground and vice-versa only during nights. In the colony which I watched, the mice had to move along the wire to a distance of not less than 10 m to reach the nearest pole for climb- ing down. Thus, the adult mice seem eminently adapted to climbing posts and walking on wire. Moreover, the adult mice have no need to carry food for the young ones, which would 200 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES have necessitated more hazardous walks over the thin wire. The African weaver birds whose nests have been parasitized by other animals including birds have been explained in detail by Fried- mann (1960). Many ploceine species have Fig. 1. Weaver birds nests on telegraph wires. Fig. 2. Mouse and Baya Nest. Fig. 3. Entrance hole made by mouse. been found to carry out nest-building activities to excessive proportions by building in and out of season. These out-of -season nests, appa- rently not being used for breeding, are desert- ed prematurely. Many of these nests offer ideal shelters and breeding place for several species of animals especially birds like Munia ( Lon - churn malabarica L.), members of estrildines, as well as squirrels (Salim Ali 1931, 1977; Ambedkar 1970; Friedmann 1960). Mice are yet another nest-parasite of the Baya weaver bird. From a study of the nesting sites of the Baya Weaver, Davis (1978) is of the opinion that the bird gives maximum importance to the safety of the nest against predators, wind and rain. Only next in importance, is the availa- bility of nest-weaving material around the host tree. Therefore, attaching nests on telegraph or power lines is presumed to be for greater safety against predators even though it is more vulnerable to wind damage. In order to over- come this disadvantage, the bird ingeniously changes even the structure of the nest by dis- pensing with long suspension and entrance tubes. Nevertheless, even these telegraph or power lines are not spared by mice and per- haps some snakes. The mice do not harm the birds or the nest contents. But they merely make use of the deserted nest for their breed- ing purpose. The mouse does not move over the complete nest to enter through the normal opening at the bottom, but it makes a small hole at the top or on a side of the nest through which it enters (Fig. 3). Perhaps the mice devour any dead chick or rotting egg still left in some of the nests. It is possible that in some localities bigger species of rodents could also reach such nests during breeding season and destroy some eggs or young ones. 201 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Acknowledgement Haldane Research Centre for providing rele- vant literature and helpful suggestions. I thank Professor T. A. Davis, Director, JBS JBS Haldane Research Centre, D. REGUPATHY Carmel Nagar, Nagercoil-2. T. A. DAVIS Tamil Nadu, South India, September 5, 1981. References Ali, Salim (1931): The nesting habits of the baya ( Ploceus philippinus) . A new interpretation of their domestic relations. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 947-64. (1977): The book of Indian Birds. 10 ed. Bombay Natural History Society, Page 124. Ambedkar, V. C. (1970): Nests of the baya, Ploceus philippinus (Linnaeus) on telegraph wires. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 66 : 624. Betts, F. N. (1952): Birds nesting on telegraph wires. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51: 271. Davis, T. A. (1971) : Variation in nest-structure of the common weaverbird Ploceus philippinus. Forma et Functio 4: 12-21. (1978): Selection of nesting trees and the frequency of nest visits by Baya weaver- birds. A bundle of feathers proffered to Salim Ali for his 75th birth day in 1971. Editor S. D. Ripley page 12-21. Friedmann, H. (1960) : The parasitic weaverbirds. Smithsonian Institution, U. S. National Museum, Bulletin number 223. Kirkpatrick, K. M. (1952): Baya ( Ploceus philippinus Linn.) nests on telegraph wires. J. Bom- bay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 657. 19. FIRST RECORD OF THE FRESHWATER GREY MULLET, RHINOMUGIL CORSULA (HAMILTON) FROM MAHARASHTRA This is the first record of Rhinomugil corsula (Ham.) from Maharashtra State. The fishes were found in Bhima and Nira rivers and a few of their tributaries like Ghod and Velvandi. Probably the water depth plays an important role in their limited distribution. The fishes have a peculiar habit of keeping their eyes, head and anterior portion of the body out of water and swim in small shoals. This ability to see out of water makes them hard to catch. Moreover these large river fishes have been seen to survive adverse conditions of temperature and limited food supply. Introduction While surveying the Fauna of Pune district for the Western Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, we collected Rhinomugil corsula (Ham.) from the Bhima river and some of its tributaries. As a perusal of literature (Menon & Jaya- ram 1977, Jayaram 1981) confirmed that no previous record of this fish existed from Maha- rashtra, it was decided to conduct a thorough survey in Pune district primarily for studying the occurrence and distribution of this fish in Bhima river and its tributaries which form part of the Krishna river system. Materials and Methods Almost all the rivers, streams, etc., passing 202 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES through Pune district and ultimately meeting Bhima river were surveyed during March- July 1983. The specimens were collected by using cast nets along the banks of the rivers. The fish has aerial vision due to dorsally situated eyes (which it keeps above water) and thus easily escaped capture in all 42 stations that were surveyed. The fish specimens collected from the sur- veys were identified with the help of Menon & Jayaram (1977) and Jayaram (1981), and identification confirmed at Calcutta. Occurrence and Distribution The first record of Rhinomugil corsula (Ham.) is of Hamilton (1822) from the Gan- getic river system. Day (1889) mentioned rivers and estuaries of Bengal and Burma as its habitat. Recently Menon & Jayaram (1977) recorded for the first time its occurrence in the Cauvery river system, where they found it along the entire stretch of the river system. However there is no record from Maharashtra. Field observations show that R. corsula has been located in Nira and Bhima rivers almost upto their origin. Almost all the tributaries of Nira and Bhima were devoid of this fish except Ghod river (a major tribu- tary of Bhima) near Chinchani dam. In Mula & Mutha rivers too these fishes were not seen. The probable reason for its absence may be due to less water depth in these tributaries which hinders easy movements. Jayaram (1981) too has noted its presence in large rivers only. Moreover Mula & Mutha rivers are infested with water hyacinth which grows profusely and covers the entire water surface which also hinders their movement near the surface. Panshet, Mulshi and Pawna dams constructed on Mutha, Mula and Pawna rivers respectively were also devoid of this fish, but it was present in large numbers in Ujni dam on Bhima river and in Bhatgar dam on Velvandi river, a major tributary of Nira near Bhor. As carp spawn and fry are brought from Calcutta by the State Fisheries Department for releasing in the waters of Maharashtra State, it is quite possible that small numbers of Rhinomugil sp. spawn or fry might have in- advertently come along with these carp fry. Similar accidental stocking of this fish has been reported by Ranganathan & Natarajan (1969) in Krishnagiri and Sathanur reservoirs in Tamil Nadu. Habit and Habitat The fishes have a peculiar habit of swimming in small shoals near the water surface with their eyes, head and anterior portion of the body out of water. This aerial vision gives them a fair chance of escaping capture. Whene- ver danger threatens, the whole shoal dives underwater and reappears at a safe place farther away after some time. They have also been observed skipping on water for a short distance to escape netting. These fishes are usually found near the muddy banks of rivers in groups of 20-30. During the summer of 1983, Bhima river was dry almost the entire length except for a few pools of stagnant water. One such pool of water of about \\ metre depth near Tale- gaon Dhamdhere had about 20-25 fish (length upto 37 cm) swimming in separate groups. It is remarkable that these large river fish survive in such adverse conditions of tempe- rature and limited food supply. Little is known about the breeding habits of the species. Menon (pers. comm.) has mentioned that this fish multiplies fast and that the Cauvery river above Krishnarajasagar dam, where the Hemavathi joins the Cauvery, 203 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81 has presently innumerable Rhinomugil Although this situation has not developed here, it is imperative to start preventive mea- sures to protect indigenous species from being eliminated by competition for food and space. The fish has good culinary value, but its commercial exploitation is not feasible in the present conditions as it escapes netting due to its ability to see out of water. Gill and cast nets have not given promising results. It is quite possible that this fish might have been accidentally introduced together with the carp frys in other major rivers of Maharashtra State. Further surveys are in progress. Western Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, 933/A, Shivajinagar, Pune-411 016, October 20, 1983. R E F E Day, F. (1889): The Fishes of India, William Dawson, London. Hamilton, F. (1822): An account of fishes found in the river Ganges and its branches, London. Jayaram. K. C. (1981): The Freshwater Fishes of India-A Handbook. Z.S.I., Calcutta. Menon, A. G. K. & Jayaram, K. C. (1977) : The freshwater grey mullet Rhinomugil corsula (Hamil- AcK N OWLEDGEM E N TS We are thankful to Dr. B. K. Tikader, Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for allowing us to publish this note. We are also wish to express our thanks to Dr. A. G. K. Menon for his help and advice. We are also grateful to Dr. K. C. Jayaram, Joint Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for confirming the identification and also for critically going through the MS. Thanks are also due to the Pune regional office of Maha- rashtra State Fisheries Department for their help. M. S. PRADHAN D. F. SINGH E N C E S ton) as a fishery resource in the Cauvery river sys- tem, South India. Science and Culture 43(7) : 302- 304. Ranganatham, V. & Natarajan, V. (1969) : Studies on the occurrence and biology of Rhino- mugil corsula Hamilton in Krishnagiri and Sathanur reservoir, T.N. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66(3) : 518-532. 20. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE MIGRATORY BEHAVIOUR OF THE GARHWAL HIMALAYAN MAHSEER ( With a text-figure) The observations revealed a peculiar pattern of migration in the Garhwal Himalayan mahseer Tor putitora (Ham.). The parent population was observed to inhabit the Ganga at the foothills of the Garhwal Himalaya while new recruits and the young fish inhabit the shallow spring-fed hill streams of this region. The fish was observed to frequent snow- fed streams or rivers for a span of 3-4 months i.e. between March- April and June- July, from where the brooders moved towards suitable spawning grounds and the non-brooders re- 204 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 1. Diagrammatic representation of the migratory pattern exhibited by the Garhwal Himalayan mahseer. 205 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 turned to the foothills during July. The mature fish returned to the foothills only after laying their spawn. This descent was observed during September. The earlier part was considered to be wintering migration while latter as spawning migration. The fish thus exhibited tri-phased migration. Further, it was found to possess separate feeding, breeding and overwintering grounds, and migrates from one to another to ensure the survival of the species by maintaining the food supply. The water temperature was observed to govern the phenomenon of tri- phased migration, high turbidity being a critical factor. Introduction Feeding and breeding are the two most important activities while migration, in some species of fishes is an adaptation which usually links them and ensures their existence, survival and numbers. Naturally, migrations like any other adaptive property of the species, have developed in the process of evolution and the basic factor, primarily for the freshwater fishes being insufficient food supply (Nikolskii 1963). According to Nikolaev (1958 a & 1958b) and Nikolskii (1961a & b), the food supply of the parent population determines not only the fecundity but also the quality of the sexual products and thus the viability of the off-springs. Evidently, if both the parents and their young ones have same feed- ing grounds the competition for food will in- crease and lead to scarcity of food and ultimate- ly to decrease in fecundity and viability of the off-springs. 1 Tor pu tit or a matures in four stages, ‘Immature’ (1st), ‘Maturing virgins’ (Ilnd), ‘Ripening’ (Illrd) and ‘Ripe’ (IVth). Migratory Pattern The parent population of the Garhwal Himalayan mahseer along with the juveniles nearing maturity inhabit the Ganga where they feed, grow and attain maturity. The pheno- menon of contranatant migration commences somewhere in March-April when their shoals appear for the first time in the snow-fed tribu- taries of the Ganga (Fig. 1). The fishes within 20.0-70.0 cm range, comprising mainly of individuals in second and third stages of maturity1, were in abundance while those in fourth stage of maturity were very rare. They frequented these tributaries upto June- July, thus covering a span of 3-4 months. The first phase of migration comes to an end during July and the second phase sets in which bifurcates at this juncture. In the first part of the second phase the mahseer juve- niles, which are common inhabitants of the shallow spring-fed hillstreams, move into torrential snow-fed rivers or streams when the former swell due to sudden influx of water during early monsoon. Most of them measure below 20.0 cm in length and occur almost regularly in the daily catches. They join the shoals of juveniles which had migrated up- wards, and migrate along with them towards the foothills. The fact that the Ganga is a vast water body providing an appropriate environ- ment for the young to grow and attain adoles- cence, as compared to the shallow streams which supplement the descent of ‘immatures’ into the snow-fed rivers like Alaknanda and Bhagirathi and then into the Ganga. Simulta- neous to the migration of the juvenile stock commences the movement of the brooders from the Ganga and its snow-fed tributaries into the spring-fed streams possessing suitable spawning grounds. The latter were also observ- ed to serve as the feeding grounds of the new 206 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES recruits and youngest juveniles. With the on- set of the spawning season sets in the second part of the second phase of migration. This spawning migration is initiated somewhere in July and continues upto September after which the spent fishes exhibit denatant migra- tion and return to the foothills. This, of course is the third and the concluding phase of the migration. Factors influencing migration : It is evident from the above observations that the fish exhibits two types of migration. Based on the purpose of migration they can be classified as ‘spawning’ and ‘wintering’. Both of them are regulated or rather influ- enced by changes in the water temperature for the onset of wintering migration coincided with the general rise in the temperature. The water temperature in the Alaknanda was observed to achieve a maxima during May (18°C) which implies that the temperature in Ganga must be higher to the extent that mahseer cannot withstand it. Similarly, the denatant migration of the juveniles during July coincided with the lowering of the water temperature in the Alaknanda. Naturally, they cannot tolerate high temperatures of the Ganga and move towards cold waters of the Alaknanda and Bhagirathi, nor can they tole- rate low temperatures of these snow-fed rivers and move towards warm waters of the Ganga. The fish is apparently ‘sternothermal’ in Fishery Biology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Garhwal University, Srinagar-246 174, (India). July 13, 1983. nature, as is S. richardsonii, another coldwater species of this region (Nautiyal et al. 1982). The spawning migration, too, is influenced by fluctuations in the water temperature but sudden influx of the water carrying huge amounts of silt seems to be the major factor effecting migration of the brooders. A dapti ve significance All the phases of migration are of adaptive significance. To begin with, the spawning migration ensures the survival of the species by maintaining the food supply in these rivers and streams. The migration of the ‘immatures’ from the spring-fed tributaries to snow-fed and that of wintering juveniles from the foothills to the upper reaches and back, too, is under- taken to maintain the food supply, which is scarce in these tributaries. In case of those which move away from the spawning-cum- feeding grounds it ensures food for new recruits which are voracious feeders (Nautiyal & Lai, in press). The tri-phased migration of the Garhwal Himalayan mahseer is obviously due to insufficient ‘basic food’. Apparently, the pattern of migration in- volves movement of the mahseer from the feeding grounds to the wintering ones and then to the spawning grounds. Since the upper reaches of the Ganga and its tributaries are not rich in ‘basic food’, the migration of Tor putitora is of adaptive significance from the viewpoint of limited food supply. PRAKASH NAUTIYAL M. S. LAL 207 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 References Nautiyal, P. & Lal, M. S. (in press) : Food and feeding habits of the fingerlings and juveniles of Garhwal mahseer Tor putitora (Ham.) inhabiting Nayar river. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Nautiyal, P., Misra, M. & Lal, M. S. (1982): Notes on the distribution of S. richardsonii in some Garhwal hillstreams. JOSHRAD, 6: 93-95. Nikolaev, I. I. (1958a): Some factors governing the fluctuations in numbers of Clupea harengus mem bras L. and Atlanto-Scandinavian Harengus harengus. Trudy VNIRO, 34. (1958b): Long term variations in the numbers of Baltic Clupeonalla in relation to productivity of plankton, ibid. 34. Nikolskii, G. V. (1961a) : Some trends in the effects of fishing on the population structure and details of individuals in the caught population for commercial fish. Transactions of the Conference on Dynamics of Fish Numbers. Izd. Akad. Nauk. SSSR. (1961b): The causes of fluctua- tions in fish numbers. Vopr. lkhtiol., 1, 4. (1963): The Ecology of Fishes. Academic Press Inc. London. 21. THE SPIDER AS BEE ENEMY { With a text-figure) Introduction During routine inspection of apiary in spring honey flow period, occasionally spiders are spotted which seem to mean no harm. Their webs appear amidst the fencing shrubs and undergrowth. With the commencement of the monsoon season however, webs along with the spiders start appear in greater numbers in the apiary which soon form an invisible wall all around from ground to tree top levels. A close look at the web during monsoon and autumn period revealed A. meilifera honey bees caught in them while the others already devoured and discarded were seen on the ground below the webs. The spider webs were also a source of nuisance in the apiary during inspection work. Out of curiosity, observations were initiated on the nature and extent of damage to honey bees caused throughout the year and possibilities of some control measure. Observations Spider webs were located amidst and over the fencing bush foliage, amongst the apiary shrubs at 15 feet from ground level and also among the surrounding trees upto 40 feet height. Average web size was found to be 3.5 feet across and were either round, square or pen- tagonal in form, though other forms also exist- ed. Some spiders occupying these webs were caught, preserved and sent to Department of Zoology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana where they were identified as Nephilia kuhlii. The pattern of the webbing around the apiary was such that any forager or young bee in orientation flight was certain of getting trapped since most of them were right in the flight path of the foragers. How- ever, it was observed that foragers which took off from the colony flew at high speed and pierced the webs to the other side without any harm while others coming laden with pollen or nectar to the hive were caught in the webs owing to their slow speed. In a separate observation taken in a private A. indica apiary plagued with a similar problem, comparatively less number of foragers were trapped in the webs by virtue of its being extremely agile. 208 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Five clean webs were kept under constant scrutiny all through the day for studying the feeding behaviour of the spider. Total number of spiders in the apiary was worked out consi- dering the number of webs scattered around. When trapped in the web, the bees tried to get free but got more perfectly entangled. This struggle by the bees was carefully watched by the spider which maintained its distance from the unfortunate victim. When the bee gave up the struggle the spider started moving towards it and carefully wrapped it up like a cocoon in a freshly spun silk web. Such cocooned bees were then suspended on one side of the The apiary consisting of 50 well managed colonies of A. mellifera had 71 major webs within the apiary premises and 132 webs on the fencing shrubs and amongst the tree foliage. Thus, with over 200 spiders comfor- tably ensconced in their webs in the apiary under study, roughly 2000 foragers were lost in a day. This worked out to a loss of 40 bee foragers in one single colony. Considering the production of nearly 800 bees during this period every day in one colony the loss accruing to spider damage alone amounted to 5 per cent of the total bee production (Table 1). However, this, coupled with the damage Table 1 Extent of damage (%) to honey bees* Critical destructive period in a year Year Bees June July August September October November 1978** A pis mellifera <1 1.25 3.75 4.38 5 <1 Apis indica — <1 1.25 2.50 3.13 2.50 j 979* * * Apis mellifera — <1 2.50 1.25 3.75 1.88 1980*** Apis mellifera — <1 3.13 1.50 4.38 <1 * Observations based on 5 spider nests ** Untreated *** Treated web and the spider returned to its previous position, maintaining a close vigil. On an average, 10 foragers were got trapped by evening in clean webs every day. Feeding on the trapped bees continued from morning till evening. Whenever hungry, the spider approached the cocooned bees, cleaned off the silken threads and ripped open the thoracic and abdominal portion to feed on the stomach and intestinal contents. During feeding, the bees exhibited some movements but soon perished. Such devoured bees were later cast to the ground by the spider. caused by major enemies like wasp, endo- parasitic mite Tropilaelaps clareae and birds, the colony strength soon dwindled. The loss is often colossal considering the fact that this is a scarcity period in Kangra valley of Palam- pur and artificial feeding has to be resorted to, so that egg laying work is not hampered in a colony. With the winter approaching, the colony situation rapidly deteriorated, calling for utmost care in organising sound manage- ment practices. In a separate experiment with A. mellifera in another apiary, carbaryl 50 WP @ 0.05 209 14 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vof. 81 2 200i a JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC TIME OF THE YEAR Fig. 1. Spider population throughout the year. per cent was found to give effective check against spiders among other chemicals when sprayed at dusk after all the bees were safely inside the hives. By morning the effect of the insecticidal compound had worn off since no undesirable bee behaviour was noticed and normal colony work in all the hives progressed satisfactorily. However it was a difficult task to get rid of the spiders by resorting to chemi- cals for fear of careless and untimely use of the chemical by field workers. Besides, even if the spiders were killed the webs would still be a nuisance to the bees. This problem was effectively tackled by washing down the spiders along with their webs with a quick water-spray- jet. This work was done on a bright, clear and sunny day and many of the spiders receiving direct water-spray jet were paralysed and later killed. No new webs came up for good part of the season later. Observations were again resumed the next year 1979 (Fig 1). It was found that the spider activity did not show up as early as on the previous year. It started late during July, picking-up by August and their activity was confined to certain isolated areas in the apiary. Water-spray jet treatment was given during August and consequently the population level showed a rapid decrease. However, the popu- lation level again shot up to 150 during Octo- ber and the decline by November was extre- mely slow. This simultaneously resulted in continued loss to the bee colonies prior to winter. In the third year of 1980, spider popu- 210 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES lation showing a threatening level during August was curbed through the first water- spray jet treatment. Another treatment was resorted to during October as a result of which the problem was taken care off in good time. During this year, some of the trees, shrubs and other plants were pruned and fencing area cleaned. The distance between Department of Entomology-Apiculture, H. P. Agricultural University, Palampur (HP) India-176 062. Bee-Keeping Research Station, Nagrota Bagwan, Kangra (HP) 176 047, July 20, 1982. 22. NEW RECORDS OF APHIDS FROM UTTAR The aphid fauna of Uttar Pradesh is com- prised of 169 species belonging to 79 genera. Further exploration in the hills of Kumaon Range of the state during the period 1979-’80 17 more species were recorded for the first time from the state. With the present commu- nication the aphid fauna of Uttar Pradesh numbers 186 species. The material of the species reported are in the collection of Entomology Laboratory, De- partment of Zoology, University of Calcutta, Calcutta 700 019. Capitophorus hippophaes mitegoni Eastop: 2 apterae viviparae ex. Clematis buchaniana, Nainital, 4.xii.79; many apterae viviparae and 1 alate vivipara ex. Polygonum barba- tum, Bageshwar, 21.iii.80. Cavariella konoi Takahashi: 15 apterae vivi- parae ex. Salix babylonica, Nainital, 16.iii.80. Ceratovacwm silvestrii (Takahashi) : 8 apterae viviparae and 9 nymphs ex. Bambusa sp. Almorah, 8.xii.79. Diphorodon cannabis (Passerini) : 5 apterae bush to bush was also increased so as to deny their use for webbing. To contain the spider menace thus, it was observed that, apart from maintaining clean surroundings, use of water-spray jets once during peak time in August and another during late autumn season gave a safe, clean, econo- mical, efficient and sure method of control. A. K. THAKUR O. P. SHARMA (HOMOPTERA: APHIDIDAE) PRADESH viviparae and 2 nymphs ex. Cannabis sativa, Almorah, 8 . xii . 79. Greenidea longirostris Basu: 1 alate vivipara ex. indet plant of Palmaceae and ex. Quer- cus sp., Nainital, 13 . iii . 80. Hyperomyzus lactuceae (Linn.): 3 apterae viviparae and 3 alatae viviparae ex. Son- chus sp., Nainital, 4. xii. 79; 4 apterae vivi- parae and 4 nymphs ex. Sonchus sp., Rani- khet, 22. iii. 80. Liosomaphis berberidis (Kaltenbach) : 6 apte- rae viviparae and 4 nymphs ex. Berberis aristata, Nainital, 13. iii. 80; 4 apterae viviparae and 4 nymphs ex. Berberis sp., Almorah, 19. iii. 80. Macrosip hum aulacorthoides David, Narayanan and Rajasingh: 3 apterae viviparae ex. Ocimum canum, Nainital, 3. xii. 79. Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) : 3 apterae viviparae ex. indet plant of Rosaceae, Almorah, 9. xii. 79. Metopolophium sonchifoliae Raychaudhuri, Ghosh and Das: 4 apterae viviparae and 1 211 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. HI nymph ex. Rubus ellipticus, Nainital, 4.xii.79. Mollitrichosiphum bucldlejae Ghosh, Banerjee and Raychaudhuri : 2 apterae viviparae and 1 nymph ex. Alnus nepalensis, Almorah, 17 . iii . 80. Myzus cymballariellus Stroyan: 1 aptera vivi- para and 1 nymph ex. Sedum sp., Almorah, 17. iii. 80. Pseudoastegopteryx himalayensis Ghosh, Pal and Raychaudhuri: 1 aptera vivipara and 1 nymph ex. indet. bamboo plant, Almorah, 17. iii. 80. Reticulaphis distyJii rotifera Bille Ris Lambers and Takahashi: 2 apterae viviparae and 6 Department of Life Science, Calcutta University, Post Graduate Centre, Agartala-799 004. Department of Zoology, Calcutta-700 019, August 6, 1982. nymphs ex. Quercus sp., Nainital, 5.xii.79. Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae (Linn.) : 3 apterae viviparae, 1 alate vivipara and 1 nymph ex. an aquatic plant, Ranikhet, 8 . xii . 79. Takecallis arundinariae (Essig) : 2 alatae viviparae ex. Bambusa sp., Nainital, 4. xii. 79. Toxoptera odinae (van der Goot) : 1 alate vivipara in yellow pan water trap, Almorah, 19 .iii . 80. We are grateful to the UGC, New Delhi for financing the work, the Head, deptt. of Zoology and the Incharge, deptt. of Life Science, Calcutta University for providing working facilities. BASANT K. AGARWALA D. GHOSH D. N. RAYCHAUDHURI* * Deceased, 1st May 1981. 23. NEW RECORD OF INSECT PESTS INFESTING KASTURI BHENDI, HIBISCUS ABELOMOSCHUS LINNAEUS, A MEDICINAL PLANT Kasturi Bhendi, Hibiscus abelomoschus L. a useful medicinal plant has been reported to be attacked by the cotton shoot weevil, Aid- dodes affaber Aurivillius (Coleoptera: Curcu- lionidae) (Devaiah et al. 1981). It was revealed in a survey made during August-September, 1980 at the Regional Re- search Station, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad Campus, Karnataka that this plant is attacked by ten insect pests. These pests are being reported on this plant for the first time. spotted boll worms Earias cupreovirides Wlk. and E. insulana Boisd. The adult moths laid eggs on the fruits and the young ones after emergence bore into the flower buds and pods of the plant. The per- centage of incidence was 19.04. The cater- pillars make irregular tunnels evident by the excreta thrown out and completely damage the seeds of the pod. The number of grubs in each pod varied from 1 to 3 with an average of 2. The fully grown caterpillars pupate either within the pod or outside in silken cocoons. TOBACCO LEAF EATING CATERPILLAR Spodop- iera litura F. feeds on the leaves also bores into the pods. The incidence of this pest is sporadic. The fully grown larvae pupate out- side the pod. gram caterpillar Heliothis armigera Hb. 212 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES feeds on pods. The eggs were laid on the pods and young ones bore into the pods. The number of caterpillars in each pod varied from 1 to 2. cotton semi-looper Anomis flava Fb. defo- liates the plants by cutting the leaves. The in- cidence was sporadic. red cotton bug Dysdercus cingulatus Fb. Both nymphs and adults suck sap from the seeds of the ripening pod and renders the seeds unfit for further use. Average number of nymphs in an infested pod was 57. The in- festation of this bug was found only when the pods were already infested by bollworms. dusky cotton bug Oxycarenus hyalinipen- nis Costa. Both nymphs and adults of this bug Department of Entomology College of agriculture, Dharwad-580 005, January 28, 1983. suck the sap from the dried opened pods and rendered the seeds useless. The average num- ber of nymphs in an infested pod was 83. Similar to red cotton bug, the infestation of dusky cotton bug was also found only after the pods were infested by bollworms. myllocerus beetle Myllocerus undecim- pustulalus var. maculosus Desbr. The adults feed on the leaves from the margins. The number on each leaf varied from 1.0 to 2.0 with an average of 1.0. The beetles prefer tender leaves for feeding. cetonid beetle Oxycetonia versicolor F. Feed on the soft and tender pods. blister beetle Mylabris pustulata (Thunb.) feeds on the flowers. R. RAJASHEKHARGOUDA M. C. DEVAIAH SUHAS YELSHETTY Reference Devaiah, M. C., Rajashekhargouda, R., Govin- Linnaeus, a new host plant of cotton shoot weevil, dan, R., Thippeswamy, C. & Yelshetty, Suhas Alcidodes affaber (Auriv.) (Curculionidae : Coleop- (1981): Kasturi bhendi, Hibiscus abelomoschus tera). Curr. Res., 10: 95. 24. A NEW RECORD OF NEOPHEOSIA FASCIAE A (MOORE) ON APPLE Neopheosia fasciata (Moore) (Notodonti- dae: Lepidoptera) was recorded for the first time, on apple at Regional Fruit Research Station, Mashobra, Simla during 1978-79. Cater- pillars found feeding on apple foliage were reared and further studies were carried out in the laboratory. Larva is pale green; head streaked with red lines; thoracic segments and legs green and abdomen brown dorsally and light green ven- trally with a prominent brown process on dorsal side of the first abdominal segment. Larva becames full grown in 22-28 days and measures 3.8 to 4.0 cm. It defoliates apple during May-early June and during late July- August. Pupation occurs in loose silken threads on leaves in June and it lasts for 25-27 days. Larva of the second generation pupates during September-early October in debris or in cre- vices of the bark where it over-winters. Moth emerges after 230-270 days, in May, next year. Adult is brown; fore wings pale brown with dark brown streaks on and below the costa, a series of short streaks on and towards the 213 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo I. 81 outer margin, inner margin dark brown; hind wings light brown, outer margin brown and anal angle dark brown. Antennae are slightly bipectinate. Male moth is smaller (4.2 cm) than the female moth (4.5 cm) when measur- ed with wings expanded. It is active during May and again in July. Eggs laid singly by a female moth without mating, are creamish yellow and round. N. fasciata was reported to occur in India by Hampson (1892) as Fheosia fasciata Moore. Regional Fruit Research Station, H. P. Krisiii Vishva Vidyalaya, Mashobra, Simla - 171 007, August 11, 1982. After this record the insect does not seem to have been reported from any where in India or elsewhere. The present account is, there- fore, the new record of N. fasciata on apple. Ack no wledge m e n ts Thanks are due to the Chief Scientist, RFRS, Mashobra, Simla for providing facilities and to the Director, ZSI, Calcutta, for identifying the insect. RAMESH CHANDER Reference Hampson, G. F. (1892): Fauna of British India including Ceylon & Burma, Moths. Vol. I, p. 160. London, Taylor & Francis. 25. ON A GLOSSIPHONID LEECH {With three text -figures ) Among fresh water Flirudineans Glossipho- nid leeches are small invertebrates that prey largely on water snails (Clegg 1952). These leeches do not form true cocoons but carry their fertilized eggs in membranous capsules on the ventral surface of the body. After hatching the young remain on the body of the parent in the same area, attached to the parent by means of mucous threads. Young ones probably feed on mucus, until they reach a certain size and then detach themselves from the parent to lead a free life (Pennak 1953). I came across a similar glossiphonid leech, which is quite often found inside or attached to the shell of a freshwater bivalve Lamelli- dens corrianus from river Mula, Poona. The leech appears to be Hemiclepsis marginata as per the descriptions of Harding and Moore (1927). The photographs show dorsal surface of an individual with characteristic rows of yellow spots (Fig. 1) and ventral surface of the same individual with 10 large, prominent eggs attached to the body (Fig. 2). Such leeches with eggs were often found to be resting at one place for a long time with only undulating body movements. In two observed cases after about 11-13 days the small leeches came out of the eggs. The young ones were observed to come out from under the parent leech and, if disturbed, to retreat to the same shelter (Fig. 3). The parent leech guarded its young ones in a similar manner as it guarded 214 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Hemiclepsis marginata Fig. 1. Dorsal surface with characteristic rows of yellow spots. Fig. 2. Ventral surface with 10 'large eggs attached to the body. the eggs — a kind of parental care. I am not aware whether the glossiphonid mention- ed here is a known parasite of the Lamellidens Post-Graduate Research Centre, Modern College, Pune 411 005, January 27, 1983. Fig. 3. Young ones were observed to come out from under the parent leech. or some other animal. It is mentioned, how- ever, in Fauna of British India that some specimens were found in Lamellidens. H. V. GHATE References Clegg, John (1952): The freshwater life of the British Isles. Frederick and Co. Ltd., London. Harding, W. A. & Moore, J. P. (1927): The Fauna of British India, Vol. Hirudinea, Taylor and Francis, London. Pennak, R. W. (1953): Fresh-Water Inverte- brates of the United States. The Ronald Press Co., N. Y., USA. 215 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 26. STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF TWO COMMON VECTOR SNAILS OF PUNJAB BY PREDATORY INSECTS 8 species of aquatic insects have been screened for their predatory activity against two species of snails viz. Limnoea luteola and Indoplanorbis exustus. Larvae of Hydciticus sp. are the most efficient predators of L. luteola as they consumed 84.3% of the snails exposed to them and the other species in decreasing order ranked as follows, Laccotrephes ruber (70%), Diplonychus rusticum (43.3%), Laccotrephes griseus (40%) and Lethocerus indicus (22.2%). Laccotrephes ruber is the most efficient predator of 7. exustus as it consumed 84.3% of the snails and the other species in decreasing order ranked as follows, Diplonychus rusticum (60%), Hydaticus sp. larvae (52.5%), Lethocerus indicus (20%), Cybister sp. (18.7%) and Lacco- trephes griseus (16.6%). Ranatra elongata and Strenolophus sp. did not feed either on L. luteola or on I. exustus and Cybister Introduction The importance of snails cannot be over emphasised as many of them act as the inter- mediate hosts of several important diseases of man and livestock namely Schistosomiasis, Fascioliasis and Paramphistomiasis and some are serious crop and garden pests. Their con- trol is, therefore, rather essential. Controlling snails through chemical methods involves large scale dissemination of pesticides or mollusci- cides which in addition to being expensive may prove hazardous to the health of live- stock and man. Studies for the development of alternate methods of snail control are, there- fore, quite necessary. The need to develop new methods for the control of medically important snails has also been stressed by the U.S. Parasitic Diseases Panel (Anonymous 1971). Bequaert (1925, 1926) studied the arthropod enemies of molluscs with particular emphasis on the dipterous parasites of snails. Berg (1953, 1961, 1964a, 1964b, 1973) studied the potential of sciomyzid fly larvae for snail-killing and highlighted their importance for the biological control of snails. The role of sciomyzid fly larvae for the biological control of snails was sp. did not feed on L. luteola. also stressed by Neff (1964), Neff & Berg (1966), Knutson et al. (1967, 1970), Bvattet al. (1969), Eckblad (1971), Ferguson et al. (1971) and Geckler (1971). The biological control of snails through giant water bug was studied by Somasunderarao (1963), through another be- lostomatid bug by Voelker (1968) and through Hydrophilus beetles by Maillard (1971). Studies on the biological control of snails as such have also been carried out by Chemin et al. (1956, 1971) Michelson (1957), Fer- guson et al. (1956, 1971), Petitjean (1966), Scott (1970), Yasuvaoka .(1970) and Muley (1978). It was, therefore, considered worthwhile to find out the biological control agents from amongst the aquatic insects living in the water bodies inhabited by snails. The present study deals with the assessment of 8 species of aquatic insects for the biological control of two important species of vector snails namely Indoplanorbis exustus and Limnoea luteola. Materials and Methods Eight species of aquatic insects namely Laccotrephes ruber Linn., L. griseus Guer. and Ranatra elongata Fabr. belonging to Nepidae 216 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES (Hemiptera); Diplonychus rusticum (Fabr.) and Lethocerus indicus (Lep. and Serv.) be- longing to Belostomatidae (Hemiptera); Cy bis- ter sp. and Hydaticus sp. larvae belonging to Dytiscidae (Coleoptera); and Sternolophus sp. belonging to Hydrophilidae (Coleoptera) were used in the experiments and these were col- lected from the different permanent water bodies of Ludhiana district. Two species of laboratory bred snails i.e. Indoplanorbis exus- tus and Limnoea luteola in well established aquaria were exposed to the attack of the above aquatic insects and their rates of snail consumption were recorded. Their interesting behaviour patterns were also photographed. The observations were made over a period of about two weeks. Results and Discussion Out of the 8 species of predacious insects used in the present study the larvae of Hyda- ticus sp. ranked first for the control of Limnaea Table 1 Showing the consumption rate of Limnoea luteola and Indoplanorbis exustus by aquatic insects . . Sr. Name of insect Snail species No. of No. of Soft mass/ Consump- No. snails snails left shell consumed tion % used unconsumed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. Laccotrephes Limnoea 20 12(8) Only soft mass 40 griseus Guer. luteola consumed Indoplanorbis 18 15(3) 16.6 exustus 2. L. ruber Linn. L. luteola 30 9(21) — do — 70 I. exustus 32 5(27) 84.3 3. Ranatra elongata Fabr. L. luteola 6 6(0) — do — 0 I. exustus 8 5(3) * * 4. Diplonychus L. luteola 30 17(13) — do — 43.3 rusticum (Fabr.) I. exustus 30 12(18) 60 5. Lethocerus indicus L. luteola 9 7(2) — do — 22.2 (Lep. & Serv.) I. exustus 20 16(4) 20 6. Cy bister sp. L. luteola 15 15(0) — do — 0 L exustus 16 12(3) 18.7 7. Sternolophus sp. L. luteola 20 20(0) — do — 0 I. exustus 22 20(2)* 0.09 8. Hydaticus sp. L. luteola 70 11(59) 17 shells com- 84.3 larvae L exustus 40 19(21) pletely eaten and 52.5 50% shells of the rest partly eaten N.B. Figures in parenthesis under heading 5 indicate snails consumed. * Natural death. 217 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81 luteola as they ate up 84.3% of the snails exposed to their predatory activity. They were found to be voracious feeders of snails as they even ate up the hard shells along with the soft parts. The other species which ranked next in decreasing order were Laccotrephes ruber, Diplonychus rusticum, Laccotrephes griseus and Lethocerus indicus as they con- sumed 70%, 43.3%, 40% and 22.2% of the L. luteola snails respectively (Table 1). The other 3 species namely Ranatra elongata, Cybister sp. and Sternolophus sp. did not feed even on a single L. luteola snail. Laccotrephes ruber has been found to be the most efficient predator of Indoplanorbis exustus as it con- sumed 84 . 3% of the snails exposed to its predatory activity. The other species namely Diplonychus rusticum, Hydaticus sp. larvae, Lethocerus indicus, Cybister sp. and Lacco- trephes griseus consumed 60%, 52.5%, 20%, Department of Vety. Parasitology, Punjab Agril. University, Ludhiana (Pb.), November 22, 1982. Refer Anonymous (1971): U. S. Parasitic Diseases Panel. In “United States-Japan Co-operative Medi- cal Science Program Five Year Report 1965-1970”. pp. 73-82. United States Department of State. Publi- cation 8598. Bequaert, J. C. (1925) : The arthropod enemies of mollusks with description of a new dipterus para- site from Brazil. J. Parasit. 11: 201-212. (1926): A dipterus parasite of a snail from Brazil with an account of the arthropod enemies of mollusks. In Medical report of the Hamilton Rice Seventh expedition of the Amazon. Harvard Inst, for trap. Biol, and Med. Contr. 4: 292-303. Berg, C. O. (1953): Sciomyzid larvae (Diptera) that feed on snails. J. Parasit. 39: 630-636. (1961) : Biology of snail — killing Scicmyzidae (Diptera) of North America and Europe. 18.7% and 16.6% of the /. exustus snails respectively. Ranatra elongata and Strenolophus sp. did not consume any /. exustus snail although 3 out of 8 snails & 2 out of 22 snails exposed to them respectively died a natural death. Somasundararao (1963) also studied the predatory activity of Sphaerodema rusticum (now called as Diplonychus rusticum) and found that 39 bugs destroyed 309 snails in 5 days which worked out to be 45 snails per month for each bug. He further observed that Limnoea luteola snails were preferred over Indoplanorbis corneus and the latter over Limnoea accuminata. Acknowledgement We are grateful to Dr. Kuldip Rai, Zoolo- gist, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for the identification of the predatory insects used in the present study. H. S. BALI SAWAI SINGH SUNITA SHARMA EN CES Verh. XL lnt. Kongr. Eat. 1: 197-202. (1964a) : Snail control in Trematode diseases. The possible value of sciomyzid larvae, snail-killing Diptera. In “Advances in Parasitology” (B. Dawes, ed.), Vol. 2, pp. 259-309. Academic Press, London and New York. (1964b) : Snail-killing sciomyzid flies: biology of the aquatic species. Verh. hit. Vcrein. theor. angerr. Limnol. 15: 926-932. (1973): Biological control of snail borne diseases. A review. Ex pi. Parasit. 33: 318-330. Bratt, A. D., Knutson, L. V., Foote, B. A. & Berg, C. O. (1969): Biology of Pherbellia (Diptera: Sciomyzidae) . Med. Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. 404: 1-247. C/HERN IN, E.. MlCHELSON, E. H. & AUGUSTINE, D. L. (1956) : Studies on the biological control of schistosome bearing snails. Am. J. trop. Med. Hyg. 218 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 5: 297-307. Chernin, E. & Perlstein, J. M. (1971): Protec- tion of snails against miracidia of S. mansoni by various aquatic invertebrates. J. Parasit. 57: 217-219. Eckblad, J. W. (1971) : The population ecology of malocophagous larvae of Sepedon fuscipennis and three aquatic snail populations ( Lymnoca palustris: Physa integra : Gyraulus parvus). Ph.D. thesis. Cor- nell University, Ithaca N.Y. 108 pp. Ferguson, F. F., Oliver-Gonzalez, J. & Palmer, J. R. (1958) : Potential for biological control of Australovbis glabratus, the intermediate host of Puerto Rican schistosomiasis. Am. J. trop. Med. Hyg. 7: 491-493. Geckler, R. P. (1971): Laboratory studies of predation of snails by larvae of the marsh fly, Sepedon tenuicornis (Diptera: Sciomyzidae) . Can. Ent. 103 : 638-649. Knutson, L. V., Neff, S. E. & Berg, C. O. (1967) : Biology of snail-killing flies from Africa and Southern Spain (Sciomyzidae, Sepedon). Parasitology 57: 487-505. Knutson, L. V., Stephenson, J. W. & Berg, C. O. (1970): Bio-Systematic studies of Salticella fasciata (Meigen) a snail-killing fly (Diptera: Scio- myzidae). Trans. R. ent. Soc. Load. 722(3): 81-100. Maillard, Y. P. (1971): La Malacophagei dans le genre Hydrophilus Geoffroy (Ins. Coleopteres: Hydrcphilidae) : son interet dans le controle natural des hotes intermediares d helminthiases. Comptes rendus des Seances de /’ Academic des Sciences. Paris 272: 2235-2238. Michelson, E. H. (1957) : Studies on the biolo- gical control of schistosome-bearing snails, predators 27. NECROPHAGOUS HABIT IN ACHAT IN A FULICA ( With On the sunny day of 18th August, 1982 at 6.45 A.M. one of us (RMS) saw a house lizard, Hemidactylus frenalus Schlegel dying in a cemented open space near the bath room of his house. The lizard was lying upside down. In the vicinity a number of giant African snails, Achatina fulica fulica Bowdick were also present. Out of them one snail came to- and parasites of fresh water Mollusca: A review of literature. Parasitology 47: 413-426. Muley, E. V. (1978) : Biological and chemical control of the vector snail Melania scabra scabra (Gastropoda: Prosobranchia) : Bull. Zool. Surv. India 7(i): 1-5. Neff, S. E. (1964): Snail-killing sciomyzid flies: application in biological control. Verb. int. Verein. theor. angew. Limnol. 15: 933-939. Neff, S. E. & Berg, C. O. (1966): Biology and immature stages of malacophagous Diptera of the genus Sepedon (Sciomyzidae). Bulletin Agricultural Experiment Station, Virginia Polytechnic Institute 566: 1-113. Petit jean, M. (1966) : Le controle biologique des mollusques nuisibles. Annee biol. 5: 271-295. Scott, J. A. (1970) : “Biological regulation of vectors' ’ a special emphasis area. J. Parasit. 56: 253. Somasundararao, G. (1963): A preliminary note on the biological control of fresh water snails by aquatic insect. Indian Vet. J. 40 ( i) : 50-52. Voelker, J. (1968): Untersuchungen zu Ernahrug, Fort pflanzungs-biologie und Entwicklung Von Lim- nogeton fieberi Mayr (Belostomatidae — Hemiptera) als Beitrag zur. Kenntnis Von Naturlichen Feinden tropischer Surswasser Schnecken. Ent. Mitt. Zool. St. Inst. Zool. Mas. Iiamb. 3(60): 1-31. Yasuvaoka, K. (1970): Some recent research on the biology and control of Oncomelania snails in Japan. In “Recent Advances in Researches on Fila riasis and Schistosomiasis in Japan”. (M. Sasa, ed.) pp. 291-303. Univ. of Tokyo. Press, Tokyo; Univ. Park Press, Baltimore and Manchester. THE GIANT AFRICAN SNAIL, FULICA BOWDICK a plate ) wards the lizard, crawled on it from the head end, came upto the lower jaw and started devouring it within a couple of minutes. Ini- tially the lizard moved its limbs but after 15 minutes it became motionless. This feeding was continued upto 8.10 A.M. When the snail retired, skin and flesh of the lower jaw and the neck of the lizard were found to be eaten 219 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 away. A peculiar chuck-chuck sound was heard all the time during the feeding. In order to confirm this habit of Achatina fulica an experiment was conducted. On 26th August, 1982 at 8.15 A.M. the same species of house lizard was collected, made almost motionless and kept upside down in the same place where the earlier incident occurred. Then two giant African snails were brought and placed near the lizard. Both the snails came to the lizard which was then alive and moving its limbs slowly. Both the snails crawled on the lizard. But one showed no attraction for it and ultimately went away, while the other started eating its skin and flesh of the abdomen region. The lizard was still alive and showed some movements but the snail did not let loose. The lizard completely stopped its move- ment at 8.35 A.M. Feeding continued upto 9.30 A.M. and the same chuck-chuck sound was heard. During the feeding this time the snail turned the lizard's body to the lateral side and went on nibbling at its skin and muscle till it could finish up the portion from the abdomen to the head region. The giant African snail has the status of a serious international pest of a number of im- portant crops and herbivorous habit of this Zoological Survey of India, Andaman & Nicobar Regional Station, Port Blair - 744 101, March 15, 1983. snail is very well known. There is no record on the flesh eating habit of this snail barring a single report by Mead (1961) who observed Achatina fulica to feed on a dead black rat in Guam Island (in South America). A perusal of literature also shows that pulmonates in general are herbivorous but they devour dead and decomposed flesh when easily available (Hyman 1967, Mitra and Biswas 1974, Raut and Ghose 1982). Although in the present case Achatina fulica fed on the flesh of dying lizard not the dead or decomposed one still this is the same necro- phagous habit as stated earlier. Because this feeding habit of Achatina is quite different from that of carnivorous pulmonates which hunt animal prey (Watson 1915, Hyman 1967). Ack nowledge m e n ts We are thankful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India for the facilities to undertake this work. We are also indebted to Dr. S. K. Raut, Lecturer, Department of Zoology, Cal- cutta University and Shri T. R. Mitra, Zoolo- gical Survey of India, Calcutta for sparing valuable literature. A. K. DAS R. M. SHARMA References Hyman, L. H. (1967) : The Invertebrates. VI, Mollusca. McGraw-Hill, New York, vii + 792 p. Mead, A. R. (1961): The giant African snail: A problem in economic malacology. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London, xvii + 257 p. Mitra, T. R. & Biswas, S. K. (1974): Necropha- gous habit in Opeas gracile (Stylommatophora: Subu- linidae). Melac. Rev., 7: 136. Raut, S. K. & Ghose, K. C. (1982) : Cannibalism in the garden snail Macrochlamys indica Godwin- Austin (Stylommatophora: Mollusca). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79(3) : 706-707. Watson, H. (1915): .Studies on the carnivorous slugs of South Africa, including monograph on genus Apcra, and a discussion on the phylogeny of the Aperidae, Testacellidae, and other agnathous Pulmonata. Ann. Natal Mus, 3(2): 107-267. 220 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Das & Sharma: Achatina fulica fulica Plate Above : Achatina fulica fulica feeding on a house lizard, Hemidactylus frenatus. Below. (Left) — H. frenatus after being eaten by A. fulica fulica. (Right) — H. frenatus after being eaten by A. fulica fulica in the second case. M MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 28. A CONTRIBUTION TO THE VEGETATION OF CHAIBASA (NORTH), SINGHBHUM DIST. (NORTH BIHAR) 91 more plants under 84 genera collected from Chaibasa (North) forest have been accounted for in this paper. Of these 1 1 species are monocotyledons and 80 species are dico- tyledons. 81 species under 71 genera collected from Chaibasa (South) forest are published in earlier works [/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77(2): 223-226]. Enumeration Nymphaeaceae Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Nelumbium specioswn Willd. Biswas 72 Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. N. pubescens Willd. Biswas 82 Papaveraceae Papaver somniferum L. Biswas 32 Cruciferae In the following enumeration the system of Bentham and Hooker with some delimitations has been followed. Nomenclature has been as far as possible brought up to date. It may be noted that the following species were collected during the months of June- July 1980. The field numbers mentioned against the place of collec- tions is indicative of the author’s own contri- bution. The enumerated taxa have been depo- sited at N.B.S. Mahavidyalaya, Bishnupur, Bankura (West Bengal). DICOTYLEDONS Ranunculaceae Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex Dc. Biswas 10 Thalictrum javanicwn Bl. Biswas 22 Mag noli ace ae Michelia champaca L. Biswas 23 Anonaceae Brassica junoea (L.) Czern. B. nigra Koch Coronopus didymns (L.) Sm. Lepidiwn didymum L. Raphanus sativus L. Capparaceae Cleome viscosa L. Bombacaceae Bombax ceiba L. B. malabaricum DC. Malvaceae Pavonia odor at a Willd. Sid a cordifolia L. S. acuta Burm. f. Sterculiaceae Melochia corchorifolia L. Pterospermum acerifolium Willd. Biswas 2 Biswas 25 Biswas 34 Biswas 39 Biswas 15 Biswas 52 Biswas 73 Biswas 67 Biswas 70 Biswas 55 Desmos chinensis Lour. Biswas 44 Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Thw. Biswas 50 P. cerasoides (Roxb.) Bth. & Hk. f. Biswas 61 Tilxaceae Corchorus aestuans L. C. acutangulus Lamk. Biswas 1 221 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Rutaceae Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) SW. Biswas 58 Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Limonla acidissima L. Feronia elephantum Corr. Biswas 7 Biswas 12 Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Baker ex. K. Heyne P. ferrugineum Benth. Biswas 5 Saraca asoca (Roxb.) De Wilde Biswas 6 Meliaceae Mimosaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Melia azadirachta L. Chloroxylon swietenia DC. Swietenia mahogani Jacq. Biswas 62 Biswas 3 Biswas 13 Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del. Subsp. indica (Benth.) Brenm. A. auriculiformis A. Cunn. Mimosa pudica L. Biswas 18 Biswas 42 Biswas 63 Rhamnaceae Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. Biswas 16 Zizyphus oertoplia (L.) Mill Biswas 53 Onagraceae VlTACEAE Ceniella asiatica (L.) Urban. Hydrocotyle asiatica L. Biswas 19 Cayratia pedata (Lamk.) Juss. ex Ludwigia prostrata Roxb. Biswas 35 Gagnep. Cissus pedata Lamk. Biswas 85 L. perennis L. Biswas 17 Cissus quadrangula L. Oenanthe javanica (Bl.) DC. C. setosa Roxb. Biswas 29 O. benghalensis Benth. and Hk. f. Biswas 30 Sapindaceae Rubiaceae Cardiospermum haiicacabum L. Biswas 26 Borreria articularis (L.f.) Williams Spermacoce hispida L. Biswas 38 Anacordiaceae lxora arborea Roxb. ex Smith Buchanania lanzan Spreng. Biswas 11 /. parviflora Vahl /. coccinea L. Biswas 33 Biswas 83 Papilionaceae Pavetta indica L. Biswas 20 Abrus precatorius L. Biswas 9 COMPOSITAE Clitoria ternatea L. CrotaJaria juncea L. Desmodium motorium (Houtt.) Biswas 14 Biswas 8 Blumea lacera (Burm. f.) DC. Tridax procumbens L. Biswas 21 Biswas 36 Merr. D. gyrans (L. f.) DC. Biswas 4 Oleaceae Erythrina variegata L. E. indica Lamk. Biswas 56 Jasminum arbor escens Roxb. Biswas 37 Tephrosia purpurea (L.) pers. Biswas 60 Apocynaceae Caesalpiniaceae Nerium indicum Mill. Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Biswas 27 Cassia occidentalis L. . Biswas 31 Benth. ex Kurz Biswas 64 222 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Asclepiadaceae Labiatae Calotropis procera (Willd.) Dryand ex W. Ait. Biswas 28 Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Choiv. Duenna extensa R. Br. Biswas 54 Gentianaceae Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Amaranthaceae Amaranthus spinosus L. A. viridis L. Biswas 45 Biswas 47 Biswas 49 Canscora diffusa (Vahl.) R. Br. ex Roem and Schult. Biswas 59 Boraginaceae Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. Biswas 68 Ueliotropium indicum L. Biswas 40 H. ovalijoliwn Forsk. Biswas 86 Con VOLVU LACE AE Cuscuta reflexa. Roxb. Biswas 71 Ipomea aquatica Forsk. Ipomea reptens poir Biswas 74 SCROP H U LARI ACEAE Lindernia ciliata (Coism.) Pennell. Bonnaya brachiata Link. Otto Biswas 75 Limnophila heterophylla (Roxb.) Benth. Biswas 89 Acanthaceae Barleria prionitis L. Biswas 90 Hygrophila auriculata (Schum.) Heine Biswas 77 Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees R. parvijlora (Retz.) Nees var. pectinata (L.) Cl. Biswas 91 VERBEN ACEAE Clerodendrum viscosum vent. C. infortunatum auct pi. (nonL.) Biswas 78 Tectcna grandis L. f. Biswas 43 Euphorbiaceae Acalypha indica L. Antidesma ghesmbilla Gaertn. Croton bonplandianum Bail! C. sparsiflorum Morang Jatropha gossypifolia L. Phyllanthus f rat emus webster P. niruri Hook. f. Biswas 51 Biswas 81 Biswas 76 Biswas 53 Biswas 54 MONOCOTYLEDONS PlYDROC H ARITACE AE Hydrilla verticillata (L. f.) Royle Biswas 87 Orchidaceae Vanda lessellata (Roxb.) Hk. ex G. Don V. roxburghii R. Br. Biswas 57 Amaryllidaceae Curculigo crchioides Gaertn. Biswas 65 COMMELINACEAE Amischophacelus axilloris (L.) and Kamm. Cyanotis axillaris Roem and Schult. Commelina appendiculata Cl. C. benghalensis L. Cyperaceae Fimbristylis spathacea Roth Biswas 24 Rolla Rao (L.) Biswas 69 Biswas 41 Biswas 66 223 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol 81 POACEAE Arundinella setosa Trim Biswas Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin. Andropogon aciculatus Retz. Biswas Eragrostis coarctata Stapf Biswas Sclerostachya fusca (Roxb.) A. Camus Biswas C/o. Mr. Khagendra Nath Biswas, Anishbazar, P.O. Bishnupur, Dist. Bankura, (West Bengal), August 12, 1982. Acknowledgement 80 I am thankful to Dr. M. N. Sanyal, Head 88 of the Dept, of Botany, Ramananda College 46 for providing necessary facilities, valuable sug- gestions and encouragement. 48 DILIP KUMAR BISWAS 29. OCCURRENCE OF DESMODIUM SCORP1URUS (SWARTZ) DESVAUX IN WESTERN INDIA {With five text-figures) During routine plant collection around Pune, an unusual plant of Desmodium type was noticed. It showed quite different morpho- logical features and we could not match it with any species of Papilionaceae occurring in Maharashtra. It grows near hedges among grasses and low shrubs. It thrives well in coarse soils. So far a single patch of this species has been observed in the Pune Muni- cipal area. The plant has been identified as Desmodium scorpiurus (Sw.) Desv. and des- cribed as follows: Desmodium scorpiurus (Sw.) Desv. Journ. Bot. 1: 122, 1813; DC. Prodr. 2: 333, 1825; Schubert, FI. Peru, 8: 433, 1943; Hedysarum scorpiurus Sw. Prodr.: 107, 1788; Meibomia scorpiurus (Sw.) O. Ktze. Rev. Gen. 1: 198, 1891; Nissoloides cylindrica M. E. Jones, Contr. West. Bot. 18: 135, 1935 (Figs. 1 to 5). Scorpiurus, refers to the monoliform hairy pods showing much resemblance with the tail unit of the scorpion. A diffuse straggling herb. Stem wiry, some- what angled, grooved, ascending, covered with hooked hairs. Leaves trifoliate, alternate, glabrescent to puberulous; stipule foliaceous, 3-5 mm long, ovate, acuminate, amplexicaul- auriculate at base; leaf rachis 3-7 cm long; petioles =±z 1 mm; stipules filiform, ± 1 mm long; lateral leaflets 3-7 cm by 1. 5-4.0 cm, ovate-oblong, or elliptic-oblong, obtuse; termi- nal leaflets 2. 0-6.0 cm by 1.5-4. 5 cm, elliptic or obovate, obtuse; main nerves 5-7 pairs; conspicuous beneath; leaflets sparsely hairy on both surfaces, more dense beneath with a few hooked hairs. Flowers in terminal and axillary racemes of 15-20 cm length, laxly arranged in few flowered (2-4) fascicles; pedicels filiform, 3-6 mm long, puberulous; bracts 2-3 mm long, persistent, lanceolate, acute, ciliate; calyx 2 mm long, hairy; teeth about as long as the tube, linear, acute, ciliate; corolla 3-4 mm long, standard white, wing purplish or white diffused with violet, ultimately fading to lemon-yellow; 224 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 1-5. Desmodium scorpiurus (Swartz) Desvaux. 1. Habit; 1A. Pubescence on the stem (enlarged); 2. Stipule; 3. Flower; 4. Pod; 5. Seed. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 stamens 10 (9 + 1), vexillary one entirely free, the other nine united, anthers uniform; ovary shortly stalked, ovules 6-8; style incurved; stigma terminal, minute, capitate. Pods linear, monoliform, 4-6 cm long, joints 6-8, 3. 0-4.0 by 1 .0 mm, flat with hooked hairs. Seeds d= 3 mm by 1 mm, rhomboidal, lemon — yellow to pale brown, smooth. Flowers'. October-February. Fruits : November-March. Field notes : A very distinct species with small flowers and narrow, long, straight or slightly falcate moniliform pods covered with hooked hairs. Segments are easily breakable and they adhere to the bodies of browsing animals and even to clothes of field collectors. Found on heavy clay soils in open low lands exposed to severe dry season. Occurs near Mutha river side near Dattawadi, Pune on waste lands and was collected from October 1981 to February 1982. It has also been re- ported in the Aarey Colony area of Bombay by Dr. Y. S. Kulkarni. Voucher specimens are deposited in (1) Herbarium of Maharashtra Association for the Cultivation of Science, Pune and (2) Central National Herbarium, B.S.I., Calcutta. The plant is not mentioned in Cooke’s flora and efforts to identify by this Flora failed. However, it may come closer to Desmodium laxijlorum DC. and D. dichotomum (Willd.) DC. from which it differs in the following respects: 1) twining, straggling herb, 2) Size and shape of the leaves, 3) nature of pubes- cence, 4) colour of flowers fading to lemon- yellow, 5) rhomboidal seeds. It also varies to some extent from the D. scorpiurus species of Peru (Schubert 1943) in 1) dimensions of leaf rachis and leaflets, 2) size and monoli- form nature of pods. Localities'. Mutha river side, near Datta- wadi, Poona-common, Vartak 25714-16; Govt, pastures, Aarey colony, near Bombay, very common, Kulkarni 26001-3. The specimens were confirmed by the authorities of Central National Herbarium, Calcutta. It is a native of Mexico, Central America, West Indies and South America, south to Peru. It occurs very commonly in the Pacific Asia and Africa as an introduced and natu- ralized weed. It’s occurrence in Western India, however, has been located for the first time and hence reported in the present note. Thanks are due to Dr. K. Thothathri and Dr. A. Pramanik of Central National Herba- rium, Calcutta for confirmation, to Prof. K. R. Surange, Director, MACS, for laboratory faci- lities, and to Shri V. C. Deo for drawing. V. D. VARTAK M. S. KUMBHOJ K AR M.A.C.S. Research Institute, Law College Road, Pune - 411 004, April 14, 1982. Reference Schubert, B. G. (1943): Flora of Peru. Vol. 8, Port III, No. 1: 413-439. Botanical Series, Field Museum of Natural History. Chicago. 226 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 30. IDENTIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTE OF A FEW SPECIES OF EPILOBIUM LINN. IN INDIA The paper presents the distributional record of two newly described species namely E. gouldii & E. squamosum and extension of distribution of E. cylindricum The genus Epilobium Linn, with more than 200 species occurs in all continents relatively at high altitudes. Clarke (1879) described 12 species under the genus Epilobium from East and North-East Himalaya. Raven (1962) re- cognised 37 species which include 13 new taxa from the Himalayan region and recorded 31 taxa from India. During identification and study of the Indian Epilobium in herb. CAL we came across some interesting specimens. Further critical study with the available lite- rature, type specimens and the photographs from Kew herbarium reveal that they belong to two newly described species of Epilobium described by Raven (1962). The specimens, one collected from Gurhwal and the other from Mussourie have been iden- tified as E. squamosum Raven. The species was so far known from Nepal, eastward to Bhutan and Western Yunnan. So it is here reported for the first time from India showing a westward extension of distribution of the taxon. Another specimen collected from Kashmir has been identified as E. gouldii Raven, so far reported from South East Tibet and Sikkim. The new report of this taxon thus establishes its westward extension. E. cylindricum DC., a species well distributed in sino-himalayan area is reported here for the first time from Aruna- chal Pradesh. A short description is provided below for easy identification. Epilobium gouldii Raven in Bull. Brit. Mus. - 2(12): 371 et pi. 35B. 1962. Perennial herbs 20-25 cm tall, partly subter- ranean, underground parts often with scales. broadly ovate dead leaves at the base; plants not pubescent throughout; internodes small, prominent pubescent lines decurrent from the base of the leaves. Leaves opposite, often alternate towards apex, sessile (10-) 18-22 (-25) x (4-) 6-8 (-10) mm, ovate, apex acuminate, base subrounded, margin serrulate, glabrous or sparsely pilose on the nerves, subcoriaceous. Inflorescence axillary or terminal, nodding at anthesis, subtending bracts smaller than the ovary. Flowers 6-7 mm long. Sepals 5, 3 . 5-4.0 mm long, ovate-acuminate, pubescent dorsally. Petals 5, rose purple, obcordate, 4. 5-6.0 mm long. Stamens 5, filaments short, anthers cor- date, remains near the stigma. Ovary densely pubescent, strigose. Style 2. 5-3.0 mm long, stigma clavate-capitate. Capsule 5-6 cm long. Seeds less than 1 mm long, obovoid, papillose, verrucose. Type : Gautsa to Phari, 12,000-14,300 ft (3650-4350 m), 13 Aug. 1938, Gould 1452 (K; photograph CAL). Distribution : India: Kashmir, (Sikkim), TIBET. Specimens examined : Tibet: without pre- cise locality, 1882, Dr. King's Collector 146 (CAL). India: Kashmir, Astor Dist., Gudhai valley, 3344-3648 m, 12.7.82, /. F. Duthie 12198 (CAL). From this disjunct distribution it is presum- ed that this taxon may be available in Kumaon ^Himalaya and Nepal. Epilobium squamosum Raven in Bull. Brit. Mus. 2(12): 380. et pi. 39B. 1962. Perennial herbs 8-10 cm tall, unbranched. 227 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 upper part pubescent, lower part glabrous but prominent line of hairs decurrent from the petiole, internodes small, underground stem with a series of small imbricate coriaceous scales. Leaves opposite, sessile or subsessile, broadly ovate, (10-) 12-15 (-18) x (6-) 8-10 (-15) mm, apex acute, base subrounded or subcordate, margin obscurely serrulate, sparsely hairy on the nerves, membranous or subcoria- ceous. Inflorescence mostly terminal, nodding after anthesis, subtending bracts foliaceous, usually { *he ovary. Flowers 7-10 mm long. Sepals 5. 0-6.0 x 1.5-2. 0 mm, apex acute or api- culate, dorsally pubescent. Petals rose purple, 6-9 mm long, obcordate. Stamens smaller than the style. Ovary distinctly curved, sparsely pubescent, style 4-5 mm long, stigma capitate. Capsules 2-4 cm long, curved, glabrous or sparsely pubescent. Type : Chhoyang khola, west of Num, Arun valley, 3500 m, 20 June 1956, D. A. Stainton 726 (BM). Distribution : India, nepal. Specimens examined : Uttar Pradesh, Gurh- wal, 1869, Sine coll, s.n.; Near Mussourie, N. W. Himalaya 1869, G. King s.n. (CAL). The species is related to E. sikkimense in having leaves broadly ovate with obscurely serrulate margin and smaller habit, in addition to distinct curved ovaries as noted by Raven. E. cylindricum D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 222. 1825. — Hausskn. Monogr. Epil. 200. 1884. — Raven in Bull. Brit. Mus. 2(12): 355. 1962 — E. roseum var. cylindricwn (D. Don) Clarke in Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind. 2: 585. 1879. Type : nepal: Sheopuri Hill, North of Kathmandu, Aug. 1821, Wallich num. list No. 6328 (BM, lectotype; E; G; K; W and CAL). Distribution : North eastern Afghanistan to the Tian Shan range and throughout the Himalaya to Szechwan, Yunnan and Hupeh. In India the species is well distributed in the Sino-himalayan range and is reported to occur in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and also in S.E. Tibet, Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan. The specimens cited below from Arunachal Pradesh thus confirm its new eastward exten- sion of occurrence. Specimens examined : Kameng District, Bomdila camp on the way to Dirong Dsong, on the hill top, 13.4.1957, G. Panigrahi 6870 (ASSAM, CAL)! Rupa-gegaon, 1570-1329 m, 9.4.1957, G. Panigrahi 6699 (ASSAM, CAL)!; Bomdila, 6 km towards the Terpa valley, along the roadside near the drain, 2500 m, 14 Sept. 1964, J. Joseph 39916 (ASSAM, CAL)!; Lohit F. D., Dreyi — Shoeliang 1200-625 m, 13.11. 1957, Rolla Seshagiri Rao 10505, 10545 (ASSAM, CAL)! Acknowledgement We are grateful to Dr. N. C. Majumder, Ecologist, Botanical Survey of India, for valua- ble suggestions and critically going through the manuscript. Botanical Survey of India, G. S. GIRI Central National Herbarium, R. N. BANERJEE Howrah-711 103, (W.B.), July 12, 1982. References Clarice, C. B. (1879) : Onagraceae Hook. f. FI. the Himalayan region. Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Brit. India 2: 582-587. 2(12): 327-382. Raven, P. H. (1962): The genus Epilobium in 228 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 31. CUCUMIS MELO LINN. IN PUNJAB — A TAXONOMIC REAPPRAISAL In this paper a key and pertinent synonymy are provided for separation of various infraspecific taxa of Cucumis melo Linn, available in Punjab. Besides, the correct nomenclature of snake or serpent melon is also indicated. Introduction Cucumis melo Linn, with polymorphous fruits is often cultivated throughout the plains of India, chiefly on the sandy beds or margins of rivers, for the sake of its fruits. The fruits are edible and used unripe and ripe as salad, vegetable and table fruits besides being an important ingredient of an extensively sold seasonal spicy preparation locally called in north-west India as ‘Chat’. This species has re- ceived divergent treatments in Indian taxo- nomic literature. The fruits being very large and fleshy are not preserved on the herba- rium sheets except sometimes in very young stages. This, probably, has resulted in the varied circumscription of different taxa includ- ed under Cucumis melo. An attempt has been made here to clear the taxonomy of various constituents of this species as found in Punjab. The conclusions are based mainly on the field observations of various forms supplemented by the study of herbarium material. Observations in literature The taxon C. melo has received divergent treatments taxonomically. As indicated clearly by notes, local names and synonymy; Haines (1961), Prain (1963) and Tutin (in Tutin et al. 1968) treat C. melo as a Compositae taxon including several varieties distinguished by other taxonomists. Chakravarty (1959), while retaining var. agrestis includes all other varie- ties under var. culta. Somewhat similar view has been followed by Babu (1977) but with the difference that instead of var. culta he recognized var. melo with 5-100 cm long fruits and embracing all other varieties except var. agrestis which is kept distinct. Rau (1969) considers var. melo and var. agrestis as distinct and merges the other forms under var. culta. Sharma & Bir (1978) have kept var. melo separate from other forms which are put to- gether under var. culta. Babu (1977) supports Gamble’s (1957) treatment of considering C. melo var. agrestis as a distinct species under the name C. pubescens Willd. Duthie (1960) also treated C. melo var. agrestis as C. pubes- cens and retained other varieties under C. melo. Present observations and conclusions An extensive and intensive field study of various types in Punjab during the last two decades has shown that the different taxa dis- cussed here under Cucumis melo Linn, are annuals with yellow flowers. These are either cultivated or are found as self sown or some- times may become escape. Only one type (var. agrestis) is truly feral. The fruits are commonly sold in the local markets and the wild form is plentiful in waste places and fallow and agricultural fields. In all, four distinct varieties are easily recognizable. All of these should be treated as distinct and not merged under var. melo or var. culta as has earlier been done by different authors. A perusal of taxonomic literature has shown 229 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81 that no clear cut ‘key’ has been provided for the discrimination of these taxa. Presumably this is due to the different alignment of various forms under different names or because some authors consider all forms constituting a single taxon. Hence to fill in this lacuna; a ‘key’, base on discernible macroscopic features, is given below for the convenient segregation of the four varieties found in Punjab: 1. Plant slender, truly wild; leaves 2.5-9 cm across; corolla 0.5-1 cm long; fruits 2. 5-3. 5 cm long var. agrestis 1 . Plants robust, cultivated, occasionally escape but never truly wild; leaves larger, corolla 1-1.5 cm long; fruits 5-100 cm long 2. Ripe fruits bursting spontaneously var. momordica 2. Ripe fruit otherwise (i.e. not bursting) 3. Fruit at the most about 1| times longer than broad. without corduroy-like ridges var. melo 3. Fruits normally several times longer than broad, with corduroy-like ridges. . var. flexuosus Nomenclatural citations and pertinent litera- ture and synonymy with special reference to the important Indian floristic works of these varieties along with some noteworthy annota- tions are as follows: C. meio Linn. var. agrestis Naud. Ann. Sci. Nat. Par. ser. 4. II. 73. 1859; ibid. 12: 110. 1859; Chakravarty, Rec. bot. Surv. Ind. 17 (1): 103. 1959; Sant. ibid. ed. 3. 16(1): 103. 1967; Babu, Herb. FI. Dehra Dun 195. 1977. C. pubescens Willd. Sp. PI. 4: 614. 1805; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 1: 378. 1957, repr. ed.; Duthie, FI. Upp. Gang. PI. 1: 341. 1960, repr. ed. Chakravarty (loc. cit.) distinguishes var. agrestis from var. culta Royle, inter alia, in the fact that the fruits are inedible in the former and edible in latter. However, the native people of Punjab not only eat the immature and mature fruits but also appreciate them with apparent relish. I have myself tasted the fruits on several occasions during the course of botanizing and found these very juicy. In the absence of water, the fruits are indeed refreshing for a thirsty person in the field. Occasionally, however, the fruits are bitter. After the rainy season, the fruits can be seen lying on the ground and attached to the plant long after the death of vegetative parts. In the herbarium specimens, it is not uncommon to see only one male flower in the leaf-axil but in the living state the flowers are in clusters of 2-3, the largest of which is on a clear pedicel. Local name : Chibbar, Meki, Takmak English name : Small gourd Flowers & Fruits: May-November. C. melo Linn. var. momordica (Roxb.) Duthie & Fuller, Field & Gard. Crops 2: 50. t. 49. 1883; Duthie, FI. Upp. Gang. PI. 1: 342. 1960, repr. ed.; Maheshwari, FI. Delhi 170. 1963; Nair, Rec. bot. Surv. Ind. 21(1): 117. 1978; Bhandari, FI. Ind. Desert 168. 1978. C. momordica Roxb. FI. Ind. (ed. Carey) 3: 720. 1832. Local names : Kachra, Phunt, Phutt, Phutt Khira. English name : Snap melon. Flowers & Fruits : June-September. C, melo Linn. Sp. PI. 1011. 1753, var. melo Duthie, FI. Upp. Gang. PI. 1: 340. 1960, repr. ed.; Maheshwari, FI. Delhi 169. 1963; Nair, Rec. bot. Surv. Ind. 21(1): 117. 1978. Local name : Kharbuza. English name : Musk melon. Flowers & Fruits : April-September. C. melo Linn. var. flexuosus (Linn.) Naud. Ann. Sci. Nat. ser. 4.ii.34. 1859; Bailey, Man. Cult. PI. 955. 1949. C. flexuosus Linn. Sp. Pi. ed. 2: 1437. 1763. C. melo Linn, var. utilissimus (Roxb.) Duthie & Fuller, 230 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Field & Gard. Crops 2: 55. tt. 53, 54. 1883; Duthie, FI. Upp. Gang. PI. 1 : 341. 1960, repr. ed.; Maheshwari, FI. Delhi 170. 1963; Nair, Rec. bot. Surv. Ind. 21(1): 117. 1978. C. utilissimus Roxb. FI. Ind. (ed. Carey) 3: 721. 1832. Hitherto, in Indian literature this long, snake- like melon has been recorded under the name of C. nielo Linn. var. utilissimus Duthie & Fuller. But as will be clear from the synonymy cited above, it should bear the correct name C. melo var. jlexuosus in accordance with Art. 11 of International Code of Botanical Nomen- clature. Department of Botany, Punjabi University, Patiala - 147 002 (India), April 28, 1982. Local names : Kakri, Tar. English names : Snake melon. Serpent melon. Flowers Si Fruits : April-September. Acknowledgements I am grateful to the Heads of Botany departments of Punjab University, Chandigarh, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana and Punjabi University, Patiala for providing labo- ratory facilities. Grateful thanks are due to the authorities of some Indian herbaria (DD, BSD, CAL and NBG) for providing herba- rium and library facilities and to UGC New Delhi for giving travel grant. M. SHARMA References Babu, C. R. (1977) : Herbaceous Flora of Dehra Dun. New Delhi. Bailey, L, H. (1949) : Manual of cultivated plants. Ed. 2. New York. Bhandari, M. M. (1978) : Flora of the Indian desert. Jodhpur. Chakravarty, H. L. (1959): Monograph on Indian Cucurbitaceae. Rec. bot. Surv. Ind. 77(1): 1-234. Duthie, J. F. (1960) : Flora of the upper Gange- tic Plain and of the adjacent Siwalik and Sub- Himalayan tracts. Repr. ed. Vol. 1. Calcutta. & Fuller, J. B. (1883): Field and garden crops of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh. 2nd part. Roorkee. Gamble, J. S. (1957): Flora of the Presidency of Madras, repr. ed. Vol. 1. Calcutta. Haines, H. H. (1961) : Botany of Bihar and Orissa. Repr. ed. Vol. 2. Calcutta. Maheshwari, J. K. (1963): The Flora of Delhi. New Delhi. Nair, N. C. (1978): Flora of the Punjab Plains. Rec. bot. Surv. Ind. 27(1) : i-xx, 1-326. Prain, D. (1963): Bengal Plants. Repr. ed. Vol. I. Calcutta. Rau, M. A. (1969): Flora of the upper Gangetic Plain and of the adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan tracts. Check List. Bull. bot. Surv. Ind. 10 (Suppl. 2): 1-87. Roxburgh, W. (1832): Flora Indica (Ed. W. Carey). Vol. 3. Serampore. Sharma, M. & Bir, S. S. (1978) : Flora of Patiala. Patiala. Tutin, T. G. et al. (1968): Flora Europaea Vol. 2. Cambridge. 231 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 32. ON THE IDENTITY OF TWO SPECIES OF OLDENLAND1A L. (RUBIACEAE) Oldenlandia wightii Hook. f. Brit. Ind. 3: 66. 1880 was described on the basis of a col- lection from Western Peninsula by R. Wight. It was distinguished from O. umbellata L. Sp. PI. 119. 1753 based on capitate cymes, sessile flowers and distant calyx teeth equalling the capsules. In course of taxonomic study of Hedyotis L. and Oldenlandia L., specimens of both the taxa extant in Indian herbaria and some selected ones from foreign herbaria have been examined. In O. wightii Hook. f. (l.c.) the inflorescence is umbellate as evident from the type cited below but erroneously described as capitate with sessile flowers. In O. umbellata calyx teeth vary from lanceolate to ovate- lanceolate or triangular. In the early stage of the fruit the calyx teeth are close and lanceo- late, but on maturity of capsules they are dis- tant, short and subulate equalling the capsules. Thus the variations observed in O. umbellata L. cover the characteristics of O. wightii for which the latter cannot be treated as distinct and deserves to be reduced to a synonym. The correct nomenclature of the species is as follows. Hedyotis puberula (G. Don) Arn. Pug. 342. 1836. Oldenlandia puberula G. Don, Gen. Syst. 3: 530. 1834. (Type: Herb. Heyne s.n. in Wall. Cat. 884! K-W). O. umbellata L. Sp. PI. 119. 1753 (Type: Malabar, Linn.?). H. umbellata Lamk. Tabl. Encycl. 1: 273. 1791. non Walt. 1788. H. puberula R. Br. ex Wall. Cat. No. 884. 1829, nom. nud, H. linearifolia R. Br. ex Wall. Cat. no. 870. 1829, nom. nud. O. wightii Hook. f. FI Brit. Ind. 3: 66. 1880. (Type: Western Peninsula, Hb. Wight s.n. K photo CAL!) synon. nov. Oldenlandia maheshwari Sant, et Merch. in Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 42A: 213. tt. 1-6. 1964 Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta - 700 064, August 16, 1982. was distinguished from O. stocksii Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 67. 1880 for having “stem pubes- cent, flowers solitary, calyx teeth ovate-oblong or oblong, longer than the corolla; corolla smaller (±2x1 mm), white or pink in colour. Examination of the type material of O. stocksii shows that it bears, inter alia, pubescent stem and solitary, axillary or terminal flower; calyx teeth are also sometimes ovate-oblong or oblong and longer than the corolla; corolla varies from 3 mm to 6 mm in length. There are other specimens where the flower is still smaller. Colour of the flower in O. maheshwarii is reported to be white or pink while in O. stocksii it is blue. It cannot be checked on herbarium specimens and there is hardly any record of flower colour available in the herba- rium. It is white or pink in O. maheshwarii indicating variation, and taxonomic differences cannot stand on colour of the flower only. Thus none of the differences noted by Santa- pau and Merchant stand and the distinctions of the taxa are not tenable. Hence it is rele- gated to a synonym. The nomenclature is as follows. Hedyotis stocksii (Hook, f.) Rolla Rao et Hemadri in Ind. For. 99(6): 378. 1973. O. stocksii Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 67. 1880. (Syntypes: Concon, Stocks s.n.! K.; Malabar, Bababudan Hills, Stocks s.n.! K, CAL; ibid. Lawson s.n.! K). H. stocksii Hook. f. & Thoms, in Sched.! (CAL, K). O. maheshwarii Sant, et Merch. in Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 42A: 213. tt. 1-6. 1964. (Type: Mahabaleshwar, 13th Sept. 1959, Y. A. Merchant 1267! BLAT.). H. maheshwarii (Sant, et Merch.) Rolla Rao et Hemadri in Ind. For 99(6): 376. 1973, synon. nov. D. B. DEB RATNA DATTA 232 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 33. CEROPEGIA PUSILLA WIGHT ET ARN. ( ASCLEPI AD ACE AE ) IN HOSHIARPUR DISTRICT (PUNJAB) During the course of identification of some undetermined specimens of Bloshiarpur district (Punjab), I found an interesting material of the genus Ceropegia L. which on examina- tion turned out to be Ceropegia pusilla Wight et Arn. The specimen is known only from Nilgiris and Anamalai hills in South India (Hook. f. 1883) and has not been reported so far from Northern India. It is recorded here for the first time from Punjab in North-Western India and has not been in- cluded in the recent Flora reported by Nair (1978) from Punjab. Because of its botanical interest and rarity the report is appended here with a short description. Ceropegia pusilla Wight et Arn. in Wight, Contrib. 31. 1834; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 66. 1883; Fyson, FI. Nilgiri Pulney Hill. 1: 285. 1915. Dwarf puberulous, tuberous herbs. Stems c. 10 cm high, distinctly swollen at nodes. Leaves crowded on the stem, opposite, 1. 5-3.0 Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle, 3, Lakshmi Road, Dehra Dun, July 22, 1982. x 0.4-0. 8 cm, linear-lanceolate, acute, narrow- ed at the base. Peduncle with linear bract at base. Flowers 1-3, light pink, erect. Sepals 3-4 mm long, linear. Corolla c. 12 mm long with swollen, angled base. Coronal lobes 5, triangu- lar, acute, somewhat hairy; processes narrowly linear. Corona dark purplish brown with 10, white-ciliate teeth. Stamens thick erect and separate from the stylar head, except at the base. Follicles narrowly fusiform, c. 5 cm long. Flowers and Fruits : August-October. Distribution : Nilgiris and Anamalais hills. Present report : Hoshiarpur Distt. (Punjab). Specimens examined : Punjab: Manguwal, 27.8.1970, Misra 41581 (BSD). Acknowledgement We are thankful to the Deputy Director, Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle, Dehra Dun for facilities and encouragement. ANIL K. GOEL SURENDRA SINGH References Hooker, J. D. (1883): The Flora of British India Nair, N. C. (1978): Flora of the Punjab Plains. 4: 66. London. Rec. bot. Surv. India 2/(1): 326. 233 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81 34. TWO NOTEWORTHY PLANTS FROM WEST BENGAL Two plants, namely Nervilia macroglossa (Hook, f.) Schltr. (Orchidaceae) and Aeginetia pedunculala Wall. (Orobanchaceae) have been reported here as new records to W. Bengal. Relevant field data and notes have been presented here along with short descriptions. Introduction During the botanical collections for econo- mic plants and plant-products of Jalpaiguri district in the months of April-May and November 1981, we came across two rare and interesting plants which deserve special care for conservation in their natural habitat due to their rarity and dis-continuous distribution. The species are enumerated below with correct nomenclature, diagnostic features and relevant field data. The herbarium speci- mens and photographs are deposited in the herbarium (BSIS) of Industrial Section, Bota- nical Survey of India, Calcutta. ENUMERATION Orchidaceae Nervilia macroglossa (Hook, f.) Schlechter in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 45: 402 (1911); Hara, H. in FI. E. Himal. I: 445 (1966), Phot.-Alb. PI. E. Himal. f. 128 (1968). Pogonia macro- glossa Hook. f. in FI. Brit. India vi: 120 (1890), Icon. PI. t. 2195a (1894); King et Pantling in Orch. Sikkim-himal. 267. t. 356 (1898). Small tuberous terrestrial orchid, growing in open or shady loamy grassland. Flowering stem 7.5 to 15 cm. long; leaf cordate, entire; flower solitary at top of the stem, about 2.5 cm. long. Sepals linear lanceolate, green sub- equal to petals. Petals linear lanceolate, white, minutely streaked with rose colour; lip gib- bous 2. 1-2.2 cm. long, distinctly linear than sepals, apical half expanding with two obscure side lobes near its base. Upper surface having, in addition to rose coloured streaks, deep rose coloured spots. Flowering : April-May. Distribution : Subtropical Himalayas (Sikkim). Hara (1966) has remarked “this was col- lected at one spot under sparse forest” from Sikkim Himalayas. Matthew (1966) has re- ported from Kurseong (W.B.), a species, Pogonia macroglossa Lindl. without citing any herbarium specimens which could not allow the verification of the identity of the speci- mens referred by him. We could not trace any herbarium specimens, collected from trace any herbarium specimens, collected from Kurseong after critical search in the herbaria (CAL & BSIS). Further, the works of Krishna et al. (1967) and Mukerjee (1972) did not report this plant from North Bengal. So, the occurrence of this plant may be considered as the new record from the plains of W. Bengal. Specimens examined : A Meebold 4163 (CAL), Mangpoo, May, 1905; Kari 1036 (CAL), Mangpoo, 14.4.1909; S.N.D. et S.C.R. 3748 (BSIS), on the wet grassland of Siltosha Beat, Jaldapara wild life Sanctuary (Jalpaiguri district), 3rd May, 1981. Orobanchaceae Aeginetia pedunculata Wall, in PI. As. Rar. Ill: 13, t. 219 (1831); Hook. f. in FI. Br. India IV : 320 (1885); Kanjilal et al. FI. Assam III: 385 (1939); Gamble, J. S. in FI. Pres. Mad. II (Reprint edd.): 685 (1956). 234 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES A parasitic herb on the roots of grass, grow- ing as solitary plant in wet loamy grassland. Plant with a short stem of 7.5 to 15 cm high, reddish, buried in the soil; leaf not present. Scape short slender, one flowered; peduncle with sheathing obtuse bracts at the base; calyx fleshy, red and then yellow-white, loaded with mucilage, tip obtuse, acute or shortly beaked; corolla tube as long as calyx, yellowish, lobes bright violet, crenate and erose; anthers with dorsal fleshy decurved horn; stigma pelted, broadly cordiform. Flowering : April-May. Distribution : Throughout India. This plant is little known due to its rarity. Industrial Section, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta - 700 016, April 12, 1982. From W. Bengal this collection is the first report of its occurrence in this area. It may also be noted that we could not trace any herbarium specimens of this species from any part of W. Bengal in the herbaria (CAL & BSIS) after a thorough search. Specimen examined : S.N.D. et S.C.R. 3749, Siltosha beat, Jaldapara wild life sanctuary, Jalpaiguri district, 3rd May, 1981. Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge with thanks the help and valuable suggestions, provided by Dr. G. G. Maity, Botanist and Smt. K. Roy of Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. S. N. DAS1 S. C. ROY References Kara, H. (1966) : The flora of E. Himalaya. 424- 452. Krishna, B. et at. (1967) : Five unreported orchids from Northern districts of W. Bengal. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 18( 1-4): 224-225. Matthew, K. M. (1966): A preliminary list of plants from Kurseong. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 8: 158- 168. Mukerjee, S. Iv. (1972): Orchids of the plains of North Bengal. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 14 ( 1-4) : 92- 103. 1 Present address : Sr. Scientific Assistant, Botani- cal Survey of India, D-7, Shastri Nagar, Jodhpur, Rajasthan. 35. ABNORMAL FLOWERING OF AGAVE ANGUSTIFOLIA HAW. ( With a plate) Agave angusdfolia Haw. (Agavaceae) — a commonly cultivated plant of the tropics, whose habitat is not known, was found to flower abnormally at Poona, where it is natu- ralised along the cultivated fields and in waste- lands. In normal cases, the plant bears a basal rosette of numerous large leaves (upto 75.0 x 7.5 cm) on a short, 10-40 cm high, erect or ascending stem. The plant is normally mono- carp ic and dies after the flowering. At the time of flowering a large cylindrical, bamboo 235 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81 like peduncle arises from the rosette, which bears flowers on terminal branches. Fruits usually develop in situ and form bulbils, which separate away from the parent plant and develop into new plants. In one of the plants observed many germi- nated bulbils were seen at the apex of the peduncle (c 2.5 m high) of the parent plant. These bulbils were well established on the parent plant and had developed upto 10 leaves which were upto 15.0 x 5.0 cm in size. These so called secondary plants, which were formed from the bulbils of the parent plant were also in turn found to be flowering. At the time of flowering they formed slender, upto 75.0 cm long panicles. Fruits were also formed as in the normal cases (plate 1). In another plant, some of these fruits had germinated in situ forming bulbils which eventually developed into tertiary plants (plate 1). This abnormal germination and flowering of the bulbils on the peduncle of the parent plant showed that the parent plant did not die after the flowering but on its peduncle, plants of the next generation are borne which also suc- cessfully flowered and produced fruits there. Acknowledgements We are thankful to the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah and to the Deputy Director, Western Circle, Poona for facilities. Thanks are also due to Shri N. P. Singh, Systematic Botanist for encouragement during the course of this work. Botanical Survey of India, ANAND KUMAR1 Western Circle, P. G. DIWAKAR Poona, January 22, 1982. 1 Present Address'. Botanical Survey of India, Centra] Circle. Allahabad. 36. GREGARIOUS FLOWERING OF CARVIA CALLOSA BREMEK AND NILGIRIANTHUS RETICULATUS BREMEK AT AMBOLI The BNHS nature camp at Amboli from the 25th of September 1982 to the 28th of September 1982 was well attended by its members. Nestling in the ranges of the Sahya- dris, Amboli is a beautiful mountain resort in Sindhudurg district, at an altitude of 700 metres. While trekking through lush green hills and valleys, the members saw many species of birds, butterflies and flowering plants. Here, the end of September is the tail end of the monsoon and we had two clear days, but also two days of intermittant rain. A trek through the moist evergreen forest at Ramghat on the 25th of September revealed the gregarious flowering of Carvia callosa, Bremek (Vern. Karvi). The undergrowth in the region consisted mainly of these plants and most of them were in full bloom with light purple flowers. On the 27th of September, the same phenomenon was observed on Narayan- gad trail. There were a few patches of plants still in bud, the buds being pinkish in colour. Karvi stems are used by the local people for making huts and for fuel. The gregarious flowering of the plant is considered auspicious by some tribes. The honey collected in the forest during such times is known as Karvi honey and is sold at a very high price because 236 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate Kumar & Diwakar: Agave angustifolia Agave angustifolia Haw. 1 . Flowering and fruiting of secondary plants developing on the peduncle of the parent plant. 2. Formation of bulbils by secondary' plants on the peduncle of the parent plant. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES of its medicinal properties. According to the wealth of India — Raw Materials, Vol. X: 57, the leaves are poisonous to man and ani- mals, causing vomiting and inflammation of the mucous membrane of the stomach. But it has been observed that the fresh leaves are used by the people as a palliative for malaria. To prevent vomiting, the hairy part on the veins beneath the leaves, is removed. The open hillslopes at Parvati hill and Hiranyakeshi were covered with Nilgirianthus reticulatus, Bremek (Vern. Bakara). During treks through this region on the 26th of Sept- ember, we saw these plants flowering gregari- ously. At Hiranyakeshi, some patches were still in bud. At Amboli, a clear difference in the distri- bution of the two species was observed. Carvia callosa occurred in the forest as an undergrowth species whereas Nilgirianthus reticulatus was seen on open hillslopes. On Parvati hill both the species were growing profusely and were in bloom simultaneously, Laxmi Narayan Bhuvan, G. D. Ambekar Marg, Bhoiwada, Parel, Bombay - 400 012, February 1, 1983. but nowhere was there overlapping of the two species. The gregarious flowering of Carvia callosa takes place at an interval of 7 or 8 (some local people say 10) years (T. Cooke, flora of Bombay, Vol. II: 444), whereas the grega- rious flowering of Nilgirianthus reticulatus occurs at intervals of about 20 years according to local information. It is necessary to keep records of the gregarious flowering of Nilgiri- anlhus reticulatus, as according to Shri M. C. Suryanarayan, Indian Forester 96: 850 (1970), 16 years life cycle of Strobilanthes scrobiculata Dalz. ex Clarke, is the longest among the group Strobilanthinae. Fr. H. Santapau in his note (1950, JBNHS, 49: 320) sought the help of readers in India to observe various species of Strobilanthes and report their gregarious flowering. It may be of interest therefore to put down these notes on two different species which have been observed in bloom this year. I am grateful to Shri M. R. Almeida for confirming the identification of the plants. . ULHAS RANE 37. PTERIS SC AB RIFES WALL. EX HOOK. — A NEW FIND FROM INDIA In course of the revisionary study on the genus of P ter is from India, I located a specimen collected by W. G. Craib from Haflong, North Cachar, Assam, housed in CAL herbarium. After careful examination, it is found that it is exactly identical with Pteris scabripes Wall, ex Hook., described from Malay Peninsula. This note gives first report of this species from India. Full description is provided in this paper. Pteris scabripes Wall. (Cat. N. 94, 1828) ex Hook. Spec. Fil. 2: 165, 1858; Holttum, Fern. Malay 2: 399, 1954. Rhizome erect, sparsely scaly, stipe tufted, purple, 20 to 40 cm long, longest in fertile frond. Frond has a terminal pinnae and 2-3 237 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vo!. 81 pairs of lateral pinnae, lateral pinnae similar to apical pinnae. Sterile pinnae 15 cm- 18 cm long, 3 cm to 3 . 5 cm broad, sessile, apex of pinnae 10 cm to 15 cm long, 8 mm to 12 cm broad, apex acuminate, texture coriacious, veins forked at base, parallel, midrib raised Cryptogamic Section, Botanical Survey of India, P.O. Botanic Garden, Howrah - 711 103, West Bengal, April 22, 1982. on upper surface and grooved; sori continuous along the edges of fertile pinnae except apices of pinnae; spores brown, tetrahedral. Specimen examined : Haflong, 800 m. North Cachar, Assam, 24 Aug. 1908, W. G. Craib 425 (CAL-8067). S. R. GHOSH 38. STUDIES IN LEGUMINOSAE XXX — FURTHER CONTRIBUTIONS TO DALBERG1A L. F. AND DERRIS LOUR. {With three text-figures) Introduction Critical examination of the Indian and Burmese specimens of Dalbergia L. f. and Derris Lour, in the Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, has enabled me to supplement the taxonomy and distribution of a few species. Derris elliptica (Wall.) Benth. This is the only species of economic impor- tance in the genus and is renowned as the ‘Tuba root of Commerce’. Rotenone, extract- ed from the roots, is extensively used as an insecticide. The species is known wild so far from Bangladesh, Burma, Malaysia, Java, Sumatra, Philippines and New Guinea. In India, it is only cultivated for the ‘Tuba root’. Thothathri (1976) reported its wild occurrence in the Great Nicobar Island. D. elliptica var. chiltagongensis Thoth., originally described from Chittagong, Bangladesh, has also been reported in India from Assam (Thothathri 1960). Recently I examined a collection (Fig. 1) from Rattenpur, Cachar District, Assam, which also proved to be D. elliptica and the first record of var. elliptica wild in India. Future intensive explorations in eastern India may extend its distribution further. A climber. Branches lenticellate, glabrous. Leaves up to 40 cm long; leaflets 9, 13-16 x 5- 6 cm, lower pair always smaller than upper, leaflets oblong to obovate-oblong, entire, nar- rowed at base, acute to shortly acuminate at apex, coriaceous, puberulous below; lateral veins 10-12 pairs, ascending; petiolules grooved above, 5-8 mm long. Infructescence incomplete, rachis 22 cm long, glabrous, main peduncle 6- 9 mm long, each bearing 2-3 stalked pods; stalks 8-10 mm long, peduncles and stalks glabrous to puberulous. Pods oblong, 6.5-10.0 x 2.5-3 .0 cm, distinctly winged along the upper suture with a narrow wing on the lower suture, narrowed at base, obtuse at apex, faintly reticulated, puberulous, 1-2-seeded. India: Assam, Cachar, Rattenpore, 1873, Maneek for R. Keeman (K). 238 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig, 1, Derris elliptica (Wall) Benth, Fruiting branchlet. 239 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 CM CM Fig. 2. Derris benthamii Thw. var. wightii (Baker) Thoth. A. Habit with flowers. B. A twig with pods. C. Calyx-tube. D. V exillum, wings and keels. E. Staminal column. F. Pistil. 240 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Derris foenthamai Thw. var. wightii (Baker) Thoth. This variety has been known only from the fruits, with its floral characters undescribed. Recently a collection from Kalakkadu Forest, Tamil Nadu, by Oates has enabled me to furnish details of floral parts and an illustra- tion (Fig. 2). Inflorescence terminal and axillary panicles, up to 19 cm long, rachis and branches ferru- ginous. Flowers 7-8 mm long; bracts linear; bracteoles oblong, at the base of the calyx- cup; pedicels 2. 0-2. 5 mm long. Calyx campa- nulate, 2.5-2. 8 mm, densely ferruginous with- out; mouth entire to faintly toothed. Vexillum obovate, 9-10 mm long, emarginate, shortly clawed, wholly glabrous within, silky pubescent without above; wings boat-shaped, 9-10 mm long, auricled below, clawed; keels narrowly oblong, 9-10 mm long, long-clawed, auricled below. Stamens 10, monadelphous, sheath 10- 1 1 mm, vex illary filament free below and above, longer filaments alternating with shorter filaments. Ovary linear, 9-10 mm long, pubes- cent, 3-4-ovuled; style slender; stigma capi- tate; ovules 0.3 mm across. India: Tamil Nadu, Thirunelveli District, Kalakkadu Reserve Forest (Near Settlement of Kakachi), 1300 m, 1976, J. F. Oates 136 (K). Dalbergia misiiosolctes Franch. Originally described from China, D. mlmo- soicles is known to occur in India also (Assam, Sikkim). A collection of this species from Burma by Kingdon-Ward constitutes a new record. The field notes read as follows: “A shrub, 25 feet in forests and on open sunny slopes. A scrambler with long and thick stems growing in thickets among which it finds sup- port. The branches are also sensitive to con- tact and appear to grow in a curve forming a hook even without the stimulus of contact. If they come in contact with a support they form real woody tendrils”. Scambling shrubs, 8 m. Branches glabrous. Infructescence axillary and terminal, racemose. Pods oblong, 3. 5-5.0 x 1.0- 1.2 cm, yellowish, distinctly stalked, obtuse and mucronate at apex, glabrous, smooth (without reticulations), 1-2-seeded (Fig. 3). Burma: Tsangpo Gorge (Gerupa Le), 1500- 1800 m, Dec. 1924, F. Kingdon-Ward 6375 (K). Fig. 3. Dalbergia mimosoides Franch. Fruiting branchlet. 241 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Acknowledgement rials from the Director, Royal Botanic Gar- dens, Kew, England. I gratefully acknowledge the loan of mate- Botanical Survey of India, K. THOTHATHRI Central National Herbarium, P.O. Botanic Garden, Howrah -711 103 (W.B.), August 11, 1982. References Thothathri, K. (1960): Studies in Leguminosae Thothathri, K. (1976): Studies in Leguminosae 1. A taxonomic revision of the genus Derris Lour. (24). Notes on the Indo-Burmese species of Derris. in India. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 3: 175-200. Journ. Jap. Bot. 51(5): 141-150. ERRATA VOLUME 80, NO. 1: APRIL 1983 A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of Bombay Natural History Society — 27 On page 157, For 1330 Garrulax eryihrocephaius crythrocepSialus (Hume) Read 1330 GarruSax eryths-ocepIiaSus erytSurolaema (Hume) VOLUME 80, NO. 3: DECEMBER 1983 Misc. Note No. 6. Additions “to the Birds of Goa by Robert B. Grubh & Salim Ali JBNHS — Vol. 73, No. 1” On page 639 — Sr. No. 22 For Sturnus erythropygius (Blyth). Whiteheaded Myna Read Sturnus malabaricus blythii (Jerdon). Whiteheaded Myna 242 THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, 4th edition (reprint). 28 plates in colour by Paul Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations. Rs. 60.00 {Price to members Rs. 55) TTie Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta, by James Juan Spillett. Rs. 10 The Book of Indian Birds, by Sdlim Ali. 11th (revised) edition. 74 coloured and many monochrome plates. 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By Shamshad Ali . . 19 Larval culture of the Hermit Crab Clibanarius aequabilis var. merguiensis De Man (Decapoda, Anomura, Diogenidae) reared in the Laboratory. By Venkatray N. Nayak . • 29 Tourist activity and behaviour of the Leopard Panthera pardus fusca (Meyer, 1794) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. By M. R. Chambers, Charles Santiapillai and N. Ishwaran 42 Some observations of scarce birds in Nepal. By N. J. Redman, F. Lambert and R. Grimmett . . 49 Spawning of some important coldwater fish of the Garhwal Himalaya. By S. P. Badola and H. R. Singh . . 54 Reproduction biology of the Soft-furred Field Rat, Rattus meltada pallidior (Ryley, 1914) in the Rajasthan desert. By B. D. Rana and Ishwar Prakash 59 \ y. kji Flowering plants around the holy shrine of Kedarnath, Uttar Pradesh. By J. K. Semwal 71 f Observations of the reproductive biology of the Indian Chameleon, Chamaeleo zeylanicus (Laurenti). By L. A. K. Singh, L. N. Acharjyo and H. R. Bustard 86 New records and hosts of Aphid paras itoids (Hymenoptera: Aphidiida) from Kashmir, India. By R. C. Bhagat . . 93 Host plants of the Fruit Flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) of the Indian sub- continent, exclusive of the sub-family Dacinae. By Mohammad Zaka-ur-Rab 99 Observations on the length- weight relationship of the fish Rasbora daniconius (Ham.-Buch.) . By V. Y. Thakre, and S. S. Bapat . . 105 Influence of atmospheric temperature and humidity on the variations in seasonal abundance and phenology of Micronecta striata Fibber. By T. C. Banerjee, A. S. Mondal and T. K. Nayek . . 110 Further contribution to the Flora of Buxa Forest Division, Jalpaiguri District (West Bengal). By J. K. Sikdar and Rolla S. Rao .. 123 New Descriptions . . 149 Reviews . . 172 Miscellaneous Notes 178 Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 103 and published by Editors: J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole and A. N. D. Nanavati for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400023. Vol. 81, No. 2 Editors : J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole & A. N. D. Nanavati NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors by observ- ing the following instructions: L Papers which have at the same time been offered for publication to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published elsewhere, should not be submitted. * 2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered. 3. All scientific names to be printed in italics- should be underlined. 4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identifica- tion has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected. 5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8.20 x 5.60 cm (No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper. 6. 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Orders for additional reprints should be in multi- ples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and packing. 11. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s. ■'■■■■ /•* '' ' •. Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023. Editors. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. VOLUME 81(2): AUGUST 1984 Date of Publication : 16-11-1984 CONTENTS PAGE On the taxonomy of the Indian Ocean lizards of the Phelsuma madagascari- ensis species group (Reptilia, Geckonidae). By Achim — Rudiger Borner and Walter Minuth. ( With a colour and a monochrome plate & two text-figures ) 243 Agastyamalai and its environs: A potential area for a Biosphere Reserve. By A. N. Henry, M. Chandrabose, M. S. Swaminathan and N. C. Nair. ( With a text-figure ) . . 282 A PROVISIONAL LIST OF UNRECORDED SOUTH-EAST ASIAN BIRDS. By D. CoUZenS, R. J. Quinnell and J. Bass . . 291 Reproductive biology of the mugger ( Crocodylus palustris ). By Romulus Whitaker and Zahida Whitaker. ( With two plates & five text- figures ) . . 297 Morphological studies on the syconia of Ficus bengalensis Linn. By R. Indra and K. V. Krishnamurthy. ( With four text- figures ) . . 318 Distribution of Drosophila species and their diversities in the tropical rain forests of Western Ghats. By H. S. Frakash and G. Sreerama Reddy ( With a text-figure ) . . 323 A sketch on the sedge and grass flora of Jalpaiguri District, West Bengal. By J. K. Sikdar . . 346 Rhesus monkey distribution in the lower Himalayas and secondary forest succession. By Kazuo Wada. ( With a text- figure) . . 355 Material for the Flora of Mahabaleshwar — 5. By P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida 364 Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats. Part IX — Hipposideros lankadiva (Kelaart) — Hipposideridae. By V. M. Sapkal and W. R. Bhandarkar . . 380 Activity patterns in a colony of Peafowls ( Pavo cristatus ) in nature. By K. Navaneethakannan. {With five text-figures) . . 387 Population structure of the Indian House Rat, Rattus rattus rufescens in the Indian Arid Zone. By Ranjan Advani and B. D. Rana . . 394 Recent Ornithological records from Pakistan. By T. J. Roberts . . 399 A report on a collection of Amphibians and Reptiles from the Ponmudi, Kerala, south India. By Robert F. Inger, H. Bradley Shaffer, Mammen Koshy and Ramesh Bakde. {With three plates) . . 406 New Descriptions: A new species of Cresphontes stal (Heteroptera : Pentatomidae) from India. By M. Nayyar Azim and S. Adam Shafee. (With a text- figure) Description of a new species Drosophila septacoila (Diptera: Drosophilidae) from south India. By P. G. Gai and N. B. Krishnamurthy. (With seven text- figures) A new species of Osbeckia L. (Melastomataceae) from Kerala (India). By G. S. Giri and M. P. Nayar. (With a text- figure) Osbeckia arunkumarensis sp. nov. from eastern India. By M. P. Nayar and G. S. Giri. (With two text-figures) New species of Psychotria (Rubiaceae) from Indian subcontinent. By D. B. Deb and M. Gangopadhyay. (With three text-figures) Descriptive notes on three new or rare Himalayan taxa of Indigofera L. (Faba- ceae — Papilionoideae) . By M. Sanjappa. (With two text-figures) Reviews : 1 . Grasses of Marathwada. (A. R. Daruwalla) 2. A synoptic Flora of Mysore District. (A. R. Daruwalla) 3. Illustrations on the Flora of the Tamilnadu Carnatic Vol. 2 and The Flora of the Tamilnadu Carnatic. Vol. 3. (M. R. Almeida) 428 430 434 436 439 445 452 453 454 Miscellaneous Notes: Mammals: 1. The Sundarbans Tiger. By Kalyan Chakrabarti (p. 459); 2. Interaction between Gaur and Tiger in Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary. By K. Ullas Karanth (p. 460); 3. A note on the longevity of two species of wild carnivores in captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo and S. K. Patnaik (p. 461); 4. Record of a Pygmy White-toothed Shrew, Suncus etruscus (Savi, 1822) from Daman, Nepal. (With a textrfgure) . By Patrick Brunet-Lecomte (p. 462); 5. Feeding activity in the captivity of the Western Ghats Squirrel, Funambulus tristriatus Waterhouse. (With a text-figure). By S. Keshava Bhat and D. N. Mathew (p. 464); 6. Report on the occurrence of the fawn-coloured mouse, Mus cervicolor cervicolor Hodgson, 1845 [Rodentia: Muridae] in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. By Ajoy Kumar Mandal and M. K. Ghosh (p. 465). Birds: 7. A large flock of migrating white storks. By J. Mangalraj Johnson (p. 466); 8. Puddle-feeding of Flamingos Phoenicopterus roseus in inland tanks. By J. Mangalraj Johnson (p. 467); 9. Occurrence of Lesser Flamingo Phoeniconaias minor (Geoffroy) in Poona, Maharashtra. By Taej Mundkur (p. 468); 10. Sighting of Ringtailed Fishing Eagle at Vihar Lake, Greater Bombay. By D. P. Bannerjee (p. 468); 11. Some observations on natural Cheer Pheasant, Catreus wallichii, population at Mukteswar Reserve forest, Kumaon, Naini Tal, U. P. By T. J. Rasool (p. 469); 12. Possible Nordmann’s Green- shank in Nepal. By A. J. Del-Nevo (p. 472); 13. Unusual communal nest-feeding in southern small Minivet Pericrocotus cinnamomeus cinnamomeus Linne. By Ulhas Rane (p. 473); 14. Occurrence of Whitebreasted Laughing Thrushes (Garrulax jerdoni Blyth) in Goa. By Ulhas Rane (p. 474); 15. A new record of Sunbirds as avian pests on grape around Hyderabad. By S. Tej Kumar, A. Ranga Reddy and K. Lakshminarayana (p. 475). Reptiles: 16. Some notes on the reptiles of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. By S. Biswas (p. 476); 17. Nutritional disorders of young captive crocodiles. (With a plate). By K. Tulasi Rao, B. Thrinadha Rao, Y. Rama and B. Bharatha Lakshmi (p. 481); 18. A report on the rare occurrence of two headed Russell’s earth-snake or red earth boa Eryx conicus (Ophidia: Boidae). ( With a plate). By R. N. Desai (p. 483); 19. Predation on a sympatric species by Hemidactylus leschenaulti (Sauria: Gekkonidae). By Shekar Dattatri (p. 484) . Amphibia: 20. On the distribution and habitat of the Himalayan Newt ( Tylotoiriton verrucosus Anderson) in the eastern Nepal. ( With a plate). By Tej Kumar Shrestha (p. 485); 21. Distribution of Bufo camortensis Mansukhani & Sarkar in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. By A. G. Sekar (p. 488); 22. The Occurrence of the Marbled Baloon Frog Uperodon systoma (Schneider) (Family Microhylidae) in Baroda (Gujarat State). By Y. M. Naik (p. 488). Crustacea: 23. Some ecological observations leading to a new source of seed of the freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii (de Man) in Maharashtra. ( With two text- figures & a map). By J. N. Pande (p. 489). Insects: 24. A note on species named Lycaena pavana (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). By R. K. Varshney (p. 493); 25. Correct name of the Red-base Jezebel butterfly (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). By R. K. Varshney (p. 495); 26. Cassia siamea Lamk. — a new host plant for the castor slug caterpillar, Parasa lepida (Cochlididae : Lepidoptera). By R. Rajashekhar Gouda and M. C. Devaiah (p. 496); 27. Additions to the termite fauna of the Thar desert. By R. K. Thakur (p. 496); 28. Further records of occurrence and incidence of damage by termites of the genus Cryptotermes Banks in India (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae) . By M. L. Thakur (p. 497); 29. A spider as predator of Lampides boeticus (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) from Punjab, India. By Jagtar Singh and G. S. Mavi (p. 501). Other Invertebrates: 30. Some observations on the biology of planorbid snail Helicorbis coenosus (Benson) in Punjab. ( With three text-figures) . By H. S. Bali and G. S. Srivastava (p. 501). Botany: 31: “Caesalpinia hymenocarpa (Prain) Hattink, comb. nov. — a superfluous name” — a correction. By Tenjarla C. S. Sastry and G. B. Kale (p. 506); 32. Family Alismataceae in the Kashmir Himalayas. ( With two plates). By A. Majeed Kak (p. 506); 33. Additions to the flora of Bihar and Orissa — IV. By M. Brahmam and H. O. Saxena (p. 509); 34. The genus Curcuma L. (Zingiberaceae) on Andaman and Nicobar Islands. ( With a plate). By N. P. Balakrishnan and N. Bhargava (p. 510); 35. Aquatic knot weeds of the Kashmir Himalayas. (With three plates). By A. Majeed Kak (p. 514); 36. A note on the occurrence of a few uncommon plants in W. Bengal. By S. N. Das and S. C. Roy (p. 518); 37. Notes on Viola betonicifolia J. Sm. sensu Into in India. ( With a text-figure). By S. P. Banerjee and B. B. Pramanik (p. 521); 38. Distributional notes on Margaritaria L.f. (Euphorbiaceae) in southern India and Sri Lanka. By Vatsavaya S. Raju (p. 526); 39. Melochia pyramidata Linn. (Sterculiaceae) — a new record for Maharashtra. (With six text-figures) . By S. M. Almeida and C. S. Lattoo (p. 528); 40. Acrorumohra diffracta (Baker) H. Ito (Aspidiaceae) : a little known fern from Arunachal Pradesh and Shan State of Upper Burma. By B. Ghosh (p. 530); 41. An interpretation of Bauhinia L. (sensu lato) species illustrated in van Rheede’s Hortus Malabaricus (1678-1703). By K. K. N. Nair (p. 531). Notes and News 536. \ ? ■ f I J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate Above: P. befotakensis sp. nov., one of the type specimens (alive). Below: P. chekei sp. nov., male. (Courtesy of Mr.U.Hoesch). JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1984 AUGUST VoL 81 No, 2 ON THE TAXONOMY OF THE INDIAN OCEAN LIZARDS OF THE PHELSUMA MA DA GA SC A RIENSIS SPECIES GROUP (REPTILIA, GECKONIDAE)1 Achim — Rudiger Borner and Walter Minuth2 ( With a colour and a monochrome plate Si two text-figures) Introduction The taxonomy and phylogeny of the Phel- suma madagascariensis species group still con- tain vexed problems due to the wide dispersal of these geckos in the Indian Ocean, to in- adequate samples from many localities in Madagascar and the rather remote, far-flung islands and to a certain lack of in-depth study of the available specimens and photos. Earlier authors (Angel, Boettger, Boulenger, Love- ridge) regarded the taxa of the species group as varieties of Phelsuma madagascariensis ; Ren- dahl’s paper constituted a major step forward, as he clarified the situation of the sibling species 1 Accepted April 1982. 2 Ziilpicher Str. 83. D-5000 Cologne 41, West Germany. in the Seychelles, but his conclusions were fully accepted only in recent times. Cheke’s paper on the taxonomy of the Phelsuma of the Seychelles (Cheke 1982) gives a full account of the re- search history, which will not be repeated here. While Cheke’s approach is biogeographi- cal (cf. Cheke in press), our aim is to discuss the phylogeny of the species group in view of supplementary findings. Material and Methods This paper is based on a study of: 1) specimens and photos obtained by Mr. Humayun Abdulali on the Andaman Islands in 1976, by Mr. Anthony S. Cheke on the Seychelles in 1976, by Mrs. Eva Minuth and Dr. Walter Mi- nuth in northwest Madagascar in 1977; JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vof. 81 2) specimens and photos communicated by numerous contributors which are mentioned in the list of materials exa- mined; 3) living specimens, partly collected on the above mentioned excursions, partly obtained from third collectors, partly bred by one of us (W. M.) All alcohol specimens are listed under the serial number of the junior author’s collection (BSRC) and are stored in this collection ex- cept those transferred to the British Museum (Natural History) BM (NH) as indicated. BSRC Geek 7 BSRC Geek 8 BSRC Geek 27 BSRC Geek 28 BSRC Geek 29 BSRC Geek 30 BSRC Geek 31 SC Majunga, Malagasy Rep. leg. H. Meier; rec. J. H. Brown 15.8.1975 d. J. H. Brown 30.5.1976. SC Praslin Island, Seychelles leg. H. Meier; rec. J. H. Brown 15.8.1975 d. J. H. Brown 15.2.1976 SC Felicite or La Digue Island leg. Anthony S. Cheke November 1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 SC BM (NH) 1980. 357 probably Felicite Island, Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke November 1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 SC BM (NH) 1980. 352 ? North Island, Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 SC Frigate or Silhouette Island, Sey- chelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 SC Frigate or Silhouette Island, Sey- chelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 BSRC Geek 32 BSRC Geek 33 BSRC Geek 35 BSRC Geek 36 BSRC Geek 38 BSRC Geek 40 BSRC Geek 41 BSRC Geek 42 BSRC Geek 43 BSRC Geek 44 BSRC Geek 45 BSRC Geek 46 SC ? Silhouette Island, Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke November ) 976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 SC Felicite Island, Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke 21.11.1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 SC Beau Vallon, Mahe Island, Sey- chelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke 14.11.1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 SC Frigate Island, Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke 8.11.1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 SC BM (NH) 1980. 355 Beau Vallon, Mahe Island, Sey- chelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke 14.11.1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 SC BM (NH) 1980. 353 Frigate Island, Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke 8.11.1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 SC Frigate Island, Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke 8.11.1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 SC Anna La Passe, Silhouette Island, Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke 5.11.1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 SC La Digue Island, Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke 19.11.1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 SC La Digue Island, Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke 19.11.1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 SC BM (NH) 1979. 489 Felicite Island, Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke 21.11.1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 SC BM (NH) 1980. 358 La Digue Island, Seychelles 244 TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP leg. Anthony S. Cheke 19.11.1976 cl. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 BSRC Geek 47- SC BM (NH) 1980. 356 probably Felicite Island, Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 BSRC Geek 48 SC most probably Beau Vallon, Mahe Island, Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 BSRC Geek 49 SC North Island, Silhouette Island or Frigate Island, Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 BSRC Geek 50 SC North Island, Silhouette Island or Frigate Island, Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 BSRC Geek 51 SC North Island, Silhouette Island or Frigate Island, Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 BSRC Geek 68 SC Menai, Cosmoledo Atoll, Indian Ocean leg. P. Niedzwiedski October 1977 d. Anthony S. Cheke 7.9.1980 BSRC Geek 69 SC Menai, Cosmoledo Atoll, Indian Ocean leg. P. Niedzwiedski October 1977 d. Anthony S. Cheke 7.9.1980. BSRC Geek 70 SC Mahe, Seychelles leg. U. Hoesch April 1981 d. W. Minuth July 1981 BSRC Geek 71 SC La Digue, Seychelles leg. U. Hoesch April 1981 d. W. Minuth July 1981 BSRC Geek 72 SC La Digue, Seychelles leg. U. Hoesch April 1981 d. W. Minuth July 1981 BSRC Geek 73 BSRC Geek 74 BSRC Geek 80 BSRC Geek 81 BSRC Geek 82 BSRC Geek 8 BSRC Geek 13 BSRC Geek 20 BSRC Geek 33 BSRC Geek 36 BSRC Geek 43 BSRC Geek 44 SC La Digue, Seychelles leg. U. Hoesch April 1981 d. W. Minuth July 1981 SC La Digue, Seychelles leg. U. Hoesch April 1981 d. W. Minuth July 1981 SC Befotaka, Madagascar leg. W. & E. Minuth August 1977 d. W. Minuth July 1981 SC Befotaka, Madagascar leg. W. & E. Minuth August 1977 d. W. Minuth July 1981 SC Befotaka, Madagascar leg. W. & E. Minuth August 1977 d. W. Minuth July 1981 MC no locality leg. W. Minuth; rec. J. H. Brown 15.8.1975 d. J. H. Brown 21.5.1976 MC no locality d. J. H. Brown 30.5.1976 MC close vicinity of Diego Suarez, Malagasy Republic leg. H. Meier d. J. H. Brown 30.5.1976 MC close vicinity of Diego Suarez, Malagasy Republic leg. H. Meier; rec. J. H. Brown 2.4.76-19.10.76 d. J. H. Brown 28.4.1977 MC Diego Suarez, Malagasy Republic leg. H. Meier; rec. Andre Brunke d. J. H. Brown 28.4.1977 MC BM (NH) 1980. 351 Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 MC could be Frigate or Silhouette Island 245 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 BSRC Geek 45 BSRC Geek 53 BSRC Geek 55 BSRC Geek 56 Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 MC ? Mahe Island, Seychelles leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976 d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977 MC no locality leg. Rolf Heckhoff 2.4.1979 d. W. Frank 23.6.1977 MC no locality d. G. Terstappen 22.9.1979 MC no locality d. W. Frank 23.6.1977 The data for the morphometric tables have been double-checked to prevent errors. Ab- breviations in the morphometric tables are the following : specimen SVL TL LH RE NE WH HH H N — gives collection number; — snout-vent-length, calipered to the nearest millimeter; — tail-length, calipered to the nearest millimeter; — length of head from the tip of the snout to the distal edge of the ear opening; — length from rostral to eye, i.e. from the tip of the snout to the distal edge of the eye (eye-ring included) ; — length from the nostril to the distal edge of the eye (eye-ring included); — width of head, calipered in the widest point of the head by gently pressing the calipers to the sides of the head (scales and skull) ; — height of head, calipered in the widest point of the head by gently pressing the calipers to the sides of the head (scales and skull); — average head granules situated on the snout (nearer to the rostral than to the eyes, upper side of head); — nuchal granules close to the occi- put near the vertebral line; D L V G labials lamellae scansors preanal pores — average dorsal granules 1-2 mm right or left of the vertebral line near middorsum; — average lateral granules in the very center of the flanks (equidi- stant from dorsals and laterals and from fore and hind legs) ; — average ventral scales of the mid- venter; — average gular scales equidistant from a line combining the jaw angles and the ventral scales (ventral neck) ; — all labials and enlarged granules bordering the mouth; — all transversally enlarged scales and all scale rows under the com- plete rigit; — all lamellae with adhesive function including a distal terminal lamella and excluding a basal non-adhesive lamella which is set off a little bit from the adhesive pad; — all scales with pores and distinct scutes (= p., mainly in females). Phelswna of Malagasy and the Indian OCEAN ISLANDS 1 . Phelsuma andamaneissis BSRC Geek 12-14 SC This species is known only from Port Blair, Andaman Islands, where our three specimens were also collected. This form being the only representative in the eastern Indian Ocean occurs far away from the main distribution of the genus, which is restricted to Malagasy and the western Indian Ocean islands. No Phel- suma has been found on the central Indian Ocean islands (Lakkadive and Maidive Islands, Sri Lanka) or on the Chagos Archipelago so that there is a considerable gap in the distri- bution of the genus which indicates a strong chance that Phelsuma andamanensis was acci- dentally transported to the Andaman Islands. 246 TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA M AD AG ASCARIEN SIS SPECIES GROUP The morphometric data of our three speci- mens are given in table 1. The species is characterized by the absence of enlarged post- mental scales and the following pattern: Dor- sally light green. A red stripe (1 mm wide) from the nostril through the eye to the ear and there is a pre- and interocular red a - figure whose tip is in the first third of the snout; there are various spots on the rear of the head, which usually tend to extend trans- 1 Table Phelsuma andamanensis, Port Blair Specimen BSRC Geek 12 SC 13 SC 14 SC Variation sex 5 5 SVL 56 48 42 42 -56 TL SVL 61 “59*’ 59 59 -61 TL 1.09 — 1.40 1.09- 1.40 LH 14.3 13.5 13.6 13.5 -14.3 RE 8.1 7.8 7.2 7.2 - 8.1 NE 6.5 6.6 6.3 6.3 - 6.6 WH 9.7 9.0 8.5 ... 8.5 - 9.7 HH 5.9 6.3 6.0 5.9 - 6.3 LH/RE 1.76 1.73 1.89 1.73- 1.89 LH/NE 2.20 2.04 2.15 2.04- 2.15 LH/WH 1.47 1.50 1.6 1.47- 1.6 LH/HH 2.42 2.14 2.27 2.14- 2.42 WH/HH 1.64 1.42 1.42 1.42- 1.64 NE/HH 1.10 1.05 1.05 1.05- 1.10 gran. : II 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 - 0.4 N 0.15 0.1 0.1 0.1 - 0.15 D 0.2 0.25 0.2 0.2 - 0.25 L 0.5 0.25 0.2 0.2 - 0.5 V 0.7 0.55 0.5 0.5 - 0.7 G 0.35 0.1 0.1 0.1 - 0.35 L/D 2.5 1 1 1 - 2.5 H. 1000 /SVL 7.14 6.25 7.14 6.25- 7.14 N. 1000/ SVL 2.69 2.08 2.38 2.08- 2.69 D . 1.000 / SVL 3.57 5.21 4.76 3.57- 5.21 L. 1000./ SVL 8.93 5.21 4.76 4.76- 8.93 V. 1000 /SVL 12.5 11.46 11.90 11.46-12.5 G. 1000 /SVL 6.25 2.08 2.38 2.08- 6.25 scales around midbody 80 : ' . 88 90 80 -90 supralabials r / 1 11/9 10 10/9 9 -11 sublabials r/1 9/8 . 10/9 . 978 8 -10 lamellae 4th toe 21 24 23 — 21. -24 scansors 4th toe 10 15 13 10 -1.5 ■ . lamellae 4th finger 18 T ' : 20 22 7 18 -22 . scansors 4th finger 10 : : li 14 ■ TO -14 r; preanal pores r/1 15/16 14/15 14/13 i3 -i6 : 247 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 versally. Three red longitudinal bands (0.6- 1.0 mm wide) are prominent on the nape, and there may be another two lateral rows of red spots or lines, one on each side of the neck. The anterior and mid-dorsum lack spots. The post- erior dorsum and sacrum have irregular red spots (-2.0 mm <£), which tend to enlarge and fuse transversally. Underneath, the geckos are yellowish and whitish at least on the throat and the anal and femoral region. The dorsal pattern is not always visible, and there may be true “concolor” — specimens; they occur in the same Port Blair population. 2. Phelsuma longinsulae ssp. This complex has its center on the western group of the Seychelles, the Mahe group, and on Frigate; Cheke (1982, in press) lists the locality records for the Amirante Islands, from where we lack specimens. Phelsuma longinsulae is a green Neophel- suma species with a reduced lateral pattern. a dark red stripe of 1.5 mm width from the nostril to the eye, a /\ -figure of -1.0 mm width on the snout, variable red postocular and on back of head spots, light (whitish or reddish) spots on the legs and (fading in adults) on the flanks, a longitudinal pattern of red spots (transversally fusing near sacrum). The mor- phometric data are given in tables 2 ff . It lacks keeled chest scales; and head is more pointed than in P. sundbergi (cf. Cheke, in press). The type of this species has been collected on Long Island near the harbour of Victoria, Mahe. Cheke has already demonstrated that this typical form occurs on Frigate, too, and that this island may be the true center of dis- tribution of this form. Long Island contain- ing only a small, maybe even short-lived popu- lation secondarily transported there, probably by natives. Rendahl’s taxon pulchra has its type locality on Mahe and his taxon cousinense from Cousine Island (near Mahe) is consi- Table 2 Diagnoses of the Seychelles Phelsuma longinsulae Subspecies longinsulae pulchra umbrae rubra Island Frigate Mahe Silhouette North Specimens 36, 40, 41, 35, 38, 32, 42, 30 SC 29, 50 SC 49, 51 SC 48, 70 SC ___ Shape moderate moderate to robust slender slender SVL 41 -51 49 -59 43 -55 43 -55 LH/RE 1.79- 1.87 1.77- 1.89 1.84- 1.91 1.88- 1.94 LH/WH 1.58- 1.62 1.49- 1.58 1.62- 1.72 1.67- 1.71 L/D 1 -2.33 2 - 2,5 1.33- 1.5 1 - 2 H.1000/SVL 6.00- 8.77 8.16-10.01 7.27-11.11 6.98- 7.27 D. 100G/SVL 2.88- 3.70 2.58- 4.08 4.0 - 5.45 3.64- 4.65 L.100Q/SVL 3.66- 7.41 5.17- 9.62 4.65- 7.27 4.65- 7.27 V. 1000 /SVL 9.26-14.81 10.34-13.79 10.91-13.33 9.09- 9.30 G.100q/SVL 1.85- 2.78 2.73- 3.45 1.82- 2.33 2.33- 3.64 scales around midbody 78 -92 76 -88 76 -98 70 -76 supralabials 8 -11 9 -12 7 - 9 8 - 9 scansors 4th toe 10- 15 12 -14 11 -13 12 lamellae 4th finger 18 -22 21 -23 17 -18 18 scansors 4th finger 9 -13 12 -14 9 -10 10 preanal pores 10 -15 8 -16 6 - 9 — 248 TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCAR IENSIS SPECIES GROUP O v. 3 © 2 -a c © O n UJ < H 2 -a £ a ft. © C 5o a o d s t-H OB ■M x OB ’5h x> C/5 © > X) d e© © >. .5 © <3 £ 3 «H O C/5 C „ © X © 5/5 OB^ X _ © .ss 3 13 -3 ’d >> x> C/5 © V, 3 © •3 © 5h -i-> X OB '£ x T? 0) u X OB "O © U< 3 "O >> s i OB .3 d 13 .d | 13 .s I d C/5 t-c o © > C/5 c d © ■*-> d d O d d d 4-* d d d u ^ s a ■M 2 *© .5 g B * Oh -e- © *«5 © © £ .s •d © tH c/5 OX) .3 i © -M u o d 1/5 X J-H r4 1 OB '— i d © 3 d r-< .3 *d 3 -d d 8 a OB ‘E Uh © X © -d X d d d C/5 o s > I d >* O •- e © d ti | 8 S go CJ T3 d © Oh © -of *2 © O r* u m c o » J-h © H-> d d d Ih © +-< ■*-> d O, © d -o r* o C/5 OB .s 6 d C/5 *d C/5 D d X © 1 o d 3 d •d- Oh C/5 X olb d o Uh © 4-> -(-> _© d !/3 13 & d C/5 o © d Oh t-i © h-> t-H Vh c/5 © O /*— v /~v O *d "d d X Oh i-c .2 ‘E © -d s d d d s d o u o d d u 8 d Oh © -t-> "S 3 O X >■" < $ © X 1 n 7 X © ^ X ^ £ ^ C/D o B C/5 £ cH S 1 * d ^ „ © c/5 13 © X >■ Oh d !> c/5 j>» Tl © ‘E © X X £ __ , ca © d _, x © x *d d .2 2 X x d ^ X 4 B > Oh O > C/5 4-H d © 12 «hh r^J <2 © d OB ^ -2 c O d Oh X © © £ t-H x o X 3 £ OB’S « .3 H o d > d © ^ d x d © g c/5 £V X 3T d ^d 249 dark greenish (undefined) versal bars, or ocelli spots b) irregular red brown spots JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL .81 Table 3A Phelsuma longinsulae longinsulae, Frigate Specimen BSRC Geek 36 SC 40 SC 41 SC Variation Sex $ 6 6? 6 . SVL 54 52 41 41 -54 TL “54” 60 “54” 60 SVL TL — 1.15 — 1.15 LH 13.0 13.1 11.0 11.0 -13.1 RE 7.0 7.0 6.0 6.0 - 7.0 NE 5.5 6.4 4.7 4.7 - 6.4 WH 8.1 8.3 6.8 6.8 - 8.3 HH 5.0 5.9 4.4 4.4 - 5.9 LH/RE 1.86 1.87 1.83 1.83- 1.87 LH/NE 2.36 2.05 2.34 2.05- 2.36 LH/WH 1.60 1.58 1.62 1.58- 1.62 LH/HH 2.6 2.22 2.5 2.22- 2.6 WH/HH 1.62 1.41 1.55 1.41- 1.62 NE/HH 1.1 1.08 1.07 1.07- 1.1 gran. : H 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 - 0.4 N | 0.1 0.15 0.1 0.1 - 0.15 D 0.2 0.15 0.15 0.1 - 0.2 L 0.4 0.35 0.15 0.15- 0.4 V 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.4 - 0.6 G 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 L/D 2 2.33 1 1 - 2.33 H. 1000/SVL 7.41 7.69 7.32 7.32- 7.69 N. 1000/ SVL 1.85 2.88 2.44 1.85- 2.88 D. 1000/SVL 3.70 2.88 3.66 2.88- 3.70 L. 1000/SVL 7.41 5.73 3.66 3.66- 7.41 V. 1000/SVL 9.26 11.54 9.76 9.26-11.54 G. 1000/SVL 1.85 1.92 2.44 1.85- 2.44 scales around midbody 92 80 88 80 -92 supralabials r/1 11/10 10/9 8/10 8 -11 sublabials r/1 9 6/7 7 7 - 9 lamellae 4th toe 26 20 22 20 -26 scansors 4th toe 13 10 13 10 -13 lamellae 4th linger - 18 20 18 -20 scansors 4th finger - 9 12 9 -12 preanal pores r/1 15/15 12/10 12/11 p 10 -15/ dered to be a synonym. So far we follow for morphometric data). The specimens with a Cheke’s opinion. In order to determine the definite locality were then lumped together subspecific variation of Phelsuma longinsulae, so that a variation was determined. The data the junior author has drawn up a detailed for the morphometric variation in the four description of each specimen (cf. tables 3-7 islands Frigate, Malie, Silhouette and North — 250 TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP Table 3B Phelsuma longinsulae longinsulae Specimen BSRC Geek 49 SC 51 SC Total variation of subspecies sex $ SVL 57 54 41 -57 TL “59” , “52” 60 SVL/TL - - 1.15 LH 14.0 12.0 11.0 -14.0 RE 7.7 6.7 6.0 - 7.7 NE 6.5 5.6 4.7 - 6.5 WH 8.8 7,5 6.8 - 8.8 HH 6.0 5.5 4.4 - 6.0 LH/RE 1.82 1.79 1.79- 1.87 LH/NE 2.15 2.14 2.0 - 2.36 LH/WH 1.59 1.6 1.58- 1.62 LH/HH 2.33 2.18 2.18- 2.6 WH/HH 1.47 1.36 1.36- 1.62 NE/HH 1.08 1.02 1.02- 1.1 gran.: H 0.5 0.4 -■ - ••••' 0.3 - 0.5 N 0.2 0.1 0.1 - 0.2 D 0.2 0.2 0.1 - 0.2 L 0.25 0.3 0.15- 0.4 V 0.6 0.8 0.4 - 0.8 G 0.1 0.15 0.1 - 0.15 L/D 1.25 1.5 1 -2.33 H. 1000; /SVL 8.77 7.41 6.0-8.77 N. 1000/ SVL 3.51 1.85 1.85- 3.51 D. 1000 /SVL 3.51 3.70 2.88- 3.70 L. 1000 /SVL 4.39 5.56 3.66- 7.41 V. 1000 /SVL 10.53 14.81 9.26-14.81 G.iocqysvL 1.75 2.78 1.75- 2.78 scales around midbody 78 86 78 -92 supralabials r/1 8/9 9 8 -11 sublabials r/1 9/8 7/8 7 - 9 lamellae 4th toe 25 25 20 -26 scansors 4th toe 15 13 10 -15 lamellae 4th finger 21 22 18 -22 scansors 4th finger 10 13 9 -13 preanal pores r/1 14/12 p 13/13 P 10 -15/ as derived from these specimens (including males and females for all islands except North Island) - — are given in a synoptic table (table 9), Then it was determined, into which vari- ation each of the morphometric and pattern data of a given specimen without exact loca- lity data fitted. As the basic variation data were derived from males and females (except those for North Island), a comparison of the uncertain specimen with a specimen of the same sex regularly shows even clearer results of affinity. The process of assessing the sped- 251 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 tendency a) SVL North Silhouette Mahfc Menai Frigate gap^ b) LH/RE North Silhouette Mah& Menai c) LH/WH North Silhouette Mahfe Menai (^Frigate d) H» 1000/S VL North Silhouette Menai Mah£ e) D* 1000/S VL North /\ Silhouette Menai Mah§ f) L» 1000/S VL North Silhouette Frigate Mah£ Menai g) V* 1000/S VL North Silhouette Mah£ Menai h) G * 1000 SVL Frigate Frigate Frigate Frigate Frigate Fig. 1. Character divergence in Phelsuma longinsulae. TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP FIGURE, 1 l) L/b j) scales around midbody North North Silhouette Silhouette 1 I Mahfe Frigate Mahfe > Frigate Menai Menai j It) labials (supralabials) North Silhouette Mahfe Menai gate 1) (lamellae and) scansors 4th toe North Silhouette Mahfe Frigate Menai m) lamellae and scansors 4th finger North Silhouette v Menai Mahfe Frigate n) preanal pores North Silhouette Mahfe Menai Frigate TOTAL MORPHOMETRIC DIVERGENCE (all tendencies and North - Silhouette Mahfe Affinities in gestalt and pattern gaps weighted equally) (, Frigate North., Silhouette • Menai Frigate Fig. 1 (contd.) 253 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Table 4 Phelsuma longinsulae pulchra, Mahe Specimen BSRC Geek 35 SC 38 SC 48 SC 70 SC Variation sex Q T $ $ SVL 5.8 5.9 5.5 4.9 4.9 - 5.9 TL “6.0” “5.9” “3.6” “5.6” — SVL / XL - - — — — LH 14.8 14.0 14.0 12.6 12.6 -14.8 RE 8.0 7.9 7.4 6.8 6.8 - 8.0 NE 6.3 6.4 6.1 5.4 5.4 - 6.3 WH 9.6 9.4 9.0 8.0 8.0 - 9.6 HH 6.2 6.4 6.3 5.0 5.0 - 6.4 LH / RE 1.85 1.77 1.89 1.88 1.77- 1.89 LH/NE 2.35 2.19 2.29 2.33 2.19- 2.35 LH / WH 1.54 1.49 1.56 1 . 575 1.49- 1.58 LH/HH 2.39 2.19 2.22 2.52 2.19- 2.52 WH/HH 1.55 1.47 1.43 1.6 1.43- 1.6 NE/HH 1.02 1 0.97 1.08 0.97- 1.08 gran. : H 0.5 0.5 0.55 0.4 0.4 - 0.55 N 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 - 0.2 D 0.15 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.15-0.2 L 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 - 0.5 V 0.6 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6 - 0.8 G 0.2 0.2 0.15 0.15 0.15- 0.2 L/D 2 2.5 2.5 2 2 - 2.5 H. 1000/ SVL 8.62 9.62 10.01 8.16 8.16-10.01 N. 1000/ SVL ■Tv 72 3.45 3.64 2.04 1.72- 3.64 D . 1 OCCj/SV L 2.58 3.45 3.64 4.08 2.58- 4.08 L. 1000/ SVL 5.17 9.62 9.09 8.16 5.17- 9.62 V. 10OC/SVL 10.34 13.79 12.73 12.24 10.34-13.79 G . 1000 /SVL 3.45 3.45 2.73 3.06 2.73- 3.45 scales around midbody 88 76 80 84 76 -88 supralabials r/1 11/12 10/11 9/11 10 9 -12 sublabials r/1 8 - 1 : 9 ----- =• ' 7 7/8 - - - 7 - 9 lamellae 4th toe 28 22 22 24 22 -28 scansors 4th toe 13 14 12 ■=.: 13 12 -14 lamellae 4th finger 23 22 23 21 21 -23 scansors 4th finger 12 12 14 12 12 -14 preanal pores r/1 some p 8/8 p 14/14 p 16/16 8 -16/ mens of uncertain origin is shown in table 10; only. The data of the specimens which were some specimens could not be assigned to any assessed with certainty are included in a second one population, a .nd consequently their data synoptic table giving the variation data for were included in the total specific variation the different islands. Based on this inductive 254 TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP Table 5 Phelsuma longinsulae umbrae Specimen BSRC Geek Silhouette 32 SC Sihouette 42 SC Frigate or Sihouette 30 SC Variation sex $ $ 2 SVL 50 45 55 45 -55 TL “20” 59 “7 y” 59 SVL/TL - 1.31 - 1 .31 LH 12.4 12.0 12.9 12, .0 -12.9 RE 6.5 6.4 7.0 6, .4 - 7.0 NE 5.1 5.5 5.6 5, .1 - 5.6 WH 7.5 7.4 7.5 7, .4 - 7.5 HH 5.0 5.0 5.4 5, .0 - 5.4 LH/RE 1.91 1.87 1.84 1, ,84- 1.91 LH/NE 2.43 2.18 2.30 2, .18- 2.43 LH/WH 1.65 1.62 1.72 1, .62- 1.72 LH/HH 2.48 2.40 2.39 2. 39- 2.48 WH/HH 1.5 1.48 1.39 1. .39- 1.5 NE/HH / 1.02 1.1 1.04 1. 02- 1.1 gran.: H 0.4 0.5 0.4 0. ,4 - 0.5 N 0.1 0.1 0.2 0. ,1-0.2 D 0.2 0.2 0.3 0. ,2-0.3 L 0.3 0.3 0.4 0. ,3 - 0.4 V 0.6 0.6 0.6 0. 6 G 0.1 0.1 0.1 0. , 1 L/D 1.5 1.5 1.33 1. 33- 1.5 H. 1000/ SVL 8.0 11.11 7.27 7. 27-11.11 N. 1000/ SVL 2.0 2.22 3.64 2. 0 - 3.64 D. 1000/ SVL 4.0 4.44 5.45 4. 0 - 5.45 L. 1000/ SVL 6.0 6.66 7.27 6. 0 - 7.27 V. 1000 /SVL 12.0 13.33 10.91 10. 91-13.33 G. 1000/SVL 2.0 2.22 1.82 1. 82- 2.22 scales around midbody 76 90 98 76 -98 supralabials r/1 9/8 9/7 9/8 7 - 9 sublabials r/1 8 8/7 7/8 7 - 8 lamellae 4th toe 21 23 24 21 -24 scansors 4th toe 11 13 - 12 11 -13 lamellae 4th finger 17 18 18 17 -18 scansors 4th finger 10 9 10 9 -10 preanal pores r/1 9/8 8/6 — 6 - 9 - method, we got the results listed in table 11 and accordingly recognize four subspecies in the Seychelles: Phelsuma longinsulae longinsulae Frigate; tt : Long Island nr. Mahe BSRC Geek 36, 40, 41, 49, 51 SC 255 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Table 6 Phelsuma longinsulae rubra specimen BSRC Geek North 29 SC North, Frigate or Silhouette 50 SC variation Sex 8 $ SVL 55 43 43 — 55 TL 64 “58” 64 SVL/TL 1.16 — 1.16 LH 13.4 11.3 11.3 — 13.4 RE 6.9 6.0 6.0 — 6.9 NE 5.5 4.7 4.7 — 5.5 WH 8.0 6.6 6.6 — 8.0 HH 5.5 4.6 4.6 — 5.5 LH/RE 1.94 1.88 1.88 — 1.94 LH/NE 2.44 2.40 2.40 — 2.44 LH/WH 1.67 1.71 1.67 — 1.71 LH/HH 2.44 2.46 2.44 — 2.46 WH/HH 1.45 1.43 1.43 — 1.45 NE/HH 1 1.02 1 — 1.02 gran. : H 0.4 0.3 0.3 — 0.4 N 0.1 0.1 0.1 D 0.2 0.2 0.2 L 0.4 0.2 0.2 — 0.4 V 0.5 0.4 0.4 — 0.5 G 0.2 0.1 0.1 — 0.2 L/D 2 1 1 — 2 H. 1000/SVL 7.27 6.98 6.98 — 7.27 N. 1000 /SVL 1.82 2.33 1.82 — 2.33 D. 1000/SVL 3.64 4.65 3.64 — 4.65 L. 1000/SVL 7.27 4.65 4.65 — 7.27 V. 1000/SVL 9.09 9.30 9.09 — 9.30 G. 1000/SVL 3.64 2.33 2.33 — 3.64 scales around 70 76 70 — 76 midbody supralabials r/1 8/9 -/* 8 — 9 sublabials r/1 8 7 7 _ 8 lamellae 4th toe ■ — 24 24 scansors 4th toe — ■ 12 12 lamellae 4th finger — 18 18 scansors 4th finger — . 10 10 preanal pores r/1 — ' 256 TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP Phelsuma longinsulae pulchra Mahe, Cousine; tt: Mahe; Cousin for cousineme Rendahl BSRC Geek 35, 38, 48, 70 SC Phelsuma longinsulae umbrae, ssp. nov. tt : Silhouette (d.n.) Holotype : BSRC Geek 42 SC Paratypes : BSRC Geek 32, 30 SC Table 7 Phelsuma longinsulae sspp. (excl. menaiensis ) longinsulae Specimen BSRC Geek or pulchra 45 MC longinsulae or pulchra 31 SC longinsulae or umbrae 44 MC Seychelles 43 MC sex 5 $ $ SVL 55 56 50 54 TL 63 “50” “55” — SVL/TL 1.15 — • — - — LH 13.6 13.0 13.0 — RE 7.7 6.8 7.0 ■ — NE 6.4 5.8 5.7 — WH 9.5 8.0 7.8 — HH 5.8 5.6 5.8 — LH/RE 1.77 1.91 1.86 • — LH/NE 2.12 2.24 2.28 — LH/WH 1.43 1.63 1.7 __ LH/HH 2.34 2.32 2.24 — WH/HH 1.64 1.43 1.34 — NE/HH 1.10 1.04 0.98 — gran. : H 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 N 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 D 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 L 0.2 0. 1-0.4 0.2 0.3 V 0.4 0.8 0.5 0.7 G 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 L/D 1 0. 5-2.0 2 1.5 H. 1000/SVL 5.45 7.14 6.00 5.6 N. 1000/SVL 1.82 1.79 2.00 1.85 D. 1000/SVL 3.63 3.57 2.00 3.7 L. 1000/SVL 3.63 1.79-7.14 4.00 5.6 V. 1000/SVL 7.27 14.29 10.00 12.96 G. 1000/SVL 1.82 1.79 2.00 1.85 scales around midbody 80 80 90 82 supralabials r/1 10 10/9 11/10 — sublabials r/1 8 8/7 8/7 — lamellae 4th toe 30 30 20 21 scansors 4th toe 18 16 11 12 lamellae 4th finger 21 21 17 — scansors 4th finger 12 11 9 - — ■ preanal pores r/1 13/12 14/14 14/13 P 257 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 PheSsiima longinsulae rubra,, ssp. nov. tt : North Island (d.n.: the name hints at the conspicuous pattern) Holotype : BSRC Geek 29 SC Paratype : BSRC Geek 50 SC The types are described morphometrically in tables 5 and 6. Diagnoses are given in table 2. 3. Phelsuma longiusulae menaiensis BSRC Geek 68, 69 SC Cheke (1982) has placed the green Neo phel- suma from Menai, Cosmoledo Atoll, in the Table 8 Phelsuma longinsulae menaiensis, Menai Specimen BSRC Geek 68 SC 69 SC Variation sex 9, 2 eggs 8 SVL 5.8 6.1 5.8 — 6.1 TL “5.6” “7.6” — SVL/TL — — — LH 14.7 15.4 14.7 — 15.4 RE— 8.0 8.5 8.0 — 8.5 NE- 6.4 7.4 6.4 — 7.4 WH 9.0 11.0 9.0 - - 11.0 HH 6.0 8.3 6.0 — 8.3 LH/RE 1.81 1.81 1.81 LH /-NE 2.27 2.08 2.08 — 2.27 LH/WH 1.61 1.4 1.4 — 1.61 LH/HH 2.42 1.86 1.86 — 2.42 WH/HH 1.5 1 . 325 1 . 325— 1.5 NE /HH 1.33 0.89 0.89 — 1.33 gran. : H 0.2 0.4 0.2 — 0.4 N 0.1 0.15 0.1 — 0.15 D 0.3 0.3 0.3 L 0.4 0.6 0.4 — 0.6 V 0.8 0.7 0.7 — 0.8 G 0.15 0.2 0.15 — 0.2 L/D 1.33 2 1.33 — 2 H. 1000 /SVL 3.44 5.56 3.44 — 5.56 N. 1000 /SVL 1.72 2.46 1.72 — 2.46 D. 1000/ SVL 5.17 4.92 4.92 — 5.17 L. 1000/ SVL 6,89 9.84 6.89 — 9.84 V. 1000/SVL 13.79 11.48 11.48 — 13.79 G. 1000 /SVL 2.58 3.28 2.58 — 3.28 scales around midbody 90 88 88 — 90 supralabials r/1 9 8 8 — 9 sublabials r/1 7 8/7 7 — 8 lamellae 4th toe 21 22 21 — 22 scansors 4th toe 13 12 12 — 13 lamellae 4th finger 18 19 18 — 19 scansors 4th finger 11 11 11 preanal pores r/1 11-1-11 15/15 11 — 15/ TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP species longinsulae. Indeed this form is hardly distinguishable from Phelsuma longinsulae pulchra, which occurs on Mahe. In shape it comes most closely to this lizard, as it is simi- larly robust. Its meristic data are given in table 8, from which a marked sexual dimor- phism in head proportions is evident. In life it is dark green with dull red dorsal markings (-1.6 mm v/ide) in three irregular longitudinal rows. Legs and flanks are irregularly mottled. The head shows a a -figure, a dark red stripe from the nostril to the eye, and a spotted temple. Underneath the lizard is whitish, the only marks being a grey semi-circular band on the inframaxillary reaching to the ear and some dark gular spots which may form a second inner semi-circle. 4. Phelsuma chekei, sp. nov. BSRC Geek 36 MC (Holotype), 20 MC, 33 SC (Paratypes) These specimens have been purchased from Mr. H. Meier, who collected them in the close vicinity of Diego Suarez (pers. comm.). We therefore design as type locality : vicinity of Diego Suarez, northern tip of Madagascar; d.n.: The new species is named after Anthony Cheke, a long-time friend of ours. Diagnosis : The diagnostic meristic data are summarized in table 20. The new species is rather robust and stout in shape, comparable to the forms of Menai and Mahe on the one hand and to the even Table 9 Phelsuma longinsulae, variation of specimens with certain locality data only taxon specimens BSRC Geek rubra (1) 29 SC umbrae (2) 32, 42 SC pulchra (4) 35, 38, 48, 70 SC longinsulae (3) 36, 40, 41 SC menaiensis (2) 68, 69 SC SVL 55 45 -50 49 -59 41 -54 58 -61 SVL/TL 1.16 1.16- 1.51 — 1.15 — LH/RE 1.94 1.87- 1.91 1.77- 1.89 1.83- 1.87 1.81 LH/NE 2.44 2.18- 2.43 2.19- 2.35 2.05- 2.36 2.08- 2.27 LH/WH 1.67 1.62- 1.65 1.49- 1.58 1.58- 1.62 1.4 - 1.61 LH/HH 2.44 2.40- 2.48 2.19- 2.52 2.22- 2.6 1.86- 2.42 WH/HH 1.45 1.48- 1.5 1.43- 1.6 1.41- 1.62 1.325-1.5 NE/HH 1 1.02- 1.1 0.97- 1.08 1.07- 1.1 0.89- 1.33 L/D 2 1.5 2 - 2.5 1 -2.33 1.33-2 H.1000/SVL 7.27 8.0 -11.11 8.16-10.01 7.32- 7.69 3.44- 5.56 N.1GQ0/SVL 1.82 2.0 - 2.22 1.72- 3.64 1.85- 2.88 1.72- 2.46 D. 1000/ SVL 3.64 4.0 - 4.44 2.58- 4.08 1.92- 3.70 4.92- 5.17 L.1000/SVL 7.27 6.0 - 6.66 5.17- 5.62 3.66- 7.41 6.89- 9.84 V. 1000 /SVL 9.09 12.0 -13.33 10.34-13.79 9.26-11.54 11.48-13.79 G. 1000/SVL scales around 3.64 2.0 - 3.33 2.73- 3.45 1.85- 2.44 2.58- 3.28 midbody 70 76 -90 76 -88 80 -92 88 -90 supralabials 8/9 7 - 9 9 -12 8 -11 8 - 9 sublabials 8 7 - 8 7 - 9 7 - 9 7 - 8 lamellae 4th toe — 21 -23 22 -28 20 -26 21 -22 scansors 4th toe — 11 -13 12 -14 10 -13 12 -13 lamellae 4th finger — 17 -18 21 -23 18 -20 18 -19 scansors 4th finger — 9 -10 12 -14 9 -12 11 preanal pores — 6 - 9/ 8 -16/ 10 -15/ 11 -15/ 259 2 Phelsuma longinsulae, affinities of specimens without certain locality data JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 ft * O 00 CO $£ £ ft ~ o 00 00 V ° z on o ft ^ . o CO m a © O © ft CO ft IH s £ ft s S t-y' ft" r_ si in ^ in Z 2 P h g g g c ft ft IH a; s S ^ Ph 03 ^ Ph Ph Ph ^ ^ S « S S ft, Ph PP ^ ft 3 ^ ^ 00 3 ^ ^ 3 3 “ 3 a’ o ft Ph r» Ph Ph ^ Ph Ph «n ^ GOOGG^gGCOCO 03 00s G 03 5? ^ S ft ft Ph ft ft ft s s ft ft s a s, a s 3 s CO £ CO CO ^ CO" Z Co" CO Ph S ^ i-tT *n *n Ph *n Ph «n Ph P- i Ph Ph ZtOWCCOCWCflCC c co" CO Ph Ph S PP S PP S S ^ S Ph Ph ~ ~ ft ~ CO 00 G 00 OO CO ft s 3 ft ft ft OO 00 z a CO ft s ft G ft ft ft ft ft g g ft ft ft <0 ft G ft ft s . 0 , ■' ft ft ^ co G G CO OO- Ph ft OO S S ™ 03 G Z Z ft G ft G CO co" G CO > 00 w g P4 z 33 “izlffi 33l§ ft > 00 < M 9. ft' 00 '© o o ^ 14 £ £ ? 3 co co co o o' © o o o © © © 00 '© © © W Z Q ft > O T3 G G O ft r o3 co 0) ^H c$ o (/3 O ft £> g 3 & § S (/) 3 3 © o 4-> 43 4-* 'vl- © cti 3 £ g3 -G 4-> Tf C/3 ft O co s © (/) <3 00 w w .£ X X X c « N 0\ M i/n 4-h t— i c4 ft ft ft ft ft ft s ft s p G s s ft oo" ft s 00 ft s ft ft O CO s ft a* a s ft ft ft G a ft G a s ft G ft s /~N X ro <3 in co" z ft G co" oo" ft 00 s co" s z ft ft s oo" z co" oo" ft G ft G ft X X 'w' X •S So c z ON ft G s a a s a oo" ft G co" S a ft s ft G oo" z ft G a G G s oo" S ft X Tf r-( On ^H t-H CA 0 XI X X OO in OO cn 1— I r— 1 r-H <3 ft. ~c> as ft. X ro X X m XXX cn On Q ft -C3 © G G 40 ’§ > 43 t: O Z © s-> H-» o g jG OO © 4-> cj •SP ’ft Ph © 4-* ctf 00 • H ft 43 t: o 3 © 4-» P— » QJ g £ 00 o3 BO Z 5/2 g ft eg ^ Z? >> Z1 43 •H co © ft are G g ^ g 0 ° o o IH g -2 o © '© 43 cd Q pj & G Cd ft C/5 od S 52 •S-I 4j CC ft .go ft G _o w> co © ft ft © > 260 Table 10 ( Contd .) TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP jg ? U •S S O rn GO Tf U '<0 ^ wo *3! ^ GO c* Ph o Tt S .§ o 4) &0 00 8 8 <§ <§ J J J J J hi >>>>>> H3 QO ^ Jfl ^3 ^ 'S 2 yj. -h +j 2 i: ft ^ ^ ^ ^ & £ d O (9 fl) ^ rt o S -§ g js *3 g 15 8 3 a a a 5 z Ja z ri P > 6 1 1 II I 1 ! : 8 CO CO GO CO GO CO « « K z * a 5'' 2 z £ z *3 g > a's'ffi's'3 e"S ” OoOO Q o O © o o o o o a (Z) o 2 cfl c C oJ a ?> Vh CP < od u 261 pattern Table 10 ( Contd .) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. SI CO "d O fs D co 0*2 ' •>. ^ ^ >o •= C - •? gogo 4-4 o o Q b o cd S ‘5 ^ o -l-J +-> d G cG ,, O J2 o o +-• d !— i Uh 1-H O 'D X! ca x X X c K X >n ^ O o s- d" ' — i i— i C 5 3 O +-> d OXJ ’£ u o 'D G! d 0) ■*-» -l-l a) G o £ • pH GO D -<— > d GO ’G P-, Sh D -M a a 0 b -m d 43 to ° d -S XI o "G o G O .2 cu ^23 o '2 d Gh *E O *G 5 -c £ ■§ •§ .2? J3 8 8 .S’ G 00 X b o d 5^ rf d hb G3 ‘H rb G iS d 2 0-5 >Zgo^PG(oo o ^ ^ d G £ d G .2 "oi on CD S-H & CD > • H +-* O 4) co O 43 *5 G .2 4-* 03 Qh o SG CD c-l OO X Sh d £ O >i o G CD X G CD d O S-H (D ►G d X d> s g OO d G G _ © d § “ w *, w o o 2 . , g ^ S s a 8 z & s n. 262 TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP Table 11 VARIATION OF ALL SPECIMENS taxon specimens BSRC Geek longinsulae (5) 36, 40, 41, 49, 51 SC Seychelles (18) 31 SC, 43, 44, 45 MC menaiensis (2) 68, 69 SC all subspecies (20) all specimens SVL 41 -57 41 -57 58 -61 SVL/TL 1.15 1.15- 1.31 — LH/RE 1.79- 1.87 1.77- 1.94 1.81 LH/NE 2.05- 2,36 2.05- 2.44 2.08- 2.27 LH/WH 1.58- 1.62 1.43- 1.72 1.4 - 1.61 LH/HH 2.18- 2.6 2.18- 2.6 1.86- 2.42 WH/HH 1.36- 1.62 1.34- 1.64 1.325-1 .5 NE/HH 1.02- 1.1 0.97- 1.1 0.89- 1.33 L/D 1 - 2.33 1 -2.5 1.33-2 H. 1000 /SVL 6.00- 8.77 5. 45-11.11 3.44- 5.56 N. 1000/ SVL 1.85- 3.51 1.72- 3.64 1.72- 2.46 D. 1000 /SVL 2.88- 3.70 1.92- 5.45 4.92- 5.17 L. 1000/ SVL 3.66- 7.41 3.63- 9.62 6.89- 9.84 V. 1000 /SVL 9.26-14.81 7.27-14.81 11.48-13.79 G. 1000 /SVL 1.85- 2.78 1.79- 3.64 2.58- 3.28 scales around midbody 78 -92 70 -98 88 -90 supralabials 8 -11 8 -12 8 - 9 sublabials 7 - 9 7 - 9 7 - 8 lamellae 4th toe 20 -26 20 -30 21 -22 scansors 4th toe 10 -15 10 -18 12 -13 lamellae 4th finger 18 -22 17 -23 18 -19 scansors 4th finger 9 -13 9 -14 11 preanal pores 10 -15/ 6 -16/ 11 -15/ taxon rubra (2) umbrae (3) pulchra (4) specimens BSRC Geek 29, 50 SC 32, 42, 30 SC 35, 38, 48, 70 SC SVL 43 -55 43 -55 49 -59 SVL/TL 1.16 1.31 — LH/RE 1.88- 1.94 1.84- 1.91 1.77- 1.89 LH/NE 2.40- 2.44 2.18- 2.43 2.19- 2.35 LH/WPI 1.67- 1.71 1.62- 1.72 1.49- 1.58 LH/HH 2.44- 2.46 2.39- 2.48 2.19- 2.52 WH/HH 1.43- 1.45 1.39- 1.5 1.43- 1.6 NE/HH 1 - 1.02 1.02- 1.1 0.97- 1.08 L/D 1 - 2 1.33- 1.5 2 - 2.5 H. 1000 /SVL 6.98- 7.27 7.27-11.11 8.16-10.01 N. 1000/ SVL 1.82- 2.33 2.0 - 3.64 1.72- 3.64 D.1000/SVL 3.64- 4.65 4.0 - 5.45 2.58- 4.08 L. 1000/ SVL 4.65- 7.27 4.65- 7.27 5.17- 9.67 V. 1000/SVL 9.09- 9.30 10.91-13.33 10.34-13.79 G. 1000 /SVL 2.33- 3.64 1.82- 2.33 2.73- 3.45 263 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Table 11 ( Contd .) scales around midbody 70 -76 76 -98 76 -88 supralabials 8 - 9 7 - 9 9 -12 sublabials 7 - 8 7 - 8 7 - 9 lamellae 4th toe 24 21 -24 22 -28 scansors 4th toe 12 11 -13 12 -14 lamellae 4th finger 18 17 -18 21 -23 scansors 4th finger 10 9 -10 12 -14 preanal pores — 6 -v 8 -16/ stouter form of Assumption (named by Cheke: redbrown or greybrown. Underneath the ani- Phelsuma abbotti sumptio, now considered to be a valid species, see below). The dorsal and lateral scales of body and tail are wide spaced, which is a unique charac- ter of this species. The back is dull green to dull blue (olive-green to blue-green in life), sometimes with a dull red-brown broad verte- bral line or such spots mainly in the verte- bral region. Flanks and legs are brownish with lighter yellowish-brown, rounded spots in a dark grey network. The head has a preocular red semicircle, which continues interocularly; this figure is never V-shaped, but always rounded. On the back of the head there are some irregular, usually transversally enlarged dark redbrown spots. A dark redbrown streak runs from the nostril to the eye and continues behind the eye towards the occiput in a U- shaped figure. A second stripe starts on the second row of postmentals, continues from the inframaxillariae to the posterior labials and to the ear and then forms a second, though interrupted U-figure on the anterior nape. Bet- ween these two dark stripes the temple is whitish. A third similar figure is formed by the inner dark stripe of the anterior throat, but this stripe continues to the side of the neck only and is usually not visible there in life. Usually there is a third dark semicircle on the inner throat. All these gular stripes are ven- trally dark grey and laterally and dorsally dark mal is white, but may be slightly yellowish in the anal and femoral region. The meristic data of the holotype, whose pattern has faded in alcohol, are given in table 12. An earlier description is given by Krefft (1907), cf. also Boettger (1881, part.); Mer- tens (1964, 1966 part.). Published photos referred to this species are found in Mertens (1962, fig.) and Nietzke (1972, fig. 73). All previous authors have included this species under the name Phelsuma abbotti. 5. Phelsuma befotakensis sp nov. BSRC Geek 82 SC (Holotype), 80-81 SC (Paratypes) Type locality and d.n. : Befotaka, Northwest Madagascar (s. of Presqu’ lie Radama, c. half- way between Diego Suarez and Majunga; not the village on Nosy Be!). Diagnosis'. The meristic data are given in table 20. The adhesive pads of the species are not as wide as those of Phelsuma chekei. Ground colour is a bluish green, which in the light phase may turn to a yellowish bright green mid-dorsally and on the sacrum. A dark redbrown stripe runs from the nos- tril through the eye and continues upwards through the temple in order to form the dorso- lateral redbrown stripe on the nape; it con- tinues as a series of elongated spots which 264 TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP Table 12 Phelsama chekei, Diego Suarez specimen BSRC Geek 20 MC 33 MC 36 MC variation sex $ 9 6 — SVL 58 55 60 55 -60 TL “65” 52 74 52 -74 SVL/TL — 0.945 1.23 0.94- 1.23 LH 15.2 13.7 15.4 13.7 -15.4 RE 7.9 7.2 8.6 7.2 - 8.6 NE 7.2 6.2 6.9 6.2 - 7.2 WH 10.5 10.0 11.0 10.0 -11.0 HH 7.2 6.9 6.7 6.7 - 7.2 LH/RE 1.92 1.90 1.79 1.79- 1.92 LH/NE 2.17 2.21 2.23 2.17- 2.23 LH/WH 1.45 1.37 A 1.64 1.37- 1.64 LH/HH 2.17 1.99 2.30 1.99- 2.30 WH/HH 1.46 1.45 1.64 1.45- 1.64 NE/HH 1 0.90 1.03 0.90- 1.03 gran. : H 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 - 0.5 N 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 D 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 L 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5 - 0.7 V 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 G 0.15 0.15 0.1 0.1 - 0.15 L/D 2.33 1.67 1.67 1.67- 2.33 H. 1000/SVL 6.90 9.09 6.67 6.67- 9.09 N.1000/SVL 3.45 2.73 3.33 2.73- 3.45 D. 1000/SVL 5.17 5.45 5 5 - 5.45 L. 1000/SVL 12.06 9.09 8.33 8.33-12.06 V. 1000/SVL 13.79 14.54 13.33 13.33-14.54 G. 1000/SVL 2.59 2.73 1.67 1.67- 2.73 scales around midbody 70 68 72 68 -72 supralabials r/1 7/6 8/7 8/9 6 - 9 sublabials r/1 7 8 7/9 7 - 9 lamellae 4th toe 21 21 23 21 -23 scansors 4th toe 10 11 12 10 -12 lamellae 4th finger 19 19 19 19 scansors 4th finger 10 11 11 10 -11 preanal pores r/1 17/17 — 12/14 p 12 -17 separate dorsum and flanks and which may fade in the light phase. A red vertebral stripe starts on the occiput and continues to the base of the tail. A second smaller redbrown stripe, which joins the dorsolateral stripe on the anterior nape, originates in the outer dark chin stripe and runs through the ear. The in- ner gular stripe is not evident on the sides of the neck. Neck and body show greenish, in the light phase even yellowish rounded spots in 265 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 longitudinal rows: one between the vertebral and the dorsolateral redbrown stripes, another below the dorsolateral stripe on the upper flank and a third indistinct one on the lower flank. In the dark phase the light spots on the upper flank are encircled by irregular dark red spots, which gives the impression of ocelli. The same sort of spots are present on the legs. A conspicuous character is a redbrown pre- frontal stripe from the scales behind the in- tranasal granule all along the fore head; be- fore the eyes it merges with a U-shaped inter- Table 13 Phclsuma befotakensis, Befotaka specimen BSRC Geek 80 SC 81 SC 82 SC variation sex $ $ — SVL 48 44 48 44 -48 TL c. 70 c. 60 — 60 -70 SVL/TL 1.46 1.36 — 1.36- 1.46 LH 13.3 13.6 13.0 13.0 -13.6 RE 7.2 7.5 7.0 7.0 - 7.5 NE 6.1 6.4 6.0 6.0 - 6.4 WH 8.1 8.9 9.8 8.1 - 9.8 HH 6.0 5.8 6.3 5.8 - 6.3 LH/RE 1.85 1.81 1.86 1.81- 1.86 LH/NE 2.18 2.12 2.17 2.12- 2.18 LH/WH 1.35 1.52 1.33 1.33- 1.52 LH/HH 2.22 2.34 2.06 2.06- 2.34 WH/HH 1.35 1.53 1.33 1.33- 1.53 NE/HH 1.02 1.10 0.95 0.95- 1.10 gran. : H 0.4 \ 0.5 0.5 0.4 - 0.5 N 0.15 0.2 0.3 •0.15- 0.3 D 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.3 - 0.4 L 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 V 0.5 0.8 0.75 0.5 - 0.8 G 0.15 0.25 0.15 0.15- 0.25 L/D 1.67 1.25 1.25 1.25- 1.67 H.1000/SVL 8.33 11.36 10.42 8.33-11.36 N. 1000/SVL 3.125 4.54 5.25 3.125-5.25 D.1000/SVL 6.25 9.09 8.33 6.25- 9.09 L. 1000/SVL 10.42 11.36 10.42 10.42-11.36 V. 1000/SVL 10.42 18.18 15.625 10.42-18.18 G. 1000/SVL 3.125 3.41 3.125 3.125-3.41 scales around midbody 78 74 74 74 -78 supralabials r/1 8/7 6/7 9 6 - 9 sublabials r/1 7 7/8 7/6 6 - 8 lamellae 4th toe 20 22 22 20 -22 scansors 4th toe 10 11 13 10 -13 lamellae 4th finger 22 20 18 18 -22 scansors 4th finger 12 10 10 10 -12 preanal pores r/1 15/17 / — 10 10 -17/ 266 TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP Table 14 Variation of Phelsuma sundbergi Praslin (1) specimens BSRC Geek 8 SC F61icit6 (4) 28, 33, 45, 47 SC La Digue (8) 43, 44, 46, 71-74, 27 SC Total (13) SVL 74 54 -67 62 -77 54 -77 SVL/TL 1.19 — 1.27- 1.28 1.19- 1.28 LH/RE 1.84 1.84- 1.96 1.71- 1.93 1.71- 1.96 LH/NE 2.22 2.2 - 2.33 1.95- 2.37 1.95- 2.37 LH/WH 1.47 1.41- 1.6 1.31- 1.61 1.31- 1.61 LH/HH 2.14 2.05- 2.4 2.08- 2.43 2.05- 2.43 WH/HH 1.46 1.41- 1.51 1.37- 1.65 1.37- 1.65 NE/HH 0.96 0.91- 1.09 0.95- 1.39 0.91- 1.39 L/D 1.67 1.67- 2.5 1.13- 2.5 1.13- 2.5 H. 1000 /SVL 13.51 7.4 -10.77 7.58-12.31 7.4 -13.51 N. 1000/ SVL 4.05 1.8-4.24 2.46- 4 1.8 - 4.24 D.1000/SVL 4.05 3.28- 4.48 3.03- 5.38 3.03- 5.38 L. 1000/ SVL 6.76 7.4 - 9.23 5.3 - 8.2 5.3 - 9.23 V. 1000/SVL 13.51 8.26-12.31 9.84-15.38 8.26-15.38 G.1000/SVL scales aroiind 4.05 3.28- 4.48 2.64- 4.8 2.64- 4.8 midbody 88 76 -88 88 -100 76 -100 supralabials 10/11 8 -11 8 -10 8 -11 sublabials 8 7 - 9 7 - 9 7 - 9 lamellae 4th toe 22 23 -29 21 -31 21 -31 scansors 4th toe 11 13 -16 10 -18 10 -18 lamellae 4th finger — 19 -26 19 -25 19 -26 scansors 4th finger 13 11 -16 10 -17 10 -17 preanal pores 13-14 13 -15 10 -16 10 -16 ocular series of spots. A second series of spots forms an opposite U with the tip on the occi- put and the ends on the supraocular scales. Underneath the animal is yellowish white, with a yellowish anal and femoral region. The meristic data of the holotype, which shows the characteristic pattern, are given in table 13. The female paratype (Geek 81 SC) contains two well developed eggs. Earlier references to this species may be included under the name Phelsuma abbolti. 6 . Phelsuma sundbergi This green Neophelsuma species is found on the Praslin Bank of the Seychelles and on Marie Louise of the Amirante Islands (cf. Cheke 1982, in press). It is distinguished from other species by the following characters: Large size (-8 cm SVL), wider snout angle (cf. Cheke 1982) keeled chest scales, and unique pattern: Besides a dark streak from the nostril to the eye there usually is a shaped pre- and interocular figure on the head; the distinct dark red mottling on the posterior dorsum and sacrum consists of small longitudinal spots (-2.0 mm wide), which may have fused trans- versally and longitudinally to form a red net- work; chin and throat may turn yellowish and show an outer dark, eventually broken semi- circle and a few irregular spots in this figure; 267 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81 1 ABLE 15 Phelsuma sundbergi, Felicite specimen BSRC Geek 28 SC 33 SC 45 SC 47 SC variation sex o -t* 6 $ $ SVL 54 65 67 61 54 -67 TL “57” “81” “84” “58” — SVL/TL — — — — — LH 13.4 15.5 16.4 14.7 13.4 -16.4 RE 7.0 8.4 8.8 7.5 7.0 - 8.8 NE 6.0 7.0 7.3 6.3 6.0 - 7.3 WH 8.5 10.6 11.6 9.5 8.5 -11.6 HH 5.5 7.0 8.0 6.3 5.5 - 8.0 LH/RE 1.9 1.84 1.86 1.96 1.84- 1.96 LH/NE 2.2 2.21 2,25 2.33 2.2 - 2.33 LH/WH 1.6 1.46 1.41 1.55 1.41- 1.6 LH/HH 2.4 2.21 2.05 2.33 2.05- 2.4 WH/HH 1.5 1.51 1.41 1.51 1.41- 1.51 NE/HH 1.09 1 0.91 1 0.91- 1.09 gran. : H 0.4 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.4 - 0.7 N 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.25 0.1 - 0.25 D 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 - 0.3 L 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 - 0.6 V 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.5 - 0.8 G 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 - 0.3 L/D 2 2 1.67 2.5 1.67- 2.5 H. 1000 /SVL 7.4 10.77 9.00 9.84 7.4 -10.77 N. 1000/SVL 1.8 3.08 2.99 4.24 1.8 - 4.24 D. 1000 /SVL 3.7 3.69 4.48 3.28 3.28- 4.48 L. 1000/SVL 7.4 9.23 7.46 8.20 7.4 - 9.23 V. 1000/SVL 8.26 12.31 11.94 9.84 8.26-12.31 G. 1000/SVL scales around 3.7 3.69 4.48 3.28 3.28- 4.48 midbody 86 88 82 76 76 -88 supralabials r/1 10/11 10/9 10/8 8/9 8 -11 sublabials r/1 9/8 8/7 9/7 7/8 7 - 9 lamellae 4th toe 23 29 25 26 23 -29 scansors 4th toe 13 16 15 13 13 -16 lamellae 4th finger 23 26 25 19 19 -26 scansors 4th finger 13 16 14 11 11 -16 preanal pores r/1 — 15/15 c, 15/15 p c. 1 3/13 p 13 -15 femoral and anal region may turn yellowish Our specimens. also living ones. were collec- or orange (especially in males). while the usual ted on Praslin, La Digue and Felicite and ventral colour is an indistinct white; legs are show the following geographic variation (for mottled with a slightly darker greyish or brownish green. biometric data see The specimens : tables 14-17): from Praslin are usually 268 TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCAR1ENSIS SPECIES GROUP Table 16 A Phelsuma sundbergi, La Digue specimen BSRC Geek 43 SC 44 SC 46 SC 71 SC 72 SC sex 9 $ 6 $ $ SVL 62 66 77 68 65 TL 79 ‘‘82” “72” “80” “44” SVL/TL 1.27 — — — — LH 15.0 16.6 17.0 16.8 17.0 RE 8.2 9.0 8.8 10.0 9.7 NE 7.6 7.0 7.8 8.1 8.7 WH 9.3 10.5 12.1 11.7 11.0 HH 6.8 7.4 7.9 8.1 7.0 LH/RE 1.83 1.84 1.93 1.68 1.75 LH/NE 1.97 2.37 2.18 2.07 1.95 LH/WH 1.61 1.58 1.40 1.44 1.55 LH/HH 2.21 2.24 2.15 2.1 2.43 WH/HH 1.37 1.42 1.53 1.46 1.57 NE/HH 1.12 0.95 0.99 1.01 1.24 gran. : H 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 N 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.25 D 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.35 L 0.4 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.5 V 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.7 1.0 G 0.25 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 L/D 1.33 2 1.13 1.67 1.43 H. 1000/SVL 9.68 7.58 7.79 10.29 12.31 N. 1000/SVL 3.23 3.03 3.90 2.94 3.85 D. 1000/SVL 4.84 3.03 5.19 4.41 5.38 L. 1000/SVL 6.45 6.06 5.84 7.35 7.69 V. 1000/SVL 11.29 12.12 11.69 10.29 15.38 G. 1000/SVL scales around 4.03 4.54 3.90 2.94 4.62 midbody 96 90 88 92 90 supralabials r/1 10/11 10 9 9/10 10 sublabials r/1 8/9 8/7 8/7 7/8 7 lamellae 4th toe 21 27 23 31 27 scansors 4th toe 10 14 12 18 14 lamellae 4th finger 21 23 19 25 25 scansors 4th finger 11 12 11 17 15 preanal pores r/i — 13/14 10/11 — 16/ larger than those from the other islands. They show a lighter green dorsally, a lighter ventral coloration (white or slight yellowish) and a reduced pattern on the throat with fewer and less distinct markings. On the contrary the specimens from La Digue and Felicite are usually smaller, and show a darker green dorsally, a darker ventral coloration (dark yellow or orange) and a broad dark pattern on the throat. The speci- 269 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Table 16 B Phelsuma sundbergi specimen BSRC Geek La Digue 73 SC La Digue 74 SC La Digue variation La Digue or Felicite 27 SC sex $ $ — $ SVL 61 75 62 -77 63 TL 78 “78” 78 -79 “71” SVL/TL 1.28 — 1.27- 1.28 — LH 16.6 19.9 15.0 -19.9 15.2 RE 9.7 11.5 8.2 -11.5 8.4 NE 7.7 9.5 7.0 - 9.5 7.1 WH 11.4 15.2 9.3 -15.2 9.8 HLI 7.0 9.3 6.8 - 9.3 7.3 LH/RE 1.71 1.73 1.71- 1.93 1.81 LH/NE 2.16 2.09 1.95- 2.37 2.14 LH/WH 1.46 1.31 1.31- 1.61 1.55 LH/HH 2.37 2.14 2.1 - 2.43 2.08 WH/HH 1.63 1.63 1.37- 1.65 1.34 NE/HH 1.39 1.02 0.95- 1.39 0.97 gran. : H 0.5 0.9 0.5 - 0.9 0.6 N 0.15 0.3 0.15- 0.3 0.2 D 0.3 0.4 0.2 - 0.4 0.2 L 0.5 0.6 0.4 - 0.6 0.4 V 0.6 1.0 0.6 - 1.0 0.8 G 0.15 0.3 0.15- 0.3 0.3 L/D 1.67 1.5 1.13- 2.0 2 H. 1000 /SVL 8.20 12 7.58-12.31 9.5 N. 1000 /SVL 2.46 4 2.46- 4 3.2 D. 1000/ SVL 4.92 5.3 3.03- 5.38 3.2 L. 1000/SVL 8.20 8 5.84- 8.2 5.3 V. 1000/ SVL 9.84 13.3 9.84-15.38 12.7 G. 1000/SVL 2.64 4 2.64- 4.62 4.8 scales around midbody 100 98 88 -100 90 supralabials r/1 9 8/9 8 -10 9 sublabials r/1 7 7 7 - 9 9/8 lamellae 4th toe 31 29 21 -31 26 scansors 4th toe 16 16 10 -18 13 lamellae 4th finger 25 19 19 -25 23 scansors 4th finger 15 10 10 -17 13 preanal pores r/1 P — 10 -16/ — mens from La Digue and Felicite do not differ from each other in coloration, but perhaps the specimens from Felicite are smaller on the average than those from La Digue. The two populations may be fairly easily separated by the number of scales around midbody, which is less than 88 for Felicite and more than 88 for La Disue. Bv the number of scales around j 270 TAXONOMY OF THE PHHLSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP Tables 17, 18 P. sundbergi, Praslin P. mad. kochi, Majunga specimen BSRC Geek 8 SC 7 SC sex 8 6' SVL 74 65 TL 80 69 SVL/TL 1.19 1.06 LH 18.2 16.8 RE 9.9 9.5 NE 8.2 8.0 WH 12.4 10.8 HH 8.5 7.4 LH/RE 1.84 1.77 LH/NE 2.22 2.1 LH/WH 1.47 1.56 LH/HH 2.14 2.27 WH/HEI 1.46 1.46 NE/HH 0.96 1.19 gran. : H 1.0 0.6 N 0.3 0.2 D 0.3 0.4 L 0.5 0.4 V 1.0 0.7 G 0.3 0.1 L/D 1.67 1 H. 1000/ SVL 13.51 9.23 N. 1000/SVL 4.05 6.15 D. 1000/ SVL 4.05 6.15 L. 1000/SVL 6.76 7.69 V. 1000/SVL 13.51 10.77 G. 1000/SVL 4.05 1.54 scales around midbody 88 86 supralabials r/1 10/11 10 sublabials r/1 8 8/9 lamellae 4th toe 22 25 scansors 4th toe 11 14 lamellae 4th finger — 20 scansors 4th finger 13 12 preanal pores r/1 — 14/13 midbody, the Praslin animals can be separated neither from the La Digue nor from the Feli- cite animals. At present we do not think it appropriate to distinguish subspecies in Phelsuma sundbergi, and therefore we place the name Phelsuma madagascariensis (sundbergi) ladiguensis Bohme & Meier 1982 into the synonymy of Phelsuma sundbergi (the availability of the name is doubtful in respect of Artt. 5, 6, 10 lit. b, 11 lit. c International Rules for Zoological Nom- enclature; this question is definitely left open). 7 . Phelsuma madagascariensis This species shows considerable variation in its range, as is demonstrated by our specimens (cf. tables 18, 19). They seem to stem from different localities. BSRC Geek 7 SC is from Majunga and must be referred to Phelsuma madagascarien- sis kochi on the basis of its coloration, pattern and biometric data; the same is true for a living specimen. BSRC Geek 8, 13 MC are both Phelsuma madagascariensis grand is. The specimens be- long to the series of several generations bred by the senior author and agree with the vari- ation known for that subspecies. The other alcohol specimens should not be assessed to a subspecies, as we definitely think that the amount of subspecific and intrasub- specific variation is not yet reliably described. These non-assignable specimens are included to give an idea of the specific variation in Phelsuma madagascariensis (ex. kochi). Biogeography and Phylogeny Madagascar is the center of evolution of the genus Phelsuma. It has already been shown, that the subgenus Phelsuma ( Archaeophel - suma ) on the Mascarene Islands consists of old relict forms surviving on the ancient peri- phery of the generic distribution and that the forms of Neophelsuma found outside Madaga- scar are more recent invaders (Burner 1972). As it may be presumed that the rate of evolu- 271 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Table 19 Phelsuma madagascariensis SSPP. (excl. kochi ) specimen BSRC Geek 8 MC 13 MC 53 MC 55 MC 56 MC variation sex semiad., $ ? iuv. $ ? $ — SVL 79 31 102 83 83 31 -102 TL “82” 30 113 “42” 101 30 -113 SVL/TL — 0.97 1.11 — 1.22 0.97- 1.22 LH 21.4 9.6 23.2 21.8 25.5 9.6 -25.5 RE 13.3 5.3 13.6 12.6 14.7 5.3 -14.7 NE 10.7 4.4 11.5 10.6 12.0 4.4 -12.0 WH 14.5 7.2 16.0 17.0 17.8 7.2 -17.8 HH 10.3 4.3 9.6 12.0 12.3 4.3 -12.3 LH/RE 1.61 1.81 1.71 1.73 1.73 1.61- 1.81 LH/NE 2.0 2.18 2.02 2.05 2.13 2.0 - 2.18 LH/WH 1.48 1.33 1.45 1.28 1.43 1.28- 1.48 LH/HH 2.08 2.23 2.41 1.82 2.01 1.82- 2.41 WH/HH 1.41 1.67 1.67 1.42 1.45 1.41- 1.67 NE/HH 1.04 1.02 1.20 0.88 0.98 0.88- 1.20 gran. : H 0.7 — 0.7 0.5 0.8 0.5 - 0.8 N 0.3 — 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.3 - 0.5 D 0.6 — 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.4 - 0.6 L 1.0 — 1.7 1.3 1.0 1.0 - 1.7 V 1.5 — 1.4 0.8 1.0 0.8 - 1.5 G 0.4 — 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.4 - 0.6 L/D 1.67 — 3.40 4.33 2 1.67- 4.33 H. 1000/SVL 8.86 — 6.86 5.02 9.64 5.02- 9.64 N. 1000/SVL 3.80 — 4.90 4.82 6.02 3.80- 6.02 D. 1000/SVL 7.59 — 4.90 3.61 6.02 3.61- 7.59 L. 1000/SVL 12.66 — 16.67 15.66 12.05 12.05-16.67 V. 1000/SVL 20.25 — 13.73 9.64 12.05 9.64-20.25 G. 1000/SVL 5.06 — 5.88 4.82 6.02 4.82- 6.02 scales around midbody 82 supralabials r/1 10 9/8 sublabials r/1 8/7 7 lamellae 4th toe 28 — scansors 4th toe 16 15 lamellae 4th finger 22 24 scansors 4th finger 13 12 preanal pores r/1 — • — tion in the subgenus Neophelsuma and its spe- cies groups is nearly equal throughout the sub- genus, it is possible to conclude that the extent of character deviation in a given taxon proves the duration of its separate evolution. On this 92 86 84 82 -92 7/8 9 9/8 7 -10 8/7 7/8 8 7 - 8 21 18 20 18 -28 17 13 14 13 -17 21 16 23 16 -24 15 11 15 11 -15 15/17 p 16/16 p 21/21 15 -21/ scale the Phelsuma astriata ancestor. a form related to Phelsuma lineata, was the earliest arrival in the Seychelles; Phelsuma astriata is considered to form a species group of its own (Borner 1972). The Phelsuma longinsulae 272 TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP Table 20 Synoptic table of the variation of adult specimens in the Phelsuma madagascariensis species group taxon madagascariensis kochi (1) madagascariensis ssp. (4) (excl. kochi) sundbergi (13) SVL 65 79 -10.2 54 -77 SVL/TL 1.06 1.11- 1.22 1.19- 1.28 LH/RE 1.77 1.61- 1.73 1.71- 1.96 LH./NE 2.1 2.0 - 2.13 1.95- 2.37 LH/WH 1.56 1.28- 1.48 1.31- 1.61 LH/HH 2.27 1.82- 2.41 2.05- 2.43 WH/HH 1.41 1.41- 1.67 1.37- 1.65 NE/HH 1.19 0.88- 1.20 0.91- 1.39 L/D 1 1.67- 4.33 1.13- 2.5 H. 1000/ SVL 9.23 5.02- 9.64 7.4 -13.51 N. 1000 /SVL 6.15 3.80- 6.02 1.8 - 4.24 D. 1000/SVL 6.15 3.61- 7.59 3.03- 5.38 L. 1000/SVL 7.69 12.05-16.67 5.3 - 9.23 V. 1000/SVL 10.77 9.64-20.25 8.26-15.38 G. 1000/SVL 1.54 4.82- 6.02 2.64- 4.8 scales around midbody 86 82 -92 76 -100 supralabials 10 8 -10 8 -11 sublabials 8/9 7 - 8 7 - 9 lamellae 4th toe 25 18 -28 21 -31 scansors 4th toe 14 13 -17 10 -18 lamellae 4th finger 20 16 -23 19 -26 scansors 4th finger 12 11 -15 10 -17 preanal pores — 15 -21/ 10 -16/ ancestors arrived next, the Phelsuma sundbergi ancestor last. Phelsuma sundbergi is closest to Phelsuma madagascariensis kochi; the Praslin population, from which the La Digue and Felicite popu- lations are derived, is hardly distinguishable from Malagasian Phelsuma madagascariensis kochi. The main differences are only the con- dition of the chest scales (usually keeled scales in Phelsuma sundbergi, unkeeled scales in Phel- suma madagascariensis kochi), the length of the tail (long v. short), the flank colour (green v. brownish green with eventual white spots), and the dorsal pattern (smaller elements in vermiculation v. red spots). The other Malagasian forms of Phelsuma madagascariensis (ex. kochi) have intermediary lengths of tails and green flanks like Phelsuma sundbergi. These resemblances seem to be due to a convergent evolution, as there are so many differences between Phelsuma sundbergi and Phelsuma madagascariensis (ex. kochi) : Phelsuma sundbergi is smaller, especially its La Digue and Felicite specimens; its head and scale proportions, especially the L/D ratio, are usually closer to Phelsuma madagascariensis kochi than to Phelsuma madagascariensis ssp.; Phelsuma sundbergi has a yellow orange belly colour, a dark chin pattern and dark red dor- sal pattern elements, being closer to Phelsuma 273 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Table 20 ( Contd .) taxon andamanensis longinsulae spp /. menaiensis chekei befotakensis (3) (18) Seychelles (2) (3) (3) SVL 4? 56 41 <7 64 . -60 44. — __4-q SVL/TL 1.09- 1.40 1.15- 1.31 */ •/ 0.94- - 1.23 1.36- 1.46 LH/RE 1.73- 1.89 1.77- 1.94 1.81 1.79- - 1.92 1.81- 1.86 LH/NE 2.04- 2.15 2.05- 2,44 2.08- 2.27 2.17- - 2.23 2.12- 2.18 LH/WH 1.47- 1.6 1.43- 1.72 1.4 - 1.61 1.37- - 1.64 1.33- 1.53 LHj/HH 2.14- 2.42 2.18- 2.6 1.86- 2.42 1.99- - 2.30 2.06- 2.34 WH/HH 1.42- 1.64 1.34- 1.64 1 . 325-1 . 5 1.45- - 1.46 1.33- 1.53 NE/HH 1.05- 1.10 0.97- 1.1 0.89- 1.33 0.9 - - 1.03 0.95- 1.10 L/D 1 - 2.5 1 - 2.5 1.33-2 1.67- - 2,33 1.25- 1.67 H. 1000/SVL 6.25- 7.14 5.45-11.11 3.44- 5.56 6.67- - 9.09 8.33-11.36 N.iooq/SVL 2.08- 2.69 1.72- 3.64 1.72- 2.46 2.73- 3.45 3.125-5.25 D. 1000/SVL 3.57- 5.21 1.92- 5.45 4.92- 5.17 5 - 5.45 6.25- 9.09 L.iooq/SVL 4. 76- 8.93 3.63- 9.62 6.89- 9.84 8.33- -12.06 10.42-11.36 V. 1000/SVL 11.46-12.5 7.27-14.81 11.48-13.79 13.33 -14.54 10.42-18.13 G. 1000/SVL 2.08- 6.25 1.79- 3.64 2.58- 3.28 1.67 - 2.73 3.125-3.41 scales around midbody 80 - 90 70 -98 88 -90 68 -72 74 -78 supralabials 9 - 11 8 -12 8 - 9 6 - 9 6 - 9 sublabials 8 - 10 7 - 9 7 - 8 7 - 9 6 - 8 lamellae 4th toe 21 - ■24 20 -30 21 -22 21 -23 20 -22 scansors 4th toe 10 - 15 10 -18 12 -13 10 -12 10 -13 lamellae 4th finger 18 - ■22 17 -23 18 -19 19 18 -22 scansors 4th finger 10 - -14 9 -14 11 10 -11 10 -12 preanal pores 13 - 16/ 6 -16/ 11 -15/ 12 -17/ 10 -17/ madagascari ensis kochi than to Phelsuma be considered as the most primitive member of madagascariensis ssp. in these elements, too. the subgroup of large (6 cm SVL +) green Finally, the pattern on the temple, which is a forms, whose reduced dorsal patterns show continuation of the chin and throat pattern, is almost as pronounced in Phelsuma sundbergi as in Phelsuma madagascariensis kochi, while it is much less distinct (faded or reddish in- stead of grey /black) or even lacking in the Phelsuma madagascariensis ssp. Because of its smaller size, its dark spotted flanks, dark (even bluish) green dorsal colour and brick red pattern elements, its yellow anal region, its chin pattern, its short tail and short snout, and its scarcely enlarged laterals (L/D ratio), Phelsuma madagascariensis kochi should transversal tendencies, the Phelsuma madagas- cariensis subgroup. These above-mentioned characters of Phel- suma madagascariensis kochi are usually even more pronounced in the subgroup of small (-6 cm SVL) dark forms, whose extent dorsal patterns show longitudinal tendencies, the Phelsuma abbotti subgroup. Therefore, Phelsuma madagascariensis kochi represents a phenotype derived from the taxon constituting the linkage between the two sub- groups. Phelsuma madagascariensis kochi may 274 TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP weil represent a species of its own, but the final evaluation of its status must be the result of an extensive study of the total variation of Phelsuma madagascariensis in Madagascar. Phelsuma madagascariensis (ex. kochi) and Phelsuma sundbergi reflect a parallel evolution from that ancestor in tail length, snout length, differentiation of laterals from dorsals and flank colour, and in the yellow factor (which brightens colour and pattern on the dorsum) though achieving different degrees of evolution in these characters. These two species reflect a divergent evolution from the ancestor in SVL (tendency towards a smaller size in Phelsuma sundbergi and towards a larger size in Phel- suma madagascariensis ) and ventral colour and pattern (pronounced chin pattern and pro- nounced anal coloration in Phelsuma madagas- cariensis) . The phylogeny of the Phelsuma abbotti sub- group is even more complicated, but it is re- vealed by the character divergence of the forms, their geographic location and contemporary thinking on probabilities and chances of dis- persal. In our opinion the clue to the phylo- geny are the forms occurring on the Sey- chelles. On the outer islands North and Silhouette and to a lesser extent on Frigate there are slen- der small geckos (c. 5 cm SVL) with a long head, a smooth transition from the small dor- sals to the slightly enlarged laterals (L/D = c. 1-2) and few differentiated scales (labials, scansors, preanal pores). These characters are shared by the northwest Malagasian Phelsuma befotakensis as well as by Phelsuma v -nigra (including Phelsuma robertmertensi) from the Comoro Islands and also by Phelsuma abbotti from Aldabra. These forms primarily differ in their dorsal body pattern: The forms from North and Silhouette Islands ( Phelsuma longinsulae rubra resp. umbrae) and to a certain extent those from Frigate ( Phelsuma longinsulae longinsulae) are bright green dorsally and have bright red dorsal marks. The forms from the Comoro Islands and Phelsuma befotakensis may assume a simi- lar dorsal coloration, but usually show a bluish hue or are distinctly bluish. In this dark phase, the dorsal pattern is dark redbrown and the flanks may be dark grey-blue. The dorsal and lateral ocelli of Phelsuma befotakensis are greyish in the dark phase and yellowish in the light phase. This survey of the dorsal colours demons- trates that the Malagasian Phelsuma befota- kensis here retains the most primitive trait. Its ancestor gave rise to the Comoro forms, which are quite close : The yellow ocelli (which are arranged in longitudinal rows and which partly may fuse to form stripes, especially a vertebral stripe) formed the red pattern, while the tendency to a predominantly bluish ground colour persisted. The forms from the outer Seychelles are more advanced, as they intensi- fied the yellow tendency of the ground colour. The yellow ocelli of Phelsuma befotakensis turned red, this state of evolution being de- monstrated by the geckos from North Island, the most outlying island; a similar evolution took place in the Comoro Islands. In a second stage of evolution the red markings have been reduced, as they are very conspicuous in foliage dwelling forms (cf. Borner 1980). This tendency is demonstrated by the forms occur- ring on North Island, Silhouette and Frigate; even their ontogeny shows the reduction of red pattern: When a specimen of these forms grows older, the red pattern concentrates on the mid-dorsum and sacrum. The present day Phelsuma befotakensis also shows a modem trait, as its laterals (L/D ratio) are now en- larged a little more than those of the peripheral forms on the Comoro Islands and northern 275 3 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Seychelles, a fact con firming the idea that the evolution is fastest in the center and slowest on the periphery of the range of the taxon. Phelsuma abbotti from Aldabra Island is also considered to belong to this group. This latter species shows dark red dorsal markings on a dull greyish green or bluish grey dorsum and dark brown, nearly blackish flanks mottled with white spots; it has no ocelli on the flanks like Phelsuma chekei. This dark pattern serves to camouflage the trunk-base-dwelling gecko, of which Honegger reports that it lives some- times in close association with the giant turtles, even taking refuge under their carapaces (cf. Blanc 1972, 591 referring to Phelsuma barbouri as a secondary ground dweller; the junior author has observed in Mauritius that Phel- suma o. ornata frequents the ground, too). So two explanations for this dark pattern are possible: a) Either it represents a persisting trait of the ancestor to Phelsuma befotakensis ; then the ancestor presumably had a darker colora- tion than Phelsuma befotakensis , which acquired its more bluish coloration and its capacity to show a “light”, yellow phase after the colonization of Aldabra Island. or b) Phelsuma abbotti underwent a selection according to the specific conditions pre- vailing on Aldabra Island, and this selec- tion has favoured a gecko “in its darkest phase”. In our opinion none of these possible theo- ries may be excluded, and both apply to ex- plain the current situation: Phelsuma abbotti is an early off-shoot of the dark Phelsuma befotakensis ancestor, and subsequent selection favoured an even darker gecko. This theory is much more probable than the construction of an affinity with Phelsuma chekei. Both forms share only their dark colour, but they differ in proportions, scalation, and position of ocel- li, which are characters of much greater con- sistency in island forms; Phelsuma chekei has ocelli on the flanks, but not Phelsuma abbotti (even true for juveniles), and Phelsuma chekei lacks any dorsal ocelli that may be related to the dark red ones of Phelsuma abbotti; juveniles of Phelsuma abbotti show a green dorsum earlier than those of Phelsuma chekei. Moreover, Phelsuma abbotti and Phelsuma befotakensis share the basic pattern (including the U-shaped stripe on the neck, the vertebral stripe, and the position of the ocelli, which are darker in Phelsuma abbotti). The second assemblage in the Phelsuma abbotti subgroup is constituted by the large robust geckos (approx. 6 cm SVL) with a shorter head, a more abrupt transition from the small dorsals to the enlarged laterals (L/D: 1.5 -2.5) and more differentiated scales (labials, scansors, preanal pores). These forms are found in North Madagascar ( Phelsuma chekei ), on Assumption Island ( Phelsuma sumptio ), on Menai Island, Cosmoledo Atoll {Phelsuma longinsulae menaiensis) and on Mahe, Seychelles {Phelsuma longinsulae pulchra) . They differ from each other mainly in dor- sal coloration and pattern. Phelsuma chekei has a greyish blue dorsum with dark red markings which may turn almost black in the dark phase, and a greyish pattern on the flanks. Phelsuma sumptio has a more bluish dorsum with faded dark red marks, the same vertebral stripe, and a reduced obscure mottling on the flanks; this may be described as “a concolorous type of Phelsuma chekei But both forms differ in their ventral colora- tion (slightly yellowish in Phelsuma chekei, distinctly yellow or even orange in Phelsuma sumptio). 276 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 BOrner & Minuth: Phelsuma madagascariensis species group Plate *«»% '*»“*_• Above: P. abbotti\ Aldabara Island. (Photo: P. Niedzwicki). Below: P. sumptio\ Assumption Island. (Photo: A.S. Cheke) V ■ A TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCAR1ENSIS SPECIES GROUP Table 21 Labials P. sund- bergi P. mada- gascari- ensis P. chekei P. befo- takensis P. longinsulae P. 1. menaiensis P. andamanensis Supralabials 6 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 7 0 1 2 2 1 0 0 8 3 3 2 1 6 2 2 9 10 4 1 2 10 2 3 10 10 4 0 0 6 0 1 11 3 0 0 0 10 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 mean 9.5 8.9 7.5 7.7 9.5 8.5 8.8 Sublabials 6 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 7 12 5 3 4 13 3 0 8 10 5 2 1 15 1 2 9 4 1 1 0 5 0 3 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 mean difference 6.7 7.5 7.7 7.0 7.7 7.3 8.8 between means 2.8 1.4 -0.2 0.7 1.8 1.2 0 Phelsuma longinsulae menaiensis and Phel- suma longinsulae pulchra are dull green dor- sally and may show a bluish hue; their dorsal pattern is dull red. While Phelsuma longinsulae menaiensis usually shows some sort of dark and light flank mottling, this is usually lacking in Phelsuma longinsulae pulchra. Both forms also differ meristically. Phelsuma longinsulae longinsulae is truly intermediate between the Mahe form pulchra and the northern forms umbrae and rubra. This situation is best explained by secondary inter- gradation: First the Phelsuma befotakensis — derivate arrived on the Seychelles and colonized all islands. Later in a second invasion the Phelsuma chekei — derivate arrived on Mahe where it interbred with the earlier arrivals. Some Phelsuma chekei — derivates or — more probably — some Mahe lizards of the com- bined type came to Frigate and influenced that gene-pool. The bright green colour and the intensive red markings stemming from the Phelsuma befotakensis- derivates turned duller under the influence of the bluish/black-red trend inherited from the Phelsuma chekei- derivates. The slender proportions of the early invaders turned more robust, and the primitive undifferentiated scalation of the early invaders turned to a more advanced state under the influence of the later arrivals. Therefore, the Mahe lizards now show characters intermedi- ate between those of the forms from the north- ern islands and those of northern Malagasy, and the Frigate form is intermediary in the even smaller gap between the Mahe geckos and those from the northern islands. That a simi- lar intergradation took place on tiny Menai Island is very improbable. We think it more probable that Menai was colonised by the new type from Mahe. This theory would be in 277 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 line with the close relation between the Mahe lizards and the Menai ones, with the fact that the Menai gecko shows an advanced scalation in comparison to the (parental) Mahe gecko and with the parallel case observed in Phel- suma astriata : Phelsuma astriata is found on the Seychelles and — in a derived form — on the tiny Astove Island (close to Menai Island), the latter form lacking a close relative on Madagascar. This theory of two invasions of the Indian Ocean, meeting finally in the Seychelles, is in line with the evaluation of the two parental mainland forms Phelsuma befotakensis, and Phelsuma chekei as species. In fact the basic structure of their patterns and their bluish dor- sal ground colour (in Phelsuma befotakensis in the dark phase only) could be arguments for conspecificity, but on the other hand there are great differences in proportions, scalation and actual coloration and pattern, and these differences are more pronounced than those usually found in any two sibling species of a species group of this genus. Furthermore, our theory would explain the existence of the two pheno-types in the Phelsuma abbotti -subgroup. This taxonomic assessment is in accordance with the species concept outlined by the junior author (Borner 1976/1982). Another problem not yet discussed is the relation of Phelsuma andamanensis. Its posi- tion in the Phelsuma madagascariensis species group (Loveridge 1942, Mertens, Blanc 1972) has never been doubted. Its biometric data and the quality of its coloration and pattern clearly belong to the variation shown by the other forms of this species group, but Phelsuma andamanensis differs from all other members of the species group by the lack of enlarged postmentals. Phelsuma andamanensis does not belong to the Phelsuma madagascariensis subgroup. Though its biometric data usually are in conformity with those of Phelsuma sundbergi and though especially the forms from La Digue and Feli- cite are similar in size and in ventral colora- tion, Phelsuma andamanensis lacks the wide head angle and the keeled chest scales of that species. The keeled chest scales are considered an advanced character and should therefore be present in a derived form, as should be the distinctive head angle. Phelsuma madagascari- ensis differs by size, shape and scalation (ad- vanced state of laterals and preanal pores in Phelsuma madagascariensis). Both, Phelsuma sundbergi and Phelsuma madagascariensis (inch kochi) tend to reduce the red pattern to the sacral region, and both (ex. kochi) show red patterns v/ith a distinct tendency to- wards a transversal arrangement. In contrast to these tendencies Phelsuma andamanensis has a red neck pattern and an irregularly longi- tudinally arranged pattern on the posterior dorsum. Phelsuma andamanensis is closer to the Phelsuma abbotti subgroup, in which the longitudinally arranged dorsal pattern prevails. Within this subgroup, Phelsuma andamanensis is nearest to the forms occurring on the islands Silhouette, North and Frigate. Phelsuma anda- manensis seems to originate from the first Sey- chelles invader: The ancestor species of Phel- suma befotakensis increased its size, the num- ber of scales (except preanal pores, see be- low), and the yellow factor in the ground colour and pattern. The conspicuous neck stripes of Phelsuma andamanensis are simi- larly pronounced in the types of the North Island form ( Phelsuma longinsulae rubra) where they are part of the longitudinally fused rows of red blotches, and they may some- times be seen in other Seychelles specimens as well. The back pattern of Phelsuma andama- nensis (except the neck stripes) is very similar 278 TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA M AD AG ASCAKIENSIS SPECIES GROUP P, anriamaneneis COMMON ANCESTOR Fig. 2. Phylogenetic tree. to that of the Silhouette form. The facts that in contrast to these Seychelles forms Phelsuma andamanensis has a more yellowish vent, con- tains concolorous specimens and has no re- duced number of preanal pores, may be ex- plained by the long isolation of Phelsuma andamanensis : It originated from an ancestor of the Seychelles forms of nowadays, and it underwent a separate evolution in a closed gene-pool during its isolation on the Andaman Islands. Phelsuma chekei has a shorter tail, a stouter, more robust shape, a shorter fore head, and a coarser scutellation (except the gulars) than Phelsuma andamanensis. Furthermore, Phel- suma chekei differs by its prominent blue factor in colour and pattern and its different chin and lateral head pattern. Phelsuma chekei is a more recent invader of the Indian Ocean; before it spread to the Seychelles it would have had to travel more than 5600 km NE from the north tip of Madagascar to the Andaman Is- 279 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 lands, whereas the early Seychelles colonizer had to cross only 4500 km ENE, favoured by an ocean current in the same direction. The theory of the phylogeny of the Phel- suma madagascariensis species group developed in this discussion is reflected by the phylo- genetic tree shown in Figure 2. Phelsuma parkeri from Pemba is not as- sessed here. Its uniform green dorsal colora- tion and its immaculate white colour under- neath as well as its rather large size (-7.0 cm SVL) are arguments for placing it in the Phel- suma madagascariensis subgroup. Its pholidosis, as far as it is reported, lies within the variation of the subgroup. In general, its shape seems to be quite similar to that of Phelsuma sundbergi from the outer islands. A relation to Phelsuma befotakensis and the Comoro species seems to be not so probable, as Phelsuma parkeri shows no tendency to an ocellated pattern with red and is too large. Phelsuma chekei and related forms have the primitive chin pattern, of which Phelsuma parkeri shows no trace. Acknowledgements We should like to thank the contributors of specimens, partly evident from the list of museum specimens, and to extend our thanks to the numerous friends, who kindly furnished living specimens, photos, data, and the oppor- tunities for fruitful discussions. Among these helpers, who are to numerous to mention, Refer Blanc, C. P. (1972) : Les reptiles de Madagascar et des iles voisines in: Battistini, R. & G. Richard- Vindard (eds) : Biogeography and Ecology of Madagascar; The Hague (W. Junk), pp. 501-611. Bqettger, O. (1980-81) : Die Reptilien und Amphi- bien von Madagaskar, 3. Nachtrag Abh. Senckenb. Naturf. Ges. 12: 435-558. (1881): Reliquiae Rutenbergianae Mrs. Eva Minuth, Ms. Brigitte Schiittler, and Mr. Anthony S. Cheke deserve special grati- tude. Additional remarks Cheke (in litt. 1983) has drawn our atten- tion to the fact that due to an unfortunate muddling of the labels during shipment the locality data of his specimens from the Sey- chelles are not sufficiently reliable to base new names on them. Of course, our method of assessing the specimens implies a certain uni- formity of characters in each island population. Nevertheless, some of his specimens have good data, and there is some reason in our method, so that we maintain our opinion. Cheke (in litt. 1983) does not follow our opinion to separate Phelsuma longinsulae rubra from Phelsuma longinsulae longinsulae, as he sees no difference between these forms. He has kindly sent us field drawings of two hatchlings, which differ in juvenile coloration: The hatchling from North Island (our subspecies rubra) shows three (reddish) stripes on the dorsum (except anterior dorsum where only the vertebral stripe is continued), while the hatchling from Frigate (our subspecies longin- sulae) lacks the dorsolateral stripes and in- stead shows an accumulation of small red spots on the posterior dorsum. Further obser- vations will show, whether this difference is due to individual variation. ENCES II: Reptilien und Amphibien. Abh. naturwiss. Ver. Bremen 7: 177-190. (1913) : Reptilien und Amphibien von Madagaskar, den Inseln und dem Festland Osta- frikas (Sammlung Voeltzkcnv 1889-1895 u. 1903- 1905). In : Voeltzkow, A. 1908-1917, Reise in Osta- frika, Stuttgart, vol. 3. pp. 269-376. Bohme, W. & Meier, H. (1982) : Eine neue Form 280 TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP der m ad agascari ensi s-G rapp e der Gattung Phelsuma von den Seychelles (Reptilia: Sauria: Geckonidae). Salamandra 17, 1-2; 12-19. Borner, A. — R. (1972): Revision der Geckoni- dengattung Phelsuma Gray 1825. Saurol. (Cologne) 7: 145. (1976) : Le probleme d'espece et son importance dans la classification des Sauriens (Reptilia: Sauria). Bull. Soc. Zool. France 100(4): 616-611. — (1980): A new species of the Phelsuma lineata group. Misc. An. Saurol. 6: 19. (1982): Der Artbegriff und seine Bedeutung flir die Klassifkation der Echsen (Repti- lia: Sauria). Acta biotheoretica 57:69-88. Boulenger, G. A. (1885): Catalogue of the lizards in the British Museum (Natural History), vol. 1. London (Taylor & Francis). (1911): List of the batra- chians and reptiles obtained by Prof. Stanley Gardi- ner on his second expedition to the Seychelles and Aldabra. Transact. Linn. Soc. London, Zool., (2) 14: 375-378. Cheke, A. S. (1982) : Day geckos (Phelsuma) in the Seychelles and neighbouring islands, a reap- praisal of their taxonomy and description of a new form from Assumption. Senckenb. biol. 62. 4-6:181- 195, 11 figs. (in press) : The biogeography and eco- logy of lizards in the Seychelles Islands. The Hague (W. Junk). Krefft, P. (1909): Ostafrikanische Reisebriefe II. Bl. Aquar. Terror. Kdc., Stuttgart, 20: 485-488. (1911): Ostafrikanische Reisebriefe V. Bl. Aquar. Terror. Kde., Stuttgart, 21: 427-430. 440- 446, 460-462. Loveridge, A. (1942): Revision of the Afro- Oriental geckos of the genus Phelsuma. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 89: 439-482. Meier, H. (1980): Zur Taxonomie und Okologie der Gattung Phelsuma (Reptilia, Sauria, Geckoni- dae) auf den Komoren, mit Beschreibung einer neuen Art. Bonn. Zool. Beitr. 31: 323-332. (1981) : Phelsuma robertmertensi, ein neuer Taggecko. Herpetofauna 1981: 6-8. Mertens, R. (1954): Studien fiber die Reptilien- fauna Madagaskars II. Eine neue Rasse von Phel- suma madagascariensis. Senckenb. biol. 35, 1-2: 13- lb. (1962) : Die bisher lebend einge- ffihrten Taggeckos der Gattung Phelsuma. Aquar. Terror. Z. 15: 148-153. (1962) : Die Alien und Unterarten der Geckonengattung Phelsuma. Senckenb. biol. 43, 2:81-127. (1964) : Fiinf neue Rassen der Geckonengattung Phelsuma. Senckenb. biol. 45(2) : 99-112. (1966): Die nicht-madegassischen Alien und Unterarten der Geckonengattung Phel- suma. Senckenb. biol. 47(2): 85-110. (1970) : Neues fiber einige Taxa der Geckonengattung Phelsuma. Senckenb. biol. 51, 1-2: 1-13. Nietzke, G. (1972): Die Terrarientiere, Bd. 2. Stuttgart 1972 (E. Ulmer) 300 pp. Rendahl, H. (1939) : Zur Herpetologie der Sey- chellen I. Rcptilien. Zool. Yb. Syst. 72: 255-328. Smith, M. A. (1935) : The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphi- bia, vol. II Sauria. London, 440 pp. Stejneger, L. (1893): On some collections of reptiles and batrachians from East Africa and the adjacent islands, recently received from Dr. W. L. Abbott and Mr. Williams Aster Chanler, with des- criptions of new species. Proc. US Nat. Mus. 16: 711-741. Whitaker, R. & Z. (1981) : Notes on Phelsuma andamanensis, the Andaman day gecko or green gecko. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 497-499. 281 AGASTYAMALAI AND ITS ENVIRONS : A POTENTIAL AREA FOR A BIOSPHERE RESERVE1 A. N. Henry, M. Chandrabose, M. S. SWAMINATHAN AND N. C. NAIR2 {With a text-figure) Agastyamalai, a towering peak of 1868 m in the tail-end of the Western Ghats and the adjoining forests in Tirunelveli and Kanniyakumari district of Tamil Nadu, and Trivandrum district of Kerala, covering a total area of about 2000 sq. km. and skirting the peak, form the most diverse and unknown ecosystem in Peninsular India. This area has substantial natural vegetation cover ranging from Scrub forests to Wet evergreen (rain forest) formations. Since Tropical rain forest is entering a period of rapid decline as a world natural resource, Agastyamalai must be regarded as a prime example of this ecosystem in Southern India. Further, the complexity and diversity of flora make it an ideal genepool sanctuary. This area also harbours a number of endemic species of plants that are unique to Peninsular India. In terms of uniqueness, number of endemics, endangered species, floral and faunal representa- tions and the ease of protection, this pocket is an ideal choice for a biosphere reserve. Introduction The attempt to set up a world-wide network of biosphere reserves is a new and important initiative undertaken by the UN- sponsored ‘Man and Biosphere’ Programme to provide an assured future for mankind. The emphasis of the programme is on the relationship bet- ween man and nature. To be successful, it must preserve areas of undisturbed nature as genetic reservoirs and as standards against which change outside can be measured and judged. So far 40 nations have set apart 161 such reserves. In India, the Advisory Com- mittee of the ‘Man and Biosphere’ Programme, has identified so far twelve biosphere reserves and has decided to set up two of these, namely the Nilgiri and the Namdapha in the first in- 1 Accepted March 1982. 2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003. stance. This paper highlights the potentiality of another site in southern India namely “Agastyamalai and its environs” which would best fulfil the objectives of a biosphere reserve. “The Western Ghats or Sahyadris and the West Coast sub-region” (also classified as “The Malabar Rain Forest Province”) is per- haps the richest biogeographic province of the Indian subcontinent. The forest tracts of Agastyamalai and its environs including Mun- danthurai, Kalakad, Mahendragiri, Muthuku- zhivayal and Neyyar which are situated at the southern end of the Western Ghats still retain substantial natural vegetation cover. The vegetation occurs in large continuous tracts above 800 m, forming probably the finest re- maining example of tropical wet evergreen forest (rain forest) in the Western Ghats. The field studies conducted in this region by the Botanical Survey of India and other agencies have revealed that all the essential criteria for 282 AGASTYAMALAI AND ITS ENVIRONS & £ < a o D.J 0- 3 r < < < cx. < (X Of < X f- D £ z £ CS3 J < > < > X N D 3 X P P 3 < J < V 0£ LU H- uj i — J- < < <5 z LU z z < % Z 0) ^ cq ro o < UJ P < J c z < >. 1“ LD C <5 < u < V/ < c£ <5 < P Q Z LU X < £ < V G X P Z < e* z 3 £ < V < U _j >. < uJ c? fP ^ ufi v£> _bij E 283 . Map showing the proposed area for the biosphere. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 8! the choice of a biosphere reserve (UNESCO 1974) could be envisaged in these natural forests. I. Location : The total area proposed for the biosphere reserve is approximately 2000 sq. km. and falls within the hilly tracts of Tiru- nelveli and Kanniyakumari districts of Tamil Nadu and Trivandrum district of Kerala, lying between 77° 5' and 77° 40'E, and 8° 20' and 8° 50' N. (Fig. 1). The entire forest area is hilly, characterised by numerous folds and ex- tensions engulfing small, narrow valleys. The altitude varies from 67 m to 1868 m. The coni- cal Agastyamalai peak, locally known as “Pothikaimudi” and “AgasthiyarkudanT’ (1868 m) is the highest peak of the range. These hills form a very compact block comprising Papanasam R. F., Singampatti R. F., Kala- kadu R. F., Kottur R. F., Kottur extension R. F., Mahendragiri R. F., Kalamalai R. F., Veerapuli R. F., Nattukkaltheri R. F. and Ashamboo R. F. This region is drained by several small perennial streams which join to form major river systems such as Tambara- parani, Nevyar, Karamanayar and Kodayar. The South-West monsoon from June-Septem- ber, and North-East monsoon in October and November bring rain to this region, and the annual rainfall varies at different places from 89 cm to 625 . 7 cm. The hottest months of the year are April and May and the cold season prevails from Dec- ember to February. The temperature varies between 21 °C and 38°C. The soils at low elevations consist of red ferruginous sandy loam of very little depth, with loose boulders. On hill slopes which are subjected to heavy wash the soil has a charac- teristic yellow or red colour. Over the crest and along the higher slopes of the hills where the erosion is excessive, the ground is rocky with the soil shallow and hard. In the wet evergreen forests, there is a rich collection of humus. II. Vegetation : Since the ecosystem diver- sity is quite high, almost all vegetation types known from the Western Ghats occur in this region depending on the altitudinal zonation, such as Southern tropical thorn forest. Southern tropical dry deciduous forest. Grass- lands at low altitudes. Southern tropical moist deciduous forest. Southern tropical wet ever- green forest. Subtropical montane forest and Grassy swards at high altitudes. i. Southern tropical thorn forest : This type can be seen at an altitude of about 200 m and occurs around Papanasam, Kalakadu, Tiruku- rangudi, etc. In these scrub jungles trees like Acacia chundra (Roxb.) Willd., A. horrida (L.) Willd., A. planifrons Wight & Arn., Euphorbia antiquorum L., Zizyphus oenoplia (L.) Mill, and Z. xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. are common. Amidst these trees, shrubs such as Carissa car and as L., Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn., Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq., Securinega leucopyrus (Willd.) Muell.- Arg. and S. virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Pax & Hoffm. are frequently met with. The climbers are represented by Abrus precatorius L., Cissus quadrangular is L., Jasminum calophyllum Wall., Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merrill, etc. ii. Southern tropical dry deciduous forest : These forests occur at an altitude of about 350 m and are located in Kalakadu R. F., Papa- nasam R. F., Singampatti R. F. and Kottur R. F. The dominant trees in this type are Adina cordi folia (Roxb.) Hook. f. ex Brandis, Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb.) Bedd., Dillenia pentagyna Roxb., Pterocarpus marsupium R.oxh., Semecarpus anacardium L.f. and Ter- minalia chebula (Gaertn.) Retz. Shrubs like Acacia pennata (L.) Willd., Chassalia ophio- xyloides (Roxb.) Craib, Desmodium triangu- lare (R.etz.) Merr. var. congestion (Wight & AGASTYAMALAI AND ITS ENVIRONS Arn.) Sant, and Phyllanthus polyphyllus Willd. are found frequently. Some of the herbaceous species such as Desmodium trijlorum (L.) DC., Indigofera prostrata Willd., Oryza granulata (Nees) Arn. ex Steud. and RostelluJaria pumila Nees are common. Along rocky river- sides, Mangifera indica L. is commonly met with. iii. Grasslands at lower altitudes : At lower elevations below 500 m, vast stretches of grass- lands occur beyond the scrub jungles and deciduous forests. Trees like Mnndulea sericea (Willd.) A. Chaval and Terminalia chebula Retz. are seen sporadically in these grasslands. Cymbopogon color at us (Nees) Stapf and Themeda cymbaria Hack, are the two domi- nant species of grasses occurring in this type. Amidst these. Euphorbia cristata Heyne ex Roth and Rhynchosia rufescens DC. are notice- able in the dry season. iv. Southern tropical moist deciduous forest: This type of vegetation occurs at an altitude of about 500 m, and covers an exten- sive area in the proposed biosphere reserve. The forests are thick and densely populated with Calamus sp. The top canopy consists of trees such as Acr onychia pedunculata (L.) Miq., Dalbergia coromandeliana Prain, D. latifolia Roxb., Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb., Scleropyrum wallichianum (Wight & Arn.) Arn., Terminalia chebula Retz., T. paniculate Roth and Valeria indica L. Some of the com- mon shrubs found are Barleria courtallica Nees, Blachia calycina Benth., Relict ere s isora L., Ixora brachiata Roxb., Mussaenda laxa (Hook, f.) Hutch, ex Gamble and Psychotria connata Wall. Butea parviflora Roxb. and Gnetum ula Brongn. are the conspicuous lianas met with. The notable climbers are Calycopteris flori- bunda (Roxb.) Poir., Cynanchum tunicatum (Retz.) Alston, Dioscorea oppositifolia L., Jasminum r'ottlerianum Wall, ex DC., Maerua oblongifolia (Forsk.) A. Rich, and Sarco- stigma kleinii Wight & Arn. Some of the com- mon herbs forming the undergrowth are Alysicarpus rugosus (Willd.) DC., Justicia be- tonica L. and Waltheria indica L. Musa superba Roxb. also occurs in this region. v. Southern tropical wet evergreen forest: These forests occur roughly between 760 m and 1500 m and are located around Mahendragiri peak, Agastyamalai peak, Muthukuzhivayal, Naterikal to Sengaltheri, Upper Kodayar and Athiramalai. Though some of these areas are a little disturbed by road formations, irriga- tion schemes, hydro-electric projects, etc., most of the areas especially around Agastyamalai peak are undisturbed. The top canopy is ex- tremely dense represented by gigantic trees like Artocarpus hirsutus Lam., Canarium strictum Roxb., Cullenia exarillata Robyns, Diospyros ebenum Koen. ex Retz., Elaeocar- pus tnberculalus Roxb., Hopea utilis (Bedd.) Bole and Palaquium ellipticum (Dalz.) Bail!. Under these large trees, medium-sized trees ^ which love more shade, form a second storey. Some of the dominant trees in this layer are Cinnamomum iners Reinw., Decussocarpus wallichianus (Presl) De Lauben., Eugenia mundagam Board., Garcinia echinocarpa Thw. var. monticola Mahesh. and Kingiodendron pinnatum (Roxb. ex DC.) Harms. Under this second layer, innumerable shrubs or small trees such as Agrostistachys indica Dalz., Antidesma menasu Miq. ex Muell.-Arg., Callicarpa lomentosa (L.) Murray, Elaeocar- pus munroii (Wight) Mast., Eurya nitida Korth., Lit sea deccanensis Gamble, M allot us dislans Muell.-Arg. and Tabernaemontana gamblei Subr. & Henry occur. Climbers like Ancistrocladus heyneanus Wall, ex Graham, Aristolochia indica L., Piper barberi Gamble, P. nigrum L., Pothos scandens L. and Senecio walkeri Arn. clothe 285 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 the large tree trunks, shrubs and small trees. The following herbs and undershrubs form the ground layer : Acranthera grandiflora Bedd., Apama barbed Gamble, Begonia mala- barica Lamk., Car ex filicina Nees ex Wight, Elatostema lineolatum Wight, Ophiorrhiza eriantha Wight, Psychotria curviflora Walk, Saproma corymbosum (Bedd.) Bedd. and Sarcandra grandifolia (Miq.) Subr. & Henry are some of the dominant species. Wild variety of Elettaria cardamomum (Roxb.) Maton is seen in some patches. Amongst these moist evergreen forests, dense tracts of Ochlandra travancorica (Bedd.) Benth. ex Gamble and Schumannianthus vir- gatus (Roxb.) Rolfe occur extensively, often to the exclusion of all other vegetation. Epiphytic orchids like Coelogyne nervosa A. Rich., Dendrobium wightii Blawkes & Heller, Oberonia brunoniana Wight and Sir hooker a lati folia (Wight) O. Kuntze, are commonly seen on tree trunks. Some of the common ferns are Angiopteris evecta (Forst.) Hoffm., Arachnoides aristata (Forst.f.) Tindale, Asplenium tenuifolium Don, Cyathea gigantea (Wall, ex Hook.) Holttum and Marattia fraxinea Sm. vi. Subtropical montane forest : There are very few tracts of montane forest remaining in the Western Ghats that can match the Agastyamalai area for its richness of flora and fauna. This type occurs as continuous expanse of the evergreen forests generally above 1500 m around Agastyamalai peak, Mahendragiri peak and Kakachi. The sheltered faces and moist depressions of peaks offer a foothold for these types of forests where the trees are of stunted nature due to the high velocity of wind and high altitude. The height of trees rarely exceeds 6 in, and are densely clothed with lichens, mosses, ferns and orchids. Some of the dominant species are Byrsophyllum tetrandrum (Bedd.) Flook. f. ex Bedd., Canthium neilgherrense Wight, Eugenia mabaeoides Wight, Euphorbia santapaui Henry, Hedyotis purpurascens Hook, f., Impatiens leschenaultii(DC.) Wall, ex Wight & Arn., Lasianthus blumeanus Wight, L. cinereus Gamble, Ligustrum decai- snei Clarke, Moonia heterophylla Arn. and Polyscias acuminata (Wight) Seem. vii. Grasslands at high altitudes : Grassy swards are seen in smaller dimensions on the exposed rocky surfaces at high altitudes espe- cially around Agastyamalai peak, Mahendra- giri peak, Muthukuzhivayal and Kakachi. Some of the common grasses met with are Arundinella purpurea Hochst. ex Steud. var. laxa Bor, Chrysopogon orientalis (Desv.) Camus, Eulalia phaeothrix (Hack.) O. Kuntze, Isaclme walked (Am. ex Steud.) Wight & Arn. ex Thw., Themeda tremula (Nees ex Steud.) Hack, and Zenkeria sebastinei Henry & Chandr. An interesting herbaceous mem- ber of the Dilleniaceae — Acrotrema arnotti- anum Wight, and other herbs like Centra- therum rangacharii Gamble, Exacum travan- coricum Bedd., Heracleum candolleanum (Wight & Arn.) Gamble, Leucas vestita Benth. and Smithia blanda Wall, ex Wight & Arn. are frequently met with. III. Fauna i This region is rich in various species of invertebrates, birds, reptiles and mammals. It harbours good populations of such endangered species as the Indian Ele- phant ( Elephas maximus ), Gaur ( Bos gaums). Tiger ( Leo tigris). Leopard or Panther ( Leo pardus), Nilgiri Langur ( Presbytis johni), and notably a good population of the endangered lion-tailed macaque ( Macaca silenus). Its bird fauna is particularly rich. IV. Landscape : This region provides one of the most magnificent mountain landscapes including the valleys, peaks and mountains 286 AGASTYAMALA1 AND ITS ENVIRONS with inaccessible steep rocky slopes covered with dense forests. V. Zones o£ the biosphere reserve : The landscape in general, aids for the organi- sation of a generalised biosphere reserve wherein all the components making up the reserve are contiguous. The forest tracts en- circling the conical Agastyamalai Peak com- prise Montane forests. Grassy Swards and dense evergreen forests which are primary and undisturbed due to their occurrence in difficult terrain and steep inhospitable slopes, and these are to be designated as the “Core or Natural Zone” of the biosphere reserve. Around this core zone there are large tracts of little disturbed evergreen forests and most deciduous forests (in and around Kannikatti, Athiramalai, Bonaccord, Upper Kodayar, Muthukuzhivayal, Manjolai, Kakachi, Sengal- theri to Naterikal), and dry deciduous forests (Mundanthurai, Neyyar, Lower Kodayar, Kalakad to Sengaltheri, Manimuthar and Papanasam) and these regions will form the “Manipulative or Buffer Zone”, managed for research, education and training activities. Several pockets in these regions are heavily disturbed for the cultivation of teak and rubber (Manipulation — Forestry), and cultivation of Banana, Coffee, Tea, Tapioca, Cardamom, etc. (Manipulation — Agriculture). In the foothills heavy natural or human — caused alterations have taken place, especially in and around the catchment areas of the four major river valley projects namely, Papanasam hydro-electric project, Manimuthar irrigation project, Kodayar hydro-electric project and Neyyar irrigation scheme, form the “Recla- mation or Restoration Zone”. There are several areas of tribal settlements, namely, Inchikuzhi, Kanthaparai, Anchinazhiathodu, Kodumadi, Kilaviarumalai and Lower Koda- yar which will form the “Stable Cultural Zone” of the biosphere. VI. Heman Impact : This proposed bio- sphere reserve located at the southern end of Western Ghats is well protected by natural barriers both by land and seas. The core region is remotely located and completely free from human activities. The biosphere reserve is by and large, already well protected because of the constitution of three well established sanctuaries, namely, Mundanthurai Wild Life Sanctuary, Kalakadu Sanctuary and Neyyar Wild Life Sanctuary. The area also provides examples of a number of human activities in the buffer zone, reclamation zone and cultural zone. VII. Tribals : Inchikuzhi, Kanthaparai, Lower Kodayar and Anchunazhiathodu are some of the areas where there are settlements of a hill tribe known as ‘Kanis’. They live partly on leaves, tubers and fruits of forest plants and by hunting wild animals. In recent years some of them are employed in hydro-electric projects, private estates and forest departments. Even now many of them live on wild plants and animals, and they offer much scope for ethnobiological studies. VIII. Selection criteria : 1. Representativeness : Broadly, an over- all representation of the biota of the Western Ghats, particularly of the southern part, is found in Agastyamalai and its environs. Out of about 5000 vascular plant species occurring in the erstwhile Madras Presidency, the pro- posed biosphere harbours over 2000. As the area is located at the southern end of Penin- sular India, the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal act as barriers towards the south, against migration of plants from other countries. The natural barriers, varied altitude, habitats, climate and rainfall have 287 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81 resulted in the development of a unique flora and fauna. About 150 localised endemic species of plants occur in this region. In recent years about 25 new taxa of plants have been discovered from the area, and some of them are Cheilanthes keralensis Nair & Ghosh, Euphorbia santapaui Henry, Homa- lium jainii Henry & Swamin., Hoy a kanya- kumariana Henry & Swamin., Indotristicha tirunelveliana Sharma et al., Marsdenia tiru - nelvelica Henry & Subr., Memecylon subra- manii Henry, Reidia singampattiana Sebas- tine & Henry, Rhynchosia jacobii Chandra- bose & Shetty, Tylophora subramanii Henry and Zenkeria sebastinei Henry & Chandra- bose. Janakia arayalpathra Joseph & Chan- drasekaran, a new genus and species was also discovered. The following are some of the endemic trees restricted only in the biosphere reserve and its neighbourhood: Aglaia elaeg- noidea (Juss.) Benth. var. bourdillonii (Gam- ble) K.K.N. Nair, Diospyros barberi Ramas., Elaeocarpus venustus Bedd., Eugenia floccosa Bedd., E. rottleriana Wight & Arn., E. singam- patliana Bedd., Garcinia travancorica Bedd., Humboldtia unijuga Bedd., Symplocos bar- beri Gamble, S. oligandra Bedd., Syzygium rnicrophyllum (Bedd.) Gamble. Among the large number of endemic herbs, shrubs and climbers localised in this tract, a few are : Belosynopsis kewensis Hassk., Crotalaria scabra Gamble, Desmodium dolabriforme Benth., Eugenia rottleriana Wight & Arn., Exacum travancoricum Bedd., Grexvia pan- daica J. R. Drumm., Hedyotis villosostipulata (Gamble) Rolla Rao & Hemadri, Impatiens travancorica Bedd., Knoxia linearis Gamble, Octotropis travancorica Bedd., Psychotria globicephala Gamble, Senecio calcadensis Ramas., Sonerila clarkei Cogn., Symplocos sessilis Clarke and Vernonia gossypina Gamble. One striking peculiarity of this area lies in the large preponderance of several typical Sri Lanka plants. 2. Ecosystem Diversity : The proposed reserve displays a tremendous diversity of plant and animal life due to its geographical position, variation of altitudinal zones, rain- fall, presence of large number of tributaries of the river systems, soil types etc. Almost all vegetation types known from the Western Ghats ranging from Scrub forests to Wet evergreen formations, and subtropical Mon- tane forests interspersed with Grassy Swards occur in this region ( vide II. Vegetation). The complexity and diversity of flora make it an ideal genepool sanctuary. Further the area harbours a number of endemic species of plants that are unique to Peninsular India. 3. Naturalness : The entire region around Agastyamalai peak and also large patches especially around Mahendragiri peak and Muthukuzhivayal possess natural biota. These areas represent natural forests which had developed perhaps in course of millions of years of evolution. Large populations of wild varieties of cultivated plants occur in this region. Even inspite of the various irri- gation and hydro-electric projects in the close vicinity some of the areas have never been explored due to the inaccessibility of the difficult terrains in the region. The Singam- patti R.F. however, has been considerably disturbed due to cultivation of tea and other plantation crops, and irrigation projects. 4. Effectiveness as a conservation unit : The proposed biosphere reserve still harbours natural ecosystems in an extensive contiguous area. Also it is well protected in nature by its remote location, very dense growth of vegetational cover and surrounded by large hilly tracts. Further, the already well esta- blished three sanctuaries, namely, Mundan- thurai Wild Life Sanctuary, Kalakad Sanctu- 288 AG AST Y A MA LA 1 AND ITS ENVIRONS ary and Neyyar Wild Life Sanctuary, protect about 870 sq. km of forest tracts. Hence it requires minimal additional management for the conservation of the biosphere in its tota- lity. Thus, in terms of compactness of area and lack of human pressures, the proposed biosphere reserve is likely to receive adequate protection, and undoubtedly it forms a very viable conservation unit in southern India. 5. Knowledge of the areas history : The Agastyamalai mountain range figures promi- nently in legends and Hindu Mythology. The region is known for its rare herbs, still widely used in ayurvedic medicines. The ‘Pothikai- mudi’ or ‘Agasthyarkudam’, the tallest peak in the range is associated with the sage Agastya who is said to have lived here on leaves, tubers, fruits and sap of wild plants. The orthodox belief is that Agasthya Maha- rishi, regarded by modern scholars as the pioneer exponent of astronomy and Aryan civilization in southern India, the originator of Sidha System of medicine and father of the hill and Tamil language, still lives on the peak as a yogi in pious seclusion. It was formerly an important astronomical station where two series of observation were taken by Mr. Broun between 1853 and 1865. 6. Completeness of flora and fauna sur- veys : Though the area attracted Naturalists since the 18th century, intensive field studies were carried out during the last two decades by the Staff of Botanical Survey of India and Zoological Survey of India, and other agencies. The floristic surveys have resulted in the discovery of many new taxa and several new records for India {vide VIII. 1.). A con- solidated account of the flora of this region is being prepared for publication. 7. Presence of rare and endangered species : This area has a unique flora with about 150 local endemics ( vide VIII. 1.). About 35 rare, endangered /threatened plant species occur here. Some of them are Hedyotis travancorica Bedd., H. barberi (Gamble) Henry & Subr., H. villosostipulata (Gamble) Rolla Rao & Hemadri, Knoxia linearis Gamble, Vernonia heynei Bedd. ex Gamble, Marsdenia tirunelvelica Henry & Subr., Paphiopedilum druryi (Bedd.) Pfitz., Popowia beddomeana Hook. f. & Thoms., Piper bar- bed Gamble, Rhynchosia jacobii Chandrabose & Shetty and Toxocarpus beddomei Gamble. It is of interest to record a good popula- tion of the endangered lion-tailed macaque {Macaca silenus) in this region. 8. Potential for research and training activities :The occurrence of a large number of wild relatives of cultivated plants such as Eletlaria cardamomwn (Roxb.) Maton, Man- gif era indica L., Musa super ba Roxb., Oryza granulate (Nees) Arn. ex Steud. and Paphio- pedilum druryi (Bedd.) Pfitz. prove this area to be an ideal genetic reservoir of wild species. All the four contiguous zones of the proposed Biosphere ( vide V.) have quite a potential for various research and training acti- vities. The Core zone with its undisturbed eco- system offers much scope for monitoring and non-manipulative research to study the pro- cesses and changes occurring without human intervention in the area. The buffer zone encircling the Core zone is potential for mani- pulative research activities and training in various disciplines of Forestry, Agriculture and Horticulture, and also research into the scientific basis for ecosystem conservation. It also provides natural areas for long term continuous research and monitoring. The four major river valley projects of this area offer enormous opportunity for various im- pact studies in environmental research, as well as restorative research designed to study ways of rehabilitating degraded ecosystem. 289 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 The Stable Cultural Zone of the biosphere is potential for preservation of traditional tribal approach to harmonious use of environment; also there is scope for intensive ethnobiologi- cal studies. Conclusion The establishment of the proposed bio- sphere reserve will serve for the protection of the non-renewable natural ecosystems which exist over millions of years. In view of the fact that both rain forests and wild populations of non-human primates are be- coming increasingly rare on a world scale, it is imperative that an area of the size and importance of Agastyamalai be given the fullest study and protection. The area is also unique in having many endemic species and is a genetic reservoir of many wild relatives of cultivated plants. Hence, studies should be carried out on topographical features, water flows, geology and soils, natural and man- modified vegetation types, distribution and diversity of species, human settlements, climatology, concentration of atmosphere and water pollutions, productivity, phenology and mineral cycling. It is gratifying to note that the MAB National Committee of the Depart- ment of Environment, Govt, of India which has undertaken the task of identifying areas for designation of biosphere reserves, has al- ready taken into consideration this potential area, and we earnestly appeal that speedy steps for collection of any additional data required for the conservation of this area in its totality be undertaken, so that it may serve as an “ecological protectorate”. Referen ce s MAB National Committee, Govt, of India (1979) : Preliminary inventory on Potential areas for Bio- sphere Reserves. New Delhi. Unesco (1974) : Task Force on : Criteria and guidelines for the choice and establishment of bio- sphere reserves. MAB Report Series No. 22. UNESCO. Paris. 290 A PROVISIONAL LIST OF UNRECORDED SOUTH-EAST ASIAN BIRDS1 D. Couzens, R. J. Quinnell and J. Bass2 This paper is intended as a guide to poten- tial bird sound recordists in South-East Asia, suggesting which species deserve particular attention in the search for a complete record of the bird vocalisations of the area. It has been written as a result of a suggestion put forward by T. C. White at the biennial meeting of the International Bio-Acoustics Council at Sussex, England in September 1981. The proposal was to review progress in bird sound recording throughout the world and to publish lists of unrecorded birds for various regions. A Working Group was subsequently set by IBAC and this list is the first result of their research. The South-East Asian area used is that delineated by King. Dickinson and Wood- cock (1975). In compiling the list we used a base consisting of all birds given a number in KDW, and omitted each bird whose voice we found in any one of our sources (see Appendix 1). The remainder are cited below with their numbers. Obviously our list does not represent the complete picture, and we are most keen to hear from recordists that have any of the birds in their collection. It is most important to stress that this list is not intended to focus undue attention on the pursuit of recording ‘new1 birds, for most of the South-East Asian avifauna is not fully recorded. Indeed, well over half the species we omitted were very poorly represented in 1 Accepted July 1983. 2 The British Library of Wildlife Sounds, The National Sound Archive, 29 Exhibition Road, London SW7 2AS, England. our main sources, the British Library of Wild- life Sounds and the Library of Natural Sounds, Cornell University (less than five recordings combined). Many of the species which had been recorded are widespread in distribution and may not actually have been taped in the region concerning us; others may have been recorded in captivity. Moreover, there is no guarantee that any recordings are of good technical quality for a given species. Probably less than fifty mainly South-East Asian birds have had good coverage of their vocabularies. Therefore, whilst it is hoped that attention will be paid to the species herein, this will not detract from the interest in taping ‘common’ birds. We are greatly indebted to Ron Kettle, curator of the British Library of Wildlife Sounds, and to Dr. lames Gulledge at the Cornell University Laboratory of Ornithology for access to collection lists and information on published recordings. Lt.-Col. Terry White and Ken Scriven also deserve special mention. Finally, thanks are due to the various recordists who have- contributed tape copies or information to sound libraries and have, of course, recorded the birds. The list Quoted numbers and taxonomy follow King, Dickinson and Woodcock. The species are grouped into families, the family name being succeeded by two figures. The first refers to the number of unrecorded species, the second to the total number of species, in South-East Asia. Endemic birds are indicated by an asterisk (*), endangered birds by a/. 291 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Hydrobatidae (1. 2) 8 Oceanodroma nionorhis Pelecanidae (1, 3) 11 Pelecanus philippensis Phalacrocoracidae (2, 5) 16 Phalacrocorax fuscicollis 19 Anhinga melanogaster Fregatidae (2, 3) 20 / Fregata andrewsi 22 ariel Ardeidae (8, 21) 23 Ardea insignis 24 sumatrana 29 Ardeola bacchus 30 speciosa 33/ Egretta eulopholes 38 Gorsachius melanolophus 40 Ixobrychus eurhythmus 42 Dupetor flavicollis ClCONIIDAE (5, 9) 44 j Ibis cinereus 49 Ciconia episcopus 50 Xenorhynchus asiaticus 51 Leptoptilos dubius 52 javanicus Threskiornithidae (4, 6) 53 Threskiornis melanocephalus 54/ Pseudibis davisoni 55/* gigantea 58 Platalea minor Anatidae (3, 35) 79/ Rhodonessa caryophyllacea 83 Ay thy a baeri 93/ Mergus squamatus Accipitridae (11, 50) 96 Aviceda jerdoni 97 leuphotes 106 Icthyophaga hand 110 Gyps indie us 111 Sarcogyps calvus 119 Circus melanoleucos 121 Accipiter gularis 122 vir gains 1 25 soloensis 127 Butastur liv enter 145 Spizaetus nanus Falcon idae (7, 13) 146* Polihierax insignis 147 Micr oilier ax caerulescens 148 fringillarius 149 melanoleucos 152 Falco amurensis 155 sever us 156 jagger Phasianidae (18, 39) 159 Francolinus pintadeanus 161 Melanoperdix nigra 166 Arborophila rufogularis 167 atrogularis 169* davidi 170* cambodiana 172 Galloperdix oculea 174 Bambusicola fytchii 176/ Tragopan blythii 178/ Lophophorus sclateri 181/* Lophura imperialis 182/* edwardsi 183 crylhropthalma 185* diardi 188/ Syrmaticus hiuniae 189 Chrysolophus amherstiae 191 Polyplectron bicalcaratum 192* germaini Turnicidae (1, 3) 198 Turnix tanki Gruidae (1, 4) 201 / Grus nigricollis Rallidae (4, 16) 205 Rallus striatus 206 Rallina fasciata 212 Porzana bicolor 214 Amaurornis akool Heliornithidae (1, 1) 220 Heliopais per sonata Otididae (1, 2) 222 Eupodotis bengalensis Jacanidae (1, 2) 224 Metopidius indicus Charadriidae (2, 14) 236 Charadrius peronii 240 veredus SCOLOPACIDAE (3, 39) 251/ Tringa guttifer 259 Gallinago solitaria 267 Calidris tenuirostris Glareolidae (2, 2) 286 Glareola maldivarum 287 lactea Laridae (3, 28) 290.1 Earns saundersi 292 UNRECORDED SOUTHEAST ASIAN BIRDS 306 Sterna acuticaiida Picidae (10, 42) 312/ zimmermanni 502 Picumnus innominatus Rynchopidae (1, 1) 503 Sasia ochracea 316 Rynchops albicollis 508 Picus xanthopygaeus COLUMBIDAE (14, 30) 510 rabieri 317 Tier on apicauda 511* erythropygius 318* seimundi 518 Dinopium shorii 319 sphenura 521 Gecinulus grantia 322 pom pad ora 524* Meiglyptes jugularis 323 fulvicollis 532 Picoides atratus 325 vernans 538 Hemicircus canente 327 capellei Pittidae (6, 12) 328 phoenicoptera 552 Pitta soror 329 Ptilinopus jambu 553 caerulea 331 Ducula bicolor 557* ellioti 333 Columba leuconota 558 cyanea 335 hodgsonii 560/ * gurney i 337 punicea 561 phayrei 346 Caloenas nicobar'ca Hirundinidae (2, 11) PSJTTACIDAE (1, 9) 568/ * Pseudochelidon sirintarae 355 Loriculus galgulus 571 Hirundo cone ol or Cuculidae (3, 29) Campephagidae (5, 20) 369 Chrysococcyx maculatus 579 Hemipus picatus 372 mat ay anus 585* Coracina polioptera 376 Phoenicophaeus sumatranus 592 Pericrocotus cinnamomeus Tytonidae (1, 3) 593 igneus 386 Tyto capensis 594 erythropygius Strigidae (2, 23) Chloropseidae (1, 8) 398 Keiupa flavipes 601 Aegithina lafresnayei 399 ketupu Pycnonotidae (7, 39) Apodidae (6,13) 611 Pycnonotus melanoleucos 422 Collocalia gigas 615 cyaniventris 423 fuciphaga 617 xanthorrhous 428 Hirundapus cochinchinensis 626* blanfordi 429 giganteus 637 Hypsipetes viridescens 430 R h aph id ura leucopygialis 643 castanotus 431 Apus acuticaudus 645* : thompsoni Hemiprocnidae (1, 3) Oriolidae (2, 8) 435 Hemiprocne coronata 655 Oriolus tenuirostris Trogonidae (1, 7) 659 mellianus 444 Harpactes wardi Corvidae (6, 22) Alcedinidae (3, 16) 665 Urocissa whiteheadi 447 Alcedo Hercules 671 Dendrocitta frontalis 449 meninting 672 Crypsirina temia 452 Ceyx rufidorsus 613- * cucullata Bucerotidae (2, 13) 471 Ptilolaemus tickelli 674 Temnurns temnurus 473 Acer os nipalensis 682 Corvus torquatus Capitonidae (1, 16) Aegithalidae (1, 2) 485 * Megalaima lagrandieri 683 Aegithalos iouschistos JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Paridae (1, 10) 842* 688.1 Pams venustulus 844 Sittidae (5, 9) 846 695 Sitta nagaensis 698* victoriae 851 700* solangiae 852 702 magna 853 703 form os a 855 Timaliidae (45, 139) 858 713 Pellorneum al biventre 859 726.1 Pomatorhinus erythrocnemis 860 730 ochraceiceps 861 733* Jabouilleia danjoui 734 Rimator malacoptilus 866 737 Napothera marmorata 870 743 Spelaeornis troglodytoides 871 744 formosus 872 745 chocolatinus 878 746 Sphenocichla humei 883 747* Stacliyris rodolphei 885 752* herberti 891 761* Macronous kelleyi 892 767* Turdoides gularis 894 768 longirostris 898 769 Babax lanceolatus 899 778* Garrulax milled 901 779 maesi 903 781 nuchalis 905 782* vassal i 907 783 gal banns 910* 784 delesserti 912 785 cineraceus 916 791 mend in us 919 793 — sannio 920 794 virgatus 921 795 — austeni 928 800* yersini 801 formosus 937 802 milnei 938 803 Liocichla phoenicea 939 809 Pteruthius xanthochlorus 941 815 Actinodura waldeni 945 816 souliei 947 817 Minla cyanouroptera 960 821 Alcippe cinerea 961 824 ruficapilla 969 826 rufogularis 974 833* Crocias langbianis 834 Heterophasia annectens yyO 835 gracilis 1002 837 pulchella 1003 Yuhina humilis diademata nigrimenta Panuridae (8, 12) Paradoxornis unicolor flavirostris guttaticollis — alphonsianus daviclianus atrosuperciliaris nificcps gularis Turdidae (23, 71) Erithacus sibilans ruficeps ob sc unis pectardcns Tarsi ger hyperythrus Phoenicians hodgsoni schisticeps Grandala coelicolor Enicurus scouleri immaculatus Cochoa purpurea viridis S ax i col a leucura jercloni Thamnolaea leucocephala Monticola gularis Myophonus robinsoni Zoothera interpres dixoni marginata T urdus clissimilis hortulorum feae Sylviidae (13, 71) Seicercus poliogenys castaniceps montis Abroscopus schisticeps Phylloscopus subaf finis — armandii cant at or ricketti A croce ph a! us concin ens Graniinicola bengalensis Cettia major Brady pterus luteovcntris seebohmi 294 1005 1008 1010 1011 1014 1019 1022 1023 1027 1031 1033 1034 1035 1036 1037 1042 1065 1077 1078 1081 1083 1085 1086 1087 1090 1091 1095 1098 1100 1102 1107 1110 1112 1118 1121 1124 1125 1126 1128 1130 1132 1136 UNRECORDED SOUTHEAST ASIAN BIRDS Muscicapidae (16, 53) Rhinomyias bninneata Musciccipa griseisticta williamsoni muttui Ficedula zanthopygia monileger dumetoria hodgsonii sapphira Niltava davidi sumatrana vivid a Cyornis concreta — ruecki hainana turcosa Motacillidae (1, 14) Dendronanthus indicus Laniidae (3, 7) Lanins tigrinus collurioides sphenocercus Sturnidae (8, 18) Saroglossa spiloptera Star mis sericeus sinensis sturninus contra nigricollis Acridotheres javanicus Ampeliccps coronatus Nectariniidae (7, 24) Anthreptes simplex rhodolaema Nectarinia calcostetha Aethopyga gouldiae christinae A rachnothera crassirostris chrysogenys Dicaeidae (6, 12) Prionochifns thoracicus macidatus percussus Dicaeum evevetti melanoxanthum erythrorhynchos Zosteropidae (1,4) Zosterops erythropleura Ploceidae (6, 17) 1146 Ploceus hypoxanthus 1148 Erythrura prasina 1149 hyperythra 1152 Lonchura leucogastra 1153 leucogastroides 1156 maja Fringillidae (9, 34) 1157 Serinus thibetanus 1159 Carduelis spinoides 1160 ambigua 1 1 65 Carpodacus eos 1166 vinaceus 1168 rhodopeplus 1169 Pinicola subhimachala 1174 Coccothraustes migratorius 1178 Pyrrhopiectes epauletta Analysis 309 species of the birds of South-East Asia have yet to have their voices recorded. This is some 26% of the avifauna. If South-East Asia is taken to be representative of the world as a whole, then about 2300 of the world’s 9000 bird species are as yet un- recorded. 32 of the 309 are endemic (they only occur in South-East Asia), and must obviously be sought in the area concerning us. Many of the birds are rare, especially the 17 that are considered threatened (see King 1981). At least one of these is generally supposed to be extinct already, the Pink-headed Duck (Rho- donessa caryophyllacea, no. 79). Others are extremely local : both Garndax yersini (800) and Crocias langbianis (833), for example, are only found on the Langbian Plateau, South Annam. It is important that, where possible, these birds should be recorded be- fore they become too rare to find or are even lost to extinction. Taking the 23 areas of South-East Asia set out by KDW, about six of them, on average, make up the breeding range of each bird. To 295 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 give an indication of which areas are most in need of recording work, the table below shows the number of unrecorded species that occur or have occurred in each area. The number of those which breed is given in brackets : West Burma 134 (114) Northeast Burma 132 (109) Northwest Thailand 128 ( 90) North Laos 122 ( 97) East Burma 119 ( 98) Tenasserim 115 ( 93) Tonkin 115 ( 90) Malaya 104 ( 71) South Burma 104 ( 77) Peninsular Thailand 90 ( 70) South Annam 89 ( 79) Central Burma 85 ( 69) South Laos 83 ( 70) Cochinchina 83 ( 69) Cambodia 79 ( 62) Central Laos 78 ( 65) Central Annam 70 ( 56) King, B. F., Dickinson, E. C. and Woodcock, M. W. (1975) : A Field Guide to the Birds of South-East Asia. Collins. King, W. B. (1981): Endangered Birds of the World. The I.C.B.P. Bird Red Data Book. Smith- sonian Institution Press in cooperation with the International Council for Bird Preservation. Appendix I: Sources Libraries The British Library of Wildlife Sounds, National Sound Archive, 29 Exhibition Road, London SW7 2AS, England. (Up to September 1981). The Library of Natural Sounds, Cornell Univer- sity Laboratory of Ornithology, 159 Sapsucker Woods Road, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA. (Up to September 1981). The Library of Malaysian Bird Song, University of Malaya, Zoology Department, Lembah Pantai, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. (Up to October 1981). Discs and Discographies Boswall, J. (1973): A Discography of Bird Sound from the Oriental Zoogeographical Region. Bull. Br. Orn. CL 93 : 170-173. Boswall, J. and Dickson, W. (1980): Additions to A Discography of Bird Sound from the Oriental Zoogeographical Region. Bull. Br. Orn. Cl. 101 : 313-318. Southeast Thailand 67 ( 49) North Annam 64 ( 50) Central Thailand 60 ( 43) Southwest Thailand 58 ( 44) Northeast Thailand 57 ( 42) Hong Kong 42 ( 10) A similar analysis of the habitats of the birds reveals that about 60% of them breed in forests of various kinds. This confirms the view expressed by T.C. White and others that it is in forests that the greatest effort and ingenuity needs to be called upon by future recordists. Finally, it is apparent that some families of birds pose more problems to recordists than others, for various reasons. Among the most under-recorded families are Panuridae, Sittidae, Falconidae, Dicaeidae, Pittidae and Muscica- pidae and there are also under-recorded genera such as Garrulax and Treron. Perhaps it would be of particular interest to search for these. e n c e s Roche, J. (1981): Oiseaux d’Asie: Malaisie et Thailande. Edwards Records. Stubing, R. (1981): Voices of the Forest. Malayan Nature Society. (1982): Dawn Chorus. Malayan Nature Society. Private Collections We have used lists of species recorded by : H. Bartels and H. Groeneveld B. and L. Coffey M. Comar F. M. Gauntlett D. A. Holmes R. Kennedy B. F. King G. Madge J. T. Marshall. H. E. McClure T. Roberts J. Roche L. Short R. K. Templeton F. Vencl J. W. Wall et al. D. Wallschlager R. Watling T. C. White 296 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER (CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS)1 Romulus Whitaker2 and Zahida Whitaker3 {With two plates Si five text-figures) Mugger (Crocodvlus palustris ) were studied in the wild at locations in India and Sri Lanka and in captivity in Madras. Mugger range from Iran east to Assam in India and south to Sri Lanka; they have been exterminated throughout most of their range. Mugger are adaptable and occupy a wide range of habitats, including streams, rivers, lakes and saline lagoons. Basking is an important daily activity and was noted to decrease in the hot season or when a strong breeze was blowing. Mugger have developed two main strategies to survive their highly seasonal environments : tunnelling and overland travel. They are strong swimmers and use the high walk and belly run for terrestrial locomotion. Mugger can be fast when catching prey; hatchlings were observed jumping to catch flying insects and captive adults caught wild monkeys, crows and kites. In some localities they are mainly fish eaters. Other prey items include beetles, rats, snakes and frogs. Man eating is rare, the Sri Lanka race receiving most credit for this habit. Gastroliths were often found in mugger stomachs through their function, if any, remains unknown. Mugger have acute senses of sight, hearing and smell. Hatchling mugger averaged 27 cms in total length; the maximum recorded length for the species was 5.63 m. A captive-reared female of 2.20 m bred at 6 years 8 months. November to June is the breeding season in South India and a month later in the north. Mugger are fairly tolerant of conspecifics. Prominent social signals by the male included head slapping, chasing, tail up swimming, geysering and bellowing. Females defended nest sites by tail thrashing and chasing. Submission was signalled by raising the head. During courtship circling, bubbling and jaw touching preceded copulation. Females lay an average of 25-30 eggs in holes within 10 metres of the water incubation averages 66 days. Double clutching was observed for 5 years in captive mugger in Madras. Nest defence, hatching, release and transport of young was observed in captivity. Defence of hatchlings was observed in both sexes. Conservation included egg collection, rearing and release. 1 Accepted March 1983. INTRODUCTION 2 Madras Snake Park Trust, Guindy Deer Park, Madras 600 022, South India. By the time formal studies were started on this crocodile the mugger ( Crocodylus palu- stris) had been exterminated throughout most of its range (Whitaker and Daniel 1978). 3 Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Vadanemmeli Village, Perur Post, Mahabalipuram Road. Chingle- put Dist., Tamil Nadu. 297 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Only small, remnant populations remain. In parts of Sri Lanka however the mugger can still be found in concentrations of 100 or more in a single tank (man made lake) (Whitaker and Whitaker 1979). Till the 1970’s the only scientific reports on the species were miscellaneous notes mainly in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. McCann (1940) and D’Abreu (1915) made some of the first observations on breed- ing and feeding habits of mugger, and M. A. Smith (1927, 1935) did the first major work on its systematics and distribution. P. E. P. Deraniyagala made the first systematic effort to formally record data on the mugger’s taxonomy and embryology (1936, 1939). Yadav (1969) and David (1970) reported on captive breeding of the mugger. In the early !970’s mugger were housed at the Madras Snake Park (MSP) and later (1974) as a breeding group of the then established Madras Crocodile Bank (MCB). What little we know of the behaviour of the mugger is based mainly on observations of captive animals. Parker (1880) and Dharmakumar- sinhji (1947) published the first notes on wild mugger breeding behaviour. An account of captive breeding behaviour was made by Whitaker and Whitaker (1977 a, b). Other literature on the mugger includes re- ferences on where and how to shoot them (for example Shortt 1921) and status survey reports for N. E. India (Biswas 1970), South India, Gujarat (Whitaker 1974, 1977) and Sri Lanka (Whitaker and Whitaker 1979). The Govt, of India /UNDP/FAO crocodilian rehabilitation programme is undertaking seve- ral studies of the mugger, publications on which are anticipated. This treatment of mugger biology outlines current knowledge of their distribution, status, habits and conservation and concentrates on reporting results of our studies on the breeding biology of the species. Materials and Methods Studies on wild crocodiles We have been involved in the survey, study and captive breeding of mugger in India since 1970. Day and night census was carried out in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat States, Sri Lanka and western Nepal. Pro- longed observations were made in Corbett National Park, Uttar Pradesh, North India. Wild egg collection was undertaken in Tamil Nadu and Gujarat. Captive facility Captive mugger have bred for seven years in Madras, South India. At MSP, a breeding pair resides in a 310 m2 walled enclosure. The 18 m2 concrete pond is surrounded by natural scrub. The soil is laterite, hard and pebbly. The present breeding group of 12 adults (4 males, 8 females) at MCB is housed in a large (1780 m2) walled and naturally landscaped enclosure which is planted with common coastal vegetation (Casuarina, Pan- danus, grasses). The pond is an excavation filled by the natural acquifer, varying in area from 600 to 1200 m2 and 1-2.5 m in depth in the dry and wet seasons. The substrate is sea sand and temperatures, rainfall and feed the same as at MSP. 900 juveniles and subadults are also being reared at MCB. Data from these animals has provided much of the information reported herein. Mugger at both facilities are fed rats, frogs, fish and beef. In Madras, rain is confined mainly to the northeast monsoon (October-December) with an annual average of 1200 mm. Shade temperatures throughout the year range from 20° to 45° C. 298 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER Results and Discussion Distribution Mugger are found from the Sarbaz River in southeastern Iran east to Assam and south to Sri Lanka (Honegger 1971). The validity of a single record of a mugger in Thayetmyo, Burma (Annandale 1921) is doubted by M. A. Smith (1927). The species occupies a variety of habitats and was appa- rently once very common in many parts of its range (Shortt 1921, Deraniyagala 1939). In Sri Lanka, a single specimen was reported at Kandy, 450 m. above sea level (Whitaker and Whitaker 1979) and in India the highest confirmed record is at Corbett Park, 420 m. above sea level. Status The species is regarded as endangered; ex- terminated in most of its range, rare in Iran, and near extinction in Pakistan (Webb 1978). It is listed in the IUCN Red Data Book and is on Appendix I of the Convention on Inter- national Trade in Endangered Species. Mug- ger are protected by law in all the countries of their occurrence. The once large population of captive mug- ger at Mugger Pir in Pakistan has dwindled to three adults (H. W. Campbell, pers. comm.). The two largest known concentrations of the species on the Indian subcontinent are at Amaravathi Reservoir, Tamil Nadu State with about 14 adults and Hiran Lake, Gujarat State, with about 50 adults. Habitat Though named palustris (swamp dwelling), mugger are mainly river and lake dwellers, adjusting to a wide range of habitats. We have encountered mugger in diverse habitats including hill streams, large man- made reservoirs, annual tanks, large rivers, small jungle pools, irrigation channels and saltwater lagoons. Habitat preference may be limited by their hole nesting habits. Carr (1963) proposed that mound nesting would appear an adaptation to swampland by truly palustrine species such as Crocodylus novae- guineae and Alligator mississippiensis. In fact the Indian mainland has relatively little freshwater swamp habitat. The present day largest populations of mugger are found in the annual tanks of the ‘dry zones’ of Sri Lanka; only here do they approach what might be called original concentrations. Deraniyagala (1936, 1939) notes that mugger in Sri Lanka are found mainly in lowland rivers, lakes, forest pools and, remarkably, in the salt pans and associated lagoons. On the Indian sub-continent mugger have been recorded in the salt lakes near Thatta in the Sind (McCann 1940). Bustard (1974) notes their “adaptability to village and irriga- tion tanks in addition to rivers, swamps and lakes.” He also writes that much of their habitat has been “affected by dam construc- tion” as in Sri Lanka where natural habitat has been altered by thousands of miles of canals and channels. Sometimes however these modifications are beneficial to crocodiles, offering alternate habitat, hunting grounds and access to other tanks (Whitaker and Whitaker 1979). Daily Activity Am ph i bious behaviour During the 1977/78 breeding season (December- January) ZW made 55 hours of behavioural observations on the mugger breeding group at MCB. Observations were made from a hide in the enclosure, gene- rally during the most active period, i.e. early 299 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 morning and late evening. Activities of seven mugger were recorded during a week in mid- January. Table 1 shows the percentage of time spent at each activity. Most crocodiles spent over half their time stationary in the water though the dominant female (Nova) spent more time on the bank. The dominant male (Perayur) spent more time swimming than the others. The 4 sub- dominant females were the least active of all. During the hot season (April-July) the MCB mugger spend most of the day under water and only emerged onto the bank during the nieht. April, mugger typically moved onto land from 7 a.m. (air temperature 18-21° C) till noon (35-39° C). No further emergence occurred till v/ell after sunset when the largest mugger (over 3 m.) would emerge on to the rocks (Whitaker 1979 b). Burrowing, aestivation and seasonal movement Writing of mugger in the northern peninsula of Sri Lanka Baldeus (1671) related, “In Jafnapatnam there are many crocodiles in the fens, ponds, and lakes, which if they happen to dry up in the summer, they dig holes to live in....” Later Deraniyagala (1936) writes that the mugger “often excavates bur- Table 1 Daily activity of captive mugger in south india (mcb) during a week (mid- January) in the breeding PERIOD (% OF TIME SPENT) Crocodile age (years) / length (cms) Partly or fully on bank Stationary in water Swimming Courtship Other social interaction Underwater Perayur (Beta) male/ 19(282) 28.2 57.7 7.0 1.4 — 5.6 Nova (Alpha) female/ 17 (200) 52.1 41.1 2.7 1.4 — 2.7 Metty female/7 (270) 35.3 61.8 2.9 — — — 4 females 6-9/(152-188) 19.7 78.8 1.5 0.08 Average 33.8 59.8 3.5 0.96 — 4.1 At Vakkaramari Waterworks in mid-May, rows in the bank.” In the salt lakes near adult mugger took an average of two hours (0600-0800) to gradually reach shore before emerging onto land. Then, they spent an average of 3 \ to 4 hours on shore. Afternoon emergence was rare, probably because of a daily brisk northwest breeze (Whitaker 1974). At MCB a similar schedule has been observed; diurnal basking is significantly less in the hot season, when the crocodiles spend most of the day submerged. At Corbett National Park in Thatta in the Sind (Pakistan), mugger were observed occupying burrows on the hills bordering the lake. The holes were about 60 cm in diameter and 2.5 to 4.5 m. deep, ending in a chamber wide enough for the crocodile to turn around in (McCann 1940). In South India two burrows of about 0.75 m diameter and 2.5 m. deep were seen at Kilikudi, Tamil Nadu and described “perhaps as a hot season refuge” (Whitaker 1974). 300 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER In Kedarhalla stream, burrows up to 6 m. deep under the supportive root systems of trees (e.g. Eugenia jambolana ) on the banks are the only refuges for the mugger there during the prolonged dry season (Whitaker and Whitaker 1976). One was horse-shoe shaped with two openings. We saw similar burrows in stream banks on the Menik Ganga river near Kataragama in Sri Lanka and in the Gir Forest, Gujarat. At Hiran Lake in the Gir National Park, 16 burrows, all with flattened openings, averaging 80 cms in width, 4-5 m. deep and almost every one containing a mugger were observed on a steep embankment. Some of the holes were at water level, and some 3 m. up the bank (Whitaker 1977). In southern Sri Lanka a mugger resided in a burrow dug in the sand bank of a saltwater lagoon (Whitaker and Whitaker 1979). After several abortive at- tempts, a 3 m. male mugger at MCB excavated a burrow under the overhanging roots of several Casuarina trees in the mugger breeding pen. Burrowing has been observed in yearling, subadult and adult mugger at MCB. Burrow- ing seems to be a survival tactic in mugger to withstand the drought conditions which are a standard feature of the dry season in many parts of the range. However in some situations mugger although they frequent the water, appear to reside permanently in burrows, emerging to bask by day and hunt at night. An adult MCB female mugger ‘Metty’ was observed several times while burrowing. Insert- ing her head under the tree roots she would dig with front feet and propel the sand back with the hind feet, dispersing sand with swimming movements of the tail. The dominant female in the pen would often use the tunnel (which was located close to her nest site) with no apparent objection on the part of the Metty. In the wild in India only one mugger was observed per tunnel although at the Menik Ganga study site, it was thought that many of the mugger observed at night resided in the 3 tunnels located (Whitaker and Whitaker 1979). It seems likely that mugger will group together in a single tunnel as observed in the Nile crocodile (Guggisberg 1972). Overland travel by mugger is well docu- mented. In India they travel overland at night to the nearest tank v/hen the water dries in summer (Ahmed 1945). In Sri Lanka, trans-tank migration is a yearly phenomenon during the dry season (Whitaker and Whitaker 1979). In the Barda Hills, Gujarat, at least 50 crocodiles were reported to have left a reservoir as the dry season progressed. The trail of one subadult was followed for about 2} kms through steep, hot scrub jungle. The animal was found under a sheltering over- hanging rock 6 kms from the next tank (Whitaker 1977). This is not a random move- ment. Overland travel is a likely mode of coloni- zation particularly by subadult and juvenile mugger. Evidence of single crocodiles present in small hill streams above waterfalls at Kedar- halla and Amaravathi in Tamil Nadu demon- strates the tenacity of the species in seeking new habitat. Locomotion Like other crocodilians mugger use the powerful, laterally flattened tail to swim, using the webbed hind feet to stabilize when still, change direction and aid the ‘reverse dive’, a typical mode of submerging. Mugger often waik lightly on the bottom of a pond or river, using the same ‘belly walk’ as on land. Where there is a lot of marsh gas it 301 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 is easy to see the bubble trail of a bottom walking mugger. Mugger have not been observed galloping, though the other modes of locomotion on land, the high walk and belly run recorded for the Nile crocodile (Cott 1961 a, b) are the same. Though not classed as a regular mode of locomotion, climbing has been observed in mugger of up to 2.8 m. In capti- vity adult mugger climbed over vertical chain link mesh fencing 1.75 m. high and small juveniles climbed up 80 cm rough cement walls at the corners. In the wild this ability based on limb and claw strength, is used by mugger in travelling steep terrain and climbing up to burrows many metres above drought water levels. Feeding Mugger are heavy set animals and appear sluggish, but are actually alert and capable of fast reaction and considerable speed in defence or when hunting. Hatchlings have been observed jumping to successfully snap at winged termites and moths attracted to a light over their pond. Mugger are curious animals and will briefly investigate anv movement in or near their < — ✓ •> habitat. If interested, mugger will submerge and reappear near the potential prey. Prey is caught with a sudden forward lunge or side- ways snap. Captive adults at MSP and MCB have captured monkeys, crows and kites which entered the breeding enclosures. Small prey is killed by a quick, crushing bite. Larger prey is shaken, drowned and/or dis- membered as a limb (or head) is grabbed and twisted several times while the mugger rolls in the water using tail leverage. In some localities mugger appear to be mainly fish eaters, particularly where intense dry seasons create high concentrations of fish. Spittel (1924) writing about Sri Lanka, stated that ‘‘salt concentration causes a massive fish kill and crocodiles, birds and other scavengers feast.” The annual drying of most streams and tanks is characteristic of the geographical dry zones in the mugger’s range. Large mugger establish themselves in the last remaining water, the essential focal point for a vast range of dependent animal life, and could pro- bably survive the rest of the year on the dry month or two of super-abundance of prey. Crocodiles were observed ‘herding’ fish to shore in the daytime at Hiran Lake, Gujarat and at night at Amaravathi Reservoir, catch- ing them as they leapt in an attempt to escape from the shallows back to deep water. At MCB an adult female of 2.00 m. length was observed to purposefully herd fish after a 60 day fast during brooding. She gradually shift- ed her body perpendicular to the west finger of the breeding pond and slowly moved side- ways, gradually reducing the enclosed end of the finger. Several bites in quick succession enabled her to catch a number of Tilapia mossambica. This behaviour has been observ- ed in the wild in Nile crocodiles (Graham and Beard 1973) and the saltwater crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus) (Whitaker, pers. obs.). On two occasions at MSP a young adult male (2 m.) mugger was observed catching a live rat snake ( Ptyas mucosus). Rather than killing the snake immediately at it would other prey, the crocodile shook it hard and dropped it and then repeated the process 3-4 times until the snake was motionless. The overall impression was that the mugger was hesitant with the snake. Mugger being reared at the Gharial Reha- bilitation Center in Orissa were fed pigeons which were stalked and adroitly caught (Singh 1979). In a river in Pakistan a mugger was 302 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER observed catching an otter. A captive speci- men at Mugger Pir near Karachi was seen to catch a peacock (Smoothbore 1877). Besides actively hunting, mugger apparently also forage for such sedentary food items as snails and bivalves (D’Abreu 1915; Whitaker, pers. obs.) and will locate and eat carrion (Cham- pion 1934). Stomach contents and feces examination A 1.35 m. mugger taken from a forest pond contained 32 water beetles (Cy bister sp.), 15 water bugs ( Belostoma sp.) and 4 snail oper- cula ( Ampullaria sp.); the stomach of a 3.24 m specimen contained 1 Indian bullfrog ( Rana tigrina ) (D’Abreu 1915). A specimen from Powai Lake, near Bombay contained 60 wafer beetles, 2 fish ( Chela sp.) and an eel (Mc- Cann 1935). Brander (1927) lists animal re- mains which he found in mugger shot by him: men, leopards, wild dogs, hyaenas, spotted deer, sambar, nilgai, four horned antelope, barking deer, monkeys, domestic dogs, goats, calves, pigs, ducks, storks and other birds. Fish scales, egret feathers and watersnake ( Xenochrophis piscator) scales were found in a sample of feces at Hiran Lake, Gujarat State (Whitaker 1977). Sixty fecal pellets re- presenting about 30 defecations were collected and examined at Vakkaramari, Tamil Nadu State. The results indicate selective hunting for rats during the dry season (May), when rats live near water. Prey remains % occurrence Fish scales 10% Rat hair ( Bandicota bengalensis) 100% Gerbil hair (Tat era indica ) 20% Snakes scales (Xenochrophis piscator and Amphiesma stolata) 10% Bird feathers 10% (Whitaker 1974). In Sri Lanka, a random sample of mugger feces contained remains of fish, birds, wild pig (Sus scrofa) and Russell’s viper (Vi per a russelli). Man-eating It is likely that many of the reports of man- eating in mugger confuse mugger with salt- water crocodiles. It is also probable that attacks on humans are often cases of mistaken identity. Occasional attacks seem to have occurred and feeding on corpses was probably a commonplace event. Shortt (1921) describes the discovery of an entire corpse in a mugger. Often, when firewood for cremation is hard to come by, whole corpses are thrown into the river. It is likely that this is the source of ornaments found in mugger stomachs reported among others by Pitman (1913) and Battye (1944). In the present day it is common to see floating corpses on major north Indian rivers such as the Jumna and Ganga but it is now the dog packs that fatten on them, in the absence of mugger. Deraniyagala (1936) unequivocably states that mugger in Sri Lanka will take humans as prey and in fact uses this habit as one of the criteria for calling it a sub-species separate from the Indian mugger. In 1977 a young village farmer who survived a mugger attack at a small stream in south-eastern Sri Lanka was interviewed by us. The crocodile was observed to be a 2 m. adult and this appeared to be a typical case of mis-predation (Whitaker and Whitaker 1979). Gastroliths While some authors suggest that the pheno- menon of stone ingestion in crocodilians is an aid to digestion, Cott (1961, a, b) presents a case for the theory that gastroliths perform a hydrostatic function as ballast (a native be- 303 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vo!. 81 lief), the stones averaging 1% of the adult Nile crocodile’s total weight. McCann (1940) suggests that the size of the stones is related to the size of the animal. A 3.42 m. mugger contained about 1 kg. of stones of assorted sizes (Simcox 1905). D’Abreu (1915) reports a 1.35 m. mugger having 16 small stomach stones and a 3.24 m. mugger with 6 large stones and 12 smaller ones. A 2.75 m. mugger found dead in Corbett National Park contained a few small pebbles and gravel in its stomach (Whitaker and Ross, unpubl.). A 3.12 m. mug- ger shot at Jasdan, Gujarat contained an un- usually large gastrolith weighing 2 . 5 kgs ( Dharmakumarsinhj i 1952). A 3.27 m. mugger killed at the Krishnarajasagar Dam in Karna- taka, South India contained 12 stomach stones of roughly 12.5 mm /diameter (Krishnamurthy 1951). Peaker (1969) observed a captive American alligator deliberately pick up and swallow pebbles of 1.5 cm diameter and des- cribes the habit as “reminiscent of the situation in granivorous birds.” Senses McCann (1940) notes that mugger have acute senses of sight, hearing and smell. This is supported by observations by us on captive and wild mugger. They were ob- served catching, moving and flying prey with great precision, demonstrating visual acuity. Wild mugger at most localities were extremely difficult to approach closer than several hun- dred metres; ears and eyes presumably being the important detecting devices. Mugger were observed searching for and locating prey ob- jects on land and under water by ‘feeling’ with their jaws. A blind gharial ( Gavialis gan- geticus) was observed catching fish and locat- ing dead fish, obviously by feel (Singh, pers. comm.). These observations lend support to Bellairs’ (1969) suggestion that the tactile Table 2 Growth rate of 12 msp hatchling mugger Average Age total length (cms) Length gain (cms) Average weight (gms) Weight gain (gms) 1 month 32.1 — 48.5 — 9 months 57.2 25.1 650.8 602.3 Table 3 Growth rate of ; 50 MCB hatchling mugger Age Average total Length length (cms) gain (cms) Hatching 28 (26-31) — 12 months 82 (57-104) 54 24 monhs 130 (90-170) 48 (Whitaker and Whitaker 1977 b). Table 4 Differential growth rates in mugger Origin N Months Growth rate (cms per month) Ahmedabad Zoo, Gujarat 6 84 1.6 Kilikudi, Tamil Nadu 4 72 7.2 MCB (captive bred) 21 48 2.3 Kedarhalla, Tamil Nadu 7 60 2.5 Hogenakal, Tamil Nadu 33 60 2.7 organs in the scales of the jaws may be specia- lized for detecting disturbance under water created by fish. Size, growth rate Mugger are 25-30.5 cm (average 27 cm) in total length when they hatch. Table 2 demonstrates an average month- ly length increase of 2.8 cm and an 304 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER average monthly weight increment of 66.9 gm in 12 hatchlings for 9 months. Table 3 demon- strates increases in length of 4.25 cm per month in over 50 hatchlings for 24 months. Six hatchlings from wild collected eggs averaged 75 gms in weight at one month post hatchling and 32 months later averaged 10 kg, an in- crease of 310 gm per month (Whitaker 1974). D’Abreu (1935) records a captive mugger growing from 27.5 cm to 210 cm in 19 years. An escaped mugger grew from 170 cm to 220 cm during 40 months in the wild, the only existing growth rate of a wild mugger (Acharjyo and Mohapatra 1977). The maximum reliably recorded total length for the mugger is 5.63 m for 2 specimens killed at Kantalai Reservoir in Sri Lanka (Deraniyagala 1939). In recent years the ave- rage adult male size is 3 to 3 . 5 m and female 2 to 2.5 m. Table 4 shows that mugger hatchlings of wild collected eggs and captive bred stock from different localities grew at different rates, in- dicating population differences in growth rates. Variable growth rates of different popula- tions have also been reported by Bustard (in lift.). Sexual maturity A captive reared, 11 year old 180 cm long female mugger bred at MSP. A captive reared 220 cm female at MCB bred at 6 years 8 months and a male mugger at MSP bred when 8-10 years old and 250 cm in length (Whitaker 1979 a). McCann (1940) examined the gonads of a 180 cm female mugger which had bred that season. Social behaviour and reproductive biology Timing of breeding season The breeding season of Crocodylus palustris (in this paper the period between and includ- ing courtship, mating, nesting and the hatch- Fig. 1. Seasonability of mugger reproduction at Madras Crocodile Bank, South India. 305 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 ing of young) extends from November to June in South India. Courtship and mating coincide with the north-east monsoon, nesting with the beginning of the dry season, hatch- ing with the height of the dry season and the beginning of the south-west monsoon. Court- ship and mating commence in late-November- early December, nesting in February-April, hatching in April June (Whitaker and Whitaker 1974, 1977 b) (see Figure 1). In northern India it tends to be one month later. In Jai- pur, Rajasthan nesting is recorded for 9 May (Yadav 1969). At Jaipur Zoo from 1967-71, a female C. palustris nested between 25 April arid 22 May, and hatching occurred between 26 June and 6 July (Prakash 1971). In Sri Lanka, June- July are reported as the laying months (Parker 1880) and August is given as a hatching date for mugger (Deraniyagala 1936) and later confirmed by Whitaker and Whitaker (1979). T erritoriality Although fighting sometimes occurs on the introduction of a new individual in an esta- blished captive group, mugger are fairly tole- rant of conspecifics, particularly during the seasonal concentrations which occur in the dry season. During the breeding (wet) season both sexes become increasingly territorial. At MCR, the largest male ‘Beta’ asserts his dominance by swimming displays in the ‘tail up’ position, head-slapping and chasing and biting subordinate males, sometimes on the shore. This behaviour has been recorded for males of other species as well, such as C. novaeguineae (Lang, in press) and C. niloticus (Modha 1967; Pooley 1976). D’Abreu (1915) notes that large wild mugger “usually” have shortened tails, some missing the terminal 9-10 segments. This is not the case with most wild mugger observed today and could be an indication of much more frequent interaction among the adults of once large and concen- trated populations. Roaring or bellowing was rarely heard in mugger but it is reported in the literature; this vocalization could be a territorial signal. McCann (1940) reports that a 3 m. mugger shot in a hole roared like “the roll of a big drum”. A 3.75 m. mugger on the Indravati River, Madhya Pradesh, bellowed 2 or 3 times in quick succession and is described as sound- ing like a cow bellowing (Battye 1944). In Sri Lanka a mugger bellowed in response to a rifle shot (Rossel 1944). A raised, threatening posture, called ‘slim- ming’ by Garrick et al. (1978) was frequently observed in captive juveniles and subadult males. The animal raises its body by fully extending its legs, sometimes slightly compress- ing its body laterally and breathing deeply. This is occasionally initiated by the approach of another mugger to a favoured basking spot but also by apparent individual rivalry, per- haps an early mechanism of the establishment of social hierarchy. This posture is rarely used when confronted by an animal (or human), the most common threat used being a raised forebody with open mouth, hissing and leaping forward if cornered or further threatened. A challenged subdominant mugger of either sex may run or raise the head in submission, often accompanying the signal with a low, open- mouthed gurgling sound. Other behaviours observed in mugger which are possible social signals include ‘yawning’ (as described by Garrick et al. 1978) and ‘ear flapping’ (Bellairs 1969). Courtship and mating Observations on courtship and mating were made from a hide in the mugger breeding en- closure at MCB. Often a head slap by a male 306 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER (which starts from the head up position) signalled approach and courtship. For example on March 9, 1978 at 0810 Beta head slapped, approached a female and mounted. The female submerged. Beta moved away; the female sur- faced near his head, jaw raised. Male approach prior to courtship was usually in the tail-up position, with the single caudal crests arched well out or slightly out of the water. In one instance following a head slap geysering was observed as described by Garrick et al. (1978) — “a stream (spout) of water about 10 to 20 cm in height resulting from a release of air from the external nares while the snout is just under the surface of the water.” Beta was heard roaring as in Garrick et al. (1978) prior to a courtship sequence. During courtship, circling, bubble blowing and raising and touching jaws was observed. On 18 January 1978 at 1017 (following a head slap) Beta swam to tank centre in the tail up position, nudging a female’s back with his head. The female raised her jaw, circled, bub- bled, submerged. Beta raised his jaw, hissed, submerged. Female raised her jaw, both sub- merged for 5 minutes. Figure 2 provides a summary of these behaviours. Females were observed bubbling at times other than during mating. Bubbling is perhaps a female courtship signal. Sometimes it was associated with a cough. Female mugger occa- sionally head slapped, as do A. mississippiensis (Garrick et al. 1978) and were twice observed to roll over in the water, exposing the belly as reported by Cott (1961) for C. niloticus. During a courtship sequence on 14 January 1978 from 0855 to 1010 am a female mugger was observed repeatedly mock biting (Garrick and Lang 1977) the male’s head. When the male mounted the female the pair submerged and mating progressed while fully or partially sub- merged, often surfacing and submerging alter- nately. Copulation lasted from five to fifteen minutes. During courtship and mating a high cf HEADS LAP 1 1 1 I 1 » 1 ! 9 APPROACHES 0,-“J»*9 CONTACTS Cf 'S 1 1 1 1 1 1 J CIRCLING BY 9 EXITS j HEAD/SNOUT j cf fc 9 1 A t t t EXHALATION/ GEYSERING APPROACH BY OTHER SNOUT LIFTING AND 99 AND/OR O’ GURGLING BY $ c? - Cf CHASE \ t A Cf APPROACHES 9 TAIL UP Cf CONTACTS 9 HEAD/SNOUT \ ? EXITS SNOUT AND HEAD —PRIDING* RUBBING BY Cf £< 9 BY 9 (Cf EXHALATION) Q SUBMERGING, * BUBBLING & ►RIDING AND — ► COPULATION MOUNTING BY Cf RE-EMERGING Fig. 2. Summary table of mugger reproductive behaviour as observed at Madras Crocodile Bank (after Garrick and Lang 1977). 307 5 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 degree of tolerance was shown toward other animals. Adult females and a sul>adu!t male were seen circling, nudging and in intermittent physical contact with a pair during courtship on several occasions. Courtship and mating were always observed in water though Yadav (1969) records copulation on dry land at the Jaipur Zoological Gardens. On several occasions during courtship the throat glands of females in the head raised posture w'ere briefly everted and withdrawn. It is possible that the scent glands function in some stimulatory capacity during pre-mating courtship. Prater (1933) reports that the scent glands in the throat and vent secrete a brownish liquid with a musty odour. He feels that the secretion is most active during the mating sea- son and postulates that its release in the water enables individuals to find each other. This secretion has been observed as a waxy brown substance but seems to have very little detectable odour. Dharmakumarsinhji (1947) made the first observations on breeding of wild mugger. He described the tail up and head emergent pos- ture of the male and head up posture of the female prior to copulation. His observations agree with those of the authors, including the submerging, re-emerging cycle seen during copulation. Nest construction and egg laying Nesting females were observed at MCB. On 14 February 1979 on arrival at the breeding enclosure at 2100 a 1\ year old female was seen lying on her freshly dug nest. At 2130 p.m. an egg (the last of her clutch) was expelled with a prolonged grunt. After laying the female inserted both feet into the egg chamber and gently pushed the entire clutch to the back of the cavity of the L-shaped hole (Figure 3). For this manoeuvre and while nest packing the tail was used for support (Whitaker 1979 c). She then began a slow Crocedylus palustris EGG PLACEMENT WITHIN NEST Fig. 3. Cross-section of mugger nest showing posi- tion of eggs before and after female shifts them with hind feet. scratching with alternate movements of her hind legs, gently pushing sand into the nest hole. Sand was scraped over the nest and then periodically packed by treading with the hind feet (Figures 7 and 8). At 2210 she started turning on her nest, making seven full clock- wise circles, completely flattening the nest area. During wild egg collection programmes in 1975 and 1976, field study and surveys, over 50 wild nests were observed. Tables 5 and 6 give some of the physical characteristics of the nests. Hole length apparently corresponded to the length of the female mugger’s hind leg. In most nests the soil at the egg cavity level was damp. Locations included artificial reservoirs with- out shade, small, densely vegetated streams, and tidal lagoons (Whitaker and Whitaker 1975, 1979; Choudhury et al. 1979). At Ama- ravathi Reservoir the tracks of a mugger were followed into a hilly scrub forest over 1 km from the reservoir to where a 2.4m female was found (Whitaker 1976 b). She later nest- ed here (B.C. Choudhury, in lilt.) but un- successfully, as the soil was too shallow. This 308 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Whitaker & Whitaker: Crocodylus palustris Plate I Above : Male mugger with arched tail approaches receptive female during courtship Below. Female mugger at Madras Crocodile Bank laying eggs. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Whitaker & Whitaker: Crocodylus palustris Plate II Above : Female mugger scraping sand over nest site. Below. Female mugger packs the finished nest by treading with hind feet. REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER unusual nesting behaviour was postulated to be due to the excessive human disturbance in the area. (Before protection, 90% of the eggs were taken each season by herdsmen and fire- minutes. She finally appeared to notice Nate- san’s close presence and entered the water, watching from 10 m. out as the investigator checked the nest (Whitaker 1976 a). Table 5 Data on 50 wild mugger nests in Tamil Nadu Hole Hole Distance Height above Layer of sand/earth length (cms) width (cms) from water waterline (m) covering eggs (cms) 35-56 22:14-31 10m:lm-2km 6.2:1.5-10 19.5:13-26 wood collectors). At Amaravathi, nine out of eleven nests were situated on slopes facing east. At Amaravathi, Kilikudi and Sathanur trial nest holes were a common feature near nests. C. palustris usually digs one or more trial nest holes before the final egg chamber. At Vakka- ramari a female was seen making a trial nest in daylight and 2-3 trial nest holes were found for each nest (Whitaker 1974). * Table 6 Soil type and shade at 59 wild mugger nest sites (% NESTS) Gravel /sand Sand Black clay Loamy soil 37 34 17 10 Humus Unshaded Partly shaded Fully shaded 1.7 86 7 7 An MSP investigator, V. Natesan observed a wild female mugger nesting at Vakkaramari, Tamil Nadu at 0630 on 15 March, 1976. She faced up the embankment and, eyes closed, made frequent straining movements as the eggs were deposited. She then started scraping soil forward with the front feet, turning while do- ing so. She continued scraping soil from the excavation back into the hole using her hind feet. She then flattened the site with her belly and lay still on the nest for a further fifteen Clutch and egg size Mugger lay 25-30 eggs; details of clutch sizes in different localities are given in Table 7. Clutch sizes were similar in north and south Indian nests. Although not adequately quan- tified it has been observed that clutch size is closely related to the size of the female. The average size of 340 eggs from wild nests in South India was 7.40 x 4.70 cms and weighed an average of 128 gms, closely corresponding to captive bred specimens eggs measured at MCB. Table 7 Clutch sizes of mugger nests Place N Clutch size x: range Sathanur Reservoir, Tamil Nadu Amaravathi Reservoir, 5 27:17-35 Tamil Nadu 11 31:26-35 Vakkaramari, Tamil Nadu 3 32:18-46 Kilikudi, Tamil Nadu 3 19:16-21 MCB (8 females) 43 24: 8-39 MCB (1 female) 6 25: 8-33 Hiran Lake, Gujarat 2 25 Powai Lake, Maharashtra 1 17 Jaipur Zoo, Rajasthan 5 32:22-41 Total 79 26: 8-46 (Whitaker 1974, 1979a, 1977; Whitaker and Whitaker 1975; 1977 b; Prakash 1971). JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Incubation period and nest temperature - In captivity mating begins about two months before the first egg laying, suggesting a deve- lopmental period of 40-60 days. Incubation of mugger eggs averages about 2 months, details of captive incubated clutches are given in Table 8 which shows a slightly longer dura- tion for nests in South India. Table 8 Incubation periods of mugger nests Incubation Place N period (days) x: range South India (wild) 20 67:41-80 South India (MCB) 33 68:41-85 North India (wild) 1 74 North India (Jaipur Zoo) 5 54:44-68 (Whitaker 1978, 1979 a, 1980; Whitaker and Whitaker 1975; Prakash 1971). Nest temperatures in wild nests in South India ranged from 18°C in the early morning to 35°C in the early afternoon. In 1980 the overall nest temperature average at MCB was 31 .3°C for the four months of February-May. Nest losses Of the 59 nests observed in the wild, 39% were collected for hatching in captivity, 36% were raided by humans for food, 15% hatched naturally, 3% spoiled, 5% were destroyed by predators and 1.5%, i.e. one nest, was destroy- ed by the female crocodile. Multiple clutches per season When double clutching was first observed at MCB in 1976 in a 19 year old female (Nova) it was thought to be exceptional or aberrant behaviour. Since then however, the laying of two clutches per season has become the norm for 6 females. Table 9 illustrates the Table 9 Mugger double clutching data at mcb (means for 1979 and 1980 seasons) N x clutch size A nests x clutch x% hatch- size B ing success nests A nests x% hatch- ing success B nests 22 29.2 23.6 59.1 47.0 N x incubation x incubation x no. days period A nests period B nests between A & B nests 22 65 days 70 days 41 (Whitaker 1980) details of the multiple nesting which occurred in 1979 and 1980. Clutch size and hatching success were slightly lower in ‘B’ nests. ‘A’ nests took an average of 5 days less incubation time, corresponding to lower temperatures pre- vailing during the ‘B’ nest incubation period. (Fig. 4). Double clutching at MCB may be a result of the combination of high temperatures and high feeding rates. There seem to be three possibilities which might explain the pheno- menon : a) single mating with arrested development of second clutch b) single mating and storage of sperm c) double mating. Sporadic mating of mugger was observed late in the season (March/ April) but no peak similar to the December activity was noted. While the period of egg development in first and single clutches appears to be about 60 days there was an average of only 41 days between first and second nests. There is no 310 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER Fig. 4. Nest site selection by double clutching mugger in the Madras Crocodile Bank breeding enclosure. Dotted lines illustrate the tendency for widely separated site selection by individual females. evidence of double clutching in wild mugger. Tribal inhabitants of crocodile habitat have generally proved to be the most reliable in- formants on mugger habits and only once have these egg collectors (Poliyars at Ama- ravathi Reservoir) indicated that they had seen fresh nests later than the normal season. The implications of double clutching for com- mercial farming are obvious, whether it could be of some survival value for wild mugger is a matter for conjecture. The mean distance between- A.- and B nests was 22.5 m, while nests' of different females averaged only 5 m apart (Table 10). Messel (pers. comm.) suggests that ‘early’ and ‘late’ nests of C. porosus in Australia may be first and second nests of the same animal. Graham (1968) noted that over 50% of mature male C. niloticus had motile semen for 6 months. In addition, 24% of females had two or more sets of enlarging ovarian follicles of greatly differing sizes. He suggests that maturation of one set of ova may be ac- companied by development of another set, re- sulting in the production of two batches of eggs in one season. Graham’s conclusion is that “the time sequence of events would per- mit an animal to breed twice.” According to Cott (1961), fresh crocodile eggs were Tound during two periods Of the year in norfherh Lake Victoria (Uganda) : August and early September, and again in December and January. 311 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Fig. 5. Main Crocodylus palustris populations and projects. A. Gir National Park, Gujarat. B. Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh. C. Madras Croco- dile Bank, Tamil Nadu. D. Sathanur reservoir, Tamil Nadu. E. Amaravathi reservoir, Tamil Nadu. F. Wilpattu National Park, Sri Lanka. G. Yala National Park, Sri Lanka. 312 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER Protection of nest Nest defence has been observed both in the wild (S. Valliappan, pers. comm.) and in captivity (Whitaker and Whitaker 1977 a). At MCB and MSP nesting females defended nest sites and adjacent water areas and engaged in threat displays. They often thrashed their tails from side to side and made repeated serious charges at intruders, both crocodilian Table 10 Distances between nests of double clutching MCB MUGGER 1979 1980 Distance from Distance from No.* Female A to B nest A to B nest (in) (m) 1 . Karruppukann 1 . 90 17.40 2. Chitra 32.00 9.50 3. Stumpy 48.50 20.50 4. Vijaya 5.80 32.00 5. Nova 7.00 — 6. Chidambaram 38.20 34.00 Range and average Range and average 1.90-48.50:22.23 9.50-34.00:22.70 Distance to nearest Distance to nearest nest (m) nest (m) Range and average Range and average 0.75-11.90: 3.57 1.00-20.45: 6.61 * refers to map of MCB mugger breeding enclosure, Figure 4. and human. If undisturbed the female will spend most of the incubation time at her nest and in the water near by. One female (Nova) fasted throughout incubation, while other younger females were less attentive to nests and did not fast. The role of the male C. palustris in nest protection has not been clearly established. A male at Ahmedabad Zoo ignored the female after copulation (David 1970). Similarly Yadav (1969) negates participation of the male in nest protection and defence of young. The male C. niloticus takes part in nest excavation and hatchling transport (Pooley 1974) as does the New Guinea crocodile (Lang, in press). Hatching, release and transport of young The female at MSP was observed at 0100 on 22 May 1978 excavating her nest with her front feet and head, leading 6 hatchlings to the pond 6 m, away, and communicating with them through grunts. She later excavated 5 more young. The female and hatchlings were heard calling sporadically all night up to 0500 (Whitaker 1980). At 0900 the female chased the keeper from the enclosure. She pushed hatchlings out on to the palm leaves outside the pool with her snout. RW picked up a hatchling and on hear- ing its distress cry the female charged and bit the tree behind which he stood. At 0950 the male was with the hatchlings in the main pond and the female in the adja- cent pond. The female picked up a hatchling in her mouth and carried it to the main pond, shaking it out of her mouth where the other hatchlings were grouped (J. Vijaya, pers. comm.). At 1010 she went again to her nest (possibly in response to a call) and dug with her front and (less often) hind feet. She moved clock- wise over her nest, sometimes putting her nose in and biting clods of earth. An egg was removed with the jaws, jerked back, and gently punctured by the front teeth. The hatchling slipped into the buccal pouch, squirming. She brought it, tail visible between her teeth, to the pond. It was observed that the hatchlings spent the first day almost entirely on dry land. At 1100 another hatchling was picked up at the nest and brought to the same spot next to the pond. 313 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Bone (1943) reports hearing baby mugger calling for “several days” from inside a nest. Neill (1971) reports that the grunt or distress cry of a juvenile will summon an adult but dismisses as folklore the idea that the mother crocodile responds to the call of the hatchlings and digs them out. Campbell (1973) discusses the probable significance of hatchling vocali- zation and its importance in attracting the mother at hatching time. Table 11 Vernacular names of mugger Language Place Vernacular name(s) Urdu Pakistan Baghori, maggar Hindustani North India Maggar mach Bihari Hindi Bihar Bocha Bengali West Bengal Kumeer Tamil Tamil Nadu Mothalay Telugu Andhra Pradesh Mosalay Kannada Karnataka Mosalay Singhalese Sri Lanka Hale kimbula, gette kimbula Creche formation and defence of young At MSP 13 hatchlings remained in the group or creche initially formed by the female for two months. They stayed with the male and female for 12 months through the next breeding season and no aggression toward the young on the part of either was observed. Groups of hatchlings were reported several times by fishermen and others and one creche group of 17 mugger hatchlings was found at Kedarhalla (Whitaker and Whitaker 1976). At MCB during capture of hatchlings from an undetected nest, a mature male and female and a sub-adult male made repeated lunges and charges at the keepers and demonstrated a fierce defence of the hatchlings. Both females and males respond to the juve- nile distress cry. At MSP a hatchling was held near the enclosure and its distress cry brought a female charging out of the water and almost over the 1.5m wall. Wild mugger, apparently of both sexes, responded to mimicked distress cries by approaching, leaving the water and charging. Reddy (1978) reports 15 hatchlings eaten by the parent male and female at Indira Gandhi Zoological Park. This behaviour could have resulted from stress in confined quarters. Conservation MCB has been established with help from the World Wildlife Fund, New York Zoologi- cal Society, Tamil Nadu State Government, West German Reptile Leather Association and MSP Trust. It is self sustaining by tourism, and is a trust for the breeding, rearing and supply of live crocodiles for restocking and captive breeding programmes in India. Since its beginning in 1974 the Bank has accumulated breeding stock from captive sources, reared 250 mugger from wild collect- ed eggs and produced 1100 mugger from cap- tive breeding. 500 juvenile mugger (mostly one to two year old) have been supplied to seve- ral state governments for rearing and/or re- lease. The UNDP /FAQ /Government of India crocodile programme has resulted in the for- mation of 10 protected habitats specifically for crocodilians, with 4 states involved in egg collection, rearing and release piojects. At present about 800 mugger are being reared for release mainly in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh. To date about 650 have been released in separate habitats. Acknowledgements We wish to thank the staff of the MCB and MSP Trusts for their support 314 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER and participation in these studies. The cooperation of the Forest Departments of Tamil Nadu State and Gujarat State is gratefully acknowledged. We thank Binod Choudhury and E. Mahadev for their participa- tion in egg collection. Allen Vaughan, MCB Manager, J. Vijaya and Bob Larson collected the captive breeding data for 1979 and 1980. We are grateful to Alistair Graham for assist- ance with the manuscript and are deeply in- debted to Jeff Lang for guiding its shape and format. References Acfiarjyo, L. N. & Mohapatra, S. (1977) : Growth rate of mugger ( Crocodylus palustris) . Hamadryad, 2: 9 (September). Ahmed, Quazi Q. (1945): Syncope in a crocodile. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 45 : 429. Annandale, Nelson (1921): Mugger in Darrang District, Assam. Rec. lnd. Mus. VIII. Battye, R. K. M. (1944): Crocodiles bellowing. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 45 : 93-94. Bellairs, A. d’A. (1971): The life of the reptiles. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London. Biswas, S. (1970) : Proposal for the protection of marsh crocodile. Indian Forester 96(9 ) : 704 (September) . Bone, C. (1943) : The hatching of a mugger (C. palustris). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 45: 93-94. Brander, A. A. Dunbar (1927): Wild animals in Central India. Edward Arnold & Co., London. Bustard, H. R. (1974) : India — a preliminary survey of the prospects for crocodile farming. UND- P/FAO, FO: IND/71/033, pp. 1-66. Champion, F. W. (1934): The jungle in sunlight and shadow. Chatto and Windus, London, p. 51. Choudhury, B. C., Whitaker, R. & Whitaker, Z. (1979) : Crocodile egg collection in Tamil Nadu. Indian Forester, 105, (2) : 121-128 (February). Cott, Hugh B. (1961a) : Scientific results of an inquiry into the ecology and economic status of the Nile crocodile ( Crocodilus niloticus ) in Uganda and Northern Rhodesia. Trans. Zool. Soc. London, 29: 211-356. (1961b): The life of the Nile crocodile. The Times Science Review, no. 41, pp. 10-12. D’Abreu, E. A. (1915): Notes on the mugger (C. palustris) — contents of their stomachs, folk- lore, etc. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37: 202. David, Reuben (1970): Breeding the mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) and water monitor (Varanus salvator). Inti. Zoo Yearbook 10: 116-117. Deraniyagala, P. E. P. (1936): A new crocodile from Ceylon. The Ceylon Journal of Science, Section B 79(3) : 279-286. (1939) : The tetrapod re- ptiles of Ceylon. Vol. 1, Testudinates and Croco- dilians. Colombo Mus. Nat. Hist. Scr., pp. 307-391. Diiarmakumarsinhji, K. S. (1947) : Mating and the parental instinct of the marsh crocodile (Croco- dilus palustris, Lesson). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 47(1): 174. (1952): Large stone in stomach of crocodile, ibid. 59(4) : 950. Garrick, Leslie D. & Lang, Jeffrey W. (1977): Social signals and behaviors of adult alligators and crocodiles. Amer. Zool. 17: 225-239. Garrick, Leslie D., Lang, Jeffrey W. & Herzog, Harold A. jr. (1978) : Social signals of adult Ame- rican alligators. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 160 ( 3) : 153-192. Graham, A. D. (1968): The Lake Rudolf croco- dile population. Unpublished report to the Kenya Game Dept, by Wild life Services Ltd., pp. 1-113. Graham, Alistair, & Beard, Peter (1973): Eye- lids of Morning. A & W Visual Library, pp. 1-260. Guggisberg, C. A. W. (1972) : Crocodiles. Their natural history, folklore and conservation. Stackpole Books, USA. Honnegger, Rene E. (1971): The status of four threatened crocodilian species of Asia. IUCN Sup- plementary Paper No. 32, pp. 44-50'. Krishnamurthy (1951): Angling for crocodiles with book and line in Krishnarajasagar 'reservoir. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 181. Lang. Jeffrey W. (in press) : Reproductive behavi- ors of the New Guinea and saltwater crocodiles. McCann, C. (1935): The mugger (C. palustris) 315 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 feeding on large water beetles (Cy bister sp.) J. Bombay nat. Hist. 38: 409. (1940): A Reptile and Amphibian Miscellany (Part I). ibid. 41: 742. Modha, M. L. (1967) : The ecology of the Nile crocodile ( Crocodylus niloticus Laurenti) on Central Island, Lake Rudolf. East African Wildl. Jour., 5: 74-95. Neill, Wilfred T. (1971): The last of the ruling reptiles — alligators, crocodiles and their kin. New York, Columbia Univ. Press, pp. 1-486. Parker, W. K. (1880): Letter on mugger breed- ing. Proc. Zool. Soc. London,: 186-187 (March). Peaker, M. (1969): Active acquisition of stomach stones in a specimen of Alligator mississippiensis Daudin. Brit. J. of Herp., 4(4) : 103-104. Pitman, C. R. (1913): a) The contents of a marsh crocodile’s stomach, b) Marsh crocodile kill- ing a panther ( Felis pardus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 22 : 641. Pooley, A. C. (1974): Parental care in the Nile crocodile. Lammergeyer, 21: 43-45 (July). Pooley, Anthony C., and Gans, Carl (1976): The Nile crocodile. Sci. Amer., 234: 114-124. Prakash, Mahendra (1971) : Crocodile ( Croco - dilus palustris) breeding at the Jaipur Zoo. J. Bom- bay nat. Hist. Soc., 68(3) : 835-837. Prater, S. H. (1933) : The social life of snakes. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 36(2) : 474. Reddy, P. S. (1978): Crocodile breeding in Indira Gandhi Zoological Park. Wildlife Club Newsletter (Dehra Dun), vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 68-69. Rossel, H. G. (1944) : Bellowing and other habits of the mugger (Crocodylus palustris). J. Bombay nat. H*st. Soc., 45: 428-429. Shortt, W. H. O. (1921): A few hints on croco- dile shooting. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 28: 77-84. Sim cox, A. H. A. (1905) : The crocodile; its food and muscular vitality. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 16: 375. Singh, Lala A. K. (1979) : Pigeon catching croco- diles. Hornbill, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., pp. 22-25 (Jan. -Mar.). Smith, M. A. (1927) : The distribution of the mugger. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 33 (4) : 721. (1935): Fauna of British India, Vol. I. Taylor and Francis Ltd., London (Ralph Curtis Books reprint, 1973). “Smoothbore, (1897): Crocodiles. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 77(1): 151. Spittel, R. L. (1924) : Wild Ceylon. Webb, G. J. W. (1978) : The status, conservation and management of world crocodilians. Report pre- pared for Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, pp. 1-83. Whitaker, R. (1974): Notes on behaviour, eco- logy and present status of the marsh crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) in South India. Mimeograph- ed report of the Madras Snake Park Trust, pp. 1-22. Whitaker, R. (1977): Note on the status of the Gir crocodiles. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(1) : 224- 227. Whitaker, R. (1979a): The Madras Snake Park: its role in public education and reptile research. Inti. Zoo Yearbook, 19: 31-38. Whitaker, R. (1979b): Gharial Survey and ob- servations on the Ramganga River, Corbett National Park, U.P., 2.4.74- 5.5.74. Hamadryad, supplement no. 2, pp. 1-17. Whitaker, R. & Basu, D. (1983) : The Gharial (Gavialis gangeiicus) : A review. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 79(3): 531-548. Whitaker, R., & Daniel, J. C. (1978) : The status cf Asian crocodilians. Tiger Paper (FAO, Asia), vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 12-17. Whitaker, R., & Whitaker, Z. (1976): Note on natural history of Crocodylus palustris: Kedarhalla- 1975. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 74(2) : 358-360. Whitaker, R., & Whitaker, Z. (1977a) : Notes on vocalization and protective behaviour in the mugger. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 75(1): 227-228. (1977 b): Notes on captive breeding in mugger (Crocodylus palustris). ibid. 75(1): 228-231. Whitaker. R., & Whitaker, Z. (1979): Prelimi- nary crocodile survey — Sri Lanka. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 76(1): 66-85. Whitaker, Romulus, & Whitaker Zahida (1975) : Collection and hatching of marsh croco- dile (Crocodylus palustris) eggs. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 73(2): 403-407. Whitaker, Zahida (ed.) (1976 a) : Nesting mugger observed. Newsletter of the Madras Snake Park Trust, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 4-5 (May). Whitaker, Zahida (ed.) (1976 b): Mugger on a hill. ibid. p. 5. Whitaker, Zahida (ed.) (1976 c) : Mugger breed- ing. Newsletter of the Madras Snake Park Trust 316 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER and Conservation Centre, vol. 1, no. 2, p. 1 (Dec.). Whitaker, Zahida (ed.) (1978): 9 baby croco- diles found on Powai Lake banks. Hamadryad, 3, (3): 2 (September). Whitaker, Zahida (ed.) (1979): Observations on a nesting mugger at the Madras Snake Park, Hamadryad, 4(2): 6-7 (May). Whitaker, Zahida (ed.) (1980): Mugger breed- ing at Madras Crocodile Bank-1979. Hamadyad, 5 (1) : 2-3 (January). Yadav, R. N. (1969) : Breeding the mugger croco- dile ( Crocodylus palustris ). Inti. Zoo Yearbook, vol. 9. 317 MORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES ON THE SYCONIA OF FICUS BEN GALEN SIS LINN.1 R. Xndra2 AND K. V. Krishnamurthy3 (With four text figures) The morphology of the syconia of Ficus bengalcnsis collected during July and November has been studied. There are male, female and gall flowers in syconia of both months but in July syconia two types of gall flowers are observed. The first type of gall flowers are smaller and enclose species of Blastophaga, v/hile the second type are larger and enclose wasps which resembled species of Apocrypta. Unlike other species, the male flowers are not restricted to the proximity of the ostiole but are found here and there throughout the floor of the syconium. The results are dis- cussed in relation to the previous observations on other species of figs. Introduction The genus Ficus, commonly known as the Fig, is characterised by the specialised type of inflorescence called Syconium (or Hypantho- dium) which develops into a compound fruit. Because of their peculiar morphology, the syconia of figs have attracted the attention of a number of researchers who have studied their constitution, development and pollination biology (Galil and Eisikowitch 1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1974 and Galil and Yehudit Snitzer Pasternak 1970, Johri and Konar 1955, 1956). Special attention has been paid especially to the pollination biology of the figs and their pollinating insects like species of Apocrypta, Blastophaga and Sycophaga. A careful re- view of the previous literature indicates that not much work has been done on Ficus 1 Accepted July 1982. 2 Seethalakshmi Ramaswami College, Tiruchirapalli-620 002. 3 Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli-620 020. bengalensis L. which is a common species in India. There also exists a lot of variations and con- fusions regarding the occurrence, location and distribution of the male, female, neutral and gall flowers in the syconia collected at different periods of the year. The object of the pre- sent study is to investigate the morphology of syconia and its constituent flowers in Ficus bengalensis. Observations The sessile syconia occur in pairs in the axils of leaves. There are 3 rounded bracts which become quite prominent and spreading at the base of each syconium and these bracts are glabrous, coriacious at the maturity of syconia. The syconia when very young are green but change to orange colour after a long time only to become red at maturity. The mature fruits range from 17-20 mm in diameter. There is also a change in shape of the inflorescence from the triangular to the rounded shape during development. 318 SYCONIA OF FICUS BENGALENSIS Ostiole : Each syconium has an ostiole at its free end (Fig. 2D). Its position could be made out as a circular mark. But the opening becomes very conspicuous only during the ripening of the syconia, not only by an in- crease in its diameter but also by its rising above the surface of the syconia. The ostiole is lined internally by scales of different types. There are about 10-14 hard triangular scales with rounded bases nearer towards the outer opening of the ostiole and these scales are so closely arranged that nothing could find its way out. But with the enlargement of the syconia these scales loosen to make an opening. These scales have their epidermal cells in the upper part drawn out into small elongated hair like structures whereas the basal part is devoid of these structures (Fig. 1A). Away from the external opening of the ostiole, are elongated hard scales which form the second category (Fig. IB). Flowers : The syconia consist of male, female and gall flowers. Of the two crops Fig. 1. A — Triangular scale found at the ostiolar region. B — Scale found away from the external opening of the ostiole. of syconia collected, one in November and the other in July, we could observe two differ- ences: (1) the number of male flowers in the syconia collected in November is slightly more than that of the other. (2) In the syconia collected in July a few quite unusually large gall flowers along with the other usual type of flowers are observed. Fig. 2. A — Group of exceptionally large gall flowers. B — Stages in the development of exceptionally large gall flowers. Abbreviations : E. H. — Exit hole, I — Insect. C — A group of female flowers forming Synstigam (SS). D — L.S. of Syconium. O — Ostiole, S — Staminate flower. (a) Male flowers : Male flowers are distri- buted here and there throughout the floor of the syconia (Fig. 2D). The number of male flowers per syconium is considerably less when compared to that of the female and gall flowers. All the male flowers are more or less of the same size. Each flower is bracteate and pedicellate, the pedicel being very long. Three perianth lobes arise at the end of the pedicel, enclosing the single stamen (Fig. 3A), The perianth is polyphyl- lous with imbricate aestivation. Each flower has a short, thick filament dilated at the apex 319 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 81 where the dithecous anther is embedded along its vertical thecae. The anthers open by longitudinal slits. (b) Female flowers : The female flowers are of the following types: (1) Nearly half the number of female flowers of the syconium are sessile or almost sessile, with compara- tively long styles (Fig. 3B). All these flowers are well developed. The length of the style varies from 2-3 mm. These flowers are bracteate with 3 polyphyllous and imbricate perianth enclosing the ovary at its base. Style is lateral. (2) The second type of flowers Fig. 3. A — Staminate flower. Abbreviations : A — Anther, B — Bract, P — Pedi- cel, T — Tepal. B — Sessile and long styled female flower. Abbreviations : B — Bract, O — Ovule, S — Stigma, T — Tepal. C & D. — Pedicellate and short styled flower. Abbreviations : B — Bract, O — Ovule, P — Pedicel, S — Stigma, T — Tepal. are pedicellate and have comparatively shorter styles (0.5-1 mm), (Fig. 3C, D). All inter- mediate forms with respect to style length are found. All these flowers have the same number of free perianth lobes enclosing ovaries with lateral styles. In this second category a few flowers are underdeveloped. These flowers in whose ovary parts the insects lay their eggs, hatch and develop into adults which escape through apical pores made by them on the ovary. As these different types of female flowers intermingle, the styles of these flowers become interlaced and stuck together, espe- cially at their stigmatic level forming a compound or syn-stigma (Fig. 2C). Fig. 4. A — Blastophaga quadruticeps — Adult in- sect. B — Apocrypta sp. — Adult insect. 320 SYCONIA OF FICUS BENGALENSIS (c) Unusually large gall flowers : In syconia collected in July a variable number of large, very distinct gall flowers are found in addition to the usual sized gall flowers (Fig. 2A). They are without perianth and largely distinct from other flowers in having a more or less spheri- cal upper part borne on a hard stalk. The hardness is evident in such flowers even at younger stages of development. As they develop (Fig. 2B), their colour changes from whitish to pale brownish and the outer surface of the flowers becomes slightly crinkled. They all enclose insects which at maturation escape out through an opening, much in the same way as in the other type of gall flowers. After the insect leaves the flowers, the flower becomes still harder and the colour becomes dark brown (Fig. 2B). Gall insects : The insects collected from the syconia were found to be of two different types. One type of insect resembles Blasto- phaga quadruticeps (Fig. 4A) where sexual dimorphism is exhibited. The males are wingless whereas the females are winged with a long filament at the posterior end. The other insect resembles the species of the genus Apocrypta (Fig. 4B) whose males do not have the filament. Careful studies indicate that the unusually large sized gall flowers harbour the metamorphic stages of Apocrypta while the other type of gall flowers seem to have Blastophaga. Discussion The distribution of male flowers in the syconium has been a matter of discussion in the past literature. In Ficus religiosa investi- gated by Johri and Konar (1955, 1956) there are 11-19 male flowers distributed nearer to the ostiole region of the syconium. In syconia of the same species (Galil & Eisiko witch 1968a), collected at Israel, there are only 9-12 male flowers, but their distribution is the same as in Indian syconia recorded by Johri and Konar (1956). In Ficus syconiosus also the male flowers are distributed nearer to the ostiole (Galil & Eisikowitch 1968b). In the syconia of F. bengalensis investigated at present, the male flowers are scattered through- out the floor of the syconium and are not restricted to the ostiolar proximity. This is true of syconia collected both during July and November. In November syconia there are more number of male flowers than in July syconia. The present study is able to confirm the presence of different types of female flowers within the same syconium recorded earlier for other species of Ficus. The sessile long styled ones form the one extreme and the pedicelled short styled ones form the other extreme. All intergrades in stylar length could be observed. The present study con- firms the earlier observations on other species that the long styled sessile flowers are gene- rally the seed flowers while the pedicellate short styled ones invariably develop into gall flowers. The occasional development of short styled ones into fruiting stage and the long styled ones into gall flowers, indicates that there is no fundamental distinction between female and gall flowers, a fact already stressed by Johri and Konar (1956), and Galil and Eisikowitch (1968b) for other species. The presence of two types of gall flowers is a significant point of discussion. One type of gall flower is found both in the July and November syconia, while the other is observed only in July syconia. The latter type is un- usually large, whitish to start with but be- coming brownish at maturity, has fairly long and thick pedicels, perianth lobes could not be detected in it. It also contains different 321 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 type of gall wasp resembling the genus Apocrypta while the other type of gall flower encloses Blastophaga species. Although the presence of more than a single gall wasp in the syconium of a few other species (see Galil and Eisikowitch 1968a) is recorded, as far as we are aware of, it has not been recorded in F. bengalensis. This complicates the polli- R E FE R Galil, J. & Eisikowitch, D. (1968a) : On the pollination ecology of Ficus religiosa in Israel. Phytomorphology 18 : 356-363. (1968b) : Flowering cycles and fruit types of Ficus sycomorus. New Phytol. 67 : 745- 758. (1969): Further studies on the pollination ecology of Ficus sycomorus L. (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea, Agonidae). Tijid. Voor Ent. 112 : 1-13. (1974) : Further studies on pollination ecology in Ficus sycomorus II. Pock filling and emptying by Ceratosolen arabicus Mayr. New nation ecology of this species. Acknowledgement We are indebted to Prof. K. Peria- samy of Bharathidasan University, Tiruchira- palli, for helpful discussions and encourage- ment. e n c e s Phytol. 73 : 515-528. Galil, J. & Yehudit Snitzer Pasternak (1970): Pollination in Ficus religiosa L. as connected with the structure and mode of action of the pollen pockets of Blastophaga quadriticeps Mayr. ibid. 69: 775-784. Johri, B. M. & Konar, R. N. (1955) : A contribu- tion to the morphology and embryology of Ficus religiosa Linn. Curr. Sci. 24 : 382-385. (1956) : The floral morphology and embryology of Ficus relgiiosa Linn. Phytomorpho- logy 6 : 97-111. 322 DISTRIBUTION OF DROSOPHILA SPECIES AND THEIR DIVERSITIES IN THE TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS OF WESTERN GHATS1 H. 8. Prakash and G. Sreerama Reddy2 {With a text-figure) The studies on the Brosophilid fauna of the tropical rain forests of Western Ghats have revealed the occurrence of 40 species representing four genera namely Droso- phila, Scaptomyza, Phorticella and Leucophenga. Majority of the species collected belong to the genus Drosophila while only three species belong to the latter three genera. The members of the genus Drosophila are shared by four subgenera namely Sophophora, Drosophila, Scaptodrosophila and Dorsilopha, of which the former two include the major bulk of 98.6% of the total population. The analysis of Drosophila fauna has revealed six new species namely D. giriensis, D. jagri, D. sahyadrii, D. agumbensis, D. nagerholensis and D. gundensis; and three new records namely D. elegans, D. rhopaloa and D. grandis, as well as several others which are not reported from plains of Peninsula indicating the diversity in the species composition. The collection localities were found to vary a great deal in the composition and in the relative concentration of different species. Only two species namely D. malerkatliana and D. nasuta were found to be abundant at almost all the collection localities and can be adjudged as ecologically versatile. Another species D. immigrans which was not reported from the semiwiid and domestic localities of Peninsular India was observed in large numbers in four of the eight localities indicating its preference to moist and humid climatic conditions. Similarly, D. pimjabiensis which was occasionally reported from the semiwild localities was noticed in considerable numbers in three of the eight localities. Other species were found to be represented in low to moderate numbers. The sympatric association and ecological dominance of the members belonging to melanogaster and immigrans species group of two different subgenera, Sophophora and Drosophila in the area under investigation, the wide spread and endemic charac- ters of the Drosophila species and the finding of six new species as well as three new reports encountered in the collection are discussed. Introduction The Drosophilidae is a large family of flies of world-wide distribution. About half of the known species belong to the very large genus Drosophila. It is known to contain more than 1 Accepted September 1980. 2 Department of Post-Graduate Studies and Re- search in Zoology, University of Mysore, Manasa- gangotri, Mysore 570 006, India. 323 1,300 biologically valid species (Bock and Parsons 1978). They have been categorised into nine subgenera namely, Sophophora, Drosophila, Hirtodrosophila, Scaptodrosophila, Dorsilopha, Siphlodora, Sordophila, Phloridosa and Engiscaptomyza. However, only the first four subgenera contain a substantial number of species which are generally regarded as representing major bursts in speciation. Parallel with the development of genetical and 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 evolutionary knowledge, taxonomic studies in the genus have advanced a great deal in the past few decades. As a result of this, several new species are constantly being described and the total size of the genus must consist of at least 2,000 species (Stone et al. 1960). The Indian sub-continent with its diverse climatic and varied physiographic conditions provides large number of natural environs for colonization by the members of the genus Drosophila. However, a vast area of great ecological interest still awaits exploration. Reference to literature reveals that very little information is available on several aspects of Drosophila biology. Inspite of the striking pro- gress made during the last few years (Parshad and Paika 1964, Parshad and Duggal 1965, 1966; Rahman and Singh 1969, Gupta and Ray- Chaudhuri 1970a, b, c; Singh 1970, 1972; Jha, Mishra and Singh 1971, Reddy and Krishna- murthy 1971, 1974, 1977; Vaidya and God- bole 1971, 1972, 1973, 1976; Godbole and Vaidya 1972; Ranganath and Krishnamurthy 1972; Siddaveere Gowda and Krishnamurthy 1972; Gupta 1973, 1974; Siddaveere Gowda et al. 1977 and Gupta and Singh 1977), in- formation pertaining to the occurrence and the pattern of distribution of Drosophilid fauna in various parts of the country is not clearly understood. Judging from the reports of Drosophila taxonomy from other parts of the world, it appears that the number of species reported thus far from the Indian sub- continent is too small and does not reflect the true picture of Drosophila fauna. Until re- cently almost nothing was known of Droso- phila inhabiting the tropical rain forests of Western Ghats extending from river Tapti to Cape Comorin (Peninsular India). In view of this we have chose the unexplored areas of the tropical rain forests of Western Ghats to get an insight into the diversity in Drosophila species, their relative abundance and their dependance on the rain forest type of vegetation as well as their ecodistributional pattern of different species inhabiting this region. Materials and Methods Drosophila collections were made during the monsoon periods of 1976, 1977 and 1978 from eight localities of the tropical rain forests of Western Ghats (Fig. 1). The gene- ral ecogeographical features of the area under investigation as well as the topographical features and the climatic factors of eight localities are briefly described below. Ecogeographical features of Western Ghats Western Ghats extend along the western side of Peninsular India, from the mouth of the river Tapti to Cape Comorin. They in- clude the humid belt of hilly or mountainous country. The vegetation of this part of the country is influenced more by the abun- dance and distribution of the seasonal rainfall than the atmospheric temperature. The western side of the Western Ghats is on the threshold of southwest monsoon and receives the maximum rainfall whereas, the eastern side lies in the rain-shadow area of the hills. The main types of soils met with in the Western Ghats are red, laterite, and black soils. Shifting cultivation, grazing and indiscriminate lopping have result- ed in the destruction of some of the virgin forests, which now survive only in some of the inaccessible mountain summit areas. Introduction of plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber and extension of teak in south- ern regions of Western Ghats and cultivation of Eucalyptus especially in Nilgiri have also resulted in the destruction of large virgin 324 DISTRIBUTION OF DROSOPHILA SPECIES Sahyadri Wills A oshimoga Jagra valley Cape Comorin Fig. 1. Map of Peninsular India illustrating eight localities of Western Ghats from which Drosophila collections were made \ ). JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, -Vol 81 forests. Construction of large number of hydro-electric projects resulting in the sub- mersion of catchment areas have further ac- celerated regressive changes in the forest flora of the region. The most outstanding feature of Western Ghats is the development of the tropical rain forests prominently seen on the windward side of the southern part, usually between the altitudes of 500 to 1500 m. The humid tropic belt of Western Ghats possesses the following forest types : 1. tropical moist deci- duous, 2. tropical semievergreen, and 3. tro- pical evergreen. According to Richards (1952) (cf. Subramanyam and Nayar 1974), tropical rain forests have no marked summer and winter seasons, but only wet and dry seasons. The seasonal changes of tempera- ture are quite insignificant in relation to the seasonal variations in rainfall. The forests are characterised by multistoried canopies of vegetation and the various synusiae like : 1. trees and shrubs, 2. herbs, 3. climbers, 4. stranglers and 5. epiphytes. The ground layer and the trees themselves are carpeted with mosses, ferns, orchids and lichens and thus form a characteristic biological spectrum providing large number of natural environs for the colonization of the members of the genus Drosophila. Subramanyam and Nayar (1974) have divided the Western Ghats into four phytogeographical regions, namely : 1. the Western Ghats from the river Tapti to Goa, 2. the Western Ghats from the river Kalinadi to Coorg, 3. the Nilgiri and 4. the Anamalai, Palni and Cardamom Hills. 1. Western Ghats from the river Tapti to Goa This botanical division is dominated by mountain chains, rising to 1000 m abruptly within a short distance of 2-3 km and is characterised by deep ravines, canyons and flat-topped spurs intersected by valleys. It receives the full blast of the monsoon rainfall from June to September. The vegetation consists of dry deciduous, moist deciduous and evergreen forests. However, Qureshi (1965) remarks that the evergreen forests occurring in this region are not typical tropi- cal evergreen forests. Hence they are classi- fied as montane subtropical evergreen forests. Drosophila collection was made at one loca- lity namely Khandala Ghats. Khandala Ghats are located between Poona and Bombay, situated at 19° 0 ’N latitude and 73° 10’E longitude. The temperature ranges from 14°C to 30°C, with a relative humidity of 65% to 30%. The average annual rainfall is about 3,950 mm. Collections were made at various altitudes of 760-790 m. 2. Western Ghats from the river Kalinadi to Coorg This region is marked by a series of breaches in the mountain wall by the rivers Kalinadi, Gangavali Bedti, Tadri and Shara- vati. The access to the interior is not easy, since the valleys are surrounded by deep gorges 3-5 km across and 300 m deep. The entire area is hot and humid. The heavy rainfall favours thick tropical forest growth with best teak plantations in the upper ever- green zone. The main types of vegetation observed here are scrub, moist deciduous and evergreen forests. Five localities namely Sahyadri Hills’ range, Agumbe, Jagra Valley, Rababudangiri and Kemmangundi Hills’ range and Nagarhole were chosen to analyse the Drosophila fauna. The brief description of these localities are as follows : i) Sahyadri Hills' range extends towards the western side of Shimoga and situated at 13° 45’N latitude and 74° 48’E longitude. It has an average annual rainfall of about 326 DISTRIBUTION OF DROSOPHILA SPECIES 2,978 mm. The temperature ranges from 18°C to 32°C, with a relative humidity of 60% to 81%. The altitudes of the collection sites range from 590 to 710 m. ii) Agumbe is located to the southwest of Shimoga and situated at 13° 18’N latitude and 74° 38' E longitude. It receives very heavy rainfall with an annual average of 8,275 mm. Because of the heavy rainfall it is called ‘Cheera PunjT of South India. This has con- tributed to the growth of dense forest in the locality. The temperature ranges from 17°C to 31°C with a relative humidity of 70% to 90%. The altitudes of the collection sites range from 760 to 800 m. iii) Jagra Valley is situated at a distance of 50 km to the west of Chikmagalur and located at 13° 10’N latitude and 75° 45’E longitude. It has an average annual rainfall of about 2,160 mm. The temperature ranges from 16°C to 30°C, with a relative humidity of 75% to 90%. Collections were made at various altitudes of 700-780 m. iv) Bababudanglri and Kemmangundi Hills ’ range is a picturesque place of Western Ghats situated at 13° 17’E latitude and 75° 45’E longitude. The average annual rainfall is about 2,856 mm. The' temperature ranges from 12°C to 32°C, with a relative humidity of 76% to 93%. The altitudes of the collec- tion sites range from 1000 to 1600 m. Many of the hills are covered with heavy forests, while valleys and ravines produce luxuriant trees known for their great height and size. v) N agar hole is about 75 km to the west of Mysore City and situated at 12° 18’N latitude and 70° 09’E longitude. It has an average annual rainfall of 1,6 10 mm. The temperature ranges from 18°C to 30°C with a relative humidity of 55% to 80%. The altitudes of the collection sites range from 760 to 790 m. 3. The Nil girl Hills Nilgiri forms a compact plateau with the highest elevation of 2,670 m at Doddabetta and dissected much-worn massif, with steep hills and rolling downs, interspersed with shola forests. The forest is evergreen, composed of tropical and sub-tropical vegetation. The sholas are characteristically filled with ever- green forests with thick undergrowth. Droso- phila collection was made at one locality namely Kotagiri. Kotagiri is about 25 km to the southeast of Ootacamund and situated at 11° 22’N latitude and 77° 05’E longitude. The average annual rainfall is about 1,524 mm. The temperature ranges from 12°C to 30°C, with a relative humidity of 70% to 85%. The altitudes of the collection sites range from 1400 to 1960 m. 4. The Anamalai, Cardamom and Palni Hills The topography of this region is remark- ably more complex than the Nilgiris. They have the highest peak of 2,695 m in the Peninsula. In the northwest, the hills fray out into long southeast-northwest ridges. The types of vegetation on these hills are dry deciduous type at the lower elevations with an annual rainfall ranging from 1600-2600 mm; and moist deciduous type between the altitudes of 500-900 m with a rainfall from 2400-3500 mm. The wet evergreen forest types are also seen on elevations ranging from 500-2500 m along the windward side of the Western Ghats, where the rainfall ranges from 2500 to 5000 mm. Drosophila collec- tions were made at one locality namely Anamalai Hills. Anamalai Hill range is situated at 10° 24’N latitude and 76° 40°E longitude. The 327 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 average annual rainfall is about 4,000 mm. The temperature ranges from 12°C to 30°C, with a relative humidity of 80% to 90%. The altitudes of the collection sites range from 800 to 2,400 m. The collections were made mostly in moist deciduous type and wet ever- green forests. Collection methods Drosophila collections were made at five sites in each of the eight localities except for Bababudangiri and Kemmangundi Hills’ range where 12 sites v/ere selected. The sites chosen are 5-10 km apart and have at least one element in common and that is shade from the direct sun rays. Collections were carried out by using 10 traps (250 ml milk bottles) at each site, enabling the comparison of quantitative differences among the sites to be made. The conventional bait such as fer- menting banana fruit, a technique successful for most Indian species of the subgenera Sophophora and Drosophila, but less so for species of the other subgenera was employed. Occasionally, sweeping off foliage and leaf litter was made, which was found to be successful for the members of the subgenera Scaptodrosophila and Drosophila. Bottles containing bait were tied up to the branches of trees and bushes in the vicinity of permanent water or moisture. Away from moist area, especially in dry weather, the yield of flies was consistently low. Members of the genus Drosophila have been shown to be very sensitive to desiccation and high tempe- rature stresses (Parsons 1977), so that on sunny days flies are usually found in cool, damp shaded microniches. Bottles were collect- ed after two days during cooler hours of the day. The collected flies were sorted out, categorized and number of each species was recorded. The individual females which could not be assigned to any taxonomic group were isolated and allowed to breed in separate vials with a standard Drosophila food medium. The progenies of such gravid females were used for detailed studies to assign them to their respective groups. Observations The occurrence, distributional pattern and the relative abundance of the species collected in each of the eight localities of four phyto- geographical regions of Western Ghats are presented below : 1. Western Ghats from the river Tapti to Goa Khandala Ghats : A survey of Drosophila fauna of this locality yielded a total of 2,660 flies comprising of 1 1 species representing four subgenera, Sophophora, Drosophila, Scaptodrosophila and Dorsilopha of the genus Drosophila. The number of individuals of different species collected at five sites along with their respective altitudes are given in table 1. Of the 11 species collected, D. maler- kot liana and D. punjabiensis were found to dominate the collections with a total of 111 (29.2%) and 698 (26.2%) flies respectively. D. jambulina and D. nasuta were next to them with 342 (12.9%) and 301 (11.3%) flies res- pectively. Two other species, D. bipectinata and D. rajasekari with 177 (6.7%) and 122 (4.2%) individuals respectively were found in moderate numbers in the collections. The above six species were noticed in almost all the sites scanned. While other species such as D. takahashii, D. neonasuta, D. brindavani, D. krishnamurthyi and D. busckii were less common and comprise only about 9.5% of the total flies collected. 328 DISTRIBUTION OF DROSOPHILA SPECIES Table 1 Distribution of different species of Drosophila in khandala ghats (western ghats) Collection Site I n m IV V Total Altitude (in metres) 760 760 770 780 790 Subgenus : Sophophora D. takahashii 11 31 11 35 88 D. rajasekari 5 9 58 30 10 112 D. malerkotliana 254 157 206 102 58 777 D. bipectinata 73 38 — 46 20 177 D. punjabiensis 67 71 58 243 259 698 D. jambulina 37 14 120 82 89 342 Subgenus: Drosophila D. nasuta 38 68 41 80 74 301 D. neonasuta — 20 — 33 9 62 D. brindavani — — 16 — 11 27 Subgenus: Scaptodrosophila D. krishnamurthyi 14 13 8 10 21 66 Subgenus: Dorsilopha D. busckii — 3 1 6 — 10 Total 499 424 508 643 586 2660 Number of species 8 10 8 10 10 2. Western Ghats from the river Kalinadi to moderate frequencies of 109 (7.1%) and 88 Coorg i) Sahyadri Hills’ range : The population sample of this locality yielded a total of 1,531 flies comprising 10 species representing two subgenera, Sophophora and Drosophila of the genus Drosophila. The distributional pattern and the relative numbers of the species collec- ted along with the altitudes of the collection sites are shown in table 2. The number of individuals of different species vary a great deal from one site to another. Of the 10 species collected, only two namely D. maler- kotliana and D. nasuta with 678 (44.3%) and 433 (28.3%) flies respectively were found to dominate in all the sites forming more than 2/3 of the total flies trapped. Two other species, D. anomelani and D. bipectinata were also observed in almost all the sites with (5.7%) individuals respectively. The remain- ing six species namely D.takahashii, D. eugra- cilis, D. sahyadrii sp. nov., D. mysorensis, D. agumbensis sp. nov. and D. neonasuta were less common and contribute only about 14.6% to the total population. A noteworthy feature of this locality is that there is a gradual transi- tion of scrub type of vegetation to evergreen flora in east-west direction making the sites increasingly favourable for the colonization of Drosophila. This is reflected by the increase in the variety and the relative numbers of different species collected in east- west direc- tion (table 2). ii) Agumbe : The population sample of this locality is comparatively small, with a total of 1,170 individuals consisting of 12 species representing three subgenera, Sopho- phora, Drosophila and Scaptodrosophila of the 329 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Table 2 Distribution of different species of Drosophila in sahyadri fulls’ range (western ghats) Collection Site I II III IV V Altitude (in metres) 590 620 650 690 710 Total Subgenus: Sophophora D. takahashii 9 7 11 27 D. eu gracilis 4 14 22 — 22 62 D. sahyadrii sp. nov. 6 — — — 3 9 D. malerkotliana 49 45 194 160 230 678 D. bipectinata — 20 10 26 32 88 D. anomelani 11 24 24 19 31 109 D. my s or crisis — 6 1 21 12 40 D. agumbensis sp. nov. 25 — 12 2 18 57 Subgenus: Drosophila D. nasuta 47 60 58 86 182 433 D. neonasuta 1 — — 3 24 28 Total 143 178 328 328 554 1531 Number of species 7 7 8 8 9 Distribution OF DIFFERENT Table 3 species of Drosophila in AGUMBE (WESTERN GHATS) Collection Site I II III IV V Altitude (in metres) 760 770 785 790 800 Total Subgenus: Sophophora D. eu gracilis 12 26 4 17 21 80 D. pseudoananassae 11 8 — — 9 28 D. malerkotliana 105 85 53 27 69 339 D bipectinata 21 18 — 15 28 82 D. anomelani 13 41 29 22 35 140 D. montium 22 13 18 3 — 56 D. rhopaloa 3 21 — 4 15 43 D. agumbensis sp. nov. Subgenus: Drosophila 15 — 8 10 33 D. nasuta 57 48 33 65 75 278 D. neonasuta 16 14 9 11 18 68 D. grand is Subgenus: Scaptodrosophila — “ — — 2 2 D. mundagenesis 4 1 8 3 5 21 Total 279 275 162 177 277 1170 Number of species 11 10 8 10 10 330 DISTRIBUTION OF DROSOPHILA SPECIES genus Drosophila. The collection data along with the altitudes of the sites are shown in table 3. The low yield of flies from this locality was due to the disturbance caused by the heavy rainfall at the time of collection. Of the 12 species, only three, namely D. malerkotliana with 339 (29%), D. nasuta with 278 (23.8%) and D. anomelani with 140 (12%) individuals were found to dominate in all the sites scanned. The remaining nine species namely D. eugracilis, D. pseudoan- anassae, D. bipectinata, D. agumbensis sp. nov., D. montium, D. rhopaloa, D. neonasuta, D. grandis and D. mundagenesis were found in moderate frequencies and form the rest of the population sampled. iii) Jagra Valley : Analysis of the Droso- phila sample of 1,537 flies from this locality revealed the occurrence of 13 species repre- senting only two subgenera, Sophophora and Drosophila of the genus Drosophila. The number of individuals of each species collected and the altitudes of the collection sites are shown in table 4. Nine of the 13 species observed, belong to the subgenus Sophophora and four to the subgenus Drosophila. Five species namely D. malerkotliana (289 or 18.8%), D. immigrans (232 or 15.1%), D. anomelani (220 or 14.4%), D. mysorensis (200 or 13%) and D. nasuta (184 or 12%) were found to be present in all the sites forming the major bulk of the total population with 73.3%. While the remaining species such as D. jagri sp. nov., D. eugracilis, D. bipectinata, D. jambulina, D. gundensis sp. nov., D. neonasuta and D. nigra were observed in moderate numbers in some sites contri- buting to the rest of the collection. iv) Bababudangiri and Kemmangundi Hills’ range : Analysis of the population sample Table 4 Distribution of different species of Drosophila in jagra valley (western ghats) Collection Site I II III IV V Altitude (in metres) 720 745 755 765 780 Total Subgenus: Sophophora D. takahashii — 22 24 3 10 59 D. jagri sp. nov. 16 11 — — 19 46 D. eugracilis — 27 — 24 19 70 D. malekotliana 49 29 57 77 77 289 D. bipectinata 20 — 35 * 3 14 72 D. jambulina 4 — 20 7 — 31 D. anomelani 44 46 39 47 44 220 D. mysorensis 65 29 35 37 34 200 D. gundensis sp. nov. 13 — 4 — 9 26 Subgenus: Drosophila D. neonasuta 44 38 46 49 7 184 D. neonasuta 20 26 — 18 38 102 D. immigrans 54 39 33 65 41 232 D. nigra — 1 5 — — 6 Total 329 268 298 330 312 1537 Number of species 10 10 10 10 11 331 Distribution cf different species of drosophilidae in bababudangiri and kemmangumdi hills’ range (western ghats) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. 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I ON 1— ■ 1 in NO m NO r~ cn On O r-l cl oo 00 t~- 1 H H NO -3 no 1 | - — i nn | 1 —i 1 1 in H OO r-H 00 1 m 1 1 1 1 1—3 ■d- «n ■d- 00 rl m ri NO m | 1 00 OO 1 1 1 1 ^ I-* 1 1 1 1 1 O ci m | 1 f~- NO 1 1 1 1 1 cs 1 1 1 1 1 r- t-3 r- in m oo m cl 'd* 1 1 1 ^ r-l It — 1 1 1 1 1 NO o 1 1 1 1 1 1 O NO 1 ci 1 1 1 1 1 NO 1-s ! 1 I m * •S3 £) a <3 •» .to 'I * 4) * P -a 3 to 3 P a 3 '• '* C/3 a &0 C/3 05 a> p p 03 #0> o a O ‘o 03 cu • • 03 ft & to § s .!&■§ §1-5 s •§ -fe .o *p 3 •s£ to * * .to 43 § p° § 5 "§ & a P* do <3 43 3 oo Ss a S p a -a .to ~4£ O «>3 c/5 ## Q QQQqQQQQOQ 43 p Kf 5 p a< p o cn P. a is Is 43 P Oo a 43 -a p 4j 3 43 K) * * .to a a 43 .p, p 43 .43 ■Is V. p -a Os in in oo m m o m NO 10 r~ ^ in rl n r- cn m m m 103 O — NO *—l NO Cl C/3 .03 O 0) Cs Jasminum 1 . Erect shrubs or trees 2 2. Inflorescence terminal Ligustrum 2. Inflorescence axillary 3 3. Petals all connate Olea 3. Petals connate in pairs Chionanthus Chionanthus Gaertn. 1. Chionanthus malabarica (Wall, ex G. Don) Bedd. For. Man. Bot. 154, 1872; Bed- dome, FI. Sylvat. t. 239, 1872; Nair & Janar- danan, Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(2): 331, 1981. Linociera malabarica Wall, ex G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 53, 1837; Graham, 109; Wight, Icon. t. 1246, 1848; FBI 3: 607; Cooke, T. 2: 117 (2: 178). Rare tree at Mahabaleshwar. flowers : November-February. local name: Heddi. Jasminum Linn. 1 . Leaves simple 2 2. An erect or sub-erect shrub /. sambac 2. Climbing shrubs 3 3. Bracts linear, subulate J. malabaricum 3. Bracts foliaceous J. multiflorum 1. Leaves compound J. officinale 1. Jasminum malabaricum Wight, Icon. t. 1250, 1848; FBI 3: 594; Cooke, T. 2: 111 (2: 172); Santapau, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 46: 563 & 302, 1963; Puri & Maha- jan, 126. J. latifolium Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 110, 1839 (non Roxb., 1832); Dalz. & Gibs. 138; Lisboa, 216. J. arboresccns var. latifolia Talbot, Trees Bombay (ed. 2) 216, 1902; Cooke, T. 649; Birdwood, 17. Common climber all over Mahabaleshwar. flowers & fruits: February- June. local name: Kusar. 2. Jasminum multiflomm (Burm. f.) Anders. Bot. Rep. 8, t. 496, 1801; G. L. Shah, FI. Gujarat, 411, 1978. Nyctanthus multiflora Burm. f., FI. Indica, 5, t. 3, f. 1, 1763. J. pubescens Willd., Sp. PI. 1: 37, 1797; FBI 3: 592; Cooke, T. 2: 112 (2: 173). Ornamental shrub, cultivated for its flowers. flowers: Throughout the year. local name: Mogra, Jui. 3. Jasminum officinale Linn. Sp. PL 7, 1753; FBI 3: 603; Cooke, T. 2: 114 (2: 175). Cultivated shrub with white fragrant flowers. flowers: Throughout the year. local names: Chameli, Jati-Jaie. 5. Jasminum sambac Ait., Hort. Kew 1: 8, 1789; Graham, 110; Dalz. & Gibs. 137; Wight, Icon. t. 704; FBI 3: 591; Cooke, T. 2: 111 (2: 172). Cultivated for its fragrant flowers. flowers: Throughout the year. local name: But-mogri. Ligustrum Linn. 1. Ligustrum perottettii A. DC, in DC. 366 MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR — 5 Prodr. 8: 294, 1844. var. obovatum (C. B. Clarke) Gamble, FI. Madras 2: 798 (561), 1923. L. neilgherren.se var. obovata C. B. Clarke, in FI. Brit. India, 3: 615, 1882; Cooke, T. 2: 119 (2: 181); Santapau, 399, 1962 & 302, 1963; Puri & Mahajan, 126. L. neilgherrense Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 159, 1861; (non Wight, 1848); Markham, 386; Nairne, 177; Ccoke, T. 649; Birdwood, 17. Common shrub all over Mahabaleshv/ar. Stem used for making walking sticks. flowers : August-November. local name: Lokhandi. Apocynaceae 1 . Plants armed with spines Carissa 1 . Plants spineless 2 2. Scandent shrubs or climbers 3 3. Leaves in whorls Allamanda 3. Leaves opposite Anodendron 2 . Erect shrubs or trees 4 4. Leaves alternate 5 5. Plants evergreen; fruit a drupe Thevetia 5. Plants deciduous; fruits a pair of follicles Plumeria 4. Leaves opposite or in whorls 6 6. Leaves in whorls 7 7. Leaves linear along whole length of branches; fruits elongated follicles Nerium 7. Leaves oblanceolate or obovate, near the ends of the branches; fruits ellipsoid drupes Rauwolfia 6. Leaves opposite 8 8. Corolla with coronary scales Wrightia 8. Corolla without coronary scales 9 9. Small garden herbs Catharanthus 9. Large shrubs or small trees 10 10. Plants deciduous; seeds cosmose, arillate Holarrhena 10. Plants evergreen; seeds with orange-red aril, not cosmose Ervatamia Allamanda Linn. Anodendron DC. 1. Allamanda cathartica Linn , Mant. 2: 214, 1771; Cooke, T. 2: 144 (2: 207). A. aubletii Pohl, PI. Brass. 1:75, 1827; Graham, 116; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 53. Cultivated ornamental shrub, flowering throughout the year. local name: Bote. 1. Anodendron panicuSatum DC., Prodr. 8; 444, 1944; Dalz. & Gibs. 147; FBI 3: 668; Cooke, T. 2: 141 (2: 204); Birdwood, 18. Echites paniculata Roxb., FI. Ind. 2: 17, 1832; Wight, Icon. t. 396 (non Poir, 1812). Gymnema nepalensis Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 120, 1839 (non Wight, 1824). Olea Linn. 1. Olea dioica Roxb., FI. Ind. 1: 105, 1820; Graham, 109; Dalz. & Gibs. 159; Wight, 111. 151; Lisboa, 216; Markham, 386; FBI 3: 612; Cooke, T. 648 & 2: 118 (2: 179); Birdwood, 17; Santapau, 398, 1962; Puri & Mahajan, 126. One of the common trees at Mahabaleshwar. Very often infested by the parasite Viscum. flowers : J anuary- April. local names: Par Jambhal, Karamba. 367 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 81 This species is included here on authority of Birdwood. Carissa Linn. (nom. cons.) 1. Carissa cosigesta Wight, Icon. t. 1289, 1848; Hains, in Indian Forester, 45: 385, 1919. C. carandas Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 116, 1839 (non Linn., 1767); Dalz. & Gibs., 143; FBI 3: 630 (pro parte); Cooke, T. 2: 124 (2: 186); Lisboa, 217; Birdwood, 17. Common spiny shrub along Kelger Ghat. Ripe fruits are eaten and raw fruits are used for pickles. flowers : February- J une. local name: Carvanda. Catharanthus G. Don 1. Catharanthus roseus (Linn.) G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 95, 1837; Graham, 115; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 53; Santapau, 147. Vinca rosea Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. 10, 944, 1759; FBI 3: 640. Lochnera rosea Reich., Consp. Regn. Veg. 134, 1828; Cooke, T. 2: 129 (2: 192). An ornamental garden plant, bearing pink or white flowers. flowers: Throughout the year. local name: Sadaphuli. Ervatamia Stapf 1. Ervatamia divaricata (Linn.) R. Br., in Roem. & Schultes, Syst. 4: 420, 1819; Burkill, in Rec. Bot. Surv. India, 10: 320, 1925. Nerium divaricatnm Linn., Sp. PI. 209, 1753. N. coronarium Jacq., Coll. 1: 138, 1786; Bot. Mag. t. 1865. E. coronaria (Jacq.) C. Stapf in This. -Dyer, FI. Trop. Africa, 4: 127, 1902; Cooke, T. 2: 134 (2: 197). T. coronaria Willd. Enum. Hort. Berol. 275, 1809; Graham, 115; Dalz. & Gibs. 144; FBI 3: 646; Wight, Icon. t. 477. Cultivated for its flowers which are offered for religious worship. local name: Tagar. Holarrhena R. Br. 1 . Holarrhena antidysenterica (Heyne ex Roth.) DC, Prodr. 8: 413, 1844; Dalz. & Gibs. 145; FBI 3: 644; Cooke, T. 2: 133 (2: 195): Birdwood, 18; Santapau, 287, 1963; Puri & Mahajan, 127. Echites antidysenterica Heyne ex Roth., Nov. PI. Sp. 138, 1821. Wrightia antidysenterica Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 249, 1839 (excl. Syn.). H. codaga G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 78, 1837; Wight, Icon. t. 1297, 1848. Rare shrub in open forests on the ghat region. flowers : March-October. local name: Kuda. Nerium Linn. 1. Nerium indicum Mill., Gard. Diet. (ed. 8), no. 2, 1768; Santapau, 150. N. odorum Soland, Apud. Ait. Hort. Kew. 1 : 297, 1789; Graham, 114; FBI 3: 655; Cooke, T. 2: 143 (2: 206). Ornamental garden plant. flowers: Throughout the year. Plumeria Linn. 1. Plumeria rubra Linn., Sp. PI. 209, 1753; Woodson, Ann. Missouri Bot. Garden, 25 : 297, 1938. P. acuminata R. Br., in Ait. Hort. Kew. ed 2, 2: 70, 1811; Graham, 119; Santapau, 149. P. acutifolia Poir., in Lam. Encycl. Meth. Suppl. 2: 667, 1812; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 52; FBI 3: 641; Lisboa, 217; Cooke, T. 2: 142 (2: 206). P. rubra Linn, forma acuminata (Ait.) Santapau & Irani ex Shah, in Journ. Univ. Bombay, 30: 35, 1962. Cultivated in gardens and generally planted near temples. flowers: December- June. local names: Khair Champa, Deo-champa. Rauwolfia Linn. 1. Rauwolfia densiflora (Wall, ex Ed- 368 MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHW AR — 5 ward) Benth. ex Hook. 1, FI. Brit. India, 3: 633, 1882; Nairne, 179; Cooke, T. 649 & 2; 127 (2; 189); Birdwood, 18; Santapau, 287, 1963; Puri & Mahajan, 127. Tabernamontana densiflora Wall., in Edwards Bot. Reg. 15: t. 1273, 1829. Ophioxylon neilgherrense Wight, Icon. t. 1292, 1848; Dalz. & Gibs. 144. Quite common shrub in partially shaded places among the undergrowths near Lingmala and Tiger’s path. flowers : March- April. Thevetia Linn. (nom. cons.) 1. Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum., in Pfam. 4(2): 159, 1895; Merrill, in Phil. Journ. Sci. Bot. 9: 130, 1914; Santapau, 150. Cerbcra peruviana Pers. Syn. 1: 267, 1805. T. nehifolia Juss. ex Steud. Nom. ed 2, 2: 680, 1841. Cultivated ornamental plant. Flowers are said to be very poisonous and only used for religious offering. flowers: Throughout the year. local name: Karanda. Wrightia R. Br. 1. Wrightia tinctoria R. Br., in Mem. Werm. Soc. 1: 47, 1811; Graham, 114; Dalz. & Gibs. 145; Lisboa, 217; Lee, 646; Birdwood, 18; Cooke, T. 2: 137 (2: 200). A rare tree at Mahabaleshwar. flowers: March- June; fruits: April-December. Asclepiadaceae 1 . Pollen masses granular, solitary; filaments partlyor wholly free 2 2. Corolla 4 mm long, lobes valvate Hemidesmus 2. Corolla 10-15 mm long, lobes imbricate Cryptolepis 1. Pollen masses smooth, paired; filaments connate ,3 3. Plants with underground tubers; corolla lobes connate at tips Ceropegia 3. Plants without tubers; corolla lobes free 4 4. Epiphytes; rooting at the nodes Hoy a 4. Terrestrial plants, not rooting at nodes 5 5. Erect herbs or scandent shrubs 6 6. Fleshy succulent plants, leafless when in flowers 7 7. Plants upright erect, less than 15 cm. long Frerea 7. Plants scandent, 2-3 metres long Sarcostemma 6. Plants not succulent, leafy when in flowers 8 8. Plants erect 9 9. Stem and leaves glabrous; leaves lanceolate Asclepias 9. Stem and leaves cottony pubescent; leaves broadly ovate Calotropis 8. Scandent shrub Gymnema 5. Twining climbers 10 10. Pollen masses erect or horizontal 11 11. Corona lobes spreading; corolla green Dregea 11. Corona lobes adnate to the staminal column; corolla not green Tylophora 10. Pollen masses pendulous 12 12. Corolla divided to half its length Holostemma 12. Corolla divided up to the base Cynanchum 369 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Asclepias Linn. 1. Asclepias curassavica Linn. Sp. PI. 215, 1753; Edward, Bot. Rot. Reg. t. 81, 1815; Graham, 120; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 54; FBI 4: 18; Cooke, T. 2: 180 (2: 245); Santapau, 178. Rare weed on banks of rivers and streams. Sometimes cultivated in gardens. flowers: Throughout the year. Calotwpis Linn. 1. Calotropis gigantea (Linn.) R. Br., in Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2, 78, 1811; Edward, Bot. Reg. t. 58, 1815; Wight, 111. tt. 155, 156A; Graham, 120; Dalz. & Gibs. 149; Bot. Mag. t. 6862; FBI 4: 17; Lisboa, 217; Birdwood, 18; Cooke, T. 2: 151 (2: 214); Santapau, 171. Asclepias gigantea Linn. Sp. PI. 214, 1753. Rare shrub in waste-lands. Leaves offered for worship. flowers: Throughout the year. Ceropegia Linn. 1 . Stems erect C. lawii 1 . Stems twining 2 2. Corolla lobes as long as the tube C. vincaefolia 2. Corolla lobes 1/3 length of the tube... C. hirsuta 1. Ceropegia hirsuta Wight & Arn., in Wight, Contrib. 30, 1834; FBI 4: 71; Cooke, T. 2: 137 (2: 242); Blatter & McCann, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 535, 1933; Santapau, 177; Santapau & Irani, Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 12 (1 & 2) : 10-11, 1958. C. hispida Blatter & McCann, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 409, 1931. Rare species on rocky ground on way to Panchgani. flowers : J uly- August. 2. Ceropegia lawii Hook., in Bot. Mag. t. 4093, 1844; FBI 4: 72; Cooke, T. 2: 177 (2: 240); Blatter & McCann 36: 535; Santapau, 176; Huber, in Mem. Soc. Broter 12: 64, t. 3, f. 31, 1957. Quite common species at Lingmala, among the undergrowth in shady places. flowers : J uly-October. 3. Ceropegia vincaefolia Hook, f., Bot. Mag. t. 3740, 1839; Ansari, in Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 13: 190, 1971. C. hirsuta var. vincaefolia Hook, f., in FI. Brit. India 4: 74, 1883. C. polyantha Blatter & McCann, in Journ. Bom- bay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 936, 1931 & 36: 535, 1933. C. oculata var. subhirsuta Huber, in Mem. Soc. Broter, 12: 65, 1952. Rare species found at Lingmala and near Venna Lake. flowers: July-Gctober. Cryptolepis R. Br. 1. Cryptolepis buchanani Roem. & Schul- tes, Syst. 4: 409, 1819; Graham, 113; Dalz. & Gibs. 148; Wight, Icon. t. 194; FBI 4: 5; Cooke, T. 2: 147 (2: 210); Puri & Mahajan, 127; Santapau, 151. Rare. Only reported by Puri and Mahajan. flowers : April- J une. Cynanchum Linn. 1. Cynanchum caliialata Ham., in Wight, Contrib. 56, 1834; Wight, Icon. t. 1279; FBI 4: 24; Cooke, T. 2: 157 (2: 221); Santapau, 152. A rare climber near Lingmala. flowers : September-December. Dregea E. Meyer (nom. cons.) 1 . Suberect undershrubs; leaves lanceolate; pedi- cels more or less 1 cm. long D angustifolia 1. Climbing shrubs; leaves broadly ovate; pedicels — 3 cm: long D. volubilis 1. Dregea angustifolia (Hook, f.) Santapau & Irani, in Bot. Mem. Univ. Bombay 4: 41, 1900. D. volubilis var. angustifolia Hook, f., in FI. Brit. India, 4: 47, 1883; Birdwood, 18. Marsdenia volubilis var. angustifolia Blatter & McCann, Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 167, 1904. 370 i MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR — 5 This species is reported by Birdwood from Rotunda Ghat and Babington point. flowers : May- J une. local name: Dudhli. 2. Dregea volubilis (Linn, f.) Benth. ex Hook, f., in FI. Brit. India, 4: 56, 1883; lal- bot 2: 254; Birdwood, 18; Santapau, 154. Asclepias volubilis Linn. f. suppl. 1/0, 1781. Marsclenia volubilis Cooke, T., FI. Pres. Bombay. 2: 166, 1904; FBI 4: 47; Santapau, 289, 1960; Puri & Mahajan, 127. Hoya viridiflora R. Br., in Mem. Wern. Soc. 1 : 27, 1809; Graham, 119; Wight, Icon. t. 586; Dalz. & Gibs. 153; Lisboa. Wattakaka volubilis (Linn, f.) Stapf, in Curtis Bot. Mag. sub. t. 8976, 1923. Climbing shrub, frequent near Lingmala. flowers: April-June; fruits: August- October. local names: Dhora, Amri, Hirandoti. Frerea Dalz. 1. Frerea indica Dalz., in Journ. Linn. Soc. London, 8: 10, t. 3, 1865; FBI 4: 76; Blatter & McCann, 36: 535; McCann, Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41: 143, tt. 1-3, 1939. Only Bishop R. D. Acland has reported to have seen this species among the rocks near Kate’s point. flowers : September-December. fruits: December- January. Gymnema R. Br. 1. Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R. Br. ex Schultes, in Roem. & Schult. Syst. Veg. 6: 57, 1819; Wight, Icon. t. 349; Graham, 120; Dalz. & Gibs. 151; FBI 4: 29; Cooke, T. 649 & 2: 160 (2: 224); Lisboa, 217; Talbot 2: 249; Blatter & McCann, 36: 530; Birdwood, 18; Santapau, 288, 1963; Puri & Mahajan, 127. Periploca sylvestris Retz., Obs. 2: 15, 1781. Common plant in open forests. Leaves used by local people as antidiabetic drug. flowers : April-May; fruits: September- January. local names: Kauli, Lamtani, Dodi, Pitani, Sirdoli. 2. Gymnema montanum (Roxb.) Hook, f.. Flora Brit. India, 4: 31, 1883; Cooke, T. 649, 1885; Blatter & McCann, 36: 530. Asclepias montana Roxb., FI. Ind. 2: 45, 1832. This species is reported by T. Cooke, in vegetation of Mahabaleshwar (1885). But he has not recorded it from Mahabaleshwar later in Flora of Bombay Presidency. Hemidesmus R. Br. 1. Hemidesmus indices Schultes, in Roem. & Schult. Syst. Veg. 6: 126, 1819; FBI 4: 5; Graham, 122; Wight, Icon t. 594; Dalz. & Gibs. 147; Cooke, T. 2: 147 (2: 210); Talbot 232; Santapau & Irani, 94; Santapau, 289, 1963. Periploca indica Linn. Sp. PI. 211, 1753. Frequent in the forest among undergrowth. flowers: July-January; fruits: January- May. local name: Anantmul. Holostemma R. Br. 1. Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) K. Schum., in Pfam. 4(2): 250, f. 71J-K, 1895; Santapau, 171. Asclepias annularia Roxb., FI. Ind. 2: 37, 1832. H. rheedei Wall. PI. As. Rar. 2: 51. 1851; Wight, Icon. t. 597; Graham, 121; Dalz. & Gibs. 148; FBI 4: 21; Talbot, 2: 245. H. rheedeianum Cooke, T. FI. Pres. Bombay 2: 156, 1904 (non Spreng., 1825). Rare climber at Mahabaleshwar. Hoya R. Br. I. Hoya pendula Wight & Arn., in Wight Contrib. 36: 1834 (excl. syn.; non Wight, Icon, t. 474, 1840); Santapau, Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 504, 1956. H. pallida Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 152, 1861. H. wightii Hook, f., FI. Brit. India, 4: 59, 1883; 371 9 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Nairne, 186; Cooke, T. 2: 169 (2: 234); Talbot 2: 258; Santapau, 155. H. parasitica Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 119, 1839 (non Wall., 1830). Common climber near Lodwick point, Lingmala. flowers: May- August; fruits: August-January. local names: Amri, Dudhyal. Sarcostemma R. Br. 1. Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voigt, Hort. Sub. Calcattensis, 542, 1845; Blatter & McCann, 36: 529; Santapau & Irani, 76. Asclepias acida Roxb., FI. Ind. 2: 31, 1832. S. brevistigma Wt. & Arn., in Wight Contrib. 59, 1834; Wight, Icon. t. 595; Dalz. & Gibs. 149; FBI 4: 26; Lisboa, 217; Talbot 247. This species is included here on the authority of Lisboa. We have not seen it on Mahaba- leshwar plateau, though it is common between Panchgani and Wai. flowers: June -July. local names: Somalata, Somvel. Tylophora R. Br. 1. TylopSiora dalzellii Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 4: 43, 1883; Nairne, 185; Cooke, T. 2: 163 (2: 227); Blatter & McCann, 36: 531; Santapau, 289, 1963; Puri & Mahajan, 127; Santapau, 154. T. carnosa Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FI. 150, 1861 (non Wight, 1834). A rare species at Mahabaleshwar. flowers : April-November. Buddlejaceae Buddie ja Linn. 1. Buddfieja asiatica Lour., FI. Cochinch. 72, 1790; Dalz. & Gibs. 180; Lisboa, 218; Birdwood, 18; Nairne, 188; Cooke, T. 2: 183 (2: 248); Puri & Mahajan, 127. Rare species in Fitzgerald Ghat and at Bhilar Estate. flowers: January- April. Gentianaceae 1 . Flowers regular • 2 2. Ovary 2-celled Exacum 2. Ovary 1 -celled 3 3. Corolla with 1-2 glands at base on inner side Swertia 3. Corolla glandular inside . .. .Centaurium 1 . Flowers irregular Canscora Canscora Lam. 1. Stem not winged C. diffusa 1 . Stems winged 2 2. Sepals strongly keeled C. khandalensis 2. Sepals not keeled C. decurrens 1. Canscora decurrens Dalz., in Kew J. Bot. 2: 136, 1850; Dalz. & Gibs. 157; FBI 4: 103; Cooke, T. 2: 192 (2: 257) There are two specimens of this species in Blatter Herbarium from Mahabaleshwar, with- out collection locality data. flowers : October-December. 2. Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R. Br., Prodr. 45, 1810 (in obs.); Graham, 123; Dalz. & Gibs. 158; FBI 4: 103; Nairne, 191; Cooke, T. 650 & 2: 191 (2: 257); Lisboa, 218; Birdwood, 19; Lee, 646; Santapau, 400, 1962; Puri & Mahajan, 127. Gentiana diffusa Vahl, Sym. Bot. 3: 47, 1794. C. lawii Wight, Icon. t. 1327, 1848 (non Clarke, 1875). Common and abundant plant in moist rocky places with bright-red flowers. Plants have been collected from Chinaman’s Falls & Fitzgerald Ghat. flowers: October- January. 3. Canscora khandalensis Santapau, in Kew Bull. 1948: 485, 1949; FI. Khandala, 162. There is only one specimen of this species from Mahabaleshwar, collected and identified by Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, from sides of Venna Lake. This specimen is a young plant. 372 MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR — 5 Centaurium Hill. 1. Centaurium centauroides (Roxb.) Rolla Rao & Hemadr, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67: 357, 1970. Chironia centauroides Roxb. FI. Ind. 2: 283, 1824. Erythraea roxburghii D. Don, Syst. 4: 206, 1837; Wight, Icon. t. 1325; Dalz. & Gibs. 157; Cooke, T. 2: 190 (2: 255). Common herb in drying rice-fields near Chinaman’s Falls. flowers : October-May. Exacum Linn. 1 . Calyx not winged on the back E. lawii 1. Calyx winged on the back 2 2. Leaves petioled E. carmatum 2. Leaves sessile 3 3. Corolla more than 2 cm. long E. bicolor 3. Corolla less than 1 cm. long E. pumilum 1. Exacum bicolor Roxb., FI. Ind. 1: 413, 1820; Graham, 123; Dalz. & Gibs. 156; Wight, Icon. t. 1321; FBI 4: 96; Cooke, T. 2: 187 (2: 252); Birdwood, 18; Santapau, 401, 1962. Sebaea carinata Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 124, 1839 (non Spreng., 1824). This species is included on authority of Rev. Fr. H. Santapau. 2. Exacum lawii Clarke, in FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 98, 1883; Woodrow, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 168, 1898; Birdwood, 18; Cooke, T. 650, 1885 & 2: 180 (2: 254); Puri & Maha- jan, 127. Rare species among the grasses at Lodwick point and Kate’s point. Flowers bright gentian blue. flowers : September-October. local names: Jatali, Gaulan. 3. Exacum carinatuiu Roxb., FI. Ind. 1: 415, 1820; T. P. Ramamurthy, in FI. Hassan Dist. 425, 1978. E. petiolare Griseb. in DC. Prodr. 9: 46, 1845; Wight Icon. t. 1324 (2), 1848; Dalz. & Gibs. 157; FBI 4: 98; Puri & Mahajan, 127. E. pedunculatUm Linn. var. petiolare Trim., FI. Ceylon, 3: 182, 1895: Cooke, T. 2: 188 (2: 253). This species is included on authority of Puri & Mahajan. flowers : October-December. 4. Exacum pumilum Griseb., in DC. Prodr. 9: 46, 1845; Wight, Icon. t. 1324; Dalz. & Gibs. 157; FBI 4: 68; Cooke, T. 2: 188 (2: 254); Santapau, 401, 1962. Common herb among grasses. Flowers bluish purple in colour. flowers : August-October. Swertia Linn. 1. Petal with two glands at the base S. minor 1. Petals with single gland at the base S. densi flora 1. Swertia densiflora (Griseb.) Kashyapa, in Kew Bull. 15: 42, 1961. Ophelia densiflora Griseb., in DC. Prodr. 9: 125, 1845. 5. decussata Nirnrno, in Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 249, 1839; (nomen nudum) Birdwood, 19; Nairne, 192; Cooke, T. 650, 1885 & 2: 194 (2: 259). O. alba Arn., in Wight 111. t. 157, f. 3F, 1850. O. multiflora Dalz., in Hook. Kew Journ. 2: 135, 1850; Dalz. & Gibs. 156; Lisboa, 218. Quite a common plant at Mahabaleshwar. Roots are used in medicine as bitter tonic and sold in Mahabaleshwar Market. flowers : December- J anuary . 2. Swertia minor (Griseb.) Knobl., in Bot. Centralbl. 60: 321, 1894; Cooke, T. 2: 193 (2: 259); Santapau, 296, 1963. Ophelia minor Griseb., in DC. prodr. 9: 126, 1845; Wight, Icon. t. 1332; Dalz. & Gibs. 156. Pleurogyne minor Benth., Gen. PI. 2: 816, 1876; FBI 4: 120. Rare species among the grasses with pale mauve flowers. Collected only from Kate’s point. flowers: September. 373 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Boraginaceae 1 . Prostrate or procumbent herbs Coldenia 1 . Erect herbs 2 2. Fruits smooth Mattiastrum 2. Fruits glochidiate 3 3 . Nutlets base not produced downwards . . . Adelocaryum 3. Nutlets base produced downwards Cycinoglossum Adelocaryum Brandis 1. Stem red; flowers pale blue with dark centre. A. coelestinum 1. Stem green; flowers uniformly dark-blue A. malabaricum 1. Adelocaryum coelestinum (Lindl.) Brand., in Fedde Repert. 13: 549, 1915 & Pfreich, 78: 78, t. 8, 1921; Santapau, 290, 1963; Puri & Mahajan, 127. Cyanoglossum coelestinum Lindl., in Bot. Reg. 25: t. 36, 1839; Dalz. & Gibs. 173; Lisboa, 218. Eckinospermum coelestinum Wight, Icon. t. 1394, 1850. Paracarym coelestinum Benth. & Hook, f., Gen. PI. 2: 850, 1878; Birdwood, 19; FBI 4: 160; Nairne 197; Cooke, T. 650, 1885 & 2: 218 (2: 285); Lee, 646. Fairly common and abundant, often grega- rious on forest fringes and on exposed grassy slopes along road-sides. Plants bear cauline as well as radical leaves. Mahabaleshwar speci- mens come from Chinaman’s falls, Wilson point, Fitzgerald ghat, Venna lake. Petit Road, Madhu Kosh and Pratapsingh Park. flowers : August- April. 2. Adelocaryum malabaricum (Clarke) Brandis, in Fedde Repert. 13: 549, 1915 & Pfreich. 78: 79, 1921. Parcicaryum malabaricum Clarke, in Flora Brit. India 4: 160, 1883; Birdwood, 19; Cooke, T. 650, 1885 & 2: 219 (2: 286); Santapau, 399, 1962 & 290, 1963. Very common and abundant weed all over in latter half of monsoon. It is more abun- dant near Venna Lake, Chinaman’s Falls, Wilson point, Kate’s point. flowers: August-December. Coldenia Linn. 1. Coldenia procumbens Linn. Sp. PI. 125, 1753; Graham, 135; Dalz. & Gibs. 171; Lisboa, 218; FBI 4: 144. This species is included on the authority of Lisboa. flowers : September-October. Cyanoglossum Linn. 1 . Flowers in racemes; pedicels long, filiform, longer than calyx C. wallichii I . Flowers capitate or paniculate; pedicels short, shorter than calyx C. zeylcmicum 1. Cyanoglossum wallichii G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 354, 1838; FBI 4: 157. C. glockidiatum Wall, ex Lindley, in Bot. Reg. 27 : t. 15, 1841; FBI 4: 156. C. denticulatum DC., Prodr. 10: 150, 1845; FBI 4: 157. Fairly common herb along margins of forests. flowers : J une-November. 2. Cyanoglossum zeylanicum (Vahl ex Hornem.) Thunb. ex Lehm. Neue Schriften Naturf. Ges. Halle. 3(2): 20, 1817; Kazmi, J. Arnold Arbor. 52: 344, 1971. Anchusa zeylanica Vahl ex Plomem., Enum. Hafn. 3, 1807. C. denticulatum var. zeylanicum (Thunb.) C. B. Clarke, in Flora Brit. Ind. 4: 157, 1883; Cooke, T. 2: 217 (2: 284). C. meeboldii Brandis, in Fedde Repert. 14: 323, 1916 & in Pfreinch. 72: 134, 1921; Santapau, 166; Puri & Mahajan, 127. Included on the authority of Puri & Maha- jan only. flowers: July- August. Mattiastrum Brandis 1 . Mattiastrum lambert ianum (Clarke) Brandis, in Pfreich. 78: 61, 1921; Santapau, 291, 1963. Paracaryum lambert ianum Clarke, in FI. Brit. India 4: 161, 1883; Birdwood, 19; Nairne, 197; 374 MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR — 5 Cooke, T. 650 & 2: 219 (2: 287); Puri & Mahajan, 127. Fairly common on hill slopes among grasses in the latter half of the monsoon. Abundant at Dhobi’s Falls and Fitzgerald ghat. So far this species seems to be endemic to Mahabalesh- war. flowers : October-November. Ehretiaceae Rotula Lour. 1. Rotula aquatica Lour. FI. Cochinch. 121, 1790; Santapau, 164. Rhabd'a lycioides Mart. Nov. Gen. Sp. 2: 137, 1826; FBI 4: 145; Cooke. T. 2: 205 (2: 272). R. virninea Dalz., in Hook. Icon. t. 823, 1854; Dalz. & Gibs. 170. Ehretia cuneata Wight, Icon. t. 1385, 1848. In Poona (BSI) Herbarium there is one specimen collected by Cooke from Koyna Valley, below Mahabaleshwar. But we have not seen this plant on Mahabaleshwar plateau. CONVOLVULACEAE 1 . Outer three or all sepals much enlarged in fruit corolla tube uniformly enlarged from the base to the apex For ana 1 . Sepals not enlarged in fruit; corolla tube not uniformly enlarged 2 2. Fruit dehiscent Ipomoea 2. Fruit indehiscent Argyreia Argyreia Lour. 1. Bracts small, scaly, foliaceous A. elliptica 1 . Bracts large, membranous 2 2. Leaves elongate-ovate, rounded at the base A. inv olucr ata 2. Leaves broadly ovate, cordate at base A. boseana L Argyreia boseana Santapau & Patel, in Trans. Bose Res. Inst. Calcutta, 22: 35, t. 3, 1958. A. hookcri Cooke, T. FI. Pres. Bombay 2: 255, 1905, (non Clarke, 1883); Talbot 2: 285; Santapau, 293. 1963; Puri & Mahajan, 3 27, A. malabarica Woodrow, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 170, 1898. Fairly common climber on forest trees. Flowers mauve-violet. This species is ende- mic to Mahabaleshwar and Panchgani. flowers: August-October. 2. Argyreia elliptica (Roth.) Choisy, in Mem. Soc. Phys. Genere 6: 417, 1833; Gra- ham, 128; Dalz. & Gibs. 169; Santapau, 293, 1963; Puri & Mahajan, 128. Ipomoea elliptica Roth., PI. Sp. 113, 1821. Leitsomia elliptica (Roth.) Wight ex C. B. Clarke, in FI. Brit. India 4: 192, 1883; Cooke, t. 2: 259 (2: 329). Occasional twiner on forest trees. flowers : September-October. local name: Bondvel. 3. Argyreia invoSucrata Clarke, in FI. Brit. India. 4: 187, 1883; Talbot 2: 256; Cooke, T. 2: 256 (2: 325). A. involucrata var. inaqualis Clarke, in FI. Brit. India 4: 187, 1883. This plant has been reported by Cooke, T., from Wada, below Mahabaleshwar. But it is not found on the plateau. flowers: July- August. Ipomoea Linn. 1 . Sepals entirely glabrous ...../. diversifolia 1. Sepals hairy on outer side 2 2. Sepals not long-attenuate at apex I. illustris 2. Sepals long-attenuate or linear-acuminate at apex /. congesta 1. Ipomoea congesta R. Br., Prodr. 485, 1810; Oostsroom, in Blumea 3: 500, 1940. /. acuminata (Vahl) Roem. & Schultz, Syst. 4: 228. 1819 (non Ruiz & Pav., 1799). Convolvulus acuminatus Vahl, Symb. Bot. 3: 26, 1794. I. learii Paxt., Bot. Mag. 6: t. 267, 1839, Cooke, T. 2: 251 (2: 321). Cultivated plant with dark blue flowers which fade to reddish colour. Occasionally seen in private gardens. 375 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 2. Ipomoea diversifolia R. Br. Prodr. 487, 1810; Oostsroom, 365; Santapau, 170. Pharbitis laciniata Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 3: 178, 1851; Dalz. & Gibs. 167. 7. laciniata Clarke, in FI. Brit. India, 4: 200, 1883; Cooke, T. 2: 250 (2: 319); Puri & Mahajan, 128. 7. dissecta Woodrow, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 171, 1898 (non Willd.,); Birdwood, 19. Rare plant on grassy slopes. Prostrate or ascending but not climbing or twining. flowers : October-November. 3. Ipomoea iilustris Prain, Bengal PI. 735, 1903; Oostsroom, in Blumea, 3; 566, 1940; Santapau, 170. 7. companulata Choisy, in Mem. Soc. Phys. Geneve 6: 151, 1833; Wight, Icon. t. 1375; Dalz. & Gibs. 165; FBI 4: 211; Cooke, T. 2: 247 (2: 316); Lee, 646 (non Linn. 1753). 7. companulata var. illistris Clarke, in FI. Brit. India, 4: 211, 1883. 7. soluta Kerr, in Kew Bull. 1941: 18, 1941. flowers: January-February. Porana Burm. 1. Porana racemosa Roxb., FI. Ind. 2:41, 1824; Graham, Cat. 133; Dalz & Gibs. 167; Oostsroom, in Blumea 3: 91, 1938; FBI 4: 222; Santapau, 167. P. malabarica Clarke, in FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 223, 1883; Nairne, 206; Cooke, T. 651 & 2: 226 (2: 294); Birdwood, 19; Puri & Mahajan, 128. Fairly common climber on forest trees. flowers : October-November. local name: Bhauri. Solan ace ae 1 . Fruit a capsule 2 2. Stamens 4 Browailia 2. Stamens 5 3 3. Stamens all 5 perfect Datura 3. Stamens in 2 pairs and one much smaller or rudimentary Petunia 1 . Fruit a berry .4 4. Fruiting calyx persistant, highly accrescent 5 5. Flowers pale or light biue Nicandra 5. Flowers yellow Physalis 4. Fruiting calyx not accrescent 6 6. Anthers dehiscing by apical pores 7 7. Anthers linear; flowers in cymes Solanum 7. Anthers ellipsoid; flowers in fascicles Lycianthus 6. Anthers dehiscing by longitudinal slits... 8 8 . Corolla tubular Cestrum 8. Corolla rotate 9 9. Flowers yellow Lycopersicon 9. Flowers white Capsicum Browailia Linn. 1 . Calyx not glandular B. americana 1. Calyx glandular, viscid B. viscosa 1. Browailia americana Linn., Sp. PI. 631, 1753; Bailey, Man. Cult. PI. 880. B. demissa Linn., Syst. ed 10, 1118, 1759; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 63; Cooke, T. 2: 276 (2: 346); Vartak, in Journ. Univ. Poona, 18: 91, 1960. B. data Linn. Syst. ed 10, 118, 1759. Dr. V. D. Vartak has reported this species from Mahabaleshwar. One of the specimens which we have examined (Vartak-2020) is B. viscosa H. B. K. 2. Browailia viscosa H. B. K., Nov. Gen. Sp. PI. 2: 373, 1818; Bailey, 880. Viscous, glandular hairy herbs with axillary flowers which are blue or violet purple in colour. Cultivated but very often found as an escape. flowers: December. Capsicum Linn. 1 . Capsicum annum Linn. var. acuminatum Fingerh. Mon. Capsicum 13, t. 2, f.c., 1832; Cooke, T. 2: 276 (2: 347); Santapau, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47: 661, 1948. C. frutescens Roxb. FI. Ind. 1: 574, 1832 (non Linn., 1753); Graham, 139; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 61; FBI 4: 239. Cultivated for fruits which are used as spices and condiments. flowers: Throughout the year. local name: Mirchi, Lai mirchi 376 MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR — 5 Cestrum Linn. 1. Calyx lobes distinctly reflexed C. diurnum 1. Calyx lobes erect or spreading, not reflected C. nocturnum 1. Cestrum diurnum Linn. Sp. PI. 191, 1753; Bailey, 873; Bor & Raizada, some Beaut. Ind. Climb. & Schrubs 118, 1954. Cultivated in gardens. Flowers ivory-white in colour. flowers: Throughout the year. local name : Din-ka-Raja. 2. Cestrum nocturnum Linn. Sp. PI. 191, 1753; Bor & Raizada, 119; Bailey, 873; Santa- pau, 200; Puri & Mahajan, 128. Cultivated ornamental plant. Produces strong fragrance during night and in early morning, which fades away after sun-rise. flowers: June- July. local name: Rat-ki-Rani. Datura Linn. 1 . Flowers erect; fruits spiny 2 2. Fruits drooping D. metel 2. Fruits erect D. stramonium 1. Flowers drooping; fruits not spiny D. suaveolens 1. Datura suaveolens Humbolt & Bona- plant ex Willd., Enum. Hort. Berol. 227, 1809; Bor & Raizada, Some Beaut. Indian Climb. & Shrubs 130, 1954; Brugmansia Candida (non Pers. 1805); Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 141; 1839; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 63; Birdwood, 19; Nairne, 210; Cooke, T. 649, 1885. B. suaveolens Bercht. & Presl. ex G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 475, 1838. Datura arborea Cooke, T., FI. Presidency Bom- bay 2: 274, 1905 (2: 344); (non Linn., 1753). Fairly common tall shrub along roadsides and in wastelands with trumpet-shaped droop- ing flowers. It rarely produces fruits in Maha- baleshwar. flowers: May-July; fruits: December. 2. Datura metel Linn. Sp. PI. 179, 1753; Cooke, T. 2: 273 (2: 349); Santapau, Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47: 657; Bailey, 877; Bor & Raizada, 1. c. 129. D. fastuosa Linn. Syst. ed 10, 2: 932, 1759; FBI 4: 242; Cooke, T. 651 & 2: 273 (2: 343). D. alba Nees, in Trans. Linn. Soc. 17: 73, 1834; Graham, 141; Wight, Icon. t. 852; Dalz. & Gibs. 174; Lisboa, 218. D. fastuosa Linn. var. alba (Nees) Clarke, in FI. Brit. India 4: 243, 1883; Cooke, T. 2: 273 (2: 344); Birdwood, 19. This species is included on authority of Lisboa and Birdwood. 3. Datura stramonium Linn. Sp. PI. 179, 1753; FBI 4: 242; Wettst, in Pfam. 4 (3b) 27, f. 13A-C, E-J, 1891. D. tatula Linn. Sp. PI. 256, 1762. D. stramonium Linn. var. tatula Clarke, in FI. Brit. India, 4: 242, 1883. Occasional annual herb along roadsides in wastelands. flowers: June- July, fruits: September. Lycianthus Hassl. 1. Calyx entire or obscurely 5-toothed. .. .L. laevis 1. Calyx 5-8 conspicuous teeth L. laevis var. kaitisis 1. Lycianthus laevis (Dunal) Bitter, Abh. Nat. Ver. Bremen. 24: 484, 1920; Baker & Bakh. FI. Java 2: 476, 1955. Solanum laeve Dunal, Solan. Synop. 22, 1816. S. bigeminatum Nees in Trans. Linn. Soc. London, 17: 42, 1837; FBI 4: 231; Woodrow, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 173, 1898; Cooke, T. 2: 264 (2: 334); Puri & Mahajan, 128; Santapau, 47: 656. L. bigeminata (Nees) Bitter, in Abn. Naturh. ver. Bremen. 24 : 480, 1920. S. neesianum Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FI. 175, 1861. (non Wall, ex Nees, 1837). This species is included on the authority of Woodrow, T. Cooke and Puri & Mahajan. No reliable specimens were seen by us. Following subspecies of this species is quite common at Mahabaleshwar and might have been mistaken for the typical subspecies. 377 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 2. Lycianthus laevis (Dunal) Bitter, subsp. kaitisis (Bitter), comb. nov. L. bigeminata (Nees) Bitter, subsp. kaitisis (Dun.) Bitter, in Abh. Naturn. Ver. Bremen 24: 481, 1920; Santapau, 47 : 656. S. kaitisis Dunal, in DC. Prodr. 13(1) : 157, 1852. S. denticulatum Clarke, in FI. Brit. India, 4: 231, 1883 (non Blume, 1825); Wight, Icon. t. 1397, 1848; Cooke, T. 640 & 2: 264 (2: 334); Birdwood, 19; Puri & Mahajan, 128. Common along roadsides and at the edges of forests. flowers: July-October; fruits: August-December. Lycopersicon Mill. 1 . Lycopersicon lycopersicurn (Linn.) Karst, ex Farwell, Ann. Rep. Comm. Park Boule- wards Detr. 11: 83, 1900; G. L. Shah, FI. Gujarat, 486, 1978. L. esculentum Mill., Gard Diet, ed 8, No. 2, 1768; FBI 4: 237; Cooke, T. 2: 275 (2: 345); San- tapau, 47 : 660. Solanum iycopersicum Linn. So. PI. 185; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 61. Occasionally in waste-lands along roadsides. Usually cultivated for its fruits. flowers & fruits: Throughout the year. local names: Tamatar, Tomato. Nicandra Adans. 1. Nicandra physaloldes (Linn.) Gaertn., Fruct. 2: 237, t. 141, f. 2, 1791; Graham, 140; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 62; FBI 4: 240; Cooke, T. 2: 275 (2: 346); Santapau, 47: 660; Bird- wood, 19. Occasionally found in waste-lands along roadsides. Very showy plant when in bloom. flowers : J uly- August. Nlcotiana Linn.* 1. Corolla tube linear N. plumbagini folia 1 . Corolla tube narrow below, ventricose above TV. tabacum * Cultivated or Escape. 1. Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv. Elench. PI. Hort. Dinegro 26, t. 5, 1820; G. L. Shah, FI. Gujarat, 487, 1978. Rare weed along roadsides and in gardens. flowers : N ovember- J anuary. 2. Nicotiana tabacum Linn. Sp. PI. 180, 1753; Graham, 140; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 63; FBI 4: 245; Lisboa, 219; Cooke, T. 2: 276 (2: 346); Santapau, 47: 660. Rarely cultivated in gardens. flowers & fruits: December- April. local name: Tambakhu. Petunia Juss. 1. Petunia violacea Lindl., Bot. Reg. t. 1626, 1853; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 63. Cultivated in gardens in cold seasons. Some- times found wild as an escape from cultivation. flowers : J anuary-February. Physalis Linn. 1. Stems glabrous; anthers yellow P. minima 1 . Stems pubescent with appressed hairs, anthers greenish-blue P. longifolia 1. Physalis longifolia Nutt., in Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. ser. 2, 5: 193, 1834; Santa- pau, 174. P. peruviana Graham, Cat. Bombay pi. 140, 1839 (non Linn., 1753); Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 61; FBI 4: 238; Santapau, 47: 657; Lisboa, 219. P. pubesccns R. Br. Prodr. 1: 447, 1810 (non Linn., 1753). Rare weed in wastelands. This species goes under P. peruviana in our herbarium materials. According to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, P. peru- viana is a shrub or small tree, whereas the Mahabaleshwar plant is a herbaceous weed. flowers: November. local name: Popti. 2. Physalis minima Linn. Sp. PI. 183, 1753; FBI 4: 238; Graham, 140; Cooke, T. 2: 270 (2: 340); Santapau, 47: 657. P. pubescens Wight, 111. t. 166B, f. 6, 1850 (non Linn. 1753). 378 MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF M A HA 8 ALES H WAR — 5 Rare weed in waste-lands along roadsides. flowers: July- August. Solatium Linn. 1. Plants climbing S. wendlandii 1 . Plants not climbing 2 2. Plants armed with spines 3 3. Herbs S. melongena (p.p.) 3. Shrubs or undershrubs 4 4. Leaves white tomentose on ventral surface S. giganteum 4. Leaves glabrous S. indicum 2. Plants unarmed 5 5. Shrubs S. erianthum 5. Herbs 6 6. Flowers in umbels, white S. nigrum 6. Flowers in racemes, pale violet or mauve coloured S. melongena (P-P-) 1. Solatium giganteum Jacq., Coll. 4: 125, 1790; Graham, 138; Dalz. & Gibs. 175; Wight, Icon. t. 893; FBI 4: 233; Nairne, 208; Cooke, T. 649 & 2: 266 (2: 336); Talbot 2: 303; Santapau, 399, 1962 & 309, 1963. Very common and abundant, often very gregarious, along roadsides, in forest clearings and in waste-lands. flowers : August-November. local names: Chuna Jhad, Kutri. 2. Solanum indicum Linn. Sp. PI. 187, 1753 (pro parte); Graham, 138; Wight, Icon. t. 346; Dalz. & Gibs. 174; Lisboa, 218; FBI 4: 234; Birdwood, 19; Cooke, T. 649 & 2: 266 (2: 336); Santapau, 47: 653 & 309, 1963; Puri & Mahajan, 128. Common, at times gregarious, among the undergrowth of the forests. flowers & fruits: June-February. local names: Chiturti, Ran-vangi. 3. Solanum melongena Linn., Sp. PI. 186, Graham, 138; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 61; FBI 4: 235; Cooke, T. 2: 269 (2: 339); Santapau, 47: 655. S. esculent urn Dunal, Hist. Solanum 208, t. 3, 1813. Cultivated for fruits which are used as a vegetable. Occasionally found in waste lands as an escape from cultivation. flowers & fruits: Throughout the year. local name: Vangi. 4. Solanum nigrum Linn. Sp. PI. 186, 1753; FBI 4: 229; Birdwood, 19; Nairne, 208; Cooke, T. 2: 263 (2: 332); Santapau, 47: 652; Puri & Mahajan, 128. 5. rubrum Mill., Gard. Diet. cd. 8, no. 4, 1768 (non Linn. 1767); Wight, Icon. t. 344, 1840. S. incertum Dunal, Hist. Sol. 155, 1813; Graham, 137. Common weed along road-sides, in gardens and moist wastelands. flowers & fruits: August-October. local name: Ringni. 5. Solanum erianthum D. Don, Prodr. 96, 1825; Roe, in Taxon 17: 176, 1968. S. verbascifolium Wight, Icon. t. 1398, 1848 (non Linn., 1753); Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 175, 1861; FBI 4: 230; Cooke, T. 2: 263 (2: 333); Talbot 2: 302; Santapau, 47: 653 & 309, 1963. 5. pubescens Roxb. FI. Ind. 2 : 244, 1824 (non Wilkl., 1794). Willd., 1794). Talbot has reported this species from Jate- rites of Mahabaleshwar. Not seen by us. 6. Solanum tuberosum Linn.* Sp. PI. 185, 1753; Graham, 137; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 60; FBI 4: 229; Lee, 646; Lisboa, 219; Cooke, T. 2: 269 (2: 339); Santapau 47: 655. Lycopsrsicon tuberosum Mill. Gard. Diet. ed. 8, no. 7, 1768. The Potato plant is extensively cultivated on all possible cultivable lands. Tubers are dis- patched to Bombay and Poona markets on wholesale basis. According to Graham, the red soil of Mahabaleshwar suits well for this crop. 7. Solanum wendlandii Hook. f. in Curt. Bot. Mag, t. 6914, 1887; Bor & Raizada, Some Beautiful Indian Climb. 8i Shrubs, 125, 1954. Large twining perennial cultivated in local gardens. flowers: June. (To be continued ) * Cultivated. 379 BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS1 Part IX — Hipposideros lankadiva (Kelaart) — Hipposideridae V. M. Sapkal and W. R. Bhandarkar2 Specimens of Hipposideros lankadiva (Kelaart) were collected from old temples and unused tunnels from Chandrapur about 160 kilometres from Nagpur. This large bat lives in colonies which vary from a scattered gathering of 50 to 100 individuals to thousands. The bat is very active and both males and females are found in the same colony throughout the year. It has an annual breeding cycle and each female delivers a single young one during each cycle. Deliveries in the colony occur from the 10th May to the end of May. There is a dominance of the left side of the genitalia over the right a few cases showing ovulation and pregnancy in the right. The gestation period is prolonged due to a retarded development of the embryo after implantation and is of about 260 days. Females are sexually quiescent only for a short period from 1st week of August to the middle of August. The young ones do not attain sexual maturity in the year of birth. The colony Introduction Although the family Hipposideridae is re- presented by several species in India, some aspects of the breeding biology of only a few species have been studied (Gopalakrishna and Moghe 1960; Gopalakrishna and Bhatia 1980; Gopalakrishna and Bhatia 1983). The present paper on the breeding habits of Hipposideros lankadiva is a part of the over- all programme of the study of reproductive biology of Indian bats undertaken in this labo- ratory. This species has been chosen for detailed study because it not only exhibits some un- usual features but it also differs considerably from the breeding behaviour of a closely related species, Hipposideros speoris (Gopalakrishna and Bhatia 1983) inspite of living in the same geographical situation and under the same eco- logical conditions. In fact, Hipposideros lanka- 1 Accepted May 1981. 2 Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Nagpur. shows a female dominant sex-ratio. diva is often associated with Hipposideros speoris since the two species live in the same roost. Material and Methods Specimens of Hipposideros lankadiva were obtained from their natural roosting places at and near Chandrapur about 160 kilometres south of Nagpur. The specimens were collected from November 1976 to May 1979 such that every calendar month was represented by one collection or more. The specimens were netted at random during daytime and sometimes dur- ing the night. After recording the significant characteristics of the external genitalia in the males and the mammary nipples and pubic dugs in the females, the animals were killed by chloro- form and their body weight recorded by a sensi- tive spring balance. The reproductive tracts were dissected out and fixed in Bouin’s fixative or 10% formalin and were preserved in 70% alcohol. In the case of the males the right testis of each specimen was taken out of 70% 380 BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS — PART IX Table I Summary of the collection diary Date of collection MALES Immature Adult Attached Free Total FEMALES Immature Adult Attached Free Non- Preg- pregnant nant Right Left horn horn Lactating Total Grand Total 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 2-1-79 — — 2 2 — 2 — — 4 — 6 8 5-1-78 - - - - - - - - 2 - 2 2 14-1-79 - 1 2 3 - 1 - - 2 - 3 6 5-2-79 - - 2 2 - 1 - - 4 - 5 7 19-2-78 - 1 - 1 - - 1 - 10 - 11 12 23-2-78 - l 2 3 - 2 - 1 4 - 7 10 28-2-78 - - 3 3 - 1 - 1 4 - 6 9 9-3-79 - - 2 2 - 2 - 1 4 - 7 9 18-3-78 - - 1 1 - 2 - 2 9 - 13 14 25-3-79 - - 2 2 - - - - 4 - 4 6 2-4-77 - - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 9-4-78 - - - - - - - - 4 - 4 4 10-4-77 - 1 3 4 - 3 - 2 9 - 14 18 16-4-79 - - 4 4 - 2 - - 3 - 5 9 22-4-78 - - 2 2 - 2 - 1 4 - 7 9 1-5-78 - - 5 5 - - - - 2 - 2 7 10-5-79 1 - 2 3 - 2 - - 3 1 6 9 13-5-77 - - 6 6 - - - - - - - 6 14-5-77 1 - — 1 - 3 - 1 4 1 9 10 24-5-78 1 1 - 2 2 1 - - 1 3 7 9 6-6-77 4 1 - 5 1 2 1 - - 11 15 20 13-6-78 1 - 7 8 - 1 1 - - 6 8 16 21-6-78 1 - — 1 - 1 - - - 2 3 4 25-6-77 - 2 6 8 — - - - - - - 8 26-6-77 1 3 3 7 — 5 3 - - 6 14 21 1-7-78 - 1 9 10 — - 3 - - - 3 13 9-7-78 - 1 3 4 — - 1 - - 2 3 7 16-7-77 - — 4 4 — 1 2 - - - 3 7 20-7-78 — 1 4 5 _ - 3 - - 3 6 11 30-7-77 - 1 5 6 — 6 3 - - 2 11 17 3-8-77 - - 3 3 — 1 4 - - - 5 8 12-8-78 - 2 2 4 — 3 5 - - 2 10 14 21-8-77 - 2 5 7 — - - - - - - 7 24-8-78 - - 5 5 — 4 3 - 3 - 10 15 5-9-78 - - 2 2 — 4 3 1 12 - 20 22 10-9-77 - 3 6 9 — 1 - - 2 - 3 12 10-9-78 - - 2 2 — 2 - - 8 - 10 12 14-9-78 - - 2 2 - - - - 1 - 1 3 381 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Table I (Contd.) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 24-9-78 — 1 8 9 - 2 — 1 8 — 11 20 30-9-77 - - 2 2 - 1 - - 3 — 4 6 1-10-77 - - 2 2 - 1 - 1 6 - 8 10 14-10-78 - - 2 2 - - - - 3 - 3 5 17-10-78 - - 6 6 - 4 - - 9 - 13 19 28-10-77 - - 6 6 - 7 - 3 4 - 14 20 1-11-76 - 3 9 12 - - - - 2 - 2 14 14-11-76 - - 3 3 - - - - 1 - 1 4 18-11-77 - - 1 1 - - - - 1 - 1 2 20-11-78 - - 4 4 - 4 - - 5 - 9 13 10-12-77 - - 4 4 - 1 - 1 8 - 10 14 18-12-78 — — 2 2 — 1 — 1 2 — 4 6 Table ii Monthwise collection of specimens Month Immature attached males free Adult males Total males Immature Attached females Free Adult females Total females Grand total January — 1 4 5 — 3 8 11 16 February - 2 7 9 - 4 25 29 38 March - - 5 5 - 4 20 24 29 April - 1 12 13 - i ; 23 30 43 May 3 1 13 17 2 6 16 24 41 June 7 6 16 29 1 9 30 40 69 July - 4 25 29 - 7 19 26 55 August - 4 15 19 - 8 17 25 44 September - 4 22 26 - 10 39 49 75 October - - 16 16 - 12 26 38 54 November - 3 17 20 - 4 9 13 33 December - - 6 6 - 2 12 14 20 10 26 158 194 3 76 244 323 517 alcohol, gently rolled on filter paper and quickly weighed in a Mettler balance. This gave accurate relative weights of the testes of different specimens since all the testes of all the males were subjected to the same proce- dure. Table I gives the summary of the collec- tion diary and Table II gives the month wise collection of the specimens. Observations 1 . General remarks Hipposideros lankadiva is a large bat as compared to other hipposiderid bats. The maximum weight of the male is 76 gins and that of the non-pregnant female 55 gms. The species shows a variety of fur colour. The 382 BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS — PART IX most common types are fulvous brown and reddish brown. Sometimes a greyish brown and bright golden red type of fur is also noticed. A golden colour of the fur is also noticed in some other bats of the family Hippo- siderida ^-Hipposideros caffer in Africa and Hipposideros calcaratus, Hipposideros cupidus and Hipposideros galeritus in New Guinea (Brosset 1962, Menzies 1973). In ail these cases the change of colour was attributed to high humidity, high temperature and high ammonia concentrations. Hipposideros lankadiva lives in colonies in old temples and unused tunnels. This bat is very active and flies away on the slightest dis- turbance. The population in the different colo- nies varies from a scattered gathering of about 50 to 100 individuals to thousands. Brosset (1962) reported a colony of 5,000 to 7,000 specimens from Mandu, in Central India. In Chandrapur the largest colony was about 2,000 to 3,000 specimens clinging to the crevices in the wall of old temples and tunnels. The regular roosts are full of huge deposits of guano. Speci- mens of Hipposideros lankadiva are found together with Hipposideros speoris in some roost. Males and females are collected from the same roost throughout the year indicating that there is no segregation of sexes either on the basis of age or on the basis of sexual acti- vity during any season of the year. 2. Female genitalia The ovary ovoid in shape and is enclosed in a complete ovarian bursa. It is attached to the dorsal ligament by a narrow hilus. The Fallopian tube arises from the posteromedian aspect of the ovarian bursa, and, after taking a slightly tortuous curve around the cranial surface, bends caudally to open into the cranial end of the respective uterine cornu. The uterus is bicornuate and the two uterine cornua are morphologically symmetrical. Each uterine cornu of a non-pregnant adult specimen ap- pears to bulge at its anterior end. The two cornua meet mesially forming a V-shaped structure. The uterine cornu measures 5 mm in length. The vagina is about 9 mm long and opens by a transverse slit-like opening. A pair of pectoral mammary teats are pre- sent on the ventrolateral sides of the thorax and a pair of pubic dugs on the ospubis, one on either side of the midlinc. In the majority of the females, the right pubic teat is longer than the left, suggesting the probability of its being used more. The young one clings to the ventral side of the mother’s abdomen with the pubic dugs in its mouth. Thus the unweaned young one is found attached to the mother in the head to tail position during rest. Most of the young ones hold the right pubic teat and sometimes both in their mouth keeping the hind limbs free or forming a loose embrace around the neck of the mother. While sucking, the young holds the mammary nipples by the jaws, while the claws of the feet are firmly anchored to the pubic teats. 3 . Breeding habits Examination of the collection diary and Tables I and II reveals that Hipposideros lanka- diva is a seasonally breeding species and exhibits several interesting features. Pregnancy as evi- denced by the presence of a bulbous uterine cornu, was noticed from the first week of September to about the last week of May. Microscopic examination of the female re- productive organs revealed that the females collected on the 12th of August had not copu- lated and both the ovaries contained vesicular follicles only. However, out of the eight adult females collected on 24th August, four had pre-ovulatory follicles in the left ovary and sperms in their genital tracts, three had an early extrovert corpus luteum each in their 383 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 left ovary and an egg in the eight cell stage in the Fallopian tube thereby indicating that ovu- lation and fertilisation must have taken place a day or two earlier and one had multilaminar follicles with intercellular chinks in the left ovary. Out of the 14 females collected on 5th September, one had an unfertilised egg sur- rounded by cumulus cells in the ovarian bursa and sperms in the uterine part of the Fallopian tube and uterus, three had pre-ovulatory folli- cles about to rupture and sperms in the genital tract and the remaining nine showed unques- tionable pregnancy in the left uterine cornu. Some females collected on 9th and 10th Sep- tember showed late stages of cleavage in the Fallopian tube with degenerate sperms in the uterine glands and those on 24th September had free blastocysts in the uterine lumen. Some females collected between 1st to 17th October showed various stages of implantation. From these facts it is evident that all the females in the colony copulate and conceive approximately between the 22nd August and 5th September. The first delivered baby was collected on 10th May. The uterus of the mother had not involuted and the young one had a small umbilical stub, closed eyelids, was without hair and weighed 8 gms. Since the full term foetuses were of the same weight it is evident that this young bat must have been delivered a few hours earlier. During subsequent collec- tions more and more females in the colony were found to have delivered their young ones. One pregnant female collected on 24th May had a full term foetus which, from its size, weight and development, would have delivered in a day or two. Pregnant females were not present in the colony after this date. The above facts indicate that all deliveries take place with- in a span of two weeks that is between second and last week of May. The females carrying a young one at their breasts were collected from 10th May to 26th June. It cannot be ascertained if the young ones were incessantly carried by their mother during this period. The highest weight of the young at breast was 22 gm. The first batch of young were collected on 6th June and weighed 25 gm. Assuming that these young ones had been delivered in the 1st batch (10th May) and that they were carried by their mother till 6th June, it is evident that the mother carries the young for about 26 days. However, even after they leave their mothers they may be sucking the milk of the mother for some time more as evidenced by the fact that the mam- mary glands of the females continue to ooze milk on pressing till 12th August, and curdled milk was found in the stomach of several free young ones. From the foregoing account of the breeding habits of Hipposideros lankadiva, the annual reproductive cycle of the female can be recog- nised into the following periods: 1 . A short period of sexual quiescence from first week of August to about the middle of August. 2. Oestrus- copulation and fertilisation during the latter half of August and the first week of September. 3. Pregnancy- from about the latter half of August to first week of May. 4 . Parturition- during the 10th and the end of May. 5 . Lactation- from the second week of May to the first week of August. 4. Duration of pregnancy The duration of pregnancy as is evidenced by the above data is of about 260 days allow- ing a margin of 4 to 5 days on either side — the date when the first delivery occurred (10th May) and the date when the egg in early cleavage was noticed (24th August). An inter- 384 BREEDING E1ABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS — PART IX esting feature of the pregnancy of this species is that the uterine bulb did not increase notice- ably until the end of December. However, from January onwards the bulbs started increasing in size until parturition in May. These facts suggest that after implantation of the blastocyst the embryonic development is retarded for about four months until December, and is responsible for the unusually prolonged pre- gnancy of this bat. The factors responsible for this are not known. 5. Number of young Examination of the collection diary reveals that out of 169 pregnant females collected, 152 carried the embryos in the left cornu and 17 in the right. Histological examination of the ovaries of these pregnant specimens revealed that the corpus luteum was invariably present in the ovaries ipsilateral to the uterine cornu carrying the conceptus. Evidently, transuterine migration of the embryo had not taken place in any specimen. Futher, there is no evidence to indicate that there is physiological alter- nation of the two sides of the genitalia. On the other hand there is a distinct unilateral physiological dominance of the left side of the female genitalia. Such a dominance of the left side is reported in other hipposiderid bats (Gopalakrishna and Moghe 1960, Gopalakrishna and Madhavan 1978, Madhavan et al. 1979, Gopalakrishna and Bhatia 1983). 6. Growth and maturity It has already been mentioned that all the females deliver within a span of a fortnight (10th May to 24th May). The newly born young ones weigh about 9 gm when they leave the mother. The first batch of free young ones weighing 22 gm were collected on 6th June and young ones at breasts were collected up till 21st June. Milk was present in the mammary glands until 12 August. Examination of the stomach con- tents of juveniles weighing 25 to 30 gm re- vealed the presence of curdled milk in their stomach. It is evident that the young ones must be visiting the mother for sucking even after they become free. Evidently the young ones grow rapidly during the period when they suck milk and their body weight increases three times by the time they are weaned. These juveniles can be recognised by their darker fur colour. After 30th July it is not possible to recognise the juveniles from adults on the basis of fur colour and size of the body. The mammary nipples and pubic dugs are inconspicuous in virgin females, but they in- crease in size during the first pregnancy and lactation and remain conspicuous throughout the rest of the life of parous females. Thus, the size and nature of the character of the mam- mary nipples and pubic dugs can be used as valid criteria to determine the sexual maturity or otherwise of the females. The collection diary reveals that some fe- males having inconspicuous mammary nipples and pubic dugs were present in the colony during the breeding and pregnancy periods. On histological examination they revealed a typical juvenile conditions of the ovaries and genitalia. Amongst the males also a number of immature specimens (immature as revealed by the size and histological characteristics of the testis and accessory sex organs) were collected during the breeding season. The occurrence of immature females and males during the breeding season indicates that sexual maturity is not attained in this species in the year of birth. It has already been noted that the first batch of delivered young were collec- ted on 10th May and that copulation took place on 24th August. These facts indicate that the animals of either sex take atleast 16 to 17 months to attain sexual maturity. During the breeding season the female population shows three categories of individuals — i) im- 385 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 mature females, ii) nonparous females experi- encing their first pregnancy and iii) parous females in their second or subsequent pre- gnancies. I. Sex-ratio Among 517 specimens netted at random at regular intervals for two years there were 323 females and 194 males. Since there is no segre- gation of sexes with regard to age or season, this should be the natural sex-ratio of this species. The number of sucking individuals in the collection was too small to give any indi- cation about the sex-ratio at birth. But among 102 free immature specimens collected there were 76 females and 26 males (Table II). It is thus evident that there is a preferential mortality of the males during the growth period. This unbalanced sex-ratio during the immature period continues to the adult period giving an unbalanced female dominant sex-ratio in the colony. During the period of copulation and ovulation (last week of August and first week of September) also, the adult population is female dominant. Refe Abdulali, H. (1949): Sex ratios in Indian bats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 48:423-421. Brosset, A. (1962) : The bats of Central and Western India. Part II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59: 583-624. Gopalakrishna, A. & Bhatia, D. (1980) : Storage of spermatozoa in the epididymis of the bat, Hippo- sideros speoris (Schneider). Curr. Sci., 49: 951-952. — (1983): Breed- ing habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats. Part VII — Hipposideros speoris (Schneider) (Hipposideridae) from Chandrapur, Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79(3) : 549-556. Gopalakrishna, A. & Madhavan, A. (1978): Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats. Part III- Hipposideros ater ater (Tem- Amongst the hipposiderid bats a female dominant sex-ratio has been reported in Hipposideros ater ater (Gopalakrishna and Madhavan 1978), Hipposideros fulvus fulvus (Madhavan et al. 1979) and Hipposideros speoris (Gopalakrishna and Bhatia 1983). The present observations confirm the female domi- nant sex-ratio in this species and is at variance with the report by Abdulali (1949) for this species. Perhaps Abdulali (1949) based his conclusions on only a few isolated collections from only one or two colonies. Hence he pro- bably missed the exact sex-ratio of this animal. This bat, therefore, conforms to the norms of sex-ratio noticed by most workers in most of the Indian and European bats in general and hipposiderid bats in particular. ACK N OWLEDGE M E N TS . We are deeply grateful to Dr. A Gopala- krishna, Director, Institute of Science, Nagpur under whose able guidance this work has been carried out. e n c e s pleton) -Hipposideridae. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 74: 511-517. Gopalakrishna, A, & Moghe, M. A. (1960) : “Development of the foetal membranes in the Indian leaf-nosed bat, Hipposideros bicolor pallidus. Zeit- schr. f. Anat. u. Entwicklun gsgesh., 122: 137-49. Madhavan, A., Gopalakrishna, A. & Patil, D. R. (1979) : Breeding habits and associated pheno- mena in some Indian bats. Part V -Hipposideros fulvus (Gray) -Hipposideridae. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 75: 96-103. Menzies, J. I. (1973): Study of the leaf-nosed bat {Hipposideros caffer and Rhinolophus landeri) in a cave in northern Nigeria (incl. reproduction). /. Mammal., 54: 930-945. 386 ACTIVITY PATTERNS IN A COLONY OF PEAFOWLS (PAVO CRISTATUS) IN NATURE1 K. Navaneethakannan2 (With five text-fgures) i) The activity patterns as regards the external environment of Pavo cristatus occupying an area at Nagamalai ridges near Madurai Kamaraj University campus and consisting of approximately 50 peafowls of either sexes were studied. ii) Onset of activity of the first flyer from their roosting tree corresponds to the time of sunrise throughout the period of observation thus implicating the light as the chief synchronizing agent. iii) Returning activity occurs around the time of sunset, and the phase relation (if/ end) is as precise as for emergence. iv) Activity time is correlated with the duration of photoperiod Increase in photo- period results in an increase in the duration of activity. v) The value of light intensity and the movement of departure of the first flyer does not exhibit any systematic, triggering light intensity threshold. Introduction Many field studies have been undertaken on birds and small mammals of temperate re- gions as regards their timings of activity in relation to environmental factors over the seasons (Voute et al. 1974, Daan and Aschoff 1975, Erkinaro 1972). Their activity rhythms are mainly regulated by light /darkness cycle of nature. Other extrinsic factors such as temperature (Hoffmann 1968), sound (Mena- ker and Eskin 1966, Gwinner 1966) and so- cial cues (Marimuthu et al. 1981) and in- trinsic factors such as hormones (Turek et al. 1976), can also eventually modify several such activity rhythms. Daily beginning and end of activities, in 1 Accepted September 1982. 2 Department of Animal Behaviour, School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai 625 021. day-active birds correspond to timings of sunrise and sunset respectively, and keep closer pace with them in temperate regions, (Daan and Aschoff 1975). Such systematic study, however, is not available for activity patterns of tropical birds. Day length varies only marginally in the regions closer to the equator. The day length, however, varies by about 1 h and 22 min over the seasons of the year at Madurai (lat. 9°58’N, long. 78°10’E). The present study describes the activity pat- terns of peafowls, Pavo cristatus and corre- lates them to environmental factors such as sunrise, sunset and photoperiod. T erminology : cc — duration of activity if/ — phase angle difference ip onset — Time interval between sunrise and onset of activity ip end — Time interval between sunset and end of activity ip midpoint — 1/2 ( tfr onset + ip end) 387 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Habitat description and study methods The study area is located at the foothills of the Nagamalai ridge to the north of the Madu- rai Kamaraj University campus (lat. 9° 58'N, long. 78°10'E) and houses a colony of pea- fowl of c. 50. The ridge lies in the east-west axis and is approximately 10 km. the southern flank of which is a rain shadow. The habitat is surrounded by thick scrub jungle with rich bird and ground insect population. Water availability is scarce because of the rock sur- face of the habitat. Peafowls usually roost on the branches of Acacia spp. and on palmyra trees. All day-watches were made from July 1980 until the end of March 1981 in that area. The observer was positioned away from these roost- ing sites and noise and movement were kept to a minimum. The time of beginning of acti- vity of the peafowl was recorded from a dis- tance using a pair of binoculars. Values of light intensity were measured using an AEG lux meter at the time of onset of flight activity of peafowls from the roosting tree. Recordings of ambient temperature, rainfall and wind speed were obtained from the meteorological station of the Department of Animal Behavi- our, School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University. Sunrise, sunset data were obtained from the tables of ‘Nautical Almanac’. Results Pattern of emergence activity, based on the number of peafowls which fly from the roost- ing trees with time is typically a bell shaped curve as shown in Fig. 1. On the contrary the pattern of end of foraging activity (number of peafowls roosting vs time) indicates that the peak of roosting occurred en masse. (Fig 1) The time of beginning of activity of birds from the roosting trees was related to the time of sunrise as shown in Fig. 2. The beginning of activity time varied between 0544 h (July) to 0640 h (March) during the period of investi- gations. This closely parallels the sunrise time Fig. 1. Onset of foraging flight and end of activity are plotted as a function of time. The peak of onset of foraging activity is bell shaped. The roosting (end of activity) occurred en masse and vocalizations were frequent. 388 ACTIVITY PATTERNS IN A COLONY OF PEAFOWLS IN NATURE 5 Q Fig. 2. (a) Field data on time of onset of activity of a colony of Pavo cristatus. Foraging flight from the roosting tree corresponds to the time of sunrise. (b) The end of activity of the bird corresponds to the time of sunset. Ordinate: Hour of day. Abscissa: Month of year. which varied between 0600 h and 0640 h. It is a common practice in circadian literature to relate the timings of onset and end of activity of diurnal animals to characteristic phase points of the daily sunrise and sunset. This phase angle difference, \Jj onset, was calculated as the time difference between sunrise and the onset of activity (Fig. 3.) Environmental variables other than light had a minor influence on the time of onset of acti- vity. There was no evidence that the onset of activity was influenced by temperature since the mean temperature during the study period varied between 20°C and 37°C. The peafowls vocalize while roosting. The birds started returning to the roosting site from 1700 h. The end of activity closely paralleled the time of sunset. For example, the time of end of activity varied between 1759 h and 1859 h over the study period which roughly paralleled the sunset time 1812 to 18 12 h. The phase angle difference if/e was calculated as the time difference between sunset and the end of activity of the last roosting bird. The xj/ onset and ^ end values roughly mirror-image. (Fig. 3). 389 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Activity time : The analysis of activity time as a function of photoperiod (sunlight duration) shows that activity follows the seasonal variations in light dark ratio (Fig. 4). Activity time is positively correlated with the duration of the photo - period. Increase in photoperiod resulted in an increased activity time. Discussion The day to day variations on the timings of onset of activity and end of activity may be considered to be indicative of the precision of the clock underlying and governing such acti- vities. (Aschoff et al. 1972). The clock would be more precise if the onset of activity is nearer to sunrise: by the same token the end of acti- vity to sunset in diurnal animals (Erkinaro 1972). In our study of birds there is seasonal variation in the onset of activity which ranges from 0544 to 0640 indicating a parallel seasonal shift with the time of sunrise from 0600 to 0640 h. Similar seasonal shift of end of activity is observed which keeps pace with the progres- sion of the time of sunset. Aschoff and Wever (1962) have formulated that day to day vari- ations in the time of activity onset are smaller J A S 0 N D J F M Month of year Fig. 3. Seasonal changes of onset and end in Pavo cristatus. The seasonal variations in xp0 and roughly mirror image. Ordinate: ^r0 and values in minutes. Abscissa: Month of year. 390 ACTIVITY PATTERNS IN A COLONY OF PEAFOWLS IN NATURE than variations in the end of activity. Our pea- fowls exhibited no such day to day variations of onset relative to end of activity. Thus the data derived from the field study partly violates Photoperiod (h) Fig. 4. Activity time is correlated with the duration of photoperiod. Activity time increases with increas- ing photoperiod. Ordinate: Activity time (h). Abscissa: Duration of photoperiod (h). the Aschoff and Wever (1962) generalizations. Activity onset in day active birds is usually at higher light intensities than end of activity (Daan and Aschoff 1975). The statement was based on the large number of studies compiled and supported by most of the analyses made by Daan and Aschoff in captive birds and mammals. In the present observations it was found that the peafowls begin and end their activity at similar light intensities. Such differ- ences as are noted between temperate and tropical birds may be due to differences in the inherent sensitivity of the animals to light in- tensities, to differences in climatic conditions and differences incident upon latitudinal factors and in the physiological status of the animals related to general living conditions. According to Aschoff (1965) the best way to measure appropriate phase relation in diurnal animals is to compare the midpoint of activity with the midpoint of day light. In Fig. 5 the activity midpoint has been plotted against season: if/ midpoint decreases as the daylength becomes shorter and increases as it grows longer. This observation accords with the seasonal rule of Aschoff (1964) and Daan and Aschoff (1975) which can be claimed to account for many diurnal animals. The graph giving the duration of daily acti- vity versus the photoperiod can be described as S-shaped in all species studied so far both in nature and in captivity. In our study activity time of birds paralleled the duration of photo- period. Changes of oc occurred (which lead to S- shaped curve) only in those seasons with photoperiod shorter than 5 h and longer than 18 h which do not occur in our study area. However, the duration of cc is a linear function of photoperiod. ACK N OWLEDGE M E N TS I am grateful to Prof. M. K. Chandra- shekaran for critically reviewing the manu- script. I am also indebted to Dr. R. Subbaraj, and Dr. G. Marimuthu for their help in preparing the manuscript. 391 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL LIIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Fig. 5. Seasonal changes in the midpoint of activity midpoint), ^midpoint decreases as the day length becomes shorter and increases as it grows longer Ordinate: ^ midpoint in minutes. Abscisca: Month of year. References Aschoff, J. (1964) : Die Tagesperiodik licht-und dunkelaktiver Tiere. Rev. Suisse Zool. 71 : 528-558. (1965) : The phase angle difference in circadian periodicity. In: ‘Circadian Clocks’ (ed Aschoff, J.), North Holland, Amsterdam, pp-262-276. Aschoff, J. & Wever, R., (1962) : Beginn und Ende der taeglichen Aktivitaet freilebender Voegel. /. Orn, 103 : 2-27. Aschoff, J., Daan, S., Figala, J. & Muller, K. (1972) : Precision of entrained circadian activity under natural photoperiodic conditions. Natunviss 6: 276-277. Daan, S., & Aschoff, J. (1975): ‘Circadian rhythms of locomotor activity in captive birds and mammals : their variations with seasons and latitude. Oecologia 18: 269-316. Erkinaro, E. (1972) : Precision of the cireadian clock in Tengmalm’s Owl ( Aegolius funereus L.) during various seasons. Aquillo ( oiilu ) 13: 48-52. Gwinner, E. (1966): Periodicity of a circadian rhythm in birds by species specific song cycles (Aves, Fringillidae) , Carduelis spinus, Serinus sen- nits. Experientia, 22: 765-766. 392 ACTIVITY PATTERNS IN A COLONY OF PEAFOWLS IN NATURE Hoffmann, K. (1968): Synchronization der cir- cadianen aktivitaetsperiodik von Eidechsen durch Temperaturcyclen verschiedener Amplitude. Z. Vergl. Physiol. 58 : 225-228. Menaker, M., & Eskin, A. (1966) : Entrainment of circadian rhythms by sound in Passer domesticus. Science, 154 : 1579-1581. Marimuthu, G., Rajan, S., & Chandrashekaran, M. K. (1981): Social entrainment of circadian rhythm in the flight activity of the microchiropteran bat ( Hipposideros speoris ). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 8: 147-150. Turek, F. W. McMillan, J. P., & Menaker, M. (1976) : Melatonin alters the circadian rhythm of activity of sparrows. Science, 194 : 1441-1443. Voute, A. M., Sluiter, J. W., & Grimm, M. P. (1974): The influence of the natural light dark cycle on the activity rhythm of pond bats ( Myotis dasycneme Boie 1825) during summer. Oecoloeia. 17: 221-243. 393 POPULATION STRUCTURE OF THE INDIAN HOUSE RAT, RATTUS RATTUS RUFESCENS IN THE INDIAN ARID ZONE1 Ranjan Advani and B. D. Rana2 The Common house rat, Rattus rattus rufescens (Gray) were trapped from January 1980 to December 1980 by live Sherman traps from grain storages in Jodhpur (26°18'N — 73°0TE). The females were found to be apparently heavier than males. On an annual basis, collection of females in pre-ponderance of males seems to be necessary to maintain higher densities of population in godowns. Subadult populations were recruited in greater proportion during all the months of year except January which is essential for faster regulation of a dense population of rodents. A comparison of body weights, sex ratios and age structure of R. rattus rufescens has been made with available data of other Introduction Although intensive population studies have been carried out on field rodent species, little is known about the bionomics of the commen- sal rodents in the Indian desert. Constituting about 75 per cent of the total house rodent fauna, the Indian house rat, Rattus rattus rufescens is a well distributed species causing severe losses to the food grains in storage. Moreover, Rattus rattus rufescens litters throughout the year (Rana et cd. 1982) and thus has attained a level of economic import- ance in the Indian desert (Cowan & Prakash 1978). Keeping in view, the relative abundance, and economic status of this rat, studies have been undertaken at Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur on ecology, biology and toxicology (Prakash et al. 1980, Advani et al. 1981, Rana et al. 1982). To make control 1 Accepted March 1982. 2 Coordinating & Monitoring Centre for Rodent Research & Control, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur. Indian rodent species. operations more effective as well as meaning- ful and operation oriented, seasonal variations in body weights, sex ratios and age structure were studied in the Indian desert rodents, the results of which are reported and compared with those of the field rodents. Material and Methods The house rats (200 c? 242$ $) were sampled from January 1980 to December 1980 with the help of live sherman traps from the grain mandis in and around Jodhpur (26°18'N — 70°0TE). The Sherman traps were baited with peanut butter and were checked after every 6 hours, during which bait was replenish- ed. After collection, the body weights of rats representing various age-groups and sexes were recorded on a spring balance (accuracy of 0.1 g). After killing the rodents with chloroform, they were sexed and grouped in two classes according to their body weights. Among males, those rats weighing under 80 g were considered to be subadults as they attain sexual maturity at about this body weight (Rana et al. 1982). Females having body 394 POPULATION STRUCTURE OF THE INDIAN HOUSE RAT weights lesser than 70 g were classified as sub- adults (absence of Corpora lutea and perfor- ate vagina) while rest were considered as adult. Results Body weights There were no statistical differences in sea- sonal variations in both the sexes of rodents. However, maximum body weights were record- ed during May- June and November-December in males and during February-March and August-September in female rodents (Table 1). The males were found to be apparently heavier than the females during January, June, August, November and December. Whereas, the significant differences were noticed during May and June (P< 0.05, P<0.01) only. The Table 1 Mean monthly body weights (g±S.E.) of R. rat tits Body weights ‘t’ between Months Male 0) Female (2) 1 & 2 January 94.12Hz 9.52 89.73zh 5.00 0.40 February 79.50zfc 9.39 93.94zh 4.00 1.41 March 93. 27 it 7.71 95.20zh 7.31 0.71 April 59.50Hz 7.00 77. 44 H= 11 . 16 1.36 May 109. 90 Hz 8.83 76. 25 Hz 3.05 3.60** June 87. 40 Hz 8.92 66. 65 it 6.36 1.89* July 65. 09 Hz 9.19 78. 15± 5.76 1.20 August 95.85ztl0.00 87. 15zt 5.76 0.73 September 72.13zh 7.01 104. 00 Hz 9.47 2.70** October 77.47Hz 7.21 81 . 33zt 5.67 0.42 November 83. 57 Hz 5.30 80.26Hz 3.49 0.65 December 90.44zt 9.47 84. 00 it 6.50 0.53 Annual average 75.88Hzll.30 77.07 Hz 9.18 0.081 * = P < 0 . 05 ** - P<0.01 females were heavier than males during Febru- ary to April, July, September, October, with significant differences (P<0.01) only in Sep- tember. Sex ratios The preponderance of female R. r. rujescens were observed almost throughout the year ex- cept March, September to November. Inter- estingly, males constituted a very low propor- tion (range: 32.4 to 40.0 per cent) in the population during February, May to July (Table 2). On an average, the female popula- Table 2 Monthly variations in the sex ratios of R. rattus mfescens Months Male Female % of males January 16 24 40.0 February 12 18 40.0 March 23 20 53.4 April 16 18 47.0 May 15 22 40.5 June 15 23 39.4 July 12 25 32.4 August 20 24 45.4 September 21 18 53.7 October 19 17 52.6 November 18 17 51.5 December 13 16 44.8 Total 200 242 45.4 tion outnumbered significantly (x2 (1) 3.98, P<0.05) in the total sample size collected. Age structure Among males, preponderance of subadults (upto 80 g. body weight) was during April, July-October and thereafter, in December, indi- cating ideal months for weaning of newly born 395 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Table 3 Monthly distribution of weight classes of male and female rats expressed as per cent of monthly COLLECTION Weight Months of year classes (g) Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 20-50 25.0 25.0 17.3 56.2 33.3 MALES 13.3 41.6 30.0 42.9 15.8 27.8 30.8 51-80 6.2 25.0 30.4 12.5 6.6 33.3 41.7 3.0 42.9 52.7 27.8 30.7 81-110 37.5 25.0 26.0 25.0 26.6 20.0 — 2.0 4.8 21.0 33.3 23.1 111-140 18.8 16.6 21.7 6.2 26.6 33.3 16.7 1.5 9.4 5.2 — 7.7 141-170 12.5 8.3 — — 6.6 — — 5.0 — 5.2 — 7.7 171-200 — — 4.3 — — — — — — — — — 20-50 12.5 16.6 15.0 27.7 31.8 FEMALES 39.1 4.0 25.0 22.2 11.9 11.7 25.0 51-80 20.8 11.1 20.0 16.6 50.0 30.4 56.0 29.1 16.6 41.1 53.0 43.7 81-110 58.3 33.3 30.0 27.7 18.2 17.4 16.0 29.2 22.3 29.4 35.3 25.0 111-140 14.2 27.7 30.0 22.2 ■ — 13.0 24.0 12.5 30.3 — — — 141-170 14.2 11.1 5.0 5.5 — — — 4.2 — 17.6 — 6.3 171-200 — — — — — — — — 5.6 — — — - young ones (Table 3). During April to August and then from October to December, the sub- adult females were recruited in natural popu- lations in larger numbers. The body weight classes of 81-110 g and 111-140 g are more common in case of male rats, whereas, 111-140 g is not represented in all months of the year. However, weight classes of 140-170 g and 171- 200 g have discontinuous and scattered distri- bution in the monthly collections of population. Discussion As female Ratlus rati us rufescens litters throughout the year, on an annual basis, females were found heavier than males, though the difference was insignificant. Occurrence of heavier females in September coincides with relatively higher (22.2%) prevalence of pre- gnancy (Rana et al. 1982) in this month. Like- wise, their low fertility rate (13.0%) as well as lowest body weights (66.65 ±636 g) are recorded in June. In comparison to the Desert gerbil, Meriones hurrianae which shows con- siderable fluctuations in body weight structure (Prakash 1972), such seasonal variations are not found in case of R. rat t us rufescens. It may be because of green nutritious food available to M. hurrianae population only during mon- soon months, whereas, in godowns, R. rat tits has sufficient supply of food to maintain its body weight more or less at a constant level. This concept holds true in another field rat species, Rattus meltada pallidior, due to its habit of selective feeding in nature (Rana & Advani 1981), and hence much variation in body weight is expected (Rana & Prakash 1982). On an annual basis, females outnumbered (54.6%) the males (Table 2) supporting gene- ral sex ratio pattern among mammals inhabiting the Indian desert (Prakash 1974). However, 396 POPULATION STRUCTURE OF THE INDIAN HOUSE RAT in the congeneric field rodents, Rattus meltada pallidior during a two year study, males always predominated the trapped population (Rana & Prakash 1982). The predominance of female R. rattus rufescens was observed even during the months of their peak prevalence of preg- nancies in July and December. This is in contrast to the observations made by Raczynski (1964) who opined that during pregnancy females restrict their movements and therefore are trapped in lesser numbers than males. In case of present study, collections of rats were made from protected environments in godowns where food and space are sufficient for un- checked growth of any pest population. There- fore, both sexes were encountered in sufficient numbers. Moreover, to maintain a high density of population all the year round, preponderance of female sex in a population is essential. Like- wise, in case of R. meltada infesting the irri- gated crop fields which provide ample food to them round the year, male percentages were lower than those of females even during the months when prevalence of pregnancy was maximum (Rana & Prakash 1982). It appears that not only activity pattern or behaviour but also food and space influence the sex ratios obtained by trapping in a free living rodent population. On a yearly basis, male to female ratio was 1:1.21 which deviated significantly X2 (j) = 3.98; P<0.05) from the 50:50 ex- pected ratio. However, during March, Septem- ber and November males were collected in larger numbers than females, whereas, insigni- ficant differences between male and female numbers were found in other Indian rodent species like Tat era indiea cuvieri (Prasad 1961); T. indiea indiea (Jain 1970), and Rattus cutchicus cutchicus (Prakash et al. 1973). In pooled data for both the sexes of sub- adults it was revealed that except January, during all months subadults are encountered significantly in greater proportions. This may be due to faster regulation of population, higher annual productivity rate (Rana et al. 1982) and occurrence of pregnant females in all months during the year. On the other hand, greater proportions of subadult males were collected in the latter half of the year (July- December) of R. meltada pallidior in western Rajasthan (Rana & Prakash 1982) and during first half of the year from the same species in South India (Chan- drahas & Krishnaswami 1974). The regular recruitment of subadult rats in the population may be due to continuous food supply and shelter available to house-rats in grain mandis. Secondly, higher rate of prevalence of pre- gnancy in a confined population, is also one of the main regulating factors. Ack nowledge men ts We are grateful to Dr. H. S. Mann, Director, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodh- pur for providing facilities. We thank Dr. Ishwar Prakash, Professor of Emi- nence, C.A.Z.R.I. for encouragement and guidance during the course of study. Help of colleagues, Sarvashri Dev Raj and Mala Ram, Laboratory Technician for procuring the ani- mals is also acknowledged. Thanks are also due to Shri Chander Darwarni, L.D.C. who typed the manuscript. 397 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 References Advani, R., Rana, B. D. & Soni, B. K. (1981): The organ: body weight relationship in the House rat, Rattus rattus rufescens (Gray, 1837). Zeit. Saugetierk. Mitteil. 29: 1-5. Chandrahas, R. K. & Krishnaswami, A. K. (1974) : Ecology of the soft-furred field rat, Rattus meltada meltada (Gray) in Kolar, Mysore State. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 447-457. Cowan, P. E. & Prakash, I. (1978): House rats from the Indian Arid Zone. Zeit. angew. zool. 65: 187-194. Jain, A. P. (1970): Body weights, sex ratio, age structure and some aspects of reproduction in the Indian gerbil, Tatera indica indica Hardwicke in the Rajasthan desert, India. Mammalia, 54:416-432. Prakash, I. (1972) : Ecotoxicology and control of the Indian Desert Gerbil, Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon) VIII. Body weights, sex ratio and age structure in the population. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 68: 717-725. (1974) : The ecology of vertebrates of the Indian desert. Chapter XIII. in Biogeography and Ecology in India. Dr. Junk B. V. Verlag, The Hague : 369-420. Prakash, I., Advani, R., Soni, B. K. & Rana, B. D. (1980) : Evaluation of the poison base for the con- trol of common house rat, Rattus rattus rufescens (Gray), Zeit. angew Zoo!. 67: 211-223. Prakash, I., Rana, B. D. & Jain, A.P. (1973) : Reproduction in the Cutch-Rock rat, Rattus cutchi- cus cutchicus in the Indian desert. Mammalia, 37 : 452-467. Prasad, M. R. N. (1961): Reproduction in the female Indian gerbil, Tatera indica cuvieri (Water- house). Acta Zool., 42: 245-256. Raczynski, J. (1964) : Studies on the European hare. V. Reproduction. Acta Theriol., 9: 305-352. Rana, B. D. & Advani, R. (1981): Food com- position of the metad, Rattus meltada pallidior in western Rajasthan. Acta Theriol., 26: 129-132. Rana, B. D., Advani, R. & Soni, B. K. (1982) : Reproductive biology of Rattus rattus rufescens in the Indian Desert. Acta Oecol. Paris (In press). Rana, B. D. & Prakash, I. (1982): Population structure of the metad Rattus meltada pallidior in the Thar desert. Zeit. angew. Zool. (In press). 398 RECENT ORNITHOLOGICAL RECORDS FROM PAKISTAN1 T. J, Roberts2 One of the biggest problems for any keen bird watcher in Pakistan today is that of trying to determine the real status of less common birds because of the lack of recent records or reliable observations and ones reliance per- force on very old and sometimes doubtful re- cords. It is with this aspect particularly in mind, that this note is written, based as it is on my diary notes from the past two or three years which add new information to the records which the Society was kind enough to publish in a note I submitted three years ago (Roberts 1981). I have included some recent findings of several ornithologist friends in order to give as complete a coverage as possible. Oceanites oceanicus Wilson’s Storm Petrel is described in Vol. 2 of the handbook series (Salim Ali 1968) to be not uncommon along the coasts of Sind and Mekran (Pakistan’s seaboard), from May/ June onwards till about September /November when birds returning to their Antarctic breed- ing grounds are sighted off the coast of Sri Lanka. Of all the Antarctic breeding sea birds, the majority nest on isolated southern latitude is- lands and only three or four species (2 Pen- guins, 1 Sheathbill and 1 Wilson’s Storm Petrel) largely confine their nesting activity to the 1 Accepted February 1983. 2 P. O. Box 3311, Malir City Post Office, Karachi-23. Present address : “Cae Gors”. Rhoscefnhir, Nr. Pentraeth, Anglesey, Gwynedd, LL75 8 YU, U.K. main Antarctic continental land mass. This little Petrel is reported to nest on high moun- tain crags further inland and under more extreme weather conditions than almost any other bird. This, coupled with its dainty ap- pearance and “wave walking” habit, make it a particularly fascinating bird. Along the Karachi seacoast it is not diffi- cult to see this Petrel from certain promontories along the shore during the summer months. In the past two years with the help of a very experienced ornithologist friend, Rolf Pass- burg, we have been periodically surveying pelagic birds, by means of boat trips, during the winter months, and found to our surprise that considerable numbers of Wilson’s Petrels feed along the coast throughout November, December and January (up to 15 and 22 birds sighted during a six hour voyage). Circum- stances have prevented us from making sur- veys in February and early March but from late March and early April, Wilson’s Storm Petrel can again be sighted, and it could be fairly assumed that a number of non-breeding birds remain during the Antarctic “summer” around the Arabian Sea and coastline of Pakistan. Nettapus coromandelianus The Pygmy Cotton Teal, it might be sup- posed, is largely a summer visitor to Pakistan like other endemic ducks such as the Spotbill ( Anas poecilorhyncha ) and Lesser Whistling Teal ( Dendrocygna javanica). Volume I of the handbook describes it as rare or absent in 399 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 the arid portions of Pakistan (Salim Ali 1968, page 191). Kenneth Eates who compiled the section of the Sind Gazetteer covering birds and mammals in the early 1950’s (Sorley Edit., 1968), and who enthusiastically studied the Sind avifauna over more than thirty years ser- vice in that Province, described the Cotton Teal as very rare and only to be encountered in one or two swampy bush-studded “dhands” near Sujjawal in Thatta District. It would be fair to state that this little Pygmy Goose is on the increase in Pakistan, and that a consider- able population is resident. For example on Hadeiro Lake some fifty-five miles northeast of Karachi, about 150 Cotton Teal can be seen throughout the winter and early summer months though there is some breeding disper- sal during the monsoon. In the northern Pun- jab, near Kalabagh town in Mianwali District, I was surprised to encounter a group of ten Cotton Teal on January 23rd, 1981 in a see- page swamp upstream of the Islam Barrage on the Indus River, and this little group might well be resident also. There have also been frequent recent sightings from the Punjab Salt Range lakes. Aythya mania The Scaup Duck could be confused with other Pochards in winter or female plumage and it is known to be a rare duck on the sub- continent. Neither Brigadier Christison nor Dr. Ticehurst could find any records of this duck having been shot on passage in Baluchistan (Christison 1942, Ticehurst 1926-27). Similarly in writing about the birds of Sind, Ticehurst (1922) cast doubts on the reliability of J. A. Murrey’s earlier records from Karachi (fauna of British India, Vol. IV page 462). Murray was curator of the museum at Karachi and a good all round vertebrate zoologist but not particularly experienced as an ornithologist. On March 27th, 1982 when most palearctic ducks had migrated north from lower Sind, Rolf Passburg and myself watched for some time through a telescope a female Scaup on Haleji Lake which is about 45 miles northeast of Karachi. It was feeding and very reluctant to fly even when we tried to put it up. A few Scaup must winter in the Arabian Sea and overfly Pakistan on migration and thus escape attention. Stercorarius pomariuus The Pomarine Skua is a distinctly heavier and larger bird than the Arctic Skua with broader vertical cross barring on its rear flanks. Its central tail feathers are spatulate not pointed as in the Arctic Skua. Passburg and myself now have several sightings of this Skua off Karachi coastal waters. On January 8th, 1982 a pair hunting cooperatively (klepto parasitising) Sandwich Terns ( Sterna sandvicensis) . April 2nd, 1982 another pair observed closely from Cape Monze from the shore. January 4th, 1983 two single birds resting on the sea at the mouth of Ghizri Creek. On all occasions we found this Skua fearless of motor launches and tolerant of very close approach (this contrasts with Humes’ experience with Arctic Skuas). Arctic Skuas ( Stercorarius parasiticus ) are less un- usual along Karachi sea coast. For example 12 were noted on March 14th, 1982, but we now believe that the Pomarine has been over- looked possibly because of a lack of reliable off-shore observations. The handbook records only a single authentic sighting off the coast of Sri Lanka in 1912 (Waite 1931). Apus pacificus The Himalayan White Rumped Swift is recorded in Volume IV (page 49) of the hand- book as “certainly breeding in the Murree Hills”. The only written record is of a small 400 ORNITHOLOGICAL RECORDS FROM PAKISTAN colony of this Swift discovered in July J 3th, 1907 by Major H. A. F. Magrath at Chang I a Gali in the Galis. Fie could hear the young calling inside rock clefts. This record was not published by Magrath himself in his re- cords of the Murree Hills and Galis (Magrath 1909) but cited by Whistler in his notes on the ‘Birds of Rawalpindi District’ (Whistler 1930). It is significant that Colonel Rattray who worked this region very thoroughly in 1903-1904 did not record this Swift (See below under ‘Golden Bush Robin’). Swifts are notori- ously difficult to identify under conditions of bright sunlight and when feeding, as they nor- mally do, high up in the sky. Since purchasing a summer cottage in the Galis in 1960, I have always been on the lookout for this Swift and failed to find it, particularly during searches around Changla Gali. It seems fair to con- clude that they no longer breed in the Murree Hills. However for the first time, on May 16th, 1982 after an unusually late and stormy spring in the Murree Hills region I encountered a flock of about 30 White Rumped Swifts haw- king around the summit of Mukhshpuri Moun- tain. They were accompanied by about 5 House Swifts ( Apus affinis ) and about 15 Common Swifts ( Apus apus) which greatly facilitated comparison and identification. Mukhshpuri peak is only 9,300 feet high and my cottage stands on its lower slopes so I cannot recall the many scores of times that I have been on its summit. I never saw this Swift after May 16th, despite remaining in the area. Recent studies of the Common Swift ( Apus apus) (Bromhall 1980) have revealed the enormous distances that these masters of the air will travel in one day to find suitable feed- ing space. Twenty-five to thirty miles daily traversal from one point to another being not unusual, so this Mukhshpuri sighting cannot be taken as clear evidence of breeding within Pakistan and for me its status still remains enigmatic. Apus apus breeds throughout the drier Himalayan ranges of Pakistan but not in the Murree Hills. However occasional small groups of this species regularly visit the skies above the Murree Hill range. Ceryle Itiguforis The Greater Pied Kingfisher was once seen (Jan. 8th, 1926) by Hugh Whistler in the Leh Nullah just on the outskirts of Rawalpindi (Whistler, op. cit.) This nullah is now a foetid sewer and devoid of any Kingfisher species. Bates and Lowther in describing the breeding birds of Kashmir only encountered it on the Kishenjanga River in the extreme west (Bates & Lowther 1952). It still occurs today in Kashmir on the Kishenjanga now known as the Neelum River. Volume IV of the handbook records that it sometimes extends down to adjacent plains areas. In Islamabad, David Corfield has been indefati- gable in collecting bird records over the past two years and he discovered a fine male speci- men on a small feeder stream (Saidpur Nullah) draining into the newly created reservoir, Rawal Lake just on the outskirts of Islamabad. This was in February 1982. Subsequently a pair were seem by him on May 30th and again on September 29th, 1982 in the same locality. On January 4th, 1983 he kindly showed me both the male and female. The latter was distinctly maroon speckled in the pectoral region, whereas the male was marked with bolder black spots and both were haunting the same tiny stream within half a mile of the lake which lies at an elevation of about 1,000 feet. It seems possible that these birds actually nested last summer and obviously a keen watch will be maintained this year. Picus chlorolophos The Small Yellow-naped Woodpecker is re- 401 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 corded in Volume IV of the handbook as occurring in the Himalayas from Dharmsala eastwards through Himachal Pradesh but Pakistan is not mentioned and it was not observed by Whistler or H. Waite, both of whom collected extensively in the Murree Hills. Whistler rejects Captain Marshall’s re- cord of this species nesting in the Murree Hills (Whistler, op. cit). On June 4th, 1982 whilst exploring the lower reaches of Kao Forest which clothes a valley draining north- wards from Dunga Gali into the River Jhelum, I was very thrilled to encounter this Wood- pecker. It was feeding in a fine stand of Quer- cus incana trees at about 6,500 feet elevation. Lower down the Kao Valley the slopes are bare of trees and terraced for cultivation until the banks of the Jhelum are reached but it seems probable that this rare straggler to the region must have wandered up the Jhelum River. Pericrocotus roseus Like the Plimalayan White Rumped Swift, the Rosy Minivet had escaped me until last summer. There are skins in the British Museum at Tring from the Siran Nullah, in Mansehra Tehsil of Hazara District collected in 1870 by Unwin, but there were no sightings from the Murree Hills until H. Waite saw this species on May 24th, 1930 at the Forest Rest House in Ghora Gali around 6,000 feet ele- vation but was unable to collect a specimen (Waite, H. W., Ibis, 1930, page 37). This spot is on the outer or western flanks of the Murree Hills. In May and June 1982 I made several exploratory visits to a remote valley known as Manga which drains this same western slope and which is only accessible by Jeep track. Here on every occasion I encountered one or two Rosy Minivets and enjoyed close views of both sexes. Their contact calls, loud and carry- ing, as in most minivets are quite distinctive, comprising a rather rapid flutey piping. All available records show a rather local and disjunct distribution for this Minivet through- out the Himalayas. Its preferred habitat seems to be Finns roxburghi with a dense thorny understory of Cot one aster and Zizyphus mauri- tiana. Sturnus malabaricus The Grey headed Myna has not been record- ed in Pakistan or indeed northwest of Mount Abu in Rajasthan. A party of three birds were watched on January 14th, 1983 feeding on the nectar of Salmalia malabaricum flowers. This was along a roadside plantation inside Gharko Forest, a small patch of riverain forest along- side the Indus River in Thatta District of lower Sind. In this region juvenile Rosy Pastors could easily be confused for the Grey Headed Myna as they are the typical Starlings of the area in winter, but I was attracted to these birds by their rufous chestnut throats and bellies. Sturnus roseus has a grey-brown breast. Closer examination showed their milky white irides and the leaden blue basal half of their yellow tipped bills as further distinct features. A juve- nile Sturnus roseus has brown irides and horn coloured bill turning to yellowish at the base. Perhaps a few birds have regularly been wan- dering in winter into lower Sind and have escaped notice, Sturnus contra The Indian Pied Myna is quite an aggressi- vely erruptive species and has for example spread into the Konkan region of Maharashtra State within the past twenty years (Humayun Abdulali, pers. comm.). I myself saw numbers on the outskirts of Borivli. It occurs in Delhi and Ludhiana of the Punjab but had not so far been recorded within Pakistan (handbook, 402 ORNITHOLOGICAL RECORDS FROM PAKISTAN Volume 5, page 173). Mr. Z. B. Mirza, the Curator of Islamabad’s new Museum of Natu- ral History discovered a colony of about four pairs in Changa Manga irrigated forest plant- ation in March 1982 and collected a specimen. This locality is some fifteen miles west of Kasur on the main Karachi to Lahore railway line. I searched without success in the same locality later in May 1982 whilst Mr. Mirza, mean- while in April, had located another colony at Jallo where there is a forest plantation some 2 miles north-east of Lahore city and not far from the Indian border. Mirza has since sighted two Pied Mynas in Sheikhpura District west of Lahore and it appears that this Myna is extending its range westwards. Megalurus palustris The Striated Marsh Warbler was never ob- served along the Chenab River by Whistler who wrote about the birds of Jhang District (Whist- ler 1922). Volume 8 (page 97) of the hand- book records it as breeding from Pakistan in the Punjab, east through northern India, but the distribution map on page 97 seems to show that it does not extend as far as the Ravi River and hardly enters Pakistan. I cannot trace any published records of its occurrence within what is now Pakistan, nor had I been able to encounter this species until March 29th, 1981 when exploring the marshes and seepage zone upstream of Balloki Barrage on the Ravi River, forty miles downstream from Lahore, I found a pair frequenting rather open Juncus sedge and the male was giving it’s loud and vehement display or song flight. If it had not been for this song I would certainly have mis- taken it for a Striated Babbler ( Turdoides earlei ), which it resembles in size and plumage. The late Roger Holmes, with Z. B. Mirza, worked the Balloki Head works and seepage areas fairly thoroughly in 19681/69 including visits during the monsoon and they never recorded this bird at that time, so it must be considered as a rare and irregular visitor to Pakistan. Tarsiger chrysaeus The Golden Bush Robin is fisted in Volume 8 (page 234) of the handbook as occurring from Hazara eastwards and including the Murree Hills. This is presumably on the basis of Colonel Rattrays account of Bird Nesting in the Murree Hills and Galis”. He considered it very rare but located one pair and took the nest, near Murree (presumably in Punjab not Hazara) (Rattray 1904). I have had a lot of trouble with Rattray’s records in that a num- ber of birds which he claimed to have collected the eggs of, are never seen in the Murree Hills nowadays, whilst one or two examples can be proved to be mistaken identification. He used a number of local hill men as collectors and does not seem to have preserved any skins though he frequently claimed in his writings to have shot the female off the nest for identi- fication. Hugh Whistler also recorded finding a nest which he thought was of this species, but it was robbed before he could confirm his identi- fication (Whistler 1930). Again over twenty years I have always hoped to encounter it in the Murree Hills. In 1980 I made a rare October visit to Dunga Gali and with two friends found a female Golden Bush Robin on October 16th alongside a stream in the Haro Valley (which drains southwards to the Peshawar Vale) at about 6,500 feet elevation. It was watched for over an hour making sallies after insects. In flight the golden yellow webs of the outer tail feathers were conspicuous as well as the broad golden eye-brow stripe and a tiny golden spot behind the ear covets. It seemed rather furtive when not actually for- 403 11 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 aging and generally concealed itself inside a bush. Whether they actually breed in the Murree Hills remains to be substantiated by summer sightings but I have not come across any records after 1926. Muscicapa rubeculoldes In my previous published note (Roberts 1981) I recorded the first discovery in Pakistan of a singing male Blue Throated Flycatcher on May 26th, 1979 in the Margalla Hills just west of Islamabad city. The following year in May, David Corfield found another male singing in an adjacent ravine some three miles north of my sighting. In 1982 we found one or two singing males in each of the three side ravines in the Margalla Hills, and on June 9th, 1982 I found them in the Manga Valley 15 miles northeast of Islamabad. This flycatcher is therefore, plainly a regular summer visitor to the Murree foothill zone. I never saw it above 3,000 feet elevation. It prefers the damper ravines having streams and a mixture of sub- tropical dry deciduous broad-leaved trees of Indo-Malaysian affinities. Because of its extre- mely skulking habits even when singing, it is very difficult to see and these records are a perfect example of the way in which an unusual or new bird suddenly seems to be widespread, once its call notes and song have become familiar to the observer. Terpsiphone paradisi The Paradise Flycatcher is described as a winter visitor to lower Sind (page 217, Volume 7, handbook) but the distribution map shows the main wintering population to be confined to Maharashtra and peninsular India. Based on records of Dr. Ticehurst and Kennth Eates (op. cit.) it is obviously extremely uncommon even on passage in Sind. Ticehurst collected one on October 23rd, 1918, the only one he ever saw, and J. A. Murray obtained a speci- men on December 13th, 1877. For the past nine years that I have been living in Karachi I have noticed that the few remaining patches of riverain forest in Thatta District are the stronghold of this flycatcher both in spring and autumn passage but last year I realised that one or two individuals remained in Gharko Forest (see record above of Grey Headed Myna) throughout the winter. Again this year I have seen at least one female Paradise Fly- catcher (probably the same individual, always located by its call) in every month, from early October to February 1st on visits to Gharko, and it can fairly be assumed to be a winter visitor. In fact this winter I also have a resi- dent female Paradise Flycatcher in my garden at Malir and this is my first record of even a transient example of this species for this garden. Exactly the same remarks apply to sightings of the Grey Headed Flycatcher (Culi- cicapa ceylonensis) , which I noted for the first time in mid January 1983 in Gharko Forest as well as one winter resident male (he sings territorially every morning) in our Malir garden. Perhaps this extension of wintering grounds into lower Sind for both these two flycatchers may be connected with the recent drought in the Thar Desert and parts of the Rann of Kutch region. Tichodroma muraria Not much has been recorded about the breeding of the Wall Creeper from any part of the Himalayan regions. The handbook mentions the sighting in July of newly fledged nestlings by Meinertzhagen in Ladakh at 6,400 metres. As my high altitude days are definitely over, I was really delighted to discover a Wall Creeper’s nest at a comparatively low eleva- tion on June 15th 1982 in the Kaghan Valley of Hazara District. The location was six miles 404 ORNITHOLOGICAL RECORDS FROM PAKISTAN north of Burawai, at the bottom of the main valley on a sheer one hundred foot high earth and boulder cliff overlooking the river. The exact location is known as Tarli Seri as it is a popular camp for Gujar shepherds. I esti- mated the altitude at about 11,400 feet. The location was typical alpine habitat and I could only just make out the nest-hole entrance by crawling perilously out onto a ledge, but from a safer vantage point I could watch the parent birds arriving to feed their young. They ap- peared to be carrying beakfulls of insects with small moths and “lace wing” type flies. The female was browner and darker on the crown, the male noticeably white on the crown with darker and more contrasting plumage. Both birds on one occasion flew from the nest-hole with a faecal sack in their bill, so that parental care by both sexes and nest hygiene can be confirmed though I have not actually been Refer Ali, Salim & Ripley, Dillon (1968-1974): Hand- book of the Birds of India & Pakistan, 10 volumes, Oxford University Press Bombay. Bates, R.S.P. & Lowther, E.H.N. (1952): Breed- ing Birds of Kashmir. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Bromhall, Derek (1980) : Devil Birds, the Life of the Swift, Hutchison 95 pages. Christison, A.P.F. (1942) : Some Additional Notes on the Distribution of the Avifauna of Northern Baluchistan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 43: 478-87. Magrath, H.A.F. (1909) : Bird Notes from Murree and the Galis. ibid. 19: 142. Rattray, R. H. (1904) : Birds Nesting in the Murree Hills and Gullies, ibid. 16: 421, 657. Roberts, T. J. (1981): Ornithological Notes from Pakistan, ibid. 75(1): 73-76. able to see this recorded in any of the refer- ence books which I have been able to consult. Neither parent bird flew direct into the nest (a hole between a boulder and the eroded earth cliff face). They settled on a projecting rock slab leading up to the nest-hole thus giving some opportunity to examine through binocu- lars the quantity of insects in their long rapier- like bills. They hopped across the rock face with typical wing flicking motions as though they were still compulsively searching for in- sects even when their intention was clearly to enter the nest-hole. Hodgsons Mountain Fin- ches ( Leucosticte nemoricola ) were all around and sometimes settled on the boulder protrud- ing below the Wall Creeper’s nest. The female ignored them but I saw the male aggressively chase one away before returning to feed its young. EN CES Sorley, H. T. (1968): The Gazetteer of West Pakistan — the Former Province of Sind. Govern- ment Press, Karachi. Ticehurst, Claude B. (1922) : The Birds of Sind. Part II. Ibis. October. (1926-27): The Birds of British Baluchistan. 3 parts. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 52(1): 64. Waite, W. E. (1931): Manual of the Birds of Ceylon, 2nd Edition. Ceylon Journal of Science, Colombo, pp. 395. Whistler, Hugh (1922) : The Birds of Jhang District, S. W. Punjab. Ibis, Volume IV, No. 3, July, 1922. (1930): The Birds of the Rawalpindi District, N. W. India, Ibis, January 1930; pp. 67-119 and April 1930; pp. 247-279. 405 A REPORT ON A COLLECTION OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM THE PONMUDI, KERALA, SOUTH INDIA1 Robert F. Inger, H. Bradley Shaffer,2 Mammen Koshy and Ramesh Bakde3 ( With three plates) Introduction Knowledge of the herpetofauna of south- western India has developed over the last 130 years through the efforts of many persons, generally as a result of accumulation of small collections from scattered localities. From the volume by Boulenger (1890) on amphibians and reptiles, the two volumes by Smith (1935, 1943) on lizards and snakes, and the nume- rous papers of N. Annandale, J. C. Daniel, R. S. Pillai, and C. R. N. Rao on amphibians, one can piece together a picture of the species diversity of the herpeto-fauna of this humid region of the subcontinent. However, until very recently, there has been no basis for estimating local diversity, because specific localities, as opposed to dis- trict place names, have not always been given. The first collection likely to provide an esti- mate of local diversity is that recently made at Silent Valley, Kerala, by Dr. R. S. Pillai of the Zoological Survey of India. We report here on a second, large local sample, this one from Ponmudi in southern Kerala, about 250 km south of Silent Valley and about 170 km south of the Anamallai Hills. This sample, col- lected May 3 -June 17, 1982, was obtained as 1 Accepted July 1983. 2 Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago. 3 National Museum of Natural History, New Delhi. part of a joint project of the National Museum of Natural History, New Delhi (NMNHI) and the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago (FMNH). The material is now housed in both institutions. The area in which this collection was made centered on the Ponmudi ridge (8°45'N, 77°8' E) and its slopes, from about 100 m above sea level to its crest at 1095 m. The extent of the area actually searched is difficult to deter- mine, but we estimate that no site was more than 10 km (in a direct line) from the crest of the Ponmudi ridge and most were less than 5 km. The forest is now broken into large blocks of varying sizes, the largest in which we worked being 4-8 km wide. Intervening cleared areas are mainly large tea plantations. The dominant types of forests are designated by the Forestry Department, State of Kerala as tropical evergreen, moist deciduous, and, at the highest elevations only, low tropical evergreen (Adriel 1966). Most of our sampl- ing was carried out in the first type, which has the typical 3 -storied structure of tropical evergreen forest and an abundance of lianas, at elevations between 310 and 370 m. Rainfall is heavy (annual mean at Ponmudi 4603 mm) and seasonal. Between 1952-1961, only three months — January, February, and March- averaged less than 100 mm of rain. As the topographic relief is steep, the streams have beds of sand, gravel and rock and moderate 406 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA to strong current. Pools alternate with riffles and, in many places, low waterfalls. Most of the streams flow throughout the year. Those along which we sampled varied from 0.5 to 4 m in width. Materials and Methods Specimens were obtained by a party of 4-10 men collecting along streams and through patches of forest during daylight and early night hours. Rocks were turned, dead leaves scraped, and logs rolled and their bark stripp- ed. Shrubs and trees were examined as high as the dim light and obscuring branches per- mitted. In addition, we used two procedures to guarantee close inspection of large areas of forest floor : ( 1 ) examination and removal of litter from buttress-enclosed areas at the bases of large trees, and (2) search of forest floor quadrats (see description of latter method in Lloyd et al. 1968). Although we include all specimens in this report, those obtained by the last two methods will be subject to special analysis in a subsequent publication. As each specimen was captured, we placed it in a separate plastic bag and recorded its position when first sighted in terms of a com- plex microhabitat classification. We used the system described in Inger and Colwell (1977), expanded slightly to include all vegetation types encountered at Ponmudi. Upon return to the field laboratory, animals were anaesthe- tized, preserved in formalin, and each (with few exceptions) tagged with a separate num- ber within three hours of capture. We main- tained a few lizard eggs in plastic bags until hatching and kept some frog eggs until larvae reached early developmental stages. In the text we give snout-vent lengths (SV) of adults, standard scale counts where appro- priate, and body proportions relative to SV. For each species of frog, the smallest female having convoluted oviducts or developing ova sets the minimum size for maturity for females of that species; the smallest male having deve- loped secondary sex characters serves the same purpose for males. Frog larvae are staged according to the scheme developed by Gosner (1960). Denticle formulae for larvae are pre- sented in the standard form of using Roman numerals for undivided rows and Arabic numerals for divided ones. A slash separates the counts for upper and lower lips. Elevations above sea level in metres (m) were determined with a Thommen pocket altimeter and are accurate to approximately 30 m. Gegeneophis carnosus (Beddome) Epicrium carnosum Beddome, 1870 Madras Month. J. Med. Sci., 2: 176 — Periah Peak, Wynad. Gegeneophis carnosus Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Grad. Brit. Mus., p. 101, pi. 8, fig. 3. Material. A single specimen: total length 260 mm, width 7.5 mm, primary folds 120, secondary folds 6. This specimen is uniform gray above and tannish-gray on the sides and vent. Anus transverse, tail absent; eye completely hidden. Gegeneophis is similar to Indotyphlus. For our material, Taylor’s (1961) key is not helpful since the position of the tentacle rela- tive to the eye and nostril cannot be deter- mined. Our specimen agrees well with Taylor’s (1961) description in body proportions (width into length 35), color, and fold counts, all of which distinguish it from other Gegeneophis. Ecological Notes. Our specimen was collect- ed beneath a 25 cm rock along the bank of a 0.5 m wide stream in evergreen forest at 350 m elevation. Five eggs were found with the specimen. Daniel (1963) notes that indi- viduals have been collected previously in the Ponmudi hills; specimens with eggs were re- ported by Seshachar (1942) from Tenmalai. 407 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Ichthyophis heddomei Peters Ichthyophis beddomei Peters, 1879, Monatsb. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, 1879: 932, fig. 4 — Nilgiri Hills. Material A single specimen : total length 190 mm, width 9.5 mm, body folds 304. Dark brown above, light brown below, with a light yellow lateral stripe along each side. The stripe extends onto the head as far as the angle of the mouth, and is somewhat ex- panded dorsoventrally in the cheek region. The eye is clearly visible, and the tentacle is along the upper lip margin and about equidistant between the eye and nostril. Our material agrees well with Taylor’s (1961) diagnosis other than its slightly high fold count; Taylor lists 240-293 for 16 indi- viduals. Ecological Notes. This specimen was caught under a rock at the base of a tree in ever- green forest at 560 m above sea level. Bufo beddomi Gunther Bufo beddomii Gunther, 1875, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1875: 569 — Malabar. Material. 3 adult females 36.8-45.1 mm SV, mean 40.2; 1 male 31.1 mm; 10 juveniles, 11.0-17.2 mm. Tibia 0.40-0.45 of SV in females, 0.48 in male. Above uniform dark brown; a faint black barring pattern on the hind legs and feet. Beneath tan, with an irregular marbling of dark brown. In life, the dorsal surfaces of the feet reddish-brown, contrasting sharply with the dorsal color. Immature individuals may be difficult to dis- tinguish from sympatric B. parietalis since both lack bony ridges on the head. However, even the smallest B. beddomi (11 mm SV) are densely covered with sharp, conical warts on the dorsum, head, and eyelids, and have warty paratoids with uneven indented margins. Young B. parietalis have extremely fine spicules on the head and eyelids, grading into larger, thinly dispersed warts on the paratoids and back; the paratoids are oval, smooth- edged, and underlined in black laterally. Ecological Notes. Thirteen of our 14 indi- viduals were collected in evergreen forest at 310 m, and one was taken in gallery forest. All specimens were collected away from streams, eight on the surface of dead leaves, two on bare soil, and four on small rocks. Eleven specimens were found during the day and three at night. Bufo melanostictus Schneider Bufo melanosticus Schneider, 1799, Hist. Amphib., p. 216 — East India. Material. 4 adult females 45.3-58.1 mm SV, mean 52.8. Tibia 0.37-0.43 of SV. All con- tained numerous pigmented ova. Ecological Notes. An inhabitant of cleared or disturbed habitats, including rubber plant- ings, forest edges, and human habitations. Individuals were collected from sea level to 900 m, and numerous additional specimens were seen but not collected, especially in the immediate vicinity of human dwellings. Bufo parietalis Boulenger Bufo parietalis, Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit. Mus., p. 312, plate 21, fig. 22 — Malabar. Material. 7 adult females 73.7-92.2 mm SV, mean 82.4; 4 adult males 50.1-59.9 mm, mean 54.7; 11 subadult females 55.9-66.1 mm; 67 juveniles 14.6-45.3 mm. Tibia 0.37- 0.40 of SV in females, mean 0.385; 0.38-0.42 in males, mean 0.396. Very little has been published on this toad since its original description. Adults have a uniform light brown dorsum with a few large warts, usually tipped with black. A dark line extends from the orbito -tympanic crest along the lateral edge of the paratoid gland, and is present even in small juveniles. The sides are 408 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUD1, KERALA dark brown marbled with tan. The cranial crests are extremely well developed in adults, with the paratoid ridge meeting the paratoid gland. The crests become progressively kera- tinized and blackened with age, starting with the supraorbital crest in young adults, until all crests are heavily keratinized in large speci- mens. The young lack cranial crests. To dis- tinguish them from sympatric toads, see B. beddomi. Ecological notes. Fifty-four individuals were collected from evergreen forest, 24 from moist deciduous forest, 2 in secondary growth and 3 in semi-evergreen forest. Twenty-three were caught below 200 m elevation, 56 at 250- 400 m, and 4 at 950 m. Most toads were found av/ay from streams in the forest (68 specimens); 12 were collected along stream banks, and two were in the water of streams. Forty-five individuals were collected on the surface of dead leaves, 14 on bare soil, and 10 on rocks; the remaining individuals were either under leaves, rocks, or soil (7) or on logs or low plants (3). Only one female (86.2 mm) contained mature ova. Pedosfibes tuberculosus Gunther Pedostibes tuberculosus Gunther, 1875, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1875: 576, pi. 64, fig. C — Malabar. Material. 1 adult female 38.5 mm SV. 1 adult male 36.6 mm, 16 juveniles 11.1-21.9 mm. Tibia 0.44 of SV in female, 0.40 in male. Ova in the female were very small. Ecological Notes. Sixteen of our 18 indi- viduals were collected in evergreen forest at 300-310 m elevation, 1 in moist deciduous forest (255 m) and 1 in moist semi-evergreen forest (260 m). We found 11 individuals away from streams and 7 within 6 metres of a per- manent stream. Seven were on dead leaves, 2 on bare soil, 5 on small rocks, 3 on leaves of herbaceous plants, and 1 on a shrub. Our limited observations suggest that these toads stay on or near the ground during daylight hours (9 were collected on the forest floor), then move to arboreal situations at night (3 on leaves of small shrubs). However, we also found one individual 1.5 m above ground in a shrub during daylight hours, and one of our four night captures was on a 10 cm rock on the ground, suggesting that this temporal habitat selection is not perfect. RamanelSa triangularis (Gunther) Callulci triangularis Gunther, 1875, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1875: 576 — Malabar. Ramanella triangularis Rao and Ramanna, 1925, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1925: 1445. Material. 1 adult female 30.3 mm SV; 4 adult males 23.4-25.8 mm, mean 24.2. Tibia 0.42 of SV in female; 0.42-0.47 in males, mean 0.44. The female was gravid. Taxonomic Notes. According to Parker (1934), R. triangularis is distinguished from R. variegata (Stoliczka) on the basis of toe webbing (a rudiment in R. variegata, toes completely free in R. triangularis), ventral coloration (immaculate white in R. variegata, dark brown with small, white spots in R. triangularis), and the dorsal color pattern. Ramanella triangularis has a characteristic dark lateral streak at the loreal region and a dark dorsal median blotch that bifurcates in the coccygeal region. The color pattern of R. variegata is dark brown with irregular lighter marblings or spots, but no consistent pattern (Parker 1934, Daniel 1963). Our specimens agree with R. triangularis in ventral coloration and in some details of the dorsal color pattern, particularly in the dark triangular blotch bet- ween the forelimbs. However, the paired dark bands posteriorly and the triangular dark spot enclosing the anus are both variable. In addi- tion, our specimens have vestiges of webbing on the toes, extending to the proximal sub- 409 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81 articular process of the third, fourth, and fifth toes. Thus, while we identify these frogs as R. triangularis on the basis of color pattern, they actually represent a composite of key characteristics of both species, and suggest that rediagnosis of the two species may be needed. Larvae. Eleven samples of a larval micro- hylid were obtained from tree holes. None is older than Stage 27, so that diagnostic fea- tures of adult limb form are not available. Of the microhylid genera known from South India, the only one that has arboreal habits is Ramanella (Daniel 1963). Since it is not likely that any of the other, terrestrial genera would consistently deposit eggs in tree holes, we believe that these are larval Ramanella. Larvae have been assigned to R. triangularis (Rao 1918, Parker 1934), with no explana- tion for this decision. Rao gave no informa- tion on habitat. Our tadpoles differ from Rao’s in several respects. First, they are blackish, heavily pigmented dorsally, laterally, and under the fore part of the body. Rao’s tadpoles were transparent, becoming brown in metamorphic stages. Secondly, the Ponmudi larvae have the spiracular tube extended to the end of the body so that the opening overlies the end of the anal tube; Rao’s figure shows the spiracle opening almost midway between the level of the eyes and the end of the body. Description of our larvae follows. Head-body broadly oval, almost truncate at snout, body depressed, maximum width at mid-body; eyes lateral, but not visible from below; eyeball very small in these stages; in- terorbital about 0.6 of head-body width, at least 1 . 5 times eye-snout distance; nostrils not open, internarial 1/4-1 /3 of interorbital; nasolacrimal duct not visible. Mouth termi- nal; neither lip expanded; no beaks or denti- cles; upper lip with obtusely pointed, down- turned lateral lobes separated by wide, curved median indentation; lower lip supporting a U-shaped flange projecting into buccal cavity with median portion forming part of exterior surface of mouth just below center of upper lip. Spiracle median, opening wide, overlying end of anal tube. Anal tube median, in ven- tral fin running diagonally from end of body to margin of fin. Tail weakly convex, tapering gradually to narrow tip; both fins arising at end of body; fins deeper than muscle in distal two-thirds; ventral fin deeper than dorsal. Head-body black above, laterally, and under anterior half or two-thirds; no pattern; caudal muscle and dorsal fin dusky; ventral fin usually without pigment. Head-body length (mm) at Stage 25 7.1 (maximum), at Stage 27 9.2-9.25. Maximum total length 25.5 mm. Tail length 1.56-1.76 of head-body length. Head-body width 0.68- 0.88 of length; body depth 0.62-0.67 of width; eyeball 0.06-0.07 of head-body length. Ecological Notes. All 5 adults were taken from two tree holes in the same tree 2-4 m above the ground in an isolated patch of ever- green forest at 950 m above sea level. Tad- poles were collected in the same tree holes as well as in others 0.3- 1.0 m above ground at 310-510 m above sea level. Micrixalus fuscus (Boulenger) (Plate I) Ixdlus fascus Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit. Mus., p. 96. pi. 10, fig. 3 — hills of southwestern India. Micrixalus fuscus Boulenger, 1888, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1888: 205. Micrixalus herrei Myers, 1942, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 55: 71 — Kallar, Trivandrum District. Material. 50 adult females 21.5-28.8 mm SV, mean 25.2; 126 males 17.6-21.2 mm, mean 19.5; 71 juveniles and subadults 11.3- 20.8 mm. Tibia 0.49-0.56 of SV in females. 410 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA mean 0.534 (n=10); 0.55-0.62 in males, mean 0.566 (n=10). Males have large, cream-colour- ed nuptial pads. An extremely variable species, showing a wide range of variation in color pattern and amount of webbing of the feet. Dorsum in life light tan to dark reddish brown to nearly black, with various amounts of black marbling or spotting. Ventral color yellow-tan, with or without brown reticulations, especially in the throat region. Thin dorsolateral fold white, black, or similar in color to the tan back- ground. A light thigh stripe extending from anus nearly to inside of the knee joint always present, even in very small juveniles, some- times interrupted. In life, thigh stripe deep yellow. Females bright yellow in the groin and on anterior face of the thigh; males have the yellow less developed. Dorsal surfaces of the feet bluish-gray. Webbing of the hind feet varies from about three quarters (Daniel 1963) to nearly com- plete. The variation found in this species, especially in the extent of hind foot webbing, would be sufficient to distinguish a separate species if only the extremes were considered. However, since no clear break in the amount of webbing exists, and it is not correlated with color pattern or other variation, we conclude that this entire sample represents a highly variable, continuous population. Eggs of most females were enlarged, ripe, and unpigmented. Males have large nuptial pads. Taxonomic Notes. Myers (1942b) named M. herrei on the basis of a single male taken from Kallar, a few kilometres from several of our collecting sites. These two species were differentiated by Myers on the basis of six characters: 1) longer legs of herrei, 2) dorsum granular in herrei, 3) snout more rounded in herrei, 4) a relatively larger eye in herrei, 5) herrei s much smaller size, and 6) certain differences in details of coloration. In com- paring the type and only specimen of M. herrei (CAS SU 7265) to our large series, we find that most of the diagnostic features are variable in our series. Characters 1 and 5 are sexually dimorphic in this species, and the type of herrei is well within the range of our series of males. Likewise, the color pattern differen- ces between the two disappear when a large series is examined. The granular surface of herrei, as Myers suggested, is primarily a func- tion of the drying out of a specimen, and an individual changes from “smooth” to “granu- lar” in the course of a few minutes of dessi- cation. The shape of the snout in our material is more similar to M. herrei than the figure of M. fuscus in Boulenger (1882), with the nostrils slightly interrupting the line of the canthus rostralis. However, this difference is extremely slight. The eye diameter relative to the distance from eye to snout is large in M. herrei (3.0 : 2.5 mm), as Myers indicated. This character is sexually dimorphic in our sample, and females have relatively smaller eyes than males. In a ramdom sample of 12 individuals, the largest eye size was 2. 9: 2. 7 mm, and on average the ratio is about 1:1. It thus seems likely that Myers’ type represents nothing but a slightly large-eyed male M. fuscus, and that specific designation is un- warranted. Ecological Notes. Of the 239 specimens for which we have ecological data, most (222) were taken in evergreen forest (2 below 200 m, 192 at 200-400 m, 28 at 401-750 m). The rest were found in moist deciduous forest (13). moist semi-evergreen forest (1), or secondary growth (1) between 70 and 400 m. A single individual was collected at 950 m in gallery forest. About a third of our specimens were found away from streams in the forest; the 411 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 remainder were collected either in the water (8), on rocks in midstream (30), or along the banks (122) of permanent and intermit- tent streams. Most individuals were found on the forest floor, either on rocks (115), dead leaves (71), or on bare soil (9); the rest were taken above ground in low plants (22) or under dead leaves (7). A large concentration of this species was always present in a seepage area, with flowing water 2-5 cm deep, and several pairs were found in amplexus in this area. Micrixalus midis Pillai Micrixalus midis Pillai, 1978, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 87B : 173 — Chedleth, Kurichiat Reserve Forest, Wynad, Kerala. Material 6 adult females 18.1-19.7 mm SV, mean 19.2; 6 adult males 15.2-15.6 mm, mean 15.4. Tibia 0.47-0.51 of SV in females, mean 0.494; 0.49-0.53 in males, mean 0.511. Males have a well developed nuptial pad. All six females contained large well-developed, un- pigmented ova. This sample matches Pillai’s (1978a) des- cription, and represents the second series of the species. The only disparity with the type series is in the extent of webbing on the hind feet. Our specimens have only a rudiment of webbing, while Pillai’s series was about half webbed. However, in size, details of color pattern, and other aspects of morphology, the agreement is nearly perfect. The extensive variation in webbing found in our large sample of M. fuscus from Ponmudi suggests that this character may be relatively variable in this genus. Ecological Notes. We found these frogs at 250-900 m elevation, in evergreen (5), moist deciduous (3) and gallery (4) forests. Half of the individuals were found away from streams; the rest were in small streams (1) or along stream banks (5). We collected 5 speci- mens on rocks, 2 on dead leaves, 2 on tree trunks, 1 on bare soil, and 1 on a fallen log. Pillai’s (1978a) report of pairs in amplexus in late October, combined with our observa- tions, suggests that these frogs breed at least throughout the monsoon season (May-October). Our specimens extend the range of M. nudis approximately 350 km southward, and suggest that the species is widely distributed through- out the Western Ghats. Nannobatrachus beddomi Boulenger N annobatrachus beddomii Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit. Mus., p. 470 — Malabar and Tinnevelly. Nannobatrachus anamallaiensis Myers, 1942, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 55: 49 — Puthutotam Estate, Valparai, Tamil Nadu. Material 10 adult females 14.5-17.1 mm SV, mean 15.7; 8 adult males 13.6-15.2 mm, mean 14.5; 4 juveniles and subadults. Tibia 0.45-0.49 of SV in females, mean 0.470; 0.45-0.51 in males, mean 0.483. Our sample agrees well with the original description as emended by Boulenger (1883). A stout, squat species with a broadly rounded snout, no canthus rostralis, large, well-separat- ed eyes with very small eyelids. Skin perfectly smooth dorsally and ventrally; a few small conical tubercles may be present on the eyelids. Toes long and slender, with small, oval disks and no trace of webbing. Toe disks with longi- tudinal division dorsally, and a strong circum- marginal groove. No groove on the finger disks. Tympanum completely hidden in some indi- viduals, barely visible in others, and about half the diameter of the eye. In life, back brown with black markings; throat and abdomen grayish. A pale, bluish- white streak behind and below eye, and an irre- gular series of similar spots along sides of neck and torso. A tan, triangular patch on the snout 412 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Inger et al Amphibians & Reptiles from Ponmudi Plate I Above : Micrixalus fuscus. Below: Nyctibatrachus major , showing diamond-shaped pupil. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Inger et al. : Amphibians & Reptiles from Ponmudi Plate II Above: Nyctibatrachus minor , new species Below: Rana brachytarsus. AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA between eyes. Front and hind limbs strongly barred with dark brown crossbands. Of 11 mature females, 8 contained large, pigmented, black and tan ova and a few small white ones, while three contain only small, unpigmented ova. Males have the relatively largest and most strongly developed femoral glands4 of any species in our collection. The glands are oval, raised, enamel white in color, and about two-thirds the length of the femur. However, in one male the glands are much less developed; they are barely raised above the surface of the thigh and have lost most of their distinctive white color. Taxonomic Notes. We have compared our material with a cotype of N. beddomi (FMNH 73344) and with part of the type series of N. anamallaiensis Myers (CAS 7199, 7200, 7202, 7204). The remaining species of the genus, N. kempholeyensis Rao was not avail- able for comparison. Our material agrees in nearly every detail with the N. beddomi cotype, and is clearly assignable to that species. However, the differences between N. beddomi and N. anamallaiensis cited by Myers are ex- tremely slight. Myers (1942a) cites the shape of the pupil, the relatively shorter hind leg, and the shape of the vomerine tooth patch (linear in ana - mallaiensis, oval in beddomi ) as the only diffe- rences between these two species. As Rao (1937) and Pillai (1978b) have pointed out, the shape of the pupil in preserved frogs is too variable to be of much systematic value. In our series, 16 specimens have perfectly round pupils; the rest vary from slightly oval to diamond-shaped, similar to the condition we observed in living examples of Nyctibatra- 4 We are grateful to Mr. Barry Clarke, British Museum (Natural History), for calling our attention to the femoral glands in Nyctibatrachus, leading us to look for these structures in Nannobatrachus. chus (Plate I). Several specimens had one round pupil and the other oval shaped. There is also considerable variation in the shape of the vomerine tooth patch in our material. These tiny frogs have only 5-10 teeth per patch, and the eruption of a few teeth can completely change a patch from linear to oval. Hind limb length, especially when mea- sured as the position the tibio-tarsal joint reaches along the head, is also variable, depending on the amount of food in an indi- vidual’s stomach or the ova in a female. Mea- sured as the overlap of the heels when the femurs are at right angels to the body, measure- ment error is much less, and both anamallai- ensis and beddomi have legs of equal length, with the heels just or not quite meeting at the anus. We feel, therefore, that N. anamallai- ensis is a junior synonym of N. beddomi, and that Myers’ detailed description of the former may be used as a needed redescription of N. beddomi. No traces of femoral glands or enlarged ova are in evidence in Myers’ four examples. They were collected in January, which is apparently not a part of the breeding season. Thus, the femoral glands may well be strictly seasonal in occurrence. As Myers (1942a) suggested, the generic relationships and distinctiveness of Nanno- batrachus, Nyctibatrachus, and Nannophrys are problematical. Of the characters first used to separate these genera, pupil orientation can no longer be considered of systematic value. Toe webbing, cited by Myers as a feature of Nyctibatrachus, is also no longer valid, since a new species described below lacks webbing. Two previously unused characters, which we describe for the five species available to us, are the presence of femoral glands in males and the presence of pigmented ova in repro- ductively mature females. These characters, when considered in combination with the pre- 413 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 sence of skin folds and webbing, allow an unambiguous characterization of all five taxa (see Table 1). However, they do not help diagnose N annobatrachus and Nyctibatrachus. Further analysis of the osteological characters used by Boulenger (1882) and Myers (1942a) may help resolve this problem. femoral glands in sexually mature males, toes three-fourths webbed, and dorsal coloration of brown and tan with light dorsolateral bands. Holotype. Field Catalogue number RFI- 31300, an adult female collected 1 June, 1982 from Ponmudi, Trivandrum District, Kerala, 350 m elevation. Deposited in NMNHI. Table 1 Comparison of Ponmudi species of N annobatrachus and Nyctibatrachus witce each other and with Nyctibatrachus pygmaeus Species Ripe Ova Femoral Glands Skin Folds Webbing* N annobatrachus beddomi pigmented strong absent < 1/4 Nyctibatrachus major pigmented strong present 3/4 N. aliciae pigmented weak present 3/4 N. pygmaeus pigmented strong present 1/2 N. minor unpigmented absent present < 1/4 * Extent of webbing relative to subarticular tubercles of fourth toe : < 1/4 = not beyond basal tubercle; 1/2 = to middle tubercle; 3/4 = between middle and distal tubercles. Ecological Notes. We collected specimens in evergreen forest (13 at 260-365 m, 4 at 450-660 m), moist deciduous forest (2 at 280- 290 m), moist semi-evergreen forest (2 at 260 m), and high-altitude gallery forest (1 at 900 m). Eight specimens were taken along stream banks, 12 away from streams, and one in the dry bed of an intermittent stream. About two-thirds of our specimens were col- lected beneath cover (6 under leaves, 6 under rocks, 1 under soil); the rest were on dead leaves (3) or bare soil (2). Nyctibatrachus aliciae5 sp. nov. Diagnosis. A medium-sized Nyctibatrachus which can be distinguished from all other forms by its intermediate size at sexual matu- rity (mean SV for males 22.7 mm, for females 26.5 mm), presence of weakly developed Paratypes. 24 adult females, 8 adult males, 2 juveniles. FMNH 216582-602; 13 deposited in NMNHI. Description of holotype. Habitus squat and stout, as in other members of the genus. Snout rounded, no canthus rostralis. Nostrils close together, about one-third the distance from the tip of the snout to the eye, internarial distance slightly less than interorbital. Upper eyelids very reduced, covering less than one- quarter of the eyeball; interorbital distance more than twice the width of the eyelid. A well defined supratympanic fold from the middle of the posterior edge of the eye curving 5 We take pleasure in naming this species for Dr. Alice G. C. Grandison, British Museum (Natu- ral History) as a modest token of appreciation for her help not only to us, but to herpetologists around the world. 414 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA through a 90 degree bend to the shoulder. Tympanum completely hidden. Forelimbs stout. Fingers long, slender, and unwebbed. Tips of the fingers dilated into small, round disks, only slightly larger than the diameter of the subterminal phalanx. A well developed circummarginal groove sepa- rating the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the disk extends almost around its entire circum- ference. Disks on all fingers with a dorsal longitudinal groove, the division very weak on the first finger, most pronounced on the third. Subarticular tubercles moderate; a series of three tubercles at the base of the metacarpals, the one under first finger largest. Hind legs robust, short, the heels widely separated when the tibia are bent at right angles to the body. Tibia 0.49 of SV. Toes three-fourths webbed (see Daniel 1963, figure 12), webbing extending to disk of all but fourth toe on lateral sides, and to outer sub- articular tubercle on fourth. Webbing extends slightly past distal subarticular tubercle on medial side of third toe and to base of disk on medial side of second. A thin fringe of webb- ing, which tends to fold over on the phalanx, from distal subarticular tubercle of fourth toe to disk. Disks much larger than on fingers, one and one-half times breadth of subterminal phalanx. A strong circummarginal groove; dor- sally, all disks strongly divided. Subarticular processes well developed, oval, and whitish-gray in color. A long, slender inner metatarsal tubercle, about three times as long as wide, and a small, white nearly round outer tubercle. A slightly crescentic tarsal fold extending from anterior edge of inner metatar- sal tubercle about two-thirds distance to tibio- tarsal joint. A low, spinose ridge along the lateral side of the foot, ending in outer meta- tarsal tubercle. Skin loosely connected to underlying tissue. even on head and limbs. Dorsally an irregular series of short ridges completely covering the back and limbs; ridges on snout becoming longer and assuming a more or less parallel longitudinal orientation. A strong, well-deve- loped ridge extending from the lip over the tip of the snout to between the nostrils, at which point it bifurcates, producing an invert- ed “Y”; the bifurcated ends extend half the distance to the eyes. Upper eyelids strongly tuberculate. Numerous tiny, white-tipped tubercles on the upper surface of the calves and tarsus and above the vent. Belly smooth, the throat with a series of longitudinal ridges sharply demarcated by a gular fold. The under- side of the limbs smooth. Dorsally a dark brown background with light, cream-colored blotches. Blotches coalesce into two broad, broken stripes extending from be- hind eyes to the groin, stripes about width of eyes. Another, more diffuse band of cream middorsally, interrupted with dark brown. A light, triangular spot of cream between the eyes, and a light blotch above the lip on each side. Both front and hind limbs barred with dark brown and cream; the hands almost entirely dark brown. Belly immaculate white, throat white with dark brown, longitudinal lines. Forelimbs white, edged with a fine pattern of dark brown vermiculations; this pattern of brown extends laterally along the sides of the belly, and completely covers the ventral surface of the hind legs. Hands and feet dark brown ventrally. Snout-vent 32.0 mm, tibia length 15.7, head width 12.6. Variation. The ratio of brown to cream on the dorsal surface varies considerably; the type represents an intermediate condition. However, in all specimens, even the smallest, some vestige of the two light bands on the back is always discernible; it is most obscure in very 415 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81 light individuals, where it blends in with the background. Ventral coloration is somewhat variable, especially in the density of brown pigmentation on the throat and underside of the limbs; some individuals are virtually solid brown, while others have a very faint pattern of brown vermiculations. This variation is not sexually dimorphic; both males and females have dark throats. Males possess a variable, but generally poorly developed, raised femoral gland ven- trally on the thigh. In the best developed in- dividual (FMNH 216594), the glands are about one-half the length of the thigh, twice as long as wide, and perfectly oval. Under magnifica- tion, the granular structure of the gland can be seen through the skin, although the surface of the gland is smooth. Males also possess a weakly developed nuptial pad on the inside of the first finger. The femoral glands are generally weakly developed, and in most cases are only barely visible. Since all females con- tained mature ova, both sexes are presumably at their height of reproductive activity, imply- ing that the femoral glands are never strongly developed. All females larger than about 25.0 mm possess some large, pigmented ova ready for laying, as well as a few small, unpigmented ova. Sexual maturity appears to be reached in females at 25 mm SV; two individuals at 23.9 and 23 . 6 mm had a few mature ova, but most were small and unpigmented, and other indi- viduals less than 24 mm SV had only immature ova. Measurements and body proportions are given in Table 2. Comparisons. Five species of Nyctibatrachus have been described to date: N. humayuni Bhaduri and Kripalani, N. major Boulenger, N. pygmaeus (Gunther), N. sanctipalustris Rao (with two subspecies), and N. sylvaticus Rao. Table 2 Snout-vent length (mm) and tibia length and HEAD WIDTH AS PROPORTION OF SV IN ADULTS OF Nyctibatrachus aliciae Females Males Snout-vent range 20.4-33.5 21.8-24.9 mean 26.5 22.7 Tibia length range 0.46-0.54 0.49-0.53 mean 0.501 0.504 Head width range 0.38-0.44 0.38-0.42 mean 0.404 0.395 Sample size 25 8 Of these species, all but N. pygmaeus are very similar to N. major; they are large (adults over 40 mm SV), generally dark with irregu- lar dark mottling, and apparently represent slight variations from N. major. All of these species are readily distinguishable from N. aliciae on the basis of adult size and on dorsal color pattern. In our large series of sympa- tric N. major, a light banding pattern may be faintly visible in some juveniles, although they invariably become dark brown with age. The webbing on the hind feet is also less extensive in our N. major (see below). Nyctibatrachus aliciae differs from N. pyg- maeus in several characters. Besides the diffe- rences shown in Table 1, pygmaeus is smaller (3 syntypes 18.7, 19.1, 23.1 mm) and lacks expanded toe disks and dorsolateral light bands. Ecological Notes. This species was distri- buted throughout the habitats sampled, from 105 to 840 m elevation. Most (28) were taken at 310-350 m in evergreen forest; in addition, 3 were collected at 650-660 m in evergreen forest, one from moist deciduous forest at 105 m, and 3 from an area of secondary 416 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA growth at 840 m. All of the specimens were taken in close association with water: 21 from the banks of permanent streams (generally within 1 m of the stream), 8 were on rocks in mid-stream, 5 were actually in the water, and one was in a temporary pool. We cannot say whether this species is always restricted to aquatic habitats, or if this distribution is a phenomenon of the breeding season. Twenty of our specimens were collected on rocks, 4 on bare soil, and 3 on dead leaves. With two exceptions, all specimens were found after dark, suggesting that, like other members of the genus, this species is nocturnal. Nyctibatrachus major Boulenger (Plate I) Nyctibatrachus major Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit. Mus., p. 114, pi. 12, fig. 2 — Malabar and Wynad. Material. 23 adult females 40.1-53.6 mm SV, mean 47.9; 35 adult males 36.3-51.8 mm, mean 43.6; 154 juveniles and subadults 14.9- 37.3 mm, those 14.9-20.0 with vestige of tail. Tibia 0.47-0.53 of SV in females, mean 0.496 (n=12); in males 0.48-0.55, mean 0.512 (n=12). Head width 0.43-0.47 of SV in females, mean 0.451 (n=12); in males 0.43- 0.47, mean 0.447 (n=12). Pillai (1978b) has provided a recent redes- cription of N. major based on a series of 42 individuals from Wynad, one of the type loca- lities, approximately 400 km north of our collecting locality. Because the description is relatively complete, we will only note points where our collection deviates substantially from Pillai’s. Our adult specimens range from light tan to dark brown, although light adults are un- common. As Pillai noted, juveniles tend to be lighter than adults, although they also range from light yellow-tan to dark brown. In some juveniles (about 10%), a pair of diffuse, light cream lines extend from the eyes about half way to the vent on the dorsum, superficially resembling similar bands found in N. minor (see below). However, the bands are much wider and more diffuse in major. Pillai (1978b) stated his specimens lack cir- cummarginal grooves on the finger disks, but have both deep circummarginal grooves and longitudinal dorsal grooves on the toes. In our frogs the toes have very shallow, poorly de- fined grooves. It is impossible to determine how much of this difference is an artifact of preservation and how much is due to geogra- phic variation. Adult males have well-developed femoral glands. These glands are oval, about half the length of the femur, and one-half to one-third as wide as long. The glands are slightly raised, yellow-cream in color, and sharply differentiat- ed from the skin of the surrounding thigh. Under magnification the glandules are visible through the skin, giving the area a granular appearance. Similar glands are also present in the type series of N. major (Barry Clarke, personal communication), and in several other species of Nyctibatrachus and N annobatrachus (Table 1). The smallest adult female (40.3 mm) had a few pigmented ova. All larger females con- tained ripe, pigmented eggs with black and cream colored poles, as well as a few small, white ova. Larvae. Twenty-one samples of larvae ranging from Stage 25 to Stage 41 (Gosner 1960) agree closely with Pillai’s description of larval N. major (Pillai 1978b). The principal difference between our larvae and those illus- trated by Pillai lies in the labial lobes. In ours, the lateral portions of both lips are formed by wide lobes that flank 4 median lobes on the lower lip. As only a slight modification of Pillai’s figure would bring it into correspon- dence with our tadpoles, we believe that this 417 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA difference is merely a matter of interpretation. The limbs of pre-metamorphic larvae are like those of adult major in one particular feature that distinguishes that species from N. aliciae : the dorsal surfaces of the disks lack a longitudinal groove. In our samples, head- body length measured 13.33-14.16 mm in the largest Stage 25 larvae, 17.25-17.75 at mid- development (Stages 32-36), and 16.67-18.0 near metamorphosis (Stages 40-41). Tail lengths varied from 1.90 to 2.25 times head-body length, and maximum tail depth from 0.21 to 0.26 of tail length. Transforming individuals with tail stumps varied from 14.9 to 19.4 mm SV. Ecological Notes. Altitudinal distribution was extensive: 110 m — 1, 240-290 — 8, 310- 365 — 152, 630-660 — 36, 840-920 — 6. Half (106) of the transformed individuals were cap- tured in water; the remainder were on stream banks or in seepage areas. As these hill streams have rocky banks, it is not surprising that a third (34) of those seen out of water were on rocks; others were on sand (25), on dead leaves (18), under dead leaves (14), under rocks (4), on logs (2), on the base of a tree (1), and on a low herb (1). About half of the total sample was obtained during daylight hours, including half (51) of those captured in water, all of those from under dead leaves, and two- thirds of those from sandy banks. One tadpole was found in a pothole of a rocky stream bank, 31 (5 samples) in side pools of streams, 29 (1 sample) in a bank seepage, 106 (12 samples) in shallow pools with weak to moderate current, and 2 (2 samples) in seepages close to small streams. Nyctibatrachus minor sp. nov. (Plate II) Diagnosis. A small species of Nyctibatra- chus which may be distinguished from all other forms by its small size at sexual maturity (maximum SV about 22 mm), the complete absence of webbing on the hind feet, the pre- sence of a distinct, dorsolateral glandular fold, the lack of femoral glands in sexually mature males, and lack of pigment in mature ova. Holotype. Field number RFI 31175, an adult female collected 30 May, 1982, from Ponmudi, Trivandrum District, Kerala, at 350 m elevation. Deposited in NMNHI. Paratypes. 3 adult females, 18 adult males, 9 juveniles and subadults. FMNH 216603-18; 14 deposited in NMNPII. Description of holotype. Habitus squat and flattened. Snout rounded, no canthus rostralis. Nostrils dorsal, raised slightly above the snout. Internarial distance approximately equal to interorbital distance; nostrils about equidistant between orbit and tip of snout. Upper eye- lids extremely reduced, covering less than one- quarter of the eye; interorbital distance three times width of eyelid. A faint, interrupted supratympanic fold. Tympanum indistinct, the anterior border barely visible as a small cres- cent well separated from the eye. Forelimbs stout, fingers moderate, with no vestige of webbing. Third finger longest, second and fourth subequal. Fourth more slender than others. Thumb short and robust. Tips of the fingers expanded into very small disks slightly wider than subterminal phalanx. No circum- marginal groove separating the upper and lower surfaces of the fingers. A weak dorsal groove on the left third finger; otherwise, disks with- out a longitudinal dorsal groove. Subarticular processes weakly developed, barely distingui- shable from the ventral surface of the fingers. Hind legs stout, moderately short; the tibio- tarsal joints meet but do not overlap when the legs are bent at right angles to the long axis of the body. Tibia 0.48 of SV. Toes long and slender, with no vestige of webbing between them. Tips of toes expanded into small, oval disks, slightly wider than subterminal phalanx. 418 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDJ, KERALA Disks with a strong, longitudinal, dorsal groove; no circummarginal groove separating the upper and lower surfaces of the toes. Sub- articular processes poorly developed; a small oval inner metatarsal tubercle. A very short, crescentic fold extends from the inner meta- tarsal tubercle proximally about the length of the tubercle, then running in a straight line along the long axis of tarsus for about an equal distance. A smooth ridge extends along the outer edge of the fifth toe from its tip to the level of the inner metatarsal tubercle. A series of well-defined, glandular ridges on head and back. A ridge extends from upper lip along midline of snout to between nostrils, at which point it bifurcates into a pair of ridges extending nearly to each eye. A pro- nounced transverse ridge between eyes. A pair of curved, dorsolateral folds from behind eyes, forming an hourglass pattern extending three- quarters of distance to groin. An additional pair of ridges forms an “X” pattern on anterior half of back, starting at same level as dor- solateral fold, but contained within them. A faint, interrupted supratympanic fold from eye to near shoulder. Upper surface of arms and legs with irregu- lar folds extending length of limbs. Some ex- tremely minute granulations on eyelids and dorsal surface of head; otherwise, skin smooth. Ventrally, skin smooth. Snout-vent 21.5 mm, tibia length 10.4, head width 8.4. Color above light tan with dark brown markings surrounding most of longitudinal folds. A pronounced dark line between nostril and eye, a dark line between eyes, a brown “X” on the anterior half of the body. Anterior and posterior quarters of dorsolateral folds dark brown, area between folds light tan. A thin, white band along inside of anterior half of each dorsolateral fold. A few additional smudges of dark brown on the sides, and a white spot at the corner of the jaw just below each eye. Forelimbs strongly barred with dark brown; hindlimbs uniform tan. Beneath imma- culate white with an extremely fine speckling of black along margins of body, limbs, and lower jaw. Variation. The ground colour varies from nearly uniform chocolate brown to very light buff; the type is near the light side of this range, and represents the modal color. The striping pattern of the holotype is common to all individuals, even the smallest juveniles. However, different aspects of the pattern are more or less distinct depending on the back- ground color. In dark individuals, the pair of white lines following the dorsolateral folds are extremely distinct, while the dark markings are relatively obscure; the opposite is true of light individuals. Some specimens have a dis- tinct pattern of dark brown crossbands on the hind limbs as well as the forelimbs, and in some the dark lines surrounding the dorso- lateral folds may be uninterrupted for their entire length. The ventral coloration is always immaculate white. All females contained large, mature, white ova. Males have no external secondary sexual characters, and lack the femoral glands found in the other members of the genus (Table 1). Metamorphosis apparently occurs at a very small size; our smallest individual (7.7 mm SV) has only a slight vestige of the tail above the anus. The tadpole has not been positively identified. Comparisons. Of the five species of Nycti- bat rachus previously described (see Compari- sons of N. aliciae), four are clearly closely allied to N. major and may be distinguished from N. minor on the basis of size (all are about 40 mm SV, while the largest N. minor is 21.5 mm SV). The only species of corn- 419 12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 parable size is N. pygmaeus (Gunther). We have compared our material to 3 syntypes of N. pygmaeus (BMNH 1947.2.4.47, 1947.2.4. 51, 1947.2.4.57). Nyctibatrachus minor differs from them in lacking webbing on the hind feet (pygmaeus is half to two-thirds webbed), in the pattern of glandular ridges on the head (the ridges are irregular and short in pygmaeus) , in having a dorsolateral glandular fold (a few, broken ridges may be present in pygmaeus, but never a continuous fold), in the distinc- tive color pattern, and in being immaculate white beneath (pygmaeus is light brown). Nyctibatrachus minor differs from N. aliciae in size, color pattern, webbing of the hind foot, in lacking femoral glands in males, and in the females having unpigmented, mature ova. The last two characters are apparently unique for the genus (Table 1). Measurements and body proportions given in Table 3. Pillai (1978b) suggested that the presence of circummarginal grooves on the disks of the toes may be a useful generic character for Table 3 Snout-vent length (mm) and tibia length and HEAD WIDTH AS PROPORTION OF SV IN ADULTS OF Nyctibatrachus minor Females Males Snout- vent range 20.4-21.5 15.1-18.2 mean 21.1 17.3 n 4 18 Tibia length range 0.47-0.51 0.48-0.53 mean 0.486 0.501 n 4 10 Head width range 0.38-0.40 0.39-0.42 mean 0.395 0.405 n 4 10 Nyctibatrachus. However, such grooves are weakly developed or absent in some indivi- duals of our N. major sample, well-developed in N. aliciae, but absent in N. minor. Ecological Notes. All specimens were col- lected in evergreen forest at 310-375 m eleva- tion. Since similar habitats were searched at hi slier elevations, we conclude that N. minor is restricted to relatively low elevations. Of the 30 specimens for which we have ecological data, all but 5 were collected either in or immediately adjacent to small streams or see- page areas, both by day and night. A favored microhabitat site was on or under dead leaves in seep areas (22 individuals), a position from which males were often heard calling. Nyctibatrachus sp. Two tadpoles having the characteristic oral disk of Nyctibatrachus (Bhaduri and Kripalani 1955, figs. 5 and 6; Pillai 1978b, fig. IB) differ from any described to date. Because of their stages of development, they cannot be assigned to a species of adult. Nyctibatrachus sp. A A single tadpole in Stage 36 captured in a seepage area on a steep slope at 375 m above sea level. It differs from larval N. major in having only two median lobes on the lower lip (instead of 4), a smooth margin on the upper median lobe, the origin of the dorsal fin about two-thirds of head-body length behind the end of the body, and much narrower fins. It also differs from larval N. humayuni in all the preceding characters except the first. The limbs are not sufficiently developed for comparison with adults. Head-body oval, snout rounded but narrower than in N. major, body flattened above, round- ed below; maximum width midway between eyes and end of body, 0.60 of head-body 420 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA length, depth 0.85 of width; eyes dorsolateral, not visible from below, eyeball 0.12 of head- body length; interorbital 0.29 of head-body width, subequal to eye-snout distance; nostrils dorsolateral, open, rim with a distinct mid- dorsal projection, internarial distance slightly narrower than interorbital. Oral disk ventral, subterminal, without denticles; 0.32 of head- body width; lips expanded and lobulate; a wide lateral lobe forming lateral third of the disk; upper lip with a single wide median lobe about 1 . 5 times width of lateral lobes, notches separating median from lateral lobes deep; lower lip with a pair of narrow median lobes marked by shallow notches; margins of all ex- cept upper median lobe with single row of short papillae; a band of indistinct, short in- framarginal papillae across bases of lower median lobes; a row of 7 short papillae across base of upper median lobe; upper beak gently curved, black along its margin, finely serrate; lower beak V-shaped, black along its marginal third, serrae longer and coarser than those of upper beak. Spiracle sinistral, midway up side, tube free from body wall near tip, snout- spiracle distance 0.49 of head-body length. Anal tube dextral. Tail 2.59 times head-body length; heavily muscled, margins straight, tapering gradually to narrow tip; maximum depth 0.16 of tail length; caudal muscle 2-3 times deeper than fins except at tip; origin of dorsal fin far behind end of body. No glands visible. Lateral line pores in conspicuous rows along side of snout and around eye; in a dor- solateral row to end of body, continuing on tail at base of dorsal fin, and in a ventrolateral row continuing along middle of caudal muscle. Tadpole greyish brown, with small dark irregular spots over all surfaces except ventral fin and underside of head-body. Head-body length 9.0 mm, total length 32. Nyclibatrachus sp. B. A single tadpole (Stage 25), caught in a pool of a small stream trickling over sand, differs from all larvae of Nyclibatrachus des- cribed or figured in having a much more slender habitus, very small eyes, a very narrow median lobe on the upper lip, inframarginal papillae across the lateral lobes of the upper lip, and fully pigmented, heavy beaks. The relatively small eye may be a function of small body size or early development. However, two Stage 25 tadpoles of N. major have much larger eyes (0.09 of head-body length as opposed to 0.03) and the observed range of relative eye size in N. major (Stages 25-41) is only 0.08-0.11. The other distinguishing features of this tadpole do not appear to be size-related. Head-body an elongate oval, snout rounded but narrowed; strongly flattened above, weakly so below; maximum width in rear third of body, 0.52 of head-body length, depth 0.68 of width; eyes dorsal, very small, eyeball 0.03 of head-body length; interorbital 0.20 of head- body width, much less than eye-snout distance; nostrils dorsolateral, open, midway between eyes and tip of snout, a small mid-dorsal pro- jection, internarial slightly wider than inter- orbital. Oral disk ventral, subterminal, without denticles, 0.39 of head-body width; lips ex- panded, lobulate; a single, narrow, median lobe on upper lip; 4 subequal median lobes on lower lip; remainder of both lips occupied by a wide lateral lobe; a single row of short, slender, marginal papillae on all lobes, those of median upper lobe distinctly narrower than others; a zigzag, transverse row of thick, short, inframarginal papillae across each lateral lobe of upper lip, papillae closer to beak than to margin of lip; a zigzag, transverse row of similar papillae across 4 median lobes of 421 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoJ. 81 lower lip, papillae closer to margin than to beak. Beaks heavy, completely black, margins coarsely serrate. Spiracle sinistral, half way up side, tube free from body near end, snout- spiracle distance 0.41 of head-body length. Anal tube dextral. Tail 2.07 times head-body length; heavily muscled, dorsal margin weakly convex, ventral margin straight, tapering gra- dually from middle to narrow tip; maximum depth 0.21 of tail length; caudal muscle much deeper than fins until distal fifth; origin of dorsal fin far behind body. No glands. Lateral line pores not visible. Entire tadpole pinkish dark gray; caudal muscle dusted with melanophores with a few irregular pigment-free areas; dorsal fin with melanophores along juncture with muscle, otherwise fins without pigment. Head-body length 9.25 mm, total length 28.1. Rana beddomi (Gunther) Polypedates beddomi Gunther, 1875, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1875: 571, pi. 43, fig. B. — Ana- mallai, Malabar, Sivagiri, Travancore. Rana beddomi, Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit. Mus., p. 55. Material 9 adult females 45.1-60.1 mm SV, mean 49.4; 12 adult males 35.4-49.5 mm, mean 43.1, 15 juveniles 22.6-35.0 mm, Tibia 0.52-0.65 of SV in females, mean 0.627; 0.57-0.67 in males, mean 0.596. Tym- panum 0.068-0.086 of SV in females, mean 0.078; 0.095-0.118 in males, mean 0.104. Our specimens agree very closely with Gun- ther’s original description and figure. Webbing extending to disk on fifth toe and on lateral sides of toes 1, 2, and 3; medially, webbing extends to distal subarticular tubercle on second toe, and midway between first and second tubercles on third toe. Fourth toe webbed to second subarticular tubercle on both sides. Subarticular tubercles well developed. Dorsally, skin smooth or covered with fine granulations, more pronounced around anus and angle of jaw. A series of extremely thin, longitudinal folds on the back of some indi- viduals. Ventrally, skin smooth, with a granular area on thighs near anus. Coloration variable; the commonest pattern consisting of light pinkish-tan background with an irregular speckling of dark brown. In some individuals, dorsal background color dark brown. A black streak along supratym- panic fold from eye to shoulder, continuing forward along canthus rostralis to nostril. A second dark streak anterior to tympanum from the lower margin of eye to jaw. Front and hind limbs faintly barred with dark brown, as are lips. Ventrally white with brown reti- culations present on throat and sides of body; underside of legs immaculate yellow-white. Males are smaller than females and have a much larger tympanum. In males, the tympa- num is as large or larger than the eye; in females, it is about two-thirds the eye dia- meter. In addition, males have small, pointed spicules distributed along the margins of the jaw, throat, and lateral margins of the belly; in large males these may become brown and hardened. Males also have enlarged nuptial pads on the inside of the first finger. All females below 30 mm SV were imma- ture, while those above 50 mm contained enlarged, pigmented ova. Two 45 mm females contained both mature and immature ova, sug- gesting that sexual maturity is reached at about this size. Taxonomic Notes. We use the name bed- domi in the restricted sense of Gunther (1875), and recognise Rana brachytarsus as a distinct species (see below). These two species are distinguished on the basis of amount of web- bing and size. The smallest sexually mature beddomi female we have seen is 45 mm SV, 422 Plate III J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Inger et al. : Amphibians & Reptiles from Ponmudi Habitat of larval Rana beddomi at 900 m. AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUD1, KERALA while the largest brachytarsus is 43 mm SV. In comparing our material to three syntypes of R. beddomi (BMNH 1947.2.27.73, 82, 84), we note that this small typic series is a com- posite of R. beddomi and R. brachytarsus. One of the syntypes (1947.2.27.73) has webbing as described above for beddomi. It is a female, 45 . 2 mm S' V, with tiny, immature ova, and has not reached sexual maturity. The other two individuals have the more extensive webbing found in brachytarsus and are smaller: male 26.5 mm, female 39.3 mm. The female (1947.2.27.82) is sexually mature, with a thickened oviduct and ripe, pigmented ova. Thus, the first specimen is a subadult R. beddomi, while the other two syntypes are re- ferable to R. brachytarsus. Larvae. Three samples of tadpoles, collect- ed from rock faces, fit Annandale’s (1918) description of larval R. beddomi very closely and agree among samples and with adult beddomi in having the third toe webbed to the middle subarticular tubercle and the fifth toe webbed to or almost to the base of the disk. As in the case of the tadpoles observed by Gravely (cited in Annandale 1918), those we collected made short, skittering jumps across the rock faces whenever they were closely approached. The early development of the hind limbs, which Annandale (1918) inferred (correctly we think) on the basis of the wide range in size within stages 40-41, appears to be related to the skittering habit. Although used in this case to escape herpetologists (and other pre- dators, presumably), probably the principal function of this behaviour is to enable the tadpoles to move from one tiny, shallow pool to another across slightly drier surface irre- gularities of the home rock face. Head-body lengths (mm): 4.33 (Stage 30), 6. 25-9.25 (Stage 40). Snout-vent: 6.75-12.6 (Stage 41), 11.9-13.9 (Stage 42), 12.0 (Stage 43), 13.9 (Stage 44). Total lengths: 17.5- 17.8 (Stage 30), 22.5-26.4 (Stage 40), 27.3- 30.2 (Stage 41). Measurements on our specimens bear out Annandale’s comments on the odd body pro- portions of larval beddomi. Their eyes are rela- tively larger than those of other tadpoles of tropical Asia, 0.16-0.19 of head-body length. The tail is long (2. 5 -3. 3 times head-body length) and very slender (maximum depth 0.08-0.10 of tail length). Denticle rows are 4+4/2+2:11 in all but one of the 16 counted; the exceptional specimen had 5 divided rows on the upper lip. Ecological Notes. We found most of our specimens in evergreen forest at 310-370 m (29 individuals); additional specimens came from moist deciduous forest (3 at 105 m), gal- lery forest (1 at 900 m), and moist semi- evergreen forest (1 at 260 m). Twenty-three were collected away from streams in forest, 11 along the banks and one in the water of permanent streams, and one in a dry stream bed. Fifteen frogs were collected on small rocks, 12 on dead leaves, and 5 on the soil surface; in addition, one each was found under the soil and on a log on the forest floor. Larvae were collected from rock faces over which a thin film of water flowed at 330, 890, and 900 m (Plate III). The highest site was completely open to the sky with the nearest trees about 10 m distant. The other sites were inside forests and shaded. Rasia brachytarsus (Gunther) (Plate II) Poly pe dates brachytarsus Gunther, 1875, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1875: 572 — Anamallais and Siva- giris. Material. 47 adult females 28.6-44.7 mm SV, mean 34.8; 25 adult males 25.1-33.7 mm, mean 29.5; subadult females 25.0, 25.3 mm. 423 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Tibia 0.59-0.65 of SV in females, mean 0.621 (n=10); in males 0.64-0.84, mean 0.74 (n= 10). The webbing extends to the disk on the fifth toe and on the lateral sides of toes 1, 2 and 3. Medially, the webbing extends to the distal subarticular tubercle of the third toe, and to between the middle and distal sub- articular tubercles of the fourth. The disks of the toes and the subarticular tubercles are less well developed than in R. beddomi. Dorsally, the skin is thrown into a series of longitudinal folds, which reach their densest concentration on the anterior portion of the back. These folds are much thicker and more prominent than in R. beddomi. Ventrally the skin is smooth, except for a granular patch near the anus. Color pattern consists of a tan dorsal back- ground with a variable number of short, longi- tudinal brown streaks. Some individuals have only a trace of this pattern, others are nearly completely brown. About 10% have a dis- tinct, white middorsal stripe from the eyes to the vent. A dark brown band between the eyes is generally present. A black stripe follows the supratympanic fold and canthal ridge as in R. beddomi, and a second stripe, just ante- rior to the tympanum, connects the eye and upper lip. The limbs and lips are barred with dark brown. Ventrally white, rarely with a few brown spots on the throat. The legs are yellow on the ventral surface of the thighs and calves. This species exhibits sexual dimorphism similar to that of R. beddomi, although it is less extreme. Males have enlarged nuptial glands on the inside of the first finger, and some males have spicules on the throat, lower jaw, and sides of the body. However, these are only rarely blackened, and more often the sides of the body have increased granulations rather than conical spicules. The spicules on the ventral surface of the feet are very dense in males and are usually blackened and stiff. In both males and females the tympanum is about two-thirds of the eye diameter. All females above 28 mm SV contained enlarged, pigmented ova. Taxonomic Notes. Boulenger (1882) consi- dered brachytarsus (Gunther) to be a synonym of R. beddomi , and all subsequent authors have followed this opinion. We clearly have two species closely allied to R. beddomi, separable on the basis of size, webbing, coloration, dorsal skin folds, and tympanic size and density of spicules in males. We have examined one syntype of brachytarsus (BMNH 1947.2.27. 1307) which is similar to our sample in size (syntype a mature female 36.1 mm), dorsal skin folds, and tympanum size. The webbing of the syntype is somewhat less extensive than in our series, extending to the distal subarti- cular tubercle on the medial side of the third toe, and the dark canthal stripe is lacking. However, the syntype is from the Anamallai Hills about 200 km north of Ponmudi, and we attribute these differences to geographic variation. We have not seen the second syntype of brachytarsus. However, on the basis of its size (55 mm, as reported by Boulenger 1920), it seems likely that the type series of brachy- tarsus is a composite of that species and beddomi just as is the type series of the latter (see above). We therefore designate the small female, BMNH 1947.2.27.1307, as the lecto- type of R. brachytarsus (Gunther). Ecological Notes. This species has a broad ecological distribution. We found specimens from 100 to 950 m elevation (9 from 105-250 m, 35 from 260-350 m, 5 from 480-650 m, 22 from 860-950 m) distributed in evergreen forest (40), moist deciduous forest (10), gal- 424 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA lery forest (2), secondary growth (2), and open grassy areas (17). Most individuals (54) were collected away from water on the forest floor, although some were found in or along streams (18). Thirty-five were collected on rocks, 29 on dead leaves, 7 on bare soil, and 2 under dead leaves. Seventeen were caught in a seepage area at 900 m where a thin film of water flowed over exposed bedrock, and a num- ber of calling males were taken from crevices in bedrock after dark. Rana diplosticta (Gunther) Ixalus diplosticta Gunther, 1875, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1875: 574, pi. 43, fig. 3 — Malabar. Rana diplosticta Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit. Mus., p. 58. Material. 4 adult females 23.6-25.2 mm SV, mean 24.6; 2 adult males 18.7, 20.0 mm. Tibia 0.56-0.62 of SV in females, mean 0.588; 0.60 in both males. Toes less than one quarter webbed, webbing extending to proximal subarticular tubercle on medial side of third and fourth toes. Fingers and toes with large disks with strong circum- marginal grooves separating upper and lower surfaces. The back has a series of longitudinal folds; the head, sides, and belly are smooth. A strong, curved supratympanic fold from eye to shoulder. Tympanum well-developed in both sexes, about one-half eye diameter. In life, this species is reddish-brown dorsally, with a black canthal and tympanic streak. The iris is greenish-gold above and black below, the line of demarcation coinciding with the upper edge of the dark canthal stripe. The dorsal color pattern is consistent among our six specimens and corresponds very well with Gunther’s (1875) figure. Above dark light tan with a dark brown band of varying inten- sity between eyes. Entire loreal region from canthus rostralis to upper lip is dark brown. Dark brown blotches may be present on the lateral surfaces; blotches symmetrically arran- ged on both sides of body. A dark brown spot invariably present just dorsal and anteri- or to the hind limb. Limbs tan crossbarred with dark brown. Vent rally light brown dif- fused with a fine reticulated pattern of dark brown, with most of the darker color con- centrated on the throat and thighs. A dark brown triangular patch surrounding the anus. All four females contain very large, pig- mented ova with black and tan poles. Males have a series of 5 very large, black, sharp nuptial spines on the medial surface of the first finger. These spines were not noted by Boulenger (1920), who stated that males lack secondary sexual characters. Taxonomic Notes. This small series is apparently the first collection of this species since those obtained by Jerdon and Beddome a century ago. Boulenger (1882) suggested that this species and R. leptodactyla may be conspecific, although he later (Boulenger 1920) treated them as full species. We have compared our material to syntypes of R. diplo- sticta, and the agreement with that species is very close. It is not known whether R. lepto- dactyla also has well developed nuptial spines in males. Ecological Notes. All specimens were col- lected at 950 m elevation, far from streams or ponds. Five were found in evergreen forest, and a single specimen was in gallery forest. Three frogs were found under dead leaves, and one each on bare soil, dead leaves, and a rock. Rana semipalmata Boulenger Rana semipalmata Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit. Mus., p. 56, pi. 4, fig. 3 — Malabar. Material. 3 adult females 32.0-35.5 mm SV, mean 33.6; 3 adult males 27.4-29.3 mm. 425 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 mean 28.3. Tibia 0.55-0.62 of SV in females, mean 0.576; in males 0.50-0.52, mean 0.510. Tympanum diameter 0.085-0.097 of SV in females, mean 0.092; in males 0.120-0.135, mean 0.127. A small ranid, similar in general appearance to R. brachytarsus, but distinguishable on the basis of less webbing and size of tympanum. Webbing extends to the distal subarticular tubercle on the fifth toe and on the lateral side of the third, and midway between the proximal and the second subarticular tubercle on the fourth toe. Dorsally tan or light brown, with longitudi- nal folds usually on the back. A dark brown stripe between the eyes. A broken U-shaped stripe open to the rear extends across the back from the level of the pectoral girdle. Limbs barred with black. No canthal stripe. All three females contained pigmented, mature ova, and all 3 males have nuptial pads on the first finger and enlarged glands covering the ventral surface of the thighs. Males have a band of very small transparent spicules ac- ross the chest and around the margins of the jaw. Tympanum diameter is absolutely as well as relatively larger (see above) in males. Taxonomic Notes. We have examined one of the two syntypes (RMNH 1947.2.29.51), a male that agrees very closely with our mate- rial. The syntype has nuptial pads and femo- ral glands. Boulenger’s (1920) statement that males of this species lack secondary sex char- acters is in error. Ecological Notes. We found 5 specimens in evergreen forest (4 at 330-360 m above sea level) and 1 in moist deciduous forest at 105 m. Three were collected 3-5 m from small permanent streams; the other 3 were well away from water in the forest. We found 2 frogs on dead leaves, 2 under leaves, and 2 on rocks. Two males were calling from seepage areas on exposed bedrock. The large related species, R. beddomi, was found in sympatry with both small forms, R. brachytarsus and R. semipalmata, but the two last were found together only at one site at 105 m. This is the first report of additional speci- mens of R. semipalmata since the original description. Rana keralensis Dubois Rana keralensis Dubois, 1980, Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat. Paris, (4), 2: 928 (replacement name). Rana verrucosa Gunther, 1875, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 567 — Malabar. Material. 1 adult female 50.6 mm SV, 6 subadult females 36.3-43.7 mm; 9 adult males 37.5-42.3 mm, mean 40.4; 24 juveniles 14.4- 32.9 mm. Tibia 0.55-0.62 of SV in females, mean 0.585 (n=7); 0.55-0.62 in males, mean 0.572. Dorsal coloration somewhat variable, al- though always light brown with dark brown bars across the body. A light tan vertebral stripe present or absent. The posterior side of the thigh is bright yellow marbled with black in life, dark brown marbled with white in preservative. Males have a well developed nuptial pad on the inner surface of the first finger. Of our 7 females, only the largest appeared to be sexually mature as she con- tained a few darkly pigmented ova. All of the other females contained only immature ova. Our smallest individual (SV = 14.4 mm) has a small vestige of its tail remaining, and pre- sumably represents the size at metamorphosis. Larvae. Five samples of tadpoles agreeing with Annandale’s (1918) description (as R. verrucosa) were collected. A premetamorphic larva (Stage 41) has the webbing and foot form typical of adults, some of which were caught at the same site. Head-body lengths (mm) : 6.6 (Stage 30), 426 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA 9.75 (Stage 34), 11.25 (Stage 37), 9.67-11.1 (Stages 39-41). Maximum total length 29.8 mm (Stage 41). Head-body width 0.59- 0.62 of length, depth 0.73-0.79 of width; Width of oral disk 0.35-0.39 of head-body width. Denticles I : 1+1 /III, the outermost lower row two-thirds length of others. Ecological Notes. As Daniel (1975) stressed, very little is known of the ecology of this species. We found all but one speci- men at 100-300 m elevation, with a single frog taken at 710 m. The species inhabits a wide range of both disturbed and primary forest situations, including evergreen forest (22), secondary growth forest (13), moist deciduous forest (2), rubber plantation (1), and in a clearing (1). About half of our specimens (21) were collected away from water; the remainder were found in or along the banks of permanent streams (15) or in temporary rain pools (3). Individuals were always found on the ground, either on dead leaves (19), small rocks (4) or bare soil (6). About two thirds (26 of 40) of our specimens were found in small forest clearings, either along trails or roads, or in treefall areas. The samples of larvae were collected in water- filled silty ruts in a road through forest (3) and in pot-holes of rocky stream banks (2). Annandale also found tadpoles in a pot-hole alongside a stream. {to be continued) NEW DESCRIPTIONS A NEW SPECIES OF CRESPHONTES STAL (HETEROPTERA: PENTATOMIDAE) FROM INDIA1 M. Nayyar Azim and S. Adam Shafee2 ( With a text-figure) Additional generic characters are proposed for Cresphontes Stal; C. fulvus sp. nov. fully described and illustrated. A key to Indian species of Cresphontes is also provided. Genus Cresphontes Stal Cresphontes Stal, 1867 : 514. Type Species : Rhaphigaster monsoni West- wood The distinguishing characters of this genus have been given by Distant (1902). Some additional generic characters are suggested which are as follows : last tergum in female (fig. 1, E) with anterior and posterior mar- gins convex, lateral angles subacute. Female genitalia : external plates (fig. 1, F), first gonocoxae broad and subquadrate, inner mar- gins straight; paratergites 8th triangular, 9th oblong and rounded apically. Male genitalia: pygophore (fig. 1, G) slightly wider than long, clasper (fig. 1, H) almost L-shaped; subgeni- tal plate (fig. 1, I) narrow with anterior margin strongly convex, posterior margin broadly and deeply concave. The genus is represented by two species from India including a new species. The two species are separated by the following key characters. Key to Indian species of Cresphontes Stal 1. Abdominal spine slightly extending beyond middle coxae; head and pronotum with dark puncts, arranged in patches; scutellum with dark shining patch medially, lateral margins and apex densely punctate; corium of hemelytra densely punctate; antennae with third, fourth and fifth segments black; apices of femora with black spots C. monsoni Westwood — Abdominal spine never extending beyond middle coxae (fig. 1, D); head and prono- tum with reddish brown puncts uniformly and regularly arranged (fig. 1, A); scutellum without dark shining patch medially and sparse- ly punctate; corium of hemelytra sparsely punctate (fig. 1, C); antennae yellowish brown; apices of femora without black spots C . fulvus sp. nov. Cresphontes fulvus sp. nov. (Fig. 1, A-I) FEMALE. Head (fig. 1, A). Reddish brown and thickly punctate, distinctly wider than long; juga as long as tylus, lateral margins slightly sinuate before eyes; eyes brownish, ocelli red, space between ocellus and inner orbital margin about one-fifth the inter-ocellar space. Rostrum yel- lowish except the apical segments dark; segments I, II, III and IV, 0.46, 0.66, 0.38 and 0.46 mm in length respectively. Antennae yellowish brown; segments I, II, III, IV and V, 0.30, 0.40, 0.48, 0.62 and 0.70 mm in length respectively. 1 Accepted April 1983. 2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. 428 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Fig. 1 : A-I. Cresphontes fulvus sp. nov., $ , $ : A. Head and thorax in dorsal view, $ ; B. Antenna, $ ; C. Hemelytra, $ ; D. Abdominal spine, $ ; E. Last abdominal tergum, $ ; F. External genitalia, $ ; G. Pygophore, $ ; H. Clasper, $ ; I. Snbgenital piate, $ . 429 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 MALE. Resembles female. Genitalia characters as in generic description and as shown in figures. Holotype $ . India: Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh, on inflorescence of Mangifera indica Linn., 5.iii.l979 (M. Nayyar Azim). Paratypes 2 $ , 2 c? , on Cotton bolls, 28 . iii . 1983 (M. Nayyar Azim), other data same as holotype. Material deposited in the Zoological Muse- um, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. Acknowledgements We are greatly indebted to Prof. Nawab H. Khan, Chairman, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, for pro- viding research facilities. Thanks are also due to Prof. S. Mashhood Alam for his suggestions and encouragement. One of us (M.N.A.) is thankful to U.G.C., New Delhi for financial assistance during the tenure of this work. References Distant, W. L. (1902): The fauna of British Stal, C. (1867): Biclrag till Hemipterernas Syste- India including Ceylon and Burma. Rhynchota — matik. Ofvers. K. Svenska Vetensk. Akad. Fork. Vol. I. Taylor & Francis, London. 24 : 491-560. DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES DROSOPHILA SEPTACOILA (DIPTERA: DROSOPHILIDAE) FROM SOUTH INDIA1 P. G. Gai and N. B. Krishnamurthy2 ( With seven text-figures) Thorax. Reddish brown with puncts uni- formly and regularly arranged; pronotum an- teriorly with two transverse laevigate areas, anterior margin concave with a submarginal line of puncts, anterolateral margins straight and smooth, humeral angles obtuse; maximum width of pronotum more than twice its me- dian length; scutellum about as long as wide, apex broadly rounded; evaporatoria smooth. Hemelytra with corium sparsely punctate, ochraceous basally and reddish apically; mem- brane infuscated, extending beyond apex of abdomen. Legs yellowish brown. Abdomen. Dorsum dark brown, connexiva yellowish with brown patches; venter basally with a long spine extending upto middle coxae. Female genitalia characters as in generic des- cription and as shown in figures. Body length. 7.5 mm. Introduction South Kanara is a district located between 12.37° and 13.58°N latitude and 74.35° and 75.40° E longitude. It is essentially a forest 1 Accepted September 1983. 2 Department of Post-Graduate Studies and Re- search in Zoology, University of Mysore, Manasa- gangotri, Mysore 570 006, India. district with heavy rainfall responsible for a variety of luxuriant flora and hence con- genial for a variety of insect fauna. The forests are of evergreen and deciduous types. Little information is available on the Drosophila fauna of this district, but with its congenial environment it may hold seve- ral Drosophila species which await dis- covery. This prompted us to undertake 430 NEW DESCRIPTIONS a collection trip to Dharmastala, a part of South Kanara, and its surrounding areas. The collections revealed rich fauna of Droso- phila in addition to a new species Droso- phila septacoila, a member of the montium subgroup which is described in this paper. DrosopSiila septacoila sp. nov. (Figs. 1-7) Body length. Male 2.02 mm, Female 2.19 mm. Head, q and 9 . Arista with 9 branches (5/4) including terminal fork. Front brown. Antenna dark brown. Carina narrow, slightly convex. Palpi yellow with 1 bristle. Orbital bristles in the ratio of 3:1:3. Inner verticals longer, outer verticals shorter than inner. Ocellar triangle small, brown, with a pair of long bristles, proclinate. Eyes red. Thorax, o and $. Brown. Acrostichal hairs in 8 rows, regularly placed. Ratio an- terior; posterior dorsocentrals 0.5. Scutellum brown. Anterior scutellars convergent, posterior scutellars convergent and crossed. Prescutellars absent. Sterno index 0.5. Wings, cf and 9 . Transluscent. C- 4V- 4C- 5X- M- index index index index index Male 1.66 0.4 0.65 2.63 0.38 Female 1.94 0.38 0.58 2.5 0.38 (Wing indices calculated after Okada 1956 and Bock 1976). Third costal section with heavy setation on basal-male and female 0.5. Wing lengths: 1.56 mm (male) and 1.69 (female). Halteres small, pale yellowish. Legs. Preapicals on all tibiae. Apicals on first and second tibiae. Sex comb of male (Fig. 1) longitudinal along entire length of metatarsus and second tarsal segment. Meta- tarsal comb consisting of 18 teeth, smaller above and longer below, the distal two dis- placed from axis of remaining teeth. Comb on second tarsal segment with 1 1 uniform teeth. Abdomen, S and 9 . Tergites of male yellow with dark apical bands. Pigmentation is broader on the mid dorsal portion of the tergites and is narrowed laterally. Abdominal pigmentation in females is similar to males except that the apical bands are slightly broader. Peri phallic organs (Figure 2). Light yellow. Epandrium round. Toe with 5 bristles. Pri- mary and secondary surstylii present. Primary surstylus yellow, with a row of 4-5 teeth and a ventro-medial cluster of 7-9 teeth, one of which is elongated. Secondary surstylus sepa- rated from cerci, with 3 black teeth, the centre one being the longest. Secondary surstylus also bears 4 bristles on the ventro lateral margin. Cercus bears about 15 bristles in addition to 3 stumpy bristles on the ventral side. Phallic organs (Fig. 3). Aedeagus yellow, hirsute and non-bifid. Anterior gonopophyses pointed. Posterior gonopophyses long, reach tip of aedeagus. Caudal margin of novaster- num with prominent median convexity and bears a pair of spines. Novasternum bears sensilla towards the dorsal side. Basal apode- me does not project beyond ventral fragma. Egg guide (Fig. 4). Yellow with 14 teeth and sub-terminal hair on each side. Internal structures. Testes (Fig. 5). Yello- wish with seven coils. Accessory glands large. Spermathecae (Fig. 6) large, paraovaria small, ventral receptacle long, tightly coiled. Malpighian tubules 2 pairs and free. Egg filaments (Fig. 7). Two long slender filaments. Pupae : Anterior spiracle with 11 branches. Distribution. South Kanara District (West- ern Ghats), Karnataka, India. Taxonomic status. The presence of egg 431 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 CL >. / ^ if II i D P3 «4— H o > / l 00 D < D P 00 . / a II 'ft co ^ .p "C T3 ft % -P Oh O CD -D P ft ^ o ,, 0 11 o _ . 60 CO a < O p4 .D a p 0) > co a cd 60 6h o CD to co .£ >» -jr! -P $D Oh E ^ n Oh g ° Oh CO p CD U CD «H-I 1) CO cd > u > A CD CD -P H-> cd 6h a) Oh 1/2 J O vl. c/3 O ft D i— I ctf > Oh cj on > 6h cd D T3 O ft cd >* 6h 0 H— I cd 1 cd 60 • pH ft D 'p 60 CO cd • ^ 6-1 cd > O cd 6h cd Ph C cd > o 60 _ ft °° g O D -pH A ,p '5b cd > 00 60 ft ft S-H ft cd a 60 cd S—l O Z cd 6h H-> P D > £ 2 cd P cd ft 6h .O *6h D s— » a < o p 13 ‘> O II Q go D H-> CO cd > 0 P co T3 P E To CO p cd 60 6-h o > • pH 'M o P ’p o 6h Oh 60 60 ft .60 E D* Id cd H-> Oh D D D 6h 432 NEW DESCRIPTIONS with 2 blunt filaments, ventral receptacle that is not finely coiled, malpighian tubules free, presence of banded abdominal tergites qualify its inclusion in melanogaster species group of the Subgenus Sophophora (Sturtevant 1939, Patterson and Stone 1952). The presence of a large tooth bearing secondary surstylus sepa- rated from the cerci; presence of sex comb along entire length of metatarsus and second tarsal segment permits its inclusion in the montium subgroup (Bock and Wheeler 1972). Relationships and Remarks. On comparison with other members, this species shows resemblance to D. vulcana (Oka- da, pers. com.). This species resembles D. vulcana (Graber 1957) in gross morphologi- cal structures such as shape of the epandrium; cerci; in arrangement of teeth on primary sur- stylus, secondary surstylus; bristles on cerci and flattened egg filaments. However, the new species differs from D. vulcana with re- gard to the pigmentation of abdominal ter- gites (Shiny yellowish brown in males and shiny dark brown in females in D. vulcana ); colour of the periphallic organ (black in D. vulcana)', secondary surstylus completely sepa- rated from the cerci (partially separated in D. vulcana) and in the structure of the phallic organ. Further, the new species is charac- terized by having 18 teeth in the first set and Refe: Bock, I. R. (1976) : Drosophilidae of Australia. I Drosophila (Insecta : Diptera). Aust. J. Zool., Suppl. Ser. No. 40: 1-105. Bock, I. R. & Wheeler, M. R., (1972) : The Drosophila melanogaster species group. Univ. Texas Pubis. 7213: 1-102. Graber, H. (1957) : Afrikanishe Drosophiliden als Blutenbesucher. Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Syst. 85 : 305 -316. 11 teeth in the second set in the sex comb, whereas D. vulcana has 19 teeth and 14 teeth respectively. A unique feature of this species is that the testis is made up of 7 coils whereas in the other members of the montium subgroup, it is usually 3 coils. This unique character along with others demands the status of a new species and hence it is named as Droso- phila septacoila after the 7 coils of the testis. Holotype <$ . India. Karnataka, South Kanara District (Western Ghats) 4.X.82. Coll. P. G. Gai, N. B. Krishnamurthy and S. N. Hegde. Deposited in the museum of the Department of Zoology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysore. Paratypes. 5j'd' and 5$ $ (data same as above) 4 and 3 $ $ deposited in the Department of Biology, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, Japan. Ack nowledgements We are grateful to Prof. T. Okada, (Emeritus Scientist), 2-30-18, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, Japan for his help in confirming the identity of the species. One of us (P.G.G.) is thankful to the University of Mysore and the U.G.C. for award of a Teacher-Fellow- ship under F.I.P., and also to the authorities of Vijaya College, Bangalore for the study leave. We also thank Dr. S. N. Hegde and Dr. V. Vasudev for their helpful discussions. EN CES Okada, T. (1956) : Systematic study of Droso- philidae and allied families of Japan. Gihido Co. Japan. Patterson, J. T. & Stone, W. S„ (1952) : Evolu- tion in the Genus Drosophila. The McMillan co. New York. Sturtevant, A. H. (1939): On the Subdivision of the Genus Drosophila. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 25: 137— 141. 433 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 A NEW SPECIES OF OSBECKIA L. (MELASTOMATACEAE) FROM KERALA (INDIA)1 G. S. Giri and M. P. Nayar2 (With a text-figure) A new species of Osbeckia L., O. abrahamii sp. nov. is described here with illustrations. A diagnostic key is also provided for easy identification. Osbeckia abrahamii sp. nov. Affinis O. asperae, sed caulibus crassibus, fistulosis, folius dense pubescento-setosibus, calycis tubis dense stellato-excrescentibus, calycis lobis asymmetricalibus, bracteis orbi- cularibus differt. Erect, unbranched or rarely branched herb, upto 1 m tall; stem terete, thick more or less fleshy, hollow, covered with short, rigid hairs, hairs at nodes sometimes larger. Leaves simple, opposite, elliptic or elliptic-lanceolate (3.0-) 4.5 — 6.5 (-8.0) x (1.2-) 1.5 — 2.5 (-2.8) cm, base acute to cuneate, apex acute to shortly acuminate, margin entire, main nerves (3-) 5 — 7, all arising from the base, cross nervules inconspicuous above, prominent beneath; both surfaces covered with short, stiff, subappressed to ascending hairs, hairs on the nerves beneath usually longer, bristly and often appear in groups, becomes dull green to brownish on drying, chartaceous; petioles (3-) 5 — 9 (-12) mm long, appressed hairy. In- florescence axillary or terminal, few flowered short panicle, bracts orbicular, broader than long 2.0 — 4.0 x 3.5 — 5.5 mm, appressed hairy above, glabrous beneath, sometimes series of bracts remain persistent on the peduncle. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous, sessile or with a very short pedicel of about 1 mm long. Calyx-tube broadly urceolate, (4.0-) 1 Accepted September 1983. 2 Botanical Survey of India, Howrah-711 103. 5.0 — 7.0 (-8.0) x (3.0) 3.5 — 5.5 (-7.0) cm, densely covered with flat, stellate or very slightly stalked emergences, often intermixed with bristles, hairs on the emergences arise with a downward fashion, brownish. Calyx- lobes 5, distinctly asymmetrical, truncate, broader than long, 2.0 — 3.5 x 2.5 — 4.2 mm, unequally two lobed at apex, midrib distinct, patent hairs and emergences occur on the midrib dorsally, otherwise glabrous, long ciliated at margin, deciduous. Intersepalar emergences with a terete stalk and stellate head and tuft of bristles, deciduous. Petals 5, obovate, 16.0 — 20.0 x 12.0 — 14.0 mm, cili- ated at margin, pink or purple in colour. Stamens 10, equal, filaments 6.0 — 8.0 mm long, glabrous; anthers twisted, 6.0 — 7.5 mm long, including a small narrow beak, pore apical, large, connective produced into a small indistinctly lobed collar. Ovary 5.0 — 7.0 mm long, nearly 1/3 adnate to the calyx-tube, free apical part densely covered with brow- nish appressed hairs, true crown of bristles absent; style 16-19 mm long, glabrous, curved, swollen below the punctate stigma. Capsules 7.0 — 9.0 x 4.5 — 5.5 (-7.0) mm, broadly urceolate, free portion of the capsules slightly exposed or remain enclosed by the calyx-tube. Seeds small, muricate. Type. Travancore, Kerala, Narayanaswami 1379 (Holotype, CAL). Flowering time. Aug. — Oct. Fruiting time. Sept. — Dec. 434 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Fig. 1: A-E. Osbeckia abrahamii : A. habit (natural size); B. flower; C. two calyx lobes with one intersepalar emergence; D. bract; E. stamen. 435 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Distribution. India. Kerala. Travancore, Narayanaswami 1707; Silent Valley, Palghat Dist., 875 m. 11.10.1965, Vajravelu 26161; Koni, Travancore, Rama Rao 536; Trichur, Tumbermughi, 75 m, 12.9. 1976, Ramamurthy 48476. This species is related to O. aspera (L.) Blume, but can be easily distinguished by the calyx-tube being densely clothed with stellate emergences, orbicular bracts, asymmetrical calyx-lobes, thick, hollow stems and setose pubescent leaves; whereas in O. aspera, calyx- tube is sparsely covered with patent hairs or bristles and without emergences, bracts ellip- tic with acute or sharply pointed apex, calyx- lobes symmetrical and the stems slender with sparsely pubescent leaves. O. travancorica Bedd. ex Gamble was re- duced to a variety under O. aspera by Hansen (1977), where he remarked that the variety is distinguished by the asymmetrical calyx- lobes and curved, strong, prickly bristles on the stem. But O. travancorica Bedd. ex Gamble is a different species. On examining the type, verifying the protologue and drawing by Gamble on the type material ( Wight 1100), it is seen that, the stem is distinctly covered with downwardly curved, strong, prickly bristles; calyx-lobes not asymmetrical, rather broadly triangular with obtuse or slightly emarginate apex. Whereas in O. abrahamii, the stem is covered with very short, rigid and appressed hairs, calyx-lobes broader than long, truncate and typically asymmetrical. A diagnostic key is given below for easy identification : A. Stem and banches covered with short, rigid appressed hairs B. Calyx-lobes symmetrical, broadly triangular with acute, obtuse or slightly emarginate apex; bracts elliptic with acute or sharply pointed apex; calyx-tubes sparsely covered with bristles and simple hairs, emergences usually absent or if rarely present are restrict- ed to the top; leaves sparsely pubescent; stem slender O. aspera BB. Calyx-lobes asymmetrical, broader than long, truncate, unequally lobed; bracts orbicular; calyx-tube densely covered with stellate emergences; leaves much pubescent; stem thick and hollow O. abrahamii sp. nov. AA. Stem and branches densely covered with strong, downwardly curved, prickly bristles O. travancorica The species is named after Prof. A. Abra- ham, formerly Professor of Botany, University of Kerala and at present. Director of Botanic Gardens, Trivandrum, for his contributions to the systematics of the Orchid and Ferns flora of peninsular India. OSBECKIA ARUNKUMARENSIS SP. NOV. FROM EASTERN INDIA1 M. P. Nayar and G. S. Giri2 (With two text-figures) New species of Osbeckia L., O. arunkumarensis sp. nov. is described from Eastern India with illustrations. A diagnostic Key is also given for identification. sed ramis conspicue quadrangularibus alatis- que, foliis subsessilibus, calycis tubo glabro, capsulo apice nonquam setoso differt. Annual, erect, unbranched or rarely bran- ched herb, up to 1.5 m high; stems and bran- Osbeckia arunkumarensis sp. nov. Afifinis O. stellatae Ham. ex Ker. — Gawl., 1 Accepted July 1983. 2 Botanical Survey of India, Howrah-711 103. 436 NEW DESCRIPTIONS 10 - 15 Tnm (0 r 10 Tnm if 0 if ll i 1 J< i • 1 1 • V Ff 9 : •• a U Above: Fig. 1. An affected crocodile with hunchback. Below: Fig. 2. Radiograph of a normal specimen. Fig. 3. Radiograph of the calcium defficient animal showing abnormality in the vertebral column and pelvic girdle. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Islands in the collection of Zoological Survey of India, ibid. 77 : 255-292. Smith, M. A. (1927) : Contributions to the herpe- tology of the Indo- Australian regions. Proc. Zool. Soc. pp. 199-225. (1935) : Fauna of British India (Sauria). Vol. II. London, pp. xii+440. (1940): Contribution to the Herpe- tology of the Andaman and Nicobars Islands. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., Part II. (1943) : Fauna of British India. (Serpentes). Vol. III. London, pp. vii-583. Tiwari, K. K. (1961) : The eggs and flight of Gecko Ptychozoon kuhli Stejneger from Car Nicobar. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58(2) : 523-526. & Biswas, S. (1973) : Two new reptiles from the Great Nicobar Island. J. Zool. Soc. India 25 ( 1&2) : 57-63. 17. NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS OF YOUNG CAPTIVE CROCODILES (With a plate) The female of a pair of mugger crocodile, Crocodylus palustris kept for exhibition at Indira Gandhi Zoological Park, Visakha- patnam has been laying eggs successfully since 1977. The eggs laid were allowed to hatch in situ in the enclosure every year, but the hatch- lings were removed from the parents for sepa- rate rearing in specially designed rearing pools. During the rearing of the young, it has been noticed that most of the hatchlings of the age group 0-2 years which are fed with lean beef meat alone are being affected with the cessation of the growth succeeded by hunchback (Plate I; 1) and death follows if untreated. This has been proved as a nutritional disorder and the symptoms are as follows, (1) Appearance of hunchback between pec- toral and pelvic girdle progressing from the eigth lumbar vertebra towards pelvic region. (2) Poor appetite and sluggish movements. (3) Increase of hunchback. (4) Death due to hypoglycemia, specially on cold nights. (5) In older animals (1-2) death due to the fracture in vertebral column. These symptoms are found to be due to the resorption of calcium from the bones into the plasma or due to severe imbalance of calcium to phosphorus ratio, or because of low vitamin D content in the diet, as the diet of meat has a very low percentage of calcium. The abnor- malities in the vertebral column and pelvic region are clearly shown in the radiograph (Plate I; 3) of calcium deficient animal. The difference between normal crocodile and affect- ed can clearly be seen in the radiographs (Plate I; 2 and 3). The mortality occurs within 15-20 days after the onset of the symptoms in case of 2-5 months old hatchlings. Whereas in the case of yearlings the cessation of growth is clearly noticed and subsequently death follows. It has been established that the crocodiles in captive rearing suffer from this common nutri- tional disorder due to feeding with imbalanced diet. The lean beef with which the crocodiles are fed with, generally has a low calcium and vitamin D content. In an attempt to prevent this death of hatchlings (below one year age), several combinations of diet were given to the reptiles. They are crabs, fish, liver, beef etc., and finally it has been found out that the best suited diet for hatchlings should be the combination of beef, liver and crabs on one day, alternate with beef, liver and fish on the second day but for yearlings (1-2 years age) beef, liver, fish 481 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 and crabs should be given every day. It is advisable to administer the diet in the follow- ing proportions (Tables I and II). Table I Diet for hatchlings Diet Quantity i) Beef 250 Per ii) Liver 50 twelve iii) Fish /crabs 150 hatchlings Table II Diet for yearlings Diet Quantity i) Beef 450 ii) Liver 100 Per iii) Fish 100 twelve iv) Crabs 100 yearlings The success of survival after administration of this balanced diet may be seen from Table III. Asst. Curator, Indira Gandhi Zoological Park, VlSAKHAPATNAM 530 040. Curator, Indira Gandhi Zoological Park, VlSAKHAPATNAM 530 040. Veterinary Officer, Indira Gandhi Zoological Park, VlSAKHAPATNAM 530 040. Department of Zoology, Andhra University, VlSAKHAPATNAM 530 003, February 9, 1984. Table III Survival of crocodiles with and without BALANCED DIET Year No. of hatch- lings Mortality No. of due to survi- nutritional vals disorder Survival Diet (%) 1978 15 13 2 13.3 Not balanced 1979 16 15 1 6.2 Not balanced 1980 14 4 10 71.4 Balanced 1981 27 Nil 27 100.0 Balanced The hunchback in case of yearlings, how- ever, persists even after the change of diet though the disease no longer remains. Acknowledgements We wish to express our thanks to Sri Pushp Kumar, I.F.S. Conservator of Forests, Wild Life Management, Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad for his encouragement and guidance. K. TULASI RAO B. THRINADHA RAO Y. RAMA B. BHARATHA LAKSHMI 482 J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 81 Desai: Eryx conicus Plate I Above : Two headed earth-snake Eryx conicus. Below : Two headed earth-snake Eryx conicus. X-ray photograph of the anterior portion of tne body, showing two separate skulls and portions of the vertebral columns. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 18 . A REPORT ON THE RARE OCCURRENCE OF TWO HEADED RUSSELL’S EARTH-SNAKE OR RED EARTH BOA ERYX CON1CUS (OPHIDIA: BOIDAE) {With a plate ) Earth snake or Russell’s Sand Boa Eryx conicus is a sluggish and shy snake common in the dry arid zones of northeastern parts of Karnataka State. An unusual specimen of Eryx conicus with two heads was collected by a farmer of the village Hole-Alur (Dist. Dhar- war; Karnataka State) on 4th June, 1983 and was handed over to Shri M. V. Waddin., Asst. Conservator of Forests, Dharwar Division, Dharwar. The specimen was maintained alive for two months being fed with earthworms, grubs, etc. Through the courtesy of Shri Wad- din it was possible to bring the specimen to the Zoology Department and make some obser- vations on it, which are as follows: The specimen is uniformly elongate, show- ing no constriction between the head and trunk. It measures 200 mm long and 40 mm in girth in the trunk region (Plate I). The animal has two separate heads and both are of the same size. Further, as the X-ray photograph reveals, the vertebral columns following the heads are separate for some distance (Plate I). The movements of the snake were slow and sluggish. When the animal was moving in a particular direction, only one head used to lead 1,2,3,4,5 Cited in Whitaker, R. (1971): Notes on Indian snakes-I. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(2) : 461-463. Zoology Department, Karnatak Sc. College, Dhar war-5 80 001, Karnataka State, India, November 29, 1983. and the other used to trail. On disturbing the snake and making it to change the direction, the other head used to lead while the first one trailed. The bifid tongue from each of the mouths was seen quivering in and out of the month. As we observed, the twin brains smoothly co-operated and co-ordinated with each other to make the animal feel “function- ally single headed”. This freak specimen may be regarded as an instance of monstrosity. There are some reports from countries other than India, on the double- headed snakes such as rattle snake Crotalus sp., the king snake Lampropeltis getulus (Fam: Colubridae) and the garter snake Thamnophis sp. From India such a feature has been obser- ved in the snakes such as the wolf snake Ly - codon aulicus1, Cobra Naja naja2, Russell’s viper Vipera russellii 3 and Water snake Xeno- chrophis piscatoE and in the water snake Cerberus rhynchops 5 (Whitaker 1971). The present report on the double-headed snake of the genus Eryx is the first of its kind. The specimen has been displayed in the Museum of our Department. Sincere thanks are due to Shri M. V. Waddin, Asst. Conservator of Forests, Dharwar Division, Dharwar, for readily donating this rare specimen to me for study and preservation in the College Museum. R. N. DESAI 483 16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 19. PREDATION ON A SYMPATRIC SPECIES BY HEMIDACTYLUS LESCHENAULTl (SAURIA: GEKKONID AE ) The tree gecko Hemidactylus leschenaulti is sympatric with //. frenatus (the common house gecko in south India) in houses in urban and suburban areas. The former is the larger spe- cies averaging 166 mm in total length (snout- vent: 83 mm), the latter has a total length of 125 mm (snout-vent : 60 mm) (Smith 1935). Both species are territorial, predominantly nocturnal, feed primarily on insects and have identical hiding place preferences. The incident reported here occurred in a dimly lit room in my house in Madras city. South India. Hiding places for geckos in the 3 m square room are few and restricted mainly to the 1 m long gap behind the metal frame of the tubelighl in the room. The gecko population in the room con- sisted of one adult pair of H. leschenaulti. H. frenatus although present in adjacent rooms was conspicuously absent, no doubt due to the presence of the larger tree gecko. At 14.30 hours on 10th February, 1983 an adult H. frenatus (HF) (sex unknown) was seen moving away from the tubelight at a Research Associate, Madras Snake Park Trust, Madras-600 022, March 30, 1984. distance of 1 metre. It was noticed also by one of the resident H. leschenaulti (HL) ) from its hiding place behind the tubelight resulting in a short chase which ended about 2 metres from the light, with HL seizing HF violently at midbody, inflicting a deep wound. HF retaliated by seizing the side of HL’s lower jaw. HL then released its grip on HF’s midbody seizing the head instead, and, after a brief pause, commenced swallowing the faintly struggling HF. HL then returned to its hiding place. The entire sequence of events took approximately 4 minutes. It is suggested that HL is an aggres- sive predator and opportunistic feeder and that the gradual disappearance or decline in num- bers of the smaller house geckos following the colonisation of an area by HL may be a result of predation (Whitaker, R. pers. comm, and personal observations). The food habits of H. leschenaulti is poorly documented and the only other published account of this gecko feeding on vertebrate prey is that of Sumi- thran (1982). SHEKAR DATTATRI Referen ces Smith, M. A. (1935): The Fauna of British India Sumitfiran, S. (1982): Gecko feeding on mouse, including Ceylon and Burma, Reptilia and Amphi- J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 79(3): 691. bia, Vol. II, Sauria. 484 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 20. ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT OF THE HIMALAYAN NEWT ( TYLOTOTR1TON VERRUCOSUS ANDERSON) IN THE EASTERN NEPAL {With a plate) A detailed account of the Himalayan newt belonging to the genus Tylototriton (Caudata: Salmandroidea) was published by Anderson (1871), which was based on a collection from western Yunan. Annandale (1908) was the first to record the breeding habit of the Hima- layan newt. Smith (1924) described the tad- poles and Chaudhari (1966) studied the habits and behaviour. Soman (1966) reported the newt from the Dingla (Nepal) and made a brief comment on the eastern distribution of the newt. Further, Mansukhani et al. (1976) recorded the newt from the Arunachal Pradesh of India. Recently, the generic status of the Tylototriton has been reviewed by Nussbaum and Brodie (1982). The present find from various localities Table 1 Measurement of Tylototriton verrucosus Anderson Total Length 137.0 170.0 200.0 166.0 130.0 Head Length 13.2 20.0 26.0 20.0 18.0 Width 15.2 20.0 21.6 19.0 16.0 Interorbital 8.0 9.0 10.0 8.0 8.0 Internasal 6.0 6.0 7.0 6.0 6.0 Orbit 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 Snout to gular fold 15.0 21.0 22.0 20.0 17.0 Gular fold to vent 43.5 70.0 75.0 52.0 52.0 Axilla to groin 33.6 50.0 55.0 40.0 32.6 Tail Length 65.0 85.0 95.0 82.0 81.0 Length of forelimb 20.0 26.2 29.0 26.0 28.0 Length of hindlimb 21.6 26.4 30.0 28.0 27.0 of eastern Nepal is of considerable significance for it extends the known range of distribution of the species further westward and throws light on the ecology of the newt. While studying the aquatic vertebrate fauna of the rock pools along the hills of the eastern Nepal, five examples of the Himalayan newt of the genus Tylototriton measuring from 130 to 200 mm (Table 1) were collected and have been identified as Tylototriton verrucosus. There being no detailed previous record on the Newt from eastern Nepal so far, the present report on the urodel from different areas is an attempt to provide information on the distribution and habitat. Material Examined 5 Examples. Chulachuli hills, lat. 2 6°55', long. 87°55', 1900 m. Mai river valley, lat. 26°55', long. 87°20', 1300 m. Hilae Dhankuta, lat. 26°59', and long. 87°21'. Maipokhari (Ham), lat. 26°55', long 87°54', 1300 m. One of the specimen has been de- posited in the British Museum and rest are deposited in the Zoological Museum, Tribhu- van University, Kirtipur Campus. Palatine series of teeth forming a A, commen- cing on a line with, or a little in front of, the choanae. Head somewhere broader than long, surrounded by a distinct osseous porous ridge, a short similar ridge along the parietals, snout short, broad, eyes moderate, no labial lobes. Body 3 to 3.5 times the length of the head, no dorsal crest, but a broad prominent porous vertebral ridge, produced by the great develop- ment and transverse expansion of the neural processes of the dorsal vertebrae a series of 15 or 16 knob-like porous glands along the side. 485 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 the last three behind the leg when it is extended at right angles to the body. Limbs moderate, fingers and toes free, depressed. Tail as long as head lower crest, ending in a point. Anal opening a longitudinal slit, the borders not much swollen. Skin tubercular, parotoids large, very distinct, a strong gular fold. Colour. Uni form blackish brown, paler on the lips, snout, chin, throat, and under surface of limbs, lower of tail orange-yellow. (Body measurements are given in the Table 1; Plate I). The newt occurs in the upland pools of the Chulachuli hills. As such the water quality of the pools varies from time to time and some- times becomes highly acidic (pH4 to 6) during the late spring (April-May). The oxygen con- centration varies from 5 to 10 ppm and tem- perature ranges from 15° to 25 °C. During the rainy season the newt inhabits shallow, recently flooded rock pools, rice fields and boulder strewn creeks flanking the course of the Mai river and Rautae khola (hill stream). Lurking in the crevices between large, partially sub- merged boulders it shares its niche with typical mountain brook hylid and rhacophorid frogs as well as many a genera of the aquatic insects such as Belostoma, Rantara, Perla and Ephimtra and Anax. During the night the newts leave their shelter and move about acti- vely. They also wander far from the water holes and water loaches. The newt is an ex- cellent example of camouflage and concealment and is rather difficult to locate in the pond as it blends perfectly with water weeds. They are encountered through rainy season but more frequently in premonsoon rainy days (May and June), which is appearently their breeding season. The chief food of newt appears to be zoo-benthos, mushrooms, aquatic insects and tadpoles. The newts lead a terres- trial life during the cold days of the winter and lie sheltered under a decaying log or wood near water. On two occasions I collected hibernat- ing newts during the month of December. They showed very little movement on handling. There was no water hole near the hibernating dens. During December the atmospheric tem- perature ranges from 9° to 15°C. Probably the newt emerges out of the hibernation dens after the first rains in the spring and breeds in the pools formed in the latter part of the spring (April to May). In Nepal the Himalayan newt is known as Pani kukur (Water Dog) and long-ling (animal with a long tail). The dried and smoked pre- paration of newt is used by witch doctors as a cure for typhoid and gastric ailments. Newts are susceptible to water pollution and com- plete ban of detergents should be made in newt habitat. The Himalayan newt is on the verge of extinction in Nepal and is scarcely avail- able for detailed study. The newt has been reported from various places in Asia. For example, Anderson (1871) recorded it from Yunan and China, Kakhein hills of upper Burma, Chien Deo in Northern Siam and Darjeeling, Sikkim. Smith (1924) gives an idea of its past distribution in India. According to him ‘ Tylototriton verrucosus is common at certain places in Darjeeling district at altitude 4000 to 6000 ft, but is very local. I have been unable to obtain any evidence of its occurrences west of the Tista river’. But Soman (1966) reported the newt from the Dingla district of Nepal (Lat. 27°22' and Long. 87°09') and furnished the proof of more western distribution of the newt. My collection from various areas of east-west Nepal reveals that distribution of the newt is not so local as it was believed previously. The newt can be found far west of Tista in isolated pockets of the Siwalik and Mahabharat hills where humidity and temperature are favour- able. 486 J. BOMBAY NAT. HlST. SOC. 81 Shrestha: Tylo to triton verrucosus Plate I Above: X-ray photograph of the Himalayan Newt. Note unbranched ribs and limb structures. Below : Newt in the Natural habitat of Mai river valley. They avoid direct sunlight at the day time. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES The newt is still thriving well in the luxuriant highland forests of Chulachuli hills, Mai valley of far eastern Nepal. My find shows clearly that a great deal lies unsurveyed in that com- plex and in the unique highlands of Maha- bharat and Siwalik hills of eastern Nepal. It is appalling to witness the environmental degra- dation in many of these highland aquatic eco- systems that were once lush with green plants and are now deforested, degraded and eroded today. As a result, many of the newt’s breed- ing pools have dried up, and their larvae are stranded during the dry season. Those breed- ing pools that are wet and moist are polluted by DDT and agricultural insecticides. If such Department of Zoology, Kirtipur Campus, Tribhuvan University, Nepal, January 22, 1984. activities are unchecked there will be no ecolo- gical stability for the newt. The Himalayan newt from its intrinsic scientific, academic and educational interest, requires that its wetland habitat within the higher hills need to be protected for its continued survival. Acknowledgements I thank to Miss A.G.C. Grandison, Curator, Herpetology, British museum for providing me literature. Also I am grateful to Ors. Nauss- baum and Brodie, University of Michigan and Aldephi University respectively for their advice and help. TEJ KUMAR SHRESTHA References Anderson, J. (1871) : Description of a new species newt from western Yunan. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 423-425. Annandale, N. (1908): Breeding habits of Tylo- totriton verrucosus. Rec. Ind. Mus. 2: pp. 305-306. Boulenger, G. A. (1980) : The fauna of British, India, Reptilia and Batrachia, pp. 513-514. Fig. 141. Chaudhuri, S. K. (1966): Studies on Tylototri- ton verrucosus (Himalayan Newt), found in Dar- jeeling, /. Beng. nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 32-36. Mansukhani, M. R., Julka, J. M. & Sarkar, A. K. (1976): On occurrence of Himalayan Newt Tylototriton verrucosus Anderson, from Anmachal Pradesh, India. News Letter Zool. Surv. India 2(6) : 243-245. Nussbaum, R. A. & Brodie, D. (1982): Parti- tioning of the Salamandrid genus Tylototriton Anderson (Amphibia Caudata) with a discretion of a new genus. Herpetologica 38(2) : 320-332. Shrestha, T. K. (1980): Wildlife of Nepal. Curriculum Development Centre, Tribhuvan Univer- sity, Kathmandu, pp. 444. (1982) : Rare Species of Newt found Near Damak. Rising Nepal, July 12. Smith, M. A. (1924) : The Tadpole of Tyloto- triton varrucosiis Anderson. Rec. Ind. Mus. 26 : 309-310. Soman, P. W. (1966) : An Addition to Amphi- bia of Nepal and an extension of the range of the Indian Newt Tylototrition verrucosus. Sci. Cult. (Calcutta) 32: 427-428. Zoological Survey oe India. In Saharia’s (ed.) Wildlife in India. Natraj Publishers. Dehradun, urv. of India. 3( 1&2) : 97-101. 487 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 21. DISTRIBUTION OF BUFO CAMORTENS1S MANSUKHANI & SARKAR IN THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS In 1976 Mr Humayun Abdulali obtained some toads on Camorta Island, Central Nico- bar s. As they appeared different in structure and habit from Bujo mdanostictus he left them at the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta on his way back to Bombay. They have been included as paratypes of a new species Bufo camortensis based on earlier specimens obtained by Dr A. G. K. Menon of ZSI at Camorta and Nancowry by Dr (Mrs) M. R. Mansukhani and A. K. Sarkar (1980). Except for paratypes from Camorta and Nancowry, (both in Central Nicobars) there is no reference to the species being found anywhere else. An examination of the Bombay collection, has revealed earlier specimens of this species obtained by Mr Abdulali at Wright Myo in South Andaman (9th Feb. 1964) and Great Research Assistant, Herpetology Section, Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Bombay 400 023, February 15, 1984. Nicobars (27th February and 3rd March 1966) which have remained listed as Bufo melano- stictus. This re-examination reveals that this toad apparently extends throughout the length of the Andaman and Nicobar islands. It is also interesting to note that a specimen of Bufo melanostictus was also obtained at Port Blair, South Andaman on the same day (9th February 1984) as Bufo camortensis and that these two species are not geographically isolated. It is of course possible that they occupy different habitats for though the mode of progression appeared different (Abdulali 1982), no different habitat was recorded. To assure that there is no error in the label- ling, inquiry at the ZSI reveals that they have specimens of Bufo melanostictus from the Andamans. A. G. SEKAR References Abdulali, Humayun (1982) : Some field notes on a new species of Toad (Anura: Bufonidae) from the newly described Toad, Bufo camortensis Man- Camorta, Andaman and Nicobar, India. Bull. Zool. sukhani & Sarkar. J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 79: 430. Surv. of India. 3(1&2): 97-101. Mansukhani, M. R. & Sarkar, A. K. (1980) : On 22. THE OCCURRENCE OF THE MARBLED BALOON FROG UPERODON SYSTOMA (SCHNEIDER) (FAMILY MICROH YLID AE ) IN BARODA (GUJARAT STATE) A specimen of this microhylid frog was River Vishwamitri passing through the Uni- collected from a dried out tributary of the versity of Baroda campus. The coloration is 488 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES pinkish above, marbled and spotted with brown spots. Ventrally it is pale, pinkish or yellowish white. The presence of Uperodon sy stoma in Gujarat is being recorded for the first time with my finding a specimen of this species from Baroda. Department of Zoology, Y. M. NAIK Faculty of Science, The M. S. University of Baroda, Baroda-2, March 1, 1984. 23. SOME ECOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS LEADING TO A NEW SOURCE OF SEED OF THE FRESHWATER PRAWN MACROBRACHIUM ROSENBERGII (DE MAN) IN MAHARASHTRA (With two text-figures & a map) The freshwater prawns Macrobrachium rosenbergii and M. malcolmsonii constitute the jumbo prawns in India, being larger than even the largest marine prawns. As such, they are in great demand as an item of food and fetch a high price. In nature, innumerable young ones of these prawns perish due to unfavour- able environment and predation. Survival of these young by collection and transplanting into suitable stretches of water is one step towards their conservation and fuller utilisa- tion of the valuable natural resource. A peculiar habit of these “freshwater” prawns is their requirement of sodium chloride (dilute saline water) during early stages in their life cycle. Thus, even Macrobrachium malcolmsonii (H. Milne-Ed wards) which is found in Nanded, Chandrapur and Bhandara districts of Maharashtra, hundreds of kilo- metres upstream of the mouth of the river Godavari (Rajyalaxmi 1960, Ibrahim 1962), cannot reproduce successfully unless they en- counter brackish water for their crucial larval stages. Once this larval development has been successfully accomplished, the young crawl laboriously upstream until they reach the fresh waters where their parents had resided. This upstream migration forms the basis of a regu- lar prawn fishery on the River Godavari. Collection of tiny prawnlets in astronomical numbers below the anicuts like Dhavaleswaram and others and their age-old use as food is a colossal waste of our natural resources as the prawnlets, if allowed to grow to adult size, would yield much greater returns. Similar is the case of M. rosenbergii which occurs more predominently on the west coast of India, where the rivers being of shorter length, the prawn spends longer time in the estuarine eco- system though its urge to go upstream remains unabated, as described hereafter. Moreover, collection of seed of M. rosenbergii from natu- ral environment has not been reported so far. Although both these prawns have been suc- cessfully bred and reared in the laboratory (Ling 1969, Kewalramani et al. 1971), pro- curement of prawn seed in large numbers still necessitates collection of the natural seed. 489 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 490 Map. 1. Showing location into the river Bhatsa on which seed of Macrobrachium rosenbergii is collected below the Pise Dam MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Attempts are, therefore, being made all over India to survey water stretches to assess the availability of prawn seed. In the Thane dis- trict of Maharashtra, a potential source of seed of M. rosenbergii has been found just below the Pise Dam. The dam was constructed in 1979 by the Bombay Municipal Corporation as an anicut or a pick-up weir into which flows the water coming from the Bhatsa Dam, the Bhatsa river being a tributary of the Ulhas river which empties into the Arabian Sea at Bassein. (Map 1). Towards the end of the rainy season, i.e. in September and October, post-larval young of this prawn, varying in length from 30-50 mm, abound in the stream below the dam. At this stage they develop a natural instinct to avoid estuarine environment and prefer ascent into fresh water. During the spring tides when the tidal flow is strong, wide range of fluctuation in salinity was observed below the anicut, ranging from 1 ppt to 15 ppt. The water tem- perature too varies from 25°C to 29°C depend- ing upon the tidal influx. The pH recorded at the time of observation was 7 . 5. The brackish water caused by the incoming tidal Fig. 1. Collection of Macrobrachium rosenbergii. 491 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 influx forces the young fry to go away from the changing environment and on approaching the anicut, to move in rows, negotiating the freshwater flow over the indented rocky edges while advancing. In some cases where their desparate bid to advance is foiled by the current, they crawl up on the wet side-rocks in thousands and cover the stones entirely. This movement is more pronounced during night and in the light of an electric torch, their eyes glow in the dark and make a spectacular sight. On other days when the quantity of tidal water entering the river is less the number of young prawns approaching the anicut is also small. Attempts to capture the young prawns were first made in 1981, and in the preliminary attempt very few young could be caught. How- ever, when the net was modified (Fig. 1) thousands of them literally rushed into the col- lecting net in a moving stream. The net was a monofilament rectangular piece, 2x1 metres, with two long bamboo poles at the extremities. The net is held by two persons who walk downstream below the dam. In the right season and time, as many as 50,000 young could be collected in half an hour. Concentration of such large numbers in a restricted stretch of water is attributed to the reluctance of the young to move through brackish water brought in by the rising tide. The young congregate near the dam in the fresh water, waiting for the ebb tide to take away the brakish water downstream when they could spread them- selves into the fresh water. Collections have been repeated in subsequent years, and in the proper season have always yielded excellent catches. The local tribal fishermen were aware of this migration and they used to trap the young prawns in cylindrical bamboo trap nets fixed in the stream with their mouth facing the current (Fig. 2). The fishermen used to catch the prawns for their own consumption or sell them in the market at a rupee for two Fig. 2. The bamboo trap net used by the local fishermen. handfuls of the prawns, i.e. some 4000-5000 prawns. However, when the collection was made systematically and the prawnlets were kept alive for prawn culture, the tribal fisher- men were also benefitted as thev received a v' more lucrative return and the prawn rearing occupation too received a significant boost. I am grateful to Shri A. G. Kalawar, former Director of Fisheries & Fisheries Adviser to the Government of Maharashtra, Shri S. S. Naik, Director of Fisheries, Maharashtra State, and Shri S. S. Desai, Deputy Director of Fisheries (Marine), for their encourage- ment and guidance during the collections as well as the preparation of this Note. I am thankful to Dr. B. F. Chhapgar, Scientific Officer, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, for associating himself with this work from the beginning and for giving constant encourage- ment and help. I am also thankful to my colleagues Sarvashri V. M. Sawant & T. D. Mahadik. 492 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Department of Fisheries, J. N. PANDE Taraporevala Aquarium, Bombay 400 002, May 11, 1984. References Ibrahim, K. H. (1962) : Observations on the fishery and biology of the freshwater prawn Macrobrachium malcolmsonii Milne-Edwards of River Godavari. Ind. J. Fish. (A) 9(2) : 433-467. Kewalramani, H. G., Sankolli, K. N. & Shenoy, S. S. (1971): On the larval history of Macrobra- chium malcolmsonii (H. Milne-Edwards) in capti- vity. J. Ind. Fish Ass. 7(1) : 1-25. Ling, S. W. (1969a): Methods of rearing and culturing Macrobrachium rosenbergii (de Man). FAO Fish. Rept. (44) 3: 291-309. (1969b) : The general biology and development of Macrobrachium rosenbergii (de Man), ibid.: 589-606. Rajlakshmi, T. (1960) : Observations on the em- bryonic and larval development of some estuarine palaemonid prawns. Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India 26 B(6): 395-408. (1961) : Studies on maturation and breeding in some estuarine palaemonid prawns, ibid. 27B(4) : 179-188. 24. A NOTE ON SPECIES NAMED LYCAENA P AVAN A (LEPIDOPTERA: LYCAENIDAE) Wynter-Blyth (1957: 301) has given the distribution of a lycaenid butterfly Lycaena pavana Horsfield as Kashmir to Kumaon. This is partially incorrect. There are in reality two separate species, which have been named ‘ Lycaena pavana at different periods of time. Horsfield (1828: 77) described a small butterfly from Java and named it Lycaena pavana. It has a 26-28 mm wing span. Sub- sequently, it was recorded from Tavoy, S. Burma and Andamans, with ‘not rare’ status (Evans 1932). This species was brought under the genus Nacaduba by Wood-Mason & de Niceville in 1886 and referred to as such in the 3rd vol. of BUTTERFLIES OF INDIA, BURMA & ceylon (de Niceville 1890: 145). Later, Cor- bet (1938) described a new subspecies of it from Singapore, and this Nacaduba pavana singapura is now considered the subspecies found in Assam, Burma, Andamans and Malaya (Cantlie 1962: 75). This species has been recently placed in the subgenus Rapsidia by Sibatani (1974: 109), though he wrongly gave Evans as the author of the species. Kollar (1948: 416) in Huegel described another lycaenid butterfly as Polyommatus pavana from the Western Himalayas. It was published in Huegel’s series, in German, on “Kashmir” Part 2 of vol. 4 meant for 1844 and appeared in 1848. This species of Kollar was transferred to genus Chrysophanus by Hors- field & Moore in 1857 and referred to as such by de Niceville (1890: 317). This butterfly is a little larger than the pavana of Elorsfield, its wing span being 37-40 mm, and its range of occurrence is recorded in literature as from Kashmir to Kumaon where it is ‘common’ in status. Since as early as 1871 Kirby, brought this species into the genus Lycaena, both Evans (1932) and Cantlie (1962) have cited it as Lycaena pavana. Thus, what was initially called Lycaena pavana is now a species of Nacaduba, and what was initially Polyommatus pavana is now referred to as Lycaena pavana, in well-known works on Indian butterflies. 493 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 However, on further study it was revealed that Kollar misidentified his new species as pavana of Horsfield, with the result that his new species had no valid name of its own. In 1852, Westwood gave it a new name as Thecla panava (note ‘nava’ in the place of ‘vana’). Thus, as per nomenclature rules, Westwood’s epithet is the oldest available name applied to this species and accordingly it is its valid name, now under Lycaena. To conclude, at least during 1871 to 1886 there were two different species having the same name — Lycaena pavana. But presently both species are not called Lycaena pavana, as shown below. Besides it is evident that Lycaena pavana of Horsfield does not occur from Kashmir to Kumaon. The two species may be briefly separated as follows (character details may be seen in Cantlie, 1962): Zoological Survey of India, 34, Chittaranjan Avenue, Calcutta 700 012, July 7, 1984. R E FE 1 Cantlie, K. (1962): The Lycaenidae portion (ex- cept the Arhopala Group) of Brigadier Evans’ The Identification of Indian Butterflies, 1932 (India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma). Revised & Reissued. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Corbet, A. S. (1938) : A revision of the Malayan species of the Nacaduba group of genera (Lepidop- tera: Lycaenidae). Trans. R. cnt. Soc. Lend. 87(5): 125-146. de Niceville, L. (1890) : The Butterflies of India, Burmah and Ceylon. Vol 3. Calcutta Central Press 1 Present address: Deputy Director, Desert Re- gional Station, Paota ‘B’ Road, Jodhpur- 342 006, Rajasthan. White bordered; prominent white band on under- side of hindwing; female having basal half wing dark brown; Forewing length from base to apex 18.5-20 mm Range — Kashmir to Kumaon, Nainital, Almora, Nepal [and Garhwal: new record]; Common name — ‘White — bordered Copper’ Lycaena panava (Westwood) Comparatively smaller specimens with pale violet blue wings; underside markings broad and all bands white; forewing length from base to apex 13-14 mm. Range — Java, Singapore, Burma, Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam and Andaman Is. Com- mon name — ‘Small Four Lineblue’ Nacaduba pavana (Horsfield) ACK NOWLEDGEM E NTS Thanks are due to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for providing faci- lities, and to Dr R. V. Melville Secretary, International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, London, for his kind com- ments. R. K. VARSHNEY1 E N CE S Co. Ltd. Evans, W. H. (1932): The Identification of In- dian Butterflies. 2nd revised ed. Bombay Natural History Society. Horsfield, T. (1828) : A descriptive catalogue of the Lepidopterous insects contained in the museum of the Honourable East India Company. Part 1 : 80 pp. Kollar, V. (1848) : In Huegel’s “Kaschmir und das Reich der Siek”. Vol. 4(2) (1844) : 395-496, pis. Sibatani, A. (1974): A new genus for two new species of Lycaeninae (s. str.) (Lepidoptera : Lycae- nidae) from Papua New Guinea. J. Austr. ent. Soc. 13(2): 95-110. Wynter-Blyth, M. A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian region. Bombay Natural History Society. 494 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 25 . CORRECT NAME OF THE RED-BASE JEZEBEL BUTTERFLY (LEPIDOPTERA: PIERIDAE) The Red-base Jezebel butterfly is presently known as Delias aglaia (Linn.) and named as such in the well-known works of Evans (1932), Talbot (1939) and Wynter-Blyth (1957). I too noted it as D. aglaia while recording it for the first time from Indian mainland (Varshney & Nandi 1973). Unfortunately, the name aglaid has turned out to be an incorrect one and even invalid in this case. A perusal of the original work systema naturae, 10th ed. by Linnaeus (1758) show- ed that this butterfly was named as “Papilio agalaja ’ as SI. No. 44 on page 465. Hence “aglaja” is incorrect (spelling), which inciden- tally Corbet & Pendlebury (1956) corrected. Linnaeus however, in the same work has named another nymphalid butterfly also as “Papilio aglaja ’ at SI. No. 140 on page 481. Thus, although strange, Linnaeus the father of Zoological Nomencalture, himself has com- mitted primary homonymy ! He has definitely considered these two species separate, while giving their different characters and placing the first in ‘Papilio, Eques’ Group, and the second in ‘Papilio, Nymphalis’ Group. At present the first Group is recognized as Family Pieridae and the second Group as Family Nymphalidae. There is no such thing as a rule of ‘page Zoological Survey of India, 34, Chittaranjan Avenue, Calcutta 700 012, February 14, 1984. Refef Corbet, A. S. & Pendlebury, H. M. (1956): The Butterflies of the Malay Peninsula. 2nd revised ed. Oliver & Boyd, London. 1 Present address : Deputy Director, Desert Re- gional Station, Paota ‘B’ Road, Jodhpur- 342 006, Rajasthan. priority’ in Zoological Nomenclature. The choice between two names published simul- taneously is made, not according to their rela- tive positions in the work, but by the first reviser, since the whole of one volume is con- sidered published at the same time. In this case Linnaeus himself acted as the first re- viser. In, the 12th edition of Systema Naturae (Linnaeus 1767) he has retained “ aglaja ” name for the nymphalid species, and replaced it with “pasithoe" for the pierid species. The International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature have approved these changes, vide their Opinion No. 974, in 1971. Hence, pierid Red-base Jezebel butterfly should now be called as Delias pasithoe (Linn.). In my revised nomenclature lists for Wynter- Blyth’s book (Varshney 1980), an addition should be made in Table 5 as follows: “SI. No. la; page 418; For Delias aglaia (Linn.), read Delias pasithoe (Linn.)”. Acknowledgements I thank Dr. R. V. Melville, Secretary, Inter- national Commission on Zoological Nomen- clature, London, for comments, and the Direc- tor, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for *> providing facilities. R. K. VARSHNEY1 E N C E S Evans, W. H. (1932) : The identification of Indian Butterflies. 2nd revised ed. Bombay Natural History Society. Linnaeus, C. (1758) : Systema Naturae. 10th ed. Holmiae, 1 : 824 pp. (1767) rSystema Naturae. 12th ed., 1(2) : 533-1068. 495 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Talbot, G. (1939) : The fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma butterflies. 2nd ed. 1 : 600 pp., 3 pis. Taylor & Francis, London. Varshney, R. K. (1980): Revised nomenclature for taxa in Wynter-Blyth's book on the butterflies of the Indian region. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76 (1) (1979): 33-40. Varshney, R. K. & Nandi, B. (1973): Delias aglaia aglaia (Linn.) from Indian mainland, ibid. 69 (3) (1971) : 667-668. Wynter-Blyth, M. A. (1957) : Butterflies of the Indian region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. 26. CASSIA S1AMEA LAMK.— A NEW EIOST PLANT FOR THE CASTOR SLUG CATERPILLAR, PARAS A LEPIDA (COCHLIDIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA) Vasanthraj David and Kumarswami (1978) noted Parasa lepida as a polyphagous pest feed- ing on castor, coconut, pomegranate, mango, palmyrah, citrus and wood apple. During the months of August-September 1982 the larvae of this pest were found attacking the leaves of Cassia siamea a very common avenue tree. The early instar caterpillars scraped the chloro- phyll content resulting in skeletonization of the leaves whereas the later instars fed on the leaves acting as a severe defoliator. The larvae fed both from the centre as well as from the margins. However, the majority of the larvae fed from the margins. The number of larvae per leaflet varied from 2 to 3. A few larvae were collected from the trees and reared in rearing cage by providing the leaves as food material. All the larvae completed their life cycle without any deformity. The full grown larvae pupated in a hemispherical, oval, dark brown cocoon which was surrounded by loose- ly wooven-silk webbing. Under field conditions pupation was observed on the branch or bark of the tree. Parasa lepida could be a serious pest on Cassia siamea. Department of Entomology, R. RAJASHEKHARGOUDA College of Agriculture, M. C. DEVAIAH Dharwad, January 24, 1984. Reference Vasanteiaraj David, B. & Kumarswami, T. (1978) : Elements of Economic Entomology. Popular Book Depot, Madras 514. 27. ADDITIONS TO THE TERMITE FAUNA OF THE THAR DESERT The Great Indian Desert, also known as the Thar Desert, comprises a huge area of c. 44,600 sq. km in Western India and Pakistan. It forms the eastern extremity of the Great Palaearctic Desert which extends from North Africa, via 496 Palestine, Arabia and Iran, to northwestern India. The major portion of the Indian arid region of Thar is contained in Rajasthan (62%), followed by Gujarat (20%), Punjab (5%) and Haryana (4%). Termites from the MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Rajasthan portion of the Thar Desert were studied in considerable detail by a number of workers, as reviewed by Roonwal (1982). As many as 27 species have been recorded from this region (Roonwal 1976). But there is no published information available on the Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana portions of the Thar Desert. Termite fauna of Gujarat State were worked out comprehensively (Thakur 1982) and 46 species were recorded. Out of these, as many as 27 species have been recorded from the arid and semi-arid areas of Gujarat, of v/hich 11 are additions to the termite fauna of Thar Desert. This considerable increase in the ter- mite fauna of this region has brought out the fact that even an arid area like the Great Indian Desert can sustain a great variety of termites, which shows the great resistance of termites to arid climates. Zoological Survey of India, Desert Regional Station, Jodhpur, July 27, 1983. Refer Roonwal, M. L. (1976) : Field ecology and eco- biogeography of Rajasthan Termites: A study in Desert Environment. Zool. Jahrab. ( Syst .), Berlin, 103 : 455-504. (1982) : Fauna of the Great Indian Desert. In Desert Resources and Technology. Termites hitherto unrecorded in gujarat PORTION OF THE TFIAR DESERT Family TERMITIDAE Subfamily Termxtinae Eremotermes fletcherl Holmgren and Holmgren Microcerotermes cameroni Snyder Microcerotermes Iieimi Wasmann Subfamily Macrotermitinae Odontotermes assmuthi Holmgren Odontotermes beilahimisensis Holmgren & Holmgren Odontotermes girnarensis Thakur Odontotermes lokanandi Chatterjee & Thakur Odontotermes paralatiguloides Thakur Odontotermes redemanni (Wasmann) Odontotermes sasangirensis Thakur Odontotermes waSIonensis (Wasmann) R. K. THAKUR ENCES Vol. 1 : 1-86. Ed. Alam Singh. Jodhpur Scientific Publishers. Thakur, R. K. (1982) : Studies on the termite fauna (Xnsecta: Isoptera) of Gujarat, India. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Jodhpur, Jodhpur. 28. FURTHER RECORDS OF OCCURRENCE AND INCIDENCE OF DAMAGE BY TERMITES OF THE GENUS CRYPTOTERMES BANKS IN INDIA (ISOPTERA: KALOTERMITIDAE) Introduction wood termites which are popularly known as “ powder post termites”. These are essentially The genus Cryptotermes includes one of the coastal termites, except for records of some most economically important groups of dry- species further inland in native habitats (Emer- 497 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 son 1952, Chhotani 1963). The genus is gene- rally tropicopolitan in distribution, approxi- mately between 33° North latitude to 35° South latitude with the exception of a few species which occur in the warmer temperate regions, as far north as California and Wash- ington D. C. in United States and England in Europe (Chhotani 1970). These are probably cases of accidental introductions. Within their range of distribution, these termites attack dead and dry portions of living trees in nature (native species) and woodworks in buildings, household furniture and other wooden struc- tures (introduced species). The genus is repre- sented by six species in the Indian region. Of these, C. bengalensis, C. karachiensis and C. roonwali are native species, while the remain- ing three, C. domesticus, C. dudleyi and C. havilandi, are introduced species, occurring in the Andaman and Nicobar islands (C. havi- landi) and along the coastal regions of the Indian subcontinent (C. domesticus and C. dudleyi). This paper gives an account of further records of occurrence and incidence of damage by the above two introduced species in India. Cryptotermcs domesticus (Haviland) Gay (1970) opines that the centre of origin of this species is probably the coastal regions of associated islands of South-East Asia. The only known record of its occurrence in ex- clusively wild habitat is from Botal Tabago Islands off the coast of Formosa (Hozawa 1915, Gay 1970), from where it appears to have dispersed to other localities through in- troduction and is now very widely distributed in Neotropical, Oriental and Papuan regions. In the Oriental region, it has been recorded from Andales (Sumatra), Taiwan, India, Japan, Java, Kalimantan (Borneo), Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam (Chhotani 1970, Sen-Sarma et at. 1975, Thakur 1980). Recently during the course of a survey in Kerala, the species was recorded as common at Kovalam beach (c. 20 km south from Trivandrum) and from a wooden pole at Kesavadasapuram (c. 10 km from Trivan- drum). Table 1 Body measurements (in mm) of five imago of Cryptotermcs domesticus (Haviland) from Kovalam Beaci-i, Trivandrum SI. No. Body parts Range Mean Caste - Imago 1. Total body-length with wings c. 8.50-9.20 9.00 2. Total body-length without wings c. 5.40-6.30 5.80 3. Head - length to tip of labrum 1.20-1.30 1.26 4. Head - length to base of mandibles 0.85-1.00 0.93 5. Maximum width of head (with eyes) 0.85-1.00 0.95 6. Maximum height of head 0.60-0.65 0.63 7. Maximum diameter of eye (with ocular selerites) 0.30-0.35 0.33 8. Maximum diameter of lateral ocellus 0.08-0.13 0.10 9. Minimum diameter of lateral ocellus 0.05-0.09 0.07 10. Minimum ocellus - antennal distance 0.15-0.20 0.18 11. Maximum length of pronctum 0.55-0.60 0.58 12. Maximum width of pronotum 0.95-1.05 1.03 This species appears to have established it- self in Singapore and Sarawak during the fag end of the nineteenth century and where it is now confined primarily to buildings, dry, seasoned timber, furniture and other fibrous products. In Vietnam, it has been reported 498 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES to cause considerable damage to wooden fur- niture and constructional timber (Gay 1967). In India, it was recorded earlier from wooden boat model of Mangifera indica, fence posts and timber godowns. It has now been collect- ed from the base of dead blown down trees of coconut (Cocos nucifera), timber of old abandoned boats and a pole of a varandah in a house. Individual colonies of Cryptotermes domes- ticus are usually small, not exceeding possi- bly 250-350 individuals. However, one of the colonies excavated at Kovalam was quite large and contained more than a thousand indivi- duals. It had eaten away a large section of the interior of the infested materials, leaving only the outer rind. Faecal pellets accumulated in the chambers and the galleries had been pushed out through the exit holes at in- tervals. The faecal pellets piled up at the base in small heaps were conspicuous evidence of infestation. The shape of faecal pellets is cylin- drical with rounded bulged out lateral faces. The surface is pentagonal, with five pit like depression and size varies from, 0.7-0. 8 mm length; 0.4-0. 5 mm width. The colour is dirty brown. The swarming period varies with locality and occurs during the greater part of the year from April to November. From Kesavadasa- puram, the alates were collected in May, emerg- ing from a pole at ground level, while at Kovalam beach, fully matured adults were col- lected along with soldiers and pseudoworkers in the last week of November. Cryptotermes dudleyi Banks Cryptotermes dudleyi is a very widely distri- buted species in Australian, Ethiopian, Neo- tropical, Oriental and Papuan regions. How- ever, clear evidence of its centre of origin and subsequent dispersion remains obscure. In the Oriental region, it has been recorded from East Andalas (Sumatra), Bangladesh, Java, India, South-East Kalimantan (Borneo), Malaya, the Philippines and Sri Lanka. From India, it has been reported from the Andaman Islands, union territory of Daman and Goa, Kerala (Cannanore), Orissa and West Ben- gal. Recently, it has been collected from Aryad village, about five km north of Alleppey town Table 2 Body measurements (in mm) of soldiers of two SPECIES OF Cryptotermes banks C. domesticus C. dudleyi Banks SI. No. Body parts (Haviland) Range Mean I-General ( 5-examples ) (1 -example) 1 . Total body-length c. 5.95-6.40 6.23 5.30 11-Head ' - - ' ' ■ -c ' 2. Head-length with mandibles 1.85-1.90 1.88 2.20 3. Head-length to lateral base of mandibles 1.28-1.40 1.35 1.55 4. Maximum width of head 1.30-1.40 1.37 1.30 5. Maximum height of head 0.98-1.08 1.03 1.03 6. Maximum length of pronotum 0.80-0.95 0.87 0.80 7. Maximum width of pronotum 1.28-1.35 1.33 1.18 499 17 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81 (c. 9°30' N., 76°23' E.) on a piece of land, separating Arabian sea and Vembanad back- water lake. It is about eight kilometres from the sea coast. This is a new distribution record. In India, it is also an introduced species and is restricted to coastal regions, where it is a serious pest, damaging and destroying all types of wooden structures in buildings. At Aryad, it was recorded from roof rafters of an old house. The locality is densely popu- lated and thatched huts with wooden roofs are very common. More than 50% rafters were found attacked, being completely riddled with chambers and galleries. The chambers are interconnected by an irregular net work of galleries. The chambers were found packed with faecal pellets. The faecal pellets are Disease-Insect Survey, Forest Research Centre, Coimbatore, South India, December 31, 1983. Refer Chhotani, O. B. (1963): The termite Cryptoter- mes havilandi (Sjostedt) from the interior of India. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 277-78. (1970): Taxonomy, Zoogeogra- phy and Phylogeny of genus Cryptotermes (Isop- tera : Kalotermitidae) from the Oriental Region. Mem. Zool. Surv. India., Calcutta., 75(1) : 1-81. Emerson, A. E. (1952): The biogeography of termites. Bull. Amer. Mus. nat. Hist., New York, 99 (Art. 3): 217-225. Gay, F. (1967) : A world review of introduced species of termites. — Bull. Commonwealth Sci. In- dustr. Res. Organ., Melbourne, 286: 1-88. (1970) : Species introduced by man. In somewhat oblong in shape, slightly tapering to one side. The colour is usually transparent brown to opaquish grey. However, the colour varies according to texture of the host timber. The size of pellets varies from, 0.6-0. 8 mm long; 0.3 -0.5 mm wide. The smaller pellets are either smooth or with faint depression, whereas the larger pellets are similar to that those of C. domesticus. Remarks Though the measurements of alates of C. domesticus from Kovalam beach, Trivandrum, come within the range (as given by Chhotani 1970), the soldiers are distinctly larger in size, as is evident from the measurements given in Table No. 2. M. L. THAKUR E N C E S Biology of termites Vol. II : 459-494. Ed. Krishna & Weesner (Akademic Press, New York). Hozawa, S. (1915): Revision of Japanese ter- mites. J. Coll. Sci. Imp. Uni., Tokyo 35 : 1-61. Sen-Sarma, P. K., Thakur, M. L., Misra, S. C. & Gupta, B. K. (1975) : Studies on wood-destroying termites in relation to natural termite resistance of wood. Final Tech. Rept. PL 480 Project A-7-58 (1968-73), Dehra Dun: 1-187. Thakur, M. L. (1980): Bioecology and Zoogeo- graphy of termite Genus Cryptotermes (Isoptera : Kalotermitidae) in the Indian Region. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(1) : 106-114. 500 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 29. A SPIDER AS PREDATOR OF LAMPIDES BOETICUS (LINNAEUS) (LEPIDOPTERA : LYCAENIDAE) FROM PUNJAB, INDIA Pea blue butterfly, Lampides boeticus (Linnaeus) a polyphagous pest primarily of leguminous crops has been reported infesting 42 host plants (Singh 1982). A wasp, Eumenes gracilis Rauss as predator, Microbracon greeni Ashm. as larval parasite, Trichogramma minu- tum, Trichogramma dendrolini, Trichogramma - toidea guamensis as egg parasites have already been recorded as natural enemies of this butter- fly (Alfieri 1916, Sen 1938, Sweez 1906, Nagarkatti and Nagaraja 1975). The yellow nymphs of two spider species namely Thomisus shivajiensis Tikader (Thomi- sidae) and Clubiona abboti Koch (Clubio- nidae) were recorded feeding on the adults Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, August 8, 1983. of Lampides boeticus in the pigeon pea fields around Ludhiana (Punjab). In the laboratory the butterflies were trapped in spider webs and killed immediately by sucking their internal body contents. The spiders never fed on the dead butterflies. It was observed that a spider took 49. 60 ±6. 74 minutes to devour an adult. Ack no wledge m e n ts We are grateful to the Prof.-cum-Head, Department of Entomology for facilities and Dr. G. L. Sadana, Assistant Professor, Depart- ment of Zoology, Punjab Agricultural Univer- sity, Ludhiana for the identification of the spider species. JAGTAR SINGH G. S. MAVI References Alfieri, H. A. (1916) : Insect enemies of Sesbania aegyptiaca Pers. Bull. Soc. ento. d. Egypte Cairo Part I: 22-24. Nagarkatti, S. & Nagaraja, H. (1975) : Biosyste- matics of Trichogramma and Trichogrammatoidea species. A Rev. Ent. 22: 157-76. Sen, H. K. (1938) : Entomological Section: Rep. Indian Lac Res. Inst. Namkum Calcutta, 1937-38: 16-26. Singh, J. (1982) : Biology and Chemical Control of Blue butterfly, Cosmolyce ( Lampides ) boetica Linn. (Lepidoptera : Lycaenidae) on pea ( Pisum sativum Linn.). Unpubl. M. Sc. Thesis, Punjab agric. University, Ludhiana. Sweezy, O. H. (1906) : Life history, notes and observations on three common moths. Proc. Hawaii ent. Soc. 1(2) : 53-58. 30. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF PLANORBID SNAIL HELICORBIS COENOSUS (BENSON) IN PUNJAB (With three text-figures) Helicorbis coertosus (Syn. Segmentina coe- nosus) is reported by different authors (Buckley 1939, Dutt and Srivastava 1966) to act as intermediate host of two important trematode parasites of man and pig in India, namely Gastrodiscoides hominis (Lewis & Mc- 501 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81 Connel 1876) and F asciolopisis buski (Lanke- ster, 1857). This snail has been recorded in four districts, namely Amritsar, Ludhiana, Kapurthala and Ropar in a year round survey of the Punjab State. No account on the vari- ous aspects on the life history of this important snail of zoonotic importance was found in the Table 1 Laboratory Temperature (°C) Month Mean air temperature Mean water temperature Daily range Monthly Daily range Monthly January 13.5-19.7 19.0 14.4-15.7 15.5 February 19.2-21.8 18.67 13.9-17.5 15.7 March 20.6-23.9 22.3 15.4-19.8 17.6 April 27.4-30.6 29.0 22.4-27.6 25.0 May 29.1-35.0 32.0 24.1-33.5 28.8 June 30.2-36.1 33.2 26.4-33.1 29.8 July 31.1-34.5 32.8 29.2-32.6 30.9 August 28.6-32.5 32.2 27.8-31.0 31.0 September 28.0-31.8 29.9 26.1-32.0 29.0 October 26.7-29.7 28.2 24.9-28.9 26.9 November 22.2-27.0 24.6 21.6-25.0 23.3 December 22.5-26.8 24.6 18.1-22.3 20.2 literature, except a very preliminary work done by Tripathi et al. (1973). This paper records our observations about its life history under laboratory conditions. Materials and Methods Adult specimens of the snails were collect- ed from a semi-dried pond at Katli village in Ropar district. Snails were reared in beakers of 500 ml. capacity, and fed with spinach (Spinacia oleracea) and Trienthema govinda (Hindi, Santhi; Punjabi, It sit). Some decaying leaves and grass stems collected along with the snails were also kept in the beakers. A few plants of an aquatic weed Hydrilla verticillata were planted in the aquaria to serve as aera- tors and egg traps. The water of aquaria was changed once a week. Egg clutches laid by adult snails on the weed were collected and kept in Petri-dishes for development. Freshly hatched snails were transferred to different aquaria each containing one to three snails. In summer hatch group (March to May) and 18 in similar combinations in winter hatch group (Nov. and Dec.). Observations were recorded daily and any snail found dead was removed. Monthly size of the egg clutches, eggs and newly hatched snails was measured by eye piece micrometer and growing snails by slide calipers. Temperature of the laboratory was regulat- ed by using room heaters during winter and air conditioner during summer and tempera- ture was recorded daily. Similarly water tem- perature of the glass aquaria was also recorded. Observations Laboratory air and water temperature is given in the table 1. From the table it can be seen that the daily mean air temperature varied from 19.2-36. 1°C and monthly mean from 18.7 to 33.2°C. During winter months (Nov. and December) the mean monthly air temperature was 24.6°C. Mean water tempe- rature for the month of November was 23.3 and for December it was 20.2°C. During summer months (March to May) the mean air temperature varied from 22.3 to 30.0°C and mean water temperature varied from 17.6 to 28.8°C (Fig. 3). Egg clutches. Leaves of the aquatic weed (Hydrilla verticillata) were found to be very congenial for egg laying as 99% of the egg clutches were found on them possibly as these were the only leaves available to the snails. Egg clutches were found firmly attached on the surfaces of dead leaves and stems. They were 502 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 2 Growth rate of Helicorbis coenosus in laboratory cultures Summer hatch Winter hatch Shell size (mm) Shell size (mm) Age/ Minimum (Months) L B Maximum L B Average L B Age /No. of snails Minimum L B Maximum L B Average L B (A) Snail reared in groups 1(10) 1.5 1.25 3.5 3.0 2.28 2.17 1(10) — — — — — . — ■ 2(10) 3.5 3.0 5.0 4.5 4.58 3.75 2(10) 1.5 1.0 4.0 3.0 2.85 2,25 3(10) 5.0 4.0 6.0 5.0 5.33 4.45 3(10) 2.75 2.0 5.0 4.0 3.38 2.55 4(10) 4.5 4.0 7.0 6.5 5.68 4.9 4(10) 2.75 2.0 5.25 4,0 3.98 3.0 5(10) 5.0 4.0 7.0 6.5 5.83 5.05 5(10) 2.75 2.0 6.5 6.0 4.78 4.1 6(10) 5.0 4.0 8.0 7.0 6.23 5.2 6(10) 3.0 2.0 6.5 6.0 5.43 4.75 (B) Snails reared singly 1 (6) 2.0 1.5 3.5 3.0 2.70 2.25 1 (6) — — — — — — 2 (6) 3.0 2.5 6.0 4.0 4.50 3.58 2 (6) 1.5 1.0 3.5 3.0 2.29 1.75 3 (6) 3.5 2.5 7.0 6.0 5.37 4.33 3 (6) 2.75 2.0 4.5 4.0 3.29 2.41 4 (6) 4.0 3.5 7.0 6.0 6.41 5.16 4 (6) 3.0 2.0 6.0 5.5 4.37 3.50 5 (5) 4.5 3.5 7,25 6.0 6.10 5.10 5 (6) 3.75 3.0 7.0 6.5 5.45 4.66 6 (3) 5.0 3.5 7.5 6.25 6 . 66 5.25 6 (4) 5.5 4.0 7.0 6.5 6.37 5.37 Note: Figures in parentheses indicate number of snails. suboval, round or elliptical. These clutches had an outer membrane enclosing a gelatinous material in which eggs varying from 1 to 22 were arranged in a characteristic fashion. Shape of the egg was roughly oval. Thirty egg clutches brought in the month of November (Mean temp. 24.6°C) from the field biotope measured 1.0 x 0.75 to 4.75 x 3.0 (mean 2.70 x 1.72) mm). A number of eggs in these clutches ranged from 1-33. These eggs failed to hatch in the laboratory although the development in them was normal. Growth. Data on the growth in shell size of the snail reared in groups of two or three both in summer and winter groups are pre- sented graphically in figure 1, and single reared snail in figure 2. Monthly record of their development for both summer and winter hatch group is given in table 2. During summer hatch young snails under laboratory cultures attained the average size of 2.28 mm in Fig. 1. Mean growth rate of Laboratory bred Helicorbis coenosus. (10) reared in groups. 503 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Table 3 Number of eggs clutches & eggs laid by H. coenosus in laboratory Cultures during months following first oviposition and maximum size(s) reached by snails in FULL LIFE SPAN. No. of snails No. of egg masses Number of egg Size of snails at the time of death Life span Total Total Range Mean Total Range Mean Range Mean (Months) (A) SUMMER HATCH 65 970 0-134 14.92 6125 11-929 94.23 2.5 x 2.0 to 9.0 x 7.75 4.7 x 3 .9 13 (B) WINTER HATCH 18 277 0-82 15.38 1692 0-591 94.0 3.0 x 2.0 to 7.25 x 6.0 5.5 x 4 .7 10 length and 2.17 mm in breadth during the first month of their life. Average maximum length reached during the sixth month period for which the observations were recorded was 6.23 x 5.2 mm. Fig. 2. Mean growth rate of Laboratory bred Helicorbis coenosus. (6) reared singly. J fmAMJJASO h Fig. 3. Mean Room Temperature. Singly reared snails attained the size of 6.66 x 5.25 mm during the same period. In winter hatch snails the average size attained by the snails in six months was 5.43 x 4.75 mm whereas singly reared snails attain- 504 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ed the size of 6.37 x 5.37 mm. during the same period. Development in 65 snails maintained in 1, 2 and 3 snail groups in separate glass aquaria during summer months was recorded. Obser- vations were recorded till they died. Eggs laid by the snails varied in size from 0.35-0.52 x 5.5-0.85 mm. No. of eggs in one clutch ranged from 1 to 33. First cleavage of embryo was noticed within 8 hours after deposition and vigorous movement of all embryo was observed after 12-15 hours. Hatching of eggs took place in 3-14 days when the daily tem- perature range was 29.1° to 35.0°C. Embryo was surrounded by yolk material which was enclosed in their vitelline membrane. In winter hatch groups when the water tem- perature was below 23 °C eggs ceased to hatch although the development of larvae within the egg clutches was normal and movement of juveniles within the eggs was seen. Maturity 8c Fecundity. Snails became mature at the age of 26 to 52 days during summer months when the shell size ranged from 1 . 5 x 1.25 to 4.5 x 4.0 mm only 6.3% of the snails Dept, of Vety, Parasitology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, May 8, 1981. laid eggs when kept singly and the number of eggs laid in life time ranged from 0 to 216. Eight per cent of snails when kept in pairs or more in a laboratory culture laid eggs and the number in life time ranged from 0 to 929. Age of egg laying of the snail varied from 26 to 145 days. In winter hatch groups temperature below 23 °C the age of maturity was delayed. It reach- ed upto 137 days although the size attained by such snails was 5.5 x 5.0 mm. Egg to egg cycle in this snail was completed in 4-20 weeks. Longevity. The maximum longevity record- ed was 13 months and the size reached by this snail was 8.0 x 7.5 mm. However, the maxi- mum size of one snail recorded in laboratory was 9.0 x 7.5 mm in seven months in singly kept group. Ack n o wledge m e n ts We are grateful to Dr Johl, Director of Research, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana and Dr Sawai Singh, Professor of Entomology and Head, Deptt. of Veterinary Parasitology for providing facilities. H. S. BALI G. S. SRIVASTAVA References Buckley, J. J. C. (1939) : Observations on Gastro- discoides honvnis and Fasciolopsis buski in Assam. J. Helminth 17 1: 1-12. Dutt, S. C. & Srivastava. H. D. (1966): The intermediate host and the cercaria of Gastrodiscoides homonis (Trematoda: Gastrodiscidae). Preliminary Report. ./. Helminth, Vol Nos. 1/2: 45-52. Tripath i, J. C., Srivastava, H. D. & Dutt, S. C. (1973): A note on experimental infection of Heli- corbis coenosus and pig with Fasciolopsis buski. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 43(7): 647-49: 649-649. 505 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 31. “CAESALP1NIA HYMENOCARPA (PR AIN) HAITINK, COMB. NOV. — A SUPERFLUOUS NAME”-— A CORRECTION In accordance with article 34 . 1 . d Inter- Comb. Nov. — A superfluous name, J. Bom- national Code of Botanical Nomenclature bay nat. Hist. Soc. 1982, 79(3): 713” is in- 097 8) Utrecht, the proposal in the article correct. As such, the combination Caesalpinia “Caesalpinia hymenocarpa (Prain) Hattink hymenocarpa (Prain) Hattink, stands valid. Publications & Information TENJARLA C. S. SASTRY & Directorate, G. B. KALE Hillside Road, New Delhi 110 012, April 30, 1984. 32. FAMILY ALISMATACEAE IN THE KASHMIR HIMALAYAS ( With two plates) Alismataceae, an interesting family with about 13 genera and about 60 species, is cosmopolitan in distribution. It is represented by 2 genera with about 6 species in our area. Six species included in 2 groups were paly- nologically investigated. The species have no distinction in the number of apertures and in their structure, but differ markedly in the exine stratification. The grains are polyporate, polyhedral, cribellate; exine subechinate, spines sharp, conical and the meshes of the reticulum are polygonal in Sagittaria, where as in Alisma the pollen grains are 5-7 porate; exine reti- culations polygonal fine, without spines. The specific delimitations in both the genera is difficult, because of the presence of the same type of pollen grains, but there is slight varia- tion in shape, size, meshes of the reticulum and in the size of the spines in Sagittaria species. Key to the genera Flowers bisexual, stamens 6; carpels borne in one series; achenes verticillate; endosperm helobial. . . . Alisma Flowers unisexual; stamens more than 6, borne in more than one series; achenes capitate; endo- sperm nuclear type Sagittaria alisma L. Sp. PI. 342 (1753) A genus with about 10 species, widely dis- tributed in the temperate and tropical regions of the world. It is represented by 3 species in this area. Key to species 1 . Style recurved shorter than ovaries; anthers sub- orbicular A. gramineum 1 . Style erect, longer than the ovaries; anthers elliptic oblong. 2. Leaves broadly linear lanceolate, gradually narrowed at the base into a petiole; petals acute A. lanceolatum 2. Leaves broadly lanceolate, ovate, rounded or slightly cordate at the base; petals obtuse A. plantago-aquatica Alisma lanceolatum With. Arrang. Brit. PI. ed. 3.2: 362 (1796); Gafoor, FI. W. Pak. 68; 4 (1974). A. plantago-aquatica L. var. lanceolatum (With) Koch, syn. FI. Germ. 669 (1837). Radical leaves lanceolate, long petioled, smooth, sheathing at the base. Scapes triqu- trous; petals in two series; outer ones ovate. 506 J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 81 PLATE I Kak: Family Alismataceae Fig. 1. Alisma gramineum Gmel.: A. Habit; B. Flower; C. Bract; D. Ovary; E. Stamen; F. Achene; G. Fruit. Fig. 2. Alisma plantago-aquatica L.: A. Habit; B. Leaf; C. Flower; D. Fruit; E. & F. Achene. Fig. 3. Alisma laceolatum With.: A. Habit; B. Flower, l.s.; C. Outer perianth; D. Inner perianth; E. Stamen; F. Ovary; G. Fruit; H. Achene. Fig. 4. Sagittaria latifolia Willd.: A. Habit; B. Flowering branch; C. Fruiting branch; D. Stamen; E. & G. Achene (variations). Fig. 5. Sagittaria sagittifolia L.: A. Habit upper portion; B. & C. Leaf variations; D. Staminate flower, l.s.; E. Pistillate flower; F. Achene; G. Embryo. Fig. 6. Sagittaria greggi Smith.: A. Habit; B. Flower branch; C. Fruiting branch; D. Stamen; E. Achene. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate II Kak: Family Alismataceae Figs, a, b: Aiisma plantago-aquatica. c, d, e: Aiisma lanceolatum. f : A. gramineum. g, h: Sagittaria sagittifolia. i: S. greggi. j: S. latifolia. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES inner rhomboid, white or rosy pink; carpels 17-21, in a ring on the flat receptacle, style straight, lateral; stigma linear, long. Achenes obovate with 1-2 furrows at the back, 2-3 mm dia., pale brown. Seeds oblong 1.5 mm dia. Common in shallow water, on wet mud, in the marshes, on the sides of streams and float- ing islands, also in the running waters of the irrigating channels. Boulevard AMK 744; Shalimar AMK 870; Suderbal AMK 3389. Alisma plantago-aquatica L. Sp. PI. 342 (1753); Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 5: 559 (1893); Gafoor, l.c. 4. A robust scapigerous herb, which can be distinguished in the field by the radical leaves tufted, broadly linear-ovate, lanceolate, cor- date; outer perianth slightly fused at the base; ovate or oblong; pale pink; ovary globular. Achenes oblong, obovoid, 2-3 mm dia., 1-2 grooved on the back, pale brown. Usually in shallow waters, marshes, streams and in the ponds; near bogs; Anchar lake AMK 3100; Shalimar AMK 3149. Distribution. India, Burma, Russia, Europe and Tropical Africa. Alisma gramieeem Lej, FI. Spain I: 175 (1811): Gafoor, l.c. 6. Alisma plantago- aquatica L. var. decumbens Boiss. FI. Or. 5:9 (1882). In the field it can be readily identified in having thick rootstocks, variable leaves; linear lanceolate or elliptic oblong. Flowers in scapose verticillate panicles; outer ones ovate; inner ovate rhombic caducous, white or purplish white; ovary subovate; stigma punctate; style recurved. Achenes raniform or orbicular, 3 ridged on the back, broadest near the apex. On the mud in shallow waters; in the quiet or swift moving streams, near boggy or marshy places. Verinag AMK 3400; Shalimar AMK 3806; Hokhar Sar AMK 3101. Superficially the taxon resembles A. lanceo- latum but can be differentiated from it in having anthers suborbicular; style recurved, shorter than the ovaries. sagittaria L. Sp. Pi. 993 (1753) A cosmopolitan genus with about 40 species, represented by 3 species in this area. It is a highly plastic genus exhibiting much variation in the leaves and in the flowers depending on the nature of the habitat in which it grows. It is observed that all these varients do not deserve taxonomic status. However, on the basis of the characters given in the key we have been able to recognise 3 species in this area. Key to species 1 . Achenes triangularly obovate, with a conspicous dorsal wing; long beaked. 2. Beak horizontal, 1-2 mm long S. latifolia 2. Beak laterally bent, more than 2 mm long S. sagittifolia 1 . Achenes minute or inconspicuously beaked, equally winged both sides S. greggi Sagittaria latifolia Willd. Su. PL 4: 409(1806); S. virabilis Engelm in A. Gray Man. 461 (1848); S. esculentus Howell. FI. NW. Am. 679 (1903) In the field the species can be readily iden- tified by the thick rootstocks. Leaves much variable; scapes equalling leaves, angular above; pistillate flowers in lower whorls. Achenes obovate, 3-3.5 x 3 mm with broad marginal wings and no facial keel; beak slight- ly incurved, horizontal or nearly so. Common near damp areas, on the margins of the lakes. Leper Hospital (Nagin lake) AMK 3806, 3807; Shalimar AMK 3872; Brean (Nishat) AMK 3734. Distribution. Europe, America, Asia, Hima- layas. 507 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 The tubers are eaten in India under the name Wappato. In China it is cultivated and frequently eaten. In Kashmir the tubers are sold in the market under the name Keuw, they are eaten raw or after boiling. But now they are not at all available, may be because of the near extinction of the habitat in which it grows. Sagittaria sagittifolia L. Sp. PI. 993 (1753) : Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6 : 561 (1893); 5. trifoliata L. Sp. PI. 993 (1753): Yuzechuk in Kamarov. FI. URSS 7: 288 (1934): Fafoor, l.c. 8. Ohwi (1905) and Gafoor (1974) considered S. sagittifolia L. as S. trifoliata L. and Gafoor (l.c.) thinks that north-west Himalayan speci- mens differ from the European and N. Asian S. sagittifolia in having petals white without the basal purple spot, yellow rather than purple anthers, reflexed rather than spreading sepals and very acute rather than blunt tips of the basal lobes of the leaf, which are often longer than the blade. He has studied all these charac- ter in a specimen collected by Stewart from Kashmir and preserved in the Herbarium, University of Rawalpindi (Pakistan). However, our population has white petals with yellow spots at the base, sepals spreading but reflexed at the fruiting stage and the sepals usually obtuse. Therefore the characters are those of Department of Botany, Islam i a College of Science and Commerce, Srinagar, 190 002, Kashmir, Refer Abrams (1955): Illustrated FI. Pad States, I, 102. Boisser, E. (1882) : Flora Orientalis, Enumeratio Plantarum Orientalis. Geneva. S. sagittifolia L. and the name has been re- tained. In shallow waters of ditches, ponds and swamps, especially near road side ditches, rare on the sides of the lakes. Shalimar AMK 3151; Gagribal Park AMK 2094; Malgam Rakh AMK 3324; Ugjan (Anantnag) AMK 3735; Verinag AMK 3809. Distribution. India, China, Malaysia, Japan, Philippines. The aerial parts are fed to cattle and the tubers are eaten raw. Sagittaria greggi J. G. Smith, Rep. MO. Bot. Gard. 6 : 43 (1894); Abrams et al. Ulus. FI. Puci. States. 1 : 102 (1955). The species is very rare and can be easily identified in having polymorphic, sagittate leaves, lateral lobes acuminate. Scapes erect with 6-9 whorls of unisexual (rarely perfect) flowers; bracts ovate or orbicular, reflexed; filaments dialated at the base; carpillodes pre- sent in the staminate flowers. Achenes obo- vate, 2-3 mm long, winged lateral ribs irregu- larly thickened, winged or tubercled, orbicular in outline, beak short erect or lateral. Common in shallow ditches, marshy or boggy places, near slow running streams. Dialgam (Ugjan) AMK 3214; Verinag AMK 3871. Distribution : Europe, Australia, Asia, Kash- mir. A. MAJEED KAK E N CE S Gafoor, A. (1974): Alismataceae FI. W. Pak. No. 68. Karachi. Hooker, J. D. (1893) : Flora British India 6: 561. Linnaeus, C. (1753) : Species Plantarum Holmiae. 508 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 33. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF BIHAR AND ORISSA— IV The paper reports 14 new records of plants for Bihar and Orissa, collected by us from Bhubaneshwar and Ganjam district of Orissa. Ophiorrhiza trichocarpos Bl., hitherto restricted to Andaman and Nicobar Islands is reported from the main peninsula of India for the first time. All the specimens are preserved in the her- barium of the Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneshwar. Acalypha lanceolata Willd. Gollabandh, occasional on sandy ground around coastal plantations, fl. 21.x. 1978. Saxena & Brahmam 3350. Distribution. Deccan Peninsula from Karna- taka and Circars southwards; Sri Lanka, Burma, Java and Sumatra. Ammannia octandra Linn. f. Aska, occasional weed in fields, fl. & fr. 27. ii. 1978. Saxena & Brahmam 3249. Distribution. Deccan Peninsula; Sri Lanka, Burma, and Malaysia. Cyperus alopecuroides Rottb. Occasional along the margins of ponds — Sorada, fl. & fr. 16. ix. 1977. Saxena 2891; Ber- hampur, fl. & fr. 22. ii. 1978. Saxena & Brahmam 3201. Distribution. Widely distributed in India; Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Africa, Tropi- cal Australia. Eulalia quadrinervis (Hack.) O. Ktze. Mahendragiri, 1000-1400 m., frequent in open grassy hill-slopes, fl. & fr. 25.x. 1978 and 24. ix. 1979. Saxena & Brahmam 3656, 3943. Distribution. Subtropical Himalayas from Simla to Sikkim, Mishmi and Khasia Hills; Burma, China, Laos and Thailand. Glycine wightiana (Wight & Arn.) Verdcourt G. javanica auct. non Linn. Serango, occasional in forest undergrowth. fr. 5. i. 1978. Brahmam 3024. Distribution. Plains of Western Peninsula; Sri Lanka, Java, Tropical Africa. JansenelSa grhTithiana (C. Muell.) Bor Mahendragiri, 1450 m., in open marshy grassland, fl. 25.x. 1978. Saxena Si Brahmam 3678; fl. & fr. 23. xi. 1979. Saxena 8i Brahmam 3883. Distribution. Khasia Hills, Assam, Western Ghats, Bailadilla (Madhya Pradesh), Karna- taka, Tamil Nadu; Sri Lanka, Burma. Lepidagathis cristata Willd. Berhampur, in open dry places, fl. & fr. 8. i. 1978. Brahmam 3123. Distribution. East coast of India from Krishna river to Kanyakumari. Neanotis quadriiocularis (Thw.) Lewis Anotis quadriiocularis (Thw.) Hook. f. Mahendragiri, 1000 m., in open grasslands under partial shade, fl. & fr. 27.x. 1978. Saxena 8i Brahmam 3729. Distribution. Karnataka, Travancore; Sri Lanka. Ophiorrhiza trichocarpos Bl. Mahendragiri, occasional in forest under- growth, fl. & fr. 26.x. 1979. Saxena 8i Brah- mam Acc. No. 3773. Distribution. Andaman and Nicobar; Ban- gladesh, Burma, Java, Malaysia. Parthenium hysterophorus Linn. Bhubaneswar, an introduced weed along roadsides and railway lines, fl. 20. xi. 1977. Brahmam 2945. Distribution. Introduced in India in 1956 and spread to many parts — Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, etc.; a native in tropical America from Florida to Texas, local- ly north to Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Ohio, 509 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Michigan, Illinois, Missouri and Kansas; also collected from West Indies and S. Africa. Paspaltira compactum Roth Mahendragiri, 1400 m., common in open wet grasslands, fl. 25.x. 1979. Saxena & Brahmam 3680. Distribution . Mount Abu (Rajasthan), Khasi and Naga Hills, Nilgiris and other hills in the Southern and Western India. Paspahiin eonjugatum Berg. Mahendragiri, 1400 m., frequent in open marshy grassland, fl. & fr. 22. xi. 1979. Saxena & Brahmam 3882. Distribution. Kachar, Assam; Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore and other tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Plectrasitlms mlghericus Benth. Mahendragiri, over 1300 m., in shady places, fl. 25.x. 1978. Saxena & Brahmam 3611. Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneswar 751 013, March 5, 1982. Distribution. Western Ghats, Anamalai Hills, Nilgiris. Psyehotria £ulva Buch.-Ham. ex Hook. f. Mahendragiri, 1000 m., in semi-evergreen forests, fl. & fr. 21. xi. 1979. Saxena & Brah- mam 3969. Distribution. Assam and Khasia Hills upto 1200 m., Kachar, Manipur; Burma. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Prof. P. K. Jena, Direc- tor and Dr. P. K. Dutta, Project Coordinator, Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneswar for providing the facilities. Thanks are due to the Director and the staff of the Botanical Survey of India, Howrah for extending their cooperation for consulting the Central National Herbarium. M. BRAHMAM H. O. SAXENA 34. THE GENUS CURCUMA L. (ZINGIBERACEAE) ON ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS {With a plate) The majority of the Zingiberaceae are very poorly known due to the fact that a clear understanding of the genera and species can be had only from live plants. Herbarium mate- rials are hardly sufficient to know the nature and characters of the floral parts. In order to get a better understanding of these obscure species, they were collected, brought under cultivation and studied in live condition when in flower. As a result of these studies the genus Curcuma is revised here for these islands. The genus Curcuma with about 45 species is confined to Indo-Malesian region. Apart from the classical world monograph of the genus by K. Schumann (1904), the genus has been revised for Malaya by R. E. Holttum (1950) and for Assam by A. S. Rao & D. M. Verma (1972). Further van Zijp (1915), van Zijp & Valeton (1917) and Valeton (1919) have published several notes and descriptions of Malaysian and Javan species. Apart from these few papers, very little work has been done on the taxonomy of this genus. The characteristic features of the genus are the usually aromatic rhizomes, the broad adnate pouched bracts with a cincinnus of several 510 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES flowers in each pocket, the tuft of differently coloured coma of sterile bracts at the apex of the spike and the versatile anthers which are often spurred. Some of the species are culti- vated for spices, medicinal uses and for food and have often run wild and established them- selves in waste ground. Hence the natural distribution of these are obscure. A review of literature so far published on the flora of Andaman and Nicobar Islands indicate that no species of Curcuma has been reported from these islands except the mention of C. kurzii by Hooker in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 216. 1890 under ‘imperfectly known species’ with a meagre description. This species is found to be synonymous to the Burmese species C. petiolata Roxb. which appears to be the only indigenous species of these islands, always seen in primary forests and never in waste ground. C. longa, the well known spice ‘ Turmeric ’ is often cultivated near home-steads and fringes of cultivated fields and is very rarely seen in wild condition, C. mangga and C. zedoaria grow commonly in waste-ground near villages and roadsides and never in primary forest areas and are probably introduced exotics. CURCUMA curcuma L. Sp. PI. 1: 2. 1753 et Gen. PI. ed. 5.3. 1753; K. Schum. in Engler, Pflanzenr. 20: 99-115. 1904; van Zijp in Rec. Trav. Bot. Neerl. 12: 340-347. 1915; van Zijp 8c Valeton in Rec. Trav. Bot. Neerl. 14: 127-142. 1917; Valeton in Bull. Jard. Bot. Btzg. II, 27: 1-167. 1919; Holttum in Gard. Bull. Singapore 13: 65-72. 1950; A. S. Rao & D. M. Verma in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 14: 121-122. 1972. Detailed generic descriptions are available in literature. Distribution : Indo-malesian region and tropi- cal Australia; about 35 species, 4 in Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Key to the species la. Inflorescence central, arising through the mid- dle of leaf shoot; peduncle surrounded by sheaths of normal developed leaves. 2a. Cultivated plants of human habitations and waste grounds; rhizome bright orange yellow inside; petioles less than 1 cm long; floral bracts acute; coma bracts white or white streaked with green; flowers white; anthers spurred 1. C. tonga 2b. Wild plants of primary forest areas; rhizome pale yellow inside; petiole 8-15 cm long; floral bracts obtuse; coma bracts pink or pinkish orange; flowers creamy white; anthers not spurred 3. C. petiolata lb. Inflorescence lateral, separate from leaf shoots; peduncle not surrounded by sheaths of normal developed leaves. 3a. Rhizome citron yellow within; leaves uni- formly green; bracteoles white; median band on lip not with red margins 2. C. mangga 3b. Rhizome light yellow within; leaves with feather-shaped purplish flush on either side of midrib above throughout its length; bracteoles pinkish at apex; median yellow band on lip with red margins. . . . 4. C. zedoaria 1. Curcuma longa L. Sp. PI. 1: 2. 1753, pro. max. parte; Koenig in Retz. Obs. Bot. 3: 72. 1783; Baker in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 214. 1890; K. Schum. in Engler, Pflanzenr. 20: 108. 1904; Wealth of India 2: 402, t. 17. 1950; Burtt in Notes R. Bot. Gard. Edinb. 35: 212. 1977. [Manjella kua Rheede, Hort. Malab. 11: 21, t. 11. 1692]. C. domestica Valeton in Bull. Jard. Bot. Btzg. II, 27: 31. 1918; Ridl. FI. Mai. Pen. 4: 254. 1924; Holtt. in Gard. Bull. Singapore 13: 68. 1950; Backer 8c Bakh. f. FI. Java 3: 72. 1968. Detailed descriptions are available in litera- ture. 511 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Flowering: July-September. Distribution : Cultivated throughout tropical Asia. Notes : For detailed discussion on typifica- tion and nomenclature see Burtt (l.c. 1977). No reference to this species is seen in any of the earlier literature on these islands and seems to be a recent introduction to these islands. This species is often cultivated in Andaman islands and Little Andaman island and some- times in Nicobar Islands and is not seen in wild anywhere. Rhizomes called ‘Turmeric’ is used as spice in food preparations and also medicinally in various Ayurvedic preparations. A paste from the rhizomes is applied externally for sprains and wounds. 2. Curcuma mangga Val. & van Zijp. in Bull. Jard. Bot. Btzg. II, 27: 50, t. 6, f. 1. 1918. Ridl. FI. Mai. Pen. 4: 254. 1924; Holtt. in Gard. Bull. Singapore 13: 70. 1950; Backer & Bakh. f. FI. Java 3: 72. 1968. Primary tubers ovoid, ± 5 cm long, — 4 cm thick; rhizomes db 3 cm thick with many close — 1.5 cm thick branches projecting in all directions, pale dull yellow outside, pale citron yellow inside, tasting bitter; scale leaves sub- persistent; roots many, descending and bearing ellipsoid tubers at ends. Leaf -shoots 80-100 cm high, bearing 3-5 leaves; sheaths 30-40 cm long; petioles ± 2 cm long; ligules rounded, ± 5 mm long; leaf-blade oblong-elliptic, acute at base, acute or ocuminate at apex, 30-50 cm long, 15-23 cm wide, uniformly glossy green above, pale and pubescent beneath. Peduncle 18-25 cm long, ± 1 cm thick {in vivo), covered with 3-5 rounded mucronate sheaths; spikes oblong, ± 15 cm long, ± 7 cm thick; floral bracts broadly oblong, blunt at apex, ± 4 cm long, connate for less than half-way, green with purple tinge at apex; coma bracts elliptic, acute, ± 7 cm long, almost free, pinkish pur- ple. Flowers 3-4 in each cincinnus inside each floral bract-pouch, 3-4 cm long; bracteoles elliptic, boat-shaped, prominently keeled and acute at apex, ± 3 cm long, — 2 cm wide, white. Calyx obtusely 3 -dentate, ± 1 cm long, densely hairy at base. Corolla-tube ± 2 cm long, cup-shaped to- wards upper half, tinged with yellow inside; lobes 3, oblong, acute, posterior lobe promi- nently boat-shaped, mucronate at apex, ±1.5 cm long, ± 1 cm wide, white. Staminodes oblong, with concave median fold as seen from back; inner edges folded under the hood of the dorsal petal, obtuse at apex, ± 1 . 5 cm long, ± 0.8 cm broad, very pale yellow at upper half, white at lower half. Lip obscurely 3-lobed, ± 2.5 cm long, ± 1.8 cm wide, light yellow; midlobe emarginate at apex, yellow with a bright yellow median band. Filament constricted at top, ± 6 mm long, ± 3 mm broad, pale yellow; anther ± 4 mm long, white; spurs 2, narrow, slightly curved, ± 2 mm long, white. Ovary hairy; stylodes 3-6 mm long; style slender, ± 1.6 cm long; stigma bilobed. Fruit oblong, ± 2 cm long, hairy. Flowering : J une- August. Specimens : s. andamans : Ferrargunj, collected in vegetative condition and flowered under cultivation on 5 June 1978, Balakrishnan 6747 (PBL). Distribution : Java, Malaya and Andaman Islands. Notes : An addition to Flora of India. Com- mon in all waste grounds in open sunny places, roadsides, ditches, streamsides, etc. in South Andamans. This is not seen in other islands and is probably a recent introduction. 3. Curcuma petiolata Roxb. FI. Ind. ed. 1, 1: 37. 1820; Hook. f. in Bot. Mag t. 5821. 1870; Baker in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 216. 1890; K. Schum. in Engler, Pflanzenr. 20: 102. 512 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Balakrishnan & Bhargava: Curcuma petiolata Plate 1 Curcuma petiolata Roxb MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1904. C. cordata Wall. PI. As. Rar. 1: 8, t. 10. 1829; Hook. f. in Bot. Mag. t. 4435. 1849. C. kurzii King ex Baker, l.c. 216. 1890, syn. nov. Primary tuber small with a few sessile rhizomes, pale yellow inside; roots many, often with tubers at ends. Leaf shoots 50-80 cm long, bearing 4-6 leaves; sheaths narrow, 20-30 cm long; petiole 8-15 cm long, slender; ligules rounded, 3-4 mm long; leaf -blade elliptic to oblong-elliptic, subequally rounded or subcor- date at base, cuspidate-acuminate at apex, 25- 35 cm long, 8-12 cm broad, glossy green above, pale green beneath. Peduncle slender, 15-28 cm long; spikes cylindric, cuneate at base, 8-12 cm long, 4-5 cm thick, floral bracts in 3-5 vertical rows, oblong-ovate, suborbicular and spreading at apex, connate for more than half way, 3. 5 -4.0 cm long, yellowish at base, pin- kish orange at upper half; coma bracts few, ovate, subacute to obtuse, spreading, 3. 5-4.0 cm long, brightly purplish orange. Flowers 2-5 in each cincinnus inside each bract-pouch, 3 . 0- 3.5 cm long, creamy white; bracteole oblong, acuminate, boat-shaped, ± 3 cm long, — 2 cm wide, white, glabrous. Calyx ± 8 mm long, acutely tridentate, minutely puberulous. Corolla-tube ± 2.5 cm long; lobes oblong- lanceolate, acute, subequal, 1.5 -2.0 cm long, 0.8-1. 3 cm wide, upper lobe concave, cuspi- date. Staminodes oblong-lanceolate, ± 1.5 cm long, ± 1 cm wide. Lip deflexed, suborbicular, ± 1.3 cm long; obscurely trilobed, cream yellow with deep yellow median band; midlobe emarginate; lateral lobes erect, ± 6 mm long. Filament inserted at about ^th above base of the anther, ± 3.5 mm long; anthers oblong, obliquely truncate at base, not spurred, — 5 mm long, minutely puberulous; connective shortly produced with a crest. Ovary pubescent; stylo- des erect, 4-5 mm long; style filiform, ± 2 cm long; stigma bilobed. Fruit obovoid, hairy, zb 1.5 cm long; seeds glossy brown, ± 4 mm long; aril white, partially enveloping seed. (Plate 1). Flowering : J uly-October. Specimens', n. andamans: Lakhmipur, common in inland forests, 23 Nov. 1976, N. G. Nair 4881 (PBL). M. andamans. Bakultala, dense shaded places amidst thick under- growth in inland forests, 6 Nov, 1977, Bhar- gava 6406 (PBL); Mayabunder, edges of forests, 31 July 1974, Bhargava 1941 (PBL). s. andamans. Balooghat hill jungle, 7 July 1894, Kings Collector s. n. Acc. no. 467215 (CAL); Baratang Island, 25 Oct. 1979, P. Basu 7351 (PBL); Coatering Cove, Kurz s. n. Acc. no. 467217 (CAL); Middle Point, Port Blair, Kurz s. n. Acc. no. 467218 (CAL). Distribution : Burma and Andaman Islands. Notse : The specimens from Andamans identified as C. kurzii at Calcutta herbarium were studied and found to be identical to C. petiolata. This species included by Baker under doubtful species in Flora of British India with a short diagnosis is treated here as a synonym of C. petiolata. This species grows in gregari- ous groups in primary inland forests and never seen in waste ground and is the only truly indigenous species of Curcuma in these islands. It is not seen in Nicobar group of islands so far. This is an addition to Flora of India, extending its distribution towards south of Burma. 4. Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe in Trans. Linn. Soc. 8: 354. 1807 et Monandr. PI. Scitam. t. 109. 1825; Baker in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 210. 1890; K. Schum. in Engler, Pflanzenr. 20: 110. 1904; Ridl. FI. Mai. Pen. 4: 254. 1924; Holtt. in Gard. Bull. Singapore 13: 71, f. 5. 1950; Wealth of India 2: 405. 1950; Backer & Bakh. f. FI. Java 3: 71. 1968; Burtt in Gard. Bull. Singapore 30: 59. 1977. [Kua Rheede, Hort. Malab. 11: 13, 513 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 t . 7. 1692]. Amomurn zedociria Christm. & Pan- zer, Linn. Pflanzensyst. 5: 12. 1779; Plenck, Ic. PI. Med. 2: 12, t. 11. 1789. Detailed descriptions are available in litera- ture. Flowering : June- August. Speciments : s. andamans. Ferrargunj — - Jirkatang, collected in vegetative condition and flowered under cultivation on 3 June 1978, Botanical Survey of India, Andaman-Nicobar Circle, Port Blair 744 103, October 6, 1982. Balakrishnan 6146 (PBL). Distribution : India, Malaya and Java. Notes ; Commonly seen in waste grounds in Andaman and Great Nicobar Islands. A new record for these islands. See Burtt (l.c. 1977) for typification and nomenclature of this species. This species can be cultivated as an ornamental garden plant, as it grows profuse- ly and very quickly. N. P. BALAKRISHNAN1 N. BHARGAVA2 1 Present Address : Botanical Survey of India, Central Circle, Allahabad-211 002. 2 Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle, 3 Laxmi Road, Dehra Dun. 35. AQUATIC KNOT WEEDS OF THE KASHMIR HIMALAYAS ( With three plates ) Aquatic knot weeds (320 species) repre- sented by about 50 species with some doubtful varieties in the local flora, are of great interest to many people because they are aggressive invaders of lakes, reservoirs and other wet habitats and are capable of altering the ecolo- gical balance of large areas. In addition, they are taxonomically much complicated. Linnaeus (1753) included 26 species in the genus Poly- gonum L. Boisser (1879) divided the genus into 7 sections. Bentham and Hooker (1886) added 150 species and divided the genus into ten sections Jackson (1885) included 254 species and Hooker (1886) divided them into 11 sections. Tutin et ah (1964) and Cood and Cullen (1968) reduced the genus into 4-5 sec- tions only. Small (1903) and Gross (1913) accepted the subdivisions of the genus Poly- Persicaria lapathifolia Gray Persicaria amphibia Gray Persicaria nepalensis Gross Persicaria nodosa Opiz. gonum L. and treated its species as repre- senting several genera. But due to the ambigu- ous nature of characters most of the authors in the last half century preferred to keep the genus undivided. (Bonner 1913, Danser 1927). However, during the last few decades the pro- blem was reviewed and Hedberg (1946) and Hara (1966) clearly demonstrated more than one pollen morphotypes in the genus and divided it into few genera. In the present study the pollen morphotypes and the taxonomy of the existing species were studied which showed that the aquatic members of the pre- sent area fall in the genus Persicaria Mill. The pollen types differ from that of Polygonum s. str. in being tri — polyporate with murate reticulations. The aquatic species of the genus are: ( - Polygonum lapathifolium L.) ( = Polygonum amphibium L.) ( = Polygonum nepalense Meis). ( = Polygonum nodosum Pers.) 514 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Kak: Weeds of the Kashmir Himalayas Plate I Fig. 1. Persicaria amphibia (L.) G.F. Gray: A. Habit; B. Flower showing the insertion of stamens; C. Ovary; D. Stamens; E. Mature nut. Fig. 2. Persicaria nodosa (Pers.) Opiz.: A. Habit (upper portion); B. Ochrea; C. Flower; D. Petal dissected showing the arrangement of the stamens; E. Flower; F. Mature nut. Fig. 3. Persicaria punctata (Elliot) Small.: A. Habit (Upper portion); B. Node showing the Ochrea; C. Portion of spike showing the arrangement of the flowers; D. Petals dissected showing the insertion of the stamens; E. Ovary; F-G. Mature nut showing variations. Fig. 4. Persicaria lapathifolia (L.) S.F. Gray: A. Habit (showing upper portion); B. Leaf; C. Flower, l.s. showing the arrangement of the stamens; D. Mature nut enclosed in a perianth. J . Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate II Kak: Weeds of the Kashmir Himalayas Fig. 1. Persicaria hydropiper var. mite (Schrank.) Majeed.: A. Habit; B-C. Leaf showing variation in size and shape; D. node with an ochrea; E. Ochrea showing long cilia; F. Flower; G-H. Petals showing the arrangement of the stamens and ovary; L Mature nut; J. Portion of spike showing the arrangement of the flowers. Fig. 2. Persicaria nepalense (Meissn) H. Gross.: A. Habit; B. Leaf. C. Corolla tube dissected; D. Flower; E. Involucral bract; F. Stamen; G. Ovary; H. Immature nut enclosed in perianth; I. Mature nut; J. Ochrea with cilia. Fig. 3. Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Spach.: A. Lower portion of plant; B. Upper portion; C. Portion of spike showing the arrangement of the flowers; D. Flower arranged on the node; E. Corolla tube dissected; F. Immature nut; G. Mature nut; H. Node showing the ochrea and cilia. - Fig. 4. Persicaria kawagoeana (Makino) Nakai.: A. Habit showing decumbent nature and profuse roots; B. Node showing ochrea with cilia, floral spike and the leaves; C. Flower; D. Inner and E. Outer perianth; F. Stamens; G. Immature nut; H. Mature nut. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Persicaria hydropiper Spach Persicaria kawagonena Makai, Persicaria punctata Small, Persicaria hydropiper ssp. mite Majeed ( = Polygonum hydropiper L.) ( = Polygonum minus Huds.) ( = Polygonum punctatum Elliot) . ( = Polygonum mite Schrank) KEY TO THE SPECIES 1. Perianth segments 4-5 lobed; stamens not alternating with the glands. Pollen grains 3 colpate, colpi tapering both ends; exine with duplibacculate rods P. nepalensis 1. Perianth segments 4-5 partite; stamens alternating with glands. Pollen grains 3 — polyporate; pores brochal, ellipsoidal — oval; exine sometimes with multibacculate rods. 2. Perennial, rhizomatous herbs; ochrea without cilia. 3. Marshy; erect, internodes solid, red dotted. Leaves linear-lanceolate; spikes white or light pink, long, lax, branched, pendulous. Pollen grains 5 porate, lumina mostly granulate P. lapathifolia 3. Aquatic; prostrate, decumbent, internodes fistular, smooth. Leaves dimorphic, mostly ovate, lanceolate; spikes reddish short, compact, never branched, erect. Pollen grains polyrugate; lumina with small bacculate rods P. amphibia 2. Annual: rarely perenating by stolens; ochrea fringed with cilia or bristles 4. Spikes dense, stout with crowded or overlapping flowers P. nodosa 4. Spikes lax, slender, flowers never crowded 5. Steps sulcate; ochrea with 7-9 bristles; perianth segments eglandular. Seeds smooth P. hydropiper 5. Stems smooth, ochrea without bristles; perianth segments glandular. Seeds lenticular 6. Stems glandular, leaves sessile or subsessile punctate ventrally; perianth ovate P. punctata 6. Stems glandular, leaves petiolate; never punctate perianth lanceolate 7. Ochrea with long cilia, leaves linear lanceolate stigma 3 fid. Lumina with baccu- late rods P. kawagoeana 7 . Ochrea with short or equal cilia, leaves broadly lanceolate, stigma 2-fid. Lumina mostly granulose P. hydropiper ssp. mite persicaria Mill. Gard. Diect. Abr. Ed. 4 (1754). A cosmopolitan genus, represented by the following 8 aquatic or semi-aquatic species in this area. Some of the terrestrial species are endemic to the Kashmir Himalayas. Pollen grains colpate or porate (tritetracolpate or tri- pentaporate), mostly spherical, prolate, rarely subprolate in equatorial view, circular in polar view; colpi long reaching near the poles, more or less open without marginal thickenings; sexine thick may or may not be well differen- tiated into sexine and nexine; lumina mostly granulose or with small bacculate rods. P. lapathifolia (L.) S. F. Gray. Nat. Arr. Br. PI. 2: 270 (1821). Polygonum lapathifolium L. Sp. PI. 360 (1753); Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 5: 35 (1885). Stout, prostrate perennial herbs, can be easily distinguished in the field: being bushy, steps red dotted, pubescent. Leaves narrowly lanceo- late; upper ones sessile lower petiolate. Ochrea auricled, truncate, membranous; spikes lax axi- llary also terminal, branched or unbranched perianth fused at the base, broadly lanceolate, entire; styles 2. Seeds orbicular, with an apical beak 2.5x2 mm, with a central furrows, light 515 18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 81 brown. Pollen grains 5 porate 21.9 x 21.6 /a, spherical in equatorial view circular in polar view; pores brochal, ellipsoidal, 1.8-2. 7 x 1.7 /x; exine with multibacculate rods; rods 1.7-1. 8 [x high; reticulations murate; muri 3.6-4 x 2-2.8 /a; lumina mostly granulate, sometimes with small bacculate rods. Common in marshes near the sides of lakes and streams, also near wet meadows. Nagin lake amk 660; Dal lake amk 3811; Harwan amk 3865. Distribution. Himalayas, South west Asia, N. W. Africa, Europe. P. amphibia (L.) S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Br. PI. 2: 268 (1821). Polygonum amphibium L. Sp. PI. 361 (1753); Hook. f. l.c. 34. Prostrate, decumbent perennial herbs, can be easily distinguished in the field by having fistular internodes, trimorphic leaves; submerg- ed ones ovate-ovate lanceolate, short petioled with cordate base; floating ones ovate, petiolate; upper ones oblong lanceolate; sessile. Ochrea tubular, truncate, parellel veined; spikes oblong, rosy red; perianth lanceolate, stigma capitate. Seeds orbicular, biconvex with an apical pointed end. Pollen grains polyrugate, 39 x 37.5 /a; spherical in equatorial view, cir- cular in polar view; pores usually not visible; exine thick with multibacculate rods; rods 2-3 m high, reticulate, murate; muri 1.8-3. 7 x 1.3-2 /a lumina mostly granulate. Abundant in the lakes, irrigation canals, ditches, ponds and rivers. Also in marshes, swamps and in muddy wetlands, meadows. Common near the margins of floating islands. Anchar lake amk 2024; Nowgam rakh amk 663; Nagin lake amk 3794. Distribution. Cosmopolitan. P. nepalensis (Meisn.) H. Gross in Engl., Bot. Jahrb. 49 : 277 (1913). Polygonum nepalense Meissner. Monogr. Poly. 84. PI. 7. f. 2. (1826); Hook. f. l.c. 41. Prostrate annual, erect herbs, can be easily distinguished in the field by the hairy nodes. Leaves broadly ovate, acute, base trun- cate, hairy near the veins below. Ochrea mem- branous, hairy near the base. Perianth ovate, obtuse; stigma capitate. Seeds circular, bicon- vex, granular, dark brown. Pollen grains 3 colpate, 29.9-2.9 /a dia., spherical in equitorial view, circular in polar view; colpi medium — long, 12-14 /a high, tapering both ends; acute, exine with duplibacculate rods; reticulations murate; lumina with baculoid rods. Polar field index : 1:5. Common in mud, at the edges of streams and ponds in the artificial reservoirs. Gulmerg amk 3724 : Tangmerg (Ferozpur Nallah) AMK 2021. Distribution : Afghanistan, Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim, India, China, Japan, Malaya. P. kawagoeana (Makino) Nakai in Rigakkai 24: 300 (1926): Ito in Jour. Jap. Bot. 31; 173, 177 (1956). Polygonum minus Huds. FI. Angle, ed. 1: 148 (1762); Hook. f. l.c. 36. Dwarf, gregarious annual herbs, can be readily distinguished from other species of the genus in having straggling roots with bunch of secondary rootlets near the nodes; stems mostly decumbent, Ochrea tubular, truncate with long cilia. Perianth lanceolate; stigma 3 lobed. Seeds trigonous, smooth, 2x1.5 mm, shining, dark red with a short apical beak. Pollen grains 5 porate, 26.5-27,4 x 25-26.9 /a dia. spherical in equatorial view, circular in polar view; pores brochal, ellipsoidal — oval, 5.49 x 3.68 /a; exine with dupli or multibaccu- late rods; reticulations murate; lumina with bacculate rods. Abundant in marshes, bogs in shallow water on the edges of ponds, lakes and streams. 516 Polynograph of the genus Persicaria Mill.: a. Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Spach.; b. Persicaria nodosa (Pers.) Opiz c. Persicaria lapathifolia (L.) Gray; d. Persicaria kawagoeana (Makino) Nakai; e. Persicaria amphibia (L.) Gray f. Persicaria nepalense (Meissn.) Gross. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate III Kak: Weeds of the Kashmir Himalayas mm J-- ■ , I MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Shalimar amk 2071, Harwan amk 3793; Suder- bal amk 3681. Distribution. Europe, Tropical and Tempe- rate Asia, India, Sri Lanka and Kashmir. P. punctata (Elliot) Small. FI. S.E.U.S., 379 (1903). Polygonum punctatum Elliot. Bot. S. C. and Ca. 1: 445 (1817). P. acre H.B.K. Nov. Gen. and Sp. 2: 177 (1817). Erect or decumbent herbs, superficially close to P. hydropiper but the racemes are often erect and not nodding. Stems often glandular punctate. Leaves lanceolate or ovate lanceolate, cunate. Ochrea cylindrical, expanding with the node, glandular dotted, truncate, ciliate. Perianth ovate, conspicuously glandular; styles 2-3 fid. Seeds lenticular, trigonous 1.8-2. 5 mm long, shining, dark brown or black. Pollen grains poly-pentaporate, 24-25.6 x 23-24 /x dia. spheroidal in equatorial view, circular in polar view; pores ellipsoidal 4-4.5 x 2-3 /x dia., exine with multibaculate rods; reticulations murate; lumina with small baculoid rods. Near wet and muddy places in shallow waters, ponds and ditches, in the paddy fields. Hokhar sar amk 3211, Gulmarg amk 3682; Ferozpur Nallah amk 3796. Distribution. Himalayas, Tropical Africa. P. nodosa (Pers.) Opiz. Seznan. 72 (1852). Polygonum nodosum Pers. Meissner, in DC. Prodr. 14: 118 (1856). Simple or branched herbs, rarely forming mats like P. kawagoeneana. Nodes thick, leaves lanceolate gradually narrowed towards the base, wavy, somewhat hairy and glandular at the base. Ochrea loose, sharply fringed, hairy. Perianth broadly ovate, styles 2 deeply incised. Seeds roundly ovoid, compressed 2x3 mm, 2 angled, smooth, shining, black. Pollen grains 3-5 porate, 60 x 45 /i , subprolate in equatorial view, circular in polar view; pores brochal; ellipsoidal — oval, 5.49-3.68 ^ ; exine with dupli- or multibaculate rods; reticulations murate; muri 10.8-12 x 7.32 x 15 /x; Lumina coarsely granulose. Near wet and muddy places, and bogs. Panikar (Zanaskar, Ladakh) amk 3125; Drass (Ladakh) amk, 3810, 3864. Distribution : S. W. Asia, Africa and Europe. P. hydropiper (L.) Spach, Hist. Veg. 10; 538 (1841). Polygonum hydropiper L. Sp. PI. 361 (1753) : Hook. f. l.c. 39. Common weed of paddy fields, stems ribbed. Leaves linear lanceolate, sessile or subsessile. Ochrea truncate with 7-9 bristles. Spikes in- terrupted, loose. Perianth fused at the base, ovate lanceolate brown dotted ventrally; styles 3. Seeds ovate, trigonous 3x2 mm, with an apical pointed end, dark brown, smooth. Pollen grains 5-polyporate, 55.5 x 52.5 jx dia., sphe- roidal in equatorial view, circular in polar view; pores brochal, ellipsoidal — oval, 5-5.5 x 1.8- 2 ix\ exine with multibaculate rods, rarely crenate, reticulations murate; lumina mostly granulose and rarely with small baculoid rods. Abundant in rice fields, sides of streams, near wet meadows, and in pasture lands, Nishat, amk 3303; Hokhar sar amk 3795; Bemna amk 3809. Distribution : Temperate Asia, North Ame- rica and Europe. P. hydropiper ssp. mite (Shrank) Majeed. Comb. nov. Polygonum mite Schrank, Bayr. (Bair) 1: 668 (1789). Erect or decumbent, rooting at the base and on upper few nodes. Leaves broadly lanceo- late. Ochrea truncate, cilia equal or much longer than ochrea; spike lax, rarely leafy; style bifid. Seeds broadly ovate, trigonous or 2 angled, shining smooth, brown. Pollen grains similar to that of P. hydropiper, except in the size of the exine. 517 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Common in the marshes, swamps and in muddy wet meadows. Harwan amic 4015; Ganderbal amk 3745. Distribution . Europe, Asia minor, Himalayas. & Department of Botany, Islamia College of Science and Commerce, Srinagar 190 002, Kashmir, December 27, 1981. Ack nowledgements I thank to Mir. Hussain Ahmad, Head of the Department for his help and the Univer- sity Grants Commission for the financial help. A. MAJEED KAK References Boissier, E. (1867-1883) : FI. Orientalis. Enume- ratio Plantarum Orientalis Vol. IV. Geneva. Bonner, J. (1913): Chemical Socialogy among the plant life. A Scientific Book. Simon & Schuster Inc., New York, N. Y. Danser, B. H. (1927) : Contribution a la syste- matique de P. lapathefolium, Rec. Trav. Bot. Neerl. Vol. 18; pp. 125-210. Gray, P. (1921) : The encyclopedia of the Biolo- gical Science ed. (1970), Chapman and Hall. Gross, H. (1913) : Bietrage zur Kenntnis der Poly- gonaceen. Botan. Jahrb. 49: 234-359. Hara, H. (1966) : FI. of Eastern Plimalayas. Tokyo. Jackson, B. H. (1885): Index Kewensis, Oxford Plantarum Phanerogamarum. Oxford. Hedrerg, O. (1946): Pollen morphology in the genus Polygonum and its Taxonomical significance, Sr. Bot. Tidskr. 40: 371-404. Hooker, J. D. (1886) : The Flora of British India, Vol. V; London. Linnaeus, C. (1953) : Species Plantarum. Stock- holm. Mitra, G. S. (1945) : The Origin, Development and morphology of Ochran in Polygonum orientalis L. J. Ind. Bot. 18; 749-764. Nair, P. K. K. (1965) : Pollen grains of W. Hima- laya. Lucknow. Nair, P. K. K. (1970): Pollen morphology of Angiosperms. India. Roxburg, W. (1832) : Flora Indica-Description of Indian Plants. Delhi. Small, J. K. (1903): Flora of the S. E. United States. New York. p. 492. Subramanyam, (1962) : Aquatic Angiosperms of India. CSIR. New Delhi. Tutin, T. G. et at. (1964) : Flora Europea. Vol. I. Cambridge. Wodehouse, R. P. (1931): Pollen grains in the identification and classification of Plants. VI. Poly- gonaceae. Am. Jour. Bot.; Vol. 18; pp. 749-764. (1931) : Pollen grains in the structure, identification and significance in science. New York. London. 36. A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A FEW UNCOMMON PLANTS IN W. BENGAL Introduction While collections of economic plants and plant-products were made from western Duars of Jalpaiguri district (W. Bengal) during the month of April-May and November, 1981, we could collect a few uncommon rare plant species from the plains of North Bengal. A perusal of available literature and herba- rium specimens in the herbaria (CAL & BSIS) revealed that these taxa sporadically grow in W. Bengal and in the recent past their occur- rence in the locality has not been reported. So, we are trying to draw the attention of Botanists for their immediate conservation before the concerned taxa are eliminated from the flora of W. Bengal. The plants are des- cribed here with correct nomenclature, diagno- 518 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES stic characters and field data. The herbarium specimens are deposited in the economic plants herbarium of Industrial Section (BSIS), Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. ENUMERATION CUCURBITACEAE Hodgsonla macrocarpa (Bl.) Cogn. in DC. Monogr. Phan. 3 (1881) 349; Hara, H. FI. E. Himal. (1966) 323. H. heteroclita Hook. f. and Thom., Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 2 (1879) 606; Chakravarty, Ind. Journ. Agric. Sc. 16 (1946) 15, Monogr. on Indian Cucurbi- taceae (1959) 27. Trichosanthes macrocarpa Bl. Bijdr. (1826) 935. Large climber; stem robust, angular, gla- brous. Leaves broad, 3-5 lobed, upper surface bright green and lower light green, both sur- faces glabrous, base truncate or emarginate, petiole robust, striate, glabrous or puberulous, 5-8 cm. long. Tendril robust, glabrous, usually bifid. Male peduncle generally short, thick, striate, glabrous or puberulous, 15-30 cm. long; pedicels short and thick; bracts fleshy oblong- lanceolate, 0.5-1 cm. long. Calyx tube yel- lowish, glabrous, 8-10 cm. long, 7-9 mm. broad. Corolla yellow outside, white inside; lobes 3- nerved, 5 cm. long, fimbriate; fringes upto 15 cm. long. Distribution. E. himalaya (Sikkim), Assam, Burma, Malaysia and S. W. China. Chakravarty (1959) has mentioned its occur- rence in Darjeeling citing only one herbarium specimen of Anderson 555 (CAL) whereas Hara (1966 has only reported its occurrence from two places (Sikkim) of E. himalaya. Chakravarty (1959) also has cited other two herbarium specimens of Lister S. N. (CAL) and Gamble 7786 (Kew) collected from Ranga- mati and Kamalasene of Chittagong hill tract but the area is now in Bangladesh. So, it may be concluded that the taxon is very rare in W. Bengal so that it could not be collected by other Botanists until the recent collections by us from the plains of West Bengal. Specimens examined — H. B. C. 473, March 1932 (CAL); K. Biswas 4928, Latherai (Tippera) 1941 (CAL); V. Narayanaswami and party 2325, 21 miles from Rajabhatkhawa (Jalpaiguri) (CAL); S. N. D. and S. C. Roy 3610, Titi-f orest (Jalpaiguri), 23.4.1981 (BSIS). Gomphogyne cissiformis Griff. PI. Cantor. (1837) 26 in adnot. t. 4; Cogn. in DC. Monogr. Phan. 3 (1881) 924, in Engler’s Das Pflanzenr. 4. 275. 1 (1916) 38; Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 2(1879) 632; Chakravarty, Monogr. Indian Cucur. (1959) 184-186; Hara, H. FI. E. Himal. (1966) 322-323. Small slender and scandent herb, glabrous or slightly puberulous especially at the nodes. Leaves petiole slender, glabrous, 3-6 cm. long; lamina finely membranous, upper surface bright green, lower dull green, both surfaces glabrous and smooth; base narrow, margin crenate-dentate; teeth subround, mucronate; middle leaflet 4-6 cm. long, 1-2 cm. broad; lateral leaflets shorter. Tendril filiform, elon- gate, glabrous. Male racemes simple or branch- ed; main rachis slender, flexuose, glabrous, 10- 30 cm. long or longer, pedicels capillary, often fasciculate, flexuose, glabrous, 1-3 mm. long; base minutely bracteolate. Sepals narrow, acute, 1-1.5 mm. long. Petals glabrous, trinerved; margin entire or obscurely denticulate, 2.5-3 mm. long, about 1 mm. broad. Distribution. Himalaya (Garhwal to Sikkim), Malaya, Indochina, S. W. China and Philippines. Cowan and Cowan (1929) have not men- tioned its occurrence in North Bengal. Chakra- borty (1959) has referred only one herbarium specimen of Gamble 8522 (CAL) collected 519 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 from Darjeeling (7000 ft.) in the range of E. himalaya, whereas Kara (1966) has collected , the plant from Nepal only. The authors have also noted with great interest that the occur- rence of this plant in West Bengal is very rare and after several decades they have collected the plant from the plains of W. Bengal for the first time. Specimen examined — B. B. Osmastre (S. N.), Lepchajagat (7000 ft.), Darjeeling, 1903 (CAL); S.N.D. & S.C.R. 3558 (cf), on way to Gaidham (Seurani forest), Jalpaiguri, 20.4.1981 (BSIS). Verbenaceae Oerodeadron wallichii Merrill in Journ. Arn. Arb. 33 (1952) 220; Hara, H. FI. E. Himal. (1966) 269. C. nutans (non Jack) Wall, ex D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nepal (1825) 103; Prain, D.B.P. 2 (1903) 623; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 4 (1885) 591. A tall shrub, glabrous. Leaves 20-16 cm. long, 3 ~5 cm. broad, narrowly obovate or lan- ceolate, subentire, much acuminate; base atte- nuate; petiole short. Inflorescence panicle, very lax, few flowered, bracteate; bracts filiform. Calyx green, becomes red in fruit. Corolla white or light violet; tube 1.28 cm.; lobes 1.25 cm., obovate. Drupe succulent, dark purple. Distribution. Himalaya (Sikkim), Assam to Chittagong, Burma and Indochina. Prain (1903) has reported this plant from Chittagong which is now under Bangladesh. Cowan and Cowan (1929) has recorded its occurrence in North Bengal without citing its actual place of collection and referring any specific herbarium specimens. Hara (1966) has collected the plant only from Nepal. We also have not found any herbarium specimens of W. Bengal inspite of thorough search in the herbaria (CAL and BSIS). But we have collected this plant from Jalpaiguri district. So, the plant is treated as very rare and its occurrence in the plains of W. Bengal recorded for the first time. Svecimen examined — S. N. D. & S.C.R. i. 3784, Titi forest, Jalpaiguri, 6.11.81 (BSIS). Euphorbiaceae Gfiochidion sphaerogymim Kurz, For. FI. Burma 2 (1877) 346; Deb. D. B. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 3 (1961) 290; Prain, D. Beng. PI. 2 (1903) 697; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 5 (1890) 317. A medium-sized or small tree. Leaves 5-15 cm long, 1.4-3. 5 cm. broad, lanceolate, acu- minate; base oblique. Flowers clustered; male flowers small, pedicelled; female flowers sub- sessile. Capsules subsessile, 8-12 lobed with large globose style in the depressed apex in conjested fascicles. Distribution. Eastern tropical himalaya (Sikkim & Bhutan), Chittagong, Burma and from Peru to Tenasserin. Prain (1903) has reported this plant from Chittagong which is now in Bangladesh. Cowan and Cowan (1929) and Hara (1966, 1971 & 1974) have not reported this plant from any part of W. Bengal. So, the occurrence of this plant in W. Bengal is treated as very rare and the present report of its occurrence is the first record. Specimens examined — S. K. Mukherjee 5604, Apalchand, Kathambari, Jalpaiguri, 1962 (CAL); H.B.C. (CAL), S.N.D. & S.C.R. 3534, Gayatring, Totopara, Jalpaiguri, 18.4.81 (BSIS). Ack nowledgements We are grateful to Dr. G. G. Maity, Botanist and Mrs. K. Roy of Central National Herba- rium, Howrah for their valuable help. 520 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Industrial Section, S. N. DAS Botanical Survey of India, S. C. ROY Calcutta-700 013, July 3, 1982. References Chakravarty, H. L. (1959) : Monograph on In- dian Cncurbitaceae. Cowan, A. M. et al. (1929) : The Trees of North Bengal including shrubs, woody climbers, Bamboos, Palms and Tree Ferns. Calcutta. Culshaw, J. C. (1950) : Some W. Bengal plants. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 188-196. Hara, H. (1966, 1971, 1974): The flora of E. Himalaya, Tokyo. Matthew, K. M. (1966) : A preliminary list of plants from Kurseong. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 8: 158- 168. 37. NOTES ON VIOLA BET ONICIFOLIA J. SM. SENSU LATO IN INDIA (With a text -figure) V. betonicifolia sensu lato (Sect. Nominium Ging., sub-sect. Adnatae W. Beck.) includes three sub-species — ssp. betonicifolia, ssp. jaun- sarensis and ssp. nova-guineensis. W. Becker (1917) included under V. betonicifolia s.l. a series of populations ranging from the north- west Himalayas to eastern Siberia and south- west to southeast Australia. Within this he recognised V. betonicifolia ssp. australensis W. Beck., ( nomen illegit, ssp. betonicifolia ), V. betonicifolia ssp. nepaulensis (Ging.) W. Beck, and V. patrinii DC. The whole complex is united in the possession of short, undifferen- tiated calycine appendage, short spur on lower petaJ, clearly bearded lateral petals and short, dark coloured stipules. The commonest of the Violas occurring in hilly regions throughout India which has gene- rally been identified as V. patrinii is V. betoni- cifolia ssp. betonicifolia. V. betonicifolia ssp. nepalensis (DC.) W. Beck, is now being in- cluded in ssp. betonicifolia which appears from the study of a photograph of the holotype of ssp. nepalensis in the British Museum (BM). The holotype of V. patrinii DC. from Siberia (G-DC) has been examined V. patrinii, which is considered here restricted to Siberia, Man- churia and N. Japan, as also by W. Becker (1917) and Hara (1975) is distinguished from V. betonicifolia by the following characters: Rhizome light brown. Flowers 1-2 cm across. Spur 2-6 mm V. betonicifolia Rhizome dark brown to deep violet. Flowers upto 1 cm across. Spur up to 2 mm V. patrinii The plant occurring in the Western Hima- layas with larger flowers, larger spurs and ovate-oblong to lanceolate leaves is V. betoni- cifolia ssp. jaunsarensis (W. Beck.) Hara. V. patrinii var. suaveolens Watt, and V. kashmi- riana W. Beck, belong to the same race, being connected by a series of intermediate forms. V, betonicifolia ssp. nova-guineensis D. M. Moore (1963) is restricted to Timor and New- Guinea (Type from Asaro Valley, Goroka, New Guinea, 15.6.1956, Hoogland and Pullen 5337 in CANB, photo !). It differs from ssp. betonicifolia and ssp. jaunsarensis in bearing triangular — hastate leaves with basal lobes laterally prominent and long decurrent on petiole, which is normally 521 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81 more than twice as long as lamina. V. betonicifolia J. Sm. in Rees., Cyclop. 37 : Viola n. 7. 1819. Perennial. Root stock ± articulated. Stems or stolons O. Leaves in rosette, variable; lamina 1.5-8 x 0.5-3 cm, ovate-oblong, deltoid-ovate to lanceolate, cuneate, truncate or widely to shallowly cordate with basal lobes hastate to =t sagitate, roundish-obtuse to — sub-acuminate, crenate with rounded or blunt teeth or rarely ± serrate; petioles 2-10.5 cm; — winged above. Stipules 0.5 -1.5 cm, ovate-lanceolate, acumi- nate, sparsely dentate, adnate up to above the middle point. Peduncles equalling or exceeding leaves. Flowers 1-2 cm across, white to purple. Sepals 4-8 mm, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, acute or acuminate, appendage up to 2 . 5 mm, round- ed. Petals up to 1.5 cm, obovate-oblong, late- rals usually bearded at the base; spur 2-6 mm, cylindrical, straight or slightly upcurved. Style 3 mm ± geniculate at base, clavate above; stigma triangular-marginate, shortly beaked. Capsule up to 1 cm, ellipsoid to oblong, glabrous. la. Lamina linear lanceolate to triangular ovate; flowers up to 1.5 cm across, spur 2-4 mm .... ssp. betonicifolia lb. Lamina ovate oblong to broadly lanceolate; flowers 2 cm across, spur 5-6 mm ssp. jaunsarensis la. ssp. betonicifolia — V. befonicifolia J. Sm. in Rees., Cyclop. 37: Viola no. 7. 1819; Jacobs et D. M. Moore in F3. Males. 7: 202. 1971; Hara in Bull. Univ. Mus. Univ. Tokyo 8: 82. 1975. V. betonicifolia J. Sm. ssp. austra- lensis W. Beck, in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. Beibl. 120, 54: 166. 1917, nom. illegit. V. betonici- folia J. Sm. ssp. nepalensis (Ging.) W. Beck, in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. Beibl. 120, 54 : 167. 1917. V. patrinii DC. var. nepalensis Ging. in DC. Prodr. 1: 293. 1824. V. patrinii sensu Hook. f. & Thoms. FI. Brit. Ind. 1: 183. 1872. pr. max p. Lamina 2-8 x 1-3 cm, deltoid-ovate to linear lanceolate, deeply to shallowly crenate, sub- cordate or truncate at the base, glabrous to more or less pubescent; petioles 4-10 cm, usually winged above. Peduncles 5-15 cm, bi-bracteo- late at the middle. Flowers up to 1 . 5 cm across, lilac. Sepals 4-6 mm, lanceolate. Petals up to 1 cm, obovate-oblong, laterals bearded at the base; spur 2-4 mm. Flowering. January to April. Fr . : March to June — often extending throughout the year. Type. Botany Bay, Port Jackson, N. S. Wales, Australia, Dr. White ? n.v. Specimens examined. INDIA: ARUNA- CHAL PRADESH: Forest around Parasuram kund, Lohit Dist, J. Joseph 48868 (CAL); Jana- kmukh, Abor Expedition, I. H. Bur kill 37144 (CAL); Rami dam bank, Abor Expedition, I. H. Burkill 36403 (CAL); Yambung camp. Bank of Dihong, Abor Expedition, I. H. Burkill 36022 (CAL); Renging, Abor Expedition, 1. H. Burkill 37323 (CAL); Daphla Hills, J. L. Lister 114 (CAL); Chenhang, Tiap F. D., D. B. Deb 26193 (CAL); Kalaktang, Kameng F. D., G. Panigrahi 15571 (CAL); Tuting, Siang F.D., R. S. Rao 17319 (CAL); Sissini camp, Kameng F.D., G. Panigrahi 5956 (part) (CAL); Petepool, Subansiri F.D., G. Panigrahi 19705 (CAL); Rupa I. B., Kameng F.D., G. Panigrahi 6625 (CAL); Jabrang, Kameng F. D., G. Panigrahi 6524 (CAL); Sadiya, Lohit F.D., G. A. Gammie 243 (BSI); ASSAM: Dibrugarh, Assam, King's collector s.n. (CAL, Acc. 30940); Couhatty, Assam, Simon s.n. (CAL, Acc. 30746), part; Sibsagar, Without collector's name s.n. (CAL, Acc. 30950); Mahurtula, Assam, N. Gill 128 (CAL); Lu ni- di rin village, \\ miles from Moirang, G. Pani- grahi 16281 (CAL). BIHAR: Behar, S. Kurz s.n. (CAL, Acc. 30928). HIMACHAL PRA- DESH: Chini, (Kinnaur), N. C. Nair 22407 522 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES V * <5 8o° 40, Fig. 1 523 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 (CAL); Shahpur, near Kangra, A.R.E.P. 15253 (CAL); Kangra, A.R.E.P . 15458 (CAL) ; Simla, A. C. s. n. (Acc. 30752) (DD); Kulu, K. D. Bagchee s.n. (Acc. 53847) (DD); JAMMU & KASHMIR: Kalunta Dharggr, K. S. Ahluwala 1744 (CAL); Gilgit, J. F. Dnthei s.n. (CAL); Didderwart, Kashmir, B. M. Wadhwa & J. N. Vohra 294 (CAL); Kashmir, Thaphyal, H. D. 26540 (DD). KAR- NATAKA: Kulhutty, Bababood, A. Meebold 9547 (CAL); Bababuden hills, Mysore, W. A. Talbot 2348 (CAL); Bababooden Hills, Mysore, W. A. Talbot 2348 (BSI); Kemang- gandishimoga, B. S. Ahuja 65603 (BSI); KERALA : Rajamallay, Deviecolam, Kot- tayam Dist., B. V. Shettey 33430 (CAL); Way to top station, Kottayam Dist., D. B. Deb 30812 (MH). MADHYA PRA- DESH : Pachmari, J. F. Duthei 10. 308 (CAL); Jabbalpore, Without Collector s name 31969 (CAL); MANIPUR: Myong Khong, Manipur, G. Watt 6031 (CAL); Kanglatonghi, A. Meebold 5422 (CAL); Ukhrul, S. K. Maker jee 2424 (CAL); Keithemabi, Manipur, G. Watt 5837 (BSIS). MEGHALAYA: Shil- long, Khasia Hills, C. B. Clarke 6072 (CAL); Dumpep, Khasi Hills, I. H. Burkill and S. C. Banerjee 34254 (CAL); Between Shillong & Dumpep, Khasi Hills, I. H. Burkill and S. C. Banerjee 338 (CAL); Myrang. Near Nunglung, Without Collector s name 817 (CAL). MIZO- RAM: Lushai Hills, Mrs. N. F. Parry s.n. (CAL). NAGALAND: Piphema, Naga Hills, H. Collett 162 (CAL); Jaboca, Naga Hills, M. A. Hock (Praia's Collector) 107 (CAL). ORISSA: Mahendragiri, Ganjum, Fischer & Gage 1 (CAL); Mahendragiri, Ganjum, V. Narayanaswami 5740 (MH); Kuthadya Hills, Ganjum, V. Narayanaswami 5900 (MH); Sur- guija state, Orissa, Mooney H. F. 2848 (DD), RAJASTHAN: Sunset Hill, Mount Abu, K. S. Ahluwala 243 (BSI). TAMIL NADU: Saryatimalai forest, Salem, V. Narayanaswami & Party 1390 (CAL); Upper Palnis, C. E. C. Fischer 2895 (CAL); Madras, Rev. Aug. Sauliers 93 (CAL); Shambaganur, Rev. Aug. Sauliers 28 (CAL); Conur, G. King 1046 (CAL); Pulney Hills, Without Collector's name s.n. (MH, Acc. 1214); Yercaud, Salem, A. V. N. Rao 26944 (MH); UTTAR PRA- DESH: Moralle, E. R. Johnson s.n. (CAL, Acc. 30669); Kumaon, Anderson s.n. (CAL, Acc. 30672); Harbanswala Tea Estate, Dehra Dun, N. P. Singh 25464 (BSD); Niranjanpur, Dehra Dun, N. P. Singh 25459 (BSD); Thai, Kumaon, C. M. Arrora 36414 (BSD); Deol- sari, Tehri-Garhwal, U. C. Bhattacharyya 33792 (BSD); Dehra Dun, H. B. Naithani 8 (DD); Mussorie, H. O. Saxena s.n. (DD, Acc. 140015). WEST BENGAL: Terai Ribu & Rhomoo s.n. (CAL); Sookna, Ribu s.n. (CAL); Shummui Danga, Darjeeling, /. S. Gamble 1055 (CAL); Torsa (Terai), Ribu & Rhomoo 3839 (CAL). General Distribution. Afghanistan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, China to South Japan, Burma, Malaysia to Australia (Fig. 1}< . . Plants medicinal — bruised and applied to ulcers and foul sores. Flowers in China, Indo- China and Malaya said to purify blood (Chopra et al. in Gloss. Med. PI. 255. 1956 — as V. patrinii). Chromosome reports : 2n = 48, 72 (Moore in Fedde, Rep. 68: 84. 1963); 2n = 24 (Miyaji in Cytologia 1: 28-58. 1929). lb. Y. feetonicifolla J. Sm. ssp. jaunsarensis (W. Beck.) Hara in J. Jap. Bot. 49(5): 133. 1974. V. prionantha Bunge, Enum. PI. China 82. 1831 ssp. jaunsarensis W. Beck, in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. Beibl. 120, 54: 181. 1917. V. patrinii DC. var. suaveolens Watt in J. Linn. Soc. 18: 379. 1881. V. kashmiriana W. Beck, in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. Beibl. 120, 54: 182. 1917. 524 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Lamina 2-5.5 x 1-3 cm, ovate oblong to broadly lanceolate, ± hirsute, truncate, sub- cordate or cordate at base, crenate-serrate, obtuse to sub-acuminate, petioles 2-8 (-12) cm. stipules 1-1.5 cm, oblong-acuminate, shortly dentate. Peduncles up to 8 (-12) cm, bi-bracteolate at or slightly below the middle. Flowers 2 cm across. Sepals 8 mm, oblong, acute. Petals 1 . 5 cm, obovate oblong, laterals bearded at base, spur 5-6 mm, cylindric, re- curved. Capsule 8 mm, ellipsoid. FI. & Fr. : April- July. Type ssp. jaunsarensis — Konain, Jaunsar, /. F. Duthei 12963 (CAL — holo ! BM — iso !). Specimens examined. INDIA: HIMACHAL PRADESH : Theong, Simla hill state, I. H. Bur- kill 28635 (CAL); Chamba state J. H. Lace 111 (CAL); Bashahr, J. H. Lace 688 (CAL); Mar- tiana, Simla Hill state, I. H. Burkill 28682 (CAL); Rotang Pass, Stoliczka s.n. (CAL, Acc. 31027); on the ascent to the Sach Pass, Chamba state, G. Watt 970 (CAL); Nagkanda forest, Chamba. G. Watt 686. 970 & 2097 (BSIS); Begi. Simla, G. Watt 93 (BSIS); Phagu, Simla, H. G. Carter E. B. 577 (BSIS); Dainkund, Chamba state, /. H. Lace 1529 (BSIS). JAMMU & KASHMIR : Karakoram Glaciers, W. M. Conway 309 (CAL); Purti, Chenab Valley, Robert Ellis 1126 (CAL); Mulluk and Lout of Bhabehpass, Stoliczka s.n. (CAL, Acc. 34033). UTTAR PRADESH: Botanical Survey of India, Howrah 711 103, September 20, 1982. Kaltuan, Jaunsar, J. S. Gamble 25412 (CAL); Bodyar, Jaunsar, C. A. Webb. 13 (BSIS); Jaunsar, J. F. Duthie 12963 (DD). General Distribution. Afghanistan, Pakistan. (Fig. 1). The type sheet of V. patrinii var. suaveolens in Herb. BSIS with G. Watt’s annotations con- sists of specimens under the different field nos. 686, 970 & 2097 with a common herbarium label, collected at different times from Nag- Konda forests, Chamba, N. W. Himalaya, of these G. Watt 2097 with field notes has been chosen here as lectotype of var. susveolens. This same plant was described as V. kashmi- riana by W. Becker. Acknowledgements We wish to express our deep gratitude to the Director, Botanical Survey of India for providing all facilities and to Dr. G. Pani- grahi, joint Director, and Dr. M. P. Nayar, Deputy Director, Botanical Survey of India for scrutiny of the manuscript and helpful sugges- tions, to Dr. D. M. Moore, Plant Science Laboratories, University of Reading and Dr. H. Hara, University Museum, University of Tokyo for their valuable comments given in personal communications to us, to the authorities of various Indian and Foreign Herbaria for sending materials including valuable types on loan in connection with this work. S. P. BANERJEE B. B. PRAMANIK References Backer, W. (1917) : Violae Asiaticae et Austra- lensis II. in Beih. Bot. Centrelbl. Abt. 2, 34: 373-433. (1917): Zur Klarung der Viola patrinii DC. and ahnlicher Arten in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. Bcibl. 120, 54: 156-189. Bunge. Al. (1831): Enumeratio plantarum in China 82. Chopra, R. N., Nayar, S. L. & Chopra, I. C. 525 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 (1956) : Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants, New Delhi. 255. Hara, H. (1974) : New or noteworthy flowering plants from Eastern Himalaya (14). /. Jap. Bot. 49(5) : 132-133. (1975) : Flora of Eastern Himalaya, (Third report). Bull. Univ. Mus. Univ. Tokyo 8 : 82. Hooker, J. D. & Thomson, T. (1872) : “Viola- ceae'’ in J. D. Hooker’s The Flora of British India. London 1 : 183. Jacobs, M. & Moore, D. M. (1971) : “Violaceae” in Flora Malesiana 7: 202. Miyaji, Y. (1929) : Studien uber die Verheltnisse der Chromosomen bei der Gattung Viola. Cytologia 1: 28-58. Moore, D. M. (1963): The status of Viola beto- nicifolia Sm. in New Guinea. Fedde. Rep. 68(2) : 84. (1963) : The Violets of New Guine n.s. 70(11) : 177-187. Smith, J. E. (1819): in Rees. Cyclop. 37: Viola n. 7. Watt, G. (1881) : Notes on the Vegetation of Chumba state and British Lohoul with descriptions of New Species J. Linn. Soc. 8: 368-382. 38. DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTES ON MARGAR1TARIA L.F. (EUPHORBIACEAE) IN SOUTHERN INDIA AND SRI LANKA Margaritaria Li. is a relatively homogene- ous genus of 14 closely related species (Web- ster 1979), spread all over the tropical world. It is characterized by dioecious habit, unspecialised branching pattern, tetramerous calyx, annular floral disc, papery endocarp and unique seeds (fleshy exotesta and thick, bony endotesta). It is allied to Flueggea (Dalzell 1852, Webster 1979) rather than to Phyllan- thus. It differs from Flueggea in the lack of pistillode in the male flower and from Phyllan- thus in having an annular disc substending the tetramerous androecium. Only two species of Margaritaria occur in India and Sri Lanka, namely M. indica (Dalz.) Airy-Shaw and M. cyanosperma (Gaertner) Airy-Shaw. In earlier Indian Taxonomic Literature, Margaritaria indica has been included either under Prosorus Dalz. (1852) or Phyllanthus L. s.I. The genus Margaritaria L.f. (Suppl. PI. 66. 1781) was revived by Webster (1957) who also revised it later in 1979. An attempt has been made here to review the present situation and the status of this genus in Southern India and Sri Lanka. As a result, the species which occurs in India (i.e. M. indica ) was found to have a wider distribution than what has been stated earlier (cf. Map 5 of Webster 1979). Some important collections of Thwaites (CP num- bers) from Sri Lanka, including the isotype of M. cyanosperma, were located in MH, and what has been cited as M. cyanosperma ( Thwaites CP 2155) by Webster (1979 : 427) has been identified M. indica. The two species of Margaritaria, which are found in Southern India and Sri Lanka, re- semble each other in the glabrous nature of plant parts, leaf morphology, tricarpellary condition and in the rugose nature of endotesta (sclerotesta). However, they differ in the size of male flowers and in the number of female flowers per axil. Compared to M. indica , in fact in the whole genus (Webster 1979), the staminate flowers of M. cyanosperma are lar- ger. Moreover, while 1-3 pistillate flowers occur in the axils of M. indica, they are solitary in M. cyanosperma. 1. Margaritaria indica (Dalz.) Airy-Shaw in Kew Bull. 20: 387. 1966, 25: 492. 1971, 26: 308. 1972 & 36: 330. 1981; Ramamoorthy in Saldanha & Nicolson, FI. Hassan Dist. 345. 1976; Webster in J. Arnold Arb. 60: 425. 1979. Prosorus indicus Dalz. in Hooker’s J. Bot. & 526 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Kcw Gard. Misc. 4: 346. 1852; Trimen, Hand. FI. Ceylon 4: 27. 1898; Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 5: 305. 1887; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 2: 905. 1957 (rcpr. ed.). T}'pe: India, Deccan, Dalzell s. n. (K, n. v.). Phyllanthus indicus (Dalz.) Muell.-Arg. in Linnaea 32: 52. 1863 et in DC. Prodr. 15(2): 417. 1866; Brandis, Ind. Trees 571. 1906; Airy-Shaw in Kew Bull. 16: 342. 1963. P. stocksii Muell.-Arg. in Lin- naea 32: 151. 1863. Type: India, Stocks & Law s. n. (G, n. v.). Specimens examined : India. ANDHRA PRADESH: Chittoor Dist.: Mamandur (900 m): G. V. Subbar ao 31953, 26-6-1969, 9. A new record for the State. KARNATAKA: Coorg Dist. : Sampajee Ghat: R. H. Beddome s.n. MH. Acc. No. 46977, cf. For additional citations see Ramamoorthy in Saldanha & Nicolson, FI. Hassan Dist. 345. 1976 and Web- ster in J. Arnold Arb. 60: 426. 1979. KERALA: Idukki Dist: Mullakudy (850 m) : B. D. Sharma 43862 14-3-1973, (3; Malabar: Stocks , Law L. C. s.n., (3. 9 ; Malabar (Wynaad): R. H. Beddome s.n. MH. Acc. No. 46976, . 9 . TAMIL NADU : Coimbatore Dist.: Anama- lais: R. H. Beddome s.n. Year 1866. (3, 9; Anamalais. Karianshola (762 m): V. Narayana- swamy 5365, 16-3-1931, <3. Tirunelveli Dist. : Vasudevanallur R. F. (350 m) : E. Vajravelu 38853, 3-10-1971, $ . sri lanka. No precise locality : Thwaites CP 2155, c? & 9 . Distribution: India. Western Ghats: Coorg, Kanara, Hassan, Wynaad, Anamalais, Thek- kady and Tirunelveli. Eastern Ghats: Maman- dur (Andhra Pradesh) in the south (present study) and Mahendragiri hills (Orissa) in the north (ex Haines, 1961). sri lanka. 2. M. cyanosperma (Gaertner) Airy-Shaw in Kew Bull. 20: 387. 1966; Webster in J. Arnold Arb. 60: 427. 1979. Croton ? cyano- spermus Gaertner, Fruct. Semin. PI. 2: 120. pi. 107. 1791. Prosorus gaertneri Thwaites in Hooker’s J. Bot. & Kew Gard. Misc. 8: 272. 1856. P. cyanospermus (Gaertner) Thwaites, Enum. PI. Zeyl. 281. 1861; Hook f., FI. Brit. India 5: 305. 1887; Trimen, Hand. FI. Ceylon 4: 27. 1898. Phyllanthus cyanospermus (Gaert- ner) Muell.-Arg. in Linnaea 32: 51. 1863 et in DC. Prodr. 15(2): 416. 1866. Neotype: Ceylon, Thwaites CP 2601 (PDA, holotype, n. v. ; designated by Webster, l.c. since Gaertner’s type was considered to be missing). Cicca gaertneriana Baillon, Etud. Gen. Euphorb. 619. 1858. Zygospermum zeylanicum Thwaites ex Baillon, Etud. Gen. Euphorb. 620. pi. 27. fig. 11. 1858. Type: Ceylon. Thwaites s.n. (P, n.v.). Specimens examined : sri lanka. Without any precise locality: Thwaites CP 2601, 9, (Isotype); No. Collector’s name or locality: MH. Acc. No. 61815, 3, 9. Distribution: Endemic to Sri Lanka. Note: Webster (1979: 427) cited Thwaites CP 2155 (A) under M. cyanosperma. But the specimen available in MH (also Thwaites CP 2155) was found to be M. indica. It is interest- ing to note here that CP 2155 (PDA) was quoted under Prosorus indica by Thwaites (1856: 272) himself. All the specimen cited in this paper are available in MH unless stated otherwise. AcK NO WLEDGE M E NTS I am grateful to Dr. Piratla N. Rao, Dept, of Botany, Nagarjuna University, Nagarjuna- nagar, and to Dr. A. N. Henry and Sri K. Vivekananthan of Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore, for encouragement and sugges- tions; to the authorities of Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore, for allowing me to work in the Madras Herbarium; and to the CSIR, New Delhi, for financial assistance. 527 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Department of Botany, Nagarjuna University, Nagarju nan agar- 522 510, A.P., February 5, 1983. Refer Dalzell, N. A. (1852): Contribution to the botany of Western India. Hooker’s J. Bot. & Kew Gard. Misc. 4 : 341-347. Haines, H. H. (1961): The Botany of Bihar and Orissa. 1 : 132. Thwaites, G. H. K. (1856): Notes on the genus Prosorus Dalzell. Hooker’s J. Bot. & Kew Gard. VATSAVAYA S. RAJU1 E N C E S Misc. 8: 271, 272. Webster, G. L. (1957) : A monographic study of the West Indian species of Phyllanthus. J. Arnold Arb. 38: 51-80. (1979) : A Revision of Mar gar i- taria (Euphorbiaceae) . ibid. 60: 403-444. 1 Present Address: Scientist-B, Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, P. B. No. 2415, Trivandrum-695-01 1 , India. 39. MELOCH1A PYRAMIDATA LINN. ( ST ERCULI ACE AE) — A NEW RECORD FOR MAHARASHTRA (With six text-figures) Melochia pyramidata Linn. Sp. PL 674, 1753: Baker et al. in Flora of Java 1 : 406 1963 :M. T. Masters in FI. Brit. India 1 : 374, 1874. S. S. Veppulari, Indian Forester, 95(5): 311-3, 1969. An erect, profusely branched herb, 0.5- 1.0 meter tall. Stem terete, woody at base. Leaves petiolate, stipulate, simple, alternate, ovate- lanceolate, 5. 2-5. 5 cm. long and 2. 4-3. 3 cm. broad, acute at the apex, obtuse at the base, crenate along margins, glabrous on both the surfaces. Veins 6-8, prominent on dorsal side, five veins given out from the base of the mid- rib. Petiole 2-2.5 cm. long grooved on dorsal side, with curved hairs on all over the groove, rusty. Stipules free lateral, deltoid, 0.5- 1.0 cm. long and 0.2-0. 3 cm. broad at the base, hairy on both margins, deciduous. Inflorescence leaf- opposed, umbel-like cymes, 4-6 flowered, peduncle 1.2- 1.5 cm. long, pubescent, with glandular hairs all over; glands brown in colour. Flowers regular, bisexual, bracteate, purple in colour. Calyx 5-lobed, united at base, divided up to the middle, long-acuminate, green, glan- dular hairy. Corolla with 5 petals; purple, with yellow base. Stamens 5, opposite to the petals, adnate at the base; filaments 4-6 mm. long; anthers dorsifixed; pollen-grains spherical, smooth. Ovary superior, shortly stalked, oblong, hairy all over, 5 -celled, syncarpous, with one ovule in each cell on axile placenta; style deep- ly 5-lobed, stout, hairy; stigma papillose. Fruit a capsule, broadly pyramidal, obtuse at base, longitudinally 5-winged; wings dilated towards base, 6-8 mm long, thin-walled, greenish- yellow, with red patches, stellately hairy, de- hiscing longitudinally. Seeds dark-brown, roughly triangular. Flowers : October-May. This is an introduced Tropical American weed found in India, and recently located in Bombay in waste lands near Bandra and 528 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Figs. 1-6. Melochia pyramidata Linn. 1. Flowering twig; 2. Single flower; 3. Petal with a stamen; 4. Pistil; 5. Fruit; 6. Seed. 529 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81 Chembur. S. S. Veppulari reported it from Sibpur, Howrah. Masters (l.c.) records it as an introduced weed in India. However, he has not given any description or distribution. Since the first collection of this species from Bombay, it was kept under observation and Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay-400 001. Institute, of Science, Bombay-400 032, January 14, 1983. repeated collections were made for its complete study. The identity of this species is confirmed by Mr. R. L. Mitra, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah, for which we are grateful to him. Exsiceata : C. S. Lattoo — 6175 (Inst.), 6194 (BLAT). S. M. ALMEIDA C. S. LATTOO 40. ACRORUMOHRA DIFFRACT A (BAKER) H. ITO (ASPIDIACEAE) : A LITTLE KNOWN FERN FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH AND SHAN STATE OF UPPER BURMA In course of studying the Pteridophytic flora of Manipur and adjacent states I have come across a peculiar fern specimen (3 gatherings) with zig-zag rachis collected by Col Baigui in 1874 from Duphla hills of Arunachal Pradesh, India and another by H. Collett from Luchin, Shan State of Upper Burma. Sheets of Col. Baigui were identified as Lastrea undulata Thw. and then determin- ed as Dryopteris obtussima (Mett.) Christ. But on examination it has been determined as Acrorumohra diffracta (Baker) H. Ito based on the peculiarities stated by Ching (1934) as “This is a strikingly unique fern one should never forget once seen, on account of its lateral pinnae, particularly the lower ones, be- ing peculiarly deflexed on the lower part of rachilets”. Finally these specimens were also matched with the photograph of the Type specimen. This plant is so far known from mainland, China, Indo-China and Taiwan but hitherto not reported from India. The plant was first des- cribed as Nephrodium diffracta Baker in 1898 based on the collection of A. Henry 1928 from Yunnan in 1898. Later there was confusion among several workers regarding its proper generic identity. Christ and C. Christinson trans- ferred this under Aspidium and Dryopteris res- pectively. Later Ching placed it under Rumohra and it was treated by Hayata as a new species under Dryopteris as D. reflexipinna Hayata. Finally this plant has been correctly placed under the genus Acrorumohra H. Ito based on the characters (i) Zig-zag rachis with re- flexed pinna, (ii) anadromaus veins, (iii) sori terminal on the veins and (iv) reniform to suborbicular indusium. Moreover, Ching has mentioned that another species Acrorumohra hasselttii (Bl.) Ching also occurs in Assam which is based on G. Mann’s collection. However, not a single specimen of these two plants have been collected either 530 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES from Arunachal Pradesh or from Assam after Col. Baigui and G. Mann respectively. The collection of H. Collett from Luchin, Shan states housed at Central National Herbarium (CAL) is also identified as Acrorumohra diffract a (Baker) H. Ito. It was not earlier reported from Burma. It is interest- ing to note that both Indian and Burma col- lections were made much earlier than A. Henry (1898) from China in 1874 and 1888 respec- tively. Thus it shows its distributional ranges from Taiwan, China mainland, Indo-China, Burma and North East India (Arunachal Pradesh). For easy identification, the species is des- cribed below. Acrorumohra diffracta (Baker) H. Ito in Nakai et Honda, Nov. FI. Jap. 4. 104. 1939; Deval C. W. E. & Kuo, C. M. in FI. Taiwan 1: 360. PI. 127. 1975. Nephrodium diffracta Baker in Kew Bull. 1898: 230. 1898. Aspidium diffractum Christ in Bull. Herb. Bioss. 7: 17. 1899. Dryopteris diffracta C. Chr. in Ind. Fil. 262. 1905. Dryopteris reflexipinna Hayata in Ic. PI. Form. 4: 174. PL 113. 1914; C. Chr. Ind. Fil. Suppl. 16. 1913-17; Rumohra diffracta (Baker) Ching in Sinensia. 5: 1. 69. PI. 18. 1934. Cryptogamic Unit, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah-711 103, December 21, 1982. Type: Yunnan, Mentze. A. Henry 9028, Description (Photo !) Rhizome short erect to ascending densely clothed with dark brown, paleaceous scales, stipes brown, glabrous, 20-40 cm long; Lamina 25-40 cm long, 15-30 cm broad, quadripinnate, deltoid to broadly ovate; pinnae from rachis deflexed, more in first pair of the lower pinna, this gives the rachis a zig-zag form; rachis straminous, shiny, glabrous; pinnae 6-8 pairs, petiole reflexed, segments fiabellate, undulate to crenate; pinnules chartaceous in texture, green even when dried; veins free 2-4 furked, nor racking to the margin; sori on the vein end; indusium persistent, reniformed with un- dulate margin. Specimen Examined : India: Arunachal Pradesh, Duphla Hills, 2100 m. 1874, Col. Baigui s. n. (Acc. Nos. 16801, 16802, 16904 — CAL). burma: Shan States, Luchin, 900 m, Feb. 1888, H. Collett s. n. (CAL). Ack nowledge m e n ts I thank Dr. G. G. Maiti for his valuable suggestions in preparing the manuscript. B. GHOSH 41. AN INTERPRETATION OF BAUHINIA L. ( SENSU LATO) SPECIES ILLUSTRATED IN VAN RHEEDE’S HORTUS MALABARICUS (1678-1703) The plates Chovanna-mandaru (Hort. Malab. 1: 58. t. 32. 1678), Chovanna-mandaru (Hort. Malab. 1 : 59. t. 33. 1678), V duttamandaru (Hort. Malab. 1: 61. t. 34. 1678), Canschena- pou (Hort. Malab. 1: 63. t. 35. 1678), Man- daru-valli (Hort. Malab. 8: 55. t. 29. 1688), Naga-mu-valli (Hort. Malab. 8: 57. t. 30. 1688) and Naga-mu-valli (Hort. Malab. 8: 57. t. 31. 531 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 1688) in van Rheede’s Hortus Malabaricus (1678-1703) are illustrations of plants belong- ing to the genus Bauhinia L. ( sensu lato). In his bibliography to Rheede’s Hortus Malaba- ricus (1678-1703), Dennstedt (1818) identified Chovanna-mandaru Rheede as Bauhinia varie- gata L., Chovanna-mandaru Rheede as B. purpurea L., V elutta-mandaru Rheede as B. acuminata L., Canschena-pou Rheede as B. tomentosa L., Mandaru-valli Rheede as ( Naga - valli on plate) as B. divaricata L. and the plates Naga-mu-valli Rheede (as Serpata-valli on plate) as B. scandens L. The correct identity and up-to-date nomenclature of all the seven plates mentioned above are discussed here. The word ‘Mandaru’ in Hortus Malabaricus (1678-1703) is derived from the local name ‘Mandaram’ in Malayalam, commonly used for the flowers of B. purpurea. 1. Chovanna-mandaru Rheede, Hort. Malab. 1:57. t. 32. 1678. Linnaeus (1753) referred Rheede’s plate Chovanna-mandaru to B. variegata L. and also gave the locality of the species as Malabar. Hence there is little doubt as to the identity of this plate and Dennstedt (1818), Hamilton (1822) and Dylwin (1839) further confirmed this. The name Chovanna-mandaru in the native language Malayalam refers to the red flowers of the plant. The flowers in this case are pur- plish-pink with the upper most petal darker and variegated with yellow stripes. Hamilton (1822), Roxburgh (1832) and de Wit (1956) considered B. Candida Ait., a plant with white flowers, as a variety of B. variegata , namely B. variegata L. var. alboflava de Wit. The up- to-date nomenclature of the species is as follows. Bauhinia variegata L. Sp. PI. 375. 1753; Dennst. Schul. 10. 1818; Ham. in Trans. Linn. Soc. London 13: 497. 1822; DC. Prodr. 2: 514. 1825; Roxb. FI. Ind. (ed. Carey) 2: 319. 1832; Wt. et Arn. Prodr. 296. 1834; Dylwin, Review Ref. Hort. Malab. 2. 1839; Baker in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2: 284. 1878; Prain in J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 66(2): 505. 1897; de Wit in Re- inwardtia 3: 411. 1956. — B. variegata (L.) Willd. sec. Roxb. FI. Ind. (ed. Carey) 2: 319. 1832. — Phanera variegata (L.) Benth. in Miq. PI. Jungh. 2: 262. 1852. — Bauhinia Candida Ait. Hort. Kew. 2: 49. 1789. — B. variegata var. condida (Ait.) Corner, Ways. Trees Mai. 383. 1940. Type: L. 908. 112-142 (Neotype, duplicate of it i.e. Modhupore, Bogra, Bengal R. E. P. 12187 in BSIS !). Distribution: Possibly a native of China cultivated in other countries including India and Malaysia. 2. Chovanna-mandaru Rheede, Hort. Malab. 1 : 61. t. 34. 1678. Rheede’s plate Chovanna-mandaru is the only reference which Linnaeus (1753) gave under B. purpurea L. in Species Plantarum. Hamilton (1822) also interpreted the plate as B. purpurea and diagnosed the plant as differ- ing from B. variegata. Because of the purple petals of this plant, Rheede (1678) named it Chovanna-mandaru, an appellation which he had already used for B. variegata. Authors like Dennstedt (1818), Roxburgh (1832) and Dylwin (1839) rightly identified Chovanna- mandaru as B. purpurea with the following nomenclature. Bauhinia purpurea L. Sp. PI. 375. 1753; Dennst. Schul. 10. 1818; Ham. in Trans. Linn. Soc. London 18: 497. 1822; Roxb. FI. Ind. (ed. Carey) 2: 320. 1832; Wt. et Am. Prodr. 296. 1834; Dylwin, Review Ref. Hort. Malab. 2. 1839; Baker in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2: 284. 1878; Prain in J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 66(2): 180. 1897; de Wit in Reinwardtia 3: 406. 1956 — B. coromandelina DC. Prodr. 2: 515. 532 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1825. — B. triandra Roxb. FI. Ind. (ed. Carey) 2: 320. 1832. Phanera purpurea (L.) Benth. in Miq. PL Jungh. 1 : 262. 1852. Type: Merrill, Sp. Blancoanae no. 1050 (L. 920. 278-111, Neotype). Distribution : South-east Asia. 3. Vellutta-mandaru Rheede, Hort. Malab. 1: 61. t. 34. 1678. Linnaeus (1753) in describing B. acuminata L. referred to Rheede’s plate V elutta-mandaru. Subsequently Dennstedt (1818), Hamilton (1822) and Dylwin (1839) also identified the plate as B. acuminata. However De Candolle (1825) referred Vellutta-mandaru to B. varie- gata erroneously as the flowers of the former are white as against the red flowers in B. variegata. Similarly B. Candida Ait. which is often treated as a synonym of B. acuminata also has purple-blotched or striped flowers. Eventhough Aitchinson’s (1789) description is insufficient to distinguish B. Candida from B. acuminata, the meaning of the name Vellutta- mandaru in Hortus Malabaricus is quite diag- nostic, referring to its white flowers. BauSiinia acuminata L. Sp. PL 375. 1753; Dennst. Schul. 17. 1818; Ham. in Trans. Linn. Soc. London 13: 497. 1822; DC. Prodr. 2: 513. 1825; Wt. et Arn. Prodr. 295. 1834; Dylwin, Review Ref. Hort. Malab. 3. 1839; Baker in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2: 276. 1878; Prain in J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 59 (2): 244. 1890; ibid. 66 (2): 179. 1897; de Wit in Reinwardtia 3: 393. 1956. — B. Candida Ait. sensu DC. Prodr. 2: 513. 1825. — B. tomentosa Naves in Blanco. FI. Filip. J. Sci. (Bot.) 2: 433. 1907. Type Herman, Ceylon Herb. 148 (BM). Distribution. South-east Asia. 4. Canschena-pou Rheede, Hort. Malab. 1: 63, t. 35. 1678. The plate shows a twig with flowers and fruits. Linnaeus (1753), Dennstdt (1818) and Dylwin (1839) identified it as B. tomentosa L. Hamilton (1822) eventhough considered B. tomentosa as ‘the most improper appellation’ for this species as the fully grown leaves are devoid of tomentum, also agreed to Linnaeus (1753) on the identity of the plate. BauSiinia tomentosa L. Sp. PL 375. 1753; Dennst. Schul. 10. 1818; Ham. in Trans. Linn. Soc. London 13: 498. 1822; DC. Prodr. 2: 514. 1825; Roxb. FI. Ind. 2: 323. 1832; Wt. et Am. Prodr. 295. 1834; Dylwin, Review Ref. Hort. Malab. 3. 1839; Baker in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2: 275. 1878; Prain in J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 66(2): 178. 1899; de Wit in Rein- wardtia 3: 409. 1956 — B. pubescens DC. Mem. XIII Leg. 483. 1825. Type : Cult. Bogor Botanic garden, I. B. 9a (Neotype : L. 950. 287-613). Distribution. Indigenous to South-east Asia. 5. Mandaru-valli Rheede, Hort. Malab. 8: 55. t. 29. 1688 ( Nagavalli vel Mandaru- valli on plate). 6. Naga-mu-valli Rheede, Hort. Malab. 8: 57. t. 30, 31. 1689 (Serpata-valli on plate). Rheede’s plates Mandaru-valli and Naga-mu- valli are the figures of one and the same plant in two different stages of growth. Dennstedt (1818) identified both Mandaru-valli and Naga-mu-valli as B. divaricata L. which is now known as a monandrous South American species (de Wit 1956) not recorded from Old World. Prior to Dennstedt (1818), Linnaeus (1753) quoted Mandaru-valli when he describ- ed B. scandens L. and from the note he had given under B. scandens in Species Plantarum, it is clear that Naga-mu-valli was the plant which he intended as typical of the species. Further, Linnaeus (1754) in Stickman’s Her- barium Amboinense also identified Folium linguae Rumph. (Herb. Amb. 5: 1. PL 1. 1747) with B. scandens L. Pointing out this as a mistake, Merrill (1917) identified Folium linguae Rumph. with B. lingua DC. ( Phanera 533 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 lingua (DC.) Miq.). Because of this confu- sion, the name B. anguina Roxb. was often used for the plant under discussion eventhough it was a later synonym of B. scandens L. In giving the nomenclature of the species under Bauhinia, the concept of Taubert (1894) and Hutchinson (1964) is accepted here as against that of de Wit (1956) who recognised Lasiobema (Korth.) Miq. as a distinct genus with L. scandens (L.) de Wit (B. scandens L.) as the type species. Bauhinia scandens L. Sp. PI. 374. 1753; Demist. Schul. 13. 1818; Roxb. FI. Ind. (ed. Carey) 2: 326. 1832; Dylwin, Review Ref., Hort. Malab. 39. 1839; Prain in J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 66(2): 94. 1897 — Phanera scandens (L.) Rafin Sylv. tell. 122. 1838 — Bauhinia anguina Roxb. Hort. Beng. 31. 1814 (nom. nud. ) ; PI. Corom. 3: 82. pi. 285. 1819 & FI. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta - 700 016, October 28, 1982. Ind. (ed. Carey) 2 : 328. 1832; DC. Prodr. 2: 516. 1825; Wt. et Arn. Prodr. 298. 1834; Baker in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2. 284. 1878. — Lasiobema anguinum (Roxb.) Korth. ex Miq. FI. Ind. Bat. 1(1): 71. 1855 — L. horsfieldii Miq. FI. Ind. Bat. 1(1): 71. 1855. — B. hors- fieldii (Miq.) Macbride, Contr. Gray Herb. II no. 59: 23. 1919. — Lasiobema scandens (L.) de Wit, Reinwardtia 3: 427. 1956. Type : Hors field s.n. (L. 169). Java (Holo- type, K). Distribution : India, Indo-China and possibly Sri Lanka. Acknowledgement I am grateful to Dr. K. Thothathri, Deputy Director, Central National Herbarium, Botani- cal Survey of India, Howrah for critically reading the manuscript. K. K. N. NAIR1 References Baker, J. G. (1876-78) : Leguminosae in J. D. Hooker’s Flora of British India. Vol. 2 (Pt. IV & V). London. Burk ill, I. H. (1965) : Chapters in the History of Botany in India. Delhi. Candolle, A. P. de (1825): Prodromus Systema- tis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis. etc. Vol. 2. Paris. Dennstedt, A. W. (1818) : Schlussel Zum Hortus Indicus Malabaricus oder dreifaches Register zu die- ssem, Werke. Weimar. de Wit, H. C. D. (1956): A revision of Malay- sian Bauhinieae. Reinwardtia 5(4) : 381-541. Dyllwyn, L. N. (1839) : A review of the refe- rences to Hortus Malabaricus of H. van Rheede van Draakenstein. Swansea. Hamilton, B. (1822): A commentary on Hortus Malabaricus Pt. 1. J. Linn. Soc. London 13: 474-560. Johnston, M. C. (1970) : Still no herbarium re- cords for Hortus Malabaricus. TAXON 19(4) : 655. Lamarck, J. B. A. P. M. de (1788) : Encyclopediae Methodique Botanique Vol. 2. (Pt. 2). Paris. Linnaeus, C. (1753) : Species Plantarum, Vol. 2. Holminae. Manitz, H. (1968) : August Wilhelm Dennstedt’s Schussel zum Hortus Indicus Malabaricus. TAXON 17(5): 496-59. Merrill, E. D. (1917) : An Interpretation of Rurr* philus Amboienense. Paris. Raizada, M. B. (1954) : Hortus Malabaricu Madras State Herbarium Centenary Souvenir (1954) 64-69. Rheede, H. van Draakenstein, et at. (1678-1703): Hortus Indicus Malabaricus. 12 Vols. Amsterdam. Ricket, H. W. & Stafleu, F. A. (1961) : Nomina 1 Present address: Kerala Forest Research Insti- tute, Peechi-680 653, Kerala. 534 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Generica Conservenda et Rejecienda Spermatophy- torum VII. Bibliography. TAXON 70(3) : 70-91. Roxburgh, W. (1832): Flora Indica. Vol. 3. Serampore. Rumphius, G. E. (1692): Herbarium Amboi- nense. Baarn. Stafleu, F. A. (1975) : Roxburgh William, Flora Indica . . . TAXON 24 (5&6) : 685-686. Stickman, (1754) : Herbarium Amboinense. Vpsa- liae. Taubert P. (1874) : Leguminosae in Engler & Prantl. Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien 3(3): 70- 385. Berlin. Tiiothathri, K. & Nair, K. K. N. (1981): Dal- bergias in Hortus Malabaricus, TAXON 50(1) : 43- 47. Thwaites, G. H. K. (1858-64) : Enumeratio Plan- tarium Zeylaniae. An enemeration of Ceylon Plants (Assisted by J. D. Hooker). London. Warner, M. F. (1920) : The dates of Rheede’s Hortus Malabaricus. /. Bot. 58: 291-92. Willdenow, C. L. (1802) : Species Plantarum Vol. 3 (pt. II). Berlin. Wight, R. & Walker, G. A. (1834) : Prodromus Florae Peninsulae Indiae Orientalis. London. NOTES AND NEWS FINAL ANNOUNCEMENT XIX CONGRESSUS INTERNATIONAL^ ORNITHOLOGICUS The 19th International Ornithological Congress will be held in Ottawa, Canada, from 22 to 29 June 1986. Its President is Prof. Dr. Klaus Immelmann. The scientific programme has been determined and comprises plenary lectures, symposia, contributed papers (oral and posters), round table discussions, special interest group meetings, and workshops. Pre and post-congress excursions and workshops are planned, as well as early morning bird walks and other activities for members and accompanying members. The deadline for registration and submission of contributed papers is January 1986. 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Orders for additional reprints should be in multi- ples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and packing. 11. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s. Hornbill House, Editors, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society . VOLUME 81(3) : DECEMBER 1984 Date of Publication : 28-1-1985. CONTENTS Page A CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF HOUBARA: 1982-83 WINTERING POPULATION IN Baluchistan. By Afsar Mian. ( With a text-figure ) . . 537 Oriental Lycaenidae, Riodinidae, and Hesperiidae from the Central Nepal Himalayas. By Oakley Shields • • 546 A REPORT ON A COLLECTION OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM THE PONMUDI, Kerala, south India. By Robert F. Inger, H. Bradley Shaffer, Mammen Koshy and Ramesh Bakde. ( With five plates ) • • 551 Pollination ecology of Euphorbia geniculata (Euphorbiaceae) . By E. U. B. Reddi and C. Subba Reddi. (With a plate and three text-figures) .. 571 Adaptive modifications of the Reduviidae of the scrub jungles and semi-arid zones of the Palghat Gap, India — an evolutionary approach. By D. Livingstone and D. P. Ambrose. (With sixty text figures in five plates) . . 583 A NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME PLANTS IN GANGANAGAR DISTRICT, RAJAS- THAN. By B. P. Singh and N. S. Brar . . 596 Breeding biology of the Indian Fruit Bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) in Central India. By Satwant Sandhu. ( With a text-figure) . . 600 Birds of a polluted river. By Prakash Gole. (With four text-figures & three maps) 613 Orchids of Great Nicobar Island and their conservation. By D. K. Hore and N. P. Balakrishnan . . 626 Is habitat destruction in India and Pakistan beginning to affect the status of endemic passerine birds ? By A. J. Gaston . . 636 Food and feeding habits of fingerlings and juveniles of Mahseer (Tor putitora Ham.) in Nayar river. By Prakash Nautiyal and M. S. Lai. (With three text-figures) . . 642 The environmental limitations and future of the Asiatic Lion. By Paul Joslin. (With six text-figures) .... 648 New Descriptions: A new species of the genus Oxyiirella Dybowski and Grochowski, 1894, (Cladocera: Chydoridae) from India. By Pramod D. Rane. (With six text- figures) . . 665 A new species of the genus Bosminopsis Richard, 1895 (Crustacea: Cladocera: Bosminidae) from India. By Pramod Rane. (With three text- figures) . . 668 A new species of the genus Mixocera Warren (Subfamily: Geometrinae) . By V. K. Walia and H. R. Pajni. (With seven text-figures) . . 670 Freshwater algae of Karnataka State (India) : Cosmarium kaycedense sp. nov. and Euglena lunaris sp. nov. from Dharwad. By G. R. Hegde and S. G. Bharati. (With two text-figures) . . 673 A new species of Impatiens L. (Balsaminaceae) from south India. By M. Chandrabose, V. Chandrasekaran and N. C. Nair. (With eleven text-figures) 676 A new species of Parasyrpophagus Giraijlt (FIymenoptera : Encyrtidae) from Aligarh, India. By Anis Fatma and S. Adam Shafee. (With a text-figure) 678 A NEW cobitid FISH of the genus Aborichthys Chaudhuri (Pisces: Cobitidae) from India. By R. P. Barman. (With a text-figure) .. 680 Review : Flowers of the Himalaya. (M. R. Almeida) . , 684 Miscellaneous Notes: Mammals: 1. Strange behaviour of a tiger. By Divyabhanusinh (p. 685); 2. On the presence of the Pangolin Manis crassicaudata Gray and a Fox Vulpes sp. in Kutch. (With a photo- graph). By Himmatsinhji (p. 686); 3. Observations on unusual sexual behaviour in elephants. By K. K. Ramachandran (p. 687); 4. Additional range inhabited by Bharal ( Pseudois nayaur) and Snow Leopard ( Panthera uncia) in Nepal. By Philip M. Hall and Jack H. Cox, Jr. (p. 688); 5. A note on antler casting of barking deer ( Muntiacus muntjak) in captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo and S. K. Patnaik (p. 690). Birds: 6. On the occurrence of Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus cristatus (Linn.) in coastal Andhra Pradesh. By K. S. R. Krishna Raju, B. L. Prabhu and P. R. Gopala Raju (p. 691); 7. A note on the catching of migratory birds which visit Alipore Zoo, Calcutta in winter. (With a photograph ). By Adhir Kumar Das (p. 691); 8. The juvenile plumage of the Little Egret compared with that of the White-phase Indian Reef Heron. (With a text- figure). By B. M. Parasharya and R. M. Naik (p. 693); 9. Unusual feeding behaviour in the Paddybird or Indian Pond Heron Ardeola gray'd. By I. R. Grimwood & M. J. C. Brocklehurst (p. 696); 10. On the sighting of a flock of Crab Plovers at Kolhapur. By Erach K. Bharucha and Jay S. Samant (p. 698); 11. Cranes wintering in Saurashtra. By Prakash Gole (p. 699); 12. A note on the status of Brachypteryx cryptica. By S. Dillon Ripley (p. 700); 13. Some notes on the breeding of the common Baya (Ploceus philippinus) . By Humayun Abdulali and V. C. Ambedkar (p. 701); 14. First Indian record of Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs). By S. C. Madge (p. 702); 15. Additions to the bird species recorded from Nepal. By C. & T. P. Inskipp (p. 703). Reptiles: 16. Observations on Geochelone elegans (Schoepff) in captivity, Orissa, India. By S. Biswas and L. N. Acharjyo (p. 707); 17. Eublepharis hardwickii (Reptilia, Gekko- nidae), the Kalakuta, observed at Tikerpada, Orissa. (With a photograph). By L. A. K. Singh (p. 708); 18. Occurrence of Flying Lizard (Draco dussumieri) in the Nilgiris. By R. Sugathan (p. 710); 19. A note on the Asiatic Rock Python (Python molurus) feeding on the Spotbill Duck (Anas poecilorhyncha) . By U. Sridharan and B. Ram Manohar (p. 710); 20. A coucal-python incident. By Om Prakash Dubey (p. 711); 21. Protective methods for snakes from external infection of mites. By Madhu Vyas and Tej Prakash Vyas (p. 712). Other Invertebrates: 22. Occurrence of Pleuroxus similis Vavra (Cladocera: Crustacea) in India. By Pramod Rane (p. 713); 23. New records of Grimaldina brazzai Richard and Bosminopsis deitersi Richard (Crustacea: Cladocera) from India. By Pramod Rane (p. 713); 24. Hydrology of a lentic water body and its significance in Plankton production. (With a text-figure). By R. K. Singh (p. 715). Insects: 25. A new record of Py emotes sp. (Pediculoides) of mite parasitizing the common Indian house fly — Musca domestica nebulo Fabr. (With a text-figure) . By S. C. Dhiman and J. P. Mittal (p. 720); 26. Predatory ants of the mound building termite, Odontotermes wallonensis (Wasmann) with special reference to the predatory behaviour of Leptogenys processionads (Jerdon). By D. Rajagopal and T. M. Musthak Ali (p. 721); 27. Amaranthus viridis (Desf.) a new host plant of Hadda beetle, Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata (Fab.) ( Coleoptera : Coccinellidae) . By D. Narang and M. Ramzan (p. 726); 28. New record of Eylais sp. and Arrenurus sp. of mites parasitizing the damsel fly. (With a text-figure). By S. C. Dhiman (p. 726). Botany: 29. A new combination in Aspidopterys Juss. (Malpighiaceae). By R. C. Sriva- stava. (p. 728); 30. A new variety of Humboldtia unijuga Bedd. (Caesalpiniaceae) from South India. (With ten text-figures). By J. Joseph and V. Chandrasekaran (p. 729); 31. Swertia sikkimensis Burkill (Gentianaceae) : A little known plant from Uttar Pradesh, India. (With seven text-figures). By Gaurgopal Maiti (p. 731); 32. Euphorbia tortids Rottl. ex Wight — A new record for Karnataka. By K. Gopalakrishna Bhat, M. S. Dinesh and R. A. Nagendran (p. 733); 33. Genus Typha in the North-Western Himalayas. By A. Majeed Kak and Sulochana Durani (p. 734); 34. Distributional note on some Indian grasses. By D. C. Pal and B. P. Uniyal (p. 735); 36. Arthromeris lungtauensis Ching: A new record for India. (With four text-figures). By Surjit Kaur and N. Punetha (p. 737); 36. A note on Phytogeographical distribution of ferns and fern-allies of Almora (W. H.). By D. K. Awasthi and P. C. Pande (p. 739); 37. Nomenclatural notes on some plants from Maha- rashtra. By S. M. Almeida and M. R. Almeida (p. 741). JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1984 DECEMBER Vol. 81 No. 3 A CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF HOUBARA: 1982-83 WINTERING POPULATION IN BALUCHISTAN1 Afsar Mian2 {With a text-figure) The Houbara Bustard {Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni ) is very widely distributed in the valleys and semi-desert plains of Baluchistan, depending upon the distribution of the plants. They are winter visitors and stay in the area from October to February, each year, though some of the northern areas may harbour a reasonable population till early April. The bird is under severe hunting stress from the local hunters (appro- ximately 1500 birds) and the visiting Arab falconers (claiming at least 2860 birds) in all the areas bearing a sizeable wintering population. A tentative population distribution map has been attempted to show the relative frequencies of the bird in different areas of the province. There are indications that some 50 — 100 pairs do breed in Western Baluchistan, but this activity does not seem to be a regular feature of the area. Introduction Our preliminary research on the biology and conservation of the Houbara Bustard {Chla- mydotis undulata macqueeni) with special re- ference to its wintering population of Western Baluchistan, during 1981-1982, prompted us to continue our research activities on this elegant bird with the aim of providing sufficient re- search data upon which a scientific conserva- 1 Accepted November 1983. 2 Department of Zoology, University of Baluchi- stan, Quetta, Pakistan. tion strategy could be based, before it is com- pletely lost from this part of the globe (Mian & Surahio 1983, Mian & Shaheena in press ; Mian 1983). This paper therefore presents some further data regarding the distribution, popu- lation levels, and hunting stress regarding the population of the bird wintering in Baluchi- stan and adjoining areas during 1982-83. Methods and Materials Regrettably, severe budgetary limitations prevented us from conducting an extensive tour of the area, as we had hoped, to JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 collect first hand information, on this bird. However, to overcome this serious handicap a carefully drafted questionnaire was circulated to some of our past students residing in Panjgur (29.98° N and 64.10° E) and Sibi (29.56°N and 67.89°E), to the Sub-divisional Officer, Wildlife, of the Balu- chistan Forest Department, who accompanied the visiting Arab falconers in Chagai (26.98°N and 64.70°E) and Kharan (28.58°N and 65.42°E) areas and to a well-reputed old hunter of Taunsa (30.30°N and 70.65°E). The questionnaire contained the appropriate questions regarding the preferred habitat, ap- proximate density of the bird in favourable areas, preferred food, migration patterns and dates, hunting pressures in that locality and the chances of breeding in the area. The facsi- mile of the questionnaire is shown in appendix I. All were instructed to collect information through their own observations and through contacts with other reputed hunters and local people of the area. These informers were then further cross questioned by us personally in March 1983, so as to extract as much informa- tion as possible and to be able to evaluate the possibility of a bias, which might have crept into their observations. Some 16 students, who had just returned from their long winter break (December 17, 1982 to February 28, 1983) from different areas of Baluchistan, were also interviewed the different questions of our basic questionnaire or anything they might have noticed concerning the biology and ecology of the Houbara in their respective areas. Sur- prisingly, the information collected through various independent sources bore a remarkable identity with one another. A few observa- tions, which were contrary to the general consensus of views were eliminated from the final analysis, after giving due consideration to the status of the source. Sokal & Rohlf (1969) were followed for the statistical analysis of the data. Results and Discussion Houbara Behaviour and Habitat Preference. The majority of the information collected by different sources regarding the behaviour and habitat preference of the Houbara Bustard are in conformity with what we reported in our earlier study (Mian & Surahio 1983). The Houbara, in general is a very wary bird in- tolerant of human disturbance and hence prefers flat desolate desert plains having sandy or loose stony substratum with sparsely distributed bushes, so that its vision is not restricted. The bird inhabits the open, vast steppic desert plains avoiding the narrow valleys and mountain slopes. It is said to avoid the very extreme desert conditions in this region, where it shows a very sparse dis- tribution, especially during certain years of better precipitation, though it is found in al- most similar inhospitable conditions in other parts, i.e. Cholistan (Mirza 1971). The hou- bara also avoids the large human settlements, though the small scattered villages and no- madic shepherd camps as well as the grazing livestock, i.e. sheep, goat, cattle and camel have little influence over its distribution. The Houbara is mainly diurnal in habit, though it is also active during moon- lit nights. It rests during the hot part of the day in ditches or shallow dry courses of the hill torrents and on certain flat beds during dark night. The Houbara is gene- rally regarded as omnivorous and hence may feed on almost everything available to it. in- cluding dried grasses, associated insects and even reptiles, but predominantly it is a herbi- vore and largely depends upon vegetable 538 HOUBARA IN BALUCHISTAN matter such as leaves, shoots and seeds of the preferred plants. Some observers believe that it prefers moonlit nights for feeding activities, but it mainly feeds during the day in accor- dance with the available conditions. The presence of very large eyes in the bird lends some support to the contention that it is partly nocturnal in feeding activity. Migration. The majority of the observations collected through our questionnaire regarding the migration of bustards confirm our pre- vious report (Mian & Surahio 1983) that the wintering population of the Houbara migrates into Baluchistan through very diffused routes all along the north-western border of the pro- vince, and it disperses southwards and east- wards gradually in the various parts of Balu- chistan. The size of the incoming groups is larger in the northern areas like Chagai plains, Dasht plains near Nushki, and the plains of Yakmuch (10-12 birds per group) as compared with the number observed further south in Panjgur and in Sibi (2-4 birds per group). The larger groups can also be observed in southern and eastern regions during the later part of the immigration season. The population pass- ing through Taunsa also have a smaller size of the group compared with that observed in Chagai and Nushki. This may be because the population reaching Taunsa has travelled a longer route, and has consequently under- gone considerable dispersion prior to reach- ing the area. The population of Taunsa, however, further migrates into deserts of Thai and Cholistan, of the Punjab. The observa- tions collected by us also indicate that the wintering population of Sibi and deeper parts of Sind, mainly come through Baluchistan and hence confirm the findings of Surahio (1981, 1982). The precise dates, when the bustards were first seen in the different areas could not be recorded. However, the information conveyed to us from the different parts of the province and adjoining areas suggests that the birds are first noted in Baluchistan in late September or in the first week of October in the deeper parts, and they start migrating back to their summering grounds during late February and early March. However, a sizeable population of the bird is present in plains of Yakmuch, Chagai and Kharan till late March or early April. The duration of stay along their migra- tory routes and their various wintering grounds depends upon the relative abundance of food and suitable vegetation. It has also been fre- quently observed that the birds returning through an area on spring migration use the same routes as were adopted while entering an area in autumn. Our questionnaire revealed consistent obser- vations that the Houbara migrates on moonlit nights. It could not be ascertained as to whether this was a preferred habit or if this was an occasional preference. This also does not com- pletely rule out the possibility that there is no migration during dark nights, because there can be few casual observations at that time and also the activities of the hunters (who might observe the bird) are generally limited during dark nights. This would suggest that a further detailed study is needed regarding this aspect of the Houbara biology. If these observations prove to be true, then the time of migration will also need to be adjusted to the lunar cycle and a variation is to be expected between years. It was also interesting to note that an indi- vidual bird with a partially damaged tarsus was regularly observed visiting the same area of Sibi for four consecutive years. This infor- mation seems to be in conformity with similar reports on other non-related migratory birds including small passerines, which suggest a 539 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 faithful adherence to certain predefined routes and localities, during migration. Further colour banding studies on the Houbara would be parti- cularly interesting to corroborate such obser- vations. Hunting. The observations conveyed to us by different informants revealed that the Houbara is hunted in the different areas by the local populace (using shot guns) for pleasure and also to obtain meat. The hunting is some- times facilitated by the use of a jeep or by approaching the bird at a reasonable shooting distance through a herd of grazing sheep /goat/ cattle /camel or by riding camel back or on a bullock cart. Netting of the live bird is also practised, on a limited scale, in all areas having a sizeable population of the Houbara. A trian- gular enclosure of nets is used in western Baluchistan, whereas in Taunsa and Sibi areas straight nets are used in which apparently the foot of the bird gets caught. The bustards are driven into the net with the help of a herd of camels or other livestock, bullock carts and jeeps. A comprehensive report regarding the hunt- ing activities of local hunters is not available. The reports from Taunsa suggest that some 300 birds were killed during the last winter. This is despite the fact that the Houbara is a partially protected species under the Punjab Wildlife Protection Ordinance under Schedule III. Various reports regarding the bags of the local hunters, when collected together lead us to calculate that a total of some 1500 bird were killed in western Baluchistan, Sibi and adjoin- ing areas of Taunsa by such local shikaris. It is said that the hunting toll by the local hunters is on the increase due to a gradual sophistication of the hunting methods and hunting aids including motorised communica- tion and the development of link roads. Fur- ther, the number of birds killed was relatively higher during this winter (1982-83) due to a greater population of the Houbara present in all the areas, as a result of favourable rains the previous winter. The major hunting stress undoubtedly is from the visiting falconers, coming from the Middle East and the Persian Gulf States. The available data suggest that a minimum of 1742 birds were killed by such visiting hunters over a period of 28 days, in Chagai District alone. In Kharan, two independent parties hunted at least 768 birds in 41 days. The report from Sibi and Taunsa indicated that between 250- 350 birds were killed by the visiting Arab falconers. Thus, the cumulative bag data for all the visiting hunters throughout Baluchistan and adjoining areas suggest that some 2860 birds have been hunted during this winter. It seems relevant to mention that because of the secrecy being maintained by these visiting foreign dignitaries and the -security measures being adopted in such areas very exact bag data are difficult to collect. In fact, informers consistently expressed the opinion that the actual numbers hunted were much more than reported. There is unfortunately ample evidence of a progressive increase in the hunting activities of the visiting falconers. The western areas of Baluchistan were visited by only one party during 1981-82, whereas at least three parties visited the area during 1982-83. The available reports regarding the hunting success of these foreign hunters are also alarming. Whereas a total of 418 birds were hunted during 1981-82 in Chagai and Kharan districts, some 2510 birds have been hunted during 1982-83, in the same area. It is true that the size of the hunt- ing bag has increased during the last winter due to a comparatively higher population of the bustards wintering in this region, but the higher number of hunting bags of the Houbara 540 HOUBARA IN BALUCHISTAN has also been possible due to the gradual acclimatization of the visiting Arab falconers and their increased local knowledge of the area. There is an urgent necessity to evaluate the long term effect of such a large scale hunt- ing stress on the population of the Houbara in the area. The available hunting bag data of the visit- ing falconers reveals that there were more females hunted than males (in Chagai 820 males: 922 females, L2 = 5.972, significant at 0.02 level; in Kharan 131 males: 177 females, I2 — 6.870, significant at 0.01 level; and 138 males: 322 females, JL2 = 73.6, very significant). This is despite the fact that the female Houbara gives a much tougher fight to the falcon than the males (personal com- munication from an experienced local hunter of Yakmuch, District Chagai). It is believed that though there are very slender chances of survival of the male bustard from the falcon attack, the female stands certain chances of surviving such an attack. Further, the males are almost 25% larger than the females and hence have more chances of being spotted by a falconer. These facts when seen together suggest that the number of females are more in population than males. If further studies prove this hypothesis to be true the causes for such a population imbalance would be very interesting to study. The alternative hypo- thesis would be that the population has an equal number of males and females; but certain sexual differences and behavioural adaptations render the males less vulnerable to falcon hunting. This would mean that a larger pro- portion of the females are being hunted, which would certainly have a very detrimental effect upon the population of the Houbara. The analysis of the daily bag of the parties hunting in the same area for many consecu- tive days reveal that hunting for 9 consecutive days by 104 falcons with the help of 15 vehicles in Harmagai (Kharan) and by 108 falcons with the help of 37 vehicles in Pul- Chotao (Chagai) did not cause of significant decrease in the number of the hunted birds (Regression coefficient = 1.5833, t(7) = 0.2491, P = 0.90 — 0.80, highly non significant; and, Regression coefficient = 2.1833, t(7) = 1.9188, P = 0.10 — 0.05, not significant, for Chul- Chotao and Harmagai, respectively). However, hunting for 10 consecutive days by 108 falcons and 37 vehicles in Yakmuch (Chagai) and for 17 consecutive days by 98 falcons with the help of 15 vehicles in Charkohan (Kharan) did cause a decline in the size of the hunting bag (Regression coefficient = — 0.326, t(s) = 15.3234, P = 0.001, very highly significant; and. Regression coefficient = 0.326, t(i5) = 4.6317, P = 0.001, highly significant). However, on the last day of the hunt in Yakmuch only 15 Houbara could be captured as compared to some 90 captured on the first day; but when the same party visited the same area after an interval of 16 days, the original high hunting bag was once again maintained indicating that the population dur- ing the later hunting period comprised of newly arrived migrant birds. These facts would suggest that the population is either very mobile and is constantly shifting or that there is a continuous replacement of the population in the area by that present in the surrounding areas. The second alternative seems to be more true as the Houbara is said to travel long distances in search of food or unexploited habitat (Surahio 1981). Under such conditions it seems that in the future years the population of the Houbara will be subjected to a greater hunting stress, as the visiting hunters become more familiar with the area and the hunting aids get more sophi- sticated. 541 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Population Distribution : The Houbara seems to have a wide distribution in Baluchistan and its adjacent areas. The high densities of the bird are thus present in vast, open and desert steppes of Yakmuch, Nushki and surrounding areas of Chagai, the plains of Kharan and Punjgur, the coastal areas of Mekran, Dasht area of Mustung, plains of Sibi and adjoining parts of Sind, and in Taunsa. The population of Taunsa, however, moves to the riverian area during dry season. The Houbara, gene- rally avoids high mountain ranges and narrow valleys even when passing to their wintering or breeding grounds. Thus the Houbara is almost non-existent in the northern hilly tract of Baluchistan such as the Sulaiman Range, the Toba Kakar Range and the northern extremities of the Central Brahui Range, occupying most of the Loralai, Zhob, Pishin and Quetta districts. They are found in very limited numbers in Khuzdar and Kalat. The extreme desert conditions existing in areas beyond Nok Kundi and Hamun-i-Mashkhel also pose limitations to the dispersal of the Houbara population, though they are present in small numbers in a very dispersed way during certain seasons having better rainfall. The hunting success of the Arab falconers may prove to be a valuable index of the popu- lation density of the Houbara in the area. Be- cause of their very ample monetary resources hunting is concentrated wherever the quarry is most abundant irrespective of the accessi- bility or logistic problems in reaching remote areas. Their only consideration being to reach the area that has a high population of the bird, which could fetch them greater hunting pleasure. In order to achieve this objective, these falconers have advance survey parties, and employ local guides and hunters, to aid 1. Zhob. 18. issa Tahir. 2. Taunsa. 19. Azod. 3. Lorolai. 20. Nokkundi. 4. Sibi. 21 Koh-i-Sultan. 5. Kalat. 22. Yakmuch. 6. Tomulk. 23. jallawon. 7 . Charkohon. 24 Pul-Chatao 8. Kharan, 9. Woshuk. to. Bisimah 25. Gharuk. 26. Leghob. II . Gichick. 27 . Chogoi. 12. Turbot. 28 . Shaliipat . 13 . Dasht. 29 . Londi No 76. 14. Ponjgur. 30. Nushki. 15. Harmogai . 31. Ouetto. 16.Chokar rud. 32. Reg Umar. 17. SiohReg. -33. Khojik Soorok. Fig. 1. A line sketch of the Baluchistan showing the tentative distribution of the wintering population of Houbara Bustard. 542 HOUBARA IN BALUCHISTAN them in selecting better camping areas. The survey is conducted by these advance survey parties, so as to find the areas of high bustard population density. The recent evidences sug- gest that higher bustard population existed in Yakmuch and Pul-Chotao areas of Chagai, and Hurmugai and Charkuhan areas of Kharan. High densities of the bird are present in Laghab, Rag Umar, Azad, Issa Tahir, Siah Reg and Landi No. 76 in Chagai District; Shelli Pat, Barkoh, Shamshi, Washuk and Besimah in Kharan, Gikch, Taroom and Dast in Panjgur; Mach Chakar Khan, Safie, Kalay Wala Kirar, Washin in Sibi. Adequate popu- lation is present in Dasht area of Mustung, Khuzdar, Kalat and Taunsa. A proper scienti- fic study and survey of the areas is still very urgently needed to evaluate the actual popu- lation levels in different areas, however, a tentative map showing the population density according to the hunting successes can be derived from these observations and is pre- sented in Figure 1. There is a general consensus of opinion that there was a much larger population of the Hou- bara in all its wintering grounds, in Baluchistan during both 1981-82 and even greater popu- lation during 1982-83 winter season. This may be attributed to the fact that the winter rains were high during 1981-82, resulting in a more luxuriant vegetation in the area. Further data are needed to study such annual fluctuation in the population of the visiting bird. These casual observations of the hunters and local people may not be the indicator of the fact that the visiting population was significantly higher than the previous year’s, but the local presence of rich vegetation cover in those areas which received the excessive rainfall might have prevented the normal dispersion of the population of the bird. However, such conditions definietly aid the activities of the hunters, leading them to jump to the erroneous conclusion regarding the population level. If this alternate hypothesis is true then the better rainfall and vegetation may have a deleterious effects upon the population rather than bolster- ing it up. In fact the winter rains in the area show a cyclic variation of 4-5 years (Roberts 1973). Future data regarding such population fluctuations and hunting successes would be interesting. Breeding : It has been frequently speculated that the vast desolate areas of Baluchistan may harbour some breeding activities of the Houbara (Ali and Ripley 1969, Siddique 1972, Anonymous 1972), however, concrete evi- dence is lacking. Anonymous (1972) did re- port collecting some Houbara eggs from Muslakh Forest Reserve (District Pishin) and these eggs were hatched in the Government Poultry Farm, Quetta; but the chicks did not survive. During our previous survey of poten- tial breeding areas in Chagai and Kharan in April, 1982, local hunters and Forest Guards did report about the occurence of the breed- ing activity of the bird in the area and pro- mised to show some nests with eggs. However, because we failed to find any direct evidence about the presence of eggs, young chicks or even adult birds in that season, we considered the probability of any Houbara breeding in that area to be very slight (Mian & Surahio 1983). However, we continued our efforts to collect further data regarding this important aspect of the biology of Houbara Bustard. It was brought to our notice that Sheikh Moha- mmad Bin Rashid Al-Maktoum of Dubai had hatched a Houbara chick from a clutch of three eggs most probably collected in Balu- chistan (W. A. Kermani 1982). The information collected by us so far in- dicates that there has never been any signs of the breeding activity in the eastern flank of 543 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Baluchistan, i.e., Sibi and Dera Ghazi Khan, and that eggs or young chicks have never been reported from that region till now. How- ever, reports regarding Chagai, Yakmuch, Kharan and Punjgur seem to indicate that occasional breeding in these areas does occur. The description of the eggs, and the nest des- cribed by various sources from these areas agree perfectly with those reported in the lite- rature (Collar 1979). Though the exact data regarding the number of the breeding pairs present in the area is not available, it is be- lieved that some 50-100 pairs lay eggs in Yakmuch, Kharan and the valley of Chagai Hills. There are reports of some very limited breeding activity of the bird in the vicinity of Punjgur. Further research is needed to confirm how far these reports are reliable, but it is suspected that this breeding activity is not a regular but only sporadic feature of the area by straggling birds. Furthermore, these birds are reported to fly off to their normal summering grounds, when the chicks are still Refe Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1969): Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford Univer- sity Press, Bombay, London, New York. Anonymous (1972) : Houbara in Baluchistan. Outdoorman 2: 15. Collar, N. (1979) : The birds of the Western Palaearctic, Vol. II (Eds: S. Cramp and S. Kel), Oxford University Press, London, New York, pp. 649-655. Kermani, W. A. (1982) : Breeding of Houbara in Baluchistan. (Personal Communication). Mian, A. (1983): Conservation of Houbara in Pakistan. Bull. IUCN. (accepted). Mian, A. & Surahio, M. I. (1983) : Biology of Houbara Bustard ( Chlamydotis undutata macqueeni ) with reference to Western Baluchistan. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80(1): 111-118. Mian, A. & Shaheena, R. (In press) : Conservation perspective of Houbara Bustard (Chlamydotis un- very young. If such is the case further research would still be needed to ascertain the factors which induce occasional pairs to lay eggs in the area and then continue with their north- ward migration leaving the very young chicks behind. Acknowledgements Thanks are due to M/s Hayat Mohammad, Hamidullah, Arbab Inayat Ullah (S.D.O., Wild- life, Baluchistan Forest Department), and Abdul Manan Khan and to the students who collected the data and subjected them- selves to a personal interview and thus made this study possible. Thanks are also due to Mr. K. M. Shams, Chief Conservator, Balu- chistan Forest Department for allowing us to use the data collected by his department. I am specially indebted to Mr. T. J. Roberts, for taking pains in reading through a very rough manuscript and for offering help- ful criticisms in redrafting the paper, which has greatly helped in improving it. EN CES dulata macqueeni) with reference to Baluchistan. Ambio. Mirza, Z. B. (1971) : Houbara faces trial. Out- doorman 1 : 40-45. Roberts, T. J. (1973) : Conservation problems in Baluchistan with particular reference to wildlife pre- servation. Pakistan J. For., 23: 117-127. Siddiqui, M. S. U. (1972): Identifying the bus- tards. Outdoorman, 2: 29-39. Sokal, R. R. & Rohlf, F. J. (1969): Biometry: The principles and practice of statistics in biological research. San Francisco, W. H. Freeman and Co. Surahio, M. I. (1981): Houbara Bustard in Pakistan — Research and conservation, and research WWF/IUCN Project No. 855, Annual Report. (Un- published document). Surahio, M. I. (1982): Houbara Bustard in Pakistan, Conservation and research. WWF/IUCN Project No. 855, Annual Report. (Unpublished docu- ment) . 544 HOUBARA IN BALUCHISTAN Appendix I Facsimile of the questionnaire regarding biology and breeding research on the Houbara Bustard in Baluchistan. N.B. Please collect the information by your own observations and through contact with the reputed local hunters of the area. 1 . At what approximate time the first incoming bird was seen in the area. 2. What hour of the day is prefered for migration. 3. What are the approximate number of the birds in an incoming group. 4. From which direction these birds enter the area. 5. What is the approximate period of stay of the bird in the area. 6. What is the preferred habitat of the bird in the area. 7. Describe the topography and general vegetation of the area. 8. What is the preferred food and how abundant is it in the area. 9. What are the areas having high /medium /low densities of the bird. 10. What is the approximate number of the birds in the area. 1 1 . What is the general mode of hunting of the local and foreign hunters in the area. 12. What is the customary practice of live trapping of Houbara in the area. 13. Give a reasonable estimate regarding the num- ber of the birds hunted by local hunters in the area. Please indicate sex and age, if possible. 14. What is your information regarding the number of the foreign hunting parties, number of hun- ters in each party, number of falcons and vehicle. Can you give the number of the birds hunted by the said party with dates and sex of the hunted bird. 15. Have you seen any eggs/young chicks/brooding birds in the area. If yes, what was the shape, size and number of the eggs per nest. 16. What are the approximate breeding pairs pre- sent in the area. 17. Have you seen the bird during summer, i.e., April to September. 18. What is the approximate season of the egg laying.' 19. What is the approximate time, when the birds leave the area. 20. What is the number of birds in a group leav- ing the area. 21 . Any other information. If possible please collect the stomach of the hunted birds, preserve it in formalin/alcohol, bag these separately in plastic (cellophene) bag with a wing primary feather and tarsus. Please record the time and date of the capture of the bird. 545 ORIENTAL LYCAENIDAE, RIODINIDAE, AND HESPERIIDAE FROM THE CENTRAL NEPAL HIMALAYAS1 Oakley Shields2 A total of 8 lycaenid, 2 riodinid, and 6 hesperiid species are reported from the Oriental realm of the Kali Gandaki of Nepal, along with information about their known ranges, elevations, and food-plants. The food-plant of Lycaena pavana is Polygonum recumbens (Polygonaceae). The lack of any hesperiid above about 2300 m in this region is noted. Introduction The following is an account of the Lycae- nidae, Riodinidae, and Hesperiidae I collected mostly in August in the Oriental realm of the Kali Gandaki region of the Central Nepal Himalayas. These were taken incidentally to the International Nepal Himalayan Expedition for Lepidoptera Palaearctica (INHELP) 1977 expedition’s main objective of high elevation Palaearctic butterflies, reported elsewhere (Epstein 1979a, b; Shields 1981). Lycaenidae 1. Celastrina huegelii oreana Swinhoe Ca. 24-32 km SW Marpha, Kali Gandaki Valley, est. 2530-2560 m, VIII-8-77, 17 c? c? 1$ fresh to worn, mostly at mud. Kalopani, 32 km SW Marpha, 2530 m, VIII-9-77, 1 c? 13 $ 9 fair to worn. Between Kalopani and Lethe, 2530 m, VIII-9-77, 13 dV 5 9 9. Between Kalopani (2440 m) and Ghasa 2010 m), VIII-10-77, 4. 1 Accepted Jane 1981. 2 4890 Old Highway, Mariposa, California 95338, U. S.A. 2560 m was the height in elevation. The subspecies occurs in Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam, and Nepal (Cantlie 1963). 2. Celastrina dilectus dilectus Moore 6^ km W Khangsar, upper end (N side) Khangsar Valley, 4500 m, VII-9-77, 1 S fair. This was undoubtedly a stray from lower, subtropical elevations. It ranges in Simla- Karens, and Nepal (Cantlie 1963). The species is distributed from NW Himalaya through Burma to W China and Formosa, and also occurs in Malaya (Shirozu & Saigussa 1962). 3. Celastrina carna marata Corbet Vicinity of Lumle, 1615 m, VIII- 15-77, 1 c? 1 9 fresh. C. carna occurs in India to Malaya, Java, and Sumatra (Corbet & Pendlebury 1956). 4. Zizeeria maha maha Kollar Between Kalopani (2440 m) and Ghasa 2010 m), VIII-10-77, 6. Ghasa (2010 m) to Tatopani (1220 m), VIII- 11 -77, 5. According to Shirozu & Saigusa (1962, 1963), this common species is distributed from Baluchistan and Kashmir to India, Assam, Siam, S. China, S. Korea, Japan, Formosa, and the Ryukyus. Z. maha maha itself occurs in Baluchistan, Kurram, Pakistan-Central, N 546 LYCAEN1DAE, RIODINIDAE & HESPERIIDAE FROM NEPAL HIMALAYAS India-Nepal, Sikkim, Assam, and Burma (Cantlie 1963). An unspecified subspecies of Z. maha flies from 1220-2440 m in SE Tibet (Evans 1915). Shirozu (1955) and Fujioka (1970) list many Nepal records. Its food plant is Oxalis comiculata (Oxalidaceae) (Sevasto- pulo 1973). 5. Jamides celeno celeno Cramer, warm- season form. Between Naudanda (1458 m) and Pokhara (914 m), VIII- 16-77, ltf. This species is common in India, Sri Lanka and Burma, up to 1980 m in S India (Wynter- Blyth 1957). Shirozu (1955), Forster (1961), and Fujioka (1970) list some Nepal records. /. celeno is distributed from Ceylon and India to Formosa and South China, and through the Archipelago to New Guinea and the Bis- marcks (Corbet & Pendlebury 1956). Heynea (Meliaceae) and Butea (Leguminosae) are the food plants (Sevastopulo 1973). 6. Lycaena pavana Horsfield & Moore Between Kalopani and Lethe (2530 m), VIII-9-77, 2 S c? 2 $ $ fresh, generally on yellow Aster , yellow Potentilla, etc., flying in same area as several L. phlaeas. Between Kalopani (2440 m) and Ghasa (2010 m), VIII- 10-77, 37 d1 cd 13 $ $ mostly fresh, sometimes worn, primarily at flowers along streams. Just NE of Ghasa (est. 2100 m), one female ovipo- sited at mid morning on the vegetative sprig of the moist-area plant Poly- gonum recumbens Royle ex Bab. (det. by A. O. Chater, BMNH). 2530 m was the highest elevation at which we found this species. L. pavana occurs from Kashmir to Kumaon and Nepal (Cantlie 1963), and is fairly common to local. In Kumaon it is known from 1370-3960 m (Nice- ville 1890). It flies from June to August. 7. Heliophorus androcles coruscans Moore Between Kalopani and Lethe (2530 m), VIII-9-77, 1 $ worn. Between Kalopani (2440 m) and Ghasa (2010 m), VIII- 10-77, 16. Between Tatopani (1220 m) and Chitre (2150 m), VIII- 12-77, 3. H. a. coruscans occurs from Kashmir to Kumaon and Nepal. The species is found from Kashmir to Assam, SE Tibet, and N Burma, with four subspecies; not rare (Wynter-Blyth 1957). Shirozu (1955) records coruscans from west, north, and east Nepal. Champion & Riley (1926) report coruscans at 3660 m in the Gori Gorge. Fujioka (1970) gives a number of records for coruscans from the NE corner of Nepal, for July and August. 8. Heliophorus epicles indicus Fruhstorfer Vicinity of Birethanti, 1005 m, VIII- 14- 77, 2. There are seven named subspecies of epicles, extending from Kumaon to Assam, Burma, the Oriental region, Formosa, and Java and Sumatra (Shirozu & Saigusa 1962). H. e. indicus occurs in Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam, and Annam (Shirozu 1955). There are records from Katmandu and East Nepal (Shirozu 1955, Fujioka 1970). Riodinidae I. Zemeros fiegyas indicus Fruhstorfer, wet- season form. Tatopani (1220 m) to Chitre 2150 m), VIII-12-77, Id'. Lumle, 1615 m, VIII- 15-77, led- This species ranges from Mussoorie to Assam, Sumatra, Nias, Java, Bali, Borneo, Lombok, Sumbawa, Sumba, Hainan, Siam, Tenasserim, Shan-States, Mergui, Burma, South China, Philippines, Malaya, and Celebes, where it is common. See Shirozu (1955), Forster (1961), and Fujioka (1970) for Nepal records. It is separated into 12 subspecies. 547 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81 2. Dodona ouida ouida Moore Tatopani (1220 m) to Chitre (2150 m), VIII- 12-77, Id- The species occurs in the Himalayas as far west as Mussoorie; hills of NE India, Burma, from 1220-2440 m, to West China (Wynter-Blyth 1957). It is also known from Lower Tsang Po, 2135 m, SE Tibet (Evans 1915). See Shirozu (1955) and Fujioka (1970) for Nepal records. Typical D. ouida ouida occurs from Nepal to Burma. Both these riodinid species use Maesa (Myrsinaceae) as a food plant (Sevastopulo 1973). Hesperiidae 1. Coladenia dan fatih Kollar Tatopani (1220 m) to Chitre (2150 m), VIII- 12-77, 1 d fresh. Lumle, 1615 m, VIII-15-77, Id fresh. It is found in the NW Himalayas (Kangra to Nepal), Sikkim to Burma, NW Siam, Indo- china, and Hainan (Evans 1949, Shirozu & Saigusa 1962). Ssp. faith continues in a slightly modified form into the E Himalayas. C. dans foodplant is Achyranthes aspera (Amaranthaceae) (Sevastopulo 1973). This species has 11 subspecies, distributed from NW Himalayas to Yunnan, Indo-China, Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Celebes, and Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands (Shirozu & Saigusa 1962). 2. Splalia galba Fabricius Lumle, 1615 m, VIII-15-77, Id' fresh. It ranges from Sri Lanka, S India, Cutch, Sind, Ganjam, central India, NW Himalayas (Kashmir-Kumaon), Bengal, Sikkim, Assam, Burma to S. Shan States, to South China and Hainan (Evans 1949, Shirozu 1955). This is the only representative of this Palaearctic genus in the Oriental region. The foodplant is Sida rhombifolia (Malvaceae) (Sevastopulo 1973). 3. Bibasls vasutana Moore Birethanti, 1005 m, VIII-14-77, Id fresh. Found in Nepal, Sikkim, Assam, and Burma (Karens, Dawnas) (Evans 1949). 4. Aeromachus stigmata stigmata Moore, dry season form. Kalopani to Ghasa, 2440-2010 m, VIII-10-77, 3d- This subspecies ranges from NW Himalayas (Murree-Kumaon), Sikkim and Bhutan. The species is found in Manipur and Naga Hills, Assam, N Burma to Bhamo, S. Shan States, Karens, Yunnan; there are two other sub- species (Evans 1949). 5. Parnara guttatus mangala Moore Lumle, 1615 m, VIII-15-77, 2d d fresh. This subspecies is found in S & W China (Kiang Si, Kwang Tung, Szechwan, Yunnan), Bokhara, Chitral, NW Frontier (Khyber, Hangu), NW Himalayas (Kashmir-Kumaon), Sikkim, Assam, N Burma, S. Shan States, Hainan (Evans 1949). Sevastopulo (1973) reports grasses, Oryza, Saccharum, bamboo, and Zea mays (all Gramineae) as foodplants of P. guttatus. 6. Pelopldas sinensis Mabille Kalopani to Ghasa, 2440-2010 m, VIII- 10-77, Id 1 $ fresh. Vicinity of Tatopani, 1220 m, VIII- 1 1 - 77, 1 d fresh. It occurs from Shanghai to S & W China, NW Himalayas (Kulu-Kumaon), Sikkim, Assam, S. Shan States (Evans, 1949). We found no skippers above c. 2285 m, and a total lack of skippers in the alpine zone. Shirozu (1955) reports no skippers above c. 2285 m in the Thakkhola and Manang regions of central Nepal too. Mani (1962, 1968) and Mani & Singh (1962) make no mention of any high elevation skipper records in their Lepi- doptera Himalayan summaries. Hesperia alpina was taken at Batura (3100-3600 m), western Karakorum (Evans 1927). In Tibet, by con- 548 LYCAENIDAE, RIODIN1DAE & HESPER11DAE FROM NEPAL HIMALAYAS trast, skippers are reported up to 2440-3200 m (Evans 1915), 3359-3660 m (Riley 1927, 2 sp.), and in SE Tibet, 2745-4570 m (South 1913, 11 sp.). The reason for this difference is unresolved. An abundance of grasses appear available to them in the alpine zone, so their absence is puzzling. Acknowledgements I wish to thank the following specialists for making some determinations : Mr. Julian P. Donahue of the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History (a few lycaenids, most hesperiids), and Mr. R. I. Vane-Wright of the British Museum of Natural History (the hespe- riid A. stigmata). The food plant identification was arranged through Mr. Oleg Polunin (BMNH) and Mr. Hans J. Epstein. Dr. R. H. T. Mattoni kindly provided financial assistance (most of the specimens now reside in his collection). Epstein donated his catch of Hesperiidae to the study series. References Cantlie, K. (1963) : The Lyaenidae Portion (Except the Arphopala Group) of Brigadier Evans’ The Identification of Indian Butterflies 1932 (India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma). Bombay. Champion, H. G. & Riley, N. D., (1926): Ento- mological notes on a tour of the Kumaon-Tibet border in 1924. Entomol. Mo. Mag. 62 : 271-279, 2 pis. Corbet, A. S.,"& Pendlebury, H. M. (1956) : The Butterflies of the Malay Peninsula, 2nd ed. London. Epstein, H. J. (1979a) : Interesting, rare and new pierids (Lepidoptera : Pieridae) from the Central Nepal Himalayas. Report no. 2. Entomologist’s Gaz. 30 : 77-104. (1979b) : Interesting, rare and new papilionids (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) from the Central Nepal Himalayas. Report no. 3. Ento- mologist’s Gaz. 30: 157-188. Evans, W. H. (1915) : A list of butterflies caught by Capt. F.M. Bailey in S. E. Tibet during 1913. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 23: 532-546. (1927) : Lepidoptera-Rhopalocera obtained by Mme J. Visser-Hooft of the Hague (Holland) during an exploration of previously un- known country in the Western Karakorum, N. W. India. Tijdsch. Ent. 70: 158-162. (1949): A Catalogue of the Hespe- riidae from Europe, Asia and Australia in the British Museum (Natural History). London. Forster, W. (1961): Rhopalocera, pp. 138-150. In: F. Lobbichler, ed., Lepidoptera der Deutschen Nepal-Expedition 1955. Veroff. Zool. Staatssamml. Miinchen 6: 101-188. Fujioka, T. (1970) : Butterflies collected by the Lepidopterological Research Expedition to Nepal Himalaya, 1963. Part I. Papilionoidea. Spec. Bull. Lepid. Soc. Japan no. 4, 125 p. Man i, M. S. (1962) : Introduction to High Alti- tude Entomology: Insect Life above the Tree-Line in the North-West Himalaya. London. (1968) : Ecology and biogeography of high altitude insects. Series Eniomologica 4, 527 p. & Singh, S. (1961-1962): Entomo- logical survey of Himalaya. Part 26. A contribution to our knowledge of the geography of the high altitude insects of the nival zones from the North- West Himalaya. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58: 387- 406; 59: 77-99. de Niceville, L. (1890): The Butterflies of India, Burmah and Ceylon, vol. III. Calcutta. Riley, N. D. (1927): The Rhopalocera of the Third Mount Everest Expedition (1924). Trans. Ent. Soc. London 75: 119-129. Sevastopulo, D. G. (1973): The food-plants of Indian Rhopalocera. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 156-183. Shields, O. (1981) : International Nepal Himala- yan Expedition for Lepidoptera Palaearctica (IN- HELP) 1977, Report no. 1: Introduction and Lycae- nidae. /. Res. Lepid. 20: 65-80. Shirgzu, T. (1955): Butterflies, pp. 317-381, 4 pis. In: H. Kihara, ed., Fauna and Flora of Nepal Himalaya; Scientific Results of the Japanese Expedi- tions to Nepal Himalaya, 1952-1953. Vol. 1. Fauna & Flora Res. Soc., Kyoto Univ. 549 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 & Saigusa, T. (1962) : Butterflies col- lected by the Osaka City University Biological Ex- pedition to Southeast Asia 1957-58 (Part I). Nature & Life in SE Asia 2: 25-94, 18 pis. (1963): Some butter- flies from West Pakistan and Iran, pp. 103-144, 17 pis. In: M. Ueno, ed., Insect fauna of Afghanistan and Hindukush. Results of the Kyoto Univ. Sci. Exped. to the Karakorum & Hindukush, 1955, vol. 4, 166 p. South, R. (1913): List of butterflies collected by Captain F. M. Bailey in western China, south-eastern Tibet, and the Mishmi Hills, 1911. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 22: 345-365, 598-615. Wynter-Blyth, M. A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. 550 A REPORT ON A COLLECTION OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM THE PONMUDI, KERALA, SOUTH INDIA Robert F. Inger, H. Bradley Shaffer, Mammen Koshy and Ramesh Bakde ( With five plates) [Continued from Vol. 81(2): p. 427] Rana temporalis (Gunther) (Plate IV) Hylorana temporalis Gunther, 1864, Rept. Brit. India, p. 427, pi. 26, fig. G — Ceylon. Rana temporalis Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit. Mus. p. 63. Material. 7 adult females 71.0-79.3 mm SV, mean 76.8; 17 adult males 42.9-54.6 mm, mean 50.6; 102 juveniles 13.4-47.0 mm. Tibia 0.56-0.60 of SV in females, mean 0.580, 0.53-0.60 in males, mean 0.558. The dorsal color pattern of juveniles con- sists of a light tan band between the dorso- lateral folds and sharply contrasting dark brown sides. As the animals mature, this color pattern gradually gives way to a more generally brown dorsal color, so that in some large females, the dorsal and lateral color is uniform dark tan. Males have greatly enlarged nuptial pads on the medial side of the first finger, and a large, flat, oval gland on the inner surface of the upper arm. Of our 7 mature females only 2 contained large, pigmented ova. Larvae. A complete developmental series from Stage 29 through metamorphosing in- dividuals, and all size stages to adults confirms the assignment of seven samples of tadpoles to Rana temporalis. These larvae have patches of glands similar to those found in larvae of other species of the Rana ( Hylorana ) group. Head-body oval, narrower near snout than in rear, maximum width midway between eye and end of body, 0.52-0.68 of head-body length; body slightly flattened, depth 0.67-0.73 of width; eyes dorsolateral, not visible from below, eyeball 0.10-0.13 of head-body length (Stages 29-39), interorbital 0.31-0.34 of head- body width, less than eye-snout distance; nos- trils dorso-lateral, open, with minute mid- dorsal projection, internarial subequal to inter- orbital. Oral disk ventral, subterminal, width 0.41-0.52 of head-body width; lower lip with uninterrupted double row of short papillae and 3-6 much longer papillae in each lateral third; upper lip with short papillae in corners; denti- cles I: l + l/l + l: II, the lower rows subequal; divided upper row with wide median gap; beaks black near margins, finely serrated, up- per without median convexity. Spiracle sinis- tral, midway up side, tube fused to body wall, snout-spiracle distance 0.63-0.73 of head-body length. Anal tube dextral, opening level with margin of fin. Tail 1.60-1.83 of head-body length; dorsal margin weakly convex, ventral straight, maximum depth near end of proximal third, depth 0.20-0.26 of tail length, tapering gradually to narrow tip; caudal muscle deeper than fins at basal half; origin of dorsal fin at end of body, dorsal deeper than ventral most of caudal length. An oval patch of whitish glands ventrally on each side at base of hind 551 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 limb; an elongate, narrow band of glands dor- solaterally beginning a short distance behind eye and extending almost to end of body. Lateral line pores obscure. Head-body dark without distinct pattern dorsally, laterally, and anteriorly under the head; tail also dark, with small scattered black spots. Head-body lengths (mm) : 10.0 (Stage 29), 9.2-11.6 (Stages 30-32), 11.67 (Stage 34), 11.75-12.9 (Stage 39). Maximum total length 33.75 mm (Stage 39). Two individuals in Stage 44 measure 12.2 and 13.2 mm snout- vent. Ecological Notes. This species was taken from 100 to 800 m elevation. Most (92) indi- viduals were collected in evergreen forest, with a few specimens taken in moist-deciduous (5), gallery (4), moist semi-evergreen (1), and secondary growth (3) forest. The species is common both around streams (56) and away from streams in the forest (47). Most in- dividuals were caught either on dead leaves (44) or small rocks (37); the remainder were collected in such divergent habitats as under leaves, on bare soil, and on the leaves and trunks of small herbs, shrubs, and large trees. Seven samples of larvae were taken along forest streams, 6 of them from sheltered side pools and one from a pothole in a rocky bank. Philautus charies Rao Philautus charius Rao, 1937, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 6B : 405, fig. 9 — Kottigehar, Kadur, Karnataka. Material. 8 adult females 19.6-22.1 mm SV, mean 20.6; 6 adult males 16.5-18.8 mm, mean 17.2. Tibia 0.48-0.59 of SV in females, mean 0.534; 0.48-0.56 in males mean 0.527. A small, relatively slender frog with a sharply pointed snout. Fingers are completely free of webbing with large, well-developed disks, from one and one-half to two times width of the subterminal phalanx. Feet are barely one-third webbed, with webbing not reaching to the second subarticular tubercle on fourth toe; a vestige of webbing between toes 2 and 3, and none between toes 1 and 2. Disks on toes about one and one-half times width of subterminal phalanx. In our sample, there appears to be sexual dimorphism in the amount of webbing, with males having some- what less webbing than the female described above. Above skin smooth, with small tuber- cles on eyelid and snout; often extending onto the lateral and dorsal surfaces. Belly granular; throat smooth in females, granular in males. Males with well-developed nuptial pads. Dorsal color pattern a dark brown back- ground with various amounts of light brown or tan and deep brown on back. Often a pair of dark lines between eyes and groin enclosing an hourglass-shaped area sometimes filled with light brown. Forearms, thighs, calves, and feet heavily barred with dark brown. A dark spot on sides of body always present, forming a continuation of largest leg bar when limbs flexed into normal sitting posture. Ventral surface white with variable amounts of dark brown flecking, forming a vermiculated pattern across belly in darkest individuals. Taxonomic Notes. These frogs do not pre- cisely fit Rao’s description (1937), which pro- vides no indication of the amount of intra- specific variation. Our material differs from the type in having less webbing (one- third to one-half webbed in the type) and in size (the type is 23 mm SV, while our largest individual is only 22.1). Rao’s description of the in- terorbital space relative to the eyelid and di- stance between the eye and nostril does not coincide with his figure of the type; our ani- mals are similar to his figure. However, since our locality is nearly 600 km south of the type locality, such differences between the type and our specimens is not surprising. 552 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA Ecological Notes. All but 2 of our 14 specimens came from evergreen forest between 290 and 650 m; the remaining 2 were collected in moist-deciduous forest at 300 m. All speci- mens were found far from water on the forest floor, either on the surface of dead leaves (9 specimens) or beneath leaves or logs (4). Philautus femoralis (Gunther) Ixalus femoralis Gunther, 1864, Rept. Brit. India, p. 434, pi. 26, fig. D — Ceylon. Rhacophorus ( Philautus ) femoralis Ahl, 1931, Das Tier., Lief. 55 : 73. Material. 3 adult females 23.3-24.0 mm SV, mean 23.6; 18 adult males 19.4-22.8 mm, mean 20.9. Tibia 0.48-0.53 of SV in females, mean 0.509; 0.49-0.55 in males, mean 0.513 (n - 11). Habitus slender, snout relatively short and rounded. Canthus rostralis moderate, lores not or only very slightly concave. Upper eye- lids relatively small, much narrower than in- terorbital distance. Tympanum barely visible; no supratympanic fold. Toes about three- fourths webbed with webbing extending to disk on fifth toe, and to disks on lateral sides of third and fourth toes (occasionally only to distal subarticular tubercle on fourth toe); webbing to between middle and distal subarti- cular tubercle on medial side of fourth toe. A rudiment of webbing between fingers. Disks of fingers well developed, about one and one-half times width of penultimate phalanx; those of toes less than one and one-half times diameter of penultimate phalanx. Skin smooth dorsally, granular beneath, with a granular throat in males only. Males have a well-developed nuptial pad on the first finger. Dorsal color pattern variable, ranging from uniform deep purple (in preservative) through a series of patterns of purple-brown spots on a tan background to uniformly tan, with only a dark streak along side of head. In the pur- ple individuals (most of the series), the same color is found on the upper surfaces of the forearms and calves, and a thin line of purple extends the length of the thigh and foot. Lower arm, most of thigh and foot, and sides are immaculate yellowish-white, as are the hands. In those individuals with a spotted or tan dorsum, the limb coloration is also more diffuse, with purple areas often represented as a tan series of crossbars on the forearm and calf. Ventrally all individuals immaculate yellow-white. Males have a well developed nuptial pad on the first finger. In life, these frogs go through a striking shift in color pattern which is reflected in the variation in preserved animals. Freshly caught specimens are invariably a uniform leaf-green (purple in preservative), with yel- low-cream sides (Plate IV). As the animals are held in captivity, the color shifts to brown with cream dorsolateral stripes (Plate V); the spotted individuals presumably represent those in the process of changing color. Taxonomic Notes. We have compared our frogs with the types of Philautus femoralis (Gunther), P. fergusoni (Gunther), P. pulchel- lus (Gunther), and P. beddomii (Gunther) : all but the last species were placed in the synonymy of P. femoralis by Boulenger (1882). The types of P. pulchellus and P. fergusoni are in a poor state of preservation, and can only be said to agree with our mate- rial and with the type of P. femoralis in gene- ral habitus and the overall purple coloration. Our material agrees with the type (BMNH 1947.2.26.89) of femoralis very closely in size, color pattern (the type has the common, uninterrupted purple color), and webbing. As in P. temporalis (see below), our specimens have a more pointed snout in profile than the type, which appears to be an artifact of pre- servation. Our material is similar in general 553 2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 color pattern to the P. beddomi type series, although these individuals have the purple broadly covering the lower arms, thighs, and feet, a condition never found in our sample. Philautus beddomi also differs significantly from our specimens in having much less web- bing on the hind feet. Ecological Notes. We found this species exclusively in disturbed, secondary growth or open grassy situations between 840-900 m. Virtually all specimens were collected from the leaves of 1-3 m tall shrubs, usually far from any stream or pond. The frogs were all collected at night, generally by following calling males, which explains the very uneven sex ratio in our sample. Philautus signatus (Boulenger) Ixalus signatus Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit. Mus., p. 106, pi. 11, fig. 2 — Malabar. Rhacophorus ( Philautus ) signatus Ahl, 1931, Das Tier., Lief. 55 : 77. Material. 1 adult female 27.0 mm SV, 10 adult males 21.2-23.1 mm, mean 22.0. Tibia 0.54 of SV in female; 0.49-0.53 in males, mean 0.521. Overall habitus stocky, relatively robust, with extremely large, protruding eyes, pointed snout, and a sharp, curved canthus rostralis. Toes barely half -webbed, with webbing not quite reaching second subarticular tubercle of fourth toe, and no webbing present on first toe. Disks of toes moderate, about one and one-half times diameter of penultimate phalanx. Fingers without webbing; subarticu- lar tubercles prominent. Disks of fingers about one and one-half times width of finger. The skin smooth above, coarsely granular be- low, granulations extending onto underside of thighs near groin. As in most Philautus, the throat is smooth in females, granular in males. Dorsally all individuals brown with a few irregular dark brown markings in temporal re- gion. A faint pair of brown spots about one- half the diameter of the eye often present in scapular area. “X” pattern on the back is variably present, consisting of a dark, hour- glass pattern of light brown starting at eyes and extending the length of back. Front and hindlimbs barred with dark brown, barring generally becoming a brown marbling pattern on yellow-brown background color along posterior surface of thighs. Ventral colora- tion white with tiny black flecks; more densely concentrated on the throat and underside of the thighs, producing a dusky coloration. In life, dorsal surface pale brown, the side of the head with small, dark flecks. The in- guinal region and anterior surface of the thigh vermiculated with black-brown; the rear of the thigh yellow-green with black reticulations. The iris is silvery, with turquoise along its dorsal margin. The distinctive marbled pattern of the groin illustrated by Annandale (1919) is not always present. In our material, the single female has a strong pattern of dark brown reticula- tions along the anterior side of the thigh and on the groin, extending along the lateral sur- face of the body one-half the distance of the axilla. This pattern is present in a reduced form in a single male (RFI-30931); otherwise the groin is light tan with occasional dark smudges. Taxonomic Notes. The designation of these frogs is questionable, primarily because of the lack of a lingual papilla in our series. How- ever, the extent of variation, both geographi- cally and within populations, in this structure has never been adequately documented. Annandale (1919) noted that the papilla varies from inconspicuous to prominent in the related P. bombayensis, and Kirtisinghe (1957, p. 12) does not consider this character to be of specific value. Otherwise, our material 554 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Inger et al. : Amphibians & Reptiles from Ponmudi Plate IV Above: Ran a temporalis. Below: Philautus femoralis. Typical colour phase when calling J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Inger et al. : Amphibians & Reptiles from Ponmudi Plate V Above: Philautus femora /is. Dark color phase. Below: Rhacophorus malabaricus. A pair in amplexus. AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA agrees well with Boulenger’s description, and with Wall’s (1922) account of the call and general habits. Ecological Notes. As with P. femoralis, this species was collected in open grassy areas between 920-950 m, far from any stream or pond. However, unlike P. femoralis, few individuals were found on small shrubs (3). Instead, most specimens were collected under leaves (1), on the soil surface (5), or on rocks (2). Whether this represents a case of ecological displacement between these two species deserves additional attention. Most specimens collected were calling males. Philautus temporalis (Gunther) Ixalus temporalis Gunther, 1864, Rept. Brit. India, p. 434 pi. 26, fig. E — Ceylon. Rhacophorus ( Philautus ) temporalis Ahl, 1931, Das Tier., Lief. 55 : 97. Material. 5 adult females 25.4-26.2 mm SV, mean 25.7; 13 adult males 18.7-25.6 mm, mean 21.1. Tibia 0.50-0.53 of SV in females mean 0.513; 0.47-0.56 in males, mean 0.498. A small, slender species with pointed snout, sharp, slightly curved canthus rostralis, and weakly concave lores. A distinct, curved supratympanic fold from eye to shoulder. Tympanum very distinct, about half diameter of eye in both males and females. Feet about one-third webbed, webbing reaching second subarticular tubercle on fourth toe, barely to tubercle on first and second toes. Fingers completely free of webbing. Subarticular tubercles weakly developed on both fingers and toes. Skin smooth above, granular be- low, with a granular throat in males. Greyish brown to brown dorsally and late- rally, generally with a distinct pattern of dark- er brown longitudinal bars and spots. Markings frequently form an irregular hour-glass pattern extending from eyes to groin. A very dis- tinct black stripe along the supratympanic fold, extending forward onto the loreal region. Front and hind limbs light tan with brown bars. Ventrally white with flecks of black on belly, more dense on the throat, forelimbs, and thighs. In life, sandy reddish brown above; lores, tympanum and streak below the supratympanic fold dark brown. Taxonomic Notes. Our material agrees very closely with types of P. temporalis (BMNH 1947.2.6.8, 10-11) in size, coloration, web- bing, and general habitus. The only point of difference is in the shape of the snout in late- ral view, which is pointed in our material and relatively blunt in the types. However, in two (BMNH 1947.2.6.10-11) the snout is obvi- ously distorted, with the tip flattened, and it is probable that the shape of the snout is an artifact of preservation. In retaining the name P. temporalis, we follow Ahl (1931) as the last reviewer of the genus. Since we have not examined the types of P. leucorhinus, we cannot judge the distinct- ness of these two species. Ecological Notes. This species uses a wide range of altitudinal and vegetational habitats; specimens were collected from 130 to 900 m in open grassy areas (7), secondary growth (4), evergreen forest (6), and deciduous forest (1). About half (8), all calling males, were found in shrubs or seedlings 0.3 to 2.0 m above the ground. The remaining half were found on the ground, either on dead leaves or bare soil; of these, half were females. Philautus variabiiis (Gunther) Ixalus variabiiis Gunther, 1858, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit. Mus., p. 74-75, pi 4, fig. A, B — Ceylon. Philautus variabiiis, Roux, 1928, Rev. Suisse Zool., 38: 464. Material. 2 adult females 30.3, 31.0 mm SV; 2 adult males 27.0, 28.5 mm. Tibia 0.52 of SV in females; 0.52, 0.53 in males. Hind feet about two-thirds webbed, with 555 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 webbing extending to second tubercle on both sides of fourth toe, and distal tubercle on fifth toe. A slight rudiment of webbing bet- ween fingers. Tips of fingers expanded into broad disks twice as wide as the penultimate phalanx. Disks of toes narrower than those of fingers, about one and one-half times as wide as penultimate phalanx. One specimen has a series of small bumps or short ridges on the snout and eyelids, and sparser ridges on the back; the others are perfectly smooth above. Below, the skin is granular on the belly, around the anus, and on the throat of males. Our 4 specimens cover a remarkable range of color patterns. The dorsal surface ranges from light tan to dark brown, with or without a large, dark brown, inverted “V” pattern on the back, from the front limbs nearly to the groin. A dark interorbital band may be present. At least a hint of dark marbling along sides near groin extending well onto lateral body surfaces and thighs, or confined to immediate region of groin and back of thighs. Ventrally white suffused with black flecks, very sparse or coalescing into dark brown-black reticulation over entire surface. A more or less well defined barring pattern present on the legs and feet. Taxonomic Notes. We have compared these specimens to the holotype of P. adspersus (Gunther) (BMNH 1947.2.6.23), and find them to match in all essentials except the color pattern, which is brown with an irregular pat- tern of brilliant, enamel white spots in adspersus (see Boulenger, 1882, pi. 10, fig. 8). While the color pattern of adspersus is stri- kingly different from that of P. variahilis, the latter species is so variable that we feel the recognition of a related species purely on color pattern must be considered suspect. We thus refer our material to P. variabilis. Ecological Notes. Of our 4 specimens, 3 were collected in evergreen forest (1 at 310 m, 2 at 950), and one was collected in gallery forest. As in all of the Philautus in our col- lection, these frogs were found away from streams or ponds. Two individuals were on the leaves of trees 2-2.5 m above the ground, and one was on dead leaves on the ground. Rhaeophoras malabaricus Jerdon (Plate V) Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870, Proc. Asiatic Soc., Bengal, 84 — Malabar. Material. 1 adult female 95.8 mm SV; 8 adult males 61.9-73.5 mm, mean 68.8. Tibia 0.50 of SV in female; 0.48-0.54 in males, mean 0.50. In life, a bright leaf-green above and white below. Webbing of hand a pale orange-red, feet a more intense, nearly blood-red. A white line along outer edge of forearm, tarsus, and foot; triangular heel appendage white. In pre- servative, upper surfaces purplish, webbing fading to white. In several individuals numer- ous small white spots dorsally. Males with a well-developed nuptial pad on the medial side of the first finger. In our series, the testes are greatly enlarged to 0.18- 0.23 of SV. The single female contained numer- ous mature, unpigmented eggs. Larvae. Six samples of larvae, extending from Stage 25 to premetamorphosis (Stage 42), fit Ferguson’s (1904) description well. The most advanced larvae have fully webbed outer fingers. Head-body lengths (mm) : 9.25 (Stage 26), 12.9-14.2 (Stages 31-32), 14.75 (Stage 36), 15.75-16.8 (Stages 38-39). Maximum tail length 46.67 mm (Stage 38). Tail length 1.72-1.95 of head-body length (3 individuals). Denticles of upper lip II : 5+5 (6 tadpoles) or II : 6+6(1); of lower lip 1+1 : 11(7). Ecological Notes. We found this frog in two different circumstances. One pair was 556 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA collected in evergreen forest, 350 m elevation, 3 m above a side pool in a stream flood plain. Foam nests were attached to vegetation seve- ral meters above the pool and tadpoles in various stages of development were collected there. Our other 7 specimens were collected from trees and shrubs (1-4 m above the ground) surrounding a small pond (approxi- mately 8 m diameter and 1.5 m deep) formed by damming aim wide stream in a disturbed area at 800 m elevation. The frogs were using this pool for breeding (Plate V), and numerous foam nests were seen in the leaves of trees surrounding the pond. Two samples of tadpoles were reared from foam nests, one of which was attached to a palm frond overhanging a stream side pool and the other plastered against the rock wall above a pot-hole on a stream bank. The other free-swimming samples were obtained in stream side pools (3 samples) and in a rocky pot-hole on a stream bank. Hemidactylus frenatus Schlegel Hemidactylus frenatus Schlegel, in Dumeril & Bibron, 1836, Erp. Gen., 3: 366 — Java; Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2: 95. Material. 2 females 61, 67 mm SV, 3 males 58-65 mm, 1 juvenile 28 mm. Tail 0.90-1.12 times SV (n=4). Femoral pores in males 37(2), 41, without a preanal gap. Supralabials 11(3), 12(2). All individuals with conspicuous rounded dorsal tubercles. The fact that these geckos were found in forest rather than in houses obliged us to con- firm the identification by comparison with fre- natus from various parts of southern Asia. The color of one in life— underside of tail orange, chest yellow, tinged with orange — agrees well with Smith’s notes (1935). Ecological Notes. The juvenile was found on a small tree trunk (12 cm) 2 m above ground in deciduous forest. All 5 adults were in ever- green forest at 310-360 m. One was on soil at the base of a tree buttress, the other 4 on tree trunks 2-4.5 m above ground. The trees measured 10, 80, 85, 110 cm DBH. Cnemaspis omata (Beddome) Gymnodactylus ornatus Beddome, 1870, Madras Jour. Med. Sci., 1870, 1: 32 — Tinnevelly, India. Cnemaspis omata Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2: 70. Material. 9 females 46-56 mm SV, mean 52.0; 3 males 50-55 mm, mean 53.0; 2 juve- niles. Tail 1.04-1.22 times SV in the 3 with complete, original tails. Enlarged scansors under fourth toe 3-4, the distal one much larger than the others but not projecting. Males with 8-10 preanal pores. This series agrees well with Smith’s (1935) description. In life, the light areas of the head, neck, and shoulders are yellowish green ex- cept for 2 pairs of white rectangular scapular spots. The color changes abruptly behind the shoulders to bluish grey with darker flecks. Ecological Notes. Twelve of our animals were collected at 950 m, 1 at 660 m, and 1 at 300 m. All were in moist-evergreen forest, contrasting with Beddome’s statement that this species occurs only in “dry jungle’ (Smith 1935). Ten were caught during daylight hours, 5 under rocks, 1 in a rotting log, 1 on a rock, and 3 low on tree trunks. The 4 captured at night were on large rocks (3) and on a tree trunk. The rocks with which these lizards were associated were large, 6 of them 1-2.5 m across. Cnemaspis littoralis (Jerdon) Gymnodactylus littoralis Jerdon, 1853, Jour. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 22: 469 — Malabar. Cnemaspis littoralis Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2: 76. Material. 2 females, one with mature ova, 33, 34 mm SV; 1 male 33 mm. Tail 1.12 times SV in one having an original tail. Male with 16/17 femoral pores, 12 scales separating the 557 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 series. Scansors 5-7 on fourth toe. As Smith (1935) noted, the distal scansors of the basal phalanges are strikingly enlarged. Ecological Notes. All 3 were caught on tree trunks 0.25-1.5 m above ground during day- light hours, 2 in evergreen forest (310-360 m) and one in moist deciduous forest (260 m). This is the first record of littoralis from the southern part of the Western Ghats. Cnemaspis nairi Inger, Marx and Koshy Cnemaspis nairi Inger, Marx & Koshy, 1984, Herpe^ tologica, 40: 149 — Ponmudi. Kerala. Material. 1 females 37-43 mm SV, 3 males 31-41 mm, 7 immature. Means and counts given in Inger et al. (1984). Ecological Notes. This species was collected from 280 to 925 m, most animals coming from 310-360 m. They were caught mainly in ever- green forest (11), the remainder in moist- deciduous forest (1), thin secondary growth (2), gallery forest (1), and at the edge of a grassy area (1). Seven were found under rocks or logs and 2 under slabs of bark on a large log. Three others were caught on large rocks, 3 on floor litter, and 2 low (0.1 m) on tree trunks. Cnemaspis tiropidogaster (Boulenger) Gonatodes kandianus tropidogaster Boulenger, 1885, Cat. Lizards Brit. Mus., 1 : 70 — Ceylon and Tin- nevelly, Nilgiris, and Wynad, India. Cnemaspis kandiana (part) Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2: 74. Material. 132 individuals; 40 females 26-35 mm SV, smallest with enlarged ova 29 mm, mean of those > 28 mm 31.7 (n = 33), 14 were gravid; 53 males 26-33 mm, mean 29.9. Information on counts and taxonomic rela- tionships given in Inger et al. (1984). Ecological Notes. Six geckos were found in moist-deciduous forest, 1 in a gallery forest, and the rest in evergreen forest. Altitudinal range was: 110-145 m — 5, 265-290 m — 3, 300- 370 m— 77, 450-570 m— 11, 660 m— 3, 870- 950 m — 33. Ninety one were caught on tree trunks, 42 within 1 m of the ground and only 5 above 2 m. Fourteen were caught on large rocks, 11 on dead leaves or on bare soil, and 13 under rocks or floor litter. Twelve of the 13 found on bare soil or on or under leaves were within buttress-enclosed areas. Draco dussumieri Dumeril & Bibron Draco dussumieri Dumeril & Bibron, 1837, Erp. Gen., 4: 456 — Malabar; Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2: 143. Material. 2 females 85, 87 mm SV, 2 males 72, 74 mm. One male was caught in a tree at an unknown height in a village (100 m) and the others in trees about 8 m above ground in evergreen forest (350-360 m). One male and a female were caught in the same tree (45 cm DBH). Otocryptis beddomi Boulenger Otocryptis beddomi Boulenger, 1885, Cat. Lizards Brit. Mus., 1 : 272 — Sivagiri Ghat, India; Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2: 147. Material. 27 females, 4 lacking enlarged or yolked ova measure 30, 32, 33, 36 mm (first 3 subadult), 24 adult females 36-42 mm SV, mean 39.4; 28 males, smallest (probably sub- adult) 31 mm, adults 34-43 mm, mean 37.8. Difference between means statistically signifi- cant (t=2.51, P <0.02). Tail length 1.45-1.71 times SV, mean 1.62 (n=9). Foot length 0.40-0.47 times SV, mean 0.44 (n=12). Pit before shoulder distinct. Males occasionally with puffed gular sac, but never with distinct gular appendage. Coloration as described by Smith (1935) except that males have a distinct light vertebral band. Ecological Notes. Twenty-two gravid females contained 3-5 near term ova each (mean 3.55). That such a high proportion was gravid and that we found no hatchlings indicate that the period of oviposition is restricted and was about to begin. 558 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA Seven individuals were caught in moist- deciduous forest, the rest in evergreen forest. Forty-one were collected at 300-365 m, 9 below that level (to 110 m) and 5 above (to 650 m). The bulk (32) were seen scampering over leaf litter. Only 14 were observed on shrubs (4) and trees (10), only 2 of these more than 1.5m above ground and 7 below 1 m. Psammophilus blanfordanus (Stoliczka) Charasia blanfordana Stoliczka, 1871, Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 1871: 194 — Central India. Psammophilus blanfordanus Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2: 210. Material. 2 females 66, 71 mm SV, 1 male 104 mm. The tail of the male, the only indi- vidual with a complete tail, measured 209 mm. Scale rows 97-103. Scales under fourth toe 19-21. Ecological Notes. One lizard was caught in deciduous forest (115 m), 1 in a rubber plant- ing (280 m), and 1 in an agricultural clear- ing (550 m). All were on large rocks (3-5 m) when first seen. The two females contained developing ova, the larger individual 4 and the smaller 6. Calotes calotes (Linnaeus) Lacerta calotes Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 1 : 207 — Ceylon. Calotes calotes Lonnberg, 1896, Bih. Svensk. Vet. Akad., 22: 15; Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2: 201. Material. 1 female 98 mm SV, 1 juvenile 41 mm. Tail 3.52 times SV in the female, 3.17 in the juvenile. Scale rows 31, 34. Scales under the fourth toe 29, 31. Ecological Notes. The juvenile was caught in a rubber planting on the stem of a tall herb 1 m above ground. The female was caught at 9.7 m above ground on a branch of a tree (22 cm) in partly logged evergreen forest. Elevations were 145 and 265 m respectively. Calotes nemoricola Jerdon (Plate VI) Calotes nemoricola Jerdon, 1853. Jour. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 22: 471 — Coonoor Ghat, Nilgiri Hills; Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2: 199. Material. 2 males 108, 110 mm SV. Tail 2.34, 2.40 times SV. Scale rows 39, 42. Scales under fourth toe 23, 28. Both were olive-green when caught, one quickly turning brown. The throat was orange-red in one. Ecological Notes. One lizard was caught in a sapling (3 cm diameter) 2 m above the ground in a moist-deciduous forest (280 m). The second was caught at night asleep cling- ing to a slender branch of a shrub 1 m above ground in an evergreen forest (310 m). These specimens appear to be the first of this species collected in the southern part of the Western Ghats, about 300 km south of the type locality. Calotes rouxi Dumeril & Bibron (Plate VI) Calotes rouxi Dumeril & Bibron, 1837, Erp. Gen., 4: 407 — India; Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2: 206. Calotes elliotti Gunther, 1864, Rept. Brit. India, p. 142 — Malabar; Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2: 207. Material. 19 females 56-71 mm SV, mean 62.8; 4 males 63-66 mm, mean 64.5, 2 juve- niles 26 mm. Tail 2.49-2.87 times SV in 16 individuals having complete tails. Scale rows 51-65, mean 58.7 (n=20); difference between the sexes not significant: males 52-65, females 51-65. The throat and underside of the head may be rose or orange-red in both sexes; in several individuals these areas faded to whitish a short time after capture. Similarly, the enamel white spot on the upper lip of some individuals faded to dirty whitish. Taxonomic Notes. Specimens collected by us are variable with respect to the two diagno- stic characters used by Boulenger (1885) and Smith (1935) to distinguish C. elliotti from C. rouxi : a small spine behind the supraciliary ridge and a white spot below the orbit (see 559 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 tabulation). Post-orbital spine Present Present on one side only Absent Subocular white spot Present 1 2 5 Absent 2 5 5 There is no association among these charac- ters as would be expected from Smith’s key and description. No meristic differences bet- ween the two nominate forms appear in the descriptions of Boulenger or Smith. In our sample, the three with postorbital spines on both sides had 55-64 scale rows and 27-31 scales under the fourth toe; in the 10 lacking the spine these counts were 51-65 and 24-30; in the 7 variable lizards the counts were 52- 65 and 27-30. Those with a subocular white spot had 52-65 scale rows and 24-30 scales under the fourth toe, those without the spot 51-65 and 27-31. Differences between pairs of data sets are not statistically significant. In all other features Boulenger’s and Smith’s descriptions of the two forms are completely congruent and our sample permits no dicho- tomy on the basis of any character. We be- lieve only a single species is involved. Ecological Notes. Only 6 of the 25 collect- ed were in non-arboreal positions: 3 on dead leaves (2 in buttress-enclosed areas) and 3 on rocks. The remainder were on small stumps (2), shrubs 0.5-3 m above ground (8), and on tree trunks 1-7.5 m high (9). Three were captured at night while sleeping on the mid- ribs of shrubby palm fronds. Altitudinal range was extensive: 110-145 m — 4, 310-350 m — 19, 470 m — 1, 950 m — 1. Those from 110-145 m were caught in deciduous forests, the rest in evergreen. Clutch size varied from 1 to 3, mean 2.3 (n=18). Calotes versicolor (Daudin) Agama versicolor Daudin, 1802, Hist. Nat. Rept., 3: 395 — India. Calotes versicolor Jerdon, 1853, Jour. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 22: 470; Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2: 189. Material. 3 females 75-83 mm SV, 3 males 74-94 mm. Tail 2.23-2.81 times SV (n=5). Scale rows 39-43 (n = 5). Scales under fourth toe 22-26 (n=5). Ecological Notes. Two lizards were collected in deciduous forest (130 m), 1 in a semi-open area around buildings (800 m), and 3 in natu- ral grassland (900-970 m). Two were caught on rocks (30-50 cm), 3 on shrubs 1-1.8 m above ground, and 1 on a tree trunk (40 cm) 1.5m above ground. The largest female con- tained 5 developing ova. Mabuya carinata (Schneider) Scincus carinatus (part) Schneider, 1801, Hist. Amph., 2: 183 — no type locality. Mabouia carinata Boulenger, 1887, Cat. Lizards Brit. Mus., 3: 181. Mabuya carinata Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2: 266. Material. 1 female 115 mm SV, 1 male 118 mm, 2 juveniles 50, 66 mm. Tail length of male 223 mm, of larger juvenile 120 mm. Scale rows 32-33. Scales under fourth toe 15. Ven- trals 57-63. Ecological Notes. Two were caught in a natural grassy area at 900 m, 1 in a large camp clearing at 800 m, and 1 in a rubber planting at 290 m. Mabuya clivicola1 sp. nov. Diagnosis. A medium-sized species of Mabuya distinguished from all other Indian species of the genus by the following combi- 1 clivicola from clivus, hill (L.), and cola, dwell- ing in (L.). 560 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA nation of characters: lower eyelid scaly, supra- nasals widely separated, prefrontals narrowly in contact, dorsals weakly keeled, scales in 28 rows, 17-19 scales under fourth toe, a narrow dark vertebral stripe. Holotype. Field number RFI 30095, an adult female, collected 8 May 1982 at Ponmudi, Trivandrum District, Kerala at 260 m above sea level. Deposited in NMNHI. Paratypes. FMNH 216580-81, from the type locality, both adult females, the latter with 3 near term ova. Description of holotype. Body moderately robust, head and neck of equal diameter; snout obtusely pointed; preorbital length of head equal to distance between eye and ear open- ing. All head scales smooth; rostral as wide as high, curving up on to dorsal surface of snout, strongly constricted above the rostro- labial suture, posterior margin strongly con- vex; supranasals narrow, width less than half length, widely separated from each other, end of supranasal behind nasal opening; fronto- nasal about as wide as long, narrowly sepa- rated from frontal by prefrontals; prefrontals meeting at a point, posterior corner separat- ing frontal from first supraocular on left side but not on right, lateral portion curving down on side of head, broadly in contact with both loreals and first supraocular; frontal longer than its distance from snout, broadly in con- tact with second supraocular on both sides and narrowly with first on right side; fronto- parietals as wide as long, touching last 3 supraoculars; interparietal longer than wide, broadly in contact with nuchals; parietals widely separated, bordering last supraocular, 3 temporals, and nuchal; 4 supraoculars, second much the largest, its posterior border transverse, cutting across anterior border of frontoparietal; 5 supraciliaries, the first widest, the third longest; nasal tallest anteriorly, no evident suture behind nostril; first loreal about twice as high as wide, much taller than second, touching first two labials; length of dorsal portion of second loreal greater than height, ventral portion less than height, touching second and third labials; 2 smaller scales bet- ween second loreal and large subocular labial; lower eyelid scaly; a row of very small scales between eyelid and subocular labial; 5 posto- culars, each about half size of temporals; 6 supralabials, 4 small ones preceding large sub- ocular scale and one following; mental below rostral and first supralabials; a large postmen- tal between mental and first infralabial on each side; 2 large scales on each side behind postmental, both pairs separated in midline by central row of gulars. Ear opening smaller than second loreal, 3 small scales projecting into opening from dorsal portion of anterior border. One pair of rugose nuchals. Scales in 28 rows; mid-dorsal scales with 5 weak keels; keels without spurs projecting beyond margins of scales; dorsals and ventrals subequal; preanals not enlarged; 46 ventrals between mental and vent; scales on dorsal surfaces of forelimbs smooth, those of hind limbs with 2 weak keels; subdigital scales ob- tusely keeled; scales on palm and sole rounded; 18 scales beneath fourth toe; dorsal and lateral caudal scales weakly tricarinate; sub- caudals not enlarged. Head, back, and tail olive-brown; a dark vertebral stripe on adjacent halves of mid- dorsal scale rows beginning at shoulder and ending shortly behind rear legs; a dark lateral band beginning at eye as a narrow stripe, con- tinuing over ear, and widening to cover parts of 4 scale rows on trunk; band with a faint light margin dorsally; between eye and shoulder, band with a distinct light stripe ven- trally which is in turn bordered by short, thin dark line; between limbs band bordered 561 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 ventrally by dark gray area that fades into grayish white of underside; head unmarked ventrally. Measurements given below. MEASUREMENTS AND COUNTS Holotypes 30095 Paratypes 216580 216581 Snout-vent (mm) 53 55 55 Head to ear opening (mm) 10.5 10.5 11 Head width (mm) 8 10 8 Axilla-groin (mm) 27 29 29 Scale rows 28 28 28 Ventrals 46 49 47 Scales under fourth toe 18 17 19 Variation. The paratypes are remarkably similar to the holotype in details of coloration and scutellation. The similarity is noteworthy in the dorsal constriction of the rostral, the narrow contact of the prefrontals, and the transverse border of the second supraocular, which prevents the usual wedging of the fron- toparietal between the frontal and supraocular. The rear third of the parietals is rugose in the paratypes. In one (30524) the frontal touches the first supraocular on the right side but not on the left; in the other specimen the frontal is separated from the first supraocular on both sides. In one (31306) the dorsals are weakly 7-carinate. Comparisons. Two other species of Mabuya were collected in the same general area, macu- laria and carinata. Mabuya clivicola differs from both in having weakly keeled dorsal scales in which, in contrast to the strongly keeled ones of the other two, the keels do not project beyond the rear margins of the scales. It also differs from both in having a single dark vertebral stripe, though carinata some- times has a pair of dark dorsal stripes that run along the outer halves of the middorsal scale rows. M. clivicola further differs from carinata in having fewer scale rows (30-32 in carinata ), fewer ventrals (55-63 in carinata ), and more scales under the fourth toe (only 15 in cari- nata). Mabuya clivicola differs from macu- lar i a in the shape of the rostral, which in macularia is gradually narrowed dorsally and not, as in clivicola , sharply constricted above the level of the labials; in having the prefron- tals meeting; and in having more scales under the fourth toe (13-15 in macularia). In macu- laria the frontoparietals are always wedged between the rear of the second supraocular and the frontal; in clivicola that does not occur. Mabuya bibroni Gray, which occurs along the coastal strand of southern India (Smith 1935), has a clear spectacle in the lower eyelid and further differs from clivicola in having strongly keeled scales, 2 pairs of nuchals, a squarish first loreal, and a light vertebral stripe. The other two South Indian species, M. beddomi (Jerdon) and vertebralis Boulenger, differ from clivicola in having the supranasals in contact and more scales (32-36). The boldly striped beddomi has more ventrals (55-62) than clivicola whereas vertebralis has fewer scales under the fourth toe (13-14) and more strongly keeled scales than clivicola. Among the more northerly Indian species, dissimilis (Hallowell), aurata (Linnaeus), and innotata (Blanford) differ from clivicola in having a spectacle in the lower eyelid and more scale rows (32-38). The supranasals meet in dissi- milis and aurata, while innotata has a squarish first loreal; both these character states are absent in clivicola. Ecological Notes. Two specimens of M. clivicola were caught in thin secondary growth, one of them on a road (310 m) and the other in a sun spot on bare soil (260 m). The third 562 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate V! Inger et al. : Amphibians & Reptiles from Ponmudi Above: Calotes nemoricola. Below: Calotes rouxi. Plate VII J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Inger et a/. : Amphibians & Reptiles from Ponmudi \bove: Boiga cevlonensis. Below: Boiga nuchal is. AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA was caught on a large rock in an open area of a tea plantation at 350 m. Mabuya macularia (Blyth) Euprepes macularius Blyth, 1853, Jour. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 22: 652 — Bengal. Mabuia macularia Boulenger, 1887, Cat. Lizards Brit. Mus., 3 : 182. Mabuya macularia Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2 : 264. Material. 88 specimens. Three hatchlings from eggs kept in the laboratory 26-28 mm SV; 25 young, presumably recently hatched, 25-32 mm, 5 additional young 36-41 mm, 3 subadults 48-52 mm; 30 adult females 58-69 mm, mean 62.9; 20 adult males 58-66 mm, mean 62.7. Tail in females 1.22-1.43 times SV (n=3), in males 1.36-1.48 (n=3). Scale rows 28 (12), 29 (2), 30 (1). Ventrals 41- 46, mean 43.5 (n=15). Scales under fourth toe 13-15, mean 13.6 (n=17). The coloration of males in life matches the description of Lygosoma dawsoni Annandale (1909a), which Smith (1935) placed in the synonymy of macularia. Ecological Notes. Ten of 13 females dis- sected had developing ova, though only 4 had shelled eggs. Clutch size was invariably 2. We found 8 clutches of 2 eggs each and one of a single egg. The eggs varied in length from 13 to 15 mm, the diameter from 0.69 to 0.81 of length. Eggs were identified to species on the basis of the embryos except for three that hatched in the field laboratory. Smith (1935) gave clutch size as 3-4. As he re- ferred to an ovipositing female from Thailand, it is possible that clutch size varies geogra- phically. Most (76) of these skinks came from ever- green forest; 5 were caught in thin secondary growth, 4 in moist-deciduous forest, 2 in deci- duous forest, and 1 in a rubber planting. Three- fourths (65) were collected between 300 and 370 m, 9 at 110-150 m, 6 at 280-295 m, and 8 at 450-550 m. Except for two individuals (one on a tree trunk at 2.5 m and one on a stump at 0.5 m), all were first observed at the ground level, 6 or rocks, 2 on logs, and the remainder on or under floor litter. Five clutches of eggs were found under dead leaves, 2 under a log, 1 in a rotting log, and 1 in a rotting stump. RisfeHa beddomi Boulenger Ristella beddomi Boulenger, 1887, Cat. Lizards Brit. Mus., 3 : 359, pi. 29, fig. 4 — southwestern India; Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2: 332. Material. 2 females 36-37 mm SV, 5 males 34-39 mm, 1 juvenile 20 mm. Only one male had a complete tail, 1.35 times SV. Scale rows 26 (2), 28 (5). Ventrals 47-56, mean 50.4 (n=7). Scales under fourth toe 12-15, mean 13.7 (n=7). Color in life dark reddish brown above; side of body satiny jet black with scattered turquoise scales forming dots; underside of head and neck pale yellow tinged with green, ending at a sharp boundary between fore- limbs; remainder of chest, belly, and under- side of limbs salmon; underside of tail darker salmon; yellowish eye ring. Juvenile (in pre- servative) with three narrow, light, dark-edged stripes on back, none on side. Ecological Notes. Seven lizards were caught in evergreen forest and one in moist semi-deciduous forest at elevations from 190 to 510 m. All were found on forest floor, 3 under dead leaves, 1 on bare soil, and 4 on dead leaves. Three clutches of eggs, assigned to this species on the basis of head scales of embryos, were found under large rocks (2 clutches) and under dead leaves (1) in a buttress-enclosed area. Ova in a clutch of 3 measured 6.0 x 8.8 to 6.0 x 9.0 mm. The other clutches consisted of 2 ova each, both 6.0 x 9.0 in one and 5.8 x 8.7 and 6.0 x 8.7 in the other. 563 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Ristella travancorica (Beddome) Ateuchosaurus travancoricus (part) Beddome, 1870, Madras Jour. Med. Sci., 1870, p. 33 — Western Ghats. Ristella travancorica Beddome, 1871, Madras Jour. Med. Sci., 1871, p. 402; Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2 : 331. Material. 41 specimens : 20 females 31-37 mm SV, mean 34.4; 9 males 33-37 mm, mean 34.8; 2 hatchlings 16 mm, 10 juveniles 19-28 mm. One adult male had a complete, origi- nal tail 1.57 times SV and two females 1.29 and 1.43 times SV. Scale rows 22 (1) and 24 (10). Ventrals 48-54, mean 50.6 (n=10). These have the diagnostic characters that distinguish travancorica from the similar spe- cies, R. rurki (Boulenger 1887, Smith 1935); dorsals with two sharp keels, scale rows 24 or less, posterior loreal single. Ecological Notes. Three females were gra- vid; each contained 2 shelled ova. A pair of eggs measuring 5.33 x 11.0 and 5.5 x 11.2 mm were found under a rock (25 cm); one was kept in dead leaves for 23 days before pre- serving, at which time the embryo was near term. A second pair of eggs, also found under a rock, hatched in the field laboratory. All individuals were found in evergreen forests, only 5 below 500 m and 31 between 860 and 950 m above sea level. Three-fourths were caught under dead leaves (21) or rocks (11), 5 on bare soil, and 1 low (0.3 m) on a tree trunk. The last may have been dis- turbed by one of us from its usual floor habitat before we saw it. Sphenomorphus dussumieri (Dumeril & Bibron) Lygosoma dussumieri Dumeril & Bibron, 1839, Erp. Gen., 5: 725 — Malabar; Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2 : 286. Sphenomorphus dussumieri Taylor, 1950, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 33 : 497. Material. 34 specimens: 17 juveniles 22-32 mm SV; 1 subadult 43 mm; 8 females 49-60 mm, mean 55.5; 8 males 52-64 mm, mean 58.3. Tail 1.72-1.81 times SV (n=5, males only). Scales rows 38 (2), 40 (7), 41 (1), 42 (2). Ventrals 73-85, mean 80.5 (n=10). Scales under fourth toe 20-24, mean 21.8 (n-10). Ecological Notes. Females had either 3 (4 individuals) or 4 (3 individuals) developing ova. Lizards were caught in evergreen forest (14), moist-deciduous forest (8), secondary growth (8), and in a rubber planting (4). Most (21) were captured at 110-150 m above sea level and the remainder between 265 and 350 m. Annandale (1909a) found dussumieri at the base of the hills in Travancore. Typhlops beddomi Boulenger Typhlops beddomi Boulenger, 1890, Fauna Brit. India, Rept. Batr., p. 237 — hills of South India; Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 3 : 54. Material. 1 specimen total length 90 mm. Scale rows 18. Transverse rows of scales 203. All of the head scales, starting two scales behind the eyes, are almost entirely covered with small glandules. Above dark brown; each scale edged anteriorly with a purplish brown streak. Snout and ventral surface lighter tan. Ecological Notes . This snake was found in a patch of gallery forest at 950 m elevation beneath a rock (diameter 50 cm). Typhlops braminus (Daudin) Eryx braminus Daudin, 1803, Hist. Nat. Rept., 7 : 279 — Vizagapatam, India. Typhlops braminus Cuvier, 1829, Reg. Anim., ed. 2, 2: 73; Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 3 : 46. Material. 1 specimen total length 145 mm. Scale rows 20. Transverse rows of scales 315. Glands of head scales as figured by Smith (1943, fig. 14). Ecological Notes. This specimen was col- 564 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMVDl, KERALA lected beneath the bark of a 60 cm log in evergreen forest at 110 m elevation. Uropeltis ceylanicus Cuvier Uropeltis ceylanicus Cuvier, 1829, Reg. Anim., ed., 2, 2: 76 — Ceylon; Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 3 : 80. Material. 1 specimen total length 405 mm. Scale rows at mid-body 17. Ventrals 128; caudals 9. Ecological Notes. This snake was found dead on a road through a tea plantation at 500 m above sea level. Amphiesma beddomi (Gunther) Tropidonotus beddomei Gunther, 1864, Rept. Brit. India, p. 269, pi. 22, fig. E — Nilgiris. Amphiesma beddomei Malnate, 1960, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 112 : 50. Natrix beddomei Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 3 : 306. Material. 2 males total length 340, 500 mm, SV 250, 365 mm; 2 females total length 390, 565 mm, SV 300, 420 mm; 3 juveniles total length 150-180 mm, SV 115-130 mm. Eight supralabials. Temporals 1+1 (1), 1+2 (6). Scale rows at mid-body 19. Ventrals 136- 140 (n=4); caudals male 76, female 61, 2 juveniles 68-73. This sample exhibits the striking change in coloration with age described by Smith (1943). Ecological Notes. All these snakes were found in evergreen forest well away from streams. Six were caught between 310 and 360 m above sea level and one at 950 m. Three individuals were found on or under dead leaves, 3 on the surface of the soil and the single high altitude snake under a 12 cm log. Two juveniles contained one small toad each (prey SV 10 mm) in their stomachs. Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider) Hydrus piscator Schneider, 1799, Hist. Amph., 1 : 247 — East Indies. Xenochrophis piscator Malnate & Minton, 1965, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 117 : 19. Natrix piscator Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 3 : 293. Material. 1 male total length 475 mm, SV 335; 4 females total length 210-300 mm, SV 155-225 mm. Nine supralabials (4) or 9/10 (1). Temporals 2+2 (3), 2+1/2, 2+2/3. Scale rows at mid-body 19. Ventrals 129 (male), 142 (1 female); caudals 76 (male), 74 (1 female). The small specimens are dark brown dor- sally, grading to light tan laterally, with black vertical bars each covering 3-4 scale rows in 4 or 5 alternating rows across the entire body. The adult male is uniform olive brown except for black bars on the lateral scale rows. Taxonomic Notes. Smith (1943) described four races of this common Asian water snake. However, the juvenile and adult color pat- terns of these specimens straddle two of his forms. Ecological Notes. We collected 3 individuals from permanent small streams (1-4 m wide) between 105 and 350 m above sea level in clearings of moist-deciduous and evergreen forest, a fourth in a temporary pool in secon- dary growth at 350 m, and the fifth crossing a road at 500 m. In addition, several were seen, but not collected, foraging at night around a dammed pool (c 6 m diameter) in secondary growth at 800 m. ElapSie helena (Daudin) Coluber helena Daudin, 1803, Hist. Nat. Rept., 6: 277 — Vizagapatam, India. Elaphe helena Shaw et al., 1939, Jour. Darjeeling Nat. Hist. Soc., 14 : 78; Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 3 : 149. Material. 1 juvenile total length 395 mm, SV 325 mm. Nine supralabials. Scale rows at mid-body 25. Ventrals 243, caudals 74. Color brown with dark crossbands con- taining white ocelli. Ventrally with semi-cir- cular black bands extending about one-fourth width of ventrals, giving a scalloped black edge to the yellow-tan belly. A white nuchal 565 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 collar, interrupted along the midline and surrounded by black bands. According to Smith (1943) this nuchal pattern is confined to populations from the Western Ghats. Ecological Notes. This specimen was col- lected at 8 a.m. at 800 m on a road. Oligodon affinis Gunther Oligodon cf finis Gunther, 1862, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (3), 9 : 58 — Anamallais; Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 3 : 230. Material. 1 juvenile total length 245 mm, SV 225 mm. Six supralabials. Scale rows at mid-body 17. Ventrals 140; caudals 20. No loreal. Posterior nasal elongate. Color brown with dark brown crossbars edged with white. Below white with more or less alternating black squares. Head with com- plex dark pattern as in Smith (1943, fig. 79). This specimen differs from Smith’s (1943) description in having one less supralabial and fewer caudals (23 lowest count given by Smith). Ecological Notes. Our snake was collected on a streamside rock at the edge of a village at 100 m above sea level. Lycodon travancoricus (Beddome) Cercaspis travancoricus Beddome, 1870, Madras Monthly Jour. Med. Sci., 2 : 169 — Travancore hills, India. Lycodon travancoricus Boulenger, 1890, Fauna Brit. India, Rept. Batr., p. 293; Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 3 : 259. Material. 1 male total length 545 mm, SV 430 mm; 1 female total length 525 mm, SV 420 mm. Nine supralabials. Scale rows at mid-body 17. Ventrals 166 (male), 180 (female); caudals 68 (male), 63 (female). All caudals in the male single, the first 40 single in the female. Dorsal coloration purple- black with white crossbars. Ecological Notes. Both snakes were caught the same night along on a trail in evergreen forest at 310 m within a 30-minute interval. A steady rain was falling that evening. Xylophis stenorhynchus (Gunther) Gcophis stenorhynchus Gunther, 1875, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1875 : 230 — Travancore. Xylophis stenorhynchus Boulenger, 1890, Fauna Brit. India, Rept. Batr., p. 304; Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 3 : 343. Material. 1 male total length 115 mm, SV 100 mm; 1 female total length 135 mm, SV 125 mm. Five supralabials. Scale rows at mid-body 15. Ventrals 102 (male), 119 (female); caudals 19 (male), 14 (female). Dorsally dark brown with an irridescent sheen. Two lines of dark tipped scales on rows 2 and 4; a more or less well defined line of dark brown scales on row 3. A whitish collar 1-2 scales wide around entire neck. One snake has a distinct white temporal stripe. Ecological Notes. Both specimens were collected in evergreen forest at 145 and 300 m above sea level under dead leaves. One was in the accumulated litter between but- tresses of a tree 60 cm in diameter. Ahaetulla nasuta (Lacepede) Coluber nasutus Lacepede, 1789, Hist. Nat. Serp., 1 : 100 — Ceylon. Ahaetulla nasuta Stejneger, 1933, Copeia, 1933 : 203. Dryophis nasutus, Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 3 : 376. Material. 3 males total length 650-1060 mm, SV 415-665 mm, mean 512 mm; 9 females total length 440-1330 mm, SV 290- 870 mm, mean 611 mm. Eight supralabials, 1 snake with 9 on one side. Temporals vari- able, 1-2 anterior, 1-3 posterior, frequent asym- metries within individuals. Scale rows at mid- body 15. Ventrals in males 179-185, mean 181.6; in females 163-181, mean 176.1. Cau- dals in males 162-168, mean 165.6; in females 147-159, mean 153.4. Loreal present in only one snake. In life brilliant grassy green above, paler 566 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA green below. A yellow line along the outer edge of the ventrals on each side extending to the vent. Smith (1943) lists several vari- ants from this color pattern, none of which is represented in our sample. Ecological Notes. A diurnal snake, 10 of 12 being caught during the day. Two indi- viduals were found on exposed soil, one on a log, and one in a large tree 2 m above the ground in low branches. The remainder were taken from low shrubs, 2-2.5 m above the ground. One specimen was caught in secon- dary growth at 840 m above sea level; the rest were collected in evergreen forest (9) or in moist deciduous forest (2) between 145 and 350 m. Boiga ceylonensis (Gunther) (Plate VII) Dipsadomorphus ceylonensis Gunther, 1858, Cat. Col. Snakes Brit. Mus., p. 176 — Ceylon. Boiga ceylonensis Smith, 1943. Fauna Brit. India. Rept., 3 : 351. Material 2 males, total lengths 755, 940 mm, SV 585, 725 mm; 1 juvenile total length 495 mm, SV 385 mm. Supralabials 8. Tempo- rals 2+3. Scale rows at mid-body 19. Ven- trals in males 228, 233; 218 in juvenile. Caudals in males 108, 112; in juvenile 102. Hemipenis covered with numerous short, closely set spines. Color pattern of the head in all three speci- mens consisting of a light tan background with dark brown, symmetrical markings. A trans- verse bar along the posterior edge of each parietal, met on the midline by a longitudinal mid-dorsal streak extending posteriorly from the parietals 5-7 scales. A thin postorbital streak from the eye beyond the angle of the jaw immediately above the supralabials. A pair of dark chevrons more or less developed on the anterior margin of the parietals. Body covered dorsally with alternating dark and light blotches, producing a diffuse banded pattern. Ventraliy white with irregular dark brown flecks. Taxonomic Notes. We here use B. ceylo- nensis in the restricted sense of Wall (1909), as opposed to the extended sense of Smith (1943), and consider at least B. ceylonensis and B. nuchalis to be valid species. B. nuchalis is discussed on p. 568. Ecological Notes. Two specimens were collected at 310 m in evergreen forest, one on the soil surface and the other 60 cm above the ground in a low shrub. The third snake was taken in the early morning crossing a road at approximately 800 m above sea level. Boiga dightoni (Boulenger) Dipsas dightoni Boulenger, 1894, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 8 : 528 — Pirmaad, Travancore. Boiga dightoni Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 3 : 359. Material. 1 male total length 1170 mm, SV 920 mm; 1 female total length 965 mm, SV 770 mm. Female missing the tip of the tail. Eight supralabials. Scale rows at mid- body 23. Ventrals 248 and 239, caudals 111 and 90 in the male and female, respectively. Above uniform light brown; supralabials tan with fine dark brown specks. Below light tan with dark brown flecks. The scale counts for the male is somewhat higher than the range given by Smith (1943 : ventrals 228-241, caudals 95-102). However, as Smith had only 3 specimens available, his ranges should be considered approximate. In all other charac- ters our material agrees well with Smith’s description. This is a rare species in collections, with apparently only 3 specimens known other than the two reported here. Ecological Notes. Both snakes were taken in secondary growth situations at high altitudes (700 and 840 m). The male was caught 1.3 m above ground in a small shrub at night 567 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 and contained a partially digested Calotes ver- sicolor (SV 95 mm, total length 320 mm) swallowed head first. Boiga nuchalis (Gunther) (Plate VII) Dipsas nuchalis Gunther, 1875, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1875 : 233 — west coast of India. Boiga ceylonensis (part) Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 3 : 351. Material. 2 males total length 705, 1155 mm, SV 560, 895 mm. Eight supralabials. Temporals 2+3. Scale rows at mid-body 23. Ventrals 248, 249; caudals 107, 108. Head elongate, snout blunt, eyes not protruding. Head dark tan with a faint darker brown triangular patch extending from the posterior border of the parietals anteriorly over the head to the rostral. A nuchal collar of dark brown separated from the large dark patch by 2-3 scales. The collar is 3 scales wide in both specimens. A sharply defined dark streak from the posterior border of the eye to the last supralabial. Pattern of the body similar to that of B. ceylonensis , consisting of alterna- ting crossbands of dark brown on a tan back- ground. Ventrally light with brown flecks. Taxonomic Notes. There has been disagree- ment in the literature concerning the validity of this form as a species distinct from B. ceylonensis. Wall (1909) divided B. ceylonen- sis into four species ( andamanensis , beddomi, ceylonensis, and nuchalis ) on the basis of ven- tral, subcaudal, and mid-body scale counts. Annandale (1909b) disagreed with Wall’s judgement and Smith (1943) lists all 4 under ceylonensis, primarily because he could find no additional characters corroborating the scale count differences. We observe a differ- ence in coloration; compare descriptions pre- sented here. Ecological Notes. Both specimens were caught at night, one on the ground in a large clearing and the other on a road at 200 m elevation. Hypnale hypnale (Merrem) (Plate VIII) Cophias hypnale Merrem, 1820, Syst. Arrtph., p. 155- “Levante.” Hypnale hypnale Gloyd, 1977, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash- ington, 90: 1009. Ancistrodon hypnale Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 3: 499. Material. 4 males total length 276-340 mm, SV 234-289 mm, mean 260.5 mm; 7 females total length 353-412 mm, SV 314-360 mm, mean 335.4 mm; 1 juvenile SV 132 mm. Seven supralabials. Scale rows at mid-body 17. Ventrals in males 135-141, mean 137.8; in females 133-141, mean 138.0. Caudals in males 40-42, mean 40.8; in females 33-35, mean 34.0. Ecological Notes. Eight of the 12 in this sample were caught in evergreen forest, 3 in moist-deciduous forest, and 1 in secondary growth. Three were on rocks, one on a log, and the rest at ground level on soil or dead leaves. Altitudinal range was narrow, 105-350 m. One female (SV 354 mm) had a small mammal in the gut. Another (SV 340 mm) contained 5 near term embryos. Trimeresunis malabaricus (Jerdon) Trigonocephalus malabaricus Jerdon, 1854, Jour. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 22: 523 — Western Ghats. Trimeresunis malabaricus Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 3: 513. Material. 13 males total length 340-550 mm, SV 285-450 mm, mean 388 mm; 13 females total length 275-665 mm, SV 230-565 mm, mean 354 mm; 14 juveniles total length 185- 285 mm, SV 155-240 mm. Supraoculars 1-5, variable between sides. Internasals 2-3 times size of adjacent scales and meeting in mid- line. Scale rows at mid-body 21 (38) or 23 (2). Ventrals in males 143-150, in females 138-146, in juveniles 135-152. Caudals in males 53-58, in females 51-59, in juveniles 48-60. Coloration variable. Larger individuals 568 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate VIII Inger et al. : Amphibians & Reptiles from Ponmudi Hypnale hypnale. \ AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUD1, KERALA (> 420 mm total length) dark brown with irregular green crossbars. In some specimens green predominates, with black saddles across the back. Head dark with scattered light green scales. Below mottled green and yellow; a few of the scales in the lowest lateral row some- times yellow. Tail above brightly banded with green and black, occasionally with some yellow. Juveniles and a few of the adults light brown above with a series of dark brown, diamond- shaped saddles distinct or barely visible. In a few a second series of smaller brown spots on the first scale row bordering the caudals. The two color phases in our sample are very similar to Smith’s (1943) descriptions of the color patterns of T. malaharicus (greenish) and T. strigatus (brownish), both from the southern Western Ghats. However, the scale counts and condition of the second supralabial (very long and forming the anterior portion of the loreal pit) agree with T. malabaricus regardless of coloration. Several of our inter- mediate-sized animals appear to be in tran- sition between the two color forms; that is, they retain the overall brown saddled pattern Refe Adriel, D. (1966) : Working Plan for Trivan- drum Forest Division 1964-65 to 1973-74, Ernaku- lam. Ahl, E. (1931) : Anura III. Polypedatidae. Das Tierreich, Lief. 55: 1-477. Annandale, N. (1909a) : Report on a small col- lection of lizards from Travancore. Rec. Indian Mus. 3: 253-257. (1909b) : Miscellanea. Reptiles. ibid. 3: 281-282. (1918) : Some undescribed tadpoles from the hills of southern India, ibid. 15: 18-23. (1919): The fauna of certain small streams in the Bombay Presidency, ibid. 16: 109-171, 7 pis. Bhaduri, J. L. & Kripalani, M. B. (1955) : Nycti- batrachus humayuni, as a new frog from the Western but are becoming very dark, and the tail is assuming the green color. Ecological Notes. Three snakes were caught in moist-deciduous forest, 35 in evergreen forest, and 2 in gallery forest extending into grassland from a block of evergreen forest. Altitudinal range was extensive, 110-920 m, although most (28) v/ere found in the 300- 375 m zone. Seven snakes were captured along water courses, 32 at some distance from streams, and one in a large clearing. About half (21) were found at the ground level, on dead leaves, rocks, and logs, and the remainder on herbaceous plants, shrubs, stumps, and trees from 0.1 to 3.0 m above the ground. Only 4 of these snakes contained food re- mains. One juvenile (SV 240 mm) had an adult Cnemaspis tropidogaster (SV 32 mm) and another (SV 225 mm) had a Rhacophorus (probably R. pleurostictus, SV 31 mm). An adult female (SV 545 mm) had recently in- gested a musk shrew ( Suncus murinus, body length 120 mm), and another female (SV 565 mm) had mammal hair in its gut. E n ce s Ghats, Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 852- 859. Boulenger, G. A. (1882) : Catalogue of the Batrachia Salientia S. Ecaudata in the collection of the British Museum. London. (1883) : Description of new species of reptiles and batrachians in the British Museum. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), 12: 161-167. (1885) : Catalogue of the Lizards in the British Museum (Natural History). London. Vol. I. (1887): ibid. Vol. 3. (1890) : The Fauna of British India. Reptilia and Batrachia. London. (1920) : A monograph of the South Asia, Papuan Melanesian and Australian frogs of the genus Rana. Rec. Indian Mus. 20: 1-226. 569 3 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Daniel, J. C. (1963, 1975): Field guide to the amphibians of Western India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., Part 1, 60: 415-438; Part 3, 72: 506-522. Ferguson, H. S. (1904) : A list of Travancore batrachian. ibid. 15: 499-509. Gosner, K. L. (1960) : A simplified table for staging anuran embryos and larvae with notes on identification. Herpetologica 16: 183-190. Gunther, A. (1875): Third report on collections of Indian reptiles obtained by the British Museum. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1875: 567-577, pis. 63-66. Inger, R. F. & Colwell, R. K. (1977): Organi- zation of contiguous communities of amphibians and reptiles in Thailand. Ecol. Monogr. 47: 229-253. Inger, R. F., Marx, H. & Koshy, M. (1984): An undescribed species of gekkonid lizard ( Cnemaspis ) from India with comments on the status of C. tropidogaster. Herpetologica 40: 149. Kirtisinghe, P. (1957): The Amphibia of Ceylon. Colombo. Lloyd, M., Inger, R. F. & King, F. W. (1968): On the diversity of reptile and amphibian species in a Bornean rain forest. Amer. Nat. 102: 497-515. Myers, C. S. (1942a) : A new frog from the Anamallai Hills, with notes on other frogs and some snakes from South India. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing- ton 55 : 49-56. (1942b): A new frog of the genus Micrixalus from Travancore. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash- ington 55: 71-74. Parker, H. W. (1934) : A monograph of the frogs of the Family Microhylidae. London. Pillai, R. S. (1978a) : A new frog of the genus Micrixalus Boul. from Wynad, S. India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 87B: 173-177. (1978b) : On Nyctibatrachus major Boul. (Ranidae) with a description of its tadpole. Bull Zool. Survey India 1: 135-140. Rao, C. R. N. (1918): Notes on the tadpoles of Indian Engystomatidae. Rec. Indian Mus. 15: 41-45. (1937) : On some new forms of Batrachia from S. India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 6B: 387-426, 11 pis. Seshachar, B. R. (1942): The eggs and embryos of Gegenophis carnosus Bedd. Current Sci. Banga- lore 11: 439-441. Smith, M. A. (1935): Fauna of British India. Reptiles and Amphibians. Vol. II — Sauria. London. (1943): ibid. Vol. Ill — Serpentes. London. Taylor, E. H. (1961): Notes on Indian caeci- lians. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58: 355-365. Wall, F. (1909): Remarks on some forms of Dipsadomorphus. Rec. Indian Mus. 3: 151-155. (1922): Notes on some lizards, frogs and human beings in the Nilgiri Hills. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28: 493-499. 570 POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF EUPHORBIA GENICULATA ( EUPHORBIACEAE ) 1 E. U. B. Reddi and C. Subba Reddi2 (With a plate & three text-figures) Euphorbia geniculata is monoecious and reproduces both by geitonogamy and xenogamy. The stigmas are fully receptive by the 3rd day of anthesis, and the male phase is evident from the 5th day of female anthesis, with the anthers dehiscing between 0800-1000 h. The nectar is glucose + fructose dominant type, and is secreted in quantity by day and night. The cyathium is flat blossom and is of the promiscous type. Pollination is effected by a broad spectrum of diurnal insects and is of the ‘mess and soil’ type. The principal pollinators are ants (Camponotus) , wasps (Ropalidia, Polistes, Vespa) and beetles (Coccinella) . The ants are consistent and more abundant, and they alone could satisfy the pollination requirement to result in 100% reproductive success. The ants because of their crawling behaviour mainly deliver geitonogamous pollen, but their bellicose nature helps the plant to achieve more outcrossing by the wasps which being plant to plant. Introduction In the family Euphorbiaceae, the genus Euphorbia is the largest one represented by more than 1600 species (Lawrence 1973), all of which are almost cosmopolitan in distribu- tion, but majority confined to the tropics (Kerner 1904, Good 1964). The cyathial morphology and anatomy were fully studied by several generations of botanists since Roeper’s day and the basic structure is now well understood; however, this knowledge has never been related effectively to pollination problems (Webster 1967). The early works reported diverse groups of insects visiting 18 species of Euphorbia (Knuth 1906-9); however the importance of insects in the reproductive biology of these plants re- 1 Accepted December 1982. 2 Department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, Waltair-530 003. scared of the ants move more often from mained obscure. Only very recently has there been a detailed study by Ehrenfeld (1976, 1979) in respect of three species of Euphorbia, sub -genus Chamaesyce. His results showed that the three species differ in their reliance on in- sect vectors for reproduction. Despite such scattered observations, the floral biology of the genus Euphorbia characterised by unique floral device is still rather poorly known (Webster 1967, Ehrenfeld 1976). Realising the import- ance and dearth of these studies from the tropical zones, especially of the Indian sub- continent, attempts were made to collect the data on pollination ecology of Euphorbia geniculata, a monoecious annual weed occurring in the cultivated fields and gardens, and grow- ing to 1 m height. Materials and Methods Euphorbia geniculata Orteg. (E. hetero- phylla L.) growing at Visakhapatnam in the cultivable lands of the Botany Experimental 571 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Farm area 3 km away from the Andhra Uni- versity Campus on NH5 formed the material for the present study. Fifty cyathia labelled in bud condition were followed till they ceased to produce flowers to record daily anthesis from which the male to female flower ratio was computed. Numerical assessment of the pollen grains contained in an anther was made squashing the mature and undehisced anther in lactophenol aniline-blue and counting the entire pollen mass drawn into a band on the microscope slide. Periodic determinations of the pollen contained in the dehisced anthers were similarly done. The pollen grains depo- sited on the stigmas were counted after press- ing the stigmas in between two glass slides. The longevity of pollen was assessed through in vitro germination studies using 20% sucrose solution with 1% boric acid solution added. The length of the stigma receptivity was based on pollen germination after hand pollinating the stigmas of different ages. To monitor the nectar amounts, the plants in bloom were covered with insect proof cages for the required periods and DDT was applied around the plants to prevent the ants reach- ing the nectar cups. The nectar accumulated in the cups was measured at intervals using dispensable micropipettes. Sugar concentration was read with Erma Hand Refractometer and sugar composition using paper chromatography and spectrophotometry (Harborne 1973). Pro- teins and amino acids were detected according to Raker & Baker (1973). The insects caught at the cyathia all through the study period (1979 and 1980) were got identified through the courtesy of CIE Lon- don. Green house was used to study the pre- vailing breeding system (s) and to estimate the reliance on insects for pollination. Sticky cylin- ders were exposed daily for a week at the plants’ height to assess the role of wind in pollen dispersal. To assess the efficacy of ants versus other foragers as pollinators, certain plants were allowed to receive the foragers excluding the ants through applying DDT at the plant bases. Another batch of plants were open to ant visits only. After leaving sufficient time, the fruits and the seeds formed, were scored and compared. The number of cyathia visited in a bout and per unit time, and the time spent on a cyathium by each major insect species were recorded using a stop watch. The more frequent visitors were caught at the cyathia and were washed with alcohol. After adding a droplet of lacto- phenol aniline-blue, these washings were observed for pollen under light microscope. To determine the number of pollen that could be transferred on to the stigmas by a single visit of a particular kind of insect visitor, plants in bloom kept in insect-free cages were opened in batches for the insects to visit; when such exposed cyathia received the first visit they were plucked and their stigmas examined for pollen. Several such observations were done and the mean number of pollen transferred, was calculated. Observations FLORAL DYNAMICS The plants are evident in any part of the year provided the soil contains enough mois- ture. Normally, these appear after the first rains. After a month’s vegetative growth, the plants bloom, the blooming normally lasting for l\ to 2 months. Inflorescence. It is a cyathium. Several such cyathia (45 =±=18) are arranged in terminal condensed dichasia of 3. 5 -4.0 cm in diameter. Cyathium is glabrous without and consists of an ovoid involucre with the margin lined with a fringe of fleshy, finger-like lobes. 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CYNOPTERUS SPHINX IN CENTRAL INDIA tfi m in cn c4 Os 00 VO »n co co | ro ' l I I l I l m I 1 1 I I co r) o M N M | I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 3 I — i I ''t -i t— i t-h d cn *"H t-h <— i I I I I I oooooooooooooooooo a I i I l i I g 6 NNNNNNNNN t-H t-H t-H t-H t-H t-H t-H t-H t-H I I I I I I R I I ri IT| T-i rt O'- Cl VC 00 t-h T-H T-H t-H fV) cn o VO m Ol co O Os rj- O- Os r- r- »o ol cl ci o Os o') n cl 03 HI o H 605 ♦Adult specimens had undergone abortion. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Table 2 Monthwise collection of specimens Month No. of males No. of females Total January 13 25 38 February 37 44 81 March 36 49 85 April 23 45 68 May 15 22 37 June 18 21 39 July 22 25 47 August 13 22 35 September 15 14 29 October 32 16 48 November 29 22 51 December 26 17 43 Total 279 322 601 processing. In the case of males the right testis and the right epididymis of each specimen were weighed with a Mettler balance after gently rolling the organs on a filter paper. While this does not give the exact weight of these organs, this method gives accurate rela- tive values of the organs of the animals since the error due to fixation and preservation is same for all animals. The testis and accessory reproductive organs in the males and the ovaries, uterine cornua, vagina and mammary glands of the females were dehydrated by pass- ing through graded ethanol, cleared in xylol, embedded in paraffin and cut at 8 to 10 n thickness. For routine histological study the tissues were stained with Ehrlich’s or Harris’s haematoxylin and counterstained with eosin. Selected sections from each series were stained by the periodic acid-Schiff procedure (Pearse 1968), some by Mallory triple procedure and some by Heidenhain’s Azan technique. All microscopic measurements were taken with the help of an ocular micrometer calibrated to a stage micrometer. A detailed field diary and laboratory record have been maintained. Table 1 gives the date- wise details of the collections and Table 2 gives the monthwise collections of the speci- mens. Observations and Discussion A. General remarks This species normally roosts in the space formed by groups of downward hanging, dried- up fronds of palm trees. The specimens emerge from their roosts about half an hour after sunset when there is still some twilight. Nor- mally the specimens do not return to the roost until after feeding. However, during April and May the females were noticed to return now and then probably to give suck to the unweaned free young ones, which had been left behind in the roost, while the mothers went out foraging. This contention received addi- tional support from the fact that many a female which was shot during April and May was in lactation, but had no young at their breasts. An interesting feature about the roosting habits of these bats is that normally adult males roost separately from the females, and usually solitarily and rarely in groups of two or three except during the season of copula- tion. In fact, whenever a single specimen was noticed inside the hollows among the dried fronds, it was invariably a male. Juvenile males were, however, present among the females throughout the year. Several newly delivered young ones were obtained during February to April and June and July — the two periods of delivery for this species The average weight of the young one at delivery was 11 g and this was also the average weight of the full term foetus. The young one gets a firm hold of one of the 606 CYNOPTERUS SPHINX IN CENTRAL INDIA mammary nipples of the mother soon after it is delivered. The teeth of the young were so firmly and deeply sunk in the wall of the nipple that it required considerable force to separate the young one from the mother although the latter was dead and the young was still alive. The young one is constantly carried by the mother even during flight for about 45 to 50 days by which time the young one reaches a body weight of 34 to 36 g. No young one above this weight was noticed to be adhering to the mother’s nipple. Evidently, the young ones leave their mothers after attaining this weight, but continue to suck milk for some more days before they are finally weaned. This fact also suggests that there is community suckling for some time after the young ones leave the breast of their mothers since it is unlikely that the young ones are able to find out their own mothers after getting free and vice-versa . On a few occasions there were two young ones attached one to each nipple of the mother. Obviously, one of the young could not be belonging to the mother since invariably only a single foetus is borne by each mother during each cycle. B. Female genitalia Externally the female genital organs of Cynopterus sphinx are built on a typically bicornuate plan. The two uterine cornua are of equal size in the non-pregnant female and form a ‘V’ shaped structure, the two limbs of the ‘V’ forming an angle of about 60°. In adult specimens each cornu is 8-10 mm long. The Fallopian tube arises from the posterio- median aspect of the ovarian bursa adjacent to a slit-like opening of the bursa, and, after taking a simple loop around the cranial aspect of the ovarian bursa, opens a little behind the cranial tip of the uterus on each side. The vagina is 12 to 14 mm long and gives the female genitalia a ‘Y’ shaped appearance, the vagina forming the vertical limb of the *Y\ The vulval opening is a transverse slit and occurs on a thick pad slightly elevated from the surface of the body. On sectioning, it be- comes evident that the uterine cornua remain separate and there are two distinct cervical canals on the lateral sides of the long cervix which projects to about half the length of the vagina. The cervical canals open independantly subterminally on the two sides of the cervix. The cranial three-fourths of the cervix is attached to the dorsal wall of the vagina. Hence, the vagina appears to be partitioned into two chambers for some distance and the vaginal canal appears like a semi-circular cavity surrounding the cervix in transverse sectional views. The mammary glands are located on the ventro-lateral sides of the thorax just a little posterior to the axilla. The nipples project laterally. During lactation each mammary gland extends almost to the axilla of the respective side. The nipples become extended and co mi- lled during the first lactation ofter which they do not regress completely. Hence, even during the non-pregnant season the parous females can be distinguished from the non-parous ones by the nature of the mammary nipples. C. Breeding seasons Since the reproductive stage of the animals was the same during the two years when the animals were collected, only the date and the month are mentioned in the following descrip- tions except where the mention of the year is warranted by some special condition. The examination of Table 1 and the collection diary reveals that each female specimen experiences two pregnancies in quick succession, the first pregnancy occurring during October to March, and the second pregnancy, which overlaps the 607 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 lactation period of the first pregnancy, com- mences within a short period after parturition and continues until June- July. The period from July to October is the sexually quiescent ano- estrous period. Not all the females in the colony conceive at the same time during the first cycle, and this is also reflected in the second cycle since deliveries do not occur synchronously in all the females. Hence, con- ceptions after parturition in February-March also occur on different days in different speci- mens in the colony. Hence, during any date or month the females were at different stages of gestation during both the cycles. The second pregnancy is carried by the uterine cornu contra-lateral to that which carried the first pregnancy. This is evident from the fact that there were several females, in which, whereas one uterine cornu had not yet undergone complete involution, the contra- lateral cornu carried the foetus of the second cycle. Microscopic examination of the ovaries revealed that a large corpus luteum occupying almost the whole ovary persisted for a few days after delivery in February-March. This necessitated the production and release of the Graafian follicle in the opposite ovary. The corpus luteum of the second cycle also per- sisted for a few days after parturition in June- July and had undergone regression quickly thereafter. Hence, by the time the young one is weaned the two ovaries present the same his- tological picture after July, and follicles con- tinue to develop in both the ovaries. During each pregnancy cycle one of the uterine cornua carries a single embryo. Hence, a single young one is delivered each time. Two females with unmistakable pre- gnancy, as evidenced by the occurrence of a slightly swollen right uterine cornu in each, were obtained on 22nd October. From the stage of development of the embryo it was evident that the animals had conceived three or four days earlier. After this date more and more females in the colony had conceived. Every female in all the colonies was pregnant during January and February, but the embryo in the uterus varied in the stage of develop- ment in different specimens. This is as ex- pected because the date of conception differed in different animals. The first delivered young one was obtained on 16th February, after which more and more females delivered their young. Evidently, gestation lasts for about 120 days allowing a margin of three or four days on either side. The last delivered young one of the first cycle was collected on 20th March. This specimen must have been conceived bet- ween 15th and 20th November of the previous calendar year taking the gestation period as being about 120 days. The earliest second conception was noticed on 20th February, and the first newly born young of the second cycle was obtained on 21st June. This was probably one or two days old. This also gives a gestation period of about 120 days. The last date on which a newly born young of the second cycle was 16th July, and this must have been conceived about the middle of March. The first free young weighing 34g was collec- ted on 6th April. Assuming that this belonged to the group delivered in the first batch (that is, on 16th February), it becomes evident that this specimen was about 50 days old. How- ever, the females continue to be in lactation for another 10 to 15 days more during which period the free young onces probably take suck periodically. Examination of Table 1 reveals that, where- as during the first cycle 71 females among 99 carried the conceptus in the right cornu of the uterus, in the second cycle only 27 females among 81 carried the conceptus in the right 608 CYNOPTERUS SPHINX IN CENTRAL INDIA cornu. Further, in most of the females col- lected during February and March, while one cornu was still in the post-partum condition and had not completely involuted, the contra- lateral cornu carried an embryo. These facts taken along with the fact that a large corpus luteum of the first cycle persists for a few days after delivery and during early pregnancy of the second cycle suggest that there is a distinct alternation of the two sides of the female genitalia in the two cycles in the year. However, within a short time after parturition in June- July the two ovaries present a typically anoestrous condition. Microscopic examina- tion of the two ovaries of the adult specimens and the non-parous females approaching their first cycle during August and September re- vealed that numerous follicles at various stages of development were present in both the ovaries. However, in most of the females col- lected during October the right ovary had distinctly outstripped the left in the develop- ment of the Graafian follicles. In both the ovaries the follicles develop concurrently up to the vesicular stage, but after this stage the development of the follicles becomes arrested in the left ovary in most of the specimens, and one of the follicles in the right ovary develops further and releases the ovum. This is why a large proportion of the females carry the con- cept in the right ovary in the first cycle during each year. The persistence of the corpus luteum of the first cycle for a few days after parturition necessitates the alternation of the two sides of the female genitalia during the two cycles in the year. Hence, in the second cycle there were more females carrying the embryo in the left uterus than the right and the relative proportion is nearly the re- verse of the proportion of pregnancy in the two sides during the first pregnancy cycle. D. Growth and maturity The following descriptions pertain to the females only. It has already been shown that the newly born young one weighs about 11 g, and they are weaned when they attain a body weight of about 35 g about 40 to 45 days after birth. Figure 1 is a scatter diagram to show the body weight of the females collected on different dates, and the lines are drawn to in- dicate the growth rate. The females reach sexual maturity when they attain a weight of about 50 g — this being the lowest weight of a female carrying an early embryo in the uterine cornu. The growth curves indicate that the specimens born in February-March, reach this weight by July- August, that is about five months after birth, attain sexual maturity by the time of the onset of the breed- in season in October. Hence, these females conceive in October along with parous females. The females bom in June- July also reach sexual maturity in November-December, when they are five months of age. These copulate and conceive in November-December. This was why there were a few-non-parous females in the colonies during October-November and there was not a single non-pregnant female available after November every female in the colony having conceived by this time. This also explains why different females were at different stages of pregnancy during January- March, and why parturition was not synchro- nous in all the females. The growth pattern of the males and the age at sexual maturity have already been des- cribed (Gopalakrishna §i Sandhu, in press). It has been shown that the males do not reach sexual maturity until they are at least 15 to 16 months of age for those animals delivered during February-March and about 19 to 20 months of age in the case of the animals born during June-July. 609 BOOY WEIGHT OF FEMALES IN Gras, 90. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 MONTH Fig. 1. Scatter diagram in which the body weights of the females are plotted against the dates of collection of the specimens. The dotted line indicates the body weight at sexual maturity. The curves indicate the manner of growth of the animals bom during the two breeding cycles. Curves 1 and 2 relate to animals born on the earliest and the latest dates respectively in the first cycle (February-March). Curves 3 and 4 relate animals born in the second cycle (Tune- July). The shaded areas represent the periods when conception takes place. It is evident from the figure that animals born in February-March and also first conception during October-November The fact that the number of young ones in the total population is so small indicates that there is considerable pre-pubertal mortality in this species. On several occasions, young ones with body weights ranging from 17 to 33 g had become accidentally freed from their mothers. These helpless young ones are an easy prey to predators like crows and hawks during the day time and owls and other nocturnal birds during the night. E. Sex Ratio Table 1 gives the data concerning the sex those born in June- July experience their along with parous animals. ratio of Cynopterus sphinx at different periods of life. From the table it is seen that among the 601 specimens studied during two years, when frequent random collections were made, 279 were males and 322 females. This gives a clear female-dominant sex ratio of 871 males to 1000 females in the total population. Among the 82 sucklings there was an almost equal number of males and females (42 and 40 respectively). Among 388 sexually mature adults there were 127 males and 261 females, giving a spectacular uneven sex ratio with 610 CYNOPTERUS SPHINX IN CENTRAL INDIA 32.8% males and 67.2% females. However, in the pre-pubertal stage, not inclusive of the sucklings, the males far outnumber the females (110 males to 24 females). This is because of the difference in the age of attainment of sexual maturity between the two sexes. Whereas the females attain sexual maturity within 5 to 6 months of age, the males take at least 15 to 20 months to reach sexual maturity. Evidently, the overall female dominant sex ratio in the total population is due to a preferential mor- tality of the males during the growth period. On the basis of the present status of our knowledge it is not possible to assign any specific reason for the occurrence of uneven Refer Abdulali, H. (1952) : Sex ratio in Indian bats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 423-428. Baker, J. R. & Baker, Z. (1936) : The seasons in a tropical rain forest (New Hebrides). Part III. Fruit bats (Pteropidae) . J. Linn. Soc. London 40: 123-141. Baker, J. R. & Bird, T. F. (1936): The seasons in a tropical rain forest (New Hebrides). Part IV. Insectivorous bats (Vespertilionidae and Rhinolophi- dae). ibid. 40: 143-161. Gopalakrishna, A. (1954) : Breeding habits of the Indian Sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke). Curr. Sci. 23: 60-61. & Choudhari, P. N. (1977): Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats. Part I. Rousettus leschenaulti (Desma- rest) — Megachiroptera. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 1-16. & Madhavan, A. (1970) : Sex ratio in some Indian bats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67: 171-175. (1978): Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats. Part III. Hipposideros ater ater (Tem- pleton) — Hipposideridae. ibid. 74: 511-517. & Rao, K. V. B. (1977): Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats. Part IT. Rhinolophus rouxi (Temm.) . ibid. 74: 213-219. & Sahasrabudhe, J. D. (1972): female dominant sex ratio among all the species of bats so far studied (Gopalakrishna & Madhavan 1978) except Taphozous melano- pogon (Abdulali 1952). Probably genetic factors are responsible for making the males more susceptible to infection and diseases than the females thereby resulting in establi- shing an uneven female dominant sex ratio. Acknowledgements I am grateful to Prof. A. Gopalakrishna, Project Leader, U. G. C. project on bat re- search for constant help and guidance. I thank the U.G.C. for granting a Fellowship for carry- ing out this work. E n ce s Degeneration of the inseminated spermatozoa after ovulation in two species of Indian bats. Curr. Sci. 39: 489-490. & Satwant Sandhu (In press) : Notes on the reproduction and associated pheno- mena in the male fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) in Central India. Marshall, A. J. (1947): The breeding cycle of an equatorial bat ( Pteropus giganteus of Ceylon). Proc. Linn. Soc. London 159: 103-111. Moghe, M. A. (1951): Development and placen- tation of the Indian fruit bat, Pteropus giganteus giganteus (Brunnich). Proc. Zool. Soc. London; 121: 703-721. (1956) : On the development and placentation of the megachiropteran bat, Cynopterus sphinx gangeticus. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 22: 48-55. Mutere, F. A. (1967): The breeding biology of equatorial vertebrates. Reproduction in the fruit bat, Eidolon helvum at latitude 0°20'N. /. Zool. London; 153: 153-161. (1968): Breeding biology of the fruit bat, Rousettus asgyptiacus living at 0°22'S. Acta tropica 25: 97-108. Pearse, A. G. E. (1968): Histochemistry. Theore- tical and Applied. J. & A. Churchill Ltd. London, W 1. 611 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Ramakrishna, P. A. (1947): Post-partum oestrus in the short-nosed fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx sphinx. Curr. Sci.; 16: 186. (1951) : Studies on repro- duction in bats. I. Some aspects of reproduction in the oriental vampires, Lyroderma lyra lyra (Geoffroy) and Megaderma spasma (Linn.). J. Mysore Univ. 12: 107-118. & Rao, K. V. B. (1977): Reproductive adaptations in the Indian rhinolophis bat, Rhinolophus rouxi (Temm.). Curr. Sci. 46: 270-271. Ramaswamy, K. R. (1961) : Studies on the sex cycle of the Indian vampire bat, Megaderma (Lyro- derma) lyra lyra (Geoffroy). Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 27: 287-302. 612 BIRDS OF A POLLUTED RIVER1 Prakash Gole2 {With jour text-figures & three maps) The Mutha river meanders through Pune City for a distance of over 6.5 km from Vitthalwadi to the Southwest, to the Sangam in the northeast, before it merges into the Mula at the latter place. The joint stream then flows for a distance of 4 kilometres before it leaves the city-limits. I have been watching birds along these stretches of the rivers for well over fifteen years, i.e. since the mid-sixties. This article however, while taking note of some of the major changes noted over all these years, is primarily based on systematic observations made over a period of over six months, i.e. from October 1982 to April 1983. Special mention should be made of the tail- end portion of the Mula-Mutha, where the joint stream leaves the city-limits. This 1.5 km stretch of the Mula-Mutha now constitutes the Mula-Mutha Bird Sanctuary inaugurated by Dr. Salim Ali in 1977. The Sanctuary deserves separate treatment on account of the numbers and variety of birds found there in winter and spring. Quality of River-waters It is generally believed that the water of both the rivers is polluted. Sewage overflows into the rivers at many points and industrial effluents 1 Accepted May 1983. 2 IB Abhimanshree Housing Society, Pune 411 008, Maharashtra. also drain into the rivers. To gauge the ex- tent of pollution, water-samples were collected at many points along the river-course. For chemical analysis of water a five-litre sample was collected from each of the points and 250 cc samples were used for the MPN count. Tables 1A and IB show results of the analysis of water-samples. The names of collection points are also given in the tables and the same can be seen on maps. To compare the quality of water of the rivers with that of other water-bodies, samples were also collect- ed from the Khadakwasla reservoir upstream on the river Mutha and from Ambil Odha, a stream that meets the Mutha in the city. It will be seen from Table 1A that as the river flows from Vitthalwadi to the Sangam the proportion of solids. Dissolved solids, COD, BOD and Chlorides goes on increasing which indicates that the river is receiving higher and higher loads of organic matter. This is due to the increase in the number of sewage overflows going into the river. The oxygen content is mostly low. The water of Ambil Odha which flows through densely populated areas and on whose banks a number of hutment colonies are located, brings into the river even greater loads of pollution. It is also worth noting that samples from the Mula and the Mula- Mutha also show a higher concentration of pollution and compare favourably with the Odha. Table No. IB shows the results of the MPN count. Predictably the analysis shows an in- 613 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Table 1A Chemical and bacteriological analysis of water samples collected at different points along the RIVERS IN PUNE CITY No. Count of of 1 Collecting Stations 2 3 4 along 5 the Mutha, the 6 7 Mula & the 8 9 Mula-Mutha 10 Names of Stations Turbidity (ppm) Total Solids 07 16 06 12 11 09 14 11 08 15 1 = Khadakwasla Reservoir (mg /litre) Dissolved Solids 108 120 100 168 184 200 252 322 190 334 2 = Upstream of Vitthalwadi (mg/1) 108 108 100 148 167 191 246 218 180 292 3 - Opp. Pumping Station COD 10 04 24 25 21 05 78 70 19 150 4 = Upstream of Garware Causeway BOD 03 01 07 07 06 02 30 22 07 40 5 — Near Shinde Bridge Dissolved Oxygen 4.20 1.40 4.60 4.20 5.20 4.30 2.90 2.40 1.30 3.0 6 = Upstream Dengle Bridge Nitrates (N205) 2 7 — Downstream Holkar Br. (on the Mula) Nitrites (N203) 8 = Downstream Sangam Br. (on the Mula-Mutha) Chlorides (Cl) 14 8 21 21 21 28 35 42 49.5 35 9 = In Bird Sanctuary 10 = In Ambil Odha Table IB Bacteriological count of water collected at different points along the rivers in PUNE CITY MPN Results: Count per 100ml of water Sample Collected at Date Count 1. Upstream of V. wadi 22.3.83 1 .4 X 108 2. Opp. Pumping Station 25.3.83 2. Ox 105 3. Below Garware Causeway 22.3.83 2. 5 x 106 4. Near Natraj Causeway 22.3.83 1 . 3 X 107 5. Below Omkareshwar Temple 22.3.83 1 . 3 x 107 6. Below Shivaji Bridge 22.3.83 3.5 X 106 7. Below the Sangam 6.4.83 1 . 5 x 105 8. In the Mula River 6.4.83 l.Ox 105 9. In Bird Sanctuary 24.3.83 3. 5 X 107 creasing concentration of organisms per 100 ml as the river flows from Vitthalwadi to Sangam Bridge. The conspicuous rise in coli- form MPN indicates faecal pollution. This makes the water highly dangerous to human beings and activities such as bathing, washing clothes and utensils, which are normally carried out by citizens on the river, are fraught with danger of infection. However, as will be seen from the discussion that follows, this water, which carries a great load of organic matter, may not necessarily be dangerous to birds. Indeed it appears that certain species of birds thrive on it. 614 BIRDS OF A POLLUTED RIVER Broad Habitat-types along the River course The 6.5 kin stretch of the Mutha and the further 4 km stretch of the Mula-Mutha ex- hibit a variety of habitats. They are : 1) Deep water; 2) Shallow water; 3) Marshy land; 4) Grassland; 5) Rocks and boulders, and 6) Dryland and scrub. Riverside trees also constitute a distinct habitat, though arboreal birds are not considered here. Let us now see the characteristic bird-life of each of these habitats. The broad extent of each of these habitats is shown in the maps. Deep-water Habitat The Mutha river within Pune city is shallow with an average depth of less than a metre. In certain places, however, deepish pools are formed, e.g. near Vitthalwadi, near Omkaresh- war Temple, and near the Sangam. The Mula is a bigger river and the stretch between Holkar Bridge and Sangam is deeper (average depth about 2 metres). The joint flow below Sangam is of considerable depth too, due to impoundment near Bund Garden. The river- flow is again shallow in the Bird Sanctuary. The common submerged plants occurring in this habitat are : Hydrilla verticillata, Lemna gibba, Ceratophyllum demersum, Vallisneria spiralis, Spirodela polyrhiza etc. Eichhornia eras sipes became progressively dominant after October, especially in the Mula and by March it had almost covered the open water in the Bird Sanctuary. Another obnoxious weed Pistia stratiotes was also recorded at a few places especially on the Mula. The characteristic bird of this habitat appears to be Little Grebe or Dabchik. Groups of these birds were seen at every place on the Mutha where there is deepish water. The stretch of the Mula considered here does not hold any Dabchik perhaps due to lack of aquatic food and movement of boats in the river. Upstream of Garware causeway these birds were seen to breed from February on- wards on little platforms made up of aquatic plants ( Hydrilla ) and floating debris. Three nests and a pair with two chicks were seen in the last week of February 1983. Coots, Little Cormorants, a few Large Cor- morants and ducks like Garganey Teals, Pin- tails and Shovellers were the other birds that belonged to this habitat. The Cormorants are a recent addition to the river fauna. The Little Cormorants started appearing on the river since 1969 and the Large ones came as recently as 1980. They perhaps reflect the abundance of small and medium-size fish in the river; fish that thrive on the nutrient-rich sewage water. It may be significant that the Cormorants were absent when the proportion of sewage in river-water was low, i.e. before the seventies. Do these fish-eaters indicate the quality of fish in the waterbody, in this case smaller fish? For, all the fishermen whom we asked about the quality of fish in the river, complained that good quality fish are no longer found in the river, except during a few days immediately after the monsoon. This aspect of the correlation between Cor- morants and fish needs deeper investigation, however. Ducks were concentrated in deepish pools in the Bird Sanctuary. Garganey Teals became numerous after 1972. They use the Sanctuary area during daytime for resting on rocks mid- stream and appear to feed on chironomus larvae and other floating insects. Over 800 were counted in early March 1983. Since 1970 an occasional Pintail used to be seen in the Sanctuary area. In the winter of 1982-83 their number was the highest recorded so far. 615 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 A few Shovellers with the colourful males out- numbering females are to be seen in the Sanc- tuary every winter. They feed on floating aquatic insects. Shallow- water Habitat Most of the stretch of the Mutha river con- sidered here, being shallow, this habitat covers probably the greater part of the river eco- system. The water is shallow, at places even midstream, and there are rocky outcrops, is- lands, floating vegetation and other debris which the birds can take advantage of, while wading through shallow water. Plants of this habitat include partly sub- merged plants, plants growing at the edge of water and those growing along drains and other effluents flowing into the river. Crypto - coryne retrospirallis, Xanthium strumarium, Ammania baccifera, Commelina sp., Cyperus pangorei, Polygonum glabrum, Asclepias cura- ssavica, Hygrophila auriculata etc. were seen to be common here. Typha angustata, Jussiaea suffruticosa, Cri- num defixum, Bacopa monnieri, Phyllanthus niruri, Ricinus communis and lpomoea pal- mat a were the common plants seen growing around sewage overflows and effluents. The most characteristic birds of this habitat are the long-legged herons and stilts. The numbers of egrets and Black- winged stilts have risen considerably in recent years on the rivers. Intermediate and Little Map. 1. Habitats along the Mutha. 616 I BIRDS OF A POLLUTED RIVER egrets are more common than the cattle egrets which were mostly seen around sewage over- flows and accompanying cattle. The egrets perch on rocks, islands and floating debris including the weed Eichhornia and were also seen to congregate around streams that pour a tremendous load of faecal contamination in- to the rivers. Pond herons are more solitary than egrets. They feed at the edges of water and in dense masses of Eichhornia. By the beginning of April some cattle and little egrets came into breeding plumage. Large egrets. Grey and Purple herons, and occasionally an open- billed stork and a White ibis were noted in this habitat, especially on the quieter stretches of the Mutha, i.e. between Dattawadi and the Pumping Station and in Bird Sanctuary. While the larger herons appeared to feed mainly on fish, egrets and pond herons were seen to catch insects from the vegetation at the edge and on islands. All the herons are only fair weather inhabitants of the rivers and disappear completely in June and July and reappear by August-end. Blackwinged stilts are also a comparatively 3 Rocks 4 Dryland 5 Marsh Map. 2. Habitats along the Mutha and the Mula. 617 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 recent addition to the river fauna. They were detected in some numbers in 1968-69 and since then their number has been increasing year by year. Their flocks are to be invari- ably met with near sewage outflows and in and around streams that pour sewage in the river. They arrive by the end of September every year and their peak numbers are reached in January. In January 1983 over 2000 could be seen on the rivers. Three species of Sandpiper, viz. Common, Green and Spotted, Little stint, Greenshank, Ruff and reeve, Little Ringed Plover etc. are the other birds seen in this habitat. They are numerous where grassy edges and rock slabs touch the waters. Actually their habitat is, of late, decreasing all along the rivers as open water near the edges is being covered by Eichhornia especially in the Bird Sanctuary. Egrets, pond herons, wagtails and to a lesser extent sandpipers feed on mosquitoes, spiders and beetles hiding in its leaves. Yellow and White wagtails and to a lesser extent Large Pied Wagtail are thus found not only on the patches of turf and rock along the rivers but also on the floating water hyacinth. Marshy Habitat Water-logged areas are thinly spread along the rivers, especially where bays and inlets are formed and where there are depressions between rock slabs. Plants of this habitat are not much different from the previous one. Ipomoea species such as /. earned, I. nil, /. u ft ■£> Uf 1 Grassland 2 Trees 3 Rocks 4 Dryland 5 Marsh HI 9 - 1 jE[ Map. 3. Habitats along the Mula-Mutha. 618 BIRDS OF A POLLUTED RIVER muricata were recorded commonly in marshy areas. Also Marselia, Rorippa indica, Homo - nia riparia were recorded from marshy places. The characteristic bird of this habitat was seen to be Snipe (Fantail or Pintail?) and to some extent Painted Snipes were usually found hidden in the short, wet grass. Where the grass is taller and typha stands abound, hide Purple and Indian moorhens. Bronze- winged and Pheasant-tailed Jacanas used to be found on the river some years ago. The former has now completely vanished while the latter is seen in decreasing numbers year by year. Though these birds can take advantage of floating vegetation due to their long toes, they are not seen to be much associated with Eichhornia. Indeed there is some reason to believe that since the advent of this noxious weed, these species have declined in number. Grassland Habitat Wagtails usually exploit grasslands both dry and wet. Three subspecies of Yellow Wag- tail are usually found along the river. In late winter the Yellowheaded wagtail adds to their numbers. There used to be enormous flocks of yellow wagtails on the dry, scrub-covered plateau and grassland on the left bank of the Mula-Mutha in the Bird Sanctuary. But as this plateau is now planted up with trees, there is a noticeable decline in the number of wag- tails here. The resident Indian species of wagtail, the Large Pied, is found in pairs all along the river. They are fond of perching on rocks mid-stream and were seen to run on grass or to hunt for insects on floating Eichhornia. Cyperus pangorei, C. globosus, Fimbristylis bisumbellata, Eleocharis capitata, Echinochloa colona, Cynodon dactylon, Chloris barbata are some of the typical plants of this habitat. Rocky Habitat Rocks are exposed in several places along the Mutha. At Vitthalwadi there is a broad platform of basalt on the right bank. There is also a broad and high rocky platform on the left of the Mula-Mutha in the Bird Sanctuary. In between there are rock exposures on both the banks of the Mutha and rocky outcrops in the shallow river-bed. The deeper Mula does not show rocky exposures on either its banks within city limits or mid-stream. Plants growing in rock crevices and bet- ween gaps in rocks were found to be mostly grasses. Cynodon dactylon , Cyperus pangorei , Alternant htera sessilis, Commelina sp. were some of the plants recorded from this habitat. On wet rocks near puddles red patches of Roiella tenuis were observed and in rock crevices and on wet rocks Canscora diffusa was also seen. Redwattled Lapwing was perhaps the most characteristic denizen of this habitat. Two species of Kingfisher, viz . Small Blue and Whitebreasted can be seen perched on rocks at many places. As fish and frogs are to be found in practically every part of the rivers these kingfishers are to be seen everywhere ex- cept the stretch between Sambhaji Bridge and Sangam Bridge. At Vitthalwadi and in the Bird Sanctuary there are puddles and pools formed in depressions in rocks. Redwattled Lapwing, Green Sandpiper and the two king- fishers can usually be seen on these pools. Grey Shrike, Rufousbacked Shrike and Little Brown Doves and Indian Robin are some of the other birds found here. Dryland Habitat Patches of dry, stony ground dotted with bushes of Lantana, Calotropis, Pongamia etc. can also be found along the Mutha river. On 619 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 one such plateau in the Bird Sanctuary, trees such as Erythrina sp., Bauhinia sp.. Cassia sp., Bombax ceiba, Cochlospermum religiosum, etc. are now planted. Small bushes and stunted trees provide con- venient perches for a number of bird species. Rufousbacked Shrike, Common Green Bee- eater, Stonechat, Black Drongo, Large Grey Babblers are normally seen to take advantage of these. Crows and Common Mynas are at- tracted to these dry, dusty patches on account of the movement of men and their cattle. The Common Myna has some favourite roosting trees along the river. Before flying into these trees at dusk the Mynas use these dry slopes as gathering stops where they assemble in enormous numbers moving into the roosting trees before sunset. Commuting birds and birds seen in flight The broad river channel of the Mutha appears to provide a route to commuting birds. In the morning Little Cormorants, Little and Cattle and Intermediate Egrets, Common Mynas and to a lesser extent Roseringed parakeets appear to follow the river on their foraging trips. They take the reverse route in the even- ing. Pied Kingfishers are fond of travelling a great deal along the river course. They favour the deepish pools, perching on wires running across the river or scanning the water surface by hovering in the air. They probably require a transparent surface and consequently were seen to be common at places where the turbi- dity index was low. In their beats up and down the river they rarely stop to hover bet- ween Sambhaji Bridge and Sangam. Gullbilled terns and Marsh Harriers patrol the river to and fro. The terns pick up insects and floating debris from the surface while the Harrier looks for larger prey. House Swifts, Eastern Common and Redrumped Swallows and some- times Little Pratincoles are seen to hawk in- sects in the air. Trees lining the banks between Vitthalwadi and Dattawadi Bridge and again in the Bird Sanctuary area are seen to be patronised by such arboreal birds as Grey Hornbill, Golden Oriole, Koel, Crimsonbreasted Barbet, lora. Grey Tit, Crow-Pheasant, Small Minivet etc. Even the call of the Grey Partridge could be heard from cultivation opposite the Pumping Station and near the Bird Sanctuary. The winter of 1982-83 Between October 1982 and April 1983 syste- matic observation and counts of birds were carried out on the river Mutha and in the Bird Sanctuary on the Mula-Mutha. Birds were counted once every month while certain species were singled out for more intensive counts and observations. During this period 71 species of birds were recorded on the rivers. Their distri- bution according to habitat was: Deep-water Habitat: 6 Shallow- water Habitat : 9 Marshland Habitat: 16 Dryland and Rocky Habitats: 24 Riverside Trees: 5 Birds in flight: 11 On any one day an average of 37 species were noted on the river Mutha during this period, with a total number of 1806 individuals. In this stretch of about 6.5 km this number gives an average density of 277 birds per kilo- metre. This number does not include arboreal birds seen on trees by the riverside. In the Bird Sanctuary on an average 1490 individuals belonging to 42 species were recorded on the days of counts. This 1 . 5 km stretch thus gives a density of 993 birds per kilometre. As will be seen from Fig. 1 there are some 620 BIRDS OF A POLLUTED RIVER y 621 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Table 2 Distribution of birds commonly seen along the mula-mutha, january-april 1983 (1) Vitthalwadi to Garware Bird The river-course Species between : - Jan College Causeway Feb Mar Apr Little Cormorant F F F F Little Egret F F C C Median Egret F C C VC Cattle Egret — — F F Pond Heron F C C VC Shoveller — — — — Dabchik F F C C Pintail — — — — Garganey Teal — — — — Coot — — — — Redwattled Lapwing F F F F Blackwinged Stilt F C C C Gullbilled Tern F F F F Green Bee-eater C C C C Pied Kingfisher F F F F Small Blue Kingfisher F F F F White-breasted Kingfisher F F F F Yellow Wagtail C C C C (2) (3) Garware College Bird Causeway to the Sangam Sanctuary Jan Feb Mar Apr Jan Feb Mar Apr F F F F F F F F C C VC VC VC VC A A VC VC VC VC VC VC VC VC C C c c VC VC c C F C c c VC VC VC VC — — — — F F F F C F c VC C A A A A A — — — /V VC L \ A A A — — — — F F F F F F F F F F F F A A A A A A A C F F F F C A VC C F F F F C C C C F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F VC VC VC VC y Fig. 3. Distribution of Birds in the Bird Sanctuary. definite places where birds were seen to con- gregate. These three places according to the number of birds found there, are: 1. The stretch between the Pumping Station and Datta- wadi Bridge, 2 . The stretch between this bridge and Garware College causeway, 3. The stretch between the broken causeway behind PMT bus terminus and Omkareshwar temple. Fig. 3 shows the distribution of birds in the Bird Sanctuary. Fig. 2 shows birds at different places along the river Mutha according to three broad habitat types. As will be seen from the figure, the number of birds seen along the edges of the river was the highest followed by the num- ber seen in deepish water. The number of species seen along the edges was 15 while those 622 Distribution of more numerous birds along the mula-mutha, January 1983. 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O X d T3 a CCS fl D D £ H-» D X) on +j 6 5 « -S T3 3 • tl X> PP < >> ^ 53 JS 43 5 ? o -H O ^ «-H -r; -O CS o, O D H-H ^ PP S < d D d Dh ^ Ph ^ < D CO *T3 S d 623 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 seen in deepish water was 7. Some of the species like Blackwinged Stilt were common to both these habitats. In the Bird Sanctuary (Fig. 4) the number of species seen along the Fig. 4. Distribution of Birds in the Bird Sanctuary according to Habitat. edges was 17 while in deepish water the num- ber was 12. While counting these numbers such species as House and Jungle Crow, Common Myna, Pariah Kite and Little Brown Dove which are not strictly river-birds are excluded. In the bird count taken in March 1979, in the Bird Sanctuary, 39 species had been re- corded with a total number of about 1200 individuals (P. Gole 1980). The quality of water where birds were seen to concentrate, was also examined. As has been pointed out in the section on water-quality, the river takes on an increasing load of organic pollution as it flows from Vitthalwadi on- wards. It will now be' interesting to see if any change in the composition of bird species in different months on the stretches where birds concentrated, can be detected. Table No. 2 gives this information. The table shows that in the first two stretches the numbers of egrets, stilts, dabchiks, and Gullbilled terns are low; while these birds become more numerous from Garware College causeway to Omkareshwar temple. We have recorded in greater detail the distribution of these species between January and April. Table No. 3 shows their distribu- tion along the entire river course. From this it is clear that these birds are fewer where the quality of water is better and drains do not over- flow into the river. Their numbers progressive- ly increase as the quality of water deteriorates and its organic content goes up. It appears that these birds have adopted the role of scavengers along the river course. Special men- tion should be made of Blackwinged Stilt. These were found to be concentrated, at places in very large numbers, where streams loaded with faecal matter and drains flow into the river. To a lesser extent this can be said to be true of the three species of egrets also. Gull- billed terns were also seen to patronize such places in numbers and to swoop repeatedly to pick up floating organisms. As the summer advances and April gives way to May, most of the migratory birds in- cluding the hordes of Blackwinged Stilt which make the dirty river so colourful, will have left. June and July would see even the egrets disappearing from the river. With the mon- soon in full swing, floods roar down the river channel and the turbulent stream appears to cleanse itself of all the dirt that man continues to heap on it. Acknowledgements The study formed a part of the much wider 624 BIRDS OF A POLLUTED RIVER investigation aimed at drafting an eco-deve- lopment plan for the improvement of Pune’s river-fronts. This wider study was financed by the Ecological Society of Pune. I was helped in the field by Miss S. Limaye, Miss S. Ranje- kar and Miss S. Jangam. The water-samples Refer Ali, S. & Ripley, S. Dillon (1968 & 1969): Handbook of the Birds of India & Pakistan, Vols. I and II. Oxford University Press. were analysed by Shri Kirad of Kirloskar Con- sultants Ltd. and Dr. Godbole of Vidnyan- vardhini. Botanical specimens were identified by Dr Vartak of Vidnyan-vardhini and Miss Sane of Garware College. I thank all these persons. E N C E S Gole, Praicasli (1980) : A March Bird Count In Poona. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77: 49-55. 625 ORCHIDS OF GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND AND THEIR CONSERVATION1 D. K. Hore2 3 * and N. P. Balakrishnan5 The paper lists 33 taxa of orchids recorded so far from the Great Nicobar island, emphasising the field observations, habitat and ornamental potentialities. Phytogeo- graphical affinities of the species has been drawn up. Strategies and measures on conservation of orchid species in the island has also been proposed. Several species are illustrated with photographs. Introduction The Great Nicobar Island is a continental island belonging to the Andaman and Nicobar group of islands. It occupies a phytogeographi- cally strategic position in the SE Asian tropics, situated between mainland India, on the one hand and Sumatra and Malay peninsula on the other. The island has an area of 1045 sq. km. and lies between 6°45'N and 7°15'N lati- tudes and 93°37'E and 93°56'E longitudes. This southernmost Indian land area is hardly 145 km away from Sumatra. The topography of the island is highly rugged. It has long narrow stretches of flat land scattered along coasts and hilly ranges running in north-south and east-west direc- tions. The different hill ranges culminate in the peak called Mount Thullier which is 670 m high above m.s.l. The island is basically mountainous with several rivers and perennial streams. At some places the coastal areas are fringed with coral reefs extending almost from the shoreline to some considerable distance out to the sea. There are no deep lagoons bet- 1 Accepted October 1982. 2 Department of Agricultural Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur-721 302, (W.B.). 3 Botanical Survey of India, Andaman & Nicobar Circle, Port Blair-744 102. ween the reef and shore. Dense forests occupy about 85% of the whole island, starting from the coastal forest zone to right up to the peaks. The climate of the island is purely tropical. The daily temperature ranges from 22° — 32°C with mean relative humidity of about 82%. The annual rainfall ranges from 300 to 380 cm. April is the hottest month of the year. The island is subjected to gales and cyclonic winds changing in direction with the monsoons and due to sudden depressions in the sea around. The forests of Great Nicobar Island are mainly evergreen with a few deciduous elements. They consist of mostly tall trees, palms, climbers, epiphytes and ferns. The dense vegetation supports much diversity in its species content. The vegetation can be classified into six major types : 1) Beach for- mations, 2) Saline swamps, 3) Lowland littoral swamp forests (mixed with a few deci- duous elements), 4) Riverain vegetation, 5) Inland forests of hills and low mountains (mixed with a few deciduous elements), and 6) Secondary vegetation. There is hardly any aquatic vegetation on the island due to lack of freshwater ponds and lakes. Pure grass- lands are not found, although a few weeds come up very fast as secondary formations due to the deforestation in certain areas of the island. 626 ORCHIDS OF GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND These continental islands of the Andaman and Nicobar islands, which lie in the tropical zone are very little explored, due to their isola- tion and inaccessibility. But several expedi- tions were undertaken to this island by bota- nists like Kurz (1876), Sahni (1953), Thotha- thri (1973) and Balakrishnan (1976-78). Bet- ween 1979 and 1981, six field trips were under- taken, each lasting more than a month, in order to intensively study the floral constituents of the island. All these field trips provided rich collections and the orchids are enumer- ated here in the following inventory. All together 33 taxa of orchids belonging to 26 genera have been recorded so far from this island. The number of species is the highest among the monocotyledonous families so far known from this island. Some of these species were studied earlier and categorised as rare, endemic and endangered by Bala- krishnan (1977, 1978). In the enumeration of the species below, emphasis is given on the habit, field observa- tions on flowers, frequency of distribution, habitats along with suggestions for introduc- tion into gardens, and full citation of specimens with localities and the herbaria in which they are housed. Enumeration 1 . Aerides emericii Reichb. f. in Gard. Chron. 18(2): 586. 1882; Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 6:47. 1890. Epiphyte, inflorescence slender, c. 20-30 cm long; flowers pinkish. Frequent in coastal as well as inland forests. Suitable for cultiva- tion in gardens. Flowers. April-May. Fruits. June- July. Specimens. 36 km on East-West road, Balakrishnan 3956 (PBL); Campbell Bay, Balakrishnan 5514 (PBL); Campbell Bay, More 7281 (PBL, CAL); Kopenheat, Flore 8216 (PBL). Distribution. Endemic to Nicobar Islands. 2. Anoectochilus nicobaricus Balakr. & P. Chakrab. in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 20 : 80. 1978. Terrestrial, erect herb, c. 15-30 cm; leaves 3-4, dark purplish with golden reddish reti- culate venation above, dark brownish below; inflorescence 4-8 flowered, solitary, terminal; sepals greenish purple; lip white. In shaded places on the inlands mixed forest floor. Rare and hence necessary to propagate them in Botanic Gardens. Commonly known as ‘Jewel orchid’, this ornamental orchid can be culti- vated in gardens. Flowers. November-December. Fruits. Unknown. Specimens. 6 km on East-West road, P. Chakraborty 3226 (PBL) ; Galathea river bank, N. G. Nair 7147 (PBL). Distribution. Endemic to Great Nicobar Island. 3. Appendicula reflcxa Bl. Bijdr. 301. 1825. Epiphyte, inflorescence mostly axillary; peduncles short; flowers greenish white, c. 15 cm long, few-flowered. Rare in forests of marshy coastal areas as well as shaded inland forests. Flowers. June- July. Fruits. July onwards. Specimens. 20 km on North-South Road, Balakrishnan 3834 (PBL, CAL); Campbell Bay to Chengappa Bay, Balakrishnan 6082 (PBL); Galathea river mouth, N. G. Nair 7125 (PBL). Distribution. Great Nicobar Island, Thai- land, Sumatra to New Guinea. 4. Ceratostylls sobelata Bl. Bijdr. 206. 1825. Epiphyte, stem clustered, 15-20 cm; flowers creamy-white or yellow, minute. Scarce in shaded inland forests. 627 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Flowers. August-December. Fruits. Unknown. Specimens. Campbell Bay, Thothathri & Banerjee 11419 (CAL); 17 km on East-West Road, Balakrishnan 3033 (PBL, CAL, L); Near Galathea Bridge on East- West Road, N. G. Nair 7185 (PBL, CAL); Laful forest, Hore 8785 (PBL). Distribution. Great Nicobar Island, Burma, Malaya and Java. 5. Cleisostoma uraiense (Hayata) Garay & Sweet in Orch. S. Ryukyu Xsl. 156. 1974. Sarcanthus uraiensis Hayata, Ic. PI. Formos. 8 : 130, f. 58. 1919. Epiphyte; flowers on 15-20 cm long panicles, on upper leaf axils; flowers greenish white; lip white; fruits black when dry. Sparsely distri- buted in coastal, littoral as well as inland forests. Flowers. July- August. Fruits. September-October. Specimens. Campbell Bay, Thothathri & Banerjee 11346 (CAL, PBL); Campbell Bay, Balakrishnan 2937 (PBL, CAL, L); Galathea river to Pygmalion Point, Balakrishnan 3869 (PBL); Chengappa Bay, Hore 7721 (PBL); 4 km on North-South Road, Hore 8287 (PBL). Distribution. Philippines, Taiwan and For- mosa. Probably introduced and naturalized in Great Nicobar Island. 6. Corymborkis veratrifolia (Reinw.) Bl. in Coll. orch. Arch. Ind. 125 : tt. 42 E & 43. 1859. Hysteria veratrifolia Reinw. in Bot. Zeit. 2 : 5. 1825. Terrestrial, c. 1 m or more, erect or a little slender; flowers white in axillary panicle; fruits greenish. Common in certain localities in shaded inland and coastal littoral forests. Valued as febrifuge in treating Malaria. Flowers. June- July. Fruits. August-September. Specimens. Castiarina Bay and Pulokunio, Thothathri & Banerjee 11559 (CAL); 20 km North-South Road, Balakrishnan 3829 (PBL, CAL, L); 25 km East- West Road, near Gala- thea river, Balakrishnan 5797 (PBL); Pulo Kunyi, Hore 8260 (PBL); Pygmalion Point, littoral forest, Hore 8835 (PBL). Distribution. Peninsular India, NE India, Burma, Malaysia, Singapore, Java and Sri Lanka. 7. Cymbidium pubescens Lindl. in Edw. Bot. Reg. 26 : Misc. 75, 27, t. 38. 1841; Hook, f. FI. Brit. India 6 : 11. 1890. Epiphyte; inflorescence racemose, c. 15 cm; stalk arising from rootstock, few flowered; flowers brownish red; perianth with yellow margins; lip with yellow spot at middle on disc. An ornamental orchid, suitable for cultivation; rare in shaded places in inland forests. Flowers. August-September. Fruits. Unknown. Specimens. Campbell Bay, Balakrishnan 2799 (PBL, CAL). Distribution. Great Nicobar Island, Burma, Thailand, Malaya, Singapore and Indonesia. 8. Dendrobium anceps Sw. in Vet. Act. Holm. 246. 1800. Epiphytic slender herb; flowers from leaf axils, solitary or paired, white or creamy yellow; lip yellowish inside. Common in in- land mixed or evergreen forests. Flowers. June-December. Fruits. Not known. Specimens. Campbell Bay, Balakrishnan 2948 (PBL, CAL); 30 km on East-West Road, Balakrishnan 4012 (PBL, CAL); Campbell Bay to Chengappa Bay, Balakrishnan 5696 (PBL, CAL); 26 km on East-West Road, N. G. Nair 7189 (PBL, CAL); Chingenh, Hore 8850 (PBL). Distribution. NE. India, Burma, Thailand and Indo-China. 628 ORCHIDS OF GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND 9. Desidrobium crumewatum Sw. in Schrad. J. Bot, 2 : 237. 1799. Epiphyte, often leafless when in flowers, pseudobulb 20-45 cm; flowers from naked nodes, solitary, white, sweet-scented. Scattered along coastal and inland forests in shaded places. An ornamental herb, popularly known as ‘Pigeon Orchid’, can be cultivated in gardens. Flowers. April-August. Fruits. Unknown. Specimens. Campbell Bay, Balakrishnan 2933 (PBL); Kopenheat to Koshindon, Bala- krishnan 4028 (PBL, CAL); 14-15 km on North-South Road, Balakrishnan 5845 (PBL); Galathea Bay, Thothathri & Banerjee 11480 (CAL); Campbell Bay, More 8820 (PBL). Distribution. Sri Lanka, India, Burma, Indo-China, Taiwan, Malaya, Java and the Philippines. 10. Dendrobium pensile Ridl. in J. Linn. Soc. 32 : 253. 1896 et FI. Mai. Pen. 4 : 40. 1924. Epiphytic, drooping herb; leaves alternate; flowers axillary, small, white. Scarce in low- land forests near coastal areas. Flowers. June- July. Fruits. August-September. Specimens. 15 km on North-South Road, Balakrishnan 6081 (PBL); 41 km on East- West Road, More 8235 (PBL). Distribution. Nicobar Islands, Malaya and Singapore. 11. Eria bractescecis Lindl. in Edw. Bot. Reg. 27. 1841, et Misc. 18: 30, t. 29. 1844. Epiphyte; inflorescence in spikes, c. 10-13 cm long, showy; flowers white; lip. with red- dish lamellae on disc; column with red patches. Scattered in beach and inland forests. Ideal orchid for gardens as they can be easily cultivated. Flowers. May- June. Fruits. July-August. Specimens. Galathea Bay, Thothathri and Banerjee 11466 (CAL); Great Nicobar Island, Balakrishnan 5627 (PBL, CAL). Distribution. NE India, Andaman & Nico- bar islands, Burma, Malaya, Singapore, Java and the Philippines. 12. Eria bractescens Lindl. var. kurzia Hook, f. FI. Brit. India 5: 797. 1890. Epiphyte; flowers white with pinkish brown lip. Mostly seen in beach forests associated with ferns; can be introduced into gardens. Flowers. March-May. Fruits. Unknown. Specimens. Campbell Bay, Thothathri & Banerjee 11312 (CAL). Distribution. Endemic to Andaman & Nico- bar islands. 13. FMckingeria fimbriafa (Bl.) Hawkes in Orch. Weekly 2, 46 : 454. 1961. Desmotricum fimbriatum Bl. Bijdr. 329. 1825. Epiphyte; flowers solitary from leaf axils; petals and sepals creamy white or white; lip fringed with purple or brown-red spots on up- curved lateral lobes. Scarce along mixed low- land forests. Prolonged flowering plant suit- able for introduction into gardens. Flowers. June-December. Fruits. Unknown. Specimens. Pulo babi. Salmi 23018 (DD); Near Kopenheat, Balakrishnan 3904 (PBL, CAL); 25 km on East-West Road, Bala- krishnan 5789 (PBL); 31 km on East-West Road, Hore 8232 (PBL). Distribution. India, Sri Lanka, Malaya, Java and the Philippines. 14. Goodyera procera (Ker-Gawl.) Hook. f. in Exot FI. 1 : 3, t. 39. 1823 et FI. Brit. India 6 : 111. 1890. Neottia procera Ker-Gawl. in Bot. Reg. 8 : t. 639. 1822. Terrestrial, erect herb, c. 0.2-0.3 m, inflore- scence a terminal spike; flowers greenish-white, fragrant. Popularly known as ‘Rattle snake’ 629 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Orchid. Seen along rocky, shaded, stream- sides in humid places; very rare in the island. Flowers. May- June. Fruits. July- August. Specimens. Navy Dera, Hore 7592 (PBL). Distribution. India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Indo-China, Malaya, Java, the Philippines, Taiwan and Japan. 15. Hetaeria ofeliqua Bl. in coll. Orch. Arch. Ind. 104, t. 34, f. 1. 1858. Terrestrial orchid, c. 1 m high; flowers in terminal spikes; petals creamy; column yellow. Rare in inland forests on shaded humus covered forest floors. Flowers. March-April. Fruits. Unknown. Specimens. Campbell Bay, Thothathri & Banerjee 11416 (CAL); Casuarina Bay, Thothathri 8l Banerjee 11566 (CAL). Distribution. Nicobar Islands, Malaya and Indonesia. 16. Hetaeria oblosigifolia (Bl.) Bl. in Coll. Orch. Arch. Ind. 102, t. 32. 1858. Etaeria oblongifolia Bl. Bijdr. 410, f. 14. 1825. Terrestrial herb, c. 0.5 m erect; flowers in terminal spike, whitish yellow; dried fruits brown. Rare in low hilly moist forest floor. Flowers. March-April. Fruits. May onwards. Specimen : Laful forest, Hore 7782 (PBL). Distribution : Nicobar Islands, Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Malaya, Java, the Philip- pines, New Guinea and Australia. 17. Luisia teretifolia Guad. in Freyc. Voy. Uranie et Physic. Bot. 427, t. 37. 1829. Crowded epiphyte without pseudobulb, rigid, terete; leaves terete; flowers small, few in axil- lary spikes, short ped uncled, purplish green; fruits pale greenish yellow. Scarce along low inland forests. Flowers. May- June. Fruits. July. Specimens. Kopenheat to Koshindon, Bala- krishnan 4031 (PBL, CAL); 4 km on East- West road, R. P. Dwivedi 8507 (PBL). Distribution. Sri Lanka, Peninsular India, NE. India, China, Burma, Malaysia, Indo- nesia, the Philippines and New Caledonia. 18. Nerviiia punctata (Bl.) Makino in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 16 : 199. 1902. Pogonia punctata Bl. Mus. Bot. Lugd.-Bat. 1 : 32, 1849. Terrestrial, rhizomatous herb, c. 11 cm; leaf solitary, simple, palmate, slightly reddish, purple beneath; flowers pale yellowish green with a few scattered purplish spots inside. Scarce in inland hill forests, prefers shade and grows well on humus covered soil. A plant suitable for pot culture. Used as medicine in Asiatic tropics. Flowers. April-May. Fruits. Unknown. Specimens. Campbell Bay to Chengappa Bay, Balakrishnan 5709 (PBL, CAL); Near Shompen hut, 36.8 km on East- West Road, Balakrishnan 5817 (PBL, CAL). Distribution. Great Nicobar Island, Thai- land, Malaysia and Indonesia. 19. Phalaenopsis speciosa Reichb. f. in Gard. Chron. n.s. 15 : 562 1881; Flook. f. FI. Brit. India 6: 30. 1890. Epiphyte with long aerial roots, inflorescence stalk c. 15-30 cm; peduncle 2.5-3 cm long; flowers spreading, c. 3-3.5 x 4-4.5 cm; lip with deep purple or reddish tinge. Scarce in deep interior of inland forest. Flowers longlasting and useful in cut-flower trade. Conservation in botanic gardens is necessary as the wild population is restricted and endangered and threatened with extinction. Flowers. May-August. Fruits. Unknown. Specimens. Laful forest, Hore 7767 (PBL). 630 ORCHIDS OF GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND Distribution. Endemic to Andaman & Nico- bar islands. 20. Phalaenopsis speciosa Reichb. f. van tetraspis (Reichb. f.) Sweet in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 37: 1092. 1968. Phalaenopsis tetraspis Reichb. f., Xenia Orchid. 2: 146. 1868; Hook, f. FI. Brit. India 6: 30. 1890. Epiphyte; inflorescence stalk c. 12-40 cm, long; flowers in spikes, white reddish trans- verse patches inside; lip yellowish, hairy. Rare and rather uncommon in dense inland forests. Flowers longlasting, hence suitable for culti- vation in gardens. Flowers. May-November. Fruits. Not known. Specimens. 17 km towards East-West Road, P. Chakraborty 3212 (PBL, CAL, AMES); Navy Dera, Hore 7289 (PBL). Distribution. Andaman & Nicobar islands and Java. 21. Pholidota pallida Lindl. in Bot. Reg. sub. t. 1777. 1836. Epiphyte, pseudobulb oblong; inflorescence in spike, longer than leaf length; flowers white. Rare in beach and littoral forests. Flowers. August-October. Fruits. November-December. Specimens. Way to Chengappa Bay, Tho- thathri & Banerjee 11437 (CAL); Campbell Bay, Balakrishnan 3028 (PBL, CAL, L); Baludera, Hore 6763 (PBL, CAL); Dogmar river bank, Hore 7972 (PBL). Distribution. Andaman and Nicobar island, Burma, Indo-China, Malaya, Java, the Philip- pines and Australia. 22. Plocoglottis javanica Bl. Bijdr. t. 21. 1825; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 6: 22. 1890. Terrestrial, slender or erect herb, c. 60 cm; leaves arising from rootstock; petioles c. 20 cm long; inflorescence longer than leaves; peduncle reddish green; flowers pale yellow or white with purple or red spots inside. Sparsely distributed in shaded humus covered forest floor in dense inland forests. Flovsers. July-November. Fruits. Unknown. Specimens. 35 km on East-West Road, Bala- krishnan 3989 (PBL, CAL); Laful to Navy Dera, Hore 7743 (PBL). Distribution. Great Nicobar Island, Burma, Thailand, Malaya, Sumatra and Java. 23. Podochilus mlcrophyllus Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 234. 1835; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 6: 81. 1890. Epiphyte; flowers solitary, terminal, white with a combination of purple lines on each sepal and purple patches at the centre of petals. Few or scattered in shaded inland forests and edges of forests. Flowers. December. Fruits. July. Specimens. 35 km on East-West Road, Balakrishnan 3892 (PBL, CAL); 30 km on East-West Road, N. G. Nair 7204 (PBL). Distribution. Great Nicobar Island, Burma, Thailand, Malaya, Sumatra and Java. 24. Pomatocalpa andamanicum (Hook, f.) J. J. Smith in Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind. 72: 103. 1912. Cleisostoma andamanicum Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 6: 71. 1890. Epiphyte; flowers white; fruits green. Rare in Great Nicobar Island, found in beach forests. Flowers March-May. Fruits. April onwards. Specimens. Campbell Bay, Thothathri & Banerjee 11313 (CAL); Campbell Bay, Bala- krishnan 2937 (PBL, CAL, L). Distribution. Endemic to Andaman & Nico- bar Islands. 25. Pomatocalpa wendlandorum (Reichb. f.) J. J. Smith in Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind. 72: 108. 1912. Cleisostoma wendlandorum Reichb. 631 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 f. iii Otto & Dietr. Allgemein. Gartenz. 24: 219. 1856; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 6: 74. 1890. Epiphyte; inflorescence 5-10 cm, arising from root axils; flowers in racemes, creamy yellow with pinkish-brown striations; fruits green. Frequent in beach forests. Can be culti- vated in gardens. Flowers. March-April. Fruits. May onwards. Specimens. Way to Chengappa Bay from Campbell Bay, Thothathri & Banerjee 11436 (CAL); Laful, Hore 7590 (PBL, CAL). Distribution. Andaman and Nicobar islands, Assam and Burma. 26. Pteroceras feerkeleyli (Reichb. f.) Holtt. in Kew Bull. 14 (2): 269. 1960; Thrixsper- mum berkeleyii Reichb. f. in Gard. Chron. ser. 2, 17: 557. 1882. Epiphyte; inflorescence axillary racemes, 17-20 cm long, somewhat pendulous; pedun- cles 2-2.5 cm; flowers white, delicate; fruits c. 14 cm long, needle-like. Rare in dense inland humid forests. This orchid with attractive flowers is suitable for cultivation in gardens. Flowers 8t Fruits. May- June. Specimens. Laful, Hore 8722 (PBL). Distribution. Andaman and Nicobar islands and Malaya. 27. Spathoglottis plicata Bl. Bijdr. 401, t. 76. 1825. Terrestrial, erect herb, c. 60-100 cm high; inflorescence stalk directly arising from the rootstock and about double the length of the leaves; flowers pink, velvety purple or reddish, crowded at apex, fruits oblong. Open sunny hillslopes, at 25-200 m altitude; frequently seen in large populations. Very easily cultivable and suitable for gardens. Flowers & Fruits. June-November. Specimens. 12 km on East- West Road, P. Chakraborty 3214 (PBL); 36 km East -West Road, Balakrishnan 3957 (PBL); 33 km East- West Road, Balakrishnan 5741 (PBL, CAL); 27 km East- West Road, Hore 6770 (PBL, CAL); 39 km East-West Road, Hore 8207 (PBL). Distribution. Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Thailand, Combodia, Vietnam, Taiwan, Malaya, Java, the Philippines and New Guinea. 28. Thelasls pygmaea Lindl. in J. Linn. Soc. 3: 63. 1859; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 6: 86. 1890; Yoganarasimhan et al. in Curr. Sci. 50: 284, 1981. Small epiphyte; flowers small, crowded, pale green. Rare in roadside forests and edges of forests. Flowers. April-May. Fruits. Not known. Specimens'. North-South Road, near Camp- bell Bay, Simhan et al. 659 (RRCBI). Distribution. NE India, Sikkim, Nicobar Islands, Nepal and Burma. 29. Thrixspermum hystrix (Bl.) Reichb. f. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 30: 14. 1874. Dendrocolla hystrix Bl. Bijdr. 291. 1825. Epiphyte; inflorescence arising directly from leaf axils; stalk 4-6 cm long; flowers yellow; fruits 6.5-8 cm long, pointed at both ends. Rare in dense inland forests. Flowers. May- June. Fruits. July- August. Specimens. Laful, Hore 8782 (PBL). Distribution. Andaman and Nicobar islands, Burma, Thailand, Malaya, Sumatra, Java and Borneo. 30. Trichoglottis cirrhifera Teysm. & Binn. in Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. 493. 1853. Epiphyte; flowers solitary, axillary; sepals and petals pinkish brown but labellum white with 2-lilac spots. Rare in beach forests. Flowers. March. Fruits. Not known. 632 ORCHIDS OF GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND Specimens. Campbell Bay, Thothathri Sc Banerjee 11307 (CAL). Distribution. Nicobar Islands, Thailand, Malaya and Java. 31. Trichoglottis orelildea (Koenig) Garay in Bot. Mus. Lead. Harvard Univ. 23 (4) : 209. 1972. Epidendrum orchideum Koenig in Retz. Observ. Bot. 6: 48. 1791. Epiphyte, pendulous; flowers solitary arising from a little above of the leaf; flowers c. 1.5 cm long; sepals and petals reddish orange; lip white with pink spots at middle; spur white. Frequent in shaded inland forests; can be cultivated in greenhouses. Flowers. August-February. Fruits. Not known. Specimens. Campbell Bay, Balakrishnan 2912 (PBL, CAL); 41 km on East-West Road, R. P. Dwivedi 7870 (PBL). Distribution. Peninsular India, Nicobar Islands and Malaya. 32. Vanilla andamanica Rolfe in Kew Bull. 237. 1918. Climber; leaves 15-20 x 3. 5-4. 5 cm, oppo- site, acuminate; capsule 15 x 2.5 cm, green. Common in shaded places in inland forests. The capsules can be used for extraction of Vanilla essence if properly cured; potentially useful for cultivation. Flowers. April- June. Fruits. July- August. Specimens. 20 km on North-South Road, Balakrishnan 3833 (PBL, CAL, L) Distribution. Endemic to Andaman and Nicobar Islands. 33. Vrydagzynea albida (Bl.) Bl. in Orch. Arch. Ind. 75, t. 19. f. 2. 1858; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 6: 97. 1890. Etaeria albida Bl. Bijdr. 410. 1825. Terrestrial, decumbent herb, c. 20 cm; leaves alternate; flowers terminal and condensed to- gether, white. Rare along shaded streamsides on clayey loam. Flowers. July- August. Fruits. September-October. Specimens. 37 km on East-West Road, on Path to Shompen village, Balakrishnan 3979/1 (PBL). Distribution. Great Nicobar Islands, Bangla- desh, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. Phytogeography The phytogeographical relationship of the flora of Great Nicobar Island was not suffi- ciently known to the botanical world. The con- jecture of Jacobs (1978), that the flora may be closely related to the Sumatran flora, is now found to be true. Based on the Orchids we find that the floristic affinities of the island are predominantly Indonesian and Malaysian and to some extent related to Burmese-Thailand elements. From the geographic situation of the island, the Malaysian and Indonesian elements are certainly to be expected in its flora. Rapid accumulation of data regarding the orchid elements in this island and those of adjacent regions or countries greatly help us for a better understanding of the phyto- geography of individual genera and species. It is now known that some genera are highly developed in distant regions but have single or a few representatives in the Malaysian re- gion. Thus, Cleisostoma uraiensis earlier re- ported only from the Philippines, Taiwan and Formosa, is now found in fairly good popula- tions in this island. The orchids of Nicobar Islands show closer affinities with the Indonesian rather than Burmese- Andamanese elements. A few ende- mic species like Eria bractescens var. kurzii, Phalaenopsis speciosa, P. speciosa var. tetraspis, 633 7 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81 Pomatocalpa andamanicum, Pteroceras berke- leyii and Vanilla andamanica occur both in Andaman and Nicobar group of islands. While Aerides emericii is restricted to the Nicobar group of island. Anoectochilus nicobaricus is restricted to the Great Nicobar island only. Representatives of even more widely distri- buted species such as Corymborkis veratrijolia, Dendrobium crumenatum, Goodyera procera, Luisia teretifolia, Pholidota pallida and Vryda- gzynea albida which extends up to Sri Lanka and peninsular India occur in this island. Some of these reach even the Himalayan regions also. Spathoglottis plicata is distribut- ed almost throughout Malaysia, but does not extend northwards beyond Tenasserim in Burma. Thelasis pygmaea, a Himalayan species has been recently discovered from this island. Except for Spathoglottis plicata (up to 100 m altitude), there is no altitudinal restriction for orchid habitats in the island. Phalaenopsis speciosa prefers a rather humid climate. Conservation The conservation of threatened species serves the positive purposes of providing genetic reservoirs, making significant contributions to modern agriculture, horticulture, pharmaceu- ticals and industrial processes in all parts of the world. Human activities threaten some species and habitats more than others. As man’s number increases and as each generation becomes more demanding, his environment and plant heritage will be affected. In this process man finds himself creating inexorable changes. In case of orchids, Beckner (1979) estimated that a possible 200 billion orchid plants are being destroyed every year due to human activities either through agricultural land clearing around the world, or collection for horticultural trade. Naturally, the need for conservation of orchid species is of paramount importance today. Many articles have been written (Ayensu 1975, Hunt 1968, Melville 1971, Peterson 1974, Pradhan, M. G. 1974, Pradhan, U. C. 1975), expressing intense concern and aware- ness of the orchid conservation problems. As a major step on conservation strategy and its execution and regulation of trade in wild orchids, the criteria discussed by Ayensu & Defilipps (1981) are worth following. Though the Great Nicobar Island is small with an area of about 1045 sq. km, there exists many valuable wild orchids in the primary forests, occupying about 85% of the land area. At present only about 40% of the land area has been botanically explored and this itself yielded about 33 orchid taxa so far. No doubt more species would be collected when the unexplo- red areas are intensively surveyed. Despite our limited knowledge about the genetic reservoirs, it is a certainity that this island contains germ-plasm materials of many wild relatives of cultivated species in localized pockets. Hence their conservation in situ is indispensible and simultaneously it is necessary to ascertain frequently their protection status also. The primary objective of a rational con- servation policy is to preserve viable population of as many species as possible that inhabit the pristine primary forests. To achieve this the following steps are suggested : 1) To preserve and protect a large area, rather than only small pockets of habitats. This is easy because three fourths of the forest area of the island is still virgin. It should be effectively buffered against human onslaught and natural disasters. For this a large area of primary virgin forests should be declared as Biosphere reserve with sufficient buffer zone around. 634 ORCHIDS OF GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND 2) To check the growth of human population by putting a complete stop on any further settlement on the island. 3) To maintain in botanic gardens, species suggested for ornamental propagation along with their range of genetic diversity is necessary. This is extremely important as emphasized by Schoser (1977). Refer Ayensu, E. S. (1975) : Endangered and threatened orchids of the United States. Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 44 : 384-394. Ayensu, E. S. & De Filipps, R. A. (1981) : The international regulation of trade in endangered species of wild orchids. Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 50(8) : 959-967. Balakrishnan, N. P. (1976) : Our orchids. The A. & N. information. 153-165. Port Blair. (1977) : Recent botanical Studies in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 19 : 132-138. & Chakraborty, P. (1978) : Descriptive notes on some new or little known orchids of Nicobar Islands, ibid. 20: 80-90. Beckner, J. (1979) : Are orchids endangered? Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 48(10) : 1010-1017. Hunt, P. F. (1968) : Conservation of Orchids. Orch. Rev. 76 : 320-327. Jacobs, M. (1978) : Expeditions and other explo- rations. FI. Males. Bull. 31 : 2988-2991. Kurz, S. (1876) : A sketch of the vegetation of 4) To conduct field research and data collec- tion on pollination biology of orchid species is another interesting aspect which can be done successfully only in this undisturbed wild conditions. Only through this, it would be possible to save the rare valuable species of orchids of Great Nicobar Island. E N C E S the Nicobar Islands. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 45(3) : 105-164. Melville, R. (1971) : Conservation of orchids. Orch. Rev. 79 (931) : 21-22. Peterson, R. (1974) : Conservation conversation. Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 43 : 99. Pradhan, M. G. (1974) : Orchid conservation in India. Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 43 : 135-139. Pradhan, U. C. (1975) : Conservation of Eastern Himalayan Orchids — Problems and prospects-I, II, III. Orch. Rev. 83 : 314-317; 345-347 and 374. Sahni, K. C. (1953) : Botanical exploration in the Great Nicobar Island. Indian Forester 79(1) : 3-16. Schoser, G. (1977) : The conservation of tropi- cal orchids. In The Role and Goals of Tropical Botanic Gardens (ed. B. C. Stone) : 175-179. Penerbit Universiti, Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. Thothathri, K., Banerjee, S. P., Mukerjee, P. K., Hajra, P. IC. & Pal, G. D. (1973): Botanical results of the joint scientific expedition to the Great Nicobar Island. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 15: 235-265. 635 IS HABITAT DESTRUCTION IN INDIA AND PAKISTAN BEGINNING TO AFFECT THE STATUS OF ENDEMIC PASSERINE BIRDS 71 A. J. Gaston2 The status and distribution of endemic passerine birds in India and Pakistan was examined to test the hypothesis that, in areas where human degradation of natural ecosystems is very pervasive, continental passerine species may become vulnerable to extinction. Species were classified according to their distribution, habitat satura- tion and abundance. The initial hypothesis was supported by the evidence and Pakistan was identified as an area affected Introduction Interest in the fate of endangered birds has centred mainly on large, spectacular species, such as the Great Indian Bustard Choriotis nigriceps and the Siberian Crane Grus leuco- geranus, or insular forms such as the Laysan Finch Psittirostra cantans or the various Haw- aiian Honeycreepers (Halliday 1980). Small continental species do not generally merit such concern with a few prominent exceptions (Kirtland’s Warbler Dendroica kirtlandii, Noisy Scrub-bird Atrichohrnis clamosus). The resilience of continental passerine spe- cies compared with non-passerines stems from the high densities that they maintain, allowing adequate populations to survive in relatively small patches of habitat. However, with the continuing conversion of ecosystems from natural to man-made configurations, we may anticipate the fragmentation of species popula- tions sufficient to qualify for the attention of conservationists. Because of the antiquity of human settle- 1 Accepted December 1983. 2 Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa, Ontario KIA OE7, Canada. particularly badly. ments and cultivation in India and Pakistan (Thapar 1966, Allchin & Allchin 1968) and the very high density of population maintain- ing over many centuries over most of the area (e.g., Bose et al. 1965), natural ecosys- tems occurring in the Indo-gangetic plain and the Deccan plateau have been virtually eradi- cated. They have been replaced, in areas suitable for agriculture, with intensive culti- vation, and in most other areas with derelict scrub and semi-desert communities (Eckholm 1979, Baig 1980). I have examined the status of endemic pas- serines in India and Pakistan to test the hypo- thesis that species characteristic of the heavily disturbed lowland ecosystems of the Indo- gangetic plain and the peninsular India may show signs of increased rates of extinction, or vulnerability to extinction. I have based my assessment on personal observations made over the last twelve years throughout India and Pakistan, augmented by those of T. J. Roberts for Pakistan, combined with descrip- tions of status given by Ali & Ripley (1969- 74) and others. I have confined my appraisals of status to Pakistan and India east to about West Bengal which is the area over which my own experience extends and I have omitted 636 HABITAT DESTRUCTION AND STATUS OF ENDEMIC BIRDS Sri Lanka, with its varied endemic avifauna, and the Andaman Islands. I have classified each species according to three criteria : (1) Distribution. Each species is assigned to one of four eco-geographical areas (see below) on the basis of its present distri- bution. (2) Habitat saturation. Species are classified as (a) continuous, present in all suitable habitat; (b) local, absent from some areas of apparently suitable habitat within its overall range; (c) very local, present in only a few isolated pockets. (3) Abundance. Species are ranked based , on numbers generally encountered in the course of a day’s birdwatching in suitable habitat : (a) abundant, >100; (b) com- mon, 10-100; (c) scarce, 1-10; (d) rare, < 1. Inevitably, I have had to be somewhat sub- jective in my choice of “endemics”. Although I have only considered Pakistan, India and Western Nepal in my appraisals of status, I have dealt with all species which are endemic to the temperate western Himalayas, including some which extend into Afghanistan, and some species of the Indo-gangetic Hood plain which extend into lowland Burmah. Distribution and Ecology I have divided the endemic species under consideration into four groups based on pre- sent distributions and ecology : (1) Species with distribution centred on the Indo-gangetic plain associated mainly with waterside vegetation, and hence presum- ably forming part of the fauna of the seasonally inundated flood-plain forests and grasslands that must originally have covered much of the plains prior to the introduction of agriculture. This area now supports a very high density of human population; more than 400. km*2 (Bose et al. 1965). (2) Species found mainly in the dry rolling plateau of the Deccan. This area was formerly covered in deciduous forest, particularly Teak Tectona grandis. Al- though considerable areas of forest re- main, these are much affected by distur- bance, particularly grazing. Large areas have been felled, some of which have been replanted as monocultures, but large areas support only a derelict open scrub (Baig 1980). (3) Species occurring in the high rainfall moist-deciduous and evergreen forests of southwest India and the Western Ghats. This forest has been much reduced by commercial timber extraction and the construction of hydro power dams, but moderate areas of seminatural forest re- main except in the narrow strip of coastal plain where natural forest has been practi- cally eliminated. (4) Species occurring in the temperate forests of the Himalayas and associated moun- tains as far east as central Nepal. This encompasses species living at altitudes above those characteristic of species found in the adjacent plains (area 1), but below those characteristic of arctic-alpine habi- tats, most of which extend into Tibet and central Asia (Vaurie 1972). Forests in this zone consist mainly of mixed ever- green oaks ( Quercus spp.) and conifers. Although large areas of forest have been destroyed by timber extraction, there are still substantial areas of intact natural forest (Gaston et al. 1983). * Results The endemic species considered are listed 637 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81 Table 1 Status of endemic passerine species in India and Pakistan, south of the great Himalayan range Species Distribution (Area #) Habitat Saturation Abundance Notes Sturnus contra 1 Continuous Abundant Well adapted to man- Acridotheres ginginianus 1 Continuous Abundant made environments Chrysomma altirostre 1 Local Rare Western race, C. a. scindicum disjunct, probably rare Turdoides earlei 1 Local Common Western race, T. e. sonivius very local, probably not very numerous Prinia biirnesii 1 Very local Uncommon Western race, P. b. burnesii disjunct, probably not numerous Saxicola leucura 1 Very local Uncommon Passer pyrrhonotus 1 Very local Uncommon Ploceus megarhynchus 1 Very local Uncommon Ploceus benghalensis 1 Local Common P crier ocotus erythropy gius 2 Local Uncommon Mira fra erythroptera 2 Local Uncommon Abundance hard to judge because species is very similar to M. assamica Pycnonotus xantholaemus 2 Local Uncommon Pycnonotus lut coins 2 Local Uncommon Turdoides malcolmi 2 Continuous Common Well adapted to agricultural land Parus nuchalis 2 Local Uncommon Estrilda formosa 2 Local Uncommon Prinia buchanani 1 2 Continuous Common Chaetornis striatus 2 Very local Uncommon Skulking, status may be better than it appears Saxicola macrorhyncha 2 Very local Rare Cercomela fusca 1 2 Local Common Pycnonotus priocephalus 3 Local Uncommon Turdoides subrufus 3 Local Common Often numerous on tea estates Garrulax cachinnans 3 Local Common Garrulax jerdoni 3 Local Common Myiophoneus horsfieldii 3 Continuous Common 638 HABITAT DESTRUCTION AND STATUS OF ENDEMIC BIRDS Muscicapa pallipes 3 Local Uncommon Hard to see because of Muscicapa nigrorufa 3 Local Uncommon dense habitat Schoenicola platyura 3 Local Rare Skulking, possibly commoner than appears Brachypteryx major 3 Local Uncommon? Common according to Ali & Ripley (1972) Nectarinia minima 3 Continuous Common Turdoides nipalensis 4 Very local Common Garrulax variegatus 4 Continuous Common Phylloscopus tytleri 4 Local Uncommon Hard to identify Phylloscopus subviridis 4 Local Common Parus melanolophus 4 Continuous Abundant Aegithalos leucogenys 4 Local Uncommon Aegithalos niveogularis 4 Continuous Uncommon Mycerobas icterioides 4 Continuous Abundant Callacanthis burtoni 4 Very local Common Pyrrhula aurantiaca 4 Local Uncommon in Table 1. Three of the species of area 1 comprise more or less disjunct races split bet- ween the Indus and Ganges valleys. In all cases the western (Indus) populations are local or very local and may warrant conserva- tion measures soon, particularly Chrysomma altirostre. Passer pyrrhonotus is confined to the Indus but appears to have adapted to tree-lined irrigation canals (T. J. Roberts, pers comm.). Ploceus megarhynchus is found only in a few localities in northern Uttar Pradesh in season- ally inundated grasslands (Ali& Crook 1959) and the status of this species invites concern. In area 2, Saxicola macrorhyncha and Chae- tornis striatus seem sufficiently uncommon to require attention, although the latter is a skul- king species, easily overlooked, and may be more common than it appears. The minivet, PericYOcotus erythropygius, has certainly be- come less common around Delhi in the last 50 years and its status elsewhere may warrant investigation (cf. Basil-Edwards 1926, Gan- guli 1976, pers. obs.). Three other species appear to be local and uncommon, but area 2 is very large and with many remnant patches of forest it is hard to assess the status of forest birds such as P. erythropygius, Pams nuchalis and Pycnonotus xantholaemus. The status of species in area 3 is easier to assess than that of species in area 2, because the area of typical forest vegetation is much smaller and extensive surveys have been car- ried out recently by Kerala Forest Research Institute and Calicut University researchers. Only Schoenicola platyura appears rare, but as in the case of Chaetornis striatus, the species is hard to locate and may be common- er than it seems. Five other species are local and uncommon and could easily become vul- nerable to extinction with further reduction of their preferred habitats. Area 4, like area 3, can be fairly accurately assessed because it is small and has been fre- quently visited by ornithologists during the past 20 years (e.g., Gaston et al. 1981). The status of Phylloscopus tytleri is hard to judge because the species is very difficult to identify in the field; it may be fairly common within its small range. P. subviridis is sufficiently common in its winter range in the north Indian plains to indicate that it is fairly numerous somewhere, although its breeding area is not 639 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 well known. Probably none of the species from area 4 warrant concern at present. Discussion The initial hypothesis that areas where al- terations to the natural ecosystems have been greatest will have the greatest proportion of species which are local /very local and un- common/rare seems to be supported by the present analysis (Table 2). Areas 1 and 2, Table 2 Proportion of species in four eco-geographical AREAS OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT FALLING IN DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE Area Local /V. local Uncommon/ Rare Local/V. local/ Common Continuous/ Uncommon Continuous/ Common Abundant 1 5(55%) 2 2 2 8(72%) 1 2 3 5(50%) 3 2 4 3(30%) 4 3 Total 21 10 9 Combining Areas 1 and 2 (highly disturbed), and 3 and 4 (less disturbed) and columns 2 and 3 (not vulnerable), Chi2, with Yate’s correction = 1.6, P > 0.05. the most intensively cultivated and those sup- porting the highest human population densi- ties have 55% and 72% of their endemics in the local /very local and uncommon /rare categories, compared with only 30% for area 4. These differences are not statistically signi- ficant. However, five species from areas 1 and 2 are very local, compared with only one in the other two areas. The very local classification of species in areas 1 and 2 does not indicate that their ranges are smaller or their populations lower than the local species found in other areas. What it does indicate is that these species occupy a much smaller proportion of the ap- parent potential habitat. Several of the endemic species of area 3 have very small ranges and populations may number only a few thousand pairs (e.g., Garrulax spp., Muscicapa nigro- rufa, Brachypteryx major ) . However, this is clearly a function of the relatively small area of natural evergreen forest in southwest India. One point that emerges from consideration of endemic species in areas 1 and 2 is that those occupying the Indus basin appear to be faring worse than those in the Ganges basin, with one species, Saxicola macrorhyn- cha, possibly vulnerable to extinction and two of the endemic races, Chrysomma altirostre scindicum and Prinia b. burnesii, perhaps also vulnerable. It is tempting to point to a con- nection with the very early establishment of urban civilization in the Indus valley (Allchin & Allchin 1968), but it seems more likely to be related to the greater aridity of the Indus valley generally and the smaller area involved, hence providing fewer remaining refuge areas. Ack nowledgements I would like to thank Kamal Islam and T. J. Roberts for information on birds in Pakistan, and the latter also for detailed criticism of an earlier draft. I also received useful comments from P. J. Garson, B. Beehler and S. Dillon Ripley. My wife, who accompanied me in my travels to the uttermost parts of India, has always been an ideal companion, making much of my work possible. 640 HABITAT DESTRUCTION AND STATUS OF ENDEMIC BIRDS References Ali, S. & Crook, J. M. (1959): Observations on Finn’s Baya ( Ploceus megarhynchus Hume) re- discovered in the Kumaon terai, 1959. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56 : 457-483. Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1969-74) : Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vols. 1-10. Bombay, Oxford University Press. Allchin, B. & Allchin, R. (1968) : The Birth of Indian Civilization. Harmondsworth, Penguin Books. Baig, M. A. (1980) : Plundering the forests. India Today 5(6) : 84-85. Basil-Edwardes, S. (1926) : A contribution to the ornithology of Delhi. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31 : 261-273; 567-578. Bose, N. K., Mitra, A., Gupta, P. & Mukherjee, M. (1965): The Gazetteer of India, Vol. 1, Coun- try and People, Ed. by P. N. Chopra, pp. 289-366. New Delhi, Government of India. Eckholm, E. P. (1975) : The deterioration of mountain environments. Science 189 : 164-170. Ganguli, U. (1976) : A Guide to the Birds of the Delhi Area. New Delhi. I.C.A.R. Gaston, A. J., Hunter, M. L., jr. & Garson, P. J. (1981) : The Wildlife of Himachal Pradesh, Western Himalayas. University of Maine School of Forest Resources Technical Note, No. 82, 159 pp. (1983) : The status and conservation of forest wildlife in Himachal Pradesh, Western Himalayas. Biol. Conserv. 27 : 291-314. Halliday, T. (1980) : Vanishing Birds. Har- mondsworth, Penguin Books. Thapar, R. (1966) : A History of India, Vol. 1. Harmondsworth, Penguin Books. Vaurie, C. (1972) : Tibet and its Birds. London, M. F. & G. Witherby. Whistler, H. (1922) : The birds of Jhang district, S. W. Punjab, Part 1, Passerine birds. Ibis 7: 259- 309. 641 FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF FINGERLINGS AND JUVENILES OF MAHSEER (TOR PUT IT ORA HAM.) IN NAYAR RIVER1 Prakash Nautiyal AND M. S. Lal2 ( With three text-figures) The food and feeding habits of the fingerlings and juveniles of Tor putitora inhabiting river Nayar were studied for one year. Observations on the nature of food and feeding habits indicated them to be “mono- phagic” and “column feeder”. Inspite of the fact that the RGL values supported its omnivorous habit, the percental value of insect food item and their occurrence in 5% of the fishes clearly indicated a “ Carnivorous ” habit. Introduction The present contribution deals with the food and feeding habits of Garhwal mahseer ( Tor putitora Ham.). Recent contributions in this field are by Das & Pathani (1978), on the adaptation of alimentary tract in relation to the feeding habits, Pathani & Joshi (1979) on the food and feeding habits of the finger- lings of Tor tor and Tor putitora, and Badola & Singh (1980) on food and feeding habits of fishes belonging to genera Tor, Puntius and Barilius. Bearing in mind the significance of such data it was felt desirable to investigate the food and feeding habits of the fingerlings and juveniles of Tor putitora inhabiting river Nayar. This river was chosen for study as it harbours a large population of mahseer juveniles throughout the year suggesting its 1 Accepted January 1982. 2 Fishery Biology Research Laboratory, Depart- ment of Zoology, Garhwal University, Srinagar, Garhwal-246 174, U.P. high productivity (Nautiyal & Lal 1978). Materials and Methods For analysing the food and feeding habits of the mahseer, fish were procured at regular monthly intervals for one year from river Nayar. After measuring the length and weight the entire specimen was fixed in 5-7% formalin and brought to the laboratory. The fish available during these months ranged from 40.0 mm to 354 mm. Those ranging from 40.0 mm to 70.0 mm were considered as fin- gerlings and those above, as juveniles. After recording the morphometric data, the fish was dissected and gut contents were exa- mined for food habits. The fish being a typi- cal cyprinid lacks the conventional stomach and as in others possesses an intestinal swelling in the anterior part, called “the intestinal bulb.” The entire gut was taken out and moisture was removed by blotting paper. The total length of the gut was measured for determining Re- lative Gut Length (RGL) which was calcu- 642 FEEDING HABITS OF MAHSEER (TOR PUTITORA HAM.) lated as the ratio of intestinal length to total body length. The “intestinal bulb” was then separated, weighed and then reweighed after evacuating its contents into a petri-dish. Their difference gave the weight of the entire gut contents. Volume of the food was recorded by displacement method. From the average data thus obtained the “Gastro-Somatic Index” (GSI) was determined for each fish to study the seasonal variations in food by the formula: Weight of the stomach contents GSI = — x 100 Weight of the fish The percentage of food composition was detected by the points method. While allotting points to the different food items the size of the fish and state of the intestinal bulb were taken into consideration. Points were allotted on their relative volumes as assessed by visual estimation and converted into percentages. The feeding intensity was assessed by classi- fying the intestinal bulbs as Full, j Full, \ Full, i Full, Poor and Empty, and were awarded 20, 15, 10, 5, 2.5 and 0 points res- pectively, depending on the state of disten- tion of stomach and amount of food in it. “Feeding Index” (Tham Ah Khow 1950) was calculated to express the feeding intensity. The annual percentage of occurrence of the different food items in the guts was assessed by the Occurrence method (Allen 1935, Frost 1939, 1946). They were graded by the “Index of Preponderance” (Natrajan 8z Jhingran 1961). Macroscopic and Microscopic examinations of the gut contents were made to identify the food items. In spite of this, to ensure the qualitative analysis of the fish’s diet, the in- testinal as well as rectal portions were also examined. Feeding habits were observed in the field but this was possible only during winter and early summer when water remained crystal clear most of the time. Observations Food and Its nature The examined gut contents of Tor putitora consisted of insects, their larvae and nymphs along with plant debris, worms, sand and fish remains. Insects formed the highest percental value (Fig. 1) as compared to the other items, annually. H| WORMS (G) DIGESTED MATTER OF INSECTS ©MISCELLANEOUS CHIT I NOUS MATTER OF INSECTS © PLANT DEBRIS ® INSECTS Fig. 1. Pie diagram showing percentage annual feed of Tor putitora. 1. Insects : Insects constituted the major part completely intact or slightly damaged insects, their larvae and nymphs were cate- gorised as insects, their undigested remains which included legs, wing pads etc. were term- ed as chitinuous matter, and the digested portion which had the look of white torn flesh was identified and classified as the dige- sted matter of the insects. In the present paper, in order to make an easy interpreta- tion all the three items were grouped as in- sect matter. It was recorded that 73.5% of the fish had insect matter in their guts. The insects constitute 81.7% of the gut contents annually. Microscopic and macro- scopic examinations of the gut contents re- vealed that the fish feeds on the nymphs of may-flies and stone-flies, larvae of caddis-flies, and other aquatic insects along with the adults of water bugs. 2. Plant debris : During monsoon the surface run-off along with high velocity of water in 643 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81 the streamlets bring either broken twigs or even branches of shrubs and trees growing on their banks, into the river. Small, granular particles were present in the intestinal bulb and identified as epidermal cells of plants and was thus termed as “plant debris”. It con- stituted 15.9% of the gut contents annually and was present only during the month of August, 1980 and July, 1981 in 7.7% of the fish collected. 3. Worms : The worms which were often present in the gut have been considered as gut contents, but not as food, for they were para- sites. This was confirmed by dissecting out the alimentary canal of the freshly killed speci- mens in which the worms were found to be alive. They were in higher percentage in the intestinal bulbs possessing only digested matter. They constituted 0.8% of the gut contents, annually and were present in 12.0% of the fish. 4. Miscellaneous : The items included in this category were sand and fish remains (verte- brae, scales, dermal bones etc.) which consti- tuted a major part as compared to fish remains which were found only during May. These items were present in 6.8% of the fish. Feeding Intensity : The feeding intensity as is evidenced by the “Feeding Index” varies from month to month (Fig. 2). It was also observed to differ with the length of the fish (Table 1) for the fishes ranging from 40.0- 90.0 mm were observed to possess higher feeding intensity. The intensity however fell Table 1 Feeding index values for different length groups of Tor putitora 40.0-90.0 64.9 91.0-140.0 34.3 141.0-190.0 40.0 after the fish attains the length of 190.0 mm or more. Relative Gut Length : The relative gut length ranged from 0.819 to 0.918 in finger- lings and from 1.056 to 1.825 in the juveniles (Table 2). Table 2 Relative gut length values for Tor putitora FROM RIVER NAYAR Months RGL Values August 1.056 September 1.406 October 0.819 November 0.868 December 0.918 January 1.159 February 1.454 March 1.301 April 1.556 May 1.675 June 1.825 July 0.835 Discussion The food and feeding habits of Tor putitora inhabiting high altitude Kumaun lakes and the hill streams of Garhwal Himalayas have been worked out by some authors. Based on the Relative Gut Length values, position of the bile duct and percentage of the food items. Das & Pathani (1978) have considered it to be an “herbi-omnivore”. Its fingerlings have been declared by Pathani & Joshi (1979) to be of “zoophagus nature”. Badola & Singh (1980) have assessed Tor putitora to be a “carni-omnivore”. However, observations our differ from those made by these authors. The investigations revealed that the insect matter ranked first and was con- sidered as the “basis food” (Nikolsky 1963) 644 FEEDING INDEX FEEDING HABITS OF MAHSEER (TOR PUTITORA HAM.) of the fingerlings as well as of the juveniles. Since the plant debris and the fish remains were consumed only in time of need, they were M ON THS Fig. 2. Variations in the feeding intensity of Tor pu tit ora. categorised as “obligatory food” (Nikolsky 1963). Among the insects the Ephemeropteran Fig. 3. Gastro-Somatic Index. Quantitative variations in the Diet of Tor putitora. nymphs dominated, followed by Trichopteran and other insect larvae. Plecopteran nymphs were present occasionally, while hemipteran and coleopteran adults were rarely found. The GSI exhibited no marked seasonal variation throughout the year, except for the month of August (Fig. 3) which can be attri- buted to intensive feeding by the young ones. Feeding intensity has been worked out by some authors applying the fullness method (Frost, 1939, and a few others). Hynes (1950) has determined the extent of feed by consider- ing the state of stomachs. Tham Ah Khow (1950) has propounded the “Feeding Index” based on the number of 3/4 and full stomachs while Lai & Dwivedi (1969) have determined the feeding intensity by the number of empty stomachs. The feeding index has been success- fully applied by Venkataraman (1960) and Toor (1964). In the present case the maximum feeding intensity in Tor putitora was recorded during July and August. During these two months the fingerlings were available which evidently being young stages fed voraciously (Table 1). However, if the juveniles are taken into consideration, from September onwards the index exhibits a peak in January after which it gradually went down to minimum in May. Feeding habits The fingerlings were mostly found in the lee of flooded pools during monsoon and thus feed on some plants which get submerged in them. However, the juveniles feed actively in shoals during early morning hours. They were observed to feed on the river margins but switched over to the middle section during day. While feeding on insects they scrape the stones with the help of their lower jaw. Juveniles which have attained larger size were usually solitary in habit and inhabited the deeper pools. 645 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 81 The fish is thus “marginal-cum-mid” or “column feeder.” The mid- or bottom feeders may be herbi- vores, omnivores, or carnivores in nature (Das & Moitra 1963). The Garhwal mahseer, as is evidenced by the inferior pharyngeal teeth (Nautiyal et al. 1980) and the RGL values, seems to be omnivores in nature. If the percen- tal values of the gut contents are taken into consideration its “insectivorous” nature cannot be denied. The term insectivore (Khanna & Pant 1964) has been included in the category of carnivores (Das & Moitra 1963). In the case of Tor putitora, insect matter constituted 81.7% and the plant matter 15.9% of the annual feed. The latter was occasionally present in the guts examined (during July and August) We thus concluded that the fish under investigation is a “Carni- vore” by habit. The contradiction thus arising due to the comparison of the actual dietry habits of the fish with the RGL values supports the view that the fish can adapt to the diet avail- able in the particular environment (Steven 1930, Pillay 1953, Martin 1954, Kapoor 1958 and Singh 1966). Also, that it is not always possi- Refer Al-Hussaini, A. H. (1949) : On the functional morphology of the alimentary tract of some fish in relation to differences in their feeding habits; ana- tomy and histology. Quart. J. Micro. Sci. London. 90: 109-139. Allen, K. R. (1935) : The food and migration of perch ( Perea fluviatilis ) in Windermere. J. Anim. Ecol. 4, 264-273. Badola, S. P. & Singh, H. R. (1980) : Food and feeding habits of fishes of the genera, Tor, Puntius, and Barilius. Proc. Indian Natn. Sci. Acad., B 46 (1): 58-62. Das, S. M. & Moitra, S. K. (1963): Studies on the food and feeding habits of some freshwater fishes of India. IV. A review on the food of some freshwater fishes, with general conclusions. Ichthyo- logica. 2(1-2): 107-115. ble to relate fish’s diet to the length of the alimentary canal (Al-Hussaini 1949). The herbi-omnivorous nature of the Kumaon mahseer has been reported to be a peculiar example of evolutionary transition from herbi- vorous to omnivorous nature (Das & Pathani 1978). Naturally, the Garhwal mahseer too seems to be a similar case exhibiting changes in the food habits from omnivorous to carni- vorous habits, an adaptation to the environ- ment of the Nayar river, a spring-fed hill- stream. Ack nowledgements We wish to thank Dr. H. R. Singh, Professor & Head Department of Zoology, Garhwal Uni- versity, Srinagar, Garhwal for providing us laboratory facilities and literature pertaining to the present work. The Senior author (P. N.) is thankful to Dr. S. S. Pathani, Department of Zoology, Kumaon University, Nainital for his reprints on the subject. Thanks are also due to Sri S. N. Bahuguna, Research Fellow, Department of Zoology, Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal for his suggestions during the preparation of this manuscript. EN CES Das, S. M. & Pathani, S. S. (1978): Studies on the biology of the Kumaon mahseer ( Tor putitora Hamilton) : Adaptation of the alimentary tract in relation to feeding habits, body weight and body length. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 48(6) : 461-465. Frost, W. E. (1939) : River Liffey. II. The food consumed by the brown trout ( Salmo trutta Linn.) in acid and alkaline waters. Proc. R. Irish Acad. 45B : 139-206. (1946) : Observations on the food of eels ( Anguilla anguilla ) from the Windermere catch- ment area. J. Anim. Ecol. 15: 43-53. Hynes, H. B. N. (1950): The food of freshwater sticklebacks ( Gasterosteous aculeatus and Pyrosteus pungitius ) with a review of the methods used in studies of the food of fishes. /. Anim. Ecol. 19: 36-58. 646 FEEDING HABITS OF MAHSEER (TOR PUTITORA HAM.) Kapoor, B. G. (1958) : The morphology and histology of the alimentary tract of a plankton feeder Gadusia chapra. Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat., Geneva. 70: 8-32. Khanna, S. S. & Pant, M. C. (1964) : On the digestive tract and feeding habits of some teleostean fishes. Agra Univ. J. Res., XIII (I) : 230-243. Lal, M. S. & Dwivedi, A. S. (1969) : Studies on the Fishery and Biology of a freshwater teleost, Rita rita, IV Food and Feeding habits. Indian J. Zoot. X(2) : 67-68. Martin, N. V. (1954) : Catch and winter food of lake trout in certain Algongwin Park lakes. /. Fish. Res. Bl. Ottawa (Canada). 11: 5-10. Natrajan, A. V. & Jhingran, A. G. (1961) : Index or Preponderance a method of grading the food elements in the stomach analysis of fishes. Indian J. Fish. 8(1): 54-59. Nautiyal, P. & Lal, M. S. (1978) : Eco-biological studies on some hillstream fishes of Garhwal Hima- layas III. Hydrological factors and their bearing on productivity of mahseer in the hillstream Alak- nanda, Mandakini and Nayar. Indian J. Zoot. XIX (I): 21-27. Nautiyal, P., Mishra, M. & Lal, M. S. (1980): Functional morphology of the hyobranchial skeleton of some hillstream fishes of Garhwal region (U.P.), India. I. Hyobranchial skeleton of Tor (species), ibid. XXI: 97-105. Nikolsky, G. V. (1963) : ‘The Ecology of Fishes.’ Academic Press, London Inc.: 321. Pathani, S. S. & Joshi, M. (1979) : On food and feeding habits of fingerlings of the two Kumaon Fishes, Tor tor and Tor putitora Flam. Bioresearch. 4 (1) : 43-46. Pillay, T. V. R. (1953) : Studies on food and feeding and alimentary tract of the Grey Mullet Mugil fade Forskal. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci., Calcutta (India). 19(6): 777-827. Singh, R. (1966) : Morpho-histological studies of the alimentary canal of Bagarius bagarius. Agra Univ. J. Res., Agra (India). 15: 69-81. Steven, G. A. (1930) : Bottom fauna and the food of fishes. /. Mar. Biol. Assoc., London. 16: 677- 700. Quoted by Singh (1966). Tham Ah Khow (1950): The food and feeding relationships of the fishes of Singapore Straits. Fish. Publ., London. 1 : 1-35. Toor, H. S. (1964) : Biology and Fishery of Pig Face Bream Lethrinus lentajan Lacepede I. Food and Feeding habits. Indian J. Fish. 11(2): 559-580. Venkataraman, G. (1960): Studies on the food and feeding relationships of the inshore fishes of Calicut on the Malabar coast. Indian J. Fish. 7(2) : 275-306. 647 THE ENVIRONMENTAL LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE OF THE ASIATIC LION1 Paul Joslin2 (With six text-figures) These findings first appeared in a more expanded thesis form in 1972, and were distributed to the respective government and non-government agencies which had assisted in the study. At about the same time the shorter version given here was submitted for publication, intended as one of several papers to be prepared by the various research staff at the Gir Ecological Research Station that were to appear in a special issue of the Journal. However, for a number of reasons, not the least of which was funding, the project did not come to fruition. More than a decade has since passed, during which time there has been great changes in the Gir Sanctuary. Thanks to far sighted government action, the numbers of lions are now up, the population of other wildlife are improved and the habitat is sub- stantially richer and more luxuriant. However, rather than re-write the report to reflect the changes, it has been decided to publish the original version in order to best describe the conditions as they originally existed during the three year study period, and to report separately on the results of a more recent, but less exacting study, carried out over a period of less than one month. Introduction This study was undertaken because of an interest in investigating the problems and ways of conserving an endangered species. The Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica) was chosen from the International Union of Conservation of Nature Resources list of rare and endan- gered species in 1966, in consultation with Dr. Lee Talbot, Mr. Noel Simon and others. It was thought to be a typical example of an endangered mammal because more than half of the recently extinct mammals were pre- dators, and most of these were large (Talbot 1959). The Asiatic lion was suitable for an intensive study because, although rare, its dis- 1 Accepted April 1984. 2 Chicago Zoological Society, Brookfield, Illinois 60513, U.S.A. tribution was concentrated into a single 1300 km area in Gujarat State, western India. There had also been repeated requests to have it investigated (Daniel 1956, Talbot 1959, Spillet, unpublished report; Indian board for wildlife in 1956). Acknowledgements It is with pleasure that I acknowledge the financial help of several institutions which made this study possible. I am especially grateful to The Royal Society, the Smithsonian Research Foundation in collaboration with the Bombay Natural History Society, the Volkhart Foundation (WWF Project Number 198), the Children’s Section of the World Wildlife Fund British National Appeal, and the Fauna Pre- servation Society for the monetary support which they so generously contributed. I thank 648 THE ASIATIC LION the International Biological Programme for accepting the study as part of the India — United Kingdom contribution. I am grateful both to the members of the Gujarat State Forest Department and the Bombay Natural History Society for assisting me in innumerable ways. Special thanks are extended to Mr. R. D. Joshi, Chief Conser- vator of Forests, Mr. M. K. Dalvi, Conservator of Forests, Mr. M. A. Rashid, Conservator of Forests, Mr. J. D. Tolia, sanctuary super- intendent, Mr. P. B. Vyas, retired sanctuary superintendent, Mr. Zafar Futehally, hono- rary secretary of the Bombay Natural History Society, and Mr. J. C. Daniel, the Society’s curator. Special thanks are given to Mrs. Almitra Patel, Gir Project Officer, without whose administrative assistance much less time would have been available to my colleagues and myself for doing research. I am grateful to my colleagues, Mr. K. T. B. Hodd, Dr. Stephen Berwick, Mr. Robert Grubh, Mr. Nicky Sanyal and Mr. Sanat Chavan, who were engaged in research in the Gir Sanctuary during parts of my stay, and who offered much assistance and consultation. Warm thanks are also extended to Dr. Lee Talbot, Dr. George Schaffer and Prof. Dr. Paul Leyhausen, who kindly gave me advice in the field. I appreciated the help of many temporary assistants, especially Miss Dorothy Brewster, Mr. K. S. Mohmed Bashirkhanji, Mr. Nata Mashru, Mr. Mohmed Sheikh, Mr. Hassan Sidi, Mr. Chondu Joshi, Geno and Bejal. Last but not least, I am very grateful to Dr. David Jenkins for his patient and encouraging super- vision both in the field and at the University of Edinburgh. Description and History The Asiatic lion resembles the African with only a few apparent differences. Along the length of the abdomen it has a prominent fold of skin which seldom is found in African lions. Comparing the skulls, in African lions, as in all mammals, there is only one infra- orbital foramen below the eyesocket on each side, while Todd (1965) found that in more than fifty per cent of skulls of Asiatic lions taken from the single remaining population there was pairing of either one or both of the infraorbital foramen (fig. 1). Behaviorally African Asiatic, Fig. 1. Comparison of infraorbital foramen between lion skulls from Africa and from the Gir Sanctuary. they are astonishingly docile and tolerant of visitors on foot, the means by which most visitors see them. A few lions have actually been touched in the wild. The adult males are responsible for nearly all the potential territo- rial advertisement, such as roaring, scraping or spraying of scent, whereas among African lions Schaffer (1972) has found that such advertisements are by no means limited to the males alone. The range of the Asiatic lion once extended from Syria, across the middle east to eastern India (fig. 2). However between 1850 and 1900, when firearms came into popular usage, most of the lions were killed, although a few dwindled on in Iran until 1942 (Heaney 1943). Credit for the survival of lions in the Gir hills in Gujarat State, was due to the limited hun- ting permitted by the Nawab of Junagadh on whose land the lions existed. At the time of 649 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 independence the area was designated a re- serve, and in 1965 it was upgraded to be called the Gir Forest Wildlife Sanctuary. Population Size and Decline In June 1968 the Gujarat State Forest Department undertook a census of the lion population and concluded that there were ap- proximately 177 lions remaining within the 1265 sq. km. sanctuary and surrounding lands. This count was about 40 per cent lower than any of the previous counts within recent years. To verify their enumeration I made five esti- mates of the size of the lion population. Three estimates were ascertained from road counts, counts at waterholes and density assessments of known prides. The fourth and fifth assess- ments were extrapolated from an approxima- tion of the total amount of domestic bovids consumed per year and two estimates of the amount of food required per lion per year. The object in making five estimates was to partially overcome the problem of known and unknown biases and sources of error asso- ciated with any one estimate. The average of the five determinations was 190, or not significantly different from the government count. That the government was also right in pointing out a decline was evident by the marked decrease in the lion’s range. In 1955 half the lion population counted was found outside the present boundary of the reserve, while in 1968 only 17 per cent of the total lion population could be located outside. Moreover lions could no longer be found in the Girnar range to the north or in the Mithila range to the east where in 1955 they still existed. 650 THE ASIATIC LION Poisoning The decline could not be attributed to hunting, as there had not been any for many years. Instead poisoning was blamed, espe* daily by the news media. Lions were attack- ing domestic stock which resided both in and around the sanctuary, and occasionally the owners would retaliate by poisoning their losses, and allowing the lions to feed. How- ever when I examined the government files on each case between 1963 and 1969 I found that poisoning was rare, or at least its dis- covery was rare, for only an average of one case of foul play was uncovered per year. Certainly such incidental cases would not bring about a reduction in the lion population. However poisoning was dramatic. It involved both adult lions and young. It brought about police action and court proceedings. In essence it lent itself to popular attention. Overgrazing When Dr. Lee Talbot visited the area brief- ly in 1956, he was aware even then that the lion population was declining, and he provided an alternative explanation. By standing in the middle of the sanctuary in the dry season one can see either a teak forest, or an acacia scrub forest. By moving more towards the edge of the sanctuary much of the forest gives way coincidental with the sharp build up in the concentration of domestic graziers. Out- side the sanctuary one sees almost no forest. Talbot (1959) reported that the amount of overgrazing and associated misuse was so bad that within a mere 20 years the Gir Forest would be gone, and with it the lions. How- ever he had come only at the height of the dry season, when conditions looked particu- larly bad. He did not have a chance to see how tenaciously the forest hangs on aided by the monsoon rains. So attuned had evolution adapted the Gir forest to the clockwork onset of the monsoon that in the weeks before its arrival more than 50 species of trees and scrubs would begin growing new shoots and fighting back. From 1968 to 1970 Hodd (1970) monitored the effects of overgrazing by fencing some areas and comparing the amounts of growth inside and outside. During the first growing season five times as much vegetable biomass was produced inside the fenced plots com- pared with outside. In otherwords the san- ctuary had not been so severely damaged as to be permanently impaired. Thus he con- cluded that it was unlikely that the destruc- tion of the Gir habitat through overgrazing was the principal cause for the lion’s decline in the short term. By, standing on top of the highest hill in Gir in the monsoon and seeing how extensive and productive the forest still appeared with 13 of the 20 year pre- diction having passed, it was apparent to me that perhaps a century or more would pass before overgrazing could totally destroy the forest. So another more important reason for the lions’ decline had to be sought. Cultivation The most likely contender was the ‘green revolution’. The replacement of grazing land by cultivation meant the displacement of range, cover and more importantly the wild and domestic animals upon which the lion depended for food. Black cotton soil, one of the best substrates for crop development, formed a major part of the surrounding low lying areas, and in a country where man was hungry it would have been surprising if these lands were not converted to crops. 651 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. SI I made several reconnaissance flights over the southern boundary of the sanctuary, which was fairly typical of the areas surrounding the sanctuary. It was only possible to take oblique aerial photos. In any single photo- graph, therefore, the actual amount of culti- vated land existing below could not be deter- mined. However by taking a large number of photographs at random so that any one land use had as much likelihood of being in the foreground or background as the next, and averaging the results, it was found that approximately 70 per cent was cultivated. Of that remaining only J3 per cent appeared sui- table for lions — that is forest, scrub and riverside cover. The rest was largely denuded fragments of limited value to lions. The ‘green revolution’ was in progress out- side the sanctuary, and it was outside where the bulk of the lion population had dis- appeared since 1955. Where lions still existed on the outside was in the few remaining forested regions adjoining the sanctuary which had not yet been cleared for cultivation. Within the sanctuary the extent of cultiva- tion was very limited. By combining my findings from oblique aerial photos with esti- mates made by forest department surveyors in 1968 and 1970, and allowing for areas of overlap, I estimated that six per cent of the sanctuary was either cultivated or allocated for development. Such a limited amount of damage to the sanctuary was not of much con- sequence to the indigenous lion population. However, since much of the cultivation was in the processes of expanding, it is reasonable to assume that it would have serious repercussions if not curbed. Size and Composition of Prey Population Within Sanctuary In the dry season some 49500 ungulates were estimated to be using the sanctuary daily, consisting of approximately 11 per cent wild ungulates and 89 per cent domestic bovids. The species composition was 53 per cent buffalo, 30 per cent cow, 5 per cent oxen, 8 per cent spotted deer and 3 per cent other wild and domestic species, including nilgai, sambar, wild boar, four-horned antelope, In- dian gazelle, camel, horse, sheep and goat. The wild ungulate population was assessed by night road counts in 1968 and the species composition crosschecked with casual counts made mostly in daytime, and counts at water- holes. Extrapolating for the sanctuary I estimated there were approximately 5600 wild ungulates. The following year Berwick re- peated the road counts. His population esti- mate did not differ significantly from my own (Berwick and Jordan 1971). The number of resident domestic stock was assessed by counting the animals in a sample of 20 villages during the evening milking period when all were corralled, and extrapo- lating for the sanctuary. A second determina- tion was made by extrapolating from the 178 km sampled area to that of the total sanctuary. The two figures, which were within six per cent of each other, averaged 19650. Similar assessments were made for the forest settle- ment village stock which bordered the sanc- tuary and the non-resident stock which grazed within the sanctuary for part of each day. These totalled 5550 and 18700 animals respectively. Food Habits Based on Faecal Analysis I next looked at the diet of the lion as reflected in their faeces. Over 1800 carnivore scats of unknown species origin were collected. From a sample of 95 scats of known species origin, be it lion, leopard, hyaena or dog, it 652 THE ASIATIC LION was found that 90 per cent of the lion faeces measured 45 mm or more in diameter, while the other species were all smaller. Applying this dimension to the unknown sample, I then selected 480 faeces which I could assume were of pure lion origin. The next task was to identify the prey species which they con- tained from the remnants of hair. After trying various methods, it was found that hair cross sections were the best means for identification. For example buffalo hair was characterized by its oval shape, grey me- dulla, slight pigmentation of the cortex due to cortial pigment granules, and an average cross sectional length of about 90 microns. Nilgai hair, in contrast, was less oval in shape, with a black medulla which was slightly point- ed and flattened on one side, a cortex witnout pigment, and an overall cross sectional length averaging 140 microns. Sambar hair was highly elongated in cross section, the medulla divided into 30 or more segments, and occu- pying most of the cross section leaving only a thin cortex. The cross sectional length aver- aged 300 microns or more. After working out a reliable key and applying it to the sample of lion faeces, it was found that some 75 per cent contained hair of domestic stock, which was not at all surprising considering the preponderance of domestic stock which had been shown to exist in the sanctuary. Lion Predation on Domestic Stock I next offered rewards to cattle graziers for cooperating in an inquiry into their domestic losses. Those graziers who reported lion kills within 24 hours of the event, and took me to see them were given ten rupees. This was a very productive part of the study. Information was gathered on some 330 car- casses and data established on some 18 vari- ables, ranging from type of prey, age, time of attack, where killed in relation to the village of origin, where killed in the sanctuary, amount of carcass eaten, etc. With the aid of a 360/50 computer a systematic analysis of the data was made by associating each vari- able against each of the other 17. Those results which are of primary importance are discussed here. Prey selection : Cow, buffaloes and to a lesser extent oxen were attacked more often than other domestic prey. In a sample of 330 animals 40 per cent were cows, 41 per cent were buffalo, 13 per cent were oxen and only 6 per cent consisted of the combined totals of camel, sheep, goat, horse and dog. Because the latter five species were very much in the minority in the live population, their poor representation in the kill record was to be expected. However, sheep, goat, and dog were all small prey of little or no value to the herdsmen, and hence might not have been considered worth reporting (although I paid an equal reward for all cases investigated). It was illegal to graze sheep within the sanc- tuary, which may have contributed to there being no reports of sheep loss. Sixty-one per cent of bovid kills were from sanctuary villages, 25 per cent from villages outside the sanctuary, and 14 per cent from forest settlement villages. Stock from sanc- tuary villages remained inside the sanctuary, and hence were always available to lions, while stock from outside villages came into the sanctuary for only variable parts of each day, and never at night, thus accounting for their poor representation among lion kills. Few animals were from forest settlement villages probably because they contained only 10 per cent of the available prey population. The three village classes, sanctuary nesses, 653 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 forest settlement villages and villages outside the sanctuary, also kept different proportions of cows, oxen and buffalo. To determine the lions’ food preferences, I compared the kill records with the bovid stock maintained by each class of village. While predation always reflected prey abundance to some extent, cow and oxen were preferred over buffalo in all three village classes (fig. 3). The probability of obtaining 0 Percentage occurrence in the population □Percentage occurrence among lion kills Sanctuary Transient Forest settlement village Classes of livestock Fig. 3. Lion selection of prey from three classes of livestock. such a result three times due to chance was less than 0.02. Averaging the results for the three village situations, twice as many cows and oxen were killed as would have been expected if they were killed directly in proportion to avail- ability, while the proportion of buffalo kills was less than half that expected. There was evidence that cow and oxen were more available than buffalo. First, their placement within the herd was at greater risk to predation. Miss Dorothy Brewster (pers. comm.) collected data on the position of cow, buffalo and herdsmen within herds. In a total of 27 observations she found that adult cows predominantly occupied the front of the herd in 61 per cent, buffalo occupied the middle and rear in 81 per cent, and herdsmen occupied the middle and rear in 93 per cent. In otherwords, adult cows were located where the protective influence of herdsmen was weakest. Moreover cow and oxen herds normally fled when attacked, while buffalo herds were commonly belligerent towards lions, sometimes succeeding to drive them away before the herdsmen came to their rescue. Ninety-seven per cent of 32 herds consisting only or mostly of cows were re- ported to have fled when attacked while 36 per cent of 75 herds consisting only or mostly STOCK 12 □ Adult (N = 135) Young (less than 5 years) (N = 74) S Sanctuary village F Forest settlement village and non-sanctuary village 0/0 80 60 40 20 0 S F cows B U F F A L 0 Fig. 4. Percentage occurrence of adult and young stock among lion kills from two village classes (S and F) and for two types of prey. 654 THE ASIATIC LION of buffalo behaved aggressively. Seven of 8 herds consisting only or mostly of oxen fled when under lion attack. While oxen thus appeared to exhibit little defence, these data were too few to be conclusive. However, it was further substantiated by 96 per cent of 24 herds containing mostly cows and some oxen, which fled when under attack. Age selection : Thirty-seven per cent of 240 kills of bovid stock examined for age were young animals less than five years old. The true proportion of young animals killed was probably higher because herdsmen valued mature animals more highly, and were more likely to report their loss, despite an equal reward offered for the report of kills of any age. In sanctuary villages 41 per cent of the live bovid population and 35 per cent of kills were young stock. More young were available inside villages than outside, and this was reflected in 20 per cent more young killed inside villages than outside (number of cases investigated = N = 240; Chi square = X2 = 4.47; degrees of freedom = d.f. = 1; probability of occurrence = p <0.05). Lions killed approximately 20 per cent more young buffalo than among cows. The same pattern emerged no matter whether the losses were from villages inside or outside the sanctuary (fig. 4). Lions killed approximately 40 per cent more young among oxen than among buffalo (N = 126; X2 = 6.44; d.f. = 1; p<0.05), excluding those cases where oxen had been left alone overnight out- side villages. Under such favourable conditions lions killed all stock regardless of prey type or age. A disproportionate number of adult oxen had been left out overnight, while only an in- significant number of buffalo and cows had been left out. The selection of young oxen was largely due to their greater availability. In daytime most adult oxen were employed outside the sanctuary either as plough animals or to draw carts. Time of attack ; In the 24 hour cycle there were two peaks in the numbers of prey attacked. Twenty-three per cent of attacks occurred between 0630-1130 hours and 33 per cent between 1530-1930 (fig. 5). A number Approximate time (hrs.) Fig. 5. Number of lion attacks upon domestic stock during each hour of the 24 hour cycle, as reported by herdsmen. of factors accounted for these peaks. In the morning there was a build up in attacks, starting from a minimum at approximately 0600 hours and increasing to a maximum by 1000 hours. This was associated with the in- crease in the number of animals grazing in the sanctuary. Few attacks were made bet- ween 1130-1530 hours, when the combina- tion of high air temperatures and direct ex- posure to the sun was most severe. Of those attacks which occurred between 1130-1530 hours, all but one took place either in the monsoon or early in the cool season, when daytime temperatures were moderate (less than 29°C). In the hot season most lions rested in shade through the middle of the day. The herdsmen also contributed to the lack of contact between predator and prey by 655 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 resting their stock for approximately 2 hours during that time. Between 1530-1730 hours there was a dramatic build up in numbers of attacks, followed by an appreciable decline over the next 3 hours. At the same time the pattern of activities which paralled the morning’s peak were repeated in reverse. Lions stopped resting and livestock again grazed, then re- turned to their village or origin, which in many cases was outside the sanctuary. Fifteen per cent more animals were attacked in the shorter afternoon peak than in the morning, the possible reasons for which were varied. Lions also consumed more of what they killed in afternoons because of less competi- tion with hide collectors. Stock were taken to graze in the morning only after day- light, while some stock did not return until dusk, when reduced visibility made the animals more vulnerable to attack. Stragglers were more apparent in herds by mid after- noon than in the morning, and perhaps were not given all the due care and attention by the herdsmen who were tired and anxious to return home. It was also apparent that herds- men allowed their stock less time to graze in the afternoon, and instead kept them moving. This both increased the likelihood of a lion encounter and made conditions more unfavourable for stragglers attempting to keep up. Only 39 per cent of attacks were made at night (approximately 1930-0530 hours). These included 11 night attacks not recorded in figure 5 because the herdsmen did not know at what hour the attack occurred. Lions were much more active at night. However, their domestic prey, which had moved about the sanctuary in daytime, was confined to village corrals at night. Only by entering the periphery of villages was it possible for lions to make an attack at night. Secondly, before any animals could be attacked, lions had to penetrate either thorn scrub fencing or rock walls which had been used as corral material specifically to prevent predation. An thirdly, much of the stock which had grazed within the sanctuary in the daytime was unavailable at night be- cause it had been taken to villages outside the sanctuary. Within villages the fewest night attacks occurred between 1930-2030 hours, presum- ably because herdsmen were not yet bedded down for the night. Some stock were also attacked outside villages at this time because a few herdsmen were late in returning their stock from grazing. No pattern was discern- ible among attacks in the remainder of the night. However this may have been because herdsmen were unable to estimate the time of attacks at night with much accuracy unless they occurred early. Food consumption : Although 74 per cent of kills were reported to have involved more than one lion, the meat available was poorly utilized. In a sample of 173 kills, lions ate nothing from 24 per cent and 1-10 kg from approximately 22 per cent (table 1). Lions ate less from prey killed at night. They ate nothing Table 1 Amounts consumed by lions from each kill Amount removed from carcass Number animal: of Adjusted per cent s Per cent Nothing 42 24 24 1-5 kg 13 8 11 6-10 kg 13 8 11 A large portion (approx, half) 33 19 26 Fully utilized 35 20 28 Some 37 21 ~ Total 173 100 100 656 THE ASIATIC LION from 41 per cent of night kills, 19 per cent of kills made between sunrise and noon, and 2 per cent of kills made between noon and sunset. Lions ate more than 10 kg from 11 per cent of night kills, 30 per cent of morning kills, 45 per cent of afternoon kills. At night lions obtained most of their prey from villages. Few animals killed inside villages were eaten, while most animals killed outside villages were fed upon. The pattern was simi- lar for carcasses from which lions ate more than 10 kg. Feeding was completely prevented in villages unless the prey was dragged outside the fences before the lions were driven off. Lions were able to feed better by day when stock was out grazing, but still lost substantial amounts. Hide collectors : Lions failed to eat much of what they killed in the day time, because they were driven off by the graziers and be- cause hide collectors appropriated the car- casses for the hide and meat. Herdsmen re- ported that they attempted to drive lions away in 72 per cent of 169 lion attacks. Once driven off, lions sometimes did not return or did so only after some time had passed. In the did so after a period of absence. In the meantime the herdsmen informed hide collec- tors who paid them for the meat and hide. If lions were present when hide collectors arrived, they drove the lions off. Hide collec- tors claimed 56 per cent of 210 kills examined. They did not bother so much with calves as with adults (N = 168; X2 = 3.07; d.f. = 1; 0.1 > P > 0.05). The largest hides also represented the greatest amounts of potential lion food. Whenever hide collectors claimed lion kills outside villages, lions fed from fewer livestock and ate lesser amounts. Lions were more successful in feeding from afternoon kills because hide collectors were sometimes informed too late to claim the carcasses before dark. Lions utilized 25 per cent more kills inside the sanctuary than outside (N = 177; X2 = 7.82; d.f. = 1; P < 0.01), probably because hide collectors claimed about 25 per cent fewer kills inside than outside (N - 210; X2 = 7.36; d.f. = 1; P < 0.01). Hide collectors lived in only 5 per cent of the villages within the sanctuary. By contrast all 36 villages surveyed among 70 possible villages within 2 km of the sanctuary edge were inhabited by hide collec- tors. More carcasses were claimed inside the sanctuary than would be expected from the dis- tribution of hide collectors because collectors came into the sanctuary from outside, mainly to claim cattle belonging to their villages. Dur- ing the village to village census of the popula- tion of hide collectors each hide collecting family was asked to show their most recently collected skin and asked the cause of death. The skin was examined for evidence of tooth impressions and claw marks. In a total of 100 such hides examined, 20 to 25 per cent I classi- fied as lion kills. In otherwords lion kills were representing quite a sizeable part of the hide collector’s livelihood. Any program that recommended preventing them from ap- proaching lion kills would have to take this account. Hide collectors did not take the meat if the distance to carry it was too great, or they already had meat at home. However when meat was left it was usually taken by vultures, predominately white backed vultures (Gyps benghalensis), and only rarely by lions. Hide collectors attracted vultures by pulling car- casses into the open. Skinned carcasses were easily eaten by vultures. It took only 13-30 minutes to consume three adult bovids. In contrast less than 3 kg was consumed by 657 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 vultures from two intact adult bovids after 30 minutes of intense activity. Vultures were able to penetrate the hide only at the anus, mouth, nostrils, eyes and ears. Even after the abdominal cavity of a third carcass had been penetrated, they consumed less than 20 kg in 3 hours. These marked differences in the rates by which vultures were able to consume skinned and unskinned carcasses was corrobo- rated by Dr. Robert Grubh (pers. comm.). Compensation : Payments were made by the Gujarat government to herdsmen whose bovid stock had been killed by lions. Its purpose was to discourage the herdsmen from poisoning lions in retaliation, and so maintain the system of lions preying on domestic stock with the minimum of hardship to the herds- men. The number of reported cases of poi- soning averaged about one per year, as point- ed out earlier in this paper; presumably of minor importance to the lion population as a whole. Whether such a low level was attri- butable to compensation payments was ques- tionable. When I asked herdsmen who lost stock whether they intended to request as- sistance, only 49 per cent replied in the affir- mative. In many cases the herdsmen only had to walk 100 m from my office to the govern- ment office in order to make notification. They could have been paid compensation of Rs. 100-250 for each animal, while I only offered Rs. 10 for the opportunity of seeing their loss, independent of the number of animals involved. Probably fewer than 49 per cent of the people whom I did not interview applied for compensation, because my sample consisted of herdsmen who had shown initiative in the first place. Many complained about the compensation system. Few understood the conditions for eligibility, all had to wait months for pay- ment, and when it was not forthcoming they were rarely told why. The sanctuary super- intendent kindly made available the applica- tion records between April 1969 and January 1971. In that time 430 applications were re- ceived, and 25 per cent rejected. Compen- sation was not given to those; a) whose stock was killed more than two furlongs (approximately 400 m) from their village; b) who possessed more than 20 head of stock; c) who lived outside the sanctuary, but grazed their stock more than two fur- longs inside the sanctuary; d) who lost camels, goats, horses and other non-bovids. Sixty-two per cent of 252 lion kills which I examined were further than two furlongs from the village of origin. Ignorant of the importance of distance, 45 per cent of herds- men who lost stock beyond two furlongs said they were intending to apply for compensation. Similarly in 35 per cent of 150 cases herds- men possessed more than 20 animals. None knew that they were not eligible for compen- sation. These results show that the compen- sation system was of limited practical benefit to herdsmen. The effect of Food Limitations on the Lion Population Considering first the adult male lions, they were far more active than their female coun- terparts, moving about twice as often, and averaging more than double the distance travelled per move. Males usually travelled either singly or in pairs, and attempted to keep out all other mature males. As far as food procurement went, when they killed an animal and the herdsmen drove them off, they simply moved on and killed again some place else. They 658 THE ASIATIC LION also appropriated kills made by lionesses when- ever they came across any. Although there were far fewer adult males in the population then there were adult lionesses, I believe they regulated their numbers by driving males out of the area. They especially persecuted sub-adult males nearing maturity, which if driven out of the pride before they were old enough would starve for lack of success in food procurement. I rarely saw sub-adult males over two years of age. Lionesses in contrast were more sedentary because of having to raise cubs. They had to procure more food than males in order to main- tain both themselves and the cubs. Additionally whenever a lioness with cubs killed an animal and was driven off by a farmer, she usually had to kill locally because a lioness’s method of feeding solid food to cubs is to bring them to the kill site, greatly limiting the size of area over which she can hunt. By having to fetch cubs, lionesses also gave hide collectors more time to get to the carcasses before being ex- tensively damaged. In short, in contrast to the males, food procurement for lionesses was difficult. The ones who suffered were the cubs. Of 45 lions seen in the field which were less than 18 months old, 29 were between 1-6 months, 11 between 7-12 months and 5 between 13-18 months. Assuming that the sample representative of the population, and these figures are a reflection of mortality rates, then 53 per cent of cub mortality occurred bet- ween 1-6 months and 7-12 months, and another 17 per cent between 7-12 months and 13-18 months. These results agreed reason- ably well with observed losses. Ten out of 17 cubs first seen between 1-3 months were missing and presumed dead within 12 months after birth. (These results do not include mortality at birth for which there are no data.) In contrast, in three }^ears only one adult lioness was known to have died in my study group of 16 adults. Population Trend Although the lions have dramatically de- clined outside the sanctuary. I do not know, apart from there being a very high cub morta- lity, what effect the serious food limitations are having on the lion population within the sanctuary’s boundaries, because little reliable data existed on which to determine the popu- lation trend. However, in lieu of the magni- tude of the food limitations, it is reasonable to err on the side of conservation, and assume that the impact on the lion population is significant. Ever since the first estimate of the lion population size was made in 1936, investi- gators have attempted to make trend deter- minations by comparing new estimates of the population size with the old. However ab- solute numbers are very difficult to measure. Moreover all but one of the counts has been based on one method — lion recognition on the basis of track size — which in itself makes comparisons between counts suspect unless differences are exceedingly gross, such as the three fold reduction in lion numbers outside the sanctuary boundary in recent years. However assessing the trend by no means needs to be dependent on anv knowledge about actual population size. For example, changes over time in the number of lion tracks and scats found along roads, or changes in the number of cattle killed by lions in villages are alternative, easier ways to determine change in the lion population size. In 1971 I estimated data on lion tracks, scats and kills as a base against which future 659 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 changes could be assessed. Considerable effort was made to simplify and streamline the means of gathering data in a standardised manner that could be easily repeated. Track recognition : Before assessing the density of lion tracks, it was necessary to + Lion o Leopard . Lion or leopard develop a method for differentiating lion tracks from leopard, the only other species with which it can be easily confused. Separa- tion of lion from leopard tracks was done on the basis of size. Firstly each of nine sets of tracks of known leopard origin never exceeded 150 Length (mm) 100 \ \ \ \ \ » O .0 T- l •• vf. + *+f'\+ - 4t X * A • + .*• •,+. . • • ,• -I'i. + •- ‘ * *" » • .* , \+- \ 4-4- F- :*♦* O • % • • * » * » V \ \ \ Length + width - 200 mm 50 100 Width (mm ) Fig. 6. Dimensions of lion and leopard tracks. 150 660 THE ASIATIC LION 200 mm when length and width were added, while 41 sets of tracks of known lion origin ex- ceeded this minimum. Secondly 212 recorded tracks of either lion or leopard origin indicated a bimodal distribution which separated at ap- proximately these limits (fig. 6). Almost all of the tracks falling within the leopard size range were of solitary animals, while those falling within the lion size range were fre- quently of animals in groups, reflecting the difference in social behaviour between leo- pards and lions. Assessment of track and scat numbers : In April 1970, 275 km of road crossing all major types of habitat within the sanctuary, except hilltops, were surveyed for scats and tracks. The survey was repeated in February 1971, covering most of the routes which had been searched the previous year. It was designed so as to make the minimum use of labour in finding sign while restricting track and scat identification to myself. Each morning at dawn I stationed 4-6 men at 4-8 km intervals along a route to be surveyed; approximately 20 km being surveyed daily. Early morning was chosen before cattle or vehicular traffic destroyed tracks. Each enu- merator marked the beginning of his route and walked the distance to the start of the next beat. Scats were similarly marked. After the men had walked their beats I drove the length of the route, stopping at each location to identify tracks and scats and to record the location in kilometers when tracks were found. I assumed that all cat tracks having a length and width totalling greater than 200 mm and all scats which had a diameter greater than 4.5 cm (see ‘food habits based on faecal analysis’) were lion. While both track and scat assessments were made along roads, and therefore had some of the same limitations, there were however important differences. Tracks recorded in the morning indicated only the presence of lions in the area the previous night. Scats indi- cated the presence of lions over several days. Miss Dorothy Brewster kindly assisted me by finding that the average time taken for scats to disintegrate or be destroyed was 6.7 days in a sample of 94 initially fresh scats inspected once daily. Another difference was that the number of scats was affected by the size of pride, whereas in the method used in assessing track density no discrimination was made between one or more lions travelling the same distance at the same time. Seven hundred and fifty-five kilometres were travelled for track assessments; the presence or absence of tracks was recorded in units of one kilometre; 111 kilometres with tracks were recorded; on average lion tracks were found in every 7.2 km surveyed. In order for the density of tracks to be used in determining the trend of the lion population it is essential that a constant re- lationship exist between the number of tracks recorded and the number of lions present. However the number of tracks which could be recorded depend on several factors. For example, the nature of the substrate deter- mined the visibility of tracks. When the ground was soft and dusty, lions sometimes left hundreds of tracks, while on stony ground only a few were visible. The presence or absence of tracks was for this reason recorded in units of 1 km, assuming that any lion which walked some portion of this distance would leave at least one visible track. Track density was also a function of topo- graphy and the presence or absence of alter- native routes, such as buffalo trails and dried creek beds. Large, slightly raised roads appeared to be walked less by lions than smaller roads at grade level. Lions some- 661 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 times used roads to cross streams. They may often have travelled on roads in areas of teak forest to avoid a noisy walk over a forest floor of dried leaves. In addition the behaviour of lions also varied from making no use of roads on some nights to walking three or more kilometres on other nights. The biases could not be easily removed, but they could be averaged and made constant by increasing the total distance surveyed until local variations in track density had no signi- ficant effect on the average density of tracks recorded. Variations in the ratio of lion track-kilometres over kilometres surveyed leveled out after 200 km had been searched. Five hundred and fifty-one kilometers were travelled for scat assessments, and 86 scats were collected, an average of one scat in every 6.4 km. As with lion track-kilometres, variations in the ratio of lion scats over kilo- metres surveyed leveled out after 200 km had been searched. The methods used in assessing scat and track densities ignored the influence of cubs. Lions whose scats had a diameter of less than 4.5 cm and whose track total length and width was less than 20 cm were not recorded. In the case of scats it was my impression that this eliminated most cubs below one year old. Young cubs were usually kept in hiding, so their tracks and scats were rarely seen along roads. When not in hiding, cubs usually travelled in the company of lionesses and so were not detected because the method of as- sessing track densities did not take group size into account. Failure to record evidence of cubs means that the data can only be used to determine the trend of the adult lion population. This limitation may be highly desirable from the standpoint of management, if the stability of the lion population in the long term is more dependent upon the stability of the adult population. Assessment of lion kills : One method was to ask herdsmen the number of days or weeks since their last animal was killed. In this method herdsmen had to recall both the event and the day. Because herdsmen find it difficult to remember dates, I used another, more laborious method. Each herdsmen was visited twice. The first time each herdsman was asked to participate in a scheme to record his losses, and given a certificate to reinforce the occasion of our meeting. Within appro- ximately 10-15 days each herdsmen was visited a second time, and his losses recorded for the intervening period. Because the time interval was known, the herdsmen was only required to remember whether an animal had been killed and not when. The time between visits was short to ensure that the event was fresh in the herdsmen’s mind, and could be confirmed. Data on the rate of killing was collected in February-March 1971 in all six districts within the sanctuary, involving a sam- ple of 49 villages. Every herdsman in each village was interviewed. Twenty-seven kills were recorded in 652 days assessed, an average killing rate of 0.55 animals per village, or an estimated 15.1 animals per village per year. The average killing rate per village in the time interval between visits leveled out after 30 villages had been visited. The average number of days between kills was 24, and this figure became more or less constant after data for 400 days had been assessed. Recommendations Outside the sanctuary nothing is being done about the expansion of cultivation, nor should there be, although there can be little doubt 662 THE ASIATIC LION that this has been the major cause for the lion's decline. Food for people is far more important than food for lions, particularly in light of present severe shortage. Within the sanctuary cultivation is of some concern, for although it occupies less than 6 per cent of the area, much of it is illegal and rapidly expanding. Most cultivated lands encroaching upon the boundary are associated with forest settlement villages, which have themselves developed largely since the turn of the century. It is strongly recommended that further expansion be curbed. In 1972 the government of Gujarat sanction- ed the construction of a wall around parts of the sanctuary which should greatly assist the forest department in combating illegal encroachment by cultivators, as well as curb the influx of cattle. Also sanctioned was a proposal to relocate to the outside of the sanctuary the majority of the indigenous cattle graziers along with their stock. Both of these actions should help a great deal in bringing the impact of cattle grazing within the sanc- tuary more in line with the carrying capacity of the land, removing the long term problems of overgrazing. While the Gujarat government is to be commended on its plan, the effects of even a limited reduction in domestic stock numbers on the lion population should be carefully studied, because of the lion’s high dependence on domestic stock for its own survival. The earliest descriptions of Gir refer to cattle being there in large numbers, which makes it even more imperative that the reduction be very carefully monitored as to its impact on the lion. The food chain is further complicated by the large amount of food stuffs imported into the sanctuary each year. Herdsmen inter- viewed in 50 villages reported feeding a daily average of 3.8 kg of cotton seed and ground nut to each adult buffalo and smaller amounts to cow and oxen, or an estimated 19 million kg fed to all domestic bovids within the sanctuary each year. As a result of having demonstrated that hide collectors claim over half of the lion’s kills, steps have been taken to make this activity illegal. However, although this will most assuredly make more food available to lions, I am concerned for the welfare of the hide collectors. Lion kills represent 20-25 per cent of the skins taken by hide collectors, re- presenting quite a sizeable part of the hide collector’s carcass claiming livelihood. More- over these people belong to the lowest social strata, and do not do their unprofitable work by choice. There have been a number of good and successful schemes elsewhere in the country to resettle such people as cultivators, giving them a chance to succeed according to their own abilities. Would it not be better to give the hide collectors of the Gir a chance to cultivate outside the sanctuary, as some have asked, and in this way benefit not only the lion but the people as well? Hide collectors are not the only reason why lions are required to kill far more than they need to get enough to eat. Feeding was poorest at night, when lions made kills within villages and were driven off by villagers before they had fed. They ate nothing from 41 per cent of domestic animals killed at night. Much of this loss of food would be reduced, and fewer stock lost as a result, if herdsmen made kills available to lions by moving carcasses to the outside of villages immediately follow- ing an attack. The means by which this could be made operative is by making it one of the conditions for compensation. At present farmers are paid amounts ranging from 100 to 300 rupees whenever a lion kills one of their stock. However the system 663 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 of payment would have to be greatly improved before it could be used to ensure that the lion ate what it killed. Of the herdsmen to whom I paid a mere ten rupees in order to see their loss, less than 50 per cent said they intended to apply for government compensa- tion, and fewer actually did. Of the esti- mated several thousand livestock killed bet- ween 1969 and 1971, only 430 applications for payment were made of which 25 per cent were rejected. Few herdsmen understood the conditions for eligibility, all had to wait months for payment, and when it was not forthcoming they were rarely told why. While preservation of the lion is easily justifiable on the grounds that it is a signi- ficant part of India’s wildlife heritage, it is difficult to financially justify it when the re- sources of the country are so limited. The future of the lion in the long run perhaps ought to include more schemes which can make it a better resource capable of paying Refer Berwick, S. H. & Jordan, P. A. (1971) : First report of the Yale-Bombay Natural History Society studies of wild ungulates at the Gir forest, Gujarat, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68: 412-423. Daniel, J. C. (1956) : The Indian lion (Panthera leo persica). Journal of the Bengal Natural History Society 28 : 81-90. Heaney, G. F. (1943) : Occurrence of lions in Persia. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44: 467. Hodd, K. T. B. (1970) : The ecological impact of domestic stock on the Gir forest. Proceedings its own way. For instance, only a few thousand tourists visit the Gir annually, while the cost to the government in providing just the tourist facilities is twice that which the tourist reve- nue contributes. The Gir Wildlife Sanctuary would benefit from greater promotion, espe- cially outside the country where the lion’s existence is little known, let alone knowledge that within a few hours after leaving Bombay * visitors can both see lions in their natural habitat and approach them on foot. At present the majority of tourists who do come do not stay overnight because after see- ing the lions there is little else for them to do. Improvement in the habitat of the Gir through a gradual reduction in the number of cattle should result in substantial increases in the populations of many native wildlife species, all of which should benefit the development of a more varied program of wildlife related activities which visitors could participate in. e n c e s of the 11th Technical Meeting, Vol. 1. Interna- tional Union for Conversation of Nature and Natural Resources publications new series No. 17. Morges, Switzerland. Schaller, G. B. (1972) : The Serengeti lion. London : University of Chicago Press. Talbot, L. M. (1959) : A look at threatened species. London : Fauna Preservation Society. Todd, N. B. (1965) : Metrical and non-metrical variation in the skulls of Gir lions. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62 : 507-520. 664 NEW DESCRIPTIONS A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS OXYURELLA DYBOWSKI AND GROCHOWSKI, 1894, (CLADOCERA: CHYDORIDAE) FROM INDIA1 Pramod D. Rane2 (With six text-figures) The genus Oxyurella was described by Dybowski and Grochowski in 1894 with Oxyurella tenuicaudis (Sar, 1862) as the type species. This genus is not so well known from India as only one species O. singalensis (Daday, 1898) was previously reported from South India. While examining the cladoceran collec- tion from Madhya Pradesh I examined seve- ral female specimens which appeared similar to O. singalensis, but critical examination of the male, showed that the specimens belonged to a hitherto undescribed species. Oxyurella sangramsagari sp. nov. MALE. Body oval. Postero-ventral corner of valves rounded without denticles but row of spinules on the inner side. Rostrum blunt. Valves with- out lines. Antennules not reaching apex of rostrum. Esthetascs of different lengths, pro- jecting beyond apex of rostrum. Antennules with a two-segmented sensory papilla present on lateral side near the apex. Plate of labrum rounded with a slight concavity to the upper- side. Post-abdomen narrowing distally with one large hook-shaped and one small anal 1 Accepted March 1983. 2 Zoological Survey of India, Central Regional Station, Jabalpur, 482 002. denticles; 5 to 6 groups of lateral setae in the middle of post-abdomen. There is a distinct incision at the base of claw. Claw slightly bent at its distal end with two basal spines; distal larger, about slightly less that \ length of the claw and situated at about \ of the total length of claw from base. Ventral side of valve with setae along its entire margin. First leg with two chitinized hooks on the base of outer ramus of endite which serves for attachment of the valve of female. Hooks with large bunch of setae at the base. FEMALE. Female is larger than male, without lines on the valves. Ventral margin of valve with setae along its entire margin, Antennules not reaching apex of rostrum. Plate of labrum rounded. Rostrum with blunt apex. Post- abdomen slightly narrowing distally, with 13 anal denticles decreasing in size proximally; distal denticle longest and a small curved denticle before it. Claw with three basal spines, proximal two smaller and distal one larger, about slightly less than \ length of the claw. Group of lateral setae present on the post-abdomen. Measurements : Length of male 0.52 mm., length of female 0.6 mm. 665 9 Showing distinguishing characters of the species of the genus Oxyurella JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 1 cd 73 cd Q .to to 2 a Oo a to a 5^ a r*\ X > o G d co a Oo a to a oo r-> a to 75 X X < & £ Z +> s O 3 CD O • §-> « .rsl «* & x cd cd CD Sh -(-> o £ s & S O 43 CO co C O 0) 5h CO ^CD 7d *X g gd 73 Cd G cd O £ > X G •*-* 03 CM 3 o g X o ‘| £ ^ T3 ’Bn G 03 o3 CD 00 ^ c a 43 cd d cd P* CO O U !o 5-1 O CO G CD co H CD 43 X CD CD d 00 G X o cd CD !— i §• CD * O g co H G 2 cd 43 co co _ o 73 5h 4) G O G CD +3 B q_, g> ° CO , . CO 0) *-*H #o s— * g a? o3 G o3 CD CD j3 H 73 CD as G G O i— I ct3 O 7d '-t-l G O 73 o3 G 03 73 CD cd d 43 co 44 O o «M H O a > cd a G t-c X 73 cd CD tw 3 O O ^ o 0 4)^ Z « < CD In X D 34 cd oo .G X a cd CD co (D G ft to E -3 3 cd +3 cd O ^ _H U U £ a> § < 6 tS C^) O a G tH +-> CO O CD X «w o X V* U CO O PH cd u 666 setation at distal end of claw absent. Present. Absent. Setae present proximal to the spine. NEW DESCRIPTIONS Figs. 1-6. Oxyurella sangramsagari sp. nov. 1. Lateral view of male; 2. Lateral view of female; 3. Postabdomen of male showing hook shaped anal spine; 4. Postabdomen of female; 5. Chitinized hook in 1st leg of male; 6. Antennule of male with 2 segmented lateral papilla. Type specimens : Holotype male, paratypes fifteen males, allotypes forty five females, de- posited in National Collection of Zoological vSurvey of India, Calcutta. [C 3117/2, C 3118/2, C 3119/2] Type-locality : Sangramsagar tank behind Medical College, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh. Coll: P. D. Rane, l-xii-1978. Discussion : Table 1 shows the charac- ters on the basis of which Oxyurella sangram- sagari sp. nov. can be distinguished from its three closely related species. Reference Smirnov, N. N. (1974): Fauna of U.S.S.R., Chydoridae. N.T.I.S., 7(2) : 601-609 (Translated from Russian). 667 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS BOSM INOPS IS RICHARD, 1895 (CRUSTACEA: CLADOCERA: BOSMINIDAE) FROM INDIA1 Pramod Rane2 {With three text -figures) The Cladocera of family Bosminidae are little known from India, and the genus Bos- minopsis has not been reported from the In- dian sub-continent. While studying the Cladoceran fauna of Madhya Pradesh, I came across a new species of the genus Bosminopsis which is described here. Bosminopsis devendrai sp. nov. Material : 1 $ (Holotype) and 3 9 9 (Para- types) Location: Pariat tank on Amerkantak road, Jabalpur district, Madhya Pradesh, India, Coll.: P. D. Rane. Date of collection: 27 August 1977. The types are on slides and are in the National Zoological Collection, Zoological Survey of India. (Holotype No. C 3115/2 and Paratype No. C 3116/2). Description Body hyaline, valves thin, reticulate with polygonal cells. Infero-postal angle with large spine which is in between two rather small spines, ventro-posterior side of the valve with 4-6 denticles. Basal part of the antennules united with each other and with head to form sinuate posterior margin. One large spine near apex with several olfactory setae. Antenna with three jointed rami. Post-abdomen with 1 Accepted June 1983. 2 Zoological Survey of India, Central Regional Station, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, 482 002. sinuate posterior margin. One large spine near claws, more than half the length of post-abdo- minal claw. The anterior lobe of the post- abdomen with about four, and posterior with about 7, minute spinules. Eye usually large, situated dorsally. Postero-dorsal corner of valve slightly protrudes out. Intestine not coiled, anus terminal. Male unknown. Length of female: 0.28-0.33 mm. Affinities The new species Bosminopsis devendrai appears to be similar to the only species known under the genus namely, B. deitersi Richard, 1895; but can be separated from it as follows :- 1 . Post-abdomen of Bosminopsis deitersi Richard tapering to point at claws, while in B. devendrai it is sinuate. 2. Postero-dorsal comer of valve somewhat protruding out in Bosminopsis devendrai, while it does not protrude out in the other species. 3 . The large spine on infero-lateral angle is in between two rather small spines in Bosmi- nopsis devendrai, while in B. deitersi only one small spine is present at the proximal side of the large spine. The large spine is com- paratively larger in B. devendrai than in B. deitersi. In addition to the above mentioned differences, the ventral margin of valve with 4-6 small spines is a unique character for the new species. 668 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Figs. 1-3. Bosminopsis devendrai sp. nov. 1. Parthenogenetic female; 2. Infero-postal angle of valve showing large spine between two rather small spines and six denticles; 3. Post-abdomen. References Brooks, J. L. (1959): Cladocera: In Fresh Water Biology, Edited by W. T. Edmonson: 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons. New York: 587-656. Richard, J. (1895) : Sur quelques Entomostrac6s d’eau douce d'Haiti. Mem. Soc. Zool. France, VIII. (2): 189-199. 669 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81 A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS MIXOCERA WARREN (SUBFAMILY: GEOMETRINAE)1 V. K. Walia and H. R. Pajni2 (With seven text-figures) The genus Mixocera Warren is so far repre- sented by a single Indian species namely parvulata (Walker) (Prout 1913). Out of a total of 99 species of the family Geometridae studied by us, one new species falls under genus Mixocera Warren. The present commu- nication includes the complete description of Mixocera albilineata sp. nov., a revised charac- terization of genus Mixocera Warren and a key to the 2 Indian species of this genus. Genus mixocera Warren Mixocera Warren, 1910, Nov. Zool., 8: 206; Prout, 1912, Gen. Ins., 129 : 1934, Seitz Macrolep., 12: 133. Gynandria Turner, 1910, Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, 35: 575; Gen. Ins., 129: 243 (subgen.) Thelycera Prout, 1912, Gen. Ins., 129: 243 (sub- gen.) Frons smooth. Antenna weakly bipectinate to nearly simple or ciliated, varying in both sexes. Labial palpus in both sexes short; second segment shortly rough scaled; third segment minute. Proboscis weak. Hind tibia in both sexes with only terminal spurs. Abdo- men not crested. Fore wing with costa slightly arched or even nearly straight; apex acutely angulate; termen smooth, oblique or gently curved. Discal cell about half of wing length; DC2 more or less curved. Rx from near apex of cell or from base of stalk of R2, R3, R.i, Rs and M1 or anastomosing with or running into 1 Accepted March 1983. 2 Department of Zoology, Panjab University, Chandigarh- 160 014. Sc; R2 arising from before R5; Cui from before or angle or shortly stalked with M3. Frenulum absent in both sexes. Hind wing with apex rounded; termen moderately to rather strongly rounded; Discal cell less than one-half; discocellulars oblique, at least poste- riorly. Sc + Ri shortly appressed to or ana- stomosing with cell near base, then diverging; Rs and Mx stalked; M3 and Cm shortly stalk- ed, occasionally both veins from lower angle of cell. Uncus beak-shaped; socii slender; gnathos ring-like; coremata present. Valva long; sacculus produced into a pointed finger-like structure; aedeagus broad in posterior two- third length. Type-species: Mixocera parvulata (Walker) The only Indian species namely parvulata (Walker) under the present genus (Prout 1913) could not be collected for study but a new species from a different locality is des- cribed. Key to the species of Mixocera Warren Thorax and abdomen bluish green; fore wing with a curved antemedial and obliquely straight post- medial white line; underside green, with promi- nent postmedial band albilineata sp. nov. Thorax and abdomen white; forewing having only an oblique postmedial white band; underside white, unmarked parvulata (Walker) Mixocera albilineata sp. nov. (Figs. 1-7) male. Head with vertex covered with white scales; frons yellowish brown. Antenna serrate and fasciculate, cilia long; flagellum slightly longer than half the length of forewing. Eyes black, with a row of white scales behind. Labial 670 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Figs. 1,2. Fore and Hind wings; 3,4,5. Male genitalia; 6. Female genitalia. Abbreviations: 2A, Second anal vein; AE, Aedeagus; APO. ANT., Anterior apophyses; APO. PO, Posterior apophyses; CRN, Cornutus/cornuti; CRP. BU, Corpus bursae; Cu1? First cubitus; Cu2, Second cubitus; DU. BU, Ductus bursae; GN, Gnathos; JX, Juxta; M1? First medius; M2, Second medius; M3, Third medius; OVP, Ovipositor; R15 First radial; R2, Second radial; R3, Third radial; R4, Fourth radial; R5, Fifth radial; Rs, Radial sector; SA, Saccus; Sc, Subcosta; Sc + R1? Stalk of Sc and Rx; SL, Sacculus; SOC, Socii; TRA, Transtilla; UN, Uncus; YIN, Vinculum; VLV, Valva. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81 palpus with first and second segments pale ochraceous, sparingly suffused with brown; third segment tipped with white scales. Thorax bluish green dorsally, white ventrally. Forewing with termen obliquely arched. Ground colour bluish green; a curved antemedial and obliquely straight postmedial line white; mar- ginal fringe green, with a light green band. Underside green, with a straight white post- medial band. M3 and Cu± very shortly stalked from lower angle of cell. Hindwing with ground colour bluish green, with only white postmedial, slightly arched line; marginal fringe green with a light green band. Underside as described under fore wing. Rs and long stalked from upper angle of cell; M3 and On on a compa- ratively shorter stalk. Legs clothed with white appressed scales; hind tibia not dilated. Abdomen bluish green on upperside, with- out dorsal tufts; underside white. Male genitalia with uncus narrowly beak-shaped and pointed distally, strongly sclerotized, completely bare; socii shorter than uncus, tubular, bearing short setae; gnathos squarish, weakly sclerotized; tegumen with V-shaped thickening; vinculum broadly U-shaped, produced into a short coni- cal saccus. Valva long and narrow; costa with basal half bare, distal half densely setosed; sacculus well sclerotized, produced distally into an arched, shortly dentate and sharply pointed process; coremata present. Aedeagus long, with its anterior one-third part slender and bent, remaining two-third distal portion broad; vesica adorned with a bunch of long spines in addi- tion to other sclerotized patches and lines, distal end of vesica also carrying a few short spines. Female genitalia with corpus bur- sae globular, membranous and marked with wrinkled channels distally; ductus bursae more or less as long as corpus bursae, very wide, well sclerotized, with its surface minutely den- ticulate anteriorly; genital plate rugose, mode- rately sclerotized; anterior apophyses straight, less than half of posterior apophyses, the latter slightly curved; ovipositor lobes furnished with numerous setae. Fig. 7. Mixocera albilineata sp. nov. Wing expanse (Half) : Male 12 mm; Female 12 mm. Holotype India: himachal Pra- desh: Chambaghat, 14.viii. 1978, light, Coll. V. K. Walia. Allotype $ , same data as for holotype. Paratypes; 7 d\ Chambaghat, August, light. Coll. V. K. Walia. (Types in Entomology Section, Department of Zoo- logy, Pan jab University, Chandigarh). Distribution : India: Himachal Pradesh. Apart from the much larger size, the new species differs from parvulata (Walker) in the coloration of the frons and the wings and in possessing fasciculate and slightly serrate antennae unlike weakly pectinate antennae of parvulata (Walker). Acknowledgements We are grateful to the University Grants Commission for financing a 3 -year project on 672 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Family Geometridae under which this work was carried out. We are also thankful to Dr. D. S. Fletcher, British Museum (Natural History), London for comparing the material. The laboratory facilities provided by the Chair- man, Department of Zoology, Panjab Univer- sity, Chandigarh are also gratefully acknow lodged. References Prout, L. B. (1912): Lepidoptera, Heterocera. (1913): Geometridae: Subfamilia Family Geometridae, subfamily Hemitheinae. Gen. Hemitheinae. Lepidopterous Catalogus, Berlin No. Ins. fasc., 129: 1-274, 5 pis. 14: 1-192. FRESHWATER ALGAE OF KARNATAKA STATE (INDIA) : COSMARIUM KAYCEDENSE SP. NOV. AND EUGLENA LUNARIS SP. NOV. FROM DHARWAD1 G. R. Hegde2 and S. G. Bharati3 ( With two text-figures ) Gandhi (1956) first reported 44 forms of diatoms from Dharwad area. Subsequently, Bharati and Gonzalves (1962) recorded some new species of Desmids from this place and an account of 49 species of Desmids was given by Bharati (1965 and 1966). In an extensive systematic survey of freshwater algae of Dhar- wad, collections were made from six man-made tanks in the Karnatak College Campus, Dharwad. These tanks are fed with municipal tap water and are being used for growing aquatic plants like Hydrilla, Chara , Vallisneria, Nymphaea and Salvinia. Samples collected on 25. iv. 1978 by squeezing these macrophytes were preserved in 4% formaldehyde solution for further study. They are now deposited in the Phycology Laboratory, Karnatak Univer- sity, Dharwad. A detailed study of these samples from Karnatak Science College, revealed two new taxa, belonging to genera Cosmarium Corda 1 Accepted June 1983. 2 Department of Botany, Kittel College, Dhar- wad-580 001. 3 Department of Botany, Karnatak University, Dharwad-580 003. and Euglena Ehr. They have been described in the present paper. Cosmarkam kaycedense sp. nov. (Fig. 1). Cellulae singulares, parvae, c. \\ plo lon- giores quam latae, ovato-ellipticae, profunde constrictae, sino lineari et ad apicem paululum dilatato; semicellulae pyramidali-truncatae ad apicem, angulis basalibus rotundato-subtrian- gularibus, lateribus primo parallelis deinde apicem versus divergentibus; apex 13 granula; sex circum granulum centrale, et alia in duobus ordinibus disposita, ha bens. Semicellula a latere visa elliptica, in centro sex incrassationes granulosas proebens. Longitudo 36.5-55.5 jam; Latitudo 28-29 ju,m; Isthmus 4-7 jam; Crassitudo 20 jam. Locus typi: In stagna contra Departmentum Zoologicum Collegii Scientifici Karnatak, Dharwad. Cells single, small, about i\ times as long as broad, oval elliptical, deeply constricted, sinus linear, slightly dilated at the apex; semi- cells pyramidate-truncate at the apex, basal angles rounded-subtriangular, sides parallel at first, then converging towards the apex which 673 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 614 NEW DESCRIPTIONS has 13 granules, 6 of which are round a central granule and the others are arranged in two rows. Side view of semicell elliptical with six granular thickenings in the centre. Length 36.5-55.5 /xm; Width 28-29 /xm; Isthmus 4-7 /xm; Thickness 20 /im. Locality : Planktonic in the pond opposite to Zoology Department, Karnatak Science College, Dharwad. The new taxon resembles C. granatum Breb. in shape, but differs in having thickened mid- region and the granules in lateral view. Other species which it resembles are C. galeritum Nordst. var. westii Krieger et Gerloff, Forster 1969, pi. 15, fig. 5, p. 50 and C. incrassatum (Fritsch et Rich) Krieger et Gerloff var. brasi- liense Forster; Forster 1969, pi. 18, figs. 1 & 2, p. 51; but in view of major differences it is named as a new species. EugSena lunaris sp. nov. (Fig. 2, A-D) Cellulae lunatae, metabolicae, elongatae, ad extremitatem posteriorum rotundatae, ad ante- riorem extremitatem attenuatae, manifeste bila- biatam et falgello brevi praeditam. Membrana tenuiterstriata. Corpora pyrenoides duorum modorum : duae lamellae discoideae magnae atque 2-12 lamellulae breves additicae. Longitudo 55-57 /x m; Latitudo media in parte 11 'On, ad os 22.5 /xm; Longitudo flagelli 21-23 /xm. Refer Bharati, S. G. (1965) : A systematic survey of the Desmids of the Bombay Karnatak Part I. ibid. 9: 2-7. (1966): A systematic survey of the Desmids of the Bombay Karnataka Part II. ibid. 11: 174-182. Bharati, S. G. & Gonsalves, E. A. (1962) : Some Locus typi : In stagno contra Departmentum Zoologicum Collegii Scientifici Karnatak, Dharwad. Cells crescent shaped, metabolic, elongate truncately rounded at the posterior end and tapering at the anterior end, cospicuously two lipped with a short flagellum. Membrane finely striated. Paramylon bodies of two sorts, 2 big discoid plates and 2-12 additional short plates. Chloroplast numerous, discoid. Length 55-57 /xm; Width middle 11 /xm; Width mouth 22.5 /xm; Length of flagellum 21-23 /xm. Locality ; In the pond behind Zoology De- partment, Karnatak Science College, Dhar- wad. This flagellate does not resemble any known form and hence is considered a new species. Ack nowledgements We are grateful to Dr. G. W. Prescott for the confirmation of new taxa and to Dr. H. Croasdale for the Latin diagnosis. Thanks are also due to Prof. M. S. Chennaveeraiah, Plead of the Department of Botany, Karnatak Uni- versity, Dharwad for the facilities afforded. Financial assistance by C.S.I.R., New Delhi, to one of us (G.R.LI.) is gratefully acknow- ledged. ENCES new species of desmids occurring in Karnataka. The J. Karnatak Univ. Sc. 7: 173-181. Gandhi, H. P. (1956) : A contribution to the knowledge of the freshwater diatomaceae of South Western India. J. Indian Rot. Soc. 35: 194-209. 675 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 A NEW SPECIES OF 1MPAT1ENS L. ( B ALS AMINACE AE ) FROM SOUTH INDIA1 M. Chandrabose, V. Chandrasekaran and N. C. Nair2 ( With eleven text-figures ) lmpatiens konalarensis sp. nov. lmpatiens elegans Bedd. affinis, sed floribus parvioribus; vexillo ovato-lanceolato; lobo ter- minali alae obovato vel semi-circulari; et semi- nibus glabris, tuberculatis differt. Holotypus Chandrabose 69013 (CAL) et isotypi Chandrabose 69013 (MH Acc. No. 126620, 126621, 126622, 126623, 126624, 126625, 126626) lecti in collibus Konalar, Anamalai in Dist. Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu (ditione Madras), in 18-11-1980. lmpatiens konalarensis sp. nov. Allied to lmpatiens elegans Bedd., but differs in having flowers smaller; standard petal ovate- lanceolate; terminal lobe of wing petal obovate or semicircular; and seeds glabrous, tubercled. Herbs 20-75 cm high, rooting at lower nodes. Leaves 1-9 x 0.7-4. 5 cm, alternate, ovate or elliptic-ovate, crenate, glabrous excepting the nerves, acute or acuminate at apex; base rounded or subacute, sometimes inequilateral; lateral nerves 4-6 pairs, arcuate; petioles up to 6.5 cm long, slender, glabrous. Flowers 1.2- 1.5 cm across, pink, few in contracted race- mes; peduncles up to 4 cm long, axillary, slender, glabrous; pedicels ± 7 mm long, slender, glabrous; bracts ± 4.2 x 2.5 mm, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, glabrous. Sepals 3; 1 Accepted April 1984. 2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003. laterals 2, each ± 4.5 x 2.5 mm, green with pink tinge, obliquely ovate, acute or acuminate, glabrous; posterior sepal ± 8.5 x 5.5 mm, pink, ovate-elliptic, concave, acuminate, gla- brous; spur absent. Petals 3, pink; standard petal ± 6.5 x 3.5 mm, ovate-lanceolate with a pointed acumen, concave, glabrous; wing petals 2, each ±12x5 mm, glabrous, 2-lobed; terminal lobe ±11x5 mm, obovate or semi- circular, rounded at apex, auricled at base; side lobe ± 5.2 x 2.5 mm, oblong, obtuse at apex. Stamens five; filaments ± 4 mm long, free, shortly connate at apex; anthers ± 1 mm long, cohering. Ovary ±3x1 mm, ovate- elliptic, acute at apex, glabrous; stigma sessile, 5-toothed. Capsules ±9x4 mm, obliquely ellipsoid, beaked, glabrous; seeds ± 4.5 x 3 mm, ovoid, tubercled, glabrous. The holotype Chandrabose 69013 (CAL) and isotypes Chandrabose 69013 (MH. Acc. No. 126620, 126621, 126622, 126623, 126624, 126625, 126626) were collected in Konalar, Anamalai in Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu (Madras State) on 18.11.1980. This herb grows usually in the sholas near streams at an altitude of 1950 m. Ack nowledgement Grateful thanks are due to Dr. V. J. Nair, Systematic Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore for rendering Latin translation. 676 NEW DESCRIPTIONS 4 Tnm Figs. 1-11. Impatiens konalarensis sp. nov. 1. A twig; 2. Flower; 3. Bract; 4. Lateral sepals; 5. Posterior sepal; 6. Standard petal; 7. Wing petals; 8. Androecium; 9. Gynoecium; 10. Capsule; 11. Seed. 677 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 A NEW SPECIES OF PARASYRPOPHAGUS GIRAULT (HYMENOPTERA: ENCYRTIDAE) FROM ALIGARH, INDIA1 Anis Fatma and S. Adam Shafee2 (With a text -figure) ParasyrpopSiagus aligarhensis sp. nov (Fig. 1, A-G) female. Head dark and smooth; frontovertex slightly wider than long; ocelli brown, arranged in obtuse triangle, lateral ocellus separated by less than its diameter from inner orbital and occipital margins separately; malar space as long as eye width; malar sutures indistinct; mandibles (fig. 1, A) tridentate; Antennae (fig. 1, B) brownish except scape yellow; scape long, six times as long as wide; pedicel slightly longer than first funicle segment; funicle seg- ments 1-6 gradually decreasing in length distad; funicle segments first and second more than twice as long as wide, sixth one and a half times as long as wide; club 3 -segmented, four and a half times as long as wide, slightly longer than preceding three funicle segments together. Thorax dark, sparsely setose; axillae triangu- lar, meeting medially. Fore wings (fig. 1,C) hyaline, two and a half times as long as wide; costal cell narrow; submarginal vein long, with 10 long setae; marginal vein longer than post- marginal and stigmal veins separately (fig. 1, D) ; marginal fringe short, spaced by a distance 1 Accepted May 1984. 2 Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim Univer- sity, Aligarh, India. equal to one-fourth their length. Hindwings hyaline, about five times as long as wide. Legs pale yellow except coxae dark brown; mid- tibiai spur as long as basitarsus. Abdomen dark brown except base of dor- sum, and venter yellowish brown, shorter than thorax; paratergites absent (fig. 1,E); sub- genital plate (fig. 1, F) with anterior margin straight, posterior margin with a wide notch medially; ovipositor (fig. 1, G) short, arising from apex of abdominal venter; first valvifer triangular, third valvulae movably articulated with second valvifers. Body length: 0.82 mm. comments. The new species is closely re- lated to Parasyrpophagus lindus Mercet (Hayat & Verma 1978), from which it can be sepa- rated by its having antennae with pedicel shor- ter than basal two funicle segments together, all funicle segments much longer than wide, fore wings with postmarginal vein much longer than stigmal vein. Holotype $, India: Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh. University Agricultural Farm, 4.ix.l982 ( Anis Fatma). Acknowledgement We are indebted to Prof. Nawab H. Khan, Chairman, Department of Zoology, for pro- viding research facilities. Reference Hayat, M. & Verma, M. (1978): Species of description of a new genus (Hymen optera : Encyr- Helegonatopus and Parasyrpophagus from India, with tidae). Oriental Insects 12: 356-364. 678 NEW DESCRIPTIONS 679 Fig. 1. A-G. Parasyrpophagus aligarhensis sp. nov. (A) Mandible; (B) Antenna; (C) Fore Wing; (D) Part of fore wing venation; (E) Apex of abdomen, dorsal view; (F) Subgenital plate; (G) Part of external genitalia. JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 A NEW COBITID FISH OF THE GENUS ABORICHTHYS CHAUDHURI (PISCES: COBITIDAE) FROM INDIA1 R. P. Barman2 ( With a text-figure) Introduction Chaudhuri (1913) established the genus Aborichthys with A. kempi as the type species from the Abor Hills, Assam. Subsequently Hora (1921, 1925) described two more species, A. elongatus from the base of Darjee- ling Himalayas and A. garoensis from Tura, Garo Mills, Assam. The genus Aborichthys is so far known from these three species only. During the course of studies on fish fauna of Namdapha Wildlife Sanctuary, Tirap district, Arunachal Pradesh (formerly NEFA), I have come across three interesting fish specimens which, on critical examination, prove to belong to an undescribed species of the genus Aborichthys. This new species is named after Dr. B. K. Tikader, Director, Zoological Survey of India. The new species comes nearer to A. garo- ensis Hora in having vent distinctly towards the tip of snout than to the base of caudal fin, but can be easily separated from the latter by the possession of deeper body depth, shor- ter eye diameter and less number of lateral coloured bands. material. Holotype (Fig. 1): 100.0 mm in standard length. Reg. No. Zoological Sur- vey of India, Calcutta, FF 2135. Locality. Namdapha wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh. Collector. S. Biswas and party. Date of col- lection 12.12.83. 1 Accepted August 1984. 2 Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta-700 016. Paratypes, 2 exs., 104.0 mm- 110.0 mm. S. L. Reg. No. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, FF 2136. Locality, Collector and date of Collection are same as holotype. Aborichthys tikaderi sp. nov. Body greatly elongated and compressed. Body and caudal peduncle are uniform in height throughout so that dorsal and ventral profile of the fish are almost parallel and hori- zontal. Head depressed, length 5.77 to 5.88 and body depth 7.69 to 8.00 in standard length. Eyes small, diameter 8.50 to 9.00 in head length, 3.50 to 4.00 in snout length and 2.40 to 2.50 in interorbital distance. Snout subconical anteriorly equal in length to post- orbital part of head, length 2.25 to 2.43 in head length. Nostrils situated close to inner, anterior border of eye, the membrane between two nostrils produced into a short barbel — like projection. Mouth slightly behind tip of snout and bordered by thick, papillated lips, which hang loosely and prominently at angles of mouth. Lower lip interrupted in middle and greatly on each side. Barbels 3 pairs — 2 pairs rostral and 1 pair maxillary. All barbels of equal length and equal to eye diameter. Vent situated far forward being distinctly nearer to tip of snout than to base of caudal fin. Lateral line incomplete, reaching before base of pelvic fin. Fins. D. ii/7, A. 6, P.11, V.8, C.18. All fins widely separated from one another. Paired fins horizontal and provided with thick cutaneous pads in the nature of adhesive tissue on ventral aspect of some of their rays. Dorsal 680 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Fig. 1. Lateral view of holotype of Aborichthys tikaderi sp. nov. fin small, its origin slightly behind that of pelvic fin and considerably nearer to tip of snout than to base of caudal fin. Longest ray of dorsal fin is slightly shorter than body depth immediately below it. Anal fin nearer to base of caudal fin than to commencement of pelvic fin. Pectoral fin considerably shorter than head length, its length 1.38 to 1.40 in head length. Pectoral fin situated at a distance more than double the length of pectoral fin from pelvic fin. Pelvic fin slightly shorter than pec- toral fin and situated away from the anal fin by a distance equal to two and a half times their own length. Caudal fin long and more or less rounded posteriorly, rather asymmetri- cal, its length equal to or slightly longer than head length. Scales. Entire body covered with small, elliptical scales. Scales on ventral surface rather inconspicuous but are prominent in posterior region of body. Colour in alcohol. Body pale olivaceous coloured. Dorsal surface of head marked with short black lines which anastomose with one another. Body marked with 15 to 20 black ver- tical bands which encircle the body almost completely except a very short space on ven- tral surface. Black bands and yellow inter- spaces are almost of equal width. A black spot present at superior margin of caudal fin. Table 1 Characters A. tikaderi sp. nov. A. garoensis Hora Standard length/Body depth 7.69-8.00 9.50-10.00 Head length/Eye diameter 8.50-9.00 6.60-7.20 Caudal fin Equal to head length considerably longer than head length Pectoral fin Situated far away from pelvic by a distance more than two times of their length removed from pelvic by a distance equal to their length Pelvic fin Removed from anal by a distance equal to two and a half times their length away from anal fin by a distance equal to one and a half times their length Body with vercal bands 15-20 bands which almost encircle the body 30-35 bands which generally anastomose dorso-laterally 681 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Measurements in MILLIMETRES Aborichthys tikaderi Aborichthys garoensis sp. nov. Hora* ** * from type series *1 2 3 Standard length 100.0 104.0 110.0 89.5 89.3 85.8 Length of caudal 17.0 18.5 18.0 16.0 15.8 15.7 Length of head 17.0 18.0 18.0 14.5 13.9 13.3 Depth of body 13.0 13.0 14.0 9.0 9.2 9.0 Eye diameter 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Snout length 7.0 8.0 8.0 6.6 6.6 6.2 Interorbital distance Height of head 4.8 5.0 5.0 3.8 4.0 3.0 at occiput 9.0 9.4 9.0 7.7 7.5 7.0 Width of head Length of caudal 11.2 11.8 12.0 10.8 10.8 10.6 peduncle Least height of 22.0 24.0 26.0 21.0 20.4 18.5 caudal peduncle 11.0 12.0 13.0 8.8 8.5 8.3 From tip of snout to vent 48.0 50.0 53.0 44.4 44.2 42.5 From vent to base • of caudal From tip of snout to 51.0 54.0 60.0 45.0 45.0 43.3 commencement of dorsal From commencement of 44.0 45.0 49.0 39.6 39.0 37.5 dorsal to base of caudal fin 57.0 60.0 61.0 49.8 50.6 48.0 From tip of snout to commencement of ventral fin 41.0 44.0 44.0 35.5 36.0 34.7 Longest ray of dorsal 12.0 12.0 13.0 11.5 10.8 9.6 Longest ray of anal 10.0 11.0 12.0 10.3 8.6 8.0 Length of ventral 12.0 12.0 12.0 11.5 10.5 11.2 Length of pectoral From commencement of 12.2 13.0 13.0 12.0 11.3 11.8 pectoral to that of ventral fin 26.0 28.0 27.0 23.5 23.0 22.6 From commencement of ventral to that of anal fin 30.0 30.0 37.0 28.0 27.3 26.0 From commencement of anal to base of caudal fin 28.0 28.0 33.0 26.3 25.3 23.8 * Holotype ** After Hora, S. L. 1925. Rec. Indian Mas. 27: 236. 682 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Pectoral, pelvic and anal fins dull white colour- ed. Dorsal fin provided with two or three rows of black spots across their rays. Caudal fin dull grey coloured with a semicircular black margin posteriorly. Affinities Aborichthys tikaderi is related to Aborich- thys garoensis Hora in having vent distinctly nearer to tip of snout than to base of caudal fin, but can be easily separated from the latter by the characters given in Table 1. Key to the species of the genus Aborichthys Chaudhuri 1 . Vent almost equidistant between tip of snout and base of caudal fin or slightly nearer to tip of snout than to base of caudal fin 2 — Vent distinctly nearer base of caudal fin than to tip of snout 3 2. Body depth 9.55 to 10.00 in standard length; eye diameter 6.60 to 7.20 in head length; late- ral black bands 30 to 35 A. goroensis Hora R EFE Chaudhuri, B. L. (1913): Zoological results of the Abor expedition, 1911-12, Fish. Rcc. Indian Mus. 8: 243-257. Hora, S. L. (1921) : On some new or rare species — Body depth 7.69 to 8.00 in standard length; eye diameter 8.50 to 9.00 in head length; late- ral black bands 15 to 20 A. tikaderi sp. nov. 3. Vent nearer to tip of snout than end of caudal fin. Barbels much longer than diameter of eye. Black bands narrower than yellow interspaces A. kempi Chaudhuri — Vent equidistant between tip of snout and end of caudal fin or nearer to the latter than to former. Barbels as long as or slightly longer than eye diameter. Black bands broader than yellow interspaces A. elongatus Hora Ack nowledgements I thank Dr. B. K. Tikader, Director and Dr. K. C. Jayaram, Joint Director, Zoological Sur- vey of India, Calcutta for laboratory facilities to work and for encouragement. I am also thankful to Dr. A. K. Ghosh, Deputy Director & Dr. P. K. Talwar, Superintending Zoologist, Zoological Survey of India for their sugges- tions. EN CES of fish from the Eastern Himalayas, ibid. 22 : 731-744. (1925) : Notes on fishes in the In- dian Museum. VIII. On the loaches of the genus Aborichthys Chaudhuri. ibid. 27: 231-236. 683 REVIEW FLOWERS OF THE HIMALAYA. By Oleg Polunin & Adam Stainton. pp. xxx+443 (22x14 cm), with pp. 445-518 illustrations and 128 coloured plates. New Delhi, 1984. Oxford University Press. Price Rs. 350.00. This is the most colourful and eye-catching book on Himalayan flowers so far produced. As the authors have rightly pointed out in the bibliography there was no book so far, availa- ble which could be carried in the field, in the Himalayas, and used for the identification of plants. This book is in partial fulfilment of this need. The book, which is basically designed for laymen and keen naturalists, describes over 1500 species out of about 9000 probables in the area. The book has been prepared on the same pattern as of “Flowers of the Europe, A field guide” by the senior author. It covers complete Nepal and three Indian high altitude states namely Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. The 960 colour pictures are of course the major attraction of the book but in addition there are 315 black and white sketches made by Ann Farrer. The text of the book is based on Bentham & Hooker’s system of classification and species descriptions are brief for the understanding of common man. However, while going through the text one gets the impression that the book is written mainly for the naturalists from the west, and lacks local information especially the local names of plants, which would have been appropriate. On page 151, Pumpkin & Gourd, the com- mon English names of Cucurbita maxima Duchesne and Cucurbita pepo DC. respectively have been interchanged. Similarly, on plate 9, photograph no. 70 is labelled as Clematis roylei, which looks like one of the Caryophyllaceae and requires rechecking. On the whole, the book is a very useful addition to Indian Botany. The price is rather high, but reasonable for Institutions. M. R. ALMEIDA 684 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1. STRANGE BEHAVIOUR OF A TIGER On 9th June, 1983 at around 6.00 p.m. we spotted a full grown tigress sitting near the nullah of Lakarda in Ranthambore National Park in Rajasthan. Her stomach was full and she was undisturbed by our presence in the jeep, actually she appeared to be too lethargic to move. We watched her for a few minutes and drove off but she continued to sit unper- turbed. Mr. Fateh Singh Rathore, Field Direc- tor, Project Tiger, observed that this tigress had three nearly full-grown cubs and she frequent- ed this area. Next morning around 7.00 a.m. we went to the spot again. It was a cloudy but hot summer day. The tigress was found sitting not far from the nullah in the grass near her partially eaten sambar kill. While her cubs were not observed, only the head and the front legs of the kill had remained from the previous day’s eating. It had also started smelling and was infested with flies and maggots. Unlike the previous evening, on seeing us the tigress was disturbed. She picked up the kill and walked away. We followed her in our jeep at a distance. She moved straight for the Lakarda nullah less than hundred odd yards away and entered the water. Her manner showed a definite pur- Area-Director, Northern Region, The Indian Hotels Company Ltd., The Taj Mahal Hotel, New Delhi-110 011, April 19, 1984. pose. The kill was in her mouth all the while. She stood in the water for a while with the lower part of the kill dangling in it. Then quite deliberately she dunked the kill three succes- sive times in the water as if to get rid of the fly nuisance. She settled down in the water for a while, then got up with the kill still in her mouth walked towards a bush on the bank of the nullah and hid the kill under it. She went back to the water, sat down partly in it and went to sleep quite oblivious of our pre- sence in the jeep. This entire episode took place in some 15-20 minutes between 7.00 a.m. to 7.30 a.m. After the tigress dozed off, we left the area. She, however, was observed by us at the same spot in the afternoon and evening of 10th June and again on 11th morning in the nearby grass. She had just killed and eaten a peacock before we arrived around 7.00 a.m. After a while she moved off. Tigers are known to love water in the sum- mer heat and they do carry their kills with them into the water. I had never heard of a tiger or seen one cleaning out its kill in the water in the manner observed by us. DIVYABHANUSINH 685 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 2. ON THE PRESENCE OF THE PANGOLIN MANIS CRASSICAUDATA GRAY AND A FOX VULPES SP. IN KUTCH ( With a photograph) The Indian Pangolin being strictly a noctur- nal animal is not usually seen, and hence it is often thought to be rare or absent from any given place. I, for one, thought that it did not exist in Kutch. However on 14th October, 1983, I was told that the rnali in the Collec- tor’s Office in Bhuj had found a Pangolin and had kept it in his house where it eventually died. After making enquiries I traced the dead animal to the local museum. It was a young female. Subsequently I learnt from local shikaris and villagers in the district that the Pangolin is found all over Kutch. In the Kutchhi dialect it is called chhallo, an apt name descriptive of the scales the animal has all over its body. While on a trip to the Great Rann of Kutch on January 7, this year (1984), I saw a fox in a grassy patch about 8 km. west of Kuanvar bet. But as our vehicle was being driven quite fast, and the animal was running away, I was Photo. 1. The Indian Pangolin in Bhuj-Kutch, Gujarat. 686 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES unable to note details of the animals colour a dark grey ring, or band, just above the black etc. However the most outstanding mark was tip to the bushy tail. Jubilee Ground, HIMMATSINHJI Beiuj, Kutch, May 12, 1984. 3. OBSERVATIONS ON UNUSUAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR IN ELEPHANTS During our field studies at the Periyar Tiger Reserve two instances of unusual sexual be- haviour were observed in wild elephants. On 25th July 1979 a herd of elephants were grazing near the Periyar Lake shore at Mana- kkavala. There were two sub-adult tuskers in that herd. One tusker attempted to mount a female having a calf of about 2 years. The cow did not allow the subadult tusker to mount. The cow and the calf went towards the forest followed by the tusker. The tusker attempted to mount the cow again. The penis of the tusker was everted from its sheath throughout the period. The tusker continued to follow the same cow, with its trunk holding the tail of the cow and pulling it. The cow freed itself by moving forwards and hurriedly returned to the herd along with her calf. The tusker went to the other smaller tusker which was in knee deep water and smelled its penis with the trunk tip. The tusker then mounted the other tusker with its everted penis. The second tusker moved away and then they be- gan pushing each other. The bigger tusker again mounted on the other tusker and after some time they left the water. Wildlife Biology Division, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi 680 653, July 9, 1984. This kind of unusual sexual behaviour shown towards smaller individuals after several un- successful attempts to mount has been describ- ed by Eisenberg et ah (1971) in Asiatic ele- phants. They termed this behaviour as “re- directed sexual activity”. In another instance on 20th February 1980 a tusker slightly bigger than the one described earlier mounted a female elephant with a calf of about 4 years, after an elaborate and pro- longed session of courting for about one and half hours. During the courting the calf was about 30 m away from its mother feeding on grass. After successful copulation the elephants moved away. In the first instance the calf was probably too small and dependent on the mother. The elephant seems to adjust its calving interval in such a way that the previous, calf is fairly independent before the birth of the next calf. In Periyar the subadult tuskers seem to get comparatively more opportunities for mating due to the fewer number of adult tuskers in the elephant population. K. K. RAMACHANDRAN 687 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Reference Eisenberg, J. F., McKay, George M. & Jainu- Asiatic elephant ( Elephas maximus maximus L.). DEEN, M. R. (1971): Reproductive behaviour of the Behaviour 38: 193-225. 4. ADDITIONAL RANGE INHABITED BY BHARAL ( PSEUDOIS NAYAUR) AND SNOW LEOPARD ( PANTHERA UNCIA ) IN NEPAL We provide further information on the dis- tribution of bharal ( Pseudois nayaur ) and snow leopard ( Panthera undo) in Nepal. Observa- vations, incidental to trekking activities, were made during 1977-1978. Both bharal ( Pseudois nayaur) and snow leopard ( Panthera undo) have been subjects of recent popular accounts (Matthiessen 1978, Schaller 1979) and scientific reviews (Schaller 1973, 1977; Jackson 1979). Bharal occur main- ly north of the central Himalayan massifs in Nepal and are largely limited to alpine areas west of the Kali Gandaki River (Schaller 1977). Snow leopard broadly overlap bharal in distribution (Schaller 1977, Jackson 1979), except in east Nepal where bharal distribution is more limited (Schaller 1977). Schaller and Matthiessen saw bharal along the Seng Khola between Dhorpatan and Tara- kot (Matthiessen 1978, Schaller 1979) and Wilson (in Jackson 1979) reported them as abundant in the former locality. However, we travelled those areas north to Phoksumdo Taal (Ringmo Lake) in November 1977 with no sign of the species except for a hide in the village of Murduwa, below Ringmo. From there we paralleled the northern slopes of the Dhau- lagiri Range east to the Kali Gandaki River. Enroute we observed fresh tracks of a female snow leopard and her half grown cub at a spring near our camp site at 5300 m just north of the 5700 m Mu La pass. No sign of bharal was made until one of us (PMH) collected the horn of a male at 4950 m near Sangda La pass and later found the skull of a male at the entrance of Cha Lungpa Gorge (4600 m). No further evidence of either species was observed on that trek. On 26 May 1978 we observed and photo- graphed two herds of bharal with 12 and 3 individuals, respectively, between 4600 and 5050 m in an area west of Tilicho Lakes and due north of the Nilgiri-Annapurna massifs. Of interest is that the first group contained one newborn. This coincides with the period of parturition estimated by Schaller (1977). In this same area, PMH collected several snow leopard scats, all of which contained bharal hair. Slightly north, in the village of Kagbeni, we were shown the hide of a bharal and on the north flank of the Thorang La pass, above Muktinath, we observed another herd of 9 bharal at 4800 m. These are previously un- recorded populations east of the Kali Gandaki River. They may represent a southwestern ex- tension of range (see Schaller 1977) or a part of a larger disjunct distribution that continues north in Mustang District. How far east bharal occur along the Annapurna Range is unknown. In mid-October 1978 we camped on the east slope of the lower Jaljalle spur at 3900 m under a large rock overhang that was used by bharal, evidenced by fresh droppings and shed hair. This is the southernmost range inhabited by this species in east Nepal (Schaller 1977). The Jaljalle lie east of the Arun River and 688 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES extend north toward Tibet at elevations of 3500 - 4800 m. The vegetation is both krumm- holz and alpine while the western flank is blanketed with impassible thickets of dwarf bamboo (Arundinaria) . We continued north to Sabhai Pokhari with no further sign of bharal. However, visibility was poor and bad weather forced us to return south. Directly below this area on the upper Milke Danda, we found pugmarks of a large feline at 3650 m which we identified as either those of the common ( L . pardus) or snow leopard. This is a transitional altitude for both species and the nearby occurrence of bharal, a favour- ed prey, would suggest that the Jaljalle are inhabited by snow leopard. However, several kilometres south a common leopard was ob- served (JHC) at close range on the crest of the Milke Danda at 3200 m. Both this and the preceding sightings were in rhododendron ( Rhododendron spp.) thickets. Our expeditions attest to the decline and scarcity of Himalayan wildlife. Combined, these treks lasted five months yet the only other large mammals encountered were a jackal ( Cards aureus), several common langur (Pres- bytis entellus), and two barking deer ( Muntia - Dept, of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83843, U.S.A. National Crocodile Project, P. O. Ambunti, East Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea, March 27, 1984. Refer Jackson, R. (1979): Snow leopards in Nepal. Oryx 15 (2) : 191-195. Matthiessen, P. (1978): The snow leopard. The Viking Press, N. Y. 338 pp. Schaller, G. B. (1973) : On the behaviour of blue sheep ( Pscudois nayaur). J. Bombay nat. Hist. cus muntjak) in west, central, and east Nepal, respectively. Few populations of ungulates and carnivores in the Himalayan ranges are likely to exist at sustained levels outside of managed parks, preserves, or refuges. The Nepalese government has done a commendable job of establishing representative natural areas for conservation purposes, considering its economic resources. The Jaljalle and Tilicho Lakes areas are uninhabited and may represent critical habitat for bharal and snow leopard. We there- fore urge His Majesty’s Government and the Office of National Parks and Wildlife Conser- vation of Nepal to give priority consideration toward gazetting these areas in planning further conservation programmes. Acknowledgements We thank Bill Brandenberger and Ridge DeWitt for their good company on these ex- peditions and our various porters for the ex- cellent services rendered. Robert L. Fleming, Sr. and Jr. greatly added to our enjoyment of Nepal with their insights and hospitality. We also thank Donald R. Johnson for reviewing the manuscript. PHILIP M. HALL JACK H COX, JR. E N C E S Soc. 69(3) : 523-537. (1977) : Mountain monarchs: mountain sheep and goats of the Himalaya. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago. 425 pp. (1979): Stones of silence. The Viking Press, N. Y. 292 pp. 689 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 5. A NOTE ON ANTLER CASTING OF BARKING DEER (. MUNT1ACUS MUNTJAK) IN CAPTIVITY The Barking Deer or Muntjac ( Muntiacus muntjak ) are distributed over the greater part of the Indo -Malayan countries, China, Formosa and Japan (Prater 1971). This note on some aspects of antler casting of barking deer is based on the observations made at the Nan- dankanan Biological Park, Orissa during the period October, 1970 to March, 1983. The park is within the geographical range of the species. Specimens collected from different parts of Orissa and those born and brought up in the park are included in the study. The number of stags under observation varied from one to seven. The thirty four antler castings recorded during the observation period were distributed as follows: March, 2; April, 20; and May, 12. Majority of castings (94.12%) were recorded in April and May only. The antlers are cast annually and never retained to the next year. The fifty one observations on the period of Velvet rubbing were recorded as follows: August, 14; September, 26; October, 9; and November, 2. Majority of observations (78.43%) were recorded in August and Sept- ember only. The antlers of both sides were cast either in one day or within four days. Casting of both antlers was observed within one day in twenty instances (58.8%), on eleven instances within two consecutive days (32.3%), on one instance within three days (3%) and on two instances within four days (5.9%). The period required from the time of cast- ing of antlers to the time when the stags start Nandankanan Biological Park, P. O. Barang, Dist-Cuttack. rubbing off the velvet is taken as the span of antler growth. This period recorded on 12 occasions varied from 4\ to 6\ months (41 months on three occasions; 5 months on one occasion; 5J months on seven occasions and 6\ months on one occasion). The weight and measurements of ten cast antlers are given as follows: Length in cm Weight in gm 5.00 7,400 6.50 8,600 7.00 11,500 7.75 12,500 10.00 17,000 10.00 17,700 10.00 20,500 10.50 12,300 11.00 16,900 11.00 25,200 The small antlers were either unbranched or with a short brow-tine as reported by Prater (loc. cit). The antlers are shed in May and renewed in August but it is doubtful whether this occurs annually (Asdell 1964). Antlers are shed annually in May in southern Asia and they rarely exceed 125 to 152 mm in length (Walker et al 1964). The antlers are cast in May and June and the average Indian antlers measure 5 to 8 cm, and maximum recorded length is 17.8 cm (Prater, loc. cit.). Accord- ing to Acharjyo (1971) nine antler castings were recorded in April and May and both the antlers were cast either in one or two conse- cutive da vs. j L. N. ACHARJYO MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Wildlife Conservation Officer, Orissa, 145-Saheed Nagar, Bhubaneswar-751 007, January 4, 1984. Refe Acharjyo, L. N. (1971) : Notes on Time of Shedding of Antlers of Deer in captivity. Indian Forester, 97(3): 150-151. Asdell, S. A. (1964) : Patterns of Mammalian Reproduction, 2nd Ed. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York pp. 559. S. K. PATNAIK E N CE S Prater, S, H. (1971) : The book of Indian Ani- mals. 3rd (Revised) Ed. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, pp. 294-295. Walker, E. P. et al. (1964) : Mammals of the world. Vol. II, The John Hopkins Press, Baltimore, pp. 1385. 6. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF GREAT CRESTED GREBE PODICEPS CRISTATUS CRISTATUS (LINN.) IN COASTAL ANDHRA PRADESH While on a nature trek to Thatipudi forest area and the reservoir situated in the foothills of Anantagiri ghats of Vizag District, on 27th February 1983, we observed a pair of Great Crested Grebes in the reservoir. The reservoir is devoid of any marshy vegetation and very deep with abundant sup- ply of fish. The pair of birds were 30 feet apart from each other at a distance of 50 feet from Andhra Pradesh Natural History Society, Dasapalla Hills, Visakhapatnam-3, March 7, 1983. the impoundment bund with prominent crests visible to the naked eye. We also timed its submergence and recorded the longest dive as 130 seconds, between 0400-0430 p.m. This constitutes the first record of this species for Andhra Pradesh and extends its known range by about 450 km southwards from the last coastal record at Puri on the East Coast (handbook 1: 3). K. S. R. KRISHNA RAIL B. L. PRABHU P. R. GOPALA RAJU 7. A NOTE ON THE CATCHING OF MIGRATORY BIRDS WFIICH VISIT ALIPORE ZOO, CALCUTTA IN WINTER (With a photograph ) Several thousands of migratory birds (wild ducks) visit the Alipore Zoological Garden, Calcutta each Winter and take shelter in its lake. These birds include the following — 1 . Lesser Whistling Teal — [Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield)] 2. Garganey Teal — [Anas querquedula (Linnaeus)] 691 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 3. Greater Whistling Teal — [Dendrocygna bicolor (Vieillot)] 4. Pintail Duck — [Anas acuta (Linnaeus)] 5. Comb Duck — [Sarkidiornis melanotos melanotos (Pennant)] Among these birds. Lesser Whistling Teals come in large numbers and represent about 70% of the total population. The precentage of Garganey Teal is about 29% and the re- maining 1% is represented by Greater Whist- ling Teals, Pintail Ducks and Comb ducks. They generally start coming in the middle of October and leave the Garden at the end of April each year. The number of these birds in the Zoo varies from time to time but the number of birds is generally seen in the month of January. The birds during their stay at the Zoo spend the day in the lake and leave at dusk to feed many miles away in the countryside and come back to the lake at dawn. These movements of birds at dusk and at dawn take place throughout their stay (about 6 months) at this Zoo. It has been observed that some people of the nearby Orphanage market area fly Kites, the threads of which are full of fishing hooks tied at intervals of 6 to 8 inches (as shown in the plate) with the threads for catching the birds. The kites are flown in the evening Photo. 1. Photograph of a kite showing fishing hooks being tied with the flying string. 692 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES and also in the early morning on the flight paths of the duck. These birds generally fly in flocks, of 5 to 15 birds in each flock. The bird-catchers fly the kites in such a way that they can easily put the threads with hooks on the flight paths of the birds by alternately pull- ing and releasing the kite’s string. Some of the ducks during their flight to and from the Zoological Garden, Alipore, Calcutta - 700 027, May 4, 1983. lake of the Zoo become entangled with the fishing hooks and are caught. Acknowledgement I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Shri Humayun Abdulali, 75, Abdul Rahman Street, Bombay-400 003 for his encouragement. ADHIR KUMAR DAS 8. THE JUVENILE PLUMAGE OF THE LITTLE EGRET COMPARED WITH THAT OF THE WHITE-PHASE INDIAN REEF HERON {With a text-figure) The Little Egret, Egretta garzetta (Linn.), is mainly an inland species which is replaced by the polymorphic Indian Reef Heron, Egretta gularis Bose, on the western coast of India. Whether these two are separate species or merely the inland and coastal races of the same species, has not been satisfactorily re- solved as yet. In their recent study on the systematics and evolutionary relationships among the herons, Payne and Risley (1976) have considered E. garzetta and E. gularis as members of a super species. The Little Egret resembles the white-phase Reef Heron. A far-inland population of the Little Egret can be clearly distinguished from an exclusively marine Reef Heron population, as the former is characterized by the presence of a black beak whereas the latter has a yellow beak. However, in the transitional zone where both the marine as well as the inland waters are important sources of food, the distinction between the two species based on the beak colour breaks down and the white birds with the beak colour ranging from jet black to yellow can be seen interbreeding with the grey morphs of the Reef Heron in the same heronry (Parasharya & Naik, unpublished) . That there is a considerable overlap between the tarsus length of the Reef Heron and Little Egret has been demonstrated earlier (Ali & Ripley 1968, Hancock & Elliot 1978). In view of these, we thought it desirable to check the contention of Ali & Ripley (1968) that the Little Egret has ‘snow-white’ chicks in contrast to the Reef Heron whose white chicks are dappled with grey. Materials and Methods A heronry in the grounds of the Municipal Hill Garden Zoo, Ahmedabad (23° 04' N, 72° 38' E) located about 92 kilometres from the sea coast was visited on 28 September 1982. The Little Egret was breeding there along with the Large Egret {Egretta alba). Median 693 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Egret ( Egretta intermedia ), Cattle Egret ( Bubulcus ibis). Night Heron ( Nycticorax nycticorax) , Pond Heron ( Ardeola grayii) and Little Cormorant ( Phalacrocorax niger). After careful observations of adult birds attending their nests, four nests of the Little Egret were identified and from these nests six 2 to 3 -week old chicks (three from one nest and one from each of the other nests) were collected and transported to an aviary in the Saurashtra University Campus, Rajkot, where the birds were maintained for a detailed study. We have had for a comparison several white morphs of the Indian Reef Heron in their juvenile plumage in the aviary; these birds were collect- ed from a Reef Heron colony in Gogha (Naik et al. 1981) on the west coast of the Gulf of Khambhat. Results The three siblings of the Little Egret had a number of white feathers with grey streaks and dapples; only the head, breast, abdomen and thigh had all the feathers pure white, the other regions having had most of the white feathers streaked, or dappled, with grey at the distal ends. Out of the other three nestlings collected, one had feathers with grey streaks and dapples Fig. 1. A nestling of the Little Egret showing grey streaks and dapples on the plumage. 694 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES as described above, whereas the remaining two nestlings had exclusively pure white fea- thers all over their body. The juvenile plumage in the white morphs of Reef Heron had variable amount of grey in the form ranging from fine streaks to large dapples. Some of these birds resembled the Little Egrets with grey streaks and dapples described hereinbefore. Discussion The juvenile plumage of Little Egret is not always pure white, though it might be so in some individuals. On the other hand, the white-phase Reef Heron always has some amount of grey in the form of streaks and dapples in its juvenile plumage (Naik & Para- sharya 1983) we have handled a large number of chicks of the Reef Heron without ever finding a chick with pure white plumage. The white juvenile plumage is extremely variable within the Little Egret-Reef Heron complex and the Little Egret represents one end of the broad spectrum of variability. This is true with respect to the other physical characteristics, such as beak and leg colour (Parasharya & Naik, unpublished) as well. Dept, of Biosciences, Saurashtra University, Rajkot 360 005, Gujarat, May 4, 1983. Refer Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1968) : Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. I. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Hancock, J. & Elliot, H. (1978) : The Herons of the World. London Editions Ltd., London. Naik, R. M., Parasharya, B. M., Patel, B. H. & Mansuri, A. P. (1981) : The timing of breeding season and interbreeding between the colour phases in the Indian Reef Heron, Egretta gularis (Bose). The Little Egret and Reef Heron are allo- patric in the transitional zone between inland and coast and we have circumstantial evi- dences that these two species interbreed there (Parasharya & Naik, unpublished) . If the pure- white juvenile plumage is the genotypic charac- teristic of the Little Egret, as against the grey- splashed juvenile plumage of the Reef Heron, it is possible that the Little Egret would have only the pure- white juvenile plumage repre- sented in its populations that are far removed from the sea coast. Both the pure-white as well as grey-splashed juvenile plumages, however, may be encountered in the populations rela- tively closer to the coastal areas, because of a regular gene flow from coastal populations of the Reef Heron. Our investigations currently in progress, are directed towards checking this possibility. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Mr. H. G. Gor, Zoo Superintendent, Municipal Hill Garden Zoo, Ahmedabad, for providing facilities to collect birds. A Junior Research Fellowship given by CSIR, New Delhi, to one of us (B.M.P.) is acknowledged. B. M. PARASHARYA R. M. NAIK :NCES /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(3) : 494-497. (In press) : Sequence of plumage changes and polymorphism in the Indian Reef Heron Egretta gularis. Communicated for publi- cation in Sandgrouse. Payne, R. B. & Risley, C. J. (1976) : Systematics and evolutionary relationships among the herons (Ardeidae). Miscellaneous Publications, Museum of Zoology, Univ. Mich.: 150. 695 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 9. UNUSUAL FEEDING BEHAVIOUR IN THE PADDYBIRD OR INDIAN POND HERON ARDEOLA GRAY II During a visit to the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala State, in December 1982 our attention was drawn to two unusual kinds of feeding behaviour in the Paddybird Ardeola grayii. Within that sanctuary water from the 23 sq. km. Parambikulam dam feeds into the c. 3 sq. km„ Thunacadavu dam through a 2 to 3 km long tunnel under high ground. The exit of the tunnel lies at the head of a small inlet or creek which extends for some 30 m and broadens from 5 to 15 m before opening into the lower dam proper. The banks of the upper part of the creek are steep and overhung by small trees, but nearer its mouth these give way to the same flat, open pebble and mud beaches that surround the rest of the dam. The water in the creek is deep and fast flow- ing, but not turbulent, and its current can be traced for a further 200 to 300 m out into the otherwise calm waters of the dam. The dam is heavily stocked with Carp and Tilapia spp. which tend to congregate towards the head of this flow of fresh water. Mahseer Barbus tor are also present and feeding flurries of these predatory fish, which surge right up to the mouth of the tunnel, cause frequent showers of small 5 to 10 cm long fish to leap into the air, apparently throughout the day. The creek, which is near the small resthouse in which we were staying, was visited at inter- vals from the afternoon of the 1st to the early morning of the 3rd December and on each occasion from 15 to 25 Paddybirds were found to be congregated there, although none were to be seen on the open shores of the dam. Those birds were perched either on low branches near to or overhanging the water or on a small group of boulders near the mouth 696 of the creek. Every few minutes one or more of them would take off and fly low over the water of the creek in an attempt to catch the leaping small fish on the wing. Flights were usually short and not more than 25 to 40 m in length, in the course of which a bird might swerve in pursuit of several different showers of fish before returning to the same or another perch. At no time was a bird seen to enter or make contact with the water. The rate of success in this method of fishing appeared to be low and on only three occasions during a total of perhaps \\ hours of watching was a fish actually seen to be taken, although other captures probably occurred which were not observed. All fish caught were taken to a perch before being eaten. Although several birds might be in the air at once, fishing appeared to be a purely individual effort and no kind of collaboration was observed. Much less frequently a single Paddybird, or occasionally two, would take off and fly out along the visible current line in the dam proper at a height of from 15 to 30 m. There they behaved in a rather clumsy, tern-like manner, quartering the water, attempting (not too un- successfully) to hover, and occasionally stoop- ing towards its surface, presumably after the less frequent showers of fish that were leaping there as well. The distance was too great for it to be seen if any fish were actually taken but on one occasion a bird was seen to alight on the water after such a stoop, which may have indicated success. Such flights over the dam rarely lasted for more than a minute or two. On the 2nd December similar tern-like feeding behaviour was observed in the same species on the larger Parambikulam dam. On that occasion from three to five Paddybirds at ( MISCELLANEOUS NOTES a time were watched circling, half hovering and occasionally stooping over each of the two patches of disturbed water where flocks of Cormorants Phalacrocorax carbo were fish- ing submerged and occasionally surfacing, pre- sumably again causing shoals of little fish to leap into the air. At no time was a Paddybird seen to make contact with the water at the end of a stoop but on three occasions one was observed afterwards to alight on it, although the distance was too great to see if it had anything in its beak. Both areas were more than half a kilometre from the shore and each Paddybird spent several minutes circling over one or other of them before returning to rest on the beach or in a group of dead trees standing in the water. Neither of these two methods of feeding appears to have been described in this species before, although tern-like behaviour has been recorded in other Ardeidae, notably the Eastern Reef Pleron Egretta sacra, the Inter- mediate Egret E. intermedia and the Snowy Egret E. thula (Sir Elugh Elliott, pers. comm.). The pursuit of leaping fish during short flights from a perch, which can perhaps be compared to the “bellyflopping on the water from an overhanging stone ledge” behaviour referred to in Ali and Ripley, is probably an adaptation to a particularly favourable local situation, be- cause there can be few other places where abundant shoals of small fish are forced into the air so close to a bank with such day-long regularity. If that is so the habit must be of fairly recent origin, because the Parambikulam dams were only completed in 1967 and, al- though they are understood to have been stock- ed shortly afterwards, it would be several years before fish populations could build up to the levels required to produce the present situation. However the habit is at least seven years old because we were told by both Mr. Jayarajan, the present warden, and Mr. V. Sadasivan, his predecessor, who have between them served continuously in the sanctuary since 1975, that they have regularly watched Paddybirds feeding in the creek in the manner described since they were first posted there. They also reported Paddybirds to have fed in a tern-like way on the open waters of both dams throughout the same period, although neither of them has seen either behaviour in the species elsewhere. We are most grateful to Mr. Jayarajan and Mr. Sadasivan for drawing our attention to the above phenomena and to Sir Hugh Elliott for help in the preparation of this note. I. R. GRIMWOOD P. O. Box 45079, Nairobi, Kenya. 4 Fulham Park Road, London S.W. 6, June 20, 1983. M. J. C. BROCKLEHURST Reference Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1968) : Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1. Oxford Univer- sity Press, Bombay. 697 11 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 10. ON THE SIGHTING OF A FLOCK OF CRAB PLOVERS AT KOLFIAPUR On the 27th March 1983 we were at the Rankala Tank (200 ha) on the outskirts of Kolhapur (17° 32' N latitude and 74° 14' E longitude), Maharashtra. At 9 O’clock in the morning we saw a flock of unfamiliar black- and-white birds flying very low over the tank. Our curiosity being aroused, we went across for a closer look, to the opposite bank, over which the birds were persistantly circling. The birds numbered about twentyfour in all and flew swiftly with strong wing-beats in a tight but constantly changing formation. Their flight path seemed to hug the periphery of the tank, making irregular circles over the shal- lower areas. We watched this wheeling for more than an hour, and they were still in flight when we left. Throughout the morning they had not settled on the ground. Subsequently the birds have not been seen on the tank or anywhere else in the vicinity. The birds were primarily white, with a black back and greyish black wings. The bill was short, thick and black, and their longish grey legs trailed behind them. The flock was a 23/5, Bund Garden Road, Pune-411 001. Department of Zoology, Shiva j i University, Kolhapur 416 004, June 23, 1983. [Instances of shore birds being found far inland than their usual haunts have been recorded in the Journal from time to time. The occurrence at Nasik of a Red Sea Masked Gannet Sula dactylatra Lesson was reported in July 1957 (JBNHS 55: 358). Earlier in June/July 1957 large flocks of that rather rare Great Skua Catharacta skua lonnbergi Mathews beautiful sight and the photographs also con- firm that they were indeed Crab Plovers. The fascinating aspect is the occurrence of these maritime birds so far inland at Kolhapur, which is about 60 miles in a straight line east of the sea, and is separated from it, by the Western Ghats. Crab Plovers are being com- monly found only in the coastal areas by and large north of Ratnagiri. How or why these coastal birds have chosen to move inland is a mystery. However, we have found that tanks such as Mayni in Satara dis- trict, which is even further inland do attract birds such as sea gulls and perhaps our Crab Plovers followed them inland. Recently a sea gull was also spotted by one of us at the Mula Mutha Bird Sanctuary in Pune where they have never been seen before. We feel that increasing sightings of such seaside birds, far away from their usual home, might indeed indicate subtle changes in their coastal habitat which at present may not be overtly visible. ERACH K. BHARUCHA JAY S. SAMANT arrived in Malwan on the Ratnagiri coast. Nasik is about 70 miles and Kolhapur about 60 inland respectively from the nearest sea coast. Perhaps the fact is there were lesser number of knowledge- able birdwatchers in the country not so long ago resulting in such strays going unnoticed and unrecord- ed in the past. — Eds] 698 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 11. CRANES WINTERING IN SAURASHTRA In January-February 1983 I had an oppor- tunity to travel in the Saurashtra region of Gujarat in the company of Dr J Van der ven, chief of the Nature Conservation Department in the Netherlands. In visiting the wetlands and reservoirs of Saurashtra, our main pur- pose was to look for the wintering numbers of Demoiselle ( Anthropoides virgo) and Com- mon ( Grus grus) cranes; but such v/as the richness of the avifauna encountered, that it was impossible to restrict oneself merely to cranes. However, cranes being our first con- cern, the estimated numbers of cranes observed at different reservoirs are given below: Date Name of Wetland Demoi- selle Number of - Common Sarus 27 Jan. Lalpari (Rajkot) 5000 Nil Nil „ Veri (Gondal) Nil 25 2 28 Jan. Sayala 250 300 4 „ Thoriari 35 Nil Nil „ Muli 2000 Nil Nil 29 Jan. Kharaghoda (Little Rann) Nil 3000 Nil 31 Jan. Vijaysagar (Kutch) Nil 25 6 31 Jan. Jodiya Nil 12 2 1 Feb. Singach 100 Nil Nil 2 Feb. Alansagar ( Jasdan) 1000 Nil Nil „ Ponelia Nil 7 Nil „ Brahmani 25 Nil Nil 3 Feb. Nyari (Rajkot) 3000 Nil Nil 4 Feb. Mitana (Morvi) 3000 400 Nil „ Ramdarda (Rajkot) 500 Nil Nil (The estimates are rounded to the nearest hundred.) In addition small flocks of Common cranes numbering 10 to 25 birds were observed in flight several times. Distant views of large flocks believed to be of Demoiselles, were also seen especially around Rajkot and Jam- nagar. In all, we must have seen an estimated 25,000 cranes belonging to both the species. Pairs and small flocks of Sarus were also seen. Rut Sarus appears to have a very dispersed distribution and is by no means common in Saurashtra. Sightings of cranes indicate that Demoiselles were more common in the west while, as you travel from west to east, the Common becomes more numerous. The daily routine of cranes appears to be as follows: The cranes leave roosting areas which are normally on the banks of reservoirs, early in the morning to feed in fields on fallen groundnut of previous harvest. They return to the roosting sites between 10.30 and 11.30 a.m. to spend the noon and afternoon there. In the evening around 5 p.m. they go out again to feed and return to the roost in gather- ing dusk. Common cranes were also seen feed- ing in jowar and gram fields. A number of juveniles were seen among flocks of Common cranes, though not many among Demoiselles. On two occasions a Demoi- selle pair with a young was seen feeding away from the main flock. On the whole, cranes permitted a fairly close approach and were not unduly scared by our presence. In certain areas like Sayala, where they are protected by the local people, they were even tamer. All the reservoirs and wetlands also pre- sented a rich diversity of aquatic birds. Shovellers were seen to outnumber all other ducks, though sizeable numbers of Pochard and Tufted Duck were seen. Over two thou- sand White and a few Grey Pelicans were also seen. The Khijadiya wetland encompass- ing freshwater and saltwater habitats, is extre- mely rich in waterbirds including Pelican, Greater and Lesser Flamingo, storks, heron and egrets, various ducks, avocets and curlews 699 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 and other waders, coots and moorhens. This extensive marshland may very well be a can- didate for inclusion in the Ramsar list as a wetland of international importance. The lake in the centre of Jamnagar, a busy industrial town, is a veritable paradise for 277 Sindh Housing Society, Pune-411 007, May 4, 1983. birdwatchers. Scores of Greater Flamingos, hundreds of ducks, waders, terns and coots and many cormorants, darters, ibises and moorhens, not to say skimmers, crowd this shallow lake. PRAKASH GOLE 12. A NOTE ON THE STATUS OF BRACHYPTERYX CRYPTIC A In March 1979, in the Tirap District of Arunachal Pradesh, our joint Smithsonian- Bombay Natural History Society Expedition collected a series of five specimens of a bird species which Dr Salim Ali and I assumed we had not previously encountered in our Indian field studies. It was a small, buff -brown, un- distinctive chat-like bird, which I subsequently described as a new species of shortwing thrush, Brachypteryx cryptica (Ripley, 1980). I postu- lated that this new form was most closely related to the poorly known Brachypteryx hyperythra, from Sikkim and northeastern India. On returning to Arunachal Pradesh for con- tinued ornithological field investigation in December- January 1981-82, we collected four more specimens, noting in one case the typical chat-like stance of an individual standing on an exposed rock. Later in Calcutta we saw three more specimens collected by the Zoolo- gical Survey of India, eight months earlier, in 1981, these being identified as the new Brachy- pteryx. At this point. Dr. Salim Ali and I began to have reservations. Could the species be a timaliine ? In Washington, consultation with Dr Richard Zusi revealed the fact that the nasal operculum in our new species is only partly closed, thus resembling forms in the genus Trichastoma (a timaliine). Additional evidence, the degree of fusion of the basal phalanges of digits three and four (greater in Trichastoma), coupled with the slightly longer rictal bristles, placed these birds in that diffi- cult timaliine genus. No specimens of Tricha- stoma tickelli assamense had been identified by us, although we had collected the species to the north in heavy undergrowth in the Mishmi Hills in 1946. Thus my supposed shortwing becomes a synonym of Trichastoma tickelli assamense. None of the birds we collected uttered a sound, a factor which, added to the presence of other shortwings in the area, and none of the Trichastoma abbotti or Pellorneum which might have reminded us of assamense (the widespread Pellorneum ruficeps was of course common and noisy) served to throw us off the scent completely. The boundary separating the smaller chat- like thrushes (Turdinae) from the similar small Indochinese babblers (Timaliinae) is poorly defined. Trichastoma is a timaliine genus gene- rally considered to be on this borderline (Deignan 1964). A perusal of the original designations of many taxa now included in 700 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Trichastoma shows that earlier workers have had difficulty separating the shortwing Brachy- pteryx from this babbler genus. T. bicolor , T. rostratum macropterum, T. sepiarium, T. m. malaccense, and T. m. poligene were all origi- nally placed in the genus Brachypteryx by their describers. Thus even a wary ornithologist can be trapped. A further study of the generic limits of the genus Trichastoma is planned. One final note on construction of names in the genus Trichastoma : Deignan has consider- ed the genus name to be neuter, and has altered all modifying names accordingly. In order to bring the nomenclature of my A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN into accord with Deignan, species no. 1166 (p. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. 20560, U.S.A. May 18, 1983. Refer Deignan, H. (1964): Timaliinae. In Check-List of Birds of the World. E. Mayr and R. A. Paynter, eds. Harvard Univ. Press: pp. 240-427. Ripley, S. D. (1980): A new species, and a new subspecies of bird from Tirap District, Arunachal Pradesh, and comments on the subspecies of 322, 2nd ed.) should read: Trichastoma tickelli assamense, (not assamensis). Acknowledgements Research in India was facilitated by the kind assistance of numerous authorities in the Wild- life Department and Government of Aruna- chal Pradesh. I thank curators at the American Museum of Natural History, Field Museum of Natural History, Museum of Zoology, Univer- sity of Michigan, and Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University for loaning com- parative material in their care. Finally, thanks are due to Drs Salim Ali and Richard Zusi who helped me to solve this provisional orni- thological riddle. S. DILLON RIPLEY NCES Stachyris nigriceps Blytb. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77: 1-5. (1982) : A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan. 2nd ed. Bombay natural History Society, Bombay. 13. SOME NOTES ON THE BREEDING OF THE COMMON BAYA (PLOCEUS PHILIPPINES ) On 12th October 1969, HA while looking for duck and snipe (which were not found!) in a marsh along the Shil-Kalyan Road, Thana District, near Bombay, saw large flocks of Bayas ( Ploceus philippinus) flying from one patch of grass ( Coix lachryma-jobi ) to another. In one place, two birds in female plumage were seen carrying grass. Closer examination revealed seven or eight nests in various early stages of construction spread over a distance of about 20 yards in a patch of reeds 100 yards long and about 10 yards wide bordered by a knee-deep ditch of water along the side, where the nests were visible from outside. The nests were slung from one or two reed-stalks about 7 feet from the ground. They were not hung from a single point as are normal baya nests; the area of contact extended over three or four inches along the stalks. They also appeared to be of a coarser and looser texture. 701 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 None of them was complete. A male in breed- ing plumage which had settled a few feet from a nest was collected. This was found to be the Common Baya but, as there was no record of this species nesting in reeds, a mistake was suspected. On 19th October HA returned to the place and saw at least two nests being attended to by birds in ‘Female’ plumage which appeared to be Common Bayas, but was unable to see or obtain any accompanying male in breeding plumage. A third attempt was made about midday on 20th October by HA with the late Mr. D. E. Reuben on the way back from the opening of the Karnala Bird Sanctuary. Though there were bayas in the vicinity, none of them ap- peared to be interested in the nests and yet another visit was indicated at some other time of day. On 6th November the place was visited again (with V.C.A.) intending to leave him there for a longer period if the owners could not be immediately identified. We got there about 7 a.m. Though we waited for some time, no weaver birds came near the nests and all 75 Abdul Rehman Street, Bombay-400 003. the grass of which the nests were made had dried up making it fairly certain that work had been discontinued. V.C.A. was quite certain that they could only have been made by the Common Baya. The nests were between ten and fourteen inches in length and two or three of them had been made as far as the bar, with no egg chamber even commenced. Most of them had bits of mud plastered on to the inner wall above the level of the bar. It has now been accepted for some time that in the Common Baya, it is the male alone in breeding plumage that builds the nest, with the female only helping a little in the final stages. Young males are known to build ‘doodling’ nests (Salim Ali JBNHS 34: 953). It is possible that the birds seen building were young males which were ‘practising’ among the reeds, presumably not acquiring a breeding plumage during the current season. Their breeding in reeds does not appear to have been recorded so far. If our conjecture is cor- rect, this behaviour of immature birds possibly suggests that the species was originally a reed- builder ? HUMAYUN ABDUL ALI Bombay Natural History Society, V. C. AMBEDKAR Horn bill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay-400 023, March 1, 1983. 14. FIRST INDIAN RECORD OF CHAFFINCH C FRINGILLA COELEBS ) During the afternoon of 4th December 1982 a visit to the Corbett National Park in Uttar a female Chaffinch ( Fringilla coelebs ) was Pradesh. watched by a party of British Birdwatchers on I first spotted the bird as it was mobbing a 702 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Jungle Owlet Glaucidium radiatum which was perched completely in the open on the outside of a tree at the forest edge not far from the Park Headquarters. We watched the bird for several minutes through telescopes mounted on tripods and there can be no doubt as to its identity as it is a very familiar species with us in England, even in our gardens. Because of this familiarity, most of the party preferred to watch the owlet, which was of course a new species for them ! The bird was about the size and general shape of a female House Sparrow Passer domesticus but rather longer-tailed. The upper- parts were dull brown with a greyer tinge to the head and the underparts became whiter from the lower breast down to the under tail- coverts. There was no supercilium, the rather plain head being relieved by a slightly darker shade which ran either side of the rear of the crown down the sides of the nape. The wings 2 Church Row, Sheviock, Torpoint, Cornwall PL 11 3EH, England, March 4, 1983. R E FE Fleming, Robert L. sr., Fleming, Robert L. jr. & Bangdel, Lain Singh (1979) : Birds of Nepal with reference to Kashmir and Sikkim. (Second Edition) . Kathmandu. were darker than the mantle and had two very conspicuous white bands, a broad band of white on the median coverts and a narrower one formed by tips of the greater coverts. As it moved about the tree mobbing the Owlet the conspicuous white outer tail feathers and greenish tinge to the rump were noted and the crown feathers were raised to form a marked peak at the rear of the head. The greyish bill was markedly pointed and quite conical and the legs were greyish pink. The occurrence of this species in Northern India in winter is hardly surprising as it is quite a frequent winter visitor to Afghanistan (where I have also seen it) and according to Ripley (1982) and Fleming et al. (1979) it is an occasional winter visitor to northern Pakis- tan and north-western Nepal. The most sur- prising thing being perhaps that it hasn’t been picked up in winter in the Indian Himalayan foothills before. S. C. MADGE E N CE S Ripley, Sidney Dillon (1982) : A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan. (Second edition). Bombay Natural History Society. 15. ADDITIONS TO THE BIRD SPECIES RECORDED FROM NEPAL The following account provides data on bird species recorded from Nepal but which are not included in R. L. Fleming et al. (1979). The nomenclature mainly follows Voous (1977) which is becoming widely used as a standard work for the names of Palaearctic species. It forms the basis of a work currently being prepared on the distribution of birds in Nepal (C. and T. P. Inskipp in prep.). Diffe- rences from the nomenclature used by Ali and Ripley (1968-74) and Ripley (1982) are indicated. 703 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Great care has been taken to assess the accuracy of all sight records included here. Full field notes of such records have been provided. One or two species have been omitted as details were not considered adequate. There are also two species. Red Spurfowl Galloper - dix spadicea and Xsabelline Shrike Lanius isa- bellinus (- Lanius collurio isabellinus) which were included for Nepal by Ripley (1982) but we have not so far been able to discover the source of these statements. fulvous whistling duck (= Large Whistl- ing Teal) Dendrocygna bicolor. Sharpe (1894) refers to a specimen collected in Nepal by R. H. Hodgson. Confirming this, an undated specimen collected by Hodgson in Nepal was located in the collection of the British Museum (Natural History) in 1981. baer’s pochard Aythya baeri. Observations of two males and one female were made at Kosi Barrage in the eastern terai (altitude 75 m) on 12 February, 1979 and 17 males and three females on 20 February, 1979 by R. Filby, R. Grimmett, F. Lambert, C. Murphy, L. Norton and N. J. Redman (Lambert 1979, Redman et al., in press). long-tailed duck Clangula hyemalis. An immature male was observed at Kosi Barrage from 13 to 15 March, 1981 by T. P. and C. Inskipp (1981). saker falcon Falco cherrug milvipes (= Falco biarmicus milvipes). Specimens were collected in Nepal by B. H. Hodgson (Gray & Gray 1846). Manuscript notes on Hodgson’s unpublished paintings indicate that three speci- mens were collected in the Kathmandu Valley on 1 and 11 November and 12 December. No year is given. It is listed for Nepal by Ali and Ripley (1972). barbary falcon Falco pelegrinoides babylo - nicus {-Falco peregrinus babylonicus) . Listed as collected in Nepal by B. H. Hodgson (Sharpe 1874). However during a recent examination of specimens at the British Museum (Natural Llistory) none which was unequivocally F. pelegrinoides could be located. Several birds were observed at Kagbeni and Tangbe, Thak- khola, altitude 3-3200 m in late July 1977, September and early October 1978 by J. M. Thiollay (1978). sanderling Calidris alpina. A single bird was observed at Kosi Barrage on 11 February, 1979 by R. Filby, R. Grimmett, F. Lambert, C. Murphy, L. Norton, and N. J. Redman (Lambert 1979, Redman et al. in press). * curlew sandpiper Calidris ferruginea. An adult in breeding plumage was seen at Kosi Barrage on 22 April, 1981 by M Hendrik- son, N. Krabbe and O. Lou (Krabbe 1981). terek sandpiper Xenus cinereus ( =Tringa terek). One was seen at Kosi Barrage on 18 April, 1982 by J. Eames and R. Grimmett. (Eames 1982, Grimmett 1982). common gull Larus canus. A first year bird was seen at Kosi Barrage on 12 February, 1979 by R. Filby, R. Grimmett, F. Lambert, C. Murphy, L. Norton and N. J. Redman. It was still present on 21 February 1979. (Redman et al, in press). No previous published records for the Indian sub-continent. LESSER BLACK -BACKED GULL LOTUS fuSCUS. An adult was observed at Kosi Barrage on 13 April, 1981 by D. Mills and N. Preston (1981). white-winged black tern Chlidonias leu- copterus. A bird in breeding plumage was observed at Phewa Tal, Pokhara, west-central Nepal, (altitude 900 m), on 4 May, 1981 by M. Henriksen, N. Krabbe and O. Lou. (Krabbe 1981). little owl Athene noctua. Collected in the Dolpo at Terco Phi jar on 8 July, 1978 and at Tnku, Do, Trap on 23 July, 1978 by H. S. Nepali (pers. comm. 1982). WHITE-VENTED SPINETAIL SWIFT HirundapUS 704 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES cochinchinensis rupchandi (= Chaetura cauda- cuta rupchandi). Collected by W. Koelz at Hitaura, central upper tarai on 24 June, 1947 (Biswas 1951). ASIATIC house martin Delichon dasypus cashmiriensis (= Delichon urbica cashmiriensis). Listed for Nepal by Ali & Ripley (1972). First definitely recorded by Diesselhorst (1968) from Periche in the Khumbu (altitude c. 4250 m) on 27 August, 1962. Specimen obtained. tawny pipit Anthus campestris. Collected on 22 August, 1898 by E. Arigoni. This speci- men was included in the O. V. Aplin Collec- tion 1940 and was located in 1982 in the collec- tion of the Oxford University Museum. forest wagtail Dendronanthus indicus (= Motacilla indica) . Recorded at Royal Chitwan National Park in the central duns (altitude 75 m) on 30 November, 1979 by K. Curry-Lindahl (1980). rufous-tailed thrush (= Dusky Thrush) T urdus naumanni. Ali & Ripley (1973) state central Nepal (large flocks in winter and spring — Proud, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 703). This is predated by specimens col- lected by B. H. Hodgson (Gray & Gray 1846). Manuscript notes on Hodgson’s unpublished paintings indicate that two specimens were collected in the Kathmandu Valley on 10 and 29 January (year not given). mountain tailorbird (= Goldenheaded Tailor-Bird). Orthotomus cuculatus. Ali & Ripley (1973) state ‘Eastern Nepal not record- ed since Hodgson’. However it is not listed in the catalogues of Hodgson’s collections (Gray & Gray 1846, Gray 1863). An undated Nepal specimen without a collector’s name was locat- ed in the collection of the British Museum (Natural History) in 1981. EASTERN GRASSHOPPER WARBLER LocUStella naevia straminea. One was ringed at Kosi Barrage on 11 April, 1976 by R. C. Gregory- Smith (Gregory-Smith & Batson 1976). BLACK-BROWED REED WARBLER AcrOCephaluS bistrigiceps. A single bird was observed at Kosi Tappu (altitude c. 75 m), on 19 January, 1981 by J. Hall (1981). radde’s warbler Phylloscopus schwarzi • A bird was observed at Charali (altitude c. 75 m) in the eastern terai on 25 December, 1979 by R. Fairbank (1979). No previous publish- ed records for the Indian subcontinent. red-headed parrotbill (- Greater Red- headed Parrotbill) Paradoxornis ruficeps. A specimen collected in Nepal by B. H. Hodg- son is referred to by Horsfield & Moore (1854). An undated specimen from the Seebohm col- lection, presumably collected by Hodgson, was located in the collection of the British Museum (Natural History) in 1981. Spanish sparrow Passer hispaniolensis. A flock of about 50 birds was observed at Kosi Barrage on 16 February, 1981 by T. Baker, D. Mills and N. Preston (Baker 1981, Mills & Preston 1981). Eurasian siskin Carduelis spinus. A male was identified at Nagarjung (altitude c. 1500 m) in the Kathmandu Valley on 7 April, 1982 by C. Winyard (pers comm. 1982) and later seen by R. Fairbank, D. Mills and N. Preston. First published record for the Indian sub- continent by Gaston and Chattopadhyaya (1981). yellowhammer Emberiza citrinella. An adult male was observed at Kagbeni (altitude c. 2940 m) in west central Nepal on 25 Febru- ary, 1981 by T. Baker, D. Mills and N. Preston (Baker 1981, Mills & Preston 1981). No previous published records for the Indian subcontinent. rustic bunting Emberiza rustica. A male was seen at Sauraha (altitude c. 75 m) near the Royal Chitwan National Park on 31 Janu- ary, 1981 by P. Ewins and A. del Nevo (del 705 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Nevo & Ewins and A. del Nevo (del Neva No previous published records fur the In- & Ewins 1981). dian subcontinent. 219 C Huntington Road, C. & T. P. INSKIPP Cambridge CB3 ODL, U.K., March 31, 1983. References Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1968-74): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. 10 vols. Bombay. Baker, T. (1981): Notes on Birds seen in Nepal 1981. Unpublished. Biswas, Biswamoy (1951) : On some larger Spine- tailed swifts with a description of a new subspecies from Nepal. Ardea 39: 318-321. Curry-Lindahl, K. (1980) : The Forest Wagtail Motacilla indica recorded in Nepal. Bull. B. O. C. 100 : 201-202. Diesselhorst, G. (1968): Beitrage zur Okologie der Vogel Zentral und Ost-Nepal. Khumbu Himal. 2. Fames, J. (1982): Notes on Birds seen in Nepal 1982. Unpublished. Fairbank, R. (1979): Notes on Birds seen in Nepal 1979. Unpublished. Fleming, R. L., sr., Fleming, R. L. jr. & Bang- del, L. S. (1979) : Field Guide to the Birds of Nepal. 2nd edition. Avalok Publishers. Kathmandu. Gaston, A. J. & Chattopadhyaya S. (1981) : Siskin ( Carduelis spinus ) in Solang Nalla, Himachal Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78: 386-387. Gray, J. E. & Gray, G. R. (1846): Catalogue of the specimens and drawings of mammalia and birds of Nepal and Thibet, presented by B. H. Hodgson, Esq. to the British Museum. London. Gray, J. E. (1863): ibid. (2nd edition). London. Gregory-Smith, R. & Batson, F. (1976) : Birds of South East Nepal. Unpublished. Grimmett, R. (1982) : Notes on Birds seen in Nepal 1982. Unpublished. Hall, J. (1981) : Notes on Birds seen in Nepal 1981. Unpublished. Hodgson, B. H. (undated) : Paintings in the Zoo- logical Society of London library. Unpublished. Horsfield, T. & Moore, F. (1854): Catalogue of the Birds of the Museum of the East India Com- pany. London. Insicipp, T. P. & Inskipp, C. (1981): Notes on Birds seen in Nepal 1981. Unpublished. Krabbe, N. (1981) : India and Nepal Ornithologi- cal Report. Unpublished. Lambert, F. (1979): Notes on Birds seen in Nepal 1979. Unpublished. Mills, D. & Preston, N. (1981) : Notes on Birds seen in Nepal 1981. Unpublished. del Nevo, A. & Ewins, P. (1981): Birdwatching in Nepal December 1980-February 1981. Unpublished. Redman, N. J., Lambert, F. & Grimmett, R. (In press) : Some Observations of Scarce Birds in Nepal. Ripley, S. D. (1982) : A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, together with those of Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. 2nd edition. Bombay. Sharpe, R. B. (1874): Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the British Museum. Vol XXIII. London. (1881) : ibid. Vol. VI. London. (1894): ibid. Vol. XXVII. London. Thiollay, J. M. (1978) : Distributions des Falconi- formcs nicheurs autour du massif de l’Annapurna (Himalaya Central). L’Oiseau et R.F.O. 48: 291-310. Voous, K. H. (1977) : List of Recent Holarctic Bird Species. London. 706 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 16. OBSERVATIONS ON GEOCHELONE ELEGANS (SCHOEPFF) IN CAPTIVITY, ORISSA, INDIA Four adult Star Tortoises, Geochelone ele- gans (Schoepff) were obtained from a collector of the Park and kept for a minimum of three years in the Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa, India, for captive breeding (see Table 1). All three females died during winter, and although the cause of death was not deter- mined, all females were reproductively active. One animal laid 4 eggs which ranged from 37 to 41 mm in length, 29 to 34 mm in breadth and 21.3 to 24.5 mm in height. These observations show that females as small as 21.0 cm (straight line) carapace length can reproduce. They also show that, at least in Orissa, nesting can occur from Octo- ber through January. This is consistent with Hutton’s report (in Smith, 1931: 139) of a captive nesting in November with 4 eggs. In contrast Deraniyagala (1930) recorded captive nesting in June and October in Sri Lanka. The egg dimensions reported here are comparable to those described by Deraniyagala but smaller than those reported by Smith (1931). The fact that the females died while re- productively active suggests that they incur increased risks between vitilization and ovipo- sition. It is known in other turtles that non- viable eggs may not be laid (Ewert 1979), and egg-bound females frequently die due to diffi- culty in oviposition. Table 1 Measurements (in straight line distances in cm) and observations on captive Geochelone elegans in Nandankanan Biological Park No. 1 2 3 4 Sex 27.5 22.5 21.0 26.5 Carapace length 20.0 14.0 13.0 16.5 Carapace width 13.0 10.5 12.0 — Body depth 24.0 18.5 17.0 22.5 Plastron length 17.0 14.0 11.0 15.5 Plastron width Weight (kg) Date died Remarks 3.020 1.530 (14. i. 1982) enlarged follicles 1.100 (xii.1980) 6 shelled, oviducal eggs 1.200 (3.x. 1981) laid 4 eggs Superintending Zoologist, S. BISWAS Zoological Survey of India, 27, J. L. Nehru Road, Calcutta 700 016. Veterinary Assistant Surgeon, L. N. ACHARJYO Nandankanan Biological Park, P. O. Barang, Dist. Cuttack, Orissa 754 005, May 16, 1984. 707 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 References Ewert, M. A. (1979): The embryo and its egg; Turtles, Prospective and Research, Edited by M. Harless & H. Mirlock. pp. 333-413, John Willy & Sons. Deraniyagala, P. E. P. (1939) : Tetrapod reptiles of Ceylon, Dulau & Co. Ltd., London, i-xxxii, 1-412. Smith, M. A. (1931) : The Fauna of British India. Vol. 1. Taylor and Francis, London, 1-155. 17. EUBLEPHARIS HARDWICKll (REPTILIA, GEKKONIDAE) , THE KALAKUTA, OBSERVED AT TIKERPADA, ORISSA {With a photograph) The Common Fat-tailed Gecko, Eublepharis macular ius is relatively better known and des- cribed (Smith 1935, Daniel 1983) than its ally Eublepharis hardwickii for which Smith em- phasized a highly circumscribed range of distribution and mentioned that nothing has been recorded on the species’ habits. Smith (1935) wrote: “It is definitely known from Chota Nagpur and Orissa and the adjacent districts of Bengal, the Madras Presidency, the Central and United Provinces. . In the Satkoshia Gorge Sanctuary of Orissa, Eublepharis hardwickii is not uncommon at Tikerpada, a village at the foot of hills rang- Photo. 1. Eublepharis hardwickii. 708 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ing up to 600 m on the bank of the River Mahanadi. In the night, during summer and rains, these may be found on the forest roads or on open areas, and in the day several indi- viduals have been recovered from underneath rocks and stones. The body coloration varies from reddish brown to very dark brown (as stated by Smith 1935) to almost black. The transverse mark- ings are cream-coloured to light yellow. The transverse markings on the tail are dull whitish. During a period of about six years several of these geckoes were received at the Gharial Research and Conservation Unit, Tikerpada. Ail these were accidentally caught and none exceeded 20 cm. In captivity E. hardwickii is very timid, allow- ing to be lifted by hand and accepting a variety of insects as diet. Attempts to catch a prey was incited only by the victim’s body move- ment. At least one definite case of cannibalism was recorded in captivity — mode of capture was from the neck and during swallowing the victim lay with its ventral side up. E. hard- wickii never took water from a container in Gharial Research and Conservation Unit, Tikerpada 759 122, Orissa, June 18, 1984. captivity; instead, they used to wait for an artificial shower to lick off drops falling on their head or sticking to the surfaces on the surroundings. The tongue is pinkish red, flat, thin and able to extend over to the eyes and head. One or two leathery eggs (approx. 20 x 10 mm) are laid and buried in soil. Eublepharis hardwickii is called the Kalakuta Sapa in Orissa (Oriya: Kalakuta = one which brings the message of death, and Sdpa - snake). The local name originates from the belief that these geckoes are highly poisonous, can climb trees (which these can) and after a bite the higher they climb the effect of the poison gets gradually intensified. The gecko makes a shrill vibrating noise when surprised. Acknowledgements Orissa Forest Department provided scope for observing the ‘ Kalakuta in the sanctuary. Dr. H. R. Bustard gave all encouragement; Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta identified a specimen, and the staff at Tikerpada assist- ed in obtaining and maintaining the geckoes in captivity. L. A. K. SINGH1 References Daniel, J. C. (1983) : The Book of Indian Rep- tiles. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Smith, M. A. (1935): The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia Vol. II — Sauria. Taylor and Francis, London. (First Indian Reprint Edition: 1974, Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi). 1 Present address : Crocodile Research Centre of Wildlife Institute of India, Camp: National Cham- bal Sanctuary, Post Box 11, Morena 476 001, Madhya Pradesh. 709 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 18. OCCURRENCE OF FLYING LIZARD ( DRACO DUSSUMIERI ) IN THE NILGIRIS The distribution of the Southern Flying Lizard in the subcontinent has been recorded by J. C. Daniel (1983 the book of Indian reptiles P. 46). Its occurrence in Mundan- thurai Sanctuary, South Tamil Nadu was re- corded by Mangalraj Johnson ( JBNHS 80, pp. 229-230). The habitat of the Draco ac- cording to Daniel is evergreen biotopes, are- canut, coconut and betel vine plantations in the plains. Mangalraj reported them in plantations of teak, neem and bamboo in Mundanthurai. I would like to add the Coffee /Cardamom plantations also to their habitat. They are com- monly seen on Silver Oak ( Grevillea robusta), and Indian Coral trees ( Erythrina indica ) of coffee plantations in one of the estates on the southern slope of Nilgiris. When I stayed in one of the old Bungalows of the Pilloor group of estates in 1978 I have seen the Draco on the eave of the roof of this building. The bungalow is situated at an altitude of 1292 m MSL. This increases the altitudinal distribu- tional range of this lizard up to 1292 m from 1000 m (3250 ft). All the three specimens whose stomach con- tents I examined had white, and red ants. One stomach had in addition the remnants of a fly and another the mouth parts of a small beetle and a few small black ants. During my Western Ghats survey I have recorded this species from Silent Valley, Nilambur forests, Valar forest, Parambikulam, Thattakadu, Idikki, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Sabaramali Forests etc. from South. During 1980 when I visited Coorg I saw a specimen in one of the coffee estates at Sidhapuram near Mercara. Camp Incharge, R. SUGATHAN Avifauna Project, Kodikkarai-614 807, Tamil Nadu, March 31, 1984. 19. A NOTE ON THE ASIATIC ROCK PYTHON (PYTHON MOLURUS) FEEDING ON THE SPOTBILL DUCK (ANAS POEC1LORHYNCHA ) On the early hours of 22nd May 1984, we were cycling down one of the dykes intersect- ing the marshes of Keoladeo National Park in Bharatpur, Rajasthan in search of nests of resident ducks. We examined all the Acacia planted mounds near the dyke and were lucky to see a Python capturing and devouring a Spotbill duck. The snake must have been waiting coiled up on the mound, as it caught the duck entirely unawares. Soon after the capture the massive snake took to the water, and all that could be seen for a few moments was the tail half thrashing about above the water surface. Dis- tressed over the loss of its mate, another Spotbill which was seated nearby incessently kept uttering a series of alarm calls. All the herons and egrets perched on the trees around 710 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES silently witnessed the struggle between the duck for the Python to swallow its prey, after which and the snake. It took approximately an hour it disappeared into the grass covered, waters. Junior Field Biologists, U. SRIDHARAN BNHS Ecological Research Station, B. RAM MANOHAR Bharatpur 321 001 (Rajasthan), July 9, 1984. 20. A COUCAL-PYTHON INCIDENT On the morning of 27th April 1984, at about 7.30 a.m., we were walking down the metal topped road running across the Keoladeo National Park at Bharatpur, Rajasthan. On both sides stratched the vast grassy wetlands dotted here and there with planted acacia trees. Suddenly one of us saw a black creature thrashing about in the midst of the marsh about 50 feet away from the road. We were puzzled to see a ring of about 20 Egrets and Pond Herons watching the creature, which was apparently in great distress. On closer exami- nation, it turned out to be a coucal Centropus sinensis (Stephens) being strangled by a young Python Python molurus (Linnaeus) about 125 cm long. For the next two hours we observed the one-sided battle between the reptile and the bird. The snake tried its best to swallow the bird but, being a young one, all its efforts were Junior Field Biologist, B.N.H.S. Ecological Research Station, Bharatpur 321 001, May 16, 1984. in vain. From a distance of a few feet away, we observed the python widening its gape now and then to the utmost extent, yet the prey could not be swallowed. At one stage, it in- deed appeared that the bird would be injected but the bill acted as a hindrance. At the very beginning the coucal showed signs of life but eventually, it died due to the relentless strangling. The snake coiled itself around the bird and squeezed it to such an extent that the normally stout bird looked slender. Finally at 10 a.m. the python let go its prey and disappeared into the water. Obviously the coucal was too large for it to tackle. Acknowledge m e nt I am thankful to Dr. V. S. Vijayan, Project Scientist. OM PRAKASH DUBEY 711 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 21. PROTECTIVE METHODS FOR SNAKES FROM EXTERNAL INFECTION OF MITES Snakes are sometimes attacked by mites in nature as seen on rat snakes, Ptyas mucosus collected from nature for the study of their behaviour, breeding and biology. Snakes are usually free from parasites. Sometimes, a few showed the presence of either larvae of mites or adult, or both as ectoparasites on the body. If such infected specimens are kept with other snakes, the mites are transmitted to one another. These mites carry micro-organisms which may produce fatal diseases. As the mites are able to travel from one vivaria to another, it is necessary to exa- mine freshly caught snakes for mite infection. In case a snake is found to be infected with mites it should be segregated and treated. The preliminary sign of infection is the presence of whitish deposits of mite feces on the body scales of the snake. If the snakes are then carefully examined, the presence of mites of 1.00 d= 0.25 mm size can be seen as black dots on the body. The young mites can be seen as the moving dust particles on the scales of the snakes. Acute mite infection is fatal for the snake. The following treatments and precautions are used to keep the snakes mite-free in the ser- pentarium. i) Fresh caught snakes should be very carefully examined for mite infection Post Graduate Department of Zoology, Government College, Dhar 454 001, India, January 11, 1983. as ectoparasite before being added to the serpentarium. ii) Infected snakes should be immediately segregated. iii) Infected snakes and cages should be thoroughly cleaned. iv) Infected snakes should be bathed several times in a tub containing gentle warm water and then wiped up with soft cotton cloth. v) All the mites should be removed from the water before immersion of another infected snake. vi) Infected cage should be washed with boiling water to kill the mites and their young. vii) During the cleaning of the infected snakes and cages, care should be taken not to allow the mites to spread in the serpentarium. viii) In segregated and separated snakes vivarium strips of “Anti mite Vapona insectide” should be hung. With the help of this insecticide strips these mites disappear from the cages in couple of days. ix) Vapona insecticide can be bought from Shellster Limited, 70, Brompton Road, London, SW3, England. x) DDT is not to be used for spraying. MADHU VYAS TEJ PRAKASH VYAS 712 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 22. OCCURRENCE OF PLEUROXUS SIMILIS VAVRA (CLADOCERA: CRUSTACEA) IN INDIA During a study of the Cladocera fauna of Madhya Pradesh I came across six female specimens of Pleuroxus similis Vavra which were sorted out from the small zooplankton sample collected by my colleague, Sri P. L. Kankane from Deshi Nala, Kanha National Park, Mandla district, Madhya Pradesh, in April 1977. Existing records show that this species is so far recorded from Australia; Valdivia (Chile); Northern Caucasus lake, Tashkent in the U.S.S.R., and Sri Lanka. The present find therefore extends its known range of distribution to Central India. Pleuroxus similis Vavra, 1900 female. The specimens studied agree well with the description by Smirnov (1971) which is briefly reads: Dorsal margin uniformly con- vex. Posterior margin almost straight. Maxi- mum height 3-4 times length of posterior Zoological Survey of India, Central Regional Station, Jabalpur (M.P.), April 28, 1982. margin. Rostrum pointed, reaching leval of ven- tral margin of the valve. Valve with no pattern. Ventral margin of the valve with three rather blunt denticles. Antennules ending far before apex of rostrum. Post-abdomen slightly tapering. Dorsal distal corner of post- abdomen situated slightly behind base of claws. Preanal corner blunt, there are 13-14 anal denticles. Claw with two basal spines, first is about half the length of second. Colour of the specimens shows variation from yellow to dark brown. Intestine with loops and with caecum. Distance of ocellus to eye half its distance to apex of rostrum. (Length range: 0.37 mm-0.45 mm) I thank Dr. K. Raddiah, Deputy Director of this station, for his keen interest, encourage- ment and for going through the manuscript, and Sri P. L. Kankane making this interesting collection available to me. PRAMOD RANE References Smirnov, N. N. (1974): Fauna of the U.S.S.R., Fernando, C. H. (1974): Guide to the Freshwater Crustacea: Chydoridae N.T.I.S., Springfield, pp. 282. Fauna of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Bull. Fish. Res. Stn., (Translated from Russian). Sri Lanka (Ceylon). 25 ( 1-2): 27-81. 23. NEW RECORDS OF GRIM ALDUS! A BRAZZAI RICHARD AND BOSM1NOPS1S DEITERSI RICHARD (CRUSTACEA: CLADOCERA) FROM INDIA During the course of Cladocera Survey Bosminopsis deitersi Richard, from tanks of in Madhya Pradesh I collected some Jabalpur, which constitute a new record from specimens of Grimaldina brazzai Richard and India. The presence of these species in India 713 12 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 is quite interesting because the first was hither- to known only from Sri Lanka (Fernando 1974), America (Brooks 1959) and West Africa whereas the second was reported only from Sri Lanka and America. Thus the distri- bution of these species has been extended to Central India. 1) Grimaldina brazzai Richard, 1892 This sole species of the genus can be easily isolated from others in having a very large compressed post-abdomen, with a long spine- bearing notch. The other characters in brief are as follows : Body compressed, somewhat quandrangular, with all margins of the valve slightly convex. A notch divides the preanal portion into two parts, of which the anterior is smaller. A long spine in the notch marks the junction of anal and preanal portions of the postabdomen. There are two lateral rows of small slender spines on the anal part, about 7 in anterior and 5 in posterior row. Claw small, denticu- late with one small basal spine. Antennules with two basal sense hairs in female. Material — 7 specimens, Budhager tank, c. 22 kms. North of Jabalpur on Sihora Road, Jabalpur distt., Madhya Pradesh, 18.iv.81, length, female — 1 mm. The specimens were collected with other Cladocera like Chydoras sphaericus, Cerioda- phnia sp. and Simocephalus spp. At the time of collection the tank was completely covered with cultivated vegetation, mostly Trapa bis - pinosa Roxb. 2) Bosminopsis deitersi Richard, 1895 This species is much like its closely related Bosmina sp., but the main difference is that the basal parts of the antennules are united with each other and to the head to form a very long rostrum, diverging laterally near the apex, with long, straggling, olfactory setae. The inferopostal corner of valve with- two (one small and one large) teeth is also one of the main differentiating characters. The species closely resembles the original descrip- tion but differs in the valve character which is prolonged at the posterodorsal angle to form a tooth-like projection. Material — 5 specimens, Pariat tank, c. 30 kms. east of Jabalpur on Amarkantak Road, Jabalpur distt., Madhya Pradesh 10.xii.1980, length — 0.3 to 0.35 mm. The water of the tank was green due to the predominance of floating flora viz. , Volvox, Fuglena and rooted plants. The associated Cladoceran species includes Scapholeberis sp. and Diphanosoma spp. Zoological Survey of India, PRAMOD RANE Central Regional Station, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, January 8, 1982. References Brooks, J. L. (1959): Cladocera in Ward & Whipple, Fresh Water Biology, John Wiley and Sons, London, Second Edition. 27: 587-656. Fernando, C. H. (1974): Guide to the fresh water fauna of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Bull. Fish . Res. Stn. Sri Lanka 25 (1&2): 27-81. Richard, J. (1892): Cladoceres nouveaux du Congo. Mem. Soc. Zool. France 5: 213-226. (1895): Sur quelques Entomostraces d'eau douce d’ Haithi. ibid. 8(2) : 189-199. 714 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 24. HYDROLOGY OF A LENTIC WATER BODY AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN PLANKTON PRODUCTION ( With a text-figure) The paper describes the seasonal variation of physico-chemical factors of Undasa Pond (Madhya Pradesh) for one year from January to December 1978. The surface water was found always alkaline, with pH ranging from 7.6 to 8.1. Dissolved oxygen varied from 4.0 to 8.4 mg/L in March. Very low transparency was found in monsoon season (July to September). Free carbondioxide in surface water was recorded during July, August and September. An interrelationship with pH, dissolved oxygen, alkalinity with total volume of plankton was also recorded. The high alkalinity and low visibility indicate eutrophic nature may be due to animal pollution. Introduction Undasa Pond is used mainly for irrigation. However pisciculture is also undertaken in it by Madhya Pradesh Government Fisheries De- partment. The pond has an area of 212 hec- tares. It is situated in Undasa village about 4-5 km from Ujjain at Ujjain-Makshi Road. An embankment has been constructed around the three sides of the pond to store water in rainy season. The pond is perennial. Material and Methods The study of physico-chemical factors and total plankton volume was made on every 15th of the month for 1978. The temperature of surface water was measured by 110°C gra- duated thermometer and transparency by Secchi’s disc. pH was determined by narrow range pH paper and B.D.FI. universal indi- cator in the field and by pH meter (systronix — 322) in the laboratory. Dissolved oxygen was estimated by unmodified winkler’s method and free C02 was determined by method given by Welch (1952). Carbonate, bicarbo- nate, inorganic phosphate, nitrate-nitrogen and chloride were estimated by standard methods of the pond. The high chloride content (American Public Health Association 1955). Surface water from a definite place and depth was always used for above analysis. Plankton volume was noted by filtering 100 litres surface water through plankton net of bolting silk No. 20 and after settling in graduated test tube, all samples were analysed within an hour of collection. Result and Discussion The summary of the observations is given in Table 1 and Fig. 1. Temperature. This is one of the most impor- tant hydrobiological factors related to fish production (Das & Pathani 1978). Surface water temperature of Undasa Pond revealed that there was seasonal variation. The tempe- rature was found to increase from January to June when highest temperature was recorded. The temperature dropped from June to Dec- ember with exception in September. The decrease in temperature in July and August was most probably due to cloudy atmosphere and rain. The heavy influx of rain water from neighbouring areas may be another reason for low temperature. The lowest temperature was recorded in January. The monthly water tern- 715 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 a C3 < H CO r~- on o z S p a a z o eu < 7) < Q 2 P t, 0 C/3 U 1 OC UJ b < X u J < 0 5 o p 0 £ Q z < y 1 Oi 33 u I o y £ > u 03 03 a p 03 x 03 03 X u o- o ID D P < > P 73 E H Z o £ 3 03 O C/5 >. X P pH , — v d d c3 o r-H P +-» 1 o d 03 \ • *-H CX) CX) % £ * 03 3 I —< o3 > 03 dJ i x 60 o ir1 dC p * ^3 c/5 O d 5.9 S Oh 03 ^ X P ‘p Pv O 2> x >& o d o X) p c3 03 03 T3 X o p \ OX) p « 3 s g •2 I s a £ OX) o X) p 03 u 03 H OX) G £ C, <13 .J O ^ S X M < o £ -1 T3 W 03 X p d ^ o "S' c« y S ri d rj £ 2 “ H P 03 +-» c3 £ on X -*-* d o a 03 U o ^r^^Oooo^^ooot^-oo m ^ o o o o o © © o o © o ©0©©©0©©0©©0 P m oor--~r''Oor~-r-'-r'-~ mO\OOOir)NO©VNO^O Hff\oooo'onc\,T^iffifriffi ONr~ONcooNONm*n»nr'r^'Oo OOcnomONor^ON'^j-tnoo ^■'Tooonon— » & W a ,_ S s 1 d -g c3 ^ .. 42 £ S < S p >> p « p 03 X p S £ * O CP t> > 03 X < CO O C/5 3 OX) 3 p 03 X £ 03 > O P 03 X £ 03 03 03 X Q yi = TEMP ( °c) — — - — — - -X X TRANSPARENCY(Cm} ®“® 81 CARBON ATE CMq/L_) Y 2 — pH _ _ _ _ _ o — O D 0 (M$Ju) a—a CARBONATE (Mg /V-3 — '*'5 = TOTAL VOLUME OF PLANKTON ® MONTHS - (Fig. 1) perature in the pond changes alongwith the g change in air temperature (Oppenheimer et al. •js 1978). The temperature difference between g lowest and the highest was noted as 10°C in \ Undasa Pond while Srivastava et al (1979) S noted it as 10.2°C in a Govindgarh lake, Rewa. ja Transparency. Seasonal changes in transpa- > rency were quite apparent (Table 1). The * transparency of a pond depends upon the 716 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES turbidity of water (Hitchinson 1957), which is caused by silting, micro-organisms and suspend- ed organic matters in the water (Khan & Siddiqui 1974). The Secchi’s disc readings have usually been converted into the depth at which 1% light was present (Strickland 1958, Riley 1941, Norden 1968). In present study visibility values varied from 54 cm to 98 cm. Thus euphotic depth of Undasa Pond appears to be from 135 cm to 228.25 cm (conversion factor = 2.5 as followed by Khan & Siddiqui 1974). This indicates that production is only limited to a narrow upper belt of water while rest of the depth is consuming and unproductive. The low transparency noted in rainy season which may be attributed to colloidal mud particles brought about by in coming water and to in- creased depth of water. Ganapati (1962) re- ported transparency variation from 50 cm to 120 cm in Red hill reservoir, Tamil Nadu. George (1976) found transparency variation from 47.4 cm to 85.5 cm in Lower Lake, Bhopal and attributed to low transparency during summer monsoon due to degeneration of blue-green algae which reduce the light penetration. Khan & Siddiqui (1974) reported transparency variation from 33.7 cm to 56.3 cm in a perennial fish pond in Aligarh. Dis- appearance of Secchi’s disc throughout the year in Undasa Pond demonstrates the degree of eutrophication occurring in the pond. The pond receives rain water from the catchment area which carries effluents, inorganic com- pounds and particulate matters in the pond which have converted the pond to an eutrophic condition. Similar eutrophic condition was noticed in Nainital Lake by Das & Pathani (1978). H-ion concentration. The pH of lake water has an important bearing on both plankton and fish production (Das 1961). The pH of surface water of the pond was found within alkaline range (7.6-8. 1). The high pH during March, April, May, June and September may be due to high photosynthetic activity. Das & Srivastava (1956) and Sreenivasan (1963) found that a pH of 7. 2- 8. 5 is only favourable for the growth of plankton although the best is 7. 2-8.0. Thus the pH of Undasa Pond is suitable for plankton and fish production. Swarup & Singh (1979) reported pH variation from 7. 4-8. 9 in a Suraha Lake. Clearcut in- crease in pH of Undasa Pond was noticed from January to April while thereafter the pattern was irregular. Dissolved Oxygen. From the investigations in the Undasa Pond it was found that dis- solved oxygen increased from January to March and may be attributed to low tempera- ture and high photosynthetic activity. During monsoon oxygen concentration was very low because of influx of turbid drainage water, low phytoplankton population and partly due to increased respiration caused by organic matter accompanying the drainage water (Khan & Siddiqui 1974). The highest dissolved oxygen content was recorded in March. The low oxy- gen content during May and June may be due to low water level, high temperature and death and decay of macrovegetation. Ellis (1946) also stated that the respiratory activity of animals dwelling in the area and decay of dead organic substances are the chief causes of under saturation and depletion of oxygen in tropical waters. Carbonate, bicarbonate and free carbondio- xide. The increased quantity of carbonate alka- linity during cold weather (January to April) showed photosynthetic activity while decrease in bicarbonate in Undasa Pond during cold weather may be due to its absorption by phytoplankton and aquatic macrovegetation. An inverse correlation between carbonate alkali- nity and bicarbonate alkalinity was found in 717 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Undasa Pond. The carbonate value was absent during July, August, September and October when free C02 in surface water was present. This may again be attributed to low photo- synthesis. Jana (1974) found total absence of carbonate alkalinity for a major part of the year in a pond at Santiniketan while Ganapati (1962) found that surface water in Red hill reservoir contained carbonate alkalinity throughout the year. The high value of total alkalinity may be due to pollution, abundance of macrovegetation, and organic materials entering into the pond with rain water. Das & Akhtar (1970) found that increase in alkali- nity is due to pollution, decrease in water level and seepage. Chloride. High chloride content was pre- sent all the year round. The high chloride content is indicative of pollution derived from animals which regularly visit the water. George (1976) reported influx of drainage water and temperature controlling the chloride content in the Lower Lake of Bhopal. Inorganic phosphate and nitrate-nitrogen. Both the values were in traces only. In Undasa Pond phosphate and nitrate were highest dur- ing the monsoons which may be due to rain washings, destruction of cell protoplasm by bacteria and destruction of agencies consuming the nutrients. Poor phosphate and nitrates were also recorded by Mathew (1975) in a Govindgarh lake. Ghosh et ah (1974) recorded high phosphate and nitrate in sewage-fed fish pond and Sreenivasan (1972) recorded extre- mely high value of P04-P up to 22 ppm in Vellore Moat. However according to Hora 8z Pillai (1962, 114) the highest plankton pro- duction which in turn allows for maximum fish production occurs when the water contains 4 ppm of nitrogen with 1 ppm of phosphorus and 1 ppm of potassium. Correlation of various physico-chemical FACTORS WITH TOTAL VOLUME OF PLANKTON An interrelationship was observed among pH, oxygen, carbonate, bicarbonate alkalinity and plankton volume in the present study of Undasa Pond (Fig. 1). The pH increased gra- dually from January to April and then declined until minimum was reached in August. The dissolved oxygen content showed increase from January to March and then decreased till August-September. The carbonate alkalinity also showed similar pattern and bicarbonate indicated a reverse relationship with all the three parameters (Fig. 1). The total volume of plankton was directly related to pH, dis- solved oxygen and carbonate alkalinity and inversely related to bicarbonate content. The water was always alkaline. Sreenivasan (1963) reported that pH of 7 . 2 to 8 . 5 is only favour- able for plankton growth. The pH of Undasa Pond is between above range. No distinct rela- tionship among total volume of plankton, phosphate and nitrate was noted. Prescott (1939) stated that phosphorus correlated with plankton productivity, whereas Juday & Birage (1931) found evidence of phosphorus as limiting factor in pl^toplankton growth. Saha et ah (1971) also observed that nitrate and phosphate are not always correlated with plankton growth. Ack no wledge m e n ts I am thankful to Dr. B. M. Sinha, Professor, School of Studies in Zoology, Vikram Uni- versity of Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh for super- vision and to University Grants Commission for financial assistance. 718 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Asstt. Research Officer, R. K. SINGH Taraporevala Marine Biological Research Station, Netaji Subhash Road, Bombay-400 002, August 8, 1983. References American Public Health Association (1955): Standard methods for examination of water, sewage and industrial waste. New York, 10th ed. 522 P. Das, S. M. (1961) : H-ion concentration, plankton and fish in freshwater eutronhic lakes of India. Nature 20. London. & Akhtar, S. (1970): A report on freshwater plankton from Da! lake, Kashmir. Kash- mir Science 7(1-2) : 133-137. & Pathani, S. S. (1978): A study on the effect of lake ecology on productivity of Tor tor and Tor putitora in Kumaun lakes, India. Matsya 4: 25-31. & Srivastava, V. K. (1956): Quan- titative studies on fresh water plankton pH. Corre- lation between plankton and hydrobiological factors. Proc. Nat. Acad Sci. India 26B(4) : 243-253. Ellis, M. N. (1946): Determination of water quality. Res. Rep. U.S. Fish. Wildl. Surv. 9. Ganapati, S. V. (1962) : Studies on the sources of Madras city water supply and other waters of Madras State. D.Sc. thesis. Madras University. George, J. P. (1976) : Hydrobiological studies on lower lake of Bhopal with special reference to pro- ductivity of economic fishes. Ph.D. thesis, Bhopal University. Ghosh, A., Hanumantha Rao, L., & Banerjee, S. C. (1974) : Studies on the hydrobiological condi- tions of a sewage-fed pond with a note on their role in fish culture. /. Inland Fish. Soc. ndia 7: 51-61. Hora, S. L. & Pillai, T. V. R. (1962): Hand Book on fish culture in Indo-Pacific region. FAO Fisheries Biology Technical paper No. 14. FAO., Rome. Hutchinson. G. E. (1957): Treatise on Limno- logy I. Geography, Physics & Chemistry. John in Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. Jana, B. B. (1974): Diurnal rhythm of plankton in a tropical freshwater pond in Santiniketan, India. Ecot. Pol. 22: 287-294. Juday, C. & Birage, E. A. (1931): A second re- port on the phosphorus content of Wisconsin lake water. Trans. Wisd Acad. Sci. Arts let. 26: 253-382. Khan, A. A. & Siddiqui, Q. A. (1974): Seasonal changes in the limnology of a perennial fish pond at Aligarh. Indian J. Fish 27(2) : 461-478. Mathew, P. M. (1975) : Limnology and producti- vity of Govindgarh lake, Rewa, M. P. J. Inland Fish. Soc. India 7: 16-24. Norden. C. R. (1968): Light penetration studies in the Milk Wankee harbour area of lake Michigan. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. Arts Lctr. 56: 197-205. Oppenheimer, J. R., Ahmed, M. G., Huq, A., Haque, K. A., Alam, A. K. M., Ali, S., Haque, A. S. M. (1978) : Limnological studies of three ponds in Dacca, Bangla Desh. Bangla Desh J , Fish. 7(1): 1-28. Prescott, G. W. (1939) : Some relationships of phytoplankton to limnology and aquatic biology. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Publ. 10: 65-78. Riley, G. A. (1941): Plankton studies III long island sound. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 7 : 1-93. Sai-ia, G. N., Seeigal, K. L., & Nandy, A. C. (1971): Studies on seasonal and diurnal variations in physico-chemical and biological conditions of a perennial fresh water pond. /. Inland Fish. Soc. India 8: 79-102. Sastry, C. A., Aboo, K. M., Bhatia, H. L. & Rao, A. U. (1970) : Pollution in Upper lake and its effect on Bhopal water supply. Environmental Health 1: 218-238. Sreenivasan, A. (1963) : Limnology of tropical impoundments, upland impoundments of Nilgiris. (Madras). Phykos 8: 10-16. (1972) : Ecology of blue green 719 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 algae in tropical inland waters. In T. V. Desikachari (ed) taxonomy and biology of blue green algae. University of Madras, Madras. Srivastava, S. P., Josh i, H. C., & Karamchan- dani, S. J. (1979) : Observation of volumetric esti- mation of planktonic biomass in relation to certain hydrobiological conditions of Govindgarh lake, Rewa, M. P. /. Inland Fish. Soc. India 2(2): 113-116. Strickland, J. D. H. (1958) : Solar radiation pene- trating the Ocean. A review of requirements data and methods of measurements with particular refe- rence to photosynthetic productivity. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 15: 453-493. Swarup, K. & Singh, S. R. (1979) : Limnological studies of Suraha lake (Ballia). I. variation in water quality. J. Inland Fish. Soc. India 2(1) : 22-23. Welch, P. S. (1952): Limnology. McGraw hill. New York 25. A NEW RECORD OF PYEMOTES SP. (PEDICULOIDES) OF MITE PARASITIZING THE COMMON INDIAN HOUSE FLY — MUSCA DOMESTICA NEBULO FABR. (With a text-figure ) Dhiman (1981) reported for the first time a mite, Microtrombidium sp. parasitizing the house fly. During the collection of house flies for recording the data of infestation of this species of mite, we came across another species of mite, Pyemotes sp. (Acarina-Pyemotidae) also parasitizing the house flies in good num- ber. This is an extremely small mite being 0.12 ± 0.05 mm in length and 0.05 ± 0.02 mm in width. The body is elongated and yellowish white in colour. Gnathosoma is conspicuous and retractable. Chelicerae and padipalps are minute in size. Palpi are closely appressed to rostrum. Body setae well deve- loped, six pairs of dorsal setae and four pairs of ventral setae. Coxal apodemes are obvious. A club shaped hair is present posterior to the base of first leg on each side. A few tarsal setae are considerably long than others, spe- cially of first and 3rd leg. Claws well develop- ed and curved. Claws of fore leg stouter and shorter in size. A membranous empodium is present in between the claws of second to fourth legs. A pair of small eyes are present, each one on lateral sides of dorsum (scutum) (Fig. 1). Fig. 1. Dorsal view of the Pyemotes sp. of mite. The mite parasitizes the house fly from March to October which are the warmer months in this region. During this period both the host and the mite multiply rapidly while during the winter months, November to Febru- 720 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ary, the papulation of the house flies decreases considerably and not even a single parasitized fly was observed. The maximum number of the mite observed on a single house fly was 24 and minimum 8. Usually all the mites occurred gregariously sucking the fluid of the host body. The most preferred feeding point was the bases of hind coxae. Besides this, the other attacked parts of the host are, wing axillaries, head haustel- lum, arthrodial membrane of the tergites and Department of Zoology, M. S. College, Saharanpur 247 001, U. P., February 17, 1984. sternites of the abdomen. Previously, Roy and Brown (1970) observ- ed Pyemotes ventricosus Newport causing dermatitis in human being. In view of this, the present Pyemotes sp. of mite parasitizing the house fly may cause dermatitis in man as it can be easily transferred by the host insect. We are grateful to the Commonwealth In- stitute of Entomology, London, for the identi- fication of mite and to the authorities of M. S. College, Saharanpur, for providing facilities. S. C. DHIMAN J. P. MITTAL References Dhiman, S. C. & Dhiman, R. C. (1981): Micro- trombidium sp. — An Acarine ectoparasite of Musca domestica nebulo Fabr. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77: 353-354. Roy, D. N. & Brown, A. W. A. (1970) : Entomo logy (Medical and veterinary), p. 567. The Banga lore Printing and Publishing Company Ltd. 26. PREDATORY ANTS OF THE MOUND BUILDING TERMITE, ODONTOTERMES W A LLONENSIS (WASMANN) WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE PREDATORY BEHAVIOUR OF LEPTOGENYS PROCESSION A LIS (JERDON) Introduction Termites have many enemies including both invertebrates and vertebrates. Among the in- vertebrates the best known predators are ants which prey on all stages of termites. They capture termites at the time of swarming, foraging and construction and expansion of their nests. From India Mathur (1962) has listed the following species of ants as enemies of termites Acantholepis fravenfeldi Mayr, Camponotus compressus Fab. (Formicinae); Crematogaster sp., Monomorium destructor Jerd., M. indicum Forel, (Myrmicinae) and Leptogenys diminuta Smith (Ponerinae). Negi (1934) reported Leptogenys processionalis as an active predator of termites. Wheeler (1936) reported that several spe- cies of ants attack termites in the colonies and deplete and destroy the population. He recognised four categories of predatory ants. 1 . Cleptobiotic ants : Ants which attack other ants and wrest their prey from them. 721 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 2. Termitolestic ants : Ants which live in the walls or partitions of the nests of ter- mites and prey on them. 3 . Inquiline ants : These ants are extreme- ly aggressive. They occupy portions of inhabited or abandoned mounds. 4. Termitharpactic ants : Ants such as Ponerines, Dorylines and Myrmicines. They habitually raid colonies of termites which constitute a large proportion of their food. The available reports on predatory ants of termites are scanty though of general interest. An attempt has therefore been made to investi- gate the various species of ants associated with termites. Material and Methods Observations were made on the various species of predatory ants at the Campus of the University of Agricultural Sciences, Hebbal, during 1976-78. Field visits were made perio- dically to the foraging sites and mounds of Odontotermes wallonensis and also to light sources during the monsoon season, to record the different species of ants. The predatory activity of Leptogenys processionalis was observed regularly during the summer (Feb- ruary and March) and the monsoon (July and August) seasons of 1978, by visiting the study site both in the mornings (between 0700 h to 1100 h) and in the evenings (bet- ween 1630 h to 2100 h). However, counts were made only during the morning hours. The total number of workers returning with termites was recorded at the nest. The enu- meration, in each case, was performed conti- nuously for 5 minutes using a tally counter. The correlation between the predatory acti- vity of ants and weather factors has been worked out and presented in Tables 1 and 2. Results and Discuission During the present investigation the follow- ing ant species were encountered as predators of Odontotermes wallonensis. Formicidae I. PONERINAE 1 . Diacamma rugosiim (Le Guillou) 2. Leptogenys Jaeviceps (F. Smith) 3. Leptogenys processionalis (Jerd.) II. FORM ICINAE 4. Anoplolepis longipes (Jerd.) 5. Camponotus rufoglaucus (Jerd.) 6. Camponotus sericeus Fab. 7. Oecophylla smaragdina Fab. III. MYRM ICINAE 8. Crematogaster hodgsoni Forel 9. Leptomyrmex quadrispinosiis Jerd. 10. Monomorium jloricola Jerd. 11. Monomorium latinode Mayr 12. Myrmicaria brunnea Saunders 13. Solcnopsis geminata Mayr 14. Tetramorium smithi Mayr IV. PSEUDOMYRM ICINAE 15. Tetraponera rufonigra (Jerd.) V. DGLICHODERINAE 16. Tapinoma melanocephalum Fab. These species of ants attacked those termites which emerged from their mounds or were engaged in activities such as foraging and nest construction under the conditions prevailing in Bangalore. The Ponerine ant, Leptogenys processionalis, was found to be an important predator of this species throughout the year. However, with the onset of the monsoon, the activity of this ant reached a peak. With the coming of rains, termite activities, like con- struction and expansion of the nest, food collec- tion and alate emergence, reached a peak. It is a common sight to see moving columns of these ants fanning out at the foraging arena, in fields and grasslands, and along and across footpaths and roads. In the morning they are active between 0700 h to 1100 h. While in the evenings they are active between 1630 h 722 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES to 2100 h. On summer evenings their acti- vity could extend upto 2300 h. Initially, when searching for prey, these ants move in single file. Once they encounter the earthen sheathing of the termites they fan out in all directions. The ants first confirm the presence of termites by tapping their heads on the earthen foraging runways. They then proceed to find weak points in the runways. Once the walls are breached at these points, they start attacking the termites by producing a “hissing” sound. Mukerji (1931), reported that L. pequeti, a related species, too moved in files and made stridulatory sounds audible at a distance. Intense, continuous fighting was observed between the ants and the termite soldiers until the ants ultimately over-powered the termites by holding them in their mandibles Table 1 Predatory activity of L. processioncilis on Odontotennes wallonensis during february-march 1978 at HEBBAL CAMPUS Date of observation No. of ants returning from the foraging site/5 min. No. of ants carrying termites Per cent predators Distance from nest to foraging site (in meter) 3-2-78 95 61 64.21 20 4-2-78 187 52 27.80 16 6-2-78 217 71 32.71 12 7-2-78 198 87 43.93 10 8-2-78 61 20 32.78 9 9-2-78 236 121 51.27 15 10-2-78 119 92 77.31 14 12-2-78 191 83 43.45 10 13-2-78 182 98 53.84 10 14-2-78 282 116 41.13 13 15-2-78 394 144 36.54 9 17-2-78 302 112 37.08 10 21-2-78 145 54 37.24 12 22-2-78 165 49 29.69 11 23-2-78 211 86 40.75 8 24-2-78 307 157 51.14 14 26-2-78 392 66 16.83 15 28-2-78 108 1 0.92 18 8-3-78 265 115 43.39 16 14-3-78 210 95 47.26 9 15-3-78 112 54 48.21 19 Total 4379 1734 857.48 270 Range Mean with standard 61 to 394 1 to 157 0.92 to 77.31 9 to 20 deviation 208.53 ±90.98 82.58±38.39 48.84 ±= 1 5.85 12.86±3.56 21 observations from 3-2-1978 to 15-3-1978. 723 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 and stinging them with arched abdomen. Thus paralysed, they carried the termites positioned between their legs and clasped between clench- ed mandibles, back to their nests. The number of columns was dependant on the abundance of the available food. When termite mounds were exposed thou- sands of these ants appeared suddenly and attacked the workers and nymphs of the ter- mites. In a few weak termite colonies, the ants exterminated the colonies totally and occupied the mounds. Ant nests were also observed on the surface and in the vicinity of mounds. A maximum of ten ant nest openings were observed on the surface of a single mound. The predatory behaviour of L. processionalis was observed during February and March 1978. The extent of predation is presented in Table 1. Percentage predation of L. processionalis was worked out by counting both the total number of workers returning to the nest and the number of workers with termites return- ing to the nest. The per cent predation was found to vary from 0.92 to 77.31 per cent with an average of 40.84 ± 15.85 per cent. When termites were available in plenty, the species concentrated only on them. L. proces- sionalis was active throughout the year. They were more active in the monsoon season with their activity declining to a minimum during the summer season. They were particularly active on days preceded by rains as this coincided with alate emergence and nest expansion by termites. In July, in one instance, the distance between the ant nest and the foraging site was found to be 15 cm and they were active from_0900h to 1300 h. In the month of August similar activity was observed between 0800 h to 1000 hr. The number of ants transporting termites to their nest was 9990 in 4.5 h. in July (Ave- rage rate of predation being 37 termites per Table 2 Extent of ant predation as influenced by weather parameters during the summer (Feb.-March) SEASON OF 1978. AT HEBBAL. Temperature Relative humidity Maximum Minimum Morning Evening 1. No. of ants returning from the foraging site + 0.0587 — 0.3191 + 0.0971 + 0.0665 2. No. of ants carrying termites -I- 0.0814 + 0.1398 + 0.2902 - 0.4489* 3. Percent predatism + 0.1227 + 0.5073* + 0.4620* + 0.1997 No. of ants returning No. of ants Per cent from foraging site carrying termites predatism 1. Distance from the nest to the foraging site - 0.2298 - 0.2571 +0.0087 2. No. of ants carrying termites + 0.7011** — +0.4882* n = 21 Correlation co-efficient values at 5% and 1% at n = 21 are 0.423 and 0.537 respectively. 724 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES minute) and 3132 in 2 h in August (The average rate of predation being 26 termites per minute). The inter-relationship between the predatory activity of ants and the weather parameters, like temperature and humidity, during 1978, is presented in Table 2. Maximum tempera- ture did not significantly influence the foraging behaviour of ants, whereas minimum tempe- rature appeared to influence negatively the population of ants returning from the foraging site, while it has a positive influence on per cent predation. This indicates that lower tem- perature increase predation of termites by ants, perhaps because lower temperature causes more movement of termites for foraging. This helps in ants being attracted to the foraging sites. Likewise, predation is positively influenc- ed by relative humidity in the morning hours perhaps because the termites forage during the cooler hours, in humid weather. The number of ants carrying termites de- creased with increasing distance between the nest and the foraging arena as is evident from the negative relationship in Table 2. C. sericeus, A. Jongipes (Formicinae) and Dept, of Entomology, University of Agril. Sciences, Hebbal, Bangalore-560 024, July 6, 1983. Refei Fletcher, T. B. (1914): Some South Indian In- sects. Govt. Press, Madras, pp. 565. Mathur, R. N. (1962): Enemies of termites (white ants). In Termites in the Humid Tropics New Delhi Symposium, pp. 135-139 UNESCO PARIS. Negi, P. S. (1934) : The small red ant, Solenopses D. rugosum (Ponerinae) attacked the termites at the time of mound construction and alate emergence during the night. They attacked those alate forms which had dropped their wings by basal fracture. These were also found nesting in the peripheral region of mounds. O. smaragdina was observed more in the foraging sites of termites, on grass and trees. Among the other species of ants, C. hodgsoni and /. rufonigra were found asso- ciated with termites when the nest was ex- posed. The nests of C. hodgsoni were noticed in the upper regions of the mound, and mea- sured 3 x 5 cm in diameter. Although T. smithi prey on termites they were not found to directly attack the termites but seemed to pre- fer wresting their prey from other ants. Tapi noma melanocephalum, the only species under Dolichoderinae was observed quite fre- quently in large numbers and were found attacking the exposed nymphs and workers and termites. During the current period of study, only in ten cases were these ants found to be dragging the alate reproductives of termites to their nests by holding on to their wings. D. RAJAGOPAL T. M. MUSTHAK ALI EN CE S geminata Jerdon and its usefulness to man. Snyder, T. E. (1948): Our Enemy the Termite XIII. Comstock Publications Co., New York, pp. 257. Wheeler, W. H. (1936) : Ecological relations of Ponerine and other ants to termites. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Sci. 71: 159-243. 725 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 27. AMARANTHUS V1RWIS (DESF.) A NEW HOST PLANT OF HADDA BEETLE, HENOSEPILACHN A VIGINTIOCTOPUNCT AT A (FAB.) (COLEOPTERA: COCCINELLID AE ) The hadda beetle, Henosepilachna vigintio- ciopunctata (Fab.) is one of the important species of phytophagous coccinellids causing damage to vegetable crops. It is a serious pest of several solanaceous and cucurbitace- ous crops like brinjal, tomato, potato, gourds, melons and cucumbers. The pest has also been recorded on Solatium nigrum Linn., S. xanthocarpum Schard; Datura indica Linn, and Withania somnifera (Link). During the 3rd week of August, 1983 Chaulai plants ( Amaranthus viridis ) which grew near Solanum nigrum plants were found to be infested by the hadda beetle at village Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, September 27, 1983. Jangpur in district Ludhiana (Punjab). The leaves of A. viridis had characteristic feeding injury and both the grubs and the pupae were found on the leaves. The grubs of this beetle were brought in the laboratory and reared at room temperature, on leaves of A. viridis confined in glass jars (10 x 15 cm). The adults emerged successfully in a fortnight. A. viridis seems to be a new host plant of EL. vigintioctopunctata. We thank to Dr B. S. Chahal, Professor and Head, Department of Entomology for provi- ding facilities for the study. D. NARANG M. RAMZAN 28. NEW RECORD OF EYLAIS SP. AND ARRENURUS SP. OF MITES PARASITIZING THE DAMSEL FLY (With a text-figure) Parasitic mites are of considerable economic importance and their larval stages are usually parasitic also. Their host range extends from insects to mammals. During the course of a survey of the aquatic fauna of the ponds of Saharanpur region, I came across two new parasitic mites parasitizing the damsel flies (Odonata — Zygoptera — Megapodegridae). The first mite is a species of genus Eylais (Acarina — Eylaidae) and the second of the genus Arrenurus (Acarina — Arrenuridae). The larvae of Eylais sp. are dark green in 726 colour and those of Arrenurus sp. are bright red. Larvae of both the species of mite infest the wing axillaries, ventral part of the thorax and neck region of the host. Maximum num- ber of mite larvae have been found near the wing articulation points of fore and hind wings (Fig. 1). The data of the infestation are pre- sented in the Table. Maximum number of mites recorded on a single damsel fly was 25 and minimum 1. Furthermore, percentage of parasitization ex- tends from 13.46 to 27.02. Infested flies are MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table Showing the number of infested damsel flies and percentage of parasitization. Date of the survey No. of damsel flies caught No. of in- fested flies Part of infestation Total No. of mites Percentage of infestation 2nd July, 1980 40 6 W+S 30 15.00 16th Aug., 1980 35 5 w+s 31 14.28 12th Sept., 1980 52 7 W+N 28 13.46 15th July, 1981 38 8 W+N 32 21.05 4th Aug., 1981 42 11 s+w 49 26.19 5th Oct., 1981 29 4 w 12 13.79 17th July, 1982 44 8 D+W 39 18.18 21st Aug., 1982 28 5 N+W 27 17.85 2nd Sept., 1982 37 10 S+N 31 27.02 W — Wing bases, S — Sternites, N — Neck, D — Dorsum. available only during the rainy season in this locality, i.e., July to September. The time also coincides with the breeding season of both the mites and the damsel flies. Adults of both the species of mites have been collected from the bottom of six ponds situated at a distance from Saharanpur. Two infested flies were collected sitting on the wall of my house below a fluorescent tube (40 w) at night. Earlier, Arrcnurus sp. have been reported attached to mosquito larvae and pupae (Roy and Brown 1970). Damsel fly is a new host record for both the mite species. I am obliged to the Commonwealth Insti- tute of Entomology, London, for the identifi- cation of the mites and to Dr. G. D. Garg for encouragement. S. C. DHIMAN Reference Roy, D. N. & Brown, A.W.A. (1970) : Entomo- logy (Medical and Veterinary), p. 587. The Banga- lore Printing and Publishing Company, Ltd. Fig. 1. Photograph of damsel fly showing the para- sitization of Eylais sp. of mite at the wing bases. Department of Zoology, M. S. College, Saharanpur 247 001, UP., February 17, 1984. Ill JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 29. A NEW COMBINATION IN ASPIDOPTERYS JUSS. (MALPIGHI ACE AE) Haines (1920) described Aspidopterys hut - chinsonii as a new species closely allied to A. obcordata Hemsl. A. hutchinsonii is also closely allied to A. foment osa (Bl.) Juss. In 1928 Niedenzu found that the distinctions bet- ween A. tomentosa and A. obcordata are not sufficient to treat them as separate species. He united these two and treated A. obcordata as a variety of A. tomentosa and proposed the new combination. Jacobs (1955) supported the view of Niedenzu (1928) and added another variety, viz. A. tomentosa var. longi- rostris (Arenes) Jacobs. The present studies on A. hutchinsonii have revealed that its dis- tinction from A. tomentosa is not sufficient enough to treat it as a distinct species but are only just enough for a varietal status. Hence, the following new status and combination is proposed. Aspidopterys tomentosa var. hutchinsonii (Haines) Srivastava, status et comb. nov. A. hutchinsonii Haines in Kew Bull. 1920 (2): 67-86. 1920. Stout climbers. Branches sub-woody, rough due to bases of fallen hairs; twigs tomentose. Leaves orbicular, 7-12 x 6-11 cm, suddenly cuspidate, bases straight or rounded, densely silky hairy beneath, coriaceous; petioles c. 15 x 3 mm, rusty hairy. Panicles short, lateral. Botanical Survey of India, Allahabad 211 002, June 6, 1983. brown tomentose. Pedicels c. 1 . 2 cm long, articulated at c. 3 mm near the base, glabrous above articulation (in fruit). Sepals dorsally hairy; petals oblong, c. 3 mm long, glabrous. Samaras membranous, broadly elliptic to orbi- cular, 1.3-1. 5 cm in diam etc, retuse at apex, cristate at nucleus on dorsal wing, cristate 5-7 x 1-2 mm, corpophores 3-4 mm long. FIs. : Dec.-Feb.; Frts. : April-June. Distribution: India: Orissa, Mayurbhanj hills (2000-3000 ft.). Representative specimen: Orissa: Mayur- bhanj hills, Bhajam (2000 ft.). Anonymous, s.n. (DD 85846). Key to the varieties of A. tomentosa (bl.) Juss. la. Leaves elliptic-obovate. Samaras ovate, 3. 0-4.0 X 2. 5-3.0 cm. 2a. Leaf top shortly narrowed to rounded .... tomentosa 2b. Leaf top truncate to emarginate, if emar- ginate the top protruding from a wide api- cal sinus giving the leaf three topped appearance obcordata lb. Leaves orbicular or ovate-elliptic. Samaras sub- orbicular to orbicular or broadly elliptic, 1 . 3-2.5 cm in diam. 3a. Leaves ovate-elliptic. Carpophores c. 5-7 mm long longirostris 3b. Leaves orbicular. Carpophores c. 3-4 mm long hutchinsonii R. C. SRIVASTAVA References Haines, H. H. (1920): Kew Bull. 2: 67-68. Niedenzu, F. (1920): Malpighiaceae. In Engl. Jacobs, M. (1955): Malpighiaceae. In Flora Male- Pflanzenreich 4(141): 21-22. siana 7(5): 129-130. 728 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 30. A NEW VARIETY OF HUM BO LOT l A UNIJUGA BEDD. ( C AES AL PIN! ACE AE ) FROM SOUTH INDIA (With ten text-figures ) Humboldtia usiijuga Bedd. var. trijuga Joseph & Chandrasekaran, var. nov. H. unijuga Bedd. var. unijuga affinis, sed foliolis 3-jugis (maxime raro 2- vel 4-5 jugis) ad invicem 1 -jugis et staminodiis 5 ad invicem nuliis, praecipue differ!. Holotypus. Trivandrum Disk, Koviltheri- malai, 2-10-1973, Joseph 44511 (CAL). Isotypi Joseph 44511 (MH-num. ace. 85902, 85903, 118572, 118573, 118574). Paratypi: Trivan- drum Disk, Koviltherimalai, 25-8-1975, Joseph 55994 (MH-num. acc. 118575, 118576, 118577, 118578). Allied to H. unijuga Bedd. var. unijuga but differs mainly in the leaflets being three paired (very rarely two or four to five paired) instead of one paired and in having five staminodes instead of none. Trees 10-15 m high; trunk 15-20 cm in diam.; bark greyish brown; branches slender, spreading, branchlets terete, nodes not con- stricted. Leaves paripinnate, usually with three pairs of leaflets (rarely two or four to five pairs), stipulate; main rachis up to 8.5 cm long with a swollen pulvinous, very narrowly winsed between the leaflets. Leaflets 5.2- 17.5 x 1. 6-5.0 cm, sessile or subsessile, vary in size and shape, lanceolate, oblanceolate, elliptic to oblong, coriaceous, glabrous above, glabrescent below, abruptly acuminate at apex, unequal and oblique at base; main nerves up to 11 pairs forming intra-marginal loops, pro- minent on lower surface; midrib swollen at base below, more or less warted. Stipules up to 3 . 2 x 1 . 1 cm, erect, united along the auter margin about half of its length, lanceolate, oblique at base, bereft of appendage (spur). Flowers bright pink, in fascicles or in very short racemes from tubercles of main trunk or axillary from leafy branchlets, not wide opening. Bracts zb 2 . 0 x 1.2 mm, ovate, pubes- cent, acute. Pedicels up to 1.75 cm long, slender, pubescent. Bracteoles two, zb 10 x 7 mm, free, obovate to oblong, pubescent out- side, glabrous inside except at base and margins, concave, obtuse to sub-acute. Calyx with a short tube (±5 mm); lobes four, 8.0- 13.0 x 5.0-10.0 mm, imbricate, unequal, elliptic-oblong to obovate, pubescent outside, sparsely puberulous inside, obtuse or subacute. Petals five, each 12.0-17.5 x 7.0-13.0 mm, pink, obovate, glabrous outside, sparsely pube- rulous at base within, abruptly obtuse to sub- acute at tip, shortly clawed at base. Stamens five, ± 2 cm long, alternating the petals, ex- erted; filaments bright pink, glabrous except at base; anthers zb 4 mm long, oblong, versa- tile; staminodes five, minute (zb 1 mm long), erect, glabrous and acicular at tip, densely pubescent and pinkish at base. Disc densely pubescent. Ovary zb 8 mm long, stipitate, pubescent; style zb 1.8 cm long, glabrous above, pubescent at base; stigma capitate. Im- mature pod 6.0-10.5 x 1.0-2. 5 cm, oblong, oblique, puberulous, compressed with persis- tent stylar beak. (Figs. 1-10). The holotype Joseph 44511 (CAL) and isotypes Joseph 44511 (MH. Acc. Nos. 85902, 85903, 118572, 118573, 118574) were collected at Koviltherimalai, near Bonaccord Estate, Trivandrum District, Kerala on 2-10-1973; and paratypes Joseph 55994 (MH. Acc. Nos. 118575, 118576, 118577, 118578) were collect- ed from the same locality on 25-8-1975. 729 13 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81 Figs. 1-10: Humboldtia unijuga Bedd. var. trijuga Joseph & Chandrasekaran, var. nov. 1. Twig 2. Stipule with a portion of twig. 3. Bract. 4. Bracteole. 5 & 5a. Calyx lobes. 6. Petal. 7. Stamen. 8. Staminode. 9. Gynoecium with disc and staminodes. 9a. L. S. of Gynoecium. 10. Immature pod. 730 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES This graceful tree occurs in the forest at Koviltherimalai, near Bonaccord Estate in Trivandrum District at an altitude of about 875 m. Acknowledgements We thank Dr. V. J. Nair, Systematic Bota- Botanxcal Survey of India, Shillong 793 003. nist. Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore for rendering Latin translation and Smt. C. P. Malathi, Herbarium Assistant, Botanical Sur- vey of India, Coimbatore for the help in the preparation of illustrations. J. JOSEPH Botanical Survey of India, V. CHANDRASEKARAN Coimbatore 641 003, July 8, 1983. 31. SWERTIA SIKKIM ENSIS BURKILL (GENTIANACEAE) : A LITTLE KNOWN PLANT FROM UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA (With seven text-figures) Swertia sikkimensis is described by I. H. Burkill in the year 1906 based on the collec- tions of several specimens gathered from Sikkim, Bhutan and Himachal Pradesh. This plant usually occurs in the alpine Himalayas of Sikkim (Jongri, Tonglu, Phalut, Lachen and Lachung valley, Gaigong and Kinchinjhow etc.) ranging from 4112-5181 m (13, 500 ft. — 17,000 ft.). From Bhutan (Kungmet) it has once been collected so far by Dungboo in 1884. In Himachal Pradesh it has once been collected from Kuna war (Kinnar) by Natha- niel Vicary in 1831. But after its first description it has not been collected from any of the areas mentioned. It is hitherto unrecorded from Uttar Pradesh, India and Nepal. Hence the present collection of this plant from Pithoragarh District (Kumaon), Uttar Pradesh, appears to be a new record. Moreover, this plant has been collected again after a long gap of about 70 years. The distribution of this plant in Nepal is expected as both Sikkim and Kumaon are adjacent to East Nepal and West Nepal res- pectively. Moreover, the present collection locality is very close to West Nepal bordering the River Kali. It is described here again with an illustra- tion as there is no further information except the original one. Swertia sikkimensis Burkill in J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, n.s. 2: 322. 1906. (Figs. 1-7). Annual herb of 4-12 cm high, usually branched at base, glabrous. Leaves subsessile to shortly petioled, lower ovate to spathulate, 5-9 x 3-4 mm, upper lanceolate 4-10 x 1.5-3 mm. Inflorescence both axillary and terminal raceme. Flowers mostly 4-merous rarely 5- merous. Calyx cyathiform, lobes oblong- lanceolate, 3-4 x 1-1.5 mm, slightly alternate- ly heteromorphic. Corolla lobes oblong lanceo- late, 5-8 x 1 . 8-2 . 5 mm, bluish-green; glands obscure, two on each petal, linear-vertical, placed towards the base, one on either side of mid-vein. Capsule oblong, 6-9 x 2-2.5 mm. 731 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 81 Figs. 1-7. Swertia sikkimensis Burkill 1. plant. 2. flower, 3. calyx split open, 4. corolla split open, 5. stamen, 6. carpel and 7. capsule. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES dehiscence about one-third of the total length of capsule. Seeds 10-15 in each capsule, ellipsoid, testa reticulate, purple-red. This plant grows in shady moist places along with Swertia ciliata (G. Don) Burtt, S. cordata (G. Don) C. B. Clarke and other Gentians. Sheets examined : (all are deposited at CAL). Sikkim : Thangu, Sept. 1903, Prain s.n.; Giagong, Sept. 1903, Prain s.n. (Syntype); Bhutan : Kungmet, 3.8.1884, Dungboo 295 (Syntype); Himachal Pradesh : Kunawar, 1831, N. Vicary s.n. (Syntype); Uttar Pradesh: Kumaon, Pithoragarh Disk, Botanical Survey of India, P. O. Botanic Garden, Howrah -7 11 103, May 23, 1983. Kutti valley, Garbyang to Chhalek, 3124 m, 26.10.1976, G. G. Maiti 844; Kutti valley, Chhalek to Budhi village, 2800 m, 26.10.1976, G. G. Maiti 852 and Byans, Sirkha to Rung- ling forest, 2500 m, 13.10.1976, G. G. Maiti 367. Ack nowledgements 1 am indebted to the Council of Himalayan Exploration and Research, Calcutta, for my participation as a Botanist member in the “Kutti valley Expedition 1976”. Thanks are also due to the Deputy Director, Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, for providing facilities. GAURGOPAL MAITI 32. EUPHORBIA TORTILIS ROTTL. EX WIGHT — A NEW RECORD FOR KARNATAKA Euphorbia tortilis Rottl. ex Wight was re- corded in India only from Tamil Nadu. Dur- ing collection trips to different parts of Mysore and Mandya districts of Karnataka, we noticed this plant in several places along hedges. The species closely resembles E. antiquorum L. and has often been confused with the latter. However, E. tortilis can be distinguished from E. antiquorum in having spirally twisted stems and crowded cymes. It is quite likely that E. tortilis occurs at many more localities on the Deccan Plateau. A brief description of the taxon is given below: Euphorbia tortilis Rottl. ex Wight Ic. t. 898. 1844-45; Hook, f., Ft. Brit. India 5: 256 1887; Gamble, FI. Madras Rep. ed. 2: 894. 1957. An erect shrub with abundant milky latex, up to 2.4 m high. Main stem cylindric or angled; branches thick, green, fleshy, jointed; joints 3- to 5 -winged, up to 25 cm long, spirally twisted; wings compressed, coarsely repand- crenate, with pairs of sharp stipular spines; spines c. 6 mm long. Leaves minute, ovate. Cyathia in cymes of 3, shortly peduncled and forming clusters in the sinuses, c. 4 mm in dia- meter, green, with 5 large glands; bracts minute, ovate; bracteoles numerous, fimbriate. Male flowers many. Styles 3, shortly connate at base, 2-lobed, glabrous. Fruit c. 13 mm in diam., glabrous; cocci keeled. 733 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Post Graduate Department of Botany, K. GOPALAKRISHNA BHAT University of Mysore, M. S. DINESH Manasagangotri, C. R. NAGENDRAN Mysore 570 006, Karnataka, April 27, 1983. 33. GENUS TYPHA IN THE NORTH WESTERN HIMALAYAS Typha, a highly variable genus, is distribut- ed in Asia, Europe, Africa, Tropical Austra- lia, South and Central California with about 13 existing and 2 fossil species. It is repre- sented by 3 species in the Kashmir Himalayas. All the species are economically very impor- tant. They are valued as ornamental plants on the borders of ponds, pools and irrigation canals. In Kashmir all the species of Typha are cultivated for the preparation of floating islands as prevention against erosion, however, caution needs to be exercise to control them lest they should multiply excessively. Dry fruiting spikes are used for decoration. The strong fibrous culms or leaves are used in weaving mats and basket work. The fine plush got from the hairs of female spike were used in the stuffing of pillows, but the practice has been discontinued. The hairs of female spike locally called kalroon mixed with mud is used for plastering walls, which gives smooth- ness to it and forms an excellent base for paint work. The leaves are mainly used for the weaving of mats (wagoove) and prayer rugs; the peduncle is used in the preparation of win- dow curtains. The stems and leaves are also used for thatching huts and house boats. Key to the species 1 . Male and female spikes not contiguous; usually separated by 1-3 cm interval. Leaves flat above, convex beneath, 13 mm wide T. angustata 1 . Male and female spikes contiguous, not sepa- rated. Leaves narrow slightly channeled; wavy margined above the middle, less than 13 mm wide 2. Plants more than 2 m long; stigma ovate- lanceolate or spatulate T. elephantina 2. Plants less than 2 m long; dwarf; stigma subobtuse T. laximannii Typha angustata Borry and Chaub. Exped. in Bory Sci. Mores 3: 338 (1832); Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6, 489 (1893); Graebner, in Pflanzenr. 2: 14. f. 4F, (1900); Subra- manyam, Aq. Angios. 74 (1962). In the field it can be readily distinguished by its very long, erect leaves and the dense monoecious interrupted spicate inflorescence, fuzzy brown at maturity. Leaves sheathing at the base, conspicuously auriculate; auricles scarious. Stigma fleshy; ovary linear or linear oblong; sterile ovaries cuneate with a rudimen- tary style on the truncate flattened apex; the hairs on the stipe are in whorls terminating into a club-shaped or ligulate tips. Fruits obconical or fusiform, 1 mm long, tapering into the stalk. Common in marshes, shallow waters of lakes; along streams and sides of irrigation canals; Nagin lake AMK 3732; Hokhar sar AMK 3944; Dal lake AMK 3888. Distribution. Asia, Europe, Africa, Hima- layas, Kashmir. Typha elephantina Roxb. FI. Ind. 3: 566 734 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES (1832); Hook. f. l.c. 481; T. lati folia Edgew, Proc. Linn. Soc. 6. 194 (1862). Superficially resembling T. angustata but can be distinguished from it in having male and female spikes contiguous; mature female spikes much longer and thicker; stigma ovate- lanceolate or spatulate; sterile ovaries ellipsoid, tipped at the round apex by a rudimentary style. Fruit cylindrical. Mostly in the marshes, on the banks of lakes; Dal lake AMK 3733; Nagin lake (near Nandpora) AMK 3829; Hariparbat (inside) Fort AMK 3946. Distribution. Asia, Europe, America, Hima- layas, Kashmir. An anamalous form of the species with 2-4 pistillate spikes arising from a common stalk, with a single terminal staminate spike was found growing near Habak, Dal lake and Harwan (Srinagar). This anamalous spike showed no other morphological difference with the normal T. elephantina Roxb. regarding vegetative and floral characters and this seems to be conspicuous anamalous feature for the species and its frequency of occurrence was Department of Botany, Ismalia College of Science and Commerce, Srinagar 190 002, Kashmir (India), January 27, 1981. in no way less than that of the normal T. elephantina Roxb. It was also observed that the normal species grows under similar micro- climatic conditions at various spots within this altitudinal range. Typfia laximannii Lepech. in Nva. Acta Petersh 84: 355 (1801); Hook. f. l.c. 6. 586. Rhizomatous perennial herbs, can be diffe- rentiated from the other two species in being smaller in size, leaves distichiously arranged equal or longer than spikes, sheathing at the base; male and female flowers usually conti- guous; stigma subobtuse. Fruit 1 mm long, cylindrical. Common in marshes; on the banks of the lakes; sides of the rice fields, Bemna AMK 3889; Shalteng AMK 3945. Distribution. Russia, Pakistan, India, Kash- mir. Ack nowledgements We thank the University Grants Commission for providing the financial assistance. A. MAJEED KAK SULOCHANA DURANP 1 Department of Botany, Kashmir University, Srinagar 190 006. 34. DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTE ON SOME INDIAN GRASSES While working on the family Poaceae at Central National Herbarium we noticed a few grasses of doubtful identity. A critical study of these resulted in finding new distributional areas for the following grasses. 1. Chrysopogon serrulatus Trin. This grass has been reported from NW India, Bihar and Nepal (Kara 1966). A speci- men collected from Arunachal Pradesh and identified as Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng.) 735 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Chiov. has been identified as C. serrulatus Trin. due to the presence of cilia in the upper quarter of the upper glume. This extends the distribution of C. serrulatus Trin. to Aruna- chal Pradesh. Exsicc. Arunachal Pradesh; Kameng Dist., Dahing, 3 Oct. 1964, /. Joseph 40469 (CAL). 2. Iscliaemum tumidum Stapf ex Bor This grass is known from Bombay (Old Bombay Presidency) and Tamil Nadu. A speci- men collected from Sanchi and labelled as /. king'd Hook. f. has shorter pedicels and swollen raceme joints which identify the speci- men to /. tumidum Stapf ex Bor. It is a new record for Madhya Pradesh. Exsicc. Madhya Pradesh; Sanchi, Sept. 1907, A. Meebold 9124 (CAL). 3. I. zeylasiicolitm Bor The known distribution of this grass is Bombay, Sri Lanka and Kerala (Nair & Ramachandran 1980). A recent collection from Humphreygunj extends its distribution Botanical Survey of India, P. O. Botanic Garden, Howrah -7 11 103, April 12, 1983. to Andaman Islands. Exsicc. Andamans; Humphreygunj, 23 Nov. 1973, N. P. Balakrishnan 631 (CAL). 4. Lolium remotum Schrank var. aristatum (Doell) Aschers. This grass was first reported from India from localities in Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh (Bhattacharyya 1976). We notic- ed that a specimen identified as L. temulentum L. has weak flexuous awns and smaller spike- lets and identify the specimen as L. remotum Schrank var. aristatum (Doell) Aschers, a new record for Rajasthan. Exsicc. Rajasthan; Jaipur, 9 Feb. 1964 S. Sharma 406 (CAL). Acknowledgements We thank Dr. S. K. Jain, Director, BSI and Dr. K. Thothathri, Deputy Director, Central National Herbarium for encouragement and facilities and to Dr. V. S. Agarwal, Editor of Publications for suggestions. D. C. PAL B. P. UNIYAL References Bhattacharyya, Baruna (1976): Lolium remo- tum Schrank var. aristatum (Doell) Aschers (Poa- ceae). A new record for India. Curr. Sci. 45(7) : 277. Bor, N. L. (1960) : The grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India & Pakistan. London. Hara, H. (1966) : The Flora of Eastern Himalaya. Japan. Nair, V. J. & Ramachandran, V. S. (1980) : Five plant records for Kerala. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 22: 193-194. 736 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 35. ARTHROMERIS LUNGTAUENSIS CHING: A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA {With four text-figures ) Arthromeris, a small genus of polypodiace- ous ferns (subfamily Crypsinoideae) has a very restricted distribution in North India, China, Burma and Bhutan. In all, thirteen species have been recognized by Ching and Tagav/a (Christensen 1934, Pichi Sermolli 1965). Out of these six species have been re- ported from India (Beddome 1892, Tagawa 1966, Nayar & Kaur 1974). With the addition of a new species A. jarretti , from NEFA (Sastry & Chowdhary 1969) the number of species of Arthromeris in India rose to seven and in the world to fourteen. Recently during the course of a study of pteridophytic flora of Pithoragarh district of Kumaon (West Hima- layas), A. lungtauensis Ching a species earlier known from China and Darjeeling in India has been recorded from Kumaon Himalayas for the first time. This species grows in moist shady places and the following description is based on plants collected from two localities near Pithoragarh town (P.W.D. rest house and en- route to Seloli village). The specimens are lodged in the herbarium of Botany Department, P. G. College, Pithoragarh. A. lungtauensis Ching, Contr. Inst. Bot. Nat. Acad. Peiping 2: 98, 1933: leones Filicum Sinicarum, Fascicle 3, plate 150, 1935. Tagawa National Botanical Institute, Lucknow, India 226 001. in Hara, FI. East. Himal. 490, 1966. Rhizome thick, stout, clothed with lanceo- late, brownish paleae with entire or dentate margins. Fronds large usually upto 30 cm. long, stipes erect, 7-12 cm. in length, naked, brown in colour. Pinnae 1, 3 or 5 in number, opposite or subopposite, distantly placed, 8-10 cm. long; terminal pinna larger than lateral ones; lateral pinnae sessile, articulated to the rachis, lanceolate, coriaceous with cartilagin- ous entire and wavy margins, base cordate. Sori irregularly distributed on either side of midrib on under surface of lamina, sometimes very close to each other; paraphyses long with swollen heads. Spores yellow, bilateral, non perisporiate, spinulose, 50 x 28 /x. A. lungtauensis differs from other species found in India in having (i) cordate base of the pinnae, (ii) irregular distribution of sori on under surface of lamina and (iii) presence of swollen headed paraphyses. Ack nowledgements We thank the Director National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow for encourage- ments. The junior author is also thankful to the Principal, Govt. P. G. College, Pithoragarh for providing facilities for collection. SURJIT KAUR Dept, of Botany, n. PUNETHA Govt. P. G. College, Pithoragarh, India 262 501, June 1, 1983. 737 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81 Figs. 1-4. Arthromeris liingtauensis Ching 1. Sporophyte showing habit. 2. Palea on the surface of the rhizome. 3. Paraphysis found in between the sporangia. 4. Lateral view of a spore. 738 250 ji y -5 mm MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Beddome, R. H. (1892) : Handbook to the Ferns of British India, Ceylon and Malaya Peninsula with supplement. Thacker Spink & Co. Calcutta. Christensen, C. (1934): Index Filicum. Supple- mentum Tertium pro annis (1917-1933). H. Hagerup, Hafniae. Nayar, B. K. & Kaur, S. (1974): Companion to R. H. Beddome’s Handbook to Ferns of British India, Ceylon and the Malaya peninsula. The Chro- nica Botanica, New Delhi. Pichi Sermolli, R. E. G. (1965) : Index Filicum. Supplementum Quartum pro annis (1934-1960). In- ternational Bureau for Plant Taxonomy and Nomen- clature. Utrecht, Netherlands. Sastry, A. R. K. & Chowdhury, S. (1969) : Arthromeris jarrettii, a new species of Polypodia- ceae from Subansiri district, NEFA, India. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 11: 442-443. Tagawa, M. (1966): Polypodiaceae. pp. 489-499 in Kara, H. (ed.) : The Flora of Eastern Himalaya, University of Tokyo, lapan. 36. A NOTE ON PHYTOGEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FERNS AND FERN-ALLIES OF ALMORA (W.H.) Western Himalayan tracts have been explor- ed extensively for pteridophytes from time to time by a number of workers (see Awasthi & Sharma 1980) but Almora, an important Kumaon area remained unexplored. This has necessiated a detailed investigation of pteridophytes of Almora situated at an altitudinal range of 1500 m to 2100 m. Mainly Almora proper and its suburbs which include Chitai, Kalimati, Sirntola, Kasar devi, Ranidhara etc. were explored extensively. The soil in this area is compact yellow to brownish black clay and is rich in magnesium salts. In the forests, ground floor is usually covered with a thick layer of humus formed by organic decay and thus provides a good substratum for the growth of terrestrial species. Conifers namely Pinus roxburghii and Cedrus deodara form an important part of the vegetation of this area. At Chitai, Kasar Devi and Kalimati pure stands of conifers are pre- sent. At other places intermingled with these are species of Quercus , Rhododendron , Ficus, Eugenia, Bauhinia, Terminalia etc. The ground flora consists mainly of Anaphalis, Polygonum, Geranium, Pi m pinell a, Fragaria, Desmodium, Indigofera, Crotolaria etc. The shrubs which are common in this area include Berberis, Reinwardtia, Flemingia, Woodfordia, Rhus etc. In all 55 species of pteridophytes, 51 be- longing to ferns and 4 to fern allies have been collected from this region (see Table 1). Lycopodium cernuum Linn., which was found growing on dry exposed slopes is an interesting species. It has not been reported earlier from western Himalayas, though it has been reported by Mehra & Bir (1964) from eastern Himalayas. Botrychium daucifolium Wall, is another interesting species which has been recorded earlier only from Garhwal re- gion of western Himalayas by Awasthi and Sharma (1980). It was found growing on moist- shady slopes at Kasar Devi and Sirntola. Other interesting species include Lygodium flexuo- sum (L.) Sw. (as climber on bushes), Ony- chium siliculosum (Desv.) C. Chr. (on moist- shady rocks), Athyrium setiferum C. Chr. (on moist-shady slopes), Ctenitis hendersonii (Bedd.) H. (on exposed dry rocks), Oleandra wallichi (Hook.) Presl. (on damp and shady slopes), Abacopteris multilineata (Wall.) Ching (along streams), Cyclosorus mega- phyllus (Mett.) Ching (on the forest floor). 739 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol SI Fyrrosia mollis (Kze.) Ching (epiphyte on Oak tree), Microsorium membranaceum (D. Don) Ching (epiphyte on the lower part of the trunk of trees), Arthromeris wallichiana (Spr.) Ching (in moist and shady places), Phymatodes hastata (Thunb.) Ching (on exposed rocks), P. malacodon (Hook.) Ching (on tree trunks of Quercus and Rhododendron ) etc. The ferns and fern-allies which are met with in this area are also common in the ad- joining hills. 58% species are common to Kumaon hills which include National and Ranikhet; 74.5% species are common to Garhwal Himalayas; 74.5% species are com- mon to Himachal Pradesh hills which include Simla, Dalhousie and Dharamsala and 43.6% species are common to Kashmir hima- layas. On regional basis, the phytogeographi- cal distribution of these reveals that : (a) 78.1% species are common to eastern Hima- layas; (b) 42% species are common to south- ern hills; (c) 22% species are common to central Himalayas (i.e. Pachmari). (d) 92% species are common to western Himalayas; (e) 76.3% species are common to both eastern and western Himalayas; (f) 21.8% species are met only in western Himalayas; (g) 1.9% species are met only in eastern Himalayas. Lycopodium cernuum Linn. Selaginella chrysocaulos Hook & Grev. S. chrysorrhizos Spr. Equisetum debile Roxb. Ophioglossum reticulatum Linn. Botrychium lanuginosum Wall. B. daucifolium Wall. Lygodium flexuosiim (L.) Sw. Onychium japonicum (Thbg.) Kze. O. siliculosum (Desv.) C. O. contiguum (Wall.) Hope Pteris quadriaurita Retz. P. aspcrula J. Sm. P. ere tic a Linn. P. vittata Linn. Cheilanthus farinosa (Forsk.) Kaulf. C. albomarginata Clarke Adiantum capillus-vcneris Linn. A. incisum Forsk. A. philippense L. A. venustum Don Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn Athyrium nigripes (Bl.) Moore A. setiferum C. Cbr. Diplazhim polypodioides Blume Hypodematium crencitum (Forsk.) Kuhn Dryopteris odontoloma (Moore) C. Chr. D. sparsa Ham. ex. Don Table 1 D. chrysocoma (Christ) C. Chr. Polystichum aciileatum (L.) Roth P. squarrosum (D. Don) Fee P. stimulans Presl. Tectaria macrodonto. (Fee) C. Chr. C ten i tis k en d erson i i (Bedd.) H. Ncphrolepis cordifolia (Linn.) Presl. Oleandra wallichii (Hook.) Presl. Araiostegia multidentata (Bedd.) Copel. DavaUia trichomanoid.es var. lorrainei (Hance) Holtt. D. bullata Wall. Aspleninm dalhousiae Hook. A. ensi forme Wall. A. varians Wall. A. trichomanes Linn. Abacopteris muJtilincata (Wall.) Ching Ampelo pteris prolifer a (Retz.) Copel. Cyclosorus megaphyllus (Melt.) Ching Pyrrosia mollis (Kze.) Ching Lepisoras nudiis (Hook.) Ching L. excavatus (Bory) Ching Poly podium lachnopus Wall. P. amoenum Wall. Microsorium membranaceum (D. Don) Ching Arthromeris wallichiana (Spr.) Ching Phymatodes hastata (Thunb.) Ching P. malacodon (Hook.) Ching 740 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Awasthi, D. K. & Sharma, M. P. (1980) : Eco- Sci. (Plant Sci.) 89 : 307-313. logical and phytogeographical observations on the Mehra, P. N. & Bir, S. S. (1964) : Pteridophytic ferns and fern-allies of Nagpur block (Chamoli flora of Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas. Res. Garhwal), Western Himalayas. Proc. Indian Acad. Bull. Punjab Univ. 15 : 69-182. Dept, of Botany, D. K. AWASTHI M. M. P. G. College, Modi n agar- 201 204. Dept, of Botany, Meerut College, P. C. PANDE Meerut-250 001, June 8, 1983. 37. NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME PLANTS FROM MAHARASHTRA During our studies of the Flora of Sindhu- durg district we have come across some plant names which need corrections with reference to the rules of ‘International Code of Botanical Nomenclature’. In this communication, we have discussed the status of the names of three common endemic species from Maharashtra. 1. Mammea Sosigifolia (Wight) Planch. & Triana, in Ann. Sci. Nat. Ser. 4, 15 : 240, 0 1861. Calysaccion longifolius Wight, 111. 1 : 130, 1840 & Icon. t. 1999, 1844. Oehrocarpus longifolius Benth. ex T. Anders., in FI. Brit. India 1: 270, 1874. Calophyllum suriga Buch. -Ham. ex Roxb., FI. Ind. 2 : 608, 1832. Mammea suriga (Buch. -Ham.) Kosterman, in Comm. For. Res. Inst. Indonesia (Bogor) 72 : 23, f. 19, 1961; Santapau, in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 3 : 19, 1961. Kosterman (l.c.) made a new combination, in genus Mammea Linn., based on Buchanan Hamilton’s name Calophyllum suriga publish- ed by Roxburgh. Rev. Fr. H. Santapau ad- opted Kosterman’s name for our common Indian species known by popular local name as “Surangi” and since then it has been used in Indian Floras as the correct name. However, we have found that the basionym of Kosterman’s new combination is a superfluous name and has to be rejected. Roxburgh, in the proto- logue of his new name has cited Calophyllum soulattri Burm. f. as a direct synonym. Accor- ding to Article no. 631 of ICBN, Roxburgh’s name becomes an illegitimate name and should be rejected. The earliest valid name for the spe- cies is Calysaccion longifolium Wight. Since the genus Oehrocarpus Thouars is merged with Mammea Linn, the correct name for the species should be Mammea longifolia (Wight) Planch, et Triana. 2. Embdia aeufipetaium (Lamk. ex Hass- karl) Comb. nov. Basal no. 1, Lamk., Encycl. 1: 381, 1783. Basal acutipetalum Lamk. ex Hasskarl, Hort. Malab. Rheed. clavis, 40, 1867; 1 Article 63 states, “A name is illegitimate and is to be rejected if it was nomenclaturally superfluous when published, i.e. if the taxon to which it was applied, as circumscribed by its author, included the type of a name or epithet which ought to have been adopted under the rules.” 741 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81 Dauceria acuta Dennsted, Schllues Zuni Hort. Maiab. 31, 1818. Emhelia acuta (Dennst.) Alston, in Trimen Handb. FI. Ceylon 6 : suppl. 177, 1931. Embelia tsjarium-cottam (Roem. et Schult.) A. DC., in Wight Icon. t. 1209, 1848; Santapau, FI. Khandala, ed. 3, 141, 1967. Embelia robust a auct. non Roxburgh, 1832; Brandis For. FI. 2 : 284, 1874; Clarke, C. B. in Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 3: 515, 1832; Cooke, T., FI. Presid. Bombay 2: 85, 1904. Embelia tsjarium-cottam A. DC. is the com- monly accepted name for the species known in Maharashtra under vernacular name “Vau- ding” or “Waurung”. Seeds of this species are collected and used in preparation in Ayur- vedic medicines for anthelmintic purposes. Alfonse de Candolle made a new combination Embelia tsjarium-cottam, based on Ardisia tsjarium-cottam Roem. et Schult. (Syst. 4 : 518, 1819). Actually both of these names and also Antidesma pubescens Roxb. (PI. Corom. Coast 2 : 35, t. 167, 1798) are based on “Tsjarium-cottam” of Rheede’s figure, in Hortus Malabaricus (5 : 21, t. 11, 1688). Plants based on Rheede’s above mentioned figure are now considered conspecific with an Euphorbiaceous species Antidesma ghasem- billa Gaertn. (see also Cooke, T. l.c.). There- fore E. tsjarium-cottam A. DC. should not be used for our Myrsinaceous species. Rheede’s text figure in Hortus Malabaricus (5 : 23, t. 12, 1688) ‘Basal’ (Besaal in plate) represents our species, which also cites vernacular name ‘Vidingi’. In post-Linnean taxonomic works, Lamark was the first to use Rheede’s ‘Basal’ for naming the plant. But unfortunately he did not use binomial system for the nomen- clature. After Lamark, it was Dennstedt who named Rheede’s ‘Basal’ as Dauceria acuta Dennst. But according to H. W. Rickett & F. A. Staflew (Taxon 10 : 80, 1961) and H. Manitz (Taxon 17 : 500, 1968) Dennstedt’s name is nomen nudum. According to Article no. 41 of ICBN, the name of species is not valid if it is not published in combination with an already published generic name. According to Rickett & Staflew (l.c.) publi- cation of genus and species which refers to pre-Linnean work does not constitute a valid publication. J. K. Hasskarl (Horti Malaba- rici Rheedeani Clavis Locuplectissima, 40, 1867) gives Basal acutipetalum Lamk., attri- buting the binomial to Lamark (Encycl. 1 : 381, no. 1, 1783). Since Lamark did not publish the actual binomial, the name ‘ Basal acutipetalum ’ should be effective from 1867, and should be called Basal acutipetalum Lamk. ex Hasskarl. Therefore a new combination Embelia acutipetalum (Lamk. ex Hasskarl) comb. nov. is proposed. 3. OSax psittacorum (Willd.) Vahl, Enum. 34, 1804. Fissilia psittacorum Willd., Sp. PI. 1 : 194, 1797. Olax scandens Roxb., PL Cor. 2:2, t. 102, 1798 & FI. Ind. 1 : 164, 1832; Wight & Arn., Prodr. 89, 1834; Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 22, 1839; Masters, in FI. Brit. India 1 : 575, 1875; Sleumer, in Pflanzenfam. ed. 2, 16B: 27, 1935; Santapau, FI. Khandala, ed. 3, 38-9, 1967. Fissilea psittacorum Willd., is the oldest name for the species which goes under the name of Olax scandens Roxb. in our floras. Vahl made new combination in genus Olax Linn., based on specific epithet psittacorum. Roxburgh, (in FI. Ind. 1: 164, 1832) cites Fissilea psittacorum Willd. as a synonym under the Olax scandens Roxb. Index Kewensis lists Fissilea psittacorum Lamk., attributing specific epithet psittacorum to Lamark. How- ever, Lamark did not publish the specific name psittacorum. He gave the diagnosis and the plate of genus Fissilea Comm, ex Juss. (Gen. 260, 1789) (see also Lamk., Illustr. Gen. 1 : 102, t. 28, 1791). Willdenow, (in Sp. 742 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES PI. 1 : 194, 1797) named Lamark’s plate and diagnosis as Fissilea psittacorum Willd. There- fore the specific name psittacorum should not be attributed to Lamark but to Willdenow. However, Blanco, (FI. Filip, ed. 1, 28, 1837) used the name F. psittacorum for species pre- sently known as Olax wightiana Wall. ex. Wight & Arn. and Masters (l.c.) has placed Vahl’s name Olax psittacorum (Willd.) Vahl, in the synonymy of Olax wightiana Wall, as well as Olax scandens Roxb. Roxburgh’s identification of his own spe- cies — Olax scandens Roxb. — synonymous with Fissilea psittacorum renders his name superfluous and should be rejected. Sleumer (l.c.) treats O. scandens Roxb. and Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay 400 001. Alchemie Centre, Thane-Belapur Road, P. O. Box 155, Thane 400 601, March 23, 1983. O. wightiana Wall, as conspecific. Rev. Fr. H. Santapau (l.c.) keeps both these species as distinct, but seems to be in trouble while correctly placing his Khandala plants under the proper species. Even if we consider Master’s view as correct in keeping them as distinct species, then Olax psittacorum (Willd.) Vahl should replace Olax scandens Roxb. According to Article no. 53 of ICBN, “When a species is divided into two or more species, the original specific epithet must be retained for one of them or, if it has not been retained, it must be reinstated for one of them.” We are grateful to Prof. P. V. Bole, for going through the manuscripts and making some useful suggestions. S. M. ALMEIDA M. R. ALMEIDA 743 THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. 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The subscription of members elected in October. November, and December covers the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year. ISSN 0006-6982 CONTENTS A CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF HOUBARA! 1982-83 WINTERING POPULATION IN Baluchistan. By Afsar Mian Oriental Lycaenidae, Rigdinidae, and Hesperiidae from the Central Nepal Himalayas. By Oakley Shields A report on a collection of Amphibians and Reptiles from the Ponmudi, Kerala, south India. By Robert F. Inger, H. Bradley Shaffer, Mammen Koshy N and Ramesh Bakde Pollination ecology of Euphorbia geniculata (Euphorbiaceae) . By E. U. B. Reddi and C. Subba Reddi Adaptive modifications of the Reduviidae of the scrub jungles and semi-arid zones of the Palghat Gap, India — an evolutionary approach. By D. Livingstone and D. P. Ambrose ' A NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME PLANTS IN GANGANAGAR DISTRICT, RAJAS- THAN. By B. P. Singh and N. S. Brar Breeding biology of the Indian Fruit Bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) in Central India. By Satwant Sandhu Birds of a polluted river. By Prakash Gole Orchids of Great Nicobar Island and their conservation. By D. K. Hore and N. P. Balakrishnan . Is habitat destruction in India and Pakistan beginning to affect the status of endemic passerine birds ? By A. J. Gaston Food and feeding habits of fingerlings and juveniles of Mahseer ( Tor putitora Ham.) in Nayar river. By Prakash Nautiyal and M. S. Lai The environmental limitations and future of the Asiatic Lion. By Paul Joslin New Descriptions Review Miscellaneous Notes Page 537 546 551 571 583 596 600 613 626 636 642 648 665 684 685 RN 5685/57 Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 103 and published by Editors: J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole and A. N. D. Nanavati for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Sbaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023. 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