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of the

Bombay Natural History

Society

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Hornbill House, Editors,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay

Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society.

VOLUME 85 (1) : APRIL 1988

Date of Publication : 20-8-1988.

CONTENTS

Page

Analysis of predator-prey balance in Bandipur Tiger Reserve with reference

to census reports. By Ullas Karanth . . 1

A contribution to the B iology of the Houbara ( Chlamydotis undulata mac-
queeni)', some observations on 1983-84 wintering population in Baluchi-
stan. By Afsar Mian. ( With three text-figures ) . . 9

The Butterflies of the Nilgiri mountains of southern India (Lepidgptera:

Rhopalocera) . By Torben B. Larsen 26

On THE FISH FAUNA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR (RAJASTHAN).

By C. R. Ajith Kumar and V. S. Vijayan. (With a text- figure) . . 44

Ecology of babblers (Turdoides spp.). By V. J. Zacharias and D. N. Mathew.

(With three text-figures) . . 50

A contribution to the Flora of Khatling glacier in the Garhwal Himalaya

(District-Tehri), U.P. — 2. By K. S. Negi, J. K. Tiwari and R. D. Gaur 64

Feeding ecology of the Mud Crab, Scylla serrata (Forskal) from Sunkeri
backwaters, Karwar. By P. N. Prasad, R. Sudarshana and B. Neelakantan.

(With four text-figures) . . 79

Birds of the Visakhapatnam Ghats, Andhra Pradesh — 2. By S. Dillon Ripley,

Bruce M. Beehler and K.S.R. Krishna Raju . . 90

Tendencies in north-south preferences in the orientation of Silkworm.

By M.V.V. Subrahmanyam and P. M. Chandrasekhar 108

Cladocera of Dharwad (Karnataka State). By C. S. Patil and B. Y. Gouder.

(With seven plates) . . 112

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of Bombay Natural History

Society — 33. By Humayun Abdulali 118

Observations on the reproduction and associated phenomena in the male
Fruit Bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) in Central India. By Satwant Sandhu.

(With four text-figures) . . 135

New Descriptions:

Five new species of Tenthredo Linnaeus (Hymenoptera: Tenth redin idae) from
the Garhwal Hills. By Devinder Singh and Malkiat S. Saini. (With twenty-
one text-figures) . . 143

A new species of Stictopisthus Thomson (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) from

India. By L. J. Kanhekar and P. K. Nikam. (With four text-figures) 151

A NEW GALL-MIDGE1 OF THE GENUS Lestodiplosis KlEFFER (DlPTERA : CeCIDOMYIIDAE)

from Maharashtra, India. By R. M. Sharma. (With seven text-figures) 155

A new genus of Chalcididae (Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea) from the collec-
tions of United States National Museum of Natural History, Washing-
ton, D.C. By T. C. Narendran. (With nine text-figures ) . . 158

A new species of Secamone (Asclepiadaceae) from south Andamans (India).

By A. K. Goel and M. K. Vasudeva Rao. (With a text-figure ) . . 161

Bothriochloa parameswaranii — A new species of Poaceae from Kerala, India.

By P. V. Sreekumar, C. P. Malathi and V. J. Nair. (With a text-figure ) . . 163

Description of a new species of the genus Aleurolobus Quaintance & Baker
(1914) (Aleyrodidae: Homoptera). By B. V. David. R. W. Alexander Jesu-
dasan and George Mathew. (With three text- figures) . . 165

A new species of the Gesneriaceae from Nagaland. By D. B. Deb and Ratna

Dutta. (With a text-figure ) . . 168

Three new species of the genus Acanthaspis (Amy. and Serv.) from southern
India (Heteroptera-Reduviidae-Acanthaspidinae). By David Livingstone and
C. Murugan. (With three text-figures ) . . 170

Obituary :

Rev. Br. Antonio Navarro, SJ. (With a plate ) . . 176

Reviews:

1 . The Orchid Flora of North West Himalayas. (M. R. Almeida) . . 178

2. Name changes in flowering plants of India and Adjacent regions. (M. R.

Almeida) . . 178

3. Tigers of the Raj — the Shikar Diaries of Colonel Burton 1894 to 1949.

(Pratap Saraiya) 180

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. The Stump-tailed Macaque (Macaca arctoides I. Geoffroy) in Arunachal
Pradesh. By R. N. Bhargava (p. 182); 2. Shortnosed Fruit Bat (Cynopterus sphinx
Vahl) feeding on the leaves of Cassia fistula at Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary. By P.
Balasubramanian (p. 183); 3. Scavenging habit of fishing cat (Felis viverrina) in Keoladeo
National Park, Bharatpur. By Md. Nayerul Haque (p. 183); 4. Melanism in the jungle
cat, Felis chaus Guldenstaedt (Felidae: Carnivora). By S. Chakraborty, R. Chakraborty,
V. C. Agrawal and Manoj Muni (p. 184); 5. Some observations on food habits of Jackal
(Canis aureus) in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, as shown by scat analysis. By K.
Sankar (p. 185); 6. Interaction between Dholes (Cuon alpinus) and a Python (Python
molurus) in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, India. By Ajay A. Desai, N.
Sivaganesan and S. Ramesh Kumar (p. 186); 7. Albino Sloth Bear. By A.M.K. Bharos

(p. 187); 8. Notes on the food habits of Nilgiri Tahr. By Clifford G. Rice (p., 1881);

9. Sex ratio in Lepus nigricollis. By Satish Kumar Sharma (p. 189).

Birds: 10. Purple Heron (Ardea purpurea) swallowing a Jungle Babbler. By J. Mangalraj
Johnson (p. 190); 11. Recovery of a Norwegian ringed Osprey in Gujarat, India. By Taej
Mundkur (p. 190); 12. Notes on feeding behaviour of Amaurornis phoenicurus at Point
Calimere. By R. Sugathan and S. Alagar Rajan (p. 191); 13. A new nesting colony of
River Terns & Pratincoles. By E. K. Bharucha, P. P. Gogte and T. P. Gole (p. 191);
14. Sight record of Starling Sturnus vulgaris in Andhra Pradesh. By Asad R. Rahmani

(p. 193); 15. On the singing posture of the Strongfooted Bush Warbler (Cettia fortipes).

By Nitin Jamdar (p. 194); 16. Sighting of the Whitecapped Bunting Emberiza steward
(Blyth) in Hingolgadh, Gujarat. By Shivrajkumar Khachar and Taej Mundkur (p. 195);
17. Bird Casualties in road accidents. By Satish Kumar Sharma (p. 195).

Reptiles: 18. Defensive behaviour in the Indian Roofed Turtle Kachuga tecta (Gray).
{With a text-figure). By Indraneil Das (p. 197); 19. An incidence of a Gecko {Hemi-
dactylus sp.) feeding on a Skink. By R. Kannan and R. Krishnaraj (p. 198); 20. A note
on the food habit of the Garden Lizard, Calotes versicolor. By A. G. Sekar (p. 199);
21. Note on snakes from the district Dangs, Gujarat State. By Raju Vyas (p. 200).

Amphibia: 22. Predation of Microhyla tadpoles by Gambusia. By H. V. Ghate and A. D.
Padhye (p. 200); 23. On a small collection of Amphibians from Goa. {With a colour plate
and a text-figure ). By Humayun Abdulali and A. G. Sekar (p. 202).

Fishes: 24. Mouth Brooding in the noble Gourami, Ctenops nobilis (McClelland) (Pisces:
Belontidae) . By S. R. Sane and B. F. Chhapgar (p. 205); 25. On the systematic status
of the species of the genus Danio Hamilton described by Barman (1983, 1984. 1985). By
Raj Tilak and Seema Jain (p. 207); 26. First record of the King-fish, Semiplotus modestus
Day, 1870 (Pisces: Cyprinidae) from India. By R. P. Barman (p. 210); 27. Occurrence
of a Schizothoracine fish (Snow Trout) in a subterranean cave near Udaipur, Rajasthan.
By Raza Tehsin, V. S. Durve and Manoj Kulshreshtha (p. 211).

Insects: 28. Mating and oviposition behaviour of tea Mosquito Bug Helopeltis antonii
Signoret (Heteroptera : Miridae). By S. Devasahayam (p. 212); 29. Young lac insects in
a miniature ant’s nest. By S. Mahdihassan (p. 215); 30. Record of Sima alaboranus
(Walker), a honeydew scavenger ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Myrmecinae) killing
aphidophagous syrphid Maggot in Western Himalaya. By D. Ghosh and S. Chakrabarti
(p. 216); 31. Dung and Dung Beetles in Kanha Tiger Reserve, Central Indian Highlands.
By Paul N. Newton and Malcolm J. Coe (p. 218); 32. The Indian fritillary {Argyreus
hyperbius L.) in the Chambal area of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan (Lepidoptera : Nym-
phalidae). By Torben B. Larsen (p. 221); 33. Revised nomenclature for some butterflies
of the Indian region. By R. K. Varshney (p. 222).

Other Invertebrates: 34. Some observations on the mother-young relationship in Meso-
buthus famulus famulus (Fabr.) (Order: Seorpionida, Family: Buthidae). {With two text-
figures). By B. E. Yadav and R. H. Kamble (p. 226); 35. On an interesting case of
parental care and distribution of Cormocephafus dentipes Pocock (Chilopoda: Scolopendro-
morpha: Scolopendridae) . By Raj Tilak and Pranjalendu Roy (p. 228); 36. Cladocera of
Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. II. New records 1. Moinodaphnia macleayii
(King, 1853) and 2. Bosminopsis deitersi Richard. 1895. {With two text-figures). By K.
Venkataraman (p. 229).

Botany: 37. Two corrections to the nomenclature in the revision of Pueraria DC. By L. J. S.
van der Maesen and S. M. Almeida (p. 233); 38. Lichen family Collemataceae from
Andaman Islands, India. By D. K. Upreti and Ajay Singh (p. 234); 39. Asplenium bullatum
Wall, ex Mett. (Aspleniaceae) — A new record for north-western Himalaya from Kumaun
Hills. By Y. P. S. Pangtey and S. S. Samant (p. 237); 40. Pollen Morphological variations
among three Taxa of Rutaceae. By B. Prema Gunaseeli (p. 238); 41. Merremia quinque-
folia (Linn.) Hall. f. : A new record for eastern India. By B. C. Patra and B. P. Chaudhury
(p. 240); 42. Relationship between Pyrrolizidine alkaloids, Danaine Butterflies and Ageratum
conyzoides. By M. R. Almeida and V. K. Ravindran (p. 241); 43. Notes on the distri-
bution of rare and little known Tanacetum nubigenum Wall, ex DC. (Asteraceae) from north-
west Himalaya. {With a text-figure) . By K. S. Negi, K. C. Pant and K. C. Muneem
(p. 242); 44. On the occurrence of Holcolemma canaliculatum (Nees ex Steud.) Stapf et
Hubbard, a rare grass to south India, at Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu.
By P. Balasubramanian and V. Karunanidhi (p. 244); 45. Tricholoma pratense (Agaricales) :
A new Indian record. {With a text-figure). By M. K. Das and M. P. Sinha (p. 2j46);
46. Geranium carolinianum Linn. — An addition to the Indian Flora from Patiala District,
Punjab. {With a text-figure). By M. Sharma, V. K. Singhal and Pairamjit Kaur (p. 247).

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1988 APRIL Vol. 85 No. 1

ANALYSIS OF PREDATOR-PREY BALANCE IN
BANDIPUR TIGER RESERVE WITH
REFERENCE TO CENSUS REPORTS1

K. Ullas Karanth2

The deciduous forest habitats of the 690 km2 Bandipur tiger reserve in Karnataka
State harbour major mammalian predators such as tiger, leopard and dhole supported
by a large and diverse assemblage of prey species. It is reported that populations of
these animals have increased dramatically in recent years, in response to improved
management practices. These conclusions are drawn on the basis of population esti-
mates of different species obtained using several census techniques currently in
practice. In this paper I have examined the broad predator-prey balance among
larger mammals of the reserve using the 1982 census figures, integrating ecological
data on these species from several recent studies into the analysis.

This analysis suggests that the predator and prey population estimates are not
meaningful. Comparisons of distributional density and biomass of different species
and the total prey biomass calculated here with those obtained from other important
studies in the Indian sub-continent reinforce these conclusions. Therefore, a radical
revision of all the present census techniques and introduction of appropriate modem
census methods are recommended.

Introduction

The deciduous forests of the 690 km2 Bandi-
pur tiger reserve described by Neginhal (1974)
harbour a diverse assemblage of large mam-
mals (Table 1). Due to strict control over
biotic interferences and systematic management

1 Accepted November 1985.

2 Centre for Wildlife Studies, 499, Kuvempu Nagar,

Mysore-570 023.

under ‘Project Tiger’ since 1973, it is reported
that populations of large mammals have in-
creased substantially. This claim is supported
by the annual census reports. Particularly
notable is the reported increase of tiger popu-
lation from 11 in 1973 to 54 in 1984 (Basappa-
navar 1985).

The census of tigers/leopards is made from
pugmarks; elephant and gaur from Visual
counts’ and other animals from ‘sample counts’

1

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

(Basappanavar 1985). During the October
1982 census, which I observed, the entire re-
serve was divided into 103 compartments
(average 6.9 km2) and between 0600-1600 hrs
three member teams perambulated each com-
partment thoroughly, following no predetermin-
ed path. They collected ‘plaster casts’ of pug-
marks and recorded animal sightings on a
printed form. This field data was later conso-
lidated to arrive at the census estimates
(Table 2).

In this paper I have tried to analyse the
predator-prey balance for the reserve based
on these estimates. I have focussed my analysis
on the larger carnivores, as they are sensitive
indicators of habitat quality and may be studied
at greater profit to gauge the health and ex-
tent of an environment to be preserved (Eisen-
berg 1980).

To simplify the analysis I have made the
following assumptions:

(i) The large predators are cropping only the
incremental prey biomass annually, with-
out depleting the prey base.

(ii) Chital, sambar, muntjac, wild pig, gray
langur and livestock form the major prey
and accounted for 75% of the intake of
tiger, leopard and dhole.

Relative numbers of predators and prey

Prey requirements of predators

Studies by Schaller (1967), Sunquist (1981)
and Tamang (1982) indicate that tigers on an
average need about 3000 kg of prey every year.
On this basis the 49 tigers estimated in the
1982-83 census have an annual prey require-
ment of 1,47,000 kg. Similarly, the annual prey
requirement of the leopard appears to be
about 1,000 kg (Schaller 1967, Muckenhirn and
Eisenberg 1973). The requirement of 50
leopards reported would be 50,000 kg per
year. Johnsingh (1983) estimated the annual

prey requirement of an adult dhole at 680 kg.
Being coursing predators, presumably they
have a higher energy expenditure per unit
body weight in comparison to the two felines
which are stalking predators. Considering sub-
adults and pups in the population which have
lower requirements, it is reasonable to presume
an average annual requirement of 340 kg of
prey per dhole. On this basis, the estimated
population of 152 dhole needs 51,680 kg of
prey per year. Therefore the total annual prey
intake of all the tigers, leopards and dholes
estimated to exist in Bandipur reserve during
1982-83 works out to 2,48,680 kg.

During 1982-83, 131 cattle were reported to
be killed by large predators in and around the
reserve (Basappanavar 1985). Including un-
reported cases the maximum number of cattle
killed can be assumed to be 200, since the
villagers usually report any kill to claim com-
pensation. At an average unit weight of 150 kg,
these cattle met the prey requirement to the
extent of 30,000 kg. Other minor wild prey
species (Gaur, four-horned antelope, black-
naped hare, bonnet monkey, peafowl etc.)
consist of 25% of the total prey intake (as
per assumption No. ii) and account for an
additional 62,170 kg.

Therefore, the total weight of major wild
prey species (chital, sambar, muntjac, wild pig
and gray langur) consumed by large predators
during the year was 1,56,510 kg (say 1,56,000
kg) based on census estimates of predators.

Availability of major wild prey species

In table 2, I have worked out the crude
density and crude biomass of the major wild
prey species using census data. From this it
is seen that during 1982-83 Bandipur reserve
had a standing biomass of 1,29,770 kg (say
1,30,000 kg) of major wild prey. What pro-
portion of this biomass was cropped by
predators?

2

PREDATOR-PREY BALANCE IN BAND1PUR TIGER RESERVE

Table 1

Large mammals recorded in bandipur tiger reserve*

Scientific Name

Common Name

PRIMATA
Macaca radiata
Presbytis entellus
Loris tardigradus

Bonnet macaque
Gray langur
Slender loris

LAGOMORPHA
Lepus nigricollis

Blacknaped hare

RODENTIA
Hystrix indica
Ratufa indica
Petaurista petaurista

Indian porcupine
Indian giant squirrel
Large brown flying squirrel

CARNIVORA

Panther a tigris
Panther a par d us
Felis chaus
Felis bengalensis
Viverricula indica
Paradoxurus hermaphroditus
Lutra lutra
Melursus ursinus
Herpestes edwardsi
Herpestes smithi
Herpestes vitticollis
Canis aureus
Cuon alpinus
Hyaena hyaena

Tiger

Leopard

Jungle cat

Leopard cat

Small Indian civet

Common palm civet

Common otter

Sloth bear

Common mongoose

Ruddy mongoose

Stripenecked mongoose

Jackal

Dhole

Striped hyena

PROB OSCIDEA
Elephas maximus

Indian elephant

ARTIODCTYLA
Bos gaurus

Tetracerus quadricornis
Sus scrofa
Muntiacus muntjak
Cervus axis
Cervus unicolor
Tragulus meminna

Gaur

Four homed antelope

Wild pig

Muntjac

Chital

Sambar

Chevrotain

PHOLIDOTA
Man is crassicaudata

Indian pangolin

* From Neginhal (1974) and personal observations.

3

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Table 2

Densities and biomass of selected large mammals in bandipur tiger reserve derived from the

1982-83 census estimates

Species

Census

Estimates

Density
Nos. /km2

Unit wt.*
kg

Average

Biomass

Kg/km2

To tal Stand-
ing Biomass
Kg

Wild Prey

Gaur

551

0.79

545.0

435.21

300 295

Sambar

342

0.50

113.6

56.30

38 851

Chital

1333

1.93

45.0

86.93

59.985

Muntjac

92

0.13

13.4

1.78

1 233

Wild pig

111

1.12

25.8

28.86

19 917

Gray langur

1223

1.77

8.0

14.18

9 784

Total :

623.26

430 065

Predators

Tiger

49

0.0710

150.0

10.65

7 350

Leopard

50

0.0725

45.0

3.26

2 250

Dhole

152

0.2203

18.0

3.97

2 736

Total :

17.88

12 336

♦The average unit weight for the species is selected from: Schaller (1967) for Gaur, chital and
wild pig; Seidensticker (1976) for sambar; Eisenberg & Lockhart (1972) for muntjac; Johnsingh
(1983) for gray langur and dhole; and Eisenberg (1980) for tiger and leopard.

Schaller (1972) and Sunquist (1981) estimat-
ed that annually predators remove about 10%
of the standing biomass. Johnsingh (1983) esti-
mated it at 20% in his study area of 20 km2
around Bandipur campus. However, he attri-
buted this higher rate of removal to the addi-
tional predation caused by the sudden with-
drawal of livestock from the area just prior
to his study.

Thus a maximum annual cropping by pre-
dators of the order of 15% seems reasonable
for this analysis. Therefore, the possible annual
removal of biomass of major wild prey species
by the large predators works out to 19,500 kg.
However as seen earlier annual consumption
of such prey amounts to 1,56,000 kg, based on
census estimates of predators. The annual
cropping by predators seems to exceed the
staiding biomass of major prey species !

These calculations indicate that the official
census estimates of large predators are signi-
ficant overestimates and those of major prey
species are possibly underestimates.

Biomass of prey

Eisenberg and Seidensticker (1976) have
synthesized the information on ungulate bio-
mass and densities from several studies in
South Asia. Johnsingh (1983) has assessed
these for his 20 km2 study area in Bandipur
reserve, which is the best wildlife area in the
entire reserve. Based on published data and
census estimates T have presented the densities
and biomass for the major prey species (Table
2).

The biomass figures calculated above can
be compared to those from other studies cited
above. Biomass figures of 383 kg/ km2 for Gir

4

PREDATOR-PREY BALANCE IN BAN DIPUR TIGER RESERVE

forest, 1708 kg/ km2 for Kanha reserve and
3,382 kg/km2 for Johnsingh’s 20 km2 study
area in Bandipur are available. In spite of
lower incidence of livestock grazing pressure
the calculated biomass of major prey species
works out to only 623 kg/km2 in comparison.
From the above comparison, the estimated prey
biomass and hence the census estimates on
which they are based appear to be too low
for Bandipur tiger reserve.

Densities and Biomass of Predators

Johnsingh (1983) who pioneered the study
of dhole in Bandipur estimated that the mean
number of dhole varied between 7-18 in his
study area. This yields a density of 35 to 90
dhole/ 100 km2. However, it must be noted
that his study area had a high density of prey
and ecologically almost ideal habitat condi-
tions for dholes. The reserve as a whole is
more densely forested and has a lower prey
density. Therefore, the density of 22 dhole/
109 km2 obtained from census estimate appears
rather high.

While high densities of 17-20 leopards/ 100
km2 are reported from habitats in Sri Lanka
(Eisenberg 1980, Santiapillai et ah 1982)
where competing predators like tiger and dhole
are entirely absent, the reported density of 7.25
leopards/ 100 km2 in Bandipur needs to be
cautiously viewed, in the absence of any cor-
roborative evidence.

Studies of the tiger in Kanha by Schaller
(1967), Panwar (1979a) show densities 3.1-
4.7 animals/100 km2. Intensive radio-tracking
studies (Sunquist 1981, Tamang 1982, Sunquist
and Mishra, in press) in Chitwan have yielded
density estimates of 2. 3 -3. 7 tigers/ 100 km2.
These study sites were notable for the virtual
absence of dholes and carried substantially
higher prey biomass in comparison with the
post- 1973 Bandipur reserve. Inspite of this, the
census estimates yield an extraordinarily high

density of 7.10 tigers/ 100 km2 indicating a
significant overestimate for this species.

The predator to prey biomass ratios calcu-
lated using census estimates works out to 1 : 35
for Bandipur reserve as against 1 : 250 for
Serengeti, 1:100 for Ngorongoro, 1:123 for
Chitwan, 1:75 for Wilpattu and 1:124 for
Johnsingh’s study area (Ratios calculated from
Schaller 1972, Eisenberg 1980, Eisenberg and
Seidensticker 1976 and Johnsingh 1983).

On the basis of the above analysis it can be
concluded that:

(i) The census estimates for large predators
in general and tigers in particular are
significant overestimates.

(ii) The census estimates of prey species are
not meaningful and might be under-
estimates.

(iii) Therefore, the census techniques currently
used in Bandipur tiger reserve are basi-
cally wrong and need to be modified keep-
ing in view recent trends and develop-
ments in wildlife management.

Census Methods

A Review of present Census Techniques
The census estimates of tigers/leopards are
now obtained at Bandipur using the pugmark
tracing technique developed by Choudhury and
described by Panwar (1979b). Apart from not
having been validated on a known population
anywhere, the technique demands a great
deal of personal skill on the part of the prac-
titioner. In addition to this subjective bias the
following errors might have led to the over-
estimates in Bandipur:

(i) Absence of continuous year-round re-
cording of pugmarks and assigning home-
ranges to individual resident animals as done
by Panwar (1979a) and McDougal (1977).
The once a year census of Bandipur does not

5

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

enable identification of individual animals with
their home ranges.

(ii) Classification of the pugmarks of a
single animal as those of several animals due
to the differences caused by substrate condi-
tions.

(iii) Collection of pugmarks of different
limbs and collection of pugmarks from distant
localities made over a 2-3 day period.

The estimates for elephant and gaur are
reported to be from ‘visual counts’ and of
other species from ‘Sample counts’ (Rasappa-
navar 1985). Both these estimates are likely
to be wrong due to the following reasons:

(i) Due to the limited visibility the census
teams fail to actually obtain a total count of
gaur and elephants. However, since these ani-
mals range over considerable distances, often
in response to the census activity itself, some
of them are likely to be counted by two or
more adjoining census parties. Therefore, these
cannot be considered total counts.

(ii) Since the census teams do not follow
a repeatable pre-determined transect and do
not also maintain any record of the width/
length of the forest strip being sampled, the
counts of other species also cannot be accepted
as sample counts.

In practice, however, the reserve managers
seem to treat these arbitrary counts of all
species as total counts (Basappanavar 1979,
Wesley 1977) leading to estimates which are
not meaningful.

Alternative Methods and Techniques

Before suggesting alternatives, the following
points summarised from Caughley (1977) need
consideration. The abundance of an animal
species can be measured in three ways:

(i) Number of animals in a population
{census or total count).

(ii) Number of animals per unit area {abso-
lute density).

(iii) Density of one population relative to
another — e.g., between different years or
different locations {relative density).

Most ecological and management problems
can be tackled with the help of suitable in-
dices of relative density and many others with
the help of absolute density estimates. Total
counts have very few practical uses. I have
outlined here, briefly, some alternate methods
for estimating abundance of mammalian species
at Bandipur keeping these points in view.
Wherever possible, I have referred to some
sources on the theory and practice of these
alternate techniques:

(i) Relative density of tigers/leopards bet-
ween localities or years can be estimated using
suitably designed indices like number of tracks/
scats/sightings per km of roads traversed
(Joslin 1973).

(ii) Absolute density of tigers/leopards can
be estimated using home-ranges determined
through systematic, year-round pugmark col-
lections (McDougal 1977, Panwar 1979b).
Identification of specific individuals from
facial markings/coat patterns from photos
obtained with camera trap devices can validate
these estimates (McDougal 1977).

(iii) For all the reasonably abundant large
mammalian species good indices of relative
density in stratified habitats can be derived
from roadside counts from vehicles, counts at
water holes/feeding spots (Caughley 1977,
Overton 1971, Berwick 1974, Dinerstein 1980).

(iv) For smaller, shy or nocturnal species
e.g., rodents, mongooses, civets, smaller felids
indices of relative densities can be obtained
using capture-mark-recapture techniques (Over-
ton 1971, Begon 1979 and Anon. 1981).

(v) Indices of relative densities for a wide
range of species, particularly ungulates, can
be obtained from pellet group/scat counts
from linear strips or quadrats (Overton 1971,
Mishra 1982).

6

PREDATOR-PREY BALANCE IN BAND I PUR TIGER RESERVE

(vi) For a large number of reasonably
abundant diurnal mammals absolute densities
can be estimated in stratified habitats using
line transect censuses, particularly from ele-
phant back. It has been successfully used in
Nepal and has developed rapidly in recent
years incorporating computer analysis of the
field data (Caughley 1977, Burnham et al
1980, Anon. 1981, Seidensticker 1976, Mishra
1982 and Tamang 1982).

(vii) Absolute densities for many diurnal
species can also be estimated from sweep/
drive censuses of smaller patches of forests
(Overton 1971) since manpower is not a
constraint at Bandipur.

(viii) For thinly distributed diurnal species
e.g., dhole, bonnet macaque, four-horned ante-
lope, systematic observations of previously
marked animals may yield home-range size
and hence absolute density estimates. For noc-
turnal, thinly distributed, or hard to observe
species e.g., civets and lesser felids home-ranges
and absolute density estimates can be obtain-
ed by repeated recapture of marked individuals
in a series of traps (Overton 1971, Begon 1979
and Anon. 1981).

In conclusion, I must stress here that my
analysis does not deny the spectacular success
of ‘Project Tiger’ in Bandipur. It has the
limited aim of evaluating the present census
techniques so that more scientifically valid
methods are evolved. Such methods will be
more appropriate for quantifying the undis-
puted success achieved by wildlife managers
during the last decade in Bandipur and else-
where in the country.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Mr. C. H. Basappanavar,
Field Director, Bandipur Tiger Reserve for the
generous cooperation extended during my visits
to the Reserve for collecting the information
used here. I am also grateful to Dr. R. Rudran
of the Smithsonian Institution who introduced
me to the practicalities of many census tech-
niques. I have also benefited from discussions
on an earlier draft of this paper with Drs. J.
B. Sale, M. E. Sunquist, H. R. Mishra, A.J.T.
Johnsingh and Mr. K. M. Chinnappa. I am
indebted to all of them.

References

Anon. (1981): Techniques for the study of pri-
mate population ecology. National Academy Press,
Washington D.C.

Basappanavar, C. H. (1979) : Population dyna-
nics in Bandipur Tiger Reserve (Predator-Prey rela-
tionship). Myf orest’, 9-16.

— — (1985): Bandipur National

Park — A Paradise regained in tiger country. Tiger
Paper, Vol. xii, No. 1, 28-32.

Begon, M. (1979) : Investigating animal abun-
dance: capture-recapture for biologists. Edward

Arnold Ltd., London.

Berwick, S. H. (1974): The community of wild
ruminants in the Gir forest ecosystem, India. Ph.D.,
Dissertation, Yale University, U.S.A.

Burnham, K. P., Anderson, D. R. & Laake, J. L.

(1980): Estimation of density from line transect
sampling of biological populations. Wildlife Mono-
graph No. 72, The Wildlife Society, Washington D.C.

Caughley, G. (1977) : Analysis of vertebrate
populations. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Dinerstein, E. (1980) : An ecological survey of
the Royal Karnali-Bardia Wildlife Reserve, Nepal,
Part III: Ungulate populations. Biol. Conserv. 18:
5-38.

Eisenberg, J. F. (1980) : The density and bio-
mass of tropical mammals. In: Soule, M. E. and
Wilcox, B. A. (Eds.), Conservation Biology, 35-55,
Sinaur Sunderland, Mass.

Eisenberg, J. F. & Lockhart, M. C. (1972) : An
ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park,
Ceylon. Smithsonian Contrib. Zool. 101: 1-118.

7

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Eisenberg, J. F. & Seidensticker, J. (1976) :
Ungulates in Southern Asia: A consideration of
biomass estimates for selected habitats. Biol. Con-
serv. 10: 294-308.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1983) : Large mammalian

prey-predators in Bandipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
80: 1-57.

Joslin, P. (1973): Asiatic Lion: A study of eco-
logy and behaviour. Ph.D., thesis, University of
Edinburgh, U.K.

McDougal, C. (1977): The face of the tiger.
Rivington Books, London.

Mishra, H. R. (1982) : The ecology and beha-
viour of chital ( Axis axis ) in the Royal Chitwan
National Park, Nepal. Ph.D., thesis, University of
Edinburgh, U.K.

Muckenhirn, N. A. & Eisenberg, J. F. (1973):
Home ranges and predation of the Ceylon leopard.
In: R. L. Eaton (Ed.), The World’s Cats, 1: 142-
175. World Wildlife Safari, Winston, Or.

Neginhal, S. G. (1974): Bandipur Tiger Re-
serve: A Management Plan. Karnataka Forest De-
partment, Bangalore.

Overton, W. S. (1971): Estimating the numbers
of animals in wildlife populations. In: R. H. Giles
(Ed.), Wildlife Management Techniques, 405-455,
The Wildlife Society, Washington D.C.

Panwar, H. S. (1979a): Population dynamics and
land tenures of tigers in Kanha National Park.
Indian Forester (Special Issue) : 18-36.

Panwar, H. S. (1979b) : A note on tiger census
technique based on pugmark tracings. Indian Forester
(Special Issue) : 70-77.

Santiapillai, C., Chambers, M. R. & Ishwaran,
N. (1982) : The leopard Panthera pardus fusca
(Meyer, 1974) in Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka
and observations relevant to its conservation. Biol.
Conserv. 23: 5-14.

Schaller, G. B. (1967): The deer and the tiger.
University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

(1972): The Serengeti Lion.

The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Seidensticker, J. (1976): Ungulate populations in
Chitwan Valley, Nepal. Biol. Conserv. 10: 183-210.

Sunquist, M. E. (1981) : The social organization
of tigers ( Panthera tigris ) in Royal Chitwan
National Park. Smithsonian Contrib. Zool. 336s 1-98.

& Mishra, H. R. (in press) :

Habitat utilization and movement patterns of tigers
and their prey: Implications for management and
reserve design. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

Tamang, K. M. (1982) : The status of the tiger
( Panthera tigris tigris) and its impact on principal
prey populations in Royal Chitwan National Park,
Nepal. Ph.D., thesis, Michigan State University, East
Lansing, Michigan, U.S.A.

Wesley, D. G. (1977): Census of wild animals
in Bandipur Tiger Reserve. Myforest. 16: 15-19.

8

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF THE
HOUBARA ( CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENI );
SOME OBSERVATIONS ON 1983-84 WINTERING
POPULATION IN BALUCHISTAN1

Afsar Mian2

(With three text-figures)

A carefully prepared questionnaire was circulated to persons in different parts
of Baluchistan, and the data received from 42 persons were analysed with respect
to distribution and population levels, population decline, food and feeding behaviour,
roosting, responses to disturbance, trapping and domestication, and migration of the
population of the Houbara Bustard ( Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni ) wintering in
Baluchistan.

Introducton

The desolate valleys of Baluchistan (Pakis-
tan) have been recognized as a main wintering
resort for the Asian race of Houbara Bustard,
Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni (Ali and
Ripley 1969, Siddiqi 1972). A gradual but
rapid decline in all global populations of this
bird (Collar 1980) and especially in Punjab
(Mirza 1972, Goriup 1980), Sind (Surahio
1981, 1982, 1983), and N.W.F.P. (Roberts and
Savage 1972, Malik 1983, Khan 1983), attract-
ed us to this species in Baluchistan. Our
researches during the past two years (Mian
and Surahio 1983, Mian and Rafique 1984,
Mian 1984a, Mian and Dasti 1984) suggested
that this region is important in the world con-
servation map of this species, as it still holds
a reasonable population and potential for the
presence of a limited breeding activity (Mian
1983, 1985a). As research progressed our in-
terest in the biology of this bustard mounted,
with the hope that it would provide a sound
base for a well planned conservation strategy.

1 Accepted October 1986.

2 Department of Zoology, University of Baluchi-
stan, Quetta, Pakistan.

This report considers a part of data collected
on biological and ecological aspects of the
population of Houbara wintering in Baluchistan
during 1983-84.

Material and Methods

A carefully prepared questionnaire with
questions on various aspects of the biology,
ecology and declining trends of the Houbara
was circulated through the Provincial Forest
Department to be filled up by the Forest
Guards/Game Watchers based on the obser-
vations on the populations of the bird winter-
ing in their respective areas during the 1983-84
winters (facsimile of questionnaire. Appendix
I). The questionnaire was also circulated
among well known hunters and the local
populace. A carefully drafted questionnaire
helps in collection of a large body of infor-
mation, especially when a total survey is not
feasible over such an extensive terrain as in
Baluchistan with limited financial resources. In
all 42 individuals responded, from Zhob,
Pishin, Quetta, Chagai, Kharan, Bisemah,
Panjgur, Gwadar, Kohlu, Dera Bugti, Sibi and
Kachhi. No information, however, was receiv-
ed from Loralai and Lasbella districts.

9

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

The reply to each question was tabulated.
Some of the observations were irrelevant and
were eliminated from the final analysis after
giving due weight to the status of the reporter.
Various countercheck questions for the obser-
vations helped in selecting the right ones for
the final analysis. Information regarding local
and visiting hunters, generally seemed to be
inadequate, because of the local ban on hunt-
ing and official quota alloted to foreign hun-
ters, and hence was not subjected to the ana-
lysis of hunting pressure. The data regarding
the take of the local and foreign hunters was
collected through direct contact with the guides
to the visiting falconers in the area, and local
hunters.

Results and Discussion

Distribution and Population Levels :

The Houbara Bustard has a very wide dis-
tribution in Baluchistan during the winter
months and can be seen everywhere, except
for the tops and slopes of the mountains and
certain narrow valleys (Table 1, Fig. 1). As
the northern part of the province is mainly
occupied by Suleiman and Toba Kakar ranges,
the favourable bustard tracts are very limited
in Zhob (Patao), Pishin (Dolangi and Mar-
gakti) and Quetta (Karram) districts. Vast
desert steppe valleys occupy most of the
southern part, hence the bird exhibits a wider
distribution in Chagai, Kharan, Sibi, Kohlu,
Kacchi and Makran districts. The presence of
various mountain ranges limit bustard popu-
lation to specific areas in Khuzdar, Punjgur
and Bisemah. These findings suggest a much
wider spread of wintering population of the
species than that anticipated by Roberts and
Savage (1972; Makran and Lasbella) and
Siddiqi (1972, Maslak, Quetta), and partly
confirm the distribution proposed by Mian
(1984a), as seen from the hunting successes
of the Arab falconers.

The data suggests that though a basal
population level of the bird persists in all
favourable bustard tracts of Baluchistan,
throughout winter (October-March), the peak
level is restricted to specific periods, depend-
ing upon geographic location and physico-
biological factors. Generally in northeastern
parts (Zhob, Quetta, Pishin and Nushki) the
peak levels are restricted to migratory fluxes,
the population of the bird being very low
during the rest of the wintering period. Thus,
high population is present in Quetta during
March-April, and in Zhob, Inam Bostan
(Nushki) and Pishin during November-Decem-
ber and February-March. Reasonably high
population levels persist throughout wintering
period in central and western Chagai, Kharan,
Punjgur, Sibi and Kachhi areas, though limited
to mid winters (January-March) in southern
areas of Gwadar. Such a population fluctuation
is understandable, because the northern areas,
though lying on the migratory routes (Mian and
Surahio 1983), have few valleys with favourable
bustard habitat, thus forcing the bird to the
southern and eastern areas to pass the major
part of the wintering season.

The wintering population of the Houbara
exhibits considerable fluctuation in density
and dispersion depending on physical condi-
tions present in the specific area. Though the
extensive favourable bustard tracts of western
Chagai (between Baldandin and Koh-i-Sultan),
are famous for bearing a rich population of
Houbara throughout winter and as hunting
ground for Arab falconers, the present meagre
population can be attributed to persistent
drought. The information conveyed suggests
the presence of good bustard population till
January, 1984, and the absence of newly
sprouting herbs due to drought has probably
forced them to migrate to the southern areas
of Urmagai, Washuk and Kharan, which had
received scattered rain. The pattern of popu-

10

BIOLOGY OF THE HOUBARA ( CHL AM YD OTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENI)

Table 1

Distribution of favourable Houbara Bustard tracts, population levels and dispersal status of

WINTERING AND SUMMERING POPULATIONS IN DIFFERENT REGIONS OF BALUCHISTAN, BASED ON OBSERVATION

OF 1983-84 WINTERING POPULATION

Major Areas

Fields with

Wintering

Population

Summering

reasonable

population

bustard

Population

Dispersal

Period of

level

population

status

stay

Zhob

Patao*

Rich

Clumped

November &

Rare,

March- April

Singles

Pishin

Dolangi

Low

Clumped

Sept, to

Not

Margakti*

Moderate

April

seen

Quetta

Karram*

Low

—

March to

-do -

Moderate

April

Chagai

Inam Bostan Dak

High

Clumped

Sept, to

Very

Padag
Pul Chotao
Kambran Game
Reserve
Gat Game
Sanctuary*
Nokkundi
Koh-i-Sultan
Shikar Dal
Mashkhel
Essa Chah

Moderate

April

few

Kharao

Everywhere,

Very

Very

Sept, to

Few

Urmagai*

Jalwar*

Jhalawan*

Rich

clumped

April

. . . Bisemah

Bisemah

Poor

Dispersed

Nov. to

Very few

Mashkey

Zaddi

March

till March

. . . Gwadar

Jiwani

Poor

Dispersed

Jan. to

Nil

Plairi

Chittani

Chitti

Ikharah Dam
Pishal
Dar Bella
Kollunchi
Sar-i-Dasht
Ball Nagoor*

March

Kalat

Karrah

Poor

Dispersed

Sept, end to

Very rare

. . . Khuzdar Wamashky '

April

Kawartak

Mula

Kurkh

11

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Table 1 (contd.)

Kohlu

Sui*

Pat Feeder
Tomba*

Bohri

Subvand

Safeed

Garsi

Pazza Berakh

High

Moderate

Much

dispersed

Nov. to
March

. . . Dera
Bughti

Dasht Goveran*

Poor

Dispersed

Oct. to
March

—

Sibi

Kark

Kot Parouzi
Much
Lehri
Pat

Wamber

Low

Moderate

Clumped

Oct. to
Feb.

Seldom,

probably

injured

birds

Kachhi

Saryani*

Bagh Gandana
All other areas
with mustard or
Eruch sp.

Low

Moderate

Dispersed

Sept, to
March

* indicate the tract with a relatively higher bustard population.

lation fluctuation stands confirmed through our
observations in November, 1983, and from the
activities of Arab falconers, who exploited
Chagai area in December and Kharan for the
rest of the winter. The reports of Kharan receiv-
ing a higher bustard population than previous
years can be attributed to persistent drought
and lack of sufficient vegetation in adjacent
areas of Chagai, and to some precipitation
during early winter and better vegetative cover
in Kharan.

The peak levels of bird population varies
in different areas with topography and a num-
ber of biological factors, such as vegetative
cover, vegetation type and human disturbance.
The peak wintering population can be regard-
ed as very high in Kharan (average of 60 birds
spotted during a day’s walk) ; high to moderate
in Chagai and Kohlu (25); moderate to low
in Pishin, Sibi and Kachhi (15); poor in
Khuzdar and Gwadar (8); and very poor in
Punjgur (2-4). Our findings can be corrobo-
rated with hunting successes/activities of Arab

falconers, who claimed a high toll of houbaras
in Kharan, whereas no party visited Khuzdar,
Gwadar and Punjgur. The exact significance
of the various factors contributing to the diffe-
rential status of wintering populations in a
specific area needs to be studied.

The dispersal of wintering population, as
indicated by size of groups, varies in different
tracts of suitable habitat. Thus our data indi-
cates that the population of the bird is very
clumped (15-20 birds per group) in Kharan;
clumped (10-15) in Zhob, Pishin, Chagai and
Sibi; dispersed (4-8) in Bisemah, Punjgur,
Gwadar, Dera Bugti and Kachhi; and very
dispersed (1-4) in Kohlu. It appears that
population level and dispersal status of bustard
are correlated, indicating that both are decid-
ed by the environmental factors. Thus optimal
vegetation cover and related factors may attract
larger population to the area and provide
adequate food/shelter so that the incoming
groups are not forced to disperse.

12

BIOLOGY OF THE HOUBARA (CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENI)

N

A RAB i A N SEA

f.

Pa too

2.

Ddangi

3.

f^argakki

4.

Karra m

5-.

Q isomoh

6.

Punjigur

7.

G wader

8.

Khiadar

9.

Koh!u

10.

0®ra Bugfi

ii .

Sibi

12.

Kachhi

Fig. 1. Line sketch of Baluchistan showing the relative distribution of bustard popu-
lation. The dots indicate bustard density and filled spaces the approximate location

of the mountains.

It appears that the Houbara is attracted to
different plant species in different areas. Thus,
in Sibi and Kachhi areas its population is con-
centrated around cultivated fields of Brassica
campestris (mustard), and Eruca sativum

(Jamba), whereas in areas adjacent to Dera
Ghazi Khan it is attracted to Capparis deci-
dua, partially confirming earlier reports of
Surahio (1983) for Houbara, and All and
Rahmani (1983) for the Great Indian Bus-

13

2

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

tard. Further studies on ecological correlation
between population density/dispersal of
Houbara and plant type/ cover may yield in-
teresting results.

The available information shows that the
population of this bustard summering in Balu-
chistan is very less. Virtually no summering
population of Houbara is present in the major
part of the province. The very rarely seen birds
in areas such as Khuzdar, Sibi, Kacchi and
Bisemah are believed to be injured ones, in-
capable of accompanying the spring emigrants.
However, evidence is accumulating that occa-
sionally a few birds do spend the summer in
Chagai and Kharan, though these may also
show some degree of local migration in accord-
ance with the occurrence of suitable vegetation.
These observations agree with similar earlier
reports (Ali and Ripley 1969, Roberts and
Savage 1972, Siddiqi 1972).

Population Decline :

The information collected through question-
naires and interviews with hunters and tribal
chiefs suggests that there has been an obvious
decline in the population of this bustard during
the last 10-12 years, and the trend is becoming
more pronounced with the passage of time.
Most of the observers associate this decline
with the onset of Arab falconry in the area.
These observations are shared by workers
throughout the world (Collar 1979, 1980), in
Pakistan (Goriup 1981, Surahio 1983, Malik
1983, Khan 1983), and in Baluchistan (Mian
and Surahio 1983, Mian 1984a). However,
though reports from Soviet Russia (Alekseev
1980, Ponomareva 1979), and from Punjab
and Sind (Goriup 1981, Surahio 1982) indi-
cate that the declining trend started some 20
years ago, it became apparent in Baluchistan
only in the last 10 years or so. The fact that
Arab falconers started exploiting the area
quite late may account for this.

Three reports from Khuzdar indicated that
the population of the Houbara is not decreas-
ing, but is actually on the increase, though an
equal number of reports from the same broad
locality maintained that the bird was on the
decline, suggesting that the increase reported
might be a chance observation; but even if
the reports are believed they may not con-
clusively indicate an actual increase in the over-
all population. The presence of an apparently
higher population in these very limited tracts
could be easily attributed to certain specific
local factors, including less hunting pressure
and/or other biological factors like favourable
feeding conditions, which may attract the bird
from the surrounding, less favourable areas to
these isolated pockets. There have been a
number of reports of such local population
shift resulting in a higher population density
in isolated pockets than in the surrounding
areas.

The decline in the abundance of wintering
Houbaras has been rapid in almost all the
regions for which reports are available and
the population of the bird is believed to be
much less now than some 10-12 years ago.
Rough estimates of the declining rates obtained
from casual observers in different parts of the
province indicate a declining rate between 5%
and 25%, averaging around 10% per annum.
Some equivalent decline has been suggested
for Sind (Surahio 1982) and Iran (Scott 1975).
This rate of decline is higher than what
Goriup (1980) has estimated for Cholistan area.
The decline rate of 10% per annum is calcu-
lated to reduce the population to 39.65% in
10 years and to 32.11% in 12 years. The de-
clining rate in its winter quarters seems to
be closely matched by the breeding population
in its homeland as the population in Kyzylkum
(U.S.S.R.) has been reduced to 25% of the
1965 population level (Ponomareva 1979).

The decline in the population levels of the

14

BIOLOGY OF THE HOUBARA (CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENI)

Houbara has been generally ascribed to des-
truction/increased human disturbance of/in its
traditional breeding grounds, habitat loss,
sheep/goat competition (Ponomareva 1979,
Haddane 1983, Mirza 1983), but mainly to
hunting pressure (Roberts 1983, Khan 1983).
The extent of hunting pressure present in its
summering as well as wintering grounds is hard
to fully ascertain. There is definitely a consi-
derable hunting pressure on the Houbara
population in its summering grounds in
U.S.S.R. as well as its wintering grounds in
Pakistan and an enforcement of a total ban on
local hunting is difficult to execute. However,
the present data indicates a clear decrease in
activities of local hunters, which may be
partially attributed to legislative action and
partly to general awareness of the local hunters
and prominence given to the species, through
efforts of the Forest Staff and our talks with
local populace during our field trips in the
past three years.

The major hunting pressure on the bustard
is, however, attributable to organized falconry.
The evidence for a direct correlation
between falconry and population decline is
hard to collect, but the fact that there is no
noticeable decline in population levels of the
birds wintering in Khuzdar, where no falconry
party has visited, suggests that the decline in
the hunted areas is due to the intensive hunt-
ing. The only other areas which have not been
exploited by falconers include Quetta and
Pishin, but both these receive only migratory
flocks. The population decline in these areas
may be attributed to falconry in other parts
of the province. Further, the greater decline
reported from Kohlu, Dera Bugti, Sibi and
Kachhi than from other regions of Baluchistan
may be reasonably attributed to the longer
period they have been exploited by falconry
parties, whereas Chagai, Kharan, and Punjgur
have only recently attracted their attention.

Hunting Pressure :

The extent of hunting pressure from local
hunters is difficult to assess because of a ban
imposed on hunting of the Houbara by local
hunters. The information given to us by the
local hunters and prominent people of the
different areas suggests that the local hunters
did not claim more than 400-500 birds during
1984-85 wintering season in Baluchistan. This
seems understandable because the resources
available to local hunters are meagre and only
a few prominent tribal chiefs can afford car
transport. Most of the hunters depend on
motor cycles. Further, decreased population
density of the bird and its protective colora-
tion makes the hunting very difficult. The
number of the Houbara killed by local hunters
is on a gradual decrease, partly because of the
legal ban on hunting by local hunters and
partly because of the general decline in the
number of the birds. One of the hunters ex-
pressed this fact by saying that whereas pre-
viously one could capture some 15-20 birds in
a day in the Pishin area, now the occasion is
celebrated if a hunter manages to capture even
a single bird.

Correct information as to the exact bag size
claimed by visiting Arab falconers is also very
difficult to collect due to security and secrecy
maintained in the hunting camps. The data of
hunting successes of falconry parties in diffe-
rent areas (Table 2) suggest that during the
1983-84 winter they claimed 3,961 birds from
the area. This hunting toll seems minimum as
it mostly pertains to the prominence of the
party and does not include the bag of hunters
of secondary importance in camp hierarchy,
who take their quarry to individual camps.
Further, some of the informers were very re-
luctant to give information, fearing the loss of
their source of income. When all these facts
are considered, it. would not be unreasonable
to suggest that approximately 5,000 birds were

15

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

Table 2

Hunting successes of the Arab Falconers in

DIFFERENT AREAS OF THE BALUCHISTAN, DURING
1982-84 WINTERING SEASON

Area

Number of
Falconry
parties

Number of
birds
captured*

Total days
hunted*

Chagai

1

510

25

Kharan

5

2702

72

Sibi

2

432

—

Dera Bughti

1

62

—

Kohlu

1

25

—

Punjgur

1

85

—

Zhob

1

80

—

Gwadar

1

65

—

Total

13

3961

* Data regarding the main falconry party only.

taken by the Arab falconers in this region in
the. 1983-84 winter.

The above figure does not appear to be a
gross overestimation of the factual position.
This is because of the fact that there is still
a reasonable population of the bird concen-
trated in certain restricted tracts of favourable
habitat where there is very limited human
disturbance. Other important factors responsi-
ble for the mass slaughter of the bird are the
modern facilities available with the Arab fal-
coners for swift and far-ranging movement and
the competition among the various royal hun-
ters for the largest bag. Further, the hunting
is organized through radio communication and
hectic efforts of the local guides. Despite all
these facilities, an average of 0.7741 birds is
claimed per hunting vehicle-day in specially
favourable tracts by very well organized parties.
These figures are considerably lower in rela-
tively less favourable areas.

Food and Feeding Behaviour :

The majority of data collected agrees with
earlier reports that the bird is, omnivorous (Ali

& Ripley 1969, Collar 1979, Mian 1983), con-
suming seeds and young shoots of a variety
of plants, and animals, especially slow moving
insects and some reptiles. The bird exhibits
variation in its food, as per availability of
animal/plant material in an area. Houbara
consumes Salsola sp., Haloxylon sp., Ambasis
sp., Malcolmia sp., and T rib ulus sp. in Zhob,
Pishin, Nushki and Kharan, thus confirming
our previous findings (Mian & Surahio 1983,
Mian 1984a) and results obtained from gizzard
content analysis (Mian 1986). In lowland
deserts of southern and eastern Baluchistan
(Gwadar, Dera Bugti, Sibi, Kachhi), the
species depends on the berries of Zizyphus sp.,
seeds of Brassica campestris, Capparis decidua
and Eruca sativum, supporting earlier reports
from Cholistan (Mirza 1972) and Surahio
(1981, 1982, 1983). Our data suggest that the
bird consumes a reasonable proportion of
animal matter (insects, beetles, mole cricket,
ants, grasshoppers), though no lizard/snake
was recovered from gizzard contents. This
goes against the observations of Mirza (1972)
and in favour of those from summering
grounds (Alekseev 1980). Further detailed
study on gizzard contents collected at different
times of the year and from different areas may
yield interesting results on energy and water
budgeting of the bird.

The diurnal period of maximum activity of
the bird coincides with the period of feeding.
The main body of information suggests that
the bird is mainly active during the day, but
the time budgeting seems to be reasonably
done in accordance with the surrounding con-
ditions of temperature and light, availability
of food and human and grazing disturbances.
If conditions allow, the bird is active through-
out the day, even at noon and afternoon and
even at night. However, the bird generally
prefers to be inactive during dark nights and
during mid-day. There are indications sug-

16

BIOLOGY OF THE HOUBARA (CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENI)

gesting that the Houbara in its wintering
grounds does move about during moonlit nights,
specially when disturbance during the day has
prevented normal foraging. Thus, there are
persistent reports of the bird feeding mainly
during night from Pishin, Quetta, Nushki. This
behaviour is presumably due to the general
disturbance caused by dense human and live-
stock population in all these areas. The noctur-
nal feeding of the bird in cultivated fields
reported from different areas, including the
remote parts of Baluchistan may also be
partially due to the same cause.

The major activity of the bird seems to be
restricted to the cooler morning and evening
hours. The feeding activity of the Houbara
starts just before sunrise and lasts till appro-
ximately 11.00 a.m. The evening session starts
from about 4.00 or 5.00 p.m. and lasts till
a little after sunset. During the colder months,
i.e.. January and February, the bird is active
and forages throughout the day, which may
be necessary due to the shorter day length
(from 7.00 a.m. to 5.00 p.m.) and the milder
temperature during mid-day. Observations in-
dicate that the bird is more active during the
morning foraging session than in the evening.
These observations agree with those of van
Thanner (1912, 1913), regarding the Canary
Island race of the Houbara.

Drinking :

From the experience and casual observa-
tions reported by the local populace and from
the previous findings of Mian & Surahio
(1983) in different areas of Baluchistan it
would appear that the Houbara is not an
obligatory drinker. All the informations sug-
gest that though the bird is not a regular
visitor to water bodies at fixed times of the
day as the sandgrouses are, and can pass long
periods without drinking, it may on rare occa-
sions take water, if available. Further studies

may indicate some correlation between the
type of food consumed and the requirements
of water by the bird.

Roosting :

Most of the replies received in response
to our questionnaire, from different parts of
Baluchistan suggest that the bird has a general
tendency to spend the hotter parts of the day,
i.e., usually from 11.00 a.m. to about 4.00 or
5.00 p.m., and nights, especially dark nights,
at some protective resting place. The hours of
roosting are, however, adjusted in accordance
with the surrounding conditions and the physio-
logical demands of the bird. The Houbara
Bustard, like other bustard species including
the Great Indian Bustard (Ali and Rahmani
1983) do not have a permanent nesting o 1
resting place; but during the period of un-
favourable environmental conditions or after
foraging, the individuals select a roosting place
for themselves. This is generally on an open
plain, from where the bird can spot an ap-
proaching predator at a reasonable distance.
The bird has a tendency to select a suitable
bush and generally tries to hide its head
first, relying fully on its protective camouflag-
ing coloration or the body. It may even
select entirely bare areas for roosting.

Many of the reports suggest that the birds
do sleep in a protective bush during roosting
hours. However, they indicate that the birds
remain vigilant throughout the roosting period
and it is hard to take them by surprise. The
mid-day roosting behaviour has been fre-
quently reported by observers from Canary
Islands (Aharoni 1912, van Thanner 1912,
1913).

Response to Disturbance :

The behavioural response to a specific
stimulus at a given time seems almost un-
predictable. It varies with the type of stimulus.

17

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 85

biotic and abiotic factors in the areas and
psychological state of the bird, though the
following generalizations can be drawn.

The bird tends to stay at a distance of 5-8
km from large human settlements. This dis-
tance generally decreases in direct proportion
to the decreasing size of the settlement, and
small nomadic camps have no effect on dis-
persion of the bird. Some strays have been
reported to come in the vicinity of human
settlements, especially during the night hours,
when human activity subsides. On a number
of occasions this was noted by us, both
through direct watching and from the pre-
sence of footprints, especially around culti-
vated tracts. The distance maintained by the
Houbara from human settlement may be de-
cided by disturbance level. Thus, recent dis-
turbance in desolate deserts through hectic
falconry has probably forced the bird to find
refuge in the vicinity of Kharan town. Simi-
larly extensive cultivated tracts in Pishin,
Nushki, Khuzdar, Sibi and Kachhi may force
the bird to stay in cultivated fields and hence
within a radius of 1-2 km of human settle-
ments. Conversely, vast favourable desolate
areas and relatively low bird population may
allow the bird in Zhob, Panjgur and Kohlu
to remain at some 16-20 km from human
settlements. Though there is no definite
study, the present report agrees with
the general belief that Houbara avoids large
human settlements and small nomadic camps
have no bearing on its distribution (Ali and
Ripley 1969, Roberts and Savage 1972, Surahio
1981, 1982, Mian and Surahio 1983, Mian
1984a).

The Houbara Bustard being very shy, keeps
away from busy roads. It is least disturbed
by grazing camels and may even be attracted
towards them. Presently available data support
our previous observations that the bustard
is not scared by the slow and gradual approach

of a haphazardly tainted structure (Mian and
Surahio 1983). Grazing sheep/goat do cause
some concern to foraging birds and they keep
away from cattle. The birds are watchful and
use their obliterative camouflage to hide. They
are little disturbed by a slow moving and
indirectly approaching automobile, but, fast
moving, noisy vehicles alarm the birds and
cause them to fly away. The bird will hide or
fly away from even a slow moving vehicle, if
it has been recently chased.

The Houbara tolerate the least a man
moving on foot, walking away immediately and
maintaining definite distance. It may keep
walking ahead of a man, especially in a dried
water course, hide in a bush, squat on the
ground or may even fly off, if approached
closely or if it had been disturbed previously.
A man moving along with grazing sheep/goat/
camel causes less alarm to the Houbara and
this is exploited by local hunters. The average
flight distance of the houbara in Baluchistan
is about 300 m. However, this distance varies
considerably with the population level of the
bird, general disturbance and extent of falconry
in the area. Thus, in Kharan with limited
hunting activity and higher population levels
of bustards some 10-12 years ago, the Houbara
frequently allowed human approach to within
20-40 m. With the onset of massive hunting
and decreased bustard population in the area,
a man can hardly approach the bird to a
distance of 100 m. In the presence of a speci-
fic blend of interacting factors to Houbara now
allows human approach to 100-200 m in Zhob,
Kohlu, Sibi, and Quetta; to 200-300 m in
Pishin, Nushki, Bisemah, Gwadar, Kachhi and
Khuzdar; and to 600-1000 m in Punjgur.

The data suggests that the bustard has
variable reaction to the same stimulus, depend-
ing on its previous experience. The bird,
generally, walks briskly or runs away when
alarmed, with outstretched and lowered neck

18

BIOLOGY OF THE HOUBARA (CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENI)

and watchful eyes, taking full advantage of the
camouflaging effect of its plumage, deceptively,
high speed and shrub cover. However, if con-
tinuously alarmed the bird flies away, settling
at a distance of about 200-800 m where it
immediately runs to cover.

The Bustard reacts in particular manner on
sighting a falcon. On seeing a flying falcon, the
Houbara immediately squats, relying on its
protective camouflaging colour. Among shrubs
it prefers to protect its neck, rather than the
body, probably to avoid a direct stoop on the
head. On flat ground the neck is kept flat on
the ground, with the hind part of body slightly
raised. The Houbara remains remarkably still,
as long as the falcon remains in the vicinity,
on rare occasions, local people catch such a
bird, and one of the hunters from Kharan
claimed to have caught four birds with bare
hands from one spot. Such behaviourial res-
ponse might save the bird from a possible
disastrous reduction in number through fal-
conry. When a bustard is being chased by a
falcon, all other bustards in the area squat
motionless and hidden, thus escaping the eyes
of the battery of radio coordinated falconers
present in 3-5 hunting vehicles, capable of
releasing 10-20 falcons if the bustards are
spotted. Our data agree with previous reports
that the Houbara squirts a gummy anal fluid
when pursued by a falcon (Ali and Ripley
1969). A report from Kachhi stated that a
Houbara lying on the ground, when detected
by an approaching falcon, squirts gummy anal
liquid, by raising its hind part with a jerk,
causing temporary blindness to the falcon! A
flying houbara, on seeing the chasing falcon,
immediately tries to fly upward to avoid a
possible stoop from the falcon, but bustards
seldom succeed in escaping.

Migration :

The information received from different

areas and workers, when analysed allows us
to propose migratory routes (Fig. 2), which
generally agree with those suggested earlier
(Mian and Surahio 1983). The observations
so far made, persistently suggest a general
north-south autumn migration through very
diffused routes, extending from northern Zhob
to western Chagai (Azar Chah). This is con-
sistent with earlier reports (Mian and Surahio
1983, Mian 1984a, Goriup 1980) but do not
agree with Roberts and Savage (1972), sug-
gesting well defined routes, occurring around
the plains of Muslimbagh; and Anonymous
(1972) and Karim and Hassan (1983), pre-
suming Iranian origin for the population of
Houbaras wintering in Baluchistan. During the
return migration in spring the bird follows
almost the same routes, though more directly.
Our present data partly supports previous
hypothesis (Surahio 1981, 1982, 1983) that the
population of Houbara wintering in Sind pass
through central Baluchistan (via Sibi and
Kachhi), though no convincing evidence is
available suggesting that the wintering popula-
tion of Dera Ismail Khan (N.W.F.R) passes
through northern Baluchistan, i.e., Zhob (Malik
1983).

The replies to our enquiry persistently sug-
gest a general north-south or south-north
orientation of the autumn/spring migrating
flocks, though it varies slightly as per the loca-
tion of favourable bustard habitats, and orien-
tation of mountains and very narrow valleys;
the bird generally avoids passage over high
mountains and narrow valleys (Mian and
Surahio 1983). Thus, the Raskoh Range,
forces the entry of the bird into Kharan valley
from the southwestern direction; while Siahan
and Central Makran ranges allow its entry
into Punjgur from southwestern, and into
Gwadar from almost a western direction.
Relatively extensive interconnected valleys
around Much allow the passage of the bird

19

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 85

N

1 KHARAN

2 PUNJGUR
3. GWADAR

Migration to Pattern

Fig. 2. Line sketch of Baluchistan showing the tentative migration routes of the

Houbara Bustard.

through the Central Brahuii Range, thence
reaching Sibi from a northwestern direction.
Some reports indicate that the bird population
wintering in Khuzdar, enter the area through
the west, probably from the adjacent areas of
Kachhi.

The information regarding the first sighting
of the Houbara in different areas seems
sketchy, casual observers being unable to re-
cord exact dates. However, data regarding
tentative dates of the arrival of first migrants
in different areas suggest that the autumn
migration is a rather slow process and birds

continue moving gradually towards southern
latitudes. The birds arrive in September in
northern parts (Chagai, Pishin; some sporadic
birds recorded in mid August), towards the
end of September or early October in central
parts (Kharan, Sibi, Kachhi, Khuzdar), during
mid- or end of November in southern parts
(Bisemah, Punjgur), and the birds are not fre-
quent till January in extreme southern parts
(Gwadar; sporadic birds recorded in Novem-
ber). This indicate that the birds generally
arrive earlier in northern latitudes and later in
southern latitudes. These observations largely

20

BIOLOGY OF THE HOUBARA (CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENI)

agree with the previously available reports,
suggesting that Houbara starts migrating from
U.S.S.R. in early September (Ponomavera

1979) or even the first half of August (Mes-

surier 1904) reaching northern Baluchistan in
late September or early October (Mian and
Surahio 1983, Mian 1984) and continue
moving deeper into the province after

consuming available food, in the area (Mian
and Surahio, loc cit.) reaching Punjab and
Sind in October (Roberts and Savage 1972,
Mirza 1983. Surahio 1983),

The precise dates of onset of spring migra-
tion are hard to record. It appears to start
in March in all the parts and is complete by
early April, suggesting that it is more abrupt
than the autumn migration. These migrants
reach summering grounds in U.S.S.R. towards
the end of March or by mid- April (Alekseev

1980) .

The present data confirm our earlier hypo-
thesis (Mian 1984) suggesting a larger size
for the autumn migrating flock in northern
areas and dispersal of the birds causing a
smaller flock size in the southern areas. The
size of immigrating flocks seems to be directly
proportionate to the distance travelled to
the wintering grounds (Fig. 3), so that flocks
of 15-25 observed in northern parts (Zhob)
decreases to 10-15 in Pishin, Chagai. Kohlu
and Kharan; 8-10 in Sibi and Kachhi; 4-8 in
Bisemah and Khuzdar and 4-6 in Gwadar.
The data collected by Alekseev (1980) sug-
gest that, at the onset of autumn migration
63% of the birds are in ones and 24% in twos,
while leaving the summering grounds. The
correlation of our results with those of Alek-
seev (loc. cit) suggests that the larger flocks
are formed during migration, and secondary
dispersal occurs in the wintering grounds, pro-
bably due to intraspecific competition. The
exact significance of this migratory behaviour
is hard to explain and need further studies.

The information conveyed regarding the
size of spring migrating flock suggests that it
is smaller than of the autumn migrants. Gene-
rally it ranges between two and eight. This
observation is in sharp contrast to our previous
report suggesting that the size of the spring
migrating flock is larger (Mian and Surahio
1983). Though further data would reveal the
exact situation, our present data provide a
better explanation, as the spring migration is
rather direct and reports from summering
grounds indicate that birds reach in ones
(50%), twos (20%) and 3-8 (30%), (Alek-
seev 1980).

Trapping and Domestication :

The data indicate that very limited trapping
is being practised in Baluchistan. During recent
years, decreasing population of Houbara has
rendered this hobby as time consuming, tire-
some and with little chance of success. Distri-
bution of firearms and automobiles has, on
one hand, increased the hunting pressure, while
on the other hand decrease in trapping success
is due to the associated disturbance. Trapping
is reported to be possible but difficult, the
birds being very clever, cautious and extra-
vigilant. Apart from triangular enclosure of
local bushes with net used in Chagai and
Kharan (Mian and Surahio 1983) and net
laid on ground as in Kachhi, Sibi, Kohlu, Dera
Bugti and Pishin (Mian 1984a) the affinity of
the bird for Capparis decidua is exploited in
northeastern flank of Baluchistan and adjacent
areas. An isolated dense bush of the plant is
selected and netted all around except at the
side where it is curved into a V-shaped entry
point. The bird is attracted towards this plant
from long distances and by habit enters the
bush through the open end and is finally
trapped. This technique is quite effective, re-
quiring less physical labour.

There is no information that the Houbara is
kept as a domesticated bird. It is generally

21

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 85

Fig. 3. Line sketch of Baluchistan showing the size of autumn migrating flock in
different areas of the Province. The figures in the map represent the number of the

birds in the flock.

believed that the bird cannot be kept as a pet,
and it has been kept in captivity for only 10
days. The trapped birds are either eaten by
the trapper or presented to an influential person
as a delicacy.

Flock Formation :

Though the Houbara is gregarious in its

wintering ground, forming flocks of various
sizes in different areas, individual birds main-
tain a reasonable distance from one another.
The flock size varies from 5 to 40 in different
areas and is decided by population level of
the bird and suitability of habitat. Rarely,
flocks of larger size are also observed. Luckily,
we saw a rare flock of 500-800 birds flying

BIOLOGY OF THE HOUBARA (CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENI)

over the area around Yakmuch (Gala Chah).
This flock started appearing as a few birds in
flight and the size of the flock gradually in-
creased. The flock was observed for some
time, when the hovering birds made fascinating
pattern of brown and white. The cause for the
formation of such a large flock could not be
ascertained except that some hunters with
powerful motor cycles were believed to be
present in the area. Our discussions in Kharan
suggested that such large flocks can some-
times be seen in favourable bustard tracts in

Refer

Aharoni, J. (1912) : Houbara macqueeni Gray.
Orn. Jahrb., 23: 1-15.

Alekseev, A. F. (1980): The Houbara Bustard
Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni in the northwestern
Kyzylkum. Zool. Zhurn., 59: 1263-1266. (Original
text in Russian, English translation by M. G. Wilson,
ICBP) .

Ali, S. & Rahmani, A. R. (1983): Study of
ecology of certain endangered species and their
habitat, The Great Indian Bustard, Annual Report
I, 1981-82. Bombay natural History Society, 154 pp.

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1969) : Handbook of
the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 2, Oxford
University Press, Bombay, Lond. N.Y.

Anonymous (1972) : Houbara in Baluchistan.
Outdoorman, 2: 15.

Bannerman, B. A. (1963): Birds of Atlantic
Islands, I. Edinburgh.

Collar, N. J. (1979) : The Birds of the Western
Palaearctic. Vol. II. (eds: S. Cramp and S. Kel).
Oxford University Press, London, N.Y. : 649-655.

Collar, N. J. (1980): The world status of the
Houbara: a preliminary review. Symposium Papers
on the Great Bustard Otis tarda (Sofia, Bulgaria,
May 26 th, 1978) and the Houbara Bustard
Chlamydotis undulata (Athens, Greece, May 24th,
1979) FISG/CIC/Game Conservency: 12 pp (no
pagin).

Goriup, P. D. (1980) : Report to the Secretary,
Sind Wildlife Management Board on Houbara Bus-
tard ( Chlamydotis undulata ) in Pakistan (Unpub-
lished working document).

(1981) : The Houbara Bustard,

the deeper western parts, though the appear-
ance of such large flocks is gradually becoming
a very rare phenomenon.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to M/s. K. M. Shams
(Chief Conservator), M. Shafiq (DFO, Wild-
life), Arbab Inayat Ullah (SDFO, Wildlife)
and a number of workers of the Provincial
Forest Department, whose unstinting help
made this study possible.

ENCES

Houbara conservation and research in Pakistan.
Western Tanager, Los Angeles Audubon Soc. 48
(4): 3-6.

Haddane, B. (1983) : Distribution and ecology of
a threatened species of Houbara-Bustard ( Chlamy-
dotis undulata). ISOB, Peshawar, Oct. 4-7, 1983.

Karim, S. I. & Hasan, A. (1983) : Houbara Bus-
tard in Pakistan. ISOB, Peshawar, Oct. 4-7, 1983.
& WWF-Pakistan Newsletter, 2(4) : 3-6.

Khan, U. F. (1983) : A note on bustard in Pakis-
tan. ISOB, Peshawar, Oct. 4-7, 1983.

Lack, P. K. (1983): The Canarian Houbara:
Survey-results, 1979. Bustard Studies), No. 1: 45-50.

Malik, M. M. (1983) : Distribution and conser-
vation of Houbara Bustard Chlamydotis undulata
macqueeni in NWFP (Pakistan). ISOB, Peshawar,
Oct. 4-7, 1983.

Messurier, A. D. (1904): Game Shore and
Water Birds of India. 4th ed. Lond.

Mian, A. (1983): Conservational perspective of
Houbara with special reference to southwestern
Pakistan. ISOB, Peshawar, Oct. 4-7, 1983.

(1984a) : A contribution to biology of

Houbara: 1982-83 wintering population. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc., 87(3): 537-545.

(1984b): Houbara in Baluchistan:

1983-84 population status. WWF-Pakistan Newsletter
3(3): 1-3.

(1985) : Ecological impact of Arab

Falconry of Houbara Bustard with special reference
to southwestern Baluchistan. Environmental Conser-
vation 13: 417-423.

(1985a): A contribution to the bio-

23

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 85

logy of Houbara ; Some evidence of breeding in
Baluchistan. Proc. 5 th Zool. Pakistan Congress :
261-267.

— — (in press) : A contribution to the bio-

logy of Houbara Bustard: 1983-84 population levels
in western Baluchistan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

(1986) : A contribution to the bio-
logy of Houbara: Some studies on gizzard contents
from 1983-84 wintering population in the western
Baluchistan. Pakistan J. Zool. 18: 363-370.

Mian, A. & Dasti, A. A. (1984) : Houbara and
Baluchistan: 1982-83 conservational status. Bustard
Studies, (Accepted).

Mian, A. & Rafique, S. (1984) : Conservational
perspective of Houbara Bustard ( Chlamydotis un~
dulata macqueeni) with reference to Baluchistan.
Pakistan (Peshawar), No. 10 autumn: 37-44.

Mian, A. & Surahio, M. I. (1983): Biology of
Houbara Bustard ( Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni)
with reference to Baluchistan. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc., 80 { 1): 83-90.

Mirza, Z. B. (1972): Houbara faces trial. Out-
doorman, 1 : 40-42,

— — (1983): Houbara and Cholistan. ISOB,

Peshawar, Oct. 4-7, 1983.

Ponomareva, T. (1979): The Houbara Bustard:
Present status and conservation perspectives. Okhota

i. okhotnoch’s khozyaistvo, 11: 27. (Original text

in Russian, English translation by M. G. Wilson,
ICBP) .

Roberts, T. (1983): The Houbara ( Chlamydotis
undulata) in Pakistan, in relation to conservation.
ISOB, Peshawar, Oct. 4-7, 1983.

Roberts, T. J. & Savage, C.D.W. (1972) : Houbara
Bustard and its management. Outdoorman (Karachi),
7(8): 37-39.

Siddiqi, M. S. U. (1972): Identifying the bus-
tards. ibid. 2(7 & 8): 29^39.

Scott, D. A. (1975) : The houbara bustard in
Iran. Iran. Dept. Env. (Div. Parks and Wildlife),
typescript report, 23 November, 1975.

Surahio, M. I. (1981): Houbara bustard in Pakis-
tan— Research and conservation. WWF/IUCN, Pro-
ject No. 855. Annual report, (Unpublished work-
ing document).

(1982) : Houbara bustard in Pakis-
tan-Research and conservation. WWF/IUCN Project
No. 855, Annual Report. (Unpublished working
document) .

(1983): Ecology and distribution

of Houbara Bustard in Sind. ISOB, Peshawar, Oct.
4-7, 1983.

van Thanner, R. (1912) : Von den Kanaren.
Or«. Jahrb., 23: 221-228.

(1913) : Wild und Jagd auf Kana-
ren. Beutche Jager-Zeitung., 61 (36) : 569-572.

annexure I: Facsimile of the questionnaire. (English
translation of the original circulated in Urdu).

HOUBARA RESEARCH LABORATORY
ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF BALUCHISTAN
QUETTA

Note: Houbara is called in Pushto ' Sar\ Zap; in
Baluchi ‘Charaz’ and in Urdu, Punjabi and
Sindhi ‘Taloor’.

Your name

Locality (Full address)

1 . When did you see the first Houbara this year?
Please mention date and month.

2. What was the size of the incoming group?

3. What is the part of the day exploited by the
incoming bird? Day/night; moonlit night/dark
night.

4. What is the direction of the incoming group?

5. Does this bird remain in your area throughout
the wintering period? If not, at what part of
the year can the bird be seen in your area, and
in which direction it leaves the area?

6. What is the major type of terrain in your area:
hilly/plain; sandy/stony; hard/loose?

7. What are the dominant plants of your area?
(Please mention local names).

8. Is the major part of the land in your area
barren or arable?

9. What are the bustard tracts in your area (men-
tion names)?

BIOLOGY OF THE HOUBARA (CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENI)

10. What does this bird eat?

1 1 . What part of the day is exploited by the bird
for its feeding activity?

12. What is the part of the day when maximum
number of birds can be seen?

13. What is the maximum number of the birds you
have seen in a day. (specify area in which
seen) ?

14. What is the usual size of the flock in different
bustard tracts?

15. What is your approximation regarding the num-
ber of the birds visiting your area during this
wintering season? Were they more or less than
the previous years?

16. Have you ever cared to examine the type of
food present in the gizzard? If yes. what were
the major food items?

17. Does this bird sleep? If yes, where?

18. Have you ever seen the bird drinking water?

19. Can the bird be live-trapped : If yes, what
technique is exploited?

20. Have you ever kept the bird as a pet? If yes,
how?

21. What is the total number of the birds captured
by the local hunters? If possible, please indicate
the number of the males and females separately.

22. What was the number of parties of foreign
hunters that visited your area? Please indicate
the number of hunting vehicles, falcons, number
of the Houbara hunted, any other wild animal
hunted. If possible, please indicate the number
of males and females separately.

23. In your opinion, is there a declining trend in

the population of this bird in the last ten
years?

24. What is the approximate distance from which
a bird flies away on seeing a man?

25. What is. the approximate distance which is be-
ing maintained by the bird from human
settlement?

26. What is the reaction of the bird to grazing
livestock or jeep etc.?

27. Does the Houbara lay eggs in your area? If
yes, where (Name the area), when (Name the
month or season)? What was the number of
eggs in the nest you spotted? Were the nests in
bushes or on the ground? What was the shape
and size of the egg? Mention colour also.

28. In your opinion what is the total number of
females that lay eggs in your area?

29. What is the approximate time of year used by
the Houbara for returning from your area during
spring.

30. Have you ever seen the bird during summer
months?

3 1 . What is the size of the flock of the spring
migrants?

32. What is the part of the day exploited by the
bird for spring migration?

33. What is the approximate size and colour of
this bird in your area?

34. What are the major animals of your area?

35. Any other information.

Thank you for your co-operation.

25

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS OF

SOUTHERN INDIA
(LEPIDOPTERA: RHOPALOCERA ) 1

Torben B. Larsen2
[Continued from Vol. 84 (3) : 584]

241 A. Tagiades litigiosa litigiosa Moschler

The water snow flat is not rare and
sometimes considerably more numerous than
the other two members of the genus. It is
readily recognised by the clearly defined white
patch on the hindwing upperside. It flies in
evergreen forest to the top of the subtropical
zone and I would not be very surprised to
find permanent colonies in some of the plateau
sholas. It has the normal habits of the genus,
often basking in the sun on the underside of
a leaf, visiting flowers and occasionally damp
patches. It is more frequently seen on bird
droppings than the two others. Roosting takes
place with the wings held flat on the upperside
of leaves. It is found in suitable places in Sri
Lanka, peninsular India, and then from Simla
east to South China and Hong Kong, and south
to Sundaland proper.

242. Gerosis bhagava bhagava Moore
(not mentioned in W-B)

The COMMON YELLOWBREASTED FLAT (more
widely known under the generic name Daimio)
is very rare in the Nilgiris and apparently
most places in South India. There are only
about six in the British Museum (Natural
History). Hampson failed to find it, Wynter-
Blyth took two at Kallar, where I have also
taken two and seen one (16.vi, 29. vi and
13.vii). Both my specimens were captured
when coming to water, the third one was seen
sitting on a leaf in dense jungle. At the Forest

1 Accepted January 1987.

2 Snoghoj alle 29C, 2770 Kastrup, Denmark.

Research Institute at Peechi there is a speci-
men bred from Dahlbergia lanceolaria. Apart
from the Western Ghat complex the species
may be found from Nepal east to Burma and
Thailand and it is everywhere rare.

243. Pseudocoladenia dan dan Fabricius

(Coladenia dan)

The fulvous pied flat is fairly common
in the Nilgiris though usually not numerous
and rarely found far from forest. It goes to
the upper limit of the subtropical zone but is
absent from the plateau proper. It is fond of
flowers and bird droppings, but is not much
of a visitor to water. The flight is extremely
rapid, and sometimes long lasting aerial dis-
play flights are made in shady clearings. It is
found in South India (surprisingly not in Sri
Lanka), and then from Kulu east in China
and Sundaland.

244. Pseudocoladenia indrana indra Evans

(< Coladenia indrana)

The tricolour flat is one of the loveliest
skippers in the Nilgiris, being much more
contrasting in colour than the previous species.
The dry season morph is sometimes deep
orange with bright yellow marginal spots. The
wet season form is more unicoloured but may
be of a beautiful ochreous hue, especially in
the female. Confusion between the two species
of Pseudocoladenia is highly unlikely. In habits
and habitats the species is close to the pre-
vious one, but it is considerably scarcer and
more limited to the lowland evergreen forests.

26

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIR1 MOUNTAINS

The distribution covers Sri Lanka, South India,
then from East Nepal to Burma and Thailand.
It does not appear to be a common species
anywhere.

245. Sarangesa dasahara davidsoni Swinhoe

The common small flat is much smaller

than any of the Pyrginae so far discussed. It
is a rare Nilgiri butterfly apparently limited
to the wetter lowland forests of the western
slopes. I have taken one or two on most of
visits to the Nadgani area but otherwise I
have not seen it. In Sri Lanka the ecological
tolerance seems much wider. Possibly Saran-
gesa purendra in India forms some sort of
ecological vicariant in the less mesic Indian
habitats of the genus. The species is found in
Sri Lanka and South India, then again from
Kangra east to Indo-China and Yunan.

246. Sarangesa purendra pandra Evans

The spotted small flat is found in much
of peninsular India and has been involved in
various taxonomic and nomenclatural confu-
sions with the previous species. There are two
Nilgiri specimens with no additional data in
the British Museum (Natural History) but I
have not come across it myself. At first sight
it seems to form an ecological vicariant to
S. dasahara in more dry habitats, but I have
not seen either sufficiently to be quite sure. I
have only met this species once when it was
common enough in the Gir Lion Reserve in
Saurashtra in October 1986. According to Bell
both fly in the same place at the same time
and in equal numbers in North Kanara. It is
endemic to the Indian subcontinent.

247. Tapena twaithesi twaithesi Moore
(not mentioned in W-B)

The angled flat is an unmistakable butter-
fly with its coal coloured upperside and strongly
angled wings. The name hampsoni is some-

times applied to the South Indian populations.
It is a rare skipper in the lowland evergreen
forests, penetrating the subtropical forests,
and I have only seen it six or seven times.
Nearly all my specimens have been taken
singly at water at Nadgani and near Glenburn,
but I have seen one at Kallar. According to
Bell it is very common in the area around
Dharwar, but normally it is not a common
species. The range covers Sri Lanka and South
India, then from Sikkim east to Malaya,
Sumatra and Borneo.

248. Odontoptilum anguSata angulata Felder
& Felder

The banded angle is a beautiful skipper
that is generally rather rare in the Nilgiris
though widely distributed in the lowland
forests tracts except for the very driest. I have
never come across more than two during any
single day. In habits it is not dissimilar to the
Tagiades though perhaps rather less fond of
open sunshine and more willing to visit water
and baits. One of my specimens was taken on
otter droppings deep inside a cave into which
three male Papilio polymnestor had also made
their way. The species is found in suitable
hilly country in much of India, east to southern
China and Sundaland.

249. Caprone ransonnetti potiphera Hewitson

The golden angle is a common butterfly in

the lowland forests from the mixed deciduous
to the wettest evergreen. It is a very variable
insect, but the variation does not seem to be
linked with season in any consistent manner,
though I have not studied this systematically.
The species is less shy of sunlight than most
of the group and males often perch along open
paths and along forest edges. Here they are
very pugnacious and fights are often seen.
When perching, the males invariably retract
their forelegs slightly, thus everting a promi-

27

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

nent brush which makes them look as if they
are bearded. This is done independently of the
presence of females and the impression is
given that it serves to dispense a territorial
pheromone. Both flowers and damp patches
are visited. I have seen a relatively small
dragonfly eating a specimen of this butterfly;
it is amazing that it could manage to subdue
so powerful an insect. The range covers Sri
Lanka and South India, with extensions to
Pachmarhi and Orissa. Other members of the
genus are found elsewhere in the Oriental re-
gion. Their names are sometimes quoted in
older literature on Indian butterflies, and the
name ransonnettii has been used beyond its
actual range.

250. Caprona alida vespa Evans
(not included in W-B)

The spotted angle appears to be very rare
in southern India but the British Museum
(Natural History) contains two definite Nilgiri
specimens, apparently those that were respon-
sible for the inclusion of the name C. agama
in Hampsoirs Nilgiri list. The spotted upper
surfaces are very different from any of the
forms of the previous species and I am certain
that I have not seen it. According to Wood-
house (1952) the flight is much more subdued
than that of C. ransonnetti. The range covers
Sri Lanka and South India, then from Nepal
east to South China and Hong Kong.

251. Gomalia elma albofasdata Moore

The African mallow skipper is a rare little
dry zone skipper that is much more common
in Arabia and Africa than it is in India. In the
Niigiris the main habitat is the mixed deciduous
forest zone where the larval food plant Abu -
til on is common, and the rarity of the species
is puzzling. I have also taken it at Chamundi
Hill in Mysore (xiL83). The genus is mono-

basic and the single species is found all over
Africa, southern Arabia and most of India.

252. Spialia galba galba Fabricius
( Syrichtus galba)

The Indian grizzled skipper is a distinc-
tive little butterfly with an unusual degree of
ecological tolerance that is common over much
of the Niigiris irrespective of altitude, rainfall
and general surroundings. It is missing, only
inside dense evergreen forest, but once there
is some sort of clearing it will be colonised.
The butterfly always flies low in relatively open
places and is fond of flowers, occasionally
coming to damp patches, but it is very un-
obtrusive and easily overlooked. It is essen-
tially a butterfly of Sri Lanka and the Indian
subcontinent, though a few disjunct popula-
tions exist further east. In Africa it is replaced
by Spialia mafa Trimen with different facies
but almost identical genitalia [see de Jong
(1978) for an interesting monograph of the
species],

Hesperiinae

253. Aeromachus pygmaeus Fabricius

The pygmy grass hopper is the smallest of
the South Indian skippers and its distribution
is limited to the Niigiris, Coorg and Kanara.
It is mainly found in open grassland in the
immediate vicinity of forest in the wetter low-
land tracts where it is sometimes common.
Personally I have only taken about a dozen
specimens at Kallar and on Nadgani Ghat.
Like many of our smallest butterflies it is very
fond of Tridax flowers, but I have never seen
it at water. It is so small and inconspicuous that
it is easily overlooked. The somewhat similar
Aeromachus dubius dubius Elwes & Edwards
might conceivably turn up in the Niigiris as
well.

28

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

254. Ampittia dioscorides dioscorides Fabricius

The bush hopper is an unobtrusive little

butterfly of the grasslands in wetter forest for-
mations where it may be locally common. I
have seen it in Kallar and on the Nadgani
Ghat though not very frequently. The golden
tone of the ground colour is very appealing
and quite different in tone from the other
orange skippers. It is a much weaker insect
than the Potanthus and Telicota and usually
flies low in grasslands in search of flowers.
The range is a wide one covering Sri Lanka,
suitable places on the Indian peninsula. West
Bengal and then east to China, Hong Kong
and Sundaland.

255. Halpe homo lea Hindu Evans
( Holpe egena)

The Indian ace is one of the most common
lowland skippers in the Nilgiris, inhabiting
forests ranging from the mixed deciduous to
the wettest evergreen. It is seen mainly when
it emerges from bamboo jungles to sip moisture
from damp patches, though in the morning
males may be found basking in sunshine along
paths and forest clearings. Like some of the
other Halpe it is fond of fresh cowpats and
may be caught also on carnivore dung and
decaying matter. The distribution covers Sri
Lanka and southern India, then from the level
of Sikkim east to southern China. The nomi-
nate subspecies is supposedly from Singapore,
but in view of the fact that the species has not
been recorded from Malaysia this seems
doubtful.

256. Halpe porus Mabille
( Halpe moorei)

moore’s ace has had a complex nomencla-
torial history. Hampson used the name beturia,
Wvnter-Blyth moorei, but the valid name is
as above. All Nilgiri records are from the
Nadgani Ghat area, though doubtless it is

found elsewhere on the western slopes in low-
land evergreen forest. It is fairly common in
the Nadgani area, almost as much so as H.
homolea from which it is easily distinguished
by having two cell spots on the forewing, and
by its generally darker colour with a white
rather than yellow band on the hindwing under-
side. One day I collected more than a dozen
on still steaming buffalo dung on a drizzly
morning. The range covers South India, then
from Sikkim east to South China; also on the
Andamans.

257. Sovia hyrtacus de Niceville
(not included by W-B)

This skipper (the bicolour ace would be a
suitable vernacular name) seems to be very
rare in the Nilgiris and elsewhere in southern
India where it is endemic. It is readily recog-
nised by the hindwing underside where the
basal half is cream and the marginal half
brown, a bit like that of the much larger
Hyarotis adrastus. I have a single specimen
from the base of Nadgani Ghat from 23. ix.
1986 and a few more had been noted by
earlier authors. I have also seen one on the
Gersoppa Ghat in Kanara where the species
also seems to be rare.

258. Thoressa honorei de Niceville
{Halpe honorei)

The madras ace is endemic to southern
India but is closely related to the Sri Lankan
T. decorata Moore and to other species in
NE India and Burma. It is not a common
butterfly but in suitable places it will be met
with in small numbers during most visits. I
have taken it mainly on the Nadgani Ghat
and in smaller numbers at Kallar. Mostly they
have been taken in the early mornings when
perching on a leaf at the forest edge or along
paths but it will also visit flowers. It is a most
attractive little butterfly which is quite diffe-

29

3

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

rent in pattern to all the other orange skippers
of the area. The flight is very fast and damp
patches are only rarely visited.

259. Thoressa astigmata Swinhoe
(not included in W-B)

The unbranded ace is large for this group
of genera and the upperside is reminiscent of
the Hyarotis and Quedara. It is a great rarity
in the Nilgiris. Wynter-Blyth caught a speci-
men in the Nadgani area, and I collected a
single male on otter dung at the foot of the
Nadgani Ghat (20.vii). It looks a species
capable of extremely swift flight and Bell of
Kanara emphasised how rarely the species was
seen in nature. It is endemic to southern India
and is almost certainly strictly limited to wet
evergreen forest with bamboo.

260. Thoressa sitala de Niceville
(not included in W-B)

The sitala ace is endemic to South India
from where there are records from the Nilgiris
and from Coorg. Apparently the species is very
rare and there are less than a score of publish-
ed records of specimens, a few of these being re-
corded by Hampson. I know nothing about the
species, but it is almost certainly limited to the
wetter evergreen forests at low levels.

261. Thoressa evershedi Evans
(not included in W-B)

evers hed’s ace has been recorded from
the Palnis, Nilgiris and Annamalais and is
endemic to South India. I know nothing about
it though doubtless it is limited to wet lowland
evergreen forest like the others of its genus.

262. Iambrix salsala luteipennis Plbtz

The chestnut bob is often a common
butterfly in the denser forest types at lower
and middle levels and deep inside the forest
it is sometimes the only skipper present. It

usually frequents shady places but will often
sun itself in shafts of sunlight when not search-
ing out the minute flowers in small clearings.
The flight is rarely more than a few centi-
metres above the ground. The species is one
of the few skippers consistently to use only
four of its legs for perching or walking, though
I have seen this also in Suniana sunias Water-
house in Papua New Guinea. For what purpose
the front legs are being kept in reserve I have
been unable to discover. The species is found
in Sri Lanka and in South India, then from
Nepal east to Hong Kong and southern China
and south to Sundaland.

263. Psolos fisfigo subfasciatus Moore

The coon is a very unusual skipper found
in the wetter lowland forests of the western
slopes. It is not normally very common, but
towards the end of the monsoon numbers in-
crease. The flight is very slow for a skipper
and the wings large in relation to body size.
The wings are an almost unmarked dark
brown. When sitting on a green leaf the pecu-
liar downcurved shape of the forewings may
be noticed. It is so pronounced that the tips of
the front wings are several millimetres apart in
the normal resting posture. The Western Ghats
population is strongly disjunct; the species
recurs from northeastern India to the Philip-
pines, Sulawesi and Sundaland.

264. Notocrypta paralysos alysia Evans

The common banded demon is one of two
very similar species which are almost jet black
with a white forewing band. The present species
lacks white apical spots on the forewings
which are prominent in the following species.
In the Nilgiris it seems to be limited to the
lowland evergreen forests of the western slopes
and 1 have only collected it in the Nadgani
Ghat area in moderate numbers. Elsewhere in
Asia it may be very common. Usually it skulks

30

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

about in dark undergrowth but often ventures
out to feed on flowers, not infrequently on
overcast days. The flight is almost as fast as
that of the Celaenorrhinus which, because of
the white forewing bands, it greatly resembles
on the wing. The range covers Sri Lanka and
the Western Ghats, then from Mussoorie east
to the Philippines, Sulawesi and the Lesser
Sunda Islands.

265. Notocrypta curvifascia curvifascia Felder
& Felder

The restricted demon seems to be a butter-
fly mainly of the moist deciduous forests of
the Wynaad where I have taken my only
Nilgiri specimen, though Gordon Thompson
collected one at Kallar in September 1986, the
only one ever recorded for the southern slopes
of either of the two Notocrypta. My belief that
it is a species of the moist-deciduous forest is
bolstered by the fact that I found it quite
common under such conditions in the Biligiri-
ranga Mountains together with Celaenorrhinus
ruficornis. It, too, is found in both Sri Lanka
and southern India, then from Mussoorie to
South China and Sundaland.

266. Udaspes folus Cramer

The grass demon is a very distinctive
butterfly that is taxonomically close to the
Notocrypta. The big white patch on the disc
of the hindwing upperside is enough to tell it
from any other South Indian skipper. While it
may turn up anywhere in the Nilgiris, it seems
to be mostly rather scarce and unpredictable.
From late August through October 1986 I
regularly had specimens pass through my
Kotagiri garden at high speed in what looked
like a dispersal movement of some sort, but
which was not correlated with the migrations
that were taking place at the time. It coincided
with the first captures of the butterfly at Kallar.
I have also taken it at the very top of the

Biligirirangas near Flonametti Estate. It is a
rare butterfly in Sri Lanka from where it is
found throughout the Oriental and Australian
regions without displaying geographical varia-
tion. It is generally rather uncommon every-
where and during several visits to many Asian
countries I have only secured one specimen in
Malaysia apart from my Indian ones.

267. Amelia mercara Evans
( Astictopterus jama)

The coorg forest hopper is rather similar
to Psolos fuligo but may be immediately dis-
tinguished through the presence of three small
white apical spots on the forewings that are
always missing in the latter. I have never come
across it in the Nilgiris but it seems that it
may sometimes be found in some numbers on
the Nadgani Ghat which does not surprise me.
Generally it is not a common species and it is
endemic to the Western Ghats.

268. Arnetta vindhiana nilgiriana Moore

The vindhyan bob is endemic to southern

and central India where it appears to frequent
wet grasslands at lower levels in most type of
terrain. Ssp. nilgiriana represents a southern
group of the species merging with the nominate
subspecies in the Nilgiri Wynaad. It seems to
be found under a variety of climatic condi-
tions and presumably the exact conditions of
the wet grassland is of more importance than
the macroclimate. Certainly it is a most unusual
distribution pattern. Hampson considered it
common and Wynter-Blyth collected it on the
Nadgani Ghat in October. I have never come
across it in the Nilgiris but have a few from
Sholayar in the Annamalais.

269. Suastus gremius gremius Fabricius

The Indian palm bob is surprisingly rare in
the Nilgiris not least when it is considered
how many palms there are in Mettupalayam/

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Kallar and along the rice growing areas of the
western slopes. I have only small numbers from
Kallar and from the Nadgani Ghat agricultu-
ral areas, and I doubt if it ascends the ghats
to any great extent. According to Wynter-
Blyth it comes to both water and bird drop-
pings, but I only know it as avid visitor to
Lantana flowers. When the female lays eggs
she lands on a palm frond, walks backwards
for a distance equal to two to four times her
own length, and then either flies off or depo-
sits a single, large brick-red egg. This colour
is unusual but I have little doubt it is meant to
mimic the dark, damaged spots often found on
palm leaves. The range covers Sri Lanka,
India, Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Indo-
China, Taiwan and parts of southern China.

270. Suastus minuta bipunctus Swinhoe
(not included by W-B)

The small palm bob is very similar to the
preceding species but on average a little
smaller and with the black hindwing underside
spots somewhat differently disposed. There are
a few old records from the Nadgani Ghat
area but I know nothing of it at all. It is found
in Sri Lanka and South India, then from
Sikkim east to the Philippines and Java, appa-
rently bypassing Sundaland proper, being
absent from Malaysia and Sumatra. The dis-
tribution indicates that it inhabits rather more
mesic habitats than its more widespread
congener.

271. Cupitha purreea Moore

The wax dart is so named because the male
has a prominent brand on the hindwing upper-
side which contains a waxy substance. The
species can be recognised at a glance, in South
India at least, by its wholly immaculate yellow
underside. It is quite a pretty little butterfly
but it is also a scarce one. I have taken
five specimens only, at Kallar, always sitting

on green leaves in the morning before 10.00.

I have never observed it flying or doing any-
thing else, but every now and then, suddenly
one will be sitting in exactly the same posture
as the last one. The species is of particular
interest inasmuch as the larval food plants are
Terminalia and Combretum ; it is the only
member of the Hesperiinae to have returned
secondarily to dicotyledonous food plants. The
range is wide, covering practically the entire
Oriental region, though not Sri Lanka and
peninsular India. It is everywhere rare. The
genus is monobasic.

272. Baracus vittatus Felder & Felder

The hedge hopper is a very plastic species
in a monobasic genus. The nominate sub-
species from Sri Lanka is very light greenish
white above, three Indian subspecies are very
different. Ssp. subditus Moore (Palnis, Travan-
core and Nilgiris) intergrades with ssp. hamp-
soni Elwes & Edwards in our area, extending
north to Kanara. Ssp gotha Evans occurs in
the Annamalais. The main differences lie in the
patterns of the underside. A separate sub-
species is found from Sikkim to Yunan in
China. I have not come across the species
though it has been recorded as not rare in the
Nilgiris by earlier authors.

273. Hyarotis adrastus praba Moore

The tree flitter is a readily identified
medium-sized skipper that is relatively scarce
in evergreen forest at low and medium levels.
I have only seen it three times; once at Glen-
burn (12.vi), and twice at Kallar ( 19 . viii &
30. ix), one of which was taken by Gordon
Thompson. Hampson found it rare on the
northern slopes, but says that it is common on
the southern slopes. He must have run into
some sort of mass emergence, especially since
Wynter-Blyth did not see any. I am quite con-
vinced that it is scarce and Bell, writing of

32

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NLLGIRI MOUNTAINS

Kanara, commented that it was hardly ever
seen though he was able to find the caterpillar
quite often. The distribution covers Sri Lanka
and South India, then from Himachal to Hong
Kong and Sundaland. It seems likely that the
rare Hyarotis microstictum coorga Evans will
also turn up in the Nilgiris.

274. Quedara basiflava de Niceville
(not mentioned by Wynter-Blyth)

The yellow base tree flitter is a rare
endemic South Indian butterfly which has been
recorded by Hampson for the Nadgani Ghat
area. It is a most distinctive species with the
bases of the hindwing underside liberally mark-
ed with egg-yolk yellow. Apart from the fact
that it is rare and that it is almost certainly
limited to the wettest evergreen forests, I know
nothing of this insect. Another rare skipper
that could occur under similar conditions is
Plastingia sala Hewitson.

275. Gangara thyrsis thyrsis Fabricius

The giant redeye is the largest skipper in
the Nilgiris and it seems to be quite rare. This
was Hampson’s opinion and Wynter-Blyth
caught one only at Kallar. On my first collect-
ing trip in the Nilgiris (14.iv) I collected a
fresh male with my fingers off the nose of
Gordon Thompson. A week later I found seve-
ral larvae and pupae on a palm in the com-
pound of Mr Dharman near Glenburn, several
of which hatched in Kotagiri. Since then I
never saw it again. Given the profusion of
palms in the Kallar and Mettupalayam areas
its rarity is curious, not least since it is some-
times quite common and attracted to light at
night. The absence of its banana eating relative
Erionota thrax Hiibner is also puzzling. The
species is found practically throughout the
Oriental region.

276. Matapa aria Moore

The common redeye is not rare in thick

lowland forest with bamboo, out of which it
seldom ventures. It is best caught early in the
morning (sometimes even before 07.00) when
it suns itself on green leaves along forest paths,
very occasionally visiting flowers. I have never
seen it on damp patches. Later in the day it
disappears completely and is impossible to
procure. The red eyes will, even at a distance,
tell it apart from the somewhat similar mem-
bers of the Baoris and Caltoris. It belongs to
a genus that is centred on Sundaland and is
the only one to be found in our area. The
genus was recently monographed by de Jong
(1983). The range covers Sri Lanka and India
to South China and the Philippines, Sundaland
to Java and Borneo, but not Sulawesi, where
similar species occur. It is the most widely
distributed of all the Matapa.

277. Taractrocera maevius sagara Moore
The common grass dart in my experience

is scarce in the Nilgiris and I have but one
specimen from plantations near Mettupalayam.
Hampson collected only four, while Wynter-
Blyth considered it to be not rare at Kallar
where I never saw it. The species is reputed
to be very local and probably I never found
just the right spots. The habitat seems to be
grassy places under a variety of macroclimatic
conditions from the plains up to at least 1600
m, though in South India it appears to be more
of a plains species. The genus seems to be
very fond of flowers. The species is common
in Sri Lanka and is endemic to Sri Lanka,
India, Burma and Thailand.

278. Taractrocera ceramas ceramas Hewitson
The Tamil grass dart is a conspicuous in-
sect of open grasslands at all levels and in
most types of habitat, though chiefly the mon-
tane grasslands, in open spaces of moist-
deciduous forest, and along grassy verges of
forest roads in the wettest parts of the low-

33

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

land forests. Each and every population of
this butterfly seems to be special in one way
or another. Typical ceramas is from the high
level grasslands and is small and pale. Low-
land specimens, often referred to as ssp. lynx
Moschler, are usually larger and more luxu-
riant. According to Evans (1949) the taxon
lynx is not subspecifically valid, while ssp.
media from Kanara, ssp. oberthueri from the
Annamalai, and ssp. nicevillei from the Bombay
Presidency are. I have personally only found
small and weakly coloured nominate ceramas
in the Nilgiris, at high altitudes near Mukurti
and Avalanche, and some larger and more
luxuriant forms at Nadgani and the Nilgiri
Wynaad approaching media. In the Biligiri-
ranga Mountains 1 collected a large series of
large specimens from 1300 to 1900 m which
match none of my Nilgiri ones. I doubt that
the very real variation from population to
population of this butterfly in South India can
be described in conventional subspecific terms.
In addition to South India the species also
occurs from Manipur to southern China.

279. Oriens concinna Elwes & Edwards

The Tamil dartlet is a great rarity in the

Nilgiris, being confined to the upper subtropi-
cal and montane forests, where it is very diffi-
cult to find. Wynter-Blyth caught two below
Coonoor. I have three from the Longwood
Shola near Kotagiri (20. iv, 23 . viii, and 11.x)
one collected by Gordon Thompson. This is
the fruit of more than twenty visits to this
lovely forest. The species is endemic to the
mountains of South India, south of the main
Western Ghats which do not appear to be
high enough.

280. Oriens goloides Moore
{Oriens gola)

The Indian dartlet resembles the members
of the next genus, but may readily be recog-
nised by the layout of the upperside orange

markings of the forewings where the discal
band touches those of the cell. According to
Wynter-Blyth it is sometimes common on the
Nadgani Ghat, but I have only found it occa-
sionally at Kallar and Nadgani. It is found in
evergreen forest of the tropical and subtropi-
cal types, occasionally being found up to 1600
m or so, above which it is replaced by the
preceding species. In habits it is similar to the
Potanthus , spending most of its time sitting
on green leaves, occasionally coming to flowers
and only very rarely to water. It is found in
Sri Lanka and South India, then from Kumaon
east to Malaysia, other species representing
the genus further into the Oriental region.

The genus Potanthus

The genus Potanthus contains five species
that occur in South India according to Evans
(1949). They are very difficult to deal with.
No data from before Evans’ book are correct
and in most cases impossible subsequently to
verify. Furthermore I should not be at all
surprised if the classification of the taxa
recognised by Evans in South India will even-
tually be found to be in need of revision.
Unfortunately none of the species is parti-
cularly common, and I do not have a very
large material on which to base personal study
of the South Indian taxa. I shall list the taxa
recognised as South Indian by Evans as valid
for the Nilgiris even in the cases where I have
not seen Nilgiri material. They are all certain
to occur. Firm identifications need genitalia
dissection, not least since there is also seasonal
variation. The ‘majority of characters’ indica-
tions below might serve to place individual
specimens in the correct species, but it really
is impossible to be certain except when a typi-
cal specimen is compared with a correctly
identified comparative series, and the genitalia
examined if there is the least doubt. Females
are even more difficult than the males.

34

BUTTERFLIES OF THE N1LGIRI MOUNTAINS

281. Potanthus pallida Evans
( Padraona sp.)

The pallid dart is rare in South India since
Evans lists only six specimens from the Nilgiris.
The bands are straw yellow like in P. pseudo-
maesa but the wings are not so strongly pro-
duced as in the other species. Given the
amount of material available to Evans it is
necessary to assume that it is genuinely absent
from the Western Ghats proper, which would
indicate that it is something of montane
species. The range covers Sri Lanka and South
India, then from Simla to Indo-China and
Yunan.

282. Potanthus pseudomaesa pseudomaesa
Moore

( Padraona sp.)

The pseudomaesa dart is similar to the
preceding species with straw yellow markings,
but the wings are shaped like the
others of the genus. The species seems to be
considerably more common. I have specimens
from Glenburn, Nadgani and the Biligiriranga
Mountains. In most cases small series were
taken in sunny forest glades and along paths.
The range covers Sri Lanka, South to central
India, Mt. Abu and then from Kashmir to
Hong Kong.

283. Potanthus confucius diana Evans
( Padraona sp.)

The confucian dart is the smallest of the
South Indian species, the markings of the
upperside are a much darker orange than in
the two preceding species, and the brand
broader than in the larger P. palnia. Judging
from the limited series available in London
it is not a common South Indian butterfly.
My own single specimen is from the Nadgani
Ghat; it is much smaller than any other of
the genus in my collection. The distribution
covers Sri Lanka, South India, Madhya Pra-

desh, Nepal to Japan, the Philippines and
Sundaland.

284. Potanthus pava pava Fruhstofer
( Padraona sp.)

The pava dart has relatively broad bands
of a golden orange that contrasts strongly
with the pale straw of the Pallid and Pseudo-
maesa Darts. The veins are less marked where
they cross the bands than is normal in the
genus. The forewing markings of 4 and 5 are
well joined with the main discal band and is
always in contact with the three apical spots.
The species does not appear to be at all
common in southern India. I have a single
specimen from Mukkali as well as a fair series
from the Biligiriranga Mountains where they
were caught in moist-deciduous forest. The
species is found in South India, then from
Himachal east to most of the Oriental region.

285. Potanthus palnia Evans
( Padraona sp.)

The palni dart was described from the
Palnis and appears to be the most common
of the South Indian Potanthus. The bands are
narrow and of a deep orange-hue. I have
specimens from Glenburn, Kallar, Wenlock
Bridge, and Mukkali as well as from the Bili-
giriranga Mountains. The range covers southern
India, then from Sikkim to Burma and Thai-
land. It is said to recur on Sumatra though
absent from Malaysia; the Sumatran form is
almost certainly a good species.

286. Telicota colon colon Fabricius
( Astychas augias & pythias)

The two Telicota are like scaled up members
of the previous genus, but are more powerful
insects of more open country. The pale palm
dart can usually, but not invariably, be told
from the next by the fact that the forewing
veins are yellow right out to the edge of the

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

wing, but there is individual and seasonal
variation in both of the species. Both are
common in open country near forest and do
not differ much in habits, though perhaps the
present species will be found in slightly more
open country than the next. The range covers
practically the entire Oriental region deep into
the Pacific and the Australian region.

287. Telicota ancilla bambusae Moore
( Astychas augias & pythias)

Apart from living in closer proximity to
forest and perhaps being found under slightly
more mesic minimum conditions, there is no
difference between the dark palm dart and
the previous species in range and behaviour,
except that it is missing in some parts of the
drier NW India where the other occurs. Both
species are fond of flowers, come to bird drop-
pings, but rarely or never to water.

288. Parnara naso bada Moore
(not included in W-B)

The African straight swift is readily re-
cognisable from the other small skippers of the
group in South India by the lack of cell spots
in both sexes and by the lack of a spot in
space lb of the male. Wynter-Blyth expresses
surprise that he did catch the very similar
P. guttatus mangala Moore, but that species
does not occur in South India at all. I have
found the species not too uncommon mainly at
lower levels and in the subtropical zone, but
it will probably turn up in most habitats from
time to time. It is one of the few skippers to
be Palaetropical, being widely distributed in
Africa and recurring from Sri Lanka and
India to the Philippines, Borneo, Sulawesi,
Sumatra and Java, and then Queensland, appa-
rently bypassing New Guinea.

289. Borbo cinnara Wallengren
( Baoris zelleri )

The rice swift is a relatively common

butterfly in the Nilgiris, being found in most
types of terrain, but rarely on the plateau
proper. I never found it as abundant as Wynter-
Blyth seems to imply in his Nilgiri paper. It
is most usually caught at low flowers, some-
times on Lantana. The name zelleri Lederer
has often been used in conjunction with this
butterfly but this is quite mistaken since this
name applies to a form of the Afrotropical B.
borbonica which has no link to the Oriental
region. The species ranges throughout the
Oriental region in almost all ecological zones,
extending to New Guinea, Australia and the
New Hebrides.

290. Borbo bevani Moore
( Baoris bevani)

bevan’s swift has the wings, especially the
hindwings, so broad that it cannot be mistaken
for B. cinnara. The usual spotting is sometimes
nearly obsolete. Only Hampson has recorded
it from the Nilgiris where it seems to be
scarce, and I have never found it common
anywhere. From South India I have a few
specimens from the Biligiriranga Mountains.
The range is from most of India (but not Sri
Lanka) to much of the rest of the Oriental
region, but not Malaysia, Borneo and New
Guinea, then again in NE Australia.

291. Pelopidas agna agna Moore
(not included in W-B)

The dark branded swift is very similar to
Pelopidas mathias, a common species generally
found in more open country than the present
one. It is a small species with less developed
hyaline markings, and normally the spots on
the underside hindwings are less prominent
than in mathias. On close examination the
brand will be found to be placed slightly diffe-
rently. I have not found it particularly common
but most visits to the tropical and subtropical
evergreen forests will turn up a specimen or

36

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILG1RI MOUNTAINS

two. It is fond of Lantana flowers. The range
covers virtually all of the Oriental region.

292. Pelopidas subochracea subochracea

Moore

( Baoris sinensis)

The large branded swift is an altogether
more impressive insect than the other South
Indian members of the genus Pelopidas. The
white forewing brand in the male is promi-
nent and the deep ochre hindwing underside
has prominent white spots in interspaces 2, 3
and 6, and prominently in the cell. It seems
to be rare in the Nilgiris, Wynter-Blyth having
taken one only at Kallar. I never saw it in the
Nilgiris, but I have one from Sholayar in the
Annamalais. The range covers Sri Lanka and
South India, then from Sikkim east to Thai-
land, Yunan and Hainan.

293. Pelopidas mathias mathias Fabricius
( Baoris mathias)

The small branded swift is a dry zone
species that has been the subject of much con-
fusion with P. agna. I never saw it till October
1986 after having spent six months in the area.
Then a small skipper participated in the migra-
tions and on a visit to Masinagudi I found
large numbers of this species at flowers and at
water. It would appear that a few migrants
had been responsible for the production of a
large brood which proceeded to move towards
the south on hatching. I had prospected this
locality on numerous occasions during the
preceding months without seeing the species.
The distribution is vast, covering all of Africa,
much of Arabia and the whole of the Oriental
region, with extensions to the temperate zone
in Asia as well as to New Guinea.

294. Pelopidas conjuncta narooa Moore
( Baoris conjuncta)

The conjoined swift is a large species with

male stigma on the forewings. The markings
are a pale yellow and not the milky white of
the other species of the genus. The hindwing
underside usually carries a complete comple-
ment of white spots and those of at least spaces
2 and 3 are usually present on the upperside
as well. Though Wynter-Blyth records it from
Ketti, Kallar, Gudalur and Nadgani I have
failed to find it. The distribution covers Sri
Lanka and South India, from there to Sikkim,
Assam, east to southern China, the Philippines,
Borneo and Java.

295. Polytremis lubricans lubricans Herrich-

Schaffer

(Baoris conti gua)

The contiguous swift is so called be-
cause the two cell spots are almost always
merged. The hyaline spotting is yellowish and
the ground colour has a distinctly chestnut
tinge. All told the species has a different ‘feel’
from the related species. It seems to be very
scarce in the Nilgiris. Wynter-Blyth took one
on the Nadgani Ghat and I have a single speci-
men from the bottom of the Ghat which was
not visited by him because of war-time petrol
rationing. My specimen is from 20 . vii . 1 986.
The species is found on the Western Ghats,
then from Kumaon east to southern China and
through Sundaland to Timor and the Sula
Islands.

296. Baoris farri farri Moore

The paintbrush swifts constitute a com-
plex of three species whose males have a dense
brush of androconial scales on the upper hind-
wings. This species is the South Indian repre-
sentative and the male is unlike any other
species in the area because of the brush. The
female is rather like that sex of Caltoris cana-
raica, but she never has light spots on the hind-
wing underside like the latter. It is relatively
rare and seems to be limited to the wettest

37

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

lowland evergreen forests. I know of records
only from the Nadgani Ghat where I have
especially found it in the early mornings sit-
ting on green leaves along jungle paths, but
on drizzly days it may be found feeding from
Lantana as well. By 10.30 they disappeared
completely. On one or two occasions I have
caught males on fresh buffalo dung. The
species is found in India and then east to
Hong Kong, Malaysia and Sumatra. The
closely related B. penicillata Moore is found
on Sri Lanka, recurring from Sikkim east with-
out being found in South India. Two other
species of the genus are found from NE India
to Sundaland.

297. Caltoris kumara kumara Moore
(Baoris kumara)

The blank swift is a large, compact insect
without hyaline spots in the forewing cell.
Wynter-Blyth recorded it from a number of
localities including Ketti (common), Kallar.
Gudalur and Nadgani which is surprising to
me since I have found just a few in the wettest
Nadgani habitats. This might be because his
records were mainly from October to January,
a period of the year that I did not cover. The
species is found in Sri Lanka and South India,
then from Sikkim to Thailand, Indo-China
and Java, but not Malaysia and Sumatra.

298. Caltoris canaraica Moore
( Baoris canaraica)

The kanara swift is a rather rare South
Indian endemic. It is very like Caltoris kumara,
though a bit smaller, but both sexes have two
clear hyaline spots in the forewing cell. I have
found it quite numerous on a single occasion
on the Nadgani Ghat (mid July), in small
numbers on a previous occasion, and once
near Mukkali at the foot of the Silent Valley
system. These seem to be the only Nilgiri
records. It is probably limited to the wetter

lowland evergreen forest and in my experience
it is best caught very early in the morning, as
early as 07.00.

299. Caltoris philippina philippina Herrich-
Schaffer

( Baoris philippina)

The Philippine swift definitely occurs in
the Nilgiris, but I have not collected it and
can say nothing about it except that it is
probably mainly found in evergreen forests,
including the subtropical level. It is widely
distributed from Sri Lanka and South India,
via Sikkim and Assam to the Oriental region.
New Guinea and some of the Pacific islands.

South Indian Butterflies not yet

RECORDED FROM THE NlLGIRIS

Azanus uranus Butler — widely distributed in
India and almost certain to occur in the dry
zone lowland habitats somewhere in the
Nilgiris area.

Arhopala hazaloides Hewitson — recorded
from Kanara and almost certainly to be
found somewhere in lowland evergreen
forest.

Apharitis lilacinus Moore — possibly found in
the dry zone habitat since known from
Karnataka.

Parantirrhoea marshalli Wood-Mason — an
endemic species in a monobasic genus and
one of South India’s most interesting ende-
mics, known from Coorg and Travancore.
There are two in the British Museum (Natu-
ral History) marked ‘Coonoor, Manders,
1 1 . 1910’ in the same handwriting. The species
is a lowland one. They cannot be from
Coonoor, but I would not be surprised to
find it on the western slopes.

Mycalesis mamerta davidsoni Moore — record-
ed from Trichy and possible in the Nilgiris
area..

38

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

Mycalesis oculus Marshall — limited to the
hills south of the Palghat Gap. Will not be
found in the Nilgiris.

Ypthima ypthimoides Moore — as above.
Pantoporia sandaka davidsoni Eliot — known
from the Coorg area and probable in the
Nilgiris.

Phalanta alcippe Cramer — known from
Coorg, very locally. May just possibly occur
in the Nilgiris.

Bibasis gomata kanara Evans — known from
Kanara.

Hasora vitta indica Evans known from

Kanara. No Nilgiri records or specimens in
BM(NH).

Caprona agama agama Moore — mentioned by
Evans (1949) from the Palnis and Madurai.
Aeromachus dubius dubius Elwes & Edwards
— should occur in the Nilgiris as known
from both north and south thereof.
Plastingia sala Hewitson known from

Kanara, might occur in the Nilgiris.
Hyarotis microstictum coorga Evans — known
from Kanara and probable in the Nilgiris
from where it has been recorded, but pos-
sibly in error.

Tentative Conclusions

It is my intention to analyse the data pre-
sented in this paper in a more detailed fashion
in order to study the ecological and zoogeogra-
phical composition of the Nilgiri butterfly
fauna, the degree of endemism and other
factors. This has not yet been done, but it
seems appropriate to end the paper with some
tentative conclusions that are unlikely to
change in the face of a more detailed analy-
tical treatment.

The first conclusion that can be drawn is
that the Nilgiri fauna, with just 300 species,
is rich, varied and very interesting. There is
probably no other area of similar size in India

that has that many species, partly because
those areas which have true rainforest will not
simultaneously house the montane and tempe-
rate element that is found in the high Nilgiris.
Sri Lanka, further south, has only about 240
species.

The second conclusion that can be drawn
is that the Nilgiri mountains contain practi-
cally all the species ever recorded from any-
where in southern India. Only a dozen or so
potential species remain unrecorded. Possibly
a few of these will turn out to be limited to
the wettest parts of the Kanara Ghats, but
most will eventually be found also in the
Nilgiris.

A third conclusion is therefore that the
faunal composition of the wetter South Indian
mountains probably does not differ much from
one to another. So far only two species are
known to be limited to the mountains south
of the Palghat Gap.

By far the richest habitat in terms of num-
bers of species is the lowland rainforest, close-
ly followed by the wet evergreen forests. The
butterflies of these zones are mainly Oriental
and it is notable that those limited to the rain-
forests tend to have affinities to the Sundaland
fauna rather than to the Indo-Chinese/Thai.
Most of the specialities of these two zones
have strongly disjunct distributions, being ab-
sent from peninsular India.

The lowland mixed deciduous forest is also
quite rich and is especially interesting for be-
ing the headquarters of a number of species
that are endemic to the Indian peninsula
(and sometimes Sri Lanka). The drier for-
mations contain mainly widespread Oriental
and Palaeotropical species, but there is a de-
cided admixture of Afrotropical and Eremic
elements (details about these will be found in
Larsen, 1984).

The subtropical evergreen forests contain a
small number of species that seem to be cen-

39

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

tered on this zone. They will usually be the
type of species that are also found in the sub-
tropical zone of the Himalaya east to southern
China, but not infrequently without Sundaland
connections.

The plateau has a limited number of species
of varied composition. The most noticeable
are the disjunct Palaearctic elements, and the
Oriental montane species. They are not many,
but very prominent in the natural highland
habitats. A number of widespread genera show
secondary specialisation to the South Indian
mountains and have developed local endemics.
Finally there are many of the widespread and
hardy Oriental and Palaeotropical species.

Zoogeographically South India is very much
a part of the Oriental Region and virtually the
entire fauna is Oriental of origin. Most of the
endemic species belong to genera that have
their centres of diversity elsewhere in the
Oriental Region. The score or so Palaeotropi-
cal species are represented virtually in full.
The eremic, desert-adapted species are again
few, mainly limited to the driest tracts and
not much in evidence elsewhere. The few
Afrotropical species are limited to the same
habitats. The Palaearctic butterflies arc few in
number, though rather prominent in the depau-
perate butterfly fauna of the plateau proper.

The level of endemicity is both low and at
low taxonomic levels, even when the whole of
peninsular India, including Burma, is taken
into account. Strict endemics at generic level
are Parantirrhoea, which has not yet been
found in the Nilgiris, and Sovia which is
closely related to the Halpe. Wider endemics
are Talicada, Rathinda and Zezius, and per-
haps one or two others. The number of more
or less endemic species is also modest in
relation to the total fauna, not least when it
is taken into account that so many of the
species are strongly disjunct, being isolated in
the South Indian wet zones. The bulk of the

endemics are isolated species in genera that
have their centres of diversity elsewhere in
the Oriental region.

There is much similarity between the fauna
of South India and Sri Lanka, but there are
also surprising differences. A considerable
number of South Indian butterflies that one
would have expected on Sri Lanka do not
occur, while Sri Lanka has a number of ende-
mics and a number of disjunct species not
occurring in South India. At first sight the
differences appear larger than one would have
expected a priori. I hope to analyse this matter
in a subsequent paper.

The initial impression that is gained is con-
sistent with the conclusions of Holloway (1974),
namely that if India had its own butterfly
fauna when it merged with the rest of Asia
after rafting from Gondwanaland, then all
traces of this fauna has been lost. Otherwise,
one would have to postulate both that India
had been overwhelmingly responsible for popu-
lating the remainder of the Oriental region, and
thar in most cases the genera and species
diverged far from the Gondwanan ancestors.
Again I plan to look further into this issue,
but at present it appears that South India has
a fauna that is derived from a series of rela-
tively recent contacts with neighbouring faunal
regions, with some modest degree of subse-
quent speciation in isolation.

Finally it is a pleasure to say that during
seven months in the Nilgiris it was possible
to collect the bulk of all the species that have
ever been recorded from there. A comparison
with earlier lists shows that there has been no
significant depletion of genetic resources in
butterflies, and I believe them to be a good
indicator for general ecological conditions.
However, habitats have been much shrunk.
They are today just adequate and will, on the
whole, not accept further large scale encroach-
ment. That largest of all indicators of environ -

40

BUTTERFLIES OF THE N1LG1RI MOUNTAINS

mental health, the Indian Elephant, in some
parts of the Nilgiris has lost its normal migra-
tion routes to human interference. Future con-
servation efforts must not only be concerned
with establishing well-managed reserves in all
habitat types. They must also conserve the
necessary corridors to permit genetic flow
between the various parts of the Western Ghats
system as a whole. In practical terms this means
that the whole area of Tamil Nadu and Kerala
now forested should not be allowed to shrink
any further. Nature conservation in the more
narrow sense apart, there is increasing evidence
that further deforestation of the Western Ghats
system will lead to problems on a macro -
ecological level in terms of water supply, ero-

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42

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

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43

ON THE FISH FAUNA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL
PARK, BHARATPUR (RAJASTHAN)1

C. R. Ajith Kumar and V. S. Vijayan2
(With a text -figure)

Introduction

One of the major attractions of Keoladeo
National Park, a world heritage site, is its
rookeries and heronries huddled on babul
trees ( Acacia nilotica) in the semi-aquatic
areas of the Park. Although the importance of
fish to these colonies of fish eating birds was
emphasized by Salim Ali (1953) about three
decades ago, no concerted effort has been
made hitherto to study the fish fauna of the
Park in detail. Saxena (1975), Datta and
Majumdar (1970), and Mahajan (1980) have
reported the faunal elements but their study
was seasonal and hence incomplete.

The present report covers a survey of the
fish fauna of Keoladeo National Park, con-
ducted between 1982 and 1985 as part of a
long-term ecological study of the Keoladeo
National Park by the Bombay Natural History
Society. Altogether 40 species have been re-
corded. Some species recorded by earlier
workers were not seen during the present study
while some new species have been added both
to the fish fauna of Keoladeo National Park
and to that of Rajasthan. All the species
recorded so far by various workers have been
included in the checklist.

Keoladeo National Park

Keoladeo National Park (27° 7.6' to 27° 12.2'
N and 77° 29.5' to 77°33.9'E) is a tiny wet-

1 Accepted February 1987.

2 Ecological Research Centre, Keoladeo Ghana
National Park. Bharatpur 321 001. Rajasthan.

land surrounded by villages, about 3 km. from
Bharatpur town. It is halfway (180 km.) bet-
ween Jaipur and Delhi and is about 58 km.
south of Agra.

The Park is 28.5 sq. km., out of which the
aquatic area is only 8.5 sq. km. The entire
aquatic area is divided into various compart-
ments by means of bunds, and the water level
in each compartment is regulated through
sluice gates. The maximum water depth is
up to two metres. During summer the Park
dries up, leaving only a few isolated pools
(for more details, see Salim Ali & Vijayan
1983).

Water temperature varied from 12° to 32°C
during the study period, the maximum being
in May and the minimum in January. Annual
rainfall during 1982 to 1985 was 27 to 52 cm.,
received mainly during July to August.

The aquatic vegetation of the area consists
mainly of: (1) Submerged vegetation, namely
Hydrilla verticellata, Ceratophyllum sp., Najas
minor ; (2) Floating vegetation, namely Nym-
phaea nouchali, N. stellata, Nymphoides crista-
turn, N. indicum, Ipomoea aquatica, Azolla
hipinnata , Lemna paucicostata, Wolffia arrhiza,
and (3) Emergent vegetation, such as Paspa-
lum distichurn, Elaeocharis plantaginea, Sporo-
holus helvolus and Cyperus alopecuroides.

Water source to the Park.

A consideration of the water source to the
Park, its geographic position, and the age old
management practice will give an insight into
the fish fauna of the Park.

44

FISH FAUNA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK

The Park is situated at the confluence of
two non-perennial rivers— Gambir and Ban-
ganga; the former originates from the Karoli
hills of Sawai Madhopur, flows about 280 km.
before reaching Bharatpur and passes through
Bharatpur to join Yamuna on the east. River
Banganga originates near Manoharpur (near
Jaipur) about 64 km. northwest of Jamwa
Ramgarh, runs about 241 km. before termi-
nating at Mckpur head, 18 km. short of Bharat-
pur (Fig. 1).

Water from Gambir and Banganga is drawn
through Pichuna canal and Uchain canal res-
pectively and empties into a temporary re-
servoir, Ajanbund, situated approximately 500
metres south of the Park. From here the water
is let into the Park through Ghana canal.
Enormous number of fish fry also enter the
Park through these waters. Thus the aquatic
ecosystem of the Park is an open system,
having connections with the aforesaid two
rivers which finally join the perennial Yamuna.
The fish fauna of the Park also represents,
partially at least, the fauna of all these waters.
Even though the rivers are non-perennial, per-
manent large water bodies such as Jamwa
Ramgarh Tal, Bund Bareta. Jagur Tal and
Kalako Bund are connected to either Banganga
or Gambir, forming a common water system.

Methods of collection.

The following methods were used for sam-
pling the fish fauna:

I. Gill nets: Gill nets of the size 11x1.20
m. with mesh sizes varying from 3.5 to 6.5
cm. were used to collect fish from open water
where submerged vegetation may or may not
be present.

II. Traps : Traps of two sizes, 35x30x40
cm. and 25 X 35 x 35 cm, made of split
bamboo were employed to sample fishes from
areas where thick vegetation occurred.

III. Cast net: Was used in open water and
in pools.

IV. Fry sampling net: The bridge over
Ghana canal near ‘Chital van’ has five pillars.
The space between the adjacent pillars was
blocked with a square net made of mosquito
netting to sample the fish fry entering the Park
from Ajanbund. Each net was of 150 x 150 cm.

Result

Fish fauna of the Park

All the 50 species recorded so far are listed
below, following the classification adopted by
Jayaram (1981).

I Order : clupeiformes
Family (i) : Clupeidae
Genus ( 1 ) : Gadusia Fowler

1 . Gadusia chapra (Hamilton)

II Order : osteoglossiformes
Family (ii) : Notopteridae
Genus (2) : Not opt er us Lacepede

2. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas)

***3. Notopterus chitala (Hamilton)

III Order : CYPRINIFORMES
Family (iii) : Cyprinidae
Genus (3): Oxygaster van Hasselt
4. Oxygaster bacaila (Hamilton)

Genus (4) : Danio Hamilton
****5. Danio sp.

Genus (5) : Chela Hamilton
****6. Chela sp.

Genus (6) : Esomus Swainson
7. Esomus danricus (Hamilton)

Genus (7): Labeo Cuvier
**8. Labeo bata (Hamilton)

9. Labeo calbasu (Hamilton)

45

4

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

46

Fig. 1. Banganga and Gambher river system.

FISH FAUNA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK

**10. Labeo fimbriatus (Bloch)

1 1 . Labeo gonius (Hamilton)

12. Labeo rohita (Hamilton)

Genus (8) : A mblypharyngodon
Bleeker

13. Amblypharyngodon mola (Hamilton)
Genus (9) : Chagunius H. M. Smith

*14. Chagunius chagunio (Hamilton)
Genus (10): Cirrhinas Oken

15. Cirrhinas mrigaia (Hamilton)

16. Cirrhinas reba (Hamilton)

Genus (11): Cat la Valenciennes

17. Catia catla (Hamilton)

Genus (12): Puntius Hamilton

18. Puntius sarana (Hamilton)

19. Puntius sophore (Hamilton)

20. Puntius ticto (Hamilton)

Genus (13): Osteobrama Heckel

21 . Osteobrama cotio (Hamilton)

Genus (14): Crossocheilus
van Hasselt

****22. Crossocheilus latius latius (Hamilton)

Family (iv) : Cobitidae
Genus (15): Botia Gray
****23. Botia lohachata Chaudhuri

Genus (16): Lepidocephalus Bleeker
Subgenus : Lepidocephalichthys
*24. L. (Lepidocephalichthys) guntea
(Hamilton)

Genus (17): Noemacheilus van
Hasselt

*25. Noemacheilus botia (Hamilton)

*26. Noemacheilus corica (Hamilton)

IV Order : siluriformes
Family (v) : Bagridae
Genus (18): Mystus Scopoli

27. Mystus cavasius (Hamilton)

28. Mystus vittatus (Bloch)

Genus (19): Aorichthys Wu

29 . Aorichthys aor

30. Aorichthys seenghala
Family (vi) : Siluridae
Genus (20) : Ompok Lacepede

****31. Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch)

Genus (21): Wallago Bleeker
32. Wallago attu (Schneider)

Family (vii) : Schilbeidae
Genus (22) : Clupisoma Swainson
****33. Clupisoma garua (Hamilton)

Genus (23): Ailia Gray
****34. Ailia coila (Hamilton)

Genus (24) : Pseudeutropius Bleeker
****35. Pseudeutropius atherinoides (Bloch)?

Genus (25): Eutropiichthys Bleeker
*36. Eutropiichthys vacha (Hamilton)
Family (viii) : Clariidae
Genus (26): Clarias Scopoli

37. Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus)

Family (ix) : Heteropneustidae
Genus (27): Heteropneustes Muller

38. Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch)

Family (x) : Sisoridae
Genus (28) : Nangra Day

****39. Nangra viridescens (Hamilton)

V Order : atheriniformes
Family (xi): Belonidae
Genus (29): Xenentodon Regan
****40. Xenentodon cancila Hamilton
VI Order : channiformes

Family (xii) : Channidae
Genus (30) : Channa Scopoli
*41 . Channa gachua Hamilton

42. Channa marulius Hamilton

43. Channa punctatus (Bloch)

44. Channa striatus (Bloch)

VII Order : perciformes
Family (xiii) : Chandidae
Genus (31): Chanda Hamilton

47

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

****45 Chanda nama (Hamilton)

****46 Chanda ranga (Hamilton)

Family (xiv) : Relontidae
Genus (32) : Colisa Cuvier

****47 Colisa fasciata (Schneider)

VIII Order : mastacemreliformes
Family (xv) : Mastacembelidae
Genus (33): Mastacembelus Scopoli

48. Mastacembelus armatus armatus
(Lacepede)

49. Mastacembelus pancalus (Hamilton)
Genus (34) : Macrognathus Lacepede

50. Macrognathus acuieatus (Bloch)

* Recorded only by Mahajan (1980).

** Recorded only by Saxena (1975).

*** Recorded by both Mahajan and Saxena
but not during the present study.

**** Recorded only in the present study.

Discussion

This study adds 13 new records to the fish
fauna of Keoladeo National Park, making the
total, including those recorded by earlier
workers, to 50. It is also interesting to note
that this tiny wetland has, altogether, added
13 species to the fish fauna of Rajasthan, in-
creasing it to 88; the former record being 75
species (Datta and Majumdar 1970). Out of
the 13 species, six, namely Crossoeheilus latius
latius, Ailia colla, Nangra viridescens, Clupi-
soma garua, Pseudeutropius atherinoides (?)
and Chela sp. are recorded by us, while four,
namely Noemacheilus corica, Aorichthys aor,
Eutropiichthys vacha and Macrognathus acu-
ieatus are by Mahajan (1980), two species,
namely Tor tor and Notopterus chitala are by
Moona (1963) and one species, Clarias batra-
chus is by Saxena (1975). None of the six
species recorded by us breed inside the Park

and were collected when the water entered the
Park. Three of them ( Crossoeheilus latius,
Clupisoma garua and Nangra viridescens ) were
less frequent.

Although the fish fauna of the Park lists
50 species, the present study could record only
40. Seven species namely Lepidocephalichthys
guntea, Noemacheilus botia, N. corica, Aorich-
thys aor, Eutropiichthys vacha, Channa gachua
and Chagunius chagunio recorded by Mahajan
(1980), two, namely Labeo bata and L. fim-
briatus reported by Saxena (1975), and one
species, Notopterus chitala recorded by both
of them were not seen during the present study.
As the present investigation was a continuous
and intensive one for the last four years, we
presume that these 10 species must have be-
come locally extinct or were stray records. Dis-
appearance of these species may be due to:
(1) alteration or destruction of habitats in the
breeding area outside the Park, (2) changes in
the habitat inside the Park, (3) over-exploita-
tion, and (4) displacement or competitive
exclusion by the ‘invaders’. As quantitative
data on their abundance and habitat when they
were present inside the Park are not available,
it is not possible to attribute with certainty
any of the above mentioned factors as respon-
sible for their elimination. However, with the
available information the following inference is
made:

Of the 40 species recorded during the study,
only six breed inside and the rest enter through
the canal while the water is let in. Among
the 10 locally extinct species, it is not clear
how many of them were breeding inside. It is
likely, two of them, Channa gachua and Notop-
terus chitala might have been breeding inside
as their congeners Channa punctatus, C. stria -
tus, C. marulius and Notopterus notopterus
are the major breeding species of the Park.
As coexistence of congeneric sympatric species
is often due to different ecological require-

48

FISH FAUNA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK

ments (Cody 1974, Pontin 1982), a minor
alteration of the habitat might affect the
chances of their survival. Pertinent at this point
is the uncontrolled growth of Paspalum dis-
tichum, a perennial, amphibious grass, and the
subsequent changes in the aquatic system owing
to the prevention of buffalo grazing since
1982. Habitat stress leads to competition
especially in the congeneric sympatric species
which may ultimately exclude the weaker ones
(Stephens 1970, Zaret 1971). This may be true
for two out of the ten locally extinct species
which have their congeners in the Park. Except
Channa gachua, Chagunius chagunio, Lepi-
docephallchthys guntea, Noemacheilus botia
and N. corica all the other species which were
not seen now are economically important.
Hence over-exploitation might also have played
a major role. Tor mahseer. Tor tor, one of the
important sport fishes reported by Moona (1963)

in Ajanbund, was not seen during the present
study and it is noticed that there has been a
drastic decline in their number in the rivers
of North India (Kulkarni 1980, Jhingran 1982)

The local extinction may be the result of all
the factors mentioned above, operating toge-
ther or individually. Our ongoing study on the
ecology of major species in the Park may
throw more light into this.

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the help render-
ed by Mr. T. K. Sen, Officer-in-charge, Fresh-
water Fish Section, Zoological Survey of India
for confirmation of identification of the species.
We also thank Dr. C. V. Kulkarni for critically
going through the manuscript and also Mr. J.
G. Daniel, Curator, Bombay Natural History
Society for the constant encouragement.

References

Ali, Salim (1953): The Keoladeo Ghana of
Bharatpur (Rajasthan). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
51 (3) : 531-536.

Ali Salim & Vijayan, V. S. (1983) : Hydrobio-
logy (Ecological) Research at Keoladeo National
Park, Bharatpur. First Interim Report, Bombay
Natural History Society.

Cody, M. (1974) : Competition and the structure
of bird communities. Princeton, New Jersy. 318 pp.

Datta, A. K. & Majumdar, N. (1970): Fauna of
Rajasthan, India. Part 1, Fishes, Rec. Zool. Surv.
India. 62: 63-100.

Jayaram, K. C. (1981) : The Freshwater fishes of
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh. Burma and Sri Lanka.
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 475 pp.

Jhingran, (1982) : Fish and fisheries of India.
Hindustan Publishing Corporation, Delhi, pp. 666.

Kulkarni, C. V. (1980) : Eggs and early develop-
ment of Tor mahseer Fish. /. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 77(1): 70-75.

Mahajan, C. L. (1980) : Effect of human acti-
vities on the structure and functioning of freshwater

ecosystems of Ghana Bird Sanctuary, Bharatpur.
Rajasthan. A Preliminary Report in the Man and
Biosphere Project. Dept, of Science and Technology,
Govt, of India, 1976-1979.

Math ur, B. B. L. (1952) : Notes on Fishes from
Rajasthan, India. Rec. Ind. Mus. Delhi. 5(7(1) :
105-110.

Moona, J. C. (1963) : Notes on fishes from Bharat-
pur District, Rajasthan. Rec. Ind. Mus. Delhi.
58(2): 59-66.

Pontin, A. J. (1982) : Competition and coexist-
ence of species. Pitman Advanced Publishing Pro-
gramme. London. 102 pp.

Saxena, V. S. (1975) : A study of flora and
fauna of Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary. Dept, of
Tourism. Rajasthan.

Stephens, John S. jr, (1970) : The comparative
ecology of three sympatric species of Californian
blennids, Ecol. Mono gr. 40(2) : 213-233.

Zaret, Thomas M. (1971) : Competition in tropi-
cal stream fishes. Support for the competition exclu-
sion principle. Ecol. 52(2): 336-342.

49

ECOLOGY OF BABBLERS (TURDOIDES SPP.)1
V. J. Zach arias2 & D. N. Mathew3
(With three text -figures)

Introduction

The babblers of the genus Turdoides have
a wide distribution in India. The Whiteheaded
Babbler (Turdoides affinis) and the Jungle
Babbler (T. striatus ) occur sympatrically in
many parts of South India. Both live in flocks
and their ecological requirements overlap in
many areas. There are a few informative
publications on the ecology of babblers of the
genus Turdoides (Zahavi 1974, Gaston 1976,
1977). From June, 1974 to September, 1977
one of us (VJZ) had an opportunity to carry
out a comparative study of the ecology of T.
affinis and T. striatus in Calicut. S. India.
DNM worked on the food and moult of the
Jungle Babbler from 1975 to 1977 in the same
locality.

Study area\

This study was centred at the Calicut Uni-
versity campus 10° 30'-45' N, 75° 40'-50' E
and in area of 2.27 km2. A considerable part
of the area consists of open secondary scrub
jungle and stretches of laterite sparsely covered
with grass, intermixed with a few groves of
coconut and cashew. The terrain is undulating
and the elevation c. 80 m. The area of collec-
tion, Chelannur, Calicut, was more urbanized
but with the same climate and type of layout
of crops. The elevation at Chelannur varies
from sea level to about 100 m.

1 Accepted July 1986.

2 Present address : Department of Zoology, St.
Joseph’s College, Devagiri, Calicut-673 008. Kerala.
India.

3 Department of Zoology, University of Calicut.
Kerala, India.

Climate :

The study area is hot and humid. The
warm season from March to May is followed
by the southwest monsoon from June to Sept-
ember. It may continue to rain in October and
November but rains cease after December.
During south-west monsoon rainfall is heavy
and amounts to more than half of the total
rainfall (Table 1).

Vegetation'.

The flora is tropical but tree species are
few. Plant formations varied from low scrub
dominated by Calycopteris floribunda to closed
canopy woodland comprising Macaranga pel-
tata and Anacardium Occident ale. Lantana
camara forms thickets in areas where the soil
is more moist. The centre of the University
campus is more or less open with stretches of
grass. In the low lying peripheral areas there
is less of laterite and the top soil is deeper.
Isolated patches of canopy woodlands are
common here.

The southern part of the campus is more
densely populated and has a few gardens of
crops like banana and cassava. Some of them
serve as food for the babblers, and all har-
boured caterpillars and other small animals
preyed upon by the birds. Chelannur area is
intensively cultivated with crops like paddy,
cassava, coconut, mango, cashew, cowpea.
snakegourd, bittergourd, yam etc. The secon-
dary scrub jungles are fewer except for the
many sacred groves.

50

ECOLOGY OF BABBLERS (TURDOIDES SPP.)

Table 1

Monthly totals

OF RAINFALL

RECORDS AT THE

Calicut station of the

METEOROLOGICAL

DEPARTMENT

Months

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

January

000.0

000.0

000.0

000.0

000.0

February

000.0

000.0

005.3

Terace

000.5

March

000.0

08.6

073.4

015.6

002.4

April

62.6

81.6

106.6

134.0

103.4

May

82.8

255.3

149.7

050.1

249.4

June

744.6

305.1

1299.3

209.9

723.0

July

585.1

1700.0

578.8

760.0

998.9

August

501 . 3

496.8

773.2

254.5

251.1

September

25.2

639.6

648.4

086.2

83.7

October

132.0

61.2

295.2

297.7

439.0

November

73.2

15.8

157.0

335.4

380.6

December

14.8

000.0

012.8

007.5

000,0

on the trunks of trees. The habitat of these
babblers in the University campus can be divid-
ed into four types.

1) Highly modified areas around human
habitation which are systematically water-
ed and cultivated.

2) Open grass-covered hillocks and scrub
jungle with a few trees.

3) Closed canopy woodlands 10-12 m. most-
ly Macaranga peltata and Bambusa arun-
dinacea with a fairly good undergrowth.

4) Woodland with sparse or no undergrowth,
constantly disturbed by removal of vege-
tation for manuring.

Turdoides affinis occurs in the first, second
and fourth types and T. striatus in the first,
third and fourth types of habitat. The former
is usually absent in canopy woodlands and
the latter in the open grass-covered hillocks
(Fig. 1). Chelannur had very few subhabitats
of type 3. Both species of babblers were seen
in types 1, 3 and 4 but the Jungle Babbler
moved about in shady areas with thickets of
lantana or trees like Macaranga to seek shelter
in.

Though there are differences in colour, size

51

Methods

The babblers were observed using 8 x 30
binoculars. Individual groups were followed for
periods from 2-8 hours. For studies of food
and moult, specimens of T. affinis and T. stria-
tus were collected between 1975 and 1977,
mostly from Chelannur. Stomachs were pre-
served in 4% formalin and the contents iden-
tified. Insect abundance in the study area was
sampled by sweep netting twice a month
throughout the year and the number of in-
vertebrates counted.

Results

Turdoides affinis (c. 63 g) moves in groups
of 3-14 birds in the study area. It forages from
dawn to dusk in open fields, grassy hillocks
and gardens, progressing slowly by hopping
and gliding. It is a poor flier but hops about
vigorously on the ground in search of food.
T. striatus (c. 74 g) also occurs sympatrically
but in the more sheltered areas full of thickets
of lantana. Foraging flocks of both species turn
over dead leaves, explore the clumps of
grasses, holes on the ground and the crevices

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Roost

Type I
Type II
Type HI ^
Typeiv::;:

T affinis

site of {^7 striatus •
Buildings n
NH 17 National highway

scale 1:8000

Fig. 1. Distribution of the two species of Babblers in the four types of habitats

the Calicut University Campus.

NH17

ECOLOGY OF BABBLERS (TURDOIDES SPP.)

and calls, some of the behavioural patterns of
these babblers are very similar. Interesting
differences were noticed in their ecological
requirements. The sentinel system occurs in
both species. The jungle babbler sentinel perch-
ed higher than its congener. The Jungle
Babblers perched on much higher branches for
roosting (Table 2). Many species of trees are

Table 2

Height qe roosting perches in babblers

Height (m)

T.

afjinis

T.

striatus

Fre-

Percen-

Fre-

Percen-

quency

tage

quency

tage

2-4

16

- 55.1 f

. ■ 5

29.4

4-6

9

31

8

47.5

6 and above

4

13.8

4

23.5

Total

29

17

shared by

groups

of both for

roosting. The

home range of a group of T. afjinis varied from
5.7 to 9.3 hectares and that of T. striatus
from 6.3 to 8.9 hectares. Each group had a
strongly defended core area inside the home
range in which the group roosted and nested.
The border areas of two or more groups and
of the two species often overlapped. Through-
out the period of study the area of the territory
maintained by each group remained more or
less the same; though some changes occurred
in three groups due to the destruction of vege-
tation and development of a new park in the
University campus.

Food and Feeding habits

The Whiteheaded Babblers are omnivorous.
Their food includes many insects. They spend
considerable time searching for food in the
open grasslands, scrub jungles, paddy fields, in
the compounds of houses, orchards, and gar-

dens, They consume a good quantity of plant
food like seeds of Lantana, Zizyphus, and
Macaranga, tubers of cassava and kitchen
scraps. Their animal food included insects
such as beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars,
termites, bugs, spiders and lizards. Large
caterpillars were pinned by the feet and
torn to bits before eating, and smaller ones
were wedged between the tips of the bill and
pulled into the mouth gradually.

The Whiteheaded Babblers probe the holes on
the trunks of trees and among the leaf bases
of banana and coconut palms in search of
food. The leaves of twiners attached to trees
like cashew are explored for caterpillars. Time
and again they flick dead leaves in search of
prey. They dig around the roots of grasses
and probe holes on the ground. They forage
on trees up to a height of 1 0 m. flitting from
branch to branch. The caterpillars clinging to
leaves are sometimes taken by tearing a bit
of the leaf along with the prey. The White-
headed Babblers usually do not go to the top
of taller trees for foraging. The foraging
methods of the two species of babblers can be
classified into the following categories : (Andrle
& Andrle 1976).

1) Stationary plucking : The birds hover

over bunches of fruits and pluck them.

2) Inverted feeding : The birds hang up-
side down from the leaves to catch cater-
pillars.

3) Peering : The birds twist their heads to
one side and peer under leaves from
perches in search of caterpillars.

4) Springing up vertically : This method is
used on trees as well as on the ground.
On the trees the birds spring vertically
to pluck the overhanging fruits like those
of Macaranga. On the ground they spring
up to catch winged termites and other
insects.

53

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

5) Aerial feeding : Very rarely T. affinis
jumps into the air from its perch to
catch flying insects.

6) Probing : The birds insert their bills into
curled-up leaves, gaps in the bark and
holes on the trunks of trees.

7) Hopping and gliding’. This is the most
common method used close to the ground
to catch grasshoppers and crickets.

8) Lifting of dead leaves : Birds lift dead
leaves on the ground with their bills. The
dead leaves are flicked to one side or the
other.

Aerial feeding is not used by T. striatus.
It does not spring up vertically. The methods
of foraging are compared in Table 3.

Table 3

Foraging methods of babblers

Methods

7. affinis

T. striatus

Stationary plucking

22

14

Inverted feeding

30

3

Peering

18

6

Springing vertically

24

2

Aerial feeding

8

—

Probing into curled-up
leaves on trees

18

4

Hopping and gliding

40

31

Digging and probing into holes

on ground

32

22

Flicking of dead leaves on

ground 42

44

Total observations

234

126

Sampling of insect abundance in the field
showed that all invertebrates were numerous
during and after the rains (Fig. 2). The steep
increase in June is related to the number of
caterpillars which feed on the leaves. Crops
such as cassava, paddy and peas are cultivated
at the onset of rains and harvested towards
the end of the year. Observations in the field
and study of the stomach contents showed a

Arthropods except bees & ants

Rainfall (in mm)

Fig. 2. Monthly abundance of some arthropods and
rainfall in the study area.

direct relationship between the feeding beha-
viour observed in the field and the quality of
food taken. Monthwise studies of the stomach
contents of T. affinis and T. striatus are shown
in Tables 4 & 5. Grasshoppers were the most
frequent items of food from September to Nov-
ember along with caterpillars. Termites were
consumed in large quantities from March to
June. Fruits of Macaranga were eaten from
March to May. Since a large portion of the
study area is irrigated, grasshoppers are availa-
ble in varying quantities throughout the year.

Generally the insects which were available
in good numbers in the area of collection

54

ECOLOGY OF BABBLERS (TURDOIDES SPP.)

Table 4

Analysis of

STOMACH CONTENTS

OF T. a

j {finis in

VARIOUS MONTHS.

1975-1977

Item

JAN

FEB

Frequency

MAR APR

of each

MAY

item in
JUN

a month's sample
JUL AUG SEP

OCT

NOV

DEC

Orthoptera

5

3

2

2

6

5

8

13

12

9

9

8

Dermaptera

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

l

-

-

-

-

Isoptera

11

11

14

13

13

14

9

12

12

15

10

7

Heteroptera

1

-

1

-

2

8

5

7

2

2

3

5

Coleoptera

9

6

9

7

10

10

14

17

18

16

15

11

Hymenoptera

14

9

9

7

9

10

7

11

11

11

13

11

Lepidoptera

2

1

2

-

-

1

2

1

1

4

7

3

Diptera

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

Myriapoda

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

1

-

1

Arachnida

1

2

-

-

-

1

2

1

4

4

2

5

Mollusca

-

2

-

1

1

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

Vertebrates (bones)
Seeds & fruits

- ■

-

—

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

-

1

Zizyphus jiijuba

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Leguminosae

-

-

- ■

-

-

-

-

1

1

-

-

-

Passiflora foetida

-

-

-

-

1

-

3

4

4

2

-

Ixora coccinea

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2

Phy satis minima

2

-

-

-

-

1

3

-

1

-

-

Lantana camara

-

1

1

-

1

1

1

1

3

4

3

6

Macaranga indica

-

-

9

12

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Cassava, starch

3

7

6

5

6

6

4

5

8

7

4

3

Oryza sp. (grains)

6

7

3

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

_

Graminae
Other seeds &

—

1

-

—

—

1

1

2

—

—

—

Plant fibres

1

2

1

-

5

3

-

1

1

1

-

1

Total number of

specimens examined

14

12

15

13

13

15

15

18

19

17

16

16

during a particular month were the most nume-
rous item of food in the stomach contents for
that month. Whiteheaded Babblers tore their
prey to small pieces before swallowing it and
it was therefore difficult to separate many of
the items of food found in their stomach. The
Jungle Babbler is slightly larger than its con-
gener and with a larger bill (Table 6) and
took slightly larger prey also. Observations
in the field and study of the stomach contents
both support this view. Although only a few in-
sects were identified up to family level in our
sample, the variety of insects consumed appear-

ed to be greater in T. striatus (Table 8). The
samples also suggested that more individuals
of T. affinis had consumed termites, bugs and
hymenopterans (Table 7) whereas more T.
striatus had consumed coleopterans. The mem-
bers of more families of beetles in the stomach
contents of T. affinis from Cuddapah district,
Andhra Pradesh and Palghat District, Kerala.
The fruits of Lantana, Passiflora and Maca-
ranga are eaten by both T. affinis and T.
striatus.

Though there is a clear overlap in the items
of food of the two species of babblers, they

55

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Table 5

Analysis of stomach contents of T. striatus in various months, 1975-1977

Item

JAN

FEB

Frequency of each
MAR APR MAY

i item in
JUN

a month’s sample
JUL AUG SEP

OCT NOV DEC

Orthoptera

3

7

2

6

1

10

12

6

18

13

10

8

Isoptera

14

17

16

19

11

17

13

11

7

9

10

8

Heteroptera

4

-

-

4

1

4

2

2

3

1

-

2

Coleoptera

16

14

13

18

11

20

16

19

21

17

16

15

Lepidoptera

-

-

]

1

-

A

-

-

5

3

1

2

Diptera

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

-

1

-

Hymenoptera

11

7

8

7

8

13

10

14

13

16

11

8

Myriapoda

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

Arachnida

-

-

-

-

1

-

5

1

-

1

3

3

Mollusca

1

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

_

_

_

Vertebrates (Bones)

-

-

-

-

-

-

_

_

1

_

_

_

Seeds & fruits

Zizyphus jujuba

3

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Laguminosae

2

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

i

1

-

Pcssiflora foetida

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

Ixora coccinea

-

1

2

1

1

-

-

-

-

-

- .

-

Physalis minima

-

-

-

-

-

1

2

1

i

-

-

Lantana carnara

-

-

-

3

1

1

2

6

5

2

2

-

M acaranga indica

-

1 1

15

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Cassava starch

10

12

3

2

4

9

11

1 1

10

9

11

5

Oryza sp.

8

9

5

-

2

-

-

-

2

-

2

2

Plant parts

-

1

-

2

-

i '

1

Y

1

4

l

-

Total number of

species examined

16

17

16

22

13

21

17

19

24

17

17

15

Table

6

^Weights and measurements of

the two species of

BABBLERS

T. affinis

T. striatus

Weight (in g)

63.

3 (52-70)

74.3

(60-87)

Length (in cm)

22

9 (21-

■23.5)

24.5 (23.8-25.2)

Wing (in mm)

104

(96-

-108)

106

(104-108)

Tail (in mm)

98

(95-

-105)

103

(98-108)

Tarsus (in mm)

35

(32-

-37)

38

(36-39)

Bill (in mm)

24

(19-24)

28

(22-28)

Total number of specimens

30

15

* Mean

56

ECOLOGY OF BABBLERS (TURDOIDES SPP.)

Table 7

Insects

identified in stomach

contents of T. off in is

Item

Frequency

Percentage*

Remarks

Orthoptera

82

44.8

Acrididae 6, Tettigonidae 5, Mantis 1, Blat-
tidae 1, Cockroaches 10.

Dermaptera

1

0.47

Forficulid.

Isoptera

148

80.8

Termites.

Heteroptera

36

19.7

Fulgoridae 1.

Coleoptera

142

77.6

Carabidae 1. Buprestidae 1, Coccinellidae 3,
Tenebrionidae 1, Scarabidae 2, Chrysomelidae
4, Curculionidae 11.

Hymenoptera

122

66.6

Ichneumonidae 6, Chalcididae 5, Chrysididae
(cuckoo wasp) 3. Specoidae 1, Formicidae;
Oecophylla sp. 37, Camponotus 80, Solenop-
sis 2.

Lepidoptera

24

13.1

Geometridae 1. Sphingidae 2.

Diptera

2

1.1

Total number of
specimen examined

183

* Percentage of the number of specimens which had consumed the item of food.

Table 8

Insects identified in the stomach contents of T. striatus

Item

Frequency

Percentage*

Remarks

Orthoptera

96

44.9

Acrididae 3, Tettigonidae 3, Gryllidae 2,
Mantidae: Mantis sp. 4, Phasmidae: Stick
insect 2. Blattidae: Cockroaches 18.

Isoptera

152

71

Termites

Heteroptera

23

10.8

Reduviidae 2, Pentatomidae 3, Fulgoridae 1.

Coleoptera

196

91.6

Carabidae 3, Histeridae 1, Buprestidae 3,
Cucujidae 2, Coccinellidae 3, Molandridae 1,
Tenobrionidae 1, Bostrichidae 1, Scarabidae
14, Melolonthidae 1, Chrysomelidae 4,
Curculionidae 1 9.

Hymenoptera

126

58.8

Ichneumonidae 2, Chalcididae 3, Chrysididae
(Cuckoo wasp) 13, Formicidae 18,
Oecophylla sp. 33. Camponotus sp. 84.

Lepidoptera

17

7.9

Geometridae 2.

Diptera

3

1.4

—

Total number of
specimens examined

214

' ’

* Percentage of the number of specimens which had consumed the item of food.

57

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

appear to adjust with each other and to co-
exist due to the differences in their feeding
behaviour and microhabitat.

T. striatus

Breeding biology

In the study area both T. affinis and T.
striatus breed throughout the year. Ali (1969)
reported T. affinis to be irregular in breeding.
In our study area active nests of T. affinis
were found during all the months of the year
with two peak periods, April and September
(Fig. 3). In T. striatus which is also an irre-
gular breeder (Ali 1969), there are records of
egg laying in all months except June and Nov-
ember. In both species no egg laying was
observed in July, the month of heaviest rain-
fall. Eighty two nests of T. affinis and 23 of
T. striatus were studied.

Nest construction:

The breeding pair is assisted by helpers in
T. affinis and T. striatus for building the nest.
First year birds, second year and nonbreeding
adults acted as helpers in building the nest.

Nests were built on isolated plants and
trees in the scrub jungles, and gardens.
Trees like Anacardium occidentale, Mangi-
fera indica, Strychnos nux-vomica, Arto-
carpus integrifolia and Cocos nucifera and
bushes such as Calycopteris floribunda, Meme-
cylon edute and Eupatorium odoratum were
used by T. affinis for nesting. Garden plants
such as Casuarina and Tecoma were frequently
used. In two cases the roofing of a shed con-
structed of dry folded coconut fronds served
as a base for nests. All the plants mentioned
above were used by T. striatus also for nest-
ing. The nests of the latter were also recorded
from Strychnos nux-vomica, and Macaranga
indica. Thirty six per cent of the nests of T.
affinis were found on Calycopteris, 17% on
Anacardium occidentale , and six per cent on

7. affinis

Fig. 3. Rainfall and number of new clutches started.

Strychnos nux-vomica (Table 9). Twenty eight
per cent of the nest of T. striatus were found
on Calycopteris floribunda, 16% each on
Anacardium occidentale, Mangifera indica
and Macaranga peltata.

58

ECOLOGY OF BABBLERS (TURDOIDES SPP.)
Table 9

Plants used for nesting by babblers

Species

T. affinis

T. striatus

Frequency

Percentage

Frequency

Percentage

Anacardium occidentale

14

17.2

4

16

Man gif era indica

10

12.3

4

16

Strychnos nux-vomica

5

6.2

-

-

Macaranga indica

-

-

4

16

Artocarpus integrifolia

1

1.2

-

-

Santalum album

1

1.2

1

4

Term inal ia pan iculata

1

1.2

-

-

Cocos nucifera

4

4.9

1

4

Calycopteris floribunda

29

35.8

7

28

Syzygium caryophyllatum

1

1.2

1

4

Eupatorium odoratum

4

4.9

-

-

Memocylon edule

3

3.7

3

12

Casuarina equisetifolia

3

3.7

-

-

Agava sp.

1

1.2

-

-

Eugenia sp.

1

1.2

-

-

Tecoma stans

1

1.2

-

-

Coconut frond roofing of shed

2

2.5

-

-

Total

81

25

Nests of T. affinis were built at heights of
0.2-6 m from the ground (Table 10). Nests
built in the smaller bushes were invariably
placed in the centre where they were best
concealed. Seventy two per cent of the nests
were built below 2 m height from the ground.
In T. striatus height of the nest varied from
0.5 to 8 m. above the ground.

Herbs such as Oldenlandia heynii, Borreria
stricta, Desmodium triflorum , Canscora pauci-
flora, Evolvulus alcinoides, and Centrosoma
verginiana and coconut husks were used by
both species for nest construction. In the ten
nests of T. affinis examined carefully there was
a uniform proportion of coconut husks, Evol-
vulus alcinoides and grasses for the inner lining.
Sixty per cent of the nests of T. striatus had
coconut husks for inner lining.

The duration of nest building in T. affinis
varied from 3.5 to 6 days and that of T. striatus

Table 10

Nesting heights of babblers

Height (m)

T.

affinis

T. striatus

Fre-

quency

Percen-

tage

Fre-

quency

Percen-

tage

1-2 m

14

39.0

5

25

1-2 m

14

28.3

5

25

2-2 m

6

16.6

3

15

3 -4 m

2

5.5

3

15

4 & above

2

5.5

5

25

Total

36

20

from 4-6

days.

In both cases the

num-

ber of helpers had no relation to the duration
of nest building. The completed nest in both
species was a loosely put together cup of
twigs, roots and grass.

59

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Egg laying :

T. affinis and T. striatus laid eggs on the
day following the completion of the nest. But
in T. affinis, the first egg was laid only three
days after the completion of the nest in three
cases, after 16 days in one case and after 18
days in a third. American Goldfinches and
some Redstarts of the genus Mycoborus may
wait a week or more before egg laying begins
(Vantyne & Berger 1976).

Eggs of both species were turquoise blue in
colour. Twelve eggs from five clutches of T.
affinis had an average size of 24.0 x 18.6 mm.
Ten eggs from three clutches of T. striatus
had an average size of 26 x 18.5 mm. Freshly
laid eggs of T. affinis had an average weight
of 4.27 g. (16 eggs) and T. striatus 4.5 g.
(6 eggs).

Clutch size :

The size of the clutch in T. affinis varied
from 2-6 with an average of 3.1 (N = 80). In
three nests were five eggs each. Clutch sizes of
3 and 4 eggs were more common in April
and of 2 in March.

The clutch size in T. striatus varied from
2-6 with an average of 3.4. Seventy per cent
of the nests had 3 eggs, 18 per cent had 4 eggs,
1 2 per cent 2, and 8 per cent 6 eggs. In the last
case the eggs were evidently laid by two
females since they were of two sizes (Table
11).

Incubation :

incubation began with the laying of the first
egg in T. affinis and T. striatus. Some of the
second year and adult birds other than the
breeding pair also took part in incubation in
both species. The interval between the laying
of the first egg and the hatching of the last
egg varied from 14-16 days. Nestlings were
attended to by more than two birds. The num-
ber of helpers varied from nest to nest in T.
affinis and T. striatus.

Normally the chicks of T. affinis left their
nests on the 13th day (N=10) and that of T.
striatus on the 14th day (N=6) after hatching,
j uvenile birds usually stay in their natal groups
in both species. But five out of 104 fledglings
of T. affinis joined neighbouring groups within
40 days after fledging.

Rainfall and Breeding activity :

Even though T. affinis and T. striatus bred
almost throughout the year, the clutch size,
intensity of laying and the number of nestlings
fledged were better in the period between
January and June. No new clutch was started
after 8th June and there appears a depression
in the breeding activity in July, the month of
heaviest rainfall (Gaston, Mathew & Zacharias
1979).

Brood Parasitism :

In September, 1974 and October, 1975 two
nests of T. striatus were parasitized by Cucu-
lus varius. In these two nests the young
cuckoos were the only survivors. In Septem-
ber, 1975 a group of T. affinis with four birds
was observed raising a young Clamator jaco-
binus along with a nestling of their own.
In the Palghat area where there are no T. stria-
tus, Neelakantan (Pers. comm.) observed seve-
ral instances of T. affinis groups feeding the
chicks of Cuculus varius without any babbler
chicks.

Hatching failure:

Out of 150 eggs studied in 82 nests of T.
affinis, eight failed to hatch. In 23 nests of
T. striatus studied, of 77 eggs, only three fail-
ed to hatch.

Nesting success:

During the years 1974-1977, 41.6% of the
total eggs of T. affinis laid, produced fledglings.
For T. striatus, the percentage of eggs produc-
ing fledglings was 43.

60

ECOLOGY OF BABBLERS (TURDOIDES SPP.)

Nest's proximity to residences :

Nine nests of T. affinis (out of 82) were
situated within 1-3 m. from residential build-
ings and seven of these were successful. None
of the T. striatus nests were seen close to resi-
dential buildings (Table 11).

Table 11

Clutch size of the two species of babblers

Clutch size

Number of cases observed

T. affinis

T striatus

2

21

1

3

33

16

4

22

4

5

3

-

6

1

2

Total

80

23

Predation and loss of eggs and chicks :

Many nests of T. affinis and T. striatus lost
eggs and chicks. Predators of eggs included
the Ratsnake Ptyas mucosus and Crow-Phea-
sant Centropus sinensis. Birds such as Corvus
splendens, C. macrorhynchos. Accipiler badius
and the mongoose Herpestes edwardsi, took the
chicks of both the species. Two cases of the
Ratsnake eating eggs and two cases of devour-
ing of chicks of T. affinis were observed. The
local people who collect firewood and green
leaves for manuring, cut the nesting trees and
destroyed several nests.

Changes of iris colour :

In the Whiteheaded Babbler the iris appears
to be greenish grey in the newly fledged young.
Within the next 3-4 months the iris changes
into pale cream colour which is retained in
the adult. The dark grey iris of the juvenile
Jungle Babbler becomes creamy. These changes
are gradual and seemed to be related to post-

j u venal moult as observed by Gaston in the
Common Babbler T. caudatus.

Changes in Weight :

No difference was observed in the weight
of the body between sexes. There is little
seasonal variation in body weight of both T.
affinis and T. striatus. But the birds are heavier
in January and October, and heaviest in Octo-
ber. This may be correlated with (1) the abund-
ance of food supply, (2) preparation for
the intensive breeding activity and (3) the ter-
mination of flight feather moult.

Moult :

The juvenile Whiteheaded Babblers under-
went a partial moult beginning at three months
after fledging. This moult was complete only
in birds fledged in the early part of the year.
In the later fledglings the late developing
feathers were retained. They underwent a com-
plete moult in the next year. Pattern of moult-
ing in the Jungle Babbler is similar to that of
the Whiteheaded Babbler. The Whiteheaded
Babblers and Jungle Babblers nested and re-
newed their feathers simultaneously, with the
body feathers moulting from March to Novem-
ber and the flight feathers from May to Nov-
ember. The duration of primary moult of T.
affinis and T. striatus at the individual level
could be crudely calculated as 16-20 weeks
(Table 12). Gaston (1981) observed a shorter
duration of primary moult in babblers add some
other birds in Delhi. In Sarawak, Fogden (1972)
recorded the duration of primary moult of in-
dividual birds of 18 species ranging from 17-20
weeks. The duration of moult in T. affinis and
T. striatus in the study area is slow compared
to temperate birds of seasonal tropics (Delhi)
but similar to duration for species of moist
tropics.

Group size :

In the study area the group size of T. affinis

61

5

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Table 12

Commencement and Completion of primary Moult in T. affinis and T. striatus

Stages of Primary Moult

Earliest
T. affinis

recorded date

T. striatus

Last recorded date
T. affinis T. striatus

Commencement of

April 26

April 20-26

June

June 6

Primary Moult

(1)

(6)

1st week
(4)

(1)

Completion of

Sept. 28

Aug. 27

November

November

Primary Moult

(1)

(2)

1st week
(4)

1st week
(4)

Figures in brackets show the number of specimens examined.

varied from 3-14 and that of T. striatus from
4-23. The number of birds in the groups of the
two species fluctuated frequently, mainly due
to (1) recruitment by breeding, and (2) emi-
gration and immigration. Intergroup move-
ments of birds of all age classes were noticed
frequently in T. affinis. This phenomenon has
been described in T. striatus (Gaston 1976) and
in T. squamiceps (Zahavi 1972). There ap-
pears to be a direct relationship between the
quality of the habitat and group size in both
species.

Discussion

The Whiteheaded Babbler and the Jungle
Babbler occur sympatrically in different parts
of Malabar. T. affinis is smaller than T. striatus
and is more frequently seen in the open grass-
lands and scrub jungles than T. striatus, which
lives in the closed canopy woodlands and
other areas with plenty of plant cover. The
behavioural patterns of these two species are
very similar in spite of the differences in
colour, size and call. The two species share
many items of food, but differ in their micro-
habitats, feeding methods and in the propor-
tion in which the different items of food are
consumed. A good number of harmful insects
such as termites, grasshoppers, beetles and bugs

are eaten by both, and their usefulness to man
cannot be disputed.

T. affinis and T. striatus breed throughout
the year with two peak periods. In nest build-
ing, incubation and caring of chicks the breed-
ing pair was assisted by helpers in the two
species. But some differences were noted in
the nesting material collected, the nesting trees,
and the height of the nest above the ground.
The eggs of both species had the same colour,
but the size and weight of the eggs and clutch
size were different. Both species had several
common predators. The group size of T. affinis
appeared to be smaller than that of T. striatus.

The most significant difference is in the
shelter seeking and feeding behaviour. The
Jungle Babbler moves in the close vicinity of
bushes and trees into which they withdraw im-
mediately on disturbance, their darker colora-
tion merges with the dimly lit background. The
lighter coloured Whiteheaded Babbler feeds
in the open grassy hillocks and cultivated gar-
dens. Their lighter colour merges beautifully
with grassy hillocks.

The moult of the Whiteheaded Babbler and
the Jungle Babbler is characterized by (1) its
long duration and (2) lack of separation bet-
ween breeding and moulting activities.

The most prominent difference between
groups of Whiteheaded and Jungle Babblers

62

ECOLOGY OF BABBLERS (TURDOIDES SPP .)

in the study area was the smaller group size
of the former. In the Whiteheaded Babbler
the groups with fewer members appeared to
be more stable than the larger groups.

Though the two species of Babblers have
many characters in common, the differences in
their ecological requirements allow them to
co-exist in the study area. The habitats of both

species of babblers are undergoing rapid
destruction. The plant cover including low
scrub, which is one of the most essential re-
quirements for their survival, is constantly
removed. If the destruction of habitat is con-
tinued at the present rate, the population of
both of these economically useful species will
be adversely affected.

R EFEI

Ajli, S. (1969): Birds of Kerala. Oxford Univer-
sity Press. Delhi.

Andrle, R. F. & Andrle, P. R. (1976): The
Whistling Warbler of St. Vincent, West Indies. Con-
dor 78: 236-243.

Fogden, M.P.L. (1972) : The seasonality and

population dynamics of Equatorial Forest Birds in
Sarawak. Ibis 114 : 307-343.

Gaston, A. J. (1976): Factors affecting the eva-
luation of group territories in Babblers ( Turdoides )
and long tailed Tits. D.Phil. Thesis, Oxford Univer-
sity.

(1977): Social Behaviour within

groups of Jungle Babbler Turdoidus striatus. Anim.
Behav. 25: 828-848.

Gaston, A. J., Mathew, D. N. & Zacharias, V.
J. (1979) : Regional variation in the breeding seasons
of Babblers in India. Ibis 121: 512-516.

Acknowledgements

One of us (VJZ) is grateful to the Bombay
Natural History Society and the Trustees of
the Salim Ali/Loke Wan Tho Ornithological
Research Fund for providing a research fellow-
ship to carry out this work. We record our
thanks to Mr. K, K. Ravindran, specimen
collector of the Zoology Department for his
help in collection of specimen. Our sincere
thanks are due to Dr. A. J. Gaston, Canadian
Wildlife Service, for his criticism and sugges-
tions. We are grateful to Dr. K. J. Joseph,
Professor and Head of the Department of
Zoology, University of Calicut, for giving us
all facilities and to Dr. T. C. Narendran for his
help in identifying the insects. We are grateful
to Mr. J. C. Daniel, Curator, BNHS for his
help and encouragement.

en ce s

Gaston, A. J. (1981) : Seasonal breeding, moult-
ing and weight changes among birds of dry deci-
duous forest in North India. J. Zool. Lond. 194:
219-243.

Mathew, D. N., Narendran, T. C. & Zacharias,
V. J. (1980) : A comparative account of the food
habits of some species of birds affecting agriculture.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (suppl.) : 1178-1197.

Vantyne, J. & Berger, A. J. (1976) : Fundamen-
tal of Ornithology. John Wiley & Sons.

Zacharias, V. J. (1979): Ecology and Biology
of certain species of Babblers ( Turdoides species).
Ph.D. Thesis, Calicut University.

Zahavi, A. (1974): Communal nesting by Arabian
Babbler. A case of Individual selection. Ibis. 116:
84-87.

63

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF KHATLING
GLACIER IN THE GARHWAL HIMALAYA
(DISTRICT - TEHRI), U.P. — 21

K. S. Negi, J. K. Tiwari and R. D. Gaur2

[Continued from Vol. 84 (3): 598]

Asteraceae

AdiiUea miliaefolium Linn. (Loc.-Guggul)
Erect pubescent herb with white flowers.
Tamakundo, 2700 m. Aug. 1985 (3084).
Adesiocaulon bicolor Hook.

Erect herb with white flowers or pale yellow
heads. Banglani, 2700 m. Aug. 1984 (601).
Ainsliaea aptera DC.

Slender herb with light pink flowers. Jalkala.
2700 m. Aug. 1984 (1296).

A. latifolia (D. Don) Schulz. -Bip.

Tall erect tomentose herb with purplish-
white heads. Jalkala, 2700 m. March 1984
(1294).

Anaphalis adnata DC.

Herb with white flowers. Henuri, 2700 m.
Aug. 1984 (666).

A. husua (Buch.-Ham.) Hand.-Maz.

Herb with white flowers. Tonyaroo, 2750 m.
Aug. 1984 (607).

A. contorta Hook. f.

Herb with white flowers on alpine slopes.
Baro Sonaroo, 2800 m. Aug. 1984 (4876).

A. cuneifolia Hook. f.

Woolly or cottony herb with white flowers.
Tonyaroo, 2750 m. June 1984 (4865).

A. margaritacea Benth. et Hook. f. Sub. sp.
angustior Kitamura
Syn. A. cinnamomea Clarke

1 Accepted September 1986.

2 Department of Botany, Post Box 17, Garhwal
University, Srinagar-246 174, U.P.

Stout herb with white flowers. Gangi, 2500
m. Sept. 1985 (1297).

A. nepalensis (Spring) Hand.-Manz.

Syn. A. nubigena DC.

Woolly tufted herb with white flowers.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. July 1984 (4875).

A. royleana DC.

Herb with white flowers. Kalavani, 2500 m.
Aug. 1984 (758).

A. triplinervis Clarke

Large tufted herb with white flowers.
Sonaroo, 2600 m. Aug. 1984 (613).

Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb. (Loc.-Chaamari)
Small aromatic shrub with yellow flowers.
Henuri, 2750 m. Aug. 1984 (4883).

Aster diplostephioides (DC.) Clarke
Herb with blue flowers. Deokhuri, 2700 m.
Aug. 1984 (4863).

A. molliusculus (DC.) Clarke

Pubescent, erect herb with purple flowers.
Gangi, 2500 m. June 1984 (4826).

A. peduncularis Wall.

Herb with bluish-white flowers. Kalayani,
2600 m. Sept. 1985 (4869).

Blumea lacinata Roxb.

Herb with yellow flowers. Reeh, 2100 m.
May 1984 (1081).

Cirsium arvense (Linn.) Scop.

Syn. Cnicus arvensis Hoffm.

Tomentose herb with purplish heads. Jalkala,
2700 m. July 1984 (1298).

C. veriitiiin (D. Don) Spreng.

Syn. Cnicus involucratus DC.

Prickly erect robust herb with purplish white

64

FLORA OF KH AT LING GLACIER

heads. Naumuthia, 2900 m. Aug. 1984 (2648).
Carpesltun abrotanoides Linn.

Herb with yellow flowers in the ravines.
Banglani, 2700 m. July 1984 (4888).

Dicrocephala infegrifolia D. Don.

Pubescent hairy herb with globose heads.
Outer flowers white inner yellow. Dhoperdhar,
1500 m. July 1984 (1299).

Erigeron alpinum Linn.

Erect herb with white pinkish flowers on
rocky crevices. Bhelbagi, 3100 m. July 1984
(5705).

E. multiradiatus (DC.) Benth. et Hook. f.

Erect hairy herb with purple flowers. Deo-
khuri, 2700 m. Aug. 1984 (5728).

Galinsoga par v if 1 ora Cav.

Roughly hairy herb with yellowish white
heads. Gangi, 2500 m. Sept. 1985 (1108).
Gerbera pusiila (Wall, ex DC.) Goel et
Bhattacharyya

Scapigerous small herb with white flowers
on shady places. Sonari, 2600 m. Aug. 1984
(782).

Gysrnra cusimbua (D. Don) S. Moore
Syn. G. angulosa DC.

Large glabrous herb with orange yellow
corymbose heads on rocky crevices. Reeh,
2000 m. Aug. 1984 (4866).

Helenium grandifSorum (Willd.) O. Kuntz.

Elerb with light yellow flowers. Gangi, 2500
m. July 1984 (4864).

Inula cnspidata (DC.) Clarke
Glabrous shrub with purple flowers. Khar-
souli, 2800 m. Sep. 1985 (4872).

I. obtusifclia Kerner

Herb with yellow flowers. Kharsoli, 2800 m.
Sept. 1985 (4881).

Jurinea macrocephala (DC.) Clarke
(Loc.-Guggul)

Stemless herb with sessile purplish heads.
Naumuthia, 2700 m. Aug. 1984 (5609).

Lactuca brunoniana (Wall, ex DC.) Clarke
Syn. Prenanthus brunoniana Wall, ex DC.
Herb with purple or white heads. Pachari,
2800 m. Aug. 1984 (4884).

L. hastata DC.

Herb with pink-violet flowers. Kharsoli,
2800 m. Sept. 1985 (4880).

L. macrorhiza (Royle) Hook. f.

Weak prostrate herb with purple drooping
heads. Pachari, 2800 m. Aug. 1984 (4886).
Leontopodium himalayanum DC.

Syn. L. alpinum Hook.

Woolly herb with white flowers. Bhumka,
3200 m. July 1984 (4879).

Myriactis nepalensis Less.

Erect herb with white yellowish heads.
Gangi, 2500 m. Sept. 1985 (916).

M. wallichii Less.

Erect roughly hairy herb with white yellowish
heads. Gangi, 2500 m. Aug. 1984 (917).
Saussurea albescens Hook. f. et Thoms, ex
Clarke

Large cottony herb with purple heads.
Birodh, 2700 m. Sept. 1985 (4867).

S. fastuosa (Decne.) Sch.-Bip.

Large herb with purple brown heads. Birodh,
2700 m. Aug. 1984 (5729).

S. graminifolia Wall, ex Hook. f.

Herb with white silky dentely heads. Tonya-
roo, 2750 m. Aug. 1984 (5730).

S. hypoleuca Spreng.

Erect herb with dark purple solitary heads.
Pachari, 2800 m. Aug. 1984 (1295).

S. leontodontoides (DC.) Sch.-Bip.

Syn. S. kunthiana Clarke
Dwarf herbs with deep purple heads.
Tonyaroo, 2750 m. Aug. 1984 (5730).

S. obvallata (DC.) Sch.-Bip. (Loc.-Brahmkaunl)
Herb on rocks. Heads enclosed in the mem-
branous uppermost leaves, purplish green.
Taamakundo, Chauki, 3800 m. Aug. 1984
(5214).

65

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

S. simpsoniana (Field & Gardn.) Lipsch. (Loc.-
Phenkamala)

Small woolly herb with woolly heads. Chauki,
3500 m. Aug. 1984 (971).

S. taraxacifolia Wall, ex DC.

Small cottony herb with purple solitary
heads. Henuri, 2750 m. Aug. 1984 (4568).
SoSidago virga-aurea Linn.

Erect pubescent herb with yellow heads.
Panyara, 2700 m. Aug. 1984 (4878).

Senecio chyrsanthemoides DC.

Large herb with yellow flowers. Kalayani,
2600 m. July 1984 (4878).

S. chenopodifolius DC.

Herb with yellow flowers. Chota Sonyaroo,
2750 m. Aug. *1984 (4885).

S. rufmervis DC.

Tall herb with yellow corymbose heads.
Lamboo sonaroo, 2700 m. Aug. 1984 (4871).
Tanacetusii longifolium Wall, ex DC.

Aromatic hairy herb with yellowish heads.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. Sept. 1985 (1088).
Taraxacum officinale Weber.

Herb with yellow flowers. Kalayani 2600 m.
May 1984 (4546).

Tragopogon gracilis D. Don (Loc.-Gwalhya,
Daifa)

Tufted herb with yellow flowers. Bhelbagi,
3100 m. May 1984 (*4545).

Campanulaceae

Campanula argyrotrica Wall, ex DC.

Procumbent hairy herb with blue flowers.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. May 1984 (3088).
Codonopsis viridis (DC.) Roxb.

Twining herb with large bell shaped yellow
flowers. Tamakundo, 3400 m. Aug. 1984
(3091).

Cynanthus fobatus Wall, ex Benth.

Pilose herb with blue, violet or rarely white
flowers. Sonari, 2650 m. Aug. 1985 (640).

Ericaceae

Cassiope fastigiata (Wall.) D. Don
Erect glabrous herb with white flowers form-
ing rigid dense tufts on alpine slopes. Tama-
kundo, 3400 m. June 1984 (4844).

Gaultheria nummularioides Don
Prostrate hairy herb with pinkish white
flowers and blue black fruits. Bhelbagi, 3100
m. July 1984 (4528).

G. tricophylla Royle

Prostrate herb with white flowers and sky
blue fruits. Bhelbagi, 3100 m. July 1984 (4529).
Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude. (Loc.-Anyar)
Tree with white flowers in racemes upto 15
m long. Gangi, 2500 m. May 1984 (1110).
Rhododendron arboreum Smith (Loc.-Burans)
Tree with red flowers. Kalayani, 2600 m.
May 1984 (4526).

R. campanulatum D. Don
Small tree with pale pinkish or white or
bluish white flowers. Rimchura, 3000 m. May
1984 (5504).

R. hypenanthuin Balf. f.

Syn. R. anthopogon auct. non. D. Don
(Loc.-Bhotiya chai)

Small shrub with yellow or yellowish white
flowers. Bhumka, 3200 m. June 1984 (4527).
R. lepidotum Wall, ex D. Don

Small aromatic shrub with pink or purplish
flowers. Bhumka, 3200 m. July 1984 (4595).

Primulaceae

Androsace lanuginosa Wall.

Pubescent, weak and prostrate herb with
purple or pink with yellow centre flowers.
Reeh, 2100 m. April 1984 (1058).

A. rofundifolia Hardw.

Woolly herb with pink flowers. Gangi, 2500
m. April 1984 (1015).

A. sarmentosa Wall.

Prostrate hairy herb with purple flowers on

66

FLORA OF KH AT LING GLACIER

rocky places. Bhumka, 3200 m. May 1984
(1232).

Lysimachia alternifolia Wall.

Erect slender herb with yellow flowers.
Naumuthia, 2900 m. June 1984 (5702).

L. proiiiera Klatt.

Prostrate herb with white to pink flowers on
grassy slopes. Gangi, 2500 m. June 1984 (5701).

L. pyramidalis Wall, ex Roxb.

Glabrous herb with pale purple flowers.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. July 1984 (792).

Primula denticulata Smith
Erect herb with purple flowers. Kharsoli.
2800 m. April 1984 (1225).

P. floribunda Wall.

Soft herb with yellow flowers on rocks.
Naumuthia, 2900 m. June 1984 (3049).

P. sessiiis Royle ex Craib
Small tufted herb with purple or pink
flowers near dripping water on mossy rocks,
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. May 1984 (3100).

Symplocaceae

Sympiocos csrataegoides Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don
(Loc.-Lodh)

Tree with green yellow flowers. Reeh, 2100
m. June 1984 (5615).

S. ramosissima Wall, ex G. Don
Small tree with green fruits. Gangi, 2500 m.
July 1984 (4899).

Asclepiadaceae

Cynandium cauescens (Wall.) K. Schum.

Syn. C. glaucum Wall.

Large erect herb with yellow flowers. Kala-
yani, 2600 m. May 1984 (770).

C. vincetoxicum (Linn.) Pers.

Large erect herb with greenish yellow
flowers. Sonari, 2600 m. June 1984 (1067).

Gentianaceae

Gentiana argentia Royle ex D. Don
Small herb with blue flowers. Bajloo, 3500
m. May 1984 (1021).

G. capitata Buch.-Ham.

Herb with bluish white flowers. Gangi, 2500
m. April 1984 (993).

G. cariuata Griseb.

Small herb with violet flowers. Khatling,
3650 m. May 1984 (2730).

G. pedicellata (D. Don) Wall, ex Griseb,
Erect herb with white or blue flowers.
Dhoperdhar, 1000 m. May 1984 (1063).

G. stipitata Edgew.

Small herb with blue purple backed flowers.
Bajloo, 3500 m. Sept. 1985 (4671, 1677).
Gentianella teneSla (Rottb.) H. Smith
Syn. G. tenella Fries.

Small herb with blue flowers. Bhelbagi, 3100
m. Oct. 1985 (1090).

Halenia elliptica D. Don
Erect herb with bluish flowers. Gangi, 2500
m. Oct. 1985 (786).

Swertia dSiata (G. Don) B. L. Burtt.

Erect herb with purplish white flowers on
grassy slopes. Birodh, 2700 m. Aug. 1984
(5324).

S. cordata Wall, ex Clarke
Herb with yellow flowers. Kalayani, 2650 m.
Aug. 1984 (813).

S. cuneata Wall, ex D. Don
Herb with blue flowers. Khatling, 3600 m.
July 1984 (4896).

S. tetragona (Edgew.) Clarke

Erect herb with white pinkish streaks on
flowers. Kalayani. 2600 m. Sept. 1985 (4897).

Solan aceae

Physaiis niimma Linn.

Pubescent herb with yellow flowers. Reeh,
2100 m. July 1984 (4584).

67

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

SCROP H U LARI ACEAE

Euphrasia officinalis Linn.

Erect herb with white or pinkish-white
flowers. Khatling, 3600 m. Aug. 1984 (3099).
E. platyphylla D. Don
Herb with yellowish-white flowers. Naumu-
thia, 2800 m. Aug. 1984 (661).

Hemiphragma heterophyllum Wall.

Rambling herb with pink flowers and red
shining fruits. Gangi, 2500 m. July 1984 (1039).
Mazus japonicus (Thunb.) Kuntze
Syn. M. rugosus Lour.

Tufted glabrous herb with white flowers.
Reeh, 2100 m. May 1984 (1112).

M. susrculosus D. Don

Tufted herb with pale blue or pinkish white
yellow flowers. Tonyaroo, 2750 m. May 1984
(690).

Pedkularis bifida (Buch.-Ham.) Pennell.

Herb with pale rose flowers. Rimchura, 3000
m. Sept. 1985 (3047).

P. hoffmeisteri Klotzsch.

Herb with yellow flowers. Tamakundo, 3400
m. Sept. 1985 (5740).

P. porrecta Wall, ex Benth.

Erect herb with pink flowers. Khatling,
3600 m. July 1984 (711).

Picrorhiza kuirooa Benth. (Loc. Karwi, Kutki)
Spreading herb with light blue flowers.
Bhumka, 3200 m. June 1984 (4833).
ScropSudaria calycina Benth.

Erect herb with white flowers. Bhelbagi,
3100 m. July 1984 (4898).

Sopubia trifida Ham.

Pubescent herb with yellow flowers. Gangi,
2500 m. Aug. 1984 (1059).

Verbascum chinense (Linn.) Santapau

Erect herb with yellow flowers. Sonari. 2600
m. May 1984 (3048).

Veronica agrestis Linn.

Pubescent herb with blue or white flowers.
Gangi, 2500 m. May 1984 (1019).

Wulfenia amherstiana Benth.

Glabrous herb with purple flowers in moist
places Panyara, 2700 m. May 1984 (757).

OROBANCH ACEAE

Orobanche epithymum DC.

Parasite herb with purple blue flowers.
Kalayani, 2600 m. Sept. 1985 (3069).

Gesneriaceae

Chirita bifolia D. Don
Small herb with purple-blue tinged with
yellow flowers in moist places. Reeh, 2100 m.
Sept. 1985 (634).

Begoniaceae

Begonia amoena Wall.

Glabrous herb with pink flowers on damp
rocks. Reeh, 2100 m. Aug. 1984 (622).

Acanthaceae

Barleria cristata Linn.

Erect hairy herb with blue flowers. Reeh,
2100 m. July 1984 (3943).

Strobilanthes atropurpureus Nees
Pubescent herb with violet flowers. Deokhuri,
2700 m. Sept. 1985 (742).

Lamiaceae

Clinopodium umbrosum (M. Bieb.) G. Koch.

Herb with pink flowers. Gangi, 2500 m. July
1984 (1075).

Cranio tome versicolor Reichb.

Erect herb with green flowers. Bhelbagi,
3100 m. May 1984 (3076).

Elsholtzia fruticosa (D. Don) Rehder.

Pubescent shrub with white or pale yellow
flowers. Tanyaroo, 2750 m. July 1984 (3001).

68

FLORA OF KH AT LING GLACIER

E. strobilifera Benth.

Small herb with purple flowers. Henuri, 2750
m. Aug. 1984 (3006).

Isodon striatus Benth.

Syn. Plectranthus striatus Benth.

Erect hairy herb with white flowers. Jalkala,
2700 m. Aug. 1985 (3005).

Lamium album Linn.

Hairy decumbent aromatic herb with white
flowers. Kharsoli, 2800 m. May 1984 (3004).

Micromeria biflora Benth.

Herb with pink flowers. Sonari, 2600 m. Sept.
1985 (947).

Nepeta ciliaris Benth.

Herb with purple flowers. Gangi, 2500 m.
Aug. 1984 (745).

N. discolor Royle ex Benth.

Herb with sky blue flowers. Gangi, 2600 m.
June 1984 (4900).

N. govaniana Benth.

Pubescent herb with yellow flowers. Gangi,
2600 m. Sept. 1985 (1055, 1061).

Origanum vidgare Linn. (Loc.-Jogpua)
Aromatic erect herb with pink flowers.
Kharsoli, 2800 m. Sept. 1985 (4591).

Phlomis bracteosa Royle ex Benth.

Erect hairy herb with dull blue purple
flowers. Gangi, 2500 m. Sept. 1985 (3002).
Plectranthus mollis (Ait.) Spreng.

Large erect aromatic herb with bluish
flowers. Saura, 2800 m. Aug. 1985 (3074).
Salvia hians Royle ex Benth.

Robust hairy herb with purple flowers.
Henuri, 2750 m. Sept. 1985 (729).

S. nubicola Wall, ex Sweet
Syn. S. glutinosa Linn.

Aromatic hairy herb with yellow flowers.
Pachari, 2800 m. Sept. 1985 (3007).

Scutellaria scandens D. Don (Loc.-Kappu)
Herb with greenish flowers. Tonyaroo, 2700
m. April 1984 (734).

Stachys mdissaefolia Benth.

Herb with lilac flowers. Bhelbagi, 3100 in.
Sept. 1985 (5237, 5261).

S. sericea Wall.

Herb with rose-pale pink flowers. Jalkala,
2700 m. Aug. 1985 (3072).

Plantaginaceae

PSantago hamalaica Pliger
Syn. F. brachyphylla Edgew.

Depressed purplish green herb on meadows.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. Aug. 1984 (3077).

P. major Linn.

Elerb with spikes upto 0.5 m in length.
Dhoperdhar, 1500 m. June 1984 (806).

Chenopodiaeae

Acmglochin persicarioides (Poir) Moq.

Syn. A. chenopodiodes Schrad.

Erect glabrous herb with spiny inflorescens.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. Aug. 1985 (3011).
Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn.

Tall aromatic herb with yellowish-white
flowers. Reeh, 2100 m. July 1984 (1097).

C. botrys Linn.

Strongly aromatic herb. Sonari, 2600 m.
Aug. 1985 (3010).

C. foiicsum (Moench.) Asch.

Syn. C. blitum Hook. f.

Glabrous herb with fleshy red perianth.
Rimchura, 2950 m. July 1984 (4624).

C. hybridism Linn.

Glabrous erect herb. Reeh, 2100 m. Aug.
1985 (3009).

C. morale Linn.

Erect herb on drier places. Reeh, 2100 m.
Sept. 1985 (4623).

Amaranth ace ae

Cyathuia tomentosa (Roth.) Moq.

Shrub with pale yellow white flowers. Gangi,
2500 m. Sept. 1985 (4619).

69

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Deeringia aniaraiithosdes (Lam.) Meril!.

Syn. D. celosiodes Br.

Undershrub with pale-yellow green flowers.
Gangi, 2500 m. July 1984 (3008).

Phytolaccaceae

Phytolacca acinosa Roxb. (Loc.-Jagroo)

Erect glabrous succulent herb with green
flowers. KalayanL 2650 m. July 1984 (4635).

Polygon ace ae

Fagopyrum dibotrys (D. Don) Hara
Syn. F. cymosum (Trev.) Meissn.

Pubescent erect branching herb with white
flowers. Gangi, 2500 m. July 1984. (4554),

F. esculentum (Linn.) Moench. (Loc.-Kanjolya)
Syn. Polygonum fagopyrum Linn.

Glabrous herb with pinkish-white flowers.
Gangi, 2500 m. May 1984 (4552).

Koesiigia delicatula (Meissn.) Hara
Syn. Polygonum delicatulum Meissn.
Delicate herb with minute axillary greenish
flowers on margins of streams. Tamakundo,
3400 m. Aug. 1984 (5719).

K. nepaleiisis D. Don (Loc.-Tufrya)

Syn. Polygonum filicaule Wall, ex Meissn.
Erect herb with white flowers on margins of
streams. Tamakundo. 3400 m. Aug. 1984
(5718).

Oxyria digyna (Linn.) Hill (Loc.-Kailashi
almora)

Glabrous fleshy herb with green-pink flowers.
Pachari, 2800 m. Aug. 1984 (692).

Persicaria capitata (Buch.-Ham.) H. Gross.
Syn. Polygonum capitatum Buch.-Ham.
Trailing herb with pink heads. Gangi, 2500
m. June 1984 (4553).

Polygonum affine D. Don.

Glabrous tufted herb with bright pink flowers

and forming mats over rocks. Rimchura, 2900
m. Sept. 1985 (5720).

P. alatum Ham.

Prostrate herb with white-purple flowers.
Tonyaroo, 2750 m. Aug. 1984 (3013).

F. aipinum All.

Tall erect herb with white flowers. Rim-
chura, 2900 m. Aug. 1984 (704).

P. amplexscaule D. Don
Large glabrous herb with red flowers. Khar-
soli, 2850 m. May 1984 (5723).

F. donii Meissn.

Procumbent herb with pink flowers on grassy
slopes. Reeh, 1800 m. Aug. 1984 (5721).

P. macrophyilum D. Don (Loc.-Kukhuri)

Syn. P. sphaerostachyum Meissn.

Herb with drooping red spikes. Kharsoli,
2850 m. Aug. 1984 (706).

P. nepalcnsis Meissn.

Glabrous herb with terminal greenish and
pink heads. Reeh, 1500 m. Aug. 1984 (4547).
P. recumbens Royle ex Bab.

Prostrate herb with white or pink flowers.
Pachari, 2850 m. July 1984 (3012).

P. rumieifolium Royle ex Bab. (Loc.Bakranda)
Erect herb with dull pink flowers. Tama-
kundo, 3200 m. Sept. 1985 (4550).

P. sinuatum Royle ex Meissn.

Creeping herb with pink flowers. Naumuthia,
2900 m. Aug. 1984 (710).

P. vaccinifolium Wall, ex Meissn. (Loc.-Inni)
Trailing herb with light pink flowers on
mossy boulders. Rimchura, 3000 m. Aug. 1984
(5722).

Rheum emodi Wall, ex Meissn. (Loc.-Dolu,
Archu)

Tall erect herb with white flowers. Rimchura,
3000 m. June 1984 (4558).

Runicx aceiosa Linn,

Erect herb with purplish green or pink
flowers on moist open meadows. Sonari, 2600
m. Aug. 1984 (4596).

70

FLORA OF KHATL1NG GLACIER

R. nepalensis Spreng. (Loc.-Kholya)

Robust herb with pink flowers. Bhumka.
3200 m. June 1984 (4555).

Saururaceae

Houttuynia cordata Thunb. (Loc.-Semdalu)
Aromatic herb with large white flowers on
marshy and moist localities. Jalkala, 2700 m.
June 1984 (4570).

PlPERACEAE

Peperomia reflexa (Linn, f.) A. Dietr.

Epiphytic herb on Qnercus floribunda
trunks. Sonari. 2600 m. Sept. 1985 (3098).

Lauraceae

Ciiuiamomiini tamala Nees (Loc.-Guradaroo)
Tree with creamy flowers. Gangi, 2500 m.
May 1984 (4573).

Dodecadenia grandiflora Nees

Large evergreen tree in Oak-Rhododendron
forest with pale yellow flowers. Gangi. 2500 m.
May 1984 (3016).

Neolitsea umbrosa (Nees) Gamble
(Loc.-Sailal, Belaru)

Syn. Litsea umbrosa Nees
Evergreen tree with pale yellow and small
red fruits. Gangi, 2500 m. May 1984 (4593).

Thymelaeaceae

Daphne papyracea Wall, ex Steud.

Syn. D. cannabina Wall.

Shrub with pale white flowers and orange
fruits. Panyara, 2750 m. May 1984 (658).

Elaeagnaceae

Elaeagmis parvifolia Wall, ex Royle
(Loc.-Geiwaii)

Syn. E. umbellata Thunb.

Shrub with pale yellowish flowers and red

or orange fruits near streams. Deokhuri, 2700
m. Oct. 1985 (4508).

Htppophae rhamnoides Serv. sub spp. salici-
folia (D. Don) Serv. (Loc-Amali)

H. salicijolia D. Don

Shrub with yellow fruits common on banks
of ravine streams. Kalayani, 2650 m. Sept.
1985 (4522).

Lorantiiaceae

Taxillus vestitus (Wall.) Danser.

(Loc.-Bandoo)

Syn. Loranthus vestitus Wall.

Tomentose shrub with parasite on Quercus
with brown flowers. Reeh, 2100 m. Sept. 1985
(4581).

Viscum nepalensis Spreng.

Parasitic shrub. Gangi. 2500 m. June 1984
(1038).

Santalaceae

Osyris wightiana Wall, ex Wight (Loc.
Bakrolya)

Shrub with yellow green and red fruits.
Reeh. 2100 m. Aug. 1984 (4572).

Euphorriaceae

Acalypha ciliata Forsk.

Herb with green flowers. Reeh, 2100 m.
Aug. 1984 (2138).

Euphorbia pilosa Linn. (Loc.-Mahavir)

Erect glabrous herb with yellow flowers.
Birodh, 2700 m. June 1984 (662).

E. stracheyi Boiss. (Loc.-Dudhiya Bish)

Prostrate herb with yellow green flowers.
Kharsoli, 2500 m. June 1984 (3019).

71

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Buxaceae

Buxus wallichiana Baill. (Loc.-Papri)

Syn. B. sempervirens Linn.

Small tree with greenish-yellow flowers and
horned fruits. Gangi, 2500 m. May 1984 (4722).

Sarcococea saligna (Don) Muel.-Arg.

Syn. S. prunijormis Lindl.

Glabrous shrub with green flowers. Pachari,
2800 m. May 1984 (731, 1029).

Moraceae

Ficus sarmentosa Ham. ex Smith

Evergreen creeping shrub with green fruits.
Reeh, 2100 m. April 1984 (3020).

F. scandens Roxb. (Loc.-Beduli)

Creeping shrub with black fruits on moist
rocky places. Gangi, 2500 m. Oct. 1985 (4377).

Morus serrata Roxb. (Loc.-Keemu)

Tree with dark purple sweet fruits. Ghutoo,
1500 m. June 1984 (4576).

Urticaceae

Boehmeria platyphylla Don

Large herb with white flowers. Reeh, 2100
m. July 1984 (646, 659).

B. scabrelSa Gard. (Loc.-Khagsa)

Shrub with pale yellowish flowers. Common
along canals and streams. Gangi, 2500 m. Aug.
1984 (5733).

Debregeasia saiicifolia (D. Don) Rendle (Loc.-
Syanru)

Shrub with orange yellow fruits. Ghutoo,
1500 m. May 1984 (4149).

Elastostemma surctilosum Wight.

Erect tufted herb with greenish flowers on
damp rocky slopes. Pachari, 2800 m. Aug.
1984 (777).

Gonostegia hirta Miq.

Syn. Pouzolzia hirta Haussk.

Decumbent herb with creamy flowers. Reeh,

2100 m. July 1984 (3021, 698).

Lecanthus wallichii Wedd. (Loc.-Chaul)

Herb in moist places near water margins.
Jalkala, 2700 m. Nov. 1984 (4664).

Pouzolzia zeylanica (Linn.) Benn.

Small herb with pale green flowers. Ghutoo,
1500 m. July 1984 (697).

JUGLANDACEAE

*

Juglans regia Linn. (Loc.-Akhor)

Tree with fragrant greenish male catkins.
Gangi, 2500 m. June 1984 (4857).

Myricaceae

Myrica escuienta Hamilt. ex Don (Loc.-Kaphal)
Small tree with red fruits. Gangi, 2500 m.
May 1984 (4729).

Betulaceae

Alnus nepalensis Don (Loc.-Ust)

Deciduous tree with yellowish green catkins.
Gangi, 2500 m. Sept. 1985 (4706).

Coryius jacquemontii Decne. (Loc.-Kabasi)
Syn. C. columa Linn.

Small deciduous tree with large nuts sheath-
ed by much enlarged bracteole. Deokhuri,
2700 m. June 1984 (4536).

Betula utilis D. Don (Loc.-Bhoj)

Tree with greenish catkins and exfoliating
papery bark. Rimchura, 2950 m. June 1984
(4709).

Fagaceae

Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus ex Baha-
dur (Loc.-Banj)

Tree with pale yellowish catkins. Reeh, 2100
m. Sept. 1985 (4856).

Q. glauca Thunb. (Loc.-Phanat)

Tree with greenish catkins. Gangi, 2500 m.
Sept. 1985 (5616).

FLORA OF KH AT LING GLACIER

Q. himalayana Bahadur (Loc.-Moru, Tilonj)
Syn. Q. dilatata Lindl.

Tree with greenish catkins. Kharsoli, 2800
m. Aug. 1984 (5617).

Q. semecarpifolia Smith (Loc.-Kharsu)

Tree with greenish blue catkins. Kharsoli,
2800 m. June 1984 (1084).

Salicaceae

Salix daphnoides Villars.

Tree with female catkins. Rimchura, 3000
m. June 1984 (5726).

S. elegans Wall, ex Anders.

Syn. S. denticulata Anders.

Small tree with 4-6 cm long catkins.
Pachari, 2800 m. May 1984 (5714).

S. fruticulosa Anders.

Shrub with hairy catkins about 0.8-2. 2 cm
long. Kharsoli, 2800 m. June 1984 (3725).

S. furcata Anders.

Small shrub with red flowers. Stamens
exerted, Chauki, Khatking, Dandakharak, 3800
m. May 1984 (5724).

S. waSlichiana Anders. (Loc.-Gadhbhains)
Small tree. Catkins 7-10 cm long appearing
before leaves. Kalayani, 2600 m. May 1984
(5733).

MONOCOTYLEDONS

Orchidaceae

Cephalanthera ensifolia Rich.

Glabrous herb with white flowers. Birodh,
2700 m. June 1984 (764).

Cypripedium cordigenun D. Don
Glabrous herb with green flowers. Birodh,
2700 m. June 1984 (769).

Epipactis latifolia (Linn.) All.

Glabrous herb with purple flowers. Rim-
chura, 2800 m. June 1984 (3096).

Ena ccnvaSiarioides Lindl.

Epiphytic on spp. of Litsea, Quercus. Ghutoo,
1500 m. Sept. 1985 (778).

Goodyera repens (Linn.) R. Br.

Glabrous herb with white flowers. Naumu-
thia, 2900 m. Aug. 1984 (966, 3093).
Habenaria ensifolia Lindl.

Glabrous herb with white flowers. Henuri,
2750 m. Aug. 1984 (670).

H. intermedia! D. Don

Glabrous herb with greenish white flowers.
Tamakundo, 3400 m. Aug. 1984 (671).

H. latilabris (Lindl.) Hook. f.

Syn. Plantanthera latilabris Lindl.

Glabrous herb with white blue flowers.
Reeh, 2100 m. July 1984 (3097).

H. pSantaginea Lindl.

Glabrous herb with white blue flowers.
Khatling, 3500 m. June 1984 (3098).
Herminium angustifolium Benth.

Glabrous herb with green flowers. Bhumka,
3200 m. Aug. 1984 (675).

Malaxis cylindrostachya (Reich.) O. Ktze.
Syn. Microstylis muscifera (Lindl.) Ridle.
Fleshy herb with greenish-yellow flowers.
Gangi, 2500 m. Aug. 1984 (3098).

Neottia Sisteroides Lindl.

Glabrous leafless herb with yellowish-green
flowers. Kalayani, 2600 m. Aug. 1984 (1020).
Oberonia pachyrachis Reichb. f.

Succulent leaved herb on tree trunks. Spikes
with cylindric fleshy rachis, minute flowers de-
pressed in it. Kharsoli, 2800 m. Sept. 1985
(3095).

Orchis latifolia Linn. (Loc.-Hatthajari)

Erect herb with dull purple flowers and
palmate tubers. Bhelbagi, 3100 m. Aug. 1984
(4848).

Satyr ium nepalense D. Don

Herb with purple flowers on rocks with Sedum
spp. Gangi, 2500 m. Sept. 1985 (3092).

73

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY . Ko/. S3

Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames.

Herb with pink or red flowers. Gangi, 2500
m. Aug. 1984 (968, 3059).

ZlNGIBERACEAE (SCITAMINACEAE)

Cantieya gracilis (Smith) Pandey
Syn. C. lute a Royle

Herb with yellow flowers. Gangi, 2500 m.
Aug. 1984 (624).

Roscoea alpina Royle

Small herb with lilac to purple flowers on
grassy slopes and in rocky crevices. Kalayani,
2600 m. June 1984 (5709).

Haemodoraceae

Mondo intermedium (D. Don) Bailey
Syn. Ophiopogon intermedius D. Don
Glabrous herb with white drooping flowers.
Gangi, 2500 m. July 1984 (1221).

Iridaceae

Iris kumaonensis Wall, ex D. Don
Glabrous herb with blue flowers on grassy
slopes and meadows. Bhumka, 3200 m. June

1984 (5708).

Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea belophylla Voight (Loc.-Tairu)

Syn. D. glabra Roxb.

Slender herbaceous climber with greenish
flowers. Reeh, 2100 m. Aug. 1984 (4535).

D. bulbifera Linn. (Loc.-Genthi)

Glabrous climber with brownish white
flowers. Reeh, 2100 m. Aug. 1984 (4531).

D. deltoidea Wall, ex Kunth.

Herbaceous twiner on Berberis, Pyrus spp.
with greenish flowers. Gangi, 2500 m. Sept.

1985 (4532).

D. melanophyma Prain ex Burkill (Loc.-Mag,
Maghaii)

Twining herb around spp. of Berberis ,

Malus, Pr insepia. Kalayani, 2650 m. Oct. 1985
(4554).

Liliaceae

Disporum cantoniense (Lour.) Merill.

Syn. Fritillaria cantoniensis Lour.

Glabrous herb with white flowers. Birodh,
2700 m. May 1984 (3029).

Cardiocrinum giganteum (Wall.) Mukino
Syn. Lilium giganteum Wall.

Large herb with white flowers, tube dark
purple inside. Rimchura, 2900 m. June 1984
(5613).

Fritillaria roylei Hook.

Bulbous herb with bell-shaped white flowers.
Birodh, 2750 m. May 1984 (2744).

Gagea lutea (Linn.) Ker.-Gwal.

Herb with yellow flowers. Jalkala, 2700 m.
April 1984 (5419).

Iphigenia indica Kunth
Bulbous herb with purple flowers. Ghutoo.
1500 m. Aug. 1984 (3024).

Lilium polyphyllimi D. Don ex Royle
Herb with greenish-white flowers with purple
dots inside. July 1984 (3028).

Llyodia serotina Reichb.

Herb with bell shaped white flowers in
crevices of rocks. Saura, 3000 m. May 1984
(3030).

Paris polyphylla Smith
Rhizomatous herb with greenish flowers near
stream along with Sarcococca spp. Kalayani,
2600 m. June 1984 (5711).

Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle
Rhizomatous herb with white, tinged with
green or purple flowers. Deokhuri, 2700 m. May
^984 (3025).

P. verticilliatum All.

Rhizomatous herb with yellowish white
tinged with green flowers. Deokhuri, 2700 m.
May 1984 (4539).

74

FLORA OF KHATLING GLACIER

Smilacina purpurea Wall.

Herb with purplish flowers. Henuri, 2700 m.
Aug. 1984 (810).

Trillium govanianum (D. Don) Kunth
Tuberous herb with solitary purple flowers.
Tamakundo, 3100 m. Aug. 1984 (5710).

Amaryllidaceae

Allium humile Kunth (Loc.-Laadoo, Pangri)
Syn. A. govanianum Wall, ex Baker
Small herb with white flowers on grassy
slopes. Bhumka, 3200 m. May 1984 (4530).

A. walliehii Kunth (Loc.-Gobka)

Large herb with dark purple flowers. Rim-
chura, 2600 m. Aug. 1984 (4536).

Smilacaceae
Smilax aspera Linn.

Prickly climber with white flowers. Gangi,
2500 m. Sept. 1985 (3027).

S. glaucophylla Klotzsch
Syn. S. parvifolia Wall.

Climber with white flowers. Gangi, 2500 m.
May 1984 (3026).

Commelinaceae

Commeliua pahidosa Blume
Syn. C. obliqua Buch.-Ham.

Herb with large sky blue flowers. Birodh,
2700 m. Aug. 1984 (4647).

Murdanuia divergens (Clarke) Bruckn.

Herb with red blue flowers on grassy slopes.
Gangi, 2500 m. Aug. 1984 (3031).

JUNCACEAE

I uncus elegans Royle ex D. Don
Syn. J. concinus D. Don
Herb with white spikes near water margins.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. Aug. 1984 (679).

Luzula multiflora (Retz.) Lej.

Herb with reddish-brown spikes. Kharsoli,
2800 m. May 1984 (1214).

Araceae

Arisaema jacquemontii Blume

Herb with green spathe white striped on
rocky places. Pachari, 2500 m. June 1984
(5707).

A. wallichianum Hook. f. (Loc.-Meen)

Herb with dark purple white striped spaths.
Pachari, 2850 m. June 1984 (4852).
Gcsiatanthus pumilus (Don) Engl, ex Krause
Bulbous herb with spathe on moist slopes.
Gangi, 2500 m. June 1984 (4565).

Typlionium diversifolium Wall, ex Schott.

Bulbous herb with green spathe. Jalkala,
2750 m. June 1984 (4851).

Cyperaceae

Casex breviculmis R. Br.

Grass with brown spikes Kharsoli, 2800 m.
June 1984 (1028).

G fiiicina Nees
Syn. C. meiogyna Nees
Grass with reddish-brown spikelets. Chauki,
3800 m. Sept. 1985 (1218).

C. inanis Kunth

Grass with dark brown-green spikes.
Bhumka, 3800 m. June 1984 (1018).

C nivalis Boot!.

Grass with yellow or pale brown spikes.

Chauki, 3800 m May 1984 (1217).

C. mibigena D. Don

Grass with green or pale brown spikes.

Bhumka, 3200 m. July 1984 (1219).

C. rostrata Stocks

Grass with green or pale brown spikes.

Bhumka, 3200 m. July 1984 (5614).

C. setosa Boot.

Glabrous herb with shining brown spikes.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. Aug. 1984 (3033).

Cy penis cuspidata Kunth (Loc.-Chandrica)
Herb with reddish pale yellow spikelets.

Kharsoli, 2900 m. Sept. 1985 (3032).

75

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 85

C. sanguinolentus Vahle.

Rhizomatous herb with purplish spikelets.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. July 1984 (767).
Fimbristylis dichotoma (Lino.) Vahl
Syn. Scirpus dichotomus Linn.

Herb with brownish red spikelets. Gangi,
2500 m. July 1984 (3055).

Kobresia nitens Clarke
Grass with greenish spikes. Bhelbagi, 3100
m. June 1984 (3045).

POACEAE

Agrostis caniita Linn.

Grass with purple green panicles. Gangi,
2500 m. Oct. 1985 (3030).

A. pilosula Trin.

Grass with brown spikes. Kalayani, 2600 m.
July 1984 (1202).

A. stolonifera Linn.

Erect grass with purplish spikelets. Kalayani
2650 m. Aug. 1984 (3036).

Aisdropogon tristis Nees

Tufted herb with greenish hairy spikelets.
Henuri, 2750 m. Aug.^ 1984 (1040).

Arthraxon land-folium (Trin.) Hochst.

Syn. A. micro phyllus Hochst.

Grass with purplish green spikelets on rocks
near hill streams. Gangi, 2500 m. Sept. 1985
(1098).

Apluda mutfca Linn. (Loc.-Jatchlyu)

Grass with greenish spikelets. Gangi, 2500
m. Sept. 1985 (759).

Danthonia cachymeriana Jaub. et Spach.

Densely tufted grass with pinkish-brown
spikes. Chauki, Khatling, 3600 m. Aug. 1984
(1201).

Dactylis glomerata Linn.

Herb with greenish spikelets in dense one-
sided clusters on the branches on panicles.
Bajloo, 3500 m. July 1984 (1206).

Deyeuxia pulchella (Griseb.) Hook. f.

Tufted grass with grey-purple spikes on open

slopes amongst boulders. Bajloo, 3500 m. Aug.
1984 (1215).

D. scabrescens (Griseb.) Munro ex Duthie
Large grass with pinkish-brown spikelets.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. Aug. 1984 (1203).
Caplipediem parviflorum (R.Br.) Stapf
Syn. Chrysopogon parviflorum (R.Br.) Benth
Herb with purplish spikelets. Reeh, 2100 m.
Aug. 1984 (1205).

Eragrostis poaoides P. Beauv.

Syn. E. nigra Nees ex Steud.

Grass with black spikes. Kalayani, 2600 m.
June 1984 (1212).

Festuca kashrairiana Stapf
Tufted grass with green purple tinged pani-
cles. Birodh, 2700 m. Aug. 1984 (3043).

F. ovina Host.

Herb with pale green or purplish spikes.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. Aug. 1984 (1028).

F. vaSesiaca Schleich. ex Gaud.

Tufted grass with pale green spikelets. Bhel-
bagi, 3100 m. Aug. 1984 (3041).

Helictorichoii vireseesis Nees ex Steud.

Large erect slender grass with green spikelets
Saura, Birodh, 2800 m. Aug. 1984 (3040).

Koeleria gracilis Pers.

Syn. K. cristata auct. non Pers.

Tufted grass with shining green spikelets.
Bhelbagi, 3100 in. Aug. 1984 (1026, 1214).
Oryzopsis munroi Stapf ex Hook. f.

Grass with greenish-purple spikes near water
margins. Kharsoli, 2800 m. June 1984 (3054).
Phleum alpinum Linn.

Herb with blackish-green spikelets. Bhel-
bagi, 3100 m. Aug. 1984 (3056).

Poa alpina Linn.

Tufted herb with silky hairy spikes. Bhumka,
3200 m. June 1984 (3035).

P. nepalensis Wall, ex Duthie

Herb with green spikelets. Bhelbagi, 3100 m.
May 1984 (3039).

76

FLORA OF KH AT LING GLACIER

P. pagophila Bore

Herb with purplish spikelets. Bhumka, 3200
m. June 1984 (3034).

Setaria viridis (Linn.) Beauv.

Herb with green purple bristles. Gangi, 2500
m. July 1984 (1211).

Sporobolus fertilis (Steud.) Clyton
Syn. S. indicus auct. Linn.

Herb with purplish-green narrow panicle.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. Aug. 1984 (1207).

Trisetum aeneum (Hook, f.) Stewart
Grass with purplish green spikes. Kharsoli,
2800 m. Aug. 1984 (1209).

T. spicatum (Linn.) Richt.

Grass with greenish spikes. Kharsoli, 2800
m. Aug. 1984 (1209)

Muhienbergia duthiana Hack.

Herb with eroded erect silvery green spike-
lets. Kharsoli, 2800 m. Aug. 1984 (796).

The little known taxa recorded in the pre-
sent work are Carex rostrata Stocks, and
Sorbus lanata (Don) S. Schaur. Carex rostrata
was collected from an elevation of 3200 m.
and Sorbus lanata was collected in between
2600-2900 m. elevation range.

As expected, the vegetation and the flora of
the region are subjected to several natural
calamities, such as land slides, soil erosion and
forest fires. However, more harmful changes
are brought about by human activities. She-
pherds (Gaddis, Gujars, Gangwals) invade the
high altitude zones in the month of April to
bring their flocks of sheep for grazing
till late October, as a result adversely affecting
the environment. Moreover, numerous high
altitude medicinal plants e.g., Aconitum hetero-
phyllum, A. balfourii, Actaea spicata, Bergenia

stracheyi, Diospyrum cantoniensis, Rhododen-
dron lepidotum, Rheum emodi, Orchis latifolia,
Skimmia laureola, Nardostachys grandi flora,
Jurinea macrocephala ; Barks of Cinnamomum
tamala, Myrica esculenta, Berberis asiatica, B ,
aristata, Taxus wallichiana; whole plants of
Meconopsis aculeata, Plantago himalayana, P.
major, Swertia cordata, S. ciliata, Syringa emodi
are collected without understanding future
prospects. Nevertheless, the region serves as
reservoir for numerous valuable economic
plants, many of which are known to be endan-
gered or threatened.

Besides the above, wanton felling of forests,
clearing of forests for cultivation, deforestation
for firewood, tapping of resin, and minor hydro-
electric projects, forest fires etc. are causing
havoc to the natural vegetation and making
many areas barren leading to soil erosion,
floods, land slides, drought and other natural
calamities (cloud bursts etc.), ultimately
bringing a serious disharmony in the lower
valleys of Khatling Glacier. In the near future
such type of activities will create a serious
problem for the Himalaya as well as for the
country.

Acknowledgements

This work has been carried out under the
Department of Environment, New Delhi spon-
sored by the All India Co-ordinated Research
Project on Ethnobiology. Thanks are due
to Dr R. R. Rao, Deputy Director, Dr Vohra,
Dr Malhotra, B.S.I., Northern Circle, Dehra-
dun for providing herbarium facilities. We are
also thankful to Mr. B. P. Uniyal, Mr Surendra
Singh, Mr Kimothi, Mr. Balodi, Mrs Juyal
and Mrs Mathur of the same Institution.

77

6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

References

Bhattacharyya, U. C. & Malhotra, C. L. (1982) :
A botanical exploration en route Roopkund Lake
(North-East Garhwal). In: The Vegetaitional Wealth
of the Himalaya (ed. G. S. Paliwal). 161-174.

& Goel, A. K. (1982):

Studies on the Vegetation of Tehri Dam and some
Rare Plants in Garhwal Himalaya. Botanical Survey
of India, Howrah.

Dey, A. C., Uniyal, M. R. & Shanker, V. (1969) :
Flora of the Bhillangana Valley of the erstwhile
Tehri Garhwal State. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 :
387-407.

Duthie, J. F. (1906): Catalogue of the Plants
of Kumaon and of the Adjacent Portion of Garhwal
& Tibet based on the collection made by Strachey
and Winterbottom during the years 1846-49. London.

Gaur, R. D. & Semwal, J. K. (1983): Exploita-
tion and threat to survival of some high altitude
plants in Garhwal Himalaya. In: An Assessment of
Threatened Plants of India (ed. S. K. Jain & R. R.
Rao). 37-39.

Ghildyal, B. N. (1956): A botanical trip to
Valley of Flowers. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54:
365-386.

Gupta, R. K. (1955) : Botanical exploration in
the Bhillangana valley of erstwhile Tehri Garhwal
State, ibid. 53: 581-594.

(1957) : Botanical exploration in the

erstwhile Tehri Garhwal State II. ibid. 54: 878-886.

(1962) : Botanical exploration in the

erstwhile Tehri Garhwal State III. ibid. 59: 486-512.

Hajra, P. K. (1983): A Contribution to the
Botany of Nanda Devi National Park. Botanical
Survey of India, Howrah.

Hutchinson, J. (1973): The Families of Flower-
ing Plants, (ed. III). Oxford.

Kala, S. P. & Gaur, R. D. (1982): A contribu-
tion to the flora of Gopeshwar (Chamoli Garhwal).
In : The Vegetational Wealth of the Himalayas (ed.
G. S. Paliwal). 347-413.

Naithani, B. D. (1967) : Plant collection with
Kedarnath Parvet expedition. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind.
11: 224-233.

Naithani, B. D. (1982): Flora of Chamoli. Vols.
I & II. Botanical Survey of India. Howrah.

Negi, K. S., Tiwari, J. K. & Gaur, R. D. (1985) :
A contribution to the flora of Dodital — A high
altitude lake in the Garhwal Himalaya (Uttarkashi) ,
U.P. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 258-272.

Osmaston, A. E. (1927): A Forest Flora for
Kumaon. Allahabad.

Rau, M. A. (1961): Flowering plants and ferns
of North Garhwal. Uttar Pradesh. India. Bull. Bot.
Surv. Ind. 3: 215-251.

(1963) : The vegetation around

lamnotri in Tehri Garhwal, U.P. ibid. 5: 277-280.

(1975): High Altitude Flower-
ing Plants of West Himalaya. Botanical Survey of
India. Howrah.

Semwal, J. K. & Gaur, R. D. (1981): Alpine
flora of Tungnath in Garhwal Himalaya. /. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 78: 498-512.

Semwal. J. K. (1984): Flowering plants around
the holy shrine of Kedarnath, Uttar Pradesh, ibid.
81: 71-85.

Smythe, F. S. (1932) : Kamet Conquered. London.

(1938) : The Valley of Flowers.

London.

78

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE MUD CRAB, SCYLLA
SERRATA (FORSKAL) FROM SUNKERI
BACKWATERS, KARWAR1

P. N. Prasad, R. Sudarshana and B. Neelakantan2'

{With four text -figures)

Sunkeri backwaters (14°48y N and 74°51'E) offer a congenial environment with
diversified feeding habitats for the mud crab, Scylla serrata (Forskal). The feeding
habits of this crab depend mainly on the conditions prevalent in the mangroves,
backwater bunds and axial depressions of this water body. In the general assessment,
the crab has been found to be omnivorous, feeding on the remains of mollusca,
fish and Crustacea and a moderate amount of detritus. Apart from the food compo
sition. an interesting relationship between the gut volume and the size (carapace
width) of the crab has been discussed. It is seen that the relationship is linear and
exponential. Some observations on the feeding behaviour of the crab have also been
made, indicating that the crab is an active nocturnal feeder being more mobile than
buried in the substratum.

1 NTRODUCTION

Scylla serrata (Forskal) is a large mud crab
distributed widely in the estuaries of Indo-
Pacific region (Stephenson 1962) being report-
ed as a predator of slow moving and sessile
benthic organisms (Hill 1976) but omnivorous
(Arriola 1940) in the general assessment. How-
ever, the feeding ecology of this crab depends
on the source and abundance of its food in-
gredients in the environment. Sometimes, the
enormous salinity variations (McLachlan &
Erasmus 1974) in the estuaries have been
found to alter the feeding ecology of the crab.
But, in spite of the enormous commercial
importance and functional interest attached to
the mud crab S. serrata, the aspects of its feed-
ing ecology in Indian waters, especially in
Sunkeri backwaters, Karwar (14°18'N; 74°
51' E) are not well described. Therefore, this
attempt is aimed at explaining the relationships

1 Accepted August 1984.

2 Department of Marine Biology, Karnatak Uni-
versity, Kodibag, Karwar.

of foregut volume, food composition and feed-
ing behaviour of the mud crab.

Material and Methods

The crabs were collected during the post-
monsoon period (Sept. -Mar.) from Sunkeri
backwaters lying at a distance of 3 km. from
the mouth of the Kali estuary (Fig. 1).
The collections were essentially from three
different areas, namely mangroves, back-
water bunds and axial depressions. The salient
features of these habitats, along with the hydro-
logical parameters, are described in Table 1,
As can be seen from this Table, the hydrolo-
gical conditions of mangroves and axial de-
pressions were very similar while the back-
water bunds exhibited a unique pattern.
However, owing to the greater depth, tidal
activity and the congenial bottom texture, most
of the crabs for the present study were procured
from the axial depressions. As there has not
been much difference in the gut conditions
between crabs collected from these areas, and
as the crab is a nocturnal wanderer (Hill 1976)

79

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

on the bottom of the estuaries, there cannot
be a habitat isolation for the crabs under
different feeding conditions. Therefore the
crabs collected from three different areas of
Sunkeri backwaters have been treated as of
one stock which enjoyed the diversity in food
resources in the environment. Even though the
crabs in these waters are caught by line and
hook, the crabs from cast nets alone were pro-
cured for the study to avoid “bait-contami-
nation” in the gut contents of the crabs.

Hydrography :

Salinity and temperature of the study area
were determined by using a standardised
salinity-temperature meter. Oxygen content
was estimated by Winkler’s titrimetric method
and phosphate and nitrite were determined by
colorimetric methods, as described by Strick-
land & Parsons (1977).

Morphometry :

The crabs were frozen to immobility and
washed thoroughly to free adhering foreign
particles like sand, mud, etc. The weight of
the crab was determined in a microbalance to
the nearest milligram. The width of the crabs
was measured to the nearest millimetre with
the help of vernier calipers as suggested by
Stephenson (1966). Crab volume was measur-
ed by displacement after immersing the whole
crab with all appendages intact, in a measuring
cylinder.

The foregut volume was estimated by the
method described by Hill (1976) as follows.
The foreguts of 32 freshly killed crabs (41-110
mm carapace width) were exposed by dissec-
tion and isolated from the midgut by cutting
posterior to the filter chamber. All muscle
attachments were disconnected, the oesophagus
was ligatured and cut, after which the foregut
was removed from the crab. It was then filled
with water injected through the cut end of the

filter chamber and the total volume of gut wall
plus content was measured by displacement in
a measuring cylinder. The foregut was then
punctured and completely emptied and the
volume of the gut wall was measured by dis-
placement. The difference gave the foregut
volume.

Food volume was calculated by substracting
foregut volume from volume of foregut plus
contents.

Relative volume of the gut was calculated
by dividing the gut volume with crab volume
and multiplying by 100.

Food composition :

The guts of the deepfrozen crabs were
opened. After measuring the foregut volume,
the contents therein were brushed down into
a petri-dish or slide, and identified under a
microscope. The different constituents were
quantified volumetrically and the results
presented as percentages of total food.

An experiment was conducted on feeding
behaviour of the mud crab and is described.

Results

As discussed earlier, the habitat types and
their salient features are given in Table 1.
Table 2 enumerates the relative gut volume,
gut plus food volume, calculated and measured
gut volumes and percentage of fullness of the
guts in relation to the size (carapace width)
groups. The condition of the gut and food
composition are presented in Table 3. The
abundance of different food ingredients in
different size groups of S. serrata is indicated
in this table.

The location of the study area and distri-
bution of the different habitats as mentioned
in Table 1 are shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 2 shows
the indirect relationship between the relative
gut volume and carapace width. A bimodal

80

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF MUD CRAB SCYLLA SERRATA

Table 1

Salient features of the feeding habitats of S. serrata in sunkeri backwaters

SI. Habitat
No. type

Salient Salinity

features <fcc

Temp.

°C

Oxygen

ml/1

Phosphate
Mg at/1

Nitrite
Mg at/1

t . Mangroves

Vegetated with 21.42 + 3.22
Avicennia &

Rhizophora sp. Rich
benthic biomass
and species
diversity. Sandy-
silt and silty-
clay bottoms.

27.38+01.56

5.20+0.87

0.17+0.13

0.48±0.36

2. Backwater
bunds

Moderate benthic 21.68 + 3.45
biomass and
diversity. Crevices
and hiding spaces.

Silty-clay bottoms.

27.44 + 1.92

5.04+1.47

0.32+0.23

O.47±0.36

3 . Axial

depressions

Sand and sandy- 21.42+3.22
silt bottoms.

Deeper than
other habitats.

Enormous tidal
activity.

27.38 + 1.56

5.20+0.8

0.17+0.13

0.48±0.36

Table 2

Volume and condition of the cuts in different size groups

Size groups &
no. of crabs
examined

Relative
gut volume

%

Gut +

Food volume
ml

Gut Volume -
Calculated
ml

Gut Volume -
Measured
ml

% of fullness

41-50 4 nos.
(48.70+0.56)

1.26 + 0.22

0.75+0.15

0.35+0.01

0.35 + 0.08

52.80+ 9.92

51-60 14 nos.
(55.46 + 2.41)

1.34+0.35

0.80+0.25

0.44 + 0.03

0.48+0.09

32.87 + 14.58

61-70 2 nos.
(66.35+0.05)

0.83+0

1.25+0.25

0.63+0.001

0.68 + 0.08

45.00+ 5.00

71-80 7 nos.
(76.07+3.10)

0.95+0.11

1.39+0.42

0.86+0.09

0.99+0.33

28.17 + 12.69

81-90 2 nos.
(85.95+0.45)

1.06+0.11

1.50+0

1.19+0.02

1.15+0.15

23 . 33 + 10.00

91-100 2 nos.
(97.45 + 1.05)

0.83+0.08

2.50+0.50

1.75 + 0.06

1.55+0.50

35.00+15.00

101-110 1 no.
(105.5+0)

0.01+0

3.00+0

2.28+0

2.50+0

16.67+0

81

Percentage composition of the gut contents in different size groups

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

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distribution of the relative gut volume which
connotes that the carapace width is not per-
fectly regulative of the parameter has been
presented in the form of a curve along with
the standard errors of the modal values. Fig. 3
shows a relationship between the carapace
width and gut volume and serves two purposes.
First, the harmony between the measured
values and calculated values has been shown
to indicate the precise exponential nature in
the relationship of the parameters involved.
Secondly, the linearity in the correlation bet-
ween carapace width and gut volume is shown
to be direct. The food composition in diffe-
rent specimens is presented in Fig. 4. The
figure not only shows the relative proportions
in the availability of gut contents but also
indicates the changing preference for food at
different growth stages.

Generally, the gut plus food volume com-
prised a minimum of 0.75+0.15 ml and a
maximum of 3.00±0 ml. Correspondingly the
calculated and measured gut volumes were
0.35±0.01 ml., 0.35±0.08 ml (minimum)
and 2.28±0 ml., 2.50±0 ml. (maximum).
The guts of the crabs were filled to 16.67=b
0 to 52. 80 ±9. 92%. While the highest
percentages of fullness were encountered with
smaller size groups, the lowest percentage was
recorded in the highest size group. Food com-
position was dependent on the size group. In
all, four major types of dietary ingredients and
a significant percentage of unidentified and
degenerated tissue matter were isolated and
are discussed.

Discussion

A large amount of work has been done on
the food and feeding habits of S. serrata.
Arriola (1940) has reported on a multidietary
habit, indicating that the crab may occupy a
wide niche havins access to different food

82

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF MUD CRAB SCYLLA SERRATA

Fig. 1. Map showing the study area. (Feeding habitats located).
1. Mangroves. 2. Axial depressions. 3. Backwater bunds.

ingredients through different devouring mecha-
nisms. Atkinson (1971) and Duplessis (1971)
had tried to rear the crab on artificial diets. The
investigations on physiological aspects of
digestion of the crab by Barker & Gibbson
(1978) and natural food and foregut clearance
rate by Hill (1976) have revealed much in-
formation on the feeding ecology of S. serrata.
But there exists a precise relationship between
the foregut volume and the size (carapace
width), suggesting the digestive capability of
the crab, which is least explored and explained
in the past.

The foregut volume.

The foregut volume was directly proportional
to the size of the crab. Both the calculated

and measured values of gut volume were
related to an increasing carapace width (Fig.
2). The amount of increase in gut volume in
the lower size groups (51-60 mm) was very
gradual and small, while the increase in the
higher groups, especially between 91 and 110
mm was large. This suggests a probable geo-
metric increase in the amount of ingestion with
increase in the carapace width of higher size
groups. The values of gut volume given
against size groups in Table 2 also infer such
a relationship. The size group 41-50 mm
showed a gut volume of 0.35±0.08 ml. But
the group 101-110 mm, which was little more
in size than double of the former, showed a
gut volume (2.50 ml) w'hich was seven times
higher to that of the former. Therefore the

83

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Fig. 2. Relationship of gut volume to carapace width.

greater gut volume in higher groups is sug-
gestive of the high cheliped strength and
diverse feeding habits which are all contained
in the exponential proportionality. However,
the relative gut volume, taken as the percen-
tage of gut in the volume of the crab, is not
in direct proportion to carapace width. This
has been brought out in Fig. 2. It is seen that
there is a general decline in the relative gut
volume as against the carapace width, but the
relationship is not perfectly linear. There have
been two modes, one at 51-60 mm group and
another at 81-90 mm. Moreover, the modal
height of 61-70 mm group was lowest. Hence,
it cannot be concluded that the relative gut

volume is a function of the size in weight or
volume of the whole crab. The relative gut
volume varied between 0.83 ±0.08 and 1.36±
0.35% (Table 2), and can be quite insignifi-
cant during volumetric comparisons in assess-
ment of growth of body parts. In all, it is the
actual gut volume and not the relative one
that holds a predictable relationship to cara-
pace width (Fig. 3) and also indicates the
changing capability of ingestion during growth
of S. serrata.

Food composition :

Food volume and the fullness of the gut
are also reported in Table 3. But, as they are

84

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF MUD CRAB SCYLLA SERRATA

40 50 60 PO BO go -JOO

Carapace uiidkh (trim')

Fig. 3. Relationship of relative gut volume to carapace width.

consequential and may indicate only the avail-
ability and distribution of the food during and
prior to the time of collection of crabs, they
do not yield any useful information. Other
significant features of stomach condition, like
the food composition and its relation to size
groups, are presented in Table 3 and Fig. 4.

The food in the gut was found to be in a
semi -digested form even though the crabs were
frozen within a short time of the collection.
The availability of food from different sources
in the partially digested form suggests an effi-
cient digestive physiology (Barker & Gibbson
1978, Hill 1976), supporting its diverse dis-
tribution in these waters.

Fragments of antenna, rostrum, telson,
maxilla and parts of exo- and endoskeleton
that were found in the gut. helped in the
identification of the food species. The food
usually comprised of remains of Crustacea,
mollusca and fish, detritus and some unidenti-
fiable chitinous matter. The crustacean remains
in the guts of the crab were those of Penaeus
indicus, Metapenaeus dobsoni and smaller sized
S. serrata. Molluscan remains comprised of
both gastropods and bivalves, usually Anomia
sp., Paphia malabarica , Meretrix casta and
Villorita cyprinoides. Vertebrae and some
skeletal pieces of fishes whose identity was
difficult to make out, formed the third part of

85

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VoL 85

86

Carapace width (mm)

Fig. 4. Percentage food composition in different sized specimens of S. serrata.

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF MUD CRAB SCYLLA SERRATA

the diet of the crab. Occasional occurrence of
placoid scales in the gut indicated that some
of the crabs might have escaped with a morsel
of the elasmobranch bait used by fishermen to
catch them. Detritus also occurred in consi-
derable amounts in the guts of the crab, up-
holding the view of Arriola (1940) that the
crab is omnivorous.

In general, the remains of Crustacea,
mollusca, fish and detritus varied between
1,00±0 and 15.25 + 15.24, 3.75±6.50 and
14.69+20.04. 6.00+4.90 and 94.00±0 and
24.50+25.24 per cent respectively (Table 3).
It is seen from Table 3 that it was fish remains
and detritus that formed the major portion of
the diet of S. serrata. The food ingredients
were not commonly available in all the size
groups of the crabs. It was only molluscan
remains and detritus that were found in the
guts of the crabs of 41-50 mm group. While it
was only fish remains and detritus in the guts
of 81-90 mm group, the 101-110 mm group
possessed only fish and crustacean remains.
Unidentified tissue material was found in all
guts except in those of the 41-50 mm group.

What is clear from Fig. 4 is the differential
availability of dietary constituents in the guts
of different sized crabs. Detritus is the major
portion of food in the smaller size groups.
Some of the middle sized (57.2-66.4 mm)
and large crabs (more than 85.5 mm) showed
a large amount of fish remains in the gut.
This change in the diet certainly has a rela-
tionship with the growing size of the organism
in general and increasing volume of the
gut in particular. The exponential increase in
the gut volume in accordance with the growth
explains the need to accommodate a dietary
component which exceeded very much in
volume that of the detritus.

Feeding behaviour :

Some references are available regarding the

feeding behaviour of S. serrata. Hill (1976)
has discussed in brief the mode of feeding,
while Walne & Dean (1972) have described
the bivalve feeding as a part of an emergency
feeding. Muntz et al. (1965) have indicated
that there can be an efficient regulation of
macro- invertebrate prey species by the feeding
relationships of S. serrata. Even though such
theoretical contemplation was not attempted
during the present study, some aspects of the
feeding behaviour were observed under labo-
ratory conditions.

Various size groups of crab were collected
from Sunkeri backwaters and were kept in
different glass troughs and glass aquaria with
about 3 inches of sand and nearly six inches
of water as suggested by Prasad & Tampi
(1953). The crabs were fed different types of
food, namely oil sardine, anchovies, prawn
waste and clam meat. Of these the crabs were
found to be more partial towards clam meat —
feeding twice a day. It was observed that most
of the crabs preferred to feed during the night,
although plenty of food iii the form of pieces
of whole clam meat was provided during the
day. For most of the time, they remained fully
buried in the sand with only their eyes and
antennae projecting out. Hill (1976) observed
that S. serrata remained buried during the
day, emerging at sunset to feed. He further
indicated (Hill 1979) that food location was
by contact chemoreception using the dactyli
of the walking legs, and that S. serrata showed
preference for small crabs as prey because of
their larger mass and higher energy content
when compared with other prey organisms.

In the present experiment, the crabs lived
for 6-7 days in all the troughs, but the survival
rate was more in the aquaria where enough
sand was provided. Generally, crabs died soon
after moulting. When two crabs of different
sizes were placed in the same aquarium, the
larger one tended to be dominant and even

87

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY . Vol, 85

killed and ate the smaller crab, despite the
availability of clam meat. Food and water in
the aquaria and glass troughs were changed
twice a day. The feeding rate increased after
24 hours of acclimation of the crabs in labo-
ratory. The crabs were aggressive during the
feeding process and held their chelipeds
closely against the mouth when they were not
involved in feeding. Moreover, the crabs
refused to feed actively in the presence of an
observer or under brightly lit conditions.

There has been a debate as to whether the
crabs are actively engaged in catching the prey
organisms. Though Caine (1974) explained a
prev-catching mechanism of another portunid
crab, Ovalipes guadulpensis, Hill (1976) has
failed to find a similarity of such technique in
S. serrata. There was not much experimenta-
tion in this regard during the present investi-

gation also. But, from the general field obser-
vations we can say that the crabs spend more
time being mobile than in remaining buried.
Their inquisitive handling of most molluscan
shells while on the prowl for food suggests
their continuous efforts at food collection, be
it through carnivory or scavenging.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

We thank Dr. B. J. Hill, CSIRO. Australia
for providing useful publications and for sug-
gestions, Dr. (Mrs.) Kusuma Neelakanthan,
Department of Marine Biology, Karwar has
assisted in the identification of gut contents.
We also thank Mr. U. G. Naik, Ms. T. R.
Sujatha, Ms. Prema and Mr. U. G. Bhat for
help in various stages of the work.

References

Arriola, F. J. (1940) : A preliminary study of
the life history of Scylla serrata (Forskal). Phillipp.
J. Sc. 75(4) : 437-454.

Atkinson, J. M. (1971): Factors affecting the
growth rate of Samoan crab, ( Scylla serrata ) in
Hawaii (unpubl. report) Univ. Hawaii, Dep. Zool.
5pp.

Barker, P. L. & Gibbson, R. (1978): Observa-
tions on the structures of the mouth parts, histology
of the alimentary tracts and digestive physiology
of the mud crab Scylla serrata (Forskal) (Deca-
poda : Portunidae) . /. Exv. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 32 :
177-196.

Caine, E. A. (1974) : Feeding of Ovalipes guadul-
pensis and morphological adaptations to a burrow-
ing existence. Biol. Mar. Lab, Woods Hole 147:
550-559.

Duplessis, A. (1971) : A preliminary investiga-
tion into the morphological characteristics, feeding,
growth, reproduction and larval rearing of Scylla
serrata Forskal (Decapoda: Portunidae) held in

captivity (unpubl.). Fish. Develop. Corp. S. Africa,
24pp.

Hill, B. J. (1976): Natural food, foregut clear-
ance rate and activity of the crab Scylla serrata.
Mar. Biol. 34: 109-116.

(1979): Aspects of the feeding

strategy of the predatory crab Scylla serrata. Mar.
Biol. 55: 209-214.

McLachalan, A. & Erasmus, T. (1974): Tem-
perature tolerances and osmo-regulation in some
estuarine bivalves. Zoologica Africana 9: 1-13.

Muntz, L., Ebling, F. J. & Kitching, J. A.
(1965): The ecology of large crabs. J. Anim. Ecol.
34: 315p.

Prasad, R. R. & Tampi, P.R.S. (1953): A con-
tribution to the biology of the blue swimming crab,
Neptunus pelagicus (Linnaeus) with a note on the
zoea of Thalamita crenata Latreille. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 51: 674-689.

Stephenson, W. H. (1962) : Evolution and eco-
logy of portunid crabs with special reference to the
Australian species. In: The evolution of organisms,
pp. 311-324. Ed. by G. W. Melbourne: Melbourne
University Press.

88

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF MUD CRAB SCYLLA SERRATA

Stephenson, W. (1966): A morphometric ana- tin. 167, Fisheries Research Board of Canada,

lysis of certain western American swimming crabs Ottawa p. 310.

of the genus Portunus Weber, 1875. Proc. Symp. Walne, P. R. & Dean (1972): Experiments on

Crustacea J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India. Part I: 363-386. predation by the shore crab Carcinus maenas on
Strickland, J.D.H. & Parsons, T. R. (1977): Mytilus and Mercenaria. J. Cons. Int. Mer. 34:

A practical handbook of sea water analysis, Bulle- 190-199.

89

BIRDS OF THE VISAKHAPATNAM GHATS,
ANDHRA PRADESH — 21

S. Dillon Ripley-. Bruce M. Beehler2 and K. S. R. Krishna Raju3

[Continued from

867. Pitta brachyura brachyura (Linnaeus).

INDIAN PUT A.

Observed at Pedevalasa on 16 October 1983.

923-928. Hirundo daurica.

REDRUM PED SWALLOW.

Hundreds were observed roosting on high
power lines at Lankapakalu in October 1983.

948. Lanius schach tricolor (Hodgson).

BLACK HEADED SHRIKE.

Observed at Wangasara in October 1983.

949. Lanius cristatus cristatus Linnaeus.
BROWN SHRIKE.

Specimens : 1 male (t.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,
2 March 1985.

Measurements-, wing 87.2, oilmen 19.5, tail
84. weight 23.5.

953. Oriolus oriolus kundoo Sykes.

INDIAN GOLDEN ORIOLE.

Specimens-. 1 immature female (o.n.e.),

Wangasara, 7 March 1985.

Measurements-, wing 129. bill 31, tail 79.5,
weight 52.

Soft parts: iris dark brown, legs bluish grey,
bill black.

1 Accepted November 1986.

2 NHB Room 336, Smithsonian Institution. Wash-
ington, DC 20560, U.S.A.

3 Andhra Pradesh Natural History Society, King-
fisher House, Opp. A. U. Post Office. Visakhapatnam
530 003.

Vol. 84(3): 559]

958-959. Oriolus xanthornus xanthomas Linne

BLACK HEADED ORIOLE.

Specimens: 1 male (t.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,

25 February 1985; 1 female (o.s.e.), Wanga-
sara, 7 March 1985.

Measurements: (male) wing 130, culmen

28.2, tail 82, weight 55; (female) wing 134,
culmen 28.5, tail 82.5, weight 47.

Soft parts: (male) iris dark red, legs blue-
grey, bill flesh; (female) iris dark red, legs
slaty grey, bill dull rosy pink.

Taxonomy: our specimens key to this race
by plumage and wing length.

Notes: Call note is a musical dyu\

965-966a. Dicrurus leucophaeus (Vieillot).

GREY DRONGO.

Mist-netted at Wangasara, 3, 6 October 1983.
Measurements: (unsexed) wing (arc) 133.
135, 140, weight 41, 42, 43.

Soft parts: (unsexed) iris pale orange, dark
red, dark red-brown, gape cream-coloured.

967. Dicrurus caerulescens caendescens
(Linnaeus).

INDIAN WHITEBELLIED DRONGO.

Specimens: 1 female (o.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,
27 February 1985.

Measurements: wing 116, culmen 25. tail
110, weight 34.

Soft parts: iris dark red, legs black, bill
black.

90

BIRDS OF THE V1SAKHAPA TN AM GHATS

971. Dicrurus aeneus aeneus Vieillot.

BRONZED DRONGO.

Specimens : 1 male (t.n.e.), Wangasara, 24
September 1983; 1 male (7x5 mm), 1 female
(o.n.e.), Jyothimamidi, 28 February 1985; 1
male (t.e.), Lankapakalu, 12 March 1985.

Measurements : (male) wing 119 (2), 123,
culmen 22, 23, 24, tail 100, — , 104.5, weight
22, 22.5, 23; (female) wing 118, culmen 22,
tail 101, weight 20.

Soft parts : (all) iris dark brown, legs black,
bill black.

Notes : The Wangasara specimen was netted
in coffee plantation and its stomach contained
ants. On 20 October 1983, at 1732 hrs., BB
watched a streamside group of 8 individuals
aerial hawking over the stream. One timed
individual remained in the air for 95 seconds.

976-977. Dicrurus paradiseus grandis (Gould)/

paradiseus (Linnaeus).

GREATER RACKET-TAILED DRONGO.

Specimens: 2 females (o.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,
27, 28 February 1985.

Measurements : wing 158, 158.5, culmen 37,
37.5, tail (central rectrices) 322, 335, tail
(outer streamers) 322, 335, weight 74, 78.

Soft parts: iris reddish brown or dark brown,
legs black, bill black.

Taxonomy: By plumage our specimens key
to grandis but by wing and tail measurements
they correspond to paradiseus.

982. Artamus fuscus Vieillot.

ASHY SWALLOW-SHRIKE.

Observed at Anantagiri in March 1985.

987. Sturnus malabaricus malabaricus

(Gmelin).

GREYHEADED MYNA.

Specimens: 1 male (t.n.e.), Jyothimamidi, 1
March 1985.

Measurements: wing 100.5, culmen 22.5,
tail 57.5, weight 40.

Soft parts: iris bluish white, legs brownish
yellow, bill basally mauve-blue, median area
olive-green, tip orange.

1006. Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus).

INDIAN MYNA.

Observed at Jyothimamidi.

1010. Acridotheres fuscus mahrattensis (Sykes)
fuscus (Wagler).

SOUTHERN JUNGLE MYNA.

Specimens: 1 male (t.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,
28 February 1985, 1 male (t.n.e.), Lankapa-
kalu, 13 March 1985.

Measurements: wing 123.5, 124, culmen 26,
28.9, tail 70, 70.5. weight 81, — .

Soft parts: iris yellow or dark brown, leg
colour ochre, bill basally black, distally orange,
nares and gape dull red.

Taxonomy: Variation among the Indian

populations is very slight and thus it is diffi-
cult to assign our birds. Eye colour of one
specimen was yellow (which would refer to
northern populations).

1015, 1017. Gracuia religiosa intermedia

A. Hay.

HILL MYNA.

Specimens: 1 male (t.n.e.), 1 female (o.s.e.),
Jyothimamidi, 24, 26 February 1985.

Measurements: (male) wing 158, culmen

(base) 33, tail 72, weight 185; (female) wing
158, culmen 29.5, tail 69.5, weight 190.

Soft parts: (all) iris brown, legs yellow,

claws black, bill reddish orange, tipped yellow,
orbital skin orange-yellow.

1038. Dendrocitta formosae himalayensis
Blyth.

EAST HIMALAYAN TREE PIE.

Specimens: 1 female (o.n.e.), Milerulu, nr.
Paderu, 28 February 1981; 1 male (t.n.e.),
Lankapakalu, 25 October 1983, 1 male (t.n.e.),
Wangasara, 5 March 1985.

91

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Measurements : (male) wing 143, 145.5,

ciilmen 32.5 (2), tail 202, 207, weight 92, 74;
(female) wing 142.5, culmen 33, tail 200,
weight 80.

Soft parts (male) iris dark red, legs and
bill black; (female) iris dark brownish red,
legs and bill black.

Taxonomy : The race sarkari Kinnear and
Whistler, based on specimens taken in the
Visakhapatnam Ghats, is not recognized, fol-
lowing Biswas (1963). Our material confirms
this assessment, contra Abdulaii (1980).

Notes : D. vagabunda was not recorded by
us in our studies, although it had been record-
ed by the Vernay group and Abdulaii.

1048-51. Corvus splendens (Vieillot).

HOUSE CROW.

Observed at Lammasinghi in March 1985.
1057. Corvus macrorhynchos culminatus Sykes.

INDIAN JUNGLE CROW.

Specimens’. 1 male (t.e.), Jyothimamidi, 28
February 1985.

Measurements’, wing 302, culmen (base)
64.5, tail 177.5, weight 430.

Soft parts: iris dark brown, legs and bill
black.

1065. Hemipus picatus picatus (Sykes).

BLACKBACKED PIED FLYCATCHER-SHRIKE.

Specimens : 1 female (o.n.e.), Pedevalasa,

18 October 1983; 1 [male], Jyothimamidi, 23
February 1985.

Measurements : (male) wing 61.5, culmen
15, tail 53.5, weight 9.5; (female) wing 64,
culmen 16.5, tail 55, weight 9.

Soft parts : (all) iris dark brown, bill and
legs black.

Notes: The female showed wing and tail
moult.

1 067. Tephrodornis virgatus pelvica (Hodgson).

NEPAL WOOD SHRIKE.

Specimens: 2 females (o.n.e.), 1 male (testes
tiny) Lankapakalu, 24 October 1983; 1 male
(t.n.e.), Wangasara, 10 March 1985.

Measurements: (male) wing 118, 122.5,

culmen 27.5(2), tail 79, 81, weight 33, — ;
(female) wing 115, 117, culmen 26.5, 27, tail
80, 84.5, weight 34.4, 38.

Soft parts: (male) iris dark brown, legs

dark grey, bill black; (female) iris olive.

1070. Tephrodornis pondicerianus pondiceria-

nus (Gmelin).

INDIAN WOOD SHRIKE.

Specimens: 1 female (o.n.e.), Wangasara, 5
March 1985.

Measurements: wing 83.5, culmen 21, tail
59.

Soft parts: iris pale brown, legs dark blue
grey.

Notes: voice is a sweet series of upslurred
notes : chuwee wee wee wee wee with a burry
quality.

1072-1074. Coradna novaehollaiidiae (Gmelin).
LARGE CUCKOO-SHRIKE.

Observed near Chintapalli in March 1985.

1077. Coradna melaschistos melaschistos

(Hodgson).

DARK GREY CUCKOO-SHRIKE.

Specimens: 1 female (o.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,
24 February 1985.

Measurements: wing 125, bill 19.5, tail 90,
weight 36.

Soft parts: iris reddish brown, bill and legs
black.

1079. Coracina meianoptera sykesi (Strickland).

PENINSULAR BLACKHEADED CUCKOO-
SHRIKE.

Specimens: 1 [male], Jyothimamidi, 25

February 1985.

92

BIRDS OF THE VISAKHAPATNAM GHATS

Measurements : wing 109.5, oilmen 17.5,
tail 80, weight 26.

Soft parts : iris brown, legs and bill black.

1083. Pericrocotus flammetis semiruber

Whistler and Kinnear.

EAST INDIAN SCARLET MINIVET.

Specimens'. 1 female (o.n.e.), Lammasinghi,
24 February 1981; 1 [male], 1 female (o.n.e.),
Jyothimamidi, 27 February 1985, 1 female
(o.s.e.), Wangasara, 4 March 1985.

Measurements’, (male) wing 102, culmen 21,
tail 98, weight 29.5; (female) wing 97, 99, 102,
culmen 18.5, 19.2, 20, tail 91, 92.3, 93.5,
weight 26.5, 27, 28.5.

Soft parts: (male) iris brown, legs and bill
black; (female) iris dark brown, legs and bill
black.

1089. Pericrocotus roseus roseus (Vieillot).

ROSY MINIVET.

Specimens’. 1 male (t.s.e.), Wangasara, 7
March 1985; 1 female (o.n.e.), Lankapakalu,
17 March 1985.

Measurements’, (male) wing 87, culmen 17,
tail 83, weight 18.7; (female) wing 89.5,
culmen 17, tail 85.5, weight 17.5.

Soft parts : (all) iris dark brown, bill and
legs black.

1093. Pericrocotus cinnamomeus cinnamomeus

(Linnaeus).

SOUTHERN SMALL MINIVET.

Specimens’. 1 male (t.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,
27 February 1985; 1 male (t.n.e.), Wangasara,
5 March 1985.

Measurements’, (male) wing 70, 71.5. cul-
men 12.8, 14.8, tail 68.2, 69, weight 9.5, 10.

Soft parts: (male) iris dark brown, legs and
bill black.

Notes: Taken in mature coffee plantation
and in remnant mixed moist deciduous forest.

1100. Aegithina tiphia deignani Hall.

PENINSULAR INDIAN IORA.

Specimens: 1 male (t.n.e.) Lankapakalu, 24
October 1985; 1 female (o.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,
1 March 1985; 1 male (t.e.), Wangasara, 7
March 1985.

Measurements: (male) wing 65.5, 66, cul-
men 16, 16.5, tail 46.2, 46.5, weight 13.2,
14; (female) wing 65, culmen 17, tail 50,
weight 13. Mist -netted (unsexed) weight 14.2.

Soft parts: (male) iris dark brown, legs blue
grey; (female) iris pale yellowish grey, legs
bluish grey, maxilla black, mandible and to-
mium grey.

Notes: The Wangasara male is moulting
into breeding plumage.

1104. Chloropsis aurifrons frontalis Pelzeln.

SOUTHERN GOLDFRONTED CPILOROPSIS.

Specimens: 1 male (t.s.e.), Jyothimamidi,
28 February 1985.

Measurements: wing 96.5, culmen 24.5, tail
67.5, weight 37.

Soft parts: iris dark brown, legs blackish
grey, bill black.

1115. Pycnonotus melanicteris flaviventris

(Tickell).

BLACK -CRESTED YELLOW BULBUL.

Specimens: 1 male (t.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,
23 February 1985; 1 male (t.s.e.), 1 female
(o.e.), Wangasara, 11 March 1985.

Measurements: (male) wing 88.5, 92, cul-
men 15, 15.5, tail 68, 80, weight 25, 28;
(female) wing 85.5, culmen 15.3, tail 74.5,
weight 30. Mist-netted (unsexed) weight 24.8,
25, 25.9, 29.5.

Soft parts: (male) iris lemon yellow or

whitish, legs dark brown or dark grey, bill
black; (female) iris whitish, legs grey, bill
black.

Notes: The two Wangasara birds show

patches of orange on the belly, breast, and to

93

7

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vot. 85

a lesser extent, on the back. This may indicate
the close relationship of this form with the
rubythroated form from the Western Ghats
and Southernmost India.

1121. Pycnonotiis jocosus enieria (Linnaeus).
BENGAL REDWHISKERED BULBUL.
Specimens : 1 male (t.e.) Lammasinghi, 25
February 1981; 1 male (t.s.e.), Mileruleru, 27
February 1981.

Measurements’, (male) wing 85, 87, culmen
18, 18.5, tail 77 (2), weight 28, 29.5. Mist-
netted (unsexed) weight 20, 21.8, 22 (9),

24 (3), 25 (2), 26 (5), 26.5 (2), 27, 28 (5).
29 (5), 30 (7), 32, 32.5, 37.8.

Soft parts : (male) iris dark brown, legs and
bill black.

1130. Pycmmotus cafer wetmorei Deignan.
ORISSA REDVENTED BULBUL.

Specimens : 1 female (o.n.e.), Lammasinghi.

25 February 1981; 1 male (t.e.). 1 female
(o.n.e.), Jyothimamidi.

Measurements : (male) wing 87, 94, culmen
19.5, 20, tail 79(2), weight 29, 30; (female)
wing 87.5, culmen 19. tail 75. weight 29.
Mist-netted (unsexed) weight 25, 26, 27, 28
(4), 29(5), 30. 31. 32. 33. 34(5). 36(3). 37.
38.

Soft parts : (all) iris dark brown, legs and
bill black.

1138. Pycnonotus luteolus luteolus (Lesson).
WH1TEBROWED BULBUL.

Specimens : 1 male (t.n.e.). Lammasinghi,

26 October 1983.

Measurements : wing 92, culmen 20, tail 83,
weight 41.5.

Soft parts : iris dark brown, legs blue-grey.
Notes : mist-netted in scrub.

1154. PeUorneum ruficeps ruficeps Swainson.

PENINSULAR SPOTTED BABBLER.
Specimens’. 1 female (o.n.e.) Raghavendra

Nagar, 1 March 1981; 1 female (o.n.e.), Pede-
valasa, 18 October 1983; 2 males (t.n.e.),
Jyothimamidi, 21, 24 February 1985.

Measurements’, (male) wing 66, 73, culmen
18. 20, tail 59, 66, weight 26, 27.6; (female)
wing 67, 69, culmen 17.8, 19, tail 59, 60,
weight 24.5, 25.5. Mist-netted (unsexed)
weight 22.9, 23, 24.5, 25.5 (5), 26.5 (3),
27.5, 28. 28.5, 29.5.

Soft parts’, (male) iris medium brown or
pale brown, legs brownish flesh, maxilla brown,
mandible pinkish brown; (female) iris brown
or dark brown, legs pale brown, maxilla dark
brown, mandible flesh.

Taxonomy', for notes on the taxonomy of
specimens from the Eastern Ghats see Abdulali
(1982).

1167a. Malacocincla abbotti krishnarajui

Ripley and Beehler.

PENINSULAR ABBOTT’S BABBLER.

Specimens’. 2 males ( — ), Lankapakalu, 2,
3 March 1981; 1 male (t.s.e.), 4 females
(o.n.e.). Pedevalasa, 14. 15, 19 October 1983;
1 male (t.e.), Lankapakalu, 12 March 1985.

Measurements’, (male) wing 76.5, 80, cul-
men 21.5 (2), tail 48.5, 51 .5, weight 26, 27.5;
(female) wing 75, 77, 77.5, culmen 20.5, 21.5,
22, tail 44.5 (2), 46.5, weight 25.5, 26, 33.

Soft parts: (all) iris medium brown, legs
dusky flesh, maxilla black, mandible grey.

Notes’. Generic designation follows Ripley
& Beehler (1985b). This population has been
described as a distinct subspecies by Ripley
& Beehler (1985a). Discovered by KKR and
Salim Ali at Lankapakalu, subsequently netted
throughout the region in forest remnants. Birds
were netted in thick vegetation in nullahs.

1173. Pomatorhiiuts horsfieldi horsfieldi Sykes.

DECCAN SCIMITAR BABBLER.

Specimens’. 1 female (o.n.e.), Pedevalasa,
19 October 1983; 1 female (o.n.e.) Lamma-
‘inghi, 27 October 1983; 1 male (6x4 mm).

94

BIRDS OF THE VISAKHAPATNAM GHATS

Jyothimamidi, 22 February 1985; 1 female
(o,e.), Wangasara, 8 March 1985; 1 male
ft.s.c.), Lankapakalu, 15 March 1985.

Measurements : (male) wing 97, 99, culmen
32, 34.5, tail 91.5, 95, weight 40, 48; (female)
wing 93(2), 96, culmen 31, 32, 32.4. tail 86.5,

93.5, 95, weight 37.5, 40.4, 47.5.

Soft parts : (male) iris dark brown, legs

dark blue-grey, maxilla black basally, yellow
distally, mandible yellow; (female) iris dark
brown, legs greyish brown, bill blackish basally,
yellow distally.

1209. Stachyris rufifrons ambigua (Harington).

ASSAM REDFRONTED BABBLER.

Specimens : 2 males (t.e., t.n.e.). Jyothi-
mamidi, 27 February 1985; 1 male (t.n.e.),
1 female (o.n.e.), Wangasara, 6 March 1985.

Measurements : (male) wing 50.5, 52, 53.8,
culmen 13.8, 15(2), tail 41.5, 46.5(2), weight
8, 7.5, 9.5; (female) wing 55.5, culmen 13.5,
tail 49, weight 9. Mist-netted (unsexed) weight
10(4), 10.6.

Soft parts : (male) iris brownish red, dark
red, legs brownish dull yellow, maxilla black,
mandible mauvy-flesh; (female) iris dark red,
legs dull yellow, maxilla blue-grey, basally
dark pink, mandible blue-grey, basally pink.

Notes : At Wangasara the voice was record-
ed as : whoot — wi wi wi wi wi wi wi wi, soft
and mellow.

1222. Dumctia hyperythra hyperythra

(Franklin).

RUFOUSBELLIED BABBLER.

Specimens : 1 male (t.n.e.), Lammasinghi.
24 February 1981.

Measurements : wing 59, culmen 14.5, tail

60.5, weight 12. Mist-netted (unsexed) weight
12, 14.

Soft parts : iris brown, legs pinkish brown,
bill slaty.

Notes : A bird netted at Wangasara on 28
September 1983 had a brood patch.

1 228. Macronous gularis rubncapilia (Tickell).

YELLOWBREASTED BABBLER.

Specimens : 1 male (t.e.), Jyothimamidi, 23
February 1985; 1 female (o.n.e.), Wangasara,
5 March 1985; 1 male (t.s.e.), Lankapakalu,
12 March 1985.

Measurements', (male) wing 60, 60.5, cul-
men 15, 15.5. tail 49, 50. weight 11.6, 16.5;
(female) wing 57, culmen 14, tail 49, weight

10.5. Mist-netted (unsexed) weight 12.2, 13.5,

15.6.

Soft parts', (male) iris pale tan, legs greenish
brown or dusky yellow, bill pale blue-grey;
(female) iris pale tan, legs greenish horn, bill
blue-grey, maxilla darker.

1231. Chrysonime sinense sinense (Gmelin).

YELLOW-EYED BABBLER.

Specimens'. 1 unsexed, Bhadrachalam, 11
March 1975; 1 female (o.n.e.), Lammasinghi,
24 February 1981; 2 males (t.n.e.), Jyothi-
mamidi, 2 March 1985.

Measurements', (male) wing 66.5(2), cul-
men 15.5(2), tail 78, 89.5, weight 17, 19;
(female) wing 63.5, culmen 18.8, tail 75.5,
weight 18; (unsexed) wing 63, culmen 14.8,
tail 77.5.

Soft parts', (male) iris pale orange or pale
orange with an ochre inner ring, legs dusky
yellow or ochre, foot pads ochre, nails horn,
eye-lid pale orange, bill black; orbital skin
yellow; (female) iris yellow, legs brownish
yellow, eye-lid pink, bill black.

Notes: One of the males from Jyothimamidi
is very dusky ventrally, but otherwise identi-
cal to the others.

1262. Turdoides striatus orientalis (Jerdon).

PENINSULAR JUNGLE BABBLER.

Specimens: 1 male (t.e.), Dumuku village,
nr. Anantagiri, 23 March 1985.

Measurements’, wing 97.5. culmen 22.5,
tail 96.5, weight 67.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 85

Soft parts : iris yellow, legs soiled white, bill
whitish horn, tip shaded darker, gape lemon
yellow.

Taxonomy : The fact that our bird is un-
questionably orientalis is surprising, consider-
ing the distribution of the race orissae.

Notes : collected in open scrub: this is a
“plains” species that has made its way into
the man-created open habitats of the ghats.

1389. Alcippe poioicephala brucei Hume.

BOMBAY QUAKER BABBLER.

Specimens : 1 male (t.n.e.) Wangasara, 1
October 1983; 1 male (t.n.e.), 1 female (o.n.e.)
jyothimamidi, 27 February 1985.

Measurements', (male) wing 69, 72, culmen
16.5(2), tail 62, 62.8, weight — 16.5;

(female) wing 67.5, culmen 16, tail 64, weight
17. Mist -netted (unsexed) weight 17(4), 18(5),
19(17), 20(12). 22(1), 23(1), 24, 25, 26.

Soft parts : (all) legs brown, bill black,
tomia flesh; (male) iris grey, brownish grey;
(female) iris brownish grey.

Notes : The most common babbler in the
region, often seen in small parties.

1407. Muscicapa latirostris Raffles.

BROWN FLYCATCHER.

Specimens : 1 male (t.n.e.), Wangasara, 9
March 1985; 1 female (o.n.e.), Anantagiri, 22
March 1985.

Measurements : (male) wing 66, culmen

14.2, tail 45.5, weight 11; (female) wing 68,
culmen 13, tail 46.5, weight 10.

Soft parts : (male) iris dark brown, legs

black, maxilla blackish, mandible dull yellow
with a black tip; (female) iris dark brown,
legs brownish black, maxilla black, mandible
ivory with a black tip.

Notes : the female taken in late March had
a deposit of subcutaneous fat.

1408. Muscicapa miittui muttui (La yard).

BROWN BREASTED FLYCATCHER.

Specimens: 1 female (o.n.e.), Pedevalasa,

10 October 1983; 1 female (o.n.e.), Dumuku
village, nr. Anantagiri, 21 March 1985.

Measurements', (female) wing 70, 72, culmen
16, 17, tail 49(2), weight 12, — .

Soft parts: (female) iris dark brown, legs
pink, or brownish flesh, maxilla dark brown
with a pink tip, mandible flesh, tinged with
pale brown.

Notes: The Pedevalasa specimen was taken
in a patch of evergreen forest.

1412. Muscicapa parva albicilla(?) Pallas.

EASTERN REDBREASTED FLYCATCHER.

Specimens’. 1 female (o.n.e.), Anantagiri,
20 March 1985.

Measurements', wing 67, culmen 13.2, tail
45. weight 11.

Soft parts: iris dark brown, legs and bill
black.

Notes: By distribution should be albicilla.

1421-1422. Muscicapa superciliaris a e stigma
Gray/superciliaris Jerdon.

WHITEBROWED BLUE/LITTLE BLUE-AND-
WHITE FLYCATCHER.

Specimens’. 1 [male], Lammasinghi, 24
February 1981; 1 (unsexed), Jyothimamidi,
26 February 1985.

Measurements’, (male) wing 66, culmen 13,
tail 41.5, weight 7.5; (female) wing 62.5,
culmen 12.5, tail 44, weight 7.5.

Soft parts: (all) iris dark brown, legs and
bill black.

Taxonomy: Neither specimen shows white
in the tail; in addition, the white supercilium
is barely discernible.

1438. Muscicapa tickelliae tickelliae (Blyth).

TICKELL’S REDBREASTED BLUE FLY-
CATCHER.

Specimens: 1 [male] Wangasara, 25 Septem-
ber 1983; 1 [male] Pedevalasa, 19 October
1983; 1 male (t.n.e.) Lankapakalu, 23 October

96

BIRDS OF THE VISAKHAPA TN AM GHATS

1983; 3 males (t.n.e.), 1 female (o.n.e.) Jyothi-
mamidi, 21. 23 February 1985.

Measurements : (male) wing 72, 72.5, 76,

77.5, 78.5, culmen 14.5, 15, 15.8, 16, 16.4,
16.8, tail 54.5 (2), 59.5, 62, 62, weight 14.4,

14.5, 14.9(2), 15(2); (female) wing 71, cul-
men 14.8, tail 54.5, weight 15.

Soft parts : (all) iris dark brown, legs vina-
ceous flesh; bill black.

Notes : The presence of this species in the
Visakhapatnam Ghats stands as the most
curious phenomenon that we encountered in
our study. While we have too few data to
conclusively unravel the mystery, here we at-
tempt to interpret the facts we have at this
point. In 1930 the Vernay expedition surveyed
the Vizag Ghats and took no specimens of
M. ticket liae (they took no tickelliae north
of the Palkonda Hills) and yet collected a
series of 16 specimens of a very similar form
described as Muscicapa poliogenys ver-
nayi (type from Anantagiri). This was the
common form of this species-group on the
Vizag ghats when they surveyed.

In measurements, the two forms are not
separable, thus one must depend on plumage
coloration and sexual dimorphism to deter-
mine taxon. In tickelliae, the adult male is
entirely blue above, whereas in poliogenys ver-
nayi the male is basically grey-brown above
with blushes of blue on the rump and outer
webs of the rectrices. In the females, tickelliae
is virtually identical to the male poliogenys
vernayi, and the female of the latter is entirely
lacking in blue wash on any part of the
upperparts (virtually identical to either sex
of M. poliogenys poliogenys) .

The remarkable fact is that no subsequent
visitor to the Vizag Ghats has encountered
M. poliogenys vernayi. Abdulali observed and
identified only tickelliae. Price found one
species in his area, which he tentatively iden-

tified as vernayi (but which is obviously
tickelliae from his description). His confusion
is easy to understand based on the ambiguous
description in the Handbook of the amount
of blue on the adult male. We have borrowed
a series of poliogenys vernayi from the British
Museum, including male and female “co-types.”
These make positive identifications of our
material possible.

Our surveys recorded only tickelliae, which
we encountered wherever we went. Working at
Anantagiri, where the Vernay party collected
three individuals of poliogenys vernayi, in 1985
we encountered only tickelliae (specimens of
which we mist-netted and released).

We can offer two speculative explanations:
either (1) tickelliae populations have moved
northward through the ghats and displaced
poliogenys vernayi (which is now extinct or
else remains in remnant pockets further north).
Or (2) the population ‘ vernayi ’ was no more
than a hybrid population in a zone of overlap
between tickelliae and poliogenys. Genetic
swamping by tickelliae in the last fifty years
has nearly extinguished the remaining polio-
genys genes. This second explanation has a
major flaw but also has some support. The
flaw is: why don’t tickelliae and poliogenys
hybridize elsewhere where they overlap (e.g.
in the Northeast or Burma)? Support of the
latter hypothesis comes in the form of compa-
rison of study skins of the two species from
peninsular India. In the far South, tickelliae
is richer and brighter with deeper blue and
richer underoarts. The specimens we collected
of tickelliae in the Ghats are much paler than
many of these southern birds. Is this because
of introgression? Specimens of poliogenys col-
lected by the senior author from north of the
Mahanadi, in Orissa, in 1978, are identifiable
as poliogenys poliogenys (no trace of blue on
upperparts. male like female). We suggest it
is possible that the two species overlap in a

91

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

small zone between the Godavari and Maha-
nadi, and that since 1930, the influence of
tickelliae in this hybridization has become
dominant. More data are needed to test these
two hypotheses. Certainly, something unusual
is occurring with the population that occupies
the Vizag Ghats.

1440. Muscicapa rubeculoides rubeculoides

(Vigors).

BLUETHROATED FLYCATCHER
Specimens : 1 male (t.n.e.), Wangasara, 11
March 1985; 1 female (o.n.e.), Dumuku

village, nr. Anantagiri, 20 March 1985.

Measurements', (male) wing 68, culmen
damaged, tail 50.2, weight 14.5; (female)
wing 69, culmen 14, tail 51, weight 13.5.

Soft parts : (all) iris dark brown, bill black;
(male) legs black; (female) legs mauve
brown.

1445. Muscicapa thaiassina thalassina Swain-
son.

VERDITER FLYCATCHER.

Specimens : 1 female (o.n.e.), Jyothimamidi.
2 March 1985; 1 male (t.n.e.), Wangasara. 7
March 1985.

Measurements', (male) wing 80, culmen 13,
tail 66, weight 20.8; (female) wing 83.5,
culmen 12, tail 64, weight 19.5.

Soft parts : (all) iris dark brown, legs and
bill black.

Notes: the male had heavy fat deposition.

1448. Culicicapa ceylonensis calochrysea
Oberholser.

NORTHERN GREYHEADED FLYCATCHER.

Specimens: T female (o.n.e.). Jyothimamidi.
23 February 1985.

Measurements: wing 65.5, culmen 14, tail
51, weight 8. Mist-netted (unsexed) weight
7(2).

Soft parts: iris dark brown, legs yellowish

brown, maxilla brown, mandible pinkish flesh.

Notes: lores, eyebrow, and nape with white
spotting caused by partial albinism.

1451-1453. Rhipidura aureola.

WHITEBROWED FANTAIL FLYCATCHER.

Mist-netted in a teak plantation at Wanga-
sara, 3 October 1983.

Measurements: (unsexed) weight 10.6.

1459. Rhipidura albicollis vernayi (Blyth).

DANDAKARANYA WHITESPOTTED FANTAIL
FLYCATCHER.

Specimens: 2 males (t.e.), Wangasara, 10
March 1985.

Measurements: (male) wing 74, 76 culmen
14.6. 15. tail 88. 90.5. weight 7.5. 9.5.

Soft parts: (male) iris dark brown, legs

dark grey, black, bill black.

1461. Terpsiphone paradisi paradisi (Linnaeus).

PENINSULAR INDIAN PARADISE
FLYCATCHER.

Specimens: 2 males (t.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,
22. 25 February 1985.

Measurements: (male) wing 96. 96.5, cul-
men 22.5, 25.2, tail (outer) 109. 110, tail
streamers 285, 360, weight 15.5. 16.

Soft parts: iris dark brown, legs dark grey
or dark blue grey, eye-ring cobalt blue or blue,
bill dark blue-grey.

Notes: The male collected 22 February is
in rufous-backed plumage, while the other
shows the fully adult white-backed plumage.

1465. Hypothymis azurea styani (Hartlaub).

INDIAN BLACK N APED MONARCH
FLYCATCHER.

Specimens: 1 [female], Wangasara, 26 Sept-
ember, 1983; 1 ( — ). Pedevalasa, 17 October
1983; 1 [female], Jyothimamidi, 21 February
1985; 2 males (t.n.e.), 1 female (o.n.e.). Jyothi-
mamidi. 21, 24 February 1985.

98

BIRDS OF THE VISAKHAPATNAM GHATS

Measurements', (male) wing 72.5, 73, 73.5,
culmen 15, 16, 16.5, tail 68(2), 68.5. weight
9, 10.4, — ; (female) wing 68, culmen 15.5, tail
66, weight 8.5; (unsexed) wing 67, 72, culmen
14.8; 15.6, tail 64(2), weight 9.7. 10. Mist-
netted [male] weight 9.5, 10. 10.5(2), 11,
11.5(2), 12.5; [female] weight 9.9.7, 10. 10.2,
10.6.

Soft parts : (male) iris dark grey-brown, legs
and bill black; (female) iris brown, bill and
legs black; (unsexed) iris dark brown or very
dark brown, legs blue-grey.

1501. Prinia rufescens,

RUFOUS WREN -WARBLER.

Well observed in coffee plantation at Lanka-
pakalu on 24 October 1983.

1504. Prinia hodgsoni albogidaris Walden.

SOUTHERN ASHY-GREY WREN-WARBLER.

Specimens: 1 male (t.n.e.), Mileruleru, 28
February 1981.

Measurements : wing 48, culmen 11.5, tail
46.5. weight 5. Mist-netted (unsexed) weight 6.

Soft parts: iris dark brown, legs brown, bill
black.

1517. Prinia socialis socialis Sykes.

SOUTHERN ASHY WREN-WARBLER.

Specimens: 1 male ( — ), Upper Sileru. 19
March 1975; 1 male (t.n.e.). Lammasinghi. 24
March 1981.

Measurements: wing 49, 52. culmen 14, 15.5.
tail 55.5, 59. weight 6.8, — .

Soft parts: iris pale brown, legs pale brown,
bill black.

1521. Prinia syivatica sylvatica Jerdon.

PENINSULAR JUNGLE WREN-WARBLER.
Specimens: 1 female ( — ). Sapparla, 19

March 1975.

Measurements: wing 55. culmen 15.5, tail 63.
Taxonomy: does not appear to be referable

to mahendrae, as the back is plain brown,
without rufous.

1536. Orthotomus sutorius patia Hodgson.

BENGAL TAILOR BIRD.

Specimens: 1 male (t.n.e.), Wangasara, 4
March 1985.

Measurements: wing 50.5, culmen 15.5, tail
38, weight 8.25. Mist-netted (unsexed) weight
7. 7.5(2), 7.9, 8.8, 9(2), 9.4, 9.5,

Soft parts: iris dull brownish yellow, legs
pinkish fresh, maxilla dark brown, mandible
pinkish horn.

1556. Acrocephaius dumetorum Blyth.

BLYTH’S REED WARBLER.

Specimens: 1 male (t.n.e.). Lammasinghi,
25 February 1981, l male (t.n.e.), Wangasara,
6 March 1985, 1 female (o.n.e.) Lankapakalu,
15 March 1985.

Measurements: (male) wing 60, 64, culmen
18(2), tail 49, 50. weight 9, 10.5; (female)
wing 63, culmen 16.8, tail 48.

Soft parts: (male) iris earthy brown or dark
brown, legs dark olive brown or dull greenish
grey, maxilla dark olive brown or blackish
horn, mandible brown or yellowish brown;
(female) iris olive brown, legs pale greyish
brown, maxilla dark brown, mandible pale
flesh, mouth greyish yellow.

1563. Hippolais caligata rama (Sykes).

INDIAN BOOTED TREE WARBLER.

Specimens: 1 female (o.n.e.) KaUimedu,

Bhadrachalam. 1 1 March 1975.

Measurements: wing 61. culmen 15.5, tail
47.5, weight 8.

Soft parts: iris brown.

1603. Phylloscopus trochiloidcs ludlowi
Whistler.

BALTISTAN GREENISH LEAF WARBLER.

Specimens: 1 (unsexed), Pedevalasa, 16

October 1983, 2 females (o.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,

99

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

23, 26 February 1985; 2 males (t.n.e.), 1 (un-
sexed), Wangasara, 7, 10 March 1985.

Measurements : (male) wing 62, 65, culmen
12, 12.3, tail 47, 52, weight 7.5(2); (female)
wing 57, 58, culmen 12.5, 12.8, tail 42, 44.5,
weight 6.5, 7; (unsexed) wing 65, 67, culmen
14.9, — , tail 45, 46.5, weight 7.5, — .

Soft parts : (male) iris dark brown, legs

greyish brown or blackish brown, maxilla
brown, mandible dull yellow with a brown tip;
(female) iris dark brown, legs greenish grey
or brown, maxilla brown or black, mandible
dusky yellow or pale horn; (unsexed) wing
dark brown, legs greyish brown, maxilla
brown, mandible dull yellow with a brown tip.

Notes : Voice is a perky, disyllabic cheeyurl
or cheelipl reminiscent of call of the North
American Pine Siskin Carduelis pinus.

1606. Phylloscopus occipitalis occipitalis
(Blyth).

LARGE CROWNED LEAF WARBLER.

Specimens : ,2 males (t.n.e.), Jyothimamidi.
27 February 1985; 1 male (t.n.e.), Wangasara,
7 March 1985.

Measurements : (male) wing 61, 67. 71, cul-
men 10.8, 13.8, 14.8, tail 41.8, 47.5, 51.2.
weight 7.25, 8.25, 9.7.

Soft parts : iris brown or dark brown, legs
brown or corn yellow, maxilla dark olive
brown or dark brown, mandible brown.

1615. Seicercus burkii burkii (Burton).

EASTERN BLACKBROWED FLYCATCHER -
WARBLER.

Specimens : 1 male (t.n.e.) Raghavendra

Nagar, 1 March 1981; 1 male (t.n.e.) Wanga-
sara, 8 March 1985.

Measurements’, (male) wing 58. 63, culmen
11.8, 12.5, tail 41.8, 43.2, weight 7, 7.8.

Soft parts : iris dark brown or very dark
brown, legs pale brown or yellowish brown,
maxilla dark brown, with pale tomia and tip,
mandible flesh or dull pinkish ivory.

Taxonomy : underparts identical to burkii,
upperparts slightly more yellow-green, less olive.

1643. Erithacus calliope (Pallas).

RU BYTHROAT.

Specimens : 1 female (o.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,
1 March 1985; 1 female (o.n.e.), Wangasara,
8 March 1985.

Measurements', (female) wing 75.5, 76, cul-
men 16.5, 16.6, tail 55, 59.5, weight 18, 18.5.

Soft parts: (female) iris dark brown, legs
brown or dusky brown, bill black, base of
mandible grey or bill dark greyish brown,
basallv dull grey.

Taxonomy'. The Jyothimamidi specimen is
in plain plumage; that from Wangasara shows
a light wash of pink in the throat.

1650, 1651. Erithacus brunoeus (Hodgson).

INDIAN BLUE CHAT.

Specimens'. 3 males (t.n.e.), 1 immature
male, 1 [male], 1 female (ova tiny), 2 (un-
sexed), Pedevalasa, 15, 16, 17 October 1983;
1 male (t.n.e.), 1 immature male ( — ), 1
female (o.n.e.), Jyothimamidi, 24, 27 February
1985.

Measurements', (male) wing 74, 75.5(2),
76, 77.5, culmen 14.5, 14.8(2), 15, 16.2, tail
45.5. 46.5, 47(2), 49, weight 15.8, 16. 16.5,
18.5(2); (female) wing 72.5. 77, culmen 14.8.
16.8, tail 42.8, 44. weight 17(2); (unsexed)
wing 74(2), culmen 13.9, 14.8, tail 44.5, 45.
weight 13.2. 13.6; (immature male) wing 75.
75.4. culmen 15. 15.5, tail 43.5, 47.5, weight
14, 16.

Soft parts: (all) iris dark brown; (male)
legs plumbeous pink, bill dark vinaceous grey
or blackish brown; (female) legs pale brown,
maxilla blackish brown, mandible pale brown;
(immature male) legs pinkish flesh, bill pinkish
grey.

Notes : The large series in October and
February indicates the likelihood that there is
a wintering population in the Eastern Ghats.

100

BIRDS OF THE VISAKHAPATNAM GHATS

The birds showed no fat deposition. The
Vernay Expedition collected this species in
northern Andhra Pradesh and Orissa in late
March and April (latest 24 April). These latter
records showed fat depositions and apparently
were about to migrate.

The male shows an intermediate plumage,
presumably worn by the first-year birds. It is
dull slaty blue above, while the underparts are
like the female except they show more rich
buff-tan on breast and flanks; bill pinkish grey.

1661-1663. Copsychus saularis (Linnaeus).

MAGPIE-ROBIN.

Observed at Wangasara in October 1983 and
March 1985.

1667. Copsychus nialabaricus indicus (Baker).

INDIAN SHAMA.

Specimens : 2 males (t.n.e.), 1 female (o.n.e.),
Jyothimamidi, 22 February 1985.

Measurements', (male) wing 91, 98, culmen
19(2), tail 139, 154, weight 26.5, 29; (female)
wing 88, culmen 19, tail 112, weight 26. Mist-
netted weights [male] 30(2), 31.5. 32(2), 33.
35; [female] 25.5, 28.5, 29, 30.

Soft parts : (male) iris dark grey brown or
dark brown, legs flesh, bill black; (female) iris
dark brown, legs pinkish, bill black.

1701. Saxicola caprata burmanica Baker.

BURMESE PIED BUSH CHAT.

Specimens'. 1 [male], Lankapakalu. 17
March 1985.

Measurements', wing 72, culmen 15.5, tail
49. weight 15.5.

Soft parts', iris dark brown, legs and bill
black.

1723. Monticola cinclorhynchus (Vigors).

BLUEHEADED ROCK THRUSH.

Specimens: 1 male (t.n.e.), Lankapakalu, 1
male (t.n.e.); 1 female (o.n.e.), Anantagiri.
20 March 1984.

Measurements', (male) wing 104, 106, cul-
men 24.5(2), tail 66, 70.5, weight 35, 36.5;
(female) wing 108, culmen 24, tail 66.5, weight
39.

Soft parts', (male) iris dark grey-brown or
dark brown, legs brown, or anteriorly grey,
posteriorly, and pads yellow, maxilla black,
mandible distally black, base and tomia
yellowish brown; (female) iris dark brown,
legs brown, bill as in male.

Notes : The Anantagiri male showed large
fat deposits.

1728. Myiophoeius horsfieldi (Vigors).

MALABAR WHISTLING THRUSH.

Observed at Lankapakalu in 1983 by Salim
Ali and Shahid Ali. Observed below Dumuku
village, nr. Anantagiri, in 1985.

Notes’. Both observations were made of
birds in stream gorges.

1731. Zoofhera wardii (Blyth).

PIED GROUND THRUSH.

Specimens'. 1 male (t.n.e.). 1 female (ova
granular), Pedevalasa, 15. 17 October 1983.

Measurements’, (male) wing 120, culmen
26.5. tail 72, weight 69; (female) wing 110,
culmen 25.5, tail 68.5. weight 57.

Soft parts: (male) iris dark brown, legs and
bill yellow; (female) iris dark grey-brown, legs
dirty yellow and pink.

Notes: testes of the male were small and
black.

1734. Zoothera cifrina cyanotis (Jardine and

Selby).

WHITETHROATED GROUND THRUSH.

Specimens’. 1 female (o.n.e.). Wangasara.
24 .September 1983; 1 male (t.n.e.). Lanka-
pakalu, 22 October 1983; 1 male (t.n.e.), Lam-
masinghi. 26 October 1983; 2 males (t.n.e.),
Jyothimamidi, 23, 24 February 1985.

Measurements', (male) wing 105, 106.5,

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

107, 111, oilmen 23(2), 23.3, 24, tail 64(2),
67. 67.5, weight 35(2), 49, — ; (female) wing
109, oilmen 23, tail 72, weight 57. Mist-netted
(unsexed) weight 55(3), 57(2), 59(2), 60(3).

Soft parts : (male) iris dark brown or clay
brown, legs fleshy or fleshy brown, bill black;
(female) iris grev-brown.

1741-1744. Zoothera dauma (Latham).

SCALY THRUSH.

Observed at Pedevalasa on 19 October 1985.
The bird was observed on the ground in the
forest interior. Probably a winter migrant of
the nominate race.

1753. Turdus merula nigropileus (Lafresnaye).

BLACKCAPPED BLACKBIRD.

Specimens'. 1 (unsexed), Wangasara, 25
September 1983; 1 female (o.n.e.), Lamma-
singhi. 27 October 1985; 1 female (o.n.e.),
Jyothimamidi. 23 February 1985; 2 males
(t.n.e.), Wangasara, 9 March 1985.

Measurements', (male) wing 119, 124, oil-
men 26.5, 28, tail 87. 88.5. weight 71, 75;
(female) wing 116.5, 124. culmen 25. 26.5,
tail 79.5. 85.5, weight 66, 72; (unsexed) wing
115. culmen 24.5, tail 84.5, weight 80.

Soft parts', (all) iris dark brown, bill dusky
yellow; (male) bill orange with ivory tip, gape
yellow, eye-ring yellow; (female) bill dusky
orange or dusky yellow.

Taxonomy : Whistler and Kinnear named
the blackbirds from the Eastern Ghats spencei,
based on plumage characters. Comparison of
our series with topotypical nigropileus shows
there are no consistent mensural or plumage
characters to separate the two populations with
confidence. We suggest combining the form
spencei with nigropileus.

1763 Turdus ruficollis atrogularis Jarocki.

BLACKTHROATED THRUSH.

Specimens'. 1 female (o.e.), Dumuku village,
nr. Anantagiri. 20 March 1985.

Measurements', wing 120. culmen 23, tail

74.5, weight 72.

Soft parts: iris dark brown, legs brown, bill
warm brown, gape pale brown.

Notes: This is a first record for Andhra
Pradesh. The bird had large fat deposits.

1810. Pares xanthogenys aplonotus Blyth.

CENTRAL INDIAN YELLOWCHEEKED TIT.

Specimens: 2 male (t.n.e.). 1 female (o.n.e.),
Wangasara, 12 October 1983, 4, 7 March 1985.
Measurements: (male) wing 70. 74, culmen

12.5, 13, tail 50. 52. weight 14.8, 16.5;
(female) wing 70, culmen 13, tail 49, weight
16. Mist-netted weights [male] 16, [female] 15.5.
[unsexed] 14.4. 15, 15.5. 16(3), 16.3. 17.
17.5(2). 18.4. 19(4).

1831. Sitta castanea prateri Whistler and
Kinnear.

EASTERN GHATS CHESTNUTBELLIED NUT-
HATCH.

Specimens: 1 male (t.s.e.), Lammasinghi, 25
February 1981; 2 males (t.s.e., t.n.e.), I female
(o.e.), Wangasara, 5, 10 March 1985.
Measurements: (male) wing 80, 83(2), culmen
21, 22, 22.2. tail 35.5, 38, 41, weight 14, 14.5,
16.3; (female) wing 77, culmen 20.5, tail 38,
weight 12. Mist-netted (unsexed) weight 15.6,
15.8(2). 17, 17.5. 18.2.

Soft parts: (male) iris dark brown, legs

black, maxilla black, tomia basally grey, man-
dible black basally grey; (female) iris dark
brown, legs greyish brown, bill as for male.

1838. Sitta frontalis frontalis Swainson.

VELVETFRONTED NUTHATCH.

Specimens: 1 female (o.n.e.), Lankapakalu.
20 October 1983; 1 male (testis 2x1 mm).
Wangasara, 25 September 1983.

Measurements: (male) wing 75.5, culmen
15, tail 41. weight 13; (female) wing 75, cul-

BIRDS OF THE VIS AKHAPATN AM GHATS

men 15, tail 42, weight 13.4. Mist-netted (un-
sexed) weight 13(2), 13.1, 13.4.

Soft parts : (all) iris yellow; (female) legs
brown, bill orange-red.

1874. Motacilla indica Gmelin.

FOREST WAGTAIL.

A single specimen was mist-netted at Wan-
gasara on 26 September 1983.

Measurements', (unsexed) weight 18.3,

1884. Motacilla cinerea Tunstall.

GREY WAGTAIL.

Mist-netted at Wangasara, 24 September
1983.

Measurements', (unsexed) weight 15 g.
1892-1894. Dicaeuin agile agile (Tickell).

INDIAN THICKBILLED FLOWERPECKER.

Specimens'. 1 male (t.e.), Lammasinghi, 24
February 1981; 1 female (o.n.e.), Wangasara,
8 March 1985.

Measurements: (male) wing 61.5, culmen
9, tail 24, weight 9.5; (female) wing 57, cul-
men 9.6, tail 25, weight 8.5.

Soft parts: (all) iris orange-red, legs black;
(male) bill dark grey; (female) maxilla black,
mandible grey.

Notes: The Lammasinghi bird had 5 seeds
in the gut. We observed a male feeding in
Loranthus. At one point, while perched parallel
to the branch and facing the trunk, this bird
squatted and passed a seed from which most
of the fruit pericarp had been abraded. This
seed, along with an attached string of mucous,
was deposited onto the branch, and a ribbon
of the gluey substance was spread with the
bird twitching its tail in a sort of brush-work
motion. Past studies show that the mucous
dries quickly around the seed, attaching it
firmly onto the branch, where it can germi-
nate. This process helps to spread the parasitic
plant over the host tree, quite often a peepul
or banyan (Ficus sp.). Whether the organic

material (mucous) contains nutrients as well
as an adhesive substance is unknown.

1 899. Dicaeuin erytSirorhyndios erythrorhyn-
cfoos (Latham).

TICK ELL’S FLOWERPECKER.

Specimens: 1 male (t.s.e.), Lammasinghi, 24
February 1981: 2 males (t.e.), Wangasara, 9.
10 March 1985.

Measurements: (male) wing 45, 49, 50,

culmen 10, 10.4, 10.5, tail 20, 24, 24.5, weight
5. 6.3, 6.5.

Soft parts: (male) iris dark brown, legs

slaty or dark grey, maxilla (a) dark brown,
tomia flesh, (b) dark flesh, (c) horn, mandible
(a-b) flesh, (c) greyish flesh.

Notes: voice is a single jjjt note in flight.

1906. Anthreptes singalensis (Gmelin).

RUBYCHEEK.

A single adult male was observed twice (by
BB) in a nullah foraging flock at Pedevalasa,
18 October 1983.

Notes: The adult male was observed in the
canopy; it called incessantly, giving a sweet
high note every 1-2 seconds. The bird was
easy to locate because of its vocalizations.

1907. Nectarinia zeylonica sola (Vieiilot).

INDIAN PURPLERUMPED SUNBIRD.

Specimens: 1 male (t.e.). Wangasara. 4

March 1985.

Measurements : wing 56. culmen 18.3, tail
32, weight 7.5. Mist-netted [male] weight 7.5,
[female] weight 8.5.

Soft parts: (male) iris red. legs and bill

black.

1917. Nectarinia asiatica asiatfca (Latham).

INDIAN PURPLE SUNBIRD.

Specimens : 1 male (t.e. ) , Jyothimamidi, 24
February 1985; 1 female (o.s.e.), Wangasara,
4 March 1985; 1 male (t.e.), Dumuku village,
nr. Anantagiri, 19 March 1985.

103

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Measurements', (male) wing 53.5, 55, oil-
men 20. 20.5, tail 31.5. 33, weight 7, 8.5;
(female) wing 53.5, culmen 18, tail 28.7,
weight 7.5.

Soft parts : (all) legs and bill black; (male)
iris dark brown; (female) iris clay-coloured.

1927. Aethopyga siparaja (Raffles).

INDIAN YELLOWBACK ED SUNBIRD.

Observed at Jyothimamidi in February 1985.
and at Lankapakalu in March 1985.

1931. Arachnothera longirostris longirostris

(Latham).

LITTLE SPIDERHUNTER.

Specimens: 1 female (o.n.e.) Raghavendra
Nagar. 1 March 1981; 1 male (t.n.e.), 1 (un-
sexed), Pedevalasa, 15, 17 October 1983; I
male (t.s.e.), Jyothimamidi. 22 February 1985.

Measurements', (male) wing 67, 69.5, cul-
men 34.8, 34.9, tail 39.5. 42.5, weight 11.8,
13.1; (female) wing 63, culmen 32.2, tail 34,
weight 8; (unsexed) wing 60.5. culmen 32.3.
tail 37.5, weight 10.9.

Soft parts : (all) iris dark brown, bill black;
(male) legs blue-grey, (female) legs grey-black.

1934. Zosterops palpebrosa salimalii Whistler.

ANDHRA WHITE-EYE.

Specimens: 1 male (t.e.), Raghavendra

Nagar. 1 March 1981; 1 male (t.e.), Jyothi-
mamidi, 1 March 1985; 1 male (t.s.e.), Wanga-
sara, 7 March 1985.

Measurements', (male) wing 56, 57(2).
culmen 12.8, 12.9. 13, tail 36.8. 38.7. 40.
weight 7.5(2). 8. Mist-netted (unsexed) 6(2),
9. 9.5(2), 9.2. 8.4.

Soft parts', (male) iris dark brown, dull
ochre, legs black or slaty grey, pads of feet
grey, bill black basally grey or entirely black.

Taxonomy : All three specimens show the
faint yellow midline stripe on the belly.

1938. Passer domesticus indicus Jardine &
Selby.

INDIAN HOUSE SPARROW.

Specimens'. 2 males (t.e.), Lammasinghi. 6
March 1985.

Measurements', wing 73.5, 76.5, culmen

13.2, 13.4, tail 50.5, 52.5, weight 22.5, 23.5.
Soft parts: iris dark brown, legs dusky flesh,

bill black.

Notes: This species has apparently lived
side-by-side with P. montanus at Lammasinghi,
and now seems to have displaced the less
common congener. In our search for montanus
at Lammasinghi in March 1985 we found none.

1942. Passer montanus malaccensis Dubois.

MALAY TREE SPARROW.

Specimens: 1 male (t.s.e.), Lammasinghi,

29 March 1972.

Measurements: wing 68, culmen 12.5, tail

47.2, weight 22.

Soft parts: iris dark hazel, legs pale flesh,
bill black.

Notes: The only records of this species from
the Peninsula are from Lammasinghi, Bussal-
kort, and Solabum (Price 1979). It is possible
that the small resident colony has died out.
as all subsequent observations have failed to
produce any positive sightings.

1948-1949. Petronia xanthocollis (Burton).

YELLOWTHROATED SPARROW.

Observed at Lammasinghi in February 1981
and Jyothimamidi in February 1985. Indivi-
duals were foraging at a flowering Simul tree.

1965. Estrilda formosa (Latham).

GREEN MUNIA.

1 [female], Sapparla, 19 March 1975.
Measurements: wing 47.5, culmen 10.5,

tail 33,5.

104

BIRDS OF THE VISAKHAPATNAM GHATS

1974-1975. Lonchura punctulata (Linnaeus).

SPOTTED MUNIA.

Mist-netted at Wangasara on 24 and 27 Sept-
ember 1983.

1968. Lonchura striata striata (Linnaeus).
SOUTHERN WHITEBACKED MUNIA.
Specimens : 1 male (t.n.e.), Wangasara, 12
October 1983; 1 male (t.n.e.), 1 (unsexed),
Dumuku village, nr. Anantagiri, 21 March 1985.

Measurements : (male) wing 52, 54, culmen
12, 12.2, tail 26, 32, weight 12(2); (unsexed)
wing 51.5, culmen 11.5, tail 31.5, weight 10.

Soft parts : (male) iris dark brown, legs

grey-blue, maxilla black, mandible blue-black,
eye-skin grey-blue.

1971, 1972. Lonchura kelaarti jerdoni (Hume).

JERDON’S RUFOUSBELLIF.D MUNIA.
Specimens : 1 female ( — ), Sapparla, 19

March 1975; 2 males (t.s.e.), Lankapakalu,
23, 24 October 1983.

Measurements : (male) wing 56.5, 57, cul-
men 13.2, 13.8, tail 37.2, 38, weight 13, 14;
(female) wing 58, culmen 13.2, tail 39.

Soft parts : (male) iris dark brown, legs

blue-grey, bill blue-grey.

2011. Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus (Blyth).

INDIAN ROSEFINCH.

Specimens: 1 female (o.n.e.), Wangasara,

Refer

Abdulali, H. (1945) : Birds of the Vizagapat-
nam District. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 45: 333-347.

(1949): Some peculiarities of avi-

faunal distribution in Peninsular India. Proc. Natl.
Inst. Sci. India 15: 387-393.

— — (1953): More about Vizagapatnam

birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51: 746-747.

(1971): A Catalogue of the birds

in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History
Society — 8. ibid. 68: 127-152.

(1972): A catalogue of the birds

8 March 1985; 2 males (t.n.e.), Lankapakalu,
17 March 1985.

Measurements : (male) wing 84.5, 90, cul-
men 12.8, 14, tail 52.5, 57.2, weight 17.5,
19.5; (female) wing 83.5, culmen 12.1, tail
55.5. weight 22.

Soft parts: (male) iris and legs dark brown,
bill dark brown, grey basally; (female) iris
brown, legs dark brown, maxilla brownish
horn, mandible pale brownish horn.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Department of Envi-
ronment, New Delhi, and the Department of
Forestry, Andhra Pradesh, for permission to
carry out this research. For financial support
of this research we thank the Smithsonian
Foreign Currency Program, administered by F.
Berkowitz. For facilitating the research program
in Andhra we thank: Ajaz Ahmed, T. Kalidas,
A. V. R. G. Krishna Murthy, V. Pushp Kumar,
U. Krishna Raju, V. Prasad Reddy, and V.
Ramlingam. For assistance organizing and
carrying out the fieldwork we thank K. R.
Subramaniam, P. R. Mehendiratta, S. S. Saha,
C. K. Misra, P. B. Shekar, Shahid Ali, and M.
L. Ripley.

EN CES

in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History
Society — 11. ibid. 69: 101-129.

(1980) : On the validity of Dendro-

citta formosae sarkari Kinnear and Whistler, ibid.
77: 142-143.

(1982) : A Catalogue of the birds

in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History
Society — 24. ibid. 79: 135-151.

& Hussain, S. (1973) : On the

occurrence of Goldenbacked Three toed Woodpecker
[Dinopium shorii (Vigors)] south of the Himalayan
range, ibid. 70: 200-201.

105

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

All Salim (1969): Birds of Kerala. Oxford

University Press, Madras.

Cracraft, J. (1982) : Geographic differentiation,
cladistics, and vicariance biogeography: reconstruct-
ing the tempo and mode of evolution. Amer. Zoo I.
22: 411-424.

Hgra, S. L. (1949): Satpura hypothesis of the
distribution of the Malayan fauna and flora to penin-
sular India. Proc. Noll. Inst. Sci. India 15 : 309-314.

Krishna Raju, K. S. R. & Price, T. D. (1973):
Tree Sparrow. Passer montanus (L.) in the Eastern
Ghats. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 557.

& Selven, J. P. (1971): Little

Spiderhunter, Arachnothera longirostris (Latham)
in the Eastern Ghats, ibid. 68: 454.

Mani, M. S. (1974) : Ecology and Biogeography
in India. W. Junk. B.V., the Hague.

Mees, G. (1985): Caprimufgus macrurus Hors-
field and related forms, a re-evaluation (Aves,
Caprimulgidae) . Proc. Konin. Nederl. Akad.
Wetensch. Ser. C, 88: 419-428.

Price, T. D. (1979): The seasonality and occur-
rence of birds in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pra-
desh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76 : 379-422.

Prakash, U. (1972): Paleoenvironmental analysis

of Indian Tertiary floras. Geophytology 2: 178-205.

Randhawa, M. S. (1945) : Progressive desicca-
tion of northern India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 45 :
558-565.

Ripley, S. D. (1949) : Avian relicts and double
invasions in peninsular India and Ceylon. Evolu-
tion 3: 150-159.

(1980): Avian relicts of Sri Lanka.

Spolia zeylanica 35: 197-202.

— (1982): Synopsis of the Birds of

India and Pakistan. Second Edition. Bombay Natu-
ral History Society.

& Beehler, B. (1985a): A new

subspecies of the babbler Malacocincla abbotti from
the Eastern Ghats, India. Bull. Brit. Orn. Cl. 105:
66-67.

(1985b): A revi-
sion of the babbler genus Trichastoma and its allies
(Aves: Timaliinae). Ibis 127: 495-509.

( 1 987) : New

evidence for sympatry in the sibling species Capri-
mulgus atripennis Jerdon and C. macrurus Horsfield.
Bull. Brit. Orn. Cl. 107: 47-50.

Whistler, H. & Kinnear, N. B. (1930-1939):
The Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats.
In 16 parts. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Vols. 34-39.

appendix

Our accounts treated only birds recorded by our
survey parties. The following list includes those
species not recorded by us but noted in the region
by either the Vernay group, Abdulali. or Price.
Together with our species accounts, this represents
a total of 216 species recorded, to date, from the
Visakhapatnam Ghats (which we have delineated
to include the entire contiguous uplifted region
north of the Godavari and south of the Mahanadi).

Little Egret Egretta garzetta. Price: Thajangi Re-
servoir.

Pond Heron Ardeola grayii. Vernay: Anantagiri;
Price : Lammasinghi.

Whitenecked Stork Ciconia episcopus. Abdulali:
Koraput, Jeypore.

Blacknecked Stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus. Price:
Lammasinghi.

White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle Butastur teesa. Abdulali:
Lammasinghi.

Changeable Hawk-Eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus. Abdul-
ali : near Araku.

Indian Whitebacked Vulture Gyps bengalensis.
Abdulali: Lammasinghi.

Black Vulture Sarcogyps calvus. Vernay: Sankra-
metta.

Pied Harrier Circus melanoleucos. Vernay: Jeypore.

Pale Harrier Circus macrourus. Vernay: Jeypore.

Painted Partridge Francolinus pictus. Abdulali:
Chintapalli.

Painted Bush Quail Perdicula erythrorhyncha. Price:
Lammasinghi.

Common Bustard-Quail Turnix suscitator. Price:
Lammasinghi.

Redwattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus. Abdulali,
Price : Lammasinghi.

Woodcock Scolopax rusticolus. Abdulali: Solabum,
Paderu.

Fantail Snipe Gallinago gallinago. Abdulali: near
Koraput.

Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola. Price: Thajangi
Reservoir.

Painted Snipe Rostratula benghalensis: Price: Tha-
jangi Reservoir.

106

BIRDS OF THE V1SAKHAPATNAM GHATS

Indian Cuckoo Cuculus micropterus. Abdulali :
Anantagiri, Lammasinghi; Price: Lammasinghi.

Small Cuckoo Cuculus poliocephalus. Price : Lamma-
singhi.

Rufousbellied Plaintive Cuckoo Cuculus merulinus.
Abdulali: Anantagiri. Lammasinghi; Price: Lam-
masinghi.

The Cuckoo Cuculus canorus. Vernay: Sankrametta.

Whitebreasted Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis. Price:
Lammasinghi.

Chestnutheaded Bee-eater Merops leschenaultii. Price:
Lammasinghi.

Green Bee-eater Merops orientalis. Abdulali: Chin-
tapalli, Price: Lammasinghi.

Wryneck Jynx torquilla. Abdulali: Chintapalli; Price:
Lammasinghi.

Swallow Hlrundo rustica. Price: Thajangi Reservoir.

Wiretailed Swallow Hlrundo smithii. Price: Thajangi
Reservoir.

Baybacked Shrike Lanius vittatus. Vernay: Sankra-
metta; Abdulali : Sankrametta. Lammasinghi; Price :
Lammasinghi.

Black Drongo Dicrurus adsimilis. Abdulali and
Price : Lammasinghi.

Brahminy Myna Sturnus pagodarum. Abdulali: Lam-
masinghi, Anantagiri; Price: Lammasinghi.

Pied Myna Sturnus contra. Price: Lammasinghi.

Indian Tree Pie Dendrocitta vagabunda. Vernay:
Anantagiri, Sankrametta; Abdulali: Lammasinghi.

Jerdon's Leaf Bird Chloropsis cochinchinensis. Ver-
nay: Jeypore; Abdulali: Anantagiri.

Brook’s Flycatcher Muscicapa poliogenys. Vernay:
Anantagiri, Sankrametta.

Grasshopper Warbler Locustella naevia. Price:
Lammasinghi.

Lesser Whitethroat Sylvia curruca. Vernay: Ananta-
giri.

Streaked Fantail Warbler Cicticola juncidis. Price:
Chintapalli.

Thickbilled Warbler Acrocephalus aedon. Vernay:
Jeypore; Price: Lammasinghi.

Palefooted Bush Warbler Cettia pallidipes. Vernay :
Sankrametta.

Plain Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus inornatus. Vernay:
Sankrametta, Anantagiri, Price: Lammasinghi.
Largebilled Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus magnirostris.
Price : Lammasinghi.

Tickell’s Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus affinis. Vernay:
Anantagiri; Price: Lammasinghi.

Bluethroat Erithacus svecicus. Price: Lammasinghi.
Stone Chat Saxicola torquata. Price: Lammasinghi.
Indian Robin Saxicoloides fulicata. Vernay: Sankra-
metta; Abdulali and Price: Lammasinghi.

Blue Rock Thrush Monticola solitarius. Price: Lam-
masighi.

Tickell’s Thrush T urdus unicolor. Vernay: Ananta-
giri; Price: Lammasinghi.

Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis. Vernay: Anantagiri.

Sankrametta; Abdulali: Chintapalli.

Paddyfield Pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae. Vernay:
Jeypore; Abdulali: Lammasinghi; Price: Chinta-
palli.

Pied Wagtail Motacilla alba. Abdulali: near Koraput;

Price : Thajangi Reservoir.

Large Pied Wagtail Motacilla maderaspatensis.

Abdulali: near Koraput; Price: Thajangi Reservoir.
Baya Ploceus philippinus. Abdulali: Chintapalli;

Price : Lammasinghi.

107

TENDENCIES IN NORTH-SOUTH PREFERENCES IN
THE ORIENTATION OF SILKWORM1

M. V. V. SUBRAHMANYAM AND P. M. CHANDRASEKHAR2

The larvae of Bombyx mori in a four way choice box execute their magnetic
compass heading to spin cocoons and their proportion of movement from east-west
axis is equal to either direction of south-north. Additional magnetic field elicited a
behaviour in which the larvae totally lost the sense of direction. However, the
magnetic influences were not observed on the quantity of silk spun.

I N TROD U CTIO N

Animals rely on many sensory cues to orient
their movements (Carthy 1951, Edrich 1977,
MacGregor 1948, Van Frisch 1950). The
magnetic field perception was first observ-
ed in birds (Griffin 1944) and it exists in
lower organisms also (Brown 1962, Palmer
1963). Drosophila prefer to fly within a mag-
netic field (Wehner and Labhart 1970) and
the bees construct their hives depending on
geomagnetism (Jong 1980, Martin and Lindauer
1973). Geomagnetism is also pronounced in
higher vertebrates and used commonly in
homing behaviour (Keeton 1971, Philips and
Alder 1978, Yeagley 1947, 1951). Recent
studies emphasize the possibility of magnetic
materials in animals (Presti and Pettigrew
1980), and the view on “personal magnetism”
was expressed from bacteria to man (Maugh
1982).

The present study was designed to investi-
gate geomagnetic influences on the orientation
of silkworm in cocoon formation and also the
influence of additional magnetic field (AMF)
on the orientation of a spinning larva.

Material and Methods

Larvae of silkworm Bombyx mori NB1S

1 Accepted May 1984.

2 Department of Sericulture, Bangalore University,
Jnana Bharathi, Bangalore 560 056, India.

reared in the laboratory were maintained on
mulberry leaves. Healthy fifth instar larvae
attaining spinning stages were selected for
experimentation. Wooden boxes with four arms,
each arm measuring 7.6x3.8x10 cm. were
placed with arms facing south, north, east and
west directions. The arms were orientated on
a flat working table to a desired direction
using a compass. One spinning larva was in-
troduced into the centre of the four way choice
box.

The box was covered with a transparent
cellophane paper to prevent crawling of worms
out of the walls of the arms. The box was
placed under diffused light for spinning in an
undisturbed area.

Induction of magnetic field : Two circular
(Helmholtz) coils with 28 cm diameter and
a winding length of 80 cm, were used for ex-
periments and the distance between the two
coils was 10 cm. Each coil consisted of 1500
turns, which were wound uniformly on an
aluminium frame. At a 12 input DC voltage,
the current in each Helmholtz coil measured
0.5A, resulting in creating an additional magne-
tic field 11.8 EL The dissipated power caused no
significant rise in temperature to injure the
spinning larvae.

Statistical analysis : A Chi-square test was
employed to relate the proportion of cocoons
spun in the arms facing different directions.
Analysis of variance for the differences in

108

ORIENTATION OF SILKWORM

cocoon weights and correlation regressions
were fitted for the relation between weight -
length, length-width and width-weight. Statis-
tical analysis was carried out using DCM
microsystem 1211.

Results

When a healthy and fully matured fifth
instar larva is inserted at the centre of the
four-way choice box, the larva wanders and
finally migrates to one of the arms and settles
there for spinning. Under normal geomagnetic
conditions, the direction of migration and
orientation seems to be polarized (Table 1).
A significant majority of the larvae chose to
move to the arms facing north-south axis.
When the natural geomagnetic field is can-
celled or nullified by the application of elec-
tromagnetic field, the north-south axial
migration of the larvae is disturbed and the
larvae settle haphazardly in the four arms of
the choice box (Table 1).

Table 1

Directional preference by the silkworm larva

INSERTED IN A FOUR-WAY CHOICE

BOX

Larval orientation

X2 value Condition of

with respect to

the electro-

magnet

South (90), North (86)
East (52) and West (56)

16.507*

Off

South-east (29) and
South-west (26)

0.666

Off

North-east (27) and
North-west (19

4.333

Off

South (49), North (50)
East (48) and West (49)

0.650

On

South-east (23) and
South-west (24)

0.166

On

North-east (27) and
North-west (25)

* highly significant.

0.133

On

Figures in parentheses refer

to number

of larvae

settled in each arm.

When the box is rotated so that the arms
face the intermediate directions like south
cast-south west and north east-north west axis
and the larvae are inserted at the centre of
the box, the migration and orientation of the
larvae becomes jumbled up, and no signifi-
cant change in their orientation for spinning
resulted (Table 1). The electromagnetic field
has not altered this behaviour.

Concentration of the larvae in south-north
axis of the choice box could be a result of
some sort of taxis. The worms prior to cocoon
spinning exhibit a characteristic exploratory
behaviour in the four-way choice box before
they actually settle down for spinning. The
navigation of an individual larva in the centre
of the choice box to north-south axis is in-
teresting. The larva makes a search, raises its
head and rotates itself until it finds the north-
south direction. If the larva is left at the mouth
of north or south arm, it slowly moves on to
find a congenial place in the arm for spinning.
If it is left near the mouth of west or east arm,
it shows exploratory behaviour and spends a
Jong time crawling. Most of such larvae find
the north or south arms when they crawl to
the centre of the box. While the behaviour
being so in confined larvae, the majority of the
unconfined larvae orient their cocoons with the
long axis parallel to the north-south axis.

Qualitative parameters like weight, width
and length of cocoons showed some degree of
dependency on the directional preference
(Tables 2 and 3). Weight and width characte-
ristics of cocoons in north arm yielded greater
correlation coefficients (r) (Table 3) and the
fact obviously shows that the cocoons spun in
the arm pointing north-south axis are of good
quality.

Discussion

Living organisms are sensitive to fluctuations
in geomagnetic fields (Brown 1959, Brown et

109

8

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

al 1960a, Brown 1962, Keeton et al. 1974).
The present findings of silkworm movements
in a choice chamber indicate that the larvae
exhibit geomagnetic orientation during spin-
ning, and the results are similar to those
observed in snails and birds (Brown et al.
1960b, Visalberghi and Alieva 1979). Bombyx
mori larvae placed at the centre of the four-
way choice box prefer north-south arms to
spin their cocoons. This orientation is a result
of an exploratory behaviour of the confined
larvae. Raising its head, the confined larva
rotates itself to find its way into north-south
axis. The unconfined larvae orient their cocoons
to lie with their long axis parallel to north -
south axis.

Table 2

Length, width and weight of cocoons spun in

THE ARMS OF THE FOUR-WAY CHOICE BOX

Arm

Weight*

Length*

Width*

g

cm

cm

South

208.78±28.36

3.3 ±0.18

1 .79±0. 24

North

196. 72;+: 18. 51

3.28±0. 17

1 .77±0. 12

East

193. 11 ±14.49

3.26±0. 15

1 79±0. 13

West

200. 39± 17.77

3.41 ±0. 17

1 . 83±0. 16

* mean

± SD of 18 observations.

Table 3

Correlation regression

BETWEEN WEIGHT, WIDTH

AND LENGTH OF COCOONS

SPUN IN THE

ARMS OF THE

four- Way choice box

(BASED ON THE RAW DATA

OF table 2)

r values

Direction Weight /

Weight/

Length/

Length

Width

Width

South

0.284

0.658*

0.374

North

0.511*

0.690*

0.336

East

0.427

0.647*

0.070

West

0.638*

0.585*

0.508*

* Significant at 5%.

The mechanisms by which the larvae end
up in the north-south arms of the choice box
must be sought in the occurrence of sensory
cues delivered by special sense organs situated
in the head region. It is usually the dip vector
of the earth’s field that animals use and pro-
bably in the present instance also, the larvae
use the same vector to make their choice when
they are inserted at the centre of the box.
The dip at Bangalore is 13°, with horizontal
component being 0.38H and vertical compo-
nent of 0.088. The abolition of north-south
axial migration of the larvae in the additional
magnetic field (AMF) further confirms the
fact that the larvae are sensitive to the earth’s
field. Hornet nest pattern (Kisliuk and Ishay
1978) and bee comb building (Martin and
Lindauer 1977) are known to be altered by
induced magnetic field. North-south seeking
magnetotactic response observed in the silk-
worm could be an orthokinesis. For all such
magnetotactic responses the magnetosomes
situated in the head region of the larvae might
be responsible (Maugh 1982). Although the
silkworm is totally domesticated now, it is
interesting to note the persistence of ortho-
kinetic responses not influenced by domesti-
cation.

The impact of geomagnetic responses in the
larvae not only orient the worm to start spin-
ning but also influence the quality of cocoon,
adjudged by the cocoons spun by worms
oriented north-south axis of the choice box.

Acknowledgements

We thank Prof. B. N. Chowdaiah for en-
couragement and facilities throughout the
course of the work and Dr. R. V. Krishna-
moorthy for his comments on the manuscript.
This work was conducted under Research and
Development Programme in Sericulture sup-
ported by World Bank.

110

ORIENTATION OF SILKWORM

References

Brown, F. A. jr. (1959) : The rhythmic nature
of animals and plants. Ame. Sci. 47 : 147-168.

Brown, F. A. jr., Brett, W. J., Bennett, M. F.
& Barnwell, F. H. (1960a) : Magnetic response of
an organism and its solar relationships. Biol. Bull.
118: 367-381.

Brown, F. A. jr., Bennett, M. F. & Webb, H. M.
(1960b) : A magnetic compass responses of an orga-
nism. Biol. Bull. 119: 65-74.

Brown, F. R. (1962) : Response of the planarian
Dugesia, and protozoan Paramecium, to very weak
horizontal magnetic fields. Biol. Bull. 123 : 264-281.

Carthy, J. D. (1951): Orientation of two allied
species of British ant. (1) Visual direction finding
in Acanthomyops (Losius) niger. Behaviour 3: 275-
303.

Edrich, W. (1977): Interaction of light and

gravity in the orientation of waggle dance of honey
bee. Ani. Behav. 25: 342-363.

Frisch, K. Van (1950): Bees: Their chemical
senses, vision and language. Cornell University Press,
Ithaca.

Griffin, D. R. (1944) : The sensory basis of bird
navigation. Quart. Rev. Biol. 19: 15-31.

Jong, D. D. (1980) : Orientation of comb build-
ing by honeybees. Comp. Physiol. 147: 495-501.

Keeton, W. T. (1971): Magnets interfere with
pigeon homing. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 68:
102-106.

Keeton, W. T., Larkin, T. S. & Windsor, S. M.
(1974): Normal fluctuations in the earth’s magnetic
field influence pigeon orientation. Comp. Physiol. 95:
95-103.

Kisliuk, M. & Ishay, J. (1978): Hornet build-
ing orientation in additional magnetic fields. In :

COSPAR volume “Life Science and Space Research
XVI”, Pergamon Press, Oxford.

MacGregor, E. G. (1948): Odour as a basis for
oriented movements in ants. Behaviour 1 : 267-296.

Martin, H. & Lindauer, M. (1973): Orientierung
im Erdmagnetfeld. Fortschr. Zool. 21: 211-228.

(1977): The effect

of the earth’s magnetic field on gravity orientation in
the honey bee ( Apis mellifica). Comp. Physiol. 122:
145-187.

Maugh II, T. H. (1982) : Magnetic navigation an
attractive possibility. Science 215 : 1492-1493.

Palmer, J. D. (1963) : Organismic spatial orienta-
tion in very weak magnetic field. Nature 198: 1061-
1062.

Philips, J. B. & Alder, K. (1978): Directional
and discriminatory responses of salamanders to weak
magnetic fields. In : Animal migration, navigation
and homing (ed. by K. Schmidt-koenig and W. T.
Keeton, Springer-Verlag, New Work).

Presti, D. & Pettigrew, J. D. (1980) : Ferro-
magnetic coupling to muscle receptors as a basis
for geomagnetic field sensitivity in animals. Nature
285 : 99-101.

Visalberghi, E. & Alleva, E. (1979) : Magnetic
influences on pigeon homing. Biol. Bull. 156: 246-
256.

Wehner, R. & Labhart, T. (1970) : Perception of
the geomagnetic field in the fly Drosophila melano-
gaster. Experientia 26 : 967-968.

Yeagley, H. L. (1947): A preliminary study of
a physical basis of bird navigation. App. Phys. 18:
1035-1063.

(1951): A preliminary study

of a physical basis of bird navitation. Part II. App.
Phys. 22: 746-760.

Ill

CLADOCERA OF DHARWAD (KARNATAKA STATE)1

C. S. Patil and B. Y. Gouder2
( With seven plates)

A total of 22 species of freshwater Cladocera from Dharwad area, Karnataka
State have been identified and described. Of these, 17 species are hitherto not
recorded from South India and a species, Guernella raphaelis Richard is new to the
Indian subcontinent. The distribution of individual species in the water bodies and
their total percentage occurrence have also been studied.

Introduction

This paper reports the results of an exten-
sive survey of cladocerans from Dharwad
(Karnataka State) in which 22 species belong-
ing to 17 genera and six families have been
recorded. Of these, 17 species are new to South
India and 1 species is new to the Indian sub-
continent. (Table 1).

Material and Methods

The collections of zooplankton were made
fortnightly for one year (January to December,
1979) by using plankton hand net made of
nylon bolting cloth (mesh size 50 ^m). Clado-
cera adhering to weeds were collected by
rinsing the weeds vigorously in a bucket and
sieving through bolting nylon. The material
was fixed and preserved in 4% formalin, in-
dividual species were sorted, their whole
mounts stained with borax carmine and mount-
ed in glycerine jelly. Parts of taxonomic impor-
tance were dissected and processed in a similar
manner. Camera lucida drawings were made
from the mounts of the entire body or their
parts. Identification up to species was based on
the key/description given by Brooks (1959).

1 Accepted May 1982.

2 Department of Zoology, Karnaitak University,
Dharwad-580 003.

Biswas (1971), Nayar (1971), Fernando (1974)
and Smirnov (1974. 1976).

Study area

Dharwad has a hilly terrain 784 m above
MSL. The maximum atmospheric temperature
is 36°C in April-May and the minimum is
14°C during December- January. The average
rainfall is 53 mm and the relative humidity
ranges from 43 to 80%.

The 26 water bodies surveyed included one
reservoir, 19 irrigation tanks, three ponds and
three temporary pools. The reservoir has been
recently constructed and is used for irrigation.
Its water is clear and has marginal aquatic
vegetation. Of the 19 tanks, three were with-
out aquatic vegetation and their water was
clear. Seven other tanks abound in rooted and
floating vegetation. The remaining nine tanks
show muddy brown water. The pond water was
muddy and showed scanty phytoplankton. The
temporary pools were highly turbid.

Taxonomic account
Family: Sididae

Diaphanosoina excisum Sars, 1885 (PI. I, Figs.

1-3)

Distinguished by its large head with rela-
tively small eyes, body brown to yellow. Num-

112

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85 Plate I

Patil & Gouder: Cladocera

1. Diaphanosoma excisum Sara, lateral view; 2. Postero-ventral part of the shell;
3. Postabdomen; 4. Latonopsis australis Sars; 5. L. australis, ventral view; 6. Post-
abdomen, lateral view; 7. Postabdomen, dorsal view; 8. Pseudosida bidentata Herrick;
9. Postabdomen; 10. Posterior part of the shell.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85 Plate II

PatiJ & Gouder: Cladocera

1. Daphnia carinata King; 2. Postabdomen; 3. Simocephalus exspinosus Koch;
4. Postabdomen, enlarged; 5. S. elisabathe King; 6. Head region enlarged; 7. Cerio -
daphnia cornuta Sars; 8. Postabdomen; 9. C. laticaudata Muller, Postabdomen.

J, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85
Pali! & Gouder: Cladocera

Plate III

1. Moina micrura dubia Kurz; 2. Postabdomen;, 3. Moinodaphnia macleayi King;
4. Postabdomen; 5&6. Bosminopsis dietersi Richard; 7. Antennules, ventral; 8. Post-
abdomen; 9. Macrothrix laticornis Fischer; 10. Antennule; 11. Postabdomen.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85
Patil & Gouder: Cladocera

Plate IV

1. Echinisca odiosa Gurney; 2. Antennule; 3. Postabdomen; 4. Machothrix geoldi
Richard; 5. Head region enlarged; 6. Antenna; 7. Part of the shell, dorsal;

8, Postabdomen,

CL A DOC ERA OF DHARWAD

Table 1

Cladgceran species composition and percent distribution in freshwater bodies of Dharwad

Cladoceran

species

Reservoir

(1)

Tanks
with
clear
water (3)

Tanks with
aquatic
vegetation
(7)

Tanks with
brown &
muddy
water (9)

Ponds

(3)

Tempo-

rary

Pools

(3)

Total No.
of water
bodies
showing
species

% distri-
bution of
species

1 . D. excisum

1

1

5

7

2

1

17

77.3

2. *L. australis

-

-

2

-

-

-

9

9.0

3 . *P. bidentata

-

-

2

-

-

-

2

9.0

4. D. carinata

-

-

-

1

2

2

5

22.7

5 . C. cornuta

-

1

3

5

1

12

54.5

6. *C. laticaudata

1

-

1

-

2

-

4

18.0

7 . *S. exspinosus

-

-

2

-

-

-

2

9.0

8. *S. elisabathe

-

-

2

- ,

-

-

2

9.0

9. *M. micrura dubia

-

-

l

-

1

-

2

9.0

10. *M. macleayi

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

4.5

11. *B. dietersi

1

-

-

-

-

-

1

4.5

12. M. laticornis

-

-

3

-

-

-

3

13.6

13. *M. geoldi

-

-

-2

-

-

-

2

9.0

14. *E. triserialis

-

-

3

-

-

-

3

13.6

15. *E. odiosa

-

-

2

-

-

-

2

9.0

16. **G. raphaelis

_

-

1

-

-

-

1

4.5

17. */. spinifer

-

-

2

-

-

2

9.0

18. *B. karua

-

-

2

-

-

-

2

9.0

19. *P. trigonellus

-

-

2

-

-

-

2

9.0

20. *C. reticulatus

1

1

3

1

1

-

7

29.7

21. *C. faviformis

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

4.5

22. *D. serrata

-

-

3

-

-

-

3

13.6

* New records to South Indian region.

** New record to Indian subcontinent.

ber of teeth on the postero-ventral shell margin
highly variable; sometimes the teeth look like
incisions.

Recorded earlier from India by Biswas
(1971), Nayar (1971) from Rajasthan, by
Michael (1973) from Tamil Nadu and Sharma
(1978) from Bengal.

Distribution : Common in tropics and sub-
tropics.

Latonopsis australis Sars (PI. I, Figs. 4-7)

Body large and slightly elliptical with a
thin shell. Head small with relatively large

eyes. Terminal part of the antennule with a
long flagellum and a set of setae. Ventral and
posterior margins of the shell valves serrated,
with long, unequal setae beset with fine bris-
tles. Three long setae on the posterior margin
of the valve. Postabdomen broad, anal spines
vary from 5-7.

Reported earlier by Biswas (1971) from
Rajasthan.

Distribution : Australia, Sri Lanka, India.

Pseudosida bidentata Herrick, 1884 (PI. I,

Figs. 8-10)

Body similar to that of Sida but head more

113

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

depressed. Rostrum present: fornix absent.
Postabdomen with 8-14 clusters of sp ini lies
with large basal spines.

Recorded from Northeast India (Michael
& Sharma, personal communication).

Distribution'. South Africa, Sri Lanka. India.
Family: Daphnidae

Daphnia carioata King, 1853 (PI. II, Figs. 1,2)
Body brown and transparent. Head crested
with a minute antennule. Postabdomen broad
with 10-12 anal spines. Numerous dots present
on the lateral side of the postabdomen.

Recorded earlier by Biswas (1964) from
Simla hills, Biswas (1971) from Rajasthan,
Michael (1973) from Tamil Nadu and Sharma
(1978) from Bengal.

Distribution : Tropics.

Simocephalus exspinosus (Koch. 1841) (PI. II,
Figs. 3,4)

Head small with round vortex. Posterior part
of body blunt. Ocellus rhomboidal in shape.
Postabdomen slightly narrow towards apex with
slightly curved spines. Claw long with pecten
at its base and with a row of teeth distal to
the pecten.

Recorded from Northeast India (Patil 1976),
Bengal (Sharma 1978).

Distribution : Cosmopolitan.

S. elisabathe (King, 1853) (PI. II. Figs. 5,6)
Similar to S. acutirostris Sars with crested
vortex, but differs in having a spiny protu-
berance at the posterior margin of the shell.
The shape of the posterior margin of the shell
is important in judging the validity of this
taxon and the protuberance is characteristic
of elisabathe.

Recorded by Biswas (1971) from Rajasthan.
India.

Distribution'. Europe, tropics and subtropics.

Ceriodaphnia cormita Sars, 1885 (PI. II, Figs.
7, 8)

Horn on head absent but a horn-like pro-
cess seen in front of the antennules.

Reported earlier from Lahore (Arora 1931),
Karnataka (Gouder & Joseph 1961), Rajas-
than (Biswas 1971, Nayar 1971), Tamil Nadu
(Michael 1973), Northeast India (Patil 1976).

Distribution : South America, Africa. Sri

Lanka and India.

C. laticaudata Muller, 1867 (PL II, Fig. 9)
Body oval with rounded vortex. Postabdo-
men large, dilated near the middle and oblique-
ly truncated.

Reported from Simla hills (Biswas 1964),
Rajasthan (Biswas 1971), Bengal (Sharma
1978) and from Jammu (Chowdhary et al
1978).

Distribution-. India, U.S.A., Sri Lanka.
Family: Moinidae

Moina micnira dubla Kurz (PL III, Figs. 3, 4)
Head large, with rounded vortex and a deep
cervical sinus. Supraocular depression absent
Postabdomen with 8-10 postanal spines with
terminal long bident. The claw bears minute
denticles.

Recorded from Rajasthan (Biswas 1971).
Bengal (Sharma 1978).

Distribution : India, Sri Lanka. Africa.

Moinodaphnia macieayi King. 1853 (PL III.
Figs. 1,2)

Characterized by tumid valves at the postero-
dorsal part. Sensory seta on the antennule is
towards the base. Postabdominal claw denti-
culate.

Sharma (1978) recorded it from Bengal.
Distribution'. India, Sri Lanka.

114

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 85
Patil & Gouder: CJadocera

Plate V

1&6. Echirtisca triserialis Brady; 2. Antennule; 3&7. Antenna; 4&8. Ventral
margin of the shell, enlarged; 5. Postabdomen.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85
Patil & Gouder: Cladocera

Plate VI

1. Guernella raphaelis Richard; 2. Antennule; 3. Po&tabdomen; 4. Postabdomen
dorsal; 5. llyocryptus spinifer Herrick; 6. Antennule; 7. Postabdomen; 8. Biapetura

karua King; 9. Postabdomen.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85

Patil & Gouder: Cladocera

1. Pleuroxus trigonellus Muller; 2. Postabdomen; 3. Chydorus reticulatus ( Jurine) ;
4. Postabdomen; 5. Dunhevidia serrata Daday.

CL A DOC ERA OF DHARWAD

Family: Bosminidae

Bosminopsis dietersi Richard, 1895 (PI. Ill,

Figs. 5-8)

Small, oval and transparent. Antennules unit-
ed at the base and diverted at apex. Two
spines on postero-dorsal and postero-ventral
part of shell in one form (Fig. 6). in another
form there is a single, small spine on postero-
ventral region (Fig. 5). Postabdomen tapers.

Recorded from Northeast India (Michael &
Sharma, personal communication).

Distribution : South and Central America,
Sri Lanka, India.

Family: Macrothricidae

Macrothrix Jaticornis Fischer, 1851 (PI. Ill,

Figs. 9-11)

Body rounded. Postcervical part of the dorsal
edge finely serrated. Antennule long, distally
broader with setiferous projections towards
posterior end. Anterior margin of antennule
with several fine incisions and a cluster of
hairs. Postabdomen bears numerous fine spines
with a small claw. Tufts of fine hairs along
flanks of postabdomen.

Recorded earlier from Pakistan by Arora
(1931) from Lahore, Chowdhary et ai (1978)
from Jammu.

Distribution : Cosmopolitan.

M. geoldi Richard, 1897 (PI. IV, Figs. 4-8)

Dorsal margin of shell deeply serrated.
Hexagonal markings compactly arranged on
surface of valves. Antennules bulge towards
apex and have 4-6 unequal setae and a small
spine on the postero-ventral region. Small
spines extend from the base of the antennule
towards the antero-ventral part of the shell
margin.

Recorded from India by Nayar (1971) from
Rajasthan, Sharma (1978) from West Bengal.

Distribution: Africa, Sri Lanka, India,

U.S.S.R,

Ecliinisca triseriaiis Brady, 1886 (PI. V, Fig. 1-8)
Highly variable but easily recognised by its
zig-zag, serrated margin on the ventral part of
the shell. Shell valves covered with loosely
arranged cells of irregular shape. A small point-
ed spinc-like projection on posterior part of
shell. In one form, there are clusters of spines
on the basal segment of the antenna (Fig. 3),
whereas in another form, groups of hair-like
bristles are noticed on each ramus in the an-
tenna and their joints (Fig. 7). Though there
is a marked difference in the presence of spines
and hair-like bristles on the antenna, both are
considered as E. triseriaiis Brady, since the
structure of the ventral margin of the shell
is similar which is the characteristic of this
taxon. Post-abdomen large, with numerous saw-
like backwardly curved spines.

Recorded from India by Sharma (1978)
from West Bengal.

Distribution : U.S.S.R., India, Africa, Sri
Lanka. South America.

E. odiosa Gurney, 1907 (PI. IV, Figs. 1-3)
Similar to E. triseriaiis Brady. Antennule
attached on a pointed, triangular rostrum. Shell
valve with rugose markings on its surface.
Postabdomen slightly tapering, postabdominal
spines slightly longer on pre-and post-anal part.

Reported from Northeast India (Michael &
Sharma, personal communication).

Distribution : India, U.S.S.R., Africa.

Guerneila raphaelis Richard, 1893 (PI. VI,
Figs. 1-4)

Body oval. Shell valves tumid with small
reticulated cells. Antennule thick, uniformly
broad with a slight narrowing at the base.
6-8 terminal setae and 3 lateral unequal setae
on antennule. Postabdomen small with 6-8
minute anal spines. In the species described by
Smirnov (1976), the postanal part of the
postabdomen is more bulged with groups of

115

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

hairs and there are small bristles on the dorsal
surface of the antennule. The specimens
observed by us are similar to those described
by Fernando (1974) from Sri Lanka, without
bristles on the antennule.

This species is new to India.

Distribution : Sri Lanka, Africa, India.

Ilyocryptus spinifer Herrick, 1884 (PI. VI, Figs.

5-7)

Body flat, vortex of head forms a sharp angle
in front of insertion of antennules. Antennule
two-jointed. Antenna short, with very long,
numerous antennary setae. Long, numerous
setae with branches on postero-dorsal and
ventral part of shell. Postabdomen large, with
numerous long spines with denticles.

Sharma (1978) recorded it from Bengal.

Distribution : India, Australia, U.S.S.R., In-
donesia, Africa. North and South America.

Family: Chydoridae

Biapetura karaa King, 1883 (PI. VI, Figs. 8,9)

Shell valve has longitudinal striations with
fine polygonal markings. Postero-ventral mar-
gin of valve with 1-5 denticles. Postabdomen
broad and rounded at dorsal margin, with 8
small anal denticles. Groups of lateral setae
on postabdomen.

Recorded from West Bengal by Sharma
(1978).

Distribution'. U.S.S.R., Central Asia, Sri
Lanka, India.

PSeuroxus trigonellus (Muller, 1785) (PI. VII,

Figs. 1 , 2)

Body ovate with an angled posterior part.
Rostrum flexed forward. In our specimens,
infero-posteal margin has two minute denti-
cles whereas Nayar (1971) noted four denti-
cles. Dorsal margin of postabdomen convex,
with rounded apex. Postabdomen with 14-16

marginal denticles which are larger towards
apex.

Nayar (1971) recorded it from Rajasthan.
Distribution : India. Canada, North and

South America.

Chydorus favifomiis (Birge, 1893)
Distinguished by the deep, polygonal mark-
ings on the head shield and valves of the shell.
The details of the taxa could not be described
as only one specimen occurred in the collec-
tions.

Recorded earlier from India by Michael
& Sharma (personal communication).

Distribution: Northeast Asia, India, North
America.

C. reticulatus j urine (PI. VII, Figs. 3,4)

Body spherical and deep yellow in colour.
The valves have polygonal reticulated mark-
ings with numerous black dots in each.
Reported from Rajasthan by Biswas (1971).
Distribution : India, Africa.

Dnaihevidia serrata (Daday, 1898) (PI. VII,
Fig. 5)

Characterized by a bifid labrum which has
a serrated margin having 10-12 denticles.
Postabdomen with numerous lateral groups
of setae.

Reported from Northeast India (Michael &
Sharma, personal communication).

Distribution'. Africa, Sri Lanka, New Guinea,
India, North America.

Ack no wledgem e n ts

We thank Dr. B. K. Sharma, Northeastern
Hill University, Shillong for his help in identi-
fying some cladoceran species and for sugges-
tions. The award of Junior Fellowship by
University Grants Commission, New Delhi to
one of us (CSP) is gratefully acknowledged.

116

CLADOCERA OF DHARWAD

R EFERENCES

Arora, G. D. (1931): Fauna of Lahore II. Ento-
mostraca (water fleas) of Lahore. Bull. Dept. Zool.
Punjab Uni. 7 (10) : 62-100.

Biswas, S. (1964) : Five species of Daphnidae
(Crustacea-Cladocera) from Simla hills in India with
a new record of A Iona cost at a, Sars from Kameng
division, NEFA. J. Zool. Soc. India 16 ( 1-2) : 92-98.

(1971): Fauna of Rajasthan, India

Part II (Crustacea-Cladocera). Record. Zool. Surv.
India 63 ( 1-4) : 95-141.

Brooks, J. L. (1959): In: Freshwater Biology,
Eds. Wards, H. B. and Whipple, G. C. John Wiley
& Sons Inc. London: 587-656.

Chowdhary, S. K., Sharma, J. P. & Srivastava,
J. B. (1978) : Crustacean fauna of Jammu ponds.
Abstract — Part-Ill. Session of Indian Congress.

Fernando, C. H. (1974) : Guide to the fresh-
water fauna of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Supp. 4. Bull.
Fish. Res. Stn. Sri Lanka 25: 27-81.

Gouder, B.Y.M. & Joseph, K. J. (1961): On
correlation between the natural populations of fresh-

water zooplankton (Cladocera, Copepoda and Roti-
fera) and some ecological factors. J. Karnatak Univ.
Sci. 6: 89-96.

Michael, R. G. (1973): A guide to the study of
freshwater organisms. Madurai Univ. J. Supp. 1:
186.

Nayar, C.K.G. (1971): Cladocera of Rajasthan.
Hydrobiologia 37(3-4): 509-519.

Patil, S. G. (1976) : Freshwater cladocera (Arthro-
poda: Crustacea) from North East India. Curr. Sci.
45(8): 312-313.

Sharma, B. K. (1978) : A note on freshwater
cladocera from. West Bengal. Bangladesh J. Zool.
6(2) : 149-157.

Smirnov, N. N. (1974): Fauna of the USSR
Crustacea-Chydoridae. Vol. I. Israel Programme for
Scientific Translation, Jerusalem’. 1-644 (in English).

— (1976): Macrothricidae and Moini-

dae of the world fauna. Fauna U.S.S.R. (n. ser .)
112 (Crustacea) 7(3): 1-127. (in Russian).

117

9

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION
OF BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY — 33

Humayun Abdulali
Muscicapidaf (Turdinae)

[ Continued from Vol. 84 ( 1 ) : ] 25]

This part ending with Synopsis No. 1730
up to Register No. 22209, includes 1042 speci-
mens of 44 species, subspecies and ELs of the
Turdinae. There are 5 forms (3 species and 2
subspecies) of which we have no specimens in
our collection. I have been assisted by Dr.
(Mrs.) S. Unnithan and 1 am grateful for her
assistance.

1692 Cercomela fusca (Blyth) (Muttra)

Brown Rock Chat 2:54

17: 8 $ $ 9 $ $

2 Ambala, Punjab; 2 Delhi; 2 Cawnpore; 1 Sunda
Hill, Jaswantpura. 1 Jaithari, Bhopal; 2 Jalor, Jodh-
pur State; 1 Gwalior; 1 Deesa, 1 Gangasagar, Palan-
pur; 2 Bhujia Fort, 1 Tapkeshwari, near Bhuj. Kutch;
1 Jabalpur. M.P.

Measurements on p. 128.

1693 Saxicola macrorhvncha (Stoliczka)

(Rapur and Bhuj; Kachh, (Kutch) Stoliczka’ s
Bush Chat 2 : 32

nil.

EL Saxicola rubetra (L.) (Sweden) Whinchat

4: 1 $ 3 $ $

2 Niton, Isle of Wight; 1 Suffolk, U.K.; 1 Feluja,
R. Euphrates, Mesopotamia,

The second bird No. 2348 from Mesopota-
mia is marked as of the race noskae Tsch.
(N. Caucasus) in the Birds of Mesopotamia
jb 28, p. 402 but the validity of this form is
doubted by Meinertzhagen (1954) in Birds of
Arabia p. 258. No attempt is made to sepa-
rate the two races here.

Measurements on p. 128.

1694 Saxicola insignis Gray (Nepal) Hodg-
son’s Bush Chat 2:33

7:4 $ $ 3 $ $

1 Ambala. Punjab; 2 Sarun, 4 Baghowni. Tirhut,
Bihar.

The specimen from Ambala from the Jones
collection appears to be the westernmost
record.

Measurements on p. 128.

1 695 Saxicola torquata maura (Pallas)

(Karassun, Ishim River, W. Siberia) West
Siberian Bush Chat 2:28

8:5 ^ a 3 9 9

1 Feluja, 2 Sheikh Saud, Mesopotamia; 1 Abadan,
3 Shiraz, 1 Katunak, 8 m. south of Shiraz, Iran.

There has been much confusion regarding
the identity and separation of this race and
indica (No. 1697 below) at least in Indian
limits. Blanford’s fauna (1890) accepted
maura and treated indica as a synonym, while
Baker in the 2nd edition (1924) reversed the
position. This has resulted in published names
being applicable to either, depending on the
work consulted.

In Indian handbook (1973) both races are
accepted with Ticehurst’s note in Ibis (1938, pp.
338-341 ) being quoted as a reference. Ticehurst
accepted the close similarity of the two races,
including an overlap in measurements of wing
and extent of white at base of the tail but
accepts a young male obtained at Nasik, Bom-
bay in October as maura. Among the speci-
mens received from the B.M. (N.H.) is a S
(the label marked “Nasiq. Bombay, young of

118

[614]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION — S3

year by skull ’) dated 5th October 1912 obtain-
ed by CBT, with a 68 mm. wing and a little
white at the base of the tail. Similarly others
from Belgaum, Deesa. Meerut have their
wings under 70 mm. while specimens from
Iran and Iraq have them 72 to 75 mm. The
females are said to be inseparable from those
of indica, but slightly larger 70, 73, 74.

With the evidence examined I am not in-
clined to accept any of the Indian skins as
of maura.

Measurements on p. 128/129.

1696 Saxicola torquata przewalskii (Pleske)
(Kansu) Tibetan Collared Bush Chat 2:30

10: $ $

4 nr. Madhopur. Jammu, Kashmir (28 Jan.- 14
Feb.); 1 Ranikhet, U.P.); 1 Bhigurwada, 1 Parta-
pur, Nepal; 1 Sarun, Bengal; 1 Haflong. N. Cachar
(20 Oct.). 1 Upper Burma.

All have wings larger (74-77) than indica
and stejnegeri and also no white at base of
tail. The rufous on the underparts paling to
some extent, extends to the undertail covert.

Measurements on p. 128/129.

1697 Saxicola torquata indica (Blyth) (Cal-
cutta) Indian Collared Bush Chat

92: 56 $ 8 (2 spotted juveniles) 31 $ $ 5 o?

1 Bostan Terek, 1 Kaying Bashi, C. Turkestan ;
l Ornach Kalat, Baluchistan ; 6 Chitral, 2 Chitral
Drosh, 1 Chitral Buin, 1 Taxila, Rawalpindi Dt..
Punjab; 1 Kulotan Badrawar, Kashmir; 1 E. Eve-
rest, 1 S. Tibet; 11 Simla, 4 Keonthal State, 2
Jagadri, 7 Ambala, 1 Patiala State; 1 Yoshirmath.
Garhwal; 1 Garhwal; 1 Polo Grounds, 1 Mussooree.
3 Meerut, 2 Delhi; 1 Kanpur; 1 Bharatpur; 1 Bhong.
Bahawalpur, 1 Schwan, Larkana Dt,, Sind; 1 Bhimal,
Jodhpur State; 1 Satanwara, Gwalior State; 1
Ratlam, 1 Jabalpur, C.I.; 2 Chikalda, Berar; 3
Sonawani, Balaghat Div., C.P.; 2 Bailadila, Bastar,
1 Radhanpur, N. Gujarat, 1 Kutch, 1 Mandvi, 1
Nadiad Town Env.; 1 Dwarka, Gujarat, 1 Madhme-
shwar, Nasik, 1 Ambernath, Kalyan; 4 Santa Cruz,
3 Andheri, Bombay; 1 Nagotna. 1 Kolaba; 1 Satara;

1 Koira, Bonai, 1 Keonjhar, 1 Harbhanga Baud,

Orissa; 2 Temi, W. Sikkim; 1 Baghownie, Tirhut,
l Benor, Darbhanga, Bihar; 1 Kurseong, Darjeeling
Dt., 1 Raidak, Jalpaiguri, Bengal, 1 Gauhati, Assam.

All Indian specimens available appear to be
indica with none mama. See remarks under
1695.

Measurements on p. 128/129. f

1698 Saxicola torquata stejnegeri (Parrot)
(Etorofu = 1 Iturup, Kuriles and Hokkaido)

East Siberian Collared Bush Chat

13: 7 $ $ 6 $ $

(a) 10: 4 $ $ 6 9 $

1 Partapur, 1 Bhupendra, Nepal; 1 Dibrugarh,
Assam; 2 May my o, Upper Burma ; 1 Kulthari, 1
Loileong; 1 Taunggyi S. Shan States, 1 Yebank,
Henzada, 1 Youchaung, Thayetmyo, Burma.

(b) 3 $ $ Peking, China.

stejnegeri are separated from przewalskii by
their shorter wings and coarser bills, but the
3 males from Peking have their bills slightly
shorter and yet coarser, than in those under
(a) and are mentioned separately.

6 (4 cf cf 2 9 $ ) from Bangkok, Thai-
land, borrowed from B. M. (N.H.) have
similar wings, the bills equal in length to those
listed above but definitely wider at the base.
Obviously the birds from south-east and
eastern Asia need to be worked out in greater
detail.

Measurements on p. 128/129.

EL Saxicola torquata rubicola Linne (Seine

Inferieure, France)

12: 5 $ $ 6 9 9 1 o?

1 Abu Zehel, 1 Giza, Egypt; 3 Baghdad, 3 Shati-
el-Adhain, 3 Hawi Plain, Mesopotamia; 1 S. Persia.

These are all marked rubicola by Ticehurst
have rufous markings on the white rump men-
tioned in Meinertzhagen’s birds of arabia.
There is no white at the base of the tail and
the underparts are more rufous than white.

Measurements on p. 128/129.

[615]

119

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

EL Saxieola torqoata armenica Stegman
(^Village of Adzharan, Kurdisan)

3: 2 1 $

1 Siyahad, Arabia, 1 Feluja, Euphrates, 1 Nahr
Omar, Tigris, Mesopotamia.

The white rump and the large wing appear

distinctive.

Measurements on p. 128/129.

EL Saxieola torquata variegata Gmelin

(Azerbaijain)

5 : 3 $ 8 2 2 2

4 Shatt-el-Adhain, Mesopotamia, 1 Pir-i-Bama 9
m south , of Shiraz, Iran (14 Oct. 1917-5th February
1926).

Though marked maura by an earlier worker,
they appear closer to this form, as accepted
by Meinertzhagen in birds of Arabia (p. 261).
Measurements on p. 128/129.

! 699 Saxieola leucura (Blyth) (Upper
Scinde) Whitetailed Bush Chat 2:31

13: 10 $ $ (1 by plumage) 2 2 9 1 o?

2 Sukkur, Sind: 4 Kumaon Terai, 1 Hastinapur
marshland, nr. Meerut, U.P.; 3 Benon, Darbhanga,
Bihar; 1* Darjeeling, Bengal; 1 Naunggyo, 1 Hen-
zada dt.. Lower Burma. * missing.

Measurements on p. 129.

1700 Saxieola caprata bicolor Sykes
(Dukhun)

56: 35 $ $ 17 $ $ 4 o?

2 Mastung, 1 Sistan, Sidar, 50 m. S. of Kalaf, 1
Manguli, Jhalawan, 26° 45'N. 65° 21'E, Baluchistan ;

1 Chitral; 2 Shikarpur, Jullundur, 1 Ladni, 1 Jutogh.

2 Solon, Bhagat State, 1 Jagadri, 3 Ambala, 1
Patiala, 1 Multan, Punjab, 1 Daulatpur. 2 town
environs, Bahawalpur; 2 Delhi; 1 Jacobabad, Upper
Sind, 1 Khahi Pithora, 1 Dadu Larkana, Sind; 1
Hamawas Lake, Pali, 4 Jalar, Jodhpur; 1 Jaithari.

1 Mathor, Bhopal; 2 Bhadreshwar, 1 Kharirohar.

1 Mandvi, 1 Bhuj, 1 Kutch, 1 Amreli, 1 Nadiad.

1 Mehmedabad, Kaira, 1 Cambay City, 1 Golana.
Cambay; 1 Dabka, Baroda; 1 Dindori, Nasik; 1
Sonawani. Balghat M.P.; 1 Orissa, 1 Puranpur, Pili-
bhit, U.P.; 1 Baghowni, Darbhanga, Bihar; 1 Cawn-
pur, 1 Pura, 1 Almora, 1 Majkholi, Ranikhet, 1
Mussoorie. U.P.; 1 Halflong, N. Cachar.

Hartert’s rossorum 1910, Journ. Ornith., 58,
p. 180. type locality Merv, Southern Trans-

caspia is not accepted in Indian literature. As
however the first four listed above were mark-
ed rossorum by an earlier worker, additional
specimens said to be of this race, were borrow-
ed from the British Museum and it would
appear that none have the larger wing size of
76-79 (77.5) mentioned by Vaurie, and can
all be included in the wide range in bicolor,
67-76 (70.5) among the rest. The other charac-
ter of a straight line separating the black and
white on the underparts is to some extent due
to the nature of preparation of the skin, ex-
aggerated by the fact that the B.M. (N.H.)
specimens collected in 1901-1937 show a
deeper black than our specimens dating as
near as 1945. For these reasons all are now
listed under bicolor though it is possible that
more material, preferably representing breed-
ing or ringed birds may justify this separation.

Measurements on p. 129.

1701 Saxieola caprata burmanica Baker

(Pegu) Burmese Pied Bush Chat 2:24

36: 22 $ $ 12 2 2 2 o?

1 Salher, Navsari Prant. Baroda; 4 Chikalda, Birar,
5 Khandala, W. Ghats; 1 Bhimashankar, W. Ghats,
Pune; 1 Veral, Ratnagiri; 2 Karwar; 2 Gotigoli, 1
Hcnawar, N. Canara; 1 Mercara, Coorg; 2 Shene-
menalla, 1 Magoolibetta, Biligirirangan Hills, 1
Sagar, Sorab Rd., Mysore; 1 Koduru, S. Cudappa,
1 Kurumbapathi, Salem Dt., 1 Lamasinghi, 1 Chin-
lapoth. Vizag Dt.; 1 Barkul, Chilka Lk., Orissa; 1
Rajaputtu, Saran, 2 Baghownie, Tirhut, Bihar; 2 S.
Shan States, 1 Tonba, Prome Dt., 1 Tawngup, Sando-
way, 1 Myoguin, Henzada Dt. 1 Burma.

Measurements on p. 129.

1702 Saxieola caprata nilgiriensis (Whistler)
(Ootacamund) Nilgiri Pied Bush Chat 2:25

13: 10 $ $ (2 imm.) 3 $ $

1 Avalanche, 1 Upper Bhavani, 1 Naduvathom, 1
Ketti, Nilgiris; 3 Kodaikanal, Palnis; 1 Munnar.

1 Devikulam, 1 Peerumedu, 3 Travancore.

The 3 females show differences in the depth
of rufous on the rump. No specimens from
Ceylon are available but Whistler (1940) when

120

[616]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION — 33

describing nilgiriensis Bull. B.O.C. 60:90 has
gone into some detail to establish the neces-
sity of accepting this form.

Measurements on p. 129.

1703 Saxicola caprata atrata (Kelaart)
(Newera Elia, Ceylon)

nil.

1704 Saxicola jerdoni (Blyth) (Purneah)

Jerdon’s Bush Chat 2:35

3 $ $ (1 by plumage).

1 Rupachena, Cachar; 1 Kindat, Upper Chindwin,
Burma ; 1 no locality.

Measurements on p. 130.

1705 Saxicola ferrea Gray (Nepal)

79: 52 $ S (8 by plumage, 4 juv.) 27 $ $ (5 by
plumage, 3 juv.)

2 Doosoo; 1 Palaili, Bootna R., Kishtwar, Kash-
mir, 1 Aka Hills(?), 1 Tongme. 1 Tsong Rong, L.
Tscngpo Valley, Tibet; 1 Mashobra, 1 Fagu, N.W.H.;
20 Simla; *1 Bharatpur, Rajasthan; 2 Polo grounds,
1 Mussoorie, 9 Garhwal, 1 Almora, 2 Naini Tal.
1 Sarda R.; 1 Pilibhit, 1 West, 1 Kumaon, U.P.; 1
Sokipiku, Darbhanga, B. &O.; 3 Martam, Rongni
Valley, Sikkim; 1 Bhutan Duars, 2 Batase, 3 Bum-
thang, 1 Shamgong, 2 Mangdechu, Central Bhutan;
1 Rongtcng, 1 Narphong, 1 Gomchu, 1 Deothang.
East Bhutan; 1 Dibrugarh, 2 Kohima, 1 Imphal, near
Manipur, Assam; 1 North, 1 Cachar; 1 N. Krang,
Upper Burma, 3 Mt. Victoria, Pakokku Hill Tracts,
1 Aloikaw, South Shan States, Burma, 1 Thayetmyo
Dist. 1 Ngaphaev, Prome dt., 1 Sandoway.

The specimen from Bharatpur obtained in
1970 adds to the Checklist of Delhi, Agra &
Bharatpur wherein it was recorded from Delhi
only.

The key in Indian handbook separates
females of this species first from Jerdon’s and
other Saxicola spp. by the white throat and
rufous edges to the tail. The first character is
not very different in the single specimen of
S. jercloni and identical in the second charac-
ter. Juveniles Nos. 2447 and 2448 collected at
Simla on 1/6/25 by S. Basil Edwardes are

marked d and $ but the d has rufous edges
to the tail while the $ has a white patch at
base of tail and a large 74 mm. wing also
appears to be of this race.

Obviously the specimens have been mixed
up and the sexes wrongly noted. Another d
juvenile (without the rufous edges) from
Nainital has also been marked $ by Major
H. S. Walton. On this differences the 6 un-
sexed birds can be separated into I d and
5 9$.

Measurements on p. 130.

1706 Oenanthe isabellina (Temminck)
(Nubia, N. Africa) Isabelline Chat 2 : 49

33: 11 $ $ 15 9 9 7 o?

1 Randha, Tanhat, 2 Siyahad, Arabia ; 1 Hawi
Plain, Samarra, bank of R. Tigris, 2 3 m. from Kut,

1 Mudailil, Amara, 1 Beled, R. Tigris, 1 Tara-i-
galligan Mishum, 1 Tanb Is., Persian Gulf', 1 Hilla

2 m. from Shiraz, 1 Bandamir, 1 Nahvand, Iran ; 1
Rohtak, nr. Sib, Persian Baluchistan', 1 Chaman, 1
Quetta, 1 Shabbaz, 1 Kalat, 1 Karachi; 1 Zawa,
Khotan, Sinkiang, China', 1 Khardong, Ladak; 1
Ambala, 1 Daturis, Karual dist, Punjab; 1 Meerut,
U.P.; 1 Deesa, 1 Radhanpur, Palanpur, 1 Piltan,
Mehsana, 1 Bhuj, 1 Rapar, 1 Walaria environs, Anjar
dist., 1 Kutch; 1 Gondia, C.P.; 1 Dhond, Poona dist.

d No. 2578 from Randha, Tanhat, Arabia
obtained by Philby on 22nd April 1940 has
the largest wing (105), bill (15) and tarsus
(30.3) and may be the form described by
Bonaparte from Yemen, but the original des-
cription and later remarks are not available.

Measurements on p. 130.

1707 Oenantbe xanthoprymna king! (Hume)

(Jodhpur) Redtailed Chat 2:53

21 : 7 $ $ 10 9 9 4 o?

1 Muscat, Arabian Peninsula’, 2 Mishun, Persian
Gulf', 1 Aliabad, 13 m S.E. of Shiraz, 1 Khain,
Persia’, 1 Wahi, 25 m. S.W. of Khozdar, 1 Chaman,
Baluchistan', 2 Drosh, Chitral, N.W.F.P., 1 Hasan
Abdel, 1 Campbellpur, Attock, Punjab; 1 Sairea,
N.W. Himalayas; 1 Bahawalpur Town Env., 1 Yas~
man, 2 Manthur, Cholistan, Bahawalpur State, 1
Pithoro, Sind; 3 Khavda, Pacham Is., 1 Lakhpat,
Kutch.

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121

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 85

In four birds from the Persian Gulf, the
upper tail feathers are more rufous than in the
others, but there is no difference in size, colour,
distribution or season.

Measurements on p. 130.

1708 Oenanthe oenanthe oenanthe (Lin-
naeus) (Sweden) Wheatear 2:48

28: 15 $ $ 8 9 9 5 o?

3 Niton, Isle of Wight; 1 Holland; 1 Tashkent,
Uzbek, USSR; 1 Siyahad, 3 Shaiba, Arabia; 1 Tekrit,
5 Shatt-el-Adhain, R. Tigris, 2 Nahr Umar, 1 Basra ,
1 Bait-al-Khalifa, Samarra, 4 Felujah, 1 Hilla, R.
Euphrates, 1 Aquar Quf, Baghdad, 1 Mar gill, Meso-
potamia; 1 Drosh, 1 Chitral, N.W.F.P.

Though many subspecies have been describ-
ed from different parts of the range covered
by the above specimens and there is some
variation in colour, it has not been possible
to isolate any group. Sp. No. 21397 d' from
Tashkent is a very clear grey above and almost
pure white below which may represent one of
the several races described from worn phases
of plumage. Also cf 20887 collected at Felujah
on 23/3/1917 was registered as <9. rostral a
and differs from the others in having a finer
bill but considering what Ticehurst said
( JBNHS 28, p. 389) when examining the birds
from Mesopotamia. I think it best to leave it
here.

Measurements on p. 130.

1709 Oenanthe deserti oreophila (Oberhol-
ser) (Ladak) Tibetan Desert Wheatear 2:52

9: 7 8 $ (1 juv.) 2 o?

1 Chaman, Baluchistan; 1 Mintaka, Kukturuk,
Pamir, 1 Goma, 4400', Sinkiang, China; 2 Tingri,
S. Tibet; 1 Moulbeck, 3 Chusal, Ladak.

The white on the inner web of the second
primary does not reach the quill in all the
specimens as required in the key in the
handbook, but the wings average larger, and
most of them are marked oreophila by earlier
workers.

Measurements on p. 130.

1710 Oenanthe deserti deserti (Temminck)
(Egypt) Central Asian Desert Wheatear 2:51

51: 31 $$992 11 o?

4 Shatt-el-Adhain, left bank of R. Tigris, 1 6 m.
from Kut, 1 Legail, Euphrates; 1 Charbar; 2 Tanb Is.,
Persian Gulf; 2 Muscat *. 1* Pahrah, 17 m. E. of
Bampur, Persian Baluchistan; 1 Waiia, Waziristan;
1 Darya Khan, NWFP; 1 Campbellpur, 2 Jullundur,
1* Multan, 1 Ambala, Punjab; 1 Jalor, Jodhpur;
1 Santhanwara, Gwalior State, 3 Meerut, U.P.. 3
Bahawalpur Town env., 2 Harsil, Tehri Garhwal,
1 Nepal (?), 1 Karachi, 1 Pethora, 1* Kotri, Sind;
3 Kharirohar. 3 Khawda, Pacham, 1 Walaria, Anjar.
Kutch. 3* Patan, Mehsana, 1* Dabka, Baroda; 1
Ratlam. 1 Sangli C.; 1 Bhayander, 1 Andheri, 2
Santa Cruz, 1 Golf Links, Pali Hill, Bandra.

These should be separable from oreophila
above by the absence of white on the inner
web of the second primary — at least not
touching the quill but some such specimens
are included in oreophila above. 1 1 others here
marked* also have more or less white on the
inner web of the second primary but do not
differ in size and are left together. The race
atrogularis described by Blyth from Agra, U.P.
accepted in Stuart Baker's fauna 2, p. 51 and
Vaurie, p. 346 is synonymised with deserti
in Indian handbook and no attempt is here
made to separate them.

Measurements on p. 130.

1711 Oenanthe finschi barnesi (Oates)

(Baluchistan & Afghanistan eastwards (sic) to
Persia = Kandahar) Barnes’s Chat 2:75

25: 16 8 8 2 9 $ 7 o?

4 Bait-el-Khalifa, N. of Samarra, 5 Shatt-el-
Adhain, 2 Kazimain, Baghdad, 1 Beled, Tigris; 8
Mishun, Persian Gulf; 1 Shiraz, 1 Karaagooch R.,
over Kavar 52° 43'E., 29° 8'W. ( Below Shiraz ).
Iran; 1 Siyahad, Saudi Arabia, 1 Rohat, 15 m. S.E.
of Khwash. Persian Baluchistan; 1 Chaman, Balu-
chistan.

Measurements on p. 131.

1712 Oenanthe picata (Blyth) (Scinde) Pied
Chat (White-bellied)

This species breaks up into 3 phases which

122

[618]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION — 33

are said to be only polymorphic but not sub-
specific. The males are very different in colour
but the female plumages are not yet clearly
known.

(a) Phase picata 55 : 35 S $ 20 9 $

1 R. Tanhat, Yemen, Arabia ; 1 Tang Gali Gan',
4 Mishun, 1 Sha Tashin, Persian Gulf; 1 Shustan,
S. Persia; 1 Ansorquad, Persian Baluchistan; 2
Harboid, Kalat, 1 W. Yornach, Baluchistan; 1 Drosh.

1 Chitral, NWFP.; 1 Razani N., 1 Boya N., 1
Waziri, S. Waziristan; 1 Harunabad, 1 Bhung, 1
Manthar. Cholistan, 2 Bahawalpur; 1 Kargil. Baltis-
tan, 1 Kashmir; 2 Rawalpindi. 1 Campbellpur,
Attock. 1 Rajpura. Patiala, 1 Madhopur, Gurdas-
pur. 1 Ambala. 2 Jagadhri, 2 Jhelor, Punjab; 1
Meerut, U.P.; 2 Delhi; 1 Miran Shah, 1 Hyderabad.

1 Sind. *1 Alwar, Rajputana; 1 Suruwaya, Gwalior;

1 Jalor, Jodhpur; 1 Dohad, Panch Mahals, 2 Radhan-
pur N.. 1 Patan, Mehsana; 1 Nakaktrama, 4 Bhujia
Fort, l Bhuj, 1 Devisar Tank, Kutch; 1 Khara-
ghoda, Gujerat.

As it is presumably not possible to diffe-
rentiate between the females of capistrata and
picata the 20 females probably include those
of both phases. Specimens Nos. 2460 and 2487
are a male and a female obtained and sexed
by Salim Ali in Bahawalpur town environs
about three days apart in Jan. /Feb. 1939. This
is circumstantial evidence that the female is
of the phase picata, but there is considerable
variation in the colour of the females and it
is not possible to group this with others with
any degree of consistency. All the relevant
literature is not available but it would appear
that a series of properly sexed males and
females obtained in their breeding grounds,
may produce some more reasonable explana-
tion. 3 specimens (all 1st week January) mark-
ed female from Radhanpur (2 Salim Ali and
1 Jagadri, A. E. Jones, Ambala) have the
features on the upper edge of the breast dark-
ening towards the black of male picata, and
are either wrongly sexed together with some
more ‘females’ or represent a plumage not
noticed earlier, and at an unknown stage of
growth. Some explanation appears necessary

to understand some of the differences in colour
visible among the females.

Measurements on p. 131.

(b) Phase opistholeuca (Strickland) (Pun-
jab) Strickland’s Chat 2:44

12: 9 $ $ 3 9 9

3* Ayun, 1 Drosh, 3 Chitral, 1 Nowshera, Pesha-
war, N.W.F.P.; 2 Campbellpur, Aittock, Punjab; 1
Kandu, Pacham Island, Kutch, 1* Bodeli, Baroda.

The three females* (2 Ayun, 1 Bodeli)
have the underparts dusky and can be sepa-
rated from the black of the males.

Measurements on p. 131.

(c) Phase capistrata Gould (Sind)

10 $ $ (2 by plumage)

1 Siyahad, Saudi Arabia; 1 Chaman, Baluchistan ;

1 Drosh, Chitral, 1 Nowshere, N.W.F.P.; 1 Camp-
bellpur, 1 Taxila, Punjab; 1 Harunabad, Bahawalpur
State; 1 Pushkum, Ladakh; 2 Tashkent, U.S.S.R.

The males can be separated but the females
are no doubt mixed with those under picata .
Specimen No. 2660 cf/ by plumage from Siya-
had, Arabia, has a badly damaged head and
it is difficult to be certain if it was the same
as in the other nine.

Measurements on p. 131.

1713 Genanthe monacha (Temminck)

(Nubia-Luxor) Hooded Chat 2:40

nil.

1714 Genanthe alboniger (Hume) (Stony

Hills which divide Kelat from Sind and Mekran
Coast) Hume’s Chat 2:40

4 $ $

1 Tanger Galli Gan, Mishim Is., Persian Gulf,
1 Kaftarak, 11m. east of Shiraz, Iran; 1 Gusht,
42 m. N.W. of Dizak, Persian Baluchistan; 1 Gilgit,
Kashmir.

Measurements on p. 131.

1715 Genanthe pleschanka pleschanka

(Lepechin) (Saratov. Lower Volga) Ples-
chanka’s Chat 2:45

15: 12 $ $ (1 by pi.) 1 9 2 o?

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123

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 85

1 Shaiba, 6 Shatt-el-adhain, bank of R. Tigris, 1
Basra, 1 Sheikh Saad, Iraq ; 1 Shah Talsmn, Persian
Gulf; 1 Ayun, 3 Chitral; 1 Nomal, Liddar Valley,
Kashmir.

Measurements on p. 131.

EL Oenanthe hispanica melanoleuca (Gul-
denstadt) (Georgia, Caucasus) Blackeared
Spanish Wheatear

4 ^ (2 each white and black throated)

1 Siyahad, Arabia; 1 5 m* downstream of, 1

Feluja, R. Euphrates, Iraq; 1 Pinetok Pass, Persia*.

The two white-throated specimens* are dated
March (?) while the two with black throats
are March and 24 May, the latter from Persia
is said to have its organs advanced and evi-
dently breeding.

Measurements on p. 131.

1716 Chaimanroriiis leucocephalus (Vigors)
(Himalaya-Simla-Almora dist.) White-capped
Redstart 2:79

40: 23 $ $ (4 juv.) 10 9 $ (2 juv.) 7 o?

1 Machail 9700', 2* Drosh, 4 Chitral, N.W.F.P.;
1 Safapur Village, 1 Chinchoti, Kishtwar, Kashmir;
1 Dharmsala, 2 Koti State; 1 Keonthal, 1 Summer
Hills, 5 Simla; 2 Pindari Glacier, 1 Daronar, Rani-
khet, 1 Lobha, Garhwal; 2 Ramgarh, 1 Rajapur.
Mussoorie, U.P.; 2 Godavery, Nepal, 1 Rangpo,
Sikkim, 1 Bhutan Duars, 1 Mangdechu, Central
Bhutan; 1 Kurseong, Darjeeling Dist.,; 1 Miao, Tirap
Div., 1 Mayo, Dibang Valley, Lakhimpur, 1 Naga
Hills, 1 N. Cachar; 2 Mishmi Hills, 2 no locality
* (1 missing).

In the males all the measurements average
longer than in the females, and the overlap in
the range of size may to some extent be due
to erroneous sexing.

Measurements on p. 131.

Saxicoloides fulicata subspp.

Several races have been described from
Indian limits on the depth of colour in the
males. The one darker above was accepted as
of the nominate race and from Sri Lanka, but
the type locality has been settled at Pondi-
cherry (Stresemann, 1952) and this can be

separated by the females of Sri Lanka, whence
we have no specimens but where I noted them
darker than in India (Tissamanuram, 1-4
April 1967) and where the race leucoptera
(Lesson) is accepted. The birds from along the
coast as far north as Nasik on the west and
Cumbum in the east through Kerala are all
nominate fulicata.

1717 SaxicoSoides fulicata camfoaiensis

(Latham) (Guzcrat, India) Brown-backed
Indian Robin 2:111

32: 25 $ $ 7 9 9

1 Bhaiji State, 2 Simla, 1 Kalka, Simla Hills, 1
Patiala State, 2 Ambala, Punjab; 1 Meerut, 4 Delhi;
3 Bharatpur, 1 Hemavas Lake, Pali Dist., Jodhpur.
Rajasthan; 1 Deesa, Palanpur, North Gujerat; 1
Wanoti, 1 Bhujia Fort, 1 Devisar Tank, 2 Kutch.
1 Jamnagar, 1 Victoria Park, Bhavnagar, 3 Cambay
City environs, Gujerat; 2 Jabalpur, 1 Choral, Indore,
C.P.; 1 Sarda R.. Hosipur, Kheri dist. 1 Cawnpur,
U.P.

The males from the northern part of the
range have slightly longer tails than those
from the south but it is not possible to sepa-
rate the specimens available into two geogra-
phical areas. Birds from Bhujia Fort (31-12-43),
Bhavnagar (19-11-61), Jamnagar (11-2-69)
and Delhi (19-1-75) show their upper parts
slightly darker than in the others.

Measurements on p. 132.

1 7 1 8 Saxicoloides fulicata erythrura (Les-
son) (Bengale) Bengal Black Robin

1 o? Gaya. Bihar.

This bird in female plumage is placed in
this group on geographical grounds.

Measurements on p. 132.

1719 Saxicoloides fulicata intermedia Whist-
ler & Kinnear (Rahuri, Ahmednagar) Deccan
Black Robin

12: 955399

1 Bhimashankar, Pune; 1 Utnoor, 1 Nelipaka, 1
Kannad, Hyderabad; 1 Bhanupratappur, Kanker,
C.P.; 1 Bengasai, foot of Mahendragiri; 1 Tiker-
para. Angul dt; 1 Konta, 1 Dantewara, 1 Bhopala-

124

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BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION — 33

patnam. 1 Rampur State, 1 Barkot Bamra, Orissa.

The introduction of this form intermedia has
led to much confusion, some being interme-
diate with nominate fulicata and others with
cambaiensis.

Measurements on p. 132.

1720 Saxicoloides fulicata fulicata (Lin-

naeus) (Pondicherry) Blackbacked Indian
Robin 2:109

26: 15 $ $ 11 $ $

1 Shendurni, E. Khandesh; 2 Ghoti, Nasik; 1
Malad, 1 Andheri, 1 Malabar Hill. 1 Trombay Is.,
1 Bombay, 1 Belapur Rd., Thane; 1 Ratnagiri; 2
Atmakur. 3 Cumbum Valley, Kurnool Dist., 2 Nalla-
malai Range, S. Kurnool; 1 Palkonda Hills, 1 Kod-
pur, 1 Seshachalam Kills, S. Cuddappah; 1 Madras;
1 Kurumbapatty, 1 Herur, Salem Dist., 3 Perum-
bavur, Travancore (Kerala).

Measurements on p. 132.

1721 Saxicoloides fulicata leucoptera (Les-
son) (Ceylon)

nil.

1722 Monticoia saxatilis (Linnaeus) Swit-
zerland) Rock Thrush 2:177

15:7 $ $ 5 $ $ 3 o?

1 Baghdad ; 1 Fao, Persian Gulf ; 2 Duzdop, East
Persia ; 2 River Tanhat, Persia ; 1 Chinese Turkistan,
1 Bulunkul, 11000' Pamirs (38°N, 73°E); 2 Chitral,
Ghairat, l Galli. Attock Dt., 1 Lahore, Punjab; 1
Hushtarrahi, Kaur c. 160 m.s. of Kalat; 2 near
Ornach.

The specimens No. 3783 from Bulunkul,
11000' Pamirs (38°N, 73°E) dated 16-9-1931
is one of the unsexed and is very pale above
and almost unmarked below.

Measurements on p. 132.

1723 Monticoia cinclorhynchus (Vigors)

(Himalayan Mountains-Simla) Blueheaded
Rock Thrush 2:171

84 : 62 $ $ (7 juv., 1 nestling by plumage) 22 $ $

1 Chitral, 1 Kashmir Valley; 3 Liddar Valley,
1 Sonamarg, Kashmir; 1 Gama-ki-hatti, Charm
State, 1 Keonthal State, 21 Simla, 1 Bargali, Mussle
Hills 7300' N.W.H.; 1 Polo ground, 2 Mussoorie,

2 Karuprayag, 1 Lohaghat, 2 Peora, Almora; 1
Ramgarthi. Nainitai; 2 Lambathach, 2 Guptakashi.
1 Garhwal; 1 Darba, 1 Geedarn, Bastar Dt., 1 Kamli,
Bailadila, C.P., 1 Poona, 2 Mahabaleshwar, 1 Shola-
pur. 1 Kolapur, 1 Vengurla; 1 Talewadi, Belgaum
Dt.; 3 Molem, 1 Canacona, Goa; 2 Jalavli, 1 Kar-
war, 1 N. Kanara; 4 Mercara, Coorg; 1 Kannan-
palli, Gudalur Taluka, Nilgiris; 1 Wynaad, 1 Nelli-
yampathy Hills, 1 Maraivur, 1 Kumili, Periyar lake,
1 Murchiston, Ponmudi, Travancore; 1 Anantagiri.

1 Dharakonda, Upper Sileru, Vizagapatnam; 2 Koira,
Bonai. Orissa; 1 Anark, Darbhanga; 1 Dentom,
Sikkim; 1 Shamgong, C. Bhutan, 2 Kanaun Jaunsar;

2 Nicher 7000' (RMG?); 1 no locality.

One adult No. 2582 obtained at Vizaga-
patnam on 16th March 1975 has a white patch
at the bottom of the blue chin.

The females curiously contain no juveniles
and according to the literature available the
juvenile, females are the same as the adults. In
addition to spots on the head, the juvenile
males have curious differences in the extent of
rufous on the underparts, but a shorttailed
young nestling taken at Simla on 9th June
1912 has chestnut rump feathers and the white
on the v/ings as in the other males.

Measurements on p. 132.

1724 Monticoia ruflventris (Jardine & Selby)
(Simla) Chestnut-bellied Rock Thrush 2:170

57 : 34 $ $ (6 juv. by plumage) 22 $ $ (5 juv.)

1 (? 3685)

l Murree Hills, Rawalpindi; 1 Dungagalli, Murree
Hills; 1 Thandiani, Huli-Ka-Danna 8000'; 1 Dal-
heusie; 1 Dharmsala, Punjab; 2 Mahasu, 1 Koti
State, 4 Summer Hill, 11 Simla; 1 Dhanaulti, Mus-
soorie; 1 Monna Khal, Garhwal; 1 Ranibaug, 2
Kumaon. 10 Dakuri, Almora, 1 Nainitai, 1 Martam,
Rongni Valley, 1 Sikkim, 1 Bhutan Duars, 1 Honka.
W. Bhutan; 1 Gomchu, East, 1 Wamrong, East, 1
Rongtong. East, 1 Narphong, East Bhutan; 1 Kur-
seong, 2 Longview Tea Estate, 1 Darjeeling; 1
Loikaw, North Shan States, 3 Mt. Victoria, 1 Penth-
kel Watershed, Upper Burma’, 1 no locality.

The juvenile male is not described but differs
from the females by the blue wings and tails
and a varying amount of spots on the head
and upperback and chestnut on the rump. The

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125

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

female juveniles have spots on the head and
upper back, lack the blue on the wings and
the chestnut below. Unsexed No. 3685 from
Dakuri, 8900' Garhwal, differs in having fine
streaks on the head and back and is for the
moment left with this species.

The males (Mahasul, 7500' Koti State)
have a ring of white round the neck, larger
and extending on to the breast in one and
with a white spot on the belly in both. Two
from Simla differ in a fine line of white spots
round the neck.

Measurements on p. 133.

1 725 Monticola solitarius longirostris (Blyth)

(from Scinde to Ferozpore) Iranian Blue Rock
Thrush 2:173

11: 9 $ $ (2 by plumage) 2 $ $

1 Pang-i-dog, 1 Dohuk, Kurdistan', 1 Mosul, 6
Mishum, Persian Gulf; 2 Muscat.

The males are slightly paler blue than 1726
( pandoo ) and the females much paler. None
of the specimens from Indian limits can be
said to be of this form.

Measurements on p. 133.

1726 Monticola solitarius pandoo (Sykes)
(Ghauts. Dukhun) Indian Blue Rock Thrush

2:175

63: 43 $ $ (11 by plumage) 19 $ $ (2 by

plumage) 1 nestling

7 Chitral, 1 Gilgit, 2 Safapur, 1 Bandipur. Kash-
mir; 1 Phayang, Dokpo, Ladak; 1 Kurran, Militia,
Parachinar. W.W.F.P.; 1 Dunga Galli, Murree Hills;

1 Rawalpindi, Punjab; 1 Keonthal State, 3 Sanjuli,

2 Simla Hills; 1 Almora; 1 Lamba Thach, 2 Garh-
wal; 1 Delhi; 1 Hamawas Lake, Jodhpur State; 1
Balaram, Palanpur State; 2 Dhari, Amreli Dt., Guja-
rat; 1 Gawligarh Fort, Chikalda, Berar; 1 Bombay
Harbour, 1 Andheri; 1 Trombay Is.; 2 Khandala,
W. Ghats 1 Mehda, Satara Dt., 1 Bana, C. P.; 1 Cum-
bum Valley, Kurnool Dt., 1 Dharwar, 2 Jog; 1 N.
Kanara, 1 Karwar, 1 Coonoor, Nilgiris, 1 Top Bun-
glow, Wynaad; 1 Peerumedu, Travancore, 2 Nilgiri,
Orissa, 1 Deothang, East, 1 Mangdechu, Central, 1
Gedu, West Bhutan; 1 Rangpo, Sikkim; 1 Sevoke,
Darjeeling Terai, 2 Longview T.E., Darjeeling, 1
Mishmis, Abor country 1 Margherita, Assam; 1

Pakokku, 2 Loikaw, S. Shan States, 1 Thayetmyo
Dt., 1 Nagaphaw, Prome Dt.

Measurements on p. 133.

EL Monticola solitaria philippensis Muller

(Philippines) The Japanese Blue Rock Thrush

1 $ Karimgauk, Henzada dist., Burma.

The rufous underparts are distinctive.
Measurements on p. 133.

1727 Myiophonus bliglii (Holdsworth)

(Banks of Lemastota-Oya, 4200', Haputale
Dist.. Uva, Ceylon) Ceylon Whistling Thrush

2:182

nil.

1728 Myiophonus horsfieldii horsfieldii

(Vigors) (Himalayan mountains, restricted to
Malabar by Baker, 1923, Hand-list: 93) Mala-
bar Whistling Thrush 2:178

14: 8 $ $ 3 $ $ 3 o? (1 nestling)

1 Mahal, Surat Dangs; 1 Chikalda, Berar; 1
Kanheri Caves, Bombay; 3 Khandala, 1 Western
Ghats; 1 Honametti Estate, Mysore; 1 Patoli, 1 Supa
Petha, Kanara; 1 Gersoppa, Jog falls; 3 Palni Ghats.
Measurements on p. 133.

1729 Myiophonus caeruleus temminckii

(Vigors) (Himalayan Mountains - Simla =
Almora dist.) Himalaya Whistling Thrush

2:180

45: 23 $ $ (3 juv.) 14 $ $ (1 juv.) 8 o?

1 Tashkent, U.S.S.R. ; 1 Chitral; 1 Campbellpur.
1 Jhelum, 1 Dharmsala Punjab; 1 Koti State; 1
Kaudaghat, Patiala State, 5 Simla, N.W.H.; 1 Ram-
pur, Himachal Pradesh; 2 Adabadri, 1 Kedarnath.
1 Badrinath, Garhwal; 5 Dakuri, Almora, 1 Mor-
naula, 2 Kumaon, 2 Bhawati, Nainital Dt.; 1 Chalna
Khel, 1 Godaveri, 1 Nepal; 1 Rangpo, Sikkim; 1
Chumbi, 4 Long View T.E., Darjeeling; 2 Kurseong
Div.. 1 Margherita, 1 Pishna Camp, Goalpara,
Assam; 1 Hungreon, N. Cachar Hills, 1 N. Cachar;
1 Kurbia (?); 1 Hluia Chaung, Thayetmyo Dt.;
Burma; 1 no locality (?)

Sp. $ No. 3793 bears two labels saying “Dec.
1890, N. Kanara, E H. Aitkin”) which if cor-
rect extends the range of the species conside-
rably southwards, but in all probability

126

[622]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION — 33

represents a loss of the original labels and an
error and mix-up in subsequent labels.
Measurements on p. 134.

1730 Myiophonus caeruleus eugenei (Hume)
(Thayetmyo and Western Pegu Hills) Bur-

mese Whistling Thrush 2:181

3: 1 $ T $ 1 o?

1 Tezu, Lohit Valley, Mishmi Hills, Upper Assam;
1 Popa Myengyi, Upper Burma, 1 Taunggyi, S. Shan
State.

Measurements on p. 134.

[623]

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134

[630]

OBSERVATIONS ON THE REPRODUCTION AND
ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN THE MALE FRUIT BAT,
CYNOPTERUS SPHINX (VAHL) IN CENTRAL INDIA1

Satwant Sandhu2

(With four text -figures )

Males of Cynopterus sphinx in Central India experience two periods of sexual
activity, once during September-October and a second time during February-March
with a short period of regression during November-December and a longer sexually
quiescent period between March and September. The regressed adult testis may
weigh less than the testis of the animals approaching their first sexual season. Animals
born during June- July experience their first sexual season at the age of 15 to 16
months whereas those born in February-March experience their first sexual season
at the age of 19 to 20 months. Sexual maturity or otherwise cannot be determined
on the basis of the body weight of the animals.

I N TRODU CTION

A study of the breeding biology of bats is
of special interest since these animals exhibit
a wide range of reproductive adaptations. The
protracted survival and viability of inseminated
spermatozoa in the female genital tract of
several species of bats inhabiting cold and
temperate climates (Rollinat and Trouessart
1895-1897, Guthrie 1933, Matthews 1937,
Wimsatt 1942, 1944) and the occurrence of
delayed implantation (Mutere 1967, Gopala-
krishna and Ramakrishna 1977) and the re-
tarded development of the blastocyst (Rama-
krishna and Rao 1977, Richardson 1977) in
some of the tropical and sub-tropical bats are
some of the interesting adaptations which these
animals have evolved. Although all these
phenomena have been noticed in the bats,
most of the studies relate only to the females,
whereas the reproductive habits and associated
phenomena in the male bats have received
very little attention, and even the few obser-

1 Accepted May 1986.

2 Department of Zoology, Institute of Science,
Nagpur 440 001. Present address: Research Officer.
Tinplate Hospital, Jamshedpur-831 003.

vations, which have been made on the males,
have also been made only with a view to con-
firming the occurrence of reproductive adapta-
tions in the females (Courrier 1927, Pearson
et al. 1952). Among the more than one hundred
species of bats reported from India some
details regarding the reproductive habits of the
males are available with regard to a single
species of insectivorous bat, Scotophilus tem-
mincki, reported about 35 years ago by Gopala-
krishna (1948, 1949). A casual reference to
the protracted viability of the spermatozoa
stored in the epididymis of Hipposideros speoris
has been made by Gopalakrishna and Bhatia
(1983) while studying the sex-cycle of this
species. The present study on the reproductive
habits of the males of Cynopterus sphinx
(Vahl) in Central India has been undertaken
not only because there is so little known about
the details of the male sex-cycle of bats and
specially of the tropical species, but a prelimi-
nary study (Sandhu 1982) revealed that this
species exhibits two distinct reproductive cycles
during the year unlike all other bats so far
studied except Rousettus leschenaulti (Gopala-
krishna and Choudhari 1977). Ramakrishna

135

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

(1947) indicated the occurrence of post-partum
oestrus in Cynopterus sphinx sphinx at Banga-
lore. Most other tropical bats have either a
single cycle in the year coinciding with the
cycle in the female (Baker and Baker 1936,
Baker and Bird 1936, Gopalakrishna 1947,
1949, Ramaswamy 1961. Madhavan 1971) or
they are sexually active throughout the year
(Wimsatt and Trapido 1952, Gopalakrishna
1954, 1955). The present work is also the first
detailed study on the male reproductive cycle
of a megachiropteran bat.

Material and Methods

This report is based on the examination of
the gonads and accessory reproductive struc-
tures of 279 male specimens of Cynopterus
sphinx (Vahl) collected at random at Nagpur
at frequent intervals during two consecutive
years commencing from 24th January, 1982
such that every calendar month is represented
by several collections. The specimens were
shot with an air rifle from their roosts amidst
the bunches of old hanging fronds of palm
trees. Each animal was weighed with the help
of a sensitive spring balance and dissected
immediately. The reproductive organs and
accessory reproductive structures were remov-
ed and fixed in various fixatives. The tissues
were sectioned at a thickness of 7 to 8 p after
passing through graded ethanol and embedding
in paraffin. The sections were stained with
Harris’ or Ehrlich’s haematoxylin and counter-
stained with eosin and mounted in DPX after
clearing in xylol.

Observations and Discussion
A. Breeding seasons

Figure 1 is a scatter diagram giving the
weight of the right testis of the specimens
collected on different dates in the year, and

136

the curve represents the changes in the weight
of the testis of adult animals during different
months of the year. Microscopic examination
of the testis revealed that the intensity of
spermatogenetic activity was directly related
to the weight of the testis. These facts indicate
that in Central India the males of Cynopterus
sphinx experience two peak seasons of sper-
matogenetic activity, one during September-
Cctobcr and the second during January -
February. After the first peak of spermato-
genesis the weight of the testis drops rapidly,
and there is nearly complete cessation of sper-
matogenesis during November and December
after which the testis again increases in weight
rapidly during January and reaches peak
values during February when there is a sudden
spurt of spermatogenesis. After February there
is a rapid fall in the weight of the testis reach-
ing low values during June and July when
there is no spermatogenesis and the testis has
a typical regressed cytology. Since the testis is
nearly completely regressed during December,
the two periods of spermatogenesis in the
testis should be considered as two distinct
sexual seasons rather than a continuous re-
productive season commencing with September
and ending in the following March with a
decrease in spermatogenetic activity during
November and December.

Figure 2 is a scatter diagram showing the
relationship between the testis weight and the
body weight. The dotted lines indicate the
body weight and the testis weight at sexual
maturity. From the graph it is evident that the
weight of the regressed adult testis falls lower
than that of the testis of immature animals
which are probably approaching their first
sexual season.

The annual changes in the weight of the
epididymis is illustrated in figure 3 from which
it is evident that the epididymis also has two
peaks in its weight in the year, one during

REPRODUCTION THE FRUIT BAT, CYNOPTERUS SPHINX

Fig. 1. Scatter diagram of the weight of the right testis of the animals plotted against
the dates of collection during the different months of the year. Note two distinct

peaks in the weight of the testis representing the two peaks of sexual activity. The

doted line represents the lowest weight of the adult testis exhibiting active

spermatogenesis.

(The heavy dots represent adult animals and the smaller dots sexually immature

animals) .

September-October and the second between
January and March. These peaks nearly cor-
respond to the peaks in testis weight, although
the dip between the two peaks in the weight
of the epididymis is not so well marked as
that in the weight of the testis. Microscopic
examination of the epididymis revealed that,
while the epididymis was full of spermatozoa
during September-October and between Janu-
ary and March, there is a sparse population
of residual spermatozoa during December and
they are totally absent from April to the be-

ginning of September. From the above it is
evident that although there is a cessation of
spermatogenesis during November and Dec-
ember a few spermatozoa produced during
September-October remain in the epididymis
during November and December. This is also
revealed by the graph (fig. 3) in which the
first curve is considerably wider than the second
thereby indicating that residual spermatozoa
remain in the epididymis even after cessation
of spcrmatogenetic activity in the testis.

The changes in the size and histology of the

137

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

Fig. 2. Scatter diagram in which the weight of the right testis is plotted against the
body weight of the corresponding animal. The dotted lines represent the lowest testis
weight and the lowest weight at sexual maturity. Note that some of the inactive testes
of the adults weigh less than the testes of some of the immature animals.
(The heavy dots represent adult animals and the smaller dots sexually immature

animals) .

accessory reproductive organs in the male
such as the seminal vesicles, prostate and
Cowper’s glands run closely parallel to those
in the testis and the epididymis and these are
similar to those in all other seasonally breed-
ing mammals. These facts suggest that the
males of Cynopterus sphinx in Central India
have two distinct sexual seasons, one during
September-October punctuated by a short in-
terval of sexual quiescence during November-
December and a second during January -
February followed by a long period of sexual
quiescence until the following September. The
two periods of sexual activity in the male run
closely parallel to the sexual habits of the

females which experience two pregnancies in
quick succession, the first pregnancy commenc-
ing in October-November with deliveries taking
place during the following February-March
and the second pregnancy following within a
short period after parturition (Sandhu 1982).

It is evident from the foregoing account
that Cynopterus exhibits a combination of the
autumn breeding pattern of the bats inhabit-
ing cold climates and the spring breeding
habits of most of the tropical bats. Rousettus
leschenaulti (Gopalakrishna and Choudhari
1977) is the only other bat which exhibits a
similar feature. This fact, taken along with the
fact that the female experiences two pregnan-

138

REPRODUCTION THE FRUIT BAT , CYNOPTERUS SPHINX

Fig. 3. Scatter diagram of the weight of the right epididymis plotted against the date
of collection of the animal during different months of the year. The curve represents
the two periods of peak values in the weight of the epididymis during the year.
(The heavy dots represent adult animals and the smaller dots sexually immature

animals) .

cies in quick succession makes these two
species unique among Chiroptera in regard to
breeding biology.

B. Growth and maturity
In a previous paper it was shown that the
deliveries of young ones occur twice in the
year, once during February and March and
the second time during June and July and that
a single young one is delivered by each mother
during each cycle (Sandhu 1984). Barring one
exceptional specimen, which weighed 49 gm
(collected on 18th February, 1982), whereas
there was no sexually mature specimen with a
body weight of less than 52 gm, not all speci-
mens weighing above 52 gm were sexually
mature. There were some males weighing as

much as 7 1 gm but in which the testis presented
a typically immature histology. Evidently, in
these animals the body weight cannot be em<*
ployed as the criterion for determining sexual
maturity or otherwise in this species. However,
the weight of the testis during the active breed-
ing season is a good index of sexual maturity or
otherwise in these animals. During September-
October and during January-March the lowest
weight of the testis exhibiting spermatogenesis
was 87 mg and all the specimens with a testis
weight of 87 mg and above exhibited vigorous
spermatogenesis. On the basis of this criterion
one could notice during the sexual season in
September-October three distinct groups of
animals: (1) those with a testis weight less
than 10 mg — this group evidently consists

139

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

©o~

70

60

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JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN

MONTH

PEG MAR APR WAY

Fig. 4. Scatter diagram of the body weights of the male specimens plotted against the
date of collection of the animals. The dotted line represents the lowest body weight

at sexual maturity.

(The heavy dots represent adult animals and the smaller dots sexually immature

animals).

of specimens born during the previous June-
July, (2) specimens with testis weights between
39 and 56 mgs — this group would have been
born during the previous February-March in
which case they are about 7 to 8 months of
age, and (3) specimens with testis weight of
87 mg and above — these animals would
have been born either in June- July of the
previous calendar year (that is, they are
about 15 to 16 months of age) or during
February-March of the previous year (that is,
19 to 20 months of age).

The specimens collected during the sexually
active period during January-March also could
be classified into three categories apart from
those born during February-March of the same
year and are mostly sucking animals: (1)

animals with a testis weight of 37 mg and
less — these are evidently the specimens born
during June- July of the previous calendar year.

(2) specimens with a testis weight between
64 and 78 mg — these would have been bom
during February-March of the previous calen-
dar year and. hence, would be 12 to 13 months
of age. and (3) specimens whose testis weighed
87 mg and more — there are fully sexually
mature and would not have been born later
than June-July two calendar years before, so
that they are at least 19 to 20 months of age
before reaching sexual maturity.

From the foregoing analysis it is evident
that the specimens born in June-July come to
sexual activity during September-October of
the following calendar year, that is, when they
reach an age of 15 to 16 months. On the other
hand, animals born in February-March come
to their first sexual activity during September-
October of the following calendar year when
they are 19 to 20 months of age. This diffe-
rence in the age for attaining sexual maturity

140

REPRODUCTION THE FRUIT BAT, CYNOPTERUS SPHINX

between the two groups of animals born dur-
ing the two seasons of parturition is due to
the fact that when the specimens born in
February-March attain an age of 15 to 16
months the breeding season would not have
commenced, and hence, they would have to
wait another 3 or 4 months to experience their
first sexual cycle with the onset of the breeding
season during September-Cctober.

Figure 4 is a scatter diagram of the body
weight of the male specimens of this species
collected on different dates. From this figure
it is evident that adult and immature speci-
mens occur throughout the year. Further,

after attaining a certain body weight the
sexually immature specimens cannot be dis-
tinguished from the mature ones on the basis
of the body weight. Many immature speci-
mens weigh as much as or even more than
mature specimens.

Ack nowledgements

1 am grateful to Prof. A. Gopalakrishna for
his guidance and encouragement throughout
the progress of this work. T thank the U.G.C.
for awarding a Junior Research Fellowship
for carrying out this work.

References

Baker, J. R. & Baker, Z. (1936): The seasons
in a tropical rain forest (New Hebrides). Part III.
Fruit bats (Pteropidae) . /. Linn. Sco. London, 40:
123-141.

Baker, J. R. & Bird, T. F. (1936): The seasons
in a tropical rain forest (New Hebrides). Part IV.
Insectivorous bats (Vespertilionidae and Rhinolo-
phidae). ibid.. 40: 143-161.

Courrier, R. (1927) : Etude sur la determinisme
des characters sexuals secondaires chez quelques
mammiferes a activite testiculaire periodique. Arch,
de Biol. (Paris), 37: 173-334.

Gopalakrishna, A. (1947): Studies on the em-
bryology of Microchiroptera — Part I. Reproduc-
tion and breeding seasons in the South Indian
Vespertilionid bat, Scotophilus wroughtoni (Thomas).
Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 26: 219-232.

(1948): Studies on the em-
bryology of Microchiroptera — Part II. Reproduc-
tion in the male Vespertilionid bat, Scotophilus
wroughtoni (Thomas), ibid., 27: 137-151.

— (1949) : Studies on the em-
bryology of Microchiroptera — Part III. Histolo-
gical changes in the genital organs and the accessory
reproductive structures during the sex-cycle of the
Vespertilionid bat, Scotophius wroughtoni (Thomas),
ibid., 30: 17-46.

(1954): Breeding habits of

the Indian sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus
(Hardwicke). Curr. Sci., 23 : 60-61.

— — (1955): Observations on the

breeding habits and ovarian cycle in the Indian
sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus (Hard-
wicke). Proc. Nat. Inst. India, 21: 29-41.

— & Bhatia, D. (1983): Breed-
ing habits and associated phenomena in some In-
dian bats — Part VII. Hipposideros speoris
(Schneider) (Hipposideridae) from Chandrapur.
Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 79: 549-556.

& Choudhari, P. N. (1977):

Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some
Indian bats — Part I. Rousettus leschenaulti
(Desmarest) — Megachiroptera. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 74: 1-16.

— & Ramakrishna, P. A. (1977):

Some reproductive anomalies in the Indian rufus
horse-shoe bat, Rhinolophus rouxi (Temminck).
Curr . Sci. 46: 767-770.

Guthrie, M. J. (1933): The reproductive cycles
of some cave bats. J. Mammal. 14: 199-215.

Madhavan, A. (1971): Breeding habits of the
Indian Vespertilionid bat, Pipistrellus ceylonicus
chrysothrix (Wroughton). Mammalia, 35: 283-306.

Matthews, L. H. (1937): The female sexual
cycle in the British horse-shoe bats, Rhinolophus
ferrum-equinum insulanus (Barrett- Hamilton) and
R. hipposideros minutus (Montague). Trans. Zool.
Soc. London, 23 : 224-266.

Mutere, F. A. (1967) : The breeding biology of
equatorial vertebrates. Reproduction in the fruit bat.

141

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Eidolon helvum at latitude 0°-20' N. J. Zool. Lon-
don, 153 : 153-161.

Pearson, O. P.. Koford, M. R. & Pearson, A. K.
norhinus rafinesquei ) in California. /. Mammal., 23 :
(1952) : Reproduction of the lump-nosed bat (Cory-
273-320.

Ramakrishna, P. A. (1947): Post-partum oestrus
in the short-nosed fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx
sphinx. Curr. Set, 16: 186.

& rao, K.V.B. (1977): Re-
productive adaptations in the Indian rhinolophid bat,
Rhinolophus rouxi (Ternm.). Curr. Sci., 46 : 270-271.

Ramaswamy, K. R. (1961) : Studies on the sex-
cycle of the Indian vampire bat, Megaderma lyra
lyra (Geoffroy). Proc. Nat. Sci. India, 27 : 287-302.

Richardson, E. G. (1977): The biology and evo-
lution of the reproductive cycle of Miniopterus
schreibersii and M. australis. (Chiroptera- Vesperti-
lionidae). J. Zool. London, 183: 353-375.

Rollinat. R. & Trouessart, E. (1895a): Sur la
reproduction des Cheiropteres. Compt. Rend., Soc.
Biol. Ser. 10: 534.

(1895b): Sur la

reproduction des Chauves Souris. Bull. Soc. Zool.

20: 207.

(1896): —

do Vespertilio murinus. Mem. Soc.

Zool. France. 9: 214-240.

(1897): —

do les Rhinolophes. ibid. 10:

114-138.

Sandhu, S. (1982): Female reproductive beha-
viour of the fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl).
Proc. hid. Sci. Congr. Assoc. 70: 31.

— (1984): Breeding biology of the

Indian fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) in Cen-
tral India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 81: 600-611.

Wimsatt, W. A. (1942): Survival of spermatozoa
in the female reproductive tract of the bat. Anat.
Rec. 83 : 299-307.

(1944): Further studies on the

survival of spermatozoa in the female reproductive
tract of the bat. ibid. 88: 93-104.

& Trapido, H. (1952) : Repro-
duction and the female reproductive cycle in the
tropical American vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus
murinus. Amer. J. Anat., 91: 415-446.

142

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

FIVE NEW SPECIES OF TENTHREDO LINNAEUS
(HYMENOPTERA: TENTHREDINIDAE) FROM THE

GARHWAL HILLS1

Devinder Singh and Malkiat S. Saini2
( With twenty-one text-figures )

Five new species of Tenthredo are reported from Garhwal hills, viz. T. variolata,
T. pseudofrontatus, T. acupunctata, T. serrulata and T. gopeshwari. Apart from illus-
trating the genitalia, the new species have been separated from already reported
related taxa. The population variation, if any, has also been discussed.

Introduction

Malaise's (1945) paper gives an exhaustive
study of the taxonomy of Indian Tenthredo
and includes a compilation of almost all the
earlier works for southeast Asia, and has
18 new species of this genus from India.
Muche’s (1982. 1983) are the only works
after Malaise (1945), which make an addi-
tion of 3 new species to that known earlier
bringing the total number of species so far
described from this country to 82. In the
present study, which is one of the series of
papers dealing with new records of Tenthredo
from India, five new species are reported from
the Garhwal hills (Uttar Pradesh). So far, this
area has remained unexplored for sawflies.

The terminology used by Ross (1937, 1945)
and Malaise (1945) has been followed.

The holotypes and paratypes are presently
with the collection of the authors and will be
submitted to IARI, Pusa National Collection,
New Delhi (India), after this paper is
published.

1 Accepted May 1986.

2 Department of Zoology, Punjabi University,
Patiala-147 002. India.

Tenthredo variolata sp. nov.

(Figs. L 6, 11, 14, 17)

female: Average length 11.5 mm. Body
black except lateral side of mandible; broad
medial spot on clypeus; small anterolateral
spot on pronotum and broad hind margin of
metepisternum; yellowish white. Siennous are:
broad dorsal angle of pronotum; propodeum
except narrow basal margin; broad apical
margin of abdominal segment 5; medial spot
along posterior margins of terga 8 and 9.
Following arc yellowish brown: tegula; front
side of distal 3/4 of profemur and tibia; pro-
and mesotarsi except infuscated tips of joints.
Wings light brownish hyaline, fore one with
distinctly infuscated oblique stripe from apex
almost to base, costa and stigma reddish brown,
venation light brown to fuscous.

Antenna strongly incrassate before apex, 1 .3x
head width, segments 3 and 4 in ratio 9:4;
clypeus (Fig. 1) roundly emarginate upto 1/7
of its medial length with truncate lateral teeth:
labrum subpentagonal, broader than long in
ratio 4:3 with roundly pointed anterior margin;
malar space equal to diameter of lateral
ocellus; LID: IDMO : EL - 2. 0:3. 4:2. 5;

143

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

OOL : POL : OCL - 2 . 6 : 1 . 0 : 1 . 8; frontal
area slightly above level of eyes; supra-antennal
tubercle indistinct and confluent with similar
frontal ridge; median fovea shallow with faint
longitudinal carina; circum-, inter- and post-
ocellar and lateral furrows fine and clear;
poatocellar area almost flat, broader than long
in ratio 3:2; head slightly narrowing behind
eyes; 1TD : ICD -- 2.6: 1.0; mesoscutellum
gibbose; appendage carinate; mesepisternum
roundly and strongly raised; mesosternum lack-
ing thorns; apical tooth of claw (Fig. 6) in-
distinctly longer than subapical; metabasitarsus
as long as following 3 joints combined; meta-
femur distinctly shorter than tibia.

Head covered with large, deep and almost
confluent punctures of irregular size, hind orbit
minutely punctured with scattered large punc-
tures; meson otum and scutellum punctured like
face above; appendage with few large punc-
tures; metanotum minutely and distinctly
punctured; metascutellum impunctate; mese-
pisternum with large, deep, pit-like and isolat-
ed punctures along with smaller ones on inter-
vening spaces; mesosternum finely punctured;
propodeum polished, remaining terga micro-
sculptured.

Lancet (Fig. 17) broadened in middle with
20 serrulae, each serrula is triangular having
2-5 anterior and 8-10 distinct posterior sub-
basal teeth.

male: Length. 7.5 mm. Similar to female
except: labrum with whitish basal spot; meso-
femur having sordid white distal spot on front
side. Penis valve (Fig. 11) and gonoforceps
(Fig. 14).

Abbreviations (in text)

EL — eye length; ICD — intercencheri distance;
ID MO — interocular distance at level of median
ocellus; ITD — intertegular distance; LID — lower
interocular distance; OCL — Oculo-occipital line;
OOL — oculo-ocellar line; POL-postocellar line.

Material examined : Holotype, Female, Uttar
Pradesh. Mandal — 2300 m, 10.6.1983.

Paratypes: 10$ $, 1 d\ with same data as
holotype.

Remarks’. This species shows some resem-
blance to T. odynerina (Malaise, 1934). How-
ever. it can be separated from the latter by
the black scape, siennous stripe along posterior
margins of terga 1,5.8 and 9 and flat post-
ocellar area with fine lateral furrow.

In T. odynerina the scape is pale, terga 1,4
and 7-9 have pale stripe along posterior mar-
gins and postocellar area is subconvex with deep
lateral furrow.

Etymology’. The species name pertains to
punctures of head and thorax which are deep
pit-like, resembling marks of small pox.

Tenthredo pseudofrontatus sp. nov.

(Figs. 2,7,12,15,18)

female: Average length, 10.7 mm. Body
black, whitish are: lateral side of mandible;
large basal spot on labrum; broad lateral spots
confluent in middle on clypeus; triangular spot
on lower hind orbit touching eye; dorsal angle
and spot along posterior margin of pronotum;
tegula except medial spot; ridges lateral to
meso- and metascutelli; anterolateral spot on
appendage; spot on metepisternum: lateral side
and narrow hind margin of propodeum; antero-
lateral deflexed margin of tergum 4; spots on
lateral margins of terga 7 and 8 and posterior
margins of corresponding sterna; front side of
proleg except base of coxa, tips of meso- and
metacoxae, meso- and metatrochanters, meso-
femur and tip of tibia. Black of abdomen with
bluish tinge. Forewing having distinctly infus-
cated cross band over stigma, its base clear
while apex subinfuscated beyond stigma, hind-
wing clear, stigma and venation dark brown
to black.

Antenna stout, distinctly compressed. 2.5x

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

head width, segments 3 and 4 in ratio 10:9;
clypeus (Fig. 2) arcuateiy incised upto 1/4 of
its medial length; labrum broader than long
in ratio 5:4 with narrowly rounded anterior
margin; malar space 0.7x diameter of lateral
ocellus; LlD:IDMO:EL = 2.0:3 .6:3 .5; OOL:
POL : OCL = 2. 6:1. 0:2. 3; frontal area below
level of eyes; supra-antennal tubercle raised
and confluent with similar frontal ridge;
median fovea shallow; circumocellar furrow
clear, interocellar furrow very deep, post-
ocellar one inconspicuous; lateral furrow nar-
row and deep; postocellar area subconvex with
faint longitudinal carina, broader than long in
ratio 5:4; head narrowing behind eyes; ITD:
ICD = 2. 9: 1.0; mesoscutellum slightly raised;
appendage faintly carinate; mesepisternum ob-
tusely raised with short and blunt carina at
apex; mesosternum faintly angled without
thorns; apical tooth of claw (Fig. 7) slightly
shorter than subapical; metabasitarsus shorter
than following 3 joints combined; metafemur
slightly longer than tibia.

Head shining having minute and scattered
punctures, frontal area with distinct punctures,
hind orbit minutely and densely punctured;
mesonotum polished; mesoscutellum with wide-
ly separated distinct punctures on posterior
slope only; appendage, metanotum and scutel-
lum impunctate; mesepisternum minutely
punctured with deep and large punctures along
convexity; mesosternum distinctly punctured;
abdomen shining with few minute and scatter-
ed punctures.

Lancet (Fig. 18) with 26 serrulae, each
serrula is deep having 2-3 irregular anterior
and 5-6 lobe-like posterior subbasal teeth.

male: Average length, 8.1 mm. Similar to
female except: clypeus and labrum totally
whitish; appendage without white spot; meta-
femur with dirty white stripe on underside of
basal half; all sterna with whitish hind margin;

crossband of forewing less distinct. Penis valve
(Fig. 12) and gonoforceps (Fig. 15).

Material examined : Holotype, Female,

Uttar Pradesh. Mandal — 2000 m, 15.6.1985.

Paratypes: 4 9 9,3 dd, with same data
as holotype.

Remarks : This species belongs to a small
group of two species having forewing with
distinctly infuscated crossband over stigma and
shows remarkable similarity to T. frontatus
Malaise, 1945. However, it can be differen-
tiated from the latter on account of the apex
of the forewing infuscated beyond stigma,
antenna 2.5x head width with segment 3 lon-
ger than 4, mesonotum and scutellar appendage
polished, mesepisternum minutely punctured
with deep and scattered punctures along con-
vexity and lancet with 24 serrulae, each having
5-6 posterior subbasal teeth.

In T. frontatus apex of forewing is clear
beyond stigma, antenna is 3.2 x head width
with segment 3 shorter than 4, mesonotum is
distinctly punctured and scutellar appendage
wrinkled, mesepisternum is rugose along con-
vexity and lancet has 31 serrulae, each having
2-4 posterior subbasal teeth.

Etymology. The species name pertains to
its remarkable similarity with T. frontatus.

Tenthredo acu punctata sp. nov.

(Figs. 3,8, 13, 16, 19)

female: Average length 11.9 mm. Body
pale yellow, black are: tip of antennal seg-
ment 6 and 7-9 entirely; mandible tip; frontal
spot anteriorly covering basal half of supra-
antennal tubercle, laterally not extending be-
yond lateral fovea and posteriorly reaching
up to anterolateral comer of postocellar area;
spot outer to supraantennal tubercle continuous
with frontal spot; broad stripe aldiig anterior
margin of pronotum; anterior margin of meso-
notal middle lobe and broad spot on lateral

145

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

JFfgs. 1-16. Clypeus — 1. T. variolata, 2. T. pseudofrontatus, 3. T. acupunctata,
4. T. serrulata, 5. T. gopeshwari; Tarsal Claw — 6. T. variolata, 7. T. pseudo-
frontatus, 8. T. acupunctata, 9. T. serrulata, 10. T. gopeshwari ; Penis Valve — 11. T.
variolata, 12. T. pseudofrontatus, 13. T. acupunctata ; Gonoforceps — 14. T. vario-
lata, 15. T. pseudofrontatus, 16. T. acupunctata.

Figs. 1-5 at magnification a
Figs. 6-10 at magnification b

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

21

Figs. 17-21. Lancet — 17. T. variolata, 18. T. pseudofrontatus, 19. T. acupunctata,
20. T. sermlata, 21. T. gopeshwari.

147

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

lobe; visible part of mesopostnotum; spot on
metanotum lateral to scutellum; irregular hind
margin of metapostnotum; stripes along dorsal
margin of mesepimeron and anterior margin
of episternum; band along anterior border of
mesosternum extending over its boundary with
pleuron; large spot on metepisternum; proxi-
mal angle of mesocoxa and outer stripe on
metacoxa; stripe along distal 2/3 of pro- and
mesofemora posteriorly; basal spot on meta-
femur; metatibia except both ends. Abdomen
having infuscated lateral spots along posterior
borders of terga 2-6. Wings hyaline, costa and
stigma yellowish, venation brown to black.

Antenna faintly compressed towards apex,
3.4 x head width, segment 3 indistinctly shorter
than 4; clypeus (Fig. 3) roundly, narrowly
incised upto 2/7 of its medial length with
truncate lateral teeth; labrum indistinctly
broader than long with rounded anterior mar-
gin; malar space equal to diameter of lateral
ocellus; LID: iDMO:EL = 2. 0:2. 3:3. 3;

OOL: POL: OCL = 3 .9: 1 .0:2.8; frontal area
below level of eyes; supraantennal tubercle
distinctly raised, sloping back and confluent
with low frontal ridge; median fovea deep and
distinct in anterior half only; circum- and
postocellar furrows indistinct, interocellar one
clear; lateral furrow deep; postocellar area
slightly raised, broader than long in ratio 5:4;
head narrowing behind eyes; 1TD : ICD = 3.3:
1.0; mesoscutellum roundly raised; appendage
faintly carinate; mesepisternum obtusely raised
without carina or acute apex; mesosternum
without thorns; apical tooth of claw (Fig. 8)
slightly longer than subapical; metabasitarsus
as long as following 3 joints combined; meta-
femur slightly shorter than tibia.

Head, mesonotum and scutellum subshining,
minutely, shallowly and densely punctured;
appendage with few large and shallow punc-
tures; metanotum and scutellum shallowly
punctured; mesepisternum finely punctured

with sebaceous lustre; mesosternum densely
punctured and faintly microsculptured; abdo-
men microsculptured.

Lancet (Fig. 19) with 24 serrulae, each
serrula is somewhat pointed having no anterior
and about 9 posterior subbasal teeth.

male: Average length, 9.5 mm. Similar to
female except: antennal segments 1-3 and

basal half of 4 with black outer stripe; pro-
and mesotibiae and tarsi striped with black
posteriorly; basal 1/2 of metafemur black from
upperside; first and last tarsal joints of metaleg,
black. Penis valve (Fig. 13) and gonoforceps
(Fig. 16).

Material examined: Holotype, Female, Uttar
Pradesh, Chopta — 3000 m, 16.6.1985.

Paratypes : 3 $ ? , 3 cf cf , with same data as
holotype.

Population variation : Metatibia only faintly
infuscated in middle; abdomen without infus-
cated spots.

Remarks : Applying Malaise’s (1945) key,
this new species shows some similarity to T .
lissuana. Malaise, 1945 and T. tibetana Malaise,
1945. However, it can be distinguished from
both on account of having the tip of antennal
segment 6 and 7-9 entirely black, abdomen
pale, at the most with small infuscated spots
on terga 2-6. supraantennal tubercle and
frontal ridge confluent, mesepisternum
roundly raised without carina, head minutely
and shallowly punctured and mesepisternum
minutely punctured.

In T. lissuana the antenna is entirely pale,
each abdominal tergum has large black spot,
mesepisternum is flat with strong curved carina
and head is coarsely punctured.

In T. tibetana the supra-antennal tubercle
and frontal ridge are separated by broad
furrow, the head is smooth and shining and
mesepisternum is rugose along convexity.

Etymology: The species name pertains to
fine and superficial punctures of body.

148

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Tenthredo serrulata sp. nov.

(Figs. 4,9,20)

female: Length, 13.7 mm. Body pale to
reddish yellow, black are: antenna except

underside of scape; mandible tip; frontal spot
anteriorly covering median fovea leaving tip
of supraantennal tubercle, extending laterally
without reaching eye and posteriorly touching
hypothetical hind margin of head; postocellar
area; most of posterior side of head; transverse
medial stripe without reaching lateral margin
and small spot at dorsal angle of pronotum;
mesonotum except triangular apex of middle
lobe and minute spot outer to mesoscutellum
on lateral lobe; visible part of mesopostnotum;
metanotum except spot on deflexed part; hind
margin of metapostnotum; very narrow stripe
along each pleural suture; propodeum except
deflexed side and triangular medial spot along
hind margin; narrow basal margin of tergum
2, interrupted in middle; metatibia except
distal end. Apex of abdomen on dorsal side
from tergum 6, tips of tibiae and tarsal joints,
reddish brown. Wings yellowish hyaline, fore
one infumated towards apex, stigma reddish
yellow, venation dark brown to black.

Antenna stout, faintly compressed towards
apex, 2. Ox head width, segments 3 and 4 in
ratio 3:2; clypeus (Fig. 4) roundly and narrow-
ly incised upto 1/6 of its medial length with
truncate lateral teeth; labrum indistinctly
longer than broad with rounded anterior mar-
gin; malar space 1.6x diameter of lateral
ocellus; LID : IDMO : EL = 2.0 : 3.1 : 2.6;
OOL : POL : OCL I 3.7 : 1 .0 : 3.1; frontal
area slightly below level of eyes; supraanten-
nal tubercle distinctly raised and confluent
with similar frontal ridge; median fovea narrow
and deep with distinct pit in middle; circum-,
inter- and postocellar furrows distinct; lateral
furrow sunken; postocellar area convex with
faint indication of longitudinal carina, as long

as broad; head slightly dilated behind eyes;
ITD: ICD = 2. 9: 1.0; mesoscutellum subpyra-
midal; appendage bluntly carinate; mesepister-
num obtusely raised with apex compressed and
truncate; mesosternum slightly cornered but
without thorns; apical tooth of claw (Fig. 9)
longer than subapical; metabasitarsus shorter
than following 3 joints combined; metafemur
as long as tibia.

Head shining with minute and scattered
punctures on hind orbit; mesonotum and ante-
rior slope of scutellum polished; posterior
slope or mesoscutellum and appendage with
few minute punctures; metanotum and scutel-
lum impunctate; mesepisternum with minute
and indistinct punctures along with sebaceous
lustre; mesosternum distinctly punctured;
abdomen faintly microstriated and minutely
punctured.

Lancet (Fig. 20) with 33 serrulae, each
serrula is deep having single lobe-like anterior
and 3-4 irregular posterior subbasal teeth.

male : Unknown.

Material examined : Holotype, Female,

Uttar Pradesh, Chopta — 3000 m, 25.6.1985.

Paratype : No.

Remarks'. This species shows close simila-
rity to a Burmese species T. flavobrunneus
Malaise, 1945. However, it can be differentiat-
ed from the latter by the frontal spot not
touching eyes, postocellar area entirely black,
costa black and appendage with some distinct
punctures.

In T. flavobrunneus the frontal spot is con-
nected with eye, hind margin of postocellar
area is pale, costa is reddish yellow and appen-
dage is polished.

Etymology’. The species name pertains to
characteristic shape of serrulae.

Tenthredo gopeshwari sp. nov.

(Figs. 5, 10, 21)

female: Average length, 13.2 mm. Body

149

11

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

reddish yellow with following black: tip of
antennal segment 1, 2-5 entirely and imme-
diate base of 6; mandible tip; spot near
anterior margin of mesonotal middle lobe and
large spot on lateral lobe; spot lateral to cen-
chrus; lateral spot on metapostnotum; large
spot on metepimeron; metepistemum; dim
anteromedial and lateral spots on propodeum:
terga 6-9 except deflexed sides; sawsheath. Pale
yellow are: antennal segment 6 except base,
7-9 entirely; face below antenna; narrow inner
and lower hind orbits; posterolateral spot on
pronotum; triangular apex of mesonotal middle
lobe; mesoscutellum. Tips of all tarsal joints
faintly infumated. Wings yellowish hyaline,
apex of fore one distinctly infuscated upto distal
end of stigma, hindwing faintly infumated
towards apex, costa and stigma fulvous with
infuscated spot on latter, venation dark brown
to black.

Antenna filiform, 2.8x head width, segments
3 and 4 in ratio 10: 11; clypeus (Fig. 5) round-
ly incised upto 2/7 of its medial length with
irregular anterior margin; labrum broader than
long in ratio 4:3 with rounded anterior mar-
gin; malar space equal to diameter of lateral
ocellus; LID : IDMO : EL = 2 . 0 : 3 . 3 : 3 . 0; OOL :
POL: OCL = 3. 4: 1.0:2. 4; frontal area be-
low level of eyes; supraantennal tubercle dis-
tinctly raised and confluent with similar frontal
ridge; median fovea narrow with longitudinal
carina in anterior half; circum-, inter- and post-
ocellar furrows sharp; lateral furrow fine and
deep, diverging posteriorly; postocellar area
slightly raised with faint longitudinal carina.
broader than long in ratio 5:4; head narrow-
ing behind eyes; ITD: ICD = 3. 8: 1.0; mesos-
cutellum roundly raised; appendage faintly
carinate; mesepisternum roundly raised; meso-
stemum lacking thorns; apical tooth of claw
(Fig. 10) slightly shorter than subapical; meta-
basitarsus longer than following 3, but shorter

than all remaining joints combined; metafemur
as long as tibia.

Head and mesonotum polished; mesoscutel-
lum with a few distinct punctures on posterior
slope only; appendage faintly wrinkled; meta-
notum and scutellum impunctate; mesepister-
num with sebaceous lustre having shallow and
scattered punctures; mesosternum distinctly
punctulate; propodeum polished, remaining
terga minutely and finely punctured.

Lancet (Fig. 21) with 25 serrulae, each
serrula is almost flat having 1-2 anterior and
about 11 posterior subbasal teeth.

male: Unknown.

Material examined : Holotype, Female, Uttar
Pradesh, Mandal — 2300 m, 16.6.1985.

Paratypes : 4 9 $ , with same data as holo-
type.

Population variation : Tergum 5 completely
black.

Remarks : In the peculiar colour of the
antenna this species does not show relationship
with any other species. However, it shows a
distant similarity to T. purpureipennis Malaise,
1945 but can be easily separated from the
latter on account of having black antenna
with pale yellow apical segments, supra-
antennal tubercle and frontal ridge confluent
and apical tooth of claw shorter than subapical.

In T. purpureipennis the antenna is black
with basal 3 segments reddish, supra-antennal
tubercle is separated from frontal ridge and
apical tooth of claw is longer than subapical.

Etymology : The species name has been taken
from the city situated near its type locality.

Ack nowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. D. R. Smith of Syste-
matic Entomology Laboratory c/o USNM, for
his helpful suggestions. The financial assistance
rendered by ICAR and DST, New Delhi, for
the research projects under which this work
has been completed, is gratefully acknowledged.

150

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

References

Malaise, R. (1934): On some sawflies (Hyme.:
Tenthre.) from Indian Museum, Calcutta. Rec. Ind.
Mus. Calcutta, 36: 453-474.

(1945): Tenthredinoidea of south-
eastern Asia with a general zoogeographical review.
Opus. Ent., SuppL, 4: 288 pp.

Muche, W. H. (1982): Beitrag zur Blattwespen-
fauna von Indien und Pakistan, mit Beschreibung
einer neuen Art Sowie unterart (Hymenoptera :
Symphyta: .Tenthredinidae). Reichenbachia Mus.

Tierk Dresden, 20(15): 113-117.

Muche, W. H. (1983) : Die von Herm Dr. W.
Wittmer in Indien und Bhutan geasmmelten Blatt-
wespen, Mit Beschreibung von sechs neuen Arten
der Tenthredinidae (Hymenoptera: Symphyta).

Reichenbachia Mus. Tierk. Dresden, 27(29) : 167-180.

Ross, H. H. (1937) : A generic classification of
the Nearctic sawflies (Hymenoptera: Symphyta).

III. Biol. Mono., 34: 173 pp.

(1945): Sawfly genitalia: Termino-
logy and study techniques. Ent. News., 56: 261-268.

A NEW SPECIES OF STICTOPISTHUS THOMSON (HYMENOPTERA:
ICHNEUMON1D AE ) FROM INDIA1 2

L. J. Kanhekar8 and P. K. Nikam3 * *

( With four text-figures)

Stictopisthus carinata sp. nov. is described and a key to the Indo-Australian
species of Stictopisthus is provided.

Introduction

Stictopisthus Thomson (Hymenoptera: Ich-
neumonidae: Mesochorinae) is a moderate

sized genus with worldwide distribution. Species
of this genus are secondary parasitoids of lepi-
dopterous larvae and hyperparasitoids of species
of Euphorus Nees and Cotesia (- Apanteles)
Cameron (Braconidae). Townes et al. (1961)
recorded seven species from Indo-Australian
region, namely Stictopisthus australiensis
Szepligeti from Australia, S. javensis Ferriere
from Java, S. guamensis Townes from Micro-
nesia and Mesochorus hapaliae Rao, M. panti

1 Accepted June 1986.

2 Post-graduate Research Centre, Department of
Zoology, Modem College, Pune-411005. Present
address: Dy. Director, Regional Filaria Training and
Research Centre, N.I.C.D.. Weavers Colony, Rajah-
mundry 533 105.

3 Entomology Research Laboratory, Department of

Zoology, Marathwada University, Aurangabad-

431 004.

Rao, M. plusiaephilus Viereck, and M. srina -
mini Gupta from India. Townes (1971) pro-
vided generic diagnosis, pictorial key and dis-
tribution of this genus. In the present study a
new species, Stictopisthus carinata is described
based on the material collected from Auranga-
bad, Maharashtra, India and a key to the
Indo-Australian species of Stictopisthus Thom-
son is provided.

The Types are with the authors for the time
being and will be deposited in National col-
lection of the Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta.

Stictopisthus carinata sp. nov.

female: 6.20 mm in length. Head (Figs.
2-3): 0.80 as long as broad, above 2x as
broad as thick; vertex weakly, sparsely punc-
tate; ocellar triangle moderately raised, sparse-
ly punctate; ocello-ocular distance 2x their
diameter; frons finely mat, above antennal

151

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

socket grooved, smooth, with paired, submedian
vertical weak carinae from median ocellus to
inner side of antennal sockets; face and
clypeus forming a broad surface; face sparsely
punctate, 0.85 as long as broad, baso-medially
weakly elevated, latrad to elevation weakly
depressed, apico-lateral corners obliquely, fine-
ly striate, upper margin with a transverse carina
that is straight across the mid line, laterally
weakly oblique above; clypeus apico-medially
subshiny, not separated by distinct groove,
clypeal fovae moderate; mandible moderately
elongate, weakly striato-punctate, teeth equal;
cheek as long as the basal width of mandible,
striate; maxillary palpi long, enough to reach
the centre of mesosternum; temple sparsely
punctate; occiput shiny; occipital carina com-
plete; genal carina joining to the oral carina
above the base of mandible.

Antenna : Equal to the body length; 2+33
segmented; first flagellar segment 1 . 10x as
long as the length of scape and pedicel com-
bined, 1.45x as long as the second segment;
terminal segment 2.50x as long as broad.

Thorax : 2.15x as long as broad; collar
subshiny, coarsely punctate, pronotum finely,
sparsely punctate, with deep oblique groove
behind collar, epomia weak; mesoscutum con-
vex, medially moderately and laterally finely
punctate, notaulii distinct; scutellum convex,
as long as broad, finely, sparsely punctate,
lateral carinae restricted to base; postscutellum
small, shiny; propleurum subshiny, sparsely
punxtate; mesopleurum dorso-anteriorly dense-
ly punctate, medially subshiny, with sparse,
minute punctures, rest sparsely punctate, pre-
pectal carina extending below the midheight
of mesopleurum, its upper end joining to front
of mesopleurum, postpectal carina incomplete,
sternaulus anteriorly strongly impressed, poste-
riorly weak, mesopleural impression in the
form of a pit, joining mesepimeron by weak
groove, speculum smooth; metapleurum fine-

ly, sparsely punctate; propodeum (Fig. 4)
evenly convex, finely, sparsely punctate, areola
elongate, 1 . 45x as long as broad, emitting
costulae at middle, propodeal spiracles large,
circular; hind femur 3.20x as long as broad,
basitarsus 0.95 as long as the length of rest
tarsus, claw weakly curved, simple.

Fore wings : 4.20 mm in length, 1.55 mm
in width; stigma 2.80x as long as broad, not
hyaline; basal abscissa of radius 0.50 the length
of its apical abscissa; areolet broadly petiolate,
0.80 as high as wide, receiving second recur-
rent near its middle; second recurrent 0.50 the
length of basal abscissa of subdiscoideus, api-
cally fenestrated, slightly inclivous; discocubi-
tus strongly arched; basal vein moderately
arched; nervulus distad by 0.75 its length,
vertical; basal abscissa of postnervulus as long
as its apical abscissa; second discoidal cell 2x
as long as broad; discocubital cell 1.55x as
long as broad.

Hind wings : 3.20 mm in length, 0.95 mm
in width; with 1+4-5 hamuli; basal abscissa
of radiella 0 . 25 the length of its apical abscissa;
latter with basal stub, rest in the form of a
trace; mediella strongly arched; basal abscissa
of cubitella as long as its apical abscissa, latter
in the form of a trace; discoidella absent; ner-
vellus straight, reclivous; brachiella traceable.

Abdomen : 1.20x as long as the length of
head and thorax combined; first tergite (Fig.
4) 2.50x as long as broad, with dorsolateral
and ventrolateral carinae, dorsally longitudi-
nally, closely acciculate, laterally subshiny,
spiracles at 0.50, glymma present; rest of the
tergites subshiny; thyridium present at the base
of second tergite; ovipositor sheath 7.25x as
long as wide. 0.50 as long as the length of
hind tibia; ovipositor long, straight.

Coloration : Pale-brown. Ocellar triangle,

first lateral area of propodeum blackish-brown;
mandibular teeth, ovipositor sheath, wing veins

152

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-4. Stictopisthus carinata sp. nov. $

1. Adult; 2. Head, frontal aspect; 3. Head, view from above; 4. Propodeum with

first and second tergites.

153

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

and stigma reddish-brown; hind tibia basally
and apically, first tergite medially, second
tergite latero-basally, third tergite apically
black.

male: Unknown.

Holotype : $ india: Maharashtra, Auran-
gabad, Cantonment, 5 . viii . 1982, on wing, coll.
L. J. Kanhekar. Antenna and wings mounted
on slides and labelled as above.

Paratypes : 2$ $, India: Maharashtra,

Aurangabad, Himayat Bagh, 1$, 30. xi. 1982,
on wing, coll. L. J. Kanhekar; 1 9 reared from
prepupae of Charops obtusa obtusa Morley.
10.x. 1975, coll. K. S. Heble.

Comments : Stictopisthas carinata, sp. nov.
resembles S. panti Rao and S. srinaraini Gupta
but readily differs from the former in having:
ocello-ocular distance 3 x the inter-ocellar dis-
tance, frons mat, face punctate, distally all
veins of fore wings joining to apical margin,
first tergite acciculate, spiracles at 0.50 and
second tergite longer than broad; however it
differs from the latter in the characters shown
in the key.

Key to the Indo- Australian species of
Stictopisthus Thomson

1. Areola basally open, long and narrow.

Micronesia guamensis Townes, 1958

— Areola basally close, short and wide 2

2. Nervulus interstitial or basal to basal vein 3

— Nervulus distal to basal vein 4

3. Propodeum blackish above; areola narrower at
base than apex; abdominal petiole as long as

postpetiole; mandibular teeth brown. India

plusiaephilus Viereck, 1913

■— Propodeum brownish or black; areola broader
at base than apex; abdominal petiole longer
than postpetiole; mandibular teeth black. Java

javensis Ferriere, 1925

4. Ovipositor as long as second abdominal tergite.
Antenna 20 segmented; occiput wrinkled; second
abdominal tergite broader than long. Australia
australiensis Szepligeti, 1914

— Ovipositor longer than second abdominal ter-
gite ’ 5

5. Antennae shorter than the body; face rugulose,

shiny; mesoscutum smooth and shiny; notauli
indistinct. India hapaliae Rao, 1953

— Antennae longer than or as long as the body;
face punctate or smooth; mesoscutum punctate;
notauli distinct except in srinaraini Gupta .... 6

6 . Ocello-ocular distance 1 . 35x the inter-ocellar
distance; face smooth; basal abscissa of radius
0. 30 the length of its apical abscissa. India ....

panti Rao, 1953

— Ocello-ocular distance 2-3x the inter-ocellar

distance; face punctate; basal abscissa of radius
0.45-0.50 the length of its apical abscissa 7

7. Vertex smooth; antennae 28 segmented; first

flagellar segment 1.55x as long as second seg-
ment; scutellum shiny; propodeum smooth;
post nervulus intercepted above the middle; api-
cal abscissa of cubitella and brachiella without
any trace; first tergite with a small knob-like
elevation in the middle of its apical margin.
India srinaraini Gupta, 1957

— Vertex sparsely punctate; antennae 35 segment-

ed; first flagellar segment 1.45x as long as
second segment; scutellum sparsely punctate;
propodeum sparsely punctate; postnervulus
intercepted at middle; apical abscissa of
cubitella and brachiella weakly traceable; first
tergite without any knob-like elevation. India
carinata, sp. nov.

ACK NOWLEDGE M E NTS

We are deeply indebted to Prof. R. Naga-
bhushanum. Head, Department of Zoology,
Marathwada University, Aurangabad for pro-
viding research facilities. The Senior author is
thankful to C.S.I.R.. New Delhi for awarding
the junior and senior research fellowships dur-
ing the tenure of his work.

154

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

References

Ferriere, Ch. (1925): Descriptions de deux nou-
veaux Hymenopteres parasites obtenus par de Dr. R.
Menzel de la punaise du the ( Helopeltis antonii
Sign.). Treubia 6: 455-458.

Gupta, V. K. (1957) : Some species of Apanteles
Foerster and their Hyperparasites from India with
descriptions of new species (parasitic Hymenoptera) .
Indian J. Ent. 19: 101-106.

Rao, S. N. (1953) : On a collection of Indian
Ichneumonidae (Hymenoptera) in the Forest Re-
search Institute, Dehra Dun. Indian Forest Rec. 8:
159-225.

Szepligeti, G. V. (1914): Ichneumon idcn aus der
sammlung des ungarischen National-Museum. Ann.
Mus. Natl. Hungarici 12: 425-434.

Townes, H. (1958): Insects of Micronesia

(Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae, Stephanidae and

Evaniidae). Insect Micronesia 19: 35-87.

(1971): The genera of Ichneu-
monidae, Part IV. Mem. Amer. Ent. Inst. 17:
1-372.

Viereck, H. L. (1913) : Description of six new
genera and twelve new species of Ichneumon-flies.
Proc. U.S. natn. Mus. 44: 639-648.

A NEW GALL-MIDGE OF THE GENUS LESTOD1PLOS1S KIEFFER
(DIPTERA: CECIDOMYIIDAE) FROM MAHARASHTRA, INDIA1

R. M. Sharma2

(With seven text-figures)

A new gall-midge species Lestodiplosis brevilobata, collected at light in Auranga-
bad, Maharashtra. India has been illustrated and described with a key to Indian
species.

Lestodiplosis brevilobata sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-7)

male: Body 1.16 mm long. Eyes confluent
above. Trophi slightly produced. Palpus :
quadriarticulate, moderately long, light-straw,
sparsely setose; first segment (10:6) short,
cylindrical, length 1.66 x its maximum thick-
ness; second segment (16:7) cylindrical,
length a little less than 2.30 x its maximum
thickness; third segment (15:6) cylindrical,
narrowed basally. shorter and thinner than
second, length 2.50 x its maximum thickness,
fourth segment (20:5) cylindrical, longest of
all, slightly thinner than third, narrower at base
than at apex, length 4.00 x its maximum
thickness. Antenna : longer than body, with

1 Accepted June 1986.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional
Station. Pune-411016, Maharashtra.

2 + 12 segments, flagellate segments binodose,
with long apical stems, enlargements with two
whorls of long setae, one on each enlargement,
with three whorls of long, regular circumfilla,
one on basal and two on apical enlargements,
basal and apical whorls of subequal length,
middle whorl shortest, circumfila loops nearly
as long as the diameter of the apical enlarge-
ments; scape (23:25) cup-shaped, wider than
long; pedicel (13:17) sub-globose, wider than
long; third segment (62) confluent with and
longer than fourth, with a very small basal
prolongation (2:4), basal enlargement (15:16)
0.24 the length of the segment and slightly
broader than long, basal stem (10:6) 0.66
the length of the basal enlargement and 1.66x
its maximum thickness, apical enlargement
(21:17) longer than basal. 0.33 the length of
the segment and 1 . 23 x its maximum thick-
ness, apical stem (13:7) shorter than apical

155

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

enlargement, length a little less than 2.00 x
its maximum thickness, fourth segment (60)
with basal enlargement (14:18) 0.23 the length
of the segment and broader than long, basal
stem (10:6) 0.71 the length of the basal
enlargement and 1.66x its maximum thick-
ness: apical enlargement (20:17) longer than
basal, 0.33 the length of the segment and 1.17 x
its maximum thickness, apical stem (16:7)
shorter than apical enlargement, length 2.28 x
its maximum thickness; fifth segment similar
and as long as fourth; sixth to tenth segments
nearly similar to each other but shorter than
fifth (58); eleventh and twelfth segments simi-
lar but shorter than tenth (57); penultimate
segment (56) shorter than twelfth, basal
enlargement (9:13) 0.16 the length of the
segment and 1.44x as broad as long, basal
stem (14:4) 1.55x longer than basal enlarge-
ment and 3.50x as long as thick; apical
enlargement (17:12) 0.30 the length of the
segment, slightly less than twice the length of
the basal enlargement and 1 .41 x its maximum
thickness, apical stem (15:4) shorter than
apical enlargement, length 3.75 x its maximum
thickness; terminal segment (46) shortest of
all, basal enlargement (9:12) a little less than
0.20 the length of the segment and 1.33 x as
broad as long, basal stem (13:4) 1 .44x longer
than basal enlargement, slightly more than
3.00x as long as thick, apical enlargement
(20:10) 0.40 the length of the segment, more
than twice the length of the basal enlargement
and 2.00 x as long as thick, apical stem in
the form of an apical nipple-like prolongation
(4:3). Wing : (65:30) hyaline, neither too

long nor too broad, 2.16x as long as broad,
vein Rs absent, vein R5 reaching wing margin
beyond apex and interrupting costa at its
union, vein Cu forked. Legs', long, hairy, meta-
tarsus (8) as long as terminal tarsal segment
(8), second tarsal segment (36) longest of all
and longer than the following segments com-

Figs. 1-7. Lestodiplosis brevilobata, sp. nov. S
1. Genitalia (dorsal view); 2. wing; 3. third and
fourth antennal segments; 4. penultimate and termi-
nal antennal segments; 5. palpus; 6. claw; 7. scape
and pedicel.

bined together (31); claw evenly curved, sickle-
shaped. simple on all legs; empodium

(10:10) narrow, as long as claw. Genitalia :
brown, sparsely setose, basal clasp segment
(58:23) cylindrical with a very small tiny
triangular, setose, basal lobe, length slightly
more than 2 . 50 x its maximum thickness;
terminal clasp segment (45:6) slender, gra-
dually tapering towards the tip and ending in
a pointed tooth. 0.77 the length of the basal
clasp segment and 7.50x as long as thick;
dorsal plate cup-shaped, bilobed, margins of
the lobes setose, subdorsal plate entire, longer
than dorsal plate, flattened with sclerotized
extreme apex, setose; aedeagus (55:9) cylin-
drical, shorter than basal clasp segment broad

15 6

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

medially, length 6 . 1 1 x its maximum thickness,
tip shallowly notched in the middle.

female: Unknown.

Holotype : Male dissected and mounted on
slide labelled “at light, at Harsul Power Station,
Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India, R. M.
Sharma, Coll, dated 28.viii. 1976.” Type slides
are deposited in the collections of Z.S.I., Pune
for the present.

Paratypes : Four males dissected and mount-
ed on slides, labelled as in Holotype.

Etymology : The specific epithet refers to a
very small basal lobe of basal clasp segment.

This species resembles closely L. lunata
Grover and Bakshi as shown in the Key.

Key to Indian species of Lestodiplosis kieffer

— Basal clasp segment with a tiny or with no

prominent basal lobe 7

5. Lobe of basal clasp segment setose 6

— Lobe of basal clasp segment asetose, subdorsal
plate emarginate apically emarginata

Sharma & Rao 1979

6. Lobe of basal clasp segment long and auricu-

late, subdorsal plate entire, rounded apically
auriculata Grover 1979

— Lobe of basal clasp segment short and elon-

gated. subdorsal plate short and compressed . .
erect a (Nayar) 1949

7. Basal clasp segment without prominent basal

lobe, dorsal plate bilobed, lobes rounded api-
cally, subdorsal plate linear, broad, arched api-
cally lunata Grover & Bakshi 1977-78

— Basal clasp segment with a tiny triangulalr basal

lobe, dorsal plate bilobed. lobes flattened api-
cally. subdorsal plate entire, rounded apically
brevilobata sp. nov.

1 . Palpi triarticulate jonesi (Nayar) 1949

t**. Palpi quadriarticulate 2

2. Wings spotted triangularis

Grover & Bakshi 1977-78
-- Wings not spotted 3

3. Circumfila loops regular 4

— Circumfila loops irregular, dorsal plate bilobed

with basal spines, subdorsal plate elliptically
linear heterofila (Grover) 1965

4. Basal clasp segment with prominent basal lobe

5

Acknowledgements

I express my gratefulness to Dr. B. K. Tika-
der. Director. Zoological Survey of India, Cal-
cutta and Dr. B. S. Lamba, Joint Director-in-
Charge, Z.S.I.. Pune for facilities. My thanks
are also due to Prof. S. N. Rao (Retd.) for
his constant inspiration and keen interest in my
studies on Indian gall-midges.

References

Grover, P. (1965): Studies on Indian gall-midges
XIV. One new genus and seven new species of
Trifilini (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera). Marcellia, 32(1):
21-61.

— — — — — - (1979): Studies on Gall-midges
from India XLIII. A Revision of the subfamily Ceci-
domyiidae. Cecidologia indica 14(1-3) : 10-186.

Grover, P. & Bakshi, M. (1977-78): On the
study of one new genus and thirty-one new species

of gall-midges (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera) from India.
Cecidologia indica, 12 & 75(1-3): 1-270.

Nayar. K. K. (1949) : New Indian gall-midges
(Diptera, Cecidomyiidae). Proc. R. ent. Soc. London,
(B) 18(5-6): 79-89.

Sharma, R. M. & Rao, S. N. (1979): A new
species Lestodiplosis emarginata (Diptera: Cecido-
myiidae) from India. Marathwada Uni. J. Sci. 18
(11): 117-119.

157

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

A NEW GENUS OF CHALCIDIDAE (HYMENOPTERA:
CHALCIDOIDE A ) FROM THE COLLECTIONS OF
UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM OF
NATURAL HISTORY. WASHINGTON. DC 1

T. C. Narendran2

(With nine text-figures )

A new genus Grisselliella from Panama is described with a new species.
Grisselliella panamensis.

During my study-stay at the United States
National Museum of Natural History. Wash-
ington. D.C. (hereafter USNM) in 1986, I
examined several specimens of Chalcididae
and found a remarkable genus from Panama
which did not fit to any of the genera des-
cribed or redescribed or listed by Kirby (1883),
Spinola (1811). Ashmead (1904). Kieffer
(1904), Schmiedeknecht (1909). Schmitz
(1946), De Santis (1979. 1981), Burks (1940),
Boucek (1951), Narendran (1984. 1986) or
any other worker. This new genus is described
below. I name this genus in honour of Dr.
Edward Eric Grissell of Systematic Entomo-
logy Laboratory, USDA, c/o USNM for his
significant contributions to the study of Chalci-
doidea and for his help and valuable sugges-
tions during my research at Washington, D.C.

Grisselliella gen. nov.

Diagnosis'. This new genus belongs to the
subfamily Chalcidinae and can be separated
from all other genera of Chalcidinae in having
the following characters: Frons with thick
characteristic yellow pubescence on middle part
of parascrobal space (Fig. 1); pronotum with
two spine-like teeth on each side of anterior
margin (Fig. 2); hind coxa spindle-shaped to-
wards distal end (Fig, 7).

1 Accepted August 1986.

2 Department of Zoology, University of Calicut,
Kerala-673 635. India.

158

Type-species \ Grisselliella panamensis sp,
nov.

Grisselliella panamensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-9)

female: Length: 5.48-5.91 mm. Black with
following parts otherwise: eyes yellow; pro-
notum yellowish red; all coxae, fore and mid
femora and tibiae liver-brown; hind femur dark
brown with pale yellow patches; all tarsi pale
yellow; tegulae and sides of scapulae reddish
yellow; first gastral tergite blackish brown;
wings smoky; pubescence yellow.

Head width subequal to maximum width of
thorax when measured from above; POL and
OOL as in figure 2; head smooth and shiny
with scattered minute pits and profuse long
pubescence. Frons with characteristic yellow
pubescence at middle parascrobal space (Fig.
1). Scrobe smooth and as in figure 1; area
below scrobe swollen and convex; right man-
dible tridentate; left mandible bidentate; fron-
togenal suture distinct.

Thorax with peculiar characteristic two
teeth on each side of anterior margin of pro-
notum as in figure 2. Punctures on thorax deep,
notaulices deep and clear; apex of scutellum
as in figure 5; thorax with scattered long,
brownish yellow pubescence. Propodeum with
deep pits as in figure 6. Hind coxa long and
spindle-shaped as in figure 7, without tooth on
ventral or dorsal side; hind femur prominently

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-9. Grisselliella panamensis sp. nov.

1. Head, front view; 2. Vertex and pronotum; 3. Head profile; 4. Antenna;
5. Thorax dorsal view; 6. Propodeum; 7} Hind leg; 8. Forewing; 9. Gaster.

159

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vo!. 85

swollen, moderately pubescent, without an
inner basal tooth, outer ventral margin with a
row of irregular teeth; hind tibia with its apical
spine fitting into a deep depression at inner
side of hind femur. Forewing and venation as
in figure 8.

Petiole smooth without carina on dorsal
side, with a row of long hairs on either side;
gaster (Fig. 9) with first to fifth tergites
smooth, sparsely pubescent on sides of second
to sixth tergites, sixth tergite with shallow faint
pits.

Refer

Ash mead, W. H. (1904) : Classification of Chalcid
flies of the superfamily Chalcidoidea, with descrip-
tion of new species in the Carnegie Museum, col-
lected in South America by Herbert H. Smith. Mem.
Carneg. Mus. 1(4) : i-ix, 225-551.

Boucek, Z. (1951): The First Revision of the
European Spec'es of the family Chalcididae (Hyme-
noptera). Acta. Ent. Mus. Nat. Pragae 27: Suppl.
1: 1-108.

Burks, B. D. (1940): Revision of the Chalcid-
flies of the tribe Chalcidini in America north of
Mexico. Proc. U.S. natn. Mus. 88: 237-354.

De Santis, L, (1979) : Catalogo de los Hime-
nopteros Calcidoides de America al sur los Estados
Unidos. 488 pp. La Plata.

(1981) : Catalogo de los Hime-

nopteros Calcidoides de America al sur de los
estados unidos — Primer suplemenlo. Revista Peru-
ana de Entomologia 24(1) : 1-38.

Kieffer, J. J. (1904): Neue Eucharinae und

male: Unknown.

Holotype : $, panama: Concepcion, Octo-

ber 1959, N.L.H. Krauss (USNM); Paratype:
$ , same data as for holotype.

Acknowledgements

I am deeply indebted to Dr. E. E. drissell
of USNM for the help extended to me
during my stay at Washington, D.C. I thank
the authorities of USNM for giving me faci-
lities to work at the Museum’s laboratory.

N CES

Chalcidinae. Berl. Ent. Zeitschr. 49 : 244-265.

Kirby, W. F. (1883) : Remarks on the genera of
the subfamily Chalcidinae with synonymic notes and
descriptions of new species of Leucospidinae and
Chalcidinae. J. Linn. Soc. ( Zool. ). 17: 53-78.

Narendran, T. C. (1984): Key to Indian Genera
of the Family Chalcididae (Hym. : Chalcidoidea).
Entomophaga 29(4) : 431-438.

— (1986): Family Chalcididae.

In ‘The Chalcidoidea of India and adjacent coun-
tries'. Edited by B. R. Subba Rao and M. Hayat,
Part II. Oriental Ins. 20: 11-46.

Schmiedeknecht, O. (1909): Hymenoptera, fam.
Chalcididae. In : Wytsman, P., Genera Insect. 97 : 550
pp., Brussels.

Schmitz, G. (1946): Exploire van het National
Albert Park, Chalcididae. Inst. Parcs. Nat. Congo
Beige Bruxelles, 48: 3-191.

Spinola, M. (1811): Essai D’une nouvelle classi-
fication generate des Diplolepaires. Ann. Mus. Hist.
Nat. Paris 77: 138-152.

1 60

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF SECAMONE (ASCLEPIADACEAE) FROM
SOUTH ANDAMANS (INDIA)1

A. K. Goel2 3 and M. K. Vasudeva Rao2

( With a text- figure)

The genus Secamone R. Br. is recorded for the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
with a new species S. andamanica sp. nov. from South Andamans.

Introduction

During the course of explorations in South
Andamans for the collection of plants for
biological screening programme, a rare speci-
men of family Asclepiadaceae was collected.
Study of the available literature and herbarium
sheets indicates that it is an undescribed
species belonging to the genus Secamone R. Br.

Secamone andamanica sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

Species distincta, a S. emetica (Retz.) R.
Br. ex Schultes differt caulibus junioribus prope
nodos brunneo-pilosis-glabrescentibus; corona
staminali segmentis 5 incurvis subulatis liberis;
antherae connectivo producto in appendice
membranacea, subquadrata fimbriata. — Holo-
typus lectus a A. K. Goel sub numero 16604
A, ad locum Jolly Boys Island, South Anda-
man, die October 24, 1986, positi in herbario
CDRI, Lucknow.

Secamone andamanica sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

A distinct species differing from the common
coastal, rarely inland, scrub Secamone emetica
(Retz.) R. Br. ex Schultes of Peninsular India
and Sri Lanka in the following characters:
Young stems near nodes glabrescent-brown

1 Accepted January 1987.

2 Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow-226 001
(India).

3 Botanical Survey of India, Andaman and Nico-
bar Circle. Port Blair-744 102 (India).

hairy. Leaves broadly lanceolate, gradually
acuminate. Staminal corona of 5, free, subu-
late, incurved segments; anther connective
produced into a membranous, subquadrate,
fimbriate appendage. — Holotype: A. K. Goel
16604 A- (CDRI), Jolly Boys Island, South
Andamans.

Straggling laticiferous shrubs, 1. 5-2.0 m
tall. Stems brownish; upper branchlets green
with swollen nodes, glabrescent-brown hairy on
the axil and for some length on either side of
nodes. Leaves opposite, lanceolate to ovate
lanceolate; lamina 3. 5-7.0 x 1 .0-2.8 cm, thinly
coriaceous, dark green on adaxial surface,
glaucous green on abaxial surface, margin
entire, sometimes distantly obscurely serrulate
in anterior portion. 11-14 nerved; midrib and
primary nerves sunken above, flattened below,
nerves looped and joining below margins; base
acute to cuneate; apex gradually acuminate;
petioles 4. 0-7.0 mm long, terete with narrow
groove on upper surface with a few brown
hairs at base. Inflorescence a dichasial cyme,
shorter than leaves, 1.5-2. 5 cm long, glabres-
cent-puberulous. Bracts 0.75-1.0 x 0.5 mm,
triangular, yellowish green. Pedicels 3. 0-5.0
mm long, puberulous. Flowers greenish yellow,
2. 5-3.0 mm across; sepals 5 parted, imbricate,
1.0x0.75 mm, oval, puberulous outside,
obtuse at apex, ciliolate at margins, without
any gland inside at base. Corolla rotate, tube
short, 0.5 x 0.9 mm, abruptly widened to
lobes; corolla lobes 1.3-1. 5 mm long, twisted
to left in bud, later erect, oblong, obtuse,
sometimes notched at apex with distinct

161

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Fig. 1. Sccamone andamanica sp. nov.

1. Habit; 2. Flower; 3. Sepal in dorsal and ventral view; 4. Petal in ventral and
dorsal view; 5. Bract in side view; 6. Staminal column; 7. Anther appendage;
8. Pollinia with corpusculum; 9. Gynoecium. (A. K. Goel 16604).

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

concave groove flanked by thick calli at base on
inner side. Staminal column c. 1.0 mm long,
completely attached to the ovary; staminal
corona of 5 lobes, very small, subulate, broader
and attached just below the middle in bet-
ween stamens, free, incurved above; anthers
completely united, anther appendage sub-
quadrate, fimbriate; pollinia 4, oval transparent,
shining, attached to viscid somewhat oval cor-
pusculum with 2 very small, thick filaments.
Stigma exceeding the stamens, bilobed; style
simple; ovary bicarpellate.

Habitat: Rare near sea shore amidst black
boulders associated with Colubrina asiatica.

Flowering : September-October.

Distribution : India: South Andamans.

Exsiccata : India: South Andamans: Jolly
Boys Island. October, 24, 1986; A. K. Goel
16604 A — Holotype (CDRI); A. K. Goel
16604 B — Isotype (PBL); A. K. Goel 16604
C, D. — Isotypes (CDRI).

Ack nowledgements

We thank Dr. U. C. Bhattacharyya, Deputy
Director. Central National Herbarium, Howrah
for permission of herbarium consultation and
Dr. N. C. Majumdar for the lalin diagnosis.

BOTHRIOCHLOA PARAMESW ARANII — A NEW SPECIES OF
POACEAE FROM KERALA, INDIA1

P. V. Sreekumar, C. P. Malathi and V. J. Nair2

(With a text -figure)

Bothriochloa parameswaranii sp. nov.

(Fig. 1)

Bothriochloa kuntzeana (Hack.) Henr. affi-
nis, sed culmis brevioribus (usque ad 30 cm),
gracilibus; foliis brevioribus, angustioribus
(usque ad 3 mm latis); nodis glabris; spiculis
sessilibus, brevioribus (usque ad 4 mm); foveis
spicularum pedicellarum 1-4, vadosis; antheris
brevioribus (usque ad 1.25 mm), differt.

Perennials. Culms 10-30 cm high, erect or
geniculate; nodes glabrous. Leaves lanceolate,
2-10 x 0.2-0. 3 cm, base rounded, glabrous or
shortly villous, midrib prominent. Ligules ovate,
acute, 1-2 mm, membranous. Racemes 2-4,
digitate or subdigitate, each 2-4 cm long, pur-
plish; joints 2-3 mm long, linear, ciliate. Sessile
spikelets oblong or elliptic, 3-4 mm long,
callus bearded; lower glume oblong, 3-3.5 x

1 Accepted May 1987.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003.

1-1.25 mm, acute or subacute, chartaceous, flat
or with a shallow depression, faintly 7-9-nerved,
keels pectinate towards apex, margins hyaline,
ciliate; upper glume ovate-lanceolate, 3-3.5 x
1-1.5 mm, chartaceous, 3-5-nerved, villous in
the upper half, margins hyaline; lower floret
empty; upper floret bisexual; first lemma
ovate-oblong, 2.5-3 x 1-1.25 mm, rounded at
apex, delicate, hyaline, faintly 3-5-nerved;
palea absent; second lemma stipitate, 1-2 mm
long, awn 10-15 mm long, column 6-8 mm,
chestnut-brown; palea absent; stamens 3,
anthers 1-1.25 mm; ovary oblong, 0.5-0.75
mm, styles c. 1 mm long, stigmas 1-1.5 mm,
feathery. Pedicelled spikelets oblong, lanceo-
late, 3-4 mm long; pedicels 2-3 mm long,
villous; lower glume oblong-lanceolate,
3-4 x 1 mm, chartaceous, 11-15-nerved, with
1-4 shallow pits, keels shortly pectinate; upper
glume and lower floret similar to those of
sessile spikelet; upper floret male or empty;

163

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

Fig. 1. A-L. Bothriochloa parameswaranii sp. nov.

A. Habit; B. Joint of raceme; C. Sessile spikelet; D. Lower glume of the sessile
spikelet (ventral view); E. Upper glume of the sessile spikelet (ventral view);
F. First lemma; G. Second lemma; H. Pedicelled spikelet; I. Second lemma of the
pedicelled spikelet; J. Lodicule; K. Stamen; L. Pistil.

6mm

164

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

second lemma oblong-acute, 2-3 mm long,
delicate, hyaline, faintly 3-nerved; lodicules 2,
obovate, each c. 0.5 x 0.25 mm, concave at
apex.

The specific epithet is in honour of Dr. M.
Parameswaran Nayar, Director, Botanical Sur-
vey of India, for his outstanding contributions
to Indian Botany.

Bothriochloa kuntzeana

Bothriochloa parameswaranii sp. nov.

1 . Culms 40-80 cm tall, stout

2. Leaf blades 30-50 cm long, 4-6 mm wide

3. Nodes densely bearded

4. Sessile spikelets 4.5-5 mm long

5. Pit on the lower glume of the pedicelled
spikelets solitary, deep

6. Anthers c. 2 mm long

Culms up to 30 cm tall, slender

Leaf blades up to 10 cm long, 2-3 mm wide

Nodes entirely glabrous

Sessile spikelets smaller, up to 4 mm long

Pits on the lower glume of the pedicelled spikelets

1-4, shallow

Anthers 1-1.25 mm long

Holotype : kerala, Idukki Dt: Eravikulam
National Park, ± 2100 m, 14th February 1981,
P. V. Sreekumar 71858 (CAL). Isotypes in
K&MH.

Rare. Grasslands at higher elevations.

This species is allied to Bothriochloa kunt-
zeana but differs markedly from it as shown
in the above table.

ACK NO WLEDGE ME NTS

We thank Dr. T. A. Cope of the Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, England for his valua-
ble opinion on the specimens and Dr. N. P.
Balakrishnan, Scientist SE, Botanical Survey of
India, Coimbatore-3 for kindly going through
the manuscript.

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS ALEUROLOBUS
QUAINTANCE & BAKER (1914) ( ALEYRODIDAE : HOMOPTERA)1

B. V. David,2 R. W. Alexander Jesudasan3 and George Mathew4

(With three text-figures)

The genus Aleurolobus Quaintance & Baker (1914) is represented in India by
twenty six species (Alexander Jesudasan 1987). An aleyrodid species collected from

Gmelina arborea was found to be distinct
which is described in this paper.

Aleurolobus gmelinae sp. nov. (Figs. 1-3)

Pupal case: White with waxy secretion, oval.
$ 0.825-0.875 mm long and 0.565-0.590 mm

1 Accepted June 1987.

2 Director, Fredrick Institute of Plant Protection
and Toxicology, Padappai-601 301, India. Present
address : Rhone-Poulenc Agrochemicals (India) Ltd.,
May Baker House, Worli, Bombay 400 025.

3 Assistant Professor of Zoology, Madras Chris-
tian College, Madras-600 059, India.

4 Scientist, Division of Entomology, Kerala Forest
Research Institute, Peechi-680 653, India.

from the known species of Aleurolobus

wide, cf 0 . 680-0 .710 mm long and 0 . 425-0 . 440
mm wide, found severely infesting the under-
surface of leaves.

Margin : Irregularly dentate, about 8-10 den-
tations in 0. 1 mm; thoracic and caudal tracheal
pores and combs wanting; paired anterior and
posterior marginal setae evident, measuring
17.5-30 ^ and 20-60 ft long, respectively.

Dorsal surface: Submargin with a row of
paired wax secreting tubercles placed very
close to the margin; width of submargin 60 ft.
Longitudinal and transverse moulting sutures

165

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

1

166

Figs. 1-3. 1. Pupal case of Aleurolobus gmelinae sp. nov.;
2. Margin and Submargin; 3. Vasiform orifice.

0.03

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

thin, the former not reaching the margin while
the latter reaching submargin. Pro-meso and
meso-metathoracic sutures distinct. Abdominal
segment sutures 3-7 not reaching submargin.
Paired dorsal setae evident: cephalic 22.5 /*,
first abdominal of the same length, eighth
abdominal 12.5 p and caudal setae 75 long.
The tips of the cephalic and first abdominal
setae blunt while it is tapering in the eighth
abdominal and caudal setae. Seven pairs of
blunt subdorsal setae present, four on cephalo-
thorax and three on the abdomen laterad of ab-
dominal segments one, four and five, 21.25 /x
long. Three pairs of submarginal setae laterad
of abdominal segments six, seven and postero-
laterad of eighth abdominal segment. 21.25 p
long.

Vasiform orifice triangular shaped, 70 /x long
and 59.5 p wide; operculum cordate shaped
concealing lingula, wider than long, 42 . 5 /x
long and 48.75 p wide. Three tooth-like pro-
cesses evident at base of vasiform orifice.
Caudal furrow indicated.

Ventral surface : Thoracic and caudal trac-
heal folds not discernible; paired ventral abdo-
minal setae 17.5 /x long and 47.5^ apart.
Antenna of male 1 20 p long reaching meso-
thoracic legs while that of female 77.7 /x long.

Refer

Alexander, Jesudasan, R. W. (1987) : Taxono-
mic studies on some Indian Aleyrodidae (Homop-
tera: Insecta). Thesis submitted to the University
of Madras for the award of Ph.D. degree, pp. 274.

David, B. V. & Subramaniam, T. R. (1976):

Mouth parts, spiracles and adhesive sacs dis-
tinct.

Material examined : Holotype : 1 $ , Gmelina
arborea, Peechi (Kerala State), 29.10.1986,
Coll. George Mathew.

Paratype : 7 pupal cases (3 $ $, 4^^)
on slides bearing same data as of holotype:
3 have been retained in the collections of
B. V. David and the rest will be deposited in
the collections of the Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta; Division of Entomology, In-
dian Agricultural Research Institute, New
Delhi; Systematic Entomology Laboratory,
USDA, Maryland, U.S.A.; and the British
Museum (Natural History), London, U.K.

Pupal cases on dry leaves of Gmelina
arborea in the collections of BVD.

This species resembles Aleurolobus confusus
David & Subramaniam, 1976 in the colour
and shape of the pupal case and also by the
presence of blunt setae but differs from it in
the shape of vasiform orifice and lingula not
exposed and absence of thoracic and caudal
tracheal folds.

Thanks are due to the ICAR for funding
a scheme on the Taxonomy of Indian
Aleyrodidae.

E n ce s

Studies on some Indian Aleyrodidae. Rec. Zool. Surv.
India 70: 133-233.

Quaintance, A. L. & Baker, A. C. (1914) : Classi-
fication of the Aleyrodidae, Part II. U.S. Dept. Agric .
Bur. Ent. Tech. Ser., 27(2) : 94-109.

167

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GESNERIACEAE FROM NAGALAND-

D. B. Deb and Ratna Dutta1 2
( With a text-figure)

An undescribed species of the Genus Paraboea of the family Gesneriaceae based
on earlier misidentified specimen is described.

In course of taxonomic revision of the genus
Spiradiclis (Rubiaceae) two misidentified
specimens, one at CAL and the other at BSI
were found, which are of actually hitherto
undescribed species of the Genus Paraboea of
the family Gesneriaceae, and are described here.

Paraboea nagalandiana sp. nov.

(Fig. 1)

Differt a P. multiflora (R. Br.) B. L. Burtt,
foiiis angusti-oblongi vel elliptico-lanceolatis,
pedunculis solitaris, terminalis, racemoso-
paniculis, sepalis angusto-lanceolatis stamino-
dis duobus presaentibus und ovaris glabris,
inter alia.

Allied to P. multiflora (R.Br.) Bl. Burtt
differing in narrowly oblong or elliptic-lanceo-
late leaves, terminal solitary peduncle, race-
mose panicle, narrowly lanceolate sepals, pre-
sence of two staminodes and glabrous ovary
amongst others.

Undershrubs 15-30 cm high, with straggling
woody stem, rooting at the base, unbranched
or dichotomously branching, more or less
pubescent. Leaves opposite, decussate, petio-
late, 5-17 x 2-5 cm, narrowly oblong or elliptic-
lanceolate, acute or subacute at the apex,
narrowed to or rounded and slightly unequal
at the base, entire at margin, thin coriaceous,
pale green above, brownish below, glabrescent
above, arachnoid-tomentose on the midrib and

1 Accepted June 1987.

2 Central National Herbarium, Indian Botanic Gar-
den, Howrah, India.

nerves below; lateral nerves 6-12 pair, sub-
opposite, oblique, subparallel inconspicuous
towards the margin; petiole 5-15 mm long,
pubescent. Inflorescence terminal, peduncled
racemose panicle, 10-20 x 3.5 cm, pubescent,
with a pair of foliaceous bracts at the base.
Flowers bracteate, bracteolate, pedicelled, 3-4
mm long, pubescent; bracts solitary, ± 1-2 x
0.3 mm, lanceolate, acute, pubescent; brac-
teoles solitary, 0.5-1 x 0.2-0. 3 mm, linear,
acute, pubescent; pedicel 0.3 -0.5 mm long,
pubescent. Calyx lobed nearly to the base;
lobes 5, unequal, 2-3 x 0. 2-0.5 mm, narrowly
lanceolate. Corolla campanulate; tube short,
0.8-1 mm long, glabrous inside; lobes 5, im-
bricate, nearly similar, 0.8-1. 2 x 0.4-1 mm.
Stamens epipetalous, alternate with petals, 2
perfect, 2 staminodes, attached near the base
of the corolla tube, glabrous; filaments thick,
alternating with the petals, 0.8-1 mm long;
anthers large, with widely divergent lobes, 2-
celled, 0.2-0. 5 mm x 0.3 mm, globose or
ellipsoid; pollen grains 3-zonocolporate, sphe-
roidal 15-21 p m; exine 1.5 pm thick, surface
granulate, granules less than 1 pm. Staminodes
2, filaments as long as in fertile stamens,
anthers smaller. Disc absent. Ovary 0.8-1 mm
long, ovate; ovules in parietal placenta; style
as long as the ovary; stigma terminal, simple.
Capsule immature ones included within calyx
lobes, =fc 2.5 xl mm, oblong, dehiscing along
both the sutures. Seeds few, subglobose, ±
0.8 x 0.6 mm, smooth, reticulate.

168

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1 . Paraboea nagalandiana sp. nov.

A. habit; B. flower in bud; C. floral parts; D. fruit (immature); E. pollen grain.

169

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Flowering: December - January; fruiting :

January — ?

Type : Nagaland: Narum, 1200-1500 m

(4000-5000 ft.), Dec. 1907, A. Meebold 7394
(holo. CAL); Sarpung, 1500 m? (5000 ft.),
Dec. 1907, A. Meebold 7230 (para. BSI).

Note : As matured flowers and fruits are in-
sufficient, opening of the flower and dehis-

cence of the fruit could not be described in
detail.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

We are grateful to; the Director, Botanical
Survey of India; the Deputy Director, CNH
for facilities; the Deputy Director, Western
Circle for loan of specimens; and to Dr. G. V.
S. Murthy for working out the morphology of
the pollen grains.

THREE NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS ACANTHASPIS (AMY. AND
SERV.) FROM SOUTHERN INDIA (HETEROPTERA —
REDUVIIDAE — ACANTHASPIDINAE)1

David Livingstone and C. Murugan2

(With three text -figures )

Three new species of the genus Acanthaspis from the Oriental region, namely

Acanthaspis nigripes. Acanthaspis siruvanii,
All the three species have been illustrated.

The genus Acanthaspis of the subfamily
Acanthaspidinae has the largest num-
ber of described species and the three new
species described below add further to the
wealth of the Reduviid fauna of the Oriental
region.

Acanthaspis nigripes sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

male: length 21 mm, width across the
abdomen 8 mm; micropterous; elongate;
unicolorous, piceous except the distal half of
the wing which is luteous; head elongately
ovate; the frontal groove confluent with the
transverse deep fissure in front of the ocellar
prominence; second segment of the antenna

1 Contribution No. 50, Division of Entomology,
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore. Accepted July
1987.

2 Division of Entomology, Bharathiar University.
Coimbatore-641 046.

and Acanthaspis minutum are described.

almost double the length of first segment which
is much shorter than the head; first rostral
segment slightly longer than the second; eyes
very prominently globose; ocelli purplish
brown, much elevated; collar elongate, swollen
posteriorly; thorax laterally and ventrally with
dense hairs, dorsally with sparsely distributed
hairs; pronotal anterior and posterior lobes
almost equal in length, anterior lobe globose,
dorsally marked by sulcations and carinations,
both uniformly piceous; anterior border of the
anterior lobe slightly concave, lateral margins
with backwardly directed short tubercles; pos-
terior margin of the posterior lobe on either
side of the middle line transversely foveated
up to the base of the posterolateral sharply
pointed tubercular spine; scutellar spine elon-
gate, sharply pointed upward, scutellum with
well demarcated dorso-median foveation;
posterior lobe of pronotum and scutellum
rugulose; wing pad rudimentary, extending

170

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

171

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

upto the first visible abdominal segment, mem-
branous part opaque and luteous; fore and
mid tibiae with well developed tibial pads
covering almost 1/3 of the length of the tibia;
abdomen entirely smooth dorsally and with a
few hairs ventrally; the second and third visi-
ble abdominal segments with a prominently
formed dorsal carination on either side of the
middle line; dorsal abdominal scent gland
orifice of the first visible abdominal segment
directed towards the dorsum; genital segment
dorsally with densely set transverse striations.

This species resembles Acanthaspis pedeslris
in the presence of the pair of carinations on
the second and third abdominal segments,
direction of the opening of scent gland orifice
and in the general formation of the pronotum,
but markedly differs from it by its coloration,
size, much elongate shape of the body and the
head, smoothness of the dorsum, microptery,
second antennal segment much elongate than
the first and the second rostral segment shorter
than the first.

Holotype : Male, serial No. 16, pinned speci-
men deposited at present in the reduviid col-
lection of the Division of Entomology, Bhara-
thiar University, Coimbatore, India.

Collection information : Single specimen,

collected from underneath a boulder in the
Yelagiri Hills, North Arcot District, Tamil
Nadu on 18.4.1984, at e. 1000 m MSL.

Acanthaspis siruvanii sp. nov. (Fig. 2)

male: length 18 mm, width across the abdo-
men 5 mm; micropterous; unicolorous, black;
body elongately ovate; head elongately ovate;
anterior extension of the frons forked, por-
rectly terminating just in front of the antennal
base; median frontal groove fairly broad at the
middle and posteriorly expanding to remain
confluent with the deep transverse fissure in
front of the transparently white ocelli; a faint

ochraceous blotch on the post gena on either
side of the ocellar prominence; first joint of
the antennae much shorter than head, directed
anteriorly, second joint a little longer than the
first; first segment of the rostrum a little longer
than the second; pronotal sulcations shallow,
carinations not conspicuously elevated, both
foveations and sulcations unicolorous, black;
anterior lobe slightly longer than the posterior
lobe, antero- lateral tubercles prominently glo-
bose; posterior lobe rugose, discal prominence
conspicuous, discal tubercle moderately pro-
minent, postero-lateral tubercle moderately
developed, outwardly directed; scutellar spine
moderately developed, vertically directed up-
ward, body of the scutellum rugose; meso- and
metanota with prominent ridge along their
posterior border; wing pad rudimentary, not
extending beyond the posterior limit of the
mesonotum; legs elongate, pilose, the tibial
pads of the fore and mid legs extending almost
1/3 the length; carina on either side of the
midline of the second visible abdominal seg-
ment well formed, extending upto the middle
of the third segment, median posterior rugose
expansion of the first visible abdominal seg-
ment most conspicuous; dorsum covered with
fine short hairs; scent gland orifice of the first
visible abdominal segment prominent, poste-
riorly directed; minute, faintly ochraceous
spots on the connexivum of the second to
sixth segments, but no median spots; eighth
abdominal segment dorsally elevated and
transversely striated.

This species closely resembles Acanthaspis
ni gripes in being similar in shape, hue and
carination of the second and third abdominal
segments, but it can be readily recognised by
its micropterous, uniformly dark wing pad
that does not extend beyond the mesonotum,
nature of development of the mesonotal and
metanotal ridged border, presence of rudimen-
tary discal tubercle of the posterior lobe of

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 2. Acanthaspis siruvcinii sp. nov.

173

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

174

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

the pronotum, ochraceous spots on the con-
nexivum and by the prominently formed
median posterior rugose expansion of first
visible abdominal segment.

Holotype : Male, serial No. 13, Allotype : A
single female, both pinned specimens deposited
at present in the reduviid collection of the
Division of Entomology, Bharathiar University,
Coimbatore, India.

Collection information : Male and female

specimens were collected from underneath bark
of a tree in the Tropical Rain Forest region of
Siruvani, Coimbatore District. Tamil Nadu on
8.5.1985 at e. 450 m MSL.

Acanthaspis minutum sp. nov. (Fig. 3)

female : length 7 mm. width across the ab-
domen 3 mm; apterous; ovate, fuscous with
ochraceous bands; densely tomentose; head
elongately ovate; deep transverse fissure across
the head at the posterior margin of the eyes;
ocelli conspicuously absent; postocular and
ante-ocular areas subequal; a faint ochraceous
spot on the gena behind each eye; antennae
pale fuscous, first segment as long as pre-
ocular area of the head, slightly incrassated,
curved outwardly; second antennal segment
annulated. slightly longer than the first; rostrum
fuscous, second segment slightly longer than
the first; anterior lobe of pronotum globose,
much larger than posterior lobe; dorsal cari-
nations fairly well formed, fuscous, its antero-
lateral tubercles obscure; posterior lobe like a
narrow strip behind the anterior lobe, laterally
produced on either side as a small tubercle;
carinations on the anterior lobe continuous as

minute ridges on the posterior lobe; scutellum
fuscous, broadly triangular, dorsally punctate,
apically produced into moderately elongate,
upwardly directed spine; fore femora incrassat-
ed, mid femora slightly incrassated with an
apical fuscous band; hind femora slender, as
long as the tibia, with a subapical fuscous
band; abdomen expanded, fuscous, densely
tomentose throughout; entire connexivum from
first visible segment to seventh segment with
fuscous bands dorsally and ventrally, each
fuscous band with central ochraceous streak.

This species resembles the female of Edocla
slateri in the absence of ocelli, general body
shape, colour, incrassated first antennal segment
and annulations of the legs, but markedly
differs from it by its minute size, the greatly
reduced posterior lobe of pronotum, the
obscurely formed tubercles, the smooth con-
nexivum and the incrassated fore femora.

Holotype : Female, Serial No. 17. pinned
specimen deposited at present in the reduviid
collection of the Division of Entomology,
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore. India.

Collection information : Single specimen,

collected from underneath stone in the Nagar-
juna Sagar Dam site. Andhra Pradesh, South
India on 7.7. 1985 at e. 200 m MSL.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the authorities of the
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore for provid-
ing facilities, and to the Department of Science
and Technology. New Delhi for financial
assistance.

175

OBITUARY

REV. BR. ANTONIO NAVARRO, S.J.
(1903-1987)

(With a plate)

The passing away of Rev. Br. A. Navarro
S.J. on Monday, 5th October, 1987, soon after
the demise of Dr. Salim Ali has come
as a double loss to the world of ornithology in
India. In his single-handed, life-long service to
the cause of ornithology, his contributions
are singularly outstanding.

Brother Antonio Navarro was born at
Manresa, Spain, on 3rd April, 1903 and
joined the Society of Jesus in 1919. He was
sent to India in 1928 to be assigned, in 1931
to the newly established Department of Micro-
biology at St. Xavier’s College in Bombay
under Rev. Fr. Gonzalo Palarios, whom he
accompanied to various north Indian hills in
pursuit of Markhor and other long-horned
goats and sheep. Some excellent heads were
obtained. While in Bombay, Br. Navarro col-
lected birds from the nearby hills and forests
surrounding Khandala and the neighbouring
countryside and later, after he was transferred
to the St. Xavier’s High School, Bombay, in
1941, worked the areas now known as the
Borivli National Park and the Bird Sanctuary
at Karnala. He pursued this hobby with great
assiduity, devoting most of his spare hours to
this study. The total number of birds collected
by him is over 2000 and includes some washed
up at Versova. His main purpose was to build
a museum along the galleries of the school and,
to this end, he studied the art of taxidermy.
The unmounted specimens are stored in cabi-
nets below the show-cases. This collection has
not yet been carefully examined, but doubt-
less contains interesting specimens.

Apart from the Lesser (short-tailed) Shear-
water and the Least Frigate Bird, which were
obtained by him from local residents and have
added to the list of our avifauna, the bulk of
the specimens have yet to be compared with
material from other parts of the country and
no doubt include material which would add to
our knowledge. It is indeed remarkable that
he should have made such a representative
collection. His work was a source of inspira-
tion to a number of students of the school,
including myself, and many of us helped in
augmenting the museum collection with speci-
mens of birds and mammals.

The following Indian records were collected
by Br. Navarro —

1) Short -tailed Tropic Bird of which only
three specimens have been collected so far. It
was collected at Versova in 1965.

2) Least Frigate Bird — only two recorded
in India and collected at Bandra in 1960.

3) A race of Dumelia hyperythra was
named navarroi by H. Abdulali on the basis
of several specimens from Khandala.

4) Ashy Minivet — collected in Khandala
in 1975.

5) A half -grown Sun fish — the first speci-
men collected in India — near Bombay.

In addition to the collection of birds and
mammals including a good collection of bats
and a specimen of the rare rusty-spotted cat,
the museum also has a noteworthy collection
of about 200 varieties of eggs, some of them

176

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85

Rev. Br. Antonio Navarro, S.J
(1903-1987)

OBITUARY

obtained with great difficulty. It includes an
egg of the rare great Indian Bustard which
was presented by the late Dr. Salim Ali.

The museum has also gained acclaim from
quite a few visitors from foreign countries,
noteworthy amongst them being the curator
of the Leningrad Natural History Museum and
President of the Natural History Society of
Leningrad who paid a visit to the school
museum in 1987. In fact there is hardly any
other such collection in the country and it is
sincerely hoped that some permanent arrange-
ment will be made to properly preserve for
posterity this life-time collection of the late
Br. Navarro.

In the later years of his life. Br. Navarro
developed cataract in both eyes and could no
longer spot birds in the field. But undeterred
by this handicap, he continued his interest in
ornithology and started recording bird calls on
a tape-recorder. In this field too he did ex-
cellent work, which won him the prestigious
first prize in the B.B.C. sponsored world con-
test on wild-life.

In addition, he also made clay models of
dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals which
are an added attraction of the museum.

He was a life-member of the Bombay Natu-
ral History Society for almost 50 years and
added about 600 specimens to the Society’s
collection. He was a close friend and associate
of the late Dr. Salim Ali. He was often invited
to lecture to members of the Bombay Natural
History Society and other bird-watching clubs
and associations at and near Bombay.

Both at St. Xavier’s College from 1931 to
1936 and then, when working at the School,
he was closely associated with Mr. Humayun

Abdulali. I am grateful to him for providing
some of the information included herein.

His trips for collection of specimens took
him far and wide throughout India to places
like Darjeeling, Dalhousie, Kumaon, Kulu and
South India and he even visited Nepal and
Bhutan. Some incidents in his exciting career
stand out prominently; amongst them, when in
the company of Shri Humayun Abdulali, a) he
descended by rope from the top over the eastern
scarp of Mumbra Hill near Thana to get the
young of the vulture ( Gyps indicus) and b)
the trip to Talegaon near Poona to get the
nest of the Purple Coot. On the way back the
car was held up at Thana bridge for the 2nd
World War had started in Europe on that day
and all Europeans were held up at district
boundaries and it was with some difficulty and
delay that they were allowed to proceed. He
also had a miraculous escape when he rolled
down a steep hillside near Dalhousie but was
luckily stopped by a tree-trunk. I was lucky
to have been able to accompany him on quite
a few of his field trips and it was always a
matter of great pleasure for me when he
visited Vansda, his last trip being one for re-
cording bird-calls, a cassette of which he kindly
presented to me. These trips with him will live
for ever in my memory and I specially cannot
forget how, on the way back from one trip
near Khopoli our convertible car failed and
we were towed by a break-down van, with
guns in our hands, right through Thana town
behind a marriage procession, to the
amusement of the onlookers and to the utmost
embarrassment of us all !

Digveerendrasinh

177

REVIEWS

1 . THE ORCHID FLORA OF NORTH WEST HIMALAYAS. By Som
Deva & H. B. Naithani. pp. 1-459 (26 cm. x 21 .5 cm.). With 258 text-
figures. New Delhi, 1986. Print and Media Associates. Price not indi-
cated on the book.

Both the authors of this book are old
associates of Forest Research Institute, Dehra
Dun and are known for their critical botanical
observations and have to their credit long lists
of contributions to taxonomic literature.

Orchid Flora of North West Himalayas is
a masterly work and especially the sketches
of every individual orchid makes the volume
commendable.

The book enumerates 239 species, 66 more
than reported eariler by J. R. Dhuthie (1906).
Every species is illustrated with meticulous
line-drawings made by the senior author.

The size, format and type-script of the book
are quite suitable to the subject-matter. How-
ever, there are a number of typographical
errors still persisting in the volume in spite of
the errata appended at the end.

Nomeclature adopted for Cephalanthus
longi folia (L.) Fritsch (p. 31), Dactylorhiza
hatigera (D. Don) Soo (p. 109), Diphylax
griffithii (Hook, f.) Kranzel (p. 119), Habe-
naria clavigera (Lindl.) Dandy (p. 127). Bui -

bophyllum yoksumense J. J. Sm. (p. 223),
Liparis paradoxa (Lindl.) Reichb. (p. 301),
Cymbidium hookerianum Reichb. f. (p. 367),
Kingiodium deliciosum (Reichb. f.) Sweet (p.
407), Brachycorythis obcordata (Buch.-Ham.
ex D. Don) Summer, (p. 107) requires fresh
examination.

The Authors' note on the nomenclature of
Pholidota imbricata Lindl. (p. 342) clearly
shows that they have confused identities and
names of two different species.

Acampe carinata (Griff.) Panigrahi, is re-
ported as being used as soothing remedy in
Konkan on the authority of Caius. However it
appears that this taxon is not found in Konkan
areas.

In spite of the few shortcomings, the book
is a well presented work both for the technical
orchidologists as well as the common orchid
lovers and is recommended to them.

M. R. ALMEIDA

2. NAME CHANGES IN FLOWERING PLANTS OF INDIA AND
ADJACENT REGIONS. By S. S. Bennet. pp. xvi + 727 + vi (23 cm. x
14.5cm.). Dehra Dun, 1987. Triseas Publishers. Price Rs. 480.00.

Since the publication of “Flora of British
India” by Sir J. D. Hooker (Vols. I-VII,
1872-1897), which gave consolidated account
of flowering plants of India and adjoining

regions, numerous volumes of books and
periodicals have published a number of new
species or provided new names for already
known plants. These name changes are done

178

REVIEWS

as per the rules of International Code of Bota-
nical Nomenclature with the purpose that
every plant species should be known by an
uniform single name and one scientific name
should be applied to one particular species
only.

The present book is basically intended to
provide a ready guide to the nomenclatural
changes that have taken place, up to date, from
the time of “Flora of British India” till today.

Initial 603 text pages of the book comprise
5175 entries on nomenclature changes of
flowering plants subsequent to Hooker’s “Flora
of British India”. Out of the remaining, 166
pages give an alphabetical index to botanical
names and synonyms used in the text, and
the last six pages are utilised for addenda,
corrigenda and amendanda.

The work of this type cannot be expected
to be complete and I have at least another
one percent names in my files which can be
added in this volume. I would like to compli-
ment the author for making it as exhaustive
as possible. However, I would like to record
a few observations on the volume as follows:

1. A number of entries given as correct
names as per author’s judgement require fresh
examination, e.g. Hydnocarpus laurifolius
(Dennst.) Sleumer (See JBNHS. 80: 24-25,
1983).

2. In a number of cases the volume does
not give correct chronological priority of
acceptance of correct name, which is very
important in citations of taxonomic literature,
e.g. Boerhavia erecta L. was first shown as a
correct name for B. punarnava Saha & Krishna -
murthy by M. R. Almeida (see JBNHS. 65:
266-268, 1968).

3. Very often, accepted names violate rule
of priority of publication when compared with

synonyms, e.g. Abutilon muticum DC. (1813)
syn. A. glciucum (Cav.) Sweet (1802).

4. Some random decisions regarding status
of certain genera require sound reasoning, e.g.
Under Justicia japonica Thunb. The author com-
ments, “Treating Justicia L. (1753) in broader
sense including Rostellularia Reichb. (1837)
appears to be the appropriate taxonomic treat-
ment for this group”. Such statement without
giving any sound reason is out of place in this
volume. Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, who revised
of Acanthaceae of Bombay Presidency has
accepted Rostellularia Reichb. as a distinct
genus and most modern taxonomists follow
his concept.

5. Personal verification regarding some
entries in this book seems desirable, e.g.
Ecbolium viride (Forsk.) Alston var. dentata
(Klein ex Link) Raizada ex Santapau.

The nomenclature here is completely mis-
leading. In ‘Flora of Khandala’ H. Santapau
does not mention Raizada as cited here. The
actual varietal combination is made on varietal
name of Clarke in FBI and not on reduction of
species by Klein ex Link (1820), as accepted
by the present author.

6. Author’s explanations regarding status of
certain genera are not always properly placed,
e.g. treatment of Rostellularia Reichb. (1837)
as congeneric with justicia L. (1753) is ex-
plained after 7th species.

Indian taxonomists, many of whom do not
have adequate facilities to refer to reliable
original literature, will definitely find this book
useful and handy.

I did not expect the compilations of this
type to cost so high.

M. R. ALMEIDA

179

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

3 . TIGERS OF THE RAJ — THE SHIKAR DIARIES OF COLONEL
BURTON 1894 TO 1949. Edited by Jacqueline Toovey. pp. 295 (18x25
cm.) with many photographs and sketches. Britain, 1987. Alan Sutton
Publishing. Price £ 12.95.

The scope of this book goes well beyond a
collection of shikar stories about tigers. Big-
game shikar and fishing are no doubt central
themes, but there is also a great deal of in-
formation about the forests and wildlife of the
Indian sub-continent. And the reader makes
the acquaintance of a remarkable man, a dis-
tinguished sportsman who became an active
conservationist, and a man who showed ex-
ceptional hardihood in the face of severe
physical misfortunes.

Colonel Richard Burton was born in Madras
in 1868. He was commissioned from Sandhurst
and first joined his Regiment in India in 1890.
In December 1903, when he was posted in
Aurangabad, he had a riding accident and
had to be moved to England. He returned to
India three years later, permanently crippled;
his left leg was shortened by four inches.

Burton was allowed to join the Cantonment
Magistrates Department, and he retired from
service in 1923. Though 55 years old, he con-
tinued to undertake expeditions which would
have taxed the endurance of a fit young man.

March 1926 saw Burton on the trail of a
man-eating tigress in the jungles of Betul. A
machan he was building collapsed, and he
fell, breaking an arm and a leg. A slow and
painful journey eventually brought him to
Nagpur, where he had to spend 106 days in
hospital. Burton took this set-back in his
stride, as he had done many other mishaps in
the jungles, such as the bite of a Bamboo
snake, a severe mauling by an infuriated bear,
bouts of enteric fever, malaria and pneumonia,
and so on.

In 1933, the Burtons settled down in
Coonoor and they left India twenty years later.

It seems that between 1894 and 1949 the Colo-
nel must have spent every free hour in India,
and every rupee he could muster from a none
too generous income, in the single-minded
pursuit of his twin hobbies, shikar and natural
history.

‘Tigers of the Raj’ presents, in a loose time-
frame, extracts from Burton’s shikar diaries
and articles in the Journal of the BNHS. These
extracts are strung together by short editorial
passages which aim to provide continuity. With
this format it is not too easy to read (or re-
view!) the book, and at times one is apt to
get confused about dates and places.

A glance at some of the chapter headings
gives an idea of the change of the Colonel’s
wanderings: Raichur, the Deccan, Jeypore

(Orissa), the valley of the Sutlej, Kashmir, the
Kumaon hills, the C. P. jungles, Baluchistan,
Pachmarhi, Burma, Ceylon, the Laccadives, the
Nilgiri Hills, and finally, a coffee estate in
Cochin, where, at the age of 79, Burton shot
a man-eating tiger.

The shikar diaries, which were written ‘on
the spot’, have a matter-of-fact style, with
British understatement and a light touch much
in evidence. Here is an extract regarding a
beat at Keshpur (near the Godavari) on 25
May, 1894:

“ . . . I just had time to swing my gun over
his (Sexton’s) head and take a snap shot
behind the line, hitting the tigress in the
shoulder ... as she was actually in the air in
front of Sexton. She got him by the upper
left arm in her mouth, and one forepaw on
his head and the other on his left hand, and
knocked him over backward. He rushed up
and forced her jaw open and released his

180

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

arm. Tigress was gasping and I fired my left
barrel into her head. Sexton was very white
and faint from shock...”

Next morning, the party arrived at a small
village and tried to get a doctor. When bathing
Sexton’s feet, writes Burton, “I heard the death
rattle in his throat, and he threw out his right
arm as if pointing at something and died in
my arms.” The report ends with a comforting
remark about Sexton’s tombstone at Yellandu:
“All was in good order when I saw it in
1903...”

Burton’s observations were not limited to
shikar, as shown by this extract from the
Journal: “All these mountains . . . are clothed
in forest in which elephant, bison, tiger, sambar
and all lesser jungle animals roam at will. The
people of the hills are Mannans, but in a deep
mysterious valley below the western slopes,
the human race is represented by a tribe of
extremely primitive people called Pandarums.
True dwellers of the forest they are, having
bark of trees for their clothing, and rocks, caves
and hollow trees for their houses . . . before
long they must become extinct.” These obser-
vations were made when going “over the wind-
ing waters of the lake (Peryar) to Thanakudi”.

Burton was elected a member of the BNHS
in 1893, and over the years he collected many
specimens for the Society. On his expedition
to the Northern Irrawady in 1930 he was re-

quested to obtain a Saing. A new note is
heard in the diary entry: “Beast too heavy so
could take no front face photo. Curator of the
Museum must do with this photo and that of
the bull 1 took at Manwa lick . . . Poor old
Saing; a shame to have killed him; lovely eyes
and eyelashes ...”

Burton was well on the way to becoming
an active conservationist. In later years, as
Dr. Salim Ali has written, his was the stron-
gest voice in the BNHS pressing for a con-
servation policy, and it was his missionary
zeal which made the BNHS take up the cause
in good earnest, culminating in the formation
in 1952 of the Indian Board for Wildlife.

These and many other aspects of Burton’s
life and times are barely touched upon in the
book. Tigers of the Raj’ is not a biography,
nor is it an adventure story. It is the sort of
volume that one dips into from time to time
over a long period, and with great enjoyment.
An attractive production with a good collec-
tion of old photographs, it can be recommend-
ed to all readers of the Journal who do not
have a strong prejudice against shikar. As the
good Colonel puts it:

“I think of the interest and unending enjoy-
ment there is in the mere living of the jungle
life, and it is this, more than shikar, which
forms the main attraction ...”

PRATAP SARAIYA

181

13

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. THE STUMP-TAILED MACAQUE {MAC AC A ARCTOIDES
I. GEOFFROY) IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH

During a recent field survey (February,
1987) of the eastern part of Arunachal
Pradesh a male stump-tailed macaque was
obtained in Bhogamur village forest, Lohit
district from a local hunter, who had shot it
a little while earlier. The specimen constitutes
the first authentic record of this species from
Lohit district in Arunachal Pradesh. The Lohit
district lies approximately between 27°-33' N
and 29° -22' N and 95°-15' E and 97°-24' E
and borders Tibet on the north, Burma on the
east, Siang district on the west and Assam on
the south.

Habit and Habitat

The forest habitat of this species under
study stretches between Bhogamur and Jengto
villages in the northwest of Namsai harbour-
ing a small population which is estimated to
be about 15 in number. The river Jengto is
in the vicinity of Bhogmur village. The vege-
tation of the forest is thick with tall trees
growing closely with widespread canopy. Most

Zoological Survey of India,

Arunachal Pradesh Field Station,
Itanagar 791 111,

September 4, 1987.

of the trees are interwined and enmeshed by
a variety of woody climbers. Besides, thick
clumps of a variety of bamboos are also pre-
sent in abundance.

Remarks

Kurup (1968) recorded this species in Assam
and Nagaland. It also occurs in Nongstoin.
Khasi-Jaintia Hills district of Meghalaya (per-
sonal communication from Mr. R. K. Lahiri,
Superintendent, Zoological Garden, Calcutta to
Dr Kurup). The presence of this species in
Arunachal Pradesh thus fills up the gap in their
continuous known range of distribution. Fur-
ther intensive survey of this species may add
substantially to our knowledge.

Acknowledgement

I am deeply indebted to Mr. C. P. Nam-
choom, MLA, Namsai, Arunachal Pradesh for
his help in various ways.

R. N. BHARGAVA1

1 Present address : Desert Regional Station, Zoolo-
gical Survey of India, Paota ‘B’ Road, Jodhpur-
342 006.

Reference

Kurup. G. U. (1968) : Mammals of Assam and adjoining areas 2. Distribution list. Proc . Zool. Soc
Calcutta, 21: 79-99.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

2. SHORTNOSED FRUIT BAT ( CYNOPTERUS SPHINX VAHL)
FEEDING ON THE LEAVES OF CASSIA FISTULA AT
POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

To study the role of seed dispersal by
mammals, the faecal samples and chewed-off
remains dropped by Shortnosed fruit bat were
collected from Point Calimere sanctuary dur-
ing different seasons of the year. From the
studies it was evident that fruits of nearly 25
plant species were eaten and dispersed by these
bats. Apart from the fruits and seeds dropped
under their roosting sites, 1 noticed one to
many chewed-off leaflets of Cassia fistula dur-
ing every collection trip (twice a week). The

occurrence of only Cassia fistula leaves in their
droppings throughout the year indicates that
the Cassia fistula leaves form a supplement
to the regular diet of the Shortnosed fruit bat.

The literature (Brosset 1962, Prater
1980) says that Shortnosed fruit bats feed on
fruits and sip honey from flowers. So it will
be worth noting that Cassia fistula leaves are
also one of the food items of the Shortnosed
fruit bat.

Junior Scientist, P. BALASUBRAMANIAN

Point Calimere Ecology Project,

Point Calimere-614 807,

Thanjavur (Dist.),

January 15, 1988.

References

Brosset, A. (1962) : The Bats of Central and Prater, S. H. (1980) : The book of Indian Ani-
Western India; part 1. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59: mals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

1-57. pp. 187A-187B.

3. SCAVENGING HABIT OF FISHING CAT ( FEUS VIVERRINA )
IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR

While returning from field work at about
6 p.m. on February 4, 1987 I was attracted
by the noise of a carnivore feeding from a
nearby bush. I searched and located the carcass
of a cow with a fishing cat feeding on it. The
cat slipped away with a piece of flesh on
sighting me.

Field Biologist,

BNHS Ecological Research Centre,

331 Rajendra Nagar,

Bharatpur 321 00 L
May 12, 1987.

The larger cats (tiger) are known to feed
on carrion (Prater 1965), but I am unaware
of earlier records of scavenging by the fishing
cat.

My thanks to Drs. V. S. Vijayan and
Lalitha Vijayan for encouragement.

MD NAYERUL HAGUE

183

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Reference

Prater, S. H. (1965): The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay.

4. MELANISM IN THE JUNGLE CAT, FEUS CHAUS
GULDENSTAEDT (FELIDAE: CARNIVORA)

In connection with the revision of Indian
Felidae, one of us (S.C.), while studying the
material of Bombay Natural History Society,
came across three melanistic specimens of the
Jungle Cat, Felis chaus Guldenstaedt from
India. Although Pocock (1939) and Roberts
(1977) have earlier reported the occurrence
of melanistic specimens of the Jungle Cat, F.
c. prateri Pocock from Karachi, Tharparker
and Thatta, all in Pakistan, there is no record
of melanism in the Indian subspecies of this
cat. It is being recorded in the present note.
The details of the specimens are given below.
External measurements were taken by the col-
lector. The cranial measurements are taken
after Pocock (1939). Measurements are given
in millimetres and abbreviations used according
to Chakraborty (1983).

BNHS Reg. No. 6044; study skin: loc.
Arcadia Tea Estate, Tamil Nadu (?); 22 Feb.
1940; coll. P. N. Jackson.

No pattern could be marked; entire dorsum
including tail dark brown, with some fine pale
cream grizzling except in mid-dorsal region;
undersurface similar but pale bands broader
than those of dorsum, particularly on the chin,
throat and belly, giving a somewhat speckled
appearance on venter.

BNHS Reg. No. 6035; study skin and
damaged skull; loc. Belgaum, Karnataka; 5
Dec. 1912; coll. T. J. Spooner.

Measurements : Hb 520; Tl. 292; Hf 119;
E 57.

Zoological Survey of India,

34 Chittaranjan Avenue,

Calcutta 700 012.

Partially melanistic; dorsum including tail
dark brown; sides agouti; throat, a portion of
chest and undersurface of forelimbs infused
with dark brown hairs.

BNHS Reg. No. 6018; study skin (damaged)
and skull; loc. Tikoli, 22.5 km from Gwalior,
Madhya Pradesh; Feb. 1914; coll. W. E.
Jardine.

Measurements : Gl. Ill; cb 100; pm4 11, M3
9; Mo 7; Pw 33; Iw 19; Zw 72; Mw 24.

Entire dorsum including tail and limbs dark
brown; sides of the body and cheek having
some fine pale cream hairs.

Discussion'. It is a known fact that melanin
pigmentation is more strongly developed in
the hot humid areas (Gloger’s Rule). The two
specimens from south India support this hypo-
thesis, but the specimen from Gwalior and
those reported from Pakistan are exceptions,
being inhabitants of warm, dry areas.

Ack nowledgements

We are grateful to the Director, Zoological
Survey of India for extending all the facilities
for this work. We are thankful to Mr. P. K.
Das, Scientist ‘C’ for valuable suggestions.
Thanks are also due to Mr. J. C. Daniel, Cura-
tor, Bombay Natural History Society, for per-
mission to examine the material at the Bom-
bay Natural History Society.

S. CHAKRABORTY
R. CHAKRABORTY
V. C. AGRAWAL

184

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Bombay Natural History Society, MANOJ MUNI

Hornbill House, S. B. Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023,

October 8, 1987.

References

Chakraborty, S. (1983): Contribution to the

knowledge of the mammalian fauna of Jammu and
Kashmir, India. Rec. Zool. Surv. India, Occ. Paper.
No. 38; 1-129.

Pocock, R. I. (1939): The fauna of British India,
Mammalia, 1. Taylor and Francis, London.

Roberts, T. J. (1977) : The mammals of Pakistan.
Ernest Benn Ltd., London and Tonbridge.

5 SOME OBSERVATIONS ON FOOD HABITS OF JACKAL ( CANIS
AUREUS ) IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR,

AS SHOWN BY SCAT ANALYSIS

Food habits of jackal were studied in
Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur from Sept-
ember, 1984 to August, 1985 by scat analysis.
Altogether 102 scat samples were collected and
analysed. The hair samples from the scats were
identified in the field with naked eye compar-
ing with hair samples kindly given by Bombay
Natural History Society. Results are given in
Table 1. Samples collected from December to
March had Ziz.yphus jujuba fruits. Seeds of
Date palm ( Phoenix sylvestris) and Jamun
( Syzygium cwnini) were also observed in their
scats during June and July respectively.

Table 1

Percentage frequency of each food item of
jackal at Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur
(Sep. 19 84- Aug. 1985)

Food items

No. of times
occurred

Percentage

Rodents

45

26.5

Birds

41

24.1

Grass

34

20.0

Fruits

28

16.5

Insects

7

4.1

Snake

7;

4.1

Chital

4

2.4

Nilgai

1.2

Fish

2

1.2

Feathers of coot ( Fulica atra) and Grey
partridge ( Francolinus pondicerianus) were
identified from their scats.

Chital and Nilgai hair were found in 2.4
and 1.2 per cent of the remains. However this
low figure probably represents scaveng-
ed food rather than prey killed by the jackals
themselves.

According to Schaller (1967), jackals occa-
sionally catch hares. Even though hares ( Lepus
nigricollis ruficaudatus) are fairly common in
Bharatpur. their remains were not seen in
jackal scats. This may be largely because of
my inability to identify the hair of hare in
the field. Similarly remains of Blackbuck
( Antilope cervicapra). Sambar ( Cervus uni-
color), feral cattle (Bos indicus ), wild boar
(Sus scrofa) and Rhesus macaque ( Macaca
mulatto) were also not observed.

Broad ventral scales of snakes, possibly of
python, were also seen. Whether they kill
python or scavenge is not known. However,
three jackals trying to attack a 2 m. long python

185

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

have been recorded by Bhupathy (1986). On
the contrary, Singh (1983) records that in
Corbett Park python is a predator on the
jackals.

Lecturer,

Wildlife Institute of India,

P. O. New Forest,

Dehradun (U.P.) - 248 006.

December 23, 1987.

Refer

Bhupathy, S. (1986): Status, Distribution and
Habitats of Indian Python ( Python molurus molu -
rus) with some notes on its ecology in Keoladeo
National Park, Bharatpur. Salim Ali Festschrift
Seminar November, 1986. Bombay Natural History
Society.

Schaller. G. B. (1967): The Deer and the Tiger.

ACK NOWLEDGE M E NTS

I thank Dr. V. S. Vijayan for providing
facilities to work at Bharatpur and Dr. A.J.T.
Johnsingh for his comments.

K. SANKAR

EN CES

A study of Wildlife in India. The University of
Chicago Press, Chicago.

Singh, A. N. (1983) : A study of diverse prey
species of python ( Python molurus) with special
reference to its interaction with jackal (Canis aurius) .
Tiger paper : 10 (3).

6. INTERACTION BETWEEN DHOLES ( CUON ALPINUS) AND A
PYTHON ( PYTHON MOLURUS) IN MUDUMALAI
WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU, INDIA

On 31st Aug. 1986 between 1500 and 1520
hrs. an elephant mahout, while looking for his
elephant in the forest, saw a huge python
(Python molurus) attacking a yearling Chital
(Cervus axis) doe. As the snake [our estimate
was 14 to 15 feet (c. 4.5 m.) long] coiled
itself around the deer, a pack of 8 Dhole
(■ Cuon alpinus) which were hunting nearby
immediately rushed to the spot. A couple of
the dogs boldly darted in to grab a few bites
off the rump of the deer, even as the python
was killing the deer. At this point the mahout,
not wanting the python disturbed, chased the
dholes away and returned to the elephant camp
to report his sighting.

We were informed just as we returned from
our field work and managed to reach the spot
at 1655 hrs. The dholes were about 60 m.
from the python. They had probably just re-
turned and had apparently not interfered with

the snake which, by now had already swallow-
ed the entire neck of the chital. A few minutes
after our arrival the dholes moved off and the
python proceeded to swallow the entire deer
by 1731 hrs.

This incident raises a lot of interesting
questions. Would the dholes have stolen the
kill had they not been chased away by the
mahout? Would the python leave its kill or
would it try to defend it? Would the dholes
attack the python also? Dholes are known to
drive away tigers (Pant hern tigris) and leo-
pards ( Pantliera pardus) from their kills and
at times even kill these predators. As they
had already snatched a few bites from the
deer, there is a strong reason to believe that
they would have stolen the kill, had they not
been driven away. If the dhole had attacked
the python itself, it might have abandoned its
kill and escaped into the dense Lantana ( Lan -

186

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tana camara ) bushes nearby. If they were to
come across a python while it was in the
process of swallowing its prey, the snake
would be helpless and it would be easy prey
for the dholes if they decided to attack it.

BNHS Elephant Project,

Kargudi,

Nilgiris - 643 211.

Tamil Nadu,

November 17, 1987.

Dholes have been recorded to drive away
tigers and leopards from their kills, but this
is probably the first record of dholes trying
to steal a kill from a python.

AJAY A. DESAI
N. SIVAGANESAN
S. RAMESH KUMAR

7. ALBINO SLOTH BEAR

The tribals of village Madakote. Block
Marwahi in Bilaspur District. located
a female Sloth Bear with three white cubs in
an Arhar (Pulse) field, adjacent to the forests
of Achanakmar Sanctuary which is very rich
in flora and fauna. Out of curiosity they
chased the bear family and managed to capture
the smallest of the three white cubs. The
mother with two other cubs escaped. The
tribals brought the captured cub to Police
Station and from there to the Range Forest
Officer, who kept it in the department’s ‘Indira
Udyan’ at Pendra. After the release of the
news about this animal in local press, it has
received much publicity and is a subject of
great attraction.

The captured cub is a female and has been
named ‘KAMLF by its keeper; its compa-
nions in the enclosure are a female Barking
Deer ( Muntiacus muntjak). Pea-fowl (Pavo
crist atus ), Blue rock Pigeons ( Colwnba livia)
and domestic ducks.

The cub was about 3-4 months old, attain-
ed three feet height when it stood erect and
weighed about 30 kg. It is completely white,

Divisional Engr. Vigilance,

M-532, Padmanabhpur,

Durg, (M.P.),

September 15, 1987.

and the eyes are pink.. It is difficult to dis-
tinguish the white ‘V’ mark on the chest, which
is otherwise distinctly clear in normal coloured
species. The snout and adjacent upper muzzle
portions are light pinkish, replacing the dirty
white coloration. The cub is shy of bright
sunshine.

The mother of the cub is of the normal
black coloration. The father could be the
white coloured male which was reportedly seen
sometimes in 1980 in the area. However,
there are no evidence of its having been seen
thereafter. The cub. a nature’s freak, is there-
fore possibly an offspring of normal coloured
parents. It appears to be a clear case of albinism
and is possibly a rarity. The forests of Pendra
have produced albinos in the past also, one
of the earliest recorded instances being that of
a tiger, shot in Pendra Zamindari (JBNHS
XXIV No. 4. Page 819) whose skin (7' 6"
long) was brought to Mr. E. A. D’Abreu of
Central Museum, Nagpur in 1916.

Albinism in .Sloth Bear, and in other species,
of this particular forest tract, could therefore,
be an interesting subject for investigation.

A. M K. BHARGS

187

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

8. NOTES ON THE FOOD HABITS OF NILGIRI TAHR

In the course of a study on the behaviour
and ecology of Nilgiri tahr ( Hemitragus hylo-
crius) , anecdotal records were kept on tahr
food habits as determined by direct observa-
tion. The study was carried out in Eravikulam
National Park, Kerala, August 1979-September
1981 (Rice 1984).

Forbs exceeded grasses in number of species
eaten by Nilgiri tahr (Table 1), but grasses
were taken in much greater volume than any
of the forbs, shrubs or trees. At Eravikulam.
Nilgiri tahr were primarily grazers (Table 1).

Nilgiri tahr showed preferences for particular
parts of certain plants. For instance, they ate
only or mainly inflorescences of Hypericum
mysorense, Pedicularis perrottetii, Crotalaria
fysonii, Car ex lindleyana, Anaphalis lawii, Ana-
phalis bournei, and Eriocaulon brownianum.
This habit was particularly noticeable in the
case of Anaphalis lawii and Eriocaulon brow-
nianum. When tahr grasped the flowering heads
of these plants, the entire plant (in the first
case), or the whole flowering stem (in the
second) usually was pulled free. Rather than
eating the portion of the plant hanging from
their mouths, the tahr chewed through the
stems to drop the rest of the plant. On the
other hand, tahr took only the tender new
leaves of Gautheria fragrentissima while avoid-
ing the mature leaves. The mature leaves had
a characteristic wintergreen flavour, but were
bitter.

Two uncommon plants which seemed to be
particularly well liked were Lactuca hastata
and Impatiens tomentosa.

There were some species which the tahr
seemed to avoid, or at least were never seen
to eat despite their ready availability. Such
plants included Rhododendron arboreum and
the grassland species of Impatiens.

There appeared to be pronounced seasonal

Table 1

Plants recorded eaten by Nilgiri tahr in
Eravikulam National Park

Species

Family

Type

Ranunculus renifonnis

Ranunculaceae

forb

Poly gal a sibirica

Polygonaceae

forb

Hypericum mysorense

Hypericaeeae

shrub

Eurya japonica

Ternstroemiaceae

shrub/

Impatiens tomentosa

Balsaminaceae

tree

forb

Crotalaria fysonii

Fabaceae

forb

Crotalaria scabrella

Fabaceae

forb

Oldenlandia swertioides

Rubiaceae

forb

Anaphalis bournei

Compositae

forb

Anaphalis lawii

Compositae

forb

Eupatorium adenophorum

Compositae

forb

Lactuca hastata

Compositae

forb

W ahlenberia gracilis

Campanulaceae

forb

Lobelia sp.

Campanulaceae

forb

Vaccinium leschenaultii

Vacciniaceae

forb

Gau theria fragran tissima

Eriacaceae

shrub

Pedicularis perrottetii

Scrophulariaceae

forb

Sopubia trifida

Scrophulariaceae

forb

Strobilanthes kunthianus

Acanthaceae

shrub

Polygonum chinense

Polygonaceae

forb

Elaeagnus kologa

Elaeagnaceae

forb

Curculigo orchoides

Hypoxidaceae

forb

Cyan otis sp.

Commelinaceae

forb

Eriocaulon brownianum

Eriocaulaceae

forb

Car ex lindleyana

Cyperaceae

sedge

Andropogon polyptichus
var. deccanensis

Poaceae

grass

Chrysopogon zeylanicus

Poaceae

grass

Tripogon bromoides

Poaceae

grass

Tripogon

anan thctswam ianus

Poaceae

grass

Ischaemum indicum

Poaceae

grass

Arundinella mesophylla

Poaceae

grass

Agrostis peninsularis

Poaceae

grass

Arundinella fuscata

Poaceae

grass

Andropogon polyptychus
var. olyptichus

Poaceae

grass

Andropogon lividus

Poaceae

grass

Themeda quadrivalvis

Poaceae

grass

Themeda triandra

Poaceae

grass

Isachne bourneorum

Poaceae

grass

188

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

preferences for certain species and/or plant
parts. For example, after pre-monsoon burning
of the grassland, the tahr eagerly took the fresh
regrowth of Chrysopogon zeylanicus by grasping
the leaf blades and pulling out the whole suc-
culent stem. However, as the blades matured,
less was taken. With the post-monsoon drying
of the grassland the inflorescences were eaten
from time to time, and the Chrysopogon grow-
ing in the wetter, low lying areas was taken
more frequently. The grassland dried even
more during the winter (January-February)
and this was considered the time of lowest
forage quality for Nilgiri tahr. My subjective
impression was that the tahr’s rate of move-
ment while grazing was much faster, sugges-
ting a lower density of acceptable food items.

Davidar, E. R. C. (1978) : Distribution and status
of the Nilgiri tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius ) — 1975-
78. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 815-844.

Rice, C. G. (1984): The behaviour and ecology
of Nilgiri tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius Ogilby, 1838).
Ph.D. diss. College Station: Texas A&M University.

Normally they occasionally entered small shola
patches a few metres wide, but during the dry
season they penetrated up to 10 m into the
larger patches, browsing on trees and shrubs.

Nilgiri tahr feed on a variety of plants. Their
selection of food items in terms of species and
plant parts probably reflects seasonal changes
in nutritional quality and availability. The
actual diet of Nilgiri tahr probably varies
considerably between localities, as it does
for bighorn sheep (Shackleton & Shank, in
press). Nilgiri tahr in much drier lowland
habitats are primarily browsers (Davidar
1978).

T am grateful to N. C. Nair, P. V. Sreekumar.
and P.V.K. Nambiar for identifying plant
specimens.

CLIFFORD G. RICE

Shackleton, D. M. & Shank, C. C. (in press) :
The natural history of Rocky Mountain and Cali-
fornia bighorn sheep. In the wild sheep of North
America. R. Valdez (ed). Foundation for N. Amer.
Wild Sheep.

Wildlife Conservation International,

New York Zoological Society,

Bronx, NY 10460 U.S.A..

July 23, 1987.

References

9. SEX RATIO IN LEPUS NIGRICOLLIS

On 31st March, 1983 I was in a ravine
in panchayat land at Village Baskarnawat in
Bansur Tehsil in Alwar district. Between 1600
and 1730 hrs. the labour who were with me
killed six common hare ( Lepus nigricollis).
All were females (i.e. sex ratio between $
and $ was 0:6). All were lactating, as I
found out by pinching their teats. I examined

Forest Extension Officer,

Van Chetana Kendra,

Gulab Bagh, Udaipur 313 001,

Rajasthan,

August 4. 1987.

their uterus all of which were empty.

It was interesting that among the six hares
killed none were male. It was perhaps due to
dissimilar sex ratio between male and female
animals or due to some post-parturition weak-
ness which prevented females from being speedy
enough to escape when chased.

SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

189

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

10. PURPLE HERON (ARDEA PURPUREA ) SWALLOWING A

JUNGLE BABBLER

On February 26, 1979. Shri Hukum Chand,
Forester of Bharatpur Sanctuary and I were
crossing the irrigation canal 1 m deep and 3 m
wide, just outside the sanctuary across the new
road on the east when we stopped on hear-
ing house crows. A purple heron Ardea pur-
purea adult was sitting about 10 m away on
a Babul tree, holding a dead full grown jungle
babbler, Turdoides striatus across near the tip

Wildlife Warden,

Mudumalai Sanctuary,

Templetown Cottage,

Vannarpet,

Udagamandalam 643 00 1.

April 12, 1986.

of its beak. Five House crows were worrying
the heron, they flew over and at the heron.
The jungle babbler was full grown, and did
not have any wounds. The heron tossed the
jungle babbler in the air, caught it, head first
and swallowed. It took 27 seconds for the
jungle babbler, to travel the length of the
heron's slender neck, as a conspicuous bulge.

J. MANGALRAJ JOHNSON1

1 Wildlife Warden, 46, Nachimutu Gounder Street.
Pallachi 642 001, Coimbatore Disk, Tamil Nadu.

11. RECOVERY OF A NORWEGIAN RINGED OSPREY IN
GUJARAT, INDIA

On November 5, 1985, Mr. A. N. Jadeja
saw a large bird falling into his field
after having collided with a high tension elec-
tric line near Kajurda village (22°20' N. 69°42'
E), Jamnagar district. Gujarat. The bird was
dead when picked up and had a ring on one
leg. He removed the ring (Museum Stavanger
Norway, 231503) and buried the bird. I learnt
about this incident in the market place of
Jamnagar, met Mr. A. N. Jadeja and contact-
ed the Museum Stavanger. The Museum in-

formed me that the bird was an Osprey, Pan-
dion haliaetus (Linne), ringed as a chick on
July 13. 1985 at Hastfoss (69°07' N. 29°04' E),
Norway. This would mean that the young bird
had flown a distance of at least 5855 km. This
is probably the first record of a European
ringed Osprey recovered in India. The Osprey
is a winter migrant to most of the Indian
subcontinent, with a few possible nesting pairs
in the Himalayas (Ali and Ripley 1982).

TAEJ MUNDKUR

Department of Biosciences,
Saurashtra University,
Rajkot - 360 005.

Gujarat.

May 30, 1986.

Reference

Ali, Salem & Ripley, S. Dillon (1982): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact
Edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

190

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

12. NOTES ON FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF AMAURORNIS
PHOENICU RUS AT POINT CALIMERE

On 4th January 1986, at the water’s edge of
a small pond at the Avifauna office com-
pound, we noticed a Whitebreasted Waterhen
feeding on small water insects and fish. It was
seen turning its head left and right at very
low angles, at the same time its short stumpy
tail was cocked up and down. Even though it
was moving vigorously in search of food it
could not get any for about 15 minutes. It
slowly walked into the water and then started
swimming in the deep water to the centre of
the pond where there was a school of fish fry.
While swimming, the white underbody was
completely invisible. Like duck swimming on
water it was swimming as well as pecking some

Avifauna Project (BNHS).

Point Calimere,

Kodikkarai 614 807.

Tamil Nadu,

April 29, 1986.

food material from the water surface. Each
time the swimming continued for a few minutes
and at the end it came to the shore and shook
its body vigorously to get rid of water parti-
cles. The same process was repeated about
5 times during our 30 minutes observation.
The feathers did not seem to be wet. This
type of feeding behaviour in Whitebreasted
Waterhen has not been recorded before in lite-
rature.

As per the handbook Vol. 2, pp. 171 their
habitat is rice fields, ponds, ditches, back-
waters etc. In Point Calimere we have come
across them feeding in places where the sali-
nity of water was over 4 ppt.

R. SUGATHAN
S. ALAGAR RAJAN

13. A NEW NESTING COLONY OF RIVER TERNS AND
PRATINCOLES

The point that this note wishes to make is
how one chance observation can lead to a
succession of others that link up all of them
into a complete picture.

Over the last several years E. K. Bharucha
has been observing the changing patterns of
bird populations at the Mula-Mutha bird sanc-
tuary in Pune. The population of terns has
been steadily increasing since around 1975.
Earlier, the Gull-billed terns were much
commoner than River terns. However, during
the last 2 to 3 winters the river terns have
shown periods of sudden increase in their popu-
lation. Last year they outnumbered the Gull-
billed terns for several months.

In Aug. -Sept, it was further noticed that
many of these River terns were immature
birds. Counts taken on several visits to Mula-
Mutha showed that the ratio of adults to
juveniles was about 2 to 1, and on one visit it
was as high as 1:1. This gave the impression
that perhaps the river tern had set up a new
breeding colony nearby. Presuming that the
nesting area should be only a couple of miles
away at most, islands downstream near the
Mundhwa bridge and at Kaudi were inspected,
but nothing was found.

However, in April, 1986, while observing the
Flamingoes at Bhigwan 100 km downstream
from Pune, two large islands were found to be

191

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

the nesting colonies of a mixed group of
River terns and Pratincoles. The villagers claim
that the birds have been nesting there over
the last 2 to 3 years, thus accounting for their
rise in population upstream.

The greater proportion of nests are found
in the middle of the islands which are about
2-3 feet above and several yards from the
present water-line. This area is covered by
sparse grasses and other weeds and the nests
are close to each other, varying from 1 to 10
feet apart. The proportion of tern nests to
pratincole is about 2 or 3 to one. Most of
these centrally situated nests contain river tern
chicks of varying ages while some still have
one. two or occasionally 3 eggs (4 in one
case). Pratincole nests in this area have at
present 2 to 3 eggs each and only a few have
new born chicks.

The periphery of the island shows a diffe-
rent pattern. The concentration is lower and
the nests appear new as most of these still
have eggs, and only a few have one or more
chicks. This indicates that the peripheral parts
of the islands have been exposed by the re-
ceding water during the last 20 days or so.

The nests of the river terns ( Sterna aurantia )
are found on the crust of algae and underwater
weeds that has been exposed and dried up to
form a one or two-inch layer on the under-
lying mud. The surface has deep cracks and
fissures, and impressions of old human foot-
prints. Many nests are on the open flat crust,
or are mere depressions, while some are sur-
rounded by dry underwater weed stems, grass
or other vegetation found on the island itself.
A few are surrounded by tiny shells, or fish
bones which seem to serve no purpose and
in fact attract attention to the nest. Occasionally
nests were situated within depressions of old
human footprints and in a few cases within
the dried feeding grounds of flamingo. The eggs
were very variable in colour — being buff

with brown and green irregular splotches, to
green with dark grey-green or brown splotches.
A few eggs were mud covered and thus of
a deeper brown shade. We observed chicks
which were in the processes of hatching, upto
a stage when they could run and swim strongly
but were unable to fly. There were also several
juveniles flying around. Nestlings often hid or
kept away from the sun by sheltering under
algal crusts that had been lifted up like a tent
by the growth of new weeds under them.

The Pratincoles made themselves very ob-
vious with their broken wing displays. Their
nests were usually tiny cuplike depressions. In
the grassy areas one side often had a screen
of vegetation. These grasses seemed to have
been purposefully loosely entwined. However,
this may have been a pre-existing condition
that made the birds choose the site. They had
small light brown eggs with darker brown
speckling. A few were darker at one end than
the other with a sharp delineation between
the two shades. There are still very few chicks,
most of them being only newborn hatchlings.

Since many empty river tern nest sites were
seen as evidenced by patches of excreta marks
the colony must have been there for some
time. The presence of juvenile river terns also
shows that we are perhaps at the tail end of
their nesting period, and in the middle of the
nesting period of the Pratincoles on the islands.

We also found several nests with much
smaller eggs that resembled those of the river
terns. These may be those of the little terns
that we also observed in the area. However,
though we saw one of them approach the site
of one of these nests, it was not seen incubat-
ing. This thus requires further follow-up.

There were also a few Kentish plovers and
little ringed plovers on the island which may
be nesting as well.

An interesting feature was the finding of
three adult dead terns, This could be account-

192

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ed for by predation by raptors such as the
Osprey and Marsh harriers seen frequenting
the area.

We found many footprints of otters on the
island which may also account for the rem-
nants of terns. Otters have been sighted off
and on at Bhigwan and at times get caught in
the fishermen’s nets, when they are unfortu-
nately killed by them.

With the water still receding, a problem is
sure to occur unless the area is cordoned off.
Within a short while both the islands will be
linked to the shoreline of the lake. This will
lead to an influx of cattle that will be attracted

‘SAKEN’ Valantina Society,

North Main Road,

Koregaon Park,

Pune 411 001,

Maharashtra,

April 29, 1986.

to the only patch of green in the area. In-
evitably the nests will be trampled upon and
destroyed. Village dogs will get access to the
area and finish off eggs and chicks. Human
intervention in the form of schoolboys, herds-
men, fishermen etc. will do the rest.

The access to the islands must thus be
guarded in some way to prevent shortening
of the present nesting season.

The disturbance should be kept to a mini-
mum so that the birds will habitually set up
a colony here year after year. We hope that
the proposed bird sanctuary to be established
at Bhigwan will speedily solve this problem.

E. K. BHARUCHA
P. P. GOGTE
T. P. GOLE

14. SIGHT RECORD OF STARLING STERN US VULGARIS
IN ANDHRA PRADESH

According to Ali & Ripley (1983) the
winter distribution of Starling Sturnus vulga-
ris is in Pakistan and North India east to
Bangladesh, south to Gujarat and Madhya
Pradesh. Vagrants and stragglers are liable to
be met in far-flung localities; thus two were
recorded from Madras (Whistler, quoted by
Ali & Ripley 1972). On lO.xii. 1985, at 1715
hours outside the 800-hectare grassland plot
maintained for the Great Indian Bustard, near

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1972) : Handbook of the
Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 5. Oxford Univer-
sity Press, Bombay.

Rollapadu village (15°52'N and 78°18'E),
Nandikutkoor taluka, Kurnool district, Andhra
Pradesh, a flock of eight Starlings was seen
along with 8-10 Rosy Pastors ( Sturnus roseus).
Soon the two species flew off in different direc-
tions. The Rosy Pastors settled in another field
but the Starlings were lost sight of. Though
the Rosy Pastors were seen throughout the
period of my stay at Rollapadu (10 days).
Starlings were not seen again.

ASAD R. RAHMANI

— — (1983) : A Pictorial Guide

to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.

Bombay Natural History Society,

Horn bill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023,

May 24, 1986.

References

193

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

15. ON THE SINGING POSTURE OF THE STRONGFOOTED BUSH
WARBLER ( CETT1A FORTIPES )

Strongfooted Bush Warbler ( Cettia jortipes)
is very vocal in the breeding season, and in
W. Himalayas its song is commonly heard in
summer. But the extremely shy and retiring
nature of this warbler makes it one of the
hardest birds to observe. It is notorious for
singing within a few feet of the observer with-
out making itself visible; the ventriloquistic
nature of the song further adds to the difficulty.
Thus it is not surprising that the peculiar sing-
ing posture, which is described below, and its
significance has not been recorded before.

On 29th May, 1985, in the Overa wildlife
sanctuary, Kashmir at a height of 7500', I
came across a Cettia jortipes singing from a
thicket. The bird was visible from the outside
and was presumably unaware of my presence.
1 approached it very cautiously, moving only
when it was singing and stopping every time it
ceased singing. By this method I was able to
reach within 10 feet of the bird. Through
binoculars, minute details of its plumage were
visible and also the orange coloured ring we
had put on its leg a few days earlier. The
singing bird was perched on a twig hunch-
backed, with plumage slightly fluffed out, tail
depressed and wings drooped. I watched the
bird for about 35 song sequences and noticed
no variation in the singing posture which is as
follows: As it starts to sing the initial whistle,
the body is slowly tilted forward to an angle
of 45° to the perch, and by the time the
whistle ends it has fully stretched itself for-

3 Rocky Hill,

Malabar Hill,

Bombay 400 006,

November 23, 1985.

ward. At the final outburst of notes, the head
bobs furiously, the tail is jerked and it appears
that each sequence is sung at its loudest. The
song of the bird has been described as ‘amaz-
ing’, ‘fascinating’, etc. It is a long drawn
ventriloquistic whistle followed by two rapid
explosive notes, sometimes four. From my
observations I found that there is extremely
low degree of variation in the songs in one
individual, as well as between other indivi-
duals of the species.

Much emphasis seems to be laid on the
powerful song in the breeding biology of this
species as this drab coloured warbler does not
make itself conspicuous even while singing.
Thus it seems very important that the male
should execute its song perfectly and at its
maximum vocal capacity; the above mention-
ed posture seems to have been evolved for
that. It, therefore, does not seem to be any
kind of display but essentially a body move-
ment evolved to facilitate this peculiar kind
of singing. There is strong selection against
abberant and variable songs in such cases, as
that may fail to attract a female. This may lead
to distinctive songs and rigid postures. It is
also very interesting to note that all the Cettia
warblers are skulkers in habit and have deve-
loped songs peculiar to each species, which
have high recognition value. A study to see
whether all members of this genus have deve-
loped special postures for singing will be an
interesting topic.

NTTIN JAMDAR

194

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

16. SIGHTING OF THE WHITECAPPED BUNTING EMBERIZA
STEWARTl (BLYTH) IN HINGOLGADH, GUJARAT

Recently, on a trip to Hingolgadh, a pic-
turesque Fort Palace surrounded by scrub
forest not far from Jasdan, we saw a solitary
bunting feeding on a rocky slope and finally
recognised the bird to be male YVhitecapped
Bunting, Emberiza steward (Blyth). But we
found that it looked unlike that illustrated in
the pictorial guide by Ali (1983). It had a
white crown and the rest of the plumage look-
ed quite dull, though the chestnut breast was
quite conspicuous. Ali and Ripley (1982) in
the handbook (compact volume) describe the
white crown as a state where the grey feathers
have abraded and that it occurs about the

P.S. : One male and two female birds were sighted
dead, the specimen which has been presented to

Darbargadh,

Jasdan 360 050,

Gujarat.

Department of Biosciences,

Saurashtra University,

Rajkot 360 005,

Gujarat,

April 29, 1986.

time of the spring migration. The present
sighting was made on 14 February, 1986,
so we presume that this bird was passing
through on its return migration north.

To date, this species has been recorded only
once before in Gujarat when it was seen in
September, 1962 in the same area by Shivraj-
kumar (]. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59: 956).
The bird is a short-distance migrant, breeding
in north Pakistan and the Himalayan foot-
hills, and wintering in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan and northeastern Maharashtra, ac-
cording to the handbook.

again on 6 December, 1986. One female was also found
the BNHS collection.

SHI VRAJ KUMAR KHACHAR

TAEJ MUNDKUR

17. BIRD CASUALTIES IN ROAD ACCIDENTS

l made a survey of the birds killed in road
accidents for one complete year from May, 1980
to April, 1981 on National High Way 11 in
Bharatpur district of Rajasthan for a length
of 5 kms from Km stone 88 to 93.

The selected length of the road is a double
way traffic route having an average width of 675
cms. On an average 11 vehicles per hour pass
and were counted at Km stone 92 in May,
1980.

Almost every inch of the surrounding land
is under cultivation of various crops. Many
old trees of Tamarind (Tamarind us indica)

Table 1

Casualties from different groups

Group

No. of
Casualties
in one
year

Special note

Amphibia

42

Only adults were recorded.

Reptilia

82

—

Birds

219

—

Mammals

96

Including domestic cattle
but excluding human beings.

Total 439

195

Bird casualties in road accidents from May 1980— April 1981

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

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Jan 1981

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Total

196

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

are present on either side of the road. Younger
trees of many species like Eucalyptus spp..
Acacia nilotica, Pongamia glabra, Dalbergia
sissoo, Delonix regia etc. which were planted
by the Forest Department from 1977 to 1980
are also seen. The famous Keoladeo National
Park, Bharatpur is hardly 35 km. away from
this area.

During the study period a total of 439 casual-
ties were recorded from different groups as
shown in Table 1.

It is clear from Table 1 that the maximum
casualties were among birds. The species-wise
detail of the bird casualties is as follows
(Table 2).

Peculiarities of the bird accidents :

1. Birds are the most susceptible for road
accidents among vertebrates.

2. Birds remain active throughout the year
hence they occur throughout the year in road
accidents.

3. Aquatic birds keep away from roads

Forest Range Officer,

West Gulab Bagh,

Udaipur - 313 001,

Rajasthan,

April 17, 1986.

and remain most of the time near or inside
water bodies. Due to their restricted activities
in vicinity of water bodies, a minimum number
among them become victims of road acci-
dents.

4. Nocturnal birds killed in road accidents
were much less in comparison to diurnal birds.

5. Streptopelia decaocto has the highest
number of casualties.

6. A very few Gyps bengalensis were
nesting on old Tamarind trees present on
either side of the road, and their mortality rate
was high. Actually most of them were killed
by moving vehicles while they were scavenging
on dead bodies of other animals killed in road
accidents.

7. A fair number of crows were also killed.
Actually 90% casualties were among younger
birds, born in that year, which were quite
unfamiliar to roads due to lack of experience.

8. The maximum number of birds were kill-
ed during the rainy season, from July to
October.

SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

18. DEFENSIVE BEHAVIOUR IN THE INDIAN ROOFED TURTLE
KACHUGA TECTA (GRAY)

( With a text -figure)

Static defensive adaptations — head, tail
and appendage retraction into a shell, is seen
in all emydid turtles. Box turtles of several
genera from both the Old and New Worlds,
in addition possess single or double hinges in
the plastron, allowing them to cover, partially
or completely, their retracted parts.

When alarmed, the Indian roofed turtle

Kachuga tecta retracts its head, tail and appen-
dages readily into its shell. However, in the
absence of hinges in the plastron, the species
is vulnerable to some degree of predation,
especially from land-based predators, even
after pulling in the projecting body parts into
the shell. In this position, physical threat such
as a light touch to the turtle’s head or fore-

197

14

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

limbs makes the hindlimbs fully extended and
planted vertically or obliquely to the sub-
strate, while the head, tail and forelimbs are
retained within the shell, thereby raising
the posterior part of the shell considerably.
In an 8.2 cm. (carapace length) specimen, the
plastron was raised by 2 cm. Following adop-
tion of the posture, the turtle may attempt to
move forward, using its hind limbs, maintain-
ing this unusual posture till suitable shelter is
reached.

Evidently, the species assumes this defensive
posture, as the head and forelimbs are given
additional protection, being lowered close to
the ground. Possibly turtles encountered by
predators while wandering on land assume the
posture, which gives some measure of protec-
tion to the exposed parts on the anterior open-
ing of the shell, and may additionally con-

18/20, Ballygunge Place (East),

Calcutta - 700 019,

April 23, 1986.

, £ cm. ,

Fig. 1. Response of the Indian roofed turtle Kaehuga
tecta when physical contact is made to the retracted
head and forelimbs.

found some of the land-dwelling predators,
thereby giving them several moments to pro-
ceed towards the relative safety of water.

INDRANEIL DAS

19. AN INCIDENCE OF A GECKO ( HEM1DACTYLUS SP.)
FEEDING ON A SKINK

One evening in the last week of March, 1987,
we were taking a stroll about a litter strewn
portion of our garden in the midst of Madras
city, when we heard some strange rustling
noises from beneath a Laurel tree. On investi-
gation, we witnessed a short struggle between
a gecko and a skink. The gecko had grabbed
the skink by the base of the tail, and for a
few seconds, we saw the skink thrashing about
frantically. The victim then shed its tail and
made good its escape, leaving the tail-piece
wriggling in the captor’s jaws. The gecko
quickly gobbled up the offered morsel of the
tail-end and dissappeared into the litter.

The gecko was in all probability the tree
gecko, Hemidactylus leschenaulti , which is a
common dweller in the city gardens (Shekar
Dattatri, pers. comm.). The skink appeared
uniform dark brown all over with no stripes
or markings, and was probably a sub-adult
Mabuya carinata. Both predator and prey were
about 5 inches in length.

There are two records of H. leschenaulti
feeding on vertebrate prey. Sumithran (1982)
observed the reptile feeding on a mouse, and
later on, Dattatri (1984) reported a case of
a leschenaulti predating on the sympatric

198

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

H. f renal us in a room in Madras City. But this
could probably be the first reported case of
a gecko feeding on a skinlc.

33 Sara van a Street,

Madras 600 017,

August 4, 1987.

Our thanks are due to Messrs. J. C. Daniel,
Rom Whitaker and Shekar Dattatri for their
comments and suggestions on the observation.

R. KANNAN
R. KRISHNARAJ

References

Dattatri, S. (1984) : Predation on a sympatric Sumithran, S. (1982) : Gecko feeding on mouse,
species by Hemidactylus leschenaulti (Sauria: Gek- ibid. 79(3) : 691.
konidae). /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81(2) : 484.

20. A NOTE ON THE FOOD HABIT OF THE GARDEN LIZARD,

CALOTES VERSICOLOR

The garden lizard or blood sucker is mainly
insectivorous in food habit and feeds on ants
and insects which form a large proportion of
the food. Other than insects, they occasionally
feed on small birds, frogs and other small ani-
mals (Daniel 1983). There is one report by
Daniel and Shull (1963) of Calotes versicolor
eating unripe pods with soft seeds of the Lima
bean.

On 18th October, 1986 at about 9 O’clock

Research Assistant,

Herpetology Section,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House,

S. B. Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023,

June 18, 1987.

in the morning, during a visit to Sanjay Gandhi
National Park, Bombay, I happened to observe
a garden lizard feeding on the buds of Tabar -
nae montana, which is cultivated at the en-
trance of the park. Interestingly, after eating
the buds the lizard tasted the petals of the
flower partially. This observation lends sup-
port to the fact that vegetable matter also
are occasional food items of the garden lizard.

A. G. SEKAR

References

Daniel, J. C. & Shull, E. M. (1963): A list of 743.
the reptiles and amphibians of the Surat Dangs, Daniel, J. C. (1983): The book of Indian Rep-
South Gujarat. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 737- tiles. Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay.

199

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

21. NOTE ON SNAKES FROM THE DISTRICT DANGS,
GUJARAT STATE

During a wild life camp in the month of
December 1987, I received a few snakes from
Dangs district collected by Mr. Chandravir
Jhala. The Dangs is a part of the Sahyadri
ranges and is the most thickly forested area of
Gujarat State.

I identified two species of snakes, namely
Uropeltis ellioti (Gray) and Ahaetulla pulve-
rulentus (Dum. & Bib.) which are recorded for
the first time from the Dangs region. The
details are as follow:

Uropeltis ellioti (Gray)

1 adult from Saputara village, Dangs. Col-
lected in the first week of December, 1987.
Total length 255 mm., tail 9 mm., V 157, C 6,
Scale in row 17, Colour of the snake is dark
brown with purple blue tint and small yellow
spots on all over the body, yellow line on each
sides of the neck, a yellow stripe on tail on
both sides which form a transverse bar across
the anal region.

Ahaetulia palverulentus (Dum. & Bib.)

1 sub-adult from Pimpari village (30 km.

Zoo Inspector,

Sayaji Baug Zoo,

Baroda - 390 018,

January 28, 1988.

from Waghai), Dangs collected in the first
week of December. Total length 623 mm., tail
225 mm., V 194, C 175; 8 Supralabials, 5th
below the eye, 4th having two subocular.
Colour fawn-grey with interscale skin colour
black and white forming oblique bars, lower
jaw white, a dark brown stripe from the neck
to tail on the middle of the belly.

Another from Dhuladhha village-680 mm
long collected on 28th October, 1987 by Mr.
Karmavir Bhatt.

According to Smith (F.B.I. Vol. 3) U. ellioti
is found on the hills of Western Ghats, south of
the Goa Gap to Tinnevelly, Eastern Ghats
(Shevaroys, Coimbatore district, S. Arcot,
Jalarpet, Visakhapatnam district, Ganjam), and
A. pulverulent us is found in the Western Ghats
(Karwar. N. Kanara, Nilgiris, Castle Rock,
Nellampathy hills, Travancore).

The present record of the two species from
Dangs district. Gujarat considerably extends
their range.

RAJU VYAS

22. PREDATION OF M1CROHYLA TADPOLES BY GAMBUSIA

Embryos and tadpoles of the frog Microhyla
ornata are being used in this laboratory to
study the effects of pollutants and environ-
mental factors on embryonic development.
One of the authors (H.V.G.) has been collect-
ing spawn of this frog from various localities

in Pune since 1977. During 1986, two of the
ponds that were known to be the sites where
Microhyla brood were found to be devoid of
any Microhyla eggs and tadpoles. These
ponds contain water almost throughout the
year due to groundwater streams. The ponds.

200

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

however, contained tadpoles of Rana and
Bufo. A survey of nearby places showed that
adult Microhyla were present at these localities.
A couple of spawns collected from another
locality were then released in these ponds to see
if there were any predators. It was observed
that the eggs were rapidly consumed by Gam-
busia affinis, a fish which was presumably in-
troduced to control mosquitoes and was pre-
sent in large numbers. Later, tadpoles of
various stages (newly hatched, 15 day-old, and
hind-limb stage) were released to see if they
survived predation. It was observed that none
of the tadpoles could escape predation. Almost
all of the released tadpoles were consumed
by Gambusia within a few hours. This is in
contrast with the observations of Rao (1917)
who reported that Microhyla tadpoles escape
predation due to offensive, acidic secretions of
the cephalic glands. Rao further mentioned
that fishes reject these tadpoles even if force-
fed. Such secretions, if present, do not seem
to repel Gambusia. Regarding the presence
of Bufo and Rana tadpoles, it appears that
many of these tadpoles escape predation be-
cause of their bottom feeding habits and com-
paratively active movements. Further, the num-
ber of eggs per spawn is quite large in both
Bufo and Rana , a factor which helps to main-
tain population despite predation. Microhyla
tadpoles are filter feeders and stay almost

Post-Graduate Research Centre,
Department of Zoology,

Modern College,

Pune 411 005,

June 17, 1987.

stationary at the surface of the water and thus
fall easy prey to Gambusia, a fish that is very
active at the surface.

Beebee (1984) also observed that toads free-
ly breed in large ponds with fish. While dis-
cussing the success and failure of amphibians
in garden ponds with fish, he further
pointed out that presence of fish is not always
catastrophic, and frogs do breed in ponds with
fish; precise shape of the pond as well as the
number of fish are probably crucial factors
influencing tadpole survival.

Since most frogs, including M. ornata, breed
in temporary rainwater pools there is little
possibility of presence of large predatory fishes.
Yet. when ponds with fish are chosen as breed-
ing sites by Microhyla, the survival of eggs
and tadpoles must be extremely low as com-
pared with those of Rana and Bufo . The pond
in question had only Gambusia and no other
fish. It may be pointed out here that Gambusia
has been reported to have adversely affected
carp fisheries in reservoirs (Menon 1977).
Thus it seems desirable that such fishes are
not indiscriminately introduced in water
bodies.

We are grateful to the authorities
of Modern College for providing necessary
facilities. Anand Padhye is thankful to U.G.C.
New Delhi, for Junior Research Fellowship.

H. V. GHATE
A. D. PADHYE

References

Beebee, T. J. C. (1984): Success and failure of control. Sci. Cult. 43: 110-114.

amphibians in garden ponds. Brit. Herpetol. Soc. Bull. Rao, C. R. N. (1917) : On the occurrence of
9: 21-24. iridocytes in the larva of Microhyla ornata (Boul.).

Menon, A. G. K. (1977): Fish and malaria Rec. Indian Mus. 13: 281-292.

201

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 85

23. ON A SMALL COLLECTION OF AMPHIBIANS FROM GOA
(With a colour plate and a text-figure)

To consider the northward extension of
additional forms of the Indo-Malayan fauna
from the south-west, HA had for many years
wanted to visit Goa and the surrounding areas
at the break of the monsoon when the amphi-
bians and their tadpoles would be active and
viable.

Dr. (Mrs.) Maria Jose Barboza, a regular
bird-watcher at the Borivli Park, offered to
help with some contacts there and a short
trip was made in June. 1986. We flew to
Dabolim in Goa, on 21st June, 1986 when we
were taken to the Circuit House at Panjim,
to meet AGS who had arrived by road earlier.

The next morning we were all driven down
to the Bondla Sanctuary which encloses a
large zoo, and spent the day there, driving
eastward to Valpoi on the following day. That
afternoon and evening we made some collec-
tions in the forest adjoining Kodal and walked
to southern in the foothills.

Notes on the amphibians collected are listed
hereunder:

1. Bufo melanostictus Schneider. 1799.
Indian Toad.

1 9 Valpoi forest.

The toad was crossing a muddy forest road
after a heavy shower, and its reddish brown
colour blended with that of the road.

2. Microhyla ornata (Dumeril and Bibron,
1841). Ornate Microhylid.

2 $ $ Bondla.

This Microhylid was heard calling about
1815 hrs. from inside a pile of stones at the
base of a tree. They were not visible. The call
can be syllabilised as trrk — trrk — trrk and,
though startlingly loud for an animal of this
size, it was also ventriloquistic and made the

location of the small frog sitting in the midst
of grass or among stones extremely difficult
to locate.

3. Ramanella niontana (Jerdon, 1854). Jer-
don’s Ramanella.

9 (8 $ $ , 1 9) Bondla.

Testes enlarged c. 4.3 x 2.2. Female with
mature ova.

Heard calling in the afternoon at 1215 hrs
from a ditch with some rainwater. They were
calling when afloat with their snouts against
the wall. The call which can be syllabilised as
brong . . .brong . . .brong was heard in both
rainy and cloudy weather. The species is very
wary.

4. Nyctibatrachus humayuni Bhaduri and
Kripalani, 1955. Humayun’s Wrinkled Frog.

1 9 from Valpoi forest.

Ovary with mature pigmented ova. Collected
from the base of a tree in open forest at about
9.30 p.m. after a heavy shower, about 15
yards from a flowing stream. The specimen
differs from N. major in having fully webbed
toes and with the disks on the fingers and
toes very much larger and provided with a
circum-marginal groove.

5. Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider. 1799. In-
dian Skipper Frog

6 (2 Bondla and 4 Valpoi)

1 $ 5 9 9 (1 adult. 4 subadults).

Bondla specimens were collected from a tank
and from a rainwater pool at Valpoi.

6. Rana limnocharis Boie. 1835. Indian
Cricket Frog.

3 Bondla (2 $ $ , 1 adult 9 )

Testes 1.9 x 1.4 mm. and 2x1.5 mm.
Female with pigmented eggs. The frogs were

202

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85 Plate

Abdulali & Sekar: Rhacophorus malabaricus

Malabar Flying Frog {Rhacophorus malabaricus ) — The flying (gliding) frog.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

collected near a muddy rain pool in the even-
ing and kept in a bottle. An attempt to mate
was made by a male even in this circumscrib-
ed condition.

7. Tomopterna breviceps (Schneider. 1799).
Indian Burrowing Frog.

Syn. Rana breviceps.

1 $ Bondla.

Testes 5.5 x 2.5 mm right, 6x2.75 mm left.

Dead specimen collected from a tank at
Bondla Sanctuary.

8. Tomopterna rufescens (Jerdon, 1854).
Rufescent Burrowing Frog.

Syn. Rana rufescens.

6 specimens. Two (2 $ ) Bondla and four (1 $,
3 $) Valpoi.

9. Philautus leucorhinus (Lichtenstein and
Martens, 1856)

5 $ $ Valpoi forest.

Testes around 2.6 x 1.6 mm.

The frogs were collected in the forest at
2030 hrs after a heavy shower and were
located by their call which may be syllabilised
as treek. . .treek. . .treek — with a gap of 4-6
seconds between them. They were sitting on
tips of branches and in the forks of small trees.
The single vocal sac, when calling, looked like
a transparent bubble.

10. Polypedates maculatus (Gray, 1834).
Common Tree Frog.

Syn. Rhacophorus maculatus.

I $ Testes 5x3 mm.

Calling from a bush in the late evening. The
call can be syllabilised as tak. . .tak. . .tak. . .
tak. . .

I I Rhacophorus maiabaricus Jerdon, 1 879.
Malabar Gliding Frog.

1 adult $ from Valpoi.

Testes 15x5 mm. The body was bright
green and the tips of the toes and fingers
yellow, with the webs between them red.

This is an extension of the known range
of the species, as it has only been recorded
as far north as Coorg in Karnataka.

While returning to camp in the dark it
started to rain heavily and our attention was
drawn to a loud and crackling truk-truk-truk
from the forest some distance from the path.
When followed up with torches we found some
30+ Rhacophorus maiabaricus , either seated
singly and calling, or in copula on leaves or
branches overhanging 5'- 15', above the surface
of a pool c-f rainwater about 30' across. The
amplexus is axillary. When disturbed, they
jumped on to other branches at a lower level.
The green of the frogs offset by the bright
red of the broad webs between the fingers
and the toes which were spread out when jump-
ing/gliding was very impressive. With the
five live specimens in Bombay we thought we
would look at the process in greater detail.
One was taken up the flight of stairs at Horn-
bill House and dropped off the railings verti-
cally 23^ feet from the ground floor. Several
persons were watching and there were loud
expressions of wonder and surprise as the ani-
mal seemed to have expanded and glided down
at a slight angle rather than fall. When about
2 feet from the bottom and 28 feet from the
point of starting it suddenly turned upwards
and having gained another foot or so, at
about 4' off the ground it landed against a verti-
cal surface. This was repeated several times
with very similar results, the animal never
landing flat on the ground, and invariably turn-
ing upward when two or three feet off the
floor and landing on a vertical surface (Fig. 1),
once against a spectator’s middle, after com-
pleting a journey of about 33' in all through
the air.1

1 M.O.P. Ayyangar (1915. Records of the Indian
Museum: xi, pp. 140/142) refers to a slanting glide
from a tree over a distance of 30 yards and also
states that a whir was heard.

203

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 85

We were unable to arrange for the animals
to be photographed in flight but kept them
hopefully for some time with Isaac Kehimkar,
the BNHS librarian who lives in the suburbs.
His notes read in part:

“I kept them in a glass aquarium (3xlxl

ft. ) with moss as substratum, a few dead
branches as props and a few plants ( Pothos
scandens). De-chlorinated water was sprayed
once every two days to soak the moss below.
The top of the aquarium was covered with
glass sheets and nylon wire gauze.

204

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

"‘During the day the frogs usually rested on
the leaves; either on the upper or under side,
with their bodies gathered together yet flattened,
the fore-feet folded underneath their bodies and
pupils contracted to tiny slits. This posture
and their leaf green colour rendered them
almost invisible among the leaves, for I often
had difficulty in locating them even when they
were right in front. When disturbed, they
would leap, flashing their bright red foot-
webbings.

“Every day around 7.30 p.m. house flies
( Musca domestica ) were collected in plastic
bags. A small lamp was placed outside the aqua-
rium at one corner to attract the flies to one
spot when released in the darkened aquarium.
The frogs soon learnt to assemble around the
lamp to pick up the flies, which were provided
until a lop-sided bulge saying “enough” was
noticed on the sides of the frogs. At the begin-
ning whenever the flies were released the frogs
would leap at them and flick them up with
their tongues, but later they took them only
when the flies came within reach. Earthworms
were also offered but ignored. Also only a

75 Abdul Rehman Street,

Bombay 400 003.

few blue-bottle flies ( Lucilia sp.) were taken,
being mostly ignored.

“I had these frogs with me for about two
months, but one rainy night all escaped from
a small gap which had remained uncovered
when replacing the glass sheet. I heard them
calling from adjoining Bougainville and guava
trees for several nights, but was unable to
trace them, for their call had a ventriloquistic
quality.”

The trip was much too short to make a
representative collection but we hope to make
another effort and do better. The cost of
travelling to and from Goa was recovered from
the Charles McCann Vertebrate Zoology Field
Work Fund at the BNHS. All the arrangements
in Goa were made by Mr. Louis P. Barbosa,
Minister for Tourism and Urban Development
and Mr. B. P. Sinha, Conservator of Forests,
without whose assistance it would not have
been possible to achieve even the little which
we did. We would like to record our gratitude
to the institutions and persons concerned for
having made this trip possible.

HUMAYUN ABDULAL1

Bombay Natural History Society, A. G. SEKAR

Hornbill House, S. B. Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

July 14, 1987.

24. MOUTH BROODING IN THE NOBLE GOURAMI, CTENOPS
NOBIL1S (MCCLELLAND) (PISCES: BELONTTDAE)

Some fishes display parental care in that,
after fertilization, the eggs are held by one of
the parents inside its mouth until they hatch
and, sometimes, even thereafter. This can be
commonly seen in the marine catfishes of the
genus T achy sums (earlier Arius).

There has been no record of mouth brood-
ing in an Indian freshwater fish. Sarotherodon
(= Tilapia ) mossambicus females do have
mouth brooding habits, but they are estuarine
fish and are not indigenous to India, having
been introduced into India from Africa, and

205

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

which can live and even breed in fresh water.

One of us (S.R.S.) has been regularly
obtaining live Ctenops nobilis (McClelland)
from Bihar State. The fish are transported by
rail in open cans, the journey taking some 46
hours. As the water in the cans may get warm
during transport and oxygen in the water may
be depleted, the fish undergo physiological
stress. In several batches of Ctenops nobilis
received between February and early May this
year, we found many (from 60 to 100) dead
fry. Enquiries with the supplier revealed that
he had placed only adult Ctenops nobilis in
the cans. The fry had obviously been spat out
of the mouth by the adult fish. No other
species of fish were transported in the can
containing Ctenops nobilis , but as each can
usually contains about 15 adults, we could not
determine whether all the babies were spat
out by one or many parents, and the sex of
the parent doing mouth brooding.

On 29 April, 1987 two of the fish in the
consignment showed considerably distended
mouths. It was suspected that they might be
brooding fry in their mouths. Each was sepa-
rated in an aquarium. One of the fish, of 100
mm total length, spat out 103 fry. while the
other, a smaller one, spat out 32 fry. The
latter all soon died, together with the parent.
The parent’s mouth was seen to contain 15
parasitic worms, which might be the reason for

Sachetan,

L/4-5, Sitaram Building,

Palton Road, Bombay-400 001.

the mortality. The age of the fry could not be
ascertained. The brooding parent is a male.
Unlike other mouth brooders, once the parent
spits out its fry, it does not take further care
of the young. Nor do the fry, at any sign of
danger, swim back into or near the parent’s
mouth. Since we obtained brooding parents
from February to early May, this indicates the
extent of the fish’s breeding season.

Ctenops nobilis has been recorded from
Northeastern Bengal, Bihar, Assam and Sikkim
in India, and from Bangladesh. It belongs to
the family Belontidae. Indian members of this
family include the Dwarf Gourami ( Colisa
lalia). Honey Gourami ( Colisa chuna). Giant
Gourami ( Colisa fasciata). Thick-lipped
Gourami ( Colisa labiosa ), and the Indian
Paradise Fish ( Macropodus cupanus). In all
these, the male builds a nest of air bubbles,
which are made sticky with its saliva. After
fertilization, the male picks up the eggs, which
are laid a few at a time, and spits them into
the bubble-nest. After the female has complet-
ed laying eggs, she is vigorously chased away
by the male, which guards the nest and keeps
it from disintegrating by blowing more air
bubbles on to it. There is, however, no mouth
brooding in any of these fishes. Mouth brood-
ing is suspected to occur in the Chocolate
Gourami ( Sphaerichthys osphronemoides)
which comes from Malaysia and Indonesia.

S. R. SANE

Taraporevala Aquarium, B. F. CHHAPGAR

Netaji Subhash Road,

Bombay - 400 002,

October 28. 1987.

206

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

25. ON THE SYSTEMATIC STATUS OF THE SPECIES OF THE
GENUS DANIO HAMILTON DESCRIBED BY BARMAN
(1983, 1984, 1985)

The systematic status of Danio ( Brachy -
danio) horai Barman (Barman 1983), Danio
(Danio) assamensis Barman (Barman 1984)
and Danio devario (Barman 1985) has been
assessed based on the study of types and gene-
ral material of these species. It has been ascer-
tained that Danio ( Brachy danio ) horai is a
synonym of Brachydanio acuticephala Hora.
The description of Danio (Danio) assamensis
by the original author (Barman 1984) has been
found to be faulty and the species is, therefore,
redescribed here. The material identified as
Danio devario Hamilton by Barman (1985)
does not belong to this species and it is cer-
tainly a case of misidentification.

I NTRODUCTION

During the course of a revisionary study of
Rasborinae, an examination of the systematic
position of the various species of the genus
Danio Hamilton was attempted and we came
to the conclusion that the status of the new
taxa of this genus described by Barman (1983,
1984, 1985) was of doubtful nature. Danio
{Danio) menoni (Barman 1985), is, in fact
an already known species. Chela laubuca
Hamilton of the subfamily Cultrinae and
hence, not of Rasborinae (Tilak and Jain
1987). The systematic status of Danio (Brachy-
danio) horai Barman, Danio (Danio) assam-
ensis Barman and Danio devario Hamilton in
the publications of Barman (1983, 1984, 1985)
has been assessed on the basis of the study of
type material of the new species and general
material of D. devario and the results are
given in this paper.

Description

A. Systematic status of Danio (Brachy-
danio) horai Barman

Barman (1983) described a new species,
Danio ( Brachydanio ) horai from Arunachal
Pradesh. The new species is characterized by
the absence of barbels and lateral line. Barman
(1983) has tried to compare this taxon with
Brachydanio nigrojasciatus , B. rerio and B.
choprae which possess one or more pairs of
barbels and the lateral line is incomplete; this
was done to establish the identity of the new
taxon. Barman (1983) did not compare his
material with B. acuticephala. The type mate-
rial of B. horai Barman (ZSI, FF. 1827 and
paratype No. FF. 1828) has been examined
by us and it has been found that the material
belongs to B. acuticephala Hora which was
originally described from Manipur by Hora
(1921). Hora (1921), while describing this
species did not make a mention about the
absence, of barbels or lateral line in this species
but subsequently, Hora and Mukerji (1935),
while describing the fishes of Naga Hills re-
corded this species from that area and correct-
ed the earlier mistake in its description by
making a definite statement that the barbels
and lateral line are totally absent in this species.
The type material of B. horai resembles B.
acuticephala in all details. It should therefore,
be a junior synonym of the latter.

B. acuticephala Hora is a species distributed
in Brahmaputra and Chindwin drainage systems
(Hora and Mukerji 1935) and the streams of
Arunachal Pradesh form a part of this drain-
age system of Brahmaputra river. This species
is expected to occur in Arunachal Pradesh. The
distribution of B. acuticephala Hora, is there -

207

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

fore, extended from Manipur and Naga Hills
to Arunachal Pradesh.

B. Systematic status and redescription of
Danio ( Danio ) assamensis Barman

Barman (1984) described a new species,
Danio {Danio) assamensis from Assam, India.
The type material of Danio assamensis Barman
(ZSI, Holotype FF. 1861 and Paratype No.
FF. 1862) has been examined and it has been
observed that the description given by the
original author (Barman 1984) contains
errors of observation. It is a valid species,
hence the species needs a detailed redescrip-
tion, which has been done here, by studying
the holotype and 1 example of the paratype.
Barman (1984) has not included many mor-
phometric characters which are important for
the study of interrelationship of this species
with other species of the genus.

Description :

Danio assamensis Barman B. III. D. 11/12,
A. 11/16-17, P. 12, V. 8, C. 21, Lat. 1. 36,
Lat. tr. 7-1/2/2-1/2. Barbels 4. Predorsal
scales 16.

Dorsal profile more or less convex and
ventral profile bow-shaped. Head triangular,
directed upward. Head length 3.75-3.93 and
depth of body 2.66-2.72 in standard length.
Width of head 1.93-1.94 and snout length
3.82-4.00 in length of head. Eyes anterior
with 2 spines, one small backwardly projecting
process at anterior rim of the orbit and the
other pointing forward above the anterior
superior margin of the orbit. Eye diameter
3.37-3.47 in head length and 1.05-1.15 in
inter-orbital width.

Mouth small, directed upward. Barbels 2
pairs, rostral pair half the eye diameter and
maxillary ones minute at the junction of upper
and lower jaw.

Lateral line complete, with 2\ scales bet-
ween it and origin of pelvic fin.

Height of dorsal fin 4.89-5.20 and height
of anal fin 5.65-6.48 in standard length.
Length of pectoral fin 4.55-4.89 and length
of pelvic fin 6.19-7.06 in standard length.
Pectoral and pelvic fins provided with scaly
appendages.

Predorsal distance 1.68-1.78 and postdorsal
distance 2.26-2.32 in standard length. Pre-
ventral distance 2.03-2.06 and postventral
distance 1.71-1.87 in standard length. Pre-
anal distance 1.23-1.42 and postanal distance
2.62-2.96 in standard length. Height of caudal
peduncle 1.64-1.66 in its length.

Coloration :

Two pale longitudinal bands extending from
the opercular end to the base of caudal fin
on each side. A black spot at the superior
margin of the gill opening present. Fins with-
out any colour markings.

Remarks :

Barman (1984) measured the standard
length erroneously (69 mm instead of 65 mm
in holotype and 62 mm instead of 60 mm in
paratype), overlooked a spine on the superior
anterior margin of the orbit and counted the
lateral line scales incorrectly, showing 40-41
scales instead of 36. Based on his observations.
Barman (1984) adjusted D. assamensis in an
identification key based on the orbital spine
and lateral line scales. Since the type material
of D. assamensis has only 36 scales in the
lateral line, it cannot be separated from those
species, which have 32-36 scales in lateral
line. Hence, the identification key should also
be revised in the light of the present observa-
tions. The main point of difference between
D. spinosus and D. assamensis on the one hand,
and the rest of the species of the genus Danio
on the other, is the presence of two orbital

208

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

spines. D. assamensis can be further separated
from D. spinosus based on the lateral line
scales which are 36 in the former and 52 in
the latter.

C. Systematic status of Danio devario
Hamilton examined by Barman (1985)

While describing a new species, Danio
{Danio) menoni, Barman (1985) wrote on

D. devario that “Hamilton (1822) described
D. devario from Indian waters without barbels,
and subsequent workers like Day (1878) and
Hora (1934) recorded this species with no
barbels. During the course of my revisionary
studies on the cyprinid genus Danio, out of
hundreds of specimens of this species examin-
ed by me from different localities of India,
not a single specimen was found without a
pair of posterior or maxillary barbels.” The
observations recorded by Barman (1985)
regarding the barbel in D. devario is very
peculiar, because this species is never known
to have barbels (Hamilton 1822, Day 1978,
Hora 1934). During the course of study of
fish fauna of various regions of the country.

Zoological Survey of India,

Dehra Dun,

October 30, 1987.

R E F E

Barman, R. P. (1983): A new species of the
genus Danio Hamilton from India (Pisces: Cypri-
nidae). Curr. Sci. 52(4): 177-178.

(1984): A new fresh water

fish of the genus Danio Hamilton (Pisces: Cypri-
nidae) from Assam, India, with a key to the
identification of the Indian species of the sub-genus
Danio. Bull. Zoo!. Surv. India 6(1-3): 163-165, 2
figs.

(1985): A new cyprinid fish of

the genus Danio Hamilton (Pisces, Cyprinidae) from
Andhra Pradesh, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
82 ( 3): 602-604, 1 fig.

Day, F. (1878): The fishes of India; being a
natural history of the fishes known to inhabit the
seas and fresh waters of India, Burma and Ceylon.
I & II: XX-778; pis. 1-195.

we have examined more than 200 specimens
of Danio devario and find the barbels com-
pletely wanting in them. Tilak and Jain (1987)
have already clarified the systematic position
of Danio {Danio) menoni Barman which is, in
fact. Chela laubuca of the subfamily Cultrinae.
It is estimated, therefore, that the identifica-
tion of D. devario of which hundreds of speci-
men have been examined by Barman (1985)
is certainly wrong at the generic or subfamily
level. The status of these specimens could be
decided only if the material of D. devario
studied by Barman (1985) is available for
examination.

Since D. devario of Barman (1984, 1985)
is based on misidentification, the adjustment
of the species in the identification key given
by him based on the presence of maxillary
barbels, is faulty.

ACK NO WLEDGE M E NT

We are grateful to Director, Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta for his help and
cooperation.

RAJ TILAK
SEEMA JAIN

E N C E S

Hamilton, F. (1822) : An account of the fishes
found in river Ganges and its branches. Edinburgh:
1-VII, 1-405, pis. 1-39.

Hora, S. L. (1921): Fish and Fisheries of Mani-
pur with some observations on those of Naga Hills.
Rec. Indian Mus. 22: 193-195. Text. fig. 4.

(1934): Notes on fishes in the In-
dian Museum. XXII. On a collection of fish from
the S. Shan states and Pegu Yomas, Burma, ibid.
36(1) : 123-128.

Hora, S. L. & Mukerji, D. D. (1935): Fish of
the Naga Hills, Assam, ibid. 37: 387-388.

Tilak, R. & Jain, Seema (1987) : The systematic
status of Danio (Danio) menoni Barman (Pisces:
Cyprinidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(2): 693-
694.

209

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

26. FIRST RECORD OF THE KING-FISH, SEMIPLOTUS MODESTUS
DAY, 1870 (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE) FROM INDIA

The cyprinid genus Semi plot us Bleeker,
1859 is represented by two species, S. semi-
plotus (McClelland 1839) and S. modestus
Day (1870) from the Indian subcontinent.
The former is known from India and Burma,
and the latter was described and has been
known so far only from Burma. Day (1878)
gave the distribution of the species, as “Hill
ranges near Akyab, Burma”. During the study
of a recent collection of fishes from Mizoram
I identified two specimens of S. modestus Day
(measuring 164 mm. and 196 mm.). This re-
cord from Mizoram, India, is the first record
of the species from India.

A brief description of S. modestus Day is
given here.

Semiplotus modestus Day, 1870

Semiplotus modestus Day, 1870, Proc. zool.
Soc., 101 (type-locality: hill ranges near

Akyab, Burma).

Semiplotus modestus Day, Fish. India. : 550,
pi. 133, fig. 1.

Material examined : 2 exs., 164 mm. -196
mm. TL. Reg. No. Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta FF 2605. Locality: Koladyne river,
20 km. east of Sangao, Mizoram, India. Coll.
S. K. Chattopadhya and party. Date of collec-
tion: 3.2.1987.

Description

Head length 5.65 to 5.76 and body depth
2.92 to 3.09 in total length. Eye diameter

Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta,

November 10, 1987.

4.14 to 4.25 in head length, 2.14 to 2.50 in
interorbital width. Snout broad, obtuse, length
3.40 to 3.62 in head length, overhanging the
mouth with several pores on either side. Mouth
inferior, transverse with a thin cartilaginous
covering to the lower jaw. Lower jaw with a
knob at the symphysis. Maxilla extending be-
low the middle of the orbit. Barbels absent.

Fins: D. 24-25 (4/20-21), P. 15, V. 9 A. 10
(3/7), C. 19.

Dorsal fin inserted in advance of pelvic fin
origin, nearer to tip of snout than to base of
caudal fin and extending to above the anal
fin, its last undivided ray osseous and serrated.
Caudal fin forked, with the lower lobe slightly
longer.

Scales: Lateral line scales 33 to 34, lateral
transverse scales 11.3^ rows of scales between
the lateral line and base of pelvic fins. Pre-
dorsal scales 14 to 15 and circumpeduncular
scales 10.

Colour in alcohol: Body brownish, darkest
in the upper half. Dorsal fin ray tipped black,
pelvic and anal fin tipped with orange.

Acknowledgements

l thank Dr. B. S. Lamba, Joint Director-in-
charge, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta
for laboratory facilities and Dr. P. K. Talwar,
Deputy Director, for encouragement and valu-
able guidance. I also thank Dr. S. K. Chatto-
padhya, Zoologist and Shri H. C. Ghosh,
Asstt. Zoologist for the collection of the speci-
mens.

R. P. BARMAN

210

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Reference

Day, F. (1878) : The Fishes of India; being a Text and atlas in 4 parts. London, xx + 778 pp.,
natural history of the fishes known to inhabit the 195 pis.
seas and freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon.

27. OCCURRENCE OF A SCHIZOTHORACINE FISH (SNOW
TROUT) IN A SUBTERRANEAN CAVE NEAR
UDAIPUR, RAJASTHAN

Schizothoracine fishes inhabit hillstreams and
lakes in the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan
region extending to China (Day 1958). Jaya-
ram (1981) gives their distribution as Kashmir,
Punjab, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tibet and Nepal.

One individual of this subfamily (Schizotho-
racinae) was caught in a subterranean cave
having its entrance about 50 feet below the
surface in the hilly terrain of Aravalli ranges
near Udaipur (lat. 24°-34' N; long. 74°-40'E).
The cave which had never been explored in
the past is said to have been formed by copper
mining activities in ancient times (around 3-4
thousand years back). The cave is dark and
appears fairly wide in its spread with inter-
connecting channels. These channels are un-
approachable, being very dark and at places
too low in height. At the time of capture of
the fish in May, 1987, the cave’s water had a
temperature of c. 18°C.

The fish was seen swimming near the en-
trance of the cave. It was caught and
identified as belonging to the subfamily Schizo-
thoracinae. The species could not be ascer-
tained with the help of available literature as
several characters of two genera Schizothorax
Heckel and Diptychus Steindachner overlapped
in the specimen. The description of the fish is
as follows:

Body elongate, subcylindrical, abdomen
rounded. Head large, rounded anteriorly, snout
obtuse, smooth. Mouth inferior, crescentic,
lower lip with papillated margin forming a
reduced sucker (character of the genus Schizo-

thorax). Eyes large, 6.7 in head length, late-
rally placed, barely visible from the ventral
side. Total length 23.6 cm., standard length
18.8 cm; depth 3.9 in standard length and
4.81 in total length. Head 4 in standard length
and 5.02 in total length. Only two barbels
visible, maxillary in position, minute, less than
the diameter of the eye. Dorsal fin inserted
almost half ahead of pelvic fin, beginning
above the posterior tip of pectoral fin. Dorsal
fin 1+9, pectoral fin 17, pelvic fin 9 with a
fleshy appendage in the axil (character of
Diptychus) , anal fin 7. The tile row of scales
over the anal fin not much developed. Caudal
forked 12+12, lateral line curved anteriorly
ending in the middle of caudal fin. Lateral line
scales 64 (unlike Schizothorax and Diptychus) .

The occurrence of a Schizothoracine fish in
the region south of Aravalli hills in Rajasthan
is intriguing. Presently, there is no river or
seasonal stream in this region connecting the
drainage of the sub-Himalayan region of
Punjab and Jammu-Kashmir. Since the cave
does not receive any surface drainage, the
presence of a Schizothoracine fish in the cave
could be a case of geographical isolation. It is
almost certain (Merh, personal communica-
tion) that the rivers and streams of western
Rajasthan (Luni, Jojari, Bundi and others)
had Himalayan connections in former days.
There could also be an underground drainage
of the sub-Himalayan watershed connecting
the streams and rivers of the region south of
Aravalli ranges. Obviously, the water of this

211

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

drainage would be cold. Peculiar assemblage
of different generic characters in the specimen
studied could be the sequel of interbreeding
and long isolation, thereby inducing speciation.

The water from the cave was pumped out
for a few days by the mining department of
Hindustan Zinc Ltd. for their use without our
knowledge. It was then reported that several
kilograms of fish were collected during this
operation. This fish catch was allowed to be
taken by the tribals residing nearby for their

1 Dept, of Limnology and Fisheries,
Rajasthan Agricultural University,
Udaipur Campus,

Udaipur.

2 \SHIKRA’ Ecological Restoration

Society,

41 Panchwati, Udaipur,

January 9, 1988.

consumption. It is possible further specimens
may not be available for confirmation of the
above findings and further study. However,
attempts are now being made to explore the
cave further as it still contains water of shallow
depth and thus may harbour ichthyologically
interesting finds.

We are grateful to Prof. S. S. Merh, Dept,
of Geology, M. S. University, Baroda for
discussion.

RAZA TEHSIN1
V. S. DURVE2
MANOJ KULSHRESHTHA1

References

Day, F. (1958) : The Fishes of India. William India. A handbook. Zoological Survey of India,
Dawson & Sens Ltd., London. Calcutta.

Jayaram, K. C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of

28. MATING AND OVIPOSITION BEHAVIOUR OF TEA MOSQUITO
BUG HELOPELTIS ANT ON 11 SIGNORET
(HETEROPTERA: MIRTDAE)1

Introduction

The tea mosquito bug Helopeltis antonii
Signoret (Heteroptera: Miridae) is the most
serious pest of cashew Anacardium occiden-
tal L. in India. The adults and nymphs of
the pest feed on the sap of tender shoots,
panicles and immature fruits resulting in their
drying up. Though the biology of the pest is
known, details of its mating and oviposition

1 Contribution number 44 1 of Central Plantation

Crops Research Institute. Kasaragod-670 124, Kerala.

behaviour are not well documented except for
the brief reports of Ambika and Abraham
(1979) and Jeevaratnam and Rajapakse (1981).
The mating and oviposition behaviour of H.
antonii, observed mainly under laboratory con-
ditions, is reported in detail in this communi-
cation.

Material and Methods

To observe the various sequences of mating
events, male and female adult bugs were in-

212

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

troduced in pairs into glass chimney cages and
tender shoots of cashew were provided as food
material. For studies on oviposition, mated
females were maintained in separate cages with
tender cashew shoots that were changed daily
and also examined for the eggs laid. These
studies were carried out in the laboratory under
a mean temperature range of 27.8-33.4°C and
a relative humidity of 56-73%. Observations
were also carried out in the field at the cashew
plantations of Central Plantation Crops Re-
search Institute at Vittal.

Results and Discussion

MATING BEHAVIOUR

1. Arousal : The mating process is always
initiated by the male. Sexual identification is
mainly by visual stimuli and occurs when a
female comes in the close vicinity of a male.
Once the male comes in contact with a female
the following sequence of activity occurs in
rapid succession. The male becomes alert and
appears to be visibly agitated as seen by its
movements. The male begins to probe lightly
over the entire body surface of the female
with its antenna; this phase of antennal con-
tact lasts for a very short period (10-30 sec.)
and probably serves to physically stimulate the
female. A receptive female’s response to the
male’s activity is passive, whereas a non-re-
ceptive female moves away quickly from the
male. Thus, courtship is brief and not elaborate.

2. Mounting : The male then mounts

the female generally from the posterior region.
The rostrum of the male is erect and it appears
to stroke lightly over the dorsal region of the
female just below the thoracic shield. The
stroking activity of the male probably has a
quietening effect on the female for insertion
of the aedeagus. During this phase, which is
also brief (25-60 sec.) the male bends the tip
of its abdomen towards that of the female.

The aedeagus is then extruded and kept erect
and is observed to make thrusting movements
for the insertion of the same into the genital
aperture of the female. In certain cases when
the female did not appear to admit the
aedeagus, the male moved it side to side across
the genital area of the female until insertion
was achieved. In certain cases females attempted
to dislodge males by vigorous kicking and
shaking movements. Dislodged males imme-
diately attempt to mount again and in some
cases insertion of the aedeagus is achieved in
the second or third attempt.

3. Copulation : As soon as the aedeagus
enters the genital chamber of the female the
male twists around and copulation occurs in
an ‘end to end’ position. Copulatory pairs
remain stationary and exhibit very little body
movements unless disturbed and do not feed.
Copulation lasts for a mean period of 51 min.
(n = 15; range: 27-81 min.). Jeevaratnam and
Rajapakse (1981) have mentioned that mating
pairs remain in copula for 10 min. -2 h.

4. Termination of copulation : The dis-

engagement of the copulatory pair is rather
abrupt. Both sexes struggle for a short period
(30-50 sec.) before succeeding in doing so.
With the termination of mating, they move
away to a short distance and begin to feed
immediately; sometimes they also clean their
antennae, appendages and genitalia. Females
that have just mated do not respond to
attempts of other males to mate with them.

The mating behaviour was similar under
laboratory and field conditions. Mating was
observed to occur throughout the day, both in
the laboratory and in the field. In the field
when the temperature is high, mating pairs
have been observed under leaves and other
similar shaded situations. The role of sex
attractant pheromones in the attraction and
recognition of the sexes in the field cannot be
ruled out. Smith (1977) has demonstrated the

213

15

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

presence of a sex attractant pheromone in
adult females of H. clavifer, a pest of cacao
in Papua New Guinea.

OVIPOSITION BEHAVIOUR

The eggs are inserted into the tissues of
tender stems and inflorescence stalks as re-
ported by Ambika and Abraham (1979) and
Jeevaratnam and Rajapakse (1981). On the
latter they are generally oviposited on the main
rachis and rarely on the secondary rachis. In
some cases, eggs are laid in the mid-rib of
leaves especially in the ventral region, and also
in the petioles. The eggs are laid either singly
or in groups of 2-4. An examination of 500
sample eggs showed that 43.6 per cent of
them were laid singly. When the eggs are depo-
sited in groups they occur in a single row or
in two rows. Egg laying occurs mainly during
the night but has also been observed during
the day.

Just prior to oviposition the female probes
the plant tissues for a suitable site with the
tip of its rostrum. As soon as a suitable site
is selected the female bends its abdomen and
extends the ovipositor so as to establish con-
tact with the plant tissue. The tarsi of all the
pairs of legs firmly grip the substratum. The
ovipositor is then inserted into the plant tissue
and the abdomen is observed to distend and
contract until an egg is deposited at an angle
below the epidermis in the parenchymatous
tissue. The ovipositor is then soon withdrawn.
During the process of oviposition the antennae
are held forward and slightly bent. The site of
oviposition is difficult to trace immediately after
it is completed; however, a browning of the

Central Plantation Crops

Research Institute,

Regional Station,

Vittal - 574 243,

Karnataka,

August 7, 1986.

region occurs in 1-2 days. A pair of silvery
white chorionic processes of the egg which are
unequal in length protrude outside the plant
tissue and can be easily recognised with the
aid of a magnifying glass.

The mean duration of preoviposition and
period in the present study was 3.6 days
(n = 15; range: 3-5 days) and 7.4 days (n= 15;
range: 5-10 days) respectively. The mean num-
ber of eggs laid by a female was 48.1 (n= 15;
range: 24-71 eggs). The pattern of oviposition
in relation to duration of oviposition period
is given in Table 1. More than 75 per cent

Table 1

Pattern of oviposition in Helopeltis antonii

Day of
oviposition

No. of eggs laid
per female*

1

7.9

2

7.5

3

7.7

4

7.3

5

6.3

6

4.5

7

3.7

8

1.9

9

0.8

10

0.3

* Values indicate mean of 15 replications.

of the eggs were laid during the first half of
the oviposition period.

Ack nowledgement

I thank Shri K. N. Murthy, former Scien-
tist-in-Charge, CPCRI Regional Station, Vittal
for providing facilities for carrying out the
above study.

S. DEVASAHAYAM2

2 Present address: CPCRI Regional Station, Mari-
kunnu P.O., Calicut-673 012, Kerala.

214

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Ambika, B. & Abraham, C. C. (1979): Bio- Miridae) in Sri Lanka, ibid. 6: 247-251.

ecology of Helopeltis antonii Sign. (Miridae: Hemi- Smith, E.S.C. (1977): Presence of a sex attrac-
ptera) infesting cashew trees. Entomon 4: 335-342, tant pheromone in Helopeltis clavifer (Walker)

Jeevaratnam, K. & Rajapakse, R.H.S. (1981): (Heteroptera: Miridae). /. Aust. ent. Soc. 16: 113-

Biology of Helopeltis antonii Sign. (Heteroptera: 116.

29. YOUNG LAC INSECTS IN A MINIATURE ANT’S NEST

Many insects live underground and so do
most species of ants. A typical case would be
of the common black ant, Camponotus com-
pressus. On the contrary there are insects
which build their nests in elevated areas or on
tree tops. Such an insect would be the honey-
bee. Then there is an ant which builds its nest
on trees, and it is Oecophyla smaragdina. Prof.
Doflein, who was Professor of Zoology, Freiburg
University, Germany, before the First World
War, as Zoologist, toured over Southern
Asia, visiting Ceylon as well. Here he observed
the ant Oecophyla smaragdina building its nest.
Living on a tree with broad leaves, some ants
tried to hold them close to one another while
others glued them together with the secretion
of their larvae otherwise destined to become
silk-like thread for their cocoons when dried.
Thus arose a nest formed of leaves with the
size almost two-thirds of an ordinary foot-
ball. Doflein was the first to illustrate such a
nest and also to show the ants bringing sepa-
rated leaves near each other for being woven
into a nest. A subject of my study had been
lac. While at Bangalore, I found that the local
species, Kerria mysorensis, grows best on Shorea
talura. This has broad leaves of the same size
as that of the banyan. Besides the lac insect
there was the ant O. smaragdina. It had con-
structed nests, some around the stems on which
lac insects were found. Then there were other
nests of which the leaves on the undersurface
were infested with some scale-insects. Lac in-

sect is also a scale-insect so that the inhabitants
of the ants’ nests were all scale-insects. They
secrete honey-dew which serves as the food of
the ant. Thus in effect the ants’ nest was like
a dairy. There was also evidence to show that
ants helped to transplant scale-insects on leaves
and increase their number in the nest. The
scale-insects then were treated like cows by
the ants. As far as I remember Doflein does
not mention whether the ants’ nest which he
observed was populated with scale-insects.

However, like the Asian species O. smarag-
dina, there is one in Africa named O.
longinoda. E. O. Wilson, the American
authority on ants, and Hoelldobler & Wilson
(1981) have studied the African ant, which was
rehabilitated in a greenhouse in America. Their
illustrations confirm the main observations of
Doflein. They do mention that the ants “gather
the sweet honey dew, the excrement of scale
insects”. But there is no hint to the effect that
the nest was found populated by scale-insects
and it functioned like their dairy. This is
because their observations refer to a rehabili-
tated ant colony and not the natural one in
Africa.

Whereas the large nests of the two ants
Oecophyla smaragdina and O. longinoda have
been illustrated, a similar nest of a small ant
remains unrecorded. Lac was cultivated in a
small plantation near the village, Dorsanipalia,
on the way to Banergatta in Bangalore. The tree
was called “Jalari” in Kanarese, which would

215

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

be Shorea talura. The insect was a new species
which has been named Kerria mysorensis. It
gives three crops of lac per thirteen lunar
months. In the above area I found the nest
of a small ant. The nest was built of spores
and residues of fungi growing on the leaves of
Shorea talura infected with lac. The insects
excrete honey-dew copiously and much of it
falls on the leaves below where saprophytic
fungi grow profusely upon it. The predominant
fungus was Aspergillus niger. This accounted
for the black appearance of the miniature
ant’s nest, shown almost natural size. The ant
had so constructed the nest that there was one
hole which was used as entrance and the other
as exit. I was able to find another nest of the
same ant in its earliest stage of construction.
A portion of a twig was colonized by young
lac insects soon after they had fixed themselves.
Finding that there was a small colony of lac
insects the ants came to construct a nest using

SD, 34 - Block A,

North Nazimabad,

Karachi 33,

September 26, 1986.

the saprophytic fungi as the building material.
The motive of constructing the nest was the
same as of the larger nest by the weaver ants

O. smaragdina and O. longinoda.

The species that built the nests, could not
be ascertained, as, unfortunately this informa-
tion was contained in a file which I had taken
to Pabna, Bangladesh, and which was subse-
quently lost. Its nest is fully formed with two
holes, as entrance and as exit, which suffice
to speak of the ants’ intelligence. The nest
was also constructed in order to be sure of
supply of honey-dew.

Summary

Ants build nests to exploit scale-insects as
a constant supply of honey-dew, as do two
species of Oecophyla, Asiatic and African. A
miniature ants’ nest has been found covering
a colony of young lac insects also as source
of honew-dew.

S. MAHDIHASSAN

Reference

Hgelldorler, B. K. & Wilson, Edward O. (1981): Weaver Ants. In: H. Topoff, Animal Society
and Evolution. Scientific American Publication.

30. RECORD OF SIMA ALABORANUS (WALKER), A HONEYDEW
SCAVENGER ANT (HYMENOPTERA: FORMICIDAE :

MYRMECINAE) KILLING APHIDOPHAGOUS SYRPHID
MAGGOT IN WESTERN HIMALAYA

In nature, there exists a symbiotic association
between plant lice and attending ants
(Nixon 1951, Bodenheimer and Swirski 1957,
Way 1963, Bradley and ITinks 1968) where
the latter, to some extent provide protection to
the aphid colony from predators (Bank 1959)
and get nourished with sugar excreta of the

aphids. The experiments of El-Ziady and
Kennedy (1956) indicated that Aphis fabae
Scopoli multiplies more rapidly when attend-
ed by Lasius niger L, whether the aphid’s
enemies are present or not. Ants have never
been found to kill aphid predators, although
Capinera and Roltsch (1981) observed that

216

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

they might prey upon lepidopterous pests of the
same plants where aphids are also pests and
are attended by the same ant species.

During our present investigation on aphids
and related organisms of Garhwal range of
western Himalaya, Sima alaboranus (Walker),
a high altitude ant species distributed in western
India and Bengal (Bingham 1903) was found
in association with Prociphilus sp. (Homop-
tera: Aphididae) causing leaf galls on honey-
suckle, Lonicera quinquelocularis. These ants,
due to their peculiar foraging habit, collect
semisolid honeydew droplets discharged by the
aphids and carry them to their nests following
a trail. The relationship is facultative as ants
are attracted only with the dehiscence of the
gall and subsequent exposure of honeydew
droplets already stored inside the gall. This is
the probable reason for such type of ephemeral
association being observed only during early
summer (April-May). Prociphilus sp. on its
secondary host, in the pine root, was observed
to be attended by Acanlhomyops latipes Walsh
in Manitoba (Bradley and Hinks 1968). Cathe-
rine et al (1977) found Prociphilus sp. in the
nest of Lasius pal lit arsis (Provancher). How-
ever, there is no specificity of such association
and it rather depends on the availability of
ant nests in the vicinity of aphid infestation.
Bradley and Hinks (1968) distinguished two
categories of ants, viz., a true aphid atten-
dant, and a honeydew scavenger, foraging
in the territory but actively avoiding
contact with the attendant species of ants. But
in our observation on honeysuckle leaf gall

Biosystematics Research Unit,
Department of Zoology,

University of Kalyani.

Kalyani 741 235,

West Bengal,

September 25, 1986.

aphid, we never got a true aphid attendant
species of ant.

S. alaboranus shows a strong aggressive
behaviour towards the predatory syrphid
maggot, Episyrphus balteatus (de Geer)
(Diptera), the major limiting factor of aphids
in general and leaf gall inhabiting aphid in
particular in the area. Due to the sluggish
nature of syrphid maggots, the ants have little
trouble in attacking them, whereas other
predatory species like coccinellids, anthocorids,
spiders etc. being speedy and agile can easily
escape from the attack of ants. The ants carry-
ing syrphid maggots were traced during the
summers of 1984 and 1985 and it was seen
that after getting down to the ground they
drop them. We picked up a few of the
dropped maggots and found that they were
nearly dead and had a few punctures on their
body. We tried to feed a few of these maggots
with prey aphids or water soaked cotton (often
syrphid maggots can thrive on plain water
up to 7 days), but they refused to accept any
food and gradually succumbed to the injuries.
This observation is interesting since S . alabo-
ranus attacks aphid predators, the predatory
efficiency naturally decreased to keep the pest
population below damaging level.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. R. N. Tiwari, Zoological Sur-
vey of India, Calcutta, for confirming the
identification of ant species, and the Depart-
ment of Science and Technology for financing
the study.

D. GHOSH
S. CHAKRABARTI

217

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Referen ces

Banks, C. J. (1959): Effects of ants on the phy-
siology and development of aphids. Publishing House
of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, 329-332.

Bingham, C. T. (1903): The fauna of British
India including Ceylon and Burma — Hymenoptera.
Vol. II. Ants and Cuckoo wasps. Taylor & Francis,
London 506 pp.

Bodenheimer, F. S. & Swirski, E. (1957): The
Aphidoidea of the Middle East. The Weismann
Science Press of Israel, Jerusalem, 378 pp.

Bradley, G. A. (1968) : Ants, aphids and jack
pine in Manitoba. Can Ent. 100(1): 40-50.

Capinera, J. L. & Roltsch, W. J. (1981): The
predatory ant Formica neoclara : effect on within-
field bean aphid distribution, and activity in relation

to thermal condition. J. Kans. Ent. Soc. 54(3) :
578-586.

Catherine, M., O'Neill, A. & Robinson, A. G.
(1977): Ant-aphid associations in the province of
Manitoba. Manitoba Ent. 11 : 74-88.

El-Ziady, S. & Kennedy, J. S. (1956): Benefi-
cial effects of the common garden ant, Lasius niger
L., on the black bean aphid, Aphis fabae Scopoli.
Froc. Roy. Entomol. Soc. London (A) 31 : 61-65.

Nixon, B. A. (1951) : The association of ants
with aphids and coccids. Comm. Inst. Ent. London,
36 pp.

Way, M. J. (1963) : Mutualism between ants and
honeydew-producing Homoptera. A. Rev. Ent. 8 : 307-
344.

31. DUNG AND DUNG BEETLES IN KANHA TIGER RESERVE,
CENTRAL INDIAN HIGHLANDS

During zoological fieldwork in Kanha Tiger
Reserve, Mandla District, Madhya Pradesh,
dung beetles were collected from the faeces
of a variety of mammals. As data on dung
beetles in Kanha have not been previously
published the results are presented here.

Kanha Tiger Reserve is a 1945 km2 tract of
dry deciduous, moist deciduous (sal, Shorea
robusta) forest and anthropogenic meadow in
the Maikal Hills (Schaller 1967, Newton 1984,
1985). It holds abundant large mammals in-
cluding tiger (Panthera tigris) and ten species
of ungulate. Dung beetles were collected (1980-
1982) from dung deposited on and around
the central Kanha maidan (80° 38' 3" E, 22° 17'
15" N, 600 m above m.s.l.) immediately east
of Kanha Forest Village in sal forest and
meadow. The identity of the dung was deter-
mined by PNN and Mungal Baiga, and the
beetles by Mr. L. Jessop of the British Museum
(Natural History), London.

The species of coprophagous beetle collect-
ed and the identity of the mammal responsi-

ble for the dung are listed in Table 1. All
beetles belong to the subfamily Scarabaeinae.
In addition, an Anomala species (Rutelinae)
was collected from elephant dung (Elephas
maximus). A total of 22 species of Scarabaeinae
were collected with one species of Garreta
(near G. smaragdifer Walker) apparently un-
described (Jessop, pers. comm.). Of the 29
collections of the large genus Onthophagus,
O. griseosetosus could be identified, while the
remaining specimens were sorted into nine
“Recognizable Taxonomic Units” which are
probably separate species.

Dung beetles were collected in February,
March and May to August with the peak in
frequency of collection in the monsoon months
of June and July. With the exception of two
species collected from chital (Cervus axis)
rumen contents at a dhole (Cuon alpinus)
kill the few beetles collected outside the
monsoon were at elephant faeces. The appa-
rent specialization on elephant dung and rumen
contents by beetles foraging outside the

218

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

monsoon may reflect the large size, softness
and presence of a persistent humid core in
both these resources.

Kingston (1977), in a study of the copro-
phagous beetle fauna of elephant ( Loxodonta
africana ) dung in Kenya, also found very few
beetles outside the wet season. The fauna
was richer (126 species collected in 2 years)
than that collected in Kanha, although compa-
rison is complicated by the considerably greater
effort expended in the Kenyan study. Coe
(1979) collected 21 species of Scarabaeinae
from cow dung in 7 days in south India with
2 species (C. re pert us & G. cyaneus ) common
to this study.

Most studies of dung beetles have examined
their relationship with the dung of one mammal
species, such as the cow (Hanski & Koskela
1977, Coe 1979) or elephant (Kingston 1977).
Few investigations have examined the selection
of dung of various mammal species by diffe-
rent coprophagous beetles. Eight of the 22

species collected were only found on one
“species” of dung (Table 1). Onthophagus
griseosetosus was found at the greatest num-
ber of dung “species” (5), but the remaining
members of the genus were confined to ele-
phant and wild pig ( Sus scrofa) dung. Most
other species did not colonise elephant dung
but exploited chital and langur ( Presbytis
entellus ) faeces, with occasional records on
blackbuck ( Antilope cervicapra), elephant,
jackal (Canis aureus ), dhole and human faeces.
K. K. Gurung collected dung beetles from
tiger, Indian elephant and Indian rhinoceros
( Rhinoceros unicornis ) in the Royal Chitwan
National Park, Nepal (material in BM (NH),
pers. comm. L. Jessop). Three species were
common to this collection. Paragymnopleurus
sinuatus & Zizyphus crispatus were found on
rhinoceros dung while Catharsius molossus
was found on elephant faeces. Of the 30
species collected, 18 belonged to the genus
Onthophagus.

Table 1

Number of occurrences of dung beetles at 56 faeces of 8 mammal species in kanha tiger reserve

Scarabaeinae beetle species

Mammal Species (responsible for dung)

Chital Blackbuck Pig Elephant Jackal Dhole Langur

Human N

n

Catharsius molossus L.

1

1

1

C. pithecius Fabricius

1

2 1

1

5

4

Onitis subopacus Arrow

1+

1

1

Copris ?davisoni Waterhouse

1+

1

1

C. carinicus Gillet

1

1

1

C. re pert us Walk.

*1

0

Gymnopleurus cyaneus Fabricius

1

1

1

3

3

Paragymnopleurus sinuatus Olivier

3

3

1

Garreta mundus Wiedmann

1

1

1

Garreta sp. [undescribed]

3

3

1

Zizyphus crispatus Gory

3

1 1

3

8

4

Proagoderus pactolus Fabricius

1

1 2

2

Phalops olivaceus Lansberge

1

1

1

Onthophagus griseosetosus Arrow

2

1 3 1

5

12

5

Onthophagus : nine species

3 14

17

2

+ = collected from rumen contents.

* = collected at night while flying into light.

N — number of collections in which species identified,
n = number of mammal species’ dung at which beetle species recorded.
For mammals, latin names see text.

219

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 85

Euryphagy was the predominant pattern in
Kanlia with few stenophagous species. A simi-
lar pattern was reported by Halffter & Mathews
(1966) for tropical Africa. Although the sam-
ple sizes are small, two Kanha species, P.
sinuatus & Garreta (undescribed) appeared to
be confined to langur dung. Similarly, Struh-
saker (1975) suggested that, in Uganda, the
beetle Gymnopleurus crenulatus is associated
with red colobus ( Colobus badius) dung. Fac-
tors involved in dung selection may include
fibre size and concentration (e.g. in elephant
faeces) and chemical composition. However,
there is no clear distinction between beetles
utilizing herbivore and carnivore dung in
Kanha.

The interpretation of these results is com-
plicated by collector bias. The large number
of beetles collected from langur dung relative
to other mammals probably reflects the fact
that langurs were being intensively studied.
Similarly, the collection of only one species
of Scarabaeinae from dhole dung probably
reflects the rarity with which dung positively
attributable to this species, as opposed to
jackals, was identified. The three mammals
which supported the greatest species richness
of dung beetles — chital. elephant and langur

Animal Ecology Research Group,
Department of Zoology,

South Parks Rd., Oxford, 0X1 3PS, U.K..
September 25. 1986.

Refer

Coe, M. J. (1979) : The beetle fauna of cow
dung in Madurai, Tamil Nadu. Unpublished re-
port, University of Madurai.

Halffter, G. & Mathews, E. G. (1966) : The
natural history of dung beetles of the subfamily
Scarabaeinae. Folia Ent. Mex. 12-14: 1-312.

Hanski, I. & Koskela, H. (1977) : Niche rela-
tions among dung-inhabiting beetles. Oecologia
{Bed.) 28: 203-231.

Kingston, T. J. (1977) : Natural manuring by
elephants in the Tsavo National Park, Kenya.
D. Phil thesis, University of Oxford.

produced the most visible and abundant dung.
Additional confounding factors include the
possible under-representation of nocturnal
beetles (Coe 1979) and beetles which visited
dung briefly and rolled balls of faeces away
(Kingston 1977), in comparison to diurnal
beetles and those which remained within dung.
The lack of data on the number of individuals
of each species at each dung deposit limits
the usefulness of the collection. If ‘switching’
(Kingston 1977) occurred, with beetles becom-
ing more specialist with the onset of breeding,
the pattern illustrated in Table 1 will depend
on the reproductive state of the beetles during
the collection periods.

The fieldwork was permitted and assisted
by the Jt. Sec.. Wildlife (Dept, of Forests &
Wildlife, New Delhi), Chief Wildlife Warden
(M.P.) and the Field Director, Project Tiger,
Kanha. PNN is greatly indebted to the Kanha
staff of the Madhya Pradesh Forest Depart-
ment and to Mungal & Mohan Baiga for their
assistance. We are greatly indebted to Mr. L.
Jessop of the British Museum for the identi-
fication of the beetles and for comments on
this note. The fieldwork was carried out whilst
PNN was in receipt of a SRC (UK) student-
ship.

PAUL N. NEWTON

MALCOLM J. COE

ENCES

Newton, P. N. (1984) : The ecology and social
organization of Hanuman langurs {Presbytis entellus
Dufresne, 1797) in Kanha Tiger Reserve, Central
Indian Highlands. D. Phil thesis, University of
Oxford.

(1985) : The behavioural ecology

of forest Hanuman langurs. Tiger paper 12: 3-7.

Schaller, G. B. (1967) : The Deer and the Tiger.
Chicago University Press, Chicago.

Struhsaker, T. T. (1975) : The Red Colobus
Monkey. Chicago University Press, Chicago.

220

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

32. THE INDIAN FRITILLARY ( ARGYREUS HYPERBIUS L.) IN
THE CHAMBAL AREA OF MADHYA PRADESH AND
RAJASTHAN (LEPIDOPTERA: NYMPHALIDAE)

Introduction

The Indian Fritillary (Argyreus hyperbius
Linne) is the only member of its genus, which
is closely allied to the genus Argynnis and
its close relatives, all of which are purely
Palaearctic. It has a solid distribution from
the western Himalaya to China and Japan.
Though mainly linked to temperate zone habi-
tats, the species breeds at lower levels than
members of related genera.

Contrary to related genera (except for a
few members of the genus Jssoria in highland
East Africa) A. hyperbius is present in the
montane areas of the tropical zone. In India
it is found on the highest mountains of South
India, at Pachmarhi in Madhya Pradesh, on
Mt. Abu in Rajasthan and Sri Lanka. It is
found in the highlands of Malaysia where,
according to Eliot (1978), it has recently
established itself in habitats modified by man,
but it is common in highland Sumatra. It is
also found in montane New Guinea and in
Queensland, Australia. This type of distribu-
tion of a Palaearctic species is highly unusual
in itself, but the presence of a distinct sub-
species also in the highlands of Ethiopia makes
the butterfly, I think, biogeographically unique.
Each of the geographical isolates have been
described as separate subspecies, but they are
not very distinct from each other.

Low level observations of A. hyperbius

Despite its Palaearctic origins and its essen-
tially temperate habitat choice, there are scat-
tered records of this butterfly from the plains:
Delhi, Lucknow, Bombay, Saurashtra, and near
Patna. In April, 1985 I collected a small series
in the Himalayan foothills near Ramnagar,

U.P. Most of the plains specimens have been
taken during the winter months, and the gene-
ral impression is that they move down to the
plains in autumn instead of hibernating in the
mountains. This is the case for a small group
of Palaearctic butterflies described by Larsen
(1986). The normal food plant for the species
and its related genera is Viola, and the weed
Viola tricolor is found in gardens and fields
on the plains. There is one record from the
plains during the summer months. I collected
several specimens of both sexes in Jor Bagh
Colony, New Delhi, in July, 1961, descendants
of those recorded by Bent Bogh Andersen in
March of the same year. It must be empha-
sised, however, that the total number of low
level observations of this butterfly are few.

Observations on the Cl-iambal

On 22.xii.1985 I stopped briefly in the
ravines of the Chambal River, where the main
Gwalior-Agra road crosses the river. I saw at
least six males of A. hyperbius and resolved
to plan my return journey is such a way as
to look further into the matter. On 27.xii.1985
I checked the ravines to a depth of 500 m
on either side of the river. The butterfly was
everywhere plentiful, and several specimens
were met with that had limp wings, indicating
that they had only just hatched. They were
definitely breeding, but only in the dacoit in-
fested ravines. Spot checks in agricultural-lands
nearby yielded no specimens. The only pre-
vious record that I have traced of low level
breeding is that of de Rhe Philippe (1902)
who found larvae on potted violets and Lobe-
lia in Lucknow. The latter is not normally
used by the genus or its relatives. There were

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

no likely food plant candidates in the Chambal
area.

The Chambal habitat, to my mind, is a most
surprising one for the species. The ravines
have summer temperatures in excess of 45°
Centigrade, are very dry, and contain a basi-
cally xerophillous vegetation dominated by
Cap paris aphylla. Thousands of Anaphaeis
aurota F. were hatching in the area at the
time. All other butterflies present were typical
of arid tropical lands in Asia, and in some
cases also Africa. The presence of A. argyreus
in large numbers was highly anomalous. But
there they were, and they must have had an
alternative, unrecorded food plant.

Discussion

A. hyper bias definitely cannot permanently

Snoghoj alle 29C,

DK 2770 Kastrup,

Denmark,

October 18, 1986.

survive on the plains of India, and the July
records from Delhi in 1961 must be excep-
tional. A revisit to the locality on l.iv.1986
yielded no specimens. Confirmation of this
was found in the Nilgiri Mountains of South
India where I reared some 100 pupae in
Kotagiri (1900m) with very little mortality.
Of the pupae obtained, eighty hatched in
Kotagiri without incident, while most of twenty
hatching at Mettupalayam on the plains were
crippled, apparently because temperatures
reached very high levels at the time.

The ability of A. hyperbius to breed at low
altitudes during cool weather is probably a
factor in its wide distribution in the montane
zones of the Asian tropics. More information
on its migrations and survival on the plains
would be of great interest.

TORBEN B. LARSEN

References

Eliot, J. N. (1978) : Revised edition of Corbet
& Pendlebury The butterflies of the Malay
Peninsula. Kuala Lumpur.

Larsen, T. B. (1986): Seasonal movements of
Palaearctic migrant butterflies into the Indian plains

— a substitute for, or a supplement to, hibernation.
Atalanta, 16: 245-252.

Rhe Philipe, G. W. V. de (1902) : The Butterflies
of the Lucknow District. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
14: 481-493.

33. REVISED NOMENCLATURE FOR SOME BUTTERFLIES OF

THE INDIAN REGION

Subsequent to my contributions on the
nomenclature of Indian butterflies (Varshney
1980, 1985), two significant publications from
the British Museum (Nat. Hist.) have appear-
ed, which have changed the names of butter-
flies in two families considerably. These changes
involve a number of species occurring in the

Indian region. Hence this note is put up to
update our information on these taxa.

Family Danaidae

Ackery & Vane-Wright (1984) have revised
the world fauna of milkweed butterflies (Sub-

222

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

family Danainae). On the one hand they have
resurrected many names from the synonymy,
and on the other proposed several new taxa.
I tend to agree with their statement, “Although
homonymy, synonymy and misidentification
have all played a part in this chequered
history, the last category, the creation or re-
cognition of false groups, has had the most
undesirable effects.”

All species recorded from different parts of
the Indian region, under their present names,
are listed below. The taxa are arranged alpha-
betically, and the distribution is shown along-
side, restricted to Indian region only. The
number in square brackets on left side, refers
to the SI. No. of that species in the Table 1
of my earlier paper in this Journal (Varshney
1980: 34).

Subfamily danainae
Tribe DANAINI

1 . Danaus ( Anosia ) chrysippus (Linn.) —
Sri Lanka; NW., NE. and S. India, Anda-
man & Nicobar Is., Nepal and Burma.

2. D. ( Salatura ) affinis (Fabr.) — India:
Nicobar Is.

3. [9] D. ( S .) genutia (Cramer) — Sri Lanka;
NW., NE. and S. India, Andaman &
Nicobar Is.; Nepal and Burma.

4. [10] D. ( S .) melanippus (Cramer) —
India: Nicobar Is.; Burma.

5. Ideopsis juventa (Cramer) — India:
Nicobar Is.

6. /. similis (Linn.) — Sri Lanka; Burma.

7. /. vulgaris (Butler) — Burma.

8. [4] Parantica aglea (Stoll) — Sri Lanka;
N.W., N.E. and S. India, Andaman Is.;
Nepal and Burma.

9. P. agleoides (Felder & Felder) - NE.
India and Nicobar Is.; Burma.

10. P. aspasia (Fabr.) — Burma.

1 1 . P. metaneus (Cramer) — Nepal; NE.
India; and Burma.

12. P. nilgiriensis (Moore) — S. India.

13. P. pedonga Fujioka — Nepal and NE.
India.

14. [5] P. sita (Kollar) — NW. and NE. In-
dia; Nepal; Burma.

35. [6] P. taprobana (Felder & Felder) — Sri
Lanka.

16. Tirumala gautama (Moore) — India:
Nicobar Is.; Burma.

17. [7] T. limniace (Cramer) — > Sri Lanka;
NW., NE. and S. India, Andaman &
Nicobar Is.; Nepal and Burma.

18. T. septentrionis (Butler) — Sri Lanka;
NW., NE. and S. India; Nepal and Burma.

Tribe EUPLOEINI

19. [17] Euploea algea (Godart) — Nepal;
NE. India; Burma.

20. E. camaralzeman Butler — Burma.

21 . [15] E. core (Cramer) — Sri Lanka; NW.,
NE. and S. India, Andaman & Nicobar
Is.; Nepal and Burma.

22. [12] E. crameri Lucas — - NE. India and
Nicobar Is.; Burma.

23. [11] E. doubledayi Felder & Felder — NE.
India and Burma.

24. E. eunice (Godart) — India: Nicobar Is.;
and Burma.

25. E. eyndhovii Felder & Felder — Burma.

26. [14,20] E. klugii Moore — Sri Lanka;
NE. and S. India; Burma.

27. E. midamus (Linn.) — NE. India and
Andaman Is.; Burma.

28. E. modesta Butler — Burma.

29. E. mulciber (Cramer) — NW.. NE. and
S. India; Nepal; Burma.

30. [16] E. phaenareta (Schaller) — Sri Lanka
and Burma.

31 . E. radamanthus (Fabr.) — Nepal; NE.
India and Burma.

223

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST : SOCIETY, Vol. 85

32. [13, 18] E. Sylvester (Fabr.) — Sri Lanka;
NE. and S. India; Burma.

33. E. tulliolus (Fabr.) — Burma.

34. Idea agamarschana (Felder & Felder) —
India: NE. India and Andaman Is.; and
Burma.

35. /. hypermnestra (Westwood) — Burma.

36. /. iasonia (Westwood) Sri Lanka.

37. /. leuconoe Erichson — Burma.

38. [2] /. lynceus (Drury) Burma.

39. /. malabarica (Moore) — S. India.

Family Lycaenidae

Eliot & Kawazoe (1983) have revised the
world fauna of Lycaenopsis group of species,
which are now treated under the Subfamily
Lycaeninae, Tribe Polyommatini. They have
proposed numerous new combinations. The
Indian taxa, earlier dealt under Lycaenopsis
or Celastrina, have now been put in 12 genera.
Therefore, a portion of the Table 6 (from
SI. Nos. 30 to 50) in my paper dealing with
this family (Varshney 1985: 314-15) requires
to be altered. I have alphabetically listed be-
low all species and subspecies recorded from
the Indian region by Eliot & Kawazoe (l.c.).
The distributional range within Indian region is
shown alongside. The SI. No. in brackets given
on left, refers to the table 6 of my above
cited paper, and shows the species covered in
the book by Wynter-Blyth (1957).

Subfamily lycaeninae
Tribe POLYOMMATINI

1 . Acytolepis lilacea indochinensis Eliot &
Kawazoe Burma: Pegu Yomas.

2. [31] A. lilacea lilacea (Hampson) — S.
India: upto Nilgiris.

3. [31] A. lilacea moorei (Toxopeus) — Sri
Lanka.

4. A. pus pa cyanescens (de Niceville) —
India: Nicobar Is.

5. [30] A. puspa felderi Toxopeus — Sri
Lanka; S. India: up to Bombay.

6. [30] A. puspa gisca (Fruhstorfer) — Pakis-
tan; N. India and Andaman Is,; Bangla-
desh; Burma.

7. A. puspa Iambi (Distant) — S. Burma:
Victoria Point.

8. A. puspa prominens (de Niceville) — In-
dia: S. Nicobar Is.

9. Callenya lenya lenya (Evans) — S. Burma.

10. [48,49] C. malaena malaena (Doherty)
— India: Manipur; Burma.

1 1 . [45, 46] Celastrina argiolus jynteana (de
Niceville) — Along S. Himalayas: Nepal;
NE. India; Burma. Also see note below.

12. [44] C. argiolus kollari (Westwood) — W.
Himalayas: Pakistan (Chitral) to India
(Kumaon).

13. [43] C. gigas (Hemming) — W. Hima-
layas; W. Nepal.

14. C. hersilia vipia Cantlie & Norman — E.
Nepal; India: Sikkim and NE. India.

15. [42] C. huegelii huegelii (Moore) — In-
dia: W. Himalayas upto Naini Tal.

16. [42] C. huegelii oreoides (Evans) —
Nepal; India: E. Himalayas.

17. [41] C. lavendularis lavendularis (Moore)

- Sri Lanka; SW. and S. India.

18. [41] C. lavendularis limbata (Moore) —
N. India; Burma.

19. C. morsheadi morsheadi (Evans) — In-
dia: Upper Brahmaputra basin.

20. C. oreas oreana (Swinhoe) — NE. India:
Khasi & Jyntia Hills.

21 . C. oreas yunnana Eliot & Kawazoe —
Burma.

22. [36] Celatoxia albidisca (Moore) — Hills
of S. India.

23 . [37] C. marginata marginata (de Nice-
ville) — C. Himalayas: India (Sikkim.
NE. India) to Burma (Karen Hills).

224

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

24. [38] Lestranicus tram pectus (Moore) —
NE. India; Bangladesh; Burma.

25. Lycaenopsis haraldus renonga Riley — S.
Burma: Mergui.

26. Megisba inalaya presbyter Fruhstorfer -
India: Andaman Is.

27. M. rnalaya sikkima Moore — N. India,
NE. Himalayas.

28. M. malaya thwaitesi Moore — Sri Lanka;
India: Sikkim, Orissa, S. India up to
Bombay.

29. [40] Monodontides ( M .) musina musinoi-
des (Swinhoe) — NE. India; Burma.

30. Neopithecops zalmora andamanus Eliot &
Kawazoe — India: Andaman & Nicobar
Is.

31 . N. zalmora dharma (Moore) — Sri Lanka;
S. India upto Nilgiris.

32. N. zalmora zalmora (Butler) — India:
Kashmir to Bengal, Assam and Orissa;
Bangladesh and Burma.

33. [50] Notarthrinus binghami Chapman —
NE. India; N. Burma.

34. Oreolyce ( Arietta ) vardhana nepalica
(Forster) — Central and E. Nepal.

35. [32] O. (A.) vardhana vardhana (Moore)

— Pakistan; India: NW. Himalayas

(Kashmir to Naini Tal).

36. [47] O. ( O .) dohertyi (Tytler) — India:
Nagaland.

37. Plautella cossaea pambui (Eliot) — S.
Burma.

38. [33] Udara ( Penudara ) albocaerulea albo-
caerulea (Moore) — C. Himalayas: India
and Nepal; and Burma.

39. U. ( Selmanix ) selma cerima (Corbet) —
NE. India; Burma.

40. [35] U. ( U .) akasa mavisa (Fruhstorfer)
— S. India; Sri Lanka.

ZOOLOG LCAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

Gangetic Plains Regional Station,

B/l 1 , P.C.C., Lohia Nagar,

Patna-800 020 (Bihar),

October 10, 1986.

41. ' t/. ( U. ) cyma cyma (Toxopeus) — S.

Burma.

42. [39] U. {U.) dilecta dilecta (Moore) -
Pakistan; N. India and Burma.

43. [34] U. ( U .) lanka (Moore) — Sri Lanka.

44. U. ( U . ) placid ula howarthi (Cantlie &
Norman) — NE. India: Assam, Manipur;
and Burma.

45. U. ( U .) singalensis (R. Felder) — Sri
Lanka and S. India.

Notes

A correction may be made in my Table 5 A
UBNHS 82: 310), lMagisba should be read
as 'Megisba .

Eliot & Kawazoe (1983: 217) have changed
the well known name Celastrina jynteana Moore
to C. argiolus iynteana (de N.). They state,
“The original spelling was iynteana both in
the text and in the plate. Subsequently de
Niceville (1890: 104) altered the spelling to
jynteana, presumably because Moore had in
the meantime introduced that spelling, and this
has been copied by all subsequent authors.”
The change is unfortunate. The species was
named after its habitat: the Jyntea Hills

(Meghalaya, India). Its original citation
‘ jynteana was a misspelling. De Niceville

(1890) and all subsequent workers have cor-
rectly used the name jynteana, which is re-
stored here under the Article 32 (d) of the
International Code of Zoological Nomencla-
ture (1985. 3rd edition).

A CK NOWLEDGE M E N T

Thanks are recorded to the Director, Zoolo-
gical Survey of India, for providing facilities
and encouragement.

R. K. VARSHNEY1

1 Present address : Zoological Survey of India, 535.
M-Block, P.O. New Alipur, Calcutta-700 053.

225

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

References

Ackery, P. R. & Vane-Wright, R. I. (1984):
Milkweed butterflies — their cladistics and biology.
British Museum (Nat. Hist.), London: 425 pp.

De Niceville, L. (1890) : The butterflies of India,
Burmah & Ceylon, Vol. 3. Calcutta: 503 pp.

Eliot, J. N. & Kawazoe, A. (1983) : Blue butter-
flies of the Lycaenopsis group. British Museum
(Nat. Hist.), London: 309 pp.

International Commission on Zoological
Nomenclature (1985) : International Code of Zoo-
logical Nomenclature, 3rd edition. London: 338 pp.

Varshney, R. K. (1980): Revised nomenclature
for taxa in Wynter-Blyth’s book on the butterflies
of Indian region. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(1)
(1979): 33-40.

(1985) : Revised nomenclature

for taxa in Wynter-BlytlTs book on the butterflies
of Indian region — II. ibid. 82(2 ) : 309-321.

Wynter-Blyth, M. A. (1957): Butterflies of the
Indian region. Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay: 523 pp.

34. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOTHER -YOUNG
RELATIONSHIP IN MESOBUTHUS TAMULUS TAMULUS
(FABR.) (ORDER: SCORPIONIDA, FAMILY: BUTHIDAE)

(With two text-figures)

Introduction

This study describes 9 month’s observations
on commonly occurring yellow scorpion,
Mesobuthus tamulus tamulus (Fabr.) in Maha-
rashtra. It is well known that the mother
carries the young on her back. As they grow
in size, after 8-10 days after birth, the larvae
get scattered from the mother and gradually
maternal care behaviour diminishes in inten-
sity.

Material and Methods

14 gravid females were collected from
Pirangut Wagholi and Kamshet around Pune.
They were kept in a wooden cage of size
l'H x iy L x l'W (Fig. 1) with wire mesh
on 3 sides and a glass door. The legs of the
cage were kept in plastic containers holding
water to keep out ants. Black soil was spread
and pieces of coconut shell were placed in the
cage. Insects were given as food and water
was given twice a week.

After parturition, each mother along with its

young was separated and kept in a glass jar
with a cover of muslin cloth.

Observations

After delivery, the mother carried a
litter of 20-25 tiny white young, measuring
10 mm in length, under a thin white birth
membrane on her back (Fig. 2). Occa-
sionally they moved but otherwise were
quiescent. During this phase, the mother
hungrily devoured 2-3 prey offered, one by
one. However her movements were restricted
and she attempted to catch a prey only when
it was within her range. The tail constantly
covered the young and the mother alertly res-
ponded to minute stimuli. The fingers of pedi-
palps were open. The ventral surface of the
body touched the ground but the posterior
portion of the mesosoma was slightly uplifted.
The legs were spread and the back arched;
when the young scorpions crawled over her
legs and pedipalps, the mother remained
motionless.

226

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Scorpion cage.

After 3 to 4 days, the young moved actively
and hid below the belly of the mother.

One of the females gave birth to young
ones during day time. She stood with
tips of both pedipalps touching the ground.
The metasoma and telson was straight and,
thus the female stood arched and the young
were dropped to the ground.

The young were able to recognize the parent
and crawled over her body. Ten days after
birth the young left the mother scorpion, wan-
dered around and were seen hiding below coco-
nut shell but at the slight stimulus of a
brush, they swiftly rushed towards the mother.

Fig. 2. Mother with larvae on her back.

227

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Table 1

The birth record of young

Mother

Date of
parturition

Time of Number of
parturition young

A

13-10-1980

Night

25

B

12-1 1-1980

Night

20

C

11-2-1981

Day

21

D

19-2-1981

Night

15

E

24-2-1981

Night

30

F

24-2-1981

Night

20

G

26-2-1981

Night

24

H

31-3-1981

Day

40

I

23-4-1981

Night

20

J

26-6-1981

Night

27

K

15-11-1984

Day

29

L

14-3-1985

Night

20

M

17-3-1985

Day

14

N

15-5-1985

Night

14

Zoological Survey of India,
Western Regional Station,
Poona-411 005,

August 29, 1986.

Discussion

Observations on Mesobuthus famulus tumu-
lus (Fabr.) suggest that the mother offers
perfect protection to the young which recog-
nize their mother. Rarely a mother scorpion
ate young, but it was perhaps the result of
captivity and lack of food.

Ack nowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. B. K. Tikader for
his kind guidance, to Shri A. R. Kelaskar
for collecting the specimens, to Shri D. J.
Kamble for drawings.

B. E. YADAV
R. H. KAMBLE

35. ON AN INTERESTING CASE OF PARENTAL CARE AND
DISTRIBUTION OF CORMOCEPHALUS DENT1PES POCOCK
(CHILOPODA : SCOLOPENDROMORPFIA :
SCOLOPENDRIDAE)

Cormocephalus dentipes Pocock is a scolo-
pendrid centipede, earlier recorded from
Assam, Bengal and surrounding areas (Jangi
and Das 1980). Subsequently, its distribution in
the western Himalaya (U.P.) and Himachal
Pradesh (Khanna and Kumar 1984) indicated
that the species under study is not thoroughly
collected or studied in the gangetic plains in-
cluding Terai regions of Uttar Pradesh. Re-
cently, we have been able to collect a good
number of Cormocephalus dentipes Pocock
from the subsoil and under-forest leaf-litter
among sal trees in Terai zone of Uttar Pradesh
in Dudhwa National Park. The occurrence of

this species in Dudhwa National Park extends
its range of distribution to the intervening
region between the north-western and eastern
parts of India. It seems probable that the
species might be available throughout, if a
thorough search is made.

So far no mention of its breeding behaviour
or egg cluster has been reported by earlier
workers. During the faunistic survey on 23rd
July, 1986, a female specimen was collected
from decaying leaves near the Forest Rest
House, Belraiyan (Dudhwa National Park). At
the time of collection, the same female was
observed exhibiting an interesting behaviour

228

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of parental care towards its eggs. The female
held the ball-like clutch of 32 eggs tucked under
the ventral side of the body by its abdominal
appendages. When disturbed, the female coiled
itself around the cluster of eggs. After a care-
ful manipulation, when the egg cluster was
detached and kept at a distance of about 4-6
inches away from the female, it immediately
desperately searched for its egg cluster and
coiled around the egg cluster with the help of
mouth parts and prothoracic appendages and

Zoological Survey of India,

Northern Regional Station,

Dehra Dun-248 001,

October 30, 1986.

quickly moved back into the loose soil. The
burrowing of the female into the loose soil was
facilitated by to-and-fro movements of the
prothoracic and thoracic appendages.

The size of individual egg is nearly 2 mm
in diameter. The egg is ovoid and yellowish
due to the presence of heavy yolk surrounded
by transparent thin follicular layer.

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey
of India, Calcutta for encouragement and
facilities.

RAJ TILAK
PRANJALENDU ROY

References

Jhangi, B. S. & Das, C. M. S. (1980) : Revisional
notes on taxonomy of the Indian Centipede Cormo-
cephalus dentipes Pocock, with redefinition of the
species (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha : Scolopen-
dridae). J. nat. Hist. 14: 49-53.

Khanna, V. & Kumar, A. (1984) : Scolopendrid
centipedes of western Himalaya (U.P.) with an anno-
tated list of Indian species (Chilopoda: Scolopen-
dromorpha: Scolopendridae) . Uttar Pradesh J. Zool.
4( 1): 83-98.

36. CLADOCERA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR,
RAJASTHAN. II. NEW RECORDS 1. MOINODAPHMA
MACLEAYll (KING, 1853) AND 2. BOSMINOPSIS
DE1TERS1 RICHARD, 1895

( With two text-figures)

Keoladeo National Park has a considerable
range of fresh water habitats (Lat. 27° 7.6' N,
Long. 77° 29.5' E). About ten percent of the
land is covered with water, which is a con-
verted marsh (artificial). The sanctuary re-
ceives water from Ajanbund reservoir (man-
made) only during rainy season and the
reservoir receives and retains faunal elements
(both zooplankton, insects and fishes) from
Gambir and Banganga rivers. Freshwater micro-
crustaceans as well as Rotifera are among the
commonest zooplankton of Keoladeo National

Park (Ali and Vijayan 1983). The only papers
dealing with Rajasthan freshwater zooplankton
are those of Biswas 1964, Nayar 1965, 1968,
1971 and Mahajan et al 1980. At present, the
species composition, ecology and production
of freshwater zooplankton of the Keoladeo
National Park is poorly known, though the
sanctuary attracts aquatic birds from various
parts of the world. Hence a survey was made
during July, 1984 to May, 1985 to study the
occurrence of crustacean zooplankton in and
around the sanctuary. The present note deals

229''

16

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

230

Fig. 1. Moinodaphnia macleayii, Female: A1 — antennule; All — antenna;
A VC — ventral margin; P — postabdomen

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

16

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

with the occurrence of Moinodaphnia mac-
leayii (King, 1853) and Bosminopsis deitersi
Richard, 1895, new records in Rajasthan.

Family Moinidae Goulden, 1967

Genus Moinodaphnia Herrick, 1887

1. Moinodaphnia macleayii (King, 1853)
(fig. 1)

female: Body length 0.65-0.81 mm

(n = 25) mean 0.73 mm. Body compressed
and elliptical in shape. Head broad at the base,
slightly narrow and rounded anteriorly with a
cervical depression separating the head and
the posterior part of the body. Eye large,
situated near the anterior margin, ocellus small
situated closer to antennules than to the eyes.
Antennules long and slender, attached to the
postero-ventral surface of the head, with a
long lateral seta and a group of sensory setae
at the apex. Valves broad at the middle (3/4
the size of the length) with faint hexagonal
markings. Ventral margin broadly rounded with
a series of short marginal spines, posterior
corner distinct. Abdomen with two long abdo-
minal processes. Post-abdomen broad on the
preanal margin, with a very narrow post-anal
projection. Lateral side armed with 11 ciliated
spines, the distalmost spine being much
larger and bifurcated. Claw rather long with
a series of short setules along the concave
surface and a small spine at the base of the
ventral side.

Distribution’. Less common; occurs in
weedy habitats, especially in marshes with
Ipomoea sp.

Remarks: This is the first record of the
occurrence of this species in Rajasthan. The
present species agrees with the description of
Smirnov (1976), Seich-shih and Nan-shan
(1979), and Idris (1983).

Family Bosminopsis Sars, 1865

Genus Bosminopsis Richard, 1895

2. Bosminopsis deitersi Richard, 1895 (fig. 2)

female: Body length 0.36-0.42 mm, breadth
0.24-0.30 mm (n=25), mean 0.37 mm. Body
oval, maximum height near posterior end of
the body. Head rounded with a projection just
near the eye, rostrum long with two lateral
branches near the apex and a long olfactory
seta. Eye large, just touching the anterior mar-
gin. Valves with faint polygonal reticulation,
ventral margin rounded, slightly serrated and
with long and pointed marginal spine on the
postero-ventral corner. Post-abdomen small and
tapering distally, lateral side with two groups
of slightly large denticles followed by fine
groups of spinules. Claw serrated and concave
with a basal spine.

Distribution : Rare, occurring in Ghana canal
only during the entry of water from Ajanbund.

Remarks: This is the first record of the
occurrence of this species in Rajasthan. Rane
(1984) described a new species B. devendrai,
resembling B. deitersi, from a tank near Jabal-
pur district, Madhya Pradesh. The specimens
examined in the present study agree well with
Rane’s B. devendrai except a few characters
such as dorsal margin of the carapace without
a cervical depression and the absence of a long
seta in the postero-ventral corner near the
long marginal spine. Idris (1983) described
B. deitersi from Malaysia, which agrees well
with the present specimen in all the characters.
However, Seich-chih and Nan-shan (1979)
described the same species from China, which
differs from the present species in not having
a postero-ventral seta and in the number of
spines of the post-abdomen. A comparative

232

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

study on the specimens collected from all these
regions may give a clear picture about the
taxonomy of this species.

B.N.H.S. Ecological Research Centre,

331, Rajendra Nagar,

Bharatpur 321 001,

December 15, 1987.

Refer

Aei, S. & Vijayan, V. S. (1983): Hydrobiological
Research at Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,
First interim report, 211 pp.

Biswas, S. (1964): A new species of cladoceran
genus Latona Straus (1820) from Rajasthan, India.
Proc. Zool. Soc., Calcutta, 17: 149.

Idris, B. A. G. (1983) : Freshwater zooplankton
of Malaysia (Crustacea: Cladocera). Penerbit Uni-
versiti Pertanian, Malaysia, 153 pp.

Mahajan, C. L., Arora, N. K., Sharma, S. D.
& Sharma, S. P. (1980): Drought and drought
management in relation to protozoan fauna in wet-
land ecosystem with special reference to Ghana Bird
Sanctuary, Bharatpur. International Wetlands Con-
ference, New Delhi.

Nayar, C. K. G. (1965) : Three new species of

I am grateful for the financial assistance by
C.S.I.R., New Delhi and to Prof. T. M. Hari-
dasan for his encouragement.

K. VENKATARAMAN1

1 Present address : School of Energy, Environment
and Natural Resources, Madurai Kamaraj Univer-
sity, Madurai 625 021.

N CES

Conchostraca from Rajasthan. Bull. Syst. Zool. 1 :
18-23.

— (1968) : Rotifer fauna of Rajas-
than, India. Hydrobiol. 31: 168-185.

(1971): Cladocera of Rajas-
than, Hydrobiol. 37: 509-519.

Rane, P. (1984) : Occurrence of Grimaldina

brazzai Richard and Bosminopsis deitersi Richard
from India, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81: 713.

Seich-shih, C. & Nan-shan du (1979): Fauna
of Sinica; Crustacea, Cladocera. Science Press, Aca-
demica Sinica, Peking 1979, 297 pp.

Smirnov, N. N. (1976) : Macrothricidae and
Moinidae Fauna of the World. Fauna of U.S.S.R.,
Crustacea (in Russian) 7(3), 236 pp.

37. TWO CORRECTIONS TO THE NOMENCLATURE IN THE
REVISION OF PUERARIA DC.

Recently, the senior author completed a
monographic revision of genus Pueraria DC.,
which contains a couple of oversight errors in
the nomenclature of species No. 8 and No. 12.

While working on the monographic revision
of genus Pueraria DC. the senior author had
an opportunity to visit the Blatter Herbarium
(BLAT) for examining the materials from
Western India. After completing this mono-
graphic work a copy of the revision was pre-
sented to Blatter Herbarium in appreciation
of the help given for examining the materials.

In the course of study of this monograph the
junior autnor, who is also interested in the
taxonomy and nomenclature of some of the
species of this genus in Western Ghats, raised
certain queries about the nomenclature of
species No. 8 — Pueraria lobata (Willd.)
Ohwi and two varieties of the taxon. After
re-examination of the nomenclature of this
taxon we have come to the following conclu-
sions:

1 . The earliest name for species no. 8 and
its varietal complex is Dolichos montana

233

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Loureiro. Merrill (1935) had correctly
made the new combination under Pueraria
DC. According to Article no. 25 of ICBN
the correct name for the species should
be Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merrill.
Therefore, the typical variety should be
named Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merrill
var. montana.

Type : Loureiro, s.n. — Vietnam, Cochin-
China (P.)

Accordingly the other two varieties ( lobata
resp. thomsoni ) should be named:

2. Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merrill var.
lobata (Ohwi) van der Maesen at Almeida
comb, nov,

Basionym : Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi
var. lobata Ohwi, Bull. Tokyo, Sci.
Museum 18: 16, 1947 (see Articles No.
60 & 61 of ICBN).

Agricultural University,

Department of Plant Taxonomy,

P. O. Box, 8010
6700 ED Wageningen,

Netherlands.

Type : Illustr. in Houttuyn, nat. Hist. 2, Plate
64, Fig. 1 (1779), p. 153.

3. Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merrill var.
chinensis (Ohwi) van der Maesen et
Almeida comb. nov.

Basionym : Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi
var. chinensis Ohwi, Bull. Tokyo Sci.
Museum 18: 16, 1947. (See Articles No.
60 & 61 of ICBN).

Type: S. K. Lau 522 — China (KWA).
The remaining synonymy stays correct.

In species No. 12 Pueraria warburgii Per-
kins (1904) has the priority over Mucuna
pulcherrima Koorders (1908) and should be
considered the correct name for the taxon
usually listed as P. pulcherrima (Kds.) Merr.

L.J.G. VAN DER MAESEN

Blatter Herbarium, S..M. ALMEIDA

St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay-400 001,

October 22, 1986.

Reference

van der Maesen, L. J. G. (1985): Revision of leria Backer (Leguminosae) . Agric. Univ. Wagenin-
the genus Pueraria DC. with some notes on Tey- gen Papers 85-1. pp. 132.

38. LICHEN FAMILY COLLEMATACEAE FROM ANDAMAN

ISLANDS, INDIA

Introduction (Linn, f.) S. Gray, from Andaman Islands,

based on his studies of Kurz’s collection.
Nylander (1873) recorded Leptogium margi- Jatta’s investigations (1905) of exotic lichens,
nellum (Sw.) S. Gray and L. tremelloides collected by E. H. Man, made a reference to

234

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Collema actinoptychum Nyl., C. pulposum var.
granulatum (Sw.) Korb (=C granulatum
(Linn, f.), Leptogium azureum (Sw.) Mont.,
L. pichneum (Ach.) Malme, L. puiggarrii
Muell.-Arg., L. tremelloides var. rugulosum
Nyl. L. cimiciodorum Mass.) and Collema
byrsinum (Ach.) ( = Physma byrsinum (Ach.)
Muell.-Arg.,) from Andaman Islands. Degelius
(1974) in his monographic studies on genus
Collema, reported the occurrence of C. coilo-
carpum (Muell.-Arg.) Zahlbr., C. rugosum
Krempelh. and C. actinoptychum Nyl., from
these islands. This study adds five more taxa
of this family from these islands; they are
Physma byrsinum var. hypomelaenum (Nyl.)
Hue, Leptogium austro-americanum (Malme)
Dodge, L. denticulatum Nyl., L. isidiosellum
(Ridd.) Sierk and L. moluccanum (Pers.)
Vainio.

This paper includes short descriptions of
the taxa that have actually been examined by
us, numbering nine, while the key includes all
the sixteen that have been reported from these
islands. The specimens studied are lodged at
the herbarium of National Botanical Re-
search Institute, Lucknow (LWG).

Key to the Andaman species of Collemataceae

1 . Thallus without a paraplectenchymatous

cortex 2

1 . Thallus with paraplectenchymatous cortex .... 5

2. Thallus isidiate Collema rugosum

2. Thallus without isidia 3

3. Thallus terricolous Collema granulatum

3. Thallus corticolous 4

4. Thalline exciple scleroplectenchymatous

Collema collocarpum

4. Thalline eXciple subparaplectenchymatous

Collema actinoptychum

5. Spores simple 6

5. Spores septate and muriform 7

6. Lower surface of thallus whitish,

grey or pale Physma byrsinum

6. Lower surface of thallus blackish

Physma byrsinum var. hypomelaenum

7. Isidia present 8

7. Isidia absent 12

8. Isidia associated only with apothecia

Leptogium marginellum

8. Isidia not associated with apothecia 9

9. Isidia squamuliform . . . Leptogium denticulatum

9. Isidia not squamuliform 10

10. Thallus surface smooth . . . Leptogium pichneum

10. Thallus surface wrinkled 11

1 1 . Wrinkles minute, irregular and not

raised Leptogium austroamericanum

1 1 . Wrinkles acute and raised, isidia much branched
(rarely squamuliform) . . Leptogium isidiosellum

12. Thallus lobes imbricate, margins entire 13

1 2 . Thallus lobes not imbricate, margins entire or

lobulate 14

13. Thallus surface rough, margins sinuate and

crisp Leptogium moluccanum

13. Thallus surface rugose-plicate, margins not

sinuate and crisp Leptogium cimiciodorum

14. Thallus lower surface with impressions of

funnel-shaped cavities

Leptogium puiggarrii

14. Thallus without funnel-shaped cavities ...... 15

15. Thallus lead-grey, apothecium with a well

developed proper exciple Leptogium

tremelloides

15. Thallus sky-blue, apothecia with a poorly

developed proper exciple . . . Leptogium azureum

1 . Collema actinoptychum Nyl., Bull. Soc.
Linn. Normandie ser. 2.2:43. 1868.

Thallus corticolous, foliose, olivaceous-
yellow, olive-green, lobes orbicular, prominently
reticulately ridged; isidia absent; apothecia 0.6
mm in diam., slightly constricted at base,
epruinose, exciple subparaplectenchymatous;
spores fusiform, curved or straight, 5-septate,
36-45 x 3-5 ^m.

Specimen examined : Middle Andaman

Island, Bajalungta, Singh 52938 (LWG).

2. C. collocarpum (Muell.-Arg.) Zahlbr., Cat.
lich. univ., 3: 34, 1925.

- Synechoblastus coilocarpus Muell.-Arg.,
Flora 74: 107. 1891.

Thallus corticolous, foliose, lobes round and
discernible, upper surface densely and promi-
nently ridged; isidia absent; apothecia c. 2.0

235

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

mm in diam., zb constricted at base, epruinose;
exciple scleroplectenchymatous; spores fusi-
form, usually straight; 5-septate, not constrict-
ed at septa, 43-64 x 5-7 ,um.

Specimens examined : South Andaman

Island, Wright Myo, Singh 79702, 79711, 88295
(LWG).

3. C. rugasum Kremp., Fenzl., Reise Novara,
Rot. 1: 128. 1870.

Thallus corticolous, foliose, greyish green to
blackish; lobes rounded, isidiate, isidia globu-
lar, branched; apothecia up to 1.25 mm in
diam., slightly constricted at base; epruinose
exciple scleroplectenchymatous; spores fusiform
to bacillar, straight or slightly curved, 5-septate
(up to 8-celled, reported by Degelius, 1974),
not constricted at septa, 52-65 x 4-6 ^m.

Specimen examined : South Andaman Island,
Port Blair, Singh 78886, 78887 (LWG), Middle
Andaman Island, Bajalungta, Singh 52934,
52938/B (LWG).

4. Leptogium austroindicum (Malme) Dodge,
Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 20: 419. 1933. —
Leptogium cyanescens var. austroamerica-
num Malme, Ark. Bot. 19(8): 21. 1924.

Thallus corticolous, foliose, loosely to close-
ly attached to substratum, lead grey-brownish,
wrinkled, wrinkles minute, irregular and not
raised, lobate, lobes discrete, margin isidiate,
isidia simple, globular or rarely branched and
squamuliform; apothecia absent in the speci-
men examined.

Specimen examined : South Andaman

Group, Baratang Island, Nilambur (Oral
Kacha), Singh 79720 (LWG).

5. L. denticulatum Nyl., Ann. Soc. Nat. Bot.
ser. 7: 302. 1867.

Thallus corticolous or saxicolous, foliose,
loosely to closely attached to substratum, lead
grey, lobate; lobes discrete, adnate, imbricate,

margin entire or isidiate lobulate; upper sur-
face smooth, isidiate, isidia squamuliform;
apothecia not seen in the specimens examined.

Specimens examined : South Andaman

Island: Mount Harriat, Singh 67634 (LWG);
T.L.D. range, Singh 88232 (LWG); Middle
Andaman Island; Parlobjig, Singh 79807, 79813,
79836, 79839, 79884, 79898 (LWG).

6. L. isidioseUum (Ridd.) Sierk, Bryologist,
76: 282. 1964. — Leptogium marginellum
var. isidioseUum Ridd; Brooklyn Bot.
Gard. Mem. 1: 115. 1918.

Thallus corticolous, foliose, lead-grey to
brownish-black, lobate, lobes discrete, orbi-
cular, margin imbricate, entire or isidiate;
upper surface reticulately wrinkled, isidia lami-
nal to marginal, simple to coralloid branched;
lower surface reticulately wrinkled. Apothecia
absent in the specimens examined.

Specimens examined : South Andaman,

Island. Mount Harriat, Singh 67623; Middle
Andaman Island, Bajalungta, Singh 52948
(LWG).

7. L. moluccanum (Pers.) Vainio, Etud.
Lich. Bresil. 1: 223. 1890. — Collema
moluccanum Pers., Gaud. Voy. Uran. Bot.,
203: 1826.

Thallus corticolous, foliose, yellowish-grey
to greenish -grey or dark lead-grey, lobate, lobes
discrete, margin entire, isidia absent; upper
surface rough; lower surface concolorous with
the upper surface, rough; apothecia 2.0 mm
in diam., constricted at base, shortly stalked,
epruinose; spores muriform, transversely 4-
septate, longitudinally 1-3-septate, fusiform,
28-31 x 11-14 /xm.

Specimen examined : Middle Andaman

Island, Parlobjig, Singh 79819 (LWG).

8. PSiysnia byrsinum (Ach.) Muell.-Arg.,
Flora 58: 531. 1885. — Parmelia byrsea
Ach., Method. Lich., 222. 1803.

236

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Thallus corticolous, foliose, brownish-grey,
lobate, lobes irregular, upper surface rough,
finely reticulately rugose, lower surface grey;
asci 8-spored; spores simple, hyaline, spindle
shaped to globose, 15-25 x 8-12 ^m.

Specimen examined : South Andaman Island,
Wright Myo, Singh 7905 (LWG).

9 . Physma byrsinum var. hypomelaenum

(Nyl.) Hue, Bull. Soc. Linn. Normandie
5 ser. 9: 130. 1906. — Collema byrsinum
f. hypomelaenum Nyl., Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot.

4 ser. 12: 281. 1859.

Cryptogamic Bot. Sec.,

National Botanical Research Institute,
Rana Pratap Marg,

Lucknow 226 001, (U.P.),

September 30, 1987.

Refer

Degelius, G. (1974): The lichen genus Collema
with special reference to the extra-European species,
Symb. Bot. Upsal. xx, pp. 1-215.

Jatta, A. (1905) : Licheni esotici dell’ Erbario
Levier reccolti nell' Asia meridionale, nelP Ocea-

Similar to P. byrsinum var. byrsinum except
the blackish colour of lower surface.

Specimen examined : South Andaman Island,
Wimberly Gunj, Singh 88271 (LWG).

ACK NO WLEDGE M E NTS

We are grateful to Prof. G. Degelius for his
valuable suggestions and for identifying the
material of Collema ; to Dr. H. A. Sierk for
identifying the material of Leptogium ; to Dr.
P. V. Sane, Director, National Botanical Re-
search Institute, Lucknow for providing labo-
ratory facilities to work, and to Shri Murari
Ranjan for helping in laboratory work.

D. K. UPRETI
AJAY SINGH

E N CE S

nia, nel Brasile e nel Madagascar. Malpighia, 19:
162-185.

Nylander, W. (1873): Lichenes Insularum An-
daman. Bull. Soc. Linn. Normandie, ser. 2, 7: 162-
182.

39. ASPLENWM BULLATUM WALL. EX METT. ( ASPLENI ACEAE )
— A NEW RECORD FOR NORTH-WESTERN HIMALAYA
FROM KUMAUN HILLS

During the course of explorations of the
fern flora of Kumaun Himalaya, some speci-
mens of a very interesting fern were collected.
It was later identified as Asplenium bullatum
Wall, ex Mett., an identification confirmed by
Dr. S. P. Khullar, Botany Department, Panjab
University, Chandigarh. A critical scrutiny of
herbaria and literature dealing with the ferns
of North-Western Himalaya indicates that this
species has not yet been reported from North-

Western Himalaya and is so far known only
from Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Khasia, Penang,
Malay Peninsula, Australia, New Zealand,
Mexico, New Caledonia, Natal and the east
African Islands. The collection of this species
from Kumaun Himalaya extends its distribu-
tional range further west to North-Western
Himalaya, and it is an important addition to
the fern flora of North-Western Himalaya in
general and Kumaun Himalaya in particular.

237

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

This paper provides a brief description of
Asplenium bullatum Wall, ex Mett. along with
other relevant information. The field number
along with collector’s name is given in brackets
and the voucher specimens are deposited in
the Herbarium, Botany Department, D. S. B.
College, Kumaun University, Naini Tal.

Asplenium bullatum Wall, ex Mett., Aspl. 51.
1859; Dixit, Census Indian Pterid. 116. 1984.
A. bulbiferum auct. Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc.
Lond. 2. Bot. 1: 485. 1880; Bedd., Handb.
Ferns Brit. India 159. 1883.

Rhizome stout, thick. Stipe 15-35 cm long,
stout, erect, slender, scaly near the base.
Fronds 30-120 cm long, oblong-lanceolate or
ovate-lanceolate, 2-3 pinnate. Pinnae in many
pairs, horizontal, cut down to the compressed
winged rachis, into many lanceolate-deltoid
pinnules which are cut down into slightly

Department of Botany,

D. S. B. College,

Kumaun University,

Naini Tal -263 002 (U.P.),

April 3, 1987.

toothed linear, oblong, flaccid segments, tex-
ture herbaceous. Veins pinnate, firm. Sori
oblong, large, often filling the whole segment
and visible from the upper surface. Spores light
reddish-brown, densely granulose.

Habitat : Rare fern which grows in dark
shaded, humus rich forest floors in ravines
around 1300 m.

Specimens examined : Kumaun Himalaya:
Pithoragarh district, Banlekh around 1300 m
(YPSP 900).

AcK NO WLEDGEM ENTS

We are thankful to Dr. S. P. Khullar,
Botany Department, Panjab University, Chandi-
garh for confirming the identity of the species.
Thanks are due to Head, Botany Department,
D. S. B. College, Kumaun University, Naini
Tal for providing necessary facilities.

Y. P. S. PANGTEY
S. S. SAMANT

40. POLLEN MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS AMONG THREE

TAX A OF RUTACEAE

Introduction

The pollen morphology of three taxa of
Rutaceae has been studied. In Rutaceae, the
sporomorphs are colporate, but the apertures
range from 3-8 and hence it is a less multi-
paly nous family (Nair 1970). The pollen
grains are isopolar, radiosymmetric, diapertu-
rate to polyaperturate and suboblate to per-
prolate (cf. Erdtman 1952).

Material and Methods

The material for the present investigation
was collected from Narthamalai, Tambaram,

and Chidambaram (Table 1).

The grain characteristics were worked out
from mature pollen grains tapped from open

Table 1

SI.

Taxa

Location Voucher

No.

No.

1.

Clausena willdenovi
W. & A.

Narthamalai

28

2.

Glycosmis cochinchinensis
Pierre

Tambaram

20

3.

Limonia acidissima
Linn.

Chidambaram

19

238

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

flowers. The pollen grains were dusted on a
clean slide and stained with a drop of 1%
acetocarmine. The size, shape, type and the
wall-thickness were measured. The percentage
of pollen fertility was also calculated.

Observations

The descriptions of pollen grains of the
three taxa are as given below:

Clausena willdenovii W. & A. 3-zonocolpo-
rate, sub-prolate (23.24 x 18.42 /mu). Sexine
thinner than the nexine, psilate. Germpore
lalongate.

Glycosmis cochinchinensis Pierre 3-zonocol-
porate, sub-prolate (22.0 x 18.0 /mi). Sexine
as thick as nexine, faintly reticulate, germpore
lalongate.

Limonia acidissima Linn. 4-zonocolporate,
prolate spheroidal (22.80 x 20.96 /mi). Sexine

based on size, the pollen grains of the
three taxa have been grouped under small
sized spores (10-25 /mi).

Discussion

The Palynological study of the three taxa
reveals only colporate type of pollen grains.
Reticulation with large brochi has been noted
in Limonia acidissima. Faintly reticulate grains
occur in Glycosmis cochinchinensis and those
of Clausena willdenovii happen to be psillate.
Sub-prolate type has been observed in G.
cochinchinensis and C. willdenovii, whereas the
prolate spheroidal type was found in L. aci-
dissima. The maximum pollen fertility (86%)
was observed in C. willdenovii.

Ack nowledgements

I thank Prof. Dr. R. Ganesan, Head, De-
partment of Botany, Annamalai University for

Table 2

Pollen morphological features of the taxa investigated

SI. Taxa

No.

Type

Shape

Length
in p.m

Breadth
in pi n

L/B

ratio

Wall

thickness

Fertility

%

1 . Clausena willdenovii

Psilate

Sub-prolate

23.24

18.42

1.26

3.94

86

(0.544)

(0.203)

(0. 320)

2. Glycosmis cochin-

Reticulate

Sub -prolate

22.00

18.06

1.22

3,43

78

chinensis

(0.501)

(0.492)

(0.289)

3 . Limonia acidissima

Reticulate

Prolate

22.80

20.96

1.09

3.68

82

spheroidal

(0.639)

(0.535)

(0.344)

Standard errors of mean values are furnished within brackets.

as thick as the nexine, coarsely reticulate with
large brochi. Germpore lalongate.

The details regarding the size, shape, type,
L/S ratio and wall thickness are given in
Table 2.

Gn the basis of Erdtman’s (1945) system.

the facilities provided, i am indebted to Prof.
R. Sampathkumar for his guidance and help
in writing this paper. I am thankful to Dr.
B. V. David, the Director, FIPPAT for en-
couragement and helpful criticism.

Department of Botany,
Annamalai University,
An NAM ALAIN AGAR - 608 002,
April 7, 1987.

B. PREMA GUNASEELI1

1 Present address : Fredrick Institute of Plant Pro-
tection and Toxicology, Padappai 601 301, Chingleput
Dist., Tamil Nadu, India.

239

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

References

Erdtman, G. (1945) : Pollen morphology and
plant taxonomy. III. Marina L. with an addition on
pollen morphological terminology. Svensk boty
Tidsky. 39.

(1952) : Pollen morphology and

plant taxonomy of angiosperms. The Chronica Bota-
nica Co., Waltham, Mass. U.S.A.

Nair, P. K. K. (1970): Pollen morphology of

angiosperms. Barnes and Noble. Inc. New York.

41. MERREMIA QUINQUEFOLIA (LINN.) HALL. F.: A NEW
RECORD FOR EASTERN INDIA

While exploring the flora of Dhenkanal
district during the last three years, several in-
teresting plants could be collected among
which Merremia quinquefolia (Linn.) Hall. f.
proves to be a new record for the state of
Orissa. After perusal of available literature
and survey of authentic specimens extant at
different herbaria of India it has been con-
cluded that this taxon is also a new record for
Eastern India. It has restricted distribution and
has so far been reported from Maharashtra
(Naik 1979), Gujarat (Raghavan et al. 1981)
and Rajasthan (Bhandari 1978). The speci-
men has been housed in the herbarium of P.G.
Dept, of Botany, Utkal University, Bhubanes-
war.

Merremia quinquefolia (Linn.) Hall. f. in
Engler Bot. Jahrb. 16: 552. 1893; Ooststr.
in Blumea 3: 324. 1939 et in FI. Malesiana
(ser. 1) 4: 446. 1953; Bhandari in FI. Ind.
Desert 263. 1978. lpomoea quinquefolia

Linn. Sp. PI. 162. 1753. ( Con volvu lace ae).

A twining herb. Stem glabrous to sparsely
pubescent upwards. Leaves palmately com-
pound; petiole upto 4 cm. long; leaflets 5,
sessile or shortly petioluled, narrowly oblong
or lanceolate, distantly shallowly serrate; cen-

tral leaflet larger, 6.5 x 2 cm; laterals smaller,
2-4 x 1-2 cm, attenuated at both ends. Inflo-
rescence axillary, leaf-opposed, 3-5 flowered
cyme. Peduncle upto 10 cm. long. Flowers
pedicelled. Bracts narrow-triangular, acute.
Calyx oblong, obtuse at apex, subequal.
Corolla funnel-shaped, creamish-yellow, glab-
rous. Stamens 5, subequal, inserted above the
base of corolla; filaments thinly pubescent at
their dilated base. Ovary glabrous. Capsule
globose, 4-celled. Seeds 4, greyish-black, with
appressed curled hairs.

FIs. & Fr . : April-Sept.

lllus. : Bhandari, FI. Ind. Desert 263. f. 97.
1978.

Specimen examined : FCI (Talcher), B.C.
Patra, 11475. Not common.

Herbarium specimens examined: Nagpur,

M. Phirashi 336/6.1 1960; 312868 (CNH).

Ack nowledgements

We are thankful to the authorities of the
Botanical Survey of India for financial assis-
tance and to the Prof. & Head, P. G. Dept,
of Botany, Utkal University for providing
necessary facilities.

P. G. Dept, of Botany, B. C. PATRA

Utkal University, B. P. CHAUDHURY

Bhubaneswar - 751 004,

April 15, 1987.

240

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Bhandari, M. M. (1978): Flora of the Indian
Desert. 263 pp.

Naik, V. N. (1979): The Flora of Osmanabad.
223 pp.

Raghavan, R. S., Wadhwa, B. M., Ansari, M. Y.
& Rao, Rolla S. (1981) : A Checklist of the Plants
of Gujarat. Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 21(2) : 58.

42. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PYRROLIZIDINE ALKALOIDS,
DANAINE BUTTERFLIES AND AGERATUM CONYZOIDES

Ackery & Vane wright (1984) claimed that
male butterflies need pyrrolizidine alkaloids in
order to activate them sexually before a suc-
cessful courtship. They further claimed that
these males are attracted towards plants which
contain these alkaloids in order to fulfil their
demand. Ageratum conyzoides was claimed to
be one such plant.

In a recent communication Larsen (1986)
has further supported this view when he observ-
ed clusters of males on Ageratum conyzoides
from various locations from Delhi. Larsen
too concluded that this particular plant acts as
a source of these alkaloids.

For a number of years we have been engaged
in screening Indian Botanicals in search of
new crop protection chemicals. Having acquired
considerably literature on plants known for this
activity we compiled the data on Ageratum
conyzoides as this is well known to produce
anti-juvenile hormones, i.e. precocenes I & II
(Fagoonee et al. 1981). As reported by Darvas
et al (1986), precocenes induce reversible pre-
cocious metamorphism and sterilization of in-
sects by suppressing the function of the corpora

Alchemie Research Centre,

P. O. Bjx 155,

Thane-Belapur Road,

Thane - 400 601,

April 22, 1987.

allata glands. This data clearly showed that no
alkaloid has either been isolated or otherwise
claimed to be present in this species. On the
other hand a number of oxygen heterocycles
have been reported from this plant.

In order to further confirm the presence or
absence of alkaloids in Ageratum conyzoides,
we separately extracted the flowers and re-
maining plant with cold petroleum ether fol-
lowed by cold methanol (Room temperature,
24 hours). After removal of solvents when
these extracts were treated with Mayer’s or
Dragendorf’s reagents as these are well known
to show diagnostic colour reactions with alka-
loids, no such coloration was observed there-
by indicating absence of alkaloids.

Keeping this observation in view, it appears
that the reasons of attraction of male Danaines
towards Ageratum conyzoides is not the pre-
sence of alkaloids but some other unknown
factors.

We thank Dr. B. N. Roy, Director and
General Manager and Dr. M. M. Mahandru.
Alchemie Research Centre, Thane for helpful
discussion and IEL Ltd. for financial support.

M. R. ALMEIDA
V. K. RAVINDRAN

241

JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

References

Ackery, P. & Vane-Wright, R. (1984): Milk-
weed Butterflies. British Museum (Nat. Hist.), Lon-
don.

Darvas, B., Varjas, L. & Kulksar, P. (1986):
The developmental effect and mechanism of action
of precocenes. Novenyvedelem (Budapest) 22(9) :
390*397; C. A. 105 : 220821 v.

Fagooni, I. & Umrit, G. (1981) : Antogonado-

tropic hormones from the Goatweed, Ageratum con-
yzoides. Insect Sci. Its Appl. 7(4) : 373-4; C. A. 95:
147186k.

Larsen, T. B. (1986) : Ageratum conyzoides (Com-
positae), Indirectly confirmed as source for pyrroli-
zidine alkaloids, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83
(2): 458-9.

43. NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF RARE AND LITTLE
KNOWN TANACETUM NUBIGENUM WALL. EX DC.
(ASTERACEAE) FROM NORTHWEST HIMALAYA

{With a text -figure)

During germplasm exploration and collection
trip to Garb yang (en route Mansarovar
Kailash), district Pithoragarh, in October, 1986
we collected a rare and interesting medicinal
and aromatic plant from the interior grassy
localities, stone slopes, and sandy soils in the
rather arid areas of Garbyang, predominantly
a tribal area (63 Ion away from Tawaghat,
last bus terminus), surrounded by mountains,
gorges, and valleys with alpine vegetation. The
species was identified as Tanacetum nubigenutn
Wall, ex DC. (Asteraceae).

This plant has been reported from
Pindari Glacier, Kuti Valley, Byans valley
(Almora and Pithoragarh districts); Tungnath,
Vashudhara, Tapovan, Chamba, Gangotri
(Chamoli, Uttarkashi and Tehri districts);
Shetiker-Spiti, Thali Bazar (Himachal Pra-
desh) areas. The presence of this species in
Garbyang area hence forms a new distribu-
tional record for North-West Himalaya. Seeds
have been collected and the plant specimen
has been preserved by the authors at
N.B.P.G.R., Regional Station-Bhowali Herba-
rium (N.B.P.G.R.H. - 130).

Tanacetum nubigenum Wall, ex DC. Prodr.

4: 130, 1836; Hook. f. FBI 3: 378-379, 1881;
Atkinson, 508-509, 1882; Collett, 265, 1902;
Duthie, 92, 1906. (Fig. 1).

Erect, woolly, aromatic, 30-45 cm tall,
perennial herb. Stems many, arising from a
woody base, often branched and rooting at the
base. Leaves sessile, alternate, 3-pinnatisect,
1 . 2-4 . 0 x 0 . 1 -0 . 3 cm; segments linear-
lanceolate, subacute, entire, glabrous or
appressed, hairy on both surfaces. Heads dis-
coid, many-peduncled or sessile, 3-5 mm in
diameter, in terminal corymbs. Involucral
bracts broadly oblong, many erect, woolly
haired, margins scarious, purple-brown, outer-
most linear. Corolla or disk-florets 2-5 mm
long, 5-ribbed, bright yellow. Achenes smooth,
ovoid- oblong. Receptacle slightly convex;
pappus none.

Flowering and Fruiting'. July-October.

Reference No.: National Bureau of Plant
Genetic Resources, Bhowali Herbarium
(N.B.P.G.R.H. - 130 — K.S.N. & K.C.P.) .

Note : Easily distinguishable from other

species of Tanacetum, having taller stems 30-
45 cm, smaller flower heads, 3-5 mm in
diameter, and leaves tripinnatisect, linear,

242

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Tanacetum nubigenum Wall, ex DC.

I: Flowering spikes with leaves.

A. Floral Heads (Involucral bracts, Disk florets and reproductive organs).
B. Disk-florets. C1. Reproductive (Ovary, Stigma and Style).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

acute lobes. A silvery-grey tufted plant with
usually many stems arising from the root-
stocks.

Earlier records : This species was first re-
ported in 1883 and sporadic reports of its
occurrence were available since then. It is
being reported from the Garbyang region for
the first time.

Distribution'. Kuti Valley-Kumaon, 11200'
11.9. 1884-J. F. Duthie, DD-3057; Phula
Valley, Nila Valley-Tehri Garhwal, 15.8.1883-
J. F. Duthie, DD-840; Byans Valley-Kumaon,
11200', 17.7. 1886-J. F. Duthie, DD-6593;
Thali Bazar-Himachal Pradesh, 9000', 8.10.
1877-DD-566213; Pindari Glacier-Kumaon,
11200', 17.7. 1885-C. E. Paskiem, DD-5980;
Chamba-Ilas-Tehri Garhwal, 11000', 17.9.1896-
G. A. Gamble, DD- 18629; Vashudhara-Chamoli
Garhwal, 3500 m. 10.10, 1959-M. A. Rao,
BSD- 10546; Pindari-Moraine-Kumaon, 20.9.
1957-T. A. Rao, BSD-4432; Tapovan-Uttar-
kashi, 23.8. 1967-B. D. Naithani, BSD-37419;

Atkinson, E. T. (1882): Flora of the Himalayas.
New Delhi, pp. 508-509.

Collett, H. (1902) : Flora Simlensis. London.
265 pp.

Duthie, J. F. (1906) : Catalogue of Plants of

Chamoli Garhwal, 1.9.1975-B. D. Naithani,
BSD-37370; Shetiker-Spiti-Himachal Pradesh,
10.9. 1961-N. C. Nair, BSD-16831.

Habitat'. Rare, in alpine meadows on stony
slopes, sandy soil and arid areas, associated
with Allium stracheyi, Arnebia benthamii,
Calamagrostis emodensis, Deyeuxia pulchella,
3800 m altitude.

Uses : This species and its allied species are
used as an incense under the name ‘GugguF
or ‘Dhoop’.

ACK NO WLEDGE M E NTS

We thank the authorities of North-
ern Circle, BSI and Taxonomy Branch, FRI,
Dehradun for herbarium consultation and
Mrs. Malhotra for help in identification of
the plant. We are grateful to the Director
Dr R. S. Paroda and Dr R. K. Arora, Head
& Sr. Scientist, N.B.P.G.R., Pusa, New Delhi
for encouragement.

K. S. NEGI
K. C. PANT
K. C. MUNEEM

Kumaon and of the adjacent portions of Garhwal
and Tibet 1918. (Reprinted by Bishen Singh and
Mahendra Pal Singh, 1974), Dehradun. 92 pp.

Hooker, J. D. (1881) : Flora of British India.
Vol. 3, London. 378-379 pp.

National Bureau of Plant Genetic
Resources,

Regional Station -Bhowali,

Niglat - 263 132,

District Nainital, (U.P.),

April 24, 1987.

References

44. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF HOLCOLEMMA CAN ALICULATUM
(NEES EX STEUD.) STAPF ET HUBBARD, A RARE GRASS
TO SOUTH INDIA, AT POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE
SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

A study on the flora of Point Calimere
Wildlife Sanctuary during 1982 resulted in the
finding of a rare and interesting grass Holco-

lemma canaliculatum Stapf et Hubbard. The
same grass had been rediscovered after a lapse
of several decades from Ramanathapuram

244

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

District of Tamil Nadu by N. C. Nair, and
S. R. Srinivasan, during 1980 at an altitude
of 210 feet MSL.

Holcolemma canaliculafum (Nees ex Steud.)
Stapf et Hubbard in Kew Bull. 1929: 246. 1929;
Fischer in Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 10: 1779.
1934 and 3: 1232. 1957 (repr. ed.); Bor grass.
Burma, Cey., India, Pakist. 313. 1973 (repr.
ed.). Panicum canaliculatum Nees ex Steud. -
Syn, pi. Glum. I: 55. 1854, Hook, f. FI, Brit.
India 7; 43. 1896.

In 1854, Steudel validly described this species
under the genus Panicum L. Hooker (l.c.)
while treating this species however, remarked;
“It is a very peculiar species”. Stapf and
Hubbard (l.c.) accommodated this species in
the newly erected genus Holcolemma Stapf et
Hubbard. Hooker (l.c.) indicated its distribu-
tion truly as a Southern Deccan peninsula,
without any precise locality. Fischer

(l.c.) who also stated: “Precise locality un-
known”. Bor (l.c.) remarked that “this species
has only been collected on very few occasions.

” (Nair & Srinivasan 1982). It is

interesting to note that this rare grass could
be located from Point Calimere Wildlife Sanc-
tuary, Thanjavur District of Tamil Nadu. It

Biologist,

BNHS- Avifauna Project,

Point Calimere - 614 807,

Thanjavur Dist.,

Tamil Nadu.

is noteworthy to mention here that Point
Calimere lies in the coastal belt (sea level)
whereas the locality reported by Nair and
Srinivasan lies at 210 feet MSL.

Perennial herbs: culms 4.75 feet high, very
slender; weak; nodes glabrous. Leaves 9.5-21
x 0.35-0.65 cm, linear flat; sheaths up to 6.5
cm long, glabrous. Panicles narrow, spiciform;
spikelets solitary or fascicled on a slender
rachis. Glumes unequal, florets 2, the lower
male, the upper hermaphrodite; lower lemma
saccate below, membranous with a median
furrow, paleate; upper lemma crustaceous,
transversely rugose, paleate.

The specimen is deposited in the A.V.C.
College herbarium, Mayiladuthurai and Avi-
fauna Project herbarium. Point Calimere.

Distribution'. South India, Sri Lanka and
Kenya.

Ack nowledgements

We express our sincere thanks to Dr. N. C.
Nair, Director, Botanical Survey of India,
Southern Circle, Coimbatore and Mr. Srikumar
Nair, Research Fellow of the same Institute
for identifying the specimen.

P. BALASUBRAMANIAN

Assistant Professor of Botany, V. KARUNANIDHI

Botany Department,

A. V. C. College,

Mayiladuthurai,

Thanjavur Dist.,

April 25, 1987.

245

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

References

Nair, N. C, Srinivasan, S. R. (1982) : On the Steud.) Stapf et Hubbard (Poaceae) from South

Rediscovery of Koilodepas calycinum Bedd. (Euphor- India. Bull, of the Bot. Sur. of India 24 (1-4) : 241.

biaceae) and Holcolemma canaliculatum (Nees ex

45. TR1CHOLOMA PRATENSE (AGARICALES) : A NEW INDIAN

RECORD

(With a text-figure)

Tricholoma pratense Pegler & Rayner was
collected during a taxonomic study of the
mushroom flora of Orissa from 1980-1983.
For the taxonomic details and matching of the
fungus, Pegler and Rayner (1969) was follow-
ed and for colour terminology, Ridgway (1912).
The new record from India was ascertained
by Manjula (1983). The specimen has been
deposited at the Herbarium Cryptogamae
Indiae Orientalis, Division of Mycology and
Plant Pathology, IARI, New Delhi. The
fungus has been reported earlier only from
Kenya (East Africa) by Pegler and Rayner
(1969), and is being reported for the first
time from India.

Tricholoma pratense Pegler and Rayner in

Kew Bull. 23: 404 (1969). (Fig. 1).

Pileus 30-50 mm diameter, globose at first,
then convex to planoconvex; cuticle brownish-
buff near disc, slightly faded towards
margin, glabrous, thick, leathery, not easily
separable, dry, not viscid; margin non-striate,
incurved at first, later cernuous; context fleshy,
up to 5 mm broad near disc, white, unchang-
ing when brushed. Lamellae uncinate to
adnate, ivory colour moderately distant, ensate,
attenuate, thick, 1.5 to 3.5 mm broad near
centre; lamellulae of 4-6 lengths; edge entire.
Stipe 55-85 x 8-13 mm, erect, cylindrical,
equal, occasionally narrow towards base, some-
times compressed, blunt base; surface white.

dirty white with age, fibrillose; context solid,
soft, fibrous, white. Annulus and volva absent.
Taste and odour indistinctive. Spore print pure

Fig. 1. Tricholoma pratense Pegler & Rayner
a. Habit; b. Pileal epicutis; c. Spore; d. Basidia;
e . Stipe tissue.

246

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

white. Spores 5. 5-7. 7 x 4. 4-5.0 /.an, sub-
globose to obovate, hyaline, smooth, thin wall-
ed, inamyloid; with one or two refractive oil
guttulcs; apiculus often prominent. Basidia
22.0-30.8 x 4. 4-6. 6 /xm, cylindrical to sub-
elavate, thin walled, hyaline; sterigmata four,

1 . 7-4 . 0 [xm long. Lamella-edge fertile. Cystidia
absent. Pileal epicutis interwoven, thin walled,
hyaline, branched, repent hyphae, 4. 0-8. 6 /xm
diameter with apical cells of 5.0-11.5 /xm
broad. Pileal context interwoven, thin walled
hyaline, branched hyphae of 5. 0-8. 8 /xm dia-

Pgst-Graduate Department of

Life Science,

Regional College of Education,
Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India,

May 16, 1987.

Refer

Manjula, B. (1983) : A revised list of the Agari-
coid and Boletoid (Basidiomycetes) from India and
Nepal. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. (Plant sci.), 92(2):
81-213.

Pegler, D. N. & Rayner, R. W. (1969): A con-

meter. Stipe tissue thin walled, elongated,
hyaline hyphae, 4. 0-7. 6 /xm broad. Clamp
connections abundantly present.

Habitat : Solitary and gregarious, among leaf
litter of Moon flower ( Ipomoea bonanox L.);
at Ajodhya, district Balasore; alt. 555 m; 16th
August, 1981; H.C.I.O. No. 36840.

We are thankful to Dr. J. N. Kapoor, Senior
Mycologist, Division of Mycology and Plant
Pathology, IARI, New Delhi for his kind help
in confirming the identity of the fungus.

M. K. DAS
M. P. SINHA

ENCES

tribution to the Agaric flora of Kenya. Kew Bull.
23(3): 347-412.

Ridgway, R. (1912) : Colour standard and colour
nomenclature. Washington, D.C. : 43.

46. GERANIUM CAROLINIANUM LINN. — AN ADDITION TO THE
INDIAN FLORA FROM PATIALA DISTRICT, PUNJAB

{With a text -figure)

Daring our plant collection trips in Patiala
and its neighbourhood in the spring seasons
of 1985-1987, some specimens belonging to the
genus Geranium Linn. (Family Geraniaceae)
were collected. After investigation and
subsequent confirmation at Kew Herba-
rium, these were identified as G. carolinianum
Linn. — a North American taxon. The species
has not been reported earlier from India by
Edgeworth & Hooker (1874) or in the sub-
sequent compilatory lists of new records to

Indian flora (Calder et al. 1926, Razi 1959,
Nayar & Ramamurthy 1973, Ghosh & Dutta
1976, Ghosh 1977, 1979 and Nayar & Karthi-
keyan 1981). Apparently G. carolinianum
Linn, is a new addition to the Indian flora
and appears to be an accidental introduction.
Some relevant taxonomic information regard-
ing the species is furnished below:

Geranium carolinianum Linn. Sp. PI. 682.
1753; Deam, FI. Indiana 625. 1910 (repr.

247

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Fig. 1. Geranium caralinianum Linn.

A. Flowering and fruiting branch; B. Flower; C. Sepal; D. Petal; E. Stamen;
F. Gynoecium; G. Fruit; H. Mature carpel body; I. Seed.

248

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ed. 1970); Gleason, New Britton and
Brown, 111. FL Northeast United States 2:
458. 1968; Wiggins, FI. Baja California 639.
1980; Martin & Hutchins, FI. New Mexico
1: 1119. 1980. (Fig. 1).

An annual herb with a slender tap root.
Stems several from the base, 15-45 cm long,
suberect at the base with spreading or ascend-
ing branches, densely patent- or retrose-hispid
or hirsute as are also the petioles, peduncles
and pedicels, glandular on the upper parts
especially in the inflorescence region. Radical
leaves short-lived; cauline leaves numerous,
petioles 1.2-10 cm long; blades 2-6 cm wide,
reniform or orbicular- reniform in outline, thin,
appressed hispid-hairy on both sides, divided
three fourths to almost to the base into usually
5 (rarely 3 or 7), nearly equal cuneate lobes,
lobes deeply divided and toothed at the apex
with linear-oblong, subobtuse or obtuse seg-
ments; stipules 4-7 mm long, lanceolate, acu-
minate, thinly pubescent with ciliate margins.
Peduncles 1-3 cm long, slender, 2-flowered,
solitary axillary or loosely aggregated in ter-
minal, 4-1 2-flowered, umbel-like clusters.

Pedicels 0.5-1 cm long. Sepals 4-5 x 3-4.5 mm
(excluding ± 1 mm long awn), enlarged and
reddish-tipped in fruit, ovate or elliptic-ovate,
3 -nerved, hirsute on the veins and margins
without, glabrous within. Petals ± 4.5x2 mm,
cuneate with a small claw and three promi-
nent veins, light pink to whitish. Filaments ±
3.5 mm long, broadened in the lower half.
Fruits 1.3-1. 7 cm long (including 1-2 mm
long stylar beak), densely gland-hispid. Mature
carpel body 3-3.5 x ±2 mm, ovoid, black,
villous with ascending hairs. Seeds ± 1 . 5 long.

Department of Botany,

Punjabi University,

Patiala - 147 002,

August 14, 1987.

ellipsoid, dark brown, shallowly reticulate with
elongate and irregular areoles.

Specimens described : Modi Mandir, Patiala,
Baradari Gardens, Patiala; M. Sharma 9689 &
14309, 12497 (PUN). Ranjit Bagh, Patiala,
V. K. Singhal 12951 (PUN).

FIs. & Frts. : February-April.

Distribution : Native of North America.

Ecology : The plants seem to have a pre-
ference for shade and grow in garden beds or
along irrigation channels in the gardens.

Illustration : See Fig. 1.

In general characteristics this species is
close to another annual of the genus Geranium
found in Punjab, namely G. rotundifolium Linn.
However, in the latter taxon the fruiting pedi-
cels are deflexed and petals distinctly exceed
the sepals. On the other hand, in the present
species fruiting pedicels are erect and petals
are smaller than or hardly as long as sepals.
In general appearance C. carolinianum is rela-
tively more robust and has larger leaves in
comparison to G. rotundifolium.

Ack nowledgements

We are obliged to Prof. S. S. Saini for pro-
viding facilities in the department. Grateful
thanks are due to Dr. B. V. Shetty, Indian
Liaison Officer at Kew and Dr. P. F. Yeo,
University Botanic Garden, Cambridge Uni-
versity, England for identification and con-
firmation of the species.

M. SHARMA
V. K. SINGHAL
PARAMJIT KAUR

249

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

References

Calder, C. C. Narayanswamy, V. & Ramaswamy,
M. S. (1926): List of species and genera of Indian
phanerogams not included in J. D. Hooker’s Flora
of British India. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 11: 1-157.

Edgeworth, M. P. & Hooker, J. D. (1874):
Geraniaceae. In : J. D. Hooker? The Flora of British
India, Vol. 1 : 426-483. L. Reeve & Co. London.

Ghosh, R. B. (1977) : Sixth list of genera and
species of angiosperms not included in the Flora
of British India. Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 31 : 84-89.

Ghosh, R. B. (1979): Seventh list of angiosperms
not included in the Flora of British India, ibid. 33:
87-93.

&Dutta, S. C. (1975): Angiosperms

not included in the Flora of British India. List V.
ibid. 30: 129-133.

Gleason, H. A. (1968): The New Britton and
Brown Illustrated Flora of the Northeast United

States and adjacent Canada. Vol. 2. Hafner Pub-
lishing Co., New York.

Nayar, M. P. & Karthikeyan, S. (1981): Fourth
list of species and genera of Indian Phanerogams
not included in J. D. Hooker’s “The Flora of British
India” (excluding Bangladesh, Burma, Sri Lanka,
Malayan peninsula and Pakistan). Rec. Bot. Surv.
India 27(2): 129-152.

Nayar, M. P. & Ramamurthy, K. (1973): Third
list of species and genera of Indian phanerogams
not included in J. D. Hooker’s Flora, of British India
(excluding Bangladesh, Burma, Ceylon, Malayan
peninsula and Pakistan) . Bull. Bot. Surv. India 15 :
204-234.

Razi, B. A. (1959) : A second list of species and
genera of Indian phanerogams not included in J. D.
Hooker’s Flora of British India. Rec. Bot. Surv. India
18: 1-56.

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Tendencies in north-south preferences in the orientation of Silkworm.

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Cladocera of Dharwad (Karnataka State). By C. S. Patil and B. Y. Gouder.

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of Bombay Natural History
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New Descriptions v

Obituary

Reviews

Miscellaneous Notes

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VOLUME 85(2) : AUGUST 1988

Date of Publication : 29-12-1988.

CONTENTS

Page

Breeding biology of the Indian Reef Heron. By B. M. Parasharya and R. M.

Naik. ( With five plates and a text- figure) . . 251

Rodent control by Irula Tribals. By Romulus Whitaker and M. Murali.

(With two plates and two text-figures) . . 263

The Butterflies of Sikkim. By Meena Haribal, N. D. Mulla and N. C. Chaturvedi 271

Immobilization and translocation of Nilgai in India using CarfeNtanil. By

J. B. Sale, A. W. Franzmann, K. K. Bhattacharjee and S. Choudhury . . 281

Fffding and growth of hatchlings of Gavialis gangeticus in captivity. By

Sushant Chowdhury. (With four text- figures) . . 288

Biological notes on two species of Big-eyed Bugs (Insecta: Hemiptera:
Lygaeidae: Geocorinae). By Ananda Mukhopadhyay. (With seventeen text-
figures) . . 298

Destruction of spawning grounds of Mahseer and other fish in Garhwal

Himalayas, By P. Nautiyal and M. S. Lai. (With a text-figure) .. 311

Response of wild goats to human disturbance near a waterpoint in Kirthar
National Park, Pakistan. By W. Daniel Edge, Sally L. Olson-Edge and
Nasir Ghani . . 315

Impact of guano deposition in Vedanthangal Water-bird Sanctuary (Chen-

galpattu District, Tamil Nadu). By S. Paulraj .. 319

Food of Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos at Hokarsar wetland, Kashmir. By G.

Mustafa Shah and M. Y. Qadri. (With two text-figures) . . 325

Observations on the occurrence and habits of the Nacaduba complex of

THE LyCAENIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) , MAINLY FROM PUNE DISTRICT, WESTERN

Ghats. By A. E. Bean, S.S.J.E. (With sixteen plates and seven text-figures) 332
New Descriptions:

Taxonomic studies on Marine Ostracoda from the east coast of India.

Family: Cyprididae Martin, 1940. By C. Annapurna and D. V. Rama Sarma.

(With three plates) . . 364

Six new species of Tenthredo Linnaeus (Hymenoptera : Tenth redin idae) from
northern India. By Devinder Singh and Malkiat S. Saini. (With twenty nine
text-figures) . . 366

Description of a new Indian Gall-Midge (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae : Lasiopte-
ridi) causing galls on Achyranthes aspera Linn. ( Amaranthaceae) . By R.

M. Sharma. (With fourteen text-figures) . . 376

On a new species of Diaparsis Foerster (Hymenoptera: Ichneiumonidae:

Tersilochinae) from India. By L. J, Kanhekar. (With three text-figures) 379

Two new species of Acanthaspis (Heteroptera : Reduviidae: Acanthaspidinae)
from southern India. By S. J. Vennison and Dunston P. Ambrose. {With
fifteen text-figures)

A new species of Connarus Linn. (Connaraceae) from Peninsular India. By
K. Ramamurthy and R. Rajan. {With nine text-figures)

Additions to the genus Alysicarpus Neck, ex Desv. By S. M. Almeida and M. R.

Almeida. {With six text-figures)

Reviews :

Indian Turtles a Field Guide. (J. C. Daniel)

Mangroves in India: Status Report. (M. R. Almeida)

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. Toxicity of brodifacoum (liquid, pellets and wax cake) against Meriones
hurrianae and Rattus rattus. By Y. Saxena, Vinita Sharma and Deepak Kumar (p. 408);
2. Interaction between Sambar {Cervus unicolor) and Indian Wild Dog {Cuon alpinus)
in Sariska National Park, by Divyabhanusinh (p. 410); 3. Some observations on antler
cycle of captive Chital {Cervus axis). By L. N. Acharjyo and S. K. Patnaik (p. 411).

Birds: 4. Feeding pattern of an egret. By J. S. Serrao (p. 414); 5. The Vedanthangal
Water-bird Sanctuary : A new breeding ground for Pelicans and Painted Storks. By S.
Paulraj and G. Gunasekaran (p. 414); 6. Eastern Greylag Geese Anser anser rubrirostris
Swinhoe in Gujarat. By Dhanraj Malik (p. 416); 7. Barheaded and Greylag Geese in
Gujarat. By Lalsinh M. Raol (p. 416); 8. Egg moving by a Spotbill Duck {Anas poeci-
lorhyncha). By U. Sridharan (p. 417); 9. Greater Spotted Eagle {Aquila clanga) breeding
in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. By Vibhu Prakash (p. 418); 10. An instance of
active predation by Scavenger Vulture {Neophron percnopterus ginginianus) on checkered
keelback watersnake {Xenochrophis piscator) in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajas-
than. By Vibhu Prakash and C. Nanjappa (n. 419) 11. A Pied Harrier {Circus melano -
leucos in northwest Madhya Pradesh. By Asad R. Rahmani (p. 419); 12. Distribution of
the Slenderbilled Gull {Larus genei Breme) in the Gulf of Kachchh, Gujarat. By Taej
Mundkur, Lalsinh M. Raol and Shantilal N. Varu (p. 420); 13. An unusual feeding
behaviour in Common Tern {Sterna hirundo). By M. Ayyadurai (p. 422); 14. A note
on possible migration route of Short-eared Owl {Asio flammeus) over sea. By Nitin Jamdar
and Kiran Shrivastava (p. 423); 15. Occurrence of Bourdillon’s Great Eared Nightjar
{Eurostopodus macrotis bourdilloni) at Neriyamangalam, Kerala. By R. Sugathan and V.
Natarajan (p. 424); 16. Fish fry predation by Whitebreasted and Pied Kingfishers at a
nursery pond. By Ranjit S. Jior and Manjit S. Dhindsa (425); 17. Predation of Golden-
backed Woodpecker, Dinopium benghcdense (Linn.) on cardamom shoot-and-Fruit Borer,
Dichocrocis punctif eralis (Guene). By A. K. Chakravarthy (p. 427); 18. Movement of the
Eastern Swallow {Hirundo rustica gutturalis) ringed at Mootpuzha (Kerala). By R.
Sugathan (p. 428); 19. The occurrence of the House Crow {Corvus splendens) in Port
Blair, south Andaman Island. By Aasheesh Pittie (p. 430); 20. Occurrence of the Ashy
Minivet {Pericrocotus divaricatus) in Madras city (South India) . By V. Santharam (p. 430) ;
21. Buttressed nests of Baya Weaver Bird Ploceus philippinus (Linn.). {With a plate).
By Satish Kumar Sharma (p. 432); 22. Observations on the nesting habits of the Black-
throated Weaver bird [Ploceus benghalensis (Linneaus)] in the Baroda region. By
Shahroukh Mistry (p. 432); 23. On the occurrence of Carpodacus githagineus in Kutch.
By Himmatsinhji (p. 435); 24. Inducing sleep in birds. By Raza H. Tehsin (p. 435).

Reptiles: 25. Freshwater Turtle Lissemys punctata (Family Trionychidae) with missing
limbs in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. By George M. John (p. 436);
26. Fat-tailed Gecko {Eublepharis macularius Blyth) captured from a quarry. By Satish
Kumar Sharma (p. 437); 27. Russell’s Earth Boa, Eryx conicus, preying on a Little Brown
Dove, Streptopelia senegalensis. By Vibhu Prakash (p. 438); 28. Additional notes on the

383

390

392

406

406

prey items of Green Whip Snake from Point Calimere Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. By V.
Natarajan and P. Balasubramanian (p. 438).

Amphibia: 29. First records of Bufo stomaticus and Bufo fergusonii (Anura: Bufonidae)
from Orissa, with comments on their distribution. By Sushil K. Dutta (p. 439).

Fishes: 30. Bio-ecological observations on Tor chilinoides (McClelland). By Raj Tilak
and S. P. Baloni (p. 441).

Insects: 31. Record of the Monster Cricket Schizodactylus monstrous Drury from Jammu
(J. &K.), India. By Rathin Mukherjee (p. 443); 32. New record of an aphid pest on teak.
By K. Jai Rao and Yelshetty Suhas (p. 444); 33. Aleuramarginatus bauhiniae (Corbett)
comb. nov. and A. thirumurthiensis nom. nov. (Alyrodidae: Homoptera). By B. V. David
(p. 445); 34. Trichotrombidium mascarum Kolonev, a new Acarine parasite on House
Fly. (With a text- figure) . By Yelshetty Suhas and K. Jai Rao (p. 446); 35. Oviposition
site and nature of damage of niger capsule fly Dioxyna sororcula (Wied.) (Diptera:
Taphretidae) . (With a text-fiure). By R. N. Ganguli, E. Jayalaxmi and S. S. Shaw (p. 447);
36. Comments on the paper “Host plants of the fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) of the
Indian Subcontinent, exclusive of the Subfamily Dacinae” By Mohammad Zaka-Ur-Rab.
By C. Radhakrishnan (p. 448).

Other Invertebrates: 37. On the taxonomic status of Gelasimus acutus Simpson (Deca-
poda: Ocypodidae) present in the National Collection of the Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta. (With a text-figure ). By N. Bairagi and A. Misra (p. 449); 38. On some collec-
tions of Monogonont Rotifers (Rotifera: Eurotatoria) from Haryana state, India. (With
seventeen text-figures ). By B. K. Sharma and Sumita Sharma (p. 451).

Botany: 39. Nymphaceae of Jammu and Kashmir. By Kweeta Koul and A. R. Naqshi
(p. 454); 40. Rediscovery of three rare plants from Kumaun Himalaya. By Y. P. S.
Pangtey and S. S. Samant (p. 456); 41. Occurrence of Spermacoce mauritiana O. Gideon
in Western India. By Manek Mistry, Rajendra Shinde and S. M. Almeida (p. 458);
42. Goody era fumata Thw. (Orchidaceae) — a new record for south India. (With a text-
figure). By A. Nageswara Rao (p. 459); 43. A note on the occurrence of Didymoplexis
pollens Griff. (Orchidaceae) in Andhra Pradesh. By P. Venkanna, T. Appi Reddy and
Rolla S. Rao (p. 460); 44. Occurrence of Pistacia atiantica Deaf. ssp. cabulica (Stocks)
Rech., f., in Himachal Pradesh. By H. B. Naithani (p. 461); 45. New record of Calym-
peres thwaitesii Besch. subsp. fordii Fleisch. from Maharashtra State, India. (With a plate).
By G. T. Dabhade and Akhtar Hasan Rizvi (p. 461).

<

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1988 AUGUST Vol. 85 No. 2

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE INDIAN REEF HERON1
B. M. Parasharya and R. M. Naik2
{With five plates and a text-figure)

The breeding biology and nesting require-
ments of many heron species have been studied
in several countries. The breeding biology of the
Grey Heron, Ardea cinerea , has been studied
by Verwey (1930), Lowe (1954), Owen (1960),
Milstein et al. (1970); of the Purple Heron,
Ardea purpurea, by Steinfatt (1939), Owen and
Phillips (1956) and Tomlinson (1974a, 1974b,
1975); of the Great Blue Heron, Ardea hero -
dias, by Vermeer (1969), Pratt (1970, 1972),
Werschkul et al. (1977), and of the Great,
White or Large Egret, Ardea alba, by Teal
(1965), Pratt (1970, 1972), Maxwell & Kale
(1977). The Green Heron, Butorides virescens
has been studied by Dickerman & Gavino
(1969) and Boat-billed Heron, Cochlearius
cochlearius by Dickerman and Juarez (1971).
The breeding biology of Cattle Egret, Bubul-
cus ibis, has been studied by several investiga-
tors (Skead 1966, Lowe-McConnell 1967,

1 Accepted May 1986.

2 Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra Univer-
sity, Rajkot 360 005, Gujarat.

Blaker 1969, Jenni 1969, Dusi and Dusi 1970,
Lancaster 1970, Siegfried 1972, Weber 1975,
Maxwell and Kale 1977). The other herons that
have been studied are the Little Egret, Egretta
garzetta by Voisin (1976, 1977, 1979), and
Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax by Nickel
(1966) and Voisin (1970). However, there is
very little information available about breed-
ing biology of the reef herons. A brief account
of the interbreeding between colour phases
and the timing of breeding season of the Indian
Reef Heron, Egretta gularis (Bose), now con-
sidered by Hancock and Kushlan (1984) as
E. garzetta schistacea is given by Naik et al.
(1981). The breeding biology of the Indian
Reef Heron described in this paper forms a
part of our detailed studies on the biology of
the bird.

Material and Methods

The study was made mainly at the Gogha
and New Port heronries, described earlier by
Naik and Parasharya (1987), from February to

251

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 85

June, 1980. The nesting trees were numbered
and a large number of nests were individually
marked by numbered plates during the nest-
building stage. The nests were checked by
climbing the tree. The freshly laid eggs were
numbered with a felt-tipped pen, measured
with Vernier calipers and weighed to the
nearest 0.5 g with a Pesola spring-balance.

The nests were checked every day during
the laying period, at four or five-day intervals
during the incubation and hatching periods
and at weekly intervals from the time chicks
hatched, till they reached the age of 24 days.
At other times, the observations were made
from the ground, using 10x binoculars.

Results and Discussion
Nesting season :

The nesting season of 1980 started in early
February — the earliest nests were started on
10th in New Port and on the 5th in Gogha.
The season terminated in September, the last
chicks having left their nests on the 10th at
New Port and on the 13th at Gogha. The
nesting was at its peak in April.

Colony Development :

The herons were thinly distributed along the
coast during non-breeding season; they even
wandered inland so that one or two reef herons
were seen at almost every inland reservoir.
They, however, converged towards their tradi-
tional nesting sites closer to the coast during
the breeding season.

During the non-breeding season, the reef
herons of New Port left the roost in the morn-
ing around sunrise, and returned to the roost
only around sunset; between sunrise and sun-
set, they did not visit the roosting trees even
during high tide. With the approach of the
nesting season, an increasing number (Fig. 1)
of reef herons started roosting on the same
trees on which they eventually nested. Our

observations on the heronries elsewhere in
Gujarat indicate that the herons did not always
use the roosting trees for nesting. Apparently,
the roosting trees were also used for nesting
wherever the trees provided safety and the
nearby feeding grounds assured ample food
supply throughout the nesting season.

As the nesting season approached closer, a
few birds delayed their departure from roost-
ing trees in the morning, if it was around high
tide time. Similarly, they started arriving at
roost earlier than their normal time, if the
high tide occurred in the evening. The birds
did not remain in their colony during the low
tide hours. In an initial stage, there were only
a few such birds and they were not very noisy.
After a few days, more and more of them
remained on the colony during daylight hours,
and their vocalization during territorial and
courtship displays made the colony noisy.
Though almost all the birds had fully deve-
loped plumes, colour of the soft parts did not
change in all of them. The number of birds
with nuptial colour on their soft parts increased
as the colony developed. A detailed account
on the soft part colour changes associated with
nesting is given by Parasharya and Naik (1987).

The first nest at Gogha in 1980 was built
on a tamarind tree on which the Painted Stork
( Mycteria leucocephala) still had grown chicks.
There were two nests of the herons in an
initial stage of nest-construction on 6 February,
1980. At this time, the birds left the nest
sites unguarded when they foraged during low
tide. But when intensive nest-building started
a few days later, at least one bird per nest
always remained at the site. The first eggs
appeared in nests on 17 February. Timings of
main nesting events at the Gogha colony dur-
ing 1980 were as follows:

3 February: first reef heron observed at a
nesting site

5 February: first copulation observed

252

NUMBER OF BiRDS

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE INDIAN REEF HERON

17 February: first egg laid

Between 13 and 15 March: first chick hatched

Between 15 and 23 August: last egg laid

Nest and nest-building
At the Gogha colony, only a few old nests
of the herons had remained on the trees at
the approach of nesting season in February,
but at the New Port colony there were many
old nests available at the start of nesting
season. The herons readily occupied the old

nests, repaired them and laid eggs, though in
several cases the old nests were dismantled
and transported piece by piece to make new
nests elsewhere. There were 16 old nests of
the Painted Stork at Gogha when the herons
started nesting and the herons dismantled them
within a month and a half to re-use the mate-
rial for their nesting. Similarly, material from
an old nest of the House Crow ( Corvus
splendens) was also re-used. During the second
nesting peak in July, old nests of the heron

Fig. 1. The number of Indian Reef Heron roosting in relation to the timing of
breeding season at New Port. The curve shows the number of birds roosting on
different dates. The area covered by crossing lines indicate the proportion of pairs
engaged in nesting activities (nest-building, incubation and feeding chicks).

253

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

were existing at both the heronries and the
herons readily used them. At Gogha, an old
nest of the House Crow was also occupied
after repair.

The nests were usually placed in the vertical
forks of three to four branches on the outer
periphery of the tree crown. There was no
foliage cover over many of the nests. In April
and May, when the leaves of the Peepul and
Peeper trees (Table 1) were shed, all the nests

Table 1

Different tree species used for nesting by the
Indian Reef Heron at New Port and Gogh a

Plant species

New Port1

Gogha1

Albizzia lebbek, Lebbeck-tree

X

X

Avicennia marina, Mangrove

X

Azadirachta indica, Neem

X

X

Casuarina equisetifolia, Casuarina

X

Ficus amplissima, Peeper

X

X

Ficus benghalensis, Banyan

X

Ficus racemosa, Cluster Fig

X

Ficus religiosa, Peepul

X

X

Mimusops elengi, Spanish-cherry

X

Prosopis juliflora, Mesquite

X

X

Sapindus Icturifolis, Soapnut

X

Syzygium cumini, Jambul

X

Tamarindus indica, Tamarind

X

X

Thespesia populnea, Portia tree

X

Zizyphus mauritiana, Jujube

X

X

1 Use of a tree species is marked with x.

were almost totally exposed to the sky. Num-
ber of nests per tree depended upon number
of branch forks available on the tree. On a
big Peepul tree more than a hundred nests
were accomodated, as there were many branch
forks available for nest-building.

In a few nesting pairs where the sexes of
the birds were known, the nest material was
collected by the male and actual building was

done by the female. Similar observations are
reported by Ali and Ripley (1968). Such a
division of labour during nest building has
also been recorded in the Little Blue Heron,
Florida caerulea (Meanly 1955); Cattle Egret
(Blaker 1969); Indian Pond Heron, Ardeola
grayii (Lamba 1963) and Night Heron (Ali and
Ripley 1968), Blaker (1969) thought that the
system of division of labour might have arisen
so that the nest could be permanently guarded.

The nests were platform type, built mainly
of dry and brittle sticks ranging from 12 to
66 cm length. Green twigs and pliable twigs
were occasionally used. Generally, the nest
material was collected from open ground
nearby, but occasionally the bird pulled out
branches from the nesting tree itself (Plate
1, A) or a neighbouring tree (Plate 1, B). One
nest from Gogha analysed in August, 1980,
comprised of 210 twigs mainly of the Peeper
( Ficus amplissima ), Neem ( Azadirachta in -
dica), Jharber ( Zizyphus nummularia). Caper
( Capparis decidua ), Rusty shield-bearer ( Pelto -
phorum pterocarpus) , Sickle senna (Cassia
fora) and some grasses. The nests were usually
lined with small twigs. Contrary to the Gogha
nests, the New Port nests were chiefly con-
structed of thorny twigs and dry branches of
Seepweed (Suaeda nudiflora) and in some
cases, eggs were laid without lining the nests.

Mean measurements of eight nests at New
Port in 1982 were: outer diameter about 35
cm, inner diameter about 18 cm and depth
about 4 cm.

The addition of nest material continued
throughout the incubation period, but stopped
almost completely when the chick hatched, as
Blaker (1969) observed for the Cattle Egret.
In two cases, the nest material was added
even after the chicks hatched. Pratt (1970)
also observed occasional twig presentation in
the Great Heron after a part of the clutch had
hatched.

254

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85 Plate 1

Parasharya & Naik: Egret t a gularis

The reef heron collects nesting material from the nesting tree itself (A), or from a neighbouring
tree (B). ( Photos : authors)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85

Parasharya & Naik: Egret t a gu laris

Plate 2

Male reef heron returns with nesting material (C), and presents it to the female (D).

( Photos : authors)

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE INDIAN REEF HERON

After selecting a nesting site, the pair re-
mained perched there for a few hours courting
each other. Ultimately copulation occurred
right there. After the male dismounted, both
the birds held a small nearby branch and
shook it vigorously. Thereafter, the female
remained perched on the site and the male
flew off to collect nest material. The male
returned with a twig (Plate 2, C) and greeting
ceremony followed. The male presented the
twig to the female (Plate 2, D), which tried to
arrange it on the branch fork, but the first
few twigs fell to the ground. Sometimes, a pair
could not arrange a few twigs on the site even
after 24 hours of effort. Later on, the twigs
were arranged criss-cross in the fork by
shaking the twigs sideways (“Tremble shov-
ing”— see Meyerrieclcs 1960) and by pulling
and pushing them. As soon as the platform
was prepared, some small thin twigs were
added to it as lining material. During nest
building, a considerable amount of nest mate-
rial fell out of the nest, and occasionally the
bird flew down to collect material lying under
the nesting tree.

Intraspecific stick stealing from an unguard-
ed nest was observed in many cases. The stick
stealing birds could dismantle an unguarded
nest within a day or two, and they even ejected
the eggs or chicks in the process. Chances of
losing nest-material from a nest increased pro-
gressively during the nesting period when the
nesting pair started leaving the nest unguarded
over a longer period. In one case at Gogha,
a nest-building pair attacked the chicks in an
unguarded nest and started pushing them
away. After several attempts, the pair succeed-
ed in driving away the chicks and occupying
the nest, in which after an addition of a little
more material, the pair raised its own brood
successfully. The chicks which were evicted
from the nest remained perched on nearby
branches and they were fed there by their

parents until they fledged. Intra-specific steal-
ing of nest material was observed for Cattle
Egret by Valentine (1958) and Blaker (1969)
for the Great Blue Heron by Pratt (1972) and
Mock (1976), and for the Great White Egret
by Mock (1978).

The nests were built at a height of about
5 to 15 m from the ground at Gogha, but
some nests were built even at the height of
about 2 m from the ground at New Port. The
species of trees used for nesting in Gogha and
New Port are given in Table 1.

Eggs and incubation

Egg laying :

Generally the eggs were laid at an interval
of two days, but in two cases the interval was
longer than three days. In this connection, a
case history of one particular nest is worth
noting. The first egg was laid on 29 February,
and the second on 2 March. On 5 March, a
third freshly laid egg was found, but the first
two eggs were missing. On 14 March, when
the nest was checked, the third egg was
missing but two new eggs were added in the
nest. Again on 25 March, when the nest was
checked two more eggs were found, so that
there were now four eggs in the nest. Includ-
ing the loss of three eggs earlier, the bird laid
a total of seven eggs during an 18-day period.
It is possible that, after having lost all the
eggs of the first clutch started on 29 February,
the bird started a fresh clutch around 12
March; this speculation is based on the
observation that the two eggs found on 14
March were fresh in appearance.

Incubation :

The first egg was laid within 4 to 7 days
after the initiation of nest-building. As in all
Ardeidae (Kendeigh 1952), the incubation
began with the laying of the first egg. Once

255

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

the eggs were laid, the nest was never left
unattended in summer except during a big
disturbance. In monsoon, however, the birds
often left the nest unguarded (Plate 3, E)
even if there was no disturbance. Incubation
period (interval between the laying and hatch-
ing) of only two eggs was precisely known
and it was 23 and 24 days.

Both the sexes participated in incubation.
Generally, there were three change-overs of
duty within 12 hours of the daytime, but
occasionally there was only one change-over in
the morning for the whole day. The duration
of the attentive period varied between 2 and
8.5 hours. Both the sexes attended the nest
and their average attentive period had about
the same duration. The nest was attended at
night by any one sex. In one case, a bird
covered the eggs continuously from 1200 to
the next morning, which added up to more
than 20 hours of nest attendance.

Clutch and egg size :

Clutch size is defined here as the total num-
ber of eggs known to have been laid in a
nest in an uninterrupted series. The clutches
of 3 and 4 eggs were most usual (as also
stated by Ali and Ripley 1968) but occasionally
a clutch of 6 was also laid. Our data on the

size of 28 clutches are summarised in Table 2.

Fresh weight (weighed within 24 hours of
laying) of 22 eggs and dimensions of 88 eggs
are summarised in Table 2. Baker (as quoted
by Ali and Ripley 1968) measured 50 eggs and
reported the average size as 44.9 x 34.3 mm
which was close to our measurement.

Egg mortality :

Falling out of the nest was the main cause
of egg loss. In certain cases, the heron
started laying even when the nest platform
was not completed. In such nests, a heavy egg
loss occurred during the laying period. Occa-
sionally, when an observer climbed a nesting
tree for nest-checking, the birds left their nests
in a hurry, shaking the branches supporting
nests, and this, in turn, caused eggs to fall
out of the nests. During such a disturbance,
the House Crow did not miss a chance to
take away the eggs. This predator tried to
take away the eggs and small chicks at other
times too, when the nest was unattended.
During May to July, very high winds
in the afternoon and evening also caused
egg-fall. Intraspecific nest-material stealing
activities were also a factor for egg morta-
lity. The White Ibis, in an attempt to appro-
priate some active nests of the reef heron.

Table 2

Clutch size and egg size of the Indian Reef Heron at Gogha, summer 1980

Clutch size1

Egg size2

Size

Frequency

length

mm

width

mm

weight

g

3

10

Range

41.5 to 50.2

30.4 to 35.7

23.0 to 31.5

4

16

(88)

(88)

(22)

5

0

Mean

45.61

32.97

28.39

6

2

s.d.

2.030

1.069

2.262

1 Mean clutch size ± s.d. = 3.8 ±-0.79 (for clutches).

2 Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of eggs measured.

256

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE INDIAN REEF HERON

destroyed the herons’ eggs and chicks at New
Port.

Chicks

Hatching :

Chicks hatched asynchronously. The eyes of
the chick were open and the body covered
with down at hatching. The down dried up
within a few hours. The empty egg shell was
ejected out of the nest by the attending parent.

Mortality :

The chicks of 18 days or more were left
unguarded by the parents. The chicks roamed
out of the nest after the age of 24 days, so
that it became difficult to determine as to
which nest they belonged to, and in many
cases the fate of nestlings after 24 days could
not be recorded. Therefore, 24 days was con-
sidered as the nestling period, at the end of
which the chicks were considered to have
fledged. Mortality rate decreased after the
chicks fledged, as only a few fledged chicks
died before they left the colony. Such deaths
were chiefly due to a fall from the nesting
tree.

Predation by the House Crow was one of
the major factors leading to chick mortality,
particularly during early (less than 10 days)
age. Chicks older than 18 days, which usually
wandered out of the nest, often lost their
balance, fell to the ground and died. They
often went too close to the neighbouring nests,
where the attending parents did not tolerate
their trespassing and tried to stab them. During
such encounters, the chicks got injured, often
lost their balance and fell to the ground. On
being frightened by a human climbing a tree,
the chicks tried to run away and fell to the
ground.

Mortality of chicks due to starvation did
not appear to be significant during an earlier

part of the season; 7 broods, each one of 3
chicks, were reared without any chick loss
and in one case four chicks were reared with-
out a loss. But during the later part of the
season, the younger chick in many broods died
due to starvation. Except for the House Crow,
no other avian predator was observed in the
colony. The domestic cat was reported to climb
nesting trees and kill the chicks at night
at New Port.

The chicks which accidentally fell to the
ground generally died due to the fall. Even if
they survived, they could not climb back to
their nests. Such chicks were then killed by
domestic dogs.

Chicks also fell out of the nests when heavy
wind, storm or rain prevailed. Some chicks
were found hanging dead from the nest rim
after a heavy wind had blown. Some chicks
died because one of their legs got trapped in
a narrow branch fork.

Asynchronous hatching :

In a usual brood of three chicks, two older
ones were very big as compared to the
youngest. The youngest chick apparently stop-
ped growing for a long time and remained in
the nest even when the older ones were roam-
ing around the nesting tree. This difference
in the growth of chicks was due to their
asynchronous hatching. The eggs hatched in
the sequence in which they were laid. There-
fore, the age difference between the eldest and
youngest chicks in a brood was quite often
more than five days. The parents fed the older
chicks which begged violently; the younger
chicks got less food, they remained smaller for
a long time and sometimes even died due to
starvation.

Parental care
Guarding the nest :

At least one parent actively guarded the

257

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

chicks (Plate 3, F) till they attained the age
of about 18 days (average for five nests).
After that, a parent took up a perch some
distance away from the nest and guarded the
chicks for a further period of two to five days.
Thereafter, the chicks were left unguarded,
and the parents returned to the nests only to
feed them and to roost with them at night.

The full “Forward display” was directed by
an adult bird towards a predator, a conspecific
perching very close to the nest or even a
human intruder. If the crow was very close,
the guarding bird might stab towards it. When
an observer climbed a nesting tree for nest-
checking, the adult birds flew over to branches
further away, and kept an eye on the observer
from there. Often they produced a short
“Kok-kok” alarm call and maintained an alert
posture. Only in a few cases did the guarding
bird not leave the nest and violently attacked
the observer’s hand when he tried to pick up
chicks from the nest.

A guarding adult did not permit any heron
other than its family to perch close to its nest.
An intruder was threatened with the Forward
display, or even chased some distance away.
In one case, a guarding bird was threatening
a courting pair perching very close to its nest,
when a guarding bird from another nearby
nest rushed to the courting pair and chased
it away. Trespassing neighbour-chicks were also
attacked and stabbed on their head. Chicks
which accidentally fell on the ground were not
cared for by the parents.

T hermoregulation :

Generally the herons incubated the eggs or
brooded the chicks by sitting on them. The
sitting bird kept its feathers fully depressed
(Plate 3, G) or partially raised to conserve its
body heat and kept them fully raised (Plate
4. H) for passage of air for dissipating the
heat. The incubating bird might keep its neck

straight, let the head rest on the nest rim and
doze off from time to time.

The chicks were highly susceptible to direct
radiation from the sun, especially when the
ambient temperature rose up to 42°C in April/
May, and there was a special need to prevent
the chicks from getting over-heated. Assuming
a posture very similar to the Delta-wing pos-
ture of the storks (Kahl 1971), the reef heron
kept its wings in a drooping position, kept its
back towards the sun and shaded the chicks
with the wing canopy (Plate 4,1) During the
hot hours, almost all the guarding birds in a
colony could be found facing the same direc-
tion. The direction of the guarding bird
changed with the position of sun. In April-
May, this directional thermoregulation started
right at 0900 and could be seen till 1700. The
parents shading the chicks stood on the rim
of the nest, often keeping the legs flexed (Plate
4, J). The back feathers were often raised.
The beak remained open and gular fluttering
continued (Plate 4, K). The chicks kept them-
selves under the parent’s shade, often touching
the parent’s body. Blaker (1969) did not find
any special shade-providing position in the
Cattle Egret, but Jenni (1969) has reported it
in the Cattle Egret as well as in a few other
species of herons.

The adult birds started gular fluttering from
0900 and continued till 1830 in April-May. As
the adult birds were also susceptible to the
sun’s heat, it seemed that the wing posture
had not only the function of shading the
chicks, but also gave passage to the wind to
pass through and helped the bird in self-
thermoregulation. Kahl (1971) suggested that
it is probable that the function of shading the
nest contents is often combined with self-
thermoregulation in birds adopting the spread-
wing posture over eggs or young in hot weather.

One-day old chicks had the gular fluttering
ability. Though brooded and shaded by the

258

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 85 PLATE 3

Parasharya & Naik: Egret t a gularis

The reef heron’s eggs are occasionally left unattended in monsoon (E), but the small chicks are
always attended to (F), and are brooded from time to time (G).

( Photos : authors)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85

Parasharya & Naik: Egretta gu/aris

Plate 4

The reef heron, while shading its eggs and chicks from solar radiation, often raises its feathers
fully (H), and resorts to gular fluttering (I), to dissipate its own body heat; by spreading its wings
partially the bird forms a canopy (J, K) over its brood and at the same time dissipates its own body
heat. {Photos: authors)

Food soliciting behaviour of the heron chicks changes with age (L, M).
{Photos: authors)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85

Parasharya & Naik: Egretta gularis

Plate 5

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE INDIAN REEF HERON

parents, the gular fluttering apparently helped
the chicks in self-thermoregulation.

Feeding the chicks :

Freshly hatched chicks responded to tactile
and auditory stimuli. They tried to stand erect
on their weak legs with the support of the
bulging abdomen, raised the beak and gave
short ‘Chik-chik’ call. They pecked a moving
object and also the nest floor. The adults
regurgitated food on the nest floor, and the
chicks in early stages pecked and ate it. The
chick even pecked the parent’s beak as it re-
gurgitated. If the regurgitated food items were
too big for the chicks to swallow, the parent
reconsumed them. As the chicks grew older,
the ‘Chik-chik’ call became louder and was
accompanied by a sideward rocking movement
of the body, with the wings partially opened
and held horizontally (Plate 5, L). The older
chick grabbed the parent’s beak and pulled it
down violently to make the parent regurgitate,
and since the chick grabbed the parent’s beak
across the base (Plate 5, M), regurgitated food
passed directly to its beak. If the parent’s
beak was not grabbed properly, the food fell
down upon the ground. Often, the House Crow
actively waited for such a situation and dis-
turbed the feeding adult to get the fish. Under
the nesting trees, even dogs waited for the
fish to fall down. When a chick was fed on a
slender branch, both the parent and chick kept
on beating their wings to maintain their
balance.

The older chicks had a greater chance of
getting food than the younger ones. As the
chicks started running out of the nest, they
often chased the parent on branches of
the same tree or a nearby tree. For some
time even after the chicks started roaming
around, the parents continued to come to the
original nest-site to feed them. The older chicks

could recognize their parent when it was a
few metres away. But some chicks wrongly
identified an adult as their parent and started
begging for food. As the chicks aged more
than 24 days, the parents avoided them even
though they had come to feed them. The
parent alighted on the nest-site, looked around,
sometimes chased away the neighbour chicks
roaming around, and then only fed their own
chicks. Avoidance of chicks by the parents
might have increased the probability of suc-
cessful feeding of the younger chicks that had
still not left the nest. Secondly, avoidance
might have stimulated the chicks to start flying
around and ultimately leave the colony. Some
juveniles, which could fly freely but had still
not left the colony, actively searched for food
fallen on the ground. Some of them also fed
on house flies sitting on the ground. We have
seen a juvenile standing on an elevated ground
catching dragonflies flying around, directly
from the air (“Standing flycatching” — see
Kushlan 1978). Some juveniles were seen
following their parents on the feeding ground
and begging for food, but we do not know
whether the chicks were ever fed there.

Re -NESTING

The reef heron made a fresh nesting
attempt if it lost its eggs or young early in
the season. A pair lost its complete brood in
March, but it remained in the nest and laid a
second clutch within eight days; this nesting
pair and its nest was under continuous obser-
vation for recording the soft-parts colour
changes and the individual birds could be
recognized by their distinctive physical features.
Such re-nesting is also observed in the Green
Heron (Meyerriecks 1960) and in the Great
Blue Heron (Pratt 1970). In some cases, after
the loss of the first one or two eggs, the herons
deserted the nest; possibly they nested else-
where.

259

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Breeding performance of some

SELECTED PAIRS

Table 3 summarises the breeding perform-
ance of 28 pairs whose nesting resulted in
hatching of at least one chick at the New Port

Table 3

A SUMMARY OF THE BREEDING PERFORMANCE OF THE

Indian reef heron
(Number of nests sampled = 28)

Mean± s. d.

Clutch size

3. 8± 0.79

Eggs lost during incubation (%)

13.1±16.73

Eggs failed to hatch (%)

11.9±17.03

Hatchability of eggs (%)

86. 3±21 . 19

Egg mortality (%)

23.8 — 18.25

Hatching success (%)

77. 5± 16. 28

Initial brood size

2.9± 0.76

Chick mortality (%)

33.1 ±33. 27

Nestling success (%)

67. 9±33. 27

Number of chicks fledged/nest

1.9± 1.02

heronry. The clutch size is the number of eggs
laid in an uninterrupted series. The number of
eggs lost during incubation were those that
fell out of the nest or were predated during

the incubation period. The eggs that failed to
hatch were those that survived the incubation
period, but failed to hatch either because they
were not fertilized, or because the embryo died
before completing development. The hatcha-
bility of eggs is the number of eggs hatched/
number of eggs surviving the incubation period.
The egg mortality is the number of eggs lost
plus those that did not hatch/total number of
eggs laid. The hatching success is the number
of eggs hatched/total number of eggs laid. The
initial brood size is the number of chicks
hatched per nest. The chick mortality is the
number of chicks lost before fledging/total
number of chicks hatched. Nesting success is
the number of chicks fledged/total number of
chicks hatched. The number of chicks fledged
per nest is the number of chicks surviving until
Day 24 per nest.

Acknowledgements

One of us (B.M.P.) is thankful to the Coun-
cil of Scientific & Industrial Research, New
Delhi, for award of Junior and Senior Re-
search Fellowships. We acknowledge the kind
hospitality and co-operation extended to us
by the Port Officer, New Port, Bhavnagar, the
Mamlatdar of Gogha and their staff.

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Blaker, D. (1969) : Behaviour of the Cattle Egret
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Burger, J. (1978a) : The pattern and mechanism
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(1978b): Competition between Cattle

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Dickerman, R. W. & Gavino, G. (1969) : Studies
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& Juarez, L. (1971): Nesting

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BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE INDIAN REEF HERON

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261

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

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262

RODENT CONTROL BY IRULA TRIBALS1

Romulus Whitaker2 and M. Murah3
{With two plates and two text -figures)

Rodents have proved to be man’s most common, persistent and destructive
vertebrate competitor, in many circumstances managing to destroy more food crops
and stored food than all the other pests combined. Control of rodents has been
mainly limited to using rodenticides which are often ineffectual and are harmful to
non-target animals, man and the environment.

This paper describes the formalisation of an old approach to rodent control:
direct capture by skilled Irula tribals. The Irula methods, results and cost effective-
ness are presented. Collaboration by the tribal Cooperative with Government and
private agencies concerned with vertebrate pest control is recommended.

The rodent problem in India

A. Rodent populations

Various authors have made estimates of rat
populations in India. Srivastava (1975), using
average figures of 2-3 rats per acre and 300
to 700 per village estimates nearly 5 billion
rats for the entire country, more than six times
the human population. The same author quotes
a figure of 11 million tons of foodgrains eaten
and damaged by rats annually in India.

Rodent populations in rice fields average
from 5 to 25 per acre (Rajasekharan and
Dharmaraju 1975), usually depending on the
time of year in relation to harvest. However,
during rodent “flareups” mouse populations
have shot up to as high as 80,000 per acre
(Pingale 1985).

B. Damage

In one study in Rajasthan, Prakash (1976)

j Accepted March 1987.

2 President, Irula Snake Catchers Cooperative,
Vadanemmeli Village, Perur P.O., Mahabalipuram
603-104, Tamil Nadu.

3 Field Officer, R.A.T.S., Irula Snake Catchers Co-
operative, Vadanemmeli Village, (via) Mahabali-
puram 603 104, Tamil Nadu.

reports that desert gerbil ( Meriones hurrianae)
populations in one fodder growing area ave-
raged over 160 per acre. Their yearly food
requirements were 420 kg/acre, while the
year’s production of fodder amounted to only
490 kg/ acre. In the same State, it was esti-
mated that desert gerbils excavated soil result-
ing in erosion at the rate of 250 kg/day/acre
Adult rats consume about 5% (for the
greater bandicoot) to 20% of their body
weight in food per day, which amounts to an
average consumption of about 20 gms per day
for the species most commonly infesting paddy
fields. Srivastava (1975) estimates 10-50% crop
losses due to rodents depending on the crop
and several other factors. Losses are often
highest in paddy. In addition to causing imme-
diate loss by consumption of grain and damage
to rice plants and bunds, the lesser mole rat
( Bandicota bengalensis — the main rice pest
in the area of this study) is a most efficient
hoarder. In one study in Pakistan, Greaves
et al (1975) reported lesser mole rats storing
grain at the rate of 40 kg per acre (2.5% of
the crop). Prakash (1976) states that hoard-
ing by this species can be as high as 180 kg
per acre. Irulas working on this project have

263

2

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

shown quantities ranging from one to seven
kilograms of groundnuts, rice and ragi recover-
ed from individual lesser bandicoot burrows.
The second stage of the Irula rat control pro-
ject will address itself to this important aspect
of rodent damage and its correlation with
overall damage to standing crops.

Frantz (1975) makes the point that over
30,000 humans are added to India each day
and the majority are rice eaters. A popula-
tion of 200 lesser bandicoot rats in a single
large rice storage godown can consume enough
rice to supply an average Indian for eleven
years, in one godown in Calcutta, losses were
estimated at over 4000 kg per year. His im-
portant contention is that saving food already
grown can be a more effective answer to food
shortage than growing more food.

C. The uninte grated approach

In India rodent control is synonymous with
pesticide use. Tons of aluminium phosphide,
zinc phosphide, warfarin, calcium cyanide,
strychnine and other rodenticides are sold and
distributed throughout towns and farmlands
every month. There have been several inter-
national symposia on rodent control in India.
If the 1975 Ahmedabad meeting is typical, the
questions of alternatives such as biological con-
trol and capture of rodents by employing
local people do not even deserve a mention.
Similarly, natural predation by snakes, birds
of prey and other predators is generally dis-
missed, as being of little consequence though
recent findings indicate that snakes play a
considerable role (Whitaker and Advani 1983).
At the same time the integrated approach to
rodent pest management is acknowledged to
be the best approach and one would hope that
directions other than rodenticides were exa-
mined.

The human and animal risks and environ-
mental costs of reliance on the use of pesti-

cides are rarely given more than a passing
reference, and data on secondary poisoning
and overall risk are never presented. State-
ments by the 1975 symposium participants are
sometimes disconcerting. For example, C. R.
Madsen (former USAID Vertebrate Pest Con-
trol Adviser) says “Rats (killed by poisons)
improperly disposed of have caused acciden-
tal poisoning of dogs, hogs and sometimes
jackals and kites”. A bit later, in the same
symposium P. D. Thaker, Chief Officer, Sidh-
pur Municipality makes the following confes-
sions: in one project 5.5 tons of poison baits
were distributed in Sidhpur and a total of
13,000 dead rats counted. Another 40,000 rats
were reported dead though not seen by project
staff, and thrown away by towns people and,
in his words, “might have been picked up by
predators like birds and dogs and eaten away”.
N. S. Rao (1975), the Managing Director of
Pest Control India Ltd., states “Most of the
rodenticides currently in use here and else-
where are highly toxic not only to the rats
and other closely related orders, but to the
entire class of mammals”.

But the “traditionalist” rat control
researchers are certainly aware of the short-
comings and danger of chemical rat killers.
They acknowledge that the search should con-
tinue for the ideal integrated approach. Un-
fortunately we have fallen for the western
pesticide package with as much fervour as rats
go for rice. It may take us awhile to unlearn
what almost amounts to an obsession with
chemicals, but it is evident that awareness is
growing. Rodentologist S.C. Frantz (1975) aims
the following statement at India: “Low cost,
labour intensive, culturally adapted techno-
logies are needed for long term solutions to
such problems as rodent depredations”.

Project outline

This paper describes the results of fifty six

264

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 85

Whitaker & Murali: Rodent control

Left: Irula digging for rats in fallow land near Madras.

Right: An Irula with his catch of Gerbils.

C Photo : S. Dattatri)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85

Whitaker & Murali: Rodent control

Plate 2

Above: Stored grain in a lesser bandicoot burrow.

(Photo: S. Dattatri)

Below: A mornings catch of rats.

(Photo: Rajendran)

RODENT CONTROL BY 1RULA TRIBALS

rodent control field trials undertaken by the
Irula Snake-catchers Cooperative in Chingle-
put District during 1985-86. It had been
decided, at the inception of the Cooperative
in 1978, that one way to employ a large num-
ber of Irulas (an underprivileged community
designated by Government as a Primitive
Schedule Tribe) is to organise them to control
rodents by their expert, traditional methods.
There are 28,000 of these plains tribals in
Chingleput District of Tamilnadu alone.
Rodents are undeniably the most destructive
vertebrate pests on earth. The problem in India
is especially acute, with a significant percentage
(estimates under different circumstances range
from 10-50%) of standing and stored food-
grains and other crops being destroyed by
rodents each year.

In 1984, Oxfam (India) gave the Irula Co-
operative a grant to carry out field trials in
order to establish the cost effectiveness of Irula
methods in controlling rodents. Two key argu-
ments are evident in favour of this approach
to pest management: (a) it employs Irulas,
a group of economically depressed people with
little recognition of their considerable skills,
(b) it makes no use of deadly pesticides with
their costs, both monetary and environmental.

In 1976, a field trial using Irula methods
was carried out at the Central Food Techno-
logical Research Institute, Mysore. Rodento-
logists from Central Plantation Crop Research
Institute, Kasaragod, Kerala also witnessed the
Irula rodent control approach. In the present
study, field trials number 1 and 2 were carried
out at the request of the Tamil Nadu Agri-
culture Department in the presence of 100
village Field Officers.

A. Methods

Irulas have traditionally caught rats for
many generations as a supplementary food

source (almost all species are eaten, and some
are quite tasty). They have thus developed a
knowledge of rodent habits that is unsurpassed.
Using these skills they can locate “live”
burrows (i.e. those which have rats in resi-
dence) and quickly capture the occupants.
They use two basic techniques for their rat
capture: direct digging of the burrow with
nets over or next to exit holes particularly
for the gerbil ( Tatera indica ); smoking them
out (often used where digging is impractical
or impossible, like under house foundations).

The Irula rat catching programme (under
the title R.A.T.S. — for Rodent and Termite
Squad) generally operates by sending teams
of three or four Irulas with a team supervisor
to a farm, godown or residence. The team
spends as much time as it takes to cover the
area under contract and systematically removes
all rats by digging and smoking them out.
Burrows are destroyed and the farmer or
house owner advised on rat control measures
such as clearing piles of stones and rubbish
and calling RATS for regular, quarterly visits.

In the case of more affluent farmers and
home owners, a fee was charged for the rat
catching service. For poorer village farmers,
the control was done free of charge in the
interest of data collection for the field trial
and to establish the modus operandi for a
proposed, large scale Irula rodent control
scheme. During this study, about 20% of the
farmers and land owners were not willing to
let the Irulas dig into the bunds around the
rice fields, the most important single constraint
encountered.

In this study, the costs of controlling the
rodents are considered to be the wages paid
to the Irulas and their transport costs. The
salary of the supervisor, to record and compile
the data is paid by the project but is not con-
sidered a part of the cost of rodent control.

265

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 85

B, Results

Mainly between November, 1985 and July,
1986 (nine months) fifty-six rat catching field
trials were undertaken in Chingleput District,
Tamil Nadu. A total of 278 Irula man-hours
were utilised to capture 2131 rodents for an
average of 7.8 minutes per rodent. At an ex-
penditure for Irula wages and transport of
Rs. 3500/-, the cost of catching each rat was
Rs. 1.65.

Irulas are paid Rs. 20/- per day for rat
catching. A supervisor was employed by the
rodent programme for 744 man-hours (93
days) to obtain contracts, supervise the field-
work and compile results. A summary of the
56 field trials, including costs is given as
Table 1.

Table 1

Summary of 56 Irula rodent control field trials

1.

Area w-orked (acres)

234

2.

Total number of burrows dug up

1133

3.

Rodents caught

2131

4.

Number of rodents per acre

9

5.

Hours spent in the field

278*

6.

Average number of Irulas in field trials

3

7.

Irula man-hours spent in the field
(278x3)

834

8.

Wages paid to Irulas (Rupees)

3283/-

9.

Transport costs

252/-

10.

Cost of control per rodent

1.65

11.

Cost of control per acre

15/-

* 218 hours in rice fields, dry farms and bunds.
60 hours in sheds, dwellings and godowns.

About 234 acres of land were covered in
the present trials for an average of nine rats
per acre. Each rat consumes about 20 grams
of foodgrain per day and may destroy more
than twice that amount each day. In addition
to this loss, one species of rat, the lesser mole
rat, (Bandicota bengalensis) may store large
quantities of grain for the lean season and

for its young. In the present trials, 4 kg of
grain was recovered from one rat burrow
while the average quantity was 2.1 kg for each
hoarding B. bengalensis. However, as some of
the trials were not in the harvest season and
some in non-rice or grain habitats such as
chicken farms, a high yield of stored grain
was not expected. Fig. 1 is a graph of average

HARVEST

Fig. 1. Average number of rats caught per trial.

numbers of rats caught per trial. It is obvious
that numbers are highest in the harvest season
and lowest during the pre- and post-harvest
months.

In one series of rice paddy bund trials in
this study (four days in January), 3000 metres
of bunds were hunted and 344 rats caught at
an average of one rat for every 8.7 metres of
bund. In another series of three trials carried
out at an average of 64-day intervals at one
farm, the number of adult rats caught in the
first trial was 31 (Table 2). In the third trial,
five months later, only 8 adult rats were pre-
sent. This indicates that control visits should
have an interval of two months or preferably
less, and varying according to the local crop
pattern.

C. Cost benefit

The purpose of ridding a farm, godown,
shop or dwelling of rodents is to save crops.

266

RODENT CONTROL BY IRULA TRIBALS

Table 2

Pattern of rodent populations at a farm visited for rodent control at two-monthly intervals in

Chingleput District

Rodent

1st Trial (20.12.85)
Adult Juv. Total

2nd

Adult

Trial (28.2.86)
Juv. Total

3rd Trial
Adult

1 (18.5.86)
Juv. Total

Bandicota indica

12

12

-

-

-

-

-

-

Bandicota bengalensis

4

4

4

-

4

4

-

4

Tatera indica

4

4

-

-

-

1

-

1

Rattus spp.

9

9

4

10

14

1

8

9

Mus spp.

2

2

10

-

10

2

-

2

Total

31

31

18

10

28

8

8

16

food and property from damage. Whether rats
have eaten a kilo of rice, chewed a hole in
a valuable sari or gnawed a power line and
caused a dangerous short circuit in an atomic
power plant, their damage is costly at all levels.
In this study, some 15,000 kg of foodgrains
were saved (valued at Rs. 45,000) by the in-
vestment of Rs. 3500/- worth of Irula labour
and transport to kill 2131 rats and mice.

Another way of judging the cost benefit of
the Irula approach to rodent control is by
looking at the cost of killing each rat — in
this case Rs. 1.65. A rat can eat its way
through Rs. 1 . 65 worth of rice in just 25 days,
besides the other damage it can cause, so it
is obviously worth investing that amount if
someone will pay it.

The savings resulting from the capture of
2131 rodents in these trials is estimated at
over Rs. 45,000/- and is calculated for a
two-month period in an average crop cycle
period. These rodents could have, in their 234-
acre domain, consumed 50 kg of foodgrain per
day, destroyed another 100 kg per day and the
lesser bandicoot component (40% of the total
rats caught) could cut and store another 100
kg per day. This 250 kg of rice per day (un-
abated and increasing) throughout a 60-day

rice growing period would result in a loss of

15.000 kg of rice. As these rats are locally
migratory, aspects such as damage to land
through soil loss, damage inside dwellings,
death and destruction of eggs and chicks on
poultry farms within the study area have not
been included in the calculation.

In the literature it is reported that the cost
of killing a rat can be as high as Rs. 14 (in
a Lakshadweep Islands trial; Whitaker and
Bhaskar 1978) or as low as Rs. 0.55 (Thaker
1975). In the latter trials (Thaker) the cost
breakdown is not given but the figure of Rs.

30.000 spent to kill 53,767 rats must be for
the poison alone. In addition some 55,000 kg
of grain were used and a considerable work
force of the Sidhpur Municipality and the
Rodent Control Project worked for four
months. If accurately reported, the expenses
incurred would have brought the cost per rat
near the Rs. 2/- mark. In the same trial. Pro-
ject staff only verified 13,000 rats dead, the
other 40,000 were reported dead by the town
inhabitants, which leaves considerable doubt as
to the accuracy of the figures. The same ambi-
guity is evident in many rodent control field
trials reported on for India.

Prakash (1975) outlines a national rodent

267

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

control plan to cover 170 million hectares
(half the total area of India) and 600,000 vil-
lages. He estimates that over 1,300 tons of
pesticide will be needed per year for five years.
Rao (1975) estimates that a nationwide five-
year project would cost over 300 crores of
rupees (3 billion). His breakdown follows but
neglects to include labour and transport costs:

A 500 houses (one village)

Bait (95 kg grain at 1.50) Rs. 142.50
Poison (Rodafarin 5 kg) Rs. 75.00

Rs. 217.50

B. 500 acres land

Bait (760 kg at 1.50) Rs. 1140.00
Poison (40 kg Rodafarin) Rs. 600.00

3) that two rodent species, namely the lesser
mole rat and the soft-furred rat ( Rattus
melt ad a) are the two most important rodent
pests in the study area, accounting for 73%
of the total rodents caught.

In addition to the rodents caught, other hole
dwelling animals were incidentally caught, in-
cluding a mongoose (killed by accident while
digging) and 24 snakes (which were released
elsewhere) :

Rat snake ( Ptyas mucosus) 6

Cobra (Naja naja ) 3

Krait ( Bungarus caeruleus) 1

Vine snake (Ahaetulla nasutus) 4

Sand boa ( Eryx conicus,

E. johnii) 10

Rs. 1740.00

While the Irula method would seem to be
less cost effective when compared with the
above figures (Rs. 15/- per acre for control
by Irulas compared to Rs. 3.50 per acre in
the above), the full costs of the pesticide pro-
gramme are not given and the Irula approach
has a much higher reliability rating.

It can be inferred from the results (Table

In addition to the farmer being benefited and
the Irulas getting a daily wage, the Irulas sell
all the larger rats caught to the Madras Croco-
dile Bank for croc feed. Large bandicoots
( Bandicota indica ) are sold for Rs. 1.50 each
and lesser bandicoots for Rs. 1/- each. In this
study the total additional income for the Irulas
was over Rs. 800/-. Gerbils were kept by the
Irulas for the pot.

At present other economic uses for the rats

Table 3

Number of rodents caught: species, sex and size class

Name

Male

Female

Juvenile

Infant

Total

Bandicota indica

47

81

-

13

141

Bandicota bengalensis

326

359

37

161

883

Tat era indica

43

24

10

8

85

Rattus meltada

81

126

193

252

652

Rattus spp.*

41

34

20

15

110

Mus spp.**

39

75

21

94

229

Total

577

699

281

543

2100

* Two or more species involved.

**Two (M. musculus and M. boodugd) or more species involved.

268

RODENT CONTROL BY IRULA TRIBALS

are being examined, including rat protein for
poultry feed, and rat skins and fur in the leather
and leather goods trade.

D. Conclusion

Fall (1977) describes the history (and
failure) of rodent catching for payment:

“The idea of making cash payments or re-
wards for the carcasses of pest animals has
been applied numerous times over the last
several hundred years in many countries of the
world. The results have usually been the same:
the pest problems continue virtually unabat-
ed, while a small number of people (usually
not those troubled by the pest) learn that
they can make a reasonable living collecting
bounties. In theory, rat damage could, perhaps
be greatly reduced by this method if payments
were high enough to capture animals during
periods of relative scarcity or to concentrate
their efforts on capturing only animals damag-
ing crops. Usually this does not happen”.

Fall emphasises that to be effective in con-
trolling crop damage, rodent capture has to
be carried out when the crop plants are matur-
ing and are most susceptible to damage. Fig. 1
shows that the Irulas catch a much greater
number of rats during the harvest months per
field trial than at any other time of year.

The Irulas’ methods are uniquely suited to
smoke out. dig out and catch rats during crop
ripening periods with minimal damage to crops.
The economic aspect remains the major consi-
deration. On the basis of the results reported
herein, Irulas can make a satisfactory wage on
the basis of Rs. 1.65 per rat or Rs. 15 per
acre of farmland; this compares favourably
with expenditure on chemical control schemes.

The advantages of the Irula approach are
considerable when compared with standard
chemical control schemes. The most obvious
advantage is avoiding continual and increasing
use of poisons. There is a positive value in

being able to see all the rats being caught and
killed. The rats can be used safely for pro-
tein, both for humans and livestock (for croco-
dile and poultry farms). The scheme is labour
intensive and provides jobs to people in India’s
lowest economic bracket.

It is concluded, therefore, that the Irula
programme for rodent control is a cost effec-
tive, efficient and appropriate methodology for
farmlands in India. Its effectiveness for
godowns, sheds and dwellings also appears
adequate but this aspect will be studied and
confirmed in the ongoing field trials supported
by Oxfam and the Irula Cooperative. This
programme has a nationwide applicability as
there are rat-catching tribals in many parts of
the country.

Fig. 2. Species composition.

E. Recommendations

It is recommended that the Irula rodent
control programme under the title RATS be
incorporated in the Save Grain Campaign of
the Government of India and in the numerous
State and Central sponsored programmes of

269

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 85

agricultural extension and crop protection con-
cerned specifically with rodent control It is
also recommended that the use of hand caught
rats for poultry feed be examined and that
a promotional input into the rat fur and leather
industry be made by the appropriate Govern-
ment agencies who have already carried out
preliminary research in this direction. One
certain way to lessen dependence on pesticides
and achieve more complete pest control is to
create economic motives for capture of rodents.
It is almost axiomatic that any form of wild-
life man covets for skin, meat or whatever be-
come endangered species.

It is recommended that the use of capital
intensive, environmentally inappropriate che-
mical control programmes be phased out in
favour of the labour intensive soft technology
proposed by the Irulas. While it is recognised
that the chemical route of control may some-

times be apparently more effective or “appro-
priate”, the long term view of the rodent pro-
blem assures us that (a) it will always be with
us, and (b) there are hundreds of thousands
of tribal and other people in India who are
jobless, under-nourished, yet who are skilled
and available for a continuous, national rodent
control scheme.

ACK NOWLEDGEM ENTS

We wish to thank Oxfam (India)
Trust for financial support of this project.
Thanks are due to S. Dravidamani for ini-
tially managing the project. The Irula rat
catchers deserve a lot of credit for their skills
and their optimism. We also thank
D. V. Shyamala for typing, Shekar Dattatri
for help with the tables and Zai Whitaker for
editing the paper.

References

Fall, Michael W. (1977): Rodents in tropical
rice. Tech. Bull. no. 36, Interpretive Programmes
Centre, Denver Wildlife Research Centre, U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, Colorado.

Frantz, Stephen C. (1975) : The behavioural/eco-
Jogical milieu of godown bandicoot rats - — implica-
tion for environmental manipulation. Proceedings of
the All India Rodent Seminar, Ahmedabad.

Greaves, J. FI. et al. (1975): Preliminary investi-
gation of the rice-rat problem in Lower Sind (Pakis-
tan). ibid.

Madsen, C. R. (1975) : Sidhpur rodent control
and grain storage project, ibid.

Krishnakumari, M. K. (1975): Integrated rodent
control measures in rural areas, ibid.

Pingale, S. V. (1975) : Rat as a competitor of
man for food. ibid.

Prakash, Ishwar (1975): National plan for ro-
dent pest management, ibid.

— — — (1976) : Rodent pest manage-

ment. Monograph no. 4, Central Arid Zone Research
Institute, Jodhpur.

Rao, N. S. (1975): All India rodent control pro-
gramme: an outline. Proceedings of the All India
Rodent Seminar, Ahmedabad.

Rajasekharan, M. R. & Dharmaraju, Edwin
(1975) : Studies on field rodents in Andhra Pradesh,
ibid.

Srivastava, A. S. (1975) : Rodent eradication, ibid.

Thaker, P. D. (1975) : Rat control in Sidhpur
town. ibid.

Whitaker, R. & Bhasker, S. (1978) : Rodent con-
trol in Lakshadweep islands. Rodent Newsletter 2:
1.

Whitaker, R. & Advani, R. (1983) : Preliminary
field study on snakes as agents of management of
rodent populations. Indian Forester 109(6).

270

THE BUTTERFLIES OF SIKKIM1

Meena Haribal2, N. D. Mulla3 and N. C. Chaturvedi4

Sikkim, a small state to the north of West
Bengal, lies between 27° 5' and 28° 10' N and
87° 59' and 88° 56' E and comprises an area
of 750 sq. km. Due to altitudinal variations
and climatic conditions the area has an abun-
dant variety of flora and fauna. This region
has been explored by Salim Ali (1952-53),
Hooker (1856) and De Niceville (1880-83)
and during the late 19th and early 20th cen-
turies. There are hardly any reports on the
natural history of Sikkim in recent years. Many
changes have taken place due to increased
human population, deforestation, and other
human activities. Hence we undertook the
study of the present status of its flora and
fauna.

The study was carried out in West and
North Sikkim. The following areas were visit-
ed: In W. Sikkim we trekked from Geyzing
to Dzongri via Yoksum and returned to Leg-
ship via Tashiding. The route followed was
Geyzing (1500 m) — Pamayangtse (1800 m)
— Pelling (1800 m) — Yoksum (2200 m) —
Bakkhim (2800 m) — Dzongri (4000 m) —
Kaburlake (4500 m) — Yoksum (2200 m) —
Tashiding (1800 m) — Legship (1200 m). In
N. Sikkim, keeping Singhik as base camp, the
surrounding regions were visited and explored:
Singhik (1200 m), Mangan (1200 m), Ryngym
(1370 m), Sankalang (900 m), Pashingdang
(950 m), Tholung bridge (950 m), Manul

1 Accepted August 1984.

2 4, Modi Nivas, Telang Road, Matunga, Bombay
400 019.

3 242, Princess Street, Bombay 400 002.

4 Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

(1200 m), Nanga Bridge (1220 m) and Ryng-
bum Bridge (950 m). Gangtok (1800 m), the
capital of Sikkim was also visited. Observa-
tions, whenever possible, were also made while
travelling. A total distance of about 170 km
was trekked in about 25 days.

General Observations

In W. Sikkim, the variation of flora could
be observed as we reached higher altitudes.
The region around Geyzing, Pelling, Yoksum,
Tashiding and Legship was largely under culti-
vation except for a few pockets of forests.
Mostly paddy and buckwheat were be-
ing cultivated. Secondary growth was quite
abundant in this region which mainly consisted
of nettles. Polygonum, Eupatorium Impatiens,
Gynura, Ageratum, ferns etc. Wild Chestnuts
("Lotus’), Alnus, Ficus spp., Himalayan cherry,
Mahonia acanthifolia and bamboos were com-
mon in the forested areas. Yoksum to Bakkhim
route was through dense evergreen and semi-
evergreen forests. Magnolia spp., Michelia spp.,
rhododendrons, oak, maple and bamboos were
the predominant plants. Nettles, ferns, Arisema
spp., Begonia spp. and Impatiens formed secon-
dary growth. Beyond 3500 m rhododendrons,
junipers and azaleas were seen.

In N. Sikkim, due to human settlement, the
forests were thin but secondary growth was
abundant. Alnus, Wild Chestnut, fig, Eugenia,
Macaranga and Erythrina were most predo-
minant in this region. Secondary growth con-
sisted of Polygonum, Clerodendron, Artemesia,
Piper, Ageratum, Fagopyrum, ferns, bamboos
and wild bananas. There were a few patches
of cardamom plantations.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

The present paper is the result of three
short visits to Sikkim by us (MH and NDM).
The area was visited in November, 1980 by
Meena Haribal, Ulhas Rane, M. R. Almeida,
Manek Mistry, Usha Ganguli and Arati Kaikini
and by N. D. Mulla and others in November,
1981 and May, 1982.

Observations were made during daytime and
mostly up to 15 m distance. Identification was
carried out with the help of three standard
books (Wynter-Blyth 1951, Talbot 1934 Vols.
1 & II, Evans 1932) and also by comparing
the specimens collected with the specimens in
the BNHS collection. About 80 specimens,
belonging to 50 species, were collected during
the study and are deposited with BNHS.

A larger number of butterflies were seen in
November than in May at elevations between
400 m and 2200 m. Tashiding-Legship and
Singhik regions were abundant in butterflies
(both species-wise and in the number of indi-
viduals seen). N. Sikkim has a larger number
of butterflies than W. Sikkim.

Some species like the Great Mormons were
not encountered in May, even though they
were common in November, but the Tawny
Costers were seen locally in large numbers only
in May. Red Lacewings and Tabby’s were very
common in Singhik region during November,
1980 but v/ere not sighted by NDM even once
in November, 1981. None of the butterflies of
the family Amathusidae were seen and only
a few species of Papilionidae though quite a
few beautiful species like windmills etc. were
not seen although they are supposed to be very
common during May (Talbot 1947).

Key to notations used in the text for status
VC — very common (20-30 specimens seen)
C — Common (upto 20 specimens seen)
NC — Not common (10 specimens seen)

LC — Locally common (5 specimens seen
only at one place)

S — Single or two specimens encountered.

Order: lepidoptera
Fam. Danaidae

1. Danaus sita sita (Kollar). Chestnut Tiger;
VC.

One of the common butterflies in both W. &
N. Sikkim; seen upto 2500 m, mostly in open
country near human habitation, often seen
feeding on Himalayan Cherry flowers and on
moist earth. Seen flying up to 10-30 m above
the ground.

2. Danaus hamata (Mcleay). Dark Blue Tiger;
S.

Two dead specimens were collected — one
near a stream at Tashiding and the other
entangled on a spider web between Sangkalang
and Pashing-dang.

3. Danaus genutia (Cramer). Common Tiger;
LC.

Seen only at low altitudes near paddy fields
in summer at Legship.

4. Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus). Plain tiger;
S.

A single butterfly seen flying across the road
in Gangtok in November.

5. Euploea mulciber (Cramer). Striped Blue
Crow; LC.

Seen basking by the roadside at low
altitudes in W. Sikkim around Tashiding and
Legship.

6 . Euploea klugi (Housefield & Moore). Blue
Crow; S.

Seen feeding on flowers of Compositae at
Manul.

7. Euploea diocletianus (Fabricius). Magpie
Crow, S.

Two butterflies were seen flying above tree
level close to each other near Tashiding mona-
stery in a forested patch.

272

THE BUTTERFLIES OF SIKKIM

Fam. Satyridae

8. Mycalesis perseus (Fabricius). Common
Bush Brown; C.

Bush Browns were very common in Mangan,
Manul and Sangkalang areas of N. Sikkim.
There were also other bush browns, both of
dry and wet season forms. Dry season forms
were seen in cultivated areas while wet season
forms were seen in forested areas of Mangan.

9 . Lethe confusa Aurivillus. Banded Tree
Brown; C.

A common butterfly seen upto 2200 m,
abundant at lower elevations; shows strong
territorial behaviour; when disturbed flies
close to the ground for a short distance. One
butterfly observed (MH) had occupied an area
of about 10x2 sq.m, along the path with
nettles. It had three definite perches, of which
two were used more often, sitting with wings
closed or half open, when disturbed from a
perch, it settled on another and from there
back to the first; only twice out of 7-8 times
did it settle on a third perch. When another
male of the same species approached this patch,
it was immediately chased away.

This butterfly can be easily confused with
the Straight Banded Tree Browns and Dark
Judy but can be distinguished by white patches
near the apex.

One was seen feeding from a vessel con-
taining few cooked rice grains.

10. Lethe insana (Kollar). Common Forester;
S.

One specimen collected from near Sankalang
bridge during November.

1 1 . Lethe sinorix (Hewitson). Tailed Red
Forester; NC.

Seen only in N. Sikkim. Usually near Sang-
kalang bridge sitting on dry grassy patches
on mud banks along the road in cultivated
patches.

12. Lethe verm a (Kollar). Straight Banded
Free Brown; S.

Spotted two specimens — one near Bakkhim,
feeding on moist earth, and the other near
Pashingdang which was collected.

13. Lethe siderea Marshall. Scarce Wood
Brown; S.

Only one specimen was observed near a
stream between Bakkhim and Yoksum.

14. Lethe sidonis (Hewitson). Common Wood
Brown; NC.

Encountered only in W. Sikkim between
1800 m - 3050 m, usually on moist earth.

15. Lethe haladeva (Moore). Treble Silver-
stripe.

Two specimens seen — one at Gangtok on
a Eupatorium leaf, the other near Mangan.

16. Orinoma damaria Gray. Tiger Brown; S.
One specimen was caught in Singhik.

17. Aulocera saraswati (Kollar). Striated
Satyr; S.

A single butterfly seen in the evening near
Ryngym monastery above Mangan on moist
earth. When disturbed it flew into the valley
below.

1 8 . Ypthima haldus (Fabricius). Common Five-
ring; LC.

Locally common in cardamom plantations at
Mangan, often seen basking in the sun till late
afternoon.

19. Ypthima sakra Moore. Himalayan Five-
ring; VC.

One of the most common butterflies, seen up
to 2500 m; very restless, shows strong territo-
rial behaviour, chases away members of its
own species, often seen basking in the early
mornings. Feeds on nectar of Anaphalis sp.

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

20. Melaititb Seda ssrnene (Cramer). Common
Evening Brown; LC.

Locally common in thick wooded areas of
Gangtok. One specimen was seen at Singtam.
It was very common in the orchid sanctuary
at Gangtok.

21. Meianitis ziteiiius (Herbst). Great Evening
Brown; LC.

Two specimens were seen (wet season form)
at the orchid sanctuary on dry leaves.

22. Elymnias malelas (Hewitson) Spotted
Palmfly; S.

A pair was seen near Tashiding monastery,
chasing each other. They often settled on a
banana leaf which is the food plant for the
larvae of these butterflies; they may have been
a courting pair.

23. Elymnias nesaea (Linnaeus). Tiger Palm-
fly; S.

One specimen was caught in the jeep radia-
tor while it was crossing the road during the
drive from Rangpo to Singtam.

Fam, Nymphalidae

24. Eriboea athamas (Drury). Common
Nawab; S.

A single specimen was seen at Rangpo,
feeding on flowers.

25. Eriboea arja (Felder). Pallid Nawab; NC.
One seen near Sangkalang bridge feeding

on moist earth, and another at Ryngbum bridge
on the banks of the Teesta. Also one near
Gangtok.

26. Apatura pari satis Westwood. Black Prince;
LC.

Locally common near Manul power station.
Ryngbum bridge & Sangkalang. One of our

team members licked his fingers after eating
a piece of cake and this butterfly settled on
the finger to feed on the saliva. This butterfly
seemed to be very bold.

27. Sephisa chandra (Moore). Eastern Cour-
tier; S.

Two males were caught in Sangkalang area.

28. Hestina nama (Doubleday). Circe; NC.
Caught three specimens from Manul and

Singhik region. NDM & party found it to be
very common in both W. & N. Sikkim.

29. Stibochiona nicea (Grey). Popinjay; VC.
Noted as one of the commonest butterflies

in cardamom plantations at Mangan and
Pashingdang, this was not seen in W. Sikkim
by MMH, but NDM saw several at Legship
in November. They are very wary when ap-
proached. flying as far as 20 to 30 m. They
fly close to the ground (3-5 m), seen basking
in the mornings on cardamom leaves, with
wings partially or fully open.

30. Euthalia julit (Bougainville). Common
Earl; VC.

One of the common butterflies in cardamom
plantations of N. Sikkim, particularly Mangan
and Pashingdang areas, in November. Only
males were seen by MMH. NDM saw both
sexes at Legship and Gangtok. They often
sit with wings fully or partially open and show
strong territorial behaviour.

31. Euthalia garuda (Moore). Common
Baron; LC.

Only one male was seen near Pashingdang
by MMH. Common in Singtam, feeding on
fruits in the bazar (NDM).

32. Limenitis procris (Cramer). Commander;
LC.

Locally common in Mangan and Manul

274

THE BUTTERFLIES OF SIKKIM

areas, often seen basking in the sun; they are
very wary on closer approach and feed on
marigold and Poincettia flowers.

33. Pantoporia selenophora (Kollar). Staff
sergeant; LC.

Locally common near Tholung bridge. Eight
males were seen on a dry stream bed; all
seemed to have freshly emerged.

34. Pantoporia zeroca (Moore). Small Staff

Sergeant; LC.

Locally common at Tholung Bridge. Four
males seen basking in the early morning sun.

35. Pantoporia opalina (Kollar). Himalayan

Sergeant; NC.

Seen near Tashiding monastery and Mangan
up to 2000 m., feeding on flowers of Mentha
spp. One of the specimens was very badly
tattered.

36. Pantoporia perius (Linnaeus). Common

Sergent; S.

One badly tattered specimen was seen on
the road at Mangan.

37. Neptis mahendra (Moore). Himalayan

Sailer; C.

Common upto 2000 m. in both W. & N.
Sikkim, seen feeding on Anaphalis spp. &
marigold flowers.

38 . Neptis hylas (Moore). Common Sailer;
NC.

Seen at Gangtok, but not as frequently as
N. mahendra, seen feeding on Anaphalis spp.
and Ce strum spp. flowers.

39. Neptis soma (Moore). Sullied Sailer; S.

A single specimen was seen at Gangtok,

feeding on Anaphalis flowers.

40. Neptis ananta (Moore). Yellow Sailer.

A single specimen was seen basking at Manul.

41. Neptis viraja (Moore). Yellow Jack Sailer;
S.

Two specimens seen in Mangan area.

42. Neptis hordonia (Stoll) Common Lascar;
S.

A mating pair was observed late in the
evening sitting on a creeper by the roadside.

43. Cyrestis thyodamas Boisduval. Common
map; S.

A single specimen was seen sitting on a
bamboo plant near Ryngym monastery above
Magan. It often flew down to the ground and
went back to the same perch.

44. Pseudergolis wedah (Kollar). Tabby; LC.
Locally common between Manul and Nanga

bridge along the road, particularly common
at Nanga bridge where 10-12 butterflies were
seen on the road, sitting with their wings open.
Not seen by NDM.

45. Hypolimans missipus (Linnaeus). Danaid
Eggfly; S.

A single specimen was seen near Tashiding
monastery.

46. DoleschaOia bisaltide (Cramer). Autumn
Leaf; S.

One specimen collected while sitting on the
mud bank near Sangkalang bridge.

47. Kallima inachus (Boisduval). Orange
Oak-leaf; S.

Two specimens were seen, one at Sangka-
lang bridge, the other near Manul,

48. Precis hierta (Fabricius). Yellow pansy;
NC.

Seen at several places, mostly in open grassy
patches near villages and towns.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

49. Precis orithyia (Linnaeus). Blue Pansy; C.
Common on grassy patches at Gangtok,

Tashiding and Ryngym monastery.

50. Precis aSmana (Linnaeus). Peacock Pansy;
NC.

Collected a very tattered specimen from
Sangkalang. Several others were seen by NDM
around Tashiding.

51. Precis iemonias (Linnaeus). Lemon Pansy;
S.

A single specimen was collected from
Tashiding.

52. Premis iphita (Cramer). Chocolate Pansy;
LC.

Locally common near Ryngbum bridge, seen
feeding on Compositae flowers.

53. Vanessa indica (Herbst). Indian Red
Admiral; C.

Common up to 2200 m. in most of the
places. Mostly seen on grassy patches sitting
with wings open. This butterfly was once seen
being chased by an Indian Tortoise Shell.

54. Aglais (Vanessa) cashmirensis (Kollar).
Indian Tortoise Shell; VC.

Very common in W. Sikkim, from 950 m.
to 3500 m. but less common in N. Sikkim.
It has the largest altitudinal range; specimens
were seen even in the snow at Dzongri. Seen
feeding on Anaphalis spp., poincettia and buck-
wheat flowers. Often sits with wings open shows
strong territorial behaviour and is an aggres-
sive butterfly. It once attacked a Common
Silverstripe, Common Jester, Red admiral and
a bee in about 20-25 minutes, outside Tashi-
ding monastery.

55. Symbrenthia hippoclus de Niceville. Com-
mon Jester; VC.

Very common up to 2500 m., often basking

in the sun. Habits were very similar to those
of the sailers.

56. Symbrenthia hypselis (Godart). Himalayan
Jester; NC.

Two specimens were collected, one from
orchid sanctuary late in the evening, the other
from Nanga bridge. Several others were photo-
graphed by NDM near Yoksum.

57. Argynnis hyperbius (Johanssen). Indian
Fritillary; C.

Seen in both N. & W. Sikkim up to 2000 m.
Males were more common, seen feeding on
marigold and Gynura flowers and also observ-
ed sitting on nettles.

58. Argynnis childerni Gray. Large Silver-
stripe; NC.

Only four specimens were observed in W.
Sikkim up to Yoksum (2200 m.). Feeds on
Gynura and marigold flowers.

59. Fabriciana kamala Moore. Eastern Silver-
stripe; S.

A single specimen was encountered at
Gevzing, feeding on Gynura flowers.

60. Issoria lafhonia (Linnaeus). Queen of Spain
Fritillary; NC.

Seen only in W. Sikkim up to 3000 m., but
not common. Feeds on buckwheat flowers &
Anaphalis flowers.

61. Cirrochroa aoris Doubleday. Large Yeo-
man; S.

A single dead specimen was collected from
Mangan and a wary live specimen was seen
at Tashiding.

62. Cethosia biblis (Drury). Red Lacewing; C.
One of the common butterflies seen up to

2000 m., but more common between 900 m-

276

THE BUTTERFLIES OF SIKKIM

1500 m, seen feeding on Anaphalis, polygonum
and some Compositae flowers, also on dry
human faeces. Usually shy, it does not go very
far when disturbed and sits with wings closed.

Fam. Acraeidae

63. Acraea issoria (Hubner). Yellow Coster;
LC.

Common in N. and W. Sikkim. Both sexes
seen feeding on moist earth and Anaphalis
flowers. A congregation of about 50 butter-
flies was seen around a bush near Tarku and
at Geyzing.

64. Acraea violaea (Fabricius). Tawny
Coster; LC.

Observed on the way from Tashiding to
Legship about 100 specimens were feeding on
a flowering plant in May by NDM.

Fam. Erycinidae

65. Zemeros flegyas Cramer — Punchinello;
VC.

A very common butterfly up to 2500 m.,
generally sits with wings fully or partially
closed on stones or dry leaves, sometimes seen
basking in the early mornings. Very slow in
flight, it does not fly far when disturbed; quite
often sits in the shade.

66. Dodona durga (Kollar). Common Punch;
LC.

Locally common beyond Yoksum near
streams, often basking on rocks with fully
opened wings.

67. Dodona eugenes (Bates). Tailed Punch;
LC.

Locally common between Yoksum and
Bakkhim along the streams.

68. Dodona egeon (Doubleday). Orange
Punch; S.

Two specimens were seen, one at Gangtok

near tourist lodge, on Eupatorium bush, the
other at Mangan.

69. Dodona ouida (Moore). Mixed Punch; S.
One male was seen at Gangtok.

70. Dodona adonira Hewitson. Striped Punch;
S.

One specimen collected from Mangan, an-
other seen by NDM near Bakkhim in May.

71. Abisara fylla (Doubleday). Dark Judy; C.
Quite common in W. Sikkim but not seen

in N. Sikkim. Occurs between 1400-2200 m
usually sitting on the underside of leaves —
particularly nettles, with wings partially closed.
On an early morning, about 5-6 butterflies
were seen at Yoksum basking on the upper
surface of Eupatorium leaves with wings fully
open.

72. Abisara neophron (Hewitson). Tailed
Judy; S.

One specimen was seen near Manul power
station, and another was collected from Nanga
bridge, one more specimen was seen in the
Orchid Sanctuary, Gangtok.

Fam. Lycaenidae

73. Poritia hewitsons Moore. Common Gem;
S.

One dead specimen was collected from
Sangkalang bridge.

74. Celastrina spp. Hedge Blue; C.

Hedge Blues were fairly common up to
2000 m., but it was rather difficult to distin-
guish any one specifically. One specimen,
collected from Tashiding, was identified as
C, puspa.

75. Zizeeria knysna lysimon Moore. Dark
Grass Blue; C.

Seen at several places, feeding on buckwheat,

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

marigold and other Compositae flowers.

76. Jain ides aSecto Fruh. Metallic Cerulean;
LC.

Locally common in Sangkalang and Mangan
areas but not seen elsewhere; feeding on Com-
positae flowers and cultivated garden flowers.
One butterfly was observed being eaten by a
robber fly.

77. Heliophorus brahma Moore. Golden
Sapphire; S.

Seen only in W. Sikkim around open culti-
vated areas of Yoksum.

78. Heliophorus androcies Moore. Green
Sapphire; NC.

Seen above Yoksum up to 2500 m on the
way to Bakkhim, in open forest glades, near
stream in November and May.

79. Heliophorus epicles Fruh. Purple Sapphire;
VC.

Seen between 1500-2200 m, feeding on buck-
wheat, Cestrurn, Anaphilas spp. and marigold
flowers.

80. Narathura sp. Oakblue; S.

A single specimen was seen in the early
morning at Singhik basking on a grassy patch.

81 . Cheritra freja (Fabricius). Common
Imperial; S.

Only one specimen was seen near Manul
power station, basking on the broad leaf of
a tree 6 m. above the ground.

82. Catapoecilma elegans (Druce). Common
Tinsel; S.

A very fast flying butterfly, seen basking on
rocks below Tashiding in May.

Fam. Papilionidae

83. Princeps mem non Linnaeus. Great Mor-
mon; C.

Often seen on the route from Tarku to

Singtam and from Gangtok to Teesta Bazar,
feeding on flowers of poincettia. Six different
forms are known to occur in Sikkim (Talbot,
1939).

84. Princeps polyctor Boisduval. Common
Peacock; C.

Common in wooded country and open areas
up to 1500 m. While driving often seen cross-
ing the road. Feeds on nectar of poincettia
and marigold. A very fast flier, hardly sits on
a flower for more than a second.

85. Princeps paris Linnaeus. Paris peacock; S.
Seen only twice. One seen at Sangkalang,

and the other collected from Geyzing.

86. Princeps polytes romulus Cramer. Com-
mon Mormon; S.

A single specimen was seen near Sangkalang
bridge on the Teesta river.

87. Princeps helenus Linnaeus. Red Helen; C.
Common near Singtam, Mangan, Sanklang

and on the way from Gangtok to Singtam in
forested areas. Found only at lower altitudes
up to 1800 m.

88. Graphiuni sarpedon C. P. Felder. Common
Blue bottle.

A single specimen seen at Ryngbum bridge.

89. Graphium agamemnoit L. Tailed Jay; S.
One seen flying at Sangkalang, and a dead

specimen found at Pashingdang.

Fam. Pieridab

90. Delias aglaia (Linnaeus). Red-base Jeze-
bel; NC.

One specimen seen feeding on Himalayan
cherry flowers at Mangan, and a dead speci-
men collected from Singhik.

278

THE BUTTERFLIES OF SIKKIM

91 . Delias acalis (Godart). Red-Breast Jezebel.
One specimen was photographed at Tashi-

dirig by NDM while in flight, and another was
seen on Himalayan cherry flowers in Novem-
ber.

92. Delias descomfoesi Boisduval, Red-spot
Jezebel; C.

A fairly common Jezebel around human
habitations and open areas; seen feeding on
Himalayan cherry flowers, and feeding on Lan-
tana flowers. While we watched a butterfly on
a lantana bush it was suddenly grabbed by
a praying mantis waiting camouflaged in the
bush. We could not wait long enough to
watch it feed on the butterfly and hence col-
lected both the specimens, but the mantis
escaped on the way.

93. Delias eucbaris (Drury). Common Jezebel;
S.

One specimen seen feeding on Himalayan
cherry blossoms at Gangtok.

94. Appias pandione (Greyer). Spot puffin;
LC.

Locally common at Sangkalang, otherwise
seen only occasionally. It was seen up to 3000
m with other whites.

95. Appias indra (Moore). Plain Puffin

A single specimen was caught at Sangkalang.

96. Pieris canidia (Sparrman). Indian Cabbage
White; C.

Common, up to 3100 m, seen feeding on
Anaphalis, Polygonum and other flowers.

97. Pieris brassieae nepa!ensi§ Doubleday.
Large Cabbage White; NC.

Seen up to 3100 m, feeding on buckwheat
flowers.

98. Mas pyrene (Linnaeus). Yellow Orange
Tip; S.

Two specimens seen flying, one near Singtam,
the other at Gangtok.

99. Hebomola glauclppe (Linnaeus). Great
Orange Tip; S.

A single butterfly seen flying across the road
near Singtam.

1 00. Eurema sari soda Sis (Moore). Chocolate
Grass Yellow; S.

Seen on the way to Bakkhim from Yoksum,
feeding on moist earth. Collected two speci-
mens.

101. Eerema hecabe (Linnaeus). The Common
Yellow; C.

Seen up to 2200 m, mostly in open areas.
Near Sangkalang bridge about 50 butterflies
were observed feeding on moist earth.

Fam. Hesperidae

102. Coladeeia spp. Pied flat; S.

A single specimen was seen below Tashiding
monastery in a fairly wooded patch.

103. Caprona ransonnettl (Felder). The Golden
Angle; S.

Two specimens were seen, one at Tashiding,
the other at Manul.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to BNHS and WWF-India,
Western Region for sponsoring the study in
1980. We are also grateful to Sir Dorabji Tata
Trust for financial assistance. We are indebted
to Fish & Wildlife Department of Sikkim Govt.,
for making all the arrangements during our
stay, without their help the trip would have
been difficult.

279

3

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

References

Elwes, H. J. ( 1 882) : On a collection of butter-
flies from Sikkim. Proc. ZooL Soc. London : 398-407.

— (1882): Descriptions of some new

Lepidoptera from Sikkim, ibid: 444-447.

Elwes, H. J. & Moller (1888): A collection of
the Lepidopte?a of Sikkim. Tran. Ent. Soc. London :
269-465.

De Niceville, L. (1881): A list of butterflies
taken in Sikkim in 1880 with notes on habits etc.
J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 2 (ii) : 49-60.

(1881) : Second list of butter-
flies taken in Sikkim in October, 1882 with notes
on habits etc. ibid. 2(ii) : 54-66.

(1881) : Third list of butter-
flies taken in Sikkim, ibid. 2(ii) : 92-110.

Evans, W. H. (1932) : An aid to identification
of Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay.

Talbot, C. (1939): Fauna of British India, in-
cluding Ceylon and Burma. Butterflies Vol. 1. Re-
print Today & Tomorrow Publications.

(1939): ibid. Butterflies Vol. 2.

Wynter-Blyth, M. A. (1957): Butterflies of the
Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay.

280

IMMOBILIZATION AND TRANSLOCATION OF NILGAI
IN INDIA USING CARFENTANIL1

J. B, Sale2, A. W. Franzmann3, K. K. Bhattacharjee2, S. Choudhury2

This paper describes the capture and translocation, over approximately 7 km
distance, of 14 nilgai ( Boselaphus tragocamelus ) at Bhatinda, Punjab. A mixture of
carfentanil (2-5 mg/animal) and acepromazine (20-50 mg/animal) was used for drug
immobilization, mainly conducted at night using a powerful spotlight from a jeep.
Carfentanil was reversed using either naloxone (25-66 mg/mg carfentanil) or dipre-
norphine (10 mg/mg carfentanil). Mean induction time was 4.1 min. and reversal
time 6.6 min. The drug mixture used was useful for immobilizing nilgai, primarily
due to the short induction time. Standard body measurements of immobilized animals
are reported.

Introduction

A population of approximately 50 nilgai or
“bluebull” ( Boselaphus tragocamelus) were
enclosed by a fence in a 450 ha disused ammu-
nition depot at Bhatinda Cantonment, Punjab,
The commander of the depot wanted to move
the nilgai population to a new depot 7 km
from the old site. For this task the Wildlife
Institute of India (WII) was asked for tech-
nical advice and assistance during April, 1985.

The topography in the enclosure was gently
rolling to flat and covered with scattered scrub
jungle, with a grass understory. This made it
possible to gain access to most of the area by
4x4 vehicle.

The capture method selected was chemical
immobilization. No published data were avail-
able for chemical immobilization of nilgai in
the wild. We chose the new experimental drug
carfentanil based on reports from African
antelope (de Vos 1978) of relatively short
mean induction times for impala ( Aepyceros
melampus ) of 4.9 min. (n=14), springbok

1 Accepted July 1986.

2 Wildlife Institute of India, P. O. New Forest,
Dehra Dun 248 006, India.

3 Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Box 3150,
Soldotna, Alaska 99669, U.S.A.

( Antidorcas marsupialis) of 4.9 min. (n=5),
and Greater Kudu ( Tragelaphus strepsiceros)
of 4.5 min, (n-2). Induction times of less
than 5 min. were also reported for cervids
such as elk ( Cervus elaphus) (Meuleman et
al 1984), moose ( Alces alces) (Franzmann
et al. 1984, Seal et al. 1985) and mule deer
( Odocoileus hemionus) (Jessup et al. 1984)
in North America,

This paper reports our experiences using
a carfentanil/acetylpromazine mixture to im-
mobilize nilgai, approaching animals for dart-
ing with spotlights, and use of naloxone and
diprenorphine as carfentanil antagonists. We
report basic measurements from captured
nilgai.

Material and Methods

Carfentanil is a piperadine derivative, with
morphine-like qualities but of higher potency.
In relation to the widely used immobilizing
drug etorphine hydrochloride (M 99, Lemmon
Co., Sellersville, PA, USA; Immobilon,
Rickett and Colman, Hull, U.K.), about half
the dosage of carfentanil is required (Franz-
mann et al 1984). The common etorphine
antagonists, diprenorphine hydrochloride (M50-
50, Lemmon Co., Sellersville, PA, USA; Revi-

281

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

von, Rickett and Colman, Hull, U.K.) and
naloxone hydrochloride (Naloxone — chemical
grade. Sigma Chemical, St, Louis MO, USA;
Narcan, Endo Laboratories, Garden City, NY,
USA) have been used to reverse the effects
of carfentanil. Jessup et ai (1984) reported
ideal reversal dosages for mule deer as 10 mg
diprenorphine or 50 mg naloxone for each mg
carfentanil administered. They also reported
using acetylpromazine maleate (Acepromazine,
Ayerst Laboratories Inc. NY, USA) as an
adjunct tranquilliser to potentiate and balance
the narcotic effect. We utilized both diprenor-
phine and naloxone as antagonist drugs and
acetylpromazine as an adjunct tranquillizer.

Carfentanil was supplied in 1 ml ampules,
containing 10 mg of drug. This concentration
was greater than needed and we prepared a
mixture containing 1 mg carfentanil and 10
mg acetylpromazine/ml. The drug combina-
tion was administered using 2, 3 and 4 ml
projectile darts fired from a powder-charged
gun (Distinject, Peter Ott Co., Basel, Switzer-
land) using the appropriate charges based
upon projectile size and distance fired.

An open jeep was used to approach the
animals and fire the dart. Another jeep and
an enclosed 4x4 vehicle were used as support
vehicles to assist in searching for immobilized
animals. This mode of approach worked for
the first nilgai, but thereafter the animals be-
came shy and we had to resort to use of hand-
held spotlights (12 volts; 200,000 to 300,000
candle power) to dazzle and shoot the animals
at night; from the vehicle. This worked suc-
cessfully for several nights but then the nilgai
again became wary and difficult to approach.
We ceased the operation when spotlighting was
no longer successful.

Once an animal was immobilized we check-
ed vital signs (heart rate, respiratory rate, body
temperature), checked for injuries, gave an
injection of tetracycline hydrochloride (Liqua-

mycin- LA, Pfizer & Co, NY, USA), removed
the dart, blindfolded the animal and called
in the translocating crew consisting of a detach-
ment of army personnel and a flat bed trunk
padded with straw covered by a tarpaulin. The
nilgai’s feet were tied together and then the
animal was loaded onto the truck with the
aid of two 8 cm wide 5 m lengths of webbing
used as a sling; one at the flank, the other
around the chest.

Measurements were made of body length
with tail, tail length, body length without tail,
shoulder height, chest girth and hind foot length
from all animals captured. Horn length and
circumference were recorded from male nilgai.
Estimates of body weight were made, based
on earlier work on nilgai.

The immobilized animals were transported
via road directly to the new ammunition
depot. 7 km from capture site. A veterinarian
accompanied each animal to monitor vital
signs and to administer the antagonist upon
arrival. At the new site the animal was lower-
ed to the ground, its legs untied, the blindfold
removed and the antagonist given on the basis
of total mg of carfentanil used for immobi-
lization.

Results

Fourteen nilgai (9 males, 5 females) were
translocated to the new site. Only the first
animal was captured during daytime, the re-
mainder were captured by the use of spotlights
at night, all by darts fired from a jeep. Immo-
bilization dosages /animal (Table 1) ranged
from 2 to 5 mg carfentanil (mean=3.2 mg)
and 20 to 50 mg acetylpromazine (mean -
32.6 mg). Immobilization dosages/kg body
weight (BW) ranged from 0.006 to 0.014
mg/kg. (mean-0.011). Induction times ranged
from 3 to 6 min. (mean=4.1) (Table 1).

282

IMMOBILIZATION AND TRANSLOCATION OF NILGAI

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283

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY , Vol. 85

Only one animal (No. 9) had a rise in
body temperature (40°C) that was potentially
problematic, but the animal was translocated
and did recover. Respiratory rates were record-
ed for only the first three animals, but were
monitored thereafter for only one animal vary-
ing significantly from the range of 12 to 20.
That animal (No. 11) had a drop in respira-
tory rate to 2/m in. and died soon thereafter.
This occurred during translocation and the
animal could not be reversed with the anta-
gonist drug in time.

Two mortalities occurred during transloca-
tion; one animal died due to bloat and subse-
quent toxic shock and heart failure, the other
due to respiratory failure. The animal that
bloated was a large male that, in retrospect,
was thought to have been slightly under-dosed
(2 mg carfentanil, 40 mg acetylpromazine). He
struggled during transport and had to be physi-
cally subdued making proper positioning on
the sternum difficult to maintain. Moreover,
the driver of the truck could not find his way
out of the depot and precious time (45 min.)
was added to the transport time. This proved
too long and the bloat could not be controlled.
The animal died a few minutes after arrival
at the release site. A subsequent post-mortem
examination substantiated the bloat/shock
syndrome.

The second translocation mortality was list-
ed as respiratory failure and. in retrospect,
the animal was thought to have been over-
dosed (5 mg carfentanil 50 mg acetylproma-
zine). The animal's respiratory rate prior to
loading was 8 /min. and during transport drop-
ped to 2/m in. Reviving the animal during
transport was not possible and an attempt was
made to get to the new site as soon as possible.
On arrival the animal had ceased breathing
and a large dose of the antagonist naloxone
(200 mg) was given intravenous but the ani-
mal did not recover.

During the capture operation, a few animals
that we darted were not found because of the
heavy cover and/or the animal was lost when
the group it was in scattered in different
directions. These factors were complicated by
the fact that all animals except one were cap-
tured at night. The exact number that escaped
after being darted was unknown because it was
not possible to know for sure if an animal
was darted. Nevertheless, we found two animals
dead at the captured site, both of which had
been darted. One was a young female that we
were fairly sure was darted but could not be
located. The other was a larger female that
had a dart still protruding from the dorsal
neck region. Apparently that animal was hit
by a dart meant for another animal in the herd.
Neither, of course, received the antagonist.
Both animals were in a state of putrefaction
and determining the cause of death by necropsy
was not feasible.

Immobilized nilgai assumed a position of
lateral recumbency and tended to kick and
struggle vigorously when attempts were made
to place them in sternal recumbency. It was
nearly impossible for the animals to remain
in sternal recumbency unaided.

We captured a majority of males because
they were more approachable than females,
particularly females with yearlings at their
side. Female groups also were larger which
often made approaches more difficult as one
animal in a group could precipitate flight of
all. Males seemed less concerned at approach,
and were often found as singles or in pairs. We
could have perhaps moved more males, but
much time was spent trying to translocate
females.

Measurements of nine male nilgai for body
length with tail ranged from 225 to 270 cm
(mean = 248. 6 cm). Tail length ranged from
45 to 73 cm (mean = 5 1.6 cm); body length
without tail ranged from 177 to 236 cm

284

IMMOBILIZATION AND TRANSLOCATION OF NILGAI

(mean = 200.3 cm); height at shoulder ranged
from 130 to 150 cm (mean = 173.8 cm, n = 8);
chest girth ranged from 132 to 176 (mean =
157 cm); hind foot ranged from 52 to 57 cm
(mean = 55.4 cm, n = 8); horn length ranged
from 16 to 23.5 cm (mean = 20.4 cm, n = 8);
and horn circumference ranged from 12 to 18
cm (mean = 16 cm, n = 8) (Table 2).

Measurements of five female nilgai for body
length with tail ranged from 188 to 236 cm
(mean = 219.6 cm); tail length ranged from
44 to 52 cm (mean = 47.8 cm); body length
without tail ranged from 143 to 192 cm (mean
= 171.8 cm); shoulder height ranged from 100
to 130 cm (mean = 116. 8 cm), chest girth
ranged from 106 to 132 cm (mean = 126 cm);
and hind foot length ranged from 40 to 53 cm
(mean = 47.4 cm) (Table 2).

Discussion

The carfentanil/acetylpromazine drug mix-
ture was useful for immobilizing nilgai, pri-
marily due to the short induction times (mean =
4.1 min.). This was particularly important in
this operation because capture was primarily
done at night, making follow-up of darted in-
dividuals more difficult. Another positive
attribute of the drug was its reversibility. We
were not completely pleased with the level of
narcosis because the animals still struggled and
kicked while down. We increased carfentanil
immobilizing doses and supplemented the dose
with additional carfentanil in four instances
(Table 1) to attain deeper narcosis. This was
successful in only one animal (No. 11). but
in this case the dosage was apparently exces-

Table 2

Measurements (cm) of nilgai ( Boselaphus tragocamehis) captured at Bhatinda, Punjab, India

(April, 1985)

Animal

number

Sex

Body length
with tail

Tail

length

Body

length

Shoulder

height

Chest

girth

Hind

foot

Horn

length

Horn

Circum.

1

M

225

45

180

130

153

52

22

17 ,

2

M

258

52

236

130

146

57

17

16 ,

3

M

270

52

218

162

18.5

17

4

F

188

45

143

118

132

40

5

F

215

52

163

100

130

53

6

M

260

73

187

148

160

56

22.5

16.8

7

M

225

48

177

134

154

54.5

23.5

18.0

8

F

229

51

178

130

132

51.0

9

M

235

45

190

135

164

56

10

F

236

44

192

122

130

48.6

11

M

240

45

195

146

166

54

22

17

12

M

257

51

206

134

132

54

16

14.5

13

F

230

47

183

114

106

45

14

M

267

53

214

150

176

60

22

12

Mean

M

248.6

51.6

200.3

173.8

157.0

55.4

20.4

16'

Mean

F

219.6

47.8

171.8

116.8

126.0

47.4

285

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

sive and the animal died. Supplemental
acetylpromazine in seven animals (Table 1)
did not appear to make the animals more
tractable. It was difficult to minimise external
disturbances (noise, activity, lights) which may
have affected the level of narcosis.

Both antagonists (naloxone, diprenorphine)
worked well. Only two animals were given
diprenorphine (20 mg IV, 10 mg IM) and
both were reversed in 5 min. In each animal,
10 mg diprenorphine was given for each mg
carfentanil administered. Naloxone dosages
varied from 25 to 66 mg for each mg carfen-
tanil administered. One animal (No. 6) was
renarcotized after the initial reversal. This
animal was apparently underdosed (25 mg
naloxone/mg carfentanil) but with an addi-
tional 100 mg naloxone IM the following day,
it got up and appeared normal. It was seen
for several days thereafter in apparent good
health. Six nilgai received 33 mg naloxone/
mg carfentanil and were reversed in from 4 to
10 min. Perhaps doses lower than this would
be adequate, but with the poor response of
the animal receiving 25 mg naloxone/mg car-
fentanil we were very close to the proper
minimum dose when we administered 33 mg
naloxone/mg carfentanil IV. Two animals
were given naloxone antagonist IM at a rate
of 50 and 55 mg/mg carfentanil. Both were
successfully reversed in 15 and 4 min., res-
pectively. Another animal received 1 00 mg
each IM and IV of naloxone (66 mg /nig car-
fentanil) and reversal time was 12 min. (Table
1). The antagonist worked intravenous and
intramuscular and in combination, but it was
much faster when given intravenous even with
a lower dosage rate.

Nightlighting to capture nilgai was success-
ful until the animals became conditioned to flee
and/or stay out of range. A possible reason for
this was that the spotlight used also illumi-
nated the surroundings, including the vehicle

and shooters. An adaptation to possibly correct
this would be to mount a tube on the light
that would concentrate the beam and prevent
spread of light in the adjacent area. The ope-
ration was also complicated by the number
of vehicles and spotlights deployed at one
time. However, it was necessary to have other
vehicles in the area to help locate the animals
after darting. Better control of their use during
the approach may improve capabilities in the
future.

We believe that for the most efficient use
of resources, we should use vehicle approach
and shoot until the animals become wary
(probably after two or three nights), and when
this occurs discontinue for a period of several
weeks. This may not be possible in all cases,
to capture the remainder of the animals in the
old ammunition depot at Bhatinda it was
recommended that this approach be tried.

Measurements (Table 2) were carried out
to establish base-line morphometric data for
free-ranging nilgai which are lacking. Unfor-
tunately weights and blood data were not
obtained but it is recommended that these
be obtained on subsequent operations.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Brigadier (now Major
General) Baljit Singh, VSM who initiated the
translocation of nilgai at Bhatinda and was
responsible for the overall logistic arrange-
ments, including generous hospitality for the
WII team. Colonel H. Bhasker enthusiastically
participated throughout the operation and was
of great help in providing on-the-spot coordi-
nation of the Indian Army contingent who
provided transport for the immobilized animals.
Colonel Rana also assisted considerably in a
number of ways. Numerous other military
personnel of all ranks gave untiring help; their

286

IMMOBILIZATION AND TRANSLOCATION OF NILGAI

efficient cooperation was very appreciated. A
special word of thanks is also due to FAO
driver Md. Adil who cheerfully undertook a

Refer

De Vos, V. (1978) : Immobilization of free-rang-
ing wild animals using a new drug. Vet. Rec. 103 :
64-68.

Franzmann, A. W., Schwartz, C. C., Johnson,
D. C., Faro, J. B. & Ballard, W. B. (1984): Im-
mobilizing moose with carfentanil. Alces 20: 259-
282.

Jessup, D. A., Clark, W. E. & Jones, K. R.
(1984): Immobilization of captive mule deer with

variety of tasks and was particularly skilled
in handling the immobilized animals prior to
transportation ;

ENCES

carfentanil. J. Zoo. Anim. Med. 15 (1) : 8-10.

Meuleman, T., Port, J. D., Stanley, T. H.,
Willard, K. F. & Kimball, J. (1984) : Immobili-
zation of elk and moose with carfentanil. J. Wildl.
Manage. 48(1): 259-262.

Seal, U. S., Schmitt, S. M. & Peterson, R. O.
(1985) : Carfentanil and xylazine for immobiliza-
tion of moose ( Alces alces) on Isle Royale. /. Wildl.
Dis. 27(1): 48-51.

287

FEEDING AND GROWTH OF HATCHLINGS OF
GAVIALIS GANGETICUS IN CAPTIVITY1

SUSHANT ChOWDHURY2
(With four text-figures)

Captive feeding and growth of hatchlings and yearlings of Gavialis gangeticus,
and effect of different seasons on these activities are described and discussed. At a
minimum water temperature 22.7°C, feeding diminished considerably but never ceased
in sub-tropical Indian climate. Hatchlings and yearlings grew during alt the three
seasons of monsoon, winter and spring-summer. Growth rate, however, was pro-
gressive only in monsoon and spring- summer. In hatchlings food consumption of
9.18% body weight/ week is considered roughly as the minimum quantum for regis-
tering positive growth. Growth pattern of hatchlings and yearlings are also presented

and discussed.

I NTRODU CTION

Food intake governs growth of animals. For
juvenile and adult crocodilians, food intake is
known to be dependent on temperature of the
ambient air (Joanen and McNease 1971,
Mcllhenny 1935, Pooley 1971). If this is
equally true for hatchlings and yearling, their
growth ought also to be dependent on tem-
perature. Availability of facilities for studying
growth of early stages of G. gangeticus prompt-
ed observations on the effect of temperature
on feeding and growth.

Material and Methods

A clutch of eggs collected in April, 1976,
from a nest laid on the bank of river Chambal
was brought for captive rearing to hatcheries
of the Crocodile Rehabilitation and Research
Centre, Kukrail, Lucknow. From 60 eggs 51
hatchlings were produced, between June 5 and
12, 1976, as 9 failed to hatch.

The hatchlings were kept in wooden crates
having 10-15 cm thick layer of damp sand,

1 Accepted February 1986.

2 Assistant, Director, Wildlife Institute of India,
P.O. New Forest, Dehra Dun - 248 006; U.P., India.

containing approximately 10% water by weight.
After 48 hours, when the yolk sac was absorb-
ed. 40 hatchlings were randomly divided into
four batches of 10, and each batch was
released into specially designed ponds (Bustard
1975). Each set comprised 10 ponds, arranged
in two rows of five, separated by wire mesh
(2 mm gauge) partitions, which material was
used for the roof also; each pond measured
2 m square and 33 cm in depth, with one
side sloping to zero. One-metre wide space
around the hatchling pond was covered with
sand, for basking of the young, and at the
periphery shady plants (tall fan-palm, Livi-
stona sp.) were planted for sheltering the shy
creatures and protecting them against the heat.
The hatchlings were fed on 2. 5-3.0 cm long,
live fish of eight species ( Chanda ranga, C.
natna, Channa punctatus , Chela laubuca, Labeo
bata, Puntius ticto, P. sophore, Rasbora dani-
conius) and on the freshwater prawn Macro -
brae hi uni lamarreii.

At 70-80 cm length, the 40 hatchlings were
released into two yearling ponds, of which
four in two rows of two comprised a set. Each
yearling pool was 4 m square and 1 m deep.
The basking area around these extended up to

288

FEEDING AND GROWTH OF HATCHLINGS OF GAVIALIS GANGETICUS

1.5 m and the shady plants were more
numerous. The yearlings were fed on 7.5-10.00
cm long, live fish of six species ( Channel pun-
ctatus, C. marulius, C. striatus, Labeo bata,
Catla catla and Rasbora daniconius) .

Owing to a time lag of 10-15 days between
release of hatchlings into the pond and their
settling down to regular feeding, experimen-
tation was started on July 1, 1976, with the
recording of the weight of 40 hatchlings at
10 hours. From then onwards each experi-
mental pond was stocked daily between 10-12
hours with a weighed quantity of live fish.

Weekly fish consumption was determined
from data recorded at the time of cleaning of
the ponds, undertaken every 3-4 days, when
uneaten dead and live fish were removed.
While the live fish were returned to the clean-
ed pond, the dead ones were weighed before
being discarded. Every week, each hatchling
was weighed and its total body length (TBL),
from tip of snout to tip of tail, measured.
From the weekly record of food consumption
of the 40 hatchlings and their biomass, the
mean weight of fish consumed per hatchling
per week was derived.

Air temperature, relative humidity and rain-
fall data were obtained from the meteorolo-
gical station at Amausi (Lucknow), approxi-
mately 20 km southwest of the Crocodile
Rehabilitation and Research Centre, and the
water temperature of the pools at a depth of
approximately 30 cm was recorded at 6 hours
and 16 hours.

Results

Parallel observations on food consumption
and growth were recorded for only one year,
from July, 1976 to June, 1977. For the next
two years 1977-79, only growth was recorded,
the reason being that sufficient quantities of
live fish could not always be procured, and

occasionally the yearling were fed on chopped
pieces of large fish, purchased alive from the
local market. Consequently, the amount of
food provided could not be recorded accu-
rately. Failure to sex even three-year old
gharial of 175 cm mean length thwarted re-
cording of data separately for each sex. In
contrast. Alligator mississippiensis hatchlings
even below six months old could be sexed
(Chabreck and Joanen 1979).

Seasonal food intake of hatchlings.

Due to their emergence at the end of
summer, the hatchlings immediately encounter
the monsoon. During the monsoon, from the
third week of June to the last week of Septem-
ber, the mean food consumption per hatchling
rose from 44.90 g to 110.60 g, and the mean
feeding intensity ranged from 27.61 to 33.24
percent body weight per week (Table 1). In
the first winter month of November, a striking
decrease over that recorded for October
occurred; in the three remaining winter months,
December to February, its level remained low
(Fig. 1). With the onset of spring in March,
food consumption rose, increased during April
and May, that for June being slightly lower
than for May.

The feeding activity was greatest between 15
and 16 h during monsoon, 12 to 13 h during
winter and 17 to 18 h during spring and
summer.

Correlation of feeding intensity with tem-
perature (Figs. 1, 2) shows that the hatchlings
fed vigorously during the four monsoon and
three summer months, when the temperature
ranged from 17.46° (in October) to 40.19°C
(in June). When, from November to February
the feeding intensity was low, the temperature
also was low; in March when it was mode-
rate, the temperature had also risen (Fig. 1).
From this, 17.46° to 40.19°C, emerges as the
optimum range for intensive feeding.

289

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Fig. 1. Temperature-food consumption relationship
of hatchlings from July, 1976 to June, 1977. Food
consumption (upper half) : M, monsoon; W, winter;
S, summer. Temperature (lower half) : maximum,
broken line; minimum, continuous line.

However, the maximum feeding during
summer months was recorded in May and not
in June (Table 1, Fig. 1). Perhaps greater
sluggishness resulting from heat stress, well
known in the tropics, reduced their food in-
take in the hottest and driest month of June,
Consequently, the mean May temperature
(37.70°C), and not that of June (40.19°C),
is regarded as the upper limit of the optimum
range, making it 17.46°C to 37.7°C.

The wider range and lower mean of per-
centage feeding intensity for August than for
July and September (Table 1, Fig. 1) is note-
worthy. During August, the rainfall is highest
and the sky variable, from heavily overcast
to patchily cloudy. Consequently, greater and
sudden temperature fluctuations are caused
and the day temperature is generally lower due

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290

FEEDING AND GROWTH OF HATCHLINGS OF GAVIALIS GANGETICUS

to high humidity. The feeding intensity is
thereby believed to be affected more than it
is during the less variable months of July and
September; hence the wider range and lower
mean for August.

Growth rate and feeding of hatchlings.

During the monsoon months, the mean
weight and length of the hatchlings increased,
the weight increase from 118.36 g to 393.22 g
being progressive, the length increase from
36.94 cm to 63.14 cm not being regular
(Table 1). In the first winter month (Nov-
ember) also an increase occurred; but in
weight and not in length, being even greater
than the increase recorded for October. During
the two coolest months of December and Janu-
ary the mean weight (457.50 g and 455.23 g
respectively) and length (65.42 cm and 65.33
cm respectively) was lower than that in Nov-
ember. But in February, the last winter month,
an increase over that in January occurred
raising both the weight (479.98 g) and length
(65.51 cm). Despite negative growth in Dec-
ember and January, during the winter the
mean weight and length increased by 86.76 g
and 2.37 cm respectively (Tables 3,4). There-
after, during spring (March) and summer
(April to June) both the weight and length
increased progressively. Over a period of 12
months, the mean weight and length per
hatchling increased respectively by 1768.24 g
and 59.96 cm (Tables 3, 4); the percent
seasonal increase is given in the Tables and
shown in fig. 4.

Correlation of growth with feeding intensity
(Fig. 2) shows considerable growth of the
hatchlings during 7-8 months of vigorous feed-
ing and, despite the low mean feeding inten-
sity, in November also. Of the remaining four
months, growth was negative in December and
January when feeding intensity was low; it
was slight in February, moderate in March

when respectively the feeding intensity was
slight and moderate.

Growth of yearlings.

During twelve months, the first year yearlings
increased in mean weight and length by 4.86
kg and 48.73 cm, and the second year year-
lings by 8.60 kg and 29.90 cm respectively
(Tables 2, 3, 4). The increase in first year
yearlings was progressive during monsoon
(July to October) and spring-summer (March
to June); in the intervening winter, November
to February, the very slight increase in weight
was progressive but the slight increase in
length was not, because of a mean loss of 0.10
cm in December.

The second year juveniles increased pro-
gressively in mean weight during monsoon
and spring-summer. In winter, a slight loss
occurred in January and February; this is not
normal because adequate quantities of fish
could not be supplied and they probably
metabolized the endogenous food reserve. Their
length kept increasing progressively during
monsoon and winter; but not during March
(spring) as, despite a mean weight gain of
0.10 kg, a mean loss of 1.41 cm occurred.
No explanation can be offered at present for
this unexpected loss.

Growth rate and ratio of hatchlings

and yearlings.

The annual growth rate (Tables 1, 2; Fig. 3)
and growth ratio (Tables 3, 4) of hatchlings
indicate an approximate increase by 16 times
in weight and 2\ times in length; for first-year
yearlings these increases are approximately
3 1 and Ij times respectively and for second
year juveniles 2\ and \\ times respectively.

Consideration of seasonal growth, as such
and as % of annual growth (Tables 3, 4) of
the hatchlings and yearlings shows weight gain
in successive pre-winter seasons to increase

291

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Table 2

Mean monthly

GROWTH PER

YEARLING FROM JULY,

1977 to June,

1979

Months

1977-78,

1st year yearling

1978-79, 2nd year yearling

seasons

Mean weight
kg

Mean length
cm

Mean weight
kg

Mean length
cm

July 1

1.89

96.90

6.74

145.63

July

2.23

102.88

8.33

145.67

August

2.53

105.83

9.22

152.40

Monsoon

September

3.14

113.36

9.94

153.10

October

3.24

114.54

10.08

154.67

November

3.74

115.82

11.37

155.75

December

3.75

115.72 (-0.10)

11.48

155.76

Winter

January

3.79

116.42

11.36 (-0.12)

156.40

February

3.80

116.48

11.20 (-0.16)

159.10

Spring

March

3.93

117.95

11.30

157.69 (-1.41)

April

4.87

118.52

13.23

160.76

Slimmer

May

6.10

130.72

13.65

166.69

June 30

6,74

145.63

15.34

175.53

and that in post-winter seasons to decrease
concomitantly (Fig. 4). Length increment
shows an opposite trend.

Discussion

The natural diet of G. gangeticus hatchlings
and yearlings being unknown, they were fed
on fish because their elongated snout with
marginal teeth is an obvious adaptation for
catching fish.

There appears to be no information on
seasonal feeding activity and on growth,
especially relative to food consumption, for
crocodilian hatchlings. Even for adult croco-
dilians, only the seasonal feeding activity has
been studied (Cott 1961, Joanen and McNease
1971), the other area having remained un-
investigated.

Hatchlings of G. gangeticus never ceased
feeding in the first twelve months; only their
food intake diminished greatly during winter

months, showing a decrease in natural appetite
with low temperature.

In contrast, captive yearlings and adults of
A. mississippiensis in Louisiana, U.S.A. ceased
feeding when water temperature was 60 °F
(=15.6°C) or less and air temperature 54°F
(~12.2°C) or below, with the feeding spell
extending for about eight months from mid-
October till March (Joanen and McNease 1971).
Field observations on juvenile and adult A.
mississippiensis indicated feeding curtailment
during periods of seasonally low temperature
( Mclihenny 1935). The crocodile, C. niloticus,
also refused food when air and water tempe-
ratures fell below 60°F (=15.6°C) (Pooley
1971). At the Kukrail rearing centre, the mini-
mum water temperature during winter months
being 22.7°C (January), was always conside-
rably higher than 15.6°C, at and below which
A. mississippiensis and C. niloticus ceased
feeding. Consequently, non-cessation of feed-
ing by G. gangeticus hatchlings during the

292

FEEDING AND GROWTH OF HATCHLINGS OF GAMALIS GANGETICUS

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from July, 1976 to June, 1977.

entire winter can be attributed to a milder
winter in U.P. in subtropical India.

The hatchlings and yearlings grew during
all the three seasons, monsoon, winter and
spring-summer. Their growth during the eight
months of monsoon and spring-summer was
progressive and positive; during one or two
winter months a slight loss in weight and in
length did occur due, obviously, to meta-
bolism of reserve food. However, being slight,
the negative growth was offset by the total
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clement season. Since in February, the mean
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length registered slight increase, this quantity
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However, what is not clear is the increase
in length and weight of the hatchlings in
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9.45% body weight per week. A possible
explanation is the reduced rate of metabolism,
due to the cold, which permitted mobilization
of all ingested food into endogenous reserve.

The closest parallel study on growth of
newly hatched young is on A. mississippiensis
hatchlings, produced in the second week of

293

Weight kg

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY / Vol. 85

Fig. 3. Weight-length relationship of hatchlings and yearlings from July, 1976 to
June, 1979. M, monsoon; W, winter; S, summer; TBL. Total body length.

September to spring (March) 19 cm and in
the next six months, March to September, 50
cm were added to the length of the hatchlings.
This unequal growth is due to their arrival
in September and passing of earlier life in
inclement season, unfavourable for growth.

In contrast to those of the American
alligator, the hatchlings of G. gangeticus are
produced in June, about 2^ to 3 months

294

September (Coulson et al. 1973) or in the
third week, as determined from data of Good-
win & Marion (1978). According to Figure 2
(Coulson et al. 1973), the newly hatched
alligator hatchlings were approximately 23 cm
in mean length. They grew 69 cm in the first,
and 41 cm in the second, twelve months,
attaining respectively a mean length of 92 cm
and 133 cm (Table 4). In the first six months.

increase

FEEDING AND GROWTH OF HATCHLINGS OF GAVIALIS GANGETICUS

Fig. 4. Seasonal increase in length and weight of
young for three consecutive years, from July, 1976
to June, 1979. H, hatchlings; Yt and Y2, first and
second year juveniles. M, monsoon; W, winter;

S, summer.

earlier and are longer in mean length (36.94
cm). Incidentally, this mean length agrees
well with 375 mm given for newly emerged
gharial hatchlings (Smith 1931), but March/
April, the given months of egg hatching are
widely different. In their first twelve months,
they increased slightly less (59.96 cm) than
hatchlings of A. mississippiensis, yet they
attained almost the same mean length (96.90
cm) as of the latter (92.00 cm). A break-up
of this twelve-month growth shows an almost
equal increment before (26.20 cm) and after
(31.30 cm) winter. This is due to their arrival
well before the winter, so that an equally
long and favourable pre-winter period as the

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Table 4

Mean seasonal growth in length per hatchling and yearling from July, 1976 to June, 1979

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

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296.

FEEDING AND GROWTH OF HATCHLINGS OF GAV1ALIS GANGETICUS

post-winter period, was available for feeding
and growth.

Features of early growth worthy of note
are: (1) maximum growth in the first year,
(2) much lower weight gain in second rela-
tive to first year, and (3) increase in weight
gain in pre-winter season and the concomitant
decrease in post-winter season.

As in G. gangeticus, the two year data of
Coulson et al. (1973) on A. mississippiensis
also indicates greater growth in the first year
of the alligator’s life and the length ratio
for the first and second years to be 1:4.0
and 1: 1.44 (Table 4). Comparison of the
corresponding ratios (1:2.51 and 1:1.50) of
the gharial shows that for the first year to be
considerably lower. Yet the hatchlings of both

had an almost equal mean length after twelve
months (Table 4). This is due to the greater
mean length of gharial hatchlings at birth.

Comparison of the other two features was
not possible due to lack of corresponding data
for other crocodilians.

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by Wildlife
Preservation Organization of Uttar Pradesh,
Forest Department, I thank Dr. H. R. Bustard,
ex-Crocodile Consultant to the Government of
India, UNDP/FAO and Dr. B. K. Tandon,
ex-Professor and Head, Department of Zoo-
logy, Lucknow University, Lucknow for their
critical evaluation of the manuscript.

References

Bustard, H. R. (1975): Gharial and Crocodile
conservation management in Orissa. Food and Agri-
culture Organization, Rome, pp. 1-15.

Chabreck, R. H. & Joanen, T. (1979) : Growth
rate of American alligators in Louisiana. Her pet o-
logica 35: 51-57.

Coulson, T. D., Coulson, R. A. & Hernandez,
T. (1973) : Some observations on the growth of
captive alligators. Zoologica 58: 47-52.

Cott, H. B. (1961): Scientific result of an in-
quiry into the ecology and economic status of the
Nile crocodile Crocodilus niloticus in Uganda and
Northern Rhodesia. Trans. Zool. Soc. London 29:
211-356.

Joanen, T. & Mcnease, L. (1971) : Propagation
of the American alligator in captivity. Proceedings
of Southeastern Association Game and Fish Com-
mission 25: 106-116.

McIlhenny, E. A. (1935): The alligator’s life
history. The Christopher Publication House, Boston.

Pooley, A. C. (1971): Crocodile rearing and re-
stocking. International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources 32: 104-130.

Smith, M. A. (1931): The fauna of British India
including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia.
I. Taylor and Francis, London.

297

BIOLOGICAL NOTES ON TWO SPECIES OF BIG-EYED
BUGS (INSECTA : HEMIPTERA : LYGAEIDAE :
GEOCORINAE)1

Ananda Mukhopadhyay2

( With seventeen text -figures)

Some aspects of bioecology like occurrence, mating behaviour, fecundity and post-
embryonic development, with nymphal description of two species of Geocoris, G.
pseudolituratiis Mukhopadhyay and Ghosh and G. bengalensis Mukhopadhyay and
Ghosh are described.

I n trod u ctio n

Big-eyed bugs, Geocoris spp. are in general
omnivorous predators; their predation is often
supplemented with feeding on plants (phyto-
phagy) and dead organisms (necrophagy).
Such a food habit has endowed these bugs to
become natural controlling agents and serve
as an important tool for biological control by
voraciously appropriating a large number of
insect pests. Although such bugs have received
much attention in formulating pest manage-
ment strategies in developed countries, in
India the biology and ecology of a large num-
ber of these big-eyed bugs are yet to be studied
and their role . as natural controlling agent
of the pests is to be ascertained; this
paper presents some bioecological aspects
like occurrence, courtship and mating beha-
viour, fecundity, and stage of post-embryonic
development of the two species, G. pseudolitu-
ratus and G. bengalensis from two different,
herbage and litter habitats, respectively.

The members of the genus Geocoris Fallen
are easily recognized by elliptical profile with
nonstalked kidney-shaped big eyes, ventral
position of the last three abdominal spiracles

1 Accepted January 1985.

2 Department of Zoology, University of North
Bengal, Raja Rammohunpur, Dt. Darjeeling, West
Bengal, India, 734 430.

and absence of the claval commissure of the
wings.

Sweet (1960) established geocorines as
predatory. Their phytophagic habit was ac-
counted by York (1964) for supplemental
moisture getting, by Stoner (1970) for com-
plete nourishment, and by Dunbar and Bacon
(1972) for better reproductive success, and in
this act causing only a little harm to plants
(Dunbar 1971). Tamaki (1972) studied the
biological and ecological aspects of G. pallens
Stal and G. bullatus (Say) while Crocker and
Whitcomb (1980) added notes on the feed-
ing niches of the latter and of two more
species, G. pnnetipes (Say) and G. uliginosus
(Say). In India, most of the bioecological re-
ports on geocorines are confined to the com-
monly available species, namely G. jucundus
Fieb. and G. ochropterus Fieb. by Maxwell
Lefroy (1909), Cherian (1933), Rangarajan
et al. (1964), Subba Rao et al. (1965), and
Rawat and Modi (1969). Chatterjee (1937) re-
ported about the habitats and distribution of
some Indian geocorines. Mukhopadhyay and
Ghosh (1982) have recently added notes on
the food-habits and habitats of these two newly
described species of Geocoris, G. pseudolitu -
rains Mukhopadhyay and Ghosh and G. ben-
galensis Mukhopadhyay and Ghosh from
eastern India.

298

NOTES ON TWO SPECIES OF BIG-EYED BUGS

Material and methods

(i) Field collection :

Collections of the herbage-dwelling G. pseu-
dolituratus and its nymphs were chiefly made
by using an aspirator and occasionally by
beating the herbage. The former method was
of some advantage since the chance of escape
by the adults was less. The dense litter-dwell-
ing G. bengalensis was collected with some
difficulty, by fast removal of leaf and fig-fruit
litter and quickly sucking in the adults and
nymphs by an aspirator as soon as these were
seen.

(ii) Laboratory rearing :

Both G. pseudolituratus and G. bengalensis
were reared in large vials (10 cm x 3 cm)
covered with cotton cloth. To avoid canni-
balism, n}/mphs were reared in separate vials.
Fruit flies ( Drosophila sp.) formed the animal
food and herbacious twigs of Mikenia sp.
supplied the plant food and moisture. Normally
over-etherized (killed) fruit flies were provid-
ed to the earlier instars (for easy manipula-
tion) and less etherised flies to more advance
nymphs and adults. The eggs, laid on the
rough surface of cloth or twigs, were separated
by a pair of forceps and kept in small vials
with moistened cotton plugs for further
studies.

Observations and Results

Overwintering and spring emergence :

Overwintering was not well understood for
either of these geocorines. G. pseudolituratus
and its nymphs were most abundant during
spring (February to April) mostly on Ficus
hispida and associated herbs, showing an appa-
rent spring emergence and population build-
up but disappearance of the adult bug was
neither observed in the extreme temperatures

of the summer nor in winter. During these
periods, a dwindling population of the bug
thrived in an active state, except at very low
temperatures of winter when they stay in-
actively in leaf folds. Geocoris bengalensis was
mostly abundant in fig litters during summer
and early monsoon. No trace of adults and
nymphs of this bug was normally available
during the rest of the year. The breeding
activity of these bugs in summer depended on
the fruiting of the plants, that attracted orga-
nisms of the detritus food chain in the litter
and these organisms were usually predated by
the adults and nymphs of the species, Flowever,
only adults of G. bengalensis were found in
winter or autumn, suggesting that they might
be overwintering in adult stage at least in
eastern India, the area chosen for study of
both the geocorine bugs.

Courtship and mating behaviour:

In general, the two species showed similar
mating behaviour, that seldom resulted from
a well negotiated process of courtship. The
male would generally sense a passing female
by straightening its antennae, then orients itself
and suddenly jump and grasp the female. Once
the attachment was secured, the male slipped
down to face in an opposite direction. While
mating, the pair normally kept their antennae
moving. Mating was repetitive for both the
species. While it continued from half to
two hours for G. pseudolituratus , and about
three and a half hours- for G. bengalensis:
Freshly mated females avoided further mating
by escaping movements;. Successfully mated
females of G. bengalensis appear to store
enough sperm in a single copulation to lay
fertile eggs throughout their life.

Oviposition and fecundity :

Qviposition in nature could seldom be
observed due to cryptic and scattered habit of

299

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

egg laying in both the species. However, G.
pseudolituratus was sometimes observed to
attach its solitary eggs to dry part of leaf
of the twiner, Mikania sp., and some empty
egg chorions were collected from the shoot
of F. hispidcL Though it is likely that G . ben-
gal ens is in nature laid the eggs in litter, yet
eggs were difficult to locate in that habitat.

In the laboratory, the egg-laying habit of
the two species showed some variation. Sur-
faces like cottonwool, muslin, hairy surface of
twigs of fig fruits, and even bodies of dead
flies were preferred by G. pseudolituratus for
egg laying, whereas axils and branching points
of twigs, clefts on surfaces were the first choice
of G. bengalensis, which also occasionally laid
eggs at places like vial surface, or the comer
formed by the adjacent surfaces of cotton plug
(cover) and vial. Eggs of both the species were
attached feebly and superficially, normally
scattered or in small clusters of 2 or 3. It was
of interest to observe that virgins of G. pseudo-
lituratus never laid eggs, whereas those of G.
bengalensis laid infertile eggs.

Although the average longevity of the two
geocorines showed little difference, almost a
doubling of the rate of egg laying per female
per day was noticed for G. bengalensis as

compared to G. pseudolituratus (Table 1). In
general a higher fecundity of G. bengalensis
was evident in the graphic representation
(Fig. 1), when the trends of egg laying were
compared from day to day.

Incubation :

The incubation period of the eggs under
laboratory conditions was observed in autumn
and summer. It was evident that the increase
in day temperature shortened the incubation
period throughout the course of study. The
mechanism of eclosion was the same for both
the species. The cephalic ends of the eggs
normally ruptured across the circlet and the
first instar nymph wriggled out along with the
amniotic membrane. This membrane then
again ruptured to free the nymph, and itself
remained half drawn out from the egg chorion.

The average incubation periods for both the
geocorine species were almost the same. How-
ever, G. pseudolituratus showed a greater
range than that of G. bengalensis (Table 2).
A successful hatching for some batches of eggs
could be recorded 100% for both the species,
nevertheless, on an average the batches of eggs
of G. pseudolituratus showed better percentage
of hatching when compared to those of G.
bengalensis (Fig. 2).

Table 1

Preoviposition period, longevity and fecundity of two Ge aeons SPP. (based on five observations)

Preoviposition
period (days)

Longevity
$ (days)

Total eggs
laid/ 9

Eggs/ $ /diem

G. pseudolituratus

Mean

11.75

30.75

32.75

1.065

Range

(9-19)

(21-43)

(24-49)

(0.94-1.14)

s.d.

4.856

10.144

11.557

0.0957

G. bengalensis

Mean

6.33

32.0

91.0

2.65

Range

(6-7)

(20-46)

(47-166)

(2.0-3.61)

S.D.

0.577

13.144

65.27

0.8467

300

NOTES ON TWO SPECIES OF BIG-EYED BUGS

DAYS

Fig. 1. Oviposition trend of two species of Geocoris.

I II

I G, pseudoliturcslus IQO% 9 2.5% 70%

II G, bengalensis !OQ% 89% 50%

Fig. 2. Hatching success in two species of Geocoris. -

301

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Table 2

Comparison of incubation period and hatching

SUCCESS OF THE EGGS OF TWO Geocoris SPP. (BASED
ON THE OBSERVATION OF TEN BATCHES OF EGGS)

Incubation

Successful

period (days)

hatching (%)

G. pseudolituratus

Mean

9.5

92.5

Range

(7-12)

(70-100)

S.D.

1.527

12.304

G. bengalensis

Mean

9.2

89.0

Range

(9-10)

(50-100)

S.D.

0.349

17.126

Post-embryonic development :

The mean post-embryonic development
period and the average nymphal stadia were
longer for G. pseud olituratus than that of G.
bengalensis (Table 3). However, the stadial
ranges for their nymphal stages overlapped
(Fig. 3, A-E).

The egg:

Freshly laid eggs of G. pseudolituratus were
typically ovoid with slightly broad cephalic

end, pearly white; on maturation they turned
tawny-orange with two eye spots. Under high
magnification, the chorionic surface showed
tiny warts and a circlet of club-shaped (capi-
tate) micropylar processes (notches) at the
blunt head end. A mature egg in late stage
showed some wrinkles in the form of narrow
ridges and furrows (Fig. 4). The eggs of G.
bengalensis were also ovoid but elongated and
tapered at both the ends; pale with a tint of
‘dawn-pink’ when fresh but with maturity
turning reddish. Chorion under high magnifi-
cation appeared rough (finely warted), with a
circlet of processes at the cephalic end (Fig.
11).

The eggs of G. pseudolituratus were shorter,
but normally with a greater number of micro-
pylar processes when compared to those of G.
bengalensis (Table 4).

Description of the nymphal instars :
(Measurements in mm are the means based
on ten specimens).

1st nymphal instar (Figs. 5, 12)

G. pseudolituratus : Variable in size and
colour; dorsal semi-circular patches appear as
two discrete stripes; head width almost

Table 3

Comparison of stadia and post-embryonic developmental period (in days) of two Geocoris spp.

(based on ten observations)

1st Instar

2nd Instar

3rd Instar

4th Instar

5th Instar

Total

G. bengalensis

Mean

5.9

6.0

6.0

5.3

7.6

30.8

Range

(4-7)

(4-10)

(4-9)

(4-7)

(5-11)

(26-34)

S.D.

0.875

2.054

1.763

0.948

1.577

2.347

G. pseudolituratus

Mean

5.7

4.6

4.4

4.6

6,3

25.6

Range

(4-7)

(4-6)

(4-6)

(3-5)

(6-7)

(24-28)

S.D.

0.823

0.843

0.699

0.699

0.483

1.577

302

NOTES ON TWO SPECIES OF BIG-EYED BUGS

G. pseudolituratus G.bencjalensis

STADIUM 2

STADIUM 3

Table 4

Comparison of micropylar processes, length and

BREADTH OF EGGS OF TWO GeOCOris SPP. (BASED ON
TEN OBSERVATIONS)

Micropylar

processes

Length (mm)

Breadth (mm)

G. pseudolituratus

Mean

7.4

0.92

0.37

Range

(7-8)

(0.89-0.94)

(0.34-0.41)

S.D.

0.547

0.089

0.114

G. bengalensis

Mean

6.0

1.08

0.4

Range

(5-7)

(1.06-1.1)

(0.38-0.43)

S.D.

0.707

0.07

0.089

G.pseudoliturotus G. bengalensis

8

1 ■ n

6 •

5 ■

4 • n
3

2

5 IO 5 IO

STADIUM 4

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

I

i

STADIUM 5

Fig. 3 (A-E). Frequency distribution of duration of instars 1 to 5 of two species of Geocoris. Abscissae,
time in days; ordinates, number of observations.

303

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

times pronotal width; rostrum passes 3rd
coxae; head, abdomen pale yellow; posterior
margin of head, pro-, meso- and meta-notal
area light brown; fuscous rings and markings
on distal end of 1st, both ends of 2nd, and
proximal end of 3rd antennal segments, 4th
segment proximally pale and distally dark
smoky.

Figs. 4-7. Stages of life cycle of Geocoris
pseudolituratus (dorsal view) :

4. Eggs showing ridges, micropylar processes, and
post-eclosion embryonic membrane; 5. 1st instar
nymph; 6. 2nd instar nymph; 7. 3rd instar nymph.

G. bengalensis : Body pale yellow, elongate
and cylindrical; head tawny, eyes red; 1st
antennal segment luteous, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th

with castaneous base and ochraceous apex;
vertex region with dark facia; head triangular,
broader than pronotum and body; body beneath
luteous except dark antennifers; coxae, tibiae,
meso- and meta-notum dark; abdomen with
tints of red and yellow; dorsal scent gland
openings and orifice with castaneous border;
ochraceous patch anterior to the 1st dorsal
gland opening.

G. pseudolituratus G. bengalensis

Body length

1.11

1.32

Head width

0.54

0.54

Maximum

pronotal width

0.47

0.45

2nd nymphal instar (Figs. 6, 13)

G. pseudolituratus: Head slightly broader
than posterior margin of the pronotum; mid-
dorsal abdomen with semicircular dark plate
divided into two distinct halves; trochanter,
proximal femoral area dark ochraceous; 4th
antennal segment dirty pale.

G. bengalensis : Ochraceous; head, pro-,

meso-, and meta-notum tawny yellow with
median dark line that broadens posteriorly,
lateral margins dark ochraceous; metanotal
region with a pair of dark patches; 4th an-
tennal segment light; abdomen red ochraceous
marked with rows of diffused reddish trans-
verse lines; tibia and distal end of femora
ochraceous, tarsus dirty white; rostrum reach-
ing 2nd coxae.

G. pseudolituratus G. bengalensis

Body length

1.45

1.5

Head width

0.75

0.75

Maximum

pronotal width

0.66

0.66

3rd nymphal instar (Figs. 7, 14)

G. pseudolituratus : Head and abdomen

dirty yellow; pro-, meso- and meta-notum.

NOTES ON TWO SPECIES OF BIG-EYED BUGS

and mid-dorsal semicircular region dark casta-
neous; triangles on head at inner corner of
eye blackish; incipient wing buds; rostrum
reaches 3rd coxae; head just broader than, or
equal to, width of posterior pronotal margin.

Figs. 11-14. Stages of life cycle of Geocoris
bengalensis (dorsal view) :

11. Eggs showing micropylar processes; 12, 1st in-
star nymph; 13. 2nd instar nymph; 14. 3rd instar
nymph.

G. bengalensis : Mid-dorsal line of the body
red ochraceous, intersected by a short, trans-
verse reddish line at the epicranial region
(vertex); postero-lateral edges of the mesono-
tum form wing-buds; paired stramineous scle-
rotized abdominal plates; rostrum passes middle
coxae; distal subapical end of femora with
incomplete brown annulation, concolorous with
tibia; sternum luteous except ochraceous ante-
rior margin and coxae; abdomen reddish with
a pale line extending throughout the length of
body; antennifers castaneous.

G. pseudolituratus

G. bengalensis

Body length 1 . 64

1.92

Head width 0.97

0.94

Maximum

pronotal width 0.93

0,81

4th nymphal instar (Figs. 8, 15)

G. pseudolituratus : Variable in colour, early
nymphs red-ochraceous with castaneous pro-,
meso- and meta-notum; dorsal abdominal
semicircular sclerotized plate turns fuscous in
older nymphs of same instar; head stramine-
ous with black triangular patches at margins;
abdominal margin red-ochraceous; mesothora-
cic wing pads cover metanotum; rostrum
passes 3rd coxae.

G. bengalensis : Head tawny with dark dorso-
median line; eyes brown; margins and dorso-
medial lines of pro-, meso-notum blackish:
wing pad blackish, reaching the abdomen;
abdomen dirty red, sparsed with yellow patches;
two irregular dark spots on abdomen seem to
reflect the colour of some internal organ.

G. pseudolituratus

G. bengalensis

Body length

2.34

2.54

Head width

1.27

1.18

Maximum

pronotal width

1.26

1.12

305

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Fig. 8. Geocoris pseudolitiiratus :
4th instar nymph.

5th nymphal instar (Figs. 9, 16)

G. pseudolitiiratus : Elliptical, dark-ochrace-
ous; head pale-ochraceous, three times as wide
as long; eyes ruby-red; antennae ochraceous,
tip and base of the 4th segment pale fuscous,
ring at the distal end of first segment; rostrum
yellowish with darker 3rd and 4th segments,
touches 3rd coxae; pronotum smooth glossy,
black-ochraceous, anterior margin semicircular
and posterior margin broader than head; wing
pads blackish, extending upto 3rd-4th terga;
dorsal abdominal semicircular plate dark
blackish with abdominal margins dark-ochra-
ceous; orifice (anal) fuscous; abdomen ven-
trally pale-yellow with a central dark region;
pro-, meso- and meta-pleura ochraceous with
punctures of same colour; legs yellow-luteous.

G. bengalensis : Head pale yellow with red
patch at vertex region; basal antennal segment
with less hair; pronotum black with obscure
punctures and dark castaneous lateral margins
that continue along the wing pads covering

E

e

Fig. 15. Geocoris bengalensis:
4th instar nymph.

first two terga; black semicircular dorsal abdo-
minal sclerotized plate single; abdomen dirty
red with dark openings of dorsal scent glands
and orifice (anal); rostrum just crosses 3rd
coxae with its 1st and 2nd segments partially
dark castaneous; femora pale yellow, each with
an incomplete ochraceous annulation at
(distal) subapical end; tibiae red-ochraceous,
tarsi luteous; 7th abdominal segment with a
dark ventral spot.

306

NOTES ON TWO SPECIES OF BIG-EYED BUGS

E

E

Fig. 9. Geocoris pseudolituratus :

5th instar nymph.

G. pseudolituratus

G. bengalensis

Body length

2.83

3.2

Head width

1.56

1.48

Maximum

pronotal width

1.68

1.4

Adults (Figs. 10, 17)

Mukhopadhyay and Ghosh (1982) give a
complete description and measurement of adult
G. pseudolituratus and G. bengalensis.

Discussion

Tamaki and Weeks (1972) have shown that
the overwintering behaviour of Geocoris bulla -

Fig. 16. Geocoris bengalensis :
5th instar nymph.

tus and G. pollens were contrasting; the former
overwintered as eggs and the latter as adults.
Geocoris bengalensis probably overwinters as
adults because in winter no other stages ex-
cept a few adults were traceable in the litter
habitat. The maximum population build-up of
this bug was in late spring and just before the
onset of heavy rains, synchronized with fruiting
of the figs, in particular the banyan. The pre-
sence of figs in litter invited innumerable
organisms connected with detritus food chain,
which also served as the prey species for the
mature and immature stages of the bug. The
presence of the adults in the late winter and
the occurrence of the immature stages of G.
pseudolituratus in early spring may, in some
way, be related to the maximum availability
of prey like jassids and their nymphs, aphids,
psyllids, and tingid nymphs at that time.

307

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Fig. 10. Geocoris pseudolituratus: Adult.

Both the species of the big-eyed bugs show-
ed mating behaviour of the third category
(Sweet 1964), where recognition of mates is
from a distance with the help of eye and
antennae. The antennae of male are normally
straightened and pointed at the female before
sudden approach or leap for copulation.

Despite minute ‘nap’ or warts on chorion
the shape of the eggs of both the geocorine
species showed some adaptive features.
‘Cucumber-shaped’ G. pseudolituratus egg had
some obscure longitudinal ribs with anterior
end not much flattened, which helped the egg
to fit in the surface of a twig or leaf. Geocoris

bengalensis, a litter dweller, had cylindrical
eggs with considerably tapering ends, more
suited to fit in the cracks and crevices of a
litter habitat. Laying of eggs on the leaves of
Mikania sp. or fig., in the rolled or indented
parts, by G. pseudolituratus also appeared to
be connected with the exploitation of readily
available surrounding prey species immediate-
ly after hatching.

Beard (1940) demonstrated that repeated
copulations, though normal, were not neces-
sary to maintain fertility in squash bugs, and
further showed that fertilized but isolated
females produced more eggs and lived longer
than normal. However, in the present study it
remains doubtful whether copulation instigates
egg-laying, since G. bengalensis showed an in-
trinsic rhythm of egg-laying without copula-
tion, while G. pseudolituratus failed to lay un-
less mated. The eggs of an unmated G. bengal-
ensis never hatched.

308

NOTES ON TWO SPECIES OF BIG-EYED BUGS

Tamaki and Weeks (1972) have decisively
shown for G. pallens and G. bullatus that field
collected adults laid eggs when they fed either
on aphids or sunflower seeds, but a combina-
tion of insect, green plant and sunflower seeds
resulted in maximum egg-production. It was
further noted that a diet of sunflower seeds
and green plants gave the maximum longevity,
but Geocoris fed on aphid-prey and green
plants laid more eggs. Similarly it was found
for G. pseudolituratus and G. bengalensis, that
an exclusively insect diet did not support life
for long. However, as mentioned for G. pallens
or G. bullatus, seeds did not appear to be
indispensable in diet, since in nature the
Geocoris spp. studied by me were never observ-
ed to use seeds as an item of their diet. More-
over, egg-laying and longevity were not much
affected when the source of moisture, i.e. the
green herbacious twig, was replaced by a water
siphon. The general tendency of a shorter
post-embryonic development period of the
litter-dwelling G. bengalensis may be neces-
sary for the successful completion of a multi-
voltine life cycle in the short span of fruiting
season of the fig trees when prey is available
in the litter. In contrast, a longer development
period of the herbage-dwelling G. pseudolitu-
ratus may be attributed to the availability of
various prey species through a greater length
of time.

Since Geocoris spp. are opportunist preda-

Beard, R. L. (1940) : The biology of Anasa
tristis De Geer with particular reference to Tachinid
parasite Trichopeda pennipes Fabr. Bull. Conn, agric.
Exp. Stn. (440) : 597-679.

Chatterjee, N. C. (1937): Entomological in-
vestigation on the spike disease of sandal (32)
Lygaeidae (Hemiptera). Indian Forest Rec. 5(4):
110-111.

tors and are among the most abundant secon-
dary consumer species on crops, their role
in keeping the pest load low is reasonably
expected; as a corollary, the need for appli-
cation of the hazardous insecticides is greatly
reduced. The initial step that is needed in India
is to know bioecology of these ‘gem insects’,
the big-eyed bugs, thoroughly, before appre-
ciating their role as natural enemies in keeping
the pest population below threshold value or
utilizing these as biological control agents.

Ack nowledgements

The guidance of Dr. T. N. Ananthakrishnan,
former Director, Zoological Survey of India,
during the course of my Ph.D. work, of which
the present paper constitutes a part, is grate-
fully acknowledged. Sincere thanks are due to
Dr. K. Thangavelu, Jt. Director, Central Silk
Board, Assam, and to Dr. B. Dutta, Superin-
tending Zoologist, Zoological Survey of India,
for their constant encouragement and help
throughout the project work. I also thank
Dr. M. Malipatil, Museum, Darwin, Australia
and Mr. W. R. Dolling, British Museum
(N.H.), London, for their help with literature,
identification and criticism. The help rendered
by Dr. B. Biswas, Emeritus Scientist,
Zoological Survey of India, in shaping and
properly presenting this paper is thankfully
acknowledged.

NCES

Cherian, M. C. (1933): The Cholam mite ( Para -
tetranychus indicus ) on sorghum. Madras agric. J.
21: 1-6.

Crocker, R. L. & Whitcomb, W. H. (1980) :
Feeding niches of the big-eyed bugs Geocoris bulla-
tus, G. punctipes, and G. uliginosus (Hemiptera:
Lygaeidae: Geocorinae). Environ. Ent. 9(5): 508-
513.

309

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Dunbar, D. M. (1971): Big-eyed bugs [Geocoris
spp. (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Lygaeidae)] in Con-
necticut (U.S.A.) lawns. Circ. Conn, agric. Exp. Stn.
(244): 1-6.

Dunbar, D. M. & Bacon, O. G. (1972) : Feed-
ing. development and reproduction of Geocoris pun-
ctipes (Heteroptera: Lygaeidae) on eight diets.

Annls. ent. Soc. Am. 65: 892-895.

Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (1909) : Indian Insect life.
Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, Today and To-
morrow Printers and Publishers, New Delhi. Reprint
ed. (1971).

Mukhopadfiyay, A. & Ghosh, L. K. (1982) : Two
new species of Geocoris Fallen (Heteroptera: Lygaei-
dae) with some notes on their food habits and
habitats. Kontyu, Tokyo 50(2) : 169-174.

RANGARAJAN, A. V., VlJAYARAGHAVAN, S., VASAN-
tharaj David, B. & Gopalan, M. (1964): A note
on the predaceous lygaeid, Geocoris tricolor Fabr.
Madras agric. J. 51(6): 253.

Rawat, R. R. & Modi, B. N. (1969) : New host
record of the predacious bug Geocoris tricolor Fabr.
(Heteroptera: Lygaeidae) from India. Indian J.
Ent. 31(1): 74.

Stoner, A. (1970): Plant feeding by predacious

insect, Geocoris punctipes. J. econ. Ent. 63: 1911-
1915.

Subba Rao, B. R., Prasad, B., Ram, A., Singh,
R. P. & Srivastava, M. L. (1965) : Studies on para-
sites and predators of Empoasca devastans Dist.
(Homoptera: Jassidae). Indian J. Ent. 27: 104-106.

Sweet, M. H. (1960): The seed bugs: a contri-
bution to the feeding habits of Lygaeidae. Annls.
ent. Soc. Am. 53: 317-321.

(1964): The biology and ecology

of Rhyparochrominae of New England (Heterop-
tera: Lygaeidae). Entomologica am. 44: 1-210.

Tamaki, G. (1972) : The biology of Geocoris
bullatus inhabiting orchard floors and its impact on
Myzus persicae on peaches. Environ, ent. 1(5):
559-565.

Tamaki, G. & Weeks, R. E. (1972): Biology and
ecology of two predators, Geocoris pollens Stal
and G. bullatus (Say). Agricultural Research Ser-
vice, U.S. Dept, of Agriculture. Technical Bulletin
No. (1446).

York, G. T. (1964): Food studies of Geocoris
spp. predators of the beet leaf hopper. J. econ. Ent.
57(1): 25-29.

310

DESTRUCTION OF SPAWNING GROUNDS OF
MAHSEER AND OTHER FISH IN GARHWAL
HIMALAYAS1

P. Nautiyal and M. S. Lal2

(With a text-figure)

Introduction

Mahseer is one of the grand game fishes of
India. The one-time famous and favourite sport
fish of most of the anglers is gradually near-
ing extinction. Raj (1945) has reported that
mahseer has exhibited a gradual decline in
Kumaun lakes attributed partly to indiscrimi-
nate fishing as well as to cannibalism in the
species. According to Kulkarni & Ogale (1978)
the use of explosives, killing of brooders, con-
struction of multipurpose dams, 6 hours semi-
quiescent stage (in Tor khudree) and longer
hatching period in cold waters are the main
causes for the decline of mahseer. Pathani
(1977, 1978), and Das & Pathani (1978)
while surveying the Kumaun region have re-
ported acute diminution both in size and popu-
lation, especially in lake Nainital, attributed to
increasing pollution, poaching, unscientific
fishing of brood fishes and deficiency of oxygen.
Recently Singh and Badola (1978) pre-
sented a report on seed destruction in Garhwal
waters which is also one of the causes of
gradual depletion in mahseer population.
Whether the same phenomenon is in progress,
has yet to be determined. The present con-
tribution is to outline the ecological hazards
which the Garhwal mahseer encounters and
will ultimately be disastrous.

1 Accepted December 1981.

2 Department of Zoology, Garhwal University,
Srinagar Garhwal - 246 174.

Mahseer in the hillstreams of the
Pauri Garhwal Himalayas

The Garhwal region comprises of five dis-
tricts: Pauri, Tehri, Uttarkashi, Chamoli and
Dehra Dun. The observations presented here
ralate only to Pauri district. River Alaknanda
and Nayar are the two main hillstreams of this
district, which harbour 43 species in all (Badola
1975). Of the two, the former is snow-fed
while the latter is a spring-fed hillstream, and
therefore the difference in their ichthyofauna.

Based on observations for the past one
year (Jan. 1980 to April 1981) it was found
that the population of Schizothorax spp.
was very high as compared to other coldwater
fishes including mahseer. The daily landings
comprised primarily of Schizothorax species
whereas mahseer was landed occasionally. It
implies either the use of inefficient fishing
implements or lesser number of individuals.
Moreover, their number is apt to be less for
the adults are temporary visitors (migrants)
as they ascend the cold waters of Garh-
wal Himalayas during the pre-monsoon
months. Their upstream migration is undoubt-
edly for spawning purposes (Singh & Badola
1978) but whether the various water bodies
of Garhwal Himalayas can also serve as feed-
ing grounds (Nikolsky 1963) is yet to be
determined.

Only two species of mahseer. Tor tor and
Tor putitora have been reported from the Garh-
wal region. However, the authors with,

311

5

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

investigating various ecological aspects of
Garhwal mahseer have observed that Tor tor
are far less in number as compared to Tor
put it ora.

Having considered their habits, habitat and
economic importance, a systematic analysis of
the man-made hazards will give a clear picture
of its ecological ignorance.

Mahseer migration and hazards

The phenomenon of upstream migration is
peculiar to Tor and Labeo spp. They ascend
from river Ganga in the plains of Hardwar

1 L. 1. Rishikesh. 6. Shrinsgaf.

2. Laxman Jhoola* 7. Rudrapxayag »

3. Byasghat. 8, Maxora.

4. Deoprayag » 9. Ssnghat.

5. Maletha* 10. Batkhul ka Sairw

Fig. 1. Migration of Mahseer.

and Rishikesh and reach Deoprayag (Fig. 1)
where some migrate into river Bhagirathi;
while others continue the upward migration
into river Alaknanda. The very first hurdle
that it encounters on the onset of migration

is the impoundment of hydro-electric project
(Chilla project) near Rishikesh. However, as
it crosses Rishikesh en route to Deo-
prayag, it has to survive various traps set in
the river. The consolation lies in the fact that
man has not yet resorted to extensive dyna-
miting.

Migration into River Alaknanda : As the
population of mahseer ascends the river
Alaknanda and reaches Maletha (Fig. 1) it has
to be more alert. From there upto Srinagar
it faces severe fishing pressure. Some

of the individuals also migrate further up-
stream.

Migration into River Nayar : River Nayar
is a product of the Eastern and Western Nayar,
the confluence being at a place known as
Bat kul Ka Sain, which is situated about 3 kilo-
metres before Banghat (Fig. 1). The river
stretches for 24 km (approx.) before it
merges with Ganga at Byasghat which is
about 40 km downstream of Srinagar, bet-
ween Deoprayag and Byasi. The brood fish
are found only when the river is flooded and
turbid, during the monsoon months which ex-
tends from July to September. It implies
that onset of monsoon along with high tem-
perature is responsible for its ascent. Abun-
dance of food does not seem to be an
important factor governing migration.

As the brooders ascend they face severe
fishing pressure because the river has
a slow current as compared to Alak-
nanda and is easily accessible to man. Hence,
various traps are set across the width of the
river which prevents escape of the fish. Use
of explosives throughout the year consequently
leads to destruction of brood fish as well as
the seed.

Nature of spawning grounds in Garhwal:
The river banks, which, for most of the stretch
is primarily of stones, pebbles and sand, at
some places consist of almost high perpendi-

312

SPAWNING GROUNDS OF MAHSEER

cular rocky banks. In the pre-monsoon and
monsoon months the rivers swell up with melt-
ed snow and rain water respectively, thus
submerging the banks which consequently leads
to the formation of spawning grounds.

During this period the river is characterized
by warm, slightly alkaline and turbid waters
along with optimum value of dissolved oxygen.
Values of total alkalinity decline due to in-
creasing turbidity and decreasing productivity,
a factor which may not have any bearing on
the brood fish since it probably does not feed
actively during its course of spawning.

The brood fish, as reported by Badola &
Singh (1984) lay a very large number of
eggs in the shallow waters (35 cm to 50 cm)
on or below the stones in the sand which
provide an appropriate environment for the
eggs to hatch. Pathani (1978) has also stated
that mahseer always prefer flowing water and
breed in shallow waters with sandy bottoms
having a good amount of oxygen.

Besides stone and sand here and there,
there exist patches of vegetation on the banks
which too may serve as substratum as far as
laying of carp eggs is concerned (Nikolsky
1963). The vegetation comprises mainly of
hard grasses like Saccharum spp. and other
shrubs like Lam ana americana, Calotropis
procera etc., which get submerged during
monsoon.

Mahseer, however, was not found to breed
in the Alaknanda. The latter serves as spawn-
ing grounds for Schizothorax and other species.

Destruction of spawning grounds

The destruction of spawning grounds is
a case of ecological ignorance. When the

swollen rivers recede, various contractors and
local people carry away truckloads full of
stones, pebbles and sand which constitute the
during each monsoon the river brings along
with it more and more stones, pebbles and
sand. Is the source inexhaustible? The main
problem is that the stones are loaded from the
spots which constitute the spawning grounds.
If this process continues it will min the whole of
the spawning grounds which may lead to ex-
tinction of the noble mahseer from this region.

Conclusion

Thoughtless destruction of these spawning
grounds is undoubtedly disastrous.

In order to solve these hazards the Gov-
ernment should ban fishing of brooders,
use of explosives, icthyotoxic plants and over-
fishing of juveniles. Further, better implements
for fishing should be used to harvest the crop.
Artificial or induced breeding must be under-
taken to achieve a commercial magnitude so
that various rivers and lakes of Garhwal
Himalayas can be restocked. Above all detail-
ed ecological and biological study of the
mahseer is essential

AcK NO WLEDGEM E NTS

We are indebted to Dr. H. R. Singh, Pro-
fessor and Head of the Department of Zoology,
Garhwal University, Srinagar for lending a
helping hand in literature and encouragement
during the course of investigation. We
are also thankful to Dr. S. S. Pathani, Senior
Research Fellow, Kumaun University for help
with literature.

313

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

References

Badola, S. P. (1975): Fish fauna of Garhwal
Hills, Pt. III. Pauri Garhwal (U.P.) Ind. J. Zoot.
16(1): 57-70.

♦Badola, S. P. & Singh, H. R. (1984): Spawn-
ing of the some coldwater fish of Garhwal Hima-
laya. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81(1): 54-58.

Das, S. M. & Pathani, S. S. (1978): Biological
resources of the Himalayas and their decimation
by man. National Seminar on Resources, Develop-
ment and Environment in the Himalayan Region.

Kulkarni, C. V. & Ogale, S. N. (1978): Pre-
sent status of Mahseer (Fish) and Artificial Pro-
pogation of Tor khudree (Sykes). J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc., 75: 651-660.

Nikolsky, G. V. (1963) : The Ecology of fishes.
Acad. Press, London.

Pathani, S. S. (1977) : The problems of Kumaun
Mahseer. Uttrakhand Bharti, 2(1): 65-68.

(1978) : A note on Ecology and

conservation of Mahseer in Kumaun lakes. Environ-
ment India. 1 (II) : 36-37.

*Raj, B. S. (1945) : The decline of Mahseer
fisheries of Kumaun lakes and possible remedy. Proc.
Nat. Inst. Sci. India., 11( 3i) : 341-345.

Singh, H. R. & Badola, S. P. (1978): Ecological
study on the fish and fisheries of Garhwal waters
with a note on some applied problems. Proc. Wild
Life Workshop: 173-177.

Not seen in original.

RESPONSE OF WILD GOATS TO HUMAN
DISTURBANCE NEAR A WATERPOINT IN
KIRTHAR NATIONAL PARK, PAKISTAN1

W. Daniel Edge2, Sally L. Olson-Edge2 and Nasir Ghani3

The response of wild goats ( Capra aegagrus ) at a waterpoint to construction of
a well 600 m away was observed from March through May, 1986. The well was
constructed between 0900 and 1800 h in April and May. Groups of goats that drank
from the waterpoint were 51%, 34% and 71% of all groups that approached the
waterpoint during March (n=35), April (n = 71), and May (n = 48) respectively.

The number of goats drinking per month increased from 344 in March to 730 in
May. During March, 97% of the goats visited- the waterpoint between 0900 and
1800 h. However, during the construction in April and May, only 51% of the visits
occurred during this time period; the other 49% visited either earlier or later in the -
day. Construction activities at such sites should be timed to avoid the pre-monsoon
season during which goats are dependent upon the water.

Study Area and Methods

Kirthar National Park lies approximately
150 km northeast of Karachi, Pakistan, bet-
ween latitudes 25° and 26 °N. The park is
bordered on the east by the Surjan, Sumbak
and Plothiano Game Reserves and on the west
by the border with Baluchistan. The mean
maximum and mean minimum temperatures
from March through May were 38°C and 27°C
respectively. No weather station was maintain-
ed in the park, but local residents reported
that there was very little rainfall in 1984 and

1985. The 3,087 km2 area encompassed our
core study area, the Karchat Hills, of which
Schaller and Laurie (1974) gave a detailed
description. The Jan ko waterpoint, where our
observations were made, was previously des-
cribed by Edge et al (in press).

A well, 600 m south of the Janko water-
point, was constructed during April and May,

1 986. A crew of four to six men worked on
the well between 0900 h and 1800 h four or
five days a week during the two months. The
well is visible from a ridge overlooking the
waterpoint.

Introduction

The wild goat, locally known as the Sind
Ibex, is the most abundant large mammal in
Kirthar National Park, Pakistan, and is the
dominant native ungulate in many of the hill
ranges throughout Sind and Baluchistan. With
the exception of brief studies by Roberts
(1967), Schaller and Laurie (1974) and SchaL
ler (1977), little is known about the ecology
of the wild goat in Pakistan. During a study
of the biology and behaviour of wild goats
and urial ( Ovis orient alis) at a waterpoint in
Kirthar National Park, Edge et al. (in press)
reported that less than half of the wild goat
groups (x group size 18.8) that approached
the waterpoint actually drank. In this paper
we report the response of wild goats to con-
struction activities at a nearby well.

1 Accepted August 1987.

2 Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit,
University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812 U.S.A.
Present address : Conservation and Research Center,
National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution,
Front Royal. VA 22630, U.S.A.

3 Zoological Survey Department, Block 61, Pakistan
Secretariat, Sharah-e-Iraq, Karachi, Pakistan.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol 85

Wild goats were observed with lOx bino-
culars or a 15-35 x telescope between the
hours of dawn and dusk from a blind 66 m
from the waterpoint. From March to May, 1986
we captured wild goats with a remotely-fired
net -gun aimed at the waterpoint, or with
Aldridge leg-hold snares placed around the
waterpoint. Captured animals were marked for
individual identification with colour-coded and
numbered plastic ear-tags.

Results

We watched the Janko waterpoint a total
of 416 h, over 32 days, between 21 March
and 21 May, 1986. During this period we cap-
tured and marked 34 wild goats (26 females
and 8 males) — 24 with the net-gun and 10 in
snares. One hundred and fifty-three groups of
wild goats approached the waterpoint during
our observation but only 49% of these groups
actually drank. The number of groups that
drank from the waterpoint was related to
month (X2 = 15.3, df - 2, P< 0.01). In
March, 51% of the groups drank, compared
to 34% in April, and 71% in May. The per-
centage of groups that drank only during
construction hours decreased from 83% in
March, when there was no construction, to
59% in May (Table 1). However, the time of

Table 1

Number (and percentage) of wild goat groups

DRINKING FROM THE JANKO WATERPOINT BY MONTH
DURING (0900-1800 h), AND BEFORE OR AFTER
CONSTRUCTION PERIODS, 1986

Month

Time of visit

March1

April

May

15

17

20

0900 to 1800 h

(83)

(71)

(59)

Before 0900 h

3

7

14

or after 1800 h

(17)

(29)

(41)

1 No construction occurred during March.

visit for groups was not related to month
(X2 = 3.43, df = 2, P>0.1).

The number of individual wild goats that
drank from the waterpoint increased from 344
in March to 730 in May (Table 2). The time
of visit for these animals was related to month
(X2 = 236, df = 2, P < 0.01), with 97% of
the visits in March occurring between 0900
and 1800 h. However, during April and May,
only 51% of the visits occurred during this
time period.

Table 2

Number (and percentage) of individual wild

GOATS DRINKING FROM THE JANKO WATERPOINT BY
MONTH DURING 0900-1800 H AND BEFORE OR AFTER
CONSTRUCTION PERIODS, 1986

Month

Time of visit

March1

April

May

333

251

375

0900 to 1800 h

(97)

(51)

(51)

Before 0900 h

11

243

355

or after 1800 h

(3)

(49)

(49)

1 No construction occurred during March.

Discussion

Wild goats responded to construction of a
well, 600 m from the Janko waterpoint, by a
shift in drinking periods. With the onset of
construction in April, the percentage of groups
that drank from the waterpoint decreased.
This decrease in drinking success was accom-
panied by a shift in drinking time; individual
goats that drank predominantly between 0900
and 1800 h in March, shifted much of their
drinking activity to outside these hours in
April. During May, 49% of all individual wild
goats that drank did so either before or after
construction periods; this was accompanied by
a marked increase in the percentage of groups

316

WILD GOATS IN KIRTHAR NATIONAL PARK

that drank. Jorgensen (1974) and Campbell &
Remington (1981) reported that desert bighorn
sheep ( Ovis canadensis) modified their drink-
ing patterns in a similar manner to avoid human
disturbance.

One could argue that the partial shift in
water-use patterns to early morning and late
evening periods, during April and May, may
correspond to increasing temperatures. How-
ever, local game watchers and wildlife enthu-
siasts reported that the water-use patterns we
observed during March were the normal pat-
terns for April and May. In addition, wild
goats that approached the waterpoint during
construction periods did so cautiously, con-
stantly looking in the direction of the well.

Kirthar National Park is a remote area and
receives very little visitor use. In addition, the
park staff is not adequately equipped to pre-
vent poaching in the park. Flight distance of
wild goats from people on foot in the park
often exceeded 1 km (Edge & Olson-Edge,
unpubl. data). Goats within the park respond-
ed to human presence in a manner similar to
wild populations outside the park and have not
become habituated to humans. Wild goats at
the Janko waterpoint did not show a complete
shift in water-use activity, probably because
the disturbance was 600 m away, and because
the waterpoint was the only source of water
available to them. Had the construction been
at or closer to the waterpoint, we believe a
complete shift in water-use patterns would
have been observed.

Our trapping activities at the waterpoint
undoubtedly caused some disturbance. How-

ever, the disturbance was minor and could not
account for the shift in water-use patterns we
observed. We trapped throughout the day and
developed a conservative trapping program to
reduce the possibility of disturbance. We
rarely trapped more than three consecutive
days a week, and used the net-gun to capture
wild goats only when the group size was less
than 20. We relied on snares to capture wild
goats when the groups were greater than 20, and
we did not approach the captive goat until the
entire group drank and walked away. Neverthe-
less, managers should be aware of the poten-
tial disturbance that can be caused by trapping
at water sources (Leslie & Douglas 1979).

The results of this study indicate that wild
goats will be sensitive to human disturbance
at or near water sources. Construction projects
and other human activities at or adjacent to
water sources should be carefully evaluated for
their potential effects on wild goat popula-
tions. Construction activities at such sites
should be timed to avoid the pre-monsoon
season during which wild goats are dependent
upon the water.

Acknowledgements

Funding for this study was provided by the
United States Fish and Wildlife Service’s
Special Foreign Currency Programme. The
Sind Wildlife Management Board provided
transportation and housing. We thank S. Uddin
for field assistance and the staff of the Karohat
Visitor Centre, Kirthar National Park, for
logistic support. C. L. Marcum and D. H.
Pletscher reviewed an early draft of this paper.

317

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY . Vol. 85

References

Campbell, B. & Remington, R. (1981) : Influence
of construction activities on water-use patterns of
desert bighorn sheep. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 9: 63-65.

Edge, W. D., Olson-Edge, S. L. & Ghani, N.
(in press) : Biology and behavior of wild goats and
urial at a waterpoint in Kirthar National Park,
Pakistan. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

Jorgensen, P. (1974) : Vehicle use at a desert
bighorn watering area. Trans. Desert Bighorn Counc.
20: 42-45.

Leslie, D. M., jr. Douglas, C. L. (1979):

Desert bighorn sheep of the River Mountains,
Nevada. Wildl. Monogr. 66: 56 pp.

Roberts, T. J. (1967) : A note on Capra hircus
blythi Hume, 1875. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64:
358-365.

Schaller, G. B. (1977): Mountain monarchs:
Wild sheep and goats of the Himalaya. The Univ.
of Chicago Press, Chicago. 425 pp.

Schaller, G. B. & Laurie, A. (1974): Courtship
behaviour of the wild goats. Z. Saugetierkunde 39:
115-127,

318

IMPACT OF GUANO DEPOSITION IN VEDANTHANGAL
WATER-BIRD SANCTUARY (CHENG ALPATTU
DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU)1

S. Paulraj2

Impact of guano deposition by water-birds at Vedanthangal Water-bird Sanctuary
was studied. Chemical composition of water-birds’ guano showed that it contained
29 mg/g (dry weight) of N02 and NQ3 nitrogen and 89.8 mg/g (dry weight) of P2Os.
Guano, dissolved in tank water contained 1.73 mg/1 of nitrogen and 4.40 mg/1 of
P205. Vedanthangal tank-irrigated ayacut soil contained 206 kg of nitrogen; 130 kg
of P205 and 97 kg of K20 per hectare. Nitrogen and P2Os content of Vedanthangal
tank-water and tank-ayacut soil showed a significantly higher level when compared
to neighbouring tank-water and tank-ayacut soil. The quantum of benefit received
by Vedanthangal ayacut farmers due to guano deposition was assessed. There was
also a fertility gradient noticed in Vedanthangal tank-ayacut.

Introduction

In the years following the first general reali-
sation of the importance of phosphorus in
the middle of the 19th century, came the dis-
covery of the guano deposits on some Pacific
Islands. These are huge mounds of the drop-
pings of sea birds valuable as fertilizers.
The birds ate fish, whose bodies were rich in
phosphorus, and much of the phosphorus was
voided with the bird’s droppings. It was obvi-
ous that an enormous tonnage of phosphorus
had been returned from the sea to land in
this way.

Hutchinson (1950) first studied the annual
return of phosphorus from the sea by the sea
birds, which was calculated to be 70,000
tonnes for the entire world. Ali (1972) feels,
“although no deposits of like magnitude or
value exist within our limit, yet the possibi-
lities of the ‘liquid guano’ of colonial-nesting
water birds have not been seriously exploited
in India”. But the fertilizing effect of this
‘liquid guano’ was realised by the people of

1 Accepted January 1988.

2 Assistant Conservator of Forests, Arignar Anna
Zoological Park, Madras 600 048.

Vedanthangal as early as 1790, much earlier
than the realisation of the importance of the
guano deposits (Spillett 1966).

It was estimated that more than 25,000
breeding and non-breeding water-birds congre-
gate during the season inside this tank (Paulraj
1984, Annamalai 1985). Daily deposition of
large amounts of droppings by these birds in
this compact tank area of 30 ha. makes the
tank water turbid and the tank water is con-
verted into a ‘liquid guano’ in due course.
When this guano-rich tank water is used for
irrigating the fields, it enriches the soil with
phosphate and nitrate fertilizers.

There are several references in literature
indicating the fertilizer property of the liquid
guano (Thangam 1956, Spillett 1966, Santha-
ram 1984). But none of them gives any quan-
tified data regarding the fertilizer status and
the level of benefit due to the addition of the
guano. The present study was aimed at finding
the impact of the liquid guano on the soil
and agricultural productivity in and around
Vedanthangal water-bird sanctuary tank ayacut.

Method

The composition of the essential macro-

319

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

elements, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
were analysed in guano, tank water, tank silt
and in the field soil of Vedanthangal. The
pH and electrical conductivity (EC) of the
soil and water were also tested.

Only available NPK were estimated; soil
and part of water analyses were done in the
Agricultural Soil Testing Laboratories at
Kancheepuram and Theni and in the Soil
Science Laboratory at Coimbatore. The chemi-
cal composition of the guano and tank water
were done with the help of the Botany De-
partment. University of Madras.

For a comparative study, silt and water of
Maduranthangam tank were also analysed.
Already available data on the fertilizer status
of the Maduranthagam tank ayacut were
obtained from soil testing laboratory, Kanchee-
puram. This was taken as a control as it is
located very near Vedanthangal and there is
no congregation of birds.

Analysis of soil

Sampling : The soil samples from Vedan-
thangal tank ayacut area were collected from
many places so as to represent the entire area.
To know whether there is any fertility gra-
dient, the entire stretch of the field (about
300 metres) from the tank bund to the extreme
end of the ayacut was divided into three
divisions of 100 metres length each. The first
one represents ayacut near the tank, the second
represents middle ayacut land, while the third
division represents the farthest ayacut from
the tank bund. From each division, soil samples
were taken from five localities so as to repre-
sent the entire area. While taking soil samples
the sampling technique prescribed by the
Agriculture Department was carefully follow-
ed (Devadoss 1981).

Silt from the tank was obtained by scrap-
ing the upper layer of the soil in a few places
inside the tank.

The analyses were done for (1) the availa-
ble nitrogen, prosphorus and potassium and
(2) EC & pH levels.

Analysis of water

Water samples were taken in various places
of the tank at various depths in the evening
from Vedanthangal tank and Maduranthagam
tank. The Vedanthangal water was very turbid
due to the accumulation of guano. This was
taken during March, which was the peak period
for bird congregation. The Maduranthagam
tank water was very clear and there was an
abundant growth of branched algae rooted in
the bottom soil.

Both the water samples were tested for their
suitability for irrigation by the Agricultural
Soil Testing Lab. The available nitrogen (N02
& NOs) and phosphorus (P205) were estimat-
ed following the methods mentioned for esti-
mating N02, NOs and inorganic phosphorus
(Trivedi and Goel 1984); pH was determined
by a pH meter.

Turbidity of water : The turbidity of water
was determined by measuring the light penetra-
tion depth by Secchi disc at various parts in
the Vedanthangal and Maduranthagam tanks.

Analysis of guano : Guano of various breed-
ing birds were obtained from the vacated
nests. They were mixed together and compo-
sition of N02, NOr, and P2 05 were found out
by the methods mentioned earlier.

Statistical analysis : The following statistical
analyses were done.

(1) Test of significance by comparison of
means,

(2) Analysis of variance (see Lewis 1971).

Observations and Results

Soil analysis'. The analytical results of soil
analysis of Vedanthangal tank ayacut reveal

320

IMPACT OF GUANO DEPOSITION

that the salt level (EC) is Q.36± 0.1 and the
pH is 7. 3 6 ± 0.49 in Vedanthangal tank ayacut
soil. The mean fertilizer levels of the tank
ayacut soil are N = 83 .7 ±31 .3, P - 52. 7 ±22. 5
and K = 39 . 14± 19 . 4 kg/acre ( n = 36) , while
the fertilizer levels of nearby Maduranthagam
tank ayacut soil are, N = 75. 15 ±17.1; P = 33.05
±10.7 and K= 103 ±40. 9 kg/acre (n = 40).

The silt of Vedanthangal tank contains 1093
kg of nitrogen, 106 kg of phosphorus and
185 kg of potassium per hectare. The pH
ranges from 6 to 7.3 while the EC level is
0.9 (Table 1).

Water analysis : The results of the chemical
analysis of Vedanthangal tank and Maduran-
thangam tank waters reveal that they differ
in carbonate, sodium and calcium levels. The
nitrogen (NQ2 & N03) and phosphorus (P2Os)
content of the Vedanthangal tank water are
1.73/mg/l. and 4.4 mg/1, respectively

(Table 1).

But the difference in nitrogen level is not
statistically significant due to wide variation in
the samples (P = 25%), whereas phosphorus
shows a highly significant difference; Y = 4.6
(P<0.01): n = 76. The potassium level of
Vedanthangal is very low when compared
to Maduranthagam tank ayacut soil; Y = 8.66
(PC'O.Ol): n = 76.

Fertility gradient : The fertility levels of

NPK and levels of pH and EC of Vedan-
thangal ayacut soil reveal that a gradient is
observed in pH, EC and phosphorus levels. It
is observed that there is a gradual increase in
the case of pH & EC and decrease in the
case of phosphorus levels from ayacut soil
near the tank to ayacut soil present at the
extreme end of the tank.

Analysis of variance tested for phosphorus
reveals that the values for the three different
regions (0 to 100 m.. 101 to 200 m., and 201

Table 1

Chemical analysis of guano, tank silt, tank water and field soil of Vedanthangal

Test

Guano

(mg/gm dry wt.)

Silt*

(kg/ha.)

Water

(mg/lit)

Field

(kg/ha.)

Nitrogen (N02 & NOa)

29.0

1093

1.73

206

Phosphorus (P2Og)

89.8

106

4.40

130

Potassium (K20)

—

185

—

97

NOTE: * Silt of Maduranthagam lake contained 138 kg of N, 21.6 kg of K20/ha. and no P205.

Analysis of guano : The chemical analysis
of birds’ guano for nitrogen (NG2 and NOs)
and phosphorus (P205) reveals that it con-
tains 29.9 mg/g. and 89.8 mg/g. dry weight
respectively (Table 1).

The NPK levels of the soil of Vedanthangal
tank ayacut and Maduranthagam tank ayacut
differ significantly. Statistical analysis of com-
parison of means reveals that the nitrogen and
phosphorus levels of Vedanthangal tank ayacut
soil is higher than that of Maduranthagam.

to 300 m) differ significantly (P<0.01)
(Table 2).

Discussion

It is a common belief among the villagers of
Vedanthangal that the droppings of birds
(guano) which fall into the tank water increase
the fertility of the soil and also increase the
crop production when used for irrigating their
paddy fields. A majority opinion was that

321

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Table 2

‘Annova’ Final Table

P2Og CONTENT OF THE SOIL — (SEE TEXT)

Source of variation Sum of squares df Mean squares ‘F’ Ratio

Between columns 0.1072 2 0.0536 33.98

Within columns 0.0142 9 0.00157 . (P<0.01)

Total 0.1214 11 —

there was no need for fertilizer application
when they were earlier cultivating the tradi-
tional paddy variety. Although the recent high
yielding paddy variety needs addition of ferti-
lizer, the addition of fertilizer for Vedanthan-
gal ayacut may be lower than the amount of
fertilizer applied in other areas.

Such an increase in fertility due to the
addition of guano by water-birds was reported
by Thangam (1956), Spillett (1966) and
Santharam (1984) at Vedanthangal lake, by
Hugh and Ganzer (1983) at Ranganathittu
water-bird sanctuary, and by Salim Ali (1983)
at Bharatpur Keoladeo National Park. Abra-
ham (1973) reported that the yield of crop
doubled in quantity on the application of
guano-rich silt at Kanjirankulam ayacut.

Thus, fertility of the soil of these tank-
irrigated land increases either by guano-rich

tank water or by the addition of tank silt; in
the latter, the guano settles and mixes with
the silt. Here, an analysis of the fertilizing
potential of the Vedanthangal tank water and
silt will be noteworthy.

It was assessed during the peak period of
the season (March 1984) that the tank water
contains 1.73 mg/1, of nitrogen and 4.4 mg/1,
of phosphorus. When this water is used for
irrigating one hectare area of field and allow-
ed to remain for height of 15 cm, its volume
is 500 cubic metres (1,500,000 litres). Irriga-
tion of this volume of water adds 2.6 kg of
nitrogen and 6 . 6 kg of phosphorus to a hectare
of area. In other words, it is equivalent to an
addition of 5.56 kg of urea and 41.25 kg of
superphosphate per hectare per irrigation by
the same amount of water.

With reference to the tank silt of Vedan-

Table 3

Indirect fertilizer gain in Vedanthangal ayacut — a comparison with Maduranthagam lake ayakut

Name of
Fertilizer

Average level kg/ha.

Vedanthangal Maduranthagam
(V) (M)

Gain

(V-M)

kg/ha.

Source of chemical
fertilizer

Gain in terms
of chemical
fertilizer (kg/ha.)

N

206

186

20

Urea (46% N)

43.5 (Urea)

p2o3

130

82

48

Super P04
(16% P2Og)

300 (Super P04)

322

IMPACT OF GUANO DEPOSITION

thangal, it is assessed that it contains 442 kg/
acre (1093 kg/ha.) of nitrogen and contains
43 kg/acre (106 kg/ha.) of phosphorus. In
other words, one tonne of silt contains 440 g
of N and 43 g of P. When an acre of land is
raised by an inch height with this tank silt, it
will add to the soil about 75 kg of N per acre
and 7 kg of P per acre. (Note : It is said that
6 inch depth soil in an acre area of land
weighs 1000 tonnes — Devadoss 1981). Thus
it is evident that the addition of silt to agri-
cultural land will increase the fertility of the
soil to a considerable extent.

In this respect, an assessment of the indirect
benefit received by the Vedanthangal farmers
will be helpful to understand the usefulness of
wildlife. A comparison of the fertilizer status
(N and P) of the soils of Vedanthangal tank
ayacut and Maduranthagam tank ayacuts will
bring out the fact. (The latter tank is located
about 1 km south of the former). It is seen
that there is an increase of fertilizer (N and
P) level in Vedanthangal tank ayacut soil,
which is due to the addition of guano of the
birds congregating there.

Although the levels of nitrogen in Vedan-
thangal ayacut and Maduranthagam tank aya-
cut do not differ significantly (P>0.05), my
limited soil sample analysis showed a higher
nitrogen content in the former. Further, the
available nitrogen storage or its accumulation
in the soil is not possible to an expected ex-
tent, as there is always a loss of nitrogen by
evaporation and other means. Unlike phospho-
rus, nitrogen does not have the adhering capa-
city with soil particles. Thus nitrogen should
be added for every crop.

It is evident that the guano deposits con-
tribute mainly nitrogen and phosphorus and
not potassium. The poor concentration of
potassium in guano is evidenced from the
studies of Raianu & Emanoil (1969), who
showed that the fresh guano of Chiropterans

contains 12.58% total nitrogen; 8.73% P2Os,
1.25% K205 and 3.16% CaO. Further, the
chemical analysis of guano of water-birds
reveals that the contribution of phosphorus by
the guano is more than that of nitrogen and
the guano is considered to be the major source
of phosphorus among the organic fertilizers
(Cooke 1975).

Due to constant addition of guano by the
increasing population of migratory birds at
Vedanthangal tank, the water becomes highly
concentrated and turbid. High turbidity was
observed during March. During this period,
the light penetration ranged from 30 cm. to
36.5 cm. with an average of 34 cm. depth. It
is reported at Rharatpur Bird Sanctuary lake
that a low light penetration up to a minimum
of 46.78 cm. depth was observed during peak
season (Ali 1983). The reason attributed by
him is that the low light penetration may be
due to thick growth of submerged vegetation.
Rut in Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary the low
light penetration may be due to the mixing
of large amount of guano and also to the
presence of large amounts of blue-green and
green algae.

Another point of interest observed during
the course of the study is that there is a
chemical gradient in the tank ayacut. Clear
gradient is observed in the case of pH, EC
and phosphorus levels (Table 2). No such
gradient is observed in the case of nitrogen
and potassium. During irrigation, the tank
water is taken from one end to another by a
canal. While doing so, the nutrient rich guano
starts settling in the ayacut. The ayacut near
the tank receives more concentration of the
guano, which is reduced in the farthest ayacut
as settling occurs while flowing. Although the
guano contains both nitrogen and phosphorus,
the gradient is not observed in nitrogen levels.
This may be due to loss of nitrogen as already

323

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

discussed. The ayacut located at the extreme
end of the tank showed higher EC level com-
pared to the ayacut near the tank. This may
be due to reduced chance for proper drainage
for the land located at the extreme ends.

Acknowledgements

I wish to express my gratefulness to Mr. S.

Kondas, LF.S., Chief Conservator of Forests,
Tamil Nadu for providing me an opportunity
to study this aspect and to Mr. S. Subbarayalu
Naidu, I.F.S., Director and to Mr. K. S. Neela-
kantan, I.F.S., Deputy Director, Arignar Anna
Zoological Park for their encouragement and
for going through the manuscript.

References

Abraham, S. (1973) : The Kanjirankulam breed-
ing bird sanctuary in the Ramnad District of Tamil
Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70(3) : 549-552.

Ali, S. (1972): The Book of Indian Birds, Bom-
bay Natural History Society, Bombay, pp. 162.

(1983) : Hydrobiological (Ecological)

Research at Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur.
First interim report Bharatpur. 211 pp.

Annamalai, R. (1985): Working Plan for Chen-
gleput Forest Division (Under preparation). Tamil
Nadu Forest Department.

Cooke, G. W. (1975): Fertilizing for maximum
yield. Fletcher and Sons Ltd., London, pp. 297.

Devadoss, T. (1981): ‘Soil Testing’ Booklet in
Tamil published by Tamil Nadu Government Agri-
culture Department, Madras, pp. 13.

Hugh & Ganzer, C. (1983): Ranganthittu Water-
Bird Sanctuary. Sanctuary, 5(4) : 320-325.

Hutchinson, G. E. (1950): The biogeoche-

mistry of Vertebrate excretion. Bulletin of the
American Museum of Natural History. 96: 554.

Lewis, A. E. (1971): Biostatistics. Affiliated East-
West Press Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 227.

Paulraj, S. (1984): Studies on Vedanthangal
Bird Sanctuary. Project Report. Part-I. Tamil Nadu
Forest Department.

Raianu, O. & Emanoil, G. (1969): Biogeochemi-
cal research on guano deposit in Guru Dobrogei
Grotto. An. Stinct. Univ. A 1. I Cuza. Iasi. Sect. II
(A) Biol. 15 ( 2): 411-424.

Santharam, V. (1984): The delights of Vedan-
thangal. ‘The Hindu’, Weekly edition, dated 15th
April, 1984, pages 10 and 11.

Spillett, J. J. (1966): A report on Wildlife Sur-
veys in South and West India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 65(3): 633-663.

Thangam, E. S. (1956): Working Plan for Chengle-
put Forest Division, Tamil Nadu Forest Department.

Trivedi, R. K. & Goel, P. K. (1984) : Chemical
and Biological methods for Water pollution studies.
Environmental publication, Karad. pp. 215.

324

FOOD OF MALLARD, ANAS PLATYRHYNCHOS AT
HOKARSAR WETLAND, KASHMIR1
G. Mustafa Shah and M. Y. Qadri2
( With two text-figures)

The food of mallard ( Anas platyrhynchos ) was determined during the shooting
season from November, 1982 to April, 1983 at Hokarsar (34° 06' N, 74° 05' E;
1584 m. AMSL). Eighty mallards were obtained and their gut contents analysed.
Plant material of 37 species formed 95.46% of the diet. Oryza sativa was the prin-
cipal food and formed 47.01% of the diet. Myosotis caespitosa, Echinoclnloa cruss-
galli, Myriophyllum spicatum and Najas gramineum were the other chief dietary
items. Very few invertebrates were consumed because of their limited abundance.

The preference and relative intake appears
of food.

Introduction

Some three decades ago, mallard ( Anas
platyrhynchos) was one of the common breed-
ing birds of the wetlands of Kashmir and was
more or less resident (Bates & Lowther 1952).
But the shrinkage of habitat as a result of re-
clamation and natural succession, illegal egg
collection and unfriendly human behaviour
have made its position precarious with the
result that the birds no longer breed here and
are only winter visitors to Kashmir.

In Hokarsar, mallard are very sensitive to
changes in the habitat, including the availa-
bility of food. The number of birds that
migrate to this wetland during winter is also
declining greatly. In order to appreciate the
significance of this species’ habitat preference,
population size and density, detailed informa-
tion on the quality and quantity of food is im-
portant from a management point of view. It
was with this aim that the present study on
feeding habits was undertaken in an attempt
to understand its food requirement, which is

1 Accepted May 1986.

2 Post-Graduate Department of Zoology, Univer-
sity of Kashmir, Srinagar - 190 006.

to be directly related to the availability

basic to the intensive management of any wild
life.

Study Area

Hokarsar (34° 06' N lat., 74° 05' E long.;
1584 m. AMSL) is an important and protected
reserve for waterfowl, managed by the Depart-
ment of Wildlife Protection, J&K Government,
situated in the centre of the Valley, about
10 km to the west of Srinagar. The wetland
is more or less semicircular in outline, extend-
ing in an east-west direction with a surface
area of 9.0 sq. km. (Fig. 1). It is fed by a
perennial Doodganga stream that originates
from Doodganga watershed in Pir Panjal range
of the Himalayas and drains into river Jhelum
on the northwest by a small stream.

Material and Methods

Eighty mallards were collected from within
the study area mostly by capturing and shoot-
ing. About 80% of the birds were shot and
captured between 0900 hrs. and 1100 hrs. The
entire gut of the bird was removed by the
technique of Harrison (1960) and food contents

325

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Mud Flats

Fig. 1. Map of Hokarsai wetland reserve showing study units.

analysed. Guts which were not examined
within six hours of collection were preserved
in 4% formalin, after tying the severed ends
of the oesophagus and intestine to prevent the
loss of contents. Each gut was dissected and
the contents of oesophagus and gizzard were
washed repeatedly into sieves of various mesh
sizes and sorted into organic and inorganic
components. The organic material was further
separated into animal and plant items and then
identified as accurately as possible with the
aid of Pennak (1953), Ward & Whipple (1959)
and Martin & Barkley (1961). The weight of
each plant and animal species, accurate to
0.005 gm. and the volume were calculated by
water displacement method in graduated cylin-
der to 0.01 ml. after drying on a blotting
paper.

Results

Mallards started arriving at Hokarsar in
small numbers in September and October and
the maximum population was in November
and December (Fig. 2). Due to cold tempe-
rature and paucity of food in January, a sudden
decline in the population was noticed. But as
favourable conditions returned in February,
a build-up of the population was again notic-
ed, which then gradually decreased in March
and April before the birds left.

Mallard ( Anas platyrhynchos) usually fed
in small flocks or in pairs and in congregation
with other ducks and geese like greylag
goose, wigeon, pintail and common teal and
was mainly a herbivore. The analysis of gut
contents revealed the food to be composed

326

FOOD OF MALLARD

« 1 ' 3 i L_ 1

J FMAMJ J ASOND

1982-8 3

Fig. 2. Estimated population of the Mallard at
Hokarsar.

of 37 species of plants and 15 families of
animals. The food items with the frequency of
occurrence, weight and volume are shown in
Table 1.

The plant material comprised of seeds and
fruits and other vegetable parts.

The seeds and fruits of 30 plant species
belonging to 15 families contributed to the
bulk of the diet and were recorded from 98 . 7%
of the guts, forming 70.30% of the diet by
weight and 68.43% by volume. Oryza sadva
appeared to be the chief dietary item recover-
ed in 66.2% of the guts and accounted for
33.7% of food by weight (32.5% volume).
Myosotis caespitosa recorded in 78.7% of
guts appeared to be slightly more preferred
than Oryza sadva, but formed only 1 1 . 0% by
weight and 10.40% by volume. Phragmites
communis was found in 61.2% of the ducks

and formed 4.81% of the total weight and
5.28% of the total volume. Echinochloa cruss-
galli accounted for 4.66% by weight and 3.63%
by volume. Seeds of five species of Cyperaceae
were found in 85% and their combined weight
and volume accounted for 2.50% and 2.47%
respectively. Myriophyllum spicatum was re-
corded in 81.2% of the guts and formed 3.65%
by weight and 3.47% by volume. Najas
gramineum accounted for 3.47% by weight
(2.86% by volume). In addition, seeds of 19
species of plants belonging to 11 families
amounted to 5.88% by weight and 7.02% by
volume.

Vegetative parts of 10 species of nine families
were found in 46.2% of the guts and con-
tributed 25.16% of food by weight (27.44%
by volume). Oryza sadva, though recorded in
only six birds, formed 13.31% of the total
food weight (13.86% volume). This was
followed by Salix twigs, which were recovered
from seven birds and accounted for 4.63%
of the total food by weight and 6.38% of the
total food by volume. Nymphoides peltatum
was recorded in four birds, being 2.42% and
2.20% of the food by weight and volume
respectively. Carex sp., Scirpus sp., Solanum
tuberosum and Trifodum repens were record-
ed in only 3.7% of the guts, Lemna minor
and Potamogeton sp. in 2.0% and Cerato-
phyllum demersum in 1 . 2% of the guts.

The animal component of the food com-
prised of 15 species of animals found in 35%
of the guts, contributing 4.54% of food by
weight and 4.13% by volume. However, this
consisted mainly of insects and molluscs. Two
species of molluscs — Lymnaea stagnads and
Lyrnnaea sp. occurred in 12 guts. Ten species
of insects, occurring in 1.2 — 8.7% of the guts,
formed 3 . 98% and .3 . 53% of the total weight
and volume. Gammarus sp. and Copepoda
(Crustacea) were recorded in 5 . 0% of the
guts and oligochaetes in 2.5%.

327

6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Table 1

Analysis of the gut contents of mallard

Food categories

Fre-

quency

% of
total
freq.

Weight

(gms)

% of
totaJ wt.

Volume

(ml)

%of

total

voL

Fruits/Seeds

Myriophyllum spicatum

65

81.2

14.59

3.65

12.64

3.47

Myosotis caespitosa

63

78.7

43.96

11.0

37.84

10.40

Najas gramineum

55

68.7

13.87

3.47

10.40

2.86

Oryza sativa

53

66.2

134.92

33.7

118.16

32.50

Phragmites communis

49

61.2

19.25

4.81

19.20

5.28

Scirpus setaceous

38

47.5

1.96

0.49

2.16

0.59

Sparganium ramosum

33

41.2

6.30

1.57

6.34

1.74

Eleocharis sp.

33

41.2

0.79

0.19

0.72

0.19

Car ex nulbigena

31

38.7

4.80

1.20

3.44

0.94

Polygonum amphibium

30

37.5

0.43

0.11

0.48

0.13

Echinochloa cruss-galli

25

31.2

18.64

4.66

13.20

3.63

Polygonum hydro pi per

16

20.0

0.09

0.02

0.24

0.06

Potamogeton natans

15

18.7

0.55

0.13

0.88

0.24

Potamogeton zizi

15

18.7

0.12

0.03

0.24

0.06

Potamogeton crispus

15

18.7

0.04

0.01

0.04

0.01

Unidentified

14

17.5

1.99

0.50

1.60

0.44

Eleocharis palustris

13

16.2

3.13

0.78

2.90

0.79

Polygonum patienta

13

16.2

0.04

+

0.02

+

Alisma plantago aquatica

12

15.0

0.30

0.07

0.80

0.22

Scirpus juncoides

11

13.7

0.06

0.01

0.16

0.04

Sagittaria sagittifolia

11

13.7

0.03

0.008

0.02

+

Hippuris vulgaris

11

13.7

1.09

0.27

1.30

0.35

Rannunculus muricatus

10

12.5

1.83

0.45

1.53

0.42

Nymphaea alba

9

11.2

2.31

0.58

2.20

0.60

Nymphaea Candida

6

7.5

2.01

0.50

2.01

0.55

Trapa natans

5

6.2

0.60

0.15

4.00

1.10

Rumex conglomeratus

4

5

0.93

0.23

0.83

0.22

Nymphaea stellata

3

3.7

5.43

1.35

4.01

1.10

Rumex acetosa

3

3.7

1.29

0.32

1.01

0.27

Carex sp.

2

2.5

0.08

0.02

0.40

0.11

Fruits/seeds total

79

98.7

281.46

70.30

248.77

68.43

328

FOOD OF MALLARD

Table 1 (Contd.)

Food catagories

Fre-

quency

% of
total
freq.

Weight

(gms)

%of
total wt.

Volume

(ml)

% of
total
vol.

Vegetative parts

Salix sp.

7

8.7

18.52

4.63

23.20

6.38

Oryza sativa

6

7.5

53.24

13.31

50.40

13.86

Nymphoides pelt at um

4

5.0

9.68

2.42

8.0

2.20

Carex sp.

3

3.7

4.0

1.0

3.52

0.97

Scirpus sp.

3

3.7

5.09

1.27

4.23

1.16

Solarium tuberosum

3

3.7

8.20

2.04

7.53

2.07

T rifol ium re pens

3

3.7

0.92

0.23

0.81

0.22

Lemna minor

2

2.5

1.32

0.33

1.02

0.28

Potamogeton sp.

2

2.5

0.09

0.02

0.02

+

Ceratophyllum demersum

1

1.2

1.33

0.33

1.03

0.20

Vegetative total

37

46.2

102.40

25.16

99.76

27.44

Animals

MOLLUSCA

Lymnaea st agnail is

12

15

1.03

0.26

0.93

0.25

Lymnaea sp.

10

12.5

0.44

0.11

0.41

0.11

Arthropoda

INSECTA

13.69

3.98

12.95

3.53

Bagus sp.

7

8.7

11.23

2.80

10.40

2.86

Cricotopus sp.

4

5.0

0.82

0.20

0.80

0.22

Chironomid larvae

4

5.0

0.33

0.08

0.31

0.08

Cy bister later alimarginallis

3

3.7

0.88

0.22

0.75

0.20

Diptera (pupae)

3

3.7

0.23

0.58

0.24

0.86

Gerris sp.

2

2.5

0.17

0.04

0.16

0.04

Macromia sp.

2

2.5

0.10

0.02

0.08

0.02

Hydrophilus sp.

2

2.5

0.08

0.02

0.07

0.02

Laccophilus minutus

1

1.2

0.07

0.01

0.08

0.02

Syrphid larvae

1

1.2

0.07

0.01

0.06

0.01

Crustacea

Gammarus sp.

4

5.0

0.72

0.18

0.69

0.18

Copepoda

4

5.0

t

+

4

+

Oligochaetes

2

2.5

0.03

+

0.03

+

Animal total

28

35

16.12

4.54

15.01

4.13

Total food weight = 399.89 gm
Total food volume = 363.54 ml
+ = <0.01% t= <0.0050 gm and <0.01 ml

Average 4.99 gms/gut
Average 4.54 ml/gut

329

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Discussion

Waterfowl, in their cyclic migration, expe-
rience changing conditions not only among the
wetlands and other water bodies but also
seasonally within a given ecosystem. A recent
extensive accumulation of information on the
feeding ecology of waterfowl has indicated
that the diet of species changes with availa-
bility, time, age and even sex (Sugden 1969,
Swanson & Meyer 1973). Mallards, in their
search for food, are constantly faced with
changing conditions in the complex of aquatic
ecosystem. The rapid changes in environmen-
tal conditions, such as climate, influence their
occurrence in the wetland more than any other
factor (Swanson et al. 1974). During Decem-
ber, when a peak population of overall water-
fowl as that of mallard (over 4000) was built
up, there was an intensive competition for
food, with the result that the quantity and
availability of food became a limiting factor.
The availability of food was also affected by
severe cold — freezing of the water and snow
cover formed on the ground and floating vege-
tation. This led to a great fall in the popula-
tion of birds under such conditions. Maitland
(1964), Krapu (1974) and Owen & Cook
(1977) have suggested the low availability of
fauna and other surface food during the
extreme cold of winter as the factor limiting
the population of mallard. Although mallards
are generally equipped to withstand the low
temperature the conditions with regard
to procurement are not favourable, and hence
the exodus from the wetland. Cains (1973)
and Bennet and Bolen (1978) also showed that
severe weather conditions especially low tem-
perature of January and food shortage are
known to cause stress and affect the distri-

bution and movement of mallards. With the
improvement of conditions in February, the
mallard population reformed again. So differ-
ences in the diet reflect the differences in the
availability and possibly differing abundance of
foods in the different periods as also suggested
by Olney (1967) and Thomas (1982).

Although some parts of as many as 37
plants and 15 animal species were recorded
in the gut contents of mallard, only a few of
these formed the major items, and the feed-
ing habits provided sufficient evidence that
mallard changed its feeding habits with season
during its stay at the wetland. The variations
in the diet may also be due to the presence
of some superabundant farm foods (Owen
1976). Oryza sativa, which was the major food
item of the. bird, is knocked to the ground
during harvesting in autumn and gets washed
into the wetland due to rains and is available
to the duck. The preference, and therefore
relative intake, appears to be directly related to
the availability of food. They seemed to prefer
mainly seeds when freely available; on other
occasions they would shift to other vegetation
and animal matter. These seasonal variations
are similar to those described for the species
in North Queensland (Lavery 1966).

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Mir Inayat Ullah, Chief
Wildlife Warden, Department of Wildlife Pro-
tection, Jammu & Kashmir for providing the
necessary facilities at the study area. Thanks
are due to Dr. A. M. Kak, Islamia College,
Srinagar for help in identification of certain
seeds, and to Dr. A. R. Yousuf and Ulfat Jan
for valuable suggestions.

330

FOOD OF MALLARD

References

Bates, R. S. P. & Lowther, E. H. N. (1952):
Breeding birds of Kashmir. Oxford Univ. Press,
London.

Bennett, J. W. & Bolen, E. G. (1978) : Stress
response in wintering Green-winged teal. /. Wildl.
Manage. 43: 81-86.

Cains, B. W. (1973) : Effect of temperature on
energy requirements and northward distribution of
the black-bellied tree duck. Willson Bull., 85: 308-
317.

Gaston, A. J. (1975): Methods for estimating
bird population. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 72(2) :
271-283.

Harrison, J. G. (1960): A technique for remov-
ing wildfowl viscera for research. Ann. Rep. Wild-
fowl Trust ll: 135-136.

Krapu, G. L. (1974) : Feeding ecology of pintail
hens during reproduction. Auk, 91: 278-290.

Lavery, H. J. (1966) : Studies of waterfowl
(Anatidae) in north Queensland. 1. Introduction,
species distribution and habitat. Qld. J. Agric. Anim.
Sci., 23: 53-90.

Maitland, P. S. (1964): Quantitative studies on
the invertebrate fauna of sandy and stony substrates
in the river Endrick, Scotland. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb.
B., 68: 277-311.

Martin, A. C. & Barkley, W. (1961): Seed
identification manual. Calif. Univ. Press, Berkeley.

Olney, P.J.S. (1967): The WAGB-Wildfowl Trust
Experimental Reserve — Pt. 2. The feeding ecology

of local mallard and other wildfowl. Rep. Wildfowl
Trust, 18: 47-55.

Owen, M. (1976): Wildfowl Ecology Symposium:
Factors affecting the distribution of geese in the
British Isles. Wildfowl, 27: 143-147.

Owen, M. & Cook, W. A. (1977) : Variations in
body weight, wing length and conditions of the
mallard, Anas platyrhynchos platyrhynchos and their
relationship to environmental changes. J. Zool. Lond.,
183: 377-395.

Pennak, R. W. (1953) : Fresh water invertebrates
of the United States. Ronald Press Co., N.Y.

Sugden, L. G. (1969) : Foods, food selection and
energy requirements of wild ducklings in southern
Alberta. Ph.D. thesis. Utah State University.

Swanson, G. A. & Meyer, M. I. (1973) : The
role of invertebrates in the feeding ecology of Ana-
tinae during the breeding season. The Waterfowl
Habitat Mgmt. Symp. Moncton, New Brunswick,
Canada, 143-185.

Swanson, G. A., Meyer, M. I. & Serie, J. R.
(1974) : Feeding ecology of breeding blue-winged
teals. J. Wildl. Manage., 38: 396-407.

Thomas, G. J. (1982) : Autumn and winter feed-
ing ecology of waterfowl at the Ouse Washes,
England. J. Zool. Lond., 197: 131-172.

Ward, H. B. & Whipple, G. C. (1959): Fresh
water biology (2nd Ed.). John Wiley & Sons. Inc.

Watson, A. (1965): A population study of the
ptarmigan ( Lagopus mutus ) in Scotland. J. Anim.
Ecol., 34: 135-172.

331

OBSERVATIONS ON THE OCCURRENCE AND HABITS
OF THE NACADUBA COMPLEX OF THE LYCAENIDAE
(LEPIDOPTERA), MAINLY FROM PUNE DISTRICT,
WESTERN GHATS1

A. E. Bean2, s.s.j.e.

( With sixteen plates and seven text-figures)

The taxonomic work of Eliot (1973) stimulates the interest of the field naturalist.
Distribution of the 71 species is tabulated and the possible origin and spreading of
the group is suggested. Field observations on eight species from India and Sri Lanka
are given, with notes on some early stages. The male genitalia and androconia are
described and illustrated. Notes are added on the preparation of male genitalia.

Classification

For the purpose of this paper I include in
‘ Nacaduba and allied genera’ those listed by
Tite (1963), adding the single African genus
Pseudonacaduba as in Eliot (1973) who divi-
des the group as follows:

a) Petrelaea section:

Pseudonacaduba Stempffer, 1943. African

Petrelaea Toxopeus 1929 Oriental

b) Nacaduba section:

Nacaduba Moore, 1881 Oriental

Prosotas Druce, 1891 „

Paraduba Bethune-Baker, 1906 „

lonolyce Toxopeus, 1929 „

Erysichton Fruhstorfer, 1916 „

Catopyrops Toxopeus, 1930 „

Eliot gives the following features generally
common to the whole group: Veins 11 and
12 of the forewing are usually fused for at
least part of their length. The eyes and the
palpi are hairy. There are usually androconial
scales on the upperside of the male forewings.

The two sections of Eliot, Petrelaea and
Nacaduba , are sharply divided by clear diffe-
rences in the genitalia (see Table 3).

1 Accepted May 1982.

2 228 Iffley Road, Oxford 0X4 1SE, England.

In general appearance both sections are
broadly similar, especially in the females.
Males can often be distinguished by facies
alone, but a close look with the lens is always
necessary.

The position of the Nacaduba complex in the
Lycaenidae :

The ‘Nacadubas’ belong to the subfamily
Polyommatinae Swainson, 1827, the so-called
‘Weak Blues’; Eliot places them in the tribe
Polyommatini Swainson. Since this unwieldy
tribe does not fall into natural groups he
divides them into thirty sections, mentioning
where he considers them taxonomically close.
The ‘Nacadubas’ fit into the tribe as follows:
The Una section is Oriental (Assam-Burma)
and fairly close to the Petrelaea section. Next
to Petrelaea , but not necessarily very close,
comes the Nacaduba section, and this seems
to be linked to the Oriental Upolampes section
by the Papuan and Australian Theclinesthes
section.

To the ordinary field naturalist, all this may
seem a dry taxonomical bone. Yet two butter-
flies well known to him are now included in
this Upolampes section; Cast alius caleta and
Cast alius elhion, which should now be called
Caleta decidia and Discolampa ethion. Thus

332

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF THE NACADUBA

Table 1
Distribution

A. Pseudonacaduba Stempfer, 1943.

African, two species, from Sudan southwards to

Transvaal; Madagascar.

B. Petrelaea Toxopeus, 1929.

Oriental, one species, ranging from India to the
Solomons.

C. Nacaduba Moore, 1881.

(i) The Indian peninsula and Sri Lanka:

pactolus', extends through AB & Mai. to Torres Str., Phil. & Taiwan.
hermus\ through AB to Mai. Phil. Moluccas.

olyetti', Sri Lanka only.

berenice; to AB, Mai., Phil., Moluccas, Aust., Solomons.
sinhalcr, Sri Lanka only.

kurava', to AB, Sul., Pap., C. York, Arnhemland, Solomons, Japan.

beroe; Sri Lanka, (apparently not peninsular India) AB, Mai., Phil., Taiwan.

calauria : Sri Lanka {not India) Mai., Moluccas.

(ii) Assam, Burma, Malaysia, Papua, Australia, Melanesia, Polynesia:

Twenty-nine species.

D. Prosotas Druce, 1891.

(i) The Indian peninsula and Sri Lanka:

nora; Assam, Burma, Malaysia, Philippines, Cape York, Taiwan.
dubiosa; Assam. Burma, Malaysia, Papua, Queensland, Solomons.
noreia ; Assam, Burma to Malaysia.

(ii) Kumaon, Assam, Burma, Malaysia, Papua, Australia, Taiwan:

Fifteen species.

E. Paraduba Bethune- Baker, 1906:

Three species, Papuan.

F. lonolyce Toxopeus, 1929.

(i) The Indian peninsula and Sri Lanka:

helicon', to Assam, Burma, Andamans, Nicobars, Malaysia, Queensland. Torres Strait.

(ii) brunnescens Tite, 1963. Solomons.

G. Erysichton Fruhstorfer, 1916.

Three species: Moluccas, Papua, Queensland.

H. Catopyrops Toxopeus, 1930.

Five species: Burma, Malaysia, Papua, Solomons, Queensland, New South Wales.

Notes to Table 1.

This Table attempts to give a general picture of the distribution, showing that the greater number of
the sixty-nine species is found in SE Asia. Many of the widely distributed species have formed
subspecies.

Abbreviations'.

AB — Assam-Burma.

Mai. — Malaysia.

Phil. — Philippines.

Sul. — Sulawesi (formerly Celebes).

333

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

these familiar jungle insects turn out to be
quite near the ‘Nacadubas’ and a long way
from their former neighbours like Castalius
rosimon and Tarucus, typically plains insects.
This is just one example of how the attitudes
of the field naturalist and of the laboratory
worker support and complement one another.

Zoogeography

When one has been privileged to encounter
a few members of an intensely interesting
group in the field, questions about their origin
and evolution press for an answer. In the
nature of things, absolute certainty is un-
attainable, but it would be a poor response
to the complex beauty of these little creatures
if one shirked the risk of a few guesses.

So I imagine myself back on a rather denud-
ed part of the Western Ghats. There is nora

- (or dubioscr, I hope, noreia) — dashing
around an acacia bush in the midday heat
along with three kinds of Azanus and a
Rapala. How did these forms get here? During
what unimaginable time have they been going
through a cycle of courtship, egglaying and
growth, in dependence on a plant like this,
with ants like these busily walking about its
twigs and blossoms?

Now I move on into deeper forest, into
remains of climax jungle . . . how long has
pactolus been living on and on in this tiny
area where I stumbled upon it twenty years
ago? Those great Entada limbs must have
been seedlings in Shivaji’s day; but the lianas
of those times would only take you back
another three hundred years. We have to peer
back far beyond this ... It is time to look
calmly at the question of the origin and evo-
lution of the butterflies, and to see if there
can be any justifiable guesses about the
‘Nacadubas’.

There is only the scantiest fossil record for

the butterflies, from the early Tertiary, around
fifty million years ago. A few actual butter-
flies have survived in the Baltic amber, from
the mid-Tertiary; these and the fossils are
referable to existing families. But recently a
probable Lepidopteron from the Triassic,
around 200 million years ago, was described
from a fossil. So far, this fossil from Australia
is the only actual evidence of the development
lying behind our present Lepidoptera. [Autho-
rity quoted by Higgins (1975): 31].

The picture can, however, be filled in to
some extent through recent work on the early
history of the planet, especially the now well
established phenomenon of Continental Drift.
[See Eliot (1973): 457-465]. In what follows,
I am greatly indebted to Col. Eliot’s paper;
any mistakes and misinterpretations are my
own.

Eliot (op. cit.) : 460, giving his authorities,
places the origin of the butterflies, as a Sub-
order, in the late Mesozoic era around the
middle of the Cretaceous period, about a
hundred million years ago. (For a time scale,
see Table 2 throughout). The most likely area
for the emergence of the group would be the
enormous southern continent of Gondwanaland;
it was mostly tropical; later enormous forces
would break it up into the present lands we
know as Africa and Madagascar, India and
Sri Lanka, South America, Australasia and
Antarctica. (Plate II).

During the Cretaceous the climate was
warm, the lands flat and close together, the
seas at their maximum. Generations of tiny
molluscs were depositing their shells on the
sea beds, laying down the chalk. On land,
the giant Dinosaurs were nearing their rather
sudden extinction. Flowering plants were
evolving in symbiosis with the new nectar-
sucking bees and Lepidoptera.

Such was the world of the first butterflies.
Among them would be the Lycaenoidea, from

334

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF THE NACADUBA

which would develop — when, we cannot tell

— the two groups Riodinidae and Lycaenidae.
From the vast, tropical spaces of Gondwana-
land it would have been easy for butterflies
to colonize the northern landmass of Laurasia
where the climate would be at least partly
subtropical. Laurasia included what are now
North America, Greenland and Eurasia, and
was attached to the northwest of Gondwana-
land where Spain now faces Africa, and at
various points west.

Thus one can accept that in the mid-
Cretaceous there were no ocean barriers pro-
hibiting the colonisation by butterflies of all
suitable land. The fossil record bears this out;
at this very time the marsupials spread world-
wide.

Before the end of the Cretaceous, a major
rearrangement of the land-masses began, due

— it is now widely held — to the action of
Continental Drift. The process still continues
today, at rates varying from 12 to 150 milli-
metres a year. The rock plates of which the
earth’s crust consists tend to push over one
another, riding upon the viscous mantle which
supports them. In this way the land surfaces
which appear so stable to the senses are, in
fact, on the move, and get carried long dis-
tances in the course of a few million years.

By about 90 million years ago the south
American part of Gondwanaland had drifted
westward; Antarctica, with Australasia, south-
ward; India, perhaps with eastern China, north-
eastward across the immense Tethys Sea. Thus
the African heart of disintegrating Gondwana-
land would still contain the majority of Lycae-
nid forms. Since India had become isolated in
the ocean, probably long before the mid-
Cretaceous, it is unlikely to have had ‘a Lycae-
nid fauna until its northward drift brought it
close to, or even in contact with, Eurasia’.
[See Eliot (1973): 461]. The same would
apply to Australasia; Australasia and Tndia

would have had rather cold climates until they
came near or fused with Eurasia. On the
other hand, Eurasia in Cretaceous and Paleo-
cene times was further into the tropics than it
is today, and was in close contact with Africa
through the Gibraltar link. Thus in the early
Tertiary many Lycaenids could have reached
even southeast Asia — at a time when India
had not yet arrived at its present location.

By about 65 million years ago, during the
Tertiary, Eurasia began to get colder as the
result of a northward drift. Also the Sahara
desert was appearing. This meant that tropical
Africa, with its Lycaenids, became isolated on
all sides. Especially in the rainforests, ancestral
populations continued to develop for the next
60 million years or so.

Then, at the end of the Tertiary, the Hima-
layan upsurge began. This was the most
momentous of all earth changes for present
life forms. Enormous bucklings and foldings
of the rock pushed up chains of new moun-
tains from what had been a comparatively
flat world. Their still jagged and unworn
ridges, so unlike the ancient profile of the
Ghats, include the highest points on this planet,
and sweep in a great curve from Papua to
the Alps.

For the Lycaenidae this meant they ceased
to be isolated, and would soon have new lands
before them. Drift and other earth movements
fused India with Eurasia and formed a middle
eastern link with northeast Africa. The Tethys
ocean therefore was no longer a barrier; land
near its northern shores would now become a
bridge. (See Table 2).

The juncture of India may not have been
completed until ten million years ago, and
another five million may have passed before
the Australasian group arrived near its pre-
sent position. But as soon as the ancient Indian
island had settled as a peninsula south of the
new Himalayas, something like the present

335

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

climatic rhythm would have begun. Many
Lycaenidae would now have been able to
enter India from Africa through the northeast
link, and in the course of time adapt to new
conditions — from plains to hills, from rain
forest to monsoon forest. Their infiltration
would not have been difficult, since the middle
East was not yet largely desert, nor broken
up by the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Even
now there may be some transfer of Lycaenids
by this route still going on. See Eliot (op. cit.) :
461. For instance, two Thecline genera which
can put up with at least semi-desert condi-
tions are Aphnaeus and Spindasis; among
Polyommatinae, Azanus, and, I would suggest,
Zizeeria and Freyeria, are about as desert-
tolerant as small butterflies can be; A. jesous
is found all the way from north Africa to
Burma. The present distribution of species in
the Spindasis group is notably in favour of
transfers from Africa eastwards. We should
not have in mind a picture of migration, but
rather of questing and testing, over immense
periods, and literally from bush to bush.

But in Eliot’s opinion the ‘Nacadubas’ did
not reach India by the north African route.
Compared with the Theclinae they are weak
flying and of delicate structure, yet they have
reached Queensland in some cases and even
New South Wales. New Guinea and Melanesia
are full of them; a glance at Table 1 shows
their heartland is southeast Asia. In contrast,
really tough creatures like Spindasis have not
crossed Weber’s Line. See Plate I and Eliot
(op. cit.): 462; their present distribution adds
weight to the belief that they belong to the
north African movement. Along with other
Lycaenid groups they reached southeast Asia
through India in ‘post-Miocene times and . . .
underwent secondary development in India . . .
and the Sino-Himalayan subregion.’ (Eliot,
loc. cit.). There are about fifty Aphnaeus-
Spindasis species in the Ethiopian Region, and

only fourteen in the Oriental. But the latter
differ little from their African relations, so,
as Eliot says, long isolation is out of the
question.

In contrast, there are over sixty species of
the Nacaduba complex in the Oriental Region,
of which only a dozen occur in India and Sri
Lanka, and a mere two in the Ethiopian
Region. Eliot believes that the ancestors of
Nacaduba and some other Polyommatine
groups reached tropical Asia from Gondwana-
land right back in the Cretaceous. They deve-
loped there until the Pliocene, a moderate
number of forms reaching India after its fusion
with Asia.

Eliot refers to the belief of Zeuner and
others that there was a Protopapua, covered
with rainforest, north of the present site of
New Guinea and connected with the Asian
mainland by strings of islands. Protopapua is
thought to have lasted from the early Tertiary
until the mid-Miocene, when the mountains of
New Guinea began to appear as a result of
the great upsurge. Both lands may have co-
existed for a time, allowing butterfly popula-
tions to transfer. See Eliot (op. cit.): 463,
and passim. Even without a Protopapua there
must have been vast areas in Asia where
‘Nacadubas’ could have proliferated and form-
ed species, especially in conditions of isolation.
And there was plenty of time for it, probably
some forty million years.3

Eliot, therefore, has not simply made de-
ductions from present distribution; he has
given us a brilliant reconstruction of the
butterfly past, using the few but significant
probabilities of prehistory in conjunction with
the meagre fossil record.

The ‘Nacadubas’, being rather sessile crea-
tures, have a tendency to form races, and these

3 It is usually held that a species may evolve in
from half a million to one million years, and a
subspecies in about ten thousand years.

336

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF THE NACADUBA

are likely to be incipient species. This ten-
dency has been encouraged by changes in sea
level during geologically recent times. From
about 240,000 years before the present, until
about 180,000 years BP, there occurred the
last of the Pleistocene glaciations in the
northern hemisphere.4 The ice held up so
much seawater that the Sunda and Sahul
Shelves in the shallow Indonesian and Austra-
lian seas were exposed. (See Plate I). The
new land developed rainforest, the Sunda
forest being about a million square miles in
extent. When the ice receded, releasing the
seawater, numerous islands remained and are
still there, with the remnants of their rain-
forest. As long as man does not ruin them,
these relict environments will continue to
foster speciation. Thus there are five or six
races of Nacaduba astarte on closely adjacent
islands or groups of islands in the Solomons
and Bismarcks. See Tite (1963): 76, and
Plate III.

Even if new evidence should modify Eliot’s
conclusions, his main theme will stand, based
on the near certainty that during the Mesozoic
the continents were also together if not com-
pletely united. The existence of Gondwanaland
during this era seems proved by the distribu-
tion of Lystrosaurus, a small freshwater reptile,
in the Triassic beds of both Africa and India.
Recently it has been discovered in the
Antarctic. Another reptile, Mesosaurus, from
the Permian, links southern Africa and Brazil.
A Permian plant, Glossopteris, has long been
known from all the components of Gondwana-
land. The parts of Laurasia are linked by
equally impressive evidence from fossil rep-
tiles and amphibians. See Colbert (1973):

On this basis, therefore, it is clear that the
Butterflies, including the remote ancestors of
Nacaduba, could have been flourishing in the

4 Not the more localized glaciation, often called
‘the Ice Age’, of 120,000 to 22,000 years BP.

former great Gondwanian continent towards
the end of the Mesozoic. They could have
reached southern Asia as early as the Creta-
ceous, when all the lands were still close toge-
ther, and continued to evolve over these very
lengthy periods. They Polyommatine genera,
perhaps with Nacaduba among them, spread
first to the Papuan subregion, and later, during
the major earth changes of the Tertiary,
arrived in India.

Note on the Photographs of Adults.

The specimens used for Nacaduba beroe
(male) and N. sinhala (male) on Plates VII
and X have lost the filamentous ‘tails’ at v. 2
of the hindwing.

Apart from these the Plates depict species
actually either tailed or tailless.

Notes on some species from India and
Sri Lanka

I. Petrelaea dana (DeNiceville, 1883)

(Plates V & VI)

This is a wide ranging species, from India
to the Solomons, but it has not been possible
to define any geographic races [Tite (1963):
109]. It is uncommon in the places I have
visited, and I saw it on only two occasions.
The first was, surprisingly, in a crowded part
of Bombay city when I took a male fluttering
over garden beds in St Peter’s School com-
pound, which lies immediately below a small
eminence known as Mazagaon Hill. At that
time (January, 1953) there was a good deal
of rough ground there apart from the public
gardens, also a water tank and many trees, so
the hill was attractive to butterflies. Although
only a few metres high, it constitutes a land
mark for insects crossing Bombay harbour or
working in through the suburbs from the
Salsette jungles. I believe a good deal of migra-
tion in the full sense, and also drifting, takes
place from Salsette out to Malabar Hill; I have
caught or observed several butterfly species,

337

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Table 2

Time scale, based on Colbert (1973) : 24

Era : Length

Periods and Duration in

Duration, before

Events and

in millions

Epochs

millions of

the present

Life forms

of years

years

Cenozoic

Quarternary :

65

Pleistocene

3

20,000-3 mill.

Man.

Pliocene

9

3-12

Australia near
present position.

Miocene

15

12-27

Juncture of
India. New
Guinea replacing
Protopapua.

Tertiary :

Oligocene

10

27-37

Modern mammals.
Himalayan upsurge
beginning.

FOSSILS OF LEPIDOPTERA.

Eocene

18

37-55

Flowering plants
dominant.

LEPIDOPTERA & APOIDEA established.

Mesozoic

Paleocene

10

55-65

Primitive mammals.
? Protopapua.

Cretaceous

70

65-135

Ancestral mammals.

160

Flowering plants
begin.

Jurassic

60

135-195

Giant Dinosaurs.
First birds.
Dragonflies Grass-
hoppers Sawflies.

? Ants.

T riassic

30

195-225

First Dinosaurs.
Conifers, Cycads,
Small Ferns,
Gingkos.

Fossil of a(?) Lepidopteron from Australia.

Paleozoic

Permian

55

225-280

Early Reptiles.

375

Carboniferous

65

280-345

Large Amphibians,
Early Plants,
Beetles, Bugs,
Cicadas.

Devonian

Silurian

50

345-395

First Insects —
A ptera.

45

395-440

First backboned
animals.

Ordovician

60

440-500

Cambrian

100

500-600

Precam brian time about

billion years.

338

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF THE NACADUBA

including Lycaenids, which can hardly be resi-
dent in the city or are not proved to be so.
This has been noticed by Sanders (1955). It
is on the other hand possible that there are
small relict populations from former jungle or
in surviving jungle within the city limits. One
such place which 1 was able to visit on rare
occasions is Governor’s Beach on Malabar
Hill, where I saw the magnificent Great Orange
Tip Hebomoia for the first time. It would be
good to seek permission to investigate this
area. As for Petrelaea, until there is further
information it should be regarded as a stray
in the city, and searched for in Salsette loca-
lities like Vihar and Powai.

My second encounter with Petrelaea was
on Katraj Ghat near Pune at c. 850 m., where
I took a male at a damp patch in October,
1961. I would say this was a typical habitat.
Bell (1918): 653 implies that it is rare or
local on the Western Ghats. He says it is espe-
cially fond of fresh cattle droppings, so these
should be watched. (Many Lycaenids will
never be noticed at all until one hits upon
the exact places which attract them, or which
the great naturalists, like Bell, have already
discovered).

The species may be commoner farther south
on the western Ghats. My friend Mr. A. J.
Sharman found it abundant at about 1370 m.
in the Biligirirangan Hills. Karnataka, in May
1957 along forest streams; at Kallar in the
Nilgiris at c. 370 m, in April; localities in the
Palnis at c. 2134 m. in May and August; and
a place in the Tirupati Hills (Eastern Ghats)
at about 400 m. in June. All his specimens
were males taken at mud; he saw no females
anywhere. Dr T. Norman, who most kindly
gave me a male from Assam and a female
from Manipur, said that the female is rare in
the Assam Valley plains. Woodhouse & Henry
(1942): 91 state that the species is never

common but occurs all over Sri Lanka below
c. 460 m. all the year round. The males come
to damp spots; the females are very rare.

Unless rearing from the early stages should
prove otherwise, I think it preferable to say
that the female of Petrelaea is rarely taken; it
probably has skulking habits and lays its eggs
on plants growing in out-of-the-way places,
which would explain why the early stages have
not been observed. The sexes appeared in about
equal proportions in the two Nacaduba and
the two Prosotas species of which I have some
rearing experience.

It is interesting that the upperside blue of
the male is fairly bright and clear, similar to
that of the African Pseud onacaduba sichela.
How closely Petrelaea and Pseudonacaduba
may be related is a matter for argument; their
genitalia are different except for one striking
similarity. See Eliot (1973): 379, where he
says it is unwise to give absolute primacy to
any one character.

The Androconia

These are specialized scales found in patches
or scattered on the wings of male butterflies of
several families, including the Lycaenidae.
Their occurrence in any Lycaenid genus seems
random. Their physical structure, when seen
with the scanning electron microscope, has
often been found to differ from the ocular
view; see Eliot (1973): 399. They are taken
to be scent scales.

In Petrelaea the androconia are club-like
and remarkably long for a small butterfly [see
Plate IV: 4 and 4(a), the latter figure drawn
at a lower magnification in order to include
the whole.] Such scales are found in a few
other species: Erysichton lineata (Murray) of
the Nacaduba complex, where they are quite
twice as large as in Nacaduba ; see Tite (1963) :
102. A Jamides species; see Eliot (1973): 406.
Azanus ubaldus Cr. where they are about the

339

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 85

same length as in Petrelaea. The occurrence
of scales of this type seems random, although
one could say that the first three are not too
widely separated in classification. Azanus is
shown on Plate IV: 5 at the lower magnifi-
cation.

The androconia of Petrelaea appear to have
eight or ten longitudinal ridges, judging from
the four spaces usually visible between the
ridges. Scattered along these ridges, mainly at
the broader end, appear to be nodules or pits.
In view of what is said above about the physi-
cal structure, all statements here are provi-
sional. The drawings show what is seen with
the ordinary microscope; except for the two
cases noted above they are all at the same
magnification, done with a camera lucida
arrangement devised by Mr. Tite.

The precise use of the androconia has not
been observed in the Lycaenidae so far as I
know; almost certainly they are scent pro-
ducing scales used in courtship. Tinbergen
(1974): 138-157 describes the arduous investi-
gations needed to discover the role of scent
in the courtship of a Satyrid butterfly in
Holland. No less perseverance will be needed
if anyone with the opportunity is to do similar
work with Lycaenidae.

The Male Genitalia

I include here some general remarks apply-
ing to all the genitalia studied here. Particular
statements apply only to Petrelaea. The Aedea-
gus (a word perhaps connected with Latin
aedes, meaning a house) is the hard outer
casing or housing of the penis. In this small
species it is c. 1.75 mm long, as compared
with c. 0.9 mm in the large species Nacaduba
pactolus. The ductus, the duct leading from
the seminal vesicles, enters the aedeagus ven-
trally in Petrelaea, dorsally in the Nacaduba
group. In Plate X: 6 the ductus is shown
by broken lines on the left, near the base of

the aedeagus, the pointed organ which reaches
diagonally across the figure. Since the ductus
is of soft tissue, or only lightly reinforced, I
have not been able to retain it in any of my
dissections. (The genital organs are made of
the same sort of hard material, known as
chitin, which support the insect body, so that
only the soft parts, muscles and ligatures, are
lost when making a microscope slide). The
aedeagus in Petrelaea has no Chapman’s pro-
cess; this is a feature of many species of the
Nacaduba section, arising ventrally from the
upper part of the aedeagus. In Petrelaea there
is a dorsally placed organ, shown in side view
in the figure. A dorsal view shows that this
feature grows from the surface of the aedeagus
about halfway up, and ends about 2/3 of the
way along towards the tip. This process ends
in the shape of a two-pronged fork sloping
a little away from the surface of the aedeagus
(See Fig. 1).

The Uncus (Latin = hook or barb) is attach-
ed to the dorsal side of the genital ring. In
most Lycaenid genera the uncus is divided
into two lobes (labides), each of which bears
a curved brachium (Latin = arm). The latter
are better referred to as falces (Latin falx f
sickle) which describes their usual shape.

In Plate X: 6 only the right labis is shown.
There does not seem to be anything special
about these structures in Petrelaea.

The Valvae (valves, clasps or claspers) are
attached to the ventral side of the genital ring.
Higgins (1975): 95 says they are not well
named as clasping organs since they are rela-
tively immobile. At the base of the valvae is
the furca or fork, known also as juxta or join.
Its function is to help support the aedeagus.
In Plate X: 6, the furca is shown in posi-
tion; it is not clearly seen by transparency in
the slide. Plate X: 7 shows the inside of
the right valve; in Petrelaea the hook at the
valve tip is directed ventrally. In Plate X: 6

340

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF THE NACADUBA

the nearer valve is rather edge-on, but the
other valve shows the true direction of the
hooked tip.

The Vinculum (Latin = bond or fetter) is
the genital ring, actually U-shaped, to which
the labides are attached dorsally and the
valvae ventrally [See Higgins (1975): 27,

95-96].

Burma westward, but is not rare in the Khasis
[See Cantlie (1952): 52]. Dr T. Norman told
me that it was quite common in the 1960’s
in the Khasi Hills, flying up to c. 1200 m.
H. C. Tytler ( JBNHS 21: 595) reported it
up to 1500 m. in the Nagas. Bell found it in
the Karwar jungles in the 1920’s, and pro-
bably reared it, since there are pupa skins
under two of his specimens in the collection

Table 3

Comparison of the male genitalia in the Petrelaea and Nacaduba sections.

Petrelaea section

Nacaduba section

Aedeagus :

Aedeagus:

a)

Long.

a)

Short.

b)

Ductus enters ventrally.

b)

Ductus enters dorsally.

c)

Subzonal and suprazonal portions about
equal.

c)

Suprazonal portion shorter.

d)

No coecum.

d)

A short coecum usually present.

Vinculum:

Vinculum:

Saccus developed.

Saccus not developed.

Notes to the above :

The Zone (Greek = ‘girdle’) is the point at which the penis is fixed to the inside of the aedeagus.
Its position can usually be seen, but is hard to depict in a line drawing.

The Coecum (Latin = ‘blind’) refers to the basal part of the aedeagus.

In Petrelaea the process from the vinculum
known as the saccus is well developed, extend-
ing forward into the abdominal cavity, evi-
dently in order further to stabilize the genital
armature. The word saccus, meaning ‘bag’, is
therefore not apt, although it is the name in
use. A long saccus seems (understandably) to
go with a long aedeagus [Higgins (1975): 28].

IT. Nacaduba pactolus continentalis
Fruhstorfer, 1916.

(Plates VI & VII)

This fine species ranges in a number of
forms from the Western Ghats to the Torres
Straits, and from Sulawesi to Taiwan, trench-
ing both on the Palaearctic region and on the
Australian part of the Oriental region. The
race continentalis occurs rather rarely from

of the Bombay Natural History Society; no
other information was found.

I had the good fortune to be able to rear
it from a colony discovered in the neighbour-
hood of Khandalla, 500-700 m.. Western
Ghats, as recorded in Bean (1965): 614-626.
The following assesses the information
obtained :

Bell’s material, cited above, shows that in
Karwar the butterfly appears in the hot season
(March-May); Tytler, as above, reported it
for July; material in the collections of the
British Museum (Nat. Hist.), of the Bombay
Natural History Society, and of the Hope
Collections, Oxford, also bears hot-season
dates and, in some cases, of the post-
monsoon period. But these times of appear-
ance differ in the Khandalla region; I never

341

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Fig. 1. Tip of the Aedeagus, Petrelaea dana (Dia-
grammatic). Fig. 2. Sculpture on the egg: a)
Nacaduba pactolus’, b. N. Berenice. Fig. 3. Egg-
larva: Nacaduba pactolus — W. Ghats, Sept., 1964.

saw the insect there between December and
July, Between 1956 and 1964 I was able to
make careful observations at intervals of
two or three weeks, which indicated that N.
pactolus is an entirely monsoon and post-
monsoon insect in its Khandalla locality. It
would seem that conditions are not damp
enough there for it to develop adults in winter
and spring as, for instance, N. berenice is able
to do. The pactolus larvae need the tenderest
leaves of the food plant, preferably the
youngest red ones, which are photosynthesizing

at a great rate and are full of carbon. Upon
such leaves the larvae can develop rapidly.
Except in the wettest jungles, as in Karwai
and Assam, rapid growth is probably essential.
Bean (1965): 620, observed that the period
from egg to adult may be as short as 25 days;
thus between July 21 and November 23 (the
observed flight period) as many as six gene-
rations could be born while enough food was
still in a condition favourable to growth.

In Khandalla the only foodplant observed
was Entada pursaetha D.C., an impressively
large creeper which at full growth reaches
with massive contorted limbs right up into the
forest canopy. The larva will not eat Mezo-
neurum, which is much commoner in the habi-
tat than Entada, and also a leguminous species.
A laying female was seen not to be interested
in Mezoneurum: ; the individual mentioned in
Bean (1959): 650-651 seems to have been
trying to differentiate between these two plants
which were tangled together.

It would be of great interest if someone
could visit the Karwar jungles for this species,
and try and find out what it lays on there, and
check the extent of the flight period. At
Khandalla there is a diapause from the end
of November until July, but this may not occur
in wetter places, or may be shorter. Khandalla
is probably the westernmost edge of its range,
where it seems to have adapted to drier condi-
tions. One assumes that it is as a pupa that
it lies over from late autumn until the monsoon
is well established, but this has to be proved.
It could be done if one had facilities for caging
or sleeving larvae on growing Entada towards
the end of the flight season. It would have to
be in the jungle or near it, so that conditions
as close to nature as possible were provided;
and the worker would have to be ready for
many disappointments and setbacks, including
those from the destructiveness, curiosity or
ignorance of human beings.

342

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85 Plate I

Bean: Nacaduba sp.

The Distribution of the Nacaduba complex.

Bean: Nacaduba sp.

8

u

o

cn

H

oo

Diagram of the world in the cretaceous period. (Around 70 million years BP).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85 Plate IV

Bean: Nacaduba sp.

Androconia: 4. Petrelaea dana. 4a. P. dana (lower magnification). 5. Azanus ubaldus.
13. Nacaduba pactolus. 14. N. hermus. 19. N. beroe. 20. Prosotas alut'a.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 85 Plate V

Bean: Nacaduba sp.

^ Gw?

left — Petrelaea dana: Above: male upperside. Western Ghats, October, 1961. Below: Female up-
perside, Manipur, September, 1957. {Photos: J. Woolmer)

right — A bove: Eggshell: Nacaduba pactolus. Western Ghats, November, 1971. Below: Prosotus
nora. Mahabaleshwar, November, 1971.’ {Photos: E.F. Bishop)

1cm

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85
Bean: Nacaduba sp.

Plate VI

o

( 1 I

left — Above: Petrelaea dana. Male underside. Western Ghats, October, 1961. Below: Nacaduba
beroe. Male underside. Khasis, September, 1961.

rihgt— Above: Nacaduba pactolus. Male upperside. Western Ghats, ex L. October, 1963. Below:
Female upperside. Western Ghats, ex L. October, 1963. {Photos: J. Woolmer & E.F. Bishop)

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 85
Bean: Nacaduba sp.

Plate VII

left — A bove: Nacaduba pactolus. Female underside. W. Ghats, ex L. October, 1963. Below:
Nacaduba kurava. Male underside. W. Ghats, November, 1963.

right — Above: Nacaduba sinhala. Male upperside, Kandy, August, 1961. Below: Male underside.
Kandy, August, 1961. {Photos: E.F. Bishop)

icm

i

1 ic m

j i j

1 cm

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85
Bean: Nacaduba sp.

Plate viii

0® «0 0

\ o0ooOo0o®o«oi

\* 00 0 O°oo0o0o0® Jy
\° 0 o Q o °o o° o®o 0° Q*7
o o oo oo o°oo6o0

\>o«ooo0o#s«»y

"oo*5? °Oo

^o0;oo00;o !j0

-oo ; °'loo;!o0fl

l0oo00 o°?00J 0°°o
050^o2o0n2°;So°Xo:

|0 ^ g 0 o/i
! }}///////«
fell! Hi; Hi!

00 j

X O

,„000 ogo0
00 2 0 0 O °o 0 0

JOO o 0 0 0 o o'.

oO°<?° oj? 0 o o0

I0°2r?° O°0o oo°c°

oO°0 0 0 0 0 00 o 9]
OOoO> o0 °

VlmpifHil

00?000 °°o

llApoA

23

Androconia: 15 & 16. Nacaduba berenice; 17. Nacaduba smhala; 18 & 18a. Nacaduba kurava; 21 .
Prosotas nor a; 22. Prosotas dubiosa; 23. Prosotas noreia.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85 Plate IX

Bean: Nacaduba sp.

left —Above: Nacaduba sinhala. Female upperside. Kandy, August, 1961. Below: Nacaduba
kurava. Female upperside. Western Ghats, October, 1963.

right— Above: Nacaduba berenice. Male upperside. Matheran, February, 1967. Below: Nacaduba
kurava. Male upperside. Western Ghats, November, 1963. ( Photos : E.F. Bishop)

Plate X

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85

Genitalia: Petrelaea dana — 6. Complete armature; 7. Inside of right valva. Nacaduba pactolus
14. Complete armature; 15. Aedeagus.

j. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85
Bean: Nacaduba sp.

Plate XI

Pupa skins: Nacaduba pactolus. 11. Male; 12. Female. Nacaduba berenice. 24. Male; 25. Female.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85
Bean: Nacaduba sp.

Plate XII

1 cm

left— Above: Nacaduba berenice. Female, upperside. Western Ghats, December, 1956. Below:
Prosotas nora. Female, upperside. W. Ghats, November, 1971.

right— Above: Nacaduba berenice. Male, underside. Matheran, February, 1967. Below: Prosotas
dubiosa. Male, underside. Western Ghats, November, 1971. {Photos: E.F. Bishop & J. Woolmer)

071

{

Plate XIII

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 85
Bean: Nacaduba sp.

T. c

-4

left— Above: Prosotas nora. Male, upperside. Western Ghats, October, 1971. Below: Male,
underside. W. Ghats, October, 1971. ( Photos : E.F. Bishop)

right— Above: Prosotas dubiosa. Male, upperside. W. Ghats, November, 1971. Below: Prosotas
noreia hampsoni. Male, upperside. W. Ghats, September, 1964. ( Photos : J. Woolmer)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85 Plate XIV

Bean: Nacaduba sp.

Cvvv

-4

tcm.

left — Above: Prosotas dubiosa. Female, upperside. Western Ghats, November, 1961. Below v
Prosotas noreia. Female, upperside. W. Ghats, May, 1961.

right— Above: Prosotas noreia hampsoni. Male, underside. W. Ghats, September, 1964. Below:
Prosotas noreia noreia. Male, underside. Sri Lanka, August, 1961.

( Photos : J. Woolmer)

0. cm

i

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85
Bean: Nacaduba sp.

Plate XV

Genitalia: Nacaduba berenice. 26. Genital armature; 27. Inside of right valva; 29. Aedeagus.
Nacaduba beroe: 28. Inside of left valva; 30. Aedeagus. Nacaduba sinhala. 31. Genitalia expand-
ed, aedeagus removed; 32. Inside of left valva; 33. Aedeagus.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85 “ Plate XVI

Bean: Nacaduba sp.

Genitalia: Nacaduba kurava. 34. Genital armature; 35. Same expanded, aedeagus removed; 36.
Inside of left valva; 37. Prosotas nora; 38. Prosotas dubiosa; 38. Prosotas noreia.

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF THE NACADUBA

An example of the difficulties facing a
species at the edge of its range was observed
during the poor and untimely rains of 1971.
Dr. J. F. Lobo and I found a single eggshell
after a long search. The larva had just hatch-
ed, but the terminal shoot of the Entada
seedling, on which the egg had been laid, was
withered and useless as food. At first we could
see no larva. Then we saw the honey-yellow
little creature on the still tender yellow lateral
growths or tendrils. In the end we decided to
take the larva for study; I am glad to say
that it was not the last of its kind, for Dr Lobo
observed adults in 1973, and my colleague
Fr. Wain brought me three specimens taken
in November, 1974. 1971 saw a disastrous
monsoon. There was virtually no rain from
July until some heavy showers, from 21-23
October, which merely freshened things. We
found the larva on 12 November; nearby was
a fifteen-foot Entada loose at the roots through
erosion. There ought to have been dozens of
Entada seedlings but we only found this one.
So it is clear that the species can adapt to
changing conditions, up to a point. Probably
in those dry conditions it lays high in the
forest canopy where one can usually see some
young red leaves on the thick lianas.

One hopes that this Khandalla colony is
still there, and that man has not utterly
ruined the habitat.

The Egg.

The egg mentioned above, or rather the
shell, tallies with an example in coll, from
which an adult had been reared in 1963; I
measured the diameter as 0.63 mm, and the
height 0.20 mm. It is a very flat egg, not at
all rounded when viewed laterally, and
markedly different from that of N. berenice,
a species present in the same jungle and also
feeding on Entada. The egg-shell is shown on
Plate V, and a comparison with berenice in
fig. 2.

Ant Relationship .

The presence of ants with the larvae is
intermittent, perhaps unusual; I must have
looked at dozens of larvae of all ages in the
field, and only once found ants attending them.
Certainly ants seemed unimportant for the
development and health of captive larvae. The
one rule was to rear them on the tender leaves
of a growing plant. However, it is quite pos-
sible that the larvae can call up ants if they
want them, for two or three Cremastogaster
ants somehow got into one of the cages from
our garden or verandah in Pune. Unfortunate-
ly the note I made at the time was badly ex-
pressed, so that it may mean I put the ants
there myself. All I can now say is that I do
not think I did. The ants attended the nearly
full grown larva in the cage and remained
with it when put into another cage.

Two Tanaemyrmex (- Camponotus) ants
were taken with larvae in the field. One was
a light brown form which paid some atten-
tion to a larva in captivity; I did not see the
larva respond with either its double or its
single ant glands. The other ant was black.
In the jungle it had been attending a larva
possessively but was restless in confinement.
When alive, this ant held the abdomen tucked
below the thorax. Fig. 4 represents this ant,

probably a $ min. of Tanaemyrmex com -
pressus (Fab., 1787).

Notes on the Anatomy of the Egg-larva.

Figure 3 is from an egg-larva taken
near Khandalla in September 1964. It was
preserved in Pampel’s fluid, stored after a few
years in ordinary surgical spirit, then mount-
ed direct in Canada balsam. The 1971 larva
mentioned above was not well preserved in-
ternally, as I forgot to use Pampel’s. (Surgical
spirit is, I suppose, better than nothing, but
it makes material brittle. It should not be used
for storage; it can reduce delicate genitalia
to a slimy mess).

343

7

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Fig. 4. Ant relationship: Tanaemyrmex compressus

? min. Fig. 5. Prosotas valvae: (a) Pr. nora\ (b)
Pr. dubiosa ; (c) Pr. noreia.

Description of Mounted Egg-larva,

K hand alia — 7X-1964, S/N 2156:

The dorsal hairs are paired, as indeed in
all young Lycaenid larvae; this is not shown
in the diagrammatic figure given in Bean
(1965): 615, fig. 1. It can be seen from the
slide that these hairs are blunt tipped except
for the pair immediately before the head. In
most cases the hairs are slightly expanded to-
wards the tip, and serrated on the forward
side. There are lateral and ventrally directed
hairs also, but for some reason they cannot
be seen in the slide; they are clearly seen in
the 1971 larva in spirit.

The chitinous rings which support the larval
body are seen between the segments. The
aorta can be made out as a vague line from

behind the head to the end of the body; after
the thoracic segments it is thicker and func-
tions as the heart. The digestive tract, occupy-
ing the central cavity of the body, is clearly
seen below the aorta. The ganglia of the
nervous system are the darker bodies in the
head and above the legs and claspers.

The Pupa

Plate XI: 11 & 12 show ventral views

of the male and female pupae, drawn from
skins, so that I am sure of their differentiation.
The distinctions may be easier to discern in
the living pupa, though then, of course it is
not often possible to examine the creature
properly. Talbot (1938): 8, gives as an im-
portant difference the production of the
middle portion of segment 10 of the abdomen
in female butterfly pupae. It reaches across
segment 9 as far as the middle of segment 8.
My drawing shows this more as a tendency
to overlapping, especially when compared with
that of the male pupa. Both drawings are as
true to the originals as I can make them.

NOTES

1) For some information on the biology of the
early stages see Bean (1965): 614-626.

2) Wherever ‘Nacaduba beroe ’ is mentioned in

the 1965 Article read ‘ Nacaduba berenice \
See also below, p. 39, note.

3) Entada seedlings may be easily transported
during the rains, after they have sprouted and
are still attached to the seed. Dry seeds may
be encouraged to germinate by filing at the
scar until the grey endosperm can be seen.

The Male Genitalia

Plate X: 14 was drawn from a partially
successful attempt to expand the genitalia flat.
I ought first to have removed the aedeagus.
However, the result showed most of what is
required, so I drew the figure as follows: The
left valve, rather displaced, shows its inside
with part of the furca near its base. The right
valve is omitted for the sake of clarity. The

344

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF THE NACADUBA

aedeagus remains roughly in its true position
between valves and labides. The latter, with
their falces, are also in their position, on the
genital ring.

The valvae are shaped like the bill of a
cormorant, and are characteristic of this species.
This is useful under field conditions, when the
genitalia of a worn four-line Nacaduba can be
squeezed forward and seen with a hand lens
to verify identity.

The terminal spike is directed ventrally. The
inside of the valve is folded into a ridge from
near the base to about half way up. This
ridge is covered with tiny hooks or cornuti.
Towards the tip of the valve ventrally there
are rather shallow serrations, and three promi-
nent teeth dorsally, near which a major bristle
arises.

Aedeagus. The ductus enters dorsally, as in
the whole Nacaduba section, and is clearly
seen in the slide as a tube of light consistency,
not of chitin. (Plate X: 14). The ductus

usually only appears vaguely after prepara-
tion, as in Plate X: 15. The aedeagus in
Plate X: 14 seems to be lying on its left
side, more or less; the most prominent termi-
nal process is the single lobed Chapman’s pro-
cess, and the other projections belong to the
partially everted penis. Below the Chapman’s
process is the zone, a girdling ridge which
helps steady the aedeagus. Plate X: 15 is a
dorsal view of the organ. Proceeding from
above the zonal ridge are two rounded, ven-
trally hollowed lobes which correspond in
position to the two-horned appendage in
Petrelaea. (See fig. 1). The slightly swollen,
cloven base of the aedeagus I take to be the
coecum; (Latin = ‘blind’; here the closed or
blind end of the organ).

The Labides or divided uncus characteristic
of the Lycaenidae seem to be of normal pat-
tern in this species. The falces are somewhat
flattened dorso -ventrally.

Note on the Androconia of the Nacaduba
Complex.

As stated above under Petrelaea (p. 17)
these can only be properly studied with the
aid of the scanning electron microscope. I can,
therefore, only give highly provisional infor-
mation, and that about only eleven species.

The scales are scattered among the ordinary
cloaking scales on the upper sides of the
fore wings. Each is attached to the wing by a
footstalk or pedicel. The scales studied, ex-
cept Petrelaea, are shaped like a Burmese fan
or a table-tennis bat. In Table 4 ‘fan’ means
the scale is longer than wide, and ‘bat’ that
it is roughly as broad as long. Some scales
are symmetrical (S) or assymetrical (A). The
pedicels merge gradually into the body of
the scale except in pactolus where the scale
springs at right angles from the pedicel in a
slightly excavate line.

III. Nacaduba berenice plumbeomicans

(Wood-Mason & de Niceville, 1880)
(Plates IX & XII)

This species extends from Sri Lanka through
peninsular India eastward to the Solomons,
Queensland and Northern Australia. The In-
dian race extends from the Western Ghats to
Burma and the Andamans.

Identification.

Until recently I thought my Western Ghats
material was of N. beroe gythion Fruh. Evans
(1932): 243, and Evans & Cantlie (1962): 79
make it the only species from the Western
Ghats with hairs or hair-like scales on the
discs, so I jumped to the conclusion I had
beroe. It was only when I came to look at the
genitalia that I found the valves quite different
from those of beroe figured by Tite (1963) 89,
fig. 16. I had an opportunity of showing my
slide to Mr. Tite who considered it to be of
berenice. The Hope Collections material of

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Table 4

Some androconia of the Nacaduba complex

Text-

figure

Shape

Symmetrical or
Assymetrical

No. of
‘Ridges’

4/4a

Petrelaea dana

Rod-like, swollen at
ends, distal end
larger.

8-10;
i.e. (4-5
each side)

13

Nacaduba pactolus

Bat; sides nearly
parallel.

S

16

14

N. hermus

Bat; rounded sides.

A

15

15/16

N. berenice

Fan; converging sides.

A or S

14-15

17

N. sinhala

Fan, parallel sides

A

18

18/1 8a

N. kurava

Fan, rounded sides

S

14

19

N. beroe

Fan; rounded sides

A

14

20

Pros at as aluta

Fan; elongate like
auk’s egg

S

15

21

P. nora

Fan; curved,
converging sides.

s

19

22

P. dubiosa

Fan, as in nora, smaller,
converging sides
angled in middle.

A

17

23

P. noreia

Bat; rounded sides

A

16

N. berenice plumbeomicans comes from
Assam, the Eastern and Western Ghats right
down to Cape Comorin, but there are no N.
beroe specimens from peninsular India. N.
beroe would seem to have its headquarters
from Sikkim into Assam and Burma, meeting
N. berenice only in the last two areas and in
Sri Lanka.

After several examinations of genitalia I
felt confident in assigning my Western Ghats
material of this species to N. berenice. The
experience has taught me not to make mere
distribution a deciding factor. If I had referred
to Bell’s beautifully accurate description of
‘ Nacaduba plumbeomicans' , Bell (1918) 661-
662, I might well have arrived at the correct
identity without genitalia examination.

Table 5 shows that the two species can
almost always be distinguished by facies in the

male, even with worn examples; and that geni-
talia are an absolute check. See Plate VI for
a male underside.

Early Stages

Egg-laying.

On 4.xii.l957, between 13 and 14 hrs, I
found females laying in a hot glade of climax
jungle near Khandalla, Western Ghats, at about
650 metres altitude. The place was probably
a woodcutters’ clearing. The undergrowth
formed a thick barrier at the end; and there
the sun caught it during the hottest part of
the day. The butterflies were being attracted
to a point where some long trailers from
Entada seedlings sprawled over the tangled
growths of other plants.

It seems likely that on this site a great
number of eggs were being laid on a few

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OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF THE NACADUBA
Table 5

Determination of two Nacaduba species

N. berenice
Above:

1) Violet blue, frosted appearance.

2) May be slightly transparent on hind wing.

3) Discs of wings bearing hairlike scales, but
sparsely even in fresh specimens.

4) Apex of forewing rounded.

5) Termen of forewing convex.

Below :

Catenulated bands shaded between the strigae,
as in Prosotas nora, though the ground colour
is not darkened.

Genitalia

Valva-broad; almost square serrated end, the ventral
side of which is curled.

Aedeagus — The double Chapman’s
process is shorter.

N . beroe
Above :

1) Dark violet blue.

2) Always quite opaque.

3) Discs covered with white hairlike scales,
abundant even in a rubbed specimen.

4) Apex of forewing produced.

5) Termen of forewing straight in middle.

Below:

Catenulated bands not shaded between the
strigae, as in N. kurava.

Genitalia

Valva-narrow; not serrated at end, but there are
beaklike processes at the tip.

Aedeagus — The double Chapman’s
process is longer.

plants in a small area. I have never seen the
butterflies laying except on young tender red
leaves. The great lianas of Entada do not
produce many of these, especially in Decem-
ber, when the ground is drying up, and for
the same reason there are fewer tender leaves
on the seedlings which have survived after
the rains. Consequently the berenice larvae may
be reduced in numbers through starvation and
cannibalism. They are well protected by colour
and habits, but predators must find them more
easily when they are crowded. And they must
often be crowded, since both female and larvae
require tender leaves only, and such leaves
often occur where the sun does not warm them
sufficiently to encourage egglaying.

On two sprays of Entada bearing young red
leaves there were about sixteen eggshells, seven
to ten young larvae about 1 . 5 mm long, and
one larva of 2.5 mm. They were on leaves
and stalks, all looking very like the bracts of

the plant. The observer’s confusion is increas-
ed because the axils of the compound leaves
of Entada have a dark base, so that the axil
looks like some kind of larva with a dark
head. Near one of these axils was an empty
eggshell and just beside it a newly emerged
larva; soon it would begin the long upward
climb to its first leaf meal. Judging by many
eggshells seen in the field it seems that the
emerging larva only eats a little of the shell
— enough to get out, or a little more.

Egg.

According to a Ms note of 1957 the ground
colour of a newly laid egg is yellow, but the
general effect is whitish, because of the colour
of the surface sculpture. Bell (1918): 662,
must be credited with first pointing this out.
It was noticeable when comparing this egg
with that of N. pactolus which I found in the
same locality, and often at the same time. The

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

differences of sculpture are shown diagrama-
tically in figure 2, drawn from sketches
of eggs or eggshells collected in the Khandalla
locality between 1957 and 1962. Unfortunate-
ly I cannot illustrate the whole egg, having
lost my only specimen, and sketches made at
the time are inadequate. But I have confidence
in saying that the egg of berenice is covered
with smaller and more numerous rounded
knobs than the lumpy projections on that of
pactolus. To the eye, a berenice egg looks
prickly, a pactolus egg slabby. It is also a
smaller egg; Bell (loc. cit.), gives 0.52 mm
across and 0.25 mm high. On the other hand
it is rounded in section, unlike the larger but
quite flat pactolus egg which is only 0.20 mm
high. J

Bell (loc. cit.), gives a detailed description
from which one could identify this egg with-
out an illustration. I quote the following, in
which he says that the complicated pattern of
the sculptured walls or ridges radiate ‘out-
wards in’ slowly diverging curves like a cathe-
rine-wheel firework . . . and ‘there are sixteen
such lines round the whole egg.’

In the centre of the top surface of the egg
is the micropyle, surrounded by an area with-
out high sculpture. Micropyle means ‘little
gate’ (Greek), the minute hole through which
a spermatazoon, released by the female as
each egg is laid, finds its way in; I take it
that a function of the converging ridges is to
assist the process. The ridges can equally be
described as diverging; they may well have
the function of keeping the surface of the egg
free from micro-organisms and discouraging
such things from entering the micropyle.

Larva.

The young larvae observed in December,
1957 were ochre yellow with little indication
of dorsal and lateral stripes. In one case the
colour was reddish and the stripes rather more

apparent. They sought their food eagerly and
persistently; I saw one raising its head as if
sniffing the wind while seeking for tender
leaves; probably it actually was using its sense
of smell. When disturbed the larvae dropped
by a thread. After their first skin they were
about 2.50 mm long. The ground colour was
then brownish yellow, pinkish on either side
of the now apparent dorsal stripe and between
subdorsal and lateral stripes. These stripes
were never sharply defined, even in the later
stages.

In captivity there was cannibalism as the
larvae grew bigger. Some died during the
moult, probably from condensation. This
always occurs in airtight containers. When a
larva has laid itself up in order to change its
skin, and so must not be disturbed, it is im-
possible to mop up all moisture around and
beneath it. With the airtight method of rearing
I only had five larvae left on 7 December out
of the dozen or more collected on 3 Decem-
ber. I was obliged to keep them in this un-
satisfactory way as the food plant had to be
brought from the Ghats and kept in Pune. It
did not do well in water, so I sealed the
stalks and kept the supply in airtight con-
tainers, which worked better. But ‘Nacadubas’
should never be reared this way if it can
possibly be done on growing plants. When I
came to the problem of rearing N. pactolus I
found it unsatisfactory even to provide fresh
food daily from growing plants; the larvae
only did well on growing plants and undis-
turbed. See Bean (1965): 619.

On 7 December the surviving berenice
larvae were about 5 mm long, and by 10 Dec-
ember one was 10 mm long and greenish
between the stripes. I now noticed the ever-
sible tower-shaped organs on the eighth
abdominal segment by tickling with a small
paintbrush. I put three or four ants from the
Pune garden with the larvae. They settled

348

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF THE NACADUBA

down with them and I saw one tapping the
rear and other parts of a feeding larva, the
ants still cling on when the larva moved up
the side of the cage. The ants were likely
to have been Solenopsis geminata Fabr., 1804,
but I failed to keep a specimen.

When the young red leaves were all gone,
the larvae ate young leafstalks I crushed up.
They would even eat the more tender parts
of green leaves, making holes through, but
leaving the lateral veins.

Larvae of 8 to 10 mm in length retained
the power to drop by a thread when disturbed.
When I tried to pick them up with a damp
brush they often feigned death for a short
time, crawling away soon afterwards.

Pupation.

From 13 to 15 December the five larvae
prepared for pupation, each on the upper
surface of a leaf. They placed a number of
untidy threads near themselves, especially at
the hind end, but the girdle, near the thorax,
was hard to see. One larva died before pupat-
ing. The pupae were about 8 mm long and
2.50 mm across the thorax. In colour they
were pinkish brown, darker on the head and
wingcases, with a chain of dark brown dorsal
blotches and lighter brown freckling elsewhere.
Plate XI: 24 & 25. of the undersides of
the abdomens of male and female pupa skins,
show the outward differentiation between the
sexes as in N. pactolus (Plate XI: 11 and
12).

Eclosion.

On 19 December one of the pupae seemed
near emergence but had become loose from
its girdle. The back of the thorax had darken-
ed, the eyes were seen as dark oval shapes,
and there was a dark brown dagger-shaped
mark at the apex of each wingcase. A deform-
ed male came from this pupa on 21 Decem-

ber. The next day there were three perfect
males. Thus only a quarter of the larvae came
through, due to inadequate conditions in con-
finement. Unfortunately I did little further
study of the early stages of this species, seem-
ingly very like those of N. pactolus which, three
years later, I reared from the same locality.

Adult.

Nacaduba berenice in the Western Ghats
near Pune appears in the last week of July,
during the rains, but continues until the end
of February. This means it is able to develop
well into the dry season. In contrast N. pacto-
lus in the same Khandalla area was never seen
in the dry season. The flight period of berenice
is deduced from the data of 55 caught speci-
mens taken in small numbers most years bet-
ween 1952 and 1962. It is commonest from
November onwards, varying in abundance
from year to year. For instance, 1957-1958
was a good season for it in Khandalla, but I
saw none after the poor rains of 1971. I
suspect that it may not be absolutely confined
to climax jungle, since I caught two females
in our Pune garden, one in August, 1955 and
the other the following August, both at flowers,
probably Ageratum. Although these examples
are likely to have been strays, the possibility
of a berenice colony in the Pune city neigh-
bourhood should not be ruled out. There could
well be a plant it could eat in the Empress
Gardens or the Kirkee Botanic Gardens,
though I doubt if Entada is there. (It certainly
prefers Entada, at least if it is available, for
I saw a laying female inspect the young red
leaves and tender shoots of the common
Mezoneurum for quite some time, but then go
off and lay on the rarer Entada. Bell (1918):
664, says it eats Wagatea spicata, but I think
that is a former name for Entada. Certainly
the insect is adaptable to some extent. In
August, 1956 I took both sexes in bungalow

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

compounds near Khandalla at the flowers of
an Impatiens, and a little way off found a
single stand of Entada in a grassy lane rarely
frequented by men. The growth was destroyed
later, and I saw no more berenice there. It
does seem that the species will persist in areas,
once jungle, where a food plant has managed
to hang on.

The only other locality where I encounter-
ed this butterfly was at Matheran, the 700 to
800 m. hill-station near Bombay. I took it at
Leea flowers in February, 1953; in February,
1967 males were frequent at mud along the
shore of Charlotte Lake, near the entry of a
stream. Many were in perfect condition
and must have emerged the same day. (Due
to its habit of lurking among the undergrowth,
this butterfly quickly becomes tattered and
worn). In November, 1971, during a short
visit to India, I took two females sitting on
bushes near the Lake. Unless the food
plant differs on Matheran, I would guess that
the butterfly would be commonest somewhere
southwest of Charlotte Lake, down the cliffs
where there is Entada, for I do not remember
seeing the creeper on the tableland of
Matheran.

The Khandalla specimens were usually taken
on leaves, once noted on the flowers of Cylista.
In flight, berenice is not so jiggy and fast as
its smaller allies Prosotas, the difficulty in
catching them being the thick, bushy, usually
prickly, places they live in. Almost invariably
one must endure discomfort to get them.

There is no constant seasonal variation that
I can see from a long series covering more
than ten years. Certainly there is nothing like
some Jamides species in the DSF, when the
catenulated bands on the underside tend to
get filled in. In berenice these bands may be
sharp or obscure at all seasons, depending
probably on the degree of dampness in the
early stages, the quality of the food and the

length of larval life. On the whole, females are
more strongly marked below than males.

The male uppersides are dull purplish blue,
sometimes verging to brown, the colour mode-
rately lustrous at an angle in daylight. I have
one of a darker and clearer purple, which
gave me hopes of beroe, but the genitalia
showed it to be berenice.

The shining blue in the female on the disc
of the forewing may extend to the tornus,
though normally a brown suffusion occupies
this area. There is never white in the post-
median area of the blue patch; when the
specimen is tilted, blue scales reaching to the
apical angle of the brown margin can usually
be made out. Females with such extended blue
areas may look very much like N. kurava, and
it may not be possible to be quite sure. Any
female Nacaduba may be a puzzle to identify
for certain.

The apex and termen of the forewing in both
sexes is always well rounded, especially in
the female.

I have found much variation in the size of
caught specimens, apparently unrelated to the
season of the year but dependent on local
factors, as suggested above for variation in
pattern. I have males with forewing 12 mm
taken in January, and 15 mm taken in both
February and September; females are down
to 10 mm in February and up to 16 mm in
August, but a female reared in January has
forewing 12 mm, while a caught specimen of
January another year is 10 mm. On the whole
the males seem to come a little bigger than
females, which seems in accordance with their
life of play and search; the smaller, rounder
wings of the females are suitable for life in
the undergrowth, where the brilliant blue flash
from their forewings signals their presence to
the questing males. I have not noticed mating
behaviour, which may indicate that it happens
in retired places.

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OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF THE NACADUBA

Note : Through my misidentification of this species in
JBNHS 61 : 3, 614 to 616, the words ‘beroe
gythion Frah.’ on page 617 para. 1 should read
berenice plumbeomicans WM & DeN, 1880,
and similarly wherever else the word beroe
occurs in the article.

The Male Genitalia.

The complete armature, (Plate XV: 26)
is shown in a side view from the right of the
abdomen, the valvae to the left of the draw-
ing on the ventral side and the brachiae with
the falces to the right, the dorsal side. The
damaged aedeagus has slipped down from its
proper position between the valves and the
brachiae. The wavy organ low down between
the valves is the damaged furca.

The Valva (Plate XV: 27). The right
valva is shown from the inside, the ventral
edge being to the right. The dotted area in-
dicates the overhanging tip; it has about
twelve minute teeth and three larger ones near
the apex. The square end, or distal edge, of
the valve has ten teeth, similar in size to the
large teeth of the overhanging tip, and there
is a group of spicules, or little bristles, near
the dorsal side of the square end.

Aedeagus (Plat XV: 29). This is in side
view, apex to the left and the dorsal side
below. The zone is about a quarter along
from the apex, as in the other species of the
Nacaduba section studied here. The ductus
enters dorsally, as throughout the section. I
had to show the probable point of entry by
sketchy lines. The short coecum is presumably
the slightly swollen basal part of the organ.
Near the apex springs the double Chapman’s
process, and the tips of the partly everted penis
can also be made out.

For comparison, I have included Plate XV:
28, showing the valve of beroe, which is dis-
tinguishable at a glance from that of berenice ;
and Plate XV : 30, the aedeagus of beroe,

in which the Chapman’s process is about half
as long again as that of berenice.

IV. Nacaduba sinhala Ormiston, 1924.

(Plates VII & IX)

On a short visit to Sri Lanka in August-
September, 1961 I had my only experience of
this small Nacaduba. The locality was a fine
piece of forest, full of insects, near Trinity
College, Kandy, at about 600 m. altitude. It is
approached and partly skirted by a metalled
road, but the rest of the circuit is a lane.
There had been some heavy showers, and the
leeches were out in force; as soon as I stood
still they rushed up to me in their ‘measuring
worm’ fashion. This jungle circuit used to be
known as Lady Horton’s Walk, and is men-
tioned by Evans as a good place for butter-
flies; Evans (1932): 33. The locality is on the
data labels of this and other Lycaenids in the
Hope Collection in Oxford, and one could
wish that material was more often provided
with such exact information.

The species has been considered a race of
N. berenice, and on superficial characters this
could be so. The males are much alike above.
Below, the highly contrasting near-white bands
in sinhala could have developed in an island
population, as also the light colouring in the
female. However, the distinctive genitalia, taken
with the external differences, make it a good
species, especially as Sri Lanka has its own
race of berenice in any case, closely allied
with sinhala though it would seem to be.
Whatever may be the actual status of sinhala
it is a form peculiar to Sri Lanka, and is not
found in India; compare Woodhouse & Henry
(1942): 89, para. 111.

N. sinhala is more variable in size than
berenice, but on the whole smaller in both
sexes. I only have six males and they measure
between 11 and 14 mm (forewing); of these
four were caught in the Kandy forest on the

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

same day, and are all of different dimensions.
Most of the males are larger than the females.
The undersides are more strongly patterned
than in berenice, and the postdiscal lunules
are clearly zigzag. On the upper side the
female is white on the disc of the forewing
with only a little pale shining blue at the base.
It is very like a small female N. kurava.

In the Kandy forest the butterflies were in
fair numbers around bushes along the jungle
lane. They have an erratic flight, but not as
fast as the Prosotas species. The females were
very slow and could be scooped up on the
wing. The males were more difficult to catch.
They sat alert on leaves in places where the
sunlight, striking through the forest canopy,
made pleasant stations for them. I did not
notice whether they were pugnacious, but
saw one being hustled off a good stand by
an Oriens skipper, a species commoner along
those bushes than sinhala. I saw a male solicit
a female, which showed unwillingness by
vibrating her wings.

My collecting had to be limited to three
afternoon visits of under two hours, so I can-
not say anything about the flight period or
frequency of this species. I received one from
Kandy (October) and another from Trinco-
malee (February).

Early Stages.

I do not think these have been described.
Woodhouse & Henry (loc. cit.) refer to a
detailed description by Bell (1918): 657, under
‘Nacaduba atrata. This is an invalid name for
N. kurava. From the description of the adult
in the same passage there can be no doubt
that Bell is describing the early stages of
kurava.

The Male Genitalia.

Plate XV: 31 shows the armature ex-

panded, the valvae to the left and the aedeagus

removed. Between the two valves the furca
is in position. The space between the labides
is simply part of the genital ring, not extend-
ing into the abdomen as a saccus; this feature
is typical of the Nacaduba section of the com-
plex.

Valva.

See Plate XV : 32 for the inside of

the left valva, which seems the chief distinc-
tive part of the genitalia in this species.
It has none of the hooded appearance of the
berenice valve. In shape it looks like a human
footprint. There is a toothed overhanging tip,
but very much smaller than in berenice and
difficult to show clearly in a drawing. There
are about twelve, rather irregularly formed
serrations on the dorsal edge, including those
on the small overhanging tip. The rest of the
dorsal edge is irregular rather than serrated.

Aedeagus.

See Plate XV: 33. This seems to me very
like that of berenice. The tips of the penis are
seen by transparency between the short double
Chapman’s process.

V. Nacaduba kurava canaraica

Toxopeus, 1927.

(Plates VII & IX)

Nacaduba kurava has a wide range and a
number of races from the Western Ghats to
Australia, Taiwan and Japan. Bell (1918): 657
gives a detailed description of all stages from
his Kanara material. This would be the Indian
form, which does not appear to be common
in the Bombay-Pune area where I did most
of my collecting.

In 1963, I took several males on the east
side of a hill near Khandalla at about 800 m.
Below me was a steep slope with trees grow-
ing out of it; the butterflies were perching on
leaves, enjoying the hot sun and the updraught

352

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF THE NACADUBA

of warm air cooled by the foliage. From time
to time they took flights on their own or in
pursuit of one another. Two years earlier, I
had seen similar behaviour in another jungle
at about 650 m. In each case there was plenty
of cover. I caught a female in the thick jungle,
but never had the luck to come upon one
egglaying. The only other female I ever caught
came to Ageratum flowers in our Pune garden,
far from any true jungle. I took a single male
on an outlying part of the Ghats at about
1300 m., in a place where I often collected
but had never found this species. All my males
were taken between August and December
from 1956 to 1964, but only in twos and threes
a year except in 1963 when they were abun-
dant.

From my meagre knowledge it seems that
this is a wet-season and post-monsoon butter-
fly in the Khandalla area, and is not at all
common there. Its sporadic appearance, with
occasional abundance, needs an explanation.
It may have migratory habits, but there is
only a slight indication of this in the two strays
mentioned above. The species is commoner
farther south, as in Coorg and Kanara, and
therefore may be at the edge of its range
around Khandalla. Certainly it has migratory
habits in Japan, where, again it is on the
edge of its range. Kudrna (1974): 114-115
states that it is a migrant; in the warmest parts
of Kiushu and Shikoku it only appears in the
hot weather, but flies from March to Novem-
ber farther south in the Amami Islands.

The first specimen I saw alive was fluttering
around a bush towards the end of the afteu
noon near the 800 m. site mentioned above,
and the definitely purple colouring reminded
me of Anthene, quite different from the dark,
lavender-blue impression which berenice gives
in flight. N. kurava is a strong, tough butterfly;
in colour, swooping action, and sudden perch-

ing it is very like Rapala manea, which I en-
countered in the same jungles.

I know nothing about the early stages in
Khandalla. Bell (op. cit.) : 661, gives the
foodplant in N. Kanara as Embelia robusta
(Myrsinaceae), ‘a large climber with . . .
longly’ ovate leaves of a somewhat light oliva-
ceous green with prominent ‘purple veins,
common in the moist forests of the Western
Ghats’. He gives other foodplants as Embelia
ribes, a climbing shrub, and Ardisia humilis,
also Myrsinaceae, a tree. Wynter-Blyth (1957) :
497 adds Waltheria indica (Sterculiaceae).
From the botanical information available to
me it appears that Embelia and Ardisia are
not found in the Khandalla area, but that
Sterculiaceae may be represented; Santapau
(1957): 26, identified a tree species belonging
to this Order, from Purandhar.

The Male Genitalia.

The complete armature is shown in Plate
XVI: 34. The aedeagus has shifted from
its proper position, roughly parallel to the long
axis of the valves. The valves are on the left,
with the f urea between them, and the labides
with their falces on the right. The dotted areas
are meant to show parts visible by transpa-
rency. There are various hairs not depicted;
they are present in all the forms studied here,
but are not taxonomically important; see Eliot
(1973): 391.

Plate XVI: 35 shows the genital ring with
the valves spread to the left, the aedeagus
removed and the labides to the right. That
part of the genital ring between the labides
is not deepened to form a saccus but is shallow,
as in the rest of this Nacaduba section.

The Aedeagus (See Plate XVI: 34) is
furnished with tiny spicules or spines in about
sixteen rows on its dorsal side from the tip
towards the zone. The ductus, shown by
sketchy lines, is dorsad, as usual in this sec-

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

tion. The Chapman’s process is short. It
appears to me as a single organ wrapped
round the apices of the penis.

The Valva.

Plate XVI: 36 shows the inside of the
left valva, the toothed edge facing across the
genital ring. The whole valve is outwardly
convex; see Plate XVI: 34 for an attempt >
to depict this. The serrations are strongly bent
inwards. The apical head of the valve is armed
for most of the way on both sides with very
small serrations. The base of the valve is
strengthened by its laminated structure there.

Notes on the male genitalia of Prosotas
nor a, dubiosa and noreia

Tite (1963): 90 follows Toxopeus and in-
cludes under Prosotas Druce, 1891 ‘all those
species having simple claspers terminating in
a pointed hook, and an aedeagus with a trun-
cate, branch-like process arising ventrally from
just below the apex.’ He says that we are
dealing here with a natural group of related
species; we should take into account not only
the external differences from Nacaduba but
also the general habit of life.

The small differences I have been able to

see between the genitalia of the three Pro-
sotas species studied are set out in Table 6,
tentatively and for what they are worth. See
Fig. 5 for the valvae and Plate XVI: 37-39
for the aedeagi.

VI. Prosotas nora ardates Moore, 1874.

(Plates XII & XIII)

This is a common butterfly over most of
the area considered in this article. Between
1951 and 1974 I have taken or received it
from sea level to 1300 metres, from the Ghats
and the Deccan, from the Konkan and the
Salsette Hills, and from compounds and gar-
dens in the central of Bombay and Pune.
During two short visits to Sri Lanka however,
in August-September, 1952 and 1961, I took
it only once, on the second occasion; it was
a single male, at Haputale, 1200 m. in Uva
State. On each visit the closely related P.
dubiosa was numerous in Colombo. On look-
ing at Woodhouse & Henry (1942): 91, para.
114, I found that my experience is similar to
that of Moore in the last century; he saw nora
only in ones and twos but dubiosa in ‘clouds
round the Madras thorn-trees in Colombo’.
Since Woodhouse and Henry (op. cit.) : 90, says
it is a common butterfly in Sri Lanka the

Table 6

Comparison of the male genitalia of three Prosotas species

Nora

Dubiosa

Noreia

Valva :

length about 0.52 mm

length about 0.52 mm

length about 0.56 mm

hook gradual from body of

hook very abrupt from body

hook abrupt from body of

valva.

of valva.

valva.

Aedeagus:

Chapman’s process c. 0.225

Chapman’s process c. 0.25 mm

Chapman’s process c. 0.225

mm long.

long.

mm long.

Featherlike features from
below zone to just above
base of Chapman’s pro-
cess.

Such features above zone only.

Such features extensive, above
and below zone.

Enlarged coecum probably
present.

Enlarged coecum present.

Enlarged coecum probably
present.

354

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF THE NACADUBA

explanation may be that nora has intervals
between its flight periods there. It seems to
tail off in Western India in June and July; at
least I have no records or material of that
period.

On the Western Ghats near Khandalla, a
typical spot for nora was visited several times
in May, 1960. The males were basking and
playing on the leaves of a sunlit tree in a glade
between 10 and 14 hours on the western side
of a small wood. Their intricate jigging flight,
and their speed as they dashed after other
males, made them hard to catch, and often
they flew out of reach. They also had the
annoying habit of taking a long while to settle,
then shooting off at once. But eventually a
chance would come of getting one with a well
aimed upward sweep.

Both sexes come to flowers. In the glade
at Khandalla I noted males at Leea as late
as 17 hrs. Females were around Albizzia, pro-
bably for egglaying as well as drinking, from
10 to 14 hrs. At another ‘playground’ on the
Khandalla hillsides a male was seen hustling
off a Caleta decidia. In Bombay city I saw
either P. nora or P. dubiosa laying on some
Mimosa-type bushes in flower which I had
grown six or seven years before in the Maza-
gon compound for the benefit of such butter-
flies. In September, 1960 I took nora in the
Old Cemetery at Colaba around the ball-like
flowers of Leucaena; and in November, 1971
a female at Colaba Point. The species was
frequent in our Pune garden. My impression
is that it is an opportunist; it does not depend
on real jungle conditions, does very well on
the dry Deccan and might turn up anywhere.

At various places I have taken males at
damp patches and on soil made attractive to
them by cattle, though I have not seen them
on actual droppings.

In May, 1964 I took a few, mostly males,
at Ranikhet and Jolikot between 1,100 and

1,800 metres in the Central Himalayan foot-
hills. A genitalia check showed them all to
be nora , and not, as I had hoped, the out-
wardly similar Prosotas pia marginata Tite,
1963; this has not been found west of Sikkim,
so mine was a long shot.

I reared this species from larvae found on
the pink and white flower-heads of an Acacia-
like bush in our Pune garden, probably
Mimosa hamata Willd., but I was never able
to find an egg in spite of quite often seeing a
female laying. Bell (1918): 656, says ‘each
egg is deposited near the base’ of a bud, well
concealed from casual observation, the end of
the ‘abdomen being thrust well down between
the heads.’ At Mahableshwar in 1971 I set
myself to find an egg; I pulled off each part
of an inflorescence and eventually found the
egg shown on Plate V. Unfortunately in the
rush of a short visit to India I did not keep
for identification a specimen of the bushy herb
with purple flowers on which numbers of nora
were laying at Mahableshwar. The photograph
of the egg tallies with Bell’s detailed descrip-
tion; I reproduce it here so that those who
cannot refer to back numbers of the Journal
may not miss an example of his unsurpassable
and dedicated work. Bell (1918): 654-655:

Egg. Turban-shaped. The surface covered all
over with reticulations forming cells, the walls
moderately broad and high, especially just at
the change between the flat, somewhat depress-
ed top surface to the perpendicular sides, where
the intersections are thickened and prominently
raised into little round-topped prominences,
which are erect, slightly flattened above and
below, and shining. These prominences lose
themselves towards the base, as well as very
soon after they get over the rim on to the flat
top. The highest prominences are quite the
height of one cell diameter where they are.
The largest cell is just over the rim on the

355

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

side (of the egg) of which it takes up most of
the height. The cells in this . . . row are all
hexagonal, and from each prominence radiate
six thin rays to the intersections surrounding
it. (Nearly) all the other cells are . . . more
quadrangular, and decrease in size from the
rim to the centre of the top, but not rapidly.
Those around the central, irregular, low- walled
surface containing the micropyle are seven or
eight in number, somewhat distorted, and the
smallest of all. The rows of cells are arranged
... in wide sweeping curves, all, theoretically,
having their origin at the micropyle, and curv-
ing out like the picture of a catherine-wheel
firework. The bottoms of all the cells are finely
granulated, and that of the micropyle-surface
is pitted. The whole surface is shining like glass
in a strong side light. The colour is very light
bluish-greenish to the eye; under the lens all
the walls and prominences are white and the
bottoms of the cells greenish.

Breadth : 0.4 mm; height : 0.2 mm.

Larva.

I reared several found in the Pune garden
on Mimosa hamata during the last two weeks
of August. Some were in the early stages,
yellowish in colour, without noticeable mark-
ings. Others, a little bigger, had lateral and
dorsal rows of spots, orange on the back,
darker at the sides. The dorsal row was con-
tained in a yellow stripe. The ground colour
was green or light yellow. A larva 5 mm long,
which would be about half grown, had raised
tubercles on the back; the dorsal spots were
light in colour, most definite on the thoracic
segments and, in the case of the lateral spots,
most definite on segments 5 and 11. I got only
a fleeting glimpse of the head of this larva;
like many Lycaenids they keep their head
drawn into the thorax most of the time, even
when eating. Another larva, nearly full grown

when found, was pale green, the same colour
extending into the true legs. For the next two
days it remained on the same flower head
where I had found it; when that began to wilt
it refused to move over to fresh food, as if
concealment was of greater importance to it
than diet. All these larvae were hard to
observe, spending their time well down among
the flowers they were eating. The presence of
larvae was indicated, though not constantly,
by small black ants. Apart from these it was
very hard to find the larvae which blend
marvellously with the flower heads as well as
as being usually half buried in them. They eat
only flowers and flower buds; I never saw
them attack the leaves. There were always
some small black insects on the bush as well
as the ants; I once saw one of the former on
the back of a Prosotas larva; I much regret
having neglected to collect either of these for
identification.

Pupation.

Sometimes the larvae pupated in the angle
at the top of the cage, but mostly at the bottom
among debris. Wherever they chose to pupate
they were well attached by pad and girdle,
often to a stalk or a firm bunch of leaves.

The cage used was probably a plastic con-
tainer, but this is undesirable for ‘Nacadubas’.
Those reared in this way sometimes failed to
expand or had soft wings. At the time I
thought this was due to the absence of ants
from my cages, but after subsequent experi-
ence with Nacaduba pact ol us and here nice I
believe ventilation and growing plants are
more important. A snag about Mimosa species
as a foodplant is that the flowers tend to drop
from a twig kept in water in a gauze cage.

The butterflies emerged about six days after
the pupa was fully formed. The time of emer-
gence was about midday. A female pupa skin

356

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF THE NACADUBA

is iilustrated in Fig. 7, showing the segments
of the abdomen from below.

Adult Wing Pattern.

I have seventy males, mostly from the
Deccan and the Western Ghats, collected in
twos and threes at different times of the year
between 1951 and 1974. Above, they vary in
tint from a dark purple through violet almost
to a blue. These prismatic colours are best
seen and compared in a side light. Looked at
directly, less purple or violet shows, and the
main impression is brown, coffee-coloured to
sooty. Since few caught specimens are mint-
fresh, the lighter browns are probably the
result of bleaching and delapidation during
life.

Fig. 6. Egg-larva: Prosotas nora. Fig. 7. Pupa
skin : $ , Prosotas nora.

About forty females collected over the same
period vary above in the extent of blue on the
discs. Blue is nearly always absent from the
hind wing. On the forewing there are at least
some blue scales in nearly every case. There
may be a complete row of dusky marginal
spots on the hindwing, but these may often
be reduced or absent, except always the larger
tornal spot. The marginal spots may be clearly
or faintly outlined with pale ochreous. There is
always some indication of an ochreous line
before the dark threadlike border, especially
towards the tornus; here the ochreous line may
be nearly white, as may be seen by compari-
son with the pure white tip of the ‘tail’ at
vein 2. The marginal spots may be darker
than the ground-colour of the wing, but so
far as I have seen not darker than the tormal
spot.

Below, in both sexes, the ground colour of
the wings varies from grey to brown. There is
great variation in the catenulated bands, both
in their exact disposition and in the amount
and intensity of dark scales between the pale
strigae. 1 cannot see regular seasonal varia-
tion here; a well marked example may be
found at any time of the year. The variation
seems to be individual.

Three of my females have an unusual dull
yellow tint on the undersides. From breeding
experience. Bell (1918): 654, attributes this to
development during heavy rainfall. Thus two
of my females, taken in May, would have
experienced thunder showers during their early
stages; the third example was taken in Pune
on 28. ix. 1957, having grown up during the
moderate rains of the district. It would seem
that the yellow form may appear in the dry
season if conditions for that particular insect
happen to have been damp enough. Why this
variation should occur only in females is an
interesting problem. In the Andamans, the

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

females have very bright yellow undersides. See
Evans & Cantlie (1962): 80.

The Male Genitalia.

Plate XVI: 37 is a side view of the

complete armature. The left brachium and the
left valva are omitted. The genitalia of the
three Prosotas species studied here appear to
me to be very similar. Table 6 gives the slight
differences I can suggest.

Aedeagus : The broken tissues at the base
of the aedeagus may indicate the presence of
a well developed coecum. The feathery pro-
cesses on both sides of the aedeagus begin
about half way up, and end a short distance
after the branching-off of the Chapman’s
process.

Valva. Fig. 5 (a) is of the inside of the
left valva, dorsal side to the right. There is a
clear ridge along the apical hook tending to-
wards its distal side. The dark area on the
main body of the valva consists of minute
spicules, not clearly discernible at about
100 x magnification. There are crenellations on
the dorsal edge from below the apex to about
halfway to the base.

Notes on the Anatomy of the Egg-larva.

Fig. 6 was drawn from a slide of a larva
collected at Mahableshwar in November, 1971.
Its identity is very probable as the females
were laying there in numbers, and the adults
bred out were all nora.

Unfortunately I did not fix the specimen in
Pampel’s, so that it is not so well preserved
as that of N. pactolus and does not make a
good comparison possible.

It seems that the Prosotas larva is hairier
than pactolus, and the dorsal hairs shorter and
less erect. In the slide the head of the larva
has turned dorsally. The surface of the body
appears to be minutely tubercular. Some of
the dorsal hairs are curved and pointed, with

serrations on the front edge; others are simi-
larly serrated but straighter and blunt
ended. In contrast to pactolus , the false
legs are furnished with long smooth hairs
and some shorter club-shaped hairs. The anal
end of the larva bears numerous prominent
smooth, curved hairs and some short, club-
shaped hairs.

VII. Prosotas dubiosa Mica (Evans, 1925).

(Plates XII, XIII & XIV)

This race of the species ranges from Sri
Lanka, the Indian peninsula and Burma to
the Andamans; other races are named for
Malaysia and the Solomons. The typical race
is from Queensland.

Apart from the lack of ‘tails’ on v. 2 of
the hindwing, dubiosa indica is very similar
to nora ardates. Comparing my long series of
the two forms, collected in small numbers
over about twenty-five years, I would say that
the males of dubiosa are on the whole of a
brighter purple, and that the females have less
blue on the disc of the forewing.

So far as I have observed, dubiosa has the
same habits as nora, flying in the same rest-
less fashion around trees and bushes, and
attracted by mud, damp and the rich odours
of cattle droppings. This applies to males,
though once, in the Pune garden I took a
female on damp earth. Both sexes come to
flowers; I have noted the garden forms of
Verbena, Ageratum and Celosia, and the
jungle tree Dalbergia, as well as the larval
foodplants. These I have noted as Acacia spp.
especially the bushy kinds. Mimosa sp. and
Leucaena sp., all of which belong to the
Mimosaceae.

The Male Genitalia.

Plate XVI: 38 is of the complete arma-
ture, side view from the right, the left valve
and left brachium omitted. The furca ought to

358

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF THE NACADUBA

be anchored between the valvae as in the
other Prosotas drawings.

Aedeagus : There is a well developed coecum
of the shape dotted in, warranted by several
other dissections, none of which are perfect.
The ductus entering dorsally is indicated by
sketchy lines. In the slide the feathery struc-
tures are a striking feature, extending from
the apex down as far as the zone. As it is
impossible to represent these heavily chitinized
striations accurately at the scale, I have been
content merely to show their position with a
few lines.

Valva.

Fig. 5 (b) shows the inside of the left valva,
dorsal side to the right. There seems to be
considerable concavity, especially dorsally. As
in nora, there is an area of dense, tiny spines
on the main body of the valva, and the dorsal
edge below the hooked apex is crenellated,
the hook itself being ridged.

VIII. Prosotas noreia (Felder, 1868).

(Plates VIII & XIV)

There are three named races of this species;
the typical one is P. n. noreia (Felder, 1868)
from Sri Lanka and Burma; P. noreia hamp-
soni (DeNiceville, 1885) is the Indian race,
recorded from S. India up to the foothills of
the central Himalayas; and P. noreia cyclops
Toxopeus, 1929 from Java.

The underside pattern of the first two races
is illustrated in Plate XIV. The Sri Lanka
race is the smaller and more delicately marked.
In my seven examples of hampsoni the promi-
nent postdiscal spots on the forewing below
are joined almost to form a band, especially
in the males. In both male and female the
spots in spaces 2 and lb are either not shifted
inwards at all or not completely, so that the
bandlike effect is produced. In my one exam-
ple from Sri Lanka, the postdiscal spots are

more separated and those in 2 and lb are
well shifted in.

The underside feature distinguishing this
species from dubiosa is that the basal band
on the forewing is confined to the cell. I have
often found, to my disappointment, that what
I thought was a noreia was a dubiosa very
faintly marked in lb.

The upperside colour of the male is ‘intense
lustrous purple’ as stated in Evans & Cantlie
(1962) : ad loc., but I do not think this applies
to the female as stated there. My three hamp-
soni females have blue, definitely not purple,
on the discs of both wings, as noted by Wood-
house & Henry (1942): 91, para. 115.

Although I have two perfect males, I do not
find the cilia at the tips of the forewings pro-
minently white, but can distinguish this with
top lighting under low magnification.

On the uppersides of each of my three
females there is some darkening of the cilia
of both wings in line with the vein ends; see
Plate XIV, of a near-perfect example. I have
not noticed such darkening in nora and
dubiosa . The effect is not of strong contrast,
as, for instance, in the ‘laddered’ cilia of Tali-
cada.

From what could be observed from the eight
examples I have been fortunate in capturing,
the habits of this rare species are similar to
those of the two common Prosotas already
considered. One male and two females were
taken at Vitex flowers. The others were caught
around bushes or at damp places. The Sri
Lanka male was taken around bushes at sea
level where there were dubiosa in plenty. The
Indian noreia are from three places on the
Western Ghats, between 600 and 1,300 metres
altitude. At one of these spots a female was
taken low down on leaves of Osyris ; nume-
rous small ‘Nacadubas’ were jigging around a
Terminalia near by, occasionally settling on
bushes. By their behaviour these seemed male

359

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

butterflies, but 1 failed to catch one. From
time to time the mad dance ceased and the
insects went into the undergrowth, reappearing
after about ten minutes. It is possible that I
was witnessing part of the courtship of noreia\
at least the species was present. Perhaps
Terminalia is a foodplant, or in this case
happened to be right for the game. Osyris is a
shrub with angular branches, alternate leaves
and small unisexual flowers, belonging to the
Santalaceae. I took a male in another place
on the Ghats in a sunny clearing in thick
jungle; most of the catch was dubiosa. It does
look as if the two species often fly together.

This concludes the account of the eight
‘Nacadubas’ which I have met with in the
field. I hope many collectors, especially lovers
of the Lycaenidae, may have the sort of ex-
periences I have had, including hot, frustrating
hours at prickly bushes on uncomfortable hill-
sides! In this way they might well find out
that this beautiful Prosotas noreia is less
disjointedly distributed than supposed, or even
that it is not so rare after all.

Male Genitalia.

Plate XVI: 39 is of the complete arma-
ture in side view, dorsal side to the right. It
shows the characteristics of the genus —
valves with a well defined point, aedeagus of
squat shape with a single, well separated
Chapman’s process. The left valva and the left
labium are omitted in the drawing.

Aedeagus. The zone is clearly defined in this
slide, just below the Chapman’s process. As
in the other two Prosotas studied here, there
are feather-like processes on either side of the
aedeagus. They are extensive in this species,
from near the base to well past the zone to-
wards the apex. There is probably a large
coecum as in dubiosa ; my material is damaged
at this point.

Valva. Fig. 5 (c) is the inside of the left

valva, the longest of the three species studied.
There is a slight crenellation dorsally. The
ventral edge is partly folded over. Below the
apex the main body of the valva is fairly
concave.

Notes on Preparing Male Genitalia.

These are made either into slides for keep-
ing separately, or mounts for keeping with the
pinned collection. The latter has advantages;
in practice both methods will be needed.

The process sounds more complicated and
troublesome than it actually is. Moisten the
end of the abdomen of a pinned specimen
with spirit. Too much spirit may run up into
the wings and distort scales. When the material
seems well soaked, cut off the last two seg-
ments of the abdomen with dissecting scissors
or fine nail scissors. With practice and luck,
you will not always break off the whole
abdomen. Place the segments containing the
genitalia into a test tube of potassium hydro-
xide 5% (caustic potash) a couple of centi-
metres deep. Cork the tube and pin a data
label on at once. Leave the material for 12 to
18 hours, depending on size. There is little risk
unless you should leave the material much
too long when the hard parts might be
damaged. After the proper time, which you
will soon get to know, the material will be
ready for the next stage. Alternatively it may
be prepared for this by boiling, though there
are more risks, especially to small genitalia.
For boiling you close the tube with cotton
wool; a long pin pushed sideways through
this stopper holds the data. You then hold
the tube in a vessel of water which is brought
carefully to the boil, then kept simmering for
up to twenty minutes. A wooden bridge with
holes for the tubes can be easily devised. If,
at first, the material floats, it is ready when
it sinks. Use a large test tube for boiling.

After boiling or soaking, transfer the mate-

360

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF THE NACADUBA

rial to plain water, and after a moment on
blotting paper, to a dish of spirit. The best
dish is the excavated kind which is hard to
knock over. Ordinary methylated spirit is all
right, even the coloured product.

Having made sure of the data, you next
(under magnification) tease away the outer
covering of the segments in the spirit. If it is
ready this outer coat, along with the con-
certina-like body-wall, will peel off easily. If
not, boil or soak a little longer. Some people
are able to use a strong watchmaker’s lens or
similar device. The alternative is a stereo-
microscope, which gives a true image, not re-
versed. The tools for dissecting are fine forceps,
mounted needles and the smallest painting
brush.

When you have picked off and brushed
away the soft parts as thoroughly as possible
you have the pleasure of seeing the whole
armature perfect with its components easily
movable. Put it in clean spirit and work out
which part is which, and plan the position you
will mount it in. You may now decide to
detach a clasp for mounting separately on this
or another slide. Or you may want to extract
the aedeagus, mount it separately, and show
the valvae and labides expanded and flattened.

The next thing is to clear the water out of
the specimen. Transfer it via blotting paper
to a dish of xylene for ten minutes or more;
you can see the bubbles escaping and the
material becoming semi-transparent.

While clearing continues, polish a thin micro-
scope slide, stick a label on it near one end,
and lightly pencil in sufficient data. Then
place a card ring in the middle of the slide,
and with a glass rod, or smooth, thin knitting
needle, drop in a small quantity of Canada
balsam. This is the fixing agent. (Instead of
Canada balsam, Euparal is now recommend-
ed). There should be enough balsam to fill
the ring and to fix it to the glass slide.

Next place the cleared specimen in the
balsam, and with two needles arrange it under
magnification. This can be tricky, as air
bubbles tend to appear and the balsam resists
your movements. The difficulties are reduced
by frequently dipping the needles in a dish of
xylene.

When the material is well arranged, drop
a little extra balsam onto it so that the surface
of the fixative is slightly convex. Now take a
round cover glass (which has been waiting
in a safe place). Hold it by the edge
with forceps. Getting on a level with the slide,
place the edge of the cover glass upon the
cardboard ring, and lower the other
side gently to cover the whole ring. The balsam
will have flowed across the specimen towards
your hand without leaving air bubbles. If it
looks as if bubbles are going to obscure just
what you want to see, take off the cover glass,
rescue the material wipe up the balsam and
begin again. This is better than topping up
the balsam in the ring.

The data are written as soon as possible
with waterproof ink on the label. This is vital.
Always give enough data to connect the
material with its source in the pinned collec-
tion or wherever it is. It is best to give full
data for the sake of anyone who may own
your slide in the future, but may not be able
to refer to your collection.

Cardboard rings can be made with a hammer
and punch. The rings for the ‘Nacadubas’
were of postcard thickness. They look well
enough if trimmed round the outside to pro-
duce a circle slightly larger than the cover
glasses.

For cover glass mounts, stick (with balsam)
what is to be the lower glass over the hole in
a punched and pinned card ring mount. Let
it dry overnight. Then reverse it on the pin
and proceed as for a slide. A serial number
corresponding with that on the data label of

361

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

the material in the slide mount may be written
on the card of the mount near the pin. In
making these mounts leave enough card be-
yond the cover glasses for the pin. The mount
may go on the pin under the insect itself, or
stand on its own pin with its duplicate data
label. In all cases there must be no chance
of muddling the data, especially as sometimes
the mount will have to lie on the microscope
stage without its data label and pin.

Slides and mounts must dry flat in a dust-
free place. This takes time. A slide on which
too much balsam has been used may still be
sticky after several months. If the pinned in-
sects are in boxes stored on end, the genitalia
in mounts which you may keep with them are
liable to change position, unless the prepara-
tions are absolutely dry before being put in
the collection.

I did the figures of genitalia mostly
at 100 x magnification with the aid of a squar-
ed graticule in the eyepiece. By calibration it
was possible to give measurements and scales,
errors in which will therefore be constant.

Conclusion

The butterflies of the Nacaduba complex
began to appeal to me in 1950 after the late
Mr. Nogueira of happy memory, identified for
me my first Prosotas dubiosa at the BNHS
and my interest and delight in them has grown
ever since.

It should be realized that the lepidopterist
who can visit jungle and hill country, as on
the Western Ghats, is greatly privileged; but
also that a good deal of fascinating work is
open to those who are rarely able to take
their net beyond the gardens and waste plots
of Indian cities and suburbs. Anyone might
find Petrelaea dana, for instance, in Salsette;
or you might get lonolyce helicon viola , as
Best did in the late forties. See Best (1951):
338.

Only the simplest equipment is needed, for
a microscope is only essential when you get
on to genitalia. Next to the net, a field note-
book is of great importance, written as soon
as possible after an observation. I well know
how bits of paper get lost; also how a state-
ment, clear (it seemed) when made, can read
ambiguously years later.

I hope these notes of an enthusiast will
provoke others to take up one of the less
known butterfly groups. It may be the Hes-
perids or the Satyrids that attract you — they
are well worth it. But if you are beginning to
feel the pull of the Lycaenidae, then go
straight to the nearest lime-bush with a hand
lens and get going on the ant-relationship of
the larvae of Chilades laius\

Acknowledgements

I am very greatly indebted to the late Mr.
G. E. Tite for advice and encouragement
during the preparation of this paper; for con-
firming the identification of my N. berenice
material; for showing me how to prepare
genitalia; and for his skill and considerable
ingenuity in producing the drawings of andro-
conia. And his ‘Synonymic List’, noted below,
has guided me throughout.

I am also indebted to Prof. G. C. Varley for
allowing me every facility, including access to
the Hope Collections in the Department of
Entomology in the University of Oxford. Mr
E. Taylor of that Department was, as always,
a great help to me in several practical matters.

The section on Zoogeography was inspired
by Col. J. N. Eliot’s ‘Higher Classification of
the Lycaenidae’. As stated in the text, any
misinterpretations or rash conclusions are my
own. I am grateful to Col. Eliot himself for
so kindly presenting me with a copy of his
work. I have referred to it constantly, and it
continues to illuminate my general study of
the Lycaenidae.

362

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF THE NACADUBA

I thank the Trustees of the British Museum
(NH) for allowing me to use the map show-
ing the distribution of A;. astarte in Tite (1963).

Father F. L. Wain, my colleague and
friend, has supported me throughout the
lengthy gestation of this paper. Father E. F.
Bishop, also with great understanding, and

Refe

Bean, A. E. (1965) : Notes on the Life History
of Nacaduba pactolus continentalis Fruh. ./.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61(3) : 614-626.

Bell, T. R. D. (1918): The Butterflies of the
Plains of India, ibid. 25: 653-664.

Best, A. E. G. (1951) : The Butterflies of Bom-
bay and Salsette. ibid. 50: 338.

Cantlie, K. (1952) : Butterflies of the Khasi and
Jaintia Hills, Assam, ibid. 51: 52.

(1963) : The Lycaenidae portion of

Brigadier Evans’ The Identification of Indian Butter-
flies 1932. Bombay Natural History Society.

Colbert, G. H. (1973): Wandering Lands and
Animals. Hutchinsons, London.

Eliot, J. N. (1973) : The Higher Classification of
the Lycaenidae. Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. ( Ent .) 28.
6: 371-505.

Higgins, L. G. (1975) : The Classification of
European Butterflies. Collins, London.

Mrs Jane Woolmer, between them photo-
graphed the adult insects. I am very grateful
to them both for their patience and skill. And
I thank Br Alban Waite of my Society for
his accurate work in mounting all the draw-
ings and photographs, and for binding the
typescript.

ENCES

Kudrna, Otakar (1974) : An Annotated List of
Japanese Butterflies. Atalanta B.

Santapau, H. (1957): The Flora of Purandhar.
Oxford Book & Stationery Co., New Delhi.

Sanders, D. F. (1955): Miscellaneous Notes on
Indian Butterflies. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52(4) :
824.

Talbot, G. (1938): Butterflies, Vol. I (Second
Edition). In ‘Fauna of British India’. Taylor &
Francis, London.

Tinbergen, Niko (1974) : Curious Naturalists.
Penguin Education.

Tite, G. E. (1963) : A Synonomic List of the
Genus Nacaduba and Allied Genera. Bull. Br. Mus.
nat. Hist. (Ent.) 13 A: 67-116.

Woodhouse, L.G.O. & Henry, C.M.R. (1942):
The Butterfly Fauna of Ceylon. Government Publi-
cation, Colombo.

Wynter-Blyth, M. A. (1957) : Butterflies of the
Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society.

363

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON MARINE OSTRACODA FROM THE
EAST COAST OF INDIA. FAMILY: CYPRIDIDAE MARTIN, 19401

C. Annapurna and D. V. Rama Sarma2

{With three plates)

Introduction

In an investigation on the taxonomy and
ecology of benthic ostracods, 40 species be-
longing to 27 genera and 14 families were
identified from the marginal marine /estuarine
environments, namely Bimili backwaters (17°
54' N; 83°28'E), Balacheruvu tidal stream
(17° 39' N; 83° 15' E), and Vasishta Godavari
estuary (16°18'N; 81°42'E). (Annapurna
1978).

Among the members of the family Cypri-
didae Martin, 1940, Phlyctenophora indica is
new to science, P. zealandica (Brady, 1880)
is recorded for the first time from Indian
waters.

Family: Cyprididae Martin, 1940
Subfamily : paracypridinae Sars, 1923
Genus: Phlyctenophora Brady, 1880

Key for identification to species of
Phlyctenophora :

1 . Carapace smooth 3

2. Carapace sculptured with a few pits and dark

brown patches in live condition 6

3 . Antero-dorsal pronounced

Phlyctenophora bhatiai

1 Accepted December 1985.

2 Department of Zoology, Andhra University,
Waltair-530 003.

4. Antero-dorsal not pronounced 5

5. Marginal pore canals conspicuously

branching P. zealandica

6. Bifurcate branching in marginal pore

canals P. indica

Phlyctenophora zealandica (Brady, 1880)
(PI. 1, Fig. A; PI. 2, Figs. 1-8)

Carapace elongate, moderately compressed
laterally. Greatest height in the middle and
equal to less than half the length. Anterior end
broadly rounded, posterior end narrow and
ventrally sub-angular. Dorsal margin arched,
ventral margin somewhat sinuate in the middle,
carapace smooth, valves strongly calcified.
Hinge adont type. The dorsal margin of the
right valve fits into a shallow open groove
along the dorsal margin of the larger left valve.
Inner lamella widest anteriorly and antero-
ventrally, narrowing towards the posterior end.
Anterior vestibulum present but not conspi-
cuously wide. Posterior vestibulum generally
slightly wider. Selvage peripheral, weakly deve-
loped. Marginal pore canals many, conspicu-
ously branched, especially anteriorly and antero-
ventrally. Normal pores numerous, small pores
open and scattered. Central muscle scars,
adductor muscle scars group of six, four in
the anterior vertical row and two in the poste-
rior and two anteroventral mandibular scars.
Eye spot absent, left valve larger than the right.
Sexual dimorphism not apparent.

364

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85
Annapurna & Rama Sarma: Marine Ostracoda.

Plate l

A. Phlyctenophora zeaiandica — Exterior view of carapace — lOOx.

B. P. indica — Interior view of carapace — 116x.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85

Annapurna & Rama Sarma: Marine Ostracoda

Plate 2

Phlyctenophora zealandica (Brady)

1. Antennule; 2. Antenna; 3. Vibratory plate; 4. Maxilla; 5. First thoracic leg;
6. Second thoracic leg; 7. Third thoracic leg; 8. Genital organ.

0-1 MM

UU I Q

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85

Annapurna & Rama Sarma: Marine Ostracoda

Plate 3

Phlyctenophora indica sp. nov.

A. Exterior view of the left valve.

1. Antennule; 2. Antenna; 3. Mandible; 4. Maxilla; 5. Vibratory plate; 6. First
thoracic leg; 7. Second thoracic leg; 8. Third thoracic leg.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Length 0.94 mm; height 0.45 mm.

Antennule 5- jointed, first podomere with 2
slender setae. Second podomere consists of
sense organ and 3 posterior slender setae.
Ultimate podomere with numerous slender
setae. Antenna 3 -segmented. Distal ends of
second podomere with numerous setae. Ulti-
mate podomere shorter than other two podo-
meres, ends with slender setae. Setae help in
swimming. Mandibles with 5 pairs of serrate
teeth placed laterally on the cutting edge.
Maxilla with 4 masticatory lobes end with short
setae. Vibratory plate with 8 unfeathered rays,
at the base of the vibratory plate with 4 slen-
der setae. The 2-segmented maxillary palp
bears 4 slender setae and ends with 4 setae.
The first 3-jointed thoracic leg ends with slen-
der setae, more elongated than the segments.
Second thoracic leg same as that of first thora-
cic leg but it ends with claw-like setae. Third
thoracic leg consists of single segment with
slender setae.

Occurrence : Backwaters of Bimili, Bala-

cheruvu tidal stream, and lower reaches of
Vasishta Godavari estuary on the east coast
of India.

Distribution : Indo-Pacific.

Phlyctenophora indica sp. nov.

(PI. 1, Fig. B; PI. 3, Figs. A, 1-8)

Carapace elongate, moderately laterally
compressed, highest in the middle and equal
to less than half the length. Anterior end
broadly rounded. Posterior end narrow and
ventrally sub-angular. Dorsal margin arched,
ventral margin sinuate in the middle. Cara-
pace with few pits and widely spaced. In the
live condition some forms ornamented with
dark brown patches. Hinge adont type. Dorsal
margin of the rigid valve fits into a shallow
open groove along the dorsal margin of the
larger left valve. Inner lamella widest ante-

riorly and anteroventrally and narrows towards
the posterior end. Anterior vestibulum present
but not conspicuously wide. Posterior vestibu-
lum slightly wider. Marginal pore canals
numerous, widely spaced, bifurcate branching
shown at anterior end. Marginal pore canals
simple and straight at posterior and ventral
end. Normal pores numerous, small scattered
and open. Adductor muscle scars group of six,
4 in the anterior vertical row and 2 in the
posterior and two antero-ventral mandibular
scars.

Length 0.67 mm; height 0.45 mm.

Antennule 5-jointed, each protopodite bears
slender setae which help in swimming. The
penultimate and ultimate podomeres with 2
claw-like setae. Antenna same as that of P.
zealandica. Antenna consists of sense club in
the first podomere of protopodite — a charac-
teristic feature of the family Cyprididae.
Maxilla same as that of P. zealandica. Mandi-
ble with 5 pairs of serrate teeth placed late-
rally on the cutting edge. Thoracic legs 4-
jointed, U-shaped structure. Distal end of each
podomere bears 1 seta, the ultimate podomere
with single claw-like seta. Copulatory organs
are well developed.

Remarks : The present species appears to
be closely related to P. zealandica (Brady,
1880), and P. bhatiai Jain, 1975. But it differs in
having a few conspicuous pits and dark brown
patches on the carapace. The species is named
after the country where it is recorded.

Type-locality : Balacheruvu tidal stream,

East coast of India.

Type-specimens : Holotype and two para-
types are deposited in the Museum of Zoolo-
gical Survey of India, Calcutta, India.

Occurrence : Backwaters of Bimili, Bala-

cheruvu tidal stream, lower reaches of the
Vasishta Godavari estuary, east coast of India.

365

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Andhra University, Wal-
tair for the facilities provided, to Mr. M.
Ananda Rao, Geology Department, Andhra

Refe

Annapurna, C. (1978) : Systematics and ecology
of benthic ostracoda from selected marginal marine

University, for his help in confirming the iden-
tification of species. The first author (C.A.)
thanks the C.S.I.R., New Delhi for financial
assistance.

E N CE

environments, east coast of India. Ph.D. thesis sub-
mitted to the Andhra University, Waltair.

SIX NEW SPECIES OF TENTH REDO LINNAEUS (HYMENOPTERA:
TENTHREDINIDAE) FROM NORTHERN INDIA1

Devinder Singh and Malkiat S. Saini2

{With twenty nine text-figures)

Six new species of Tenthredo are reported from the hills of Northern India, viz.
T. icari, T. manii, T. scabrocephala, T. flatoserrulata, T. auratotarsus and T. atami.
Apart from illustrating the genitalia, the new species have been separated from
already reported related congeners. The population variation, if any, has also been
discussed.

Introduction

Though taxonomic work on Indian
Tenthredo is quite scattered, Malaise’s (1945)
paper is such an exhaustive study that, in
addition to compiling almost all the earlier
works for southeast Asia, it adds 18 new
species of this genus from India. Muche’s
(1982. 1983) are the only works after Malaise
(1945), which make an addition of three new
species to the earlier census of Indian
Tenthredo and bring the total number of
species described so far from this country to
82. In the present study, which is one of a
series of papers dealing with new records of
Tenthredo from India, six new species arc
reported from the northern region.

1 Accepted April 1986.

2 Department of Zoology, Punjabi University,
Patiala- 147 002 (India).

The terminology used by Ross (1937, 1945)
and Malaise (1945) has been followed.

The holotypes and paratypes are presently
lying in the authors’ collection and will be
submitted to IARI, Pusa National Collection,
New Delhi (India), after this paper is
published.

Tenthredo icari sp. nov.

(Figs. 1, 7, 13, 19, 25)

female: Average length 11.6 mm. Body
black, yellowish are: underside of antennal
segment 5, and 6-9 entirely; mandible except
extreme apex; face below antenna; extreme
tip of supraantennal tubercle; narrow inner
orbit; lower 1 /3 of hind orbit; spot on temple
without touching eye; broad dorsal angle and
antero-lateral spot on pronotum; tegula; trian-
gular apex of mesonotal middle lobe; meso-
and metascutelli; large spot on appendage;

366

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

anteromedial spot on metapostnotum; large
spot along convexity of mesepisternum; mete-
pisternum; hind margin of tergum 2 broaden-
ing towards lateral side and dcflexed sides of
2-7; medial elliptical spot along hind margins
of terga 3-7 (more prominent on 8) and 9
entirely; hind margin and 3 spots on each
sternum; trochanters and adjoining parts of
coxae and femora; proximal 3/5 of metatibia
and tarsus entirely. Distal half of profemur
anteriorly, pro- and mesotibiae and tarsi, ex-
cept infuscated tips of tarsal joints, yellowish
brown. Wings yellowish hyaline, forewing in-
fumated towards apex, costa and stigma
reddish brown, venation dark brown to black.

Antenna slightly compressed towards apex,
2.5 x head width, segments 3 and 4 in ratio
5:4; clypeus (Fig. 1) narrowly, roundly in-
cised upto 2/7 of its medial length; labrum
broader than long in ratio 4:3 with deflexed
and roundly pointed anterior margin; malar
space 1.5 x diameter of lateral ocellus; LID:
IDMO : EL = 2. 0:2. 8:2. 2; OOL:POL:OCL =
3.2: 1.0: 2.0; frontal area below level of eyes;
supraantennal tubercle strongly raised and
abruptly cut off from low frontal ridge; median
fovea deep in anterior half only; circum-, inter-
and postocellar furrows distinct; lateral furrow
narrow and sunken; postocellar area subcon-
vex with faint indication of longitudinal carina,
broader than long in ratio 8:5; head slightly
narrowing behind eyes; ITD:1CD =3.5: 1.0;
mesoscutellum roundly raised with blunt trans-
verse carina; appendage slightly carinate; mese-
pisternum obtusely raised with short carina
at apex; mesosternal thorns lacking; apical
tooth of claw (Fig. 7) longer than subapical;
metabasitarsus longer than following 3, but
distinctly shorter than all - remaining joints
combined; metafemur as long as tibia.

Head subshining having minute and shallow
punctures, punctures large and confluent in
frontal region: mesonotum with shallow and

confluent punctures along with microsculpture;
mesoscutellum shallowly and densely punctur-
ed; appendage minutely wrinkled with a few
distinct punctures; metanotum and scutellum
almost impunctate; mesepisternum with large,
shallow and almost confluent punctures; meso-
sternum minutely punctured and distinctly
microsculptured; abdomen faintly microstriated
with dense punctures on terga 4-9.

Lancet (Fig. 25) with 19 serrulae, each
serrula deep and lobe-like without anterior or
posterior subbasal teeth.

male: Length 10.1 mm. Similar to female
except: antennal segment 5 yellowish barring
infuscation on underside; hind orbit without
black and continuous with pale spot on tem-
ple; appendage entirely black; mesosternum
having medial yellowish brown spot; scape
brown; all femora with a black stripe poste-
riorly. Penis valve (Fig. 13) and gonoforceps
(Fig' 19).

Holotype : Female, Uttar Pradesh, Mandal-
2300 m, 13.6.1983.

Paratypes : 3 $ 9 , with same data as holo-
type. 1 <$, Uttar Pradesh, Mussorie-2000 m,
3.6.1985.

Remarks'. This new species shows a remark-
able similarity to T. serial a Malaise, 1945.
However, it is distinguished from the latter
on account of possessing entirely black post-
ocellar area, partly black appendage, pale
metafemur with black stripe in male, reddish
brown stigma and antennal segments 3 and 4
in ratio 5:4.

In T. seriata postocellar area has pale medial
longitudinal stripe, appendage is entirely pale,
metafemur is without pale, stigma is black
and antennal segments 3 and 4 are in ratio
3:2.

Etymology : This species has been named
after the agency that provided financial assis-
tance for this work.

367

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Tenthredo manii sp. nov.

(Figs. 2, 8, 14, 20, 26)

female: Average length 14.4 mm. Body
reddish yellow with following pale: face below
antenna; narrow inner orbit; spot touching eye
on lower hind orbit; V-shaped margin of meso-
notal middle lobe and spot adjoining it on
lateral lobe; nebulous spot on meso- and
metepisterna. Dark brown to black are: dot-
like spot on outer side of antennal segment 2,
extreme tip and underside of 5 and 6-9 entire-
ly; mandible tip; anterior half of median
fovea; spot in front of median ocellus; inter-
and postocellar areas; posterolateral spot on
pronotum; anteromedial spot on mesonotal
middle lobe and large spot on lateral lobe;
lateral spot on metanotum and postnotum;
parapterum; narrow border of mesopleuron all
round; nebulous spot on mesosternum; ante-
rior border of metepisternum; metepimeron.
Wings yellowish hyaline, apex of forewing in-
fuscated upto proximal end of stigma with
distinct limit, hind one infumated towards
apex, costa and stigma reddish yellow with
infuscated spot on latter, venation dark brown
to black.

Antenna compressed, 2.6 x head width, seg-
ments 3 and 4 in ratio 8:7; clypeus (Fig. 2)
roundly incised upto £ of its medial length;
labrum as long as broad with roundly pointed
anterior margin; malar space 1.5x diameter
of lateral ocellus; LID:IDMO:EL = 2. 0:2. 8:
2.4; OOL : POL : OCL = 4. 1:1. 0:3.1; frontal
area below level of eyes; supraantennal tuber-
cle distinctly raised, sloping back and confluent
with distinct frontal ridge; median fovea deep
with pit in front of median ocellus, faintly
carinate in anterior half; circum-, inter- and
postocellar furrows distinct; lateral furrow
narrow and clear; postocellar area almost flat
with faint longitudinal carina, broader than
long in ratio 6:5, head indistinctly dilated

behind eyes; ITD.ICD = 3.0; 1.0; mesoscu-
tellum roundly raised with faint longitudinal
carina on posterior slope; appendage slightly
carinate; mesepisternum obtusely raised with
short and blunt carina at apex; mesosternum
lacking thorns; apical tooth of claw (Fig. 8)
longer than subapical; metabasitarsus as long
as following 3 joints combined; metafemur
slightly longer than tibia.

Head minutely and densely punctured; meso-
notum densely punctured with faint micro-
sculpture; mesoscutellum punctured like notum
with somewhat larger punctures on posterior
slope; appendage having shallow and confluent
punctures; metanotum minutely punctured;
metascutellum almost impunctate; mesepister-
num uniformly and shallowly punctured with
sebaceous lustre; mesosternum punctulate with
faint microsculpture; propodeum glabrate, re-
maining terga minutely and densely punctured.

Lancet (Fig, 26) with 28 serrulae; each
serrula is almost flat having 2 anterior and
upto 16 posterior subbasal teeth.

male: Average length 12.5 mm. Similar to
female except: antennal segments 1-5 with
complete black stripe along outer side; meso-
sternum without black. Penis valve (Fig. 14)
and gonoforceps (Fig. 20).

Holotype : Female, Uttar Pradesh, Mandal-
2300 m, 16.6.1985.

Paratypes : 8 9 9,9 cfcf. with same data
as holotype. 1 9 , 1 d , Uttar Pradesh, Gobind-
dham-3000 m, 21.6.1985.

Population variation : Only anterior 1/3 of
postocellar area black; median fovea totally
black; pale colour more distinct.

Remarks'. This new species is related to
two species of the group having reddish yellow
body and forewing with distinctly infuscated
apex, viz. T. purpureipennis Malaise, 1945 and
T. tuberculifera Konow. 1898. However, it can
be distinguished from both of them on account
of having several black markings on head and

368

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

thorax, reddish yellow abdomen and legs with-
out black, supra-antennal tubercle confluent
with frontal ridge, mesosternum without thorns,
mesepisternum shallowly punctured and each
serrula of lancet with 2 anterior and upto 16
posterior subbasal teeth.

In T. purpureipennis, head and thorax are
without black, 5 basal abdominal terga and
tarsi are pale, tip of abdomen is black, supra-
antennal tubercle is separated from frontal
ridge and mesepisternum is impunctate.

In T. tuberculifera, apex of the abdomen is
black, mesosternum has short and blunt thorns
and each serrula has a single anterior and
8-10 posterior subbasal teeth.

Etymology : This species has been named
in honour of Dr. M. S. Mani, a pioneer and
dedicated worker in the field of high altitude
entomology in India.

Tenthredo scabrocephala sp. nov.

(Figs. 3, 9, 15, 21, 27)

female: Average length 10.5 mm. Body
sordid yellow, black are: antennal segment 1,
extreme tip of 7, 8-9 entirely and outer stripe
along remaining; extreme mandible tip; broad
frontal spot anteriorly covering median fovea
leaving tip of supraantennal tubercle, laterally
reaching (without touching) inner eye margin
and posteriorly reaching hypothetical hind
margin of head; postocellar area; spot on
temple continuous with frontal spot; large late-
ral spot on posterior side of head; narrow
medial transverse stripe and spot on dorsal
angle of pronotum; mesonotum except antero-
lateral triangular spot on middle lobe and
spot outer to scutellum on lateral lobe; meso-
scutellum; appendage except lateral aspect;
hind margin of metapostnotum; narrow stripe
along each pleural suture and spot at apex of
mesepisternum; narrow basal margin of terga
1 and 2; abdominal segments 5-9; outer stripe

on metacoxa; posterior stripe along meso- and
metacoxae, all trochanters and femora, pro-
and mesotibiae, both ends of metatibia; pro-
ximal halves of basitarsi. Wings clear, forewing
faintly infumated towards apex, stigma and
venation brown to black.

Antenna stout and filiform, 1 . 8 x head width,
segments 3 and 4 in ratio 3:2; clypeus (Fig.
3) roundly incised upto 2/5 of its medial
length; labrum broader than long in ratio 6:5
with rounded anterior margin; malar space
2.2 x diameter of lateral ocellus; LID:IDMO:
EL - 2. 0:2. 8: 1.9; OOL:POL:OCL = 2.5:
1.0: 1.6; frontal area flat, slightly below level
of eyes; supraantennal tubercle faintly raised
and merging into similar frontal ridge; median
fovea inconspicuous with pit inner to supra-
antennal tubercle; circum-, inter- and post-
ocellar furrows insignificant; lateral furrow
fine, superficial and diverging posteriorly;
postocellar area slightly raised, broader than
long in ratio 7:4 at maximum width; head
neither dilated nor narrowing behind eyes;
ITD:ICD - 3. 2: 1.0; mesoscutellum roundly
raised with distinct longitudinal carina on
posterior slope; appendage carinate; mesepi-
sternum raised to acute apex; mesosternum
lacking thorns; apical tooth of claw (Fig. 9)
slightly longer than subapical; metabasitarsus
shorter than following 3 joints combined;
metafemur shorter than tibia.

Head rough, densely punctured with faint
microsculpture, hind orbit shallowly punctured;
mesonotum, scutellum and appendage punc-
tured like head; metanotum and scutellum with
shallow and distinct punctures; mesepisternum
and sternum having sebaceous lustre owing
to minute and swallow punctures along with
faint microsculpture; abdomen subshining with
faint microstriations.

Lancet (Fig. 27) with 20 serrulae, each
serrula is low having 2 anterior and about 15
small posterior subbasal teeth.

369

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

male: Average length 9,1 mm. Similar to
female except: all tarsi with complete black
stripe posteriorly; apex of forewing distinctly
infuscated up to base of 3rd cubital cell; black
stripe on metatibia complete. Penis valve (Fig.
15) and gonoforceps (Fig. 21).

Holotype : Female, Uttar Pradesh, Chopta-
3000 m, 13.6.1985.

Paratypes : 1 9,7 d d, with same data as
holotype. 1 d , Uttar Pradesh, Flower Valley-
3300 m, 21.6.1985.

Population variation : Mesoscutellum black;
terga 3-4 with narrow stripe along hind margin
interrupted in middle.

Remarks : This new species exhibits some
resemblance to T. striaticornis Malaise, 1945.
However, it is differentiated from the latter
in having sordid yellow thorax with black
markings, antennal segments 3 and 4 in ratio
3 : 2, inconspicuous lateral furrow of postocellar
area and strongly and densely punctured head.

In T. striaticornis, thorax is black, antennal
segments 3 and 4 are subequal, lateral furrow
of postocellar area is deep and head is shining
with a few minute punctures.

Etymology: The species name pertains to
roughness of head.

Tenthredo flatoserrulata sp. nov.

(Figs. 4, 10, 16, 22, 28)

female: Average length, 10.7 mm. Body
sordid yellow to pale green, black are: antenna;
mandible tip; small spot outer to supraanten-
nal tubercle; broad oblique band connecting
lateral furrow of postocellar area with inner
eye margin; narrow stripe along hypothetical
postocellar furrow; large lateral spot on poste-
rior side of head; transverse medial stripe with-
out reaching lateral aspect on pronotum; seams
of mesonotum and broad band along outer
margin of lateral lobe; visible part of meso-
postnotum; metanotum except spot lateral to
scutellum; narrow hind margin of metapost-

notum; band along basal margin of propodeum;
broad medial spots on all terga (together
appearing as a continuous band increasing in
width towards distal end); posterior stripe
along trochanters, femora, pro- and mesotibiae
and tarsi; metatibia except narrow stripe ante-
riorly and tarsus entirely. Wings hyaline, fore
wing indistinctly infumated towards apex,
stigma and venation dark brown to black.

Antenna stout, slightly compressed in apical
half, 2.0 x head width, segments 3 and 4 in ratio
4:3; clypeus (Fig. 4) roundly incised upto 1/5
of its medial length with triangular lateral
teeth; labrum broader than long in ratio 5:4
with deflexed and roundly pointed anterior
margin; malar space 1.7x diameter of lateral
ocellus; LID:lDMO: EL = 2.0:3 .9:2.7; OOL:
POL : OCL = 4. 5:1. 0:3.1; lower hind orbit
with distinct bump; frontal area below level
of eyes; supraantennal tubercle raised and con-
fluent with similar frontal ridge; median fovea
shallow; circum- and interocellar furrows fine,
postocellar one absent; lateral furrow sharp
and diverging posteriorly; postocellar area flat,
broader than long in ratio 4:3 at maximum
width; head indistinctly narrowing behind
eyes; ITD:ICD = 2.7: 1.0; mesoscutellum dis-
tinctly raised with acute apex; appendage
carinate; mesepisternum obtusely raised with
compressed and truncate apex; mesosternum
with short and flattened thorns; apical tooth
of claw (Fig. 10) slightly longer than subapi-
cal; metabasitarsus distinctly shorter than fol-
lowing three joints combined; metafemur as
long as tibia.

Head and thorax minutely and densely
punctured with faint microsculpture; abdomen
distinctly microstriated.

Lancet (Fig. 28) with 24 serrulae, each
serrula is flat having up to 25 minute subbasal
teeth without differentiation into anterior and
posterior ones.

male: Average length 10.1 mm. Similar

370

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

6

Figs. 1-18. Clypeus — 1. T. icari; 2. T. manii; 3. T. scabrocephcda; 4. T. flatoserru-
lata; 5. T. auratotarsus; 6. T. alami. Tarsal Claw — 7. T. icari ; 8. T. manii ; 9. 7\
scabrocephala', 10. T. flatoserrulata ; 11. T. auratotarsus; 12. T. alami. Penis Valve —
13. T. icari; 14. T. manii; 15. T. scabrocephala; 16. J. flatoserrulata; 17. T. aurato-
tarsus; 18. T. alami.

Figs. 1-6 at magnification a.

Figs. 7=12 at magnification b.

371

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Figs. 19-29. Gonoforceps — 19. T. icari; 20. T. manii; 21. T. scabrocephala; 22. T.
flatoserrulata; 23. T. auratotarsus ; 24. T. alami. Lancet — 25. T. icari; 26. T. manii;
27. T . scabrocephala; 28. T . flatoserrulata; 29. T . auratotarsus.

372

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

to female except black spot lateral to supra-
antennal tubercle continuous with oblique band.
Penis valve (Fig. 16) and gonoforceps (Fig.
22).

Holotype : Female, Uttar Pradesh, Chopta-
3000 m, 15.6.1985.

Paratypes : 10 $ 9,7 d d» with same data
as holotype. 1 9 , Uttar Pradesh, Gobindghat-
2200 m, 21.6.1985.

Remarks'. This new species shows a defi-
nite relationship with T. suta Konow, 1906.
However, it is separated from the latter in
having a pale green head with black spot,
mesopleuron and sternum without black, terga
with black medial spots without pale hind
margins, coxae entirely pale green and each
serrula of lancet with 25 subbasal teeth with-
out differentiation into anterior and posterior
ones.

In T. suta , the head is black with some pale
markings, mesopleuron and sternum are black
with pale spots, terga have pale green hind
margins, bases of all coxae are black and each
serrula of lancet has single anterior and 10-15
small posterior subbasal teeth.

Etymology : The species name pertains to
flat serrulae of lancet.

Tenthredo auratotarsus sp. nov.

(Figs. 5, 11, 17, 23, 29)

female: Length, 11.6 mm. Body black,
sordid yellow to light brown are: lateral side
of mandible; posterolateral spot on pronotum;
front side of profemur and tibia. Spot on
lateral side of propodeum, abdominal segments
2-4, pro- and mesotarsi, reddish brown. Apical
1/3 of basitarsus and remaining tarsal joints
of metaleg, golden yellow. Wings yellowish
hyaline, stigma and venation brown to black.

Antenna filiform, 2.6 x head width, seg-
ments 3 and 4 in ratio 5:4, clypeus (Fig. 5)
semicircularly incised upto 3/5 of its medial
length; Jabrum slightly broader than long with

narrowly rounded anterior margin; malar space
1.8 x diameter of lateral ocellus; LID:IBMO:
EL = 2. 0:3. 0:2. 5; OOL:PGL:OCL: 3.7: L0:
2.5; frontal area below level of eyes; supra-
antennal tubercle raised, sloping back and
merging into low frontal ridge; median fovea
broad and shallow with deep pit inner to
supraantennal tubercle; circumocellar furrow
absent, inter- and postocellar ones shallow but
clear; lateral furrow narrow and deep; post-
ocellar area flat with longitudinal carina,
broader than long in ratio 5:3; head narrow-
ing behind eyes; ITB:ICD = 3.0: L0; meso-
scutellum slightly raised with faint transverse
carina; appendage carinate; mesepisternum
obtusely raised with short carina at apex; meso-
stemum angled without distinct thorns; apical
tooth of claw (Fig. 11) longer than subapical;
metabasitarsus shorter than following three
joints combined; metafemur shorter than tibia.

Head covered with large, deep and almost
confluent punctures, which become smaller
along hind orbit; mesonotum densely but less
deeply punctured than head along with strong
microsculpture; mesoscutellum with faint
microsculpture and large punctures; appendage
punctured on lateral sides only; metanotum
finely punctured; metascutellum with large and
isolated punctures; mesepisternum rugose;
mesosternum distinctly microsculptured with
scattered punctures; propodeum with few
punctures along base, remaining terga distinct-
ly microst dated.

Lancet (Fig. 29) with 19 serrulae, each
serrula having single anterior and about 6
distinct posterior subbasal teeth.

male: Length 10.4 mm. Similar to female
except: labrum yellowish brown; front side of
protrochanter, mesofemur and tibia, light
brown. Penis valve (Fig. 17) and gonoforceps
(Fig. 23).

Holotype: Female, Uttar Pradesh, Flower
Valley-3300 m, 21.6.1985.

373

9

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Paratype : 1 d\ Uttar Pradesh, Almora-

2500 iru 25.7.1983.

Remarks : This new species is related
to two Indian species, viz. T . pulchra
Jakovlev, 1891 and F. latifasciata Cameron,
1877. However, it is distinguished from both
in having reddish brown tergum 2, legs
black with a few yellowish markings and
metatarsus golden yellow, clypeus incised up
to 3/5 of its medial length, frontal area dis-
tinctly below level of eyes, head narrowing
behind eyes and lancet with 19 serrulae, each
having single anterior and 6 posterior sub-
basal teeth.

In T. pulchra , tergum 2 is black, metaleg is
totally black, clypeus is incised upto 1/4 of
its medial length, frontal area is at level of
eyes and lancet has 23 serrulae, each having
2 anterior and 8-12 posterior subbasal teeth.

In T, latifasciata, legs are reddish except
coxae, trochanters and bases of femora, clypeus
is incised upto \ of its medial length, head is
dilated behind eyes and lancet has 23 serrulae.
each having 2 anterior and 15-17 posterior
subbasal teeth.

Etymology : The species name has been
taken from its characteristic golden yellow
metatarsus,

Tenthredo aland sp. nov,

(Figs. 6, 12, 18, 24)

female: Unknown.

male: Average length 6.2 mm. Body prasi-
nus, black are: antenna except underside of
segments 4-9; extreme mandible tip; frontal
spot anteriorly covering median fovea leaving
supraantennal tubercle, laterally touching eye
margin and posteriorly reaching hypothetical
hind margin of head; spot along upper eye
margin continuous with frontal spot; postocel-
lar area except narrow posterior margin; broad
lateral and small medial spot on posterior side

of head; medial transverse stripe on pronotum
without reaching lateral margin; mesonotum
except V-shaped margin of middle lobe and
spot lateral to mesoscutellum on lateral
lobe; posterior slopes of meso- and metascu-
telli; metanotum except spot lateral to
scutellum; lateral aspect of metapostnotum;
narrow, irregular stripe along proximal half of
mesopleural suture; oblique band on mese-
pisternum upto apex; broad lateral spot along
anterior margin of propodeum; medial irregu-
lar spot, constricted in middle on terga 2-8
without touching anterior, posterior or lateral
margins; stripe along posterior side of legs
except procoxa. Wings clear, costa and stigma
pale green, venation dark brown.

Antenna filiform, 2.6 x head width, segment
3 slightly shorter than 4; clypeus (Fig. 6) in-
cised upto 1/3 of its medial length with tri-
angular lateral teeth and truncate bottom of
incision; labrum broader than long in ratio
6:5 with rounded anterior margin; malar space
equal to diameter of lateral ocellus; LID:
IDMO : EL = 2. 0:3. 5:3. 3; OOL:POL:OCL =
2. 2:1. 0:1. 3; frontal area below level of eyes;
supraantennal tubercle slightly raised and con-
fluent with similar frontal ridge; median fovea
narrow ditch-like; circum- and postocellar
furrows absent, interocellar one faintly indi-
cated; lateral furrow clear; postocellar area
slightly raised, broader than long in ratio 2:1;
head strongly narrowing behind eyes; ITD:
ICD - 2. 9: 1.0; mesoscutellum subpyramidally
raised; appendage inconspicuously carinate;
mesepisternum obtusely raised without carina
or acute apex; mesosternum lacking thorns;
apical and subapical teeth of claw (Fig. 12)
closely set and subequal; metabasitarsus slightly
shorter than following three joints combined;
metafemur shorter than tibia.

Head and mesonotum subshining with
minute and distinct punctures; meso- and
metascutelli, appendage and metanotum almost

374

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

impunctate; mesepisternum and sternum
shallowly punctured with sebaceous lustre;
abdomen distinctly microstriated. Penis valve
(Fig. 12) and gonoforceps (Fig. 18).

Holotype : Male, Uttar Pradesh, Valley

of flowers — 3300 m, 21.6.1985.

Paratype : 1 d\ with same data as holotype.

Remarks'. In Malaise’s (1945) key, this
new species would be near T. nigroscalaris
Malaise, 1945. However, it is separated from
the latter in possessing pale underside of
antenna, frontal spot reaching hind margin of
head, black bands on terga not connected
laterally and black posterior slopes of scutelli.

In T. nigroscalaris, antenna is entirely black,
frontal spot reaches hind margin of head, black

bands on terga are connected laterally to form
ladder-like structure and scutelli are entirely
pale green.

Etymology : This species has been named
in honour of the well known hymenopterist.
Dr. S. M. Alam.

AcK NOWLEDGEME NTS

We are grateful to Dr. D. R. Smith of Sys-
tematic Entomology Laboratory, U. S. National
Museum, U.S.A., for his help and useful
suggestions. The financial assistance rendered
by ICAR and DST, New Delhi, for the re-
search projects under which this work has
been completed, is gratefully acknowledged.

References

Cameron, P. (1877) : Description of new genera
and species of East Indian Tenthredinidae, Trans .
Ent. Soc. London : 87-92.

Jakovlev, A. (1891) : Diagnoses Tenthredinidarum
no varum ex Rossia Europaea, Siberia, Asia media
et confinium. Hor. Soc. Ent. Ross , 26: 1-62.

Konow, F. W. (1898) : Neue asiatische Tenthre
diniden (Hymenoptera) . Ent. Nachr. 24: 86-93, 105-
109.

(1906) : Einige neue palaarktisch©

and orientalische Tenthredinidae. Zeit. Hymen . Dipt.
6: 122-127, 254-256, 329-331.

Malaise, R. (1945): Tenthredinoidea of South
eastern Asia with a general zoogeographical review.
Opus. Ent., Suppl. 4: 288 pp.

Mu che, W. H. (1982) : Beitrag zur Blattwespen-

fauna von Indian und Pakistan, mit Beschreibung
einer neuem Art sowie un ter art (Hymenoptera, Sym-
phyta, Tenthredinidae) . Reichenbachia Mus . Tierk.
Dresden. 20(15): 113-117.

— (1983) : Die von Herra Dr. W.

Wittmer in Xndien und Bhutan gesammelten Biati-
wespen, mit Beschreibung von sechs neuen Arten
der Tenthredinidae (Hymenoptera, Symphyta).
Reichenbachia Mus. Tierk . Dresden. 21 { 29): 167-
180.

Ross, H. H. (1937) : A generic classification of
the Nearctic sawflies (Hymenoptera: Symphyta).
III. Biol. Mono . 34: 173 pp.

- - - (1945): Sawfly genitalia: Termino-
logy and study techniques. Ent, News. 56: 261-268.

Abbreviations in text:

EL — eye length; ICD — intercenchri distance; IDMO — interocular distance at
level of median ocellus; XTD — - inter tegular distance; LID — lower interocular dist-
ance; OCL — oeulo-occipital line; OOL — oeulo-ocellar line; POL •— postocellar line.

375

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW INDIAN GALL-MIDGE (DIPTERA:
CECIDOM YIIDAE : LASIOPTERIDI) CAUSING GALLS ON
ACHYRANTHES ASPERA LINN. ( AMAR ANTHACEAE) 1

R. M. Sharma2

( With fourteen text-figures)

Lasioptera achyranthesae sp. nov., causing galls on leaf and stem of Achyranthes
aspera Linn, in Marathwada region of Maharashtra State, has been fully described
and illustrated.

Introduction

Lasioptera Meigen, basically a phytophagous
genus, is widely distributed all over the world.
However, a few species of this genus are
associated with ambrosia-fungi. A perusal of
literature (Felt 1940, Mani 1934, 1973) re-
vealed that galls caused by species of
Lasioptera are mostly on stems, a few are on
leaves; many of these are not apparent; some
of them slightly swollen and species-associated
with grasses (infesting inflorescence) however,
do not show any marked deformity.

The recorded host plants of this genus are
from a wide range of natural orders in dico-
tyledons, especially Cucurbitaceae, and galls
in general are rare among monocotyledons,
barring reports on Graminae and one unnamed
species reported to cause shoot axis galls on
Cyanotis cristata (Commelinaceae) (Shivarama-
krishna 1981).

Mani (1973) has reported gall no. 523 and
leaf gall no. 815 as caused by Lasiopterafl)
and unknown Itonididae respectively on
Achyranthes aspera Linn, from Coromandel
coast. Probably he could not collect adults
from these galls and thus did not describe the
species. I have collected stem and leaf galls
on the same host plant from Aurangabad,
Marathwada region of Maharashtra State

1 Accepted June 1986.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional
Station, Pune^411016.

during August and September in 1976, 1977
and 1980, and could rear a number of adult
midges from these galls. On closer examination
it was found to be different from known
species. So the opportunity is utilised for des-
cribing it as a new species.

So far, genus Lasioptera is represented in
India by 17 named species (Gover 1981), one
more was added by Rao & Sharma (1977),
the present species is the 19th.

Lasioptera achyranthesae, sp. nov. (Figs. 1-14)
male : Body 1 . 60 mm long; eyes confluent
above; trophi normal; palpus triarticulate,
short, sparsely setose; first segment (8:5)
cylindrical, length 1 .60 x its maximum thick-
ness; second segment (15:7) cylindrical, length
slightly more than 2.00x its maximum thick-
ness; third segment (29:6) cylindrical, longest
of all, length slightly less than 5 . 00 x its maxi-
mum thickness. Antenna : 0.25 the length of
the body, with 2+13 segments (in holotype),
variable from 2 + 11 to 12; segments cylindri-
cal, sessile, gradually shortened distally, with
two whorls of setae, circumfila low; scape
(19:22) cup-shaped, pedicel (15:19) sub-
globose; third segment (19) confluent with and
longer than fourth, with a short basal prolon-
gation (4:5), enlargement (15:12) 1.25x as
long as thick; fourth segment (15) with an
enlargement (15:12) 1.25xas long as thick;
fifth segment similar to the fourth; penultimate
segment (10:9) with an enlargement slightly
longer than thick; terminal segment (9:8)

37§

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

shortest of all, conical, enlargement slightly
longer than thick. Wing (75:20) hyaline,
3.75 x as long as broad; costa scaled, vein
Rx short, vein R5 meeting costa slightly beyond
the middle of the wing and interrupting at
its union; vein Mi+2 entire, vein Cu simple.
Legs long, densely hairy, metatarsus (11) half
the length of the terminal tarsal segment (22),
second segment (110) longest of all, shorter
than the following segments combined toge-
ther (117); claw dentate on all legs, evenly
curved; empodium as long as claw (14:14).
Genitalia , light brown, basal clasp segment
(59:29) cylindrical, without basal lobe, length
nearly 2.00 x its maximum thickness; termi-
nal clasp segment (40:8) slender, curved,
gradually tapering towards the tip, ending in
a tooth, 0.60 the length of the basal clasp
segment and 5.00 x as long as thick; dorsal
plate (25:35) deeply bilobed, lobes rounded
apically; setose; subdorsal plate (15:12) entire,
rounded apically; shorter and narrower than
dorsal plate, hairy; parameres heavily sclero-
tized, triangular fringed with short, recurved
setae, longer than dorsal plate, shorter than
aedeagus, bifid apically; aedeagus (49:5)
cylindrical, shorter than basal clasp segment,
truncate apically, length 9.80x its maximum
thickness.

female: Body 1.66 mm long (including
ovipositor); palpus triarticulate; first segment
(5:5) short, globose; second segment (14:7)
cylindrical, twice as long as thick;. third seg-
ment (18:5) cylindrical, longest of all, length
3.60x its maximum thickness. Antenna 0.25
the length of the body, with 2+14 segments (in
allotype), variable from 2+13 to 17; segments
subcylindrical, sessile, gradually shortened dis-
tally, enlargements with two whorls of long
setae, circumfila low; scape (16:16) cup-
shaped, as long as broad; pedicel (15:16) sub-
globose: third segment (16) confluent with and
longer than fourth; enlargement (14:13)

Figs. 1-13. Lasioptera achyranthesae sp. nov.

(1-7 $): 1. Genitalia; la. dorsal plate; lb. subdorsal
plate; 2. claw; 3. scope and pedicel; 4. wing; 5. third,
fourth and fifth antennal segments; 6. terminal three
antennal segments; 7. palpus.

(8-12 $): 8. scape, pedicel, third, fourth and fifth
ant. segments; 9 . terminal four antennal segments;
10. ovipositor; 11. palpus; 12. claw; 13. a. b. e.
Sternal Spatulae.

slightly longer than thick; fourth segment (14)
with an enlargement (14:13) slightly longer
than broad; fifth segment similar to the fourth;
penultimate segment (12:10) 1.20x as long
as thick; terminal segment (16:10) longer
than penultimate, length 1 . 60 x its maximum
thickness. Wing, legs and claw as in male.
Ovipositor: 0 .25 the length of the body, usual
lasiopteran type, three rows of spines up to

377

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol 85

the middle; terminal lobe bulbous, setose,
(20:11) less than twice as long as broad.
Larva: Whitish when young, turns reddish
brown as it grows old. First instar measures
0.41-0.43 mm, second instar 0.72-1.06 mm
and third instar varies from 1.35-2.08 mm in
length. Sternal Spatula 0.18-2.29 mm long,
distally incised by a V-shaped or W- shaped
emargination forming 2-3 triangular lobes,
shaft moderately sclerotized. Sex-ratio. In this
species females outnumber the males and there
appears to be only one generation in a year.
Parasites. Three species of braconids and a
chalcid (Hymenoptera) were found to para-
sitize midge larvae.

Holotype cf , Allotype 9 and Faratypes
6 d d 5 9 9 dissected and mounted on

slides, 7 larvae on slides, ex leaf and stem
galls, Achyranthes aspera Linn. (Amaranta-
ceae); University Campus, Aurangabad, India,
3.ix.l976, Coll. R. M. Sharma. Subsequently
reared in September, 1977 and Aug.-Sept. 1980.
Types are deposited in the collections of Z.S.I.,
Pune for the time being and will be deposited
in National Zoological Collections, Z.S.I., Cal-
cutta.

Distribution: Maharashtra (Marathwada),
Coromandel coast (Mani 1973).

Remarks: This species comes close to L.
crataevae (Mani 1934), the only species
known to have triarticulate palpi, but can be
separated from it in having different propor-
tions of palpal segments, different number of
antennal segments; empodium as long as claw
and ovipositor lobe bulbous and setose.

Galls: Leaf -gall Mostly hypophyllous, sub-
globose, ovoid or fusiform, solitary, solid,
glabrous, pale green when young, turn reddish-
brown as they grow old, indehiscent, persis-
tent swellings of the midrib or of the larger
lateral veins; at times on apical part of the
petiole which extends beyond the midrib (as
noted by Mani 1973). Larval cavity axial

monothalamous (enclosing a single larva in-
side). Ostiole hypophyllous. Usually single gall
per leaf, sometimes 4-5 galls may arise on
midrib of a single leaf. Size 5-7 mm long,
3-5 mm thick. This gall is practically similar
to Mani’s gall no. 815 (Mani 1973) reported
from Coromandel coast, and may be the same
species causing galls.

Stem-gall: Elongated, cylindrical, subglobose
or irregular, solitary, solid, hard, woody, costate,
tomentose, indehiscent persistent gall; greenish
or reddish when young, becoming yellowish-
brown or dark-brown as it grows old. Gall

Fig. 14. Leaf and stem galls on A. aspera caused by
L. achyranthesae sp. nov.

378

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

cavity unilocular, enclosing a single larva
inside. Pupation takes place inside the gall in
both leaf and stem galls. Size 7-19 mm long
and 7-8 mm thick. 1-3 galls may arise on a
single twig. Galls were observed from August
to September, but infestation is at its peak
during late August and early September.
Apamargamyia orient alis Sharma & Rao (1978)
was bred from stem galls along with this new
species which is probably inquilinous species

Refe

Felt, E. P. (1940) : Plant Galls and Gall-makers.
Comstock Pub. Co., USA.

Grover, P. (1981): A catalogue of Indian Gall-
midges. Cecidologia Intern, 2(2-3) : 1-108.

Mani, M. S. (1934) : Studies on Indian Itonididae
(Cecidomyiidae: Diptera). Rec. Indian Mus, 36:
371-452.

— — (1973): Plant Galls of India. Mac-

millan, India.

living in the galls produced by Lasioptera
achyranthesae.

Ack nowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. B. K. Tikader,
Director, ZSI, Calcutta and Dr. B. S. Lamba,
Joint Director and Officer-in-Charge, Z.S.I.,
Pune for facilities and encouragement. I am
deeply indebted to Prof. S. N. Rao (Retd.)
for his valuable guidance and keen interest in
my studies on Indian gall-midges.

ENCES

Rao, S. N. & Sharma, R. M. (1977): A new
Indian grass gall-midge (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae),
/. ent. Res. 1(2): 148-150.

Sivaramakrishna, D. (1981) : Shoot axis galls on
Cyanotis cristata (Commelinaceae) . Indian J. Bot.
4(2): 24: 30.

Sharma, R. M. & Rao, S. N. (1978) : A new
gall-midge (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) from India.
Entomon 3(2) : 287-290.

ON A NEW SPECIES OF DIAP ARSIS FOERSTER (HYMENOPTERA :
ICHNEUMONIDAE: TERSILOCHINAE) FROM INDIA1

L. J. Kanhekar2

(With three text-figures)

Diaparsis nikami, sp. nov. is described
species of Diaparsis is provided.

Introduction

Diaparsis Foerster is a large genus, widely
distributed in Holoarctic, Oriental and Ethio-
pian regions but not yet known from the

1 Accepted July 1986.

2 Post-Graduate Research Centre, Department of
Zoology, Modern College, Pune-411005. Present
address: Dy. Asstt. Director, Regional Filaria Train-
ing & Research Centre, (N.I.C.D.), Weavers Colony,
Rajahmundry-533 105 (A.P.).

and illustrated. A key to the Oriental

Neotropic and Australian regions (Townes
1971). In the Orient this genus is known only
from India. Townes, Townes & Gupta (1961)
included two Indian species viz., Diaparsis
caudata Morley, 1913 and D. sancti-
johanni Rao & Kurian, 1951 in their catalogue
from the Indo -Australian region. In the present
work, a new species, D. nikami is described
and a key to the Oriental species of Diaparsis
is provided.

379

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 85

Types and other material of this species are
in the collection of the author for the time
being and will be deposited in the National
Collection of the Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta, India in due course.

Olaparsis eikami sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-3)

female : 4.50 mm in length. Head (Fig. 2) :
0.85 as long as broad; vertex mat; inter-
ocellar distance 0.80 the ocello-ocular distance,
2.00 x ocellar diameter; frons weakly convex,
broad, minutely, closely punctate; face 0.50
as long as broad, weakly convex, closely pun-
ctate, medio-apically sparsely punctate; clypeus
0.35 as long as broad, ba sally weakly, sparsely
punctate, apically smooth and shiny, mode-
rately flat, with apical fringe of parallel pubes-
cence, clypesd fovea and clypeo-facial suture
distinct; cheek 1 . 30 x as long as basal width
of mandible, mat; mandibular teeth unequal;
temple smooth, minutely, sparsely punctate;
occiput smooth and shiny; occipital carina
complete, joining the oral carina far from the
base of mandible.

Antenna: 2+19 segmented; first flagellar

segment 0.60 the length of scape and pedicel
combined, 1 . 10-1 . 15 x as long as second seg-
ment; terminal segment 2.30-2.50 x as long as
broad.

Thorax : 1. 70-1. 85 x as long as broad; pro-
notum densely punctate, epomia weak; meso-
scutum closely punctate, notauli weakly im-
pressed up to middle; scutellum as long as
broad, convex, minutely, sparsely punctate,
lateral carinae restricted to base; propodeum
(Fig. 3) moderately punctate, with a single
median longitudinal carina between front end
of petiolar area and propodeal base, petiolar
area elongate, apical lateral area distinctly
carinate, rugulose, pleural carina present, spira-
cles small and circular, 3 x far from the

pleural carina by its diameter; propleurum
mat; mesopleurum antero-dorsally and ante-
riorly densely punctate, rest moderately punc-
tate, with weak, slanted striate groove behind
the prepectal carina, speculum moderately
punctate, mesopleural fovea weak, prepectal
carina reaching below the mid-height of meso-
pleurum and runs towards anterior mesopleu-
ral margin, stemaules absent; postpectal carina
incomplete; metapleurum mat, juxtacoxal
carina absent; hind femur 0.85 the length of
tibia, basal tarsal segment 0.90 the length of
rest of tarsus, claw simple, curved.

Fore wings : 2.65 mm long, 1.20 mm broad;
stigma 2.25 x as long as broad; basal abscissa
of radius 0.40 the length of its apical abscissa;
areolet absent; intercubitus as long as broad,
thick, as long as length of cubitus between it
and the second recurrent; distal abscissa of
cubitus in the form of a trace; second recur-
rent basad to intercubitus, 6 x the length of
intercubitus, inclivous, subapically fenestrate;
nervulus slightly inclivous, distad to basal vein
by 0.80 its length; discoideus between basal
vein and nervulus broadly thick; basal abscissa
of postnervulus 2.60 x the length of its apical
abscissa; second discoidal cell 1.90 x as long
as broad; discocubital cell 1.55 x as long as
broad.

Hind wings : 2.20 mm long, 0.60 mm broad,
with 1+3 hamuli; basal abscissa of radiella
short, 0.25 the length of intercubitella; apical
abscissa of radiella basally with a stub, rest
in the form of weak trace; apical abscissa of
cubitella weakly traceable; mediella absent
throughout; nervellus not intercepted; dis-
coidella and brachiella absent.

Abdomen : 1.55 x as long as the length of
head and thorax combined, moderately com-
pressed; first tergite 4.80-5 x as long as broad
apically, 2.40-2.50 x as long as the length of
second tergite, smooth and shiny except late-
rally with weak, sparse punctures, without

380

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

381

Figs. 1-3. Diaparsis nikami sp. nov.

Adult, lateral view; 2. Head, frontal view; 3. Propodeum, dorsal view.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

longitudinal carinae and glymma, spiracles at
0.70; second tergite 1.10-1.25 x as long as
broad, thyridium longer, smooth and shiny;
rest of the tergites smooth and shiny; ovi-
positor 0 . 80-0 . 90 the length of abdomen,
weakly curved, subapically weakly notched,
lower valve without a ridge at the tip; ovi-
positor sheath 1 .80-1 .90 x as long as the length
of hind tibia.

Coloration : Black. Antennae basally, palpi,
clypeus, mandible except teeth, tegulae, base
of wings, wing veins and legs yellowish-brown;
first and second tergite dorsally dark brown;
second tergite laterally and following tergites,
ovipositor reddish-brown; mandibular teeth,
antennae apically, ovipositor sheath and stigma
blackish-brown.

male: Essentially similar to female except
in having: ocello-ocular distance as long as
interocellar distance; clypeus 0.40 as long as
broad; first tergite 1 . 85 x as long as the length
of second tergite.

Holotype : 9, India: Maharashtra, Auran-
gabad, Himayat Bagh, 21 . xii . 1982, on wing,
coll. L. I. Kanhekar, wings mounted on slide
and labelled as above.

Allotype : c?» data same as holotype except
locality and date: Bhaosinghpura, 6. i. 1985.

Paratypes : 22 9 9, india: Maharashtra,
Aurangabad, Cantonment, 2 9 $ , 20-24 . xii .
1982, on wing, coll. L. J. Kanhekar; Himayat
Bagh, 11 $ 9, 21. xii. 1982, 1 9, 15. xii. 1982,
on wing, coll. L. J. Kanhekar, 4 9 9,6-9-
11 . iii . 1982, Malaise trap coll.; Marathwada
University Botanical Garden, 4 9 9, 25.L1982,
1 .ii . 1982, 10. xii. 1982. Malaise trap coll.

Comments : This species closely resembles
D. sancti-johanni Rao & Kurian in the charac-
ters of vertex, clypeus, stigma, intercubitus,
nervulus, hind wing except mediella, mesoscu-
tum, scutellum, propodeal spiracle and hind
claw. However, it differs from it in
having: mesopleurum antero-dorsally and ante-

riorly closely punctate, rest moderately punc-
tate, hind femur 0.85 the length of tibia and
other characters as shown in the key.

The name nikami, is in honour of Dr. P. K.
Nikam, for his contribution to the field of
taxonomy of Indian Ichneumonidae.

Key to the oriental species of Diaparsis
Foerster

1 . Ovipositor as long as length of the body; stigma
about 3.00 x as long as broad; postnervulus
intercepted at middle or above the middle;
antennae 26 segmented; legs red. Stemaulus

elongate and deeply impressed. India

caudata Morley, 1913.

— Ovipositor shorter than abdomen; stigma 2.25-

2.35 x as long as broad; postnervulus intercept-
ed below the middle; antennae 21-24 segmented;
legs reddish-brown to yellowish-brown 2

2. Face faintly transversely striate; clypeal fovea
absent; intercubitus basad to second recurrent;
discoideus between basal vein and nervulus
thin; mediella basally obsolete; hind femur slight-
ly longer than tibia; first tergite as long as
second tergite, 3.00 x as long as broad apically;
ovipositor less than 0.5 the length of the

abdomen. India

sancti-johanni Rao & Kurian, 1951

— Face closely punctate; clypeal fovea present;
intercubitus slightly distad to second recurrent;
discoideus between basal vein and nervulus
broadly thick; mediella absent throughout; hind
femur 0.85 x the length of tibia; first tergite
2.40-2.50 x the length of second tergite,
4 . 80-5 . 00 x as long as broad apically; ovipositor

0.80-0.90 x the length of abdomen. India

nikami, sp. nov.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Prof. R. Naga-
bhushanum. Head, Department of Zoology,
Marathwada University, Aurangabad for pro-
viding laboratory facilities and to Dr. P. K.
Nikam, Reader in Zoology of the same orga-
nization for valuable guidance. Thanks are also

382

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

due to Dr. Horstmann Klaus, Zoologisches In-
stitut, Rontgenring 10, D-8700 Wurzburg for
confirmation of species. Dr. R. H. Kamble and

Dr. R. M. Sharma, Z.S.I., Pune for encourage-
ment. Financial assistance from C.S.I.R., New
Delhi is gratefully acknowledged.

References

Morley, C. (1913) : The Fauna of British India
including Ceylon and Burma; Hymenoptera, Ichneu-
monidae. 5(1): 1-531.

Rao, S. N. & Kurian, C. (1951): Descriptions
of eleven new and records of fifteen known species
of Ichneumonoidea (Hymenoptera Parasitica) from

India. Part II. Indian J. Ent. 13 : 65-78.

Townes, H. (1971) : The genera of Xchneumo-
nidae, Part IV. Mem . Am. Ent. Inst. 17: 1-372.

Townes, H., Townes, M. & Gupta, V. K. (1961) :
A catalogue and reclassification of the Indo-Austra-
lian Ichneumonidae. Mem. Am. Ent. Inst. 1 : 1-522.

TWO NEW SPECIES OF ACANTHASPIS (HETEROPTERA:
REDUVIIDAE: ACANTHASPIDINAE) FROM SOUTHERN INDIA1

S. J. Vennison and Dunston P. Ambrose2

(With fifteen text -figures )

Distant (1902 & 1910) in his fauna of British India described 41 species of
Acanthaspis. In the present paper two new species of Acanthaspis, viz., A. philo-
manmariae and A. livingstonei are described and illustrated.

Key for the identification of Indian species of
genus Acanthaspis:

1. First joint of antennae passing apex of head

2

First joint of antennae short, not passing apex
of head .... 40

2. Posterior lobe of pronotum with two long discal

spines 3

Posterior lobe of pronotum without two long
discal spines 7

3. First and second joints of rostrum equal or sub-
equal in length 4

First joint of rostrum a little longer than
second A. subrufa Distant

4 . Legs not annulated, almost unicolourous ..... 5
Legs with dark annulation ... A. sericata Distant

5 . Pronotal spines directed laterally

A. quinquespinosa (Fabricius)

Pronotal spines directed backwards .... 6

6. Black and ochraceous, posterior pronotal lobe

1 Accepted November 1986.

2Department of Zoology, St. Xavier’s College,

Palayankottai-627 002, Tamil Nadu, India.

transversely rugulose A. bambayensis

Distant

Dull reddish and piceous posterior pronotal lobe
finely granulate A. xeramplinia Distant

7. Posterior lobe of pronotum with two or three

short but prominent discal tubercles 8

Posterior lobe of pronotum discally unarmed . .

. .......21

8 . Pronotum with three discal tubercles

A. philomanmariae sp. nov.

Pronotum with two discal tubercles 9

9. Pronotum unicolourous, unspotted 10

Pronotum with anterior and posterior lobes
differently coloured or palely marked 12

10. A spot behind each eye on side of ocelli, con-
nexivum spotted, first joint of antennae about

as long as head 11

No spot behind the eyes, connexivum unicolour-
ous, first joint of antennae little longer than
head .A. bistillata Stal.

11. First joint of rostrum distinctly longer than the

second A. fulvipes Dali.

First joint of rostrum shorter than the second
A. luteipes Walk.

383

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

12. Pronotum with anterior and posterior lobes diffe-
rently coloured 13

Pronotum palely marked 15

1 3 . Scutellar spine long and porrect

A. porrecta Distant

Scutellar spine obliquely ascendant 14

14. Black and dull red A. tavoyana Distant

Ochraceous and fuscus A. biligata Walk.

15. Legs entirely or almost unicolourous 16

Legs not unicolourous 19

16. Legs piceous .... . . . . 17

Legs black A. gulo Stal.

17. Head distinctly sulcate between the eyes

A. vincta Distant

Head not distinctly sulcate between the eyes . . 18

18. Pronotum disk not sulcate ....A. flavipes Stal.

Pronotum with the disk sulcate

A. angularis Stal.

19. Apices of femora and tibiae palely coloured. . 20

Legs with dark annulations

A. zebraica Distant

20. Pronotum lateral angles subspinously produced

A. helluo Stal.

Pronotum lateral angles dentately produced

A. pernobilis Reut.

21. Lateral angles of pronotum prominent, spinous

or tubercular 22

Lateral angles of pronotum rounded, not pro-
minent 39

22. Pronotum unicolourous unspotted 23

Pronotum not unicolourous 26

23. Legs unicolourous . A. rugulosa Stal.

Legs not unicolourous 24

24 . Femora and tibiae differently coloured

A. megaspila Walk.

Femora and tibiae not differently coloured ... 25

25 . Femora black, their apices and tibiae pale ....

A. apicata Distant

Legs pale, femora darkly annulated

A. binghami Distant

26 . Pronotum with lateral angles palely coloured . .

A. succinea Distant

Pronotum with anterior and posterior lobes
differentially coloured or with spots or
markings 27

27 . Pronotum dark with pale markings or spots or
anterior and posterior lobes differently

coloured 28

Pronotum pale with dark spots and markings . .
A. inscript a Distant

28. Pronotum with anterior and posterior lobes

differently coloured ................. 29

384

Pronotum with pale markings 32

29. Fuscus 30

Black 31

30. Obscurely fuscus A. lineatipes Reut.

Dilutely fusous A. fusconigra Dohm.

31. Scutellar spine obliquely erect

A. divisicollis Walk.

Scutellar spine sub-reflexed

A. concinnula Stal.

32. Legs unicolourous A. trimaculata Reut.

Legs not unicolourous 33

33. Cerium fasciate A. cinctricrus Stal.

Corium spotted 34

34. First joint of antennae as long as head ...... 35

First joint of antennae shorter than head 38

35 . Scutellar spine almost horizontally erected ....

A. micrographa Walk.

Scutellar spine obliquely ascendant 36

36. First joint of antennae darkly coloured than

other joints A. siva Distant

First joint of antennae not darkly coloured than
other joints 37

37. Black and luteous A. rama Distant

Piceous, fuscus, flavius and testaceous

A. sexguttata Fabricius

38. First joint of rostrum little longer than the

second A. tergemina Burm.

First and second joints of rostrum about equal
in length A. pustulata Stal.

39. Niger or nigropiceous, scutellar spine not

straight 40

Brownish ochraceous, scutellar spine straight . . .
A. livingstonei sp. nov.

40. Nigropiceous scutellar spine recurved, not re-
sembling Coranus A. annulicornis Stal.

Black scutellar spine not recurved, resembling
Coranus A. coranodes Stal.

41 . Antennae four- jointed 42

Antennae five-jointed A. unifasciata Wolff.

42. Micropterus A. pedestris Stal.

Alate A. biguttula Stal.

I. Acanthaspis philomamnariae sp. nov.

male: Length: entire 6.55 mm; width across
the eyes 0.47 mm and across the prothorax
1.9 mm (Fig. I, 1). Overall colour brownish,
apex of head and entire legs and antennae
brownish ochraceous, markings on the protho-
rax, two pairs of elongate oval spots in the

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

claval and sub-claval region and membrane
dark spots in the connexivum, venter of thorax
and the bands in the femur dark brownish,
integument polished, strongly pilose.

Fig. I. 1. Aconthaspis philomanmariae sp. nov. male.

Head 1.13 mm long, strongly pilose; paler
anteocular region (0.53 mm long) is separated
from the darker postocular region (0.6 mm
long) by black, laterally protruding compound
eyes (0.2 mm diameter); two brown glassy
ocelli, distance between ocelli greater than
width of ocellus; anteocular region has pro-
minent clypeal marking, 2 antenniferous tuber-
cles — one at the base of each antenna, post-
ocular region more rugose (Figs. I, 2&3). 4-
segmented antennae (3.14 mm long) inserted
frontally; scape shortest (0.5 mm long), elon-
gate, stout, outwardly deflexed and extends
beyond the apex of head, pedicel (0.62 mm
long) slightly longer than scape; flagellar seg-

ments filiform; first flagellar segment the
longest (1.05 mm); second flagellar segment
(0.9 mm) longer than pedicel (Fig. I, 4);
rostrum stout (1.08 mm long) and richly
pilose, first (0.45 mm) and second (0.42 mm)
joints subequal in length; third very small
(0.2 mm); first segment strongly curved;
second segment almost straight (Fig. I, 2).

Length of pronotum 1.56 mm; broader
(1.9 mm) than long; lateral margins of ante-
rior and posterior lobes forming slight angle,
short anterior and long posterior lobes are
separated by a well developed transverse sulcus
(Fig. I, 3); 2 lateral suboval spots in the
anterior lobe and 4 lateral elongately oval spots
in the posterior lobe brownish ochraceous;
posterior lobe with 2 lateral and 1 median,
short but prominent tubercles; pronotum
divided longitudinally by a median sulcus;
scutellum triangular without any lateral pro-
cess and faintly rugose anteriorly; apex pro-
jecting but not truly spinose (Fig. I, 8), legs
richly pilose (Fig. I, 5-7) fore- (3.66 mm
long) and mid-legs (3.53 mm long) almost
equal in length; hind leg the longest (5.03
mm); fore- and mid-tibiae with short fossula
spongiosae projecting beyond the tibial ends
(0.34 mm and 0.3 mm long respectively);
tarsi three-segmented; first segment very short,
third segment as long as first and second
combines.

Hemelytra (3.8 mm long and 2.07 mm
broad) extends slightly beyond the apex of
abdomen with distinct venation on corium and
membrane; venation of hemelytra and hind-
wings as in figure I, 9 & 10.

Abdomen longer (3.7 mm long and 2.49
mm broad) polished (Fig. I, 8), laterally rich-
ly pilose, ventrally convex, connexivum narrow
with four dark brownish spots, connexivum
devoid of spines. Genitalia as in Fig. I, 11-15.

Female has longer anteocular (0.58 mm)
and postocular areas (0.62 mm), distance

385

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

386

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Acanthaspis philomanmariae sp. nov.

Fig. I. 11-15: 11. Upper surface of Pygophore, with
parameres; 12. Ventral surface of pygophore, with
parameres; 13. Parameres; 14. Phallus; 15. Struts.

between eyes (0.52 mm), antennae (3.57 mm),
fore, mid and hind legs (3.74, 3.74 and 5.63
mm respectively), abdomen (4.55 mm) and
hemelytra (3.98 mm) than the male.
type information:

Holotype : Male, collected from Keeripparai,
a rubber plantation in Kanyakumari District
of Tamil Nadu on 30.05.1986. Allotype —
Female, data same as the holotype, both are
pinned and deposited in the Department of
Zoology, St. Xavier’s College, Palayankottai,
India. Paratypes (several) collected from the
same locality.

A. philomanmariae sp. nov. is closer to A.
bistillata Stal., A. julvipes Dali and A. luteipes
Walk, in having the posterior pronotal lobe
with discal tubercles but not two long discal
spines. But A. philomanmariae with three pro-

notal discal tubercles can be easily distinguished
from these species with two pronotal tubercles.

Etymology : This species is named after the
parents (Philoman & Mary) of one of us
(DPA).

Acanthaspis livingstonei sp. nov.

The present species compares well with the
description given for the genus Acanthaspis
and is described as new to science under the
name A. livingstonei.

male: Length: entire 8 mm; width across
the eyes 0.47 mm and across prothorax 2.32
mm. (Fig. II, 1).

Overall colour light brownish ochraceous,
flagellar segments of antennae and annulations
on the femora dark brownish; hemelytra black
with anterolateral and median sanguineous
spots on the corium; integument polished,
strongly pilose.

Head 1.21 mm long, strongly pilose, sub-
globose; declivous anteocular portion (0.47
mm) shorter than darker postocular portion
(0.74 mm); compound eyes (0.23 mm dia-
meter) slightly protruding transversely, two
prominent oval shaped, brown, glassy ocelli
occupying just behind the eyes, deep sulcus
in the synthlipsis; Y-shaped sulcus in the
anteocular portion prominent; a central sulcus
divides the clypeus; an antenniferous tubercle
just above the compound eyes prominent; four-
segmented antennae (4.52 mm long) inserted
frontally; slightly outwardly deflexed scape
stout, shortest (0.66 mm) and extends beyond
the head; pedicel linear (0.98 mm) and the
flagellar segments filiform, first flagellar seg-
ment (1.58 mm) longer than the second
flagellar segment (1.31 mm) (Fig. II, 4)
rostrum stout (1.22 mm long), scarcely pilose;
slightly distant from gula; slightly curved first
(0.44 mm long) and straight second (0.56
mm long) segments subequal in length; third

387

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Fig. II. 1. Acanthaspis livingstonei sp. nov. male.

segment shortest (0.22 mm); there is a dis-
tinct neck (Fig. II, 2).

Length of pronotum 1.68 mm; broader
(2.32 mm) than long; lateral margins of ante-
rior and posterior lobes rounded, not promi-
nent; pronotum constricted before middle by
a transverse sulcus (Fig. II, 3); elevated ante-
rior lobe with irregular sculpturations; posterior
lobe slightly rugulose; pronotum longitudinally
divided by a deep sulcus which is evanescent
before the posterior end; richly pilose; poste-
rolateral ends of pronotum with a depression

on each side; scutellum triangular; its disc
excavate without any lateral process; the
posterior process well developed and spini-
form; pilose (Fig. II, 8).

Legs strongly pilose, fore legs shortest and
hind legs longest (fore, mid and hind legs
4.69, 3.34 and 11.18 mm respectively) (Fig.
II, 5-7), infuscate; anterior femora slightly
swollen; fore- and mid-tibiae with terminal
spongy fossula; tarsi three-segmented; the first
segment shortest, the third segment longest;
ending with claws.

Hemelytra (5.13 mm long and 2.54 mm
broad) extending considerably beyond the apex
of abdomen; with concolourous venation dis-
tinct on corium and membrane (Fig. II, 9
& 10); corium slightly pilose, membrane

polished.

Abdomen elongately oval (4 . 7 mm long and
2.9 mm broad); laterally strongly pilose; cen-
trally slightly pilose; connexivum unspotted;
venter of abdomen convex (Fig. II, 8); geni-
talia as in fig. II, 11-15.

Female has longer anteocular area (0.49
mm), shorter postocular area (0.72 mm),
longer distance between eyes (0.57 mm), an-
tennae (4.76 mm), rostrum (1.26 mm), pro-
notum (1.84 mm), fore, mid and hind legs
(4.64, 4.64 and 6.67 mm respectively), fossula
spongiosae (0 . 46 & 0 . 24 mm) , abdomen (5.61
mm) and hemelytra (5.66 mm) than the male.

type information:

Holotype : $ , collected from Thekkady

tropical rain forest in Madurai district of Tamil
Nadu on 14.06.1986. Allotype 9 data same as
the holotype, both are pinned and deposited
in the Department of Zoology, St. Xavier’s
College, Palayankottai, India. Paratypes (seve-
ral) collected from the same locality.

A. livingstonei is closer to A. annulicornis
Stal. and A. cor anodes Stal. in having the
following characters : ( 1 ) first joint of antennae
passing apex of head, (2) posterior lobe of

388

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Acanthaspis livingstonei sp. nov.

Fig. II. 2-10: 2. Head and pronotum, lateral aspect; 3. Head and pronotum, dorsal
view; 4. Entire antenna; 5. Fore leg; 6. Mid leg; 7. Hind leg; 8. Abdomen, dorsal
view; 9. Hemelytron; 10. Hind wing.

389

10

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Acanthaspis livingstonei sp. nov.

Fig. II. 11-15: 11. Pygophore; dorsal view; 12.
Pygophore, ventral view; 13. Parameres; 14. Phallus;
15. Struts.

pronotum discaUy unarmed, (3) lateral angles
of pronotum round, not prominent, (4) prono-
tum unicolourous and unspotted and (5) legs
pale, femora darkly annulated. But A. living-
stone i can be identified from A. annulicornis
and A. coranodes in having unspotted conne-
xivum, tibiae devoid of annulation, sanguineus
spots on the black hemelytra and straight
scutellar spine.

Etymology : This species is named in honour
of our teacher and entomologist Dr. David
Livingstone.

Ack nowledgements

We are grateful to the authorities of
Zoological Survey of India, for their help in
determining the status of these materials and
to the authorities of St. Xavier’s College for
facilities. The financial assistance of CSIR
(Grant No. 513/(84)/EMR-II) for this work
is gratefully acknowledged.

References

Distant, W. L. (1902): The fauna of British (1910) : The fauna of British India,

India, Rhynchota. Vol. II (Heteroptera). Taylor & Rhynchota. Vol. V (Heteroptera. Appendix). Taylor
Francis Ltd. London: 243-273. & Francis Ltd., London: 193-194.

A NEW SPECIES OF CONNARUS LINN. (CONNARACEAE) FROM

PENINSULAR INDIA1

K. Ramamurthy and R. Rajan2

(With nine

Connarus parameswaranii sp. nov.

Connarus sclerocarpus (Wight & Arn.)
Schellenb. affinis, sed foliolis ovato-lanceolatis,

1 Accepted May 1987.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle,
Coimbatore 641 003, Tamil Nadu.

text-figures)

opicibus abrupte acuminatis, nervis supra in-
distinctis, costis brunneo — pubescentibus;

paniculis stellato - pubescentibus, velutinis;

petalis glabris, folliculis ellipsoideis, minute
rostratis, brunneo-tomentosis praecipue differt.

Connarus parameswaranii sp. nov. Allied to
Connarus sclerocarpus (Wight & Arn.) Schel-

390

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-9. Connarus parameswaranii sp. nov.

1. Flowering branch; 2. Flower; 3a. Sepal within; 3b. Sepal without; 4. Petal;
5. Staminal tube cut open; 6. Stamen; 7. Pistil; 8. Fruit; 9. Fruit L. S.

391

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

lenb., but differs chiefly in: leaflets ovate-
obovate, apex abruptly acuminate, nerves not
distinct above, brownish hairy at midrib only;
panicles stellate pubescent, velvety; petals
glabrous and follicles ellipsoid, minutely beak-
ed, brownish tomentose.

Liana; branches spreading, innovations
densely stellate-plumose, brownish, velvety, old
branches greyish, warted, lenticels present.
Leaves imparipinnate, 1-2 pairs; rachis 5-13
cm long, brownish velvety. Leaflets 4-14x3-7
cm, ovate to obovate, coriaceous, leathery, apex
abruptly acuminate, base rounded, rarely
narrow; nerves 4-7 pairs, ascending from the
main nerve jointed near the margin, inconspi-
cuous above, distinct below, midrib brownish
hairy; petiolules 3-4 mm long, thick, warty,
dense tomentose. Panicles 16.5 cm long, ter-
minal, brownish, velvety with numerous
flowers. Flowers bisexual; bracts subulate,
lanceolate, densely pubescent without, glabrous
within. Sepals 5, each 4-5 x 1-2 mm, connate
at base, persistent in fruit. Petals 5, each 4-5 x
1-2 mm, oblong, glabrous. Stamens 10, connate
at base, epipetalous; filaments short. Pistil 1;
ovary hairy; style slender; stigma capitate.
Follicles immature 1-2.5 x 0.3-1 .5 cm ellip-

soid, oblique, inflated, stipitate, beaked,
brownish tomentose pubescent within, suture
curved on ventral side, straight on dorsal side;
seed solitary, arillate at base.

Holotype Ramamurthy 66582 (CAL) and
isotypes Ramamurthy 66582 (Acc. No. 138699-
138700 MH) were collected at Adimali Re-
serve Forest, Idukki District, Kerala, India at
an altitude of 1800 m on 29.3.1980.

The specific name is given in honour of
Dr. M. Parameswaran Nayar, Director, Bota-
nical Survey of India, Calcutta for his valuable
contribution to Indian botany.

Acknowledgements

We wish to express our thanks to Dr. K.
Thothathri, Joint Director, Botanical Survey
of India, Calcutta for his valuable comments
on this taxon. Our thanks are also due to
Dr. N. P. Balakrishnan, Scientist ‘D’ and Dr.
A. N. Henry, Scientist ‘C’ for their valuable
suggestions. Dr. V. J. Nair, Scientist ‘B’ for
Latin diagnosis, and to the Director, Botanical
Survey of India for his constant encouragement
during this investigation.

ADDITIONS TO THE GENUS ALYSICARPUS NECK. EX DESV.1
S. M. Almeida2 and M. R. Almeida3
(With six text -figures)

The Leguminous genus Alysicarpus Neck,
ex Desv. is reported to have 45 species in all,
out of which, according to Santapau & Henry
(1973) 15 occur in India. While examining the
material belonging to this genus deposited in
Blatter Herbarium, we discovered that quite a

1 Accepted March 1988.

2 Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Bom-
bay-400 001.

3 Alchemie Research Centre, Thane-400 601.

few of the materials did not match with the
earlier identified specimens. After critical exami-
nation, we have segregated the entire collection
into 25 species and intraspecific taxa. We wish
to present in this communication, some of the
new taxa which we have segregated during the
course of our study.

1 . Alysicarpus misqeitei sp. nov.

Externa facie A. roxburghiano plus minusve
similis. Sed characteribus sequentibus differt :

392

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A. misquitei

A. roxburghianus

1 . , Omnia folia linearia-oblonga.

1.

Omnia folia linearia.

2. Folia marginibus, reticulo et subter duabus

2.

Glabra vel six hirsuta.

lateribus costae hirsuta.

3, Axis inflorescentiae planus, fuscus, brevibus

3.

Rotundus, striatus, incoloratus, glaber.

pilis fuscis prominentibus testis.

4. Flores ex collo elevato rhachidis orientes,
omnino alternantes; collum rigide hirsutum.

4.

Flores ex collo elevato rhachidis non orientes;
basales alternantes; apicales sessile et super-
positae.

5. Bracteae dense hirsutae.

5.

Glabrae.

6. Legumina dense pilosa, leviter reticulato-venosa,

6.

Glabra, avenia, solo segmento apicali exserto.

calyx 1-2 segmenta basalia leguminum tectans.

7. Legumina in pedicello nigro prominenti 0. 3-0,4
cm longo elevata.

7.

Legumina decrescentia base sicut brevi pedicello
triangulo; 0.1 cm longo infuscato.

Holotypus: L. J. Sedgwick — Hubli 5282
(Sept. 1919) (BLAT),

Alysicarpus misquitei sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

An erect, branched herb up to 50 cm tall.
Stems cylindric, slender, striate, with few
scattered, deciduous hairs. Leaves simple,
alternate, linear-oblong, 2.5-3 cm long, up to
0.5 cm broad, entire, hairy on the margins,
acute at apex, rounded at base, petiolate.
Petioles upto 0.5 cm long, grooved on the
upper surface, rounded on the lower surface,
narrowly winged on both sides, hairy at the
junction of the lamina. Mid-vein prominent on
the lower surface, hairy on both sides; lateral
veins about 10, running towards the apex,
joined with cross nervules, hairy; hairs scat-
tered all over in the reticulum on the under
surface. Stipels 2, linear, glabrous. Stipules 2,
subulate, 1-1.5 cm long, about 0.5 cm broad
at base, appressed to the stem, acuminate,
many nerved from the base, glabrous. Inflo-
rescence terminal, many flowered raceme.
Rachis unbranched, erect, narrowing to the
apex, pubescent all over with brown hairs;
hairs appressed to the rachis. Flowers distant,
alternate, in pairs, bracteate, stalked; stalks
equal, about 0.3 cm long, stout, hairy all

over; hairs brown. Bracts deciduous, subulate,
1.5-2 cm long, broad at base, narrowing to
the apex in a long acumen, densely velvety
tomentose beneath, many-nerved, glabrous
within. Calyx tubular, acute at the base, per-
sistent, covering 1/3 length of the pod. Sepals
5, free, linear-lanceolate, persistent, 1-1.2 cm
long, 0.2-0. 3 cm broad, acute at base,
narrowing to the apex to a long acumen,
many-nerved, sharply hairy on the dorsal
surface, on the margins and at the apex.
Corolla lobes 5, exserted, Standard ovate-
oblong, narrowing to a short point at the
base, broad at the apex, transparent, reticu-
lately veined, glabrous. Wings 1.5-2 cm long.
Keels adhering to the wings, transparent, claw-
ed, glabrous, reticulately veined, Staminal tube
1.5-2 cm long, about 0.2 cm broad, transpa-
rent, striate. Stamens in two bundles, nine unit-
ed and one free. Of the bundle of nine united
stamens, 4 stamens are with filaments up to 1.5
cm long, the remaining stamens with filaments
up to 1 cm long; free stamen up to 1 . 5 cm
long; anthers 2-celled, dorsifixed, linear-oblong.
Ovary oblong, flattened, about 1.5 cm long,
about 0.5 cm broad, narrowing at both ends,
appressedly hairy; style 1-1.5 cm long, brown,
thick, slightly twisted at the base; stigma promi-

393

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

nent, capitate, raised. Pod oblong, 2-3 cm long,
raised on brownish-black slender stalk, turgid,
3-6 segmented; segments easily breaking up
into individual compartments, rugose, with
short appressed hairs, faintly reticulately veined,
apiculate; apical segment with capular, erect,
solid prolongation. Seeds solitary in each seg-
ment, reniform, blackish-brown, about 0.2 cm
broad, with very faint tubercles on the testa.

nik in external appearance. But it can be dis-
tinguished from A. roxburghianus in the fol-
lowing characters:

This species is named after Rev. Fr. John
Misquitta, S.J., the Principal of St. Xavier’s
College, Bombay, for his deep enthusiasm and
dedication in the development and promotion
of research activities in various departments of
the college.

A. misquitei

A. roxburghianus

1 . Leaves linear-oblong.

2. Leaves hairy on the margins, on the reticulum
and on both the sides of the midrib underneath.

Leaves linear.

Leaves almost glabrous or with few scattered hairs.

3 . Inflorescence axis flat, dark brown, pubescent
with prominent short brown hairs all over.

4 . Flowers arising from a raised collar on the
rachis, alternate throughout; collar with number
of stiff hairs.

5. Bracts densely hairy.

6. Pods thickly, appressedly hairy, faintly reticu-
lately veined, calyx covering only the basal 1-2
segments.

Inflorescence axis rounded, striate, not coloured, not
hairy.

Flowers not arising from a distinctly raised collar;
basal flowers alternate, apical flowers sessile and
arranged one above the other.

Bracts glabrous.

Pods glabrous, not veined, only the apical segment
is exserted.

7. Pod raised on a prominent black stalk about
0. 3-0.4 cm long.

Pod narrowing at the base to a triangular short
stalk; stalk about 0.1 cm long, not dark coloured.

Holotype : L. J. Sedgwick — Hubli 5282

2. Alysicarpus narimanii sp. nov.

(Sept. 1919) (BLAT).

Alysicarpus misquitei is more or less similar
to Alysicarpus roxburghianus Thoth. & Prama-

Externa facie A. heyneano Wight & Arnott
plus minusve similis sed sequentibus charac-
teribus differt:

A. narimanii

A. heyneanus

1 . Folia ovata ad linearia-oblonga, breviter

1 . Obovatus mucronulatus apice.

mucronata apice.

2. Flores remotae dispositae.

3 . Sepali pilis flavis, permanentibus, bulbosis
basibus vestiti.

2. ± Compactae dispositae.

3. Glabres vel sparsim deciduae pilosae.

4. Sepali acuminati apice, legumine integra fere
tegentes.

5. Legumina invostricta reticulato-venosa; seg-
mento apicali leguminis cum prolongatione
triangulo, non-reticulato.

4. Sepali acuti apice, legumina exposita, pauca
segmenta basalia tantum tegentia calyce.

5. Legumina profunde constricta; transversa pro-
minente forte costata; segmentum apicale cum
prolongatione brevi costata.

394

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1. Alysicarpus misqiiitei sp. nov.

A. Flowering & Fruiting Plant — Habit; B. An internode showing a single pinna
with stipel and stipule; C. Bract; D. Sepals; E. Petals — 1. Standard, 2. Wing,
3. Keel; F. Androecium; G. Gynoecium; H. Pod; I. Seed.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Holotypus: H. Santapau — - Khandala —
2982(18.10.1943) (BLAT).

Paratypus: G. L. Shah — Trombay —
10593 (22.9.1962) (BLAT).

ASysicarpus narimanii sp. nov. (Fig. 2)

An erect to decumbent, slender, branched
herb, 50-90 cm tall. Stem striate, with 2 pro-
minent ribs, hairy. Leaves alternate, varying in
size and shape, ovate to linear-oblong, 2-3 cm
long, 0.5-0. 8 cm broad, entire, rounded at
base, shortly mucronate at the apex, hairy on
the margins and on both the sides of the mid-
vein underneath, reticulately veined, shortly
petioled. Petiole slender, about 0.5 cm long,
with few, short, scattered, brown hairs at the
junction of the lamina, stipulate. Stipules
linear-lanceolate, 2-2 . 5 cm long, acuminate,
with many parallel nerves. Inflorescence axil-
lary and terminal racemes. Rachis slender,
striate, almost glabrous or with few scattered
hairs. Flowers dark-straw coloured, shining,
binate on equal sized stalks arising from a
raised joint on the rachis. Stalks about 0.2
cm long, slender, with few brown hairs, brac-
teate. Bracts broadly ovate, 0.5-0. 7 cm long,
0.2 cm broad, hairy on the margins, rounded
at base, narrowing abruptly from both the
sides towards the apex and terminating in a
long erect acumen, deciduous. Calyx tubular
almost covering the pod. Sepals 5, linear-

oblong, 0.5-0. 7 cm long, 0.1 cm broad,
narrowing to the base into a short stalk, ter-
minating in a long acumen at the apex; hairs
yellow, erect. Outer sepals slightly broader and
with longer claws than the rest of the sepals,
many nerved. Corolla membranous, veined,
clawed, brittle. Wings and keels almost fused
in dry materials and difficult to segregate.
Staminal tube about 1-1.5 cm long, shorter
than the corolla. Stamens in two bundles, nine
united and one free. Out of the 9 united
stamens four stamens with longer filaments
alternate with the five shorter ones. Pods 3-3.5
cm long, 4-6 segmented; segments easily sepa-
rating into individual compartments, reticulate-
ly veined, flat, compressed, sometimes qua-
drangular. Apical segment with capular pro-
longation, without any reticulations and bears
a thick style with a prominent stigma; basal
segments narrowing to the stalk. Stalk 3-3.5
cm long, yellow, softly hairy. Seeds rounded,
brown, compressed, smooth, solitary in each
segment.

Holotype : H. Santapau — Khandala 2982
(18.10.1943) (BLAT).

Paratype : G. L. Shah — Trombay — 10593
(22.9.1962) (BLAT).

Alysicarpus narimanii is more or less similar
to A. heyneanus Wight & Amott in its external
appearance but it differs from it in the follow-
ing characters:

A. narimanii

A. heyneanus

1 . Leaves ovate to linear-oblong, shortly mucro-
nate at apex.

2. Flowers distant on the rachis.

3. Sepals with yellow, persistent, bulbous based
hairs.

4. Sepals acuminate at apex, almost covering the
entire pod.

5. Pods not constricted, reticulately veined; apical
segment with a triangular prolongation without
any reticulation.

Leaves obovate, mucronulate at apex.

Flowers more or less compact on the rachis.

Sepals glabrous or with few scattered deciduous hairs.

Sepals acute at apex, pods exposed, only the basal
few segments are covered by the calyx.

Pods deeply constricted, all the segments with pro-
minent strong transverse ribs, apical segment with
short prolongation.

396

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 2. Alysicarpus narimcmii sp. nov.

A. Flowering & Fruiting plant — Habit; B, Internode with leaf and stipule; C. Bract;
D. Sepals; E. Petals; F. Androecium; G. Gynoecium; H. Pod.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

The species is named after our colleague,
late Dr. Nariman A. Irani, well known for his
contribution to the taxonomic studies on the
flora of Matheran.

3. Alysicarpus sedgwickii sp. nov.

Externa facie A. ludens (Wall, ex Baker)
Backer similis sed differt sequentibus characteri-
bus:

Stalks slender, lightly coloured, hairy. Calyx
linear, deeply cut, segments 0.5 -0.7 cm long,
clawed, softly hairy on the sides, shortly
acuminate, many nerved, transparent and per-
sistent. Corolla small, transparent, clawed,
reticulate, about 0.8 cm long. Wings and
keels, difficult to segregate in dry mate-
rials. Staminal tube 0.5 cm long, trans-
parent. Stamens in two bundles, 9 united

A. sedgwickii

A. ludens

1.

Herbae graciles.

1 .

Herbae crassae.

2.

Flores in racemis folia opposita dispositae.

2.

In racemis terminalibus dispositae.

3.

Legumina cylindrica fere aequabili magnitudine.

3.

Non cylindrica, pyramidalia.

4.

Segmenta leguminis reticula- to venosa cum
pilis brevibus appressis brunneis.

4.

Segmenta compressa, glabra, valde costata, cum
costis horizontaliter parallelis.

5 . Segmenta apicalia cum brevissima prolonga-
short prolongation.

5.

Segmenta apicalia cum crassa erecta prolonga-
tion triangula.

Holotypus: L. J. Sedgwick — Nawabshah,
Sindh — s.n. (Oct. 1923) (BLAT).

Alysicarpus sedgwickii sp. nov. (Fig. 3)

An erect, branched herb, 25-75 cm tall.
Stem thick, faintly striate, with few scattered
hairs. Leaves simple, alternate, linear-oblong,
distant on the stem. 5-7 cm long, 0.5 cm
broad, entire, acute at apex, narrowing to the
base, reticulately veined. Mid-vein prominent
on the lower surface, appressedly hairy on
both the sides of the mid- vein; lateral veins
faint, far apart, running towards the apex.
Petiole up to 0.5 cm long, very slender, groov-
ed in the centre, shortly hairy at the junction
of the lamina. Stipule subulate, acuminate,
0.5-1 cm long, many-nerved, glabrous, not
prominent. Inflorescence leaf-opposed raceme.
Rachis slender, unbranched, becoming very
thin towards the apex. Flowers very small,
alternate, binate, distant on the rachis, stalked.

and 1 free; filaments very slender. Ovary 0.6-
0.8 cm long, 0.1 cm broad, flat, cylindric,
hairy all over, with very short brown hairs;
style thick, curved from the middle; stigma
raised, capitate. Pods cylindric, 1-2 cm long,
0. 3-0.4 cm broad, 4-angled, jointed not con-
tricted in between. 5-6 segmented, raised on a
short stalk. Segments grooved, 0. 1-0.2 cm long,
0.1 cm broad, rugose, with short hairs on
both the sutures and surfaces, easily separat-
ing into individual compartments; lower seg-
ments partly covered by the persistent calyx
lobes; apical segment with a small deciduous
prolongation. Seeds reniform, brownish-black,
solitary in each segment.

Holotype : L. J. Sedgwick-Nawabshah-Sindh
s.n. (Oct. 1923) (BLAT).

Alysicarpus sedgwickii is similar to A. ludens
(Wall, ex Baker) Backer in general appear-
ance but it can be differentiated from A. ludens
in the following characters:

398

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 3. Alysicarpus sedgwickii sp. nov.

A. Flowering & Fruiting plant — Habit; B. Internode with leaf stipel & stipules;
C. Calyx lobe; D. Standard petal; E. Androecium; F. Gynoecium; G. Pod —

entire & a segment.

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

A. sedgwickii A. ludens

1 . Slender herbs.

2. Inflorescence leaf-opposed.

3. Pods cylindric, almost of uniform size.

4 . Segments of the pod reticulately veined and
with short appressed brown hairs.

5. Apical segments with very short, slender pro-
longation.

Stout herbs.

Inflorescence terminal racemes.

Pods not cylindric, pyramidal in shape.

Segments of the pod compressed, strongly ribbed,
with horizontal ribs, not hairy.

Apical segments with thick, erect, triangular pro-
longation.

This species is named after L. J. Sedgwick
for his contributions to the botany of erstwhile
Bombay Presidency.

4 . Alysicarpus salim-alii sp. nov. similis
Alysicarpo scarioso (syn. A. rugoso DC. var.
styracifolia Baker) externo aspectu, sed differt
laxo racemo in quo fiores remote dispositae
sunt et folia post secata atro-caeruleus non
evadunt.

Holotypus — Blatter 9376, Leni Hill — ,
Nasik District (Sept. 1917) (BLAT).

Isotypus — Blatter 10034, Leni Hill — Nasik
District (Sept. 1917) (BLAT).

Alysicarpus salim-alii sp. nov. (Fig. 4)

An erect, branched tomentose herb, up to
50 cm tall. Stem with nodes and internodes,
strigose, hairy. Hairs white, compact, micro-
scopic in nature. Leaves simple, 1.6 cm x 4.2
cm, alternate oblong, obtuse at apex, rounded
at base, hairy on both the surfaces, more hairy
on the lower surface and towards the midrib,
stipulate, shortly petioled. Petiole 0.3 -0.4 cm
long, densely hairy; hairs white, erect, bulbous
based, more towards the junction of the
petiole. Stipels 2, linear-oblong, striate, hairy.
Stipules 2, 1-1.5 cm long, 0.3 -0.4 cm broad
at base, lanceolate, sheathing at base, striate,
acuminate at apex. Inflorescence leaf opposed
and terminal lax raceme. Rachis 3-11 cm long,
densely hairy, brownish-black. Flowers binate
on equal sized stalks; stalk about 0.6 cm long,
sparsely hairy, bracteate. Bract 1-1.5 cm long,
0.4-0. 5 cm broad at base, narrowing to the

apex, striate with a prominent midrib ending
in a long-acumen; acumen hairy on both the
margins and at the apex. Calyx tube short;
Sepals 5, outer 2 sepals oblong, about 1 cm
long, 1-1.5 cm broad, striate, with a promi-
nent mid rib, hairy at the apex; inner 3 sepals
somewhat connate at base, clawed, striate,
about 1 cm long, hairy and acute at apex.
Petals 5; standard broadly ovate, 0.7-0. 8 long,
0.2-0. 3 cm broad, striate, glabrous, rounded
at apex, narrowing to the base, glandular;
glands 2, circular, one in the centre towards
the apex and the other towards the margin
slightly below the apex; wings membranous,
0.5 -0.6 cm long, with slender claw. Keels
adhering to the wings, 0.5-0. 8 cm long, claw-
ed. Staminal tube oblong, 0.5-0. 8 cm long.
Stamens in 2 bundles, 9 united and 1 free; of
the 9 united stamens 5 stamens with long fila-
ments, alternate with the 4 short stamens. Free
stamen with long filament, as long as the stami-
nal tube. Fruits 2-3 segmented, 0.8-1 cm long
stalked, almost covered by the calyx; middle
segments of the fruit ovoid, compressed, flat,
rugose, with horizontal ribs; basal segment
without any ribs, oblong, narrowing to the
stalk; apical segment with prominent style
which is triangular at base, narrowing to the
apex, curved inwards, adhering to the middle
of the standard petal; stigma capitate.

Holotype : Blatter-Leni Hill Nasik District
9376, (Sept. 1917) (BLAT).

Isotype : Blatter-Leni Hill, Nasik District
10034, (Sept. 1917) (BLAT).

400

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 4. Alysicarpus salim-alii sp. nov.

A. Flowering & Fruiting plant — Habit; B. Internode with leaf and stipule; C. Flower;
D. Flower opened out showing the floral parts; E. Gynoecium; F. Pod with
persistent sepals; G. A segment of the pod.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 85

This species is named in memory of the
renowned ornithologist. Dr. Salim Ali, for
his dedication to the subject of conservation
of nature.

5. Alysicarpus monilifer (Linn.) DC. var.
euddapahensis var. nov.

Varietate typica differt sequentibus characte-
ribus:

broad at base, glabrous. Flowers alternate,
binate, on distant raised collars on the rachis,
bracteate. Bracts triangular, glabrous, about
0.6 cm long, 0.2 cm broad, striate, acumi-
nate. Calyx small, about 0.2 cm long, lanceo-
late, with prominent mid-vein, glabrous, short-
ly acuminate. Fruits moniliform, 4-5 segmented,
not constricted. Segments of pods oblong-

var. monilifer

var. euddapahensis

1 . Folia oblonga ad linearia-lanceolate.

2. Legumina cum segmentis ovalibus, inflatis, facile
separabilibus. mollibus, glabribus, dilute reticu-
lato venosis.

1 . Ovata.

2. Legumina cum segmentis rotundis, sulcatis, non
facile separabilibus, crassis, dense pilosis scabri-
bus.

Holotypus: S. K. Wagh — Cuddapah —
7768 (25-1-1958) (BLAT).

Isotypus: S. K. Wagh — Cuddapah — 7769
(25-1-1958) (BLAT).

Alysicarpus monilifer (Linn.) DC. var.
euddapahensis var. nov. (Fig. 5)

An erect branched herb up to 40 cm tall.
Stem striate, with few scattered brown hairs.
Apical branches more densely hairy. Leaves

round, softly reticulate, glabrous, almost fully
exserted except the basal one segment which
is partly covered by the persistent calyx-lobes.

Holotype : S. K. Wagh — Cuddapah — 7768
(25-1-1958) (BLAT).

Isotype : S. K. Wagh — Cuddapah — 7769
(25-1-1958) (BLAT).

Alysicarpus monilifer (L.) DC var. cudda -
pahensis differs from the typical variety in the
following characters:

var. monilifer

var. euddapahensis

1 . Leaves oblong to linear-lanceolate.

2. Pods with oval, inflated, easily detachable, soft,
faintly reticulately veined glabrous segments.

Leaves ovate.

Pods with rounded, grooved, not easily detachable,
thick, densely puberulous, rough segments.

oblong-lanceolate, 2.5-5 cm long, 0.5-0. 8 cm
broad, acute at apex, rounded at base, strongly
reticulately veined on the ventral surface, hairy

This variety is named after the type locality
Cuddapah, Andhra Pradesh.

on the nerves beneath, shortly petiolate and
stipulate. Petiole about 0.8 cm long, striate.

6 . Alysicarpus tetragonolobus Edgew. var.
pashanensis var. nov.

Stipules subulate, sheathing with a circular ring
at the base, about 0.8 cm long and 0.2 cm

Varietate typica differt sequentibus charac-
teribus :

var. tetragonolobus

var. pashanensis

1 . Legumina distincte quadrangulata.

2. Tubus staminalis non striatus.

3. Tubus staminalis adhaerens vexillo habenti
pannum luteum.

1 . Non quadrangulata.

2 . Striatus.

3. Non adhaerens vexillo, sine panno.

4. Sepali amplitudine variabili.

4. Sepali amplitudine uniformi.

402

Vi u >►

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 5. Alysicarpus monilifer DC. var. cuddapahensis var. nov.

A. Fruiting plant — Habit; B. Internode with leaf and stipule; C. Fruit.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

404

Fig. 6. Alysicarpus tetragonolobus Edgew. var. pashanensis var. nov.
A. Fruiting plant — Habit; B. Pod.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Holotypus: D. P. Panthaki — Pashan Lake,
Poona — 2009 (12.11.1954) (BLAT).

Isotypus: D. P. Panthaki — Pashan Lake,
Poona 2009 (12.11.1954) (BLAT).

Alysicarpus tetragonolobus Edgew. var.
pashanensis var. nov. (Fig. 6)

An erect branched herb, 20-30 cm tall.
Stems striate, angled, hairy on one side; hairs
short, white, deciduous. Leaves simple, linear-
oblong, 2. 5-3. 5 cm long, about 0.5 cm broad,
alternate, acute at apex, rounded at base, softly
hairy on margins, appressedly hairy on both
the sides of the mid-vein underneath, punctate,
coriaceous, shortly petioled. Petioles 0.2-0. 3
cm long, hairy at the junction of the lamina,
stipellate. Stipels small, linear. Stipules trian-
gular, 0.5-0. 7 cm long, about 0.2 cm broad
at base, prominently striate, acuminate at apex,
softly hairy on the margins; hairs deciduous.
Inflorescence terminal racemes. Flowers few,
deciduous, straw-coloured and shining, distant
on the rachis, alternate at the base of the
rachis, crowded towards the apex, arising from

crowded towards the apex. Standard broadly
ovate, striate, yellow, about 0.8 cm long and
0.3 cm broad, membranous. Wings yellow,
with a purple tinge on one side, clawed, about
0.6 cm long. Keels purple, clawed, transpa-
rent. Staminal tube about 0 . 5 cm long, 0 . 1 cm
broad, yellowish-brown. Stamens in two bun-
dles, nine united and one free. Out of the nine
united stamens four are with longer filaments;
free stamen with a flattened orange-yellow
filament. Pistil raised on a short stalk; ovary
oblong, about 0 . 1 cm long; style thick, orange-
yellow, 0.4 cm long; stigma raised, clavate,
yellow. Pods exserted, 3-5 segmented, narrowly
constricted in between the segments; segments
oblong, rough, with irregularly folded thick
ribs, hard; apical segment with stout, glabrous,
erect prolongation of about 0.2 cm long, basal
segment covered by the persistent calyx.

Holotype: D. P. Panthaki — Pashan Lake,
Poona 2009 (12-11-1954) (BLAT).

Isotype: D. P. Panthaki — Pashan Lake,
Poona-2010 (12.11.1954) (BLAT).

The new variety differs from the typical
variety in the following characters:

var. tetragonolobus var. pashanensis

1. Pod distinctly 4-angled. Pod not distinctly 4-angled.

2. Staminal tube not striate. Staminal tube striate.

3. Staminal tube adhering to the standard; stan- Staminal tube not adhering to the standard, standard

dard with a prominent yellow patch in the without any coloured patch.

centre.

4. Sepals varying in size. Sepals of uniform size.

a distinct raised collar on the rachis, stalked,
bracteate. Bracts triangular, 0.6-0. 8 cm long,
about 0.2 cm broad at base, striate, acuminate,
deciduous. Rachis unbranched, softly hairy on
one side. Stalk about 0.3 cm long, hairy on
one side. Calyx tubular; sepals 5, clawed, about
0. 5-0.7 cm long, hairy; hairs white, erect and

This variety is named after its type locality
Pashan, near Poona.

We are grateful to Rev. Fr. Conrard Masca-
renhas for rendering the Latin diagnosis, to Dr.
(Mrs.) A. R. Daruwalla for the help rendered
in preparing this paper, and to Mr. Rajendra
Shinde for incidental verifications.

405

11

REVIEWS

1. INDIAN TURTLES A FIELD GUIDE. By Indraneil Das. pp. 119
(24.5x15 cm), with many illustrations. Calcutta, 1985. World Wildlife
Fund-India, Eastern Region, Price Rs. 35/-.

Turtles and tortoises come very low in con-
servation priority compared to the glamorous
mammals. This is unfortunate. These fasci-
nating animals offer a silent service as
scavengers but apart from such utilitarian con-
siderations, turtles are a singularly interesting
group, which, though insulated in a bony
carapace, still have many enemies, particularly
man to make 14 out of the 31 species or
nearly 50% of the species occurring in India
vulnerable or endangered.

In this fascinating field guide, Indraneil Das
describes and illustrates the 31 species and
subspecies of marine and fresh water turtles
and the land tortoises which occur within the
political area of India.

The Guide has been written as an introduc-
tion to those not familiar with turtles and
tortoises. Beginning with the origin of turtles
it gives brief descriptions of turtle structure,
habits and habitats, breeding, predators both
natural, and human, commercial exploitation
and conservation requirements.

The second section starting with Chapter
XII briefly and succinctly describes and illus-
trates, identification characters, distribution,
habits and conservation status of the 31 species
occurring in India.

A useful and recommended field guide.

J. C. DANIEL

2. MANGROVES IN INDIA: STATUS REPORT. Pp. i-vii + 150
(23.5 x 16 cm.) with 8 plates of coloured photographs. New Delhi, 1987.
Published by the Government of India, Ministry of Environment &
Forests. Price: Not indicated on the book.

The report deals in length with the avail-
able information on Indian mangroves pub-
lished so far in the following chapters.

1. Introduction. 2. The importance of coas-
tal vegetation. 3 . Nature of mangrove environ-
ment. 4. Distribution of Indian mangroves.
5. Aspects of research. 6. Some case studies.

7. Economic assessment of mangroves and

8. Management perspectives.

Under chapter 4, namely distribution, the
present status of Indian mangroves in Orissa,

Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Maha-
rashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala is given.
However, information is far from complete,
probably due to the dependance of the com-
piler of this volume on limited sources of in-
formation.

The coverage on mangroves of Maharashtra
is very meagre and lacks realistic information.
There is no mention of the scattered mangrove
swamps which are at present located in Sindhu-
durg. Thane and Raigad districts.

406

REVIEWS

The mangroves of Vengurla, Malvan, Deogaci
and Achra (Sindhudurg district) have been
studied by Dr. B. G. Kulkarni of Botanical
Survey of India (Pune), while mangroves of
Aronda (Sindhudurg district), Ratnagiri,
Dabhol and Rajapur (Ratnagiri District) have
been taxonomically studied by Dr. (Mrs.) S.
M. Almeida.

A number of typographical errors occur and
good proof-reading would have certainly
enhanced the value of the publication.

The Bibliography at the end of the Volume
cites 189 national, as well as international
references.

The publication also gives the names and
addresses of the members of the reconstituted
National Mangrove Committee. This Com-
mittee has nine members out of which three
are secretaries of concerned Government
departments!

M. R. ALMEIDA

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 . TOXICITY OF BRODIFACOUM (LIQUID, PELLETS AND WAX
CAKE) AGAINST MERIONES HURRIANAE AND
RATTUS RATTUS

Introduction

Numerous chemical control methods have
been extensively adopted throughout the world
to get rid of rats. Zinc phosphide has been
used since early 1940 with limited success
because rats develop bait shyness and it is
hazardous to non-target species. Brodifacoum,
bromadiolone and warfarin are the new anti-
coagulant rodenticides. Warfarin is required in
multiple dose for effective control. Brodi-
facoum and bromadiolone are the new potent
anticoagulants that form a bridge between the
fast acting and slow acting rodenticides (Jain
1980).

The present study has been conducted to
evaluate efficacy of brodifacoum, a single dose
potent anticoagulant against R. rattus and M.
hurrianae.

Material and Methods

Laboratory feeding tests were conducted on
individually caged Rattus rattus and Meriones
hurrianae. All the animals were sexed, weighed
and acclimatized to laboratory conditions prior
to the experiments. Rat feed (Hindustan Lever
Ltd., Bombay) and water was provided
freely. The animals were weighed and starved
for 24 hours. Poison bait of brodifacoum at
0.005 percent concentration was exposed to
the individually caged animals in three forms,
viz. liquid, cakes and pellets for 24 hours in
no-choice feeding test. After 24 hours of poison
baiting, fresh rat feed was provided daily until

death. Liquid brodifacoum was exposed by
diluting the poison with distilled water. Symp-
toms of poisoning were recorded.

Results and Discussion

The results of the investigation, presented
in table 1, indicate that all the three forms of
brodifacoum killed the rats in a reasonable
period. The mortality of the rats due to
brodifacoum pellets and brodifacoum wax cakes
after 24 hours of poison baiting in no-choice
feeding tests was 100 percent. Liquid brodi-
facoum was comparatively less effective,
resulting in 84.33 percent mortality in M.
hurrianae and 92 percent in R. rattus. This
single dose anticoagulant has been found to be
more effective against other species (Dubock
and Kaukeinen 1978, Brooks et al. 1980, Mathur
and Prakash 1981b). The above observations
reveal that, of all the three forms of brodi-
facoum, pellets are the most effective since it
requires shortest feeding period for 100 per-
cent mortality followed by brodifacoum wax
cake; the liquid brodifacoum shows the least
toxicity. Similar findings have been reported
by Saxena and Sharma (1981) against Indian
desert Gerbil, Mathur and Prakash (1981a)
against T. indica, M. hurrianae and R. rattus.

Initial poisoning symptoms involved sluggish-
ness and drowsiness followed by partial and
then complete paralysis of forelimbs and hind
limbs. Pulmonary distress along with nasal,
anal and internal bleeding was also observed.
Similar findings were reported by Srihari and

408

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

Toxicity of brodifacoum (liquid, cakes and pellets) against Mer tones hurrianae and Rattus rattus

Species

Forms of
poison
bait

Cone.

(%>

Time of
feeding
exposure
(hrs)

Poison bait
intake
g/100 gm/
ml/ 100 gm

Active

ingredient

intake

(mg/kg)

Morta-

lity

(%)

Days to
death
(mean)

Meriones

hurrianae

Liquid

Brodifacoum

.005

24

5.38

2.64

84.33

7.6

Brodifacoum

cakes

.005

24

5.80

4.27

100

8.6

Brodifacoum

pellets

.005

24

3.84

3.84

100

3.8

Rattus

rattus

Liquid

Brodifacoum

.005

24

2.19

2.16

92

7.1

Brodifacoum

cakes

.005

24

6.85

4.45

100

7.5

Brodifacoum

pellets

.005

24

6.19

1.87

100

5.3

Sridhara (1977) against B. bengalensis, Arora
and Doharey (1979) against F. pennanti with
vacor poisoning. Srivastava et al. (1980) re-
ported sluggishness and drowsiness and fre-

Toxicology Lab. II,

Dept, of Zoology,

University of Rajasthan,

Jaipur (India).

September 25, 1987.

Refe

Arora, K. K. & Doharey, R. B. (1979) : Labo-
ratory evaluation of vacor (RH-787), a new selec-
tive rodenticide against squirrel, Funambulus pen-
nanti. Rodent Newsletter, ICAR, 5(2): 9.

Brooks, J. E., Htun, P. T. & Naing, H. (1980) :
The susceptibility of Bandicota bengalensis from
Rangoon, Burma to several anticoagulant rodenti-
cides. /. Hyg. Camb. 84: 127-135.

Chatterjee, C. C. (1980): Human physiology,
Vol. II. Medical Allied Agency, Calcutta.

quent defaecation with silmurin bait. Chatterjee
(1980) reported that drowsiness is due to
splanchnic vasodilation, fall in blood pressure
and cerebral ischemia.

Y. SAXENA
VINITA SHARMA
DEEPAK KUMAR

ences

Dubock, A. C. & Kaukeinen, D. E. (1978):
Brodifacoum (Talon Tm rodenticide) a novel con-
cept. Paper presented at 8th Vertebrate Pest Confe-
rence, Sacramento, California, U.S.A. March, 1978.
pp. 127-137.

Jain, A. P. (1980) : Efficacy of super caid (Broma-
diolcne) against five rodent pests. Rodent Newsletter
ICAR, 4(3): 18.

Mathur, R. P. & Prakasii, I. (1981a): Evalua-
tion of Brodifacoum (WBA 8119) against Tatera
indica, Meriones hurrianae and Rattus rattus : J. Hyg.
Comb. 87(2): 179-184.

409

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Mathur, R. P. & Prakash, I. (1981b): Compa-
rative efficacy of three anticoagulant rodenticides
against Indian desert rodents. Protection Ecology 3:
327-331.

Saxena, Y. & Sharma, R. K. (1981) : Laboratory
evaluation of brodifacoum bait against Indian desert
gerbil Meriones hurrianae Jerdon. Pestology 5 : 22-
23.

Soni, B. K. (1981): Efficacy of WBA 8119

(Brodifacoum) to Indian rodents. Rodent Newsletter
ICAR 5: 28-29.

Srihari, K. & Sridhara, S. (1977) : Toxicity of
a new rodenticide vacor to lesser Bandicota ben-
galensis. Curr. Sci., 46 { 13): 453-454.

Srivastava, A. S., Mathur, Y. K., Upadhyay, K.
D., Bhadauria, A. S. & Srivastava, J. P. (1980):
Evaluation of Silmurin (Scilliroside) against field
and domestic rats. Rodent Newsletter ICAR 4(3) :

2. INTERACTION BETWEEN SAMBAR ( CERVUS UNICOLOR)
AND INDIAN WILD DOG ( CUON ALPINUS) IN
SARISKA NATIONAL PARK

In April 1986, I had seen a wild dog in
Sariska and had reported my observations in
the journal ( JBNHS 83, p. 654). On my sub-
sequent visit to the park last month, Shri
Pratap Singh, Forest Guard informed me that
the three reported wild dogs had separated;
two were being sighted near Pandu Pol while
one was seen often between the main gate and
Kalighati on the main road of the Park.

On 10th January at 10.00 a.m., I was driv-
ing back to the main gate when I saw a herd
of six female sambar and three young ones,
each of which appeared to be about a year
old, on a water hole by the roadside some
five kilometres from Kalighati. While two
females drank water, the rest looked alertly
at a female wild dog about twenty yards away.
The latter was running and jumping from point
to point in an arc of the same radius wagging
its tail as if she was trying to play with the

former. The sambar on their part did not

stamp their feet, did not give an alarm call

and did not seem unduly disturbed.

This interaction continued for about a

minute. Our jeep was soon followed by two
cars which disturbed the herd of sambar and
they bolted into the jungle. The wild dog sat
down by the roadside looking at the cars. It

continued sitting for a while after which it
crossed the road in front of our vehicles to go
over to the other side. It settled down again
into the grass, this time with a couple of
cheetal looking towards it. We waited for a
while but nothing happened and we drove on.
I expressed my surprise at this unusual beha-
viour to Shri Pratap Singh who informed me
that he had observed similar behaviour a few
days earlier at the same spot.

This was in sharp contrast to the “normal”
behaviour of cheetal and sambar which gave
alarm calls and bolted promptly at the arrival
of a single wild dog at Kalighati water hole in
April, 1986. It may be noted that at that time
the three wild dogs were being seen together.
The only explanation seems to be that the
sambar did not see an individual wild dog as
danger any more, while the latter would attempt
to attack straying fawns rather than try to
pick out an animal from a herd as wild dogs
would do while hunting in a pack, thus result-
ing in this unusual behaviour.

As stated earlier, only three wild dogs have
been reported in Sariska and these too have
separated. How efficiently they hunt is not
known. On enquiry I was told that wild dogs’
kills were reported infrequently and usually

410

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

they were of cheetal fawn. It is significant that of wild dogs has not increased according to the
though two years have elapsed, the population reports available.

No. 1, Mansingh Road, DIVYABHANUSINH

New Delhi - 110 Oil,

March 3, 1988.

3. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON ANTLER CYCLE OF CAPTIVE
CHITAL ( CERVUS AXIS)

Introduction

The Chital or Spotted deer ( Cervus axis)
is the most common among eight species of
Indian deer. It is well known that the Chital
casts off antlers periodically. But limited in-
formation is available on the different aspects
of antler cycle in this species. This communi-
cation is an attempt to present additional in-
formation on different aspects of antler cycle
of Chital observed in captivity.

Methods

The data on different aspects of antler cycle
of Chital based on the day-to-day observa-
tions recorded at the Nandankanan Biological
Park, Orissa for a continuous period of 12
years and 6 months (1 October, 1970 to 31
March, 1983) were obtained and studied.

The park is within the biogeographical zone
of the species under study. Specimens used for
this study include those collected from diffe-
rent parts of Orissa and those bom and brought
up in the park. The number of Chital stags
under observation varied from two to 16.

Results and Discussion

Period of antler casting : During the obser-
vation period, 89 antler castings (spike as well
as branched) were recorded on a captive
population of Chital stags which varied from

3-11 individuals (Table 1), Antler casting
occurred during a nine-month period from
August to April. All the stags regularly cast
their antlers annually and never retained them
to the next year. Majority of castings (70 of
89 castings, 79%) occurred during a three-
month period from November to January. Ten
castings (11%) occurred during a three-month

Table 1

Monthly distribution of casting of antlers and

RUBBING OFF VELVET BY CAPTIVE CHITAL STAGS

Month

Stags casting
antlers*

Stags rubbing off
velvet**

January

26

2

Febrauary

4

3

March

5

8

April

1

23

May

Nil

31

June

Nil

1?

July

Nil

3

August

1

1

September

2

Nil

October

6

Nil

November

20

Nil

December

24

Nil

Total

89

83

*3-11 stags/year **2-16 stags/year

411

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

period from February to April and nine cast-
ings (10%) were observed during a three-
month period from August to October.

Chital stags in velvet and in hard horn may
be seen throughout the year (Krishnan 1975).
The time of casting of antlers in this species
varies in different localities; in Madhya Pra-
desh and South India, it is usually in August
and September. The new antlers are in velvet
till the end of December but stags carrying
horns in various stages of development have
been seen at all seasons (Prater 1971). Antlers
were dropped without regard to season at the
New York Zoological Park, so antlers in
various stages of development could be seen
at any time (Crandall 1965). According to
Schaller (1976) most of the stags of Kanha
National Park cast their antlers between August
and October, though only four stags lost their
antlers between mid-February and mid- June
and a few in July. He further stated that in the
Calcutta Zoological Garden antlers were cast
between September and February which mostly
agree with the present findings. Asdell (1964)
stated that the antlers are cast at any time in
Sri Lanka but in southern Sri Lanka 75% arc
cast in April and May. At Bandipur National
Park, majority of the antlers are cast during
the months of September to November
(Sharatchandra and Gadgil 1975). The climate,
the biogeography and captive management con-
ditions of this park might be responsible for
the difference in the season of antler casting in
this species from other areas.

Period of velvet rubbing : As usual with the
stags of many species of deer, the Chital stags
also rub off the velvet from the antlers each
year after completion of their growth. During
the study period, 83 observations were made
on a captive population of 2-16 Chital stags
(Table 1). Rubbing off the velvet occurred
during an eight -month period from January
to August. The majority of stags (74 of 83

clearings, 89%) cleared their velvet during
March- June whereas five clearings (6%) were
observed during January-February and four
clearings (5%) occurred during July- August.

The velvet of antlers are lost at any time
in Sri Lanka (Asdell 1964). April to August
are the months of loss of velvet at Bandipur
National Park (Sharatchandra and Gadgil
1975).

Duration of antler casting : In the 89 cases
studied, casting of antlers of both sides was
completed in one day in 57 instances (64%),
within two consecutive days in 22 instances
(25%), within three days in nine instances
(10%) and within five days in only one in-
stance (1%). These data indicate that majo-
rity of hard antlers (89%) are cast within 1-2
days.

Both the antlers are usually cast on the same
day or on consecutive days but only occa-
sionally the second antler is not cast until two
or three days after the first one (Schaller 1967).
Antlers of both sides are cast in one or two
consecutive days (Acharjyo 1971).

Span of antler growth : The period required
from the time of casting of hard antlers to
the time when the stags start rubbing off the
velvet is taken as the span of antler growth.
This span, observed in nine cases, varied
approximately from to months (3^
months on four occasions, four months on two
occasions, 4J months on one occasion, five
months on one occasion and months on one
occasion).

The time required for antlers to grow from
the day of casting the old set until most of
the velvet has been rubbed off the new one,
observed in 11 stags in the Calcutta Zoologi-
cal Garden varied from 22/3 to 6Vs months
mostly depending on the length of antlers
(Schaller 1967).

Interval between antler castings : The inter-
casting period observed in eight instances

412

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

among four stags varied from 322-382 days.

The antlers are dropped at intervals of
approximately ten to twelve months (Schaller
1967).

Age at first antler casting’. Three male
Chital bom in the park on 17 December,
1971, 24 January, 1975 and 11 December, 1980
cast their spike antlers for the first time on
29-30 November, 1973, 24 December, 1976
and 4-6 January, 1983 respectively. These
observations suggested that spike antlers were
cast at an age of approximately one year, 1 1
months (two specimens) and 2 years, one
month (one specimen). The knob-like pedicels
became visible at an age of approximately 10^
months (one specimen) and 11 months (two
specimens). As expected, the coronet or burr
was absent in spike antlers.

At the age of 11 to 12 months, the first set
of antlers is visible as two prominent skin-
covered bumps or knobs, and at about two
years the spike antlers are cast (Schaller and
De 1964).

Nandankanan Biological Park
P. O. Rarang, Dist: Cuttack,

Orissa - 754 005.

Director,

Nandankanan Biological Park
251-Sahidnagar,

Bhubaneshwar-751 007 (Orissa),

April 23, 1988.

Refer

Acharjyo, L. N. (1971): Notes on Time of
Shedding of Antlers of Deer in captivity. Indian
Forester, 97: 150-151.

Asdell, S. A. (1964) : Patterns of Mammalian
Reproduction. Second Edition, Cornell University
Press, Ithaca, New York.

Crandall, L. S. (1965) : The Management of
Wild Mammals in captivity. The University of

Size and weight of cast antlers : Eleven
cast spike antlers of yearlings varied from 4.0
to 12.5 cm in length (mean x 8.18 cm) and
6.850 to 31.600 gm in weight (mean x 2.468
gm). Sixteen of the largest 3-pointed cast
antlers measured 68.0 to 82.0 cm in length
(mean x 77.3 cm) and twelve of the largest
3-pointed cast antlers weighed 574 to 840 gm

(mean x 716.5 gm).

The antlers of yearlings consist of an un-
branched spike usually less than seven inches
(17.5 cm) long (Schaller and De 1964). The
spike horns of Chital measure less than 25 cm
in length (Sharatchandra and Gadgil 1975).
An 85 cm antler would be good anywhere and
80 cm in south India, although the greatest
record is 101 cm (Prater 1971). The longest
antler recorded at Calcutta Zoological Garden
by Schaller (1967) was 34 inches (85 cm).
According to Krishnan (1975) size and forma-
tion of antlers differ with locality and are pro-
bably dependent mainly on heredity and strain.

L. N. ACHARJYO

S. K. PATNAIK

N CE S

Chicago Press, Chicago and London.

Krishnan, M. (1975): India's Wildlife in 1959-
70. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Prater, S. H. (1971) : The Book of Indian Ani-
mals. 3rd (Revised) Ed. Bombay Natural History
Society, Bombay.

Schaller, G. B. & De, R. C. (1964) : The Shed-
ding of Antlers by Cheetal Deer. Cheetah 7: 15-17.

413

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Schaller, G. B. (1967): The Deer and the Tiger. Sharatchandra, H. C. & Gadgil, M. (1975): A
The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and Lon- Year of Bandipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72:
don. 625-647.

4. FEEDING PATTERN OF AN EGRET

Driving through a drizzle on 2nd June morn-
ing to Kihim, Alibag (Maharashtra), along
National Highway 17, I saw a freshwater
stream with abruptly straight, precipitous sides.
On the banks of the stream was gathered a
flock of Egrets of various species. As I kept
wondering what could be the purpose of this
assemblage, I saw an egret hurriedly step
forward to the edge of the stream, and throw
itself down on the water. Floating on the sur-
face for a split second it picked up a beakful,
and laboriously got air-borne, and flew back
to the bank. There it went through the act of
swallowing its catch, and fluffed off the water
soaked in its feathers. From its completely
black beak, and yellow mottled feet, I made
out the bird to be a Little Egret Egretta
garzetta.

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, opp. Lion Gate,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023,

June 6, 1986.

One invariably sees egrets working down
sloping stream banks, and hunting in shallow
waters. Often they feed in irrigated paddy fields
in the dry season. However, I am not aware
of Egrets hurtling themselves onto water from
a height either from my personal birding ex-
perience, or from any reports published in
bird literature. The action of the egret was
reminiscent of “bellyflopping” by the Pond
Heron described by G.B.F. Muir, in the So-
ciety’s Journal 24: 366-7, and referred to in
the handbook by Drs Salim Ali & S. Dillon
Ripley, Vol. 7: 63. Major I. R. Grimwood &
M.J.C. Brocklehurst in Society’s Journal 81(2):
696-7 record the Pond Heron stooping onto
water from the air in a clumsy, tern-like
manner.

J. S. SERRAO

5. THE VEDANTHANGAL WATER-BIRD SANCTUARY: A NEW
BREEDING GROUND FOR PELICANS AND

PAINTED

There are no published reports so far
regarding breeding of Grey Pelicans ( Peleca -
nus philippensis) and Painted Storks ( Mycteria
leucocephala) at Vedanthangal Water-Bird
Sanctuary (Chengleput District, Madras).
Krishnan (1960) and Spillett (1966) regarded
them as visiting birds and not as breeding

STORKS

birds. Nagulu and Ramana Rao (1983) consi-
dered that the Pelican was an occasional
visitor but not a breeding bird to the Vedan-
thangal Water-Bird Sanctuary, after their visit
in 1981. But pelicans were found breeding at
the sanctuary during 1983-84 season (Paulraj
1984). They built nests in tall Barringtonia

414

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

trees inside the sanctuary tank. But, during the
same season no Painted Storks were observed
there. During the 1984-85 season, as there was
not sufficient water in the Vedanthangal sanc-
tuary tank, the Grey Pelicans only visited and
went away without breeding. During the 1985-
86 season, they started arriving here from
10.12.85 onwards. Nest building activities were
noted from 28.1.86 onwards. At that time
there were about 50 Pelicans staying inside the
sanctuary tank. Hatchlings were first observed
on 24.3. 86. A total of twelve nests were found
in four large Barringtonia trees. Total count
made on 18.4.86 revealed that a maximum
population of 102 adult Pelicans stayed during
this season as against 65 Pelicans observed
during the 1983-84 season (Paulraj 1984).

During the 1985-86 season, the Painted
Storks started arriving at Vedanthangal sanc-
tuary from 6 . 1 . 86 onwards. Maximum popu-
lation (127 adults) was reached on 3.3.86.
They started building nests from 22.2.86 on-

Asst. Conservator of Forests,

Arignar Anna Zoological Park,

Madras - 600 048.

Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary,

Chengleput District,

Tamil Nadu,

July 26, 1986.

R E F E

Krishnan, M. (1960): The Vedanthangal Sanc-
tuary for Water-birds, Madras State Forest Depart-
ment. 25 pp.

Nagulu, V. & Ramana Rao, J. V. (1983) : Survey
of South Indian Pelicanries. /. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 80( 1): 141-143.

wards, when their population was about 55.
Hatchlings were first observed on 8.4.86. A
total of 22 nests of Painted Storks was notic-
ed both on the Barringtonia and Babul trees.

The Grey Pelicans selected only big Bar-
ringtonia trees for nest building and roosting,
although sufficiently large Acacia nilotica
(Babul) trees were also available there. Pre-
vious literature and observations reveal that
the pelicans were regular visiting birds of the
Vedanthangal bird sanctuary, but they started
breeding here only recently, from 1984 on-
wards, whereas the Painted Storks may not be
a regular visiting bird, as they were not seen
during the 1984 season. Their breeding during
the 1985-86 season at Vedanthangal is the first
record for this place. Further, it may be ex-
pected that the Grey Pelican may breed here
regularly during every season if the Vedan-
thangal sanctuary tank gets filled up and holds
water for a duration of at least four months.

S. PAULRAJ

G. GUNASEKARAN

ENCES

Paulraj, S. (1984): Studies on Vedanthangal Bird
Sanctuary, Project report, Final. Part I. Tamil Nadu
Forest Department, Madras.

Spillett, J. J. (1966): A report on Wildlife sur-
vey in South and West India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. <55(3): 633-663.

415

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

6. EASTERN GREYLAG GEESE ANSER ANSER RUBRIROSTRIS

SWINHOE IN GUJARAT

I visited Nav Talao, a large but shallow
lake nowhere deeper than 3 to 4 ft, on 4
February, 1986. It is situated at Zainabad,
Surendranagar district in Gujarat State. On
the edges of the lake, there is a thick covering
of Prosopis juliflora, and there are small
islands here and there in the lake where grass
grows. I was happy to see more than 200 Rosy
Pelicans about the islands, an indication that
there was a scarcity of water in the surround-
ing country.

As I moved my binoculars from the pelicans
to the shallow portions of the lake, I saw
some huge duck-like birds, which I could not
recognize. When I went nearer, I could see the
dark heads and light coloured beaks of these

1, Kinner Apts.,

Opp. Vijaya Park,

Commerce College, Navrangpura,
Ahmedabad 380 005,

April 8. 1986.

birds, and thought that they were geese. A
reference to the handbook of the birds of
INDIA AND PAKISTAN, by Salim Ali & S. Dillon
Ripley, led me to the conjecture that they were
Eastern Greylags.

As good luck would have it. Dr John
Constable, Director of the World Wildlife
Fund, U.S.A. came to camp that day. I told
him about my meeting with these geese, and
he offered to visit the lake and confirm their
identity.

Reaching the lake we set up the view-scope,
and my determination of the birds as Eastern
Greylag was confirmed by Dr Constable. There
were in all 19 of these geese.

DHANRAJ MALIK

7. BARHEADED AND GREYLAG GEESE IN GUJARAT

Barheaded and Greylag Geese are compa-
ratively rare in Gujarat. Five birdwatcher
friends including myself visited Muli Dam
(Dist. Surendranagar) on 14-1-84. We saw 22
Barheaded Geese there on the other side of
the lake which had dried up considerably. A
majority of these birds were resting and others
were moving on the grass-covered undulating
wetland. We had a good look at them through
a telescope.

On 23-11-84 Rajshri K. Saraghai and 1 ac-
companied Dr. Salim Ali for birdwatching at

Nal Sarovar (Dist. Ahmedabad). Rajshri and
Dr. Salim Ali were in one boat while I, with a
friend was in another. My attention was attract-
ed by a small group of unfamiliar birds rest-
ing on a tiny islet. I focussed my binoculars
on them and immediately recognized them as
Greylag Geese. There were 18 to 20 of them.
I at once drew the attention of Rajshri towards
those birds. At our boats went nearer, they
flew away, but prior to that we had a good
look at them. Dr. Salim Ali also saw them
and confirmed the identification.

416

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Thereafter Rajshri Sarabhai and I saw 64 Geese when I was watching birds on Gobhlaj
Greylag Geese again at Thol Lake (Dist. Lake (Dist. Kheda) on 14-1-86 along with a
Mehsana) on 21-12-84. young birdwatcher from Ahmedabad.

Again I came across some 20 to 22 Greylag

c/o. World Wildlife Fund-India, LALSINH M. RAOL

‘Sundarvan',

Jodhpur Tekra,

Ahmedabad - 380 015,

July 26, 1986.

8. EGG MOVING BY A SPOTBILL DUCK
(ANAS POEC1LORHYNCHA)

On 11 May, 1984, I discovered a nest of a
Spotbill duck with a clutch of 11 eggs in one
of the Acacia planted mounds of Keoladeo
National Park, Bharatpur. The nest was a
bowl-shaped depression on top of the grassy
mound, partially concealed by grass fibres at
the opening. The depression was lined with
soft, dark grey down feathers, presumably that
of the parent. The area around the nest site
was dry as the waters had almost dried up
save for tiny pools here and there.

I kept track of the development of this nest
by visiting it at least once in four days. On 1
June, 1984, I was taken aback to discover that
eight of the eggs had been shifted to a point
at the foot of the mound, about a metre from
the original site. The new nest site was also a
neat grassy depression, and as earlier, the nest
was lined with some soft feathers. On 6 June,
I flushed the incubating parent from the new
nest as I was approaching the mound. The
whole clutch of 10 eggs had been shifted to
the new nest site, rendering the old nest empty
(earlier one egg had disappeared). The parents,
for some unknown reason deserted the nest
after 6 June and hatching success was nil.
Research Biologist,

BNHS Ecological Research Centre,
Bharatpur - 321 001 (Rajasthan),

June 18, 1986.

It is of interest to note that the bird had
shifted the entire clutch, the reason for which
is not clear. Oring (1964) reports similar
strange and unaccountable incidences of egg
moving by three incubating ducks, (two Pin-
tails Anas acuta and one mallard A. platy-
rhynchos ). On all the occasions he had sub-
jected the nests to considerable disturbance by
placing nest traps over them, but he has not
been able to arrive at a definite conclusion
that the disturbance instigated them to shift
the eggs, as, earlier, eggs in numerous nests
similarly placed with traps were left intact.
Thus, it is unlikely that the minor disturbance
created by my visits to the spotbill nest were
responsible for the egg moving.

One explanation seems logical. The marshes
were rapidly drying up and the original nest
site on top of the mound was completely dry
with just a few coarse tufts of dry brown grass.
The new nest-site at the base of the mound,
however, had some amount of moisture left in
the form of wet green grass. It is possible that
the eggs were moved to the lower site because
the area afforded moist and better conditions
both for the eggs and the parent.

U. SRIDHARAN

417

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Reference

Oring, L. W. (1964): Egg moving by incubating ducks. Auk 81: 88-89.

9. GREATER SPOTTED EAGLE ( AQUILA CLANGA) BREEDING
IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR

A greater spotted eagle ( Aquila clanga) nest
was located on 15th April at the Keoladeo
National Park. The nest was situated at a
height of c. 14 metres on a Kadam ( Mitragyna
parvifolia) tree standing on the northern end
of a big Kadam grove in the Keoladhar grass-
land.

Built on a thin branch about two metres
from the main bole of the tree, it was quite
difficult to examine. It was constructed mainly
with Babool ( Acacia nilotica) and Kadam
( Mitragyna parvifolia) twigs, and the central
depression was lined with green Acacia leuco-
phloea leaves.

The eagles were easily identified as they were
dark overall and had little white on the rump.
In flight the contrast of dark brown underwing
coverts and lighter flight feathers was quite
conspicuous.

Research Biologist,

BNHS Ecological Research Station,

331 Rajendra Nagar,

Bharatpur,

August 29, 1986.

Refer

Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. Dillon (1983): Hand-
book of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact
Edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

One oval, white finely speckled with reddish
brown egg was laid on 22nd April.

Although Ali and Ripley (1983) mention
it as “Resident and breeding in West Pakistan
(Baluchistan, Sind and Punjab) and N. India
(Gangetic plain), Nepal (lowland) east through
Bihar, W. Bengal and Assam”. I have not
come across any recent record of this species
of eagle breeding anywhere in its breeding
range within the country.

Abdulali and Panday (1978) described the
greater spotted eagle ( Aquila clanga) as
“Winter migrant, does not breed here”. It is
a new breeding record for Keoladeo National
Park. Unfortunately the nesting was not a
success as the nest was destroyed in a heavy
storm on 26th May and was not rebuilt.

I am grateful to Dr. V. S. Vijayan for his
constant encouragement.

VIBHU PRAKASH

1NCES

Abdulali, Humayun & Panday, Jamshed D.
(1978): Checklist of the birds of Delhi, Agra and
Bharatpur, with notes on their status in the neigh-
bourhood.

418

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

10. AN INSTANCE OF ACTIVE PREDATION BY SCAVENGER
VULTURE ( NEOPHRON PERCNOPTERUS GING/NI ANUS) ON
CHECKERED KEELBACK WATERSNAKE ( XENOCHROPHIS
P1SCATOR) IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHATRATPUR,

RAJASTHAN

On 4th July while walking down the main
park road we saw a checkered keelback, about
70 cm long wriggling across the road. Suddenly
a Scavenger vulture pounced on it from one
of the trees lining the road, and started peck-
ing at its head. Holding the snake in its talons,
it pecked hard thrice at the head and sat on
the weakly struggling snake for the next five
minutes before carrying the snake in its beak
to its nest on a Kadam tree in the marsh about
100 metres from the road. It left the snake
in the nest and flew off and the young on
the nest immediately starting pecking at it.

Biologists,

BNHS Ecological Research Centre,

331, Rajendra Nagar,

Bharatpur, Rajasthan,

August 29, 1986.

Scavenger vultures are known to kill turtles
when they are caught outside water. Recently
Drs. V. S. Vijayan and Lalitha reported see-
ing a Scavenger Vulture feeding on the highly
decomposed maggot-ridden body of a nestling
of a whitebacked vulture on its nest.

Snakes have not been recorded so far as a
food item of scavenger vultures (Ali and
Ripley 1983).

We are indebted to Dr. V. S. Vijayan, Pro-
ject Scientist for help and guidance.

VIBHU PRAKASH
C. NANJAPPA

Reference

Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact edition.
Oxford University Press, Delhi.

11. A PIED HARRIER CIRCUS MELANOEEUCOS IN NORTHWEST

MADHYA PRADESH

The Pied Harrier Circus melanoleucos
(Pennant) is a winter visitor chiefly to the
eastern parts of the Indian subcontinent, from
Bihar and Orissa east through Bangladesh to
Burma (Ripley 1982, Ali and Ripley 1983).
According to Ali and Ripley (1969) the species
is not recorded north of Bombay in Western

India, nor west of Nepal terai and Gorakhpur
district in Uttar Pradesh, though putatively
seen at Lahore (Pakistan). A male Pied
Harrier was seen on three separate occasions
in the winter of 1982-83 in the Karera Bustard
Sanctuary (25° 31'-25° 40' N; 78° 5'-78° 12' E),
Shivpuri district in northwest Madhya Pradesh.

419

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

It is presumed that the male Pied Harrier The species was not seen again in the subse-
stayed in the sanctuary throughout the winter, quent three years of my stay in the sanctuary.

Bombay Natural History Society, ASAD R. RAHMANI

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023,

May 24, 1986.

R EFERENCES

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1969) : Handbook of
the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1983) : A Pictorial Guide
to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay.

Ripley, S. D. (1982) : A Synopsis of the Birds
of India and Pakistan. 2nd Edition. Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay.

12. DISTRIBUTION OF THE SLENDERBILLED GULL ( LARUS
GENE1 BREME) IN THE GULF OF KACHCHH, GUJARAT

There exists no record of the Slenderbilled
Gull Larus genei Breme from Gujarat, except
for a single specimen of this bird collected in
Bhavnagar by Dharmakumarsinhji (1955), who
considered the bird to be rare on the Saurashtra
coast. Ali (1945) does not include it in his
list of Kachchh birds. However, south of
Gujarat, Navarro (1968) had seen and collect-
ed the birds from Bombay (Maharashtra).
Sinclair (1976) had also seen the bird in
Bombay.

We have seen the bird on a number of
occasions in Jamnagar city, and on salt pans
and tidal creeks at various places (numbered
1 to 12) around the Gulf of Kachchh.
The gull occurred in a variety of situations
ranging from freshwater lakes, salt pans, tidal
creeks, sea coast and coastal waters (Table 1).

The bird was feeding in a flock at the Salt
and Allied Industries (S.A.I.L.), Khijidia
(Jamnagar district), where an entire group of
about 50 birds swam forward together in a

saltwater reservoir, with the birds in the rear
constantly flying to join the main body in the
front or on the sides. The resultant feeding
commotion caused a few Indian Reef Herons,
Egretta gularis, to fly and join the gulls in the
hope of catching some of the fish for them-
selves.

The call of the bird was heard only once,
at the Hadakiya creek (Surajbari). There, a
group of 200 birds was resting on a tidal
mudbank along with some Herring Gulls
(Larus argent at us), Caspian Terns ( Sterna
caspia) and Gullbilled Terns ( Gelochelidon
nilotica). Some of the gulls flew over to a
nearby ditch of water, first to bathe in and
then stand and preen on the water’s edge. The
Slenderbilled Gulls were in full breeding plum-
age, the pink on the breast contrasting well
with the white head. They appeared to be
thinner than the Herring Gull and stood more
erect. They called by stretching their heads
outward and upward. The call “caw-caw-caw-

420

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

A SUMMARY OF

THE SIGHT RECORDS OF

Slenderbilled

Gull during

1979-1986

Sr.

Location

Habitat type

No. of birds

Date

Observer1

No.

seen

1

Okha

Sea coast

1

26.iii.86

T.M.

2

Between Salaya
and Ajad Island

Coastal waters

1

14.iii.86

T.M.

3

Pirotan Island

Coastal waters

2

25.iv.86

T.M.

4

Jamnagar

Salt pans

1

22.iii.86

T.M.

5

Jamnagar

Lakhota lake

20-25

23.V.79

L.R.

(freshwater)

Few

01.vi.79

L.R.

Few

31 . i . 82

L.R.

Few

30.xii.82

L.R.

6

S.A.I.L. Khijidia

Salt pans

50

27.xii.84

T.M.

7

Balamba

Salt pans

1

27.xii.85

T.M.

8

Surajbari

Creek

130

19.iii.86

T.M.

200

20.iii.86

T.M.

9

Mundra

Salt pans

3

22.iii.86

T.M.

10

Navinar Light House,
Mundra

7

17.iv.86

T.M.

11

Mandvi

Creek

2

27.iv.86

S.V.

12

Narayan Sarovar

Creek

29

16.vi.86

T.M.

1 T.M. = Taej Mundkur, L.R. = Lalsinh Raol, S.V. = Shantilal Yam.

caw ” repeated 4 to 9 times at a stretch,

was similar to that of the other gulls. Many
of the birds in this flock spent a great deal
of time vocalizing, though the calls did not
seem to be directed to any specific bird.
Gooders (1979) recorded a laughing “kau-kau”
call and another, softer and more plaintive
than the Blackheaded Gull Larus ridibundus,
for the Slenderbilled Gull.

It now appears that the Slenderbilled Gull
is a common visitor to our coast. The bird
was probably overlooked earlier because of its
similarity with the Blackheaded Gull in
winter plumage (Ali and Ripley 1983). It is
also possible that the bird has now increased
in number and hence become more obvious

whereas it was rare and therefore not recorded
when this area was surveyed by C. D. Lester,
Geoffrey Archer, Salim Ali and others (Ali
1945).

The bird is known to breed in neighbouring
Pakistan during May and June (Ali & Ripley
1983). Some of the birds that we saw in
March-May, might have been in the process
of congregating prior to migration to their
nesting area. However, presence of the bird
throughout summer (March to June) in the
Gulf of Kachchh would indicate that the bird
may also be nesting within our limits, or that
the non-breeding individuals, though in their
breeding plumage, tend to stay over within
our limits. Exploration of some of the inland

421

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

lakes, such as Chhari Dhandh which is appa-
rently suited for the gull’s nesting, during the
breeding season is desirable for checking a
possible nesting of the bird in India. The
marshy areas from Lakhpat to Koteshwar and
westwards about the Great Rann of Kachchh
might similarly prove productive.

Department of Biosciences,

Saurashtra University,

Rajkot - 360 005,

Gujarat.

Ramkrishna Society,

P. O. Jivraj Park,

Ahmedabad-380 051,

Gujarat.

JU NAVAS, P.O. MADHAPUR,

Ta. Bhuj, Kachchh-370 020,

Gujarat,

July 9, 1986.

Refer

Ali, Salim (1945) : The Birds of Kutch. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.

Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. Dillon (1983) : Hand-
book of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact
Edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

Dharmakumarsinhji, K. S. (1955) : Birds of
Saurashtra. Times of India, Bombay.

Ack nowledge men ts

We are very grateful to Prof. R. M. Naik,
Department of Bioscience, Saurashtra Uni-
versity, Rajkot, for his guidance and help.
We thank Mr. Himmatsinhji for his opinions
on an earlier draft. One of us (T.M.) is
thankful to the University Grants Commission
for an award of Junior Research Fellowship.

TAEJ MUNDKUR

LALSINH M. RAOL

SHANT1LAL N. VARU

E N CE S

Gooders, John (1979) : Birds of Marsh and Shore.
Orbis Publishing Ltd., London.

Navarro, A. (1968) : Southward extension of the
range of the Slenderbilled Gull ( Larus genei Breme).
/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65: 218.

Sinclair, J. C. (1976): Sight records of unusual
birds from Colaba Point, Bombay, Maharashtra. /.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 530-531.

13. AN UNUSUAL FEEDING BEHAVIOUR IN COMMON TERN
(STERNA HIRUNDO )

In the early morning of 26 March 1986,
my Field Assistant and I were cycling down
one of the bunds of Mettur Chemicals and
Industries Corporation Ltd. at Point Calimere
for our regular marine sample collection.

Nearing Reservoir -I, I saw a Common Tern

(Sterna hirundo) catching a fish from a puddle,
which was present on the right side of the
bund, by diving from a height into the water.
I stopped pedalling and started watching the
bird with my binoculars (8x30). The bird
went up with the fish to a height of c. 35 metres

422

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

and ilew towards the west. The bird was
carrying the fish of about 5 cm length by hold-
ing it by the middle portion of the body in its
bill. The fish slipped but was immediately
caught by the bird before it fell a foot. After
flying 10 or 15 metres, once again the fish

Junior Field Biologist,

Avifauna Project (BNHS),

Kodikkarai-614 807,

Tamil Nadu,

May 29, 1986.

slipped from its bill and the bird caught it
again. This process was repeated six times
within a distance of c. 100 metres (flying
parallel to the ground) and finally the fish was
swallowed. This seems to be an unusual be-
haviour among Terns.

M. AYYADURAI

14. A NOTE ON POSSIBLE MIGRATION ROUTE OF
SHORT-EARED OWL ( ASIO FLAMMEUS) OVER SEA

On 27 October, 1985 we were birdwatching
at Colaba point which is the southernmost tip
of Bombay. There is a large patch of man-
grove trees, albeit stunted, which gets almost
fully covered during high tide. There is also
a path which leads to the lighthouse about
three-quarters of a mile out from the shore.

Around 8-30 a.m. we noticed a brownish
bird of prey out in the sea on the west side
amidst a flock of house crows. It was trying
to come towards the land but was constantly
being harassed by the crows. As it came nearer
we identified it as a short-eared owl (Asio
flammeus) . Its crescent-shaped blackish mark-
ing on the underwing was very prominent. The
bird did succeed in landing on the rocks below
for a brief respite before the house crows
harried it again. It was constantly being swoop-
ed upon by the house crows and rarely got an
opportunity to rest its wings while gliding.

It evoked no response from the grey herons
and herring gulls but a lone adult brown-
headed gull was seen to dive-bomb it for

some time. The owl kept in our view for about
20 minutes before it disappeared towards the
golf-course nearby. The morning was clear and
sunny, temperature of the day being 35 °C.
maximum, 25°C minimum.

Short-eared owls are winter visitors spread-
ing over almost the entire Indian peninsula and
are not uncommon in some parts of Bombay.
Almost exactly 50 years ago Charles McCann
( J BN FIS 38; 1935) while coming by ship to
Bombay from Kutch noticed three short-eared
owls coming from the west. One of the owls
rested on the ship and flew off towards land
as soon as the latter was sighted.

It is quite possible that this migratory owl
flies over Sind and the Arabian sea to winter
in the western parts of our sub-continent. For
birds coming to the west coast of India perhaps
a direct route over the Arabian sea is preferred.
We wish to draw the readers’ attention to this
point and invite information sightings of a
similar nature.

423

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 85

3, Rocky Hill, Malabar Hill, NITIN JAMDAR

Bombay - 400 006.

131, Mehr-Dad, KIRAN SHRIVASTAVA

Cuffe Parade, Bombay-400005,

January 21, 1985.

Reference

McCann, C. (1935): The Short-eared Owl [Asio flammeus (Pontopp.)] out at sea. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 38: 623.

15. OCCURRENCE OF BOURDILLON’S GREAT EARED NIGHTJAR
( EUROSTOPODUS MACROTIS BOURD1LLONI) AT
NERI Y AM ANG AL AM, KERALA

Eurostopodus macrotis bourdilloni is a large
nightjar so far recorded only from the southern
evergreen and moist biotope of the Western
Ghats.

While we were ringing birds at Thattakadu
Bird Sanctuary in Kerala in June 1985 we
saw a Nightjar in a clearing for high tension
lines at a place called Neriyamangalam. The
bird had its left wing broken and was unable
to fly. We took it back to our camp where it
was identified as Bourdillon’s Great Eared
Nightjar ( Eurostopodus macrotis bourdilloni).
Later the bird died and the skin was sent to
the BNHS collection where our identification
was confirmed. Measurement etc. of specimen
from p. 2, arranged as in handbook. One of
us (RS) recorded this species from Sholayar
during his Frogmouth survey in the Western
Ghats. Later in 1983 when we were camping
at Parambikulam, we heard this species on a
moonlit night calling continuously from the

Avifauna Project,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Point Calimere, Kodikkarai 614 807,

Tamil Nadu,

August 30, 1986.

grass covered top of a hill near the Parambi-
kulam rest house. Later at Ponmudi in 1985
the same call was heard near the KTDC hotel
complex. According to published records no
specimens have been obtained since 1930 and
there is no recent authentic record of the
occurrence of this species. The specimen col-
lected from Neriyamangalam and also those
records from other areas suggest that the
species may range up to Palghat Gap in the
north in Kerala.

Details of the bird collected are as follows:
Wing: 292 mm; Bill from skull: 22 mm, Bill
from feathers: 7 mm; Tarsus: 22 mm; Tail:
177 mm.

Date of collection: 5/6/1985. Place of col-
lection: Neriyamangalam. Altitude: 750 m.

Colour of bare parts of live bird: Iris: Light
brown; Bill: Fleshy Brown; Both mandibles:
Pale homy black; Legs: Pale fleshy (bright);
Claws: Horny brown.

R. SUGATHAN
V. NATARAJAN

424

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

16. FISH FRY PREDATION BY WFIITEBREASTED AND PIED
KINGFISHERS AT A NURSERY POND

Whitebreasted kingfisher ( Halcyon smyrn -
ensis) and kingfisher ( Ceryle rudis) are among
the common waterbirds of Punjab frequenting
inland waterbodies. These birds have been
reported to consume not only fish fry and
crustaceans of commercial value but also frogs,
toads and tadpoles, and are therefore consi-
dered harmful at fish nurseries (Mason and
Lefroy 1912, Ali and Ripley 1970, Mukherjee
1975). However, no information on the ex-
tent of predation by these kingfishers on fish
fry is available. The observations on this aspect
were recorded at a nursery pond (12 x 18 m)
of a private fish farm at village Purain c. 30 km
west of Ludhiana (30° 56' N. 75°52E and
c. 247 m above mean sea level), Punjab, India.

The eggs of common carp Cyprinus carpio
collected from a stocking pond were periodi-
cally added to the nursery pond during March-
April, 1985 for culturing the species. However,
carnivorous Indian murrel ( Channa punctatus)
entered the nursery pond from an adjoining
unmanaged pond, bred there and consumed
common carp almost totally. On 30 June, when
the fish fry were sampled from the nursery
pond, common carp had been reduced to only
about 2% of the total catch and the rest of
the fish fry were all Indian murrel.

During May. a flock of kingfishers was ob-
served feeding on fish fry from the nursery
pond. It was comprised of two adult and two
fledgeling whitebreasted kingfishers and two
adult pied kingfishers. One adult whitebreasted
kingfisher was, however, shot by the owner of
the fish farm prior to the recording of obser-
vations. To estimate fish fry mortality due to
kingfishers, we observed the birds for nine
days (22 through 30 June). Every day, obser-
vations were made for one hour from 5.45
to 6.45 a.m. (which was the period of their

maximum feeding activity) and the total num-
ber of feeding attempts made by kingfishers
and number of successful attempts were re-
corded. The number of captured fish fry fed
to the fledgelings by whitebreasted kingfisher
was also recorded. The birds were observed
from a distance of c. 7 . 5 m without using any
hide since they seemed not to be shy of our
presence. The length of fish fry at the end of
observation period ranged between 11 and 46
mm and averaged 18. 66 ±10. 04 mm (mean±
s.d., N=53).

On an average, whitebreasted kingfisher made
56.43 feeding attempts per hour and 78.73%
of these attempts were successful (Table 1).
Since each time this kingfisher caught one fry,
the number of fry removed from the pond was
44.45 per hour. There was no significant dif-
ference in the number of fry fed to the
fledgelings and those eaten by the adult white-
breasted kingfisher (t=0.085, P>0.05). Hence,
half of the fry captured by the adult were fed
to the young and half eaten by itself. Pied
kingfisher made 10.81 feeding attempts per
hour, 66.51% of which were successful (Table
1). In one hour, this kingfisher captured and
devoured 7.19 fish fry.

The number of feeding attempts per hour
and the number of successful attempts (i.e.,
the number of fish fry captured) were signi-
ficantly higher in case of whitebreasted than
pied kingfisher (t=5. 784, P<0.001 for number
of feeding attempts, and t=5.8263, P<0.001
for number of successful attempts). White-
breasted kingfisher captured more than six
times the number of fry captured by pied king-
fisher. Since half of the captured fry were fed
by the whitebreasted kingfisher to its fledgel-
ings, it may be concluded that an adult of this
species consumed nearly three times the num-

425

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Table 1

Rate (no./hr) of kingfisher predation on fish fry

Date

Whitebreasted Kingfisher

Pied Kingfisher

Total

attempts

Successful

attempts

Fry fed
to young

Fry eaten
by adult

Total

attempts*

Successful

attempts*

22 June

81

62

23

39

28

20

23 June

80

62

28

34

12.5

7

24 June

Birds did

not feed because of strong wind

25 June

40

33

16

17

12

7

26 June

NB

NB

NB

NB

3.5

2.5

27 June

67

55

29

26

2

2

28 June

51

44

24

20

13

8.5

29 June

50

40

25

15

11.5

8

30 June

26

15

9

6

4

2.5

Mean

56.43

44.43

22.00

22.43

10.81

7.19

SD

20.57

17.06

7.12

11.41

8.30

5.82

*Mean of attempts by two adults.
NB = No bird was recorded.

ber of fry consumed by an adult pied kingfisher.
Therefore, whitebreasted kingfisher seems to
be relatively more injurious to fish fry.

The kingfishers used to start feeding at dawn
as soon as they were able to see the prey.
They continued feeding with full activity for
about an hour, hence we preferred to record
observations during this period. The feeding
activity progressively reduced in intensity as
the day advanced and birds did not feed at
all during the hot hours of midday. The peak
feeding activity during early morning seems to
be due to two reasons: (i) the birds having
spent the whole of the night without feeding
have to satisfy their hunger early in the morn-
ing, and (ii) maximum depletion of dissolved
oxygen occurs during this period which forces
the fish fry to come to the surface of water
and fall an easy prey to kingfishers. During
the period of observation, the fledgelings of
whitebreasted kingfisher never tried to hunt.

They only perched on a Eucalyptus tereticornis
tree on the bank of the pond. The fledgelings
had just left their nest-hole made in the earthen
bank of an adjoining rearing pond when we
started recording observations. Kingfishers did
not attempt hunting whenever the wind blew
at a high speed, as for example on 24 June
(Table 1). This might be because fish do not
come to the water surface since water currents
and speedy wind increase the dissolved oxygen
content of water. Moreover, kingfishers may
not be able to aim accurately at the prey
during strong wind.

We can make a very rough estimate of the
extent of fish fry mortality due to kingfisher
predation. Even if we assume that the king-
fishers fed only for one hour (i.e. the period
of observation) each day, they would consume
about 59 (44.43 + 7.19x2 = 58.81) fish fry
a day. At this rate, the number of fry con-

426

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

sumed by them in 61 days of May and June
would be 3599. In view of our assumption,
however, the actual fry mortality would be

much higher than this estimate since the birds
also fed during other parts of the day, although
not as vigorously as in the early morning.

Department of Zoology,

Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana - 141 004,

December 7, 1985.

Refer

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1970): Handbook of
the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 4. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.

Mason, G. W. & Lefroy, H. M. (1912): The
food of birds in India. Mem. Dep. Agric. India Ent.

RANJIT S. JIOR
MANJIT S. DHINDSA

ENCES

3: 1-371.

Mukherjee, A. K. (1975): Food habits of water-
birds of the Sundarban, 24 Parganas district, West
Bengal. India — V. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2) :
422-447.

17. PREDATION OF GOLDENBACKED WOODPECKER, DINOPIUM
BENCH ALENSE (LINN.) ON CARDAMOM SHOOT- AND-
FRUIT BORER. DICHOCROCIS PUNCTIFERALIS (GUENE)

On 16 September, 1984 a Goldenbacked
Woodpecker was sighted predating on the
cardamom shoot-and-fruit borer, D. punctif em-
its in Mudigere, Chickamagalur. The wood-
pecker with its powerful bill chiselled out shoot
peelings, located the borer larvae inside the
shoot tunnel, and gulped them down. The bird
flew to the next cardamom clump. The wood-
pecker located the borer-infested cardamom
sucker and using the black, stiff tail feathers
as a brace, held it tight by claws. The bird
tapped on the shoot and again began chiselling
away shoot peelings.

Of the 60 cardamom plantations surveyed
from 1984 to 1986 in Chickamagalur District,
Karnataka, the activity of the woodpecker was
recorded only in six (10%). On an ave-
rage, the woodpecker devoured 22.80 per cent
of borer larvae (Table 1). The survey indi-
cated that the woodpecker’s predatory activity
was not found in plantations where -
(a) Pesticides were regularly used and/or

(b) Old trees of species of Artocarpus, Termi-
nalia, Albizzia, Acacia , Bombax, Sapindus,
Cinnamomum, Machilus, Garyga, Alstonia,
Dipterocarpus , Elaecarpus and Cettis were
absent. The woodpecker’s predatory acti-
vity was also not recorded in plantations
where trees of mostly one species (e.g.
Erythrina Uthosperma) were raised to

Table 1

Woodpecker predation on cardamom borer in

SOME AREAS OF CHICKAMAGALUR

Date

Area

Cardamom clumps
showing woodpec-
ker predation on
borer (%)

16-ix-1984

Arahally

12.5

2-viii 1985

Makhonhally

6.0

4-viii- 1 985

Hosagiri

15.0

14-ix-l 985

Kotegehar

21 .0

8-X-1985

Mudigere

31.0

5-vii-l 986

Goudahally

51.0

427

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

provide shade for cardamom. This is be-
cause such plantations offer no suitable
sites for nesting and shelter. Because of
their uniformity in canopy structure, age
and size they are structurally less diverse
compared to plantations where natural
shade from several species of trees is re-
gulated. Further, trees like Erythrina do
not harbour insects like grubs, caterpillars
and internal wood borers which are pre-
ferred by woodpecker.

The predatory activity of woodpecker was
confined mostly to valleys. The woodpecker
foraged cardamom planted area during even-
ings, mostly when there was no human inter-

Regional Research Station,

Mudigere - 577 132,

Chickmagalur,

Karnataka,

August 12, 1986.

vention. The woodpecker was very actively
feeding on borer larvae from August to De-
cember, when borer activity is also at peak.

The Pyralid, D. punctiferalis is a pest on
cardamom (David and Kumaraswami 1982).
Despite six sprays recommended for control-
ling the borer (UAS, 1985), the damage
persists. Three species of insect parasites have
been recorded on the borer but borer mortality
due to parasitisation is negligible (0.05%). In
this context, the predatory activity of the wood-
pecker on the cardamom borer is crucially
important.

Thanks are due to the Director, Dr. H. V.
Pattanshetti for interest and encouragement.

A. K. CHAKRA VARTHY

References

David, V. B. & Kumaraswami, T. (1982): Ele- University, of Agricultural Sciences (UAS),
ments of Economic Entomology. Popular Book (1985) : Cultivation practices for plantation crops.
Depot, Madras, pp. 536. UAS, Bangalore, pp. 78.

18. MOVEMENT OF THE EASTERN SWALLOW ( HIRUNDO
RUSTICA GUTTURAL1S ) RINGED AT MOOTPUZHA

(KERALA)

Every year, in the month of October, local
newspapers in Kerala write about the large
congregation of Swallows roosting on telegraph
wires across Mootpuzha river, close to Moot-
puzha bridge. These attract the attention of
people crossing over the bridge. The birds had
been identified many years earlier by Dr. V. S.
Vijayan, of the Society’s Bharatpur Hydro-
biology project as the Eastern Swallow
( Hirundo rustica). In October, 1985 attention

was again drawn to this congregation by Mr.
K. K. Surendran. At his instance, I was asked
to try and ring some of the swallows. I, there-
fore, visited the area with 200 Z-size rings
and in the night, with the help of two assistants
caught 199 birds by using a large butterfly net
made out of a mist net. All the birds were
ringed and released at the end of the bridge
in bright moonlight. The birds were seen flying
back to their roost. Out of the 199 birds

428

MISCELL AN EO US NO TES

ringed three interesting recoveries have been
reported from three different places in Tamil-
nadu and Kerala.

One recovery is from the town of Theni
(in Tamil Nadu) close to Periyar in the
Western Ghats. The distance from Moovat-
puzha to Theni is c. 180 km by road. The
ring No. Z-25710 was recovered on 2 Novem-
ber, 1986 with the leg of the bird, which had
probably been caught by a predator. This was
reported by Mr. Kumaraswami, a Forest
College trainee, who visited Point Calimere.
The ring was recovered almost in a straight
line to the east of Mootpuzha.

The second recovery was from the town of
Pattukottai (10°26'N; 79° 19'E) on 9 Nov.,
1986. The bird was found under a lamp-post
on a rainy day by Mr. Nateshan. I could get
only the ring No. Z-25848 which was removed
from the bird. Pattukottai is on the east coast
almost in the same line as Theni and about
400 km from the place of ringing. It is about
600 km from Point Calimere Sanctuary.

The third ring was recovered by me during
my visit to Parambikulam sanctuary on 21
Feb., 1986. This was found under a bat roost
among wing feathers of swallows, warblers
and flycatchers scattered around. The dry
tarsus bone of the swallow with the ring was
recovered, indicating that the kill was at least
a few days old. Numerous bats were hanging
on the roof which I could not identify, but

Bombay Natural History Society,

Horn bill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay - 400 023.

August 14, 1986.

Mr. J. C. Daniel suggested that the predator
could be the Indian False Vampire ( Mega-
derma lyra). According to Prater (The book
OF INDIAN ANIMALS, 1971) the food of
Megaderma includes birds like crag martin.
We have identified Megaderma lyra from the
bat roost at Point Calimere’s old rest house
and during the season I have seen wings and
tarsi of birds like Acrocephalus dumetorum,
Sylvia curruca and various Muscicapa spp.
under the roost.

The dispersal of the swallows from the
Mootpuzha roost is interesting. Having had
two recoveries from three locations, one of
which is close to Point Calimere, and also con-
sidering the large influx of swallows during the
months of November and December according
to the census data from Point Calimere, we
can assume that some of the birds from the
Mootpuzha roost perhaps visit Point Cali-
mere also.

We hope to ring more birds of this species
during the next year and to try and follow their
movements.

I thank Mr. Kumaraswamy and Mr. Nate-
shan for their kindness in informing us of the
ring recovery and making the rings available
for confirmation. Special thanks are due to
Mr. K. K. Surendran, for providing informa-
tion on the congregation of swallows at
Mootpuzha.

R. SUGATHAN

429

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

19. THE OCCURRENCE OF THE HOUSE CROW ( CORVUS
SPLENDENS ) IN PORT BLAIR, SOUTH
ANDAMAN ISLAND

I was in Port Blair, South Andaman, between
18-12-1985 and 1-1-1986, staying at a hotel on
Marine Hill. There were between 6-10 House
Crows (Corvus splendens) resident in and
around the premises of the hotel (Bay Island).
These House Crows were smaller than the
Jungle Crows ( Corvus macrorhynchos ) found
on these islands and comparatively very few
in number. We only saw them around this
hotel and the Megapode’s Nest guest house
complex, run by the government. The neck
region was darker than that of House Crows
on the mainland, though the call did not differ
from the latter. Along with the resident race

14-7-370 Begum Bazar
Hyderabad - 500 012,

June 20, 1986.

of the Jungle Crow they would constantly
harrass an immature Whitebellied Sea Eagle
( Haliaeetus Ieucogaster ) over the hotel. We
saw them on all the days that we were there.

The House Crow has not been previously
recorded on these islands, though Tytler in
Ibis (1867) stated that they had been intro-
duced for sanitary purposes but does not
appear to have thrived or multiplied (Abdulali
1964).

The call of the Jungle Crow of this island
is much different from that of the mainland
birds\ It is pleasanter and slightly drawn out.
The difference is immediately noticeable.

AASHEESH PITTIE

Reference

Abdulali, H. (1964): The Birds of the Andamans & Nicobar Islands. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 6/(3):
556.

20. OCCURRENCE OF THE ASHY MINIVET ( PERICROCOTUS
DIVARICATES) IN MADRAS CITY (SOUTH INDIA)

It was on 9.xii.l984 that I first saw the
Ashy Minivet ( Eerier ocotus divaricatus) at
the Guindy National Park, Madras. This
species was subsequently sighted in the same
area on 16.xii.1984 and 26. i. 1985. Again,
after a lapse of about ten months, these birds
were seen on 15.xii.1985 at the Theosophical
Society Estates, adjacent to the Adayar river.
The birds were heard on 19. i. 1986 at the
same locality. Thereafter, they were noticed
on two other instances on 23. ii. 1986 and
22.iii.1986 at the Society Estates.

The Ashy Minivet is quite distinct from the

small Minivet ( Pericrocoius cinnamomeus) —
the only other minivet so far recorded from
the Madras area. As it is a common species,
I am thoroughly familiar with it and its calls.
The Ashy Minivet was definitely larger than
the small minivet. It was about the size of a
Bulbul but considerably slimmer and with a
proportionately longer tail. There were no
bright colours present on any of the birds —
the birds being ashy-grey, black and white.
The upper parts were uniform grey (some
appeared to have a brownish tinge) and under-
parts were whitish. The males had a blackish

430

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

head and nape with a pale patch on the fore-
head. A black line ran from the base of the
beak through the eye to the crown. The females
lacked the black on the head and nape, which
were grey like the back. Although the pale
forecrown was also present in the females, it
appeared less prominent. The tail was darker
with white outer tail feathers. In flight, a white
bar across the wings was conspicuous.

The Ashy Minivet was observed in pairs or
small parties. Only once was a lone bird seen.
The largest number seen at a time was five,
on 26. i. 1985. The birds were quite vocal and
their calls were quite different from those of
the small minivet. The birds were heard both
in flight as well as from perch. The calls, soft
and musical, were somewhat reminiscent of a
greenish Leaf Warbler ( Phylloscopus trochiloi-
des) at a distance or. more aptly, a briefer
version of the Palm Swift’s ( Cypsiurus parvus)
twittering calls. It sounded something like
‘Ki-Di-Di’.

The Ashy Minivet was observed more fre-
quently perched atop bare branches of trees,
ranging from 15-40 feet in height. Its stance
was more upright. Its behaviour was not diffe-
rent from the other minivets. On a couple of
instances, a bird was seen hovering briefly in
an attempt to catch a caterpillar. On capturing
the prey, it returned to its perch where it
battered the insect before devouring it. It was
always on the move, never remaining at a
perch or a tree for long. The bird kept to

68, I Floor,

Santhome High Road,

Madras - 600 028,

July 3, 1986.

itself although other species such as Blackhead-
ed Cuckoo-Shrike ( Coracina melanoptera) ,
Common Wood-Shrike ( Tephrodornis pondi-
cerianus). Golden Oriole ( Oriolus oriolus) and
Grey Drongo ( Dicrurus leucophaeus) were at
times seen on the same tree. Once, a minivet
was chased by a Grey Drongo, at which the
former took off, circled the tree and returned
to the same perch.

This species has been accorded the status of
an accidental winter vagrant and has been re-
corded twice within Indian limits (Ali and
Ripley, handbook compact Ed., 1983) The
dates of these sightings are given as 19 Novem-
ber, 1897 (near Port Blair, Andamans) and 31
January, 1965 (at Karnala near Bombay). In
view of the above, the occurrence of this species
in Madras is of significance. Moreover, the
sighting of the Ashy Minivet for a second con-
secutive year shows that the occurrence of this
bird in 1984-1985 was not a mere accident.
On the other hand, “it is possible that this
minivet may really be a scarce but regular
winter migrant” (Salim Ali, pers. comm.). In
view of its inconspicuous nature and lack of
flashy colours, the Ashy Minivet is perhaps
being overlooked in its wintering areas and I
feel a more careful look-out by members of
the Society could yield more information as
to the exact status of this bird in our country.

I am grateful to Dr. Salim Ali for his
comments and encouragement.

V. SANTHARAM

431

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

21. BUTTRESSED NESTS OF BAYA WEAVER BIRD PLOCEUS
PHILIPPINES (LINN.)

(With a plate)

This note deals with a field study of the
Baya Weaver Bird Ploceus philippinus (Linn.)
made in the two districts of Eastern Rajas-
than, viz. Alwar and Bharatpur during the
breeding season in 1982. While studying quali-
tative and quantitative aspects of abnormality
in nest structure, I came across 8 buttressed
nests out of 1952(-f) studied nests.

All buttressed nests were just a combination
of normal nests with a flap of woven strips of
various lengths and widths, which were always
present in one or more angular region (s) of
the nests (see Plate 1). There are four
angular regions as can be seen in a normal
completed nest of Baya Weaver Bird (See
Plate 1).

1 . up stalk angular region,

2. down stalk angular region,

3. entrance hall side angular region, and

4. egg chamber side angular region.

Sometimes suspended nests may be caught
up in the thorns while swinging about in strong
breeze. Buttressing is just a device to minimize
the swings from strong wind. Flap of a buttres-
sed nest avoids bending in the entrance tube
and also stalk of nests. This helps a nest to
keep its position even in thorny bush in windy
areas. Sometimes the extreme tip of the
entrance tube becomes dilated and loose due
to repeated clinging on. To give extra support
to the loosened tip and lower part of entrance
tube, a vertical flap is created by the bird in
a longitudinal direction.

Forest Range Officer, SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

West Range, Gulab Bagh,

Udaipur - 313 001,

Rajasthan.

May 14, 1986.

22. OBSERVATIONS ON THE NESTING HABITS OF THE BLACK-
THROATED WEAVER BIRD [PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS
(LINNEAUS)] IN THE BARODA REGION

Introduction

Populations of the Blackthroated Weaver
Bird, Ploceus benghalensis, are found in three
major regions of India: a large broad band
from Punjab to Assam; parts of Gujarat
(Deesa, Baroda); and the North West Frontier
Province (Thar). Due to high population
densities in the first area, most major studies
(Crook 1960, Ambedkar 1972) have been
conducted in the Kumaon terai of Uttar

Pradesh where these birds breed in reed swamps
and tall grasslands. Their nests are suspended
from grasses (Saccharum munja and S. sponta -
neum) 1-2 m. above the ground and overland
on water. Colonies consist of 3-4 nests where
males build more than one nest, are polygynous,
and there is a complete lack of paternal care.
The aim of this study was to examine varia-
tion in nest-site selection, nest structure, in-
ter nest distances, and differences in the repro-

432

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85
Sharma : Ploceus philippinus

Plate 1

1:2. Angular regions of
a half built nest.

Isl. Angular regions of a completed nest

ls4. Down Egg i*6. Entrance ^ J ^own ttalk~^

lltl1 8ide Sgalk' Entrance

buttress. buttreS8‘ ctJ9b9er hail side

side “"'Plete
complete butt**ss.

1»3 to 1>8. Tew kinds of buttressed nests. buttress.

Angular regions and position of butteresses.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ductive biolog)/ between the P. benghatensis
populations of the Kumaon terai and the
Baroda region.

Observations

Behavioural observations of two P. benghal-
ensis colonies were made during the
monsoons of 1983 and 1984. The colony
studied in 1983 consisted of one active nest
attached to a Papilionaceae shrub along a
roadside ditch. Four observations were made
on a weekly basis with each session lasting up
to five hours. The entrance tube to this nest
was very short (6-7 cm.) and the shape of
the nest greatly resembles that of the Streaked
weaver bird, P. manyar flaviceps.

Assured of the occupation of this nest, the
male proceeded to build another about 1 m.
away on the same plant. At the ‘helmet’ stage
the male plastered the ‘chin strap’ and
the inside borders of the nest with cow dung
and stuck bright yellow flowers to it. A mark-
ed preference for yellow coloured flowers was
exhibited as no other colour was brought to
the nest. A second female was not seen nearby
and this nest was finally abandoned at this
stage. The male continued to make minute
rearrangements in the weave and added new
supports to the occupied nest while construct-
ing the second nest.

The 1984 study site consisted of a colony
of three nests occupied by different pairs and
one nest in the ‘helmet’ stage. Six weekly
observations of similar duration were made
from mid-August to October. These nests had
an inter-nest distance of 1-2 m., and were
attached to Zizyphus oenoplia plants in a
ditch beside a railroad track. Compared to
the 1983 colony, they had extremely long (25-
30 cm.) entrance tubes. At the start of the
breeding season three nests were clearly visi-
ble; however, within a month, the entire ditch
was covered with a dense layer of Ipomoea
creepers, thus hiding from view any trace of

the colony. Although the main nest support
was Z oenoplia, the creeper was also incor-
porated for additional attachment. Two. in-
complete nests from nearby baya colonies were
found on plants of the same genus ( Zizyphus )
as the P. benghalensis colony. A fourth nest,
still in the helmet stage, was found but never
completed. As each of the others was occupied
by a different pair, no male appeared to be
polygynous. One male in this colony assisted
in parental care by removing faecal pellets
from the nest.

Discussion

In contrast to the P. benghalensis colonies
studied in the Kumaon terai, those found in
Baroda exhibited marked differences in various
aspects of reproductive biology and nesting
habits. Low shrubs were selected as nesting
sites rather than reeds and tall grasses. Nests
were not in clusters, but separated by at least
1 m. Structural variations in these nests were
also present. The entrance tubes varied greatly
from 6-30 cm. In addition, all were ex-
tremely well attached to supporting plants.
Although structural adaptation to new habitat
could lead to such variation, as in the case of
Baya nests on telegraph lines (Ambedkar
1969), and may even help protect the nest
against predators (Regupathy and Davis 1984)
or the weather (Davis 1974), it hardly ex-
plains the magnitude of the support seen in
these P. benghalensis nests.

Both the Blackthroated and the Baya weaver
birds were seen to nest on Zizyphus plants,
known as a preferred nesting site of the Baya.
Habitat preferences are important in reducing
ecological competition and frequency of oppor-
tunities for hybridization (Crook 1960), and
since the coexistence of two closely related
sympatric species depends upon the absence
of such competition, the effect of such niche

433

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 85

overlap between these populations of P.
benghalensis and P. philippinus needs to be
investigated. Also, are the P. benghalensis
populations in the Baroda and Kumaon terai
regions allopatric, and could this account for
the great differences in the breeding biology
of this bird in two different habitats?

Males were never seen to be successful at
polygyny. As the colony was covered with
creepers, males who built a second nest could
advertise its presence to a female. Nest visi-
bility is essential during courtship because the
male attaches bright yellow flowers on the nest
to attract the female. Erratic and short mon-
soon spells (lasting only till September) also
reduce the time available to the male to mate
twice.

The population density of P. benghalensis
in and around Baroda is very low. In the two
years of study, less than a handful were seen.
The male-female ratio is also odd for a poly-
gynous species with both sexes present in equal
numbers. What effect do such different nesting

Dept, of Zoology,

The University of Tennessee,

M 313 Walters Life Sciences Building,
Knoxville, Tennessee 37996,

U.S.A.,

February 4, 1988.

habits have on the courtship and mating be-
haviour of these birds? In what manner does
the apparent monogamy affect the behaviour
of the male?

These observations suggest that environmen-
tal factors limit population growth. Low female
densities may play a role in determining breed-
ing success, and alter the behaviour patterns
of the male, especially the new behaviour
patterns described, such as the additional nest
maintenance and removal of faecal pellets. A
detailed study of the population density, beha-
vioural variations and overall breeding biology
is warranted to resolve the questions raised by
this study.

Ack nowledgements

I am indebted to Prof. R. M. Naik (Bio-
science Department, Saurashtra University) for
his guidance, and to Dr. G. K. Menon (Zoo-
logy Department, M. S. University of Baroda)
for valuable suggestions.

SHAHROUKH MISTRY

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1970) : Handbook of
the birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 10. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.

Ambedkar, V. C. (1969) : Nests of Baya [Ploceus
philippinus (Linnaeus)] on telegraph wires. /. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 66(3) : 624.

(1972): On the breeding biology of

the Blackthroated [Ploceus benghalensis (Linnaeus)]
and the Streaked ( Ploceus manyar flaviceps Lesson)
weaver birds in the Kumaon Terai. ibid. 69(2) :

268-282.

Crook, J. H. (1960): Asian weavers: Problems
of coexistence and evolution with references to be-
haviour. ibid. 66(1) : 1-48.

Davis, T. A. (1974) : Selection of nesting trees and
frequency of nest visits by Baya weaver birds, ibid.
71(3) : 356-366.

Regupathy, D. & Davis, T. A. (1984): Mouse,
a nest parasite of the Baya weaver bird ( Ploceus
philippinus ). ibid. 81(1) : 200-202.

434

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

23. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF CARPODACUS GITHAGINEUS

IN KUTCH

The justification for the inclusion of the
Trumpeter Bullfinch in the Kutch Bird List was
hitherto in doubt. It was first seen in recent
years on March 1, this year, by Mr. Navin
Bapat, a member of the Pelican Nature Club
of Kutch. According to him 30+ of these birds
were present in the rocky ground near and
overlooking the Khari River, west of Bhuj. On
7 . iii . 86 I saw 15+ birds which came to drink
water from a hole lower down the southern
side of a gully joining the river. Although
there were pools of water in the main riverbed
from which other birds came to drink water,
the Trumpeter Bullfinches preferred to come

Jubilee Ground,

Bhuj, Kutch,

May 30, 1986.

down only to the hole in the rocks. I should
think the reason for this was their preference
for settling on rocky surfaces.

The nearest area where this bullfinch has
been recorded more often is Sind. Dr. Salim
Aii failed to come across it during his surveys
in Kutch. However, interestingly enough,
though Capt. C. D. Lester did not also see it
himself, he has included in in the Kutch list
at the end of the last or the beginning of the
present century. Thus the present sight record
of Carpodacus githagineus confirms the older
one, and proves that it is a very rare visitor.

HIMMATSINHJI

24. INDUCING SLEEP IN BIRDS

A unique and interesting behaviour of birds
was brought to my notice during a discussion
I had with some former trappers of southern
Rajasthan. The trappers used to secure their
catch of Grey Jungle Fowl ( Gallus sonneratii)
by placing a small flat stone on the ear covert
of birds. This used to send the birds to sleep
and also stopped them from alerting other
birds from the trap. They were later collected
and sold in the market. To verify this, I tried
out experiments on Domestic Fowl, Redvented
Bulbul ( Pycnonotus cafer) and House Sparrow
( Passer domesticus) and later demonstrated
them to Dr. Salim Ali and Mr. Humayun
Abdulali, both leading ornithologists of the
Bombay Natural History Society.

A domestic fowl was made to lie on the
ground and a small flat stone, weighing about

7 gm, was placed on its ear covert. The bird
became inactive and went to sleep immediately
and it was observed that the bird closed and
turned its toes and moved its tarsus slowly in
the air, while in sleep. The bird was allowed
to sleep for about 45 minutes during which it
was not secured by string.

A small stone usually rolls off and thus
becomes ineffective. A heavier stone weighing
about 20 gm would hold on more firmly and
would be more effective. A fingertip with
slight pressure would also bring about the
same result.

The same technique was used on Redvented
Bulbul and House Sparrow. It put them to
sleep almost immediately and proved very
effective. A small stone weighing 2.5 gm was
used in these cases.

435

13

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

I later used a simple device in the place of
a stone or coin, A length of thin steel strip
was bent in the middle to form a narrow
horseshoe, and an elastic band was put round
both sides of the strip in the middle to act as
spring and exert pressure. Two small card-
board pieces were fixed to both ends of the
bent strip to cover more surface area. This
device was used on House Sparrow and it
rendered the bird inactive. Thus this simple
device can be used effectively instead of stones
and coins.

41, Panchwati,

Udaipur - 313 001,

Rajasthan,

January 28, 1985.

This technique may thus be effective on
most birds and it would be of immense help
to ornithologists for the study of birds and
their banding, without causing the birds any
inconvenience. It causes a hypotic effect but
I am unable to explain it satisfactorily. Both
the above eminent ornithologists were also
puzzled and were unable to explain this
phenomenon.

RAZA H. TEHSIN

25. FRESHWATER TURTLE IJSSEMYS PUNCTATA (FAMILY
TRIONY CFIIDAE) WITH MISSING LIMBS IN KEOLADEO
NATIONAL PARK. BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN

Freshwater turtles, of which Lissemys
punctata is the most abundant, form the major
reptilian fauna of Keoladeo National Park.

The Park dried up almost completely during
the summers of 1985 and 1987. Terrestrial
movements of Lissemys punctata were com-
mon during this period, although they suffered
heavy mortality in the process.

Some of the turtles had their limbs missing;
four had no right hind limb, while two had
both their hind limbs missing and one with
right hind limb and left hind limb toes miss-
ing. The terrestrial movements of these turtles
were quite peculiar and slow. The turtle with
one missing hind limb moved by lifting the
whole posterior part of the body with the left
hind leg. But the turtle with both the missing
limbs had to drag the posterior part of the
body over the substratum. Their movement
was very restricted and hence they were trapp-

ed even in small ditches and were struggling to
come out. These turtles were highly sensitive
and, at the slightest disturbance, they withdrew
their head and limbs. During their move-
ment on land, the flaps of the hind limbs,
where the limbs were missing were opened and
closed simultaneously with the movement of
the other flaps and, when disturbed these flaps
were also held tightly. The movement of these
turtles in water was almost normal and they
could move easily with their forelimbs. One of
the possible reasons for the missing limbs is
the attempted predation by Scavenger vulture
{Neophron percnopterus ) and King vulture
(Torgos calvus). During April, 1987 about 27
Scavenger vultures were observed at one place,
killing and feeding on the turtles inside the
Park,"

Lissemys punctata are remarkably well
adapted among soft-shelled turtles in being

436

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

able to protect themselves from predation.
Though these turtles can close their shell, the
weakest part is apparently the hind limb flaps
(Auffenberg 1981) and the bill of the scaven-
ger vulture is very narrow, long and is easily
inserted into the narrow, slit-like aperture of
the flaps over the hind limbs, tearing off their
flesh. No longer able to move, even if offered
an opportunity to do so, the turtle slowly dies,
(Auffenberg 1981). In the present observations,
as the hind limbs were missing, the possible
reasons for this might be the attempts of pre-

BNHS Ecological Research Centre,

331, Rajendra Nagar,

Bharatpur-321 001, Rajasthan,

May 22, 1987.

dators, and during this process, the predator
must have left the turtle owing to some dis-
turbance and if so, probably the first part
attacked by the predator was the right hind
limb

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to Dr. V. S. Vijayan, Project
Scientist, BNHS Hydrobiology Project for his
constant encouragement and valuable sug-
gestions.

GEORGE M. JOHN

Reference

Auffenberg, W. (1981) : benaviour of Lissemys a drying lake in Rajasthan, India. /. Bombay nat.
punctata (Reptilia: Testudinata: Trionychidae) in Hist. Soc. 78: 487-493.

26. FAT-TAILED GECKO (EUBLEPHARIS MACULARWS BLYTH)
CAPTURED FROM A QUARRY

On l.v.1984 one adult fat-tailed gecko
(. Eublepharis macularius Blyth) was captured
by a quarry-man after blasting in the quarry
at 1600 hrs. at village Tatarpur (27" 47' N;
76° 31' E) in Alwar District. He tied the gecko
to a branch of Leptadenia spartium and
brought it to me at the Forest Nursery at
Tatarpur to identify the animal. Actually he
wanted to know whether it was poisonous.

I readily recognized it from its attractive
coloration. It produced a squeaky mechanical

Forest Extension Officer,

Van Chetna Kendra,

Gulab Bagh,

Udaipur-313 001.

Rajasthan,

September 10, 1987.

noise by sudden sideways jerks of the head.

After its identification, I released the animal
in our forest area. Then I went to the quarry
and bagged two more adult individuals from
the same old deep quarry.

The area is hilly with sparse vegetation of
Adhatoda vasica , Rhus mysurensis etc. Earlier,
a dense deciduous type of forest was present
here but at present there are only denuded

hills,

SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

437

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

27. RUSSELL’S EARTH BOA, ERYX CON1CUS, PREYING ON A
LITTLE BROWN DOVE, STREPTOPELIA SENEGALENSIS

In the early hours of 21 October, 1985,
while walking along one of the bunds of the
Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, I saw
near one of the numerous Nilgai ( Boselaphus
tragocamelus) dung heaps on the trail, an
Earth Boa, Eryx conlcus peeping out of a hole
in the ground. The hole was covered by the
dung heap except for a small opening. A few
Brahminy Mynas, Pied Mynas, White Cheek-
ed Bulbuls and Jungle Babblers were feeding
on and around the dung heap.

Some time later, a little brown dove. Strep -
topelia senegalensis, landed on the dung heap
and started pecking around. The snake, which
was apparently lying in wait, suddenly emerg-
ed and grabbed the dove’s foot and coiled
around it in a flash. The dove struggled as
the snake’s coils around it tightened. This went

RNHS Ecological Research Station,

331 Rajendra Nagar,

Bharatpur 321 00 L
Rajasthan,

March 5, 1988.

on for about five minutes, when the dove ceas-
ed struggling and its nictitating membrane
covered its pupil. The snake continued to
tighten its coils around the dove for the
next ten minutes and then started swallow-
ing it, head first, finally swallowing it com-
pletely.

As the boa strangled the dove, the flock of
birds which were feeding around the dung heap
raised a racket and mobbed the snake.

Whitaker has reported boas preying on birds
in a similar fashion, but there is no record of
the little brown dove forming a prey of the
Russell’s Sand boa.

A similar incident was observed again
by me a few months back in the National
Park.

VIBHU PRAKASH

28. ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE PREY ITEMS OF GREEN WHIP
SNAKE FROM POINT CALIMERE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

An instance of Green whip snake predat-
ing on Phylloscopus sp. was recorded (Panneer-
selvam and Alagar Rajan 1985) from Point
Calimere. In another instance on 1 November,
1985 at 1300 hrs near the Old Forest Rest
House we heard the distress call of a bird
from a Madhuca longifolia tree, and to our

surprise we noticed a Green whip snake hold-
ing a Drongo Dicrurus adsimilis by its neck.
The snake was choking the bird’s neck and
the voice of the bird gradually became faint.
At about 1315 hrs we saw that the bird was
dead. At 1325 half of the bird from head
down had been swallowed. After a few minutes

438

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the snake moved towards the upper canopy
of the tree still holding the half swallowed bird
in its mouth.

In one more instance, on 15 February, 1982
at 1400 hrs one of us (P.B.) while on a plant
collection trip at Nandupallam area, noticed
a Green whip snake (c. 1 metre) catching a
young monitor lizard (c. 30 cm). The snake

Junior Field Biologists,

Avifauna Project,

Kodikkarai-614 807,

Thanjavur District,

Tamil Nadu,

February 1, 1987.

was seen hanging from a Manilkara hexandra
tree holding the young wriggling Varanus sp.
tightly in its mouth. At about 1430 hrs the
Varanus died and became motionless and the
head and neck portion of the Varanus had
been already swallowed by the snake. Imme-
diately after the Varanus died, the snake hold-
ing the Varanus in its mouth moved into the
dense canopy of a nearby tree.

V. NATARAJAN
P. BALASUBRAMANXAN

Reference

Panneerselvam, R,, Alagar Rajan, S. (1985): A note on Green whip snake predating on Phyllosco-
pus sp. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(2 ) : 423.

29. FIRST RECORDS OF BUFO STOMATICUS AND BUFO
FERGUSON 11 (ANURA: BUFONIDAE) FROM ORISSA,
WITH COMMENTS ON THEIR DISTRIBUTION

Studies on the amphibian fauna of Orissa
go back to 1965, when Behura wrote a book
in Oriya (Orissara Benga: Frogs and toads
of Orissa) in which he recorded four species
of amphibians from Orissa. Mohanty-Hejmadi
(1976) and Mohanty-Hejmadi and Dutta
(1976) reported 13 species of amphibians from
the State. The present report of two species
of Bufo from Orissa is a further addition to
the amphibian faunal list of the State.

Bufo sfomatlcus Lutken

Specimens examined: India: Ajmer: Raj-
putana: BM 1947.2.20.52-53; 80.11.10.132-

133 (syntypes of Bufo andersonii) . Orissa:
Sambalpur district: Barpali: KU 200354-85;
Brajarajnagar: SKD 2941-51. Tamil Nadu :
Tirunelveli district: Mela Neelitha Nallur: CM
60170-71. West Bengal: USNM 38193-94; Cal-
cutta: BM 1909.11.10.2; FMNH 72398-99.
Maharashtra : Bombay: BM 83 . 11 .26. 105-106.
Sikkim: BM 1860.3.19.1362. sri lanka:

Colombo: BM 1932-5.7.2-3; 1955.1.10.85.

Distribution:

India (Assam, West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, western and eastern
Himalayas up to 6000 ft.). Outside India, the
species extends from eastern Iran and southern

439

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 85

Afghanistan to Sind, Pakistan, Nepal, the
southern corner of the Arabian Peninsula and
Sri Lanka. The report of this species from Sri
Lanka is based on only three specimens col-
lected from near Colombo in 1932 by Kirti-
singhe (1957). He suggested that the speci-
mens may have been transported to Sri Lanka
from India by means of sailing vessels.

Comments on the distribution record from

Orissa :

Previously, there was no published record
on the occurrence of Bufo stomaticus in Orissa.
Dr. Dwight Platt, Department of Biology,
Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas, U.S.A.,
collected 31 specimens of the species from
Barpali, Sambalpur district, Orissa, during
February, 1955-October, 1957. But he did not
publish anything on his work in Orissa.
During my studies at the University of Kansas,
U.S.A., I had an opportunity of examining
Dr. Platt’s Orissa collections. There were 31
specimens of B. stomaticus along with other
amphibians collected from the locality. Though
Mohanty-Hejmadi (1976) published a report
on the amphibian fauna of Orissa, there was
not sufficient collection of specimens from
Sambalpur district. Her report on the occur-
rence of B. under sonii (B. stomaticus) from
Sambalpur is most probably based on a juve-
nile B. stomaticus. Recently (November, 1986),
I collected 1 1 specimens of B. stomaticus from
Brajarajnagar Paper Mill area, Sambalpur
district. The animals were collected at night
along with B. melanostictus .

Bufo fergusonii Bou longer

Specimens examined : India: Kerala: Tri-
vandrum: Travancore: BM 1947.2.21.17

(holotype) ; 92.10.5.8. Andhra Pradesh :

Hyderabad: MSU 6565-66. Orissa: Sambal-
pur district: Barpali: KU 200340-45. Tamil
Nadu: Madras town: BM 1904.4.23.1; Kan-
yakumari district: CAS 104139. sri lanka:
No further locality: CAS 85271. Western

Province: 10 miles north of Puttalam: AMNH
74274-76. Marichchukkaddi : CM 67834. Trin-
comalee: FMNH 122054-78; 176341-42.

Distribution :

India (Kerala. Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh and Orissa); Sri Lanka.

Comments on the distribution record from
Orissa :

Previous reports (Boulenger 1882. Donahue
and Daniel 1967. Daniel 1963) on the distri-
bution record of Bufo fergusonii were confined
to coastal areas of western, southern and
eastern India up to Andhra Pradesh (Hydera-
bad). The present distribution record of the
species in Orissa (Sambalpur district) is based
on six specimens (Dr. Platt’s collection) iden-
tified by me. Like B. stomaticus , all these
specimens were collected during 1955-1957 and
were marked on the jars as unidentified Bufo
species. Since then, no additional specimens
have been collected from Orissa.

Museum abbreviations :

AMNH — American Museum of Natural

History, New York, U.S.A.

BM

— British Museum (Natural History),
London, U.K.

CAS

California Academy of Sciences,
San Francisco, U.S.A.

CM

— Carnegie Museum of Natural His-
tory, Pittsburgh, U.S.A.

FMNH

— Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, U.S.A.

440

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

KU — University of Kansas, Museum of
Natural History, U.S.A.

MSU — Michigan State University

Museum, East Lancing, U.S.A.

SKD . — S. K. Dutta’s collection.

USNM — United States National Museum,
Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

Acknowledgements

For loan of specimens, information on

P. G. Department of Zoology,

Utkal University
Bhubaneswar-751 004
Orissa, India,

April 7, 1987.

Museum holdings and/or providing museum
facilities, I thank the following: Charles W.
Myers, Richard G. Zweifel and George Foley
(AMNH); Barry T. Clarke (BM); Robert C
Drewes, Alan E. Leviton, Jens V. Vindum
and Larry Wishmeyer (CAS); Clarence J.
Censky (CM); Robert F. Inger and Alan
Resetar (FMNH); William E. Duellman (KU);
Peter Oceilo (MSU) and George Zug (USNM).

SUSHIL K. DUTTA

References

Behura, B. K. (1965): Orissara Benga (Frogs
and Toads of Orissa) (In Oriya). Zool. Soc. of
Orissa pu bl ication .

Boulenger, G. A. (1882): Catalogue of the

Batrachia Salientia s. caudata in the collection of
the British Museum, London, 2nd edition: 317-318.

Daniel, J. C. (1963) : Field guide to the amphi-
bians of western India. Part I. J. Bombay nat. Hist .
Soc . 60(2): 415-438.

Donahue, J. P. & Daniel, J. C. (1967): Occur-

rence of the toad Bufo fergusonii Boulenger in
Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India, ibid. 63: 447.

Kirtisinghe, P. (1957) : The Amphibia of Ceylon.
2 Charles Circus. Colombo- 3.

Mohanty-Hejmadi, P. (1976): Amphibian fauna
of Orissa. Prakruti — Utkal University J. Set. 11 ( 1-2):
89-97.

Mohanty-Hejmadi, P. & Dutta, S. K. (1976) :
Addendum to the amphibian fauna of Orissa,
ibid. 75(1-2): 135-136.

30. BIO-ECOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON TOR CHILINOIDES

(McClelland)

Tor chilinoides occurs abundantly in the
hill streams of Garhwal and is well adapted
to the rapid flowing waters. A dark coloured
Mahseer, which does not grow to a large size
as other species of the genus (Tor putitora,
T. tor, T. mo sal and T. khudree etc ), it is
consumed as food in large quantities in the
hills.

A bottom dwelling fish, it is found in deep
pools beneath rocks and stones covered with
algal slime preferring a stony substratum for
its life activities. The depressed and slender
body is suitable for the bottom living habit of
the fish as also the reduction of the scales on
the thorax and abdomen, and horizontally
placed paired fins. The fish is very active in
its movements and is a schooling fish.

441

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY f Vol. 85

Food and feeding habits :

A column as well as bottom feeder, it is
omnivorous. The gut contents included diatoms
(' Cymbella , Fragilaria, Navicula , Nitzschia,
Synedra ), algae ( Cladophora , Ckara, Hydrodi-
et yon, Oedogoniurn , Pithophora , Gleotrichia,
Rivularia ), macrophytes ( Equisetum , Potamo-
geton and Polygonum ), annelids, nematodes,
crustaceans and insects (nymphs of Epheme-
roptera such as Baetis, Epeorus, Ephemerella,
Heptagenia; Odonata of the genera Ictino-
gomphus, Lestes, Brachydiplax ; Plecoptera of
the genera Per/a, Neoperla, Nemoura and
larvae of Trichoptera of genera Philopo -
tanii/s and Rhyacophila ; Diptera of genera
Blepharocerid, Chironomus, Simulium and
Coleoptera of the genus Psephenus etc. Some
specimens had skull and other bones of frogs
and chitinous body parts of crabs.

Diatoms are found in abundance from
October to March and in reduced quantity from
April to August. Algae are in abundance dur-
ing January, March, May and December. The
macrophytes are of rare occurrence. It has
been observed that insects (their larvae and
nymphs) are found in lesser number during
December and July and in high numbers dur-
ing October, November, March, April May
and June. Spawning starvation was observed
in this fish; after spawning, the fish feeds
voraciously.

Feeds by scraping off algae, diatoms, in-
sects (their larvae and nymphs) from the
rocks and stones at the bottom. The lips are
thick and hypertrophied and are the main
feeding organs. In some populations of fishes
which are found in fast flowing streams, there
are much enlarged upper and lower horny

jaws and it is supposed that these help the
fish in scraping and scooping the diatoms,
algae, insects (their larvae and nymphs) from
the rocks and stones below the waterfalls.

The length of the alimentary canal in the
size range of 121 mm to 248 mm total length
was found to range between 150 mm and 410
mm and the relative length of the gut ranges
between 1.239 and 2.803 times the total
length. The size of the gut indicates that the
fish is omnivorous.

Sexual dimorphism :

The male and the female can be distinguish-
ed easily by the following characters:

1 . The snout is pointed and tuberculated in
the male while it is not so in the female.

2. In the male, the lips are fleshy and the
lower lip is produced backwards into a
fleshy labial fold. In the female, on the
other hand, the lips are not much thick
and the lower lip is not produced into
a fleshy labial fold.

3. The anal fin does not reach beyond the
base of the caudal fin in the male, while
it does so in the female.

4. The mature males are lighter in weight
and their ventral profile is straight. The
females are heavier with enlarged and dis-
tended abdomen.

Breeding period and behaviour :

A monsoon breeder, the fish move upstream
in search of shallow spawning pools during
the breeding season. Generally, spawning takes
place during rainy days. The fish spawns seve-
ral times during the breeding season. The

442

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ripe ovary contains ova in different stages of
maturity. Ripe fishes are found abundantly
during May and June. The fry make their
appearance first in July and are found till
September. Appearance of fry during this
period further confirms the breeding period of
the fish. In the fry, there are two black spots
on each scale of the lateral line. A black spot
is also present at the base of the caudal fin.
The minimum size at first maturity for female
is 120 mm and for male 64 mm.

The diameter of mature ova ranges between
1.527-2.956 mm. The fecundity of the fish
in the size range 120-207 mm total length was
found to range between 952 and 3628.

Hydrological studies indicate that the tem-
perature tolerance of this species ranged from
5°C to 25 °C. T. chili noides breeds in the mon-

soon season when water temperature ranges
from 18°C to 25°C. This is the season when
the water temperature remains almost con-
stant. The species occurs in waters where
concentration of dissolved oxygen ranges from
8.2 ppm to 24.6 ppm and pH 7.0 to 8.3.
These hill streams and rivers are clear through-
out the year except during the rainy season
when they become turbid. Tolerance for low
water temperature, neutral and alkaline pH,
high concentration of dissolved oxygen and
clarity of water are the main factors govern-
ing the abundance of T. chilinoides in hill
streams. The range of free carbon dioxide is
0.1 to 5.4 ppm in these hill streams which
is extremely low and such quantity of carbon
dioxide does not affect the life of the fish in
any manner.

Zoological Survey of India,
6- A Municipal Road,

Dehra Dun,

December 28, 1982.

31. RECORD OF THE MONSTER
MONSTROUS DRURY FROM

On 2 October, 1978 numerous holes of
more or less uniform size and diameter were
seen on the wet as well as semi-wet sandy
river bank adjacent to the water of the river
Rasantar near Samba, Jammu. A few such
holes were dug out carefully and the insects
collected were identified as the monster cricket,
Schizodactylus monstrous Drury, 1873.

The holes on wet and semi-wet sand on the
bank are found within a distance of 3-5 m

RAJ TILAK
S. P. BALONI

CRICKET SCHIZODACTYLUS
JAMMU (J.&K.), INDIA

from the water. The vertical depth was 10-15
cm and the tunnel then ran longitudinally for
25-30 cm to a blind end where the insect was
found.

These insects avoid direct light, sun rays and
dry wind. In water they swim quite efficiently,
near the bank and into deep water.

Lefroy and Hewlett (1971) gave its distri-
bution as “Tirhoot, parts of Assam, Bellary,
parts of Sind and Multan (Pakistan)”. This

443

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

is the first record of the species from Jammu Director of my deptt. and Dr. H. Khajuria,
and Kashmir. Emeritus Scientist, for constant encouragement

Thanks are due to Dr. Asket Singh, Joint and facilities.

High Altitude Zoology Field Station, RATHIN MUKHERJEE

Zoological Survey of India,

Solan 173 212,

Himachal Pradesh,

October 11, 1986.

Refer

Lefroy, H. M. & Hqwlett, F. M. (1971) : Indian
shers, New Delhi (Reprint).

32. NEW RECORD OF AN

Aphis citricola van der Goot (Hennptera:
Aphididae) is one of the important pests of
citrus. In India, it is known to attack Citrus
reticulata Blanco (loose skinned mandarin
orange), Tridax procumbens L., a common
weed in citrus orchards (Singh and Rao 1978),
tree tomato, Cyphomandra betacea Sendt.
(Agarwala and Ray Choudhury 1981), Mal-
pighie glabra L. and Eupatoriwn odoratum L.
(Naidu 1980). During the first week of August,
1985, a large number of leaves of four to five-
year old teak plants (Teclona grandis Linn.)
in the forest nursery at the Agricultural College

Department of Entomology,

College of Agriculture,

Dharwad - 580 005,

Karnataka State, India,

November 7, 1986.

Refer

Agarwala, B. K. & Ray Choudhuri, D. M.
(1981) : Note on some aphids affecting economically
important plants in Sikkim. Indian J. agric. Sci., 51 :
690-692.

Naidu, R. (1980) : Aphis citricola van der Goot

EN CE

Insect Life. To-Day & Tomorrow Printers & Publi-

APHID PEST ON TEAK

Farm, Dharwad ( Karnataka State) were attack-
ed by an aphid which was later identified
as A. citricola. Severely infested leaves
of young plants showed curling and cracking
symptoms. This is the first record of A.
citricola on teak. Since this insect has been
reported as a vector of citrus tristeza virus
(Naidu 1980). a careful study on the ecology
and control of the pest is needed.

We are grateful to Dr. P. A. Brown,
British Museum (Natural History), London
for identifying the aphid.

K. JAI RAO
YELSHETTY SUHAS

EN CES

— a new vector of Tristeza virus in India. Curr.
Sci., 49: 668-669.

Singh & Rao, M. S. (1978) : Occurrence of Aphis
citricola van der Goot in India. Sci. & Cut. 44 :
330-331.

444

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

33. ALEUROMARGINATUS BAUHINIAE (CORBETT) COMB. NOV.
AND A. THIR UM URT HIENS1S NOM. NOV. (ALYRODIDAE:

HOMOPTERA)

1. Aleuromarginatus bauhiniae (Corbett)
comb. nov.

Trialeurodes bauhiniae Corbett, 1935. J.F.
M.S. Museums 17: 816-817.

Corbett, in 1935, described Trialeurodes
bauhiniae from Johol (Negri Sembilan),
Malaya, the host being Bauhinia bidentata. A
detailed study of the descriptions and the
illustrations of Corbett revealed that the species
is assignable to the genus Aleuromarginatus
and hence the new combination Aleuromargi-
natus bauhiniae (Corbett) is suggested here
for T. bauhiniae Corbett.

2. Aleuromarginatus thirumurthiensis David
nom. nov.

Aleuromarginatus bauhiniae David 1976.
Entomon 1: 85-86. nec Trialeurodes bauhi-
niae Corbett, 1935.

David (1976) described Aleuromarginatus
bauhiniae from India, the host being Bauhinia
racemosa. A critical study indicates that this
species differs from that of Corbett in being

Fredrick Institute of

Plant Protection and Toxicology,

Padappai-601 301, India,

March 3. 1987.

References

Corbett, G. H. (1935): XLVIII Malayan Aleuro-
didae. /. F. M. S. Museums 17: 722-852.

David, B. V. (1976) : A new species of the genus
Aleuromarginatus Corbett (Aleyrodidae, Homoptera)
from India. Entomon 1 : 85-86.

larger in size, subdorsum with light brown
shade on all the thoracic segments and up to
the middle of the fifth abdominal segment,
absence of a pair of setae laterad of second
abdominal segment and in the distribution of
setae on the dorsum. It may be pointed out
that David (1976) erroneously noted while des-
cribing the species, that it has “a pair on basal
abdominal segment, four pairs on abdominal
segments from second to fifth” which must be
amended as “a pair on basal abdominal seg-
ment. four pairs on abdominal segments from
third to sixth”. As this species is thus clearly
distinct from that of Corbett, preoccupied by
Aleuromarginatus bauhiniae (Corbett) comb,
nov., it becomes a junior homonym, and thus
a new name Aleuromarginatus thirumurthiensis
David nom. nov. is proposed here.

Acknowledgement

I wish to thank the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research for financing a scheme
on taxonomic studies on Aleyrodidae.

B. V. DAVID1

1 Present address : Rhone-Poulenc Agrochemicals
(India) Ltd., May & Baker House, Worli, Bombay-
400 025.

445

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

34. T RICH OT ROM BIDIUM MUSCARUM KOLONEV, A NEW
ACARINE PARASITE ON HOUSE FLY

( With a text -figure)

House fly ( Musca domestica nebulo Fabri-
cius) is attacked by a number of natural
enemies. Among the acarine parasites, Roy
and Brown (1970) mentioned certain species
of Gamasus and Tyroglyphus often parasitis-
ing fly pupae and sometimes larvae also.
Other mites recorded as parasites of housefly
include undetermined species of Microtrombi-
dium (Acarina: Trombidiidae) (Dhiman and
Dhiman 1981) and Feymotes (Acari: Peymo-
tidae) (Dhiman and Mittal 1984). Recently
during October, 1985, adults of the housefly
collected from students' hostel and cafetaria
in the premises of the Agricultural College
Dharwad (Karnataka State) were found para-
sitised by a mite larva subsequently identified
as Trichotrombidium muscarum Kolonev
(Acari; Trombidiidae) (Fig. 1). This is a new
record of T. muscarum as a parasite on house-
fly. The characteristic feature of the members
of Trombidiidae is that they are parasitic only
during larval stage (some of which are reddish
due to pigments in their tissues) but are free
living later on (Roy and Brown 1970). The
larva of T. muscarum was red, measuring 0 . 67
mm in length and 0.38 mm in breadth.
Although the larvae were found in all parts
on the ventral surface of the body, the lateral
abdominal and lower surface of the wings
attached to the thorax were the preferred
regions. The number of mite larvae on a single
individual varied from two to six. Flies having
more than three mites per individual died
within three to six hours of collection.

Department of Entomology,

College of Agriculture,

Dharwad-580 005,

Karnataka State, India,

November 29, 1986.

Fig. 1. Larva of Trichotrombidium muscarum
Kolonev.

An unidentified Trombidium found on
Phlebotomus flies has been suspected to be
the carrier of a virus causing Phlebotomus
fever in man (McCombie Young et al. 1926).
It is therefore, necessary to make detailed
observations on the development of T. musca-
rum, its association with housefly and effect on
man and domestic animals before it is con-
sidered as a biological control agent against
housefly.

We are grateful to Dr. D. Macfarlane,
Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, Lon-
don (U.K.), for identifying the mite.

YELSHETTY SUHAS
K. JAI RAO

446

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Dhiman, S. C. & Dhiman, R. C. (1981): Micro-
trombidium sp., an ecto-parasite of Musca domestica
nebulo Fabr. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77: 353-354.

Dhiman, S. C. & Mittal, J. P. (1984) : A new
record of Peymotes sp. ( Pediculoides ) of mite para-
sitizing the common Indian housefly, Musca domes-
tica nebulo Fabr. ibid. 81 : 720.

McCombie Young, T. C, Richmond, A. E. &

Brendish, G. R. (1926) : Sandflies and sandyfly
fever in the Peshawar district. Indian J. Med. Res.
13: 961.

Roy, D. N. & Brown, A. W. A. (1970) : Ento-
mology (Medical and Veterinary) : 250-304 and

554. The Bangalore Printing and Publishing Co. Ltd.,
Bangalore.

35. OVIPOSITION SITE AND NATURE OF DAMAGE OF NIGER
CAPSULE FLY DIOXYNA SORORCULA (WIED.)
(DIPTERA: TAPHRETIDAE)

{With a text -figure)

During the survey of insect pests of niger
at Jabalpur (M.P.) the capsule fly Dioxyna
sororcula (Wied.) was observed for the first
time on niger infesting developing seeds in the
seed capsule (Jakhmola 1984). In the present
investigation a new site for egg laying by the
fly was observed. The female fly laid the eggs
in the inflorescence inside the ovaries of disc
florets by inserting its ovipositor. The egg re-
mains attached to the terminal end of the
ovary (Fig. 1). Eggs were laid singly and only
one egg was laid in an ovary. The eggs were
creamy white in colour and measured 0.69
mm. in length and 0.16 mm. in width. This
finding contradicts that of Jakhmola (1984)
who reported that the female fly laid the eggs
between the disc florets.

Fig. 1. Exposed ovary of niger showing the egg laid
at the terminal portion of the ovary.

447

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

1 JNKVV. Regional Research, R. N. GANGULI 3

Khandwa-450 001 (M.P.). E. JAYALAXMI2

2 Department of Entomology, S. S. SHAW 1

College of Agriculture, Jabalpur (M.P.),

July 2, 1986.

Reference

Jakhmola, S. S. (1984): Niger grain fly, D. sororeula (Wied.), a serious pest of niger in central
India. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80(2 ) : 439-440.

36. COMMENTS ON THE PAPER “HOST PLANTS OF THE FRUIT
FLIES (DIPTERA: TEPHRITIDAE) OF THE INDIAN

SUBCONTINENT, EXCLUSIVE OF THE SUBFAMILY
DACINAE” BY MOHAMMAD ZAKA-UR-RAB

The paper by Zaka-Ur-Rab (1984) con-
tains some inaccuracies which are pointed out
here.

The last sentence in the first paragraph under
Introduction states: “Another closely related
example is that of Rioxa modest um (Fabr.)

which was recorded by Bezzi (1913)

But in the 1913 publication, Bezzi has shifted
the species from the genus Rioxa and brought
it under the genus Diarrhegma\ since then the
valid name is Diarrhegma modestum (Fabri-
cius) and not Rioxa modestum (Fabr.).

In the second paragraph it is stated: “In
the Indian sub-continent the Tephritidae are
represented by 60 genera and 138 species. . .”.
Instead, it should have been 86 genera and
310 species (Kapoor et al. 1980).

In the third paragraph it has been mention-
ed that out of 102 species comprising this
group, host plants of only 21 species are known
with any degree of certainty. But for 33 species
host plant records have been given with cer-
tainty and many more vaguely like in Cucur-

Eastern Regional Station,

Zoological Survey of India,

Risa Colony, Shillong 793 003,

November 7, 1984.

bitae and Compositae (Asteraceae) plant
families in the book by Kapoor et al. (1980).

In the main text of the paper, nomenclatural
citation of many has been erroneously given
or obsolete names have been used. Chelyo-
phora ceratitina (Bezzi) should have been
treated as Acroceratitis ceratitina (Bezzi),
Chelyophora striata (Froggatt) as Acroceratitis
ceratitina (Froggatt), Rhacochlaena cassiae
Munro as Euphranta ( Staurella ) cassiae
(Munro), Stylia sororeula (Wied.) as Dioxyna
sororeula (Wiedemann) and Tephritis tribuli-
cola Senior-White as Orellia tribulicola (Senior-
White).

Under the subfamily Tephritinae, Centaurea
americana Nutt has been treated as a Tephritid
with a mention “This also happens to be the
first report of this fruit fly from Kashmir”,
whereas Centaurea americana Nutt has been
recorded in the same paper as a cultivated
host plant of Craspedoxantha octopunctata
Bezzi.

C. RADHAKRISHNAN

448

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Hardy, D. E. (1973) : The Fruit Flies (Tephri-
tidae: Diptera) of Thailand and bordering coun-
tries. Pacif. Ins. Monogr. 31: 1-353.

Kapoor, V. C., Hardy, D. E., Agarwal, M. L. &
Grewal, J. S. (1980) : Fruit Fly (Diptera: Tephri-

tidae) systematics of the Indian subcontinent. Ex-
port India Publications, Jullundur.

Zaka-ur-Rab (1984): Flost plants of the fruit
flies (Diptera Tephritidae) of the Indian subcon-
tinent, exclusive of the subfamily Dacinae. /. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 81{ 1): 99-104.

37. ON THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF GELASIMUS ACUTUS
STIMPSON (DECAPODA: OCYPODIDAE) PRESENT IN THE
NATIONAL COLLECTION OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY
OF INDIA, CALCUTTA

( With a text-figure)

While surveying the intertidal macrofauna
of the mangrove-fringed estuarine belt of the
Sundarbans, India, four species of ocypodid
crabs of the genus Uca were collected. Among
them, the most abundant and widely distribut-
ed forms were determined as Uca ( Deltuca )
rosea (Tweedie). Alcock (1900) recorded
Gelasimus acutus Stimpson from India and
stated clearly that “in the Indian Museum are
92 specimens, chiefly from the Sunderbans and
Mergui, but also from Karachi and the Anda-
mans”. On examination of the material depo-
sited in the National Collection of the Zoolo-
gical Survey of India, Calcutta as G. acutus
Stimpson, it appears that all of them are U.
( Deltuca ) rosea (Tweedie).

Taxonomy

Uca (Deltuca) rosea (Tweedie)

1900. Gelasimus acutus, Alcock, /. Asiat. Soc. Ben-
gal, 69: 360-361.

1932. Uca manii, Pearse, Rec. Indian Mus., 34(3) :
292.

1936. Uca manii, Pearse, Scient. Mon., N.Y., 42: 353.

1937. Gelasimus manii, Chopra & Das, Rec, Indian
Mus., 39: 422.

India, Calcutta and the fresh lot recently col-
lected from the Sunderbans, India.

Diagnosis'. Carapace with fronto-orbital
margin strongly oblique, antero-laterai cara-
pace margin absent, antero-laterai angle
acute and produced (Fig. 1A); much enlarged
meri of ambulatories, tip of the large chela
forceps-like, two grooves, dorsal and sub-
dorsal, covering almost entire length of major
dactyl (Fig. IB); gonopod with broad anterior
and posterior flanges, inner process broad and
well developed (Fig. 1C).

Material studied: Material present in the

National collection of the Zoological Survey of

Fig. 1. Uca ( Deltuca ) rosea: A. Dorsal surface of
the carapace of a mature male; B. Dorsal surface of
major cheliped; ;C. Gonopod tip (right).

449

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Discussion

In 1900, Alcock recorded Gelasimus aculus
Stimpson from the Sunderbans, India and in
1932 and 1936, Pearse recorded Uca manii
Rathbun from the Gangetic delta. Rathbun,
Tesch and Tweedie have shown that Gelasimus
acutus of de Man and that recorded as acutus
by Alcock from India are not the same form
as G. acutus Stimpson and synonymised the
former species under G. manii (Rathbun) (see
Chopra and Das 1937). While dealing with
the crab G. manii (Rathbun) from Mergui
and Tavoy coast. Lower Burma, Chopra and
Das (1937) stated that “all the specimens are
typical, agreeing very closely with the descrip-
tion of de Man and Alcock, as also with
examples named by them”. In her monograph
on the fiddler crabs of the world, Crane (1975)
has included not only some material of U.

( Deltuca ) rosea (Tweedie) from Port Can-
ning, Sunderbans and Nicobar Islands but also
synonymised U. manii Rathbun recorded by
Pearse from the Gangetic delta under Uca

( Deltuca ) rosea (Tweedie). Further, she also
commented that the Indian subcontinent is the
habitat for U. (Deltuca) rosea (Tweedie) and
not of U. (Deltuca) acuta Stimpson. But she
did not comment clearly on the status of G.
acutus Stimpson recorded by Alcock from
India. This led us to re-examine all the mate-
rial of G. acutus Stimpson present in the
National collection of the Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta. The re-investigation reveals
that these are all U. (Deltuca) rosea
(Tweedie), because of the presence of two
grooves running almost the entire length of
major dactyl, absence of antero-lateral cara-
pace margin and the gonopod structures (Fig.
1C). In addition, fresh material recently col-
lected in large numbers from different areas
of the Sunderbans was also studied; these
closely resemble U. (Deltuca) rosea (Tweedie).
This observation clearly supports the comment
of Crane (1975) on the distribution of rosea
as mentioned earlier. A comparative table
is provided to differentiate rosea from acuta
(Table 1).

Table 1

Comparative account of two species of Uca

Uca acuta (Stimpson)

A single long groove running laterally along almost
entire length of major dactyl, the sub-dorsal groove
short.

Fronto-orbital margin slightly oblique, almost straight.
Antero-lateral carapace margin well-developed.
Antero-lateral angles acute to varying degrees, mode-
rately produced.

Meri of Ambulatories enlarged antero-ventral ridge
on first leg absent proximally, represented distally
by separated fine serrations; corresponding serrations
on 2nd, 3rd and 4th legs weak.

Gonopod with anterior flange large, posterior rudi-
mentary; inner process minute, scarcely reaching base
of flange.

Uca ( Deltuca ) rosea (Tweedie)

Two grooves running along almost entire length of
major dactyl.

Fronto-orbital margin strongly oblique.

Antero-lateral carapace margin absent.

Antero-lateral angles acute and produced.

Meri of ambulatories much enlarged, anterc-ventral
ridge on 1st leg absent proximally; distal serrations,
non-contiguous, on 1st, 2nd, and 3rd legs, absent
on 4th and from postero-ventral ridge on 4th leg.
Gonopod with anterior and posterior flanges both
broad; inner process broad, well developed.

450

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. B. K. Tikader, Direc-
tor, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for
facilities during the study. Sincere thanks are
due to A. K. Ghosh, Deputy Director and

Zoological Survey of India,

27, J. L. Nehru Road,

Calcutta - 700 016,

April 27, 1986.

Sri B. P. Haidar, Asstt. Zoologist, Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta for constant encou-
ragement in the work. Thanks are also due to
Dr. (Miss) M. Deb, Scientist, Crustacea Sec-
tion, Z.S.I. for permission to study the material.

N. BAIRAGI
A. MISRA

References

Alcock, A. (1900): Materials for a Carcinolo-
gical fauna of India. No. 6. Brachyura Catometopa
or Grapsoidea. /. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 69: 360-361.

Pearse, A. S. (1932): Observation on the eco-
logy of certain fishes and crustaceans along the
bank of the Matla river at Port Canning (India).
Rec. lnd. Mus., 34: 292.

— (1936): The Ganges delta. Scient .

Mon., N.Y., 42: 353.

Chopra, B. & Das, K. N. (1937) : Further notes
on Crustacea Decapoda in the Indian Museum. IX.
On three collections of crabs from Tavoy and Mergui
Archipelago. Rec. lnd. Mus., 39: 422.

Crane, J. (1975): Fiddler Crabs of the World
(Ocypodidae: Uca ). Princeton University Press, New
Jersey, 736 pp.

38. ON SOME COLLECTIONS OF MONOGONONT ROTIFERS
(ROTIFER A: EUROTATORIA) FROM HARYANA STATE,

INDIA

(With seventeen text-figures)

Very little is known about the rotifer fauna
of Haryana State; the previous report from
north-western India (Sharma 1976) included
only fifteen species from this region. The pre-
sent study is, however, based on samples col-
lected from Ambala district (30°21'N, 76°52'
E) between July, 1972- June, 1973 and on
various occasions between 1978-84. As a result,
twenty species are added to the earlier list.

List of examined taxa.

Class : rotifera

Subclass : eurotatoria

Superorder: Monogononta
Order : Ploimida

Family: Brack ion idae

Brachionus angularis (Gosse 1851)
B. hidentata Anderson 1889
B . biidapestinensis Daday 1885
B. caudatus Borris & Daday 1894

451

14

50 /im

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Fig. 1: Lecane curvicornis, ventral view; Fig. 2: Cephalodella mucronata , lateral
view; Fig. 3: Brachionus caudatus f. aculeatus, ventral view; Fig. 4: B. caudatus f. perso-
natus, dorsal view; Fig. 5: B. calyciflorus f.dorcas, dorsal view; Fig. 6: B. calyciflorus
f. anuraeiformis, dorsal view; Fig. 7: B. calyciflorus f. amphiceros, dorsal view; Fig.
8: B. quadridentatus typical form, ventral view; Fig. 9: B. quadridentatus f. cluni-
orbicularis, ventral view; Fig. 10: B. forficula typical form, dorsal view; Fig. 11: B.
forficula f. minor, dorsal view; Figs. 12-14: B. angularis, ventral views; Figs. 15-17:
Keratella tropica, cyclomorphic variants.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

B. calyciflorus Pallas 1766
B. diversicornis (Daday 1885)

B. falcatus Zacharias 1898
B. forficula Wierzejski 1891
B. quadridentatus (Hermann 1783)

B. patulus (O. F. Muller 1786)

B. rubens Ehrenberg 1838
Keratella tropica (Apstein 1907)

K. procurva (Thorpe 1891)

Platyias quadricornk Ehrenberg 1882

Family: Euchlanidae

Euchlanis dilatata Ehrenberg 1832

Family: Mytilinidae

Mytilina acanthophora Hauer 1938
M. ventral is (Ehrenberg 1832)

Family: Trichotridae

Trichotria tetractis (Ehrenberg 1832)

Family: Colurellidae

Colurella obtusa (Gosse 1886)

Lepadella ovalis (O. F. Muller 1786)

L. patella (O. F. Muller 1786)

Family: Lecanidae

Lecane curvicornis Murray 1913
L. luna (O. F. Muller 1776)

L. bulla (Gosse 1885)

L. closterocerca (Schmarda 1898)

Family: Notom matidae

Cephalodella forficula (Ehrenberg 1832)

C. mucronata (Harring & Myers 1929)

Family: Trichocercidae

Trichocerca similis (Wierzejski 1893)

Family: Asplanchnidae

Asplanchna brightwelli Gosse 1850

Family: Synchaetidae

Polyarthra vulgaris Carlin 1943

Family: Hexarthricidae

Hexarthra cf. mira (Hudson 1871)

Family: Filinidae

Filinia opoliensis Zacharias 1898
F. hngiseta (Ehrenberg 1834)

Family: Testudinellidae

Testudinella patina (Hermann 1783)
Pompholyx sulcata Hudson 1885

Remarks

Thirty-five species of monogonont rotifers,
belonging to thirteen families and spread over
seventeen eurotatorian genera, are documented
presently. Amongst these, Lecane curvicornis
(Fig. 1) and Cephalodella mucronata (Fig. 2)
comprise new records from N. W. India. The
rotifer fauna of Haryana bears a close affinity
with that of the adjoining Punjab State. The
common occurrence of Brachionus spp. and
absence of genus Notholca imparts a tropical
character to the fauna of this state. Various
presently recorded species of Brachionus com-
prise pantropical or cosmopolitan forms of
alkaline waters (Sharma 1983).

Considerable morphological plasticity is indi-
cated in the examined taxa of Brachionus and
Keratella. B. caudatus is represented by f.
aculeatus (Fig. 3) and f. personal us (Fig. 4);
B. calyciflorus includes f. dorcas (Fig. 5), f.
anuraeiformis (Fig. 6) and f. amphiceros (Fig.
7). B. quadridentatus consists of typical form
(Fig. 8) and f. cluniorbicularis (Fig. 9) while
B. forficula includes typical form (Fig. 10) and
f. minor (Fig. 11). Specimens of B. angularis
(Figs. 12-14) could be referred to the typical
form. In addition, K. tropica is represented by
various cyclomorphic forms (Figs. 15-17).

Mytilina acanthophora comprises a rare and
interesting form in this fauna; it is known so
far only from West Bengal (Sharma 1979a)
and Panjab (Sharma and Sharma 1984). L.
curvicornis is reported previously from Nagpur,
Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal while C.
mucronata is known only from West Bengal
(Sharma 19796). P. vulgaris, though common
in fish ponds, is reported previously only from
eastern India i.e., West Bengal (Sharma 19796)
and Orissa (Sharma 1980). Quite likely, other
allied species of P. dolichoptera-vulgaris
group may also be found in this region. The
other reported taxa show a wide distribution
in this country.

453

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

The rotifer community is comprised of
maximum of 12-15 species in the studied sam-
ples. Of these, B. angularis , B . calyciflorus,
B. rubens and K . tropica invariably dominated
the limnetic samples while B.diversicornis, B.
falcatus and B. forficula comprised subdomi-
nant elements. A. brightwelli, P. vulgaris , H.
mira and Pompholyx sulcata are also found
in plankton samples. On the other hand,
My t Hina spp., Trichotria tetractis, Lecane spp.
and Cephalodella spp. are associated with
littoral region, often infested with attached
algae and macrophytes.

More or less clear indications are available

Dept, of Zoology,

North-Eastern Hill University,

Shillong - 793 014,

Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta - 700 016,

December 12, 1984.

relating to trophic status of certain taxa. B.
angularis, B. rubens and B. calyciflorus are
found in eutrophic waters while B. forficula
and B. diversicornis are collected presenlty
from potable waters. Swarming of B. rubens,
associated with those of certain cladocerans,
i.e. Daphnia carinata and Moina micrura, is
observed in ponds with blooms of blue-green
algae. Under such conditions, B. rubens
occurred as an epizoic on the mentioned clado-
ceran taxa as has also been observed under
identical conditions in West Bengal (Sharma
1983).

B K. SHARMA

SUMITA SHARMA

References

Sharma, B. K. (1976): Rotifers collected from
North-West India. Newsl. zool. Surv. India, 2: 255-
259.

— (1979a): Rotifers from West Ben-

gal III. Further studies on the Eurotatoria. Hydro-
biologia, 64 : 239-250.

— (1979b) : Rotifers from West Ben-
gal. TV. Further contributions to the Eurotatoria,
ibid. 65: 39-47.

— (1980): Contributions to the roti-

fer fauna of Orissa, India, ibid. 70: 225-233.

(1983) : The Indian species of the

genus Brachionus (Eurotatoria: Monogononta:

Brachionidae). ibid. 104: 31-39.

Sharma, B. K. & Sharma (nee Das), Sumita
(1984): A note on some Eurotatoria from Panjab
State, India, ibid. 109: 279-282.

39. NYMPHACEAE OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR

Kashmir is famous for its gardens and lakes.
The lakes which are of scenic beauty include
Dal lake, Nagin lake, Anchar lake and Wular
lake. From spring to autumn these lakes get
added beauty by the presence of variously
coloured flowering plants, mostly of the family
Nymphaceae.

This family of confused taxonomy, includes

a number of aquatic herbs, in tropical and
north temperate regions of the world. The
family is represented by two genera in our
area, including genus Euryale Salisb., now
placed in Euryalaceae in Flora Europaea com-
prising of only one species, and the second
genus Nymphaea L. comprising many species.

Several workers including Hooker, f. &

454

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Thomson (1872) in flora of British India
reported only one species, viz. Nymphaea alba
L. from our area, while Stewart (1972) from
his extensive collection has been able to isolate
only three species from this area. Kak (1985),
while revising Nymphaceae of N. W. Hima-
laya, has reported six species of Nymphaea.
On studies based on the herbarium material
available in KASH and of fresh collections,
we are of the opinion that there are at least
eight species present in our area.

Nymphaea L. is a genus with about 40
species distributed all over the world. From
the Indian subcontinent, Roxburgh (1832)
described six species while J. D. Hooker men-
tioned only four species. Subramanyam (1962)
described only two species, merging N. lotus
and N. nouchali which was followed by Kak
(1985), who agrees that the two species are
distinct though he has not included N. nouchali
in his Nymphaceae of N. W. Himalaya.
Stewart (1972), in his Catalogue mentions
only five species from our area and consider-
ed that the study of water nymphs has been
neglected. However, the present investigation
of the genus Nymphaea in our area reveals
that eight species can be recognised. An arti-
ficial key leading to these species and
enumeration for the reference is given below:

Key to the species

1. Petals usually white (may be pinkish in
N. nouchali )

2. Leaves sinuae toothed, pubescent beneath . . .

N. nouchali

2a Leaves entire or obscurely toothed

3. Rhizome creeping

4. Leaves suborbicular, 10-40 cm across,
lobes parallel or diverging; flowers 8-20
cm across; sepals linear-oblong to lan-
ceolate; petals ± ovate; fruit 2-4 cm
dia.; seeds ovoid .......... N. alba

4a. Leaves orbicular, 9-30 cm, lobes diver-
ging; flowers 20-25 cm across; sepals

oblong; petals ovate-oblong; fruit 1-1.7
cm across; seeds obovoid .... N. lotus
3a. Rhizome erect or ascending sometimes with
disarticulated branches

5. Receptacle 4-angled; fruit upto 4 cm
across

6. Leaves circular, 10-40 cm across;
flowers 8-15 cm across; stigma 10-15

rayed N . Candida

6a. Leaves ovate to obovate 5-10 cm
across; flowers 3-5 cm across; stigma

4-10 rayed N. tetragona

5a. Receptacle not as above; fruit 2-2.5 cm
across N. tuberosa

la. Petals yellow or variously coloured

7 . Leaves orbicular or elliptic, purple beneath,
lobes acute or obtuse; flowers variously
coloured ...................... N. stellata

7a. Leaves roundish oblong, lobes diverging;
flowers usually yellow N. mexicana

Enumerations

1 . Nymphaea Candida C. Presl. in J. C,
PresI, Dei. Prag. 224. 1822.

N. cachmeriana Camb. in Jacq. Voy. 4:
11. 1844. N. alba var. kashmiriana Hook,
f. & Thoms., FI. Brit. India 1: 114. 1872.

2 . Nymphaea alba L., Sp. PI. 510. 1753.

The commonest water nymph of our area,
locally known as Bumpoosh. The petioles
are dried and used as vegetable and it is
said to be of medicinal value.

3. Nymphaea tetragona Georgi., Reise Russ.
Reich. 1: 220. 1775. TV. pygmaea Aitch.,
Hort. Kew ed. 2: 293. 1811. N. alba ssp.
tetragona Korzhinshi FI. Vort. Eur. 133.
1892.

4. Nymphaea stellata Willd., Sp. PI. 2: 1153.
1799.

5. Nymphaea mexicana Zucc, in Abh. Akad
Muench. 1: 365. 1832.

6. Nymphaea lotus L., Sp. PI. 511. 1753.

7. Nymphaea tuberosa Paine, Cat. PI. Oneida.
132. 1890.

455

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

8. Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f., FI. Ind.
120. 1786. N. lotus var. pubescens Hook.

f. & Thoms., FI. Brit. India 1: 114. 1872.
non L.

Botany Department,

University of Kashmir,

Srinagar - 190 006.

Centre of Plant Taxonomy,

University of Kashmir,

Srinagar- 190 006,

September 19, 1987.

R E FE

Hooker, J. D. (1872) : Flora of British India. I.
London.

Javeid, G. N. (1987): Flora of Srinagar and its
environs, (in press).

Kak, A. M. (1985): Family Nymphaceae in the
North Western Himalaya. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 7(3) :
591-98.

Roxburgh, W. (1832): Flora Indica, 2nd ed.
Calcutta.

KWEETA KOUL

A. R. NAQSHI

E N CE S

Stewart, R. R. (1972): Catalogue of Vascular
Plants of West Pakistan and Kashmir. Karachi,
Pakistan.

Subramanyam, K. (1962): Aquatic Angiosperms.
CSIR. New Delhi.

Tutin, T. G. et at. (1964): Flora Europaea. I.
Cambridge.

40. REDISCOVERY OF THREE RARE PLANTS FROM KUMAUN

HIMALAYA

During the study of the flora of Kumaun
Himalaya, three rare species, namely Psilotum
nudum (Linn.) Beauv. (Psilotaceae), Asple-
nium nidus Linn. (Aspleniaceae) and Wallichia
densiflora Mart. (Palmaceae) were collected.
Earlier literature and records reveal that these
species have been collected after a lapse of a
considerable period from the Kumaun Hima-
laya, These species appear to be extremely
rare because they were collected only once
from one particular locality and are almost on
the verge of extinction. It is likely that they
may not be found in the future in the Kumaun
Himalaya, if proper steps for their conservation
are not taken in time.

The present paper reports the rediscovery
of these three plants in Kumaun Himalaya
along with other relevant information. The
field number along with collector’s name is

given in brackets. The voucher specimens are
deposited in the Herbarium, Botany Depart-
ment, D. S. B. College, Kumaun University,
Naini Tal.

l.Asplenium nidus Linn., Sp. PI. 1079. 1753;

Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 2 (Bot.)

1; 475, 1880; Hope, J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 13: 459. 1901; Duthie, Cat. PI. Kumaun

224. 1906; Dhir, Biblioth. Pterid. 1: 113.

1980; Dixit, Census Indian Pterid. 119. 1984.

Thamnopteris nidus Presl, Epim. Bot. 68.

1849; Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brit. India 137.

1883.

This species is reported to occur in India
from Assam to Garhwal, the latter being the
westernmost limit of its distribution. The
occurrence of this species in Kumaun and
Hope (1901), on the basis of collections made
Garhwal Himalaya has been mentioned by

456

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

by Strachey and Winterbottom (1848) from
Ramganga river at an altitude of 750 m., and
by Duthie (1884) from near Askote between
900-1200 m and from Gori valley between
900-1200 m (1886). Since then, this species
has neither been collected nor reported from
these previously known localities by subsequent
workers. It has now been collected from near
Didihat in Pithoragarh district after a lapse
of more that a hundred years.

Specimens examined : Kumaun Himalaya:
Pithoragarh district, near Askote around 1,400
m (Samant, 1311).

Ecology : Extremely rare fern and grows
epiphytically on the tree trunks of Quercus
leucotrichophora A. Camus in deep shaded
ravines.

2. Psilotum nudum (Linn.) P. Beauv., Prodr.
Fam. Aetheog. 112. 1805; Duthie, Cat. PL
Kumaun 232. 1906. Lycopodium nudum

Linn., Sp. PI. 1100. 1753. Psilotum trique-
trum Sw., Schrad. Journ. Bot. 1800 (2): 109.
1801.

In India, this species is fairly well repre-
sented in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Madhya
Pradesh, South and Western India, West Ben-
gal, Bhutan, Sikkim, Upper Gangetic plains,
Kumaun, Garhwal and Himachal Pradesh. In
Kumaun, its occurrence was reported by
Duthie (1906), based on the collections made
by Strachey and Winterbottom during the years
1846-1849 from Gagas river in Almora district
at an altitude of 1300 m. Since then, the pre-
sence of this species from Kumaun is being
recorded after nearly 126 years.

Specimens examined : Kumaun Himalaya:
Pithoragarh district, near Askote around
Dept, of Botany,

D. S. B. College,

Kumaun University,

Naini Tal 263 002,

U.P.,

June 10, 1987.

1500 m (Samant, 1975).

Ecology : Extremely rare and grows epiphy-
tically on the tree trunks of Syzyzium cumini
(Linn.) Skeel.

3. Wallichia densiflora Mart., Hist. Nat. Palm.

3: 190. 1838; Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 419.

1892; Prain, Bengal pi. 1094. 1903; Brandis,

Ind. Trees 655. 1906; Duthie, Cat. PI.

Kumaun 192. 1906; Osmaston, For. FI.

Kumaun 543. 1927. Wallichia oblongifolia

Griff., Cal. Journ. Nat. Hist. 5: 486. 1835.

Harina oblongifolia Griff., Palms Brit. Ind.

173. t. 237. ABC. 1854.

This species occurs throughout the tropical
Himalayas from Kumaun to Assam and
Chittagong, and was collected from Kumaun
by Strachey and Winterbottom during the
years 1846-1849 from Ramganga river and
Bhabar region between 300-800 m. Later,
Osmaston (1927) reported it as fairly common
in the central and outer regions of Kumaun
Himalaya in deep, shady ravines between 330-
1000 m. The present collection of this species
from Kumaun Himalaya shows that it is being
collected after a lapse of nearly fifty years.

Specimens examined: Kumaun Himalaya:
Naini Tal district, near Bhujia Ghat at 600 m
(Pangtey, 437).

Ecology : Extremely rare and grows always
in deep shady ravines along perennial streams
in miscellaneous forest.

Ack nowledgement

We are grateful to the Head, Botany
Department, D. S. B. College, Kumaun Uni-
versity, Naini Tal for providing necessary
facilities.

Y. P. S. PANGTEY
S. S. SAMANT

457

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 85

41. OCCURRENCE OF SPERMACOCE MAURITIAN A O. GIDEON

IN WESTERN INDIA

Spermacoce mauritiana O. Gideon, even
though quite a common species in India, has
often been misidentified. While determining
the identity of various species of Borreria
collected from Ratnagiri District, we noticed
this distinct looking plant which resembled
Borreria ocymoides DC. in appearance. On
further critical examination it was identified
as Borreria repens DC. given in Backer &
Bakh. f. FI. Java — a species now correctly
called Spermacoce mauritiana Gideon. Deb. &
Dutta (1984) have reported this species under
Spermacoce decandollei from N. E. India and
Tamilnadu. They seem to have overlooked
Gideon’s name and thus made an additional
superfluous name. We give below the correct
nomenclature, description, distribution and
specimens examined by us at Blatter Herba-
rium and at B.S.I., Pune.

Spermacoce mauritiana O. Gideon in Verd.
Kew Bull. 37: 547, 1983. Borreria repens DC
Prodr. 4: 542. 1830 (non Spermacoce repens
Willd. ex Chem. & Schlecht. 1928): Backer
& Bakh. f. FI. Java 2: 353. 1965. Begelowia
parviflora Sieber, FI. Maurit. no. 144: 1825
(nom. nud.) (non Spreng. 1825). S. decan-
dollei Deb. & Dutta in Journ. Econ. Tax. Bot.
5, 1044, t. 2. 1984 (nom. superfluous).

Erect or decumbent herb, 10-45 cm tall.
Stem 4-angled, sparsely hairy. Leaves sub-
sessile, elliptic, up to 3.5 x 1.5 cm, acute or
subacute, base narrowed, glabrous or minutely
hairy above, more hairy on the nerves beneath.
Heads terminal or axillary, up to 0.6 cm
across, many flowered; bracts 4-8; bracteoles
filiform. Calyx 2-lobed; tube 0.5 mm long.

Corolla lobes 4, 1.0 mm long, white; stamens
4, attached at the sinus. Style short; stigma
bilobed. Capsule + 1.0 mm long (excluding
2 calyx teeth), thin walled, glabrescent or
puberulous in the upper half. Seeds oblong,
up to 1.0 mm long, brown.

The species is usually found in moist places,
among grasses along roadsides, in harvested
rice fields, etc.

Flowers & Fruits : August-November

Fig. : Deb. & Datta l.c.

Distribution in Western India :

Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamilnadu
and Kerala.

Specimens examined :

Blatter Herbarium — Mistry M. K.: Ratna-
giri 1095, Dapoli — 1330, Machal — 1634;
Almeida, S. M. : Ratnagiri 348 & 752; Almeida,
M. R.: Dhopeshwar — Maharashtra — 4666.

BSI Herbarium — Singh, N. P.: Cadal

Nanacha dongar — Goa 124484; Rao: 92870;
Khisti: Sangam — 125228; Rao: Sampaje,
Karnataka — 74750; & Mercara — Kotagiri
Road — 24637; Subramanian: Tenmalai —
Kerala 76904: Vasaveda: Edamon — Kerala
37064.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Principal, St. Xavier’s
College, Bombay and the authorities of BSI
herbarium, Pune for rendering facilities for
reference work in the herbarium; to Dr. (Mrs.)
A. R. Daruwala, our colleague, and Mr. M.
R. Almeida of Alchemie Research Centre,
Thane, for the help rendered in preparing
this note.

458

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MANEK MISTRY
RAJENDRA SHINDE
S. M. ALMEIDA

Blatter Herbarium,
St. Xavier’s College,
Bombay-400 001,
August 21, 1987.

42. GOODYERA FUMATA THW. (ORCHIDACEAE) — A NEW
RECORD FOR SOUTH INDIA

( With a text-figure)

During a revisionary study on Nearctic
orchids of India under the National Flora
Project of the Botanical Survey of India, a
collection (Acc. 86612, MH) made from
Kerala in 1942 and identified as Hetaeria
ovalifolia (Wt.) Benth., upon critical study has
been proved to be Goodyera fumata Thw.
which was hitherto known only from Sikkim
and Arunachal Pradesh in India, and hence is
reported here as a new addition to the South
Indian orchid flora.

Goodyera fumata has a very close resem-
blance to Hetaeria ovalifolia in its robust
vegetative features but can be differentiated
from the latter by careful observation of the
following characters shown in the key.

Leaves with branched midvein. Midlobe
of lip longer than the lateral lobes,
linear-oblong. Column with single

ventral stigma Goodyera fumata

Leaves with unbranched midvein.

Midlobe of lip subequal to lateral

lobes, ovate. Column with two

lateral stigmata Hetaeria ovalifolia

Goodyera fumata Thw. has been listed
below with a line drawings (Fig. 1) and
a brief note on its distribution in order to
facilitate field collectors to locate it elsewhere
in the country.

Goodyera fumata Thw. Enum. PI. Zeyl. 314.
1864; Jayaweera in Dass. et Fosberg, FI.
Ceylon 2: 310. fig. 137. 1981; Hook. f. FI.
Brit. India 6: 111. 1890; King and Pantl. in

Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8: 284. t.
377. 1898; Seidenfaden in Dansk Bot. Arkiv
32(2): 21. fig. 7. 1978; A. N. Rao in Vij (ed.),
Biol. Cons. Cult. Orch. 326. 1986.

Specimen examined : Kerala, Tinne Valley
Hills, Acc. No. 86612 (MH), Oct. 1942.

Distribution : India (Sikkim, Arunachal

Pradesh, Kerala), Sri Lanka, Yunnan, Tonkin,
Taiwan, Thailand, Ryukyu, Philippines and
Japan.

Note: The present report of its occurrence
in Kerala is interestingly a connecting link

Fig. 1. Goodyera fumata Thw.: a. Plant; b. Lip.

459

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

between Sri Lanka and Northeast India thereby
giving a clue of its possible occurrence in in-
tervening states namely Tamilnadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal.

Ack no wledge m en ts

Sincere thanks are due to Dr. S. N. Hegde,

Orchid Res. & Dev. Centre,

Forest Department,

Tipi, Bhalukpong-790 114,

Arunachal Pradesh,

August 29, 1987.

Orchidologist, Tipi, Forest Department of
Arunachal Pradesh for facilities and encourage-
ment and to the Director, Botanical Survey of
India, Howrah for allotting to me the revi-
sionary work of Nearctic orchids under the
National Flora Project.

A. NAGESWARA RAO

43. A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF DIDYMOPLEXIS P ALLENS
GRIFF. (ORCHIDACEAE) IN ANDHRA PRADESH

During the study on the West Godavari
district (16°15'-17°30' N; 80°50'-81°55' E)
flora of Andhra Pradesh, in one of the collec-
tion trips we collected an interesting sapro-
phytic taxon in fruiting condition along the
Eastern Ghats (c. 600 m).

The taxon has been identified as Didymo-
plexis pallens Griff. (Orchidaceae). This is the
only species, among Indian saprophytic
orchids, which has got the capsules with 10-20
cm long erect pedicels.

Didymoplexis pallens Griff, is one among
the rare and endangered orchids of India. In
South India it is known so far only from
Coorg (Karanataka State), but it is common in
Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya and
Arunachal Pradesh in Northeastern Himalayas.
The present collection is the first record from
the Eastern Ghats, and bridges the gap bet-
ween Western Ghats and Northeastern parts

1 Department of Botany,

Andhra University,

Walt air - 530 003.

2Andhra Pradesh Forest
Development Corporation,

Hyderabad, A.P.

September 19, 1987.

of India. It may possibly be located in the
adjacent districts, viz. East Godavari and
Visakhapatnam districts and also in Orissa
State, if collections are made immediately after
the first rains, since the plant completes its
life cycle within 2-3 weeks.

Fruiting'. May- July

Distribution'. India (West Bengal, Sikkim,
Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh in N.E.
Himalayas); Burma (Yahudan); Indonesia
(Java) and Malaysia.

Specimen studied'. Andhra Pradesh: PV et
TAR. 8259, Papi Hills, Chilakaluru, West
Godavari District, 25 June 1980.

Ack nowledge m e nts

We thank Dr. A. N. Rao of the Orchid
Research Centre, Tipi, Arunachal Pradesh for
his suggestions.

P. VENKANNA1
T. APPI REDDY2
ROLLA S. RAO1

460

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

44. OCCURRENCE OF P1STACIA ATLANTICA DEAF. SSP.
CABULICA ((STOCKS) RECH. F., IN HIMACHAL PRADESH

While identifying a collection of plants from
Himachal Pradesh, received through Mr. N. K.
Negi, retired Divisional Forest Officer of
Himachal Pradesh Forest Department, I came
across a specimen of Pistacia Linn, which could
not be matched with any of the species of this
genus known to occur in India. Critical exa-
mination revealed that the plant in question was
P. atlantica Desf. ssp. cabulica, which occurs
principally in Afghanistan, and alst in southern
Iran and Pakistan. The present paper records
for the first time from the wild (N K Negi,
pers. commun.) the occurrence of this Pistacio
tree in Himachal Pradesh.

Pistacia atlantica Desf. FI. Atlant. 2: 364.
1800. ssp. cabulica (Stocks) Rech. f., FI. Iran.
63:5. 1969; Y.J. Nasir in E. Nasir & S. I. Ali,
FI. West, Pak. 152: 15, fig. 4, B, & C. 1983.
Pistacia cabulica Stocks in J. D. Hooker, Kew

J. Bot. 4: 143. 1852. Pistacia mutica Fisch. &
Mey ssp. cabulica (Stocks) Engler in DC.
Monogr. Phan 4: 287. 1883.

A tree up to 7 m tall. Twigs puberulous.
Leaves imparipinnate. Leaflets (3-) 5-9 in num-
ber, 26-70 x 8-22 mm, lanceolate; petiole wing-
ed, puberulous. Panicle extra-axillary, 7-13 cm
long, puberulous. Bracts 1-2 mm long, lanceo-
late, scarious, deciduous, brown. Ovary ovoid,
— 1 mm long. Styles 3, reflexed. Drupe 5-6.5
mm long, sub-orbicular-oblique in outline, com-
pressed, apiculate; epicarp nervose, yellow-
brown.

Specimen examined :

Village Siplo, 2200 m, District Kinnaur
(Himachal Pradesh), May- June 1986, N. K.
Negi s.n. (DD). ‘Wild’.

Distribution : Southern Iran, Afghanistan,

Pakistan and Himachal Pradesh in India.

New Forest, H. B. NAITHANI

Dehra Dun,

February 4, 1988.

45. NEW RECORD OF CALYMPERES THW AITESI1 BESCH. SUBSP.
FORDII FLEISCH. FROM MAHARASHTRA STATE, INDIA1

(With a plate)

Calymperes thwaitesii Besch. subsp. fordii Fleisch., an epiphytic moss which
mostly grows on the trunk of Cocos nucifera and Mangifera indica at Bombay is
being reported for the first time from Maharashtra. Presence of cluster of septate
gemmae at the leaf apex is the most characteristic feature of this moss.

As this moss grows around the coastal region at Bombay, it is ecologically
considered as an indicator of maritime climate.

Indian mosses had attracted the attention of
many bryologists like De la Pottier, Bruhl
(1931), Dixon (1921), G. Foreau (1961),
Norkett (1961), Chopra (1974), Gangulee
(1972) who have described these from diffe-

rent localities in India. However, little atten-
tion has been paid to the mosses of western
India. An epiphytic moss on the trunk of
Cocos nucifera (coconut) and Mangifera indica
(mango), after careful study has been confirm-

461

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 85

ed as Calymperes thwaitesii Besch. This
species was reported by Bruhl (1931) from
Kanara. As there is no previous report of this
moss from this state it is considered to be a
new record from Maharashtra. Recently the
author and Akhtar Hasan Rizvi collected it at
different localities around Bombay, viz. Borivli,
Bassein and Kankeshwar, from the trunks of
the above trees growing near the sea shore.

Calymperes thwaitesii Besch . Ann. Sc. Nat.
Bot. Ser. 8, 1: 270, 306. 1896. ssp. fordii
(Besch.) Fleisch., Musci FI. Buitenzorg 1 : 240-
258. 1904. ( Calymperes , 1896). (Plate I).

Plants small, forming short bluish or
yellowish green tuft with a felt of rhizoids m
their lower part. Stem 1 to 1.5 cm. high,
enclosed by leaves and fine smooth axillary
rhizoids. Leaves when dry nearly erect, slightly
contorted and incurved. On keeping them
moist, they become erecto-patent, lan-
ceolate, concave with tortuous wavy margin
and round apex. Margin of the leaf apex is
denticulate. Terminal leaves are acuminate,
lingulate and with an excurrent nerve. Trans-
versely septated, clavate gemmae present only
at the tips of terminal leaves. The hyaline
basal part of the leaf narrow, oval with loosely
arranged rectangular to polygonal cells. Each
hyaline cell towards the mid is 60 /x long and
28 j a long and 14.4 /x broad. The top cells
of the hyaline basal region of leaf nearly
rhomboidal. Teniolae (intralaminar cells) are
rectangular, elongated cells in 3-5 series:
persistent from the basal hyaline region to the
middle part of leaf. Teniolae are 44 /x long
and 6.4 /x broad. Hyaline marginal cells at the

B. N. Bandodkar College of Science,
Thane-400 601 .

M. D. College, Bombay-400 012.

March 23, 1988.

leaf base in 1-2 series. The chlorophyllose
laminar cells are prosenchymatous, thin-walled,
quadrate to hexagonal. 10 /x long, 8.8 /x broad.
Midrib prominent, percurrent in normal leaves,
but excurrent in gemmiferous leaves. Cells of
the midrib rectangular, elongated and in 5-6
series, cells of midrib 73 n long and 14 y
broad. Basal part of the midrib becomes flat
higher up, circular with one row of ‘deuter’
or water -conduction cells. There are two
steridal bands above and below the deuter
cells. A star-like cluster of clavate gemmae
present at the tip of the excurrent midrib of
the leaves. Gemmae transversely septate, light
green in colour. 187 /x long and 30 /x broad.

Distribution : Kanara (Bruhl 1931), Bassein,
Uran, Kankeshwar, Bombay (Dabhade 1980,
Akhtar Hasan 1987). This species is cosmo-
politan all over the coastal regions in tropics.

Discussion

In his personal communication to Sr. author,
Norkett (1961, 1971) wrote that:

“ Calymperes thwaitesii Besch. was first re-
corded by Bescherrle (1895) from Ceylon.
Another species, Calymperes fordii Fleisch.
was also described by Max Fleischer (1904),
who is of the opinion that C. fordii Fleisch.
is very closely related to C. thwaitesii Besch.
He therefore treated C. fordii Fleisch., as a
subspecies of C. thwaitesii Besch.” As this
species of Calymperes was not recorded so
far, this report is considered as a new record
from Maharashtra. As C. thwaitesii Besch.
grows on the coconut and mango trees only
around coastal region.

G. T. DABHADE
AKHTAR HASAN RIZVI

462

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85 Plate I

Dabhade & Rizvi: Calymperes thwaitesii subsp. fordii

Calymperes thwaitesii Besch. subsp. fordii Fleisch.

1. Showing plant in dry condition; 2. Showing plant in moist condition; 3. Showing
cellular structure of the entire leaf; 4. Leaf with cluster of gemmae; 5. Enlarged
view of clavate, septate, gemmae with girdle-shaped chloroplast in the cell; 6. Enlarged
view of laminar cells; 7. Enlarged view of leaf base showing leaf base cells, teniolae
(intra-laminar cells) and laminar cells; 8. T. S. of leaf showing ‘deuter, cells in the
middle of midrib and laminar cells.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Akhtar Hasan (1987): Bryophytes of Western
Ghat — I. Mosses from Bombay & adjacent region
(Ph.D. thesis, unpublished).

Bruhl, P. (1931): Census of Indian Mosses. Rec.
Bot. Sur. India 13(1): 50.

Chopra, R. S. (1974) : Introduction to Taxonomy
of Indian Mosses. (Monograph published by C.S.I.R.,
Delhi).

Dixon, H. N. (1921) : On a collection of mosses
from the Kanara District. Ind. Bot. Soc. 2: 174-188.

Foreau, G. (1961): The Moss flora of the Palni
Hills. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 5S(1) : 13-47.

Gangulee, H. C. (1972) - Mosses of Eastern India
(Fas. 1-7). Calcutta.

Van der Vijk, Mardent et al. (1959) : Index
Muscorum. Vol. L 413. Utrecht.

463

ERRATA

VOLUME 84 (1): APRIL 1987
Miscellaneous Notes

On page 268,

Note No. 40, In the Title,

For Anthraxon Read Arthraxon

VOLUME 84(3) : DECEMBER 1987
Status of wildlife and habitat conservation in Andhra Pradesh

on Page 611. in Table 3, Read

Name

District Area Sq Km

In the Year
Established

Major animals

3 . Lanjamadugu Sanctuary

36

1978

4. Nagarjunasagar-

Guntur, Prakasam, 3268

1978

Largest Tiger reserve in

Srisailam Sanctuary

Kurnool, Mahaboob-
nagar, Nalgonda

India. Tiger, Leopard,
Sloth Bear, Wildboar,
Spotted deer, Sambar,
Nilgai, Chowsingha, Jac-
kal, Fox, Mugger.

Miscellaneous Notes

34. Two little known llowering plants from Maharashtra
On page 719,

Cassia dimidiata (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.) Collett has been reported from Maharashtra
However, name adopted for the taxon seems to be a later homonym, as there is already
another species known by that name Cassia dimidiata D. Don (1825). Correct name for
the taxon reported is Cassia hochestetteri Chesq. (Bull. Jard. Bot. Brux. 9: 155, 1932). For
added synonymy and more details see — Singh. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 18: 87, 1979.

M. R. Almeida

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VOLUME 85 (3) : DECEMBER 1988

Date of Publication : 20-2-1989

CONTENTS

Page

A Checklist of the Birds of Haigam Rakh, Kashmir. By P. R. Holmes and

A. J. Parr ... 465

Biological aspects of two species of Gerrids, Limnogonus fossarum fossarum
Fabr. and Limnogonus nitidus Mayer (Hemiptera: Heteroptera). By M.
Selvanayagam and T. K. Raghunatha Rao. (With two text-figures ) . . 474

Phayre’s Leaf Monkey (Trachypithecus phayrei ) in Cachar. By Anwaruddin

Choudhury. (With three text- figures ) . , 485

Breeding biology of Barbets, Megalaima spp. (Capitonidae: Piciformes) at
Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala. By H. S. A. Yahya. (With six text- figures and
a map ) . . 493

Life history of the common Indian Tree Frog, Polypedates maculatus
(Gray, 1834) (Anura: Rhacophoridae) . By P. Mohanty-Hejmadi and Sushil
K. Dutta. (With nine text-figures) . . 512

New records for Maharashtra. By S. M. Almeida and M. R. Almeida .. 518

The diet of the Whitecheeked Bulbul Pycnonotus leucogenys. By Khalid Y.

Al-Dabbagh, Jameel H. Jiad and Intisar N. Waheed. (With four text-figures) 530

A PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE INCIDENTAL ENTRAPMENT OF ODONTOCETES BY SRI

Lanka’s coastal drift net fishery. By Abigail Ailing. (With four text-figures) 538

Seasonal variations in the colour patterns of Coccinella septempunctata L.
(Coleoptera, Coccinellidae) in Nilgiri Hills, India. By M. Rhamhalinghan.

(With three text-figures) . . 551

Field biology of Nesokia indica with reference to Orchards of Baluchistan

(Pakistan). By Afsar Mian .. 559

Observations on Birds on Mundanthurai Plateau, Tamil Nadu. By Justus

Joshua and A. J. T. Johnsingh. (With a text-figure) .. 565

Possibilities of self-sustenance of tree ranging Rhesus of Tughlaqabad.

By Iqbal Malik. (With a text- figure) 578

Floristic and ecological studies on legumes from hilly regions of Pune
and Satara Districts of Maharashtra State. By Jayananda Tosh, V. D.

Vartak and M. S. Kumbhojkar 585

New Descriptions:

A new species of Marpissa Koch (Araneae: Salticidae) from India. By Kanchan

Monga, J. P. Singh and G. L. Sadana. (With two text- figures) . . 592

Two new species of genus Dystropicus Pascoe (Coleoptera: Curculionidae:
Cryptorhynchinae) from India. By L. S. Arya and H. R. Pajni. (With
twelve text-figures) . . 594

A new species of Oncocephalus Klug (Heteroptera-Reduviidae-Stenopodinae)
from Southern India. By Dunston P. Ambrose and S.J. Vennison. (With
eleven text-figures ) . . 599

Two NEW SPECIES OF PlRATINAE STAL FROM SOUTHERN INDIA (HETEROPTERA-
Reduviidae-Piratinae). By David Livingstone and C. Murugan. (With two
text- figures) . . 602

Reviews :

1 . Plants in Danger. (M. R. Almeida) . . 606

2. Common Fishes of India (Robert B. Grubh) . . 606

3. Flowers of the Himalayas. (M. R. Almeida) . . 607

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. Occurrence of an Albino Rat-Tailed Bat; Rhinopoma microphyllum kinneari
Wroughton in the Indian desert. (With a text-figure). By U. S. Bhati (p. 608); 2. Habitat
sharing by Hanuman Langurs and Indian Flying Foxes. By U. S. Bhati and Arun Sriva-
stava (p. 608); 3. Leopard and Tiger interactions at Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal.
By Charles McDougal (p. 609); 4. The small Mongoose feeding on droppings of Nilgai.
By Satish Kumar Sharma (p. 611).

Birds: 5. Aerial feeding by Median Egret (Egretta intermedia), Little Egret (Egretta
garzetta) and Pond Heron (Ardeola grayii). By C. Sivasubramanian (p. 611); 6. An
incident of a male Nukta Sarkidiornis melanotos (Pennant) mounting on a Spotbill Anas
poecilorhyncha Forster. By U. Sridharan (p. 612); 7. Observations on the unusual beha-
viour of Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan.
By George M. John (p. 613); 8. Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina hastata) nesting
in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. By Vibhu Prakash (p, 614); 9. Indian Scavenger
Vulture (Neophron percnopterus ginginianus) feeding on a dead White-Backed Vulture
(Gyps bengalensis) . By Vibhu Prakash (p. 614); 10. Some observations on unusual feed-
ing behaviour of Whilebreasted Waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus) By S. Balachandran
(p. 615); 11. Foraging-related change in forehead colour in Kentish Plover (Charadrius
alexandrinus) . By Shahid Ali (p. 616); 12. Brown-headed Gull, Larus brunnicephalus in
Iraq — A correction. By David S. Melville (p. 617); 13. Kessler’s Thrush (T urdus

kessleri) from Nepal. By Tim Robinson (p. 618); 14. Presence of fruit of Xanthium
strumarium in the nest of Ploceus philippinus. By Satish Kumar Sharma (p. 620);
15. Observations on some Snake-eating birds of the Chilka Lagoon, Orissa. By T. S. N.
Murthy and Kaza V. Rama Rao (p. 620).

Reptiles: 16. Notes on Crocodilian locomotion. (With a photograph). By Romulus

Whitaker and Harry Andrews (p. 621); 17. A new record of the Assam Roofed Turtle
Kachuga sylhetensis (Jerdon) from the Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam. By Srikanta
Sarma (p. 623); 18. On the indentity and occurrence of the Peacock soft-shell (Trionyx
hurum Gray) in Rajasthan. By S. Bhupathy and C. R. Ajith Kumar (p. 624); 19. The
artificial incubation of eggs of the Common Cat Snake Boiga trigonata (Schneider). By
Raju Vyas (p. 618).

Amphibia: 20. Addenda to the Amphibian Fauna of India. By S. K. Chanda and A. K.
Ghosh (p. 626); 21. A note on the Morphometry of Rhacophorus malabaricus, the Malabar
Gliding Frog. By A. G. Sekar (p. 627).

Fishes: 22. Rare occurrence of Sunfish Mola mola (Linnaeus) from the coastal waters off
Visakhapatnam (Bay of Bengal). (With a photograph) . By B. Ram Bhaskar, D. Panduranga
Rao, M. Rama Murty, G. Maheswarudu, Y.V.K. Durga Prasad, K. Phani Prakash, and
J. D. Susheel Kumar (p. 629); 23. A note on the Ichthyofauna of Sanjay Gandhi National
Park, Borivli, Bombay. (With a text-figure) . By D. F. Singh and G. M. Yazdani (p. 631).

Insects: 24. New Records of Aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) from Garhwal range of
Western Himalaya, India. By Santanu Saha and S. Chakrabarti (p. 633); 25. A Butterfly
phenomenon. By Suresh Elamon (p. 636); 26. Parapoynx diminutalis Snellen (Pyralidae:
Lepidoptera) as a serious pest of Nymphoides cristatum in Keoladeo National Park,
Bharatpur, Rajasthan. By George M. John and C. Nanjappa (p. 637); 27. Life table
studies on the Spotted Bollworm Earias vittella (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in
cotton ecosystem. By D. Aral Samraj and B. V. David (p. 637); 28. Loss estimation in
Cabbage due to Leaf Webber Crocidolomia binotalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). ( With three
text-figures). By Clement Peter, Iqbal Singh, G. P. Channabasavanna, C. L. Suman and
K. Krishnaiah (p. 642); 29. The food of Bengalia lateralis Macquart, 1842 (Diptera:
Calliphoridae) in Sri Lanka. By D. P. Wijesinghe (p. 644); 30. Record of parasitoids of
Asphondylia riveae Mani (Cecidomyiidae : Diptera). By R. W. Alexander Jesudasan and
B. V. David (p. 645).

Other Invertebrates: 31. New record of Cryptopodia angulata Milne-Edwards & Lucas
(Parthenopidae: Decapoda: Crustacea) from Malaysian Waters. By Qamar Banu and K. M.
Nural Huda (p. 646); 32. New records of Prawns, Shrimps and Amphipods from Lake
Kollera with notes on their distribution. By K. R. Seshagiri Rao (p. 647); 33. A first
report of an Arachnid Order Uropygida (whip scorpion) from Maharashtra. (With a
text-figure ). By D. B. Bastawade (p. 648); 34. Aggregating tendency in Mesobuthus tamu-
lus famulus (Fabricius) (Scorpionida, Buthidae). By B. E. Yadav and R. H. Kamble

(p. 650); 35. A new record of lxoides cornutus MacGilchrist, 1905 (Decapoda: Brachyura)
from Indian waters. ( With three-text-figures). By K. Nirmala Devi, K. Shyamasundari and
K. Hanumantha Rao (p. 651).

Botany: 36. A new variety of Skimmia laureola (DC.) Sieb. et Zucc. ex Walpers (Ruta-
ceae) from Manipur, India. (With a text-figure). By K. Narayanan Nair and M. P. Nayar
(p. 653); 37. Some interesting plant records from Similipahar Hills of Orissa. By H. O.

Sexena and M. Brahmam (p. 655); 38. Briza minor Linn. (Poaceae) in Northwest Hima-
laya. By H. B. Naithani and B. P. Uniyal (p. 657); 39. A note on Lichen Genus Proto-

blastenia from India. (With a text-figure). By Garima Pant (nee Awasthi) (p. 658);

40. Rediscovery of a rare Fern Macrothelypteris ornata (Wall, ex Bedd.) Ching (Thelypte-
ridaceae) in Northwestern Himalaya from Kumaun after a century. By Y.P.S. Pangtey,
S. S. Samant and R. S. Rawal (p. 660).

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society 1986-87 . . 662

Statement of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society . . 673

Minutes of the Annual General Meeting . . 689

Minutes of an Extraordinary General Meeting . . 693

Appeal . . 697

Supplement

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society 1987

1

Honorary Treasurer’s Report for the Year 1987

9

Auditor’s Report

10

Statement of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society

14

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1988 DECEMBER

Vol. 85

No. 3

A CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF HAIGAM RAKH,

KASHMIR1

P. R. Holmes2 and A. J. Parr3

Haigam Rakh is the largest remaining reedbed area in Kashmir. It is maintained
by the Jammu and Kashmir Department of Game as a duck shooting reserve, and
as such its wintering wildfowl are likely to be well documented. Recent expeditions
in July-August, 1978, July-September, 1983 and September, 1984 have shown the area
to be of major ornithological importance at other times of the year. Many marshland
species breed in the reserve, and the densities of Little Bittern ( Ixobrychus minutus),
Water Rail ( Rallus aquaticus ), Common Kingfisher ( Aicedo atthis) and Clamorous
Reed Warbler ( Acrocephalus stentoreus ) are particularly high. The area is important
for autumn migrants, with 45% of the species recorded being passage birds and/or
winter visitors. Such species include many waders, wagtails and hirundines which roost
in large numbers in the reedbed, and several other short- and long-distance migrants.
It is considered that Haigam Rakh is of sufficient ornithological interest to merit
further long-term study. We are optimistic that the reserve can be managed so as to
maintain its value to the local people, its winter duck shooting and its importance
to breeding and migrant birds.

Introduction

The Vale of Kashmir is a large basin at a
height of c 1600 m which forms the flood
plain of the river Jhelum. It is surrounded by
mountains to the south and west the Pir

1 Accepted January 1986.

2 Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pem-
broke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, U.K.

3 Food Research Institute, Colney Lane, Norwich,
Norfolk, NR4 7UA, U.K.

Panjal Range, to the north the Karakoram and
to the east the Ladakh Range. On the side
facing the Vale, these mountains are all heavily
forested with conifers, although much logging
has taken place. The Vale is now largely
devoted to agriculture, especially rice paddy
and orchards.

The ecology of the Vale has changed mark-
edly since the publication of Bates & Lowther
(1952). Haigam (=Hygam) Rakh is the
largest remaining reedbed area. Situated at the

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Voi. 85

southern end of Lake Wular, the nearest main
town is Sopore, but the Rakh is surrounded
by villages. It is maintained by the Jammu and
Kashmir Department of Game as a duck shoot-
ing reserve. The reserve area is about 14 km2
(Pandit 1982), about 4 km2 of which is
reedbed.

The Rakh is largely covered by a dense
growth of reed and other emergent species.
The commonest macrophyte species are Com-
mon Reed Phragmites communis, Bulrush
Typha angustata, Bur-reed *Sparganium erec-
tum, club rushes Scirpus lacustris and S. palus-
tris, Spike Rush Eleocharis palustris and sedges
Carex spp. (Kaul et al. 1980, Kaul 1982, 1984).
In open areas there are various floating leaf
species including the water lilies Nymphaea
steliata and N. alba, Fringed Water Lily Nym-
phoides pellata and Water Chestnut Trapa
nutans (Kaul et al. 1980). Vegetation grows
either from the bottom of shallower areas or
from a floating mat of roots and silt. The
reedbed is partitioned by a number of boat
channels varying in width from 1 m to 4 m.
Water in the Rakh varies in depth up to
about 1 m.

The reserve is largely surrounded by a pro-
tective bank. Inside this bank, a strip of
willows has been planted. These act as a silt
trap, but when full grown will also supply the
villagers with many useful materials — leaves
for cattle feed, sticks and wood. There is no
understorey in this plantation since all the
lower vegetation is heavily grazed. Outside the
bank, and in some places inside, the land is
mostly devoted to rice paddy. Slightly further
from the bank, at least around Haigam, there
are extensive orchards.

Since Haigam Rakh is a shooting reserve
the numbers of winter birds (especially ducks)
are probably well documented. The first major
survey of the summer bird populations of the
reedbed was in 1978 (Holmes 1978). Since

then, various studies have been carried out
at Haigam, including studies of the trophic
structure (Pandit & Kaul 1981), production
(Kaul 1982), freshwater snail ecology (Kaul
et al. 1980) and feeding ecology of breed-
ing birds (Pandit 1982).

It has become apparent that the Rakh is a
very rich area, and is of major ornithological
interest, not only for its wintering wildfowl
but also for its breeding birds and for the
large number of species that visit the site on
migration. Until now, there has been little
published detailed information on the avifauna
of Haigam Rakh. The purpose of the present
article is to rectify this, so as to provide a
broader understanding of the ecology of this
key wetland site.

The results presented here are a compila-
tion of the results of expeditions to Haigam
Rakh in 1978 (Holmes 1978) and 1983
(Holmes et al 1983), together with some un-
published records for 1984 kindly provided by
Peter Burns and Frances Goodwin. The periods
of study were:

1978 9 July to 20 August (5 people)

1983 13 July to 20 August (5-7 people)
17-23 September (1 person)

1984 14-30 September (2 people)

All the expeditions have been based in
Hanjypura village, on the western edge of the
Rakh, where facilities were generously provid-
ed for us by the Kashmir Department of
Game. As well as general observation, much
time was devoted to ringing birds using the
Rakh. Mist nets were set both along the boat
channels in the main reedbed area, where they
had to be erected and operated from punts,
and along the Rakh edge. At the Rakh edge,
nets were set both in the willow plantation
and on an area (approximately 3 ha) of
flooded grassland near Hanjypura, referred to
as “the pond”.

466

BIRDS OF HAIGAM RAKH

The following is a list of species recorded
at Haigam Rakh. Several species for which we
consider the records doubtful have been
omitted.

Status Code : B
S
P

u

=. Confirmed breeding
= Suspected breeding
= Passage migrant/
Winter visitor
- Status uncertain

Tachybaptus ruficollis. Little Grebe (B)
Fairly common in the more open areas of
the Rakh.

Ixobrychus mimitus. Little Bittern (B)
Abundant in July/August. Only one con-
firmed sighting in September, an immature on
29/9/83.

Nycticorax nycticorax. . Night Heron (S)

Often seen in small numbers flying over the
Rakh. or sometimes in paddies, in the even-
ing. Maximum in 1978 10, in 1983 5 on 27/7
(4 juveniles) and 9/8 (3 juveniles).

Ardeala grayii. Paddybird (U)

Singles recorded on 15/7/78, 18/7/78 and
and 10/7/83; the 1983 record was on the pond.

Egretta garzetta. Little Egret (U)

Recorded on the pond in 1983. with 2 on
13/8, then 1-2 daily until 20/8.

Egretta sp. (U)

Unidentified egrets were recorded on 18/7/83
(3 flying over) and 19/7/83 (single).

Anas acuta. Pintail (P)

Small numbers recorded in 1978 from 29/7.

Anas crecca. Teal (P)

The only confirmed records were a single
on 19/9/84 and 2 on 21/9/84.

Anas querquedula. Garganey (P)

A single recorded on 19/9/84.

Anas sp. (P)

Records of unidentified ducks in 1978 com-
prised singles on 24/7, 26/7, 4/8 and 14/8,
and a flock of c 50 on 19/8, all either Teal
or Garganey, plus a flock of c 30 on 13/8.
The only unidentified duck records in 1983
were a single on 8/8 and 3 on 14/8, all pro-
bably Mallard or Pint-ail.

(Aythya nyroca. Ferruginous Duck
(Formerly B)

Recorded as breeding at Haigam by Bates
& Lowther (1952), but not seen in 1978 or
1983.)

Milvus migrans. Black Kite (B)

Common. Occasionally recorded fishing. In
1978 a pair nested in Hanjypura village.

Circus aeruginosas. Marsh Harrier (P)

1-2 female/immatures seen regularly over
the Rakh in 1983, from 7/8 to 20/8, with 4
present on 17/8. Seen daily in 1984, with a
maximum of 6 on 14/9.

Accipiter gentilis. Goshawk (P)

Singles recorded on 18/9, 23/9 and 28/9/84.

Ardea cinerea. Grey Heron (S)

Common. Regular activity in one area of
the Rakh suggested reed-bed nesting. Up to
14 present on the pond at dawn on most days
in 1983.

Anas platyrhynchos. Mallard (P)

Records of several on 26-27/7/78 and 2 on
15/8/83.

Falco subbuteo. Hobby (U)

Occasional records in 1983 of singles, often
hunting in the swallow roost. In 1984 singles
recorded on 23/9 and 28/9.

(Raptor sp.) (U)

In 1983 single large unidentified raptors
were seen over the Rakh on four occasions
during July, and on 23/9.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Rallus aquaticus. Water rail (B)

Abundant in the Rakh.

Porzana pusllla. Baillon’s Crake (S)

Heard in the Rakh fairly frequently, and

occasionally seen.

Porzana fusca. Ruddy Crake (S)

Trilling calls heard from rice paddy at dawn
on several dates in 1983. At least 4 individuals
present.

Gallinuia chloropns. Moorhen (B)

Common in the Rakh in summer. In 1984
recorded on 28/9 (2) and 30/9.

Porphyrin porphyrio. Purple Gallinule

(Formerly S)

Recorded by Bates & Lowther (1952), but
not seen during the recent studies.

Hydrophasianus chirurgus.

Pheasant-tailed Jacana (B)

Small numbers bred in 1978. In 1983 occa-
sional records July, regular during August
with up to 3 birds on flooded pasture at the
edge of the Rakh. Probably a nest/young
nearby. Numbers have declined since 1978,
probably due to the increase in reed cover; at
Hokasar in 1983 the species was common.

Rostratula benghalensis. Painted Snipe (S)
Two were trapped on 20/8/78. In 1983 4
records of 1-2 birds at the edge of the Rakh.
included a male ringed on 2/8. Observed at
dawn and dusk only.

Himantopus himantopus. Black-winged
Stilt (P)

One record in 1978 of a single on 21/8. In
1983 1-4 on the pond on most days from
5-19/8, then 22 on 20/8. In 1984 singles re-
corded on 21/9 and 28/9.

Recurvirostra avosetta. Avocet (P)

One called in briefly at the pond on 15/8/83.

Charadrius dubius. Little Ringed Plover (U)
A possible family party was seen on the
pond intermittently during late July- August
1983.

Pluvialis dominica. Lesser Golden Plover (P)
An adult still in partial summer plumage
was seen on the pond on 18/8/83.

Vanellus Indicus. Red-wattled Plover (U)

One heard at the edge of the Rakh on
2/8/83.

Calidris minuta. Little Stint (P)

Often a few on the pond with C. temminckii
during late July- August, with a maximum of
20 on 26/7/83 when few C. temminckii were
present.

Calidris temminckii. Temminck’s Stint (P)
Common on the pond during late July-
August. Often 30+ present. Present 26-30/9/84,
with a maximum of 10 on 28/9. Several small
waders present between 17-20/9/83 were pro-
bably this species.

Calidris ferruginea. Curlew Sandpiper (P)

One on the pond from 2-5/8/83.

Philomachus pugnax. Ruff (P)

Four seen on the pond after heavy rain on
23/7/83. One present on 28/9/84.

Gallinago gallinago. Common Snipe (U)

A single trapped on 29/9/84.

Gallinago sp. (U)

Single unidentified snipes, either Common
Snipe or Pintail Snipe (G. stenura), were re-
corded in 1978 from 14/8, occasionally drum-
ming. In 1983 singles were seen flying over the
Rakh on 27/7, 17/9 and 19/9, Up to 3 were
present in September 1984.

Scolopax rusticofa. Woodcock (P)

One on 17/8/78.

Tringa erythropus. Spotted Redshank (P)

An adult still in partial summer plumage
flew over the Rakh on 13/8/83.

468

BIRDS OF HAIG AM RAKH

Tringa totanus. Redshank (P)

In 1978 2 recorded on 15/8. In 1983 13
flew over on 14/7 and records from the pond
were one on 10/8 (ringed), 2 on 18/9 and
one on 19/9.

Tringa nebularia. Greenshank (P)

Many records of singles during July /'August,
with 3 on 23/7/83. In 1984 singles were re-
corded on 16/9, 19/9 and 20/9/84.

Tringa ocliropus. Green Sandpiper (P)

In 1978 3 were present on 13/8. In 1983
one on the pond on 15/8. In 1984 1-2 present
daily from 23-30/9.

Tringa glareoia. Wood Sandpiper (P)

Regular in small numbers on the pond from
the last week of July to August. Largest num-
bers were 10 on 24/7/83 (flying over) and on
26/7/83. In 1984. 3-5 recorded daily from
21-30/9.

Tringa terek. Terek Sandpiper (P)

One caught before dawn on 21/8/78.

Tringa hypoleucos. Common Sandpiper (P)
In 1978 singles recorded on 8/8, 11/8, 17/8.
In 1983 1-2 daily during August, on the pond,
or other wet pasture. One present on 19/9/84.

Chlidonlas hybrida. Whiskered Tern (B)

A common breeder in the Rakh. In 1978
there were about 30 pairs in 2 small colonies.
In 1983 a maximum of 40 adults was seen on
28/7; fledged juveniles were recorded from
25/7 onwards.

Streptopelia orientalis. Rufous Turtle Dove (P)
A roost of up to 100+ present at the end
of September 1984.

Streptopelia decaocto. Ring (Collared)

Dove (B)

Common, feeding on drv paddies, c 300 on
23/9/83.

Psittacula himalayana. Slaty-headed
Parakeet (U)

A roost was present in trees at the edge of
the Rakh. Up to 100+ were seen flying over at
dusk.

Cuculus canorus. Eurasian Cuckoo (S)

In 1978 adults were recorded calling until
11/8, with juveniles seen on 22/7 and 13/8.
In 1983 there were several sightings of juve-
niles in July.

Strix aiuco. Tawny Owl (U)

One heard calling on 15/7 and 16/8/78.
An owl seen in 1983 (date not recorded) was
probably this species.

Ceryle rudis. Lesser Pied Kingfisher (S)
Nearly daily sightings. In 1978 up to 4 seen,
possibly a family party. In 1983 a family party
of male, female and 4 young seen 11/8. A
maximum of 3 recorded in September 1984.

Alcedo atthis. Common Kingfisher (B)
Abundant in summer, nesting in the earth
banks around the Rakh. In 1983 still common
in mid -September, but in late September 1984
the maximum daily total recorded was 3.

Pelargopsis capensis. Brown-capped Stork-
billed Kingfisher (U)

One recorded on 16/8/78 could have been
the same individual recorded by a WWF party
at Hokasar, another game reserve.

Halcyon smyrnensis. White-breasted
Kingfisher (S)

1-2 seen regularly.

Merops apiaster. European Bee-eater (U)

In 1978 a large passage of 50+ birds was
recorded on both 19/8 and 20/8. In 1983 20-30
were seen in mid-July, feeding over the pond
and paddies. One was seen on 31/7, then
recorded regularly from 13-20/8 with a maxi-
mum of c 30. In 1984 recorded on 14/9 (10+)
and 18/9.

469

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Coracias gamiSas. European Roller (B)

Seen in small numbers at several sites dur-
ing July and August. Nine present on 17/9/84.

Upupa epops. Hoopoe (S)

Initially common; numbers declining during
August, but singles still present on 19/9 and
23/9/83, and between 14-30/9/84.

Jynx torquilla. Wryneck (U)

In 1978 one was seen on 21/8. In 1983 one
was caught in the plantation on 13/8 in the
early stages of moult, and retrapped in the
same site on 19/9 still in moult.

Ficoides auriceps. Brown-fronted
Pied Woodpecker (S)

In 1978 recorded on 3/8 and 17/8. In 1983
fairly regular sightings of singles in willows
around the Rakh. One male was trapped 15/8.
In 1984 singles were recorded on 17/9, 19/9
and 27/9.

Ficoides himalayensis. Himalayan
Pied Woodpecker (U)

In 1983 singles were recorded in willows on
29/7 and 5/8?

Ficus sqisamatus. Scaly-bellied Green
Woodpecker (U)

In 1978 singles were recorded on 16/7, 20/7,
28/7 and 13/8. Only one record from 1983, of
a single seen over the Rakh on 31/7.

Riparia paludlcola. Indian Sand Martin (P)
All Riparia sp. identified were this species.
Fairly common amongst Swallows at roost in
July and August; a few feeding during the
day over the Rakh. Largest catch of 24 on
30/7/83. Small numbers (5+) recorded in late
September 1984.

Hirundo rustica. Swallow (B, P)

Breeds in houses in Hanjypura village. Large
roost of several thousand near edge of Rakh;
numbers slowly decreasing during August. A
small roost was still present in mid-September
1983. In 1984 30+ recorded on 14/9 decreased

to the last sighting of 2 on 28/9. Most adults,
and many juveniles, were in moult, with the
moult score increasing as the autumn pro-
gressed. This is in contrast to western H.
rustica rustica (the same subspecies) which do
not moult until they reach the winter quarters
(Ginn & Melville 1983).

A nth us triviafis. Tree Pipit (P)

One caught at the edge of the Rakh on
19/9/83. Three pipits seen on 23/9/83 were
possibly this species.

Anthus sp. (U)

Unidentified pipits were seen on 25/7/78
(2) and 28/9/84.

Motacilla citreola. Citrine Wagtail (S, P)
Fewer than M. alba during early July, but
increasing from the last week of July to be-
come the commoner wagtail. In 1978 a large
roost was present near the pond from mid-
August; in 1983 this roost was somewhat
smaller and formed later. Some individuals
trapped were in a very worn juvenile plumage,
usually with a brood patch. It is thought that
these were mostly first summer females which,
for some reason, had not moulted into adult
plumage. Ali & Ripley (1983) state that some
first summer males breed in the juvenile plum-
age. A second year male ringed on 21/8/78
was retrapped on 25/9/84.

MotaciSla cinerea. Grey Wagtail (P)

Singles recorded on five dates between
15-28/9/84.

Motacilla alba. Pied Wagtail (S, P)

Relatively few were present in early July,
but numbers increased during late July and
August, with many still present in September.
Mainly seen by the pond.

Pericrocotus ethoSogus. Long-tailed
Minivet (U)

Uncommon; only recorded in 1983. Two
present in willows on 10/7, and a few later
records during July/August.

470

BIRDS OF HAIG AM RAKH

Pycnonotus leucogeitys. White-cheeked
Bulbul (B)

Common around habitation.

Erithacus svecicus. Bluethroat (P)

The earliest record was on 8/8/83 (an adult
male), with numbers building up rapidly dur-
ing mid-August. Abundant during September.
Occupied both the middle of the Rakh and
the willows around the edge. In 1984 became
more abundant towards the end of September.

SaxicoSa torquata. Collared Bush Chat
(Stonechat) (P)

A male was seen in the Rakh on 15/8/83.
Two were present on 23/9/83.

Saxicola caprata. Pied Bush Chat (U)

An adult female with a brood patch was
trapped in the Rakh on 24/7/83.

Tardus unicolor. TickelFs Thrush (B)

Common around the Rakh in summer. Only
one record in 1984, on 23/9.

Hippolais caligata rama. Syke's Warbler (P)
A yearling was trapped on 16/8/78.

Acrocephalus concinens. Swinhoe’s Reed
Warbler (B)

Breeds in small numbers in the Rakh, often
near isolated willows. About 10 territories
found. Fledged young were caught on 29/7
and 14/8/83. Only caught in the Rakh.

Acrocephalus agricola. Paddyfield Warbler (P)
A yearling was caught in the Rakh on
17/8/83.

Acrocephalus dumetomm. Blyth’s Reed
Warbler (P)

A yearling was caught in the plantation on
13/8/83.

Acrocephalus stentoreus. Clamorous Reed
Warbler (B)

An abundant breeder in the Rakh. Many
individuals feed in the willows around the edge
of the reeds. Two adults (one male, one

female) ringed in 1978 were retrapped in 1983.
Very few were present from 17-20/9/83, and
in 1984 the only record was of 2 on 14/9.

Sylvia curruca. Lesser Whitethroat (P)

One trapped in the plantation on 19/9/83.

Phylloscopus collybita. Chiffchaff (P)

In 1984 2-3 recorded daily from 24-30/9.
with 6 ringed.

Phylloscopus sindianus. Mountain
Chiffchaff (P)

Recorded on 29/9 and 30/9/84, with a total
of 4 trapped.

Phylloscopus inornatus. Yellow-browed
Warbler (P)

Singles were caught in the plantation on 18/9
and 19/9/83, and 20/9 and 30/9/84.
Phylloscopus trochiloides. Greenish
Warbler (P)

In 1978 4 individuals trapped, on 10/8, 13/8.
18/8 and 19/8 (2 present). In 1983 single
yearlings were trapped in the plantation on
16/8 and 18/9. One was trapped on 26/9/84.

Phylloscopus sp. (U, P)

An unidentified leaf warbler was seen in the
willows on 20/7/78. Several unidentified
Phylloscopus warblers were seen during mid-
September 1983.

Miiscicapa superdliaris. White-browed Blue
Flycatcher (P)

A juvenile male was trapped in the planta-
tion on 18/9/83. A female was trapped on
19/9/84 and was still present on the next two
days, and a juvenile male was trapped on
22/9/84.

Terpsi phone paradisi. Paradise Flycatcher (B)
Seen daily during July and August. Present
in two sites at the edge of the Rakh, and in
Hanjypura village. At one site on 12/7/83 a
breeding male was seen with a female and a
first/second summer male, suggesting co-ope-
rative breeding. One still present on 20/9/84.

471

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Paros major. Grey Tit (B)

Common, with several family parties caught.

Certhia sp. (P)

A treecreeper was recorded in September
1984 (exact date not recorded). It is likely that
this was a Himalayan Treecreeper, C. hima-
layana.

Oriolus orioius. Golden Oriole (B)

Common in mature trees around the Rakh.
Still present in mid-September 1983.

Lanins schach. Rufous-backed Shrike (B)

A common breeder around the Rakh. One
was seen feeding a cuckoo fledgling on 24/7/
83. The only records in 1984 were singles on
15/9 and 26/9.

Dicrurus adsimslis. Black Drongo (U)

Singles were recorded on 17/7/78. and in
Hanjypura village on 18/9/83.

Corvus spfiendens. House Crow (S)

Common. Often seen in the Rakh itself.

Corvus niacrorhychos, Jungle Crow (U)

Two records in July 1983.

Corvus monedula. Jackdaw (S)

Fairly common, with a maximum of 33
recorded on 23/9/84.

Sturnus vulgaris. Starling (S)

Fairly common. A flock of c 150 present on
4/8/83, and 50+ recorded on 14/9/84.

Acridotheres tristis. Common Myna (B)
Fairly common.

Passer domesticus. House Sparrow (B)

Very common. Large flocks (up to 700+)
were recorded feeding in paddies.

Lonchura punctulata. Spotted Munia (U)

A single was trapped on 11/8/78.

Cardoefis earduelis. Eurasian Goldfinch (P)

A party of 5 was recorded on 19/8/83.
Carpodacus erythrinus. Common Rosefinch

(P)

In 1978 an adult male was trapped on 16/8.
In 1983 a medium-sized flock was present in
the plantation during mid-September, with 39
caught in two days. Four individuals recorded
on 22-23/9/84.

Discussion

The list of 92+ species of birds recorded at
Haigam is undoubtably incomplete, especially
since so little study has been undertaken dur-
ing migration periods (none at all in spring).
Many of the forest breeding altitude migrants
will probably be recorded in due course, as
well as additional trans-Himalayan migrants.
Similarly, although we have not had access to
official figures, the variety of ducks using the
site in winter must exceed that recorded here.

There are also likely to be species other than
waterfowl wintering in the reserve area.

Our studies have demonstrated that the
ornithological importance of Haigam Rakh ex-
tends beyond its winter wildfowl. There are
very high densities of several breeding marsh-
land birds, e.g. Little Bittern, Water Rail,
Kingfisher and Clamorous Reed Warbler. There
are also significant populations of Baillon’s
Crake, Whiskered Tern and the very local
Swinhoe’s Reed Warbler. In addition, the
area is important as a feeding area for large
numbers of migrants which pass through in
autumn. This includes an impressive variety
of waders, and also both short and long dis-
tance passerine migrants. The area may be
particularly important to long distance migrants,
providing a feeding and stopping-off site after
the rigours of a trans-FIimalayan crossing.
Large numbers of hirundines and wagtails also
use the Rakh as a roosting and moulting area.

We consider the Rakh of sufficient interest
for it to be of benefit to establish there a
permanent ringing station, to continually moni-
tor the number of birds visiting the site.

There is an increasing awareness in Kashmir

472

BIRDS OF HAIG AM RAKH

of the need to preserve the local environment.
This is not just for the welfare of the wildlife,
but also for more practical reasons. If Haigam
Raldi was not a reserve, it would quickly be
drained for paddy, and some encroachment
has already taken place. At present the Rakh
has many uses apart from its value as a source
of income to the Game Department from the
shooting. Local people harvest the reeds for
thatching and mat-making. The vegetation is
used as cattle feed, with the cattle sometimes
driven into the Rakh itself to feed. Villagers
catch fish in the open water areas. The
willows planted around the edge, as well as
acting as a silt trap, will in due course be a
source of firewood for the local people. As
well as this, the shooting provides employ-
ment for many local people, as guards, boat-
men and general labourers.

The Rakh has three very important func-
tions. It is a large area of renewable resources,
providing a living to many local people. It is
a well-managed shooting reserve, providing
income to the Department of Game. Finally,
but equally important, it is an area of out-
standing conservation interest. With strict
management there is no reason why there
should be a conflict between these functions.

Refer

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1983) : Handbook of the
Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact Edition.
Oxford University Press, Delhi.

Bates, R.S.P. & Lowther, E.H.N. (1952): The
Breeding Birds of Kashmir. 367 pp. Oxford Univer-
sity Press.

Ginn, H. B. & Melville, D. S. (1983) : Moult in
Birds. B.T.O. Guide 19.

Holmes, P. (ed.) (1978): Oxford Ornithological
Expedition to Kashmir, 1978 — Report. 63 pp. P.
Holmes, 17 College Drive, Ruislip, Middx., UK.

Holmes, P. R., Holmes, H. J. & Parr, A. J.
(ed.) (1983) : Oxford University Expedition to

Kashmir, 1983 — Report. 126 pp. P. R. Holmes,
Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke
Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK.

Indeed, if the Rakh disappeared through silta-
tion and conversion to agriculture this would
be detrimental to local interests as well as to
the conservation and shooting interests. How-
ever, for management and conservation to be
effective, the co-operation and goodwill of the
local people is essential.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Mir Inayatullah,
the Chief Game Warden, Jammu and Kashmir,
without whose help the study could not have
been carried out, and Mohammed Ramzan
Dar, the section officer at Haigam. Rings were
provided by the Bombay Natural History So-
ciety. Pete Burns and Frances Goodwin kindly
supplied their 1984 data. The other Oxford
University Expedition members all contribut-
ed to this study; in 1978 Cristina Chiara,
Andrew Davies, Daniel Marsh and Paul War-
ing and in 1983 Adam Gretton, Ben Hatchwell,
Hilary Holmes, Mark Hunter and Ian Sleigh.
We would like to thank all the sponsors of
both expeditions. Finally we would like to
thank Mohammed Yosuf Dar, Naseema War,
Shabeer Malik, and all our friends in Hanjy-
pura and Haigam.

EN CES

Kaul, S. (1982) : Community architecture, bio-
mass and production in some typical wetlands of
Kashmir. Indian J. Ecol., 9: 320-329.

(1984) : Biomass and mineral composi-
tion of aquatic macrophytes in the Hygam wetland,
Kashmir with reference to substrate nutrients. Acta
Hydrochim. Hydrobiol., 12: 81-91.

Kaul, V., Pandit, A. K. & Fotedar, D. N. (1980) :
Ecology of freshwater snails (gastropod molluscs)
in Haigam — a typical wetland of Kashmir. Trop.
Ecol., 21: 32-46.

Pandit, A. (1982) : Feeding ecology of breeding
birds in five wetlands of Kashmir. Indian J. Ecol.
9: 181-190.

Pandit, A. K. & Kaul, V. (1981): Trophic struc-
ture of some typical wetlands. Int. J. Ecol. Environ.
Sci ., 7: 55-82.

473

BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF TWO SPECIES OF GERRIDS,
LIMNOGONUS FOSSARUM FOSSARUM FABR. AND
L1MNOGONUS NIT I DUS MAYER (HEMIPTERA:
HETEROPTERA)1

M. Selvanayagam and T. K. Raghunatha Rao2
(With two text-figures)

Biological notes on two gerrid species. Limnogonus fossarum fossarum
Fabr. and Limnogonus nitidus Mayr. are given. The number of eggs laid by a single
individual, duration of incubation, preoviposition period and the duration of each
instar were analysed. Allometric growth with reference to leg segments and antennal
segments in relation to body length in two species are also analysed. The results of
the findings in relation to the ecological factors are discussed.

Introduction

The diversity of form and structure in
different species of the gerrid group provides
interesting information, especially from the
point of view of their relation to environment.
Hoffmann f 1936) has made notable contribu-
tions to the bionomics of Limnogonus fossarum
Fabricius from Canton. Cheng (1967) and
Andersen (1975) studied Limnogonus fossa-
rum with particular reference to its feeding
habits. Since no comparable accounts on the
biology of gerrids from India are on record,
an attempt has been made here to study the
biology of the two related species, Limnogonus
fossarum fossarum Fabr. and Limnogonus niti-
dus Mayr.

Material and Methods

Limnogonus fossarum fossarum is com-
monly found in small ponds, pools, ditches,
paddy fields and channels. Limnogonus nitidus
is encountered in water pools around Loyola
College campus at Madras; it prefers the edges

1 Accepted March 1985.

2 Department of Zoology, Loyola College, Madras-
600 034.

of water, darting into open water at the
slightest disturbance. Specimens of L. f. fossa-
rum were collected from different types of
freshwater habitats in the vicinity of Madras,
namely, a perennial pond in Chetpet, a tempo-
rary pond in Meenampakkam, besides water
puddles and paddy fields in and around
Madras. Specimens of L. nitidus were collect-
ed from temporary pools adjacent to the
college campus. After collection, the adults
were separated from the nymphs. In the labo-
ratory, the specimens were reared in glass
aquaria of 22x15x12 cm, half filled with water.
Aquatic plants Hydrilla, Eichhornia and
Lemna were kept in the aquaria to provide
natural conditions to the extent possible. The
insects were regularly fed with mosquito larvae
and nymphs of Notonecta. The aquaria were
kept under regular observation, and the number
of eggs deposited was counted. When the eggs
hatched, the nymphs were isolated in order to
avoid mortality, caused mainly by cannibalism,
and fed regularly with the early nymphs of
Notonecta.

Observations

Feeding habits : In the field, Limnogonus
fossarum fossarum and Limnogonus nitidus

474

BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF TWO SPECIES OF GERRIDS

feed on dead or dying animals such as
Notonecta, dragonfly naids, Dilphium, larval
forms of dipterans and ephemerids, they show
a preference to nymphs of Notonecta , as
observed under laboratory conditions.

Copulation : Copulation occurs during the
rainy months of the year when several pairs
of both the species under study are seen on
the surface water in copula. In both the
species, the opposite sexes face the same direc-
tion when in copula. When disturbed, the
copulating pairs move away slowly without
getting detached. Copulation has been seen to
last about 35-45 minutes in L. f. fossarum and
15-20 minutes in L. nitidus.

Preoviposition period : In both the species,
the preoviposition period is influenced by tem-
perature. In L. /. fossarum, eggs are laid 8-10
days after copulation when the ambient tem-
perature is 28°-29°C, whereas in L. nitidus
the preoviposition period is shorter, being 5-6
days; in both species, the preoviposition period
appears to extend over 20-25 days when the
temperature is low (22°-24°C).

Oviposition : Gerrids lay their eggs on float-
ing or submerged plants or any material which
is accessible on the surface of water, and the
two species studied here are no exception.
The eggs are laid in a linear fashion in two
or three rows on the plants. In the laboratory,
however, both the species have been observed
to show a preference to Hydrilla plants for
oviposition. During oviposition, a gelatinous
substance flows out and forms a sort of pro-
tective covering besides serving to glue the
eggs to the surface of the objects on which
the eggs are laid. On one occasion, L. f. fossa-
rum was noticed to oviposit on a live speci-
men of Ranatra filiformis. Both the species
studied here have been found to lay eggs at
night. Erf. fossarum lays 40-48 eggs at a time,
while L. nitidus lays a much lower number,
viz. 20-25 at a time.

Fecundity. Under laboratory conditions,
observations on four female L. /. fossarum
maintained for six months revealed that the
maximum number of eggs was 179. In their
natural habitat, the incidence of eggs as shown
by field collections is very high during the
rainy months of November and December, in
January and February the number of eggs
declines gradually, and after March very few
eggs are encountered, apparently due to the
gradual drying of the media. However, even
under the nearly constant conditions of the
laboratory, the ovipositing rhythm appears to
continue as it is in the natural habitat. The
eggs laid during November and December are
found to be much more numerous than in the
subsequent months. (Tables 1,2). In L. nitidus
the total number of eggs laid was 99 in Nov-
ember, 1977. and declined to 35 in March,
1978.

Eggs : In both the species, the eggs are small
and white in colour at the time of deposition,
subsequently changing to yellow to brown. On
an average, the eggs of L. /. fossarum measure
0.93 mm. long and 0.24 mm. wide. The eggs
of L. nitidus show wide variation in dimen-
sions and, on an average, measure 1.86 mm.
in length and 0.62 mm. in width.

Incubation : It has been observed that tem-
perature has a significant effect on incubation
period. In L. f. fossarum, the incubation period
is 6-10 days when the temperature is 29°-32°C.
In the present study, the upper limit for hatch-
ing was 31°-32°C, and no hatching occurred
below 22°C. In L. nitidus, the incubation period
is 5-8 days when the temperature is 29°-31°C.
The five-day old embryonated eggs of L. f.
fossarum show a pair of brown spots indicat-
ing the compound eyes, and these spots appear
6-7 days after oviposition in the case of L.

The Y-shaped egg-burster present in
both the species of gerrids under study, helps
in the hatching process (Table 3).

475

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Table 1

Total number of eggs collected from the natural habitats in different months of the year 1977-78

Habitat

November

1977

December

1977

January

1978

February

1978

March

1978

Redhills lake

638

590

540

470

210

Chetpet pond

425

401

380

302

120

Meenampakkam pond

230

220

198

120

60

Water puddles

75

40

20

7

—

Total

1368

1251

1138

899

390

Egg-laying capacity in

Table 2

FOUR FEMALES of (1) Limnogonus
nitidus under laboratory

fossarum fossarum, and (2)
conditions

Limnogonus

Female

No.

Number of eggs laid in each

month

November

1977

December

1977

January

1978

February

1978

March

1978

I

48

45

40

31

13

Limnogonus II

43

40

28

25

10

fossarum III

50

42

39

30

18

fossarum

IV

49

40

22

18

12

Total number

of eggs

190

167

129

104

53

I

23

25

21

20

9

II

25

25

26

22

10

Limnogonus

nitidus III

25

23

22

20

8

IV

26

24

18

20

8

Total number

of eggs

99

97

87

82

35

476

BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF TWO SPECIES OF GERRIDS

Table 3

Record of oviposition and period of incubation in (1) Limnogonus fossarum fossarum and

(2) Limnogonus nitidus

No.

Number

of

eggs

Laid on

Hatched

on

Incubation
period
in days

Temperature

1

48

7.11.77

17.11.77

10

29.5°C

2

38

18.11.77

28.11.77

10

29.5°C

3

25

20.11.77

29.12.77

9

28.7°C

Limnogonus 4

28

3.1.78

11.1.78

8

29.8°C

5

25

5.2.78

13.2.78

8

31.0°C

fossarum 6

12

8.3.78

14.3.78

6

32„0°C

fossarum 7

10

15.3.78

21.3.78

6

32.0°C

1

30

8.11.77

16.11.77

8

29 . 1 °C

2

28

20.11.77

28.11.77

8

29. rc

3

25

10.12.77

17.12.77

7

30.0°C

Limnogonus 4

20

5.1.78

11.1.78

6

30.5°C

nitidus 5

20

13.2.78

19.2.78

6

30.5°C

6

15

7.3.78

12.3.78

5

31.0°C

7

10

16.3.78

21.3.78

5

31.0°C

Hatching : Hatching is initiated by the con-
traction and relaxation of the embryo, as a
result of which a pressure is developed in-
side the egg, and the first instar nymph
emerges by making a longitudinal slit about
two thirds of the length of the egg from the
egg-burster.

As it comes out of the egg shell, the first
instar nymph goes down to about 10 cm under
the water surface and then it rises to the
surface by spreading its second and third pairs
of legs; it slowly flexes its legs and starts
to stride on the water surface. The first instar
nymphs show a very high mortality rate if the
water in the rearing jar is not changed
frequently.

Moulting : Each moulting appears to be a
critical period for the instar because mortality
is high during this period. During moulting,
the cuticle begins to split from the head region

and the Y-shaped split which extends to the
middle region of the thorax broadens. Nymphal
instars have a preparatory period for moult-
ing, during which they are sluggish and always
attached to floating aquatic plants or at the
margins of the medium. The animal first pulls
out its head, followed by the forelegs and
then the whole body; it remains motionless
for about 30-40 minutes. The exuvia are dis-
carded or pushed away by the forelegs which
remain as a float on the water surface. The
body pigmentation occurs only after 24 hours,
and then the insect moves away for feeding.

Sexual maturity : In L. f. fossarum at a tem-
perature of 28 °C, 8-10 days are required to
attain sexual maturity after the final moult
and this period is reduced to 5-7 days if the
temperature rises to 31-32°C. In L. nitidus it re-
quires 6-9 days at 29-30°C. and 5-7 days at
32-33°C.

477

2

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 85

Immature stages :

There are five nymphal instars in both the
species studied. Though the nymphal instars
do not display any distinctive morphological
characters to differentiate the successive nym-

phal stages, morphometric analysis of the
linear measurements of body, antennae and
legs, besides head width, is of value to dis-
tinguish one nymphal stage from the other
(Tables 4, 5).

Table 4

Morphometric analysis of Limnogonus fossarum fossarum (Measurements in mm.)

Instar

Body

total length

Head

length

Head

width

Rostrum

length

Antenna

length

Fore

leg

length

Middle

leg

length

Hind

leg

length

I

1.662+

0.252+

0.460+

0.931±

1.261 +

0.963 +

1.867 +

1.520+

0.21

0.16

0.13

0.46

0.14

0.23

0.73

0.61

II

2.467 +

0.453 +

0.613 +

1.101±

1.957 +

1.60+

5.069+

3.228 +

0.12

0.14

0.14

0.63

0.38

0.52

0.47

0.35

III

0.698+

0.605 +

0.765 +

2.126+

2.561 +

2.033+

6.003 +

3.85=1=

0.82

0.69

0.12

0.27

0.92

0.33

0.46

1.4

IV

6.360+

0.832+

1.172+

2.561±

3.928 +

3.260+

10.53+

6.41 +

1.72

0.25

0.85

0.25

0.62

0.14

1.26

1.21

V

7.54 +

0.952+

1.367+

2.963±

5.083 +

4.789+

13.43 +

10.05+

1.65

0.31

0.85

0.82

0.12

0.11

1.27

1.68

Adult

9.925 +

1.171 +

1.814 +

3.08±

6.474+

6.109 +

17.903 +

14.96+

female

1.32

0.32

0.42

0.31

0.27

0.19

2.39

2.75

Table 5

Morphometric analysis of Limnogonus nitidus (Measurements in mm.)

Instar

Body

length

Head

length

Head

width

Antenna

length

Foreleg

length

Midleg

length

Hindleg

length

I

0.80+

0.35+

0.24 +

0.84+

0.83 +

2.09+

1.23 +

0.12

0.10

0.13

0.31

0.42

0.32

0.65

II

1.2+

0.42+

0.29+

1.27 +

1.04+

2.72+

1.65 +

0.12

0.14

0.11

0.27

0.31

0.25

0.72

III

2.0 +

0.58 +

0.42 +

1.83 +

1.35 +

3.30+

2.32+

0.21

0.16

0.25

0.28

0.14

0.31

0.38

IV

3.4+

0.85 +

0.62+

2.33+

2.30+

4.90+

3.60+

0.52

0.46

0.24

0.16

0.31

0.14

0.36

V

6.0+

1.14+

0.80+

2. 86 +

3.30+

7.10+

5.14 +

0.13

0.25

0.31

0.18

0.14

0.19

0.14

Adult

9.0+

1.4+

l.lrfc

5.15+

4.48 +

12.40+

9.20+

female

0.75

0.32

0.12

0.13

0.21

0.27

0.26

478

BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF TWO SPECIES OF GERRIDS

Description of immature stages :

Limnogonus fossarum fossarum

First instar more or less translucent soon
after hatching, but turning to brownish after
a day; head wider than long, appendages very
thin, smooth; rostrum 4-segmented, antennal
4th segment longest, twice as long as 3rd seg-
ment; duration about 7 days.

Second instar a little more brownish than
the preceding stage; head 1.3 times as wide
as long; pronotum with two brownish patches;
appendages weakly chitinized; rostrum extend-
ing up to mesothorax; antenna one and a half
time longer than that of first instar; middle
and hind legs hairy; abdomen brown; duration
of this stage 8 days.

Third instar light brown; head about 1.25
times wider than long; first segment of antenna
shortest; fourth segment longest; head with
three stripes just appearing; two brown patches
distinctly visible on the pronotum showing a
tendency to fuse; dorsolateral aspects of thorax
and abdomen with dark patches; rostrum
nearly twice as long as that of second instar;
antenna about 1 . 3 times longer than in the
preceding stage; duration 8.5 days.

Fourth instar, with head nearly one and a
half times as wide as long; the fused pronotal
patches darker and broader; extending upto
metanotal region; rostrum about 2.75 times
longer than that in first instar; antenna about
twice as long as that of first instar; body nearly
four times longer than first instar; dark brown;
duration 8.5 days.

Fifth instar, with head nearly 1 . 5 times
broader than long; fourth segment of rostrum
darker than rest of head, with serrated tip;
antenna nearly 1 . 3 times longer than that of
fourth instar; the fused dark patches on pro-
notum extending laterally; abdominal patches
darker; duration 9.5 days.

Adult (winged female) : dark brown maroon-
ed with black; body length 9 . 9 mm. Head

protruding well beyond eyes, with a broad
central and narrow lateral black stripes; ante-
rior lobe of pronotum with two yellow spots,
one on each side of median longitudinal line;
ventral aspect of mesostemum nearly white
with a brown central patch; antenna brown,
four-segmented; rostrum strong, last segment
very dark; foreleg light brown, distal end
spinous, tibia shorter than femur, tarsal claws
arising from apical one-third of 2nd tarso-
mere; middle legs with femora and tibiae light
brown, beset with numerous spines; tarsus
dark with shades of brown; hind legs shorter
than middle legs, femora and tibia spiny;
wings dark brown, extending beyond tip of
abdomen.

Limnogonus nitidus

First instar light brown, pubescent, eyes
light reddish; antenna four-segmented, termi-
nal segment longest; rostrum short, four-seg-
mented, terminal segment dark; tarsi one-
segmented; abdomen very short due to the
telescoping of the terminal segments in early
first instars; later, the segments getting dis-
tended; duration 6-7 days.

Second instar, with general coloration
brown, head broader than long; eyes rounded
and prominent; prothroax distinct and distin-
guished by a pair of dark patches on the
pronotum, mesonotum and metanotum; termi-
nal abdominal segments well distended; dura-
tion 6-7 days.

Third instar, with general coloration as in
second instar, eyes darker than in preceding
stage; rostrum extending as far backwards as
prothorax; presumptive areas of wing pads
indicated; duration 4-6 days.

Fourth instar, dark brown; head much
wider than long; pigmented patches on meso-
and meta-notum covered by wing pads; wing
pads reaching as far as bases of hind legs;
duration 6-7 days.

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Fifth instar, with general coloration dark
with shades of brown; rostrum extending up
to mid-coxae; wing pads dark, distinct and
extending beyond third abdominal segments;
mid- and hind pairs of legs extremely long,
their femora extending far beyond the tip of
abdomen; duration 7-8 days.

Adult (winged female) : General coloration
predominantly black, lustrous; body length 9.0
mm. Head typically with a pair of yellow
longitudinal stripes; pronotum with a pair of
median longitudinal yellow stripes and a pair
of yellow spots on either side of the median
stripes; antenna four-segmented; rostrum strong
and short; forelegs light brown with their
tibiae longer than tarsi; middle legs light
brown; hind legs dark brown.

Allometric, growth : During the study of
structural evolution, it has become increasing-
ly apparent that the proportional lengths of
legs and antennal segments alter with change
in body size. The proportional length of ante-
nnal and leg segments vary ontogenetically
among the adults of different sizes. Since the
length of antennal and leg segments is more
constant than the body size among individuals
at each stage, allometric growth is usually
studied in relation to antennae and leg seg-
ments (Hungerford & Matsuda 1960). Hence
the lengths of segments are more reliable
criteria in deciding the stages of development
than the body sizes. Hemimetabolous insects
such as the gerrids are extremely favourable
for the study of relative growth since in these
insects’ comparable stages (instars) are well
marked and the structures do not undergo
drastic modifications until the adult stage is
reached.

The value of antennal segments and leg
segments of the above two species are plotted
against the total body length at different
stages of development (Figs. 1, 2).

In Limnogonus fossarum fossarum, the

first antennal segment shows a higher growth
unlike the second segment which shows
just a straight line; in the foreleg segments,
the femur and tibia show nearly similar growth
ratio. The tarsal segments reveal simple straight
allometric growth. A similar type of growth
pattern has been noticed in the case of middle
leg segments. In the hind leg segments, all the
three segments show a higher ratio. When the
total length of the legs is plotted logarithmi-
cally against body length, a simple allometric
growth pattern is found as a nearly straight
line, except in the middle legs where the adult
shows a high growth ratio. In general, the
nymphal head width, head length, rostrum and
antennae show a simple growth pattern, except
the fifth instar where the antenna shows a
higher growth ratio. Further, for head
width, the adult shows a lesser growth ratio
while the head length reveals a higher growth.

In Limnogonus nitidus, the regression curve
for the first antennal segment shows a straight
line while the second, third and fourth seg-
ments show more or less a straight line up to
the fifth instar nymph and adult stage. In the
foreleg segments, the femur and the tarsus
show more or less straight line, while the tibia
shows less growth in the first, second and third
instars; the later stages show straight lines. In
the middle leg, the femur, the tibia and the
tarsus show similar growth patterns except the
fifth and adult stage femora where it shows
less growth. In the hind leg of the fourth in-
star, the femur shows less growth, while the
tibia reveals maximum growth. The tarsus
shows very slow growth right from the first
instar to the fifth instar, while the adult shows
maximum growth.

Discussion

The habitat preferences of gerrids, like most
other aquatic Hemiptera, are rather divergent.

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BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF TWO SPECIES OF GERRIDS

LOG OF BODY LENGTH

Fig. 1A. Fore leg, middle leg and hind leg measurements of post-embryomc stages
of Limnogonus fossarum fossarum plotted logarithmically against total body length.
Al. Foreleg; A2. Middle leg; A3. Hind leg.

Fig. IB. Rostrum, head width, head length and antennal measurements of post-
embryonic stages of Limnogonus fossarum fossarum plotted logarithmically against

total body length.

SI. Rostrum; S2. Head width;

and it is also known that widespread species
like Limnogonus fossarum fossarum and
Limnogonus nitidus are ecologically ubiquitous,
colonizing a great variety of habitat such as
lakes, water reservoirs, paddy fields, slow-
flowing streams and even sulphur pools.
Lundblad (1933) has drawn attention to this
aspect of habitat diversity in closely related
species of gerrids. In the present study, Limno-
gonus fossarum fossarum is not only

S3. Head length; S4. Antenna.

found in permanent water bodies such as
Chetpet pond, but it is also found to colonize
temporary water bodies like rainwater puddles,
shallow ponds and water stagnations in fields.

The adaptations exhibited by the gerrid
species increase their survival value; for exam-
ple, L. fossarum fossarum , at the slightest
disturbance, escapes by taking refuge among
emergent vegetation of the pond, camouflaging
itself very effectively. A relation between the

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

Fig. 2A. Fore leg and middle leg measurements of post-embryonic stages of Limno-
gonus nitidus, plotted logarithmically against total length.

Al. Middle leg Tibia; A2. Middle leg Femur; A3. Middle leg Tarsus; A4. Foreleg
Tibia; A5. Foreleg Femur; A6. Foreleg Tarsus.

Fig. 2B. Antennal measurements of post-embryonic stages of Limnogonus
nitidus plotted logarithmically against total body length.

SI. Segment I; S2. Segment II; S3. Segment III; S4 Segment IV.

vegetation of the pond and the aquatic hemip-
terans was mentioned by Tonapi (1959) who
correlated the occurrence of Gerridae with
Lemna. In the present study, gerrids are found
to occur in different habitats in some of which
Lemna was found to be totally absent. The
absence of this plant in no way appears to
affect the inhabiting gerrids, particularly in
the matter of oviposition, since these insects
could lay their eggs on floating objects or on
the material just beneath the surface water or
rocks found on the margins of streams or

ponds. This conclusion is in conformity with
that drawn by Drake (1915), Rao (1969) and
Matthey (1975).

Among the physical factors, temperature
appears to exert a significant influence on the
incubation period. According to Hoffman
(1936), the eggs of L. fossarum fossarum
hatched in six days when the temperature
ranged between 20° and 23 °C., while Andersen
(1975) has reported the same duration of
embryonic period at 20°C. Jordan (1952)
states that the egg stages of gerrids lasts

482

BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF TWO SPECIES OF GERRIDS

6-20 days depending upon the temperature.
In the present studies, it has been found that
in both the species the minimum incubation
period of six days occurs when the tempera-
ture averages 32°C., while at 28°-29.4°C the
incubation period is prolonged to 8-10 days.
Laboratory experiments conform the field ob-
servations, but no hatching takes place when
the temperature is lowered below 22°C. From
this, it is evident that the gerrid eggs, like
those of other aquatic hemipterans, require
an optimum range of temperature for normal
hatching; a rise in temperature, within limits,
tends to accelerate the incubation period.

Gerrids, in general, never exhibit much food
preference, and according to Andersen (1975),
L. jossarum feeds on various animals, though
insects form its chief diet, and it often attacks
the terrestrial insects caught at the surface
film. In the present study, it has been observed
that although in the field Limnogonus
jossarum jossarum and Limnogonus nitidus
feed on dead or dying animals such as Noto-
ne eta, dragonfly nymphs etc., they show a
preference to the nymphs of Notonecta in the
laboratory. Refusal of food and sluggishness
just prior to moulting were also noticed, similar
to the observations of Hoffmann (1936) in
L. jossarum .

As in other Hemiptera, gerrids have got
five nymphal instars, the duration of which
varies in different species and also in the same
species under different conditions. According
to Brooks & Kelten (1967), gerrids require
5-6 weeks for their postembryonic develop-
ment. Bollwog (1915) was the first to study
the developmental rates of gerrids and he
reported that the younger instars developed
faster than the last two instars. According to
Hoffmann (1936), the duration of each of the

first four instars of L . jossarum is almost
equal, the fifth and last instars lasting nearly
twice as long as each of the preceding nymphal
stages. In the present study, however, both
the species of gerrids show more or less equal
duration of each nymphal stage. Many authors,
particularly. Poisson (1924), Jordan (1929),
Ekblom (1941, 1950), Larsen (1950), Guthrie
(1959), Brooks & Kelton (1967), Kauffmann
(1971) and Vepsalainen (1971, 1973) have
emphasized the fact that increase of tempe-
rature reduces the nymphal duration and vice
versa. The impact of temperature is evident in
the two gerrid species here as well.

Present studies on the postembryonic growth
in the two species of gerrids reveal that the
different structures exhibit a more or less
simple ailometry. In Limnogonus jossa-
rum jossarum, the antennal segments I and II
reveal a higher growth ratio while the segment
IV records the lowest. This situation agrees
with the earliest work of Hoffmann (1936) on
L. jossarum. The femur and tibia also show
a nearly parallel allometric slope line of growth
pattern. The same observation was made by
Hungerford & Matsuda (1960) in Limnoporus
limnoporellus complex. L. nitidus also
shows the same type of growth pattern as
observed in Limnogonus jossarum by Hoffmann
(1936).

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. N. Moller Andersen, Zoolo-
gical Museum, University of Copenhagen,
Denmark for kindly identifying the Gerrids.
We are also thankful to the authorities of
Loyola college, Madras, for providing
amenities and for their interest in the investi-
gation.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

References

Andersen, N. M. (1975): The Limnogonus and
Neogerris of the Old world with character analysis
and reclassification of the Gerrinae (Hem.: Gerri-
dae). Entomol. Scand. Suppl. 7: 1-96.

Bollweg, W. (1915): Beitrag Zur Faunistik und
Okologie der in der Umebung Bonn 5 Vorkommen-
den aquatilen Rhyncten, mit besonderer Berucksich-
tigung threr Larvenverhaltnisse. Verb, naturh . ver-
press., RheinL 71. Bonn. 137-187.

Brooks, A. R. & Kelton, L. A. (1967): Aqua-
tic and semi-aquatic Heteroptera of Alberta, Saskat-
chewan and Manitoba. Mem. Ent. Sci. Cart., 51: 92.

Cheng, L. (1967) : Studies on the biology of the
G err id a e (Hemi. : Het.) I: Observations on the feed-
ing of Limnogonus fossarum (F). Ent. Monthly
Mag. 102: 121-128.

Drake, C. J. (1915) : Life history notes on
Gerris coniformis and Limnogonus hesione. Ohio
Nat., 15: 503.

Ekblom, T. (1941): Untersuchungen uber den
Flugeldimorphismus bei Gerris asper Fieb. Not. Ent.,
12 : 49-54.

— — — (1950): Uber den Flugelpolymor-

phismus bei Gerris odontogaster Zett. ibid., 30:
41-49.

Guthrie, D. M. (1959): Polymorphism in the
surface water bugs (Hemi.: Het.: Gerridae). /. Ani-
mal Ecol. , 28: 141-152.

Hoffmann, W. E. (1936) : The life history of
Limnogonus fossarum (Fabr.) in Canton (Hemip-
tera: Gerridae). Lingnam Sci. Jour., 15: 285-299.

Hungerford, H. B. & Matsuda, R. (1960):
Morphology, evolution and a classification of the
Gerridae (Hemiptera-Heteroptera) . Univ. Kans. Sci.
XU, Nos. 1 & 2.

Jordan, K.H.C. (1929) : Zur Biologic des Wasser-

laifers Limnotrechus odontogaster. Z. Wiss. Insekt.
Biol., 24: 28-33.

(1952): Waser: aifer; Das Neue

Brchm Bucherei. ( Akad . Verl. Ges .) Leipzig, 1-32.

Kauffmann, T. (1971): Ecology, Biology and
Gonad morphology of Gerris rufoscutellatus (Hemi-
ptera: Gerridae) in Fairbanks, Alaska. Am. Midi.
Nat., 407-416.

Larsen, O. (1950): Einige Beobachtungen an
Gerris lacustris. Opuscula Entomol., 15: 131-133.

Lundblad, O. (1933) : Zurt Kenntnis der acqua-
tilen imd semiaquatilen Hemipteren von Sumatra,
Java und Bali. Arch. Hydrobiol. Supp., 12, Tropische
Binnegewasser, 4: 9-194-264-489.

Matthey, W. (1975) : Observation on reproduc-
tion in Gerris remigis Say (Hemiptera-Heteroptera).
Mitt. Schweiz Entomol. Ges. 48 (1/2) 193-198.

Poisson, R. (1924): Contribution a l’etude des
Hemipteres aquatiques. Bull. Biol. France Bel-
gique 58 : 49-305.

Rao, T. K. R. (1969): Bioecological studies on
some aquatic Hemiptera. Thesis submitted to the
University of Madras for the Degree of Doctor of
Philosophy.

Tonapi, G. T. (1959): A note on the eggs of
Gerris fluviorum F. with a description of its neanide
(Hemi.: Gerridae). Ento Mon. Mag., 95 : 29-31.

Vepsalainen, K. (1971) : The role of gradually
changing daylength in determination of wing length,
alary polymorphism and diapause in Gerris odon-
togester (Zett) population (Gerridae: Heteroptera)
in South Finland. Series A/TV, Biologica, 183.

— (1973) : The distribution and

habitats of Gerris Fabr. species (Heteroptera: Ger-
ridae) in Finland. Ann. Zool. Fennici, 10: 419-444.

484

PHAYRE’S LEAF MONKEY (TRA CH Y PITH ECU S
PH AY RED IN CACHAR1
Anwaruddin Choudhury2
{With three text-figures)

This paper deals with the discovery, distribution, habitat and status of Phayre's
leaf monkey in Assam, a monkey that was hitherto unknown in Assam.

Introduction

Phayre’s leaf monkey ( Trachypithecus
phayrei Blyth, 1847) is a little known langur
distributed in the forested areas of Burma and
Thailand. Its westernmost distribution range
also covers Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangla-
desh as well as hill forests of Sylhet district.
It is a dark ashy bluish-brown langur of about
135-137 cm length, including about 75 cm tail.
Head and tail-ends are darker. The underparts
are whitish. Its lips and areas around the eyes
are white.

Very little is known about the ecology and
behaviour of this leaf monkey. Some work
was done by Blanford (1888-91) in Burma,
Fooden (1971) in Thailand, Green (1978) in
Bangladesh and Mukherjee (1982) in Tripura.
It is easily recognised in the field because of
its colour, and also its eyes and lips.

Phayre’s leaf monkey in India

In India Phayre’s leaf monkey is perhaps
one of the least known primates. Roonwal and
Mohnot (1977) in their book “Primates of
South Asia” did not even mention its existence
anywhere in India. Agarwal (1974), Agarwal
and Bhattacharya (1977) did some studies on

1 Accepted March 1987.

2 Extra- Assistant Commissioner (Magistrate), Office
of the D.C., Guwahati 781 001, Assam. Present
Address : c/o Mr. Alauddin Choudhury, Dy. Regis-
trar, Gauhati High Court, Guwahati-781 001 (Assam).

its taxonomy and distribution. Green (1978) in
his report on Bangladesh primates mentioned
its occurrence in areas which are adjacent to
Tripura. Until its sighting in Cachar its known
distribution in India was limited to Tripura.

R. P. Mukherjee, of the Zoological Survey
of India, visited Tripura in 1976 and in 1978
and has done some study in its natural habitat.
His survey revealed that this little known
colobid monkey has a wide distribution in
Tripura. It is recorded from all the three dis-
tricts of Tripura.

Its occurrence in Assam was first reported
by me in two articles published in Tigerpaper
(1983) and World Wildlife Fund-India News-
letter (1983) as well as in some notes in the
local English dailies like ‘The Sentinel’ and
‘The Assam Tribune’. My reports were based
mainly on assumptions and I mentioned the
Longai reserve forest of present Karimganj
district as the probable habitat of the monkey.
The Longai forest is contiguous with the forests
of Tripura. Later Gittins & Akonda (1982)
reported its occurrence in the Patharia hill
forests of Sylhet (Bangladesh), which also
brightened the prospects of its occurrence in
Karimganj, as more than half of the Patharia
hill forest is inside Karimganj. It appears that
the leaf monkey may also exist in Mizoram.

Discovery in Cachar

I was on a field trip to the evergreen rain-
forests of the southern regions of Assam’s

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

486

PH AY RE’S LEAF MONKEY IN CACHAR

Cachar district. The purpose of the trip was
to study the distribution, habitat and status of
non-human primates. But I never thought that
the Phayre’s leaf monkey might also exist in
the area.

It was on 21 March, 1986 that I went to a
place called Nagorhgena inside Innerline
reserve forest in search of hoolock gibbons
( Hylobates hoolock). Nagorhgena is actually
a streamlet discharging its water to Damchara,
a tributary of Dhaleswari river.

While following the call of the hoolock with
two local guides, a blackish moving object
diverted my attention to a bamboo jungle. But
it was near the base of the hills and the call
of the hoolock was still about a \ km away.
As it was not jet black, I knew that it was
not a hoolock gibbon. Within a moment it
became fully visible, and it took only a mo-
ment for me to recognize it as a Phayre’s leaf
monkey. It sat on a leafless partly-cut tree.
The time was around 8.45 a.m.

It did not pay heed to our presence. But
when I approached closer, it fled towards the
bamboo jungle. Later we moved further north
for a few hundred metres when a troop of
about eight individuals was seen on the ground
When I approached closer, they slowly (one
by one) retreated to the bamboo jungle. When
I left the area and went out of their sight,
a loud groaning sound came out from the
bamboo jungle.

We then went towards south (south of the
first animal sighted) for about km. Two
Phayre’s leaf monkeys were seen feeding at
about 8-10 metres above the ground. Three
more were seen inside dense vegetation. The
leaf monkey that I saw appeared to be much
tolerant of human presence as the distance
between me and the last mentioned troop was
only about 15 metres and at no time were
they panicky.

Then on 22 March I again visited Nagorh-

gena, this time in the evening. No monkey
could be seen in the previously sighted loca-
tions. Two individuals were seen on the hill-
top area. Later, a little distance away a small
troop was seen again on the hill-top area.

My last visit to the leaf monkey habitat was
on 25 March. For the whole day I stationed
myself at the base of the hills on the trans-
Nagorhgena side (eastern edge), i.e. facing
Dhaleswari river. In the morning I moved
around the base, especially the localities where
we had already sighted them on previous
occasions. But no trace could be found. I also
trekked areas near Damchara stream but in
vain.

There was mild rainfall in midday. Just
after the rains, about nine Phayre’s leaf mon-
keys, including three juveniles, appeared in
the area. The troop was spread over a wide
area and was seen busy feeding. Two indivi-
duals were also observed resting on tree
branches near the hill-top area.

Habitat, status and association with

OTHER ANIMALS

The area where Phayre’s leaf monkey has
been sighted (i.e. Nagorhgena) is about 3 km
south-west of Gharmura. Gharmura is 56 km
south of Hailakandi, the nearest Sub-divisional
headquarter. The geographic location of the
area is 24° 17' N and 92° 30' E. The area is
actually a low hill range, running in a north-
south direction. The low hills are the northern
promontories of Mizo (Lushai) hills. To the
east is the wide bank of Dhaleswari river, while
to the west is the small plain (locally called
‘thal’) formed by Nagorhgena streamlet. While
the hill is covered by depleted evergreen forest
with extensive bamboo jungles, the Nagorh-
gena thal as well as the level Dhaleswari bank
is under human habitation. A few tall trees
were there mainly in the hill-top area which

487

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

included some deciduous trees like Shirish
( Albizzia stipulata). Bamboos covered the
hillslope area with Muli ( Melocanna bambu-
soides ) as the main species.

At the base of the hills on the Nagorhgena
side, patches of wet grasslands (locally called
‘terabon’) were present. The first troop of
eight was seen on such a grassland. But exactly
where the monkeys sat could not be ascer-
tained as there were some fallen bamboos on
the ground. The habitat is very much disturb-
ed as settlers from both sides enter the forest
daily for collection of firewood and bamboos.

The climate of the area is tropical. Summer
is hot and wet, while winter is generally cool
and dry. The annual precipitation is between
2,400-2,800 mm, much more than the leaf
monkey habitat of Tripura where it is about
1582 mm (Mukherjee 1982). The bulk of
the rain falls during summer, but winter rains
are also common.

The status of Phayre’s leaf monkey in the
rest of Cachar as well as Karimganj district
is not known. After the sightings in Nagorh-
gena, I tried to survey the eastern bank of
Dhaleswari river to confirm whether Dhaleswari
river is the eastern distributional limit of the
species, but due to lack of time and resources
I could not carry out a detailed study. But there
are unconfirmed reports of sighting received
from as far northeast as Bilaipur. It is very
likely to exist towards west upto Tripura
border.

The most interesting fact about Phayre’s
leaf monkey is that till 21 March (1986) it
was not properly recognised by the locals as
well as forest officials, who confused it either
as a ‘tailed’ hoolock gibbon (due to blackish
colour) or as ‘black’ capped langur (due to its
long tail), and that is why it has no local
names in the area. It was only after my clari-
fication that it is a different monkey, that some
persons started calling it as ‘lamba leinge-ala

kala bandor’ i.e. longtailed black monkey.

Other primates observed in the Nagorhgena
hillock were Rhesus macaques ( Macaca
mulatto), Hoolock gibbons ( Hylobates hoo-
lock) and Capped langurs ( Presbytis pileatus).
But contact between Phayre’s leaf monkey
with other primates was not observed. How-
ever, the troop that was sighted on 25 March
afternoon was almost at the same spot where
hoolock gibbons were sighted in the morning.
Other significant tree-loving mammals in the
area are the Malayan giant squirrel ( Ratufa
sp.). Sambar ( Cervus unicolor), muntjak
( Muntiacus muntjac) and wild pig ( Sus scrofa)
are the main ground mammals of the area.

Phayre’s and Barbe’s Leaf Monkeys

Are Phayre’s and Barbe’s leaf monkeys, the
same, and what are the basic taxonomic diffe-
rences between the two? Are both the species
found in India? These are some of the ques-
tions open for discussion.

R. P. Mukherjee ( pers . comm.) informed
me that the distribution and taxonomic posi-
tion of Barbe’s leaf monkey ( Presbytis barbei
Blyth) is not known with certainty. Finn (1929)
mentioned Tipperah (Tripura), upper Burma,
Kakhyen hills and Tenasserim as the distribu-
tion range of Barbe’s leaf monkey. According
to him, Phayre’s leaf monkey was not found
in India, and is distributed in Arakan, Bassein
and north Tenasserim.

Interestingly, Vol. 79 (1) of the Journal of
the Bombay Natural History Society publish-
ed two papers, one on Phayre’s leaf monkey
of Tripura (R. P. Mukherjee) and the other
on Barbe’s leaf monkey, also of Tripura
(S. K. Mukherjee). The characteristics, includ-
ing body colour, colour around eyes and lips
appeared to be the same in both the papers.
The distribution (in Tripura), habitat as well
as food also seems to be similar. While R.P.M.
did not mention anything about Barbe’s

488

TRIPURA

PH AY RE’S LEAF MONKEY IN CACHAR

Fig. 2. Cachar and Karimganj districts with reserved forests.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

monkey in his list of primates, S.K.M. also
did not name phayre’s monkey in his list of
Tripura monkeys. How did Barbe’s monkey
evade R.P.M.’s notice and Phayre’s monkey
S.K.M’s notice, when both the species seem to
be well distributed throughout Tripura and are
not uncommon? At least they would have
mentioned the existence of the two species in
Tripura. It might well be that the two species,
both of which are called Dudhi-Mukho bandor
or Chosma Chok in Tripura, have been confus-
ed in the field. Dense vegetation may also be
a reason for that. R.P.M. might have taken all
the ‘spectacled’ and white lipped monkeys as
Phayre’s species, while S.K.M. as Barbe’s.
S.K.M.’s description of coloration of Barbe’s
monkey does not tally with Finn (1929) who
described it as ‘black with dark-blue face, lips
often light’. This, therefore, needs confirma-
tion.

The book on primates by Napier
and Napier (1967) did not recognise the exist-
ence of any monkeys like Barbe’s leaf monkey,
so also Roonwal and Mohnot (1977).

Discussion

Not only is the small leaf monkey habitat
(so far known) a very disturbed one (reasons
already mentioned), various other factors have
threatened its very existence. Burning of forests
by Reang tribesmen and forest personnel, and
the expansion of encroachment pose an imme-
diate threat to this small hillock. While the
Reang tribesmen clear forest for jhum (shift-
ing) cultivation, the Forest Department’s main
intention is plantation.

A very big area covering several hundred
hectares adjacent to the leaf monkey habitat
have been burnt down completely during my
camping period at Gharmura (exact measure-
ment of the area could not be taken). Such

burnings are generally resisted by the
encroachers as they collect firewood, building
materials etc. from forests; moreover they
cultivate permanently on flat valleys. Uncon-
trolled burning sometimes causes extensive
damage to life and property of the encroachers.
The encroachers along both sides of Nagorh-
gena hillock are also determined to save the
hillock from burning.

Some of the encroachers expressed their
willingness to surrender their land to the ‘leaf
monkey’s provided some sort of employment
is given to them. Who else can be a good game
watcher than these encroachers who know
every bit of the forest? Moreover it is unlikely
that most of the encroachers could be evicted,
as it often becomes a political issue.

So, considering the biological importance of
the area, some steps must be taken. If the
clash between encroachers on the one hand and
Reangs and Forest Department on the other
hand ends in favour of the latter, then the
hillock may face complete destruction next
winter.

Thus, in order to save the only known troop
of Phayre’s leaf monkey. Government should
do something positive (like declaring the
area as a sanctuary) and that too without
delay. The confidence of the people who are
sharing the habitat with leaf monkeys for the
past few years must be gained, otherwise the
very concept of conservation will not succeed.

It may also be mentioned here that the
Government of Assam has already been moved
in (1983) to declare the whole forest belt of
southern Cachar-Karimganj as a wildlife sanc-
tuary, but hardly anything practical has been
done till now.

Moreover, the local people have nothing
against the leaf monkey, as it never invades
cultivations.

490

PH AY RE'S LEAF MONKEY IN CACHAR

Fig. 3. Phayre’s leaf monkey area in Cachar with sighting locations. Sighting locations
of other primates* is also shown.

Ack NOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to offer my thanks to Mr. Sirai
Laskar and Mr. Aziruddin Laskar of Gharmura
for their help during my camping period.
I am also thankful to Mr. Hasan Raza
and Mr. Johar for allowing their houses at
the base of Nagorhgena hillock to be used as
temporary camps.

Mr. Fulmon Kurmi, my local guide
and Mr. Amir who actually guided me in the
leaf monkey habitat, deserve special men-
tion. Thanks are also due to Dr. M. Taher,
Head, Department of Geography, and Dr. P.
C. Bhattacharjee of the Zoology Department
(both of Gauhati University) for their advice
in various matters.

491

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

References

Agarwal, V. C. (1974) : Taxonomic status of
Barbe’s leaf monkey, Presbytis barbei Blyth. Pri-
mates, 75(2-3): 235-239.

& Bhattacharya, T. A. (1977) :

Report on a collection of mammals from Tripura.
Rec. Zool. Surv. India. 73: 135-157.

Blanford, W. T. (1888-91): The fauna of British
India, including Burma and Ceylon. Mammalia,
Taylor & Francis.

Choudhury, Anwaruddin (1983): Plea for a
new wildlife refuge in eastern India. Tigerpaper 10
(4): 12-15. F.A.O., Bangkok.

(1983): Plea for a

new wildlife sanctuary in Assam. World Wildlife
Fund-lndia Newsletter, 4(4) : 15.

Finn, Frank (1929): Sterndale’s Mammalia of
India. Thacker, Spink and Co., Calcutta.

Fooden, J. (1971) : Report on primates collected

in western Thailand, January-April 1967. Fieldiana
(Zoology), 59: 1-62.

Gittins, S. P. & Akonda, A. W. (1982) : What
survives in Bangladesh? Oryx 16(3) : 275-281.

Green, K. M. (1978): Primates of Bangladesh.
A preliminary survey of population and habitat.
Biol. Conserv. 13: 141-160.

Mukherjee, R. P. (1982): Phayre’s leaf monkey
(Presbytis phayrei) of Tripura. J. Bombay not. Hist.
Soc. 79(1): 47-56.

Mukherjee, S. K. (1982): Notes on Barbe’s leaf
monkey (Presbytis barbei Blyth). ibid. 79(1): 184-
185.

Napier, J. R. & Napier, P. H. (1967): A hand-
book of living Primates. Academic Press, London/
New York.

Roonwal, M. L. & Mohnot, S. M. (1977):
Primates of South Asia: Ecology, sociobiology and
behaviour. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge.

492

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BARBETS, MEGALAIMA SPP.
(CAPITONIDAE: PICIFORMES) AT PERIYAR TIGER
RESERVE, KERALA1

H. S. A. Yahya2

( With six text-figures and a map )

Introduction

The genus Megalaima, which includes all the
nine species of Indian Barbets, is a prominent
group of hole nesting birds well represented
throughout the Indian sub-continent. Friedman
(1935), Chapin (1939), Moreau & Moreau
(1940), Skutch (1944), Skead (1950) and
Short & Horne (1979, 1980) have studied the
life histories of some of the African and
American barbets, but a similar study of an
Asiatic barbet is not available. This paper is
based on the work done between 1977 and
1980, mainly at Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala
(Map 1).

Nests of hole-nesting birds are difficult to
observe in comparison to other- groups of birds.
In the present study, a successful method was
devised, allowing regular examination of nest
contents.

Methods

Only breeding pairs of M. viridis and M.
rubricapiila malabarica, found excavating holes
for a minimum of five consecutive days, were
selected for regular observation, and nests
were then marked serially. 96 nests of viridis
and 36 nesting attempts of rubricapiila were
monitored during three breeding seasons (1978-
1980). Among these, 18 nests of viridis and

Accepted February 1988.

2 Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology, Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh- 202 001, (U.P.).

8 nests of rubricapiila were cut open to deter-
mine the clutch size, incubation and nestling
periods, growth rate of the nestlings and
fledging success.

Six nests of viridis and 4 nests of rubri-
capiila were intensively studied to determine
the percentage of attentiveness by the parents
during incubation and percentage of food
materials fed to the nestlings during different
hours and days of nesting periods. Observa-
tions were made for at least one shift of four
hours each, from egg laying till the nestlings
fledged, for each of these nests. In most cases
it was not possible to identify individual in-
sects, so food items were recorded only as
‘plant material’, ‘animal material’ and ‘undeter-
mined’.

Weights of nestlings from six nests of viridis
and three nests of rubricapiila were taken to
determine weight and other changes in rela-
tion to their age. Weight was taken on every
third day at 0900 hrs. The nestlings were not
weighed after the 30th day, because no signi-
ficant change in their weights was evident after
the 27th day. After this, there was also a
considerable risk of premature fledging follow-
ing disturbance.

Calculation of time spent on nest incubation :
Suppose, total hours in one complex day

(24 hrs)

± T

roosting hours (incubation

during nights)

-R

then the total day hours =

T-R =D

493

3

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Map. 1. Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala.

In P hrs (4 hr=shift) observa-
tion the bird was found incu-
bating for N hrs

then in D hrs, incubation would be
for N/P x D = Y

Thus, the total incubation in T hrs = Y+R
Therefore, the % of attentiveness

(Y+R) x 100

of incubation = —

T

Note ;

(1) Times of settling and emerging of parents
were noted on every fifth day to determine
the roosting/incubation hrs. during nights.

(2) In the final calculation, equal number of
each shift (i.e. morning, noon and after-
noon) were recorded to avoid error.

Gaining access to nest contents :

Easily accessible and preferably freshly
excavated nests were selected. As soon as the
birds completed excavation, a small block of
wood was neatly cut out with a hacksaw thus
making an opening horizontally and diagonally
at the opposite side of the entrance about 8 cm
above the nest chamber. This opening was to
provide enough space for handling nest con-

494

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BARBELS

tents. A nail was then fixed (Fig. 1) to the wedge was replaced and tied tightly with a
middle of the block, and after observation the string.

Fig. 1.

1. Section through nest-hole; 2. Direction of cuts with hacksaw indicated by arrows
and dotted lines; 3. Cut wedge of tree removed; 4. Cut wedge with thin nail driven
into it; 5. Nest conveniently open for examination of contents; 6. Wedge refixed and
held in place by string which loops over nail in wedge.

495

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

In the second phase of the study in 1979, 2o
four pairs of viridis were colour banded to l6
determine the nature of pair formation. In the ^ 12
last phase of the study, three banded viridis | b
and one rubricapilia were collected and dis- 1 4
sected to ascertain the sex of birds incubating/ |
brooding at night. Two ‘Machan-hides’, one for * 20
each species, were installed for closer obser- • 16
vation and photography at a distance of two | ^
metres from the nests. I

0- 4

The Breeding Cycle :

BREEDING SEASON: 300

Barbets have an extended breeding season.

This is partly due to hole excavation habit 200
and partly to the nidicolous nature of the
nestlings. A ‘minimum’ of c. 65 days is requir- 100
ed to raise a successful brood. At Periyar
Tiger Reserve, viridis start nesting activity from
December and finish in July. In comparison,
rubricapilia has a shorter breeding season,
starting in December and ending in May. In
both cases, these periods are longer than those
currently acknowledged in the literature (Baker
1934, Ali & Ripley 1970).

I recorded the majority of breeding pairs of
both species from January to May (Fig. 2).
Feeding the nestlings was observed in viridis
as late as July, whereas no nest of rubricapilia
was found after May. Between January and
May rainfall is comparatively less and it
appears that at Thekkady, barbets and almost
all other birds complete nesting activities be-
fore it started raining heavily in July.

Courtship and pair formation:

M. viridis seems to pair for more than one
breeding season (Thomson 1964). This was
ascertained in the third phase of the study
when three out of the four pairs were found
pairing and breeding again. I found the male
of the fourth pair nesting with a different
female and presume that his previous mate

Rainfall in mm

AS ONDJFMAMJJ JFM

1978 1979 1<58°

Fig. 2. Rainfall and percentage of nests observed in
different months.

had died, as I undertook extensive search in
the surroundings.

Vocalisations forms the major mode of
courtship and display among barbets. In both
the species, calls are used in both the pre-
and postnuptial displays. As soon as the drier
months commence, barbets become more vocal
and call loudly and shrilly throughout the day
till the eggs hatch. After the eggs hatch, pairs
become markedly less vocal. However, pre-
and post-roosting calls and territorial or alarm
calls are still noted at this time as usual
(Yahya 1980, 1984). During nest excavation
and copulation, courtship feeding is regularly
seen in both the species. However, during my
intensive study of six pairs of viridis, I never
found them feeding their mates during incuba-
tion; while excavating the nests the relieving
partners of several pairs of viridis, rubricapilia

496

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BARBETS

and M. haemacephala (at Borivli National
Park and Lower camp) were observed feed-
ing the excavating mates. Van Tyne & Berger
(1971) state that courtship feeding occurs pri-
marily in genera in which the sexes remain
together throughout the breeding season.

Copulation :

Altogether, pairs of viridis and rubricapilla
were observed copulating on 11 and six occa-
sions respectively. In both the species, copu-
lation is normally completed in two successive
mounts, each lasting for 6-7 seconds. During
copulation the female crouches, her tarsal joint
at about 30° to the perch and gives cheen ,
cheen .... ‘soliciting calls’; the wings of both
birds flutter and tails are fanned. The cloaca
are pressed together, the male being at an angle
of about 60° to the female. On seven occa-
sions, males of viridis were observed feeding
their mates; on five occasions just before, and
twice just after, copulation. MacDonald (1961)
and Ravi (1966) have also recorded male
haemacephala feeding the female after copu-
lation.

Two pairs of viridis and one pair of rubri-
capilla which raised a second brood were
observed copulating 5 to 7 days prior to the
fledging of the first brood.

On three occasions I recorded the males of
viridis mounting the female without pre- or
postnuptial courtship feeding; no successive
mount was recorded on those occasions.

Nest site selection and excavation :

Almost all the nests observed at Thekkady
and elsewhere were found in the dead branches
of trees. Owing to their larger beak, viridis
excavate in thicker branches or often in a dead
part of the trunk, whereas all the nests of
rubricapilla were recorded in thinner branches.
Because thinner branches are fragile, these
nests are often destroyed by heavy rain/wind:

rubricapilla pairs have to excavate a new nest
almost every year. According to Short (1979),
newly excavated holes lack pests such as ticks,
so this necessity to excavate new holes may
carry hidden benefits. However, sometimes
suitable roosting holes are also renovated for
nesting. But if enough space is available, both
species prefer to excavate a new hole in the
same branch and at times several holes are
found in a single branch. The surplus holes
are used for roosting by the pair and their
young (Yahya 1980).

Colonial nesting and nesting locality:

I could not determine any well defined
territories for pairs of viridis or rubricapilla ;
the birds simply defend the nesting branch
from intruders. However, viridis is more tole-
rant of its own kind, and several pairs may
nest fairly close to each other, the minimum
distance recorded between two active nests
being 19 m. Nests of rubricapilla are always
found scattered, and only on one occasion
were two pairs recorded nesting as close as
70 m from each other. Therefore, ‘loose colo-
nial nesting’ (Lack 1968) appears to be pro-
nounced among viridis.

Although nests of viridis were recorded
fairly close to each other, I never found the
two species nesting together in a single tree.
On two occasions, pairs of rubricapilla were
driven away by the pairs of viridis when the
latter selected the same tree for nesting. How-
ever, Vergese & Govindakrishnan (1975) have
observed a pair of viridis and pair of haema-
cephala nesting in opposite branches of a Bead
tree {Media azedarach ) at Bangalore. Fried-
man (1935), quoted by Skutch (1944), stated
that a dozen or even two dozen pairs of
Gymnobucca (African barbets) may have their
nest-holes in the same tree, while neighbour-
ing trees are wholly devoid of holes.

497

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FoZ. 55

Atetf defending behaviour:

Interspecific aggression is pronounced among
viridis: they constantly harass any pair of
rubricapilla nesting in their vicinity, at times
even destroying their nests. Besides driving
away their own kind from nesting trees, pairs
of viridis were observed defending their nests
from other tree hole-nesters like woodpeckers,
mynas and tits. However, on several occasions
I found viridis excavating or incubating, un-
perturbed by the presence of a non hole-
nester. It appears that, like woodpeckers (Short
1979), barbets ‘recognise’ potential nest-com- 30
petitors and act appropriately towards them. 25
However, I did not observe any interaction £20
between viridis and other hole-nesters at sites %
other than nesting sites, as has been recorded |"15
by Short between the Black-backed woodpecker 10

and Tree Swallows. 5

The other animal from which the barbets
defend their nests is the Three-striped Palm
Squirrel, which is reported to be a persistent
egg robber (Prater 1971). Almost all the pairs
of viridis , rubricapilla and a pair of M. zeyla-
nlca (observed at Hazaribagh) were seen chas-
ing squirrels away from the vicinity of their
nests. 35

While rubricapilla defends its nests against
other hole-nesters and squirrels, this species is 30

mostly harassed by the former species. When- ^ 25
ever a viridis located the nest of a rubricapilla, | 20
it tried to destroy the nest, either by pecking 1 15
at the entrance or by preventing the parents £
from feeding the nestlings. Among six un-
successful nests of rubricapilla, three were
destroyed by three different pairs of viridis ;
the first nest contained two nestlings, the second
two eggs and the third pair was dispossessed
of the nesting branch during excavation.

In all the encounters observed the larger
viridis individuals were successful in dispos-
sessing a rubricapilla of their nests. I never
documented the opposite outcome, as has been

reported by Short (1979) in case of the
Crested Barbet ( Trachyphonus vaillantii).

Nest height :

As shown in Fig. 3, viridis and rubricapilla
nest at different heights from the ground. The

a*

in

High! ir» m

Hight in m

Fig. 3. Nest height preference.

preference of certain nesting heights in these
two species corresponds to their different feed-
ing zones (Yahya 1980).

498

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BARBETS

Nest excavation :

In the course of selecting a new nest-site,
barbets would move from branch to branch
very actively, pecking at different places and
sitting on a perch for a few minutes to call;
they would be promptly answered by their
partners. Sometimes both the partners would
visit and examine the same branch again and
again, at times calling and preening alternately
before finally selecting the nest site. While
viridis selects any type of branch, rubricapilla
always prefers more or less horizontal branches
and excavates strictly on the underside of the
branch.

Close observation of the colour banded pairs
of viridis showed that the males were more
active in nest excavation throughout. Allen
(1961) also found that, among woodpeckers
and certain other groups of birds, the males
take the initiative in starting the nesting cavity
and do most of the work of excavation. Short
and Horne (1979) have observed three White-
headed Barbets ( Lybius torquatus) excavating
a single hole.

In the beginning, the excavation in both
the species is slow, but it gradually picks up.
During the peak period, c. 20-25 minutes of
continuous excavation is followed by a rest of
5-7 minutes. On an average, the excavation is
done for 200 minutes per day. The excavated
wood-chips are taken in beakfuls and thrown
down from a predetermined perch about 30-35
m away from the nest. On some occasions the
birds were seen dropping the chips in mid-air
before reaching the normal ‘chip throwing
post’.

During excavation, in both the species, the
partners change shifts; while one bird is work-
ing, the other approaches the nest site and
clings; the former then moves away gently and
the latter resumes the excavation. While one
is working inside, its partner usually clings at
the entrance and immediately the former flies

out, the reliever settles down to the excava-
tion. At times, a call is also used for this
purpose; the relieving partner calls from an
adjacent tree while the excavation is going on
inside, the working bird then comes out and
the former takes its place.

On an average, viridis takes 20 days and
rubricapilla 18 days to complete the nest. In
all dimensions the nest of the former is larger.
It appears that, owing to its larger beak,
viridis excavates almost twice the length of
nest cavity in more or less the same period
(Table 1).

Table 1

Mean dimensions of nests of viridis and
rubricapilla

Diameter
of entrance
of hole
(on)

Depth
of hole
(cm)

Width

of

Chamber

(an)

Av.

time

taken

(days)

M. viridis 5.10

32.23

9.20

20

(N = 18)

M. rubricapilla 3.85

16.95

7.25

18

(N = 8)

The nest:

The nest-hole of barbets is not just a simple
hole as it may appear from the exterior. The
entrance is evenly circular, being just big
enough to allow the passage of one bird at a
time. It is so neatly and precisely drilled out
that when the bird looks out from the ‘door-
way’, no space is left around. This narrow
space is of advantage as it protects the nest
from predators. The entrance leads to a bend
from where the main shaft begins. The dist-
ance from the entrance to the bend (ante-
chamber) differs from species to species, the
larger the bird the longer the ante-chamber.
This part of the nest is also of great help to
the bird; being slightly downward sloping, it
prevents water from entering the nest. This

499

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

place also provides a secure perch, and grown-
up nestlings sit in this ante-chamber to receive
food from the parents just prior to fledging.

From the ‘bend’, the cavity leads to a uni-
form shaft, but widens at the distal end into
an almost oval nest-chamber. The size of the
chamber also correlates with the size of the
bird and nestlings. No nest lining is used in
either species, but there are usually some wood-
chips on which the eggs are bedded.

Egg laying, clutch size and incubation :

Eggs are laid 3-5 days after the completion
of freshly excavated nests. In both the species,
eggs are normally laid consecutively each
morning till the clutch is complete.

Butler (in Baker 1934) reported that viridis
may lay several clutches in a single breeding
season. To verify this report I investigated
three nests of viridis and one of rubricapilla :
All eggs were removed from two nests of
viridis when the clutch was complete; from
the third nest the first egg was taken away
after the second egg was laid, and the second
egg was taken after the third was laid, the
last egg was left intact. From the only nest
of rubricapilla all the eggs were taken when
the clutch was complete. While the first pair of
viridis laid eggs in the same nest for the
second brood after nine days, the latter two
abandoned the nests. The former also aban-
doned the nest when I removed all the eggs
for the second time. The pair of rubricapilla
also deserted the nest after I had taken the
eggs.

It is apparent from the above that both
viridis and rubricapilla do not lay more than
two clutches in a season, and thus it may be
postulated that they are determinate layers.

Altogether 11 pairs of viridis and 4 pairs
of rubricapilla were observed raising a second
brood. Both the species laid a second clutch

c. 4-6 days after the nestlings of the first brood
had fledged.

Generally viridis lays 3 eggs and rubricapilla
only 2. Of 18 nest sites of the former moni-
tored, only 3 nests contained 2 eggs, whereas
among 8 nests of the latter only contained
one egg. I did not find any nest of viridis
with 4 eggs or that of rubricapilla with 3 eggs
as reported by Baker (1934). I did not find
any difference in clutch size between the first
and second brood of either species.

The eggs :

Eggs of both species are white and elongat-
ed having a distinctly blunt and a pointed
end, the eggs of viridis are larger and weigh
more (Table 2). Though the size of the eggs
in both the species varied slightly from brood
to brood and at times within a brood, I did
not find any egg, in either species, as small as
reported by Baker (1934).

Table 2

Size and weight of eggs of M. viridis and
M. rubricapilla

Sample

Average

size

(mm)

Average

weight

(g)

M. viridis

21

29.01x20.36

6.58

*(30)

*(26.20 x 20.00)

M. rubricapilla

7

27.60x 18.95

5.68

*(9)

*(24.70x17.70)

* As given by Baker (1934).

Incubation period and attentiveness :

The incubation period is considered to be
from completion of the clutch to hatching of all
the eggs. The average incubation period in
both the species is 14 to 15 days. Two other
sympatric species of barbets, M. lineata (Ali
& Ripley 1970) and M. haemacephala (Ver-

500

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BARBETS

ghese & Govindakrishnan 1975), also have
incubation periods of this length.

Six nests of viridis and four of rubricapilla
were studied to determine the percentage of
attentiveness and rhythm of incubation during
different days and hours of incubation. It was
found that percentage of attentiveness of the
parents on incubation increases steadily and
reaches its maximum 2-3 days prior to hatch-
ing in both species. In both species parents
were found most attentive during the morning
hours, which are generally cold at Thekkady,
and least attentive during afternoon. They
were also found more attentive when it rained,
causing a drop in ambient temperature.

Details of percentage of attentiveness have
been discussed elsewhere (Yahya 1980). The
overall average calculated from the above
mentioned nests shows that both these sympa-
tric species have almost similar percentage of
attentiveness, i.e. about 75%.

During the daylight hours, the two members

Hatching :

Eggs of barbets hatch on a ‘first-laid first-
hatched’ basis. This was determined by num-
bering the eggs serially. The percentage of
hatching in both species is very high, being
over 92% (Table 3). Among the 40 eggs of
viridis and 13 of rubricapilla incubated till
hatching only three of the former and one of
the latter did not hatch. Any unhatched egg
was removed by the parents. From another
nest three eggs were removed, one by one
and dropped at a distance of 15 m from the
nest, by a male viridis after I took the female
for sex determination. Before removing the
eggs, the male called loudly and then threw
away the eggs in the afternoon.

Nestling feeding'.

Regular and active feeding begins only after
all the eggs of the clutch are hatched. During
the first 3-4 days, the parents feed the nestl-
ings by regurgitating insects. Thereafter, rubri-

Table 3

Percentage of success of hatching, fledging and brood of M. viridis and M. rubricapilla

Species

Total no.
of nests
examined

No.
of eggs
laid

No. of eggs
left to
hatch

Hatching

success

No. %

Fledging

success

No. %

Brood

success

%

M. viridis

18

52

40

37

92.5

28

75.7

53.84

M. rubricapilla

8

15

13

12

92.3

9

75.0

60.00

of a pair share incubation almost equally, but
the females incubate/brood alone during nights
in both the species. This was ascertained by
banding four pairs of viridis and dissecting
three, and doing the same for one pair of
rubricapilla.

During incubation, there is specific shift-
change routine among barbets during which
there is special use of their calls (Yahya 1980).

capilla sharply switches over to fruits, whilst
viridis continues to feed the nestlings consi-
derable quantities of insects throughout the
nestling period (Figs. 4 & 5). Parents of both
the species feed the nestlings by settling inside
the nests except 5-7 days prior to fledging
when the nestlings often receive the food at
the entrance.

The visits per hour for feeding increase,
in both species, with the age and number of

501

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Fig 4. Percentage of food materials fed by the
parents during different days of nestling periods.

nestlings. On an average, the parents of viridis
visited the nests 9.63 times per hour when
there were three nestlings, 8.46 times when
there were two nestlings but only 4.7 times
when there was only one nestling. All the
nests of rubricapilla contained two nestlings
and on an average, the parents visited 8.11
times per hour. (Table A-D).

In both species the rate of visits increases
significantly with the increase of the age of
the nestlings, till about 21 days. After this, the
frequency of feeding remains more or less con-
stant throughout the remaining nesting period.

Nest sanitation :

In both species, nest sanitation is normally

performed by both sexes and the frequency of
nest cleaning corresponds to the rate of
feeding. In one pair of viridis it was only the
female which performed this chore. The faecal
matter is thrown about 35 m away from the
nest, exactly in the same way as the barbets
dispose of wood-chips during the final phase
of nest excavation. Among the several
nests of viridis cut open for observa-
tions, two contained numerous maggots but
the nestlings nevertheless fledged successfully.

Brooding :

Parents of both the species were observed
brooding the nestlings regularly till about the
14th day after hatching. The length of brood -

Fig. 5. Percentage of food materials fed by the
parents during different days of nestling periods.

502

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BARBETS

Table A

Percentage of food

MATERIAL FED BY THE PARENTS DURING

DIFFERENT

NESTLING PERIODS:

M. viridis

Nest

No. of

Nestling Days of nestling

Percentage of food material:

No.

nestlings

period

period

Plant

Animal

Undetermined

V-3

2

36 days

1 to 5

5.38

26.88

67.74

5 to 10

27.63

32.89

39.47

10 to 15

51.09

18.42

30.48

15 to 20

54.30

32.60

13.10

20 to 25

53.77

31.09

15.14

25 to last day

68.78

19.36

11.86

Average :

43.49

26.87

29.63

V-5

1

38 days

1 to 5

12.50

37.50

50.00

5 to 10

24.99

30.98

44.03

10 to 15

56.76

28. 14

15.10

15 to 20

53.00

29.12

17.88

20 to 25

69.84

17.46

12.70

25 to last day

71.22

17.23

11.55

Average :

48.55

26.73

25.11

V-19

2

36 days

1 to 5

17.57

35.88

46.55

... - -

5 to 10

30.63

26,55

42.81

10 to 15

58.30

28.60

13.10

15 to 20

58.78

23.67

17.55

20 to 25

57.91

28.11

13.98

25 to last day

67.00

20.50

12.50

: ::

Average :

48.30

27.22

24.47

V-30

3

37 days

1 to 5

7.86

30.26

61.88

-- •

5 to 10

36.77

25.42

37.81

10 to 15

60.11

26.34

13.55

15 to 20

58.11

23.07

18.82

20 to 25

62.12

21.09

16.79

25 to last day

69.21

19.45

11.34

Average :

49.03

24.27

26.70

V-32

3

36 days

1 to 5

11.45

43.11

45.44

5 to 10

47.32

20.12

32.56

10 to 15

58.11

31.00

10.89

15 to 20

59.12

28.23

12.65

20 to 25

68.99

23.45

07.56

25 to last day

63.54

15.88

20.58

Average :

51.42

26.97

21.61

503

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Table A. (Contd.)

Nest-

No.

No. of
nestling

Nestling Days of nestling

period period

Plant

Percentage of food material;

Animal Undetermined

V-32a

1

37 days 1 to 5

6.57

37.99

55.44

5 to 10

41.77

27.11

31.12

10 to 15

53.54

21 , 87

24,59

15 to 20

56.70

25.12

18.18

20 to 25

71.43

19.78

8.79

25 to last day

65.98

17.37

16.65

Average :

49.33

24.87

25.80

V-66

3

36 days 1 to 5

11.55

39.78

48.67

5 to 10

39.98

26.25

33.77

10 to 15

55.46

19.20

25.34

15 to 20

65.23

22.13

12.64

20 to 25

58.78

17.88

23.34

25 to last day

67.00

18.77

14.23

Average :

49.67

24.00

26.33

Table B

Percentage of food

MATERIAL FED BY THE PARENTS DURING

DIFFERENT

NESTLING PERIODS:

M. rubricapilla

Nest

No. of

Nestling Days of nestling

Percentage of food material:

No.

nestlings

period period

Plant

Animal

Undetermined

R-4

2

36 days 1 to 5

19.11

7.12

83.77

5 to 10

58.18

3.50

38.32

10 to 15

79.67

5.12

15.21

15 to 20

78.58

—

21.42

20 to 25

88.18

—

11.82

25 to last day

87.92

—

12.08

Average :

68.60

2.62

30,45

R-9

2 .

35 days 1 to 5

11.23

27.45

61.32

5 to 10

78.23

4.68

17.09

10 to 15

71.00

—

29.00

15 to 20

79.56

2.00

18.44

20 to 25

92.34

—

7.66

25 to last day

90.18

—

9.82

Average :

70.42

5.69

23.89

R-12

2

36 days 1 to 5

17.88

21.89

60.23

5 to 10

80.00

6.12

13.88

-

10 to 15

87.77

2.34

9.89

15 to 20

85.98

—

14.02

20 to 25

91.00

1.78

7.22

25 to last day

90.45

—

9.55

Average :

75.51

5.34

19.13

504

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BARBETS

Table B (Contd.)

Nest No. of Average per hour

No. nestling between

37 days 1 to 5

23.11

18.22

58.67

5 to 10

79.24

3.78

16.98

10 to 15

85.79

—

14.21

15 to 20

78.98

2.01

19.01

20 to 25

92.11

—

7.89

25 to last day

89.99

0.25

9.76

Average :

74.87

4.04

21.08

Table C

Rate of

NEST FEEDING/CLEANING DURING DIFFERENT HOURS AND DAY

OF NESTLING

PERIODS :

M. viridis

Nest

No. of

Average per hour visit by the parents

Ave. of

Faecal

No.

nestlings

between different

whole

matter

Days

hours

day

removal

6 to 10

10 to 14

14 to 18

per hr.

V-3

2 1 to 5

2.25

6,37

5.75

4.79

0.87

5 to 10

6.25

9.25

6.50

7.75

1.16

10 to 15

9.50

9.25

4.25

7.67

1.19

15 to 20

10.30

10.00

7.50

8.80

1.91

20 to 25

8.25

10.01

4.00

7.42

2.91

25 to last day

9.75

9.80

5.75

8.43

3.50

Average :

7.72

9.07

5.62

7.48

1.92

V-5

1 1 to 5

2.45

3.11

2.35

2.63

0.89

5 to 10

2.99

3.00

3.00

3.00

1.05

10 to 15

3.35

3.67

3.00

3.34

1.50

15 to 20

3.98

3.87

3.77

3.87

2.00

20 to 25

4.45

4.89

4.01

4.45

2.14

25 to last day

4.97

4.25

4.00

4.40

2.77

Average :

3.70

3.80

3.36

3.61

1.73

V-19

2 1 to 5

5.10

5.87

4.33

5.10

0.93

5 to 10

7.11

8.98

6.34

7.48

1.71

■! o

10 to 15

10.55

11.00

5.22

8.92

2.00

15 to 20

10.78

11.76

7.13

9.89

2.45

20 to 25

11.00

9.11

5.87

8.66

2.95

25 to last day

10.89

10.00

6.12

9.00

4.00

Average :

9.24

9.29

5.83

8.18

2.34

505

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

Table C (Contd.)

Nest

No.

No. of
nestlings

Days

Average per hour visit by the parents
between different
hours

6 to 10 10 to 14 14 to 18

Ave. of
whole
day

Faecal
matter
removal
per hr.

V-30

3 1 to 5

6.00

6.21

4.88

5.70

1.00

5 to 10

8.11

8.01

6.71

7.61

1.65

10 to 15

8.98

8.00

7.78

8.25

2.11

15 to 20

11.00

10.71

8.85

10.19

3.00

20 to 25

10.89

11.01

7.67

9.89

3.01

25 to last day

12.12

11.77

8.11

10.66

7.45

Average :

9.51

9.29

7.37

8.71

3.03

V-32

3 1 to 5

7.89

6.01

5.00

6.30

1.11

5 to 10

9.05

9.45

7.54

8.68

1.92

10 to 15

9.00

10.12

8.13

9.08

2.24

15 to 20

12.23

10.34

10.98

11.18

4.00

20 to 25

15.00

12.98

10.00

12.66

6.93

25 to last day

13.33

12.89

8.67

11.63

6.80

Average :

11.08

10.30

8.39

9.92

3.83

V-32a

1 1 to 5

3.34

4.45

3.11

3.63

0.81

5 to 10

5.88

5.95

4.85

5.56

0.98

10 to 15

5.05

4.89

5.01

4.98

1.11

15 to 20

7.76

8.00

6.12

7.29

2.89

20 to 25

6.99

7.13

6.89

7.00

3.15

25 to last day

7.98

6.91

5.97

6.95

4.00

Average:

6.16

6.22

5.33

5.90

2.16

V-66

3 1 to 5

5.89

5.33

4.00

5.07

1.23

5 to 10

8.88

9.11

7.98

8.66

2.01

10 to 15

10.11

10.78

8.34

9.74

3.00

15 to 20

13.26

12.55

10.15

11.99

4.85

20 to 25

13.20

13.00

11.12

12.44

5.00

25 to last day

12.92

13.45

10.98

12.45

6.89

Average :

10.70

10.70

8.76

10.00

3.83

506

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BARBETS

Table D

Rate of nest feeding/cleaning during different hours and day of nestling periods: M. rubricapilla

Nest

No.

No. of
nestlings

Days

Average perhour visit by the parents
between different
hours

6 to 10 10 to 14 14 to 18

Ave. of
whole
day

Faecal
matter
removal
per hr.

R-4

2 1 to 5

3.25

4.10

2.27

3.20

1.20

5 to 10

6.30

8.98

5.35

6.87

2.00

10 to 15

9.77

8.89

7.98

8.88

2.65

15 to 20

10.32

10.45

5.35

8.70

2.98

20 to 25

10.04

11.10

7.88

9.67

3.24

25 to last day

11.02

11.54

6.99

9.82

5.89

Average :

8.45

9.16

5.97

7.86

2.99

R-5

2 1 to 5

3.76

3.25

2.87

3.29

1.65

5 to 10

7.13

7.00

4.99

6.37

2.00

Both the nestlings were thrown out by a

pair of M. viridis

on 13th day;

see text.

R-9

2 1 to 5

2.97

3.13

2.88

2.99

1.33

5 to 10

6.76

6.66

5.11

6.18

2.35

10 to 15

9.98

10.87

7.12

9.32

3.45

15 to 20

9.76

11.23

8.34

9.77

3.23

20 to 25

13.01

10.22

8.98

10.73

5.00

25 to last day

12.91

11.00

7.98

10.63

5.15

Average :

9.23

8.85

6.73

8.27

3.43

R-22

2 1 to 5

3.41

4.00

2.00

3.14

1.17

5 to 10

7.01

6.25

5.98

6.41

2.35

10 to 15

11.45

10.35

7.11

9.63

4.78

15 to 20

10.00

9.87

7.00

8.95

4.00

20 to 25

10.78

10.11

8.56

9.81

4.98

25 to last day

11.25

10.56

8.34

10.05

5.15

Average :

8.98

8.52

6.49

8.00

3.73

ing during the first 5-7 days was about 8-10
minutes per visit but later came down to 2-4
minutes per visit; when it rained the parents
brooded for longer periods. After the 14th
day of nesting period, parents of both species
hardly ever brooded during the daytime, but
females brooded at nights till the nestlings
fledged.

Nestling period :

The nestling period is defined as the time
from the day the last egg hatched until the
nestlings fledged. Owing to their nidiculous
nature, the nestling period in barbets is very
long; in viridis it is 36-38 days, whereas in
rubricapilla it is 35-37 days.

507

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Growth rate :

Fig. 6 gives a comparison of weight changes
in relation to age of the nestlings. The ave-
rage weight increase per day per young in
viridis and rubricapilla is 2.7 gm and 1.40
gm respectively. The weight of the nestlings
increases up to the 21st day and gradually

TIME (days)

Fig. 6. Growth rate.

decreases afterwards up to the 27 day. It re-
mains constant in the following 3-4 days. The
weight of nestlings keeps increasing as long as
the frequency of nest feeding increases. In
another nest, the rate of weight-gain in the
lone viridis was significantly higher and it con-
tinued to remain much heavier than the
siblings sharing the other nests.

Morphological changes of nestlings such as
growth of feathers have been described else-
where (Yahya 1980).

Fledging and fledgling period :

Parent barbets were observed calling appre-
ciably 2-3 days prior to fledging, apparently to
lure the nestlings out of the nest. During this
period the parents would not feed the nestlings.

in the normal way; rather they perch on a branch
with the food, while nestlings look at them
from the entrance, for a minute or two before
feeding the nestlings. From each of the nests
observed, all the nestlings of the brood fledged
simultaneously. On all the occasions fledging
took place between 0800 and 1000 hrs, except
in one nest from which the single nestling
fledged at 1445 hrs.

The fledgling period in barbets is very short;
the parents guide and feed the fledglings for
2-4 days, after which the young and parents
separated.

During the immediate post-fledging period
parents keep a constant watch and feed their
chicks regularly. In the evenings, they lead
their nestlings back to the roost holes.

Orientation of young barbets :

During the study period, I banded 23 nest-
lings of viridis to monitor their activities after
they had become independent. I located
a few of them foraging on fruit trees
in the following 8-10 days but gradually they
all disappeared. During February and March,
when the trees in this area undergo leaf -fall it
is possible to see birds much more easily but,
in spite of active search, I could not locate
any of the banded young. As the young
barbets were independent after their fledgling
period it is hardly likely that all the colour-
banded ones had died or been killed by pre-
dators. It is probable that, like many other
birds the young barbets also disperse to other
areas far from parental territories.

Breeding success and causes of
nesting failure :

Owing to their hole-nesting behaviour, the
level of breeding success in barbets is quite
high, more than 50%. Although samples in
Table 3 are not comparable, it appears that
breeding success in rubricapilla is higher than
in viridis.

508

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BARBETS ,

Among 18 nests of viridis observed care-
fully, 6 eggs (two clutches) were predated,
most probably by Three-striped Palm squirrels.
One adult member of another pair with three
eggs was killed by a shikra, and the mate then
abandoned the nest. Three eggs, one each from
three different clutches, did not hatch and the
parents eventually threw them out. Out of 37
nestlings that hatched, 28 left the nest success-
fully; several died on days 1-3 of nesting
period.

From a total of eight nests of rubricapilla
observed, only one egg did not hatch; in this
case parents incubated the single egg for 23
days and then abandoned the nest. At another
nest, two rubricapilla eggs were thrown out
by a pair of viridis. Of the 12 nestlings that
hatched, 9 fledged successfully; two nestlings
were thrown out by a pair of viridis.

Due to its habit of nesting in thinner
branches rubricapilla loses some nests owing
to rain/wind, whereas because of its low level
nesting habit a few nests of viridis get des-
troyed by woodcutters. Another point worth
mentioning is that while viridis usually leaves
a number of nests uncompleted, rubricapilla
hardly ever does so.

Successful Coexistence :

The study shows that viridis and rubricapilla
coexist successfully at Periyar Tiger Reserve.
Although viridis often harasses the nesting
pairs of rubricapilla , scattering of the nest
location of the latter may serve as an inter-
specific defence mechanism. The different
nesting heights and different food material of
the young also reduces competition. Further,
viridis is larger than rubricapilla (almost
double the size) and owing to its larger beak
excavates a longer nest cavity in thicker
branches.

As postulated by Huxley (1942) and
supported by Lack (1971), a big size-differ-

ence between congeneric species of birds is a
means of ecological isolation. During the
comparative study of other species of barbets,
I found M. zeylanica and M, haemacephala
occurring together at Borivli National Park,
Hazaribagh National Park and at the Betla
Tiger Reserve; M. lineata and M. haemace-
phala coexist in Betiah Forests and at Corbett
Tiger Reserve; and M. asiatica and M. haema-
cephala coexist in Botanical Garden, Calcutta.
All the coexisting species have a re-
markable difference in size — one large and
one small. Thus it appears that the divergent
morphological adaptation of two closely related
species in a single habitat is a natural selection
and helps in successful coexistence.

Although barbets appear to fare well at
these places, removal of dead and dry branches
by woodcutters has a detrimental effect on
them. Moreover, gradual shrinkage of forest
cover may also have a far reaching effect
on the tree-hole nesters. Since barbets play a
beneficial role in controlling various harmful
insects, and in cross pollination and seed
dispersal of plants (Yahya 1980, 1982), they
deserve consideration in conservation strategies.

Summary

The peak breeding season of viridis and
rubricapilla ranges from January to May and
almost all pairs complete their nesting acti-
vities before the onset of heavy rain.

Courtship display is very vocal; males of
both species feed the females after copula-
tion. Courtship feeding is also recorded during
nest excavation.

Barbets select dead arid dry branches for
excavating nests; rubricapilla prefers thinner
branches at much higher levels than viridis.
Both species usually excavate a new nest each
year but sometimes they use old roost-holes
for nest sites.

509

4

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Both species defend their nesting branches
from other hole-nesting birds and from Three-
striped Palm Squirrel M . viridis is more tole-
rant to its own kind and several pairs may nest
fairly close to each other. The nests of rubri -
capilla are more scattered. Sharing the same
tree, even within the species, was not observed.

Duration of nest excavation, incubation,
nestling and fledgling periods are similar in
both the species. The larger beak of viridis
enables it to excavate on an average a 32
cm-deep nest cavity in about 20 days, whereas
rubricapilla, with its smaller beak, drills only
about 17 cm deep nest cavity in c. 18 days.
Some inexperienced pairs of viridis took as
long as 52 days to complete the excavation.

The incubation period in both species lasts
14-15 days. The nestling period of viridis is
36-38 days, while that of rubricapilla is 35-37
days. Both species are determinate layers;
some pairs of both species raise a second
brood. Normal clutch size in viridis is 2 or 3,
and in rubricapilla 1 or 2; eggs are laid con-
secutively, one egg each morning. In both
species, diurnal incubation and brooding are
performed by both parents, but during the
night only the females incubate and brood.
The percentage of attentiveness of the parents
to incubation increases overtime and reaches

Refer

Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1970): Handbook
of the Birds of India & Pakistan. Vol. 4. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.

Allen, A. A. (1961) : The Book of Bird Life. 2nd
edn. D. Van Nostrand Co. Inc., Prinston, Tronto.

Baker, E. C. S. (1934) : The Nidification of the
Birds of the Indian Empire. Vol. 3. Taylor and
Francis, London.

Chapin, J. P. (1939): The Birds of the Belgian
Congo. Bull. Amer. Nat. Hist. (pt. 2).

Friedman, H. (1935): Birds Scientist, in a Book
of Social Psychology. Clark Uni. Press, Worcester,
Mass.

its maximum 2-3 days prior to hatching. The
parents are most attentive during morning
hours and least attentive during afternoons.
The parents also become more attentive when
it rains and the ambient temperature falls.

Owing to their hole-nesting habits, breeding
success is quite high in these congeneric bar-
bets, being more than fifty per cent.

Ecological isolation for breeding between
viridis and rubricapilla is manifested as diffe-
rences in size, in nest-site selection and in the
food of the nestlings. Fruits constitute the
main food of the nestlings of rubricapilla,
whereas viridis feeds its nestlings insects
throughout the nestling period.

Acknowledgements

I express my most sincere gratitude to the
late Dr. Salim Ali for his guidance, constant
interest and constructive criticism at various
stages of the study. Thanks are also due to
the Bombay Natural History Society for finan-
cial assistance. Mr. J. C. Daniel, Dr. V. S.
Vijayan, Mr. S. A. Hussain, Dr. Robert Grubh
kindly visited the study area during the study
period and provided valuable suggestion. I am
grateful to Mr. Peter J. Garson for his sug-
gestions during the preparation of this paper.

N CE S

Huxely, J. S. (1942): Evolution: The Modem
Synthesis. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London.

Lack, D. (1968): Ecological adaptation for breed-
ing in Birds. Methuen & Co. Ltd., London.

(1971) : Ecological isolation in Birds.

Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford and Edin-
burgh.

MacDonald, M. (1961): Birds in my Indian
Garden. Jonathan Cape, Thirty Bedford Square,
London.

Moreau, R. E. & Moreau, W. M. (1940) : In-
cubation and fledgling period of African barbets.
Auk 57: 313-325.

510

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BARBETS

Prater, S. H. (1971): The Book of Indian Ani-
mals. 3rd (rev.) edn. Bombay Natural History So-
ciety, Bombay.

Ravi, V. (1966) : A Coppersmith’s brood News-
letter for Birdwatcher Vol. 6: 4-5, Edited and
Published by Zafar Futehally, Bombay.

Short, L. L. (1979) : Burdens of the Picid hole-
excavating habits. Wilson Bull. 91: 16-28.

Short, L. L. & Horne, J.F.M. (1979): Vocal
display and some interactions of Kenyan Honey-
guides (Indicatoridae) with barbets (Capitonidae) .
Novitates, Amer. Mus. of Nat. Hist. New York.

— — — (1980): Vocal

and other behaviour of the Green Barbet in Kenya.
Ostrich 52: 219-229.

Skead, C. J. (1950) : A study of the Black-collard
Barbet. Ostrich 21 : 84-96.

Skutch, A. F. (1944): The life-history of the
Pronged-balled Barbet. Auk. 61 : 61-87.

Thomson, A. L. (1964): New Dictionary of
Birds. Thomas Nelson & Sons Ltd., London.

Van Tyne, J. & Berger, A. J. (1971): Funda-
mentals of Ornithology. Dover Edn., Dover Publi-
cation, Inc. New York.

Verghese, A. & Govindakrishnan, P. M. (1975):
The Crimsonbreasted Barbet nesting in Bangalore.
Newsletter for Birdwatcher, Vol. 15: 1-3. Edited by
Zafar Futehally, Bombay.

Yahya, H.S. A. ( 1980) : A Comparative study of
Ecology and Biology of Barbets, Megalaima spp.
(Capitonidae: Piciformes) with special reference

Megalaima viridis (Boddaert) and M. rubricapilla
malabarica (Blyth) at Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala.
Ph.D. Thesis. University of Bombay, Bombay,

— (1982) : Observations on the feeding

behaviour of barbets ( Megalaima sp.) in Coffee
Estates of South India. J. Coffee Res. 12(3) : 72-76.

(1984) : Roosting behaviour of

barbets, Megalaima sp. Proceedings of the Etholo-
gical Society of India, (to be published shortly)
Seminar held at Kerala University Kariyavatta,
Trivandrum.

511

LIFE HISTORY OF THE COMMON INDIAN TREE FROG,
POLYPEDATES MACULATUS (GRAY, 1834)
(ANURA: RH ACOPHORID AE ) 1

P. Mohanty-Hejmadi and Sushil K. Dutta2
{With nine text-figures )

The breeding season of Polypedates maculatus coincides with the monsoons
extending from May through September with a peak in June-July. Eggs are deposited
in a foam nest near or above seasonal pools of water. The tadpoles take advantage
of rain to drift into a suitable pool of water to complete development. Deposition of
eggs away from water, hatching at a relatively late stage, fast growth and capacity to
change colour at metamorphosis constitute the reproductive strategy of the species.
Predation in few nests supports the premise that it is safer to deposit eggs away
from water. Desiccation seems to be the major cause of larval mortality in tropical

climate.

Introduction

Polypedates maculatus, the Indian tree frog
is widely distributed in India (Dutta 1985).
Common during breeding season, they are
found throughout the year resting deep in
the sheath of banana {Musa paradisica, Musa
sapientum) or Colocasia plants, among damp
vegetation on the ground and occasionally in
residential areas (Mohanty-Hejmadi 1911 a).
Their habit of sitting motionless throughout the
whole day on wooden doors and windows, has
earned them the nickname “Katha Benga” or
“Wood frog”, in Oriya language. They are
also known as “Akhi diyan Benga” in Oriya,
meaning the “frog that leaps into the eyes of
the observer” in the belief that these frogs
can damage human eyes, obviously a miscon-
ception due to their remarkable leaping ability.
Like most of the rhacophorids, they deposit
their eggs in a foam nest attached to vegeta-
tion either above or near water. Since infor-
mation on only a few larval stages is available

1 Accepted December 1986.

2 P. G. Department of Zoology, Utkal University,
Bhubaneswar-751 004, India,

(McCann 1932), this study was undertaken to
obtain detailed information on their breeding
habits and life history.

Material and Methods

Observations were made in the Vani Vihar
campus area, Bhubaneswar located in 20° 21'
N lat. and 85° 53' E long, from April, 1976 to
September, 1977. This period includes two
breeding seasons coinciding with the mon-
soons from May through September. Egg
masses, either from nature or constructed by
amplecting pairs in the laboratory, were set
up at room temperature (30-35°C) under
standardized conditions in the laboratory
(Mohanty-Hejmadi 19776 ), and the embryos
were raised through metamorphosis. Parallel
observations were made in nature. Eggs were
extracted from the nest by the method re-
commended by Coe (1974) and the effective-
ness of the method was determined by open-
ing the extracted nest. The dome-shaped ex-
posed area was measured as a function of size
of egg mass. The length of femur bone was
also taken as a measure of size of adults, as

512

LIFE HISTORY OF THE COMMON INDIAN TREE FROG

it proved to be more accurate than standard
snout-vent length (Mohanty-Hejmadi 1977a).
Percentage of hatching was determined by
counting the hatched larvae and the remaining
eggs or unhatched embryos inside the nest.
The terminology of Webb & Korky (1977) was
followed to determine the tooth row formula.

Observations

Spawning :

There was a distinct sexual dimorphism.
The mean snout -vent lengths of breeding males
and females were 53 (range 50-56) and 75
(range 73-79) mm respectively. The mean
weights of breeding males and females were
7.7 g (range 6-9) and 19.4 g (18-22) respec-
tively.

The breeding season extended from May to
September coinciding with the monsoons, with
a peak in June- July. The females deposited
eggs in a foam nest attached to vegetation or
under stones, usually well hidden but occa-
sionally exposed, near water (Fig. 1). In one
instance, five egg masses about 15 to 30 cm
apart, were observed under stones. In a cement
tank, a second nest was found in exactly the
same spot, attached to aquatic vegetation
approximately 12 cm above the water level,
within one week of the removal of the first
nest. Pairs collected in amplexus, laid eggs in
foam nests in tin containers and comers of
glass aquaria. The nests were always construct-
ed 8 to 13 cm above water level. Both in
nature and in the laboratory, the nests were
constructed between midnight and early morn-
ing after rainfall. During oviposition, the
female first secreted a jelly-like viscous fluid
which was beaten into a froth by her hind
limbs. This was followed by extrusion of a
batch of eggs and more fluid, and beating.
Thus eggs were laid and inseminated in
batches. Occasionally the male moved its legs

but did not take any active part in the nest
building. After completion of nest building,
the amplecting pair literally crawled out of the
nest. In one instance, a female collected in
amplexus but deserted by the male, construct-
ed a normal foam nest but the eggs were
inviable. Although the shape of the foam nest
varied according to the substratum, they were
oval in general. Initially, the foam nest was
frothy white, the outer layer drying into a
brownish crust. The inside of the nest deli-
quesced and remained moist for five to six
days depending on the temperature and rain-
fall, long enough to support development of
the larvae till hatching. When the nest was
opened up for examination and pressed ba'ck
together, it reconstituted without any ill effect
on the embryos. Three out of forty egg masses
observed in nature, were found floating on
water in normal orientation obviously washed
into the water by rain. When attempts were
made to reverse the orientation, the egg mass
returned to its normal orientation within a few
seconds. The exposed surface of egg mass
ranged from 95 to 120 mm. There was a
direct correlation between egg mass size and
number of eggs (Table 1) and between the

Table 1

Relationship between size, egg mass and number
of eggs of Polypedates maculatus

Female

Exposed area of
egg mass (mm.)

Number of eggs

1

95

310

2

96

386

3

110

415

4

112

445

5

113

430

6

120

520

size of female and the number of eggs (Table
2). Thus, fecundity was a function of size.
The eggs were creamy white, 1 . 5 mm in dia-

513

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

meter. The number of eggs in nine nests ranged
from 275 to 719 (mean 454 ±123).

Fig. 1. Egg mass of Polypedates maculatus. Fig. 2.
Primary hatching stage. Fig. 3. Secondary hatching
stage.'

Development and life history :

The embryos developed within the soft
foam. There were two hatchings involved in

the release of tadpoles from the nest, a primary
one out of the fertilization membrane into the
foam and a secondary one out of the nest. At
primary hatching stage, the 4-4.5 mm tadpoles
were white with a bulging yolk mass, translu-
cent head and narrow tail (Fig. 2). They were
capable of muscular movement at this stage.
Attempts to raise these embryos in amphibian
Ringer’s solution were unsuccessful, indicating
that further development was only possible
inside the soft foam. Secondary hatching
occurred at external gill stage. Pouring water
over the nest at this stage deliquesced the
foam and triggered the release of tadpoles,
indicating that rain water probably acts as a
stimulus for hatching out of the nest. Pigmen-
tation appeared at this stage (Fig. 3). The gill
circulation could easily be seen through the
dorsum. The tadpoles remained at this stage
inside the nest for a considerable time, wait-
ing for the raindrops to carry them. If it did
not rain for a whole day after the tadpoles
reached this stage, the egg masses dried up
with the tadpoles. In nature, a large number
of nests dried up at this stage due to unusual
dry spells. Exposed egg masses dehydrated
faster than hidden ones.

Hatching continued from four to five days
after oviposition. The percentage of hatching
ranged from 89 to 100, with a mean of 96.4%.
Tadpoles reached feeding stage with a tooth
row formula of 2(1 ) /3 when about 11 mm
(Fig. 4). By the time they reached 14 mm,
they developed the characteristic suctorial
mouth with a tooth row formula of 4(2-4) /3.
The pigmentation continued to increase and
a larva at this stage was gray with lateral eyes,
a relatively long and muscular tail with a
flagellum at the tip. Mostly foraging for food
at the bottom, larvae also swim on the upper
surface of water or can stay suspended effort-
lessly under water with the help of the flage-
llum. When offered vegetable matter and pro-

514

LIFE HISTORY OF THE COMMON INDIAN TREE FROG

teinaceous food (egg or dead larvae) they
preferred the latter. The average number of
days to complete metamorphosis was 55. The
characteristic adult features such as the spots,
wide mouth, pads on fingers and ability to
change colour appeared at metamorphosis
(Figs. 5-8). Development time in the labora-
tory (Table 3) was comparable to that in
nature, but the laboratory raised larvae and
juveniles were considerably smaller than those

smm

Fig. 4. Dorsal and ventral views of feeding stage.
Fig. 5. Pre-metamorphic stage. Fig. 6. With well
developed hind limbs.

io mm

8

5mm

Fig. 7. With fore-limbs. Fig. 8. Almost metamor-
phosed froglet.

Table 2

Relationship between size of female and
fecundity of Polypedates maculatus

Female S-V. Length Femur Weight No. of
(mm.) length (mm.) (g) eggs

1

79

35

22

719

2

76

34

20

520

3

74

32

18

435

in

size between

hind

limb and

fore-limb

tiation of metamorphosis which started prior
to the appearance of fore-limbs, hence the loss
in nature. Growth was exponential till the ini-
stages (Fig. 9).

515

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Table 3

Age and size of developmental stage of
Polypedates maculatus

Stage

Age

Size in mm.

Fertilized egg

0 hr

1.5

Primary hatching

24 „

3.0

Secondary hatching

4j days

7.5

Operculum complete

5 i „

10.0

Feeding

6 „

11.0

Limb bud

"J'35 „

22.0

Well developed hind limb

45 „

41.0

Four limbed

50 „

40.0

Metamorphosed

55 „

16.0

froglet

Fig. 9. Growth curve for Polypedates maculatus
up to metamorphosis.

Predators:

Three out of forty egg masses observed in
nature were infested with larvae of Tabanidae
family (Diptera). The larvae devoured all the
eggs and took advantage of the moist nest to
complete their life cycle. Obviously the fly
had deposited eggs in the nest. Tadpoles were
eaten by larvae and adults of the common
water bug, Belostoma.

Discussion

The breeding habits and strategy of repro-
duction is typical of members of Rhacopho-
ridae (Noble 1954, Cochran 1967, Coe 1974).
The relatively short period of development is
characteristic of tropical species which have
to take advantage of transitional aquatic habi-
tats during the monsoons (Heyer 1973).
Deposition of eggs away from water protects
the early stages of the embryos. Predation in
relatively few nests supports this premise.
Hatching out at a mobile stage puts the larva
at a further advantage. The size of the egg
and consequently the larva at hatching are
much larger than those of all other species of
anurans common to this area (unpublished
results). In addition, the larva is a powerful
swimmer w'ith a long, muscular tail and lateral
eyes which are adaptations for escaping pre-
dators and also locating food. The powerful
teeth and suctorial mouth enable the larva to
consume food almost continuously, which is
reflected in its exponential growth. The meta-
morphosed froglet has the ability to change
colour, which must contribute further to its
survival.

Unusual dry spells during monsoon season
are the major cause of larval mortality whether
eggs are deposited in or out of water, because
the progeny of the species which spawned in
water also suffered a similar fate. The possi-
bility of physical factors other than predation
selecting for rapid development, has been dis-
cussed in detail by Wassersug (1975). Since
desiccation was the major cause of reduction
in the population, it is concluded that in tropi-
cal climate with a clearly defined monsoon
season, desiccation is the major selective factor
for fast development.

This study also agrees with the findings of
McCann (1932), except in the following points.
Rased on the construction of a foam nest by

516

LIFE HISTORY OF THE COMMON INDIAN TREE FROG

a female in captivity and development of
eggs, McCann (1932) put forward several
reasons in favour of the difficulty in support-
ing a male on the back and believed that the
female carried the sperms on the back. In this
study, foam nests were constructed in places
similar to those in nature, above water almost
instinctively in various places, by pairs in am-
plexus (except one). In the latter, the female
made a perfect nest but the eggs were inviable.
Many times during the foam beating process
the smaller male was buried and hardly notice-

Refe

Cochran, D. M. (1967) : Living amphibians of
the World. Hamish Hamilton, Great Britain.

Coe, M. (1974) : Observations on the ecology
and breeding biology of the genus Chiromantis
(Amphibia: Rhacophoridae) . /. Zool., Lond. 172 :
13-34.

Dutta, S. K. (1985): Amphibians of India and
Sri Lanka. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Kansas,
U.S.A.

Heyer, R. W. (1973) : Ecological interactions of
frog larvae at a seasonal tropical location in Thai-
land. /. Herpetol. 7(4): 337-361.

Mohanty-Hejmadi, P. (1977a) : Amphibian fauna
of Orissa. Prakruti-U tkal University Journal —
Science . 7/(1 & 2): 89-97.

able in the foam; this might be the reason why
McCann (1932) did not notice the male. Also,
he did not observe the external gills at hatch-
ing (out of the nest) stage probably because
they are rather transparent and inconspicuous
at this stage.

Acknowledgement

We thank Utkal University, Bhubaneswar,
Orissa for financial support.

EN CES

(19776) : Care and mana-
gement of amphibian embryos, ibid. 77(1 & 2) : 81-87.

McCann, C, (1932) : Notes on Indian batra-
chians. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(1) : 154-180.

(1940): A reptile and amphibian

miscellany, ibid. 42(1): 57-64.

Noble, G. K. (1954): The biology of Amphibia.
Dover publications, Inc., New York.

Wassersug, R. J. (1975) : The adaptive signifi-
cance of the tadpole stage with comments on the
maintenance of complex life cycles in anurans. Amer.
Zool. 15: 405-417.

Webb, R. G. & Korky, J. K. (1977): Variations
in tadpoles of frogs of the Rana tarahumarae group
in western Mexico (Anura: Ranidae). Herpetolo-
gica 33 : 73-82.

517

NEW RECORDS FOR MAHARASHTRA1

S. M. Almeida2 and M. R. Almeida3

POLYGALACEAE

1 . Salomonia obloitgifolia DC. Prodro. 2:
354. 1825; FBI 1: 207, 1874. 5. sessilijolia
Ham. in Don Prodr. FI. Nep. 201; 1825.
S. obovata Wight, 111. t. 228, 1840, Figure :
Wight, l.c.

Rare herb among grasses.

Flowering & Fruiting : August-September.

Localities : Charatha, Bhedsi. Majgaon-Savant-
wadi. Exsiccata : SMA — 305, 2549, 2964.
Note: Kartikeyan et al. in the Chapter on
“additions to Cooke's Flora” in the records
of the Botanical Survey of India, Vol. 21 (2) :
158, 1981 mention the occurrence of this
species from North Kanara. Blatter Herbarium
has a few herbarium sheets of this species
from Sampkhand, Sidharpur (N. Kanara) col-
lected by Hall. & McCann (No. 35146, 35083)
and from Karwar by L. J. Sedgwick (No. 6656).

Malvaceae

2. Abutilon hirtum (Lamk.) Sweet. Hort.
Brit. 53, 1826; Meeuse, Exell. & Wild. FI.
Zamb. 1: 487, t. 93, f.f. 1-2. 1957. Sida
hirta Lamk. Encycl. 1: 7. 1783. Sida
graveolens Roxb. ex Hornem. suppl. Hort.
Bot. Hafn. 77, 1819. Abutilon graveolens
(Roxb. ex Hornem.) Wt. & Arn. Wight.
Cat. PI. 13, 1833; Prodr. 56, 1834; Cooke,
1: 97 (103), 1901. A. graveolens Wt. &
Arn. var. hirtum Masters. FI. Brit. Ind.

1 Accepted January 1986.

2 Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay 400 001.

3 Alchemie Research Centre, Thane-Belapur Road,
Thane.

1: 327. 1874. Figure: Meeuse, l.c.

Rare herb of waste-lands.

Flowering: January. Localities: Burdi-

kolgaon. Banda-Satarda-Savantwadi, Nagpur,
Ahmednagar. Exsiccata: SMA — 4182, 4343.

Note: T. Cooke in The Flora of Bombay
Presidency’ mentioned the occurrence of this
species from Sind.

There are few herbarium specimens of this
species (No. 1912, 2115, 3609) in Blatter Her-
barium collected from Dharwar by E. J. Sedg-
wick & from Nellore Cuddapah, A. P. collected
by S. K. Wagh (6760. 6606, 7564). These
localities are not within the limits of Maha-
rashtra. There are 2 specimens collected from
Maharashtra; one from Nagpur collected by
M. Mirashi (242) and the other from Ahmed-
nagar collected by R. D. Acland (53).

Sterculiaceae

3. Pterospermum acerifolium Willd. Sp. PI.
3: 729, 1800; Graham Cat. 20, 1839; FBI
1 : 368, 1874; K. Schum in Engl. & Prantl.
Pflanzenf. 3(5): 93, f. 48 H, 1890; Dal-
gado, 23, 1898; Cooke. 1 : 129 (37), 1901.
Figure: K. Schum. l.c.

A common tree in evergreen patches of
forests.

Flowering: December-March. Localities:

Amboli, Bhedsi, Malgaon-Savantwadi. Exsic-
cata: SMA — 4057; BGK — 119485-C; MRA
— 23 82 A (ALC).

Note: T. Cooke in ‘Flora of the Presidency of
Bombay’, comments about this species as an
extensively planted but of doubtful occurrence
in nature; Stocks gives konkan as its habitat
without any specific locality. John Graham and
R. IT. Beddome mentioned it as being grown

518

NEW RECORDS FOR MAHARASHTRA

in gardens. We have collected the species from
evergreen forests at Amboli and Malgaon. from
Sindhudurg district.

Tiliaceae

4 . Grewia heterotricha Masters, in Flora
Brit. Ind. 1: 385, 1874; Cooke. 1: 139
(148), 1901.

A scandent shrub, rare in forest area.
Flowering : November. Locality : Amboli-

Savantwadi. Exsiccata : SMA — 196.

Note : T. Cooke in ‘Flora of Bombay Presi-
dency’ mentioned Kanara as the locality for
this species. There is no earlier report of this
species from Maharashtra.

Rutaceae

5. Clausena indica (Dalzell) Oliver, J. Linn.
Soc. Bot. 5 (suppl. 2): 36, 1860; FBI 1:
505, 1875; Cooke, 1: 184 (194), 1901.
Piptostylis indica Dalzell, Kew Journ. Bot.
3: 33, t. 2, 1851. Figure : Dalzell, l.c.
Rare tree at Amboli.

Flowering : March-May. Locality : Amboli-
Savantwadi. Exsiccata : SMA — 4743; MRA —
586, 988 (ALC).

Note : This species has been reported from
N. Kanara by T. Cooke.

Celastraceae

6. Cassine paniculata (Wight & Arn.) Rama-
moorthy, in FI. Hassan Dist. 318, 1976.
Elaeodendron paniculatum Wight & Arn.
Prodr. 157, 1834; FBI 1: 609, 1878.

Large tree. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, acumi-
nate, crenate, turns black when dry. Flowers
in axillary, dichotomously branched cymes
with solitary flower at the fork of the dicho-
tomies. Fruit drupe, fleshy, globose.

A common tree on the Plateau and along
the ghats.

Flowering : April-May. Localities : Amboli,
Chaukul, Ramghat-Savantwadi. Exsiccata : SMA
— 3202. 3973, 4062; Cherian — 1 02270 (BSI);
Pataskar — 105284 (BSI); MRA — 469 (ALC).
Note: This is the first report of this species
from Maharashtra and this species is also an
addition to Cooke’s Flora.

7. Euonymtis indicus Heyne ex Roxb. FI.
Ind. 2: 409, 1824; FBI 1: 608, 1875;
Cooke 1: 228 (242), 1902. E. gaughii
Wight. Icon. t. 215, 1839; 111, 178, 1850;
Dalz. & Gibs. 47, 1861. Figure: Wight, l.c.

Common tree at Amboli near Hiranyakeshi
and in the evergreen forests.

Flowering : December-February. Localities :
Amboli, Ramghat, Chaukul, Bhedsi, Hiranya-
keshi-Savantwadi. Exsiccata: SMA -^- 1330.

4117; BGK 10860, 119186 (BSI); MRA —
442 (ALC).

Note: T. Cooke mentions Kanara as the loca-
lity for this species.

8. Ampdodssus tomentosa (Roth.) Planch,
in Journ. Vigne Amer. 375, 1884; Gamble,
FI. Madras, 230 (165), 1915. Vitis tomen-
tosa Heyne ex Roth. Nov. PI. Sp. 157.
1821; FBI 1: 650, 1875; Cooke, 1: 252
(268), 1902.

A rare climber among hedges.

Flowering & Fruiting: March- August. Local
name: Shendvel. Locality: Aronda-Savantwadi.
Exsiccata : SMA — 618.

Note: T. Cooke reported this species from
Belgaum. Dharwar and North Kanara.

Fabaceae

9. Centrosema pubescens Benth. in Ann.
Wien. Mus. 2: 119, 1838; Van Steenis &
Jacobs, in FI. Mai. Bull. No. 18, 1089,
1963. C. virginianum Sensu, Subramanyam,
in Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 3(2): 201-203,

519

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

t. 1, 1961 [(non Linn.) Benth. 1937].
Figure : Subramanyam, l.c.

A twiner, along the margins of forests. Rare.
Flowering & Fruiting : July- August. Loca-
lities: Amboli, Charatha-Savantwadi. Exsi-

ccator. SMA — 2371, 4139, 4479.

Note : Subramanyam has reported this species
from Tenmalai Forest in Kerala State. This is
the first report of this species from Maha-
rashtra and the species is an addition to
Cooke’s Flora.

10. Crotataria prostrate Rottl. in Willd.
Enum, Hort. Berol. 744, 1809; FBI 2: 67,
1876; Cooke, 1; 293 (312), 1902.
Common herb among the grasses.

Flowering & Fruiting : October-December.
localities : Insuli, Amboli, Aronda, Burdi.

Sonurli-Banda, Madkhol-Savantwadi. Exsi-
ccata : SMA— 1021, 1202, 1248, 3374, 4294,
4489; BGK — 119329 (BSI).

Note : T. Cooke reported this species from
Dharwar & Kanara.

1 1 . Derris benthamii (Thwaites) Thwaites,
Enum. PI. Zeyl. 413, 1864; Thothathri, in
Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 3: 186, 1961.

Brachypteruni benthamii (Thwaites, Ibid.
93, 1859. D. paniculata Benth. in Joum.
Linn. Soc. 4: suppl. 105, 1860; FBI 2:
242, 1878.

A rare climber in forest areas.

Flowering & Fruiting'. April-September.
locality. Amboli -Savantwadi. Exsiccata: SMA
— 733.

Note : This species has been reported from
South India by Thothathri.

12. Derris canarensis (Dalzell) Baker, in FI.
Brit. Ind. 2: 246, 1878; Thothathri, in Bull.
Bot. Surv. Ind. 3: 190, 1960; Cooke, 1:
406 (433), 1902. Pongamia canarensis
Dalzell. in Hook.. Journ. Bot. 2: 37, 1850.

Brachypteruni canarense Dalz. & Gibs.
Bombay FI. 76, 1861. Derris oblonga Bth.
in J. Linn. Soc. 4 (suppl.) 112, 1859; FBI
2: 242, 1878.

Climbing shrub in forest areas.

Flowering & Fruiting: February-May. Loca-
lities'. Amboli, Insuli-paga, Danoli, Bhedsi-
Ainoda-Savantwadi . Exsiccata : SMA- 1505,

1579, 1631, 4188, 4210, 4544, 4787; BGK —
129373 (BSI); MRA — 998, 2001 (ALC).
Note: T. Cooke mentioned Kanara as the loca-
lity for this species.

13. Derris macrocarpa Thothathri, Bull. Bot.
Surv. Ind. 3 (2): 192-3, t. 9, 1961. Figure :
Thothathri, l.c.

Shrubby climber, rare in forest areas.
Fruiting: April-May. Locality : Amboli-

Savantwadi. Exsiccata : SMA — 1538.

Note: Thothathri has reported this species from
Uttar Pradesh.

14. Desmodiurn heterophyllum (Willd.) DC.

Prodr. 2: 334, 1825; FBI 2: 173, 1876.
Hedysarum heterophyllum Willd. Sp. PI.
3: 201, 1800. D. triflorum var. major
Wight & Arn. Prodr. 229, 1834; Wight,
Icon. t. 291, 1840. Figure: Wight, l.c.
Copiously branched, procumbent, pubescent
herb. Leaves trifoliolate, Corolla pink. Pods
on slender stalk, indented on one suture, 2-6
jointed, black when dry.

A rare herb. Grows on sloping walls in shade
near waterfalls.

Flowering & Fruiting: September-December.
Locality: Otavane-Savantwadi. Exsiccata: SMA
— 3221, 3577, 3909.

Note: This species is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora. In the Blatter Herbarium there are a
few sheets of this species collected from Karwar
by Hallberg & McCann (No. 34232, 34237)
and from Dharwar collected by L. J. Sedgwick
(4470).

520

NEW RECORDS FOR MAHARASHTRA

MELASTOM ATACEAE

15. Memecylon heyneanum Benth [in Wall.
Cat. No. 4102, 1828 (nom. nudum) ex
Wight & Arn. Prodr. 319, 1834: FBI 2:
560, 1879; Gamble, FI. Madras 1: 503
(355), 1915. M. jambosides Wight, Icon,
t. 277, 1840. Figure : Wight, l.c.

A rare tree of forest areas. Leaves lanceo-
late, acuminate. Umbels on older branches
below the leaves. Flowers blue. Berry spherical.

Flowering & Fruiting : September-November.
Locality : Virdi-Telekhol-Savantwadi. Exsiccata :
SMA — 4917.

Note : This species is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora.

16. Memecylon randerlana nom. nov. Meme-
cylon malabaricum Cogn. in DC. Monog.
Phan. 7: 148, 1891 (non Kostel, 1834);
Cooke, 1: 503 (535), 1903. M. amplexi -
caule Roxb. var. malabarica Wight, Icon,
t. 279, 1840; FBI 2: 559, 1879. Figure :
Wight, l.c.

A rare plant, of evergreen forests.

Flowering & Fruiting : March-May. Locality :
Amboli-Savantwadi. Exsiccata : SMA — 3873,
4073.

Name : The name accepted for this species by
earlier authors Memecylon malabaricum Cogn.
(1891) is the later homonym of M. malabari-
cum Kostel (1834). Therefore the new name
is proposed here after Dr. (Mrs.) A. R. Daru-
walla ( nee Aban Randeria) for her mono-
graphic contributions to the genus BJumea DC.

T. Cooke reported N. Kanara as the locality
for this species.

Lythraceae

17. Rotala decussata DC. Prodr. 3: 76, 1828;
Hiern, in Oliv. FI. Trop. Africa 2: 467,
1868. R. illecebroides Koehne, Bot. Jahrab.

1: 161, 1880; Pflanzen Luth. 34, 1903;
Gamble, FI. Madras 1: 508 (358), 1911.
Ammannia pentandra var. illecebroides
Arn. ex Clerke, in FI. Brit. Ind. 2: 569,
1879.

Scarcely branched slender herb. Leaves
ovate-cordate, single nerved. Flowers small,
sessile in compactly arranged, bracteate, termi-
nal spikes. Calyx lobes transparent, appendi-
culate, long-acuminate. Capsule 4-valved.

A rare herb in moist places and in water-
logged areas.

Flowering : September-October. Locality :

Chaukul-Savantwadi. Exsiccata : SMA — 1978,
3200.

Note : This species is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora.

18. Rotala fimbrsata Wight, Icon. t. 217, 1839;
Koehne, in Engl. Bot. Jahrab. 1: 166,
1880; Pflanzen. Luth. 37, 1903; Gamble,
FI. Madras 1: 508 (359), 1911. Ammannia
pentandra var. fimbriata Clarke, in FI. Brit.
Ind: 2: 568, 1879. Figure : Wight, l.c.

A rare herb in rice-fields.

Flowering : September-October. Locality :

Usap-Savantwadi. Exsiccata : SMA — 1930,

3512, 3885, 4951, 4660; MRA — 838 (ALC).
Note : Kartikeyan et al. in records of Botanical
Survey of India, mentioned Goa and N. Kanara
as localities for this species.

19. Moliugo cerviana (Linn.) Ser. in DC.
Prodr. 1: 392, 1824; FBI 2: 663, 1879;
Cooke, 1: 559 (594), 1903. Pharnaceum
cerviana Linn. Sp. PI. 272, 1753.

Rare herb of cultivated fields.

Flowering : September-November. Locality :
Aronda-Savantwadi. Exsiccata : SMA — 3351.
Note : T. Cooke mentioned Gujarat as the
locality for this species.

20. Alangium salvifolium (Linn, f.) Wangerin,
ssp. hexapetalum (Lamk.) Wangerin, in
Engl. Pflanzen. 4(2206): 9, 1910; Blocmb.

521

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

in Blumea 1(2): 250, 1935. A. hexapeta-
lum Lamk. Encycl. Meth. Bot. 1: 175,
1783. A. sundarum Miq. FI. Ind. Bot. 1
(1): 11 A, 1856. A. glandulosum Thw.
Enum. 133, 1859. A. lamarkii var. glandu-
losum (Thw.) Clarke, in FI. Brit. Ind. 2:
742, 1879; Mukerjee, in Bull. Bot. Surv.
Ind. 10: 330-31, 1968.

Scandent shrub. Leaves oblanceolate, 3 nerv-
ed from base. Flowers axillary, solitary, white,
scented.

In forested areas. Rare.

Flowering & Fruiting : April-May. Locality:
Malgaon-Savantwadi. Exsiccata : SMA — 2748,
4268, 4429, 4937, 4947.

Note : This sub-species is an addition to
Cooke’s Flora.

21 . Borreria ocymoides (Burm. f.) DC. Prodr.
4: 544, 1830; Gandhi, in FI. Hassan
Dist. 574, 1976. Spermacoce ocymoides
Burm. f., FI. Ind. 34, t. 13, f. 1, 1768; FBI
3: 200, 1881. Figure : Burm. f., l.c.

Erect, branched herb. Leaves elliptic-ovate,
decurrent at base. Flowers tiny, clustered with-
in the axil of stipular cup.

Quite common herb in open places.

Flowering : August-September. Localities :

Charatha, Amboli-Savantwadi. Exsiccata : SMA
-316, 354, 2811, 3117, 3424.

Note : This species is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora.

22. Neanotis monosperma (Wall, ex Wight &
Arn.) W. H. Lewis, in Ann. Missouri, Bot.
Card. 53: 39, 1966. Hedyotis monosperma
Wall, ex Wight & Arn. Prodr. 410, 1834.
Oldenlandia mysorensis Wall, ex G. Don,
Gen. Syst. Gard. Bot. 3: 531, 1834. Anotis
monosperma (Wall, ex Wight & Am.)
Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 75, 1880.

An erect, sparingly branched, glabrous herb.

Leaves ovate, acuminate. Flowers in terminal
compound cyme.

A common herb of road-sides and along
the margins of forests.

Flowering & Fruiting : September. Locality :
Amboli-Savantwadi. Exsiccata : SMA — 724,

1951, 3052.

Note : This species is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora.

23. Oldenlandia diffusa (Willd.) Roxb. Hort.
Bengal, 11, 1814 (nom. nud.) FI. Ind. 1:
423, 1820; FBI 3: 65, 1880; Cooke, 1:
589 (2: 16), 1903; Blatter & McCann
in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(4):
784. 1933. Hedyotis diffusa Willd. Sp. PI.
1 : 566, 1798.

A diffuse prostrate herb. Leaves simple,
opposite, sub-sessile, linear or linear-lanceolate,
acute, glabrous. Flowers solitary, white. Cap-
sule globose. Seeds angular.

A common plant in rice-field, in wet soils
and along river-banks.

Flowering : April-December. Localities:

Charatha, Insuli, Otavane, Amboli, Danoli-
Savantwadi. Exsiccata: SMA — 145, 297, 1427,
1852, 1917, 1952, 3783, 3813, 4286.

Note: T. Cooke reported this species from S.
M. Country, Belgaum & Kanara. Blatter &
McCann l.c. eventhough they included this
species did not give a locality.

24 . Phyllocephalum ritchiei (Hook, f.) Almeida
comb. nov. Centratherum ritchiei Hook. f.
in FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 228, 1881; Cooke, 2:
7(62), 1904.

A common herb among undergrowth in
shade.

Flowering & Fruiting: September- January.
Localities: Charatha, Amboli-Savantwadi.

Exsiccata: SMA — 972, 1419, 1174, 2321, 4871;
MR A — 964 (ALC).

Note: T. Cooke mentioned S. M. Country,

522

NEW RECORDS FOR MAHARASHTRA

Londa & Kanara as the localities for this
species.

25. Launea obtusatus (DC.) Mundhe et
Almeida comb. nov. Brachyramphus ob-
tusus DC. Prodr. 7: 177, 1838 & in deles-
sert. l.c Scl. PI. 4: 41, t. 96, 1840. L.
nudicaulis Sensu auct. Plur (India), non
L. nudicaulis L. Mant. 273, 1767. L. pro -
cumbens (Roxb.) Rammayya & Rajagopal,
in Kew Bull. 23: 465, 1969 (non Amin
1956). Prenanthes procumbens Roxb. FI.
Ind. 3: 404, 1832. Figure : DC., l.c.

Procumbent herb, rooting at nodes.

In sandy soils. Rare.

Flowering : November-December. Locality :
Aronda-Savantwadi. Exsiccata: SMA — 4270
A; MRA - 600 (ALC).

Note : Ramayya & Rajgopal (l.c.) proposed a
new combination for this taxon. But the com-
bination proposed had been used already.

Oleaceae

26. Jasminum angustifolium (Linn.) Vahl
Enum. 1: 29, 1804; Wight, Icon t. 1843;
FBI 3: 598, 1882. Nyctanthes angustifolia
Linn. Sp. PI. 8, 1753. Figure : Wight, l.c.

Wiry climbing shrub. Leaves opposite, ovate-
lanceolate, glabrous, entire. Flowers white, 1-3
on slender, pedicels on terminal cyme. Corolla
lobes lanceolate, acuminate. Fruit ellipsoid.

Common twiner in semi-shaded forest areas.

Flowering : September-December. Locality :
Amboli-Savantwadi. Exsiccata : SMA — 2658.
Note : This species is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora.

27. Jasminum ritchiei C. B. Clarke, in Hook,
f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 598, 1882; Woodrow,
in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 164,
1898; Cooke, 2: 113 (174), 1904.

Common twiner of semi-shaded forest areas.

Flowering: August-October. Localities:

Amboli, Hiranyakeshi, Nangartas-Savantwadi.
Exsiccata : SMA — 4114; MRA— 1274, 2569
(ALC); BGK— 108683 (BSI).

Note: T. Cooke reported this species from S.
M. Country. There are a few sheets of this
species in Blatter Herbarium from North
Kanara collected by H. Santapau (18754-5); &
Sedgwick (3238).

Gentianaceae

28. Exacum axillare Thw. Enum. Pl. Zeyl.
203, 1860; FBI 4: 96, 1883.

Procumbent or erect herb. Leaves ovate-
lanceolate, long-petioled, 3 -nerved. Flowers
solitary on axillary peduncles.

Rare herb of open grasslands.

Flowering: September-October. Locality:

Zolambe-Savantwadi. Exsiccata: SMA — 3468.
Note: This species is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora.

29. Exacum sessile Linn. Sp. PI. 112, 1753;
Wight, Icon. t. 1324 (1), 1848; FBI 4: 98,
1883; Ramamoorthy, in FI. Hassan Dist.
426, 1976. Figure: Wight, l.c.

Slender, erect herb. Leaves small, sessile,
ovate. Flowers solitary in axillary and terminal
peduncles.

Herb among grasses. Rare.

Flowering: October-November. Localities:

Malgaon. Charatha-Savantwadi. Exsiccata:
SMA — 3199, 3868, 3949.

Note: This species is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora.

30. Hoppea fastigiata (Griseb.) C. B. Clarke
in J. Hooker, FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 100, 1883;
Gamble, FI. Madras 2: 877 (616), 1923;
Ramamoorthy, in FI. Hassan Dist. 456,
1976. Cicendia fastigiata Griseb. Gentia
158, 1839; DC. Prodr. 9: 62, 1846.

Small erect herb upto 10 cm high. Stem

523

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

4-winged. Leaves ovate, subsessile. Flowers
axillary and terminal; peduncles clustered.
Among grasses. Rare.

Flowering : October-November. Locality :

Amboli-Savantwadi. Exsiccata : SMA — 5072;
MRA— 1624 (ALC).

Note : This is the first report of the species
from Maharashtra.

CONVOLVULACEAE

31. Ipomoea trichosperma Blume, Bijid. 710,
1825; FBI 4: 198, 1883. Calonyction tri-
chospermum Choisy, Convolv. 60, 1834;
DC. Prodr. 10: 346, 1846.

Rare, woody twiner. Noticed only at one
spot along the forest border and among bushes
near a river bank.

Flowering & Fruiting : March-April. Loca-
lity: Banda, Satarda-Savantwadi. Exsiccata :
SMA — 4194.

Note : This species is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora. There are a few herbarium sheets of
the species in Blatter Herbarium from N.
Kanara (1686-9) and (1871-6) collected by
V. M. Patel and McCann, respectively.

32. Lindernia pusilla (Willd.) Bolding, Zakfl.
Landbowster, Java, 165, 1916; Philocox,
Kew Bull. 22: 41, 1968; Saldanha, FI.
Hassan Dist. 523, 1976. Gratiola pusilla
Willd. Sp. PI. 1: 105, 1797. Torenia hirta
Cham. & Schlecht. Linnaea 2: 511, 1827.
Lindernia hirta (Cham. & Schlt.) Pennell,
Journ. Am. Arbor. 24: 250, 1943; Muker-
jee, Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 24: 131, 1945.

Prostrate hirsute herbs. Leaves sessile, ovate-
orbicular, serrate. Flowers axillary, solitary or
in terminal racemes. Corolla white with yellow
upper lip.

Common in partially shaded wet places.

Flowering : May- July. Localities : Charatha-
Savantwadi. Exsiccata : SMA — 141, 147, 2380,
4669; MRA — 1150 (BLAT).

Note : This species is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora.

33 Lindernia rotundifolia Alston var. concan-
ensis Saldanha, Taxonomic Rev. Scroph,
Western Peninsul. Ind. 1: 184, 1963 (in-
edit).

Differs from the typical variety by its tiny
flowers which never exceed 4 mm in length.
Rare weed of wet soils.

Flowering : August. Locality. Charatha-

Savantwadi. Exsiccata : SMA -346.

Note : In Blatter Herbarium there are a few
herbarium sheets of this species collected from
Katta-Ratnagiri (6967-69, 7097-98); Ratnagiri
(7140-42); Malvan (6989-94) by C. Saldanha.

34. Lindernia tenuifolia (Colsm.) Alston, in
Trimen. Hand-Bk. F. Cey. 6: 214, 1931;
Mukerjee in Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 24: 134,
1945. Gratiola tenuifolia Colem. Prodr.
Descrip. Grab. 8, 1793; Vahl Enum. PI.
1: 95, 1805. Bonnaya tenuifolia Spreng.
Syst. 1: 42, 1825; FBI 4: 286, 1884. B.
pusilla Griff. Notul. 4: 107, 1854 [non
Lindernia pusilla (Willd.) Boldingh. 1916].
Figure: Matthew, FI. Tamil Carn. 2: t.
500, 1982.

Rare herb. Grows among grasses.

Flowering’. August. Locality : Aronda-

Savantwadi. Exsiccata : SMA — 566; MRA —
613 (BLAT).

Note: This species is an addition to Cooke’s
flora. In Blatter Herbarium there are a number
of herbarium specimens collected from various
parts of Bombay and outside Bombay. [(Madh-
Island-Saldanha (1361, 5745-48, 6617-20), San-
tapau (21301, 23509), Shah (7122-23, 7375,
7971); Ratnagiri-Malvan : Saldanha (7767);
Thane-Mumbra : Shenoy — (390)].

35. Microcarpaea minima (Koenig) Merrill, in
Philipp. Journ. Sc. Bot. 7: 100, 1912;

524

NEW RECORDS FOR MAHARASHTRA

Fischer, in Kew Bull. 1932: 6, 1933.
Paederota minima Koenig, in Retz. Obs.
5: 10, 1789. M. alterniflora Blume, Bijdr.
744, 1825. M. muscosa R. Br. Prodr. 436,
1810. Figure : Matthew, FI. Tamil. Carn.
2: t. 502. 1982.

Common herb of drying rice-fields and of
marshes.

Flowering'. May. Locality : Otavane-Savant-
wadi. Exsiccata: SMA — 28, 4610, 4612.

Note : Kartikeyan et al. in Rec. Bot. Surv. India
21(2): 1981 mentioned North Kanara as the
locality for this species. In Blatter Herbarium
there are a few sheets of this species from
Ratnagiri, collected by Saldanha (6970); from
Malvan by Saldanha (6998-99); Satara-Maha-
bleshwar, by Santapau (23432-33).

36. Torenia lindernioides Saldanha, in Bull.
Bot. Surv. Ind. 8: 129, t. 4, 1966 & FI.
Hassan Dist. 527. 1976. Figure : Saldanha,
l.c.

Common herb of open grasslands and laterite
soils.

Flowering : May- August. Localities : Aronda,
Charatha-Savantwadi Exsiccata : SMA — 43,

388, 627-A.

Note: This species has been reported from N.
Kanara by C. J. Saldanha.

37. Torenia thouarsii (Cham. & Schlecht.) U.
Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI. 2: 468, 1891. Nor -
tenia thouarsii Cham & Schlecht. in Lin-
naea 3: 18, 1828. Torenia parviflora Buch.-
Ham. ex Bth., Scroph. Ind. 39, 1835 & in
DC. Prodr. 10: 419, 1846; FBI 4: 278,
1884.

Rare herb. Grows in wet fields.

Flowering’. September-October. Localities :
Charatha, Majgaon-Savantwadi. Exsiccata :
SMA — 2050, 3804.

Note'. Kartikeyan et al. in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind.
21(2): 1981, have mentioned North Kanara,
as the locality for the species.

38. Torenia vagans Roxb. FI. Ind. 3: 96, 1824;
FBI 4: 277, 1884; Gamble, FI. Madras 2:
671, 1956. T. diffusa Don Prodr. 86, 1925.
T. hians Roxb. FI. Ind. 3: 96, 1874.

Diffuse trailing and rooting herb. Stem 4-
sided. Flowers axillary, solitary on long
peduncles.

Fairly common herb in wet soils in shady
places.

Flowering : May-September. Localities : Mal-
gaon, Danoli, Mardongri Sateli, Hiranyakeshi-
Savantwadi. Exsiccata : SMA — 749, 1547,

2444, 2581, 3088.

Note: This species is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora.

Acanthaceae

39. Nilgirianthus membranaceus (Talb.)
Bremekamp, in Mat. Mon. Strobil. 280,
1944; Santapau, Bot. Mem. Univ. Bombay
No. 2, 43, 1951. Strobilanthes membrana -
ceus Talbot, Trees and Shrubs of Bombay
(ed. 2), 261, 1902; Cooke, 2: 372 (449),
1905. Figure: Talbot, Forest FI. 2: 327,
t. 444, 1911.

An undershrub in forest areas.

Flowering: October-December. Locality:

Amboli-Savantwadi. Exsiccata: SMA — 1214.
Note: T. Cooke has included this species on
authority of Talbot; Talbot mentions Kanara
as the locality. In Blatter Herbarium there are
a few herbarium sheets of this species collected
from Matheran by N. A. Irani (2748, 2777-8,
2882-4).

Labiatae

40. Leucas cephalates (Roxb. ex Roth), Spr.
Syst. 2: 743, 1825; Graham, Cat. 153,
1839; Wight, Icon. t. 337, 1840; Dalz. &
Gibs. 211, 1861; FBI 4: 689, 1885; Cooke, 2:
466 (549), 1905. Phlomis cephalotes Roxb.
Hort. Bengal, 46, 1814 (nom. nud.) ex

525

5

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Roth. Nov. PL Sp. 262, 1821. Figure :
Wight, l.c.

Rare herb of waste lands.

Flowering : October-December. Localities :

Charatha, Amboli, Otavane, Chaukul-Savant-
wadi. Exsiccata: SMA — 3197, 4410, 4602.
Note: This species has been reported from
Gujarat by Dalzell and Gibson and from Ahme-
dabad by Law ex Graham.

41 . Plectranthus sfriatus Benth. in Wall. PI.
As Rar. 2: 17, 1831 & in DC. Prodr. 12:
56, 1848; FBI 4: 618, 1885; Mukerjee 43,
1940. P. gerardiana Benth. in Wall. PI. As
Rar. 2: 17, 1831 & in DC Prodr. 12: 56,
1848. P. gerar dianus var. brachyantha
Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 618, 1885.

An erect, branched herb. Flowers small,
purple-white in terminal, slender panicles.

A rare plant noticed only at one spot along
the border of a forest.

Flowering : September-October. Locality :

Amboli, Hiranyakeshi-Savantwadi. Exsiccata :
SMA — 3037, 5075.

Note : This species is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora.

Polygon ace ae

42. Polygonum minus Huds. FI. Angl. (ed. 1)
148, 1762; FBI 5: 36, 1886; Steward,
Polygoneae East Asia 63, 1930. P. strictum
Allioni, FI. Pedem. 2: 207, t. 68, f. 2,
1785; Wight, Icon. t. 1800, 1852. Figures :
Wight, l.c.; Allioni, l.c.

Rare herb of water-logged areas.

Flowering: October-November. Locality:

Amboli-Hiranyakeshi-Savantwadi. Exsiccata :
SMA — 3053; BGK— 121594 (BSI).

Note: This is an addition to Cooke’s Flora.

PlPERACEAE

43. Piper longum Linn. Sp. PI. 29, 1753;
Graham, Cat. 199, 1839; Dalz. & Gibs.

suppl. 84, 1861; FBI 5: 83, 1886; Dalgado,
158, 1898; Cooke, 2: 528 (3: 20), 1905.
Chavica roxburghii Miq. Syst. Pip. 239,
1843-44; Wight, Icon. t. 1928, 1853. Figure:
Wight, l.c.

Perennial; grows as undergrowth in shade
along forest borders. Common in certain loca-
lities only.

Flowering: October-December. Local name:
Pipli. Localities: Sherle, Sonurli, Otavane-

Savantwadi. Exsiccata: SMA — 244, 992-A,
2122, 3000, 3128, 4478, 4608.

Note: T. Cooke, mentioned it as not indige-
nous in Bombay Presidency. We have seen it
growing wild abundantly in forests at certain
localities.

Loranthaceae

44. Bendrophthoe memecylifolius (Wight &
Arn.) Danser, in Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenz.
Ser. 3, 10: 291, 1929. Loranthus memecy-
lifolius Wight & Arn. Prodr. 383, 1834;
FBI 5: 217, 1886.

Stout glabrous parasite. Leaves oblong or
elliptic, dark brown. Flowers scarlet, in umbels
on short, stout axillary peduncles.

Partial parasite on forest trees. Rare.
Flowering : October-December. Locality :

Sonurli-Banda-Savantwadi. Exsiccata: SMA —
442.

Note: This species is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora.

45. Bendrophthoe neelgherrensis (Wight &
Am.) Van Tiegh, in Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.
42, 1895. Loranthus neelgherrensis Wight
& Arn. Prodr. 383, 1834; Wight Icon. t.
1020, 1845; FBI 5: 216, 1886. Figure:
Wight, l.c.; Bidie, Neilgherry Loranth.
Para. PI. 4 & 5, 1874.

Stout parasite. Leaves orbicular, narrowed
into the petiole. Flowers in fasicles on the
nodes of the axils, sessile. Corolla lobes reflex-

526

NEW RECORDS FOR MAHARASHTRA

ed above the middle; anthers long. Fruit
oblong.

Rare. Partial parasite noticed only at one
place in a forest.

Flowering: October-December. Localities:

Charatha, Burdi-Savantwadi. Exsiccata: SMA-
4333.

Note: This species is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora.

46. Taxillus tomentosus (Roth.) Van Tieghen,
Bull. Soc. Bot. France, 42: 256, 1895;
Johri & Bhatnagar, Bot. Monog. No. 8,
Loranthaceae, 13, 1972. Ramamoorthy, in
FI. Hassan Dist. 31, 1976. Loranthus
tomentosus Roth. Nov. PI. Sp. PI. 191.
1821; Talb. List of trees, 171, 1894 (non
Heyne 1821).

Large shrub with pendent branches. Leaves
ovate-obtuse, rusty-tomentose beneath. Flowers
in axillary fascicles of 1-5, tomentose.

In forest areas. Rare.

Flowering: October-March. Locality: Mor-
dongri-Savantwadi. Exsiccata: SMA — 2456.
Note: This species is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora.

47. Drypetes sepiaria (Wight & Am.) Pax. &
Hoffm. in Engl. Pflanzenf. 81: 271, 1922.
Hemicyclea sepiaria Wight & Arn. in
Edinb. New Phil. Joum. 14: 297, 1833;
Wight, Icon. t. 1872, 1852; Dalz. & Gibs.
229, 1861; FBI 5: 337, 1887; Cooke, 2:
590 (3: 87), 1906. Figures: Wight, l.c.;
Matthew, FI. Tamil Carn. 2: t. 635, 1982.

Tree of forest areas. Rare.

Fruiting: March-May. Locality: Amboli.

Exsiccata: MR A — 208, 350 (ALC).

Note: This species is included by T. Cooke in
‘Bombay Flora’ on Talbot’s report from North
Kanara.

Euphorbiaceae

48. Euphorbia granulata Forsk. FI. Aegypt.
Arb. 94, 1775; FBI 5: 252, 1887; Cooke, 2:
569 (3: 65), 1906.

Profusely branched, prostrate herb; growing
in abundance in rice field after harvest,
noticed only at one place.

Flowering: May. Locality: Banda, Satarda-
Savantwadi. Exsiccata: SMA — 4223.

Note: T. Cooke reported this species from
Sind.

49. Glochidion ellipticuin Wight, Icon. 5 (2):
29, t. 1906, 1852; FBI 5: 321, 1887; Cooke,
2: 579 (3: 75), 1906. Figures: Wight, l.c.;
Matthew, FI. Tamil Carn. 2: t. 640, 1982.

Common tree of forest areas.

Flowering: December-February. Localities:
Amboli, Ambegaon-Savantwadi. Exsiccata:
SMA — 93, 1102, 1482, 2750, 3463.

Note: T. Cooke reported this species from
Kanara.

50 . Phyllanthus debilis Klein, ex Willd. Sp. PI.
4: 582, 1904; FBI 5: 299, 1887; Cooke,
2: 588 (3: 84), 1906.

Erect herb, woody at base.

Common among grasses and in cultivated
lands.

Flowering: September-November. Localities:
Charatha, Malgaon, Insuli-Savantwadi. Exsic-
cata: SMA — 287, 792, 1372, 1612, 1784, 2192,
3416; MR A — 399 (ALC).

Note: T. Cooke reported this species from
Sind.

Urticaceae

5 1 . Debregeasia ceylanica Hook, f . FL Brit.
Ind. 5: 592, 1885; Gamble, FI. Madras
2: 1379 (3: 972), 1925.

527

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Tree. Leaves simple, long-petioled, broadly
rotund-ovate, round at base, white tomentose
beneath, 3 -nerved from base. Flowers sessile,
unisexual, in axillary, branched, cymose, glo-
bose head.

Tree of ghat areas. Rare.

Flowering : September-October. Locality :

Amboli-Savantwadi. Exsiccata : SMA — 1996,
2667.

Note: This species is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora.

52. Elatostema sessile Forst. var. cuspidata
Wedd. Monogr, 294, 1856; FBI 5: 564,
1888; Gamble, FI. Madras 3: 963, 1967.
E. cuspidatus Wight, Icon. t. 1983, 1853.
Figure : Wight, l.c.

Small herb. Leaves oblanceolate, sessile,
membranous, inequilateral. Flowers small,
sessile, axillary.

Herb of old walls. Rare.

Flowering: August-October. Locality:

Aronda-Savantwadi. Exsiccata: SMA — 541.
Note: This species is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora.

53. Ficus heddomei King, Ann. Roy. Bot.

Gard. Calcutta, 1: 26~, t. 24 & 81, 1887;
FBI 5: 502, 1888; Gamble, FI. Madras,
3: 954, 1956; Corner, Gard. Bull. Straits.
Settlm. Ser. 4, 21: 12, 1955; Matthew, FI.
Tamilnadu, Carnatic 3: 1516, 1983.

Figures: King, l.c.; Matthew, FI. Tamil
Carn. 3(2): 110b, 1983.

Large tree. Leaves ovate-rotund, long-
petioled, broad at base, shortly acuminate, 3-
nerved. Receptacle in axillary pairs, ovoid.
Tree of ghat areas. Rare.

Flowering: April-May. Locality: Ambegaon-
Kaleli-Savantwadi. Exsiccata: SMA — 2777.

Note: This species is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora.

54. Ficus caSIosa Willd., in Mem. Acad. Berc.
102, 1798; FBI 5: 576, 1888; King, in
Annales Royal Bot. Gard. Calcutta, 1: 64,
t. 85, t 84, f. 4, 1887; Cooke, 2: 651 (3:
152), 1907. Talbot, For. FI. Bombay Pres.
& Sind. 2: 521, 1911. Figure: King, l.c.

Fairly common tree of forest areas.
Flowering: May- July. Localities: Amboli,
Otavane, Danoli-Savantwadi. Exsiccata: SMA
— 1571, 2174, 4756.

Note: Cooke mentioned Kanara as the locality
for this species.

55. Ficus tjakela Burm. f. FI. Ind. 227, 1768;
King, Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calcutta, 1 :
57, t. 70 & 84, f. x. 1887-88; FBI 5: 514,
1888; Cooke, 2: 650 (3: 150), 1907.
Figure: King, l.c.

Large deciduous tree of ghat areas.

Flowering: April-May. Locality: Bhedsi-

Ramghat-Savantwadi. Exsiccata: SMA — 2777,
Note : T. Cooke mentioned N. Kanara, as the
locality for this species.

ACK NO WLEDGE M ENTS

We are grateful to Prof. P. V. Bole for his
guidance, to Dr. S. K. Jain — (ex. Director,
Bot. Surv. India — Calcutta) for his encourage-
ment; to the authorities of the Botanical Survey
of India, Western Circle, Poona, for the faci-
lities offered for referring to the Herbarium
and the library; to Dr. (Mrs.) Daru walla for
going through the manuscript; and to Mr.
Rajendra Shinde for the timely help rendered
during the period of preparation of this paper.

NEW RECORDS FOR MAHARASHTRA

References

Babu, C. R. (1977) : Herbaceous Flora of Dehra-
dun. Publications & Information Directorate (CSIR),
New Delhi.

Blatter, E. (1930) : Revision of the Flora of the
Bombay Presidency. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34.

Bremekamp et al. (1948): A preliminary Survey
of Ruellinae (Aeanthaceae) of the Malay Archi-
pelago and New Guinea. Amsterdam.

Candolle, A. P. De (1824): Prodromus Regni
Vegetabilis. Vol. I. Paris.

Cooke, T. (1901-1905) : Flora of Presidency of
Bombay. Vol. I & II, Calcutta.

Dalgado, D. G. (1898) : Flora De Goa, E. Savant-
wadi. Lisbon.

Dalzell & Gibson (1861): The Bombay Flora.
Education Society press, Byculla, Bombay.

Gamble, J. S. (1915-1936): Flora of Madras,
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Graham, J. (1839): A Catalogue of Bombay
Plants. Agricultural Society of Western India, Bom-
bay.

Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897): Flora of British
India, Vol. I-V. London.

Hutchinson & Dalziell (1954) : Flora of West
Tropical Africa. Pub. Noordhoff-kolff N. V.— Vol. II.
London.

Johri et al. (1972): Botany Monograph (Loran-
thus).

Karthikeyan et al. (1981): Records of Botanical
Survey of India, Calcutta.

King, G. (1887-88) : The species of Ficus of the
Indo-Malayan and Chinese countries (Part III). Vol.
I & II, Calcutta.

Linnaeus (1753): Species Plantarum (Vol. I &
II). London.

Matthew, K. M. (1882-83) : The Flora of the
Tamil Nadu Carnatic. Vol. I & II, Madras.

Nairne, A. K. (1894): The Flowering Plants
of Western India. Bombay.

Roxburgh, W. (1832) : Flora Indica, Vol. 1, (Rep.
Carey Edition), Calcutta.

Saldanha, C. (1976) : Flora of Hassan District.
Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

Santapau, H. (1951) : Aeanthaceae of Bombay.
Bombay.

— — (1953) : Flora of Khandala. Mana-

ger of Publications, New Delhi.

Shah, G. L. (1978) : Flora of Gujarat. Shri K.
A. Amin. Sardar Patel Univ., Villabh Vidyanagar.

Talbot, W. A. (1909) : Forest Flora of the Bom-
bay Presidency. Vol. I. Poona.

(1911): ibid. Vol. II. Poona.

Van Steenis (1955-58) : Flora Malesiana. Noor-
dhoff-Kolff N.V., Vol. 5, series 1. Djakarta.

Vartak, V. D. (1966) : Enumeration of Plants
for Gomantak India. Maharashtra Association for
the cultivation of Science, Pune.

Wight, Robert (1963): leones Plantarum Indiae
Orientalis. (Reprinted edition). Wheldon & Wesley
Ltd. and Hafner Publishing Co., New Yofk.

Wight, R. & Arnott (1834) : Prodrumus Floras
Peninsulae India — Orientalis. Parbury, Allen & Com-
pany, London.

•n't f ....

529

THE DIET OF THE WHITECHEEKED BULBUL
PYCNONOTUS LEUCOGENYS 1

Khalid Y. Al-Dabbagh, Jameel H. Jiad and Intisar N. Waheed2
{With four text-figures)

The whitecheeked bulbul is a very common bird of date palm-citrus orchards
in Iraq, and has often been accused of causing damage to fruits. The bulbul is
frugivorous, feeding mainly on ripe fruits and in particular ripe dates (90% of total
fruits eaten) . It also takes insects, mainly ants and wasps, in proportion related to their
availability in the field. In addition, flowers, nectar, and green fresh leaves were
also recovered in the food,. Damage to fruits could occur only if fruits were left
on the trees for longer periods than necessary after ripening or secondarily to damage
caused by other animals.

I N TROD U CTIO N

The vvhitecheeked bulbul Pycnonotus leuco-
genys Mesopotamia Ticehurst is one of the
most common passerines of date-palm planta-
tions in Iraq. It is particularly common in
mixed date palm-citrus orchards where the
bulbul benefits from this association by using
the first as food and the second for nesting.
Furthermore, the bulbul is the only cage-bird
from the Iraqi avifauna.

P. I Mesopotamia (Family Pycnonotidae)
is rather limited in distribution in the valleys
of Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Iraq. It has
also been recorded from south Iran and the
eastern parts of the Arabian Peninsula
(Meinertzhagen 1954, Allouse 1962). The
other subspecies P. leucogenys leucotis
have extended distribution and are found in
Afghanistan, Pakistan and Himalayas to E.
Assam (Walters 1980). The bird is medium
sized (total length c. 20 cm) and easily dis-
tinguished by the black to immature brown
head and the large white patch on each cheek,

1 Accepted June 1986.

2 Department of Zoology, Biological Research
Centre, Jadiriya, P.O. Box 2371, Baghdad, Iraq.

also by its yellow vent and the white spots
on the tip of the tail.

The bulbul has been described by Allouse
(1962) as being frugivorous and takes insects
only occasionally, a diet resembling that of
many other bulbuls of the family Pycnonotidae
(Ali 1943, Austin 1961). Consumption of
fruits has aroused apprehension as to the
role of bulbuls as pests. Meinertzhagen (1954)
accused them of causing immense harm to
dates in Bahrein; Baker (1922) reported
damage to fruits in India; and Ali and Ripley
(1971) believe that bulbuls are apt to do some
damage in gardens to buds, fruits and vege-
tables. Similar allegations are often made by
Iraqi farmers, but without soundproof.
Therefore, the present work was set up to exa-
mine in some detail the food of the bulbul
and their role in date palm-citrus orchards,
and also to evaluate the possibility of their
causing damage to various fruits.

Methods

A total of 395 birds was collected for the
period from August, 1983 to August, 1984.
Collection was made by mist nets (2.4 x 12m
x 4 shelves, and 36 mm mesh). Four nets were

530

DIET OF THE WHITECHEEKED BULBUL

set up in line in a carefully chosen area among
the citrus. These were operated for an average
of 30 h per month. Trapped birds were weigh-
ed upon removal from the net, their standard
measurements were taken and then carried to
the laboratory in sealed polythene bags.

At the laboratory, each bird was eviscerated
and its stomach content was emptied into a
small petri-dish for examination. It was ana-
lysed following different methods depending on
their suitability with the type of food material
found in the stomach (Hartely 1948, Hyslop
1980). The contribution of major food group-
ings: animal food, fruits, flowers, leaves to the
total food present in the stomach was esti-
mated by point method. A scale of one to
ten points was awarded proportional to their
estimated contribution to stomach volume.
Insects were identified to family level and other
animals as far as it was possible. The number
of individuals in each category was then count-
ed and their sizes determined. Sizes of frag-
mented insects were determined by compari-
son with adult specimens collected from the
same habitat. In all cases, the presence of
each food item in individual stomach was re-
corded for the calculation of percentage
occurrence.

Study site and Avifauna

A part of the vast date-palm-citrus
orchards that extend along both sides of River
Tigris north of Baghdad was chosen as the
study site. The selected site is 40 ha at
Al-Huwaish village (45 km northeast of
Baghdad). Date palm-citrus orchards are well
organized forests, where date-palm trees are
planted as cover; under which citrus is usually
planted in thick rows along irrigation canals.
The main types of citrus are orange; but
lemon, sweet lemon, citron, grape, mandarin
and bitter lemon are also planted. Other

common fruit trees in the order of their im-
portance are: pomegranate, plums, apricot,
peach, apple and fig. The orchard floor is
covered with annual herbs and other shrubs
which are weeded continuously, especially in
well managed orchards. In most areas, citrus are
planted at a distance leaving an area from the
river banks which is usually flooded during
winter. The farmers utilize the latter ground
for growing vegetables, such as cucumbers,
cowpeas and green beans. When not in use it
becomes covered with thick growth of poplar,
tamarisk and reeds.

The associated avifauna of date palm-citrus
orchards is very rich including resident, winter
visitors, summer visitors and passage migrants.
The most common resident birds next to the
bulbul are the house sparrow ( Passer domes-
ticus), ringed dove ( Sterptopelia decaocto),
magpie ( Pica pica), wood pigeon ( Columba
palumbus) and babblers (both Iraqi Turdoides
altirostris and common T. caudatus). Winter-
ing birds usually arrive at the site in early
October and leave late in May. These include
many small passerines, of which the robin
(Erithacus rebecula) and the willow warbler
( Phylloscopus trochilus) are the most abun-
dant. Many warblers pass through the site
during their spring and autumn migration and
become common for short periods. During
summer, the rufous warbler (Erythropygia gala-
ctotes) and the turtle dove ( Streptopelia
turf or) are abundant. They arrive in early May,
breed in the area, and leave by late October.
Resident birds have different food and feed-
ing habits; similarly, most of the visitors are
insectivorous birds. Therefore, little competi-
tive influence is expected from these birds on
the bulbul.

The climate of the area is relatively harsh.
Temperature is over 40°C for more than four
months (June-September). The mean monthly
maximum temperature during the period of

531

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

study varied between 16.0°C in January and
43.9°C in July. The respective mean minimum
temperature was 4.4° to 25.2°C during the
same months. Together with such high tempe-
ratures, rainfall is only limited to December-
February, with an average monthly precipita-
tion of less than 25 mm. Relative humidity is
consequently low. It varied between 23% in
July and 77% in December. Relative humidity
was less than 50% for nine months of the year.
The climate could, therefore, be summed up as
hot and dry for most of the year.

Results

Abundance and general habits :

The bulbul was the most common resident
bird in date palm-citrus orchards. Attempts to
measure their density were not very successful
because of the thick cover of orange trees and
the silent escape behaviour of bulbuls when
disturbed. However, a “netting index” is pre-
sented to reflect monthly changes in relative
abundance and pattern of activity changes
(Fig. 1). The mean monthly number of birds

Fig. 1. Monthly changes in the “netting index” of
bulbuls trapped during the period of study.

trapped per ten-hour netting varied with peaks
in June and September. The first peak coin-
cided with the completion of the first clutch
and the second with that of the second clutch.

This was evident from the relatively high pro-
portion of juveniles trapped during these two
months.

Outside the breeding season, bulbuls usually
move about in loose flocks of 5 to 15 birds.
Pairs maintain their bond within the flock
and throughout the inter-breeding season. At
the beginning of March, new pairs were form-
ed and soon flocks were dissolved. Paired
bulbuls commence breeding by the beginning
of April and continue throughout the summer,
with at least two clutches laid per season.
Breeding was over by September and flocks re-
appeared afterwards. Nests were built on the
low branches of citrus (1.5-2 m high) and
in particular those branches overhanging the
irrigation canals. The nest was an untidy open
cup, usually made of thin dry twigs and fibres
obtained from date-palm trunks. Each nest
contained three eggs (range 2-4) which had
a pinkish ground colour spotted heavily with
dark brown without a noticeable pattern.

Bulbuls actively foraged for most of the
day; full stomach (<50% full) was equally
distributed among the daily hours of feeding.
Also, no seasonal variations were noticed in
feeding activity or time of food collection. The
food was gathered at almost all possible places,
ranging from date-palm tops, (about 10 m) to
feeding on the ground. Several techniques were
used for food gathering and handling, depend-
ing on type of food. Most fruits were picked
up from trees, and sometimes from those
fallen on the ground. Insects were collected
from among foliage, tree trunks, ground
fruits (infested with insect pests) and from
the air. Aerial feeding seems to be a common
practice in bulbuls (Severinghaus 1978); and
has been reported for P. I. mesopotamia by
Meriwani (1973).

The food of the bulbul :

The bulbul was basically frugivorous, feed-

532

DIET OF THE WHITECHEEKED BULBUL

ing on a wide range of available ripe fruits in
their habitats. Flowers and leaves were also
taken in relatively smaller quantities (Table
1). Animal food was also common and in-
cluded mainly different types of relatively
small insects (Table 1).

Among fruits, ripe dates were the most de-
sired (90% of total fruit consumed). These
were available for long periods from late
August to March or April. Some varieties
were more readily consumed than others.

Other fruits were also taken, some with notice-
able preference. These, according to the degree
of preference were: figs, mulberries, peaches,
pomegranate, apple, pear, grapes and plums.
The appetite for figs and mulberries was so
strong that bulbuls usually congregated on
these trees for feeding when fruits were ripe.
However, these fruits remain unimportant in
terms of their total contribution to the bulbuls’
diet because of the short period when they
were actually available.

Table 1

A list of Pycnonotus leucogenys diet and the relative importance of the food items

FRUITS

Dates ( Phoenix dactylifera )

44-

Hymenoptera

Fig ( Ficus carica)

4-

Formicidae

+4-

Mulberry ( Morus nigra )

+

Vespidae

++

Pomegranate ( Punica sp.)

+

Brach ion idae

4-

Peach ( Amygdalis persica)

4-

Scoliidae

(+)

Plums ( Prunus sp.)

(+)

Evan idae

■(+)

Apricot ( Armeniaca sp.)

(+)

Andrenidae

(+)

Apple ( Malus communis )

(4-)

Ichnaeionidae

(4-)

Grape (Vitis sp.)

(4-)

Halcitidae

(+)

FLOWERS
Vegetables :

Megachilidae

Hemiptera

(+)

Okra, Cucumbers, Cowpeas

4-

Pentatomidae

+

Orange flower & Nectar

(+)

COREIDAE

+

Fruit tree flowers

(4-)

Lygaeidae

(+)

LEAVES

Vegetable fresh leaves

+

Tingidae

(+>

Leaf buds

(+>'■

Orthoptera

ANIMAL FOOD

Acrididae

4-

Coleoptera

Gryllidae

(4-)

Nitidulidae

44-

Gryllotal pidae

(+)

Chrysomelidae

4.

Homoptera

Teneberionidae

4-

Aphididae

+

Alleculidae

(4-)

Neuroptera

Bruch idae

(+)

Crysopidae

(+)

Apionidae

(4-)

Diptera

Coccinellidae

(4-)

CULICIDAE

(+)

SCARABIDAE

(+)

Syrphidae

■(+)

Staphilinidae

(4-)

Arachnida

+

Unidentified

4-

Mollusca

(4-)

4-4 common, < 15% occurrence; + present in moderate numbers mostly > 10% occurrence, (+) rare,
present in > 5 individuals

533

^Occurrence ’/.Numbers.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Several types of flowers were consumed, most
important of which were vegetable flowers
(Table 1), available mainly during summer.
Citrus flowers were also taken during the short
period of blooming during early March. The
nectar from date-palm male flowers (spadix),
available during late March and early April was
taken with noticeable greed. Trapped bulbuls
had their bills tinted with yellow at this time
of the year, owing to the coating by pollen
from the spadix. However, nectar from the
large flowers of some vegetables could also
produce a similar effect. Plant leaves, usually
leaf buds, were less common in the food and
were mainly from vegetables.

Animal food was mainly insects (Table 1),
and occasionally some arachnids (Lycosid
spiders) and molluscs were recorded in the
diet. The distribution of insect orders, both as
percentage occurrence and percentage of total
number of insects present in the food is shown
in Fig. 2. The figure demonstrates clearly that
Coleoptera and Hymenoptera were equally
important, and constituted the major bulk of

Fig. 2. Percentage occurrence and percentage of
numbers of animal material in the diet of the
bulbul. Solid bars; % occurrence, clear bars;
% numbers.

insect food. Hemiptera was next in importance
with moderate number of insects in the diet.
Other insects were less common and their
percentage occurrence or their numbers did
not exceed 5% of total food examined. The
number of homopterans (Aphids) was an
exception because of the large number of these
tiny insects recovered from several bulbuls.
Among Coleoptera, the Nitidulidae (mainly
Carbophilus sp.) were the most common. These
beetles usually infest ripe fruits and were col-
lected directly from them by the bulbuls. Ants
(Formicidae) and wasps (Vespidae) were the
most common among Hymenoptera; the former
were collected mainly from the ground, while
the latter were caught on the wing (aerial feed-
ing).

The sizes of insects taken by bulbuls varied
between 2-20 mm in length. Parts of larger
insects (c. 40 mm), were occasionally observ-
ed. Frequency distribution of the size of insect
(Fig. 3) was skewed towards the smaller ones.

Size dosses (mm)

Fig. 3. Frequency distribution of insect sizes taken
by the bulbul in the diet.

This was due to the relatively large numbers
of small-sized nitidulid beetles and aphids
found among the food of the bulbul.

534

DIET OF THE WHITECHEEKED BULBUL

Seasonal changes in the diet :

The monthly changes in the main food items
— animal food, fruits, flowers and leaves are
presented in Fig. 4, both as percentage occur-

100

60

20

a e c o

Fig. 4. Mean monthly changes in percentage occur-
rence and percentage contribution by volume of the
main food items in the stomach of the bulbul. Solid
bars; % occurrence, clear bars; % contribution by
volume. A, animal food, B, fruits, C, flowers, D,

leaves.

were due to the presence of the seasonal fruits.
Animal food varied among months depending
probably on their availability. Therefore, more
animal food was recorded during summer
(April-November). Flowers were less impor-
tant and varied widely among the months.
However, two distinct peaks in flower con-
sumption coincided with peak flowering seasons
i.e. March for the spring blooming trees and
September for vegetable species. Fresh leaves
were taken irregularly without a clear pattern,
and were not recorded in the diet for several
months.

Discussion

Whitecheeked bulbul is mainly frugivorous,
but supplements its diet with insects. Similar
type of food has been described for P. leuco-
genys from India and Pakistan (Ali & Ripley
1971, Walters 1980). Other species of bulbuls
have also been reported to feed on ripe fruits
and insects. Ward (1969) described the food
of Pycnonotus goiavier as being mainly ripe
fruits and large insects including grasshoppers,
mantises, beetles, moths and caterpillars; while
Carleton & Owre (1975) showed that Pycno-
notus jocosus consumes seedlings, growing
shoots, flower parts and nectar in addition to
fruits and insects as their main food. It seems
frugivory is a main characteristic of the mem-
bers of Pycnonotidae (Baker 1922, Austin 1961.
Ali & Ripley 1971, Walters 1980).

rence and percentage contribution by volume
of these food items to the stomach content
(points method). The figure shows that fruits
dominated the food for most of the year, and
were particularly important during winter
(December-March). The high percentage
occurrence of fruits during several months was
mainly due to the regular occurrence of dates
in the food, while those of April and May

P. 1. mesopotamia consumed ripe fruits
throughout the year, with very little seasonal
variations. Dates were the main fruit and per-
sisted in the diet for long periods starting from
August (new crop) extending to March. This
was mainly due to the system of management
in date palm-citrus orchards, where manage-
ment is concentrated on citrus crops while
date-palms were only utilized as cover, and
their fruits were usually left on the trees un-

535

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

touched. In similar orchards, where dates were
properly cropped at season, a large quantity
of dates scattered on the ground were left
uncleaned, which in turn provide enough food
for bulbuls over the winter. At the time when
dates become short in supply, or their quality
deteriorate, bulbuls shift their preference to
other ripe fruits now available in their habi-
tat, such as pomegranate, figs and peaches.
This would last for a few months from the
end of April to August, until the new crop of
dates becomes available. In addition, more
flowers, nectar and leaf buds become evident
in the food and in particular, at times when
the above two food items were not readily
available (March and August). Insect food
showed a well pronounced pattern of seasonal
variation depending on their availability, and
this variation was irrespective of that of plant
food.

Despite the fact that bulbuls feed mainly on
fruits, claims of damage were not entirely
justified. Damage could occur during years of
low production or when fruits are left on the
trees for longer period than necessary after
they are ripe. It is true that some fruits are
more readily attacked than others. However,
proper cropping at the time of ripening re-
duces damage to the minimum. This has been
observed in some good quality dates, where a
slight delay in harvesting the fruits led to
immense damage. The abundance of this

Refe

Alt, S. (1943): The book of Indian birds. Bom-
bay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1971): Handbook of
the birds of India and Pakistan Vol. 6. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.

Austin, O. L. jr. (1961): Birds of the world.
Golden Press, New York.

Baker, E. C. S. (1922): The fauna of British

variety, however, is small compared to the
common type used for cover.

Damage to orange and other citrus was
negligible, and occurred only secondarily after
other animals made the initial attempt bn the
fruits. The black rat Rattus rattus has been
shown to cause such damage in date palm-
citrus orchards (Khadim et al. 1984). The
pomegranate suffer similar damage, and these,
together with other fruits like peaches, attract
bulbuls when heavily infested with insects
(mostly Nitidulid beetles). A closely similar
situation was reported by Carleton & Owre
(1975) for the red whiskered bulbul in Florida.

Date palm-citrus orchards seem to be a
highly suitable habitat that attracts a good
number of bulbuls. The continuous availability
of dates as food has probably diverted bulbuls
from consuming other fruits and consequently
reducing damage to those more wanted fruits
by farmers. This could be ascertained by study-
ing any of the single-fruit type orchards and
comparing the findings with those of the pre-
sent investigation.

Acknowledgements

We thank Mr. Mahdi Auda and Mr. Hadi
Auda for allowing , us the freedom of visiting
their orchards for the study. We are also grate-
ful to Dr. Mohammad Saleh, of the Iraqi
Natural History Museum, for partly assisting
in insect identification.

ENCES

India, including Ceylon and Burma Vol. 1. Taylor
& Francis, London.

Carleton, A. R. & Owre, O. T. (1975) : The
red-whiskered bulbul in Florida. Auk 92: 40-57.

Hartely, P. H. T. (1948): The assessment of
the food of birds. Ibis 90(3) : 361-381.

Hyslop, E. J. (1980) : Stomach content analysis —

536

DIET OF THE WHITECHEEKED BULBUL

a review of methods and their application. /. Fish.
Biol. 17: 411-429.

Khadim, A. H., Mustafa, A. M. & Al-Naimi, T.
M. (1984): Evaluation of damage caused by Rattus
rattus L. on pomegranate in central Iraq. /. Biol. Sci.
Res. 75(2): 49-54.

Meriwani, Y. N. (1973) : Aerial feeding by bul-
buls. Ibis 115: 285.

Meinertzhagen, R. (1954) : Birds of Arabia.

Oliver & Boyd, London.

Severinghaus, S. R. (1978): Aerial feeding by
Asian bulbuls. Ibis 120: 514-515.

Ward, P. (1969) : The annual cycle of the yellow-
vented bulbul Pycnonotus goiavier in a humid equa-
torial environment. /. Zool. Lond. 157: 25-45.

Walters, M. (1980) : The complete birds of the
world. David & Charles, London.

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537

A PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE INCIDENTAL
ENTRAPMENT OF ODONTOCETES BY SRI LANKA’S
COASTAL DRIFT NET FISHERY1

Abigail Alling2
(With four text-figures)

Odontocetes are taken by both direct and indirect fisheries off the coast of Sri
Lanka. An estimated 38,000 odontocetes are entangled annually in gillnets deployed
within 30 miles (48 km) of the shoreline from 26-60' vessels. The two species most
frequently taken are spinner, Stenella longirostris, and Risso’s dolphins, Grampus
griseus. Ten species of cetaceans were seen in fish-markets by the author in the
relative frequencies: spinner dolphin (40%), Risso's dolphin (17%), spotted dolphin,
Stenella cf. Stenella attenuata (13%), striped dolphin, Stenella coeruleoalba (8%),
bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops sp. (7%), Pygmy killer whale, Feresa attenuata (4%),
dwarf sperm whale, Kogia simus (4%), rough-toothed dolphin, Steno bredadensis
(4%), false killer whale, Pseudorca crassidens (1%), Cuvier’s beaked whale, Ziphius
cavirostris (1%), and an unidentified beaked whale (1%). Since the incidental
entrapment of cetaceans is a worldwide problem which may be assuming crisis pro-
portions, this report will have application to any fishery which presently catches small
odontocetes in gillnets.

Gillnets have been used by fishermen for
centuries, but it has not been until the last
thirty years that the incidental entrapment and
entanglement of cetaceans in tended and un-
tended nets has been extensive enough to be,
of serious concern (Coleman & Wehle 1983,
Wallace 1984). Gear modification, technical
advances, and an increase in the number of
boats harvesting fish have been primary causes
of such mortality (Curry-Lindahl 1982). In
particular, the replacement of cotton nets with
synthetic nets in the 1950’s marked the begin-
ning of an increased take of both target,
commercial fish, and non-target marine ani-
mals, cetaceans, birds, turtles, etc. (Wallace
1984).

Synthetic nets are composed of plastic web-
bing which is visually and acoustically invisible
to marine mammals (Gaskin 1984). The nets,

1 Accepted January 1987.

2 Center for Long Term Research, 191, Weston
Road, Lincoln, MA 01773, U.S.A.

which are suspended in water by floats and
stretched vertically by weights attached to their
bottom, hang in the water like “Curtains of
Death” (Eisenbud 1984). Not only are the
nets undetectable to cetaceans, but the plastic,
synthetic fibres are unbreakable, which prevents
animals from escaping once caught. Any fishery
which utilizes gillnets in the same habitat as
cetaceans has the potential to catch these
animals that swim blindly into the net and
become entangled. Incidental entanglement of
cetaceans in gillnet fisheries is now recognized
as a world-wide problem, but there is little
information about the impact of such fisheries
on specific populations.

Preliminary investigations about the location
and status of direct and indirect cetacean
fisheries indicate that odontocetes are being
taken throughout the world, but the number of
animals killed is largely unknown (Brownell
et at. 1978, Mitchell 1975). In addition, the
behaviour, ecology, and biology of many of

538

ENTRAPMENT OF ODONTOCETES BY DRIFT NET FISHERY

the species involved has not been studied, so
it remains unclear whether or not whole
populations or even species may be endangered.
Detailed information about cetacean entrap-
ment in pelagic fishing gear has been docu-
mented in purse seine fisheries (Perrin &
Oliver 1982, Allen & Goldsmith 1982, Ham-
mond & Tsai 1983) and in pelagic fisheries
(Jones 1984, Harwood et al. 1984, Kumagai
et al. 1983, Lear & Christensen 1975, Oshumi
1975). However, there is little information
about land based, coastal drift net fisheries
and their impact on odontocetes (Ailing &
Whitehead 1986, Leatherwood 1984, Lien et
al. 1982). This paper describes the incidental
entrapment of odontocetes by coastal drift net
fisheries off the coast of Sri Lanka. As there
are no existing legislative, administrative, bio-
logical or technical means to prevent the inci-
dental mortality of cetaceans by drift net
fisheries (Holt 1983), it is hoped that this study
will provide a framework for which such pro-
blems can be addressed.

Types of marine fisheries in Sri Lanka

Sivasubramaniam (1965) categorized the Sri
Lankan fisheries into non-mechanized, tradi-
tional-mechanized, modern-mechanized and
trawling operations. As described by Pajot
(1978), non-mechanized vessels (outriggers or
canoes) are used by fishermen who work
within 1-2 miles of the coast, casting “Beach
Seines” on schools of pelagic fish species. This
method is restricted to calm waters and, in
general, it is only effective for half the year on
each coast due to the monsoons. Traditional -
mechanized craft consist of Orus, Vallams, or
Teppams (vessels with outboard motors) and
modern mechanized craft, which are larger,
26-60' (34- 17 1 ton) vessels (Sivasubra-

maniam 1965). These boats harvest pelagic
species by using “Pole and Line” techniques.

longlines, or gillnets which are set at night as
drift nets. Long lines are used for large pelagic
species (tuna, shark, spearfish, etc), “pole and
line” for the smaller species (tuna and
mackerel), and drift nets for both types (Pajot
1978).

The boats using drift nets embark for sea
usually in the mid-afternoon. Fishermen motor
up to 30 miles (48 km) offshore (usually
about 20 miles, i.e. 32 km) where they set their
nets until dawn. The duration of time the nets
are set depends on the cycle of the moon.
During the full moon, for example, nets are
used for only a few hours when the night is
at its darkest period. (The fishermen claim
that fish can “see” the nets unless there is no
sun or moonlight). Fishermen also cannot set
gillnets during the southwest monsoons
(summer) along the east coast, or during the
Northeast Monsoons (winter) off the west
coast because the seas are too rough. There-
fore, they either change gear to work inshore
(e.g. fishermen in Trincomalee harvest spawn-
ing flying fish during May to August), or they
continually move along the coast to avoid the
bad weather in order to use their gillnets
throughout the year.

Trawlers are used exclusively for deep-sea
fisheries. Traditionally, the Government of Sri
Lanka operated trawlers on the Wadge and
Pedro banks, but by 1964 all the vessels were
transferred to the Ceylon Seafoods Corpora-
tion, a private enterprise. Now the Law of
the Sea gives India rights of resources on or
near Wadge Bank which has forced this
Company to extend its operations to other
pelagic regions (Piertersz 1965). According to
the Manager of Ceylon Seafoods in Trinco-
malee, the vessels remain at sea for two days
to two weeks while working approximately 50
miles (80 km) offshore. The fishermen set
drift nets at night and they trawl during the
day for Tuna, Seerfish, Shark or Marlin.

539

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Department of Fisheries found that there was
an annual increase of 6,000 tons of fish har-
vested (Weerakoon 1963). He attributed this
increase to the introduction of mechanized
vessels and synthetic gillnets. By 1958 he
estimated that almost all the fishermen had
switched from using cotton nets to multifila-
ment, nylon gear varying in color (yellow,
grey, green, or white), in twine size (21, 24,
27 and 30 ply), in mesh size (4, 5.5, 5.75, 6
and 7 inch) and in overall size (500 to 1,000
by 50 to 150 meshes). These gillnets are used
by fishermen who operate the 3J and 17J-ton
vessels or trawlers. In 1982, there were 8,850
3^ and 17^-ton vessels registered in Sri Lanka.
(This statistic has not been updated by the
Sri Lanka Department of Fisheries). This
paper reports on the number of odontocetes
taken incidentally by gillnets deployed from
these boats.

Past and present commercial utilization

OF SMALL CETACEANS

A dolphin fishery was first reported in Sri
Lanka in the late 1800’s (Necill 1887). He
reported that one species, no larger than 1.7m
and characterized as a fierce animal, was spear-
ed and eaten by fishermen. A second species,
which Necill called Delphinus, was found close
to shore and in the lagoons of Kalputti and
Trincomalee. Revered as a sacred animal, this
species was not killed by the resident Tamil
or Sinhalese people, but Indian fishermen
specifically hunted and captured these dolphins
in nets for food.

In 1953 and 1954, the Sri Lanka Depart-
ment of Fisheries and the Canadian Govern-
ment explored the possibility of commercially
exploiting dolphins (Lantz & Gunasekera
1955). They identified the Cetaceans as com-
mon dolphins ( Delphinus sp.) and bottlenose
dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus). (However, a

photograph included in the article showed a
striped dolphin suspended over the deck of
the vessel). They noted that fishermen, who
were working out of Trincomalee and Negombo
harbours, complained of excessive net damage
which sometimes forced them to abandon
their gillnet fisheries in January and February.
It was assumed that this destruction was caused
by dolphins. In response to this problem and
concern that these animals competed with
fishermen for limited food resources, methods
were devised to capture and utilize dolphins.
The meat was used for human consumption,
the Sri Lankan Department of Industries pro-
duced two kinds of leather from the skins, oil
was prepared as a lubricant, and waste mate-
rials were processed into meal. They concluded
that commercial utilization of dolphins in Sri
Lanka would not only be possible, but bene-
ficial to the fishermen.

At present, the degree to which cetaceans
are hunted off Sri Lanka is in question. Mitchell
(1975) and Brownell, Schonewald, & Reeves
(1978) acknowledged the existence of a dol-
phin fishery, but urged that more information
be obtained. Beginning in 1982, efforts were
made to monitor the take of dolphins in seve-
ral harbours along the coast of Sri Lanka
(Ailing 1983, Joseph et al. 1983). These studies
suggested that dolphins may be hunted by some
fishermen, but most of the animals are en-
tangled incidentally in gillnets. Similar findings
have been recently reported by others as well
(Leatherwood 1984, Leatherwood et al. 1984)
and in 1985 the National Aquatic Resources
Agency (a Department within the Sri Lankan
Ministry of Fisheries) established a research
programme to thoroughly review this fishery.
In general, it appears that dolphin meat may
be sold for human consumption or for shark
bait. Frequently, however, the meat is sold to
a buyer who exports it inland or to Colombo
(the capital) where it may be sold as

540

ENTRAPMENT OF ODONTOCETES BY DRIFT NET FISHERY

“Mudu-uru”. Mudu-uru, known as “sea pig”
or dugong, is considered a delicacy and is
purchased by those who cannot afford the
more expensive fish, by Catholics or Muslims
(not Buddhists or Hindus because it is against
their religion to eat dark meat), or by people
who live inland.

Methods

A study of this cetacean fishery was carried
out in Sri Lanka from March, 1982 to Dec-
ember, 1984. The scope of the project was
significantly narrowed because it was conduct-
ed in conjunction with an oceanic study of
the behaviour and ecology of sperm whales,
Physeter macrocephalus. However, incidental
sightings of cetaceans were recorded while at
sea and, when time permitted, harbours were
visited to identify odontocetes that were
brought into fish-markets, fishermen were in-
terviewed to enquire about direct and indirect
cetacean fisheries, and a system was establish-
ed to monitor the daily take of odontocetes
brought into three harbours. In this paper,
“odontocetes” refers to all the toothed species
found in Sri Lankan waters except for the
sperm whale.

The offshore study was conducted from a
9 m sailing vessel, R/V Tulip, during the spring
(January to May) of 1982-1984. All cetaceans
sighted off the coast of Sri Lanka were record-
ed and their positions are shown in Fig. 1.
Since our primary objective during this time
was to track and follow sperm or blue whales
( Balaenoptera musculus), all sightings of other
cetaceans are biased to preferred blue and
sperm whale habits.

When we were not working at sea, ! visited
ten fishing harbours in Sri Lanka, which are
illustrated in Fig. 1. Equal time was not allot-
ed to each of these harbours because I worked
primarily in Beruwala (on the west coast) and

Trincomalee (on "the east coast). Dolphins
brought into each harbour were identified and,
when time permitted I measured, determined
the sex of, and photographed animals using a
standard morphometric form (Norris 1961).
Skulls were collected when possible and sent
to the Smithsonian Institute. Not all the ani-
mals were measured because the fishermen
often immediately used the dolphin meat for
food or bait. Thus, of the 72 cetaceans seen,
39 animals were measured, 31 were distinguish-
ed as “calves” (13 of these animals were re-
corded as calves and were measured) and 13
observations had missing data. Assessing if an
animal was a “calf” could not be quantified,
but it is justified because a superficial look at
the size of an individual indicated if it was
about half the size of a full grown animal.

The daily catch of cetaceans brought into
fishmarkets was monitored in Beruwala (May,

1982- August, 1984), Trincomalee (February,

1983- October, 1984) and Valaichenai (March,
1983-January, 1984). One fisherman in each of
the three harbours agreed to record the num-
ber of odontocetes which were entangled in
gillnets and brought into his habour each day.
This information was returned to me at the
end of each month so as to obtain an estimate
of the number of odontocetes taken annually
off the coast of Sri Lanka. In this exercise,
only a rough calculation could be made due
to the following assumptions:

1 . The average number of odontocetes taken
by 397 3\ and 17^-ton vessels in three
harbours reflects the average number of
odontocetes taken by all 8,850 registered
3\ and 17^-ton vessels in Sri Lanka. Varia-
bility in season or location does not
affect the ayerage rate.

2. Only the registered 3J and 17J-ton vessels
set gillnets which entangle cetaceans.

3 . Differences in mesh size, twine size, colour,

541

6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Fig. 1. Positions of odontocetes sighted from R/V Tulip 1982-1984. The slashed line
is drawn 30 miles from the coast to represent the maximum distance fishermen will
motor to set drift nets. The dotted line is a 1,000 m contour line. Harbours around
the coast of Sri Lanka which were visited to determine if odontocetes were being
taken by fishermen along the north, south, east, and west coasts

ENTRAPMENT OF ODONTOCETES BY DRIFT NET FISHERY

and overall size of gillnets used by fisher-
men does not influence the rate of take.

To obtain an estimate of the number of
animals which may be killed annually by
vessels operating out of all the harbours in Sri
Lanka, I used the equation:

N = RxB x 12 months, where
N = the total estimated number of odontocetes
killed annually in Sri Lanka,

R = the rate (average number of dolphins
taken by 3J and IT^-ton vessels per month
in Beruwala, Trincomalee, and Valai-
chenai), and

B = The number of registered 3\ and 17J-ton
vessels in Sri Lanka.

dolphin, Stenella longirostris (40%), Risso’s
Dolphin, Grampus griseus (17%), spotted dol-
phin, Stenella cf. Stenella attenuata (13%),
striped dolphin, Stenella coeruleoalba (8%),
bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops sp. (7%), pygmy
killer whale, Feresa . attenuata (4%), dwarf
sperm whale, Kogia simus (4%), rough-tooth-
ed dolphin, Steno bredadensis (4%), false killer
whale, Pseudorea crassidens (1%), Cuvier’s
beaked whale, Ziphius cavirostris (1%), and
an unidentified beaked whale (1%). It appears
that Kogia brevicauda, pygmy sperm whale
(Leather wood 1984), and Orcaella brevirostris,
Irrawaddy dolphin, may also be taken inciden-
tally in gillnets (Joseph et al. 1983).

Results and Discussion

l, Incidental take of small cetaceans by

traditional arid modern mechanized vessels.
While working in fishing harbours for two
days in 1982, 48 days in 1983 and 18 days
in 1984, I saw 72 odontocetes brought into fish
markets. Of these animals, all were identified,
52 were measured, sexed, or photographed,
and six skulls were collected and sent to the
Smithsonian Institution. The ten different species
which I identified (Table 1) were spinner

Table 1

The relative frequencies of odontocetes observed
in Sri Lankan fish markets in 1982, 1983
and 1984

Species

Frequency of
observations

%

Stenella longirostris

40

Grampus griseus

17

Stenella cf. Stenella attenuata

13

Stenella coeruleoalba

8

Tursiops spp.

7

Feresa attenuata

4

Kogia simus

4

Steno bredadensis

4

Pseudorea crassidens

1

Ziphius cavirostris

1

200

0 1
Z
<
Ld
CJ

H<

Ld

O

<

(/)

Ll.

o

or.

Ld

CD

iso-

ioo-

Legend

EZ3 1982
m 1983
□0 1984

MONTHS

Fig. 2. The number of small cetaceans entangled in
gillnets and brought into Beruwala Harbour, May
1982-December 1984,

Beruwala was monitored for 28 months
(1982-1984), Trincomalee for 23 consecutive

543

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

00

Z

<

LiJ

o

UJ

o

<

cn

Ll.

o

Of

LjJ

CD

2

z

V ^ /O

•s’ ^ # o° ^

MONTHS

Fig. 3. The number of small cetaceans entangled in
gillnets and brought into Trincomalee Harbour,
February 1983-December 1984.

months (1983-1984), and Valaichenai for 11
consecutive months (1973-1984). The number
of odontocetes taken each month in these
three harbours is illustrated in Figs. 2, 3, & 4.
Of the harbours I visited around the island
(Fig. 1), fishermen in each harbour take odon-
tocetes accidentally in gillnets. It appears, then,
that the incidental catch of cetaceans occurs
along the entire coast of Sri Lanka and is not
a problem only on the east and west coasts.

Thus, these data suggest that 38,000 dolphins
could be killed by the 3| & 17^-ton vessels
operating off the coast of Sri Lanka each
year: This estimate, however, must be recog-
nized as a necessary, but preliminary, step in
assessing the impact gillnet fisheries has on
odontocete mortality in Sri Lanka.

The catch of odontocetes appears to be
seasonal, increasing during the spring and fall
and decreasing slightly during the winter and
summer. This fluctuation is probably a result
of the monsoon winds. Between the northeast
and southwest monsoon seasons, the seas are
calm and fishing effort increases. It would be
expected, then, that the number of cetaceans
entangled in nets would increase when more
boats are fishing offshore during the months of
March. April, May, October, and November.
In general. Figs. 2, 3 & 4 show a slight in-
crease in the number of animals taken during
these inter-monsoon periods.

The average number of odontocetes taken
per month for each harbour and for each boat

Fig. 4. The number of small cetaceans entangled in
gillnets and brought into Valaichenai Harbour,
March 1983-January 1984.

544

ENTRAPMENT OF ODONTOCETES BY DRIFT NET FISHERY

is listed in Table 2. Valaichenai and Trinco-
malee (two harbours on the east coast) take
an average of 0.156 dolphins per boat each
month whereas Beruwala (a harbour on the
west coast) takes an average of 0.559 dolphins
per boat each month. Trincomalee, the largest
harbour in Sri Lanka, may have been one of

from the 3J and 17^ ton vessels. Spinner (34%)
and Risso’s (23%) dolphins were the most
abundant species seen within 30 miles (48 km)
of Sri Lanka’s coastline.

Overall, there appeared to be a correlation
between the frequency that a species was seen
in a fishmarket and its relative abundance in

Table 2

The number of odontocetes that were brought into fishmarkets was monitored in Beruwala,
Trincomalee and Valaichenai during 1982, 1983and 1984. This table lists the number of registered
AND 171-ton vessels, the number of odontocetes taken per month per harbour and per month

PER BOAT FOR EACH OF THE THREE HARBOURS

Average # dolphins Average # dolphins Number of

taken per month taken per month 3| and 1 Ti-

per harbour

per boat

ton vessels

Harbours

1982

1983

1984

1982

1983

1984

1981

Beruwala

42

74.5

93.1

0.336

0.596

0.745

125

Trincomalee

—

32.5

25.8

—

0.163

0.129

200

Valaichenai

—

12.8

—

—

0.178

—

72

the first areas to provide fishermen with syn-
thetic gillnets. It is possible that there are fewer
odontocetes on the east coast because popula-
tions have been subjected to incidental ex-
ploitation for a longer period of time. Alter-
natively, the difference in the number of ani-
mals taken in each harbour may simply reflect
the ecology of the area or the types of gear
used (e.g. Beruwala fishermen may be using
nets that are newer and hence more effective).

2 . Offshore sightings.

While working off the coast of Sri Lanka
(1982-1984), the crew of R/V Tulip recorded
sightings of cetaceans. The frequency that
these different species were seen at sea is list-
ed in Table 3 and the position of each sight-
ing is illustrated in Fig. 1. The slashed line
in this figure is drawn 30 miles (48 km) from
the coast to indicate the maximum distance
fishermen will motor offshore to set drift nets

Table 3

The relative frequency with which each species

WAS SEEN OFF THE COAST OF SRI LANKA, JANUARY

through May (1982-1984). The total number of
SIGHTINGS WAS 126

Species

February, 1982-May, 1984
(%)

Spinner dolphin

34%

Risso’s Dolphin

23%

Bottlenose Dolphin

14%

Spotted Dolphin

9%

Striped Dolphin

9%

Common Dolphin

2%

Pygmy Killer Whale

2%

False Killer Whale

2%

Pilot Whale

2%

Southern bottlenose whale

2%

Fraser’s dolphin

1%

coastal waters where nets are set. Points of
difference could be largely due to a bias in
sampling techniques (e.g., there was no stan-

545

JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 85

dard offshore survey conducted to obtain in-
formation about the distribution and abun-
dance of cetaceans, and observations of
odontocetes brought into the fishmarkets were
made almost entirely in only one harbour,
Trincomalee). In addition, the ability to detect
animals at sea may vary between species, and
behavioural or physiological traits may also
affect the likelihood that a species will become
entangled in a net. For example, Pilleri, Gihr
& Kraus (1981) suggested that the directivity
of the frontal sector of a dolphin’s sonar field
is different for each species which may enable
some species to detect nets more easily than
others. Pryor & Norris (1978) contend that
some Stenella species are particularly ‘high-
strung, active, and nervous’ and in comparison
with other cetacean species (in particular the
bottlenose dolphin) they are ‘behaviourally
maladaptive to obstacles’.

The frequency that calves were seen out of
a total of 57 animals is listed in Table 4. The
high percentage of spinner (52%), Risso’s
(100%), and spotted (75%) dolphin calves
that are taken may be of grave concern. Such
high infant mortality could depress the re-
cruitment rate which would be of serious con-
cern for populations that are already depleted.
Reasons for a high calf mortality are not
known, and may simply be dependent upon
the fact that fishing effort increases during the
inter-monsoonal periods which may coincide
with peak calving periods. For example, if the
spinner and spotted dolphins off the coast of
Sri Lanka have similar fall and spring calving
peaks as Pacific populations (Norris & Dohl
1980, Perrin 1976), then these peaks would
coincide with the calm, inter-monsoonal seasons
(February-March and September-November) .
It would be expected, then, that a large percent
of calves would be caught, especially if a
period of growth is needed before a calf
develops physiological mechanisms to avoid

nets or learns to adapt behaviourally as shown
to occur with Pacific spinner and spotted
dolphins in purse-seine nets (Pryor & Kang
1978).

On the other hand, complex social struc-
tures within herds may affect the probability
that a particular age class will be taken. Pryor
& Kang (1978) found that individual aggre-
gations of spinner and spotted dolphins were
not disrupted when the animals were entrapped
by purse-seine nets and that large aggregations
were often composed of groups of animals
stratified by age. Their findings are interesting
because observations #5, 7, and 8 (appendix
1) are all of calves taken in a single net with-
out adults being entangled as well. As a
corollary to this. 8 large spotted dolphins were
taken in one net (#9) without the presence
of a single calf. Are these observations com-
pletely random, or are they indicative of some
social structure within a group? It is also
curious that spotted and spinner dolphin calves
were found in a single net (#7) as well as
Risso’s dolphins and pygmy killer whales
(#4). If the different species were not school-
ing together, one would expect that the pre-
sence of a dead animal in a net would deter
a herd of cetaceans from approaching, or at
least alert them to danger. Will the entrap-
ment of one animal, then, increase the chance
that others will be atracted to it consequently,
causing them to be caught? Such observations
are curious, but at present it is not known
what effect the behaviour, herd structure, dis-
tribution, and feeding ecology may have on
odontocete entrapment in gillnets.

3. Incidental catch by non-mechanized
vessels.

There is an incidental catch of odontocetes
by the traditional, non-mechanized vessels, but
I was unable to determine its extent. Once
while walking along a beach in Trincomalee at

546

ENTRAPMENT OF ODONTOCETES BY DRIFT NET FISHERY

dusk, I saw three severed dolphin heads near
two beached canoes. Although I am not posi-
tive that these particular animals were brought
onto shore by fishermen who use these boats,
I was told by fishermen that men working
from traditional vessels do catch dolphins in
nets.

4. Incidental catch by trawlers.

The managers of the Trincomalee and
Kalpitiya Ceylon Seafoods Corporation did not
know how many dolphins were caught a year
by their fishermen, because the dolphins are
seldom brought back to shore. A dolphin
that is entangled in a net which is deployed
from a trawler at night, will be used the next
day for long line bait or it will be discarded
because the storage space is needed for the
harvest of commercial fish. Each manager
estimated that a total of 200 or more dolphins
are taken while the vessels are working in
their respective harbours. Trincomalee has 5-6
trawlers working offshore during a 4-5 month
period, which would suggest that each trawler
catches approximately 6.6-10 odontocetes per
month which is about 1,100-1,700 odontocetes
per year.

Table 4

The frequency (%) that calves were seen in

THE FISHMARKETS: (NUMBER OF ANIMALS RECORDED

AS calves/the NUMBER OF ANIMALS WHICH
APPEARED TO BE FULL GROWN)

Number of

Species calves/total number

Spinner Dolphin

of observations
52% (11/21)

Spotted Dolphin

75%

(6/8)

Striped Dolphin

20%

d/5)

Bottlenose Dolphin

0%

(0/3)

Risso’s Dolphin

100%

(12/12)

Dwarf Sperm Whale

0%

(0/2)

Rough Toothed Dolphin

0%

(0/3)

False Killer Whale

0%

(0/1)

Cuvier’s beaked whale

100%

(1/D

The extent to which cetaceans are taken
5. Direct Fisheries.

directly by fishermen is questionable. Although
some fishermen harpoon dolphins, the catch
does not appear to be extensive, nor is it a
question of subsistence hunting, because the
meat is not used for the survival of a commu-
nity and the hunt is only practised by a few.
Of the 72 cetaceans that I observed in fish
markets, only four had deep wounds. It was
unclear in my discussions with fishermen, how-
ever, if they had actually killed the animal
or if the marks were made while the men
hoisted it on to their boats with the help of
a gaff or spear. Since there is little commercial
incentive to kill dolphins, fishermen appa-
rently hunt them only for sport or shark bait.
I was told that Hindu and Buddhist fishermen
do not hunt cetaceans and such skills will only
be practised by Catholic and Muslim people.

In 1982, the crew of R/V Tulip witnessed
a dolphin hunt while working offshore near a
fishing village, Negombo (7°17'N, 79°40'E).
We were following a school of Risso’s dol-
phins, when two fishing boats approached us
returning towards Negombo at 0830. Hand
harpoons were brought out on both vessels and
unsuccessful attempts made at harpooning the
dolphins. On 15 March, 1983, a Cuvier’s
beaked whale calf was brought into the Trin-
comalee market with two large holes in the
lower jaw and many smaller holes around the
head and on the back in front of its dorsal fin.
One man explained that fishermen actively take
“these” animals during the months of March,
April, and May for shark bait. “These” is in
quotes because I could not establish if he
referred only to the larger, beaked whales, or
included other odontocetes as well. He estimat-
ed that there are ten boats which work out of
Trincomalee Harbour that actively hunt these
animals, killing 1-2 every three days for shark
bait. Therefore, these boats may take 30-60

547

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vat. 85

animals outside Trincomalee Harbour dur-
ing the spring. Since there are 200 boats in
Trincomalee town, ten boats represent 5%
participation of fishermen directly killing ceta-
ceans during the spring season.

6. Habitat Modification.

Populations of cetaceans off the coast of
Sri Lanka may be threatened not only by in-
direct and direct exploitation, but also by
habitat modification. As Sri Lanka becomes
more industrialized, marine pollution (organic,
inorganic and noise) will increase. Trincomalee
Harbour is a good example of such changes.
Undoubtedly it will become a major inter-
national and national port in the future. In
addition, the largest river in Sri Lanka, the
Mahaweli Ganga, flows northeast into Trinco-
malee harbour. This river, recently dammed
to irrigate inland dry zones, now carries a vast
amount of sediment and fertilizer. This murky
plume entends out beyond Trincomalee har-
bour into the sea, directly altering the marine
environment. For species that utilize these
inshore waters, this habitat modification may
be adversely affecting local populations.

Conclusion

The incidental entrapment of odontocetes
by drift net fisheries is a global concern with
substantial legal, biological, ethical and admi-
nistrative problems.

Although this study focuses on the inci-
dental entrapment of odontocetes in gillnets
off the coast of Sri Lanka, it is clear that
populations of cetaceans are threatened,
endangered or at least harassed by gillnet
fisheries wherever such nets and these animals
occur together. Since the successful introduc-
tion of synthetic nets by FAO in Sri Lanka,
these nets are now being utilized throughout
the world (Eisenbud 1984). Yet, are these

nets acceptable? Not only are animals (ceta-
ceans, birds, turtles, fish, etc) entangled in
nets while fishermen are using them, but entire
nets, or parts of the gear are also lost at sea
and continue to kill marine life indefinitely
(Wallace 1984).

An international effort must be made to
either replace gillnet fisheries with alternative
fishing techniques, or to change the nets sub-
stantially so that non-target animals will avoid
the nets. Gear experiments are presently being
tested with drift net fisheries to decrease the
incidental catch of Dali’s purpoise, Phocoe r
noides dalli, in salmon gear (Kumagai et al
1983), but more work needs to be done on
an international scale. If we do not alter these
nets or prevent their use, these nets may fish
some populations of marine animals to ex-
tinction. Gillnet fisheries are multispecies
operations. We have a moral obligation to stop
the wasteful, useless and irresponsible catch
of non-target animals by these nets, even if
the consequence is economic loss.

Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to Thunga Prema, E. R.
TranchelL and. S. Kugarajah for their help in
collecting data. Hal Whitehead, Jonathan
Gordon, Martha Smythe, Margo Rice, Nicola
Rotten, Cedric Martenstyn, and the staff at
NARA helped me collect data and ship skulls
to the United States. I thank Dr. Lynn de
Alwis and Mr. Packeer who thoughtfully issu-
ed me an export permit to ship six skulls to
the Smithsonian Institution. I am grateful to
Stephen Leatherwood, Dr. Bernd Wursig, Jona-
than Gordon, Dr. Patricia Moehlman, Dr. Roger
Payne and Dr. Stephen Kellert for reviewing
this manuscript, and to the team at the Centre
of Long Term Research which generously gave
me room in their laboratory to work while

548

ENTRAPMENT OF ODONTOCETES BY DRIFT NET FISHERY

writing this paper. In particular, I thank Dr.
Hiran Jayawardene, Cedric Martenstyn, M.
Narendranath, Brian Lourensz and Rosemarie
Sommers who extended their hospitality to me

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550

SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE COLOUR PATTERNS
OF COCCINELLA SEPTEMPUNCTATA L. (COLEOPTERA,
COCCINELLIDAE) IN NILGIRI HILLS, INDIA1

M. Rhamhalinghan2
( With three text- figures)

The first report on the seasonal melanization in Coccinella septempunctata, found
in Mel Hosahatty, Nilgiris, 2000 m above MSL, is presented. It shows that there
are two peaks of abundance, one extending from June to August and the other from
October to February. Fifteen variations in the colour patterns of the variate confusa
Weidemann have been recorded. The total melanics form about 6.05% of the general
population and the relative frequencies of different patterns of the melanics and
non-melanics (typicals) are presented. It is found from the present study that no single
factor is responsible for the increase in the incidence of melanics, but temperature,
relative humidity and solar radiation have a combined cumulative effect on the
frequency of melanics.

Introduction

Melanism, in insects, appears to arise from
various factors such as temperature, humidity,
sunshine level, altitude, hormones, impairments
in biochemical pathways and specific gene
interactions (Dobzhansky 1933, Oshima et al.
1956, Kapur 1957, Richards and Davies 1972,
Rengston and Hagen 1975, 1977; Ford 1975,
Scali & Creed 1975, Bishop and Cook 1980,
Sheng and Carver 1982). In Coccinellidae, lyco-
pene combined with carotene a and /3 gives
the reddish colour of the elytra (Richards and
Davies 1972). The black pattern of the elytra
is contributed by the localization of melanic
chromogen (Gortner 1911, Tenenbaum 1935,
Danneel 1943).

Dobzhansky and Sivertzev-Dobzhansky (1927)
and Dobzhansky (1933) extensively studied the
geographical variations in C. septempunctata.
Varma (1954) emphasized variations in the
colour patterns to be of great taxonomic value.
He has studied the percentage of variates of

1 Accepted June 1985.

2 Department of Zoology, Government Arts Col-
lege, Udagamandalam, Nilgiris, 643 002, India.

C. septempunctata adults of Kanpur area dur-
ing 1945-1950. Kapur (1959) studied the
colour patterns of C. septempunctata var.
confusa Weid. in the Eastern and Western
Himalayas and the plains of North India.
Sudha Rao (1962) gave an account of the
inheritance of colour patterns in the divaricata
Olive and confusa variates of C. septem-
punctata adults collected from the Northwest
and Eastern Himalayas. Singh and Mann (1977)
gave an account of colour aberrance in C.
septempunctata from the semi-desert areas of
Punjab during 1974-75. Rhamhalinghan and
Manavalaramanujam (1983) reported for the
first time the occurrence of C. septempunctata
var. confusa in the Nilgiri Hills, South India.
But the survey of Coccinellid literature shows
that no work has been done on the seasonal
variations in the colour patterns of C. septem-
punctata var. confusa. This is the first report
on the seasonal melanization and their peak
incidence.

Material and Methods
C. septempunctata were collected from Mel

551

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 85

Hosahatty, Nilgiris area at altitude of about
2000 m above MSL from 1979 to 1982. In
the field studies, two peaks of abundance of
these populations are met with, once during
October-February and the other during June-
August. The species is rare in March, April,
May and September due to lack of suitable
cultivation and vegetation, resulting in the non-
availability of aphids. It is a multivoltine
species in this area.

Random population surveys were made in
the fields and the specimens were grouped
according to the degree of confluence of the
elytral spots. The number of individuals in
each group were recorded and the different
elytral patterns are drawn.

The temperature, relative humidity and rain-
fall have been recorded throughout the period
of this study to investigate the effects, if any,
of these factors on the appearance of the
variates under study.

In the laboratory, the melanics and the non-
melanics were reared (Fig. 1) in transparent
plastic containers of 7 cm diameter and 3 cm
height with enough small pores on the lid for

Fig. 1 . The melanic (m) and the non-melanic typical
(t) forms of C. septempunctata.

gaseous exchange. Li pap his erysimi Kalt. were
provided as food ad libitum. The results of
observations made during 1980-81 only are
discussed in this paper, and the data of other
periods of study are presented wherever
necessary.

Results

In C. septempunctata L., the ground colour
of the elytra is orange yellow and the aged
insects acquire a crimson red colour. About
65% of the beetles collected were orange yellow
and 35% crimson red in colour.

In the typical insect the first elytral spot
is seen below the pronotum. The second and
fourth spots are located on the lines externa
one below the other, and the third spot is
situated on the lines interna slightly inferior
to the second spot as already reported by
Varma (1954), (Fig. 2, Type 23).

Fig. 2 shows the elytral colour patterns in
many population samples of C. septempunctata
var. confusa, from various localities of Mel
Hosahatty area. But the pronotal pattern is

l £34 S 6

8 9 10 11 12

13 14 IS 16 17 18

Fig. 2. C. septempunctata — variations in the colour
patterns of the elytra. Types 1-7 — size variations
of spots in the typical forms; types 8-22 — elytral
patterns of var. confusa Weid.

552

VARIATIONS IN COLOUR PATTERN OF C. SEPTEMPUNCTATA

more or less constant. In the Nilgiris, so far
15 variations in the colour patterns of C.
septempunctata var. confusa have been re-
corded (Fig. 2, Types 8-22). In the typical
forms collected, the size of the spots varies
considerably and seven forms occur during the
two peak seasons (types 1-7). They form the
bulk of the total population (Table 1). Though

collected during 1980-81 were 228 out of a
total of 3771 specimens.

The monthly occurrence of the C. septem-
punctata var. confusa Weid. is shown in Table
2. It is seen that only during winter does the
frequency of melanics increase, but not in
spring or in summer. During June and July
too there is a slight increase in the incidence

Table 1

Relative frequencies of different patterns of the typicals of C. septempunctata collected during

1981 in Mel Hosahatty, Nilgiris area

Months Type:

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Total

1981

January

177

108

94

78

413

1

1

872

February

115

13

28

30

98

-

-

284

March

5

2

5

4

8

-

-

24

April

4

-

1

1

7

-

13

May

1

4

2

3

6

—

-

16

June

40

37

60

13

65

-

-

215

July

105

94

13

28

81

-

-

321

August

5

4

4

9

46

-

-

68

September

7

10

18

8

13

-

-

56

October

9

16

51

16

74

-

-

166

November

151

113

107

168

213

1

1

754

December

194

178

62

151

168

-

1

754

Total

813

579

445

509

1192

2

3

3543

Percentage

21.56

15.35

11.80

13.50

31.61

0.05

0.08

93.95

several kinds of

patterns may be formed by

Of C.

septempunctata

melanics.

The

data

the confluence of two or

more spots.

the pre-

accumulated on

the other periods

of

study

sent study from

1979 to

1982 shows that not

(1979-80 & 1981-82) did

not show

any signi-

all of them occur

during ;

a particular sampling

ficant

increase

in their

populations

during

period viz., a period of one year, in

a parti-

those periods.

cular locality. This is in agreement with the
statement of Kapur (1959), “the frequencies
of patterns in a given species often differ in
different areas and occasionally a pattern
common in an area may be rare or absent
in another area”.

As such, the total melanics form 6.05% of
the general population. The total melanics

The typical C. septempunctata occur through-
out the year. Yet one can find that the type
5 (fig. 2) with largest spots occurs abundantly
during the peak seasons (31.61%). Next
comes type 1, which forms about 21.56%
of the total population. Type 2 occupies the
third place (15.35%), type 4, fourth (13.50%)
and type 3 fifth place (11.80%). Types 6

553

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

i

Q OO

1 2

I O

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Percentage 0.32 0.03 0.13 0.24 0.05 0.05 0.58 0.13 0.11 0.03 0.16 1.11 0.90 1.03 1.17 93.95 - 6.05

VARIATIONS IN COLOUR PATTERN OF C. SEPTEMPUNCTATA

and 7 are very rare. Table 1 gives the inci-
dence of typical forms. A comparison of the
incidence of melanics from different areas in
India is given in Table 3.

total area of spots decreases by 30 to 55%
when temperature increases from 20°C to
35 °C. He has also cited evidence for the in-
crease in pigmentation with the humidity of

Table 3

Incidence of melanics in different parts of India

Area

Year of study

Total speci-
mens examined

Percentage
of melanics

Authority

Kanpur

1945-50

1072

19.55%

Varma B. K. (1954)

E. Himalaya

1959

792

22.98%

Kapur A. P. (1959)

W. Himalaya
Plains of

1959

178

10.68%

11 11

North India

1959

230

6.09%

11 11

Nilgiris

1981

3771

6.05%

Rhamhalinghan &

M anavalaramanujam
(1983)

According to Varma (1954), the melanics
form 19.59% of the general population in the
Kanpur area, which is noted for its extreme
cold winter, which could be a major factor
for the occurrence of the C. septempunctata
L. var. ccmfusa Weid. as in the Himalayan
areas.

Discussion

According to Prosser (1973), temperature
appears to influence the colouration of many
animals significantly. Though the colour and
colour patterns are genetically determined, their
manifestation is largely determined by tem-
perature (Sheng & Carver 1982). Seasonal
temperature-dependent colour variation has
been reported in Orthoptera, Phasmida, Hete-
roptera, Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera
(Richards & Davies 1965, Wigglesworth 1973,
Sheng & Carver 1982).

Hodek (1973) states that manifestation of
genes may also be influenced by temperature,
i.e. either through hereditary or somatic fac-
tors. In Epilachna chrysomeline Fabr. the

the region. It is also said that pigmentation
merely coincides with changes in the physio-
logical processes of the organisms.

According to Dobzshansky (1959) pigmen-
tation increases in humid and cool climates
and decreases in dry and hot climates, the
humidity being apparently far more effective
than temperature. Lusis (1961) agrees with
Dobzshansky (1959) in that high humidity
may influence the appearance of melanic
forms.

The results of the present study proves the
statement of Dobzshansky. During the winter
between November nnd February the relative
humidity ranges from 82 to 86%. During this
three-month period, the temperature is found
to be very low. (Mean max. 20.6°C: mean
min. 7.8°C) (Fig. 3). Humidity and low tem-
perature might have produced melanism in
these insects. During the summer months the
comparatively high temperatures (mean max.
25.7°C: mean min. 10.1°C: mean RH 75%)
and low humidity result in the absence of the
melanics. Yet, around July the relative humi-
dity (82 to 92%) is equally high and it coin-

555

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

tides with the occurrence of the melanic forms
(Fig. 3). Studies made in the previous years
(1979-80) also showed similar incidence.

JJAsonojfmam

MONTHS

Fig. 3. Histogram showing the relationship between
melanic frequency, relative humidity, and temperature.

It has been reported by Lusis (1961) and
Benham et al. (1974) that a decrease in the
total amount of sunshine favours melanics.
From June to August, when the southwest
monsoon is active, the sky is cloudy and misty
which inhibits the intensity of light, sometimes
continuously for the whole period or for at least
some 60 to 70 days. The same conditions also
prevail during the northeast monsoon. Almost
continuous torrential rain, and high humidity
of the atmosphere during October inhibit the
light intensity. For most of the days the sky
in winter is also cloudy. The ultraviolet radia-
tion is thus reduced to almost undetectable
levels. But Nayar (1977) has stated that at
high altitudes, the effect of cosmic rays in-
duces black pigmentation in such insects as
Eristalis tenax L.

Moreover, during monsoon periods the
average rainfall increases. The rainfall, the
low sunshine level, and high humidity might

be the causative factors for the appearance of
melanics.

But during 1982, the failure of southwest
monsoon created a much favourable, condition
and due to the significantly low rainfall, the
mortality of the coccinellids was reduced and

he population size suddenly increased during
June, July and August. Yet, during this period
the sky was cloudy and misty. The low tempe-
rature, decrease in the amount of sunshine
and the increase in humidity resulted in the
appearance of large number of confusa variate
in this period also.

Though the average monthly temperature
during 1981 shot up to 24.1°C maximum and
the minimum temperature was 6.7°C, in the
previous years the temperature recorded was
lower than this. Singh & Mann (1976) suggest
that severe hot climatic effects (i.e. less humi-
dity and more heat) bring about melanization
as well as scarcity in spotting pigmentation.
This statement is contradictory to the present
observation and to the arguments of most of
the authors.

Muggleton et al. (1975) suggested that the
melanics of A. bi punctata have greater ability
to absorb solar radiation. This advantage may
be important in cooler and less sunny environ-
ments. Moreover, their experiments showed
that the melanic morphs have higher internal
temperatures and greater activity than the
typical morphs. A similar condition exists in
the nymphs of Locusta migratoria migrato-
rioides. The development of the black pig-
ments leads to increased activity in the
nymphs of gregaria (Richards & Davies 1965).
Since these nymphs absorb more radiant heat,
their internal body temperature is higher than
the green and brownish solitaria nymphs.

In the field, one can readily observe that
the melanics of C. septempunctata are so active
that it is difficult to handle them alive. Even

556

VARIATIONS IN COLOUR PATTERN OF C. SEPTEMPUNCTATA

in laboratory studies they are found to be
extremely active.

Altitude is another factor involved in the
melanic frequency (Kapur 1957, Nayar 1977).
In his work on the populations of Adonia
variegata Goeze at different altitudes, Kapur
( loc . cit. ) has shown that the melanic pig-
mentation of populations distinctly increases
with the altitude. The results of the present
study support the views of Kapur. The plains
of North India, with their latitude and
Nilgiri Hills with their altitude, do not show
a great difference in the percentage of mela-
nics, as shown in Table 3.

The conclusions and interpretations pre-
sented in this paper are based on the data
available for this particular locality and the
results of most of the works show that low
temperature, high humidity, high altitude and
low sunshine level are some of the causative
factors increasing melanism (see the reviews
by Prosser 1973, Ananthakrishnan & Viswa-
nathan 1976, Kapur 1957, 1959; Dobzhansky
1933, 1959; Richards & Davies 1965, Hodek
1973, Wigglesworth 1973). But there are con-
troversial and conflicting statements from
several authors (Nayar 1977, Singh & Mann
1977, review by Muggleton 1978).

The veracity of these interpretations might
not be questioned or rejected, since the mela-
nic frequency of a population is the result of
the interaction of a number of selective factors
(Muggleton 1978). Further, the influence of
these environmental factors may vary geogra-
phically (Bengtson & Hagen 1977) and no
one can expect any uniform trend in their
action. Moreover, the percentage of melanics

Refe

Ananthakrishnan, T. N. A. & V iswanathan, T,
R. (1976) : General Animal Ecology, 324 pp. Mac-
millan Co. Ltd.

Bengtson, S. A. & Hagen, R. (1975): Polymor-

in an area may vary from time to time, depend-
ing on the conditions of the abiotic factors,
and there are also individual variations among
the melanics. This clearly shows that melani-
zation depends upon the physiological condi-
tions of the individuals concerned and they
respond differently to similar or diverse
environmental conditions. Thus most, or a few,
members of a population in a given area, may
not react to the influence of any one factor
or cumulative influence of several factors. Yet,
in some forms any one of the factors is suffi-
cient to trigger the pattern formation, as proved
experimentally in Aphidius smithi (Sheng &
Carver 1982).

However, the present study has shown
that more than one factor is responsible for
melanization and all the environmental changes
have a cumulative effect on the frequency of
the melanics. It is unfortunate that the occur-
rence of the melanics from various regions of
India have not yet been studied. A similar
study, when undertaken in other localities in
the Indian subcontinent, might well throw
more light on the biology and ethology of
these beetles.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Dr. J. I. V. Jayapaul and
Prof. R. Venkataramanan for reading and
commenting on drafts of this paper. Thanks
are also due to Messrs. C. Radhakrishnan and
S. Sivaraj for their help in the collection and
rearing of the specimens throughout the period
of this study.

EN CES

phism in the two-spot ladybird Adalia bipunctata
L. in western Norway. Oikos, 26: 328-331.

— (1977) : Melanism in

the two-spot ladybird Adalia bipunctata in relation

557

7

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HAST . SOCIETY, Vol. 85

to climate in western Norway. Oikos, 28: 16-19.

Benham, B. R., Lonsdale, D. & Muggleton, J.
(1974): Is polymorphism in two-spot ladybird an
example of non-industrial melanism? Nature, Lon-
don, 249: 179-180.

Bishop, J. A. & Cook, L. M. (1980): Industrial
melanism and the urban environment. Adv. Ecol.
Res., 11: 373-404.

Danneel, R. (1943): Melaninbildende Fermente
bei Drosophila melanogaster. Biol. Zentr 63: 377-
394.

Dobzhansky, Th. (1933) : Geographical variation
in lady beetles. Amer. Nat., 67: 97-126.

— (1959) : Genetics and the origin

of species. 3rd Edition. Columbia University Press.
N. York.

Dobzhansky, Th. & Sivertzev-Dobzhansky, N. P.
(1927) : Die geographische variabilitat von C. septem-
punctata L. Biol. Zentr., 47: 556-569.

Ford, E. B. (1975): Ecological Genetics. 4th
Edition. Chapman & Hall, London.

Gortner, R. A. (1911): Studies on melanin. (4)
The origin of the pigment and the colour pattern
in the elytra of the Colorado potato beetle. Amer.
Nat., 45: 743-755.

Hodek, I. (1973) : Biology of Coccinellidae. 260
pp. Dr. W. Junk N. V. Publishers. The Hague.

Kapur, A. P. (1957): Variation in the colour
pattern of certain ladybird beetles from high alti-
tudes in the Himalayas. Bull. Nat. Inst. Sci., India,
9: 269-273.

(1959) : Geographical variations in

the colour patterns of some Indian lady beetles.
Part I. Coccinella septempunctata L.: C. transversalis
Fabr., and Coelophora bisellata Muls. Proc. 1st All
India Congr. Zool., Part II: 479-492.

Lusis, J. J. (1961): On the biological meaning
of colour polymorphism of lady beetle Adalia bi~
punctata L. Latv. Ent., 4: 3-29.

Muggleton, J. (1978): Selection against the

melanic morphs of Adalia bipunctata L. A review
and some new data. Heredity, 40 : 268-290.

Muggleton, J., Lonsdale, D. & Benham, B. R.
(1975) : Melanism in Adalia bipunctata L. and its
relationship to atmospheric pollution. J. Appl. Ecol.,
12: 451-464.

Nayar, J. L. (1977): Abnormal teratology in
Eristalis tenax L. from Libya and India. Orient In-
sects, 11: 639-642.

Oshima, C., Seki, T. & Ishizaki, H. (1956):
Studies on the mechanism of pattern formation in
the elytra of lady beetles. Genetics, 41: 4-20.

Prosser, L. C. (Ed.) (1973) : Comparative Ani-
mal Physiology. 3rd Edition, 966 pp. W. B. Saunders
Co., Philadelphia.

Rhamhalinghan, M. & Manavalaramanujam, R.
(1983) : First report on the occurrence of Cocci-
nella septempunctata L. var. confusa Weid. from
Nilgiris. India Zool., 7: 211-214.

Richards, O. W. & Davies, R. G. (1965): Imm’s
General Text book of Entomology. ELBS, London.

886 pp.

Scali, V. & Creed, E. R. (1975) : The influence
of climate on melanism in the two spot ladybird,
Adalia bipunctata L. in Central Italy. Trans. R.
Ent. Soc. Lond. 127: 163-169.

Sheng, L. S. & Carver, M. (1982) : The effect of
temperature on the adult integumental colouration
of Aphidius smithi. Ent. exp. & appl., 32: 54-60.

Singh, J. P. & Mann, J. S. (1977): Colour aber-
rance in Coccinella septempunctata L. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc., 74: 202-204.

Sudha Rao, V. (1962): The status of Cocci-
nella septempunctata L. and its variates divaricata
Oliv. and confusa Weid. Can. Ent., 94: 1341-1343.

Tenenbaum, E. (1935): Development of coloura-
tion in elytra: Epilachna (Col. Coccin.). Arch. Entw.
Mech., 132: 42-56.

Varma, B. K. (1954) : Evolution of colour pattern
in Coccinella septempunctata L. var. divaricata Oliv.
Indian J. Agric. Sci., 24: 133-136.

Wigglesworth, V. B. (1973): The principles of
Insect Physio^gy. ELBS, 7th Edition, 827 pp.

558

FIELD BIOLOGY OF NESOKIA IND1CA WITH
REFERENCE TO ORCHARDS OF BALUCHISTAN

(PAKISTAN)1

Afsar Mian2

The biology of 122 individuals of Nesokia indica trapped from orchards . of
Quetta, Pishin, Zhob, Loralai and Khuzdar is analysed from distribution of age
structure, sex and reproductive parameters in three seasons (autumn, winter and
spring). The results indicate that the population is balanced with regard to sex,
though males/females in higher age classes show differential activity levels. Females
are re productively active throughout the year with a reproductive .peak in spring
and summer. The species appears to be a less prolific breeder in the area.

Introduction

The Short-tailed Bandicoot Rat or the Short-
tailed Mole Rat, Nesokia indica Gray and
Hardwicke, 1852, is known from various distri-
butional and biological notes from Iran (Lay
1967), Iraq (Walker et al. 1964), southern
Sind (Wagle 1927, Fulk and Khokhar 1977),
and Faisalabad (Taber et al 1967, Begum and
Beg 1980, Roberts 1977). Roberts (1974)
associated this species with irrigated planta-
tions. Apropos to our survey of the vertebrate
pests of orchards of Baluchistan, which indi-
cated that N. indica is a significant pest to
orchard plantation in highland desert valleys
(Mian et al 1988a, 1988b), we became inte-
rested in the ecology of the species, which has
been neglected in the area. The paper attempts
at reporting some preliminary data on the
biology of this important pest with relevance
to Baluchistan (Pakistan).

Material and Methods

122 individuals of N. indica were captured
between October, 1983 and May, 1984 from
orchards of Quetta (74), Khuzdar (1), Kuch-

1 Accepted February 1986,

2 Department of Zoology, University of Baluchi-
stan, Quetta, Pakistan. Present address : Bahauddin
Zakaria University, New Campus, Multan, Pakistan.

lag (12), Pishin (11), Bund Khushdil Khan
(2), Gulistan (14), Zhob (7), and Loralai (1)
by steel snap traps (size 17.5 x 9.5 cm.) bait-
ed with pieces of apple. Each of the trapped
animals was injected 1-5 ml of commercial
grade formaline (saturated solution of for-
maldehyde) through intraperitoneal route.
Different samples were bagged in cellophane
bags and brought back to the laboratory for
further analysis. As all the individuals were
collected from the areas sharing similar physi-
cal and biotic conditions, the data was pooled
for further analysis of various biological para-
meters of the species concerned in relevance
to orchards of the highland deserts of Balu-
chistan.

Each individual was sexed and weighed
(up to 0.1 g by using Ohios single pan
balance). The data was analysed for the dis-
tribution of males and females in different
regional/seasonal samples and in different age
groups. The weight classes, representing diffe-
rent ages (juvenile, less than 80 g; early adult,
81-130 g; adulf 131-170 g; older adult, more
than 170 g) were adopted from Begum and Beg
(1980). Each female was checked for open/
plugged nature of vagina, for spotting any
recent mating. The uteri were physically exa-
mined for pregnancy status and for uterine

559

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

scars, as an indication of recent pregnancy.
The embryos, wherever present, were weighed
upto 0.1 g. The number of mammary glands
and their lactating status was recorded visually.
In males, the gonadal status was recorded.

Statistical analysis was carried out follow-
ing appropriate methods outlined by Sokal &
Rohlf (1969).

Results

(1) Sex Ratio : Table 1 presents data re-
garding the distribution of males and females
in different areas, seasons, age classes and in
the overall sample of the species. The sex
ratio of 1:1 is maintained in the overall sam-
ple of the species. The data suggests that ex-
cept for Loralai and Khuzdar (very low trap

Table 1

Distribution of males and females in N. indica,

SAMPLED FROM DIFFERENT AREAS, SEASONS AND IN
DIFFERENT AGE CLASSES

Male

Female

Sex ratio
(Male:
Female)

Area

Quetta

33

41

0.80:1

Pishin

23

16

1.44:1

Zhob

5**

2**

2.50:1

Loralai

—

1*

—

Khuzdar

1*

—

—

Season

Autumn

22

26

0.85:1

Winter

22

17

1.29:1

Spring

16

19

0.84:1

Age Class

Juvenile

7

4

1.75:1

Early Adult

22

24

0.92:1

Adult

14f

25 f

0.56:1

Older adiflt

19ft

7ft

2.71:1

Total

60

62

1.03:1

* Number of specimens trapped is low and hence
cannot be subjected to statistical analysis.

**Not significant using Yate’s correction for conti-
nuity.

tChiHi) = 3.1026 ttChisQ = 5.4146.

success indicating a very low population
level), the population is balanced with respect
to the distribution of the two sexes, in different
geographic localities. It is also obvious that a
normal sex ratio is maintained in the three
seasonal samples (autumn, winter, spring). The
males and females appear to be equally dis-
tributed in juvenile and early adult classes;
however, the sex ratio is grossly skewed in
the two higher age classes, i.e., adults (in favour
of females) and older adults (in favour of
males).

(2) Age Structure : The distribution of diffe-

rent age classes in three seasonal, and the
pooled, samples is presented in Table 2. It
suggests the relative preponderance of early
adult (37.72%), adult (30.06%) and older
adult (22.47%) classes and a relative scarcity
of juveniles (9.75%), in the total sample.
However, it appears that there is a gradual
increase in the representation of juvenile class
from autumn (5.41%) to winter (9.57%)
and spring (14.29%). A similar trend
seems to be followed in the class, represent-
ed by 19.41%, 30.29% and 40.48%

in autumn, winter and spring respectively. The
early adult class dominates the autumn
(50.73%) and winter (51.00%) samples, but
its representation decreases sharply in spring
(11.43%). The proportionate representation
of the older adult class has a marked decrease
in winter sample (9.14%).

(3) Reproduction : The data on the repro-
ductive status of 60 females, in different sea-
sons and age classes, is presented in Table 3.
The table suggests that females with visible
pregnancy are present in all the seasonal sam-
ples, suggesting that females remain sexually
active throughout the year. However, there is
a higher proportion of the females with visible
ovaries in spring (69.3%), followed by winter
(46.0%) and autumn (7.5%). Similarly, the
proportion of females with visible signs of

560

BIOLOGY OF NESOKIA INDICA

Table 2

Distribution of four age classes (percentile) in different seasons in N. indica

Season

No.

Age class

Juvenile

Early Adult

Adult

Older Adult

Autumn

48

5.41

50.73

19.41

24.45

Winter

39

9.57

51.00

30.29

9.14

Spring

35

14.29

11.43

40.48

33.82

Total

122

9.75

37.72

30.06

22.47

Table 3

Distribution

OF DIFFERENT

CLASSES

OF FEMALES

WITH REGARD

TO REPRODUCTIVE

STATUS IN

DIFFERENT

SEASONS AND AGE

CLASSES IN N.

indica

Season

Age class

Autumn

Winter

Spring Juvenile

Early

Adult

Older

Adult

Adult

No. Examined

27

16

17

4

24

25

7

Gonadal

Visible

0.075

0.460

0.540

0.00

0.191

0.560

0.857

Status

Invisible

0.925

0.540

0.460

1.00

0.809

0.440

0.143

Pregnancy

Plugged

0.000

0.000

0.270

0.00

0.000

0.080

0,143

Status

Visible

Pregnancy

0.090

0.285

0.110

0.00

0.048

0.200

0.286

Scars

0.335

0.105

0.110

0.00

0.286

0.120

0.143

Total

0.00

0.334

0.400

0.572

Av. No. Embryos

3.5

2.5

4.00

Av. No. Scars

4

4

4

Av. Weight of Embryo (g)

5.80

7.15

1.37

pregnancy (pregnant or plugged) gradually
decreases from spring (38.7%) to winter
(28.5%) and autumn (9.5%). A higher pro-
portion of the females of spring sample
(27.7%) bore vaginal plugs, whereas none was
seen in winter or autumn. All these collective-
ly indicate that the species is reproductively
more active during summer and least in
autumn. The higher percentage of the females
of autumn sample (33.5%) showing uterine
scars, also suggests the presence of a higher
reproductive activity during the previous
summer.

A higher proportion of the females with
visible pregnancy is present in winter sample
(28.5%) as compared to spring (11.0%) or
autumn (9.5%).

The average number of embryos per preg-
nant female was the minimum in winter
sample (2.5), followed by autumn (3.5), and
was highest in spring (4.0). The average
weight of the embryo exhibits a reverse pat-
tern, being highest in winter (7.15 g), follow-
ed by autumn (5.8 g) and lowest in spring
(1.37 g). The average number of the uterine
scars, however, remains constant in all the

561

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

seasonal samples, and all the females examined
constantly bore four scars.

The smallest pregnant female trapped in our
sample weighed 113.0 g though a female bear-
ing scars, showing a previous pregnancy, weigh-
ed 101.5 g. However, no female with any
sign of reproductive activity is recorded in
juvenile age class. Females showing sign of
pregnancy constitute 20% (5.45% with vagi-
nal plugs and 14.55% with visible pregnancy)
of the overall female population. The propor-
tion of females with visible ovaries increases
from 0.00% in juvenile class to 19.05%,
56.00% and 85.71% in early adult, adult and
older adult classes respectively. Similarly, the
proportion of females showing signs of repro-
ductive activity (with vaginal plugs, visible
pregnancy or uterine scars) increases from
0.00% to 33.33%, 40.00% and 57.15% in
different, progressively increasing age classes.
Females showing signs of pregnancy also in-
crease from 0.00% in juvenile class to 4.76%
in early adult, 28.00% in adult and 42.86%
in older adult classes.

Discussion

(1) Sex Ratio: The sex ratio of 1:1 main-
tained in the overall population as well as in
regional and seasonal samples, suggests that the
population is balanced with regard to distri-
bution of males and females, and no behaviou-
rial sexual dimorphism exists in this species.
The presence of skewness in favour of females
in adult and in favour of males in older adult
classes can be explained on the basis of a
differential behaviour and/or activity of the
members of the two sexes at different ages.
Further studies are required to prove this
hypothesis, which suggests that females are
more active in adult and males in older adult
classes. Such a difference in activity of the
two sexes has been previously reported for a

number of rodent species (Shadown 1963,
Faust et al 1971, Bigler and Jenkins 1975, Rana
and Beg (1976), though Fisler (1971) could not
find any difference in the level of activity of
the two sexes of Reithrodontomys sp. at any
reproductive stage.

(2) Age Structure : The general paucity of
juveniles in our samples suggests a tendency
of their staying in and/or around their mater-
nal burrows, rendering them less vulnerable
to trapping. The fact that the smallest indi-
vidual trapped weighed 37.4 g, and that most
of the juveniles in our samples weighed bet-
ween 60 g and 90 g, yields some degree of
support to the hypothesis. Though more data
is needed on the home range, such a pheno-
menon has been reported to cause sampling
artifact in other rodent species, like Rattus
sp. (Harrison 1966), Bandicota bengalensis
(Spillett 1968), and Mus musculus and M.
booduga (Rana and Beg 1976).

The shift in the age structure during diffe-
rent parts of the year can be conveniently
explained on the basis that the maximum re-
productive activity and recruitment of the
new individuals in the population occur during
spring and summer, and death of the indivi-
duals of older classes during winter.

(3) Reproduction : The presence of repro-
ductively active females in all the seasonal
samples suggests that N. indica remains repro-
ductively active throughout the year, generally
agreeing with previous observations (Faisalabad,
Punjab — Taber et al 1967, Iran — Lay 1967,
Punjab, Pakistan — Roberts, 1977, Iraq —
Walker et al 1964). However, it appears that
the species is reproductively most active dur-
ing spring, followed by winter, and is least
active in autumn. The high proportion of
females with vaginal plugs in the spring sam-
ple, and uterine scars in autumn also suggest
maximum mating and pregnancy rate in
spring /summer.

562

BIOLOGY OF NESOKIA INDICA

A higher proportion of the females showing
pregnancy in the winter sample, appears hard
to explain in the wake of extreme environ-
mental conditions of temperature, snowfall/
rainfall and scarcity of vegetation. Further, a
relative scarcity of females bearing scars in the
spring sample also indicates scarcity of preg-
nant females in winter. It appears that the
preponderance of pregnant females in the win-
ter sample is caused by higher activity level of
these females, as may be needed for higher
energy requirements of this predominantly
herbivore rodent. If further studies prove our
hypothesis, then trapping in the orchards, hav-
ing comparatively better vegetation, may deprive
the species of the potential recruits, causing
a greater damage to the species.

The presence of only four scars in all the
females and a single reproductive episode
suggest that, on an average only one litter is
produced per female per annum. This is in
sharp contrast to observations of Fulk and
Khokhar (1977) from southern Sind, where up
to 21 scars have been recorded in some
females, corresponding to five average litters.
The present data on the number of foetuses
per pregnant female agree with the one col-
lected from Iran (Llyod 1909), though it
remains below that recorded by Roberts (1977)
for Punjab. The corroboration of the data on
the uterine scars and average number of
foetuses allows us to suggest that, in this region
females initially implant four embryos. Some
of these embryos are then flushed out, maxi-
mum flushing occurring in winter (1.5 per
female), followed by autumn (0.5) and
virtually no flushing out of the embryos occurs

R EFE

Begum, F. & Beg, M. A. (1980) : Estimation of
age in mole rats. /. Animal Sci., Pakistan 2 : 27-34.

Bigler, W. & Jenkins, J. H. (1975): Population
characteristics of Peromyscus gossypinus and Sig-

in spring. It appears that harsh environmental
conditions in winter forces a maximum flush-
ing out of the embryos, while optimal condi-
tions in spring allow the development of all
the embryos. Further studies are needed to
know the significance of such a reproductive
behaviour of the species.

The pattern of annual recruitment and pro-
duction of reproductively active individuals in
spring/summer fully conforms with the vege-
tative cycle of the area, suggesting that this
predominantly herbivore species is fully adapt-
ed to the area. The presence of only one
reproductive peak, fewer number of foetuses,
and only 20% of the females showing signs
of reproductive activity, all suggest that the
species is not a very prolific breeder in the
area, which agrees with the previous observa-
tions from other parts of its range (Roberts
1977).

The fact that none of the juvenile indivi-
duals (weighing less than 80 g) exhibited any
sign of reproductive activity agrees with pre-
vious reports (Begum and Beg 1980, Fulk and
Khokhar 1977).

Acknowledgements

This study was supported by Pakistan
Science Foundation through research grant No.
B-BU/Bio (107). I am indebted to Dr. Maq-
sood Ali, Mr. Rajab Ali, Dr. M. A. Beg, Mr.
Aziz A. Khan, Mr. A. R. Khokhar and Mr.
T. J. Roberts for their help at various stages
of execution of this work. Thanks are also
due to Messrs. Ghulam Sultan and Qurban Ali
for providing support in the laboratory and
field.

ENCES

modon hispidus in tropical hummocks of south
Florida. J. Mamm. 56: 633-644.

Faust, F. B,, Smith, M. H. & Wary, W. B. (1971) :
Distance moved by small mammals as an apparent

563

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

function of grid site. Acta Theriol., 16: 161-177.

Fisler, G. F. (1971): Age structure and sex ratio
in population of Reithrodontomys. J. Mamm. 52:
653-662.

Fulk, G. W. & Khokhar, A. R. (1977) : Rice
field rats of southern Sind. II. Reproduction. Work-*
ing Paper, PAK/ 71/554, Vertebrate Pest Control
Centre, Karachi. 40 pp.

Harrison, J. (1966) : An introduction to mammals
of Singapore and Malaya. Malaya Nature Society,
Singapore.

Lay, D. M. (1967): A study of the mammals of
Iran resulting from street expeditions of 1962-63.
Fieldiana Zoology, Vol. 54, Chicago.

Llyod, R. E. (1909): The races of Indian rats.
Rec. Ind. Mus. 3: 119-130.

Mian, A., Ali, M. & Ali, R. (1988a): Damage
to orchard plantation by small mammals in Balu-
chistan (Pakistan). Pakistan J. Agri. Res. 9(1):
115-119.

- — — — & Tousi, S. B. (1988b) : Distribu-

tion of some mammalian pests in orchards of Balu-
chistan. ibid. 9(1): 125-130.

Rana, S. A. & Beg, M. A. (1976) : Field biology
of Mus musculus and Mus booduga in the Punjab.
Pakistan J . Zool., 8 : 135-141.

Roberts, T. J. (1974): Report on the rodent
damage survey in Baluchistan. FAO Working Paper.
PAK/71/554. Vertebrate Pest Control Centre, Karachi,
Pakistan.

(1977) : The Mammals of Pakis-
tan. Ernest Benn Ltd., London, and Tonbridge, 361
pp. 361.

Spillett, J. J. (1968) : The ecology of the lesser
Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta. Bombay Natural History
Society, John Hopkins University, Cant. Med. Res.
Training, Calcutta.

Shadown, H, E. (1963): A live-trap study of
small mammals in Louisiana. /. Mamm. 44: 103-108.

Sokal, R. R. & Rohlf, F. J. (1969): Biometry.
W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco.

Taber, R. D., Sheri, A. N. & Ahmad, M. S.
(1967) : Mammals of Lyallpur region, West Pakistan.
J. Mamm. 48: 392-407.

Wagle, P. V. (1927) : The rice rats of lower Sind
and their control. J. Bombay nat. His. Soc., 32:
330-338.

Walker, E. P., Warrick, F., Lange, K. I., Uible,
H. E., Hamlet, S. E., Davis, M. A. & Wright, P. F.
(1964) : Mammals of the World. 3 Vols, John Hop-
kins Press, Baltimore.

564

OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS ON MUNDANTHURAI
PLATEAU, TAMIL NADU1

Justus Joshua and A. J. T. Johnsingh2
{With a text-figure)

One hundred and fifty nine bird species, representing 93 genera and 40 families,
were identified on Mundanthurai Plateau from January to December, 1984. Of these,
77 were classified a,s residents, 41 as winter visitors, 30 as altitudinal migrants and
two as summer visitors. The status of nine species could not be ascertained. Mundan-
thurai Plateau has five species of kingfishers, including the Blackcapped {Halcyon
pileata). However, only two species of woodpeckers ( Dinopium benghalense and D.
javanense) were seen. There was one observation of a Grey junglefowl ( Gallus
sonneratii) hen nesting on a tree with five eggs and many on the interactions between
primates and birds.

I NTRODUCTION

One of the major benefits of bird community
studies in forested habitat and estimation of
abundance of bird species is that the studies,
when repeated after several years, could help
in assessing the status of bird species them-
selves and their habitat. Published reports on
such time-span observations are rare in India,
and the only paper we have seen is by Ripley
(1978) who had an impression of relative
‘scarcity’ when be visited the Simlipal hill in
Orissa after a span of 28 years.

In recent years, however, there are quite a
few bird community studies (Gaston 1978,
Johnsingh et al. 1987, Khan 1978, Price 1979)
which give us some baseline data on birds for
certain habitats of the country which can be
used for future comparisons. The paper pre-
sented here, based on our field studies on Mun-
danthurai Plateau, adds a little more informa-
tion. It also shows how simple natural history
observations still could collect interesting in-

1 Accepted August 1986.

2 Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. New Forest,
Dehradun - 248 006.

formation on birds as exemplified by our
observations on the nesting behaviour of a
female grey junglefowl and interactions bet-
ween birds and primates.

Study Area

Mundanthurai Plateau (c. 60 km2) situated
in Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary (572
km2, 8° 40' N, 77° 20' E) in Tamil Nadu
is 180-200 metres above MSL. The
Plateau receives both the Southwest (June-
August) and the Northeast (October-Decem-
ber) monsoon. Ten years of rainfall data
(1974-84) give an average of 1708 mm for
upper Papanasam reservoir station and 1189
mm for the lower Papanasam reservoir station,
both of which are situated on the plateau.

Two distinct vegetation types, riverine forests
along the perennial Tambiraparani and Ser-
valar rivers, and dry deciduous forests in other
parts, occur on the Plateau. Trees of the riverine
forest are dominated by Dipterocarpaceae and
dry deciduous forest by Leguminosae. The rive-
rine forests of the plateau which now average
around 20 metres in width were once conti-
nuous with the evergreen forests of the higher

565

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

altitudes of the catchment area. This conti-
nuity was broken by the construction of
the upper Papanasam reservoir (1938-43)
across the river Tambiraparani and by the
servalar reservoir across Servalar River 1974-
1987). Both the rivers merge near Mundan-
thurai forest rest house and flow as Tambira-
parani River for a kilometre before emptying
into lower Papanasam reservoir which lies
within the intensive study area of 20 km2.
(Fig. 1).

1. LOWER PABANASAM RESERVOIR

2. RIVER TAMBIRAPARANI

3 FOREST REST HOUSE

4 DEER VALLEY

5 UPPER PABANASAM RESERVQJR

6 RIVER SERVALAR

7 SERVALAR RESERVOIR

8 KODOMQDY

BORDER OF INTENSIVE

STUDY AREA

Fig. 1. Diagrammatic sketch of the study area and
adjacent places of Mundanthurai Plateau, Tamil Nadu.

In the 1960’s some areas of the dry deci-
duous forests were cleared and planted with
sandal ( Santalum album), teak ( Tectona
grandis), Eucalyptus and soft wood species
such as Ailanthes excelsa and Ceiba pentandra.
These plantations, except teak and Eucalyptus,
failed as a result of browsing by sambar (Cer-
vus unicolor ), the common cervid of the
Plateau.

In most areas, regeneration of the natural
vegetation is successful but in Deer Valley
(c. 1.25 km2) which has been subjected to
intense cattle grazing and fires, the secondary
thicket vegetation is mostly of Dichrostachys
cinerea, Helicteres isora and Cymbopogon
citratus. As a result of these habitat modifi-
cations the Plateau has a mosaic of habitat
which includes areas with sparse vegetation,
areas with dense secondary vegetation, plan-
tations, dry deciduous forests, riverine forests
and a reservoir. The diversity of habitat attracts
a large variety of birds.

Methods

The study was conducted from January to
December, 1984 and data on birds were col-
lected by two methods. First, when a bird was
seen or heard anywhere in the study area, at
any time, it was noted down. This gave us
presence or absence data for the study period.
Second, all birds seen along three selected one
kilometre transects — one in the Deer valley,
one along the west bank of the river Tambira-
parani, and one through the dry deciduous
forests on the southern side of river Tambira-
parani, were recorded. The river transect was
walked 24 times, all in the mornings, eight
times each during March- April, July- August,
and November-December. The other transects
were walked 15 times, all in the mornings, five
times each during March- April, July- August,
and November-December. This transect study
gave us presence or absence data as well as
quantitative information on the abundance of
birds which will be published elsewhere (John-
singh & Joshua, in prep.). In the following
account, birds are classified as rare, frequently
seen and common, based on the number of
sightings and abundance.

Observations

A total of 159 birds, representing 93 genera

566

BIRDS ON MUNDANTHURA1 PLATEAU , TAMIL NADU

and 40 families, were recorded. Of these 77
were residents, 41 winter visitors, 30 altitudi-
nal migrants and two summer visitors. We
could not ascertain the migratory status of
nine species (Table 1). More bird species
visited the plateau from October to February
(x=119) than during March to July (x = 83).
This difference was significant (t = 4.9, p
<0.01).

Rarity of certain bird species on the Plateau
is due to their naturally low population in
nature (e.g., King and Egyptian vulture), re-
quirement of a specialised habitat which is
rare in the study area (e.g., reed patches for
Black Bittern), paucity of birds themselves in
the study area (e.g.. Grey Partridge), or migra-
tory nature (e.g.. Redwinged Cuckoo, Indian
Pitta). Birds frequently seen, but which did
not occur in large number, include species
such as Greyheaded Fishing Eagle, Crested-
hawk Eagle and Crow-pheasant. These, being
predatory and territorial, can only occur widely
spaced and in few numbers. Birds coming
under the category of ‘common’ include largely
frugivorous birds (e.g., Roseringed Parakeet.
Koel), omnivorous birds (e.g.. Myna, Bulbuls),
granivorous birds (e.g., doves) and small insecti-
vorous birds (e.g,. House Swift, Green Bee-
eater, Chloropsis), many individuals of which
can be supported by a forest ecosystem.

The avifauna of the plateau is interesting
in several respects. Five species of kingfishers
including the Blackcapped, which is, however,
rare on the Plateau, are seen usually in the
months of January and February. Blackcapped
kingfisher frequents mangrove swamps, tidal
creeks and the seashore and is occasionally
met with on rivers considerably inland from
the sea, e.g., Parambikulam River near Kuriar
Kutty from altitudes of 500 m down to the mean
sea level (Ali 1969). Blackcapped kingfisher
seems to be rare in other forest areas in south
India. For instance. Ajay Desai (pers. comm.)

has not seen it in Mudumalai-Bandipur-Nagra-
hole sanctuary complex, although the other
four species of kingfishers seen on Mundan-
thurai Plateau are common. In Periyar Tiger
Reserve, five species of kingfishers are seen
but not the Blackcapped (Nair et al. 1985).
It would be worth investigating the ecological
reasons which attract the Blackcapped king-
fisher to Mundanthurai from September to
March.

Twelve species of woodpeckers occur in
Kerala (Ali 1969). In Parambikulam, eight
species have been recorded (Vijayan 1978), in
Periyar nine species (Nair et al 1985) and
seven species in a study area of sholas, tea,
Eucalyptus and Acacias in Nilgiris (Khan
1978). Only two species of woodpecker (Lesser
Goldenbacked and Threetoed Goldenbacked)
were seen on Mundanthurai Plateau. We
attribute the paucity of woodpecker species on
the Plateau to the small size of the study area
(20 km2) and the restriction of large boled trees
mostly to the thin belt of riverine forests. Dry
deciduous forests in the study area, both natural
as well as with secondary vegetation, typically
have trees with slender boles. Large scale
collection of dead wood by the fire wood
cutters which are necessary as nesting sites
may also be another factor limiting the number
of woodpecker species.

It is interesting to note that some species
that are rare or absent on the plateau are
common in the adjoining semievergreen and
evergreen forests of the upper slopes (>500
m). Species such as Malabar Trogon ( Harpa -
ctes fasciatus ), Blackheaded Oriole ( Oriotus
xanthornus) , Whitebellied Tree Pie (Dendro-
citta leucogastm) and Slatyheaded Scimitar
Babbler ( Pomatorhinus horsfieldii) were seen
beyond upper Papanasam reservoir and Kodo-
mody but not on the Plateau. Both the horn-
bills (Malabar Grey Hornbill and Great Pied
Hornbill) were more frequently seen in the

567

Family and scientific name Common English Months during which birds were seen Abundance Migratory

name J FMAMJ J A SOND rating status

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 55.

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Birds seen on Mundanthurai Plateau from January to December, 1984

scientific name Common English

F M

birds were seen Abundance Migratory

A S O N D rating status

; Buzzard
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I scientific name Common English

Abundance Migratory

Spilornis cheela

Pandion haliaetus
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Red Spurfowl
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Table 1 (contd.)

Capitonidae

Megalaima zeylanica

Megalaima viridis
Megalaima haemacephala

Dinopium benghalense
Dinopium javanense

Pitta brachyuro
Alaudidae

Mirafra crythroptera
Hirundinidae

Delichon urbica

Oriolidae
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Dicruridae

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Family and scientific name Common English

Table 1 (contd.)

Months during which
F M A M J J

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Shrike

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Shrike

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575

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

upper slopes than on the plateau. Similarly
Yellowthroated Sparrow ( Petronia xanthocollis)
was frequently seen below lower Papanasam re-
servoir which has got more open areas, culti-
vation and human habitation. Bluetailed Bee-
eater (Merops philippinus) was seen once
below lower Pabanasam reservoir.

There was an observation of a Grey jungle-
fowl female having a nest with five eggs on an
Albizzia lebbeck tree which had a tangled growth
of Zizyphus oenoplia. The nest was five metres
from the ground, bigger than a crow’s nest
and had in addition to twigs, bits of rag and
paper. Once a Sparrow Hawk sat close to the
nest and the hen, which was preening perched
on a nearby branch, charged at the hawk and
chased it away. A few days later neither the
hen nor the eggs were found in the nest. Our
observation seems to be the first record of
Grey Junglefowl nesting on trees.

There were some interesting interactions
between primates and birds. Once a Brahminy
kite was seen in its nest on a Hopea parviflora
tree and three subadults of a seven-member
Nilgiri langur ( Presbytis johnii ) troop were
seen disturbing the bird by shaking and jump-
ing on to the branch where the kite had its
nest. In response, both the male and female
kites chased the langurs by diving towards
them. This observed behaviour of langurs and
the reaction of kites was on four mornings.

Another time an immature Brahminy Kite
was seen repeatedly diving at an adult <$
Nilgiri langur which was feeding on the top
of a tree. In response the langur sometimes
ducked its head or threw7 out its arm as if to
block or hit the bird.

Once a bonnet macaque (Macaco, radiata )
was seen chasing and almost catching a Koel.

When this happened five Koels (2 cf cf and
3 $ $ ) were feeding on Ficus tsiela fruits. A
troop of bonnet macaques suddenly raided the
tree and started chasing the Koels. During this
melee one Koel, while being chased by a
subadult bonnet, jumped on to another branch
where a ? bonnet was feeding. This bonnet
almost caught the Koel which struggled,
screamed and flew away with loud alarm calls.
A similar incident was seen when a Ficus ben-
galensis tree was in fruit.

Twice bonnet macaques were seen raiding
the nest of a jungle crow in two different
seasons but on the same Terminalia belerica
tree. Once the crow was seen in the nest but it
was chased away by the bonnet macaques, and
the fact that the crow did not return the next
day would imply the egg/eggs may have been
damaged or eaten by the bonnet.

Several times we have also observed drongos
and fly catchers following giant squirrels
(Ratufa indica ), bonnet macaques and Nilgiri
langur in the canopy and catching insects
flushed by these mammals. This association is
worth investigating further.

Our preliminary observations at Mundan-
thurai show that this place has great potential
for further ornithological field research, espe-
cially to understand the impact of reservoir
construction, power-line formations, monocul-
ture plantations, and unabated and increasing
incidence of fire wood cutting on bird species.
We hope that this paper would lead to more
long term bird studies in this fascinating area.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Tamil Nadu Forest Depart-
ment for having permitted us to work in
Mundanthurai. One of us (AJTJ) was able to
take part in this study when he was surveying

576

BIRDS ON MUNDANTHURAI PLATEAU, TAMIL NADU

elephant habitat in Mundanthurai and Kala-
kadu Wildlife Sanctuaries supported by the
Endangered Species Project of the Bombay
Natural History Society which was financed by
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (U. S. Dept, of

the Interior Grant No. 14=16-0009-84=959) and
sponsored by Dept, of Environment, Govt, of
India. Their assistance is gratefully acknowledg-
ed. Dr. Rauf Ali and Dr. W. A. Rodgers are
thanked for their comments.

References

Ali, S. (1969): Birds of Kerala. Oxford Univer-
sity Press. Bombay.

Gaston, A. J. (1978) : The seasonal occurrence
of birds on the New Delhi ridge. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 75: 115-128.

Johnsingh, A. J. T., Martin, M. H., Balasingh,
J. & Chelladurai, V. (1987): Vegetation and avi-
fauna in a thorn scrub habitat in south India. Trop .
Ecol 28: 22-34.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. & Joshua, J. (in prep.) : Bird
species in three vegetation types on Mundanthurai
Plateau, Tamil Nadu.

Khan, M.A.R. (1978) : A comparative account of
the avifauna of the sholas and the neighbouring

plantations in the Nilgiris. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
75: 1028-1035.

Nair, P. V., Ramachandran, K. K., Vijayan, V.
S., Easa, P. S. & Balakrishnan, P. V. (1985): An
ecological study in Periyar Tiger Reserve with spe-
cial reference to Wildlife. Kerala. Forest Research
Institute, Kerala.

Price, T. D. (1979): The seasonality and occur-
rence of birds in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra
Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76: 379-422.

Ripley, S. D. (1978) : Changes in the bird fauna
of a forest area: Simlipal hills, Mayurbhanj district
and Dhankanal district, Orissa, ibid. 75: 570-574.

Vijayan, V. S. (1978): Parambikulam Wildlife
Sanctuary and adjacent areas, ibid. 75: 888-900.

577

POSSIBILITIES OF SELF-SUSTENANCE OF FREE
RANGING RHESUS OF TUGHLAQABAD1

Iqbal Malik2
( With a text-figure)

Introduction

Two decades ago, the estimated number of
rhesus macaques in the wild was around
4,000,000 but, according to the latest estimate
it has been reduced to only about 140,000
individuals. The reasons for the decline of
free-ranging Rhesus population could be
(1) change in the habitat, (2) no scope of
expansion of habitat, (3) lack of abundance
of food and protection, and (4) trapping.

During a long term study of free-ranging
Rhesus population of Tughlaqabad, it was
observed that complete protection, no trapping,
abundance of food, favourable adaptation to
the environment and habitat which has scope
for expansion made the self sustenance of an
ever growing population possible. At Tughlaqa-
bad, a positive correlation was witnessed in
the population growth and the potentialities of
the habitat. The data provides important guide-
lines for conservation and restoration of pri-
mate population and an encouraging example
of primate population improvement in a gene-
rally discouraging worldwide situation.

Study Area

Tughlaqabad is an ancient city site and
14th Century fort situated on the southern
edge of New Delhi at 30° 25' N latitude and
78° 76' E longitude. The home range of the

1 Accepted November 1985.

2 Institute of Home Economics, University of
Delhi, South Extension Part II, New Delhi.

rhesus monkey groups under study extends
throughout the fort and surrounding areas,
covering approximately 5 sq. km. (2.5 x 2.0
km.). The fort was built of massive stones
on a rocky hill with the outer ramparts inte-
grated into the hill, so that the entire structure
rises 50-90 feet above the surrounding plain
(Fig. 1). The outer walls of the fort form a
polygon with a circumference of nearly 5 km.
The flat and fertile area surrounding the fort
contains cropland, pasture, two forested areas.

Fig. 1 . Home range of Tughlaqabad monkeys show-
ing Tughlaqabad fort, tomb, forest, plantations,
agricultural fields, canal, hills, and surrounding roads.

578

FREE RANGING RHESUS OF TUGHLAOABAD

and encroaching suburban development. A
road runs through the southern part of the area;
trees lining the area are used by the rhesus
monkeys for sleeping at night and resting dur-
ing the day. Across the road, to the south of
the fort, is the restored tomb of Tughlaq Shah,
who died in 1325 A.D. The entire area, both
the fort and the tomb, has considerable histo-
rical significance and has been described by
Williams (1962) .... “The vast size, strength,
and visible solidity on the whole give to
Tughlaqabad an air of stern and massive
grandeur.”

The fort constitutes one-fourth of the total
area, two forest plantations occupy another
one-fourth, and the surrounding open areas of
cultivation and pasture constitute the remain-
ing half (Fig. 1).

Tughlaqabad has a subtropical climate with
marked seasonal changes. During the months
of May and June, daytime temperatures often
reach 40° to 45 °C; in December and January
temperatures fall to 7° to 9°C. Monsoon occurs
from the end of June or early July until mid-
September, with an annual average of 567 mm.
of rain. Winter and spring rains occur spora-
dically and are usually light.

The natural vegetation inside the fort is
xerophytic, generally grasses and arid forbs
and shrubs. Outside the fort, vegetation is
more mesophytic, and better ground water
supports trees and crops, primarily wheat and
pulses. The main trees present are Indian
jujube ( Zizyphus jujuba ), neem or margosa
( Azadirachta indica ), sheesham or sissoo
(Dalbergia sissoo ), oak ( Quercus incana),
acacia ( Acacia arabica), pipal (Ficus religiosa)
and date palm ( Phoenix dactylifera) . Other
than people, the dominant fauna includes
rhesus monkeys, cattle, donkeys, goats, dogs,
jackals, mongoose, lizards, and a great variety
of birds, both migratory and resident. Peafowl,

partridges, pigeons, crows, sparrows, vultures,
mynas, and kites are common.

Field Methods

The present study started in 1980 to study
selected behavioural aspects of Rhesus of the
area, with an emphasis on population dynamics.
Related counts (Malik, Seth, Southwick 1984)
were made in (1) March before the birth
season, (2) July and August immediately after
the birth season, (3) October and November
following monsoon and just prior to winter.
This method provided data on the minimum
March, maximum July and August population
of the year and a transitional period from
monsoon to winter (October and November).
A record of births, deaths, disappearances,
accidents and injuries was also kept. Hence
when the largest group of the area increased
its home range and then changed its core area,
it was immediately noted, and thereafter a
constant watch was kept to observe the move-
ments of this particular group. Observations
have been made from March, 1980 to Janu-
ary, 1985.

Results

Diversity of habitat :

The Tughlaqabad area provides the monkeys
with a wide range of food, both natural and
that offered by humans. Food is consistently
provided by humans, in an almost ritualistic
way. On days when humans do not provide
enough food, the monkeys have the natural
vegetation and crops grown by humans to fall
back on. The monkeys need never go hungry
and, as a result, they are healthy and well-fed.

The fact that the monkeys spend 80% of
their waking hours on the ground, provides
proof of the suitability of the area as well as
of the positive relationship that exists between

579

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

the Rhesus monkeys and humans. In stormy
weather, when the banging of the branches
and the howling of the wind heighten their
sense of insecurity, the monkeys take refuge
in the thick, crevice-ridden walls of the fort.
When attacked by other animals (dogs, cattle,
etc.), they seek sanctuary in nearby trees. The
open spaces in the fort provide them with
enough space to sun-bathe during the winter.
The people of the area have always treated
the monkeys with reverence, so that they are
not harassed; on the contrary, they are pro-
vided with protection.

No trapping was done during the course of
this study, though, as I learned from local
residents, trapping went on until 1978. The
monkey population fell to quite a low level
and due to these circumstances, the monkeys
became quite aggressive towards human be-
ings. Now there is peaceful co-existence bet-
ween man and Rhesus at Tughlaqabad.

Elasticity of habitat :

From March, 1980 to November, 1984 the
home range of rhesus monkey groups under
study extended throughout the fort and sur-
rounding areas covering approximately 5 sq.
km.

In 1984, after the breeding (May-July) but
before the onset of winter, group A extended
its home range. Adjoining the southern end
of their initial home range, is situated a walled
Air Force enclosure. This establishment — a
completely restricted area — was included in
the home range (Fig. 1).

Group A first started frequenting it, then
used it for sleeping and resting, and then most
of their time was spent inside this Air Force
compound which is now their core area. The
canteen inside this area seems to meet a major
portion of their diet. At times they come out
to feed at the roadside but it is never quite
certain that the whole group would converge

upon the visitor as they did earlier. The rhesus
have been seen on the northern wall of this
compound and, at times, on the eastern and
western walls but never on the southern side.
The extent of utilisation of this space is not
exactly known, but a vague estimate is that
the extended home range of group A is 1 km2.

The vegetation of the Air Force area is
similar to that on the outside, but cultivation
is minimal, being limited to kitchen gardens
which would be zealously guarded against
raids by the rhesus. Trees visible from the
outside are sheesham or Sissoo ( Dalbergia
sissoo) and neem or margosa ( Azadirachta
indica). It would, however, be safe to pre-
sume that there would be other varieties of
trees, some of which may even be bearing
fruits consumed by human beings. The fauna
would slightly vary from the outside as dogs,
goats, donkeys, buffaloes and cattle would not
be allowed inside. As for smaller animals like
mongoose, lizards, and snakes such restric-
tions would be difficult to impose. The variety
of birds would also be similar to the outside.

The habitat provides a vast scope for the
further expansion of the home range of rhesus
of the area (Fig. 1). On the southeast side
of their territory is ‘Adilabad’. This is another
fort but considerably smaller than the one
presently used by the rhesus, but providing
similar facilities for them. To date the monkeys
have only visited the boundaries of this fort
for water, but may be in future, if need be,
they might start spending more of their time
there. Further south are rocky hills with
xerophytic vegetation with little or no preda-
tors. Towards the north, beyond the fort are
patches of forest with a busy road running
along them, which could be an excellent source
of food for them. Towards the east, beyond
the home range are more forests, which can
provide good cover if the need arises. Rhesus
have so far not visited these areas.

580

FREE RANGING RHESUS OF TUGHLAQABAD

Population growth and habitat :

In five years the rhesus population at
Tughlaqabad has increased by 119.38%, from
160 monkeys in July, 1980 to 351 in July,
1984 — an annual average increase of 22.70%.
It is felt that this tremendous increase is due
to the habitat, which provides protection,
abundance of food and water, good cover and
has scope for expansion. Due to the right com-
bination of ecological and behavioural factors,
rhesus not only sustained themselves but the
population more than doubled in five years.

In 1980, the number of Rhesus per sq. kilo-
metre of home range was 32. With the in-
crease of population every year, the number
per sq. km. kept increasing (Table 1). The

Table 1

Number of rhesus per square kilometre of
home range July 1980-Nov. 1984

Date of
census

Total Rhesus
population of
the area

Home
Range
(Sq. km.)

No. of
Rhesus/
Sq. km.

July 1980

160

5

32

July 1981

201

5

40.2

July 1982

244

5

48.8

July 1983

286

5

57.2

July 1984

351

5

70.2

Nov. 1984

351

6

57.4

maximum number was in July. 1984, viz. 70.2
Rhesus per sq. km. of the home range. This
congestion probably led to the expansion of
their initial home range, as a result of which,
in November, 1984 the number came down
to 57.4 monkeys per sq. km. of the area.
This was almost the same as in 1983 (57.2
Rhesus per sq. km. of the area). It seems
that the maximum number of Rhesus which
the initial home range could sustain, is around
286.

Splitting and habitat :

The social behaviour interacting with envi-
ronmental parameters determines the number
of rhesus that may exist in a group. At the
beginning of this study in January, 1980, the
Tughlaqabad rhesus population consisted of
two groups; A of 92 monkeys, and B of 28.
By the summer of 1983, the population had
grown to 286 monkeys, and the number of
groups had increased to five (A, B, C, D and
E). Groups C, D and E were splinter groups
of A, which remained the largest groups in
the area. None of the members of group B
joined either C, D or E nor did groups C and
D contribute to group E. Group B remained
an intact group throughout the study period.

The first split of group A took place in
December. 1980, towards the end of the rainy
season. The group size was 123 individuals,
and a sub-group of 21 separated to become
group C. Fifteen months later, in March, 1982.
at the beginning of the birth season, the total
size of group A was 120, and the second split
occurred when 11 individuals left to form
group D. Group A was reduced to 109 indi-
viduals but, after the birth seasons of 1982
in June, it numbered 133. The third split
occurred in the spring of 1983 when group A
numbered 137 individuals, of which 29 left to
form group E. By July, 1983, group A had
been restored to a level of 123 through births
and, by July, 1984 its number went up to
155 but no split took place. Table 2 shows
the effect of expansion of home range on
splitting. In the initial home range, group A
apparently could sustain only a certain num-
ber of individuals (approximately 120), and
still maintain co-ordinated activities as a
social unit. Once the number exceeded this
limit, a splinter group was formed. The reason
for no split in 1984 (when the number was
155) could be the increased home range of
group A. In future years a record of popula-

581

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 85

Table 2

Effects of

EXPANSION

IN

OF HOME
GROUP A.

RANGE ON SPLITS

Date of

Home

No. of

Formation of

Census

range Rhesus of splintered Ranks

(sq. km.) Parent Group from Group A

July 1980

5

123

—

July 1981

5

154

123 — (A)
31 - (C)

July 1982

5

148

133 — (A)
15 -(D)

July 1983

5

152

123— (A)
29— (E)

July 1984

5

155

—

Nov. 1984

6

155

—

tion splits of groups can reveal the optimum
number of Rhesus which can be sustained in
group A in this expanded home range.

There was a clear dominance pattern in
intergroup encounters. Group A still remained
the most powerful, as well as the largest group,
at the termination of this study in January.
1985. as it had been since January, 1980.

Discussion

It has been proposed that, in northern
India, one reason for the decline in rhesus
population could be the changing beliefs of
the rural people who no longer consider them
sacred (Seth & Seth 1983). But at Tughlaqa-
bad, people consider them sacred. They are
given protection against undue harassment.
One instance is of a lorry driver who had
accidentally run over a monkey and was given
a severe beating. This is perhaps the one in-
stance which would confirm beyond all doubts
that the beliefs of the people have not changed.
It is felt that it is not the beliefs that are
changing but the monetary condition of the
people who find it more and more difficult
to be generous to the rhesus monkeys. It is

still true that humans in large number and
from great distances come to feed them.

Another reason could be the changing habi-
tat due to deforestation, overgrazing, commer-
cial development and spread of cities (Seth &
Seth 1983). The changes in habitat were also
observed at Tughlaqabad. For example, in
1982 a shooting range was constructed on the
southern side of the monkeys’ territory which
resulted in increased human activity. Secondly,
the noise of the firing added to the monkeys’
sense of insecurity and fear, as a result of
which they would go to the fort. The road
which runs though the area has an ever in-
creasing traffic. With the increase in tourists
and other activities, related facilities have also
started cropping up, for instance, tea stalls
and vendors. But it was observed that even
after the construction of the shooting ranges,
the monkeys were still using the same sleeping
quarters that they were using prior to con-
struction and they did not decline in numbers
in this area. As the monkeys obtain a major
portion of their diet from human beings, a
preference for a location secluded from human
interference [J. E. Fa (1983)] would not be
applicable here. Southwick (1967) and Alexan-
der & Roth (1971) observed that aggression
in captive groups of rhesus and Japanese
macaques respectively increased under crowd-
ed conditions. Southwick et al. (1965) reported
that adult males attacked other members of
a group, including infants, at feeding time.
R. F. Mukherjee (1976) observed that males
of the Mahabali temple attacked group mem-
bers during feeding and non-feeding times, and
even when unprovoked. This was the result
of the population having increased, with no
scope for expansion of their territory. The
aggression may have further increased the
mortality.

Brennan and Else (1984). in their study of
De Brazza monkeys ( Cercopithecus neglectus)

582

FREE RANGING RHESUS OF TUGHLAQABAD

suggested that the remnant population (just
over 100 in Kenya) be translocated as the first
step in trying to save them. It is felt that if
the present trend of urbanisation in the area
continues, the present rate of growth of this
population would fall unless they are trans-
located. A favourable point to be noted here
would be the availability of a suitable locality
in the same habitat.

I propose several possible reasons for the
high population growth and low mortality
rates of the Tughlaqabad rhesus. First, the
population in this particular locality has been
rigorously protected by the beliefs and tradi-
tions of local people. Prior to 1978, the pro-
tection by local people could not be total
because the people remained primarily in their
fields and along the roadside, and were not
always present when the monkeys went into
the forest and fort areas. Beginning in 1978.
however, and more or less coincident with
the rhesus export ban in April. 1978, the
government of India began a programme to
attract more tourists to Tughlaqabad, and full-
time chowkidars or guards were assigned to
the Tughlaqabad fort. These chowkidars pro-
vided virtually total protection for the monkeys
by preventing anyone from molesting them.

Secondly, there are no predators in the area,
except dogs, and the area is so rich in trees,
walls and crevices where dogs cannot reach,
the monkeys can easily escape from attacks
by dogs.

Food resources are abundant. In addition
to many natural foods provided by the vege-
tation of the area, of which more than 43
species were consumed, food provided by
humans is so abundant on some days that
much of it goes waste. The monkeys thus have
three sources of food — natural vegetation,
surrounding cropland, and extensive provision-

ing by people along the roadside and entrances
to the fort and tomb.

The home range of the monkeys include two
areas of forest plantations, in which good food
trees (such as neem, jujube, sheesham, and
peepal). are now beginning to reach a stage
of growth and size of real benefit to rhesus
monkeys. I have the impression that the
successional growth of the forest reached a
threshold point in the late 1970’s and now
provides significantly better cover and food
for the monkeys. This has considerably enhanc-
ed their habitat.

I believe the groups are well adapted to
this area. They, therefore, require no period
of adaptation or adjustment to capitalize on
the new benefits of extra protection and ex-
pandable habitat.

I believe that the low level of aggressive
behaviour observed indicates both the favour-
able expandable habitat of the monkeys and
their successful adaptation to it. Their peace-
ful behaviour could certainly be a reason for
low mortality.

An additional reason for the outstanding
population growth is that the animals were
healthy and no obvious diseases were apparent.
I did not see any coughing, runny noses,
and diarrhoeal symptoms which often appear
in other rhesus groups, especially those in
and around tov/ns and temples. Finally, at
Tughlaqabad it was observed that an increase
in the home range makes possible the self
sustenance of an ever growing population.

The most dominant group of the area made
a pre-emptive move to check any possible
decline in their population by first expanding
its home range and then changing its core
area. Thus a positive correlation was witness-
ed in the population growth and the poten-
tialities of the habitat at Tughlaqabad.

583

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

References

Alexander, B. K. & Roth, E. M. (1971) : The
effects of acute crowding on aggressive behaviour
of Japanese monkeys. Behaviour, 39: 73-90.

Brennan, E. J. & Else, J. G. (1984) : The status
of Kenya's De Brazza Monkey population. A need
for immediate conservation efforts. Paper presented
at Xth Congress of the International Primatological
Society, Kenya, Nairobi.

Fa, J. E. (1984): Habitat distribution and habi-
tat preference in Barbary Macaques ( Macaca syl-
vanus). Int. Jour, of Primatology, 5: 273-284.

Malik, I., Seth, P. K. & Southwick, C. H. (1984) :
Population growth of free ranging Rhesus monkeys
at Tughlaqabad. Amer. Journ. of Primatology, 7: 311-
321.

Mukerjee, R. P. (1976): Effects of crowding

on temple rhesus monkeys of Imphal, Manipur.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 275-281.

Seth, P. K. & Seth, S. (1983) : Population dyna-
mics of free ranging rhesus monkeys in different
ecological conditions in India. Am. J. primatol. 5:
61-67.

Southwick, C. H. (1967): An experimental study
of intra-group agonistic behaviour in rhesus monkeys.
Behaviour, 28: 182-209.

Southwick, C. H., Beg, M. A. & Siddiqi, M. R.
(1965) : Rhesus monkeys in north India. In DeVore,
I. (ed), Primate Behaviour: Field Studies of Mon-
keys and Apes. Holt, Rinrhart and Winston, New
York.

Williams, L.F.R. (1962) : A handbook for India,
Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon. 19th edition. John
Murray, London.

5:84

FLORISTIC AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES ON LEGUMES
FROM HILLY REGIONS OF PUNE AND
SATARA DISTRICTS OF MAHARASHTRA
STATE1

Jayananda Tosh, V. D. Vartak and M. S. Kumbhojkar2

Introduction

Legume bearing plants form the third largest
group among the angiosperms, containing about
748 genera and 19,700 species (Allen and
Allen 1980). As far as India is concerned, a
total number of 145 genera divided in 1083
species (Tiwari 1979) are reported from the
subcontinent. In Maharashtra State there are
about 88 genera and 380 species (Cooke 1903)
of leguminous plants. This large group of
economically important plants has been studied
from various angles in all parts of our country.
A study of the available literature on the flora
of Western Maharashtra (Birdwood 1896, Bole
and Almeida 1981, Cooke 1903, Hemadri 1971,
Razi 1953, Santapau 1951, 1953, 1957; Tosh
and Vartak 1985, Varadpande 1973, Vartak
1957, 1960, 1964; Vartak and Kumbhojkar
1984) showed that studies on agroecology and
geographical distribution of legumes in this
area are lacking. This study was, therefore,
undertaken to collect data on this aspect of
leguminous plants. The area of hilly regions in
Pune and Satara districts in Maharashtra were
selected for the study.

The paper presents data on floristic and
ecological distribution of 242 species of legumes
from the area under study. It is hoped that

1 Accepted September 1986.

2 Department of Botany, Maharashtra Association
for the Cultivation of Science, Research Institute,
Pune 411 004.

this contribution would yield useful data for
critical studies on legumes in different disci-
plines.

The data for the study have been collected
under two projects namely “Studies on Nitro-
gen fixing legumes from Maharashtra State”
and “Floristic studies on sacred groves along
western ghats of Maharashtra State”, being
operated at our Institute with active partici-
pation of the Botany and Microbiology De-
partments. During routine botanical collection
tours for the project work special efforts were
made to collect leguminous plants with their
root nodules, seeds, cuttings and seedlings for
maintaining in M.A.C.S. nursery and prepara-
tion of herbarium specimens.

Topography of the study area

The area covered in this work includes the
hilly regions of Pune and Satara districts
(17° 45'-19° 00' N. lat. and 73 ° 15'-74° 04' E.
long.) spread over an area of approximately
15,000 sq. km. Historical forts like Sinhgad,
Purandhar, Rajgad, Torna, Shivneri, Rohida,
etc., and hill stations like Mahabaleshwar,
Raireshwar, Khandala are included in the in-

V

vestigation of this work. The terrains around
these locations have also been visited many
times during botanical plant collection tours.

Climate

The year is divided into three marked

585

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

seasons: the cold season from November to
February, the hot season from March to May
and the rainy season from June to October.
During the hot season the diurnal maximum
temperature rises above 42.25°C, and tem-
peratures as high as 46.25°C have been
occasionally recorded. Rainfall pattern shows
that the climate is “monsoon type”, average
about 150 cm.

Materials and Methods

The plant materials collected were properly
identified by using different floras and by
referring to the herbaria of B.S.I. (Poona)
and Blatter Herbarium, Bombay. They are pre-
served in M.A.C.S. herbarium after proper
processing. The data collected have been pre-
sented on the basis of habitats.

general account of legumes

To study the floristics, ecology as well as
the geographical distribution of leguminous
species, the area under study can be divided
into the western ghat range and the plains.

a) Legume flora of ghats and mountains :

Common legume constituents of the general
vegetation of this area contain arboreal to
herbaceous floral elements.

Tall, robust, and very beautiful trees we
found in this area. Some of them are ever-
green, but almost all others are deciduous.
They are as follows:

Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. ( Butea
frond osa Koen.); Dalbergia lanceolaria Linn.;
D. latifolia Roxb.; D. paniculata Roxb.; ZX
sissoo Roxb.; Erythrina suberosa Roxb.; E.
strict a Roxb.; E. variegata L. (E. indica
Lamk.); Ougeinia oojeinensis (Roxb.) Hochr.
(O. dalbergioides Benth.); Pongamia pinnata

(L.) Pierre {P. glabra Vent.); Pterocarpus
marsupium Roxb.; Bauhinia purpurea Linn.;
B. racemosa Lamk.; B. variegata L.; Caesal-
pinia sap pan L.; Cassia fistula L.; Delonix elata
Gamble; D. regia Raf.; Hardwickia binata
Roxb.; Piliostigma malabaricum (Roxb.)
Benth. ( Bauhinia malabarica Roxb.); P. foveo-
latum (Dalz.) Thoth. ( Bauhinia foveolata
Dalz.); Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde (5.
indica L.).

THORNY AND SPINY SPECIES:

Acacia catechu Willd.; A. chundra (Rottler)
Willd.; (A. catechu Willd. var. sundra (DC.)
Prain); A. intsia Willd.; A. leucophloea
(Roxb.) Willd.; A. polycantha Willd. (A. suma
Buch.-Ham.); A. tomentosa Willd.

NON-THORNY SPECIES:

Albizia amara Boiv.; A. chinensis (Osb.)
Merrill (A. stipulata Boiv.); A . lucida Benth.;
A. odoratissima Benth.; A. procera Benth.

Common undershrubs , shrubs and scandent
shrubs :

Atylosia lineata Wt. & Arn.; A. sericea
Benth.; Crotalaria leptostachya Benth.; C.
retusa L.; Dalbergia sympathetica Nimmo.;
Desmodium gangeticum DC.; D. heterocarpon
(L.) DC. (D. polycarpum DC.); D. triangulare
(Retz.) Merrill ( D . cephalotes Wall. var. con -
gestum Prain); D. velutinum (Willd.) DC.
(D. lati folium DC.); Flemingia strobilifera R.
Br.; Indigofera cassioides Rottl. ex DC. (/.
pulchella Roxb.); /. tinctoria L.; /. trita L.;
/. trita L. var. maffei Ali (/. oreophila Sant.
& Panthki) ; /. trifoliata L.; M undulea sericea
(Willd.); A. cheval ( M . suberosa (DC.)
Benth.); Tephrosia coccinea Wall.; T. penta-
phylla (Roxb.) G. Don. ( T . senticosa Wt.);
T. pulcherrima (Baker) Gamble; T. tinctoria
Pers.; Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) W. F. Wight
(5. aculeata Poir.); Caesalpinia decapetala

586

ECOLOGICAL STUDIES ON LEGUMES

(Roth.) Alst. (C. sepiaria Roxb.); Cassia auri-
culata L.; C. sophera L.; C. surattensis Burm.
var. surattensis Chatt. (C. glauca Lamk.);
Acacia farnesiana Willd.; A. latronum Willd.;
A. pennata Willd.; A. sinuata (Lour.) Merrill
(A. concinna DC.); A. torta (Roxb.) Crab.
(A. caesia Willd.), and Mimosa hamata Willd.

Among the tall and robust climbers and
climbers commonly noticed are:

Abrus precat orius L.; Butea super ba Roxb.;
Dalbergia volubilis Roxb.; Derris scandens
Benth.; Caesalpinia nuga Ait.; Mezoneuron
cucullatum (Roxb.) Wt. & Arn.; Wagatea
s pi cat a Dalz.

common twiners:

Atylosia platycarpa Benth.; A. scarabaeoides
(L.) Benth.; Canavalia gladiata (Jacq.) DC.
(C. ensiformis DC.); C. stocksii Dalz.; Doli -
chos bracteatus Baker; Dumasia villosa DC.;
Mucuna monosperma DC.; M. pruriens DC.;
Neonotonia wightii Lackey ( Glycine wightii
Verd.); Nogra dalzelli (Baker) Merr. ( Grona
dalzellii Bak.); Paracalyx scariosa (Roxb.) Ali
( Cylista scariosa Roxb.); Pueraria tuberosa
DC.; Rhynchosia hirta (Andr.) Meikle & Verd.
(R. cyanosperma Benth.); R. minima (L.) DC.
var. laxiflora Baker; Teramnus labialis Spreng;
Vigna catjang Walp.; V. unguiculata Walp.;
V . vexillata A. Rich. var. sepiaria Babu; V.
vexillata A. Rich. var. stocksii Benth.; V. vexil-
lata A. Rich. var. vexillata.

HERBACEOUS LEGUMES:

Alysicarpus beddomei Schindl. ( Desmodium
rotundifolium Baker); A. belgaumensis Wt.;
A. bupleurifolius (L.) DC.; A. longifolius
Wt. & Arn.; A. monilifer (L.) DC; A. pro-
cumbens (Roxb.) Schindl. (A. hamosus
Edgew); A. pubescens Law.; A. racemosus
Benth. (A. belgaumensis var. racemosus
Baker); A rugosus DC; A, rugosus DC. var.
heyneanus Baker; A. rugosus DC. var. ludens

Baker; A. rugosus DC. var. styracifolius
Baker; A. tetragonolobus Edgew.; A. vaginalis
(L.) DC.; A. vaginalis DC. var. nummulari-
folia Baker; A. vasvadae Hemadri; Clitoria
biflora Dalz.; Crotalaria albida Heyne; C.
bifaria L. f.; C. calycina Schrank; C. filipes
Benth.; C. filipes Benth. var. tricophora Cooke;
C. hebecarpa (DC.) Rudd. {Goniogyna hirta
DC.); C. juncea L.; C. linifolia L.; C. medi-
caginea Lamk.; C. medicaginea Lamk. var. neg-
lect a Baker; C. mysorensis Roth; C. nana
Burm.; C. orixensis Willd.; C. pallida Ait. (C.
striata DC.); C. prostrata Rottl. ( C . prostrata
Roxb.); C. stocksii Benth.; C. triquetra Dalz.;

C. vestita Baker; Desmodium alysicarpoides
Van Meeuwen (D. parviflorum (Dalz.) Baker);

D. dichotomum (Willd.) DC., ( D. diffusum
DC.); D. gangeticum DC. var. maculatum
Baker D. reni forme DC.; Dolichos falcatus
Klein ex Willd.; Flemingia gracilis (Mukher-
jee) Ali ( Maughania gracilis Mukherjee); F.
nilgheriensis (Baker) Wt.; Indigofera cordifolia
Heyne, /. dalzellii T. Cooke; /. deccanensis
Sanjappa; /. glandulosa Roxb.; /. glandulosa
Roxb. var. sykesi Baker; /. linifolia (Li.) Retz.;
/. iinifolia Retz. var. campbelli Wt.; /. linnaei
Ali (/. enneaphylla L .);'/. nummularifolia (L.)
Livera ex Alst. (/. echinata Willd.); /. santa -
pau Sanjappa; /. spicata Forsk. (/. endeca-
phylla N. Jacq., “hendecaphyUa” ,); /. trita L.
var. purandharensis Sanjappa; Pseudarthria
viscida (L.) Wt. & Arn.; Smithia agharkarii
Hemadri; S. bigemina Dalz.; S. blanda var.
racemosa Baker; S. conferta Sm.; S. hirsuta
Dalz.; S. purpurea DC.; S. pycnantha Benth.;

S. salsuginea Hance; S . sensitiva Ait.; S. sensi-
tiva Ait. var. fulva Cooke; S. setulosa Dalz.;
Taverniera cuneifolia Arn. (T. nummularifolia
Baker); Tephrosia purpurea Pers.; T. strigosa
(Dalz.) Sant. & Mahesh. (T. tenuis Wall.);

T. tinctoria Pers.; T. uniflora Pers. (T. pauci-
flora Grab, ex Baker); Trigonella occulata

587

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Delile; Vigna aconiti folia (Jacq.) Marechal
( Phaseolus aconitifolius Jacq.); V. angularis
(Willd.) Ohvvi & Ohashi ( Phaseolus angularis
(Willd.) Wt.; V. dalzelliana (O. Ktze.) Verde.
( Phaseolus dalzellii Cooke); V. khandalensis
(Sant.) Rag. & Wad. (Phaseolus khandalensis
Sant.); V. radiata var. sublobata (Roxb.) Verd.
(. Phaseolus sublobatus Roxb.); V. radiata
Wilczek ( Phaseolus radiatus L.); V. trilobata
(L.) Verde. ( Phaseolus trilobatus Ait.); Zornia
gibbosa Span. (Z. diphylla Pers.); Cassia absus
L.; C. mimosoides L.; C. obtusifolia L.; C.
pumila Lamk.; C. tora L.

b) Legume flora of the plains :

1. General vegetation of scattered trees of
Erythrina suberosa Roxb.; E. variegata L. var.
alba\ Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. subsp. indica
(Benth.) Brenan var. cupressiformis (Stewart)
Vaj. & Kamble; A. nilotica (L.) Del. subsp.
vediana (Cooke) Vajravelu & Kamble; A.
eburnea Willd.; Dichrostachys cinerea Wt. &
Arn.; Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce; have
established themselves in waste and drier areas.

2. Seasonal vegetation : Annual and peren-
nial herbs which put forth shoots annually
from underground parts at different seasons of
the year.

COMMON LEGUMES OF CULTIVATED LANDS:
Aeschynornene indica L.; Alysicarpus tetra-
gonolobus Edgew.; lndigofera cordi folia Heyne;

/. glandulosa Roxb.; Melilotus indica All.;
Psoralea corylifolia Linn.; Sesbania bispinosa
(Jacq.) Wt. ( S . aculeata Poir.); Sesbania ses-
ban (L.) Merr. (S. aegyptica Poir.); Vigna
trilobata (L.) Verde. (Phaseolus trilobatus
Ait.); Cassia pumila Lamk.

PROMINENT COMMUNITIES OF LEGUMES DURING
RAINY SEASON IN PASTURE LANDS AND LAWNS:
Alysicarpus bupleurifolius (L.) DC.; A. pro -
cumbens (Roxb.) Schindl. (A. hamosus
Edgew.); A. tetragonolobus Edgew.; A. vagi-
nalis (L.) DC.; Crotalaria filipes Benth.; Crota-

laria nana Burm.; C. orixensis Willd.; Desmo-
dium dichotomum (Willd.) DC. (D. diffusum
DC.); D. triflorum (L.) DC.; Geissaspis cris-
tata Wt. & Arn.; G. tenella Benth.; lndigofera
cordifolia Heyne; /. glandulosa Roxb.; /.
hirsuta L.; Smithia bigemina Dalz.; S. hirsuta
Dalz.; S. purpurea DC.; S. pycnantha Benth.;
Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.) Alst. (S. mucro-
nata Willd.); Tephrosia uniflora Pers.; Lathy -
rus aphaca L.; Medicago lupina L.; Vicia hir-
suta Koch.; Zornia gibbosa Span. (Z. diphylla
Pers.); Cassia pumila Lamk.; and Mimosa
pudica L. These communities survive well
where moisture is available.

LEGUMES OF DRIED ROCKY SOIL:

Alysicarpus monilifer DC.; A. pubescens
Law.; A. vasvadae Hemadri; lndigofera hoch-
stetteri Baker (/. anabaptista Steud. ex Baker);
I. I ini folia Retz.; /. linnaei Ali; 7. spicata
Forsk.; Mundulea sericea (Willd.) A. Cheval;
Tephrosia purpurea Pers.; Cassia auriculata L.

HEDGE LEGUMES:

Some legumes grow along the hedges, i.e.
along the bunds of the cultivated fields and
house boundaries. These are:

Canavalia gladiata DC.; Clitoria ternatea
Linn.; Rhynchosia minima DC.; Paracalyx
scariosa Ali; Caesalpinia crista L.; C. decape-
tala Alston.

SALINE LAND LEGUMES:

Due to excess irrigation the salinity of the
soil increases. A few legumes grow well in
saline soil, like:

Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) Wt.; Acacia
nilotica (L.) Willd.; Prosopis juliflora (Sw.)
DC.

LEGUME FLORA OF WATER-LOGGED SOIL:

Few species grow in water-logged area as
aeration of soil is very poor. These are:
Aeschynornene indica L.; Smithia purpurea
DC.; S. sensitiva Ait.; Cassia pumila Lamk.

588

ECOLOGICAL STUDIES ON LEGUMES

WASTE LAND LEGUMES:

Waste lands are areas which are not culti-
vated. In such sites for example roadsides
exotics predominate. These are:

Desmodium scorpiurus (Swartz) Desvaux;
Rhynchosia rothii Benth. ( R. sericea Span.);
Tephrosia. purpurea Pers.; Cassia hirsuta L.;
C. occidentalis L.; C. tora L.; C. uniflora Mill.

LEGUME FLORA OF SACRED GROVES:

Sacred groves are undisturbed forests kept
inviolate in the name of Gods and
Goddesses. Occurrence of giant climbers
like Entada pursaelha DC. (E. scandens
Benth.); Dalbergia volubilis Roxb.; Mucuna
monosperma DC.; Mezoneuron cucullatum Wt.
& Arn.; Wagatea spicata Dalz. was noticed in
such places. Especially Entada pursaetha DC.
is found only inside sacred groves. Other
legumes are:

Acacia pennala (L.) Willd.; A. sinuala (Lour.)
Merr. (A. concinna DC.); Albizia amara
(Roxb.) Boiv.; A. chinensis (Osb.) Merr.;
Dalbergia sympathetica Nimmo; Pongamia
pinnata (L.) Pierre.

PLANTATION AND NORMAL FORESTS:

Because of excessive biotic interference, par-
ticularly due to deforestation the plains are
almost denuded and devoid of natural forests.
The rehabilitatory steps taken by the forest
department and public have resulted in ex-
tensive plantation in the remnants of the natu-
ral forests as well as in waste places. Farm
forestry constitutes one of the most conspicuous
aspects of the vegetation and is an integral
part of the forests in the area. Some legumes
figure prominently in the afforestation pro-
gramme of the area. Important species among
these are:

Dalbergia rnelanoxylon Guill & Pers.; D. sissoo
Roxb.; D. lanceolaris L.; Pongamia pinnata
(L.) Pierre; Cassia siatnea Lamk.;

Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn.; Albizia leb-
beck (L.) Willd.; Leucaena leucocephala
(Lamk.) de Wit. (L. glauca Benth.). These
species are naturalized to the climatic condi-
tions of Pune and Satara districts and show
better growth performance. They are, there-
fore, recommended for afforestation program-
mes in the area.

ORNAMENTAL LEGUMES:

The species planted in public gardens and
Botanical gardens as ornamental plants are:
Millettia atropurpurea Benth.; M. ovalifolia
Kurz.; Phaseolus vulgaris Linn.; Sesbania
grandi flora (L.) Pers.; Sophora tomentosa L.;

Tri folium alexandrium Delile.

Many species occurring Acrocarpus fraxini-
folius W. & A.; Bauhinia acuminata L.; B.
galpini Brown; B. hookeri F. Muell.; B. pur-
purea L.; B. variegata L.; Brownea grandiceps
Jacq.; Caesalpinia pulcherrima Swartz; C.
coriaria Willd.; C. ferrea Mart.; Cassia fistula
L.; C. grandis L.; C. nodosa Buch.-Ham.; C.
renigera Wall.; C. roxburghii DC.; C. specta-
bilis DC.; C. surattensis Burm. var. surattensis
Chatt.; Delonix regia Raf.; Saraca asoca
(Roxb.) de Wilde.; Adenanthera pavonina L.;
Calliandra brevipes Benth.; C. haematocephala
Hask.

ROADSIDE LEGUMES:

A few species of legumes are planted along
roadside for shade and shelter.

Dalbergia rnelanoxylon Guill & Pers.; Pon-
gamia pinnata (L.) Pierre; Cassia siamea
Lamk.; Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.)
Baker ex Heyne; Tamarindus indica L.; Aca-
cia nilotica (L.) Willd.; Parkia biglandulosa
Wt. & Arn.; Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr.

LEGUMES USED AS GREEN MANURE:

Some species of legumes are used as green
manure. They are Crotalaria juncea L.; Sesba-
nia sesban (L.) Merr.

589

9

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

CULTIVATED LEGUMES:

Some species are cultivated more widely in
this area. These are:

Arachis hypogea L.; Cajanus cajan (L.)
Millsp.; Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Taub. (C.
psoralioides (Lamk.) DC.); Lablab purpureus
(L.) Sweet. ( Dolichos lablab L.); Macroty-
loma uniflorum. (Lam.) Verd. ( Dolichos uni -
floras L.); Phaseolus lunulatus L.; Pisum sati-
vum L.; Psophocarpus tetragonolobus DC.;
Trigonella foenum-graecum L.; Vigna rnungo
(L.) Hopper; V. radiata (L.) Wilczsek.

INTRODUCED LEGUMES!

In all 41 species are introduced. Some of
these are now naturalised in this area. These
are:

Arachis hypogea L.; Cajanus cajan (L.)
Millsp.; Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth.;
Millettia atropurpurea Benth.; M. ovalifolia
Kurz.; Macroptilium atropurpureum (Benth.)
Urb.; Phaseolus vulgaris Linn.; Acrocarpus
fraxinijolius W. & A.; Bauhinia acuminata L.;

B. galpinii Brown; B. hookeri Muell.; B.
monandra Kurz.; B. tomentosa L.; Brownea
grandiceps Jacq.; Caesalpinia coriaria Willd.;

C. ferrea Mart.; C. pulcherrima Sw.; Cassia
alata L ; C. angusti folia Vahl; C. didymbotria
Fresen; C. grandis L.; C. javanica L.; C.
nodosa Buch.-Ham.; C. renigera Wall; C.
roxburghii DC.; C. siamea Lamk.; C. specta-
bilis DC.; Ceratonia siliqua L,; Colvillea race-
mosa Boj.; Delonix regia Raf.; Haematoxylon
campechianum L.; Parkinsonia aculeata L.;
Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Baker ex
Heyne; Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn.; Calli-
andra brevipes Benth.; C. haematocephala
Hask.; Desmathus virgatus Willd.; Leucaena
leucocephala Hassk.; Parkia biglandulosa Wt. &

Arn.; Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.;
Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr.

RARELY OCCURRING SPECIES:

Geissaspis tenella Benth.; Rhynchosia hirta
(Andr.) Meikle & Verde., and Smithia pyc-
nantha Benth. This paper mainly describes the
ecological distribution pattern of the legumes
and their adaptation to a particular habitat in
addition to the taxonomy of relevant taxa. Data
on this aspect of legumes were not available
for this area.

The analysis of the genera and species
covered is presented in the following table:

Family name

No.

genera

No.

species

No.

varieties

Fabaceae

54

155

19

Caesalpiniaceae

17

53

1

Mimosaceae

13

34

2

Total :

84

242

22

Discussion

In all 242 species belonging to 84 genera of
the 3 families of legumes have been collected
and recorded. Legumes are the most important
component of the natural vegetation of local
floras. Economically legumes are sources of
food, fodder, timber, dyes, gums, resins, oil,
medicine, green manure, etc. Growing in every
soil type and climatic conditions, they show
great variety in habit, e.g. trees, shrubs, scan-
dent shrubs, herbs, climbers, twiners, etc. Some
of them are excellent soil binders and are
often planted for checking soil erosion. The
use of leguminous plants in soil improvement
projects has been given top priority by Agri-
culture and Forest Departments. Legumes
enrich the soil either by fixing the atmospheric
nitrogen through their root nodules and libe-
rating it as these decay, or by ploughing in

590

ECOLOGICAL STUDIES ON LEGUMES

the whole plant as green manure. It is always
a beneficial practice to take a crop of pulses
after cereals.

During the present study Macroptilium atro -
purpureum (Benth.) Urb. has been recorded
as new to Maharashtra State and Goa. It is
an introduced species from U.S.A. Millettia
atropurpurea Benth. has been also reported as
new to this state.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. S. H. Godbole,
Director, M.A.C.S. Research Institute, Pune
for providing facilities for work. We are also
thankful to the B.S.I., Western Circle, Pune
and Blatter Herbarium, Bombay, for giving
library and herbarium facilities; to Department
of Science & Technology and Department of
Environment for sponsoring these two schemes.

References

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and nodulation. Wisconsin Press, U.S.A.

Bird wood, H. M. (1896) : A catalogue of flora of
Matheran and Mahabaleshwar. /. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 70(3) : 394-439.

Bole, P. V. & Almeida, M. R. (1981): Material
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Cooke, T. (1903) : Flora of Bombay presidency.
Vol. I. 305-486. (Reprinted Edition, 1958). Botanical
Survey of India, Calcutta.

Hemadri, K. (1971) : Two new species of Faba-
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Karthikeyan, S., Nayar, M. P. & Sundara, R.
(1981) : A catalogue of species added to Cooke’s
flora of Presidency of Bombay during 1908-1978.
Records of the Botanical Survey of India, 27(2):
153-205.

Razi, B. A. (1953): Some aspects of the vegeta-
tion of Poona and neighbouring districts. Poona Univ.
J. Science. 1 : 1-57.

Rudd, Velva E. (1983) : Reduction of the genus
Goniogyna to Crotalaria (Leguminosae). Phytologia,
54(1): 26-29.

Santapau, H. (1951): A Contribution to the flora
of Sinhagad hill, Poona Dist. Poona Agric. College
Mag. 47(4) : 270-281.

(1953): The flora of Khandala on

the Western ghats of India. (Reprint Edition, 1967).
The Manager of Publication, Civil Lines, Delhi.
(1957): The Flora of Purandhar.

Oxford Printers, New Delhi.

Sharma, B. D., Singh, N. P., Raghavan, R. S.
& Deshpande, U. R. (1984) : Flora of Karnatak,
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Tiwari, S. D. N. (1979) : The Phytogeneography
of Madhya Pradesh (Central India). B. Singh
Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.

Tosh, Jayananda & Vartak, V. D. (1985):
Macroptilium atropurpureum (Benth.) Urb. A new
record for Maharashtra and Goa. /. Econ. Tax. Bot .
6(1) : 203-204.

Varadpande, D. G. (1973): The flora of Ganesh-
khind, Poona District. J. Poona Univ. Sci. and Tech,
section. 44: 97-133.

Vartak, V. D. (1957) : Some additions to the
flora of Sinhagad hill, Poona District. The Poona
Agric. Coll. Magazine. 47(4) : 263-272.

— — (1960) : The study of flora of the

Katraj ghat. J. Univ. Poona Sci . and Tech. Section,
22: 85-117.

(1964) : The arboreal flora of

Poona Corporation campus, ibid. 28: 1-31.

(1983): Observations on rare,

imperfectly known and endemic plants in the
Sacred Groves of Western Maharashtra. In ‘Assess-
ment of Threatened Plants of India’ 169-178. Edited
by S. K. Jain and R. R. Rao, BSI, Howrah.

Vartak, V. D. & Kumbhojkar, M. S. (1984) :
Occurrence of Desmodium scorpiurus (Swartz.) Des-
vaux in Western India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc ,
81: 224-226.

591

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF MARPISSA KOCH (ARANEAE: SALTICXDAE)

FROM INDIA1

Kanchan Mqnga2, J. P. Singh3 and G. L. Sadana4
(With two text -figures)

A new species of genus Marpissa from
Northern India is described.

All type specimens will, in due course, be
deposited in the collections of the Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta.

Marpissa sisighi sp. nov. (Figs. 1-2)

Female cephalothorax: Carapace: length 1.84
mm; maximum breadth 1 . 52 mm; about four
fifth as wide as long, with sides curved out-
wards, flattened, yellow, covered with fine
pubescence. Cephalic region not distinctly
marked from thoracic region. Eyes: eight,
transparent, encircled by black rims; arranged
in three rows, ocular quad less than half the
length of cephalothorax. Diameter of eyes
(mm) : A.M. - 0.27; A.L. = 0.10; P.M. = 0.07

and P.L. = 1.15. Mutual distances between
the eyes (mm): A.M. - A.M. = 0.49; A.M. -
A.L. = 0.40; A.M. -P.M. = 0.56 ; A.M. -P.L.
= 0.89; P.M. -P.M. = 1.11; P.M. - P.L. = 0.40;
P.L. -P.L. = 1.13 and A.L. -A.L. = 1.20.
Width of clypeus: 0.01 mm. Chelicerae: yellow
with two teeth on promargin and one on re-
tromargin. Maxillae: yellow, broad at anterior
end and narrower at base with thick black
scopulae at anterior margin. Labium: yellow,
subtriangular, with a few brown stiff hairs at
anterior end. Sternum: yellow with a few
brown hairs, convex, oval, narrow at anterior
end, smaller in width than the base of labium.
Tibia and metatarsi I & II with three and two
pairs of ventral spines, respectively. Coxae of
legs separated by a distance less than their own
diameter. Length of legs (mm) :

Leg

Coxa

Trochanter

Femur

Patella

Tibia

Metatarsus

Tarsus

Total

I

0.17

0.10

0.93

0.20

0.57

0.43

0.33

2.73

II

0.17

0.10

0.73

0.23

0.40

0.27

0.37

2.27

III

0.17

0.07

0.67

0.17

0.33

0.27

0.30

1.98

IV

0.17

0.10

0.77

0.20

0.50

0.40

0.30

2.44

1 Accepted August 1988.

2 Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar.

3 Department of Zoology, Punjabi University,
Patiala.

4 Department of Zoology, Punjab Agricultural Uni-
versity, Ludhiana.

Abdomen : Length 2.48 mm; maximum

breadth 1.52 mm; flattened, oval in shape,
projecting over the cephalothorax to obscure
pedicel. Dorsum yellow with a light streak in
the centre of the posterior half and covered

592

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

all over with brown hairs. Venter yellow, with
a pair of thin streaks extending from epigastric
furrow to spinnerets. Epigynum as in Fig. 2.

Total length : $ 4.32 mm.

Holotype : $, in spirit, India: haryana:

Kalesar Reserve Forest, Dist. Ambala, 4.V.1979,
K. Monga.

This species resembles slightly with Marpissa
andamanensis Tikader but can be distinguish-
ed from it by the considerable difference in
size, absence of white bands on cephalotho-
rax, and presence of a light streak in the
posterior half of the abdomen instead of longi-
tudinal patch present mid-dorsally in M. anda-
manensis. The structure of epigynum is also
different.

ACK NOWLEDGEME NTS

We thank the Professor and Head, Depart-
ment of Zoology, Punjabi University, Patiala
for providing laboratory facilities.

References

Sadana, G. L. & ICaur, M. (1974) : A new species
of spiders of genus Marpissa Koch (Salticidae) from
India. Bull. Br. Arachn. Soc., 3(2): 49-50.

Tikader, B. K. (1965) : A new spider of genus
Marpissa (family Salticidae) from India. Sci. Cult.
37(5): 262.

— (1967): Studies on some salticid

spiders from Sikkim, Himalaya, India. Proc. Ind.
Acad. Sci. 66(4): 117-122.

(1974): Studies on some spiders

of genus Marpissa from India (family Salticidae).
ibid. 79(1-6): 204-215.

(1977) : Studies on spider fauna of

Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Indian Ocean. Rec.
Zool. Surv. India 72: 153-212.

Figs. 1-2. Marpissa singhi sp. nov. : 1. Dorsal view
of female; 2. Epigynum.

593

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 85

TWO NEW SPECIES OF GENUS DYSTROPICUS PASCOE
(COLEOPTERA: CURCULIONXDAE: CRYPTORHYNCHINAE)

FROM INDIA1

L, S. Arya2 and H, R. Pajni3
(With twelve text-figures)

Two new species Dystropicus glabriscutellus and D. madhyapradeshi have been
described and illustrated. Descriptions of external genitalia of old species, namely.
D. dorsalis and D. clitella are included. A key to the Indian species is also given.

Introduction

The genus Dystropicus Pascoe has so far
been represented in India by only two species,
namely. Dystropicus dorsalis Faust 1898 and
D. clitella Faust 1898. Both species were
recorded from the Eastern Himalayas and were
described inadequately. During the present
studies, an extensive survey of Northern
India was made under PL-480 project on Cur-
culionidae during 1975-81 and some unidentified
collection from F.R.I., Dehra Dun (U.P.) was
also borrowed. Consequently, as many as 70
species belonging to Cryptorhynchinae compris-
ing 31 known species, 27 new species and 12
first records from India were studied. This
paper describes two new species of the genus
as well as the description of external genitalia
of known species. Besides, the genus itself has
also been recharacterised. A key to the Indian
species is provided.

Genus Dystropicus Pascoe

Dystropicus Pascoe, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova,

(2)11, 1885, p. 252, — Morimoto, Esakia

(11), 1978, p. 127.

Rer osiris Lea (nec Pascoe), Proc. Linn. Soc.

1 Accepted October, 1986.

2 Biologist, I/C Urban Malaria Scheme, Kuru-
kshetra - 132 118.

3 Department of Zoology, Panjab University,
Chandigarh - 160 014 (India) .

n. s. Wales XXXII, 1907, p. 415; Trans. Roy.
Soc. S. Austr. XXXVII, 1913, p. 307.

Head with eyes distinctly granulate, sub-
approximate beneath. Rostrum thin, distinctly
separated from head, with scrobe oblique, not
visible from above. Antennae relatively long,
inserted at middle of rostrum, each with dis-
tinct club. Pronotum transverse, extending over
head anteriorly, with prominent ocular lobes.
Scutellum small and bare. Elytra broader than
pronotum, longitudinally moderately convex.
Legs short; femora thick and hardly clavate,
dentate below; tibiae short, compressed, ex-
ternally arcuate, armed; tarsi short, with claws
free. Sternal canal surpassing hind end of mid-
coxae, sometimes extending beyond middle of
metasternum; metastemum longer than ventrite
3. Abdominal segment 2 longer than 1.

Type-species: Dystropicus squalidus Pascoe.

Key to the species of genus Dystropicus Pascoe

1 . Rostrum as long as pronotum. Sternal canal

reaching hind end of mid-coxae 2

Rostrum at least as long as head and pronotum
together. Sternal canal extending far behind mid-
coxae 3

2. Eyes strongly approximate. Elytra with shoulders

oblique. Metasternum sloping inward

dorsalis Faust

Eyes hardly approximate. Elytra with shoulders
roundly rectangular. Metasternum not sloping
inward glabriscutellus sp. nov.

3. Eyes strongly approximate. Funicular segment 2
longer than 1. Elytra with longitudinal white

594

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

stripes near outer margins

madhyapradeshi sp. nov.

Eyes sub-approximate. Funicular segment I as

long as 2. Elytra without stripes

clitella Faust

Dystropicus dorsalis Faust
(Figs. 1,2)

Faust, Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr., 1898, p. 317.

Male genitalia with aedeagus parallel-sided,
subtruncate posteriorly, uniformly and weakly
sclerotized; aedeagal apodemes longer than
aedeagus, slightly broader in apical half than
basal part; phallotreme apical; phallobasic ring
complete, somewhat broad; with apodeme
tubular and short; parameres median. Gastral
spiculum with median arm flattened at apical
tip, more sclerotized at sides.

Dystropicus clitella Faust
(Figs. 3-6)

Faust, Deustache Ent. Zeitschr., 1898, p. 316.

Male genitalia with aedeagus parallel-sided,
constricted behind middle, truncate posteriorly,
uniformly sclerotized; aedeagal apodeme twice
as long as aedeagus, strongly sclerotized except
for apical tip; phallotreme subapical; phallo-
base as complete ring, weakly sclerotized, with
rather short apodeme; parameres longer than
phallobasic apodeme. Gastral spiculum with
median arm rather long, strongly sclerotized.
Female genitalia with coxites rather long, mode-
rately sclerotized; styli strongly sclerotized,
furnished with fine setae at apical tip; spiculum
ventrale with lateral arms rather narrow,
straight, approximate, as sclerotized as median.
Spermatheca with cornu slightly curved,
broadest at base, gradually narrowed behind,
not pointed at tip; collum as well as ramus
indistinct.

Dystropicus glabriscutellus sp. nov.

(Figs. 7-9)

Flead piceous, densely clothed with recum-
bent interspersed with a few suberect fulvous

scales; eyes silvery white, latero-ventral, ovate,
subapproximate below. Rostrum piceous, as
broad at base as frons, as long as pronotum,
subcylindrical, widest at base gradually narrow-
ed behind, acarinate, closely punctate from base
to antennal insertion but finely and remotely
so behind, squamose with pale scales in basal
half and finely setose in apical half. Antennae
ferruginous, inserted behind middle of rostrum;
scape rather long, beset with pale setae in
basal region but with black setae in clavate
region; funicle densely pubescent, with joint 2
twice as long as 1, 3-6 longer than broad, 7
as long as broad; club fusiform, rather narrow,
laterally compressed, with joint 1 longer than 2.

Pronotum piceous, longer than broad,
parallel-sided in basal four-fifth and then
abruptly narrowed towards apex, with promi-
nent subapical constriction, bisinuate at base;
dorsal surface beset with recumbent black scales
forming median longitudinal wide stripe inter-
spersed with a few erect scattered black scales
and two tufts of black scales — one on either
side of median line in middle surrounded by
light-brown stripes of recumbent veined scales
along with a few erect scales, whereas laterally
furnished with darkbrown recumbent and a few
erect scattered scales.

Scutellum black, shiny, slightly longer than
broad, bare.

Elytra piceous, broader at base than prono-
tum, with roundly rectangular moderately deve-
loped shoulders, parallel-sided in basal third
gradually tapering behind, without subapical
calli, longitudinally convex, with base at a
lower level; striae narrow, with punctures
elongate or rounded; intervals densely clothed
with overlapping recumbent scales along with
a few erect scales forming tufts at intervals 2
and 3 in basal half, interval 1 elevated behind
declivity; elytral vestiture light-dark variegated
with pale and dark-brown patches unevently
scattered all over.

595

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Fig. 1. Male genitalia of Dystropicus dorsalis Fst. (dorsal view); Fig. 2. Gastral
spiculum of D. dorsalis Fst.; Fig. 3. Male genitalia of D. clitella Faust, (dorsal view);
Fig. 4. Gastral spiculum of D. clitella Faust.; Fig. 5. Female genitalia of D. clitella
Faust.; Fig. 6. Spermatheca of D. clitella Faust.; Fig. 7. Adult of D. glabriscutellus
sp. nov.; Fig. 8. Male genitalia of D. glabriscutellus sp. nov. (dorsal view); Fig. 9.
Gastral spiculum of D. glabriscutellus sp. nov.; Fig. 10. Adult of D. madhyapradeshi
sp. nov.; Fig. 11. Female genitalia of D. madhyapradeshi sp. nov.

Abbreviations:

ADA: Aedeagal apodeme; AED: Aedeagus; COL: Collum; COR: Cornu; COX:
Coxite; END: Endophallus; GS: Gastral spiculum; LA: Lateral arm; MA: Median
arm; PHB: Phallobase; PHBA: Phallobasic apodeme; PHT: Phallotreme; PMR :
Paramere; RAM: Ramus; SE: Setae; STY: Stylus; SV : Spiculum ventrale.

596

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Legs with femora subclavate, densely cloth-
ed with recumbent fullygenous scales inter-
spersed with a few erect scales; tibia rather
small, widest at base rapidly tapering behind,
laterally compressed; tarsal segment 1 as long
as 2 and 3 combined.

Sternal canal surpassing hind end of mid-
coxae. Metasternum depressed in middle but
costate laterally, punctate with punctures pro-
vided with recumbent grey scales. Abdominal
sternites punctate and densely clothed with
recumbent grey scales.

Male genitalia with aedeagus parallel-sided,
subtruncate at base, moderately sclerotized;
aedeaga! apodeme slightly longer than aedea-
gus, strongly sclerotized in basal half; endo-
phallus without any sclerite; phaliotreme
apical, triangular; phallobasic ring much longer
than broad, moderately sclerotized, with apo-
deme one-fourth as long as, but broader than
aedeagal apodeme; parameres rather short,
pointed at tip. Gastral spiculum with median
arm straight, much broader than phallobasic
apodeme, strongly sclerotized in middle; lateral
arms unequal, moderately sclerotized.

Measurements'. Body length: 5.60-7.00 mm.;
Body width: 2.10-2.50 mm.; Rostrum length:
1.60-1.90 mm.: Rostrum width: 0.30-0.35
mm.

Material examined : Holotype: d' ; Tamil

Nadu: Nilambur, Amarampallarn; unknown

host: C.F.C. Beason Coll.; 29. iv. 1927. Para-
type: 3 males; data same as that of holotype.

Remarks'. This species has a general re-
semblance to D. dorsalis Faust and agrees with
it in the length of the rostrum and extent of
the sternal canal, in addition to other simi-
larities. However, it can be easily separated

from D. dorsalis Faust from the ventrally less
approximate eyes which are closely approxi-
mate in the latter. In addition, the length of
the prothorax and the shape of the shoulders
are also different in the two species, as describ-
ed under their descriptions.

Dystropicus madhyapradeshi sp. nov.

(Figs. 10-12)

Head coarsely punctate, densely clothed
with recumbent light-brown flat scales; frons
at a lower level than vertex; eyes silvery-
white, shiny, oval, approximate below. Rostrum
piceous in basal half, ferruginous in apical
half, longer than head and pronotum combin-
ed, broader at base than frons, cylindrical,
slightly arcuate, closely punctate in basal half
but distantly and shallowly so in apical half,
with punctures squamose at base whereas
setose in remaining basal half, finely setose in
apical half. Antennae ferruginous, inserted at
middle of rostrum; funicle pubescent, with
segment 2 longer than 1, thereafter diminish-
ing in length, 3 and 4 longer than broad, 5
and 6 as long as broad, 7 transverse; club
fusiform, distinctly segmented, subacuminate at
tip.

Pronotum piceous, broader than long, widest
and truncate at base, parallel-sided in basal
half then narrowed behind, coarsely and reti-
culately punctate, densely clothed with black
recumbent veined scales forming a broad
median stripe from base to middle whereas
with yellow scales in remaining region inter-
spersed with a few erect scattered black scales.

Scutellum rounded, opaque at periphery but
glabrous in middle, rather sparsely setose.

Elytra ferruginous, slightly broader at base
than base of pronotum. with roundly rectan-
gular shoulders, parallel-sided in basal third

597

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

thereafter roundly narrowed towards apex,
without subapical calli; striae with punctures
rounded, each studded with black granules at
sides as well as accommodating a horizontal
seta; intervals broader than striae, densely
clothed with recumbent overlapping black and
dark-grey scales along with a few erect scales
forming tufts on intervals 2 and 4 in basal
half.

Legs with femora sublinear, densely clothed
with overlapping greyish-yellow scales; tibia
short, curved at base, gradually narrowed to-
wards apex, densely squamose; tarsal segment
1 as long as 2 and 3 combined.

Sternal canal surpassing hind end of mid-
coxae. Metasternum behind sternal canal slight-
ly depressed. Abdominal sternites closely
punctate with punctures densely clothed with
recumbent greyish -yellow scales concealing
them completely.

Female genitalia with coxites fused all along
their length, strongly sclerotized at sides; styli
tubular, two and a half times as long as broad,
furnished with a few setae at apex; spiculum
ventrale with median arm rodshaped, slightly
dilated at tip, more sclerotized in basal half;
lateral arms rather approximate, as sclerotized

R E F E

Faust, J. (1898) : Beschreibung never Coleopteren
von Vorder-und Hinterindein. Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr.
314-317.

Pascoe, F. P. (1885) : List of Curculionidae of

as basal half of median arm. Spermatheca
small; cornu slightly curved, pointed at apex;
collum and ramus indistinct.

Measurements'. Body length: 4.06-4.76 mm.;
Body width: 1.68-2.10 mm.; Rostrum length:
1.12-1.26 mm.; Rostrum width: 0.28-0.35
mm.

Material examined'. Holotype: Female,

Madhya Pradesh: S. Chand; on Bombax mala -
baricuim D.F.O. Coll.; 13.x. 1938. Paratype:
Female; data same as that of holotype.

Remarks'. This species differs from the close-
ly allied D. clitella Faust in having the eyes
comparatively more approximate below and
in the length of the second segment of funicle
which is longer than the first as compared to
the equal length of these two segments in D.
clitella.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. P. K. Sensarma, Forest Re-
search Institute, Dehradun (U.P.) for lending
material. The research facilities provided by
the Chairman, Department of Zoology, Panjab
University, Chandigarh are also gratefully
acknowledged.

ENCES

the Malay Archipelago collected by Dr. Odoardo
Beccari, L.M.D’ Albertis and others. Ann. Mus. civ
Stor. Genova (2) 11: 252, 253.

598

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF ONCOCEPHALUS KLUG (HETEROPTERA —
REDUVIIDAE — STENOPODINAE) FROM SOUTHERN INDIA1

Dunston P. Ambrose and S. J. Vennison2

(With eleven text-figures )

Distant (1902 & 1910) in his fauna of British
India, described 14 species of Oncocephalus.

In the present paper a new species of Oncocepha-
lus Klug, viz. O. anniei is described and illustrated.

Key to the identification of Indian species
of genus Oncocephalus

1 . Hemelytra fully developed 2

Hemelytra abbreviated 14

2. Anteocular and postocular areas of head almost

equal in length 3

Anteocular area of head longer than postocular
area of head 5

3. Three piceous or fuscous vittae or longitudinal

fasciae in the anterior lobe of pronotum 4

Irregular mottlings with a subtriangular fascia

in the anterior lobe of pronotum

O. picturatus Distant

4. Five piceous or fuscous vittae in the posterior

lobe of pronotum O. notatus Klug

No piceous or fuscous vittae in the posterior lobe
of pronotum O. naboides Walker

5. Anteocular portion of head longer, but not twice

the length of postocular area 6

Anteocular portion of head twice or more than
twice the length of postocular area 8

6. Both anterior and posterior lateral angles of
pronotum prominently subspinous

O. impudicus Reut.

Both anterior and posterior lateral angles of
pronotum not prominently subspinous 7

7. Apical areas of femora, obsolete apical annula-
tions to tibiae and base of rostrum castaneous

O. fuscinotum Reut.

Broad annulations in the entire femora and tibiae
castaneous O. anniei sp. nov.

8. Head with anteocular area from eyes to base

of antennae twice the length of postocular
area 9

1 Accepted December 1986.

2 Department of Zoology, St. Xavier’s College,
Palayankottai - 627 002, India.

Head with anteocular area from eyes to base
of antennae more than twice the length of
postocular area 13

9. First joint of antennae as long as anteocular

portion of head 10

First joint of antennae as long as head

O. schioedtei Reut.

10. Black antennae outwardly curved, anterior tibiae

little curved O. aterrimus Distant

Brown or ochraceous antennae and tibiae not
curved 11

1 1 . Anterior pronotal lobe distinctly sulcate, anterior
and posterior lateral angles distinctly sub-

spinously produced O. cingalensis Walker

Anterior pronotal lobe not distinctly sulcate.
anterior and posterior lateral angles not distinct-
ly subspinously produced 12

12. Pale cinnamon brown membrane with discal

elongate castaneous spot; anterior angles of pro-
notum prominently subspinous

O. modestus Reut.

Pale brownish ochraceous, membrane with
brownish castaneous central cellular area, apical
spine to scutellum, anterior angles of pronotum

obtusely tuberculously prominent

O. klugi Distant

13. Piceous brown, anteocular portion with a broad
lateral and a narrow central ochraceous fascia,

lateral margins of pronotum unarmed

O. lineosus Distant

Very pale brownish ochraceous, anteocular por-
tion of head with four obsolete dark fuscous
or black lines, lateral margins of pronotum
armed medially with a small tubercle or tooth
O. annnulipes Stal

14. Pale testaceous, pronotum with lateral median

spinous tubercle about twice as long as scutel-
lum. hemelytra without spot

O. micropterus Horv.

Dark fuscous, pronotum without lateral median
spinous tubercle; hemelytra reaching only up to
second abdominal segment with small fuscous
spot near apex O. morosus Distant

599

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Oncocephalus ansiiei sp. nov.

female: Total length 12.69 mm; width across
the eye 1.10 mm; across prothorax 3.07 mm.
(Fig. 1).

Oncocephalus anniei sp. nov.

Fig. 1. Adult female.

Colour brown; compound eyes, antero- and
postero-lateral angles of pronotum, two median,
two lateral obsolete fasciae in the anterior

lobe of pronotum and lateral broad oval areas
in the posterior pronolal lobe except a median
band with a broad basal area, corium, broad
annulations in the femorae and tibiae and spots
in the connexivum bright brownish ochraceous;
pilose.

Head oblong, highly granulate, moderately
porrect; anteocular portion (1.18 mm), slight-
ly longer than postocular portion (0.80 mm);
compound eyes slightly protruding transversely
(0.76 mm diameter); two prominent ochra-
ceous ocelli harboured in short, swollen, hollow
stalk pointing laterally; anteocular and postocu-
lar portion is demarcated by a deep sulcus in the
synthlipsis; just behind each eye three small
lateral tubercles bearing stiff hairs; two promi-
nent pilose antenniferous tubercles outwardly,
one at the base of each antenna (Figs. 2&3);
four-segmented antennae richly pilose, scape
short (0.50 mm), stout and slightly outwardly
defiexed pedicel elongated (2.31 mm), four
times as long as scape, flagellar segments
linear, first flagellar segment slightly longer
(0.63 mm) than second flagellar segment
(0.50 mm) (Fig. 4); rostrum (2.23 mm long)
stout, scarcely pilose, tip resting in the proster-
nal furrow, first (0.84 mm) and second (0.76
mm) rostral segments subequal in length; the
third segment the shortest (0.63 mm) (Fig. 2),
neck distinct.

Pronotum 2.52 mm long and 3.07 mm
broad; granulate; antero-, postero- lateral mar-
gins of pronotum obtuse, pronotum constricted
slightly behind the middle by a transverse
sulcus; anterior lobe raised, convex and medial-
ly longitudinally grooved, pilose; scutellum tri-
angular with a convex disc, two basal, lateral
tubercles one on each side of the disc; posterior
process well developed and spiniform, slightly
laterally produced, finely pilose (Fig. 3).

Legs pilose, broadly annulated, anterior
femora incrassated and ampliated, bear a row
of spines (eleven) beneath (Fig. 5); fore- and

600

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Oncocephalus anniei sp. nov.

Figs. 2-11: 2&3 — head and pronotum lateral and
dorsal views; 4 — antenna; 5 — fore leg; 6 — mid
leg; 7 — hind leg; 8 — pterothorax and abdomen;
9 — fore wing; 10 — hind wing; 11 — genitalia.

mid-tibiae without spongy fossula, tarsi three-
segmented, first and second tarsal segments
subequal in length, the third segment slightly
longer, fore- and mid-legs (Figs. 5&6) more
or less equal in length, the hind legs (Fig. 7)
slightly longer but not passing the abdominal
apex at rest.

Hemelytra (9 mm long and 2.65 mm wide)
with concolourous venation distinct on corium
and membrane, not reaching the apex of abdo-
men, scarcely pilose on corium, the membrane
polished (Figs. 9 & 10).

Abdomen elongated (8.19 mm long and
3.7 mm broad), laterally slightly pilose, cen-
trally polished, ventrally convex, connexivum
spotted, abdomen without any scent gland scars
(Fig. 8) (genitalia as in fig. 11).

Type information :

Holotype ( $ ) collected from Muthurmalai
near Sivanthipatti, in Nellai Kattabomman Dis-
trict of Tamil Nadu on 15.8.1986. Allotype
not found. The holotype is pinned and depo-
sited in the Research Department of Zoology,
St. Xavier’s College, Palayankottai, India.
Paratype (one female) collected from the same
locality.

O. anniei sp. nov, is closer to O. fuscinotum
Reut. and O. impudicus Reut. in having fully
developed hemelytra and longer anteocular
portion of head which is not twice the length
of the postocular portion.

But O. anniei can be easily distinguished
from O. impudicus by the obtuse antero-
postero-lateral angles of pronotum and from
O. fuscinotum by the broad castaneous annula-
tions both in the femora and tibiae.

601

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Principal and authorities of St. Xavier’s College
for facilities and encouragements. The financial
assistance of CSIR (Grant No. 38,/513/EMR-
11-84) for this work is acknowledged.

References

Distant, W. L. (1902): The fauna of British — (1910): ibid. Vol. V (Heterop-

India, Rhynchota — Vol. II (Heteroptera). Taylor tera — Appendix). Taylor & Francis Ltd... London.
& Francis Ltd.. London, pp. 227-233. pp. 186-187.

TWO NEW SPECIES OF PIRATINAE STAL FROM SOUTHERN
INDIA (HETEROPTERA — REDUVIIDAE — PIRATINAE)1

David Livingstone and C. Murugan2
(With two text-figures)

Two new species of the genus Pirates and Ectomocoris from Southern India, namely
Pirates unipunctatus sp. nov. and Ectomocoris tuberculatum sp. nov. are described
and illustrated.

Etymology :

This species is named after Mrs. Annie
Ambrose.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Rev. Fr. G. Packiaraj, S J.,

I NTRODUCTION

The subfamily Piratinae, among the tibiaro-
liate group of Reduviidae, could be broadly
divided into two groups, one having more
elongately produced head, with antennae far
removed in front of the eyes and having
tibiarolium or the tibial pad developed only
on the fore-tibiae and the other group having
moderately elongate head with the antennae
arising closer to the eyes and the fore- and
mid-tibiae provided with tibiarolium. The first
group is exclusive for Sirthenea whereas the
second group includes several genera, Ectomo-
coris and Pirates constituting the major genera

1 Contribution No. 58s Division of Entomology,
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore-641 046. Accepted
August 1987.

2 Division of Entomology, Bharathiar University,
Coimbatore - 641 046, India.

comprising of more than 90% of the recorded
species of Piratinae and the diagnostic feature
of these two genera is the extent of deve-
lopment of tibiarolium. In Ectomocoris the
tibial pad, of the fore- and mid-tibiae extends
more than half the length of each tibia whereas
in Piratinae it is restricted almost to the tip
of the tibia but its lobe extending almost the
entire length of the first two tarsomeres. In
both genera, the second segment of the rostrum
is the longest, more than double the length of
the first segment and in the case of Pirates
the fore-femora is usually, provided with tuber -
culate spines. In Ectomocoris, however, no
such armature has been reported to be charac-
teristic. In the present description, the Ecto-
mocoris species is provided with a row of
tubercles on the fore-femora and for that reason
it is described as new to science.

602

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

1. Pirates unipuatatus sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

male: length 12 mm, width across the
abdomen 4 mm, macropterous; elongate; head
elongately ovate; fuscous with reddish tinge;
testaceous; eyes black, globose; ocelli reddish
brown; ocellar prominence moderately formed;
anteocular and postocular areas almost equal;
second segment of rostrum ochraceous, third
segment fuscous and basal segment pale fus-
cous; antennae pale fuscous, pedicel more than
double the length of the slightly incrassated
scape, filamentar segments and the scape almost
equal in length; scape almost as long as the

Fig. 1. Pirates unipunctatus sp. nov.

anteocular area as well as the second rostral
segment; pronotum unicolorous; dorsally dense-
ly clothed with tomentose hairs, discal promi-
nence moderately developed; posterior lobe

slightly convex, postero-lateral margins elevat-
ed; the transverse fissure between anterior and
posterior lobes moderately deep and dark, ex-
panded towards the exterior; carinations and
sulcations of anterior lobe most obscure, dense-
ly clothed with white tomentose hairs; antero-
lateral tubercles obscure; epimeral prominence
of the prothorax globose and porrectly produced
in front of the pronotum; scutellum broadly tri-
angular with marginal carination and central
foveation; scutellar spine moderately develop-
ed, porrect, fuscous; clavus and inner margin
of the corium yellowish white with a tinge of
red, entire corium exclusively clothed with
tomentose hairs; thorax and abdomen unicolo-
rous, fuscous, clothed with tomentose hairs;
legs unicolorous, ochraceous; fore-femora in-
crassated with median ventral longitudinal dark
serrated carina; tibial pad of the foreleg not
exceeding 1/4 of the tibiae but anteriorly the
lobe reaching upto the middle of the second
tarsomere.

This species resembles Pirates punctum in
having similar spotted hemelytra, carinated and
serrated fore-femora, and in the general cloth-
ing of the body by tomentose hairs. It can
be readily recognised from P. punctum by its
smaller size, colouration of the head, pronotum
and abdomen (fuscous with reddish tinge),
slightly incrassated nature of the scape, the
more numerous tuberculate spines of the fore-
femora, more elongate second rostral segment
and by the large sized black eyes.

female: Also macropterous.

Type Information

Holotype — male Serial No. 66, pinned
specimen deposited at present in the reduviid
collection of the Division of Entomology,
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, India.

Collection Information

Holotype collected by light trap in an agro-

603

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

ecosystem in Vadavalli, Coimbatore District,
Tamil Nadu on 1.4.85 at 19.50 hours and
at elevation, 500 MSL, temperature 28°C and
humidity 70%. Paratypes : several, collected
from the same location on different dates.

2. Ectomocoris tuberculatum sp. nov. (Fig. 2)
male: Length 18 mm, width across the
abdomen 3 mm, macropterous, elongate, head
elongately ovate, piceous, smooth; head, pro-
notum, scutellum, abdomen dorsally and ven-
trally, thorax ventrally and membrane piceous;
eyes black, globose, placed vertically upward;
ocelli reddish brown, separated by a broad
inter-ocellar furrow; legs, scape and pedicel,
first two segments of the rostrum, clavus, basal
half of corium and base of the membrane
ochraceous; both filamentar segments of
antennae pale fuscous; scape having a brown

Fig. 2. Ectomocoris tuberculatum sp. nov.

basal ring, not exceeding the length of pre-
ocular area; third segment of the rostrum pale
fuscous much shorter than second, almost as
long as the first segment, second rostral seg-
ment slightly incrassated, almost as long as
the scape; ocellar prominence extending late-
rally beyond the level of the eyes; pronotal
anterior lobe almost double the length of the
posterior lobe; antero-lateral tubercle porrectly
produced; carinations and sulcations of the
anterior lobe faintly differentiated, smooth with
a median longitudinal shallow fissure through-
out the length and extending up to the anterior
half of the posterior lobe; the epimeral lobes
of the prothorax globose, prominently pro-
jecting on either side of the collar; posterior
lobe slightly convex posteriorly, lateral and
discoidal prominences moderately differentiat-
ed, smooth; scutellum broadly triangular;
median foveation obscure; scutellar tubercle
short and porrect; corium luteous, almost
entirely except the base and apex; legs uni-
colourous, ochraceous; fore-femora incrassated,
ventrally with a row of fine brown tubercles;
the tibial pads extending more than half the
length of tibiae and extending anteriorly
throughout the length of the first two tarso-
meres.

Type Information

Holotype: male — Serial No. 65, pinned
specimen deposited at present in the reduviid
collection of the Division of Entomology, Bhara-
thiar University, Coimbatore, India.

Collection Information

Holotype : Collected from underneath

stone in Malumichampatti, Coimbatore dis-
trict, Tamil Nadu on 22.8.85 at elevation 350
MSL, Temperature 28 °C, humidity 70%.
Paratypes : several, all males, collected from
Madukkarai on 2.9.83 at elevation 350 MSL,
temperature 29°C, humidity 52%; Marutha-

604

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

malai on 1.3.84 at elevation 500 MSL, tem-
perature 31°C, humidity 38% and also from
Kovaipudur on 30.9.85 at elevation 400 MSL,
temperature 33 °C, humidity 74%, all the places
within Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the authorities of the

Refe

Distant, W. L. (1904): Fauna of British India,
Rhynchota, Vol. II, Heteroptera. Taylor & Francis.,
London, pp. 288-303.

Bharathiar University, Coimbatore for provid-
ing facilities and to the Department of Science
and Technology, New Delhi for financial assis-
tance during the course of investigation. Thanks
are due to the Director, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta, for placing at our disposal their
reduviid collection for comparison.

e n c e s

(1910) : ibid. Vol. V, Heteroptera,

Appendix. Taylor & Francis, London, pp. 169-217.

605

10

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REVIEWS

VOA

7 , " ' ' . . aoojslq sril Ik yfibimurl ,3°££ oiuJfiioqmol

. PLANTS IN DANGER: What Do We Know? By Stephen D. Davis,

Stephen L M. Droop, Patrick Gregerson, Louise Henson, Christine J.

Leon, Jane Lamlein Villa-Lobos, Hugh Synge and Jana Zantovska.
pp. xlv + 461 (23.5 cm x 16,0 cm). Gland, .Switzerland and Cambridge,

U.K., 1986. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN). Price not mentioned.

This book is intended to provide a cdricTse
guide to information on threatened plants
throughout the world. Book does not provide
information on each threatened species, but
it shows how to find that information.

The entries in the book are arranged alpha-
betically by names of countries and under
each entry following information is given:

1 . Area, 2. Population, 3. Floristics, 4. Vege-
tation, 5 . Checklists & Floras, 6 . Field
Guide, 7 . Information — on threatened
plants, 8. Botanic Gardens, 9. Laws of the
country for protecting plants, 10. Voluntary
organisation involved in conservation acti-
vities, 11. Useful addresses, 12. References.

Preface of the book expresses hopes that
the information given in the book will en-

courage action to save the threatened plants
assiduously documented by Botanists all over
the world. .siajmmteH JI JoV ^iodon^riM

It also considers that, ‘‘Although' ’more re-
search is needed enough is known about
the threats to plant life for action to be taken
now”.

We will all agree with the authors of this
book that, “for of all the changes that man
can make to the earth, none is more perma-
nent or more wasteful than the extinction of a
species”.

The book is basically a reference volume
and recommended for all libraries of Biological
& Environmental disciplines.

M. R. ALMEIDA

2. COMMON FISHES OF INDIA. By B. F. Chhapgar. pp. 50 (24.5 x
18 cm.) with four colour plates & 111 text-figures. @ World Wide
Fund for Nature — India, Bombay, 1987. Oxford University Press.
Price Rs. 20. [2nd edition to be published in 1989, Price Rs. 24/-].

Although wildlife is a popular topic today,
very few people in India know enough to treat
fishes as wildlife and as something more than
a table delicacy. The reasons for this situa-
tion are not far to seek. Firstly, fishes being
denizens of the underwater world, only ‘Water
babies’ and scuba divers could observe them

606

cOd

in their natural habitat. There is no fun in
watching them in the fish market. Secondly,
there is hardly any simple book on the fishes
of India that can stimulate the common man
to take interest in these unique creatures.

Dr Chhapgar’s ‘Common Fishes of India’
published under the Nature Guides series of

01

REVIEWS

the WWF is an attempt to introduce some of
the common or peculiar fishes that occur in
the Indian waters, both inland and marine.
The number of species described are barely
137 out of the several hundreds known in the
Indian region. But this number is well within
the scope of this 50 page book.

Most of the fishes included in the text are
illustrated accurately in black and white or in
colour. The fishes are grouped under natural
taxonomic categories to make it more mean-

ingful to a student as well as a lay reader. The
description of each fish also includes a very
brief but useful piece of information either on
its habits or some other interesting peculiarity.

Within the constraints of space and cost of
production it is a book worth its price and
can be recommended not only for school and
college libraries, but also for the bookshelf in
the house.

ROBERT B. GRUBH

3 . FLOWERS OF THE HIMALAYAS, a supplement. By Adam Stainton.
pp. i-xi + 72 (22 cm x 14 cm), with 128 coloured plates. Delhi, 1988.
Oxford University Press. Price Rs. 225.00.

This book is a supplement to “Flowers of
Himalayas” published in 1984, by the author
jointly with Oleg Polunin. The supplement con-
tains about 350 plant species not described in
original volume and adds over 600 new colour-
ed photographs of 584 species. Like the original
volume, the supplement is intended for the
lay reader and has been presented in simple
language.

600 coloured photographs is definitely not a
bad bargain for two hundred and twenty-five
rupees and I am sure all lovers of natural
beauty of our Himalayan flora would prefer
to buy this supplement. Those who have the
original volume of “Flowers of Himalayas”
will certainly find their volume incomplete
without this supplement.

The following errors are noticeable in the
supplement :

1. Photograph no 98: Caesalpinia cucullata.
Inflorescence in this photograph is that of the
titled species whereas the leaves are of some
different species, probably of Woodfordia
fruticosa.

2. Photograph no. 336: This photograph
named Wrightia arborea is wrongly identified.
The plant shown in the photograph is known
in our Indian Floras as Holarrhena antidysen-
terica, which has been corrected by Dr. K. M.
Mathew in his “Flora of Tamil Nadu
Carnatic”.

.gnoitfiDiIdu*! isvoCI ; (QcQI ) .M .Q

M. R. ALMEIDA

-wo5\ oxiidle ns no 3 Jon A :(£8Qi) .8

MAIC3KI CM A Z3RJOHAJ MAMlMAH

IT

zultatas ivjWsMb .ii/gruff nmnimsL ttaasb nsibnl Isaig Oih lo sgnhl nic.r*£o sj

-oagoox amaiJxa aril oais ?.i Hoirlw .onAilnG gniyff nsibnl aufodiurl /njqnor

iBfiT ni noitudhlgib lisril lo fimil oidq^g bns rbinnmL

607

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. OCCURRENCE OF AN ALBINO RAT-TAILED BAT;
RHINOPOMA M1CROPHYLLUM KINNEARI WROUGHTON
IN THE INDIAN DESERT

(With a text -figure)

Albino bats in some species, Miniopterus
schreibersii (Kahrau 1972), Myotis lucifugus
(Smith 1982), Rousettus leschenaulti (Karim
1983) (and for other species see Allen 1939)
have already been reported but there is no
such report in the case of Rhinopoma micro -
phyllum kinneari ; a common species of the
Indian subcontinent.

During the present survey, a male albino
of R . m. kinneari (Fig. 1) was collected from
a bat colony situated below the elevated site
of convocation ground of University of Jodh-
pur, India. This is probably the first report
on the presence of albinism in this species.

Department of Zoology,

University of Jodhpur,

Jodhpur - 342 001 (India),

May 3, 1988.

Fig. 1. Albino Rat-tailed bat, Rhinopoma micro-
phyllum kinneari Wroughton.

U. S. BHATI

References

Allen, G. M. (1939) : Bats. Dover Publications,
New York.

Kahrau, W. (1972) : Australian Caves and Caving.
Periwinkle Books.

Karim, K. B. (1983): A note on an albino Rou-

settus leschenaulti. Bat Res. News. 24(4) : 39-40.

Smith, H. C. (1982) : An albino little brown bat,
Myotis lucifugus, from Alberta. Canada. Field Natur.
96: 217.

2. HABITAT SHARING BY HANUMAN LANGURS AND INDIAN

FLYING FOXES

The eastern fringe of the great Indian desert
at Jodhpur, Rajasthan harbours Indian flying
fox, Pteropus giganteus giganteus Briinnich and

Han uman langur, Presbytis entellus entellus
Dufresne, which is also the extreme zoogeo-
graphic limit of their distribution in Thar

608

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

desert (Prakash 1961, Roonwal and Mohnot
1977).

During our eco-ethological studies we have
been observing a colony of Pteropus giganteus
and one bisexual troop of Presbytis entellus
roosting on a single Banyan tree {Ficus ben -
galensis) at Balsamand 12 km north of
Jodhpur.

Their foraging time is different. Being noc-
turnal, the fruit bats leave their roost about
30 min. after sunset and return 45 min. prior
to sunrise, whereas Hanuman langurs leave
their roost about 15 min. before sunrise and
return 15 min. after sunset and they spend
very little time together and interact.

Two important questions arise from this
observation — (1) why they have selected
that particular tree, and (2) why this kind of
close association occurs in nature.

The reasons of their selection of the banyan
tree are:

Department of Zoology,

University of Jodhpur,

Jodhpur - 342 001,

March 10, 1988.

Refer

Prakash, I. (1961): Taxonomic and biological
observations on the bats of the Rajasthan desert.
Rec. Indian Mus. 59(1 & 2): 149-170.

1 . The dense canopy provides protective
covering for fruit bats from the scorching sun-
light and cover from their predators.

2. Guttation provides coolness to habitants.

3 . Flexible and strong branches help langurs
for jumping and playing and fruit bats for
hanging.

4. Fruits are consumed by both animal
species so the tree gives feeding facility.

The possible explanations for their close
association are —

(1) To maximise their natural resource (i.e.
roosting site) potential.

(2) Utilisation of natural resource (i.e. feed-
ing) and/or resource competition.

This kind of close inter-specific association
is possibly because of a lack of alternate suit-
able roosting facilities.

U. S. BHATI
ARUN SRIVASTAVA

N CES

Roonwal, M. L. & Mohnot, S. M. (1977): Pri-
mates of South Asia: Ecology, Sociobiology and
Behavior. Cambridge, Mass. (Harvard Univ. Press).

3 . LEOPARD AND TIGER INTERACTIONS AT ROYAL CHITWAN
NATIONAL PARK, NEPAL

Earlier studies in and adjacent to the park
found evidence of high leopard mortality.
Suitable habitat was not occupied for extend-
ed periods, suggesting that the population was
experiencing difficulty replacing itself (Seiden-
sticker et al. in press). Under certain con-
ditions leopards succeed in co-existing with

tigers, the former being socially subordinate
to the latter (Seidensticker 1976). Neverthe-
less, leopards are not common in habitat
where tiger density is high. They are most
prevalent on the peripheries of the park, sand-
wiched between prime tiger habitat, on the
one side, and cultivated village land on the

609

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

other, dependent on both natural prey and
domestic livestock. Tigers as well as humans
contribute to leopard mortality.

During a period of 21 months, six leopard
deaths were recorded. Although all occurred
within 7 km2, this does not represent the total
area the leopards had used. Five were killed
by tigers; the cause of death in the sixth case
is unknown. In April, 1986 the remains of a
subadult male, estimated to be 18 months old,
were discovered in Sal forest at the foot of
some hills. Wounds indicated that it had been
killed by a tiger, the tracks of which were
discovered nearby. Two months later, the
decomposed carcass of a large leopard, pre-
sumed to be a male, was discovered in nearby
riverine habitat; it was not possible to ascer-
tain the cause of death. Ten months after the
first leopard had been killed, a female leopard
and her two small cubs were walking along
a path through grassland near the Rapti River,
on the edge of the park, when they were
encountered by a tigress. The latter killed the
mother leopard, dragged her body 75 metres,
and devoured everything except the head and
front paws. The two cubs escaped but return-
ed the next night, when the tigress found and
killed them not far from where she had fed
on their mother. The leopard cubs were dis-
covered seven metres apart, where they had
been dragged in opposite directions by the two
small (six months old) cubs of the tigress.
The skulls of both, one a male and the other
a female, weighing 5.7 and 5.2 kilograms
respectively, had been crushed; their bodies
were intact except for about half a kilogram

stBfilbiodug ^Iffiioos snisd isxrnol oiii jnssil

Tiger Tops,

P. O. Box 242,

Kathmandu,

Nepal,

March 19, 1988.

3fh no brief ogBlliv bole vi lino bus ono

of flesh which had been eaten from the hind-
quarters of each by the tiger cubs; the tail of
one was also missing. During the next 11
months, when the resident female was not
replaced, a large male leopard intermittently
used the area. In January, 1988 his 4-5
day old remains were discovered in a patch of
partially burnt grass. Canine punctures at the
nape of the neck, the vertebrate of which were
shattered, as well as wounds on the back,
left no doubt that he had been killed by a
tiger, most probably an adult female.

Two factors appear to have a bearing on
the extermination of so many leopards by
tigers in one area during a short period of
time. First, subsequent to the establishment of
the park in 1973 effective protection and good
management have led to an increase in the
prey base and a commensurate rise in tiger
density. In a tract of western Chitwan of just
under 100 km2, including the smaller area
where leopard mortality was recorded, the
number of resident breeding adult tigers doubl-
ed from four to eight in the 11 years 1976-87.
Secondly in this sector, very little peripheral
habitat remains available for leopards. As
human pressure inside the park has been
largely eliminated by protection, it has increas-
ed outside, with consequent clearing of adja-
cent forest and scrubland. Now prime tiger
habitat on one side of the Rapti River, the
park boundary, faces open terrain with little
cover on the other. These factors would in-
crease the likelihood of confrontations between
tigers and leopards.

CHARLES MCDOUGAL

-bnsdxo 10I bsiquooo ton g£w j£ tided oldetiuB

610

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

bsdhoaab naad gad gnibsal Jo borftem RMIe r e N-jfesq t£ST£ sirll rii 1

.sis! ifiwoT Jb Jaiga sittil aril 10I laihBa laiBW arb iboii gadonaid woi no yib m

Seidensticker, John (1976): On the ecological McDougal, Charles (In press): Leopards living at
separation between tigers and leopards. Biotropica the edge of Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal,
8 : 225-234. Proceedings Centenary Seminar. Bombay Natural

Seidensticker, John, Sunquist, Melvin E., & History Society.

eyiBu)anB8 siilbfiW mBlmfidmBiB*! Jb noiari .dad llama .gnioBal >•

JamdaWooiQ bos boowmnO yd sJbIE bIbisX aiorn Jon box Jiorig yHBijau siaw

4 . THE SMALL MONGOOSE FEEDING ON DROPPINGS OF NILGAI

F‘i v>~( Miioaajwc :i

On 23 -iv- 1988, while I was taking a census
of peafowl in Roadside Plantation on S. H.
14 near village Tatarpur in Alwar District, I
came across a small Indian mongoose ( Har -
pestes auropunctatus) ¥t 1800 hrs, which
was wandering under ground cover in the
plantation. I kept silent, hiding behind a tree
trunk to observe the mongoose’s activity.
Soon it crossed the road and came towards
me under the same Acacia nilotica tree whose
trunk was serving me as a hide.

rlgiiorlllA ,ri3l£3 gnted Giqlsd rknocj b o) r . s

After some search, it came to a heap of

“OII8 .GJGW Ptn/TYS'i ;t;

droppings of Nilgai ( Boselaphus tragocamelus)
lying in the shade of the tree. Soon it picked
up one pellet, holding it between its two
fore-arms in a squirrel-like manner and com-
pletely ate it. While it was trying for a second
t3RTH30

feed, a motor cycle passed on the road which
disturbed the animal and I could not watch
further activity.

Forest Extension Officer, SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Van Chetna Kendra,

Gulab Bagh,

Udaipur-313 001.

.Didi .uysm notari fanoo

Rajasthan,

Hrn\ 17,rfl988. YdW

Jo di/13 cbsiiolBW bird aril Id laJJalewa

sibnl io biid
: (£)

W3HTAM V331AM

!J31g3

grndgh Jo bodlarn isusimU : (VSQI ) .H jJAjuaaA
-mo& A .(8U3Bfinid) attasias Jaiga alttil yd

Ml- III : (£)Vh .ooZ AAH MA
.3 .J ,M ?t8suh3J^ooh9 X .1 .aoowMmO

I t t0I : (£)V -rigabBiq jnribnA ybbsq aril m inoiVBflsd gnibsaJ IbueuhU : (A8QO

5. AERIAL FEEDING BY MEDIAN EGRET ( EGRETTA
INTERMEDIA ), LITTLE EGRET ( EGRETTA GARZETTA)

AND POND HERON ( ARDEOLA GRAYI1)

JJMTOTg A MO DMITMUOM (TMAHM3T) ZOTOV k ABM

During August and September, near most schools of fish fry also enter the Sanctuary.

of the sluice gates of Keoladeo National Park,
Bharatpur, I observed a strangey feeding be-
haviour of egrets and pond herons. This is
the time when the Irrigation Department
supplies water to the Sanctuary from the
Ajanbund reservoir. This year they started
supplying: water from 23rd July, 1985. Diago-
nally placed sluice gates regulate the flow of
water into various blocks. Along with water.

During this period, I observed the aerial feed-
ing behaviour of the median egret, little egret
and pond heron. The area where this beha-
viour was noticed was a clear sheet of fast
flowing, deep, open water. Five to ten cm.
long fish used to leap into the air, apparently
throughout the day. Several dead and living
Acacia trees, overhung this area. Almost
every day, I saw about 20 to 25 egrets and

61L

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

pond herons congregated in this area, perch-
ing mostly on low branches near the water
surface.

Every few minutes, four or five of them
would take off and fly over the water surface
in an attempt to catch the leaping, small fish.
The flights were usually short and not more
than 15 to 20 m long. All fish caught were
taken to a perch before being eaten. Although
several birds might be in the air at the same
time, almost 90% of their attempts were suc-
cessful. Sometimes, they were seen to make
several attempts at catching fish during the
flight before coming back to the perch.

Junior Field Biologist,

BNHS Ecological Research Centre,

331, Rajendra Nagar,

Bharatpur-321 001,

Rajasthan,

India,

August 30, 1986.

This method of feeding has been described
earlier for the little egret at Powai lake,
Salsette, Bombay (Humayun Abdulali 1967),
the little egret at Gorencheruva in Hyderabad
(Rajeev Mathew 1983) and Indian pond
heron at Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary,
Kerala State by Grimwood and Brocklehurst
(1984).

Ack no wledge m e n ts

I thank Dr. V. S. Vijayan, Project Scientist
and Dr. (Mrs.) Lalitha Vijayan, Senior Field
Biologist, BNHS Ecological Research Centre,
for their encouragement.

C. SIVASUBRAMANIAN

References

Abdulali, H. (1967): Unusual method of fishing
by little egret Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus). J. Bom-
bay Nat. Hist. Soc. 64(3) : 551-558.

Grimwood, I. K. & Brocklehurst, M. L. C.
(1984) : Unusual feeding behaviour in the paddy

bird or Indian pond heron Ardeola grayii. ibid. 81
(3): 696-697.

Rajeev Mathew (1983): Why, oh why, little
egrets. Newsletter of the bird watcher’s Club of
Andhra Pradesh. 4(4): 10, 11.

6. AN INCIDENT OF A MALE NUKTA SARKIDIORN1S
MELANOTOS (PENNANT) MOUNTING ON A SPOTBILL
ANAS POECILORHYNCHA FORSTER

A rather uncommon congregation of resi-
dent ducks belonging to four species was
observed during most days in June, 1986 in
an open water area of the Keoladeo National
Park at Bharatpur. On 17 June morning, most
of the ducks in the congregation were observed
resting and preening, except for a few which
were swimming about feeding nearby. One of

the swimming nuktas, a full-grown adult male
was seen chasing a spotbill for a short time
after which it mounted on the feeding duck’s
back. Mating posture was seen for just about
a second. The nukta then moved off and the
spotbill indulged in typical post-copulatory
behaviour of bathing, wing-flapping and
preening.

612

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

It is possible that such a behaviour is very
rare, and could perhaps be interpreted more
as bouts of abnormal leisure activity than

Research Biologist,

BNHS Ecological Research Centre,

331, Rajendra Nagar,

Bharatpur - 321 001, Rajasthan,

January 29, 1987.

anything else. However, this is the first in-
stance of such aggressive mounting behaviour
noted among Indian ducks.

U. SRIDHARAN

7. OBSERVATIONS ON THE UNUSUAL BEHAVIOUR OF
IMPERIAL EAGLE {AQUILA HELIACA) IN KEOLADEO
NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN

On the morning of 8 January, 1986, while
we were punting through one of the jheels of
Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajas-
than, I saw an adult imperial eagle ( Aquila
heliaca) sitting on a thick bed of grass, Paspa-
lum distichum. From the feathers scattered all
around, it appeared that it had preyed on a
duck.

Seeing me approaching, the eagle tried to
take to its wings, but it could not, probably
because the wings and tail were soaking wet.
The eagle flapped its wings and tried to run.
It could not do so very fast because of the
thick grass.

When I neared the eagle, it showed a
peculiar behaviour. It lay on its back, with
its legs upward and head down among the
thick grass. The toes were held tightly and
there was no movement and the bird appear-

BNHS Ecological Research Centre,

331, Rajendra Nagar,

Bharatpur - 321 001, Rajasthan.

March 26, 1988.

ed dead. When I touched the bird with a
bamboo stick, it started pecking at the stick.
This behaviour was observed continuously for
15 minutes. When I moved away, the bird got
up, walked for a few metres and spread its
wings and tail, probably for drying in the
warmth of the sun and flew away after about
45 minutes.

This behaviour by the eagle was probably
a desperate distraction display as it was unable
to escape. Raptors are known to give threat
displays when they are cornered (Brown 1976,
Newton 1979). But behaviour as seen here is
intriguing.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. V. S. Vijayan, Project Scientist
and Mr. Vibhu Prakash, Research Biologist
for encouraging me to write this note.

GEORGE M JOHN

References

Brown, L. (1976) : Birds of prey, their Biology Newton, I. (1979) : Population Ecology of Rap-
and Ecology. Hamlyn Publishing Group Ltd., Lon- tors. T and AD Poyser Ltd.. Berkhamsted. England,

don.

613

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

8. LESSER SPOTTED EAGLE (AQU l LA POM ARINA HAST AT A)
NESTING IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR

A nest of the lesser spotted eagle ( Aquila
pomarina hastata) was seen on 13th May,
1986 in the Keoladeo National Park.

The circular, flat, nest made mainly of
Acacia nilotica and Mitragyna parvi folia twigs,
was situated on the fork of a Kadam ( Mitra-
gyna parvi folia ) tree at a height of c. 12
metres. The central depression was lined with
fresh Jamun leaves and had a single, oval,
white egg with prominent reddish speckling.

The eagles were brown all over and the
conspicuous contrasting, very pale, underwing

Research Biologist,

BNHS Ecological Research Centre,

331. Rajendra Nagar,

Bharatpur, Rajasthan.

August 29, 1986.

3 vim ol nv/onx 37 £ &70 to I .3013020 o)

Refer

Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. Dillon (1983): Hand-
book of the Birds of India and Pakistan, compact
edition. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Abdulali, Humayun & Panday, Jamshed D.

LilnobP JoojoTfl .nsyjfliV 2 .V iG flaedl 1
tenaoloiB riotJB'szsH .dasrisiT urid.iV .iM bnB

nfidl ylivHofi STUgial lermondB lo amod ?.&

coverts and dark flight feathers were diag-
nostic of the species.

•

There is no recent breeding record of the
species from anywhere in its range within the
country. Ali and Ripley (1983) describe it as,
“Comparatively rare, wherever it occurs viz.
chiefly the gangetic plains east through Bihar,
Bengal and Bangladesh, south to Madhya
Pradesh”. Abdulali and Panday (1978) des-
cribe it as, “resident and uncommon” at
Bharatpur.

I thank Dr V. S. Vijayan for his help in the

preparation of this note.

&Y$vhj.K) ijsn^qfni flubs ns wsz I .ns fit

VIBHU PRAKASH

b no beveiq bad fl Isrit baiBoqqs fl .bnuois

(1978): Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra, and

Bharatpur, with notes on their status in neighbour-

i riflw nriosd afl no vs I jl juoivBriod isili x

hood. Bombay.

■'wdt gnoors nwob fassd bris fciswqu six

bns ylfrigil bled sisw aso) adT .aasig doidt
-tKanns biid arft bns Inamavofn on gsw aiadt

9. INDIAN SCAVENGER VULTURE (NEOPHRON PERCNOPTERUS
GINGINIANUS) FEEDING ON A DEAD WHITE-BACKED

VULTURE ( GYPS BENGALEE SIS)

. kiaht vaiaH ,100 1££ - jkjttajtahS

On the morning of 28th April, 1986, Drs.
V. S. and Lalitha Vijayan reported seeing
“a scavanger vulture feeding on a full grown
but dead nestling of a white-backed vulture in
the latter’s nest in the Keoladhar area of
Keoladeo National Park. The same evening.

I too saw the remains of the dead vulture
nestling, which was full of maggots and smelt
strongly. Most of the flesh had been eaten by
the maggots. The scavanger vulture was feeding
probably on the putrid flesh which was still
sticking to the bones or on the maggots.

614

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Adi & Ripley (1983) describe its food as
“carrion, offal and garbage and to a large
extent human ordure. Occasionally takes frogs
and large crickets on grasslands; in one case,
Brachytrypes achatimus (Masan & Lefroy).
Also winged termites emerging from the ground
(C F. Fischer).

TA ,m ISl-sbBT "bsofl T .HO ,moZ & -i&guG

Hence this behaviour of the scavanger
vulture feeding on a dead nestling of white-
backed vulture on the latter’s nest is worth
recording.

I am grateful to Dr. V. S. Vijayan for his
encouragement.

Research Biologist, VIBHU PRAKASH

BNHS Ecological Research Centre,

331, Rajendra Nagar, h 3 n 3 h :j ;

Bharatpur 321 001,

August 29, 1986.

Reference

( £\3 V\\ RQ V\ k XS J k Z\3\5\d k 5\ K W

a -it

Ali, Salim & Ripley, Dillon (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan — Compact edi-
tion. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

1

•JlflW

,nw
orff no
ynimrli
?Mhn\

ri

wW?m\

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON UNUSUAL FEEDING BEHAVIOUR
OF WHITEBREASTED WATERHEN ( AMAURORNIS

PHOENICURUS)

The feeding behaviour of the White breast -

>Wfi 231

ed Waterhen, one of the common monsoon
visitors to Point Calimere (10°18'N, 79'51°E)
was observed for seven days from Feb. 21-27,
1985 continuously in a small water pool found
near the forest department quarters. Observa-
tions were made through one of the windows

j , ■ i*! ) f;-vr . ■ e r; ->

of the quarters, since the water pool was close
to it. The drying water pool was partially
covered by a small Prosopis tree ( Prosopis
juliflora) which was the regular roosting place
for the bird during the observation period.
Active feeding was observed late in the even-
ing before the bird went for roosting. It fed
mainly on shrimp and small fishes. It used to
enter the water for catching fish and shrimp
even up to the depth where the water used

to touch its belly. Whenever it caught any
shrimp, it crushed the prey between the man-
dibles before swallowing it. Occasionally it
caught a small catfish of 3-4 cm. After catch-
ing the fish, the bird would hurry back to the
land and many times I saw it dismembering
the prey with the clear intention of dislodging
the poisonous spines of the fish. Dismembered
fish used to be brought again to the water for
removal of sand particles. The fish was clean-
ed by holding it in the beak, then dipping it
into the water and vigorously shaking it. On
two occasions the poisonous spines of the
catfish were collected by me after the bird
had left the place. After the pool dried up,
the bird changed its roosting place and was
not seen again near the quarters.

615

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

According to Ali & Ripley (1969) the food
of the White breasted Waterhen is insects and
their larvae, molluscs, worms, seeds and shoots

of marsh plants. I think small fish and
shrimp should be included in the diet of this
bird.

S. BALACHANDRAN1

1 Present address : BNHS Camp, c/o. B. Nemichand
Dugar & Sons, G.N.T. Road. Tada-524 401, A.P.

Reference

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1969) : Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 2. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.

11. FORAGING-RELATED CHANGE IN FOREHEAD COLOUR IN
KENTISH PLOVER ( CHARADRIUS ALEX AND R/N US)

BNHS Bird Migration Project,
P. O. Box No. 11,

Shivpuri,

Madhya Pradesh,

September 17. 1986.

A solitary Kentish Plover in winter plumage
observed at Kihim beach (Raigad District)
on 30 August, 1986 revealed a behaviour
pattern that may be adaptive for greater effi-
ciency in capturing prey. It was seen that the
extent of white on the birds’ forehead, affected
by the sudden erection of feathers on that
part, increased abruptly when the bird stopped
to collect a morsel while foraging. The ‘nor-
mal’ extent of white on the forehead while
the bird is at rest, or moving about in a non-
feeding activity is restricted to a thin line
just above the bill which extends backwards
to meet the fore-edge of the eyes and more
apparent in specimens is “continued unbroken
as backwards as supercilium” (ind. itb. 2:
235). While engaged in foraging, the bird
takes several mincing steps, often running in
a zig-zag pattern; in doing this, it suddenly
brakes to a stop to either ‘collect’ an insect
on the sand surface or to probe the sand for
a worm. It is at this stage, just a fraction of
a second before it stops, that the feathers on
the forehead are erected, revealing a large
flash of pure white which extends up to the
fore-crown. Once or twice in a sequence of

seven or eight such observations between 0740
and 0755 hrs., the upper edge of the white
band appeared to be mottled with brown.

The plover was the only visible bird on the
beach, except for a brief visit of one Brahminy
Kite and two Pariah Kites ( Haliastur indus
and Milvus mi grans ) skimming over the Casua-
rina treetops c. 100 metres away. All the
observations, made from 12-15 metres away
with 10 x 40 binoculars, involved the bird
directly or obliquely facing the sun which was
just clearing the top of the Casuarina trees.
The bird was feeding at the water’s edge in
an incoming tide, and was facing downwind in
all the observations, which rules out the possi-
bility of the feathers being ruffled by the wind.

This behaviour may be analogous to the
‘open-wing’ (? wing-flashing) foraging pattern
of several heron species (Ardeidae), wherein
they create a shadow on the water’s surface,
thus attracting fish to the surface. It is how-
ever not clear how a sudden flash of white
on the plover’s forehead could make a worm
or insect more vulnerable. On explanation
suggested by Carl D’Souza, bird artist, is the
possibility of the white patch having a reflec-

616

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tive value when the bird is facing the Sun,
a situation when its prey — or the entrance
to the worms’ tubular hole — would be in
shadow. This shadow may then, to some degree
be illuminated by the birds’ white feathers with
the Sun reflecting of them.

Examination of specimens shows that the

701, Green Acres,

61-B, Pali Hill,

Bandra, Bombay - 400 050,

September 17, 1986.

white feathers on the forehead of this species
are much smaller and softer, and easily erected.
Additional observations on a larger sample of
birds in different habitats (mudflats, far from
the water-line etc.) and in different lighting
conditions may throw some light on this
behaviour pattern.

SHAHID ALI

12. BROWN-HEADED GULL, LARUS BRUNNICEPHALUS IN IRAQ

— A CORRECTION

The Brown-headed Gull Larus brunnicepha-
lus breeds “on inland lakes of the high plateaus
of central Asia from Chinese Turkestan to
southern Mongolia and south to Ladakh and
the eastern Himalayas” (Peters 1934). It
winters mainly along the coasts of the Indian
subcontinent, eastwards to Peninsular Malay-
sia, Thailand and Vietnam, with small numbers
occurring as far east as Hong Kong (Vaurie
1965, Melville 1977). The first record of the
species from the Middle East was of a single
bird caught at Aden reported by Barnes
(1893), who also recorded two birds shot.
Meinertzhagen (1954) noted that there was
“much doubt about the correctness of identi-
fication”. The only other record from the
Middle East was by Abdulali (1970), who
noted an adult from Sheik Saad, Iraq in the
collection of the Bombay Natural History
Society.

While examining skins in the BNHS collec-
tion, I came across this specimen (No. 14150),
which is, in fact, an adult Common Gull Larus
canus. The prepared museum skin resembles
an adult Brown-headed Gull in non-breeding
plumage and it was not until I carefully exa-

mined the primary patterning that I realised
that it was a Common Gull. Both species have
strongly marked white mirrors on the black
part of the outer primaries, but in the Brown-
headed Gull there is a broad white bar across
the inner part of the primaries and coverts,
whereas in the Common Gull the rest of the
wing is grey. The bill of the Common Gull is
also proportionately shorter and stouter than
in the Brown-headed Gull. In the flesh, adults
of these two species are easily separated by
the colour of the legs and bill — greenish
yellow in the Common Gull, but blood red in
the Brown-headed Gull.

The specimen in question, a female, was
collected at Sheik Saad, River Tigris (approx.
32°30'N, 46°20'E) on 10 February, 1917 by
P. Z. Cox & R. E. Cheesman. It is presumably
the same bird as that reported (as a Common
Gull) by Ticehurst et al. (1922), who noted
that the species was “A fairly common winter
visitor [to Mesopotamia], more particularly
perhaps to the river [Tigris] from Sheik Saad
downwards. Buxton did not observe it before
December and it remained common at Amara
till the end of March, when it left suddenly”.

617

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 85

D. A. Scott (personal communication) in-
formed me that there are sight records of two
Brown-headed Gulls from Chahbahar and one
from Hamun-i Puzak, near Takhte-Shah, in
eastern Iran. The only other record from the
Middle East which I am aware of, is one at
Eilat, Israel in 1985 (H. Shirihai, personal
communication).

BNEIS Avifauna Project,

Horn bill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay - 400 023,

September 17, 1986.

Ack nowledgements

I am grateful to Dr Salim Ali and S. A.
Hussain for inviting me to join the BNHS
Avifauna Project team and to Mr. Humayun
Abdulali for his assistance and comments.
D. A. Scott and H. Shirihai kindly made
available their records from Iran and Israel
respectively.

,2 SUL) A VUTdfliJ , luV

DAVID S. MELVILLE1

.UCO UUP YAH M Oa , A5R1 A Act

1 Present address : WWF Hong Kong, GPO Box
12721, Hong Kong., ]A\ur\cra

References

Abdulali, H. (1970): A catalogue of the birds
in the collection of the Bombay Natural History
Society — 7. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67: 292-293.

Barnes, H. E. (1893): On the birds of Aden.
Pt. 2. Ibis, 6th series, 18: 165-181.

Meinertzhagen, R. (1954): Birds of Arabia.

Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh.

Melville, D. (1977): New Laridae records from
Hong Kong. Bull. Brit. Orn. Cl. 97: 34-37.

ot n£lrio>hij { moii in?. A Ifnlnso to

Peters, J. L. (1934) : A check-list of the birds

of the world. Vol. II. Harvard University Press,
Cambridge.

Ticehurst, C. B., Buxton, P. A. & Cheesman,
R. E. (1922): The birds of Mesopotamia. Pt. IV.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28: 937-956.

Vaurie, C. (1965): The birds of the Palearctic
fauna: non-Passeriformes. Witherby, London.

w* £ i j l v / U 1 U i JciiL Jll I , \ \ t v i ■Jli i V wlf i

olsnia b lo 2bw )2fi3 slbbiM sril moil ssiooqg
sQ yd betioqsi nsbA )b Irigufio bi id
Aod?, 2 bi id owl bobioosi oalu orlw .(£981)

13. KESSLER’S THRUSH (TURDUS KESSLER1) FROM NEPAL

On the afternoon of 26th January, 1986 I
was birdwatching in the hills above Namche
Bazaar, Everest trek (3,446 m), Nepal.

In a rocky area of alpine scrub vegetation
I came across a mixed flock of birds which
included the following species: Red-throated
and black-throated thrush (Turd us ruficollis),
Alpine Accentor (Prunella collaris ), and White-
winged Grosbeak (Mycerobas carnipes). My

attention was drawn to another Thrush (Tur-
dus sp.) feeding on the ground amongst the
others. Although I was at close range to the
flock. I only obtained partial views of this
bird. However, I received a general impres-
sion as follows. A strikingly coloured Thrush,
similar in size to Red-throated Thrush. Three
contrasting colours were apparent; a black
head and nape, fawn bands across the breast
and upper back; tan underparts and lower
back.

618

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

No identification was made by me at this structure to Eurasian Blackbird, with which
point as I could find nothing similar in they could be directly compared as both species
Fleming’s birds of Nepal. However, my atten- fed in the same bush,
tion now drawn by the description of Kessler’s

Thrush as a ‘large black and tan thrush’.

Low cloud descended and I was forced to
return to Namche bazaar with no satisfactory
views. Subsequent searching the following day
did not relocate the bird although large num-
bers of Red-throated/Black-throated thrushes

were still in the area.

.X lo gfimi ton. Jud S'/bcI lo

Eight days later trekking north from Namche

Bazaar towards Gokyo I came across the same
species. On this occasion there were two male
thrushes with a flock of approximately twelve
Eurasian Blackbird (T urdus merula), again on
rocky slopes with sparse alpine vegetation. On
my descent from Gokyo to Namche I again
saw these birds in the company of up to
seventeen Eurasian' Blackbird. On this occasion
there were 3-4 male thrush and orie female
bird. They were seen both in scrub and in

! Juhiper (?) trees.

erh bna zvmchTJ)

The precise areas in which I saw these birds
were 1 / 3rd February 1986 north of Lhabarma
(4328 m) on rocky scrub covered slopes, 2/
5th February 1986 in Juniper bushes/trees
south of Gyele (4084 m).

sdJ no yjtneocn bsbioosi aonsEni noriioni:.

Note : Map references and heights refer to
the 1985/6 Mandala productions trekking map
“Lamosargu to Mt. Everest and Solu-khumbu”.
J: On the second occasion the birds were seen
at a distance of 10 metres in good light using
zeiss 8 x 30 binoculars.

Yjf toqk the following field notes:

Size and structure : Identical in size and

(36 Chichele Roah^a j
Oxford, Surrey,

England RH8 OAG,

July 23, 1986.

Plumage Head : Entire head black, extending
to the upper mandible above and to the upper
breast below.

01IIB0 1 ’m\OK:>YA 10 SSIJ B no DOJBU jIV.

Under parts: A fawn band, similar in thickness
to that of a Ring Ouzel ( T urdus torquatus)
separated the black upper breast from the
belly. This band tapered to a point at the
wing joint. The belly, flanks, vent and undertail
coverts were rich tan.

Upperparts: A few band separated the upper
mandible from the lower mandible. It too,
tapered to a point at the wing joint, but did
not join the fawn breast band. The mandible
below this band was rich tan as was the rump.
The tail and wings were entirely black.

Bare parts : Bill yellow. The leg colour was
not noted.

The female bird had the same patterning
but black areas were replaced by grey-brown
and tan areas by pale brown. The fawn sepa-
rating bands were still apparent but were not
at all striking as was the case with the male
birds.

The birds were studied for about ten
minutes.

The weather on each of the three occasions
was not exceptional, atleast it was not un-
usually cold for the time of year. I do not
have any statistics for the earlier part of the
winter which may account for the arrival of
this species (and for that of the Eurasian
Blackbird) but I did receive reports that Dec-
ember had been ‘severe’ in the high Hima-
layas.

ioi TIM ROBINSON

d89f

6L9

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

14. PRESENCE OF FRUIT OF XANTHIUM STRUMARWM IN THE
NEST OF PLOCEUS PHILIPPINES

On August 21, 1984 at Tatar Pur Mixed
Plantation ‘A’ (Alwar, Rajasthan) when I
was watching a colony of Ploceus philippinus
situated on a tree of Prosopis spicigera, I came
across a completed blind nest having closed
entrance tube. I removed the nest from the
tree and examined its inside, bisecting it into
two halves with scissors. I was surprised to
see an old fruit of Xanthium strumarium in-
side the egg-chamber. A little search showed

Forest Extension Officer,

Social Forestry,

Gulab Ragh,

Udaipur - 313 001,

September 17, 1986.

an uprooted old plant of X. strumarium in the
vicinity of the host tree. Perhaps the fruit was
taken from that plant.

The nest had been rejected due to an un-
known cause. The presence of such fruits is
quite abnormal. Mud, cowdung and floral parts
of certain plants have been reported earlier
from the nests of baya but not fruits of X.
strumarium.

SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

15. OBSERVATIONS ON SOME SNAKE-EATING BIRDS OF THE
CHILKA LAGOON, ORISSA

In the course of a herpetofauna survey
conducted recently in and around the Chilka
lagoon by the Zoological Survey of India, we
had the opportunity to observe some ophio-
phagous birds while they were actually preying
upon snakes, live and dead.

In the first instance we saw at Maltikuda
Island, off Barkul, a White-bellied Sea Eagle
( Haliaeetus leucogaster) beating a large sized
Wart Snake ( Acrochordus granulatus) to death
on a rock and tearing its flesh with the beak.
By the time we reached the spot the bird
flew away after having partially eaten
the helpless snake. Besides wart snake.

Southern Regional Station,

Zoological Survey of India,

Madras - 600 028.

Estuarine Biological Station,

Zoological Survey of India,

Berhampur - 760 005,

September 25, 1986.

some other snakes like the Dog-faced
Water Snake ( Cerberus rhynchops) and the
estuarine hydrophid ( Hydrophis obscurus)
found in the lake seem to be taken by the
birds as evidenced by the presence of several
dead and partially cut-open specimens of these
species scattered all over the tiny island. In
another instance recorded recently on the
margin of the lake near Rambha, two house
crows ( Corvus splendens) were found eating
a dead Dog-faced Water Snake. When
the snake was picked up later and examined,
it was found that the birds had fed upon the
snake’s slender neck and portions of the belly.

T. S. N. MURTHY

KAZA V. RAMA RAO

620

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

16. NOTES ON CROCODILIAN LOCOMOTION
(With a photograph)

1 . Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus)

While the gharial is one of the most
thoroughly aquatic crocodiles, it is capable of
considerable overland movement. At the
Madras Crocodile Bank, a sub-adult male of
2.3 metres length did a belly slide of 650
metres one night after climbing its 120 cm
pen wall. While the belly slide is the only
terrestrial gait gharial over 2 metres seem
capable of, smaller specimens are able to
support themselves and walk in spite of their
somewhat feeble front legs, though they
usually do not, and employ the raised posture
primarily as a threat display.

In Corbett National Park and at Madras
Crocodile Bank, submerged gharial were fre-
quently observed to propel themselves quickly
along through shallow water by pushing their
feet along the bottom with a gait reminiscent
of the varanid gait (the body swings, while the
head remains relatively stationary as it moves
forward).

When crocodilians thus move along muddy
bottoms, their progress is often visible by
trails of bubbles. Pond gas is released as their
feet touch the bottom, and we have, several
times, detected the presence of crocodiles in
ponds and streams in the wild by this obser-
vation.

2. Galloping in the Mugger Crocodile

(Crocodylus palustris )

In their paper on galloping in Crocodylus
johnstoni, Webb and Gans (1982) describe
the bounding gait termed galloping that is
frequently used by this rather diminutive
Australian crocodile to escape capture or
when released. They conclude that it is a
useful gait to increase escape velocity and to

negotiate rocks and logs in the way, especially
for crocodiles which spend considerable time
travelling or hunting on land.

While working on the United Nations croco-
dile project in Papua New Guinea, the first
author observed galloping by the New Guinea
crocodile on numerous occasions (though
never Crocodylus porosus as reported and
filmed by Zug 1974). While this gait was
more commonly used by younger animals and
then always to escape (as Webb and Gans also
report), a captive adult female of c. 1.65 cm
(TL) at Moitaka Farm used to rush to defend
her nest by galloping up a fairly steep slope.
(See Photo. 1, taken in the wild in Papua
New Guinea). Bustard and Singh (1977) report
galloping in young Gavialis , and in 1981 the
first author saw young Osteolaemus tetraspis
gallop at Zoo Negara in Malaysia (Whitaker
1981).

We have observed juvenile Crocodylus
palustris galloping on a number of occasions.

The mugger is one of the species of croco-
diles that is regularly reported to hunt on land
and routinely makes long seasonal forays
between bodies of water. Though mugger
which we have encountered far from water in
the wild made no attempt to escape, much
less gallop, there are obviously circumstances
(such as a refuge in water nearby) when this
spectacular gait would be employed.

The reader is referred to the paper by Webb
and Gans for a statistical analysis of galloping
and a discussion of the other crocodilian gaits.

Acknowledgement

We wish to thank Romaine Andrews for
typing the manuscript.

621

11

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Photo, 1 , Sub-adult New Guinea Crocodile galloping. ( Photo : Bob Hawkins) .

Madras Crocodile Bank, ROMULUS WHITAKER

Vadanemmeli Village, Perur Post, HARRY ANDREWS

Mahabalipuram Road,

Madras - 603 104,

April 20, 1988,

Referen ces

Bustard, H. R. & Singh, L.A.K. (1977): Studies
on the Indian Gharial: change in terrestrial loco-
motory pattern with age. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
74:

Webb, G. J. W. & Gans, Carl (1982): Galloping
in Crocodylus johnstoni — - A reflection of terrestrial
activity. Rec. Austral . Mus, 43 No. 14: 607-618.

Whitaker, R. (1981) : Breeding the African Dwarf
Crocodile ( Osteolaemus tetraspis ) at Zoo Negara,
Kuala Lumpur, with an observation on galloping.
Hamadryad 6(2).

Zug, G. R. (1974): Crocodilian galloping — a
unique gait for reptiles Copeia (2).

622

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

17. A NEW RECORD OF THE ASSAM ROOFED TURTLE
KACHUGA SYLHETENSIS (JERDON) FROM THE MANAS
WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM

Since little is known about the turtles of
Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, we are maintaining
a small collection of live turtles at Bansbari
range office. On 24 December, 1987, I, along
with some forest guards had been on a
routine patrol in the Uchila-Rabang areas of
the sanctuary. While looking for turtles in a
small river, we came across an unusual variety
of turtle which was later identified as the
Assam Roofed Turtle or Khasi Hill Terrapin
Kachuga sylhetensis (Jerdon). Daniel (1983)
has mentioned that this uncommon species is
known only from the hills of Meghalaya and
Nagaland and its habits are unknown. Accord-
ing to Das (1985) it is also found in Cachar
Hills of Assam and extralimitally in Bangla-
desh. He writes that it probably lives in ponds
and hill streams and it is a rare species with
no recent record from the country.

Location and Habitat : The specimen was
found in the shallow waters of Rupahi river
(a tributary of river Pohumara) in the Manas
Wildlife Sanctuary. The water level at the
site was approximately 35 cm. and it was
full of debris from uprooted trees. The Rupahi
river passes through grassland plain (elevation
approx. 60 m. above MSL) with few trees
along its bank.

Description : Carapace domed or elevated
with the third vertebral shield forming a pro-
jecting spike. Thirteen pairs of marginal
shields give a strongly serrated look to the

Range Forest Officer,

Bansbari Range,

Manas Tiger Reserve,

P. O. Barengabari,

Barpeta Road,

Assam - 781 315,

March 22, 1988.

posterior end of the carapace. Shell olive-
brown above with paler keel. Plastron yellow
with each shield having a large dark brown
blotch. Digits fully webbed. Head and legs
brown with a yellow wavy stripe along the
head and another along the lower jaw. Neck
with light streaks. Shell length 89 . 5 mm,
breadth 66.5 mm. Weight 93.5 g.

Notes on Behaviour in Captivity : The

turtle has been kept in a large, well ventilated
enclosure with some natural grassland vegeta-
tion growing inside. A man-made mound with
a hole and a small pool are also provided.
The turtle usually hides among the vegetation
or in the bottom of the pool or even in the
hole during daytime. It can swim very well
and remains under water without surfacing
for several minutes.

It is a voracious feeder of tiny freshwater
fish offered to it on the ground. It prefers the
softer ones and shuns varieties with hard or
sharp external spines. It generally eats at
night. It does not touch the ripe fruits (peeled
banana and papaya) or tender wheat and
grass shoots.

Acknowledgements

I thank Messrs Mon Mohan Nath, Bhaben
Chandra Deka and Naren Medhi, all game
watchers at Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, for
their assistance.

SRIKANTA SARMA

623

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

References

Daniel, J. C. (1983): The Book of Indian Rep- Das, Indraneil (1985): Indian Turtles — A Field
tiles. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Guide. WWF-India (Eastern Region), Calcutta.

18. ON THE INDENTITY AND OCCURRENCE OF THE PEACOCK
SOFT-SHELL ( TRIONYX HURUM GRAY) IN RAJASTHAN

On 23 August, 1986 while sampling the
fishes in Keolacleo National Park, Bharatpur,
we got a turtle along with the fishes, which was
later identified as peacock soft-shell ( Trionyx
hurum).

Subsequently twenty specimens of this species
were collected and the morphological features
were recorded. As described elsewhere (Smith
1933, Pritchard 1979, Daniel 1983), this soft-
shell had dark olive green to black carapace
with numerous yellow spots and blotches.
Young ones had well defined ocelli on the
carapace and the plastron was grey. The head
was olive green with numerous yellow spots
with a more prominent one behind the eyes.

The species differed from the Ganges soft-
shell {Trionyx gangeticus) in its dark cara-
pace, four well defined ocelli and grey plastron
in the young, black eyes (yellow or white
cornea in Ganges soft-shell), wart-like tuber-

Junior Scientists,

BNHS Ecological Research Centre,

331, Rajendra Nagar,

Bharatpur - 321 001,

January 6, 1988.

Refer

Daniel, J. C. (1983): The Book of Indian Rep-
tiles. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Murthy, T. S. N. (1985) : Classification and dis-
tribution of the reptiles of India. The Snakes 17:
48-7 L

Pritchard, P.C.H. (1979): Encyclopedia of Tur-
tles. TFH Publications Neptune, New Jersey.

Smith, M. A. (1933) : The fauna of British India,

cles in the posterior end of the mid dorsal
line of the bony carapace, and the presence
of yellow spots in the head, (three oblique
black lines behind the eyes in Ganges soft-
shell).

Until the recent past, the known range of
peacock soft-shell was the lower reaches of
Ganges and Brahmaputra (Smith 1933, Prit-
chard 1979, Daniel 1983, Murthy 1985).
Recently this species has been recorded from
Pune region (Varghese and Tonapi 1986) and
from Bhopal (Indraneil Das, personal com-
munication) which are far away from its pre-
viously known range. This is the first record
from Rajasthan. An intensive survey is requir-
ed to ascertain the status and possible distri-
bution of this elegant turtle.

We are thankful to Dr. V. S. Vijayan, Pro-
ject Scientist, BNHS Ecological Research
Centre, Bharatpur for his encouragement.

S. BHUPATHY
C. R. AJITH KUMAR

ENCES

including Ceylon and Burma. Reptiles and Amphibia.
Vol. I, Loricata, Testudines. Taylor & Francis,
London.

Varghese, G. & Tonapi, G. T. (1986): Observa-
tions on the identity of some Indian freshwater
turtles and their feeding habits. Biol. Conserv. 37:
87-92.

624

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

19. THE ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION OF EGGS OF THE COMMON
CAT SNAKE BOIGA TRIGONATA (SCHNEIDER)

The Indian Gamma or Cat Snake Boiga
trigonata (Schneider) is very common in
Gujarat State; local people know it as ‘Minda-
diya Sap’ or ‘Padaka’. A 87.5 cm long gravid
female was captured on 9th July, 1986 from
Harni area of Baroda city. Since limited in-
formation is available on the breeding habits
of this species, it was kept for observation.

Background : The available literature gives
the following information on the breeding
habits of the Cat snake.

(1) M. A. Smith (1943) — 3 to 11 eggs are
laid, the young when born measure bet-
ween 23.7 and 26.0 mm. in length.

(2) R. Whitaker (1978) — A cat snake at the
Madras Snake Park laid seven eggs in
October and the length of the newborn
young was 25.0 cm.

(3) J. C. Daniel (1983) — Gravid females
have been obtained from May to August
and eggs in September. Three to 11 eggs
are laid, measuring 30 x 10 mm. Hatchlings
have been obtained in March and July.

Details of the breeding'. The female Cat snake
laid nine eggs in a wooden box at night on
18th July, 1986. The eggs formed a compact
agglutinated mass, and were long, oval and
white with little variation in size. The measure-
ments are given in Table 1.

Incubation : The following method of arti-
ficial incubation was followed, which has prov-
ed successful with snake and lizard eggs.

The egg mass was removed from the wooden
box and transferred to a transparent polythene
bag with a substrate of moist cottonwool. The
eggs were not directly put on moist cotton-
wool but on a piece of polythene bag. The

Zoo Inspector,

Sayaji Baug Zoo,

Baroda,

July 16, 1987.

Table 1

'Measurements of the five fertile eggs and
resultant hatchlings of Boiga trigonata (in cm.)

No.

Diameter
of eggs

Length of
eggs

Body length
of young

Length of
tail

1

1.3

3.2

25.5

5.0

2

1.1

3.1

25.5

5.3

3

1.2

3.3

25.7

5.1

4

1.0

2.9

25.0

4.9

5

1.1

3.0

25.0

4.8

Average 1 . 1

3.1

25.2

5.2

bag was inflated and closed tightly with a
rubber band. It was then placed in a wooden
box with ventilation at room temperature. The
temperature varied from 18°C to 34 6C. The
eggs were inspected every day, and whenever
any of them was dented, water was added
to the cottonwool substrate. (Here the main-
tenance of correct humidity is vital). The poly-
thene bag was inflated whenever necessary and
the substrate was removed whenever it was
noticed to be infected by fungi.

Hatching: Five eggs (55%) out of the
total of nine proved to be infertile and some
were lost due to fungal infection. The five
fertile eggs hatched on the 3rd September after
an incubation period of 48 days.

All the young were alert and very active.
They exhibited identical body colour and
pattern. Dorsal body colour was light brown
with a series of 35 to 46 V-shaped zigzag
markings. The top of the head had a clear
“Y” mark in one snake but the head marks
was totally different, having a dark streak
from behind the eye. The Belly colour was
tan with a small black spot on the outer
margin of each ventral.

RAJU VYAS

625

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

References

Daniel, J. C. (1983): The Book of Indian Rep- Reptilia & Amphibia. Vol. III. Taylor & Francis,
tiles. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. London.

Smith, M. A. (1943) : The Fauna of British India. Whitaker, R (1978) : Common Snakes of India.

Macmillan Co. of India Ltd., New Delhi.

20. ADDENDA TO THE AMPHIBIAN FAUNA OF INDIA

Recently Inger and Datta published [/. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc., 83 (Supplement) Cente-
nary issue (1886-1986)] “An overview of the
amphibian fauna of India”. We have noted
that 13 valid species of Indian amphibians

(Anura) have not been incorporated in the
list. In order to make the list up to date, the
names of the species including type localities
and their known occurrence in the Indian
States are given below.

Taxonomic list

Type locality

Records in Indian States

ANURA

Pelobatidae

1 Megophrys kempii

Upper Rotung

Arunachal Pradesh

(Annandale, 1912)

Arunachal Pradesh

(Annandale, 1912)

Bufonidae:

2 Bufo sulphur eus

Satara district,

Maharashtra

Grandison & Daniel, 1964

Maharashtra

(Grandison & Daniel, 1964)

Ranidae:

3 Nyctibatrachus pygmaeus

Anamalai Hills

Tamil Nadu

(Gunther, 1875)

(Gunther, 1875)

4 Nannobatrachus

Anamalai Hills

Tamil Nadu

annamallaiensis

(Myers, 1942)

Myers, 1942

5 Micrixalus herrei

Kallar

Kerala,

Myers, 1942

(Myers, 1942)

6 Rana bhagmandlensis

Coorg

Karnataka

Rao, 1922

(Rao, 1922)

7 Rana erythraea

Java

Assam (Boulenger, 1920),

(Schlegel, 1837)

Orissa (Mohanti-Hejmadi, 1974),
Meghalaya, Mizoram
(Chanda, 1986)

8 Rana kuhlii Tschudi,

Java

Assam (Boulenger, 1920)

1838

9 Rana nigrovittata

Burma

Assam (Boulenger. 1920)

(Blyth, 1855)

10 Rana sinchalensis

Darjeeling

West Bengal

Chanda, 1986

(Chanda, 1986)

Rhacophoridae:

11 Philautus argus

Arunachal Pradesh

Arunachal Pradesh

(Annandale, 1912)

(Annandale, 1912)

12 Philautus longicrus

Kempholey

Karnataka (Rao. 1937)

Rao, 1937

13 Philautus montanus

Kempholey

Karnataka (Rao, 1937)

Rao, 1937

626

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Remarks on Nos. 12, 13
It may be noted that Rao [1937, Proc.
Indian Acad. Sci., B (6)], described longicrus
(p. 414) and montanus (p. 415) from Karna-
nataka but both these specific names are pre-
occupied by P. longicrus (Boulenger, 1894)
and P. montanus (Taylor, 1920). However,
as the type material of Rao (op. cit.) depo-
sited in the Central College, Bangalore are

Zoological Survey of India,

27, J. L. Nehru Road,

Calcutta - 700 016.

November 19, 1987.

Refer

Annandale, N. (1912) : Zoological results of Abor
expedition. Part I. Batrachia. Rec. Indian Mus, 8:
7-36.

Blyth, E. (1855) : Notes and descriptions of
various reptiles, new and little known. J. Asiat. Soc.
Beng. 25: 287-302.

Boulenger, G. A. (1920): A monograph of the
South Asian, Papuan, Melanesian and Australian
frogs of the genus Rana. Rec. Indian Mus. 20: 1-128.

Chanda, S. K. (1986) : On a collection of anuean
amphibians from Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas,
with description of a new species of Rana (Ranidae).

/. Bengal nat. Hist. Soc., n. s. (2): 140-151.

Grandison, A. G. C. & Daniel, J. C. (1964):

reported to have been lost and as the type
localities of Boulenger’s (op. cit.) and Taylor’s
(op. cit.) are in Philippines, it is difficult to
ascertain whether the Indian specimens belong
to the same species as those from Philippines.
It is also impossible provide a new name for
Rao’s (op. cit.) species at this stage till topo-
types could be collected and compared with
the Philippine material.

S. K. CHANDA
A. K. GHOSH

ENCES

Description of a new species of toad (Anura: Bufo-
nidae) from Surat district, Maharashtra, India. /.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61: 192-194.

Gunther, A. (1875): Third report on a collec-
tion of Indian reptiles obtained by the British
Museum. Proc. zool. Soc. London: 367-577.

Myers, G. S. (1942) : Frogs of Southern India.
Proc. Biol Soc. Wash. 55: 71-74.

Rao, C. R. N. (1922): Notes on a collection of
Batrachia from S. Waziristan. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 29: 131-135.

— (1937): On some new forms of

Batrachia from South India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.
6(B) : 387-425.

21. A NOTE ON THE MORPHOMETRY OF RHACOPHORUS
MALABARICUS. THE MALABAR GLIDING FROG

On June, 1987, I had an opportunity to
go to Goa for collecting frogs, especially the
Malabar gliding frog. With the help of the
forest department, I reached the moist deci-

duous forest near Volpoi town, at about 6.30
p.m. The monsoon season had already started
and there was a good rain. I knew the habitat
of the frogs and there was no difficulty in

627

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 85

Table 1

Measurements of Fourteen

ADULT MALES

AND ONE ADULT FEMALE
malabaricus

(in parenthesis)

of Rhacophorus

Measurements

Range

Mean

Sd±

Ratio to body
length %

Body length

58.0-67.0

62.43(78.5)

3.16

—

Head length

17.0-19.0

18.28(24.0)

0.72

29.28(30.57)

Head Width

18.0-21.0

19.14(28.5)

1.04

30.66(36.31)

Internasal space

4. 5-5. 5

5.04(6.5)

0.26

8.07(8.28)

Interorbital space

6.25-8.25

7.00(10.0)

0.60

11.21(12.73)

Width of Upper eyelid

4. 5-6. 5

5.38(7.0)

0.38

8.62(8.92)

Tympanum

4. 0-5.0

4.16(5.5)

0.28

6.66(7.0)

Arm Length

31.0-41.5

36.21(47.0)

3.43

58.00(59.87)

Diameter of lower arm

4.0-6.75

5.41(8.75)

0.84

8.67(11.15)

Hand length

18.0-21.0

19.0(25.5)

0.83

30.43(32.48)

Leg length

84.5-105.0

98.43(137.0)

5.86

157.66(174.52)

Tibia length

27.5-34.0

31.68(43.0)

1.96

50.74(54.77)

Length of foot and tarsus

38.5-46.5

44.11(63.0)

2.09

70.66(80.25)

Foot length

27.5-32.0

30.36(40.5)

1.68

48.63(51.59)

Inner metatarsal

2.75-4.5

3.16(7.0)

0.43

5.06(8.92)

Width of toe pad

3. 0-4. 5

3.52(7.5)

0.40

5.64(9.55)

* All measurements in millimetres.

locating them. More than fifty males were seen
calling, while sitting on bamboo shoots. One
pair was seen in amplexus. The male, which
was smaller in size, held the larger female, at
her armpits. They did not produce any foam
nest.

The measurements of fourteen adult males
and the single adult female collected are given
in Table 1. The maximum size of the male
was 67 mm snout-vent length (SV). The female

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S. B. Singh Road
Bombay - 400 023,

March 8, 1988.

was 78.5 mm SV. Ayyangar (1915) recorded
a SV length of inches (82.5 mm) of a
single, unsexed, preserved specimen collected
from Malnad forest region, some twenty miles
from Gersoppa Falls in Karnataka. Inger et al.
(1984) who made a collection of this frog
from Ponmudi hills measured eight adult
males 61.9-73.5 mm SV, mean 68.8 and one
adult female 95.8 mm. It seems that the size
differs according to locality.

A. G. SEKAR

References

Ayyangar, M. O. P. (1915): A south Indian Fly-
ing Frog: Rhacophorus malabaricus (Jerdon). Roc.
Ind. Mus. 11: 140-142.

Inger, R. F., Shapper, H. B., Koshy, M. & Bakde,
R. (1984) : A report on the collection of Amphibians
and Reptiles from Ponmudi, Kerala, South India, J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81: 406-427; 551-570.

628

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

22. RARE OCCURRENCE OF SUNFISH MOL A MOL A (LINNAEUS)
FROM THE COASTAL WATERS OFF VISAKHAPATNAM
(BAY OF BENGAL)

{With a photograph)

The occurrence of sunfish in any sea is a
rare event. It is so rare that even fishermen
engaged in fishing throughout their lives find
it totally strange when they come across one.
On 6 May, 1986, a local fisherman reported
to the Zoology Department of the Andhra
University that a very strange looking fish was
part of that day’s catch. The local fisherman
community had not seen the likes of it ever
before. It turned out to be a sunfish, more
specifically, Mola mola.

The occurrence of M. mola was first record-
ed in Indian waters by Khan (1975) from
the Arabian Sea, near the Bombay coast.
Earlier, Deraniyagala (1944) recorded one
specimen from Ceylon (Sri Lanka) waters.
There were some other reports of the occur-
rence of allied species ( Ranzania , Masturus )
of Molidae from the Arabian Sea by Kulkami
(1953), Chhapgar (1964) and Khan (1975).
So far, M. mola has not been reported from
the Bay of Bengal and the present finding is
a matter of biological significance.

Description of the fish

Morphometric characters:

Total length

912 mm

Standard (preclaval) length

730 mm

Body depth

632 mm

Head length

280 mm

Eye diameter

55 mm

Snout length

130 mm

Length from tip of snout to origin

of dorsal fin

630 mm

Length from tip of snout to origin

of anal fin

640 mm

Length of dorsal fin

490 mm

Length of anal fin

480 mm

Length of pectoral fin

130 mm

Length from tip of dorsal fin to

tip of anal fin

1350 mm

Vent diameter

40 mm

Length of gill opening

60 mm

M eristic characters:

Dorsal fin rays

15

Anal fin rays

13

Pectoral fin rays

12

The clavus was too thick to count the caudal
fin rays.

Identity of the fish. The fish had all the
characters of M. mola. The body was typically
truncate without a caudal peduncle. It was
laterally compressed with high dorsal and anal
fins being situated far behind on the body.
Pectoral fins were small and situated at the
middle on the sides of the body behind the
head. Pelvic fins were absent. Colour of the
body was grey with silvery shade on the
ventral side and dark shade on the dorsal side
and fins (Photo. 1).

Very little is known about the life of sun-
fishes. There are some general accounts which
state that they are oceanic and epipelagic. The
inference was drawn because of the usual sight-
ing of these fish basking in the surface waters,
far away from the coast. It is possible that
such basking fish are ill, riddled with parasites
(Harbison 1987) or old. Young fish were found
to be “active and alert” (Fraser-Bruner 1951).
Harbison (loc. cit.) and his team of workers ob-
served the swimming behaviour of Masturus
lanceolatus (Molidae) at close quarters at a
depth of 670 m. The graceful sculling move-
ments of the fish at that depth, where they
were more common than at the surface, and
the relationship with certain type of food
organisms like ctenophores and medusae, show
that the natural habitat of the fish is meso-

629

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

Photo. 1. Sunfish Mola mola (L.)

Left: Entire fish; Right : Anterior region enlarged (Scale = 500 mm).
( Photos : B. Ram Bhaskar)

pelagic rather than epipelagic. Similarly M.
mola was found to descend to a depth of
180 m (Harbison. loc. cit.).

The present specimen was also caught at a
depth of about 200 m as reported by the
fishermen. It was an unusual sight for the
fishermen because they seldom cast their gear
in such deep waters. Even on the few occa-
sions when they do deep-sea fishing, the
chances of a sunfish getting caught in their
deep water gear (usually hook and line) are
almost nil because of the alertness of the fish.
These fish may be present in the mesopelagic
relgons in considerable numbers but they are

not well known because of negligible fishing in
the region and that too by hook and line
only, which may not catch the fish. It is not
because they are not there but because we do
not have the gear to catch them at such depths,
that their appearance is such a rare event.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. K. Srinivasa Rao, Zoology
Department, Andhra University for critical
review of the manuscript. Encouragement and
advice of Dr. G. Luther and Dr. G. Sudha-
kara Rao of Visakhapatnam Research Centre

630

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of C.M.F.R.I is gratefully acknowledged. Two
of us (DPR and KPP) are thankful to

Department of Zoology,

Andhra University,

Visakhapatnam-530 003,

Andhra Pradesh,

April 6. 1988.

C.S.I.R.. New Delhi for providing financial
assistance.

B. RAM BHASKAR
D. PANDURANGA RAO
M. RAMA MURTY
G. MAHESWARUDU1
Y. V. K. DURGA PRASAD
K. PHANI PRAKASH
J. D SUSHEEL KUMAR

1 Present address : C.M.F.R.I., Mandapam Camp
623 520, Tamil Nadu.

References

Chhapgar, B. F. (1964): Occurrence of the

Oblong Sunfish Ranzania truncata (Retzius) in Bom-
bay. waters. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61(2) : 453-
456.

Deraniyagala, P. E. P. (1944) : Some whale sharks
and sunfishes captured off Ceylon, ibid. 44 (3) : 426-
430.

Fraser-Bruner, A. (1951): The ocean sunfishes
(family Molidae). Bull. Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. 1(6):
89-121.

Harrison, G. R. (1987) : Encounter with a sword
fish (Xiphias gladius) and sharptail mola (Masturus
lanceolatus) at depths greater than 600 metres.
Copeia 1987: 511-513.

Khan, M. Z. (1975) : On the sunfish Mola mola
(L), a new record from Indian waters. Indian J.
Fish. 22(1 & 2): 295-296.

Kulkarni, C. V. (1953): Rare Ocean Sun-Fish —
Masturus lanceolatus Lienard in Bombay waters. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51: 948-950.

23. A NOTE ON THE ICHTHYOFAUNA OF SANJAY GANDHI
NATIONAL PARK, BORIVLI, BOMBAY

(With a text -figure)

Among the four National Parks in the
State of Maharashtra. Sanjay Gandhi National
Park (SGNP) stands out as a beautifully
preserved green oasis within the confines of
the metropolitan city of Bombay. The Park
(Fig. 1) covers an area of about 96.40 sq. km.
and lies between longitude 72'53° and 72'50°
E and latitude 19'88° and 19'21° N. The
southern boundary of the park is formed by
the shore of Vihar lake, on the east by the
townships of Bhandup, Mulund and Thane,
and on the west by Goregaon, Malad, Kandivli
and Borivli. The park area extends beyond
Bassein creek in the north and includes the
Nagla forest block.

Although the flora and terrestrial fauna of

this park have been studied (Naik 1986,
Monga 1986) no published record of the fishes
from this area is available. Hence a survey
was conducted to assess the fish fauna present
in the various lentic and lotic waters of this
park.

The water resources of SGNP
The major sources of water in the park are:
Lentic Tulsi lake

Vihar lake

Lotic Dahisar river

Rewat nallah

Tulsi and Vihar lakes are two impound-
ments which supply water to Bombay city.
The catchment area of Tulsi is about 745.25 ha

631

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

while the actual water spread is 130.918
ha. Vihar lake covers a waterspread area of
about 731.492 ha., while its catchment area is
851.488 ha.

Dahisar river originates from the Tulsi lake,
flows through the forest of Magathana village
and joins Manori creek near Dahisar village
which ultimately merges with the Arabian sea
near Manori village. Numerous small nallahs
and tributaries join this river during its course
through the park. The total catchment area of

this river extends to over 2023.500 ha. The
Rewat nallah originates from Avaghade hill to
the SW of Yeur village and flows northwards,
finally joining Bassein creek to the east of
Versona bridge. The nallah is locally known
as Laxmi river, while near its origin it is
called as Vaghacha Khonda. The catchment
area of this nallah extends to over 2225.850
ha.

Freshwater fishes present in the park . .

Order : Cypriniformes

Family : Cyprinidae

1. Salmostoma elupeoides (Bloch)

2. Danio aequipinnatus McClelland

3. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.)

4. Puntius ticto (Bam)

5. Parapsilorhynchus tentaculatus Annandale

6. Garra mullya (Sykes)

Order : Siluriformes

Family : Bagridae

7. Aorichthys aor (Ham.)

8. Mystus menoda trachacanthus (Val.)

Family : Heteropneustidae

9. Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch)

Order : Atheriniformes

Family : Cyprinodontidae

10. Aplocheilus lineatus (Val.)

Order : Channiformes

Family : Channidae

1 1 . Channa punctatus (Bloch)

Order : Perciformes

Family : Cichlidae

12. Tilapia mossambica Peters

Family : Anabantidae

13. Anabas testudineus (Bloch)

Family : Gobiidae

14. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.)

Prominent Marine fishes of Bassein creek
Order : Clupeiformes

Family : Clupeidae

1. Hifsa toli (Val.)

Family : Engraulidae

2. Coila dussumieri Val.

3. C. neglecta Whitehead

Order : Siluriformes

Family : Ariidae

4. Arius caelatus Val.

5. A. sona (Ham.)

632

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Order :
Family :
6.

Order :
Family :

7.

Family :

8.
9.

10.

11.

Family :
12.

Family :

13.

14.

Myctophiformes

Harpadontidae

Harpadon nehereus (Ham.)

Perciformes

Teraponidae

Terapon jarbua (Forsskal)
SciAENIDAE

Johnius belangerii (Cuvier)

/. elongatus Mohan
/. macrohynus (Mohan)
Kathala axillaris (Cuvier)
Mugilidae

Valamugil spiegleri (Bleeker)
Gobiidae

Boleopthalmus boddarti (Pallas)
B. dussumerii Val.

Parapsilorhynchus tentaculatus was found in
small streams flowing past the Kanheri caves
at an altitude of about 486 MSL. These streams

finally meet Dahisar river. During the summer
when the streams dry out, these fishes were
seen in abundance in the numerous stone
cisterns adjoining the caves. This is the first
record of the fish from the region. It had
previously been recorded from Khandala
(Annandale 1919) and also near Pachmarhi
along the Satpura hill range (Hora and Nair
1941).

As Dahisar river and Rewat nallah have a
very short length, the indigenous fish fauna
does not include large forms; rather small
fishes like Aplocheilus, Puntius, Danio, Ras-
bora and Garra are found in plenty.

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta for sanctioning the survey of
SGNP.

Zoological Survey of India,
1182/2, Fergusson College Road,
Pune - 411 005,

May 11, 1988.

D. F. SINGH
G. M. YAZDANI

References

Annandale, N. (1919): The fauna of certain
small streams in the Bombay Presidency. Rec. Indian
Mus. 16: 125-138.

Hora, S. L. & Nair, K. K. (1941) : Fishes of the
Satpura range, Hoshangabad dist. Central Provinces.

Rec. Indian Mus. XLIII. Part 3: 361-373.

Monga, S. (1986): The Borivli National Park.
Sanctuary, 6(4) : 314-362.

Naik, V. R. (1986): Wildlife on BNHS land.
Hornbill 1: 9-12.

24. NEW RECORDS OF APHIDS (HOMOPTERA: APHIDIDAE)
FROM GARHWAL RANGE OF WESTERN HIMALAYA, INDIA

During recent surveys of Garhwal, an addi-
tional 28 aphid species to the already known
186 species are recorded in this paper. Thus, at
present the total number of species from the
area stands at 214. The aphid species along
with their collection data are listed below. Out
of these, only 11 species marked (*) are re-
ported here as new to the state of Uttar
Pradesh. All the aphid materials are presently

deposited in the collection of Biosystematics
Research Unit, Department of Zoology, Uni-
versity of Kalyani, Kalyani, West Bengal.

Abbreviations used : Aptera(e) denotes

apterous viviparous female (s) and alata(e)
denotes alate viviparous female (s) if not
mentioned otherwise.

633

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Subfamily Aphidinae
Tribe aphidini

*Hyalopterus pruni (Geoff roy)

Material examined : 6 apterae and 11 alatae,
ex Prunus sp., Joshimath (c. 1950 m), 13.x.
1982, coll. S. Chakrabarti.

*Mdanaphis arundinariae (Takahashi)

Material examined : 27 apterae, 9 alatae and
3 nymphs, ex Pyrus pashia, Joshimath (c. 1950
m), 1 1 .v . 1984, coll. B. Das.

Tribe macrosiphini

Amphorophora am pul lata bengalensis Hille Ris
Lambers and Basu

Material examined : 5 apterae and 1 nymph,
ex an unidentified fern, Gourikund (c. 1981
m), 9.x. 1979, coll. D. K. Bhattacharya.

* Aspidophorodon harvensis Verma

Material examined : 46 apterae and 31

nymphs, ex Salix sp., Lambagarh (c. 2300 m),
28.x. 1981, coll. S. Saha.

*Capitophorus carduinus (Walker)

Material examined : 3 apterae, ex Cnicus
wallichi, Sayanachatti (c. 1770 m), 16.x. 1981,
coll. S. Raha; 8 apterae, ex Cnicus wallichi,
Govindghat (c. 1829 m), 8.x. 1983, coll. D.
Ghosh.

*Capitophorus eiaeagni (del Guercio)

Material examined : 3 apterae and 1 nymph,
ex Cnicus wallichi, Sayanachatti (c. 1770 m),
16.x. 1981, coll. S. Raha; 17 apterae and 12
nymphs, ex Cnicus thomsoni, Sayanachatti
(c. 1770 m), 8.x. 1982, coll. P. K. Medda.

*Capitophoms himalayensis Ghosh, Ghosh and
Raychaudhuri

Material examined: 4 apterae and 3

nymphs, ex Hippophae sp., Govindghat (c.
1829 m), 10. vi. 1978, coll. S. Chakrabarti.

Capitophorus hippophaes javanicus Hille Ris

Lambers

Material examined : 3 apterae and 2 nymphs,
ex Polygonum sp., Joshimath (c. 1950 m),
8 .vi . 1978, coll. D. K. Bhattacharya.

Chaefosiphon (Pentatrichopus) heterotrichus

Chakrabarti, Ghosh and Raychaudhuri
Material examined : 3 apterae, 1 alata and
13 nymphs, ex Labium sp., Ghangaria (c.
3770 m), 25.x. 1981, coll. A. K. Mandal; 5
apterae and 1 nymph, ex Salvia glutinosa,
Govindghat (c. 1829 m), 35 ix. 1982, coll. P.
K. Medda.

Hayhurstia atriplicis (Linnaeus)

Material examined : 12 apterae, 4 alatae and
11 nymphs, ex Chenopodium album, Osla (c.
2559 m), 25. vi. 1983, coll. B. Das.

Hyalomyzus (Neohyalomyzus) raoi Hille Ris
Lambers

Material examined: 1 aptera, 1 alata and
11 nymphs, ex Rubus mollucata, Sitapur (c.
1825 m). 6 .xi . 1981, coll. A. K. Mandal.

Lipaphis erysimi (Kaltenbach)

Material examined: 14 apterae and 37
nymphs, ex Brassica sp., Joshimath (c. 1950
m), 20. iv. 1985, coll. N. Debnath.

*Macromyzus (Anthracosiphoniella) macula-
turn (Basu)

Material examined: 3 apterae, 1 alata and
3 nymphs, ex an unidentified fern, Kedarnath
(c. 3584 m), 3 .vi. 1978, coll. S. Chakrabarti.

Micromyzodium da si Verma

Material examined: 19 apterae, 2 alatae
and 19 nymphs, ex Adiantum caudatum, Dehra-
dun (c*. 640 m), 25.x. 1977; 12 apterae, 1
alate male and 9 nymphs, qx Cheilanthus sp.,
Dehradun (c. 640 m), 9.xi. 1977, coll. S. P.
Maity.

634

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Myzus indieus Basu and Raychaudhuri
Material examined : 1 aptcra, ex Anelima
sp., Mussorie (c. 2005 m), 17.x. 1976, coll. S.
P. Maity.

Nasonovia (Kakimia) jammuensis Verma
Material examined : 3 apterae and 2 nymphs,
ex Rosa uncerinaefolia, Ganguiri (c. 3000 m),
7.vi.l980, coll. D. K. Bhattacharya.

Nasonovia (Kakimia) rostrata David and
Hameed

Material examined : 1 aptera and 4 alatae,
ex Strobilanthes sp., Govindghat ( c . 1829 m),
23.x. 1981, coll. S. Chakrabarti.

Vesiculaphis pieridis Basil
Material examined: 3 apterae and 4 nymphs,
ex Pieris ovalifolia, Gangnani (c. 1300 m),
6.vi.l980, coll. S. Chakrabarti.

Tribe pterocommatini

Pterocomma populifoliae (Fitch)

Material examined : 3 alatae, ex Populus,
ciliata, Ghangaria ( c . 3770 m), 25.x. 1981,
coll. A. K. Mandal; 2 apterae and 1 nymph,
ex Populus ciliata , Joshimath (c. 1950 m),
15.ix.1982, coll. S. Chakrabarti.

Subfamily Chaitophorinae

Chaitophorus kapuri Hille Ris Lumbers
Material examined : 85 apterae and 37

nymphs, ex Populus ciliata, Sayanachatti (c.
1770 m), 20.x. 1981, coll. S. Raha.

Chaitophorus manaliensis Chakrabarti
Material examined : 3 apterae and 6

nymphs, ex Salix sp., Rambara (c. 2743 m),
27 ,v. 1980, coll. S. Chakrabarti.

* Chaitophorus pakistanicus Hille Ris Lambers
Material examined : 68 apterae, 1 alata and
18 nymphs, ex Salix babylonica, Dehradun (c.
640 m), 29. v. 1978, coll. S. Chakrabarti.

Periphylius californiensis (Shinji)

Material examined : 34 apterae, 2 alatae and
25 nymphs, ex Acer oblongum, Mussoorie
(c. 2005 m), 31.x. 1977, coll. S. Maity.

*Sipha (Rungsia) maydis Passerini

Material examined : 28 apterae, 1 alata and

7 nymphs, ex Digitaria sp., Eleusine coracona
and Sorghum sp., Govindghat (c. 1829 m),
23.x. 1981, coll. S. Saha.

Subfamily Hormaphidinae

*Doraphis populi (Maskell)

Material examined : 7 alatae and 6 nymphs,
ex Populus ciliata, Joshimath (c. 1950 m),
27. v. 1984, coll. S. Saha.

*Tuberaphis loranthi (van der Goot)

Material examined : 15 apterae, 5 alatae and

8 nymphs, ex Loranthus cordifolius, Trijugi-
narayan (c. 1982 m), 23. v. 1980, coll. D. K.
Bhattacharya.

Subfamily Lachninae

Pyrolachnus imbricatus David, Narayanan and
Rajasingh

Material examined : 1 aptera, 1 alata and 17
nymphs, ex Prunus cornutus, Bhuinder (c.
2439 m), 5.vi. 1981, coll. S. Saha; 3 apterae
and 57 nymphs, ex Prunus sp., Pulnagaon (c.
1920 m), 15. ix. 1982, coll. D. Ghosh.

Subfamily Pemphiginae

Baizougia pistaciae (Linnaeus)

Material examined : 3 apterae and 1 nymph,
ex Pistacia integerrima, Helong (c. 1524 m),
12. v. 1984; 8 apterae and 9 nymphs, ex Pista-
cia integerrima, Joshimath (c. 1950 m), 6.vi.
1984, coll. K. Dev.

635

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Acknowledgements Delhi for financing the work and the Head,

Grateful acknowledgements are due to the Department of Zoology, University of Kalyani
Department of Science and Technology, New for providing the laboratory facilities.

Biosystem atice Research Unit, SANTANU SAHA

Department of Zoology, S. CHAKRABARTI

University of Kalyani,

Kalyani - 741 235. India.

February 4, 1987.

25. A BUTTERFLY PHENOMENON

Butterflies have been a source of fascination
for me ever since childhood, but the simple
thrill of photographing them is a recent dis-
covery. More than the satisfaction of securing
a good close-up of a beautiful butterfly, what
lingers in the mind is the pleasure of peeping
into the wonderful world of those jewelled
angels through the close-up lens.

On 10. v. 1984, I was with a group of
friends near the Banatheertham waterfalls, in-
side the Mundanthurai Tiger Sanctuary of
Tamil Nadu, when my attention was suddenly
caught by a group of seven or eight bluish
butterflies trying to alight near a tiny pool in
a rocky depression. For about three or four
minutes, the butterflies fluttered about, appa-
rently trying to land near the water.

Finally, three or four of them landed by
the water’s edge. When I was close enough,
I cautiously, lowered my camera and slowly
started clicking. Only after the first two or
three shots, did I become aware of what I was
seeing through my camera lens — something

Elamon House,

Thycaud,

Trivandrum -695 014,

February 26, 1987.

I had never seen or read about before. The
butterfly was spurting tiny drops of liquid
through its anus. It was doing this roughly
at the rate of one spurt every five seconds.
Each drop was spurted with such force that
it fell four or five cm away from the insect’s
vent. The other butterflies were also doing the
same. It was almost as if they were sucking
water through their proboscis and ejecting it
through their rear. Were they doing it to bring
down the body temperature? If not, what could
be the real reason behind the phenomenon?

Later on, I identified the butterflies as Blue
Bottles ( Graphium sarpedon). On another
occasion I saw the same phenomenon in an-
other butterfly, a ‘Common Banded Peacock’.
It also happened near a stream bed. But in
this case there was only a solitary butterfly
and it was resting on damp ground with wings
spread out. There was no puddle of water
anywhere near it. The rate of squirting was
erratic but I was able to see the butterfly do-
ing it four or five times before it flew away.

SURESH ELAMON

636

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

26. PARAPOYNX DIMINUTAUS SNELLEN (PYRALIDAE: LEPI-
DOPTERA) AS A SERIOUS PEST OF NYMPHOIDES CRIST ATUM
IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR,
RAJASTHAN

One of the notable changes after the ban
of buffalo grazing in Keoladeo National Park,
Bharatpur, is the shrinking of open water
habitat as a result of the invasion by Pas pal um
distichum, a perennial, amphibious grass. The
reduction of open water area in turn limits the
growth of floating vegetation, especially mem-
bers of the genera Nymphoides and Nymphaea .
In order to prevent the excessive growth of
Paspalum distichum, the park authorities
bulldozed certain areas in 1985. A tremendous
growth of Nymphoides cristatum and Nym-
phoides indicum along with Nymphaea nouchali
and Nymphaea stellata was noticed in the
opened up areas.

During August, 1985, the leaves of Nym-
phoides cristatum were infested and fed on
by the larval forms of Parapoynx diminutalis.
At first the attack was mild but by April-May,
1986, almost all the leaves of Nymphoides
cristatum were destroyed by the larvae. The
early larval stages were found inside the leaf

epidermis, but later stages came out of the
leaves and stayed inside leaf folds, which were
made by partially cutting and folding the leaf
margin towards their ventral surface. The
larvae frequently came out of the leaf folds
to feed on the rest of the leaves. Mainly
because of the larvae, the growth of Nym-
phoides cristatum in the park was considerably
reduced by June- July, 1986. The life-cycle and
population density of Parapoynx diminutalis
are being studied in detail.

Ack nowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. V. S. Vijayan, for
his valuable suggestions and encouragement.
We are also thankful to Dr. John B. Heppner,
Curator of Lepidoptera, Florida State Museum
for help in the identification of the insect, and
to Mr. David A. Ferguson of the U. S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, Washington for his help
in getting the insect identified.

BNHS Ecological Research Centre, GEORGE M. JOHN

331, Rajendra Nagar, C. NANJAPPA

Bharatpur - 321 001,

May 22, 1987.

27. LIFE TABLE STUDIES ON THE SPOTTED BOLLWORM
EARIAS VITTELLA (FABRICIUS) (LEPIDOPTERA:
NOCTUIDAE) IN COTTON ECOSYSTEM

Introduction

Life table is a systematic presentation of
survival and mortality in a population (Har-
court 1969). It records the population or
estimate of a species at sequential stages of

the life cycle in its natural environment. In the
present study on the population dynamics of
the spotted bollworm Earias vittella (Fabri-
cius) which is one of the serious pests of an
economically important crop, viz. cotton, life

637

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

tables were constructed with the observations
recorded under field conditions.

Material and Methods

Life table studies were conducted in three
different crop growth stages, viz. 60-80 DAS,
80-100 DAS, 100-120 DAS. MCU 5 cotton
was sown on September 1, 1984, in an area of
567 sq. m. and this area was divided into 63
plots, each of 9 sq. m. Twenty one plots were
allocated for the studies in every crop growth
stage. These plots formed three replicates for
seven samples which were distributed random-
ly, and 0.5 m space was maintained between
plots to minimize the chances of migration of
population of E. vittella.

E. vittella was reared in the laboratory at
28°±2°C and 85 ±5% R. H. using the growth
chamber which was the prevailing atmospheric
temperature and humidity during the study
time. Female moths were made to lay eggs
on muslin cloth provided as site for ovipo-
sition. The muslin, containing eggs, was clipped
into small pieces so as to have 10 eggs on
each piece of muslin. In each plot, ten plants
were randomly selected and the piece of muslin
containing 10 eggs was tied to the tip of each
plant. This was done on 60 DAS, 80 DAS
and 100 DAS for the studies in different crop
growth stages respectively. Before placing the
eggs, the plants were thoroughly examined for
the eggs of E. vittella and these, if present
were removed.

All the eggs from the first sample plots were
collected two days after egg placement, brought
to the laboratory and reared for emergence
of parasites, if any. On the third day after
egg placement, the eggs were counted in the
second sample plots to know the extent of
predation. Subsequently, on the fourth day
after egg placement, observations were made
on the non-fertile eggs and first instar larvae

of E. vittella in third sample plots. All the
fruiting bodies were cut open and examined
for the number of live and dead I instar
larvae. The dead larvae collected were kept in
the laboratory to look for any parasite emer-
gence. Observations were recorded in a similar
way in the fourth, fifth and sixth sample plots
for II, III and IV instar larvae respectively.
Observations on the seventh sample plots were
made for the number of cocoons, as pupation
generally took place on the plant parts. The
cocoons collected were reared in the labora-
tory for the emergence of adults and the sex
ratio was established. The emergence of para-
sites from the cocoons, if any, were also re-
corded. The column headings used in the life
table were those proposed by Morris and
Miller (1954) and Harcourt (1969).

Results

a) Life table on cotton 60-80 DAS (Table 1)
During egg stage, there was a total morta-
lity of 27.3%, of which 11.1% was
due to non-fertility and 16.2% was due to
predation by Menochilus sexmaculatus. The
maximum mortality (64.1%) during the
larval stages was seen in the I instar stage,
which was due to inability to establish the
population. The mortality at the II instar
stage was 13.8% which was due to unknown
reasons. There was 25.3% mortality due to
unknown reasons in the III instar stage. Dur-
ing the IV instar stage, 40.5% mortality was
observed, which was also due to unknown
reasons. Parasitisation to the extent of 0.8%
due to Tetrastichus sp. was noticed during the
pupal stage. This parasite has been found to
be new to science and is being described else-
where. There was also 13.0% parasitisation
in the pupal stage by Agathes sp. The trend
index was 1 . 94 and the generation survival
was 0.032.

638

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

b) Life table on cotton 80-100 DAS
(Table 2).

There was 12.3% predation by M. sexmacu-
latus and 26.8% non-fertility during the egg
stage. Very high mortality of 72 . 1% was re-
corded in the I instar stage, which was due to
inability to establish the population. During IT,
III, IV instars and pupal stage, the morta-
lity was due to unknown reasons and it was
22.9%, 22.9%, 18.8% and 13.4% respec-
tively. The trend index was 3.19 and genera-
tion survival was 0.12.

c) Life table on cotton 100-120 DAS
(Table 3).

There was 16.5% predation by M. sexmacu-
latus and 37.3% non-fertility during egg stage.
The I instar suffered 72 . 1 % mortality due to
the inability to establish the population. The
mortality in II, III and IV instar larval stages
were due to unknown reasons and wereT3 .2%,
21.4% and 12.5% respectively. The mortality
during pupal stage was 74.1% which was due
to unknown reasons and was high as in I
instar stage. The trend index was 0.835 and
generation survival was 0.043.

Table 1

Life table of Earias vittella on cotton 60-80 DAS sown in "Sept. 1984

Age

interval

No. alive
at begin-
ning of X

No. dying
during x

Factors responsible
for dx

dx as
% of lx

Survival
rate within x

log of
lx

K value

(x)

Ox)

(dx)

(dxF)

(lOOqx)

(sx)

log lx

K

Eggs

1000

162

Predation

16.2

111

Non-fertility

11.1

0.727

3.000

0.138

I instar (Nx) 727

466

Inability to establish

64.1

0.359

2.862

0.445

II instar

261

36

Unknown reasons

13.8

0.862

2.417

0.065

III instar

225

57

Unknown reasons

25.3

0.747

2.352

0.127

IV instar

168

68

Unknown reasons

40.5

0.595 ..

2.225

0.225

Pupae

100

34

Unknown reasons

34.0

8

Parasitisation due to

Tetrastichus sp.

8.9

13

Parasitisation due to

13.0

0.450

2.000

0.347

Agathes sp.

Adults (N2)

45

1.653

0.653

Females

10

1.000

No. of eggs

laid

1923

n3

Generation survival

0.032

Nx

No. of I instar in the

n2

next generation (N2)

1410

Trend

index

1.94

Nx

639

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 85

Table 2

Life table of Earlas vittella on cotton 80-100 DAS sown in Sept. 1984

Age

interval

No. alive
at begin-
ning of X

No. dying
during x

Factors responsible
for dx

dx as
% of lx

Survival
rate within x

log of
lx

K value

(x)

(lx)

(dx)

(dxF)

(lOOqx)

(sx)

log lx

K

Eggs

1000

123

Predation

12.3

268

Non-fertility

26.8

0.809

3.000

0.215

I instar (NJ

i 609

439

Inability to establish

72.1

0.279

2.785

0.555

II instar

170

39

Unknown reasons

22.9

0.771

2.230

0.113

III instar

131

30

Unknown reasons

22.9

0.771

2.117

0.113

IV instar

101

19

Unknown reasons

18.8

0.812

2.004

0.09

Pupae

82

11

Unknown reasons

13.4

0.866

1.914

0.063

Adults (N8)

71

1.851

0.404

Females

28

1.447

N3

No. of eggs laid

3156

Generation survival

0.12

N>

No. of I instar in the

n2

next generation (N2)

1941

Trend

index

' -

3.19

- :

N,

Table 3

Life table of Earias

vittella on cotton 100-120 DAS sown in Sept.

1984

Age-

No. alive

No. dying

interval

at begin-

during x

Factors responsible

dx as

Survival

log of

K value

ning of X

for dx

% of lx

rate within x

lx

(x)

(lx)

(dx)

(dxF)

(lOOqx)

(sx)

log lx

K

Eggs

1000

165

Predation

16.5

373

Non-fertility

37.3

0.462

3.000

0.335

X instar (Nx)

462

333

Inability to establish

12.1

0.279

2.665

0.554

II instar

129

17

Unknown reasons

13.2

0.868

2.111

0.062

III instar

112

24

Unknown reasons

21.4

0.786

2.049

0.105

IV instar

88

11

Unknown reasons

12.5

0.875

1.944

0.058

Pupae

77

57

Unknown reasons

74.1

0.260

1 . 886

0.585

Adults (Na)

20

1.301

0.301

Females

10

1.000

n3

No. of eggs laid

642

Generation survival

■-= 0.043

Nx

No. of I instar in the

n2

next generation (N2)

386

Trend index

= 0.835

Nx

640

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Discussion

The trend index was positive during 60-80
DAS and 80-100 DAS and negative during
100-120 DAS. There was approximately two-
fold increase of population during 60-80 DAS
and three-fold increase during 80-100 DAS.
During these periods, the cotton flower and
cotton bolls formed the larval food. The net
reproductive rate in life table studies conduct-
ed in laboratory conditions with cotton flowers
and bolls as larval food were 93.17 and 93.96
respectively (Ambegaonkar and Bilapate
1982). Such high reproductive rate of the
moth, in spite of the low generation survival
can be attributed to the trend index which
was positive during 60-100 DAS. During 100-
120 DAS the trend index was negative, indi-
cating decline in the population.

The prevalence of the predation of E.
vittella eggs by M. sexmaculatus was observed
in all the stages, and pupal parasitisation by
Agathes sp. and Tetrasdchus sp. was observed
only during 60-80 DAS. The predation of E.
vittella eggs by M. sexmaculatus has already
been reported by Das and Basu (1977), and

Fredrick Institute of Plant

Protection and Toxicology,

Padappai-601 301, India,

October 22, 1986.

R E FE

Ambegaonkar, J. K. & Bilapate, G. G. (1982):
Life fecundity tables of Earias vittella (Fabricius)
on Cotton and Okra. Proc. Indian natn. sci. Acad.
B 48(2) : 207-213.

Cherian, M. C. & Kylasam, M. S. (1941) : Pre-
liminary notes on the parasites of the spotted and
the pink bollworms in Coimbatore. Proc. Ind. Acad.
Sci. B 14: 517-528.

Das, B. B. & Basu, A. K. (1977): Studies on

the occurrence of Agathes sp. on E. vittella
has been reported by Cherian and Kylasam
(1941).

T etrastichus sp. as a pupal parasite of E.
vittella recorded during this study formed the
first report.

Conclusion

Owing to the meagre occurrence of natural
enemies in the ecosystem and also to the
positive trend index during 60-100 DAS, it is
evident that the mortality factors existing in
nature during these periods were not effective
in checking population growth of E. vittella .
The need for taking up proper plant protec-
tion measures during 60-100 DAS cotton is
revealed.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

We are thankful to Mr. S. Rajadurai Masi-
lamani. Statistician, for help rendered in pro-
cessing the data and to Mr. S. James Fredrick,
Chairman, Fredrick Institute of Plant Protec-
tion & Toxocology, for facilities provided,

D. ARUL SAMRAJ
B. V. DAVID1

1 Present address'. Rhone-Poulenic Agrochemicals
(India) Limited, May Baker House, Worli, Bom-
bay-400 025.

EN CES

natural enemies of cotton bollworms. Sci . & Cult.
43(3): 129-131.

Harcourt, D. G. (1969): The development and
use of life tables in the study of natural insedt
population. A. Rev. Ent. 14: 175-196.

Morris, R. F. & Miller, C. A. (1954) : The
development of life tables for the spruce budworm.
Can. J. Zool. 32: 283-301.

641

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

28. LOSS ESTIMATION IN CABBAGE DUE TO LEAF WEBBER
CROCIDOLOM1 A BIN OT ALTS (LEPIDOPTER A : PYRALIDAE)

(With three text-figures)

Introduction

The loss caused by insects is generally a
function of insect population density and the
losses caused by pests vary in time and space
(Strickland and Bardner 1967). Pradhan (1964)
emphasised the need for assessment of losses
caused by insect pests of crops and estimation
of insect populations.

Crocidolomia binotalis Zeller is considered
to be a major pest of cabbage in South India.
However, there is no record of the actual loss
caused to the crop by this pest. Hence, in the
present investigation an attempt was made to
assess the economic loss caused by C. binotalis
as a pest of cabbage.

Material and Methods

The studies were carried out at the Indian
Institute of Horticultural Research Farm at
Hesserghatta, Bangalore.

To assess the economic damage, three crop
ages were taken; 15 days old, 30 days old and
45 days old. The variety was Golden Acre.
Twelve plants for each replication were cover-
ed with iron mesh, wooden cages, 1.8 x 1.2 x
1 . 8 m in the field. All replications were rando-
mised in 1000 square metres area of cabbage.
There were five treatments, viz. artificial in-
festation of plants with 0, 1, 3, 5, 10 larvae,
with three replications of each. Damage occurr-
ed for a fortnight, which is the larval period.
About 20% of the larvae migrated, but the
total number of larvae was maintained by re-
infestation with larvae of the same age. The
control was kept infestation-free with quinal-
phos (250 g a.i/ha) spray every week. A rela-
tionship between yield and different levels of
pest population maintained has been fitted to
exponential decay curve as W = ae_bx where

POPULATION LEV0L6 PER MEAE>

Exponential equation curve of cabbage yield against
different population levels.

Fig. 1. 15 days old crop; Fig. 2. 30 days old crop;
Fig. 3. 45 days old crop.

642

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

W is the expected yield and X is the number
of larvae per plant.

Results and Discussion

Mean yields corresponding to different levels
of larval population at different stages of the
crop growth are shown in table 1. At all the
growth stages of the crop, significant reduction
in yield was observed over control with increase
in the different population levels maintained.

data at different levels of population (fig. 1).
ii) 30 -days old crop :

Percentage loss in yield (28.09) with unit
increase in larval population over control was
less in this stage as compared to 15 days old
crop and injurious at three larvae per plant.
None of the maintained levels of population
could cause complete loss of yield. The expo-
nential growth curve W = 0.32 e'0,1616x showed
good fit to yield-pest density relationship
(% 2).

Table 1

Cabbage yield after artificial infestation during three growth stages

No. of larve
maintained

Mean yield per plant (kg)

45 days

15 days

30 days

0

0.7882

—

0.4576

—

0.4578

—

1

0.3867

(50.88)

0.3292

(28.09)

0.2875

(37.19)

3

0.3343

(57.53)

0.1360

(70.39)

0.1670

(96.35)

5

0.2713

(69.54)

0. 1000

(76.69)

—

—

10

0.2219

(71.80)

0.0881

(80.78)

—

—

S.E.M.

0.083

0.077

—

—

CD

(5%)

0.1914

0.1776

—

Figures in parentheses show % loss over control.

* Statistical analysis for the third set (viz. 45 days) could not be carried out since most values were zero
at higher level of infestation.

The data was adequately fitted to exponen-
tial curves for all the three crop stages and
is useful in explaining the rate of decrease
of yield with unit increase of larval population,
i) 15 -days old crop :

It has been observed that with unit increase
of larval population, there is a significant
reduction in yield over control. This revealed
that even a single larvae per plant could cause
sufficient economic loss to the crop. With
further increase in population, decrease in
yield was slow because of increased availabi-
lity of food. The exponential growth curve
W = 0.5333 e 0,1028x adequately explained the

iii) 45-days old crop :

37.19% loss in yield with unit increase in
larval population over control has been observ-
ed in this age of the crop which is higher than
30-days old crop. With further increase of
population, total loss in yield was recorded.
The data showed the best fit to exponential
curve W = 0.6119 e_1,1493x (fig. 3).

The comparison of yield loss at all the three
growth stages of crop revealed that a single
leaf webber larva is sufficient to cause econo-
mic damage to cabbage crop. It was also
observed that the yield loss was faster at 15
days growth of crop. This indicated that if the

643

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 85

crop is attacked by the leaf webber at the early
stages of crop growth, then proper control

Department of Entomology,

College of Agriculture,

Herbal, Bangalore - 560 024,

November 22, 1986.

Refer

Pradhan, S. (1964) : Assessment of losses caused
by insect pest of crops and estimation of insect
population. Entomology in India. The Entomological
Society.. of lndia, New Delhi: 17-58.

Strickland, A. H. & Bardner, R. (1967): A

measures should be adopted to avoid economic
damage to the crop.

CLEMENT PETER1
IQBAL SINGH
G. P. CHANNABASAVANNA
C. L. SUMAN
K. KRISHNAIAH

1 Present address : Scientist, Dept, of Entomology,
Fredrick Institute of Plant Protection and Toxico-
logy. Padappai - 601 301, Tamil Nadu.

LNCES

review of current methods applicable to measuring
crop losses due to insects. Papers presented at the
FAO Symposium or crop losses. Rome, 2-6 Octo-
ber, 1967, FAQ of the United Nations. Rome, Italy:
289-309.

29. THE FOOD OF BENGALI A LATERALIS MACQUART, 1842
(DIPTERA: CALLIPHORIDAE) IN SRI LANKA

On 21 November, 1986 a rather robust
brown fly was observed flying inside my house
in Kotte, a suburb of Colombo, around 18.30
hrs. A few winged termites ( Odontotermes sp.)
had also been attracted indoors by the lights
and were fluttering about. Suddenly, I noticed
that the fly had captured one of these termites
(the exact moment of capture was not seen)
and was flying with the. termite held in its legs.
It soon settled on a metal curtain rail and,
holding its prey down on its back with its fore
legs, proceeded to feed on the soft underside
of the termite’s abdomen. The fly fed on the
termite for some 5-10 minutes, and throughout
this period the termite moved its legs ineffec-
tually in an attempt to free itself. It could not
move its wings which were held down by the
fly’s hind legs. After feeding on the termite
the fly let it drop to the ground and settled.

after flying around, elsewhere, from where it
was captured for identification.

On examination, the fly proved to be a
species of Bengalia and was identified with the
aid of Senior White et al. (1940) as Bengalia
lateralis Macquart, 1842 from the structure of
the cleared genitalia; the superior claspers
agreed well with Fig. 43 (lower) of Senior
White et al. (loc. cit.) . Previous to this, two
female Bengalia specimens were collected, also
from indoors, which appear to belong to this
species, and from other observations it would
appear that this is a common species. A cor-
respondent of the writer, T. A. Wijesiri of
Opatha, Kotugoda (Gampaha District), has
observed a Bengalia fly, presumably the same
species, which is commonly attracted to opened-
up nests of the ant Oecophylla smaragdina
(Fabricius) to feed on the ant pupae.

644

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

These observations are worth recording as
little is known about the habits of many
common calliphorids which are not of econo-
mic importance. The habit of taking ant

pupae has been observed earlier in several
Bengalia species but the use of termites as food
by these flies has not been reported often.

Entomology Section, D. P. WIJESINGHE

Department of National Museums,

P. O. Box 854,

Colombo-7.

Sri Lanka.

December 20. 1986.

Reference

Senior White, R.. Aubertin, D. & Smart, J. (1940): Fauna of British India. Diptera. Vol. 4.
Family Calliphoridae. London.

30. RECORD OF PARASITOIDS OF ASPHONDYLIA RIVEAE
MANI (CECIDOM YIID AE : DIPTERA)

Asphondylia riveae Mani is known to cause
characteristic leaf fold galls on Rivea hypo -
crateriformis throughout South India.

During December, 1985 heavy infestation of
the gall midge on R hypocrateriformis was
noticed in Padappai, Chingleput District, Tamil
Nadu. It was observed that the larvae of
A. riveae have been parasitised by a number
of hymenopteran parasites which are listed
below.

Department of Zoology,

Madras Christian College,

Madras - 600 059.

Fredrick Institute of Plant
Protection and Toxicology,

Padappai - 601 301 .

June 3, 1987.

1 . Eurytoma sp. prox. dentata Mayr
(Eurytomidae)

2. Tetrastichus sp. (Eulophidae)

3 . Sigmophora sp. (Eulophidae)

4. Bracon sp. (Braconidae)

The identity of the first two parasitoids were
established through the kind courtesy of Dr. Z.
Boucek and the other two by Dr. A. K. Walker
of the C.A.B. International Institute of Ento-
mology, British Museum (Natural History),
London. This report appears to be the first
record of parasitoids of A. riveae.

R. W. ALEXANDER JESUDASAN

B. V. DAVID1

1Present address : Rhone-Paulenc Agrochemicals

(India) Ltd.. May Baker House, Worli, Bombay-
400025.

645

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

31. NEW RECORD OF CRYPTOPODIA ANGULATA MILNE-
EDWARDS & LUCAS (PARTHENOPIDAE: DECAPODA:

CRUSTACEA) FROM MALAYSIAN WATERS

The type locality of Cryptopodia angulata
Milne-Edwards & Lucas, 1841 is not known.
According to Alcock(1895), the species occurs
along botli the coasts of the Indian subcon-
tinent, while the variety cippifer is known only
from Karachi. On the voyage to Indian Seas
by ‘Investigator’, Alcock (1902) encountered
an abundance of C. angulata off the Orissa
coast. It was later reported in fairly large num-
bers from the mouth of the Hughli River in
West Bengal (Chopra 1935). The collections
of the Indian Museum contained a single speci-
men of this species from off Honawar along
the west coast of India, but Chopra (1935)
doubted the specimen’s true identification due
to the profuse granulations on its carapace and
cheliped and the more sharply toothed pattern
of the borders of the carapace. Flipse (1930)
gave identification keys for the species but
made no mention of its distribution, and
Chopra (1935) probably made a mistake in
quoting this paper regarding the distribution of
the species. At a later period, Chhapgar (1957)
reported the species from Bombay area with
a drawings of the species and its gonopod. We
have collected a number of specimens of
C. angulata from the Chittagong coast of
Bangladesh between 1981 and 1983 (manu-
script under preparation).

The above mentioned works indicate that

Department of Zoology,

University of Malaya,

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,

April 11. 1987.

Refe

Alcock, A. (1895) : Materials for a carcinologi-
cal fauna of India, No. 1: The Brachyura

Oxyrhyncha. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 64: 157-291.

(1902): A naturalist in Indian seas.

C. angulata is a relatively uncommon species
with a distribution limited to the northern part
of the Indian Ocean around 20°N latitude.

It is for the first time that a specimen of
C. angulata has been collected from the waters
off Penang island of Malaysia as south as 5°N
latitude. This record extends the eastern and
southern distributional limits of the species.
The specimen was collected from fishing hauls
at Batu Ferringi of Penang in 1983. It agrees
with the type description by Milne-Edwards and
Lucas (1841) except that the globular carpus
of the cheliped is granulated and the palp of
the third maxilliped has a row of strong setae
along the inner margin of the propodus and
dactylus. The present specimen, a female, is
25 mm long and 50 mm broad. Its abdominal
segments conform with Chopra’s (1935) obser-
vation of being keeled and sharply tuberculate.
The Bangladesh specimen is similar to the
present one but does not have granulation on
the carpus of the cheliped.

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to Mr. K. Sagathevan of
the University of Malaya for providing the
specimen and to Mr. Peter K L. Ng of the
Singapore National University for assistance in
obtaining literature.

QAMAR BANU
K. M. NURUL HUDA

E N C E S

John Murry, London. 328 pp.

Chhapgar, B. F. (1957): On the marine crabs of
Bombay State. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54(2) :
400-439.

646

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Chopra, B. (1935) : Further notes on Crustacea
Decapoda in the Indian Museum. Rec. Ind. Mus.
37: 463-514.

Flipse, H. .T. (1930): Die Parthenopidae der

Siboga-Expedite. Siboga Expedition Monographs 39
c2 112: 1-104. 44 figs.

Milne-Edwards, H. & Lucas, H. (1841) : Des-
cription des Crustaces. Nouveaux ou peu connus.
Archiv du Museum , Paris 2: 461-592. pis. 24-28.

32. NEW RECORDS OF PRAWNS, SHRIMPS AND AMPHIPODS
FROM LAKE KOLLERU WITH NOTES ON THEIR DISTRIBUTION

Lake Kollru (250 sq. km.) is the largest
among the essentially freshwater lakes of India
although it is connected to the Bay of Bengal.
It is situated in Andhra Pradesh between
16° 31'-16° 47' N and 81° 4 -81° 22' E. A preli-
minary survey of the flora, fauna and fisheries
of the lake, made by Chacko et al (1952)
listed five species of prawns; Panikker & Menon
(1955) referred to seven species of prawns.
There was no previous record of the amphi-
pods of the lake.

Altogether 14 species of prawns and 11
species of amphipods were recorded during
the years 1975-1978 and are listed below.

Prawns

Family: Palaemonidae

1 . Macrobrachium rosenbergii schenkeli
Johnson

2. M. malcolmsonii malcolmsonii (Milne-
Edwards)

3. M. idella (Hilgendorf)

4. M. rude (Heller)

5. M. scabrieulum (Heller)

6 . M. lamarrei lamcirrei (Milne-Edwards)

Family : Atyidae

7. Caridina pseudogracilirostris Thomas.
Pillai & Pillai

8 . C. rajadhari Bouvier

9. C. propinqua de Man

10. C. weberi sumatrensis de Man

Family: Penaeidae

1 1 . Penaeus ( Penaeus ) monodcm
(Fabricius)

12. Penaeus ( Fenneropenaeus ) indicus
Milne-Edwards

13. Metapenaeus dobsoni (Miers)

14. M. monoceros (Fabricius)

Amphipods

Family: Amphilochidae

15. Amphilochus brunneus Della Valle
Family: Corophiidae

16. Grandidierella bonnieroides
Stephenson

17. G. gravipes Chilton

18. Corophiwn madrasensis Nayar

19. Podoceropsis insignis Chilton

Family: Eusiridae

20. Paracalliope indica Barnard

Family: Gammaridae

21. Elasmopus pectenicrus (Bate)

22. Eriopisella sychellensis (Chevreux)

23 . Quadrivisio bengalensis Stebbing

Family: Talitridae

24. Orchestia platensis Kroyer

25. Talorchestia martens'll (Weber)

Seven (3,6,7 to 10,13) of the 14 prawns
and shrimps listed above are recorded for the

647

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

first time from the lake. The majority of the
forms are freshwater in origin. Marine com-
ponent of the fauna is poor (11 to 34). The
bulk of commercial prawn catch is composed
of four species (1.2, 13, 14). The distribution
of forms 1 to 5 is predominantly coastal though
there are some localities well removed from
the sea along the course of large rivers; Atyid
species (7 to 10) are generally distributed
among the roots of floating vegetation and
slow-moving water.

Govt. Junior College,

Dachepalle - 522 414,

Andhra Pradesh,

August 22, 1987.

All the amphipods (15 to 25) are being
recorded for the first time from the lake.
Podoceropsis insignis was earlier recorded only
from Tale Sap in Thailand; it is recorded for
the first time from outside that area. The pre-
sent record of amphipods helps to bridge the
distributional gap between the southern
and north-eastern parts of India.

I thank the Andhra University for award of
a fellowship.

K. R SESHAGIRI RAO

References

Chacko, P. I.. Abraham, J. G. & Andal, R. Panikkar, N. K. & Menon, M. K. (1955):
(1952) : A survey of the flora, fauna and fisheries Prawn fisheries of India. Proc. Indo-Pacific Fish.
of the Collair lake. Indo-Commercial J., Madras. 7 : Conn. 6: 328-344.

274-280.

33. A FIRST REPORT OF AN ARACHNID ORDER UROPYGIDA
(WHIP SCORPION) FROM MAHARASHTRA
(With a text-figure)

The Uropygids, commonly known as whip-
scorpions, are natives of Oriental and
Neotropical evergreen forests. At once recogni-
sable from Scorpions by the presence of a
deep constriction between the cephalothorax
and abdomen, by the absence of pectines and
a long thin whiplike tail instead of a broadly
segmented metasoma bearing a poison gland
at the tip. Whipscorpions are animals of mode-
rate size, and range between 20-50 mm in total
body length. They generally live under bark
and forest litter and thus go unnoticed. There
are about 44 species under 15 genera from the
Oriental region of which only 6 species of 4
genera have so far been described from Tndia.

namely Thelyphonus sepiaris Butler, 1873
(Madras, Tamil Nadu), T. crist at us Pocock,
1900 (West Bengal), Uroproctus assam-
ensis Stolicza, 1 869 (Khasi Hills, Megha-
laya, Labochirus tauricornis Pocock, 1899
(Mangalore, Karnataka) and Hy poet onus
oatesii Pocock, 1900 (Assam) (Fig. 1A).

It is apparent from the distributional records
that the Indian species of whipscorpions have
been reported only from southern, eastern and
north-eastern parts of the country and hitherto
there was no record available of this group
from western India and especially from Maha-
rashtra. Thus this note intends to place on
record the existence of this order in the state

648

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of Maharashtra and to extend its distribution
in western India.

A single specimen (male) was recovered
from forest litter from Chandgad (lat. 15° 55'
N, long. 74° 10' E; 850 MSL) of Kolhapur
District, Maharashtra during recent mopping
survey programme, 1986. This specimen mea-
sures 27 . 50 mm in total body length and the

tail or whip measures more than half the total
length. The whip comprises of more than 40
uneven, sparsely haired annuli. A pair of
omatidia is conspicuous on the last abdominal
segment. This specimen belongs to the family
Hypoctonidae and the genus Labochirus
Pocock, but it does not fit into the key of
known Indian species (Fig. 1 B).

FIG* 1

• the lyphonus sepiaris bul.
L CRISTATUS POC.

[UROPROCTUS ASSAMENSIS ST.
iHYPOCTONUS OAT ESI I POC.

* [labochirus TAURICORNIS POC
*[l.CERVINUS POC.

m LABOCHIRUS SP.lNEW RECORD)

Fig. 1. A. Showing the distribution of Uropygid species in India.

B. Showing a specimen collected from Kolhapur District. Maharashtra. Western India.

649

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Ack N O WLEDGE M E N TS

I thank the Director, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta and the Officer-in-Charge,
Zoological Survey of India, WRS, Pune for
providing facilities. I am also grateful to

Zoological Survey of India,

Western Regional Station,

Pune - 411 016,

May 29, 1987.

Dr. R. M. Sharma, Assistant Zoologist, ZSI,
WRS, Pune for critically going through the
manuscript and suggesting improvements. My
thanks are due to Mr. Dilip Kamble, Artist,
for preparing diagrams and a map.

D. B. BASTAWADE

34. AGGREGATING TENDENCY IN MESOBUTHUS TAMULUS
TAMULUS (FABRICIUS) (SCORPIONIDA, BUTHIDAE)

I NTRODUCTION

It is known that scorpions do not display
social organisation. Fabre (1907), in his study
of Buthus occitanus, noted that he did not
find two of them under the same stone; when-
ever there were two, one was engaged in
eating the other! Cloudsley-Thompson (1958)
pointed out that no association of individuals
was tolerated by any species. Vachon (1952)
did not find any evidence of social instincts in
European scorpions.

An account by McAlister (1966) on Cen-
truroides vittatus Say (Scorpionida, Buthidae)
about its aggregating tendency, formed a turn-
ing point in the study of scorpion behaviour.
Polis and Lourenco (1986) studied the evolu-
tion of sociality among scorpions.

The present paper deals with an observa-
tions on Mesobuthus famulus famulus (Fabr.),
the commonly occurring yellow scorpion in
Maharashtra.

Under captive conditions, scorpions display
an abnormal aggregating behaviour due to lack
of shelter. Some Buthids live in colonies and
all members of a colony live in the same
burrow or hole (Tikader and Bastawade 1983).

Material and Methods

Seventeen females and 4 males of M. t. famu-
lus (Fabr.) collected near Bopkhel village,
Dapodi, Pune were kept under observations
in a wooden cage of size 45 cm x 30 cm x 30
cm with its three sides of wire mesh and top
with a glass door. A layer of black soil was
spread up to 2 cm. depth at the bottom. Pieces
of coconut shell were kept in the cage as shelter.
These shells were dislodged daily. Insects were
given as food and water was replaced twice
a week in the cage.

Observations

At night, scorpions roamed in the cage,
with their pedipalps held up, fingers open, and
metasoma raised vertically. However in the
morning, they clustered below the coconut
shells, inactive and lying one above the other.
The pedipalps were closed near the chelicerae
and the scorpions resisted removal from this
association. Though the shelter was displaced,
daily, the scorpions were located below the
shell, the next day. However, in the field, M.
t. famulus (Fabr.) do not aggregate, one or

650

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

two scorpions only being collected from below
a stone.

Discussion

Cole (1946) discussed the factors which
cause contagious distributions; sexual attraction,
social instinct and favourable environmental
conditions. McAlister (1966) stated that the
aggregation of C. vittatus Say is a reflection of
social instinct.

In spite of cannibalistic habit and irrespec-
tive of sex, M. t. famulus were found aggre-
gated only during the day. This aggregation

Zoological Survey of India,

Western Regional Station,

Pune - 411 005,

Maharashtra,

August 21, 1987.

is obviously the result of avoidance reaction
of M. t. famulus to daylight and the scarcity
of shelter. Similar activity patterns of scorpions
have been recorded in a separate study related
to feeding (Yadav and Kamble 1987).

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. B. K. Tikader, for-
mer-Director, Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta, for his guidance and to former-
joint Director-in-charge Dr. B. S. Lamba, for
providing facilities for work.

B. E. YADAV

R. H. KAMBLE

References

Cole, L. (1946): A theory for analysing conta-
giously distributed populations. Ecology 27 : 329-41.

Cloudsley-Thompson, J. L. (1958): Spiders,

scorpions, centipedes and mites. Pergamon Press, New
York, 228 pp.

Fabre, J. H. (1907) : Souvenirs entomologiques,
ser. 9, Paris.

McAlster, W. H. (1966): The aggregating ten-
dency of Centruroid.es vittatus Say (Arachnida :
Scorpionida) . The Texas Journal of Science, XVIII,
No. 1: 80-84.

Polis, G. A. & Lourenco, W. R. (1986): Socia-

lity among scorpions. A etas x Congr. bit . Arachnol.
Jaca/Espana 1: 111-115.

Tikader, B. K. & Bastawade, D. B. (1983): The
fauna of India. Scorpions: Arachnida Vol. Ill, pp.
671.

Vachon, M. (1952): Etudes sur les scorpions.
Institut Pasteur D’Algerie, Alger, 482 pp.

Yadav, B. E. & Kamble, R. H. (1987): A note
on food and feeding habits of Mesobuthus famulus
famulus (Fabr.) (Scorpionida, Buthidae). Aspects of
Symposium on Behaviour, Zoology Dept.. New Col-
lege, Madras, pp. 57-65.

35. A NEW RECORD OF IXOIDES CORNUTUS MACGILCHRIST,
1905 (DECAPODA: BRACHYURA) FROM INDIAN WATERS

(With three text-figures)

Introduction

The crab was collected from the daily fish
catch of the mechanised boats brought to the
offshore fishing harbour, Visakhapatnam. As

it has not so far been recorded from Indian
waters, a description is given. The species
was reported earlier by Gordon (1930-1932)
from China, Stephenson (.1945) from Iran and
Sakai (1965) from Sagami Bay.

651

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Description

Measurements : 1 28 mm long, 32 mm

wide; 2 $ $ 29 mm long, 32 mm wide and
27 mm long, 31 mm wide (width excluding
lateral spines which measure 13 mm and 14
mm respectively). Collected from offshore fish-
ing harbour, Visakhapatnam.

Carapace light pink in formaline. Gastric
region of carapace granular. Branchial region
separated from gastric, cardiac, intestinal
regions and also from hepatic region by
grooves. Branchial region elevated as a lobe.
Pterygostomian region bears a tubercle, visible
from above. A deep notch on the antero-
lateral margin at the hepatic region. Lateral
spines long, cylindrical and gradually tapered.
Posterior margin bears a blunt spine, on either
side is a petaloid process. Front cut into two
lobes by a deep groove, each lobe tooth-like.

First two pairs of pereiopods longer than
the next two pairs. Distal end of the carpus
has a tubercle. Both borders of dactylus plum-
ed. Chelate leg long and slender. Inner border
of arm granular and upper surface of the
arm finely granular. Palm twice as long as
the fingers. Proximal end broad and distal
end of the palm slender (fig. 1).

Ischium of third maxilliped covered by large
granules. Exognath also bears a row of large
pearly granules. Male abdomen has five seg-
ments. The third segment longer and bears an
elevation on either side at its base. Third,
fourth and fifth segments longer than broad.

First pleopod of male long. Below the tip
of the first pleopod, the outer border bears
both long hairs and spinules. Inner border
bears only long hairs (figs. 2 & 3).

Distribution: Japan, Sagami Bay, Hong

Kong and Persian Gulf.

Fig. 1. Ixoides cornutus MacGilchrist.

Fig. 2. Tip of the first pleopod of male enlarged;
Fig. 3. First pleopod of male — entire.

652

MISCELL AN EO US NOTES

Remarks

During three years of extensive collection of
Brachyura only a single male and two females
were collected, which indicates the rarity of
the species. The above description conforms
to that of Sakai (1965).

Department of Zoology,

Andhra University,

Waltair-530 003,

August 22, 1987.

Gordon, I. (1930-1932): Brachyura from the

coasts of China. Journ. Linn. Soc. London ( Zool. ),
XXXVII: 525-558.

Sakai, T. (1965) : The crabs of Sagami Bay col-

Acknowledgements

One of us (KND) is grateful to Ms Maya-
debi of Z.S.I. for providing literature and to
the D.O.D. Scheme, Government of India, for
financial assistance.

K. NIRMALA DEVI
K. SHY AM ASUND ARI
K. HANUMANTHA RAO

E N CE S

lection by his majesty the Emperor of Japan. East
West Centre Press, Honolulu.

Stephenson, K. (1945): The brachyura of the
Iranian Gulf. Dan. Sci. Invest. Iran, 4: 57-237.

36. A NEW VARIETY OF SKI MM I A LAUREOLA (DC.) SIEB. ET
ZUCC. EX WALPERS (RUTACEAE) FROM MANIPUR, INDIA

(With a text -figure)

While revising the genus Skimmia Thunb.
from India, we came across an interesting col-
lection of Skimmia laureola, made by G. Watt
from Manipur in 1882. The peculiarity of the
specimen was recognised by Watt himself. He
noted that it was “a peculiar variety with
small leaves and racemes and three free styles”
and as such ascribed it a varietal status with
the epithet “ multiracemosa ’. This finding, how-
ever, remained unpublished until now. We feel
that it stands apart as a variety of Skimmia
laureola: but the epithet ‘ multiracemosa 9 (in
herb.) as proposed by Watt is not appropriate
as the inflorescence is basically a panicle with
short peduncle bearing flowers in 2-3 nate
clustures at the base and solitary towards the
apex;

A detailed description of this new taxon

with illustrations is given here.

Skimmia laureola (DC.) Sieb. et Zucc. ex

Walpers var. wattii Narayanan et Nayar var.

nov. (Fig. 1)

A varietate typica differt foliis elliptico-
oblongis, chartaceis, apicibus brevissime acu-
minatis, aeumine ad extremitatem obtuso,
nervis secondariis inconspicuis, 5-9 paribus,
prope marginem arcuatim junctis, inflorescen-
tiis paniculatis, pedunculis brevibus, usque ad
2 cm longis, floribus densis, ad basin 2-3 in
fasciculis, solitariis prope apicem, sepalis peta-
lisque manifeste pellucido-punctatis.

Typus : Watt 6459 (Holo & Iso CAL),
India, Manipur State, Sirohifurar,
2425 m, April 1882.

Scandent or erect densely branched shrubs;

653-

13

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Fig, i. Skimmia lameola (DC.) Sieb. et Zucc. ex Walpers var. wattii Narayanan et

Nayar.

a. habit; b. Flower bud; c. petal; d. stamen; e. pistillodes.

branchlets rather woody, terete, glabrous; bark
greyish, minutely fissured, lenticellate. Leaves
simple, alternate, often crowded towards tips
of branchlets forming a false verticellum,
petiole 10-12 mm long, slender, winged, blades
3. 0-5. 5 (-6.5) cm long, 1. 5-2.0 (-2.5) cm
broad, elliptic-oblong, base attenuate, shortly
acuminate at apex, acumen 4-6 mm long, blunt
at tip, margin entire, chartaceous, above brown

and below pale on drying, prominently pellu-
cid-dotted, glabrous, midrib depressed above,
prominent below, secondary nerves faint, 5-9
pairs, dividing near margin to form rather
distinct intramarginal loop. Inflorescence pani-
culate, subterminal and axillary, peduncle
sessile, short, 1.0- 1.5 (-2.0) cm long, glabras-
cent; bracts 2-3 mm long, lanceolate, acute at
tip, ciliolate; bract eoles 2, opposite to each

654

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

other clasping the pedicels, c. 1 mm long, sub-
orbicular, obtuse at tip, glandular, ciliolate;
pedicels obsolete to 2 mm long, glabrascent.
Flowers abortively unisexual, c. 5 mm long,
5-merous, sub-globose in buds. Male flowers:
sepals 5, connate at below, imbricate, unequal
in size, 1. 2-2.0 mm long, sub-orbicular or
narrowly oblong, obtuse to rounded at tip,
glandular, ciliolate; petals 5, imbricate, 3-5-
5.0 mm long, narrowly oblong, shortly stiped
below, obtuse at tip, glandular, glabrous;
stamens 5, opposite to sepals, arising from the
base of disc, as long as the petals, filaments
3. 0-4. 5 mm long, subulate, glabrous, anthers
c. I mm long, oblong, dorsifixed, dehiscing
through both the sides; pistillodes 3, styles free,
filiform, 1. 5-3.0 mm long, stigma minute;
discs annular, c. 0.5 mm high, c. 1 mm across,
glabrous. Female flowers and fruits unknown.
FI. April.

Botanical Survey of India,

Howrah -711 103,

April 8, 1988.

37. SOME INTERESTING PLANT

HILLS OF

Similipahar forests in the central part of the
Mayurbhanj district of Orissa, are among the
most luxuriant forests of the state. The hills
have an unique ecosystem which has favoured
the development of a rich and varied flora. A
systematic survey of the area carried out for
over a period of five years has resulted in
the finding of fifteen interesting plant records
new to the flora of Bihar and Orissa. These
are enumerated in the paper.

The plant specimens are preserved in the
herbarium of the Regional Research Labo-
ratory, Bhubaneswar.

Notes : This variety differs from the typical
form in the following characters: leaf
blades elliptic-oblong, chartaceous,
shortly acuminate at apex, acumen
blunt at tip, secondary nerves faint,
5-9 pairs, dividing near margin to form
an intramarginal loop; inflorescence
paniculate with sessile peduncle reach-
ing up to 2 cm long; flowers dense, in
2-3 nate clusters at base, solitary to-
wards apex; sepals and petals glandu-
lar.

The new variety is named after George Watt,
who collected this interesting specimen and
pointed out its distinctiveness from the typical
variety.

K. NARAYANAN NAIR
M. P. NAYAR

RECORDS FROM SIMILIPAHAR
ORISSA

Anaphalis adnata DC.

Meghasani, scattered among bare rocks, fl.
13 . ix . 1980. Saxena & Brahmam 4292.

Distribution : Simla to Bhutan, 1800-2400 m.;
Burma, China, Philippines.

Aneilema ovalifolium (Wight) Hook. f. ex
C. B. Cl.

Occasional in damp places. Chahala, fl. & fr.
1 7 . viii . 1979. Saxena 3773; Rajpal, fl. & fr.
2.x. 1981. Saxena & Brahmam 4612; Barhei-
pani — Chahala, fl. & fr. 1.x. 1983. Saxena &
Brahmam 4873. Gurguria, fl. & fr. 19.x. 1983.
Saxena & Brahmam 5186.

655

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Distribution : Southwest India; Nilgiri Hills;
Karnataka.

Bhunea aromatica (Wall.) DC.

Meghasani, fl. 27.iii.1985. Saxena Sc
Brahmam 5640.

Distribution : Himalaya, ascending to 1500
m.; Nepal Bhutan, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam
and China.

Bluniea clarkei Hook. f.

’ B. malabarica Hook. f.

Meghasani, along wayside, fl. 24. ii. 1983.
Saxena Sc Brahmam 5013.

Distribution: Kanara and Malabar.

Calhearpa longifolia Lam.

Occasional in shady forests — Bhanjabasa
— Upper Barakamada, fr. 13. xi. 1980. Saxena
Sc Brahmam 4104; Bhanjabasa, fr. 25. ii. 1983.
Saxena Sc Brahmam 5050.

Distribution : Nicobars; Malaysia, Australia.

Cissus assamica (Laws.) Craib
Chingudia fall, fl. 8. v. 1981. Saxena &
Brahmam 4450.

Distribution : Assam; Bangladesh.

Colysis pedunenlata (Hook, ex Grev.) Ching.
Selliguea hamiltoniana Wall.

Bhanjabase — Upper Barakamada, in shady
forests, fertile 1 2 . xi . 1980. Saxena Sc Brahmam
4208, 4226.

Distribution : Bengal; Nepal, Burma, Bangla-
desh.

Cordia waHichii G. Don
Meghasani, fr. 25. ii. 1983. Saxena Sc Brah-
mam 5082.

Distribution: Western India; Pakistan.

Cynanchum tunicatum (Retz.) Alston
C. pauciflorum R. Br.

Jenabil, near stream, fl. 26 . viii . 1982.

Saxena Sc Brahmam 4904.

Distribution: Deccan Peninsula from Kon-
kan southwards to Kerala, Sri Lanka.

Embelia floribunda Wall.

Dudurchampa, in shady valley, fl. (buds)
26. ii. 1983. Saxena Sc Brahmam 5096.

Distribution: Nepal to Bhutan, 600-1800 m.
Burma, Java.

Phoebe wightii Meissn.

P. paniculata Hook. f. in FBI., p.p.

Occasional along stream in shady valley-
forests — Bhanjabase, fl. 23. ii. 1983. Saxena
Sc Brahmam 4997; Dudurchampa Badomukka-
badi, fl. 27. ii. 1983. Saxena Sc Brahmam 5108.

Distribution: Western Ghats, Nilgiris, Ana-
malais and Pulnis, in shola forests, above
1500 m.; Karnataka.

Rhaphidophora glauca Schott

Badomukkabadi, in shady forest, 28.iii.1985.
Saxena Sc Brahmam 5587.

Distribution : Tropical and subtropical Hima-
laya from Nepal eastwards to Khasi and
Manipur Hills, ascending to 2100 m.

Salomonia cantoniensis Lour.

Occasional in damp places — Bhanjabasa,
fl. 14. xi. 1980. Saxena Sc Brahmam 4148;
Badomukkabadi, fl. 25 .xiii . 1982. Saxena Sc
Brahmam 4116.

Distribution: Bengal, Assam, Khasi Hills,
Eastern Peninsula, Malay Archipelago.

Taxocarpus kleini W. & A.

Badomukkabadi, fl. 10. vi. 1982. Saxena,
Brahmam Sc Prabhakar Rao 4636.

Distribution: Hills of the Deccan Peninsula,
from Konkan southwards; Sri Lanka.

656

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Prof. P. K. Jena, Direc-
tor, Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubanesh-
war for providing facilities. Thanks are clue
to the Similipahar Forest Development Corpo-

Regional Research Laboratory,
Bhubaneshwar - 751 013,

February 12, 1988.

ration for sponsoring the survey project and
providing funds for the survey tours. We also
wish to thank the Director and staff of the
Botanical Survey of India, Howrah for extend-
ing their co-operation for consulting the
Central National Herbarium.

H. O. SAXENA
M. BRAHMAM

38. BRIZA MINOR LINN. (POACEAE) IN NORTHWEST

HIMALAYA

The genus Briza Linn, is represented in
India by three species, among which Briza
media Linn, is common in Northwest Hima-
laya. The other two, B. maxima Linn, and
B. minor Linn, are natives of the Mediterra-
nean region and have been introduced into
India. We wish to put on record the occur-
rence of Briza minor Linn, as wild in North-
west Himalaya. This species grows by the
roadsides and in wheat fields in Kangra dis-
trict of Himachal Pradesh. As no description
has been provided by Hooker or Bor, a
detailed description is given to facilitate the
identification of this grass.

Briza minor Linn. Sp. PI. 1: 70. 1753; Hub-
bard, Grasses, 185, fig. 184. 1954; Bor, Grass.
Burma, Ceyl. Ind. & Pak. 528. 1960; Bor in
Rech. f„Fl. Iran. 70: 15. 1970; Gilliland in
Rev. FI. Malaya (Grasses) 3: 57. 1971; LIsu,
Taiwan Grass, 307. fig. A-P., 1975; Tzvelev,
Poaceae URSS. 522. 1976; Tutin, FI. Eur. 5:
173. 1980.

English name: Lesser or Small Quaking
Grass.

A loosely tufted annual, 10-70 cm high.
Culms erect or slightly bent at the base,
slender, round, smooth, 2-4 noded. Leaves
hairless; sheaths round, smooth; ligule blunt,

upto 8 mm long, membranous; blades narrow-
ly lanceolate, finely pointed, 3-14 cm long,

3- 9 mm wide, flat, finely nerved, minutely
rough above and on the margins. Inflorescence
a loose panicle, 4-20 cm long, 2-10 cm wide;
branches finely divided, minutely rough, with
curved hair-like pedicels 4-12 mm long. Spike -
lets nodding, compressed, orbicular to triangu-
lar-ovate, 3-5 mm long and wide or wider,

4- 8 flowered, shining, green or tinged with pur-
ple. Glumes persistent, horizontally spreading,
hooded at the apex, 2-3.5 cm long, firmly
membranous, 3-5-nerved. Lemmas closely
overlapping, similar to the glumes, very broad,
cordate at the base, rounded at the top and
on the back, deeply concave, becoming har-
dened and shining in the centre but with broad
white membranous margins, hairless 7-9-nerved.
Paleas shorter than the lemmas, flat with the
two keels very narrowly winged. Stamens 3;
anther 0.6 mm long. Stigmas 2, plumose.
Caryopsis enclosed by the lemma and palea,
flat in front, rounded on the back, pale-brown,
1 mm long.

Specimens examined : Himachal Pradesh,

Tangroti, Kangra District. 12th March, 1980,
Asha Sharma s.n. (DD); Palampur, Kangra
district, Jan. -Feb. 1987, R. D. Singh s.n. (BSD).

557

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Distribution : Atlantic and Mediterranean

Europe (from Britain to Greece) extending to
Central Europe, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Leba-
non, Palestine, Egypt Iran, Iraq, Pakistan,
India; naturalised throughout the warmer tem-
perate regions — USSR, China, Japan, Taiwan,

Malaysia, Indonesia, Australia, Polynesia,
Macaronesia, North Africa (Morocco, Algeria),
South Africa, North and South America and
West Indies.

Use: Occasionally grown in gardens as an
ornamental grass for its delicate inflorescence.

New Forest, Dehra Dun. H. B. NAITHANI

Botanical Survey of India, B. P. UNIYAL

Northern Circle, Dehra Dun,

April 7, 1988.

39. A NOTE ON LICHEN GENUS PROTOBLASTENIA

FROM INDIA

(With a text -figure)

The family Teloschistaceae, as circumscrib-
ed by Poelt (1973), includes all the genera
that had previously been placed in Caloplaca-
ceae by Zahlbruckner (1926). Protoblastenia
is one such genus characterized by a crustose
thallus, apothecia biatorine, scarlet red to red-
brown, disc and exciple K+ violet-purple, and
spores hyaline, single celled. The genus is
represented in India by two species.

One of the species, P. griseococcinea (Nyl.
in Hue) Inoue, was described as Lecidea
griseococcinea Nyl. in Hue (1892) on the mate-
rial collected by J. D. Hooker from granitic
rocks at an altitude of about 3000 ft. (c. 900
m.) in the Himalayas. It is reported to be
close to the following species except for its
saxicolous habit. The taxon has apparently
not been collected again.

The second species, Protoblastenia russula,
is fairly common as a corticolous species
widely distributed in India as detailed below.
Protoblastenia russula (Ach.) Ras.

Revist. Sudamer. Bot. 5: 67 (1938). —
Lecidea russula Ach., Meth. Lich.: 61 (1803).

Type collection: (Tropical?) America,

Swartz-not seen. (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Protoblastenia russula (Ach.) Ras.
Upreti & Misra 80.126 (LWU).
(Scale: 1 div. = 1 mm)

658

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Thallus corticolous, crustose, thin, pale grey
to pale brown, rimose-areolate, sometimes with
minute verrucae. Apothecia scarlet-red to red-
brown. (0.2-) 0.5-1 (-2) mm diam., often
crowded to compact, disc plane, round to
sometimes irregularly lobed in over-mature
condition, margin concolorous to disc or slight-
ly paler, distinct in young apothecia and often
almost excluded in mature and lobed apothe-
cia. Exciple pale yellow, prosoplectenchyma-
tous. 80-100 jinn thick, exterior region K+
violet-purple; epithecium orange-red to red-
brown, K+ violet purple, hymenium pale
yellow, 40-50 pm high. 1+ blue; hypothecium
hyaline to pale yellow, 20-30 urn thick, K-.
Asci clavate, 34-40 x 10-12 /on. 8-spored, tholus
thin, cap-like, circular to angular at the apex,
1+ blue. Spores simple, hyaline, thin-walled,
ellipsoid, (4-) 6-8 (-10) x 2-4 pm. Paraphyses
simple, capitate. Thallus K+ yellow, C-, P+
orange.

Chemistry: Two strains by TLC: Strain I:
fumarprotocetraric acid and trace of
atranorin; strain II: norstictic acid and fumar-
protocetraric acid ( ± ) and trace of atranorin.

The taxon is widely distributed in tropical,
subtropical to lower temperate regions of
India as also in the world. It had been report-
ed earlier from two localities from India as
Lecidea russula.

Specimens examined :

Strain I: Madhya Pradesh, Hoshangabad
district, Pachmarhi, near Apsara Vihar Falls,
alt. c. 1080 m, 1980, Upreti & Misra 80.126
(LWU) — (Fig. 1); Meghalaya, Shillong,
Laitkar forest, alt. c. 1650 m, 1964, Awasthi

Department of Botany,

Lucknow University,

Lucknow,

April 8, 1988.

6010, 6444 (A was); Tamil Nadu, Nilgiri hills,
Kodanad to Kilkotagiri, in shola, alt. c. 1800
m, 1971, Awasthi & Singh 71.86 (LWU);
Nepal, Tistung, 1965, Banerjee s.n. (Awas);
Central Nepal, Bagmati zone, Manichur, near
herbal farm, alt. c. 2100 m. 1976, Sh arena
76.365 (LWU).

Strain II: Karnataka, Bangalore district,

Bannergatta-Hazum Kalu, alt. c. 980 m, 1979,
Awasthi, Upreti & Misra 79.126, 79.138
(LWU); Hassan district, Sakleshpur, Sam-
bhalli, alt. c. 980 m, 1979, Awasthi, Upreti &
Misra, 79.355 (LWU); Mangalore district,
Sakleshpur, Shiradighats on way to Manga-
lore. alt. c. 770 m. 1979, Awasthi, Upreti &
Misra, 79.576 (LWU); Tamil Nadu, Palni
Hills, Shembaganur, in pear orchard, alt. c.
1800 m, on bark of pear tree, 1970, Singh
70.865 (LWU); Nilgiri Hills, Kilkotagiri to
near Konada, in shola, alt. 1 800 m.
1971. Awasthi & Singh 71.19, 71.87 (LWU);
West Bengal, Darjeeling district, Kalimpong
division, Munsong, alt. c. 1500 m, on bark of
Alnus nepalensis, 1967, Awasthi & Agarwal,
67.254 (LWU); Central Nepal, Bagmati zone,
Manichur, near herbal farm, alt. c. 2100 m,
1976, Sharma 76.389 (LWU).

Ack nowledgements

I thank Dr. D. D. Awasthi for suggestions
and the Head, Department of Botany, Luck-
now University for laboratory facilities. The
work has been carried out as a Research Asso-
ciate in the C.S.I.R. financed project “Investi-
gations on some microlichen genera of India”.

GARIMA PANT (nee AWASTHI)

659

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 85
References

Hue, A. (1892): Lichenes Exotici. Nouv. Arch. A 599-632. Academic Press, New York, London.
Mus. 3, 3 : 104. Zahlbruckner, A. (1926): ‘Lichenes (Flechten)’.

Poelt, J. (1973) : ‘Classification*. In: (Ed.) V. In: A. Engler & K. Prantl, Die naturlichen Pflan-
Ahhmadjian & M. E. Hale. The Lichens. Appendix zenfamilien, 2 Auf. Bd. 8, Leipzig.

40. REDISCOVERY OF A RARE FERN MACROTHELYPTERIS
ORNATA (WALL. EX BEDD.) CHING ( T HEL YPTERID ACE AE )

IN NORTHWESTERN HIMALAYA FROM KUMAUN AFTER

A CENTURY

This fern is one of the handsomest of Indian
ferns and is much cultivated. It is common in
northeastern India, South India, Bangladesh,
Nepal, Bhutan. Sri Lanka, Malaya, Northern
Australia and Polynesia. The occurrence of
this species in northwestern Himalaya from
Kumaun dates back to Clarke (18S0) who
reported it to be common from Kumaun to
Bhutan in tropical valleys up to 600 m.
Beddome (1883) also reported it from
Kumaun to Bhutan, based on the report made
by Clarke (1880). But, its being common in
Kumaun Himalaya appears to be doubtful
because it has not been collected since then
from any part of Kumaun Himalaya by sub-
sequent workers who reported it on the autho-
rity of Clarke (1880).

Hope (1903), while listing the known ferns
of northwestern Himalaya, also included it on
the authority of Clarke (1880) with this re-
mark: “I enter this species on Mr. Clarke’s
authority, but I do not think it can be com-
mon in Kumaun, as he seems to say, for
none of my correspondents seem to have found
it there. I have not myself collected it in the
low-lying valleys of Kumaun, except in that
of the Gola, from about 2000 ft upwards, and
I did not see it there.” Further, Duthie (1906)
also reported this species from Kumaun
Himalaya on the authority of Clarke (1880).
Recently, Dhir (1980), who enumerated all
the known species of ferns from northwestern

Himalaya, based on his collections coupled
with earlier records of ferns from this region,
also did not collect this species from Kumaun
Himalaya and included it on the authority of
Clarke (1880). More recently, Khullar et at.
(1983) gave a detailed taxonomic account of
the family Thelypteridaceae of Western Hima-
laya; they too did not see any herbarium
specimen collected so far from northwestern
Himalaya, and included this species on the
authority of Clarke (1880). Dixit (1984) also
did not mention the distribution of this species
in northwestern Himalaya. It is clear from this
that none of the subsequent workers could
collect this species from any part of Kumaun
Himalaya after Clarke (1880) in northwestern
Himalaya.

During the course of explorations of
Pteridophytic flora of Kumaun Himalaya, some
specimens of an interesting fern were collect-
ed. After critical study, it was identified as
Macrothelypteris ornata (Wall, ex Bedd.)
Ching belonging to the family Thelypterida-
ceae. The collection of this species from
Kumaun Himalaya in northwestern Himalaya
indicates that this species is being collected
after 107 years. Its rediscovery from Kumaun
Himalaya is an important novelty for the fern
flora of Kumaun in particular and fern flora
of northwestern Himalaya in general.

In the present paper, a brief description
along with other relevant information is pro-

660

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

vided to facilitate easy identification. Field
number along with collector’s name is given
in parentheses and the voucher specimens are
deposited in the Herbarium, Department of
Botany, D.S.B. College, Kumaun University.
Naini Tal.

Macrothelypteris ornata (Wall, ex Bedd.) Ching,
Acta Phytotax. Sinica 8: 309. 1963; Khullar
et al., Nova Hedw. 37: 636. 1983; Dixit.
Census Indian Pterid. 109. 1984. Polypodium
ornatum Wall, ex Bedd., Ferns Brit. India
171. 1874: Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond.
2. Bot. 1 : 545. 1880; Hope, J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 15: 81. 1903; Duthie, Cat. PI.
Kumaun 230. 1906. Phegopteris ornata J.
Sm„ Hist. Fil. 233. 1875; Bedd., Handb.
Ferns Brit. India 294. 1883.

Rhizome erect. Stipe brown, thick, firm,
robust, base densely scaly, less scaly upwards
becoming rough due to persistent scale bases.
Scales thin. Rhachis sparsely scaly, persistent.
Lamina tripinnate. huge, lower surface of
pinnules hairy, hairs short, capitate, scaly,
scales very linear passing into multiseptate
hairs. Pinnules slightly oblique, acuminate,

Department of Botany,

D. S: B. College,

Kumaun University,

Naini Tal - 263 002.

October 20. 1987.

Refer

Beddome, R. H. (1883): Handbook to the Ferns
of British India. Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula.
Calcutta.

Clarke, C. B. (1880): A review of ferns of
Northern India. Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 2. Bot. 1:
425-611.

Dhir, K. K. (1980) : Ferns of Northwestern
Himalaya. Bibliotheca Pteridologia 1: 1-158.

Dixit, R. D. (1984) : A census of Indian Pteri-
dophytes. Howrah.

Duthie, J. F. (1906): Catalogue of the plants

deeply lobed. Veins pinnate in lobes. Sori
exindusiate. 1-3 to each tertiary lobe. Sporan-
gia with short capitate hairs. Spores brown,
perinate.

Ecology: A rather rare fern that grows in
open places in chir-pine mixed forests around
1300 m. It also grow on dry rock crevices in
steep shady ravines along the perennial
streams around 1200. m.

Specimens examined: Kumaun Himalaya:
Pithoragarh district, Pomtori near Shandev
around 1300 m (Samant & Rawal 929. 930);
near Kukrouli village around 1200 m (Samant
936, 937).

Ack nowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. S. P. Khullar.
Reader, Department of Botany, Panjab Uni-
versity. Chandigarh for helping us in various
ways and for encouragement. Thanks are due
to the Head. Department of Botany, D. S. B.
College, Kumaun University. Naini Tal for
providing necessary facilities.

Y. P. S. PANGTEY
S. S. SAMANT
R. S RAWAL

: N CES

of Kumaun and adjacent portions of Garhwal and
Tibet based on the collections made by Strachey
and Winterbottom during the years 1846-1849.
London.

Hope, C. W. (1903): The . Ferns of Northwestern
India, including Afghanistan, the Trans-Indus Pro-
tected States and Kashmir. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
15: 78-111.

Khullar, S. P., Sharma, S. S. & Singh, Param-
J it (1983): The Thelypteridaceae of Western Hima-
laya. Nova Hedwigia 37: 617-667.

661

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1986-87

”V

Executive Committee
President

Dr. Salim Ali, D.Sc., F.N.A.

Vice-Presidents

Mr. D. J. Panday
Dr. C. V. Kulkarni
Prof. P. V. Bole

Member

Director, Dept, of Science & Technology,

Government of India

Ex-Officio

Elected Members

Advisory Committee

Mr. Humayun Abdulali
Mr. M. D. Agharkar
Mr. M. R. Almeida
Mr. H. K. Divekar
Mr. R. E. Hawkins
Dr. Ashok Kothari
Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati
Mr. A. G. Newalkar
Mr. Ulhas Rane
Mr. Bittu Sahgal
Dr. O. Siddiqui
Mrs. Dilnavaz Variava

Dr. Madhav Gadgil
Mr. Shivrajkumar Khachar
Mr. Lavkumar Khacher
Prof. V. M. Meher-Homji
Mrs. Phillippa Mukherjee
Dr. Ishwar Prakash
Mr. S. P. Shahi
Dr. E. G. Silas
Mr. Shekhar Singh
Mr. Romulus Whitaker

Bangalore
Jasdan
Rajkot
Pondicherry
Bombay
Jodhpur
Ranchi
Madras
New Delhi
Madras

662

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE B.N.H.S.

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1986

103 rd Year

Membership

Membership data for the past five years
shows a slight fall in the Ordinary Member-
ship and a small rise in the Life Membership.
Otherwise the figures are static. 453 members

paid in 1985 but did not renew their member-
ship in 1986.

With overall increase in prices the Society is
forced to revise its membership rates with
effect from next Financial year i.e. 1987. The
new rates would be as follows:

Particulars

Entrance

Member-

Journal &

Total

fees for

ship

Hornbill

new mem-

fees

Postage

her ship onlx

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Ordinary Individual Member

50.00

75.00

25.00*

150.00

Ordinary Corporate member
Ordinary Member resident outside India

50.00

250.00

25.00*

325.00

(inclusive of postage on Journal and
Hornbill)

£ 2.00

£15.00

£17.00

Student member (without journal)

10.00

25.00

35.00

Life Member

50.00

1200.00

1250.00

Foreign Life Member

50.00

5000.00

5050.00

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

Ordinary Members

1137

1533

1762

1764

1680

Corporate members

162

158

132

152

138

Life Members

407

484

562

639

737

Compound Corporate members

52

102

107

108

115

Student members

126

182

192

164

141

Honorary members

3

3

3

3

3

Vice Patrons

4

4

6

6

6

1891

2466

2764

2833

2820

Members elected in 1986, but not paid 17

Members paid for 1985 but not paid for 1986 —453

* If Journal and Hornbill are required under registered cover please pay an additional amount of Rs. 15/-.

663

JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Members’ Activities
Days outings '.

Members were taken for a nature walk at
Palghar on 25th and 26th January. A bird
watching programme was arranged on a
Nature trail from MAFCO to Chena Creek
on 9th February and at Karnala Bird Sanctuary
on 9th March. Members visited Kankeshwar
on 23rd March for the study of flora and
fauna. Bird watching programmes were also
arranged at Sanjay Gandhi National Park-
Kanheri Caves to Tulsi on 30th March. IIT
Campus on 11th May and 7th Dec, Several
members participated in the Nature walk at
Dusk on 18th May. Nature walks were also
arranged at Pongam valley on 13th July and
around Tungarli lake at Lonavala on 27th
July to observe flora and fauna. Bus outings
were arranged to Tandulwadi on 31st August.
Manek Gad on 7th September, Saras Gad on
5th October, to see flora and fauna of the
areas. Bus outings are popular among mem-
bers. Nature walk for monsoon flora was
arranged on 28th September at Sanjay Gandhi
National Park. We thank the following mem-
bers and staff for leading the groups or making
arrangements: Prof. P. V. Bole, Mr. M. R.
Almeida, Mr. Ulhas Rane, Ms. Meena Haribal.
Mr. Vaidyanathan. Dr. B. R. Dave. Mr. S. R.
Nayak. Mr. Ashok Gangurde. Mr. Oswald
Thayil. Mr. S. R. Shah. Mr. P. B. Shekar and
Mr. N. Chaturvedi.

Week-end Camps :

These were arranged at Naneghat Jivdhan
Fort on 15th and 16th February, which has
at the foot of Malshej Ghat a good deciduous
forest. Other week end camps were at Matheran
on 15th to 17th August, at Alibag Seashore
to see migratory birds on 29th and 30th Nov-
ember and at Suryamal on 27th and 28th
December.

We are grateful to our members and staff
who organised these programmes namely, Ms.
Meena Haribal, Mr. Ulhas Rane, Mr. Isaac
Kehimkar, Mr. Manoj Muni. Mr. P. B. Shekar
and Mr. Vasant Naik.

Annual Nature Camp :

A Nature Camp was organised at Mudumalai
National Park from 24th November to 2nd
December 1986 for two batches each having
20 members. Mudumalai is rich in wildlife
such as Elephant, Gaur, Wild dog. Tiger.

We are thankful to Mr. Oswald Thayil and
Mr. Aloysius Gnanasekar for organising the
camp.

The Sanjay Gandhi National Park continu-
ed to be one of the main local field activities
area of the Society where members carried
on field studies in various disciplines.

Popular Lectures for members were arrang-
ed on “ How to identify Bird ” for new members
interested in Birdwatching on 11th January
and Bird identification on 8th February by
Dr. R. B. Grubh.

Other popular lectures were on:

'‘The Ecology of the Keoladeo National
Park by Dr. V. S. Vijayan on 22nd March,
Nature Photography by Mr. D. P. Banerjee
on 17th May; Flora of Sahyadri by Mr. Ulhas
Rane on 9th July. The slide show on “Dachi-
gam to Sikkim” on 9th August by the IIT
Wildlife Club; on “Tree culture” by Mr. Ashok
Kumar on 13th August; Asian Elephant by
Mr. Ajay Desai on 1.1th September; Audio
Visual on Nature around Ladakh on 26th
September by Sunjoy Monga and on “A field
study of Tigers by Dr. David Smith on 6th
September; a slide show on “African Safari”
was presented by Dr. Gupta on 16th Octo-
ber; Mr. Shahid Ali talked on “Grey Partridge”
on 31st October.

Various films courtesy British Council

664

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE B.N.H.S.

(Bombay Division) were screened during the
year.

Dr. Salim Ali was felicitated on 12th Nov-
ember (his 90th Birthday) and a seminar on
various BNHS field projects was organised on
10/11 November at Bombay.

Members’ Field Research Programmes

a) Impact of Inchampalli and Bhopal patnam
dams: A preliminary survey of the area
to be affected by these proposed dam was
done by Mr. Vijay Paranjpye of Pune. The
study was supported by the SANCF and
a report is available.

b) A survey of voluntary agencies engaged
in environmental action was done by Mr.
Gautam S. G. Vohra with the financial
support from the SANCF.

c) Upper Bhadra Project : A preliminary sur-
vey of the proposed Upper Bhadra Project
area was carried out by Mr. Ulhas Karanth
to find out the impact of this project on
the fauna and flora of this region.

The study was supported from the SANCF
and a report is available.

Study of Infanticide in Langur, Jaipur:

A study was carried out by Dr. Reena
Mathur, Assistant Professor of Zoology, Uni-

versity of Rajasthan with financial assistance
from the SANCF and a report is available.

Density of the House sparrow populations
in different habitats and its sex ratio was
studied by a student of Dr. R. M. Naik with
financial help from the SALWATOR Fund.

Publications

Journal:

During the year the December issue for
1985, Vol. 82(3) and the April and August
issues for 1986, Vol. 83(1) & (2) were pub-
lished. The 760 pages of these journals held
183 articles and notes. We received from
members and others 384 articles and notes
for publication in the Journal in 1986.

Horn bill :

Hornbill continued to maintain its popular
appeal to members. Articles and the change in
layout was widely appreciated. We appeal to
our members to come forward to share their in-
teresting observations/notes preferably with
illustration. The Financial assistance from the
Seth Purushottamdas Thakurdas Divaliba
Charitable Trust is gratefully acknowledged.

Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History was
released during 1986.

Sales Statement

Sales

1985

in

1986

Compli- Balance

mentary stock

copies 31.12.86

The Book of Indian Birds

1489

1545

1

29

The Book of Indian Animals

1213

412

1866

Some Beautiful Indian Trees

186

273

v-'

821

Snake Chart

38

26

(soiled copies)

218

Checklist of the birds of Maharashtra
(2nd edition)

92

101

1356

Checklist of the birds of Delhi,
Agra & Bharatpur

86

81

326

665

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

A Synopsis of the Birds of India

and Pakistan

31

55

1428

Grasses of Western India

38

59

4

156

Some beautiful Indian climbers and Shrubs
A* Pictorial guide to the Birds of the

148

186

1874

Indian Sub-Continent*

2285

1664

2

1821

A Century of Natural History

88

108

6

2109

The Book of Indian Reptiles

460

400

1

3404

* including OUP
Nature Calendar 1987-9924

Calendar and Greeting Cards : The Nature and sold for the specific purpose of generating
Calendar for 1987 sold 9804 and complimen- funds for supporting core scientific staff proved
tary 120 copies. The greeting cards prepared to be a successful endeavour.

University Department

Following students submitted their thesis during 1986 which were accepted by the University.

M.Sc. in Field Zoology

Guide

Financial

Support

Mr. Aloysius Gnanasekar

Ecology of Amphibia
of Sanjay Gandhi
National Park

Mr. J. C. Daniel

Nil.

Mrs. Tara Gandhi

Bird communities of

Dr. Salim Ali

Fellowship

exotic tree species with

from Salim

special reference to casuarina

Ali/Loke
Wan Tho

Fund.

We have following students

registered for M.Sc. and Ph.D.

at the Society.

Mr. Shahid Ali

Ecology and behaviour of the

Dr. Salim Ali SALWATOR

Grey Partridge Francolinus
pondicerianus

Mr. Alagar Rajan

Ecology of Spotted and

Dr. R. B. Grubh

Nil

Ring Doves

Mr. Vibhu Prakash

Biology of Raptors

Dr. V. S. Vijayan

Nil

Mr. Gurmeet Singh

Ecology of Bank Myna

Dr. R. B. Grubh

Nil

Ph.D. in Field Zoology

Mr. U. Sridharan

Ecology of Resident Ducks in
Keoladeo National Park

Mr. J. C. Daniel

Nil

Mr. Goutam Narayan

The Ecology of the
Bengal Florican

-do-

Nil

666

ANNVAL REPORT OF THE B.N.H.S.

Mr. S. M. Satheesan

Birds of Prey

— do-

Nil

Mr. Sunderamoorthy

The Ecology of terrestrial
Birds of Keoladeo National
Park, Bharatpur

— do —

Nil

Mr. Natrajan

Ecology of Crow pleasants
Ph.D. in Plant Studies

— do —

Nil

Mr. Manek Mistry

Contributions to the flora of
Ratnagiri Dist. in Maharashtra

Prof, P. V. Bole

Nil

Mr. P. Balasubramanian

Plant/animal inter-relation
M.Sc. in Plant Studies

— do —

Nil

Mr. H. B. Naithani

Contribution to the
Taxonomic studies of
Bamboos of North
Eastern India

Mr. M. R. Almeida

Nil

Nature Education Scheme
Nature education workshop for teachers :

A two day workshop for biology teachers
was conducted on 25th and 26th September
for training teachers in techniques of instruct-
ing youngsters at the Museum and Zoo.

In all 64 teachers from 40 schools partici-
pated in this workshop where the role of
Museums and Zoo in education was stressed.

Environment Exhibition :

This year 19th November to 10th December
was declared as environmental month by the
Government. We organised an exhibition on
‘’Forests for Prosperity” at the Society from
16th to 20th December as our contribution and
it received a very good response.

About 5000 school children visited the
exhibition.

The Vice President, Mr. R. Venkatraman
also visited the exhibition while visiting the
Society on 10th December.

Exhibition at Wada from 2 6th to 28 th
January 1987:

The All India Radio had organised their

Sixth Akashvani Vidhnyan Sammelan at Wada
College from 26th to 28th January 1987. Along
with other Institutions BNHS was also invited
to participate in the sammelan with exhibits.

A team of BNHS staff, namely Mr. Manoj
Muni, Ms. Neelam Patil, and Mr. Karamble
helped to arrange the exhibits of mammals,
birds, reptiles and insects.

In all over 20,000 persons including students
and villagers attended the exhibition in 2\
days.

In the regular activities of the scheme a
total 34 field trips were conducted during the
year. Among these 31 were to Borivli National
Park, 2 to Karnala and 1 to Lonavala. Out
of these field trips 2 were for Junior College
and two for trainee teachers, 960 students from
VIII to XII std. and 100 trainee teachers
participated in these field trips.

Teaching through exhibits :

During the year 8 visits to Prince of Wales
Museum, 7 visits to Victoria Garden and 5
visits to Aquarium were arranged. These visits
were mainly for the students of Vth to VUIth
Std.

667

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY, Vol. 85

One among these was a visit to the Museum
and to the Zoo for Spastic Society’s children.

Talk illustrated with Slides and Film Shows :
During the year 15 talks illustrated with
slides on birds, animals and insects and plants
were arranged at different schools. 10 film
shows were conducted in schools and colleges.

General Remarks :

This year the teachers workshop programme
and the environmental exhibition received
good response. Field trips were found effec-
tive and necessary as every year new students
participate. It was felt that more nature orien-
tation course for biology teachers should be
held.

Donations

The Society is very grateful to the following
Institutions, Organisations and individuals for
substantial donation towards the activities and
welfare of the Society.

General donation :

1. Dr. C. V. Kulkarni 1000.00

2. Less than Rs. 200/- 549.06

Salim AH Nature Conservation Fund :

1 . Lady Y. P. McNeice

30,000.00

Salim Ali-Loke Wan Tho Fund:

Cheng Kim Loke Foundation

50,000.00

Charles McCann Fund :

1 . Mr. S. Chaudhry

600.00

2. Mr. Indravan R. Mehta

2,000.00

Plant Study Fund:

1 . Mr. M. R. Almeida

750.00

Seth Purshothamdas Thakurdas Divaliba
Charitable Trust (Hornbill) 25,000.00

Darbar Alkachar Charitable Trust

(To cover Seminar expenses) 5,000.00

: Training Camp

A birdbanding training camp was organised
at Point Calimere from 24th November to
14th December for members having back-
ground of ornithology. There were 2 batches
each for 10 days. Each batch was given train-
ing in netting of landbirds, waders, trapping,
field identification of land birds and waders
and census. We are thankful to Mr. P. B.
Shekar and Dr. R. Sugathan for organising the
camp.

Library

During the year 1986, 222 books were added
to the Society’s Library of which 168 were
donated, 13 were received for review, 41 books
were purchased for the Library.

We are very grateful to the British Council
and the DDA for grant of books to the
Library.

Research

Work at Aerodromes :

Field investigations were undertaken during
this year at the following aerodromes:

1. Jammu: 2. Srinagar; 3. Madras; 4. Sirsa.

The following aerodromes were revisited
during this year for updating information:

I. Gwalior; 2. Jodhpur.

In all. the BNHS team has completed field
studies at 20 aerodromes as required under
the project. The aerodromes are:

1 Delhi; 2. Bombay; 3. Hindon; 4. Gwalior;
5. Jodhpur; 6. Gorakhpur; 7. Dundigal;
8. Tezpur; 9. Chabua; 10. Kalaikunda;

II. Srinagar; 12. Jammu; 13. Sirsa; 14. Ban-
galore; 15. Trivandrum; 16. Begumpet;
17. Nagpur;;. 18. Calcutta; 19. Patna; 20 .
Madras .

668

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE B.N.H.S.

Begumpet and Sirsa were not in the initial
list of aerodromes to be studies but were taken
up for investigation in place of Chandigarh
and Adampur.

2. Vulture Aviary at Bapna near Bombay :

Twenty four whitebacked vultures are kept

here in captivity for feeding experiments. One
of the research Scientists (R. B. Singh) has
been assigned to study the food requirements
of vultures, the quantity and chemical com-
position of the excreta as well as the immuno-
logical aspects enabling vultures to consume
decomposed carcasses. The study is in pro-
gress.

3. Implementation of the Project’s
recommendations :

The initial recommendations made by the
Project, for Delhi, Hindon. Agra, Ambala
and Bombay, in the 1st Annual Report, were
accepted by the Government of India for
implementation under the Seventh Five Year
Plan. The minutes of the meeting of Secretaries
convened on 22.1.1985 by the Cabinet Secre-
tary for this purpose are as below:

i) In view of the numerous agencies in-
volved in implementing various steps proposed
in the Salim Ali Report, it was necessary for
the Ministry of Defence, Air Headquarters and
Department of Civil Aviation to take initiative
and provide leadership in getting action plans
drawn up, getting funds allocated and getting
projects implemented by the different
agencies. For this purpose the Environmental
Management Committees should be utilised
effectively.

ii) Such action plan should be formulated
in respect of some more important airports to
begin with, namely, Ambala, Agra and
Chandigarh for which Air Headquarters will

provide leadership for planning and for exe-
cution and in respect of Delhi and Bombay
airports such leadership would be provided by
the Department of Civil Aviation.

iii) Such plans of action should be com-
pletely drawn up before March 31, and should
be introduced as an integrated Pilot Scheme
in the Seventh Five Year Plan.

iv) This scheme should be centrally assist-
ed and centrally monitored as one of the plan
schemes.

4. The BNHS has requested the ARDB to
finance setting up a Bird Hazard Research
Cell at the BNHS to provide basic facilities
and to help aviation authorities in routine
bird hazard matters including identifying bird
strike remnants and analysis of bird strike
data.

5. Some of recent studies abroad give a
vague hint that certain categories of synthesiz-
ed audible sounds induce consistent fleeing res-
ponse from some potential problem birds. The
BNHS may consider submitting a fresh re-
search proposal for funding from ARDB on
this aspect after obtaining some more evidence
to justify such an effort. A study of the effec-
tiveness of strobe light in bird scaring is also
being presently developed with the help of
the M S University of Baroda.

Great Indian Bustard

In the beginning of 1986, an extensive survey
was done in Rajasthan during which 104 great
Indian bustards were seen. Results of this
survey were published in a technical report
(No. 11). This report was widely distributed,
especially in Rajasthan state. A paper entitled
“Movement and flock composition of the

great Indian Bustard ” was published in

the Journal , and another major paper entitled
“Interspecific behaviour of the Great Indian

669

14

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Bustard” was submitted to the journal for
publication.

Routine work was continued at the Karera
field station, Data on movement, courtship,
territoriality, nesting etc. were taken. We could
get permission to colour-band only two
bustards. However, as the permission came
very late in the season, we could catch only
one bird which was colour banded.

Results of one year study at the Rollapadu
field station were published in the form of
annual report number 3. Some specific recom-
mendations for conservation of bustards in
Andhra Pradesh were given and the report was
widely distributed in the State.

In June, the Project Scientist attended the
XIX ICBP’s World Conference held at Queen’s
University, Kingston, Canada. He read a
review paper on the grassland birds of the
Indian sub-continent. Later, he also attended
the XIX International Ornithological Congress
at Ottawa. From Canada, he went to the U.S.
and saw the research facilities at the Inter-
national Crane Foundation, Wisconsin, and
studied the captive Kori bustards at San Diego
and Washington Zoos.

Lesser Florican

Intensive field work on the lesser florican
was done at Sailana, Ratlam district. As the
rainfall in 1986 was normal at Sailana, upto
15 floricans were seen in our study area, and
valuable data on immigration, nesting, feeding
and display were collected. A census of near-
by areas was done and a total of 49 male
floricans were located around Sailana town.
A brief survey of Rajasthan and some parts
of Madhya Pradesh was done but owing to
the failure of monsoon in Rajasthan, not many
floricans were seen. Later, in November-Dec-
ember, a survey was done in Andhra Pradesh
from where we have received a few reports of
the floricans in winter, but we could not locate

any bird. Results of the intensive studies at
Sailana, and various surveys were published in
the form of second annual report of this
project.

Bengal Florican

Owing to the various unavoidable reasons,
intensive work on the Bengal florican could
not be done in 1986, except for a brief survey
of West Bengal where two male floricans were
located. A field station was established in
Manas at the end of 1986 and the results of
our studies will be published in the coming
years.

Jer don’s Courser

One of the greatest achievements of the
Project was the re-discovery of the Jerdon’s
Courser in mid- January 1986. The species
was last seen in 1900. After a few months of
the rediscovery, another individual was seen
and photographed. Two papers about the re-
discovery were published in the Journal. A
field station was established in Sidhout area
for intensive studies.

Avifauna Project

Point Calimere : Bird ringing was continued
even though on a smaller scale. 5321 birds of
35 species were ringed, 103 birds of 5 diffe-
rent species were recaptured. Studies on bio-
metrics of wader birds Census data and
Studies on breeding residents was conducted
during the year.

Project Scientist resigned during June- July
1986. The biologists have been registered for
post graduate studies. Specific areas of study
were assigned to them viz.

1) Study of Plant/animal inter-relation (Mr.
P. Balasubramanian) at Point Calimere.

2) Studies of Mammals and Oceanic Snakes
(Mr. M. Ayyadurai) at Point Calimere.

670

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE B.N.H.S.

3) Study on the insectivorous bird commu-
nity (Mr. V. Natarajan) at Point
Calimere.

4) Study of the forest bird community (Mr.
S. Alagar Rajan) at Point Calimere.

5) Study on the status and ecology of the
Coastal Waders of Mandapam Peninsula
and its neighbouring islands (Mr. S. Bala-
chandran).

Mr. K. K. Mohapatra was requested to
examine possibilities of bird migration studies
in Orissa, and was sent to negotiate with the
Orissa State Forest Dept. The Project term
ended in November 1986 but was allowed to
continue with leftover funds.

Hydrobiology Project

The study continued as in 1985. Major find-
ings are summarised below:

Mean annual rainfall was 364 mm and the
quantum of water received from Ajan bund
was 0.017 million M. Average water depth in
the park was 24 to 108 cm. About 70% of
the aquatic area was dry. Air temperature
varied from 0.5°C to 46.5°C inside the park.

The average value of pH of the waters
remained around 7 . 5 throughout the year;
slightly more than that of 1985. The value
was zero in many points. Free carbon dioxide
decreased slightly; from 10.53 to 81 mg/1 of
1985 to 6.36 to 43.2 mg/1 in 1986. Values
of alkalinity varied from 133.93 to 361.195
mg/1.

Phytoplanktonic surface net primary produc-
tivity varied from zero to 0.1723 mg c/m/h.

Thirty additions were made to the plant
list of the park, making a total of 312 species.
Among them, one species Neptunia oleracea,
is new to Rajasthan.

Biomass of the aquatic plants showed an
increasing trend; the maximum was 1022 g/
m as against 905 g/m of 1985. Paspalum

distichum continued to dominate in the bio-
mass.

Number of macroinvertebrates of column
water showed almost 50% reduction fram
1985 and, the macrobenthos also had a de-
clining trend.

The total quantity of fish fry entering the
park was 10 million, whereas it was 65 million
in 1985. The source of fry in 1986 was only
river Gambir, as no water was supplied from
the Banganga to Ajan bund this year. The
number of air-breathing fishes increased,
slightly, whereas the population of gill breathers
declined. Breeding of fishes in July- August was
poor. Species diversity of fishes was 1.776,
slightly higher than that of 1985.

Altogether, 145 pythons and seven species
of turtles were recorded, adding two new
records to the Rajasthan fauna.

Species diversity of aquatic birds also in-
creased slightly; from 3.149 of 1985 to 3.534
of 1986. The 1986-87 winter population of
aquatic birds was very low compared to that
of 1985-86. The density during December 1986
was five times less than that of December 1985.

Breeding of the heronry species was very
poor; only 610 nests were built and 78 young
produced as against the 6407 nests and 6690
young of 1985. Failure of monsoon and, in-
adequate supply of water and fish fry were the
main reasons.

Post-monsoon breeding of resident ducks
was poor. Altogether, eight nests of spotbills,
five nests of whistling teals and two nests of
cotton teals were recorded.

Bronzewinged jacana was more common
than the pheasant-tailed in the park. Only the
bronzewinged bred .inside the park. Breeding
season was from May to September. Altoge-
ther, 38 chicks were recruited into the popu-
lation. Wintering population of Siberian crane
during 1985-87 was 38 with 6 juveniles,
whereas it was 37 with 6 juveniles during

671

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

1985-86. The Cranes remained in block E
during 1986 as there was no water in their
conventional feeding areas. Substantial diffe-
rence in the food and feeding habit was noticed.
Feeding time increased by 10% from 1985.

The population of raptors was higher in
1985-86 than in 1986-1987. The breeding of
Pallas’s fishing eagle was successful with two
chicks in 1986-87 but failed in 1985-86. The
lesser spotted and greater spotted eagle bred
in the park for the first time.

The peak periods of the species of plants in
flower and fruit were in September, and April-
May, while the flower and fruit abundance was
more in April and May respectively.

Among the land insects, lepidepterans and
hymenopterans were fewer than in 1985, where-
as coleopterans and orthopterans were more.
They had two peaks of abundance, a major
one in August-Sept ember and a minor in
March- April.

The peak period of breeding of land birds
was April.

The land bird diversity increased for a
short period following the fire in the grass-
land area. Sand-grouse and singing bush larks
arrived after the fire.

Population of ungulates remained almost
the same except for feral cattle (not buffaloes)
whose number is on the increase.

Salim Ali Festschrift Seminar

A seminar on the field projects being con-
ducted by the Society with Dr. Salim Ali as
the Principal Investigator was held between
the 10th & 32th of November 1986 as part of
the programme for the celebration of Dr.
Salim Ali’s 90th birthday. Thirtynine papers
covering various aspects of the studies being
undertaken under the projects; Ecology of
Keoladeo National Park; Population structure

and Movements of Indian Avifauna; Endanger-
ed Species of Indian Wildlife namely Bustards,
Floricans and Courser and the Ecology of the
Indian Elephant were presented by research
staff working on the field projects. Presenta-
tion of the papers was followed by a general
discussion and there was also a review of the
work undertaken on Bird Hazards to aircraft
undertaken with Dr Salim Ali as Principal
Investigator. The seminar was attended by
members, officials of both national and Inter-
national organisations concerned with the pro-
jects and the papers were well received.

Indo-British Environmental Research
Programme :

A collaborative research programme between
the Bombay Natural History Society (India),
the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
and the Nature Conservency Council (U.K.),
to be funded by the Overseas Deveolpment
Authority, U.K. and sponsored by the Depart-
ment of Environment. Forest and Wildlife,
Government of India. Areas in which the
collaborative arrangement is being considered
is in the extension of the conservation educa-
tion programme of the Society with a targeted
audience in rural and urban areas and to set
up conservation education cells, production of
information packages, etc. The second field of
collaboration will be for the setting up of a
Tropical Forest Research Station which would
attempt to create a data base for providing
information on all aspects of the tropical forests
of the region.

Staff

The Committee wishes to record its appre-
ciation of the willing co-operation of the staff
in the activities of the Society.

672

A.G.M 1986-87— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

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Balance as per the last Balance sheet 2,48,292.03

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TRUSTEES

Bombay. 10th September, 1987.

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Sd/- A. N. D. Nanavati, Sd/- P. R. Saraiya, As per our report of even date

Honorary Secretary , Honorary Treasurer, Sd/- Habib & Co.,

Bombay Natural History Society Bombay Natural History Society Chartered Accountants

TRUSTEES

Bombay, 10th September, 1987.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

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Honorary Secretary, Honorary Treasurer, Sd/- Habib & Co.,

Bombay Natural History Society Bombay Natural History Society Chartered Accountants

TRUSTEES

Bombay, 10th September, 1987.

THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1986-87 WAS HELD ON FRIDAY, THE 18TH DECEM-
BER, 1987 AT HORNBILL HOUSE AT 6.00 P.M., WHEN THE FOLLOWING WERE
PRESENT:

1.

Mr. Justice M. Hidayatullah

36.

Mr. N. C. Chhaya

(in the Chair)

37.

Mr. A. V. Ghangurde

2.

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

38.

Mr. N. D. Mulla

3.

Mr. Bansi Mehta

39.

Mr. R. Viswanathan

4.

Prof. P. V. Bole

40.

Mr. Vasant Gandhi

5.

Dr. (Ms) Meena Haribal

41.

Mr. Sam Bhacka

6.

Mr Kiran Parekh

42.

Mrs. Phillippa Mukherjee

7.

Mr. T. V. Jose

43.

Dr. Robert Grubh

8.

Mr. Anil D. Kunte

44.

Dr. V. S. Vijayan

9.

Dr. Pratap Saraiya

45.

Mr. S. T. Tambe

10.

Mr. J. C. Daniel

46.

Mr. Ulhas Rane

11.

Mr. Sejal Worah

47.

Mr. S. Chandrasekhar

12.

Dr. A.N.D. Nanavati

48.

Mr. S. Alagar Rajan

13.

Mr. Raju D. Shinde

49.

Mr. Mihir Devari

14.

Mr. M. R. Almeida

50.

Mr. Cyrus Guzder

15.

Mr. B. Menezes

51.

Mr. Suresh G. Bhatkal

16.

Mr. H. K. Divekar

52.

Mr. Shyam Chainani

17.

Mr. M. P. Behramfram

53.

Mr. D. I. Solanki

18.

Mrs. D. S. Variava

54.

Mr. D. N. Mistry

19.

Ms. Heta Pandit

55.

Mr. O. S. Fernandes

20.

Ms. Rita Ganguli

56.

Ms. Shomita Mukherjee

21.

Mr. Debi Goenka

57.

Mr. P. H. Butani

22.

Ms. Uma Roy Choudhury

58.

Mr. T. V. Prabhakar

23.

Mr. A. M. Bhagwat

59.

Mr. K. P. Karamchandani

24.

Mr. Y. V. Jhala

60.

Mr. S. A. Hussain

25.

Mr. J. P. Irani

61.

Mr. Bittu Sahgal

26.

Mr. Shahid Ali

62.

Mr. C. K. Rele

27.

Mr. S. G. Majumdar

63.

Mr. M. D. Agharkar

28.

Ms. Tvisha Desai

64.

Mr. S. R. Burman

29.

Ms. Shashi Rekha Iyer

65.

Mr. V. V. Shingre

30.

Mr. N. D. Sethna

66.

Mr. V. James

31 .

Mr. Ranjit Manakadan

67.

Dr. E. K. Bharucha

32.

Mr. Prakash Rao

68.

Mr. K. B. Somaiya

33.

Mr. T. V. Sourirajan

69.

Mr. Y. P. Bhatt

34.

Mr. S. F. Tarapore

70.

Mr. J. B. Dave

35.

Mr. Zaveer Contractor

71.

Mr. Umesh P. Banere

689

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

72.

Mr.

Sunil R. Zaveri

73.

Mr.

Hirji C. Mistry

74.

Ms.

F. Nazareth

75.

Mr.

Chandrakant Wakankar

76.

Mr.

S.D.N. Parekh

77.

Mr.

O. J. Fonseca

78.

Mr.

D. B. Jamdade

79.

Mr.

Carl D’Silva

80.

Mr.

Ravi Sankaran

81.

Mr.

Nitin Jamdar

82.

Mr.

D. M. Dumasia

83.

Sanctuary Magazine

Mr. N. D. Mulla raised the point that by
a resolution of the Annual General Meeting
of 1985 the minutes of the previous A.G.M.
should be formally adopted at this meeting.
Tliis should be the first item on the agenda.

The Honorary Secretary informed the
audience that the draft minutes were circulat-
ed to all members present at the meeting but
no comments were received. Mr. N. D. Mulla
made a point that the said minutes were not
received by him. The President assured that
care would be taken in the future, and the
said minutes were accepted.

The Annual Report for the year 1986-87
was then taken up, and the President enquired
if the members had any comments on the
report which had been circulated.

Mr. N. D. Mulla raised the point that the
Annual Report was not circulated to all mem-
bers. The Honorary Secretary informed the
audience that because of the unfortunately
high postage cost involved, copies of the
Annual Report could not be posted to every
member prior to the AGM. However, it is
made available at the Society prior to the
holding of the meeting where interested mem-
bers could go over it, as also it could be
arranged to be posted to such members as
requested it.

Mr. N. D, Mulla drew attention of the

Chair to the Centenary issue of the Society’s
Journal, and pointed out that the article “An
experience of Wildlife Photography” by M. Y.
Ghorpade at page 147 therein contained no
more than portions lifted by the author from
his book on Wildlife Photography. Mr. Mulla
pointed out that this did not do credit to a
prestigious journal like the Bombay Natural
History Society’s Journal, and it is unexplain-
able that the Editors of the Journal could not
detect it. He pointed out how essential the
proposition to introduce an Editorial Panel
was to assist the three editors. He also pointed
out that the Miscellaneous Notes section of
the said Journal issue did not contain any
notes on insects, and asked the reason for
this omission.

After some discussion. Prof. P. V. Bole, one
of the Editors of the Journal, stated that the
formation of an Editorial Board would be
considered. Mr. J. C. Daniel apologised for
the absence of Entomological Notes in the
Miscellaneous section which was an oversight.

The Honorary Secretary then informed the
audience of the main events for 1987:

1 . The demise of Dr. Salim Ali on 20 June
1987, on which occasion a BNHS condo-
lence meeting was held.

2. His bequest of Rs. 7.5 lacs to the Society
for forming a Chair in Ecology and Natu-
ral History.

3. Starting of the Salim Ali Memorial Fund
to sponsor independent research.

4. The Society’s Committee took the deci-
sion to appoint some senior staff of the
Society as permanent scientists to channel
and develop the scientific programmes of
the Society.

5. From October 1st the Sole Selling Agency
of the Society’s publications has
been entrusted to the Oxford University

690

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S.

Press and we hope thus to boost up our
sales.

6. The appointment of the new Honorary
Treasurer, Dr. Pratap Saraiya. He has
already made an impact on our accounts
and we hope he would be our Treasurer
for a long time to come.

7. Four new projects have been accepted by
the Government of India for funding by
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for 3-5
years.

8. The Society has been awarded the Indira
Gandhi Paryavaran Puraskar which carries
a cash award of one lakh rupees and a
trophy. The trophy was displayed to
members.

The acceptance of the Honorary Secretary’s
Report was proposed by Mr. Debi Goenka
and seconded by Mr. Cyrus Guzder.

The President called upon the Honorary
Treasurer to present the statement of accounts
which had been circulated and invited com-
ments from members.

Mr. Bansi Mehta referred to the deficit of
Rs. 1,38,000/- and enquired if it was caused
by the non-receipt of grant from the Govern-
ment of Maharashtra and was answered by the
Honorary Treasurer in the affirmative. The
President explained that by the referendum
the members have accepted the condition of
having representation on the Society’s Execu-
tive Committee from the Government, and
this would assist in receiving the grant from
the Government.

Mr. Mehta questioned about the item of
Rs. 28,000/- defalcated from the Hydrobiolo-
gical Project. The Honorary Treasurer stated
that the final report of the enquiry has been
submitted, and we have agreed to write it off
from the next year’s accounts. Every effort
including report to the police had failed.

Mr. N. D. Mulla referred to Rs. 8000/-

outstanding against Mr. P. B. Shekar and
as to why it was allowed to be outstanding
so long. Mr. Mulla was informed by the
Honorary Treasurer that the amount was an
advance to Mr. P. B. Shekar to organise the
Snake Exhibition at India Fair in the U.S. A.
This did not materialise. The amount was
considered recoverable from the Smithsonian
Institution. Negotiations in this direction were
going on.

Mr. Mulla raised the question of Rs. 6 lacs
realised from the sale of greeting cards. He
pointed out that at the last meeting the amount
was said to be used for tiding over the gaps
which occurred at the time the project funds
were exhausted. He stated that this had not
been necessary as new project had been
approved and that these funds should not be
allowed to remain idle. While the Honorary
This did not materialise. The amount was
Treasurer assured that these monies would not
be kept idle, Mrs. D. S. Variava explained to
the audience that now the project funds have
been received and the amount would be
invested.

The accounts were put to vote, and were
passed: Mr. Bittu Sahgal proposing adoption,
seconded by Mr. Debi Goenka.

As regards the appointment of Auditors,
Mr. Debi Goenka proposed and Mr. Guzder
seconded the name of Messrs Habib & Co.
but left it to the discretion of the Executive
Committee to fix their remuneration.

Election of the Committee : Since two
nominations had been received for election to
the Committee in addition to the panel of 12
names proposed by the outgoing Committee,
it was announced that an election would be
held.

The matter of revision of the Society’s rules
was now taken up. Mr. N. D. Mulla pointed
out that the time given to study the amended
rules was insufficient. Moreover he pointed

691

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

out that these amendments were to put up
within six months of the AGM of the year
1985-86, but this was not done. Enquiries at
the office after receiving the notice to see the
amended rules elicited the reply that they were
not ready. He objected to taking up of the
rules for consideration at this meeting, but
suggested that a General Body meeting be
held on or before 18th February for the pur-
pose of discussing them and their amendment.

The President pointed out that amending of
the rules was an immediate necessity, as in
response to the referendum Government repre-
sentatives had to be accommodated on the

In the ballot held in February 1988, the
Committee :

Mr. M. R. Almeida
Dr. Erach K. Bharucha
Dr. B. F. Chhapgar
Mr. Cyrus J. Guzder
Dr. (Ms.) Meena Haribal
Mr. Kisan Mehta

Executive Committee. Such being the case, the
Meeting agreed to accept Rule 31 (28) pre-
sented as amended in the schedule with the
sub-clause (4) ‘the chief paid executive of the
Society (ex officio)’ which had not been dis-
cussed earlier postponed.

It was agreed to delete Rule 63 (old rules)
requiring a security deposit from persons
appointed to handle cash in the service of the
Society, as we were now relying on Fidality
Insurance for this purpose.

Mrs. D. S. Variava moved a vote of thanks
to the Chair which was unanimously accepted,
and the meeting terminated.

following were elected to the Executive

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati
Prof. Parvish K. Pandya
Mr. Ulhas Rane
Dr. Pratap Saraiya

Mr. Digveerendrasinhji Indrasinhji Solanki
Mrs. D. S. Variava

692

AN EXTRA-ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING OF THE SOCIETY WAS HELD ON
SATURDAY THE 26TH MARCH 1988 AT 6.00 P.M. AT HORNBILL HOUSE

The following were present:

1 . Mr. Justice M. Hidayatullah
(President, In the Chair)

2. Mr. Humayun Abdulali (Vice President)

3. Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati (Hon. Secretary)

4. Mr. Bansi Mehta

5. Mr. M. M. George

6. Mr. B. Menezes

7. Mr. Arun Mohile

8. Ms. Tvisha Desai

9. Mr. Ulhas Rane

10. Dr. J. H. Thakkar

11. Mr. Shahid Ali

12. Mr. N. P. Behramfram

13. Mr. Sudhakar Solomoneraj

14. Mr. Sunil R. Zaveri

15. Ms. Uma Roychoudhury

16. Mr. N. D. Mulla

17. Mr. Sanat Burman

18. Mr. N. D. Sethna

19. Mr. S. D. Bhaumik

20. Dr. Jay Samant

21 . Mr. Debi Goenka

22. Ms. Heta Pandit

23. Mr. Asad Akhtar

24. Dr. (Ms.) Meena Haribal

25. Ms. Sanskruti Vaidya

26. Mr. Vasant Gandhi

27. Mr. S. A. Hussain

28. Dr. R. B. Grubh

29. Prof. Parvish Pandya

30. Mr. S. P. Kamath

31. Mr. Carl D’Silva

32. Ms. Iyer Sashirekha

33. Dr. Pratap Saraiya (Hon. Treasurer)

34. Mr. Cyrus Guzdar

35. Lt. Col. D. B. Phadkar

36. Mr. Ulhas Paralkar

37. Mr. V. James

38. Mr. Y. V. Jhala

39. Mr. M. K. Mistry

40. Mr. Sunjoy Monga

41. Mr. Nitin Jamdar

42. Dr. Asad Rahmani

43. Mr. Kiran Srivastava

44. Mr. Edward Gomes

45. Mr. Zareer Contractor

46. Prof. P. V. Bole (Vice-President)

47. Mr. Y. P. Bhatt

48. Mr. Sam Bhacka

49. Ms. S. Tarapore

At the outset the President explained that
there were a number of proposed amendments
about which no further suggestions had been
received from members. These would not be
discussed at the meeting but would be adopted
as already circulated.

Among the rules on which suggestions were
received there were some requiring minor or
verbal changes. These could be discussed and
adopted according to the sense of the house.
Those rules regarding which there were mark-
ed differences of opinion would be held over
and would, if thought advisable, be the subject
of a referendum.

The meeting then proceeded to consideration
of the rules in respect of which suggestions
had been received.

Rule 1. Mr. Bansi Mehta’s suggestion that
the words “of either sex” in line 3 are not
relevant today was accepted, and it was agreed
that these words be deleted.

693

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 85

Mr. N. D. Mulla’s suggestion that a sent-
ence be added to para 2 to define student
members was accepted. The Executive Com-
mittee was directed to make the necessary
amendments.

Rule 2. Mr. Bansi Mehta pointed out that the
word “admission” was used in this rule where-
as the word “elected” was used in other rules.
It was agreed that a uniform phraseology
should be adopted and the Executive Commit-
tee would make necessary changes.

Rule 7. Mr. Bansi Mehta suggested that all
funds be capitalized and only the interest on
these be used as revenue. The Hon. Treasurer
stated that it was necessary to have a proper
balance between corpus funds (of which only
the interest could be used) and other funds,
having regard to the requirements, including
working capital, of the Society. The Hon.
Treasurer added that he had submitted pro-
posals in this regard to the Executive Com-
mitee. The suggestion that “all funds” be
capitalised was not accepted in view of the
matter being before the Executive Committee
for consideration.

Rule 8. Mr. N. D. Mulla’s suggestion that the
old Rule 10 be retained and renumbered 8 A
was accepted.

Rule 14. The proposal of Mrs. Almitra Patel
that the number of Honorary Members be
increased to 50 was not considered necessary,
as even the present provision of 15 Honorary
Members has not been filled up.

Rule 17. Mr. Mulla’s amendment to insert in
line 3, after “Society”, the word “and to
attend meetings and functions of the Society”,
was accepted.

Rule 19. Mr. Bansi Mehta pointed out that
Compound Corporate Members should be in-
cluded after Life Members for receiving the
Journal free. The Hon. Secretary pointed out
the Corporate Members should be included
after Ordinary Members for receipt of the
Journal on payment of the Journal fee. Both
amendments were accepted.

Rule 22. Mrs. Almitra Patel suggested that 1
month’s notice be given, which was accepted,
but her suggestion that notice of the meeting
be advertised in 2 widely read English news-
papers was considered unnecessary and expen-
sive, and was not adopted.

Mr. Debi Goenka and Mr. Mulla wanted
the Committee’s report and the balance sheet
to be sent to each member with the notice.
The President explained that this would be
an expensive procedure and that most people
do not bother to read the balance sheet. Any
member who asks is provided with copies of
these documents, and this practice may be
continued. The members agreed to withdraw
their proposal.

Rule 23. Messrs. Mulla & Goenka proposed
that the first item on the agenda should be
approval of the minutes of the previous meet-
ing. After some discussion, this was accepted.
The Chairman added that minutes be drafted
by the Chairman and circulated to members
present within one month. If not objected they
would be deemed to be confirmed and finally
signed by the Chairman. A formal approval
could be taken up at the next A.G.M. Mr.
Mulla also suggested that the last item on the
agenda be recorded as follows to make the
meaning clear. “Such other business as has
been submitted in writing at the Society’s
office, at least a week prior to the meeting,
or any other business with the permission of
the Chair”. This was accepted and it was

694

EXTRA-ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING OF THE B.N.H.S.

agreed to redraft the rule to incorporate these
suggestions.

Rule 24. The suggestions for a larger number
as quorum were considered unpractical and
the amendment as drafted was adopted.

Rule 26. The President’s suggestion that the
original rule of calling an Extra-ordinary
General Meeting on a requisition required by
10 members be retained was adopted.

Rule 28. The suggestion by 3 members to
delete the provision of residence within 200
or 250 km from Bombay was accepted. The
Hon. Treasurer stated that the Executive Com-
mittee should frame rules regarding payment,
if any. of travel expenses for attending meet-
ings of the Executive Committee and these
Rules should be made known to all members.

There was considerable discussion on item
(4) of this rule, i.e. inclusion of the Chief Paid
Executive of the Society as a member of the
Committee, since some members felt that it
would be inappropriate to have him as Mem-
ber of the body which has to decide his own
terms of service.

The Hon. Secretary pointed out that the
Society has a large scientific component, and
the Executive Committee requires inputs on
the scientific activities which only the head of
of the scientific establishment can provide. He
also pointed out that in all scientific research
organizations the paid Director is a member
of the Governing Council. Mr. Hussain stated
that in the RSPB, a membership organization
like the BNHS, having its own scientific pro-
grammes, the Executive Director, a paid em-
ployee, was a member of the Governing Board.

The President opined that this was a
question for a referendum. He said he would
study the constitutions of various bodies and
prepare a draft for a referendum. Members
requested that they be allowed to see the draft
before it was finalized, which was agreed.

Consequence on removal of the residence
proviso for membership of the Committee,
the suggestion of Mr. Daniel, Mrs. Variava
and Mr. Goenka, that Advisory Com-
mittee Members should not necessarily be
from outside Bombay, but should consist of
eminent persons irrespective of their residen-
tial address whose opinions would be useful
to the Society, was accepted.

Rule 29. The suggestion that voting papers be
sent to ail members and the words “resident
in India” be deleted was suggested by the
Hon. Secretary, also stating that this matter
was discussed and agreed at an earlier AGM

The Hon. Treasurer pointed out that airmail
postage would be quite heavy and these
should not be an additional burden on the
Society’s finances. The Hon. Secretary pointed
out that the foreign members who expressed
interest had also stated that they are willing
to pay the additional postage cost involved.
Further in the recent referendum, some foreign
members had replied by cable to ensure that
their replies reached us in time. When members
take such interest in the affairs of the Society,
we should encourage this interest. The matter
was put to vote and declared “passed”. Con-
sequent on this, the period for return of voting
papers was extended from 3 weeks to 4 weeks.

Messrs Mulla and Goenka suggested that
there be no panel of names proposed by the
Committee, but that nominations be invited
and the Committee elected from the persons
so nominated. Dr. Nanavati and Dr. Saraiya
stated that it should be the responsibility and
duty of the outgoing Executive Committee to
recommend names of Members who in their
opinion would be competent to manage the
affairs of the Society. This was particularly
the case as our Membership is scattered all
over India and also abroad.

ft was also pointed out that demanding the

695

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

members signature on a tear off slip of the
voting paper could effect the secrecy of the
ballot. The Chairman assured the house that
during the recent election the votes were not
seen until after the tear off slip had been
removed. However, other possibilities would
be considered by the Committee.

After some further discussion, the Chair-
man put the matter to vote, and the proposal
of Messrs Mulla and Goenka was declared
as carried.

Mr. Goenka’s suggestion that the President
and Vice Presidents be elected from an elect-
ed committee of 16 members was withdrawn
at the request of the Chair.

Rule 30. Mr. Goenka’s suggestions that
vacancies be filled by the person securing the
next highest number of votes at the election
was considered. Mr. Cyrus Guzder opposed
the proposal which sought to take away the
right of the Executive Committee to fill such
vacancies and he stated this would be wrong
in principle. Other members also opposed Mr.
Goenka’s proposition, which was put to the
vote and rejected.

Rule 33. It was felt that a minimum frequency
of meetings of the Committee should be laid
down. The members agreed that meetings
should be held atleast once in 3 months.

Rule 34. Mr. Goenka and Ms. Pandit suggested
that the quorum for meetings of the Committee
be fixed at 8 and 7 members respectively. After
discussion members decided that 6 members
should form a quorum.

Rule 35. Ms. Pandit’s suggestion of 15 days
notice for Committee meetings was not accept-
ed as the practice is to hold the meeting on
the 2nd Saturday of a calendar month.

Rule 59. Mr. Mulla’s suggestion that the
words “in accordance with the Rules” be
changed to “1 week before the meeting” to
make the matter quite clear, was accepted.

Rule 60. The President drew attention to a
typographical error, omission of the word
"desirable” at the beginning of the last line.
The word was inserted.

Mr. Rane informed the House that Mr. M.
D. Agharkar, former member of the Executive
Committee, who was mainly responsible for
redrafting of the rules, had expired in Pune
on 12th March 1988.

The President prepared a condolence reso-
lution as follows

“The Extra-ordinary General Meeting of
the Bombay Natural History Society has
learned with much sorrow of the sad demise
of our M. D. Agharkar, a former member
of the Executive Committee and expressed
its deepest sympathy and condolences of the
bereaved family”.

The resolution was passed by members
standing in observing two minutes silence.

It was further resolved that a copy of the
resolution be sent to the members of the
bereaved family.

The meeting terminated with a vote of
thanks to the Chair.

696

APPEAL

DATA WANTED

We are writing a review on plant phenology (leaf, flower, fruit, and
seed/germination). We know that many researchers have collected pheno-
logical data as background information for studies with other objectives.
We are trying to review phenological patterns on a global scale, and in
many ecosystems there are few published accounts. If you have data you
would be willing to contribute on phenology we would be interested in
hearing from you. All contributions will be properly acknowledged in the
review. We would greatly appreciate a detailed description of the methods

used in collection of these data. We would also appreciate reprints and

manuscripts in press or in review.

T. Mitchell Aide 801 581 7086

Todd Dawson 801 581 5927

Department of Biology

University of Utah

Salt Lake City, UT 84112

USA

ERRATA

VOLUME 85(2) : AUGUST 1988

BIOLOGICAL NOTES ON TWO SPECIES OF BIG-EYED
BUGS (INSECT A: HEMIPTERA: LYGAEIDAE:
GEOCORINAE)

On page 302, in Table 3,

For G. bengalensis Read G. pseudolituratus

For G. pseudolituratus Read G. bengalensis

Miscellaneous Notes

18. MOVEMENT OF THE EASTERN SWALLOW
(. HIRUNDO RUSTICA GUTTURAL1S) RINGED
AT MOOTPUZHA (KERALA)

On page 429,

Left column, line 6-7,

For Moovatpuzha Read Mootpuzha

Right column, line 14,

For two recoveries from three locations
Read three recoveries from three locations

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hundred and fourth Annual Report & Accounts, 1987

Patron

Mr Rajiv Gandhi
Prime Minister of India

President

Mr Justice M Hidayatullah

Vice Presidents
Prof P V Bole
Mr Humayun Abdulali

Hon. Secretary
Dr AND Nanavati

Hon. Treasurer
Dr Pratap R Saraiya

Executive Committee

Mr M.R. Almeida
Dr Erach K. Bharucha
Mr Cyrus J Guzder
Dr B.F Chhapgar
Dr (Ms) Meena Haribal
Mr Kisan Mehta

Mr Ulhas Rane

Mr Digveerendrasinhji Solanki
Prof. Parvish K. Pandya
Mrs. D.S Variava
The Secretary (Ex-officio)

Dept, of Education & Welfare ,
Govt : of Maharashtra, Bombay

Auditors

M/S HABIB & COMPANY CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS, BOMBAY

Registered Office

HORNBILL HOUSE
SHAHEBD BHAGAT SINGH ROAD
BOMBAY 400 023

Honorary Secretary's Report for The Year 198 7

104TH ANNUAL REPORT

Dr. Salim Ali

The year 1987 started on a gloomy note
for the Society. The health of Dr Salim Ali,
the Society’s President, who had been the main
stay of the Society since the early days of
independence, deteriorated. Inspite of his frail
condition and failing stamina. Dr. Salim Ali,
from his sick bed kept himself in touch with
the Society’s affairs, sharing his valuable ex-
periences in procedural matters and in the
operation of the field projects. It is with great
regret we record his death which occurred on
the 20th of June 1987.

was considerable fall in Corporate membership.
The compound corporate membership remain-
ed static as this class of membership has been
discontinued. There is however considerable
scope for improving the membership strength
of the Society and special efforts are being
planned.

Members Activities

Members field activities have considerably
increased with the enthusiastic and sustained
support of members, particularly in Bombay.

1983

Ordinary Members 1553

Corporate Members 158

Life Members 484

Compound Corporate Members 102

Student Members 182

Honorary Members 3

Vice Patrons 4

Centenary Life Members 3

Members elected in 1987, but not paid 17
Members paid for 1986 but not paid for 1987

Membership :

The revised membership fee did not have
any particular impact on the statistics of mem-
bership. The data on the past five years
membership indicates a marginal increase in
Life and Ordinary membership. However, there

1984

1985

1986

1987

1762

1764

1680

1960

132

152

138

81

562

639

737

986

107

108

115

115

192

164

141

190

3

3

3

3

6

6

6

6

3

3

3

3

318

Bus outings /overnight nature camps : The
bus donated by Telco (Tata Electric Locomo-
tive Company) has been of considerable help
in organising weekend outings and overnight
camps at various places of natural history in-
terest. The following overnight nature camps
were held during the year.

2

Overnight Nature Camps :

Location

Group Leader

1 . 25th-26th January

Kalsubai

S. R. Shah

2. 21st Feb. to 1st March

Nandur-

Ulhas Rane

Madmeshwar, Nasik

V. Thakkar

3. 21st-22nd March

Matheran

Ulhas Rane

4. 28th-30th March

Karnala

5. 17th-19th April

Shivthar in Sahyadris near
Mahad, dist. Raigad

Ulhas Rane

6. 30th April to 3rd May

Castle Rock

Ulhas Rane

7. 30th July to

Battis Shirala and

Ulhas Rane

2nd August

Kaslake

8. 28th-30th August

Marleshwar in Ratnagiri

Ulhas Rane

9. 26th-27th Sept.

Suryarnal - Shahpur

Ulhas Rane

10. 2nd-4th Ocober

Pal Yawal

Ulhas Rane

11. 10th- 11th October

Sagargad

V. K. Paralkar

12. 12th- 13th December

Lonavala to Koregad along
with Save Sahyadri

Manek Mistry

13. 25th-27th December

Nandur Madmeshwar

Oswald Thayil/Datta
Ugonkar

Annual Nature Camps : The frequency of

Annual Nature Camps has increased from 1 or
2 per year to 4 in 1987. The response for
these camps from members was good.

Dodital Nature Camp : A camp was orga-
nised for two batches each of 20 persons at
Dodital, a spring fed lake at a height of 3042
metres in Garhwal Himalayas — Group Leader
Dr. (Ms.) Meena Haribal.

Bhimashankar Sanctuary 31st October to 8th
November. A trekking programme was orga-
nised. Bhimashankar is a sacred grove around
a famous Shiv temple situated at the crest of
the Sahyadri mountain range in Ambegaon
Taluka of Pune. The Evergreen Forest at the
top and moist-deciduous forest on the slopes
support excellent wildlife. — Group Leader -
Ulhas Rane.

Saputara/Dang Forest, Gujarat — 27th Octo-

ber: Situated at an altitude of 872.9 m, it is
the second highest plateau of the Sahyadri
Range in the heart of the Dangs Forests. —
Group Leader — Ashok Kothari.

Sanctuaries of the Western Ghats : A bus trip
was organised and members in two batches
visited Radhanagri, Molem, Dandeli, Nagar-
hole, Bandipur, Mudumalai, Mukruti, Topslip
and Parambikulam.

The first batch went by BNHS bus upto
Parambikulam and returned to Bombay by
rail. The second batch joined at Parambikulam
and toured in the reverse direction — Group
Leaders: P. B. Shekar/M. R. Almeida,

Vasant Naik.

Day outings'. Nature walks in the forest and
along the sea shore and birdwatching pro-
grammes were popular among members. Bird
count programmes continued to attract serious

3

birdwatchers and amateur members. The fol-
lowing trips were arranged during the year.

Nature Walk :

1. Madh to Gorai Sea Shore — 11th January
— Ulhas Rane

2. 1st February — Ransailake in Raigad Dist.
— Ulhas Rane/P. B. Shekar

3. 8th February — Thane to Kanheri caves
via Yewoor — C. B. Mehta

4. 22nd February — Nagla trail beyond
Chena Creek — M. R. Almeida/ C. B.
Mehta

5. 8th March — Borivli National Park

6. 26th April — Kanheri Caves to Aarey
Goregaon through Borivli National Park

7. 1st May — Borivli National Park — J. S.
Serrao

8. 12th May — Film City to Vihar Lake (at
night) — S. R. Shah

9. 7th June — Yewoor road to Ashokvan
(Borivli National Park) — S. R. Shah

10. 14th June — Nagothane to Pali — Ulhas
Rane

1 1 . 5th July — Bhoot Bangla, Borivli National
Park — C. B. Mehta

12. 12th July — BNHS Land, Goregaon

13. 2nd August — Nature Walk at Pongam
Valley — C. B. Mehta

14. 16th August — Kondgaon Lake in Raigad
district — S. R. Shah

15. 23rd August — Nature Walk at Karnala
— P. Pandya

16. 6th September — Lohgad Fort/Lonavala
— Ulhas Rane

17. 20th September — Monsoon Flora, Borivli
National Park — P. V. Bole/M. R.
Almeida

18. 1st November — Borivli National Park,
Bhoot Bangla — C. B. Mehta

19. 22nd November — Gorai Beach — B. F.
Chhapgar

Bird Count outings at S. G. National Park,

Borivli:

18th January, 15th February, 15th March,
5th April, 17th May, 21st June, 19th July, 9th
August, 13th September, 18th October, 15th
November and 6th December.

Special programmes were organised to com-
memorate the birth anniversary of the Late Dr.
Salim Ali. An exhibition of Birds on postage
stamps was organised at Hornbill House and
was inaugurated by Mr. S. P. Godrej, the
stamp collections of Mr. D. R. Mistry and Mr.
Farukh Shah, Mr. N. Chaturvedi, Mr. Siraj
Taher, Mr. Cyrus Sidhwa and Maj. Gen.
D’Souza were displayed. An oil painting of
Dr. Salim Ali presented by Mr. J. P. Irani
was unveiled.

As a part of this programme a Nature trail
was inaugurated on the BNHS land at Gore-
gaon adjoining the Sanjay Gandhi National
Park by the Director of the Park.

A painting competition for school children
was also organised jointly with the Save
Western Ghats movements.

Several slide and filmshows were organised
during the year.

Members Field Research Studies :

Dr Narendra Prasad studied the Krishna
estuary mangrove habitats. His report was
helpful in the conversion of this area into a
sanctuary. The study was funded by the
SANCF.

A rapid survey of the Dugong habits in the
Gulf of Mannar was conducted by Dr. Helen
Marsh and S. A. Hussain with financial assis-
tance from the SANCF.

Journal :

During the year Vol. 83(3) and A Cente-
nary Supplement (1886-1986) commemorating

4

the Centenary of the Journal and Vol. 84 (1)
the first issue for April 1987 were published.
The 764 pages of these Journals held 164
articles and notes. During the year 320 articles
and notes were received from members and
others.

operation of members in the form of articles
By an Agreement dated 23rd July 1987, the
Oxford University Press were appointed Co-
Publishers and they commenced the marketing
of BNHS books towards the end of the year.

Sales Statement

Stock

31.12.86

Sales

1986

in

1987

Com.

copy

Balance

Stock

31.12.1987

The Book of Indian Birds

4772

1545

1412

2

3358

The Book of Indian Animals

1866

412

859

1

1006

Some Beautiful Indian Trees

821

273

219

-

602

Checklist of the Birds of
Maharashtra (2nd Edition)

101

97

Checklist of the Birds of Delhi,
Agra and Bharatpur

81

80

A Synopsis of the Birds of
India and Pakistan

1428

55

35

_

1393

Grasses of Western India

156

59

26

-

130

Some Beautiful Indian
Climbers and Shrubs

1875

186

119

1756

A Pictorial guide to the Birds of
the Indian Sub-continent

1821

1664

107

1714

A Century of Natural History

2110

108

58

1

2051

The Book of Indian Reptiles

3405

408

316

-

3089

Encyclopedia of Indian
Natural History

400

326

26

48

Hornbill : University Department

Four issues of the Hornbill were published
during the year. The Hornbill continued to be
popular with the members. However, it can
be more effective as a conservation and popular
nature education medium only with the co-

A thesis was submitted during 1987 by Mr.
H. B. Naithani in botany on bamboos of
eastern India under the guidance of Mr. M. R.
Almeida. We have the following students
registered for M.Sc. and Ph.D.

5

M.SC. ZOOLOGY

Mr. Shahid Ali

Ecology and behaviour

Mr. J. C. Daniel

of the Grey Partridge

Francolinus pondicerianus

Mr. Alagar Rajan

Ecology of Spotted and

Ring Doves

Dr. Robert B. Grubh

Mr. Vibhu Prakash

Biology of Raptors

Dr. V. S. Vijayan

Mr. Gurmeet Singh

Ecology of Bank Myna

Dr. R. B. Grubh

Mr. Ramachandran

Ecology of the Jacanas

Dr. V. S. Vijayan

Mr. Ravi Sankaran

The Ecology of the Lesser

Florican

Mr. J. C. Daniel

PH D. ZOOLOGY

Mr. U. Sridharan

Ecology of Resident

Mr. J. C. Daniel

Ducks in Keoladeo

National Park

Mr. Goutam Narayan

The Ecology of the Bengal

Florican

Mr. J. C. Daniel

Mr. S. M. Satheesan

Birds of Prey

Mr. J. C. Daniel

Mr. Sunderamoorthy

The Ecology of terrestrial

Birds of Keoladeo National

Park, Bharatpur

Mr. J. C. Daniel

Mr. Natarajan

Ecology of Crow-Pheasants

Mr. J. C. Daniel

PH.D. BOTANY

Mr. Manek Mistry

Contributions to the flora of

Prof. P. V. Bole

Ratnagiri dist. in Maharashtra

Mr. Balakrishnan

Bird Plant interaction

Prof. P. V. Bole

Nature Education Scheme

The Nature Education Sub-Committee carri-
ed out the educational activities at different
levels for different target groups. The Nature
Education Organiser concentrated her activities
for the students and teachers of the schools
and colleges from Bombay. The Committee
members carried out various educational pro-
grammes for the B.N.H.S. members, college
students and also for the people in the rural
areas.

At the beginning of the Academic year 500
schools in Bombay and Thane were contacted

through a circular letter on our Nature Edu-
cation Activities.

Approximately 8000 students took advan-
tage of the N.E. Activities. Besides students
200 teachers and 250 trainee teachers also parti-
cipated in our environmental education acti-
vities for teachers. A nature camp for
Municipal school children was also held.

Nature Camp at Radhanagari :

A nature camp for underprevileged school
students was held at Radhanagari Sanctuary,
Kolhapur from 4th November to 8th Novem-
ber 1987. 35 students from Marathi, Gujarati,

6

Hindi and Urdu medium were selected for
the camp on the basis of an essay competition.
Four teachers accompanied the students.

Quiz programme for Jr. Colleges and Schools :

As a part of the World Forestry Day Cele-
brations a quiz on Wildlife was organised for
the students of 11th and 12th STD. (Jr.
College) and 8th to 9th STD (school level).
10 Jr. Colleges and 25 schools participated.

Field Programmes'.

Forty two field trips were conducted during
the year. Among these 35 were to Borivli
National Park, 2 to Karnala and 2 to Lonavala
and 3 to Tansa. Among these field trips, 3
were for Jr. Colleges and 4 for trainee tea-
chers. 1600 students from VIII to XII STD
and 180 trainee teachers participated in these
field programmes.

Teaching through exhibits :

During the year 10 visits to the Prince of
Wales Museum, 4 visits to Victoria Garden
and 7 visits to the Aquarium were arranged.
These visits were mainly for the students of
VI to VIII STD.

10 new schools were enrolled by the N.E.O.
for nature education activities.

A wildlife exhibition was arranged during
Akashwani Vidnyan Sammelan from 26 to 28
January, organised by the All India Radio
at Wada College in Thane district. About
20000 students and villagers attended the exhi-
bition.

The committee members organised a Nature
Orientation Camp for selected B.N.H.S. mem-
bers at the I.I.T. Bombay from 27th June to
1st July, to train the volunteers for the edu-
cational activities. A Conservation Education
Camp for school children and teachers in the
rural areas of Niphad taluka, Nasik district
was arranged from 25th to 27th January at
Nandur-Madmeshwar with the help of mem-
bers from Niphad.

The birth anniversary of Dr. Salim Ali was

celebrated on the 12th November by inaugu-
rating a self guided Nature Trail on the
B.N.H.S. land near Borivli National Park. The
brochure giving brief natural history infor-
mation was published on the occasion. A
visual exhibition ‘Save Sahyadri’ was prepared
with financial assistance from the Salim Ali
Nature Conservation Fund. This was used in
the rural areas of Maharashtra during the Save
Sahyadri March from 1st November 1987 to
5th February 1988. Simultaneously, nature
education programmes were arranged at various
villages during the March, with the help of
members.

Projects

Hydrobiology ( Ecological Research Station),

Bharatpur

The work during the year was a continua-
tion of the previous year’s work. A survey of
the status of turtles along with their aestivation
habits inside the park, association of aquatic
macrophytes with the aquatic macroinverte-
brates and an intensive study on the terrestrial
bird communities were new projects launched
during the year. A project was taken up in
collaboration with the French Institute, Pondi-
cherry to prepare a vegetation map of the park.
The possible adverse ecological impacts of the
proposed galvalume plant near the park was
assessed. Most of the laboratory facilities for
this work were offered by Dr. P. P. Bakre
and Dr. Rai of the Rajasthan University.

The research staff remained the same as in
1986. Although many vacancies existed, these
could not be filled owing to financial con-
straints. However, the members of the team
cooperated well and worked hard with a sense
of commitment to maintain continuity of data.

Studies on the movement and populations

STRUCTURE OF INDIAN AVIFAUNA

Field Work: In June 1987 the Point Cali-
merc field station completed 7 years field work.

7

Data collection was carried out on the follow-
ing main subjects.

Bird ringing : Birds trapped were ringed,
aged and examined for moult.

Weather data : Max-Min. temperature. Rain-
fall and Humidity were recorded.

Insects : Population fluctuations in the study
areas were studied.

Bird census : Census of landbirds as well as
waterbirds were carried out on alternate work-
ing days along two fixed census paths. A one
km long census path was selected in the forest
as well as in the swamp for censusing land-
birds and waterbirds.

Apart from the regular field work the re-
search staff visited Institutions and Colleges
and carried out identification and reference
work.

Endangered Species Project

The project on the great Indian bustard
ended in 1987. A report on our studies at
Rollapadu Bustard Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh
was brought out in 1987. Recommendations
for the conservation of bustards in Andhra
Pradesh were given.

A small report on the conservation and
management of an excellent waterbody called
Dihaila Jheel, located in the Karera Bustard
Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh, was also printed
and widely distributed. The Government of
Madhya Pradesh has followed up our recom-
mendations and Dihaila jheel is now on a
high priority of the M.P. Forest Department
to be made as a bird sanctuary.

The second annual report on the florican
project which is an annexure of the Endanger-
ed Species Project, was brought out. Status
survey of the lesser florican could not be done
due to severe drought in Gujarat which is the
main breeding area of this species. Studies on
the Bengal florican were started in Manas in
Assam and Dudwa in U.P. Results of these
studies will be given in the third annual report.

Bombay, 8th October, 1988.

The Study of Some Endangered Species of
Wildlife and their Habitats :

Mudumalai was taken up as an intensive
study site as it was representative of the entire
area (Nagarhole-Bandipur-Mudumalai-Wynnad)
which supports a large elephant popula-
tion in a contiguous terrain. It was also ideally
suited to study cattle and human pressure on
the elephant habitat. The large number of
elephants which use the reserve, revenue and
private forests adjoining this sanctuary, are also
in danger of being pushed back into the sanc-
tuary if these forests are lost or degraded in
future. The collection of data on demographic
parameters and some vegetation studies were
also done in the other areas. In Mudumalai,
information was collected on a) Population
dynamics, b) Social behaviour, c) Feeding eco-
logy, d) Vegetation studies, e) Carrying capa-
city and f) Movement pattern and home range.

To achieve these objectives, data was col-
lected by three field biologists based at Mudu-
malai.

Field data was collected on population
dynamics, social behaviour, movement pattern
and home range of elephants by Mr. A. A.
Desai. Mr. N. Sivaganesan collected data on
feeding ecology, vegetation studies and carry-
ing capacity. He was assisted in his work by
Mr. S. Rameshkumar, who after his initial train-
ing, collected data mainly on vegetation and
carrying capacity. He also assisted in collect-
ing data on captive elephants.

Mr. Sivaganesan has completed data col-
lection and will be analysing the entire data
collected on feeding ecology, vegetation studies
and carrying capacity. This will be presented
in a separate report giving the findings.

Considerable data has been collected; for
others more data is needed. For long-lived
animals such as elephants short term studies
do not provide adequate information and can
be misleading.

8

Honorary Treasurer's Report for The Year 1987

1. During the year, the aggregate of the
Society’s Capital, Funds and Reserves increas-
ed by 17% to Rs. 55.60 lakhs. There was
also a large increase in advances received,
mainly Grants for the USFWS Projects, and
the total ‘Liabilities’ rose from Rs. 80 lakhs
(1986) to Rs. 1.30 crores.

2. The set-up of Fund Accounts has been
reorganised in order to optimise income by
way of interest and also utilisation of resources.
In the process, some Accounts have been
closed by transfers. In 1987, a total of approx.
Rs. 30 lakhs was invested in units of the U.T.I.
and fixed deposits. The aggregate of balances
in the Saving Bank Accounts also went up
from Rs. 6 lakhs (1986) to Rs. 45 lakhs. As
a result, income from interest will go up in
the current year.

3. Coming to the Revenue/Expenditure
Account, a welcome feature is the receipt of
Maharashtra Govt. Grant for 1986/87; the
Grant for 1987/88 is expected shortly. Another
feature is the increase of 43% in the surplus
from the sale of nature calendars and greeting
cards. With regard to the sale of books, our
arrangement with the Oxford Univ. Press com-
menced in October 1987, and that is not re-

flected in the Accounts. However, we expect
a considerable increase in the income from
this activity in the current year. After making
the usual appropriations, etc., the year shows
a surplus of Rs. 18,319 as compared to a
deficit of Rs. 1.38 lakhs in the previous year.

4. However, the Society’s financial position
cannot be considered satisfactory. The current
year has seen a substantial increase in the
activities in regard to the major scientific
Projects, for which the Society is required to
provide the necessary administrative back-up.
There is also a pressing need to improve and
extend the Society’s traditional activities.
Unfortunately, establishment and other costs
are going up steeply due to inflation, and the
Society urgently requires additional financial
resources. It is hoped that the Salim Ali
Memorial Fund can be built up to a magni-
tude that would enable the Society to meet
these challenges.

5. Pursuant to The Direct Tax Laws
(Amendment) Act, 1987, the Society’s Account-
ing year will henceforth end on 31 March,
and the current year will be extended to cover
a period of 15 months, viz. from 1 January
1988 to 31 March, 1989.

Pratap R. Saraiya
Honorary T reasurer

Bombay, 28th September, 1988.

9

AUDITORS’ REPORT

Re: Bombay Natural History Society
Regn. No. F-244 (BOM)

We have audited the attached Balance Sheet of the Society as at 31st December 1987 and also annexed

Income & Expenditure Account ended on that date and report that in our opinion and to the best of our

information and explanation given to us:

a) the accounts are maintained regularly and in accordance with the provisions of the Bombay Public Trust
Act, 1950, subject to the observation that as per the past practice separate Receipt & Payment Account
has been drawn for the Nature Education Scheme, and the same has not been incorporated in the
accounts of the Society. We also observe that during the year the Society did not receive the annual
grant for the year 1987-88 towards Establishment and Building Maintenance and for the publication of
the Journal (Educational activity) and no sanction letters too having been received the same have not been
brought into account. The relevant expenses have therefore been charged to Income and Expenditure
account,

b) the receipts and disbursements have been properly and correctly shown in the accounts,

c) the cash balance and the vouchers in the custody of the accountant on the date of audit were in agree-

ment with the books of accounts,

d) the books, deeds, accounts, vouchers and/or other documents or records required by us were produced
to us,

e) The register of movable and immovable properties is properly maintained but the changes therein have
not been communicated to the Regional Office for items other than additions to dead stock. In respect
of change report for the dead stock stated to have been filed with the Regional Office, the relevant
acknowledgement was not available.

f) the accountant appeared before us and furnished the necessary information required by us,

g) we are not aware of any property or funds of the Society having been applied for any objects or

purposes other than the objects of the Society,

h) the following items were outstanding for more than one year:

i) Dues towards Supplies & Services Rs. 13,441.99

ii.) Income-tax recoverable Rs. 2,075.00

A sum of Rs. 30,388/- has been written off as irrecoverable dues during the year which inter alia

includes Rs. 28,860. 15 representing amount defalcated by one of the employees during the year 1984

at Bharatpur Research Station as reported in our report dated 7th Jan., 1986 accompanying the state-

ment of account for the year ended 31st December 1984. We may add that the outstanding against
Supplies and Services interalia include certain items which are outstanding since 1985. We have been
assured that the outstanding balances are considered good and realisable. We may nonetheless suggest
that effective measures be taken to realise the outstanding.

10

i) The expenditure on repairs and maintenance of property in the occupation of the Society incurred
during the year includes expenditure of Rs. 27,158/- on repairs which has been carried out through con-
tractors, We are informed that quotations were invited for the repair work involved and the same was
entrusted to one of the contractors as per the sanction of the Executive Committee.

j) We are not aware of any money of the Society having been invested in contravention of Section 35
of the Bombay Public Trust Act, 1950,

k) we are not aware of any immovable property of the Society, therefore, the question of alienation of
any immovable property contrary to the provisions of Section 36 of the Bombay Public Trust Act 1950
does not arise,

l) i) in regard to the expenses charged to various grants and funds, we have relied on the information

given to us and the authentication of the Honorary Secretary and Honorary Treasurer that the ex-
penses so charged relate to these grants and have been spent on the specific objects for which the
grants were received. While checking the statement of accounts in regard to the expenditure in-
curred at various camps, we have relied on the authorisation by the Honorary Secretary and Hono-
rary Treasurer as to the reasonableness of the expenditure,

ii) the income towards membership subscription is being accounted on realisation basis,

iv)

A)

i)

ii)

hi)

iv)

v)

vi)

vii)

viii)

ix)

x)

xi)

the subscriptions received in foreign currency, we observe, are deposited in an account maintained
with Grindlays Bank Pic, London Branch. The said receipts and disbursement made therefrom have
been accounted at the exchange rate prevailing at the date of the Balance Sheet. The closing
balance has been translated at the current exchange rate, at the date of the balance sheet and the
difference in exchange amounting to Rs. 11,400.78 has been credited to Income and Expenditure
account.

we suggest the following items of disbursement effected, provisions made, administration charges
levied and amount written off be confirmed and ratified at the next meeting of the Executive
Committee :

Disbursement from : Rs.

Interest on Col. Burton’s Nature Conservation Fund 22.50

Chas McCann Vertebrate Zoology Field Work Fund 1,210.75

Interest on Salim Ali/Loke Wan Tho Ornithology Research Fund Investment 14,548.00

Interest on Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund Investment 37,485.80

Interest on Pirojsha Godrej Foundation Field Work Fund Investment 4,241.37

Dorabjee Tata Trust Field Work Fund 1,850.80

Plant Study Fund 1,872.46

Field Study & Scholarship Fund from Watanmal Boolchand Charitable Trust 3,952.05

Mini Bus Maintenance Fund (Created from Income) 6,776.90

Library Fund (created from Income) 3,479.00

Darbar Alkachar Charitable Trust for Seminar expenses 5,000.00

11

xii)

xiii)

xiv)

xv)

Grant Govt, of Maharashtra for 1986-87 towards Establishment, Building Maintenance
& Educational Activity (i.e. Journal Printing expenses)

Govt, of India, ARDB Grant for ecological study of Bird Hazard at Indian Aerodromes

Govt, of India, ARDB Grant for Bird Hazard Research Cell

Govt, of India, ARDB Grant for ecological relevance of Whitebacked Vulture

1,84,552.00

3,51,421.23

37,675.25

9,791.95

xvi) Grant from U.S. Department of Interior, Fish & Wildlife Service for:

a) Studies on the Movement & Population Structure of Indian Avifauna

b) Hydrobiological (Ecological) Research Station at Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary,
Bharatpur

c) Study of ecology of certain endangered species of Wildlife and their habitat

d) Study of Lesser Bustard (Florican)

e) Ecology of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur

f) Ecology of Pt. Calimere Sanctuary

g) Ecology of Indian Elephants

h) Study of Migration Pattern of Indian Birds & Avifauna Migration Data Bank

xvii) Grant from Chief Wildlife Warden, Chandigarh for Bird Ringing Project at Harike
xviii) Grant from Chief Wildlife Warden, Bhubaneshwar, for Bird Ringing Project at Chilka

3,51,656.32

3,00,788.13

2,54,894.60

4,40,689.25

5,11,589.46

44,092.73

1,01,796.89

88,067.75

55,027.36

2,689.97

xix) Grant Govt, of India (D.O.E.) for the expenses on secretarial assistance to Dr Salim

Ali for environmental research for processing archival material 12,497.00

xx) Grant Govt, of India (D.S.T.) for the publication of Centenary Supplementary Issue 50,000.00

xxi) Grant Indian National Science Academy for the publication of Journal 5,000.00

xxii) Grant Chief Wildlife Warden, Jammu & Kashmir for the project on survey of Black-
necked Crane

38,735.16

B ) A ppro priations :

Govt, publication fund, sale proceeds of publications

Surplus income from Greeting Cards sales to Research & Scholarship Fund
Mrs Indira Gandhi Paryavaran Award to Dr Salim Ali Memorial Fund
Fixed Assets Funds towards depreciation on fixed assets
Amounts written off

Administrative fees charged to various grants/funds for handling project, etc.
Addition to fixed assets (other than those directly charged to various projects)

14,240.81
3,22,796.80
1,00,000.00
34,479. 35
30,388.05
3,50,832.29
15,567.50

m) So far, as it is ascertainable from the books of accounts and according to the information and expla-
nation furnished to us by the accountant and the Hon. Secretary, there were no cases of irregular,
illegal, or improper expenditure or failure to recover the monies or other properties belonging to the
Society or of loss or waste of money or other property of the Society, subject to the observations made in
para (h) hereinabove.

12

n) Provision of Section 31-A and Rule 16-A of Bombay Public Trust Act 1950 have not been complied with.

II. a) The maximum and minimum number of trustees is maintained having regard to the provisions com
tained in the rules and regulations,

b) there is no specific provisions in the rules & regulations of the Society regarding the holding of the
meetings is maintained.

c) the minute book recording the proceedings of the meetings is maintained,

d) no member of the Managing Committee has any interest in the investment of the Society,

e) no member of the Managing Committee is a debtor or a creditor of the Society.

Bombay: HABIB & CO.

CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS

Dated: 16 Sept. 1988 PATHARIA PALACE,

75, MOHAMEDALI ROAD,
BOMBAY - 3.

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Honorary Treasurer, Honorary Secretary, Habib & Co.,

Bombay Natural History Society Bombay Natural History Society Chartered Accountants

TRUSTEE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
FORMING PART OF BALANCE SHEET AS ON 3 1ST DECEMBER 1987

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towards Property Repairs 34,148.00

towards Journal Printing (Educational) 55,000.00

towards Other Educational Activities 26,01,413.05

Schedule ‘D’

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
SCHEDULE FORMING PART OF BALANCE SHEET AS AT 31ST DECEMBER 1987

CASH AND BANK BALANCES
A) In Current Account with :

i) Grindlays Bank Pic,

M G Road, Bombay 400 023

1,29,817.26

ii) Grindlays Bank Pic, London (Pnd. 3,084.31)

70,939.13

iii) Standard Chartered Bank,

M G Road, Bombay 400 023

84,353.15

2,85,109.54

In Savings Account with :

iv) Grindlays Bank Pic,

M G Road, Bombay 400 023

8,84,889.73

v) Bank of India

Museum Savings Br., Bombay 400 023

1,32,697.33

vi) Bank of Barcda, University Br.,
M G Road, Bombay 400 023

5,07,011.96

vii) Corporation Bank, Dalai Street Br.,
Bombay 400 023

32,04,039.71

viii) Grindlays Bank Pic, M G Road, Bombay 23
for Salim Ali Memorial Fund

21,288.87

47,49,927.60

Fixed D posit with: “

i) Bank of India,

M G Road, Bombay 400 023

1,19,583.34

ii) Standard Chartered Bank.

M G Road, Bombay 400 023

1,00,000.00

iii) Bank of Baroda, University Br.,
M G Road, Bombay 400 023

1,00,000.00

iv) Corporation Bank,

Dalai Street, Bombay 400 023

6,00,000.00

v) Grindlays Bank Pic,

M G Road, Bombay 400 023

1,55,000.00

In Monthly Income Certificate with :

Bank of India, M G Road, Bombay 400 023

7,75,000.00

18,49,583.34

Total Rs.

68,84,620.48

25

BOMBAY PUBLIC TRUSTS ACT 1950
SCHEDULE IX VIDE RULE 17(1)

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, BOMBAY 23
INCOME & EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31ST DECEMBER 1987

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Honorary Treasurer, Honorary Secretary, As per our report of even date

Bombay Natural History Society Bombay Natural History Society Habib & Co.,

Chartered Accountants

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, 4th edition (reprint). 28 plates in
colour by Paul Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations.

( Price to members Rs. 70)

The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta, by James Juan Spillett.

Rs. 10

The Book of Indian Birds, by Sdlim Ali. 1 1 th (revised) edition. 74 coloured and
many monochrome plates. {Price to members Rs. 75)

A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent, by Sdlim Ali & S.

Dillon Ripley (in press)

A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley II. An up-to-
date checklist of all the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. 2nd edition. {Price to members Rs. 80)

Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali, 2nd edition. Rs. 4
Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur, by Humayun Abdulali &
J. D. Panday. Rs. 3.00

The Book of Indian Reptiles, by J. C. Daniel {Price to members Rs. 85)

Identification of Poisonous Snakes, Wall chart in Gujarati, and Marathi. Rs. 5
Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard. With many coloured and
monochrome plates. 3rd edition (Reprint). {Price to members Rs. 35)

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada. With many
coloured and monochrome plates. 2nd edition. {Price to members Rs. 85)
Grasses of Western India, by Toby & Patricia Hodd. With 64 monochrome plates.

{Price to members Rs. 37.50)

Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History, Edited by R. E. Hawkins

{Price to members Rs. 215)

A Century of Natural History, Edited by J. C. Daniel {Price to members Rs. 145)
Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :

1. Our Birds I (with 8 coloured plates) in Kannada

2. Our Monsoon Plants (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi

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3. Our Animals (with 8 coloured plates) in Gujarati,

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to the Society’s London Bankers — The Grindlays Bank Ltd., 13, St. James’s Sq., London
SW1Y 4LF. Account No. 1101091.

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50

10

CONTENTS

7 Life

A Checklist of the Birds of Haigam Rakh, Kashmir. By P. R. Holmes and
A. J. Parr

Biological aspects of two species of Gerrids, Limnogonus fossamm fossarum
Fabr. and Limnogonus nitidus Mayer (Hemiptera: Heteropteka) . By M.
Selvanayagam and T. K. Raghunatha Rao
Phayre’s Leaf Monkey ( Trachypithecus phayrei ) in Cachar. By Anwaruddin
Choudhury

Breeding biology of Barbets, Megalaima spp. (Capitonidae : Piciformes) at
Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala. By H. S. A. Yahya
history of the common Indian Tree Frog, Polypedates maculatus
(Gray, 1834) (Anura: Rhacophoridae) . By P. Mohanty-Hejmadi and Sushil
K. Dutta,

New records for Maharashtra. By S. M. Almeida and M. R. Almeida

The diet of the Whitecheeked BuLbul Pycnonotus leucogenys . By Khalid Y.

Al-Dabbagh, Jameel H. Jiad and Intisar N. Waheed
A preliminary report of the incidental entrapment of Odontocetes by Sri
Lanka’s coastAl drift net fishery. By Abigail Ailing
Seasonal variations in the colour patterns of Coccinella septempunctata L.

(Coleoptera, Coccinellidae) in Nilgiri Hills, India. By M. Rhamhalinghan
Field biology of Nesokia indica with reference to Orchards of Baluchistan
(Pakistan). By Afsar Mian
Observations on Birds on Mundanthurai Plateau, Tamil Nadu. By Justus
Joshua and A. J.T. Johnsingh
Possibilities of self-sustenance of tree ranging Rhesus of Tughlaqaba
By Iqbal Malik

Floristic and ecological studies on legumes from hilly regions of Pune
and Satara Districts of Maharashtra State. By Jayananda Tosh, V. D
Vartak and M. S. Kumbhojkar
New Descriptions
Reviews

Miscellaneous Notes

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society 1986-87
Statement of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society
Minutes of the Annual General Meeting
Minutes of an Extraordinary General Meeting
Appeal

585

592

606

608

662

673

689

*693

697

> Supplement

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society 1987
Honorary Treasurer’s Report for the Year 1987
Auditor’s Report

Statement of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society

1

9

10

14

RN 5685/57

Printed by Bro. Paulinus at St. Francis Industrial Trg. Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 103
and published by Editors: J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole, and A. N. D. Nanavati for Bombay
Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

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