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Vol. 89, No.
April 1992

a

BOARD OF EDITORS

Executive Editor
J. C. DANIEL

M. Rt ALMEIDA
P. V. BOLE
B. F. CHHAPGAR

Assistant Editor
A. VARADACHARY

m

B. V. DAVID
A. J. T. JOHNSINGH
R. WHITAKER

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication
elsewhere should not be submitted.

All words to be printed in italics should be underlined.

Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification
has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually col-
lected.

Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints
should be at least 8.20 x 5.60 cm (No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed
paper.

Text-figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on
Bristol board.

References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabeti-
cally arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or
periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books not underlined (roman
type), thus:

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal /. Bombay nat ,
Hist. Soc. 55(2): 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

Each paper should be accompanied by a concise, clearly written synopsis,
normally not exceeding 200 words.

25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the
case of new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be
sent a free copy of the Journal.

The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s
contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Bombay 400 023.

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society

.

smTR

Date of Publication: 30-6-1992

VOLUME 89 (1): APRIL

CONTENTS

FLIGHT IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN RAPTORS WITH PALE BARS ON UPPER WINGS (With two
plates)

By William S. Clark and N. John Schmitt 1

SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF MOLOSSIDAE - AN EMBRYOLOGICAL ANALYSIS (With two text-figures)

By A. Gopalakrishna and N. Badwaik . 4

A STUDY OF THE FOOD HABITS OF SIX ANURAN TADPOLES (With two text-figures)

By A.G. Sekar 9

I. CLADOCERA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARAITUR, AND ITS ENVIRONS
(With forty-nine text-figures)

By K. Venkataraman 17

FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD Ardeotis nigriceps (VIGORS)

(With two plates and four text-figures)

By Bharat Bhushan and Asad R. Rahmani 27

ON THE IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF CERTAIN INDIAN Ixora (RUBIACEAE)

By D.B. Deb and R.C. Rout 41

THE LAND TORTOISE IN NEPAL : A REVIEW (With a plate and a text-figure)

By J. Frazier 45

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY - 35:
TROGLODYTIDAE, CINCUDAE, PRUNELUDAE, PARIDAE, SITTIDAE AND CERTHIIDAE
By Humayun Abdulali and Saraswathy Unnithan 55

BIOECOLOGICAL STUDIES ON THE BURROWING MAYFLY Ephemera (Aethephemera) nadinae

MCCAFFERTY AND EDMUNDS 1973 (EPHEMEROPTERA : EPHEMERIDAE) IN KURANGANI
STREAM, WESTERN GHATS (With three text-figures)

By C. Balasubramanian, K. Venkataraman and K.G. Sivaramakrishnan 72

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CANOPY DENSITY AND BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF Ploceus philippinus
(LINN.) AND Ploceus benghalensis (LINN.) (With two text- figures)

By Satish Kumar Sharma 78

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE HANUMAN LANGUR Presbytis entellus IN JODHPUR, WESTERN
INDIA (With four text- figures)

By G. Agoramoorthy 84

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

FIRST RECORD OF THE GENUS Laurentina MALAISE (HYMENOPTERA : TENTH REDINIDAE) FROM
INDIA, WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES (With two text-figures)

By Malkiat S. Saini and Devinder Singh 94

Osteobrama bhimensis , A NEW CYPRINID FISH FROM BFIIMA RIVER, PUNE DISTRICT,
MAHARASHTRA (With two text-figures)

By D.F. Singh and GM. Yazdani 96

FIRST REPORT OF THE FAMILY VAEJOVIDAE (SCORPIONIDAE : ARACHNIDA) IN MADHYA

PRADESH, WITH THE DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES Scorpiops (Scorpiops) pachmarhicus
(With eight text-figures)

By Deshabhushan Bastawade 99

ON A NEW SPECIES OF Singhius TAKAHASHI (ALEYRODIDAE : HOMOPTERA) WITH A KEY TO
INDIAN SPECIES ( With a text- figure)

By R. Sundararaj and B.V. David 103

A NEW SPECIES OF Liparis RICHARD (ORCHIDACEAE) FROM SIKKIM

By S.Z. Lucksom 105

Copidognathus krantzi, A NEW SPECIES OF HALACARIDAE (ACARI) FROM NICOBAR ISLANDS
(INDIAN OCEAN) ( With ten text-figures)

By Tapas Chatterjee 106

REVIEWS

Flora of the Indian Desert

Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 110

A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon, Vol. 6

Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 112

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. Interspecific play behaviour between
hanuman langur Presbytis entellus and
rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta

By B. Ram Manohar and Reena Mathur .... 114

2. Notes on the food habits of nilgai
Boselaphus tragocamelus

By K. Sankar and V.S. Vijayan 115

BIRDS

3. Marbled teal Marmaronetta angustirostris

(Menetries) in western India

By S.A. Akhtar, J.K. Tiwari and

N.N. Bapat 116

4. Balloons as a device for scaring birds

By H.S.A. Yahya 117

5. Unusual nesting site of brahminy kite
Haliastur indus

By William Morrison, Lima Rosalind

and S. Balachandran 117

6. Great stone plover Esacus magnirostris
(Vieillot) in Kerala
By P.O. Nameer

7. Possible occurrence of four subspecies of
lesser sand plover Charadrius mongolus at
Pt. Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil
Nadu

By S. Balachandran and V. Natarajan 118

8. Occurrence of Larus minutus Pallas in
Kutch

By N.N. Bapat and M.K. Himmatsinhji .... 119

A

9. On the black tern Chlidonias niger niger
(Linn.)

By Vivek Menon 120

10. Sterna bergii thalassina Stresemann — an
addition to the avifauna of Sri Lanka

By Thilo W. Hoffmann 120

11. Review of the status of the sandwich tern
Sterna sandvicensis in Kerala

By D.K. Narayana Kurup 122

12. New nesting site of the Indian
whitebreasted kingfisher Halcyon smyr-
nensis fusca (Boddaert).

By P. Balasubramanian 124

118

13. Feeding by common nightjar Caprimulgus
asiaticus and Indian roller Coracias ben-
ghalensis in the light of mercury vapour
lamps

By A.M.K. Bharos

14. Possible occurrence of the grey shrike
Lanius excubitor Linn, in Assam

By Anwaruddin Choudhury

15. Breeding biology of the Malabar
woodshrike Tephrodornis virgatus syl-
vicola Jerdon at Thekkady, Kerala

By Lalitha Vijayan

16. Wintering range extension for the
rubythroat Eritliacus calliope

By S. Balachandran, Lima Rosalind and
S. Alagar Rajan

17. Plumages, female dimorphism and
polymorphism of the endemic Indian
species Par us xantliogenys

By S. Unnithan

18. Interesting feeding pattern of yel-
lowthroated sparrow Petronia xanthocollis
(Burton)

By A.M.K. Bharos

19. ‘Blind" nest of blackthroated weaver bird
Ploceus benghalensis (Linn.)

By Satish Kumar Sharma

20. Spotted munia Lonchura punctulata
(Linn.) from DachigamNational Park,
Jammu and Kashmir

By S.A. Akhtar, Prakash Rao,

J.K. Tiwari and Salim Javed

21. An updated list of bird and bat species
involved in collision with aircraft in India
By S.M. Satheesan, Robert B. Grubh

and Rex J. Pimento

REPTILES

22. Gut contents of a mugger Crocodylus
palustris

By R J. Rao and S.A. Hussain v

23 . Unusual nesting site of mugger Crocodylus
palustris in Madhav National Park

By Rajiv Saxena 132

24. Swallowing of prey ‘leg first" by the cobra
Naja naja

By Satish Kumar Sharma 133

AMPHIBIA

25. First record of Uperodon systoma from
Rajasthan

By Satish Kumar Sharma 133

26. Additions to the list of amphibian fauna of
Goa

By A.G. Sekar 134

FISHES

27. New record of a croaker, Johnius coitor
(Hamilton-Buchanan) (Pisces :
Sciaenidae) from Tripura, north-east India

By R.P. Barman 135

INSECTS

28. Dichocrosis festivalis Swinh. (Lepidoptera
Pyralidae) — A new pest of litchi Litchi
chinensis Sonn.

By Y.P. Singh and V. Kumar 137

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

29. Record of the arachnid order Schizomida
from Arunachal Pradesh

By Deshabhusan Bastawade and

Tarun Kumar Pal 137

30. Redescription of Araneus fulvus Dyal
(Araneae: Araneidae) from coastal Andhra
Pradesh

By T.S. Reddy and B.H. Patel 138

31. Cladocera of Keoladeo National Park,

Bharatpur, IV. New records: Camptocercus
cf. australis Sars, 1896 and Indialona
globulosa (Daday, 1898)

By K. Venkataraman 140

32. Record of the cone shell Conus cumingii
(Reeve, 1848) from Bombay seas
ByDeepakApte 142

BOTANY

33. Corrections and additions to the flora of
Gurdaspur district, Punjab
By S.S. Bir, M. Sharma and C.P. Singh .... 143

124

124

125

126

126

128

128

129

129

132

34. Additions to the flora of Bihar

By S.K. Varma and R.R. Jha 146

35. Additional host species for Loranthus and
their localities in Thanjavur district, Tamil
Nadu

By S. Ragupathy and A. Mahadevan 149

36. Vetiveria lawsoni (Hook, f.) Blatter & Mc-
Cann and Potamogeton crispus L. — Ad-
ditions to the flora of Andhra Pradesh

By B. Ravi Prasad Rao and

T. Pullaiah ..f.. J.50

37. Indian doum palm in Khandesh — an un-
usual occurrence

By A.S. Reddy and T.S. Patil 151

38. Another locality record for Cyathea
spinulosa in Kumaon Himalaya

By H.C. Pande and P.C. Pande 152

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

April 1992 Vol. 89 No. 1

FLIGHT IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN RAPTORS WITH PALE
BARS ON UPPER WINGS1

William S. Clark2 and N. John Schmitt3
(With two colour plates)

INTRODUCTION

Diurnal raptors are notoriously difficult to
identify in flight; raptors in India are even more
so than in most other areas because of the
greater number of species (68) and the lack of
definitive information in bird field guides. In
Europe raptor flight identification is easier not
only because there are fewer species (38), but
also because there is a very good specialized
field guide (Porter et at. 1981). This guide is
effective because it depicts correctly wing and
tail shapes of the raptors, as well as pointing out
definitive field marks , that is, noticeable fea-
tures of each species that serve to distinguish it
from other species.

No fewer than nine species of raptors that
occur commonly over much of India share one
field mark: a pale bar across each upperwing
(Plate 1). Four of these — - black kite Milvus
migrans , booted eagle Hieraaetus pennatus ,
short-toed eagle Circaetus gallicus, and white-
eyed buzzard Butastur teesa — show this field
mark in all plumages. The other five — brahminy
kite Haliastur Indus , crested honey buzzard Per -

Accepted October 1991.

24554 Shetland Green Road, Alexandria, VA 22312, U.S.A.

311609 Alburtis Ave., Norwal\ CA 90650, U.S.A.

nis ptilorhyncus, crested hawk-eagle Spizaetus
cirrhatus , crested serpent eagle Spilornis cheela ,
and Bonelli’s eagl e Hieraaetus fasciatus — show
this mark only in juvenile plumage.

In spite of sharing this field mark, all nine are
quite different, particularly when seen from
below, and can be easily distinguished from each
other by the use of other field marks, especially
wing and tail shape.

We present herein, through simple text and
illustrations, the field marks that can be used
effectively to identify all nine species in flight.

Material and Methods

Field marks to distinguish these nine
species were determined from our previous ex-
periences, by reviewing the pertinent literature,
including bird field guides and handbooks, by
studying museum specimens, both in India and
at major collections in the United Kingdom and
United States of America, by studying many
photographs of raptors in the field, and by ob-
serving raptors in the field in many parts of
India. Particularly helpful to us was Porter et al.
(1981), as many species of European raptors
(31) also occur in India. We field-tested the field
marks presented here in the field in many parts
of India during travel with the BNHS Birds of
Prey Project surveys.

2

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Results

The field marks, including wing and tail shapes
and overall proportions, that will positively identify
each of the nine species with pale bars on upperw-
ings are illustrated in Plate 1 (from above) and Plate
2 (from below) and are summarised under the head-
ing ‘Captions FOR plates/ These are discussed
below in more detail by species.

Blackkite: (This name for Milvus migrans
applies to all races; pariah kite is unknown
outside of India). This distinctive raptor is com-
mon, widespread, and easily identified. The
next two species are similar and could be con-
fused with it, but its long forked tail is always
definitive. However, caution is called for be-
cause the tail appears somewhat more square
when fanned and a few individuals will show a
somewhat rounded tail. Also definitive is the
barring on the pale primary panels. Subspecific
differences between M. m. govinda and M. m.
lineatus are not always seen in the field.

Booted eagle: This winter visitor is fairly
common over most of India and can be confused
with the black kite. Like that species it is aerial,
hunting on the wing from morning to afternoon.
It occurs in three colour morphs: pale, dark, and
newly described rufous (see Clark 1989). Dark-
and rufous-morph birds are similar to black kites,
but the white uppertail coverts, more rounded tail,
pale ‘head lights/ and dark line through the un-
derwings of the rufous morph are diagnostic. All
colour morphs appear alike from above.

Brahminy kite: Juvenile brahminy kites are
similar in silhouette to black kites and booted
eagles, but note the pale head and breast, rounded,
unbanded tail, and larger, creamy primary panels
on the underwings.

The next four species show pale wing bars
only during their first year while in juvenile
plumage. This plumage is quite different in all
four from the respective adult plumages. All four
juveniles are similar to each other in being rather
pale buffy to creamy on the underparts and under-
wing coverts, and have less distinct pale bars on
the upperwings than do the previous three species.

Crested honey buzzard: This species has a
distinctively long, slender neck and head that it
moves constantly from side to side while in flight.
Its comparatively narrow wings with darker
secondaries on the underwing and its distinctive
tail pattern are sufficient for identification.

Crested hawk-eagle: Compared to the other
species considered here, it has a longer, distinc-
tively banded tail and more strongly barred under-
sides of primaries. The crest, if present, is visible
only on birds seen flying near (Plate 1). The
juvenile of the crestless changeable hawk-eagle
Spizaetus c. limnaeetus is otherwise identical to
the juvenile of the crested hawk-eagle.

Crested serpent eagle: This is the most easi-
ly identified of these four juveniles, because of its
black face patches, rufous underwing markings,
strong tail pattern, and heavily streaked breast.

Bonelli’s eagle: Juveniles of this species
have rufous underparts when they fledge. But this
colour fades rather quickly, so that by winter they
appear quite creamy on the underparts. The black
line on the underwing may be prominent or indis-
tinct or, in some cases, even absent. One field
mark, darker secondaries on underwing, is shared
with crested honey buzzard, but the indistinct
banding on secondaries and tail and thicker head
and shorter neck of this species separate it from
the other.

Short-toed eagle: This species is the largest
of the nine. Its pale upperwing bars are somewhat
wider than all the others, except those of the
white-eyed buzzard. The dark hood, lack of
creamy tones on undersides, and strong banding
on undeiwings are distinctive.

White-eyed buzzard: This is the smallest of
the nine and is quite different from the rest. Note
particularly the narrow black tips of the outer
primaries, rufous tail, and unique wing shape.

Acknowledgements

The illustrations herein were prepared by
Schmitt to help teach raptor identification to per-
sonnel of the BNHS raptor ecology project, a
collaborative project funded by the U.S. Fish &
Wildlife Service. We thank D. Ferguson of the

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89 Plate 1

Clark and Schmitt: Identification of raptors

Raptors with pale bars on upper wings — Identification from above. For explanation see captions (page 3).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89

Clark and Schmitt: Identification of raptors

Plate 2

Raptors with pale bars on upper wings - Identification from below. For explanation see captions (page 3).

FLIGHT IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN RAPTORS

3

Office of International Affairs, U.S. Fish &
Wildlife Service, for arranging our visits to India.
We thank the curators and collection managers of
the BNHS, India Wildlife Survey, British
Museuifi (Natural History), and U.S. National
Museum of Natural History for access to their
specimen collections.

Special thanks go to our Indian field com-
panions, Rishad Naoroji and Vibhu Prakash, for
showing us Indian raptors. J.C. Daniel and R.
Grubh of the BNHS are thanked for support while
in India. C. Wilds made many helpful comments
on earlier drafts.

References

Clark, W. (1989): Rufous morph of the Booted Eagle. Dutch Porter, RE, Christensen, S., Willis, I. & Neilsen, B.P.
Birding 11: 57-60. (1981): Flight identification of European raptors. 3rd

Ed. Poyser, Carlton.

CAPTIONS FOR PLATES

Plate 1. Raptors with pale bars on upperwings — Iden-
tification from above.

All nine species have a more or less distinct pale bar across
each upperwing. Many also have pale heads. Wing shape
and tail shape and pattern are usually the best field marks
for identification, but others are helpful. Diagnostic field
marks are listed below.

Raptors 1, 2 and 3 have similarly shaped wings.

1. Black kite Milvus migrans (adult shown). Long forked
tail. 2. Booted eagle Hieraaetus pennatus. White
‘headlights’ at base of forewings; white ‘U’ on uppertail
coverts; rounded, square-cornered tail. 3. Brahminy kite
Haliastur indus (pale juvenile). Rufous on upperparts,
especially primaries; short, unbarred, rounded tail.

Raptors 4, 5 and 6 have pale heads and similarly shaped
wings. 4. Crested honey buzzard Pernis ptilorhyncus
(juvenile). Long, slender neck and head; distinct tail pat-
tern. 5. Crested hawk-eagle (includes juvenile changeable
hawk-eagle) Spizaetus cirrhatus (juvenile). Rump, as well
as uppertail coverts, are pale; distinct tail pattern. (Crest
not visible). 6. Crested serpent eagle Spilomis cheela
(juvenile). Dark cheek patch; bold black and white tail
pattern.

7. Bonelli’s eagl e Hieraaetus fasciatus (juvenile). Tail
bands indistinct. 8. Short-toed eagle Circaetus gallicus.
Larger size; larger head; pale bars wider; distinct tail
pattern. 9. White-eyed buzzard Butastur teesa (juvenile
shown). Smaller size; white primary panels; rufous tail.

Plate 2. Raptors with pale bars on upperwings — Iden-
tification from below.

All nine species appear quite different from below; under-
wings; underbody, and undertail patterns and colouratio
are the best field marks. Diagnostic field marks are listed
below:

1. Black kit eMilvus migrans (juvenile shown). Dark body
and underwing; coverts; pale, banded primary panels; tail
squarish when spread. 2. Booted eagle Hieraaetus pen-
natus (rufous morph shown). Rufous body; wide black
bands across underwings; pale patch on inner primaries;
dark central patch on pale tail. 3. Brahminy kit eHaliast-
indus (pale juvenile). Creamy unbanded primary panel,
lower body darker than upper body; rounded, unbanded
tail.

4. Crested honey buzzard Pernis ptilorhyncus (juvenile).
Banded dark secondaries; finely streaked underparts; dis-
tinct tail pattern. 5. Crested hawk-eagle Spizaetus cir-
rhatus (juvenile). Strongly banded primaries; distinct tail
pattern. 6. Crested serpent eagle Spilomis cheela
(juvenile). Black face patch; heavily streaked breast;
rufous underwing coverts; distinct tail pattern.

7. Bonelli’s eagle Hieraaetus .fasciatus (juvenile). Dark
wing tips; indistinctly banded dark secondaries; narrow
black band across underwing (usually); tail banding indis-
tinct 8. Short-toed eagle Circaetus gallicus (adult shown).
Larger size; large head; dark hood (usually); white under-
wings boldly banded black; distinct tail pattern. 9. White-
eyed buzzard Butastur teesa (juvenile shown). Smaller
size; rufous underwing coverts and lightly banded flight
feathers; wide, black throat stripe; rufous tail.

SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF MOLOSSIDAE - AN EMBRYOLOGICAL ANALYSIS1

A. Gopalakrishna and N. Badwaik2
(With two text-figures)

At present, morphological and anatomical
characters constitute the main criteria for clas-
sification of eutherian mammals, since other
criteria are not available for most mammalian
groups. But these systems of classification based
on morphological characters, do not necessarily
reflect the phylogenetic affinities of various sub-
groups among mammals. This has been convinc-
ingly argued by Mossman (1937, 1953) in his
analysis of foetal membrane characters of various
grades of eutherian groups. In the absence of
adequate data from palaeontology, cytology,
genetics, serology and such other disciplines,
evidence from embryology assumes considerable
significance for determining taxonomic position
an ! phylogenetic affinities among lower grades of
taxa, such as Super- families and Families.

So far all taxonomists have placed
Pteropodidae at the begimiing and Molossidae
along with Vespertilionidae within the Super-
family Vespertilionidae, at the other end in the
+axonomic hierarchy of the Order Chiroptera
Jimpson 1945, Ellerman and Morrison-Scott
1951, Honacki et. al. 1982, Koopman 1984, Hill
and Smith 1985). Jones (1917) examined the
anatomy of the female genitalia of many species
of bats and suggested that Chiroptera is a
polyphyletic group, in which are included mem-
bers derived from divergent ancestors.

Mossman (1937), basing his conclusions on
foetal membrane characters, suggested that
Megachiroptera share characters with Rodentia,
whereas Microchiroptera are closer to Insec-
tivora. It must, however, be conceded that very
little information was available about the
embryology of most families of Microchiroptera
at that time. Moghe (1951), in his study of the
embryology of Pteropus giganteus giganteus ,

1Accepted November 1989.

department of Zoology, Institute of Science,

Nagpur 440 001.

mentioned, "the two groups (Megachiroptera and
Microchiroptera) are widely separated from each
other in a large number of other characters and
probably represent independent offshoots from
some primitive insectivore". (Parentheses ours.)
On the basis of embryological characters of four
microchiroptera n families, Gopalakrishna (1958)
mentioned, "the Megachiroptera and
Microchiroptera are not as divergent as formerly
believed. Many similarities and transitional char-
acters are now apparent between the two sub-or-
ders".

Luckett (1979), making an analysis of
anatomical and embryological characters, sug-
gested that the group Chiroptera is monophyletic,
but he placed Molossidae as far removed from
Pteropodidae. Gopalakrishna and co-workers
(1981, 1983, 1987, 1988, 1989) examined the
anatomy of the female genitalia, blastocyst-uterus
relationship and development of foetal
membranes of several families of bats, and postu-
lated that not only is Chiroptera a monophyletic
group but that the taxonomic hierarchy currently
maintained by systematists needs some changes.
One such suggestion was that the systematic posi-
tion of Molossidae needs to be re-examined.

The basic premise for the present report is
that in eutherian mammals embryological charac-
ters are far more conservative than are mor-
phological characters, since development takes
place in a constant environment within the uterus,
while morphological characters are directly in-
fluenced by the environment and are therefore
adaptive. Hence, similarities in embryological
characters, according to Mossman (1937, 1953),
indicate a closer phylogenetic affinity than
similarities in morphological characters.

The present report is based on recent publi-
cations and ongoing work in this laboratory on the
embryology of four molossid species, namely
Chaerephon plicata (Gopalakrishna et al. 1989),

SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF MOLOSSIDAE

5

I- c

Fig. 1. a-c. Uterus-blastocyst relationship at the time of implantation in (a) Pteropodidae, (b) Molossidae and (c) Vesper-
tilionidae. The dark circle with a white central area represents the embryonic mass containing the primitive amniotic cavity,
mes : mesometrium; ut 1 : uterine lumen.

Tadarida aegyptiaca (Sandhu 1986), Tadarida
trageta and Molossus major aztecus (M. molos-
sus ) (Gopalakrishna and Badwaik in press) and
comparing the results with what is known of the
embryology of other relevant families, namely
Pteropodidae and Vespertilionidae.

Such a comparison reveals that the molos-
sids share more embryological characters with
pteropodids than with vespertilionids. Among
pteropodids, implantation of the blastocyst is part-
ly interstitial with the embryonic mass oriented
towards the lateral side in Pteropus giganteus

giganteus (Moghe 1951). In Rousettus les-
chenaulti (Karim 1976) and Cynopterus sphinx
(pers. obs.) blastocyst implantation is superficial
and the embryonic mass is oriented towards the
tubo-uterine junction, which is sub-terminal and
towards the lateral side of the uterus. The orienta-
tion of the embryonic mass in the implanting
blastocyst is lateral in all the molossid bats (San-
som 1932, Pendharkar and Gopalakrishna 1983,
Sandhu 1986).

Secondly, in Pteropodids and all molossids
the blastocyst establishes contact with the uterine

6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Fig. 2a-c. Definitive arrangement of foetal membranes in (a) Pteropodidae, (b) Molossidae and (c) Vespertilionidae

all. pi : allantoic placenta; am: amnion; exo: exocoelom; tr. om: trilaminar omphalopleure; y-s: yolk sac; y-s.c.: yolk sac cavity;

y-s. spl: yolk sac splanchnopleure. Other legends as in Fig. 1.

wall on all sides, resulting in the obliteration of
the uterine lumen at the level of implantation. This
situation differs from what obtains in all vesper-
tilionids, in which the blastocyst attaches itself to
the antimesometrial side of the uterus by its
embryonic pole, and the abembryonic region of
the wall of the blastocyst lies freely hanging into
the uterine lumen on the mesometrial side of the
uterus (Fig. la-c).

In both Pteropodidae and Molossidae an ex-
tensive yolk sac placenta is formed on all sides of
the uterus except where the embryonic plate inter-

venes between the yolk sac and the uterine wall.
This is at first non-vascular, but soon becomes
vascularised and forms the chorio-vitelline
placenta during early stages of pregnancy. In
Vespertilionidae, on the other hand, only the
lateral wall of the yolk sac forms the yolk sac
placenta, while the abembryonic region remains
non-vascular and free.

The unique modification of the yolk sac into
a solid gland-like structure in both Pteropodidae
(van der Sprenkel 1932, Moghe 1951, 1956;
Wimsatt 1954, Gopalakrishna and Karim 1974,

SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF MOLOSSIDAE

7

Karim et. al. 1979, Gopalakrishna and Karim
1981) and Molossidae (Stephens 1962, Stephens
and Easterbrook 1968, 1969, 1971; Sandhu 1986,
Gopalakrishna et al. 1989) is unmatched in any
other family of Chiroptera - and in fact in any
other mammal. The yolk sac splanchnopleure be-
comes free and undergoes progressive collapse
until the yolk sac lumen is completely obliterated
in Pteropodidae. In Molossidae the yolk sac
lumen is reduced to a few isolated, very narrow
streak-like spaces here and there within the solid
yolk sac.

In both families the endodermal cells under-
go enormous hypertrophy and form acinus-like
groups; the mesodermal cells form the loose
matrix and the outer covering to the gland-like
yolk sac. In Vespertilionidae (Ramaswami 1933,
Wimsatt 1945, Enders and Wimsatt 1968,
Gopalakrishna 1950, Gopalakrishna and Sapkal
1974 Ramakrishna and Madhavan 1977,
Gopalakrishna et al in press) the yolk sac lumen
persists as a continuous space between the
proximal invaginated, folded vascular
splanchnopleure and the distal free trilaminar om-
phalopleure (Fig. 2a-c). The uterine lumen per-
sists on the mesometrial aspect of the uterus
throughout gestation.

The definitive allantoic placental disc is
mesometrial in both Pteropodidae and Molos-
sidae, whereas it is squarely antimesometrial in

Refer

Ellerman, J.R. & Morrison -Scott, T.C.S. (1951): Checklist
of Palaearctic and Indian mammals. British Museum of
Natural History, London.

Enders, A.C. & Wimsatt, W.A. (1968): Formation and struc-
ture of the haemodichorial chorio-allantoic placenta of
the bat, Myotis lucifugus lucifugus. Amer. J. Anat. 122:
453- 489.

Gopalakrishna, A. (1950): Studies on the embryology of
Microchiroptera, Part V - Placentation in the vesper-
tilionid bat, Scotophilus wroughtoni (Thomas). Proc.
Ind. Acad . Sci. 31: 235-251.

Gopalakrishna, A. (1958): Foetal membranes in some Indian
Microchiroptera./. Morph. 102: 157-197.
Gopalakrishna, A. & Badwaik, N. (1987): Is Rhinopoma a
rhinolophoid bat? /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3):
664-670.

Vespertilionidae (Fig. 2a-c). With respect to the
histological structure, the placenta is en-
dotheliochorial in Pteropus and Cynopterus and
haemochorial in Rousettus. In molossids a diffuse
endotheliochorial chorio-allantoic placenta oc-
curs concurrently with a small mesometrially lo-
cated discoid placenta until about the third quarter
of gestation. The discoid placenta is
haemochorial. However, during the final quarter
of gestation the diffuse endotheliochorial allan-
toic placenta disappears, and only the
mesometrially located discoid haemochorial
placenta persists. Molossid bats, therefore,
develop both endotheliochorial and haemochorial
allantoic placentae. In all vespertilionids the
placenta is haemochorial.

It is thus evident that embryological
similarities between Molossidae and
Pteropodidae and differences between Molos-
sidae and Vespertilionidae suggest a closer
relationship between Pteropodidae and Molos-
sidae than between Molossidae and Vesper-
tilionidae. It is, therefore, suggested on purely
embryological grounds that Molossidae be
separated from the Super-family Vespertilionidae
and be placed somewhere between Pteropodidae
and Emballonuridae.

We thank the U.G.C. and the C.S.I.R., New
Delhi for financial assistance for carrying out this
work.

ENCES

Gopalakrishna, A. & Badwaik, N. (in press): Foetal
membranes and placentation in two species of molossid
bats. Curr. Sci .

Gopalakrishna, A. & Chari, G.C. (1983): A review of the
taxonomic position of Miniopterus based on
embryological characters. Curr. Sci 52: 1176-1180.
Gopalakrishna, A. & Karim, K.B. (1974): The yolk sac gland
in the Indian fruit bat, Rousettus leschenaulti (Desm.).
Curr. Sci 41: 639-641.

Gopalakrishna, A. & Karim, K.B. (1981): Female genital
anatomy and the morphogenesis of the foetal
membranes of Chiroptera and their bearing on the
phylogenetic relationships of the group. Golden Jubilee
Volume, Nat Acad. Sci India: 379-428.
Gopalakrishna, A., Pendharkar, Y.D. & Badwaik, N.
(1989): Morphogenesis of the foetal membranes
and placentation in the Indian molossid bat,

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Chaerephon plicata (Buchanan). Proc. Ind. Acad.
Sci. 98(3): 149-166.

Gopalakrishna, A., Phansalkar, R.B. Madhavan, A. & Bad-
waik, N. (1988): Pre-implantation stages of develop-
ment of Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix
(Wroughton). Trends in Life Sci. 3: 47-50.

Gopalakrishna, A., Phasalkar, R.B. Madhavan, A. & Bad-
waik, N. (in press): Development of the foetal
membranes and placentation of the Indian vesper-
tilionid bat, Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix
(Wroughton). Trends in Life Sci.

Gopalakrishna, A. & Sapkal, V.M. (1974): The foetal
membranes in the Indian pipistrelle, Pipistrellus
dormeri.J. Zool. Soc. India. 26: 1-9.

Hill, J.E. & Smith, J.D. (1985): Bats - A natural history.
Henry Ling Ltd., Dorchester, Dorset, U.K.

Honacki, J.H., Kinman, K.E. & Koeppl, J.W. (1982): Mam-
mal species of the World. Allen Press Inc., Lawrence,
Kansas, U.S.A.

Jones, F.W. (1917): The genitalia of Chiroptera. J. AnaL 51:
36-60.

Karim, K.B. (1976): Embryology of some Indian Chiroptera.
Unpublished D.Sc. Thesis, Nagpur University.

Karim, K.B., Wimsatt, W.A., Enders, A.C. & Gopalakrish-
na, A. (1979): Electron microscopic observations on
the yolk sac of the Indian fruit bat, Rousettus les-
chenaulti (Desmarest) (Pteropida €).Anat.Rec. 195 (3):
493-510.

Koopman, K.F. (1984): Asynopsis of the families of bats, Part
VIII. Bat Res. News. 25: 25-27.

Luckett, W.P. (1979): The use of foetal membrane data in
assessing chiropteran phylogeny. Proc. Fifth Int. Bat
Res. Conf. 245-265.

Moghe, M.A. (1951): Development and placentation in the
Indian fruit bat, Pteropus giganteus giganteus (Brun-
nich). Proc. Zool. Soc. London 121: 703-721.

Moghe, M.A. (1956): On the development and placentation
of the megachi ropteran bat, Cynopterus sphinx gan-
geticus. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 22: 48-55.

Mossman, H.W. (1937): Comparative morphogenesis of foe-
tal membranes and accessory uterine structures. Con-
trib. Embryol. Carnegie Inst. Washington 26: 127-246.

Mossman, H.W. (1953): The genital system and the foetal
membranes as criteria for mammalian phylogeny and
taxonomy. Jour. Mammal. 34: 289-298.

Pendharkar, Y.D. & Gopalakrishna, A. (1983): Observa-
tions on the early development and implantation of the
blastocyst of Tadarida plicata plicata (Buchanan)
(Molossidae). /. Shivaji Univ. (Sc.) 21: 179-188.

Ramakrishna, P.A. & Madhavan, A. (1977): Foetal
membranes and Placentation in the vespertilionid bat,
Scotophilus heathi (Horsefield). Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci.
86: 117-126.

Ramaswami, L.S. (1933): Some stages of the placentation in
Vesperugo leisleri (Kuhl). Half-yrly. Jour. Mysore
Univ. 7: 1-41.

Sandhu, S.K. (1986): Studies on the embryology of some
Indian Chiroptera. Ph.D. thesis, Nagpur University (un-
published).

Sansom, G.S. (1932): Notes on some early blastocysts of the
South American Molossid bat, Molossus. Proc. Zool.
Soc. London. Part 1: 113-118.

Simpson, G.G. (1945): The principles of classifications and a
classification of mammals. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist
85: 1-350.

Stephens, R.J. (1962): Histology and histochemistry of the
placenta and foetal membranes in the bat, Tadarida
brasiliensis cynocephala. Amer. J. AnaL 111: 259-286.

Stephens, R.J. & Easterbrook, N. (1968): Development of
the cytoplasmic membranous organelle in the endoder-
mal cells of the yolk sac of the bat, Tadarida brasiliensis
cynocephala. J. Ultrastr. Res. 24: 239-248.

Stephens, R.J. & Easterbrook, N. (1969): Anew cytoplasmic
organelle related to both lipid and glycogen storage
material in the yolk sac of the bat, Tadarida brasiliensis
cynocephala. Amer. J. Anat. 124: 47-58.

Stephens, R.J. & Easterbrook, N. (1971): Ultra-structural
differentiation of the endodermal cells of the yolk sac
of the bat, Tadarida brasiliensis cynocephala. AnaL
Rec. 169: 207-242.

VanderSprenkel, H.B. (1932): Persistenz der Dottergefasse
in den Embryo nen der Fledermause und ihre Ursache.
Zeitschr.f. MikrA.nL Forsch. 28: 185-268.

Wimsatt, W.A. (1945): The placentation in the vespertilionid
bat, Mytis lucifugus lucifugus. Amer. J. Anat. 77: 1-51.

Wimsatt, W.A. (1954): The fetal membranes and placentation
of the Tropical American vampire bat, Desmodus
rotundus murinus. Acta Anat. 21: 285-341.

A STUDY OF THE FOOD HABITS OF SIX ANURAN TADPOLES1

A.G. Sekar2
( With two text-figures)

The intestinal contents of tadpoles of six anuran species, collected from different waterbodies, were studied
to find out their food in natural habitat The gut contents revealed that all the tadpoles studied were largely
herbivorous and ingested 36 genera of algae. The food is apparently determined by the nature of the habitat. It
seems that in nature the tadpoles studied fed randomly, without any discrimination. The existing literature
indicates that these tadpoles have the capacity to adj ust their feeding habits to available food in new environments.

Introduction

All adult amphibians are carnivorous and
devour whatever they can overcome, such as Crus-
tacea, small fishes, worms and insects. Tadpoles,
on the other hand, are largely herbivorous (Cun-
ningham 1912). They are fundamentally
specialised for suspension feeding (Wassersug
1975) and depend mainly on algae for their food
in natural habitats. The laboratory food for tad-
poles as suggested by McCann (1932) was raw
meat and also aquatic plants like Hydrilla,
Ceratophyllum, Lemna and Vallisneria.

The dietary habits of tadpoles have been
studied by Kamat (1962), Sabnis and Kolhatkar
(1977), Sabnis and Kuthe (1980) and Wassersug
et al (1981). Sabnis and Kuthe examined the
natural food of tadpoles oiBufo melanostictus by
gut analysis. Wassersug et al. described the tad-
poles of Philautus sp. in Thailand as macro-
phagus, feeding on frog eggs. Literature on
natural food of tadpoles is meagre, whereas there
is fairly adequate information on the diet of adult
frogs (Andrews 1979, Davidson 1916, Isaac and
Rege 1975, Joshee 1968, Mohanty-Hejmadi and
Acharya 1982, Rangaswamy and Chari-
nabasavanna 1972).

The present study examines the dietary com-
ponents of tadpoles of Bufo melanostictus (Family
Bufonidae), Ramanella montana (Microhylidae),
Rana tigerina, Rana limnocharis, Tomopterna
breviceps (Ranidae) and Polypedates macula tus
(Rhacophoridae) in nature.

Accepted January 1992.

^Bombay Natural History Society, Ilornbill House, Shaheed
Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

Material and Methods

Tadpoles were collected from various water-
bodies like pools, river, cisterns and ponds in
Sanjay Gandhi National Park in Borivli, Bombay
(18° 55’N, 72° 54’E) during the monsoon of 1983.
The tadpoles were collected with a net and
preserved in 10% formalin. In the laboratory they
were sorted out into pre-hindlimb and hindlimb
stages.

To study the gut content, the intestine was
removed, squashed in a small petri-dish and li-
quefied by adding 5 ml of water. The fragments
of empty intestine were removed and the liquid
gut content was analysed under a 320 x micro-
scope. The algal materials were identified and
counted in viewing area of 0.732 sq. mm. Five
similar squares were counted for algal com-
ponents, and the average taken. Ten tadpoles per
stage were examined.

Tadpoles of different species were collected
from the following waterbodies (Figs. 1, 2).

(1) Bufo melanostictus : Dahisar river and a
small stream near Film City. (2) Ramanella mon-4
tana : Dahisar river and roadside pool. (3) Rana
tigerina : Pond near Jain temple and rectangular
pond atKanheri Hill. (4) Rana limnocharis : Tem-
porary puddle and water-logged grassland. (5)
Tomopterna breviceps: Dahisar river and corridor
of Kanheri cave No.l with 5 cm depth of still
water. (6) Polypedates maculatus : Pool near
Sanyasi’s hut and temporary puddle.

Results and Discussion

The data on food items in the gut of six
tadpole species are shown in Tables 1-6. All six

10

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Figs. 1-2. Location of collection sites of tadpoles at Sanjay Gandhi National Park and Kanheri Caves.

FOOD HABITS OF SIX ANURAN TADPOLES

11

Table 1

PERCENTAGE OF FOOD ITEMS IN THE GUT OF TADPOLES OF Bufo melanostictus

Intestinal contents

Dahisar river

Stream near Film City

Pre-hindlimb

stage

Hindlimb

stage

Pre -hindlimb
stage

Hindlimb

stage

Oscillatoria

1.06

6.19

9.73

2.26

Scenedesmus

-

-

-

0.75

Phacus

0.30

-

0.54

-

Oedogonium

0.04

-

-

-

Closterium

0.23

-

-

-

Cosmarium

3.26

1.03

-

-

Pinnularia

74.17

63.92

74.05

47.10

Navicula

17.73

21.65

12.97

13.85

Cymbella

2.35

2.06

1.08

-

Synedra

0.76

3.09

-

32.49

Stauroneis

-

-

-

3.02

Euchalanis

-

-

1.08

-

Nematode worm

-

2.06

0.54

0.25

Table 2

PERCENTAGE OF FOOD ITEMS IN THE GUT OF TADPOLES OF Ramanella montana

Intestinal contents

Dahisar river

Roadside pool

Pre-hindlimb

Hindlimb

Pre-hindlimb

Hindlimb

stage

stage

stage

stage

Oscillatoria

0.21

0.33

-

-

Spaerella

-

-

-

15.62

Oedogonium

-

-

9.37

-

Cosmarium

0.85

1.76

-

-

Vaucheria

-

-

3.13

6.25

Pinnularia

98.50

97.23

56.25

43.75

Navicula

0.43

0.66

12.50

12.50

Spores

-

-

18.75

18.75

Daphnia

-

-

-

3.15

tadpoles were largely herbivorous; 36 genera of
algae and four species of animalcules were
recorded from the stomach contents. The intes-
tines were long and spirally coiled like a watch-
spring. Noble (1931) stated that the more car-
nivorous tadpoles have a shorter digestive tract
than herbivorous species.

Wassersug (1975) reported that the unique
morphology of tadpoles is in some way as-
sociated with herbivory, plankton feeding, filter
feeding, suspension feeding etc. The elongated,

coiled intestines of most tadpoles contrast
sharply with the shortened digestive tract of the
few known carnivorous, non-feeding, or direct
developing forms.

Food items of tadpoles collected from run-
ning water differed from those collected from still
water. For example the food of Bufo melanostictus
tadpoles collected from Dahisar river as well as
from the stream near Film City gate varied and
certain food items like Eudorina, Opalina,
Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Euglena , watermites and

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 89

Table 3

PERCENTAGE OF FOOD ITEMS IN THE GUT OF TADPOLES OF Rana tigerina

Intestinal contents

Pond near Jain temple

Rectangular pond at Kanheri Hills

Pre-hindlimb

stage

Hindlimb

stage

Pre-hindlimb

stage

Hindlimb

stage

Oscillatoria

7.48

1.51

0.04

0.14

Spirulina

-

-

1.56

0.38

Scytonema

-

-

0.09

0.13

Eudorina

-

7.09

1.95

1.78

Pediastrum

2.04

3.92

-

-

Ankistrodesmus

-

5.13

-

-

Selenastrum

-

-

11.64

12.94

Tetraedron

-

2.57

0.58

1.95

Scenedesmus

34.69

12.08

77.83

81.09

Ulothrix

-

-

0.24

0.23

Phacus

2.72

28.70

0.44

0.51

Oedogonium

0.68

0.90

0.14

0.10

Closterium

-

3.63

-

-

Euastrum

-

0.15

-

-

Cosmarium

-

-

0.04

0.10

Pinnularia

26.53

22.96

0.29

0.31

Navicula

3.40

0.75

0.44

0.23

Spores

21.76

8.00

4.45

0.38

Monostyla

-

-

-

0.07

Nematode worm

0.68

2.26

-

-

Daphnia

-

0.15

0.19

-

Tardigrada

-

0.15

-

-

Pleurococcus were absent. However, Sabnis and
Kuthe (1980) have reported these food items in B.
melanostictus collected from a pond.

Similarly, tadpoles of Tomopterna breviceps
obtained from Dahisar river had eaten only a few
varieties of food items, whereas tadpoles of the
same species collected from still water in the
corridor of Kanheri Cave 1 had consumed more
food items. The food is apparently determined by
the nature of the habitat. Running water, general-
ly, contains less micro fauna than ponds and pud-
dles. Tonapi (1980) also noted the conspicuous
absence of many rooted plants and the relative
absence of plankton in running water. But tad-
poles otRamanella montana had fed on a limited
number of food items though they were collected
from stagnant water (rain pool). This might be due
to the nature of the pool (fresh and muddy water,
with meagre algal components).

The food items differed for different loca-
tions, even for the same species of tadpole.
Oedogonium, Closterium and Cosmarium were
found in Bufo melanostictus tadpoles of Dahisar
river but not in tadpoles from the stream near Film
City. In Rana tigerina tadpoles, Scenedesmus was
noticed both from the pond near Jain temple and
the rectangular pond at Kanheri caves. However,
there were several differences in food items from
tigerina tadpoles from these two locations -
Spirulina, Scytonema, Selenastrum, Ulothrix,
Cosmarium and Monostyla were found in Kanheri
caves tadpoles, but not in Jain temple tadpoles.
There are similar location-related differences in
the case of other species also.

From this data it seems that tadpoles feed
randomly without any discrimination, on
whatever is available in the particular waterbody
where they grow up. Costa and Balasubramanium

FOOD HABITS OF SIX ANURAN TADPOLES

13

Table 4

PERCENTAGE OF FOOD ITEMS IN THE GUT OF TADPOLES OF Rana limnocharis

Intestinal contents

Temporary puddle

Waterlogged grassland

Pre hindlimb
stage

Hindlimb

stage

Pre hindlimb
stage

Hindlimb

stage

Oscillatoria

0.93

2.38

0.26

1.00

Spirulina

-

-

0.52

0.25

Lyngbya

1.85

1.70

3.65

3.72

Anabaena

0.93

0.68

-

-

Scytonema

-

-

0.52

0.50

Tolypothrix

1.39

1.36

-

-

Sphaerella

2.78

3.40

1.30

1.49

Oocystis

-

-

3.65

3.22

Ankistrodesmus

-

-

0.52

0.25

Scenedesmus

4.17

0.34

-

-

Oedogonium

5.55

4.08

1.04

1.00

Phacus

2.31

1.20

-

-

Zygnema

-

-

0.26

0.25

Closterium

11.11

8.84

3.65

4.96

Pleurotaneum

-

-

2.08

1.00

Euastrum

1.38

1.70

5.73

5.46

Microsterias

-

-

1.30

0.25

Cosmarium

26.85

15.99

13.54

18.11

Staurastrum

3.70

2.38

2.60

3.47

Onychonema

-

0.34

9.11

7.20

Desmidium

-

0.34

3.13

6.20

Pinnularia

24.07

41.84

33.59

30.52

Navicula

12.04

10.20

7.55

6.70

Cymbella

0.93

2.72

5.20

3.72

Synedra

-

0.68

-

-

Monostyla

-

-

0.52

0.25

Daphnia

-

-

0.26

0.25

(1965) showed from stomach content analyses
that Rhacophorus cruciger larvae are qualitative-
ly non-discriminant in the food that they ingest.
Similar analyses for Rana clamitans tadpoles
showed that these larvae are qualitatively and
quantitatively non-discriminant in their suspen-
sion feeding (Farlowe 1928). But, controversially,
Kamat (1962) reported that tadpoles did not feed
on all available algae. He found in the laboratory
that tadpoles did not feed on certain algae like
Chara, Cladophora, Pithophora. However, more
work is required to prove that tadpoles show food
preferences in natural environment.

Some diatoms {Pinnularia, Navicula ,
Scenedesmus, Closterium , Cosmarium) which are
suspended in the water, were found in the present
study to have been fed on in good percentage.
Presumably, these were abundant in that par-
ticular period and were therefore taken by the
tadpoles. Wassersug (op. cit.) stated that tadpoles
are highly specialised suspension feeders,
adapted for utilizing rapid increases in primary
production of a food source. Such sources are
probably coupled to environmental fluctuations
and available for only a limited amount of time
during any year.

2

14

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Table 5

PERCENTAGE OF FOOD ITEMS IN THE GUT OF TADPOLES OF Tomopterna breviceps

Intestinal contents

Dahisar river

Corridor of Cave 1 at Kanheri

Pre-hindlimb

s'tage

Hindlimb

stage

Pre-hindlimb

stage

Hindlimb

stage

Gloeocapsa

0.63

-

1.70

5.65

Oscillcitoria

21.65

19.59

19.57

17.39

Spirulina

-

-

6.80

1.74

Lyngbya

-

-

2.55

0.87

Scytonema

-

-

25.95

15.21

Oedogonium

1.91

0.50

5.95

1.74

Phacus

-

-

0.85

1.30

Closterium

-

-

-

0.43

Cosmarium

-

-

4.25

1.74

Spirogyra

2.54

2.51

-

-

Pinnularia

22.29

32.16

8.08

8.69

Navicula

37.57

32.66

3.40

8.69

Cymbella

-

-

1.70

1.30

Synedra

12.10

11.05

-

1.74

Spores

-

-

17.87

32.17

Nematode worms

1.70

1.50

0.43

1.30

Tardigrada

-

--

0.85

-

McCann (1932) suggested raw meat as a
food for tadpoles reared in the laboratory. Sekar
(1990) fed tadpoles of the Malabar gliding frog
Rhacophorus malabciricus with earthworms,
meat and snail flesh in the laboratory to rear
them. These non-algal food items were readily
accepted.

Wassersug et al. (1981) reported that the
larvae of Tlieloderma stellatum (Rhacophoridae)
of Thailand, which developed in tree holes con-
taining decomposing leaves, fed on amoeba tests,
fungal spores, lepidopteran scales etc.

In contrast, tadpoles of Philautus sp.,
which developed in a tree hole containing less
than 75 ml of water without any indirect source
of food, appear to rely on introduced frog eggs
for food. It seems that tadpoles might have the
capacity to adapt to a new environment and
adjust to feeding on the food available in that
environment.

There was notably no difference between the
pre-hindlimb and hindlimb stages; food items
were similar in both stages.

Conclusions

Gut analysis of six species of tadpoles led to
the following conclusions.

(1) All the tadpoles studied were largely her-
bivorous in food habits; a variety of algal com-
ponents constituted the major food items. (2) Tad-
poles from still water fed on more food items than
those obtained from running water. (3) In nature, the
tadpoles studied fed randomly, without any qualita-
tive discrimination. (4) Tadpoles which are fun-
damentally specialised for suspension feeding fed
more on diatoms like Pinnulario, Navicula, Cos-
marium etc. (5) Food items were almost similar in
both pre-hind limb and hindlimb stages.

Acknowledgements

I thank Mr J.C. Daniel, former Curator of the
BNHS, for his constant encouragement during
the' study; Dr Robert B. Grubh, Research Coor-
dinator, BNHS for allowing me to use the project
microscope, and Mr Ajay Varadachary for read-
ing through the manuscript.

FOOD HABITS OF SIX ANURAN TADPOLES

15

Table 6

PERCENTAGE OF FOOD ITEMS IN THE GUTS OF TADPOLES OF Polypedates maculatus

Intestinal contents

Pool near Sanyasi’s hut

Temporary puddle

Pre-hindlimb

stage

Hindlimb

stage

Pre-hindlimb

stage

Hindlimb

stage

Gloeocapsa

-

-

1.01

-

Oscillatoria

4.79

6.61

2.53

0.39

Lyngbya

-

-

1.01

0.39

Sphaerella

2.17

3.78

4.04

1.76

A nJcistrodesmus

0.09

-

-

-

Scenedesmus

3.44

3.78

7.07

5.69

Ulothrix

-

-

0.25

0.19

Oedogonium

16.00

17.12

2.77

0.76

Phacus

7.78

6.85

0.76

0.19

Spirogyra

-

-

2.70

1.96

Closterium

2.44

1.18

-

-

Pleurotaenium

-

-

0.25

-

Euastrum

-

-

1.26

0.98

Microsterias

-

-

0.76

-

Cosmarium

23.32

12.87

20.96

26.93

Staurastrum

2.99

2.72

1.76

2.95

Pinnularia

8.41

6.14

28.03

18.86

Navicula

14.92

10.86

6.31

18.23

Cymbella

-

-

3.03

2.16

Synedra

-

-

8.33

2.16

Colonies

-

-

4.55

13.75

Spores

13.38

27.74

-

-

Monostyla

0.27

-

0.76

0.98

Nematode worms

-

-

0.25

0.19

Daphnia

-

0.35

-

-

Unidentified

-

-

1.76

0.58

References

Andrews, M.I. (1979): Food of Ranci hexadactyla Lesson. J.
Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 76: 175- 179.

Costa, H.H. & Balasubramanium, S. (1965): The food of the
tadpoles of Rhacophorus cruciger cruciger (Blyth) in
Ceylon .J. Sci. 5: 105-109 (quoted in Wassersug 1975).

Cunningham, J.T. (1912): Animal life: An evolutionary
natural history. Reptiles, Amphibia, Fishes and Lower
Chordata. Methuen and Co. Ltd., London.

Davidson, N. (1916): Food of the Bull Frog. J. Bombay nat
Hist. Soc. 25: 152-153.

Farlowe, V. (1928): Algae ponds as determined by an ex-
amination of the intestinal contents of tadpoles. Biol.
Bull. 55: 443-448 (quoted in Wassersug 1975).

Isaac, S. & Rege, M.S. (1975): Food of Ram tigerina
(Daud.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72: 143-157.

Joshee, A.K. (1968): Food habits of the Bull frog Rana
tigerina (Daud). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65: 498-501.

Kamat, N.D. (1962): On the intestinal contents of tadpoles
and algae of small ponds. Curr. Sci. 31: 300.

McCann, C. (1932): Notes on Indian Batrachians.7. Bombay
nat Hist. Soc. 36: 152-180.

Mohanty-Hejmadi, P. & Acharya, B.K. (1982): Observations
on food habits of six species of Indian frogs. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 79: 120-124.

Noble, G.K. (1954): The biology of the Amphibia. Dover
Publications Inc., New York.

16

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Rangaswamy, H.R. & Channabasavanna, G.R (1972): Food
and feeding habits of the Toad Bufo melanostictus
Schneider. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 558-563.

Sabnis, J.H. & Kolhatkar, B.L. (1977): Observations on the
food preference oiRana cyanophlyctis tadpoles. Comp.
Physiol. Ecol. 2(4): 232-233.

Sabnis, J. H. & Kutiie, K.S. (1980): Observations on food and
growth otBufo melanostictus tadpoles./. Bombay nat
Hist Soc. 77: 21-25.

Sekar, A.G. (1990): Observations on the developmental
stages of ladpoles of the Malabar gliding frog
Rhaeophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1890

(Anura:Rhacophoridae)J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87:
223-226.

Tonapi, G.T. (1980): Fresh water animals of India (An
Ecological approach). Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.

Wassersug, RJ. (1975): The adaptive significance of the
tadpole stage with comments on the maintenance of
complex life cycles in Anurans. Am$r. Zool. 15: 405-417.

Wassersug, R.J., Frogner K.J., & Inger, R.F. (1981):
Adaptations for life in tree holes by Rhacophorid
tadpoles from Thailand. Jour, of Herpetology 15:
41-52.

I. CLADOCERA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR,

AND ITS ENVIRONS1

K. Venkataraman2
(With forty-nine text-figures)

A study made on collections of zooplankton from shallow waters and ponds in and around Keoladeo
National Park, Bharatpur, yielded 39 species of Cladocera, of which 25 are recorded for the first time from
Rajasthan. Some selected species recorded in the present study are illustrated and described.

Introduction

Very little is known regarding the occurrence
of different species of Cladocera in Rajasthan,
particularly the Keoladeo National Park, which
has a wide range of freshwater habitats and at-
tracts various migratory birds from different parts
of the world. The important earlier works on
Cladocera of Rajasthan are those of Biswas
(1964), Nayar (1971) and Venkataraman (1988,
1990). Ali and Vijayan (1983) studied the general
limnology, primary productivity and secondary
productivity in Keoladeo National Park. There are
also some records of the protozoan species
(Mahajan et al. 1980a), benthic fauna (Mahajan
et al. 1980b) and dynamics of zooplankton
(Mahajan et al. 1980c) made in freshwater
habitats of the Keoladeo National Park (KNP).

The material for the present study was col-
lected periodically from eight different places in
the Park and 30 ponds and ditches of Rajasthan.
The collections revealed 39 species of Cladocera,
of which 25 are new records to Keoladeo National
Park and Rajasthan. Short description including
illustration of diagnostic features of a few inter-
esting species is given in this paper. The impact
of introduced fauna is also discussed.

Material and Methods

591 zooplankton samples were collected
during the years 1984-85 from littoral and lim-
netic regions of freshwater habitats of Keoladeo
National Park (27° 7.6' to 27° 12.2' N, 77° 29.5'

Accepted May 1990.

2Zoological Survey of India, Andaman and Nicobar Regional
Station, Port Blair 744 101. Present address: Zoological
Survey of India, M-Block, New Alipore, Calcutta 700 053.

to 77° 39.9' E) and roadside ponds and ditches in
and around Bharatpur, Rajasthan. The collections
were made with 80 pm mesh size plankton nets
of 30 cm upper diameter by taking both vertical
and horizontal hauls. All samples were examined
with a binocular microscope and the species were
separated. Temporary slides were made in
glycerine for confirming diagnosis. Drawings
were made with a camera lucida and the measure-
ments taken using a calibrated ocular micrometer.
A list of species recorded is given in Table 1.

KNP has a wide range of freshwater habitats.
About 10% of the land is covered with water that
comes from a reservoir during the rainy season.
This reservoir receives and retains faunal ele-
ments from flowing and standing waters used for
irrigation via Gambir and Banganga rivers. The
climate is subtropical and temperate, with 1200
mm annual rainfall. There were 120 rainy days in
the year June 1984 to May 1985. The mean annual
temperature was 22° C; the lowest temperature
(3°C) was recorded on 14 January and the highest
(42°C) on 27 July 1984.

Description of Females of Selected Species
Pseudosida bidentata Herrick, 1884 (Figs. 1-2)

Size: 1.20 mm. Body elongated oval; head
short; eye relatively small and situated near
antero-ventral comer. Antennules unsegmented,
long and attached to postero-ventral part of head.
Antenna not extending beyond posterior margin
of valves. Ventral margin with a series of long
setae followed by a series of spinules on postero-
ventral corner. Postabdomen short and broad.
Lateral side with 10 groups of spines. Claw long,
curved dorsally; convex surface serrated; concave
surface with series of short setules and three basal

18

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Table 1

LIST OF CLADOCER A RECORDED FROM KEOLADEO
NATIONAL PARK AND ITS ENVIRONS

Family Sididae

*1. Pseudosida bidentata Richard

*2. Latonopsis australis Sars

3. Diaphanosoma excisum Sars

*4. Diaphanosoma sarsi Richard

*5. Diaphanosoma senegalensis (Gauthier)

Family Daphnidae

6. Daphnia similis Claus
*1. Daphnia longispina Muller

8. Daphnia lumholtzi Sars

9. Simocephalus vetulus elizabethae (King)
* 10. Simocephalus acutirostratus Sars

11. Ceriodaphnia cornu ta Sars

12. Ceriodaphnia reticulata (Jurine)

13. Scapholeberis kingi Sars
Family Macrothricidae

14. llyocryptus spinifer Herrick

15. Macrothrix spinosa King

16. Macrothrix triserialis (Brady)

*17. Grimaldina brazzai Richard
*18. Guernella raphalis Richard
Family Moinidae

19. Moina micrura Kurz

*20. Moinodaphnia macleayii Richard

Family Bosminidae

*21. Bosminopsis deitersi Richard

Family Chydoridae

*22. Alona costata Sars
*23. Alona davidi Richard
*24. Alona monacantha Sars
*25. Alona karua King
26. Alona verrucosa Sars
*27. Camptocercus australis Sars
28. Chydorus eurynotus Sars
*29. Chydorus pan’us Daday
*30. Chydorus ventricosus Daday
*31. Dadaya macrops (Daday)

*32. Dunhevedia crassa King
*33. Euryalona orientalis (Daday)

*34. Kurzia longirostris (Daday)

*35. Leydigia australis Sars
36. Leydigia acahthocercoides (Fischer)
*37. Indialona ganapati Petkovski
*38. Oxyurella sinhalensis (Daday)

*39. Pluroxus similis Vavra

spines. Occurs in all types of habitat except in
turbid ponds.

Latonopsis australis Sars, 1888 (Figs. 3-4)

Size: 1.15 mm. Body oblong. Head short and
indistinctly separated from the body. Eye small,
situated near antero-dorsal end of head. Ocellus
small and situated near base of labrum. Anten-
nules long and segmented, attached to antero-
ventral comer of head. Valves slightly convex
dorsally and broadly rounded ventrally. Ventral
margin with a series of long setae. Postabdomen
short without anal denticles, lateral surface with a
series of 8-10 denticles. Claw curved dorsally
with two long basal spines. Occurs in all types of
habitat except in turbid ponds.

Diaphanosoma excisum Sars, 1885 (Figs. 5-6)

Size: 1.05 mm. Head large and rounded
anteriorly. Eye small. Postero-ventral corner
broadly rounded with 5-9 marginal denticles fol-
lowed by a series of fine setules. Claw serrated on
the distal convex surface; concave surface with
three long basal spines.

Very common. Occurs in all types of habitat
except in marshes. This species has already been
recorded in Rajasthan (Biswas 1971, Nayar
1971).

Daphnia similis Claus, 1876 (Figs. 7-9).

Size: 2.25 mm. Body slightly compressed,
elliptical in shape. Head rounded anteriorly,
rostrum pointed ventrally; antennules short, at-
tached to posterior margin of rostrum. Eye large,
situated slightly closer to the a ntero -ventral mar-
gin of the head. Valves with a series of spinules
on dorsal and ventral margins. Postabdomen nar-
row distally with about nine pointed denticles.
Rare. Occurs only in turbid ponds of Bharatpur.

Daphnia lumholtzi Sars, 1885 (Figs. 10-11)

Size: 1.52 mm. Head with pointed helmet.
Rostrum small, fornix well developed. Body
rounded. Dorsal and ventral margins with a series
of spines. Postabdomen long and narrow with
9-11 denticles on the dorsal side.

* New records

Figs. 1-17. Cladocera of Keoladeo National Park and environs (females). P- postabdomen; PVC- postero-ventral corner.
1-2. Pseudosida bidentata ; 3-4. Latonopsis australis; 5-6. Diaphanosoma excisum; 7-9. Daphnia similis; 10-11. D. lumholtzi;
12-13. Ceriodaphnia cornuta; 14-15. Scapholeberis kingi ; 16-17. llyocryptus spinifer.

20

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

This is the commonest Daphnia sp. in the
limnetic region of aquatic habitat of KNP. It has
been already reported in Rajasthan (Biswas 1971,
Nayar 1971).

Ceriodaplmia cornuta Sars, 1885 (Figs. 12-13)

Size: 0.39 mm. Head depressed and
separated from the carapace by a dorsal impres-
sion. Antennules short and broad, with a long seta
and a group of sensory setae on the apex. Eye
large, ocellus absent. Postero-dorsal corner of the
carapace with two acute and diverging points.
Postabdomen with four or five curved denticles.
Claw long, gently curved with a series of setules
along the concave surface.

Very common. Occurs in all types of habitat,
especially shallow ponds of KNP. Both homed
and hornless individuals are found together with
Diciphanosoma excisum and Moina micrura. This
species has already been recorded in Rajasthan
(Nayar 1971).

Scapholeberis kingi Sars, 1903 (Figs. 14-15)

Size: 0.59 mm. Body rounded dorsally.
Head small and slightly depressed, rostrum
rounded and projecting ventrally. Eye large,
ocellus small, situated closer to the rostrum than
to the eye. Valves with lines and reticulations;
posterior ventral margin has a long denticle.
Postabdomen broad, dorsal margin with five or
six denticles. Claw curved dorsally, with
spinules along the concave surface. Common in
all types of habitat but never occurs in large
numbers.

Ilyocryptus spinifer Herrick, 1882 (Figs. 16-17)

Size: 0.75 mm. Body oval. Head small.
Eye large, ocellus small, situated about halfway
between eye and base of antennules. Antennules
long with a group of sensory setae on distal end.
Valves with a series of long feather-likc setae
on ventral side. Postabdomen with slight
depression in the middle. Preanal margin with
eight marginal denticles, postanal margin with
12 denticles up to anal groove and with five
long and stout spines on the lateral surface.

Claw with two basal spines. Three spinules
present in between the base of claw. Common.
Occurs in small numbers in marshes of KNP and
in the other areas in and around Bharatpur.

Macrotkrix spinosa King, 1852 (Figs. 18-19)

Size: 0.41 mm. Body round-oval; dorsal
margin serrated. Head rounded, ventral mar-
gin slightly concave with slightly pointed
antero-ventral corner. Antennules short, with
a long seta near its base. Eye large, ocellus
small and situated much nearer to the base of
antennules than to the eye. Postabdomen
broadly rounded. Claw short and serrated on
the concave surface.

Very common. Occurs in all types of habitat
in KNP and in the Bharatpur ponds.

Macrotkrix triserialis Brady, 1886 (Figs. 20-21).

Size: 0.56 mm. Body oval, dorsal margin
with a slight cervical depression. Head with a
round projection on anterior margin above eye.
Eye laige, ocellus small and situated nearer apex
of rostrum than eye. Antennules long with a long
lateral seta. Antennae short with the longest seta
having two or three larger spines in the middle.
Ventral margin of the valve with a series of long
setae in groups of three. Postabdomen bilobed
with rows of spines increasing in size proximally.
Claw short and serrated without basal spine.

Very common. Occurs in all the marshes of
KNP and in the ponds of Bharatpur.

Grimaldina brazzai Richard, 1892

Size: 0.87 mm. Body quadrangular-oval.
Head small, eye large. Ocellus small and situated
closer to apex of rostrum than to eye. Antennules
long and slightly segmented. Postabdomen
bilobed with broadly rounded preanal margin.
Postanal margin with two groups of long spines.
Preanal comer with 2 large spines followed by a
series of short spinules proximally. Claw long
with basal spines.

Rare. Only a few specimens occurred in
marshes of KNP. It has already been recorded by
Venkataraman (1990).

CLADOCERA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK

21

0.1mm 0,03mm 0,05mm 005mm 02mm

18,20,24,26,28,30.32 19.21.25.33 23,27 29,31 22

Figs. 18-33. Cladocera of Keoladeo National Park and its environs, (females). P - postabdomen.

18-19. Macrothrix spinosa ; 20-21. M. triserialis ; 22-23. Moina micrura; 24-25. Alona davidi; 26-27. A. monacantha; 28-29.
A. karua; 30-31. >1. verrucosa. 32-33. Chydorus eurynotus.

22

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Guernella raphalis Richard, 1892

Size: 0.38 mm. Body slightly oval. Head
concave ventrally, eye large, ocellus situated
closer to apex of rostrum. Antennules short and
broad with a group of sensory setae at apex.
Valves with polygonal reticulations and serrated
without setae. Postabdomen slightly bilobed with
transverse rows of spinules and without anal den-
ticles. Claw short without basal spines.

Not common, but occurs in decaying marshy
regions of KNP. It has already been recorded by
Venktaraman (1990).

Moina micmra Kurz, 1874 (Figs. 22-23)

Size: 0.73 mm. Head large, rounded with a
deep cervical depression posteriorly. Eye large,
ocellus absent. Antennules long and movable with
a group of sensory setae on apex. Postabdomen
with 6-8 ciliated lateral spines. Claw long, slightly
curved dorsally, with pecten at base.

Very common. This is the most widely dis-
tributed species of Moina. It occurs both in ponds
of Bharatpur and shallow regions of KNP.

Moinodaphnia macleayii (King, 1853)

Size: 0.81 mm. Head with distinct cervical
depression. Eye large, ocellus small, situated
closer to antennules than to eye. Antennules
slender with long lateral seta and a group of
sensory setae on the apex. Ventral margin of valve
rounded with series of short marginal spines. Pos-
tabdomen without anal denticles, lateral surface
with 8-10 ciliated spines. Claw long with a series
of short setules along concave surface.

Not very common. Occurs only in the mar-
shes of KNP. It has already been recorded by'
Venkataraman (1988).

Bosminopsis deitersi Richard, 1895

Size: 0.38 mm. Body oval. Head rounded,
rostrum long with two lateral branches, Eye large.
Valves with polygonal reticulations, dorsal mar-
gin with cervical depression, ventral margin with
a long and pointed marginal spine on the postero-
ventral corner. Postabdomen small with 4-6

groups of short spinules. Claw serrated with a
large basal spine.

Not common. Occurs in open waters of
Ajanbund reservoir, Bharatpur. It has already
been recorded by Venkataraman (1988).

Alona davidi Richard, 1895 (Figs. 24-25)

Size: 0.35 mm. Maximum height slightly
before middle. Postero-dorsal and postero-ventral
corners rounded. Ventral margin projecting in the
middle. Rostrum blunt. Antennules not reaching
apex of rostrum. Ocellus smaller than eye,
situated slightly nearer to the eye than apex of
rostrum. Postabdomen with prominent preanal
and postanal comers. Preanal corner projecting,
anal margin with 8-10 groups of denticles. Claw
with short basal spines.

Common. Occurs mainly in marshes with
Hydrilla sp. in KNP and roadside ponds of Ban-
baretha, Bharatpur.

Alona monacantha Sars, 1901 (Figs. 26-27)

Size: 0.27 mm. Valves with longitudinal lines.
Postero-dorsal and postero-ventral comers rounded,
postero-ventral comer with 1-3 denticles. Ocellus
smaller than eye. Antennules not reaching apex of
rostrum. Labrum with small denticle on anterior
margin. Postabdomen with distinct preanal corner.
Lateral margin with 6 -8 anal denticles followed by
3-4 groups of spines along the anal groove. Claw
with long basal spines. Not common. Occurs
mainly in marshes of KNP.

Alona karna King, 1853 (Figs. 28-29).

Size: 0.29 mm. Body with distinct lines and
polygonal patterns. Postero-ventral corner
rounded with 2-3 denticles followed by a row of
setules. Antennules not reaching apex of rostrum.
Ocellus small, situated closer to eye. Postab-
domen broadly rounded. Claw with a short basal
spine. Very common. Occurs in marshy habitats
of KNP.

Alona verrucosa Sars, 1901 (Figs. 30-31).

Size: 0.28 mm. Body oval. Postero-ventral
and postero-dorsal comers rounded. Antennules

CLADOCERA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK

23

almost reaching apex of rostrum. Ocellus small,
situated slightly closer to eye than to apex of
rostrum. Postabdomen with 5-6 denticles. Claw
with short basal spine.

Common. Occurs in all marshy areas of KNP
and in the Bharatpur ponds.

Caniptocercus australis Sars, 1896

Size: 0.82 mm. Head smoothly curved.
Postero-ventral margin slightly convex with
3-4 small denticles. Ocellus smaller than eye,
situated closer to the eye than to the tip of
rostrum. Labrum wedge-shaped and slightly
rounded at apex. Postabdomen long with 16-
18 anal denticles. Claws long, slightly curved
dorsally and pointed.

Very rare. Occurs in Ghana canal of
Keoladeo National Park. This is the first record of
its occurrence in the Oriental region. However,
the same species has been reported as a new
species by Battish (1989) fromRenuka lake. Only
the comparison of type-specimens will give a
clear picture about the validity of this species.

Chydorus eurynotus Sars, 1901 (Figs. 32-33)

Size: 0.24 mm. Body shape slightly oval.
Postero-dorsal and postero-ventral corners dis-
tinct. Valves with faint reticulation. Rostrum
slightly curved posteriorly. Ocellus smaller than
eye, situated closer to eye than to apex of rostrum.
Postabdomen with 10-12 short denticles. Claw
with two basal denticles.

Common. Occurs in all marshy areas of
Keoladeo National Park and in the Bharatpur
ponds.

Chydorus parvus Daday, 1898 (Figs. 34-35)

Size: 0.28 mm. Body rounded. Postero-
dorsal corner distinct, postero-ventral corner
rounded without denticle. Ventral margin with
2-3 chitinous tubercles. Surface of carapace
without reticulation. Ocellus smaller than eye
and situated closer to eye than to tip of
rostrum. Postabdomen with distinct preanal
corner. Dorsal margin with 6-8 anal denticles.
Claw with two basal spines.

Not common. Occurs in marshy regions of
KNP and in the ponds of Bharatpur.

Chydorus ventricosus Daday, 1898 (Figs. 36-37).

Size: 0.76 mm. Body oval. Postero-ventral
comer rounded, without denticle. Valves with
hexagonal markings. Rostrum long and pointed.
Labrum long, curved anteriorly and slightly
pointed. Postabdomen long with distinct preanal
corner. Dorsal margin with 9-10 anal denticles.
Claw setulated along concave surface with two
basal spines.

Not common. Occurs in marshes of KNP and
in the ponds of Bharatpur.

Dadaya macrops (Daday, 1898) (Figs. 38-39).

Size: 0.48 mm. Body oval with polygonal
reticulations. Postero-ventral corner with a dis-
tinct denticle. Rostrum short, antennules long.
Ocellus and eye large, ocellus situated slightly
closer to eye than to apex of rostrum. Postab-
domen with 10 groups of irregular sized denticles.
Claw with setules on concave surface and a long
basal spine.

Common. Occurs in marshes of Keoladeo
National Park and roadside ponds of Banbaretha,
Bharatpur.

Dunhevedia crassa King, 1853 (Figs. 40-41)

Size: 0.53 mm. Body curved dorsally.
Postero-ventral corner of valves with a bifur-
cated denticle. Rostrum blunt, labrum rounded
with pointed apex. Ocellus small and situated
slightly closer to eye than to apex of rostrum.
Postabdomen with groups of scattered spinules,
claw setulated with one basal spine.

Not common. Occurs in marshes of Keoladeo
National Park and in the Ajan bund reservoir.

Euryalona orientalis (Daday, 1898). (Figs. 42-43)

Size: 0.99 mm. Valves with rectangular
reticulations. Postero-ventral margin of valves
with series of setae. Rostrum blunt, antennules
almost reaching apex of rostrum. Labrum
rounded with a nipple-like structure on apex. Pos-
tabdomen long with 20 pointed denticles decreas-

24

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY Vol. 89

0.01mm 0.1mm 005mm 0.05mm 0.05mm 0.2mm 0.2 mm

36.38,40,45.46,48 43,49 34.39 35,47 41 42 ' 44

0.03mm
37

Figs. 34-49. Cladocera of Keoladeo National Park and its environs (females). P-postabdomen.

34-35. Chydorus parvus ; 36-37. Chydorus ventricosus ; 38-39. Dadaya ma crops', 40-41. Dunhevedia crassa; 42-43. Euryalona
orientalis; 44-45. Kurzia longirostris; 46-47. Leydigia acanthocercoides, 48-49. Oxyurella sinhalensis.

CLADOCERA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK

25

ing in size proximally. Claw long with a very short
basal spine. Common among weeds in KNP.

Kurzia longirostris (Daday, 1898) (Figs. 44-45)

Size: 0.45 mm. Valves without longitudinal
lines. Rostrum long, antennules short, reaching
half of the rostrum. Ocellus smaller than eye,
situated nearer to the eye than to the apex of
rostrum. Labrum with slightly pointed apex. Pos-
tabdomen long with 12 groups of denticles
present dorsally; lateral side with 11-12 groups of
short setules. Claw long with a short basal spine.
Rare. Occurs among the weeds in KNP.

Leydigia acanthocercoides (Fischer, 1854)

(Figs. 46-47)

Size: 0.89 mm. Valves with longitudinal
lines. Rostrum blunt, antennules not reaching
apex of rostrum. Ocellus smaller than eye,
situated closer to the eye than to the apex of
rostrum. Labrum rounded with fine setae. Postab-
domen with about 18 groups of small denticles,
each group consists of 3 or 4 denticles with the
distal-most denticle being the longest of each
group. Claw with a short basal spine.

Rare, occurs in reddish-brown algal covered
ponds of Bharatpur.

Indialona globulosa (Daday, 1898)

Size: 0.36 mm. Valves with striations.
Rostrum short and blunt, antennules not reaching
the apex. Ocellus smaller than the eye, situated
closer to the eye than to the apex of rostrum.
Labrum serrated on antero-ventral margin. Pos-
tabdomen long with 12 or 13 anal denticles, claw
long with 12 or 13 anal denticles, claw long with
short basal spine.

Rare. Occurs in small numbers in marshes of
KNP and Banbaretha ponds.

Oxyurella sinkalensis (Daday, 1898) (Figs. 48-49)

Size: 0.82 mm. Valves evenly rounded.
Rostrum blunt, antennules not reaching the apex.
Ocellus smaller than the eye and situated closer to
the eye than to the apex of rostrum. Labrum round.
Postabdomen long with 10-12 anal denticles

which decrease in size proximally. Claw long with
a long basal spine and three short spines proximal
to the basal spine. Not common. Occurs in the
marshes of KNP.

Discussion

The cladoceran fauna of Keoladeo National
Park has some features unique to this region. A
total of 39 species of Cladocera belonging to six
families is recorded in the present study, of which
25 are recorded for the first time from Rajasthan.
An analysis of the published records shows that
in a tropical region arounds60 species have been
normally recorded, while a temperate region sup-
ported around 95 species of Cladocera (Fernando
1980). The six species of limnetic Cladocera are
limited in this region compared to temperate
regions. As an example, in Ontario at Canada,
Brandlova et al. (1972) recorded 18 species of
limnetic Cladocera.

Similar figures can be quoted for all the
northern temperate regions (Flossner 1972,
Manuilova 1964, Scourfield and Harding 1966).
In the southern temperate zone, Hebert (1977)
found 10 limnetic species of Daphnia in south-
eastern Australia. On the other hand, the number
of species in Sri Lanka (Fernando 1980), south
India (Venka tarn man 1983) as well as other tropi-
cal areas of south-east Asia (Fernando 1980) is
less than that of temperate regions. However, in
Keoladeo National Park lying within the
temperate zone, only three species of Daphnia ,
namely D. similis, D. lum/ioltzi and D. lon-
gispina, occurred.

Venkataraman (1983) recorded and com-
mented upon six species of non-Indian cladoceran
species in south India. Ghetti (1970) also recorded
one non-European ostracod species in Italy. More
recently Fernando (1980) recorded two unex-
pected species from Sri Lanka. Mukhamediev
(1951) considered seed (agricultural) as a means
of transporting tropical fauna and flora into sub-
tropical regions of the USSR.

There is thus enough evidence to show the
presence of temperate Cladocera in tropical India
(Venkataraman 1983) and Sri Lanka (Fernando

26

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

1980). The present study also reveals the
cladoceran species Daphnia similis ,
Diaphanosoma senegalensis, Camptocercus
australis, Leydigia australis and Pluroxus similis
as introduced ones. Birds have been considered
an important agency for the dissemination of
microcrustaceans in freshwaters (Thienemann
1950, Loffler 1963, Smirnov 1974). Keoladeo
National Park attracts several aquatic bird
migrants (Ali and Vijayan 1983). Perhaps bird

sanctuaries, besides attracting aquatic migratory
birds, also provide congenial conditions for the
alien fauna and flora to colonise these aquatic
ecosystems.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to J. C. Daniel of BNHS, Bom-
bay, Dr T. M. Haridasan of School of Energy Scien-
ces, M.K. University, Madurai and to Dr G.C. Rao
of Z.S.I., Port Blair for their encouragement.

References

Ali, S. & Vuayan, V.S. (1983): Hydrobiological Research at
Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. First interim report.
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Battish, S.K. (1989): Entamostracan fauna of Renuka lake,
Himachal Pradesh. Geobios New Reports 8: 55-58.
Biswas, S. (1964): A new species of cladoceran genus Latona
Straus (1820) from Rajasthan, India. Proc. Zool. Soc .
Calcutta 17: 149.

Biswas, S. (1971): Fauna of Rajasthan, India. Part II (Crustacea:
Cladocera). Rec. Zool. Survey India 63: 95-141.
Brandlova, J. Brandl, Z. & Fernando, C.H. (1972): The
Cladocera of Ontario with remarks on some species and
distribution. Can. J. Zool. 50: 1373-1403.

Fernando, C.H. (1980): The freshwater zooplankton of South-
East Asia. Proc. V Symp. Intemat. Soc. Trop. Ecol.
Flossner, D. (1972): Krebstiere, Crustacea. Kiemen-und Blat-
tfusser, Branchiopoda. Fischlause, Branchiura. Tierwelt.
Deutschl. 60: 1-501.

Ghetti, P.F. (1970): The taxonomic significance of Ostrocod
larvae stages with examples from Burundi rice fields. i?u//.
Zool. 37: 103-119.

Hebert, P.D.N. (1977): A revision of the taxonomy of the genus
Daphnia in south-eastern Australia. Aust. J. Zool. 25:
371-398.

Loffler, H. (1963): Bird migration and the spread of Crustacea.

Verh. dt Zool Ges. 27: 311-316.

Mahajan, C.L., Arora, N.K., Sharma, S.D. & Sharma, S.P.
(1980a): Drought and drought management in relation
to Protozoan fauna in a wetland ecosystems with special
reference to Ghana Bird Sanctuary, Bharatpur. Interna-
tional Wetland Conference, New Delhi.

Mahajan, C.L., Arora, N.K., Sharma, S.D. & Sharma, S.P.
(1980b): The role of benthic fauna in wetland ecosystem

with particular reference to the environmental stress due
to drought in Ghana Bird Sanctuary, Bharatpur. Interna-
tional Wetland Conference, New Delhi.

Mahajan, C.L., Arora, N.K., Sharma, S.D. & Sharma, S.P.
(1980c): Dynamics of zooplankton in wetland ecosystems
due to environmental stress with special reference to
drought in Ghana Bird Sanctuary, Bharatpur. International
Wetland Conference, New Delhi.

Manuilova, E.F. (1964): Cladoceran Fauna of the USSR-Nauka.
Moscow and Leningrad.

Mukhamediev, A.M. (1951): Comparison and origin of the fauna
of Crustacea in paddy fields in the Fergana Valley. Zool.
Zn. 30: 376-378.

Nayar, C.K.G. (1971): Cladocera of Rajasthan. Hydrobiol. 37:
509-519.

Scourfield, D.J. & Harding, J.P. (1966): A key to the British
species of freshwater Cladocera with notes on their ecol-
ogy. Freshw. Biol. Ass. Sci. Pub. 5: 55.

Smirnov, N.N. (1974): Chydoridae Fauna of the World. Fauna of
USSR. Crustacea 1(2): 644 .

Thienemann, A. (1950): The transport of aquatic animals by
birds. Binnengewasser 18: 156-159.

Venkataraman, K. (1983): Taxonomy and Ecology of Cladocera
of southern Tamil Nadu. Ph.D thesis, Madurai Kamaraj
University.

Venkataraman, K. (1988): Cladocera of Keoladeo National Park,
Bharatpur, Rajasthan II. New Records 1. Moinodaphnia
macleayii (King, 1853) and Bosminopsis ddtersi (Richard,
1895). J. Bombay nat Hist Soc. 85(1): 229-233.

Venkataraman, K. (1990): New records of cladocera
of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur-III. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87 (1): 166-168.

FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS (VIGORS) 1

Bharat Bhushan2 and Asad R. Rahmani3
(With two plates and four text-figures)

Introduction

The great Indian bustard Ardeotis nigriceps ,
endemic to parts of the Indian subcontinent, is an
endangered avian species. It is included in
Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972,
and a number of sanctuaries have been established
for its protection (Rahmani 1987, 1989). The
present study on the food and feeding behaviour
of the species forms part of a wider investigation
on its ecology. Studies on food and feeding be-
haviour were mainly done at Karera Bustard
Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh, but wherever neces-
sary, data from other sites such as Nanaj bustard
area in Solapur district, Maharashtra, and Rol-
lapadu Bustard Sanctuary in Kumool district,
Andhra Pradesh, are also included.

Owing to its status as a game bird, the natural
history of the great Indian bustard, including its
food, has been described by many workers; but
there is no detailed study on its feeding behaviour
and seasonal dependence on different food items.
This paper deals with these aspects. The study is
based largely on faecal analysis. While previous
reviews of food habits analyses (Hartley 1948,
Van Tyne and Berger 1959, Korschgen 1969,
Lorin 1970) maintain that analysis of faecal mat-
ter should be the last alternative for study, they
also accept that it is the only solution where
endangered species are concerned.

Study Area

The 202.21 sq. km Karera Bustard Sanctuary
(25°30’ to 24°40’N, 78°5’ to 78°12’ E) (hence-
forth Karera) is located in Shivpuri district, Mad-

1 Accepted February 1991.

2,3Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed
Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

3 Present address : Centre for Wildlife and Ornithology,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 001.

hya Pradesh. The average annual rainfall recorded
by us from 1983 to 1985 was 966 mm. Summers
(March to June) are very hot (maximum recorded
48°C), but temperatures as low as 4° C have been
recorded in winter (November to February). The
terrain is gently undulating, with scattered stones
and boulders.

The original vegetation of the area was clas-
sified as Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest (Cham-
pion and Seth 1968). There are a few hillocks,
which some decades ago would have been
covered with Anogeissus pendula trees, but indis-
criminate cutting and lopping have eroded the
hills, leaving stunted specimens. The plains have
degraded into open scrub. Wherever possible, the
land has been cultivated. Today the shrubs
Zizyphus rotundifolia and Acacia leucophloea are
the dominant natural plants, the latter scattered
and the former in clumps in all the uncultivated
parts of the plains.

In the scrub area, along with Zizyphus,
various grasses were found but severely exploited
by livestock. Except for private fields, the entire
area was totally grazed. Among grasses
Heteropogon contortus, Cynodon dactylon,
Andropogon pumilus, Pennisetum pedicellatum,
Aristida spp. and Eragrostris spp. were common.

A number of ephemeral streams run across
the sanctuary and flow into the village tanks or
rivers. These streams dry up by the end of Sep-
tember or October. With constant soil erosion in
the hills, the dried stream beds show presence of
soil, gravel and rocks all along their course.

There are 33 villages within the boundary of
the Sanctuary, and both human density (127 per-
sons/sq. km) and the livestock population
(179.5/sq. km) are high.

The bustards are found in open scrubland.
During our study period, there were about 25
bustards in the Sanctuary. The breeding season at

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 89

Fig. 1. Study area in the Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary, Karera.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89 Plate 1

Bhushan and Rahmani: Great Indian bustard

Ghana Cicer arietinum plant matter recovered from bustard faeces. Left: whole shredded and fibrous pod material.
Right above: whole seeds. Right below: shredded and fibrous stalk material.

Mantid cacoons (right) after recovery from faecal matter, as compared to their shape before being eaten (left).

Plate 2

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89

Bhushan and Rahmani: Great Indian bustard

• • *

w ^

*)•*««*«

* • « f i 4c

tMI 1 9

- A"'

ill

Coleopteran body parts recovered from faecal matter.

Orthopteran body parts recovered from faecal matter.

FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

29

Karera is from mid March to end June. Although
occasional nests were found in July and August as
well, courtship display of adult males was not
seen after June.

The other areas were Nanaj (for details see
Ali and Rahmani 1982-84, Rahmani and
Manakadan 1989) and Rollapadu (see
Manakadan and Rahmani 1989).

Methods

Study plots: Seven plots where bustards
were seen foraging were selected (Fig. 1). The
names of these plots are based on local names.
Detailed descriptions of the plots are given by
Bhushan (1985) and Rahmani (1989).

Analysis of faecal samples: More than 300
faecal samples were collected at Karera for
analysis to determine the bustard's varying de-
pendence on seasonal food. Most of the samples
were collected from roosting sites. Wet samples
were preserved in 10% formalin, and dry samples
preserved in separate packets for later analysis.
Analysis was done on the basis of Korschgen
(1969) and Lorin (1970). Faecal material was
studied under a stereoscopic binocular micro-
scope. Various items in the diet were identified by
comparison with reference material or directly in
the case of such undigested parts as chelicera
(arachnida) , elytra and mandible (insects), seed
(Triticum, Zizyphus ) and pod (Cicer, Arachis).

Figs. 2 and 3 show the percentage weight of
various food items in the faecal material collected
fortnightly. Although insects appear to be
preferred by the bustards (visual observations),
they are under-represented in the figures, mainly
because they were digested and thus did not show
relative proportions in the faecal material. On the
other hand, plant material is over-represented
mainly because many plant parts (i.e. seed)
remain undigested and are thus easily identified
and weighed. Small reptiles which are opportunis-
tically eaten (visual observations) were not
recorded in the faecal material. These limitations
should be kept in mind while interpreting figures.

Feeding rates: The bustards were observed
while foraging by the scanning method, wherein

the bird was watched continuously for a five
minute unit, termed here as a ‘scan'. During a
single scan, each peck by the bustard away from
its lateral position was counted. The total number
of pecks in a single scan was considered to be the
feeding rate (or peck rate) for that particular scan
(after McKee 1982). The scan count was discon-
tinued when the bird went out of view.

Peck rates were studied from May 1982 to
August 1984 and 1271 readings were taken,
spread over different seasons and months. For
various reasons, equal number of readings could
not be taken every month or every season. Most
readings were taken during the breeding season
(summer) and in winter, when the birds were
watched more regularly.

Identification: To study the peck rate of
different individuals, bustards were identified as
(i) Alpha male = adult territorial male; (ii) Beta
male = subadult non-territorial male; (iii) Juvenile
male = less than one year old, generally seen with
the mother; (iv) Mother = hen with juvenile; (v)
Breeding female = hen with an egg or a chick;
and (vi) Non-breeding female = hen without an
egg or chick.

Entomological studies: Sweeping method
was used to count the insect number. Weekly
sweeps were carried out in different plots. 100
sweeps each were done over a fixed stretch of an
area in each plot, between 0700 and 0900 hrs. The
main emphasis was on the study of grasshoppers,
which constitute the major animal food of the
bustard, and are comparatively large and easy to
identify and count. Moreover, sweeping method
is much more effective to study the population of
Orthoptera and Lepidoptera than Coleoptera. The
insects caught or flushed during sweeping were
counted.

The following were the common Orthop-
terans and Lepidopterans found in the study area:
Acrida exaltata, Chloeobora sp., Chrotogonus
spp., Dnopherula sp., Gastrimargus africanus ,
Locusta migrator ia, Pyrgomorpha sp.,

Spathosternum sp .fAcorypha spp., Catantops sp.,
Chorthippus sp., Eyprepoenemis sp.,
Hieroglyphus sp., Patanga sp., Poicilorhynchus

3

30

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 89

Insect V/l Zizyphus

Other crop* 1 I Miscell.

'Arachls/Trl tlcum/Sesamum

Eruca l\\l Cicer

Unident. PlantLLU Pebbles

1983

100

75 - =

50 -

25 - ± == ==

Fig. 2. Percentage of various food items in faecal samples of great Indian bustard collected in 1983.

Insect

Other crops*

V/l Zizyphus
1 1 Miscell.

144-1 Eruca N\1 Cicer

I 1 Unident. PlantDZD Pebbles

1984

lOOnnnnfflPP

Fig. 3. Percentage of various food items in faecal samples of great Indian bustard collected in 1984.

FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

31

No. of Orthopterans

Fig. 4. Monthwise and inter-annual variation in numbers of Orthoptera in the study area.

pictus and Sphingonotus sp.; and Tarucus indie a,
I nara , I theoplirastus, Eurema brigitta , Precis
lemonias , Precis orithyia , Papilio demoleus ,
Acraea violae , Hypolimnas misippus and
Belenois mesentina .

Though Coleopterans are commonly eaten by
bustards (Ali and Ripley 1969, Bhushan 1985), they
are mainly crepuscular or nocturnal, and are rarely
caught in the sweep net. Pitfall traps (using petri-
dishes filled with formalin to trap beetles) were not
used in order to avoid accidental drinking of for-
malin by bustards and wild mammals. Moreover,
there were always chances of petri-dishes being
broken by grazing livestock or by blackbuck.

Five habitat types were selected for insect
studies: (i) Open scrub; dominated by Zizyphus
rotundifolia (average height 50 cm) and very low
tree density (<1 tree/10 ha), (ii) Usar area; bare,
alkaline area, dominated by Chloris stricta grass.

(iii) Wooded scrub: dominated by Z. rotundifolia
and Acacia leucophloea (tree density > 5/10 ha).

(iv) Inside plantation; totally protected 20 ha

forest plantation, dominated by various grasses
(height >100 cm) and some trees (density >1
tree/10 ha), (v) Outside plantation: very similar to
Open scrub, i.e. dominated by Zizyphus rotun-
difolia', this category was selected to compare the
counts with the adjoining Plantation plot.

Results

Population fluctuation of Orthoptera and
Lepidoptera: AtKarera, the orthopteran popula-
tion was very low during winter (October to
February). From the middle of March, it starts rising
and reaches its peak during the late summer or
monsoon. Inter-annual variation was seen in
population as well as in the timing of peaks and
troughs (Fig. 4). These were also dependent on local
factors such as precipitation and temperature.

The lepidopteran number, on the other
hand, is generally low in late winter and sum-
mer, but soon after the monsoon breaks, it starts
increasing and reaches its peak during August
and September.

32

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Table 1

LITERATURE REVIEW OF THE FOOD OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

Food recorded

References

Insects

''Grasshoppers, Mylabris, Buprestris , Scarabaei..."

Hume and Marshall 1879

"Grylli, beetles of all kinds (Cetonidae, Elateridae,
Buprestidae, Carabidae), frequently the spongy nidus
of the mantis, caterpillars, Julidae, Scolopendridae...."

Elliot 1880

"Locusts, grasshoppers, beetles, crickets, mole-crickets, ants"

Dharmakumarsinhji 1957

Green blister beetle Cantharis tenuicollis

Ali and Ripley 1969

Beetles {Gymnopleurusl , Atactogaster )

Gupta 1975

Curculionidae: Platynotus, Mylabris , Stemocera nitidicollis

Manakadan 1985

Scorpions, spiders etc.

"Centipedes, spiders, scorpions, worms"
Reptiles

Hume and Marshall 1879, Elliot 1880,
Dharmakumarsinhji 1957, Gupta 1975

"Lizards, snakes..."

Hume and Marshall 1879, Dharmakumarsinhji 1957,
Ali and Ripley 1969

Echis carinatus

Carter 1912

Uromastix hardwiddi

Gupta 1975

Bird eggs

Egg of Cotumix

Hume and Marshall 1879

Mammals

Rats

Hume and Marshall 1879

Mice

Dharmakumarsinhji 1957

Plants*

"green shoots of lemon grass Citronella"

Dharmakumarsinhji 1957

Carissa

Hume and Marshall 1879, Gupta 1975

Salvadora

Dharmakumarsinhji 1957

Inanimate matter

"stones & gravel", "pebbles"

Hume and Marshall 1879, Elliot 1880,
Dharmakumarsinhji 1957

"brass ornament"

Hume and Marshall 1879

♦Plants included here are not listed in Table 2.

Food Recorded Through Faecal Analysis
Seasonal Variation

Winter (October to February): Winter in
Karera starts in October; Insect numbers start
declining, and the monsoon crop such as
groundnut A rachis hypogea , as well as Zizyphus
drupes, start ripening. In the beginning of Oc-
tober, bustards were mainly seen feeding on in-
sects and drupes of Zizyphus. By mid-October, the
insect number declines rapidly and bustards feed
more and more on the ripe drupes of Zizyphus.
While insects constituted 13% of the diet (by

weight) in the first fortnight of October 1983, in
the second fortnight they declined to 7% (Fig. 2).
On the other hand, the percentage of Zizyphus
increased from 65 to 68%.

In November also, drupes of Zizyphus
constitute the major food (Fig. 2). Soeha
Eruca sativa , which is a dryland winter
crop at Karera, is relished by bustards. So
is groundnut; bustards are frequently seen
in groundnut fields, foraging on exposed
nuts. They do not dig up the plants. How-
ever, we did not obtain groundnut in faecal
samples.

FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

33

Table 2

PLANT SPECIES IDENTIFIED IN THE BUSTARD DIET

Family

Species

Remarks

CRUCIFERAE

Eruca sativa

Crop

Brassica campestris

Crop

MALVACEAE

Hibiscus abelmoschus

Wild plant/weed

TTLIACEAE

Triumfetta rhomboides

Wild plant

LEMACEAE

Linum usitatissimum

Crop

RHAMNACEAE

Zizyphus rotundifolia

Wild plant

LEGUMINOSAE

Cicer arietinum

Crop

Arachis hypogea

Crop

Vigna sinensis

Crop

CUCURBITACEAE

Cucumis melo

Wild plant/weed

PEDALIACEAE

Sesamum indicum

Crop

GRAMINEAE

Sorghum vulgare

Crop

Triticum vulgare

Crop

In December, the percentage of Zizyphus in
the diet of bustards declined to less than 50% (Fig.
2), while the percentage of Eruca sativa did not
change significantly. Similarly, there was not
much change in the insect constituents. Vegetal
matter remained the major part of the diet as
indicated by the faecal samples.

Although Zizyphus drupes are more or less
exhausted by January, bustards were still able to
pick up sufficient numbers to constitute up to 51%
by weight in the first fortnight of 1984 (Fig. 3). In
both 1983 and 1984, in the second fortnight of
January the percentage of Eruca sativa increased
(Figs. 2, 3).

This is further corroborated by our visual
observations in the field. The insect number was
very low (Fig. 4) and hence bustards were more
frequently seen in the crop fields of soeha and
Bengal gram Cicer arietinum . Sometimes com-
plete pods of gram were found in the droppings
but we rarely saw them eating the pods of soeha.
Occasionally, they were seen feeding on mustard
Brassica campestris and til Sesamum indie um.

In the first fortnight of February, Eruca sativa
constituted 14.7 and 23.4% in 1983 and 1984
respectively, while in the second fortnight it in-
creased to 33.6 and 45.7% (Figs. 2, 3). Similarly, the
percentage of Bengal gram also increased in the
second fortnight. In 1983, we found very little
Zizyphus in the faecal samples, unlike 1984 when in
both the fortnights, Zizyphus constituted 28% (Fig.

3). This could be due to a sampling error. In 1983
only five samples were analysed in each fortnight
while in 1984, 12 and 16 samples were studied,
which showed the diet variation more clearly. In
February, as in other winter months, insects
formed less than 10% of the diet of the bustard (as
shown by faecal sample analysis).

Summer (March to June): In early March,
the Bengal gram and soeha start ripening but the
bustards are still seen in the crop fields, picking
up the late flowers of soeha and unripe pods of
Bengal gram. Insects start increasing in number
(Fig. 4) but still formed less than 10% in the faecal
samples analysed by us (Figs. 2, 3).

By the third week of March, when harvesting
of early-grown wheat begins, bustards can be seen
in newly harvested wheat fields, picking up the
fallen grains. Soeha is also harvested by the fourth
week of March, after which bustards are rarely
seen in soeha fields. Breeding of bustards at
Karera starts from the middle of March (Rahmani
1989). During the first fortnight of April Bengal
gram is the main standing crop eaten by bustards
at Karera, and constituted nearly 50% of the diet.
Its percentage declined during the second
fortnight (Figs. 2, 3). At the same time the percent-
age of wheat increased in faecal samples as more
fields are harvested. By the third week of April all
wheat fields are harvested and livestock grazed on
crop residue.

34

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

With the approach of summer and rise in
temperature, small reptiles come out of hiberna-
tion and the population of Sitana ponticeriana ,
Agama minor , Mabuya spp., Ophisops jerdonii
and Calotes versicolor increases. Sitana,
Ophisops and Agama are easily caught by forag-
ing bustards because these small lizards generally
depend on camouflage, remaining immobile
when danger threatens. We often saw bustards
with small lizards, but rarely saw them catching
Calotes versicolor which is mainly arboreal. An
injured Calotes offered to our captive -cum-free
ranging juvenile bustard at Rollapadu was not
eaten by it (Manakadan and Rahmani 1990).
However, we suspect that an adult bustard can
easily eat a Calotes because we have seen them
eating snakes, sometimes larger than an adult
Calotes.

During May and June there is hardly any crop
at Karera and bustards depend totally on natural
food (Figs. 2, 3). Insects, especially Orthopterans,
reach maximum numbers, and form the main food,
though this is not reflected in faecal analysis for
reasons stated earlier (Fig. 4).

Monsoon (July to September): With the
onset of the monsoon in end June or early July,
agricultural activities begin and millet, pen-
nisetum, sesamum and groundnut are grown. In-
sect numbers remain high and constitute nearly
10% of the diet of the bustard (as indicated by
faecal samples, though it must be higher) (Fig. 2).
In August 1984 (we have no data for August
1983), insects constituted 47.31% in the first
fortnight and 18.52% in the second fortnight (Fig.
3).

Bustards also feed on Cucumis melo var.
momordicum. Locally known as ‘gila’, the
cucumber-like Cucumis melo is locally con-
sidered as a weed and grows naturally in
groundnut fields. Bustards feed on the fruit (3-5
cm long and 2-3 cm broad), and presumably
digest the entire fleshy matter and possibly the
unripe seeds also, because only the hard seeds
were found in faecal samples.

During September, insects constituted about
20% of the diet (Fig. 3). Groundnut is a new crop

which is added to the food of the bustard from this
month onward till it is harvested in Novem-
ber/early December. Bustards are first seen in the
groundnut fields when it is sown, and later when
it is ready for harvesting. As the groundnut plant
is very short (20-30 cm), it is suitable for bustards
and the birds are regularly seen there.

By the end of September, monsoon crops are
harvested and f ields are prepared for winter crops
such as wheat, soeha and Bengal gram. The insect
numbers start declining. At the same time, drupes
of Zizyphus start ripening and more bustards are
seen picking the drupes from bushes. The cycle
repeats itself.

Crop Plants Eaten by Bustards

Soeha: Soeha or taramira is a dry-land
winter crop extensively grown in Karera and the
whole of north-west India. We have seen it grown
inSorsan, Sonkhaliya (Rajasthan), Ghatigaonand
Pohri (Madhya Pradesh) bustard areas/
sanctuaries. The whole plant - inflorescence,
leaves and shoots - is eaten by bustards. As long
as there are flowers and fresh green leaves, bus-
tards are seen in soeha fields. Some of the highest
peck rates were found in the soeha fields (see
Table 3).

Soeha is a marginal crop, grown only in
those areas where irrigation facilities are scanty.
If a field can be irrigated, farmers prefer to grow
more commercially profitable crops.

Bengal gram: After soeha, Bengal gram
Cicer arietinum is the most preferred crop of
bustards at Karera. Cool dry climate and light
well-drained soil are essential for successful cul-
tivation. It can be grown with or without irriga-
tion. The plant is 30-40 cm tall and is grown in
narrow rows. At Karera, it is mainly grown in
non-irrigated or marginally irrigated areas. Some-
times it is grown with wheat.

Bustards eat young shoots, flowers and un-
ripe pods of Bengal gram. The highest peck rates
were observed in Bengal gram fields (Table 3). If
undisturbed, they visit the same gram fields over
consecutive days. We have recorded stems,
leaves, seeds and pods in the faecal samples.

FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

35

Occasionally, an entire pod with seeds within was
recovered in the droppings.

Groundnut: This is one of the most impor-
tant commercial crops of Karera and in almost all
the bustard areas (except the Thar desert). It is
grown mainly as a monsoonal crop, sown at the
start of the monsoon and harvested in Oc-
tober/November. As groundnut is favoured by
bustards, their presence can be predicted in a
particular field. Soon after the water has dried
from a freshly irrigated groundnut field, bustards
visit the field to pick up nuts that have been
exposed by the flow of water. Similarly, they are
seen for many days in a newly harvested field
where some nuts are left behind. The birds move
from one harvested field to another, consuming
the scattered nuts. We were able to bait bustards
during summer by spreading wheat and
groundnuts in areas frequented by bustards. An
interesting behaviour seen from the hide was that
the bustards shake the nuts before eating; spoiled
nuts, which possibly do not produce the charac-
teristic rattling sound, were discarded.

Wheat: We never saw any bustard eating
wheat Triticum vulgare from the spike in a stand-
ing wheat field. They were mainly seen as soon as
the wheat was harvested, picking up the fallen
grains. On a few occasions we also saw them
picking up fallen grains from cart-tracks after
wheat-laden carts had passed by. Wheat was
another food item by which we were able to attract
bustards at Karera.

Incidentally, bustards at Nanaj were not at-
tracted to wheat when we tried to catch them for
colour banding. Similarly, at Karera, we were
unable to' attract bustards to wheat bait after the
onset of the monsoon. This could be due to two
major reasons: (i) during monsoon bustards get
sufficient food in their natural habitat, and so are
not particularly attracted to wheat, and (ii) damp
soil quickly spoils the grain which bustards do not
eat.

Millet: Unlike wheat, bustards were found
to eat millet (jowar) Sorghum vulgare from the
standing crop plants. At Nanaj, many bustard
droppings had millet seeds, and on a few oc-

casions we saw bustards pecking at spikes of
millet.

Mustard: Although closely related to soeha,
mustard Brassica campestris is not a preferred
food of the bustard. Only once was a male found
eating green leaves from standing plants. It is
commonly grown at Karera, Pohri, Ghatigaon,
Sonkhaliya and the whole of north-west India,
either alone or with wheat or sesame.

Cowpea: Twice we saw a male bustard
eating the beans of cowpea Vigna sinensis. How-
ever, cowpea was never found in faecal samples.

Linseed Linum usitatissimum: This crop is
commonly grown along with soeha and Bengal
gram. Although we did not see the bustard feeding
on this plant, seeds were recorded in the faeces..

Peck Rate

Feeding or peck rate (PR) per five minutes
was analysed with a combination of various other
parameters.

Sex-wise peck rate: The average peck rates
(PR) of male and female bustards in the Open
scrub area were significantly different (One-way
ANOVA, F 1,1019 = 4.33, P < 0.05). Males had a
higher PR than females.

Habitat- wise peck rate: (Table 3) The max-
imum number of observations were taken in the
Open scrub area (n = 1028, 80%). More than 80%
of the natural area of the Sanctuary consists of
Zizyphus rotundifolia- dominated scrubland.

Fallow fields are quickly invaded by
Zizyphus and within two or three years become
almost like the Open scrub area. In both Open
scrub area and fallow fields, livestock grazing is
allowed.

Expectedly, there was not much difference in
the PR between these two similar habitats (Table
3). Some fallow fields in which livestock grazing
is not allowed, become dominated by grasses. We
have considered them as grassland. The PR was
slightly higher in Grassland than in Open scrub
area or fallow fields (Table 3). This could be due
to the higher number of insects in the grassland.
Unfortunately, our sample size is very small (only
12 observations). This was mainly because

36

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Table 3

AVERAGE PECK RATES OF BUSTARDS IN DIFFERENT HABITATS

Habitat

Mean

SD

No. of samples

Chana (Bengal gram)

67.40

37.29

40

Soeha

46.48

28.00

93

Miscellaneous crops

41.22

36.36

28

Groundnut

15.33

3.77

6*

Grassland

13.91

4.75

12*

Open Scrub

12.09

10.23

1028

Fallow field

10.87

4.34

56

Usar area

3.87

2.89

8*

♦Sample too small for statistical analysis n = 1271.

grassland patches in Karera are small and tem-
porary. As soon as the grass becomes tall, it is
either cut for hay or grazed.

The Usar is more or less totally bare
ground with negligible ground cover. In the
Usar, the peck rate was also very low (3.87, n =
8). The Usar was rarely used for foraging, hence
the low sample size. We saw bustards in the
Usar when they were crossing from one Open
scrub area to another.

Among the crop fields, Bengal gram had the
highest peck rate (Table 3). This is probably be-
cause the plants are only about 30 cm high, and
when ripe, the green pods are easily picked by
bustards. As the plant is grown closely in narrow
rows, the bird does not have to move much and
from one or two spots, it can pick up a large
number of pods. Moreover, we have also seen
bustards plucking the green leaves of chana
(which does not require much effort); hence the
very high PR in chana fields.

We recorded bustards in chana fields in Oc-
tober and December, though faecal analyses do
not show presence of chana in these fortnights.
The bustards must have fed on tender shoots that
were easily digested or were not identifiable in
faecal analysis.

The second highest peck counts, after
chana fields, were seen in the soeha field
(Table 3). Here too, the bustard does not have
to move much or search for food once it is in
a soeha field. We have often seen bustards
eating the whole plant, starting from inflores-
cence, leaves, tender branches to the green

part of the stem.

In groundnut fields, the bustard has to
search for exposed pods. This could explain the
PR of 15, compared to 46 and 67 in other crop
fields (Table 3). Another explanation could be that
groundnut pods being much bigger (and perhaps
more nutritious) than chana pods and leaves and
flowers of soeha, the bustard has to peck less to
get the same amount of food.

Plot-wise peck rate: The plot-wise PR is
shown in Table 4. In order to study the
availability of natural food in different parts of
the Sanctuary, we analysed the PR in the Open
scrub areas of different plots (Table 4) and
found no significant difference (One-way
ANOVA, F 6,975 = 0.017, NS).

Peck rates of different individuals: There
was no significant difference in the PR of Alpha
and Beta males or Alpha and Juvenile males
(Tables 5, 6). Similarly, there was no significant
difference between Mother and Juvenile which
foraged together in the same areas. The only sig-
nificant difference in the PR was between Breed-
ing hens and other individuals such as Non-
Breeding hens, Mother, Alpha and Beta.

Peck rates of solitary and non-solitary
birds: We compared the PR of the solitary and
non-solitary bustards in the Open scrub areas
(Table 7), where the bustards spent most of their
time. There was no difference in PR between
solitary and non-solitary hens (t = -0.29, St. Err.
= 2.11, Df = 437, NS) and very little difference
between solitary and non-solitary males (t = -
1.76, St. Err. = 0.67, Df = 587, P <0.1). This shows

FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD 37

food, so they peck faster before conditions be-
come difficult for foraging. Maximum peck rates
were observed in the evening. An additional
reason for the high peck rate in the late evening
could be that in the evening most of the villagers
and livestock would return to villages; therefore
bustards are left relatively undisturbed to forage,
and could devote more time to eating (pecking).
Expectedly, the peck rates drop suddenly after
1800 hrs because the birds are not able to locate
their prey easily after dusk. At this time, most of
the bustards roam in search of roosting spots and
eat desultorily. With the approach of nightfall,
risk of predation increases, so the birds spend
more time looking for danger and less on forag-
ing.

Minimum peck rates were seen during
mid-day (Fig. 5), especially during summer
when the temperature can reach 48° C. Mid-
day foraging was seen more frequently in
winter or during cloudy days in the monsoon.

Frequency

of pecks/ 5 minutes

Karera : 1982-84

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Hours of the day

Fig. 5. Feeding intensity in the great Indian bustard at Karera.

that even when the bustard is in a flock, it feeds
more or less individually.

Peck rates at different hours: Peck rates
were higher in the late morning, and in the evening
before roosting (Fig. 5). This could be because
before roosting the birds have to eat sufficient

Fig. 6. Frequency distribution of peck rate in the great Indian bustard at Karera.

38

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Table 4

PECK RATES IN THE OPEN SCRUB AREAS OF DIFFERENT PLOTS

Name of the Plot

Mean

SD

No. of samples

Turkani

11.14

7.35

416

Hanuman-jhoora

12.38

8.20

31

Rasori

10.95

6.22

252

Kundpatha

10.54

6.62

133

Karawwa

11.31

4.89

94

Outside Plantation

8.18

2.79

11

Baigawan

12.57

7.66

45

Table 5

PECK RATES OF DIFFERENT SEXES AND DIFFERENT INDIVIDUALS IN OPEN SCRUB AREAS ONLY

Sex/Individuals

Mean

SD

No. of samples

Sex

Male

11.5

7.05

589

Female

10.6

6.41

433

Individuals

Alpha male

12.11

7.14

288

Beta male

11.89

7.46

167

Juvenile male

9.97

5.01

109

Mother (with juvenile)

12.44

7.36

98

Breeding hen

6.69

2.71

59

Table 6

SCHEFFE’S TEST TO FIND THE SIGNIFICANCE BETWEEN VARIATIONS IN PECK RATE
IN DIFFERENT SEXES AND DIFFERENT INDIVIDUALS

NBF

MOF

BF

ALM

BEM

JUM

NBF

0.00

4.41

18.84*

5.51

2.77

1.25

MOF

0.00

27.83*

0.18

0.43

7.19

BF

0.00

32.95*

26.92*

9.42

ALM

0.00

0.13

8.31

BEM

0.00

5.53

JUM

0.00

*P < 0.01

NBF = Non-breeding female, MOF = Female with chick, BF = Breeding female, ALM = Alpha male, BEM = Beta male,
JUM = Juvenile male.

Table 7

PECK RATE OF SOLITARY AND NON-SOLITARY BIRDS IN THE OPEN SCRUB

Sex

Mean

SD

No. of samples

Solitary female

12.78

8.84

194

Non-solitary female

12.17

6.12

245

Solitary male

12.30

8.76

272

Non-solitary male

11.12

7.15

317

FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

39

Discussion

Although the great Indian bustard is an op-
portunistic feeder, its preferred food is insects,
chiefly Orthopterans and Coleopterans.
Numerous studies such as Parker (1929),
Andrewartha and Birch (1954), Uvarov (1931),
Edwards (1960), Dempster (1963) and Ali (1978,
1980) have shown seasonal fluctuations in the
population of insects (grasshoppers), depending
on the weather conditions, chiefly precipitation
and temperature. In our study areas also, seasonal
fluctuation of the grasshopper was noticed (Fig.
4), with maximum numbers during summer
and/or monsoon and the minimum in winter.

The bustard shifts its food-preference
seasonally depending on the more commonly
available food items. The timing of the bustard’s
nesting season at Karera was seen to synchronise
with the increase in abundance of grasshoppers
(Rahmani 1989).

Food items in the bustard diet identified by
earlier workers are listed in Table 1. Insects,
mainly grasshoppers and beetles, are perhaps
the most important animal constituents in the
diet. The habitats of the bustard (grasslands and
open scrubland) are suitable for picking up in-
sects during foraging. While walking the bus-
tard flushes various types of insects, among
which Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, Coleoptera
and Lepidoptera are generally eaten. In addition
to insects, other organisms such as lizards and
small snakes are also opportunistically eaten.
Hume and Marshall (1879) reported that a com-
plete egg of quail (Coturnix) was found from the
stomach of a bustard. Our tame bustard (age > 1
year) at Rollapadu in Andhra Pradesh easily pick-
ed up two sandgrouse Pterocles exustus eggs from
the nest (Manakadan and Rahmani 1990).

The two main advantages of foraging in a
flock are a higher probability of detecting a
predator by vigilance of companions, and im-
proved location and chance of catching prey
(Bertram 1978). Therefore, foraging rate of an
individual in a flock should be more than in a
solitary bird. We did not find any difference in the

peck rates between a solitary and a non-solitary
female, and very little difference between a
solitary and non-solitary male, indicating that
even when the bustard is in a flock, it feeds
independently; flushing of live prey by other
members of a flock (‘beaters’) does not play a
significant role in locating food. Similarly,
predator detection by companions, thus leaving
more time to search for food, also does not con-
tribute significantly while foraging.

The peck rate of a hen that has laid an egg or
is accompanied by a small chick was significantly
lower than in hens which were not breeding
(Tables 5,' 6). The main reason could be that a hen
with an egg or a small chick is constantly looking
for danger, and hence has less time for foraging.
We found that adult bustards are not vulnerable to
most ground predators (especially during
daytime) such as wolf Cards lupus , jackal Canis
aureus and fox Vulpes bengalensis. However, an
egg or a chick is always in danger from these and
many other smaller predators also; therefore a
breeding hen has to be constantly alert .

The difference in peck rate of males and
females could be due to two reasons: (1) Dif-
ference in the behaviour of the two sexes -
females were more timid and easily alerted than
males, and therefore spend more time looking for
danger than do males. (2) Sexual size dimorphism
- as males are larger and almost twice the weight
of females, they need more food, hence higher
peck rates.

Acknowledgements

Studies on the great Indian bustard were
started under the guidance of the late Dr. Salim
Ali, to whom we are most grateful. The U. S. Fish
and Wildlife Service funded the project, and the
Ministry of Environment, Govt, of India, spon-
sored the BNHS for conducting the research
study. We are grateful to these organisations.

We express our sincere gratitude to J.C.
Daniel, Co-investigator of the Project, for con-
stant encouragement. We are grateful to the state
governments of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra
and Andhra Pradesh for cooperation during the

40

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

study period. Dr P. Azeez of the BNHS helped us
with the statistical analysis.

The first author (BB) would like to express

R EFER

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bay.

Ali, S. & Rahmani, A. R. (1982-84): Study of Ecology of
certain Endangered Species of Wildlife and their
Habitats: the Great Indian Bustard. Annual Report 2.
Bombay Natural History Socipty, Bombay.

Ali, Shamshad (1978): Ecology and biology otAcrida exal-
tata Walker. Ph.D. thesis, Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh.

Au, Shamshad (1980): Seasonal variation in the population
of Acrida exaltata , Walk, at Aligarh. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 81: 19-28.

Andrewartha, H.G. & Birch, L.C. (1954): The distribution
and abundanceof animals. University of Chicago Press,
Chicago.

Bertram, B. C. R. (1978): Living in groups: Predators and
prey. In: Behavioural Ecology: An evolutionary ap-
proach (eds. Krebs, J. R. and N. B. Davies). Blackwell,
Oxford, pp 64-96.

Bhushan, B. (1985): The food and feeding behaviour of the
Great Indian Bustard Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors).
Class Aves: Otididae. M.Sc. dissertation, University of
Bombay, Bombay.

Carter, J. R. (1912): Bustard in Kathiawar. J. Bombay nat
Hist. Soc. 21: 1333-4.

Champion, H. G. & Seth, S. K. (1968): A revised survey of
the Forest Types of India. Government of India Press,
New Delhi.

Dempster, J. P. (1963): The population dynamics of grasshop-
pers and locusts. Biol. Rev. 38: 490-529.

Dharmakumarsinhji, R.S. (1957): Ecological study of the
Great Indian Bustard in Kathiawar peninsula. Jour.
Zool. Soc. India 9: 140-152.

Edwards, R.L. (1960): Relationship between grasshopper
abundance and weather conditions in Saskatchewan:
1930-58. Can. Ent. 92: 619-624.

Elliot, W. (1880): Notes on the Great Indian Bustard, with
special reference to its gular pouch. Proc. Zool. Soc.
Loud. Volume 486-489.

Gupta, P. D. (1975): Stomach contents of the Great Indian
Bustard. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71: 361-81.

his gratitude to his family for their patience during
his absence during the study period.

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Hartley, P.H.T. (1948). The assessment of food of birds. Ibis
90 : 361-381.

Hume, A.O. & Marshall, C. H. T. (1879): Game Birds of
India, Burmah and Ceylon, vol. 1. Calcutta.

Korschgen, L.J. (1969): Procedures for food-habits analysis.
In: Wildlife Management Techniques, 3rd ed. (ed. R.H.
Giles). The Wildlife Society, U.S.A.

Lorin, E. H. (1970): Nutrition research techniques for domes-
tic and wild animals. Vol. I. An international record
system and procedures for analysing samples. Utah
State University, Utah, U.S.A.

Manakadan, R. (1985): The ecology of the Great Indian
Bustard Choriotis nigriceps habitat. M.Sc. dissertation,
Bombay University, Bombay.

Manakadan, R. & Rahmani, A. R. (1989): Rollapadu Bustard
Sanctuary, with special reference to the Great Indian
Bustard. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 368-380.

Manakadan, R. & Rahmani, A.R (1990): Growth and
development of a captive great Indian bustard Ardeotis
nigriceps (Vigors) chick. Avicultural Magazine 96(3):
133-140.

McKee, J. (1982): The winter feeding of Turnstone and Purple
Sandpipers in Strathclyde. Bird Study 29: 213-216.

Parker, J. P. (1929): Some effects of temperature and mois-
ture upon the activities of grasshoppers and their rela-
tion to grasshopper abundance and control. 4th Int.
Congr. Ent. 1:322-332.

Rahmani, A.R. (1986): Status of the Great Indiau Bustard in
Rajasthan. Technical Report No. 11. Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay.

Rahmani, A.R. (1987): Protection to the Great Indian Bustard.
Oryx 21: 174-179.

Rahmani, A.R. (1988): The conservation of the Great Indian
Bustar d Ardeotis nigriceps (Vigors) in the Karera Bus-
tard Sanctuary. Biol. Conserv. 46: 135-144.

Rahmani, A.R. (1989): The Great Indian Bustard: Final
Report. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Rahmani, A. R. & Manakadan, R. (1989): Return of the Great
Indian Bustard in Maharashtra. Jour. Ecol. Soc. 2:
19-29.

Uvarov, B. P. (1931): Insects and Climate. Tr. Ent. Soc.
London 79: 1-247.

Van Tyne, J. & Berger, A. J. (1959): Fundamentals of-
Ornithology. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

ON THE IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF CERTAIN
INDIAN IXORA (RUBIACEAE)1

D.B. Deband R.C. Rout2

The revision of the genus Ixora L.
(Rubiaceae) by Bremekamp (1937a) has been
criticised by Comer (1941) in his study of the
Malayan Ixora. Comer observed "the size and
hairiness of corolla and even the shape of the
petals I find to be most variable and, for the
majority of the Malayan species, by no means
specific. From the most recent works on the genus
(Craib 1934, Bremekamp loc.cit.), the impression
is gained that many new species can be blocked
out from the old and that minute differences in
hairiness, leaf size or shape and length of corolla
tube suffice to define them. But I am certain that
this view is mistaken, and if followed, must lead
to the making of so many species that the clas-
sification of the genus will become impossible.
Such splitting, based on relatively few herbarium
specimens, merely obscures the issue which is to
have names for the well defined groups of in-
dividuals".

Ixora chinensis Lam., 7. coccinea L .,7.
javanica (Bl.) DC., 7. grandifolia Zoll. & Mor., I.
nigricans Wt. & Am. etc. treated therein by
Corner (loc.cit.) are very common and
widespread in India. On the other hand, field
studies conducted by the senior author (D.B.D.)
of this note during the last three decades and that
of the other author (R.C.R.) for the last four years
support the observations of Corner. Again,
specimens available in herbaria after the study by
Bremekamp (loc. cit.) and Comer (loc.cit.) tend
to bridge the gap in knowledge on variability of
some species. Husain and Paul (1989) did not
examine many specimens in CAL and K as there
is no indication of their study on the herbarium
specimens to which the authors of this note had
access.

Accepted January 1991.

“Botanical Survey of India, P.O. Botanic Garden,
Howrah 711 103.

In the light of these facts we are in a position
to comment on the status of several species there-
by reducing them to synonyms. Those reduced to
synonyms do not deserve infraspecific status.

1. Ixora goalparensis Bremek. (1938 : 336)
was postulated on the basis of U.N. Kanjilal 5758,
collected from Goalpara district \)f Assam. This
was distinguished from I. subsessilis in much
longer calyx teeth. 7. longibracteata Bremek.
(1959: 371) was distinguished from I. goalparen-
sis Bremek. in longer bracts, bracteoles and calyx
teeth. A study of the protologue and type
specimens along with other specimens of both the
species suggests that I. goalparensis and 7. lon-
gibracteata differ neither from each other nor
from 7. subsessilis in any respect. The latter is
variable in the length of bracts, bracteoles, calyx
teeth and corolla tube, thereby covering up the
distinctions noted by Bremekamp (loc.cit.).
Hence 7. goalparensis and 7. longibracteata are
treated as synonyms as follows. They do not even
deserve any infraspecific status.

Ixora subsessilis Wall, ex G. Don, Gen.
Syst. 3: 572. 1834 (Lectotype : Jaintiapore
(Jowai), May 1826, F. De Siva s.ti. ex Wall. Cat.
6139 A CAL!). Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 139.
1880; Husain & Paul in Journ. Econ. Taxon. Bot.
Addl.Ser. 6:119. 1989.

7. oxyphylla Wall, ex G. Don, Gen. Syst. 3:
572. 1834 (Type: Wall Cat. 6159 & 6159 ACAL!)

7. goalparensis Bremek. in Journ. Bot. 76:
336. 1938; Husain & Paul in Journ. Econ. Taxon.
Bot. Addl. Ser. 6: 117. 1989 (Type : Assam, Goal-
para dist., Guma Reserve, 22. 5. 1916, U.N. Kan-
jilal 5758 holo. DD!, photo and iso. CAL!), Syn.
Nov.

7. longibracteata Bremek. in Ind. For. 85(7):
371. 1959; Hussain & Paul in Journ. Econ. Taxon.
Bot. Addl. Ser. 6: 119. 1989 (Type: Bangladesh,
Chittagong. Hill Tracts, Tintilla, 16.5.1939, T. V.
Dent 14, holo. DD!, photo CAL! Syn. Nov.

42

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Husain and Paul (1989 : 119) while select-
ing Wall. Cat. 6139 A CAL as the lectotype
misinterpreted Wall. Cat. entry and considered
that this specimen was collected by De Silva & W.
Gomez. This is not correct. The specimen con-
cerned in CAL was collected by F. De Silva in
May 1826 from Sylhet mountain which is in fact
Jowai, now in Meghalaya.

2. Ixora andamanensis Bremek. (1937b:
260) was described on the basis of C.E. Parkinson
140. It was probably wrongly compared with I.
lacei and I. ackr ingae. Rather it agrees with I.
barbata Roxb. wherein corolla tube varies in
length from 20 to 35 mm and the throat is bearded
to glabrescent. In/, andamanensis , corolla tube is
15 to 17 mm and the throat is glabrous or glabres-
cent. Thus it gets merged with I. barbata and does
not deserve any infra-specific status.

I. katchalensis Husain & Paul (1984 : 153 -
156) was postulated on the basis of four gather-
ings : P. Chakraborty 1134 & 5305, N. Bhargava
5031 and N. P. Balakrishnan 5325. It was distin-
guished from I. barbata Roxb. in "distinctly
longer petiole, more lateral nerves, different in-
florescence pattern, number of flowers per head
and structure of stigma". A study of protologue
along with the types (holo. and iso.) suggests that,
I. katchalensis does not differ from I. barbata in
any respect and agrees with it. The stigma
described as "slightly cleft in the middle by 1/3
from above" is found to be bifurcated to two
linear stigmatic arms. Hence, I. katchalensis does
not stand as a distinct species, or does not deserve
any infraspecific status.

I. andamanensis and I. katchalensis are
reduced here to synonyms as follows.

Ixora barbata Roxb. (Hort. Beng. 10. 1814
non. nud. &) ex Smith in Rees, Cycl. 19. no. 6.
1811; Roxb. FI. Ind. 1: 394. 1820 (Type: Andaman
Islands. Cultivated at H.B.C. (CAL), Roxburgh
s.n. holo. K!, photo CAL!); Hook.f., FI. Brit. Ind.
3: 148. 1880; Hussain & Paul in Journ. Econ.
Taxon. Bot. Addl. Ser. 6: 146. 1989.

I. andamanensis Bremek. in Journ. Bot. 75:
260. 1937; Husain & Paul in Journ. Econ. Taxon.
Bot. Addl. Ser. 6: 94. 1989 (Type: Andaman Is-

land, Havelock, 1914, C.E. Parkinson 140 holo.
DD!, photo CAL!), Syn. Nov.

I. katchalensis Husain & Paul in Blumea 30:
153-156. 1984 & Journ. Econ. Taxon. Bot. Addl.
Ser. 6: 153. 1989 (Type: India, Andaman &
Nicobar Island, North Nicobars, Katchal Is., sea
level, 22 Apr. 1974, P. Chakraborty 1134 PBL),
Syn. Nov.

3. Husain & Paul (1986, 1989) proposed I.
beddomei, I. manantoddi and I. mercaraica , on
the basis of a single gathering each, collected from
the same locality in Wynaad district of Kerala, and
the adjacent locality Mercara of Coorg, now in
Karnataka. They distinguished these species from
I. lawsonii , which was also originally collected
from these localities.

Husain and Paul do not appear to have ex-
amined the type specimen of I. lawsonii located
at K and MH as no sign of exclamation is added
after the name of herbaria where they are extant
nor they seem to have studied the original descrip-
tion properly. In describing this species they say
"habit unknown... stipules not seen... anthers and
filaments not seen". In ‘distribution and ecology’
they say "populations are usually encountered in
ghats of Wynaad, Manantodde and Coorg", but no
specimens has been cited. If populations are en-
countered then the habit and stipules cannot
remain unknown. The notes on the species on p.
133 are ad verbatim copied from Gamble’s
original publication.

Gamble stated inter alia "Arbor vel frutex

elatus ... Folia basi rotundata, juniore aliquan-

do attenuata; nervi lateralis 10-16; stipules

ovatae, apiculo dorsali longi subulata stamina

recurva, filamentis brevibus, antheris linearibus".
This appears to be a rare species. In spite of the
area having been thoroughly explored, only one
collection has been made after the original collec-
tion.

These species differ from/, lawsonii only in
slight pubescence of the leaf, a character that may
arise due to ecological variation. Moreover for
this slight variation in hairiness only, these taxa
cannot be distinguished even in infraspecific
status.

IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF CERTAIN INDIAN IXORA

43

Ixora beddomei is distinguished from/, law-
sonii in foliis basi acutis, calycum tubis pubescen-
tibus et corollae tubis 17-17.5 mm longis. In I.
lawsonii , leaf base varies from acute to obtuse or
rounded. The calyx is pubescent in the same
specimen (Wight s.n. K!) and corolla tube is 7-20
mm long, smaller size is evident in bud stage.
Thus I. beddomei cannot stand as a distinct
species.

Type specimens of I. mercaraica
( Hohenacker 439 a) is too poor to be the basis of
a species. It is an incomplete specimen with only
a pair of leaves at the base of peduncle, which is
normally variable from those of the other leaves
in form, length of the petiole and hairiness. The
peduncle may be pubescent when the remaining
part of the stem is glabrous. In/, lawsonii , petiole
varies from 2 to 10 mm. -Calyx tube pubescent
outside, calyx teeth 3-7.5 x 0.5-1 .0 mm, pubescent
outside, glabrous within. Moreover, a species
should not be distinguished on the basis of slight
differences in quantitative characters like length
of petiole, bracteoles and calyx lobes. Thus /.
mercaraica also does not stand.

I. manantoddi agrees with I. lawsonii in all
respects, except hairiness of young branches and
leaves beneath. So it does not stand as a distinct
species.

I. beddomei , I. mercaraica and I. manantod-
di are reduced to synonyms as follows:

Ixora lawsonii Gamble in Kew Bull. 1920:
247. 1920; Husain & Paul in Joum. Econ. Taxon.
Bot. Addl. Ser. 6: 131. 1989 (Type: Kerala,
Wynaad dist., Manantodde, ± 1000 m, Jan. 1884,
MA. Lawson 43 lecto. K!, photo CAL!, Isolecto.
MH!).

I. beddomei Husain & Paul in Candollea 41
(1): 87. 1986 & Joum. Econ. Taxon. Bot. Addl.
Ser. 6: 124. 1989 (Type: Kerala, Wynaad, 1885,
R.H. Beddome 3909 holo. BM!, photo CAL!, iso.
K), Syn. Nov.

I. mercaraica Husain & Paul in Candollea
41(1): 88. 1986 & Journ. Econ. Taxon. Bot. Addl.
Ser. 6: 135. 1989 (Type: Karnataka, Mercara,
1&41, Hohenacker 439 holo. BM!, photo CAL!,
iso. K), Syn. Nov.

I. manantoddi Husain & Paul in PI. Syst.
Evol. (MSS) & in Journ. Econ. Taxon. Bot. Addl.
Ser. 6: 133. 1989 (Type: Kerala, Wynaad, Manan-
todde, R.H. Beddome 3908, holo. BM! photo
CAL!, iso. K), Syn. Nov.

4. Ixora capituliflora Bremek. (1937 b) was
based on C.E. Parkinson 1198 and/.//. Lace 2818
from Andaman Islands. The author distinguished
this species from three distantly related species:/.
merguensis Hook.f. in calyx lobes longer,
glabrous, corolla not bearded; from I. korthal-
siana Kurz in corolla not bearded and from /.
kurziana (Teysm. & Binn.) Kurz in leaves smaller,
inflorescence subcapitate, calyx lobes longer. On
examination of types and other collections from
Andaman Islands, it is observed that this species
is not distinguishable from I. finlaysoniana Wall,
ex G. Don. The leaves of I. finlaysoniana are
narrowly obovate or oblanceolate, obtuse or
mucronulate at apex, atenuate at base, whereas in
Andaman specimens (/. capituliflora ), it is vari-
able from elliptic to -oblong, -obovate or -lanceo-
late. The cyme is also variable, subcapitate to
distinctly branched corymbose one. So, /.
capituliflora Bremek. does not stand as a distinct
species and is reduced to a synonym as follows.
It does not even deserve any infraspecific status.

Ixora finlaysoniana Wall, ex G. Don, Gen.
Syst. 3: 572. 1834 (Type: East India, Finlay son
s.n. ex Wall. Cat. 6166 K-WH microfiche CAL!).

I. capituliflora Bremek. in Joum. Bot. 75:
297. 1937; Husain & Paul in Joum. Econ. Taxon.
Bot. Addl. Ser. 6: 124. 1989 (Type: Andaman
Islands, 1916, C.E. Parkinson 1198, holo. & iso.
DD!, photo & iso. CAL!), Syn. Nov.

5. Ixora roxburghii Balakr. (1981 : 232) was
proposed as a substitute name for I. villosa Roxb.
(1814 & 1820) as the latter was a later homonym
of that of Poiret (1813), which represents a
synonym of Pavetta villosa Vahl. The name I.
roxburghii Balakr. was accepted by Husain and
Paul (1989 : 102). However, they overlooked that
/. roxburghii Balakr. is also a later homonym of
that of O. Kuntze (1891), which represents a
synonym of Pavetta tomentosa Roxb. ex Smith.
So, this name is rejected as per Art. 64 of Interna-

44

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

tional Code of Botanical Nomenclature. Conse-
quently a substitute name is proposed as follows:
Ixora balakrishnii Deb et Rout, nom. nov.
Ixora villosa Roxb. (Hort. Beng. 10. 1814,
nom. mid. &) FI. Ind. 1: 382. 1820, non Poir. 1813

Refer

Balakrisiinan, N.P. (1981): Flora of J&wai, Vol. I. Botanical
Survey of India, Howrah.

Bremekamp, C.E.B. (1937a): The Malayan species of the
genus Ixora (Rub.). Bull. lard. Bott. Bull Ser. 3, 14:
197-367.

Bremekamp, C.E.B. (1937b): Th & Ixora species of Burma and
the Andaman Islands. Journ. Bot. 75: 108-111, 169-
175, 260- 266, 295-298, 318-326.

Bremekamp, C.E.B. (1938): Ixora species of Burma and the
Andaman Islands - Additions and Emendations. Journ.
Bot. 76: 330- 336.

Bremekamp, C.E.B. (1959): New Ixora species from Bengal,
Burma and Nicobar Islands. Ind. For. 85 (7): 371-375.

Corner, E.J.H. (1941): Notes on the Systematy and Distribu-
tion of Malayan Phanerogams IV: Ixora. Garden’s
Bull. Str. settlements 11 (3): 177-235.

Craib, W.G. (1934): Florae Siamensis Enumeratio. Vol. 2.

Don, G. (1834): A. General System of Gardening and Botany,

(Type: Sylhet, Roxburgh s.n. ex Wall. Cat. 6137
A, CAL!, K); Hook.f, FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 144. 1880.

I. roxburghii Balakr. FI. Jowai 1: 232. 1981,
non O. Kuntze 1891; Husain & Paul in Journ.
Econ. Taxon. Bot. Addl. Ser. 6: 102. 1989.

ENCES

Vol. 3. London.

Gamble, J.S. (1920): In: Decades Kewenses (XXXVIII):
Plantarum novarum Herbario Horti Regii Conser-
vatarum. Decas XCIX. KewBull. 1920: 247.

Husain, T. & Paul, S.R. (1984): A new species of Ixora
(Rubiaceae) from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Blumea 30: 153-156.

Husain, T. & Paul, S.R. ( 1986): Two new species of Ixora
L. (Rubiaceae) from India. Candollea 41 (1): 87-93.
Husain, T. & Paul, S.R. (1989): Taxonomic Studies on Indian
species of genus Ixora L. (Rubiaceae). Journ. Econ.
Taxon. Bot. Addl. Ser. 6: 1-205.

Kuntze, O. (1891): Revisio Generum Plantarum. Vol. I. Paris.
Poiret, J.L.M. (1813): In: Lamarck, Encyclopedic Methodi-
que suppl. 3: 208. Paris.

Roxburgh, W. (1814): Hortus Bengalensis.

Roxburgh, W. (1820): Flora India, vol. I. Serampur.

THE LAND TORTOISE IN NEPAL : A REVIEW 1
J. Frazier2

(With a plate and a text-figure)

Little is known of land tortoises (family Testudinidae) in the Indian subcontinent, and the information
available from Nepal is remarkably muddled. Three very different species have been reported, but there are
numerous unsupported statements and several claims of misidentification. Many authors have simply repeated
(perhaps in a modified form) the statements of earlier publications without critically examining specimens or
information. The present note reviews published and other information on land tortoises in Nepal, concluding
that the only species definitely recorded in the country is Indotestudo elongata.

Introduction

Three species of land tortoise (Testudinidae)
have been claimed to occur in Nepal: Geochelone
elegans (Schoepf), Testudo horsjieldii Gray and
Indotestudo elongata (Blyth). The first named is
found from north-eastern Rajasthan (western
India) south to Sri Lanka (Iverson 1986 : 140;
Frazier in prep.); hence, a Nepalese record would
represent a major range extension.

Testudo horsjieldii is known to occur from
the Caspian and Aral areas of West Central Asia
(Shammakov 1981 : pi. 3; Yatyayev 1985 : pi. 4),
eastward to Baluchistan and Afghanistan (Smith
1931 : 146, Hora 1948 : 296, Iverson 1986 : 172)
and even to Xinjiang province of western China
(Zhao 1973). Auffenberg (1974 : 195) suggested
that T. horsjieldii occurs in the environs of Dehra
Dun, Uttar Pradesh, India, west of the western
border of Nepal, but no evidence has ever been
presented to support this claim. It is, therefore,
remarkable that the Nepalese ‘record’ (see below)
is the easternmost for this species.

The third species recorded from Nepal, In-
dotestudo elongata , is known to occur from Indo-
china westward to India (Smith 1931, Hoogmoed
and Crumly 1984 : fig. 3, Iverson 1986 : 156), and
as far west as Corbett National Park, Uttar
Pradesh, India (Ross and Crumly 1983). This
geographic range stretches across the east-west
extent of the southern extreme of Nepal (Fig. 1).

1 Accepted October 1990.

2 Centro de Investigacion Y de Estudios Avanzados, Apartado
Postal 73, ‘Cordemex’, Merida, Yucatan, Mexico, C.P. 97310.

Zoogeographically, G. elegans is typical of
the central Indian and Deccan areas of the Indian
subcontinent, I horsjieldii is part of the Palearctic
fauna, and I. elongata is characteristic of the
Indo-Chinese subregion of the Oriental Region
(Smith 1931 : 16, Hora 1948 : 296, Jayaram 1949
: 397, 1974 : 545-546). Species from all of these
zoogeographic regions, subregions or areas are
known to occur in the herpetofauna of Nepal
(Swan and Leviton 1962, Waltner 1973a, b, c, d);
hence, a priori any, or all, of the three above-
named species of land tortoise could occur in
Nepal.

The confusion stems mainly from the
(mis)identification of a drawing donated by B.H.
Hodgson to the British Museum (Natural History)
(BM[NHj) in the mid-19th century. There is a
long history of problems regarding drawings of
herpetological specimens from this region (see
Webb 1980), and the Hodgson tortoise drawing is
remarkable in this respect.

Discussion

Geochelone elegans (Schoepf)

There is only one record of this tortoise
from Nepal. Laurie (1978 : 41) stated that
"Reptiles and amphibians recorded in Chitawan
include the marsh crocodile or mugger, the
gharial, two species of monitor lizards, the
starred tortoise and several species of lizards,
snakes and frogs." The common name ‘starred
tortoise’ is the most usual English name for G.
elegans (e.g. Gunther 1864:4, Daniel 1983 : 30),
and it is not regularly used for any other species
in Asia.

4

46

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Fig. 1. The northern area of the Indian subcontinent, showing locality records for Indotestudo elongata (circles 1-17) at the
western limit of its range, and also locality records of Testudo horsfieldii (triangles A-H) at the eastern limit of its range. See
Appendices 1, 2 for details of each locality record. Dotted lines show political boundaries; only major river systems are
indicated.

In the absence of any other supporting
evidence, this record must be rejected as an error
(indeed, the appendix of reptiles in Chita wan in
Laurie’s (1978) thesis lists Testudo elongata). No
further mention of G. elegans will be made in the
present discussion of Nepalese tortoises.

Testudo horsfieldii Gray

The first species of land tortoise reported
from Nepal was T. horsfieldii. Gunther (1861 :
214) listed and described 41 species of reptiles
and amphibians collected (either as actual

specimens or as drawings) by B.H. Hodgson. The
first species in Gunther’s list was Testudo
horsfieldii, for which he simply stated "one
coloured drawing," indicating that he had not
examined a biological specimen. In fact, this
‘specimen’ (Plate 1), commissioned by Hodgson,
is the root of nearly all misunderstanding regard-
ing land tortoises in Nepal; it is, therefore, dis-
cussed in detail below.

It is noteworthy that three years later, Gun-
ther (1864 : 8), evidently less confident about the
identity of this drawing, wrote "A drawing made

THE LAND TORTOISE IN NEPAL : A REVIEW

47

from a Nepalese specimen, and presented by B.H.
Hodgson to the British Museum, appears to rep-
resent this tortoise ( T. horsfieldii ); if the deter-
mination be correct, this species (T. horsfieldii )
would extend to Nepal" (italics added). For some
reason, Gunther was no longer simply stating that
T. horsfieldii occurred in Nepal, but instead he
qualified his' listing of this species by suggesting
that - on the basis of a drawing - it may extend
into Nepal. He pointed out his unfamiliarity with
T. horsfieldii , stating that he had seen only one
specimen (1864 : 8); clearly, he was not certain of
the identity of the species represented by the
drawing.

Smith (1931 : 146), in his classic review of
the chelonians of British India, made no mention
of T. horsfieldii in Nepal, and he did not even cite
Gunther’s papers (1861, 1864) under the discus-
sion of this species. However, he stated (p. 143)
that Hodgson’s drawing was of Testudo elongata ,
an earlier name for Indotestudo elongata. The fact
that Smith (1931) included no mention of the
previous (mis)identifications made by Gunther
(1861: 218, 1864:8) left his re-identification as a
source of confusion. One might sunnise that in
deference to the grand old guru of herpetology,
Albert Gunther, Smith chose not to mention his
elder’s error.

Whatever his reasons, Smith’s (1931) omis-
sion of any mention of a misidentification or his
re-identification was seized upon as evidence that
the identity of the land tortoise in Nepal was iii a
state of confusion. Swan and Leviton (1962 : 110)
flatly rejected Gunther’s identification by listing
" Testudo horsfieldii Gunther, 1861, p. 214
(Nepal); 1864, p. 7 (Nepal)" as a synonym for
" Testudo (= Indotestudo) elongata". They went on
to claim that "It is uncertain whether Smith con-
sidered Hodgson’s drawing (which Gunther
described as T. horsfieldi , supra cit.) to be T.
elongata or whether Smith’s reference is in error.

This treatment by Swan and Leviton (1962)
is itself not without shortcomings. They failed to
take into account that Gunther’s second listing
(1864: page 8' which deals with Nepal, not page
7 as they indicated) was a tentative identification,

clearly including simple and obvious reserva-
tions. Thus, to list ‘T horsfieldi Gunther 1864 : 8’
as a synonym of/, elongata is an oversimplifica-
tion and misrepresentation of what Gunther had
in fact written. In addition, Smith’s (1931 : 143)
meaning could not be clearer in his identification
of the Hodgson drawing, and there is no reason to
claim that he was confused. It is remarkable that,
in spite of these identifications, re-identifications
and criticisms of earlier authors, there is no
evidence given by Swan and Leviton (1962) that
they ever examined either a specimen of a land
tortoise from Nepal or the root cause of all the
confusion and discussion - the drawing presented
by Hodgson to the BM (NH)! (Levitson, pers.
comm, stated that they had not seen the drawing.)

In his summary of the reptiles of the
Himalaya, Waltner (1973a, b) made no mention
of T. horsfieldii. He did list I. elongata , evidently
following Swan and Leviton (1962). Auffenberg
(1974 : 195) suggested that T. horsfieldii occurs
at Dehra Dun, to the west of Nepal, and "will
eventually be found to inhabit much of the foothill
area of the Himalayan mountains." However, he
now believes {in lift. Dec. 1987) that the species
involved is Indotestudo elongata , not T. horsfiel-
dii.

Jayaram (1974 : 548) stated that "Testudo
horsfieldi is widely distributed from the Caspian
and Aral Seas to the north-western comer of
India". There is absolutely no evidence that T.
horsfieldi has ever been recorded in the territory
known as ‘India.’ This error was apparently
caused by Jayaram having lifted Smith’s (1931 :
146) description of the range of this species,
which specified ".... to the north-western corner
of British India." Omitting the word ‘British’
completely changes the area from the British
India of the days of the Empire (which included
Baluchistan, known to harbour T. horsfieldi ) to
modern India (which has never included
Baluchistan).

The most recent mention of T. horsfieldii in
Nepal is that of Majupuria (1981-82 : 152); he
stated that "Testudo horsifieldi (sic) is represented
in Hodgson’s collection." No reference or sup-

48

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

porting evidence was given, but this claim was
evidently based on Gunther (1861 : 218).
Majupuria (1981-82 : 174) stated that T. horsfiel-
dii was "Reported by Prater, 1928'° in Nepal, but
Prater’s book of Indian animals, first published
in 1928 and now in its fourth edition, although an
invaluable source book on mammals of the Indian
subcontinent, does not deal with tortoises or other
reptiles. Hence, Majupuria’s (1981-1982) state-
ments about I horsfieldii occurring in Nepal are
without support.

Indotestudo elongata (Blyth)

The first mention of this species in Nepal is that
of Smith (1931 : 143): "Hodgson obtained a
specimen in the Saul forests of Nepal, and has left a
fine coloured sketch of it in his collections of draw-
ings." The mention of Saul forests implies that
Smith had examined the drawing in question, for the
words ‘Land tortoise of Saul Forest’ are pencilled
on the bottom left, and this information has not
appeared in previous - or subsequent - publications.
In addition, the evaluation of the drawing as "fine"
is further support for his having examined it because
it is a realistic depiction (Fig. 2).

The next mention of 7. elongata is that of
Swan and Leviton (1962 : 110). As stated above,
these authors rejected Gunther’s (1861 : 218,
1864 : 8) accounts of T. horsfieldii and doubted
the certainty of Smith’s (1931 : 143) identification
of T. elongata.

Yet, it was not explained how they ar-
rived at their own identification, with no men-
tion of having examined any relevant
material. Nevertheless, they (1962 : 110)
stated that 7. elongata is found in central
Nepal, presumed (p. 107 footnote 2) on the
premise that Hodgson’s material came mainly
from the area around Kathmandu. More
remarkable, they listed (Table 1, p. 138) this
tortoise as known to occur in "Sikkim-Dar-
jeeling"; no support for this claim was given,
and none is known (see below). Swan and
Leviton (1962 : 138) also predicted that 7.
elongata occurs in eastern Nepal, and they
concluded that the species could be charac-

terisedashavinganlndo-Chinesedistributionbut
extendinginto the eastern Himalaya.

Waltner (1973b : 29), in his review of
Himalayan reptiles, listed Testudo (= Indotestudo)
elongata as recorded from "Sikkim, Darjeeling,
Teak forests of Nepal ...." and from 0 to 9,000 feet
(0 to 2,740 m) in altitude. The distributional data
appear to be based on Swan and Leviton (1962),
but the occurrence of this tortoise in teak forests
or at any altitude in Nepal is unsupported by any
published information. Waltner (in litt. 20 Oct.
1987) stated that he had no firsthand experience
with chelonians in this region. Furthermore, teak
Tectona grandis does not naturally occur as far
north as Nepal (Champion and Seth 1968, Stain-
ton 1972).

It is important to point out that there is no
evidence that Indotestudo elongata occurs in Sik-
kim and Darjeeling (c.f. Swan and Leviton 1962,
Waltner 1973b : 29), an error which has evidently
arisen from the inappropriate use by Swan and
Leviton (1962 : Table 1) of ‘Sikkim-Darjeeling’
to refer to Sikkim and all of North Bengal (includ-
ing Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri and Koch Bihar dis-
tricts). There are several records of 7. elongata
from Jalpaiguri dist. (Smith 1931 : 96, Das 1988
: 21, 22), but none are known from Darjeeling or
Koch Bihar districts or from Sikkim.

The name Testudo elongata appears in an
appendix of the reptiles of Chitawan Park, Nepal,
in Laurie’s thesis (1978) on the rhinoceros
Rhinoceros unicornis. However, this was ap-
parently based on previous publications, not
original data; and, as stated above, there is con-
fusion in the text of the thesis as to which tortoise
was being referred to.

Majupuria (1981-82 : 152, 174) stated that
Testudo (= Indotestudo) elongata is recorded
from Central Nepal, in Bagmati and Narayani
zones. Although this is the first attempt to provide
specific locality data for land tortoises in Nepal,
it is not stated on what information these claims
were based. A photograph published by
Majupuria (1981-82) clearly shows three 7. elon-
gata together, but no indication of where these
tortoises were collected is given; the caption

THE LAND TORTOISE IN NEPAL : A REVIEW

49

simply says "Land tortoises are distributed in
Central Nepal."

Clearly, it has been common for authors to
reiterate the Nepalese ‘record’ of Smith (1931 :
143). After it was repeated by Biswas et al.
(1978), Ross and Crumley (1983) referred to it.
However, as the last named authors pointed out,
there is no exact locality for this ‘record.’

Of the half dozen authors who have written
about land tortoises in Nepal, none (with the pos-
sible exception of Majupuria) appears to have
examined a specimen from that country; and only
Gunther and Smith had obviously examined the
drawing donated by Hodgson to the BM (NH).

Hodgson’s drawing (Plate 1)

Smith (1931 : 5) gave a brief biographical
account of Brian (or Bryan) Houghton Hodgson,
and other details are presented by Archer (1962 :
11-12, 80) and Sawyer (1971 : 140). In short,
Hodgson commissioned collections and drawings
of local animals while based in Kathmandu from
1820 until 1844. A folio of 29 drawings bound into
one volume is in the library of the BM (NH).

Only one Chelonian is depicted in this col-
lection (Plate 9), and the coloured drawing of the
land tortoise clearly illustrates several important
features: nose and sides of the head are pink; head
scales posterior to the frontal are relatively small
in size; five claws are on each of the fore feet; the
carapace is conspicuously more elongate than
wide; there are conspicuous black, irregular
blotches on each scute of the carapace; no spurs
are evident in the area of the thighs (although they
might not be seen from the angle shown); and a
spur is conspicuous at the end of the tail. With the
exception of black blotches on the carapace
(which can occur in both species), all of these
features are consistent with - if not diagnostic of
-Indotestudo elongata , and inconsistent with Tes-
tudo horsfieldii.

At the bottom of the drawing/ are several
annotations. ‘Land Tortoise of Saul Forest, nat.
size.’ is pencilled in at the far left (‘Saul,’ or more
commonly ‘Sal,’ is the tree Shorea robusta). At
the centre, in what appears to be different hand-

writing is ‘? Testudo indica.’ That name, as well
as the question mark, has a line through it, and
‘Horsfieldii’ is pencilled at the right of ‘indica’;
this appears to be in a third hand.

Directly under the pencilled species names
are three lines of North Indian script: a pencilled
line and below, in another hand, two inked lines.
The pencilled line (with apparently four charac-
ters) is indecipherable. The literal translation of
the two inked, Hindi-like, lines is ‘R.V. Motiya
Voli’ and ‘Kachhuwa.’ R.V. Motiya Voli appears
to be the name of a person. The last line, Kach-
huwa, means turtle.

At the far right of the base of the drawing, in
pencil, are two more lines of Hindi-like script;
these appear to be in two additional hands. The
upper line, of three characters, may be an ab-
breviated signature of R.V. Motiya Voli. However,
it could also translate to ‘Sugali’ (or ‘Sungali’) the
significance of which is unknown. In the bottom
right comer is ‘A.V. Lapcha’ (or ‘Zapcha’); this is
evidently a person’s name - probably a Nepali
(although Archer (1962 : 11) stated that Hodgson
hired Indian assistants). Which, if any, of these
names apply to the artist or collector is unknown.

In summary, it appears as if at least five
different people have annotated this drawing:
three in English and between two (in the case that
one person signed in full and then with initials)
and four in Hindi, or another north Indian script.
Some of the annotations are clearly attempts to
identify the drawing, others may indicate who was
involved in its execution. The comments relevant
to habitat and size are likely to have been written
soon after the drawing was given to Hodgson, and
the north Indian script was almost certainly added
while the drawing was in ‘British India’.

On the back side of the drawing, in pencil, is
the list of measurements (apparently in inches and
fractions of inches, except for one value in
pounds), as shown in Table 1.

Records in the India Office Library (Archer
1962 : 12) and the BM (NH) library, archives and
publications show that a number of well known
herpetologists had corresponded with B.H.
Hodgson and examined material donated by him,

50

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Table 1

MEASUREMENTS INDICATED ON HOGDSON’S DRAWING

Length of shell

0.11.0

Width

7 1/2

Height

-5-

Length of head

-2 3/4

Width of head

-15/8

Length of leg, fore, as fully exeserted (sic)

4 1/4

Length of leg, hind, as fully exeserted (sic)

4 1/2

Weight

6 lbs

Tail to vent

1 5/8

Tail to dorsal shell

2 1/4

including T.E. Cantor, J.E. Gray, A.C.L.G. Gun-
ther, Dr Hooker, Dr T. Horsfield, and M.A. Smith.

However, neither Andrew Stimson (of the Her-
petology Section) nor the Librarian of the BM
(NH) could identify any of the handwriting on the
tortoise drawing; it did not match handwriting
samples of either Gunther or Smith.

Archer (1962 : 80) stated that light pencilled
inscriptions on some of Hodgson’s drawings
deposited in India House (India Office Library)
were in Nagari. On the basis of this she suggested
that the draughtsmen were Hindus from Bihar or
United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh).

It is probably of little significance that the
Hodgson drawing was originally named ‘? Tes-
tudo indica ,’ for very little was known of
chelonians in the Indian region during the last
century, and there was tremendous nomenclatural
confusion. That Boulenger (1889 : 172) regarded
T. indica as an extinct species from Mauritius, and
considered the name as a synonym for one of the
Galapagos tortoises (‘ Testudo nigrita ’ =

Geochelone elephantopus) (Boulenger 1889 :
169) shows how confused the species names were
(see also Theobald 1870 : 674 for a criticism of
the use of the species indica for Indian species of
tortoises). There is no reason to further confuse
the question of which tortoise is in Nepal by
considering these island species.

Of more importance is: who re-identified the
drawing as T. horsfieldii ? However, it may never
be possible to determine who annotated this draw-
ing.

Assuming that the values on the back of the

drawing are reliable measurements of the
specimen depicted on the front, its identity is even
more clear. When compared with measurements
of specimens of the two species in question
(Frazier, unpublished data), the dimensions of the
shell — 11" (28 cm) long; 7.5 " (19 cm) wide; and
5 " (13 cm) high — are consistent with Indotes-
tudo elongata and inconsistent with Testudo
horsfieldii.

Recent specimens and records from the
terai: In 1974 C.A. Ross (Ross and Crumly 1983)
found a specimen of Geochelone (= Indotestudo )
elongata "in the vicinity of Gairal Forest Rest
House, Corbett National Park, about 25-30 km
north-west of Ramnagar." This locality (Fig. L) is
about 75 km west of the Nepalese border, in
Garhwal district, Uttar Pradesh.

On 16 April 1985, Dr J.C. Mitchell found the
remains of a shell of Indotestudo elongata
(USNM 267020) at Sauraha, Chitwan, Narayani
district, Nepal (Fig. 1). Although incomplete and
dog-chewed, this appears to be the only Nepalese
specimen of this species deposited in a museum
(although it could not be found ip September
1988).

Indotestudo elongata apparently also occurs
in the vicinity of Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh, India,
to the west of Nepal (Fig. 1). Dr R.K. Bhatnagar,
formerly in charge of the Herpetology Section of
the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) station in
Dehra Dun, wrote ( in litt. 4 December 1987) that
"before 1970" he collected a gravid female tor-
toise (unidentified) £rom Phandowala, Dehra Dun
Siwaliks, now Rajaji National Park; the specimen
was left at the ZSI station. Dr W. Auffenberg
reported (in litt. December 1987) that he has "seen
a slide of a specimen photographed near Dehra
Dun and it is elongata ". Apparently, the slide
came from Dr. R.K. Bhatnagar.

Dr R. Tilak, Officer-in-charge of the ZSI
station, Dehra Dun, reported (in litt. 5 February
1988) that they had no trace of any specimen of
T. horsfieldii , but did have a mounted specimen of
I. elongata. Measurements and photographs of
this specimen, provided by B.C. Choudhry (in litt.
13 March 1989), show that it is an adult female I.

THE LAND TORTOISE IN NEPAL : A REVIEW

51

elongata (curved carapace measurements: length
27.3, width 22.7 cm.; 17 to 18 growth rings), with
very little black on the carapace.

These recent records show that Indotestudo
elongata occurs along the Terai, or Himalayan
foothills, as far west as Dehra Dun. This further
supports the occurrence of this species in Nepal.

Conclusions

There is no evidence to support the conten-
tion that Testudo horsfieldii occurs in Nepal. The
occurrence of Indotestudo elongata , although
confused by more than a century of misidentifica-
tion, is traceable back to the first evidence of a
species of Testudinidae in that country - viz.
Hodgson’s drawing.

It must be appreciated that when Gunther
(1864 : 8) wrote about Hodgson’s drawing, he had
only seen one specimen of T. horsfieldii. Further-
more, I. elongata was described in 1853 from
Burma (Blyth 1853), and the first recorded acces-
sions in the BM (NH) of this species, all from
Indo-China, were in 1861 and 1862, and at the
time of Boulenger’s Catalogue (1889: 174) there
was still not a single specimen in the BM (NH)
from a locality near to Nepal. In short, when
Gunther was writing, both species were repre-
sented by very few specimens, in the BM (NH) at
least, and the known range of T. horsfieldii was
much closer to Hodgson’s ‘locality’ than was the
known range of I. elongata.

The resolution of which species of tortoise
occurs in Nepal is of central importance to
zoogeographic arguments. Well known for har-
bouring not only endemics, but various faunal
elements from diverse zoogeographic regions and
subregions (e.g. Swan and Leviton 1962), Nepal
provides unique insights into the biogeographical
history of these animals. One interpretation is that
the Indo-Chinese tortoise has been able to expand
its range westward across the Brahmaputra, along
the Himalayan foothills and past the Ganges. This
is consistent with the Satpura Hypothesis of Hora
(1948).

However, together with the extensive north
Indian/Nepalese distribution of I. elongata , one

must consider the closely related Travancore tor-
toise Indotestudo forstenii (Schlegel and Muller),
isolated some 2,000 km to the south in the Western
Ghats. This situation is strong support for Smith’s
statement (1931 : 16): "The Indo-Chinese hill
tortoises, Testudo elongata and Geoemyda
tricarinata, did not extend their range into the
peninsula of India (Chhota Nagpur) by crossing
the Gangetic Plain" (and on p. 143: "That it [I.
elongata ] ever crossed the Gangetic Plain as we
know it today is, of course, highly improbable").
Instead, these represent relict distributions of an
ancestor that was widely distributed during a
period when environmental conditions were very
different from what they are now.

It is important to point out that Ross and
Crumly (1983 : 429) misrepresented Smith (1931
: 16, 143) in stating that "Smith also contended
that it was unlikely that G. elongata ever extended
across the Gangetic Plain." Smith clearly was
concerned that there are species whose present
range extends across the Gangetic Plain, and he
seemed to favour the argument that this
geographic distribution predated the Gangetic
Plain.

Elements of both Smith’s (1931) and Hora’s
(1948) explanations are compatible; the two
hypotheses would need to be mutually exclusive
only if the time period under consideration were
the same. If I. elongata truly is of Indo-Chinese
origin, then at some point it, or its ancestor, had
to expand its range westward some thousands of
kilometres, across what is today Nepal and as far
as Dehra Dun. This could then have been followed
by a change in environmental conditions (perhaps
even the birth of major rivers such as the Ganga
and Brahmaputra) and subsequent isolation of the
population into southern and northern hill sites.

The Nepalese and Uttar Pradesh records
show that despite changes which might have
taken place in the environment and distribution of
I. elongata , it has managed to survive across the
length of the Gangetic plain, nearly to the south-
eastern limit of the Palearctic region. Its occur-
rence in both the terai and Chhota Nagpur show
that it is on both sides of the Ganga, and the

52

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

species is unquestionably on both sides of the
Brahmaputra.

Ironically, a complementary question which
surfaces in the light of this evidence is: why has
I horsfieldii not be able to expand into the
western Himalayan area? The eastern limit of its
geographic range (Fig. 1) extends to central Af-
ghanistan and Baluchistan (although there are
questionable records from the major cities of
Kabul and Islamabad). The answer appears to be
in the major mountain ranges of eastern Afghanis-
tan, northern Pakistan and Kashmir. Although the
species is said to live at altitudes between 1,000
and 2,000 m (J. Anderson, pers. comm.), there is
no evidence that this palea retie species has ever
been able to survive - much less cross - these

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Archer, M. (1962): Natural history drawings in the India Office
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Acknowledgements

Valuable information and comments were
given by K. Adler, K. Asher, W. Auffenberg, R. K.
Bhatnagar, B.C. Choudhry, I. Das, J.B. Iverson,
J.C. Mitchell, A.E. Leviton, W.A. Rodgers, A.F.
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C. Wemmer. The library of the British Museum
(Natural History) kindly allowed me to examine
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Fish and Wildlife Service.

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J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 89 Plate 1

Frazier: Land tortoise in Nepal

mgKm m

Plate 9 of the BM (Nil) collection of B.H. Hodgson’s drawings. Photo courtesy British Museum (Natural History).

THE LAND TORTOISE IN NEPAL : A REVIEW

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A history, checklist and zoogeographic analysis of the
herpetofauna. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., Sr. 4. 32 (6) : 103-147.
Republished 1966, J. Bengal, nat. Hist. Soc. 34 (2): 88-
144.

Theobald, W. (1870): Observations on a paper by Dr J.E. Gray,

entitled ‘Notes on the families and genera of tortoises’ etc.
Proc. Zool. Soc., Land. 1890: 674-677.

Waltner, R.C. (1973a): Geographical and altitudinal distribu-
tion of amphibians and reptiles in the Himalayas (Part I).
Cheetal 16(1): 17-25.

Waltner, R.C. (1973b): Geographical and altitudinal distribu-
tion of amphibians and reptiles in the Himalayas (Part II).
Cheetal 16 (2): 28-36.

Waltner, R.C. (1973c): Geographical and altitudinal distribu-
tion of amphibians and reptiles in the Himalayas (part III).
Cheetal 16 (3): 14-19.

Waltner, R.C. (1973d): Geographical and altitudinal distribu-
tion of amphibians and reptiles in the Himalayas (Part IV).
Cheetal 16 (4): 12-17.

Webb, R.G. (1980): Gray, Hardwicke, Buchanan-Hamilton, and
drawings of Indian Softshell turtles (family Trionychidae).
Amphibia-Reptilia. 1(1): 61-74.

Yatyayev, Ch. (1985): Presmikayushcheyesya gor Turkmyenes-
tyanya. Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan S.S.R.,
Ashkabad Ilim.

Zhao Ermi (1973): A new record of Chinese land tortoise from
Sinkiang - Testudo horsfieldi Gray. Acta Zoologica Sinica
19 (2): 198. (in Chinese).

Appendix I

LOCALITY RECORDS OF Indotestudo elongata AT THE WESTERN LIMIT OF ITS RANGE

1. Phandowala, Rajaji National Park, Dehra Dun
Siwaliks, Uttar Pradesh, India; before 1970; coll. R.K.
Bhatnagar; gravid female; probably the unnumbered
mounted female in the Zoological Survey of India
(ZSI), Dehra Dun.

2. Gairal Forest Rest House, Corbett National Park, 25-30
km NW of Ramnagar and about 75 km W of Nepal,
Garhwal District, Uttar Pradesh, India: April 1974;
Ross and Crumly 1983; photo only.

3. Sauraha, Chitwan District, Narayan, Nepal; 16 April
1985; 200 m; coll. J.C. Mitchell; USNM 267020; dog-
eaten shell.

4. Sarugara Forest, ‘4th mile’ on Siliguri - Kalimpong
road, Darjeeling District, West Bengal, India; 1970’s;
Kumirmari in Das 1988: sight records, kept as pets.

5. Baradighi Tea Estates, Jalpaiguri District, West Bengal,
India; 1915-1916; coll. W.L. Traves; seven
specimens/records in ZSI: 17992 entire in spirit, 18016
entire in spirit, 18046 given to Agra College, not traced;

18124 donated to Punjab government, not traced,

18125 entire in spirit, 18162 dry shell, 18171 not seen
since 1984; see also Baylis and Daubney 1922 : 303,
312 and Das 1988 : 21.

6. Gorumara, Jalpaiguri District, West Bengal, India; Sub-
imal Roy in Das 1988 : 22; sight record.

7. Damanpur, Buxa Division, Jalpaiguri District, West
Bengal, India; Subimal Roy in Das 1988 : 22; sight
record.

8. Western Assam, India; locality from Hoogmoed and
Crumly 1984 : Fig. 3; it is not known on what this record
was based; see Das 1988 : 4.

9. Mangaldai, Darrang District, Assam, India; 1957-58;
S.K. Sharma in Das 1988 : 3; sight record.

10. Tura, Garo Hills, Meghalaya, India; referred to in
parasitological study of Baylis and Daubney 1922 : 304,
312.

11. West Bhanugach Reserve Forest, Moulri Bazar Dis-
trict, Bangladesh; 11 January 1989; Das in litt. 4 April
1989; shell.

12. Nainimukhi, Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh; 20
February 1922; ZSI 19239 entire in spirit.

13. Chaibasa, Chhota Nagpur, Bihar, India; Anderson
1878-9: specimen not traceable according to Annandale
1913 : 76.

14. Jasandra Singhbhum, Chaibasa, Singhbhum District,
Chhota Nagpur, Bihar, India; 17 February 1901; ZSI
11379 - type of Testudo parallelus Annandale 1913 :
76ff.; shell etc. in spirit, dry skull.

54.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

15. Kumdi Village and Kodlibad Village, Saranda Forest,

Si nghbhum District, SW of Chaibasa, Bihar; 1982;

Coll. E.O. Moll and J. Vijaya, EOM 2711 and 2712;

Moll in litt. 9 Sept. 1988 & 7 Nov. 1988; two dry shells
from the villages.

16. Simuli Pahar, Mayurbhanj District, Orissa; 22 February
1971; Biswas et al. 1978; live male in Nandankanan
Zoo.

Appendix II

LOCALITY RECORDS OF Testudo horsfieldii AT THE EASTERN LIMIT OF ITS RANGE

Florida 20643 and 21353, D.L. Auth in litt. 3 October
1988.

E. Khanai, Quetta District, Baluchistan^Pakistan: 28 April
1906; two ZSI records; 15552 dry shell and skull, 15553
sent to Munich Museum.

F. 12 miles east of Balkh, Afghanistan; BM(NH) 1940.
5.1.1; dry shell.

G?) Safed-i-Rak, Kabul, Afghanistan; ZSI 5591 to 5600 ten
eggs in spirit. This locality is questionable since it is a
major city, and it is likely that the specimen was a
captive.

H?) Islamabad, Pakistan; MTKD (Staatliches Museum
fur Tierkunde, Dresden, Germany (DDR)) N. N. This
locality is questionable since it is a major city, and it
is likely that the specimen was a captive.

A. Pap Hills, Lasbela district, Baluchistan, Pakistan;
PZS 40 a; entire specimen in spirit; Ghalib et al.
1976 : 39.

B. Kalat (Kelat), Baluchistan, Pakistan; 1906; coll. G.H.
Tipper; eight ZSI specimens/records; 15537 not trace-
able. 15538 entire in spirit, 15539 sent to Vienna
Museum, 15541 dry shell and skull, 15542 dry shell and
skull, 15543 dry plastron and skull (‘sent to Munich
Museum’), 15551 dry shell and skull and 3 eggs, 15725
eggs not traceable.

C. Kowas, Sibi District, Baluchistan, Pakistan; 5
March 1976; coll. M. Farooq Ahmed; Zoological
Survey of Pakistan (PZS) 40; entire in spirit;
Ghalib et al. 1976 : 39.

D. Quetta, Baluchistan, Pakistan; at least four specimens:
BNHS 3, dry shell; ZSI 16480, skull; University of

17. Puri District, Orissa; 27 April 1969; ZSI 23550; Biswas

et al. 1978; dry shell. However, L.A.K. Singh in litt. 3
February 1988, states that ZSI 23550 was collected in
the autumn of 1968 from near Barbara Rest House,
Banapur village, Tamana or Rajin Forest Block, con-
tiguous with Satkoshia Gorge Sanctuary (north of
Mahanadi River), evidently in Cuttack disk

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY - 35 : TROGLODYTIDAE, CINCLIDAE, PRUNELLIDAE, PARIDAE, SITTIDAE

AND CERTHIIDAE

Humayun Abdulali and Saraswathy Unnithan
(Continued from Vol. 88 (1) : 80)

This part covers 866 specimens of 88 species and subspecies, nos. 1769-1851 in handbook of the birds
ofindiaand Pakistan & synopsis and 14 extra limitals. Of the 88 from Indian limits we have no specimens of 18
forms (3 species and 15 subspecies). As in Part 34, the bulk of the work has been done by S.U. and H.A. has
only read over and checked the final work.

1769. Troglodytes troglodytes magrathi
(Whitehead) (Safed Koh) Magrath’s Wren. 1 : 446

nil.

1770. TVoglodytes troglodytes neglectus Brooks

(Kashmir) Kashmir Wren 1 : 446

16: 6 males (2 juv.) 4 females (2 juv.) 6 ? (2 juv.).

5 Liddar Valley, 1 Barnaibut, 2 Kashmir, 1 Tara Devi,
1 Patiala State, 1 Fagu, Keonthal State, 1 Koti State, 4 Simla,
N.W. Himalayas.

There are six juveniles collected during June
July and August among them whose measure-
ments do not show much difference.
Measurements on p. 64.

1771. TVoglodytes troglodytes nipalensis Blyth

(Nepal) Nepal Wren 1 : 445

Darker than 1770 though collected in the
cold weather

11:3 males 7 females 1 ?

1 Mangalbara, E. Nepal, 4 Phalut, Darjeeling DL; 3
Lachung, N. Sikkim, 2 Chimakothi, 1 Chapcha, W. Bhutan.

There are no juveniles all being collected in
winter, November to February.

Measurements on p. 64.

EL. Troglodytes troglodytes hyrcanus (Zarudny
and Loudon) Northern Iran and Turkmenia

1 ? Dohuk, Kurdistan.

Chin to vent washed with white, upper parts
paler than in both 1770 and 1771.

1772. Cinclus cinclus leucogaster Bonaparte
(West Siberia) Whitebellied Dipper

2:3

2: 1 male 1 female

1 Tashkent, U.S.SJl., 1 Boston Terek.

Measurements on p. 64.

1773. Cinclus cinclus cashmeriensis Gould

(Kashmir) Whitebreasted Dipper 2 : 2

3: 1 male 1 female 1 ?

1 Chagre, 1 Kardong, Ladak; lAmuchhu; R. Phaxma,
Tibet 11000'.

Measurements on p. 64.

1774. Cinclus cinclus przewalskii Bianchi (Den-

chu, basin of the Yangtse-kiang) Eastern
whitebreasted Dipper 2 : 2

nil.

1775. Cinclus pallasii tenuirostris Bonaparte
(Himalayas) West Himalayan Brown Dipper

2:4

23: 14 males (6 juv.) 7 females (2 juv.) 2 ? (both juv.)

6 Chitral, 1 Banihal village, 1 Kulotran, Badrawar, 1
Kashmir, 2 Patiala State, 1 Koti State, 1 Glow stream, 1
Narkanda, 5 Simla; 1 Guptakashi, 1 Yoshinath, 2 Badrinath,
Garhwal.

There are 10 juveniles (6 m, 2 f, 2 ?). Entirely
different in colouration from the adult. They are
grey with numerous white spots, and are smaller
in measurements, which are given separately.
Measurements on p. 64.

1776. Cinclus pallasii dorjei Kinnear (Sakden,
E. Bhutan) East Himalayan Brown Dipper

2:5

6 :1 male 4 females 1?

1 Tibet, 1 Kurseong, 1 Mangdechu, 1 Batase, C.
Bhutan, 1 Gomchu. E. Bhutan, 1 Mishmi Hills, Burma.

One each from Batase (March) and Kur-
seong (Dec.) are paler above than the others.
Measurements on p. 64.

1777. Prunella collaris rufdata (Severtzov)
(Turkestan) Turkestan Alpine Accentor 2 : 189

3 : 2 males 1 female

56

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

2 Kesun, 1 Drosh, Chitral.

Measurements on p. 64.

With the material available no. 1777 and
1778 are barely separable.

1778. Prunella collaris whymperi (Baker)
(Garhwal) Garhwal Alpine Accentor 2 : 188

11:3 males 4 females 4 ?

2 Liddar Valley, Kashmir, 3 Kufri, Koti State, 4 Simla,
N.W.H.; 2 Nila Valley, Garhwal.

Measurements on p. 64.

1779. Prunella collaris nipalensis (Blyth)

(Kachar region of Nepal) Eastern Alpine Accen-
tor* # 2 : 188

5 : 3 males 1 female 1 ? (2 * missing)

1 Lachung, N. Sikkim, 1 Chapcha, W. Bhutan, P*Kama
Valley*, 1 E. Everest, Tibet*, 1 Mishmi Hills.

The two marked are missing, but the remain-
ing three have the darkest upperparts and grey of
breast.

Measurements on p. 64.

1780. Prunella himalayana (Blyth) (Himalaya

range) Altai Accentor 2:191

14 : 4 males 9 females 1 ?

2 Duala-Dar range, Dharmsala, 3 Tara Devi, Patiala
State, 3 Mashobra, 2 Simla N.W.H.; 4 Chungthang, Lachung,
Sikkim.

Measurements onp. 65.

1781. Prunella rubeculoides (Moore) (Nepal)

Robin Accentor 2 :193

5 : 2 males 1 female 2 ?

1 Debring, 1 Rupshu, Kashmir, 1 Sukta, Ladak, 1
Gyangtse, Tibet, 1 no locality.

Measurements on p. 65.

1782. Prunella strophiata jerdoni (Brooks)
(Kashmir) Western Rufousbreasted Accentor

2: 197

16 : 4 males 7 female 5 ?

1 Gulmarg, 1 Mornaula, 1 Pyas, Kishtwar, 3 Liddar
Valley, 1 Kashmir; 1 Fagu, Keonthal St., 2 Koti State, 2 Patiala
State, 3 Simla N.W.H.; 1 Pindari, Garhwal.

3 (sex?) immature from Liddar (2) and Pin-
dari (Garhwal) differ in the absence of the broad
band across the breast, the orange-rufous eyebrow
and the faint trace of the double wing-bar. The last
in white exists in the one from Pindari 10500', and
the bird has a paler breast band and pale eyebrows.

Measurements on p. 65.

1783. Prunella strophiata strophiata (Blyth)
(Nepal) Eastern Rufousbreasted Accentor 2 : 196

18 : 7 males 3 females 8 ?

2 Lachung, N. Sikkim, 1 Sikkim, 1 Native Sikkim; 1
Honka, 2 Chimakoti, 1 Chapcha, W. Bhutan, 1 Shamgong, 1
Batase, C. Bhutan, 5 Rongtong, 1 Wamrong, 1 Gomchu, 1
Narphong, E. Bhutan.

Measurements onp. 65.

1784. Prunella fulvescens fulvescens

(Severtzov) (Turkestan) Turkestan Brown Accen-
tor 2 : 198

5: 1 male 2 females 2 ?

1 Chitral, Drosh, 1 Gilgit, 1 Kashgar, Vibulak, 1 Kar-
dong, 1 Sasar Pass, Ladak.

Measurements on p. 65.

1785. Prunella fulvescens sushkini Collin &

Hartert (Khamba-jong, Tibet) Tibet Brown Ac-
centor 2 : 198

1 male Kaungmar; Tibet.

Measurements on p. 65

1785a. Prunella fulvescens ocularis (Radde)
(Kiz Yurdi Mt, Talych) Radde ’s Accentor 8 : 626
1 (sex?) Chaman, Baluchistan.

1786. Prunella atrogularis huttoni (Moore)
(Simla) Turkestan Blackthroated Accentor

2: 194

11: 4 males 4 females 3 ?

1 Quetta, 1 Wana, Waziristan, 2 Drosh, 1 Ayun, 2
Chitral, 1 Gora Gali, Murree Hills, 1 Rawalpindi; 1 Patiala
St., N.W.H.; 1 Chandigarh, Ambala Dt.

Measurements on p. 65.

1787. Prunella atrogularis atrogularis (Brandt)
(Semipalatinsk) Ural Blackthroated Accentor

2:194

nil.

1787a. Prunella montanella montanella (Pal-
las) (Dauria) Siberian Accentor
nil.

1788. Prunella immaculata (Hodgson) (Central

and northern regions of the Hills, Nepal) Maroon-
backed Accentor 2:193

6: 1 male 2 females 3 ?

1 Shamgong, C. Bhutan, 3 Gomchu, 1 Narphong, E.
Bhutan, 1 North Shan States, Burma.

Measurements on p. 65.

CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

57

1789. Melanochlora sultanea sultanea

(Hodgson) (Central and northern regions of the
Hills, Nepal) Sultan Tit. 1 : 101

28 : 17 males 11 females

1 Nepal, 2 Longview TE, 2 Savoke, Darjeeling Dt, 2
Pershoke, Sikkim, 1 Martham, Rongni Valley, 2 Tama, C.
Bhutan, 2 Deothang E. Bhutan, 1 Singtam, Teesta Valley, 1
Hungrum, N. Cachar, 1 Bagh-o-bahar, Cachar, 2 Margherita,

2 Tezu, Lohit Valley, U. Assam; 1 Tarajuli, Arunachal
Pradesh, 1 Memon, U. Burma , 1 SE of May my o, 1 Mansum,
1 Dabahka, 3 Tangti, North Shan States, Burma , 1 no locality.

Measurements on p. 65.

1790. Parus major ziaratensis Whistler (Ziarat,
Baluchistan) Baluchis.tan Grey Tit

1 : 76

1 female, Harboi, Baluchistan.

Measurements on p. 66.

1791. Parus major decolorans Koelz (Jalabad,
eastern Afghanistan) Afghanistan Grey Tit 1 :76

nil.

1792. Parus major caschmirensis Hartert (Gil-

git) Kashmir Grey Tit 1: 76

14 : 6 males 5 females 3 ?

3 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Dachigam, 1 Badat, Kishtwar, 1
Kashmir, 1 Jhelum, 1 Jhalor, nr. Campbellpur, 1 Lahore, 1
Ambala, Punjab, 1 Bhajji St., 3 Simla, N.W.H.

A high altitude bird, descends to lower eleva-
tions in winter.

Measurements on p. 66.

1793. Parus major nipalensis Hodgson (Nepal)

Nepal Grey Tit 1 : 74, 77

10 : 6 males 3 females 1 ?

1 Bhajji State, 1 Gama-ki-Hatti, Dharmi State, 1 Kalka,

3 Simla N.W.H., 1 Kqruprayag, 1 Ranighet, 1 Almora,
Garhwal, 1 Pilibhit Terai, U.P.

Averages smaller than caschmirensis.
Measurements on p. 66.

1794. Parus major stupae Koelz (Sanchi,

Bhopal) Indian Grey Tit 1 : 77

41: 19 males 12 females 10 ?

3 Sunda Hill, Jaswantpura, Dt. Jodhpur, 1 Narwar Fort,
Gwalior State, 1 Gangasagar, Palanpur St., Gujarat, 2 Jam-
bughoda, 2 Dohad, Panch Mahals, 1 Dalkhania, Amreli Dt.,
Kathiawar, 1 Ghatwad,S. Kathiawar, 1 Malegaon, 1 Laochali,
Surat Dangs, 2 Bijwar, Indore St, 1 Jabalpore, C.I., 1
Bhanupratappur, Kanker, 2 Konta, Bastar Dt, C.P., 1 Nasik,
1 Suriamal, Thane Dt, 1 Mehda, 1 Satara, 2 Dodballapur,

Bangalore, 1 Kumili, 1 Merchiston, Ponmudi, S. Travancore,
1 Kotagiri, Nilgiris, 1 Manalur, Palni Hills, 2 Nelipaka, 1
Kaulas, 1 Paloncha, Hyderabad, 1 Kutri, Daspalla, 3
Badrama, Bamra, 1 Chahala, Simlipal, Orissa, 3 Rajapati,
Chapra, Saran Dt., Bihar.

Measurements on p. 66.

1795. Parus major mahrattarum Hartert

(Ceylon) Ceylon Grey Tit 1 : 77

nil.

1796. Parus major vauriei Ripley (Chabua,
Northeastern Assam) Lakhimpur Grey Tit 1 : 74

4 : 3 males 1 female

3 Dibrugarh, 1 Sadiya, U. Assam.

Measurements on p. 66.

1797. Parus major tibetanus Hartert (Chaksam
in Tsangpo Valley, Tibet) Tibet Grey Tit 1 : 346

nil.

EL. Parus major commixtus (Swinhoe) (South
China) Burmese Great Tit 1 : 78

4 : 1 male 1 female 2 ?

1 U. Burma, 1 Maymyo, 1 Saw pakoku, 1 Shatzusth,
North Shan States, Burma.

Measurements on p. 66.

EL. Parus major minor Temminck & Schlegel
(Japan)

2 males

1 Forgyi, Shan States, Burma, 1 Peking, China.

Measurements on p. 66.

EL. Parus major major Linnaeus (Sweden)

1 male, Hungary ?

Measurements on p. 66.

EL. Parus major intermedius Zarudnyi (Kopet
Dagh mountain system of Afghanistan &
Baluchistan)

7 : 4 males, 3 females

1 Shiraz , 1 Turbat, nr Meshed , 5 Meshed, Persia.

Measurements on p. 66.

EL. Parus major blanfordi Prazak (Tehran)

6 : 2 males 2 females 2 ?

1 Dohuk, Kurdistan, 1 Shush, Karkheh River, 1 Jungle
on Karkheh R., 1 Legation-Gulahek, Tehran, 1 Shiraz, 1
Engeli, Persia.

Measurements on p. 66.

1798. Parus nuchalis Jerdon (Eastern Ghats)

Whitewinged Black Tit 1 : 79

58

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

11: 7 males 3 females 1 ?

1 Gangasagar, Palanpur, 4 Bhuj, 2 Mata-no-madh, 2
Chaduva, 1 Godsar, Bhuj env., 1 Kutch.

Baker (Faun^t Vol. 1, p. 79) gives one
description of the bird, so we presume he intended
this for both the sexes. Indian Handbook (Vol. 9,
p. 172) says the sexes are alike. Mr Simon Harrap
who has been working on the Paridae at the British
Museum drew our attention to the following in his
mss. He has examined the material at the B.M. and
says the sexes are distinct in so far as the male has
the entire upper parts deep black, glossed blue,
strongest on the crown and mantle. The female
has the upper parts duller, sooty brown-black
glossed blue on the crown only, flanks and sides
of breast with a more distinct pale yellow wash
than in the male, the median line on the underparts
very sjightly paler. In general our observations
agree with this.

In the three female specimens the crown is
sooty brown-black without a blue gloss and flanks
and sides of breast without any pale yellow wash,
(HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN
says this colour fades into pure white in museum
specimens) and the median line is definitely paler
than in the male. Of the two males from Kutch,
one collected on 28 Sept. 1943 and the other going
back to July 1896, both lack the glossy black of
the other males; the former is either wrongly
sexed or is in juvenile plumage while the latter
may have faded. The unsexed specimen from
Gangasagar is in male plumage.

Perhaps the publication of the Harrap notes
may produce additional information from other
sources.

Measurements on p. 66.

1799. Parus monticolus monticolus Vigors
(Himalayan Mountains = Simla) Greenbacked Tit

1:80

43 : 23 males 13 females 7 ?

1 Dachigam, Kashmir, 2 Dalhousie, Punjab, 12 Simla,
N.W.H., 1 Mussoorie, 1 Bora, Almora, 1 Ghat, 1 Pothibassa,
1 Yoshinath, Garhwal, 1 Himalayas, 1 Godavri, Nepal, 1
Kurseong, 4 Rinchinpong, W. Sjkkim, 1 Sikkim, 1
Chimakothi, W. Bhutan, 1 Khosela,! Narphong 1 Wamrong
E. Bhutan, 5 Shillong, 2 Kohima, Naga Hills; 1 Dam, 1
Lac-Tango, S. Tibet, 1 Chin Hills, 1 Loi Wong N. Shan States,

Burma.

Measurements on p. 66.

1800. Parus cyanus flavipectus Severtzov
(Turkestan) Yellowbreasted Blue Tit

2 : 1 male 1 female

2 Chitral. No yellow is visible on the breast
Measurements on p. 67.

1800a. Parus cyanus tianschanicus (Menzbier)
(Tien Shan) Tien Shan Blue Tit 1 : 81

nil.

1801. Parus hypermelas (Berezovski & Bianchi)
(Shensi and the border of Kansu) Blackbibbed Tit

1:82

nil.

1802. Parus melanolophus Vigors (Himalayan

Mountains= Simla-Almora area) Crested Black
Tit 1 : 83

28 : 17 males 6 females 5 ?

2 Chitral, 1 Nultar Valley, Gilgit, 2 Liddar Valley, 1
Kashmir, 1 Rawalpindi, 2 Dalhousie, Punjab, 3 Simla, 1 Fagu,
Keonthal St., 1 Mt Hutto, Kumarsain, 2 Kufri, 1 Koti St, 4
Dakuri, Kumaon, 1 Dungari, 1 Mounkhal, 1 Talla, Garhwal,

1 Sirkunda 4 m fromDhanaulti, Mussoorie, 1 Bhawali, Naini-
tal; 2 no locality.

Measurements on p. 67.

1803. Parus ater aemodius Hodgson (Nepal)

Himalayan Coal Tit 1: 84

6: 3 males 3 females

5 Lachung, N. Sikkim, 1 Bumthang C. Bhutan.
Measurements on p. 67.

1804. Parus rubidiventris rufonuchalis Blyth
(range beyond Simla) Simla Black Tit 1 : 85

20: 10 males 9 females 1?

2 Tashkent, U.S.S.R. , 4 Rawalpindi, 4 Chitral, 1
Srinagar, 1 Liddar Valley, 2 7m below Yus, 1
Danguil, Kishtwar, Kashmir, 1 Kaying Bashi, 2
Baghi, Bushahr St., N.W.H., 1 Harsi, 1 Gangotri,
Garhwal.

Measurements on p. 67.

1805. Parus rubidiventris rubidiventris Blyth
(Nepal and Sikkim, restricted to Kathmandu Val-
ley by Ripley) Rufousbellied Crested Tit 1 : 84

1 male, Kalabagh, Jubbal St., Garhwal.

Rufous abdomen separates this subspecies
from others.

CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

59

Measurements on p. 67.

1806. Parus rubidiventris beavani (Jerdon)
(Mount Tonglo, Sikkim) Sikkim Black Tit 1 : 86

3 males

1 Tonglo, 2 Phalut, Darjeeling.

Measurements on p. 67.

1806a. Parus rubidiventris saramatii Ripley.
(Mount Saramati, Naga Hills) Nagaland Black
Tit.

nil.

1807. Parus dichrous kangrae (Whistler) Koti
State, near Simla) Western Brown Crested Tit

1:87

4: 1 male 2 females 1 ?

2 Narkanda, 1 Baghi, Bushahr State, 1 Simla Hills,
N.W.H.

Measurements on p. 67.

1808. Parus dichrous dichrous Hodgson

(Nepal) Eastern Brown Crested Tit 1 : 87

3: 2 males 1 female

1 Lachung, N. Sikkim, 2 Tongloo, near Darjeeling.
Measurements on p. 67.

1809. Parus xanthogenys xanthogenys Vigors
(Himalayan Mountains restricted to Murree by
Baker) Northern Yellowcheeked Tit

18 : 11 males 3 females 4?

1 Ghora gali, Murree Hills, 2 Dalhousie, Punjab; 2
Keonthal State, 6 Simla, N.W.H., 1 Bhim Tal, 1 Ranibaug, 1
Mornaula, 1 Bhawali, 1 Naini Tal, 1 Kumaon, 1 Godavri,
Nepal.

Measurements on p. 67-68.

1810. Parus xanthogenys aplonotus Blyth
(Mountains of central India, restricted to
Chaibasa, Singhbhum, Bihar by Whistler and
Kinnear) Central India Yellowcheeked Tit

1 :92

33: 17 males 13 females 3 ? (1 male 2 females by
plumage).

3 Juna, Rajpipla, 1 Pandwa, 1 Malegaon, Surat Dangs,
1 Lonawala, Western Ghats, 1 Poona, 2 guna, 1 Badarwas,
Gwalior State, 1 Saugar, 1 Sehore, Bhopal State, 1 Paryat,
Jabalpur, 1 Mandu, Dhar State, 1 Melghat, Raipur, Berar, 1
Lahottar Reserve Forest, 2 Bhanupratappur, Ranker, 1 Darba,
Bastar DL 1 Upper Bharakhamba, 1 Chahala, Simlipal, 3
Badrama, Bamra, Orissa, 5 Anantgiri, 1 Valaspara, near
Sileru, 1 Sankrametta, Vizagapatnam, 2 Wangasara, Andhra
Pradesh.

Measurements on pp. 67-68.

1811. Parus xanthogenys travancoreensis

(Whistler & Kinnear) (Mynall, Travancore)
Southern Yellowcheeked Tit 1 : 92

23: 17 males 5 females 1?

1 Colvalli, Goa, 1 South Konkan, 2 Sunkal, 2 Castle
Rock, Kanara, 1 Horabail, Sagar, Shimoga, 1 Jagar Valley,
Bababudan Hills, Kadur Dt., 1 Sakleshpur, Hassan Dt.,
Mysore, 2 Mercara, Coorg, 1 Runnimadi, 1 Kottamalai,
Cherambadi, 1 Kodanad, beyond Kotagiri, Nilgiris, 1
Perumalmalai, 6 Shembagnur, Palni Hills, 2Santanpara, Car-
damom Hills.

There is no polymorphism as stated by
Whistler and Kinnear in the description (Unnithan
infra p. 126).

Measurements on p. 68.

1812. Parus spilonotus spilonolus Bonaparte

(Himalaya, restricted to N. Cachar by Baker)
Himalayan Blackspotted Yellow Tit 1 : 89

15: 8 males 6 females 1 ?

1 Sikkim, 1 Darjeeling; 1 Tama, C. Bhutan, 2 Wam-
rong E. Bhutan, 2 Barha Pari, 7 Shillong, 1 Che/ra, Assam.

All these specimens were wrongly identified
and registered as Parus xanthogenys.
Measurements on p. 68.

1812a. Parus spilonotus subviridis Blyth
(Tenasserim) Burmese Blackspotted Yellow Tit.

1: 91

1 (sex?) Pimpri Ban, S. Shan States, Burma.

This was also in the Parus xanthogenys.

EL. Parus palustris hellmayri Bianchi
(Peking).

4: 2 males 2 females
4 Temple of Heaven, Peking.

These were in P. major.

Measurements on p. 68.

1813. Sylviparus modestus simlaensis Baker

(Simla) Simla Yellowb rowed Tit 1:88

7: 4 males 3 females
3 Dharmsala, 4 Simla, N.W.H.

The yellow has almost disappeared from the
forehead.

Measurements on p. 68.

1814. Sylviparus modestus modestus Burton

(Nepal) Eastern Yellowbrowed Tit 1 : 88

60

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 89

11: 5 males 4 females 2 ?

1 Mangalbare, E. Nepal, 1 Chungthang, N. Sikkim, 1
Chapcha, West, 2 Chimakothi, West, 1 Shamgong, Central, 3
Gomchu, 2 Rongtong, East Bhutan.

Measurements on p. 68.

1815. Cephalopyrus flammiceps flammiceps
(Burton) (Mussoorie) Western Firecapped Tit

2 : 545

9: 5 males 4 females

1 Kalka, 4 Simla, N.W.H., 1 Ladwa, Karnal Dt., 2
Baretha, Bharatpur, 1 Surwaya, Gwalior.

Measurements on p. 68.

1816. Cephalopyrus flammiceps olivaceus

Rothschild (Vicinity of Tengyueh) Eastern
Firecapped Tit. 1 :545

3 males

2 Gomchu, E. Bhutan, 1 Goalpara, Assam.
Measurements on p. 68.

1817. Remiz pendulinus coronatus (Severtzov)

(Khodzhent, Thrkestan) Penduline Tit 1 : 100

10: 3 males 7 females

1 Karram Darra, Persia ; 2 Kohat, N.W.F.R, 2 Lahore,
Punjab, 1 Bahawalnagar, 2 Harunabad, 2 Bahawalpur town
env.

Measurements on p. 68.

1818. Aegithalos concinnus iredalei (Baker)

(Himalayas restricted to Simla) Western Red-
headed Tit 1 : 93

32: 16 males (3 juv.) 7 females (juv.) 9 ? (5 juv.)

1 Mugalmaidan, 2 Bandarkoti, Kishtwar, 3 Dalhousie,
1 Dharmsala, Punjab, 2 Dakuri, 10 Simla, 3 Koti St., 2 Kufri,
Patiala St, N.W.H., 1 Pindari Valley, 2 Loliba, 2 Mussooree,
1 Mornaula, U.P., 1 Godavri, 1 Sheopur Ridge, Nepal.

Juveniles of both sexes have pale forehead
and underparts.

Measurements on p. 69.

1819. Aegithalos concinnus rubricapillus
(Ticehurst) (Sikkim) Eastern Redheaded Tit 1 : 93

8: 5 males 2 females 1?

1 Chungthang, 1 Rinchinpong, W. Sikkim; 1 Gedu,
West, 1 Batase, 1 Shamgong Central, 1 Wamrong, 1 Gomchu,
1 Rongtong, East Bhutan.

Upperparts darker and underparts more
rufous than in 1818.

Measurements on p. 69.

1820. Aegithalos concinnus manipurensis
(Hume) (Eastern hills, Manipur) Manipur Red-

headed Tit 1 : 94

1 ? Chin Hills, Burma.

EL. Aegithalos concinnus pulchellus (Rippon)
(Nanoi, S. Shan States) Shan Redheaded Tit

1 :95

1 ? South Shan States, Burma.

1821. Aegithalos leucogenys (Moore) (Balu

Chughur, north east Afghanistan) Whitecheeked
Tit 1 : 97

5: 3 males, 2 females

3 Chitral, 2 Jhalor near Campbellpur, W. Punjab.

All the five are correctly marked leucogenys

by earlier workers.

Measurements on p. 69.

1822. Aegithalos niveogularis (Gould) (North

India restricted to northern Punjab) Whitethroated
Tit 1 : 98

nil.

1823. Aegithalos iouschistos iouschistos

(Hodgson) (Nepal) Rufousfronted Tit 1 : 99

4 males

1 Darjeeling, 2 Chapcha, West, 1 Rongtong, East
Bhutan.

Measurements on p. 69.

EL. Aegithalos bonvaloti sharpei (Rippon) (Mt.
Victoria, Chin Hills) Mt. Victoria Blackheaded
Tit 1 : 97

1 ? ML Victoria, Chin Hills.

1824. Sitta europaea cashmirensis Brooks

(Kashmir) Kashmir Nuthatch 1 : 128

5 : 1 male 3 females 1 ?

1 Shinghar, North East Baluchistan, 2 Chitral, NWFP,
1 below Pahalgam, 1 Kashmir.

Measurements on p. 69.

1825. Sitta europaea montium La Touche
(Atuntze, N.W. Yunnan) Chinese Nuthatch

nil.

1826. Sitta europaea nagaensis Godwin- Austen

(Naga Hills) Naga Nuthatch 1 : 127

2 ? 1 Mt. Victoria, 1 Keelpkai, South Shan States,
Burma.

1827. Sitta castanea almorae Kinnear &

Whistler (Valley of Ramganga between Almora
and Pethora) 1 : 125

7: 4 males 2 females 1 ?

3 Ranibaug, Kumaon, 1 Gwaldam, Garhwal, 1 Bans, 1

CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

61

Gurua, 1 Bageswar, Almora, U.P.

Measurements on p. 69.

1828. Sitta castanea cinnamoventris Blyth
(Darjeeling) Eastern Chestnutbellied Nuthatch

1 : 125

17: 11 males 5 females 1 ?

1 Singtam, Teesta Valley, 1 Martam, Rongini Valley, 1
Rangpo, Sikkim, 1 Samchi, West, 2 Tama, 1 Mangdechu,
Central, 1 Deothang, East Bhutan, 1 Shillong, 4 Margherita,
1 Tezu, Lohit Valley, 1 Mishing, Abor Country, 2 40 miles
from Miao, Arunachal Pradesh.

Measurements on p. 69.

1829. Sitta castanea koelzi Vaurie (Patkai Hills,

Assam-Burma Border) Naga Chestnutbellied
Nuthatch 1 : 125

nil.

1830. Sitta castanea castanea Lesson (Bengale)

Peninsular Chestnutbellied Nuthatch 1 : 123

22: 13 males 9 females

3 Ambala, 1 Indri, Karnal Dt., 1 Dehradun, 1 Kumaon,
Nainital, 1 Meerut, 2 Chikalda, 1 Raipur, Melghat, Berar, 2
Kaulas, Nander Dt., 1 Antagarh, 1 Bastar St., 4 Bhanupra tap-
pur, Ranker, C.P., 1 Banaras, 2 Baghowni, Tirhut, 1 Narhar,
Madhubani.

Measurements on p. 69-70.

1831. Sitta castanea prateri Whistler & Kinnear

(Anantagiri, Vishakhapatnam Dt.) Eastern Ghats
Chestnutbellied Nuthatch 1:123

11 : 6 males 5 females

3 Koira, Bonai, 2 Chahala, 2 Gurguria, Simlipal hills,
Mayurbhanj, Orissa, 3 Anantagiri, 1 Sankrametta, Vishak-
hapatnam Dt

This race is separable from the nominate by
their heavier bill and larger size. But Vaurie 1957
(Palearctic birds No. 29, p. 19) opines that prateri
does not appear to be separable from castania and
synonymises it with the nominate race.
Measurements on p. 69-70.

EL. Sitta castanea neglecta (Wald, A.M.N.H.)
(Karen Hills) Burmese Nuthatch

4 : 1 male 1 female 2 ?

1 Maymyo, Mandate Dt., 1 Loikaw, South Shan States,
1 Imbin,. Henzada Dt., 1 Jonge, Burma.

Measurements on p. 69-70.

1832. Sitta leucopsis leucopsis Gould
(Himalayas) Western Whiteeheeked Nuthatch

1 : 130

10: 3 male 5 females 2 ?

1 Kafiristan, 1200' Afghanistan; 1 Dungagali, 1 Bodiar,
1 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Kufri, 2 Koti St., 1 Simla N.W.H.; 1
Garhwal; 1 no locality.

Measurements on p. 70.

1833. Sitta leucopsis przewalskii Berezovski &
Bianchi (Mindsheu dist., Upper Hwangho R.,
eastern Tsinghai, China) Eastern Whitefaced
Nuthatch

nil.

1834. Sitta himalayensis himalayensis Jardine

& Selby (Himalaya Mts = Simla) Himalayan
Whitetailed Nuthatch 1 : 122

a) 16: 7 males 7 females 2 ?

3 Dakuri, 8900', 2 Koti State, 7 Simla, N.W.H.; 2
Mussorie, 1 Gorikund, Kedarnath, 1 Garhwal, U.P.

Measurements on p. 70.

b) 16: 8 males 8 females

2 Hathiban, Nepal, 2 Chungthang, N. Sikkim, 1 Dar-
jeeling, 1 Gedu, W., 1 Batase, C., 1 Shamgong, Central, 1
Narphong, 3 Wamrong, 3 Gomchu, 1 Rongtong, East Bhutan.

Eastern birds could be separated from the
Western Himalayan birds by paler throat and
breast and in measurements they average smaller,
and are separately marked and kept.
Measurements on p. 70

1835. Sitta himalayensis australis Koelz (Tek-

hubama, Naga Hills, Assam) Assam Whitetailed
Nuthatch 1:122

nil.

1836. Sitta tephronota tephronota Sharpe

(Kokand, Ferghana, Central Asia) Eastern Rock
Nuthatch 1 : 129

11 : 4 males 5 females 2 ?

1 Najimabad, Korasan, 4 Amirabad, 1 Rum 52 m N.
Birjand, 1 Meshed, 1 Naugab, nr. Kain, Persia; 1 Srinagar, 1
Quetta, 1 Mazhmonk stream 11 m E of Kalat

All the eleven specimens are marked Sitta
neumayer tephronota by earlier workers.
Measurements on p. 70.

EL. Sitta tephronota dresseri Zar & But (Moun-
tains of S.W. Persia)

13: 3 males 8 females 2 ?

1 Kasu, Sheser, 1 Shustan, Persia, 11 Persian Gulf.

Paler and larger than tephronota. The bill is
much longer and heavier. All of them are marked

5

62

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Sitta neumayer dresseri by earlier workers. Three
specimens 662 f, 663 f and 664 (sex?) are greyer
below instead of the usual white fawn colour, are
marked by C.B. Ticehurst as " dresseri but very
dirty".

Measurements on p. 70.

1837. Sitta formosa Blyth (Darjeeling) Beautiful

Nuthatch 1 : 131

nil.

1838. Sitta frontalis frontalis Swainson

(Ceylon) Velvetfronted Nuthatch 1:132

51: 21 males 21 females 9?

1 Dehra Dun, 1 Bans, Almora, 2 Ranibaug, U.R, 2
Songadh, Navsari Dt., Gujarat, 1 Antagarh, 1 Bailadila,
Basatar Dt., 1 Molem, Goa, 2 Kadra, N. Kanara, 2 Honamethi
estate, Mysore, 1 Palakapandy, S. Malabar, 1 Muthukuzhi, 1
Kumili High Range, 1 Peerumedu, 1 Devikulam, Travancore,
1 Shembagnur, 1 Palnighat, 1 Longwood Shola, 3
Ootacamund, 2 Avalanche, Nilgiris, 1 Shevaroy Hills, Salem
Dt, 1 Dharakonda, 1 Anantagiri, 2 Sankrametta, Vizag, 1
Koira, Bonai, 1 Badrama, Bamra, 2 Chahala, Simlipal,
Mayurbhanj, Orissa, 1 Bagho-o-bahar T.E., Cachar, 2 Rama
T.E., S. Sylhet, 1 Singtam, Teesta Valley, 1 Sukua, Darjeeling
Dt, 3 Barhapani, 1 Shillong, Assam; 3 Sima , U. Burma, 1
Jade-mines, IMindon Yoma, Thayetmyo, 2Henzada, Burma.

Measurements on p. 70.

1839. Tichodroma muraria nepalensis
Bonaparte (Central Asia) Wall Creeper 1 : 441

26: 10 males 10 females 6 ?

1 Quetta, Baluchistan, 1 Rawalpindi, 1 Madhopur, Gur-
daspur Dt, 1 Rajapur, Kangra Dt, 1 Jagadri, Ambala Dt,
Punjab, 1 Tara Devi, 1 Keonthal St, 3 Simla, N.W.H., 1
Garhwal, 1 Dehradun, 1 Bhim Tal, 1 Kumaon, U.P., 1
Chungthang, Sikkim, 3 Kurseong Div., 2 Long View T.E.,
Darjeeling Dt, 1 Khosela, 1 Chapcha, W. Bhutan, 1 Nar-
phong, E., 2 Gomchu , E. Bhutan, 1 Kangmar ?

There is much variation in the extent of grey
on the upper parts but this cannot be linked with
any other factors.

Measurements on p. 70.

EL. Tichodroma muraria muraria (Linn.)
(Southern Europe)

2 : 1 male 1 ?

1 Birjand, 1 Nineveh, Persia.

Measurements on p. 70.

1840. Salpomis spilonotus rajputanae R. & A.
Meinertzhagen (Sambhur) Rajasthan Spotted

Grey Creeper 1 : 439

1 male Nazirabad, Rajputana.

Upper parts greyer than in the nominate sub-
species and under parts not heavily marked.

This specimen is marked rajputanae by
Meinertzhagen. It does appear paler than the
nominate form.

Measurements onp. 71.

1841. Salpornis spilonotus spilonotus

(Franklin) (Vindhyan Hills) Indian Spotted Grey
Creeper 1 : 439

5: 2 males 1 female 2 ?

2 Dediapada, Rajpipla St, Gujarat, 1 Kannad, Auran-
gabad Dt, 1 Bhanupratappur, Ranker, C.P.; 1 no locality.

Upperparts darker and underparts more
heavily marked than rajputanae. The female has
been misplaced and cannot now be found.
Measurements onp. 71.

1842. Certhia familiaris hodgsoni Brooks

(Cashmir) Kashmir Tree Creeper 1 : 434

nil.

1843. Certhia familiaris mandelli Brooks (Sik-
kim) Mandelli’s Tree Creeper

5: 1 male 3 females 1 ?

1 Yoshimath, Garhwal, 2 Lachung, N. Sikkim, 1 Chap-
cha, West, 1 Tama, Central Bhutan.

Measurements on p. 71.

1844. Certhia familiaris khamensis Bianchi

(Kansu .... Upper Mekong = Kham, upper
Mekong) Tibetan Tree Creeper 1 : 434

nil.

EL. Certhia familiaris bianchii Hartert (North-
ern China-Kansu)

2 females, one from Temple of Heaven and another
from Peking.

bianchii is less whitish below and has a slightly longer tall, much

darker.

Measurements onp. 71.

1845. Certhia himalayana limes Meinertzhagen
(Gilgit) West Himalayan Tree Creeper

1 : 430, 431

10 : 2 males 6 females 2 ?

1 Yusmarg Fir Forest, 1 Chinchoti, Kishtwar, 1 Kash-
mir, 1 Jammu State nr Madhopur, 2 Dalhousie, 1 Chachran,
1 Bhung, 1 Bahawal nagar, 1 Bahawalpur town env., Punjab.

Measurements on p. 71.

CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

63

1846. Certhia himalayana taeniura Severtzov
(Chimkent, Turkestan) Turkestan Tree Creeper

1 : 431

3: 1 male 1 female 1 ?

Three specimens from Rawalpindi, Punjab
are marked by Salim Ali as taeniura (or limes).
They are palest and greyish above and appear to
be different from limes.

Measurements on p. 71

1847. Certhia himalayana liimalayana Vigors
(Himalayan Mountains) Himalayan Tree Creeper

1 : 430

17: 8 males 3 females 6 ?

2 Liddar Valley, Kashmir, 1 Baghi, Bushahr State, 1
Mahasu, 1 Koti State, 1 Kalka, Bhagat State, 8 Simla, N.W.H.,
1 Chandigarh, Ambala, 1 Mouna Khel, Garhwal; 1 no locality.

All specimens are correctly marked by Salim
Ali as himalayana.

Measurements onp. 71.

1848. Certhia himalayana infima Ripley

(Tikapur, Kilali Dt., Western Nepal) West Nepal
Tree Creeper 1 : 430

nil.

1849. Certhia discolor discolor Blyth (Darjeel-
ing) Sikkim Tree Creeper 1 : 435

23: 16 males 4 females 3 ?

1 Godavri, Nepal, 1 Kurseong, Darjeeling Dt., 2 Temi,
3 Rinchinpong, W. Sikkim, 1 Khosela, 3 Gedu, 1 Honka, West
Bhutan, 1 Batase, 2 Tama, 1 Shamgong, 1 Mangdechu,
Central Bhutan, 3 Wamrong, 3 Gomchu, East Bhutan.

Mesurements on p. 71.

1850. Certhia discolor manipurensis Hume
(Eastern Hills, Manipur) Manipur Tree Creeper

1:437

1 ? Chin Hills, Burma.

Darker and less fulvous above than the
nominate race.

1851. Certhia nipalensis Blyth (Nepal) Nepal

Tree Creeper 1 :438

2 : 1 female 1 ?

1 Chimakothi, 1 Honka, West Bhutan.
Measurements on p. 71.

EL. Certhia brachydactyla brachydactyla
(Brehm) (Road valley, Thuringia, Germany)

1 unsexed specimen from Budakeni, Hun-
gary marked C.b. brachydactyla Brehm, by the
collector.

64

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

1770-71 Troglodytes troglodytes subspp.

Male

1770 neglectus (6)

43-48 av. 46.8

9.4-12.1 av. 10.8

15.6-19 av. 17.2

25-31 av. 28.2

(Baker MF 47-51

c.ll

19-20

26-30)

1771 nipalensis (3)

47.5, 50, 51

11.2, 11.5, 13

15.5, 16.6, 21.3

35, 35, 36

(IH 50-59

from skull 13-15

19-20

30-33)

Female

neglectus (4)

45-49 av. 47.2

9.5-10.5 av. 10

16.9-17.5 av. 17.1

27-30 av. 28.5

nipalensis (7)

45-53 av. 48.2

11.3-13 av. 12

15.4-20 av. 17.04

25-34 av. 30.1

(IH 47-53

from skull 13-14

19-20

27-31)

1772-73 Cinclus cinclus subspp.

Male

1772 leucogaster (1)

87

18.4

27

52

(Dementiev 80-95)

1773 cashmeriensis (1)

102

-

26

55

(Baker MF 90-100

-

27-29

48-56)

Female

leucogaster (1)

88

20

28

48

(Dementiev 79-94)

cashmeriensis (1)

96

18.5

22

54

1775-76 Cinclus pallasii subspp.

Male

1775 tenuirostris (adult)(8)

96-102 av. 98.1

17.9-20.1 av. 19.3

28.8-30.5 av. 29.6

50-55 av. 53.8

tenuirostris (juveniles) (6)

82-100 av. 93.8

14.2-19.8 av. 17.7

28-30 av. 28.9

42-52 av. 48.3

(IH 95-100

from skull 24-25

30

57-60)

1776 dorjei (1)

100

19.5

29

47

(IH 98-111

from skull 22-26

30-33

45-54)

Female

tenuirostris (adult) (5)

89-103 av. 97.6

18-20 av. 19.5

28-32 av. 30.1

49-56 av. 52.2

tenuirostris (juveniles) (2)

91,100

18.4, 20.5

27.6, 29

47, 50

(III 91-94

from skull 24

27-29

50-55)

dorjei (4)

90-105 av. 94.5

20.5-22

26-31

46-51

(IH 90-101

from skull 22-26

30-33

45-54)

1777-79 Prunella collaris subspp.

Male

1777 rufilata (2 )

95, 98

12, 14.5

24, 24.5

57,65

(IH 95-105

from skull c. 17

c. 24

68-71)

1778 whymperi (3)

88, 97, 99

11.6, 12.7, 13.8

21.2, 22.5

50, 56, 58

(IH 93-102

from skull 15-16

-

62-70)

1779 nipalensis (1)

90

12.2

19.7

58

(IH 96-105

from skull 15-16

c. 25

63-69)

Female

rufilata (1)

88

14

23

57

(IH 89-102

from skull c. 17

c. 24

68-71)

whymperi (4)

90-92 av. 91

13.1-13.7 av. 13.3

22-23.8 av. 22.8

55-61 av. 57.2

(IH 91-94

from skull 15-16

-

56-63)

CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

65

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

1780 Prunella himalayana

Male (4)

89-100 av. 93.2

11.2-12.5 av. 11.9

21.7-23.7 av. 22.6

49-60 av. 54.7

(IH 89-99

from skull 14-15

22-26

54-62)

Female (9)

88-92 av. 90.4

10.5-12.3 av. 11.6

21.4-23.4 av. 21.9

51-55 av. 53.4

(IH 88-94

from skull 14-15

22-26

51-56)

1781 Prunella rubeculoides

Male (2)

77, 80

10.5, 11.6

23.9, 24.2

56, 58

(IH 75-86

from skull 13-15

23-24

59-69)

Female (1)

78

12.1

21.8

65

(IH 72-79

from skull 13-15

23-24

60-65)

1782 -83 Prunella strophiata subspp.

Male

1782 jerdonl (4)

65-72 av. 67.7

10.2-12 av. 10.9

18.5-20.1 av. 19.2

50-55 av. 53.5

(IH 62-73

from skull 13-15

21-23

55-67)

1783 strophiata (7)
Female

66-72 av. 69.4

10.6-11.5 av. 11.1

19- 21.5 av. 20.5

54-64 av. 59.4

jerdoni (7)

63-70 av. 66.2

10-11 av. 10.67

18.5-20 av. 19.1

50-55 av. 52.4

(IH 60-67

from skull 13-15

21-23

46-67)

strophiata (3)

64, 65, 66

11.2, 11.4, 11.5

19.5, 19.8, 20.5

55, 56, 60

(IH measurements as in 1782)

1784/85 Prunella fulvescens subspp.

Male

11^4 fulvescens (1)

75

11.2

19.5

61

(IH 71-81

from skull 13-15

c. 20

61-68)

1785 sushkini (1)

72

10

20.5

60

(IH unrecorded, probably as in 1784)

Female
fulvescens (2)

70, 72

11.2, 11.4

20, 20.5

58, 60

(IH 72-79

from skull 13-15

c. 20

59-66)

1786 Prunella atrogularis button!

Male (4)

74-78 av. 75.5

10.5-11.4 av. 11.1

20.1-21.5 av. 20.6

60-65 av. 63.2

(IH 70-79

from skull 13-15

-

60-71)

Female (4)

71-74 av. 73

10.7-11.4 av. 11.1

20-20.8 av. 20.3

58-64 av. 61.7

(IH 71-77

from skull 12-15

-

59-68)

1788 Prunella immaculata

Male (1)

81

12

22

57

(IH 76-87

from skull 13-15

22-25

55-59)

Female (2)

77, 78

11.4, 11.9

21, 21.1

53,55

(IH 74-81

from skull 13-15

22-25

50-59)

1789

Melanochlora sultanea sultanea

Male (17)

102-112 av. 108.1 14.2-16.1 av. 14.9

21-23.9 av. 22.8

83-96 av. 90.7

(IH 103-113

from skull 16-18

22-26

93-98)

Female (11)

94-108 av. 102

14-15.9 av. 15.1

21.24 av. 22.6

80-90 av. 86.5

(IH 95-108

from skull 15-16

22-26

85-93)

66

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 89

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

1790-97 Parus major subspp. & ELs

Male

1792 caschmirensis (6)

69-79 av. 72.5

10-11 av. 10.4

17.5-18 av. 17.6

60-68 av. 63

(IH 72-78

from skull 12-13

17-20

60-71)

1793 nipalensis (6)

65-70 av. 68.1

10-10.3 av.10.1

17.2-18 av. 17.5

58-61 av. 59.1

(IH 63-71

from skull 11-12

16-17

55-61)

1794 stupae (19)

62-72 av. 66

9.3-10.8 av. 10

15.8-17.5 av. 16.7

51-61 av. 55.2

(IH 60-73

from skull 10-12

17-19

47-61)

1796 vauriei (3)

64, 65, 66

10,10,10.1

16.5, 17.4, 17.5

55, 55, 58

(IH 1 M (Type) 59

from skull 10.5

-

53.5)

EL commix t us (1)

67

-

17.8

60

(Baker MF 61-68

-

-

53-61)

EL minor (2)

73(2)

9.7, 10

17.3, 17.8

63, 64

(Dementiev 60.5-66.5

av. 63.1)

EL major (1)

76

10.5

20.5

64

(BHB 73-79

from skull 10-11

19-21

60-68)

EL intermedius (4)

73-77 av. 75

10.3-11 av. 10.7

19-19.9 av. 19.5

60-66 av. 63.2

(Baker MF 68-75

-

-

52-63)

EL blanfordi (2)

74, 78

11.2

19(2)

63, 64

Female

1790 ziaratensis (1)

72

9.5

17.2

54

(IH 66-71

from skull 11

-

60-72)

1792 caschmirensis (5)

67-72 av. 69.4

10-10.5 av. 10.1

17.2-18.8 av. 18.1

54-59 av. 56.6

(IH 68-73

from skull 11-13

18-20

56-62)

1793 nipalensis (3)

66, 68, 69

9.9, 10, 10.5

17.5, 17.8, 18

57, 58, 60

(IH 59-66

from skull 11-12

16-17

53-54)

1794 stupae (12)

60-65 av. 62.2

9.3-10.7 av. 9.8

16-18 av. 16.9

48 -54 av. 51

(IH 61-69

from skull 11-12

17-20

48-58)

1796 vauriei (1)

60

9.4

-

52

EL. commixtus (1)

63

11

18.4

58

EL. intermedius (3)

70, 70, 75

10.5, 10.7, 11.5

17.9, 18.2, 18.9

58, 60, 61

EL. blanfordi (2)

68, 72

10.9, 11

17.8, 18.8

56,

1798 Parus nuchalis

Male (7)

64-71 av. 68.2

10-10.7 av. 10.4

17.5-19.5 av. 18.4

50-54 av. 51.4

(IH 65-71

from skull 11-13

17-19

48-55)

Female (3)

66 (2), 67

10, 10.3, 10.5

17.5, 17.6, 17.7

50(3)

(IH 67-68

from skull 11-12

17-19

49-53)

1799 Parus monticolus monticolus

Male (23)

64-72 av. 67.5

9.5-10.5 av. 9.9

17.5-20 av. 18.2

50-59 av. 54.1

(IH 65-71

from skull 11-12

18-19

54-57)

Female (13)

63-69 av. 65.6

9.5-10 av. 9.7

17.5-19 av. 18.1

45-56 av. 51.4

(IH 63-70

from skull 11-12

18-19

53-56)

CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

61

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

1800 Parus cyanus flavipectus

Male (1)

67

(Dementiev 63-68)

9.7

17.5

58

Female (1)

64

(Dementiev 61-64)

9.8

17.8

55

1802 Parus melanolophus

Male (17)

60-65 av. 62.8

9-9.7 av. 9.3

16.5-17.8 av. 17

39-45 av. 42.5

(IH 60-68

from skull c. 11

c.17

41-46)

Female (6)

59-63 av. 61.1

8.5-9.5 av. 9.1

16.5-17.8 av. 17.2

39-43 av. 40.8

(IH 58-66

from skull c. 11

c.17

40-46)

1803 Parus ater aemodius

Male (3)

60, 61, 63

8.1, 8.7, 8.9

15.5, 16.2, 16.8

40, 42, 43

(IH58-62

from skull 9-10

16-18

40-42)

Female (3)

56, 60, 61

7.7, 8.7, 9.2

16, 16.5, 17.3

39, 40, 42

(IH 55-61

from skull 9-10

16-18

40-42)

1804-6 Parus rubidiventris subspp.

Male

1804 rufonuchalis (10)

73-79 av. 76.3

10.2-11.5 av. 10.9

18.5-20 av. 19.3

48-55 av. 52.6

(IH 71-78

from skull 12-13

19-20

51-56)

1805 rubidiventris (1)

69

9.5

17.3

46

(IH 67-71)

1806 beavani (3)

68, 70, 71

9.4, 9.5, 9.8

19, 19.5, 19.6

45, 48(2)

(IH 67-75

from skull c. 10

20-21

45-52)

Female

1804 rufonuchalis (9)

70-75 av. 72.7

10.5-12.5 av. 11.1

18.2-20 av. 19.2

50-55 av. 51.2

(IH 74-75

from skull 12-13

19-20

51-56)

1807-8 Parus dichrous subspp.

Male

1807 kangrae (1)

73

9.6

19

46

(IH 65-74)

from skull c. 10

c. 20

48-51)

1808 dichrous (2)

71(2)

(IH as in 1807)

8.5, 9.8

19.6, 19.8

47, 49

Female

1807 kangrae (2)

66(2)

9.3, 9.5

18.7, 19.2

43,45

(IH 65-70

-

-

47-50)

1808 dichrous (1)

69

-

19.3

45

1809-11 Parus xanthogenys subspp.

1809 xanthogenys (11)

70-74 av. 72

10.5-11.5 av. 10.8

17.5- 18.9 av 18.2

53-56 av. 55.1

(IH 67-76

from skull 12-13

18-19

50-60)

1810 aplonotus (17)

66-77 av. 71.1

10.2-11.5 av. 10.8

18.5- 20.2 av. 19.1

50-58 av. 53.8

(IH 70-78

from skull 11-13

18-20

52-60)

68

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

1811 travancoreeiisis (17)
Female

xanthogenys (3)
aplonotus (13)
travancorensis (5)

Male (8)

Female (6)

Male (2)

Female (2)

Male

1813 simlaensis (4)

1814 modestus (5)

Female

1813 simlaensis (3)

1814 modestus (4)

Male

1815 flammiceps (5)

1816 olivaceus (3)

Female

1815 flammiceps (4)

Male (3)

Female (7)

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

1809-11 Parus xanthogenys subspp. (contd.)

73-79 av. 75.8

10.8-12 av. 11.3

18.5-21 av. 19.4

53-62 av. 56.6

(IH 71-82

from skull 12-14

19-20

54-62)

71, 72 (2)

10.5, 11, 11.1

18(3)

54, 55

(IH 65-72

from skull 12-13

18-19

50-54)

65-73 av. 68.9

10.2-11 av. 10.5

18-2 0 av. 18.5

48-53 av. 51.4

(IH 66-71

from skull 11-13

18-20

49-53

70-76 av. 72.2

10.7-1L1 av. 10.9

18-20 av. 18.9

51-55 av. 53

(IH 68-76

from skull 12-14

19-20

51-57)

1812 Parus spilonotus spilonotus

75-78 av. 76.7

10-11.5 av. 11.1

18.5-19.5 av. 19.1

50-56 av. 53.2

(IH 71-84

c. 11

c. 18

58-63)

72-79 av. 74.8

10-11.6 av. 10.9

18.5-20 av. 18.9

50-57 av. 52

(Baker MF 72-78

c. 10-11

c. 22

c. 58

EL. Parus palustris hellmayri

59, 62

8.5, 8.6

15.5, 15.7

51, 52

58, 59

9, 9.5

15, 15.6

48, 49

1813-14 Sylviparus modestus subspp.

58-61 av. 59.7

6.2-8. 3 av. 7.3

15.2- 16. lav. 15.6

35-37 av. 36

(Baker MF 60-64

c. 5

c. 15

c. 35)

53-65 av. 59.8

6.6-8. 3 av. 7.8

15.2-16.3 av. 15.8

33-40 av. 38.4

(IH 57-64

from skull 8-9

15-17

35-41)

58, 59 (2)

6.5, 6.8, 7.5

15 (2), 15.5

36 (2), 38

55-57 av. 55.7

7.8-8.3 av. 8

15-16.2 av. 15.6

34-36 av. 35

(III 54-62

from skull 8-9

15-17

33-39)

1815-16 Cephalopyrus flammiceps subspp.

60-62 av. 60.4

7-8 av. 7.6

13.5-15.5 av. 14.3

30-34 av. 31.2

(IH MF 58-64

from skull 9-10

13-15

30-33)

59 (2), 60

7.2, 7.3, 7.7

13.5-15.5 av. 14.3

30-34 av. 31.2

(IH MF 59-60

from skull 10-10

15-16

32-35)

59-64 av. 61.7

7.6-8.5 av. 7.9

13.6-16 av. 14.4

29-33 av. 31.2

1817 Remiz pendulums coronatus

53(3)

7, 7.8,8

13.3, 14 (2)

28, 42 (2)

(IH 50-54

from skull 10-11

13

40-44)

51-53 av. 52

7.5-8.5 av. 8

13-14 av. 13.3

39-43 av. 40.1

(IH 52-54

from skull 10-11

13

39.43)

CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

69

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

1818-20 Aegithalos concinnus subspp.

Male

1818 iredalei (16)

51-55 av. 53.2

5.3-6.8 av. 6.3

15-17 av. 16.3

47-54 av. 49.4

(IH 53-57)

1819 rubricapillus (5)

48-51 av. 49.6

6-6.5 av. 6.2

15.5-17 av. 16.2

47-50 av. 48.4

(IH 47-55

from skull 7-8

16-17

48-53)

Female

181 iredalei (7)

51-56 av. 52.5

6.2-6.5 av. 6.3

15.5-16.6 av. 16

43-55 av. 47.8

(IH 49-52)

1819 rubricapillus (2)

48, 49

5.5, 6.5

16, 16.2

46,48

(IH 45-52

from skull 7-8

16-17

43-50)

1821 Aegithalos leucogenys

Male (3)

53, 55, 57

6.5, 7, 8.5

17.1, 18 (2)

45, 48, 50

(IH 57-59

from skull c. 8

c. 17

53-57)

Female (2)

53, 58

7.1, 7.2

15.5, 18.5

50, 53

(IH 52-55

from skull c.8

c. 17

49-52)

1823 Aegithalos iouschistos iouschistos

Male (4)

56, 57, 58 (2)

7.2 (2), 7.5 (2)

17, 17.2 (2), 17.3

50, 51, 52, 54

(IH MF 53-60

from skull 9-10

17-19

45-53)

1824-26 Sitta europaea subspp.

Male

1824 cashmirensis (1)

85

-

19

43

(IH 82-86

from skull 21-23

17-18

42-44)

Female

1824 cashmirensis (3)

84, 85, 87

15.6, 17.5, 19.5

16.9, 18.4, 18.5

42, 43, 46

(IH 81-86

from skull 20-23

17-18

42-44)

1827-31 Sitta castanea subspp. & EL

Male

1827 almorae {4)

82, 84, 85, 86

18.5, 18.7, 19, 19.5

18.5, 19, 19.3, 19.7

40 (2), 41,42

(IH 81-87

from skull 21-24

18-20

40-44)

1828 cinnamoventris (11)

79-86 av. 82.1

17-19.3 av. 18

18- 20 av. 19.3

38-43 av. 40.9

(IH81-86

from skull 19-22

18-21

38-45)

1830 castanea (13)

72-81 av. 74.3

15.5-17.5 av. 16.6

16.6- 18.5 av. 17.5

35-40 av. 37.6

(IH 72-82

from skull 18-21

17-19

36-42)

1831 prateri (6)

76-81 av. 78.5

16.1-18. 5 av. 17.6

16.5-19 a v. 18.1

37-42 av. 39

(IH 77-83

from skull 21-22

17-19

40-43)

EL neglecta (1)

79

17.3

17.4

40

Female

1827 almorae (2)

80,83

19.2, 19.6

18, 18.2

39(2)

(IH 78-85

from skull 21-24

18-19

40-48)

1828 cinnamoventris (5)

76-80 av. 77.8

16.4-18.7 av. 17.4

18-18.8 av. 18.3

36-40 av. 38

(IH 77-83

from skull 18-22

17-20

38-41)

70

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

1830 castanea (9)

70-79 av. 73.5

16-17.7 av. 16.6

17-18.5 av. 17.5

35-41 av. 36.4

(IH 71-78

from skull 18-20

17-19

35-41)

1831 prateri (5)

73-76 av. 74.4

16.9-18.3 av. 17.3

17.2-19 av. 17.9

35-38 av. 36.6

(IH 75-78

from skull 20-22

17-19

38-41)

EL neglecta (1)

75

16

17.1

36

(Baker MF 75-78

c. 17

c. 18

38-42)

1832 Sitta leucopsis leucopsis

Male (3)

75, 79, 80

17.5 (2), 18.7

17.5, 18, 18.3

39, 40, 42

(IH 74-79

from skull 22

18-19

39-40)

Female (5)

70-78 av. 76

17-17.2 av. 17.1

17.7-18.7 av. 18.2

37-41 av. 39.6

(IH 73-75

from skull 21

18-19

39-40)

1834 Sitta himalayensis hiinalayensis

Male (a) (7)

74-79 av. 76.4

13-14.2 av. 13.6

17.5-18.5 av. 18.1

34-38 av. 36.2

(b)(8)

71-78 av. 73.7

12.9-14.5 av. 13.4

17-18.4 av. 17.5

35-38 av. 36.7

(IH 69-77

from skull 15-19

17-21

35-42)

Female (a) (7)

70-76 av. 73.7

13.2-14.3 av. 13.6

17-18.2 av. 17.7

34-37 av. 35.5

(b)(8)

67-74 av. 71.7

12.9-14.1 av. 13.5

1 6*5-18 av. 17.2

34-38 av. 35.7

(IH 68-76

from skull 15-19

1^-21

33-40)

1836 Sitta tephronota subspp. & EL

Male

tephronota (4)

84 (2), 85, 89

20.7, 21.7 (2), 22.8

24.5, 25, 25.5, 26.4

46, 47, 48, 52

(Vaurie 85-90

from skull 26-27)

EL dresseri (3)

90, 91 (2)

22.5 (2), 22.7

26.7, 27.6, 28.2

47, 50,

Female

tephronota (5)

82-86 av. 84.2

20-22.7 av. 21.6

22.9-25 av. 23.9

46-48 av. 47

(Vaurie 85-88

from skull

26-29)

EL dresseri (8)

87-91 av. 89

22.7-25 av. 23.8

25.3-27.8 av. 26.7

45-50 av. 47.1

(Ticehurst 90

from skull 28.5)

1838 Sitta frontalis frontalis

Male (21)

71-80 av. 75.5

11-13.8 av. 12.3

16-17.5 av. 16.5

36-43 av. 39.9

(IH 70-82

from skull 15-16

15-17

37-45)

Female (21)

70-79 av. 73.4

11.3-13.5 av. 12.3

16-17 av. 16.3

34-41 av. 38.1

(IH 69-80

from skull 15-16

15-17

35-44)

1839 Tichodroma muraria subspp. & EL

Male

nepalensis (10)

99-105 av. 101.9

23.3-26.3 av. 24.9

22-24.5 av. 22.9

54-62 av. 56.2

(IH 100-115

from skull 26-30

22-26

53-58)

EL. muraria (1)

99

26.2

23

55

Female

nepalensis (10)

97-102 av. 99.4

22.1-27.2 av. 24.9

22-25 av. 23.3

51-59 av. 54.1

(IH 92-104

from skull 26-30

22-26

57-60)

CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

71

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

1840-41 Salpornis spilonotus subspp.

Male

1840 rajputanae (1)

92

23

16.3

51

(IH 90

from skull 25, 26

17

52,53)

1841 spilonotus (2)

89,93

21.8, 23.2

16.7, 17.2

50,54

(IH 90

from skull 25, 26

17

52,53)

Female

spilonotus (1)

87

23.9

17

50

(IH 87-89

from skull 24-28

17

49-51)

1842 -44 Certhia familiar is subspp. & EL

Male

1843 mandelli (1)

69

14

16.7

55

(IH 63-70

from skull 15

17

55-57)

Female

1843 mandelli (3)

65(2), 66

12.4, 14, 14.5

16, 16.3, 16.7

55, 57 (2)

(IH 63-66

from skull 13

17

55)

EL bianehi (2)

64,65

13, 14

15

55, 57

1845-48 Certhia himalayana subspp.

Male

1845 limes (2)

73,74

19.2, 21.8

16.4

66, 67

(IH 73, 74

from skull 23-25

15-16

68-69)

1846 taeniura (1)

75

20.8

17.3

67

(Dementiev 69-72

from skull 22-25)

1847 himalayana (8)

68-73 av. 70.6

18.2-19.7 av. 18.7

15-16.5 av. 15.8

59-69 av. 63.8

(IH as in 1845)

Female

limes (6)

65-70 av. 67.8

16.5-19.5 av. 17.6

15-16.5 av. 15.6

59-63 av. 60.6

(IH 66-72

from skull 18-21

15-16

60-66)

taeniura (1)

68

17.6

16.4

62

(Demen tiev 64-68

from skull 22-25)

himalayana (3)

67, 68, 71

15, 17.5, 18

15, 15.3, 16

62, 63, 67

(IH as in 1845)

1849 Certhia discolor discolor

Male 16

66-72 av. 69.4

14.3-15.8 av. 15.1

17-18.3 av. 17.6

69-78 av. 74.4

(III 67-76

from skull 17-20

17-20

73-82)

Female (4)

66, 67(2), 68

13.8, 14.2, 14.3, 14.5

17.1, 17.3, 17.5(2)

68, 71, 72, 73

(IH 64-72

from skull 16-18

17-18

73-77)

1851 Certhia nipalensis

Female (1)

70

11.6

18

69

(IH 66-71

from skull 14-17

18-20

69-76)

BIOECOLOGICAL STUDIES ON THE BURROWING MAYFLY EPHEMERA
(AETHEPHEMERA) NADINAE MCCAFFERTY AND EDMUNDS 1973
(EPHEMEROPTERA : EPHEMERIDAE) IN KURANGANI STREAM,

WESTERN GHATS 1

C. Balasubramantan, K. Venkataramanand K.G. Sivaramakrishnan2

(With three text-figures)

The life cycle pattern of Ephemera nadinae in Kurangani stream was interpreted from the developmental
stage frequency histograms. It is basically multivoltine with asynchronous, overlapping generations or cohorts
with continuous emergence. Food habits of E. nadinae were investigated. Detritus forms the major food. Meagre
amount of minerals and plant tissues were noted in the gut, which might have been consumed with normal food
incidentally. The emerging behaviour of subimagos was also studied. They emerge soon after sunset at about
1830 hrs throughout the year. Synchronous emergence of both sexes was recorded, with males outnumbering
females. Subimagos emerge on the water surface. Longevity of the adults ranges from 24 to 48 hours. The average
number of eggs/mm of body length in E. nadinae was 240 (r value = 0.9). The fecundity of E. nadinae is

is exposed to the effects of the south-west mon-
soon, the north-east monsoon and summer. For
ecological studies, February through May are
treated as summer, June through September as
south-west monsoon period and October through
January as north-east monsoon period.

Material and Methods

The study was conducted from February
1988 to January 1989. Three kick samples of
ephemerids were collected from sandy regions of
Kurangani stream. The sandy habitat was dis-
turbed preferably by five horizontal and five ver-
tical vigorous kicks strictly restricted to one
square metre area. Nymphs thus collected were
preserved in 70% alcohol and were sorted accord-
ing to age-class. The plan of Clifford (1969) was
followed and in the classification of stages,
nymphs were grouped into four arbitrarily chosen
developmental stages on the basis of appearance
and the development of mesothoracic wing pads.
Stage I nymphs lacked wing pads; stage II
nymphs had wing pads that were shorter in length
than the distance separating the two wing pads;
the wing pad length of stage III nymphs was
greater than the distance separating the fore wing
pads. Stage IV nymphs had darkened wing pads.

Each stage represents several instars, with
the exception of stage IV, which is the last nym-

compared with co-existing species of lotic mayflies.

Introduction

Knowledge of ecology and life histories of
all important groups of aquatic insects is essential
in understanding the biological structure of fresh-
water streams and lakes. Ecological studies on
lotic systems in India with emphasis on
Ephemeroptera are very few (Gupta 1980,
Sivaramakrishnan and Job 1981, Venkataraman
1984, Kumar 1987). Though there are a number
of studies on life cycles of ephemerids inhabiting
temperate regions (Kuroda etal. 1984, Schloessor
and Hiltunen 1984), there is a paucity of informa-
tion on the life cycle patterns of tropical
ephemerids including peninsular Indian forms.
This study examines the life cycle pattern, feeding
propensities, emergence and fecundity of
Ephemera nadinae , a burrowing mayfly, in a third
order stream in Kurangani village of the Car-
damom hills of Western Ghats.

Study Area

Kurangani (11° N, 77°50'E), the study area,
is situated 116 km west of Madurai, Tamil Nadu.
It lies on the north-eastern side of the Cardamom
hills at an altitude of 650 m above m.s.l. This area

1 Accepted December 1989.

2 Centre for Research in Aquatic Entomology, Dept, of Zool-
ogy, Madura College, Madurai, Tamil Nadu 625 Oil.

THE BURROWING MAYFLY EPHEMERA (AETHEPHEMERA) NADINAE

73

Fig. 1. pH, current velocity and air and water temperature in
Kurangani stream, at monthly intervals from February 1988
to January 1989.

phal instar, the tan wing pads indicating impend-
ing emergence. Nymphs were sexed only after
stage II on the basis of genitalia.

Physico-chemical parameters were recorded
during collection time. During each visit atmos-
pheric and water temperatures were recorded.
Water velocity was determined by the cork floata-
tion method. pH of water was noted with the help
of BDH broad and narrow range pH indicator
papers.

The method employed for food analysis is a
combination of the methods followed by Minshall
(1967) and Gupta and Michael (1981). Nymphs
were collected at monthly intervals, fixed imme-

diately in 70% alcohol, and later sorted in the
laboratory. Five to ten nymphs of assorted
varieties in every month were used for gut
analysis. Stage IV nymphs were not used for gut
analysis as they were almost ready to emerge and
hardly ingested any food at the time. The foregut
portion up to second abdominal segment was
dissected and the contents were rolled out and
teased. The suspension of the food material was
transferred to Sedgewick rafter. The suspension
was allowed to stand for some time to allow
sediments to settle. The percentage composition
was determined by counting the cells of
Sedgewick rafter of different food materials,
using a compound microscope.

Subimaginal emergence was monitored
during south-west monsoon, north-east monsoon
and summer periods. Monthly trips were made to
Kurangani and light trapping was done with a 125
watt mercury vapour lamp powered by a portable
generator. Light was switched on from 1800 to
2030 hrs and from 0500 to 0630 hrs. Subimagos
were collected in subimaginal box cages (Ed-
munds et al. 1976). Longevity (emergence to
imago-death interval) was determined in the sub-
imaginal box cages at room temperature (28 ±
2°C) in the laboratory.

Fecundity is the total number of eggs
produced by the female during her life span,
regardless of the fate of the eggs. For meaningful
comparison between species, the relationship be-
tween egg production of E. nadinae and body
length was analysed. The eggs from the ab-
dominal and thoracic body cavities of last instar
(with darkened wing pad) nymphs of E. nadinae
were removed to Sedgewick rafter and counted.
The relationship between fecundity and body
length was statistically analysed.

Results and Discussion

Life cycle pattern: The physico-chemical
parameters like temperature, pH and water
velocity of Kurangani stream are shown in Fig.
1. pH of the stream tended to decrease during
southwest monsoon and to increase during sum-
mer. The atmospheric and water temperatures

74

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Fig. 2. Monthly changes in the distribution of E. nadinae adults and nymphs.
A - indicates months when emerging mayflies were found.

showed large fluctuations during different
seasons.

Several factors are known to influence the
distribution of aquatic insects. But important en-
vironmental factors likely to affect animal num-
ber within a very small segment of the stream are
water velocity (Scott 1958, Ambuhl 1959, Jaag

and Ambuhl 1964, Edington 1968), substratum
(Rabeni and Minshall 1977, Shaw and Minshall
1980) and food (Egglishaw 1964, 1969; Williams
and Hynes 1973).

The life cycle pattern of E. nadinae in Kuran-
gani stream is interpreted from developmental
stage frequency histograms (Fig. 2). It is basically

THE BURROWING- MAYFLY EPHEMERA (AETHEPHEMERA) NADINAE

75

multivoltine with asynchronous, overlapping
generation or cohorts with continuous emergence.
A cohort is a group of individuals that were bom
at the same time, or in practice bom over a short
period of time. Early instars of E. nadinae occur
around July and this cohort continues up to
November. Besides, the presence of two other
cohorts which occur during January and April is
suggested.

The life cycle patterns of ephemerids from
temperate regions show agreement as well as
deviation from the observed pattern. For instance,
the life cycles of E. japonica and E. orientalis
also have two or three cohorts in a year, suggest-
ing multivoltine pattern, whereas E. strigata is
evidently univoltine in having only one cohort
(Kuroda et al. 1984). The lifecycle of Hexagenia
limbata of St. Marys river, Michigan, is composed
of two non-synchro nous emerging cohorts each
with a two-year life span (Schloessor and Hil-
tunen 1984).

Feeding propensities: Mayfly nymphs do
not play the same role in the trophic structure of
the communities in which they occur. In view of
this, knowledge of their feeding habits is desirable
(Brown 1961). Studies on food habits of tropical
and subtropical mayflies are very few
(Sivaramakrishnan 1980, Gupta and Michael
1981, Venkataraman 1984). In the present inves-
tigation, detritus formed the major food. Studies
by Venkataraman (1984) on nymphs of hep-
tageniids of Palani hill streams reveal that they are
algivores, whereas the same species and some
lcptophlebiids of Courtallam hill streams are
detritivores (Sivaramakrishnan 1980).

The absence of canopy formation by forest
trees on the banks of Kumbakkarai stream in
Palani hills favours algal growth in rocky bottom.
The limited vegetation near the bank may be
correlated with minimal amount of allochthonous
detritus. The condition in Courtallam hill streams
is different, with poor access to direct sunlight
over the stream due to canopy formation. Kuran-
gani stream is in this respect similar to Courtallam
streams. The statement that local conditions beget
local results (Muttowski and Smith 1929) holds

good for explaining the food habits of
Ephemeroptera or even other groups of aquatic
insects (Cummins 1973). Gut content analysis of
E. nadinae revealed a meagre amount of minerals
and plant tissues which might have been con-
sumed with normal food incidentally.

Emergence: Emergence is probably a
‘safety in numbers’ strategy evolved to maximise
survival from predation at one of the vulnerable
periods in the life cycle of mayflies (Friesion et
al. 1980). In the present investigation, E. nadinae
emerged after sunset (around 1830 hrs throughout
the year). Similar dusk emergence was observed
by Takemon (1985) in£. japonica. He observed
E. strigata to emerge in the afternoon.
Synchronous emergence of both sexes of E.
nadinae was recorded, with males outnumbering
females. As against the male-biased emergence,
female-biased emergence has been recorded in
some tropical mayflies (Poyyamoli 1984,
Venkataraman 1984).

Edmunds and Edmunds (1980) point out that
apparently many of the activity patterns and adap-
tations of mayfly subimagos and imagos have
formed in response to selection pressure from
predators. Mayfly subimagos, being slow and
clumsy fliers, are highly vulnerable to predation.

Nocturnal emergence observed in the
present study may be attributed to the following
reasons as suggested by Poyyamoli (1984) and
Takemon (1985):

(1) The cuticle of newly emerged adults will
be thin. As a result, they have to emerge during
cooler hours, when evaporation is at its lowest.
Night time in tropics is ideal.

(2) Nocturnal emergence helps these insects
to escape from visual predators.

The emerging behaviour of E. nadinae of
Kurangani stream was found to be of the water
surface type and the behaviour is similar to E.
strigata of Japan (Takemon 1985). However,
nymphs of E. japonica after reaching the surface
swam directly ahead along the surface with
forelegs stretched forward until they came into
contact with a partially submerged object such as
a rock or plant. The longevity of adults (emer-

76

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Fig. 3. Relationship between body length and number of eggs
in E. nadinae.

gence to imago-death interval) of E. nadinae
ranged from 24 to 48 hours.

Fecundity: The correlation between the
number of eggs produced by E. nadinae and the
body length is presented in Fig. 3. It confirms the
general view that fecundity increases with in-
creasing body length of the nymphs. However,

Refe

Ambuhl, H. (1959): Die Bedeutung der stromung als
okologischer Faktor. Schweiz. Z. Hydro l. 21: 133-264.
Britt, N.W. (1962): Biology of two species of Lake Erie
mayflies, Ephoron album (Say) and Ephemera
simulans Walker. Bull Ohio Biol. Surv. No. 1. 70 pp.
Brown, D.S. (1961): The food of larvae of Cloeon dipterum
L. and Baetis rhodani Pictet (Insecta : Ephemerop-
tera). J. Arum. Ecol. 30 : 55-75.

Clifford, H.F. (1969): Limnological features of a northern
brown-water stream, with special reference to the life
histories of the aquatic insects. Am. Mid. nat. 82: 578-

Minshall (1967) found that beyond a size range
(10.5 mm) the number of eggs decreased with
increasing size of the individual. This apparent
decline in egg number with increasing body size
(up to 31 mm) has not been observed in the present
study.

The average number of eggs/mm of body
length in E. nadinae is 240 (r value = 0.9). The
data of Clifford and Boerger (1974) for Bigory
river mayflies of Canada, Hunt (1951) and Britt
(1962) for Ephemerids and of Minshall (1967)
and Venkataraman (1984) for Heptageniids would
indicate 137-222 eggs/mm, 300-350 eggs/mm
and 100-200 eggs/mm respectively.

Among the mayfly species, the burrowing
Ephemeridae are the longest. But the rate of egg
production is very high (1843 eggs/mm) only in
Heptageniidae (Sridharand Venkataraman 1989).
The Ephemeridae are burrowing and sandy forms,
whereas heptageniids are rheophilic and are
restricted to torrential areas of rock-bottomed
streams. This difference in ecological niche
probably necessitates the production of more eggs
to compensate for the loss of eggs being washed
away (Sridhar and Venkataraman 1989).

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to Dr T. Chandraguru,
Department of Zoology, V.H.N.S.N. College,
Virudhunagar for many valuable suggestions.
We thank S. Sridhar for assistance in field
trips. This work was supported by a grant
from the University Grants Commission, New
Delhi, which is gratefully acknowledged.

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Edington, J.M. (1968): Habitat preference in net-spinning
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Edmunds, G.F., Jr. & Edmunds., C.H. (1980): Predation,
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Frieson, M.K., Flannagan, J.F. & Laufersweiler, P.M.
(1980): Diel emergence patterns of some mayflies
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Jaag, O. & Ambuhl, H. (1964): The effect of the current on
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(Trichopera) of Canadian stream. Oikos 24: 73-84

6

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CANOPY DENSITY AND BREEDING BEHAVIOUR
OF PLOCEUS PHILIPPINES (LINN.) AND PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS (LINN.)1

Satish Kumar Sharma 2
(With two text-figures)

Introduction

The baya or Indian weaver bird Ploceus
philippinus avoids heavy forest and prefers open
cultivation (Whistler 1928). Such habitat selec-
tivity could be observed prominently during the
breeding season. Besides open cultivation, other
similar open areas like scrub jungles (Mathew
1972), wells in the midst of bajra cultivation (Ali
and Ambedkar 1957), isolated trees (Ali 1956),
structures like house eaves (Davis 1971),
telegraphic and power lines (Ambedkar 1970) are
occasionally selected for hanging their nests.
Adam (1873) has also noticed P. philippinus
breeding in open plains in Rajasthan (Rajputana).

Like P. philippinus , P. benghalensis also
avoids wooded areas (Ambedkar 1972). This
species requires open grasslands and reed beds for
nesting.

From the available literature, one can con-
clude that Ploceus philippinus and P. benghalen-
sis are birds of open areas; but how much
‘openness’ they require, is not known so far. In the
present paper the magnitude of ‘openness’ is
quantified for two species of weaver birds in
Rajasthan.

Study Area

This study was conducted at Tatarpur Mixed
Plantation A, B and C (27° 47' N, 76° 31' E) in
Alwar district of Rajasthan. It is an undulating
hilly area which is very prone to biotic inter-
ference. Earlier, this area was under dense forests;
but due to overgrazing and illicit felling and lop-
ping, the vegetative growth was destroyed. The
area had become barren with stunted and sparse
growth oi Pros op is spicigera , Zizyphus jujuba , Z.

Accepted November 1990.

2 Arboriculturist, World Forestry Arboretum, Jhalana Dungri,
Jaipur 302 004, Rajasthan.

nummularia , Leptadenia sparitum , Calotropis
procera , Acacia Senegal , A. leucophloea , A. jac-
quemontii, Maytenus emarginata , Capparis
decidua , C. sepiaria , Butea monosperma , Ad-
hat o da vasica , Holoptelia integrifolia , Sac-
charum bengalense and other grasses. In the
upper reaches of the hills, Anogeissus pendula ,
Acacia Senegal and Rhus mysurensis were
dominant species.

The area lies between hill ranges, followed
by agricultural land. Water sources are very
limited. A small seasonal hill stream flows in the
rainy season, but for a greater part of the year the
area remain arid. The rainy season is July and
August, with average rainfall of 696 mm. Rainy
days are limited 50 to 70 days.

Bajra Pennisetum typhoides is the main
monsoon crop.

In 1981, 66 ha of this area was fenced and
taken up by Forest Department to develop a mixed
plantation. The whole area was divided into three
parts, A, B and C, with areas of 20, 23 and 23 ha
respectively. The planting of seedlings was com-
pleted from July to August at a spacing of 5 x 5
m. Acacia tortilis , an exotic species, was intro-
duced in the area on a large scale. Dalbergia
sissoo , Eucalyptus spp., Leucaena leucocephala ,
Parkinsonia aculeata , Acacia nilotica and A.
auriculiformis were also planted in the area.

Material and Methods

All three plantations were surveyed annually
from May to October. The annual working
schedule was as follows:

May to June: Canopy density was estimated
every year from May to June, before commence-
ment of monsoon. For this purpose, 10% random
sampling of the area was done. Sample plots of 20
x 20 m size were laid out on the ground, using lime
powder for demarcation of boundaries. Stones

CANOPY DENSITY AND BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF WEAVER BIRDS

79

Table 1

NESTING OF Ploceus philippinus AT TATARPUR MIXED PLANTATIONS A B AND C FROM 1980 TO 1990

No. of colonies in plantations Total

Year A (20 ha) B (23 ha) C (23 ha) 66 ha

Nest

trees

Nests

Nest

trees

Nests

Nest

trees

Nests

Nest

trees

Nests

1980

0

0

8

44

11

34

19

78

1981

0

0

14

73

12

27

26

100

1982

18

57

27

128

21

178

66

363

1983

21

109

21

69

37

225

79

403

1984

33

171

23

77

31

192

87

440

1986

12

43

10

41

27

161

49

245

1987

3

20

1

4

30

42

34

66

1988

0

0

4

16

9

56

13

72

1989

0

0

6

36

10

78

16

114

1990

0

0

4

14

9

56

13

70

No data available for 1985.

Table 2

NESTING OF Ploceus benghalensis AT TATARPUR MIXED PLANTATIONS A, B AND C FROM 1980 TO 1990

Year

A (20 ha)

Nested Nests

clumps

No. of colonies in plantations
B (23 ha)

Nested Nests

clumps

C (23 ha)

Nested Nests

clumps

Total
66 ha

Nested

clumps

Nests

1980

23

44

5

11

9

22

37

77

1981

29

58

4

6

8

19

41

83

1982

33

63

6

13

11

24

50

100

1983

21

41

1

2

3

5

25

48

1984

19

29

0

0

7

14

26

43

1986

9

17

1

1

2

3

12

21

1987*

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1988

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1989

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1990

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

An isolated nested tree or clump was considered as one colony. No data available for 1985.
*Saccharum bengalense Retz. disappeared from the area from 1987 to 1990.

were partially buried on the boundaries of each
plot to make their identification easier in coming
years. Then a long light bamboo rod, with a sprit-
level attached, carried in the vertical position (as
checked by the spirit-level), was used to mark out
as closely as possible the crown of each tree in
each sample plot. The outline of each crown was
drawn on the ground directly below the crowns;
this represented the ‘ dripline ’ of the tree. The area
occupied by an individual crown was estimated
by dividing the area enclosed by the dripline into

various geometrical figures. Canopy density was
calculated as the ratio between total area occupied
by the crowns and the sample plot area. The
density scale therefore ran from 0 to 1 (entire area
under canopy cover). Canopy density was clas-
sified into four categories:

(i) Closed - when the density is 1.0, (ii)
Dense - density less than between 0.75 and 1.0,

(iii) Thin - density between 0.50 and 0.75, and

(iv) Open - density less than 0.50.

80

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

NESTS

Years

Fig. 1. Relationship between canopy density and number of
nest colonies of Ploceus philippinus at Tatarpur Mixed Plan-
tations A, B, C.

September to October: With the
withdrawal of the south-west monsoon in Sep-
tember or October, breeding activities of
weaver birds ceased. By this time the maximum
numbers of the host trees and other forms of
plants would have been engaged by breeders for
colonisation. Trees and other forms of plants
occupied by weaver birds for nesting were
counted annually along with intact nests present
on patronised plants (Tables 1, 2).

Results

Due to protection of the area and re-stocking
of plantation, canopy density of the area increased
gradually in subsequent years. The number of
trees and other forms of plants occupied for nest-
ing also increased correspondingly due to the
following reasons:

(i) Minimization of biotic interference; (ii)
availability of more suitable new host plants for
nesting from planted crop; (iii) availability of
additional host plants from degraded earlier
natural growth due to protected regeneration; (iv)
availability of fabricating material at nesting site
from ungrazed Saccharum bengalense Retz.
thickets.

The above relationship lasted until the crown
contact stage was reached. After this stage, with
further increment in canopy density, weaver birds
were gradually displaced from the area. During
later years, they abandoned the areas for nesting
due to the gradual decrease in openness, and the
shortage of nesting material, resulting from the
natural eradication of fibre-yielding grass (Sac-
charum bengalense and others) due to lack of
sunlight.

While most of the breeders were moving
from the inner denser parts, many were still seen
in the peripheral zone, using various plants for
nesting but comparatively in smaller numbers
(Figs. 1, 2).

With the gradual decrease of openness in the
inner denser parts, weaver birds shifted their
breeding activities to the peripheral zone at the
outskirts of the plantation, where the wooded area
thins out into open area. The ‘canopy density’ and
‘crop density’ generally remain low in this
ecotonal zone due to biotic interference.
Peripheral strips were therefore used for nesting
in subsequent years.

No weaver bird nest colony was seen in area
‘A’ during 1990, due to the high canopy density
in the area. Areas ‘B’ and ‘C’ were also neglected
by Ploceus philippinus and only four and nine nest
colonies respectively were seen in that year.
Similarly, Ploceus benghalensis completely

CANOPY DENSITY AND BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF WEAVER BIRDS

81

Table 3

PROGRESS IN CANOPY DENSITY IN DIFFERENT YEARS AT TATARPUR MIXED PLANTATIONS

A, B AND C FROM 1980 TO 1990

Year

Age of
plantation
in July

Condition of vegetation

Rainfall

Canopy

condition

Approx, average
canopy density
at end of June

1980

Vegetation sparse, highly degraded, heavy
biotic interference; Saccharum bengalense
abundant.

Normal

Widely

open

0.1

1981

0

Plantation done in July to re-stock the
area; area fenced, biotic interference
minimised, Saccharum bengalense
abundant.

Normal

Widely

open

0.1

1982

1

Vigorous growth in planted saplings, biotic
interference minimised, Saccharum
bengalense abundant.

Normal

Widely

open

0.15

1983

2

Length-wise and sideways growth good,
improvement in ground flora, biotic
interference minimised, Saccharum bengalense
abundant.

Normal

Open

0.3

1984

3

Expansion in crowns, development of
microclimate continued, biotic
interference minimised. Saccharum bengalense
not flourishing in shady areas.

Sub-normal

Less open

0.4

1986

5

As in 1984.

Normal

Crown contact 0.6

stage in a few
pockets

1987

6

Along nallahs, canopy became closed;
Saccharum bengalense disappeared
from many shady pockets; illicit
browsing practiced.

Severe

drought

Crown
overlapping
started in a
few pockets

0.75

1988

7

Besides a few pockets, most of the area
became closed due to good crown growth;
grassy ground flora disappeared from
shady areas, Saccharum bengalense
completely disappeared from most
parts of the area.

Above

normal

Crown over- 0.85

lapped in most
of the area

1989

8

As in 1988. Illicit browsing continued.

Normal

As in 1988

0.85

1990

9

Illicit grazing, browsing with felling
and lopping in many pockets. Fencing of
barbed wire partially destroyed by graziers
to facilitate illegal grazing.

Normal

As in 1988

0.83

No data available for 1985.

82

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

H

§ NUT 0 PUT

T§ NNT zQ PNT

Fig. 2. Nesting patterns oiPloceus philippinus in the less undulating parts of Tatarpur Mixed Plantations.

A. 1980, before planting. Very few suitable nesting trees. Area unfenced. B. 1982: Canopy widely open. Area fenced. Planting
at 5 x 5 m spacing done in 1981; both planted and earlier (natural) trees used for nesting. C. 1986, beginning of crown contact
stage in some pockets; nesting activities shifted towards periphery. D. 1987, beginning of crown overlapping stage in some
pockets, beginning of crown contact stage in most of remaining area. E. 1988, crown overlapping advanced. Nesting quickly
disappeared in deeper parts.

NUT = Natural un-nested tree, NNT = Natural nested tree, PUT = Planted un-nested tree, PNT = Planted nested tree.

abandoned the area from 1987 onwards (Tables was common. Before 1984, nest colonies of
1, 3). Ploceus benghalensis could be seen in sufficient

Due to increase in canopy density, Sac - numbers (Table 2), but after 1987, not even a
charum bengalense also disappeared from the single nest colony could be traced in any of the
area for want of sufficient light. Before 1980, three plantations (Table 2).
when this area was open, Saccharum bengalense

CANOPY DENSITY AND BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF WEAVER BIRDS

83

Discussion

It is clear from the study that weaver birds
cannot utilise man-made plantations year after
year. Canopy density plays an important role as a
limiting factor. A planted area is preferred by
weaver birds till it reaches the ‘crown contact
stage’. Beyond this stage, weaver birds move
from the area towards more open parts which are
available within the area, or in other areas.

Openness of the area is important for several
reasons:

(i) Thick growth reduces audibility of breed-
ing songs of advertising cocks.

(ii) Nest building cocks display to attract the
nest-inspecting females. Such displays cannot be
seen if visibility in the area is poor. If there is thick
growth around nesting hosts, neither the display-
ing cock nor his nest will be seen from a distance
by females.

Besides audibility and visibility, one may
suspect the effect of other causes such as influence
of predators along with density of vegetative
cover. Predation was not common in the area, and
did not change in intensity during the study. Avery
few raids by house crows Corvus splendens were

Refer

Adam, R.M. (1873): Notes on the birds of the Sambhur Lake
and its vicinity. Stray Feathers 1: 361-404.

Au, S. (1956): Crows and weaver bird - ratiocination or
what? J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 470-72.

Au, S. & Ambedkar, V.C. (1957): Further notes on the Baya
Weaver bird, Ploceus philippinus (Linn.). J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 54(3): 491-502. •

Ambedkar, V.C. (1970): Nest of the baya Ploceus philippinus
(Linn.) on telegraph wires. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
66: 624.

Ambedkar, V.C. (1972): On the breeding biology of the

noticed in plantation ‘C’ on an Acacia Senegal
based huge colony of Ploceus philippinus in a
nallah during 1982 and 1983. One incident of
house crow attack was noticed ih plantation ‘B’ in
1984.

The population of jungle crows Corvus mac-
rorhynchos is extremely low in the locality and
this species was never seen stealing eggs and
chicks from the nests of weaver birds in the study
area. Neither snakes nor raptCiS were noticed on
weaver nests. However, once in the summer of
May 1983, a grey shrike Lanius excubitor was
noticed perching on the chinstrap of a half-built
nest of Ploceus philippinus. However, shrikes
were not observed hunting in the nest colonies
during the breeding season of weavers.

Acknowledgements

My sincere thanks are due to Forest Officials
deputed at Tatarpur for their continuous coopera-
tion during the study period. I am deeply indebted
to Rajendra Gaur and Udai Ram, Range Forest
Officers, for their assistance in various ways, and
to Dr Shiva Shanna, Dept, of Botany, University
of Rajasthan, Jaipur, for encouragement and
guidance.

ENCES

Blackthroated ( Ploceus benghalensis (Linn.)) and the
Streaked (Ploceus manyar flaviceps Lesson) Weaver
bird in the Kumaon Terai. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
69(2): 268-82.

Davis, T.A. (1971): Baya weaver bird nesting on human
habitations. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(1): 246-48.
Mathew, D.N. (1972): Ecology of the Baya in Rajampet,
Cuddapah Dt., A.R J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (1):
188-191.

Whistler, H. (1928): Handbook of Indian Birds (19S6 reprint
published by Cosmo Publication, New Delhi).

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE HANUMAN LANGUR PRESBYTIS ENTELLUS

IN JODHPUR, WESTERN INDIA1

G. Agoramoorthy2
(With four text-figures)

Introduction

The Hanuman langur Presbytis entellus
Dufresene 1797 (Primates: Cercopithecidae),
lives in a variety of habitats in India, which range
from the snow-clad peaks of the Himalaya (up to
3660 m) in the north to deciduous forests in the
south, parts of the Great Indian Desert in the west
and to the rain forests in the east (Roonwal and
Mohnot 1977).

Although a large number of field studies
have been carried out on the behaviour and ecol-
ogy of Hanuman langurs in different ecozones for
the last two decades (Laws and Vonder Har Laws
1984 and references therein, Newton 1986, Som-
mer 1987), detailed information on the reproduc-
tive biology is not available (Harley 1985).

Adult male replacements, social changes and
infant killings were frequently reported in this
species (Sugiyama 1965, Mohnot 1971, Hrdy 1977,
Makwana 1980, Sommer 1987, Agoramoorthy and
Mohnot 1988, Agoramoorthy et al. 1988) but con-
troversies still exist over different hypotheses in
connection with frequency, cause and function of
langur infanticide (Hrdy 1974, Curtin and Dolhinow
1978, Boggess 1979, 1984).

The collection of quantitative longitudinal
reproductive and troop demographic data thus
became important in order to test hypotheses con-
cerning the functional aspect of infanticide. This
paper describes the female reproductive
parameters and troop development in three one-
male bisexual troops of Hanuman langur. This
study was carried out from December 1982 to
September 1 985 around Jodhpur in western India.

Accepted October 1990.

2Dept. of Zoology, University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur 342001.
Present address: International Centre for Gibbon Studies,
P.O. Box 800299, Santa Clarita, California 91380, U.S.A.

Study Area

Jodhpur city (26°19’ N, 73° 8’ E, elevation
241 m) lies at the eastern fringe of the Great Indian
Desert in western India. The study area named
Kailana-Bijolai is located about 8 km west of
Jodhpur, which has undulating hillocks in a semi-
arid environment, where Euphorbia caudicifolia
and Acacia Senegal are predominant.

The climate of Jodhpur and its vicinity is
characterised by uncertain and variable rains and
extremes of temperature (Mohnot 1974). The
lowest temperature during the study was 1° C (21
Feb. 1984) and the highest was 44.7° C (28 May
1984). Rain usually occurs in summer monsoons
during July to September and the mean annual
rainfall during 1983-84 was 360 mm.

Material and Methods

Langur troops: About 1300 langurs or-
ganized in 28 one-male bisexual troops (66.7%),
one multi-male troop (2.4%) and 13 all-male
bands (30.9%) are distributed in and around
Jodhpur (Fig. 1). The total area used by these
langurs comprises about 85 sq. km. There are no
other langur troops found in a radius of 100 km
around and thus the Jodhpur population is
geographically and genetically isolated.

Water is available round the year for all the
troops in the form of tanks, lakes and ponds. There
are no natural predators except a few cases of dog
predation (Agoramoorthy 1987). Religious
people workship these langurs as God Hanuman
(mentioned in the Hindu epic Ramayana), and
provide them with artificial food regularly.

Study troops: The reproductive and troop
demographic data presented here refer particular-
ly to three one-male troops named B, KI and KII

(Fig- !)•

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF HANUMAN LANGUR

Fig. 1. Distribution of Hanuman langur troops around Jodhpur, western India.

86

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

MONTHS

Fig. 2. Births observed during 1984 in 9 troops (2 multi-male,
7 one-male) of Hanuman langur, which are not influenced by
infanticide.

TVoop B or Bijolai troop: Troop B lives in
Bijolai area and its home range overlaps that of
neighbouring KII and B22 troops. Mohnot (1971)
started to observe this troop in 1969 and was later
followed by Makwana (1979), Winkler (1984)
and Agoramoorthy (1987). All langurs of the
troop were individually known since 1977.

TVoops KI & KII (Kailana I & II): Prior
to 1977, troops KI and KII were a single troop
named B25 (Mohnot 1974). In 1977, fission oc-
curred during a male band invasion into the troop
(Winkler 1981). As a result, leader male of B25
continued its stay with 14 females, later named as
troop KI. A new adult male along with eight
females formed the second, named troop KII.
Now troops KI and KII live in close proximity in
Kailana area and their home ranges overlap. The
past history of KI was published by Vogel and
Loch (1984) and Winkler et al. (1984), whereas
no earlier data was available on the individuals of
troop KII. Individuals were identified and given
names in July 1983, when I resumed regular ob-
servations.

Methods

The study troops were regularly observed
from 10 December 1982 to 15 September 1985

for approximately 1850 hours to record the female
reproductive parameters. All the individuals of the
troops were checked every day to record new
births, menstruation and sexual interactions with
the leader male. As soon as a new bom was seen,
the last successful copulation date of the particular
female was pooled out from reproductive records
to estimate the length of gestation period. Ad
libitum sampling was used as observational
method (Altmann 1974).

Data on male band interactions with the focal
troops and social changes like new male takeovers
and infanticide were recorded. The influence of
male takeover and infanticide in troop develop-
ment was examined. To investigate birth
seasonality in free ranging langurs around
Jodhpur, nine bisexual troops (two multi-male
and seven one-male troops) were followed once a
week to record new births. Age of the infants was
estimated based on colouration of face and coat
(e.g. Mohnot 1974, Hrdy 1977).

Results

Female Reproductive Parameters

Births: Out of the total 41 infants that were
bom into the focal troops during 1982-85, one
birth took place at dawn. When I resumed obser-
vation on 23 December 1983 at 0545 hrs, a new
bom infant was seen with the mother. The mother
was in sitting posture, licking her infant. Fresh
blood drops scattered around (15 cm radius) the
place (over a rock) where the female was seen,
indicated that the birth might have occurred about
30 minutes earlier. The infant was seen suckling
with closed eyes. Six hours later, the infant was
transferred to another female for about eight
minutes. The vaginal bleeding lasted for four
days.

In total, 17 infants were born in troop KII and
1 2 each in troop KI and B during the study period.
Two distinct birth peaks were observed in this
sample — a slow but steady increase in birth from
January to March with a peak in March, and a
sudden drop in April; and again a slow increase
from May to July with another peak in July. This
followed a gradual decrease in births, which were

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF HANUMAN LANGUR

87

MONTHS

Fig. 3. Births observed in 3 troops (KI, KII and B) of Hanuman
langur, which suffered infanticide during 1982-85.

lowest in November (Fig. 2).

In addition to this, nine bisexual troops (two
multi-male and seven one-male troops) were fol-
lowed in 1984 to. record births and to investigate
birth peak if any. Of 82 birth records, 48 were
males and 34 were females. Births occurred in all
the months in 1984. Although there was no dis-
tinct birth peak, fluctuations in the number of
infants bom in different months were observed.
The concentration of births in January and
February was evident compared to March and
April, when fewer births were recorded. But in
June and September there was again an increase
in births while November was the lean month with
minimum births. Likewise, August, May and
December also had less births (Fig. 3).

Maturity: The onset of first menstruation
was observed in two females at the age of 29.5
and 26 months and these females delivered their
first infant after 5 and 7.7 months respectively.
The first conception was estimated for five
females at a mean age of 33.9 ± 3.2 months (range

30.3 to 37.2 months).

Menstruation: The successive menstrual
bleeding in 35 cases for 10 females were recorded;
it ranged from 16 to 31 days with an average of
24.8 ±1.0 days. The bleeding lasted for 1-3 days

(average 2 days) and in all cases blood flow was
clearly visible.

Gestation: The time elapsed between last
copulation and delivery of infant was calculated
in 11 females and the gestatibn length ranged from
196 to 204 days (average 199.9 ± 3.0 days).

Birth interval: The time interval between
two subsequent births was recorded for 24 cases
in 18 females, whose infants were still alive when
their younger siblings were; conceived and bom.
This regular or normal birth interval ranged from

12.3 to 22.3 months and averaged 15.7± 2.4
months. The birth interval of females who lost
their unweaned infants in eight cases ranged from

7.3 to 15.5 months, average 10.5 ± 2.9 months.
It is significantly shorter than the normal birth
interval (Mann- Whitney U Test, P <0.001);

Troop Development

Considerable fluctuations in troop size and
troop development were observed in the focal
troops within the study period, mainly caused by
births, deaths and disappearances of infants,
juveniles and adults. After an extended process of
male replacement and infanticide in troop KII, the
troop structure changed considerably from 25 to
19 individuals (Table 3). In troop B, drastic chan-
ges in troop size from 21 to nine individuals was
observed after male takeover (Table 4).

In both troops, infanticide was the major
cause for infant and juvenile mortality. After the
new males were established as leaders, both
troops KII and B showed distinct increase in troop
composition. In troop KI, there was not much
fluctuation in the troop size since the troop did not
suffer infanticide (Table 2). Details on the process
of male replacement and social changes have been
published elsewhere (Agoramoorthy 1987,
Agoramoorthy and Mohnot 1988, Agoramoorthy
etal 1988).

Discussion

Although a few cases of diurnal births have
been reported in Hanuman langur (McKenna
1974, Oppenheimer 1976), most of the births
occurred at night. Many species of Cebidae and

88

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Table 1

COMPARISON OF FIELD AND LABORATORY DATA ON FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE PARAMETERS OF Presbytis entellus

Female

reproductive

parameter

Published

results

Field (F)/
Laboratory (L)

Source

Maturation
Age at

28.2 m

Jodhpur (F)

Winkler et al. 1984

menarche

27.8 m

Jodhpur (F)

Present study

Age at First

34.2 m

Jodhpur (F)

Winkler et al. 1984

conception

36.4 ± 6.7 m

Jodhpur (F)

Present study

Menstruation
Length of

26.8 ± 1.0 d

Jaipur (L)

David & Ramasamy 1969

menstrual

28 d

Mount Abu (F)

Hrdy 1977

cycles

24. 1± 3.8 d

Jodhpur (F)

Winkler et al. 1984

24.8 ± 1.0 d

Jodhpur (F)

Present study

Gestation
Length of

172 d

Jaipur (L)

David & Ramasamy 1969

gestation

200 ± 10 d

Davis (L)

Neurater (pers. comm.)

period

6-7 m

Dharwar (F)

Sugiyama 1967

200 ± 10 d

Mount Abu (F)

Hrdy 1974

200.1 d

Jodhpur (F)

Winkler et al. 1984

199.9 ± 3.0 d

Jodhpur (F)

Present study

Interbirth Interval
Birth interval in

20-24 m

Dharwar (F)

Sugiyama 1967

normal cases

20-30 m

Mount Abu (F)

Cited in Harley 1985

15.3 m

Jodhpur (F)

Winkler et al. 1984

15.9 m

Berkeley (L)

Harley 1985

15.7 ± 2.4 m

Jodhpur (F)

Present study

Birth interval in

25-27 m

Dharwar (F)

Sugiyama 1967

cases of infant loss

24 m

Mount Abu (F)

Hrdy 1977

11.6 m

Jodhpur (F)

Winkler et al. 1984

10.8 m

Berkeley (L)

Harley 1985

10.5 ± 2.9 m

Jodhpur (F)

Present study

d = day, m = month

Cercopithidae tend to give birth at night (Jolly
1972). This would serve two functions (Bowden
et al. 1967). First, the mother monkey has to
move with the troop during the day in order to
protect herself and if she is in the process of
parturition, she will risk accidental predation by
large carnivores in that area.

Second, in many species, adults are attracted
and fascinated by new bom infants and especially
in Hanuman langurs, alio- mothering is very com-
mon, so it is presumably advantageous for langur
females to deliver at night in order to safeguard
their infants from inexperienced allo-mother in-
terruption immediately after birth, who could

damage the new bom.

In the Himalayan population of langurs, dis-
tinct birth seasons occur. Births are spaced every
20-24 months and the seasonal breeding charac-
ters appear to be influenced by the high altitude
habitat (Bishop 1979). In the non-Himalayan
Hanuman langur population, births occur
throughout the year without any seasonality but
sometimes with clear birth peaks (Prakash 1962,
Jay 1965, Sugiyama 1965, Hrdy 1977, Roonwal
and Mohnot 1977, Bishop 1979).

However, there are always some out-of-
season exceptions, and when coupled with small
sample sizes these exceptions make the existence

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF HANUMAN LANGUR

89

Table 2

CHANGES IN THE GROUP COMPOSITION OF TROOP KI DURING JULY 1983-JUNE 1985

Date

Category
& Sex

Langur
I.D. No.

Event

Gain/

Loss

Troop

Size

6 July ’83

I

F

4.4.1

New birth

+ 1

18

7 Aug. ’83

I

F

6.3.1

New birth

+ 1

19

23 Aug. ’83

I

M

4.6

New birth

+ 1

20

9 Sep. ’83

I

M

2.3.1

New birth

+ 1

21

? Sep. ’83

A

F

9

Disappeared

-1

20

23 Oct. ’83

I

M

12.2

New birth

+ 1

21

13 Jun. ’84

I

F

2.3.1

Died of electrocution

-1

20

14Jun. ’84

A

F

8

Disappeared

-1

19

25 Jul. ’84

I

M

7.6

New birth

+ 1

20

24 Oct. ’84

I

F

4.4.1

Disappeared

-1

19

20 Jan. ’85

I

M

6.3.2

New birth

+ 1

20

09 Feb. ’85

I

F

4.4.2

New birth

+ 1

21

16 Mar. ’85

I

F

3.2.1

New birth

+ 1

22

25 Mar. ’85

I

M

12.3

New birth

+ 1

23

29 Mar. ’85

I

M

7.6

Disappeared

-1

22

08 Apr. ’85

I

M

12.3

Died (reason not known)

-1

21

08 Jun. ’85

I

F

4.7

New birth

+ 1

22

A = Adult, I = Infant, M = Male, F = Female.

Group composition as on 1 July 1983 = 17 individuals.

of a real birth season questionable (cited in Moore
1985). There was no distinct birth peak for the
nine troops which did not undergo male takeovers
during 1984 and births were recorded throughout
the year (Fig. 2). In contrast, the birth peak is
convincing for the focal troops (Fig. 3). Here the
sudden increase in number of births during
February-March and July-September was a result
of male replacements followed by infanticide in
troops KII and B.

In Hanuman langurs, although the male
juveniles started to wean from 14 to 18 months
(Mohnot et al. 1987), the process of male
maturity was difficult to observe, since male
juveniles leave the natal troops during male re-
placements (Agoramoorthy 1987). The first
menstrual cycle was observed in two cases and
conception after 4-6 estrous cycles. In females
who produced one or more infants, the conception
normally occurred after two estrous cycles after
postpartum. It appears that langur females reach
their initial sexual maturity at the age of 2.5 to 3
years around Jodhpur. The mean age of females
at first conception was estimated for six females
as 36.4 months (Table 1).

Although in some study sites the flow of
menstrual bleeding was not always detectable
(Hrdy 1977, Jay 1965), in 35 subsequent
menstrual cycles observed in 10 females in this
study, the menstrual bleeding was clearly visible
and the bleeding on average lasted for two days.
The mean cycle length in the present study was
24.8 ±1.0 days, which is closer to Winkler et al.
(1984) (24.1 days) and David and Ramasami
(1969) (26.8 ±1.0 days) for captive colony lan-
gurs at Jaipur (Table 1). However, at Mount Abu,
the average cycle length was 28 days (Hrdy 1977).

The normal birth interval of females whose
infants survived at least for nine months averaged
15.7 months, which is closer to 15.4 months ob-
tained from captive colony of langurs at Berkeley
(Harley 1985). But the interval varied from 20-24
months for langurs of Dharwad (Sugiyama 1967)
and 20 to 30 months for langurs of Mount Abu
(Hrdy 1977, cited in Harley 1985). Six out of eight
females that lost their unweaned infants under six
months of age, conceived within two estrous
periods after losing their infants, which is similar
to the reports of Harley (1985). These six females
started to deliver infants after 6.8 to 8.3 months

90

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Table 3

CHANGES IN THE GROUP COMPOSITION OF TROOP KII DURING AUGUST 1983- SEPTEMBER 1985

Date

Category
& Sex

Langur
I.D. No.

Event

Gain/

Loss

Troop

Size

23 Aug. ’83

I

M

6.1

Attacked by invading male;

infant disappeared next day

-1

24

12 Oct. ’83

I

F

3.1

Attacked by invading band males,

infant later disappeared

-1

23

15 Oct. ’83

J

F

?

Died, reason not known

-1

22

20 Nov. ’83

J

M

9.1

Attacked by invading male,

-1

21

later joined band(M 10)

10 Dec. ’83

I

F

?

Disappeared

-1

20

? Jan. ’84

I

M

10.1

Disappeared, suspected

-1

19

infanticidal episode

23 Feb. ’84

I

F

5.1

New birth

+1

20

18 Mar. ’84

I

M

4.2

New birth

+1

21

02 Apr. ’84

I

F

5.1

Infanticide

-1

20

04 May ’84

I

M

12.2

New birth

+1

21

11 May ’84

I

M

12.2

Infanticide

-1

20

26 May ’84

J

F

8.1

Died of electrocution

-1

19

06 Jun. ’84

I

M

4.2

Infanticide

-1

18

11 Jun. ’84

I

M

6.2

New birth

+1

19

16 Jun. ’84

J

F

?

Died; dysentery and loss

of body weight

-1

18

17 Jun. ’84

I

M

6.2

Infanticide

-1

17

19 Jun. ’84

I

M

9.2

New birth

+1

18

27 Jul. ’84

I

M

1.1

New birth

+1

19

01 Aug. ’84

I

M

11.2

New birth

+1

20

31 Aug. ’84

I

M

10.2

New birth

+1

21

07 Sep. ’84

I

F

7.1

New birth

+1

22

15 Sep. ’84

I

F

8.2

New birth

+1

23

10 Nov. ’84

I

M

5.2

New birth

+1

24

20 Dec. ’84

I

M

12.3

New birth

+1

25

08 Jan. ’85

I

M

4.3

New birth

+1

26

29 Apr. ’85

I

M

4.1.1

New birth

+1

27

10 Aug. ’85

I

M

11.3

New birth

+1

28

25 Aug. ’85

I

F

8.2

Died of electrocution

-1

27

26 Sep. ’85

I

F

6.3

New birth

+1

28

J = Juvenile, I = Infant, M = Male, F = Female.

Group composition as on 1 Aug. 1983 = 25 individuals.

and the birth interval averaged nine months,
which is very close to the birth interval of females
who suffered abortion and still birth at Berkeley
colony (Harley 1985, p. 232).

In the remaining two females, who were
older (approximately 12 years), conception took
place after four and nine months respectively. The
female who lost the youngest infant had the
longest birth interval of 1 5.5 months. In particular,
this female lost her second infant subsequently in

infanticide, which appeared to be the reason. Does
older age play a key role in lengthening birth
interval in females who lose infants ? Do females
adopt any strategy to prolong the birth interval in
order to avoid losing their infant in infanticide?
More data are required to test this hypothesis.

Comparing the age of infant at death or dis-
appearance, with the duration of birth interval in
females who lose their infants, after excluding the
extreme two cases, a positive correlation was

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF HANUMAN LANGUR

91

Table 4

CHANGES IN THE GROUP COMPOSITION OF TROOP B DURING JANUARY 1983 - JULY 1985

Date

Category
& Sex

Langur
I.D. No.

Event

Gain /
Loss

Troop

Size

12 Jan. ’83

J

M

7.3

Disappeared

-1

20

17 Jan. ’83

A

M

M. Star

Attacked and killed by

invading males

-1

19

17 Jan. ’83

A

F

3

Died, reason not known

-1

18

17 Jan. ’83

A

M

M 38

Joined as new leader

+1

19

18 Jan. ’83

J

M

3.5

Disappeared

-1

18

18 Jan. ’83

J

M

Cripple

Disappeared

-1

17

18 Jan. ’83

J

F

?

Disappeared after

new male takeover

-1

16

30 Jan. ’83

J

F

7.4

Died due to infection

from bite wounds

-1

15

01 Feb. ’83

A

F

7

Died; intestinal parasite Strongyloides sp.

found during examination

-1

14

03 Feb. ’83

I

M

5.4

Infanticide

-1

13

09 Feb. ’83

I

F

6.5

Infanticide

-1

12

11 Feb. ’83

I

M

1.5

Infanticide

-1

11

11 Feb. ’83

A

F

5

Isolation, starvation and eventual

disappearance after she lost her infant

-1

10

13 Feb. ’83

A

F

9

Dog predation

-1

09

07 Oct. ’83

I

M

1.6

New birth

+1

10

22 Oct ’83

I

M

1.6

Disappeared, reason not known

-1

09

23 Dec. ’83

I

F

6.6

New birth

+1

10

25 Jan. ’84

I

M

2.7

New birth

+1

11

20 Feb. ’84

I

M

6.1.3

New birth

+1

12

29 Feb. ’84

I

M

2.4.1

New birth

+1

13

02 July ’84

I

M

1.7

New birth

+1

14

08 Mar. ’85

I

M

6.7

New birth

+1

15

23 Mar. ’85

I

M

6.1.4

New birth

+1

16

01 Jul. ’85

I

F

6.4.1

New birth

+1

17

A = Adult, J

= Juvenile, I =

Infant, M

= Male, F =

Female.

Group composition as on 1 Jan. 1983 = 21 individuals.

found (Fig. 4). This indicates that the dominant
male langur, who newly takes over a bisexual
troop, will gain reproductive advantage if he suc-
cessfully kills unweaned infants under six months
of age (supposedly unrelated), in order to bring
the mother into early estrous to sire his own
offspring. He can thus increase his inclusive fit-
ness (Trivers 1972, Hrdy 1977). But this ad-
vantage may vary depending upon the biological
condition of the females.

Drastic decline in troop size was observed in
troops B and KII as a result of male takeovers and
infanticide. The highest infant mortality (87.5%)
was observed in troop KII. In addition, three

juveniles (two males and one female) disap-
peared in troop B after male change. But in one
case, a male juvenile of troop KII was attacked
and later joined a neighbouring band of males.
This indicates that juvenile stage in males is criti-
cal since they are forced to leave their natal troop
during male takeovers and have to face a new life
with the bachelor males. But whether the reason
for the disappearance of a female juvenile was due
to emigration, predation, or other causes, is un-
known.

It is evident that the male replacements
strongly influenced troop structural changes in
Hanuman langurs of Jodhpur. This is similar to

92

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Fig. 4. A positive correlation between the age of infants at
death and duration of interbirth interval in Hanuman langurs
of Jodhpur.

the phenomenon in purplefaced langurs Presbytis
senex and in lions Panthera leo, where increased
infant mortality during male takeovers has been
reported (Rudran 1973, Bertram 1975, Packer and
Pusey 1983).

Langurs around Jodhpur appear to reach
maturity about one year earlier than at other study
sites like Dharwar and Mount Abu (Vogel and
Loch 1984), and in addition the interbirth interval
is comparatively shorter (Table 1). However, Har-
ley (1985) compared the langur reproductive data
of Jodhpur to the langurs of Mount Abu and
Dharwar and argued that Mount Abu and Dharwar
results were overestimated since these data did
not result from long-term observations like
Jodhpur, so inaccuracy on langur parturition and
undetected loss of pregnancy or neonate seemed
to be the cause for overestimation.

It is clear that the long-term langur reproduc-

Refer

Agoramoorthy, G. (1987): Reproductive parameters and so-
cial changes in free ranging Hanuman langurs ( Pres-
bytis entellus) of Jodhpur. Unpublished Fh.D. disserta-
tion, University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur.

Agoramoorthy, G. & Mohnot, S.M. (1988): Infanticide and
juvenilicide in Hanuman langurs ( Presbytis entellus)
around Jodhpur, India. Human Evolution 3(4): 279-
296.

Agoramoorthy, G., Mohnot, S.M., Sommer, V. & Srivas-

tive data from Jodhpur and Berkeley colony are
similar. Here, I must mention that Jodhpur habitat
is semi-desert and natural food appears to be
scarce (Agoramoorthy 1987). In addition, artifi-
cial food is common to all langur troops around
Jodhpur. But, how far the artificial provisioning
will affect the birth interval in langurs of Jodhpur
is not clear. Studies on Japanese macaques
showed that artificial food reduced birth interval
in females (Sugiyama and Ohsawa 1985). More
detailed and longer-term data are needed from
other study sites such as Dharwar and Mount Abu
to better examine the effect of artificial food in
shortening birth interval in langurs, and also to
note the difference in reproductive parameters
within the species Presbytis entellus itself.

Acknowledgements

I thank Drs. S.M. Mohnot and R. Rudran for
their advice and supervision during the course of
the field and writing work. The field work was
supported by a Senior Research Fellowship from
the Government of India, Department of En-
vironment (Man & Biosphere Program) and data
analysis and writing work was funded by the
Friends of the National Zoo (FONZ) and David
and Lucile Packard Foundation (grant awarded to
Dr R. Rudran). I also thank the Department of
Zoology, University of Jodhpur and the Conser-
vation & Research Center, Smithsonian Institu-
tion for providing facilities. I wish to express my
thanks to Drs S.M. Mohnot, R. Rudran, N.H.
Bishop, J. Moore, C. Wemmer, and Ms. Minna
Hsu for critically reading the manuscript of an
earlier version.

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tava, A. (1988): Abortions in free ranging Hanuman
langurs, Presbytis entellus - A male induced strategy?
Human Evolution 3(4): 297-308.

Altmann, J. (1974): Observational study of behavior: Sam-
pling methods. Behaviour 49: 227-267.

Bertram, B.C.R. (1975): Social factors influencing reproduc-
tion in wild lions. J. Zoology 177 : 463-482.

Bishop, N.H. (1979): Himalayan langurs: Temperate

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Colobines. J. Human evolution 8: 251-281.

Boggess, J. (1979): Troop male membership changes and
infant killing in langurs (Presbytis entellus). Folia
Primatologica 32: 65-107.

Boggess, J. (1984): Infant killing and male reproductive
strategies in langurs ( Presbytis entellus). In: Infan-
ticide: Comparative and evolutionary perspectives.
Hausfater, G. & Hrdy, S.B. (Eds.). Aldine Publishing
Co., New York.

Bowden, D., Winter, P. & Ploog, D.W. (1967): Pregnancy
and delivery behavior in the squirrel monkey ( Saimiri
sciureus) and other primates. Folia Primatologica 5:
1-42.

Curtin, R.A. & Dolhinow, P. (1978): Primate social behavior
in a changing world .American Scientist 66: 468-475.

David, G.F.X. & Ramasami, L.S. (1969): Studies on menstrual
cycles and other related phenomena in the langur ( Pres-
bytis entellus). Folia Primatologica 11: 300-316.

Harley, D. (1985): Birth spacing in langur monkeys ( Pres-
bytis entellus). International J. Primatology 6(3): 227-
242.

Hausfater, G. & Hrdy, S.B. (1984): Infanticide: Compara-
tive and evolutionary perspectives. Aldine Publishing
Company, New York.

Hrdy, S.B. (1974): Male-male competition and infanticide
among the langurs (Presbytis entellus) of Abu, Rajas-
than. Folia Primatologica 22: 19-58.

Hrdy, S.B. (1977): The langurs of Abu: Female and male
strategies of reproduction. University Press,
Cambridge.

Jay, P. (1965): The common langurs of north India. In:
Primate behavior. Devore, I. (Ed.). Holt, Rinehart &
Winston, New York. pp. 197-249.

Jolly, A. (1972): Hour of birth in primates and man. Folia
Primatologica 18: 80-121.

Laws, J.W. & Von derIIarr Laws (1984): Social interactions
among adult male langurs ( Presbytis entellus) at Rajaji
Wildlife Sanctuary. International J. Primatology 5:
31-50.

Makwana, S.C. (1979): Infanticide and social change in two
groups of Hanuman langur (Presbytis entellus) at
Jodhpur. Primates 20: 293-300.

McKenna, J. (1974): Perinatal behavior and parturition of
Colobine, Presbytis entellus entellus (Hanuman lan-
gur). Laboratory Primate Newsletter 13(3): 13-15.

Mohnot, S.M. (1971): Some aspects of social changes and
infant killing in Hanuman langur, Presbytis entellus
(Primates: Cercopithecidae), in Western India. Mam-
malia 35: 175-198.

Moiinot, S.M. (1974): Ecology and behaviour of the Com-
mon Indian langur, Presbytis entellus. Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur.

Moore, J. (1985): Demography and sociality in primates.

Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University,
Harvard.

Newton, P. (1986): Infanticide in an undisturbed forest
population of Hanuman langurs, Presbytis entellus.
Animal Behavior 34: 785-789.

Oppenheimer, J.R. (1976): Presbytis entellus: Birth in a free
ranging primate troop. Primates 17 (4): 541-542.

Packer, C. & Pusey, A.E. (1983): Male takeovers and female
reproduction parameters: A situation of estrous
synchrony in lions (Panthera leo).AnimalBehavior31:
334-340.

Prakash, I. (1962): Group composition, sexual behavior, and
breeding season of certain Indian monkeys. Japanese
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Roonwal, M.L. & Mohnot, S.M. (1977): Primates of South
Asia: Ecology, sociobiology, and behavior. University
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Rudran, R. (1973): Adult male replacements in one-male
troops of Purple-faced langurs (Presbytis senex senex)
and its effect on population structure. Folia
Primatologica 19: 166-192.

Sommer, V. (1987): Infanticide among free ranging langurs
(Presbytis entellus) at Jodhpur (Rajasthan, India):
Recent observation and reconsideration of hypotheses.
Primates 28: 163-197.

Sugiyama, Y. (1965): On the social change of Hanuman
langurs (Presbytis entellus) in their natural condition.
Primates 6: 381-418.

Sugiyama, Y. (1967): Social organization of Hanuman langur.
In: Social communication among primates. Altmann,
S.A. (Ed.) University Press, Chicago, pp. 221-236.

Sugiyama, Y. & Ohsawa, W. (1982): Population dynamics of
Japanese monkeys with special reference to the effect
of artificial feeding. Folia Primatologica 39: : 238-263.

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tion. In: Sexual selection and the descent of man.
Campbell, B. (Ed.). Aldine Publishing Company,
Chicago, pp. 136-179.

Vogel, C. & Loch, II. (1984): Reproductive parameters, adult
male replacements, and infanticide among free ranging
langurs (Presbytis entellus) at Jodhpur (Rajasthan),
India. In: Infanticide: Comparative and evolutionary
perspectives. Hausfater, G. & Hrdy, S.B. (Eds.). Aldine
Publishing Company, New York. pp. 237-255.

Winkler, P. (1984): The adaptive capacities of Hanuman
langur and the categorizing of diet. In: Food acquisition
and processing in primates. Chivers, D., Wood & Bil-
soborough. Plenum Press, New York.

Winkler, P., Loch, II. & Vogel, C. (1984): Life history of
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parameters, infant mortality and troop development
Folia Primatologica 43: 1-23.

7

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

FIRST RECORD OF THE GENUS LAURENTINA MALAISE (HYMENOPTERA :
TENTHREDINIDAE) FROM INDIA, WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES1

Malkiat S. Saini and Devinder Singh2
( With two text-figures)

Two species of Laurentina Malaise, viz. L. birmanica Malaise, 1937 and L.
sarchuckensis sp. nov. are recorded from India. In addition to a key to the so far known species
of this genus, female lancets of the Indian species are illustrated.

INTRODUCTION

Based on three species from Burma,
Malaise (1937) proposed Laurentina as a sub-
genus of Laurentia. In a succeeding comprehen-
sive work (Malaise 1945) he raised it to the
generic level with the following combination of
characters: anterior margin of clypeus truncate,
hind femur shorter than tibia and reaching apex
of abdomen, mesopleuron minutely rugose with
sebaceous lustre, scutellar appendage polished
and the anal cell with a short cross vein placed
in the basal half.

Takeuchi (1952) in his work on Japanese
genera of Tenthredinidae, synonimised this
genus with Aglaostigma. However, we feel that
as the species of the genus Laurentina possess a
hind femur that reaches the tip of the abdomen,
a character missing in Aglaostigma , Laurentina
should be retained as a distinct genus as charac-
terised by Malaise (1945).

In the present studies two species of this
genus are recorded from the eastern Himalayas.
One of the species is L. birmanica Malaise
while the other is new. Apart from describing
the new species, the detailed description of L.
birmanica has been rewritten as the available
account is insufficient. The holotype of L. sar-
chuckensis sp. nov. will be deposited with the
Pusa National Collection, IARI, New Delhi.

Regd. No. L-157/RIT,

1 Accepted March 1991.

department of Zoology, Punjabi University,

Patiala 147 002.

Abbreviations: EL - eye length; IDMO -
interocular distance at level of median ocellus;
LID - lower interocular distance; OCL - ocello-
occipital line; OOL - oculo-ocellar line; POL -
post-ocellar line.

Laurentina sarchuckensis sp. nov.

FEMALE: Length, 8.6 mm. Body black.
Lab rum, lateral spot on clypeus, medial spot on
supra -clypeal area, small spot at tip of supra-an-
tennal tubercle, narrow stripe along inner orbit,
stripe on hind orbit, narrow posterior margin of
pronotum, spot on tegula and metepimeron yel-
lowish brown. Legs reddish brown. Coxae,
trochanters, extreme bases of femora and apex
of hind tibia black. Wings yellowish, hyaline,
stigma and venation brown, costa fulvous.

Antenna 2.8x head width, segments 3 and 4
in ratio 7:6. Labrum broader than long with
roundly pointed anterior margin. Malar space
equal to diameter of median ocellus.
LID: IDMO :EL = 2.0:2.6:1.5. OOL:POL:OCL =
2.7: 1.0: 1.5. Frontal area at level of eyes. Supra -
antennal tubercle raised and merging with low
frontal ridge. Median fovea like a broad depres-
sion, not reaching median ocellus. Circumocel-
lar furrow deep, long and obliquely cutting
across frontal ridge. Inter- and post-ocellar fur-
rows sharp. Lateral furrows broad and sunken.
Postocellar area flat, broader than long in ratio
2:1. Head narrowing behind eyes. Mesoscutel-
lum flat. Appendage faintly carinate. Seams of
mesonotum fine and not sunken. Subapical tooth
of claw stronger and subequal to apical one.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

95

Fig. 1. Lancet of L. sarchuckensis sp. nov.

Metabasitarsus shorter than following tarsal
joints combined.

Head rugose, hind orbit strongly micros-
culptured with scattered but distinct punctures.
Mesonotum miscrosculptured with deep punc-
tures along seams. Mesoscutellum with deep
and distinct punctures on posterior slope only.
Abdomen microstriated. Lancet as in Fig. 1.

Holotype: Female, Sikkim, Sarchuck,
2400 m. 22 May 1988.

The new species is closely related to L.
unicincta Malaise, 1937, but can easily be dis-
tinguished from the latter as shown in the key.

Etymology: The species name has been
taken from the type locality.

Laurentina birmanica Malaise

FEMALE: Length 9.0 mm. Body black.
Labrum, small lateral spot on clypeus, medial

Fig. 2. Lancet of L. birmanica Malaise.

spot on supraclypeal area, narrow stripe along
inner orbit continuous over temple and curving
downwards along hind orbit without touching
eye, narrow margin of pronotum, appendage of
metepimeron, small outer spot on meso- and
metacoxae white. Abdomen beyond segment 2
except sawsheath, pro- and mesolegs except
coxae, trochanters and extreme bases of femora,
metaleg except coxa reddish brown. Wings
clear, front one yellowish hyaline, stigma and
venation brown.

Antenna 2.1 x head width, segments 3 and 4
in ratio 7:6. Labrum broader than long with
roundly pointed anterior margin. Malar space
1.2x diameter of median ocellus. LID:IDMO:EL
= 2.0:2.4:1.5. OOL:POL:OCL = 3.1:1.0:2.0.
Frontal area elevated above level of eyes. Supra-
antennal tubercle raised and confluent with fron-
tal ridge. Median fovea narrow, ditch-like,

96

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

hardly reaching median ocellus. Circum-, inter-
and post ocellar furrows clear. Lateral furrows
excurved and sunken. Postocellar area flat,
broader than long in ratio 2:1 with deep median
longitudinal furrow. Head parallel behind eyes.
Mesoscutellum hardly raised. Appendage with
sharp carina. Seams of mesonotum broad and
sunken. Subapical tooth of claw stronger and
slightly longer than apical one. Metabasitarsus
shorter than following tarsal joints combined.

Head appearing wrinkled due to large, shal-
low and confluent punctures, hind orbit minutely
and densely punctured. Mesonotum minutely
punctured with strong microsculpture at apex of
middle lobe. Mesoscutellum with distinct punc-
tures on posterior slope. Appendage polished.
Mesepistemum strongly wrinlded. Mesostemum
minutely and densely punctured. Appendage of
metepistemum polished. Abdomen microstriated,
propodeum more strongly so. Lancet as in Fig. 2.

Material examined: 3 females, Arunachal
Pradesh, Bomdila, 2700 m, 1 May 1989.

KEY TO THE KNOWN SPECIES OF Laurentina MALAISE

1. Hind wing with one closed middle cell in female.
Mesonotum shining with scattered minute punctures.
Seams of mesonotum broad and sunken. Lancet as in

Fig. 2 L. birmanica Malaise

Hind-wing with two closed middle cells in

female. Mesonotum densely punctured or

microsculptured. Seams of mesonotum fine and

not sunken 2

2. General colour reddish with few black markings. Head

dilated behind eyes in female . . . L. ruficornis Malaise

— General colour black with few reddish markings.

Head narrowing behind eyes 3

3. Tergum 4 pale yellow. Postocellar area sub-

convex. Subapical tooth of claw longer than apical
one L. unicincta Malaise

— Abdomen entirely black. Postocellar area flat. Subapi-

cal tooth of claw shorter than apical one. Lancet as in
Fig. 1 L. sarchuckensis sp. nov.

References

Malaise, R. (1937): New Tenthredinidae mainly from the Takeuchi, K. (1952): A generic classification of the
Paris Museum. Rev. Franc. d’Ent. 4: 43-53. Japanese Tenthredinidae (Hymenoptera:

Malaise, R. (1945): Tenthredi noidea of southeastern Asia Tenthredinidae). Kyoto, Japan,

with a general zoogeographical review. Opus. Ent.,

Suppl. 4: 288.

OSTEOBRAMA BHIMENSIS, A NEW CYPRINID FISH FROM BHIMA RIVER,

PUNE DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA1

D.F. Singh and G.M. Yazdani2
( With two text- figures)

A few specimens of the Indo-Burmese
genus Osteobrama Heckel were collected from
the reservoir at Ujani on the river Bhima about
98 km from Pune. These proved on examination
and detailed comparison with the related
species, Osteobrama cotio (Ham.), to be a new
species which is described here.

Day (1989) recorded seven species under the
genus Rohtee from the Indian subcontinent, namely

Accepted July 1991.

2Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station,
1182/2, F.C.Road, Pune 411 005

R. bakeri Day, R. neill'i, R. cotio (Ham.), R. vigorsii
Sykes, R. belangeri (Cuv. & Val.), R. ogilbii Sykes
and R. cunma (Tickell). Of these, only R. ogilbii is
now retained under Rohtee whereas the rest are now
assigned to Osteobrama . Among them, O. cotio , a
widely distributed species is known by two sub-
species viz., O. cotio cotio (Ham.) from north India
and Assam and O. cotio cunma (Day) from Burma
and Pune (Jayaram 1981).

Bhima, the major river of Pune district, is an
important tributary of the Krishna river system. A
dam constructed on the river at Ujani has given rise

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

97

Fig. 1. Osteobrama bhimensis sp. nov.

to a large reservoir which is now declared as a
“wetland of national importance” Faunistic sur-
veys of this wetland are being undertaken
regularly by the Zoological Survey of India,
Western Regional Station, Pune for studying the
faunal composition in relation to ecological
parameters.

Osteobrama bhimensis sp. nov.

Description (Fig 1) : D iii-iv 9, P i/15; V
i/9, Aiii/23-25, C 19, LL 76-83.

Body short, deep and compressed. Ab-
dominal edge keeled only between pelvic and
anal fins. Dorsal profile arched just over the
nape. Head length 3.68 (3.4-3.9), body depth
3.28 (3.0-4. 1) in standard length respectively.

Snout 3.28 (3.0-3.8), eye 3.25 (2.5-3.8) and in-
terorbital width 3.88 (3.6-4.2) in head length.
Eye 1.06 (0.83-1.2) in snout length and 1.01
(0.83-1.3) in interorbital width. Eyes large and
just visible from below the ventral surface of
head. Upper jaw slightly longer than the lower.
Lips thin and plain. Barbels absent. Rayed dor-
sal fin inserted nearer caudal base than tip of
snout. The ventral fin extends beyond anal open-
ing. Predorsal length 1.73 (1.7-1. 8) while post-
dorsal length 2.0 (2.0-2. 1). Dorsal fin with a
strong serrated spine. Caudal fin deeply forked.
Scales well formed. Lateral line with 79 scales
(76-83). 13-17 scales between pelvic fin base
and LL and 28 (24-32) predorsal scales.

Uniform silvery colour with dark along the

Table 1

MORPHOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS OF O. bhimensis SP. NOV.

Proportions

Range

Mean

Range
(in %)

Mean
(in %)

Total length (TL)/Standard length (SL)

1.22 - 1.29

1.25

77.20-81.81

79.56

SL/head length

3.4 -3.9

3.68

25.14-29.16

27.0

SL/body depth

3.0 -4.1

3.28

24.30 - 32.85

30.5

SL/predorsal length

1.7 - 1.8

1.73

55.55 - 59.31

57.5

SL/postdorsal length

2.0 -2.1

2.0

44.44 - 50.47

48.3

Body depth/head length

1.13-1.23

1.19

80.76 - 87.80

83.7

Head length/snout length

3.0 -3.8

3.28

26.31 - 33.33

30.7

Head length/eye diameter

2.5 -3.8

3.25

26.19-31.57

29.0

Head length/inter orbital width

3.6 -4.2

3.88

20.28 - 27.77

24.9

Snout/eye diameter

0.83 - 1.2

1.06

83.33 - 120

95.4

IOW/eye diameter

0.83 - 1.3

1.01

76.92 - 120

100.8

Preanal length/S L

1.6 -1.7

1.63

58.8 - 62.06

60.3

98

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 89

back. Further data is presented in Table 1.

Distribution: River Bhima, Pune district,
Maharashtra.

Type specimens: Holotype — River
Bhima, Saha village, Indapur taluka, Pune dis-
trict, Maharashtra. 6 Sept. 1989, 135 mm SL.
Coll. D.F. Singh. Reg. No. P/1235.

Para types — 5 exs. 137-210 mm SL. Reg.
No. P/1236 with same details as above.

The type material will later on be deposited
in the National Zoological Collection at Calcut-
ta. Presently it is kept in the Western Regional
Station of ZSI, Pune.

Horn and Misra (1940) in their revisionary
work on fishes under the genus Rohtee ( =Os -
teobrama ) recorded the occurrence of Osteobrama
cotio (Ham.) from north India and Assam and its
variety [< 0 . c. cunma (Day)] from Burma and Pune.
Jayaram (1981) however, recognised two sub-
species O. cotio cotio and O. cotio cunma. How-
ever, no specimen of the subspecies cunma has been
obtained by us anywhere in Rine district.

While comparing the morphometric and
meristic characters of the new species with the two

known subspecies, it was seen that there is a
clear difference in the number of lateral line
scales, lateral transverse, branched rays in the
anal fin, predorsal scales, among other charac-
ters. The differences have been shown in Table
2. This new species shows a striking resemblance to
O. vigorsii which also occurs in Bhima river, but
differs in the following characters: absence of bar-
bels, number of transverse scales, etc. (Table 2).

To further confirm our findings, the urohyal
bones of O. bhimensis and O. vigorsii were studied.
This bone, which lies in the lower part of the head
between the lower jaw bones, has proved to be of
exceptional significance in fish systematics.

The urohyal in both species is long and
slender. In O. bhimensis the dorsal spread is
long with its posterior right side thickened while
its left side is slender and tapering (Fig. 2). In O .
vigorsii, the dorsal spread ends posteriorly in
two unequal wings, the left side being longer
and thickened. The vertical plate too shows
structural variations in the two species. O. vigor-
sii has a radial process on its vertical plate
which is lacking in O. bhimensis.

Table 2

MORPHOMETRIC AND MERISTIC CHARACTERS OF O. bhimensis SP. NOV., O.c.cunma, O.c.cotioAND O.vigorsii

Characters

O. bhimensis
Range Aver-

age

O. c. cunma
Range

*

Aver-

age

O. c. cotio
Range

*

Aver-

age

O. vigorsii *
Range Aver-

age

Standard length/
head length

25.14-29.16

27.4

21.83 - 27.38

24.35

22.72 -28.57

24.71

25 - 28.78

27.4

Standard length/
body depth

24.30 - 32.85

30.52

33.33 - 48.92

41.74

37.14-48.30

42.07

34.16-39.13

35.98

Body depth/
head length

80.76 - 87.80

83.72

47.36 - 80

58.83

49.56 - 66.66

58.99

69.44 - 80.43

75.22

Head length/
snout length

26.31 -33.33

30.70

23.07-31.81

28.31

21.62 - 30.00

26.43

23.78 - 30

27.94

Head length/
eye diameter

26.19-31.57

29.04

35.61 - 47.77

39.97

36.66 - 45.00

42.05

26.66 - 35.5

31.52

Head length/
interorbital width

20.28 - 27.77

24.99

21.05-31.61

27.18

22.63-32.00

27.54

16.66 - 22.4

19.49

Lateral line scales

76-83

79

42-60

49

58-70

62

73-85

78

Scales between
LLand Pelvic fin

13-17

14

7.5-9.5

8

10.5-13

11

11-11.5

11

Predorsal scales

24-32

28

18-24

21

24-29

26

33-37

34

Anal fin

3/23-25

3/24

3/25-31

3/28

3/28-33

3/30

3/21-27

3/23

Barbels

Absent

Absent

Absent

Two rudimentary
maxillary barbels.

* Measurements calculated from Hora & Misra (1940). All ratios are expressed as percentages.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

99

Fig. 2. Urohyal in O. bhimensis and O. vigorsii.

KEY TO THE SPECIES (MODIFIED) FROM
HORA & MISRA (1940)

1. Barbels absent 2

— Barbels present 4

2 Anal fin with less than 20 branched rays. Abdominal

edge keeled throughout O. belangeri

— Anal fin with more than 20 branched rays. Abdominal
edge keeled only between pelvic and anal fins .... 3

3. L.L. 42 - 60, scales between L.L. and pelvic fin 7-
9.5, anal fin with 25 - 31 branched rays

O. cotio cunma

— L.L. 58-70, scales between L.L and pelvic fin 10.5-
13. Anal fin with 28-33 branched rays . O. cotio cotio

— L.L. 76-83, scales between L. L. and pelvic fin
13-17, anal fin with 23-25 branched rays

, . . ,f . . . O. bhimensis sp. nov.

4. Four well defined barbels 5

— Two rudimentary maxillary barbels only 7

5. Anal fin with more than 20 branched rays. L.L.scales

more than 60 0. feae

— Anal fin with less than 20 rays. L.L. scales less than

60 6

6. L.L. scales 59, 17 branched rays in anal fin . .O. neilli

— L.L. scales 44, 11 branched rays in anal fin O. bakeri

7. L.L. scales 73-85. Anal fin with 21-27 branched rays
O. vigorsii

— L.L. scales 86-70. Anal fin with 16-18 branched rays
O. dayi

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey
of India, Calcutta for allowing us to undertake
this work, and Dr. R.S. Pillai, Joint Director,
Z.S.I. Madras for critically going through the
manuscript. We are also thankful to Dr. A.G.K.
Menon, Emeritus Scientist, Z.S.I. Madras for his
help and suggestions.

References

Day, F. (1989): The fauna of British India including Ceylon
and Burma. Fishes. Vol.l. London.

Hora, S.K. & Misra, K.S. (1940): Notes on fishes in the
Indian Museum. XL. On fishes of the genus Rohtee

Sykes. Rec Indian Mus. 42: 155-173.

Jayaram, K.C.(1981): The freshwater Fishes of India, Pakis-
tan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka — A Hand-
book. ZSI, Calcutta.

FIRST REPORT OF THE FAMILY VAEJOVIDAE (SCORPIONIDAE :
ARACHNIDA) IN MADHYA PRADESH, WITH THE DESCRIPTION OF A
NEW SPECIES SCORPIOPS (SCORPIOPS) PACHMARHICUS1

Deshabhushan Bastawade2
(With eight text-figures )

Scorpions of the family Vaejovidae are
known from 23 nominal species from Indian

1 Accepted September 1991.

2Zoological Survey of India, Arunachal Pradesh Field
Station, Itanagar791 111.

subcontinent (Tikader and Bastawade 1976,
1983). All known species have been described
under the genus Scorpiops Peters 1861 by split-
ting up this genus into three sub-genera, namely
Scorpiops Peters (typical), Euscorpiops Vachon

100

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

and Neoscorpiops Vachon. The first two sub-
genera are widely distributed in the Himalaya
from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh; while the
third sub-genus is known to occur in a few areas
in the Western Ghats, from Maharashtra and
Gujarat (Fig. 1). This family remained un-
reported from Aravalli and Satpura ranges in
central India; Western Ghats in Karnataka; Nil-
giri, Anamalai, Cardamom and Nallamalai hills
in southern India and also from Mahendra hills
and Malayagiri in south-eastern India. The fami-
ly requires revision (Francke 1976, Vachon
1973, 1980). A thorough exploration is also
desirable throughout the central and southern
parts of the country by scorpiologists to deter-
mine its distributional boundaries and to study
speciation trend.

Recently some specimens of this family
were collected from Pachmarhi (410 m above
sea level), Madhya Pradesh for the first time.
These specimens show close resemblance with a
known species Scorpiops (Scorpiops) montanus
Pocock in their general appearance. S. (S.) mon-
tanus Pocock is a widely distributed species in
Western Himalaya and commonly occurs at
Jaunsar, Kasauli and Dharmsala (type locality)
in Punjab and Uttar Kashi, Tehri, Dehra Dun,
Pauri, Almora and Nainital in Uttar Pradesh
(Tikader and Bastawade 1983). There are no
authentic records for the occurrence of this
family between Nainital, Uttar Pradesh and
Pachmarhi, Madhya Pradesh. Detailed study of
the specimens collected from Pachmarhi suggest
that they belong to a new species under the sub-
genus Scorpiops Peters. This communication
describes and illustrates the new species.

Scorpiops (Scorpiops) pachmarhicus sp. nov.

(Figs. 2-8)

General: Scorpions of small to medium
body size, yellowish to brown in colour;
chelicera darker on fingers; pedipalp dark brown
and darker on carinae; legs yellowish; carapace,
mesosoma and metasoma light brown except
yellow telson; ventral portion yellowish, body

surface almost entirely smooth, pectines poorly
developed.

Measurements: Female (Holotype), total
body length 34.50 mm; carapace 5.25 mm long,
mesosoma 14.50 mm long; metasoma 15.75 mm
long.

Carapace: Entirely smooth, without
carinae, anterior median, posterior median and
posterior lateral furrows distinct, margins
smooth and anterior margin deeply incised;
ocular tubercles poorly developed, smooth, a
pair of median eyes anteriorly situated in the ratio
1 : 1.75 as in Fig. 2, three lateral eyes, anterior two
larger than the remaining as in Fig. 3.

Mesosoma: Tergites I-VI almost entirely
smooth, except weakly and much sparsely
granular on posterior portions of tergites IV- VI;
pretergal portion of each tergite including all
margins smooth; tergite VII smooth, with two
pairs of weakly granular carinae, present only on
posterior portion, pretergal portion and margins
smooth; stemites III- VII entirely smooth,
prestemal portions and margins smooth; ster-
nites III- VI each provided with a pair of slit-like
stigmata for book lungs.

Metasoma: Cauda three times as long as
carapace; basal segment always wider than long,
all ten carinae distinct and weakly crenulate;
segments II-IV with eight carinae poorly
granular to obsolete, dorsals ending posteriorly
into weak spiniform tubercles, laterals present
only on one third posterior portion of segments
II and III, intercarinal portion almost smooth ex-
cept weakly granular dorsal portion; segment V
shorter than carapace, a pair of inferiors and a
single inferior median carinae poorly granular,
anal rim of this segment weakly and sparsely
crenulate as in Fig. 4; telson longer than seg-
ment V but shorter than carapace; vesicle as
long as segment IV and as wide as deep as seg-
ment V; smooth, setation as in Fig. 4; aculeus
less than half the vesicular length, not much
curved, reddish and sharply pointed as in Fig. 4.

Appendages: Chelicera small, basal seg-
ment smooth, brownish reticulation on dorsal

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

101

Fig. 1. Map of India, showing distribution of Family Vaejovidae and its genus and subgenera.

Figs. 2-8. Scorpios (Scorpiops) pachmarhicus sp. nov.

2. Dorsal view of carapace, 3. Lateral view of carapace, showing lateral eyes, 4. Interior view of movable finger of
chelicera, 5. Lateral view of telson, 6. Exterior view of tibia, 7. Ventral view of tibia, 8. Dorso-exterior view of manus.

102

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

portion, fingers dark brown, toothed normally
and inferior fang of moveable finger provided
with 8-9 minute teeth on interior margin as in
Fig. 5; distal tooth larger. Pedipalp stout and
strong, not much flat, carinated; femur shorter
than carapace, carinated, all four carinae
granular but inner carinae much more sparsely
granular, anterior or outer surface with two short
tubercles; tibia as long as femur but shorter than
carapace, carinated, posterior or outer carinae
smooth and nearly obsolete, anterior or inner
surface with three to four strong basal tubercles;
manus flat, much larger than femur but as long
as carapace, wider than femur as well as tibia,
carinated and all carinae weakly granular on
proximal portion and obsolete distally, inter-
carinal space sparsely but coarsely granular on
inner portion while finely granular on dorsal
portion, fingers smooth, with few obsolete
carinae, immovable finger shorter than femur
but movable finger as long as tibia, dentition on
fingers arranged in finely granular, double lined,
supported with distinct patches of scars at inter-
vals. Trichobothrial patterns on femur, tibia,
manus and immovable finger typical for family,
genus and sub-genus as in Figs. 6-8 but differ in
the number of ventrals (10) on tibia as in Fig. 7.
and some relative positions of Eb2 to Ebl on
tibia and Dt to Eb3 on manus as in Figs. 6 and 8.
Legs I-IV almost entirely smooth except crenu-
lated anterior carinae on femur, laterally flat, tar-
somere II provided with a median line of minute
spines, spine formula on leg I- VI : 6/6, 5/6, 6/s,
78. Genital operculum wider than long, sclerites
fused medially in female while separated on
posterior portion in male, a small genital papil-
lae visible; pectines twice as long as wide,
weakly developed, middle lamillae and falcra
undistinguished, pectinal teeth 6/6 in female
while 7/7 in male.

Material examined: Holotype 1 female,
Paratype 2 females, Allotype 1 male mature;
collected from Pachmarhi (410 m above sea
level in Mahadev Hills of Satpura (22° 60’ N,
78° 50’ E), Madhya Pradesh. Collected by

Dr. D.F. Singh, ZSI, WRS, Poona, August 1985
and October 1987. The type specimens have
been deposited in the National Collection, Z.S.I.
Calcutta.

This species closely resembles Scorpiops
(Scorpiops) montanus Pocock (Tikader and Bas-
tawade 1983) in appearance but differs from it
as follows. (1) A pair of median eyes anteriorly
situated in the ratio 1 : 1.75 whereas in S. (S.)
montanus the ratio is 1 : 2. (2) Carapace and ter-
gites almost entirely smooth whereas in mon-
tanus they are coarsely granular on lateral
portions. (3) Inferior inner margin of movable
finger of chelicera provided with 8-9 minute
teeth whereas in montanus there are 6 teeth. (4)
Metasomal segments II-IV with weakly granular
and poorly spiniform dorsal carinae whereas in
montanus dorsal carinae are strongly crenulate
and spiniform posteriorly. (5) Ventral
trichobothria number only 10 whereas in mon-
tanus they number 13 to 14 on tibia and external
basal 2 (Eb2) trichobothria placed proximal to 1
as in Fig.6, whereas in montanus external basal
(Ebl) placed proximal to 2 on tibia. (6) Dorsal
terminal (Dt) trichobothria on manus placed dis-
tal to External basal 3 (Eb3) as in Fig. 8,
whereas in montanus Dt placed proximal or in
same line to Eb3 on manus.

This species is named after the locality
from where the specimens were collected.

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank Prof. (Dr) M. S. Jairajpuri,
Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,
Dr. G.M. Yazdani, Scientist “SE” Officer-in-
charge, Zoological Survey of India, Western
Regional Station, Pune and P.T. Bhutia, Scientist
“SD”, Officer-in-charge, Zoological Survey of
India, Arunachal Pradesh Field Station, Itanagar
for providing me necessary facilities, constant
encouragement during the work and suggesting
improvements of the manuscript. I am grateful
to Dr. D.F. Singh, for collecting the specimens
and allowing me to study them at Pune.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

103

References

Francke, O.F. (1976): Redescription oiParascorpiops mon-
tana Banks (Scorpionida. Vaejovidae). Ent. News 87
(3 & 4): 75-85.

Tikader, B.K. & Bastawade, D.B. (1976): A new species of
scorpion of the genus Scorpiops Peters (Family
Vaejovidae) from India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
74(1): 140-144.

Tikader, B.K. & Bastawade, D.B. (1983): Fauna of India :
Scorpions, Vol. Ill: 1-672.

Vachon, M. (1973): Etude des caracteres utilises pour
classer les families at les genres de Scorpions (Arach-
nides), Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. Nat, Paris, 3 ser. no.
140, zool (104): 857-958.

Vachon, M. (1980): Essai d’une classification sousgeneri-
que des Scorpions du genre Scorpiops Peters 1861
(Arachnida, Scorpionida, Vaejovidae). Bull. Mus.
natn. Hist. Nat., Paris, 4 ser., 2, sectn. A. no. 1: 143-
160.

*

ON A NEW SPECIES OF SINGHIUS TAKAHASHI (ALEYRODIDAE:
HOMOPTERA) WITH A KEY TO INDIAN SPECIES1

R. SUNDARARAJ AND B. V. DAVID2
(With a text- figure)

Takahashi (1932) erected Singhius as a sub-
genus under the genus Dialeurodes for the
species Aleyrodes hibisci Kotinsky. In 1978
Mound and Halsey elevated it as a full genus.
Alexander and David (1990) shifted the species
Aleurotuberculatus russellae David and Sub-
ramaniam to Singhius and thereby suggested a
new combination. In the present paper a new
species is described under this genus from India.
A key to the Indian species of Singhius is
provided.

KEY TO INDIAN SPECIES OF Singhius TAKAHASHI

1. Dorsal setae short and capitate 2

— Dorsal setae long and with pointed tips
hibisci (Kotinsky)

2. Pupal case 1.01-1.06 mm long 0.76-0.81 mm wide;

margin with 25 crenulations in 0.1 mm; thoracic
tracheal pore region slightly indicated; entire dorsum
granulated russellae (David & Subramaniam)

— Pupal case 0.79-0.95 mm long and 0.55-0.70 mm

wide; margin with 20 crenulations in 0.1 mm;
thoracic tracheal pore region distinct; subdorsum
only granulated morindae sp. nov.

Singhius morindae sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

Pupal case: White with a little wax on

Accepted June 1991.

2Fredrick Institute of Plant Protection and Toxicology,
Padappai 601 301.

dorsum; elliptical, broadest at the first ab-
dominal segment region; found singly and scat-
tered on the under surface of leaves; 0.79-0.95
mm long and 0.55-0.70 mm wide.

Margin: Regularly crenulate, 20 crenula-
tions in 0.1 mm; anterior and posterior marginal
setae 15p, and 2 5\i long respectively. Thoracic
and caudal tracheal pores indicated.

Dorsal surface: Dorsal setae capitate,
cephalic setae 17.5p, long, first abdominal setae
(broken), eighth abdominal setae 5[x long, and
caudal setae on either side of caudal pore 37.5p,
long. Dorsum with sparsely distributed minute
pores; subdorsum with semicircular markings.
Submargin with suture-like lines running mesad
from margin distinct. Submarginal or subdorsal
setae absent.

Vasiform orifice: Subrectangular, wider
than long (30-37.5p, x 45-55fx); operculum
wider than long (15-20 x 30-35p) towards
caudal end constricted at half its length and
somewhat rounded, filling the orifice; lingula
concealed. Caudal tracheal furrow funnel-
shaped with a constriction at the middle half and
at the pore end and with minute irregular mark-
ings. Thoracic tracheal furrows not indicated.

Ventral surface: Ventral abdominal setae
17.5fi long and 32.5p, apart; caudal and thoracic

104

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Fig. 1. Singhius morindae sp. nov. A. Pupal case, B. Margin, C. Vasiform orifice.

tracheal folds indicated but lack stipples or dots.

Material examined: Holotype. Morinda
tinctoria, Vellimalai (Tamil Nadu), 3 Aug. 1987.
Coll. R. Sundararaj. The holotype is with B.V.
David.

Paratype: One mounted pupal case on
slide, data same as for holotype, deposited in the
collection of the Systematic Entomology
Laboratory, USDA, Beltsville, Maryland,
U.S.A.

This new species resembles S. russellae

(David and Subramaniam) by the presence of
capitate dorsal setae but differs in shape and by
indication of thoracic tracheal pore region. It
also resembles S. hibisci (Kot insky) in shape
and size but differs by capitate nature of dorsal
setae.

Acknowledgements

We thank S. James Fredrick, Chairman and
Dr. Clement Peter, Head, Division of Entomol-
ogy, FIPPAT for facilities provided.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

105

References

Alexander, R.W. & David, B. V. (1990): Revision of two World. British Museum (Natural History), John Wiley

whitefly genera Aleuroclava Singh and Aleurotuber- and Sons.

culatus Takahashi (Homoptera, Aleyrodidae). En- Takahashi, R. (1932): Aleyrodidae of Formosa. Parti. Rep.
tomological Series 2: 1-13. FIPPAT, Padappai. Dep. Agri. Govt. res. Inst Formosa 59: 14.

Mound, LA. & Halsey, S.H. (1978): Whiteflies of the

A NEW SPECIES OF LIPARIS RICHARD (ORCHIDACEAE) FROM SIKKIM1

S. Z. Lucksom2

In my recent orchid survey in Bhusuk val-
ley of Sikkim, I could collect many interesting
orchids. A new species of Liparis Hook, f, col-
lected during the exploration, is described.

Liparis lydiaii sp. nov.

Liparis platyrachis Hook, f., affinis, sed
differt pseudobulbo 1-2 cm longus, coepitosus,
ovaideo-cylindricus. Folia 4, graciliter
membranacea, altema, ovato-oblonga, 1-2.7 cm
x 0.4 - 0.9 cm, ad marginem integra, ad super-
ficies undulata. Inflorescentia 8-11.5 cm, ter-
minalibus, subpendula, pedunculus 0.8-2.5 cm
longus, gracilis, teretus, erectus, cum 2-3 brac-
teolis, cordatis, basi amplexicaulibus, 5-6 x 2-3
mm, racemus 8-9 cm longus, teretus, cum 4-14
floribus. Sepalum dorsale sepalis lateralibus
majus, 3.6-4 x 2.6-3 mm, cordato-retroflexum.
Labellum 2-2.5 x 0.8-1 mm, cordatum, ad
medium parvum deflexum.

Liparis lydiaii sp. nov.

Epiphytic. Pseudobulb 1-2 cm long, tufted,
ovoid-cylindric, sheathed, 3.5-6 mm diam.,
broader at the base and slightly tapering towards
the apex. Leaves 4, 1-2.7 x 0.4-0.9 cm, thinly
membranous, alternate, ovato-oblong, undulat-
ing leaf surface, margin entire. Inflorescence 8-
11.5 cm, sub-pendulous. Peduncle 0.8-2.5 cm
long, slender, terete, erect with 2-3 cordate
amplexicaul base bracteoles 5-6 x 2-3 mm; the
raceme 8-9 cm long, terete, with 4-14 flowers.

Accepted October 1991.

2DFO M & E (SF/TT), Territorial Circle, Forest
Department, Gangtok, Sikkim 737 102.

Flowers light greenish-pink, 7-8 mm long.
Pedicel 4-4.5 mm long; the floral bracts small,
cordate with amplexicaul base. Sepals 3, sub-
equal, brownish-pink; the dorsal sepal 3.6-4 x 2-3
mm, broader than lateral sepals, cordate,
retro flexed; the lateral sepals 5.2 -5.7 x 0.9 - 1.1
mm, spreading, oblong, obtuse, margin
recurved. Petals 2, 2.9-3. 1 x 0.09-0.1 mm,
oblong, obtuse, translucent, whitish-pink, mar-
gin recurved. Labellum 2-2.5 x 0.8-1 mm, cor-
date, slightly deflexed at the middle, hypochile
with 4 calli. Column about 3 mm long, winged,
2-lobed. Anther ovate, dorsally dome-shaped,
about 0.5 mm long. Pollinia 2, about 0.4 mm
long, translucent, orange yellow, clavate-oblong.

Type: India: Sikkim, Bhusuk valley, 10
October 1990. Lucksom (Lucksom 198a
Holotype: Gangtok, Forest Department Herb).
Isotypes (198b, Gangtok, Forest Department
Herb).

Etymology: It is named in memory of my
late mother who was a great source of inspira-
tion for the study of this important group of
plants.

Flowers and fruits: October - November.

Altitude: 900 m -1200 m.

Ecology: This species grows on the
branches of arched shrubs in moist and shady
places.

The fresh specimens had light greenish-
pink flowers on sub-pendulous peduncle.
Leaves coriaceous, or sub-coriaceous, jointed at
the pseudobulb or sheath. These characters are
of section Coriifoliae Rich, of the genus Liparis.

The new species is closely allied to Liparis

106

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

TABLE 1

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN Liparis lydiaii SP. NOV. AND L. platyrachis

L. platyrachis Hook. f.

L. lydiaii

Pseudo-bulb

Oblong, compressed, 1.25 cm long.

Ovoid-cylindric, 1-2 cm long,
3.5-6 mm diam.

Leaf

3-5, linear-lanceolate, thickly membranous,
1.5-3 cm long and 0.3-0.5 cm broad.

4, ovato-oblong, thinly membranous with
undulating surface, 1-2.7 cm long and
0.4-0.9 cm broad.

Inflorescence

Pendulous, interruptedly winged and with
short linear bracteoles.

Sub-pendulous, terete, with 2-3 cordate
amplexicaul bracteoles.

Flowers

0.63 cm long and 0.25 cm broad, pale
ochraceous yellow.

0.7-0.8 cm long, greenish pink.

Sepals

Dorsal sepal narrower than the lateral sepals,
with margin recurved.

Dorsal sepal, cordate, much broader than
lateral sepals, margin slightly recurved.

Lip

Quadrate.

Cordate.

platyrachis Hook.f. of the above mentioned sec-
tion but differs as shown in Table 1.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Dr. S. Kumar, Botanical

Survey of India (Gangtok) for help and for kind-
ly going through the manuscript. Thanks are
also due to Dr. N.C. Majumdar, Retd. Scientist-
SE, Botanical Survey of India for the Latin
translation.

COPIDOGNATHUS KRANTZI, A NEW SPECIES OF HALACARIDAE (ACARI)
FROM NICOBAR ISLANDS (INDIAN OCEAN)1

Tap as Chaiterjee 2
(With ten text-figures)

Copidognathus krantzi, a new species of Halacaridae, is described here, collected among
the phytal sediments of Mus Island (Nicobar islands). Similarity and dissimilarity with related
species are discussed.

Introduction

Halacarids are the least known meiofaunal
taxa of marine biota in general and particularly
so of Indian seas. Halacarids form about 90% of
the phytal faunal communities in the upper
shore (Bartsch 1988). No meaningful ecological
researches can be contemplated without infor-
mation on taxonomy, zoogeography and
biodiversity. Therefore survey of the fauna of

Accepted March 1991.

2P.G. Dept, of Life Science, Regional College of Education,
Bhubaneswar 751007, Orissa.

3Named after Prof. G.W. Krantz, a world famous
acarologist.

halacarids inhabiting the phytal realm was un-
dertaken by the author, resulting in a rich and
diverse halacarid collection along the Indian
coast. Of these, many turned out to be new
species and new records. The present paper
describes Copidognathus krantzi.

Copidognathus krantzi sp. nov.3

Diagnosis: Posterior areolae of antero-
dorsal plate inverted-U shaped, ocular plate
caudiform posteriorly, postero-dorsal plate with
two costae, all ventral plates separate, epimeral
process I well developed and coxal in origin,
tibiae I and II with 3 ventral setae.

Locality: Three females were collected

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

107

Figs. 1-10. Copidognathus krantzii sp. nov.

1. Idiosoma dorsal, female, 2. Idiosoma ventral, female, 3. Magnified view of AD showing areolae, 4. Magnified view of
OC showing comeae, areolae and other details, 5. GA of female, 6. Gnathosoma, 7. Telofemur to tarsus of leg I,

8. Telofemur to tarsus of leg II, 9. Telofemur to tarsus of leg III, 10. Telofemur to tarsus of leg IV.

108

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

among Halimeda opuntia from Mus Island
(Nicobar islands).

Type: Holotype in the author’s collection
in the Department of Life Science, Regional
College of Education, Bhubaneswar.

Description

Female: The idiosomal length of females range
between 175 p, to 185 p The various measure-
ments of one of the females are as under:

Idiosoma

Length O)
183

Width (pi)
100

AD

62

51

OC

77

25

PD

104

64

AE

41

55

GA

75

62

GO

24

13

Gnathosoma

56

26

Dorsal plates separate (Fig. 1). Anterodor-
sal plate (AD) with two areolae, one anterior
and one posterior. The anterior areola consists of
dark fovea. Posterior areola inverted-U shaped
and made up of rosette pores (Fig. 3). Dorsal
seta 1 (dsi) located anterior to the posterior
areolae and dorsal seta 2 (ds2) on the antero-
median margin of ocular plate (OC). Two cor-
neae present on OC. The OC caudiform
posteriorly (Fig. 4). Postero-dorsal plate (PD)
with two costae 2 pores wide. The dorsal setae
3, 4 and 5 (ds3, ds4, dss) are on the anterior, mid-
dle and posterior reaches of PD respectively.

Ventral plates separate (Fig. 2). Anterior
epimeral plate (AE) bears 3 pairs of setae and is
without any areolae. AE sculptured with fine
pores (pycnotic). EpI well developed and coxal
in origin.

PE with three ventral and one dorsal seta
and a few rosette pores. Three perigenital setae
(PGS) present on either side of the GO. The GO
with a pair of sclerites and a pair of subgenital
setae (SGS) located anteriorly, ovipositor small
(Fig. 5).

Rostrum extends upto the base of palpal
patella. Palp 4-segmented. Palpal trochanter (Pi)
and patella (P3) without any seta. Palpal femur
(P2) with one dorsal seta. Palpal tibiotarsus (P4)

with three basal setae and one distal eupathidia.
A pair of proto-, deuto-, trito-, and basirostral
setae are present on Gnathosoma (Fig. 6). Tec-
tum short and dorsally sculptured with fovea.
Chaetotaxy of legs I-IV is as follows:

Trochanter

1-1-1-0

Basi femur

2-2-2-2

Telofemur

5-5-2-2

Patella

4-4-3-3

Tibia

7 -7 -5-5

Chaetotaxy of tarsi is discussed in the text.

Telofemorae III and IV devoid of ventral
setae.

Tibiae I and II with 3 ventral setae and 4
dorsal setae (Figs. 7, 8). Tarsus I with 3 ventral
setae (one basal and two distal filiform setae), 3
dorsal long setae, one solinidion, one
profamulus and four PGS (two doublets
eupathidia) (Fig. 7). Tarsus II bears 3 dorsal
long setae, one solinidion, and two PAS (two
singlet eupathidia) (Fig. 8). Tarsi III and IV with
4:3 dorsal setae (Figs. 9, 10). PAS of tarsi HI
and IV are not discernible.

Male, larva and nymph: Not found in the
samples collected.

Distribution: Bay of Bengal (eastern In-
dian Ocean).

The species can be assigned to the key
group 5200 of Newell (1984) as it possesses EpI
coxal in origin, ds2 on OC, ds3 on PD, single
pair of basirostral seta, telofemorae III and IV
devoid of ventral setae, parallel striae on the
cuticular membrane between AD and PD. Fur-
ther, certain characters like the body size, long
and posteriorly caudiform OC, well developed
EpI coxal in origin and telofemora III and IV
lacking ventral seta relate the species also with
Copidognathus oculatus group (Bartsch 1977).
The present species is demarcated from the
members of the key group 5200 and C. oculatus
group in having an inverted-U shaped posterior
areola and a foveatus anteriar areola.

C. yp'silophorus Newell, 1984 belonging to
5200 possessing an inverted Y shaped areola,
resembles the present species but differs in
having the areola commencing away from the

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

109

posterior margin of AD, costae 5-7 rosette pores
wide in the middle, and 2-3 pore wide paracos-
tae. C. propinqus Newell, 1951 and C. orientalis
Newell, 1951 resemble the present species in the
shape of the posterior areolae. However, the
caudiform nature of OC, ds2 on OC, and small
size of the present species separate it from the
two species.

C. krantzi sp. nov. resembles Arhodeoporus
thyreoporus Andre, 1959 also in the shape of
areolae of AD, presence of two costae on PD,
and caudiform OC. But in C. krantzi, the ventral

plates are separate and tibiae I and II bear three
ventral setae while in A. thyreoporus the ventral
plates are fused and tibiae I and II have four
ventral setae.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Dr. A.L.N. Sarma, I/c
Zoology Division, Regional College of
Education, Bhubaneswar for guidance, to Dr.
Ilse Bartsch, Biologische Anstalt Helgoland,
Hamburg (FRG) for her ready help in providing
the necessary literature.

References

Andre, M. (1959): Acari - I. Contribution a 1’ etude des
Halacarions de la Mer Rouge. In: Mission Robert Ph.
Dollfus en Egypte. 26: 93-119.

Bartsch, I. (1977): Zur Oculatus and gibbus gruppe der
Gattung Copidognathus (Halacaridae: Acari). Ent
Mitt Zool. Mus. Hamburg. 6 (97): 1-12.

Bartsch, I. (1988): Halacaridae. In: Introduction to the
study of meiofauna. Eds. Higgins and Thiel. Smith-

sonian Institution Press, USA. pp. 417- 422.

Newell, I.M. (1951): Copidognathus curtus Hall, 1912 and
other species of Copidognathus from Western North
America. Am. Mus. Novitates. 1499: 1- 27.

Newell, I.M. (1984): Antarctic Halacaroidea. Antarct. Res.
Ser. 40: 1 - 284 .

8

REVIEWS

FLORA OF THE INDIAN DESERT. Second edition, by M.M. Bhandari. pp. viii +
435 (24 x 18 cm), with 36 illustrations and 114 coloured photographs. Jodhpur, 1990.
MPS repros. Price: Rs. 600, $ 60 or £ 40.

This is the second edition of the flora First pub-
lished in 1978, written by an emeritus professor of
Botany of the University of Jodhpur. The first edition
proved so popular that it was quickly exhausted, re-
quiring this second revised and enlarged edition. This
work gives a complete account of the flora of the
Indian desert, comprising information on 619 species
of vascular plants belonging to 315 genera and 78
families covered in 443 pages, as compared to the
roughly 120 page flora of Indian desert by Blatter
and Hallberg in the BNHS Journal , published be-
tween 1918 and 1921. The flora is a living story of 40
years of exhaustive experience and reflects the ac-
complishments of a lifetime well spent. The author’s
understanding of the plants of the Indian desert is
second to none, as it stands today.

In this work, the author has incorporated three
new species and three new infraspecific taxa described
by him during the period of this work. Besides the new
descriptions he has proposed about a dozen new
names of earlier known plants, as per the International
Code of Botanical Nomenclature, after the careful
study of these plants. All these contributions will
remain immortal additions to Indian botany.

In the preface to the book, the author has
recorded his awareness about the printing errors in this
volume and referred to the errata and corringenda in
the appendix. However, the copy received for this
review is devoid of any such appendix. I am sorry to
say that there are a large number of typographical
errors in the text. Very often these errors are in publi-
cation dates which are very dangerous in taxonomical
works, where priority of publication is the issue under
contention. I am listing below some of the omissions
and errors.

1. Dentella repens (L.) Forst & Forst (see p.
168). Actual number of plate in the citation of the
figure is missing.

2. Acanthospermum hispidum DC. (p. 171). In
the reference to Santapau, volume and page number
are wrong. The year of publication is missing.

3. Portulaca oleracea L. (p. 49). Under this
taxon there are two descriptions (one complete and the
other incomplete) and three sets of local names and

exsiccata. The incomplete description and the exsic-
cata followed by it perhaps belongs to Portulaca
quadrifolia L., while the second set of exsiccata
belongs to P. tuber osa Roxb.

4. Abutilon fruticosum Guill. & Perry var.
fruticosum (p. 56). Exsiccata, distribution and other
data under this taxon are missing.

5. Abutilon indicum ssp. quinense (Schum.)
Borss. (p. 57). The portion of distribution of this
species is missing.

6. Sphaeranthus senegalensis DC. (p. 189). Cita-
tion of S. indicus Hk.f. in FBI (non Linn., 1753) is
confused due to a typographical error.

7 . Convolvulus auricomis var .volubilis (p. 218-
9). Here the author’s name A. Rich, should go in
parenthesis, followed by the name of the proposer of
the combination, e.g. Bhandari. Similar example
should follow in next variety (var. ferguinosus) also.

8. Salvia santolinifolia Boiss. (p. 284). Descrip-
tion of this species is completely missing.

9. Sueda fruticosa (L.) Forsk. (p. 298). Citation
of J.D. Hooker’s reference in FBI is a mixture of two
references (Hk. f. in FBI and Cooke in FPB)

10. Enicostemma axillare (Lamk.) Raynal (pp.
205-6). A Note under this species advocates adoption
of E. hyssopifolia (Willd.) Verdoon as a correct name
of the species, which was accepted in the first volume
of the flora. In this revised edition a new name has
been adopted but the note regarding earlier il-
legitimate synonym still appears in the text.

11. Asparagus racemosus Willd. (p. 317). Cita-
tion of this species from Cook’s flora is erroneous,
because Cooke actually mentions var. javanica of
Baker on p. 270 (not p. 269).

The following few names may require some ex-
planation and precise citations of correct references:

1. In the note under Wrightia tinctoria R. Br. (p.
195), it is mentioned that Woodson (1930) equates W.
tinctoria R. Br. with Apocynum vincaefolium Burm. f.
However, the author has not given this reference either
in the citation or in the bibliography. The same applies
to Merril’s opinion about A. vincaefolium Burm. f.

2. Adhatoda Mill. (p. 262). Genus Adhatoda
Nees ex Wall, is conserved (1832) against Adhatoda

REVIEWS

111

Table 1

RECENT NOMENCLATURE CHANGES, WHICH MAY REQUIRE TO BE ADOPTED FOR SOME SPECIES

Name adopted here Name proposed as correct by other authors

(not recorded in the synonymy)

1. Commicarpus verticillatus auct

= Boerhavia verticillatus sensu Hook. f. in FBI

2. Urginia indica (Roxb.) Kunth. (p. 318)

3. Amischophacellus axillaris (L.) Rao & Kamathy
(p. 319)

4. Fimbristylis quinquelocularis (Vahl) Kunth. (p. 340)

5. F. spathacea Roth (p. 340)

6. Solena heterophylla Lour. (p. 158)

7. Adina cordifolia Willd. ex Roxb. (p. 167)

8. Glossocardia setosa Blatt. & Hallberg (p. 178-9)

9. Lactuca runcinata DC. (p. 181)

10. Atylosia scarabaoides (L.) Benth. (p. 101)

11. Launea procumbens (Roxb.) Ramaya & Rajgopal

(p. 182).

12. Merremia emarginata (Burm.f.) Hall. f. (p. 234)

13. Solatium surattense Burm. f.

14. Hygrophila auriculata (Schum.) Haine (p. 270).

15. Paspalum distichum sensu Hk.f. in FBI

16. Hibiscus punctatus Dalz.

17. Malva parviflora auct. (non-Linn.); Master in FBI

18. Oxalis latifolia auct. non. H.B.K. (p. 87)

19. Grewia abutifolia sensu Masters in FBI
(non Vent, ex Juss., 1804).

C. helenae (Schult.) Meikle (see Notes Roy. Bob Gard.
Edinb. 36: 246, 1978).

Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop. (see J. South Afr. Bot. 43:
265, 1977).

Tonningia axillaris (L.) Kuntze (see Bennet,

Name Changes 567, 1987).

F. miliacea (L.) Vahl.

(see Blake in JAA 35 : 216, 1954)

F. cymosa R. Br. (see Kern,

in FI. Males. 7(3): 557, 1794).

S. amplexicaulis (Lamk.) Gandhi
(see FI. Hassan Dist.)

Haldinia cordifolia (Willd. ex Roxb.) Ridsdale
(see Blumea 24: 361, 1978).

G. bosvallia (L.f.) DC. (see Rao et al. FI. Ind. Enum.
Asteraceae 41, 1988).

Launea intybacea (Jacq.) Beauv.

(see Kew Bull. 18: 472, 1966).

Cajanus scarabaoides (L.) Thuars (see Van der Meusen,
Agricultural Univ. Wageningen paper 85-4: 183, 1985.

L. obtusa (DC.) Almeida (FI. Savantwadi 231, 1990).

M. gangedca (L.) Cufo. (see Bull. Jard. BoL Brux. Suppl.
31: 743, 1961).

Solanum virginianum L. (see Kew Bull. 41: 434, 1986).

H. sctyulli (Buch.-Ham.) Almeida & Almeida (see JBNHS
suppl. 83: 1986).

P. vagina turn Sw.

(see also Bennet 414, 1987).

H. amblyocarpus Hochst. (see BOBSI 12: 174, 1972).

M. chinensis Mill. (Bennet, 359, 1987).

O. dehradunensis Raizada

G. aspera Roxb. (see JBNHS 34 (4): 888, 1931).

Mill. (1754). Therefore, the citation of Miller’s name
as the author of this genus is incorrect. However, it can
be shown with Miller’s name in square brackets fol-
lowed by Nees ex Wall. Adhatoda [Mill.] Nees ex
Wall. (PI. As. Rar. 3: 102, 1832).

A. zeylanica Medic. (1790), however, is a
validly published name under this genus under special
provision of Article 62-2 of ICBN. Otherwise names

published under genera that are not validly accepted
are considered nomina nuda and rejected under the
rules of the code.

2. Abutilon bidentatum Hochst A. Rich. (p.
56). I believe this name is based on Sida bidentata
Hochst. Therefore the correct name should go as A.
bidentatum (Hochst.) A.-Rich. The basionym Sida
bidentata Hochst. also should be cited in the

112

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

synonymy.

3. Amaranthus graecizans L. ssp. thellungianus
(Nevski) Gusev, (p. 291). A. polygonoides sensu
Roxb. is published before the same name used by
Townsend. Therefore the citation of Roxburgh .should
precede Townsend.

4. Alternanthera pun gens Kunth. (p. 290).
Achyranthes repens L. (1753) is cited in the
synonymy of this species. ’Why the specific epithet
repens not available for this species is not clear from
the nomenclature.

5. Boerhavia diffusa Linn. (p. 285). Among the
various specific epihets used for this taxon by Lin-
naeus it appears that B. repens L. was first accepted by
J.D. Hooker in FBI at species level, merging others as
varieties. Therefore B. repens L. should be the cor-
rect name for this taxon.

6. Abutilon pannosum (Forst.f.) Schlecht (p. 58).
Schlecht’s (1951) name appears to be a later
homonym of Webb’s (1835) name which is based on
an entirely different taxon Sida pannosa R. Br. (1818)
(non Forsk. f., 1787).

7. Solanum indicum L. (p. 245). This name
is considered by recent authors as nomen con-
fusum and rejected. The plant from the Indian
desert is not a Linnean species and this name is
not applicable here. Plant intended here may be S.
violaceum Ortega.

8. Sida alba L. (p. 66). The earlier valid
name for this species appears to be S. spinosa
L. If this name is' applied partly to this taxon
(pro parte ? excl. type?) is not clear from cita-
tions. If, however, that is the case, then the
other correct name for this taxon available is S.
alnifolia L. (1753), which is mentioned by
Masters in FBI.

9. Stellaria media (p. 47). This combination ap-
pears to have been made by Cyrill in 1784 (see JBNHS
24 (2): 304, 1930.).

10. Aerua persica (Burm.f.) Merrill (p. 288).
J.D. Hooker, in his Flora of British India, is the first
author to unite Irsine persica and /. javanica of
Burman under Aerua javanica Juss. Therefore the first
reduction of I. javanica Burm. f. in synonymy of A.
persica (Burm.f.) Juss. ex Schult. reduces the status of
the epithet javanica as a synonym of A. persica .

11. Moringa oleifera Lamk. (p. 95). This name
is nom. illegit. according to ICBN rules because the
original description of this taxon incorporates the
names of other validly published species.

12. Indigofer a argentea L. (p. 101) has priority
over the accepted name I. caerulea Roxb. However, /.
argentea L. is nomen illegit. being the later homonym
of Burman ’s name (1768). Therefore (non Burm. f.,
1768) should be cited after reference of Linnean name
to make the nomenclature clearly understandable.

13. Vigna trilobata (L.) Verdcourt (p. 126).
Synonym under this taxon is confused.

14. Lindemia muraria (Roxb. ex D. Don) P. Bruel
(p. 252). L. indica (L.) \htke cited in the synonymy of
this taxon has priority over the accepted name.

15. Veronica anagallis-aquatica L. (p. 258).
Under this name citation shows that this name has
been accepted by J.D. Hooker in FBI and T. Cooke in
FPB. However both these authors have adopted the
name Veronica anagallis L. for this taxon.

A number of nomenclatural changes have ap-
peared in the recent literature, which may require adop-
tion for some of the species mentioned in this book.
Some of the name changes are listed in Table 1.

M.R. ALMEIDA

A REVISED HANDBOOK TO THE FLORA OF CEYLON Vol. 6. Edited by M.D.
Dasanayake and F.R. Fosberg. pp. ix + 424 (24.5 x 16 cm). New Delhi, 1987.
Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. Price not mentioned.

This volumes, the sixth of the series, consists of
taxonomic accounts of 22 families and three genera of
one additional family distributed in Ceylon (Sri
Lanka). The families have been arranged in alphabeti-
cal order. As in previous volumes of the series,
families have been handled by different authors, each
with expertise in the taxonomy of the respective
families. However, this leads to an overall inconsis-
tency of style, since the presentation by different
authors is different. As each writer concentrates on

revisions of his/her specialities on the wider range of
areas, minute details which may not be relevant in this
type of regional flora have been lumped together,
resulting in disproportionate size of treatment in some
cases.

While reading this volume some of the
things which I have not followed or which seem
to be contrary to the presentation in this volume
are given below:

REVIEWS

113

1. (p. 316) - Solomonia ciliata (L.) DC., Prodr.
334, 1824: This name in the form of a new combina-
tion based on Poly gala ciliata Linn, as a basionym is
given as a correct name for the species. However the
same name, originated from very same publication, is
given in the synonymy with the citation as nomen
illegitimatum. If, in fact, De Candolle has not based
his name on the Linnean basionym then it should be
treated as a new name originating from 1824. If it is
based on the basionym Poly gala ciliata Linn, then the
combination is the correct name and repeated citation
of the same followed by remarks nom. illegit, should
be eliminated. Secondly, if Salomonia ciliata DC. is
considered as a new name from 1824, it will compete
with S. oblongifolia DC. Since both names appear in
the same publication, the choice of the correct name
will fall on whoever has chosen to unite these two
species.

2. (p. 339) - Psychotria forsbergii Sohmer
(1977) seems to have priority over the accepted name
Psychotria sohmeri Kien. (1986). Why the earlier
name cannot be accepted is not clear from the
nomenclature cited.

3. In this volume various authors have cited
figures and illustrations of various species, particular-
ly if they are cited in original protologue, as the lec-
totypes of species. In my opinion it is an unfair prac-
tice. In Article 9 of the ICBN there are two sub-clauses
which should enlighten us on this matter. Clause 9.1
states that "the type (Holotype, Lectotype or Neotype)
of a name of the species or an infraspecific taxon is a
single specimen or other element." (In this context a
figure or drawing which is produced in a number of
copies cannot be taken as the type, mentioned in one
of the three categories given above). Sub-clause 93
states, "If it is impossible to preserve a specimen as the
type of the name of the species or the intraspecific
taxon then the type may be a description or a figure."
It is clearly understood here that the description or the
figure can be used as the substitute for the clearly
defined types when no specimen of the species is
available for the designation of the type. In this regard
ICBN specifically insists on the sequence of
Holotype, followed by Lectotype, followed by
Neotype and as a last resort, when none of the
specimens is available, allows the use of figures and

descriptions for the purpose of types as comparative
material. No specific terminology for typification
based on figures and description is suggested in the
code.

In other words, it is understood that figures and
descriptions are to be used as types only in cases
where the species are considered extinct and no more
available for preservation. Therefore, when there are a
number of specimens available from old as well as
fresh material for designating the types it is not only
wrong practice, to designate figures as types, but also
a gross contravention of the spirit of the rules of
typification.

Under Rhapidophora decursiva (Roxb.) Schott
and R. pertusa (Roxb.) Schott, Dr. Nicolson has cited
a number of specimens from Ceylon and I am sure
there are some more at Central National Herbarium,
Calcutta (CAL). However, he accepts Sealy’s selec-
tion of Roxburgh’s drawing at Kew as type for R.
decursiva (Roxb.) Schott and cites Rheede’s plate of
‘Elattadi Marawara’ for R. pertusa (Roxb.) Schott.

In accordance with the rules, lectotype should be
designated from the specimens associated with the
original protologue of these species and if none of the
original material is available, neotype can be chosen.

I am unable to understand the choice of Wight’s
figure (Icon. pi. Or. 3: t. 802, 1844) as the type of
Amorphophallus sylvatica (Roxb.) Kunth.

The implications of accepting figures as types
with reference to some work presented in this volume
will be published in this journal separately, for the
sake of brevity of this review.

One more aspect of this volume and others in the
series, is that in spite of so much taxonomic work in
India, references to taxonomic works in India are very
meagre.

I must appreciate here that the quality of printing
and production of this series is far superior to some of
our Indian regional floras, which are not only costly
but are full of typographical errors and nomenclatural
mistakes.

Not only this volume but the entire series is
worth its cost for research and educational institutions
and even for individuals.

M.R. ALMEIDA

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. INTERSPECIFIC PLAY BEHAVIOUR BETWEEN HANUMAN LANGUR
PRESBYTIS ENTELLUS AND RHESUS MACAQUE MACACA MULATTA

Polyspecific associations in non-human
primates have been reported from a number of study
sites (Bernstein 1967, Freeland 1977, Rudran 1978,
Das and Sharma, 1980). Association of macaques
Macaca mulatto, with langurs Presbytis entellus has
also been noted in different places (Parthasarathy
1972, Roonwal and Mohnot 1977, Pirta 1984). In
Jaipur Presbytis entellus and Macaca mulatto coexist
at Ambagarh Reserve Forest 9 km north-east of Jaipur
city, where five groups of rhesus monkeys and one
group of langurs live. The home ranges of the two
species overlap and both species mix during
provisioning of food by pilgrims. Data on interactions
between these two species were collected systematically
early morning and evening during 1986-1987 for 350
hours. “Sampling all occurrences of some behaviour”
was the method (Altmann 1974) for recording
interactions. Most of the time (65.7%) the individuals of
the two species were not in association (distance
between the species more than 10 m). They mixed with
one another only 34.3% of the time.

Play behaviour between juveniles and infants of

both species was significant. This kind of affinitive
behaviour was observed mostly during evening
hours. Out of total 456 episodes (all kinds of
interactions) 140 play interactions took place
between rhesus juveniles and langur juveniles. On 22
occasions play was between rhesus juveniles and
langur infants (Table 1). But langur infants played
with rhesus juveniles only in the vicinity of their
mothers. Interactions between infants of the two
species were mostly play. Langur juveniles played a
great deal with rhesus juveniles (81.7%), and
somewhat less with rhesus infants (69.3%). Langur
infants initiated play only with rhesus juveniles and
infants (Table 2).

The play behaviour observed during the study was
varied, such as play initiation, somersaulting, chase,
touch and non-contact (Dolhinow 1972). Infants raised
in poly specific groups like this could be expected to
develop social bonds with other species.

B. RAM MANOHAR
December 3, 1990 REENAMATHUR

TABLE 1

RHESUS JUVENILE AND INFANT INTER ACTION —PLAY BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS LANGUR YOUNG

Trans-

mitter

Recei-

ver

Chase

%

Sup-

plant

%

Threat

%

Attack

%

Play

%

Misc.

%

Total

RJ

LJ

51

16

57

17.9

46

14.5

19

5.9

140

44.1

4

2.2

317

RJ

LI

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

22

100.0

0

0

22

RI

U

10

18.8

1

1.8

5

9.4

3

5.6

27

50.9

7

13.2

53

RI

U

13

11.1

4

3.4

13

11.1

6

5.1

79

67.5

2

1.7

117

74

62

64

28

268

13

509

RJ = Rhesus juvenile, RI = Rhesus infant, U = Langur juvenile, LI = Langur infant.

TABLE 2

LANGUR JUVENILE AND INFANT INTERACTION — PLAY BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS RHESUS MACAQUE YOUNG

Trans-

mitter

Recei-

ver

Chase

%

Sup-

plant

%

Threat

%

Attack

%

Play

%

Misc.

%

Total

U

RJ

12

7

6

3.5

12

1

1

0.5

139

81.7

1

0.5

171

LJ

RI

1

2

5

10.2

5

10.2

4

8.1

34

69.3

—

—

49

LI

RI

28

100.0

—

—

28

LI

RI

2

2.8

1

1.4

4

5.7

2

2.8

58

84

2

2.8

69

15

12

21

7

259

3

317

RJ = Rhesus juvenile, RI = Rhesus infant, LJ = Langur juvenile, LI = Langur infant.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

115

References

Altmann, J. (1974): Qbservational study of behaviour
sampling methods. Behaviour 49: 227-267.

Bermstein, I.S. (1967): Intertaxa interactions in a Malayan
Primate Community. Folia Primatol. 7: 198-207.

Dolhinow, P. (1978): A behaviour repertoire for the Indian
Langur monkey ( Presbytis entellus). Primates 19:
449-472.

Das & Sharma, B.D. (1980): On observations on a
remarkable association of the Rhesus monkey
( Macaca mulatta villosa) with the Himalayan langur
( Presbytis entellus schistaccous).

Freeland, W.J. (1977): Blood sucking flies and primate
polyspecific associations. Nature 269: 801-802.

Parthasarathy, M.D. (1972): Some comparative aspects of

socioecology and behaviour of the Hanuman Langur
( Presbytis entellus) and the Bonnet (Macaca radiata).
Abstracts IV Int. Cong, of Primatology. pp. 56.

Pirta, R.S.(1984): Co-operative behaviour in rhesus
monkeys living in Urban and Forest areas. Proc. Ind.
Acad. Sci. 92: 199-205.

Roonwal, M.L. & Mohnot, S.M. (1977): Hanuman langur
(Presbytis entellus). In: Primates of South Asia,
Ecology, Sociobiology and Behaviour. Ed. Roonwal,
K.L. et al. Harvard Univ. Press.

Rudran, R. (1978): Socioecology of the Blue< monkeys
(Cercopithecus mitis) of the Kibale Forest, Uganda.
Smithson. Contrib. Zoology 249: 1-88.

2. NOTES ON THE FOOD HABITS OF NILGAI BOSELAPHUS TRAGOCAMELUS

In the course of a study on the status and
distribution of mammals in Keoladeo National Park,
Bharatpur, casual observations were made on the
food habits of the nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus
from September 1984 to September 1985. Records
were also made on the food plants of a tame free
ranging nilgai.

In total 48 plant species were observed to be
eaten. Of these 13 were tree species, five creepers
/stragglers, 16 herbs and nine grasses (Table 1).

In areas where grass was burnt nilgai fed on
sprouting shoots of grasses such as Scirpus
tuberosus, Vetiveria zizanoides, Desmostachya
bipinna ta and Cynodon dactylon. In burnt areas it
also fed on fallen Zizyphus jujuba fruits and
sprouting leaves of Acacia nilotica, Prosopis
spicigera and Salvador a persica.

During leaf shedding season (February and
March) the nilgai fed on fallen leaves of Mitragyna
parvifolia. Similarly, fallen leaves and fruits of
Zizyphus jujuba were eaten by them from December
to February. During monsoon and post monsoon they
fed mainly on herbs and grasses. Dry pods of
Prosopis chilensis and Acacia nilotica were also
taken during summer.

Studies on food habits of nilgai in Asia show
that they are browsers (e.g., Mirza and Khan 1975),
while in southern Texas they are grazers (Sheffield et
al 1983). However, quantitative studies are required
under Indian field conditions to know more about
their food habits.

K. SANKAR

March 5, 1991 V.S. VIJAYAN

References

Mirza, Z.B. & Khan, H.A. (1975): Study of distribution,
habitat and food of Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus
in Punjab. PakJ. Zool. 7: 209-214.

Sheffield, W.J., Fall B.A. & Brown, B.A (1983): The
Nilgai Antelope. The Caeser Kleberg Research

Program in Wildlife Ecology and Department of
Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences. The Texas
Agricultural Experiment station. The Texas A & M
University system.

116

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Table l

SOME IMPORTANT FOOD PLANTS OF NILGAI IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK,
SEPTEMBER 1984 TO SEPTEMBER 1985

Plant species

Monsoon
July - Oct

Winter
Nov. - Feb.

Summer
March - June

Trees

Acacia nilotica
Ficus religiosa

L

L

L

L, Fr

Mitragyna parvifolia

L

L

L

Phoenix sylvestris

L

L

Fr

Prosopis chilensis

L

Fr

P spicigera

L

L

Salvadora persica

L

L

Zizyphus jujuba

L

L, Fr

L

Shrubs

Capparis sepiaria
Kirganelia reticulata

L

L

L

L

Zizyphus nummularia

L

L

L

Climbers

Cocculus hirsutus

L

L

Dreggea volubilis

L

L

Herbs

Achyranthes aspera

L

L

Ageratum conyzoides

L

L

Corchorus aestuans

L

L

C. capsularis

L

L

C. olitorius

L

L

Euphorbia hirta

L

L

Peristophe bicalyculata

L

L

Phyllanthus niruri

L

L

Physalis minima

L

L

Sida rhombifolia

L

L

L

Vemonia cinerea

L

L

Grasses

Cynodon dactylon

L

L

L

Desmostachya bipinna te

L

L

L

Paspalum disUchum

L

L

L

Scirpus sp.

L

L

S. tuberosus

L

L

L

Saccharum sp.

L

L

L

Setaria verticillata

L

L

L

Vetiveria zizanioides

L

L

L

L- Leaves, Fr- Fruits.

3. MARBLED TEAL MARMARONETTA ANGUSTIROSTRIS (MENETRIES)

IN WESTERN INDIA

While two of the authors (SAA, JKT) were February 11, 1990. He pointed out a group of
trapping and ringing waders at the dhandh of Chhari marbled teal Marmaronetta angustirostris at some
(Kutch), Gujarat, the site was visited by NNB on distance in the lagoon. On properly observing the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

117

birds through a telescope we took a count; and by our
estimate there were about 200 of this rare teal
present. As far as we are aware, this is the largest
collection of M. angustirostris recorded within our
limits. The sky was overcast with intermittent
sunshine, but the visibility was good. We wonder
whether our sighting was an indication of the
successful reintroduction of this species, e.g. at Lai

Suhanra Reserve (Pakistan). So far it has been
recorded in this part of the country as a rare straggler,
including one bird obtained in Kutch in 1940 (birds
ofkutch, Ali, S. 1945, p. 169).

S.A. AKHTAR
J.K. TTWARI

April 4, 1990 N.N. BAPAT

4. BALLOONS AS A DEVICE FOR SCARING BIRDS

I closely observed the roosting of a flock of 32
pariah kites Milvus migrans govinda from 1987 to
1989. The birds used to occupy high branches of
Eucalyptus trees just in front of my (Aligarh)
residence. They were regular in their roosting hours
and slept undisturbed except on windy and rainy
days.

One evening, when my daughter was playing
with an gas filled balloon of dark grey colour, the
balloon flew up and got entangled in the. central
branch of a tree in the Eucalyptus grove where the
kites used to roost. It was becoming dark and kites
started arriving within 10 minutes. As soon as some
of them saw the hanging balloon they became

alarmed and left the roosting branches and circled the
tree with typical calls. At times even they mobbed the
balloon but when nothing happened, after 15 minutes
all the kites moved away and did not roost there for
the night. The balloon remained hanging for three
days and some birds did return on the second day, but
after seeing the balloon still hanging, moved away.
The kites then deserted the site finally and did not
return for the next three months, when the Eucalyptus
trees were cut down.

It appears that at times balloons could be
effectively used to scare away birds .

May 31, 1990 H.S.A. YAHYA

5. UNUSUAL NESTING SITE OF BRAHMINY KITE HALIASTUR INDUS

The brahminy kite H alias tur Indus is the most
common raptor in the coastal fishing village of
Kodikkarai at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu. Large
numbers congregate here during the fishing season
and along with gulls they are the major scavengers.
Several of these birds stay back even after the fishing
season gets over in March and their nesting activity
starts around mid-January. Usually they nest about
6-15 m up in large banyan, peepul, tamarind, neem,
casuarina or other trees (handbook of the birds of
INDIA and PAKISTAN, Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D. 1983). At
Point Calimere, palmyra Borassus flabellifer ,
coconut Cocos nucifera and bhendi Thespesia
populnea are the more common nesting trees.

On 14 February 1990 a brahminy kite was
flushed beside a low earth bund passing through the

mudflats of the Great Vedaranyam Swamp. A
complete nest with two eggs was seen at that spot
under a two metre tall Prosopis chilensis bush
growing on the slope of the bund. The nest was
constructed the usual way but it was right on the
ground, about 12 m away from the water’s edge.
IWigs of Prosopis chilensis, Arthrocnemum indicum,
Suaeda sp., mud and cowdung were used to line the
nest. The bund passes between the natural mudflats
and the reservoir used for storing sea water for salt
extraction. One of the birds was again seen
incubating the eggs the next day, while another sat a
little away on the mudflat. Unfortunately the nest was
preyed upon after a couple of days, probably by a
mongoose or a jackal, and the kites abandoned the
site.

118

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL' -HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

This is the first time a brahminy kite nest has
been located on the ground. Menon (1989, unpubl.
report submitted to BNHS) located 48 nests during
his brief study at Point Calimere and all were on
trees. It is interesting to note that the pair chose to
nest on the ground although there are plenty of
regular nesting trees around the area (though not in

the immediate vicinity of the site), and there seems to
be hardly any competition for nest sites among the
kites.

WILLIAM MORRISON
LIMA ROSALIND
March 29, 1990 S. BALACHANDRAN

6. GREAT STONE PLOVER ESACUS MAGNIROSTRIS (VIEILLOT) IN KERALA

On 14 January 1990 at 1030 hrs while doing the
mid winter waterfowl count at Puduvyppu Mangrove
Forest, Kerala, a great stone plover Esacus magnirostris
(Vieillot) was sighted. The Puduvyppu Mangrove
Forest comes under Elangapuzha panchayat of Cochin
taluk in Emakulam district. The altitude of the area is
1.7 m above mean sea level. This forest is located
approximately 6 km from Emakulam city and it covers

an area of about 100 ha.

The bird was feeding in the tidal mudflats,
along with other waders like sandpipers, sand
plovers, Kentish plovers, roof herons and egrets.
Thousands of gulls and terns were also present.

November 26, 1990 P.O. NAMEER

7. POSSIBLE OCCURRENCE OF FOUR SUBSPECIES OF LESSER SAND
PLOVER CHARADRIUS MONGOLUS AT PT. CALIMERE WILDLIFE
SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

Cramp and Simmons (1983) recognised five
subspecies of lesser sand plover Charadrius
mongolus under two groups. The mongolus group
comprising Charadrius mongolus mongolus and
C.m. stegmanni, and the atrifrons group containing
pamirensis, C.m. atrifrons and C.m. schaeferi. The
two groups are separated on measurements and the
extent and spread of black on the head in their
breeding plumage. The lesser sand plover wintering
in western India is mostly atrifrons group, pamirensis
wintering in western India and atrifrons wintering in
the Bay of Bengal area and Indian subcontinent west
to Pakistan (Cramp and Simmons 1983). While
handling lesser sand plover for ringing at Point
Calimere Sanctuary, Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu,
three individuals which varied in measurements and
plumage were noticed. They were carefully examined
and the measurements analysed to determine their
race. It was apparent that the three individuals
belonged to races different from the subspecies
atrifrons (Himalayan race) commonly wintering in
India. One (Specimen no. 1) had very short tarsus
(27.5 mm), another (no. 2) had a longer bill (21 mm)
and the third (no. 3) differed in the absence of black
on the forehead in its breeding plumage. These three

birds, on the basis of analysis of key characters were
identified as Charadrius mongolus stegmanni, C.m.
schaeferi and C.m. pamirensis respectively (Table 1).

Charadrius mongolus stegmanni: This race is
of east Siberian origin and winters mainly along the
Chinese seaboard, Philippines, Eastern Indonesia,
Melanesian islands and Australia. The tarsus
measurement (27.5 mm) does not fall within the
range of the five races given by Cramp and Simmons
(1983). However, it falls within the range of the
tarsus measurements (27-34 mm) of the mongolus
group given by Prater et al. (1977). Moreover the bill
length/bill depth ratio and wing/tarsus ratio tallies
with stegmanni. So far it was assumed that only the
atrifrons group winters in India. This record of
stegmanni from Point Calimere indicates that stray
individuals of the mongolus group also visit India
along with members of the atrifrons group.

Charadrius mongolus schaeferi: The west
Chinese race schaeferi winters along the gulf of
Siam, Malaysia and Western Indonesia (Greater
Sundas). The race has also been recorded from
western Australia (Lane 1986). The maximum range
of the bill length (21 mm) is noted only in schaeferi
by Cramp and Simmons (Table 1). The wing/tarsus

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

119

TABLE 1

MORPHOMETRIC DATA FOR THE THREE RACES OF LESSER SAND PLOVER CAUGHT AT PT. CALIMERE

Specimen no., species, sex Wing Bill Tarsus Tail Wt. Wing/ Wing/ Bill length/ Date of

(g) Bill Tarsus Bill depth capture

ratio ratio ratio

1. Charadrius mongolus 125

stegmanni, F

2. Charadrius mongolus 130

schaeferi, M* (127-

134)

3. Charadrius mongolus 128

pamirensis, Ijjj* (128-

134)

17.7

27.5

49.5

47

7.1

21

34

51

53

6.19

(17-21)

(33-36)

17.2

33

49

57

7.4

(16-18)

(32-34)

4.5

3.76

15.3.90

*(4.20-4.78)

*(< 3.00
mongolus
group)

3.82

4.4

12.4.90

*(3.50-4.06)

*(> 3.80
atrifrons
group)

3.9

3.6

*(3.57-4.07)
(From Ladakh
and Kashmir)

28.4.90

* Measurement ranges given by Cramp and Simmons (1983). M = Male, F = Female.

ratio also tallies with schaeferi. Though schaeferi
comes under the atrifrons group its occurrence in
India has not been definitely stated by Ali and Ripley
(1983) as it is mentioned as atrifrons. It is not clear
whether they meant the atrifrons group or the race.

Charadrius mongolus pamirensis: The western
race winters in western India, Pakistan, the Arabian
Sea, Persian Gulf, Seychelles and East Africa, south
to Cape Province and Namibia (Cramp and Simmons
1983). The female specimen collected in breeding
plumage had mottled white patches on sides of
forehead, and dark brown tinge on ear coverts, which
tallies with the colour pattern of pamirensis. As this

Refer

Au, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.

Cramp, S. & Simmons, K.E.L. (1983) : Handbook of the
birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa.
Volume 3, Waders to Gulls. Oxford University Press.
Lane, B. (1986): The subspecies of Mongolian Plover

race has been known sovfar to winter only in western
India, its occurrence in south-east India is
noteworthy.

It is possible that all four subspecies of both
groups winter in India as in Australia, where the three
subspecies of both groups of lesser sand plover have
been reported by Lane (1986). More data are being
analysed to determine the races of lesser sand plover
wintering in south India.

S. BALACHANDRAN
July 16, 1990 V. NATARAJAN

ENCES

Charadrius mongolus in Australia. Stilt 8: 14-16.
Prater A.J., Marchant, J. H. & Vuorinewn, J. (1977): A
guide to the identification and ageing of Holarctic
Waders. BTO Field Guide 17, British Trust for
Ornithology, Tring, England.

8. OCCURRENCE OF LARUS MINUTUS PALLAS IN KUTCH

NNB saw what he thought was a little gull
Larus minutus at Rudramata dam on 27 November
1987. On a subsequent visit to the dam by H,
Shantilal Varu and others, the bird was not found to
be present there. It appears that Dr. Salim Ali came

across a number of these gulls in the Rann of Kutch
which he watched from a distance ( JBNHS 71: 3),
but withheld definite indentification of them.

NNB along with the other members of the
Pelican Nature Club of Kutch saw three L. minutus

120

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

on 19 December 1989 at Shinay dam (Anjar
environs). On 21 December H accompanied NNB
and the others on a visit to the dam again, when only
one bird was present there. The gull was in juvenile
or immature plumage; its size, tern-like habit of
picking up food from the surface of the water, its
colouration, including the zigzag pattern on the
wings, dark patch on the crown, no black feathers on
the underside of the wings, a black band at the end of
the tail and dull red legs and feet, all pointed to its
being the little gull. The only feature we must take

note of was the colour of the bill, which was dull red
with a dark tip, not mentioned in any of the
references we have at hand except birds of coast and
sea (Bruce Campbell 1977) wherein it is stated:

“ and the bill* turns from red to blackish”,

describing the winter plumage. The gull seen by us
repeatedly came to settle for a while on a slab of
stone less than 100 m from where we were standing.

N.N. BAPAT

August 16, 1990 M.K. HIMMATSINHJI

9. ON THE BLACK TERN CHLIDONIAS NIGER NIGER (LINN.)

On 25 May 1989 at about 1800 hrs, a single
specimen of the black tern Chlidonias niger niger
(Linn.) was obtained by me from a fisherman on the
beach at Point Calimere Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. The
tern was apparently cast ashore by high wind and
gales that had been blowing for the previous two
days. The following observations were taken during
the six day period that the bird remained with me due
to its inability to fly.

The measurements are as follows: bill from
feathers : 40 mm, bill from skull : 45 mm, tarsus : 19
mm, wing : 257 mm, tail (outer) : 104 mm, tail
(inner): 60 mm.

No moult recorded.

It required to be fed several times a day
although the total quantity eaten was very small ( 4-5

8 cm long fish approx.). Fish had to be cut into tiny
slivers and were taken in narrow end first. Very little
water was taken although provided.

Exceptionally tame and accepted food from
hand without hesitation. Juvenile feeding or begging
posture commonly adopted with head set low over
the shoulder and the mouth slightly open. Grew
considerably bolder till it flew out of the door on the
seventh day and was seen to be pursued by a pair of
brahminy kites. No further record of the bird.

I wish to thank the staff of the B.N.H.S. Station,
Vedaranyam for help in identification and
measurement. Their guidance in various other
respects is also gratefully acknowledged.

April 4, 1990 VIVEK MENON

10. STERNA BERGII THALASSINA STRESEMANN — AN ADDITION TO THE

AVIFAUNA OF SRI LANKA

There is uncertainty about the exact number of
subspecies of Sterna bergii, the (large) crested or
swift tern. Cramp (Chief Ed.) in birds of the
western PALEARcnc lists four, namely :

S.b. velox, which inhabits the coasts of the
Indian subcontinent, the Persian Gulf and the Arabian
Sea, the Bay of Bengal to Burma and Western
Malaysia. It is the largest and darkest.

S. b. thalassina , found in the Western Indian
Ocean from about Tanzania to Chagos Island,
Madagascar and the Mascarenes. It is the palest.

The nominate S. b. bergii is found at the
southern end of Africa, in Namibia and S. Africa.

S. b. cristata, the eastern race, occurs from

China and Indonesia eastward.

Harrison (1985) adds a fifth: S. b. enigma,
recently described from Mozambique.

Peters (1937) recognises five, which include S.
b. gwendolenae. Condon (1975) lists gwendolenae
for Australia, as well as two more, namely
pelecanoides and poliocerca, bringing the number to
eight or more subspecies worldwide. Thus there is
not a generally accepted number of subspecies of
Sterna bergii. Obviously a revision of the species is
desirable.

In Sri Lanka the resident S. b. velox has dark
slate-grey saddle and upperwings, in winter as well in
summer. The appearance of these upperparts in the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

121

perching bird is comparable to that of the lesser
blackbacked gull Larus fuscus fuscus. For many
years I have regularly observed a colony of these
large crested terns, varying in number from 20 to
over a hundred, perching and roosting on rocks just
off the sea coast past Colombo Fort. These rocks are
often closely packed with terns of several species
(eight so far recorded). During the winter months
(until the advent of the monsoon in May when they
disperse because of high waves), I look at them
through a telescope 3 to 4 times a day, more often on
weekends. From about the begining of 1990 1 noted a
strange and different individual amongst them, and
since the middle of March, it was always present on
the rocks together with up to 100 large crested terns,
which had assumed breeding plumage (except for
first year birds which look superficially like adults,
but can be recognised by the different head pattern
and somewhat patchy dark upperwings). The unusual
bird stood out from amongst the others by its very
pale, chalky-grey upperparts. In flight it looked
entirely white. The plumage on the head was that of a
first-year large crested tern. On several occasions I
noted through a 40x telescope from close vantage
positions, the following details in the perching bird:

Size: Notably smaller than the other large
crested terns. All parts are proportionately smaller or
shorter, e.g. legs and feet, crest, bill.

Head: Shape and general appearance like the
others, with a similar but smaller crest. Forehead and
fore-crown white, crown and nape streaked
brownish-black, feathers on nape brownish, with a
loose, untidy crest, often erected in defensive action
against neighbouring birds. Crest feathers form dark
lines on both sides of rear crown and nape. From eye
across to ear coverts to side of nape small streaky
pale-brownish patches. Some dark feathers in front of
eye, and from eye to sides of crown.

Bill: Shorter and paler than that of other crested
terns, very pale yellow, with greenish and homy tint,
especially at base.

Refei

Ceylon Bird Club Notes (CBCN), March 1990. Colombo.
Cramp, S. (Chief Ed.) (1985) : The Birds of the Western

Palearctic, Vol. 4. London.

Condon, H.T. (1975): Checklist of the birds of Australia
Harrison, P. (1985): Seabirds. London.

Peters, J.L (1937): Checklist of the birds of the world.

Upperparts: Lower nape white, saddle and
upperwings light chalky grey, with longest outer
primaries only slightly darker. Rump and tail same
pale grey hue. When tail is spread for preening, dark
shafts are visible.

Underparts: White.

Wing: No markings; when folded about same
length as tail.

Tail: Chalky grey, forked, with two outer
feathers longer and paler.

Legs: Proportionately shorter and thinner than
in nearby other large crested terns. Dull black in
colour.

Habits: No call noted. The bird seems to have a
somewhat faster wing beat than S. b. velox. When
disturbed from perch by crows, it flies rather low
over the water, which it skims on occasion; flies
higher on feeding flights. The behaviour (preening
etc.) on the rocks is the same as that of the other
crested terns. But it affects a defensive attitude
toward its close neighbours (erection of crest,
constant alertness) and it is often met with some
aggressiveness (as a smaller bird?), but not to the
extent of driving it away.

The bird could be mistaken for a winter
sandwich tern S. sandvicensis, except for the pale
yellow bill and the smaller size, both not readily
noticeable at a distance.

Despite its somewhat shaggy look, the bird is
perfectly healthy and capable of looking after itself.
Under the circumstances I conclude that it belongs to
the Western Indian Ocean subspecies S. b. thalassina.
This is the first record of this race in Sri Lanka and in
the Indian subcontinent, i.e. the Eastern Indian
Ocean.

I am greatly obliged to Mrs. Amberley Moore
of the British Ornithologists’ Club, for the kind
assistance with regard to the number and types of
subspecies of Sterna bergii.

November 18, 1990 THILO W. HOFFMANN

ENCES

Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and

Pakistan, together with those of Nepal, Bhutan,

Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. 2nd ed. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

122

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

11. REVIEW OF THE STATUS OF THE SANDWICH TERN
STERNA SANDVICENSIS IN KERALA

(With a text-figure)

According to Harrison (1985), the major
breeding populations of the sandwich tern Sterna
sandvicensis are those in Great Britain, France,
Germany, Denmark and also the shores of Black Sea
and Caspian Sea. Wintering birds have been found to
disperse to north-west Africa, south to Cape of Good
Hope, South Africa, occasionally east to Natal, but
are rare off Kenya.

Ali and Ripley (1987) describe the sandwich
tem to be a winter visitor in fair numbers to West
Pakistan (Makran and Sind coasts). In India, the tem
was observed for the first time in Saurashtra, Gujarat
(Dharmakumarsinhji 1958). There was subsequently
an instance of ring recovery from Kerala in 1976
(Ambedkar 1985). Lai Mohan (1986) reported the
recovery of a ringed sandwich tem in Rameswaram
island, Tamil Nadu. However, sandwich terns have
been shown to winter in substantial numbers fairly
regularly along the coast of Gujarat (Mundkur 1987).
With this background, the occurrence of the species
along coastal Malabar in north Kerala is significant.

I was at Calicut between September 1987 and
May 1989 in connection with an ecological study on
shorebirds occurring in certain estuaries and such
other wetland habitats of coastal Malabar. During the
course of the study, I observed that sandwich terns

were regular visitors to Kadalundi estuary (Fig. 1)
occurring in fairly good numbers (Table 1). Sporadic
observations made at the estuary earlier by certain
members of the Kerala Natural History Society
(Namasivayan, pers. comm.) also indicated that the
birds were found in good numbers in 1985 and also
in 1986. From September 1987 to May 1989, the
observations at the estuary were regular and,
therefore, the count more accurate.

The birds found at Kadalundi were among
mixed flocks of gulls and terns, comprising usualy
brownheaded gulls Larus brunnicephalus ,
blackheaded gulls Larus ridibundus, lesser black-
backed gulls Larus fuscus, whiskered terns
Chlidonias hybrida and large crested terns Sterna
bergii, all usually congregated together on intertidal
mudflats. When flushed, however, the terns tended to
flock separately before settling back on the mudflats
after some time. Most of the sandwich terns found at
the estuary were in non-breeding adult plumage with
white crown streaked with black. The ivory tipped,
black slender bill was unmistakable and within the
range of the binoculars. Gullbilled terns
Gelochelidon nilotica, which also appear white
during flight and are therefore likely to be confused
with the sandwich tem, were sighted only rarely at

Table l

SIGHTINGS OF SANDWICH TERNS AT KADALUNDI (1985-89)

Year

No. of sightings per month

8

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr. May.

Jun. Jul. Aug.

Sep. Oct. Nov.

Dec.

1985*

1986*

100

100

100

4

35

30

100

100

100

500

1987

4

1988

50

100 6

10

1

1

20

70

47

30

1989

10

50

52

6

4

70

8

50

100

* Estimates made by Namasivayan (pers. comm.). Regular data available from September 1987.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

123

Fig. 1. Locations on Kerala coast where sandwich ter ns
were seen.

Table 2

SIGHTINGS OF SANDWICH TERN IN KERALA (1987-90),
AT PLACES OTHER THAN KADALUNDI

Number of

Site Date terns

Dharmatom estuary 1 Dec. 1987 1

Purathur estuary 5 Jan. 1988 2

Purathur estuary 5 Mar. 1988 30

Azhikkode estuary 26 Oct. 1988 56

Kayamkulam estuary 18 Mar. 1990 25

Kadalundi. However, the former species was found in
fairly good numbers at Purathur (Bharathapuzha)
estuary, approximately 20 km south of Kadalundi

(Fig- 1)-

A few other estuaries surveyed (Fig. 1) during
the period also demonstrated the occurrence of
sandwich terns (Table 2). While there was only a
single sight record of a solitary sandwich tem at
Dharmatom estuary, approximately 150 km north of
Kadalundi, at Purathur estuary, the birds were seen
on two occasions. At Azhikkode estuary in central
Kerala, where river Periyar joins the sea, not less
than 56 sandwich terns were observed. In this case,
most terns were found perching on the numerous
bamboo poles jutting out of the water surface.

In February 1990, Mohan Kumar reported the
sighting of sandwich terns at Kayamkulam Pozhi
(Fig. 1), where the Kayamkulam backwaters open to
the sea. On 18 March 1990, 1 accompanied him to the
area which is 28 km north of Quilon and there, we
found at least 25 sandwich terns besides as many
gullbilled terns and three large crested terns. This
turned out to be the first sighting of the species in
south Kerala.

In most instances cited, the areas were not
surveyed regularly except at Bharathapuzha and
Kadalundi estuaries, and perhaps the sandwich terns
may have a far more extensive distribution than it
appears. Further, it has been shown that sandwich
terns have been regularly visiting Sri Lanka in small
numbers (Hoffman 1987).

Acknowledgements

I thank L. Nafnasivayan of the Kerala Natural
History Society, (jalicut for useful discussions and
also for pemiifting me the use of notes. Thanks are
also due to Mohan Kumar who told me about the
birds at Kayamkulam, and Dr. V.J. Zacharias, my
guide, for his comments.

April 9, 1991 D. K. NARAYANA KURUP

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1987): Handbook of the Birds of India - a ring recovery. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82:

India and Pakistan, Compact edition. 2nd ed. Oxford 410.

University Press, Bombay. Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1958): Sandwich Tern in

Ambedkar, V.C. (1985) Occurrence of the Sandwich Tern in ‘Saurashtra’. ibid. 55: 357.

124

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Harrison, P. (1985): Seabirds, an identification guide.

Revised Ed. Croom Helm, London.

Hoffman, T.W. (1987): The Sandwich Tern in Sri Lanka. J
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 (2): 440-442.

Lal Mohan, R.S. (1986): Recovery of a ringed Sandwich
Tern from Rameswaram Island, Tamil Nadu. J.

Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 84 (3): 664.

Mundkur, T. (1987): Recent sightings of the Sandwich Tern
with comments on its status in Gujarat. J. Bombay
nat Hist. Soc. 84 (3): 680-682.

12. NEW NESTING SITE OF THE INDIAN WHITEBREASTED KINGFISHER
HALCYON SMYRNENSIS FUSCA (BODDAERT)

The Indian whitebreasted kingfisher Halcyon
smyrnensis fusca (Boddaert) has been reported to
nest in a tunnel bored in the steep bank of a dry
nullah or roadside cutting or in the side of a dry ditch,
kutcha well or borrow-pit. The nest (a horizontal
tunnel) size is given as c. 7 cm in diameter and from
c. 50 cm to more than a metre long (handbook of the
BIRDS of INDIA and PAKISTAN, Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D.
1983).

On 24 April 1988 around 1430 hrs I saw a
whitebreasted kingfisher coming out of a hole from a
hay stack of paddy hay (c. 3.5 metres high) situated
in the backyard of a house at Mayiladuthurai, Dist.

Thanjavur (Tamil Nadu). On examination of the hole
I found four eggs of the whitebreasted kingfisher
inside. The nest was a horizontal tunnel 10 cm in
diameter and 41 cm long, and was situated c. 1.8 m
from the ground. The nest was made of hay and no
other foreign material except the eggs was found
inside. Moreover I learnt that kingfishers had nested
in similar haystacks at the same site during previous
years also. The hay stack can therefore be considered
as a new nesting site for the opportunistic
whitebreasted kingfisher.

January 3, 1990 P. BALASUBRAMANIAN

13. FEEDING BY COMMON NIGHTJAR CAPRIMULGUS ASIATICUS AND
INDIAN ROLLER CORACIAS BENGHALENSIS IN THE LIGHT
OF MERCURY VAPOUR LAMPS

The common Indian nightjar Caprimulgus
asiaticus is the most abundant and widely distributed
nightjar of India. On 29 March 1990 it was noticed
feeding on insects attracted by the very bright light of
mercury vapour lamps at power sub-station, Bhilai,
located in fairly thickly populated area.

An Indian roller Coracias benghalensis, already
on the hunt since dusk, was joined by a nightjar
around 1900 hrs, which appeared with its
characteristic almost soundless flight.

The feeding habits of Indian rollers have been
described by Ali and Ripley (handbook of the birds of
India and Pakistan, 1983) as “the species has been
generally noticed hunting during day time or till late

evening”. However in this case, it was found hunting
insects in the air, in very bright light till 2100 hrs.
Similar instances of Indian roller feeding at lights
have been recorded by me on 31 March 1989 (1830
hrs), 12 April 1989 (1900 hrs.), 4 July 1989 (1945
hrs), 22 April 1990 (2130 hrs) and on 8 April 1990
(2230 hrs). On most of these occassions it was
feeding amongst a busy traffic area. Interestingly,
black drongo Dicrurus adsimilis was also foraging. The
latter species has already been recorded feeding by the
light of street lamps (Jamdar 1983, JBNHS 80: 218).

June 25, 1990 A. M. K. BHAROS

14. POSSIBLE OCCURRENCE OF THE GREY SHRIKE LANIUS EXCUBITOR

LINN. IN ASSAM

On 8 February 1990 on the banks of the saw a shrike perched on a narrow branch on top of a
Brahmaputra river in Lakhimpur district of Assam, I hedge in the scrub jungle of the river bank. It was

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

125

larger than the brown shrike Lanius cristatus and had
light slaty-grey upperparts, the underparts being dull
white. The black band across the eye to the
ear-coverts (typical of most shrikes) was not fully
developed, and was slightly deeper-grey than the
head and the upperparts. This may be due to the fact'
that the bird was perhaps an immature. I observed the
bird for a few minutes till it flew beyond the hedge.

It was undoubtedly a shrike and resembled
closely the grey shrike Lanius excubitor. If it was the
grey shrike, then this is the first record in Assam.
Location was on the banks of the Brahmaputra river,

near Matmora (13 km from Dhakuakhana, the
Subdi visional Headquarters) in Lakhimpur district.
The grey shrike is a bird of comparatively drier
environs and is found up to Bihar and West Bengal
(HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, A1 i , S .
and Ripley, S.D. 1983). The easternmost recorded
locality so far was Kushtia (c. 23° 54’ N, 89° 07’ E),
Bangladesh (systematic list of birds, Rashid 1967).
The present locality may thus be the easternmost
distribution (27° 10’ N, 94° 33’ E) .

April 5, 1990 AN WAR UD DIN CHOUDHURY

15. BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR WOODSHRIKE TEPHRODORNIS
VIRGATUS SYLVICOLA JERDON AT THEKKADY, KERALA

The present data, collected during an intensive
study on the ecology of drongos (Vijayan 1984,
Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Bombay) under the supervision
of the late Dr. Salim Ali, provide details on the
nesting of this species at Thekkady in the Periyar
Tiger Reserve (9° 15’ to 9° 40’ N and 76° 05’ to 77°
25 ’E) in Kerala during 1981. The study area was of
about 150 ha of moist deciduous/ semi-evergreen
forest patch with low-lying grasslands on either side.

Nesting season: The nesting season extends
from January to April. Six pairs were observed
breeding in the study area. Renesting was noticed in
all pairs except the one in which the first clutch was
successful. Therefore, in all, 12 nests were observed,
of which two were in January, nine in February and
one in March. The successful pair had fledgelings in
March -April.

Nesting tree, height and location: Teak
Tectona grandis and terminalia Terminalia
paniculata were used for nesting. Among the 12 nests
observed, seven were on the former and five on the
latter. Nesting height varied from 8 to 13 m with an
average of 10 m (Table 1). Location of the nest was

on the top of a horizontal branch, at the base of the
main stem or a branch.

Nest, nest building and clutch size: The nest
is a shallow cup of spider webs, moss, lichens, pieces
of bark, and a few thin fibres as a lining at the
bottom. Only the slightly raised rim of the nest could
be seen from below as it was well camouflaged by
the stem of the tree and the colour of the bird. Nest
building took about 8 to 12 days for the first nest and
was of a shorter duration while renesting. Of the 12
nests, only in seven was the two egg clutch complete
(Table 1).

Incubation and nesting success: Except for
two clutches, all the others were predated during the
incubation period which was 15 and 16 days in the
two cases observed, from which only one was
successful in producing two fledgelings. The nestling
period was 17 days. One nest was deserted as the first
egg was preyed on the day it was laid. Four nests
were destroyed even before laying. Hatching success
was 26.6% and nesting success 13.3%, the
productivity being 0.33 young per pair. The
fledgeling period and fledgeling success could not be

TABLE 1

NESTING DETAILS OF THE MALABAR WOODSHRIKE AT THEKKADY DURING 1981

No of

Nesting

Clutch

Incubation

Nestling

Nesting tree

nests

height
in m± SD

size

period

(days)

period

(days)

Tectona grandis (Teak)

7

10.1 ± 1.8

2

15

—

Terminalia paniculata (Terminalia)

5

9.8 ± 0.8

2

16

17

9

126

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

recorded as the fledgelings were not followed.

This study was supported by the Salim
Ali-Loke Wan Tho Research Fellowship from the
BNHS. Thanks due to Dr. V.S. Vijayan for his

encouragement and also for going through the
manuscript.

June 8, 1990 LAU1HA VIJAYAN

16. WINTERING RANGE EXTENSION FOR THE RUBYTHROAT
ERITHACUS CALLIOPE

Place of ringing Wing (mm) Bill (mm) Tarsus (mm) Tail (mm) Weight (g)

Tirumala Hills 73 16 28 62 20

Point Calimere 76 19 29 63 23

The rubythroat Erithacus calliope is an
uncommon winter visitor to the Indian subcontinent,
mostly to its north-eastern and eastern parts. In south
India they are known to reach only up to Godavari
delta in north-eastern Andhra Pradesh where they are
fairly common only in Hailakandi and
Visakhapatnam (17° 30’N, 83° E) districts

(HANDBOOK OF BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, Ali, S.

and Ripley, S.D. 1983).

A male rubythroat was trapped and ringed on 3
February 1990 at Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird
Sanctuary (10° 18’ N; 79° 52’E) in Tamil Nadu. This
is the first confirmed record of rubythroat for the
state and the southern most record. It is interesting to

note that another male rubythroat was ringed at
Tirumala Hills (13° 40’ N, 79°20 E) in southern
Andhra Pradesh on 21 November 1989 and even that
was further south to its known wintering range in
India. Since the birds were caught in November and
February it is quite likely that the species is not just a
passage migrant but a sporadic winter visitor to south
India as well.

The measurements (mm) and weight (gs of the
birds are as shown above.

S. BALACHANDRAN
LIMA ROSALIND
March 29, 1990 S. ALAGAR RAJ AN

17. PLUMAGES, FEMALE DIMORPHISM AND POLYMORPHISM OF THE
ENDEMIC INDIAN SPECIES PARUS XANTHOGENYS

( With a colour plate)

There appears to be some confusion and
controversy regarding the plumages of the Parus
xanthogenys group. A black crest and a longitudinal
black band from chin to vent, is usually described as
being the adult plumage common to both sexes.
Whistler and Kinnear (1931, JBNHS 35: 520)
examined the series collected by La Personne and
reported an interesting problem regarding the
plumages of this genus. 15 males agreed with the
description, but the three females and an unsexed
bird differed in having the black ventral band
replaced by dull olive green. They concluded that
either the sexes differ or the bird takes a year to
assume adult plumage. After examining the Eastern

Ghats survey birds they stated that the peninsular
Indian race aplonotus and the Western Ghats race
travancoreensis have their sexes different. They
described three types of females for the race
travancoreensis. 1. Black head and black band,
2. Black head and green band and 3. Green head and
green band.

Salim Ali (1940, JBNHS 41: 86) says the
females were dimorphic in aplonotus. Phase 1. crown
and eye-streak black, ventral stripe dull olive green;
Phase 2. crown and eye-streak dull olive green,
ventral stripe dull olive green. For travancoreensis ,
he said adult male and female were not alike. Male:
crown black, ventral stripe black. Female: crown

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89 Plate i

Unnithan: Parus xanthogenys travancoreensis

Parus xanthogenys travancoreensis
Left: juvenile, Centre: moulting, Right: adult

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

127

black, ventral stripe dull olive green. Juveniles not
alike but resembling their respective adult. There
seems to be a mix up of names in this case, since Ali
goes on explaining about a Nilgiri bird under
aplonotus. He might have been describing
dimorphism in travancoreensis females and not in
aplonotus.

Salim Ali (1942, JBNHS 43: 146) states the
possibility of aplonotus females being dimorphic
since he had seen birds indistinguishable from adult
males and marked females; and those of
travancoreensis as polymorphic. Phase 1. similar to
adult male, black crown and black ventral stripe;
Phase 2. as in aplonotus crown black, ventral stripe
dull olive green; Phase 3. crown dull olive green,
ventral stripe dull olive green. Juveniles not alike:
male similar to the adult, female crown black and
ventral stripe dull olive green. He doubted the second
and third phases and said they required fresh
verification.

Charles Vaurie (1950, Amer. Mus. Novitates no.
1459, p. 40) states that he and Dr. B. Biswas had
gone through all the statements made by Whistler in
his various papers and examined specimens collected
by Koelz and those in the collection of the American
Museum. He concluded that the polymorphism of
adult females in true travancoreensis is not
established. Unfortunately they had seen only three
specimens of travancoreensis , two adult males
and one adult female and none in the juvenile
stage.

Salim Ali and Dillon Ripley (1973, handbook
OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN Vol. 9, pp.
189-190) do not mention the dimorphism in
aplonotus but repeat that the females of
travancoreensis are polymorphic.

After going through the literature and critically
examining the 74 specimens of the races of this
species (45 males, 21 females and 8 unsexed) in the
BNHS collection I am in a better position to describe
the plumages of the different races and comment on
the disputed dimorphism and polymorphism of the
females. My observations are as follows.

Parus xanthogenys xanthogenys Vigors

18: 11 males (1 juv.) 3 females 4 unsexed

Paler and brighter. The males have black crown,
black ventral stripe, long bright yellow supercilium,

and tips of wing coverts almost white (yellow might
have faded into white in the skins). There is not much
difference between males and females in this race.
The females also have black crown, black chin and
ventral stripe. Even the size of the crest is more or
less the same. The four unsexed specimens cannot be
separated by plumage. The single juvenile we have is
a male (Simla, 26.9.26), slightly smaller with a short
crest and the tips of the wing coverts are yellowish.

Parus xanthogenys aplonotus Blyth

33: 17 males 13 females 3 unsexed

Darker and duller. Both males and females have
black crown and the tips of wing coverts white. The
ventral stripe in the male is black and in the female it
is olive green. The females have a shorter crest.

A specimen from Saugar, C. P. (23.2.1899)
though marked male is in female plumage, and might
be wrongly sexed. Out of the three unsexed
specimens, one from Lonawala (Aug. 1875) is a male
by plumage. The other two, from Sankrametta, Vizag
(4.3.1930) and Sehore, C. I. (Jan. 1914) are females
by plumage.

There is no evidence for dimorphism in the
females as stated by Salim Ali. All the females are
with black crown and olive green ventral stripe and
none in the latter being black. The specimens he saw
in the latter plumage were probably wrongly sexed
ones.

Parus xanthogenys travancoreensis

(Whistler & Kinnear)

23: 17 males 5 females 1 unsexed

Dullest of the three races, larger in size than the
other two, white tips of the wing coverts and rectrices
smaller. The males are with black crown and black
ventral stripe. In the adult female there is hardly any
crest, the feathers of the crown are like back, dull
greyish olive but with dark centres and shafts.
Freshly moulted specimens are with olive green
crown with prominent dark centres and shafts. As
they age the olive green turns into greyish olive with
less marked centres and shafts. The ventral stripe is
pale and hardly distinguishable from the dull yellow-
tinged grey underparts.

T\vo females, one from Santanpara, Cardamom
Hills (26.1. ±933) marked immature and another from
South Korkan (23 March 1879) marked juvenile

128

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

have black heads. One female from Mysore
(20.1.1940) has the forehead and anterior part of the
crown olive green with prominent dark centres and
shafts to the feathers and the rest black. A female
from Palni Hills (10.5.1956) and another from
Nilgiris (20.2.1943) have their crown concolorous to
the back, e.g. greyish olive.

One specimen from Castle Rock, Kanara
(10.10.1912) marked male is a juvenile female with a
black crown. The unsexed specimen from
Shembagnur, Palni Hills (1958) is an adult female by
plumage with greyish olive crown and back.

There is no evidence for polymorphism in
females of this race as stated by Whistler and Salim
Ali. Since both the females with black heads are
marked juveniles it is suggested that this is a stage
before the post juvenile moult. This is confirmed by
the fact that we have a female specimen with a crown
half olive and half black, in the process of moulting,
the black crown of the juvenile female being replaced
by the adult olive green. I come to the conclusion that
phase 1 females with black crown and black ventral
stripes are wrongly sexed specimens, phase 2 with
black crowns and olive green ventral stripes are
juveniles and phase 3 with olive green crowns and
olive green ventral stripes are the actual adult females

of this race.

From the northern Himalaya to southern
Travancore, there is a cline of gradually decreasing
brightness in the plumage of this species;
xanthogenys, the northernmost nominate race with
brightest yellow and olive green in their plumage, the
central aplonotus less bright, or dull green and
yellow and the southern most travancoreensis being
much duller with the mantle almost lacking green
and being greyish, the yellow very pale and the adult
females all being grey with only a slight tinge of
yellow below. As far as sexual dimorphism is
concerned southern travancoreensis with its entirely
different sexes tops the three. In aplonotus the
difference between the sexes is only in the colour of
the ventral stripe and in the northern xanthogenys the
sexes are almost same. The size of the crest also
follows this pattern. In xanthogenys the size of the
crest is more or less the same in both sexes,
aplonotus females have a shorter crest than the male
and travancoreensis females have hardly any crest.

I am indebted to Humayun Abdulali, my ‘Guru’
in ornithology, for going through the manuscript.

February 21, 1992 S. UNNI1HAN

18. INTERESTING FEEDING PATTERN OF YELLOWTHROATED SPARROW
PETRONIA XANTHOCOLLIS (BURTON)

Amongst various species of birds observed
feeding on mahua Madhuca indica flowers were
yellowthroated sparrows Petronia xanthocollis. Their
feeding pattern was rather interesting.

A juicy flower was plucked and carried to a
nearby thick branch, placed on rough bark for a
while, and then dragged backwards for about 50 cm
with downward pressure applied with the beak. The
partly battered flower was picked up, again placed
about 30 cm ahead and dragged back. This act was

repeated three or four times till the flower was almost
reduced to fragments, which were then eaten.
Thereafter, another flower was plucked and the entire
act repeated.

Inability of the species to swallow the whole
flower could be the reason for adopting the above
feeding pattern.

April 1, 1990 A.MX. BHAROS

19. ‘BLIND’ NEST OF BLACKTHROATED WEAVER BIRD
PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS (LINN.)

‘Blind nests’ (i.e. abnormal nests without an philippinus. This tendency also occurs in the
entrance) are sometimes prepared by weaver birds, blackthroated weaver bird Ploceus benghalensis.

The phenomenon has been described by Davis (1985, During the breeding season of 1989, in the river

JBNHS 82(3): 658-660) in baya weaver bird Ploceus bed of Nahawani river near Harsora dam in Alwar

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

129

district, I located an equally vast colony of P.
benghalensis in the dense clumps of Saccharum
bengalense, hardly 3 km away from the dam, towards
the northern side. Hundreds of adult males of P.
benghalensis were nesting there. They were readily
identified by the colouration of their golden-yellow
crowns and streakless breasts. In the vicinity of this
‘adult colony ’ I located an approximately 2 ha. area
where exclusively yearling cocks were nesting.
While observing their nests one by one, I came across
a nest of one yearling cock, having no entrance hole.
Its upper half was slender but the lower half was
massive and spherical. A slight bend was present
between the two halves. The fibre used for
fabricating the nest was that of Saccharum
bengalense.

The nest was removed from the clump and cut
open. It was noticed that the internal cavity was
extremely small. Neither any deposition nor any
beautifying material was present inside.

The whole breeding site was surveyed, but no
other ‘blind’ nest was found in the colony. Others
were normal though appearing crude.

The tendency of making blind nests is not seen
in adult cocks of P. benghalensis anywhere in eastern
Rajasthan, though it is apparently expressed by adult
P. philippinus in the area. In the present case it seems
likely that making a blind nest by a yearling bird was
due to lack of experience in nest fabrication.

April 8, 1990 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

20. SPOTTED MUNIA LONCHURA PUNCTULATA (LINN.) FROM DACHIGAM
NATIONAL PARK, JAMMU AND KASHMIR

A male specimen of the spotted munia
Lonchura punctulata was caught during mist netting
on 21 June 1989, in Dachigam National Park (34°
96 ’N, 74° 51 ’E; alt. 1650 m), Jammu and Kashmir.

Its biometrics were as follows: wing 57 mm,
bill 12 mm, tarsus 15 mm, tail 44 mm. It was an adult
bird with a developing brood patch. The bird was
trapped in a rocky area dominated by medium sized
scattered bushes of Indigofer a heterantha and Prunus
arvenica, with thin grass cover. The bird was ringed
(Ring No. A: 210661) and released. Its distribution is
recorded as east of a line roughly joining Madhupur
(Jammu), Ludhiana, Sambar Lake, Mt. Abu, southern

Kathiawar, eastwards along the lower Himalayas to
Bhutan and Bangladesh and south to Kanyakumari
and Sri Lanka. The present record confirms the
earlier report of Holmes and Parr (1988, JBNHS 85:
465-73) of a singleton from Haigam Rakh, Kashmir.
The range of the species may thus be extended
northwards to the Kashmir valley.

SA. AKHTAR
PRAKASH RAO
J.K. ITWARI

January 18, 1991 SALIM JAVED

21. AN UPDATED LIST OF BIRD AND BAT SPECIES INVOLVED IN
COLLISION WITH AIRCRAFT IN INDIA

The BNHS has been assisting the Indian Air
Force and Civil Aviation Ministry by providing
identification of bird species involved in collisions
with aircraft through examination of bird-strike
remnants since 1966. The bird- and bat-strike
remnants were identified at BNHS by several
researchers, namely D.N. Mathew, Robert B Grubh,
Saraswathi Unnithan, Lima Rosalind, S.M. Satheesan
and R.J. Pimento.

Bird strike remains obtained from aerodromes
were compared with specimens in the BNHS

reference collection. For microscopical examination
dry mounts of downy barbs of feathers from remnant
samples were compared with similar slides prepared
from known species of birds. The techniques given
by Brom (1980, 1986), Brom and Buurma (1979),
Layboume (1984, 1986) and Rosalind and Grubh
(1987) were used for microscopic studies. In most
cases where at least one feather was available intact,
the identification was confirmed by comparison with
an identical feather from a bird specimen from the
BNHS collection. It was not possible to identify birds

130

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

down to the species level with microscopic method
alone. The findings of Ali and Grubh (1984), Grubh
(1988) and Satheesan (1990) were referred to prepare
this updated list of bird and bat species involved in
collision with aircraft from 1966 to 1989.

94 Sixty seven species of birds and three

species of bats were identified from 360 samples of

remnants received from Indian aerodromes after
reported collision with aircraft from 1966 to 1989.
The species are listed in Table 1.

S.M. SATHEESAN
ROBERT B. GRUBH
March 8, 1990 REX 1 PIMENTO

TABLE 1

BI RD AND BAT SPECIES INVOLVED IN COLLISIONS WITH AIRCRAFT

Approx. Percentage

wt in g of incidence

(n = 360)

(A) Birds

1.

Pond heron Ardeola grayii

215

0.28

2.

Cattle egret Bubulcus ibis

450

1.11

3.

Little egret Egretta garzetta

400

0.28

4.

Night heron Nycticorax nycticorax

275

0.28

5.

Bittern Botauarus stellaris

900

0.28

6.

Pintail Anas acuta

700

0.28

7.

Comon teal Anas crecca

300

0.28

8.

Blackwinged kite Elanus caeruleus

270

1.11

9.

Pariah kite Milvus migrans govinda

680

20.28

10.

Blackeared kite Milvus migrans lineatus

750

0.56

11.

Brahminy kite Haliastur indus

600

1.11

12.

Sparrow-hawk Accipiter nisus

200

0.28

13.

Longbilled vulture Gyps indicus

5000

0.56

14.

aWhitebacked vulture Gyps bengalensis

4500

20.28

15.

Indian scavenger vulture Neophron percnopterus

2000

0.83

16.

Montagu’s harrier Circus pygargus

250

0.56

17.

Pale harrier Circus macrourus

300

0.28

18.

Marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus

400

0.28

19.

Short- toed eagle Circaetus gallicus

1500-2000

0.28

20.

Redheaded merlin Falco chicquera

225

0.28

21.

Kestrel Falco tinnunculus

125-150

0.28

22.

Black partridge Francolinus francolinus

400

0.28

23.

Rain quail Coturnix coromandelica

75

0.56

24.

Painted bush quail Perdicula erythrorhyncha

80

0.28

25.

Indian peafowl Pavo cristatus

4000

0.28

26.

Demoiselle crane Anthropoides virgo

2500

0.28

27.

Painted snipe Rostratula bengalensis

125

0.28

28.

Blackwinged stilt Himantopus himantopus

170

0.28

29.

Stone curlew Burhinus oedicnemus

380

1.94

30.

Large Indian pratincole Glareola pratincola

125

0.28

31.

Small Indian pratincole Glareola lactea

40

0.56

32.

Redwattled lapwing Vanellus indicus

190

0.28

33.

Yellow-wattled lapwing Vanellus malabaricus

110

0.28

34.

Eastern golden plover Pluvialis dominica

103

0.28

35.

Gull Larus sp.

116-405

0.28

36.

Sooty tern Sterna fuscata

200

0.28

Unidentified vultures ( Gyps sp.) — 4.44%

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

131

Approx,
wt in g

Percentage
of incidence
(n = 360)

37.

Indian sandgrouse Pterocles exustus

250

1.11

38.

Yellowlegged green pigeon Treron phoenicoptera

250

0.56

39.

Blue rock pigeon Columba livia domestic, feral & wild

300

7.78

40.

Ring dove Streptopelia decaocto

130

1.39

41.

Red turtle dove Streptopelia tranquebarica

90

0.28

42.

Spotted dove Streptopelia chinensis

125

2.5

43.

Little brown dove Streptopelia senegalensis

80

0.83

44.

Roseringed parakeet Psittacula krameri

120

1.11

45.

Koel Eudynamys scolopacea

160

0.28

46.

Spotted owlet Athene brama

120

0.28

47.

Great horned owl Bubo bubo

1100

0.28

48.

European nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus

75-100

0.28

49.

Swiftlet Collocalia sp.

15

0.56

50.

bHouse swift Apus affinis

20

5.28

51.

Palm swift Cypsiurus parvus

18

1.39

52.

Kashmir roller Coracias garrulus

170

0.28

53.

Indian roller Coracias benghalensis

170

0.56

54.

Short -toed lark Calandrella cinerea

20

0.56

55.

Crested lark Galerida cristata

28

0.28

56.

D Common swallow Hirundo rustica

18

0.28

57.

Indian cliff swal low Hirundo fla vicola

9

0.28

58.

Redrumped swallow Hirundo daurica

18

1.11

59.

Rufousbacked shrike Lanius schach

25

0.28

60.

Starling Sturnus vulgaris

60-80

0.28

61.

Common myna Acridotheres tristis

110

1.67

62.

Pied myna Sturnus contra

75

0.28

63.

House crow Corvus splendens

300

1.11

64.

Jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchos

500

0.28

65.

Bluethroated flycatcher Muscicapa rubeculoides

15

0.28

66.

Longtailed warbler Prinia sp.

5-8

0.28

67.

House sparrow Passer domesticus

25

0.28

(B) Bats
68.

Indian pigmy pipistrelle Pipistrellus mimus

20

0.56

69.

Tomb bat Taphozous sp.

25

0.28

70.

Flying fox or giant fruit bat Pteropus giganteus

600

0.56

^Unidentified swifts and swallows — 1.39%.

References

Ali, S. & Grubh, R.B. (1984): Ecological study of bird
hazard at Indian Aerodromes. Phase II, First Annual
Report (1982-83). Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay.

Brom, T.G. (1980): Miscroscopic identification of feather
remains after collisions between birds and aircraft
Amsterdam.

Brom, T.G. (1986): Microscopic identification of feathers
and feather fragments of palearctic birds. Bijar Dierk
56(2).

Brom, T.G. & Buurma, L.S. (1979): The quality of
identification: A Microscopic Key to the

determination of feather remains. 14th Meeting of
BSCE W.P.

Grubh, R.B. (1988): Ecological study of bird hazard at
Indian Aerodromes. Phase 2. Final Report (1982-88)
Part One. Summary of the findings and
recommendations. Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay.

132

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Laybourne, R.C. (1984): Identification of bird remains
from bird aircraft incidents by the microstructure of
the downy part of the feather. Proc. 17th Meeting
BSCE (Rome), pp. 282-286.

Laybourne, R.C. (1986): The variation of the nodal
structures on downy barbules of some species of
birds. Proc. 18th Meeting BSCE (Copenhagen).

Rosalind, L. & Grubh, R.B. (1987): Microscopic
identification of features aiding Bird Hazard
Prevention Programme in India. J. Bombay nat Hist
Soc. 84 (2): 429-431.

Satheesan, S.M. (1990): A bird aircraft collision at an
attitude of 2424 m over the sea. J. Bombay nat Hist
Soc. 87(1): 145.

22. GUT CONTENTS OF A MUGGER CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS

The mugger Crocodylus palustris is widely
distributed in India. A number of workers reported
that muggers mostly feed on fish, aquatic beetles,
bugs, molluscs, frogs, water snakes, birds, pig, goat
and occasionally on human and vegetable matter
(Abdulali 1938, D’Abreu 1915, Krishnamurthy 1951,
McCann 1935, Simox 1905). We report here on the
gut contents of a mugger which escaped from a
semi-captive condition at Vanvihar near Dholpur,
Rajasthan and died after one year under mysterious
circumstances in the Urmila Sagar lake, 3 km from
Vanvihar.

On 6 July 1988 we were asked by the officials
of the Rajasthan State Forest Department at Dholpur
to examine a dead mugger. We found the dead
mugger floating in the lake. The total length of the
animal was 2.66 m. The right side of the snout was
broken, by which it was identified as originating
from Vanvihar. The mugger was badly decomposed

by the time we saw it. No external injury was
evident. The internal organs were decomposed but
we found bones, pieces of carapace and the lower jaw
of a softshell turtle, in its alimentary canal. The turtle
was indentified as a pond turtle Lissemys punctata.
The size of the turtle (carapace length) was calculated
to be about 20 cm from the carapace pieces. Other
gut contents removed from the body were broken
portions of water beetle, crab, a few small stones and
pieces of aquatic vegetation.

Water bodies in and around Dholpur city have
large populations of pond turtles. They become
active during monsoon after their long aestivation
and during this period they are easy prey to the
mugger.

R J. RAO

September 10, 1991 S.A. HUSSAIN

References

Abdulali, H. (1938): The food of the mugger ( Crocodylus
palustris). J. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 40 (2): 336.
D’abreu, E.A. (1915): Note on the mugger, Crocodylus
palustris: contents of their stomachs, folklore, etc. J.
Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 23 (4) : 780.

KrishnamuR^hy, D.R. (1951): Angling for crocodiles with
hook and line in Krishnarajasagar Reservoir. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50 (1): 181-182..

McCann, C. (1935): The mugger Crocodylus palustris
Lesson feeding^n large water beetles ( Cybister sp .)/.
Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 22(3) : 641.

Pitman, C.R. (1913): The contents of a marsh crocodile’s
(Crocodylus palustris) stomach. J. Bombay nat Hist
Soc. 22 (3) : 641.

Simox, A.H.A. (1905): The crocodile; its food and muscular
vitality. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 16 (1): 375.

23. UNUSUAL NESTING SITE OF MUGGER CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS IN

MADHAV NATIONAL PARK

Sakhya Sagar Lake (25° 26’ N, 77° 42’ E) is
situated in the central zone of Madhav National Park
(24° 55’- 25° 55’ N and 77° 15’ - 78 ° 30’E) in Shivpuri
district of Madhya Pradesh. From the main gate of the
central zone, a road runs on the elevated land along the
southern bank of Sakhya Sagar, for about 200 m up to

the sailing Club House inside the national park.

In January and February 1991, many holes were
dug for tree plantation along this road. The diameter
and the depth of each hole were 60 cm. On 15 June
1991, the forest staff saw a crow feeding on some
eggs on the road. On investigation, 31 eggs of the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

133

mugger Crocodylus palustris were found in one hole
which was dug for plantation. Broken pieces of a few
eggs were scattered nearby and the hole was partially
covered by soil. This hole was situated at a distance
of 15 m and at an elevation of 4 m from the waters of
Sakhya Sagar. Earlier an adult mugger had been seen
on the road many times. This was an unusual nesting
site not only because of egg laying in a hole
meant for tree plantation but, also because of the high
level of disturbance, with a large number of vehicles
and men moving along the road from dawn to dusk.

Seven hatchlings came out of the eggs on 17
June 1991 and they were released into Sakhya Sagar

on 24 June 1991. Eight more eggs hatched on 29
June and hatchlings were released on 5 July. One
hatchling among those released was found on the
bank on 13 July 1991. It was again released into the
water on the same day.

This is also the first time that successful
breeding of mugger has been recorded in Madhav
National Park, although I have frequently seen them
swimming or basking since 1984. In January 1988,
eight muggers basking at different locations were
sighted within two hours.

September 16, 1991 RAJIV SAXENA

24. SWALLOWING OF PREY ‘LEG FIRST’ BY THE COBRA NAJA NAJA

On 6 August 1990, at about 0930 hrs, I was
walking along a seasonal nulla near village
Mohammadpur (Alwar district), I noticed the upper
body of a large sized rat ( Tatar a indica?) protruding
from a hole in the bund of a field. It remained
motionless even after my close approach. I observed
the animal carefully and found it dead. Its eyes were
bulging. Soon I noticed that due to my presence,
something was pulling the dead rat inside the hole. I
grasped the head and tried to pull the rat out of the
hole, but succeeded only in pulling it out a few
centimetres. I found that the other end was being held

by an Indian cobra Naja naja , which was swallowing
the rat tail end first.

Cases of swallowing feet first among Indian
snakes have been reported earlier by Mundkur (1985,
JBNHS 82(3): 676-77) in rat snake Ptyas mucosus
and by Gay (1978, JBNHS 75(3): 854-59) in green
keelback Macropisthodon plumbicolor. With the
present observation, Indian cobra may be included in
the list of “back first” swallowing snakes.

January 7, 1991 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

25. FIRST RECORD OF UPERODON SYSTOMA FROM RAJASTHAN

A tree park, the World Forestry Arboretum has
been set up near the Jhalana hills, just on the outskirts
of Jaipur city by the Forest Department of Rajasthan.
The Arboretum covers about 1,000 ha of forest area
of the Jhalana hills (Reserve Forest Block No. 92).

Between 21 and 24 August 1990, a survey was
conducted of the amphibian fauna present in the
Arboretum. For this purpose all the frogs and toads,
present in the 24 cemented tanks of the Arboretum
(Part A) were captured for counting and identification
(Table 1).

As many as eight species of amphibians,
namely Bufo melanostictus, B. stomaticus, Microhyla
ornata, Rana cyanophlyctis, R. hexadactyla, R.
limnocharis, R. tigerina and Tomopterna breviceps
have been recorded from Rajasthan (Inger and Dutta
1986, Dutta 1988, Sharma 1990, Mansukhani and

Murthy 1964). Uperodon systoma is recorded for the
first time in Rajasthan. One individual was captured
Table l

STATISTICS OF AMPHIBIANS BAGGED FROM THE WORLD
FORESTRY ARBORETUM, JAIPUR

Species

No. of
individuals
collected

%

of

total

Bufo melanostictus Schneider

15

11.62

B. stomaticus Lutken

29

22.48

Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider

7

5.42

R. tigerina Daudin

12

9.30

Tomopterna breviceps (Schneider) 65

50.38

Uperodon systoma (Schneider)

1

0.77

Total 129

134

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

on 24 August 1990 at about 1130 hrs from an aquatic
vegetation tank with luxuriant growth of Nymphaea
stellata and Hydrilla verticillata. The specimen was
captured when it was sitting on a leaf of Nymphaea
stellata . The colour pattern was dorsally with
irregular spots of black and yellow colour somewhat
resembling the colour pattern of a panther’s coat.
Ventrally: throat and belly creamish yellow-white in
colour. Lateral sides yellow.

Snout semi-circular, body slimy and smooth.
Snout to vent length was 55 mm and eye to eye width
of head was 11 mm. Like Tomopterna breviceps,
large and shovel -shaped inner metatarsal tubercle
was characteristic. Whenever it was lifted it inflated
its belly like a balloon.

Besides recording U. systoma in Rajasthan, it is
worthy to note that Tomopterna breviceps ( Rana
breviceps), which is not recorded from Jaipur district,

occurred in the Arboretum. Mansukhani and Murthy
(1964) have recorded this species only from Jodhpur,
Nagaur and Udaipur districts. During an exhaustive
survey around Jaipur city, it was collected outside
the Arboretum also. A few specimens were collected
from cement tanks near Chulgiri Temple on National
Highway No. 11.

I thank Dr. Sushil K. Dutta, Utkal University,
Bhubaneswar, for identifying the Uperodon systoma
and providing information about the species, and
A.K. Sarkar, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for
identification of Tomopterna breviceps and Bufo
stomaticus; Dr. K.K. Sharma, Dept, of Zoology,
University of Rajasthan, for encouragement, and my
children, Manju, Lalita and Rajesh, who collected
most of the frogs and toads including U. systoma.

January 7, 1991 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

References

Dutia S.K. (1988): First Records of Bufo stomaticus and
Bufo fergusonii (Anura: Bufonidae) from Orissa, with
comments on their distribution. J. Bombay nat. Hist
Soc. 85 (2): 439-41.

Inger, R.F. & Dutta, S.K. (1986): An overview of the
Amphibian fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc.
83 (Supp.): 135-46.

Mansukhani. M.R. & Murthy, T.S.N. (1964): Fauna of
Rajasthan, India. Part 6, Amphibia. Rec. Zool. Survey
India 62: (1 &2): 51-60.

Sharma, S.K. (1990): Fauna and flora of World Forestry
Arboretum, Jaipur. Bulletin No. 3:1-26.

26. ADDITIONS TO THE LIST OF AMPHIBIAN FAUNA OF GOA

Abdulali and Sekar (1988) reported some
amphibian species, including Rhacophorus
malabaricus, the Malabar gliding frog, from Goa. In
July 1989, 1 collected amphibia from different places
in Goa. Species which have not been reported earlier
are listed.

Uperodon globulosum (Gunther, 1864)

1 adult male and 1 adult female (Sanguem).
67.3 mm SVL, 22.4 mm tibia in male. 73.0 mm SVL,
27.8 mm tibia in female. A fold of skin across the
shoulder just behind the eyes in both male and
female. A median vertebral groove from the skin fold
to the vent prominent in female and indistinct in
male. Dorsally grey and smooth, dirty white below
and smooth. Throat black in the male.

Both the male and female were collected from
short grass near a rain water pool. The male was
calling sitting at the edge of the pool. The call was

nasal, loud and can be syllabilised as oink-oink-oink.
It was very wary and stopped calling even on the
slightest movement of the observer. The female
which had matured, pigmented, ova was collected
while moving towards the male.

Rana keralensis Dubois, 1980

2 subadult males and 1 adult female (Volpoi).
32.5 and 33.0 mm SVL, tibia 18.8 and 20.8 mm in
males. 43.8 mm SVL, tibia 29.6 mm in female. The
description by Boulenger (1920) fits the present
collection. Tibio-tarsal articulation reaching between
the nostril and the eye. Lips with dark vertical bars.
The triangular mark between the eyes and an inverted
W-shaped mark between the shoulder present in all
three specimens. Dorsally brown with darker spots.
Ventrally white. Thighs barred.

All the specimens were collected from the bank
of a stream in moist deciduous forest. Daniel (1975)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

135

collected this species from the banks of small, fast
flowing hill streams. According to Annandale (1915)
this species is abundant in the Travancore Hills.

Rana malabarica Tschudi, 1838

1 adult female (Cotigao). 54.5 mm SVL and
26.9 mm tibia.

This specimen was collected in the open
country during rain. Daniel (1975) has also reported
that this species preferred forested land though it has
been recorded in open country particularly in the
breeding season.

Rana tigerina Daudin, 1802

12 juveniles (2 Sanguem, 8 Molem, 2 Cotigao).
19.2-35.0 mm SVL, 9.0-18.1 mm tibia. The vertebral
streak is very thin but the lateral band from behind
the eye is very prominent. Body green above with
dark brown spots and markings and pale white below.
Toes fully webbed.

All the specimens were collected from grass
fields in different localities. The green body colour
matched the green of the grass.

Rana syhadrensis Annandale, 1919

8 adult males and 3 adult females (4 males
Volpoi, 4 males Cotigao, 3 females Cotigao). 18.7-
20.75 mm SVL, mean 19.53; tibia 8.0-9.65 mm,
mean 8.86 in males. 24.05-24.4 mm SVL, mean
24.18; tibia 9.90-10.45 mm, mean 10.17 in females.
According to Annandale (1919) this is a dwarf race
of Rana limnocharis. The specimens from Goa
closely agree with his description. Hindlimbs short.
The first finger hardly extends beyond the second.
Toes slightly webbed, less so than in Rana
limnocharis. The tibio-tarsal articulation reaches the
tympanum or posterior border of the eye. A narrow
pale mid-dorsal line present. Dorsal surface dark
brown with broken longitudinal glandular folds.
Ventral surface white. Thighs barred. In all the
specimens the lips are pale white without any dark
vertical bars. In this respect they differ from Rana
limnocharis. Throat black in males. Females with
matured pigmented ova.

All the specimens were collected from grass
fields with rain water pools in association with Rana
limnocharis and Microhyla ornata. The call was
totally different from that of Rana limnocharis ,
resembling the bleating of sheep.

February 11, 1991 A.G. SEKAR

R EFERENCES

Abdulali, H. & Sekar, A.G. (1988): On a small collection
of amphibians from Goa. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
85: 202 -205.

Annandale, N. (1915): Some undescribed tadpoles from the
hills of Southern India. Rec. Ind. Mus. 15: 17-23.
Annandale, N. (1919): Some frogs from streams in the
Bombay Presidency. Rec. Ind. Mus. 16: 123-124.

Boulenger, G.A. (1920): A monograph on the South Asian,
Papuan, Melanesian and Australian frogs of the
Genus Rana. Rec. Ind. Mus. 20: 1-223.

Daniel, J.C. (1975): Field guide to the amphibians of
western India. Part 3. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72:
506-522.

27. NEW RECORD OF A CROAKER, JOHNIUS COITOR (HAMILTON-
BUCHANAN) (PISCES: SCIAENIDAE) FROM TRIPURA, NORTH-EAST INDIA

(With a text-figure)

During the course of systematic studies on the
fish fauna of Tripura, a specimen of a croaker fish
was collected from the river Gumti, Tripura. On
examination, it proved to be a specimen of Johnius
coitor (Hamilton-Buchanan). A perusal of existing
literature on the fish fauna of north-eastern India

including Datta (1977), Lipton (1983-84), Sen
(1985), Bhattacharya (1988) and Barman (1988)
shows that this fish is not yet known from Tripura or
from the other north-eastern states Therefore, the
presence of this fish in the rivers of Tripura, extends
its range of distribution to north-east India.

136

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Fig. l.Johnius coitor (Hamilton-Buchanan)

A brief description of the species is given below
along with an illustration.

1822. Bola coitor Hamilton-Buchanan, Fish. Ganges : 75,
368, pl.27, fig. 24 (type-locality : River Ganges).

1876. Sciaena coitor, Day, Fish. India: 187, pi. 44, fig. 3;

1889. Day, Fauna Br. India. Fish 2: 115-116, fig. 49.
1981. Johnius coitor, Jayaram, Handbk. Freshw. Fish. India :
327 (distribution).

Local name: Bola. English name: Croaker.
Material examined: 1 ex., 140 mm SL.; Gumti
river, Udaipur, south Tripura; N.C. Ghose: 3
November 1989.

Diagnostic features:

D. 10/1-2/26-29, A.2/7, LL. 48-51
Head length 4.25 to 4.75 and body depth 4.50
to 4.75 in total length. Eye diameter 4.00 to 5.50 in
head length. Upper jaw slightly longer. Swim bladder
hammer-shaped anteriorly and laterally expanded in
front of a strongylation (hammer-headed); posterior

end tapering to a narrow tube extending to base of
anal spine, bearing 11 to 13 pairs of arborescent
appendages.

Colour in alcohol: Body silvery, shot with gold
and purple; upper half of first dorsal blackish. Soft
dorsal, caudal and anal fins dark externally. Anal fin
with darkish basal band.

Distribution: Throughout the larger rivers of
India and Burma, Bangladesh and South China.

Size: Grows upto 300 mm in total length.

I thank Dr. M.S. Jairajpuri, Director, Dr. A.K.
Ghosh, Joint Director and T.K. Sen, Scientist “SD”,
Zoological Susrvey of India, Calcutta for
encouragement and facilities. I also thank N. C.
Ghose, Deputy Director of Fisheries (south Tripura)
for collection of the specimen.

January 2, 1992 R. P. BARMAN

References

Barman, R. P. (1988): The fishes of the river Gumti,
Tripura, North-Eastern India. Rec. zool. Surv. India,
Occ. Paper No. 119: 1-86, fig. 74.

Bhatiacharya, T. (1988): Final report of the Himalayan
Eco -development Project. Integrated water

management of the Gumti river valleys. Tripura
University Publication, Agartala, Tripura.

Datia, A.K. (1977): On a collection of fishes from Tripura
state. Newsl. zool. Surv. India 3 (4) : 217 - 223.

Lipton, A P. (1983-84): Fish fauna of Tripura. Matsya 9 &
10: 110 -118

Sen, t. k. (1985): The fish fauna of Assam and the
neighbouring North-Eastern states of India. Rec. zool.
Surv. India, Oc. Paper no. 64: 1 - 216.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

137

28. DICHOCROSIS FESTIVALS SWINH. (LEPIDOPTERA: PYRALIDAE) —
A NEW PEST OF LITCHI LITCHI CHINENSIS SONN.

Dichocrosis festivalis Swinh. was recorded for
the first time as a new pest of litchi Litchi chinensis
Sonn. in some litchi orchards of Manglore
(Hardwar). Its maximal activity was noticed in the
first fortnight of June, during 1988-89 and 1989-90.
The infestation was recorded to be 11.36 to 33.33%.
The newly hatched larva, which is pinkish brown in
colour, makes a small hole near the stalk end of the
fruit and enters the larva after going through the pulp,
bores into the seed and feeds on the endocarp and the
cotyledons at the anterior end of the seed. The
damaged portion of the fruit becomes filled with
brown coloured frass and excreta of the larva

matching with the colour of the endocarp. The
affected fruits fall prematurely. Full grown larva
having pinkish brown colour measures about 7.5 mm
x 1.74 mm. The moths are of medium size, uniformly
brownish yellow with numerous black dots on the
wings. The insect, though it has caused very serious
damage to litchi fruits during the last two years, is of
restricted and sporadic occurrence.

We thank Dr. Pratap Singh, Forest
Entomologist, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun
for identifying the insect.

Y.P. SINGH

March 18, 1991 V. KUMAR

29. RECORD OF THE ARACHNID ORDER SCHIZOMIDA FROM
ARUNACHAL PRADESH

The Schizomida are one among the scarcely
known arachnids that occur in India. The animals
belonging to this order are commonly known as
micro-whip-scorpions, and are generally found in
forest litter, under stones and crevices in rocks. Due
to their rarity and small body size they are not usually
noticed.

There are as many as 15 species described from
India, Sri Lanka and Burma (Bastawade 1988, and
Bastawade et al. 1988). Among these only four
species have been described from India (Bastawade
1988) and including the species Schizomus sujuensis
Gravely 1925 described from Suju caves, Garo Hills,
Meghalaya (earlier Assam) in north-east India.

During a recent faunistic survey of Lohit, Tirap
and Changlang districts of Arunachal Pradesh in
February-March 1990 by Zoological Survey of India,
Arunachal Pradesh Field Station, Itangar I collected
two mature Schizomids, one male and one female.
These specimens were collected from Miao (450 m
above msl) in Tirap district. Unlike specimens found
under stones and crevices in western India, these

were collected from under a log. They are larger in
body size (6.5 mm) and pinkish yellow in colour
differing both in size (4.00 to 5.00 mm) and colour
(dark olive green) from the Western Ghats forms.

The Schizomids were not known from
Arunachal Pradesh before the present collection. This
record is an extension of the known distribution.

Correct taxonomic assignment awaits detailed
examination of the genitalia and comparison with
Schizomus sujuensis Gravely.

We thank Prof. (Dr) M.S. Jairajpuri, Director,
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, Dr. J.R.B.
Alfred, Joint Director, ZSI, Calcutta and P.T. Bhutia,
ZSI, Arunachal Pradesh Field Station, Itanagar for
providing us facilities, constant encouragement and
suggesting improvements in manuscript. We also
thank Dr. N.C. Nandi, ZSI, Calcutta for his help
during the collection of these specimens.

DESHABHUSAN BASTAWADE
January 30, 1991 TAR UN KUMAR PAL

References

Bastawade, D.B. (1988): The first report of the order
Schizomida (Arachnida) from Southern India. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83: 690-691.

COCKENDOLPHER, J.C., SlSSOM, D. & BASTAWADE, D.B.

(1988): A new Schizomus from the Indian State
Maharashtra, with additional comments on eyed
Schizomids (Aachnida: Schizomida). Insecta Mundi
2: 90-96.

138

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

30. REDESCRIPTION OF ARANEUS FULVUS DYAL (ARANEAE: ARANEIDAE)
FROM COASTAL ANDHRA PRADESH

(With a text-figure)

Tikader (1982) has revised the family
Araneidae from India and described with illustrations
nine species of the genus Araneus Clerck.
Unfortunately Dyal’s (1935) collection of Araneus
fulvus Dyal, A. alboquadratus Dyal, A. Camilla
(Simon), A. formosus Dyal and A. umbralica
(Clerck) from Lahore (now in Pakistan) were not
considered by him in his revisionary work.

Caporiacco (1934-1935) described Araneus
cucurbitinus Clerck, A. altitudinum Cap., A.
obscurissimus Cap., A. carbonarius (L. Koch), A.
angulatus Clerck, A. pontii Cap., and A. redii Scopoli
from Karakoram, Himalaya. Out of these seven
species only A. cucurbitinus is included by Tikader
(1982) in his fauna and the redescription and
illustrations of it are given based on one specimen
collected by him from Shillong, Meghalaya; the rest
afe omitted. These omissions may be due to
unavailability of these type-specimens.

While examining the spider collections made
by one of us (TSR) from coastal Andhra Pradesh, we
came across Araneus fulvus Dyal (1935), which is
described and illustrated here as Dyal’s description
and a simple dorsal view diagram based on a single
female specimen are found inadequate.

Araneus fulvus Dyal (1935)

(Fig. 1, A - G)

Specimens examined: 2 f, 1 m Tekkaii, 3 f
Palasa and 1 f Budumur, Dist. Srikakulam; 5 f, 2 m
Gajapathinagaram, 2 f Bobbili and If, 1 m
Vigianagaram, Dist. Vigianagaram; 1 f Araku, 3 f , 2
m Anakapalli, 2 f , 1 m Bhimili, 4 f , 2 m,
Simhachalam, 5 f , 2 m Elamanchili, Dist.

Visakhapatnam; 6 f , 3 m Draksharamam, 3 f

Ambojepeta, 4 f, 3 m Kesavaram, 1 f Amalpuram and
3 f , 1 m Tuni, Dist. East Godavari; 2 f Doramamidi,

2 f Kovvur, 7 f, 3 m Chinthalapuli, 2 f, 2 m Eluru,
Dist. West Godavari; 4 f 1 m Kaikalur, 2 f
Machilipatnam and 3 f, 2 m Pamarru, Dist. Krishna;

3 f Chinamatlapeedi, 5 f , 1 m Kanagala, 3 f , 1 m
Mangalagiri, 7 f, 2 m Tenali, 1 f Vinukonda and 9 f,

4 m Valiveru, Dist. Guntur; 2 f, 2 m Chirala, 6 f, 2 m

Podile, 1 f Tangutur, 2 f Kanigiri and 2 f, 1 m Darsi,
Dist. Prakasam; 4 f , 1 m Nellore, 3 f Manubolu, 5 f,
1 m Nayudupeta, 4 f , 2 m Atmakur and 1 f , 1 m Kota,
Dist. Nellore. Coll. T.S. Reddy during the years 1985
to 1988.

General: Cephalothorax reddish black, legs
reddish brown, abdomen yellowish brown. Total
length 19.06 mm. Carapace 6.40 mm long, 4.80 mm
wide; abdomen 13.06 mm long, 7.46 mm wide.

Cephalothorax: Longer than wide, reddish
black in colour. Cephalic region high and covered
with grey hairs. Cephalic region is clearly separated
by a distinct cervical groove. Centre of the thoracic
region is provided with an indistinct transverse
groove. Both rows of eyes recurved. Anterior
medians are much larger than the posterior medians,
anterior laterals are larger than the eyes of posterior
row. The distance between anterior medians is
one-third of the distance between anterior median
and anterior laterals and the distance between
posterior medians is one sixth of the space between
posterior medians and posterior laterals. Lateral eyes
are contiguous and situated on a tubercle (Fig. 1 a).
Ocular quad longer than wide and much wider in
front than behind. Sternum cordate and pointed
behind, orange in colour, clothed with pubescence
and grey hairs. Labium nearly as long as wide,
orange with pale outer margin and provided with thin
hairs. Maxillae orange, distal end pale and provided
with scapulae. Chelicerae moderately strong, dark
brown, provided with median boss, inner and outer
margins of fang furrow provided with five teeth each.
Legs long, strong, reddish brown, clothed with hairs
and spines. Tibiae and metatarsi I and II provided
with seven pairs of stout ventral spines and m and IV
with four pairs of ventral spines. Leg formula 1/2/4/3.

Male: It is similar but smaller than the female.
Total length 11.58 mm. Structure of male palp is as in
Fig. 1, e-g.

Abdomen: Oblong, rounded at both ends,
without any shoulder prominence or tubercles,
yellowish brown in colour. Abdomen dorsally
provided with a pair of undulating streaks extending

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Araneus fulvus Dyal. a. Dorsal view of female (legs omitted), b. Epigyne, c. Epigyne, lateral view, d. Internal
genitalia, e. Right male palp, ventral view, f. Right male palp, outer view, g. Right male palp, inner view.

140

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

from the anterior to the posterior end; anterior half is
provided mid-dorsally with a spear shaped dark lined
design. Dorsum provided with six pairs of sigillae
arranged mid-longitudinally as in Fig. la. Ventral
side is brownish black, with a pair of yellowish spots
in the centre. Epigyne with a long and wrinkled scape
bent at right angles to the body and a pair of basal
lamellae as in Fig. lb, c. Internal genitalia as in Fig. 1 d.
Distribution: All the nine districts of coastal

Refer

Caporiacco, L. (1934-1935): Aracnidi dell Himalaia e del
Karakoram. Estr. Mem. Soc. Ent. ltaliana, 13:
151-158, 161-263.

Dayal, S. (1935): Spiders of Lahore. Bull. Dept. Zool.
Punjab Univ. 1: 119-252.

Andhra Pradesh and Gol Bagh, Lahore (now in
Pakistan).

We thank Prof. K. B. Tipnis, Principal, Sir P. P.
Institute of Science, Bhavnagar for providing
laboratory facilities.

T.S. REDDY

March 7, 1991 B.H. PATEL

ENCES

Tikader, B. K. (1982): The Fauna of India, Spiders:
Araneae, Vol. II, Part 1. Govt, of India, New Delhi,
pp. 219-238.

31. CLADOCERA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, IV. NEW
RECORDS: CAMPTOCERCUS CF. AUSTRALIS SARS, 1896 AND INDIALONA

GLOBULOSA (DADAY, 1898)

(With ten text-figures)

Hitherto, 36 genera containing about 88 species
of Cladocera have been recorded from India (Michael
and Sharma 1988, Venkataraman 1983, 1992). This
may constitute only a part of the total number of
species which actually occur in varied habitats in
different parts of the subcontinent. The present note
deals with two more of the Cladocera species
recorded from Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan.
Camptocercus cf. australis Sars, 1896 is new to the
Indian subcontinent while Indialona globulosa
(Daday, 1898) is recorded for the first time in
Rajasthan.

Family: Chydoridae Stebbing, 1902
Subfamily: Aloninae Frey, 1967
Genus: Camptocercus Baird, 1843
Camptocercus cf. australis Sars, 1896 (Figs. 1-5)

Morphological features: Female; size

0.62-0.73 mm. Body oval; maximum height slightly
before middle of the body (Fig. 1). Valve with
longitudinal line. Postero ventral corner of valves
rounded; posterior margin slightly convex with a
series of setae. Head keel present, dorsal margin of
head and dorsal side of valve forming a smooth curve
(Fig. 2). Ocellus smaller than eye. Posteroventral

comer rounded with three small denticles, attached
submarginally between the series of fine setules and
slightly projecting beyond the margin of the valves
(Fig. 4). Rostrum pointed and directed anteriorly.
Antennules not reaching the apex of rostrum. Setae
on antenna are 0-0-3 /0- 1-3. Plate of labrum with
rounded apex (Fig. 3). Head shield with three pores.
Post-abdomen long and narrow, with 15-18 anal
denticles, lateral setae being small in a group (Fig. 5).
Claw long, slightly curved dorsally and pointed
dorsally. Basal spine about one fourth the length of
claw, pointed on the proximal surface. Intestine
forms loops with caecum.

Distribution: Very rare. Collected in Ghana
canal of Keoladeo National Park and Ajan Bund
reservoir of Bharatpur. Elsewhere — Australia
(Henry 1922), China (Sieh-chih and Nan-shan 1979)
and Malaysia (Idris 1983).

This is the first record of the species in India.
However, Gurney (1907) reported this species, from
Chakradharpur without any illustration or details of
characters to ascertain its validity. The present
material differs ’slightly from C. australis by the
presence of submarginal denticles on the
posteroventral corner of the valves. Other species of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

141

(L

Figs. 1-5. Camptocercus cf. australis female, l. Lateral view, 2. Detail of head, 3. Labrum, 4. Posteroventral comer, 5. Postabdomen.
Figs. 6-10. Lndialona globulosa female. 6. Lateral view, 7. Detail of head, 8. Labrum, 9. Postabdomen, 10. Posteroventral corner.

142

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

this genus have large marginal denticles which
differentiate this species from the rest. However,
recent studies on the species from Malaysian rice
fields (Idris 1983) and also the present study clearly
show that this species also has marginal denticles,
which were not reported earlier.

Genus Indialona Petkovski, 1966
Indialona globulosa (Daday, 1898) (Figs. 6-10)

Morphological features: Female size

0.35-0.42 mm. Body oval, highly arched dorsally,
minimum height before middle (Fig. 6).
Posteroventral comer of valves distinct without
denticles (Fig. 10). Valves with distinct longitudinal
striations. Ventral margin convex with setae turned
inward. Ocellus smaller than eye, situated nearer to
the eye than to apex of rostrum. Rostrum blunt,
antennules reaching about three fourths the length of
rostrum (Fig. 7). Plate of labrum convex anteriorly
and slightly serrated on antero- ventral margin (Fig.
8) Post-abdomen broadest near anus, with distinct
preanal comer. Anal groove concave, post-anal
margin slightly tapering distally with rounded

dorsal-distal comer. Dorsal margin with 11-13 short
denticles. About 13 groups of long and distinct lateral
spinules present laterally, the distal most ones being
the largest and slightly projecting beyond the dorsal
margin (Fig. 9). Claw long and setulated on the
concave surface, with a basal spine.

Distribution: Not common. Collected in very
small numbers in the marshy habitats of Keoladeo
National Park. Elsewhere — Philippines (Mamaril
and Fernando 1978) Sri Lanka (Rajapaksa and
Fernando 1983) and Malaysia (Idris 1983).

This is the first record of the species in
Rajasthan. It was reported earlier from West Bengal
(Sharma 1978). The present material agrees well with
the description of the species made by Smirnov
(1974), Idris (1983) and Michael and Sharma (1988).

I gratefully acknowledge Prof. T.M. Haridasan,
School of Energy Sciences, Dr. G.C. Rao, Z.S.I. and
Mr. J.C. Daniel, B.NH.S. for their encouragement.

March 12, 1991 K. VENKATARAMAN

References

Gurney, R. (1907): Further notes on Indian freshwater
Entomostraca. Rec. Indian mus. 1 : 21-33.

Henry, M. (1922): A monograph of the freshwater
Entomostraca of New South Wales. Proc. Linn, Soc.
New South Wales 47: 26-52.

Idris, B.AG. (1983): Freshwater Zooplankton of Malaysia.
Penerbit University Pertanian, Malaysia.

Mamaril, A.C. & Fernando, C. H. (1978): Freshwater
zooplankton of the Philippines (Rotifera, Cladocera
and Copepoda). Bull. Nat. Sci. Univ. Philippines 30:
107-221.

Michael, R.G. & Sharma, B.K. (1988): Fauna of India,
Indian Cladocera (Crustacea: Branchiopoda:

Cladocera). Ed. Director, Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta.

Rajapaksa, R. & Fernando, C.H. (1982): The Cladocera of

Sri Lanka, with remarks on some species. Hydrobiol.
94: 49-69.

Sharma, B.K. (1978): A note on Freshwater cladocerans
from West Bengal. Bangladeshi. Zool. 6: 149 - 151.

Sieh-chih, C. & Nan-shan, Du. (1979): Fauna Sinica,
Crustacea, Freshwater Cladocera. Science Press,
Academia Sinica, Peking, China.

Smirnov, N.N. (1974): The world Chydorid fauna. USSR
Acad. Sci. Zool. Institute Leningrad.

Venkataraman, K. (1983): Taxonomy and Ecology of
Cladocera of Southern Tamil Nadu. Ph.D. thesis,
Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai.

Venkataraman, K. (1992): Cladocera of Keoladeo National
Park, Bharatpur and its environs. J. Bombay nat. Hist
Soc. 89(1)

32. RECORD OF THE CONE SHELL CONUS CUMINGII (REEVE, 1848) FROM

BOMBAY SEAS

Literature on the shells of India is scant and
very old. Many of the species mentioned have
become rare due to environmental changes and
pollution. Crichton (1941), Gravely (1942) and
Homell (1949) described the molluscan fauna of

Madras and Indian coast. Literature on shells of
Bombay by Subrahmanyam et al. (1952) state that
there are in all 187 species of Gastropods. But many
of these have become very rare. For example, Lambis
lambis\ (Linn.) and Xancus pyrum (Linn.) have

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

143

disappeared, while Cypres arabica (Schilder) has
become very rare on Bombay coast. In some of these
publications the occurrence of C. cumingii has been
mentioned.

I came across an unusual cone species which I
could not identify, on 21 May 1990 on a south
Bombay beach. Subsequently, I made several visits to
the same place to make a detailed study of this cone
shell. In 1990, I could see seven live specimens of
this species, of which two are in my personal
collection. This species was later identified as Conus
cumingii (Reeve, 1848) with the help of Dr. M.G.
Harasewych, Divn. of Mollusks, Smithsonian
Institution, U.S.A.

The shell is mpderately large (average 5.2 cm)
with tall spires; outer lip thickened. Chestnut brown
in ground colour with a prominent white spotted zone

midway on the body whorl. Upper margin of body
whorl bears alternately arranged white and brown
spots. Brown spiral lines are present on the entire
surface, but darker near the upper ridge and at the
mid-zone of body whorl.

Distribution: According to Dr. Harasewych,
this species has a distribution from the Bay of Bengal
to the western rim of Western Pacific, though Van
Nostrand (1967) gives its locality as Philippines. It is
possible that this form may be a subspecies, but this
requires a detailed study.

I thank Dr. M. G Harasewych, Associate
Curator, Division of Mollusks, Smithsonian
Institution, U.S.A. for help in identifying the shell.

August 9, 1991 DEEPAK APTE

References

Crichton, M.D. (1941): Marine shells of Madras. J.

Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 42 (2): 323-341.

Gravely, F. H. (1942): Shells and other animal remains
found on the Madras beach, II, snails etc. (Mollusca:
Gastropoda). Bull. Madras Govt. Museum, New
series, nat. Hist. Sec., Vol. v, No. 2.

Hornell, J. (1949): The study of Indian Molluscs. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 48 (2-4).

S UBRAHM ANYAM, T.V., KARANDIKAR, KR. & MURTI, N.N.
(1952): Marine Gastropods of Bombay, Part II. Jour,
of Univ. of Bombay, Part 3, Vol XXI, New series,
26-73.

Van Nostrands (1967) Standard catalog of shells. D. Van
Nostrand Co. Inc. II ed.

33. CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF GURDASPUR

DISTRICT, PUNJAB

In an earlier communication, Bir and Singh
(1989) had reported new records for Punjab State.
Sixty nine species of flowering plants collected from
Gurdaspur district were added to the list of plants
from Punjab. Susequently, during compilation of the
flora of Gurdaspur district and Punjab state,
re-examination of the materials revealed some
startling inaccuracies. Unfortunately, this has been
the result of mixing up of specimens and field
numbers and wrong identifications. Hence the
present communication wherein we report
corrections to ‘Additions' for Punjab state and make
a few other nomenclatural corrections. Specific
identifications and nomenclature of all the 69
species were subsequently checked by comparing
with authentic vouchers at BSD.

Correct identifications of 29 species as
erroneously reported earlier are given below. For

enumeration of the species, original serial numbers
are given for quick reference. PUN accession
numbers are mentioned for each so as to pin-point the
specimens. Other details for locality, collector, etc.
remain the same. Correct family reference is made
wherever necessary.

2. Capsella bursa-pastoris (Linn.) Medik., PUN
35771, 35772.

Lepidium perfoliatum sensu Bir & Singh
(1989): non Linn. 1753.

5. Geranium mascatense Boiss. var. himalaicum
Babu (= G. ocellatum Camb.) PUN 33348, 33349.
Geranium lucidum sensu Bir & Singh (1989): non
Linn. 1753.

*7. Ranunculus laetus Wall, ex D. Don, PUN
33630, 33631, Fam: Ranunculaceae.

Geranium wallichianum sensu Bir & Singh (1989):
non Don 1825.

144

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

TABLE 1

Species number as in
Bir and Singh (1989)

Correct name or citation

Name published in Bir and
Singh (1989)

1.

Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex DC.

Clematis gouriana Roxb.

3.

Polygala abyssinica R.Br. ex Fresen.

Polygala abyssinica R. Br.

4.

Hypericum oblongifolium Choisy

Hypericum cernuum Roxb.

8.

A rgyrol obiumfla ccid um

Argyrolobium flaccidum

(Royle) Jaub. & Spach.

Jaub. & Spach.

9.

Atylosia volubilis
(Blanco) Gamble

Atylosia crassa Prain

31.

Taraxacum officinale Wiggers

Taraxacum officinale Webber

33.

Primula umbel lata (Lour.) Bentv.

And rosace umbel lata (Lour.) Merr.

37.

Centaurium centaurioides

Centaurium centaurioides

(Roxb.) Rao & Hemadri

(Roxb.) comb. nov.

46.

Rostellularia diffusa (Willd.) Nees

Rostellularia diffusa Nees

47.

R. mollissima (Nees) Nees

R. mollissima Nees

52.

Polygonum nepalense Meissn.

Polygonum ala turn Buch.-Ham.

54.

Polygonum capita turn

Polygonum capitatum

Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don

Buch.- Ham.

58.

Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.)
Baill.

Flueggea virosa Roxb. ex Willd.

10. Crotalaria prostrata Rottl. ex Willd., PUN
33926

Crotalaria pusilla sensu Bir & Singh (1989): Non
Heyne 1821.

11. Desmodiiim elegans DC., PUN 34170, 34171.
Desmodium podocarpum sensu Bir & Singh (1989):
non DC. 1825.

14. Rubus niveus Thunb., PUN 34180, 34181.
Rubus biflorus sensu Bir & Singh (1989): non Buch.
-Ham. 1819.

19. Premna mucronata Roxb., PUN 33907, 33909,
Fam: Verbenaceae.

Viburnum coriaceum sensu Bir & Singh (1989) : non
Bl. 1826-1827.

20. Ehretia aspera Roxb., PUN 34151, Fam:
Ehretiaceae.

Viburnum erubescens sensu Bir & Singh (1989): non
wall. 1820.

21. Oldenlandia corynibosa Linn., PUN 31189,
31190.

Galium asperifolium sensu Bir & Singh (1989) : non
wall. 1820.

*22. Rubia cordifolia Linn., PUN 34182.

Galium hirtiflorum sensu Bir & Singh (1989): Non
DC. 1838.

23. Xylosma longifolium Clos., PUN 35172, fam:
Flacourtiaceae.

Plectronia neilgheriensis Bedd. var. chartacea sensu
Bir & Singh (1989): non Gamble 1918.

25. Gnaphalium luteo-album Linn., PUN 33607,
33608.

Anaphalis busua sensu Bir & Singh (1989): non DC.
1838.

*28. Erigeron karvinskianus DC., PUN 34167.
Erigeron multicaulis sensu Bir & Singh (1989) : non
DC. 1838.

32. Lindernia Crustacea (Linn.) F.V. Muell., PUN
31191, 31192, Fam: Scrophulariaceae.

Lobelia heyniana sensu Bir & Singh (1989): non
Roem & Schult. 1819.

34. Grewia disperma Rottl. ex Spreng., PUN
31445, 31446, Fam: Tiliaceae.

Symplocos sumuntia sensu Bir & Singh (1989): non
Don 1825.

35. Reinwardtia indica Dum., PUN 33419, 33450,
Fam: Linaceae.

Jasminum humile sensu Bir & Singh (1939): non
Linn. 1753.

38. Gentiana aprica Decne, PUN 33615.

Gentiana argentea sensu Bir & Singh ( 1989) : non
DC. 1838.

*39. Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don,
PUN 34179.

Swertia purpurascens sensu Bir & Singh (1989): on

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

145

wall. 1831

42. Limnophila indica (Linn.) Druce, PUN 34123.
Limnophila connata sensu Bir & Singh (1989) : non
Don 1825.

44. Limnophila indica (Linn.) Druce, PUN 34120.
Sutera dissecta sensu Bir & Singh (1989): non Walp.
1842.

45. Maytenus royleanus (Wall, ex Lawson) Cuf.
( =Gymnosporia royleana wall, ex Lawson), PUN
33611, 33612, Fam: Celastraceae.

Barleria buxifolia sensu Bir & Singh (1989): non
Linn. 1753.

49. Nepeta hindostana (Roth) Haines, PUN 33914.
Nepeta graciliflora sensu Bir & Singh (1989) : non
Benth. 1830.

50. Ocimus canum Sim., PUN 33922, 33923.
Plectranthus japonicus sensu Bir &. Singh (1989):
non Koidz. 1829.

55. Polygonum barbatum Linn, subsp. gracile
Danser, PUN 31203, 31204.

Polygonum donii sensu Bir & Singh (1989): non
Meissn. 1826.

59. Trema politoria Planch., PUN 31497, 31498.
Trema orientalis sensu Bir & Singh (1989): non
Roxb. 1832.

64. Cy penis paniceus (Rottb.) Boeck. var.

roxburghianus (Cl.) Kuek., PUN 35498, 35499.
Cyperus cyperoides sensu Bir & Singh (1989): non
Kuntze 1898.

65. Chrysopogon serrulatus Trin., PUN 34066,
34067.

Chrysopogon fulvus sensu Bir & Singh (1989): non
Chiov. 1919.

66. Eragrostis atrovirens (Desf.) Trin. ex Steud.,
PUN 34128, 34129.

Eragrostis curvala sensu Bir & Singh (1989): non
Nees 1854.

68. Carex fllicina Nees, PUN 34068, 34069, Fam.:
Cyperaceae.

Themeda villosa sensu Bir & Singh (1989): non
Camus 1922.

Four species marked thus (*) still remain as ‘New
Records’ for Punjab, whereas in the light of studies made
by Sharma (1982a, b, 1985), the names of the other 25
species enumerated above need to be deleted from the
list of additions given by Bir and Singh (1989).

Correct and currently accepted names and/or
author’s citations for some species (misquoted

earlier) are given in Table 1.

Crotalaria and Desmodium which were
inadvertently included under Rosaceae should find
place under Fabaceae.

The following species are additional ‘New
Records’ for Punjab State. These are not included by
Sharma (1990).

1. Lepidium virginicum Linn. A frequently
occurring herb in the hilly-tract. FI. & fr. March-
August. Charanpreet 16568, Katori, 15 May, 1987
(PUN 35178, 35179). Family : Brassicaceae.

2. Rhamnus purpurea Edgew. A shrub growing
near rocks in hilly tracts FI. & Fr. September
-December. Charanpreet 13677, Bhattwan, 10
September, 1986 (PUN 35476, 35477). Family:
Rhamnaceae.

3. Zauthoxylum armatum DC. A small, strongly

prickled tree. FI. & Fr.: March -September.

Charanpreet 13199, Katori, 10 March, 1986 (PUN
33634, 33635). Family: Rutaceae.

4. Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. A
common herb in marshy places along perennial
streams. FI. & Fr. August-November. Charanpreet
12247, Pathankot, 20 October, 1986 (PUN 35478,
35479). Family Amaranthaceae.

5. Costus speciosus Smith. Found near perennial
streams in the ravines of hill-tracts. FI. & Fr.
August-October. Charanpreet 13651, Dunera, 14
September, 1986 ( PUN 35173, 35174). Family :
Zingiberaceae.

6. Arisaema jacquemontii Blume. Found on slopes
in shaded places. FI.: June-November. Charanpreet
13657, Dunera, 14 September, 1986 (PUN 35180).
Family : Araceae.

7. Eleocharis geniculata (Unn.) Roem. & Shult. A
common plant in marshy and water logged areas. FI &
Fr.: July-November. Charanpreet 9738, Dinanagar, 3
October, 1983 (PUN 35472-35475). Family: Cyperaceae.

We are thankful to Drs. R.R. Rao, J. N. Vohra,
P. K. Hajra and C. L. Malhotra of the Northern
Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Dehra Dun for
advice on taxonomic matters and identification.
Thanks are expressed to BSI for financial assistance
to CPS in the form of fellowship and travelling grant.

S.S. BIR
M. SHARMA

November 25, 1991 C.P. SINGH

146

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

’References

Bir, S.S. & Singh, Charanpreet (1989): Additions to the
Flora of Punjab State, North India. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 86 (1): 37-41.

Sharma, M. (1982 a): Supplement to the Flora of Punjab
State (India) - l.J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 3: 33-46.

Sharma, M. (1982 b): Supplement to the Flora of Punjab

State (India)-II, ibid. 3: 523-536.

Sharma, M. (1985): Supplement to the Flora of Punjab
State (India)-III, ibid. 6(3) : 734-743.

Sharma, M. (1990): Punjab Plants: Checklist. Bishen Singh
Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.

34. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF BIHAR

The present communication highlights the
occurrence and distribution of some rare and
interesting angiosperms from eastern parts of Bihar
state. During a detailed floristic exploration
(1986-91) of eastern Bihar (23° 40’ - 26° 35’ N, 85°
30’ - 88° 32’ E), we could collect Blumea obliqua
(L.) Druce (Asteraceae); Calamus latifolius Roxb.
(Arecaceae); Canavalia cathartica Thouars.
(Fabaceae); Dendrobium peguanum Lindl.
(Orchidaceae); Elatostema cuneatum Wight
(Urlicaceae); Eragrostis aspera (Jacq.) Nees
(Poaceae); Exacum carinatum Roxb. (Gentianaceae);
Fimbristylis alboviridis Clarke (Cyperaceae);
Peemna coriacea Clark (Verbenaceae); Spilanthes
iabadicensis A. H. Moore (Asteraceae) and Stephania
glandulifera Miers (Meni sperm aceae). These taxa
have not been recorded earlier from Bihar (Haines
1921-25, Mooney 1950, Bressers 1951, Panigrahi
1966, Srivastava 1959, Varma 1981, Singh 1986).

Hence the present collection and the
distributional notes of these taxa would be of interest
in highlighting their extended range of distribution in
new areas not recorded earlier and it will also help in
their conservation, as some of them are often used by
tribal people. Brief descriptions, distribution and
ecology of the species are given below. All the cited
specimens have been deposited in the Bhagalpur
University Herbarium, Bhagalpur. The identifications
of the specimens have been confirmed at the Central
National Herbarium (CAL).

Blumea obliqua (L.) Druce in Rep. Bpt. Exch.
Club. Brit. Isles 4:609.1916(1917); Randeria, Blumea
10(1) : 286. 1960. Erigeron obliqum L. Mant.
2:573.1771. Blumea amplectans DC. in Wight
Contrib. Bot. Ind. 13.1834; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2:
260. 1881; Haines, Bot. Bih. & Oris. 2: 491.1961
(Repr. ed.).

Annual herb, up to 50 cm high, much branched;

stems puberulous, leaves 2-9 cm long, upper
amplexicaul, scabrous to velutinous; capitula solitary,
6-8 mm in diameter, terminal or in the axial of upper
leaves; pedunculate, peduncles up to 5 cm long;
achens brown, pubescent, not ribbed; pappus white.

Flowering and fruiting: March-July.

Distribution: India: Bengal, Orissa; Ceylon.

Ecology: Dry as well as wet places in waste
lands, river banks; rare.

Specimens examined: Sakrigali (Sahibganj
Dist.), Sriwastawa 4625; Jamalpur (Munger Dist.),
Jha 7125.

Calamus latifolius Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 775.
1832; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 455. 1892; Haines,
Bot. Bih. & Oris. 3:928. 1961 (Repr. ed.): Prain,
Bengal Plants 2:827. 1963 (Repr. ed.).

A stout erect or scandent armed shrub; leaves
rachis produced into a long flagellum, armed with
recurved prickles; leaflets elliptic or
elliptic-lanceolate; male spikes 6-15 cm long, flowers
green, 4-7 mm long; female spikes 8-12 cm long,
flowers greenish yellow, minute. Fruits 0.3-0.6 mm
long, sub-globose, pale yellow.

Flowering and fruiting: December-April.

Distribution: India Assam, Bengal, Orissa and
Sikkim Himalaya ; Burma .

Ecology: In waste land, along railway

embankment; rare.

Specimens examined: Mangalhat (Sahibganj
dist.), Varma 2228; Shivnarayanpur (Bhagalpur dist.),
Jha 6326.

Canavalia cathartica Thouars. in J. Bot. Desv.
1:81. 1813; Saucer, Brittonia 16: 159.1964; Guha
Bakshi, FI. Murshidabad 101. 1984. C. ensiformis
(L.) DC. var. turgida (Grah. ex Miq.) Baker in Hook,
f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2:196.1876.

Local name: Tihon (Santhali).

Perennial climber; leaves 3-foliate; flowers

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

147

purple, upto 3 cm long; pods 15-20 x 3 .5-4.2 cm.
straw coloured, turgid; seeds 5-11, 2-2.8 mm long,
pale cream.

Flowering, fruiting: September-April.

Distribution: INDIA; Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Orissa, West Bengal, Andaman and
Nicobar islands; Sri Lanka, Madagascar.

Ecology: In mixed forests: rare.

Specimens examined: Gilamari (Sahibganj
dist.), Jha 6351.

Uses: The seeds and young fruits are eaten.

Dendrobium peguanum Lindl. in J. Linn. Soc.
Bot. 3.19. 1859; Hunt, Kew Bull. 24: 90.1970. D.
pygmaeum Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. PI. 85.1830 (non
Sm. 1918); Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 5:717.1890; Haines,
Bot. Bih. & Oris. 3:1224.1961 (Repr. ed.).

A small densely tufted epiphyte upto 4 cm long,
with greenish ovoid pseudobulbs; leaves 2-3, linear,
caducous; racemes upto 3 cm long; flowers white or
pale purp;.le; sepal s linear, 6-8 mm long, lateral
decurved; petals oblanceolate, lip obovate, mid-lobe
triangular crisped, disc with crenate fleshy ridges.

Flower and fruits: December-March.

Distribution: INDIA Bengal, Orissa.

Ecology: In mixed forests growing on Syzygium
cumini (L.) Skeels; rare.

Specimens examined: Silingi (Dumka Dist.),
Singh 5447; Jha 6285.

Elatostema cuneatum Wight, Ic. t. 2091. f.
3.1853; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 5:564.1886; Gamble, FI.
Madras 1377 (963). 1928; Saldanha and Nicolson, FI.
Hassan Dist. 88.1976; Babu, FI. Dehradun 467.1977.

Monoecious, slender, erect, annual herbs, upto
15 cm tall; leaves simple, alternate, sessile,
falcate-cuneate or obovate, aggregated towards the
tops; upper leaves upto 2x1 cm, oblique,
crenate-serrate above the middle, entire below,
sparsely citose and marked with numerous cystolith
above; lower leaves smaller than the upper; flowers
minute, regular, sub-sessile, arranged on axillary
involucrate receptacle; bracteoles many, mixed with
flowers, linear-oblong, ciliate at the tip; male flowers
white, restricted to the top most or the next lower
receptacle, intermingled with female flowers;
perianth lobes 4, ovate, obtuse, glabrous; stamens 4;
female flowers numerous; perianth lobes 3-4; style
penicillate; achens reddish brown, ellipsoid, ribbed,
glabrous, 0.5 mm long.

Flowering, fruiting: September-April.

Distribution: India Eastern and Western
Ghats, Sikkim Himalaya, Dehra Dun, Meghalaya.

Ecology: Along stream banks in ravines, on
moist rocks and at the base of trees; rare.

Specimens examined: Motijhama, 2.5 km
south-west of Maharajpur railway station (Sahibganj
dist.), Jha 6327.

Eragrostis aspera (Jacq.) Nees, FI. Afr.
Austr. 408.1841; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 7: 314.
1896; Bor Gr. Burma, Ceylon, Ind. & Pak. 501.
1960, Patunker, Gr. Marath. 245. 1980. Poa aspera
Jacq. Hort. Vindob. 3: 32. 1776.

Annual, up to 1 m high; culms erect, much
branched, glabrous; leaf-blades 10-30 x 0.4-0.8 cm,
linear-lanceolate, glabrous, acuminate; ligules a
ciliate rim; panicles 50 x 20 cm, thyrsiform,
ovate-oblong; spikelets up to 20- flowered, 4-10 mm
long, white; glumes 0.6-1.2 mm long, narrowly
oblong, 1 -nerved; lemmas 1.2-1. 7 mm long,
elliptic-oblong, 3 -nerved; palea 2-keeled, scabrid;
stamens 3; anthers 0.1-0.3 mm long, pink; caryopsis
0.3-0.5 mm long, subglobose.

Flowering, fruiting: August - December.

Distribution: INDIA Rajasthan, Marath wada,
south India; Africa, Mascarend islands, Australia.

Ecology: In cultivated land; rare.

Specimens examined: Mirzachowki (Sahibganj
dist.), Jha 6631.

Exacum carinatum Roxb., FI. Ind. 1:415.
1820; Ramamoorthy in FI. Hassan Dist. 425. 1976. E.
petiolare Griseb in DC. Prodr. 9:46.1845; Clarke in
FI. Brit. Ind. 4:98. 1883; Haines, Bot. Bih. & Oris. 2:
595. 1961 (Repr. ed).

An annual herb, up to 15 cm high; leaves
elliptic- ovate, 3-7.5 cm long, base broad, glabrous,
up to 7-nerved, acuminate, petiole short; flowers
white or bluish, axillary and in terminal cymes,
tetramerous; calyx and corolla 4-lobed; fruits up to 6
mm long, winged; seeds small, brown, angled,
subquadrate.

Flowering, fruiting: September - December.

Distribution: India Karnataka, central and
south-west India.

Ecology: On moist rocks under shade; rare.

Specimens examined: Karanpurato (Sahibganj
dist.), Jha & Singh 6546.

Fimbristylis alboviridis Clarke in Hook. f. FI.
Brit. Ind. 6:638. 1893; Kern in FI. Malesiana, 580.
1974; Rao & Varma, Cyp. N. E. Ind. 35. 1982.

148

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

A tufted annual, up to 10 cm high; culms
slender, compressed, glabrous; leaves slightly falcate,
flat, obtuse to acute, ligulate, spikes loose, with few
to several spikelets, whitish green; spikelets solitary,
4-7 mm long, ovpid to oblong-ovoid, many-
flowered, acute; glumes broadly ovate, 1.5-2 mm
long, subchartaceous, glabrous, with 3-nerved keel;
stamens 1; style slightly dilated at the base, upper
ciliate; stigmas 2; achens shortly stipitate, obovoid, 1
mm long, verruculose, trabeculate, with 10-16
vertical rows on each surface.

Flowering and fruiting: August - December.

Distribution: INDIA; Assam, Meghalaya,

Madhya Pradesh; Bangladesh, Malaysia.

Ecology: In open wasteland; rare.

Specimens examined: Bandanwar (Godda

dist.), Varma & Jha 7302.

Premna coriacea Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit.
Ind. 4: 573. 1881; Haines, Bot. Bih. & Oris. 2: 749.
1961 (Repr. ed.).

A woody climber. Leaves 5-10 cm long, broadly
oblong or ovate, caudate, glabrous, acuminate, base
rounded, smooth; panicles up to 3 cm long; flowers 2-6
mm long, white, scented; bracts filiform, caducous;
calyx cupular truncate; corrolla tube 1-2.5 mm long,
throat-bearded; drupe narrowly obovoid; seed 1.

Flowering and fruiting: March - July.

Distribution: India: Western Deccan Peninsula,
Orissa.

Ecology: Along stream banks; rare.

Specimens examined: Karamtola (Sahibganj
dist.), Jha 7141.

Uses: The leaves are used as fodder.

Spilanthes iabadicensis A. H. Moore, Proc.
Amer. Acad. Arts. 42: 542. 1907; Koster & Philipson,
Blumea 6: 354. 1950; Grierson in Dassanayake &
Fosberg, Rev^Handb. FI. Ceylon 1: 221. 1980.

Herbs, up- to 40 cm high; stems weak,
decumbent, rooting at the lower nodes, sparsely
pubescent when young; leaves 1-5 x 0.5-2.5 cm,
narrowly ovate or elliptic, acuminate, margins
undulate or serrate-dentate; capitula conical-ovoid,
3-5 mm in diameter, radiate, yellow; peduncles 2-5
cm long; ray flowers 1.5-2 mm long, ligulate,
3-lobed, yellow; disc flowers 1-1.25 mm long,
3-5-lobed; achens 1-1.75 mm long, black with pale
margins, sparsely and weakly ciliate along both
margins or sometimes only one; pappus weak
fragile, 0.25 mm long.

Flowering and fruiting: Throughout the year.

Distribution: India: Madhya Pradesh; Sri
Lanka, Sumatra, Java, New Guinea.

Ecology: Moist grounds, rice-fields and

ditches; common.

Specimens examined: Chattarpur (Saharsa
dist.), Sinha 501; Babupur (Sahibganj dist.), Jha
7115; Jamalpur (Munger dist.), Jha 6598.

Stephania glandulifera Miers in Contr. Bot. 3:’
220. 1871; Kanjilal, FI. Assam. 1: 52. 1934;
Whitemore, Enum. FI. PI. Nepal 2: 28. 1979. S.
rotunda auct. non Lour. ; Hook. f. & Thoms., FI. Brit.
Ind. 1: 103. 1872 p.p.

Local name: Patal Kumhra (Sauria Paharia).

A dioecious climber with globose tuberous
roots, 10-15 cm in diameter, deep-yellow inside;
leaves orbicular, 7-15 cm in diameter, peltate,
margins entire, membranous, glabrous, basal nerves
9; petiole 7-18 cm long ; female flowers in cymose
umbels, yellow-orange, peduncles axillary; sepals 6,
obovate, narrow; petals shorter than the sepals, obovate.

Flowering and fruiting: July - October.

Distribution: indla: Himalaya, Assam,

Arunachal Pradesh.

Ecology: In mixed forests; rare.

Specimens examined: Angwali (Dumka dist.),
Varma & Jha 7163.

The medicinal uses ascribed to Stephania
glandulifera Miers are perhaps due to its superficial
resemblance with the tuber of Pueraria tuberosa DC.
of Fabaceae having a similar local name. The latter is
commonly used for renal and bowel complaints
(Haines l.c.). However, critical examination, both in
the field and in the garden helped us in the correct
identification of the former, which has not been
recorded earlier from Bihar.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to Prof. K.S. Bilgrami, Head,
University Department of Botany, Bhagalpur
University for providing necessary facilities, to the
Keeper, Central National Herbarium, Calcutta for
permission to consult the Herbarium and to the
Department of Environment, Forest and Wildlife for
financial assistance.

June 27, 1991

S.K. VARMA
R. R. JHA

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

149

References

Bressers, J. (1951): The Botany of Ranchi District, Bihar,
India. Catholic Press, Ranchi.

Haines, H. H. (1921-25): The Botany of Bihar and Orissa.
London.

Mooney, H.F. (1950): Supplement to the Botany of Bihar
and Orissa. Catholic Press, Ranchi.

Panigrahi, G. (1966): A botanical tour in the Rajmahal hills
of Bihar. Bull. hot. Surv. India 5:1-15.

Singh, M.P. (1986): Flora of Patna (Dicotyledons).

International Books and Periodicals. New Delhi.
Srivastava, J.G. (1959): Recent trends in the flora of Bihar
state. J. Ind. bot Soc. 38: 186-194.

Varma, S.K. (1981): Flora of Bhagalpur (Dicotyledons).
Today and Tomorrow’s Publishers, New Delhi.

35. ADDITIONAL HOST SPECIES FOR LORANTHUS AND THEIR LOCALITIES
IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU

The phorophytes or host trees in dry evergreen
forest provide ideal habitats for epiphytic orchids and
semiparasitic plants. Sapindus emarginatus,
Diospyros ferrea and Borassus flabellifer are
common phorophytes. Cymbidium aloifolium, Vanda
spathulata and V. tessellata are the epiphytic orchids
in Thanjavur district.

Dendrophthoe falcata, Viscum orientate and V
capitellatum are the destructive semi-parasites found
on a number of plants. According to Singh (1963),

319 species of plants are attacked by these parasites
in India. Balasubramanian et al. (1986) reported 29
host species in Point Calimere, Thanjavur dt. We
found an additional 22 new host species for this
parasite in Thanjavur district as a result of a 3 year
study. The complete list of host plants from this
district is presented in Table 1.

The host species that are new records for India
are marked with an asterisk and plus mark denotes
double parasitism. One species being parasitic on

TABLE 1

LIST OF HOST SPECIES FOR Loranthus AND THEIR LOCALITIES

Acacia leucophloea Willd. (Manakkal)

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. (Vallum)

Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wang. (Peravurani)

* Albizzia amara (Roxb.) Boivin (Peravurani)

A. lebbeck( L.) Benth. (Kodiakkarai)

* Anacardium occidentale L. (Avanam)

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. (Mailaduthurai)

* Azadirachta indica Juss. (Ammapet)

* Bombax ceiba L. (Melathotum)

Cadaba fruiticosa (L.) Druce (Peravurani)

* Calophyllum inophyllum L. (Velankanni)
Canthium parviflorum Lam. (Kodiakkarai RF)

* Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masam. (Melathottum)
Cassia fistula L. (Kodiakkarai RF)

C. roxburghii DC. (Kodiakkarai RF)

C. siamea Lam. (Melathottum)

Casuarina litorea L. (Pazhayar)

Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) (Tirven.) (KRF)
Carissa spinarum L. (Kodiakkarai RF)

Cissus vitiginea L. (Kodiakkarai RF)

+ Commiphora caudata Engl. (Kodiakkarai RF)
Cordia obliqua Willd. (Kodiakkarai RF)

Crateva adamsonii DC. (Rajamadam)

* Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. (Aduthurai)
Dichrostachys cinerea W. & A. (Kodiakkarai RF)

* Ehretia pubescens Benth. (Melathottum)

* + Excoecaria agallocha L. (Pazhayar)

Ficus benghalensis L. (Kodiakkarai RF)

* F. racemosa L. (Mailaduthurai)

F. religiosa L. (Kodiakkarai RF)

Gmelina asiatica L. (Pazhayar)

Grewia rhamnifolia Heyne ex Roth. (Poompuhar)

* Hugonia mystax L. (Kodiakkarai RF)

+ Ixora pavetta Andr. (Kodiakkarai RF)

* Jatropha curcas L. (Kallimedu)

+ Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. (Kodiakkarai RF)
+ Lepisanthes tetraphylla (Vahl) Radik. (Periakuthakai)

+ Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard (Kodiakkarai RF)

+ Mangifera indica L. (Ammapet)

Maytenus emarginata (Willd) Ding Hou (Kodiakkarai RF)
Memecylon edule Roxb. (Kodiakkarai RF)

Mimusops elengi L. (Ammapet)

Morinda pubescens J.E. Smith (Melathottum)
Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. (Kodiakkarai RF)
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Kodiakkarai RF)

Prosopis chilensis (Molina) Stuntz. (Manakkal)
Rhizophora apiculata Blume (Pazhayar)

Salvadora persica L. (Kodiakkarai RF)

Salix tetrasperma Roxb. (Sirkazhi)

Scutia myrtina (Burm. f.) Kurz. (Kodiakkarai RF)

150

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

another parasite of the same or allied genera (Saxena
1971) were also recorded. Viscum capitellatum,
parasitic on D. falcata was in turn parasitic on other
species of plants.

The economically valuable tree species such as
Albizzia lebbeck, Anacardium occidentale,
Artocarpus heterophyllus, Bombax ceiba, Cassia
siamea, Casuarina litorea, Dalbergia sissoo, Ficus
religiosa, Manilkara hexandra, Mangifera indica,
Pithecellobium dulce, Salvadora persica, Syzygium
cuminij Tectona grandis, Terminalia catappa,
Thespesia populnea are severely affected by the
parasite D. falcata, with many trees in and around

this district being heavily infected.

The parasite is a prolific producer of fruits,
avidly devoured by some species of ffugivorous birds
that disperse the seeds oiD. falcata .

No effective control measures are presently
available. Diesel or powerine oil (30-50%) is sprayed
on D. falcata to reduce its growth (Singh 1963). Its
spread in Thanjavur forests will be disastrous
considering the wildlife wealth.

S. RAGUPATHY

May 29, 1991 A. MAHADEVAN

References

Balasubramanian, Rand Sugathan, R. (1986): Some notes
on the distribution, nature of host of the parasite
Dendrophthoe falcata (L.) Ettings in the Point
Calimere wildlife sanctuary. J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc.
83 : 461-462.

Saxena, H.O. (1971): A parasite Viscum orientate on
another Dendrophthoe falcata. J. Bombay Nat Hist

Soc. 68: 502.

Singh, B. (1963): Studies in the family Loranthaceae, list of
new hosts of D. falcata Ettings, its relation with host,
the anatomy of its seedlings and mature haustorium.
Agra Univ. J. Res. 3: 301 - 315.

36. VETIVERIA LAWSONI (HOOK. F.) BLATTER & MCCANN AND
POTAMOGETON CRISPUS L. — ADDITIONS TO THE
FLORA OF ANDHRA PRADESH

During the course of intensive plant
exploration in Nizamabad district of Andhra Pradesh,
we collected two uncommon taxa. These taxa were
indentified as Vetiveria lawsoni (Hook, f.) Blatter &
McCann (family Poaceae) and Potamogeton crispus
L. (family Potamogetonaceae). The former taxon has
so far been reported from Maharashtra, Karnataka
and Tamilnadu (Blatter and McCann 1935, Fischer
1934) and the latter taxon was reported for the first
time by Mathew (1982) from Tamilnadu as a new
record for south India. Hence the present report of the
occurrence of these taxa in Nizamabad district is
interesting from the phytogeographical point of view
and extends their distribution to Andhra Pradesh in
south India.

Vetiveria lawsoni (Hook, f.) Blatter & McCann
in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 409. 1928; C.
Fischer, FI. Pres. Madras 3: 1201. 1957; Bor, Grass.
Bur. Ceyl. Ind. Pak. 208. 1960. Andropogon lawsoni
Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 7: 187. 1896.

Perennial; root stock horizontal; culms to 1.2 m
long, nodes distant. Leaves chiefly radical, 7-20 x

0.3-0.6 cm, rigid, subglabrous, apex acute-obtuse,
margins ciliate; sheaths striate, to 12 cm.
Inflorescence of 15-22 cm long panicle; racemes
whorled. Sessile spikelets lanceolate, to 4 mm long,
callus with silky hairs, upper glume awned, keel
pectinately ciliate; lemma ciliate, obtusely 2-dentate.
Pedicelled spikelets male, lanceolate, to 5 mm long,
callus naked; stamens 3. Grains oblong, slightly
oblique at top.

Flowering and fruiting: August - March.

Distribution: Nizamabad: Common in sandy
localities throughout the district. INDIA: Maharashtra,
Karanataka, Tamil Nadu.

Specimens examined: Chanapur, BR 7112;
Jalalpur RF, BR 9564.

This taxon can be easily distinguished from the
common species of Vetiveria, V. zizanioides (L.) Nash
in having horizontal rootstock, leaves and panicles
not exceeding 20 cm in length.

Potamgeton crispus L., Sp. PI. 126. 1753;
Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 6: 566. 1983; Cooke in FI.
Pres. Bombay 350. 1908; Burkill, Rec. Bot. Surv.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

151

India 4: 136. 1910; Mathew, FI. Tam. Cam. 1715.
1982.

Perennial rhizomatous submerged herb; stem
branched, compressed. Leaves linear or
oblong-elliptic, 2-6 x 0.4-1 cm, membranous,
translucent, 3-nerved, glabrous, base amplexicaul,
apex rounded, margin crisped and serrulate; sessile;
stipules to 4 mm, caducous. Flowers in 0.5-2 cm long
spikes, dull-white ; peduncle to 5 cm long. Perianth
lobes 4, clawed; stamens 4, ovaries 4, superior.
Drupelets orbicular, to 0.2 cm. ridged, beaked,

1 -seeded.

Flowering and fruiting: September - February.
Distribution: Nizamabad: rare in tanks. India:

Refer

Blatter, E. & McCann, C. (1935): The Bombay Grasses.
Delhi.

Bor, N.L. (1960): The grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and
Pakistan (excluding Bambuseae). London.

Cooke, T. (1908): The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay.

Vol. 3. (Repr. ed. 1967, Calcutta).

Fischer, C. E. C. (1931 and 34): In Gamble’s Flora of the

Plains of India and temperate Himalaya (Cooke
1908).

Specimens examined: Belal tank, BR 7269.
This taxon is not mentioned in FI. Pres. Madras.
Mathew (1982) reported it as a new record, south of
Madhya Pradesh (Central India).

We are grateful to Dr. P.V. Sreekumar,
BSI, Coimbatore for his help in identification.
Financial assistance from UGC is gratefully
acknowledged.

B. RAVI PRASAD RAO
May 25, 1991 T. PULLAIAH

E N C ES

Presidency of Madras, Parts IX & X . London. (Repr.
ed. 1957, Calcutta).

Hooker, J.D. et al. (1893 and 1896): Flora of British India.
Vols. 6 & 7. London.

Mathew, K. M. (1982): The Flora of the Tamilnadu
Carnatic. Vol. 3, part 3. Tiruchirapally.

37. INDIAN DOUM PALM HYPHAENE DICHOTOMA IN KHANDESH —

AN UNUSUAL OCCURRENCE

Doum palms are the only angiospermous taxa
which show true dichotomous branching. The
occurrence of the Indian doum palm Hypliaene
dichotoma (Wt.) Furtado, was recorded from a few
places on the west coast of India. Botanists have
studied the morphology (Mahabale and
Chennaveeraiah 1957), nature of branching (Greguss
1968), inflorescence (Rao and Korlahalli 1969,
Bonde 1987), nutritional composition of fruit (Bonde
et al 1990) and distribution (Rao 1963, 1964;
Meher-Homji 1970). According to Rao (1963), it is
endemic to Diu, Daman, coast of Gujarat and north
Maharashtra. While reporting this taxon, along the
west coast of India, he cited a couple of localities
(viz. Nagaon, Shirgaon) from Maharashtra in its
distribution. These localities, however, clearly fall
under coastal area. The present note records the new
distribution, i.e. occurrence of//, dichotoma in West
Khandesh, Dhule district, Maharashtra, in an area
where the vegetation is predominantly dry scrub. So
far, the present locality is the only non-coastal area
for this species for the whole of Maharashtra. A

couple of old plants and few seedlings grow in dry
land near a small village, Methi, in Dhule
district.

The entry of the west coast endemic palm to the
present locality in West Khandesh which is very far
from the former locality is curious. It, however,
indicates the discontinuous distribution of the taxon.
Discussion with locals indicates that a couple of
plants may have been introduced to this locality
about 30 years ago. Nevertheless, the present
occurrence of this taxon is certainly unusual. The
newly growing seedlings support the success of this
species in the present locality.

Existing literature shows that the taxon is
threatened in many of its natural habitats and facing
extinction (Oza 1974, Rao 1963) and it has been
included in the list of Threatened Plants of India (Jain
and Sastry 1980, 1983). Its occurrence in Khandesh,
however, indicates the possibility of extending its
distribution. This endangered palm in Khandesh
needs immediate protection and multiplication. The
locality has been recommended to the Maharashtra

152

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 89

Forest Department for barbed-wire fencing as a
preserved plot.

For the nomenclature of this taxon, we have
followed Furtado (1970), who made new
combination and adopted H. dichotoma as a correct
name with Borassus dichotoma Wt. as the basionym

for the present taxon.

We thank the College authorities for
encouragement and help.

A. S. REDDY

May 29, 1991 T. S. PATIL

References

Bonde, S.D. (1987): Inflorescence of Hyphaene indica Becc.
Biovigyanam 13 (2): 110 - 111.

Bonde, S.D., Vaishali, V.A. & Kulkarni, D.K. (1990):
Nutritional composition of the fruits of Doum Palms
( Hyphaene ) from the West Coast of India. Principes
34 (1): 21-23.

Furtado, C.X. (1970): Asian species of Hyphaene. Gardens'
Bulletin Singapore 25: 299-309.

Greguss, P. (1968): Dichotomous branching of

monocotyledonous trees. Phytomorphology 18:
315-320.

Jain, S.K. & Sastry, A.R.K. (1980) : Threatened Plants of
India — A State-of-the-Art Report. Botanical Survey
of India,. Howrah.

Jain, S.K. & Sastry, A.R.K. (1983): Materials for catalogue
of Threatened Plants of India. Botanical Survey of

India, Howrah.

Mahabalae, T.S. & Chennaveeraiah, M.S. (1957) : Studies
on Hyphaene indica Becc. Phytomorphology 7:
184-194.

Meher-Homji, V.M. (1970): Notes on some peculiar cases of
phytogeographic distributions. /. Bombay nat. Hist
Soc. 67: 81-86.

Rao, R.S. (1963): Hyphaene indica Becc. along the West
Coast of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 761-763.

Rao, R.S. (1964): The Doum Palms in India. Principes 8:
49-54.

Rao, T.A. & Korlahalli, B. C. (1969) : Note on the
inflorescence of Hyphaene indica Becc. J. Bombay
nat Hist. Soc. 66: 235-237.

38. ANOTHER LOCALITY RECORD FOR CYATHEA SPINULOSA
IN KUMAON HIMALAYA

Taxonomic reports of various explorers, to date,
indicate that there is only one plant of Cyathea
spinulosa at Pamtori near Thai (Pithoragarh). Our
exploration tour of Didihat (Pithoragarh) revealed
that there are two instead of the one reported plant of
the species at Pamtori near Thai. The two plants are
located just 20 m from each other.

In addition we discovered another locality near
Mirthy, 1300 m (Pithoragarh). This locality, situated
along a ravine in a dense forest area contains
approximately 30 plants of Cyathea spinulosa.

This rare fern faces the danger of extinction as
the leaves are used for thatching house roofs by
locals.

We wish to inform the concerned authorities
that they should take necessary action to demarcate
and protect the area containing this fern, in order to
prevent extinction of the species.

H. C. PANDE

May 25, 1991 P. C. PANDE

INDEX OF AUTHORS, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Page no.

Akhtar, SA.

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023

116, 129

Alagar Rajan, S.

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023

126

Apte, Deepak

Dept, of Biological Sciences, Ramnarain Ruia College, Matunga,
Bombay 400 019

142

Balachandran, S.

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh

Road, Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023 117, 118, 126

Balasubramanian, P.

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023

124

Bapat, N.N.

Paburai Chowk, Bhuj, Kutch 370 001

116, 119

Barman, R.P.

Zoological Survey of India, 27, Jawaharlal Nehru Road,
Calcutta 700 016

135

Bastawade, D.

Zoological Survey of India, Arunachal Pradesh Field Station, Itanagar,
Arunachal Pradesh 791 111

137

Bharos, AJM.K.

MIG-29, Padmanabhpur, Durg, Madhya Pradesh 491 001

124, 128

Bir, S.S.

Dept, of Botany, Punjabi University, Patiala 147 002

143

Choudhury, A.

Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium, Islampur Road, Guwahati,
Assam 781 007

124

Grubh, Robert B.

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat
Singh Road, Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023

129

Himmatsinhji, M.K.

Jubilee Ground, Bhuj, Kutch

119

Hoffmann, Thilo W.

29, Baur’s Building, Colombo 1, Sri Lanka

120

Hussain, SA.

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023

132

Javed, Salim

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023

129

Jha, R.R.

Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta

145

Kumar, V.

Ecological Research Unit, Dept, of Zoology, M.S. College, Saharanpur,
Uttar Pradesh 247 001

136

Kurup, D.K.N.

Kerala Forest Dept., Camp: Pushpakam, Mudavanmugal,
Poojappura P.O., Trivandrum 695 032

122

Mahadevan, A.

Centre for Advanced Study in Botany, University of Madras,
Madras 600 025

149

Mathur, Reena

Dept, of Zoology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur 302 004

114

Menon, Vivek
Morrison, William

C-519, Sheikh Sarai-1, New Delhi 110 017

C/o Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

120

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023

117

Nameer, P.O.

College of Forestry, Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara,
Thrissur, Kerala 680 654

118

Natarajan, V.

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed
Bhagat Singh Road, Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023

118

Pal, Tarun Kumar

Zoological Survey of India, Arunachal Pradesh Field Station, Itanagar,
Arunachal Pradesh 791 111

137

Pande, H.C.

Dept, of Botany, Kumaun University Campus, Almora 263 601

152

Pande, P.C.

Dept, of Botany, Kumaun University Campus, Almora 263 601

152

Patel, B.H.

Dept, of Zoology, Sir P.P. Institute of Science, Bhavnagar University,
Bhavnagar, Gujarat 364 002

137

Patil, T.S.

Dept, of Botany, Arts, Science & Commerce College, Shahada,
Dhule (Dist.), Maharashtra 425 409

151

Pimento, Rex J.

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat
Singh Road, Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023

129

Pullaiah, T.

Dept, of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur 515 003

150

Ragupathy, S.

Centre for Advanced Study in Botany, University of Madras,
Madras 600 025

149

Ram Manohar, B.

Dept, of Zoology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur 302 004

114

Rao, Prakash

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023

129

Rao, B. Ravi Prasad

Dept, of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur 515 003

150

Rao, R J.

School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior 474 Oil

132

Reddy, A.S.

Dept, of Biosciences, Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar,
Gujarat 388 120

151

Reddy, T.S.

Dept, of Zoology, Sir P.P. Institute of Science, Bhavnagar University,
Bhavnagar, Gujarat 364 002

137

Rosalind, Lima

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat
Singh Road, Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023

117, 126

Sankar, K.

Wildlife Institute of India, New Forest P.O., Dehra Dun 248 006

115

Satheesan, S.M.

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023

129

Saxena, Rajiv

Hanuman Nagar, Phalka Bazar, Gwalior 474 009

132

Sekar, A.G.

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat
Singh Road, Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023

134

Sharma, M.

Dept, of Botany, Punjabi University, Patiala 147 002

143

Sharma, Satish Kumar World Forestry Arboretum, Jhalana Dungri, Jaipur 302 004

128, 133, 133

Singh, C.P.

Dept, of Botany, Punjabi University, Patiala 147 002

143

Singh, Y.P.

Entomology Section, Horticultural Experiment & Training Centre,
Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh 247 001

136

Tiwari, J.K.

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat
Singh Road, Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023

116, 129

Unnithan, S.

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat
Singh Road, Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023

126

Varma, SX.

Dept, of Botany, Bhagalpur University, Bhagalpur, Bihar 812 007

145

Venkataraman, K.

Zoological Survey of India, Andaman and Nicobar Regional Station,
Port Blair 744 101

140

Vijayan, Lalitha

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat
Singh Road, Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023

125

Vijayan, V.S.

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat
Singh Road, Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023

115

Yahya, H.S.A.

Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology, Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh 202 001

117

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By G. Agoramoorthy ....... 84

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REVIEWS ;....... . 110

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ‘ 114

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Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society

x. :

VOLUME 89 (2): AUGUST 1992

Date of Publication: 31-10-92 Page

CONTENTS

ARE CHITAL STAGS MORE VULNERABLE TO DHOLE PREDATION THAN DOES ?

By Aviva H. Patel 153

THE DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THE LESSER FLORICAN Sypheotides indica (J.F. MILLER) IN
THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT (With four text-figures)

By Ravi Sankaran, Asad R. Rahmani and Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa 156

FORAGING HABITS AND NEST STRUCTURE OF Macrotermes estherae DESNEUX (ISOPTERA :
TERMITIDAE)

By K. Sudhakar and G.K. Veeresh 180

SOME ADDITIONS TO THE ORCHID FLORA OF ORISSA

By O. P. Misra, D.C.S. Raju and S.C. Misra 184

COMPARATIVE ECOLOGY OF THE CAPPED LANGUR Presbytis pileata BLYTH IN TWO FOREST
TYPES IN BANGLADESH (With three text-figures)

By Craig B. Stanford 187

PROLONGED EGG INCUBATION AND CONGENITAL TAIL DEFORMITIES IN Crocodylus palustris
(REPTILIA : CROCODILIA) (With a text-figure)

By L. A. K. Singh and S.R. Sagar 194

GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE AND ECOLOGY OF THE VERRUCOSE FROG Rana keralensis (DUBOIS)

By R. J. Ranjit Daniels 199

ON THE TAXONOMY AND ECOLOGY OF ROTIFERS IN FISH PONDS (With nine text-figures)

By R. Sampathkumar 204

TAXONOMY OF MAHSEER FISHES OF THE GENUS Tor GRAY WITH DESCRIPTION OF ANEW SPECIES
FROM THE DECCAN (With three plates and five text-figures)

By A.GX. Menon 210

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Puntius mudumalaiensis , A NEW CYPRINID FISH FROM MUDUMALAI, TAMIL NADU
(With a text-figure)

By A. G. K. Menon and K. Rema Devi 229

A NEW SPECIES AND A NEW RECORD OF THE REMARKABLE GENUS Delislea GIRAULT

(HYMENOPTERA: PTEROMALIDAE) FROM THE ORIENTAL REGION (With three text-figures)

By T. C. Narendran, K. Anil and K. Chandrasekharan 23 1

A NEW GENUS OF HARPACTORINAE (HETEROPTERA : REDUVIIDAE) FROM SOUTHERN INDIA
(With two text-figures)

By Dunston P. Ambrose and N. Selvamuthu Kumaraswami 234

A NEW Sagina L (CARYOPHYLLACEAE) FROM NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA (With a text-figure)

By R. D. Gaur 236

A NEW INOPEPLID SPECIES (COLEOPTERA: CUCUJOIDEA) FROM PATKOI HILL RANGE OF
ARUNACHAL PRADESH (With two text-figures)

By T. K. Pal 238

FIRST RECORD OF GENUS Aproceros MALAISE (HYMENOPTERA: SYMPHYATA: ARGIDAE) FROM
INDIA, WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES (With six text-figures)

By Malkiat S. Saini and Amarinder S. Thind 241

OBITUARY

Prof R.M. Naik 244

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. Does the Manipur deer Cervus eldi exude a
leech repellent ?

By Raza Tehsin 245

2. Brood of the Indian field mouse Mus
booduga in an abandoned baya nest

By S. Asad Akhtar and J. K. Tiwari 245

BIRDS

3. Additions to the birds of Assam — black-
necked grebe Podiceps nigricollis Brehm

By A. Choudhury 245

4. Recovery of a Russian-ringed rosy (white)
pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus Linn, in
Kutch, Gujarat

By S. N. Varu and M. B. Khatri 246

5. Pond heron Ardeola grayii (Sykes) feeding
on bees

By J. N. Prasad and J. Hemanth 246

6. Painted stork Mycteria leucocephala
(Pennant) in Kerala

By Kumaran Sathasivam 246

7. Longtailed duck or old squaw Clangula
hyemalis (Linn.) in Dehra Dun, Uttar
Pradesh

By D. Mohan, N. D. Rai and A. P. Singh 247

8. Eastern steppe eagl eAquila rapax nipalen-
sis Hodgson killing mobbing brahminy kite
Haliastur indus (Boddaert) at Pt. Calimere
Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu.

By S. Alagar Rajan, P. Balasubramanian

and V. Natarajan 247

9. Pied harrier Circus melanoleucos (Pennant)
in south-east Rajasthan

By Rakesh Vyas 248

10. Biometrics of the collared pratincole
Glareola pratincola maldivarum J.R.
Forster

By Prakash Rao and K. K. Mohapatra 248

1 1. Three additions to the birds of Kerala, with
a repeat sight record

By P. K. Uthaman and L. Namasivayan .... 250

12. Some wader records from coastal Andhra
Pradesh

By K. K. Mohapatra and Prakash Rao 250

13. Confirmation of the breeding of the com-
mon tem Sterna hirundo Linn, in Sri Lanka
By Thilo Hoffmann 251

14. Indian skimmer Rynchops albicollis
Swainson and black stork Ciconia nigra
(Linn.) — New additions to the avifauna of
Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur

By C. Sivasubramanian 252

15. Unusual nesting behaviour in the domestic
pigeon Columba livia Gmelin

By Rajiv Singh Kalsi and Rajdeep Kalsi ... 253

16. An unusual nest-site of spotted dove
Streptopelia chinensis (Scopoli)

By S. Subramanya, S. Karthikeyan,

J. N. Prasad, T.S. Srinivasa and B. Arun ... 254

17. Occurrence of wryneck Jynx torquilla Linn.

By A. M. K. Bharos 254

18. Southern goldenbacked woodpecker
Dinopium benghalense feeding on the nec-
tar of banana tree Musa paradisiaca

By P. Balasubramanian 254

19. Occurrence of the Indian great black wood-
pecker Dryocopus javensis (Horsfield)

By A. M. K. Bharos 255

20. Occurrence of the Philippine shrike Lanius
crista tus lucionensis Linn, in coastal
Andhra Pradesh

By K. K. Mohapatra and V. Santharam 255

21. Occurrence of longtailed minivet
Pericrocotus ethologus Bangs & Phillips
in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,
Rajasthan

By D. Norman and C. Sivasubramanian ... 256

22. Additional nesting sites of redvented bulbul
Pycnonotus cafer (Linn.)

By C. Sivasubramanian and

T. Sundaramoorthy 257

23. Indian blue chat Erithacus brunneus
(Hodgson) in Bangalore

By J. N. Prasad and T .S. Srinivasa 257

24. Abnormal clutch in Indian brownbacked
robin Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis
(Latham)

By Salim Javed 258

25. Pied ground thrush Zoothera wardii (Blyth)
in Bangalore

By S. Karthikeyan 258

REPTILES

26. Record of the riverine turtle Trionyx leithi

from Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu
By V. Kalaiarasan, R. Kanakasabai and B.
Rathinasabapathy 258

AMPHIBIANS

27. Morphometry, habitat, behaviour and food
of the tadpoles of Leith’s frog Rana leithii

By A. G. Sekar 259

INSECTS

28. Cannibalism in butterfly larvae
By Naresh Chaturvedi and

MeenaHaribal 261

29. Food plants of blister beetle Mylabris pus-
tulata Thunb. (Coleoptera: Cantharidae)
from Pt. Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary,

Tamil Nadu.

By P. Balasubramanian 262

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

30. New distributional record for Indialona
ganapati Petkovski (Crustacea :
Cladocera) from Ujani wetland,
Maharashtra, with First description of male
and reproductive female

By PramodD.Rane * 263

31. Bosminopsis deitersi Richard, 1895 — A
new record for West Bengal (Crustacea:
Cladocera)

By K. Venkataraman and S.R. Das 265

32. An unusual specimen of Turbinella pyrum
(Linn. 1758)

By Deepak Apte 267

33. Food of the common Madras snail Cryp-
tozona bistrialis from Pt. Calimere Wildlife
Sanctuary

By P. Balasubramanian 267

34. First report of an Arachnid order Cyphoph-
thalmi (DA) from India in Arunachal
Pradesh

By D. B. Bastawade 268

BOTANY

35. Crotalaria sessiliflora Linn. ssp. hazaren-
sis Ali (Fabaceae) — A new distributional
record for Jammu and Kashmir

By B. M. Sharma 270

36. Formation of abnormal fruit in Carica
papaya

By S. Singh and S.P. Singh 271

37. Actinodaphne sesquipedalis (Lauraceae )

— A new record for India from Andaman
islands

By Sam P. Mathew and

P. Lakshminarasimhan 272

38. Mapania kurzii Clarke (Cyperaceae) — A
new record for India

By Sam P. Mathew and P. V. Sreekumar ... 274

39. New distributional records of Brachiaria
hybrida Basappa & Muniyamma (Poaceae)

By Papia Mondal and D. C. Pal 275

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

August 1992 Vol. 89 No. 2

ARE CHITAL STAGS MORE VULNERABLE TO DHOLE PREDATION

THAN DOES?1

Aviva H. Patel2

Johnsingh’s 1983 study reveals that the dhole Cuon alpinus kills disproportionately more
males than females of one of its prey, the sambar Cervus unicolor , but not of its other prey, the chi-
tal Axis axis. However, a re-examination of his data changed this conclusion. My analysis revealed
that dholes do hunt significantly more male than female chital. What differed in my analysis was
that I tested for differences between 22 month population sex ratios and 22 month kill sex ratios,
whereas Johnsingh tested for differences between 5 month population and 22 month kill ratios.

Introduction

Johnsingh (1980, 1983) made a thorough
and intensive study of the ecology and be-
haviour of the dhole or Indian wild dog Cuon al-
pinus Pallas, 1811 at Bandipur, concentrating on
predator-prey relations. He studied populations
of two of their prey, the sambar Cervus unicolor
and chital Axis axis, and found a low sex ratio
(defined as proportion of males) in both popula-
tions throughout the year; there were always
more females than males in the wild.
Sharatchandra and Gadgil (1978) conjectured
that this might be because of higher mortality in
males than in females, but did not provide any
data for this suggestion. Johnsingh investigated
whether or not dholes disproportionately prey
upon more males than females. He concluded
that dholes do kill more sambar males than
females, but that there was no unequal predation
of the sexes on chital.

1 Accepted August 1991.

2Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore 560 012, Present address: 50 Kothanur, Bangalur
Road, Bangalore 560 077.

However, a re-analysis of Johnsingh’s data
now indicates the reverse for chital predation, and
reveals how a set of data can yield different results,
depending on the interpretation. Johnsingh (1983)
compared sex ratios of chital kills with those of chi-
tal populations in the wild. The kill sex ratio was the
average for 22 months (the period of his study), but
the population sex ratio was the average from only
the 5 months that were the peak chital rutting season
(May, June, July 1977 and June, July 1978,
Johnsingh 1980). Table 2 shows the actual numbers
used in his and my calculations. When he calculated
the Z statistic on these ratios, he found that the 22
month kill ratio (64 males: 68 females, or 94 males
per 100 females) did not differ significantly from
the 5 month population ratio (84 males per 100
females).

Analysis

I calculated several Z statistics using
Johnsingh’s data to test whether kill and population
ratios of chital differed significantly. A summary of
the tests and their results is shown in Table 1.

Test A, comparing 5 month kill ratios and 5

154

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Table 1

ANALYSIS OF JOHNSINGH’S DATA WITH RESPECT TO POPULATION AND KILL SEX RATIOS OF CHITAL

R

N

Z

P

Test A

5 mo. kill ratio

0.636

5 mo. population ratio

0.455

22

1.71*

0.044

Test B

22 Mo. kill ratio

0.485

22 mo. population ratio

0.405

132

1.84*

0.031

TestC

22 mo. kill ratio

0.485

5 mo. population ratio

0485

132

0.70

0.242

TestD

5 mo. population ratio

0.455

22 mo. population ratio

0.405

3536

6.25*

<0.001

TestE

5 mo. kill ratio

0.636

22 mo. kill ratio

0.485

22

1.42

0.078

Z=pl-p2/[p2(l-p2/N)]0'5 where pi and p2 are proportions, and N=sample size. In each test, the null hypothesis was that the
two ratios in that test did not differ at the 95% level of confidence.

R=sex ratio, Z=test statistic, P=probability associated with Z, *=p<0.05

month population sex ratios showed that more
males than females were killed during the peak
rutting season (p<0.05). This might be due to the
fact that males are relatively indifferent to preda-
tion during the rutting season (Johnsingh 1983).

However, I also wanted to find out if the
same pattern of preferential predation on stags
occurred throughout the year. I therefore
decided to use kill and population sex ratios ob-
tained over the entire 22 month study. Test B,
comparing 22 month kill ratios and 22 month
population sex ratios, showed that more male
than female chital were killed throughout the
year (p<0.05), not just during the rutting season.

Test C was a replica of Johnsingh’s test,
comparing 22 month kill ratios and 5 month
population ratios. It showed, as his test did, that
chital males were not killed more often than
females (p<0.05).

Test D was designed to find out whether
there were indeed more males than females in
the population counts during the periods of rut
(5 months), compared to the rest of the study
period. It revealed that indeed, significantly
more males were seen during the months of rut
than at other times of the year (pcO.OOl).

However, more males seen during the
months of rut did not translate into more males
killed during the months of rut. Test E showed
that there was no difference between the kill
ratios during the months of rut and during the

rest of the 22 months (p<0.05).

Johnsingh notes that he used only a 5 month
population ratio because stags were more visible
during the two to three months of rut each year,
and therefore more easily counted, than during the
dry season. However, I believe that to be consis-
tent in testing, the same time period should be
used in calculating both ratios in a test. Johnsingh
(1980) relies on 22 months of data for his kill
ratios, so it seems reasonable to use data from the
same timespan (22 months) to obtain population
ratios. Although stags may be more aggregated
and therefore more visible during May, June and
July, it is important to obtain population counts
from all the months of the year so that (1) the
population ratio is not misleadingly biased toward
males (as it would be if only the 5 month period
were used); and (2) an estimate of the chital popula-
tion as it varies over a whole year is obtained.

Tests A and B compared population and kill
ratios over the same period of time: Test A over
a 5 month period and Test B over a 22 month
period. The results were significant in each case,
and showed that stags were killed more fre-
quently than does at all times of the year.

Discussion

The results were somewhat surprising.
They clearly indicated that dholes killed more
chital stags than does throughout the year. Why
should this be so? Johnsingh discusses various

ARE CHITAL STAGS MORE VULNERABLE TO DHOLE PREDATION THAN DOES?

155

reasons for the greater number of males found in
prey statistics, which lead to greater numbers of
females in the wild. Homocker (1970) believes
that males may be in a weakened condition after
the rut and hence more prone to predation. How-
ever, Johnsingh (1983) provides kill data for
chital stags in hard antlers showing that the
numbers killed during the rut do not differ sig-
nificantly from those killed at other times of the
year. Sharatchandra and Gadgil (1978) observe
that chital stags spend less time on the lookout
for danger than does do. Johnsingh (1980)
agrees, and adds that (1) stags in hard antlers
often leave their herds and wander alone in
search of estrous does; (2) dholes tend to avoid
attacking herds of chital; and (3) stags in velvet,
which do not rut but are killed as often as those in
hard antlers, appear to be heavier than the latter,
hence perhaps slower. Although hard data are re-
quired to verify these observations, it appears that
stags may be more vulnerable to predation.

Johnsingh (1980) also mentions that stags with
long antlers may be at a disadvantage compared to
does when they flee from a coursing predator like
the dhole. He provides data to show that a large
proportion (70%) of stags killed had antlers longer
than 70 cm, indicating perhaps that long antlers are
a hindrance to stags in escaping from dholes.

Another intriguing possibility that needs to
be studied further is that of optimisation of
yield. Dholes may preferentially hunt stags be-
cause they are significantly heavier than does,
and therefore provide more meat per kill effort
than does or fawns. Data on meat per kill effort
obtained from male and female prey would help
test this hypothesis, as would direct observation

Table 2

KILL DATA FROM JOHNSINGH (1983)

Numbers of chital killed:

Males

Females

No. killed over 5 month

(from Appendix B of Johnsingh 1980;
used to obtain 5 month kill ratio)

14

8

No. killed over 22 month.

(from Table 2, John singh 1983; used
to obtain 22 month kill ratio)

64

68

of the hunt itself. If it is found that dholes do in-
deed prefer to hunt chital stags rather than does,
the results would concur with other data indicat-
ing that males are preferentially hunted by
coursing predators (Estes and Goddard 1967,
Homocker 1970, Wilson 1975).

The results of the above tests, combined with
Johnsingh’s data on sambar, indicate that dholes
kill more male than female deer in the wild. At this
point, it is not clear whether this is due to preferen-
tial predation on males by dholes or to the greater
vulnerability of males to predation. Further re-
search with larger samples, a variety of habitats
and observations of actual hunting behaviour will
greatly help in testing these hypotheses.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Dr. A.J.T. Johnsingh
for his permission to analyse the data from his
thorough and intensive study of predators and
prey in Bandipur. Dr. R. Sukumar at the Centre
for Ecological Sciences (CES) at Bangalore
helped and guided me throughout, and CES
provided resources. Drs. Carol Horvitz, Dave
Janos and Doyle McKey at the University of
Miami, and Dr. Sukumar at CES provided help-
ful comments on the manuscript.

References

Estes, R.D. & Goddard, J. (1967): Prey selection and hunt-
ing behaviour of the African wild dog. J. Wildl.
Mgmt. 31(1): 52-70.

Hornocker,M. (1970): An analysis of mountain lion preda-
tion upon mule deer and elk in Idaho Primitive Area.
Wildl. monogr. No. 21. The Wildlife Society.
Johnsingh, AJ.T. (1980): Ecology and behaviour of the
dhole'or Indian wild dog Cuon alpinus Pallas 1811,
with special reference to the predator-prey relations at

Bandipur. Ph.D. thesis, Madurai Kamraj University.
Johnsingh, AJ.T. (1983): Large mammalian prey-predators
in Bandipur. J. Bombay naL Hist. Soc. 80(1): 1-57.
Sharatchandra, H.C. & Gadgil, M. (1978): On the time
activity budget of spotted deer. J. Bombay nat. Hist
Soc. 75 (Supplement): 949-960.

Wilson, E.O. (1975): Sociobiology: the new synthesis.
Belknap/Harvard. Cambridge, Massachussets.

THE DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THE LESSER FLORICAN
SYPHEOTIDES INDICA (J.F. MILLER) IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT 1

Ravi Sankaran,2 A.R. Rahmani and U. Ganguli -Lachungpa3
(With four text-figures)

The past distribution of the lesser florican Sypheotides indica was mapped based on an extensive literature survey.
The present distribution and status was assessed from field surveys that covered the breeding range as well as
non-breeding areas. The current status was evaluated by comparing the sizes of the past and current breeding ranges.
The 1989 population was estimated at 750 birds, a decrease of about 80% from our 1982 estimate of 4374 birds. The
reasons for the decline are discussed.

Introduction

The lesser florican Sypheotides indica (J.F.
Miller) is a bustard endemic to the Indian subcon-
tinent. Its popularity as a game bird resulted in
frequent references to this species in late 19th and
early 20th century natural history literature. Once
the commonest and most widely distributed In-
dian bustard, this species is now becoming in-
creasingly rare. Even as early as 1879, Hume and
Marshal wrote, "Owing to the un-sports manlike
manner in which these beautiful birds are mas-
sacred during the breeding season, they are
everywhere diminishing perceptibly in numbers,
and will, in another half century, be, I fear, almost
extinct" . With the extensive and intensive changes
in land use practices, particularly over-grazing of
its grassland habitat, the lesser florican appears to
be seriously threatened with extinction.

The lesser florican breeds during the south-
west monsoon, which normally begins by end
June or early July. During this period, a distinct
movement into Gujarat, eastern Rajasthan,
western Madhya Pradesh and some parts of the
Deccan is seen (Jerdon 1864, Dharmakumarsinhji
1950, this study). During the breeding season,
males are very conspicuous both because of their
nuptial plumage and their attraction displays,

Accepted July 1991.

2’ 3Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbil House, Shaheed
Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

2Present address: Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and
Natural History, Kalampalayam, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

3 Present address : Project Officer (Wildlife Circle), Forest
Dept, Sikkim

which can be heard up to 500 m away (Dhar-
makumarsinhji 1950, Ridley etal. 1985, Sankaran
1991). The breeding system of the lesser florican
can be described as dispersed lek; males are ter-
ritorial for two to three months and inter-territory
distance varies from 200 to 500 m (Sankaran
1991). Females and immature males are incon-
spicuous and much more difficult to locate. The
post breeding movements are still unclear. The
lesser florican appears to disperse into suitable
habitat over much of the Indian subcontinent, with
the majority moving into southern India (Jerdon
1864).

Ali and Ripley (1983) described their habitat
as "tall grassland with scattered bushes, and stand-
ing crops of cotton and millets..." The primary
habitat requirement for breeding are grasslands
where sufficient grass cover is available during
the breeding season. In western India, the prin-
cipal breeding range, these grasslands are of the
Sehima nervosum-Chrysopogon fulvus type.
Presently, such habitat is fragmented and patchily
distributed throughout the species’ breeding
range; grassland patches that exist are protected
by the government or by agriculturists for fodder.
TTiese are known as Bheed , Veed, Vidi or Rakhaal
in different regions. The lesser florican also uses
croplands of cotton Gossypium sp., sorghum Sor-
ghum vulgare , maize Zea mays , soyabean Glycine
max and sugarcane Saccharum sp., rice Oryza
sativa , mustard Brassica campestris , groundnut
Arachis hypogea> lentils and wheat Triticium vul-
gare. This species is also known to use lightly
wooded country, grazed lands and scrublands
dominated by Zizyphus spp.

DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THE LESSER FLORICAN

157

Objective: Our aim was to examine the
shrinkage in the breeding range and population of
the lesser florican and the causes for this reduc-
tion. We approached this through a synthesis of
historical records, data collected during field sur-
veys, and communications with interested in-
dividuals. We have attempted to place in one
paper all such information available until April
1991.

Limitations in assessing status: An assess-
ment of the status of the lesser florican is possible
only during the breeding season, when males are
conspicuous. The major limitation is that the
species is nomadic and movements into and
within breeding areas are dependent on the quan-
tum and distribution of rainfall (Sankaran 1991).
Thus, to determine the status of the lesser florican,
the study must cover the entire breeding range in
a single season, i.e. within two months. Further-
more, though floricans are found in greater num-
bers in large grasslands, they also establish ter-
ritories or nest in small grasslands or in grass
patches in between and within crop fields
(Sankaran 1991). Thus within the breeding range
it is possible to find lesser florican virtually
anywhere. As the present breeding range could
cover as much as 340,000 sq. km, the logistics
make location of all major breeding concentra-
tions impossible.

Variations in densities at a single site in
different years must be interpreted cautiously,
because densities at a site vary between years
depending on the rainfall patterns. For example,
the change in population at the Naulakha
grassland at Sailana Florican Sanctuary (Ratlam
district, Madhya Pradesh) — from about 12 in
1986 to 1-2 in 1987, and seven in 1989 — was due
to the effects of rainfall and not necessarily be-
cause of a decline in the population (Sankaran
1991). Comparisons of densities between years
can only be made when some idea of numbers
over the entire breeding range is available.

Finally, the quantum of information avail-
able is small. This is due both to the scarcity of
field ornithologists and the rarity of the species.
We can only justify the speculations made in this

paper on the grounds that in such a rare and
endangered bird, with so wide a distribution and
all the resultant logistic limitations of field re-
search, one is forced to infer more from the data
than may be normally acceptable.

Methods

The study consists of two parts, a literature
review and surveys.

We conducted field surveys throughout the
current breeding range of the lesser florican.
Grasslands at discrete locations were surveyed on
foot. Choice of grasslands was based mainly on
information about floricans received from that
locale. For example, in 1989 we surveyed
grasslands where floricans had been seen in 1982.
Since males are conspicuous during the breeding
season, a direct count method gives an accurate
picture of their numbers in a grassland. Counts
were made in the mornings and evenings, at which
time the frequency of male display is highest. A
100 ha. grassland can be effectively surveyed in
about two hours by walking through it, listening
for the characteristic display rattle; display may
be performed as frequently as twice in a minute.
All counts are therefore primarily of adult males
seen or heard. Females were infrequently located;
immature males never. Communications with
other field workers, agriculturists and hunters
during our surveys added considerably to the data.

Prior to this study, status surveys of the lesser
florican were made in 1981 and 1982 (Goriup and
Karpowicz 1981, 1985; Magrath et al. 1983,
1985; Yahya 1982, 1990). These provide the basis
upon which the trends in population were as-
sessed.

In this paper, the trend in the population was
primarily inferred from the absence or presence
of breeding individuals at different locations in
the breeding range. The overall long-term decline
in the population can be viewed within the
perspective of reduction in size of the breeding
ranges in the pre-1980 and the post 1980 years.
Population trends over the last decade were in-
ferred from two surveys, 1982 and 1989, which
covered the same areas of the breeding range and

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Fig. 2. Post-1980 records of the lesser florican.

DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THE LESSER FLORICAN

159

shared several common breeding sites. Normal
monsoons in both years make such a comparison
reliable.

Due to the size of the area under considera-
tion, we do not have data on the numbers or the
area of grasslands in the present breeding range.
Our calculations of the lesser florican population
were based on the total area under grassland. The
extent of grasslands present and the percentage
used by lesser floricans is extrapolated over the
entire breeding range based on data available in
Magrath et al. (1983, 1985). Thus our estimates
are based on the assumption that the areas and
numbers of grasslands given by Magrath et al.
(1983) are accurate and representative of the en-
tire breeding range.

In this paper, a location, for example Bel-
gaum, indicates areas around the town, often the
district itself.

Results

Pre-1980 Distribution

The lesser florican occurred widely in the
Indian subcontinent, from the Baluchi side of the
Hab river in the west (Ticehurst 1927) to Malda
and Jalpaiguri districts in the east (Inglis et al.
1920, Baker 1921), and from Trivandrum in the
south (Ferguson 1904) to Sahranpur district in the
north (Butler 1887). Thus, barring hilly, moun-
tainous, densely forested or very arid areas the
lesser florican was seen throughout the Indian
subcontinent (Fig. 1, Appendix 1).

Most available literature on shooting and/or
sight records is not specific. For example Butler
(1880) records "...a few remaining about Belgaum
all the year round", but does not state whether they
bred there or not. Jerdon (1864) records them
from the banks of the Ganges without mentioning
specific locations. Thus, it is difficult to piece
together an accurate picture of the breeding and
wintering ranges. The available information has
been categorized as: recorded as breeding; present
during the south-west monsoon (but not specified
as breeding); present during summer and/or
winter (non-breeding season); and undated (Fig.
1). Details of locations are given in Appendix 1.

Breeding range: Breeding occurred be-
tween 17° and 29° N, and 62° and 79° E, an area
that included much of western India. The breeding
range covered suitable habitat in southern Sind
(Pakistan), Gujarat, central, southern and eastern
Rajasthan extending up to Hissar in Haryana,
western Madhya Pradesh, northwestern
Maharashtra, and extending south into the Deccan
up to Solapur. There is a breeding record as far
south as Trichy (Figs. 1, 3).

We interpret the available data as showing a
distinct westerly, north-westerly and south-
westerly movement from non-breeding areas into
the breeding range during the monsoon. Though
the breeding range covered a vast area, it is ap-
parent that the principal breeding areas were the
Kathiawad peninsula, eastern Gujarat, western
Madhya Pradesh, north-western Maharashtra and
south-eastern Rajasthan (Jerdon 1864, Hayes
1873, Barnes 1886, 1891; Davidson 1887). It was
into and towards this region that the lesser florican
migrated to breed during the monsoon.

Possibly due to a much larger population,
and larger area of suitable habitat, considerable
areas around the principal breeding range were
also used for breeding. This possibly explains the
breeding records from Haryana (Hume and Mar-
shall 1879, Whistler 1914), coastal Makran and
up to the western side of the Hab river (Ticehurst
1927), Solapur (Davidson and Wenden 1878) and
Nagpur (McMaster 1817, D’Abreau 1935).

In addition to the principal breeding range
and areas adjacent to it, the lesser florican was also
recorded as resident and so presumably breeding
from other parts of the Deccan in southern India.
However, the only documented breeding record
in south India is of a nest at Trichy (Tiruchirap-
palli) in October (Jerdon 1864). Jerdon also docu-
mented that a few birds breed in all parts of
southern India, primarily from July to November,
with nesting occurring till as late as January (but
see Sankaran and Manakadan 1990).

Records during the south-west monsoon
(July to October): Breeding occurs primarily
during the monsoon. Those areas outside the
known breeding range where floricans were seen

160

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

during the rains could have been breeding areas,
though not specified as such in literature. More
probably, these areas were used in passage en-
route to the breeding range. However, the avail-
able data set is small, and a clear pattern does not
emerge (Fig. 1).

Winter and summer records (November
to June): During the non-breeding months, the
lesser florican was generally found outside known
breeding areas. Dharmakumarsinhji (1950)
opined that they move into peninsular India once
breeding was completed. Jerdon (1864) recorded
an influx into the Deccan, particularly in south
India, in October and November. However, both
authors and others also mention that a few in-
dividuals are seen in the breeding range
throughout the year. Most dated records from
southern India are from the non-breeding months
(Jerdon 1864, Butler 1880, Anderson 1883, Tos-
tem 1887, Davidson 1898, Betham 1911, Whistler
1936, Nichols 1944).

In Maharashtra, the lesser florican was
recorded on several occasions around Bombay
and from other locations as well (e.g. Jerdon 1864,
Davidson 1887, Khengarji 1909, Fellows 1918).
It was present, albeit rarely, in western Madhya
Pradesh (Jerdon 1864, Tyrrell 1910), and from
northern and eastern Madhya Pradesh (King
1868, Ranjitsinh 1983).

In north and north-eastern India, the lesser
florican was mainly seen in the summer. These
include records from West Bengal (O’Donel
1913) and Bihar (Jerdon 1864, Baker 1921). Jer-
don (1864) saw it in April-May along the banks
of the Ganges.

Although a few birds remained within
western India during the summer and winter, and
breeding occurred in some locations in southern
India, we interpret the available data as showing
a dispersal away from the breeding range (western
India) into northern, eastern and southern India.
There appears to be a nomadic dispersal rather
than a distinct migratory pattern. It is probable
that the majority of the birds disperse into
southern India, along the Deccan plateau (see also
Jerdon 1864).

Post 1980 Distribution

Recent information on the lesser florican
was obtained from surveys done in 1981, 1982,
1984, 1986 and 1989, literature records as well as
personal communications with naturalists.

In 1981 a brief status survey was conducted
in parts of the Kathiawad peninsula in Gujarat,
one location near Ajmer in Rajasthan, some areas
in central India around Nagpur, and one location
in southern India (Goriup and Karpowicz 1981,
1985). Two surveys in 1982 covered three dis-
tricts in the Kathiawad peninsula in Gujarat
(Magrath et al. 1983, 1985), and some parts of
central India and the Malwa plateau (Yahya 1982,
1990). Between 1984 and 1989 we conducted six
surveys, four in the breeding range (Gujarat,
western Madhya Pradesh and eastern Rajasthan)
and two in southern India. Rajasthan was sur-
veyed in 1984 and 1986, the Malwa plateau in

1984, 1986 and 1989, and the Kathiawad penin-
sula and Kutch in 1989. In the continuum of
potential breeding areas from the Kathiawad
peninsula in the west to the Malwa plateau in the
east, the central portion, i.e. central Gujarat, is
densely populated and industrialized or intensive-
ly farmed, and hence was not surveyed. Moreover,
there were no recent reports from those areas.
Details of surveys are given in Appendix 2.

Breeding records: Between 1980 and 1990,
the lesser florican was recorded breeding in those
parts of western India that can be considered their
principal breeding grounds (Fig. 2).

During the surveys of the Kathiawad penin-
sula in 1981 and 1982, they were recorded breed-
ing in some numbers (Goriup and Karpowicz

1985, Magrath et al. 1985; Fig. 2). The three year
drought in western Gujarat between 1985 and
1987 resulted in an absence of breeding birds in
the region during that period. In 1989, despite
normal monsoons, very few birds immigrated into
or bred in the Kathiawad peninsula. Only one
small breeding population was seen in coastal
Kutch (Kuchch).

The Malwa plateau in Madhya Pradesh has
been regularly surveyed between 1982 and 1989

DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THE LESSER FLORICAN

161

Table 1

SUMMARY OF SURVEYS - 1981, 1982, 1984, 1986, 1989

1982

Malwa plateau
1984 1986

1989

Kathiawad peninsula
198 1982

1989

Total no. of
floricans sighted

34

47

91

31

22

78

14*

Total no. of
grasslands surveyed

12

11

20

12

50

81

43

* reported to us, not sighted during the survey

(Table 1). Barring 1987, which was a drought
year, the lesser florican was found to be locally
common in several locations in the Malwa plateau
(Fig. 2). In the Nimar region, breeding has been
reported near Sendhwa on the Madhya Pradesh-
Maharashtra border; those areas have not yet been
surveyed.

In Rajasthan, breeding was recorded in Bhil-
wara and Tonk districts and around Ajmer, just
east of the Aravalli range. On the fringe of the
Thar desert, the lesser florican has been reported
as breeding in Pali district (Ishwar Prakash, pers.
comm.).

In Maharashtra, however, breeding has not
been recorded in areas where the species bred
earlier. Around Nagpur, no breeding has been
recorded in recent years (Goriup and Karpowicz
1985, Yahya 1982, 1990). Between 1981 and
1985, no breeding was recorded at Solapur; only
two sightings exist from that area from the same
period (Manakadan, R. pers. comm.)4.

Further west, the lesser florican has been
recorded breeding sporadically in Sind, Pakistan
(T.J. Roberts, pers. comm.).

Breeding was also observed at the Rollapadu
Bustard Sanctuary in Kurnool district of Andhra
Pradesh in the winter of 1987. This, however, has
been postulated as being a response to drought
conditions in western India that year (Sankaran
and Manakadan 1990, Sankaran 1991).

Records during the south-west monsoon
(end June-early October): Very few records
exist outside known breeding areas. Sightings
during the monsoon have apparently been of birds
in transit towards western India. For instance, at

4 One male in non-breeding plumage was seen on 2 June 1992
at Nanaj, Solapur.

the Karera Bustard Sanctuary in northern Madhya
Pradesh, floricans were seen occasionally in June,
July and August. Males in breeding plumage did
not display, and breeding has not yet been
recorded from that region. In Andhra Pradesh,
between 1986 and 1989, lesser floricans were
seen four times at the Rollapadu Bustard
Sanctuary in June, July and August but neither
display nor nesting was recorded (Fig. 2).

Winter and summer records (mid Oc-
tober-June): The recent records during the post
and pre-monsoon months are also scanty but cor-
roborate our interpretation of the non-breeding
range from the literature review.

Floricans have been seen in the terai of Uttar
Pradesh and Nepal (Sankaran and Rahmani 1988,
B.B. Thapa, pers. comm.). One female was seen
frequently at the Karera Bustard Sanctuary in
January 1984. Likewise, a female was trapped
near Nagpur in January 1982. There is also one
record in the summer from the doab between Ravi
and Degh rivers north of Lahore in Pakistan (T. J.
Roberts, pers. comm. 1989)

Most records in the winter and summer are
from Andhra Pradesh (Siraj Taher pers. comm.,
Sankaran and Manakadan 1990). Local informa-
tion revealed that the lesser florican was seen in
several locations in the Kurnool, Guntakal, Bel-
lary and Raichur areas of Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka, particularly in the winter. Further
south a female was caught in Quilon district of
Kerala (Krishnan 1990).

Status of the Lesser Florican

Comparison of pre- and post 1980 breed-
ing ranges: The pre- 1980 and post 1980 breeding
ranges of the lesser florican are shown in Fig. 3.

162

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 89

For simplicity, the outermost breeding locations
have been connected to form a polygon. The
breeding records in southern India have not been
considered (see above; Sankaran and Manakadan
1990, Sankaran 1991). Historically too, southern
India was not considered as the principal breeding
range (Jerdon 1864, Hume and Marshal 1879).

The breeding range of the lesser florican has
shrunk to 40% of its original size (Fig. 3). This
species now breeds only in what can be regarded
as the core of the historic breeding range; and even
here, nowhere as commonly as before. In the
1980s, floricans bred in some numbers only in the
Malwa plateau, the Kathiawad peninsula and in
parts of eastern Rajasthan.

Breeding status: A comparison of 1982,
1986 and 1989 surveys: Table 1 summarises the
data from the 1982, 1986 and 1989 surveys. While
the breeding areas in Malwa that were used in
1982 continued to be used in 1989, the case was
not the same in the Kathiawad peninsula (Table 1,

Fig- 4).

In 1989, we surveyed well protected
grasslands where floricans were seen in some
concentrations in 1982, but they were not present
in 1989 (Table 1). Their absence was further
verified by local vidi chowkidars , who strongly
asserted that floricans were absent, especially in
Bhavnagar, Junagadh and parts of Jamnagar.
However, a few isolated records particularly in
Rajkot and parts of Jamnagar indicated that a few
individuals were present. Barely one or two loca-
tions reportedly had territorial males. Thus, while
the odd individual must have been missed during
the survey, what was significant was the total
absence of breeding concentrations in the
Kathiawad peninsula in 1989. The only exception
was a small breeding population in Kutch (Fig. 4).

In all grasslands surveyed in 1989, where
floricans were located in 1982, the conditions for

breeding were suitable; a result of normal mon-
soons. During normal rainfall conditions, breed-
ing concentrations should have been present if the
population had remained stable between 1982 and
1989. The lack of sightings of breeding males in
the Kathiawad peninsula can therefore be at-
tributed to a significant drop in numbers.

This drop in population is also reflected in
the Malwa plateau, the core of the breeding range.
Though breeding males were seen in all surveyed
sites in all years, the drop in numbers is seen when
1986 and 1989 are compared. The 1986 drought
in Kathiawad resulted in a concentration of males
in the Malwa plateau (Sankaran 1991). In 1989,
though Kathiawad had normal rains there were
very few floricans there. Thus both in 1986 and
1989 the florican was present in significant num-
bers only in the Malwa plateau, as dispersal over
other parts of the breeding range was very low or
absent. Thus the trends in population can be
gauged by comparing populations at two separate
locations in the Malwa plateau in these two years.

In 1986 and 1989, eight grasslands around
Sailana were thoroughly surveyed. In 1986, 40
territorial males were located while in the same
grasslands only 19 territorial males were located
in 1989. In Dhar district, three grasslands were
common to the 1986 and 1989 surveys. In 1986
at these three sites, 40 male floricans were either
seen or reported (P.M. Lad, pers. comm. 1986),
while in 1989 only 18 males were seen or
reported.

Population estimate: Approximately 65
males were seen/reported during the 1989 survey.
In the Malwa plateau, 31 males were seen in
Ratlam, Dhar and Jhabua (Appendix 2) and 15-20
at Dohad; nine males were reported from the
Kathiawad peninsula and about five in Kutch.
Assuming an equal sex ratio, the number of birds
seen in the surveyed areas would be about 130.

Table 2

POPULATION ESTIMATE OF THE LESSER FLORICAN

Year

Total

Suitable

Male

Total male

Total

grassland grassland
area (sq. km) area

density
per sq. km

population

population

1982

7364.3

1914.72

1.142

2178

4374

1989

7364.3

1914.72

0.196

37

75

DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THE LESSER FLORICAN

163

Fig. 3. A comparison of the pre-1980 (above) and post-1980 (below) breeding ranges of the lesser florican.

164

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Fig. 4. A comparison of breeding records from localities surveyed in 1982 and 1989.

DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THE LESSER FLORICAN

165

The steps leading to a population estimate
for 1989 are given in Appendix 4. We estimate a
population of 750 birds in 1989 (Table 2).
Magrath et al. (1983, 1985) used number of
grasslands rather than grassland area in their es-
timate, and estimated a population of 362 birds in
three districts of Gujarat in 1982. The populations
in these three districts were re-estimated using our
method at 458 birds, 21% over their estimate. We
extrapolated the data collected by Magrath et al.
(1983, 1985) over the entire breeding range, and
estimated the 1982 population by our method as
4374 birds. Thus the reduction in population be-
tween 1982 and 1989 has been to the tune of 80%.

Reasons for Decline

Habitat loss: India supports the largest live-
stock population in the world. This has grown
from 292.02 million in 1951 to 415.94 million in
1982, an increase of 70.2% (Prasad and Bhatnagar
1988). Likewise, the area under agriculture has
also increased. The net result has been that the
grassland habitat available to the lesser florican
has decreased considerably over the years. For
instance, Jamnagar district of Gujarat alone had
1,619 sq. km of area classified as grassland in
1929-1930, (though what proportion of this was
ungrazed or lightly grazed is unknown), which by
1981 had decreased to 76 sq. km under govern-
ment control (Goriup and Karpowicz 1985). The
fall in lesser florican numbers has been simul-
taneous with the loss of habitat in its breeding
range.

Currently all optimal breeding habitat of the
lesser florican occur as fragmented pockets that
rarely exceed 1000 ha. Privately owned
grasslands are small (Range 4-350 ha., avg. 117
ha., n = 30). This sample is only of large
grasslands. Innumerable patches occur, upwards
of one eighth of a hectare, that are scattered
throughout croplands. Government owned
grasslands are larger (Range 22-2700 ha., avg.
532 ha., n = 53). Government owned grasslands
are of two kinds: reserved and non-reserved. The
former is strictly protected from grazing while
non-reserved grasslands do not receive protection

and are freely grazed. Non-reserved grasslands
are far more in number (at least 2-3 times) than
reserved grasslands, but because of an absence of
vegetation, are rarely used for breeding.

Habitat loss must have been a major reason
for the overall decline of this species. The fall in
numbers over the last decade, however, cannot be
attributed primarily to habitat loss. The 1989 sur-
vey specifically examined grasslands where
lesser floricans were present in 1982. The degree
of protection from grazing, the extent of the
grasslands, and the land use patterns had not
changed perceptibly at these sites. Grasslands
occur throughout the breeding range and their
extent and status has not changed sufficiently to
explain the drop in population between 1982 and
1989.

Hunting: There are many examples of a
species being hunted to extinction by man. Hunt-
ing has been a major factor for the rapid decline
of the lesser florican. In the past, lesser florican
shooting excursions were common and very
widespread. Bags of 10 or more birds were com-
mon during the breeding season in a morning’s
shoot. Photographs in the JBNHS (Baker 1912),
show two bags, one of 10 males and the other of
four males and two females, these perhaps being
the only published photographic evidence of
lesser florican shoots. Clearly, in the breeding
season, a strong bias existed towards the shooting
of males as they are territorial and conspicuous.

Magrath et al. (1983) doubted whether hunt-
ing was the major reason for the decline of the
lesser florican because: (1) floricans were heavily
hunted prior to 1947 without obvious effects, (2)
hunting affected mostly males which in this
promiscuous species may have been a harvestible
surplus, (3) the decline has been mainly on
farmland.

We believe, however, that hunting has
played a major role in directly reducing popula-
tions because: (1) hunting pressures prior to 1947,
as early as mid 1800s had prompted many to
document their perceptibly decreasing numbers
(e.g. Hume and Marshal 1879, Baker 1912); (2)
During the breeding season floricans were not

166

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

shot incidentally, but specifically, with such
‘organised’ hunts occurring frequently. During
the breeding season the male population of entire
grasslands were decimated in a morning’s shoot.
Re-colonisation of newly vacant territories
resulted in such planned hunts occurring
repeatedly within a season. Additionally, males
were snared at display sites, and females trapped
on the nest. Outside the breeding season floricans
were shot whenever found. The strong bias to-
wards the hunting of males in the breeding season
was absent during the non-breeding season, when
both sexes were equally inconspicuous.

Hunting, with guns or snares, continues to be
widespread. In fact, absence of floricans from
certain areas during the 1989 survey was cor-
roborated by local hunters who had specifically
sought the bird that season but failed to see any.

Drought: The entire breeding cycle of the
lesser florican is dependent on the south-west
monsoon (Sankara n 1991). Sub-optimal rainfall
results in poor breeding responses and drought
results in a failure to breed (Sankaran 1991). Thus
protracted drought conditions are the single
largest natural threat to this species.

Drought in western India is in our opinion
the primary cause for the significant drop in
population between 1982 and 1989. This drought
lasted for three years (1985 to 1987) in Gujarat,
and for one year (1987) all over western India,
which during the same period experienced one
year (1985) of sub-optimal rainfall. Up to 1984
the floricans occurred widely over the breeding
range and were locally common in many areas.
Post drought populations were perceptibly
smaller than populations in the pre-drought years.

We find corroboration in the observations of
vidi chowkidars in Gujarat. They noted the
presence of floricans prior to the droughts, in
some areas in ‘good numbers’, but since the
drought they have been absent or rarely seen.

Pesticides: Insects form a large part of the
diet of the lesser florican. The birds extensively
use crop fields during the breeding season and
presumably throughout the year. The effects of the
indiscriminate use of pesticides in agriculture on

the lesser florican, is unknown.

Non-breeding season mortality: The
wintering movements are still poorly understood
(Sankaran and Rahmani 1986). Grassland habitat
in peninsular India are almost completely
denuded, particularly in summer. The effect of the
loss of cover on the lesser florican is unknown.
One factor that may have contributed to their
overall decline may have been a high non-breed-
ing season mortality. Magrath et al. (1983) refuted
this because they found high occupancy rates in
suitable grasslands, which implied that the
population was limited by factors within the
breeding season.

The drift towards extinction: If the area
over which a species breeds is indicative of its
population, then the extent of reduction of the
breeding range is also indicative of the degree of
reduction in population. In 1989, in spite of nor-
mal rainfall, the lesser florican bred in some num-
bers only in the Malwa plateau, the Core of its
former breeding range. Its rarity or absence from
areas that were used extensively up to 1982 (pos-
sibly up to 1984), is strong indication of an abrupt
drop in populations. Only one conclusion can be
drawn from the 1982 and 1989 population es-
timates and the shrinking in the breeding range:
that this species is under a severe threat of extinc-
tion.

Gilpin and Soule (1986) classified extinction
into two kinds, deterministic and stochastic. They
noted that many extinctions are the result of deter-
ministic events (e.g. habitat loss or over-hunting)
which reduces the population to a size range
where stochastic events (e.g. severe droughts)
terminate it. The decline in the population of the
lesser florican is clearly identified with this
process. We identify two deterministic events that
have resulted in an overall decline in lesser
florican numbers: habitat destruction and sex-
biased over-hunting.

The widespread destruction of grassland
habitat has resulted in a fragmentation of breeding
habitat. As the species is nomadic and disperses
over a wide area during the breeding season
(Sankaran 1991), fragmentation and patchy dis-

DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THE LESSER FLORICAN

167

tribution of breeding habitat would result in an
increased search time both for mates and for op-
timal breeding habitat. This would cause delays
in initiating breeding. Moreover, in such patchily
distributed habitat there could also be increasing-
ly higher proportions of individuals nesting in
sub-optimal habitats (e.g. in crop fields) which
could decrease hatching success or survival rates
of young.

Sex-biased over-hunting alters sex ratios,
which could lead to a greater variation between
birth and death rates due, for instance, to increased
difficulty in finding mates (Gilpin and Soule
1986).

The above two causes of deterministic ex-
tinction steadily reduced the lesser florican
population, but till 1982 they were still not in
immediate danger of extinction (Magrath et al.
1983, 1985).

Environmental perturbations usually thin a
population but do not destroy it; once thinned, a
population is at increased risk from the same or
from a different kind of random event (Gilpin and
Soule 1986). Thus in this species the deterministic
extinction process resulted in the lesser florican
being vulnerable to any major random event. The
lesser florican has survived one such random
event, the drought between 1985 and 1987, with
a significant fall in population. However, deter-
ministic processes continue to exist, which
probably preclude any possibility of the species
recovering to a number capable of withstanding
another major environmental perturbation. With a
considerable part of western India being drought
prone (in some areas a drought is expected once
in three years), we believe that the lesser florican
now faces the real threat of stochastic extinction.

Conclusion

Extensive loss of habitat and severe hunting
pressures have been the primary causes for the
continuous decline in population of the lesser
florican over the last several, decades. We now
believe that the 1982 perception of the lesser
florican’s status stands altered. The species is now
under an increased threat of extinction. This

change in status can be attributed largely to the
droughts in western India between 1985 and 1987.
The threat from habitat loss and hunting con-
tinues, further threatening the species. We believe
that in all probability the population has fallen
well below levels from which it can recover; that
the species is drifting steadily towards extinction.

Acknowledgements

This study is a result of work under the
Endangered Birds Project of the Bombay Natural
History Society which was sponsored by the Min-
istry of Environment, Forests and Wildlife and
funded by the United States Fish and Wildlife
Service.

We gratefully acknowledge the help, advice,
hospitality and encouragement of several in-
dividuals and institutions, whose active support
proved invaluable. In alphabetic order: Humayun
Abdulali, Mehboob Alam, Dr. Salim Ali, P.A.
Aziz, V.S. Bhadoria, Renee Borges, Ravi Chel-
lam, A.S. Chavda, J.C. Daniel, Ajay Desai,
Mahendar Desai, K.S. Dharmakumarsinhji, Carl
D’ Silva, J.J. Dutta, David Ferguson; Forest
departments of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Rajas-
than, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Uttar Pradesh; Paul Goriup, Meena Haribal, M.K.
Himmatsinhji, S.A. Hussain; International Coun-
cil for Bird Preservation; Col. Jadeja of Jamnagar,
Narendra Sinh Jhalla, Yajuvendra Sinh Jhala,
A.J.T. Johnsingh, N.K. Joshi, Isaac Kehimkar,
Lavkumar Khacher, Shivrajkumar Khacher,
Pushp Kumar, Galden Lachungpa, P.M. Lad, Ran-
jit Manakadan, Dinesh Mishra, S.P. Mishra, Taej
Mundkur, Prof. R.M. Naik, Goutam Narayan,
Thakur of Omkalli, Rishad Parvez, N.D. Patel,
Asheesh Pittie, B.M.S. Rathore, S. Deb Roy, R.S.
Saxena, D.G. Sharma, V.D. Sharma, Arjan Singh,
Balram Singh, Hitendra Singh, Meera Balram
Singh, Narendra Singh, S.P. Sinha, Raja Sudar-
shan Deo Sinhji of Shahpura, R.G. Soni, Siraj
Taher, H.A. Vaishnav, Ajay Varadachary, D.R.
Verma, V.S. Vijayan. We also wish to thank Dr.
Ajit Kumar whose criticisms greatly improved
this paper.

168

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, HIST SOCIETY, Vol 89

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Dharmakumarsinhji, R.S. (1950): The Lesser Florican. /.

Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 49: 201-216.
Dharmakumarsinhji, R.S. (1954): Birds of Saurashtra. Bhav-
nagar.

Fellows, K. (1918): Occurrence of the Lesser Florican or
Likh (5. aurita ) in the Mahabaleshwar hills. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 289.

Ferguson, H.S. (1904): The Birds of Travancore /. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 16: 6.

Fleming, R. L. Sr., Fleming, R.L. Jr& Bangdel, L.S. (1979):
Birds of Nepal. Avalok Publ., Kathmandu.

Goriup, P.D. & Karpowicz, Z.J. (1981): An account of the
decline of the lesser florican in north-western India.
Unpubl. report. I.C.B.P., Cambridge.

Goriup, P.D. & Karpowicz, Z.J. (1985): A review of the past
and recent status of the lesser florican. Bustard Studies
3: 161-182.

Gilpin, M.E. & Soule, M.E. (1986): Minimum viable popula-
tions: Processes of species extinction, pp. 19-34. In:
Conservation biology. The science of scarcity and
diversity. M.E. Soule, ed. Sinauer Associated, Inc.
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Haribau M., Ganguu U. & Rahmani, A.R. (1985): The lesser
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1873: 415.

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Hewetson, C.E. (1955): Observations on the Bird Life of
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DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THE LESSER FLORICAN

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Hume, A.O. & Marshall, A.H.T. (1879): The game birds of
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the Konkan. J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 22: 202.

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Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87: 450.

Littledale, H. (1886): The Birds of South Gujarat. J. Bombay
nat Hist Soc. 1: 194-200.

Magrath, R.D., Ridley, M.W. & Woinarski, J.Z. (1983):
Status and habitat requirements of lesser florican
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Status and habitat requirements of lesser florican
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Feathers VIII(6): 491-492.

McMaster, A.C. (1817): Notes on Birds observed in the
neighbourhood of Nagpore and Kamptee (Central
Pr ovi nces) , Chi ka 1 da a nd Akol a i n B i ha r .J. Asiatic Soc.
Bengal 40: 207-215.

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Part III. J. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 45: 122-132.

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Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 22 (1): 201-202.

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nat Hist. Soc. 22: 545.

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ecological liability. Unpubl. Report State Forest Re-
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( Sypheotis aurita) out of season. J. Bombay nat. Hist
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Ranjitsinh, M.K. (1983): Occurrence of Lesser Florican
( Sypheotides indica) in Kanha National Park. J. Bom-
bay nat Hist Soc. 80: 641.

Ridley, M.W., Magrath, R.D. & Woinarski, J.C.Z. (1985):
Display leap of the lesser florican Sypheotides indica.

J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 82: 271-277.

Sankaran, R. & Rahmani, A.R. (1986): Study of ecology of
certain endangered species of wildlife and their
habitats. The lesser florican. Annual Report 2. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.

Sankaran, R. & Rahmani, A.R. (1988): Status of the Bengal
florican in the Dudwa National Park, pp 43-64. In: The.
Bengal Florican. Status and Conservation. Annual
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Sankaran, R. & Manakadan, R. (1990): Recent breeding
records of the lesser florican Sypheotides indica
(Miller) from Andhra Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 87: 294-296.

Sankaran, R. (1991): Some aspects of the breeding behaviour
of the lesser florican Sypheotides indica (J.F. Miller)
and the Bengal florican Houbaropsis bengalensis
(Gmelin). Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Bombay.

Saxena, V.S. & Meena, B.L. (1985): Occurrence of lesser
florican in forest plantations in Rajasthan, India. Bus-
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Suter, M.F. (1913): Florican in the Konkan. J. Bombay nat
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Symons, H.S. (1909): Occurrence of the Lesser Florican or
Likh Sypheotis aurita in the Konkan, Western, India. J.
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Ticehurst, C.B. (1924): The birds of Sind. Ibis : 501-502.

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170

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Yahya, H.S.A. (1982): Survey of the lesser florican in Mad-
hya Pradesh. Unpubl. report, Bombay Natural History
Society, Bombay.

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rao). Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Appendix 1

PRE-1980 DISTRIBUTION OF THE LESSER FLORICAN - A LITERATURE REVIEW

Place

No. of birds,

Date/Season

Source

other details

Rajasthan

1.

Sambhur Lake

Male

July 19

Adams 1873

Female

Start of rains

Adams 1874

2.

"Rajpootana"

-

Sept-Oct

Barnes 1886

"Rajpootana"

Very common

-

Barnes 1891

"Rajpootana"

Breeds

July-Sept

Jerdon 1864

Gujarat

1.

Deesa

7-8

Rains

Butler 1876

2.

Baroda

Eggs-chicks

Aug-Sept

Littledale 1886

3.

"Gujarat"

-

-

Barnes 1891

4.

"Kathiawar"

-

-

Anon. 1908

5.

"Wadhwan"

One female,
3 juveniles

Nov. 1, 1908

R.K. 1909

6.

Kathiawar

Abundant

Rains

Hayes 1873

7.

Saurashtra

489 ringed

Rains (1943-49)

Dharmakumarsinhji
1950, 1954

8.

"Gujarat"

Very common

June-Sept

Jerdon 1864

9.

Panch Mahal

One

Before 1912

Baker 1912

10.

Kutch

"plentiful"

Rains

Palin et al. 1904

11.

Gujarat ^

Kathiawar

_

Rains/breeding

Hume & Marshal 1879

Kutch

Rajkot )

Maharashtra

1.

Karjat Bhor Ghat

Female

Jan 20, 1935

Prater 1935

2.

Ratnagiri

One )

Lavel & Chiplun

Two

Vidal 1880

Dapuli

One )

3.

Sol a pur

Common

-

Butler 1880

Solapur

Common

Sept-Oct

Davidson & Wenden 1878

Solapur

‘many’

Rains/breeding

Hume & Marshal 1879

4.

Erandole

Moderate

-

Davidson 1887

(Dharamgaon)

numbers

Dharamgaon

Common

Rains/breeding

Hume & Marshal 1879

5.

Kapurna (Dhulia^

Common

\

Davidson 1887

6.

Nandurbar

Occasionally

Cold weather )

7.

Bombay

Juv. male

-

Abdulali 1969

Bombay Presidency

-

Aug. -Sept.

Barnes 1885

8.

Nagpur

-

Aug-Sept

D’Abreau 1935

DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THE LESSER FLORICAN

171

Place

No. of birds,
other details

Date/Season

Source

9.

Ratnagiri

Rare

-

Barnes 1891

10.

Panvel

One female

Jan 17, 1909 )

Symons 1909

11.

Mahalaxmi, Bombay

One

1899 J

12.

Satara

Female

Nov. 21, 1908

Khengarji 1909

13.

Madhwa-Alibaug

Female

Dec. 16, 1912 )

Kinnear 1913

Chiplun, Ratnagiri

One

Feb.7, 1913 j

14.

Mahabaleshwar

One

Apr. 1915

Fellows 1918

15.

Parel (Bombay)

Female

Sept.4, 1918

Marryat 1918

16.

Andheri-Malad

One

Dec. 1912 )

(Bombay)

I

Suter 1913

17.

Chinchavli-Neral

Female

Nov. 1908 )

18.

Churchgate Station

One

June, 8 1913 )

Times of India

Kalyan

One

Dec 1912 )

10 June 1913

19.

Akola

Male

August )

McMaster 1817

20.

Nagpur

Male

Oct 28 )

21

‘Deccan’

Cold season

Jerdon 1864

22.

Wardha/Chanda

Rare

-

Blanford 1871

23.

Khandesh )

Probably )

Nasik

Common

throughout

Ahmednagar j

the year j

Hume & Marshal 1879

Western parts of )

-

l

‘Central provinces’ |

Rains/

Khandesh )

-

breeding j

Madhya Pradesh

1.

Neemuch

-

Sept-Oct

Barnes 1886

2.

Sirguja

Female

Jan

Ball 1874

3.

Sardarpore

Three

Apr 1910

Tyrrell 1910

4.

Indore

Male

Aug-Sept

Ali 1939

Sardarpur

2 males

1938

5.

"Central Province"

-

Aug-Sept

D’Abreau 1935

6.

Nimar

-

-

flewetson 1955

7.

Goona (Guna)

-

Mar-Dec 1867

King 1868

8.

"Central India"

-

Rains \

9.

Malwa (Ratlam)

i

Jerdon 1864

10.

Indore

i

11.

Saugor (Dhar)

Few

Hot weather )

12.

Kanha

Female

June 1969

Ranjitsinh 1983

13.

Western parts of

‘Central Provinces’

-

Rains/breed

Hume & Marshal 1879

& ‘Central India Agency

Haryana

1. Rohtak
Gurgaon

2. Hissar

Common
Common
One male
Two males
One male

Monsoon ) Hume & Marshal 1879

Monsoon )

July 1913 \

Aug 8, 23
Sept 6, 24 )

Whistler 1914

172

JOURNAL, , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Place

No. of birds,
other details

Date/Season

Source

Uttar Pradesh

1. Allahabad

One pair

July 16, 1881

Markham 1887

2. Saharanpur
(Koomarheira)

One

1872

Butler 1887

3. Gorakhpur

Small nos.

Rains

Osmaston 1913

4. Ganges Bank

5. ‘Oudh’ \

—

Apr-May

Jerdon 1964

Sultanpur

Single

-

Lucknow
Meerut district
Etawah district )

specimens

Hume & Marshal 1879

6. Jhansi

Common

-

Hume & Marshal 1879

Bihar

1. Purnea

Occasional

May-June

Jerdon 1864

2. Purnea & Nuddeah

Straggler

Apr-May

Baker 1912

West Bengal

1. Hasimara Estate

A male

June 1911

O’Donel 1913

2. Nuddea

One

Apr-May

Baker 1912

3. Neora Nuddy Estate

9

-

Inglis et al. 1920

4. Malda

-

-

Hennessy 1912

Orissa

1. Sambalpur

Several

-

Ball 1876

2. South of Mahanadi

-

-

Ball 1878

3. Cuttack

One

-

Blanford 1898

Andhra Pradesh

1. Rajamundhry

A female

June 1881 \

Rajamundhry

3-4

Dec-Jan

Tostem 1887

2. Nellore

‘Plenty’

)

3. Coconada
(Samulkotta)

4-5

—

Mclnroy 1879

4. Waltair (Razan)

1

\

Cox 1899

5. Godavari district

-

)

Godavari district

A female

June

Whistler 1936

6. Northern Circars

-

-

Jerdon 1864

Karnataka

1. Dharwar

Common

2. Belgaum

Few

All year )

Butler 1880

3. Mysore

One

1928-43

Ali 1943

4. "Kanara"

Rare

-

Barnes 1891

5. Bangalore

One

14 Dec 1911

Betham 1911

6. "Mallur"

30

\

Mclnroy 1879

7. East Mysore

Numerous

)

8. Halyal, North
Kanara

1-2

April

Davidson 1898

9. Tumkur

One

Before 1912

Baker 1912

DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THE LESSER FLORICAN

173

Place

No. of Birds

Date/Season

Source

10. South Kanara

-

Cold weather )

Mysore

October to
Feb-Mar )

Jerdon 1864

11. Bangalore

‘Numerous’

Rains & )

Cold weather

Anderson 1883

Shimoga

Good many

Hot weather )

12. Belikeri

Female

-

Abdulali 1969

Tamil Nadu

1. Sholavandan, Madura

One

March 20, 1904

Nichols 1944

2. Madras

One

Whistler & Kinnear 1935

3. Trichi

Nest

October 1935 /

4. Trichi

Female

October

Jerdon 1864

5. Nilgiri slopes

One

-

Davison 1887

6. ‘Madras’

(Tamil Nadu)

—

Aflalo 1904

7. Carnatic

-

Oct to Feb-Mar

Jerdon 1864

Kerala

1. Trivandrum

One

1876

Ferguson 1904

2. Malabar Coast

Few

July-Nov

Jerdon 1864

Pakistan

1. South-western
Corner of Sind

-

Good )

Monsoons

Gadap

-

l

Sapoora

-

I

Ticehurst 1924

Moach plains

8 shot

August

Upper Sind

Few

Cold weather )

2. Eastern coastal
Makran

-

\

Baluchi side of
Hab river

15

Rains

1

Ticehurst 1927

Onnarra

2

1

Gili, Hungol River

1

10 Sept. )

4. Sapoora, Baluchi
side of Hubb river

—

Aug. -Oct.

Hume 1875

5. Hubb plains

1 egg

-

Murray 1890

6. Around Kafachi

10-30 couples

Aug. & Sept.

Hume 1873

Nepal

1. South-east of

Patan, Kathmandu valley

3

Monsoons

Fleming et al. 1979

Burma

1. Sandoway, Arrakan
coast

1

Anon. 1835
cf. Jerdon 1864

Appendix 2

POST 1980 DISTRIBUTION OF THE LESSER FLORICAN — A SUMMARY OF STATUS SURVEYS

174

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DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THE LESSER FLORICAN

177

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178

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Appendix 3

1980-1991- RECORDS FROM LITERATURE OR FROM AREAS OTHER THAN THOSE SURVEYED

State

Locatio

Date/Season

Source

Andhra Pradesh

Rollapadu

Winter, Summer

Sankaran & Manakadan 1990

Kurnool dist.

&Rains; Breeding

Andhra Pradesh

Hyderabad

1 November 1986

Siraj Taher pers. comm.

Andhra Pradesh

Patancheru near Medak

1 November 1984

Siraj Taher pers. comm.

Kerala

Karunaga pally,

14 Jan. 1989

Krishnan 1990

Quilon dist.

Madhya Pradesh

Near Sehore

Rains/Breeding

P.P. Dhar pers. comm

Madhya Pradesh

Karera Bustard

Jan., June,

Haribal et al. 1985

Sanctuary

July, August

Maharashtra

Nagpur

Jan. 1982

M. Chitampalli pers. coijim.

Rajasthan

Pinwada Seroi,

Monsoons/

F. S. Rathore pers. comm.

Pali dist.

breeding

Rajasthan

Athun Ganeshpur

1 August 1983/ \

Nasirabad-Kekri rd

breeding

Saxena & Meena 1985

Ajmer dist.

i

Rajasthan

Ajmer dist./ Gagwana,

Monsoons/ )

Arain, Mangaliyawas,

breeding

Saxena & Meena 1985

Ramsar, Goyla, Ratakot

& Bandar

)

Uttar Pradesh

Dudwa Tiger Reserve

1981

Tyabji 1982

Uttar Pradesh

Dudwa Tiger Reserve

May/June

Sankaran & Rahmani 1988

Pakistan

Makran, Lasbella

Breeding (1989)

T.J. Roberts pers. comm. 1989

Pakistan

North Lahore

Summer

1!

near Ravi river

Pakistan

Dadu dist., Sind

September 1988

!»

Pakistan

Kasur dist.

Breeding (July 1986)

Roberts 1991

Sukh Beas river

Breeding (July 1987)

Roberts 1991

Nepal

Shukla Phanta

Summer

B.B. Thapa pers. comm. 1989

Appendix 4

1989 POPULATION ESTIMATE OF THE LESSER FLORICAN

The male lesser florican population in 1982 and
1989 was estimated from the relation:

Pm = Ta*Pg*Ps*Dm

where Pm = Male population, Ta = Total breeding
range, Pg = Proportion of grasslands in Ta, Ps = Proportion
of grassland suitable for lesser florican in total grassland
area (Pg), Dm = Density of lesser florican.

1. Ta = Total breeding range
Total area of the present breeding range (actual and
possible) of the lesser florican. Area of districts where
floricans are/were/could breed (Source: Manorama Year
Book 1989).

Gujarat (19 districts) 196084 sq. km

Madhya Pradesh (8 districts) 59222 sq. km

Rajasthan (10 districts) 87218 sq. km

342524 sq. km

2. Pg = Proportion of grassland in Ta

Estimated from data available for 3 districts (Jam-
nagar, Junaghad and Rajkot) in Gujarat (Magrath et al.
1983).

Total area of the 3 districts 35935 sq. km

Mean area for each grassland type (in sq. km):
Reserved grasslands (173.17 sq. km, n=38) 4.56

Non-reserved grasslands (16.70 sq. km, n=9) 1.86

Private grasslands (25.12 sq. km, n=22) 1.14

Total no. of grasslands present of each category:
Reserved grasslands 71

Non-reserved grasslands 198

Private grasslands 70 (estimated)

Thus Pg = (4.56*71)+(1. 86* 198)+(1. 14*70)/ 35935
= 0.0215

Total

DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THE LESSER FLORICAN

179

This was extrapolated over the entire breeding range
and a constant grassland area for both 1982 and 1989
was arrived at: $42524 * 0.0215 = 7364.3 sq. km of
grasslands within the breeding range.

3. Ps = Proportion of grassland in Pg on which
male lesser florican were recorded (Magrath et al. 1983).

Out of 219.76 sq. km of grasslandlsurveyed in 1982,
lesser florican were recorded in 56.92 sq. km.

Thus Ps = 56.92/219.76 = 0.26

This was extrapolated over the entire breeding range
and a constant suitable grassland area for both years was
arrived at : = 7364.3*0.26 = 1914.72 sq. km

4. Dm = density of male florican in each year

1982: 65 males in 56.92 sq. km of grassland =

1.142/sq. km

Thus, in grasslands over entire breeding range =
1.142*1914.72 = 2187 males

1989: 65 males seen/reported in 332.13 sq. km =
0.196/sq. km

Thus, over entire breeding range = 0.196*1914.72
= 375 males

Limitations of the estimate:

a) This estimate is based on the extent of grassland
habitat within the breeding range. It has been extrapolated
based on data available for 3 districts (Magrath et al.
1983). Thus the accuracy of this estimate depends on
whether or not data in Magrath et al. (1983) is complete.

b) Not all the males in a grassland were seen during
the survey. Our estimate assumes that 100% were seen,
thus underestimating the population.

c) In 1989 we visited only those well protected
grasslands where floricans were known to breed. Our
assessment of these grasslands was that they continued
to be good breeding habitats. The 1982 survey (Magrath
et al. 1983) covered optimal, sub-optimal and unsuitable
habitats both to assess population and also to study the
habitat requirements of the lesser florican (Magrath et
al. 1985), the latter not being the objective in 1989. While
the area of all grasslands surveyed in 1989 has been used
to calculate density, only those on which lesser florican
were found in 1982 have been used for calculating (i)
the proportion of grassland used by floricans and (ii)
densities for that year. Disparities arising out of this have
not been accounted for.

FORAGING HABITS AND NEST STRUCTURE OF MACROTERMES
ESTHERAE DESNEUX (ISOPTERA: TERMITIDAE)1

K. SUDHAKAR2 AND G.K. VEERESH3

The foraging and nest structure of Macrotermes estherae Desneux (Isoptera: Termitidae)
in an Agro-Forest ecosystem at the Agricultural Research Station, Chintamani, Karnataka are
described. Foraging was observed after dusk on dry leaves and twigs of Eucalyptus and dried
Cynodott dactylon grass. Foraging increased with the onset of monsoon and decreased there-
after. The dome-shaped subterranean nest was built of moist earth at a depth of 60 cm. The
tiered chambers had fungus combs in between. The royal cell was situated at the base, below
the lowest tier of chambers. There were 11 small and large holes present laterally for the move-
ment of soldiers and workers. The royal cell held physogastric queen, a king, soldiers (major
and minor), workers (major and minor) and nymphs.

Introduction

The foraging habits of termites are highly
variable in different species. Some termites form
earthen tubes with soil and saliva to guard their
foraging lines so that the workers are not ex-
posed to their natural enemies like ants. Some
use dried fallen leaves as a cover over their
forage tunnels. Similarly the time at which
foraging is carried out is species specific. The
internal structures of termite nests may also vary
depending on their foraging habits.

Andrews (1911) made detailed studies on
these aspects of Nasuititermes sp.; Wood et al.
(1977) of Trinervitermes geminatus Was man;
Roonwal (1970) of T. biformis, and Nutting
(1970) of Teneurostritermes tenurostris.

Macrotermes estherae Desneux is
prevalent in Karnataka state and very little is
known about its foraging habits and nest. Bug-
nion (1915) and Roonwal (1970) reported that
the workers and soldiers of M. estherae march
in columns under leaves. Roonwal (1970)
reported that the nest of M. estherae is subter-
ranean and that they build no mounds but for
small earthen hillocks of about 2 to 8 cm height.
It was also reported that the nest consists of gal-

1 Accepted October 1990

2Regional Agricultural Research Station, Nandyal,

Andhra Pradesh 518 503.

department of Entomology, University of Agricultural
Sciences, Bangalore 560 065.

leries and chambers. However, detailed informa-
tion on foraging, internal architecture of the
nest, fungus combs, royal cell etc., are wanting.
Hence a detailed study on the above aspects was
made and the information obtained is presented
in this paper.

Material and Methods

The study was undertaken in a locality
where cultivated and forest areas were present
side by side. During the years 1979-1983 obser-
vations were recorded at the Agricultural Re-
search Station, Chintamani (University of
Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore) which is
situated adjacent to a forest. The termite
specimens were collected and preserved in 70%
alcohol, and were indentified by the Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta, as M. estherae.

Frequent and general observations were
made in the field at dusk, dawn, day and night
on the foraging habits. Night investigations were
carried out using torch lights. In addition, wood
and dung pieces as baits were placed about 20 m
apart along the field bunds in the cultivated field
and forest area, and weekly observations were
carried out from February 1981 to December
1982 on the termites attracted to the baits. The
area of foraging activity was demarcated,
measured and assessed based on the spread of
the foraging holes and the source of food.

To study the character of the nest and its
contents, the points of probable location of nest

FORAGING HABITS AND NEST STRUCTURE OF M. ESTHERAE

181

underground were identified by the presence of
small earthen lumps of soil of large sized par-
ticles compared to of Odontotermes and
Microtermes , each weighing about 3 to 6 kg.
The pits were dug out very carefully with the
help of crowbar and spade to reach the nest.

Results and Discussion

Foraging habit: The workers of M. es-
therae come out of small holes of 0.8 cm
diameter and move in columns to the source of
food. The columns of workers are not covered
with any earthen sheathing unlike in other
species such as Odontotermes obesus. They
forage on dry fallen leaves, twigs of Eucalyptus ,
dry blades of Cynodon dactylon and dried bits of
a bushy plant, Canthium parviflora. It was ob-
served that they rarely fed on dung pads spread
in the field, while wooden pieces were not fed
upon. They actively foraged during the night,
and occasionally in the cool hours of early
morning or late evening. This is probably be-
cause of the non-sheathing (tube formation)
habit of the species. Foraging activity was ab-
sent or very low when there was fall of dew at
night accompanied by low temperature. Forag-
ing activities increased with the onset of mon-
soon and decreased by November-December
with the cessation of rains and the onset of
humid winter weather.

Foraging groups consisted of soldiers
(major and minor) and workers (major and
minor) that went out in columns of single or
double rows. The major soldiers guard near the
foraging hole from inside while the minor sol-
diers accompanied the workers, guarding them.
Roonwal (1970) reported that workers and sol-
diers of M. estherae go out for foraging in a
column under the leaves, but in the present
study it was observed that the termites moved
openly without the cover of leaves. The foraging
holes were distributed on the surface to about 20
m away from the nest. Subterranean galleries
connect the foraging holes with the nest. The
foraging holes were covered with small conical

solid earthen caps of 4 to 5 cm height. This is
very typical of this species.

As and when the forage group comes out, a
hole is made in this structure for the exit of
workers. Roonwal (1970) has reported on the
presence of subterranean galleries as well as on
the small earthen hillocks of about 2-8 cm
height. In a one square metre area 4-5 forage
holes were noticed from which the workers
moved out and foraged in a radius of one metre.
Workers and soldiers climbed on to the plant,
cut the leaves and bark and worked on the
material to break it to pieces. The food material
was carried by individual workers or by groups
and 2-3 cm long pieces were taken into the
foraging holes.

Soldiers helped workers in peeling out bark
by beating with their head and mandibles. The
soldiers were so sensitive that even minor dis-
turbances triggered them to respond by making
a rustling sound by beating their heads on the
substratum, where upon workers moved, leaving
the food material to quickly re-enter the holes.
In such emergencies soldiers were the last to
enter, allowing other members first. When all
the members had entered, workers closed the
holes with moistened soil particles, brought
from inside. Once the holes were closed, they
were not opened to admit termites that arrived
late, and tapped at the closed entrance from out-
side. Those that remained outside were eventual-
ly picked up by predatory ants. Similar
observations of foraging was recorded on the
open forager, Tenurostritermes tenuirostris in
Southern Arizona by Nutting (1970).

Nest structure: There are no detailed
reports available on the structure of the under-
ground nest of M. estherae royal cell and fungus
comb. However, Roonwal (1970) has reported
that the nest consists of a system of com-
municating galleries and chambers made in al-
most dry soil, running horizontally in different
directions for a distance of about 100 m or more.

It was observed in the present study that by
November-December soil mounds of larger par-

182

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

tide size weighing about 3-6 kg were formed on
the ground surface. These mounds were formed
by the excavated soil carried out by the workers
while making the nest with tunnels and cham-
bers to accommodate royal cell and fungus
combs. In this excavated soil a central tunnel
leads to the nest but the external opening of the
tunnel remains closed. The excavated earth
mixed with saliva becomes hard, forming the
mound. The mound had the following physico-
chemical composition:

Coarse sand 29.50%, Fine sand 42.50%,
Silt 4.2%, Clay 19.5%, pH 5.4%, Organic carb-
on 0.24%, Total Nitrogen 0.03%, Available
average P2 O5 5.08 ppm, Available K2 O 4.10
ppm.

Such mounds gave an indication of the
presence of the nest of M. estherae under-
ground. When the mound was removed and soil
excavated, the nest was found at a depth of 60
cm. The underground nest was 24-25 cm in
diameter. It was dome-shaped, soft and brittle
like a newly made mud pot which easily breaks
at the slightest touch, but soon became hard
when exposed to outside atmosphere. The verti-
cal section of the nest indicated that there are
three tiers of chambers around a central vertical
pillar-like column of leftover earth. The royal
cell is situated at the bottom of the nest below
the lowest tier of chambers. These chambers and
communicating galleries of different tiers are
further interconnected with galleries for the
movement of workers and soldiers.

Royal cell: The royal cell was made of
fine soil with smooth walls with occasional
small depressions. The roof was hemispherical
in shape. The cell had a circumference of 32 cm,
diameter of 11 cm and a height of 1.6 to 1.7 cm.
Laterally there were small holes of 0.3 to 0.4 cm
diameter each and larger holes of 0.5 to 0.6 cm
for the movement of workers, soldiers (minor
and major) and nymphs. The larger holes were
used by the major soldiers. In all there were 10
to 11 holes.

Inmates of the royal cell: The royal cell
held a physogastric queen, a king by the side of
the queen, soldiers (major and minor), workers
(major and minor), and nymphs. Eggs were not
seen in the royal cell at the time of observation.

Castes in Royal Cell:

Queen: 3-5 cm long, 0.8 cm broad at the
abdomen, dark brown with pale intersegmental
membrane. King : One centimetre long and dark
brown. Nymphs: Pale white, around the queen
close to the sides of the body, especially ab-
domen. More nymphs than workers or soldiers
were present in the royal cell. Soldiers: Next to
nymphs the major soldiers were most numerous
in the royal cell. They were seen surrounding the
queen in a characteristic defensive position, with
heads towards the periphery of the cell. Some
soldiers blocked the holes of the royal cell with
their heads. Some minor soldiers were observed
carrying nymphs. Workers moved in and around
the royal cell. Fungus combs: In the chambers
of the tiers of the nest. Ear-shaped fungus combs
were found inserted loosely. They were 9 cm
long and 4.5 cm broad, greyish white with black
and shaped like a human ear on the broader side;
this is peculiar to this species. White spherical
masses of conidia were present on the fungus
combs. Roonwal (1970), however, reported that
fungus combs in M. estherae were small and
about 5 cm in diameter, with cavities having
convolutions like those in the human ear.

Chemical analysis revealed that the fungus
comb contained 0.36% nitrogen, 0.04% phos-
phorus, and 0.06% potassium. Wood and Sands
(1978) reported 0.68, 0.07 and 0.10% of
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium respectively
in old fungus combs of M. bellicosus (Sneth-
man).

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. A. Venugopal Rao,
Entomologist, Regional Agricultural Research
Station, Nandyal for his critical and valuable
suggestions.

FORAGING HABITS AND NEST STRUCTURE OF M. ESTHERAE

183

References

Andrews, E.A. (1911): Observations on termites in Jamaica.
J. Anint. Behav. 1 : 193-228.

Bugnion, E., (1915): La Biologic de termites de Ceylon.

Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist Nat. Paris 20: 170-204.
Nutting, W.L. (1970): Free diurnal foraging by North
American Nasuitiform termite, Tenuirostritermes
tenuirostris (Isoptera: Termitidae). PAN - Pacific En-
tomol. 46: 39-42.

Roonwal, M.L. (1970): Termites of the Oriental Region. In:
Biology of termites, Vol. II. Eds. K. Krishna and F.M.
Weesner. Academic Press, New York and London, pp.

315-391.

Wood, T.G. Johnson, R.A, Ohiagu, C.E., Colons, N.M &
Longhurt, C. (1977): Foraging and food consump-
tion. In: Ecology and importance of termites in crops
and pastures in Nigeria. Project Report, Tropical
Development and Research Institute, London.

Wood, T.G. & Sands, W.A. (1978): The role of termites in
an ecosystem. In: Production Ecology of ants and ter-
mites. Ed. M.V. Brain, Cambridege University Press,
London.

SOME ADDITIONS TO THE ORCHID FLORA OF ORISSA1

O.P. Misra2, D.C.S. Raju3 and S.C. Misra4

Introduction

Attempts were made during the last ten
years to study the native orchids of Orissa.
Several field trips to the forest tracts of Koraput,
Kalahandi, Mayurbhanj and Sundergarh districts
were made and collections of both terrestrial and
epiphytic orchids obtained which were cul-
tivated to observe the flowers wherever neces-
sary. As many as 80 species have been collected
so far, and these include all the species listed by
Panigrahi and Raju (1964), Kapoor (1964), and
the orchids already described by Haines (1925)
from Bihar. Some new localities were found for
the orchids hitherto known only from Sikkim
Himalaya and Western Ghats. Brief notes on
taxonomy, distribution and ecological aspects of
six epiphytic orchids are given in this paper.

Dendrobium cathcartii Hook.f. in FI. Brit.
Ind. 5: 727, 1890. King et Pantling in Ann. R.
Bot. Gard. Cal.8; t. 57, 1898.

Epiphytes with many slender, erect stems
30-50 cm tall. Leaves many, linear-lanceolate,
obliquely notched at the apex, 10-15 cm long
and 1.2 cm wide. Rowers in fascicles of two
from intemodes, small, golden yellow pedicels
slender, up to 1-5 cm long. Sepals lanceolate ex-
cept doisal one; petals much narrower, elliptic
oblong, marked purple, column short.

Flowering: May.

Distribution: Sikkim Himalayas up to
1200 m

Orissa: Mayurbhanj district, Simlipal
Hills. S.C. Misra 72 (CAL).

This is the first record of the plant outside
the type locality in Sikkim. The species seems to
prefer humid tropical climate and occurrence of

Accepted March 1991

2Botanical Survey of India, Allahabad,

Uttar Pradesh 211 002.

3Botanical Survey of India, Howrah 711103.

the plant on Meghasihi indicates the possible
distribution of the species in the Eastern Ghats.

D. cathcartii Hook.f. can be easily iden-
tified from Dendrobiums in Orissa by the
slender shoots bearing bamboo- or palm-like
leaves and small yellow flowers in fascicles on
intemodes.

Dendrobium pequanum Lindl. in Jour.
Linn. Soc. 3: 19, 1859; D. pygmaeum Lindl.
Gen. Sp. Orch. 85, 1830 (non Smith ex Rees
1808): King and Pantling in Ann. R. bot. gard.
Cal. 8: 43, t. 58, 1898. Haines, Bot. Bihar &
Orissa, 1173, 1925. Sant. & Kapadia, Orchids of
Bombay 84, 1966.

A very small epiphytic orchid with short
(1 cm) ovoid pseudobulbs covered with
membranous sheath and leafless at the time of
flowering. Rowers white, in 2-3 short racemes
borne at the apical part of pseudobulbs. Sepals
pale green, oblong-lanceolate, laterals decum-
bent; petals white; lip pale green, midlobe suf-
fused with purple, crisped. Leaves two, terminal,
caducous, linear oblong, up to 6-7 cm x 1.4 cm.

Flowering: October.

Distribution: Sikkim Himalaya, Jaspur in
Bihar, Burma; on Western Ghats in Konkan and
N. Kanara.

Orissa: Sundergarh district, Koira forest,
Koraput district, Mattili forest. S.C. Misra 30
(CAL).

This small orchid inhabits branches of trees
under high rainfall conditions and as such is
rarely collected in India. A flowering specimen
was put in cultivation by D.C.S. Raju at Calcutta
and leaves were observed.

Bulbophyllum careyanum (Hook.)
Spreng. Syst. Veg. 3: 732, 1826; Hook.f., R.
Brit. Ind. 5: 760, 1890, King and Pantling in
Ann. R. bot. Gard. Cal. 8: 71, t. 97, 1898;
Seidenf. & Smitin. Orch. Thailand 428, t. 321,
1961.

ADDITIONS TO THE ORCHID FLORA OF ORISSA

185

Anisopetalum careyanum Hooker, Exotic
Flora 1. 149, 1825.

Epiphytes with thick rhizomes bearing
ovoid pseudobulbs at intervals. Leaves solitary,
elliptic-lanceolate, 15-20 x 2.5-5 cm. Scape
bearing a short cylindrical raceme which is
decurved. Flowers dark brown, many, small,
subtended by lanceolate bracts. Sepals unequal,
dorsal one small (0.7 x 0.3 cm), laterals ovate,
cohering by their tips. Pedicels 3-4 mm. Petals
orange yellow, much smaller than sepals, nar-
rowly triangular. Lip longer than petal, oblong,
with two falcate lateral lobes, minutely ciliate;
column with two lateral teeth and curved foot.

Flowering: October-December.

Distribution: Nepal (type locality), Sik-
kim Bhutan, Burma, Thailand.

Orissa: Sundergarh District, Chunaghat
(1800 m). S.C. Misra 39 (CAL)

This is the first record of the species from
Chhotanagpur plateau. The occurrence of this
plant in Orissa is correlated with the pattern of
tropical monsoon climate prevailing in Thailand,
Burma and north Himalaya with high rainfall
ranging from 150-300 cm per year.

Sarcochilus luniferus (Reichb. f.) Hook.f.
in Bot. Mag. t. 7044, 1889 et FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 37,
1890; King and Pantling in Ann. R. Bot. Gard.
Cal. 8: 207, 1898. Thrixisperumum luniferum
Reichb. f. in Gard. Chr. 786, 1868. Chilochista
lunifera J.J.Sm., FI. Buitenz. 6: 553, 1905. Sant.
& Kapad. Orch. Bombay 209, 1966.

Small epiphytes with thick green roots.
Stem very minute, bearing two small linear lan-
ceolate leaves, 2.5 x 0.5 cm, narrowed at base,
acute at apex. Scape up to 10 cm long, thicken-
ing upwards, pubescent, bearing 4-6 flowers in a
lax raceme. Flowers small, mustard brown, 1.3
cm in diameter, almost sessile; sepals and petals
dull yellow, spotted with mustard brown. Lip in-
flexed, lateral lobes curving upwards and in-
wards, has a pouch like a baby-shoe at the base
of middle lobe, column very short.

Flowering: June, but much earlier under
cultivation.

Distribution: Sikkim, N. Kanara, Burma
and Java.

Orissa: Sundergarh district, in Koira forest.
S.C. Misra 43 (CAL).

This is the first record of the plant from
Chhotanagpur plateau and indicates the con-
tinuous distribution of the species in monsoon
forests of south-east Asia.

Santapau and Kapadia follow J.J. Smith
(1905) in treating this species under Chilochista,
a genus erected on the basis of leaflessness.
Parish observed leafy condition in S. luniferus
cultivated at Kew and we confirm his statement
from observations on the plant from Orissa. We
follow Schlechter (Di-Orchid 533, 1927)

Hook.f. (l.c.) and Holttum (1953) in maintaining
Sarcochilus R.Br.

Acampe ochracea (Lindl.) Ochr. in Bull.
N.V. Bot. Gard. 6: 270, 1910. Saccolabium
ochraceum Lindl. in Bot. Reg. Misc. 2, 1842;
Hook.f., FI. Brit. Ind. 5: 62, 1890.

Epiphytes with erect or pendulous stems.
Leaves coriaceous, many, oblong, 15 x 2 cm,
sheathed at base, unequally lobed at apex. In-
florescence 20 cm long, panicles lax, branching.
Flowers yellow, pedicelled and bracteate. Sepals
and petals similar, 2.5 mm long, obovate, yellow
with reddish transverse marking; lip small, 3-
lobed, pinkish; capsule up to 3 cm long. Spur
oblong, parallel to the ovary; column short, with
two lateral horns.

Flowering: December.

Distribution: Sikkim Himalaya,

Meghalaya, Burma, Sri Lanka and Western
Ghats.

Orissa: Mayurbhanj district. S.C. Misra 67
(CAL).

This plant seems to be well adapted to
monsoonal climate (areas with precipitation of
200 cm and above). Absence of suitable ecologi-
cal niches in Coromandel coast is probably the
reason for its discontinuous distribution in the
Eastern Ghats. This species can be distinguished
in the field from A. praemorsa by the lax
panicles and unequally lobed leaf apex.

186

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Cottonia peduncularis (Lindl.) Reichb.f.
in Cat. Orchid. Schiller 52, 1857; Hook.f., FI.
Brit. Ind. 6: 26, 1896. Vanda peduncularis Lindl.
Gen. Sp. Orch. 216, 1833. Cottonia macro-
stachys Wight, Icon. 5(1) 21, 1. 1755, 1851.

Epiphytic orchid with erect cylindrical stem,
and many aerial roots. Leaves several, oblong,
recurved, sheathing at base, apex with two unequal
rounded lobes. Inflorescence quite long, up to 75
cm, branched, flowers very few in a raceme at apex
of peduncle branches, bracteate, pedicellate, usually
opening one at a time. Pedicel 2 cm long, sepals and
petals recurved backwards, obovate oblong, 8 mm,
light yellow with longitudinal purple lines. Lip very
conspicuous, resembling a bee sitting on flower, 1
cm long, purple with golden yellow villous margin.
Column without foot, with two short projections
forming a ledge. Capsule fusiform, 5-6 cm long.

Flowering: March-May.

Distribution: Western Ghats (India) and
Sri Lanka.

Orissa: Koraput district, Mohulbhatta
forest near Jeypur. S.C. Misra 16 (CAL).

This interesting orchid is so far only
recorded from Western Ghats in parts of
Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Kerala. Its occur-
rence in the Eastern Ghats of Orissa indicates
the availability of humid tropical condition to
which this species is adapted.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dickens Bowling of Jodrel
Laboratory, Kew for useful discussions on the
propagation of orchids and the Director, Botani-
cal Survey of India, for help and guidance.

R EFERENCES

Panigrahi, G. & Raju, D.C.S.(1964): A contribution to the nat Hist. Soc. 61: (2): 354-69.

Botany of Orissa. Bull. hot. Survey. Ind. 6: 259. Haines, H.R. (1925): Botany of Bihar and Orissa. London.

Kapoor, S.L. (1964): Contribution to our knowledge of the Holttum, R.E. (1953): Flora of Malaya Orchids,
flora of the Mahendragiri Hills of Orissa. J. Bombay

COMPARATIVE ECOLOGY OF THE CAPPED LANGUR PRESBYTIS
PILEATA BLYTH IN TWO FOREST TYPES IN BANGLADESH1

Craig B. Stanford 2
( With three text-figures)

The ecology of the capped langur Presbytis pileata in moist deciduous and wet semi-
evergreen forests in Bangladesh are compared. In moist deciduous Shorea robusta forest,
capped langurs, occupy smaller home ranges, travel shorter distances each day, and occur at
higher population density than in semi evergreen forest. The species is more highly folivorous
in moist deciduous forest than it is when sympatric with Presbytis phayrei and other primate
species in wet semi -evergreen forest. A breakdown of the diet of the species in each habitat is
presented, and the results are discussed in terms of seasonal food availability influences on
group size and ranging patterns.

Introduction

A number of investigators have observed
that the ecology of a given species of non-
human primate may vary greatly depending on
the type of environment in which it is studied.
The effect of such habitat variation on group
size, structure and behaviour is an area of much
interest in the formation of ideas about the im-
portance of different influences on primate so-
cial organisation. Some primate species, such as
Hanuman langurs Presbytis entellus , exhibit
striking variability in social organisation with an
unclear relationship to habitat type (Vogel 1973,
Mohnot 1971), while other species (gibbons, for
example) are relatively invariant in social or-
ganisation across a wide spectrum of envi-
ronments.

The capped langur Presbytis pileata Blyth
1843, is a colobine monkey inhabiting the east-
ern portion of the Indian subcontinent. P.
pileata’s geographic range is western Burma,
the north-eastern states of India and central and
eastern Bangladesh. Pocock (1928, 1939)

reports Presbytis pileata in the eastern Bay of
Bengal region in Assam and Burma, but both he
and Fooden (1971) state R pileata and another

Accepted June 1990.

department of Anthropology, University of California,
Berkeley, CA 94720, U.S.A. Present address : Dept, of
Anthropology, University of Southern California, Los
Angeles, CA 90089 , U.S.A.

colobine, P. phayrei, to be strictly allopatric in
this region. More recent surveys in the area by
Reza Khan and Ahsan (1986) and Gittins and
Akonda (1982) revealed a narrow zone of sym-
patry in the easternmost portion of the country.
Across this relatively small area, P. pileata
varies greatly in pelage colouration. The sub-
species P. pileata durga of central and northern
Bangladesh has a flame orange venter and
lateral facial tufts, and a slate grey dorsum,
limbs and tail. Previous surveys have docu-
mented the presence and status of a rich primate
fauna (Green 1978, Gittins and Akonda 1982,
Reza Khan and Ahsan 1981), but few long-term
data are available on any species. Islam and
Hussein (1982) and Green (1981) had conducted
short-term field studies on capped langur ecol-
ogy before the present field study was under-
taken.

The capped langur lives mainly in one-
male groups. It is an almost totally arboreal
species, coming to the ground only to drink
from hollow tree stumps and to cross forest
clearings. Atypical capped langur group at Mad-
hupur is composed of one adult male, four adult
females plus immatures. Newborn infants have a
pale orange natal coat colour, darkening to
apricot orange before turning to the adult orange
and grey by about three months.

This paper reports the results of a field
study of the ecology and behaviour of this little-
known monkey in reserve forest areas in north-

188

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

central and north-eastern Bangladesh, encom-
passing two quite different forest types.

Methods

The main study site was Madhupur Nation-
al Park in north-central Bangladesh (Fig. 1).
Madhupur is moist deciduous forest dominated
by sal Shorea robusta and is comprised of ap-
proximately 149 tree species (Salar Khan, pers.
comm.). Madhupur 24°30' N, 90°10' E) was
once part of an extensive area of deciduous
forest of the central plain of Bangladesh. The
area stands at an elevation never more than 15 m
above sea level, and average annual rainfall is
220 cm. The region consists of flat ridges run-
ning north-south which are bisected by long nar-
row depressions (baids), swamp forests which
have been largely given over to rice cultivation.
Today the forest tract is broken into blocks of
varying sizes. The national park lies at the north-
western comer of the region and has an area of
approximately 100 sq. km. The northern section
of the park has been almost completely cul-
tivated by the local Garo tribal population; the
predominant cash crop in this area is pineapple.
The southern portion of the park, approximately
40 sq. km, formed the study area. This area in-
cludes several settlements and patches of scrub
forest but is still predominantly sal forest and is
in good condition. Most of the trees are ap-
proximately 15 m in height with emergents,
especially Albizzia ssp., reaching 25 m.
Predominant tree species at Madhupur are
Shorea robusta (Dipterocarpaceae), Adina
cordifolia (Rubiaceae), Dillenia pentagym (Dil-
leniaceae), Lagerstroemia flos-reginae and Gar-
ruga pinnata (Burseraceae). Although hunting
of primates and other large mammals occurs in
some forest regions of Bangladesh, the Garo at
Madhupur do not hunt or eat langurs. Rhesus
macaques Macaca mulatto are abundant in the
park and occasionally raid rice crops, leading to
human harassment.

Approximately 1400 hours were spent in
contact with groups of Presbytis pileata in this

forest type, most of which were 10 minute scan
samples collected at Madhupur National Park.
At this site P. pileata is sympatric with rhesus
macaque. Groups were located at sunrise and
followed throughout the day to obtain data on
home range and day range. Five study groups
were followed on a regular basis, and most of
the observations were made on one group of 13
animals that consisted of one adult male, five
adult females and immatures. Plant species
eaten and common species that were avoided
were collected and identified with the help of
the Forest Department. At Madhupur the
phenological cycles of 338 trees in a 1.2 ha tran-
sect were monitored and the results are
presented elsewhere (Stanford 1989). Data on
diet were collected by recording the plant part,
and when known, the plant species on which an
animal fed. Ranging data is based on a grid su-
perimposed over a map of the study site; the en-
tire study site was divided into 0.1 ha quadrats
and trees were marked, so at any time I could
determine my approximate location. Compiling
the map quadrats into which the langur troops
travelled over the course of the study enabled
me to establish home range and mean day range.

The other forests in which Presbytis pileata
was observed were Rajkandi and Kalenga
Reserve Forests in Sylhet district, near the bor-
der with the Indian state of Tripura (24° 15' N,
91°55' E). Surveys were made in October 1986,
April 1988 and November 1988. Approximately
110 total hours were spent in contact with P
pileata and P. phayrei groups in the reserve
forests there. Thus the results presented here are
based primarily on Madhupur with briefer com-
parative observations in Sylhet. Rajkandi is a
wet semi-evergreen/bamboo forest habitat (Puri
1960) located in the wet zone of the Eastern Bay
of Bengal region, receiving up to 750 cm of
precipitation per year. Predominant tree species
in these forests are Dipterocarpus spp. (Dip-
terocarpaceae), Terminalia be ller ic a (Com-
bretaceae), and Sterculia villosa (Sterculiaceae).
At Rajkandi at least five species of nonhuman

ECOLOGY OF THE CAPPED LANGUR PRESBYTIS PILEATA BLYTH
88' 90’ 92’

189

India

SUNDAR3ANS-

RESERVED FOREST

■

UNCLASSIFIED FOREST @

FORMER EXTENT OF

r\

i %

FOREST IN MADHUPUR

; t

TRACT

r

BAY OF
BENGAL

0 *0 40

^0%m Teknaf-

Fig. 1. Map of Bangladesh, showing study sites. Adapted from Green (1978).

190

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

primate are sympatric: hoolock gibbon

Hylobates hoolock, rhesus macaque, pig-tailed
macaque M. nemestrina, Phayre’s leaf-monkey
Presbytis phayrei and capped langurs. In addi-
tion to these species observed in this forest, Git-
tins and Akonda (1982) reported Assamese
macaque M. assamensis and slow loris Nyc-
ticebus coucang. Remaining natural forest in
this northeastern region has been reduced to iso-
lated forest blocks of from 10-70 sq. km; Raj-
kandi is a tract of approximately 40 sq. km, and
is a tract of primary forest surrounded by planta-
tion teak and secondary forest. Kalenga Forest
contains only remnants of natural forest inter-
spersed with teak, sal and mahogany plantations.

At Kalenga and Rajkandi, data were col-
lected on diet and feeding ecology of both Pres-
bytis pileata and P. phayrei. Presbytis phayrei
was reported to be highly folivorous in similar
wet semi-evergreen forest in north-east India
(Mukherjee 1982); this suggested a dietary shift
by P. pileata when sympatric with P. phayrei, an
assumption I tested using the data from the
present study.

Results

The ecology of Presbytis pileata differed
markedly in the two habitat types. In moist
deciduous forest the animals occurred in smaller
groups, ranged less widely and occurred at sig-
nificantly higher density than they did in wet
semi-evergreen forests (Table 1).

The results of the transect analysis of
vegetation showed that mature leaves were the
most abundant and reliable food source for
Madhupur capped langurs. During the winter
months, when a synchronous leaf fall occurred,
enough tree species retained their leaves to sus-
tain P. pileata on a diet that consisted largely of

mature leaves during these months. During the
summer monsoon, when both mature leaves and
ripe fruit were available, the animals fed heavily
(50% of all feeding records from May through
September) on fruit.

Mature leaves comprised the majority of
annual feeding records in both moist deciduous
and wet semi-evergreen forest (Fig. 2), though
when sympatric with P. phayrei the latter
species is more folivorous (Fig. 3). Populations
of P. pileata are more highly folivorous in moist
deciduous forest than in the wetter semi-
evergreen forest. At Madhupur, capped langurs
subsisted on mature leaves (42.0%), but
switched to fruit (24.4%) and young leaves
(10.9%) whenever these were available (n =
20,460 feeding records).

In semi -evergreen forests P. pileata con-
centrated more heavily on fruit and fed to a
lesser extent on mature foliage (Fig. 3; mature
leaves = 23.3%, fruit = 54.4%, young leaves =
4.3%, n = 890 feeding records). The density of
the forest at Rajkandi and the lack of habituation
of the animals prevented detailed behavioural
observation, but day range for P. pileata was
significantly greater in semi-evergreen forest
than in moist deciduous forest. One P phayrei
group travelled approximately 485 m/day (N = 4
days), and home range for P. phayrei groups was
approximately 32 ha during the brief periods of
observation.

Presbytis pileata occurred in larger groups
in sal forest than in wet semi-evergreen forest.
In moist deciduous forest all P pileata groups
were one-male (n = 50 groups), and there were a
small number of all-male bands and lone males.
Groups were also one-male in semi-evergreen
forest, but contained a larger mean number of
adult females (Table 1).

Table 1

COMPARATIVE ECOLOGY OF Presbytis pileata IN TWO HABITATS

Forest type Hours of Population Number of Group size Group Mean day

observation density groups sex ratio range (m)

Moist deciduous 1400 53/sq. km. 50 8.5 0.20 325 (n=70)

Wet semi-evergreen 110 13/sq.km. 11 10.6 0.17 485 (n =4)

ECOLOGY OF THE CAPPED LANGUR PRESBYTIS PILEATA BLYTH

191

| Mature leaves
] New leaves

111 Fruit
^ Seeds
HI Flowers
|~| Other

Fig. 2. Diet of Presbytis pileata in
at Madhupur.

deciduous sal forest

■

Mat Leaves

New Leaves

m

Fruit

m

Seeds

Flowers

□

Other

Presbytis phayrei

Fig. 3. Diets of Presbytis pileata andP. phayrei in sympatry.

Comparison of intergroup relations: The
relationship between one-male groups occupy-
ing the same area of forest also differed between
the two forest types. In Madhupur, groups had
widely overlapping home ranges and en-
countered each other approximately once per
day. Neither territorial border nor food trees
were defended, and the relationship among
groups that encountered each other regularly
was relaxed, with little overt aggression. Three
or four one-male groups were often observed in
adjacent sleeping trees or feeding in the same
large Ficus spp. tree crown. Encounters with un-
familiar groups or extra-group males, by con-
trast, were hostile and involved much mutual
chasing by the resident and intruding males
(Stanford 1989).

Although the smaller amount of time spent
in wet semi-evergreen forest limits what can be
said about capped langur behaviour there, con-
specific groups appeared to actively avoid each
other more often, in addition to travelling faster
and farther each day. At Rajkandi groups of P.
pileata and P. phayrei were observed to feed in
the same or adjacent trees. No direct interaction
was observed between the groups and there ap-
peared to be no actual mixing of individuals of
the two species. Macaca nemestrina occurs at
very low density in this forest (Stanford, pers.
observ., Gittins and Akonda 1982) and M.
mulatta is common. Hylobates hoolock has been
recorded to occur at Rajkandi in densities of 0.4
groups/sq. km (Khan and Ahsan 1981) and is a
potential competitor for plant foods, but only in-
cidental observations were made of this species
during the course of the study.

Discussion

Because vegetation sampling and iden-
tification were limited to the moist deciduous
forest type, no quantitative analyses of the in-
fluences of food distribution and abundance on
ranging and feeding can be made for the wet
semi-evergreen forest populations. Thus if there
were differences in the seasonality of food dis-

192

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

tribution, these cannot be related to differences
in ranging or feeding between the two sites be-
cause of the lack of comparable data from the
wet semi-evergreen forest. In spite of this, some
assessments can be made of the effect of the dif-
ferences in habitat on the ecology of Presbytis
pileata when it is sympatric with another leaf-
monkey and when it is isolated in highly
seasonal forest. For langurs in a moist deciduous
forest, food is severely limited in the dry winter
season, as at Madhupur when approximately
70% of all trees in the study sites were bare of
foliage. During this season the animals eat ma-
ture leaves on the trees that remain in leaf, and
supplement this diet with figs ( Ficus bengalen-
sis ) that are available in late winter. That the lan-
gurs in moist deciduous forest suffer some
nutritional deficit is suggested by the nearly
total decline in frequency of social play during
the winter months (Stanford 1989). The winter
season in the wetter forests of Sylhet is less
pronounced, though the seasonality of rainfall
and temperature is quite marked.

The other factor that may account for the
differences noted between the species in two dif-
ferent habitats is the feeding ecology of sym-
patric primate species. At Madhupur capped
langurs are sympatric with only one other
primate, rhesus macaques — both species were
seen feeding in the large crown of fruiting Ficus
spp. in the winter season. In semi-evergreen
forest, capped langurs must share their resource
base with two macaque species, plus Presbytis
phayrei and hoolock gibbon. At other sites
where the feeding ecology of sympatric leaf-
monkeys have been studied (P. entellus and P.
senex in Sri Lanka, Hladik 1977; P. obscura and
P. melalophos in Malaysia, Curtin 1976), some
niche separation has been noted with respect to
the proportion of leaves and fruit in the diet. At
Polonarruwa in Sri Lanka, for example, P. senex
is more highly folivorous than is P. entellus ,
though where P. senex occurs in isolation (Hor-
ton Plains, Rudran 1973) it is less highly
folivorous, quite similar to the pattern of

ecological divergence in allopatry and sympatry
observed for P. pileata.

The observed difference in group size was
initially hypothesized to be due to the greater
diversity of predators in the semi-evergreen
forests. Recent researchers have hypothesized
that predation risk is a major factor influencing
primate sociality and suggest that group size
tends to be larger where predation risk is
greatest (van Schaik 1983). Leopards Panthera
pardus and a rich array of raptorial birds occur
at Rajkandi as possible predators on primates.
Leopards have been considered rare in the Mad-
hupur region for the past 15 years, but jackals
Canis aureus are abundant and were observed to
hunt both adult and immature capped langurs
during brief ground forays by the monkeys
(Stanford 1989). Both crested serpent eagle
Spilornis cheela and black eagle Ictinaetus
malayensis are common and are potential
predators of young langurs. During 15 months
of observation at Madhupur, two predation
events were observed involving cooperatively
hunting jackals. It seems unlikely, therefore, that
a lack of predation in moist deciduous forest
could account for smaller group sizes.

There are thus two plausible explanations
for the differences in the capped langur diet ob-
served at the two sites, the first caused by the
different pattern of food distribution and
availability, and the second, by differing degrees
of competition for food with sympatric arboreal
herbivores. A long-term study of Presbytis
pileata in the wet forest regions of Rajkandi or
Kalenga that includes a detailed vegetation
analysis and data collection on the other
primates is required to sort out the factors in-
volved.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the government of the
People’s Republic of Bangladesh and especially
the Chief Conservator of Forests, Mr. Katebbe,
for permission to conduct field work in the
forests of Bangladesh between 1986 and 1988.

ECOLOGY OF THE CAPPED LANGUR PRESBYTIS PILEATA BLYTH

193

Invaluable assistance was provided by A. Wahab
Akonda, Senior Research Officer of the Forest
Department, and M.R. Talukder, Officer-in-
Charge, Madhupur National Park. Thanks also
to Phyllis Dolhinow, Katharine Milton and Thel-

ma Rowell. The field work was supported by
grants from the University of California Chan-
cellors Fund, The U.C. Berkeley Anthropology
Department and World Wildlife Fund - U.S.

References

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Green, K. (1981): Preliminary observations on the ecology
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ton-Brock (ed.), Primate Ecology. Academic Press,
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Islam, M.A. & Hussein, Z. (1982): Preliminary study of the
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Hanuman langur Presby tis entellus (Primates: Cer-
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Mukherjee, R.P. (1982): Phayre’s Leaf-monkey (Presbytis
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Pocock, R.I. (1939): The Fauna of British India, including
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ford Books, New Delhi.

Reza Khan, M.A., & Ahsan, M.F. (1981): The group struc-
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Stanford, C.B. (in review): Seasonal variation in the diet of
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PROLONGED EGG INCUBATION AND CONGENITAL TAIL
DEFORMITIES IN CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS (REPTILIA: CROCODILIA)1

L. A. K. Singh2 and S. R. Sagar3
(With a text-figure)

Introduction

The temperature and moisture available to
reptilian eggs during incubation play an impor-
tant role in the proper development of the
embryo. Lynn and Ullrich (1950) have
demonstrated that gross morphological abnor-
malities in developing chelonian embryos may
appear due to deficiency of moisture during in-
cubation of eggs. High temperature during in-
cubation of eggs was thought to have caused tail
deformities in the gecko Oedura ocellata (30° C)
and the New Guinea freshwater crocodile
Crocodylus novaguineae (38°C) (Bustard 1969).
Kar and Bustard (1982) attributed tail deform-
ities in Crocodylus porosus to desiccation of
eggs during incubation. Singh and Bustard
(1982) obtained 11 (2.3%) instances of ‘bent-
tails’ out of 476 eggs of Gavialis gangeticus.
They presumed that the defect “could be the
result of desiccation”, which “if present, was
present during only the last four weeks of
incubation”. Singh and Bustard (1982) also
recorded “at least” 200 hatchlings which had
non-persistent curled -up tail tips.

In this paper an account is given of the con-
genital tail deformities in the mugger crocodile
Crocodylus palustris. The nests recorded
prolonged incubation periods apparently caused
by higher incidence of rainy days with hail-
storms and severe daily fluctuations in tempera-
ture and humidity. The relationship between in-
cubation period, unabsorbed residual yolk and
post hatching care to young are also discussed.

Accepted November 1990

2Mugger Research and Conservation Unit,

Simiiipai Tiger Reserve, Khairi-Jashipur, Orissa 757 091.

3Field Director, Simiiipai Tiger Reserve, Baripada,
Orissa 757 001.

Material and Methods

At the Mugger Research and Conservation
Unit (MRCU) in Ramatirtha, Orissa, four
females, serially numbered 1.2, 1.6, 1.9 and 1.4
according to their body length, were used for
captive breeding in the year 1990. Females 1.2
and 1.6 nested on 13 March and the others on 21
March. The nest of female 1.2 received partial
shade from the adjacent trees. The nests of
females 1.6 and 1.9 were near a banana clump
while the nest of female 1.4 was provided with a
thatch shade. The shade for the 1.4 nest was
made to incubate a nest at lower temperatures so
that the net result of 1990 breeding would
produce a mixture of hatchlings from both
sexes.

Continuous summer rains were ex-
perienced that year while the eggs were incubat-
ing in situ (Table 1). The week-old eggs were
not shifted after the first shower, or later, for fear
of causing greater damage by disturbing the
embryo and the micro-environment of the nest.
Moreover, there was a persisting hope that the
rain would not last. Waterlogging did not take
place because of the large sand banks used for
nesting.

The mean ambient temperature ranged be-
tween 17.0 ± 2.2°C minimum and 33.1 ± 4.2°C
maximum (Table 1). The nest temperatures
measured at 44-days incubation were 26°C (nest
no. 1.4), 29°C (nest nos. 1.6 and 1.9) and 32°C
(nest no. 1.2). Wide fluctuations in the nest
temperatures were, however, expected on the
days of rain as rain with hailstones was a regular
feature after very warm hours of the day. On the
44th and 63rd days of incubation the nest mois-
tures were 12-13% by weight except in nest no.
1.4 where it was approximately 15%.

After 63 days incubation in situ the eggs

EGG INCUBATION AND CONGENITAL TAIL DEFORMITIES IN CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS

195

Table 1

METEOROLOGICAL DATA RECORDED AT MRCU, RAMATIRTHA DURING THE INCUBATION PERIOD

OF C. palustris EGGS IN 1990

March

(13-31)

April

May

June

July

(1-16)

Ambient Temperature °C
Minimum
Mean ± S.D.

17.0 ± 2.2

20.4 ± 3.6

22.1 ± 2.6

22.7 ± 2.1

22.4 ± 0.7

Range

15-23

15-25

15-25

15-25

22-24.5

Maximum
Mean ± S.D.

29.6 ± 2.5

33.1 ± 4.2

33.0 ± 1.5

30.5 ± 2.6

26.8± 1.6

Range

25-34

24-40

30-36

24-34

24-29

Rainfall

No. of days

6

9

12

23

13

Quantity (mm)

19

41

109

434

266

Relative Humidity at 1200 hrs. (%)

Mean ± S.D. 66,1 ±4.1

64.0 ± 3.8

70.2 ± 2.5

76.2 ± 3.6

77.7 ± 1.5

Range

61-75

60-76

64-75

70-86

76-82

Table 2

Crocodylus palustris: RESULTS OF EGG INCUBATION DURING 1990 AT MRCU, RAMATIRTHA

Female no.

1.2

1.6

1.9

1.4

No. of eggs

36

27

36

28

No. of hatchlings:
On day-1

31(86.1%)

12 (44.4%)

18 (50.0%)

19 (67.8%)

On day-7

31(86.1%)

12 (44.4%)

15(41.6%)

9 (32.1%)

Durations (days) of:
Incubation

77

86

94

117

Post-hatching care

7

9

15

36

Treatment received by the nest:*

Partial shade
from adjacent
trees

Shade and moisture because of
banana clumps near nest

Sloped thatch
shade at a height
0.35-1.4 m.

*Eggs shifted to hatchery after 63 days.

were shifted to a hatchery protected from rain
and having an incubation medium kept at 30-
31 °C and 7-10% moisture by weight.

Results

On the 63rd day when eggs were shifted
from the breeding pen to the hatchery, the eggs
of nest no. 1.4 had distinct white bands on the
shell. The bands ranged between 2.5-4.0 cm
wide, corresponding to a developmental age of
only 7-30 days of Alligator mississippiensis
(Ferguson and Joanen 1982) and 7-40 days of
Crocodylus porosus and Crocodylus johnstoni
(Webb et al. 1987).

The incubation period for the nest no. 1.4
was 117 days while in the other nests it ranged
from 77-94 days (Table 2, Fig. 1). The duration
of early care (H-Ri, H-R2 in Fig. 1) was in-
tended to allow absorption of residual yolk,
closure of the umbilical scar and drying up of
the point of attachment of chorio-allantois. For
different nests the need for longer early care was
proportionate to the incubation period. These
were minimum in nest no. 1.2 and maximum in
nest no. 1.4. Points Ri and R2 in Fig. 1 show the
dates when the first and last hatchlings from the
brood were released in the hatching pen. In the
case of nest no. 1.2 ‘R’ shows that all the hate-

196

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Fig. 1. Durations of incubation and post-hatching care in Crocodylus palustris at Ramatirtha during 1990.
Nesting female nos. 1.2, 1.9, 1.6 and 1.4. Dates of nesting (N), shifting (S) of eggs from breeding pen to hatchery,
hatching (4), release (R) of all hatchlings, release of first hatchling (Rl) and last hatch ling (R2) of the brood.

hlings were fit for release on the same day,
while in other nests the levels of fitness on any
post-hatching date were different for different
hatchlings.

No hatchling from nest no. 1.4 could hatch
by itself. Hence these were helped out by open-
ing the shell and shell membranes. All the hatc-
hlings had distended abdomens due to large
amounts of unabsorbed residual yolk, and all
had strong bases of chorio-allantois attachment.

Out of total 19 hatchlings (Table 2) from
nest no. 1.4 five (26.3%) had tail bends from the

point where double whorl scutes and single
whorl scutes meet. The bends permitted com-
plete turn to the front while on stretching it
straight the tail could return only half way to
normal. Two other hatchlings (10.5%) had
curved tail tips.

Discussion

The nest temperature for C. palustris in na-
ture varies from 30°C to 34°C and the incuba-
tion period from 50 to 65 days (Groombridge
1982). Whitaker and Whitaker (1989) suggest

EGG INCUBATION AND CONGENITAL TAIL DEFORMITIES IN CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS

197

40-60 days incubation for the species. At
Ramatirtha, incubation period for eight nests
was 73 ± 3 days during 1988 and 1989 (un-
published data). The 77-117 (mean 93 ±17) days
incubation observed during 1990 in the present
study appears to have resulted from reduced
temperatures caused by higher incidence of
rainy days.

Nest no. 1.4 hatched 23-40 days after the
other three nests of the season hatched. The
delay is because on the 63rd day of incubation
when the nest was shifted to the hatchery, the
eggs were developmentally retarded. If the rate
of development of C. palustris corresponds ap-
proximately to that of Alligator mississippiensis,
Crocodylus porosus and Crocodylus johnstoni
the eggs were at a maximum stage of only 40
days development.

Broods from nests with longer incubation
periods, because of lower temperatures, required
longer post-hatching care in the hatchery before
the hatchlings could be released in the hatchling
pens. This is due to unusually large amounts of
residual yolk (Singh 1989). The quantity of
residual yolk in the distended abdomens was
more in hatchlings produced from low-tempera-
ture incubation.

This conforms to observations on Alligator
mississippiensis by Ferguson and Joanen (1983)
where the authors have further stated that be-
cause the rate of metabolism of poikilotherms is
dependent upon the temperature of their sur-
roundings, the eggs incubated at a higher
temperature are likely to use more yolk for
embryonic development and leave less ‘residual

yolk’ than eggs incubated at lower temperatures.

The congenital defects of bent-tail and
curled tail-tip are the same as observed in
Gavialis gangeticus by Singh and Bustard
(1982). The cause for the occurrence of congeni-
tal bent-tail may be due to less moisture in the
nest sand during the latter half of incubation.

Summary

The incubation periods for four nests of
Crocodylus palustris in a captive breeding pen
were 77, 86, 94 and 117 days. Prolonged periods
are attributed to a higher incidence of hailstorms
and rain causing lower temperature and wide
daily fluctuations in temperature and humidity.
The longer the incubation period the longer also
was the duration of post-hatching care needed
before the hatchlings could be released in a fit
condition to the rearing pens. The measures of
‘fitness’ were reduction in the quantity of
residual yolk (hence reduced distension of the
abdomen) and closure of the ventral skin at the
point of attachment of the chorio-allantois. The
nest with the longest incubation period and with
reduced nest moisture (from 15% to 7-10% by
weight towards the latter half of incubation)
showed 26.3% cases of congenital tail bends and
10.5% instances of curved tail tips out of 19
hatchlings.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Principal Chief Conservator
of Forests and Chief Conservator of Forests
(Wildlife), Orissa. S.D. Rout and Govind Tudu
provided valuable assistance during the study.

References

Bustard, H.R. (1969): Tail abnormalities in reptiles result-
ing from high temperature egg incubation. Brit. J.
Herpetol. 4(5): 121-123.

Ferguson, MJ.W. & Joanen, T. (1982): Temperature of egg
incubation determines sex in Alligator mississippien-
sis. Nature 296: 1135-1137.

Ferguson, M.J.W. & Joanen, T. (1983): Temperature -de-
pendent sex determination in Alligator mississippien-
sis. J. Zool. Lond. (1983) 200: 143-177.

Groombridge, B. (1982): The IUCN Amphibia-Reptilia Red
Data Book. Part 1. Testudines, Crocodylia,
Rhynchocephalia. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Kar, S.K. & Bustard, H.R. (1982): Embryonic tail defor-
mation in the saltwater crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus
Schneider) in Orissa, India. British Journal of Her-
petology 6: 221-222.

Lynn, W.G. & Ullrich, M.C. (1950): Experimental produc-
tion of shell abnormalities in turtles. Copeia 1950:
253-262.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Singh, L.A.K. & Bustard, H.R. (1982): Congenital defects
in the gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin). British
Journal of Herpetology 6: 215-219.

Singh, L.A.K. (1989): Residual yolk and crocodilian sur-
vival. Zoo's print, Dec. 1989:1-2.

Webb, G.J.W., Manolls, S.C., Dempsey, K E. & Whitehead,
RJ. (1987): Crocodilian Eggs: A Functional Over-
view. pp. 417-422. In: Wildlife Management:

Crocodiles and Alligators. Eds. G.J.W. Webb, S.C.
Manolis and PJ. Whitehead. Surrey Beatty and Sons
PvL Limited in association with the Conservation
Commission of the Northern Territory, Australia.

Whitaker, R. &Whitaker, Z. (1989): Ecology of the mug-
ger crocodile, pp. 276-296. In: Crocodiles: Their
Ecology, Management and Conservation. Crocodile
Specialist Group of the SSC/IUCN, Switzerland.

GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE AND ECOLOGY OF THE VERRUCOSE FROG

RANA KERALENSIS (DUBOIS)1

R. J. Ranjit Daniels2

The habits and call of Rana keralensis, a little known amphibian endemic to the Western
Ghats, are described for the first time. The species can no longer be considered endemic to
Kerala/Tamil Nadu as its range extends further north through Karnataka up to Maharashtra. It is
a species of lower elevations (s600 m) preferring streams flowing through dense forests. It is
terrestrial and nocturnal. Egg-laying takes place at night even during the cool, dry months with
night temperatures as low as 13°C. Eggs are laid at 5-16 day intervals in batches of over 200.

Eggs float on the surface of water suspended by clear jelly and hatch into free swimming tad-
poles in 48 hours. Hatching success may vary from 57-90%. Frogs emerge after 60 days. There
is cannibalism in tadpoles and young frogs are devoured by juvenile Rana tigerina which share

the habitat in nature.

Introduction

Studies on amphibians in India have not
gone much beyond collecting and identifying
species from selected areas. Probably the only
study which has tried to bring out the habitat
and niche preferences of amphibians in India is
that of Inger et al. (1984, 1987). This study has
however only included about a fifth of the over
100 species of amphibians hitherto known from
the Western Ghats. Information on the rest is
either non-existent or scanty (Inger and Dutta
1986). For most species, even the geographical
ranges are not clearly known. Without knowing
the geographic range and habitat requirements
of species it will not be possible to deal with the
problem of declining amphibian populations in
our country, especially the Western Ghats where
there is a concentration of species. It thus be-
comes necessary that more information on the
ecology of each species of amphibian is docu-
mented alongside taxonomic and geographical
notes.

Rana keralensis is an amphibian endemic
to the Western Ghats. This was first described in
1875. However, Daniel (1975) has called this a
‘little known’ species. Inger et al. (1984) have
added some details of its ecology, especially

Accepted July 1991

2Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore 560 012.

habitat and microhabitat preferences. The tad-
poles were described by Annandale in 1915 (see
Daniel 1975) and much later, notes were pub-
lished on the food and feeding habits of the tad-
poles (Mallick and Mallick 1981). In this paper I
discuss some more details on the identification
of the species in the field, its call, habits, food,
habitat-microhabitat preference and breeding.

General Description and Habits

After the species was first described as
Rana verrucosa by Gunther in 1875, it was
renamed in 1980 by Dubois as Rana keralensis.
Gunther probably named it after the warty or
verrucose dorsal surface of the frog (hence I call
it the verrucose frog), which is an identification
character in the field. Adults vary in snout-vent
length from 35 to 60 mm (males being smaller).
They can be pale ochraceous brown, brown or
almost black dorsally and fully white ventrally.
These colour forms can be seen even among
freshly metamorphosed frogs of the same brood.
Colour varies with the habitat in which they are
found, camouflaging the frog remarkably
against the background such as wet soil or a
rock. Individuals can also change colours rather
rapidly to suit the background.

Dorsal colour pattern includes short black
streaks which are often hidden in the darker
forms. All adults have yellow and black mar-
bling on the rear surface of thighs. A diamond-

200

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 89

shaped golden spot is present on the back of
most individuals even when young. Eyes are
black and dilatable; the pupil is round and
reflects red against light at night. Overall colour
pattern resembles the commoner cricket/paddy
field frog Rana limnocharis. However keralen-
sis is stockier, with the hump on the back more
pronounced at rest. Larger eyes protruding more
abruptly above the head, shorter snout and the
absence of balloon-like vocal sacs when calling
are further pointers that distinguish the species
from limnocharis in the field.

The species is largely nocturnal. Adults that
I have seen and collected were mostly resting
during the day and foraging at night. They tend
to hide, unlike the juveniles which are more
often encountered during the daytime. In cap-
tivity, both adults and juveniles feed during the
day. This frog is not very timid and if disturbed
takes only short leaps. Wherever there is water
individuals dive in, in an attempt to escape.
However they surface soon (if not immediately)
some distance away.

Voice and calls: I have not heard this
species in the wild. However, males in captivity
were very vocal both during the night and day in
June and all through the rainy season. Males
start calling as soon as it is cloudy and after a
sudden shower of rain. The typical call is a
series of 9-11 rather aggressive croaks: crok
crok crok crok.. .crok Males also produce a
series of softer chucks when combatting a rival
male. Juvenile frogs (20-24 mm snout-vent)
often called during the afternoons. The calls
were very soft and insect-like: check check
chekka chekka chekka. ..chek The significance
of this call is not clear though it often coincided
with cloudiness.

Food and feeding: Both adults and
juveniles feed readily in captivity. Juveniles eat
small grasshoppers and moths, termites (wing-
less) and caterpillars. Adults consume grasshop-
pers, moths and winged termites. Earthworms
are readily accepted. An adult female once even
ate a castor moth Pericallia ricini. Cockroaches

Periplaneta americana are taken in all sizes. A
female frog 55 mm snout-vent can swallow
adult cockroaches.

All insects are picked up from the surface
though occasionally some are caught flying. The
frogs are not good at foraging in deeper water
where they have to swim or float. When larger
insects have to be tackled, the forelegs are used.
While dealing with large moths the forelegs are
used to break off the wings before the body is
swallowed.

Geographical range: The range of Rana
keralensis has been given as the Western Ghats
of Kerala and Tamil Nadu (Daniel 1975, Inger et
al. 1984, Inger and Dutta 1986). I found that this
species extends much further north along the
Western Ghats. While its southern limit of dis-
tribution lies in the hills of the Kanyakumari dis-
trict where this species is very common (June),
its northern limit is Maharashtra. I failed to find
this species in Silent Valley (December) and
Peechi (February). However I found juveniles in
Neria and Byndoor (Dakshina Kannada, Sep-
tember-November) in coastal Uttara Kannada
(after the rains) and surprisingly an adult female
in Rohaghat (south-western Maharashtra, Oc-
tober). The species has been reported to occur in
Goa as well (Sekar 1991).

Habitat and microhabitat: Of all ver-
tebrates, amphibians are probably more choosy
about habitats and microhabitats due to their
bimodal life-style and very sensitive skin. Rana
lceraletisis has a preference for humid habitats.
Streams flowing through evergreen or semi-
evergreen forests seem to be the most preferred
habitat of the species. Inger et al. (1984) col-
lected the species at Ponmudi in evergreen,
secondary and moist deciduous forests, forest
clearings and rubber plantations. 50% of their
collections were away from water. I have also
come across this species in degraded forests,
rubber and exotic plantations and paddy fields in
forest clearings in various parts of the Western
Ghats. However, I have always found this
species close to a stream or a source of water. I

RANGE AND ECOLOGY OF RANA KERALENSIS

201

found the species away from water only during
rainy nights. The study at Ponmudi was during
May-June, the beginning of the rains. Hence
Inger et al (1984) collected a considerable
proportion of their frogs away from water.

According to Inger et al (1984) R. keralen-
sis is terrestrial. They collected most of their
specimens from leaf litter. Fewer individuals
were found on rocks and bare soil. I found the
species equally common in grass/leaf litter
(when wet), bare wet soil along the edge of
streams and on exposed rocks just above the
surface of water. Juveniles sit beneath leaves
with only their heads showing in shallow
seepage pools across paths. Juvenile frogs in
captivity prefer to sit between dead leaves in wet
areas. Adults make cavities in wet soil at the
edge of water, sitting exposed (though well
camouflaged) or under cover of a piece of wood
or rock.

Tadpoles have been collected from shallow
muddy channels across roads and from pot-
holes in rocks (Inger et al 1984). I have not
seen the tadpoles in the wild but have seen
metamorphosing frogs in similar situations.
Shallow channels in betelnut orchards are
favourite breeding spots in Uttara Kannada
(Karnataka). In captivity tadpoles were equally
at home in deeper pools as well as a shallow
channel with flowing water. However, develop-
ment appeared to be faster in cooler water where
the day temperature never exceeded 27°C as
against the pool in which water temperature
reached 30°C during the day.

Daniel (1975) has given the altitudinal
range of this species as up to 2000 m. Inger et
al (1984) have, however, found this species
mostly at altitudes of 100-300 m. This is
probably more of a local phenomenon as the
study of Inger et al was limited to Ponmudi, a
small part of Kerala. My observations over the
Western Ghats suggest that this species is equal-
ly common at altitudes less than 100 m and be-
tween 450-600 m. I have not seen this species
anywhere above 600 m. Despite evidences of its

occurrence at higher elevations, viz. 710 m
(Inger et al 1984) and that of Daniel (1975), it
might be considered that this species prefers
lower elevations, where it is certainly com-
moner.

Breeding and development: One male
that I had collected in the hills of Kanyakumari
district during June measured 35 mm snout-vent
and was ready to breed. It was calling all
through the night and early morning from within
the box in which I had kept it. In August this
male and two other males (40 and 37.5 mm
snout-vent) were showing signs of breeding
when a 55 mm female was introduced into their
cage. There was a lot of aggression
demonstrated by the males over the female.
Males fought while calling agitatedly. Each tried
to push the other out from what appeared to me
a small, actively defended territory. A territorial
male would leap from one position to another,
driving out the other males and then on to the
female, grabbing her from whichever end was
within reach. The female, however, took no in-
terest and always tried to kick the males off.
Males persisted in clinging on to her and to the
extent that she had to do all her feeding with a
male on her back.

The female laid its first batch of eggs only
in January after it was introduced into a large
outdoor cage with flowing water, plants and lit-
ter on the ground. The eggs were like mustard
seeds in clear jelly. 75% of the egg masses were
in deep water (230 mm) and the rest in water
less than 25 mm deep.

Number of eggs varied from 7 to 115 per
mass. These were spread between two deep
pools which are about 3 m apart and along the
shallow channel connecting them. This suggests
that the laying female was moving about. All
laying took place during late night without any
prior indication in the evening. Therefore the
exact process and behaviour was not observed.

Table 1 gives the details of egg- laying. This
species of frog seems to be able to breed under a
wide range of temperatures (daily range 10-

202

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Table 1

EGG-LAYING IN Rana keralensis WITH DETAILS OF PERIODICITY, WEATHER CONDITIONS AND NUMBER OF EGGS LAID

Sr.

No.

Date

Temperature
(Range °C)

Relative
Humidity %

Number of
clusters

Deep/

Shallow

Number of
eggs per
cluster

Total

1.

2.1.1991

—

—

—

—

—

200

2.

18.1.1991

17-27

32-52

9

4/5

12-47

235

3.

23.1.1991

15.5-28

19-52

4

2/2

37-81

269

4.

31.1.1991

13-28

35-52

9

7/2

12-56

260

5.

5.2.1991

15.5-30

13-40

4

4/0

15-115

260

6.

19.2.1991

16-31

11-15

5

5/0

14-35

133

7.

23.4.1991

20.5-34

20-52

7

7/0

7-55

203

8.

11.5.1991

—

—

4

4/0

10-21

56

♦Range during the daytime between 1000 and 1700 hrs

15°C) and fairly low relative humidity. Night
temperature was as low as 13°C at least once
and the relative humidity during the day was
never more than 52%. A series of six broods
were produced with an interval of 5-16 days.
With one exception (133) the total number of
eggs per brood was between 200 and 269. After
over two months, another batch of eggs was
laid. This was probably the beginning of a fresh
series as after 18 days on 11 May 1991, the next
batch of eggs was laid. Therefore, only the first
six broods are discussed.

First hatching was 30 hours after laying.
Hatching was delayed by 10-12 hours in
another pool where the water temperature was
2.5-3.0°C warmer during the day. 57-90% of
the eggs hatched. Tadpoles were brown, elon-
gate (resembling mosquito pupae) and within
the jelly. 48 hours after laying and 18 hours after
the first hatching the tadpoles started swimming
free.

Tadpoles are bottom feeders and under the
microscope appear transparent, with the scat-
tered brown pigments being darker on the back.
Mallick and Mallick (1981) note that the tad-
poles are initially herbivorous, taking slowly to
animal food and to cannibalism. All these were
observed in my study as well. Tadpoles gathered
around a source of animal food such as a dead
grasshopper and devoured it. Older tadpoles at-
tacked and devoured the eggs that were in shal-
low water. Younger tadpoles were probably

devoured too, as their numbers started coming
down rapidly as the first batch of tadpoles were
growing. Individuals were often found dead.
There were also physical deformities like bent
backs and tails in tadpoles.

The first batch of tadpoles showed hindlegs
45 days after hatching and 15 days later juvenile
frogs appeared. There were, however, only 15
young frogs that developed despite the 200 eggs
laid in the first batch. The number of frogs that
developed from the subsequent batches could
not be monitored as the different broods mixed
together in the same pool and tadpoles were
rapidly vanishing. Freshly metamorphosed frogs
were less than 10 mm snout-vent and stayed
close to the source of water from which they
emerged after a period of three weeks. After this
period the frogs dispersed over wet soil and lit-
ter. Frogs 60 days old measured 15 mm snout-
vent.

During various stages of development,
eggs and tadpoles were subject to both can-
nibalism and to other predators. The number of
tadpoles started declining rapidly after one of
the pools was occupied by a large female Ram
hexadactyla. An adult Rana cyanophlyctis
moving between the pools could have also
devoured some of the tadpoles. Metamorphos-
ing frogs were devoured by a juvenile Ram
tiger ina. I have seen juvenile tiger ina (15-25
mm) stay singly in pools where larval keralensis
emerge as frogs. I have also witnessed a tigerim

RANGE AND ECOLOGY OF RANA KERALENSIS

203

of this size easily swallowing young keralensis
of 10 mm length. One of the small tiger ina col-
lected earlier with juvenile keralensis is now
over 70 mm long and in the same cage as these
breeding frogs. This frog temporarily occupied
the edge of the pool throughout the period when
keralensis tadpoles were metamorphosing into
frogs.

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank Dr. R. Pillai and M.S.
Ravichandran of the Zoological Survey of India,
Madras for their help in identifying the species.
I also acknowledge the help of B.K. Sharath of
Mangalore, Dulip Daniels (my brother) and my
wife Vinetha for their assistance in the field.

References

Daniel, J. C. (1975): Field guide to the amphibians of
Western India./. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72: 506-522.
Inger R. F. & Dutta, S. K. (1986): An overview of the am-
phibian fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83
(Supplement): 135-146.

Inger, R. F., Shaffer, H. B., Koshy, M. & Badke, R.
(1984): A report on a collection of amphibians and
reptiles from the Ponmudi, Kerala, South India. J.
Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 81:406-427.

Inger R. E, Shaffer, H. B., Koshy, M. & Badke, R. (1987).
Ecological structure of a herpetological assemblage in
South India. Amphibia-Reptilia 8: 189-202.

Maluck, P. K. & Mallick, S. C. (1981): Notes on the food
and feeding habit of Rana verrucosa Gunther tad-
poles. Science and Culture 47: 403-404.

Sekar, A.G.(1991): Distribution of the amphibian fauna of
Goa. J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 88(1): 125-127.

ON THE TAXONOMY AND ECOLOGY OF ROTIFERS IN FISH PONDS1

R. Sampathkumar2
(With nine text-figures)

Taxonomic accounts and ecology including weekly abundance of rotifers, other than
Brachionus, are reported from four fish ponds in Tuticorin during a fish culture season
(November 1986 to March 1987). Eight species of rotifers, viz .Asplanchna brightwelli, Filinia
longiseta , Hexarthra (Pedalia) intermedia, Keratella tropica, Lecane luna, L. (Monostyla)
bulla, Polyarthra vulgaris and Testudinella patina present in the ponds have been described
and illustrated. Of these, K. tropica and F. longiseta were predominant. Hexarthra ( Pedalia ) in-
termedia is a new record from India.

Introduction

Rotifers play a pivotal role in the
planktonology and productivity of freshwater
systems, for they often predominate in plankton
populations. Further, they feed extensively on,
and thus control, the phytoplankton and other
zooplankton populations. There is a paucity of
knowledge on the taxonomy and ecology of
rotifers from southern Tamil Nadu. I had earlier
(Sampathkumar 1991) reported on the genus
Brachionus. The present communication discus-
ses the taxonomy and distribution, both tem-
poral and spatial, of eight other taxa of rotifers
(belonging to seven genera) in freshwater fish
ponds in Tliticorin, south Tamil Nadu.

Material and Methods

The present investigation was carried out in
four fish ponds (designated ponds 1, 2, 3 and 4)
located in the premises of Fisheries College,
Tliticorin from November 1986 to March 1987.
Weekly collections of rotifers were made from
the ponds using a plankton net of 60p m mesh
size between 0600 and 0800 hrs. The samples,
after preservation in 5% buffered formalin, were
analysed (qualitatively and quantitatively).
Hydrographic parameters, viz. water tempera-

1 Accepted March 1991.

department of Fisheries Biology, Fisheries College, Tamil
Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Tliticorin,
Tamil Nadu 628 008. Present address: Dept, of Zoology,
National University of Singapore, Lower Kent Ridge Road,
Singapore 0511.

ture, pH and dissolved oxygen (estimated by
Winkler’s titration) were measured concurrently.
The pH values are not presented here since they
showed little variation, and because rotifers
have been found to be insensitive to pH (Haque
etal. 1988).

Results and Discussion

The eight taxa of rotifers recorded were
Asplanchna brightwelli (Gosse, 1850), Filinia
longiseta (Ehrenberg, 1832), Hexarthra

( Pedalia ) intermedia (Wisniewski, 1929),

Keratella tropica (Apstein, 1907), Lecane luna
(Muller, 1786), L. (Monostyla) bulla (Gosse,
1851), Polyarthra vulgaris (Carlin, 1943) and
Testudinella patina (Hermann, 1783). Of these,
A. brightwelli, K. tropica and F. longiseta were
present in the ponds frequently and
predominated the zooplankton populations. L.
(M.) bulla showed a rare occurrence.

Description of the Taxa And their Ecology
Keratella tropica (Apstein, 1907)

Body loricate. Lorica depressed and orna-
mented with polygonal facets on the dorsal sur-
face. Ventral surface smooth. Occipital margin
with three pairs of spines of which medians are
the longest and curved posteriorly. Posterior end
of lorica with two lateral spines, the right being
longer than the left. Length of lorica: 116p, m

(Fig- 1).

Ecology: K. tropica was recorded in large
numbers during late November to early Decem-
ber 1986 and thereafter it disappeared. It was

TAXONOMY AND ECOLOGY OF ROTIFERS

205

Phylum

Table 1

LIST OF SPECIES DESCRIBED
ROTIFER A

Class

: Monogononta

Order

: Ploima

Family

: BRACHIONIDAE

Family

Keratella tropica (Apstein, 1907)
: ASPLANCHNIDAE

Family

Asplanchna brightwelli (Gosse, 185
: LECANIDAE

Family

Lecane luna (Muller, 1786)

L. (Monostyla) bulla (Gosse, 1851)
: SYNCHAETIDAE

Order

Polyarthra vulgaris (Carlin, 1943)
Flosculariacea

Family

: TESTUDINELLIDAE

Family

Testudinella patina (Hermann, 1783)
Filinia longiseta (Ehrenberg, 1832)
: HEXARTHRIDA E

Hexarthra (Pedalia) intermedia
(Wisniewski, 1929)

The classification of the taxa has been made in accordance
with Ruttner-Kolisko (1974).

altogether absent in Pond 1 (Fig. 9).

It has been reported from India in various
freshwater environments-tanks in West
Godavari and Ootacamund (Dhanapathi 1974);
ponds in Sambalpur (Sharma 1981); and sewage
channels in Gwalior (Saksena and Kulkami
1986).

Asplanchna brightwelli (Gosse, 1850)

Lorica very large and without spines. Vitel-
larium horse-shoe shaped. Trophi incudate.
Length of lorica: 280p, m (Fig. 2).

Ecology: This species dominated the rotifer
population, occurring frequently in large num-
bers during the latter half of the culture period
(9 January to 13 March 1987) when the popula-
tion of the other species had diminished or dis-
appeared, presumably due to its extensive
feeding (Fig. 9).

It was earlier recorded in Kaila Sagar tank,
Gwalior (Saksena and Sharma 1983).

Table 2

WATER TEMPERATURE AND DISSOLVED OXYGEN IN FISH PONDS

Pond „ . a *+ n*

XT Date: 8.11.86

No.

15.11.86

22.11.86

29.11.86

6.12.86

13.12.89

19.12.86

27.12.86

Temperature (°C)

1

29.0

29.0

27.5

27.0

27.0

28.0

24.5

24.0

2

31.0

30.0

27.5

27.5

28.5

29.0

25.0

24.5

3

31.0

30.0

28.5

28.5

29.5

29.5

24.0

24.5

4

31.0

30.0

28.5

29.0

28.5

29.5

25.5

25.0

Dissolved Oxygen (ml/1)

1

7.25

5.39

4.66

5.28

5.33

5.70

8.70

3.62

2

6.63

5.18

4.14

6.83

4.82

6.42

4.14

1.61

3

8.63

5.18

5.39

3.31

4.56

5.70

4.76

1.61

4

8.74

6.77

4.35

6.06

6.01

4.76

6.00

1.81

Pond _

xt Date:

No.

2.7.87

9.1.87 16.1.87

23.1.87

30.1.87

6.2.87

13.2.87

20.2.87

27.2.87 6.3.87

13.3.87

Temperature (°C)
1

27.5

27.0

26.5

26.5

26.0

23.5

28.0

27.0

27.0 30.0

28.5

2

28.0

28.5

26.0

26.5

26.0

24.0

28.5

27.0

26.5 31.5

30.0

3

28.0

30.0

27.0

26.5

27.0

25.0

29.0

28.5

28.0 31.5

31.0

4

28.0

30.0

27.5

27.5

27.5

25.6

30.0

28.5

28.0 32.0

31.0

Dissolved Oxygen (ml/1)

1

4.34

2.01

4.04

2.79

2.48

2.88

0.85

2.26

3.04 1.49

2.13

2

4.82

3.94

4.09

3.90

3.18

4.11

4.27

4.32

4.86 1.70

3.20

3

5.71

4.74

6.11

4.26

3.32

5.87

4.59

3.91

3.55 0.60

7.67

4

7.07

3.62

7.04

5.00

4.86

3.95

5.28

2.37

4.16 2.19

3.41

206

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Figs. 1-8. Eight species of rotifers recorded from freshwater fish ponds. 1. Keratella tropica , ventral view;2 .Asplanchna
brightwelli, dorsal view; 3. Lecane (Lecane) luna, a. dorsal view, b. ventral view; 4 Lecane (Monostyla) bulla , ventral
view; 5. Polyarthra vulgaris;6. Hexarthra (Pedalia) intermedia; 7 Filinia longiseta; 8. Testudinella patina.

TAXONOMY AND ECOLOGY OF ROTIFERS

207

1/SHSlNVOUO

Fig. 9. Weekly distribution and abundance of rotifers, a-d, Ponds 1-4 respectively.
Asplanchna brightwelli Filinia longiseta $j| Polyarthra vulgaris § Keratella tropica
QTestudinella patina O' ecane (Monostyla) bulla / \Uexarthra intermedia £) Lecane luna.

208

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Lecane (Lecane) luna (Muller, 1786)

Lorica slightly elongate. Occipital margin
forming a wide V-shaped sinus with external
angles sharp but not spiny. Antero-ventral mar-
gin narrow and plane. Foot with two diverging
toes. Length of lorica: 120p, m (Fig. 3).

Ecology: L. (L.) luna was present in small
numbers in November 1986 in ponds 3 and 4

(Fig- 9).

It has been reported earlier from different
parts of India (Naidu 1967, Sharma 1981, Sak-
sena and Kulkami 1986).

Lecane (Monostyla) bulla (Gosse, 1851)

Lorica oval with narrow anterior and broad
posterior ends. Occipital margin with a shallow
notch at the centre. Antero-ventral margin form-
ing a deep sinus. Foot with a single toe. Length
of lorica: 120p, m (Fig. 4).

Ecology: This species was recorded only
once (30 January 1987) but in large numbers
(Fig. 9). Sharma (1981) recorded L. (M.) bulla
in Sambalpur and Saksena and Kulkami (1986)
in Gwalior.

Polyarthra vulgaris (Carlin, 1943)

Body cylindrical and illoricate. Foot ab-
sent. 12 paddles, long cuticular appendages
present. Paddles slightly longer than body.
Length of lorica: 100p, m (Fig. 5).

Ecology: This rotifer was present in the
ponds during mid November to mid December
1986 except in pond 1 (Fig. 9).

Hexarthra (Pedalia) intermedia (Wisniewski, 1929)

Body conical and illoricate with five une-
qual, muscular and setose arms, four lateral and

one ventral. Five teeth are present on either side
of the trophi. Length of body: 126\x m (Fig. 6).

Ecology: It occurred in pond 3 from 6
March to 13 March 1987 in moderate numbers
(70-400 organism/1). H. intermedia has not been
recorded earlier in India.

Filinia longiseta (Ehrenberg, 1832)

Body illoricate, elongate and cylindrical.
Three setae present. Two setae long (520p, m)
and arise from the anterior sides. The third seta
relatively short (280pi m) and arises from the
posterior ventrum. Length of body: 140p, m
(Fig. 7).

Ecology F. longiseta occurred frequently
during November and December 1986 with
populations ranging from 12 to 2000 or-
ganisms/1 when the water temperature fluctuated
around 27°C. It was rare from January to March
1987 (Fig. 9). F. longiseta has been recorded
commonly in many parts of India.

Testudinella patina (Hermann, 1783)

Body loricate. Lorica circular and
depressed. A retractile and annulated foot with a
ciliated distal end present. Diameter of lorica:
180pt m (Fig. 8).

Ecology: This species occurred in Novem-
ber and December 1986 in varying concentra-
tions (0 to 400 organisms/1) except in pond 1. T.
patina has been reported so far from West Ben-
gal (Tlwari and Sharma 1977), Orissa (Sharma
1981) and Andhra Pradesh (Naidu 1967).

Acknowledgements

I thank P. Sukumar, Assistant Professor,
Fisheries College, Thticorin for his encourage-
ment.

References

Dhanapathi, M. V.S.S.S. (1974): Rotifers from Andhra Naidu, K.V. (1967): A contribution to the Rotatorian Fauna
Pradesh, India-I. Hydrobiologia 45(4): 357-372. of South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64(2): 384-

Haque, N., Khan, A.A., Fatima, M. & Barbhuyan, S.I. 388.

(1988): Impact of some ecological parameters on Ruttner-Kousko, A. (1974): Plankton rotifers-Biology and
rotifer population in a tropical perennial pond. En- Taxonomy. E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuch-hand-

virotu Ecol. 6 (4): 998-1001. lung, Stuttgart.

TAXONOMY AND ECOLOGY OF ROTIFERS

209

Sampathkumar, R. (1991): Taxonomic composition and dis-
tribution of Brachionus (Rotatoria: Monogononta)
populations in ponds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88
(1): 67-72.

Saksena, D.N. & Kulkarni, N. (1986): On the rotifer fauna
of two sewage channels of Gwalior (India). Lim-
nologica 17(1): 139-148.

Saksena, D.N. & Sharma, S.R (1983): On the feeding of

Asplanchna brightwelli (Gosse) in a perennial im-
poundment, Kaila Sagar tank at Gwalior, India.
Comp. Physiol. Ecol. 19(4): 167-170.

Sharma, B.K. (1981): Contributions to the rotifer fauna of
Punjab State, India. I. Family Brachionidae.
Hydrobiologia 76: 249-253.

Tiwari, K.K. & Sharma, B.K. (1977): Rotifera in the Indian
Museum tank, Calcutta. Sci. & Cult. 43(6): 280-283.

TAXONOMY OF MAHSEER FISHES OF THE GENUS TOR GRAY WITH
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES FROM THE DECCAN1

A. G. K. Menon2
(With five text-figures)

Introduction

There has been a severe decline of large,
piscivorous barbins of the genus Tor Gray
throughout much of their range from Indonesia,
across southern Asia to Pakistan, including the
Indian peninsula. The group has an extremely
confusing literature and taxonomy because of
the types of morphological variations they ex-
hibit. Hora (1936-43) in a series of articles on
Game Fishes of India consolidated the informa-
tion on the taxonomy of mahseers to a great ex-
tent. Sen and Jayaram (1982) reviewed the
literature on mahseers in India and restricted the
term mahseer to members of the genus Tor . In
the present paper an attempt is made to define
the specific limits of the various species of Tor
after a critical statistical study of the various
characters of the different populations occurring
in major river systems of India and Burma.

In dealing with the problem of mahseer
taxonomy it is necessary to mention an impor-
tant nomenclature problem with the name Hyp-
selobarbus Bleeker, 1859, a poorly known
genus of peninsular India. Hypselobarbus with
type Barbus mussullah Sykes, 1840, was erected
by Bleeker in 1859 based on Sykes’ illustration
of Barbus mussullah. This illustration, however,
turned out to be controversial and Hora (1942,
1943) considered the fish depicted to belong to
the genus Tor Gray, 1833, on the assumption
that Sykes’ illustration was incorrect. If mussul-
lah were treated as a member of the genus Tor ,
then Hypselobarbus would have become a
subjective synonym of Tor Gray. But Rainboth
(1989) rightly pointed out that Barbus mussul-
lah does not belong to Tor Gray, making avail-

accepted November 1991.

2Zoological Survey of India, 100 Santhome High Road,
Madras 600 028.

able the name Hypselobarbus for the poorly
known, highly endangered large barbels of the
Indian peninsula. H. mussullah (Sykes), H.
kolus Sykes (=H. curmucz Ham.), H. dubius
(Day), H. lithopidos (Day), H. micropogon
(Val.), H. periyarensis (Raj.), H. thomassi (Day)
and H. kural sp. nov. belong to members of this
genus.

The hump-backed Tor from the peninsula
so far named as T. mussullah (Hora, loc. cit., p.
6) is considered the same as T. khudree (Sykes).
A new species discovered from the Dama river
(Godavari drainage), Deolali, is described here
as T. kulkarnii, after Dr. C.V. Kulkami, Director
of Fisheries (Retd.), Maharashtra, in recognition
of his outstanding contributions to mahseer con-
servation in India.

Review of Literature

The earliest species of mahseers described
are those by Hamilton in 1822. He described
three species, i.e. Cyprinus putitora, C. tor and
C. mosal. Hamilton did not figure any one of the
three species in his work on fish Ganges but he
left two drawings — one of C. tor and another
of C. mosal — among his manuscript drawings
now preserved in the library of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal. Gray (1833) published these
drawings which Hardwicke assembled from
various sources in his work illustrations of In-
dian zoology under the names Cyprinus mosal
Hamilton (Gray I, pi. XCIII, fig. 1). His publica-
tion of Cyprinus tor under the generic name Tor
with Cyprinus tor Hamilton (= Tor hamiltonii)
as its haplotype has antidated Ruppell’s
Labeobarbus (1836) by which name the mah-
seers of the Asiatic mainland and the Indo-
Australian archipelago were designated by
Bleeker (1860) and used by Weber and de

TAXONOMY OF MAHSEER FISHES OF THE GENUS TOR

211

Beaufort (1916), Gunther (1868), Vinciguerra
(1879), Fowler (1905, 1935) and others.

After Hamilton, Sykes (1838) described
Barbus khudree from Mula-Mutha river, 8 miles
east of Poona. In the same year Heckel added
one more species to the Indian game fish fauna
from Kashmir Valley under the generic name
Labeobarbus, L. macrolepis which is
synonymous with T. putitora (Ham.).

In 1839, McClelland in his account of the
Indian Cyprinidae dealt with large-scaled bar-
bels of India and described five species, viz.
Barbus hexasticus, B. progeneius, B. macro -
cephalus, B. hexagonolepis and B. megalepis.
The first four were described from Assam while
the last species was obtained in river Kosi. Of
these, B. hexagonolepis , according to modem
nomenclature, is Neolissochilus hexagonolepis,
B. hexasticus and B. megalepis are synonymous
with Tor tor (Ham.), B. macrocephalus with Tor
putitora (Ham.), and only B. progeneius is a
valid species.

Jerdon (1849), in his paper on “freshwater
fishes of Southern India” described from the
mountain streams of Malabar, Barbus
malabaricus which I have synonymised with T.
khudree (Sykes) in this paper.

Day in his fishes of india (1878) and the
fauna of India (1889) lumped Hamilton's C.
putitora, C. tor and C. mosal together under a
single species Barbus tor and used B.tor as a
collective narfte for the various species of mah-
seer found in India. On the other hand, Gunther
(1868:130) used the name B. mosal as the col-
lective name for all the Indian species of mah-
seer. Day, however, retained McClelland's B.
hexasticus as a distinct species and characterised
it as “lips moderately thick, the lower one
without or with a badly developed lobe, but
having a shallow and continuous transverse fold.
Sometimes pores on snout”. Evidently his
hexasticus is a composite species comprising of
both J. tor (Ham.) and Neolissochilus
hexagonolepis (McClell.). Strangely enough.
Day in his work overlooked Sykes’ B. khudree

though he (Day 1868) described a new species,

B. neilli from the Thungabhadra river at Kur-
nool, South India, which is the same as T.
khudree (Sykes). The lumping of all the species
of mahseer found in India into a single species
by Day was, however, not agreed to by anglers,
who were of the opinion that there were more
species of mahseer than named. Thomas (1897)
in his famous book the rod in india stated:

“Further experience has confirmed me in the view ad-
vanced in 1873 that there are more Mahseers than have been
named, and that if it were possible that as much accurate at-
tention could be given the Mahseer as has been devoted to
the Salmonidae of Great Britain, of Europe, and America, it
would be found that the Mahseer of India would likewise
grow in numbers”

Hora and Mukerji (1936) and Hora (1939-
1943) attempted to identify the probable valid
species of mahseer and define their precise
taxonomic limits giving valuable information on
their ecology and bionomics. Hora and Mukeiji
(1936:140) as a result of the extensive collec-
tions made by them in the Eastern Doons,
described the specific limits of the three species
described by Hamilton and concluded that C.
putitora is abundantly distinct from C. tor but
may be conspecific with C. mosal. They (loc.
cit., p. 140) further observed:

“If all the characters in the descriptions of the three
species are tabulated, it is found that C. putitora and C.
mosal have much in common and are abundantly distinct
from C. tor. In C. putitora and C. mosal the dorsal in front
of the dorsal fin slopes and forms a sharp ridge, whereas in

C. tor the surface in front of the dorsal fin has a blunt or
convex edge. While examining fresh specimens we could
easily separate the yellow finned form and the red fin form,
and these colour groups can be further distinguished by cer-
tain well marked taxonomic characters. In the specimens
with red fins, the length of the head is contained more than
4 times and the depth of the body less than 4 times in the
total length without the caudal fin, whereas in the examples
with yellow fins the length of the head is less than 4 times
in the total length without the caudal. Among the yellow
finned form there are two types:

(i) The lips are fleshy and the lower one is produced
backwards into a long fleshy appendage; the snout is blunt
(ii) The lips are of normal type and the lower lip does not
form an appendage; the snout is rather pointed.

212

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

We believe that these differences are correlated with
sex; the former type represents the male and the latter the
female. As these are the differences on which Hamilton
separated putitora from mosal, we regard them as con-
specific and on account of page priorities adopt the former
name for the species".

From the above observation of Hora and
Mukeiji and a re-examination of Hamilton’s
original illustration of C. mosal, I am convinced
that Hamilton’s C. putitora and C. mosal are one
and the same species, the nature of their lips
being an adaptive character (vide infra).

In 1939, Hora dealt with the Putitor mah-
seer, Barbus (Tor) putitora (Ham.). It may be
mentioned here that the genus Barbus ( senso -
lato) having about 500 species, is distributed
from central China, the Philippines and Borneo
to Spain and South Africa (Myers 1941). This
vast genus has been treated as such by Gunther
(1868), Day (1878), Rendahl (1928) and
Nichols (1943) though many authors like Weber
and de Beaufort (1916) and Smith (1945) have
attempted to subdivide it without much success.
Hora used the generic name Barbus and recog-
nised Tor Gray as its subdivision. In the present
paper I have recognised Tor Gray as a distinct
genus though the generic status of a number of
barbins of southern and south-eastern Asia is
poorly understood at the moment ( vide Rain-
both, loc.cit., p. 24).

Hora (loc. cit., p. 281) studied the differen-
ces in the structure of the lips and concluded
that the fleshy hypertrophied lips with lower lips
produced into a fleshy appendage are charac-
teristic of individuals inhabiting shallow torren-
tial streams with rocky and gravelly beds, and
those with normal lip- type without any enlarged
appendage on the lower lip and a pointed snout
are denizens of comparatively sluggish streams
with sandy and pebbly bed. They are neither
secondary sexual characters nor do they repre-
sent distinct species. The hypertrophied lip, is
applied to the substratum to form a sucker to
enable the fish to adhere to rocks and stones in a
shallow torrential stream.

In 1940, Hora discussed Hamilton’s second

species of the large scaled barbels of India, Bar-
bus (Tor) tor (Ham.), characterising it as a form
in which the head is considerably shorter than
the depth of the body and the lower fins reddish
in colour. Hora (1940a) also recognised the
specific validity of Hamilton’s third large scaled
barbel, Cyprinus (cyprinus) mosal Though Hora
considered Hamilton’s Cyprinus mosal with or-
dinary lips as female representing Barbus (Tor)
mosal and the form with enlarged lips as male
representing Barbus (Tor) putitora , he sub-
sequently argued that Hamilton’s mosal was
more closely allied to tor than to putitora. Based
on Gray’s illustration of Cyprinus mosal, he
drew certain salient features of his mosal that
distinguish it from Barbus (Tor) putitora and
Barbus (Tor) tor. He considered that in Barbus
(Tor) mosal the depth of the body is more or less
equal to the length of the head (considerably
greater in Barbus (Tor) tor and considerably less
in Barbus (Tor) putitora); the dorsal profile is
more elevated than the ventral, the head is shar-
pish in front and the dorsal spine is very strong.
However, in Hamilton’s original drawing of
Cyprinus mosal the depth of the body is some-
what less than the length of head while in Hora’s
colour sketch of Barbus (Tor) mosal from the
Mintha stream, Tavoy, Burma, the depth of body
is considerably greater than the length of head as
in typical Tor tor (Ham.). Hora further stated
that in the collections of the Indian Museum,
Barbus (Tor) mosal is represented by a few
specimens and even these are mostly from
Burma. From the specimens I have examined
from Upper Burma in the collections of the
Zoological Survey of India and from the results
of the statistical analysis of characters of
populations of the deep-bodied forms with
length of head about four times in SL from
Burma, Assam, the Himalayas and the Satpura-
Vindhya ranges I have come to a definite con-
clusion that all these populations belong to T. tor
and Hora’s T. mosal is synonymous with it (see
Fig. 1 graph 1 ).

In 1941 Hora defined the specific identity

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89

Menon: Taxonomy of mahseer

Plate 1

Species of mahseer. 1. Tor khudree (Sykes) from Krishna river, Satara Dt., Maharashtra, .115 mm SL. 2. Tor tor (Ham.)
from Suswa river, Dehra Dun, 126 mm SL. 3. Tor kulkarnii sp. nov. from Darna river, Deoiaii, Maharashtra, 200 mm SL.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89
Menon: Taxonomy of mahseer

Plate 2

Species of mahseer: 1. Tor putitora (Ham.) from Assam, 300 mm SL„ 2. T. putitora (Ham.) from Tawi river, Jammu;
180 mm SL. 3. Head of the above (from river Tawi) enlarged.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89
Menon: Taxonomy of mahseer

Plate 3

Species of mahseer: 1. Tor progeneius (McCell.) from Barak river, Karong, Assam, 270 mm SL.

2. Head of the above,

TAXONOMY OF MAHSEER FISHES OF THE GENUS TOR

213

Graph i

IRRAWADDY

BASIN

GANGES

BASIN

MAHANADI

BASIN

NARMADA

BASIN

Graph 2

IRRAWADDY

BASIN

GANGES

BASIN

MAHANADI

BASIN

NARMADA

BASIN

__1 k

2518

2^04 2660

\mr L

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25

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i mmr

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2302 2469

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Graph 3

"V

IRRAWADDY

1

i

BASIN

8827

9565

10303

GANGES

r

—

_1

BASIN

846

9004

9548

MAHANADI

r

1

BASIN

8316

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NARMADA

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1

BASIN

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9567

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Graph 4

30

82

84 36 1

88 90 92

94 96 98

100 102 104

106

'

1 1

, 1 1

1 1 l

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IRRAWADDY

1

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_J

BASIN

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296

MAHANADI

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-

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BASIN

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wApm

!

BASIN

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ia!-79

2071

3

.60

170

130 1910

2 0.0 2 VO 22-0

230 ^40 250

260 270 2 80

290

300

Fig. 1. Tor tor (Ham.)

Variation within samples from different drainages: Irrawaddy, Ganges, Mahanadi and Narmada.
Graph 1. Head length in SL, in per cent; Graph 2. Body depth in SL, in per cent; Graph
3. Head length in Body depth, in per cent; Graph 4. Eye diameter in Head length, in per cent.

214

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

of Barbus (Tor) progeneius, the large-scaled bar-
bel described by McClelland from Assam. He
observed that “in tor the head is more pointed
and the body is considerably deeper and more
pronounced along the ventral surface, while in
progeneius the head is evenly pointed and is
more or less equal to the depth of the body
which is slender and graceful. B. progeneius in
its general facies is similar to B. mosal and it is
likely that when more material of the two forms
becomes available they may prove to be identi-
cal.” He further observed that in B. progeneius
there is a rounded, fan-shaped structure behind
the upper lip which in form and extent is quite
different from the hypertrophied lip of B .
putitora and B . tor. For this reason he considered
progeneius as a distinct species. I have ex-
amined in the collections of the Z.S.I. several
specimens of Tor progeneius from the Barak
river, Assam, which has enabled me to establish
its specific identity. The rounded fan-shaped
structure that Hora noticed in one specimen has
been proved to be an abnormal condition, as
such a structure has not been observed in any
other specimen in the collections of the Z.S.I.

On the strength of the investigations con-
ducted by Dr. M. Suter, at the type-locality of
Barbus mussullah Sykes and having been con-
vinced that Sykes’ Barbus mussullah is a species
of Tor, Hora (1943) reassigned Barbus mussul-
lah Sykes to Tor though it is now established
that Barbus mussullah is not a Tor but belongs
to the genus Hypselobarbus (Rainboth, 1989).
Hora’s Barbus (Tor) mussullah Sykes is
synonymised here with T. khudree (Sykes). In
captive environment and in reservoirs abnormal
deep-bodied forms of khudree are sometimes
met with. The series of indistinct tubercles on
the sides of the head below the eyes in males
and the length of head (3.5 in SL) of such abnor-
mal forms of T. khudree immediately reveal
their identity.

Hora (1943) also a redescribed Barbus
(Tor) khudree Sykes based on a female
specimen collected by Dr. Rishworth in the

Ulhas river about 40 miles north of Bombay
flowing into the Arabian sea from the western
slopes of the Ghats. He described the colour as:
“silvery bluish grey below the middle line, and
almost creamy yellowish white on the ventral
surface. The colour is darker above the lateral
line, the bases of the scales being grey and their
margins reddish grey. The colour of the back is
dark olive. The head is dark olive above, and
creamy yellowish white below. The fins are
bluish grey.”

Later Hora (1943a) dealt with the specific
identity of Jerdon’s species of mahseers from
southern India. Excluding those with a serrated
dorsal spine, and scales along lateral line num-
bering more than 30, and with labial folds inter-
rupted, Hora considered Five species as
mahseers from Jerdon’s list of 14 species of
Barbus. These are B. hamiltonii, B. megalepis,
B. malabaricus, B. mussullah and B. khudree.
After a careful study of Jerdon’s species Hora
concluded that of the five species of Tor- type in-
cluded by Jerdon there are only two types: (1)
Barbus khudree Sykes (= B. hamiltonii nec.
Gray and B. malabaricus Jerdon) and (2) B.
mussullah Sykes (= Barbus megalepis Jerdon
nec. McClelland), distributed widely in the prin-
cipal rivers of the peninsula.

Shaw and Shebbeare (1929), Shebbeare
(1930, 1931), McDonald (1929, 1933), Van
Inger (1937) and Parson (1943) recognised
several varieties of mahseer based on coloura-
tion, which is a highly variable character due to
environmental factors (vide Hora 1941, p.8Q4).

Morphometric and Meristic Characters

The following morphometric and meristic
characters of the samples of the different
populations occurring in the major river basins
of India including Burma were studied.

Morphometric characters: 1. Length of
head (in Standard length); 2. Depth of body (in
Standard length); 3. Length of snout (in length
of head); 4. Width of head (in length of head);
5. Depth of head (in length of head);

TAXONOMY OF MAHSEER FISHES OF THE GENUS TOR

215

Graph i

IRRAWADDY

BASIN

GANGES

BASIN

MAHANADI

BASIN

NARMADA

BASIN

Fig. 2. Tor tor (Ham.)

Variation within samples from different drainages; Irrawaddy, Ganges, Mahanadi and Narmada.

Graph 1. Percentage of snout length in head length; Graph 2. Percentage of post-orbital length in head length;

Graph 3. Lateral line scales.

6. Diameter of eye (in length of head); 7. Inter-
orbital width (in length of head); 8. Depth of
caudal peduncle (in length of caudal peduncle).

Meristic characters: 9. Scales along
lateral line; 10. Scale rows between lateral line
and base of pelvic fin.

Biometric Comparison of Populations

For a correct taxonomic assessment of the
samples, the range, mean, standard deviation

and standard error were calculated for the char-
acters considered important in species differen-
tiation and presented in graph form (Figs. 1-4).
For each sample the diagrams show: (1) total
range of variation of the particular character in-
dicated by the horizontal line, (2) the mean, by
the vertical line indicated in the middle of it, (3)
the standard error by the blackened area of each
bar and (4) the standard deviation indicated by
one half of each black bar plus the white bar at

216

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

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TAXONOMY OF MAHSEER FISHES OF THE GENUS TOR

217

Fig. 4. Variations among different species of Tor Gray.

Graph 1. Head length in SL, in per cent; Graph 2. Body depth in SL, in per cent; Graph
3. Head length in body depth, in per cent; graph 4. Eye diameter in head length, in per cent.

218

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Graph 1

tor (Burmese)
progeneius (Assam)

tor (Himalayan)
khudree (Deccan)
ku/karnii (Deccan)
putitora ( Himalayan I

280 290 300 310

3J0 330 340 350 360 370 300 390 400 41-0 420

Graph 3

Fig. 5. Variations among different species of Tor Gray.

Graph 1. Snout length in head length, in per cent; Graph 2. Post orbital length in head length, in per cent;
Graph 3. Lateral line scales; Graph 4. Scale rows between lateral line and base of pelvic.

TAXONOMY OF MAH SEER FISHES OF THE GENUS TOR

219

either end. The degree overlap or divergence of
the standard deviations of the characters studied
has been taken to determine the status of the
populations (vide Hubbs and Hubbs 1953).

The intergradation of characters of T. tor
populations t from the drainages, viz. Irrawaddy,
Brahmaputra, Ganges, Mahanadi and Narmada
(Fig. 1, Graphs 1-4; Fig. 2, Graphs 1-3) make it
evident that these populations are identical and
are, therefore, considered as belonging to the
same species, T. tor (Ham.).

The populations of the Krishna, Godavari,
and the Cauvery which are considered as X
khudree (Sykes) are pooled together and com-
pared with the populations of the west-flowing
rivers of the Western Ghats of Kerala (Fig. 2). It
is evident from the overlap of the standard
deviation of all the characters tested that they
are the same. The Kerala population of T.
khudree is therefore not considered different
from that of the Deccan and the Mysore plateau.

The characters by which the various
species of Tor, T. tor, T putitora, T. khudree, T
progeneius and the new species, T. kulkarnii
can be easily separated aie represented in Fig. 4,
graphs 1-4; Fig. 5, graphs 1-4.

The length of the head in proportion to the
depth of the body is considered the most impor-
tant character in distinguishing the mahseer
species occurring in India. This ratio is a
measure of the efficiency of the fish to
withstand the fast flowing current, the fish be-
coming more streamlined. Employing this char-
acter randomly, however, has often led to
difficulty in separating the species. Often in a
population of Tor tor , specimens somewhat
similar to T. putitora will be seen. Probably it
was because of this overlapping that Day treated
Tor tor, T. putitora and T. mosal as a single
species. A careful statistical analysis of the
populations of the different species has, how-
ever, convinced me that the judicious use of the
character of head length/body depth ratio is the
best method to separate the species. Tor tor, T
putitora, T. progeneius, T. khudree and T.

kulkarnii sp. nov. are the five valid species oc-
curring in India. T mosal is treated in this paper
as a junior synonym of T tor.

The length of the head is considerably
greater than the depth of body in T. putitora (see
Fig. 3, graph 3) whereas the length of the head is
considerably shorter or more or less equal to the
depth of the body in the other species. The
length of head is somewhat equal to the depth of
body in T. khudree, whereas it is shorter in the
case of T. tor and T. kulkarnii. T. kulkarnii can,
however, be easily separated by its considerably
short head (length of head 4.1, 3.8 in T.tor , 3.2
in T. khudree) (Fig. 4, graph 1). T. progeneius
has an increased number of scales along the
lateral line (Fig. 5, graph 3).

Genus Tor Gray

Tor Gray, Illust. Indian Zool., 2:96, 1830-
34 (Type species: Cyprinus tor Hamilton = Tor
hamiltoni Gray, haplotype)

Labeobarbus Ruppell, Mus. Senckenberg ,
2:14, 1936

Barbus (Tor) Hora, J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc., 41(2):276, 1939

Tor Smith, Bull. U.S . Nat. Mus.y No.
188:137, 1945.

Diagnostic features: Medium to large size,
body elongate, moderately compressed. Snout
more or less prominent, mouth slightly inferior,
horseshoe shaped, upper jaw strongly protrac-
tile. Lips thick, continuous, lower with an
uninterrupted posterior fold, with or without a
median lobe on the lower lip. Long maxillary
and rostral pairs of barbels.

Dorsal fin with nine branched rays, its
origin somewhat anterior to or in line with, the
origin of ventrals; last osseous ray elongate,
smooth, and non-denticulated. Anal with five
branched rays. Scales large, lateral line complete
with 24-30 scales. 10-16 (8-10 in progeneius)
long, slender gill rakers on 1st ceratobranchial.
Pharyngeal teeth in three rows, 5.3. 2-2.3. 5.

Size: Specimens of 150 to 247 cm in
length and weighing about 60 kg are reported,

220

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

45 cm and 2 to 5 kg are more common.

Distribution: Asiatic mainland and the
Indo-Australian Archipelago.

KEY TO SPECIES OF THE GENUS Tor GRAY

1. L.1 scales less than 27 (24-27) 2

L.1 scales more than 27 (27-30) ,~.T. progeneius McClell.
(Brahmaputra drainage, Assam)

2. Length of head considerably greater than depth of
body, leogth of head less than 4 (3.5) times in S.L.

T. putitora

(Slender bodied Himalayan mahseer, all along the
Himalayas)

- Length of head equal to or considerably shorter than

depth of body 3

3. Length of head equal to depth of body (rarely shorter);
length of head about 3.5 (3.2) in S.L., sides of head
below eye with series of indistinct tubercles in males

.....T. khudree

(Peninsular. India, south of Vindhyas)

- Length of head shorter than depth of body. Length of
head more than 3.5 in S.L., sides of head smooth

without tubercles 4

4. Length of head about 4 (3.8) times in S.L. T. tor

(Deep bodied Himalayan mahseer; all along the foot
hills of the Himalayas and the Vindhya-Satpuras)

- Length of head more than 4 (4.17) times in S.L.

T. kulkamii

(Godavari drainage, Deccan)

Tor khudree (Sykes)

Barbus khudree Sykes, Proc. Zool Soc. Lond., p.159, 1838
(Mula-Mutha river, 8 miles east of Poona). Sykes,
Trans. Zool. Soc. 2:357, 1841 (Mula-Mutha river, 8
miles east of Poona). Jerdon, Madras J. Lit &. Sci.
15:313, 1849. Bleeker, Verk. Bat. Gen., 25:60, 1853.
Hora & Misra, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 40(1) :24,
1938 (Deolali). Hora, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,
43(2):167, 1942 (colour, sex differences, weight up to
50 lbs, Mula-Mutha, Poona).

Barbus hamiltonii (nec Gray), Jerdon, Madras J. Lit. & Sci.,
15:311,312,1849.

Barbus malabaricus Jerdon, Madr. J. Lit & Sci., 5:312,
1849 (Mountain streams of Malabar). Day, Fish India
569, pi. 138, fig. 3, 1878 (South Canara down the
Western Ghats to Travancore hills). Day, Faun. Brit
Ind. Fish. 1:314, 1889 (South Canara down the
Western ghats to Travancore hills).

Barbus megalepis, Jerdon (nec McClell.), Madras Journ.
Lit. & Sci. 15:311, 1849.

Barbus neilli Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 581, 1868

(Thungabhadra river at Kurnool). Beavan, Handbook
FW. Fish Ind., p. 45, 1877 (Tambodra R.). Day, Fish
India, 569, pi. 140, fig. 4, 1878 (Tamboodra river,
Karnool). Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., 1:314, 1889
(Karnool on Thungabhadra river).

Barbus longispinis Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit Mus., 7:132,
1868 (Ceylon).

Barbus (Tor) khudree, Hora & Misra, J. Bombay nat. Hist
Soc. 40:24, 1938 (Mysore). Hora, Rec. Indian Mus.
44(2):195, 1942 (Mysore). Hora,/. Bombay nat Hist
Soc. 44(1): 6, 1943 (Ulhas, Cis-Ghat area, north of
Bombay).

Barbus mussullah, Spence & Prater (nec Sykes), J. Bombay
nat. Hist Soc. 3>6:A12, 1932 (upper Krishna, near
Satara). Hora, (nec Sykes), J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
43(2): 164, 1943 (Systematics, Krishna river).

Barbus (Tor) mussullah, Hora (nec Sykes), /. Bombay nat
Hist. Soc., 44(1): 5, 1943 (Description; Cauvery &
Bhavani rivers).

Barbus (Tor) khudree malabaricus, MacDonald,/. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 44(3): 52, 1944 (South Canara, W.
Ghats, Travancore Hills).

Tor khudree Rajan, /. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 53(1): 45,
1955 (Bhavani R.). Misra, (in part), Rec. Ind. Mus.,
57(1-4): 149, 1959 (U.P., Orissa and Peninsular
India., Orissa and U.P. excluded). David, Proc. nat
Acad. Sci., 33B(2): 280, 1963 (Krishna & Godavari
rivers). Kulkarni, /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(3):
652, 1979 (Bhima, Krishna, Koyna & Indrayani
rivers in Maharashtra). Sen & Jayaram, Rec. Zool.
Surv. Ind., Occ. Pap. 39: 7, 1982 (Peninsular India,
south of R. Tapti). Jayaram (in part), Rec. Zool. Surv.
Ind., Occ. Pap. 36: 71, 1982 (Cauvery R.).

Puntius (Tor) khudree, Kalawar & Kelkar, /. Bombay nat
Hist Soc., 53: 672, 1955 (Kolhapur).

Tor khudree malabaricus, Kulkarni, J. Bombay nat. Hist
Soc. 75(3): 652, 1978. Sen & Jayaram, Rec. Zool.
Surv. Ind., occ. Pap. 39: 13, 1981 (South Canara,
Western Ghats, Travancore hills).

Tor mussullah (nec Sykes), Misra, Rec. Indian Mus., 57(1-
4): 149, 1959. Kulkarni, /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
75(3): 652, 1979 (systematic). Jarayam, Handbook
F.W. Fish. India, p. 124, 1981 (Cauvery, Bhavani and
Poona). Jayaram, Rec. Zool. Surv Ind. Occ. Pap. 36:
72, (Cauvery R.)

Vernacular name: Khudchee, Barsa (in
Pune).

Common English name: Deccan mahseer.
Diagnostic features: A streamlined mah-
seer with the head length almost equal to depth
of body; lateral sides of snout with a series of in-

TAXONOMY OF MAHSEER FISHES OF THE GENUS TOR

221

distinct small tubercles in males; back and sides
above the lateral line dark in colour, yellowish
white below with bluish grey on belly; fins
bluish grey.

Description: Based on six specimens, 63.0
mm to 175.0 mm S.L. from Krishna river, Satara
dist., Maharashtra (4), Day’s specimens from
Deccan (2).

D. IV, 9, P. 14-16, A. Ill, 5, C. 19, L.l.
24-26, L. tr. 41/2/21/2-31/2

Body elongate, streamlined with the upper
profile convex before dorsal fin but slightly con-
cave behind it, lower profile slightly arched.
Mouth moderate, sloping downwards posterior-
ly, its gape does not extend to below eye. Lips
fleshy, smooth edged, continuous at the angles
of mouth with uninterrupted fold or groove
along lower jaw, lower lip with a median lobe of
varying length (lips hypertrophied in specimens
living in highly torrential habitats). Head shar-
pish, its length equal to depth of body, it is con-
tained 28.48-39.79 (31.37) per cent of S.L.; its
depth 60.0-68.89 (65.26) per cent and its breadth
50.0-62.22 (54.78) per cent of head. Snout
pointed; its length contained 32.5-36.84 (34.60)
per cent of head; the lateral sides of snout
covered with a patch of indistinct small
tubercles in males. Nostrils nearer to eye than to
tip of snout. Eye dorso-ventral, in the anterior
half of head, its size highly variable with size of
fish, in smaller specimens it is greater; its
diameter 17.65-27.78 (22.50) per cent of head,
52.94-84.62 (65.43) per cent of snout, 50.0-
84.62 (67.30) per cent of interorbital width. Two
pairs of barbels, maxillary barbels longer than
diameter of eye reaching beyond posterior mar-
gin of eye, rostral shorter than maxillary, reach-
ing anterior border of eye. Body depth greater
than its breadth, 27.97-38.93 (31.49) per cent of
S.L.

Fins: Dorsal fin almost in the middle of
body with its upper margin concave, its last un-
divided ray modified into a strong, smooth
spine, shorter than depth of body below it. Pec-
toral fin shorter than head; its length 60.0-70.0

(65.11) per cent of head. Pelvics shorter than
pectorals, do not extend to base of anal. Anal
longer than pelvics, rounded near the tip in
female, not reaching the base of caudal. Dis-
tance between pectoral and pelvics equal to the
distance between pelvic and anal fins. Caudal
forked, the lower lobe slightly longer than the
upper. Caudal peduncle long and narrow, its
least height 64.0-77.27 (71.41) per cent of its
own length.

Scales: L.l. 24-26; 2V2-3V2 rows between
L.l. and base of pelvic fin, 4V2 rows between
L.l. and base of dorsal fin; 9-10 scales before
dorsal fin and 10 rows around caudal peduncle.

Maximum size: About a metre in length
and known to attain a maximum of 22.6 kg. in
weight. But fish attaining more than half a metre
are not caught these days.

Colouration: Colour varies with the
habitat in which the fish lives. Usually the sides
above lateral line and the back are dark, the
sides below lateral line creamy yellowish white
and silver bluish grey below on the belly. The
bases of scales grey with reddish grey tinged
margins. Head dark olive and yellowish white
below. Fins bluish grey. Black mahseers are
known from Mysore.

Distribution: Deccan (Krishna and
Godavari drainages) and peninsular India
(Cauvery and the west flowing rivers of Kerala,
Karnataka and Maharashtra).

Material examined: Maharashtra: 3

specimens from Lonavla, SRS/ZSI, Madras. 6
specimens, Krishna river, Satara dist., ZSI, Cal-
cutta. 2 specimens from Deccan (Day’s
specimens), ZSI, Calcutta. Tamil nadu.- 2
specimens from Beligunda (Cauvery river),
SRS/ZSI, Madras, madhya pradesh: 1 specimen,
Ponch reservoir (Godavari drainage), SRS/ZSI,
Madras, kerala. 2 specimens, Thannikudy
(Periyar river), SRS/ZSI, Madras. 2 specimens,
Bhutathankettu Dam, 19 km from Kothaman-
galam, SRS/ZSI, Madras. 2 specimens, Kallada
River near Kuluthupuzha, Quilon dist.,
SRS/ZSI, Madras.

222

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 89

Tor kulkarnii sp. nov.

Diagnostic features: Distinguished from
other mahseer fishes by its deeper body and with
a short head considerably shorter than the depth
of the body, 24-26 scales along lateral line and
2V2 rows below it to base of pelvic fin.

Description: D. IV, 9, P. 14-16, A. Ill, 5,
C. 19, L.l. 24-26, L.tr. 372/2V2

Body elongate, compressed, compression
more towards tail. Upper profile convex before
dorsal fin but slightly concave behind it, ventral
profile gently arched. Mouth moderate, terminal,
sloping downwards posteriorly, its gape not ex-
tending to below eye. Lips fleshy, smooth
edged, continuous at the angles of mouth with
uninterrupted fold or groove along lower jaw.
Head sharpish, oval, flattish above; its length
considerably shorter than depth of body, it is
contained 23.2-25.48 (24.08) per cent of S.L., its
depth 71.43-76.04 (74.63) and its breadth 60.0-
75.0 (66.69) per cent of head. Snout pointed; its
length contained 33.33-35.42 (34.25) per cent of
head. Nostrils nearer to eye than to tip of snout.
Eye dorso-ventral, in the anterior half of head,
its diameter 20.75-22.86 (21.93) per cent of
head, 61.11-66.67 (64.05) per cent of snout,
52.5-64.0 (57.88) per cent of interorbital width.
Two pairs of barbels, maxillary barbels longer,
reaching beyond posterior margin of eye, body
depth greater than its breadth, 28.04-31.73
(30.55) per cent of S.L.

Fins: Dorsal fin almost in the middle of
body with its upper margin concave, its last un-
divided ray modified into a strong, smooth
spine. Pectoral fin shorter than head; its length
68.75-81.13 (74.93) per cent of head. Pelvics
not extending to base of anal. Anal longer than
pelvics, smaller than pectoral fin, not reaching
the base of caudal. Distance between pectorals
and pelvics equal to the distance between pelvic
and anal fins. Caudal forked, the lower lobe
slightly longer than the upper. Caudal peduncle
long and narrow, its least depth 60.0-76.47
(69.15) per cent in its own length.

Scales: L.l. 24-26 (25); 272 rows between
L.l. and base of pelvic fin, 3x/2 rows between
L.l. and base of dorsal fin, 10-11 scales before
dorsal fin.

Maximum size: 208.0 mm S.L.

Colouration: In preserved specimens,
body above lateral line is greyish, becoming
deeper towards dorsal side, lower parts of head
and body silvery. The bases of scales bear dark
blotches.

Holotype: ZSI No. FF 2710., Dama river,
Deolali, Maharashtra state, 208.0 mm S.L.,
A.G.L. Fraser, 29 April 1936.

Paratype: 3 specimens, ZSI No. FF 2711,
148.0 to 200.0 mm S.L, in Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta, taken along with the holotype,
bearing the same data as the holotype.

Relationships: T. kulkarnii is a dwarf cog-
nate of T. Jchudree. The small head and the
deeper body distinguish this from all other
species of mahseer.

Tor progeneius (McClelland)

Barbus progeneius McClelland, Asiat. Res. 19: 270, 334, pi.

56, fig. 3, 1839 (Assam). Hora, Rec. Indian Mus., 38:

328, figs. 7-9, 1936 (R. Barak, between Nongba and

Kalanaga, Naga Hills).

Barbus (Tor) progeneius, Hora, J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc .,

42: 526, pi. and tex- figs. 1-3, 1942 (Assam)..

Tor progeneius, Sen & Jayaram, Rec. Zool. Surv. Ind. occ.

Pap. 39: 11, 1982 (Norih-eastern Himalayas in

Assam, Naga Hills and Manipur: Manipur excluded).

Vernacular name: Jungha in Assamese.

Diagnostic features: A graceful stream-
lined mahseer with the length of head almost
equal to depth of body; and scales along lateral
line 27 to 31 rows.

Description: Based on seven specimens,
100 to 290 mm S.L., from Barak river, Karong
(6), Ward Lake, Shillong, Meghalaya (1).

D. IV, 9., P. 14-16, A. Ill, 5., C. 19, L.l. 27-
31, L. tr.4V2/272

Body elongate, muscular and somewhat
compressed towards tail, both profiles gently ar-
ched, forming a long fusiform body. Mouth
moderate, its gape does not extend to below eye
and somewhat obliquely directed upwards. Lips

TAXONOMY OF MAH SEER FISHES OF THE GENUS TOR

223

fleshy, smooth edged, continuous at the angles
of mouth with uninterrupted fold or groove
along lower jaw; lower lip with a median lobe.
Head sharpish in front, its length equal to depth
of body, it is contained 20.69-28.0 (25.3 6^ per
cent of S.L.; its height 63.33-72.0 (66.78) per
cent and its breadth 53.33-66.67 (59.05) per cent
of head. Snout pointed; its length contained
28.57-40.0 (35.20) per cent of head, the lateral
sides of snout covered with a series of tubercles.
Nostrils nearer to eye than to tip of snout. Eye
dorso-ventral, in the anterior half of head, its
size highly variable with size of fish; in smaller
specimens it is greater than in larger specimens;
its diameter 15.15-26.67 (21.30) per cent of
head, 45.0-69.77 (53.29) per cent of snout,
40.82-80.0 (62.80) per cent of interorbital width.
Two pairs of barbels, maxillary barbels longer.
Body depth greater than its breadth, 22.07-27.20
(24.50) per cent of S.L.

Fins: Dorsal fin almost in the middle of
body with its upper margin concave, the dorsal
spine weak, the longest ray somewhat equal to
depth of body in young specimens but in adult
specimens it is shorter. Pectoral fin shorter than
head; its length 73.0- 86.0 (78.70) per cent of
head. Pelvics shorter, not extending to anal. Anal
longer than pelvics, rounded near the tip, not
reaching the base of caudal. Distance between
pectorals and pelvics equal to the distance be-
tween pelvic and anal fins. Caudal deeply forked
with both lobes pointed. Caudal peduncle long
and narrow, its least depth 41.67-68.18 (56.98)
per cent in its own length.

Scales: L.l. 27-31, 2V2-3V2 rows between
L.l. and base of pelvic fin, 4V2 rows between
L.l. and base of dorsal fin, 10-12 scales before
dorsal fin.

Maximum size: 690 mm (540 mm S.L.).

Colouration: In preserved specimens,
body above lateral line is greyish, becoming
deeper towards dorsal side, lower parts of head
and body silvery. The bases of scales bear dark
blotches which are more prominent along dorsal
surface.

Distribution: Nagaland and Meghalaya
(Brahmaputra system).

Material examined: india Nagaland:

Barak river (Brahmaputra drainage), ZSI, Cal-
cutta. Meghalaya (Brahmaputra system), ZSI,
Calcutta.

The fan-shaped structure behind the upper
jaw described by earlier workers is an abnormal
formation and none of the specimens examined
by me has such a structure.

Tor putitora (Hamilton)

Cyprinus putitora Hamilton, Fish. Ganges, pp. 303, 388,
1822 (Type locality Eastern parts of Bengal). Hora,
Mem. Ind. Mus., 9(4): 178, 1929.

Cyprinus mosal Hamilton, Fish. Ganges, pp. 306, 388, 1822
(R. Kosi). Gray, III. Ind. Zool, 1, pi. 39, fig. 1 (from
Hamilton’s MS. drawings) 1830-32.

Labeobarbus macrolepis Heckel, Fish. Caschmir, p. 60, pi.
10, fig. 2, 1838 (Kashmir).

Barbus macrocephalus McClelland, Asiat. Res., 19: 270,
335, pi. 55, fig. 2, 1829 (Rapid rivers of Assam).
Valenciennes (in C.V.), Hist. Nat. Poiss., 16: 204,
1842. Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., 7: 131, 1868
(Assam).

Barbus mosal, Gunther (in part), Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus.,” 7:
130, 1868 (Mountain streams of south of Himalayas
and Hindukush).

Barbus tor, Day (in part), Fish. India, p. 564, pi. 136, fig. 5,
pi. 140, fig. 1, 1878. Day (in part), Faun. Brit. Ind.
Fish., 1:307, fig. 307, 1889.

Barbus putitora, Annandale, Rec . Ind. Mus., 16: 136, pi. 3,
fig. 15, 1919 (Gauhati, Assam). Hora and Mukerji,
Rec. Ind. Mus., 38: 141, 1936 (E. Doon). Hora, Rec.
Ind. Mus., 38: 366, 1936. Shaw and Shebbeare, J.
Asiat. Soc. Beng., 3: 39, fig. 35, 1937. Hora ,Rec. Ind.
Mus., 39:44, 1937 (Nepal). De Witt, Stanford Ichth.
Bull., 7(4): 73, 1960 (Pokhara, Nepal).

Barbus (Tor) putitora, Hora, J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc.,
41(2): 272, 2 pis. and 2 figs., 1939 (systematic posi-
tion). Menon, Rec. Ind. Mus., 47: 233, 1949 (Kokha
nullah, Chhatra, E. Nepal). Menon, J. Bombay nat .
Hist Soc., 48: 539, 1948-49 (Kumaon Himalaya).

Tor putitora, Menon, Rec. Ind. Mus., 52: 22, 1954 (Nepal).
Misra,f?ec. Ind. Mus., 57: 150, 1959. Jayaram, Hand-
book F.W. Fish. India, p. 124, 1981. Shrestha, Fish.
Nepal, p. 102, 1981. Sen and Jayaram, Rec. Zool.
Surv. India, occ. Pap. 39: 5, 1982.

Tor (Tor) putitora, Mirza & Javed, Biologia, Special Suppli-
ment p. 76, 1986 (Bajwat, Head Marala, R. Haro,
Sun Sakesar, Mangla Lake, Tarbela Lake and Azad

224

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Kashmir.)

Vernacular name: Putitora in Goalpara,
Sahara and Tliryia in Pumea, Tor in Rangpur,
Mahsir in Punjab, Jammu & Kashmir.

Common English name: Yellow-fin mah-

seer.

Diagnostic features: An oblong, some-
what compressed, streamlined mahseer, the head
broadly pointed anteriorly, the length of the head
always considerably greater than the depth of
body. Back reddish sap-green in colour, general-
ly with a broad purplish band above the lateral
line, below the lateral line the body is orange
fading into silvery white on the belly, paired fins
yellowish.

Description: Based on 7 specimens, 116.0
to 320.0 mm from Namdapha river, Tirap dist.,
Arunachal Pradesh (1), Day’s figured specimen
(1), Day’s specimen from Assam (1), Nainital
(1), Jhelum river, Kashmir (1), Tawi river,
Jammu (1), and Salt Range (1).

D. IV, 9-10; P. 14-17; V. 9; A. Ill, 5; C. 19;
L.l. 23-28; L. tr. 4V2 / 2%

Body muscular, elongate and somewhat
compressed, both profiles gently arched forming
a long fusiform body. Mouth small, sub-ter-
minal; its gape does not extend to below eye.
Lips fleshy, sometimes greatly thickened,
smooth edged, continuous at angles of mouth
with uninterrupted fold or groove along lower
jaw. Lower lip with a median lobe of varying
length; in specimens from fast-flowing highly
rocky streams it is longer and sometimes co- ex-
tensive with extent of mouth, smaller with ordi-
nary lips (not hypertropied) in specimens living
in slow moving sandy and pebbly habitats. Head
long, broadly pointed anteriorly; its length al-
ways greater than depth of body; it is contained
26.67-30.0 (28.15) per cent of S.L., its depth
55.41-63.64 (59.83) per cent, its breadth 43.92-
55.56 (49.47) per cent of head, length of snout
29.17-41.67 (33.68) per cent of head. Interorbi-
tal width almost equal to or slightly less than
snout length, its width 24.32-31.82 (28.01) per
cent of head. Eye large, dorso-lateral in position,
its diameter 14.44-22.73 (18.01) per cent of

head, 36.0-75.0 (54.87) per cent of snout and
50.0-83.33 (64.53) per cent of interorbital width
(in smaller specimens eye is larger and more
than interorbital width but in smaller specimens
it is less). Two pairs of barbels, maxillary bar-
bels longer than diameter of eye, reaching
beyond posterior margin of eye, rostral equal to
or sometimes shorter. Body depth greater than
its breadth 20.78- 25.86 (23.48) per cent of S.L.

Fins: Dorsal fin almost in middle of body
with upper margin concave, its last undivided
ray forming a strong smooth spine, shorter than
depth of body below it, but in some it is equal to
body height. Pectoral fin sharp with slight con-
vex edge, considerably shorter than head, its
length 58.89-72.22 (65.61) per cent of head. Pel-
vic horizontal, almost midway between head
and caudal base, its origin slightly behind and
just under dorsal origin, not reaching anal open-
ing. Distance between pectoral and pelvics al-
most equal to distance between pelvics and anal
fin base. Anal fin equal to or slightly shorter
than pectorals, not reaching base of caudal fin.
Caudal fin forked with the lower lobe somewhat
more pointed. Caudal peduncle long and narrow,
its least depth 50.0-71.43 (59.08) per cent of its
own length.

Scales: L.l. 23-28; 2 V2 rows between L.l.
and base of pelvic fin, 4V2 rows between L.l.
and base of dorsal fin, 9-11 scales before dorsal
fin and 11-12 rows around caudal peduncle.

Maximum size: 2.7 metres. Hora (op. cit.)
recorded specimens of 60 cm (2 feet). Accord-
ing to Thomas (op. cit.) 18 to 25 kg fish were
common in India but these days fish more than
5 kg are rarely caught.

Colouration: Hamilton (loc. cit, p. 6)
noted the colour as dusky above with a gloss of
steel, while the edges of scales changed from
gold to silver. Fins tinged yellowish. According
to Hora (1939) the colour varies according to the
nature of water inhabited by the fish. The back
is reddish sap-green. Below the lateral line, the
body is light orange fading to silvery white on
belly. In specimens about 30 cm the dorsal fin is

TAXONOMY OF MAH SEER FISHES OF THE GENUS TOR

225

light yellowish with the rays conspicuously yel-
lowish grey, pectorals pinkish at base with citron
yellow distally; pelvic, anal and caudal fins yel-
lowish with pink extremities. In larger
specimens the pelvic, pectoral and caudal fins
are peacock green. In specimens collected from
torrential rivers the paired fins are generally pale
in colour.

Distribution: india; All along the base of
the Himalayas including Kashmir; Pakistan,
Bangladesh.

Material examined: india. Arunachal

Pradesh: 1 specimen, ZSI, Calcutta; Assam: 2
specimens, ZSI, Calcutta; U.P.: 1 specimen,
ZSI, Calcutta; Jammu & Kashmir: 2 specimens,
ZSI, Calcutta; Punjab: 1 specimen, ZSI,

Calcutta.

Tor tor (Ham.)

Cyprinus tor Hamilton, Fish. Ganges, pp. 305, 388, 1822
(R. Mahananda). Gray, III. Ind. ZooL, 2, pi. 93, fig. 1
(from Hamilton’s MS. drawings, 1834).

Barbus megalepis McClelland, Asiat. Res., 19, pp. 271, 337,
1839 (Northern parts of Bengal).

Tor hamiltonii Gray, III. Ind. Zool., 2. pi. 36, fig. 1, 1839.
Barbus hexasticus McClelland, Asiat. Res., 19, pp. 269,
333, pi. 39, fig. 2, 1839 (Great rivers in the plains of
India). Day (in part) Fish. India, p. 565, pi. 136, fig.
4, 1878 (Kashmir, Sikkim and Assam). Day (in part)
Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish, 1:308, 1889. Hora, Rec. Indian
Mus., 22:174, 1921 (Manipur). Prasad & Mukerji,
Rec. Indian Mus., 31:200, text-fig. 7, 1929 (Indawgyi
Lake, Upper Burma).

Barbus mosal, Valenciennes (in C. V.), Hist. Nat. Poiss.,
16:200, 1842. Bleeker, Verb. Bat. Gen., 25:60, 1853.
Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond ., p. 372, 1870. Gunther (in
part), Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., 7:130, 1868 (Mountain
streams of south of Himalayas and Hindukush).
Barbus tor, Day (in part), Fish. India, p. 364, 1878. Day (in
part) Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., 1:307, 1889. Hora &
Mukerji, Rec. Indian Mus., 37:383, 1935 (Naga
Hills). Hora & Mukerji, Rec. Indian Mus., 38:134,
139, fig. 1, 1936 (R. Barak, between Nongba and
Kalanaga, Naga Hills). Mukerji, J. Bombay naL Hist.
Soc. 37:63, 1984 (Burma).

Tor khudree, Chauhan (nec Sykes), Rec. Ind. Mus., 15:270,
1918 (R. Tel, tributary of the Mahanadi, Orissa).
Hora,/. Zool. Soc. India, 1, No. 6: 1949 (R. Riband,
U.P.). Motwani & David, J. Zool. Soc. India, 9, No.

1:11, 1957 (R. Sona, M.P.)

Barbus (Tor) mosal, Hora, J. Bombay naL Hist. Soc. 41:784,
pis. 1 and 2, figs. 1-5, 1941 (Assam).

Barbus (Tor) tor, Hora, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 41:518,
1941 (systematic position).

Tor tor mosal, Macdonald (nec Ham.), J. Bombay nat. Hist
Soc,, 44:189, 1943 (Burma).

Tor mosal mahanadicus David, J. Zool. Soc. India, 5, No.

2:246, 1953 (Hirakund stretch, Mahanadi, Orissa).

Tor tor, Menon, Rec. Indian Mus., 52:22, 1954 (Manipur).
Motwani & David, J. Zool. Soc. India, 9, No. 1:11,
1957 (R. Sona, M.P.). Misra, Rec. Indian Mus ^
57:150, 1959. SrivastaVa, Fish. Eastern U.P., 57,
1968 (Gorakhpur). Jayaram, Handbook F.W. Fish.
India, p. 124, 1981. Shrestha, Fish. Nepal, p. 104,
1981. Sen & Jayaram, Rec. Zool. Surv. Ind., Occ.
Pap, 39:9,1982.

Vernacular name: Tor mahseer.

Common English name: Red-fin mahseer.
Diagnostic features: A more stoutly built
mahseer than the putitor, with the ventral profile
more prominently arched than the dorsal. Head
sharpish anteriorly and is invariably shorter than
the depth of the body. Dorsal surface greyish-
green, the sides of the body in the middle
pinkish replaced with greenish fold above and
olive green below. Fins deep orange.

Description: Based on 10 specimens 68.0
to 162.0 mm S.L. from Suswa and Song rivers,
Dehra Dun, U.R

D. IV, 9., p. 14-16., A. HI, 5., C 19., L.l.
22-28, L. tr. 3V2-4V2 / 2V2-3V2

Body more stoutly built than the Putitor
mahseer, muscular and compressed, with ventral
profile more prominently arched than the dorsal,
dorsal profile convex before dorsal fin but
slightly concave behind it. Mouth small, its gape
does not extend to below eye. Lips fleshy,
smooth edged, continuous at the angles of
mouth with uninterrupted fold or groove along
lower jaw, lower lip invariably with a median
lobe of varying length. In the Dehra Dun ex-
amples, the lips and the median lobe are
moderately developed. (Lips hypertrophied in
specimens living in torrential streams of Tista
river, Daijeeling and Barak river, Assam). Head
sharpish anteriorly, and shorter than the depth of
body (or equal in young examples), it is con-

226

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

tained 23.53-29.41(25.81) per cent of S. L.; its
depth 69.23-77.59(73.12) per cent, its breadth
50.0-62.50(57.80) per cent of head. Snout
pointed; its length contained 33.33-41.46(36.91)
per cent of head. Nostrils nearer to eye than to
tip of snout. Eye dorso-ventral, in the anterior
half of head, its size highly variable with size of
fish, in smaller specimens it is greater than in
larger specimens; its diameter 19.51-27.50
(23.05) per cent of head, 47.06-78.57(62.97) per
cent of snout, 53.33-91.67(69.47) per cent of in-
terorbital width. Two pairs of well-developed
barbels, maxillary barbels slightly longer than
the rostral but shorter than diameter of eye.
Body depth greater than its breadth 22.46-
31.75(28.73) per cent of S.L.

Fins: Dorsal fin almost in the middle of
body with its upper margin concave, its last un-
divided ray strong and bony and is invariably
shorter than the depth of body. Pectoral fin
slightly shorter than head; its length 62.50-
86.21 (73.49) per cent of head. Pelvic fins do
not extend to anal opening. Anal longer than
pelvics, not reaching the base of caudal.
Distance between pectorals and pelvics equal to
the distance between pelvic and anal fins.
Caudal deeply forked, the lower lobe sharply
pointed. Caudal peduncle long and narrow, its
least depth 59.38-78.26 (67.82) per cent of its
own.

Scales: L.l. 22-28, 2 V2 to 3V2 rows be-
tween L.l. and base of pelvic fin, 372 to 4V2
rows between L.l, and base of dorsal fin, 11—12
scales before dorsal fin and 11-12 rows around
caudal peduncle.

Maximum size: 1.7 metres, weighing 45
kg (Thomas 1897).

Colouration: Hamilton (1822, p. 305)
noted the colour as gold and green above, sil-
very below and the fins of the belly reddish. Ac-
cording to Hora (1940), the dorsal surface is
greyish-green, that of head neutral green. The
sides of the body in the middle are pinkish,
replaced above by greenish gold and below by
olive green. The dorsal fin is reddish buff, the

pectorals, pelvics and anal fins are deep orange.

Distribution: India Assam and all along
the foothills of the eastern and central
Himalayas as far as Jumna system, higher
reaches of the Mahanadi in Orissa and the
Vindhyas and Satpura ranges, Madhya Pradesh;
Bangladesh, Burma.

Material examined: india Assam: 6

specimens, ZSI, Calcutta, Barak river, Karong.
Meghalaya: Shillong, 1 specimen, 290.0 mm
S.L., ZSI, Calcutta. Uttar Pradesh: Dehra Dun:
10 specimens, ZSI, Calcutta, Suswa and Song
drainages. Orissa: 11 specimens, ZSI, Calcutta.
Sundargarh: Brahman river. Madhya Pradesh:
Narmada drainage, 14 specimens SRS/ZSI,
Madras. Burma- Kamaing, Myitkyiana Dist.,
ZSI, Calcutta, 2 specimens.

Summary

The literature relating to systematics of
various species of Tor is reviewed and it is
pointed out that neither melanism and other
variations in colour nor the enlargement of the
lips usually met with among species of mahseer
should be mistaken for specific or racial fea-
tures. Morphometric data of samples of deep-
bodied Himalayan mahseer Tor tor (Ham.) from
various drainages is biometrically analysed and
the results indicate that they belong to the same
species. T. mosal (Ham.) is synonymised with T.
putitora (Ham.); Tor mosal of Hora (nec. Ham.)
is synonymised with T. tor (Ham.). The deep
bodied mahseer from the peninsula so far con-
fused with Hypselobarbus mussullah Sykes is
reidentified as an abnormal T. khudree (Sykes).
A series of tubercles on the sides of the head
below the eyes in the males of khudree is char-
acteristic of the species, though presence of
tubercles in the breeding males is reported in
putitora mahseers as well; progeneius is the
only species having a series of tubercles on the
lateral sides of snout in both the sexes.

Description of a new mahseer characterised
by a short head discovered from the Dhama river
(Godavari drainage) at Deolali is also given.

TAXONOMY OF MAHSEER FISHES OF THE GENUS TOR

227

Acknowledgements

I am greatly indebted to T.K. Sen, Officer-
in-Charge, Fish Division, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta, for placing the entire mahseer
material of the National Zoological Collections
at my disposal for this study. My thanks are also

due to Dr. G.M. Yazdani, Officer-in-Charge,
Western Regional Station, Poona, Prof. K.S.
Rao, Department of Zoology, Vikram Univer-
sity, Ujjain, and S.N. Ogale, Environment Of-
ficer, Tata Electric Companies, Lonavla, for the
additional material of mahseer they provided me
for this study.

References

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seers or the large scaled Barbels of India. 6. The Jun-
gha or the Assamese Barbus (Tor) progeneius McCle.
J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc.: 42(3): 526-572.

Hora, S.L. (1941a): The game Fishes of India xiv. 7. The
black Mahseer with notes on other colour varieties. J.
Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 42(4): 803-815.

Hora, S.L. (1942): The game fishes of India xv. The Mah-
seers or large-scaled Barbels of India 8. On the
specific identity of Syke’s species of Barbus from the
Deccan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 42(4): 163-169.

Hora, S.L. (1943): The game fishes of India xvi. The Mah-
seers or the large scaled Barbels of India. 9. Further
observation on Mahseers from the Deccan. J. Bombay
nat Hist. Soc. 44(1): 1-8.

Hora, S.L. (1943a): On Jerdon’s sp. of Mahseer from South
India./. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44(2): 164-168.

Hora, S.L. ( 1943b). Specific identity of the Record Mah-
seers. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44(2): 303-304.

Hubbs, C.L. & Hubbs, C. (1963): An improved graphical
analysis. Syst. Zool., Washington, 2(2): 49-56.

Inger, J.D. (1937): Mahseer Fishing in Mysore./. Darjeel-
ing Natural History Society 12: 28-31.

Jerdon, T.C. (1848): On the freshwater fishes of Southern
India. Madras Journ. Lit. &Sci: 15: 302-346.

McClelland, J. (1839): Indian Cyprinidae. Asiat. Re-
searches 19: 217-468.

McDonald, A. (1929): Mahseer (Barbus tor) in Burma and
their habits/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 302-308.

McDonald, A. (1933): The Mahseer and its varieties in
Burma. /. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 37: 105-108.

Myers, G.S. (1941): Suppression of Lis soc hi l us in favour of
Acrossocheilus with notes on its classification.
Copeia, pp. 42- 44.

Nichols, J.T. (1943): The freshwater fishes of China.

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Natural History Cent Asia. 9.

Parson, R.E. (1943): Black Mahseer. J. Bombay nat. Hist
Soc. 43: 264-265.

Rainboth, W.J. (1989): Discherodontus, a new genus of
Cyprinid fishes from South-eastern Asia. Occ. Pap.
Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 718: 1-31.

Ruppel, W.P.E.S. (1936): Neuer. Nachtrag Zu Beschveibun-
gen und Abbildungen neuer Fische, in Nil entdeckt
Senckenb Mus. 2(1): 1-28.

Rendahl, H. (1928): Beitrage Zurkenntnis der Chinesischen
Susswasserische 1. Systematischer Teil. Ark. Zool.
Stockholm. 20a(l ): 1-194.

Sen, T.K. & Jayaram, K.C. (1982). Mahseer Fishes of
India— A Review. Rec. Zool. Surv. India, Occ. Pap.
39: 1-34.

Shaw, G.E. & Shebbeare, E.O. (1929): Varieties of the
Mahseer. J. Darjeeling Nat. Hist. Soc. 4: 22-25.
Shebeare, E.O. (1930): Variaties of the Mahseer J. Darjeel-
ing Nat. Hist. Soc. 5: 89.

Shebbeare, E.O. (1931): The Dark Variety of Mahseer. /.

Darjeeling Nat. Hist Soc. 6: 73-75.

Smith, H.M. (1945). The freshwater fishes of Siam or
Thailand. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 188: 1-622.

Spence, R. & Prater, S. N. (1932): Game fishes of Bombay,
the Deccan & neighbouring districts of the Bombay
Presidency. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 29-64.

Sykes, W.H. (1938): On the fishes of Deccan. Proc. Zool.
Soc. London 6: 157-165.

Sykes , W.H. (1840): On the fishes of Dukhun. Ann. Mag.
nat Hist. 4: 54-62.

Sykes, W.H. (1841): On the fishes of Dukhun. Trans Zool.
Soc., London 2: 349-378.

Thomas, H.S. (1897): The Rod in India. London.

Vinciguerra, D. (1879): Enumerazione di alcune specie di
pisci racolti in Sumatra dal dottore O. Beccari nell,
anno 1818. Ann. Mus. Civ. Storia Nat. Geneva, 14:
384-397.

Weber, M. & Beaufort, L.F. de (1916): The fishes of the
Indo- Australian Archipelago. Leiden, 3.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

PUNTIUS MUDUMALAIENSIS, A NEW CYPRINID FISH
FROM MUDUMALAI, TAMIL NADU1

A. G. K. Menon and K. Rema Devi2
(With a text-figure)

A new species of Puntius is described from Mudumalai, Western Ghats, which is different
from all the other known puntiids with one pair of barbel, a weak dorsal spine and an incomplete
lateral line system.

Introduction

From the Mudumalai forests of Western
Ghats, small, deep bodied puntiid specimens
were collected, which differ from all other two-
spotted barbs known so far. Descriptions are
based on measurements with dial calipers with
an accuracy of 0.02 mm. Data is presented in
text as times in SL and HL, with the range
followed by the mean in parenthesis and in
Table 1, as percentages of SL and HL.

Diagnosis: A small-sized Puntius with a
proportionately large head, deep body, a pair
of maxillary barbels, a weak and articulated
dorsal spine, an incomplete lateral line and
two blotches (one on dorsal base and another
on caudal peduncle) and with a faint lateral
band. Lower lip with a fleshy symphysis.

Holotype: Zoological Survey of India,
Southern Regional Station, Madras; Reg. No.
F. 2755; 20.0 mm SL; Kakkanhalla road,
Mudumalai, Tamil Nadu, India; 1180 m; 11
October 1987; Coll. M. Vasanth.

Paratypes: 20 specimens, 14.0-23.5 mm
SL, data as above.

Description: D. 3-4/8; P. 13; V. 1/8; A.
3/5; C.l/17/1; L.1.26; L. tr. 5 1/2/ 3 1/2; predor-
sal scales 9-10. Body deep anteriorly, tapering
posteriorly, 3.02-3.57 (3.28) in SL, 1.07-1.26
(1.17) in HL; head large, its length 2.69-2.88
(2.79); width of head 1.78-1.99 (1.90), depth

1 Accepted November 1991

2 Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station,

100, Santhome High Road, Madras 600 028.

of head 1.34-1.52 (1.39) in HL; eye diameter
3.47- 4.50 (4.03), interorbital 2.78-3.55 (3.09),
snout 3.09-3.69 (3.33) in HL; sensory canal
pores as about six radiating rows below eye.
Mouth small, lips fleshy and folded back
enclosing a deep groove, symphysis of lower
lip fleshy; gape of mouth 2.54-3.84 (3.44) in
HL; one pair of small maxillary barbels reach-
ing to anterior third of eye. Dorsal fin situated
midway between snout tip and caudal base,
its spine weak and articulated. Predorsal dis-
tance 1.75-1.99 (1.88), postdorsal 1.86-2.03
(1.94), prepelvic 1.82-2.01 (1.92), preanal
1.31-1.48 (1.41) in SL; predorsal 0.93-1.03
(0.96) in postdorsal length. Length of dorsal
fin 3.32-4.16 (3.69), dorsal base 4.90-5.69
(5.36), length of pectoral 4.94-6.05 (5.56), pel-
vic 4.76-5.57 (5.17) and anal 4.59-5.65 (5.03)
in SL; dorsal fin 1.22-1.46 (1.32), pectoral
1.82- 2.14 (1.98), pelvic 1.65-1.96 (1.85) in
HL; caudal peduncle slender, its length 4.71-
5.98 (5.34), height 6.82-8.58 (7.51) in SL, in
HL it is 1.64-2.12 (1.91) and 2.54-3.04 (2.68)
respectively. Height of caudal peduncle 1.26-
1.63 (1.40) in its length; length of body cavity
(distance from pectoral base to anus) 2.44-
2.95 (2.68) in SL. Gill rakers : 12 gill rakers
in the first gill arch.

Colouration: In formaldehyde, uniform
brown with a pale lateral band from behind
upper margin of opercle to caudal base; a dark
spot on dorsal base from the 3rd to the 5th
ray, dorsal margin dark tinged; caudal
peduncle with a dark spot; anal fin pigmented

230

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Table 1

MORPHOMETRIC DATA OF Puntius mudumalaiensis SP. NOV. (10 SPECIMENS)

% SL

% HL

range

X

SD

range

X

ST

Standard length (mm)

19.3-22.7

Total length

71.2-79.8

74.8

3.07

Head length

34.8-37.2

35.9

0.00

Predorsal length

50.2-57.1

53.4

2.09

Postdorsal length

49.2-53.7

51.6

1.48

Prepelvic length

49.7-54.8

52.0

1.53

Preanal length

67.4-76.4

71.2

2.78

Length of body cavity

33.9-40.9

37.5

2.52

Length of anal

17.7-21.8

19.9

1.15

Base of dorsal

17.6-20.4

18.7

1.06

Length of dorsal

24.0-30.1

27.2

1.90

68.3-81.9

75.8

4.93

Length of pectoral

16.5-20.2

18.1

1.23

46.6-54.7

50.4

3.31

Length of pelvic

18.0-21.0

19.4

0.94

51.0-60.3

54.1

2.97

Body depth

28.0-33.1

30.6

1.75

78.9-93.2

85.3

4.59

Length of caudal peduncle (C.P.)

16.7-21.2

18.8

1.64

47.0-61.0

52.5

4.58

Height of caudal peduncle (C.P.)

11.6-14.6

13.3

0.82

32.9-39.3

37.2

1.74

Head width

50.4-56.1

52.8

1.70

Depth of head

66.0-74.4

71.8

2.40

Eye diameter

22.2-28.8

24.9

2.01

Snout length

27.1-32.4

30.0

1.60

Interorbital distance

28.1-35.9

32.4

2.32

Gape of mouth

26.0-39.2

29.4

4.13

Predorsal length/

Postdorsal length

Length of C.P./ Height of C.P.

96.2-107.3

61.1-79.0

103.5

71.3

3.12

6.29

Fig. 1. Lateral view of Puntius mudumalaiensis sp. nov.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

231

at the edges.

P. mudumalaiensis sp. nov. differs from
all the Puntius species known so far. However,
it is related to P. melanostigma in body shape
and the lateral band. But it can be easily dif-
ferentiated by its lesser number of predorsal
and lateral transverse rows of scales (7-8 and
5/3 in P. melanostigma whereas in P.

mudumalaiensis it is 9-10 and 5 1/2/3 1/2
respectively. The dorsal spot is also absent in
P. melantostigma

Acknowledgements

Our thanks are due to the Director, Z.S.I.
for providing necessary facilities and to Shri
S. Vijayaraghavan for the photograph.

A NEW SPECIES AND A NEW RECORD OF THE REMARKABLE GENUS
DELISLEA GIRAULT (HYMENOPTERA: PTEROMALIDAE) FROM
THE ORIENTAL REGION 1

T. C. Narendran, K. Anil and K. Chandrasekharan2
(With three text-figures)

A new species of Delislea Girault from Apanteles taragamae Wilkinson is described and il-
lustrated. It is compared with the only other known species, viz. D. pattersoni Girault.

INTRODUCTION

The genus Delislea Girault (subfamily
Pteromalinae) is represented only by the type
species, D. pattersoni Girault 1936 from
Australia. It is close to Isoplatoides Girault,
but differs from it in having a propodeum
with distinct nucha and a striate clypeus with
two small teeth separated by a narrow emar-
gination (Boucek 1988). This is the first time
that this genus is reported from the Oriental
region.

This hyperparasitoid emerged from the
cocoon of the braconid wasp, Apanteles
taragamae Wilkinson, parasitic on Opisina
arenosella Walker at Kallada, near Kayam-
kulam, Kerala.

Abbreviations used: EL-Eye length, EW
-Eye width, Fl-Funicle segment, MS-Malar
space, MV-Marginal vein, OOL-Oculo-ocellar
line, PMV-Postmarginal vein, POL-Postocel-
lar line, SMV-Submarginal vein, STV-Stigmal
vein.

1 Accepted December 1991

“Dept, of Zoology, University of Calicut, Kerala 673 635,

Delislea rahimani sp. nov. (Figs. 1-3).

FEMALE : Length: 2.72 mm. Body shining
black; antennae and legs pale brownish yellow;
mandibular teeth dark red; ocelli white, mid-
coxa and gaster brown.

Head (Fig. 2) wider than long 27: 20;
sculpture reticulate; clypeus longitudinally
striate; mandibles large, left tooth 3 (right
could not be seen since it is hidden by left
tooth); clypeal margin with two small teeth
separated by a narrow emargination; malar
grooves distinct, MS: EL-8.5: 13; eyes oval,
inner margin diverging, EL: EW-13: 9.5; frons
2x the width of eye; scrobes form a shallow
depression, not reaching anterior ocellus, its
margins blunt; antennae inserted above level
of lower margin of eye orbit, slightly towards
clypeal margin than to anterior ocellus; toruli
separated from each other by about 0.68 of
width of eye. Antenna (Fig. 1) short, filiform,
antennal formula 11353; scape slender, elon-
gated, almost reaching anterior ocellus; pedicel
0.83 of Fll; funicle segments longer than wide,
F11-F13 almost equal, F14-F15 equal, club 3-
segmented, pointed at apex, slightly longer
than F14 and FI 5 combined. Antennal meas-

232

JOURNAL. , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 89

Figs. 1-3. Delislea rahimani Narendran & Anil sp. nov., female
1. Entire, lateral view, 2. Head, frontal view, 3. Propodeum, dorsal view.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

233

Table 1

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN D. pattersoni GIRAULT AND D. rahimani SP. NOV.

D. pattersoni Girault

D. rahimani sp. nov.

Legs, except fore and hind coxae and scape, are red
Fll is longer than rest of the funicle segments
Scape is 0.35 of rest of antenna
PMV is 0.95 of MV and STV is 0.56 of PMV

Legs, except hind coxae and scape, are pale brownish yellow.
F11-F13 are equal.

Scape is 0.45 of rest of antenna.

PMV is 0.77 of MV and STV is 0.64 of PMV.

urements: scape-1.00, pedicel-0.25, Fll-0.30,
F12-0.30, F13-0.30, F14-0.25, F15-0.25, club
0.55; ocelli large, OOL: POL-4.50 : 3.00; ver-
tex smoothly rounded into occiput.

Thorax with reticulate sculpture, clothed
with sparse, white hairs; pronotal collar
ecarinate, its hind margin smooth, horizontal,
its lateral corner sharp, protruding because of
a furrow on the lateral panel of pronotum;
notauli groove-like anteriorly, posteriorly
faintly indicated, not reaching trans-sutal line;
lateral corner of mesoscutal scapula narrow,
with a depression and with raised margins;
axilla widely separated with a small round pit
at the base of antero-lateral corner below
scapula, its outer margin carinate; frenum not
indicated; propodeum (Fig. 3) similarly sculp-
tured as rest of thorax, without a median carina,
with a distinct nucha, plical furrow strongly
curving towards median line but disappears
before reaching middle, a shallow depression
present behind spiracle; prepectus short, tri-
angular, reaching base of tegula; macro-
pterous, forewing (Fig. 1) hyaline, PMV 0.77
of MV, STV 0.64 of PMV. Relative measure-
ments of veins-SMV: MV: PMV: STV-43: 18
:14: 9; hind tibia with a single spur.

Gaster dorsally collapsing, smooth and
shining, slightly longer than thorax (38: 34);
petiole short, subquadrate; 1st tergite largest,
its anterior margin laterally produced forwards
and re flexed outwards, hind margin convex;
tergites 2-5 subequal, hind margins more or
less entire; 6th and 7th tergites narrow apically;
ovipositor sheaths slightly exserted.

MALE: Unknown.

Holotype: Female. INDIA: Kerala, Kallada
(Kayamkulam), Coll. K. Chandrasekharan, 16
February 1990 from Apanteles taragamae
Wilkinson.

This new species differs from the only
other known species D. pattersoni Girault in
colour and relative measurements of antennal
segments and wing veins (Table 1).

The new species is named after Dr. U.C.
Abdurahiman, for his contributions to the study
of parasitoids affecting Opisina arenosella
Walker. The holotype is kept in the collections
of the Department of Zoology, University of
Calicut. (Register No. N-8691).

Acknowledgements

One of us (K.C.) acknowledges the finan-
cial assistance provided by U.G.C. for under-

taking part of this study.

R EFERENCES

Boucek, Z. (1988): Australasian Chalcidoidea (Hymenop- Girault, A.A. (1936): ‘Chalcididae, Capsidae species
tera). CABI, Wallingford, U.K. nova Australiensis Giraulti’. Private publ., Brisbane

2 pp.

234

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY \ Vol. 89

A NEW GENUS OF HARPACTORINAE (HETEROPTERA: REDUVIIDAE)

FROM SOUTHERN INDIA1

Dunston P. Ambrose and N. Selvamuthu Kumaraswami2
(With two text-figures)

A new reduviid genus, namely Neonagusta, of the subfamily Harpactorinae, has been described
and illustrated. A key to the Indian genera of the division Euagorasaria has been formulated.

Introduction

Out of the 16 genera described under the
division Euagorasaria, by Distant (1902,
1910), only one genus, viz. Nagusta Stal has
been reported to have bituberculated posterior
lobe of pronotum.

A key has been formulated to the Indian
genera of the division Euagorasaria of the sub-
family Harpactorinae based on our observa-
tions and on the information available in the
Fauna of British India volumes (Distant 1902,
1910).

Neonagusta gen. nov.

Head longer than pronotum; antennal base
spined behind; postocular area nearly twice
as long as anteocular area; first rostral segment
longer than the remaining two segments
together; scape much longer than head and
pronotum together; disc of posterior lobe of
pronotum armed with two distinct tubercles;
scutellum with its apex obtuse; legs long and
slender; anterior femora incrassate.

Distant (1910), while describing the genus
Nagusta , has suggested that the length of the
head and the proportions of the anteocular and
postocular portions differentiate Nagusta and
that it could be placed after the division
Euagorasaria and before the division
Polididusaria. Neonagusta has close affinities
to the genus Nagusta by its long head and
discally bituberculate posterior lobe of
pronotum. But it can be easily differentiated

1 Accepted November 1991

2 Entomology Research Unit, Dept, of Zoology, St. Xavier’s
College, Palayankottai 627 002, Tamil Nadu.

from the genus Nagusta by the long scape
(longer than the head and pronotum together),
the first rostral segment longer than the remain-
ing two segments together and by the slightly
incrassate anterior femora.

Neonagusta bituberculata sp. nov. (Figs. 1, 2)

Very pale stramineus, greyishly sericeus;
postocular area of head except the ocellar area,
basal part of second segment of rostrum, coxae
and trochanters reddish; posterior lobe of
pronotum, abdominal dorsum tinged with red.

Figs. 1-2. Neonagusta bituberculata sp. nov.

1. Male, dorsal view, 2. Head and pronotum, lateral view.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

235

KEY TO THE INDIAN GENERA OF THE DIVISION
EUAGORASARIA

1. Anterior lobe of pronotum bituberculate posteriorly;

anterior femora strongly incrassate, anterior tibiae in-
curved and s pined before apex Rihirbus Stal

- Anterior lobe of pronotum not bituberculate posterior-
ly; anterior femora a little or not incrassate; anterior
tibiae simple, not inwardly spined before apex .... 2

2. Anterior lobe of pronotum prominently tuberculate

on each side Isyndus Stal

- Anterior lobe of pronotum not prominently tuberculate

on each side 1 3

3. Pronotum discally unarmed 4

- Pronotum discally armed 10

4. Anterolateral margins of pronotal lobe with tubercles
Gallobelgicus Distant

- Anterolateral margins of pronotal lobe without

tubercles 5

5. First segment of rostrum considerably shorter than

the second 6

- First segment of rostrum longer than the second

7

6. Antennal base tuberculated behind; posterior lobe of
pronotum laterally armed with a long spine ....
Euagoras Burmeister

- Antennal base spined behind; posterior lobe of

pronotum laterally unarmed

Macracanthopsis Reuter

7. Head about as long as pronotum Endochus Stal

- Head shorter than pronotum 8

8. Anteocular and postocular areas about equal in length;
lateral pronotal angles prominent but not spinous ...
Cydnocoris Stal

- Postocular area about half as long as anteocular area;

lateral pronotal angles spinously produced 9

9. Spine on posterior angles of pronotum long and por-

rect Serendiba Distant

- Spine on posterior angles of pronotum short and not

porrect Villanovanus Distant

10. Only posterior lobe of pronotum discally armed

11

- Both anterior and posterior lobes of pronotum discally

armed 17

11. Posterior lobe of pronotum discally spined 12

- Posterior lobe of pronotum discally bituberculated
16

12. Head about as long as pronotum 13

- Head shorter than pronotum 14

13. Postocular area a little longer than anteocular area;
hemelytra passing the abdominal apex
Platerus Distant

- Postocular area much longer than anteocular area,
hemelytra not quite reaching the abdominal apex
Lanca Distant

14. Scutellum unarmed Epidaus Stal

— Scutellum armed with suberect spines 15

15. Scutellum with a single suberect spine; first rostral

segment much longer than second Alcmena Stal

- Scutellum with two spines, first and second rostral

segments subequal Occamus Distant

16. First antennal segment shorter than the head and

pronotum together Nagusta Stal

- First antennal segment longer than the head and

pronotum together Neonagusta gen. nov.

17. Anteocular and postocular areas about equal in length;

lateral abdominal margins dilated

Brassivola Distant

- Postocular area longer than anteocular area; lateral

abdominal margins not dilated

Bartacus Distant

Head elongate (3.9 mm long), longer than
pronotum (3.3 mm long), cylindrical; armed
with a spine at the base of each antenna; pos-
tocular area (2.5 mm long) nearly twice as
long as anteocular area (1.4 mm), both are
demarcated by a sulcus between eyes; eyes
laterally protruding; a pair of ocelli directed
laterally placed on the elevated region of the
postocular area immediately behind eyes; an-
tennae lpng (23.7 mm) and slender, basal seg-
ment as long as posterior femora; scape and
pedicel annulated, finely pilose; rostrum slight-
ly curved, the first segment longer than the
remaining two segments together, scarcely
pilose.

Pronotum subtriangular; armed with two
lateral spines (each spine 0.5 mm long);
anterior lobe of pronotum and prosternum very
much sculptured; posterior lobe of pronotum
longer (1.9 mm) than anterior lobe of pronotum
(1.5 mm), disc of posterior lobe of pronotum
armed with two distinct tuberculous spines;

236

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo ft 89

posterior lobe finely pubescent; anteriolateral
angles of pronotum obtuse and posteriolateral
angles of pronotum rounded; scutellum (2.3
mm long) unarmed, triangular, its apex obtuse,
finely pilose; hemelytra (13.33 mm long) not
reaching the abdominal apex; venation distinct
on corium and membrane; the latter strongly
rugulose; corium and clavus finely pilose; legs
long and slender; fore femora (7.9 mm long)
a little incrassate and slightly longer than fore
tibiae (7.3 mm long), mid leg the shortest (14.5
mm) and hind leg the longest (22.0 mm), tarsus
three segmented, first segment the shortest (0.2
mm) and third segment the longest (0.5 mm
long); abdomen elongate; connexivum narrow;
segmentation clear, abdomen beneath strongly
carinate; apex of parameres visible from the
abdominal apex; abdomen finely pilose.

Holotype: male, collected from Courtal-
lam tropical rain forest (8°56' N, 77° 16' 30"E)

of Nellai Kattabomman District, Tamil Nadu
on 2 May 1988. Coll. J. Antony Pushparaj.
Allotype: not collected. Holotype is at present
pinned and deposited (N.D. No. 11) at the
reduviid collections of Entomology Research
Unit, Department of Zoology, St. Xavier’s Col-
lege, Palayankottai, South India.

Etymology: The generic name Neonagus-
ta is given because of its close affinities to
the genus Nagusta. The species is named
bituberculata because of its bituberculate
posterior pronotal lobe.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Rev. Fr. S.M. Felix,
S.J., Principal and Rev. Fr. Stephen T. de
Souza, S.J., Head, Department of Zoology, for
facilities and encouragement, and to Depart-
ment of Environment, Govt, of India, for finan-
cial support.

References

Distant, W.L. (1902): Fauna of British India, Rhynchota Distant, W.L. (1910): Fauna of British India, Rhychota
Vol. II, Heteroptera. Taylor & Francis, London, pp. Vol. II, Heteroptera. Appendix : Taylor & Francis,

359-379. London, pp. 208-216.

A NEW SAGINA L. (CARYOPHYLLACEAE) FROM
NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA1

R.D. Gaur2
(With a text -figure)

Sagina purii sp. nov.

Sagina saginoides (L.) Karsten affinis,
sed differt habitu filiformi musciformi,
foliorum vaginis glandularipilosis, noduliferis,
floribus parvioribus tetrameris, solitariis,
pctalis quam sepalis majoribus, seminibus
pyramidalibus, cum processibus verrucosis.

A small, erect, filiform, annual herb 5-8
cm high. Stem erect, branched, branches long,
spreading. Leaves opposite, decussate, sessile,

Accepted October 1991

2Plant Systematic Laboratory, Dept, of Botany, Garhvval
University, Srinagar, Garhvval, Uttar Pradesh 246 174.

glabrous, linear to lanceolate (4-6 mm), both
the leaves jointed at the base by a delicate
decurrent sheath, which produces glandular
knobbed hairs; leaf tip attenuate.

Flowers small, about 2 mm, white, solitary
on axillary or terminal stalk, the cylindrical
stalk enlarges in fruits up to 15 mm. Sepals
4, free, greenish white, about 1.5 mm, acute.
Petals 4, broader than sepals, up to 1.8 mm,
white and obtuse. Stamens 4, (rarely 2 or 3),
filament long with dithecous anthers. Pollen
grains spheroidal (28-32 pirn), panporate, pores
elliptical (8-10).

Gynoecium tricarpellary, syncarpous, su-
perior and unilocular urn-shaped ovary with

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

237

Fig. 1. Sagina purii sp. nov.

A. Habit, B. Leaf with leaf sheath and knobbed hairs, C. Flower, D. L.S. flower, E. Sepal, F. Petal, G. Stamen,

H. Gynoecium, I. Pollen grain, J. Seed.

238

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

several ovules in free central placentation, ter-
minating into 3 feebly distinct styles. Fruit
capsule with persistent sepals bearing several
seeds; seeds minute (275-325 p.m), pyramidal,
seed wall protrudes warty processes. Embryo
curved (Fig. 1A-J). The specimens are
deposited At Garhwal University Herbarium,
Srinagar (GUH).

Flowers and Fruits: March-May.

Holotype: 12807A GUH, R.D. Gaur, 16
April 1991. Sanana, Almora, Uttar Pradesh,
India, 1400 m a.s.l. Isotype: GUH 12807B,
C, D, E, R.D. Gaur, 16 April 1991. Sanana,
Almora, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Distribution and Ecology: Annual herb
of open moist agricultural fields, associated
with moss and small herbs. The specimens

described were collected from Sanana, Almora
district of Uttar Pradesh. The species is named
after Professsor V. Puri.

Sagina purii sp. nov. is allied to Sagina
saginoides (L.) Karsten, but can be easily dis-
tinguished by its filiform moss-like habit, leaf
sheath with knobbed hairs, tetramerous flower,
and petals which are larger than the sepals,
(c.f. in other tetramerous species petals are
either absent or smaller than sepals).

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr N.C. Majumdar, Ex-Deputy
Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta
for his expert comments and Latin diagnosis
of the taxon.

A NEW INOPEPLID SPECIES (COLEOPTERA: CUCUJOIDEA)
FROM PATKOI HILL RANGE OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH 1

T.K. Pal2

(With two text-figures)

A new Inopeplid species, Inopeplus patkoicus sp. nov. is described from the Patkoi hill range
of Arunachal Pradesh, bringing the total number of Indian species of the genus to 10. A key to the
Indian species of Inopeplus is included.

Introduction

Inopeplidae is a small, predominantly
tropical family of cucujoid beetles. Subsequent
to Crowson’s (1955) recognition of the group
as a distinct family, Sengupata, Pal and Muk-
hopadhyay (1977), Pal and Dutta (1982) and
Pal (in press) described six species bringing
the Indian species of the family to nine,
recorded mostly from subtropical forest zones
and tropical foot hills of Himalaya as well as
from peninsular and insular parts of India. Pal
(loc. cit.) recorded six species of this family
from Arunachal Pradesh, collected from the
Himalayan part of India’s easternmost state.

1 Accepted October 1991

“ Zoological Survey of India, Arunachal Pradesh Field Station,
Itanagar 791 111.

Recently during field work in the Patkoi
hill range of Arunachal Pradesh, the beetles
of this family were noticed in woodlands near
the Pangsau Pass, very close to the Burmese
border. This reveals the possibility of occur-
rence of this primarily wood-inhabiting form
in similar contiguous forest areas of the neigh-
bouring country. This region is a component
of the Assam-Burma Geological province
which was a part of the Tethys sea in the Ar-
chean period. Repeated orogenic activity till
early Pleistocene raised the upland to its
present status (Singh 1989). The Inopeplus
material, under study, is strikingly different
from all known Indian species.

Inopeplus patkoicus sp. nov. (Figs. 1, 2)

General appearance (Fig. 1) elongated,
flattened, shiny, blackish, elytra with pale

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

239

KEY TO THE INDIAN SPECIES OF 8.

Inopeplus SMITH

1. Head and prothorax reddish 2 ~

- Head and prothorax dark brown to deep black .... 3

2. Elytra blackish with a whitish rounded spot on each
elytron, abdominal segments 4 and 5 exposed
biocellatus (Motschulsky)

- Elytra entirely black and without any spot, abdominal

segment 2 partly and segments 3 to 5 completely ex-
posed nitidus Sengupta, Pal & Mukhopadhyay

3. Lateral margin of prothorax smooth 4

- Lateral margin of prothorax with two to three distinct

denticles 8

4. Head across eyes distinctly wider than prothorax,
pedicel and segment 3 of antenna distinctly shorter
and narrower than other segments; lateral margin of

pronotum broadly bordered

distinctus Sengupta, Pal & Mukhopadhyay

- Head across eyes slightly narrower or about as broad

as prothorax, pedicel and segment 3 of antenna about
as long as segments 4-10 but slightly narrower; lateral
margin of pronotum finely bordered 5

5. Elytra entirely metallic black, last two abdogiinal seg-
ments exposed

nigricorpus Sengupta, Pal & Mukhopadhyay.

- Blackish elytra partially whitish or pale-coloured
6

6. Anterior half of elytra paler and posterior half blackish;
only last three abdominal segments completely ex-
posed; puncturation on vertex minute, roundish with

interspaces distinctly wider

andamanicus Pal & Dutta

- Elytra blackish along its entire length with pale

rounded spots: one or two pairs; more than (last three
abdominal segments exposed; puncturation on vertex
coarse-elongate with interspaces narrower or about
as wide as punctures 7

7. Two pairs of pale spots on elytra: one in both anterior

and posterior halves; last three and half abdominal
segments exposed, lateral margin of prothorax
gradually narrowed and not markedly sinuate in
posterior third; antennal segments slightly elongate
and appear somewhat filiform jairajpurii Pal

- One pair of pale spots on posterior half of elytra;
last four abdominal segments completely exposed;
lateral margin of prothorax abruptly narrowed and
distinctly sinuate in posterior third; antennal segments
about as broad as long and distinctly moniliform
apatani Pal

Lateral margin of prothorax with two posterior den-
ticles albonotatus (Motschulsky)

Lateral margin of prothorax with one anterior denticle
in addition to two posterior denticles 9

A whitish longitudinal spot from base to near apex
of each elytron; last three abdominal segments ex-
posed; male genitalia with parameric lobes divergent
apically decisus (Walker)

An oblong sublateral longitudinal whitish spot on
anterior half of each elytron; last four abdominal seg-
ments exposed with parameric lobes convergent api-
cally patkoicus sp. nov

240

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Fig. 2. Aedeagus otlnopeplus patkoicus sp. nov.
a. Dorsal view, b. Enlarged view of right para mere.

spots, last four abdominal segments exposed.

Head broader than long, apical margin
truncate, fronto-clypeal suture distinct and
nearly straight, apical margin of frons with
transverse depression, a feeble medio-lon-
gitudinal impression on vertex; puncturation
on vertex little elliptical, coarse and dense,
interspaces about as wide as punctures near
middle and closer posteriorly towards sides;
eyes moderately large and finely facetted, a
semicircular depression surrounding inner
margin of eye less distinct, a short oblique
depression arises near antennal base. Antenna
moderately long and slender, scape moderately
large and curved, pedicel shorter and narrower
than scape, segment 3 slightly wider and longer
than pedicel, segments 4-10 subequal and little
elongate, segment 11 elongate and acuminate
at apex; antenna unicolorous, blackish.

Prothorax triangularly transverse, flat-
tened, widest across anterior teeth and nar-
rowed posteriorly; lateral margin with one
anterior and two posterior denticles, finely bor-
dered from base to anterior teeth; puncturation
on pronotum roundish, finer and sparser than
on vertex, interspaces wider than punctures.
Scutellum transverse, rounded at apex, im-
punctate.

Elytra about as broad as long, broadened
posteriorly, puncturation fine and sparse; an
elongate ovate sublateral pale spot on anterior
half of each elytron, the margin of which less
distinct; last four abdominal segments ex-
posed.

Ventral surface shiny, fine punctures only
on head and prothorax. Aedeagus (Fig. 2a, b)
with gradually narrowed and broadly pointed
apex of median lobe; parameres broad, foot-
shaped and bilobed, a few setae at apex.

This species resembles I. albonotatus
(Motschulsky) and I. decisus (Walker) but can
be differentiated from the former species by the
presence of an anterior denticle in addition to
two posterior denticles on lateral margin of
prothorax; apical lobes of paramere less
pronounced with fewer setae. This species can
be differentiated from decisus in having different
pattern of elytral spots, more exposed abdominal
segments, and in the structure of parameres being
distinctly different.

Measurements of holotype: Total length
3.65 mm, width of head across eyes 0.85 mm,
length of antenna 1.25 mm, length and width
of prothorax 0.52 and 0.80 mm, length and
width of elytra 1.24 and 1.26 mm.

Holotype male, INDIA: Arunachal Pradesh,
Changlang district, Nampong, 300 m, 9 March
1990, T.K. Pal, ex. under bark; aedeagus dis-
sected, mounted on cover slip and pinned with
the holotype (Zoological Survey of India, Cal-
cutta; A.P.F.S. Regd. No. AIV/1).

Etymology: The species is named after
the hill range of north-eastern India from where
it is reported.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

241

Acknowledgements facilities to carry out this work.

I am indebted to the Director, Zoological
Survey of India for providing necessary

References

Crowson, R.A. (1955): The natural classification of the
families of Coleoptera. Nathaniel Lloyd & Co., Lon-
don.

Pal, T.K. (in press): Inopeplidae and Elacatidae (Coleop-
tera : Heteromera) from Arunachal Pradesh, India.
Rec. zool. Surv. India. 91 (3-4).

Pal, T.K. & Dutta, A.K. (1982): Inopeplidae (Coleoptera)
from Andaman Islands, India, Rec. zool. Surv. India

79: 469-473.

Sengupta, T., Pal, T.K. & Mukhopadhyay, P. (1977):
On the family Inopeplidae (Coleoptera) from India.
Oriental Ins. 11 (3): 395-407.

Singh, R.L. (ed.) (1989): India - A Regional Geography.
National Geographical Society of India, Varanasi,
Reprinted.

FIRST RECORD OF GENUS APROCEROS MALAISE
(HYMENOPTERA, SYMPHYTA: ARGIDAE) FROM INDIA,
WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES1

Malkiat S. Saini and Amarinder S. Thind2
(With six text-figures)

A new species of Aproceros, i.e. A. sikkimensis sp. nov. has been described and illustrated.
This represents the first record of this genus from India. So far only four species of this genus are
known.

Introduction

Erected by Malaise (1931), the genus
Aproceros is represented by only four species
so far. Except the type species Aproceros
umbricola from Siberia (Vladivostok), all the
other species are known from Japan. The genus
has the following characters: head broad and
short, very strongly narrowed behind eyes (Fig.
4); flagellum in the female cylindrical, as long
as the width of head; clypeus almost truncate
(Fig. 5); inner margin of eyes almost parallel
and distance between them nearly twice as long
as the length of one eye; projection of the
cheeks twice as long as the diameter of ocellus;
forewing (Fig. 2) without intercostal crossvein
and its radial field is open at the end, hindwing
with two closed middle cells (Fig. 3). This is
the first report of Aproceros from India. The
description of Aproceros sikkimensis sp. nov.

Accepted June 1991

2Dept. of Zoology, Punjabi University, Patiala 147 002.

is also given.

Abbreviations used: A = Anal cell, AST
= Anterior subbasal tooth, Ax = Axillus vein,
B = Brachial cell, C = Costa, Cl.. .4 = Cubital
cells, CL = Clypeus, CN = Cenchri, D = Dis-
coidal cell, EL = Eye length, FLG = Flagellum,
IATS = Inner apical tibial spur, IDMO = In-
terocular distance at the level of median ocel-
lus, LB = Labrum, LID = Lower interocular
distance, M = Median cell, MB = Metabasitar-
sus, OATS = Outer apical tibial spur, OCL =
Ocello-occipital line, OOL = Oculo-ocellar
line, P = Posterior cell, PED = Pedicel, POL
= Postocellar line, PST = Posterior subbasal
tooth, R = Radial cell, S = Submedian cell,
SB = Subcosta, SCP = Scape, St = Stigma.

Aproceros sikkimensis sp. nov. Figs. 1-6.

FEMALE: Colour: Body black, maxillary
and labial palpi brown; all legs except outer
sides of all coxae, basal halves of pro- and
mesofemora yellow; wings subhyaline; costa,

242

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 89

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

243

subcosta, stigma and venation brown.

Length 6 mm. Antenna (Fig. 1) equal to
head width; scape as long as its apical thick-
ness, pedicel shorter, much broader than long,
flagellum round, sickle-shaped and its maxi-
mum thickness is equal to the apical thickness
of scape; clypeus (Fig. 5) shallowly emar-
ginated, broader than long in ratio 2:1; labrum
shallowly emarginated with deflexed anterior
margin, broader than long in ratio 2:1; malar
space quite conspicuous, twice the diameter
of median ocellus; supraclypeal furrow
present; supraclypeal area moderately raised
with a sharp median carina; lower margin of
eyes at the level of antennal sockets; LID :
IDMO : EL = 4 : 4.2 : 2; eyes slightly con-
verging below; distance between lower margin
of eyes is 2.2 x length of one eye; head without
postgenal carina; frontal area roundly raised
above the level of eyes; supra-antennal
tubercle absent; median fovea absent and in-
stead a blunt carina is present which is con-
tinuous with a supraclypeal carina; an area in
front of median ocellus is distinctly roundly
raised; supraorbital line at the level of lateral
ocelli; circum-, inter- and postocellar furrows
present; lateral furrows in the form of weak
depressions; postocellar area subconvex with
a median longitudinal depression, broader than
long in the ratio of 5 : 2; 00L : POL : OCL
= 1.4 : 1 : 0.8; head narrowing behind eyes;
mesoscutellum sunken and well below the
level of mesonotum, subconvex bounded by
blunt lateral carina meeting at a tip; metas-
cutellum flat above, sunken and well below

the level of metanotum; cenchri fused along
the middle line; mesepisternum obtusely raised
without carina or acute apex; metabasitarsus
longer than three following segments com-
bined; tarsal claws simple.

IATS : MB: OATS = 1 : 3.3 : 1.3.

Lancet (Fig. 6) with 17 serrulae; head
(Fig. 4) shown in antero-dorsal view.

Sculpture: Head not punctured, postero-
lateral margins of mesonotum, lateral margins
of mesonotal middle lobe and lateral edges of
mesoscutellum with distinct large punctures;
rest of the body almost not punctured, polished.

Pubescence: Body scatteredly covered
with silvery pubescence.

MALE: Not found.

Holotype: Female, Sikkim: Chung thung-
2000 m, 15 May 1987. (Regd. No. 1A/RIT).
No paratypes.

Distribution: INDIA : Sikkim.

Diagnosis: The species is characterised
by its black body and yellow legs except on
outer sides of all coxae, basal half of pro- and
meso femora.

Etymology: The species is named after
Indian state in which the collection locality
falls.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr D.R. Smith, of
USNM Washington for confirming the generic
position of this species. Financial assistance
provided by the CSIR New Delhi is also grate-
fully acknowledged.

Reference s

Malaise, R. (1931): Blattwespen aus Vladivostok and 52: 97-159, 23 figs,

anderen Teilen Ostasiens. Ent. Tidsk, Stockholm,

OBITUARY

PROF. R.M. NAIK

Prof. Ramesh M. Naik tragically passed away
on 8 December 1991 in Rajkot. He was suffering
from bronco-pneumonia for some time before he
died. He is survived by his wife and son.

At the time of his untimely death, he had
retired as the Head of the Department of Bios-
ciences at Saurashtra University, and was actively
working to set up a special department at the
University, dealing with a variety of subjects re-
lated to Ocean Science and Culture.

Prof. Naik was born on 2 May 1931. He earned
his doctorate for his work on avian muscle structure
and physiology from the M.S. University of Baroda
in 1959. He was awarded a Smith/Mundt Fulbright
Fellowship at the Michigan State University from
1961-62. He was Lecturer and Reader in Zoology
at the University at Baroda for several years before
taking over as a Professor at the Department of
Biosciences at Saurashtra University at Rajkot,
where he worked for 13 years.

His first love was swifts, but he worked ex-
tensively on the house sparrow, blue rock pigeon,
babblers and forest species. He supervised several
masters and doctorate students covering a variety
of disciplines of zoology, ornithology, icythyology
and entomology. His interest in colonial waterbirds
covered various aspects of the breeding strategies,
feeding ecology, habitat utilization and conserva-
tion plans of resident species of herons and allies,
waders, terns and migrant waterfowl. His work has
been published in several national and international
journals and magazines of repute.

He served with distinction on the editorial
committees of Colonial Waterbirds , the Journal

of the BNHS, Proceedings of the Indian Academy
of Sciences and other journals, and was founding
editor of Pavo — the Journal of Indian Ornithology.

He was a member of the faculty of science
of many universities in India, and a Fellow of the
American Ornithologists Union. He participated in
and advised several regional and national commit-
tees on science, economic ornithology and con-
servation. He was a member of the scientific com-
mittees of the BNHS and Salim Ali Centre for
Ornithology and Natural History.

Prof. Naik was not only a scientist but also
a conservationist. He was a member and advisor
of the WWF regional committee for Saurashtra and
freely gave his time to both conservation activities
and scientific enquiry. An able, confident man who
could not stomach fools, he was outspoken and
frank, well above the level of politics and petty
jealousies that haunt the corridors of many institu-
tions. His endearing sense of humour and politeness
never deserted him even in bad health and he took
everything in his stride, never getting flustered.

Where work was concerned, he was a hard
taskmaster, expecting 100% from his students. He
was a mentor to many; friend, advisor and father
figure to his students. He commanded great respect
from friends and colleagues, and could get an al-
most impossible task accomplished with a casual
request. Such was his personality. His untimely
death is a great loss to Indian ornithology.

TAEJ MUNDKUR
RISHAD NAOROJI

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. DOES THE MANIPUR DEER CERVUS ELDI EXUDE A LEECH REPELLENT?

My father T.H. Tehsin shot a number of sam-
bar Cervus unicolor and thamin Cervus eldi in
north-east India in the 1930s. One aspect of his
observations is particularly interesting. The habitat
of the thamin is full of leeches. He found a large
number of leeches on the carcasses of sambar he
had shot, but none at all on carcasses of thamin
he had shot in the same locality. He inferred that
the thamin exudes a chemical repellent (possibly
salt) which keeps leeches at bay.

There are plans by conservation authorities
to build up the wild population of the endangered
thamin by releasing captive animals. Due to long
isolation from their natural habitat, the leech repel-
lent mechanism in captive thamin may have
atrophied. Before releasing captive animals, this
aspect should be studied in more detail.

August 13, 1991 RAZA TEHSIN

2. BROOD OF THE INDIAN FIELD MOUSE MUS BOODUGA IN AN
ABANDONED BAYA NEST

On 14 April 1990, some village boys brought
two baya nests from the Rakhal (Reserved forest)
adjoining our camp site on the edge of Fulay village
in Chhari Dhandh, Kutch. One of the nests had
an unusual opening on its anterior end close to
the point from where the nest is usually suspended.
The opening was smaller than the usual nest
entrance, and seemed to have been neatly cut at
a later date.

The opening led to the egg chamber which
on examination revealed a field mouse Mus
booduga with two young ones, whose eyes were
still closed. We left the nest undisturbed and hung
it up in a safe corner. On examining it again the
next day, we found that one more young had been
littered in the night.

The adult mouse had by now got used to the

nest’s new location and used to emerge to forage
both in the tent and outside and would return to
the brood, where it would remain most of the time.
According to Prof. I. Prakash (pers. comm.), this
is the first instance of Mus booduga breeding in
an abandoned baya nest. We again came across a
similar nest near one of our netting plots. The nest
was suspended on an Acacia nilotica tree, about
2.5 m from the ground and had a similar opening
leading into the egg chamber. A Mus booduga
emerged from the nest, and when we examined it
further, a brood of three young ones was noticed.
The above two instances indicate a hitherto un-
recorded nesting behaviour of the field mouse.

S. ASAD AKHTAR
November 22, 1990 J.K. TIWARI

3. ADDITIONS TO THE BIRDS OF ASSAM - BLACKNECKED GREBE
PODICEPS NIGRICOLLIS BREHM

On 6 January 1991, 1 and a few other members
of the Florican Society were counting birds in the
Deeper Beel Wildlife Sanctuary near Guwahati as
part of the A&ian Waterfowl Census. At around
1100 hrs about 1000 ducks were seen settling in
the eastern half of the beel. We immediately took
our boat to the spot. Among the ducks, two birds
caught my attention.

Using 20x binoculars I identified them as
grebes, but they appeared much smaller than the
great crested grebe P. cristatus , and also smaller

than the tufted ducks Aythya fuligula which were
nearby. Soon they came out of the mixed flock of
ducks and started diving, sometimes together,
sometimes one after the other. On further obser-
vation, I noted the following characteristics: head
(up to the eyes or just below), foreneck and back
blackish or deep brown. Head (from around eyes
to chin), breast and flanks white. The colour of
the parts underwater were not seen. It was a pair
of blacknecked grebes Podiceps nigricollis Brehm,
in winter plumage, a first record for both Assam

246

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 89

and the whole of eastern India. The birds were
seen in open water and observed for about 10
minutes.

According to the handbook of birds of India
and PAKISTAN (Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D. 1983), the
blacknecked grebe is an uncommon winter visitor

to the Indian subcontinent, with just a few sporadic
records from Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra. The
sighting is therefore the new easternmost locality
for this species in the subcontinent.

January 19, 1991 A. CHOUDHURY

4. RECOVERY OF A RUSSIAN-RINGED ROSY (WHITE) PELICAN
PELECANUS ONOCROTALUS LINN. IN KUTCH, GUJARAT

On 10 November 1989, Alimamad Manjothi,
Range Forester, saw a large dead bird in Medisar
Rakhal (23°22' N, 69°30' E) near Niruna village
of Bhuj taluka, Kutch, Gujarat. It had a ring on
one leg bearing no. Moskwa KK 2398 which is
at present with Forest Division, Bhuj. The bird
was identified by M.K. Himmatsinhji as an im-
mature white (rosy) pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus
Linn.

On enquiry with the ICBP/IWRB Pelican Re-
search Group we found that the bird was a rosy
pelican ringed as a pullet on 29 July 1989 at the
Ily delta in the lake Balkash area (45°22' N, 74°

08' E), former U.S.S.R. This would mean that the
young bird had flown a distance of at least 2800
km within three months 12 days.

The rosy pelican is partly resident and was
first recorded breeding in the Great Rann of Kutch
in 1960 (Ali, S., JBNHS 57: 414). It is mainly a
winter visitor to Pakistan (Sind, Baluchistan) and
northern India from Punjab to Assam (Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Kutch, Saurashtra, north
Gujarat, Andhra (Visakhapatnam) and Madras?).

S.N. VARU

November 8, 1990 M.B. KHATRI

5. POND HERON ARDEOLA GRAYII (SYKES) FEEDING ON BEES

While watching birds on the morning of 30
December 1990, close to Lalbagh Tank (12°57'
N, 77°35' E) in Bangalore, we were attracted to
four Indian pond herons Ardeola grayii perched
on top- of a 7 m tall Indian willow tree Salix
tetrasperma Roxb., growing close to the tank edge.
The willow tree was in full bloom and many small
bees Trigona leviseps and rock bees Apis dorsata
(Apidae : Hymenoptera) were observed visiting the
willow flowers. The pond herons, perched
precariously on the small end-branches close to
the flowers, snapped their beaks at and swallowed

every small bee that came within striking distance.
Surprisingly, the herons were not observed cap-
turing the rock bees.

Pond herons are chiefly ground foragers and
are known to feed on animal matter mainly aquatic
in nature (handbook of the birds of India and Pakis-
tan, Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D. 1987). The present
observation of peculiar arboreal behaviour and diet
of the bird is therefore of interest.

J.N. PRASAD

February 14, 1991 J. HEMANTH

6. PAINTED STORK MYCTERIA LEUCOCEPHALA (PENNANT) IN KERALA

On a visit to the Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala
in October 1990, 1 observed a painted stork Mycteria
leucocephala (Pennant) there on the 19th afternoon,
feeding alongside a pair of whitenecked storks
Ciconia episcopus at the edge of the Periyar reservoir.
This was not far from the Edapalayam watch tower,
by boat. I saw a solitary painted stork, presumably
the same individual, on three other occasions during
the next two days.

On the morning after the first sighting, it was

opposite the boat landing at Thekkady, again with
whitenecked storks. That afternoon it was standing
on one of the dead trees in the reservoir, off the
Edapalayam landing. On the morning of 21 October
it was back at the Thekkady boat landing, with a
group of whitenecked storks. This sighting is the
second record of the painted stork for Kerala.

March 7, 1991

KUMAR AN SATHASIVAM

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

247

7. LONGTAILED DUCK OR OLD SQUAW CLAN GU LA HYEMALIS (LINN.)
IN DEHRA DUN, UTTAR PRADESH

On 19 January 1991 we were conducting a
waterfowl census on the Asan reservoir some 40
km west of Dehra Dun city. The reservoir is fed
by Yamuna hydel canal and Asan river and occupies
an area of approximately 25 ha. with maximum
depth of about 10 m. The reservoir is surrounded
by high hills; on the north and west by the Himachal
Himalaya with altitudes up to 2000 m, and in the
south by the Uttar Pradesh Shiwaliks with altitudes
up to 1000 m.

Amidst a mixed flock of mallards Anas platyr-
hynchos and gadwalls Anas strepera in the shallow
end of the lake was a brown-black and white duck.
It had a pointed tail of two elongated central tail
feathers kept slightly inclined upwards. The bill
was short, with a rose pink terminal half and a
dark basal half. It had a dark patch below the ear
coverts, a dark brown back and collar broadening
into a band on the breast. It did not take us long
to identify the duck as the longtailed duck or old
squaw Clangula hyemalis.

The duck soon took off and after circling
around twice, settled on the deeper end of the lake.
Here it dived into the water many times, staying
inside for 5 to 10 seconds each time. Later it joined

a 500 strong mixed flock of redcrested, common
and tufted pochards (Netta rufina , Aythya ferina
and Aythya fuligula respectively) and two great
crested grebes Podiceps cristatus. It tucked its bill
into its wings and rested after that.

The next day, the duck was spotted again at
the same location by B.C. Chowdhury, N.H. Kakod-
kar and others, from the Wildlife Institute of India.

The longtailed duck has been recorded only
five times in the Indian subcontinent - Pakistan
(Baluchistan 1933, 1938; Sind 1936), Kashmir
(Hokarsar 1939) and north-east Assam (Sadiya
Frontier tract, 1935) (HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF
India and Pakistan, Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D. 1983).
Hence the present sighting constitutes a record in
the Indian subcontinent after a gap of more than
50 years. Moreover, the earlier records were made
in the border areas of the subcontinent. Dehra Dun
being well inside the Indian mainland, the present
sighting has special significance.

DHANANJAI MOHAN
NITIN D. RAI

March 11, 1991 ARUN P. SINGH

8. EASTERN STEPPE EAGLE AQUILA RAPAX NIPALENSIS HODGSON
KILLING MOBBING BRAHMINY KITE HALIASTUR INDUS (BODDAERT)
AT PT. CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

Mobbing in birds mostly involves the noisy,
massed attack on a predator by a number of smaller
birds. Crows and jays often attack hawks or owls.
According to Welty (1982) mobbing is an adaptive
response to predation.

The eastern steppe eagle Aquila rapax
nipalensis has been reported as a vagrant at Point
Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu
(Natarajan et al. 1990). On 27 November 1988
two brahminy kites Haliastur Indus were observed
chasing (mobbing) a steppe eagle. The eagle ducked
thrice but the attack by the brahminy kites became
intense. At that juncture the steppe eagle flew up
and away from the brahminy kites, then swooped
down on one of them, which finally fell to the
ground. Immediately, the steppe eagle glided down,
picked up the kite and went under cover. However,

it left the kite on the ground and flew off when
it was disturbed by one of us. The kite was dead.
The next day, the same eagle was mobbed by a
brahminy kite, which this time was attacked in
the air and fell to the ground. We caught the brah-
miny kite, and noticed that the right wing was
broken.

The killing of mobbing carrion crows Corvus
corone by the golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos has
been reported earlier (Walker 1983). This obser-
vation of the killing of mobbing brahminy kites
by the steppe eagle is a new record.

S. ALAGAR RAJAN
P. BALASUBRAMANIAN
V. NATARAJAN

December 4, 1990

248

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

References

Natarajan, V., Balasubramanian, P., Alagar Rajan, S. Walker, I.G. (1983): Golden Eagle Killing mobbing Car-
& Manakadan, R. (1990): Further additions to the rion Crows. British Birds 76: 312.

avifauna of Point Calimere. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Welty, J.C. (1982): The life of birds. 3rd ed. Saunders
Soc. 87(3): 457. College Publishing, Philadelphia.

9. PIED HARRIER CIRCUS MELANOLEUCOS (PENNANT)
IN SOUTH-EAST RAJASTHAN

The HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND
Pakistan (Ali and Ripley 1983) states that the
pied harrier Circus melanoleucos is a winter
visitor tc the eastern parts of the Indian subcon-
tinent from West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, east
through Bangladesh and Burma.

It is a rare visitor to Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka and eastern Madhya Pradesh and is
considered to be a rare vagrant to Andhra Pradesh
and Maharashtra. It is not recorded north of Bom-
bay and west of Gorakhpur. It was sighted at
Karera Bustard Sanctuary in north-west Madhya
Pradesh (Rahmani 1988, JBNHS 85 (2): 419-
420).

I saw a male pied harrier on 15 November
1990 at Lakhawa village near Kota in south-east
Rajasthan (25° 10' N, 75°52' E), sailing low over
a wheat field. I watched it with 20x50 binoculars
for about three minutes from close range (the field
was just across the road). Its black culmen and
head, contrasting black and white plumage made
identification very easy. It was seen on two sub-
sequent occasions, 9 December (near village Ran-
pur) and 30 December 1990 (near village Lakhawa).
I presume it was the same bird as all the sightings
were within a radius of 2-3 km.

February 8, 1991 RAKESH VYAS

10. BIOMETRICS OF THE COLLARED PRATINCOLE
GLAREOLA PRATINCOLA MALDIVARUM J.R. FORSTER

During September/October 1990, as part of
an ongoing study on bird migration by the BNHS,
several individuals of the collared pratincole
Glareola pratincola maldivarum were banded in
Sullurpet marsh adjoining Pulicat Bird Sanctuary
in south coastal Andhra Pradesh.

According to Ali and Ripley (1987) the col-
lared pratincole is described as resident/locally
migratory, spreading in winter over the Indian
peninsula. Some authors (Prater et ah 1977, Vaurie
1965) treat this race as a distinct species, while
Ripley (1982) describes this as a subspecies of the
nominate race. Since there is little published in-
formation on this race occurring in India, an attempt
has been made to briefly describe the biometrics
of the species.

The grazing lands near Sullurpet attracted
large flocks of the collared pratincole (total nos.
1000-1200) during the third week of September
1990. All the birds were seen arriving at their roost-
ing grounds by dusk to settle down in the fields.
A total of 61 individuals (58 adults, 3 juveniles)
were banded and released 1-2 hours after capture.

The measurements are summarised in Tables 1,2.

Measurements given here were made on
birds mistnetted during late evening hours at
Sullurpet marsh between 22 September and 1
October 1990. The birds roosted in open graz-
ing lands bordering the jheel. The following
data were recorded for each bird.

1. Wing, bill, tarsus, tail (central and outer)
length.

2. Weight.

3. Age, condition of moult.

Wing length: Adults were appreciably
larger than juveniles, average 183.25 mm as
compared to 173.6 mm. There seem to be
similar changes in adult and juvenile birds as
given by Prater et al. (1977). 31.14% of the
birds caught had their primaries moulting.

Bill/ tarsus length: There was no marked dif-
ference in bill/tarsus lengths (Table 1), but
juveniles seemed to average slightly smaller in both
cases. Ali and Ripley (1987) give the tarsus length
range as 30-33 mm for this race, which is somewhat
less than the present measurements (Table 1).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

249

Table 1

WING, BILL AND TARSUS MEASUREMENTS FOR COLLARED PRATINCOLE

Wing* (mm)

Bill (mm)

Tarsus (mm)

Range

Average

SD

Range

Average

SD

Range

Average

SD

Adults (58)

160-194

183.25

6.32

12-15

13.55

0.67

30-36

32.33

1.34

Juveniles (3)

171-176

173.6

2.51

12-13.5

12.83

0.75

31-33

31.83

1.03

♦Adult wing

measurements for 56 birds

Table 2

DEPTH OF TAIL FORK IN COLLARED PRATINCOLE

Central tail feathers (mm)

Outer tail feathers (mm)

Difference (mm)

Range

Average

SD

Range

Average

SD

Range

Average

SD

Adults

51-59

54.58

2.07

60-86

77.01

6.48

8-28

18.34

5.89

Juveniles

51-55

52.60

2.07

66-67

66.6

0.57

12-15

14.0

1.73

*Adult wing measurements for 56 birds.

Tail: In the collared pratincole, the tail
dimensions are mainly taken into account with
respect to the depth of the tail fork. Ali and
Ripley (1987) use this criterion to segregate the
two races (G. pratincola pratincola and G.
pratincola maldivarum). In the current study the
difference between central and outer tail feathers
ranged from 8-28 mm for adults and 12-15 mm
for juveniles (Table 2). Adults averaged 4.34 mm
more than juveniles for the tail fork depth. The
length of the outer tail feathers also showed con-
siderable variation, ranging from 60-86 mm (av.
77.01).

Weight: There was considerable variation
in the weights of individuals banded on each
day of capture (Table 3). Birds banded on the
first day of capture were heavier than those on
other days. Adult weights for pratincoles ranged
from 68-116 g, with an average of 95.81 g.
Dietary in take may be an important factor in
the variation in weights seen. Juveniles averaged
14.48 g less than adults (Table 4).

The movements of the collared pratincole
have been previously described as locally migratory
and nomadic. At Sullurpet marsh these birds were
seen arriving in considerable numbers at their roost
sites during the fourth week of September 1990
but few birds were seen during October 1990, in-
dicating that they may be migrating elsewhere.

Adult birds seemed to show marked differen-
ces in wing length and weights when compared

to juveniles. However, it is not clear why adults
have longer wings than juveniles. Bill and tarsus
lengths varied little with respect to age. Maximum
changes were noticed in the weights both in relation
to age as well as day of capture. Clark (1979)
states that several factors may influence body
weights in birds and this may be the reason why
weights show more variability than other meas-
urements. The larger weights of adults may also
be due to their greater efficiency in hawking insects.

The amount of food consumed by the adults
on various days may be the single largest factor
responsible for increase in body weights (Table

Table 3

VARIATION IN WEIGHTS OF COLLARED PRATINCOLES

Day

Average

Range

n

weight

(g)

(g)

1

96.50

86-112

18

2

98.88

78-116

27

3

87.23

68-110

13*

4

86.6

78-92

3

Table 4

WEIGHTS OF COLLARED PRATINCOLE

Range (g)

Average (g)

SD

Adult

68-116

95.81

9.23

Juvenile

76-86

81.33

5.03

250

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

3). Overcast weather conditions on the later days
of capture may have reduced the available food
resources.

Hence food consumption on these days may
have been less, resulting in lower weights. The

crop contents on the first two days, when weather
conditions were normal, were full.

PRAKASH RAO
March 7, 1991 K.K. MOHAPATRA

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1987): Handbook of the Birds
of India and Pakistan. Compact 2nd Edition. Oxford
University Press.

Clark, G.A. (1979): Body weights in birds: a review.
Condor 81: 193-202.

Prater, A.J., Marchant, J.H. & Vourinen, J. (1977):
Guide to the Identification and ageing of Holarctic

Waders. BTO Guide 17. Tring, Herts.

Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India
and Pakistan. 2nd Edition. Bombay Natural History
Society, Bombay.

Vaurie, C. (1965): The birds of the Palearctic, Fauna
Vol. 2 (non-passeriformes). H.F. & G. Witherby,
London.

11. THREE ADDITIONS TO THE BIRDS OF KERALA, WITH
A REPEAT SIGHT RECORD

Since September 1985, we have been
regularly watching birds on the Malabar coast,
and have been rewarded with sightings of
hitherto unrecorded or rarely seen birds. Four
such additions have been published by us and
R. Venugopal (JBNHS 86: 458-9). Here we
report three more additions to Kerala, and a
repeat sight record.

Calidris tenuirostris (Horsfield): The eastern
knot, hitherto unrecorded from Kerala, was sighted
in the Katalundy estuary (20 km south of Kozhik-
hode) on 10 October 1987. Gradually their numbers
rose from a brace on the first day, to 12 by the
end of the month, but declined to two by 27 Decem-
ber.

Farther south in Sri Lanka, the eastern knot
was first sighted by Ben King at Mannar on 4
March 1981, and subsequently several were
sighted in 1983 at the same place (King, JBNHS
86: 10).

Limosa limosa (Linn.): The blacktailed god-
wit is said to have become common and plentiful
in recent years in the coastal regions and Dry Zone
areas of Sri Lanka (Hoffmann, JBNHS 86: 10).
The first record for Kerala is from the Katalundy

estuary on 13 September 1987, when three in-
dividuals were met with. On 6 March 1988 we
came across about 50 individuals resting among
teals, with a second group feeding in the shallow
water nearby. This was in the estuary of the
Bharathapuzha (Malapuram district).

During a subsequent visit to the same area
on 13 March 1988, over 50 birds were found feeding
in two or three loose flocks.

Tadorna ferruginea (Pallas): A solitary brah-
miny duck, hitherto unrecorded from Kerala, was
first seen in Bharathapuzha estuary on 6 March
1988. The bird was present there on 13 March. E.
Ayyapappan (pers. comm.) recalls having seen the
brahminy duck in this estuary some 3-4 years back.

In addition to the above three new records
for Kerala, we also found the crab plover Dromas
ardeola Paykull in the Katalundy estuary on 21
October 1987. It remained there till 27 March 1988.
The bird was first recorded from Kerala by K.K.
Neelakantan and others ( JBNHS 77: 503).

P.K. UTHAMAN
February 4, 1991 L. NAMASIVAYAN

12. SOME WADER RECORDS FROM COASTAL ANDHRA PRADESH

Pulicat Bird Sanctuary in south coastal
Andhra Pradesh (13°25' to 13°55' N, 80°03' to
80° 19' E) is the second largest brackish water body
in India, with extensive coastal salt lagoons and

mudflats. The sanctuary has an area of about 450
sq. km of which a major part (84%) lies in Andhra
Pradesh and the rest in Tamil Nadu. The sanctuary
is a major wetland for migratory shorebirds on the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

251

eastern sea board of India and vast numbers con-
gregate here on the mudflats during the winters.

While carrying out bird migration studies at
Pulicat during 1990 several species of waders were
banded to study their movement patterns. Two
species were ringed which are interesting in terms
of their distribution and occurrence, as they are
new records for Andhra Pradesh.

Rednecked phalarope Phalaropus lobatus
(Linn.): Seven birds were ringed (Ring nos. A-
232535 to A-232541) at Atkanithippa in Pulicat
Bird Sanctuary on 21 September 1990. According
to the HANDBOOK OF BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN
(Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D. 1987) the rednecked
phalarope is mainly a winter visitor to the coasts

of India and is seen mainly onthe western seaboard.
On the eastern coast there are very scanty records
of this species, usually seen off the coast. As the
birds were seen in the mudflats of the Sanctuary
they were probably on passage.

Eastern knot Calidris tenuirostris
(Hors field): One was ringed on 19 September 1990
(Ring no. B -57777) at Atkanithippa. There are iso-
lated records of the eastern knot on the eastern
coastline, but its occurrence at Pulicat is a new
record for Andhra Pradesh.

K.K. MOHAPATRA
November 30,' 1990 PRAKASH RAO

13. CONFIRMATION OF THE BREEDING OF THE COMMON TERN
STERNA HIRUNDO LINN. IN SRI LANKA

Reference is made to my paper on the breeding
of the common tern Sterna hirundo in Sri Lanka
(Hoffmann 1990, JBNHS 87 (1): 68-72). In that
paper I reported in detail on a breeding colony of
the common tern, which I discovered in 1980 on
a small island of coral debris (called Irrachchal),
off the east coast of Sri Lanka. It is the first and
so far only case of breeding of this tern anywhere
in the Oriental region. Although there were strong
indications (presence of many adult birds in breed-
ing plumage) that breeding also took place in sub-
sequent years, actual proof was lacking. For a num-
ber of reasons, but chiefly because of the ongoing
ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka, I was unable to visit
the island at the right time for a number of years.

But at the end of May 1990 I did pay another
visit to the island. I had seen common terns in
breeding plumage in the area as early as end March
and, therefore, confidently expected to find
evidence of breeding.

In 1980 1 discovered the first five nest scrapes
with eggs of the common tern at the end of May.
By the end of June there were 41 nests with intact
eggs, seven with broken eggs, two with downy
chicks and about 12 abandoned nests, indicating
a colony strength of over 60 breeding pairs of com-
mon terns. Thus egg laying started at the end of
May, reached its peak by about the middle of June,
and was completed by early July.

Large crested terns Sterna bergii velox
regularly use this island for breeding; sporadic egg
laying may take place during June, but reaches its

peak during the second half of July.

By mid-July (when the breeding of common
terns is almost completed) roseate terns Sterna
dougallii and little terns Sterna albifrons may also
breed on the island. The breeding seasons for the
various species may vary somewhat in different
years, in response to weather, feeding and possibly
other conditions. I visited the island on 23 May
1990, at mid-morning. There were about 20 large
crested, 8 roseate and 10 common terns perching
on the coral pieces, all in unmistakable breeding
plumage. The common terns stood out by their
bright red bills with black tips, glossy black caps,
bright orange legs and feet, dark edge on end of
upper wing (in flight), and sleek silvery-grey and
white plumage. All birds took to the air when I
approached the island and when I landed. The large
crested and roseate soon disappeared and only the
common remained, variously circling in the air
(with loud, high pitched cries of twink) and settling
down at the highest point of the coral debris. The
birds took off and settled nervously even when I
was only 5 m away from where they had perched.
When I got closer, some would dive at me with
a harsh and angry kaaarrr. This continued
throughout the period I was on the island.

I found five eggs in typical nest scrapes,
marked and lined with small pebbles, shells and
some feathers (as in 1980). The nests were widely
spaced and close to or between large pieces of
coral (some standing upright, thus providing shelter
and shade, and perhaps protection against crushing

252

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 89

by large numbers of other terns roosting on the
island at night). I also found three broken eggs,
the deep orange yolk smeared on the coral pieces.
There also were some empty nest scrapes,
presumably in preparation of laying. The five intact
eggs, one in each nest, were of the usual kind,
heavily blotched and streaked, and of the following
dimensions: 41x28 mm (two eggs), 43x29 mm,
40x28 mm, 41x29 mm.

The rather unrepresentative number of eggs
gives an average of 41.2 x 28.4 mm, similar to
the 1980 average (41.2x28.5 mm) and again smaller
in width than the averages given in the literature
(31.5 mm).

There were no nests or eggs of large crested
or other terns. When I moved away from the nests
and crouched at the edge of the island, the common
terns immediately settled in the nesting area, and
five birds sat on the five nests with one egg each.
The others perched nearby on coral debris. In the
evenings large numbers of terns use the island for
roosting, as observed through the telescope from
the shore.

It was my intention to visit the island again
in mid-June, when I expected to find up to a 100
nests of common terns. Unfortunately the ethnic
conflict broke out once again, involving the area
directly in warlike operations, and I was prevented
from carrying out my plan. Nevertheless, I am now
satisfied that the common tern is a resident breeding
bird in Sri Lanka.

The time of the year, size of eggs, type of
nest scrapes, and identity of the breeding birds
are the same as in 1980, and there is no doubt in
my mind that the common tern would have bred
on this island in the interim and will continue to
do so every year if not disturbed. There is more
than ample evidence of the all-year round presence
on the east coast of Sri Lanka of common terns,

including many adults in breeding plumage.

Two questions remain: First, are there other
breeding colonies of the common tern in Sri Lanka?
Although I was sure that this would be the case,
a preliminary recce along the eastern coast from
Valaichchenai to Foul Point did not reveal any
other breeding colonies at the end of May 1990.
Several rocky islands (some with vegetation, sand
and coral debris) were visited, but no evidence of
the breeding of terns could be found.

Obviously these potential breeding places
should have been inspected again by the end of
June/beginning of July, but events prevented this.
Irrachchal is the only island of its kind known to
me along the coasts of Sri Lanka, and until there
is evidence to the contrary, I must now assume
that it is the only place on which common terns
regularly breed in Sri Lanka.

It is thus a unique location, with a unique tern
population, and should be given fullest protection
under the law as a conservation area to which access
by humans would be prohibited at least during the
egg-laying period, say from beginning of May to the
end of August each year.

The second question revolves around the sub-
species of the breeding common terns. I continue to
think that it is more likely to be S.h. hirundo rather
than S.h. tibetana. There is some visual support for
this assumption, because all the birds seen have a
pale silvery -grey mantle. In handbook of the birds
of INDIA and Pakistan (Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D. 1969),
S.h. tibetana in breeding plumage is said to be "darker
and slightly browner above, darker below" than S.h.
hirundo. Obviously a specimen will have to be col-
lected, but I could not bring myself to shooting one
of these birds over the nest.

July 6, 1990 THILO HOFFMANN

14. INDIAN SKIMMER KYNCHOPS ALBICOLLIS SWAINSON AND BLACK STORK
CICONIA NIGRA (LINN.) - NEW ADDITIONS TO THE AVIFAUNA OF KEOLADEO

NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR

Altogether 317 species of birds were recorded
from Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, from
1980 to 1986 (Vijayan 1987). Subsequently in 1988
two more species - the Indian skimmer Rynchops
albicollis and black stork Ciconia nigra were added
to the list.

On 4 February 1988 a small flock of six Indian

skimmers was seen feeding in one of the aquatic
blocks of Keoladeo National Park. The birds were
seen only for two days. The Indian skimmer has
been recorded as a rare vagrant in inland tanks
(Ali and Ripley 1983). The black stork was sighted
on 3 April 1988 in the Park and could be seen
only for four days. This stork is a winter visitor

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

253

to Pakistan and sporadically all over north India
(Ali and Ripley 1983).

Even though the black stork and Indian skim-
mer were recorded in Delhi area by Abdulali and
Panday (1978), they have never been recorded in

Abdulali, H. & Panday, J.D. (1978): Checklist of the
birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur. Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay.

Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds
of India and Pakistan, Compact Edition. Oxford

Keoladeo National Park.

I thank Dr V.S. Vijayan, Project Scientist,
BNHS for his help in the preparation of this note.

July 24, 1990 C. SIVASUBRAMANIAN

ENCES

University Press, Delhi.

Vijayan, V.S. (1987): Vertebrate fauna of Keoladeo Na-
tional Park, Bharatpur, Technical Report. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.

15. UNUSUAL NESTING BEHAVIOUR IN THE DOMESTIC PIGEON
COLUMBA LIVLA GMELIN

The domestic pigeon Columba livia is a
monogamous species normally laying two eggs per
cluth (Ali and Ripley 1987). Both parents share
the duties of incubation and rearing the young.
The incubation period varies from 16-18 days and
chicks are fledged 21-25 days after hatching.
Usually one and occasionally both the chicks from
a clutch are fledged. Here we report unusual nesting
behaviour of this species involving two females
(A and B) which laid in the same nest and shared
incubation duties.

Female A laid two eggs in its nest and started
incubating them, sharing the duties with its mate.
After three days of incubation, male A disap-
peared. Female B along with its mate built a
nest near A’s nest and was in the pre-laying stage
when male B died. Female A continued incuba-
tion alone while female B repeatedly tried to
enter A’s nest, only to be repelled each time by
female A. After two days, female B was able to
enter A’s nest and lay an egg. One day later B
laid another egg, which was about the size of a
marble. We removed the abnormal egg, leaving
three eggs in A’s nest. Subsequently both females
shared incubation duties for the next 11 days.

On the twelfth day, male A returned and expelled
female B from the nest. Afterwards both male and
female A incubated and hatched the three eggs
and successfully reared all the chicks.

Among Columbidae, clutches of more tha^i
two eggs due to laying by more than two females
in a common nest has been reported in the rock
pigeon Columba guinea (Skead 1971), eared dove
Zenaida auriculata (Murton et al . 1974), mourning
dove Zenaida macroura (Weeks 1980) and ring
dove Streptopelia decaocto (Cramp 1985). In
Columbidae, laying by two females in a common
nest may be induced by nest destruction or presence
of a predator near the nest during the laying period
(Goodwin 1967). Blockstein (1986) observed three
cases in which a female and two male mourning
doves attended a nest.

However, this is probably the first report of
sharing of incubation duties by female columbids.
Skadsen (1987) reported sharing of incubation
duties by female tree swallows Iridoprocne bicolor.

RAJIV SINGH KALSI
May 2, 1990 RAJDEEP KALSI

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1987): Handbook of the Birds
of India and Pakistan. Compact 2nd edition. Oxford
University Press, Delhi.

Blockstein, D.E. (1986): Nesting trios of Mourning
Doves. Wilson Bull. 98: 309-311.

Cramp, S. (1985): Handbook of the Birds of Europe, Mid-
dle East and North Africa - birds of the Western
Palearctic, Vol. IV. Oxford University Press, New

York.

Goodwin, D. (1967): Pigeons and Doves of the World.
Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History),
London.

Murton, R.K., Buchner, E.H., Nores, M., Gomez, E. &
Reartes, J. (1974): The ecology of the Eared Dove
{Zenaida auriculata ) in Argentina. Condor 76: 80-88.
Skadsen, D. (1987): Unusual Tree Swallow nesting be-

254

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

haviour - female sharing incubation. South Dakota
Bird Notes 16: 12-13.

Skead, D.M. (1971): A study of the Rock Pigeon Columba

guinea. Ostrich 42: 65-69.

Weeks, H.P. (1980): Unusual egg deposition in Mourning
Doves. Wilson Bull. 92: 258-260.

16. AN UNUSUAL NEST-SITE OF SPOTTED DOVE
STREPTOPELIA CHINENSIS (SCOPOLI)

While surveying the hillock at Thondebhavi,
about 83 km north of Bangalore, on 1 September
1990, (see also Ali 1942, JBNHS 43: 325-326),
we came across an unusual nest-site of spotted
dove Streptopelia chinensis . The nest was placed
on the ground amidst a clump of lemon grass Cym-
bopogon schoenanthus about 10 m from the
foothill. The scrape-nest was lined with rootlets.

According to the handbook of the birds of
India and Pakistan, (Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D. 1983)
spotted doves are known to nest only in vegetation,
well above the ground. The site of the nest is of

interest as it does not conform with earlier obser-
vations.

The boulder-strewn hillock, Arasalubande,
(13°30' N, 77°30' E, 892 m above msl), where
the nest was found was totally denuded, and not
even a single tree or a dense bush was seen within
about 200 m radius.

S. SUBRAMANYA
S. KARTHIKEYAN
J.N. PRASAD
T.S. SRINIVASA
February 8, 1991 B. ARUN

17. OCCURRENCE OF WRYNECK JYNX TORQUILLA LINN.

The HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKIS -

TAN (Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D. 1987) describes the
winter distribution range of the wryneck Jynx tor-
quilla as Maharashtra and western central province.

However, the species was sighted in our gar-
den at Durg, Madhya Pradesh, first on 28 October
1990, subsequently daily between 9 and 12 Novem-
ber and later on 13 and 15 December 1990 and 7
February 1991. Repeated sightings of the species

during the winter months suggest that it spends
its winter in the area, and was not in transit.

A specimen taken from Charmae Sambalpur,
Orissa (about 250 km further east) by N. Majumdar
of ZSI ( JBNHS 76: 162) is the other instance of
the occurrence of the species outside the earlier
known range.

February 13, 1991 A.M.K. BHAROS

18. SOUTHERN GOLDENBACKED WOODPECKER DINOPIUM BENGHALENSE
FEEDING ON THE NECTAR OF BANANA TREE MUSA PARADISIACA

On 2 August 1990 at 0820 hrs, I saw a gol-
denbacked woodpecker Din opium benghalense per-
ching and feeding on the spathe of a banana tree
Musa paradisiaca in my garden at Vedharanyam,
Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu. The banana tree
had a few bunches of unripe fruits and flowers.

The bird was perched on the tip of the spathe
and was probing with its beak into the free perianth
(inner perianth) of flowers and drinking the nectar.
Changing its perch frequently, the bird made a full
round of the spathe and attended to several flowers.
After about 7 minutes the bird flew away. The

next day also at about 0615 hrs I noticed a wood-
pecker feeding on nectar from the same tree.

Ali and Ripley (handbook of the birds of
INDIA AND Pakistan, 1983) recorded insects, larvae,
ants, centipede, spider, fruits, berries and flower
nectar of Erythrina, Salmalia, Acrocarpus and
Grevillea as the food items of this woodpecker.
Now the nectar of banana tree should also be in-
cluded in the list of food items.

August 20, 1990

P. BALASUBRAMANIAN

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

255

19. OCCURRENCE OF THE INDIAN GREAT BLACK WOODPECKER
DRYOCOPUS JAVENSIS (HORSFIELD)

The sighting of a solitary Indian great black
woodpecker Dryocopus javensis (Horsfield) by the
late Salim Ali in the Bastar district (82°E) was
reported in JBNHS 49: 787. This led to the specula-
tion that though till then unrecorded, the bird may
extend eastwards along the Satpura trend of moun-
tains as it does southwards from the Surat Dangs
in Gujarat along the Western Ghats to Kerala and
Tamil Nadu. Since then only one other record has
been reported by Ripley and Beehler from the
Visakhapatnam Hills (Eastern Ghats) in selectively
loggged forest at Jyothimamidi (JBNHS 84: 558).

During a visit to the Udanti Sanctuary (about
20° 15' N, 82° 15' E,) in the south-eastern

part of Raipur district, I sighted about 30 of these
woodpeckers in different localities on 10 and 11
May 1987. It had rained the previous two nights

and hence humidity was quite high.

On a second visit to the Sanctuary from 25
to 28 May 1989, only two birds were encountered.
It was very hot (c. 44°C) during the period, and
light showers were recorded on 25 May. In the
interlude between the two visits neither defores-
tation nor any significant disturbance to the bird’s
habitat was observed.

Enquiries revealed that the Indian great black
woodpecker was noticed in quite good numbers
in the area prior to my visit. Hence sightings are
seemingly dictated by climatic conditions ob-
tainable at the time, and are influenced by its local
movements.

November 19, 1990 A.M.K. BHAROS

20. OCCURRENCE OF THE PHILIPPINE SHRIKE
LANIUS CRISTATUS LUCIONENSIS LINN. IN COASTAL ANDHRA PRADESH

In the course of bird ringing at Sriharikota
island (13°25' to 13°55' N, 80°03' to 80° 19' E),
Andhra Pradesh, as part of the ongoing research
project of the BNHS, we caught a brown shrike
Lanius cristatus on 14 April 1990 in one of our
mistnets, located in the scrub jungle just behind
the SHAR (Space Research Centre) Guest House.
Although the bird superficially resembled the
nominate race (a common winter visitor here), close
examination revealed that it had a greyish white
forehead and a greyish brown crown. One of us
(VS) who had seen this bird in Port Blair, An-
damans, identified it as the Philippine shrike L.
c. lucionensis Linn. It had wing and tail measure-
ments slightly higher than those of the nominate
race. Unfortunately it was not possible to
photograph the bird due to restrictions imposed
for security reasons. The bird was ringed with
BNHS ring AB- 135377, measured and released.

Wing and tail measurements for the bird were
94 and 94 mm respectively, as compared to 80-89

mm (wing) and 78-89 mm (tail) for L. c. cristatus.

It was sighted subsequently in the same
locality twice on 19 and 20 April 1990.

According to Ali and Ripley (1987) this sub-
species is a winter visitor (September -April) chiefly
to the Andamans and Nicobar. The only record
from the Indian mainland has been from Kerala
(Hume 1876). Its wintering habitat has been
described as secondary jungle, gardens around
habitations and forest clearings for settlements on
hills and plains.

Ripley (1982) vide Stuart Baker (1902,
1920) suspects L.c. lucionensis to breed in North
Cachar as it does in the subtropical parts of
western Sichuan (Szechuan). There is every
likelihood, therefore, that earlier record were
confused for the nominate bird.

K.K. MOHAPATRA
November 28, 1990 V. SANTHARAM

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1987): Handbook of the birds
of India and Pakistan, Compact 2nd Edition. Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.

Hume, A.O. (1876): A first list of birds of Travancore

Hills. Stray Feathers 4: 351-405.

Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the birds of India
and Pakistan. 2nd Edition Bombay Natural History
Society, Bombay.

256

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Stuart-Baker, E.C. (1902): Birds of the Khasia Hills. Stuart-Baker, E.C. (1920): The Fauna of British India.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 17: 793. Vol. 2, Birds.

21. OCCURRENCE OF LONGTAILED MINIVET PERICROCOTUS ETHOLOGUS
BANGS & PHILLIPS IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK,
BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN

25 December 1989 at Keoladeo National
Park, Bharatpur, dawned with a particularly
heavy mist. On an early morning walk one of
us (DN) wandered off the trail into an area of
salt-bush Salvadora persica and found a few
lesser whitethroats Sylvia curruca and
bluethroats Erithacus svecicus. Then a party of
25-30 minivets Pericrocotus spp. moved rapidly
through the bushes and, luckily, stopped just
above DN. Small P. cinnamomeus and scarlet
P. flammeus were quickly identified with a
couple of adult males of each species as well
as several females or immature males.

One of the party was clearly not of these
species, appearing smaller than the scarlet, al-
though still much larger than the small minivets.
On closer inspection its bill seemed particularly
short; and perhaps the main reason why its body
and bill seemed small was that its tail was long,
much longer than that of the scarlet minivets.

The bird’s forehead and underparts were
bright yellow, with the top of its head and back
a slaty grey. Wings were black, with a prominent
bright yellow inverted U-shape formed apparent-
ly by some secondary feathers, the greater and
primary coverts and two or more primary
remiges. Its rump was bright yellow, as was the
whole of the outer rectrices, contrasting markedly
with the black tail.

DN managed to watch the flock, and this in-
dividual, at close range for 10-15 minutes, using

8 x 40 binoculars. In the misty conditions, it seemed
that the flock stayed much closer together, and
allowed a closer approach, than usual. Reference
to Ali and Ripley (1983) threw doubt on the initial
identification as an adult female longtailed minivet
Pericrocotus ethologus , as Plate 71 shows this
species to have a bill almost as long as P. flammeus
and also the tail is not shown in full.

Ewans (1989) and Abdulali and Panday (1978)
include the shortbilled minivet Pericrocotus
brevirostris as an uncommon winter migrant but
P. ethologus is not recorded. DN was almost
prepared to believe that he had been mistaken and
had perhaps seen the shortbilled minivet — whose
female is also not depicted fully in the HANDBOOK,
being obscured by the male — the other author (CS)
told him that he had seen and photographed a prob-
able male longtailed minivet at the same locality
on 22 December 1988.

On consulting the handbook we were con-
vinced that both birds, seen in two successive
winters, were longtailed minivet P. ethologus. The
handbook records them straggling south to Jodhpur
and Mount Abu in Rajasthan, so their occurrence
at Bharatpur is not surprising. It seems clear that
a sustained programme of passerine ringing
would probably reveal other examples of this
species in Rajasthan.

D. NORMAN

November 1, 1990 C. SIVASUBRAMANIAN

References

Abdulali, H. & Panday, J.D. (1978): Checklist of the
birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur. Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay.

The late K.S. Dharmakumarsinhji recordedP. ethologus from
Bhavnagar in Gujarat on 23 December 1982 ( JBNHS 82: 657).
A.G. Gaston found it a regular winter visitor in small num-
bers to the Delhi Ridge, and opined that P. brevirostris of
the Checklist of the birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur
(Abdulali and Panday 1978) referred actually to P. ethologus
(JBNHS 75: 123) —Editors.

An, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the birds
of India and Pakistan, Compact Edition. Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.

Ewans, M. (1989): Bharatpur — Bird Paradise. Witherby,
London.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

257

22. ADDITIONAL NESTING SITES OF
REDVENTED BULBUL PYCNONOTUS CAFER (LINN.)

On 12 June 1989 in the Keoladeo National
Park, Bharatpur, we found a nest of the redvented
bulbul Pycnonotus cafer placed in the trunk of a
kadam tree ( Mitragyna parvifolia). The height of
the nesting hole was 3 m from the ground and the
depth of the hole was 30 cm. The hole was lined
with grass and the nest appeared as cup-shaped
and had four eggs, three of which ultimately
hatched.

A few days later, one of us (T.S.) observed
another nest of the redvented bulbul with three
chicks. It was placed inside the deserted nest of
a pied myna Sturnus contra in a babul tree
(Acacia nilotica) on one of the dykes in the wet-
land area.

The nest was located about 8 m above the
ground. The cup-shaped nest was made up of grass
material and placed in the middle of the pied myna

nest. The chicks of the nest fledged successfully
after a week.

Nests of redvented bulbul have been oc-
casionally observed in unusual spots: e.g. Lamba
(1976) recorded a nest in a hole in a mud bank;
Mundkur (1984) found one on a disused tubelight
and Nanjappa (1989) saw one on the floating water
hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes. Redvented bulbuls
generally build their nests in shrubs, hedges,
stunted date palms, on slender branches of trees
and at the end of a pollarded branch (Ali and Ripley
1983, Vijayan 1978).

We are grateful to Dr V.S. Vijayan, Project
Scientist, BNHS for his encouragement.

C. SIVASUBRAMANIAN
July 24, 1990 T. SUNDARAMOORTHY

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds
of Indian and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford
University Press, Delhi.

Lamba, B.S. (1976): Redvented Bulbul, Pycnonotus cafer
nesting in a hole in a mud bank. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 73: 395.

Mundkur, T. (1984): Unusual nesting sites of the Red-
vented Bulbul. Hornbill 1984 (2): 27-28.

Nanjappa, C. (1989): An hitherto unrecorded nesting site
of a Redvented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 102.

Vuayan, V.S. (1978): Breeding Biology of Bulbuls, Pyc-
nonotus cafer and Pycnonotus luteolus (Class :
Aves, Family : Pycnonotidae) with special reference
to their Ecological Isolation. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 75: 1090-1117.

23. INDIAN BLUE CHAT ERITHACUS BRUNNEUS (HODGSON)

IN BANGALORE

On 15 April 1990, while watching birds in
the moist-deciduous habitat overgrown with bam-
boo Dendrocalamus spp. at Muthyala Muduvu
(Pearl Valley), in the Madeshwara Range Forest
(952 m above msl; 12°41' N, 77°39' E), 38 km
south-east of Bangalore, a male Indian blue chat
Erithacus brunneus (Hodgson) was sighted. The
bright chestnut underparts offsetting the dark
blue upper parts, white vent, short tail and a
distinct white supercilium were unmistakable.

The bird flew down from a Memecylon um-
bellatum (Family: Melastomaceae) bush at the end
of a dry stream bed, paused briefly and began hop-
ping around within a metre from the bush, picking

up something from the ground. Then, alerted by
our presence, it flew away.

The present sighting is of interest, as except
for a female found dead in the balcony of a building
in the Indian Institute of Science campus on 9 May
1989 (Shyamal 1989, Newsletter for Birdwatchers
39 (9 & 10): 8-9) the Indian blue chat has not
been sighted in Bangalore so far. Since the species
is known to winter in Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu,
Kerala and Sri Lanka, the birds seen in Bangalore
could have been on passage during their outward
migration.

J.N. PRASAD

February 5, 1991 T.S. SRINIVASA

258

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

24. ABNORMAL CLUTCH IN INDIAN BROWNBACKED ROBIN
SAXICOL OIDES FULICATA CAMBAIENSIS (LATHAM)

On 30 April 1990, a nest of the Indian
brownbacked robin Saxicoloides fulicata cam-
baiensis was observed at Aligarh (27°29’ N to IT
29 ’E) in a residential hostel. The nest, located on
an electric meter board, was in active incubation
stage with an unusually large clutch of seven eggs.
The eggs were incubated till 5 May 1990 before
the nest was finally abandoned. Ali and Ripley
(HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN,
1983) have reported the normal clutch to be three,
sometimes two. This unusual clutch is either due
to erratic laying or due to use of the same nest
site for subsequent broods. Robins are reported to
use the same nest site for subsequent broods during

their breeding period, but it is not known whether
the same nest is used for the next laying if the
previous clutch is unsuccessful and eggs are not
removed.

The robin possibly laid eggs of this next brood
after unsuccessful incubation of the previous one,
thus leading to the mixing of the eggs of two
clutches. It is possible that the eggs of the previous
clutch would have been again incubated, as a result
of which the freshly laid eggs could not be main-
tained at optimum temperature for hatching; con-
sequently, none of them hatched.

December 10, 1990 SALIM JAVED

25. PIED GROUND THRUSH ZOOTHERA WARDII (BLYTH) IN BANGALORE

On 14 October 1990, while observing birds
at the Gandhi Krishi Vignana Kendra, Bangalore,
on National Highway No. 7, 1 noticed some move-
ment under a tree with drooping branches touching
the ground, offering a lot of shade underneath. On
taking a closer look through 7x35 binoculars a
thrush-like bird was seen hopping on the ground.
Seeing me the bird became alert, flew and settled
on an open canopied tree nearby. The bird remained
in the canopy for nearly 20 minutes affording a

very good view, and was identified as the pied
ground thrush Zoothera wardii (Blyth).

Interestingly, the bird was seen in a lightly
wooded area, a Botanical Garden (920 m), though
it is indicated that the species occurs in the hills,
frequenting dense forests and ravines. It is a bird
of passage in the peninsula to its wintering grounds
in Sri Lanka.

December 7, 1990 S. KARTHIKEYAN

26. RECORD OF THE RIVERINE TURTLE TRIONYX LEITHI FROM
THANJAVUR DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU

A short field survey made in various localities
of Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu, in the months
of August, December 1990, and March 1991
yielded the following three species of freshwater
turtles: Madras pond turtle Melanochelys trijuga,
Indian flapshell turtle Lissemys punctata and
riverine or softshell turtle Trionyx leithi. While
the first two species are known from the district,
the record of Trionyx leithi is interesting.

A single specimen of T. leithi trapped from
the Coleroon river, was purchased from a local
fisherman near Kollidam village (Sirkali). This
specimen, preserved at the museum of Madras
Snake Park Trust, has the following morphometric
details. CL = 12.5 cm, CW =11 cm, PL = 10.5
cm, weight = 205 g.

There has been some confusion on the dis-

tribution of T. leithi. Smith’s (1931) assessment
of its range as Ganges and rivers of peninsular
India has been proved to be wrong; caused by mis-
identification by Annandale (1915). In a recent
reassessment of its distribution, Moll and Vijaya
(1986) have recorded this species from Godavari
river (Kotipalle, Andhra Pradesh), Balimela reser-
voir (Chitrakonda, Orissa) and Moyar and Bhavani
rivers (Nilgiri and Periyar districts respectively)
of the Cauvery drainage; the last one constituting
the first record from Tamil Nadu and Cauvery.

Although M. trijuga and L. punctata are com-
mon and have a wide distribution in Tamil Nadu,
T. leithi is much rarer, known only from Nilgiris
and Periyar districts. The present record from
Coleroon, Thanjavur district, is thus of sig-
nificance. Coleroon is a tributary of Cauvery join-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

259

ing the Bay of Bengal at Portonovo. Enquiries with
the local fishermen revealed that large turtles with
carapace length of more than 45 cm were common
at Coleroon 15 to 20 years back.

We are grateful to the Trustees of the Madras
Snake Park Trust and to A.N. Jagannatha Rao, Hon.
Secretary and Founder-Trustee for their kind help,

Refer

Annandale, N. (1915): Herpetological notes and descrip-
tions. Rec. Indian Mus. 11: 331-337.

Moll, E.E. & Vuaya, J. (1986): Distributional records
for some Indian Turtles. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

and encouragement; and to Dr R. S. Pillai, Research
Officer and Trustee of M.S.P.T. for his suggestions
for the improvement of this manuscript.

V. KALAIARASAN
R. KANAKASABAI
November 9, 1991 B. RATHINASAB APATHY

ENCES

83 (1): 57-67.

Smith, M.A. (1931): Fauna of British India. Reptilia and
Amphibia, vol. I. Testudines. Taylor & Francis, Lon-
don.

27. MORPHOMETRY, HABITAT, BEHAVIOUR AND FOOD OF THE TADPOLES OF

LEITH’S FROG RAN A LEITHII
(With three text-figures)

Leith's frog Rana leithii is distributed along
the Western Ghats from Surat Dangs, south Gujarat
in the north through Suriamal (Thane district), Khan-
dala (Poona district), and the Karla caves to Panchgani
in Satara district, Maharashtra, southward to Ger-
soppa in North Kanara, Karnataka (Abdulali and
Daniel 1954, Chari and Daniel 1952, Daniel and Shull
1963). This frog is not uncommon in short grass and
in ditches on hillsides and appears to be diurnal, at
least during the rains (McCann 1932). The species

is abundant in Matheran (a hill station 100 km
away from Bombay) the type locality. The tadpole
was described by Chari and Daniel (1952), but
morphometric information is meagre. To study the
morphometry of the tadpoles of this species in detail
and to observe the habitat of adults and tadpoles,
a collection trip was made to Matheran at the end
of August 1991. Tadpoles were collected from the
rock cuttings on the way to Matheran during the
day and adults were collected at night.

Figs. 1-2. Tadpole of Rana leithii. 1. Dorsal view, 2. Lateral view.

260

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Morphometry: The body of the tadpoles is
oval, wider than high and flattened dorso-ventrally
(Figs. 1, 2). The average body length in 20 tadpoles
was 11.16 ± 0.68 mm (Table 1) and the average
tail length was 29.40 ± 1.75 mm. The tail is more
than two and a half times as long as the body.
Tail muscle was almost squarish near the vent and
tapers to a fine point. The tail fins are vestigeal.
Dorsally the fin is seen as a ridge to half of the
tail and broadens out slightly towards the end;
whereas ventrally the tail has a groove in the middle
which runs from the base of the tail till halfway
to the tip, then forms a ridge which broadens out.
From the main groove several minute grooves
branch out.

Head slopes downwards, with bluntly pointed
snout; nostril dorso-lateral, nearer to the eye than
to the tip of snout. Eyes dorsal; interocular width
greater than the internasal space. Spiraculum
sinistral, inconspicuous, directed upward and back-
ward, situated almost equidistant from snout and
vent. Vent tubular and situated ventrally in median
line, at the junction of tail with the hindlimb. In
preserved specimens, a pair of small prominent
grooves starting from behind the eye and meeting
centrally with the median dorsal groove, run up
to the base of the dorsal fin. The sides of the median
groove have a ribbed appearance. Skin laterally
rugose.

Mouth ventral with papillae on the sides of
the upper and lower lip and on the edge of the

Fig. 3. Mouth ofRana leithii tadpole.

lower lip. The edge of the upper lip is without
papillae. Teeth rows have the formula 0: 4 + 4/2
+ 2:2 (Fig. 3). The first row, though apparently
undivided, is divided at the centre. The beak is
oval in shape, the mandibles horny and black, with
strongly serrated edges.

The body colour varies from uniform slaty
to pale brown. Tail muscle and hindlimbs are pale
brown and barred. The ventral side is dirty white.

Habitat: The tadpoles were collected from
rock cuttings with gentle flow of water, having

Table 1

MEASUREMENTS OF 20 TADPOLES OF Rana leithii AT HINDLIMB STAGE

Measurements

(mm)

Range

(mm)

Mean

(mm)

S.D. ±

Ratio of measurements
to body length (%)

Body length

10.15-13.00

11.16

0.68

_

Body height

3.40-4.65

3.88

0.37

34.76

Body width

5.20-7.20

6.14

0.43

55.01

Head height

3.00-4.50

3.40

0.32

30.46

Head width

5.00-6.50

5.70

0.42

51.07

Interriasal space

1.90-2.50

2.21

0.17

19.80

Diameter of eye

1.50-2.10

1.72

0.16

15.41

Interocular width

3.40-4.60

4.14

0.23

37.09

Mouth width

2.70-3.20

2.96

0.13

26.52

Snout to spiraculum

5.70-7.10

6.25

0.32

56.00

Tbil length

27.00-33.30

29.40

1.75

263.44

Tail height

1.90-2.40

2.04

0.12

18.27

Diameter of tail muscle

1.50-2.20

1.81

0.15

16.21

Length of hindlimb

11.60-18.35

13.55

1.66

121.41

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

261

algal growth. As Chari and Daniel (1952) stated,
the colouration of the tadpoles matches well with
the colour of the slaty rock — with the rocks
covered with brown algae, it is very difficult to
distinguish them. Adults were collected from the
ground (amidst short grasses, in leaf litter and
ditches, between and near railway tracks, on mud-
paths) as well as from tree trunks up to one metre
above the ground. Adults were not observed around
the tadpoles' habitat and were collected far from
the tadpoles' habitat. Abdulali (1954) had observed
large numbers of adults on the wet rock cuttings
by the railway tracks and on wet rocks in flowing
streams (tadpoles were absent from the stream it-
self). Though McCann (1932) and Abdulali and
Daniel (1954) reported that this species was diurnal,
I collected several specimens in the monsoon at
night.

Behaviour: The tadpoles lack a tail fin, and
are therefore less adept swimmers. They are
adapted to life on wet rocks rather than in ponds
or streams. The strong, black, serrated beak helps
in nibbling the algal growth on wet rocks. Tadpoles

were very active and agile, jumping onto the slip-
pery surfaces when they were disturbed. They do
not show any holding organs to cling on to wet,
slippery rocks. Tadpoles in forelimb stage seem
more active. I approached a group of tadpoles (most
of which had forelimbs), and my slight movement
made all the tadpoles jump to the bottom of the
rocks from a height of 2 m. Some fell into the
water running along the rocks. In the water they
submerged to the bottom quietly and after for a
few minutes came out of the water and climbed
slowly on to their earlier location on the rock.

Food: The stomach contents revealed that the
tadpoles had eaten large quantities of various
species of diatoms ( Pinnularia , Navicula, Synedra,
Cymbella etc.) and a few species of filamentous
algae.

I thank Vithoba Hegde, Field Assistant, who
accompanied me on this field trip, and the BNHS
for financial assitance.

January 18, 1992 A.G. SEKAR

References

Abdulali, H & Daniel, J.C. (1954): Distribution oiRana
leithii Boulenger - A correction. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 52: 635-636.

Chari, V.K. & Daniel, J.C. (1952): The tadpoles oiRana
leithii Boulenger. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51:
512-514.

Daniel, J.C. & Shull, E.M. (1963): A list of the reptiles
and amphibians of the Surat Dangs, South Gujarat.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 737-744.

McCann, C. (1932): Notes on Indian Batrachians. J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 152-180.

28. CANNIBALISM IN BUTTERFLY LARVAE

Cannibalism in butterfly larvae is reported by
Moore (1912) and Deithier (1937). In Danianae it
was first described by Field (1893), who recorded
larvae of monarch butterfly attacking each other
in captivity. Later Urquhart (1960) confirmed this
observation and reported that larvae, besides at-
tacking each other, also ate eggs. He further con-
firmed the observations of Balduf (1939) and
Sweetman (1958) that cannibalistic behaviour in
Danaus is abnormal and occurs under artificially
crowded conditions in the laboratory. Brower
(1960) conducted experiments on egg cannibalism
in the monarch and queen butterflies Danaus
plexippus and D. gilippus. This note deals with
our observations in vivo and in vitro conditions .In
July 1991 we were rearing common tiger Danaus
(Saltura) genutia on the food plant Ceropegia

aculeata collected from BNHS land at Goregaon,
Bombay. While collecting fresh leaves of the food
plant for the captive larvae, we observed that a
leaf was eaten on the edge. On turning it over we
found a second instar larva busy eating an egg.
This induced us to investigate further.

We collected a few leaves, each having a
single egg on its underside, for further observations.
When these leaves were placed in glass bottles
already having a second instar larva in each, we
found that after wandering for a while, the host
larva started denting the egg and shortly thereafter
continued nibbling at it, consuming its contents
in less than five seconds.

Later we saw that a third instar larva on com-
ing in contact with the egg first dented the egg
and after moving about on the leaf around the egg,

262

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

returned to it and consumed its contents. During
these experiments, we also observed that when a
second instar larva of Danaus genutia came in con-
tact with a fourth instar larva, the latter regurgitated
a greenish fluid which dried in a few minutes. This
is perhaps an item of chemical defence mistakenly
trigerred by tactile stimulus (see Rauch 1977).

A second instar larva of the blue tiger
Tirumala (Danaus) limniace on Marsdenia
tenacissima was collected along with three leaves,
each having an egg. The larva, when it came in
contact with the eggs, crawled on them and did
not show any interest in eating them. However,
in the evening NC found two newly hatched larvae
and one egg missing.

Refer

Balduf, W.V. (1939): The Bionomics of Entomophagous
insects. J.S. Swift Co., St. Louis.

Brower, L.P. (1960): Experimental analyses of egg can-
nibalism in the Monarch and Queen butterflies,
Danaus plexippus and D. gilippus. Physiol. Zool.
34: 287-296.

Deithier, V.G. (1937): Cannibalism among lepidopterous
Larvae. Psyche (December 37): 110-115.

Field, W.L. (1893): Larvophagous caterpillars. Canadian
Entomologist 25: 88.

One of us (MH) observed that while rearing
larvae of Acarea violae on a garden variety of
Passiflora, a newly formed pupa kept with three
full-grown larvae in the morning was missing in
the evening, presumably having been eaten by one
of the mature larvae. An identical observation was
made by Isaac Kehimkar (pers. comm.) while rear-
ing the common rose Pachliopta aristolochiae. In
his case a full-grown larvae kept with a pupa par-
tially ate the latter before fresh leaves of Aris-
tolochia could be furnished.

NARESH CHATURVEDI
December 3, 1991 MEENA HARIBAL

ENCES

Moore, H.W.B. (1912): Ways and habits of caterpillars.
Timheri 2 (1): 197-198.

Rauch, P.K. (1977): The defence strategy of the Monarch
Larva Danaus plexippus : an oral discharge ex-
amined SNR Hons. Thesis, Amherst College, Mass.,
U.S.A.

Sweetman (1958): The Principles of Biological Control.
Dubuque, Iowa.

Urquhart, F.A. (1960): The Monarch Butterfly. Univer-
sity of Toronto Press, Toronto, Ontario.

29. FOOD PLANTS OF BLISTER BEETLE MYLABRIS PUSTULAJA THUNB.
(COLEOPTERA : CANTHARIDAE) FROM PT. CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

TAMIL NADU

Table 1

FOOD PLANTS OF BLISTER BEETLE AT PT. CALIMERE SANCTUARY
Species Family Parts eaten

Tribulus terrestris L.

Salacia chinensis L.

Canavalia ensiformis DC.

Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre
Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) W. & A.

Prosopis chilensis (Molina) S.

Opuntia dillenni (Ker-Gawl.) Haw.
Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tiruvengadum
Salvador a persica L.

Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker-Gawl.

Rivea hypocrateriformis Desr. Choisy
Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertner
Gmelina asiatica L.

Excoecaria agallocha L.

Zygophyllaceae

Flower

Hippocrateaceae

Tender shoots

Papilionaceae

Flower

Papilionaceae

Flower

Mimosaceae

Flower

Mimosaceae

Flower

Cactaceae

Flower, fruit

Rubiaceae

Flower

Salvadoraceae

Flower, fruit

Convolvulaceae

Flower

Covolvulaceae

Flower

Verbenaceae

Flower

Verbenaceae

Flower

Euphorbiaceae

Tender shoots

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

263

The blister beetle Mylabris pustulata Thunb.
is very common in south India and is a pest on
numerous crops and other plant species. This beetle
feeds on the flowers and tender shoots of many
plants such as cotton, gogu, red gram, groundnut,
cowpea, lab-lab, cucurbitaceae, prickly pear, gar-
den species of Hibiscus , rose plants and the fruits
of Artocarpus species, (some south Indian insects
^ AND OTHER ANIMALS OF IMPORTANCE, Fletcher, T.B.
1914, MANUAL OF FOREST ZOOLOGY FOR INDIA, Steb-
bing, E.P. 1977).

While studying plant-animal interactions at

the Pt. Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu,
I observed this beetle feeding on flowers and fruits
of the plants listed in Table 1. However, they were
more frequently noted on the flowers of Canavalia
ensiformis and Opuntia dillenni, which indicates
that the beetle is a serious pest on these two species
of plants.

My sincere thanks are due to Prof. P.V. Bole,
President, BNHS, for encouragement.

December 3, 1991 P. BALASUBRAMANIAN

30. NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORD FOR INDIALONA GANAPATI PETKOVSKI
(CRUSTACEA : CLADOCERA) FROM UJANI WETLAND, MAHARASHTRA,
WITH FIRST DESCRIPTION OF MALE AND REPRODUCTIVE FEMALE

(With ten text-figures)

Indialona ganapati was originally described
by Petkovski (1966) on the basis of parthenogenetic
females from Ahmedabad, but he did not give suf-
ficient characters for its diagnosis. Smirnov (1971)
redefined the genus Indialona on the basis of litera-
ture and added a few more species from other
genera like Alona globulosa Daday, A. macronyx
Daday and Euryalona annandalei Daday in this
genus by using characters such as the high body
and a single head pore.

Later, Rajapatea and Fernando (1987) revised
the genus using fresh material collected from all
over the world. They have completely changed the
status of the genus by retailing only /. ganapati
in this genus. /. globulosa was transferred to a
new genus Notoalona ; /. macronyx was reassigned
to genus Alona , while E. annandalei was kept due
to non- availability of material for study. E. an-
nandalei was originally described from eastern
Tibet. Though Rajapaksa and Fernando (1987) and
later on Michael and Sharma (1988) have made
some observations on /. ganapati from material
collected from Bhopal lake, Madhya Pradesh, they
have only used parthenogenetic females for their
studies and redescription.

While studying the Cladocera collected from
Ujani wetland, Pune district of Maharashtra, I came
across a few males, reproductive females and
several parthenogenetic females, which are
described in this note with detailed diagnostic char-
acters. The description of this species has great
significance because this genus of Cladocera is
found only in India, with the above mentioned sole

species. This is only the third record of the species
in India, the first being from Ahmedabad (Gujarat,
type locality) and the second from Bhopal (Madhya
Pradesh).

Parthenogenetic female: Length 0.27-0.29
mm. Body nearly circular. Head shield with
rounded anterior and posterior margin, with one
head pore. Mandibles short and thick, situated be-
tween the head shield valves. Posterior margin of
valve about half the maximum height. Posterodor-
sal angle distinct, slightly protruded. Postero-
ventral corner rounded, without spinules. Valve
with sparse setae on the ventral margin. Rostrum
blunt. A single head pore situated slightly farther
from eye than is the eye from ocellus.

Antennules almost reaching apex of the
rostrum. Aesthetases almost uniform in length,
slightly longer than the length of rostrum. Setae
on antenna : 0-0-3/1-1-3; segments as long as
labrum. Seta on proximal segment small, reaching
apex of third segment. Preanal and postanal parts
of postabdomen are of almost equal size. Ocellus
smaller than eye, situated halfway between eye and
apex of rostrum. Labral plate rounded, with a notch
at the apex. Ventral bulge of valve with a few
grouped setae, and setae posterior to it arise from
small protuberances. Two very large ejector hooks
on first leg. Legs IV and V smaller than the preced-
ing legs. Shape and armature of the postabdomen
is typical of this genus. Length -height ratio of body
10 : 7.5.

Reproductive female: Sometimes called
Ephippial female. Length 0.27-0.29 mm. Body oval

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 89

Figs. 1-10. Indialona ganapati Petkovski

1. Parthenogenetic female, 2. Postabdomen of parthenogenetic female, 3. Ephippial female with ephippium,

4. Male with hook on first leg, 5. Different shapes of labrum, 6. Head shield, 7. First leg of female, 8. Antenna

9. & 10. Ventral marginal setae on valve.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

265

with anterior and posterior corners evenly rounded.
Dorso-posterior half heavily chitinized. Height
relatively larger than in parthenogenetic female.
Carapace around the resting egg heavily pigmented.
Ephippium with a single egg.

Male: Length 0.24-0.25 mm. Height rather
narrower than in the females (mentioned above).
Length-height ratio 10 : 6. Males are characterised
by their cigar-shaped antennules which have equal
width throughout their length. First leg with a pair
of strong copulatory hooks, with a knob-like struc-

ture at their bases. Postabdomen broad but smaller
in size than in females. Basal spines large, more
than half the length of terminal claw. Terminal
claw similar but much shorter than that of female.

I thank the Director, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta for approval of the project, and Dr
G.M. Yazdani, Scientist and Officer-in-Charge of
this Station, for providing necessary facilities.

September 14, 1991 PRAMOD D. RANE

References

Michael, R.G. & Sharma, B.K. (1988): Fauna of India
and adjacent countries. Indian Cladocera (Crustacea
: Branchiopoda). ZSI, Calcutta.

Petkovski, T.K. (1966): Eine neue Cladoceran-Gattung
aus dem Western Indiens. Indialona ganapati n.
gen. et n. sp. Fragmenta balcanica musei Macedonia
Scientiarum naturalium, 2: 157-165, Figs. 1-9.

Rajapaksa, P. & Fernando, C.H. (1987): Redescription
and assignment of Alona globulosa Daday, 1898
to a new genus Notoalona and description of
Notoalona freyi sp. nov. Hydrobiologia 144: 131-
153, figs. 126-136.

Smirnov, N.N. (1971): The world Chydorid fauna (In
Russian). USSR Acad. Sci. Zool. Institute Noya Ser.
No. 101, Leningrad. Fig. 640.

31. BOSMINOPSIS DEITERSI RICHARD, 1895 — A NEW RECORD FOR
WEST BENGAL (CRUSTACEA : CLADOCERA)

(With three text -figures)

During the course of a survey in 1991-92,
we came across hundreds of specimens of a
cladoceran, Bosminopsis deitersi Richard in the
river Ganga at Barrackpur, West Bengal (22° N,
88° E). Literature on the cladoceran fauna of West
Bengal is scanty. Except for Sharma’s (1978) report
on the occurrence of about 28 species, there is no
other elaborate study for this region. The present
study reports the occurrence of B. deitersi for the
first time.

Family: Bosminidae Sars, 1865

Genus: Bosminopsis Richard, 1895

Bosminopsis deitersi Richard 1895 (Figs. 1-3)

Female: Body oval, maximum height near
posterior end of the body. Postero-dorsal corner
of valves distinct: postero-ventral corner with a
small process and with 1-2 spinules before it (Fig.
1). Head rounded with a projection just near the
eye, rostrum long with two lateral branches near
the apex and a long olfactory seta. Eye large, just
touching the anterior margin. Valves with faint
polygonal reticulation, ventral margin rounded,
slightly serrated and with a long and pointed mar-
ginal spine. Post-abdomen small and tapering dis-

tally, lateral side with two groups of slightly large
denticles followed by groups of fine spinules (Fig.
2). Claw serrated and concave with a bipasal spine.
Head shield ornamented with longitudinal and
polygonal reticulations (Fig. 3).

Distribution: INDIA: Yamuna river, Delhi
(Brehm 1963), Ghana Canal, Keoladeo National
Park, Rajasthan (Venkataraman 1987), Irin-
jalakuda, Kerala (Michael and Sharma 1988),
Malaysia (Idris 1983) and China (Seich-chih and
Nan-Shan 1979).

Venkataraman (1987) discussed the validity
of a new species, B. devendarai , described by Rane
(1984) from a tank near Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh,
resembling B. deitersi . The present study also
agrees well with the data given by Venkataraman
(1987). The specimens examined by us match the
description given by Idris (1983) and Michael and
Sharma (1988).

We are grateful to the Director, ZSI, Calcutta
for facilities provided to conduct this study.

K. VENKATARAMAN
January 2, 1992 S.R. DAS

266

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 89

Figs. 1-3. Bosminopsis deitersi, female. 1. Lateral view, 2. Postabdomen, 3. Head shield.

References

Brehm, V (1963): Einige Bemerkungen zu vier Indischen
Entomostraken. Int. Rev. ges. Hydrobiol. 48: 159-
172.

Idris, B.A.G. (1983): Freshwater zooplankton of Malaysia
(Crustacea: Cladocera). Penerbit University Per-
tanian, Malaysia.

Michael, R.G. & Sharma, B.K. (1988): Fauna of India,
Cladocera. (Ed.) The Director, Zoological Survey
of India, Calcutta.

Rane, P. (1984): Occurrence of Grimaldina brazzai
Richard and Bosminopsis deitersi Richard from

India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81: 713.

Sharma, B.K. (1978): A note on freshwater Cladocerans
from West Bengal. Bangladesh J. Zool. 6: 149-151.
Seich-Chih, C. & Nan-Shan, Du . (1979): Fauna of
Sinica: Crustacea, Cladocera. Science Press,
Academica Sinica, Peking.

Venkataraman, K. (1987): Cladocera of Keoladeo Na-
tional Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, II. New Records
1. Moinodaphnia machleayii (King, 1853) and 2.
Bosminopsis deitersi Richard, 1895. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 85 (1): 229-233.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

267

32. AN UNUSUAL SPECIMEN OF TURBINELLA PYRUM (LINN. 1758)

(With a text-figure)

Fig. 1. Unusual specimen of Turbinella pyrum with
axial sculpturing.

The Indian chank Turbinella pyrum is com-
mon on the east coast of India. This species was
also recorded earlier from Bombay seas, but has
now become rare. Normally the shell is very large,
thick and heavy. Inner lip bears three strong folds
on the inner margin. Siphonal canal is long and
open. Axial sculpturing is completely absent.
Young specimens are white with orange spots on
the surface; these spots disappear in adult
specimens. In the specimen collected, axial sculptur-
ing is very prominent (Fig. 1). This pattern is unusual
in T. pyrum (L.). The regular pattern of axial sculptur-
ing (varices) is probably a scar created on the mantle
edge by an unsuccessful predator.

I thank Dr M.G. Harasewych of the Smith-
sonian Institution, U.S.A. for help in identification
of the shell.

January 21, 1992 DEEPAK APTE

33. FOOD OF THE COMMON MADRAS SNAIL CRYPTOZONA BIS TRIAL IS
FROM PT. CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

The common Madias snail Cryptozona
bistrialis was frequently noticed during the mon-
soon on the forest floor at the Pt. Calimere
Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. During December 1989,
I happened to see this animal devouring vegetable
matter from the forest floor. The observed diet
included fallen fruits, leaves and parts of grasses
and sedges which are listed in Table 1.

It was observed that the short-nosed fruit
bat Cynopterus sphinx at Pt. Calimere drops
chewed remains of fruits and leaves of Cassia fis-
tula under their feeding roosts (Balasubramanian,
P. 1988, JBNHS 85 : 183). Such chewed items
were also devoured by the snail.

January 21, 1992 P. BALASUBRAMANIAN

Table 1

FOOD ITEMS OF COMMON MADRAS SNAIL AT PT. CALIMERE

Species

Family

Part Eaten

Cassia fistula

Caesalpiniaceae

Leaves (dropped by bats)

Canthium parviflorum

Rubiaceae

Fruits (dropped by bats)

Coccinia grandis

Cucurbitaceae

Fallen fruits (pulp)

Trichosanth.es tricuspidata

Cucurbitaceae

Fallen fruits (pulp)

Salacia chilensis

Celastraceae

Fallen fruits (pulp)

Prosopis chilensis

Mimosaceae

Fallen pods (pulp)

Spermacoce hispida

Rubiaceae

Leaves

Zornia diphylla

Papilionaceae

Leaves

Bulbostylis barbata

Cyperaceae

Flowers

Dactyloctenium aegyptium

Gramineae

Leaves

Eragrostris viscosa

Gramineae

Leaves

268

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

34. FIRST REPORT OF AN ARACHNID ORDER CYPHOPHTHALMI (DA)
FROM INDIA IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH
(With five text-figures)

Cyphophthalmi (da) was erected by Simon
in 1879 as a sub-order under the order Opiliones
(= Phalangida) of the class Arachnida. Savory
(1935, 1964, 1977) was the first arachnologist to
separate this sub-order and raise it to the level of
an order.

Most of the work on these animals is by Juber-
thie (1961, 1963, 1967, 1968). This interesting
group was separated from other opiliones on the
basis of : sculpturing of the exoskeleton; nature
of body segments; position of eyes (when present);
absence of genital operculum; use of sper-
matophore, tubercles for odoriferous glands, tarsal
glands of the males; and anal glands of the males
(Savory 1977). Some of the above characters have
been illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2.

The Cyphophthalmids are small mite-like (=
Notostigmata) arachnids, generally found in caves,
under old logs, and in forest litter. Due to their
secretive habits and small body size they remain
unnoticed and undiscovered from major parts of
the world. This order as known has only two
families, namely Styllocellidae and Sironidae
(Davies 1977). The main character distinguishing
these two families is the presence of eyes in Styl-
locellidae and absence of eyes in Sironidae. The
former has 15 genera and the latter 10. The most
common genus Rakia Hirst (1915-20) has 20
species, mostly from New Zealand, under the fami-
ly Sironidae (Davies 1977).

There are only two species known from the
oriental region. They are reported from Indonesia,
viz. 1. Styllocellus heccarii (Thorell 1882)
(locality: Sereinu, Mentawi Isl.) and 2. S. weberii
Hans and Soer 1904 (locality : Pangharang,
Sumatra) (Roewer 1935). These are the only known
localities near the Indian subcontinent. The order
was unknown from India until the present collection
from Miao (600 m above msl, dist. Tirap, Arunachal
Pradesh, north-east India, Coll. Dr. D.B. Bas-
tawade, 6 March 1990).

One mature female of an unknown species

was collected 5-6 km north-west of Miao, from
under a heavy, decaying log. The specimen was
collected along with two Scorpiopsinid
(Vaejovidae) scorpions and six Phalangids. This
Cyphophthalmid specimen was seen to be distinctly
different from those of Phalangids and was slow
moving and less sensitive to disturbance at the
time of collection.

The female measured 3 mm in total body
length, with prosoma (carapace) 1 mm and opis-
thosoma (abdomen) 2 mm. The integumentary
sculpturing was granular but not coarse. Prosoma
prominent with a pair of lateral tuberculoid
odoriferous gland openings (Fig. 1). The specimen,
being totally blind, belongs to the family Sironidae.

The chelicerae are primitive, three-seg-
mented, basal segment narrow, rugose, chela den-
tate in regular fashion as in Figs. 3, 4. Pedipalps
short and slender, apexed with single, minute spine
as in Fig. 1. Legs I-IV are seven-segmented, leg
formula 4-1-3-2, each apexed with a strong spine.
Eight tergites visibld dorsally, ninth divided and
tucked under ventrally to form rear portion of
corona analis (Figs. 1, 2). Nine sternal plates clearly
visible, first sternite provided with a pair of shortly
elongated stigmata for book lungs or tracheal aper-
ture as in Fig. 2. Coxae of first pair of legs not
touching each other medially as in Fig. 2. Third
coxa very narrow and compressed between second
and fourth coxae (Fig. 2). Genital aperture not dis-
tinct. Genital operculum absent.

Distribution: Northern hemisphere: Japan
and now reported for the first time from India
(Arunachal Pradesh), Austria, Italy, Spain, France
and USA (Oregon, Florida and Georgia.). Southern
hemisphere : New Zealand, Australia (Queensland)
and South Africa. On the Equator : Indonesia,
Malaysia, Africa (Guinea), South America
(Venezuela). Records from Sri Lanka are not clear.

January 10, 1992 D.B. BASTAWADE

References

Davies, V.T. (1977): Neopurcellia capricornia, a new Juberthie, C. (1961): Structure des glandes Odorantes et
Opilionid (Opiliones : Cyphophthalmi, Sironidae) modalities d’ utilisation de leur Secretion chez denx

from Queensland. Mam. Qd. Mus. 18(1): 61-3. opiliones Cyphophthalmes. Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr. 86:

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

269

Chelicera

Sternum
Genital aperature

Stigmata for
book lungs

-Ab. Sternites I- 3EL

Figs. 1-5. Cyphophthalmid specimen from Arunachal Pradesh.

1. Dorsal, 2. Ventral view of female. 3. Dorsal, 4. Exterior view of chelicera,

5. Distribution of Cyphophthalmida in the oriental region. H Styllocellus beccarii (Thorell). Mentawi Is.
M- S. weberii Hans & Soerr. Sumatra, Sironid spp. Tirap, Arunachal Pradesh.

106-16.

Juberthie, C. (1963): Eltede des Opilions Cyphophthal-
mes. Bull. Mus. Hist. nat. Paris 34: 267-75.

Juberthie, C. (1967): Caracteres sexuceles second aires
des Opiliones : les glandes anales de Siro rubens.
Revue. Ecol. Biol. Sol. 4: 489-96.

Juberthie, C. (1968): Une nouvelle espe’ce de Cyphoph-
thalmes de Grece. Revue. Ecol. Biol. Sol. 3: 549-59.

Roewer, C.F. (1935): Sudosta siatische Opiliones : 12-25.
Savory, T.H. (1935): The Arachnida. Edward Arnold &
Co., London.

Savory, T.H. (1964): Arachnida. Academic Press, London.
Savory, T.H. (1977): Arachnida: The order Cyphoph-
thalmi in III proles Arachnis: 101-132.

270

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

35. CROTALARIA SESSILIFLORA LINN. SSP. HAZARENSIS ALI (FABACEAE) —
A NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORD FOR JAMMU AND KASHMIR

(With a text- figure)

Fig. 1. Crotalaria sessiliflora Linn. ssp. hazarensis Ali. A. Habit, B. Flower, C. Pod with accrescent calyx.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

271

While critically examining the herbarium
specimens for a revisionary account of the genus
Crotalaria Linn, some specimens collected by me
from Jammu were found taxonomically interesting.
On closer laboratory investigation and scrutiny of
literature these were identified as C. sessiliflora
Linn. ssp. hazarensis Ali. Besides the report of
this taxon from Pakistan (an annotated catalogue

OF THE VASCULAR PLANTS OF WEST PAKISTAN AND KASH-
MIR, Steward, R.R. 1972; flora of west Pakistan,
Nasir, E. and Ali, S.1. 1977) the subspecies is known
only from a solitary report by M. Sharma (1980,
J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 1: 170) who published it as a
new record for India from Patiala district in Punjab.

C. sessiliflora Linn. ssp. hazarensis Ali grows
usually concealed by grasses which render its detec-
tion rather a matter of chance. Probably for this
reason, it was overlooked by B.M. Sharma and P.
Kachroo (flora of jammu and plants of neigh-
bourhood, 1981) during their survey of the Jammu
flora.

Since the taxon is common locally along the
irrigation channels and other water courses, the
present note records its extension as a new addition
to the flora of Jammu and Kashmir. As it has not
been described in any of our regional Floras, a
brief illustrated description is furnished below for
easy identification in the field and in the herbarium.
The voucher specimens have been deposited in the
herbarium of the Regional Research Laboratory,
Jammu.

Crotalaria sessiliflora Linn. ssp. hazarensis
Ali in Biologia, 12 : 27, 1966.

Erect, 15-50 cm tall, annual herb branching
usually from the base; stems several, sparingly
branched to almost simple, 1-1.5 mm thick, terete
to more or less striate, thinly sericeo-pubescent.
Leaves oblong to oblong-lanceolate, 1-4 x 0.3-0.7

cm, acute or sub-obtuse, glabrous and punctate on
the upper surface, sericeo-pubescent with brown
or greyish brown hairs beneath; lateral nerves
obscure; petioles silkily villous, 1-2 mm long;
stipules setaceous, silkily brown villous, c. 1.5 mm
long. Flowers bluish, 0.8-1.2 cm. long, 3-8 in ter-
minal and axillary racemes or solitary in the upper
axils, reflexed; bracts linear- lanceolate, 4-5x0.75
mm, glabrous on the ad-axial surface, silkily villous
abaxially; bracteoles two, linear-lanceolate to sub-
ulate, c. 3x0.75 mm, glabrous adaxially, villous
abaxially.

Calyx 0.8-1.2 cm long, 2-lipped, 5-lobed near-
ly to the base, glabrous within, pilose without; lobes
acute, upper two broadly oblong-lanceolate, lower
three narrow, linear-lanceolate. Corolla included,
shorter than to just equalling the calyx. Pod inflated,
obovate-oblong, sessile, 1-1.2 cm long, glabrous.
Seeds 8-10, reniform, yellowish or brown,
1.75x1.75 mm.

Habitat: Hidden among grasses along the
banks of irrigation channels and other water courses
in low lying areas; common.

Flowers: September-October. Fruits: Oc-
tober-No^ember.

Distribution: Pakistan. INDIA: Punjab,
Jammu.

Specimens examined: Phulain village (c. 300
m) B.M. Sharma 50232; Sumh village (c. 300 m)
B.M. sharma 50233; Suren Chak (-) B.M. Sharma
51490; Danga village (-) B.M. Sharma 51491.

I thank the Director, Dr. R. S. Kapil, for his
interest and encouragement and Dr. Y.K. Sarin,
Chairman, Botanical Sciences Discipline for his
valuable suggestions.

December 17, 1991 B.M. SHARMA

36. FORMATION OF ABNORMAL FRUIT IN CARICA PAPAYA

Carica papaya (Hindi name Papita) is a com-
mon fruiting plant grown throughout the country
for its nutritious fruits. Fruits are thick in the middle
and tapering towards the poles. The fruit is a berry
which develops from multicarpillary, syncarpous
ovary. A plant growing in our house bears several
normal and one abnormal fruit. It is trifurcated
like a palm with three fingers. Three fingers are
united at the base up to 1.25 cm.

The abnormality is due to apocaroy (carpels
becoming independent instead of fused) and the
fruit is an excellent example of an aggregate fruit.
Neither condition has been reported so far in this
plant. The fruit is of normal size but remains seed-
less.

May 29, 1991

S. SINGH
S.P. SINGH

272

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

37. ACTINODAPHNE SESQUIPEDALIS (LAURACEAE) - A NEW RECORD FOR
INDIA FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS
(With nine text-figures)

From the plant collections made during the
botanical exploration in Mount Harriet hill ranges
(South Andamans), an interesting Actinodaphne
species was collected from the southern hill slopes
of Shoal Bay area. After critical studies the
specimen was identified as Actinodaphne
sesquipedalis (Wall, ex O. Ktze.) Hook. f. &
Thoms, ex Meissn., hitherto not known from India.
This species was earlier known from Tenasserim
and Penang.

Actinodaphne Nees includes 60-70 species
(Airy Shaw 1973). The genus is distributed in Indo-
Malaysia and east Asia. 15 species have been
reported for India (Santapau and Henry 1973).
Vasudeva Rao (1986) listed two species, viz. Ac-
tinodaphne madroptera Miq. from Andamans and
A. procera Nees from Nicobars. To facilitate iden-
tification, a detailed description of the plant along
with nomenclatural citation, distribution and
figures is given below.

Actinodaphne sesquipedalis (Wall, ex O.
Ktze.) Hook. f. & Thoms, ex Meissn. in DC. Prodr.
15(1): 216. 1864; Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 5: 151.
1886; Gamble, Man. Ind. Timb. ed. 2: 569. 1902;
Brandis, Ind. Trees 535. 1906; Ridley, FI. Mai. Pen.
3: 107. 1924; Kosterm., Bibl. Laurac. 40. 1964.
Laurus sesquipedalis ex O. Ktze., Rev. Gen. PI. 2:
570. 1891 (Figs. 1-9).

Trees, 8-10 m high; bark smooth; young
branches woolly tomentose; terminal bud scales
0.2-2.0 x 0.4-1.0 cm, semi -orbicular to oblanceo-
late, acute at apex, obtuse at base, woolly,
brownish, tomentose without, glabrous within.
Leaves 23-40 x 9-21 cm, whorled, elliptic or oblan-
ceolate, coriaceous, coppery brown when dry, glos-
sy, puberulous or glabrescent above, subglaucous
beneath, acute to acuminate at apex, cuneate or
rarely oblique at base, entire at margins, midrib
flat and glabrous above, impressed and woolly
tomentose beneath, lateral nerves 10-15 pairs, run-

ning obliquely towards margins, slightly impressed
and glabrous above, impressed and woolly tomen-
tose beneath, secondary nerves lax, scalariform and
faint above, prominent beneath, tertiary nerves
faintly visible on both sides; petioles 2.5-4.0 cm
long, stout, woolly tomentose. Inflorescences
cauliflorous, rarely axillary.

Flowers unisexual, golden brown, in
peduncled clusters, each peduncle bearing bracteate
umbellules of 4-5 sessile to shortly 'pedicelled
flowers, peduncles c. 0.5 cm long, golden brownish
tomentose; involucral bracts 4, c. 0.3 x 0.2 cm,
elliptic, golden brownish tomentose without,
glabrous within; perianth c. 0.5 x 0.4 cm, in two
rows, golden brownish tomentose without, glabrous
within; staminodes 13-15, c. 0.1 x 0.05 cm, ovate
or glandular, shortly stalked with a few long hairs
intermingled with numerous hairs projecting from
torus; ovary c. 0.2 x 0.05 cm, solitary, flask-shaped,
with a few long hairs on one side, slightly sunken
in torus, style horse-shoe shaped, stigma capitate.

Flowers: May.

Distribution: Tenasserim; Penang; INDIA:
South Andamans.

Specimen examined: South Andamans, Shoal
Bay (Mount Harriet hill range), 16 May 1990, Sam
P. Mathew 20503 (PBL).

Ecology: Rare in inland evergreen forests.

We are grateful to Dr B.D. Sharma, Director,
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta for facilities.
Thanks are due to Dr N.P. Singh, Ex-Regional
Botanist, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew for con-
firming the identity of the plant; to Dr. P.S.N. Rao,
Scientist - ‘B’- In-charge, Botanical Survey of
India, Andaman and Nicobar Circle, Port Blair for
encouragement and to the authorities of South An-
daman Forest Division for extending cooperation
during field studies.

SAM P. MATHEW
May 27, 1991 P. LAKSHMINARASIMHAN

References

Airy Shaw, H.K. (1973): A dictionary of flowering plants Vasudeva Rao, M.K. (1986): A preliminary report on
and ferns by J.C. Willis (8th Ed.), Cambridge, p. 18. the angiosperms of Andaman - Nicobar islands.

Santapau, H. & Henry, A.N. (1973): A dictionary of the J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 8 (1): 107-184.

flowering plants in India. CSIR, New Delhi, p. 4.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

273

cm

Figs. 1-9. Actinodaphne sesquipedalis (Wall, ex O. Ktze.) Hook. f. & Thoms, ex Meissn.

1. Habit, 2. Terminal bud scales, 3. Bract (dorsal view), 4. Bract (ventral view), 5. Perianth (dorsal view),
6. Perianth (ventral view), 7 & 8. Staminodes, 9. Ovary.

274

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY \ Vol. 89

38. MAPANIA KURZII CLARKE (CYPERACEAE) —
A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA
(With a text-figure)

Fig. 1. Mapania kurzii Clarke.

The genus Mapania Aublet consists of over
45 species (Koyama 1985) distributed mainly in
the tropical regions of South America, Africa (ex-
cluding Madagascar), Sri Lanka, Assam, Sylhet,
Thailand and Indo-China, West Pacific, North
Queensland, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and West
Java. Kern (1974) in his revision on the Malesian
Cyperaceous genera, recognised three different sec-
tions under this genus with over 27 species.

This pan-tropic genus is represented in India
by four species, viz. M. cuspidata (Miq.) Uittien,
M. kurzii Clarke, M. palustris (Hassk. ex Steud.).
F. Vill. and M. zeylanica (Thw.) Benth. ex Clarke,
of which M. kurzii is recorded here as an addition
to the Indian flora. Thothathri et al. (1972) reported
the occurrence of M. cuspidata var. angustifolia
(Uittien) in the Nicobar group of islands. Though

Hooker (1894) included M. kurzii in his flora of
BRITISH INDIA, the distribution given by him is only
as Malacca and Penang.

While working on the flora of Mount Harriet
at the South Andaman islands, one of us located
a few populations of this sedge from the inland
forests. This being the first record of its occurrence
in India, a detailed, illustrated account is provided
here to facilitate identification of this extremely
rare plant.

Mapania kurzii Clarke in Hook.f., FI. Brit.
India 6: 681. 1894; Ridley, FI. Malay Pen. 5: 172.
1925; Kern, FI. Malesiana 7 (3): 478. 1974.

Perennial herbs. Stems 40-120 cm high.
Leaves linear, narrowed at base, attenuate and tri-
quetrous at apex, aculeate-scabrous at margins, 40-
120 x 1-3 cm, coriaceous, median nerve prominent,
lateral two nerves indistinct. Sheaths keeled,
stramineous with pale brown, scarious margins.

Scapes lateral, trigonous, smooth, 12-50 cm
x 1-3 mm, base with lanceolate sheaths. Inflores-
cence capitate, with 4-8 spikelets. Involucral bracts
ovate-lanceolate, 1.5-3 x 1 cm, many-nerved,
coriaceous with scarious margins. Spikelets ovoid
or ellipsoid, 1.5-3 cm x 8-10 mm. Sterile glumes
ovate, obtuse at apex, 1-1.5 cm x 5-8 mm,
coriaceous, many- nerved. Fertile glumes ovate,
obtuse or rounded at apex, 8-10 x 5-6 mm,
coriaceous, 3-7-nerved.

Florets slightly longer than the fertile glumes.
Outer two scales boat-shaped, winged and ciliate
along the keels, 8-10 x 1-1.5 mm, chartaceous.
Inner four scales linear, concave, 2-keeled, 8-10
x 1 mm, delicate, hyaline. Stamens three, linear,
2-3 mm long. Ovary linear, 3-4 mm long; styles
4-6 mm long; stigmas 3, 3-4 mm long. Nuts not
seen.

Flowers and fruits: May-June.

Very rare, in mixed deciduous forests of
Wright Myo area, at an altitude of ±75 m, in sandy
loam, often associated with Thottea tomentosa
(Blume) Ding Hou.

The juvenile shoots of this plant, with its
peculiar linear, tough, coriaceous leaves with
aculeate-scabrous margins show a superficial
resemblance to some species of Pandanus L. ex
St., in the forests.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

275

The leaves have a very distinct median nerve
and two in conspicuous lateral nerves, which is
contrary to the description given in the protologue
and also by Kern (loc. cit.). Similarly, the foliar
bracts of the inflorescence also show a quantitative
variation. More specimens are needed for further
critical study of this rather rare species.

Specimens examined: INDIA: South An-
daman, Mount Harriet hill ranges, Wright Myo,
15 May 1990, S.P. Mathew 20486 (PBL).

Refer

Hooker, J.D. (1894): The Flora of British India Vol. 6.
Kent.

Kern, J.H. (1974): Cvperaceae in FI. Malesiana Ser. I.
7(3): 478.

Koyama, T. (1985): Cyperaceae in FI. Ceylon 5: 131.

We thank Dr (Miss) Veena Chandra, Forest
Research Institute, Dehra Dun for examining the
specimen; Dr. B.D. Sharma, Director, Botanical
Survey of India, Calcutta for encouragement; and
N.G.R. Nair, Botanical Survey of India, Coim-
batore for neatly typing the manuscript.

SAM P. MATHEW
October 16, 1991 P.V. SREEKUMAR

ENCES

Ridley, H.N. (1925): The Flora of Malay Peninsula. Vol.
5, London.

Thothathri, K., Banerjee, S.P. & Hazra, P.K. (1972):
Mapania cuspidata (Miq.) Uitt. var. angustifolia
(Uitt.) Uitt. - An interesting Cyperaceae from Great
Nicobar island. Indian For. 98: 708.

39. NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS OF BRACHIARIA HYBRIDA
BASAPPA & MUNIYAMMA (POACEAE)

(V/ith a text-figure)

During the course of studies on the grasses
at the Central National Herbarium (CAL), we have
noted new distributional areas of the species
Brachiaria hybrida described by Basappa and
Muniyamma in 1983.

Brachiaria hybrida Basappa & Muniyamma
in Proc. Indian natn. Sci. Acad. B 49 No. 5. pp.
377-389. 1983.

Type: Holotype CAL; Isotype MH, BSI,
BSJO, MGM.

After checking the herbarium specimens of
Brachiaria milliformis (Pres) A. Chase and
Panicum distachyum L. deposited in CAL the fol-
lowing specimens appeared to be Brachiaria
hybrida due to the unequal leaf bases; panicle with
single raceme; pedicel with 1-2 long white hairs
(some specimens are with 1-3 long white hairs)
and the absence of palea in the lower floret.

Andaman: Great Cocos Islands, 1889, D.
Praitt s.n., Herb. acc. nos. 520317 & 520318; South
Andaman, S. Kurz s.n., Herb. acc. no. 520319.

Assam: Upper Assam, 1841, J.D. Hooker s.n.
Herb. acc. no. 520311; Dibru Valley, 1850, Coll.1 ,

Herb. acc. no. 520308.

Bihar: Mongher, 1894, Mokim 1436.

Tamil Nadu: Coll. ? 47.

West Bengal: Santiniketan, July 1956, B.K.
Das s.n., Herb. acc. no. 520296; Gorumara, 7
January 1956, P.C. Nanda s.n., Herb. acc. no.
520275; Centre of Golapbag, Burdwan, 28 Novem-
ber 1966, D.K. Banerjee 4835; loc?, Coll.?, Herb,
acc. no. 520290.

Flowers and fruits: April - September

So far, this species was known only from its
type locality, Shimoga district of Karnataka (Basap-
pa and Muniyamma 1983). The examination of her-
barium sheets as noted from Bihar, West Bengal,
Assam, Tamil Nadu and Andaman Islands show
that Brachiaria hybrida occurs in south and east
India and in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

We are grateful to the Director and Joint
Director (CNH), Botanical Survey of India for all
facilities for the study.

PAPIA MONDAL
August 20, 1991 D.C. PAL

276

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Fig. 1. Brachiara hybrida Basappa & Muniyamma.

A. Habit (drawn from type material), B. Upper surface of spikelet, C. Lower surface of spikelet, D. Opened
spikelet - a. Lower glume, b. Upper glume, c. Lemma, d. Lemma of upper floret, e. Palea of upper floret,

f. Gynoecium, g. Anthers.

INDEX OF AUTHORS, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Page

Akhtar, S. Asad

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023

245

Alagar Rajan, S.

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023

247

Apte, Deepak

Dept, of Biological Sciences, Ramnarain Ruia College, Matunga,
Bombay 400 019

267

Arun, B.

Merlin Nature Club, 13, 8th Cross, 30th Main, J. P. Nagar I Phase,
Bangalore 560 078

254

Balasubramanian, P.

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023

..247, 254, 262, 267

Bastawade, D. B.

Zoological Survey of India, Arunachal Pradesh Field Station, Itanagar,
Arunachal Pradesh 791 111

268

Bharos, A. M. K.

MIG-29, Pedmanabhpur, Durg, Madhya Pradesh 491 001

254, 255

Chaturvedi, N.

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.........

261

Choudhury, A.

Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium, Islampur Road, Guwahati 781 007 ....

245

Das, S. R.

Zoological Survey of India, M -Block, New AJipur, Calcutta 700 053 .......

265

Haribal, Meena

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023

261

Hemant, J.

55/71, H.B. Samaja Road, Basavanagudi, Bangalore 560 004

246

Hoffmann, Thilo

Ceylon Bird Club, P. O. Box 11, Colombo, Sri Lanka

251

Javed, Salim

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023......

258

*Kalaiarasan, V.

Madras Snake Park Trust, Deer Sanctuary, Guindy, Madras 600 022

258

Kalsi, Rajdeep

Dept, of Zoology, M .L. N. College, Yamuna Nagar, Haryana 135 001

253

Kalsi, Rajiv Singh

Dept, of Zoology, M. L. N. College, Yamuna Nagar, Haryana 135 001

253

Kanaka sabai, R.

Division of Post Graduate Studies in Wildlife Biology, A. V. C. College,
Mayiladuthurai 609 305

258

Karthikeyan, 8,

24, Opp. Banashankari Temple, 8th Block, Jayanagar P.O.,

Bangalore 560 082

254, 258

Khatri, M. B.

Khatri Chowk, Bhuj, Kutch 370 001

246

Lakshminarasimhan,

P. Botanical Survey of India, Andaman & Nicobar Circle, Haddo,

Port Blair 744 102 .-

272

Mathew, Sam P.

Botanical Survey of India, Andaman & Nicobar Circle, Haddo,

Port Blair 744 102

272, 274

Mohan, Dhananjai

28 Trevor Road, New Forest, Dehra Dun 248 006 ......................................

247

Mohapatra, K. K.

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023

248, 250, 255

Mondal, Papia

1/2 A, Ballav Street, Calcutta 700 004

275

Namasivayan, L.

Govt, of India, Kalpetta, Kerala 673 122

250

Natarajan, V.

Norman, D.

Pal, D. C.

Prasad, J. N.

Rai, Nitin D.

Rane, Pramod D.

Rao, Prakash

Rathinasabapathy, B.
Santharam, V.
Sathasivam, Kumaran
Sekar, A. G.

Sharma, B. M.

Singh, Arun P.

Singh, S.

Singh, S. P.
Sivasubramanian, C.

Sreekumar, P. V.

Srinivasa, T. S.

Subramanya, S.

Sundaramoorthy, T.

Tehsin, Raza
Tiwari, J. K.

Uthaman, P. K.

Vara, S. N.
Venkataraman, K.
Vyas, Rakesh

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023 247

Rowswood Cottage, Ridding Lane, Sutton Weaver, Runcorn,

Cheshire WA7 6PF, England 256

Botanical Survey of India, Howrah, West Bengal 711 103 275

Merlin Nature Qub, 13, 8th Cross, 30th Main, J.P. Nagar I Phase,

Bangalore 560 078 246, 254, 257

Wildlife Institute of India, New Forest, Dehra Dun 248 006 247

Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, 352, Sheela Vihar

Colony, Pune 411 038 263

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023 248, 250

Madras Snake Park Trust Guindy National Park, Madras 600 022 258

C/o Dr P.S. Easa, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi 680 653 255

29 Jadamuni Koil Street, Madurai 625 001 246

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023 259

Floristic Studies Division, Regional Research Laboratory, Canal Road,

Jammu-Tawi 180 001 270

Wildlife Institute of India, New Forest, Dehra Dun 248 006 247

M S J College, Bharatpur, Rajasthan 321 001 271

M S J College, Bharatpur, Rajasthan 321 001 271

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023 252, 256, 257

Botanical Survey of India, Andaman & Nicobar Circle, Haddo,

Port Blair 744 102 274

Merlin Nature Club, 13, 8th Cross, 30th Main, J.P. Nagar I Phase,

Bangalore 560 078 254,257

HPHT Scheme ‘J’ Block, University of Agricultural Sciences,

G.K.VK. Campus, Bangalore 560 065 254

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023 257

41, Panchwati, Udaipur, Rajasthan 313 001 245

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023 245

Field Publicity Officer, Govt, of India, Kalpetta, Kerala 673 122 250

Junavas, Madhapur, Bhuj, Kutch 370 020 246

Zoological Survey of India, M-Block, New Alipur, Calcutta 700 053 265

2.-P-22, Vigyan Nagar, Kota, Rajasthan 324 005 248

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CONTENTS

ARE CHITAL STAGS MORE VULNERABLE TO DHOLE PREDATION THAN
DOES?

By Aviva H. Patel

THE DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THE LESSER FLORICAN Sypheotides
indica (J. F. MILLER) IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT
( With four text-figures)

By Ravi Sankaran. Asad R. Rahmani and Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa

FORAGING HABITS AND NEST STRUCTURE OF Macrotermes estherae
DESNEUX (ISOPTERA : TERMITIDAE)

By K. Sudhakar and G. K. Veeresh

SOME ADDITIONS TO THE ORCHID FLORA OF ORISSA

153

156

180

By O. P. Misra, D.C.S. Raju and S. C. Misra 184

COMPARATIVE ECOLOGY OF THE CAPPED LANGUR Presbytis pileata
BLYTH IN TWO FOREST TYPES IN BANGLADESH
( With three text-figures)

By Craig B. Stanford 187

PROLONGED EGG INCUBATION AND CONGENITAL TAIL DEFORMITIES
IN Crocodylus palustris (REPTILIA : CROCODELIA) ( With a text- figure)

By L. A. K. Singh and S. R. Sagar 194

GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE AND ECOLOGY OF THE VERRUCOSE FROG
Rana keralensis (DUBOIS)

By R. J. Ranjit Daniels 199

ON THE TAXONOMY AND ECOLOGY OF ROTIFERS IN FISH PONDS
(With nine text-figures)

By R. Sampathkumar 204

TAXONOMY OF MAHSEER FISHES OF THE GENUS Tor GRAY WITH
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES FROM THE DECCAN

(With three plates and five text- figures)

By A. G. K. Menon 210

NEW DESCRIPTIONS 229

OBITUARY 244

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 245

Printed by Bro. Paulinus at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 103
and published by J. C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House.
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

December 1992

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BOARD OF EDITORS

M

Executive Editor
J. C. DANIEL

R. ALMEIDA
V. BOLE
K. CHANDRASEKHARAN
F. CHHAPGAR
V DAVID
GADAGKAR
J. T. JOHNSINGH

Assistant Editor
A. VARADACHARY

AJIT KUMAR
A. R. RAHMANI
J. S. SAMANT
J. S. SERRAO
E. G. SILAS
J. SINGH
R. WHITAKER

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Hornbill House, Editors,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay

Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society

VOLUME 89 (3): DECEMBER 1992

Date of Publication 30-01-1993

CONTENTS

ON THE ENDANGERED INDIAN TROUT Barilius bola (HAM.) (With a text-figure)

By C.V. Kulkami 277

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS - PART XIII - MALE
REPRODUCTIVE PATTERNS IN THREE BATS (With a plate and four text-figures)

By A. Gopalakrishna, P.N. Choudhari, A. Madhavan, D.R. Patil and N. Badwaik 282

NOTES ON THE ORANGERUMPED HONEYGUIDE Indicator xanthonotus AND ITS ASSOCIATION
WITH THE HIMALAYAN HONEY BEE Apis laboriosa

By Benjamin A. Underwood 290

A KEY FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN GENERA OF FAMILY MEGACHILIDAE (HYMENOP-
TERA : APOIDEA) (With fifteen text-figures)

By Rajiv K. Gupta 296

SURVEY OF THE GORAL Nemorhaedus goral (HARDWICKE) IN HIMACHAL PRADESH (With three
text-figures)

By Paolo Cavallini 302

INSECT-HOST-PLANT INTERACTION IN RELATION TO DEVELOPMENT OF Diaphania indica
(SAUNDERS) (LEPIDOPTERA : PYRALIDAE)

By Clement Peter and B.V. David 308

SYMPATRIC DISTRIBUTION OF GHARIAL Gavialis gangeticus AND MUGGER Crocodylus palustris
IN INDIA (With a text- figure)

By R .J. Rao and B.C. Choudhury 312

WINTERING WATERBIRDS AT POINT CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU (With a text-figure)

By V. Natarajan 316

PARASITIC WASPS OF THE GENUS Tetrastichus HALIDAY (HYMENOPTERA: EULOPHIDAE) FROM
NORTHERN INDIA (With seventy-four text-figures)

By M.A. Khan and SJST. Sushil 329

ON THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF CERTAIN SPECIES OF Pavetta (RUBIACEAE) FROM THE INDIAN
SUBCONTINENT

By D.B. Deb and R.C. Rout 348

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Puntius sharmai , A NEW CYPRINID FISH FROM MADRAS (With a text-figure)

By A.G.K. Menon and K. Rema Devi 353

ON A NEW SPECIES OF Orasema CAMERON (HYMENOPTERA: EUCHARITIDAE), WITH A KEY TO
INDIAN SPECIES (With nine text- figures)

By S. Snehalatha and T.C. Narendran - 355

A NEW FISH OF THE GENUS Puntius HAMILTON (OSTARIOPHYSI : CYPRINIDAE) FROM GOA

By B.F. Chhapgar and S.R. Sane 357

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. Grizzled giant squirrel Ratufa macroura
Thomas and Wroughton at Cauvery Valley
in Karnataka

By S. Karthikeyan, J.N. Prasad

and B. Area . „ 360

2. Estimation of density of ibex Capra ibex
Linn, in Pin Valley National Park,
Himachal Pradesh

By Sanjeeva Pandey 361

3. On rare cetacean species off Sri Lanka in-
cluding the killer whale Orcinus orca
(Linn.) (Delphinidae: Cetacea)

By Anouk Ilangakoon, W.P. Mahendra and

HA.K. Subasinghe 363

BIRDS

4. The flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus Pallas
in Kerala

By D.K. Narayana Kurup and

C. Mohan Kumar 365

5. A visit to the ‘Flamingo City* in the Great
Rann of Kutch, Gujarat

By Navin N. Bapat 366

6. Brahminy kite Haliastur Indus (Boddaert)
preying on bats

By Ranjit Manakadan and V. Natarajan .... 367

7. Surgery of a rare kind

By Sattyasheel Naik 367

8. Rufousbellied hawk-eagle Hieraaetus
kienerii (E. Geoffroy) in Andhra Pradesh

By Humayun Taber 368

9. Some observations on maintenance be-
haviour of the redwattled lapwing Vanellus
indicus (Boddaert)

By R.S. Kalsi and S. Khera 368

10. Caspian plover Charadrius asiaticus Pal-
las at Pt. Calimere, Tamil Nadu

By KJ. Kazmierczak, S. Balachandran and
Lima Rosalind 373

11. Unusual behaviour or adaptation against
predation in Terek Tringa terek cinereus
(Latham).

By S. Balachandran and V. Natarajan 373

12. Unusual foraging site of goldenbacked
woodpecker Dinopium benghalense
(Linn.)

By S. Ala gar Rajan

13. A silent association

By T. Ganesh

14. Tree pie Dendrocitta vagabunda (Latham)
feeding on aril of seeds of Pithecellobium
dulce

By Satish Kumar Sharrna

15. Crows feeding on the seeds oiAlbizia leb-
beck and the exotic Acacia melanoxylon
By V. Natarjan, P. Balasubramanian,

Y. N. Rao and S. Alagar Rajan

16. Food-storing behaviour of the jungle crow
Corvus macro rhynchos Wagler

By V. Natarajan

17. Sighting of whitebellied minivet
Pericrocotus erythropygius (Jerdon) at
Bandipur

By S. Karthikeyan

18. Spotted longtailed wren-babbler Spelaeor -
nis troglodytoides ( Verreaux) in Arunachal
Pradesh

By Pratap Singh

19. Leapfrogging in common babblers Tur-
doides caudatus caudatus (Dumont)

By A.M.K. Bharos

20. Kashmir redbreasted flycatcher Muscicapa
subrubra Hartert and Steinbacher at Ooty
By S. Karthikeyan

and Vidya R. Athreya

21. Southern ashy wren-warbler Prinia socialis
socialis Sykes in Pt. Calimere Wildlife
Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu

By S. Balachandran and Lima Rosalind ....

22. Sighting of an Indian blue chat Erithacus
bninneus (Hodgson) at Raipur, Madhya
Pradesh

By Ajit Bharos

23. Dew bathing by purplerumped sunbird
Nectarinia zeylonica (Linn.)

By V. Natarajan and P. Balasubramanian ...

374

374

374

375
375

375

376
376

376

377

377

377

24. House sparrow Passer domesticus (Lin-
naeus) feeding on mosquito larvae

By Ranjit Manakadan 378

25. Sind jungle sparrow Passer pyrrhonotus
Blyth in north-west Gujarat

By NJN. Bapat 378

26. Nesting by Ploceus philippinus (Linn.) in
clumps oiSaccharum bengalense Retz.

By Satish K. Sharma 378

27. Bird and bat collisions with aircraft in India
at night

By S.M. Satheesan and RJB. Grubh 379

REPTILES

28. Records of the gharial Gavialis gangeticus

(Gmelin) from the Dhakuakhana area of
Assam

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 380

29. Rangp extension of the striped grass skink
Mabuya dissimilis (Hallowell, 1857)

By Raju \fyas and BH. Patel 382

30. Review of distribution of condanarous
sandsnake Psammophis condanarus (Mer-
rem)

By J. N. Prasad 382

3 1 . First record of the sunbeam snake Xenopel-
tis unicolor Reinwardt, 1827 (Serpentes:
Xenopeltidae) from Great Nicobar island

By Manjula Tiwari 383

FISHES

32. Strange behaviour of a murrel Channa
striatus (BL.)

By Raza Tehsin 383

33. Recent observations on the longevity of
Megalops cyprinoides (Brouss.)

By C.V. Kulkami 384

INSECTS

34. On distribution of spot swordtail butterfly
Pathysa nomius nonius Esper

By D. Devarshi and M. M. Trigunayat 385

35. Record of Plebejus eversmanni (Stgr.)
(Lycaenidae : Lepidoptera) from India

By Peter Smetacek 385

36. Cannibalism among immatures of
Phlebotomus papatasi (Diptera:
Psychodidae)

ByR. Srinivasan and K.N. Panicker 386

37. Some observations on the biology oiAcal-
lopistus species (Coleoptera : Cur-
culionidae) on Abutilon indicum

By H.R. Pajni and Neelima Nanda 388

BOTANY

38. Uvaria andamanica King (Annonaceae)
rediscovered from Andaman islands

By S.K. Srivastava and Ramesh Kumar .... 389

39. Rediscovery of a rare fern Archniodes aris-
ta ta (Frost, f.) Tindale from Kumaun
Himalaya

By P.C. Pande and H.C. Pande 391

40. Walsura pinnata Hassk. (Meliaceae) from
Andaman islands - a new record for Indian
flora

By P. S.N. Rao and Sam P. Mathew 392

41. Digit aria siamensis Henr. (Poaceae) - ad-
dition to the Indian flora

By R.R. Jha and SK. Varma 393

42. Lectotypification of Bauhinia glauca ssp.
tenuiflora (Leguminosae)

By S. Bandyopadhyay and BX>. Sharma .. 393

I

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY

December 1992 Vol. 89 No. 3

ON THE ENDANGERED INDIAN TROUT BARILIUS BOLA (HAM.)1

C.V. Kuukarni2
(With a text-figure)

The Indian trout Barilius bola (Ham.) is well known as one of the finest food and game
fishes of India. It is presently rather rare in its natural habitat. The conservation of mahseer has
fortunately begun to receive attention all over India, but lamentably, the Indian trout has not
received equal attention and may become extinct. It is, therefore, essential that extensive
biological and ecological investigations should be undertaken to determine the areas where the
fish is still surviving and devise ways and means to conserve the species, before it is too late.

Nomenclature

Considering the sporting qualities and also
the shape of the body, mouth and the colour of
B. bola, British anglers synonymised it with the
trout, but to distinguish it from the real trout of
their country, they called it the Indian trout of
family Cyprinidae. Taxonomically it has no rela-
tion with the real trout which belongs to a dif-
ferent family, Salmonidae, and does not
naturally occur in India. Indian trout is not the
only fish which is erroneously associated with
the name ‘trout’. The so-called snow trout and
hill trout (Tilak and Sharma 1982) are two other
examples of such erroneous association. These
two, belonging to sub-family Schizothoracinae,
are also taxonomically far apart from the family
of the real trout. Why these bottom-dwelling
forms are awarded the honourable suffix ‘trout’
is not clear.

Accepted June 1992.

2B-4, Sharadashram, Bhavani Shankar Road, Dadar,
Bombay 400 028.

The scientific name of the Indian trout has
also gone through several changes. Hamilton
(1822) originally described the fish as Cyprinus
bola but McClelland (1839) named the genus as
Opsarius. Day (1878) designated the fish as
Barilius bola (Ham.). Surprisingly, Jordan
(1918) preferred to perpetuate its Assamese
local name ‘Rajahmas’ by renaming the fish as
Raiamas bola , based on the characteristics of the
cleft of the jaw. Hora (1937), however, accepted
McClelland’s change, but put the new generic
name as a subgenus giving the fish a longer
name Barilius (Opsarius) bola. Later, Day’s
nomenclature was again approved by several
other authors (Menon 1974, Jayaram 1981).
However, the latest preference seems to be for
‘Raiamas’ following the contention of Howes
(1980). Despite all these changes, I have, in this
paper, followed Day’s terminology, as it is the
one that has been commonly used for more than
a century.

Like the confusing taxonomic position of
the Indian trout, its local names too are
numerous. Though Hamilton took the Bengali

278

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Fig. 1. Indian trout Barilus bola (Ham.).

name ‘bola’ as its specific name, ‘goha’ is also
its alternate name in the same region. Its Hindi
and Oriya equivalents are ‘buggarah’ or
‘buggah’ but in Uttar Pradesh it is referred to as
‘gulabi machchhi’. In Assam it is known as
‘korang’ and also as ‘rajahmas’. Recent findings
indicate that fishermen at Jawad near Neemuch
and Rampura on the Gandhi Sagar reservoir
(both in Madhya Pradesh) call the fish ‘gallar.’

Distribution and morphology: Day, fol-
lowing Hamilton’s account, mentioned the
geographic distribution of the fish as Bengal,
Orissa, Assam, North-West Provinces, Nepal
and Burma. But its occurrence in Jamuna,
Chambal, including its tributaries and lakes and
streams of Rajasthan was not recorded in scien-
tific literature till its mention by Evans (1926).

Like the real trout, Indian trout is mor-
phologically an elegant, small, streamlined fish
about 30-40 cm in length and is equally ap-

preciated as a table fish. Day (loc. cit.) reports
capture of the fish in Assam up to 5 lbs in
weight, whereas McDonald (1948) confirms
having caught fish up to 3 lbs in Burma. Fisher-
men at Rampura affirm that the fish normally at-
tains a weight of 1 kg. Even at this low weight
the fish is admirable as food as well as for sport.
Its silvery colouration with spots on either side
of the body is quite attractive, with pink
coloured fins, the lower lobe of the caudal being
brighter and edged with a black line. Spots on
the sides become more outstanding only in
preserved specimens. The sub-terminal jaw and
large eyes add to the attractiveness of the fish
(see Fig.l).

Sporting qualities: As a sport fish, its
qualities are par excellence. It takes fly or any
other shining bait as quickly or even more
quickly than the European trout. It was observed
that if a bait or even a piece of white cloth tied

THE ENDANGERED INDIAN TROUT BARILIUS BO LA (HAM.)

279

to a rod and line is moved over the surface of
water where the fish exists, it follows the bait
and tries to snap it when close enough. Evans
(1926) in a letter published in 1831-32 in the
Oriental Sporting Magazine (U.K.), recorded oc-
currence of the Indian trout in great abundance
near Neemuch, where the British Army was sta-
tioned. The officers of this station enjoyed every
week-end, the enviable treat of catching dozens
of Indian trout in a couple of hours on artificial
fly, on the banks of the Chambal river. The letter
also quoted a record of “the enormous number
of 51 dozens of fine trout” caught in a day’s
fishing by three anglers. On another occasion 19
dozen per head were landed by two anglers.
Such was the tremendous voracity of the fish
and also its astounding abundance in rivers in
those days. Thomas (1897) also commented on
the sprightly behaviour of the fish in north In-
dian rivers.

Transplantation: Despite these wonderful
sporting qualities, the fish at present is sadly
neglected. Because of its piscivorous habit, it
was not considered as a cultivable species and
hence was completely ignored; so much so that
it is almost driven to extinction and the Direc-
torates of Fisheries hardly know anything about
the species. Considering this serious situation, it
was decided to study its ecological requirements
and spawning behaviour. Based on the informa-
tion available through Evans (1926) and the co-
operation of the Director of Fisheries, Madhya
Pradesh and his officers, a small number of
fingerlings were collected from a stream near
Jawad (a neighbouring village of Neemuch) in
November 1974 and brought to Lonavla (dist.
Pune), which had ‘incidentally the same altitude
as Neemuch (Kulkami 1975). After growing the
fingerlings m a nursery pond for about five
months, they were released into the nearby
Walwhan reservoir, having a waterspread of
about 560 ha. Two years later they were ob-
served to breed near the small feeder streams of
the lake. A small batch of fingerlings was grown
:n a pond for further studied.

Biological account: The fish is piscivorous
and rarely touches the conventional groundnut-
oil cake or rice polish, but pounces avidly on
small loaches, chilwa and even small berils.
Mosquito larvae and other insects appeared to
be their favourite food in early stages. They fol-
lowed even the butterflies hovering over the sur-
face of the water. In short, they went after
everything that was alive. Dead fish and green
algae were left alone. By nature it is largely a
riverine fish, frequenting shallow marginal
waters for hunting small fishes. In lacustrine
conditions it inhabits upper columns of lake
waters and the marginal areas to facilitate feed-
ing on live matter. However, the rapacious na-
ture of the fish indicates that it might take to
artificial feed of animal origin, especially small
pieces of dry fish soaked in water, after some
amount of training as in the case of murrels.

Like the major carps, B. bola breeds in the
early part of the monsoon when the rivers and
streams are flooded with fresh rainwater. Obser-
vations made during breeding of the fish in con-
fined water (ponds) indicated that it matures in
the second or third year. Other significant find-
ings were that though there was no sexual
dimorphism, the male assumes brighter nuptial
colours and develops bright spots and tubercles
on its opercular portion. Another feature is that
the scales of the male on both sides of the body
develop tubercles or warts which make the body
rough to touch. This enables identifying the sex
by merely touching the fish without taking it out
of the water. Tubercles and the opercular spots
disappear after the breeding season. The body
colours also decrease in brightness.

The characteristics of the eggs, their hatch-
ing and larval development have been studied
by Kulkarni and Ogale (1978). It was observed
that though the fish does not naturally breed in
ponds, it responds to hypophysation (breeding
with the help of pituitary hormone injections).
Hence multiplication of the species on a large
scale will not be difficult. Its spawning beha-
viour in natural streams has not so far been

280

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

reported except for observations made at the
feeder streams of the Walwhan reservoir. Never-
theless, on the basis of these observations it can
be assumed that the fish does not require special
conditions for spawning except clear (clean)
running water of streams and warm (26°-28°C)
temperature for hatching of eggs, which are
much more delicate than those of major carps.

Depletion: Not being a specialised fishery,
the extent of depletion of the fish cannot be
statistically ascertained for lack of species-wise
estimates of its production. But the general
information I have gathered through personal
correspondence as well as direct conversation
during fisheries seminars, have unquestionably
shown that the fish has become rare and is not
even noticed by fishery workers (especially
from north Indian states). Dr. A. G. K. Menon of
the Zoological Survey of India informed me in a
personal communication that the fish was really
endangered. He has included it in his list of en-
dangered species. Biologists cannot wait for any
further proof of depletion of an entirely aquatic
animal which cannot normally be seen or make
its presence or absence felt by any means. Even
crocodiles are better off in that respect. It is es-
sential, therefore, that fishery biologists should
note the possibility of extinction of this
outstanding fish and take early steps for its sur-
vival.

The causes of depletion are largely the
countrywide pollution of our waters by different
types of effluents and the pressure of population
seeking increased quantity of fish as food. Eggs
of this fish being more delicate and requiring
more oxygen during hatching, compared to ordi-
nary carps, are mortally affected by polluted
waters. Added to that is the indiscriminate kill-
ing of brood and juvenile fish by the fishermen
themselves through ignorance. Unfortunately
many other freshwater fishes also are meeting
the same dismal fate.

Action plan for conservation: Although
the need for conservation of the species has thus
been established, the appropriate agency to

tackle the problem and take the necessary steps
for conservation requires to be identified. In my
opinion State Fisheries departments instead of
restricting themselves to a few cultivable
species, should expand their horizons and cul-
tivate this excellent table fish, as is recom-
mended for murrel culture. Moreover, some
states would like to have in the lakes of their
hill-stations some trout-like popular game fish to
attract tourist traffic. Research institutes under
the I.C.A.R. (Indian Council of Agricultural Re-
search) should therefore sponsor a few projects
for more intensive biological and ecological
investigations on the fish in its natural habitat,
namely, the streams and rivers in northern India,
and consider ways and means to conserve the
fish. Universities in the same region couid also
undertake short-term projects under the sponsor-
ship of the U.G.C. (University Grants Commis-
sion) to study the biology of the fish in detail.
The I.C.A.R. can as well utilise their Agriculture
cess-funds for this purpose, for sponsored re-
search projects.

In the meanwhile, regional angling associa-
tions should arrange to have fingerlings of the
fish collected and stock their protected waters to
verify and confirm its reputation as an extraor-
dinary game fish. Especially, central organisa-
tions like the Angling and Aquatic Conservation
Society of India should undertake breeding the
fish in their fish farm, if any, and distribute
fingerlings to other waters, so that it can be per-
petuated for the benefit of future generations.
Financial assistance from the Ministry of En-
vironment & Forests could also be sought for
the above purpose at Bhadkhol or any other
suitable reservoir. Enlightened private sector
units like the Tata Electric Companies which
have done such commendable work for the con-
servation of the mahseer should divert their ef-
forts to the Indian trout also.

Hora (1937) had given an exhaustive ac-
count of the species but unfortunately no atten-
tion was thereafter drawn to the problem of its
depletion and need for conservation. However,

THE ENDANGERED INDIAN TROUT BARILIUS BOLA (HAM.)

281

ecological and socio-economic conditions in
India have changed during the past four or five
decades. It is, therefore, only by an all-out effort
that more information can be collected about the
Indian trout and the measures required taken for

Refer

Day, F. (1878): The fishes of India. London.

Evans, F. (1926): Fishing in Lonavla. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 31: 828-830.

Hamiton, F. (1822): An account of the fishes found in the
river Ganges and its branches. Edinbuegh. pp. 266-
276.

Hora, S. L. (1937): The Game fishes of India, Part I. J.

Bombay nat. Hist .Soc. 39(2): 199-210.

Howes, G.S. (1940): A new genus of cheline cuprinid fishes.

Bui. Br. Mus., nat Hist. (Zool.) 3S(3): 171-173.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The fresh water fishes of India. Zool.
Survey of India, Calcutta.

Jordan, D.S. (1918): New Genera of Fishes. Proc. Acad.

Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Vol. lxx : 344.

Kulkarni, C.V. (1975): Introduction of Indian trout in
Lonavla waters. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72: 572-
575.

its conservation. If crocodiles can be protected,
the Indian trout has a greater claim, but a com-
plete ban on killing the fish is not recommended
for various reasons, largely because we want to
protect the fish as well as the fisherman.

SNCES

Kulkarni, C.V. & Ogale, S.N. (1978): Feeding, growth and
early development of the Indian trout, Barilius
(Opsarius) bola. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 266-
272.

McClelland, J. (1839): Indian Cyprinidae. Asiatic Re-
searches, Calcutta, 19: 295-298; 415-429.

McDonald, A.S.T.J. (1948): Circumventing the mahseer
and other sporting fish in India. Bombay Natural His-
tory Society, Bombay.

Menon, A.G.K. (1974): A check list of fishes of the
Himalayan and the Indo-gangetic plains. Inld. fish.
Soc. Calcutta. 1975.

Tilak, R. & Sharma ,U. (1982): Game fishes of India and
angling. Dehradun.

Thomas, ITS. (1897): The Rod in India. Third edition. Lon-
don.

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME
INDIAN BATS - PART XIII - MALE REPRODUCTIVE PATTERNS IN

THREE BATS1

A. Gopalakrishna, P.N. Choudhari, A. Madhavan, D.R. Patil and N. Badwaik2
(With a plate and four text-figures)

Male reproductive rhythm is reported in three species of Indian bats, namely Rousettus
leschenaulti, Hipposideros fulvus fulvus and Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix from Auran-
gabad by examining the testes and accessory glands throughout the year. Males of R. les-
chenaulti have a long sexual season extending from October to the end of March, when they
retain their copulatory competence. Males of H. fulvus fulvus come to sexual activity in a sharp-
ly defined period during November. Males of P.c. chrysothrix are sexually active from the first
week of June to the second week of July. While males of P.c. chrysothrix attain sexual maturity
within the year of birth, males of the other two species reach sexual maturity in 14 to 19
months. External factors do not seem to play a significant role in the onset of breeding activity.

Introduction

Most reports on the breeding behaviour of
Indian bats are based on the examination of
females (see Gopalakrishna and Sapkal 1986 for
detailed bibliography) with a view to identifying
the breeding season(s) on the basis of pregnancy
record. Studies on the sexual rhythm of males
have not been made except in two Indian bats,
namely Scotophilus temmincki (S. wroughtoni)
(Gopalakrishna 1948, 1949) and Rhinopoma
microphyllum kinneari (R. kinneari) (Kumar
1965). In both these species the sexual rhythm is
synchronous in the two sexes and hence,
pregnancy record can be taken as the criterion
for determining sexual periodicity. However,
there are many species in which this can be
deceptive because of considerable time lag be-
tween copulation and ovulation. In such cases
the study of the sexual rhythm in males becomes
essential for determining reproductive be-
haviour. We chose to study the males of Rouset-
tus leschenaulti (Pteropodidae), Hipposideros
fulvus fulvus (Hipposideridae) and Pipistrellus
ceylonicus chrysothrix (Vespertilionidae) as they

Accepted March 1991.

2Dept. of Zoology, Institute of Science, Nagpur,

Maharashtra 440 001.

represent widely different families, exhibit dif-
ferent patterns of reproductive activity and bear
different relationships to the sexual rhythm of
the females. All the species were examined from
the same geographical region.

No attempt is made here to describe the
anatomy of the male genitalia of these species
since this has already been reported (Gopalak-
rishna and Murthy 1976, Murthy 1971).

Material and Methods

The specimens of the three species were
collected at and around Aurangabad (19° 53' N,
75° 25' E) in Marathwada region of

Maharashtra. H. f fulvus and P. c. chrysothrix
are house bats inhabiting dark humid recesses of
old houses, grain godowns and cow-sheds. A
few specimens of H. f fulvus and P. c.
chrysothrix were collected at Nanded (19° 9' N,
77° 20' E) about 130 km south-east of Auran-
gabad and the condition of the genitalia of these
specimens was similar to that of the Aurangabad
specimens. A large colony of R. leschenaulti oc-
curred in an underground tunnel near Bibi-ka-
Mukbara in Aurangabad.

Specimens of ail the species were collected
randomly during 1964-1966 and 1976-1979,
with at least one collection every calendar
month (Table 1). The body weight of every

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS - PART XIII

283

specimen was recorded after killing by
chloroform and the male genital organs were
dissected out and immersed in alcoholic Bouin’s
fixative. After 24 hours of fixation the tissues
were transferred to 70% ethanol. The right testis
of each specimen was weighed in a Mettler bal-
ance after rolling the testis a few times on a fil-
ter paper to remove the excess fluid on the
surface of the testis. Paraffin-embedded testes
and accessory glands of selected specimens
from each month’s collection were sectioned at
lOp thickness. The section were stained with
Ehrlich’s haematoxylin and counterstained with
eosin after following the usual procedure and
mounted in DPX.

Interstitial cell counts were made following
the method adopted by Gopalakrishna (1949).

Observations

Rousettus leschenaulti

This species breeds twice a year in quick
succession (Gopalakrishna 1964, Gopalakrishna
and Choudhari 1977). The first cycle commen-
ces in November-December and deliveries in the
colony occur during March-April. The second
cycle commences within a few days after par-
turition and deliveries occur during the latter

half of July. Each female delivers a single young
one during each cycle. The lactation period of
the first cycle overlaps the early gestation period
of the second. Females are sexually quiescent
from August to the first week of November.

The newly born young male weighs 12 ±1
g. During the suckling period, which lasts for 35
to 40 days, the young one grows rapidly and at-
tains a weight nearly three times its weight at
birth. All specimens weighing more than 73 g
are sexually mature and the specimens attain
this weight at the age of 14-15 months
(Gopalakrishna and Choudhari 1977). All
specimens having a testis weight of 100 mg and
over were sexually mature. The testis weight of
adult animals does not fall below this even
during the sexually quiescent period. Hence,
apart from body weight, the weight of the testis
can also be taken as a valid criterion for deter-
mining sexual maturity in this species.

Fig. 1 gives the relative increase in body
weight’ and testis weight. This reveals some in-
teresting features. The weight of the testis of the
newly born young is 12 mg. By the time the
body weight reaches 60 g (nearly five times the
weight at birth) the weight of the testis reaches
20 mg — a little over 1.5 times the weight at

Table 1

MONTHWISE COLLECTION OF MALE SPECIMENS OF THREE SPECIES OF BATS
Month Rousettus leschenaulti Hipposideros fulvus Pipistrel l us ceylonicus

Immature

Adult

Total

Immature

Adult

Total

Immature

Adult

Total

Jan.

12

61

73(6)

1

15

16(7)

4

20

24(9)

Feb.

19

43

62(4)

—

5

5(4)

—

10

10(5)

March

7*+ 18

43

68 (6)

1

5

6(6)

—

23

23(7)

Apr.

38* + 19

52

109 (9)

4

4

8(3)

—

20

20(5)

May

3* + 13

30

46(7)

15 + 20

16

51(6)

—

36

36 (12)

June

23

15

38 (5)

5

18

23(4)

—

42

42 (14)

July

2* + 8

9

19(3)

1

9

10(2)

—

56

56 (16)

Aug.

T + 3

13

17(3)

1

11

12(4)

4*

25

29 (15)

Sept

7

22

29(5)

—

10

10(4)

62*+ 11

12

85 (20)

Oct.

1

8

9(2)

15

17

32(5)

2* + 21

19

42 (10)

Nov.

23

45

68 (8)

—

19

19(5)

9

22

31(9)

Dec.

24

46

70(6)

4

8

12(6)

6

16

22 (7)

Total

51* + 170

387

608

19* +48

137

204

68* + 51

301

420

‘Indicates number of sucklings in the month. Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of collections made during the
respective month.

284

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

1600*
1500
1400
1300-
1200-
1100-
1000-
900
800-
700-
600-
500-
400-
300-
~ 200-

e,

100.

loo"

90-1

80.

70-

60.

50-

40

30.

20

10*

• #

<

Rousettus leschenaulti

• #

• *. *

•V
• *v • L

•*v

•• .

l?o"

10

— 1 —
20

— i —

30

40 50 60 70 80

Body weight in Gims

— i —

90

iOO

120

Fig. 1. Scatter diagram showing relationship between increase in body weight and weight of testes in Rousettus
leschenaulti. The discontinuous line denotes weight at sexual maturity. See text for descriptions.

birth. After this stage until sexual maturity, the
increase in body weight is only 13 mg (about
20%), whereas the testis attains a weight of
100 mg (an increase of nearly 500%).

During the sexually active season the
colony contains a few immature bats (Plate 1,
Figs. 5-9). This indicates that the animals do not
attain sexual maturity within the year of their

birth. During November to February the animals
could be recognised as two distinct groups on
the basis of testis size (Plate 1, Figs. 5-7), there-
by indicating that the juveniles were nearly of
the same age — and were most probably bom
during the previous breeding season. It was,
however, not possible to distinguish the animals
born in February-March from those bom the

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS - PART XIII

285

previous July. But from March onwards (Plate 1,
Figs. 8, 9) three distinct groups of animals could
be identified on the basis of testis size — those
born in February -March of the year, those bom
during February -March and July of the previous
year and adult animals, which were at least 20-
24 months old.

Fig. 2 shows the weight of the testis of
adult animals during the different months of the
year. Testis weight is low during April to Sep-
tember, then increases suddenly during October-
November. It falls a little during December-
January, but not to the level as during April to
September. There is a second rise during
February and March, but this is not to the same
peak as during November-December.

The testis does not exhibit any sper-
matogenetic activity from April to September.
During October and November the seminiferous
tubules become wider and there is a sudden
spurt of spermatogenetic activity, and the lumen
of the seminiferous tubules contains sper-
matozoa in large numbers. During December
and January, although spermatogenetic activity
continued, it was considerably less vigorous. A
second spurt of spermatogenesis occurs during
February and March, after which there is com-
plete cessation of spermatogenesis until October.

Fig. 2 also includes a scatter diagram
giving the total number of interstitial cells in the
adult testis during different months of the year
and the curve illustrates the variations in the
number of these cells during the year. The curve
has two peaks of activity closely parallelling
those of the changes in the weight and sper-
matogenetic activity in the testis. The cauda
epididymis is full of spermatozoa and the acces-
sory glands are in a high state of activity from
October to the end df March. Evidently, the
changes in these structures are synchronous with
the activity of the testis.

Hipposideros fulvus fuEvus

This species breeds once a year in a sharply
defined season (Madhavan et al. 1978). Copula-

tion followed by conception occurs in all adult
females in the colony in the middle of Novem-
ber and each female delivers a single young one
between 23 April and 7 May.

During the breeding season the colony con-
tains some immature males with juvenile testes
and accessory glands. This indicates that males
do not attain sexual maturity in the year of birth
although they reach adult body weight within
7-8 months of age. Since the condition of the
male genitalia of all the juvenile specimens was
similar, it is evident that they are all nearly of
the same age. This also indicates that animals
bom during April-May attain sexual maturity by
the following September and participate in
copulation in November, when they are about
18-19 months old.

The testis weight of adults during the dif-
ferent months of the year is given in Fig. 3. The
testis weight remains low until September when
it suddenly increases, reaching its maximum in
October, then falls to low values in February.
During the sexually quiescent period the testis
weight of adults falls below the testis weight of
animals approaching adolescence.

Microscopic examination reveals that the
testis of adult animals present a typical
regressed picture from January to about the end
of August. The seminiferous tubules are small in
diameter with narrow lumina. The germinal
epithelium is composed of a layer of resting
spermatogonia which do not exhibit any division
stages. A loose parenchymatous connective tis-
sue with mostly fusiform cells and a few
clusters of interstitial cells occur in the inter-
tubular areas. The testis is quiescent until
August when it suddenly spurts into sper-
matogenetic activity which occurs vigorously
during September, October and November.
During this period the seminiferous tubules in-
crease in diameter and have all stages of sper-
matogenesis. The cauda epididymis is full of
spermatozoa during September to December,
when the accessory glands are also in a state of
intense activity.

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

MONTHS

Fig. 2. Variations in weight of the adult testes and the number of interstitial cells during different months of the year in

Fig. 3. Variations in weight of the adult testes and interstitial cells during different months of the year in
Hipposideros fulvus fulvus. See text for descriptions.

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS - PART XIII

287

Fig. 4. Weight of adult testes and the number of interstitial cells during different months of the year in
Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix. See text for descriptions.

The changes in the number of interstitial
cells in the adult testis during the different
months of the year are indicated in Fig. 3. The
curve in the figure indicates that the interstitial
cells are abundant during June to September,
and become less numerous during the rest of the
year. The period of highest abundance cor-
responds to the time just prior to commence-
ment of spermatogenetic activity; the time when
they start declining in number coincides with the
period when the testis exhibits vigorous sper-
matogenetic activity. Evidently, regression of the
interstitial cells in this species commences
before the testis exhibits high spermatogenetic
activity.

Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix

Copulation occurs during the first week of
June, but ovulation does not occur until the
second week of July (Madhavan 1971, Gopalak-
rishna and Madhavan 1979). During this period
the inseminated spermatozoa are stored in the
female genital tract (Gopalakrishna and Mad-

havan 1979). Each female delivers normally
two, and rarely three young ones between the
last week of August and the first half of Septem-
ber.

Males grow rapidly and attain sexual
maturity when they are 8-9 months old. Hence,
all males in the colony are sexually mature
during the reproductive season.

Fig. 4 gives the testis weight of adult males
during different months of the year. The testis
weight commences to increase from April and
attains the maximum during the second half of
May, after which it progressively decreases and
reaches low values from July to the end of the
following March. Histological examination
reveals that the testis is quiescent from July to
the following March. Early spermatogenetic ac-
tivity is noticed during April when the testis
contains mostly spermatogonia and spermato-
cytes. Vigorous meiotic divisions and sper-
mateleosis occur during May and continue (but
less vigorously) during June. Hence, during this
period the seminiferous tubules contain large

288

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIELY, Vol. 89

numbers of spermatozoa and the epididymides
are full of spennatozoa. The accessory glands
are in a high state of activity from the middle of
May until the first week of July. This suggests
that males are sexually active from May to the
first half of July.

Discussion

In Rousettus leschenaulti, where there are
two strictly .defined periods of heat in the
females resulting in two litters in the year
(Gopalakrishna and Choudhari 1977), the male
seems to have a protracted period of elevated
spermatogenetic activity and activity of acces-
sory glands spanning both the cycles of the
female. There is, however, a slight lowering of
spermatogenetic activity in the testis and the
secretory activity in the accessory glands during
the period between the two periods of heat in the
female, that is during December-February. It is,
however, interesting to note that the regression
in spermatogenetic activity in the testis and in-
terstitial cells, and secretory activity in the ac-
cessory glands, does not fall to the level as in
May when the animals are sexually quiescent.
This suggests that elevated activity in the testis
and accessory glands is maintained from Oc-
tober to the following April.

In Hipposideros fulvus fulvus there is only
one sharply restricted breeding cycle in the year.
However, while in the females oestrus is sudden
and leads to copulation restricted to a strictly
defined period in the latter half of November
(Madhavan et al. 1979), spermatogenetic ac-
tivity in the male extends for nearly three
months — from September to November — and
the epididymides are full of spennatozoa from
September until December. The accessory
glands are also most active from the third week
of October to the middle of December. These
facts suggest that while males are sexually com-
petent from September through December, the
period of copulation is determined by the
female.

The situation in Pipistrellus ceylonicus

chrysothrix is different from that in the other
two species. Spermatogenetic and Leydig cell
activity in the male commences in May and be-
comes most vigorous during the first half of
June, after which it is considerably reduced until
it ceases altogether by the second half of July.
Accessory glands in the male are in the peak of
activity during June and the first half of July.
Thus, even after the abatement of sper-
matogenetic activity in the testis, the accessory
glands remain active for a further period when
the epididymides are full of spennatozoa. These
facts suggest that the males retain their
copulatory competence during June and the first
half of July. This is probably an adaptation
meant to serve those females which either
missed copulation or were not successful during
the early part of June, and to ensure that all
females in the colony conceive. This is probably
an adaptation to the far smaller number of males
than females in the colony (Gopalakrishna and
Madhavan 1970) and hence, each male needs to
serve more than one female to ensure that all
females conceive. In P. c. chrysothrix the sper-
matogenetic activity in the testis is not strictly
synchronous with the activity of the accessory
glands nor the activity in the female, unlike in
the other two species in which there is a close
synchrony of these activities. Females of this
species have evidently developed a mechanism
to store spermatozoa in the genital tract for
several weeks prior to ovulation.

The fact that there are marked differences
in the breeding rhythm of three species of bats
inhabiting the same geographical region indi-
cates that external factors such as temperature,
rainfall and duration of daylight do not play a
significant role in determining the breeding
season of these bats.

H. f fulvus and P. c. chrysothrix are
approximately of the same size (8 to 10 g body
weight) and roost in nearly identical kinds of
places, and their food choice (small insects) is
also the same. Yet their reproductive rhythms
are different. Evidently, the reproductive peri-

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89
Gopalakrishna et al. Breeding studies on bats

Plate 1

Figs. 5-9. Testes collected during different dates of the year. Note difference in sizes of testes during each collection.
Fig. 5. Testes of specimens collected on 9 November 1965. Fig. 6. Testes of specimens collected on 16 January 1965.
Fig. 7. Testes of specimens collected on 9 February 1965. Fig. 8. Testes of specimens collected on 13 March 1965.
Fig. 9. Testes of specimens collected on 19 April 1965.

While during November to February the testes are of two distinct sizes, those collected in March and
April are of three distinct sizes. See text for descriptions.

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIA TED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS - PART XIII

289

odicity is governed by factors within each Acknowledgements

species. The precise mechanism which controls

the reproductive rhythm in such a rigid manner, We are thankful to the C.S.I.R. for financial

is not known. support for carrying out this work.

References

Gopalakrishna A. (1948): Studies on the embryology of
Microchiroptera. Part II - Reproduction in the male
vespertilionid bat, Scotophilus wroughtoni (Thomas).
Proc. Ind.Acad. Sci. 27: 137-151.

Gopalakrishna, A. (1949): Studies on the embryology of
Microchiroptera. Part III - Histological changes in the
genital organs and the accessory reproductive struc-
tures during the sex cycle of the vespertilionid bat,
Scotophilu wroughtoni (Thomas), ibid. 30:17-45.

Gopalakrishna, A. (1964): Post-partum pregnancy in the In-
dian fruit bat, Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest).
Curr. Sci. 33: 558-559.

Gopalakrishna, A. & Choudhari, P.N. (1977): Breeding
habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats
- Part I. Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest) -
Megachi roptera. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 1-16.

Gopalakrishna, A. & Madhavan. A. (1970): Sex ratio in
some Indian bats. ibid. 67 : 1-5.

Gopalakrishna, A. & Madhavan, A. (1979): Viability of the
inseminated spermatozoa in the Indian vespertilionid
bat, Scotophilus heathi (Horsefield). Ind. J. Exp. Biol.
16: 852-854.

Gopalakrishna A. & Murthy, K.V.R. (1976): Studies on
the male genitalia of Indian bats - Part I - Male
genitalia of the Indian fruit bat, Rousettus leschenaulti
(Desmarest). J. Zool. Soc. India 28 : 52-63.

Gopalakrishna, A. & Sapkal, V.M. (1986) : Breeding biol-
ogy of some Indian bats - A review. J. Bombay nat.
Hist Soc. 83 (Centenary Supplement): 78-101

Kumar, T.C.A. (1965): Reproduction in the rat-tailed bat,
Rhinopoma kinneari. J. Zool. London 147: 147-155.

Madhavan, A. (1971): Breeding habits in the Indian vesper-
tilionid bat, Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysolhrix
(Wroughton). Mammalia 35: 283-306.

Madhavan, A., Patil, D.R. & Gopalakrishna, A. (1978):
Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some
Indian bats, Part IV - Hipposideros fulvus fulvus
(Gray) - Hipposideridae. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
75: 96-103.

Murthy, K.V. R. (1971): Studies on male reproductive or-
gans and accessory structures in some Indian bats.
Unpublished thesis, Nagpur University.

2

NOTES ON THE ORANGERUMPED HONEYGUIDE INDICATOR
XANTHONOTUS AND ITS ASSOCIATION WITH THE HIMALAYAN
HONEY BEE APIS LABORIOSA 1

Benjamin A. Underwood2

The orangerumped honeyguid e Indicator xanthonotus and the Himalayan honey bee Apis
laboriosa share geographic and altitudinal ranges. Confusion between the two large, open-nest-
ing species of honey bees, A. dorsata and A. laboriosa, has obscured what is probably an ex-
clusive association between I. xanthonotus and A. laboriosa. Environmental degradation and
predation by honey hunters may explain the apparent scarcity of both I. xanthonotus and A.
laboriosa in the western Himalaya. Observations of honeyguide behaviour in Nepal, coupled
with published reports, suggest that I. xanthonotus males may establish territories at the time of
natural migrations by laboriosa colonies and that such territories are held year-round. There is a

need for additional data to define more clearly
laboriosa.

Introduction

Until quite recently, the orangerumped
honeyguide Indicator xanthonotus remained lar-
gely unknown. Specimens of the birds had been
collected as early as 1842, but next to nothing
was known of their biology or behaviour until
the studies of Cronin and Sherman (1976) in
Nepal and Hussain and Ali (1983) in Bhutan. A
parallel situation exists with respect to the
Himalayan honey bee Apis laboriosa. Although
this largest of all honey bees was first described
in 1871 (Moore et al.) from specimens collected
in Yunnan Province, China, almost nothing was
known of its natural history until the recent
studies conducted by Underwood (1986, 1990a)
in Nepal.

A recent study of A. laboriosa in western
Nepal led to an opportunity to make some obser-
vations of the association between these bees
and I. xanthonotus. Although the study focused
on the bees and the data on xanthonotus take the
form of casual observations, I hope that the
thoughts presented here may contribute to our
knowledge of these two fascinating creatures.

Accepted May 1990.

department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca,
New York 14853, U.S.A. Present address : 1203, Primrose
Ave. 15, McAllen, TX 78504, U.S.A.

the association between /. xanthonotus and A.

Taxonomy

Honeyguides: Ornithologists are in general
agreement that the orangerumped honeyguide is
a single species, Indicator xanthonotus ,
described in 1842 by Blyth from a specimen col-
lected in Darjeeling. Three subspecies have been
described from the eastern (, radcliffi ), central
( xanthonotus ), and western (fulvus) parts of the
honeyguide’s range, but a paucity of specimens
leaves the validities of these designations in
some question (Ali and Ripley 1970).

With its distinctive markings, especially the
flashing orange rump of a bird in flight, I. xan-
thonotus is unlikely to be confused with other
Himalayan birds (see Ali and Ripley 1970,
Fleming et al. 1976). Sightings coupled with be-
havioural observations of cerophagy (wax-
eating) should dispel any lingering doubts as to
the identification of the bird involved.

Honey bees: Until quite recently, most
scientists regarded Apis laboriosa Smith as a
high-altitude race of A. dorsata , also known as
the giant honey bee or rock bee. A growing body
of evidence suggests that the two are, in fact,
separate species (Sakagami et al. 1980, McEvoy
and Underwood 1988, Underwood 1990b) and
that valuable biological information may be lost
by confusing them.

From a distance, colonies of A. dorsata and

ORANGERUMPED HONEYGUIDE INDICATOR XANTHONOTUS

291

A. laboriosa look very similar. Both species
build large (up to about 2 m across), single-
comb nests in the open, enclosing the comb
within a living blanket of bees several layers
thick. On closer inspection, however, obvious
differences between the two become apparent.
The most striking differences involve colour
patterns and size. Workers of dorsata are mostly
brown, with black stripes on the dorsal surface
of the abdomen, have black and brown thoracic
hairs, and have an unengorged body mass of
about 115 mg. Workers of laboriosa are entirely
black (though they appear to have white stripes
if the abdomen is distended), with long, tawny
thoracic hairs and a mass of about 165 mg
(Sakagami et al. 1980, Dyer and Seeley 1987,
Underwood 1990a).

Differences in the size of workers are
reflective of differences in cell size in combs of
the two species. Combs of A. dorsata have cells
that average less than 5.5 mm between parallel
sides, while those of laboriosa usually average
greater than 6 mm (Underwood 1986). Cell
measurements can be useful in determining the
bee species when no adults are available, but
when an undeformed comb can be obtained
(e.g., at abandoned nest sites).

Geographic Distributions and Ecological Notes

Honeyguides: Nearly all the reported
sightings of I. xanthonotus have been from high-
altitude locations in Bhutan, Burma, China,
India and Nepal. Specimens have been collected
from Hazara, Pakistan in the west (Hume 1870)
to Burma in the east (Smythies 1949). Reports
from the western Himalaya have been rare; most
of our knowledge of xanthonotus is based on
studies conducted in the central and eastern
parts of the birds’ range (Cronin and Sherman
1977, Hussain and Ali 1983).

Honeyguides are most often seen in close
proximity to the abandoned combs of cliff-
dwelling honey bees. Fleming et al. (1976)
reported a honey guide at 610 m in western
Nepal, but other reports have been from al-

titudes of 1200 to 3500 m. Ripley (1950) sug-
gested some altitudinal migration by xan-
thonotus and is supported by Hussain and Ali
(1983).

Honey bees: The known range of A.
laboriosa extends from western Nepal through
Bhutan and the Assam Himalaya to Yunnan
Province in China and includes part of Tibet
(Sakagami et al. 1980). I am aware of anecdotal
accounts of cliff-dwelling honey bees at high al-
titudes (>2000 m) in Kashmir. At least two pub-
lished reports (Moorcroft and Trebeck 1841,
Hussain 1978) seem to refer to laboriosa in
Garhwal, but those accounts do not specifically
identify the bees involved.

Morphological differences between A. dor-
sata and A. laboriosa workers probably reflect
adaptations to the different environments in
which colonies live; nest habitat may be an im-
portant clue in distinguishing between the two
species in the field. Apis dorsata colonies seem
to be confined to tropical and subtropical parts
of Asia, while laboriosa nests in regions that ex-
perience a temperate to subalpine climate. In
western Nepal, laboriosa colonies nest at al-
titudes of 1200 to 3500 m and migrate seasonal-
ly, avoiding the highest altitudes for all but a
few months in summer (Underwood 1990a).
Apis dorsata colonies are rarely, if ever, found
above 1200 m in Nepal (pers. obs.). Reports of
dorsata colonies at high altitudes (above the
subtropical zone) in Nepal and elsewhere (e.g.
Cronin and Sherman 1976, Hussain and Ali
1983) may be attributed to confusion between
the two species of bees.

Study Area and Timing

Observations reported below were made
between December 1987 and February 1989 in
the valley of the Modi Khola river in west-
central Nepal. The study involved nesting sites
of Apis laboriosa on several cliffs at altitudes
between 1250 and 3500 m (see Underwood
1990a). Observations of the association between
I. xanthonotus and A. laboriosa were incidental

292

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

to the principal objectives of the study. One of
those objectives was to determine the seasonal
cycle of occupation by laboriosa colonies of
several cliff sites within the Modi Khola valley.
Towards that end, some observation periods
were very brief: simple scans of a cliff to deter-
mine the presence or absence of bees. At other
times, more extensive observations, some last-
ing most of a day, were carried out. Sightings of
I. xanthonotus usually coincided with periods of
extended observation of a given cliff site and
failure to observe honeyguides at other times
need not imply that they were not present. Place
names given here are those of the cliffs themsel-
ves or of villages or other convenient reference
points near the cliffs.

Observations

Landruk (1250 m): The cliff site at
Landruk was observed for extended periods
only during the time of a honey harvest in May
1988. 13 colonies of A. laboriosa had been ob-
served on the cliff in April, but three had aban-
doned their combs prior to the harvest, which
began on 17 May. On that date, a single I. xan-
thonotus was seen eating bee larvae or pupae
that were probably diseased (see Underwood
1990a) and had been abandoned in one of the
combs. Later that day, the honeyguide was ob-
served eating the light-coloured wax at the top
of the nest.

Kuli (1710 m): The Kuli cliff was occupied
by A. laboriosa colonies from February to
November 1988. At least one/, xanthonotus was
seen at Kuli at various times from January to
May 1988 and again from November 1988 to
February 1989. The lack of sightings during
summer 1988 was due to the fact that I was oc-
cupied elsewhere (at higher altitudes).

Dovan (2680 m): In December 1987, the
cliff at Dovan was scaled and anchors were
bolted to the rock so that an observation plat-
form could be placed near A. laboriosa colonies
the following summer. There were no colonies
of bees at the sit6 in December, but several

abandoned combs remained from the previous
summer. Placement of the anchors required six
days and on each day, at least one I. xan-
thonotus, presumably the resident male, was
seen nearby. On one occasion, a second bird ap-
peared and was engaged briefly in an aerial
chase by the first.

In 1988, colonies of A. laboriosa nested at
Dovan from early June until early October, the
cliff was observed extensively from July
through October and at least one I. xanthonatus
was present throughout that time. The bird had a '
favourite perch beneath a small overhang on the
cliff and was often seen pecking at abandoned
combs, but it never disturbed active laboriosa
colonies and was never seen capturing bees. On
3 October, one of the last two laboriosa colo-
nies remaining at Dovan abandoned its nest for
the fall migration to lower altitudes (Underwood
1990a). The colony took off at 1023 hrs and
within 30 seconds, the resident L xanthonotus
landed on the newly exposed comb and began to
feed on that portion where the pollen was stored
(near the top between the honey storage comb
and the brood comb). The honeyguide was
seemingly undisturbed by my presence, even
though I was seated on the observation platform,
less than 4 m away. Over the next hour, the bird
made several trips between the comb and his
perch. At 1125 hrs a second /. xanthonotus
landed on the comb, prompting the first to leave
his perch and chase the intruder away.

Bagar (3360 m): Bagar was occupied by A.
laboriosa colonies from June to early October
1988, but was kept under extensive observation
only for several days in late September. No /.
xanthonotus was ever seen at Bagar and aban-
doned laboriosa combs there showed no
damage that might be attributed to feeding by
honeyguides. Indeed, the old combs at Bagar
seemed to represent the accumulation of at least
three years (exposed combs become progres-
sively darker with age), to the extent that little
nesting space remained.

Despite the fact that well over 100 hours

ORANGERUMPED HONEYGUIDE INDICATOR XANTHONOTUS

293

were spent bird-watching in the forests sur-
rounding the various cliff sites, no I. xan-
thonotus was ever observed more than 100 m
from a cliff on which old combs of A. laboriosa
were present.

Discussion

Ripley (1950) suggested that I. xanthonotus
might undertake altitudinal migrations, perhaps
in the manner of the open-nesting honey bees on
whose combs the honeyguides feed. Cronin and
Sherman (1976), on the other hand, found that
male I. xanthonotus defend their territories year-
round and thereby gain access not only to a
valuable resource (wax) but also to females that
come to feed on that resource. In Bhutan, Hus-
sain and Ali (1983) found the concentration of
honeyguides around cliff bee sites to be espe-
cially heavy (20 or more at a single cliff) in Oc-
tober-November and suggested that there may
indeed be some altitudinal migration on the part
of the birds.

The observations reported here do little to
clarify whether or not some honeyguides prac-
tice migration. Certainly the presence of I. xan-
thonotus at Dovan in both summer and winter
suggests that particular territories are occupied
year-round by resident males, but observations
of the behaviour of satellite males were very
limited. The number of honeyguides observed
by Hussain and Ali (1983) in Bhutan was much
greater than in the present study. Perhaps jit high
population densities, the behaviour of the birds
may be somewhat different than at lower densi-
ties.

Hussain and Ali (1983) observed the
greatest concentration of honeyguides at a 1900
m site in October-November and reported that at
that time, there seemed to be the least amount of
wax (abandoned combs) available. In Nepal, A.
laboriosa colonies nesting on cliffs at altitudes
below about 2000 m abandon their combs and
move into the forest in late November (Under-
wood 1990a). If the behaviour of the bees in
Bhutan is similar, a bonanza of combs would be-

come available to I. xanthonotus at that time.
Could it be that the honeyguides observed by
Hussain and Ali were positioning themselves to
take advantage of such a bonanza? Perhaps the
ideal time to establish a territory is immediately
after bees abandon a comb. That might explain
the rapidity with which the resident male at
Dovan ‘staked his claim’ after the migration of a
laboriosa colony in early October. Several other
abandoned combs had been available for some
weeks; the bird’s actions cannot be attributed to
an urgent need for wax.

The coincidence between the altitudinal
and geographic ranges of both I. xanthonotus
and A. laboriosa may be an indication that the
life history of the former is somehow tied to that
of the latter and not to that of the other large,
open-nesting honey bee, A. dorsata . Except fora
single sighting at 610 m (Fleming et al. 1976;
that bird may have been a stray?), all reports of
I. xanthonotus fall within the 1200-3500 m nest-
ing range of A. laboriosa.

The reported eastern limits of the ranges of
both I. xanthonotus and A. laboriosa are nearly
identical (Burma and Yunnan China), while
reports from the western Himalayas are rare for
both species. In contrast, the geographic range
of A. dorsata extends far beyond the Himalayan
region and includes nearly all of tropical and
subtropical South and South-east Asia
(Sakagami et al. 1980).

The close association between I. xan-
thonotus and A, laboriosa does not necessarily
imply that the wax produced by laboriosa has
any special characteristics (over that of wax
produced by A. dorsata) essential to the
honeyguides, though that is a possibility. If I.
xanthonotus is a brood parasite, as are a number
of the African honeyguides (Friedmann 1955),
perhaps it is restricted to the habitat of its host
species. That habitat may, for whatever reasons,
coincide with the range of laboriosa.

In Nepal, and possibly elsewhere, environ-
mental degradation and repeated honey harvests
have apparently contributed to a decline in

294

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 89

populations of A laboriosa (Valli and Summers
1988). Because of the close association between
A laboriosa and I. xanthonotus and the birds’
apparent need for wax, a decline in the bee
population may lead to a decline in the honey-
guide population as well. That could explain the
scarcity of both A laboriosa and I. xanthonotus
in the western Himalaya and the relative abun-
dance of honeyguides in Bhutan, where harvests
of cliff bee nests have been banned (Hussain and
Ali 1983).

There is a need for additional data to clarify
the relationship between I. xanthonotus and A.
laboriosa and to determine if xanthonotus is
ever associated with A. dorsata. Anyone inter-
ested in observing the orangerumped
honeyguide would do well to seek out the nest-
ing sites of the honey bees first. Certainly the
chances of observing I. xanthonotus are much
greater at those sites than elsewhere. Since both
dorsata and laboriosa tend to nest at the same
sites year after year and since honey from those
nests is a precious commodity throughout much
of the bees’ range, people living near the nesting

sites are usually well aware of their location.
Local inquiries about bees can be a useful tool
in the search for I. xanthonotus, even though
many people may be unaware of the birds them-
selves. Efforts must be made to identify posi-
tively the species of bee involved and it is
important that data, including altitude, about the
location of any sightings be recorded. Clarifica-
tion of the relationship between I. xanthonotus
and A. laboriosa might facilitate efforts to
protect the orangerumped honeyguide, as sug-
gested by Hussain and Ali (1983).

Acknowledgements

This study was made possible by a grant
from the National Geographic Society and addi-
tional support from Cornell University. I thank
His Majesty’s government, especially the Minis-
try of Education and Tribhuvan University, for
permission to travel and conduct research in
Nepal. Numerous individuals assisted me in the
field, but special thanks are due to Najar Man
and Shankar Man Gurung of Chhomrong village
and to Dan Tillemans of Cornell University.

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1970): Handbook of the birds of
India and Pakistan, Vol. 4. Oxford University Press,
Delhi.

Cronin, Jr., E.N. & Sherman, P.W. (1976): A resource-based
mating system: the orange-rumped honeyguide.
Living Bird 15: 5-32.

Dyer, F.C. & Seeley, T.D. (1987): Interspecific com-
parisons of endothermy in honey-bees (Apis) : devia-
tions from the expected size-related patterns. J. exp.
Biol. 127: 1-26.

Fleming, Sr, R.L., Fleming, Jr., R.L., & Bangdel L.S.
(1976): Birds of Nepal. Nature Himalayas, Kathman-
du.

Friedmann, H. (1955): The honeyguides. U.S. Nat Mus.
Bulletin No. 208.

Hume, A.O. (1870): Letter. Ibis 6: 528-529.

Hussain, S.A. (1978): Orangerumped honeyguide (Indi-
cator xanthonotus) in the Garhwal Himalayas. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 487-488.

Hussain S.A. & Au, S. (1983): Some notes on the ecology
and status of the orangerumped honeyguide Indicator
xanthonotus in the Himalayas. J. Bombay nat. Hist
Soc. 80: 564-574.

McEvoy, M.V. & Underwood, B.A. (1988): The drone and
species status of the Himalayan honey bee, Apis
laboriosa (Hymenoptera: Apidae). J. Kansas EnL
Soc. 67:246-249.

Moorcroft, W. & Trebeck, G. (1841): Travels in the
Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Punjab in
Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, and Kun-
duz and Bokhara (Wilson, H. H., ed.). Reprinted
1971, Sagar Publications, New Delhi.

Moore, F, Walker, F. & Smith, F. (1871): Descriptions of
some new insects collected by Dr. Anderson during
the expedition to Yunan. Proc. Zool. Soc. London:
244-249.

Ripley, S.D. (1950): Birds from Nepal, 1947-1949. J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 355-417.

Sakagami, S. F., Matsumura, T., & Ito, K. (1980): Apis
laboriosa in Himalaya, the little known world’s
largest honey bee (Hymenoptera, Apidae). Insecta
Matsumurana New Series 19: 47-77 .

Smythies, B. E. (1949): A reconnaissance of the N’mai
HKA drainage, Northern Burma. Ibis 91: 627-648.

Underwood, B.A. (1986): The natural history of Apis
laboriosa Smith in Nepal. M.S. thesis. Cornell

ORANGERUMPED HQNEYGUIDE INDICATOR XANTHONOTUS

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University, Ithaca, New York.

Underwood, B.A. (1990a): Seasonal cycle and migration
patterns of the Himalayan honey bee, Apis laboriosa
in Nepal. National Geographic Research 6: 276-290.
Underwood, B.A. (1990 b): Time of drone flight of Apis

laboriosa Smith in Nepal. Apidologie. 6: 501-504.
Valli, E. & Summers, D. (1988): Honey Hunters of Nepal.
Harry Abrams. New York.

A KEY FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN GENERA OF
FAMILY MEGACHILIDAE (HYMENOPTERA : APOIDEA)1

Rajiv K. Gupta2
(With fifteen text-figures)

The Indian megachilid bees comprise about 150 species, grouped under 23 generic
categories. A consolidated key for the identification of 34 genera of Megachilidae, including
the Indian species is presented for the first time. Most of the characters enumerated in this key
are illustrated with figures.

The family Megachilidae (subfamily
Megachilinae Schenck, 1859, Jahrb. ver. Naturk.
Nassau XIV: 19) was first differentiated to its
present status by Schmiedeknecht (1886) and in-
cluded the genera Megachile , Lithurgus, Osmia,
Heriades and Anthidium. Earlier Smith (1853,
1854) had described numerous Indian species of
the present day Megachilidae, housed at the
British Museum. Recognition of subfamily
status to Megachilinae was also forwarded by
Dalla Torre (1894), under the family head of
Apidae.

Since then, several new megachilid species
have been described or recategorised under dif-
ferent genera. For example the majority of
species formerly placed under Apis, Andrena,
Anthophora etc. have been shifted to Megachile,
Heriades and Osmia etc., during the early years
of this century.

The first compilation of megachilid fauna
of the Indian region was presented by Bingham
(1897). His ‘Apidae’ included Coelioxys,
Heriades, Thaumatosoma, Anthidium,
Mega chile, Lithurgus, Osmia, Stelis and
Parevaspis, a total nine genera of present day
Megachilidae. Among them Stelis and
Thaumatosoma were described from beyond the
present Indian territories. Later Michener (1965)
reduced Thaumatosoma Smith (1865) to the
rank of subgenus under the genus Chalicodoma
Lepeletier.

Accepted May 1990.

2Post-graduate Dept, of Zoology, Raj-Rishi college, Alwar,
Rajasthan 301 001.

Batra (1977) presented a key to the genera
of Apoidea while describing the bio-ecology and
management of some species of Indian bees.
She added three more genera, Chalicodoma,
Anthocopa and Anthidiellum, to the family
Megachilidae (of Bingham 1897). The key
presented was primarily concerned with the field
identification of 35 bee genera, and included
Megachile and Chalicodoma at the same rank.
Some characters were also given for the iden-
tification of Stelis and Parevaspis .

Except these two papers, no further publi-
cation leading up to the level of genera of Indian
Megachilidae is available.

The diagnostic characters of the family
Megachilidae are: Fore wing with two submar-
ginal or cuboital cells, both recurrent veins en-
ding in or at base and apex of second cuboital
cell (sometimes beyond as in Anthidium)’, pollen
collecting scopa only in females and restricted
from 2nd to 5th or 6th sternal plates (scopa ab-
sent in parasitic and Anthidinii genera); suban-
tennal sutures directed towards the outer edges
of antennal sockets (sutures are completely ab-
sent in Lithurginii); most of the female leaf-cut-
ters with a clear bevelled cutting edge in the
dentate margin of their mandibles, whereas resin
users and cleptoparasites lack them; 3rd and 4th
segments of labial palpi much smaller than 1st
and 2nd and angulated from the basal two seg-
ments: larvae spin tough cocoons before pupa-
tion; apart from the cleptoparasites, many of the
megachilids are highly restricted in their infra-
floral relationship and thus oligolecty is a rela-

KEY FOR T1IE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN GENERA OF FAMILY M EGA CHI LI DAE

297

Figs. 1-15. Diagnostic characters for some genera of family Megachilidae.

1. Lithurgus: head, front view; 2. Dioxys: axillae, scutellum and metanotum (dorsal view); 3. Dentate margin in female
mandible of Anthidium\ 4. Forewing of Paranthidium; 5. Parevaspis : scutellum, metanotum and propodeum (dorsal view);
6. Coelioxys : axillae and scutellum (dorsal view); 7. Dentate margin of female mandible of Creightonella ; 8. Chalicodoma :
female metasoma in dorsal view; 9. Dentate margin of female mandible of Eumegachile; 10. Dentate margin of mandible
of female Megachile; 11. Tergum 6th carnia in dorsal view of male Megachile; 12. Modification of front tarsi in male
Megachi loides; 13. Rohertsonella: produced apical truncation of clypeus; 14. Lateral view of generalised mesosoma
(except wings and legs) in osminii , 15. Heriades : first tergal concavity margin carina in dorsal view.

Abbreviations: a-axilla; as-antennal socket; c-concavity; ce-cutting edge; cp-posterior coxa; mt-meta tarsus; p-propodeum; pc-forecoxa; rj &
r2 - recurrent veins; s-spiracle; sc-scutellum; t-tegula; & T6 - tergum first & sixth.

298

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

tively common phenomenon in this group.

Around 150 species of Megachilidae have
so far been reported from India. They are
grouped according to the most recent classifica-
tion, within 23 genera. This paper deals with 34
genera, 12 of these have not yet been reported
from India, but occur in the neighbouring
countries, and are likely to occur in India. Fur-
thermore, they reflect strikingly contrasting
characters with those of paired Indian genera,
and are therefore keyed along with Indian
genera. Aglaoapis Cameron (1901, type-
species: A. brevipennis Cam. 1901. En-
tomologist p. 262, from Bombay) and Wainia
Tkalcu (1980, type-species: W. lonavlae Tkalcu
1980. Annotnes. Zool. Bot. Bratislava 135: 1-
20) have not been listed in this key.

Key to the genera of Megachilidae

1. Pygidial area well developed in male, in female repre-
sented by a short spine; jugal lobe in posterior wing
about 3/4th as long as vannal lobe; vestibule reaching
up to mid-mesosomal segment; hind tibiae coarsely or
finely spiculate dorsally Lithurgus* Latreille

— Pygidial area absent in both sexes; jugal lobe of

posterior wing less than half as long as vannal lobe;
vestibule not so long; hind tibiae not spiculate 2

2. Body surface, especially metasomal terga, usually or-

namented with pale integumental maculations; claws
of female cleft or at least with an inner or subapical
teeth; stigma short, its inner margin not much longer
than its width 3

— Body surface other than legs never so maculated;

claws of female simple or at most with basal angles
or teeth; stigma elongate 13

3. Metanotum with a median spine; axillae produced to

angles; second submarginal cell shorter than first;
first transverse cuboital cell transverse to wing; scopa
absent Dioxys Lepel. & Serville

— Metanotum simple; axillae rounded posteriorly;

second submarginal cell usually as long as first;
first transverse cuboital oblique; scopa present or
absent 4

4. Scopa absent; mandible in male black, or if macu-
lated, then clypeus black, at least in part 5

— Scopa usually present; mandible in male yellow,

maculated, and clypeus entirely yellow 6

5. Margin of scutellum somewhat protuberant;
propodeum completely vertical, without a dorsal

pi tted area Heterostelis Ti mberlake

— Margin of scutellum not at all protuberant;

propodeum with a narrow but distinct dorsal pitted
area Stelis * Panzer

6. Arolia absent; mandible of female with 5 or more

close set, conical teeth 7

— Arolia present; mandible of female with not more

than four teeth 8

7. Seventh abdominal tergum of female with a large
median emargination; second recurrent vein distad of
second transverse cuboital by several vein widths

Callanthidium Cockerell

— Seventh abdominal tergum of female without a
median emargination: second recurrent vein not
so much distad of second transverse cuboital

A nthidium * Fa brici us

8. Hind margin of scutellum produced to form a carinate
and broadly truncated tip, overhanging most of
the propodeum; subantennal sutures more or less
strongly arcuate outward, especially below

Anthidiellum* Cockerell

— Hind margin of scutellum not so produced and

rounded; subantennal sutures straight 9

9. Posterior lobe of pronotum with its carina greatly ex-

panded forward forming a lamella, extending along
anterior border or mesoscutum; each posterior coxa
toothed, largest in males Dianthidium Cockerell

— Posterior lobe of pronotum not so broadly expanded,
if carinate, anterior margin of carina restricted behind
anterior margin of mesoscutum; posterior coxae not
toothed; 8th abdominal tergum of male more or less
modified with processes or a shallow emargina-
tion 10

10. Body not maculated, in ours complete metasoma

brick red or black; a sharp carina separates the
anterior and lateral faces of mesepisterna, scutellum
produced back, overhanging full propodeum; scopa in
female absent Parevaspis* Ritsema

— Abdominal terga partly or fully maculated with

yellow or ivory bands which may be entire or interrup-
ted 11

11. Second recurrent vein received considerably beyond

apex of 2nd submarginal cell; abdominal yellow
bands submedian, interrupted medially, not strongly
narrowed towards mid-line; ocelli extremely small,
mandible of female terminating in long oblique
margin Paranthidium Cockerell & Cockll

— Second recurrent vein received within or very near to

apex of second submarginal cell; mandible of female
tridentate, with not so strongly oblique apex 12

12. Abdominal terga with entire or nearly entire,
transverse, apical or sub-apical, yellow or mostly

KEY FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN GENERA OF FAMILY MEGACHIUDAE

299

ivory bands; ocelli relatively large; maxillar palpi 3 -
segmented Heteranthidium Cockerell

— Body entirely black, except for clypeus and

paraocular areas of male; maxillary palpi 5-seg-
mented Trachusa Panzer

13. Arolia absent; 6th tergum of male with a strongly

elevated preapical ridge which is frequently toothed,
notched or sometimes transformed into long transver-
sely arranged spines; 7th tergum of male hidden or
largely so 14

— Arolia present: 6th tergum of male without such a

preapical ridge, the spines, teeth or notches, if
present, usually at apical margin; 7th tergum more
often exposed, but sometimes hidden 24

14. Axillae produced back to conspicuous spine; usually

midscutellum with a carinate transverse ridge,
separating anterior and distinctly angulate posterior
surfaces of scutellum; apex of metasoma pointed
or spatulate in female or with tergal spines, produced api-
cally in male, scopa absent Coelioxys* Latreille

— Axillae not produced, often rounded posteriorly;

scutellum convex or posteriorly rounded in profile;
apex of metasoma in female not attenuate; and
in male such prominently produced spines usually
absent; scopa present 15

15. Mandibles of female with 5 or 6 almost equally

spaced teeth, with incomplete cutting edges in 2nd
to 4th interspaces; males with at least 5 or 6 exposed
stemites Creightonella* Cockerell

— Mandible of females with 3, 4 or 5 dents, cutting

• edges not as above, males with no more than 4 expo-
sed metasomal sternites 16

16. Sternum 6 of female chiefly bare, at least apical

half lacks scopal hairs, but with a straight row
of short, subapical bristles and a bare apical lip;
mid-tibial spur in males absent or greatly reduced
« P seudocentron* Mitchell

— Sternum 6 of female with a well clothed surface of

scopal hairs or without a bare apical lip; mid-tibial
spur in males well developed, in a few species
suppressed or even absent, where basitarsi is much
modified 17

17. Form usually narrow and elongate, metasoma parallel

sided in males, terga strongly transversely convex in
females; female mandible with, at the most, an

incomplete cutting edge in 2nd interspace or lacking
it also; in males sternum 4 is usually retracted, if
exposed then mandible lacks any basal, ventral or sub-
median process 18

— Form broad, metasoma more cordate or ovoid in

females; terga more flattened transversely; sternum 4

always exposed in males 19

18. Female mandible 4-dentate, with cutting edge in 2nd
interspace, if cutting edge absent then clypeus much
modified; in males tridentate with a distinct process,
but if process absent then mandible much elongate
and obscurely 4-dentate; sternum 8 finely setose at
apical lobe in Indian species . . . Eu mega chile* Friese

— Female mandible lacks any cutting edge, either broad
with 4 low vestigial teeth or with a sub-basal tooth,
otherwise long and slender with 3 more or less dis-
tinct apical teeth; ventral process lacking in males;
sternum 8 fringed at the margins of apical lobe

Chalicodoma Lepeletier

19. Female mandible with 4 or 5 teeth, without cutting

edges; inferior margin of male mandible usually
with a process in Indian species; front coxae of males
with distinct spines; form rather short with metasoma
cordate Chrysosarus* Mitchell

— Mandible of females 3, 4, or 5-dentate, with a cutting

edge at least in the innermost interspace; front coxae
may or may not bear spines; ventral process of male
mandible may or may not be present 20

20. Mandible of female 4-dentate, inner angle blunt or

truncate, 3rd tooth acute or obtuse, but 2nd interspace
much wider and usually with a distinct cutting edge;
male mandible without a distinct ventral process;
front tarsi may or may not be modified

Cressoniella* Mitchell

— Mandible of female 3, 4 or 5-dentate, inner angle
acute, second interspace often very narrow in those
that are 4-dentate, with only a vestigial cutting edge;
male mandible with a well developed ventral, basal
process; front trasi often broadly dilated and brightly

coloured 21

21. Males 22

— Females 23

22, Transverse carina of 6th tergum lacks a median emar-
gination, in profile its upper surface is straight or
slightly convex from base to apex of carina; margin
of carina often crenulate or multispinose; apical mar-
gin of 6th tergum beneath carina, with a pair of acute
lateral teeth and an inner pair of more carinate teeth

Megachiloides* Mitchell

— Transverse carina of 6th tergum flexed upward, sur-
face forming an angle with the basal area of plate,
usually with a definite median emargination but
obscured by more lateral spines; lateral or inner teeth
of apical margin, beneath carina very small or absent
Megachile* Latreille

23. Tergum 6th nearly or quite straight in profile; man-
dible 3-dentate, with only two well defined teeth near
apex, 3rd tooth vestigial or absent, inner angle acute,
a long cutting edge filling 2nd interspace; or apex of

300

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

sternum 6 thickened or produced above an apical
fringe of short hairs; or mandible distinctly 4-dentate,

2nd interspace very small, inner angle acute

Megachiloides * Mitchell

— Tergum 6 concave in profile, towards apex; mandible

4 or 5-dentate; apex of sternum 6 not as above; if
mandible 4-dentate, inner angle either truncate or
blunt, or 2nd interspace more pronounced, usually with
a short cutting edge Megachile * Latreille

24. Thorax elongate, scutellum medially feebly convex in

profile; metanotum convex and constitutes dorsal sur-
face of thorax; propodeum with distinct horizontal
base; shortest distance between tegulae usually but
only slightly, greater than length of scutum; pterostig-
ma broader than distance from inner edge
of prestigma to costal margin of wing and longer than
prestigma 25

— Thorax short, scutellum strongly convex in profile;

metanotum flattened or convex, on posterior declivity
of thorax; propodeum ordinarily entirely declivous;
shortest distance between tegulae greater than length
of scutum; pterostigma broader as above, but often as
short as prestigma 30

25. Basal concavity of matasoma not at all carinate;

second tergum with quite shallow concavity; posterior
lobes of pronotum incarinate 26

— Basal concavity of metasoma with a carinate or sub-

carinate rim; second tergum with a deep or shallow
concavity mid-basally; posterior lobes or margin of
pronotum strongly carinate 35

26. First recurrent vein nearly or almost completely inter-

stitial with first submarginal; shortest distance
between tegulae is considerably greater than length of
mesoscutum Formicapis S laden

— First recurrent vein considerably far from the base of
first submarginal; shortest distance between tegulae
little, if any, greater than length of mesoscutum ... 27

27. Suture between mesepisternite and metepisternite

straight in long median portion; scutellar surface obli-
que and medioposteriorly protuberant, metanotum
slightly suppressed below the scutellar projection
from dorsal view; clypeal truncation produced apical-
ly and overhead beyond the labral base in female;
face below antennae in male covered with short, fine,
appressed pubescence Robertsonella* Titus

— Suture between mesepisternite and metepisternite ar-

cuate; scutellar surface broadly but strongly convex;
metanotum constitutes posterior declivity in continua-
tion with scutellar margin; apical margin of female
clypeus not so much produced, merely reaches up to
labrum base; subantennal area of male with long
pubescence 28

28. Six metasomal terga exposed in male; clypeus of

female very short and broad, produced into a slender
median apical horn Chelostomopsis Cockerell

— Seven metasomal terga exposed in male; female

clypeus not much modified 29

29. Posterior coxae each with a longitudinal carina on

inner ventral angle; labial palpi with third segment
flattened and connate with second, into one small
cylindrical segment Chelostoma* Latreille

— Posterior coxae incarinate; labial palpi with third seg-
ment cylindrical, similar to fourth

Prochelostoma Robertson

30. Anterior and lateral faces of mesepisternite separated

by a weak carina in between; second tergum with
broad shining transverse concavity; seventh tergum of
male quadridentate; brownish black, small bees

Ashmeadiella* Cockerell

— Mesepisternite carina absent, slight abrupt change

in sculpture differentiate either faces; second tergum
shallowly concave or merely sulcate 31

31. Parapsidial lines punctiform, or short oval, at most

three times as long as broad; seventh tergum of male
without tooth at either side on apical margin; always
metallic forms 32

— Parapsidial lines linear; seventh tergum in male with

teeth on apical margin, two on either side of median
line; rarely metallic 33

32. Posterior coxae with longitudinal carina on inner
ventral angle; parapsidial lines slightly elongate;
propodeal carina arched slightly

Diceratosmia Robertson

— Posterior coxae incarinate; parapsidial lines punch

form; propodeal carina straight Osmia* Panzer

33. Body usually elongate; second tergum with basally

flat or convex area, except median longitudinal sul-
cus, not separated from horizontal dorsal surface by a
line or carina, except sometimes along the distance
across the sulcus 34

— Body short and robust; basal area of second tergum

broadly and shallowly concave, almost always
separated from dorsal surface by transverse impressed
line or feebly developed carina

Anthocopa* Lepeletier & Serville

34. Posterior coxae carinate at inner ventral angle;

proboscis short, galeae and first two labial palpi seg-
ments furnished with numerous strong hairs, apices of
which are hooked or wavy Proteriades Titus

— Posterior coxae not so carinate, rarely with an

impunctate line replacing the carina; probosc is long,
without unusual hairs Hoplitis Klug

35. Basal tergal concavity margin strongly carinate;
second tergite with distinct transverse basal con-

KEY FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN GENERA OF FAMILY MEGACH1UDAE

301

cavity; axillae may or may not be produced posterior-
ly; scutellum sharply carinate midtransversely; apices
of mid tibiae on its outer margin normal; body in
general coarsely punctured Heriades* Spinola

— Basal tergal concavity margin mid-dorsally carinate;
second tergum without baso-median concavity; axil-
lae rounded posteriorly, minute; scutellum mid-
transversely broadly convex and angulated with the
rest of posterior surface; apices of mid tibiae on its
outer margin prominently produced, almost
dentate; body in general not so coarsely punctured . . .
Eriades* Spinola

*Genera whose species are recorded from India.

Refer

Batra, S.W.T. (1977): Bees of India (Apoidea), their be-
haviour, management and a key to the genera. Orient.
Insec. 11:289-324.

Bingham, C.T. (1897): Hymenoptera, Vol. I. Wasps & Bees.
In: W.T. Blandford’s The Fauna of British India.
Taylor & Francis, London. CCIC, pp. 410-579.

Dalla Torre, C.G. de (1894): Catalogus Hymenopterorum.
Leipzig, Vol. X: 374-496.

Michener, C.D.X1965): A classification of the bees of the
AustraliamESfld South Pacific Region. Bull. Amer.
Mus. nat. Hist. 130: 1-362.

Acknowledgements

I thank the Head, Zoology Department,
Agra College, Agra and the Head, Division of
Entomology, I.A.R.I., New Delhi for providing
the necessary laboratory facilities. I also thank
the authorities of ZSI, FRI, ICAR and many
other museums of this country who kindly
provided their valuable collections for this
study. Special thanks are due to Dr. S.I. Farooqi
(IARI), Dr. H.N. Baijal and Dr. V.K. Tewari
(both at Agra College), for their help in the
preparation of this manuscript.

ENCES

Schmiedeknecht, H.L.O. (1886): Apidae Europaeae per
genera species e.t. varieties dispositae at que descrip-
tae. Z, 4-207 Friedlander & Sohn, Berlin (1884).
Smith, F. (1853): Catalogue of hymenopterous insects in the
collection of the British Museum. Part I. London,
pp. 133- 197.

Smith, F. (1854): Catalogue of hymenopterous insects in the
collection of the British Museum. Part II. London,
pp. 199-221 and 258-277.

SURVEY OF THE GORAL NEMORHAEDUS CORAL (HARDWICKE) IN

HIMACHAL PRADESH1

Paolo Cavallini2
(With three text-figures)

During October-November 1989, ten Wildlife Sanctuaries and a National Park in
Himachal Pradesh, north-west India, were surveyed. Goral Nemorhaedus goral signs were
recorded in eight of them. Two indices of relative abundance based on sightings and on drop-
pings were used, and they correlated significantly (p = 0.03). Goral were seen active most often
at sunrise and sunset. Group size ranged from 2 to 9, while 38% of the animals were seen alone.
The lower altitudinal limit (c. 500 m a.s.l.) was substantially lower than previously believed for
Himalayan goral. The main habitat requirement appeared to be the presence of steep (60° - 70°)
slopes, probably as an antipredator strategy. Although widely distributed and locally abundant,
goral seem to suffer from high disturbance and grazing levels.

Introduction

Gorals {Nemorhaedus spp.) are medium
sized, mountain-dwelling ungulates, ranging
from the Himalaya {Nemorhaedus goral) to the
Burma-China-India border {Nemorhaedus bai-
ley) and from Burma through China to the
Soviet Far East {Nemorhaedus caudatus) (e.g.
Groves and Grubb 1985). In spite of its wide
distribution and relatively confident habits
(Prater 1980), very little published information
is available on this ungulate. Moreover, most of
the information available is qualitative and
second-hand (Mead 1989). The present study
was undertaken as a first step towards gathering
information on this species. Information col-
lected on the status and distribution of goral in
Himachal Pradesh and preliminary data on its
habitat ecology are presented here.

Study Area

Himachal Pradesh (30° 12' to 33° 12' N,
75° 45' to 79° 4'E) covers an area of 55673 sq.
km. Terrain, and consequently vegetation, are
very varied, from the plains covered by tropical
jungle through a series of mountain ranges up to
the main Himalaya, characterised by subtropical
and temperate forests, to the highest peaks

Accepted August 1990.

department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Siena,
via Mattiali 4, 53100 Siena, Italy.

around 6000 m and the Tibetan plateau, that,
support only low scrub and grasses.

The survey period was from 6 October
1989 to 15 November 1989. Of the 29 wildlife
sanctuaries and 2 National Parks in Himachal
Pradesh (Mukerji 1986) 11 were excluded from
the survey for the following reasons:

Four protected areas require special permits
impossible to obtain in a short period (Pin Val-
ley National Park, Lippa-Asrang, Racksham-
Chitkul, Rupi-Bhaba). Four are present largely
in the alpine zone, little used by goral (see e.g.
Schaller 1977) (Kugti, Sachu-Tuan Nalla, Tun-
dah, Kanawar). Three (Naina Devi, Govind
Sagar, Pong Lake) are at very low altitude, with
little or no suitable habitat for goral; in fact the
latter two are lakes.

Of the remaining 20 areas the following 11
were selected as the most promising (based on
the suggestions of B.S. Chauhan, A.C.C.F.
Wildlife Circle, Himachal Pradesh) : Gamgul-
Siya-Behi, Kalatop-Kajiar, Nargu, Great
Himalayan National Park, Bandli, Shikari Devi,
Majathal Harsang, Shimla Water Catchment
Area, Chail, Renuka,' Simbalbara (in north to
south order; Fig. 1).

Methods

For each area I recorded: (i) sightings,
alann calls and pellets of goral (pellets were not
counted where goat and sheep grazing was

GORAL NEMORHAEDUS GORAL IN HIMACHAL PRADESH

303

intense), (ii) slope, aspect and cover (tree, shrub
and bare rocks), (iii) intensity of grazing by
domestic animals and other forms of distur-
bance.

Time spent in each of the protected areas is
given in Table 1. Information on altitude and
area were taken from the H.P. Forest Depart-
ment. Statistical treatment follows Siegel
(1956).

Results

Goral were sighted or heard in seven of the
11 areas surveyed. Pellets were recorded in eight
of the 11 areas (Table 1). Distribution of sight-
ings during the day is shown in Fig. 2. No goral
was seen active between 0800 and 1630 hrs,
while the maximum number was observed just
after sunrise. This suggests a crepuscular (and
possibly also nocturnal) activity. Moreover,
most of the goral seen (61.4%) were moving and
11.4% were standing still, while only 4.5% were
grazing or browsing. This further suggests noc-
turnal feeding activity, preceded and followed
by crepuscular movements from and to the rest-
ing grounds.

The group sizes of the observed goral are
shown in Fig. 3. The mode group size is one, but
groups of two and four were also common; only

one large group (nine goral) was observed. It
must be noted, however, that these are minimum
estimates because of the possibility of overlook-
ing some of the members of a group. The dis-
tance (usually 100-300 m) and the brevity of the
observations (often <1 min.) prevented an ac-
curate assessment of age and sex.

No goral was seen on slopes less steep than
60° (N=61). Most of the sightings (86%) were in
areas with fairly sparse tree and shrub cover
(<30%). Also pellets were very common (up to
20 pellet groups per 30 min. walking) in areas
with less than 30% cover but many (6.1 to 13.5
per 30 min. walking) were found also in forested
areas (<60% cover). Bare rock (5 to 50%) was
always present in areas frequented by goral.
Aspect appeared rather unimportant, goral being
present on north- as well as south-facing slopes.
The areas surveyed are shown in Fig.l and de-
scribed in Table 1.

Gamgul suffers from heavy grazing and
probably also heavy poaching. As a conse-
quence, wildlife is generally very scarce. In
spite of a habitat similar to areas with good
goral densities, I saw no sign of goral during the
survey; also the local Range Officer did not
think that there was a significant population in
the sanctuary.

Table 1

AREAS SURVEYED IN HIMACHAL PRADESH

Name

Area
(sq. km)

Altitude

m.a.s.l.

Goral

Abundance

Grazing

Visibility

Time spent in

Sighting

Pellets

Goral area
(hours)

Sanctuary

(days)

Gamgul

90.0

2000-3900

0

0

4

4

8.30

1.5

Kalatop

47.3

1800-2500

0 +

6.1

1

0

4.55

2

Nargu

278.4

1200-4000

0

0 *

4

3

0

1.5

GHNP

620.0

1500-5000

0.23

—

2

3

4.40

2.5

Bandli

41.3

600-2100

0.23

2.3

0

3

17.35

2

Shikari Devi

213.5

2300-3360

0

0

3

1

0

2

Majathal

91.1

600-1970

5.42

20

0

4

6.25

3.5

Shimla W.C.A.

10.3

2100-2600

6 +

—

0

1

2.50

0.5

Chail

23.2

1000-2200

0.19+

—

3

4

11.30

3

Renuka

13.4

660-1100

0

3.8

1

0

3.00

1.5

Simbalbara

55.4

450-660

1.00

13.5

2

1

5.30

3

Areas are listed from north to south. Goral abundance indices: Sighting — no. of goral seen per 30 min. spent in goral areas
(only during 0630-0800 and 1630-1800 hrs. Pellets= no. of goral pellets per 30 min. walking in goral areas. Grazing and
visibility scores are on a 0-4 scale (0 = low, 4 = high). + goral alarm call heard.

304

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Kalatop is mostly covered by deodar
Cedrus deodara. Slopes are mostly less than
60°. Disturbance is low (only two small villages
are located within the sanctuary). Judging from
tracks and scats, wildlife (especially pheasant
and carnivores) appears comparatively abundant
and goral is also present. The lack of sightings is
related to the low visibility.

Nargu was the largest sanctuary visited. It
was not possible to survey the whole area

thoroughly. Goral presence appeared likely in
some steep, grassy slopes, but due to the scarcity
of such areas, and to heavy grazing pressure,
this sanctuary is unlikely to support large goral
populations.

Great Himalayan National Park: goral
are most probably present not only in the three
main valleys included in the park, but also out-
side, along the steep banks of the Sainji river. I
surveyed only part of the northernmost valley

GORAL NEMORHAEDUS GORAL IN HIMACHAL PRADESH

305

(Jiwa nal), where goral density is probably
higher than suggested by the figures in Table 1.
In fact, the area was disturbed during the days of
survey by people collecting fuelwood for winter,
which possibly made the goral shy. Grazing and
other forms of disturbance are exceptionally rare
in the core area of the park, but more important
in the buffer zone.

Bandli possibly supports a high goral den-
sity. The low number of sightings (Table 1) is
probably because of the tall grass which limited
visibility, and also the presence of people cutting
grass. Cover is very scarce (<15%) and slope
very steep (>70°).

Shikari Devi is largely covered by deodar
and slopes are mostly less than 50°. Disturbance
(including grazing) is very high. Goral, if
present, are certainly very scarce, and almost
unknown to local people.

Majathal is by far the best area for goral
among those visited. The goral is present in a
habitat similar to that of Bandli, a chir pine
Pinus roxburghii forest (actually a grassland
with sparse trees). T\vo such areas, both very
steep (60°-7Q°), are present in the sanctuary,
together covering approximately 25 sq. km. Dis-
turbance is very low and grazing almost absent.
Only in this area were groups larger than two
observed.

Shimla Water Catchment is an almost
completely undisturbed area, not very steep
(mostly <50°) and with a fairly dense tree cover
(>80%). Goral, although present, did not appear
to be abundant. It must, however, be stressed
that the survey was too short for a definite as-
sessment.

Chail suffers from very high anthropogenic
pressures. People were seen throughout the
goral area from early morning to late evening. It
is possible (since the animal may be shyer than
in other areas) that goral density is higher than
suggested by Table 1. The high grazing pressure
is, however, likely to limit wild herbivore
populations.

Renuka: No goral was seen. However,

many pellets were found, all close to a very
steep (>70°) slope. The habitat (very thick tropi-
cal scrub) is unique among the sanctuaries sur-
veyed. Goral density is probably high, even if
limited to restricted patches.

Simbalbara: The habitat is low but with
very steep (up to 90°) hills (660 m a.s.L). Goral
are present in the southern part of the sanctuary.
The dense vegetation and the topography limited
the visibility, possibly leading to an underes-
timation of goral density by the ‘sighting’ index
(Table 1). The total population in this range may
be good as the same habitat extends to the
neighbouring state of Haryana. More work
should be done on the ecology of goral in areas
such as this and Renuka, as they represent the
lower altitudinal limit of goral distribution.

The two abundance indices (Table 1) are
significantly correlated (Spearman’s rs= 0.762,
p = 0.0275; N=8) between areas, indicating that
both can be used for a relative assessment of
goral abundance. The ‘sightings’ abundance
index is not significantly correlated to either the
visibility (rs=0.484, p=0.129; N=ll) nor the
time spent in goral areas (rs=0.413, p=0.27;
N=9; excluding sanctuaries with no time spent
in goral areas; Table 1). This can be interpreted
as an indication that none of these factors biased
significantly the results of this survey.

Discussion

From the present survey, it appears that the
goral in Himachal Pradesh is widely distributed
(probably even outside protected areas) and in
some areas it is still common. The three sanctu-
aries in which no goral sign was recorded (Gam-
gul, Nargu and Shikari Devi) are characterised
by high grazing and possibly poaching pressure.
More detailed research is clearly needed to as-
sess the relative importance of these factors.
Goral habitat, however, is fragmented, especial-
ly at the lower limits of its distribution. This
might threaten in the long run the survival of
some isolated populations, as happened in
Thailand (Lovari 1986).

3

306

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

O

I-

2

CC

LLJ

CO

CO

O

c

E

Fig. 2. Goral seen or heard per 30 min. observation (bars). Only time spent in areas in which goral were actually seen was
included. R = resting animals, H = goral heard but not seen. Broken line indicates time spent in goral areas. Black dots

indicate approximate sunrise and sunset times.

Gaston et al. (1981) found the goral al-
titudinal range to be between 1800 and 3700 m,
with an abundance peak between 2200 and 3400
m. My results indicate a lower limit around 500
m (much lower than previously reported, see
Mead 1989 for a review) with the highest den-
sities in areas below 2000 m, which were little
surveyed by Gaston et al. (1981). Also the
preference for south-facing slopes observed by
Gaston et al. (1981) could be a phenomenon
limited to the upper part of goral range, as it
could not be confirmed by the present study. On
the other hand, my results agreed with those of
Schaller (1977), Roberts (1977), Gaston et al.
(1981), Lovari (1986) and Green (1987) in
pointing out a preference of goral for very steep
areas. The presence of leopard Panthera pardus
in all the steep areas where goral was common

(Kalatop, Great Himalayan National Park,
Bandli, Majathal, Chail, Renuka, Simbalbara)
suggests that this preference may be an anti-
predator strategy. My data therefore indicate that
the main habitat requirement of goral is the

GROUP SIZE

Fig. 3. Number of goral seen in groups of different sizes.

GORAL NEMORHAEDUS GORAL IN HIMACHAL PRADESH

307

presence of steep slopes, together with low snow
depth and low human disturbance.

Acknowledgements

Special thanks are due to B.S. Chauhan
(H.P. Forest Dept.) and Prof. S. Lovari (Univer-
sity of Siena), without whose support and en-
couragement this work would not have been
possible. The help given in the field by H.P.

Refe

Gaston, A.J., Hunter, M.L. & Garson, RJ. (1981): The
wildlife of Himachal Pradesh — Western Himalayas.
Univ. Maine Sch. For Resources Tech. Notes No. 82.
Green, M.J.B. (1987): Ecological separation in Himalayan
Ungulates./. Zool. Lond. (B) 1: 693-719.

Groves, C.P. & Grubb, P. (1985): Reclassification of the
serow and gorals ( Nemorhaedus : Bovidae). pp. 45-50.
In: Lovari, S. The biology and management of moun-
tain ungulates. Croom Helm Ltd., Beckenham.

Lovari, S. (1986): Observations on the biology of the goral
in Om Koi Wildlife reserve, N-W Thailand. Boll.
Zool 53: 88.

Mead, J.I. (1989): Nemorhaedus goral. Mammalian Species

Forest Department staff is also much ap-
preciated. The Italian Ministry of Education and
the Matsumae International Foundation
provided limited financial support. I gratefully
acknowledge the assistance of F. Volpi and L.
Pellegrino in drawing the figures, R. Tantussi in
typing, G. Checcucci in searching some of the
literature, and the Best Company s.p.a. in
providing clothing.

NCES

335: 1-5.

Mukerji, A.K. (1986): Wildlife of Himachal Pradesh. Hima-
chal Pradesh Forestry Department, Shimla.

Prater, S.H. (1980): The book of Indian animals. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.

Roberts, T.J. (1977): The mammals of Pakistan. Ernest
Benn, London.

Scualler, G.B. (1977): Mountain monarchs. Wild sheep
and goats of the Himalaya. University of Chicago
Press, Chicago.

Siegel S. (1956): Nonparametric statistics for the behav-
ioral sciences. McGraw-Hill, New York.

INSECT-HOST PLANT INTERACTION IN RELATION TO DEVELOPMENT
OF DIAPHANIA INDICA (SAUNDERS) (LEPIDOPTERA: PYRALIDAE)1

Clement Peter and B.V. David2

Various parameters were considered while studying the insect-host plant interaction be-
tween Diaphania indica (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and 18 cultivated cucurbits. Among the
cucurbits screened for development of D. indica , muskmelon, longmelon, watermelon,
pumpkin, squash and ivy gourd were the most preferred hosts while bitter gourd, bottle gourd,
chow-chow, pointed gourd and sponge gourd were the least preferred hosts.

Introduction

The pumpkin caterpillar Diaphania indica
(Saunders) has been reported from several parts
of India and other regions of the world causing
damage to various cucurbitaceous plants
(Duport 1912, Vayssiere and Mimeur 1925,
Esaki 1940, Hutson 1924, BA-Angood 1979). In
India Patel and Kulkamy (1956) conducted de-
tailed studies on the biology of this insect pest.
Pandey (1975) screened seven cultivated cucur-
bits at Bharwari for their relative preference to
D. indica. Krishnaprasad and Rai (1978)
screened five cucurbits at Dharwar. However,
not much work has been carried out with this in-
sect pest in Tamil Nadu and much less on the in-
sect-host plant interaction. In the present
investigation 18 cultivated cucurbits were
screened for their relative preference to D. in-
dica for development.

Material and Methods

The 18 cultivated cucurbits selected for this
study were: (i) musk melon Cucumis melo L.,
(ii) long melon Cucumis melo var. utilissimus
Duth. and Full., (iii) round melon Praecitrullus
vulgaris L., (iv) ridge gourd Luffa acutangula
L., (v) sponge gourd Luffa cylindrica L.,

(vi) pointed gourd Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.,

(vii) spiny gourd Momordica cochinchinensis
Spreng., (viii) chow-chow Sechium edule

lAccepted March 1990.

2Fredrick Institute of Plant Protection and Toxicology,
Padappai 601 301.

(Jacq.), (ix) watermelon Citrullus lanatus
(Thunb.), (x) bottle gourd Lagenaria siceraria
(Mol.), (xi) bitter gourd Momordica charatitia
L., (xii) pumpkin Cucurbita moschata (Duch.),
(xiii) ash gourd Benincara hispida (Thunb.),

(xiv) snake gourd Trichosanthes anguina L.,

(xv) squash Cucurbita pepo L., (xvi) ivy gourd
Coccinia indica Wight and Arm., (xvii) cucum-
ber Cucumis sativus L., (xviii) small gourd
Cucumis melo var. agrestis Naud.

15 of these cucurbits were raised in
separate rows of 12 m length. For the remaining
three varieties, viz. ivy gourd, snake gourd and
small gourd, leaf samples were taken from es-
tablished fields. For assessing the varietal
preference, the following parameters, viz. larval
development, larval period, larval weight, pupal
period, percentage of pupation, percentage
emergence of pupae, growth index, fecundity
and field infestation were recorded. The Growth
Index was estimated following the method
adopted by Srivastava (1959).

The studies were carried out with 10 freshly
hatched laivae and three replications were main-
tained for each variety. The total larval period on
each of these varieties as well as la.val weight at
the end of 10 days were recorded. Fecundity of the
moths reared on these hosts was determined by
enclosing the mated female moth in the rearing jar
on leaves. Three female moths were enclosed
separately for each host plant.

Results and Discussion

Various parameters were considered for

INSECT-HOST PLANT INTERACTION OF DIAPHANIA INDICA

309

Table 1

INSECT-HOST PLANT INTERACTION IN RELATION TO DEVELOPMENT OF D. indica

Host Plant

Larval

period

(days)

Larval

weight

(mg)

Pupal

period

(days)

%

Pupation

%

Emergence
of adults

Growth

index

Fecundity

No. of larvae
on plant in
field

1. Musk melon

9.403

50.54abc

6.803

72.66ab

80.84ab

5.85

198.003

3.98

2, Long melon

10.60s

32.33oef

8.20®**®

71.33ab

73.90ab®d

5.24

157.80®**®

3.52

3. Round melon

15.33f

25.04f

9.10def

58.66®**

61.41d®f

3.20

79.00®^

1.18

4. Ridge gourd

11.13**

27.53f

XSOab®

40.00®f

53.53®f

2.79

129.60**®

1.16

5. Sponge gourd

13.13e

32.03def

10.308

29.33f

43.01fg

1.81

28.40f

0

6. Pointed gourd

13.86e

24. 48^

7.00ab

31.33f

46.21f

1.85

42.30®f

0

7. Spiny gourd

0

8. Chow-chow

15.26f

47 54abcde

9.30®f

35.33^

42.47fS

1.93

68.70®

0.70

9. Water melon

10.53b

60.623

7.30ab®

76.66a

84.43a

5.66

164.70ab

3.24

10. Bottle gourd

13.40®

37.63bcdef

10.20^

28.60f

30.55S

1.74

78.40ef

1.17

11. Bitter gourd

15.67^

23. 18^

10.20^

37.33®f

31.268

1.99

90.60®f

—

12. Pumpkin

11.33**

50.14abc

7.703b®

74.00ab

74.69bcd

5.16

133.80ab®

3.15

13. Ash gourd

12.86**®

40.18abcdef

9.70fg

55.33®d

70.95abc

3.48

176.00ab

2.12

14. Snake gourd

12.06®**

34.70®**®f

8.10bcd

54.00®d

64.32®d®

3.58

100.20 ****

—

15. Squash

11.00b

50.32abc

6.603

77.33a

82. 14ab

5.52

146.40ab

3.23

16. Ivy gourd

10.13bc

53.26ab

7.70abc

76.003

77.01abc

5.37

152.40ab

—

17. Cucumber

12.07®**

45 i4abcdef

9.70

64.00b®

68.25®**

4.24

i^.so3**

2.14

18. Small gourd

11.47bc

48. 1 7abcd

9.40fg

47.33d®

65.82®**®

3.27

104.00bcd

2.19

Figures followed by the same letters are not significantly different from each other by DMRT (P=0.05).

evaluating the host plant preference of D. in-
dica. The results are shown in Table 1.

Rate of larval devlopment: Among the 18
cucurbits screened for larval development, the
shortest larval period of 9.40 days was recorded
on musk melon (Table 1; column 1); it was sig-
nificantly shorter than the duration required for
development on the other hosts. This was fol-
lowed by long melon, water melon and squash
which were on par with each other. The larval
periods on sponge gourd (13.13 days), bottle
gourd (13.40 days) and pointed gourd (13.86
days) were significantly longer than on other
host plants. There was no larval development on
spiny gourd.

Larval weight: The weight of larvae
reared on the various cucurbits were recorded on
the 10th day after hatching; data are shown in
Table 1 (column 2). The maximum weight
(60.62 mg) was recorded for larvae fed on water
melon followed by ivy gourd. The weights of
larvae reared on musk melon, squash, small
gourd and cucumber did not differ significantly

from each other. The larval weight was low
when reared on pointed gourd, round melon and
ridge gourd.

Duration of pupal period: The duration of
pupal period for larvae reared on the various
cucurbits is shown in column 3 of Table 1. The
shortest mean pupal period of 6.60 days was
recorded with squash followed by musk melon.
When reared on ivy gourd, pumpkin and ridge
gourd it was longer by a day; these were on par
with each other. The pupal period was longer
still when reared on small gourd, ash gourd,
sponge gourd, bottle gourd and bitter gourd.

Success of pupation: The number of lar-
vae that developed and pupated successfully on
the various host plants were recorded and the
extent of pupation calculated from this data. The
maximum percentage pupation was obtained
with squash (77.33%), followed by ivy gourd,
pumpkin, musk melon and long melon. These
did not differ significantly and were higher com-
pared to the other host plants. The pupation rate
was low with bottle gourd, sponge gourd,

310

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

pointed gourd, chow-chow and bitter gourd.

Emergence of adults: The percentage
emergence of pupae when reared on the various
cucurbits was recorded (column 5 of Table 1).
Maximum emergence of pupae was recorded for
water melon (84.43%) followed by squash and
musk melon. Lower emergence were recorded
for bottle gourd, bitter gourd, chow-chow,
sponge gourd and pointed gourd.

Growth index: To assess the overall
capacity of various cucurbits to support growth
and development, growth indices were calcu-
lated (column 6 of Table 1). The results indi-
cated that musk melon, water melon, squash, ivy
gourd, long melon, and pumpkin are better hosts
than the other cucurbits. The growth indices of
cucumber, snake gourd, small gourd and ash
gourd were lower. The growth indices for cucur-
bits, viz. sponge gourd, chow-chow, Pointed
gourd and bottle gourd were very low, indicating
that these plants are probably not preferred hosts
but in the absence of the preferred hosts D. in -
dica can survive on these cucurbits.

Fecundity: The fecundity of females
reared from the various plants was determined
(column 7 of Table 1).

The study indicated that the maximum
number of eggs were laid by moths reared on
musk melon (198.0), followed by, ash gourd,
water melon long melon and ivy gourd. The
lowest number of eggs were from moths reared
on sponge gourd, chow chow, bottle gourd,
round melon, pointed gourd and bitter gourd.

Effect of host plants on field infestation:
15 cucurbits raised in the field were sampled for
natural infestation of D. indica. The plants
raised in pandals (Bower system), viz. snake
gourd, ivy gourd and bitter gourd were not in-
cluded in the sampling since the sample units
between these two types of cultivation were not
uniform.

The mean number of full grown larvae per
plant are shown in the last column of Table 1.
High larval population occurred on musk melon
(3.98), followed by long melon, water melon,

squash and pumpkin. Sponge gourd, pointed
gourd and spiny gourd did not harbour any lar-
vae at all which indicated that these are not at-
tacked when more preferred hosts were present.

Based on the above observations on host
preference of D. indica it is possible to classify
the 18 cucurbits into three broad categories.

(a) Most preferred hosts : Musk melon, long
melon, water melon, pumpkin, squash and
ivy gourd.

(b) Moderately preferred hosts: Cucumber,
small gourd, snake gourd, ash gourd, round
melon and ridge gourd.

(c) Least preferred hosts : Bitter gourd, bottle
gourd, chow-chow, pointed gourd and
sponge gourd.

Ayyar (1923) and Fletcher (1914) reported
the occurrence of D. indica as a pest of cucur-
bitaceous plants. Pandey (1975) refuted this ob-
servation on the grounds that in his
investigations at Bharwari, where seven cucur-
bits were screened, D. indica did not develop on
bitter gourd. The development on the other
hosts, viz. musk melon, round melon, pumpkin,
watermelon, sponge gourd and ridge gourd was
quite normal, and among these plants the per-
centage of larval pupation was highest on musk
melon and lowest on ridge gourd. In the present
study D. indica completed its development on
bitter gourd, while sponge gourd was the least
preferred host. D. indica failed to develop on
spiny gourd.

Krishnaprasad and Rai (1978) screened
five cucurbits, bitter gourd, bottle gourd,
pumpkin, ridge gourd and snake gourd. Ridge
gourd was the most preferred host plant fol-
lowed by snake gourd, pumpkin and bottle
gourd. The variation reported in the most
preferred host by Pandey (1975) and Krish-
naprasad and Rai (1978) is interesting. The
former recorded musk melon as the most pre-
ferred and ridge gourd as the least preferred,
while the latter reported ridge gourd as the most
favoured host. In the present study D. indica
developed on bitter gourd contrary to the report

INSECT-HOST PLANT INTERACTION OF D LA PHAN 1 A INDICA

311

of Pandey (1975). Similarly, bottle gourd was
reported as a favourable host by Krishnaprasad
and Rai (1978), while in the present investiga-
tion it has been classified under the least
preferred. The development reported by these
authors on the other cucurbits, viz. ridge gourd,
pumpkin and snake gourd are more or less in
conformity with the present study.

Considering the extent of variation in the
insect host plant interaction of D. indie a
reported in literature, it may be concluded that
probably all cucurbits are potential hosts of this
insect. The earlier reports by Fletcher (1914)
and Ayyar (1923) that most cultivated cucurbits

Refer

Ayyar, T.V.R. (1923): Handbook of Economic Entomology
for South India. Govt, of Madras.

Ba-Angood, S.A.S. (1979): Bionomics of the melon worm
Palpita ( Diaphania ) indica (Saund.) (Pyralidae :
Lepidoptera) in PDR Yemen. Zeitschrift fur An-
gewandte Entomologie 88 (33): 332-336.

Duport, L. (1912): Notes on certain diseases and enemies of v
cultivated plants in the Far East. Extrait du Bulletin
Economique del Indochine, Hanoi - Haiphong,
Nouvelle Serie, no.99, Nos. 102-105.

Esaki, T. (1940): A preliminary report on the entomological
survey of the Micronesian Islands under the Japanese
Mandate, with special reference to the insects of
economic importance. Proc. 6th Pacif. Sci. Congr.
1939: 407-415.

Fletcher, T.B. (1914): Some South Indian Insects. Govt, of
Madras, pp. 435-436.

Hutson, J.C. (1924): Ceylon Entomology. Trop. Agricul-

are susceptible to D indica appears to be authen-
tic in the light of the present findings. The rather
contradictory results obtained in relation to
development may be due to the varieties and
regions selected for this experiment. However,
since the varietal names of many of the cul-
tivated cucurbits are not given it is difficult to
determine whether or not a particular cucurbit is
a potential host. We can only assume that all
cucurbits are potential hosts of D. indica but
some cucurbits (like musk melon, long melon,
water melon, ivy gourd etc.) are better than
others (bottle gourd, bitter gourd etc.).

ENCES

turist, 12: 288-289.

Krishnaprasad, N.K. & Rai, P.S. (1978): Effect of different
host plants on the duration of life stages of pumpkin
leaf caterpillar, Margaronia indica Saunders
(Pyralidae : Lepidoptera). Curr. Res. 7(4): 68.

Pandey, P.N. (1975): Infestation of Diaphania indica
Saund. on cucurbits. Zeitschrift fur Angewandte En-
tomologie 79(2): 160-163.

Patel, R.C. & Kulkarny, ILL. (1956): Bionomics of the
pumpkin caterpillar Margaronia indica Saund.
(Pyralidae : Lepidoptera). J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc.
54: 118-127.

Vayssiere, P. & Mimeur, J. (1925): Les Pyrales due coton-
nier ( Sylepta derogata F. et Glyphodes indica Saund.
in Afrique - Occidentale Francaise - Agron. Colon no.
20: 225-268.

SYMPATRIC DISTRIBUTION OF GHARIAL GAVIALIS GANGETICUS AND
MUGGER CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS IN INDIA1

R.J. Rao2 and B.C. Choudhury3
(With a text- figure)

This paper briefly deals with present status of wild gharial Gavialis gangeticus and mug-
ger Crocodylus palustris in their major habitats. In the Chambal river the basking sites of mug-
ger (77.7%) were rock and for gharial (22.2%) sand banks, though their nesting sites were the
same. The distribution of gharial in this river was restricted to 68 (83.9%) survey units of 5 km
each whereas mugger were restricted to 18 (22.2%) units. From this study it appears that to
minimise the level of interspecific competition more conservation management inputs should
be given to gharial in the Ganges and Brahmaputra river systems whereas more management
inputs are necessary for the mugger in southern India and in the rest of its allopatric range.

Introduction

The results of a status survey in India con-
ducted during the mid 1970s showed that the
mugger Crocodylus palustris , once widespread
and common, had become rare throughout its
range by the early 1970s (Whitaker and Daniel
1980). Tlie mugger is now present in small num-
bers in almost all the states of India except
Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Pun-
jab (Whitaker and Whitaker 1989). The gharial
Gavialis gangeticus once inhabited the major
Himalayan fed river systems but is now re-
stricted to the Ganges and Brahmaputra river
systems. It is also found in the Mahanadi (FAO
1974) and was perhaps once found in the
Godavari river (Bustard and Choudhary 1982)
in Peninsular India.

Sympatric Distribution

The gharial and mugger are sympatric in
some north Indian rivers, and in the Mahanadi
river in eastern Orissa. The range of the mugger
overlaps with that of the gharial in Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Oris-
sa. However, the mugger also occurs in the same
locality in habitats other than rivers. The major

Accepted November 1990.

2School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University,

Gwalior 474011.

3Wildlife Institute of India, PO Box 18,

Chandrabani, Dehra Dun

Indian rivers which both gharial and mugger in-
habit are: Chambal, Son, Ken, Yamuna, Ram-
ganga, Ghaghra, Girwa, Kosi and Mahanadi

(Fig-1)-

Present status: Data from published litera-
ture, field surveys and interviews with local
people indicate that fairly good populations of
mugger are present in different states, particular-
ly in protected areas. But the gharial is found
only in protected areas.

The Chambal river is one of the major
gharial habitats in the country and monitoring of
the gharial population is being carried out
regularly. Since 1975 the gharial population in
the Chambal has increased considerably. Around
800 gharials of all size classes and 50 nests were
recorded from Chambal during 1988, whereas
only 38 mugger have been reported from the
same area.

In the Son river, 66 captive reared gharial
have been released between 1985-90 and a
natural population was also reported here. A
total of four mugger were present in the Son
river including two released mugger.

Whitaker and Daniel (1980) have reported
eight mugger and four gharial from the Ramgan-
ga River inside the Corbett National Park in
Uttar Pradesh. During 1982-1984 a total of 27
captive reared gharial and 12 mugger were
released in the Ramganga river (Basu, pers.
comm.).

A breeding population of gharial is present

SYMPATRIC DISTRIBUTION OF GHARIAL AND MUGGER IN INDIA

313

Habitat Requirements

Since 1974, detailed studies on the habitat
preference of mugger and gharial have been un-
dertaken (Choudhury 1981, Choudhury and
Bustard 1982, Singh 1978, 1985). However, in-
formation on many aspects of habitat selection
and utilisation pattern by sympatric crocodile
species is scanty.

In a survey conducted on the Chambal river
during 1988, mugger were sighted in 18 survey
units (22.2%) and gharial in 68 units (83.9%).
Each unit represented a 5 km river stretch of the
Chambal river. Young mugger were very few in
number (22.2%) indicating that the population
recruitment of mugger in Chambal is low.

Ecological studies on the Chambal river
revealed that the basking habits of the two
species differ significantly. The mugger mainly
prefer to bask on rocks (77.7%) and rarely on
sand (22.2%). The gharial bask on sand banks or
on sand bars (98%), and only occasionally on
rocks (2%) (Rao and Sigh 1987).

In the Chambal river both gharial and mug-
ger breed successfully. The nesting season for
both species was March-April. During 1988, a
total of 15 gharial nesting sites were identified
where 50 gharial nests were located (Rao 1988).
Mugger used four nesting sites along with
gharial (Table 2). A total of 15 mugger nests
were located during 1988 at these sites. No con-
flict for the selection of nesting sites was ob-
served between gharial and mugger. At one

Table 1

MUGGER AND GHARIAL RELEASE IN INDIA

River

State

Year

Gharial

Year

Mugger

Chambal

Madhya Pradesh/Uttar Pradesh

1979-90

1532

1984

28

Son

Madhya Pradesh

1985-89

66

1983

2

Son

Uttar Pradesh

1990

30

—

—

Rapti

Uttar Pradesh

1986

10

1984

10

Girwa

Uttar Pradesh

1979-86

129

—

—

Ghagra

Uttar Pradesh

1986

20

1985

6

Ramganga

Uttar Pradesh

1982-84

27

1984

12

Sharda

Uttar Pradesh

1986

20

—

- —

Ken

Madhya Pradesh

1985-87

20

—

—

Mahanadi

Orissa

1977-89

550

—

—

Fig. 1. Sympatric distribution of gharial and mugger in India.
Striped area represents allopatric range of mugger, square area
represents sympatric range of gharial and mugger. 1. Ganges
river system, 2. Mahanadi river, 3. Godavari river.

in the Katemiaghat Sanctuary on the Girwa river
with approximately 20 animals (Whitaker and
Daniel 1980). Mugger are also reported from
this river. During 1979-1986, 129 captive reared
gharial were released in the Girwa river.

In the Mahanadi river 550 captive gharial
have been released so far (Kar 1989). Mugger
have also been reported from this river (FAO
1974) (Table 1).

314

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Table 2

NESTING SITES OF GHARIAL AND MUGGER IN THE
CHAMBAL RIVER DURING 1988

SI. no.

Nesting site

Species

1.

Bagdia sandh

gharial

2.

Gobarda

gharial + mugger

3.

Baroli

gharial + mugger

4.

Nadigaon

gharial + mugger

5.

Banwara

gharial

6.

Bharra

gharial + mugger

7.

Dang Basai

gharial

8.

Tigri Rithoura

gharial

9.

Papripura

gharial

10.

Pureni

gharial

11.

Daljitpura

gharial

12.

Barsala

gharial

13.

Barenda

gharial

14.

Khera

gharial

15.

Gyanpura

gharial

nesting site near Nadigaon 5 mugger shared the
nesting ground with 10 gharial in a 200 sq. m
area (Table 3). This indicates that interspecific
use of nesting grounds is very high. The survey
results show that 26% of the mugger nesting
sites overlapped with gharial nesting sites.

Discussion

With a diverse habitat and dietary
preference (unlike the gharial which is ex-
clusively a fish eater and seems to select deep,
fast flowing rivers), the more adaptable mugger
tends to fail in competition with the gharial
where sympatric. In its allopatric range (i.e.
south and west India) the mugger is quite suc-
cessful. The reason for this is not clear. Lack of
information on resource utilisation by gharial
and mugger in their sympatric range makes it
difficult to understand the reasons for niche
separation between these species.

Unlike the gharial which is thriving in its

Table 3

NUMBER OF GHARIAL AND MUGGER NESTS AT
COMMON NESTING SITES ON THE CHAMBAL RIVER
DURING 1988

Nesting site

Gharial

Mugger

Gobarda

3

1

Baroli

9

3

Nadigaon

10

5

Bharra

4

1

range, the low density and low recruitment rate
of mugger in the northern Indian rivers suggests
that they are not adaptable to deep and fast flow-
ing Himalayan fed rivers.

However, the fundamental question is, how
does the selectively adapted gharial compete
with more adaptable mugger? Perhaps gharial
are more adaptable to swimming in deep and
fast flowing rivers. Our preliminary observa-
tions in the Chambal river indicate that the
natural recruitment of gharial was greater than
mugger, even though hatching of both gharial
and mugger took place at the same nesting sites.
Occurrence of fewer mugger hatchlings at the
same nesting sites makes us wonder if gharial
prey on mugger hatchlings.

To minimise the level of interspecific com-
petition between sympatrically distributed en-
dangered crocodiles in India, more conservation
management inputs should be given to gharial in
the Ganges and Brahamaputra river systems. At
the same time more inputs should be given to
mugger in southern India and in the rest of its al-
lopatric range.

Acknowledgements

This study was an offshoot of the project
‘Ecological relationships among freshwater
turtles’ in the National Chambal Sanctuary,
sponsored by the Wildlife Institute of India.

R EFERENCES

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Choudhury, S. (1981): Some studies on the biology and servation and Research. Eds. L.A. K. Singh and B.C.

SYMPATR1C DISTRIBUTION OF G HA RIAL AND MUGGER IN INDIA

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Fao, (1974): A preliminary survey of the prospects for
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Kar, S. (1989): Crocodile conservation programme in Oris-
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Rao, R.J. & Singh, L.A.K. (1987): Notes on ecological
relationship in basking and nesting site utilisation
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599-604.

Singh, L.A.K. (1978): Ecological studies on the Indian
Gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) (Reptilia,
Crocodilia). Ph. D. thesis, Utkal Univ., Orissa.

Singh, L.A. K. (1985): Gharial population trend in National
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Study report. CRC/WII. p. 167.

Whitaker, R. & Daniel, J.C. (1980): The status of Indian
crocodilia ns. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.. 75: 1238-
1245.

Whitaker, R. & Whitaker, Z. (1989): Ecology of the Mug-
ger crocodile. In: Crocodiles: Their ecology, manage-
ment and conservation. IUCN, Switzerland.

WINTERING WATER BIRDS AT POINT CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU 1

V. Natarajan 2
(With a text-figure)

Details of bird ringing and census studies of waterbirds carried out during the year 1985-86 at Pt. Calimere
Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, are given. A total of 5321 birds of 38 species were ringed, predominantly
little stint Calidris minuta, ruff and reeve Philomachus pugnax and curlew sandpiper Calidris ferruginea. 104 birds of
five species were recaptured. Among these, the little stint was the maximum. Two birds (little stint and ruff) with
Russian rings were recovered. The physical measurements of eight species of waders were analysed. The wing-tarsus
ratio for lesser sand plover Charadrius mongolus reveals that the majority of the population visiting Pt. Calimere are
of the atrifrons group. The seasonality, diversity and density of waterbirds are discussed. The bird population fluctuates
in different months in relation to water level and food availability. The mean monthly bird species diversity recorded
was 2.01 and the annual mean bird density (all species) was 516 birds/sq. km.

Introduction

Pt. Calimere (10°18' N, 79°51' E) in Tamil
Nadu, with the Bay of Bengal to the east, Palk
Strait to the south and salt pans and marshes on
the north and west, is a major wintering waterfowl
refuge in India (Ali 1963). It attracts a large num-
ber of migratory waterfowl. The Bombay Natural
History Society has been ringing waterfowl and
landbirds over several years at Pt. Calimere (Ali
and Hussain 1981-1982). A checklist of birds both
observed as well as ringed at Pt. Calimere has
been published (Sugathan 1982). This paper deals
with two aspects of ornithological studies at Pt.
Calimere: firstly bird ringing activities, and
secondly census data.

Bird Ringing Activities
Material and Methods

The present paper deals only with the water-
fowl ringing and census studies during the year
1985-86. For the trapping of waterfowl, ex-
perienced trappers from a local village were
employed, and used traditional methods such as
hand-made meshnets, clap traps and nooses for
catching birds. The birds were identified, ringed
and aged according to Prater et al. (1977).

The physical measurements of birds were
taken according to the standard techniques (Spen-

1 Accepted June 1991.

2 Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed
Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

cer 1976). After taking measurements and noting
the moult status, the birds were released at the
place of capture. The results of the moult study
will be published elsewhere.

Results and Discussion

To date, 243 species of migratory and resi-
dent birds have been recorded. The total number
of birds ringed for the past six years is given in
Table 1. The populations of landbirds and water-
birds fluctuate each year depending on climatic
conditions and the availability of food. During
eight months of ringing operations in 1985-86,
5321 waterbirds of 38 species were caught and
ringed.

The little stint Calidris minuta , followed by
ruff and reeve Philomachus pugnax and curlew
sandpiper Calidris ferruginea were the com-
monest birds ringed in 1985-86. The monthwise
totals for each species are shown in Table 2. A
peak in total number of birds ringed was seen in
December and the minimum number in April.

Table 1

YEAR WISE RINGING OF BIRDS AT PT. CALIMERE

Year

Number of birds
Landbirds Waterbirds

1980-81

7553

18456

1981-82

2499

9775

1982-83

3203

10259

1983-84

643

7846

1984-85

1493

7448

1985-86

1439

5321

Total

16830

59105

WINTERING WATERBIRDS AT PT. CALIMERE

317

Table 2

NUMBER OF WATERBIRDS RINGED IN 1985-86 ATPT. CALIMERE (4 SEPTEMBER 1985 TO 21 APRIL 19S6)

Species

Sep.

Oct

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

Total

Ardeola grayii

7

9

7

4

27

Ardeola stria tus

2

2

Bubulcus ibis

2

6

8

Egretta garzetta

1

1

Phoenicopterus roseus

1

1

Anas acuta

1

2

1

4

Anas crecca

1

1

2

Anas querquedula

1

1

Anas clypeata

1

3

4

8

Amauromis phoenicurus

5

3

8

Charadrius leschenaultii

1

1

Charadrius alexandrinus

5

1

1

7

Charadrius mongolus

2

2

23

1

4

5

37

Numenius phaeopus

1

1

Numenius arquata

1

2

3

Lintosa limosa

2

2

Tringa totanus

1

3

2

4

1

11

Tringa stagnatilis

7

2

31

1

8

49

Tringa nebularia

3

3

Tringa glareola

6

36

2

44

Tringa terek

1

1

2

Tringa hypoleucos

1

1

Arenaria interpres

1

1

2

Gallinago stenura

1

1

Calidris minuta

822

531

529

813

376

806

454

169

4500

Calidris alpina

1

1

3

4

4

3

16

Calidris ferruginea

44

47

22

85

6

9

3

216

Limicola falcinellus

1

10

11

Philomachus pugnax

6

7

77

194

284

Phalaropus lobatus

17

2

1

20

Recurvirostra avosetta

2

2

Larus argentatus

4

8

4

16

Lams brunnicephalus

2

3

7

1

13

Larus ridibundus

1

1

Chlidonias hybrida

4

4

Sterna hirundo

2

2

4

Sterna albifrons

4

4

Sterna bergii

4

4

All species combined

879

621

706

1188

404

831

504

188

5321

Recapture profile: In total, 104 birds of five
different species were recaptured during the year.
The maximum number of recaptures were of
Calidris minuta (91) followed by Calidris fer-
ruginea (6), lesser sand plover Charadrius mon-
golus (3), Philomachus pugnax (2) and redshank
Tringa totanus (2) (Table 3). Four Calidris m inuta
were recaptured after five years. Two Calidris
ferruginea were recaptured after two years and a

Philomachus pugnax after four years. Two inter-
esting recoveries were obtained of birds ringed
elsewhere, Calidris minuta with Moskwa ring
No.K 450382 replaced by BNHS ring No. A.
230789 on 6 March 1986, and Philomachus pug-
nax (MB 023023 replaced by B. 48807) on 26
September 1985. The ringing details obtained
from Moskwa for the Calidris minuta show that
it was ringed on 29 August 1982 in Sorbulak lake,

RECAPTURE DETAILS OF WATERBIRDS AT PT. CALIMERE (1985-86)

318

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

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Calidris ferruginea- AB (Ring size)

WINTERING WATERBIRDS AT PT. CALI MERE

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Alma-Ata region, Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R (43°46'
N, 76°05' E). The ring was recovered after 1285
days (3 years, 6 months, 10 days) at Pt. Calimere.

Morphometry: The biometrics of eight
species were studied (Table 4). During the ringing
sessions measurements such as wing length, bill
length, tarsus and tail length were taken. In
species with small samples, all the measurements
were used for analysis, whereas in the case of
larger samples such as Calidris minuta , 100
samples each from adult and juvenile birds were
used. Minimum and maximum measurements of
wing, bill, tarsus and tail were recorded for each
species for both juveniles and adults.

An attempt was made to correlate the
wing/tarsus ratio to determine racial variation, as
in the case of Charadrius mongolus , where adults
with wing/tarsus ratio below 4.09 are believed to
belong to the atrifrons group (Cramp and Sim-
mons 1982). The analysis of wing/tarsus ratio of
Charadrius mongolus indicates that the majority
visiting Pt. Calimere fall under the atrifrons group
(wing/tarsus ratio = 4.01). However, individual
analysis of wing/tarsus ratio and plumage charac-
ters suggests the possible occurrence of four sub-
species of Charadrius mongolus at Pt. Calimere
(Balachandranand Natarajan 1992).

Seasonality, Diversity and Density
of Waterbirds
Methodology

A one kilometre long reservoir with a bund
starting and running west from Pump House No.2
(owned by Mettur Chemical and Industrial Cor-
poration) (now Chemplast) was selected for cen-
susing waterbirds. On either side of the bund
large condensers filled with salt water provide
feeding and roosting areas for many waterbirds.
The right side reservoir is active and the water
level is maintained constant, whereas in the left
reservoir the water level fluctuates widely. Half
the left reservoir has been abandoned and dries up
completely during summer.

Birds were censused using the fixed-width
transect method (Emlen 1971). The birds ob-
served within 200 m on either side of the transect
were counted using binoculars and telescope. The

bird census was carried out during the morning on
alternate days. The bird density (D) was calcu-
lated as D = n/2LW, where n is the number of
observations within the strip of width W and
transect length L (Franzreb 1981). Bird species
diversity (H) was calculated using the formula

n

H = - 2 pi In pi
i=l

where pi is the proportion of individuals in
the ‘ith’ category (MacArthur et al. 1966).

Results and Discussion

49 species of birds belonging to six orders
were recorded during the census operation, in-
cluding nine species of landbirds frequently
sighted in the study area. The species richness
(number of species recorded) varied during dif-
ferent months, with the maximum in September-
October 1985 and the minimum in June 1986
(Table 5).

Seasonal Population Fluctuation

The little egret Egretta garzetta and painted
stork Mycteria leucocephala were present
throughout the year. Terns, such as the Caspian
tern Hydroprogne caspia , whiskered tern
Chlidonias hybrida , and little tern Sterna al -
bifrons were also regularly present in the area.
There were only a few sightings of species like
lesser flamingo Phoeniconaias minor, and certain
species of ducks. Monthly averages of the birds
censused are given in Table 6.

Spotted-billed pelican P elec anus philip-
pensis: The pelicans arrive during September.
Their number increases progressively, reaching a
peak in December, then suddenly decreases in
January, reaching a minimum level in February
and March. The birds disappear thereafter. The
main reason for the constant increase from Oc-
tober onwards is the stopping of pumping activity
by the chemical company and the rainfall, which
lowers salinity in the reservoir and presumably
thereby increases the fish population, providing
enough food for the birds.

Grey heron Ardea cinerea: A small resident
population was recorded almost throughout the

WINTERING WATERBIRDS AT PT. CALI MERE

323

Table 4

MEASUREMENTS OF EIGHT SPECIES OF BIRDS RINGED AT PT. CALIMERE

Sample size

Range

Mean

Sample size

Range

Mean

Charadrius mongolus

Calidris ferruginea

Wing (mm)

10 A

123-131

126.3

Wing (mm)

43 A

123-138

1303

11 J

118-130

123.9

50 J

124-135

129.7

Bill (mm)

17 A

17-20

18.8

Bill (mm)

11 A

31-45

38.3

12 J

16.5-20.5

18.6

50 J

27-42

37.3

Tarsus (mm)

16 A

28-35

31.5

Tarsus (mm)

76 A

26-33

29.3

14 J

28-35

31.3

48 J

24-32

29.2

Tai (mm)

15 A

50-54

51.1

Tail (mm)

70 A

42-53

48

12 J

42-51

46.5

44 J

41-49

45.7

Weight (g)

17 A

42-54

47.4

Weight (g)

80 A

44-62

52.2

14 J

40-54

• 47.6

50 J

44-84

54.4

Adult wing / tarsus ratio

= 4.01

Calidris alpina

Tringa totanus

Wing (mm)

3 A

115-123

120.3

Wing (mm)

8 A

149-163

157.9

12 J

115-123

119.4

Bill (mm)

8 A

41-46

43.5

Bill (mm)

3 A

31-35

33.7

Tarsus (mm)

8 A

42-51

47.1

*

13 J

30-38

33.3

Tail (mm)

8 A

58-68

64.3

Tarsus(mm)

3 A

22-25

23.7

Weight (g)

8 A

90-140

116.4

13 J

21-26.5

24

, ■* . _ .

Tail (mm)

3 A

47-54

51

Tringa stagnatilis

•

11 J

46-53

50

Wing (mm)

20 A

131-152

139.4

Weight (g)

3 A

43-48

45.7

8 J

136-142

139.5

12 J

39-54

46.2

Bill (mm)

20 A

37-45

40.8

8 J

39-46

43.1

Limicola falcinellus

Tarsus (mm):

20 A

44-59

50.8

Wing (mm)

8 A

107-111

107.3

7 J

48-58.5

53.9

Bill(mm)

11 A

30-34

31.6

Tail (mm):

20 A

53-66

59.4

Tarsus(mm)

11 A

20-23

20.5

7 J

55-61

58.7

Tail (mm)

11 A

37-42

39.6

Weight (g):

20 A

48-82

59.7

Weight (g)

11 A

24-34

30.1

8 J

71-84

75

Philomachus pugnax, female

Calidris minuta

Wing (mm)

38 A

150-167

156.4

Wing (mm)

96 A

92-107

97.3

19 J

150-163

157.3

100 J

92-103

98.1

Bill (mm)

52 A

27.5-32

30.3

Bill (mm)

99 A

16-21

18.9

16 J

28-32

30.1

100 J

16-20

18.9

Tarsus (mm)

53 A

35-44

39.2

Tarsus (mm)

99 A

18-23

20.4

16 J

35-42

38.8

100 J

18-22

20.3

Tail (mm)

53 A

52-71

57.5

Tail (mm)

99 A

33-44

40.2

18 J

54-60

57.3

99 J

36-42

39.9

Weight (g)

57 A

80-116

102.8

Weight (g)

99 A

19-28

22.5

19 J

91-114

105.3

100 J

18-27.5

21.4

Philomachus pugnax, male

Wing (mm)

3 A

186-189

187.3

A - adult, J-

Juvenile (first year bird)

Bill (mm)

9 A

31-38

35.6

Tarsus (mm)

9 A

45-50

48.2

Tail (mm)

9 A

67-72

69.6

Weight (g)

9 A

148-187

169.9

324

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY \ Vol. 89

census studies. There was no peak or fall worth
noting. Breeding in some islets in the swamp.

Little egret Egretta garzetta: Recorded
throughout the census period. Two main peaks, in
August and April, were observed, followed by a
slight peak in June. The population was very low
during October-November.

Indian reef heron Egretta gularis: A <
seasonal migrant, recorded only from October to 1
May.

Redshank Tringa totanus: This migrant was
seen from August to November, then reappeared
after a break of two months. A peak was observed
in February and was seen up to March. Thereafter
in April, May and June it was not recorded.

Greenshank Tringa nebularia: Trends
similar to those for the redshank, except for its
absence from May to July.

Little stint Calidris minuta : The com-
monest species at Pt. Calimere, but present in
small numbers from August till December. A
sudden increase in January and decline in
February, with a slow increase through March,
reaching a second peak in April. The species was
absent from May to July.

Curlew sandpiper Calidris ferruginea:
Occurred in almost all months except February,
May and June. The maximum population was
recorded during October and a very high con-
gregation was seen during July. Interestingly,
there was a high population in April, followed by
a complete absence during May and Jutie and
again a very high peak in July.

Herring gull Larus argentatus: The first
among the gulls to reach Pt. Calimere, but was not
common in the census area. A small population
was noticed during September, October and
January. They preferred the sea shore as it
provided large amounts of fishery waste on which
they fed.

Brownheaded gull Larus brunnicephalus:
The commonest gull in the swamps of Pt.
Calimere, noted from October till May, reaching
a peak during January. A sudden decline in
February, followed by a second peak in March
and then a decline in May.

Fig. 1. Monthly variation in density of waterbirds
during 1985-86 at Pt. Calimere

Whiskered tern Chklidonias hybrida: Fair-
ly comon in the swamp habitat, usually present
throughout the year.

Common tern Sterna hirundo: Recorded
throughout the census period with a peak in
August, thereafter showing a constant decline,
reaching a minimum in October.

Little tern Sterna albifrons: A breeding
resident of Pt. Calimere, present throughout the
year with slight variations in numbers every
month.

Swallow Hirundo rustica: Even though they
are landbirds they prefer swamp habitat for both
feeding and roosting. First recorded in September
Table 5

BIRD SPECIES DIVERSITY AND SPECIES RICHNESS

Month

Bird species
diversity

No. of species

August 1985

2.03

19

September

2.40

29

October

2.04

29

November

1.85

25

December

2.16

22

January 1986

1.59

26

February

2.04

23

March

1.88

24

April

2.01

27

May

2.34

22

June

1.87

13

July

1.94

20

WINTERING WATERBIRDS AT PT. CAUMERE

325

'O OQ

31

to

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1 1

1 1

1

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Cm

1

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1

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ei

tH

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t-

3

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ts

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1

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1.1

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1

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1 S’

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3 8

g 3 ^ <5

1 J J J
«rs

ft* H H H

1 a

!i

3 3

a 5

| s .g *

I !■§ «i-l §

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g .3 S » §• ^ .g

e vs 8 § 5 8 1 a ^ 5s-3 111 § | a

| S-i-l J I'l a I || | Is 3 ill ||1 |

Iif-p- lull- fnif^t-r

S> 1 &&S J i § § § | 1 1 j j j J •§ -m -i •§

8

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•§ g

ll

H O

Table 6 (contd.)

326

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

os o P ''t

M I I I I I I Oh I h Ch fO t* Oh Oh Oh Oh I H | |

I I I I I I I Oh Oh (N Oh

«0 fO

(N) Oh Oh I | I ii | |

>v

s

I I I I I | Oh - I TH Oh Oh

m 00

(N I Oh I Oh | r-5 | |

&

<

™ ~

tt oo

it I I I | H | N ft< H 6h N

00

Tf | | Oh Oh | ro Oh Oh

^ 2 ^

*H I I I I fO I oo Oh Oh Oh Oh

(S Oh Oh I I | Oh I Oh

| | Oh | IhhIIoOhOhOhOh CO I i I I IOhIOh

VO ^

Oh | | Oh I CO | Oh Oh Oh H H

rr t";

r6 I I | Oh Oh f6 Oh Oh

»o

^ Os N VO N N

I I rf I | rH l-i ri N

Csl t'' | Oh Oh I | I

Tf r- oo

Oh I I IOhCUhOOhOhN

»o r*

__ r4 oo

^ H I Oh | Os | | |

<M M SO
| | Oh | Oh | SO Oh VO Oh r-i

hi I Oh Oh I | Oh | Oh

Vi

»o 00 t" VO 00 t"

00 Oh | Oh I | i VO H oo M N tTIOhOhI I Oh Oh Oh

60

3

<

I I I I

_ _ ^ to

fO Os ^ ^

I »d a w h

I I I I I I I Oh I

• S3

| I

fJ

-i 3
y 5,
5 F

I 3 «

| : 1 1 1

^ *2 -o 5 o o §

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-s: «

Vi

ill 111 H §

*1

Jf

a 8-

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IS £ .3 ! 1 -3

!§.=!! r i 1 1 1

s g 1 « S $ §• 1 =s

i -3 ^ ■§ 8.1 § 3 '§

Mean of less than 1

WINTERING WATERBIRDS AT PT. CALI MERE

327

Table 7

POPULATION DENSITY OF WATERBIRDS AT PT. CAUMERE (AUGUST 1985 - JULY 1986)

Species

Status

Density/ sq. km

Pelecanus philippensis

SM

8

Ardea cinerea

R

4

Ardeola grayii

C

6

Ardea alba

C

3

Dgretta intermedia

C

1

Egretta garzetta

C

28

Egretta gularis

C

3

Mycteria leucocephala

C

23

Platalea leucorodia

SM

1

Phoenicopterus roseus

SM

52

Phoeniconaias minor

SM

1

Anas acuta

M

81

Anas poecilorhyncha

SM

1

Anas clypeata

M

23

Himantopus himantopus

SM

19

Recurvirostra avosetta

M

16

Pluvialis squatarola

M, C

1

Charadrius dubius

C, R

1

Charadrius alexandrinus

C, R

1

Charadrius mongolus

M, C

1

Numenius phaeopus

M, C

1

but completely absent in October. A large influx
was noted during November; the population
remained stable throughout December and
decreased in January, after which they disap-
peared from the area. Three interesting recoveries
were obtained during 1986: birds ringed at Moot-
puzha in Kerala were captured by false vampire
bats in Tamil Nadu during November, suggesting
an eastward movement of this species during
migration (Sugathan 1988).

Brahminy kite Haliastur indus: There was
not much variation in population size, which
remained almost constant throughout the year
except during August. A breeding resident, com-
monly seen in good numbers on the seashore from
November to February (the fishing season). Feeds
on fishery waste, along with gulls.

Bird species diversity: The mean monthly
bird species diversity was 2.01. The monthly
variation of the diversity is shown in Table 5.

Density of waterbirds: The status and den-
sity of waterbirds estimated per sq. km are given

Species

Status

Density/ sq. km

Tringa totanus

M, C

1

Tringa stagnatilis

M, C

10

Tringa nebularia

M, C

1

Tringa terek

M

1

Tringa hypoleucos

M, C

1

Arenaria interpres

M, C

1

Calidris minuta

M, C

108

Calidris ferruginea

M, C

16

Philomachus pugnax

M, C

3

Phalaropus lobatus

M, O

1

Lams argentatus

M, C

1

Larusfuscus

M, C

1

Larus brunnicephalus

M, C

23

Larus ridibundus

M, C

1

Chlidonias hybrida

M, C

8

Gelochelidon nilotica

M, C

3

Hydroprogne caspia

M, C

13

Sterna hirundo

M, C

6

Sterna albifrons

R, B

4

B = breeding, C = common, R = resident, M = migrant, SM
= seasonal migrant, O = occasional.

in Table 7. Monthly variations in density are
shown in Fig. 1. The annual mean bird density (all
species) was 516 birds/sq. km. The density was
highest in January, lowest in May and increased
after the rains (Fig. 1).

The census data was gathered mainly from
reservoirs (man-made habitat), which attract large
numbers of piscivorous birds rather than waders.
The figures for natural habitat may be significant-
ly different.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to J.C. Daniel, S.A. Hussain
and R. Sugathan of BNHS for their help and
encouragement during the study. I am also thank-
ful for financial assistance from the U S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, received through the Ministry of
Environment, Govt, of India. Lastly, I want to
thank all the Forest Department officials at Pt.
Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary, for their
co-operation and help.

328

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY \ Vol. 89

References

Ali, S. (1963): Pt Calimere as a refuge for wintering shore
birds./. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 60: 458-460.

Ali, S. & Hussain, S.A. (1981-1982): Studies on the move-
ment and population structure of Indian Avifauna. An-
nual Report Nos. I & II. Bombay Natural History
Society, Bombay.

Balachandran, S. & Natarajan, V. (1992): Possible occur-
rence of four subspecies of lesser sand plover
Charadrius mongolus at Pt. Calimere Wildlife
Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu .J. Bombay natHist. Soc. 89(1):
118-119.

Cramp, S. & Simmons, K.E.L. (eds.) (1982): The Birds of the
Western Palaearctic, Vol. III. Oxford University Press,
Oxford.

Emlen, J.T. (1971): Population densities of birds derived from
transect counts. Auk 88: 323-342.

Franzreb, K.E. (1981): The determination of avian densities
using the variable strip and fixed-width transect survey-
ing methods. In: Ralph, C.J and Scott, J.M (eds.),Es-
timating numbers of territorial birds. Stud. Avian Biol.
No. 6. pp. 139- 145.

MacArthur, R., Recher, H. & Cody, M. (1966): On the
relation between habitat selection and species diversity.
Am. Nat. 100: 319-325.

Prater, AJ., Marchant, H J., & Vuorinen, J. (1977): Guide
to the identification and ageing of Holarctic Waders.
BTO Field Guide. 17.

Spencer, R. (1976): The Ringer’s Manual BTO, Tring.

Sugathan, R. (1982): Some interesting aspects of the
Avifauna of the PL Calimere Sanctuary, Thanjavur
district, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79(3):
567-575.

Sugathan, R. (1988): Movement of the Eastern Swallow
( Hirundo rustica gutturalis ) ringed at Mootpuzha,
Kerala./. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(2): 428-429.

PARASITIC WASPS OF THE GENUS TETRASTICHUS HALIDA Y
(HYMENOPTERA: EULOPHIDAE) FROM NORTHERN INDIA1

M. A. Khan and S. N. Sushil2
(With seventy-four text-figures )

Tetrastichus Haliday, 1843

Genotype: Cirrospilus attatus Walker by
original designation [= miser (Nees)].

The genus Tetrastichus Haliday is a useful
member of the Chalcidoidea which attacks a
wide variety of hosts, including important pests
of agriculture crops such as caterpillars, stem-
borers, leaf miners, aphids, beetles, midges and
thrips. The parasites attack different stages of
the host including eggs, larvae, nymphs and
pupae. They are either primary parasites or hy-
perparasites. Some species of Tetrastichus have
also been reared as secondary parasites.

From India a good number of species have
been described. In the present work five new
species are being added to the known species of
the genus Tetrastichus and three species are
redescribed. (Type material is being deposited in
3.S.I., Calcutta, India). A key to some Indian
species of the genus is also given .

Key to some Indian species of the genus

Tetrastichus Haliday based on females

1. Post marginal vein distinctly developed 2

— Post marginal vein completely absent 7

2. Body yellow or yellowish brown 4

— Body black 3

3. Frontovertex and face with scattered shallow puncta-
tions; eyes very sparsely pubescent; antennae brown,
scape pale brown, only one ring segment present, club
almost as long as preceding two funicle segments
combined, scutellum Finely longitudinally reticulate

T krishnaiahi Kaul and Saraswat

— Area of frons dorsad and laterad of scrobe cavity
deeply punctured; eyes bare; antennae brown except
club white and scape whitish with infuscation on dor-

accepted March 1990.

department of Entomology, G.B. Pant University of
Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar (Nainital), Uttar
Pradesh 263 145.

sal side, three ring segments present, club longer than
preceding funicle segment; scutellum with micro-
reticulate sculpture T. chakrataensis sp. nov.

4. Eyes black or dark red 5

— Eyes silvery white, bare, scape slightly more than

four times as long as wide, three ring segments
present; funicle segments 1-3 subequal in length, each
one and a half times as long as wide; mesoscutum
with five setae near each parapsidal furrow, abdomen
with five transverse brown bands on dorsum

T. flavidus Khan and Shafee, 1981

5. Eyes smooth, black in colouration, frontovertex

smooth 6

— Eyes pubescent, dark red; abdomen with transverse

bands; frontovertex punctate, propodeum smooth,
median carina and paraspiracular carina absent,
propodeal spiracle touching the lateral margin

T. postmarginaloides Saraswat

6. Post ocellar line distinctly less than twice as long as
ocellocular, antennae with only one ring segment,
pedicel short, longer than wide, first funicle segment
longer than wide, second segment shorter than first,
quadrate, third segment transverse, wider than long,
club almost as long as funicle segments 1-3 combined

T. mohani sp. nov.

— Post ocellar line greater than ocellocular, antennae

with only two ring segments, pedicel twice as long as
wide, first funicle segment a trifle less than twice as
long as wide, second segment longer than first, less
than twice as long as wide, third segment short, less
than one and a half times as long as wide, club longer
than preceding two funicle segments combined

T. lotellae Delucchi

7. Body colouration dark brown or metallic 8

— Body colouration yellow or yellowish brown .... 18

8. Antennae with only one ring segment 9

— Antennae with more than one ring segment 15

9. Frontovertex punctate 10

— Frontovertex smooth, without punctations 11

10. Malar suture distinct; antennae dark brown, scape tes-
taceous, pedicel short, distinctly longer than wide,
two ring segments present, funicle segments 1-3 sub-
equal in size, club almost as long as preceeding two

funicle segments together

T. versicolor Ranaweera, 1947

330

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

— Malar suture absent, antennae dark brown except club

white; pedicel long, more than twice as long as wide;
only one ring segment present, first funicle segment
elongated, less than twice as long as wide, second a
trifle longer than wide, third greatly transverse,
club longer than preceding two funicle segments
combined T. davidi Khan et al. , 1986

11. Lower margin of dypeus with two dents medially ... 12

— Lower margin of clypeus without dents medially;
eyes red; prominence between antennal sockets one-
third the width of frons between eyes; antennae

uniformly yellowish brown

T. indicus Khan and Shafee, 1981

12. Antennae dark brown except scape yellowish or

infuscated 13

— Antennae uniformly dark brown, except scape and

pedicel white, prominence between antennal sockets
more than one fifth the width of frons between eyes,
subocular suture distinct, mandibles with an acute
tooth and a truncation T. partellus sp. nov.

13. Mandibles tridentate 14

— Mandibles bidentate, post ocellar line almost one and
a half times as long as ocellocular, prominence be-
tween antennal socket one fifth between the frons and
eyes, malar suture absent, antennae dark brown ex-
cept scape infuscated, pedicel distinctly less than
twice as long as wide, mesopraescutum bearing one
row of five setae at each lateral margin, third valvulae
long, almost seven times as long as wide, distinctly
less than one third the length of second valvifers

T. pyrillae Crawford

14. Eyes reddish brown, prominence between antennal
sockets one fourth the width of frons between eyes,
malar space about as long as eye width, third valvulae
short, triangular, less than twice as long as wide,

about one fifth the length of second valvifers

T. aligarhensis Khan and Shafee 1981

— Eyes dark, prominence between antennal sockets less
than one third the width of frons between eyes, malar
space distinctly longer than eye width, third valvulae
long, lanceolate, almost four times as long as wide,
more than one third the length of second valvifers. . . .
T. mangifera sp. nov.

15. Antennae with four ring segments 16

— - Antennae with only two or three ring segments ... 17

16. Body very dark brown with metallic blue-green

reflections; head without punctations; antennae brown
with scape yellowish; legs pale yellow except fore
coxae dark brown T. dhireni Saraswat

— Body non metallic brown; head with shallow scat-
tered punctations on vertex and face, antennae dark
brown except scape yellowish brown; legs pale brown. .

T. shencottensis Saraswat

17. Scape, pedicel yellowish brown, funicle segments and

club fuscous; only two ring segments present, legs
pale cream except coxae and major part of femora
dark T. taprobanensis Ranaweera, 1947

— Antennae dark brown with yellow brown scape and
pedicel; three ring segments present; legs testaceous

except coxa and femora dark brown

T. niger Ranaweera, 1947

18. Pedicel distinctly shorter or one-half to one-third the

length of first funicle segment 19

— Pedicel as long as first funicle segment or longer ... 27

19. Antennae with one or two ring segments 20

— Antennae with three or four ring segments 21

20. Antennae with only one ring segment, malar space
shorter than eye width, mandibles with two teeth and
truncation, scape three times longer than wide, basal
vein with five setae, speculum closed below, third
valvulae very long almost nine times as wide, dis-
tinctly less than one-third the length of second valvi-
fers T. pantnagarensis Khan, 1983

— Antennae with two ring segments, malar space longer
than eye width, mandibles tridentate with acute teeth;
scape more than five times as long as wide; basal vein
with three setae, speculum large and open below,
third valvulae short, five times as long as wide, less

than one fourth of the second valvifers

T. misellus Delucchi

21. Four ring segments present 22

— Only three ring segments present 23

22. Antennae about half the body; pedicel almost one-

third the length of first funicle segment; first funicle
segment very long, almost eight times as long as
wide; three mesoscutal bristles present, median lon-
gitudinal groove on mesonotum faint

T. tritrichia Saraswat

— Antennae less than half the body; pedicel not

likewise, distinctly shorter than first funicle segment,
first funicle segment almost two and a half times as
long as wide; 11 mesoscutal bristles present, median
longitudinal groove on mesonotum distinct

T. polyseta Saraswat

23. Antennae not uniformly yellow 24

— Antennae uniformly yellow; eyes red with six dark
patches; scape slightly less than four times as long as
wide, as long as basal two funicle segments together,
funicle segments 1-3 subequal in length, body com-
pletely yellow except apex of ovipositor infuscated;
middle tibial spur as long as basitarsus; third valvulae
four times as long as wide; one-fourth the length of
second valvifers, outer plates of ovipositor as long as
second valvifers . . . T. psyllidis Khan and Shafee, 1981

PARASITIC WASPS OF THE GENUS TETRASTICHUS

331

24. Lower margin of clypeus with two dents medially ... 25

— Lower margin of clypeus without dents medially; two

dark spots below the front ocellus present; club two-
segmented; thorax light reddish brown; slightly
broader than head, legs yellowish brown; submarginal
vein approximately equal to marginal vein; stigmal
vein about one-fourth the marginal vein; ovipositor
sub-exserted T. lasiopterae Bhatnagar, 1951

25. Frontovertex and thorax without any punctations ... 26

— Frontovertex, mesoscutum and scutellum with
punctations; eyes and ocelli brownish red to reddish
brown; antennae dark brown; legs yellowish brown
except middle coxae completely, hind coxae basally
and last tarsal segment of all the legs dark brown ....

T. malabarensis Sara swat

26. Head yellowish brown, vertex and bases of ocelli

dark brown, eyes reddish brown, antennae black ex-
cept scape yellowish brown; legs yellowish except
last tarsal segment of all the legs dark brown; pedicel
distinctly less than one-half the length of first funicle
segment T. bicolor Saraswat

— Head very dark brown, rest of the body yellowish

brown; eyes red; antennae brown except scape and
pedicel yellowish brown; legs brownish yellow ex-
cept hind coxae on basal half black; pedicel not
likewise but distinctly shorter than first funicle seg-
ment T. satpurensis Saraswat

27. Eyes red or black 28

— Eyes silvery white; prominence between antennal
sockets one-sixth the width of frons between eyes; an-
tennae yellowish; scape three and a half times as long
as wide; pedicel one and a half times as long as wide,
two ring segments present; funicle segments 1-3
slightly longer than wide; third valvulae three and a
half times as long as wide; one-third the length of
second valvifers, outer plates of ovipositor slightly

longer than second valvifers

T. ajmerensis Khan and Shafee, 1981

28. Thorax yellowish brown; prominence between anten-
nal sockets one-fifth the width of frons between eyes;
mesoscutum with five setae near each parapsidal fur-
row, third valvulae six times as long as wide, more
than one-third the length of second valvifers, outer

plates of ovipositor as long as second valvifers

T. annulicornis Khan and Shafee, 1981

— Thorax brown with reddish yellow admixture;
prominence between antennal sockets distinctly more
than one-fourth the width of frons between eyes;
mesopraescutum bearing a single seta at each lateral
margin, third valvulae less than six times as long as
wide, slightly more than one-third the length of
second valvifers, outer plates of ovipositor distinctly

shorter than second valvifers T. obliqua sp. nov.

Tetrastichus ns oh ani sp. nov.3

(Figs. 1-10)

Head (Fig. 1): Reddish brown, with very
faint iridescent blue lustre, wider than long in
facial view (0.64:0.52), frontovertex much
wider, more than one-half the total head width
(0.33:0.64); ocelli white, arranged in an obtuse
angle triangle, post ocellar line distinctly less
than twice as long as ocellocular; eyes black and
smooth; antennae inserted just above the lower
level of eyes; prominence between antennal
sockets one-fourth the width of frons between
eyes; malar space longer than eye width
(0.21:0.14); malar suture distinct; lower margin
of clypeus with two dents medially; mandibles
tridentate, maxillary and labial palpi each seg-
mented.

Antennae (Fig. 2): Yellowish brown ex-
cept the scape whitish, 8-segmented excluding
one ring segment; scape less than four times as
long as wide (0.14:0.04), pedicel short, longer
than wide (0.05:0.035), as long as first funicle
segment, funicle 3-segmented, first funicle seg-
ment longer than wide (0.05:0.04), second seg-
ment shorter than first, quadrate (0.04:0.04),
third segment transverse, wider than long
(0.042:0.035), club 3-segmented, less than thrice
as long as wide (0.13:0.055), almost as long as
funicle segments 1-3 combined.

Thorax (Fig. 3): Reddish brown with very
faint iridescent blue lustre; pronotum with
posterior margin slightly concave with six pairs
of setae, anterior margin concave in the middle
(Fig. 4), mesoscutum distinctly more than twice
as wide as long (0.6:0.26); parapsidal furrows
complete, mesopraescutum bearing one row of
four bristles at each lateral margin, median fur-
row present; scutellum wider than long
(0.34:0.28), with two submedian grooves and
two pairs of setae, posterior margin rounded,

*This species is named after Prof. Man Mohan Agarwal in
recognition of his valuable contributions to our knowledge
of Chalcidoidea.

332

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIEIY, Vol. 89

Figs. 1-10. Tetrastichus mohani sp. nov.

1. Head, facial view; 2. Antenna; 3. Thorax; 4. Pronotum; 5. Forewing; 6. Hind wing; 7. Part of foreleg;
8. Part of middle leg; 9. Part of hind leg; 10. Ovipositor.

PARASITIC WASPS OF THE GENUS TETRASTICHUS

333

mesopostphragma not reaching beyond the
propodeum; surface of propodeum with fine
reticulate sculpture, strong mesal and paras-
piracular carinae present and a series of short
carinae radiating latero-anteriorad from
posterior margin, a number of vague wrinkles
present on propodeal surface, spiracles well
separated from the anterior margin of
propodeum.

Forewings (Fig. 5): Hyaline, less than
thrice as long as wide (1.47:0.57), densely
setose, rounded apically; costal cell broad with a
ventral line of eight setae, basal vein with six
setae, basal cell bare, speculum moderate and
closed below, cubital vein sinuate, subcubital
line of hairs starting from a distance about one-
fourth distance from base; submarginal vein
(0.46) with four strong setae, longer than mar-
ginal vein (0.4), postmarginal vein very short
(0.02), stigmal vein (0.1) one-fourth the mar-
ginal vein, marginal fringe short.

Hind wings (Fig. 6): Hyaline; acute at
apex, less than six times as long as wide
(1.1:0.2); marginal fringe at posterior margin
long, one half width of wing at hamuli.

Forelegs (Fig. 7): Yellowish except coxae,
trochanter and femora infuscated; tibial spur
short, apical rim of tibiae with four small pegs;
basitarsus, second and third tarsal segments with
two pegs on each.

Middle legs (Fig. 8): Uniformly yellowish,
tibial spur long, more than half the length of
basitarsus; apical rim of tibiae with five distinct
pegs.

Hind legs (Fig. 9): Uniformly yellowish
except coxae slighly infuscated at basal tip;
tibial spur a trifle more than half the length of
basal tarsus; apical rim of tibiae with four dis-
tinct pegs.

Abdomen: Reddish brown with very faint
iridescent blue lustre; as long as head and thorax
together; ovipositor arising from apical one-
third of abdominal venter; third valvulae (Fig.
10) moderate in size, lanceolate, less than seven
times as long as wide, less than one-third the

length of second valvifers (Fig. 10), outer plates
of ovipositor (Fig. 10) longer than second val-
vifers.

Holotype: Female, INDIA, U.R - Nainital,
Pantnagar, ex. Agromyzid leaf mine (uniden-
tified) on wild plant, 7 August, 1987 (M. A.
Khan).

Paratype: Five females, same data as
holotype.

Tetrastichus mangifera sp. nov.

(Figs. 11-21)

Head (Fig. 11): Dark with lower half of
frontovertex, clypeus and malar space light yel-
lowish, roundish, slightly wider than long in fa-
cial view (0.46:0.41); frontovertex much wider,
more than one-half the total head width
(0.26:0.46), ocelli dark, arranged in obtuse tri-
angle; postocellar line slightly longer than ocel-
locular; eyes dark and smooth, antennae inserted
well above the lower level of eyes; prominence
between antennal sockets less than one-third the
width of frons between eyes (0.1:0.26); malar
space distinctly longer than eye width
(0.14:0.09); malar suture distinct; lower margin
of clypeus with two dents medially; mandibles
tridentate (Fig. 12) maxillary and labial palpi
each 1 -segmented.

Antennae (Fig. 13): Dark except pedicel
and scape yellowish with infuscations; 8-seg-
mented excluding one ring segment; scape less
than four times as long as wide (0.22:0.06); al-
most as long as three funicle segments together,
pedicel less than twice as long as wide
(0.09:0.05), distinctly longer than first funicle
segment; funicle 3-segmented, segments 1-3
gradually decreasing in length distad; first
funicle segment longer than wide (0.08:0.06);
longer than second segment (0.07:0.06), third as
long as wide (0.065:0.065); club 3-segmented,
more than twice as long as wide (0.17:0.08),
longer than preceding two funicle segments
together.

Thorax (Fig. 14): Dark; non-iridescent;
mesoscutum less than thrice as wide as long

334

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Figs. 11-21. Tetrastiches mangifera sp. nov.

11. Head, facial view; 12. Mandible; 13. Antenna; 14. Thorax; 15. Pronotum; 16. Forewing; 17. Hind wing;
18. Part of foreleg; 19. Part of middle leg; 20. Part of hind leg; 21. Ovipositor.

ujujsi-o

PARASITIC WASPS OF THE GENUS TETRASTICHUS

335

(0.07:0.17), mesopraescutum twice as wide as
long (0.34:0.17), with a row of five bristles at
each lateral margin; scutellum wider than long
with two submedian grooves and two pairs of
setae with longitudinal striations; posterior mar-
gin rounded; mesopostphragma reaching beyond
the propodeum; propodeum with strong mesal
and paraspiracular carinae, spiracle almost
touching the anterior margin of propodeum.

Fore wings (Fig. 16): Hyaline; more than
twice as long as wide (1.22:0.51); apex broadly
rounded; costal cell with four setae, shorter than
marginal vein; basal vein with five setae, basal
area with two setae; cubital vein straight;
speculum narrow, closed below; submarginal
vein with four strong setae directed apically and
four setae directed backwards; shorter (0.32)
than marginal vein (0.35); postmarginal vein
rudimentary; stigmal vein short (0.1); marginal
fringe short.

Hind wings (Fig. 17): Hyaline, almost six
times as long as wide, acute at apex; marginal
fringe long.

Forelegs (Fig. 18): Uniformly yellowish
except last tarsal segment infuscated; tibial spur
short, apical rim of tibiae with three pegs.

Middle legs (Fig. 19): Uniformly yel-
lowish except coxae and last tarsal segment in-
fuscated; tibial spur longer than basitarsus;
apical rim of tibiae with three pegs.

Hind legs (Fig. 20): Uniformly honey yel-
lowish except coxae with a black spot on dorsal
side and pretarsus with apical end infuscated;
coxae, femora and tibiae compressed; tibial spur
shorter than basitarsus, apical rim of tibiae with
two pegs.

Abdomen (Fig. 21): Dark except basal
one-third which is yellow; longer than thorax;
ovipositor concealed, arising from base of ab-
dominal venter; first valvifers semicircular (Fig.
21); second valvifers long and narrow, more or
less of uniform width; anterior margin of basal
part typically very large and much curved (Fig.
21), U-shaped; third valvuiae almost four times
as long as wide; more than one-third the second

valvifers (Fig. 21), outer plates of ovipositor dis-
tinctly shorter than second valvifers.

Length of female: 1.12 mm.

Holotype: Female, INDIA, U. P. - Nainital,
Pantnagar, ex. Coccids (unidentified) on Man-
gifera indica , 10 August , 1987 (M.A. Khan).

Paratype: TWo females, same data as
holotype.

Tetrastichus obliqua sp. nov.

(Figs. 22-28)

Head (Fig. 22): Completely yellowish
brown; setose, setae dark brown, arranged in
two rows at frons and a single row just below
antennal sockets; wider than long (0.48:0.4);
frontovertex wide, more than one-half the total
head width (0.28:0.48); ocelli red, arranged in
obtuse triangle, postocellar line one and a half
times as long as ocellocular; eyes black and
smooth; antennae inserted at lower level of eyes;
prominence between antennal sockets distinctly
more than one-fourth the width of frons between
eyes (0.06:0.28); malar space very long, almost
twice the eye width (0.19:0.1); malar suture dis-
tinct; lower margin of clypeus without dents
medially; mandibles (Fig. 23) tridentate; maxi-
llary and labial palpi each 1-segmented.

Antennae (Fig. 24): Uniformly yellowish,
densely setose; 8-segmented excluding two ring
segments; scape flattened, less than thrice as
long as wide (0.16:0.06); pedicel long, twice as
long as wide (0.08:0.04), as long as first funicle
segment; first segment twice as long as wide
(0.08:0.04), second segment as long as first but
less than twice as long as wide (0.08:0.45), third
short, less than one and a half times as long as
wide (0.06:0.045); club 3-segmented, more than
thrice as long as wide (0.14:0.45), slightly
longer than preceding two funicle segments
together.

Thorax (Fig. 25): Brown with reddish yel-
low admixture; pronotum (Fig. 26) with
posterior submarginal ridge bearing five pairs of
setae, antero-lateral arms slightly long and nar-
row; mesoscutum more than twice as wide as

336

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Figs. 22-28. Tetrastichus obliqua sp. nov.

22. Head, facial view; 23. Mandible; 24. Antenna; 25. Thorax; 26. Pronotum; 27. Forewing (part); 28. Ovipositor.

PARASITIC WASPS OF THE GENUS TETRASTICHUS

337

long (0.52:0.24), mesopraescutum bearing a
single seta at each lateral margin, middle lon-
gitudinal groove present; scutellum shorter than
mesoscutum, more than twice as long as wide
(0.38:0.18), with two submedian grooves and
two pairs of setae; surface of propodeum
smooth; median, paraspiracular and oblique
carinae present, mesal length of propodeum less
than one-third length of scutellum, propodeal
spiracles separated from anterior margin by a
space more than one-half as great as length of a
spiracle; mesopostphragma reaching well
beyond the propodeum.

Forewings (Fig. 27): Hyaline; venation very
light yellow; more than twice as long as wide
(1.2:0.52), costal cell narrow with eight small
setae; basal vein with three setae; basal cell bare;
speculum of moderate size, open below; submar-
ginal vein (0.26) with three strong setae, less than
twice the length of marginal vein (0.44); postmar-
ginal vein absent; stigmal vein short, almost one-
fifth the length of marginal vein.

Legs: Yellow except fore coxae brown, mid-
dle tibial spur distinctly shorter than basitarsus.

Abdomen (Fig. 28): Brown with yellowish
reflections; longer than head and thorax
together, ovipositor exserted; first valvifers (Fig.
28) semicircular; anterior margin of basal part of
second valvifers much curved and U-shaped
(Fig. 28); third valvulae less than six times as
long as wide, slightly more than one-third the
length of second valvifers (Fig. 28); outer plates
of ovipositor (Fig. 28) distinctly shorter than
second valvifers.

Length of female: 1.24 mm.

Holotype: Female, INDIA, U.P. - Nainital,
Pantnagar, ex. pupa of Spilosoma obliqua
(Lepidoptera: Arctidae) on Glycine max , 10 Oc-
tober, 1987 (M. A. Khan).

Paratype: Six females, same data as
holotype.

Tetrastichus chakrataensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 29-37)

Head (Fig. 29): Dark brown with strong

iridescent bluish lustre; area of frons dorsad and
laterad of scrobe cavity deeply punctured, area
immediately ventrad of antennae bases
shagreened; fracture at ventral margin of com-
pound eye obscure, small, wider than long in fa-
cial view (0.52:0.43); frontovertex width
distinctly more than one-half the total head
width (0.3:0.52), ocelli reddish, arranged in ob-
tuse triangle, postocellar line more than as long
as ocellocular; eyes bare, antennae inserted al-
most at the middle, prominence between anten-
nal sockets less than one-seventh the width of
frons between eyes (0.045:0.03); malar space
longer than eye width (0.12:0.1); malar suture
distinct; lower margin of clypeus without dents
medially; mandibles (Fig. 30) tridentate, maxi-
llary and labial palpi each 1 -segmented (Fig.
31).

Antennae (Fig. 32): Brown except club
white, scape whitish with infuscation on dorsal
side, 8-segmented excluding three ring seg-
ments; scape cylindrical, more than four times
as long as wide (0.17:0.04), pedicel two and a
half times as long as wide (0.1:0.4); more than
half the length of first funicle segment; funicle
3-segmented, segments gradually decreasing in
length and increasing in width distad; first
funicle segment more than four times as long as
wide (0.164:0.04), second less than thrice as
long as wide (0.14:0.05) third twice as long as
wide (0.12:0.06); club 3-segmented, less, than
thrice as long as wide (0.18:0.07), longer than
preceding funicle segment.

Thorax (Fig. 33): Dark brown with strong
iridescent bluish lustre; pronotum (Fig. 34) with
posterior submarginal ridge bearing six pairs of
setae, antero-lateral angles obtuse and laterally
directed; mesoscutum less than twice as wide as
long (0.46:0.25), mesopraescutum bearing one
row of bristles at each lateral margin; scutellum
longer than wide (0.25:0.2), with two submedian
longitudinal grooves and two pairs of setae,
posterior margin rounded; mesopostphragma not
reaching beyond the propodeum, surface of
propodeum shagreened, strong mesal and

5

338

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Figs. 29-37. Tetrastichus chakrataensis sp. nov.

29. Head, facial view; 30. Mandible; 31. Maxillary and labial palpi; 32. Antenna; 33. Thorax; 34. Pronotum; 35. Forewing;

36. Hind wing; 37. Ovipositor.

PARASITIC WASPS OF THE GENUS TETRASTICI IUS

339

paraspiracular carinae present, propodeal
spiracles separated from anterior margin by a
space one-half as great as length of a spiracle.

Forewings (Fig. 35): Hyaline, less than
thrice as long as wide (1.46:0.53); disc densely
setose; costal cell short and narrow, with a row
of six small setae at basal half and four long
setae at apical end; basal vein with four setae;
basal cell setose; cubital vein straight, speculum
absent; submarginal vein with two long setae,
much shorter (0.38) than marginal vein (0.45),
postmarginal vein very short (0.02), stigmal vein
(0.11) more than one-fourth the length of mar-
ginal vein; marginal fringe short.

Hind wings (Fig. 36): Hyaline, less than
seven times as long as wide (1.24:0.19), densely
setose; marginal fringe long.

Legs: Uniformly yellow except coxae
brown and tarsal segments 3-4 infuscated, mid-
dle and hind tibial spur shorter than respective
basitarsus.

Abdomen: Brownish with metallic reflec-
tions; longer than thorax; ovipositor arising from
basal one-third of abdominal venter; first val-
vifers semicircular; anterior margin of basal part
of second valvifers much curved (Fig. 37); third
valvulae less than six times as long as wide,
more than one-third the length of second val-
vifers; outer plate of ovipositor (Fig. 37) dis-
tinctly shorter than second valvifers,
submarginal plate (Fig. 37) broad, posterior
margin with a notch in the middle.

Length of female: 1.41 mm.

Holotype: Female, INDIA, U.P. - Chakrata
(2745 m), ex. Lepidopterous leafmine (uniden-
tified) on wild plant, 4 May, 1986 (M. A. Khan).

Para type: Two females, same data as
holotype.

Tetrastichus partellus sp. nov.

(Figs. 38-48)

Head (Fig. 38): Dark brown with varying
degree of metallic green; iridescent; wider than
long (0.58:0.47), frontovertex much wider, dis-
tinctly more than one-half the total head width

(0.34:0.58), antennae inserted just above the line
drawn across lower level of eyes; prominence
between antennal sockets more than one-fifth
the width of frons between eyes (0.06:0.34);
subocular suture distinct, mandibles bidentate
(Fig. 39) with an acute tooth and truncation.

Antennae (Fig. 41): Uniformly dark brown
with scape and pedicel white, 8-segmented ex-
cluding one ring segment; scape cylindrical, less
than five times as long as wide (0.21:0.045);
pedicel distinctly less than twice as long as wide
(0.07:0.45), shorter than first funicle segment;
first funicle segment longer than wide
(0.08:0.065), second segment shortest, a trifle
longer than wide (0.07:0.065), third segment
longest, distinctly longer than wide (0.09:0.065),
club 3-segmented, more than thrice as long as
wide (0.23:0.07), a trifle shorter than funicle
segments 1-3 together; funicle segment 1 to last
club segments with 5, 4, 5, 6 and 3 sensoria
respectively.

Thorax: Dark brown with metallic green
iridescence; surface of propodeum (Fig. 42)
reticulate, median paraspiracular and oblique
carinae present, mesal length of propodeum one-
third length of scutellum; propodeal spiracle
separated from anterior margin by a space al-
most as great as length of a spiracle.

Forewings: (Fig. 43): Hyaline, venation
dark brown; more than twice as long as wide;
costal cell broad, with six setae arranged in a
row; submarginal vein with a long seta directed
upwards and setae in a row directed downwards;
submarginal vein (0.46) longer than marginal
vein (0.38); postmarginal vein rudimentary; stig-
mal vein (0.1) almost one-fourth the marginal
vein; marginal fringe long, spaced by a distance
equal to almost one-fourth length of a fringe.

Hind wings (Fig. 44): Hyaline, blunt at
apex; more than four times as long as wide.

Forelegs (Fig. 45): Uniformly dark brown
except tibiae tan; tarsal segments 1-4 light
brown.

Middle legs (Fig. 46): Unifonnly dark
brown except tibiae at apical one-third and first

340

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Figs. 38-48. Tetrastichus pcirtellus sp. nov.

38. Head, facial view; 39. Mandible; 40. Maxillary and labial palpi; 41. Antenna; 42. Propodeum; 43. Forewing;
44. Hind wing; 45. Foreleg; 46. Middle leg; 47. Part of middle leg; 48. Hind leg.

PARASITIC WASPS OF THE GENUS TETRASTICHUS

341

tarsal segment yellowish, tarsal segments 2-4
light brown, tibial spur long, as long as basitar-
sus, apical rim of tibiae (Fig. 47) with two stout
pegs.

Hind legs (Fig. 48): Colouration same as
that of middle legs.

Abdomen: Dark brown'with metallic green
iridescence; shorter than thorax; ovipositor al-
most concealed.

Length of female: 1.42 mm.

Holotype: Female, INDIA, U.P. - Nainital,
Pantanagar, ex. Pupae of Chilo partellus
(Lepidoptera: Crambidae) on Zea mays, 20 Oc-
tober, 1987 (M. A. Khan).

Para type: Two females, same data as
holotype.

Tetrastichus pyrillae Crawford
(Figs. 49-54)

Head (Fig. 49): Dark brown with yellowish
reflections on fro ns; wider than long in facial
view (0.56:0.48); frontovertex much wider,
more than one-half the total head width
(0.3:0.56); ocelli white, arranged in obtuse tri-
angle, postocellar line almost one and one-half
times as long as ocellocular; areas of frons
laterad and dorsad of scrobe cavity with well
marked transverse reticulations; eyes dark and
smooth; antennae inserted well above lower
level of eyes; prominence between antennal
sockets one-fifth the width of frons between
eyes (0.06:0.3); malar space longer than eye
width (0.18:0.13); malar suture absent; lower
margin of clypeus without dents medially; man-
dibles bidentate (Fig. 49) with acute teeth; maxi-
llary and labial palpi each 1-segmented.

Antennae (Fig. 50): Dark brown except
scape infuscated; 8-segmented excluding one
ring segment; scape cylindrical, more than four
times as long as wide (0.22:0.05); pedicel dis-
tinctly less than twice as long as wide
(0.08:0.05); funicle 3-segmented; first funicle
segment almost twice as long as wide
(0.12:0.065), second distinctly less than twice as

long as wide (0.11:0.065), third segment less
than one and a half times as long as wide
(0.115:0.08), distinctly wider than second seg-
ment; club 3-segmented, more than twice as
long as wide (0.22:0.09), shorter than preceding
two funicle segments together.

Thorax (Fig. 51): Dark brown; pronotum
(Fig. 52) with posterior submarginal ridge bear-
ing six pairs of setae, antero-lateral angles ob-
tuse and laterally directed; mesoscutum more
than two times wider than long (0.48:0.23);
mesopraescutum bearing one row of five setae
at each lateral margin; scutellum wider than long
(0.25:0.22), shorter than mesoscutum;
propodeum shagreened, lateral carinae present.

Forewings (Fig. 53): Hyaline; venation in-
fuscated, more than twice as long as wide
(1.4:0.68); costal cell narrow, bare; basal vein
with five setae; basal cell bare, open; speculum
moderate, closed below; cubital vein straight;
subcubital line of hairs short, starting from one-
third the distance from base; submarginal vein
(0.38) with a single seta, as long as marginal
vein (0.38); postmarginal vein rudimentary; stig-
mal vein (0.13) almost one-third the length of
marginal vein; marginal fringe short.

Hind wings: Hyaline, less than six times as
long as wide; marginal fringe long.

Legs: Dark brown except apex of femora,
tibiae and tarsal segments 1-4 yellowish.

Abdomen: Dark brown with metallic
reflections; longer than thorax; ovipositor aris-
ing from base of abdominal venter; third val-
vulae (Fig. 54) long, almost seven times as long
as wide, distinctly less than one-third the length
of second valvifers (Fig. 54); outer plates of
ovipositor (Fig. 54) longer than second valvifers.

Length of female: 1.42 mm.

Male: Not known.

Material examined: Six females, INDIA,
U.P. - Nainital, Pantnagar, ex. eggs of Pyrilla
perpusilla on sugarcane, 20 August, 1987 (S. N.
Sushil).

342

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

PARASITIC WASPS OF THE GENUS TETRASTICHUS

343

Tetrastichus iotellae Delucchi
(Figs. 55-63)

Head (Fig. 55): Yellowish brown; wider
than long in facial view (0.48:0.41); frontover-
tex less than one-half the total head width
(0.23:0.48); ocelli red, arranged in obtuse tri-
angle, post ocellar line greater than ocellocular;
eyes black, smooth; prominence between anten-
nal sockets more than one-fourth the width of
frons between eyes (0.055:0.23); malar space
longer than eye width (0.13:0.12); antennae in-
serted well above the lower level of eyes; malar
suture distinct; lower margin of clypeus without
dents medially; mandibles tridentate (Fig. 56);
maxillary and labial palpi each 1 -segmented
(Fig. 57).

Antennae (Fig. 58): Uniformly yellowish
with infuscation; 8-segmented excluding two
ring segments; scape cylindrical, more than four
times as long as wide (0.21:0.05); pedicel twice
as long as wide (0.08:0.04), as long as first
funicle segment; funicle 3-segmented; first
funicle segment a trifle less than twice as long
as wide (0.08:0.045), second longer than first
segment, less than twice as long as wide
(0.09:0.051), third segment short, less than one
and a half times as long as wide (0.07:0.05);
club 3-segmented, more than thrice as long as
wide (0.019:0.06), longer than preceding two
funicle segments together.

Thorax (Fig. 59): Light brown with golden
reflections on dorsum; pronotum (Fig. 60) with
posterior margin slightly concave with seven
pairs of setae, anterior margin concave in the
middle; mesoscutum slightly less than two and a
half times as long as wide (0.52:0.2);
mesopraescutum with a single row of three bris-
tles at each lateral margin, median furrow
present; scutellum shorter than mesoscutum,
with two submedian grooves and two pairs of
setae; posterior margin rounded;
mesopostphragma well developed, reaching
beyond the propodeum, propodeum short, mesal
length of propodeum almost one-third that of

scutellum, median carina wanting, spiracles
large, almost contiguous with the anterior mar-
gin.

Forewings (Fig. 61): Hyaline, densely
setose; more than twice as long as wide
(1.18:0.51); costal cell broad, with 11 setae on
the margin, basal vein with five setae; basal cell
bare; speculum short and closed below; cubital
vein straight; submarginal vein (0.34) with four
setae, a trifle shorter than marginal vein (0.35);
postmarginal vein (0.02) distinct; stigma 1 vein
(0.13) less than one -third the length of marginal
vein; fringe short, spaced by a distance equal to
one-fourth their length.

Hind wings (Fig. 62): Hyaline, more than
four times as long as wide (1.0:0.23) with blunt
apex; marginal fringe almost one-third the wing
width, spaced by a distance equal to one-sixth
their length.

Legs: Yellow except coxae, margins of
femora and pretarsus brown, hind coxae infus-
cated, middle tibial spur slightly shorter than
basitarsus.

Abdomen: Light brown with a yellow
patch in the middle of dorsum; as long as head
and thorax together, ovipositor exserted; first
valvifers (Fig. 63) semicircular; third valvulae
(Fig. 63) very long, lanceolate, more than 10
times as long as wide, distinctly less than one-
third the length of second valvifers (Fig. 63);
outer plates of ovipositor (Fig. 63) almost as
long as second valvifers.

Length of female: 1.13 mm.

Male: Not known.

Material examined: Three females, INDIA,
U.P. - Pantnagar, host not known, 9 July, 1988
(S.N. Sushil).

Tetrastichus misellus Delucchi
(Figs. 64-74)

Head (Fig. 64): Yellowish except dorsum
which is brown, wider than long in facial view
(0.56:0.47); frontovertex much wider, more than
one-half the total head width (0.34:0.56); ocelli
red, arranged in obtuse triangle, length of pos-

344

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 89

Figs. 55-63. Tetrastichus lotellae Delucchi

55. Head, facial view; 56. Mandible; 57. Maxillary and labial palpi; 58. Antenna; 59. Thorax; 60. Pronotum;
61. Forewing (part); 62. Hind wing; 63. Ovipositor.

PARASITIC WASPS OF THE GENUS TETRASTICHUS

345

tocellar line more than twice as great as ocel-
locular, eyes dark, smooth; antennae inserted
well above the lower level of eyes; prominence
between antennal sockets less than one-sixth the
width of frons between eyes (0.06:0.34); malar
space longer than eye width (0.15:0.11); malar
suture distinct; lower margin of clypeus without
dents medially; mandibles (Fig. 65) tridentate
with acute teeth; maxillary and labial palpi each
1 -segmented.

Antennae (Fig. 66): Brown except scape
and apical tip of pedicel yellowish; scape
cylindrical, more than five times as long as wide
(0.28:0.05); pedicel more than twice as long as
wide (0.05:0.04), distinctly less than half the
length of first funicle segment; two ring seg-
ments present; funicle 3-segmented; first funicle
segment very long, more than five times as long
as wide (0.22:0.04), second (18:0.05) slightly
longer than third ftmicle segment (0.17:0.05);
club 3-segmented, less than five times as long as
wide (0.25:0.55), distinctly shorter than pre-
ceding two funicle to last club segment with 7,
9, 9, 4, 6 and 5 sensoria respectively.

Thorax (Fig. 67): Brown with fine reticu-
late sculpture; pronotum (Fig. 68) with posterior
margin slightly concave, with five pairs of setae;
mesoscutum more than twice as wide as long
(0.05:0.21), without middle longitudinal groove,
mesopraescutum with eight pairs of setae ar-
ranged in two rather irregular rows at each
lateral margin; each parapside with two setae;
scutellum longer than wide (0.28:0.22), longer
than mesoscutum, with two submedian grooves
and two pairs of setae; metanotum band-like;
propodeum with reticulate sculpture, mesal
length of propodeum less than half the length of
scutellum, propodeal spiracles separated from
anterior margin by a space almost the length of a
spiracle, strong mesal and paraspiracular carinae
present and a series of short carinae radiating
latero-anteriorad from posterior margin;
mesopostphragma not reaching beyond the
propodeum; rudimentary petiole narrow.

Forewings (Fig. 69): Hyaline, almost

thrice as long as wide (1.8:0.61); densely setose;
costal cell narrow, more than half the length of
marginal vein (0.43:0.64), with eight setae ar-
ranged in a row; basal vein with three setae;
basal cell bare; speculum large and open below;
cubital vein straight; submarginal vein (0.41)
with five setae; marginal vein very long (0.64),
more than one and a half times the length of
submarginal vein; postmarginal vein rudimen-
tary; stigmal vein very short (0.07); five admar-
ginal hairs present; marginal fringe short, spaced
by a distance almost one-fourth length of a
fringe.

Hind wings (Fig. 70): Hyaline, less than
four times as long as wide; marginal fringe
short.

Forelegs (Fig. 71): Uniformly yellowish
except slight infuscation on apex, tibial spur
short.

Middle legs (Fig. 72): Uniformly yel-
lowish except coxa on greater part, third and
fourth tarsal segments brown; apical rim of
tibiae with five pegs; tibial spur short, less than
half the length of basitarsus.

Hind legs (Fig. 73): Yellowish except
coxae brown, last two tarsal segments infus-
cated; tibial spur more than half the length of
basitarsus; apical rim of tibiae with four distinct
pegs.

Abdomen: Brownish with golden reflec-
tions on dorsum; surface smooth; ovipositor
slightly exserted, arising from basal one-third of
abdominal venter; first valvifers (Fig. 74) semi-
circular, with articular knobs prominent; third
valvulae (Fig. 74) five times as long as wide,
less than one-fourth the length of second val-
vifers (Fig. 74); outer plates of ovipositor (Fig.
74) as long as second valvifers; subgenital plate
broad (Fig. 74), posterior margin with a notch in
the middle.

Length of female: 1.3 mm.

Material examined: Eleven females,

INDIA, U.P. - Nainital, Pantnagar, host not
known, 19 August, 1987 (S. N. Sushil).

346

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Figs. 64-74. Tetrcistichus misellus Delucchi

64. Head, facial view; 65. Mandible; 66. Antenna; 67. Thorax; 68. Pronotura; 69. Forewing (part); 70. Hind wing
71. Part of foreleg; 72. Part of middle leg; 73. Part of hind leg; 74. Ovipositor.

PARAS me WASPS OF WE GENUS TETRASTICHUS

347

Acknowledgement Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar for

We thank the G. B. Pant University of providing the necessary facilities.

R EFERENCES

Bhatnagar, S.R (1951): Description of new and records of
known chalcidoidea from India. India J. Agri. Sci. 21:
155-178.

Crawford, J.C. (1912): Descriptions of new Hymenoptera
No. 5. Proc. U.S. Natn. mus. 43: 163-188.

Delucchi, V. (1954): New chalcidier aus der Familie
Eulophidae (Mit einer Wiederbeschreibung Von.
Tetrastichus agrilorum (Ratz.). Mitt. Schweiz. enL
Ges. 27: 97-108.

Kaul, B.K. & Saraswat, G.G. (1974): Collection of chal-
cids (Hymenoptera) from India. Oriental Insects. 8:
185-194.

Khan, M.A. (1983): A new species of Tetrastichus
(Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) from India. J. Bombay
nal Hist. Soc. 80 (I): 185-188.

Khan, M.A., Samraj, D. Arul & Khan, Nikhat (1986):
Tetrantichus davidi sp. nov. (Hymenoptera:
Eulophidae) a primary parasitoid associated with
Earias vittella (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
form India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83(2): 409-411.

Khan, M.Y. & Shafee, S.A. (1981): On some new species
of Tetrastichus Haliday (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae).
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78 (2): 337-343.

Ranaweera, D.J.W. (1947): Three new species of Tetras-
tichus. Indian J. Ent. 9: 7-13.

Saraswat, G.G. (1975): On some Tetrastichus (Hymenop-
tera: Chalcidoidea) from India. Mem. School EnL St.
Johns Coll. Agra. 4: 1-34.

ON THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF CERTAIN SPECIES OF PAVETTA
(RUBIACEAE) FROM THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT1

D. B. Deb and R. C. Rout2

The genus Pavetta L. (Rubiaceae) is repre-
sented by about 400 species in the Old World. It
was intensively studied by Breinekamp (1934,
1939 a,b). He described 42 species and nine
varieties from the Indian subcontinent, including
29 species and eight varieties as new. He, how-
ever, distinguished species sometimes on the
basis of one or two quantitative characters. Very
often a slight difference in length of the calyx
teeth or hairiness of the leaf or corolla tube were
sufficient for him to distinguish species. He also
did not hesitate to postulate species on the basis
of very incomplete or insufficient material bear-
ing no flower or fruit. Due to unsatisfactory
delimitation of taxa, Bridson (1978) and Kok
and Grobbelaar (1984) synonimised a number of
species.

We have been working on the taxonomy of
the genus Pavetta in the Indian subcontinent,
and are convinced that some taxa do not deserve
the status given. These are presented below with
their synonymy.

(1) Pavetta gleniei Hook. E (1880: 152-
153) was postulated on the basis of Thwaites, C.
P. 2815 and Walker 14 from Sri Lanka.
Bremekamp (1934) segregated Walker 14 and a
part of Thwaites, C.P. 2815 to describe P.
malacophylla Bremek., distinguishing it from
the former species by the shorter calyx lobes,
leaves beneath tomentose and midrib not
prominent beneath. He further recognized in P
gleniei two varieties on the basis of hairiness of
leaves, inflorescence and ovary. A study of the
protologues along with the type specimens and
other recent collections (which were not ex-
amined by Bremekamp) shows that P. gleniei
varies in hairiness, length of calyx teeth (to

1 Accepted November 1991.

2Betanical Survay of India, P. O. Botanic Garden,
Howrah-711 103.

some extent) as well as in shape and colour of
leaves, and these variations are continuous.
Calyx teeth are 2.5-5.0 mm long, leaves are
broadly elliptic to elliptic-lanceolate and
brownish to black when dry. Corolla is similar
in both species though Bremekamp appears to
have overlooked examining it in Thwaites, CP.
2815 a & b (K!) bearing one flower each. The
inflorescence is densely pubescent or tomentose.
The midrib is not “non prominente” in P.
malacophylla as described by Bremekamp. Thus
these are not taxonomically distinguishable and
are synonymous as follows.

Pavetta gleniei Hook.f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3:
152. 1880 (type: Sri Lanka, Thwaites, C.P. 2815
a holo. K!, iso. CAL!); Trimen, Hort. Zeyl. 43.
1888 & FI. Ceyl. 2: 350.1894; Bremek. in Fedde
Repert. 37: 80.1934.

P. gleniei Hook. f. var. glabrescens
Bremek. (=var. gleniei) l.c. 81. (Type: Thwaites
C.P 2815a, holo. K!, photo CAL!), nom surperfi

P. gleniei Hook.f. var. pubescens Bremek.
l.c. 81 (Type: Thwaites, C.P. 2815 b, holo. K!,
photo CAL!) syn. nov.

P. malacophylla Bremek. l.c. 81 (Type:
Thwaites, C. P. 2815 c, holo. K!, photo CAL!)
syn. nov.

P. tomentosa Thw. Enum. PI. Zeyl. 156.
1859, non Roxb. ex Smith, 1819.

Ixora gleniei (Hook.f.) Kuntze, Rev. Gen.
PI. 1:286. 1891.

(2) In the subgen. 2 Eupavetta {-Pavetta)
sect. Pavettaster, ser. 2 Angustistipulae,
Bremekamp (1934: 81-82) described three
species: Pavetta travancorica, P. concanica and
P. laeta on the basis of two gatherings each.
These species were distinguished by the shape
and venation of leaves and the length of corolla
tube: leaves being lanceolate in P. travancorica,
elliptic in P. concanica and P. laeta; lateral ner-

TAXONOMIC STATUS OF CERTAIN SPECIES OF PAVETTA

349

ves 10-12 pairs in P. travancorica and P. con-
canica, 6-9 pairs inP. laeta and corolla tube 6.5-
8 mm in P. travancorica and P. laeta, 12-14 mm
in P. concanica. A study of protologues and type
specimens and other collections (not examined
by Bremekamp) reveals that the leaves are vari-
able from elliptic to elliptic-lanceolate or lan-
ceolate with 8-12 pairs of lateral nerves; corolla
tube is 6.5-12 mm long, depending partly on the
varying stages of development. The form of
stipules and their apices vary even on the same
specimen. These variations evidently indicate
that they are not taxonomically distinct, even as
varieties. Accordingly the three species are
reduced to one as follows.

Pavetta travancorica Bremek. in Fedde
Repert. 37: 81. 1934 (Type: Travancore, June
1835, R . Wight s.n. ( Kexv Distrib. No. 1485,
holo. K!, photo CAL!).

P concanica Bremek. l.c. 81 (type: Con-
can, Law s.n., holo. K!, photo CAL!) syn. nov.

P. laeta Bremek. l.c. 82 (type: Tamil Nadu,
Pulney Hills, 1914, RA. Sauliere 673, holo. K!,
photo CAL!) syn. nov.

(3) Pavetta stocksii Bremek. (1934: 113)
was described on the basis of three gatherings:
Cooke s.n., Tilak 88 and Stocks s.n., all extant at
K. On describing this species the author stated
“it is not impossible that this species and the last
one (P. crassicaulis) are merely varieties of the
same”. A study of the protologues, the types as
well as a paratype ( Tilak 88 E!) shows that the
hairiness on the underside of the leaf is variable,
being softly to densely pubescent. Hence P.
stocksii is reduced to a synonym as follows.

Pavetta crassicaulis Bremek. in Fedde
Repert. 37: 112. 1934 & 47: 25. 1939 (type:
Concan, Stocks s.n., holo. K!, photo CAL!). P.
stocksii Bremek. l.c. 113 (Type: loc.?, Stocks s.n.
holo. K!, photo CAL!) syn. nov.

(4) Pavetta birmahica Bremek. (1934:
115) from Burma was distinguished into the
varieties, namely var. glabrescens “folia supra
glabrescentia” and var. tomentosa “folia utrim-
que tomentosa”, the former being the typical

variety. According to the International Code of
Botanical Nomenclature, the typical variety does
not require a different varietal name. It is var.
birmahica, where leaves are sparsely to densely
pubescent on the upper surface, thereby it comes
closer to var. tomentosa. Examination of types
and other specimens shows that hairiness is vari-
able to such an extent that the varieties do not
stand and deserve to be merged. P. gamblei
Bremek. (l.c. 114) was based on a single
specimen Gamble 115. It agrees with P. bir-
mahica in all respects except the length of the
corolla tube (8 mm), which in P. birmahica is
up to 6 mm long. It is likely to be at an earlier
stage of development. Moreover, a species can-
not be distinguished on slightly longer corolla
tube only. In consideration of these facts these
are merged here as follows.

Pavetta birmahica Bremek. in Fedde
Repert. 37: 115. 1934 (Type: Burma, Thayetun-
go dist., Minhea, 17. 12. 1904, J.H. Lace 2698,
holo. K! iso. CAL!).

P. birmahica Bremek. var. glabrescens
Bremek. l.c. (=var. birmahica).

P. birmahica Bremek. var. tomentosa
Bremek. l.c. (type: Burma, Griffith 3010, holo.
K!, iso. CAL!) syn. nov.

P. gamblei Bremek. l.c. 114 (Type: Burma,
Irawaddi. Mejanoung, 4. 5. 1872, J. S. Gamble
115, holo. K!, photo CAL!) syn. nov.

(5) In describing Pavetta indica L.,
Hook.f. (1880) considered about 20 names in-
volved and treated them under five varieties,
viz. var. indica proper (= indie a), var. polyantha,
var. tomentosa, var. montana, and var. minor.
Bremekamp (1934) upgraded them as species
and further postulated P. amabilis, P. assamica,
P. bengalensis, P. griffithii, P. neglecta, P.
polyneura, P. thomsonii and P. praecox and few
varieties therein, on the basis of specimens
treated by Hooker f. (l.c.) under those varieties.
From a critical study of the specimens involved
along with new gatherings not examined by
Hook.f. or Bremekamp, we are convinced that
Hook.f.’s treatment of the first three varieties

350

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

and the var. montana treated by Bremekamp as a
species (P. blanda) are justified. The last variety,
var. minor, treated by Bremekamp as a variety
under a different species (P. thomsonii Bremek.
var. puberula Bremek.) deserves a specific
status. The other new species described by
Bremekamp do not stand and become synonyms
under the varieties of Hook.f.

P. neglecta Bremek. and P. amabilis
Bremek. (1934: 92, 100) agree with P. indica L.
var. polyantha Hook f. with leaves narrowly
obovate, oblanceolate or elliptic-lanceolate,
acute or caudate at apex, acute at base,
puberulous beneath or only on nerves, stipules
ovate, cymes pubescent, flowers densely
crowded. There is no difference in floral charac-
ters. The shape of leaves inP. neglecta described
in the protologue as “rhomboidal” is actually
found to be elliptic-lanceolate or obovate. In P.
amabilis, the stipules described as “subquadrate
cuspidate” are ovate cuspidate. P. bengalensis
Bremek. and P. polyneura Bremek. (1934: 99,
120) agree with each other in all respects and
differ fromP indica L. var. polyantha Hook.f. in
leaves broadly obovate, pubescent on the nerves
beneath. P. griffithii Bremek. (1934: 99) differs
from it in leaves lanceolate, corolla tube pubes-
cent at throat. P. assamica Bremek. (1934: 119)
differs from the same in having small leaves,
broadly elliptic with slender lateral nerves close-
ly arranged. The leaf shape and hairiness are
variable in this taxon. So, these differences are
not taxonomically justified and these species do
not deserve any infra specific status even and
are synonymous with P. indica L. var. polyantha
Hook.f.

P. praecox Bremek. (1934: 114) was based
on a single gathering, Ritchie 352. It is charac-
terised by small broadly elliptic (4x3 cm) leaves,
obtuse at both ends. It agrees fully with P. indica
L. var. tomentosa (Roxb. ex Sm.) Hook.f. where
leaves are variable in size (4-26.5 x 1-12 cm),
shape, hairiness etc. The apex may be acute,
acuminate, subacute, obtuse or rounded. There is
no difference in floral characters. So P praecox

does not stand as a distinct species. P indica L.
var. mollis Bremek. (I.c. 199) was based on
Gamble 15021 and Campbell 60 and 259. It
agrees fully with P. indica L. var. tomentosa
(Roxb. ex Sm.) Hook.f. in the hairiness of stem,
leaves and inflorescence. There is no distinction
in floral characters and it is therefore
synonymous with the latter variety.

P. blanda Bremek. (1934: 94) was based on
specimens (including type) of P. indica L. var.
montana Hook.f. (1880: 150) and some Indian
specimens belonging to P. indica L. var. minor
Hook.f. (I.c.) and P. breviflora DC. var. sub -
coriacea Gamble. This species appears to be
limited to Sri Lanka only. The Indian specimens
included under it by Bremekamp are different
and are treated under other species or varieties.

P. thomsonii Bremek. (1934: 99) var.
glaberrima Bremek. (= thomsonii) was based on
specimens belonging to P indica var. indica . It
fully agrees with P indica L. var. indica and
deserves to be merged with it. P. thomsonii
Bremek. var. puberula Bremek. (I.c.) was based
on specimens (including types) belonging to P
indica L. var. minor Hook.f. (1880: 150). It is
distinct from P. indica in the leaves being nar-
rowly oblanceolate or elliptic-lanceolate, acute
or acuminate at apex, calyx teeth long, subulate,
acute, puberulous, cymes puberulous. It deser-
ves to be treated as a distinct species. Hence a
new combination is made, raising it to specific
status.

The taxonomic status and synonymy of P.
indica L. are as follows.

Pavetta indica L., Sp. PI. 110. 1753 (Type:
Sri Lanka, Herman 56 BM); Hook.f. FI. Brit.
Ind. 3: 150. 1880; Bremek. in Fedde Repert. 37:
118. 1934.

Ixora indica (L.) Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI. 1:
286, 1891.

I. paniculata Lam. Encycl. 3: 344. 1789.

I. pavetta Roxb. Hort. Beng. 11. 1814 nom.
nucL & FI. Ind. 1: 396. 1820, non Andrews,
1799.

Pavetta alba Vahl. symb. Bot. 3: 11. 1794.

TAXONOMIC STATUS OF CERTAIN SPECIES OF PAVETTA

351

P obtusa Pers. Syn. 1: 131. 1805.

(a) var. indica

P. indica L. var. glabra Blatter & Hallberg
in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 792. 1933.

P. indica L. var. glabra Bremek. in Fedde
Repert. 37: 119. 1934.

P. indica L. var. indica proper Hook.f. FI.
Brit. Ind. 3: 150. 1880.

P. thomsonii Bremek. var. glaberrima
Bremek. ( -thomsonii ) in Fedde Repert. 37: 99.
1934 (Type: Mysore, Thomson s.n ., holo. K!,
photo CAL!) syn. nov.

P. thomsonii Bremek. var. thomsonii B.D.
Sharma et al. FI. Kern. 131. 1984.

P. blanda Bremek. in Fedde Repert. 37: 94.
1934, p.p.

(b) var. glabrescens (Kurz) Deb et Rout
comb. nov.

Basionym: Ixora tomentosa var. glabres-
cens Kurz, For. FI. Brit. Burm. 2: 19. 1877
(Type: Burma, Pegu, 23.2.1871, S. Kurz 3057
CAL, right hand specimen is selected as the lec-
totype, the other sheet of the same no. is isolec-
to.).

P. tomentosa Roxb. ex Sm. var. glabrescens
(Kurz) Bremek. l.c. 114.

P. amabilis Bremek. in Fedde Repert. 37:
100. 1934 (Type: Upper Burma, 1911-12, S.M.
Toppin 3032, holo. E!, iso. CAL!) syn. nov.

P. assamica Bremek. in Fedde Repert. 37:
119. 1934 (Type: Assam, Guahati, Simons 16,
holo. K!, photo CAL!) syn. nov.

P. bengalensis Bremek. in Fedde Repert.
37: 99. 1934 (Type: Bengal, Nov. 1850, Hooker
& Thomson s.n ., holo. K!, photo CAL!) syn.
nov.

P. griffithii Bremek. in Fedde Repert. 37:
99. 1934 & 47: 22. 1939 (Type: Bhutan, Griffith
2114, holo. K!, photo CAL!) syn. nov.

P. indica L. var. poly ant ha Hook.f. FI. Brit.
Ind. 3: 150. 1880 (type: Meghalaya, Silhet Mt.
(Jowai), F.De Silva s.n. ex Wall. Cat. 6176, holo.
K!, photo & micro fische CAL!).

P. indica Wall. Cat. 6175 F, nom. nud.

P. neglecta Bremek. in Fedde Repert. 37:

92. 1934 (Type: Mizoram, S. Lushai Hills,
Thady forest, 1050 m, Aug. 1928, Wenger 214,
holo. K!, photo CAL!) syn. nov.

P. polyantha Wall. Cat. 6176, nom. nud.

P. polyantha (Hook.f.) Bremek. in Fedde
Repert. 37: 103. 1934 & 47: 22. 1939. syn. nov.

P. polyneura Bremek. in Fedde Repert. 37:
119. 1934 (Type: Burma, S. Tenasserim, Kyein
Chaum, 12. 2. 1926, Maung Law Tek 1379,
holo. K!, photo CAL!) syn. nov.

P. rothiana DC. Prodr. 4: 1830.

P. villosa Heyne in Roth, nov. sp. 89. 1821,
non Vahl 1794.

As per Art. 56.1 of ICBN (1988) the new
combination at the varietal status is necessary.

(c) var. tomentosa (Roxb. ex Smith)
Hook.f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 150. 1880.

P. tomentosa Roxb. ex Smith in Rees Cycl.
26, n. 2, 1819 (Type: Roxb. ill. no. 169 CAL! as
in Wight Icon. t. 186. 1340); Bremek. in Fedde
Repert. 37: 113. 1934 p.p.

P. tomentosa Roxb. ex Smith var. roxbur-
ghii (Kurz) Bremek. l.c. 114.

P. indica L. ssp. tomentosa (Roxb. ex
Smith) Bennet, FI. How. 356. 1979 & Name
change. FI. PI. 415. 1987.

P. indica L. var. mollis Bremek. in Fedde
Repert. 37: 119. 1934 (type: Andhra Pradesh,
Cuddaph dist., Guvalacharam Ghat, 300 m, July
1884,7.5. Gamble 15021, holo. K!, photo CAL!
iso. CAL! MH!) syn. nov.

P. praecox Bremek. in Fedde Repert. 37:
114. 1934 (Type: Karnataka, Canara, Belgaum,
April 1831, Ritchie 352, holo. K!, photo CAL!)
syn. nov.

Ixora roxburghii Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI. 1:
296. 1891.

/. tomentosa Roxb. Hort. Beng. 11. 1814,
nom. nud. & FI. Ind. 1: 396. 1820

(d) P. blanda Bremek. in Fedde Repert.
37: 94. 1934 p.p. (excl. synonyms and Indian
specimens).

P. indica L. var. montana Hook. f. FI. Brit.
Ind. 3: 150. 1880 (Type: Sri Lanka, 900-1200 m,
1854, Thwaites, CP. 2456, holo. K! iso. BM!

352

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

CAL!).

P indica Thw. Enum. PI. Zeyl. 155. 1859
(excl. var. r & O).

(e) P. minor (Hook.f.) Deb & Rout comb,
et stat. nov.

Basionym: P. indica L. var. minor Hook.f.
FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 150. 1880 (Type: Tamil Nadu,

Shevaghiry hills,/?. Wight s.n. (Kew Distrib. No.
1483), holo. K!, photo CAL!).

P. blanda Bremek. in Fedde Repert. 37: 94.
1934 p.p. (excl. type from Sri Lanka)

P thomsonii Bremek. var. puberula
Bremek. in Fedde Repert. 37: 99. 1934.

References

Bremekamp, C.E.B. (1934): A monograph of the genus
Pavetta L. Rep. spec. nov. reg. veg. (Fedde Repert.)
37: 1-208.

Bremekamp, C.E.B. (1939 a): A monograph of the genus
Pavetta L.: Additions and amendations. Rep. Spec,
nov. reg. veg. 47: 12-28.

Bremekamp, C.E.B. (1939 B): A monograph of the genus
Pavetta L. Additions and amendations II. Rep. spec.
Nov. reg. veg. 47: 81-98.

Bridson, D.M. (1978): Studies on Pavetta (Rubiaceae: sub-
fam. Cinchonoideae) for part 2 of flora of Tropical
East Africa: Rubiaceae. Kew Bull. 32: 609-652.

Hooker, J.D. (1880): The Flora of British India, vol. 3. L.
Reeve & Co. Ltd., Ashford, Kent.

. Kok, RD.F. & Grobbelaar, N. (1984): Studies on Pavetta
(Rubiaceae) II. Enumeration of species and
synonymy. S. Afr. J. Bot. 3(3): 185-187.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

PUNTIUS SHARMAI, A NEW CYPRINID FISH FROM MADRAS1

A.G.K. Menon and K. Rema Devi2
(With a text- figure )

Puntius sharmai sp. nov., a small puntiid, is described from Madras. It is closely related
to Puntius fraseri Hora & Misra (1938) known from Deolali, the headwaters of Godavari in
Maharashtra.

Introduction

A recent collection of small puntiids from
freshwater tanks around Madras contained an in-
teresting species hitherto unknown to science,
which is described here. Descriptions are based
on measurements with dial callipers with an ac-
curacy of 0.02 mm and are presented as times in
standard length (SL) and head length (HL) with
the mean, followed by the range in parentheses.

Diagnosis: A small sized Puntius with one
pair of barbels, a serrated osseous dorsal spine,
an incomplete lateral line, with more than 42
scales along the sides, considerably elongated
fins, a dark lateral band ending in a blotch in
caudal base.

Holotype: 1 ex., 27.0 mm SL, Mogappair,
West Annanagar, Madras, Tamil nadu, 4 Dec.
1990, Coll: Malaria Research Centre, Madras,
Reg. No. F. 3768, Zoological Survey of India,
Southern Regional Station, Madras.

Paratypes: 2 exs., 24.5 and 25.5 mm SL,
Tenneri Tank, near Kunrathur, Tamil Nadu, 6
Dec. 1975, Coll: M.B. Raghunathan, Reg. No. F.
3771.

Puntius sharmai sp. nov.

(Fig. 1)

Description: D.3/8; P.1/12-13; V.l/8; A.3/5;
C. 1/17/1; LI. 42; L.tr. 71/2/61/2; Predorsal scales
about 15.

Accepted May 1992.

2Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station,
100, Santhome High Road, Madras 600 028.

Head small, 4.89 (4.78-5.04) in TL, 3.56
(3.51-3.62) in SL. Width of head 1.84 (1.75-
2.0), its height 1.35 (1.31-1.42), length of snout
3.34 (3.11-3.55), eye diameter 3.26 (3.06-3.45),
interorbital width 3.16 (2.95-3.48) in head
length. Maxillary barbels very small, 2.47 (2.27-
2.86) in eye diameter. Depth of body slightly
greater than head length and is 4.78 (4.67-4.96)
in TL and 3.48 (3.38-3.59) in SL. Caudal
peduncle long and narrow, its least height being
1.31 (1.11-1.55) in its length

Predorsal distance 2.09 (1.90-2.19), post-
dorsal distance 1.96 (1.84-2.09), prepelvic dis-
tance 1.95 (1.93-1.98), preanal distance 1.42
(1.39-1.44) in SL; distance from pectoral origin
to pelvic origin 3.72 (3.67-3.81), from pelvic to
anal origin 4.79 (4.55-5.06), from pectoral base
to anus (length of body cavity) 2.23 (2.17-2.33)
in SL.

The fins are well developed and the
anterior rays are prolonged. Dorsal situated mid-
way between tip of snout and caudal base; the
first spine is very small and the third spine is
well developed, osseous and serrated. Predorsal
distance 0.94 (0.89-0.97) in postdorsal distance.
Height of dorsal fin 3.86 (3.60-4.01) in SL, 1.11
(1.04-1.17) in body depth, and 1.08 (1.01-1.14)
in HL. Pectoral fin long and extends to pelvic
base, and is 1.33 (1.32-1.37) in HL, 4.75 (4.67-
4.80) in SL; anterior rays of pelvic fin prolonged
and extend beyond anal origin and is 4.44 (4.31-
4.53) in SL, the first two branched rays of anal
fin are greatly prolonged and are 3.50 ( 3.49-
3.51) in SL. Caudal deeply forked, considerably
longer than head and is 2.67 (2.55-2.88) in SL.

6

354

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 89

Fig. 1. Lateral view of Puntius sharmai sp. nov., 27.0 mm SL.

Scales small, numerous, 42 scales up to
caudal base; lateral line pores extend up to the
seventh scale.

Sensory canal pores as radiating vertical
rows from below eye on cheek. About 12 minute
gill-rakers are present on the first gill arch.

In formaldehyde, the specimens appear
dark along the dorsal surface. Along the middle
of the body there is a pale horizontal streak;
above this a dark band is seen which ends in a
blotch on the caudal base. Base of the anterior
rays of the dorsal fin dark; a dark spot above
anterior anal base.

The new species is closely allied to Pun -
tins fraseri Hora and Misra (1938, JBNHS 40:
20-38), described from Darna river, Deolali,
Maharashtra, but can be easily distinguished by
its more streamlined body, the depth of body — is
4.78 (4.67-4,96) in TL, 3.48 (3.38-3.59) in SL,
(4.3-4.4 in TL and 3.2 in SL in R fraseri) — and
smaller head, 4.89 (4.78-5.04) in TL, 3.56 (3,51-
3.62) in SL, (5.4 in TL and 4 in SL in P. fraseri).

The fins are greatly prolonged in the new
species; the pectoral reaches pelvic origin
whereas in P. fraseri it is separated by a consid-
erable distance; the anal rays are prolonged and
extend close to the caudal base while in the lat-
ter it is shorter and separated from caudal base,
by a considerable distance. The lateral line pores
extend up to the seventh scale in P. sharmai
(upto the eighth to tenth scales in P. fraseri).
The new species is considered as a useful lar-
vicidal fish for use in malaria control.

Etymol-ogy: The fish is named after Dr. V.
P. Sharma, Director, Malaria Research Centre,
NeW Delhi, in recognition of his keen interest in
the study of indigenous larvivorous fishes of
India.

Acknowledgements

We are greatful to the Director, Zoological
Survey of India, for providing necessary
facilities.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

355

ON A NEW SPECIES OF ORASEMA CAMERON (HYMENOPTERA:
EUCHARITIDAE), WITH A KEY TO INDIAN SPECIES1

S. Snehalatha and T.C. Narendran 2
(With nine text-figures)

A new species, viz. Orasema indica from Kerala, is described. A dichotomous key to In-
dian species of Orasema Cameron is provided.

Introduction

In recent years we have collected consider-
able material belonging to the chalcidoid family
Eucharitidae. Among these we came across an
interesting new species of Orasema Cameron
from Kerala. The new species is described
below with a key for separation of Indian
species of the genus. So far only two species are
known from the Indian subcontinent (Das 1963,
Kerrich 1964, Narendran 1985,1986).

Orasema indica sp. nov.

FEMALE: Length 2.38 mm. Head and thorax
dark green with metallic reflections; mandibles
yellow with dark brown tips; eye yellowish
white; scape, anellus and pedicel very pale yel-
low, flagellar segments brownish yellow, club
yellowish brown; ocellus pale yellow; fore and
mid coxae dark brown, hind coxa concolorous
with thorax with its apex being dark brown;
trochanter and femur dark brown except the
apices of femur being pale yellow; tibia and tar-
sus pale yellow; claws dark brown; petiole con-
colorous with thorax; gaster dark brown; wing
hyaline, veins yellow.

Head convex, transverse, slightly broader;
head emarginate when viewed from dorsal side
(Fig. 2) with lateral ocellus very near to occipital
margin; head clearly smooth without any punc-
tures or reticulations; supra-clypeal area rather
rectangular, delimited by distinct furrows on
sides, below and upper region (Fig. 1); antenna
11173 (Fig. 5), elongate with funicle segments

Accepted October 1991

department of Zoology, University of Calicut,

Kerala 673 635,

well separated, scape 1.9 x length of first flagel-
lar segment; POL 1.3 x OOL; POL 1.9 x LOL.

Dorsum of thorax highly reticulate;
scapulae with slight transverse reticulations,
axilla broadly meeting in middle, scutellum
acuminate; propodeum alveolate on sides with
striation in middle; mesopleuron smooth except
in middle, with sculptures more or less in an in-
verted Y-shaped form (Fig 4); sm:m:pm =
8. 6:5. 8:2.8 (Figs. 6-7).

Petiole elongate with longitudinal stria-
tions, more or less 4.8 x its breadth.

Gaster globose, smooth and shiny (Fig, 8).
MALE : Length 2.35 mm.

Male differs from female in having more
elongated antenna (Fig. 9) and petiole; scape is
almost equal in length to first flagellar segment.
Host: Unknown.

Holotype: Female. India: Kerala, Trichur,
April 1986, T.C. Narendran (DZCU). Deposited
in Dept, of Zoology, University of Calicut,
Regd. No. SL 151.

Paratype: Male of same data of holotype
Regd. No. SL 145 (DZCU).

Key to Indian species of Orasema Cameron

1. Supra-clypeal area distinctly delimited at sides;

head clearly smooth without any puncturations above;
petiole 4.8 x its breadth O. indica sp. nov.

— Supra-clypeal area without any distinct delimitations

2

2. Sculpture on supra-clypeal area extremely fine and

quite distinct; head with reticulate sculpture not
notably coarser between ocellus and eye

O. assectator Kerrich

— Supra-clypeal area smooth and shining; head with

reticulate sculpture notably coarser between ocellus
and eye O. initiator Kerrich

356

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCJEJY, Vol. 89

Figs. 1-9. Orasema indica sp. nov.

1. Head, frontal view; 2. Head, dorsal view; 3. Head, lateral view; 4. Mesopleuron; 5. Antenna; 6. Forewing;
7. Forewing venation enlarged; 8. Gaster; 9. Male antenna.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

357

Acknowledgements

One of the authors (S.S.) is grateful to the

Refer

Das, G.M. (1963): Preliminary studies on the biology of
Orasema assectator Kerrich (Hymenoptera:
Eucharitidae) parasitic on Pheidole and causing
damage to leaves of tea in Assam. Bull. ent. Res. 54:
373-378.

Kerrich, G.J. (1964): Descriptions of two species of
Eucharitidae damaging tea. Bull. ent. Res. 54: 365-
371.

University of Calicut for financial assistance for
undertaking studies on Indian Eucharitidae.

ENCES

Narendran, T.C. (1985): A Review of the Family
Eucharitidae. The Chalcidoidea (Insecta: Hymenop-
tera) of India and the adjacent countries. Oriental In-
sects 19 : 186-187.

Narendran, T.C. (1986): A Catalogue of the Family
Eucharitidae. The Chalcidoidea (Insecta: Hymenop-
tera) of India and the adjacent countries. Oriental In-
sects 20: 51-55.

A NEW FISH OF THE GENUS PUNTIUS HAMILTON
(OSTARIOPHYSI : CYPRINIDAE) FROM GOA1

B.F. Chhapgar2 and S.R. Sane3
(With two plates)

Among the live fish exported from India
for the pet trade is one popularly called indigo
barb ( Barbus narayani). It is conjectured that
this fish may have been identified as such due
to its colour resemblance to Puntius narayani ,
recorded by Hora in 1937 from the Cauvery
river in Coorg. On closer inspection, it was
found that the indigo barb is actually a new
species. We are naming it Puntius setnai. [Raj
Tilak (1969) did not come across this species
in Goa.]

Puntius setnai sp. nov.

Specimens studied: Holotype; total
length 47 mm, standard length 35.5 mm, from
Sanguem, Goa. Paratypes; 24 exs. 40 to 57
mm total length, from clear streams in San-
guem and Ponda, Goa. The holotype and some
of the paratypes will be deposited with the
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Diagnosis: This species can be distin-
guished by (1) absence of barbels, (2) last un-
divided ray of dorsal fin osseous and serrated,
(3) complete lateral line, (4) 20 scales along

1Accepted October 1992.

^araporevala Aquarium, Netaji Subhash Rd., Bombay 400 002.

3Sachetan, L4/5, Sitaram Building, Palton Rd., Bombay 400 001

lateral line and (5) two vertical dark bands
on the body (during life).

Description

D. 3/8, P.1/12-14, V. 1/8, A. 2/5, C. 19.

L.l. 20 (17-22); 1. tr. 5/3-4.

Head and body compressed, belly
rounded. Dorsal and ventral profiles greatly
arched, the former more so than the latter. Head
short, conical. Eyes lateral. No tubercles on
cheek and snout. Barbels absent. Dorsal fin
inserted slightly nearer tip of snout than caudal
base. Last unbranched ray of dorsal fin osseous
and serrated. Caudal fin forked, lobes more
or less equal, slightly pointed, about twice
longer than median rays. Lateral line complete,
typically perforating 20 scales. It runs horizon-
tally up to the posterior border of the first
dark band, then dips down and, at the seventh
scale, again runs horizontally in a gentle arc
to the tail. PDS 7, circumpeduncular V2 5 V2.

Morphometry: (of holotype, all measure-
ments in millimetres) Total length 47, standard
length 35.5, body depth 15.33, head length
9.67, head depth 8.33, predorsal length 19.95,
post-dorsal length 20.84, pre-pelvic length
20.40, preanal length 28.0, length of caudal

358

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL IIIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

peduncle 5.83, depth of caudal peduncle 6.0,
snout length 1.92, eye diameter 3.92, dorsal
fin length 5.83, dorsal fin depth (damaged)
7.0 (?), pectoral fin length 8.50, pelvic fin
length 8.50, anal fin depth 7.50, anal fin length
5.17, caudal fin length 10.44.

Depth of head in head length (HL) 1.16,
snout in HL 5.04, eye diameter in HL 2.47,
predorsal/post-dorsal length 0.96, HL in stand-
ard length (SL) 3.67, body depth in SL 2.32,
length of anal fin in SL 6.87, length of caudal
peduncle in SL 3.40, depth of caudal peduncle
in SL 5.92, length of body cavity in SL 2.10,
predorsal length in SL 1.92, prepelvic length
in SL 1.84, postorbital length in SL 6.80,
caudal peduncle depth/caudal peduncle length
1.03.

Colouration: During life, the general
body colour is olive grey. Two vertical dark,
oval bands are prominent but do not extend
up to the ventral border (Plates la, 2a). The
first is narrow and covers scales 3, 4 and the
front margin of scale 5. The second dark band
is more rounded, occurs above the posterior
part of the anal fin and covers scales 16, 17.
In addition, there is a faint grey elongated patch
below the rear portion of the dorsal fin which
covers scales 10, 11 and a small portion of
scale 9. On both sides of the rear dark band,
the body is creamy white. In the breeding
season, the whole body in the male acquires
a golden yellow sheen. All the fins are colour-
less and transparent. (In the colour plate, the
fins appear black because the fish was
photographed against a black background.
Similarly, the white on the body is due to
reflection of light of the electronic flash from
the body.)

Sexual dimorphism : In adult males, the
dorsal fin is suffused with red, while the pelvic
fins are edged on the outer side with white.

Colour after long preservation: The pale
grey patch on the body below the rear portion
of the dorsal fin turns very dark, so that the
fish appears to have three dark bands (Plate
2b). The body changes colour from olive grey

to orange brown.

Etymology: The new species is named
after late Dr S.B. Setna, first Director of
Fisheries of the erstwhile Bombay State, whose
dynamism led to the establishment of a
separate Department of Fisheries, which was
prior to 1945, only a Section of the Industries
Department.

Discussion

Several barbs have two dark spots or
bands on the body. Three species that closely
resemble Puntius setna i sp. nov. are Puntius
cumingii (Gunther 1868) (Plates lc, 2c) from
Sri Lanka, P. bandula Kottelat & Pethiyagoda
(Plate lb), also from Sri Lanka, and P .
narayani Hora (Plate 2d) from Coorg (Kar-
nataka). Puntius bandula has an incomplete
lateral line, and the rear dark band reaches up
to the ventral border of the body. Moreover,
the dorsal, anal and pelvic fins are black. In
P. cumingii , too, the lateral line is incomplete,
and each scale has a black border in front.
The dorsal and pelvic fins of specimens from
northern Sri Lanka are reddish, while those
from the south have yellowish fins. In P.
tiarayani, the last unbranched ray of the dorsal
fin is a weak, articulated spine.

Since the light grey patch between the
two dark bands in Puntius setnai sp. nov. darkens
after long preservation, this fish then has the
appearance of having three dark bands. Females
and juvenile males of Puntius nigrofasciatus
(Gunther) from Sri Lanka also have three bands,
but their body height is greater compared to
P. setnai sp. nov. Each scale has a central
silvery white spot, and the three dark bands
extend completely from the dorsal border down
to the ventral border (Plate Id). Males in the
breeding season (Plate le) develop a crimson
red colouration over the body and caudal fin.
This varies in intensity and, in males in full
breeding fervour, the entire body may become
almost a uniform black, with just a trace of
crimson (Plate le). The dorsal, pelvic and anal
fins in the male are smoky grey.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89
Chhapgar & Sane: Puntius setnai sp

a. Puntius setnai sp. nov. (see text for explanation of true colours); b. P. bandula\ c. P. cumingii ;
d.P. nigrofasciatus, female; e. P. nigrofasciatus, male in breeding livery.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89
Chhapgar & Sane: Puntius setnai sp. nov.

Plate 2

a. Puntius setnai sp. nov. freshly preserved; b. Puntius setnai sp. nov. after prolonged preservation; c. P. narayani
(after Hora 1937); d. P. cumingii, showing two rows of black spots on dorsal fin and streaked anterior borders of scales

(after Deraniyagale 1952)

ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA

Page 357 — Specimens studied : Add

Holotype (Reg. No. FF 2766) of ZSI, Calcutta.

Date of collection 1-3-1985. Paratypes (Reg. No. FF 2767).

Page 358 — Left column

Colouration : Line 4 should read : (Plates la, 2b).

Page 358 — Left column

Colour after long preservation : Bottom line should read : 2a).

Page 358 — Right column

Discussion: Line 4 should read: (Plates lc, 2d).

Page 358 — Right column

Discussion : Line 7 should read : (Plate 2c).

Plate 2 (facing page 359). Captions for illustrations.

a should read: Puntius setnai sp. nov. after prolonged preservation.
b should read: Puntius setnai sp. nov. freshly preserved.

Table 1 (page 359) — Number of dark bands for Puntius narayani should read 3, instead of

■

'

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

359

Table 1

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF FIVE BARBS

Puntius

cumingii

Puntius

bandula

Puntius

narayani

Puntius

nigrofasciatus

Puntius

setnai sp. nov.

Lateral line

Incomplete

Incomplete

Complete

Complete

Complete

Last unbranched

Osseous,

Osseous,

Feeble,

Osseous,

Osseous,

dorsal ray

serrated

serrated

articulated

serrated

serrated

Number of dark
bands on body

2

2

2

3

2 (during life),

3 (on preservation)

Colour of
dorsal fin

Red or yellow,
with two rows of
black spots on fin-

Black

-rays

Not stated

Smoky grey

Colourless

The characters listed in Table 1 can be
used to distinguish the aforestated five barbs.

The scales on the lateral line of Puntius
setnai sp. nov. show a remarkable variation
in number, not only in different specimens but
also on the two sides of the same specimen.
While the typical number of lateral line scales
is 20, a random sampling showed 19-20, 20-21,
17-20, 18-19 and 21-22. It is a matter of
speculation whether such variation occurs only
in this species; it would be worthwhile to ex-
amine other fishes for this trait.

Too much emphasis has been placed on
fin-ray count for distinguishing barbs. Of the
70 species of barbs for which Day (1875) has
given fin-ray formulae, as many as 49 have

three undivided dorsal rays, while 45 have
eight branched dorsal rays. All but 14 species
have 19 caudal rays, and all but 11 have nine
rays on the ventral fins. Rays on the anal fins
vary from seven (in 39 species) to eight (in
30 species), only Barbus spinulosus having
ten.

The colour pattern in some species of
barbs is different in juveniles and adults (see
Kortmulder and van der Poll 1981).

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr Jaysingh B. Chavan,
ICAR Senior Research Fellow, for taking all
morphometric measurements and fin-ray
counts.

R EFERENCES

Day, F. (1875-78): The Fishes of India, being a natural
history of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and
fresh waters of India, Burma and Ceylon. William
Dawson & Sons, London.

Deraniyagala, P.E.P. (1952): A coloured atlas of some
vertebrates from Ceylon. (1): Fishes. National
Museum, Ceylon, Colombo.

Gunther, A. (1868): Catalogue of the fishes in the Indian
Museum, 7. Catalogue of the physostomi containing
the families Heterpygii, Cyprinidae, Gonor-
hynchidae, Hyodontidae, Osteoglossidae,
Clupeidae, Chirocentridae, Alepocephalidae,
Notopteridae, Ilalosauridae in the collection of the
British Museum. British Museum, London.

Hora, S.L. (1937): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum,
xxviii - On three collections of fish from Mysore

and Coorg, South India. Rec. Ind. Mus. 39(1): 5-28,
figs. 1-11.

Kortmulder, K. & Van der Poll, R.J. (1981): The
juvenile and adult pigment patterns of Barbus
lateristriga Cuv. & Val. 1842, B. titteya
(Deraniyagala 1929) and B. narayani Hora 1937
(Pisces, Cyprinidae) and their taxonomic value.
Nether. J. Zool. 31(2): 453-465.

Pethiyagoda, R. (1991): Freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka.
Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka.

Tilak, R. (1969): A study of the freshwater and estuarine
fishes of Goa. 2. Notes on the fishes found within
the territory of Goa. Rec. zool. Surv. India 67 (1-4):
67-120.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. GRIZZLED GIANT SQUIRREL RATUFA MACROURA THOMAS AND
WROUGHTON AT CAUVERY VALLEY IN KARNATAKA

The grizzled giant squirrel Ratufa macroura
Thomas and Wroughton is an endemic species with a
disjunct distribution in the peninsula. The species is
known to be restricted to a small area of deciduous
forests in the Srivilliputtur forests (Borges 1990,
Ramachandran 1989) and Kudirayar valley (Davidar
1989) on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats
in Tamil Nadu. It has also been recorded in the Chin-
nar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala (Ramachandran
1989).

However, during a trip to Muttatti (398 m above
msl, 12° 18' N, IT 18' E) a popular pilgrimage
centre (c.120 km south of Bangalore) on the banks of
river Cauvery, on 21 April 1991, we sighted a
R. macroura on an Albizzia amara tree. The
spot is about half a kilometre upstream from
Muttatti.

Muttatti falls within the Basavanabetta State
Forest, which comprises of boulder strewn hills
covered by dense mixed jungle with bamboo. The
Cauvery river borders the State Forest on the south-
ern side, where the riparian habitat is prevalent. Tree
species dominating the riparian zone are Terminalia
arjuna, Tamarindus indica, Mangifera indica,
Pongamia glabra, Albizzia amara and Syzygium
sp.

On noticing our presence the squirrel tried to
hide by pressing itself close to the branch and lying
motionless. A little later, it began feeding on the
tender leaves of A. amara and moved on to feed on
the tender leaves of a neighbouring tamarind tree. In
the meantime a second individual was spotted on
another A. amara in bloom about 75 m from where
the first individual was seen. In a short while the
former joined the latter and both were observed pull-
ing the blossoms with their forelimbs and feeding on
the pollen without plucking the flower. The be-
haviour of taking the stamens into the mouth and
pulling them out without actually damaging them in-
dicated that the squirrels were feeding on the pollen
of A. amara. Later one of them moved closer to the
other and both started to nuzzle each other. One of
the squirrels was observed chasing away a
threestriped palm squirrel Futiambulus palmarum

Wroughton which approached too close. It was also
observed that one of the pairs of R. macroura was
gnawing at the loose bark of an Albizia tree.

Two of us (SK and JNP) visited the place again
with two others (G.S. Aditya and M.S. Jayanth) on 27
and 28 April 1991. On 27 April, we surveyed a
stretch of approximately 6 km of the riparian zone
between Muttatti and Bhimeshvari (404 m above
msl; 12° 18' N, 77° 17' E). We came across 16 dreys,
but only one individual about 4 km upstream from
Muttatti village. On 28 April, we covered a stretch of
16 km downstream from Muttatti to Sangam (373 m
above msl; 12° 17' N, IT 26' E), the confluence of
rivers Arkavathy and Cauvery. We came across one
individual about 14 km from Muttatti and 19 dreys.
Both the squirrels seen on 27 and 28 April appeared
very shy, hiding themselves from our view and lying
motionless on the branch for quite some time. The
observations of Raja (1983) indicate that R. macro-
ura is very vocal. However, all the four individuals
we came across in the Muttatti area were silent. We
also did not hear any calls in the area which could be
those of any other Ratufa species.

Muttatti area is inhabited by Soliga tribals. On
enquiring with a few Soligas,we learnt that the tribals
regularly hunt R. macroura for meat. According to
them, the squirrel is known to come down from trees
to drink water from the river and at such times is par-
ticularly vulnerable. The squirrel, popularly known
among the tribals as Bettaluma, is also known to in-
habit the riparian zones on the opposite bank, which
come under the Chikkayalur Reserve Forest. The
habitat there too is similar to that of Basavanabetta
State Forest. Possible predators of these squirrels
could be the crested serpent eagle Spilornis cheela
(Latham) and the grey-headed fishing eagle Ich-
thyophaga ichthyaetus (Horsfield) which also in-
habit the same habitat in the area.

Hitherto R. macroura has been recorded only
in Tamil Nadu and Kerala; our sightings in the
Muttatti area constitute the northernmost record
of the species and also probably the first report from
Karnataka.

More detailed surveys in appropriate habitats in

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

361

between Srivilliputtur forests, Chinnar Wildlife
Sanctuary and Muttatti area may throw more light on
the distribution and abundance ofi?. macroura. Such
surveys may also help in identifying potential

habitats for protection.

S. KARTHIKEYAN
J.N. PRASAD

October 22, 1991 B. ARUN

References

Borges, R. (1990): Giants of the fabled forests. Sanctuary
10(5): 38-45.

Davtoar, P. (1989): Grizzled Giant Squirrel Ratufa macro-
ura - Distribution in Kudirayar. J. Bombay nat. Hist
Soc. 86(3): 437.

Raja, S.S. Ramachandra (1983): The Grizzled Giant Squir-
rel. Hornbill 1983(2): 26-29.

Ramachandran, K.K. (1989): Endangered Grizzled Giant
Squirrel Habitat. J. Bombay nat Hist Soc. 86(1): 94-
95.

2. ESTIMATION OF DENSITY OF IBEX CAPRA IBEX LINN. IN PIN VALLEY
NATIONAL PARK, HIMACHAL PRADESH

(With a text-figure)

The Pin Valley National Park in Lahaul-Spiti
district, Himachal Pradesh, was set up in 1987.
Biogeographically, this area has been included in
Zone IB, i.e. the Tibetan Plateau (Rodgers and Pan-
war 1989). The mean elevation of the Park is 4250 m
above sea level (Morgain 1975). There is virtually no
information on the status of wildlife of this difficult
terrain. The local Budhist population does not shoot
wild animals because of religious sentiment. The ibex
Capra ibex sibirica is a major species in the Park. No
density estimates exist for Himalayan ibex in its en-
tire range.

In order to assess the status of wildlife in the
Park, preliminary surveys were done during 1988-89.
The surveys showed that ibex move downwards into
the valleys after snowfall in late October or early
November. By late October, the migratory graziers
who come largely with sheep also leave the Park.
Therefore, November was selected as being the best
period for a census of ibex.

The Park was divided into seven census grids
along the seven major rivulets (Fig. 1). Seven parties,
each consisting of one observer (Wildlife Department
personnel) and two labourers were allotted one cen-
sus grid (or transect line). The length of the transects
varied between 6 and 11 km and the breadth between
1 and 1.5 km. 500-750 m were scanned on either side
of each transect, using 10 x 55 binoculars.

Practise censuses were carried out from 22 to
25 October 1989, and the actual census from 12 to 14
November 1989.

Results and Conclusion
The observations made during the census are

shown in table 1.

Table 1

Name of the
transect line
(see Fig. 1)

Area covered Total No.
(sq. km.) of Ibex
seen

(1) Kidul Cho up to Ula

11 x 1 = 11

7

(2) (i) Kidul Cho to Thango

6 x 1.5 = 9

46

(ii) Thango to Nakpozamba

6x1 = 6

Nil

(3) Thango to Debsa

1x1=1

46

(4) Khaminger to Kangla

8x1.5 = 12

33

(5) La rang pasture to

Larang La and Tari Khango

10 x 1 = 10

21

(6) Chhochhden to Thangpat

11 x 1 = 11

21

(7) Chhochhden to Pradey-

Chorak-Nimish Khango

10x1=10

Nil

Total =

76 sq. km

174

Density of Ibex - —— - 2.29 (Ibex per sq. km)

76

The average breadth of the valleys scanned (1
or 1.5 km) as mentioned above 4s a fact, visual es-
timation by the observers.

The results given above are purely based on ac-
tual observations and do not include any allowance
for the unseen number of ibex in the survey area.

There was little chance of overlapping or
double counting of ibex as the seven census grids
were away from each other. At the time of compila-
tion of data, the timing and sites of ibex sightings
were taken into account to avoid double counting.

The area surveyed during census (76 sq. km) is
11,26% of the total area (675 sq. km) of the Pin

362

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Fig. 1. Map of Pin Valley National Park, showing transect lines along the rivulets.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

363

Valley National Park. A major portion of the Park
is covered by glaciers, etc. which may not be
considered as ibex habitat. The total population of
ibex in the Park could be between 700 and 1200
animals.

Recommendations: This population estimation
exercise must be used as benchmark data by future
Wildlife managers. The influence of grazing by
migratory sheep and goats should be investigated fur-
ther. A management prescription has been proposed
that involves a grazing closure programme that will
lead to total elimination of grazing in all the major
pastures inside the National Park (Pandey 1990). It is
recommended that these results be verified in similar

weather conditions in November over a period of at
least five years so that direct comparison can be made
between counts associated with the grazing reduction.

Acknowledgements

B.S. Chauhan, IFS, Chief Wildlife Warden, H.P.
encouraged me officially and otherwise to undertake
this exercise. I thank Dr. W.A. Rodgers for his
guidance and advice. Finally I must thank all the
local villagers, guides, and my field staff for their ex-
cellent performance during the survey and census in
the field.

February 20, 1992 SANJEE VA PANDEY

References

Morgain, M.D. (1975): Himachal Pradesh Gazetteers.
Lahaul and Spiti.

Rodgers, W.A. & Panwar, H. S. (1988): Planning a Wildlife
Protected Area Network in India. Vols. I & II.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun.

Pandey, S. (1990): Management Plan for Pin Valley Nation-
al Park (1990-91 to 1994-95). Submitted to the
Wildlife Wing of H.P. Forest Department.

3. ON RARE CETACEAN SPECIES OFF SRI LANKA, INCLUDING THE
KILLER WHALE ORCINUS ORCA (LINN.) (DELPHINIDAE : CETACEA)

An impetus to the study of Cetaceans off Sri
Lanka was given by the declaration in 1979 of the
northern portion of the Indian Ocean (20° 130' E, and
above 55° S) as a marine mammal sanctuary at a
meeting of the International Whaling Commission
(IWC). This was followed by a three-year study
(1982-1984) of the large whales, specially of the
sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus (Linnaeus) off
Sri Lanka (see Ailing et al. 1982). In addition, obser-
vations were made on small cetaceans. Ailing (1985)
examined the fishery by-catch at the fishery harbours
of Beruwala (south coast) and Valaichenai and Trin-
comalee (east coast).

The Marine Mammal Programme of the Nation-
al Aquatic Resources Agency (NARA) continued the
study of the fishery by-catch and also recorded sight-
ings of both large and small cetaceans during off-
shore cruises of ‘R/v Samudra Maru’ during the
period 1985-1989.

During the period 1985-1989 we examined the
landed catch at fishery harbours Negombo (on the
west coast), Beruwala, Galle, Mirissa, Dondra, Kot-
tegoda, Tangalle, Hambantota, Kalametiya and Kirin-
da (on the south coast). The number of monitoring
days of the by-catch during the above period was 46
for Negombo, 44 for Beruwala, 28 for Galle, 52 for

Mirissa, 47 for Dondra, Ganadara and Kottegoda and
8 for Tangalle, Hambantota, Kalametiya and Kirinda.
During this study the following rare/infrequent
species were recorded in the catch:

Killer whale Orcinus orca (Linn.): On 8 April
1986 a female was landed at Negombo by fishermen
operating a 3.50 ton Fishing vessel 50 km off Negom-
bo. It was entrapped in the nylon gillnet and
measured 277.5 cm from tip of snout to fluke notch.
Its tooth count was 18 for each jaw. It had the striking
black and white pigmentation typical of the species.
Its body was cut up to be sold while the skull was
procured and given by NARA to the University of
Peradeniya.

Rough-toothed dolphin Steno bredanensis
(Lesson): Five specimens, of which:

(i) Two specimens, a male and a female at
Negombo fishery harbour. The male was net-en-
tangled in May 1987 and measured 177.5 cm. The
female was harpooned in February 1988, and
measured 152.5 cm.

(ii) A single animal, a male was landed at
Beruwala fishery harbour in February 1988. It was
net-entangled and measured 223.75 cm in total
length.

(iii) TWo animals, a male and a female, were

364

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

landed at Mirissa fishery harbour in October 1985
(male, 222.5 cm harpooned) and July 1985 (female,
net-entangled, 206.25 cm).

The percentage frequency of this species in the
total landed catch of dolphins were 2.5% at Negom-
bo, 0.75% at Beruwala and 1.6% at Mirissa for the
period 1985-1989.

Melonheaded whale Peponocephala electra
(Gray). 15 specimens. Of these:

(i) Seven specimens, two males and five
females were landed at the Negombo fishery harbour.
Of them two were in July 1985 and 1988, three in
August 1987 and 1988 and two in October 1988.
Three animals taken were found harpooned and the
remaining four were a result of net entrapment. The
total length measurements were for males 217.5 cm
and 202.5 cm and for 4 females 227.5 cm, 221.25
cm, 185 cm and 127.5 cm (calf) respectively. These
constituted 8.8% frequency of the total catch of dol-
phins at Negombo for the period 1985-1989.

(ii) Five individuals, three males and two
females from Beruwala fishery harbour on 13 Oc-
tober 1987 and 18 October 1988, all being instances
of gillnet entrapments. Two males measured 212.5
cm and 221.25 cm in total length while the females
had a total length of 210 cm and 228.75 cm respec-
tively. It represented 3.7% frequency of the total
landed dolphin by-catch during 1985-1989 at this
fishery harbour.

(iii) TWo animals, one male and one female at
the Mirissa fishery harbour also in October 1985.
They were both harpooned, measuring 247.5 cm
(male) and 232.5 cm (female). The percentage fre-
quency of this species out of the total catch at Mirissa
during 1985-1989 was 1.6%.

(iv) One female, measuring 207.5 cm was
landed at Kottegoda in October 1987. It was a case of
net entanglement. This represented 1.8% frequency
out of the total dolphin by-catch landed at this fishery
harbour during the period 1985-1989.

Pygmy killer whale Feresa attenuata (Gray):
Two specimens in August 1985.

(i) A female, calf, 123.75 cm in total length
was landed at Beruwala. It was net-entangled. This
constituted 0.75% frequency of total dolphin by-
catch at this fishery harbour during 1985-1989.

(ii) A male, 212.5 cm in total length landed at
Galle fishery harbour. This represented 2.5% fre-
quency of the total dolphin by-catch at Galle during
1985-1989.

Fraser’s dolphin Lagenodelphis hosei (Fraser).
Four individuals. Out of them:

(i) 1 male, 246.25 cm in total length was
landed at Negombo fishery harbour in August 1988.
It was net -entangled. This constituted 1.2% frequen-
cy of the total dolphin catch at Negombo during
1985-1989.

(ii) 3 individuals, all females, were landed at
Mirissa fishery harbour. They measured 225 cm.,
227.5 cm. and 232.5 cm in total length. Two animals
were landed in September 1985 and the other in Oc-
tober 1985. All were found harpooned. The percent-
age frequency of the total dolphin catch at Mirissa
during 1985-1989 was 2.5%.

During our study from 1985-1989 we did not
observe the Irrawady dolphin, Orcaella brevirostris
(Gray), in the fishery by-catch at any of the fishery
harbours we visited and so are unable to confirm the
records of Santarre and Santarre (1983) and Joseph et
al. (1983) of this species in the Negombo fishery by-
catch in 1982 and 1983.

Discussion

De Silva (1987) lists 23 Cetacean species off
Sri Lanka including Orcinus orca, Feresa attenuata
and Peponocephala electra. He has based the occur-
rence of Feresa attenuata on sight records whilst the
record of Pepono-cephala electra is on a skull from
Palk Strait in the Calcutta Museum mentioned by
Blanford (1891). Steno bredanensis was first ob-
served by Ailing in the fishery by-catch studies she
carried out at fishery harbours, Beruwala and
Valaichenai and Trincomalee (east coast). She
records three females of this species, one at Beruwala
on 1 October 1983 and two at Trincomalee on 25
August 1983. She also found three specimens of
Feresa attenuata at Trincomalee on 4 March and 2
August 1985. Prematunga et al. (1985) refer tolwo
individuals, a male and a female of Steno bredanensis
landed in July 1985 and one female Lagenodelphis
hosei in the landed catch at Trincomalee on 25
January 1984. Leatherwood (in press) also reports of
a female measuring 210 cm landed at Mirissa on 9
March 1986. Neither Ailing nor Prematunga et al.
have observed Orcinus orca not Peponocephala
electra in the landed dolphin catch and the latter is
recorded here for the first time in the fishery by-
catch.

The first record of Orcinus orca is a sighting
off Chilaw (North-western coast) by Holdsworth in

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

365

1872. Blandford (1891) also mentions its occurrence
on the West coast. Joseph in Leatherwood (in press)
reports of two entangled specimens, one at Kirinda in
1982 and the other at Kottegoda on 14 July 1983.
The present record from Negombo is therefore the
fourth so far reported.

It is of interest that the majority of
Peponocephala electra have been taken in the month
of October (1985, 1987 and 1988) even though these
dolphins have been landed at different fishery har-
bours (Negombo, Beruwala, Mirissa and Kottegoda).
We are unable to offer any explanation at present for
this situation.

Ailing (1985) attributes the mortality of dol-
phins in Sri Lanka mostly to entrapment in gillnets
used by fishermen. However, out of a total of 26
animals discussed in the present paper 10 had been
harpooned. That harpooning is a threat as serious as
net entanglement is also suggested by the data we
have obtained in respect of other dolphin species in
the landed catch at these fishery harbours.

Mohan (1985) states that the peak season of the

Refer

Alling, A. (1985) Small Cetacean Entanglement: a case
study of the incidental entrapment of Cetaceans in Sri
Lanka’s gillnet fishery. RepL Int Whal. Comm.
Document SC/3 7/S MS.

Alling, A., Gordon, J., Rotton, N., & Whitehead, H.,
(1982): WWF - Netherlands, Indian Ocean Sperm
Whale Study 1981-1982. Interim report, March 1982.
Blanford, W.T. (1891): The Fauna of British India includ-
ing Ceylon and Burma. Taylor and Francis, London,
pp. 564-591.

de Silva, P.H.D.H. (1987): Cetaceans (Whales, Dolphins
and Porpoises) off Sri Lanka, India, from the Arabian
Sea and Gulf of Aden and from the Red Sea. J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 505-525.

Holdsworth, E.W.H. (1872): Note on a Cetacean observed
on the West coast of Ceylon. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.
pp. 583-586.

occurrence of dolphins in the nets in Calicut, India, is
from October to February although there were in-
dividual variations between the species. The infre-
quent species discussed in this paper were landed in
the months of January, February, April, May, July,
September and October. However, the majority of the
records are during the period from October to
February. We hope to analyse the data obtained on
the landed catch of other dolphin species in this study
in due course and the results will shed more light on
the exact situation in Sri Lanka.

Acknowledgements

We wish to express our sincere thanks to Dr.
Hiran W. Jayewardane, the Chairman of NARA, for
providing facilities for this research. We also wish to
thank Dr. P.H.D.H. de Silva, Consultant to the
Marine Mammal Programme for his help in the
preparation of this manuscript.

ANOUK ILANGAKOON
W.P. MAHENDRA
August 31, 1990 H.A.K. SUBASINGHE

ENCES

Joseph, L., Sideek, M.S.M., & Jayakody, D.S. (1983):
Cetaceans landed by fishermen in Negombo, Sri
Lanka. NARA Int. Symp.

Mohan, R. S. Lal (1985): Observations on the By-catch of
Dolphins Stenella longirostris, Tursiops aduncus,
Sousa chinensis and Delphinus delphis tropicalis in
the gillnets off Calicut Coast, India. Proc. Symp. en-
dangred Marine Mammals and Marine Parks. I, pp.
77-83.

Prematunga, W.P.,, Alling, A. & Leatherwood, S. (1985):
Species Composition of Small Cetacean By-catches
in Gillnets off Trincomalee, Sri Lanka, January 1984
through April 1985. Rept. Int. Whal. Comm., Docu-
ment No. SC/37/SM9.

Santarre, M.T. & Santarre, R.M. (1983): Historical
Records of the Occurrence and Distribution of Marine
Mammals in Sri Lanka, NARA/SMM 10.

4. THE FLAMINGO PHOENICOPTERUS ROSEUS PALLAS IN KERALA

Purathur, 55 km south of Kozhikode on the
west coast of Kerala, is the point where the river
Bharathapuzha enters the sea. The estuary is charac-
terised by shallow waters and extensive sandy islets
which get exposed during low tide. The river is
approximately a kilometre wide towards its mouth.

The birds seen at the estuary include some species
rarely seen in Kerala.

During the winter months from October to
March, large numbers of shorebirds and seabirds visit
the estuary and many congregate on the sandflats.
Purathur is one of the largest congregating sites for

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

gulls in Kerala.

On 11 March 1991, a flock of five flamingos
Phoenicopterus roseus was found feeding in the shal-
low waters of the estuary. All the birds appeared to be
immatures. They were all greyish with a little pink
daubed on the back. The head and neck were greyish
brown. In flight, the primaries and the trailing edges
of the wings were black. The bill was sharply
downcurved and black-tipped. The rest of the
mandibles were horn coloured; and the legs,

pinkish. The birds were standing in knee-deep
water engaged in their characteristic feeding
movements for sifting brine. They did not appear to
be too wary of our approaching canoe but only
walked away. Local enquiries indicated that the five
birds had been there from about the middle of
January.

D. K. NARAYANAKURUP
December 24, 1991 C. MOHAN KUMAR

5. A VISIT TO THE ‘FLAMINGO CITY’

IN THE GREAT RANN OF KUTCH, GUJARAT

In his excellent notes on the breeding of the
flamingos Phoenicopterus roseus and Phoeniconaias
minor , Dr. Salim AJi has fully described the condi-
tions in the Great Rann, the rivers flowing into it etc.
Without repeating the details, it may be mentioned
here that conditions recently were similar to those
described by him (. JBNIIS 71 (1): 141-144, 1974).
Since Salim Ali first described his visit in the year
1945 (JBNHS 45: 586-593) conditions in the Rann,
particularly the water regime, have undergone a
change. This is mainly owing to the damming of the
rivers and rivulets flowing into the area. The inflow
of water from river Luni (Rajasthan) and also from
the Banas (N. Gujarat) is far less since dams have
been built on them. In the beginning of the 1990
monsoon season extremely heavy rain fell in north
Gujarat and in Barmer district of Rajasthan due to
which the dams on those rivers overflowed, and con-
tinued to do so for a long time. Rain arrived late in
Kutch (end August), but Pachham got very heavy
rainfall, as a result of which plenty of water went into
the Great Rann. Thus conditions for nest-building did
not become suitable till about November 1990.

During my birdwatching trips in Kutch during
the 1989-90 winter I noticed a near complete absence
of the greater flamingo in their usual haunts, along
the sea coast, in tidal creeks and on inland collections
of water. This was also observed by other
birdwatchers in this district. So it was suspected that
these birds may have congregated in the Rann.

Thus to investigate whether the flamingo had
actually collected in the Great Rann of Kutch it was
necessary to pay a visit there. I was fortunate in suc-
ceeding to persuade the Forest Department of the dis-
trict to undertake a survey. So along with A.C. Patel,
Assistant Conservator of Forests, Bhuj, two Forest

Guards and a Ranger, I set out for the well known
‘Flamingo City’ on 7 January 1991”. Camels were lo-
cally hired at Tugga village to take us to Nir, a former
outpost of the erstwhile Kutch State Police, now
manned by the B.S.F., and the entry-point for the
Rann in the north of Pachham Island. After about a
14 km journey we made a night halt at Nir. The
winter morning of 8 January was very clear with
good visibility. We could see flamingo at a distance
as a thin white line from Nir itself.

The final stretch of about 8 km from Nir
through the slush and water, from 60 cm to about 13
m deep, in the Rann took us nearly five hours with
the camels wading through water and slithering in the
slippery mud. We reached the ‘Flamingo City’
around 1430 hrs. We took a rough count of the birds
with the help of binoculars. Our estimate was that
there were 25,000 to 30,000 adults, between 10,000
and 15,000 young, ranging in age from newly
hatched to a fortnight old and several nests contain-
ing one egg each. Our first impression was that there
could not have been less than 12,000 nests, some of
them perhaps unoccupied, while there may have been
others left over from a previous year’s breeding at-
tempt. Actually the colony is in two sections with
some clusters of nests having empty spaces in be-
tween, making the estimation of their numbers rather
tricky; and this would also apply to the calculation of
the number of the flamingo. Besides this, the haze
caused by the afternoon sun adds to the difficulty. We
had already spent about 2 V2 hours- there; not wanting
to unduly disturb the breeding birds and we began
our return journey to Nir. As we left, we could look
back to see the adult flamingo starting to come back
to their eggs and young.

Not having been satisfied with the rough

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

367

TABLE 1

NEST COUNTS IN ARBITRARILY DEMARCATED AREAS

Area

No. of
nests

No. of
eggs

6.5 x 20m

352

56

4 x 3 m

55

1

3 x 3.3 m

27

1

4 x 4 m

108

3

13.2 x 20 m

450

128

5 x 15m

186

36

16 x 16 m

436

208

5 x 8.2 m

207

58

Total 1821 491

counts, particularly of the nests, I paid a second visit
to the flamingo colony on 30 January 1991. This time
an attempt was made to take a sample count of the
nests covering approximately one- sixth of the area of
the colony. The area was roughly divided into sec-
tions, as shown in Table 1.

I did not take a count of chicks, for there were
just a few in the nest, and those which could walk
herded together and moved too far away, making it
impossible to count them.

March 13, 1991. NAVIN N. BAPAT

6. BRAHMINY KITE HALIASTUR INDUS (BODDAERT)
PREYING ON BATS

The brahminy kite Haliastur Indus is mostly
regarded as a scavenger, feeding chiefly on dead or
dying fish. Its diet is reported to include crabs, frogs,
small lizards, snakes, young or sickly birds, insects
(mainly termites and grasshoppers) and mice. An at-
tack on a hare is mentioned in HAND BOOK OF THE
BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, Ali S. and Ripiey,
S.D. 1983.

We recorded a case of brahminy kite preying on
bats at Vedaranyam, 11 km from the Point Calimere
Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary in Tanjore district, Tamil
Nadu. At Vedaranyam, an old dilapidated structure
housing a chariot of the Vedaranyeshwar temple, har-
bours a huge colony of insectivorous bats. After sun-
set, there is a stream of bats flying out of the
building. On 14 August 1990, we noticed a brahminy

7. SURGERY OF

On 11 March 1990 two young Bonelli’s eagles
Hieraaetus fasciatus were found at Galavde wadi
near Indapur, Maharashtra. One of them had a frac-
ture on its left leg. Most probably this could have
been due to the injury sustained by the bird when
their nest was destroyed by local people. X-rays was
taken and it was found that the tibiotarsus was frac-
tured and there was one centimetre of overriding. If
only plaster was used the eagle would have been left
with a shortened and weak leg. As eagles kill their
prey with their talons and strong legs are necessary it
was decided to operate on the eagle’s leg. The eagle
was operated under local anaesthesia as this was

kite making circles and trying to catch bats without
success. During our second visit a few days later, a
brahminy kite was again unsuccessfully attempting to
catch bats. At the same time we saw a shikra or spar-
row hawk (?) ( Accipiter sp.) catch a bat. On our third
visit on 24 August 1990 we saw two brahminy kites
hunting for bats, of which one was successful. On
capture, it pecked at the shrieking victim to kill it and
then flew to feed on a nearby coconut tree. These ob-
servations show that the brahminy kite is also an ac-
tive predator of fast moving prey, and bats form part
of its diet.

RANJIT MANAKADAN
January 7, 1991 V. NATARAJAN

A RARE KIND

found to be the safest. A lateral approach was taken
and the bones were reduced and fixed with a plate
and four screws. An intra medullary rod was put as
an additional support. The screws and plate used
were made of special American steel which does not
react and is used in human finger operations.

It was noted that the tibiotarsus of the leg bones
of a bird has a thin cortex. This is because the bones
should be light in weight to facilitate flight. The
medullary cavity is very broad. The bone is flat
anterioposteriorly.

The muscles of the leg are extremely strong and
are grouped in anterior and posterior groups to enable

368

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

the bird to push off from the ground while taking off,
and buffer the shock while landing.

The healing of such a fracture in human beings
would take three months. The exact healing period in
a bird (assessed by subsequent X-rays) is not known.

As absolute anatomy had been restored and the
fracture subsequently healed well, we expected that
the eagle would recover to normal and could be

released back in its environment subsequently. The
eagle was kept under the care of Neelamkumar
Khaire at the Snake Park Office, for three months and
fed with mice daily. There after it was released.

This operation was done by me, assisted by Dr.
Sunil Jakar, Atul Varekar and Jayant Deshpande.

April 9, 1990 SATTYASHEEL NAIK

8. RUFOUSBELLIED HAWK-EAGLE HIERAAETUS KIENERII
(E. GEOFFROY) IN ANDHRA PRADESH

The Birdwatchers Society of Andhra Pradesh
had organised a camp at Tirumala Hills, Tirupati
from 24 to 28 August 1990. During this camp a
rufousbellied hawk-eagle Hieraaetus kienerii was
sighted on the morning of 25 August at Japali, 5 km
from the town of Tirumala on the Tiru mala -Tirupati
road.

The rufousbellied hawk-eagle is about the size
of a kite. There is a faint but distinct occipital crest.
The head, crest, back, wings and upper tail are dark
slaty black. The lower breast, belly and vent are rusty
red while the upper breast and throat are white with
black streaks. The red plumage also has black streaks
mostly on the flanks and thighs. The undertail is sil-
very white with four faint black bands and one broad
black terminal band. The tarsi are clothed in short
bristles.

In overhead flight the secondaries and lower
body are rusty red, the outer wing feathers
(primaries) are black and there is a white band

separating the black feathers from the red. The black
terminal tail band is very suggestive of its identity as
also the white throat and upper breast.

Ali and Ripley (COMPACT HANDBOOK OF
BIRDS, 1987) gives the bird’s status in south India as
“...the Western Ghats strip in South India from Goa
and N. Mysore through Kerala (up to c 1200 m). Ab-
sent in intervening country.” Taher and Pittie
(CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF ANDHRA PRADESH,
1989) also do not mention this species as occurring in
the state. In no other literature can I find reference of
this bird as being found in Andhra Pradesh.

This then may result in a range extension of the
species particularly if further sightings were to occur
from this part or other parts of the state also. The
habitat as mentioned in the HANDBOOK seems to
tally with that on the Tirumala Hills where the bird
was seen.

June 28, 1991 HUMAYUN TAHER

9. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON MAINTENANCE BEHAVIOUR OF THE
RED WATTLED LAPWING VANELLUS INDICUS (BODDAERT)

(With eleven text-figures)

Introduction

This paper deals with some observations on
maintenance behaviour of the redwattled lapwing
Vanellus indicus. The term ‘maintenance behaviour’
as used in this paper includes movements associated
with preening, bathing, cleaning, shaking, wing
drying, stretching, resting and sleeping.

The study was carried out in Chandigarh (30°
42' N, 76° 54' E) and surrounding areas. All observa-
tions were made on wild birds using 12 x 50 pris-
matic binoculars and a portable blind (LeCroy 1975).

The categorisation of various activities as main-
tenance behaviour is after Armstrong (1950), Dilger
(1960), Mayerriecks (1960), Maxwell and Putnam
(1968) and McAllister and Maxwell (1971).

Observations and Discussion

Preening: Preening was the most frequent
maintenance activity observed in the redwattled
lapwing during interludes between feeding, nest
relief, after copulation and periods of resting. All
regions of the body accessible to the beak were
preened. The preening of breast (Fig.l), wing coverts

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

369

(Fig.2), abdominal, back and rump regions was done
by nibbling, while primaries, secondaries and
rectrices (Fig. 3) were stroked.

For preening the breast and belly regions, the
head was turned towards the respective region.
Preening of the wing was done from inside as well
outside, for which the wing was slightly extended
and the head bent backwards. For stroking the
rectrices, the neck was turned backwards to one side,
head tilted at an angle, tail was spread and turned on
its axis to one side. In all preening activities the body
was kfept horizontal and the tail was not lowered, ex-
cept during breast preening where the tail was
lowered slightly. Horizontal body posture during
preening is an adaptation in waders and ducks: lower-
ing of wings or tail, thereby touching the muddy sub-
strate, will lead to wet or dirty feathers and will
probably damage the delicate tips of wings and tail
(Ten Cate 1985). During the breeding season, copula-
tion was always followed by tail and belly preening
in males and tail preening in females. Preening
movements in the chicks appeared 2-3 days after
hatching. Due to poor coordination, young chicks
usualy toppled over when they attempted to preen.
Initially only the breast and outer wing regions were
preened; preening developed gradually as the chicks
grew older.

Preening helps in the care of plumage, removal
of ectoparasites, and to rearrange the feathers that
might get displaced during various activities. Other
reported functions of preening are advertisement
(Sodhi and Khera 1984) and courtship display (Mc-
Kinney 1965, Edwards 1982). Preening as displace-
ment activity has been reported in the breeding
avocet Recurvirostra avosetta, little ringed plover
Charadrius dubius, kentish plover Charadrius
alexandrinus (Simmons 1961), common tern Sterna
hirundo and sandwich tern Sterna sandvicensis (Ier-
sel and Bol 1958).

Bathing: For bathing the redwattled lapwing
waded into a shallow pool, sat in water, dipped its
head and body alternately into water and performed
body shaking movements.The wings were kept
slightly elevated during bathing. On a few occasions,
the birds were observed to perform breast preening
during bathing.

Cleaning: Some cleaning movements observed
are as follows: Scratching : The bird scratched its
head, neck and beak by dropping one wing and
bringing up the corresponding leg over to the region

to be scratched (Fig. 4). This method of scratching
has been termed indirect scratching (Simmons 1957,
1961; McFarland 1981). The head was rotated and
turned for scratching different regions of head and
beak. The scratching was usually associated with
preening but could also be observed as an inde-
pendent maintenance activity. McKinney (1965) ob-
served that scratching serves to remove irritation
caused by ectoparasites, loose feathers and clean. In
the redwattled lapwing, scratching also helped to
clean the bill. Chicks also scratched by indirect
method. Although very young chicks could not bring
up their leg over the shoulder for scratching, the wing
was always lowered prior to scratching. The head
scratching methods in birds have taxonomic sig-
nificance and one method is used by all members of
the same family (Simmons 1957). Simmons (1961)
reported head scratching as displacement activity in
the breeding avocets and little ringed plovers. The
lowering of wing during indirect scratching may
serve the bird to keep better balance either by lower-
ing the centre of gravity (Simmons 1961) or by plac-
ing the wing bow on the perch as a support for the
body (Ten Cate 1985).

Shoulder rubbing: During this activity, the bird
turned its neck to one side and vigorously rubbed the
lateral side of its head on the outer side of wings near
the shoulder region (Fig. 5). The shoulder rubbing
was observed as an independent activity as well as in
association with preening and bathing. This move-
ment probably served to clean the eye.

Shaking: The following shaking movements
were observed: Body shake: The bird assumed a
horizontal posture, loosened the wings and vigorous-
ly shook the body along the antero-posterior axis
(Fig. 6). This was followed by one jerky rotating
movement of the head. Body shake was observed
after preening, bathing and copulation. Body shake
helps to remove water drops from the feathers and to
rearrange disordered feathers.

Wing shake: The redwattled lapwing withdrew
its neck, loosened its wings and shook them with
short vibrating motion. The wing shake was usually
observed after preening of wings after bathing. This
movement helped to dry and rearrange the wing
feathers.

Head shake: The head and bill were shaken
laterally by movements of the neck. Head shake oc-
curred independently or in association with preening
and after feeding. Chicks also performed head shake.

7

370

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Fig. 4 Scratching

Fig, 5 Shoulder rubbing

Fig. 3 Preening (Rectrices) Fig. 6 Body shake

Figs. 1-6. Redwattled lapwing, showing postures during preening, resting etc.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

371

Fig. 7 Wing and (eg
stretch

Figs. 7-11. Redwattled lapwing, showing postures during preening, resting etc.

372

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Head shake removes water, dirt, food particles or
loose feathers from the surface of bill (McKinney
1965).

Tail wag: In this movement the tail was shaken
laterally a number of times. The rectrices were not
fanned during this movement. In general tail wag was
observed during preening, after copulation, defeca-
tion and bathing. McKinney (1965) observed that tail
wag in male Anatidae probably helps to return the
penis to its usual position in the cloacal cavity after
copulation. Other functions of tail wag are - removal
of water from the tail, rearrangement of misplaced
rectrices and tail coverts and reinversion of cloacal
lips after defecation.

Stretching: Wing and leg stretch, and both
wings stretch were the two stretching movements
observed. Wing and leg stretch : In this movement
the bird withdrew the neck, shifted its weight on to
one leg and extended the wing of the other side
backwards (Fig. 7). The leg on the side of stretched
wing was then extended beneath the wing. After
stretching, the leg and wing were withdrawn simul-
taneously.

Both wings stretch : The bird while standing

raised both wings upwards simultaneously (Fig.8).

Both types of stretching activities were per-
formed after periods of rest. Stretching probably
helps to stimulate the flow of blood in the limbs, thus
preparing the muscles for further activity (Kortlandt
1940 in McKinney 1965).

Resting and sleeping: In all resting postures
the neck was withdrawn. The birds rested while
standing on both legs, on one leg (Fig. 9), on tarsi
(Fig. 10) and sitting (Fig. 11). In one variant of rest-
ing in standing posture, the birds, while keeping the
carpal joints bent and near the body, extended their
primaries downwards. The primaries in this position
never touched the ground. The eyes were closed in all
the resting postures. Chicks both rested on tarsi and
sitting, but closed their eyes in sitting posture only.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Chairman, Department of Zool-
ogy, Panjab University, Chandigarh for providing
facilities and Jaswinder Saini for help in the field.

R.S.KALSI

April 9, 1991 S.KHERA

References

Armstrong, E.A. (1950): The nature and function of dis-
placement activities. Symp. Soc. Exp. Biol. 4: 361-
384.

Dilger, W.C. (1960): The comparative ethology of the
African Parrot genus Agapornis. Z. Tierpsychol. 17:
649-685.

Edwards, P.J. (1982): Plumage variation, territoriality and
breeding displays of the Golden Plover Pluvialis
apricaria in Southwest Scotland. Ibis 124: 88-96.

Iersel J.J.A. van & Bol, A.C.A. (1958): Preening of two
tern species. A study of displacement activities. Be-
haviour 23: 1-88.

LeCroy, M. (1975): Easily built portable blind. Bird Band-
ing 46: 166 -168.

Maxwell II, G.R. & Putnam, L.S. (1968): The maintenance
behaviour of the Black-crowned Night Heron. Wilson
Bull. 80: 467- 478.

McAllister, J.R. & Maxwell II, G.R. (1971): Locomotion,
maintenance and feeding behaviour of the Great Blue

Heron in northern New York. Kingbird 21: 183-203.

McFarland, D. (1981): The Oxford Companion to Animal
Behaviour. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

McKinney, F. (1965) The comfort movements of Anatidae.
Behaviour 25: 120-200.

Meyerriecks, A.J. (1960): Comparative breeding behaviour
of four species of North American Herons. Nuttal Or-
nithol. ClubPubl. No. 2: 1-158.

Simmons, K.E.L. (1957): The taxonomic significance of the
head scratching methods in birds. Ibis 99: 178-181.

Simmons, K.E.L. (1961): Problems of head scratching in
birds. Ibis 103: 37-49.

Sodhi, N.S. & Khera, S. (1984): Some aspects of main-
tenance behaviour of Ardeola gray'd (Sykes). Pavo
22: 1-5.

Ten Cate, C. (1985): Functional aspects of head-scratching
methods and other preening movements in birds.
Ardea 73: 99-104.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

373

10. CASPIAN PLOVER CHARADRIUS ASIATICUS PALLAS
AT PT. CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU

The Caspian plover Charadriiis asiaticus has
apparently only been recorded once within India’s
boundaries, a specimen having been collected near
Ratnagiri, Maharashtra in 1880. There is one sight
record from the Andaman Islands (SYNOPSIS OF THE
BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, Ripley, S.D. 1982),
which is now considered as a separate species, the
Oriental plover Charadrius veredus.

On 18 February 1991 at about 1630 hrs K.J.K.
sighted a Caspian plover in partial breeding plumage
on the beach at the southern boundary of Pt. Calimere
Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. Initially it was seen
near the water’s edge but soon moved to the adjoin-
ing area of dry sand, dotted with patches of dry grass.
There it continued feeding for approximately half an
hour in the company of two lesser sand plovers
Charadrius mongolus and several Kentish plovers
Charadrius alexandrinus which enabled useful com-
parisons to be made. The bird was seen again briefly
at 1745 hrs on the grassland further inland, where it
was loosely associated with some Pacific , golden
plovers Pluvialis dominica fulva.

K.J.K. informed S.B. and L.R. and the follow-
ing morning they together relocated the bird, near
where it had last been seen, and confirmed its iden-
tity. It was observed with a telescope at fairly close
range for a period of 20 minutes while feeding with
pacific golden plovers and little ringed plovers
Charadrius dubius.

The following field characters were noted: The
overall size appeared somewhat larger than that of
lesser sand plover, perhaps due to the considerably

longer legs, which were of a pale green colour. The
upper parts were a uniform brown, concolorous with
the rump and tail, which had no obvious white areas,
although there may have been some white edging to
the latter. The ‘face’ was very pale with white
forehead, throat and lores being joined to a distinct
broad white supercilium that curved back behind the
eye, the lores and forehead having a slight chestnut
buffy wash, which was also visible on the brown of
the hind-neck. The thick brown eye-stripe extended
back behind the eye to join the brown of the upper
parts. The bill was noticeably different to that of
lesser sand plover, being likewise black but tapered
to a finer point. The most distinctive feature was the
broad, pale chestnut band, a dark brown line and at
close range showed some white scaling. Belly and
undertail coverts were white. The bird was observed
to have a white wing-bar, which together with its
white axillaries and wing-lining separate it from the
very similar Oriental plover.

HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKIS-
TAN (AJi, S. and Ripley, S.D. 1983) does not record
its behaviour in India. Our bird appeared to have a
fairly typical plover-type feeding pattern with its
rather upright stance resembling that of the Pacific
golden plover.

This is an interesting sighting of a species that
has not been recorded on the Indian mainland for
over 100 years.

K.J. KAZMIERCZAK
S. BALACHANDRAN
May 6, 1991 LIMA ROSALIND

11. UNUSUAL BEHAVIOUR OR ADAPTATION AGAINST PREDATION IN
TEREK SANDPIPER TRINGA TEREK (LATHAM)

On the morning of 2 April 1991 we observed a
scattered flock of Terek sandpiper Tringa terek
(Latham) (return migration flock) numbering 32,
feeding in the reservoirs in the Great Vedaranyam
Swamp at Pt. Calimere, Tamil Nadu. Five were
caught by the trappers of the Bombay Natural History
Society for ringing as part of the ongoing Bird
Migration Project. The first two Terek sandpipers
grouped together after release. The third was released
along the water’s edge. Suddenly a brahminy kite

Haliastur indus stooped to catch it. But to our
astonishment the sandpiper immediately dived into
the water, surfaced about 60 cm away and swam for
few seconds. Once again the brahminy kite tried to
prey upon it, but the bird dived again into the water
and came out about 1.54 m away and swam for
another 1.25 m to reach the bank. In the meantime we
got into the water and chased the brahminy kite away,
which gave time for the sandpiper to hide itself under
nearby Suaeda bush.

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

The swimming behaviour of terek sandpiper has
been recorded (BIRDS OF THE WESTERN PALEARCTIC,
Cramp and Simmons, K.E.L. 1983). But diving into
water is an unusual behaviour not known to be
recorded, which may be either an adaptation to es-

cape from predators or may be an impulsive action
resulting from panic.

S. BALACHANDRAN
May 8, 1991 V. NATARAJAN

12. UNUSUAL FORAGING SITE OF GOLDENBACKED WOODPECKER
DINOPIUM BENGHALENSE (LINN.)

11 April 1991, at 0830 hrs while walking along
the road near one of my study sites at Pt. Calimere
Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, I saw a goldenback-
ed woodpecker Dinopium benghalense flying from
the forest towards the swamp. I was puzzled to see a
woodpecker flying towards the swamp, which was
not its habitat, but it immediately perched on one of
the concrete electric poles along the road. After land-
ing on the lower part of the pole, it started creeping
up in short spurts, inspecting and picking up some
prey from the crevices. It picked prey from three
crevices on the pole and once from the gap between

the iron clamps at the top of the pole. Afterwards it
flew to another pole, repeated similar foraging tactics
at two crevices and flew towards the forest. Inspec-
tion of some crevices on these poles revealed the
presence of beetles, ants, cockroaches and spiders.

According to AJi and Ripley (1983, HANDBOOK
OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN), the wood-
peckers pick up insects from tree trunks, boughs and
the ground. This observation reports an unusual
foraging site of the goldenbacked woodpecker.

June 10, 1991 S. ALAGAR RAJ AN

13. A SILENT ASSOCIATION

On 12 January 1991 near Kakachi I happened to
come Across a small troop of liontailed Macaques
Macaca silenus in the dense evergreen forest. The
monkeys were seen probing the flowers of Cullenia
excirillata and brought down a rain of flowers, twigs,
bark and some insects. A little below the monkeys, I
noticed a racket-tailed drongo Dicrurus remifer
silently foraging under the ‘rain’. The monkeys
moved to another tree and were soon followed by the
drongo. Such an association I have seen almost at all

seasons at Kakachi.

The HANDBOOK OF BIRDS (AJi and Ripley, S.D.
1983) mentions the drongo associating closely with
treepies and woodpeckers but monkeys are not men-
tioned. Elsewhere, however, birds have been seen as-
sociating with monkeys (Bonski and Scott,
Bio tropica 20(2): 136-143, 1988).

March 13, 1991 T. GANESH

14. TREE PIE DENDROCITTA VAGABUNDA (LATHAM) FEEDING ON ARIL OF

SEEDS OF PITHECELLOBIUM DULCE

On 26 April 1991, at Bundha Forest Nursery of
Jamwa Ramgarh Range (Division Jaipur-West), I
noticed a party of 13 individuals of the tree pie
Dendrocitta vagabunda (Latham) feeding on arils of
seeds of Pithecellobium didce along with redvented
bulbul Pycnonotus cafer , roseringed parakeet Psit-
tacula krameri and other frugivorous birds. Some in-
dividual of treepie were picking up fallen green pods
of Pithecellobium dulce from the ground while others
were plucking them off the trees. Holding the pods in

their claws, they were tearing the pods with their bills
and devouring the arils, an outgrowth present on
seeds.

The forest of the locality has a dry-deciduous
type of vegetation and Pithecellobium dulce is an ex-
otic component of these forests introduced by the
Forest Department, a few local nurseries and planta-
tions.

July 21, 1991

SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

375

15. CROWS FEEDING ON THE SEEDS OF ALBIZIA LEBBECK AND THE
EXOTIC ACACIA MELANOXYLON

On 9 March 1990, in the Forest Rest House
premises at Pt. Calimere, Tamil Nadu, we saw many
house crows Corvus splendens Vieillot and a few
jungle crows Corvus macrorhynchos Wagler feeding
on the seeds of Acacia melanoxylon. During March,
the pods of Acacia melanoxylon break open, expos-
ing the seeds which are attached to the pods by the
arils. A large number of crows were seen actively
feeding on the seeds. We also saw a few golden
orioles Oriolus oriolus feeding on these seeds. A.
melanoxylon is an exotic introduced from Australia.

In another incident on 11 March 1990, at Thop-
puthurai (13 km from Pt. Calimere), many jungle
crows and a few house crows were observed feeding

on the seeds of Albizia lebbeck. The crow would
clutch a plucked dry pod with its feet, break open the
pod and eat only one or two seeds. The pod with the
remaining seeds was discarded. The crows were seen
to feed on these seeds for many days, as long as the
pods were available. A few threestriped palm squir-
rels Funambulus palmarum were also noticed feed-
ing on the seeds.

V. NATARAJAN
P. BALASUBARAMANIAN
Y. NAGESWARA RAO
June 15, 1991 S. ALAGAR RAJAN

16. FOOD-STORING BEHAVIOUR OF THE JUNGLE CROW CORVUS
MACRORHYNCHOS WAGLER

On 3 September 1988 at the Forest Rest House
at Pt. Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary, Tamil
Nadu, I saw a jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchos
flying with a piece of fish in its bill. Later, the crow
placed the fish on the ground and then covered it
with leaves of Thespesia populnea and flew away. I
noticed similar storage behaviour of this crow on
many occasions during the fishing season, when a lot
of fish waste is available. Food storage during abun-
dance of food is reported in crested tit Parus cristatus

(Haftorn 1953), acorn woodpecker Melanerpes for-
micivorus (Bent 1939), jays Garrulus glandarius
(Chettleburgh 1952), ravens Corvus corax (Gwinner
1965), nut cracker Nucifraga caryocatactes (Swan-
berg 1951). Food storing behaviour of the jungle
crow is worth mentioning as it has not been reported
earlier.

June 20, 1991 V. NATARAJAN

References

Bent, A.C. (1939): Life histories of North American Wood-
peckers. U.S. National Museum Bulletin 174.
Washington, D.C.

Chettleburgh, M.R. (1952): Observations on the collection
and burial of acorns by Jays in Hainault Forest
British Birds 45: 359-364.

Gwinner, E. (1965): Uber den Einfiuss des Hungers and
anderen Factoren auf die versteck-Aktivitat des
Kolkraben ( Corvus corax). Die Vogelawarte, 23:1-4.

Haftorn, S. (1953): Contribution to the food biology of tits.
Part I. The Crested Tit ( Parus c. cristatus L.). DetKgl
Norske Videnskabers selskabs Skrifter, 1953 (4): 1-
124. (Original not referred.)

Swanberg, P.O. (1951): Food storage, territory and song in
the Thick-billed Nutcracker. Proc. Xth Int ornithol.
Congr., Uppsala, June 1950, 545-554. Almgvist and
Wiksells, Uppsala.

17. SIGHTING OF WHITEBELLIED MINI VET PERICROCOTUS
ERYTHROPYGIUS (JERDON) AT BANDIPUR

While watching birds at the Bandipur Tiger (Jerdon) were seen. The birds were in an open patch
Reserve on the morning of 22 August 1987 a pair of with a few scattered bushes very close to a waterhole
whitebellied minivets Pericrocotus erythropygius east of the reception centre. The birds were first

376

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

spotted while they were perching on a dry bush
about 60 cm from the ground and later flew to a near-
by tree. Subsequently on the morning of 23 August
1987 a pair of this species was seen in the same area.

The whitebellied minivet is known to occur
south up to Belgaum and also the base of the Nilgiris
(HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN,

Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D. 1987). Salim Ali during his
‘Birds of Mysore’ survey (1939) did not come across
this species. The present sighting is the southernmost
for Karnataka and probably also the first report of
this species between Belgaum and the Nilgiris.

March 13, 1991 S. KARTHIKEYAN

18. SPOTTED LONGTAILED WREN-BABBLER SPELAEORNIS
TROGLODYTOIDES (VERREAUX) IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH

According to the HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF
INDIA AND PAKISTAN (Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D. 1983)
the spotted longtailed on when-babbler is rare resi-
dent and has been reweded only in eastern Bhutan. I
sighted on 27 April 1991 more than four of the above
birds in a mixed party of brownheaded tit-babbler Al-
cippega cinereiceps and yellowbacked sunbird
Aethopy nipalensis. This sighting was done in a
scrub/rhododendron forest at an altitude of 2800 m at
0930 hrs near Chaku in Eagle Nest Wild-life

Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh. It is along an elephant
track to the nearby hill peak (2940 m altitude) and
about 5 km north of Chaku, the grid reference being
825392 (Toposheet 83 A/8).

Eagle Nest Sanctuary falls in west Arunachal
Pradesh in West Kameng district. The area is very
close to East Bhutan where the bird has been
recorded.

July 7, 1991 PRATAP SINGH

19. LEAPFROGGING IN COMMON BABBLERS TURDOIDES CAUDATUS

CAUDATUS (DUMONT)

The general habits of common babblers have
been described in ‘HAND BOOK OF BIRDS OF INDIA
AND PAKISTAN’ (Ali S. and Ripley S.D. 1983) as, the
species keep in flocks of six to twenty individuals
sometimes even in the breeding season, spending its
time on the ground, hopping about rapidly with a
bouncing gait, more commonly and scuttling like a
rat under the sparse vegetation and hedges.

On 8 May 1990, around 1730 hrs a flock of
eight birds was noticed indulging in a typical be-
haviour termed as ‘leapfrogging’. A flock appeared
on a parapet wall and started probing for insects.

Movement of the flock was accomplished by the rear
bird jumping forward, over the next bird, and landing
about 15-25 cm ahead and so on. This way the flock
traversed a distance of about 6.5 m on the wall and
another 5 m on the next wall, pausing intermittently
to probe for insects and feeding thereon.

Leapfrogging in cattle egrets has been recorded
( JBNHS 83 (2): 432, Paul Newton) but its adoption
by common babblers has not been mentioned in the
available literature.

July 9, 1991 A.M.K. BHAROS

20. KASHMIR REDBREASTED FLYCATCHER MUSCICAPA SUBRUBRA
HARTERT AND STEINBACHER AT OOTY

While watching birds at the edge of a shola
close to Radio Astronomy Centre, Ooty1, on 11
December 1990 one of us (SK) spotted a flycatcher
very similar in habits to the redbreasted flycatcher
Muscicapa par\>a but with extensive red on the breast

^or earlier record from Ooty, see S.C. Harrap & N.J.
Redmann, 1989 JBNHS 86(3): 460-61— Editors.

edged with black.

The bird was sighted in a wattle plantation bor-
dering the shola and it never flew above one and a
half metres from the ground. Using the HANDBOOK
OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN (Ali, S. and
Ripley, S.D. 1987, 2nd Compact ed.) the bird was
later identified as the Kashmir redbreasted flycatcher
Muscicapa subrubra Hartert and Steinbacher. The

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

377

identity of the bird was later confirmed by examining
a museum skin of the species at BNHS by one of us
(VRA).

The Kashmir redbreasted flycatcher is known to
breed in Kashmir and winter in Sri Lanka. Hitherto it
has been reported only from North India and
Secunderabad on passage in both directions (Com-

pact HANDBOOK). As the sighting of the species has
been in December, it could have been wintering in
this area, as it has been recorded on passage only
during the months of September, October and later in
March and April.

S. KARTHIKEYAN
May 28, 1991 VIDYA R. ATHREYA

21. SOUTHERN ASHY WREN-WARBLER PRINIA SOCIALIS SOCIALIS
SYKES IN PT. CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

The status of the southern ashy wren-warbler
Prinia socialis socialis had been stated by Ali and
Ripley (1983, HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA
AND PAKISTAN) as a locally common, resident
species. It is distributed unevenly in the entire penin-
sula south of the Narmada river and southern Bihar.
At Pt. Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu,
there is no resident warbler species except for the
tailor bird Orthotomus sutorius. The ashy wren-
warbler is only the second resident warbler species
from the Sanctuary. Though this species was re-
corded from the nearby Vedaranyam town (just 6 km
away from the Sanctuary) on the north, and to the

west in the Muthupet Reserve Forest (about 30 km
away), it was not recorded during the 12 year study
on the avifauna of the Sanctuary. A pair of the species
was First sighted on 4 February 1991 in a small iso-
lated patch of scrub jungle along the coast. A total of
six birds were caught and ringed in the same month,
of which three were juveniles. The record of this
species is an addition to the avifauna of the Pt.
Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary.

S. BALACHANDRAN
June 6, 1991 UMA ROSALIND

22. SIGHTING OF AN INDIAN BLUE CHAT ERITHACUS BRUNNEUS
(HODGSON) AT RAIPUR, MADHYA PRADESH

On 13 April 1991 an Indian blue chat Erithacus
hrunneus (Hodgson) was seen probing amongst
dense bushes in our garden in Raipur, Chhattisgarh
region of Madhya Pradesh. The bird was there the
following day. There are no earlier records of this

chat from Madhya Pradesh and these sightings thus
form an addition to the bird list of the state.

September 18, 1991 AJIT BHAROS

23. DEW BATHING BY PURPLERUMPED SUNBIRD
NECTARINIA ZEYLONICA (LINN.)

During the First week of April 1991, a pair of
purplerumped sunbirds Nectar inia zeylonica regular-
ly visited our office backyard at Vedaranyam to dew
bathe on a banana tree Musa paradisiaca. Early
morning, the birds would one by one slide over the
wet leaf surface and have their ‘bath’. They repeated
this behaviour three or four times. After the bath they
went to a nearby Moringa oleifera tree where they
ruffled their feathers and preened. Breger (1967,
1968, 1972) described the dew bathing behaviour in
several species of Empidonax flycatchers and

Kirtland’s warbler Dendroica kirtlandii. Verbeek
(1962) reported dew bathing by the blackcapped
chickadee Parus atricapillus, goldencrowned kinglet
Regulus satrapa, red-eyed (MZ) Vireo Vireo
olivaceus, song sparrow Zonotrichia melodia , and
three species of wood-warblers. The observation on
dew bathing in the purplerumped sunbird is an inter-
esting record.

V. NATARAJAN

June 26, 1991 P. BALASUBRAMANIAN

378

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

References

Berger, A.J. (1967): Behavior of hand-raised Empidonax
flycatchers. Jack-Pine Warbler 45: 131-138.

Berger, A.J. (1968): Behavior of hand-raised Kirtland’s
warblers . Living Bird, 1968 : 103-116.

Berger, A.J. (1972): Hawaiian Birdlife. University Press of
Hawaii, Honolulu.

Verbeek, N.A.M. (1962): On dew bathing and drought in
passerines. Auk 79: 719.

24. HOUSE SPARROW PASSER DOMESTICUS (LINNAEUS) FEEDING ON

MOSQUITO LARVAE

I witnessed a house sparrow Passer domesticus
feeding on mosquito larvae at Coimbatore, Tamil
Nadu. Mosquitoes had bred in an abandoned, rain-
water-filled mortar, used for ‘wet’ grinding of grains
and cereals. The sparrow, a cock, would repeatedly
fly to the mortar and peck at the larvae massing at the
rim of the mortar. The reason for flying away after

each feed was probably to allow the disturbed larvae
to surface and regroup once again, making them an
easier ‘mouthful’ of prey for the sparrow. Mosquito
larvae are not listed as a food item of the house spar-
row.

July 8, 1991 RANJIT MANAKADAN

25. SIND JUNGLE SPARROW PASSER PYRRHONOTUS BLYTH IN

NORTH-WEST GUJARAT

While birdwatching at the Khari Nadi, c. 3 km
west of Bhuj (Kutch), I saw three male and two
female Sind jungle sparrows Passer pyrrhonotus
Blyth on 22 January 1990 and again on the following
day. Again I saw three males and one female on 4
August, they were seen in a mixed flock of house

sparrows Passer domesticus and weaver birds. How-
ever, the last time I saw them they were in good
colouration and appeared smaller than house spar-
rows, so I was more sure about the identification.

November 5, 1990 N.N. BAPAT

26. NESTING BY PLOCEUS PHILIPPINES (LINN.) IN CLUMPS OF
SACCHARUM BEN GALEN SE RETZ.

The common baya Ploceus philippinus is a
species which generally does not favour grassy
vegetation for hanging its nest. Abdulali and Ambed-
kar [1984 ,JBNHS81(3): 701-703] have reported this
species nesting in a patch of grass (Coix lachryma-
jobi) in Thana district, Maharashtra.

Since 1988, an all Rajasthan survey was con-
ducted by me to list the host plants preferred by the
three species of weaver birds, viz. Ploceus philip-
pinus, P. benghalensis and P. manyar. During the sur-
vey, in the month of August 1989, four yearling
cocks of Ploceus philippinus were noticed making
their ‘practice nests’ in clumps of Saccharum ben-

galense Retz. near village Shyopur in Alwfcr district.
More than a dozen immature males had hung their
nests on Acacia nilotica close to the patch of Sac-
charum.

All the half built nests present on the Sac-
charum clump contained the usual blobs of mud at
the potential points of the egg-chamber of the respec-
tive nests. This species rarely appears to nest in reeds.
Nowhere in the locality were mature cocks observed
nesting in reeds.

February 28,1991 SATISH K. SHARMA

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

379

27. BIRD AND BAT COLLISIONS WITH AIRCRAFT IN INDIA

AT NIGHT

The BNHS has been receiving data on bird
strike incidents as well as bird remains since 1966
from aerodromes all over India for identification of
species involved. 67 species of birds and three
species of bats are known to have struck aircraft in
India (Satheesan et al. 1992). Of the total 420 con-
firmed bird and bat strikes to aviation in India 10.5%
occurred during night time. An analysis of nocturnal
bird-strike incidents based on bird remnants received
by BNHS from military and civil aerodromes in India
is given here.

Out of 44 nocturnal bird-strike incidents
recorded (Table 1), the maximum were caused by the
redwattled lapwing (25%) followed by stone curlew
and bats (18.2% each). Of the 20 species mentioned
in Table 1 the spotted dove is a diurnal bird and

hence the incident might have occurred while the
roosting bird was disturbed by the sound of the low-
flying aircraft. The cattle egret, also a diurnal bird,
was struck down around 1930 hours in the month of
September, probably when the bird was flying late to
roost.

Mid-air collision was caused by migratory birds
in two incidents at Halwara (Punjab) where the com-
mon teal was involved and in one incident near Goa
involving a Kashmir roller (Satheesan 1990). Ducks
and waders are known to feed at night. During migra-
tion or while commuting to and from distant noctur-
nal feeding sites ducks and waders are likely to
collide with aircraft.

Insects gathered around strong lights in an
aerodrome area, especially on the runways, and

Table 1

NOCTURNAL BIRD AND BAT-AIR CRAFT-STRIKE INCIDENTS BETWEEN 1966 AND DECEMBER 1990 (N = 44)

Bird/Bat species Weight

in g

No. of
inci-
dents

Locality

Birds

Cattle egret Bubulcus ibis

450

1

Ambala

Night heron Nycticorax

275

1

Dundigal

nycUcorax

Bittern Botaurus stellciris

900

1

Adampur

Common teal Anas crecca

300

2

Halwara

Black partridge Francolinus

400

1

Ambala

francolinus
Rain quail Coturnix

75

2

Hakimpet,

coromandelica
Stone curlew Burhinus

380

8

Pune

Bareilly, Bhuj,

oedicnemus

Small Indian pratincole

40

1

Jodhpur,

Gorakhpur,

Bombay,

Gwalior,

Sirsa & Bidar
Pathankot

Glareola lactea
Painted snipe

125

1

Bombay

Rostra tula bengalensis
Redwattled lapwing

190

11

Bareilly,

Vanellus indicus

Chandigarh (2),

Kalaikunda,

Dabolim(3),

Bhatinda(3),

Halwara

Bird/Bat species

Weight
in g

No. of
inci-
dents

Locality

Sooty tern

200

1

Pune

Sterna fuscata

Spotted dove

125

1

Hakimpet

Strep topelia chinensis

Spotted owlet

125

1

Dabolim

Athene brama

(Goa)

Barn owl Tyto alba

300

1

Jodhpur

European nightjar

75-

1

Bhuj

Caprimulgus europaeus

100

Indian little nightjar

46

1

Bareilly

Caprimulgus asiaticus

Kashmir roller

170

1

Goa

Coracias garrulus

(over sea)

Bats

Pipistrelle bat

20

2

Halwara,

Pipistrellus mimus

Jodhpur

Tomb bat

25

1

Pune

Taphozous sp.

Giant fruit bat

600

2

Baroda/

Pteropus giganteus

Bombay

Dabolim (Goa)

Unidentified

Not

2

Hakimpet

microchi ropteran bat

known

Unidentified bat not known

1

Dabolim (Goa)

380

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

taxiways including floodlights attract birds directly
and indirectly (Ali and Grubh 1981, 1984). It is most
likely that predominantly ground birds like stone cur-
lew, redwattled lapwing, painted snipe, rain quail,
black partridge and night heron frequent the runway
for insects or insectivorous vertebrates that are at-
tracted towards lights in the aerodrome area. Owls,
nightjars and bats are nocturnal in their habits and are
known to hunt for prey during night time in
aerodrome areas and hence are hazardous to aircraft
mainly at night.

Out of the 22 nocturnal bird and bat strikes to
aircraft where altitude of incident is known, 50% oc-

Refe

Au, S. & Grubh, R.B. (1981): An Ecological Study of Bird
Hazards at Indian Aerodromes. Phase 1. Final Report
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Au, S. & Grubh, R.B. (1984): An Ecological Study of Bird
Hazards at Indian Aerodromes. Phase 2. First Annual
Report. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
Satheesan, S.M. (1990): Bird-aircraft collision at an al-

curred at ground level and the rest at different al-
titudes, the highest recorded being 2424 m. Nocturnal
bird and bat strikes have caused significant damage
to aircraft engines (ten times), windshield (twice) and
even to nose cone, landing gear and landing lights
(once each).

This data was collected as a part of the work of
the BNHS bird hazard research programme being
funded since 1980 by Aeronautics R & D Board,
Defence Ministry, Government of India under its
Operational Problems Panel.

S.M. SATHEESAN
April 3, 1991 ROBERT B. GRUBH

ENCES

titude of 2424 m over the sea. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 87(1): 145-146.

Satheesan, S.M., Grubh. R.B. & Pimento, R.J. (1992): An
updated list of birds and bat species involved in col-
lision with aircraft in India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
89(1): 129-132.

28. RECORDS OF THE GHARIAL GAVIALIS GANGETICUS (GMELIN) FROM
THE DHAKUAKHANA AREA OF ASSAM

(With a text-figure)

Dhakuakhana is a sub-division of Lakhimpur
district in the far eastern part of Assam. The sub-
division is entirely on the flood-plain zone of the
Brahmaputra and the major tributary, the Subansiri. A
large number of smaller rivers and channels criss-
cross the sub-division, making it a rich area for
riverine fauna (Fig. 1). During a stay of about one
and a half years (November 1989 to April 1991) I
collected data on the occurrence of the gharial
Gav'talis gangeticus , some of which are very recent.
These are presented chronologically.

1950: A major earthquake shook the whole of
north-east India. The Subansiri river was blocked for
four days by a heavy landslide upstream, resulting in
drying up of many channels downstream. The vil-
lagers of Oyengia killed one gharial and aiso two
mugger Crocodylus palustris on the river bed.

1953-54: One seen in the Rotua river. It was
feeding on a large borali fish ( Wallago attu). The
local villagers saw the gharial tossing up the fish
while eating.

1960: Gharials not uncommon in the Korha

river near Samporamukh.

1974: A boy was attacked and injured by a
gharial on the Chela river near Baghchuk. Up to
1973, sighting of 3-4 of these reptiles basking on the
banks of the Chela river was not uncommon.

1975 (mid 1970s): One large gharial suddenly
appeared in the Charikaria river near Dhakuakhana
proper, creating panic among the bathers and fisher-
men. It was shot by a local hunter. Its length was
about 6 m

1982-83: A gharial reportedly seen by the Mish-
ing tribal people near Matmora on the Brahmaputra
river.

1986: (a) One seen near Tekeliphuta in the
Kherkotia suti (channel) just near its junction with
the Brahamaputra. (b) One villager was injured when
a gharial attacked him in the Chela river near
Chelajan Kachari village.

1986-87: One seen in the Korha river near its
confluence with the Charikaria river. The locals who
saw it chased it downstream through the Chela river
to the Kherkotia suti. Ultimately the Mishing tribals

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

381

Fig. 1. Records of gharial from Dhakuakhana area.

killed it near Jengraimukh. It was about 4 m long.

1987: One seen in the Rotua river by the local
villagers. It was about 3-4 m long.

1988: One near Tekeliphuta in the Brah-
maputra; it was about 2.5 m long.

1989: One seen by the villagers of Koligaon on
the Subansiri river during the floods.

The main reasons for decline of the gharial in
the area are, (1) Use of b/ieta across the smaller rivers
like the Korha, Charikoria and Chela (average width
80-90 m). Bhetci is a type of temporary bund made of
bamboo and is put accross the rivers to stop move-
ment of fish. This ultimately prevents the gharial and
even the Gangetic dolphin (Plcitcinista gangetica)
coming upstream; (2) Heavy year-round use of the
rivers for Fishing, bathing and washing (all the known

and potential basking sites have been occupied by
humans for various activities including setting up of
fishing camps; and (3) Chasing and killing of any
gharial sighted. While there are possibilities of
gharial still living in the larger Brahmaputra and Sub-
ansiri rivers they are unlikely to be seen in the other
rivers.

During my stay I prepared and submitted to the
Government a proposal for a sanctuary, namely the
Ome Chapori Wildlife Sanctuary (15 sq. km), which
could provide a much needed refuge for the gharial in
this stretch of the Brahmaputra river. The proposed
area covers some islets with wide sand banks and
water area of the Brahmaputra near Matmora.

February 2, 1992 A. CHOUDHURY

382

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

29. RANGE EXTENSION OF THE STRIPED GRASS SKINK
MABUYA DISSIMILIS (HALLO WELL, 1857)

On 28 August 1991 at 1500 hrs a skink was ob-
served foraging in dry leaf litter under bushes at
Popero village of Limkheda taluka, Panchmahal dis-
trict, Gujarat. It was yellow with prominent stripes on
the body. We caught it after some 30 minutes of hard
and careful search. On examination it was confirmed
to be a striped grass skink Mabuya dissimilis.

Description: Total body length 20.3 cm; snout
to vent length 7.5 cm; tail length 12.8 cm; shining
yellow body colour with four less distinct dark brown
parallel stripes, two on the dorsolateral side and two
dark black coloured discontinuous stripes on the mid-
dorsal region. Eyelid with transparent disk. 38 rows
of scales on the body with tricarinate scales. Seven
supra labials, the fifth being longer than the others,

16. lamella on the fourth toe.

According to Smith (FAUNA OF BRIT. INDIA,
1935) M. dissimilis is distributed in Rajasthan, Pun-
jab, Bihar, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh only.
Other than that, distributional records of this skink
are not available from the literature. The range of Af.
dissimilis is now extended to Pipero village of
Panchmahal district, Gujarat. The collection site is
very near to Madhya Pradesh; and near their border,
both states have similar habitat. It is also presumed
that this species occurs in the desert of Kutch on the
Gujarat-Rajasthan border where ecological condi-
tions are similar.

RAJU VYAS

February 12, 1992 B.H. PATEL

30. REVIEW OF DISTRIBUTION OF CONDANAROUS SANDSNAKE
PSAMMOPHIS CONDANARUS (MERREM)

Recent publications on Indian snakes (Daniel
1983, Murthy 1986, Whitaker 1978) do not list the
condanarous sandsnake Psammophis condanarus
(Merrem) (Fam. Colubridae) as being reported from
Karnataka erstwhile Mysore state). This is er-
roneous.

Whitaker (1978) mentions the distribution ofF.
condanarus as “western Himalayas and north-central
India” while T.S.N. Murthy (1986) records its dis-
tribution as “occurs in Gujarat, Punjab, Uttar
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, Bengal and Orissa”.
Daniel (1983) notes it as occurring in “peninsular
India up to Bengal in the east and Andhra Pradesh in
the south.”

Salim Ali, during his survey of birds in Mysore
state (present Karnataka), had retrieved a nine inch
long P. condanarus specimen along with some loose
snake scales from the stomach of a female short-toed
eagle Circaetus gallicus (Gmelin) on 23 November

1939 at Gopala Swamy Betta (11° 35' N; 76° 43' E,
1451 m above msl) in Bandipur National Park, Kar-
nataka (Ali 1943). Further, Ali mentions “strangely
enough this is the first record of this snake from
Mysore State” (Ali 1943, Ali and Ripley 1987).

Ali and Ripley (1987) record that the short -toed
eagle’s habitat preference is open cultivated plains,
stony deciduous scrub, foothills and semi-desert,
which is the same as the habitat preferred by P. con-
danarus.

Interestingly P. condanarus was not seen during
the herpetofaunal Survey of Bandipur National park
by Malhotra and Sahi (1982). Salim Ali’s record hap-
pens to be the southernmost record for the species
and also the only report from Karnataka. Hence, we
may redefine the distribution of P. condanarus to in-
clude Karnataka.

February 12, 1992 J.N. PRASAD

Referrences

Ali, S. (1943): Birds of Mysore, Part IV. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 44(1): 9-26.

Ali, S.& Ripley, S.D. (1987): Compact Handbook of birds
of India and Pakistan (2nd edition). Oxford Univer-
city Press, Bombay.

Daniel J.C. (1983): The book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.

Malhotra, Y.R. & Sahi, Deep (1982): Herpetofauna of Ban-
dipur Tiger Reserve, Karnataka (India). Tigerpaper
9(1): 17.

Murthy, T.S.N. (1986): The Snake Book of India. Interna-
tional Book Distributors, Dehra Dun.

Whitaker, R. (1978): Common Indian Snakes, a field guide.
Macmillan India Limited, New Delhi.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

383

31. FIRST RECORD OF THE SUNBEAM SNAKE XENOPELTIS UNICOLOR
REINWARDT, 1827 (SERPENTES: XENOPELTIDAE) FROM GREAT NICOBAR

ISLAND

The sunbeam snake or iridescent Earth snake
Xenopeltis unicolor is the sole representative of the
family Xenopeltidae. It derives its name from the
iridescence of its smooth scales. This species is dis-
tributed over south India, Burma, Indo-China, the
Malay Peninsula and Archipelago (Boulenger 1893).
Recently a new species Xenopeltis hainanensis found
in the southern People’s Republic of China has been
described (Mehrtens 1987).

Specimens have been recorded from the An-
daman Islands by Theobald (1868) and are found in
the reptilia collection of the Zoological Survey of
India (Biswas and Sanyal 1980). This is the first
record of this species from the Nicobar Islands. The
specimen was collected, and later released, by a
‘Ranchi’ tribal on Great Nicobar Island. Locally it is
called ‘tael-sap’.

Xenopeltis is the single genus of the family
Xenopeltidae and has several unique characters. In
addition to the occipital shield and loss of the
postfrontal bone, the auditory bones are different
from any other snake, except Cylindrophis rufus
(Smith 1943).

The species has the following characteristics:
snout rounded; head depressed and not distinct from
the neck; eyes small with vertically elliptic pupils;
nostril between two small nasals; interparietal about
as large as the parietals; loreal absent; large preocular
and two large postoculars; small supraoculars;
numerous small, equal teeth; mental groove present;

eight upper labials, first in contact with the intemasal,
fourth and fifth touching the eye; a pair of small chin
shields, in contact with the three anterior lower
labials; body cylindrical and covered with smooth
scales in 15 rows; ventrals (173-196) well developed
(Boulenger (1893) reports a ventral count of 166-193
in this species); tail short and subcaudals (24-31) in
two rows (Smith 1943). The snake varies from black
to brown in colour, with a whitish-grey venter.

A nocturnal animal, it burrows into the earth
and is generally found in rice fields, lowland river
valleys, and places with damp soil. It is a harmless
snake, feeding on small mammals, frogs, snakes and
birds, and has not been known to bite when handled.
When excited it vibrates its tail vigorously. It is
oviparous, laying about 18 eggs in a clutch. Large
adults grow up to a metre in length; the average size
is somewhat less. Very little of its biology is known.

The following morphological data was col-
lected for the specimen found on Great Nicobar Is-
land:

Total length: 51.1 cm; Snout-vent: 46.3 cm,
Head-width (jaws): 12.55 mm, Upper labials : 8,
Lower labials: 10, Mid body count: 15, Ventrals: 171,
Subcaudals: 24.

I thank John for finding this snake and bringing
it to me alive.

June 4, 1992 MANJULA TIWARI

References

Biswas, S. & Sanyal D.P. (1980): A report on the reptilian
fauna of Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the collec-
tion of Zoological Survey of India. Rec. zool. Surv.
India 77: 255-292.

Boulenger, G.A. (1893): Catalogue of the snakes in the
British Museum (Natural History). Volume I. Taylor
and Francis, London.

Mehrtens, J.M. (1987): Living snakes of the world. Sterling

Publishing Co. Inc., New York.

Smith, M.A. (1943): The fauna of British India, Ceylon and
Burma, including the whole of the Indo-Chinese sub-
region. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol III, Serpentes.
Taylor and Francis, London.

Theobald, W. (1868): Catalogue of reptiles in the museum
of the astiatic society of bengal. J. Asiat. Soc., extra
number, Calcutta.

32. STRANGE BEHAVIOUR OF A MURREL CHANNA STRIATUS (BL.)

On 1 March 1991* at about 0830 hrs I, along
with two friends, was walking along the shallow
shore of the lake, watching aquatic birds. Near the

shore we came across a small, discarded wooden
boat, partly submerged in the lake. All the sides of
the boat were above the water but inside there was

384

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

water up to about three fourths the length of the boat.

As we approached the boat a fish jumped out
from inside the boat and landed in the lake. I ex-
amined the boat for other fish but there were none in-
side. The stagnant water inside the boat was full of
small larvae, probably of mosquitoes.

We retreated about 20 m from the boat to find
out what kind of fish it was and how it had entered
the boat. Within seven minutes a fish broke water and
landed inside the boat. When I tried to approach the
boat close enough to watch the fish, it again jumped
from the boat and escaped into the lake. This was
repeated five times. I could make out that it was a

murrel, but could not identify the species.

After some time we saw a boat with fishermen.
We hailed them and requested them to catch this fish.
When the murrel returned to the boat, one of the
fishermen threw a net over the boat and caught the
fish by hand. It was identified as Cheinna striatus.

After that we dragged the boat out of the water
and found that, except for two small holes of about 3*x 2
cm, the entire bottom was intact. How the murrel came
to know that there was water inside that boat with plen-
ty of food in the shape of larvae is a mystery to me.

February 15,1992 RAZATEHSIN

33. RECENT OBSERVATIONS ON THE LONGEVITY OF MEGALOPS

C YPRINOIDES (BROUSS.)

In my previous note in the Society’s Journal
(Kulkami 1983), I had mentioned different reports
about longevity of certain fishes. These contained
some anecdotes and indirect deductions also. Even
Lagler et al. (1977) merely mention “authenticated
records of ages of captive fishes suggest that ages of
most venerated old carp do not exceed 50 years.” The
present note extends the limit to 52 years.

In the earlier note I had given a dependable
record of the longevity of the Indian tarpon Megalops
cyprinoides (Brouss.) being not less than 44 years in
the fresh water of Walwan lake at Lonavla, dist. Pune
(Maharashtra). After the study of breeding biology of
the mahseer fish commenced in the above lake
(Kulkami 1971), every year in the months of July and
August, when a particular section of the lake (which
the fish appeared to prefer) was netted for the collec-
tion of ripe mahseer specimens for their artificial
fecundation, a few individuals of Megalops were en-
tangled accidentally in the nets, indicating that they
had continued to survive there. Not much notice was
taken of this occurrence. However, since 1983, 1 had
kept a close watch on the survival of this species in
the lake. In the note I had recounted how this marine
or partly estuarine fish happened to be found in the
fresh waters of the lake. Fingerlings of Megalops
were introduced into the lake as a cyclopscidal fish
for control of guinea worm pest (Setna and Kulkami
1940) and also as a good sport fish, by Fisheries Section
of the then Bombay Presidency in July 1939 (vide An-
nual Report of the Dept, of Industries, 1939-40).

During one of the aforesaid type of fishing
operations on 11 August 1991 a specimen of the

above species was caught and measured for its length
and weight. This marine fish spends only a short
period (four to five months) in estuarine waters and
then returns to the sea; it is not known to breed in
fresh waters; neither smaller specimens nor fingerl-
ings were ever captured during the past 20 years. It
was thus clear that the specimen caught on that day
belonged to the batch of fingerlings released in 1939.
Moreover, there was no fresh stocking of Megalops
after that year which I know quite definitely, being in
charge of the Dept, of Fisheries till October 1969.
These facts indicate that the fish could be at least 52
years of age (two years more than what Lagler et al.
1977 reported).

Surprisingly enough the fish had grown very lit-
tle during the past twenty years. In 1970, some in-
dividuals were recorded to be 65 cm in length and 2.8
kg. in weight (Kulkami 1983) while those caught in
1983 were 67 cm in length and weighed between
2.75 and 3.1 kg. This stagnation in growth was fur-
ther confirmed by the specimen caught in August
1991, being only 67 cm in length and 3 kg in weight.
This shows that after a certain growth in fresh water
the fish just survives without gaining weight or
length. The stagnation could not be due to lack of
food because the lake had an abundance of aquatic
life on which the Megalops normally feed, but could
be due to having reached its normal maximum size. The
F.A.O. identification sheet mentions only 55 cm as
maximum length. Incidentally, the above observations
provide a slightly improved record of growth of the fish.

July 2, 1992 C.V. KULKARNI

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

385

References

Kulkarni, C.V (1971): Spawning habits, eggs and early
development of the Deccan Mahseer, Tor khudree. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67(3): 510-523.

Kulkarni, C.V. (1983): Longevity of fish Megalops
cyprinoides (Brouss.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80
(1): 230-232.

Lagler, K.F., Bardach, J.E., Miller, R.R . & Passino,
D.R.M. (1977): Ichthyology, John Willey & Sons,
New York.

Setna, S.B. & Kulkarni, C.V. (1940): Megalops as an aid
to combat guinea worm carrier Cyclops J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 41(3): 672-674.

34. ON DISTRIBUTION OF SPOT SWORDTAIL BUTTERLY
PATHYSA NOMIUS NOMIUS ESPER

In the month of July 1987 we observed the spot
swordtail butterfly Pcithysci nomius nomius Esper in
Jaipur city. We were on a survey of the rhopaloceran
fauna of Jaipur city and in the process found this
species in the nursery of the University of Rajasthan.
Though the global distribution range of this butterfly
covers the entire Oriental region, its occurrence still
surprised us as none of the earlier workers have
reported its occurrence in this particular region. Ac-
cording to Talbot (THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA:
BUTTERFLIES, 1939) and Evans (THE IDENTIFI-
CATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES, 1927) the distribu-
tion range of the spot swordtail is - Sikkim, Sri
Lanka and south India. Both Talbot and Evans give a
‘not rare’ status to this butterfly. A wider distribution
range (peninsular India to Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,
Saurashtra, Lucknow, Simla to Sikkim, Assam,
Burma and Ceylon) is reported by Wynter-Blyth
(BUTTERFLIES OF THE INDIAN REGION, 1957) but
that too does not include Jaipur or any other district
of Rajasthan.

Wynter-Blyth’s work also gives a ‘not rare’
status for this butterfly.

This butterfly was observed in many other
localities in the same year (1987) but the maximum

density was recorded in the above mentioned nursery.
The other localities where swordtails were observed
include certain busy roads, the garden of one of us
(D.D.), and a few public gardens.

The spot swordtail butterfly is known to
migrate long distances and to fly at altitudes as
high as 2000 + m. It is quite possible that these but-
terflies observed in Jaipur were on their migratory
route and were resting. There are certain facts which
support this migration (irregular?) hypothesis. These
are:

(a) All the swordtails disappeared after 15
August 1987.

(b) The reported food plants of this butterfly
are Saccopetalum tomentosum and Polyalthia lon-
gifolia. Of these two, the latter occurs in Jaipur. No
larvae of the swordtails could be found on Polyalthia
plants.

(c) We again failed to find the spot swordtail
during the next rainy season (July-August 1988) in
all the localities where they were observed in the pre-
vious year.

DHIRENDRA D E VAR SHI
September 7, 1991 M.M. TRIGUN AYAT

35. RECORD OF PLEBEJUS EVERSMANNI (STGR.)
(LYCAENIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA) FROM INDIA

Malari lies in the dry, trans-Himalayan zone of
Chamoli district in northern Uttar Pradesh (30° 41'
N, 79° 54' E), at an elevation of c. 3000 m.

On 21 August 1987, a collection of butterflies
was made along the motor road a kilometre north-
east of Malari. A single male specimen of an unusual
Lycaenid was recorded at a mud puddle gathering of
Lycaenids, mainly Polyommatus Latreille. This was
forwarded to the Rev. Alan Bean at the Oxford

University Museum for identification. Unfortunately,
the genitalia was damaged in preparation, so it is not
diagnostic.

His observations on the specimen are as fol-
lows: “Forewing expanse: 12 mm. The aedeagus
shows alulae. The labides are long, straight and ter-
minally hooked. The falces are about the same
length. The valvae were damaged.”

“There is no spine on the upper side of the

8

386

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

foreleg tarsus, the presence of which is diagnostic for
the genus Plebejiis Kluk. The forelegs have been
detached and are* mounted on a card beneath the
specimen.”

However, , the specimen is identical in other
respects to a series in the British Museum (Natural
History), London. The series has been taken from
two locations, “Tibet, Ta Tsien Lou, ex. coll. Ober-
thur, 1900” and “Yaregong, 1903”, with a forewing
expanse of 12-13 mm and identified as Plebejus
eversmanni (Stgr.). I would suggest that the foreleg
spine of the Malari specimen may have broken off at
some stage and that it is of the same species as the
Plebejus eversmanni (Stgr.) series in the British
Museum (N.H.). The specimen from Malari did not
match any other Plebejus Kluk at the British
Museum (N.H).

Lewis (BUTTERFLIES OF THE WORLD, 1974)
has illustrated this species which, according to him,
occurs in the Pamirs and Turkestan and mentions a
similar species, Plebejus lucifera (Stgr.) from Tibet

and Mongolia, with the underside markings more dis-
tinct. However, Ta Tsien Lou, the location from
which several P. eversmanni in the British Museum
(NH) have been taken, is at 30° 3' N, 102° 10' E, a lit-
tle over 26° of longitud east of the Pamirs. I was un-
able to locate Yaregong.

On the basis of the above, I hereby report the
occurrence of Plebejus eversmanni from Malari in
Uttar Pradesh, at present in the collection o,f the Rev.
Alan Bean at the University Museum in Oxford,
U.K., with the following data:

Malari, N. Uttar Pradesh, 3000 m. Peter
Smetacek, 21 August 1987, SN 8532, slide of
genitalia mounted with specimen.

I am grateful to the Rev. Alan Bean for his help
in identifying this specimen, to Basil Wirth for
photographing it and to Dr. Philip Ackery for permis-
sion to compare specimens in the British Museum
(N.H.) London.

August 8, 1992 PETER SMETACEK

36. CANNIBALISM AMONG IMMATURES OF PHLEBOTOMUS PAPATAST

(DIPTERA: PSYCHODIDAE)

Cannibalism is one of the biotic interactions
among the members of a population to regulate the
optimum carrying capacity of the habitat for proper
utilization of the available resources (Kerb 1972,
Odum 1971). This behavioural trait has also been
reported in larvae of certain species of dipterous in-
sects (Shoukry 1980). Extensive studies have been
carried out on this aspect in different species of
mosquitoes (Corbet and Griffiths 1963). However,
the phenomenon has not yet been reported in the im-
matures of sandflies. Therefore a study was carried
out on cannibalism among the immatures of
Phlebotomus papatasi under different conditions of
food availability and density, and the results obtained
are presented.

Material and Methods

To find out the extent of cannibalism two sets
of experiments with five replicates were conducted.
Each replicate of the first set of experiments was
started with 100 freshly hatched larvae and main-
tained with standard larval diet, viz. a 1:1 mixture of
white clay and rabbit faecal pellets, and that of the
second set without any food right from the beginning
of the experiment. Observations were made daily and

the number of larvae surviving were recorded until
the pupation and emergence. Larvae that were found
dead without any injury were categorised as natural
mortality. The number of head capsules without ex-
uvium of the body were reckoned as consumed.

To find out the effect of density on cannibalism,
freshly hatched first instar larvae of P. papatasi were
released and reared at different densities, viz. 25,
100, 200 and 400 per container. Containers had a sur-
face area of 7.25 sq. cm. and capacity of 200 ml. The
larvae were fed on standard larval diet ‘ad libitum*
and each set of experiments was replicated three
times.

Cannibalistic behaviour was also studied by
examining the gut contents. For this purpose a batch
of 500 freshly hatched larvae was maintained in a
plastic container without providing any food
material. About 25 larvae were dissected daily and
the gut contents were examined periodically under a
compound microscope for the presence of larval
parts.

Results and Discussion

Cannibalism was found to occur in both sets of
experiments (Table 1). The number of larvae con-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

387

Table 1

NUMBER OFP. papatasi. LARVAE CONSUMED, DIED AND
PUPATED WHEN REARED BATH IN PRESENCE AND
ABSENCE OF FOOD

Set No. consumed

Mean ± S.D.

No. died

No. pupated

I, food provided

and libitium 3.3 ± 0.4

9.3 ± 1.2

87.3 ± 1.7

(3-4)

(8-11)

(85-89)

II, no food provided 98.0 ± 0.8

2.0 ± 0.8

—

(97-99)

(1-3)

Figures in parentheses denote range.

siimed due to cannibalism in the first set (where food
was given ‘ad libitum’) ranged from 3-4 (mean 3.3 ±
0.4) and the mean number of adults obtained was
873± 1.7 (range 85-89). The remaining larvae died
due to natural causes.

In the second set, where food was not offered,
the number of larvae that died due to cannibalism
ranged from 97-99 (mean 98.0 ± 0.8). Cannibalism
was first observed on the third day of hatching and
was seen at every instar. Very few larvae survived
(mean 2.0 ± 0.8) and these also perished, when they
were 3rd stage in the absence of food. During can-
nibalism head capsules and caudal bristles were found
to be discarded.

The effect of density on cannibalism is shown
in Table 2. Cannibalism was observed at all density
levels, but was less at low immature density and
more at high density. There was a positive correlation
(r=0.998; p=0.0016) between immature density and
cannibalism, which suggests that the increase in den-
sity was also responsible for cannibalism.

When a total of 500 live larvae was dissected
and the gut contents were examined periodically,

R EFE

Corbet, P.S. & Griffiths, A.O. (1963): Observations on the
aquatic stages of two species of Toxorhynchites (Dip-
tera: Culicidae) in Uganda. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Lond.
Ser. A. Gen. Entomol. 38: 7-9.

Kerb, C.J. (1972): Ecology: the experimental analysis of
distribution and abundance. Harper and Row Publish-

Table 2

NUMBER OF P. papatasi LARVAE CONSUMED, DIED AND
PUPATED WHEN REARED AT DIFFERENT DENSITIES

Density

No. consumed
Mean ± SD

No .died

No. pupated

25

4.0 ± 1.4

3.3 ± 1.3

18.0 ± 1.6

(2-5)

(2-4)

( 16 -20)

100

37.3 ± 4.9

7.7 ± 1.2

55.0 ± 3.7

(31-43)

(6-9)

(51-60)

200

108.0 ± 6.5

13.7 ±2.1

783 ± 4.9

(102-117)

(11-16)

(72-84)

400

234.3 ±7.1

19.0 ±5.1

146.7± 4.0

(225-242)

(14-26)

(141-150)

Figures in parentheses denote range.

remnants of larval parts, i.e, exoskeletal structures
(matchstick hairs) were seen. This observation also
confirms the occurrence of cannibalistic behaviour in
this species. The well developed mandibles in II, III
and VI instar larvae with serrated margins facilitate
seizing and cutting to pieces of the prey.

From the study it is clear that the immatures of
P. papatasi are cannibalistic even in the presence of
food. Though such behaviour is disadvantageous to
the immatures, it may help in maintaining the popula-
tion under unfavourable conditions, i.e. limitation of
food.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. V. Dhanda, Director, Vec-
tor Control Research Centre, Pondicherry for the
facilities provided, and to the technical staff of Rear-
ing and Colonization Division for their technical as-
sistance.

R. SRINIVASAN

July 7, 1992 K.N. PANICKER

NCES

ers, London.

Odum, E.P. (1971): Fundamentals of Ecology. W.B.

Saunders Company, Philadelphia and London.
Shoukry A. (1980): Cannibalism in Anopheles pharoensis.
Experientia 36: 308 - 309.

388

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

37. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF ACALLOPISTUS
SPECIES (COLEOPTERA : CURCULIONIDAE) ON ABUTILON INDICUM

(With two plates)

Acallopistus sp. (Subfamily Anthonomi nae) is
a pest of the common weed Abutilon indicum. The
biology of some species of Anthonominae has been
studied and Burke (1976) has reviewed the previous
work. However, there is no report on the life cycle
and other aspects of the Acallopistus species, the
details of which are included in this communication.

Observations and Discussion

Acallopistus sp. (Plate 1, figs. 1,2) attacks the
common weed Abutilon indicum (Family Mal-
vaceae). The fruits of A. indicum are carcerulus in
which false septa appear in the ovary so that at
maturity each loculus contains three seeds. The num-
ber of chambers around the thalamus varies from 14-
19 among different fruits (Plate 1, fig. 3).

The adults appear on the host plant in large
numbers during September-October. They feed on
leaves, floral parts and the young developing fruits
(Plate 1, figs. 4, 5).

Copulation: Copulation commences after the
weevils have fed for 4-5 days. Mating occurs mostly
during the afternoons, when several pairs in coitus
are found within partially open buds or on the petals.
Before copulation, when a wandering male en-
counters a female, it strikes its antennae against her
body and immediately mounts her body. The male
then moves forward and rubs its snout on her
pronotum and occasionally taps it with its antennae.
After this, the male slides back, extrudes its aedeagus
and establishes genital connection (Plate 1, fig. 6).
The copulating pair remains stationary throughout
the act. A non-receptive female pushes away the male
with her hind legs. The time spent in copulation
varies from 4.2-14.57 hours.

Oviposition: Egg laying starts 2 to 5 days after
the first mating. The female deposits eggs inside the
fruit by choosing a place near the base of the fruit
(Plate 1, fig. 7). She makes a circular hole in the
pericarp with the help of the snout and then turns
around to apply the tip of the abdomen against the
hole. After a few seconds, the tip of the abdomen is
raised and lowered two to three times and an egg is
deposited inside the loculus. The female deposits one
egg per chamber but all the chambers do not contain

eggs. Six to nine eggs have been recorded from one
fruit. Similar oviposition behaviour has been
recorded in other anthonomids which infest fruits and
galls (Burke 1976). The oviposition hole is plugged
with a yellowish secretion, secreted by the female.
List (1932) has studied a similar habit in Tachypterel-
lus censors cera. The females lay 6-78 eggs (average
42.2) per female.

Life cycle: Freshly laid eggs are oval, cream,
shining and semi-opaque, each measuring 0.59 x 0.37
mm (Plate 2, fig. 8). The eggs hatch in 6 to 8 days
(temp. 26-30°C and R.H. 49-65%). The young larva
is whitish cream, with dark brown head (Plate 2, fig.

9) . It burrows into the developing seed (Plate 2, fig.

10) and moults twice before attaining maturity (Plate
2, figs. 11, 12). The larva at this stage becomes more
active and feeds more rapidly on the adjacent ovarian
walls and seeds.

Pupation takes place within the fruit, as in other
anthonomid weevils (Burke 1976). The mature larva
constructs a chamber at the rear end of the ovary by
cementing together the seed fragments and its faecal
matter (Plate 2, fig. 13) and transforms into a pupa
(Plate 2, fig. 14) in about seven days.

Most pupae transform into adults by the end of
October. After eclosion, the adults remain inside the
fruit for 5-9 days. During this period, hardening and
darkening of the cuticle is completed. The adult ul-
timately escapes from the fruit by cutting a circular
hole (Plate 2, fig. 15).

Number of generations: Acallopistus sp. is a
univoltine species with the adults showing up once in
a year. These adults feed for about a month on the
late flowers before moving to their hibernation sites,
as do most other anthonominae weevils which
develop on plants with annual flowering period
(Burke 1976).

Nature and extent of damage: As already
stated, the adult beetles have been observed to feed
on the sepals and pollen of the flowers but the injury
may reach to the outer walls of the ovary. It is chiefly
the grubs which prove destructive the fruits and
usually consume all the seeds of the infested fruit.

The larvae of another weevil, Apion (Thympion)
majorinum Fab. also inhabiting the thala mus of

Plate 1

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89
Pajni & Nanda : Acallopistus sp.

Figs. 1-7. Acallopistus sp.

1. Male; 2. Female; 3. Adult hiding in the flower; 4. Adult consuming floral parts; 5. Damaged leaf with incised margins;
6. Copulation; 7. Fruit of Abutilon indicum with two ovipunctures.

Figs. 8-15. Acallopistus sp.

8. Freshly laid egg; 9. First instar larva; 10. Second instar larva; 11. Larva in the ovary of fruit; 12. Third instar larva;
13. Pupation chamber formed of debris of consumed seeds and excretory material; 14. Pupa;

15. Emergence hole of adult on the fruit.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89
Pajiii & Nanda: Acallopistus sp.

Plate 2

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

389

A. indicum (Pajni and Nanda 1989). They mature in
the thalamus, thus avoiding competition with the lar-
vae of Acallopistus.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research and U.S. Department of

Agriculture for financing a five year project on In-
dian Curculionidae. We are also thankful to the
Chairman, Department of Zoology, Panjab Univer-
sity, Chandigarh for providing necessary research
facilities.

H.R. PAJNI

January 6, 1992. NEELIMA NANDA

References

Burke, H.R. (1976): Bionomics of anthonomine weevils.

Animal Review of Entomology 21: 283-303.

List, G.M. (1932): A cherry pest in Colorado. Colo. Agric.
Exp. Sta. Bull. 385: 106.

Pajni, H.R. & Nanda, N. (1989): Biology of Apion (Thym-
pion) majorinum Fab. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a
pest oiAbutilon indicum. Ann. Entomol. 7(2): 58-61.

38. UVARIA ANDAMANICA KING (ANNONACEAE) REDISCOVERED FROM

ANDAMAN ISLANDS

(With five text-figures)

King (1892, 1893) described Uvuria an-
damanicci King from South Andamans based on his
collection in 1884 from Port Blair. Parkinson (1923)
also included this species in Flora of Andaman Is-
lands. Mitra (1982) cited U. andomanica in her
revision of tribe Uvarieae for India, only on the basis
of type collection deposited in CAL. Vasudeva Rao
(1986) listed it merely on the basis of King’s report
and mentioned that no specimens have been ex-
amined from PBLso far.

During the course of exploration of Dhanikhari
forest areas in South Andamans one of us collected
an Uvciria species having unisexual male flowers,
which on critical study has been identified as Uvaria
andomanica King. A thorough scrutiny of the PBL
herbarium and recent literature reveals that this
species has not been collected after the type collec-
tion, though several botanical explorations have
been undertaken in all islands of the Andaman
group. This taxon is represented by only one or two
plants occurring in the inland forest in the vicinity.
This report of Uvaria andamanica from Dhanikhari,
after a lapse of nearly 100 years, with a very small
population, indicates that this species has become
rare.

Uvaria andamanica King in J. Asiat. Soc.
Beng. 61 (2): 21. 1892, et Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Cal.
4: 29, t. 25. 1893; C.E. Parkinson, For. FI. Andaman
Islands 79. 1923; Debika Mitra in Fasc. FI. India 10:
13. 1982; Vasudeva Rao in J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 8: 111.
1986.

Local name: Deosarai.

A woody climber. Stem 2 cm in diameter,
rounded, smooth. Leaves 16-22 x 5-10 cm, elliptic-
oblong, obovate, rounded at base, acuminate at apex,
slightly incurved at margins, coriaceous, nearly
glabrous, midrib tomentose; lateral nerves 16-23
pairs, prominent beneath, stellate tomentose. Flowers
solitary or two, c. 2 cm in diameter, axillary, tomen-
tose, red; bracts 4-5 mm long, solitary, ovate or-
bicular; pedicels 1-1.2 cm long, tomentose. Sepals
three, 7-8 x 4 mm, broadly ovate, reflexed at margins,
connate at base, brownish, stellate tomentose
without, pubescent within. Petals six, 1 x 0.6 cm,
broadly ovate, red, incurved at apex, coriaceous,
brown tomentose without, glabrous within. Stamens
numerous, 3-4 mm long, narrowly elongate, some-
what ovoid-oblong, flattened at base, apex flat,
rounded or nearly bilobed (Figs. 1-5).

Flowering: March -May.

Distribution: INDIA: Andaman & Nicobar Is-
lands. Rare, endemic.

Ecology: Woody climber growing in inland
forest, epiphytic on Chukrasia tabular is Andr.-
Juss. (Meliaceae) associated with Gnetum scandens
Roxb., Randia longiflora Lamk., Areca triandra
Roxb., Garcinia cowa Roxb. and Myristica an-
damanica Hook.

Uses: Fine twigs of the plant are used as
‘Datun’ for brushing teeth by the local people.

Exsicc. Andaman & Nicobar Islands: South An-
damans, Dhanikhari forest, ± 10 m, 11 March 1990,

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Figs. 1-5. Uvaria andamanica King

1. Flowering twig; 2. Sepal; 3. Petal (inner surface); 4. Petal (outer surface); 5. Stamen.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

391

Ramesh Kumar 14629 (PBL).

We are thankful to Dr. B.D. Sharma, Director,
Botanical Survey of India for providing facilities.
Thanks are also due to Dr. P.S.N. Rao, Scientist

‘B’ in-charge, Andaman & Nicobar Circle, Port Blair
for encouragement.

S.K. SRIVASTAVA
July 3, 1991 RAMESH KUMAR

References

King, G. (1892): Jour. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 61(2): 21.

King, G. (1893): Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 4: 29. t. 25.
Mitra, D. (1982): Annonaceae: Tribe Uvarieae. Fasc. FI.

India 10: 13. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.
Parkinson, C.E. (1923): A forest flora of the Andaman Is-

lands. Simla.

Vasudeva Rao, M.K. (1986): A preliminary report on the
Angiosperms of Andaman & Nicobar Islands. J.
Econ. Tax. Bot. 8(1): 107-184.

39. REDISCOVERY OF A RARE FERN ARCHNIODES ARTSTATA
(FROST. F.) TINDALE FROM KUMAUN HIMALAYA

During the course of a botanical exploration in
Kumaun Himalaya, a few specimens of a very inter-
esting fern were collected from Hat near Didihat.
After critical study, it was identified as Arcliniodes
aristata (Frost, f.) Tindale belonging to the family
Aspidiaceae. The collection of this species from
Kumaun Himalaya is significant for the fern flora of
north-western Himalayas, hence information is
provided here on the species.

A. aristata (Frost, f.) Tindale, Contr. N.S.
Wales Nation Herb. 3: 89, 1961. Polypodium aris-
tatum Frost., Prod., 82, 1786. Lastrea aristata Moore,
Ind. Fil ., 85, 1856. Aspidium arista turn Clarke, Trans.
Linn. Soc. Lond. II Bot. 1:511, 1880 (excl. vars.).

(For description see Jamir and Rao, FERNS OF
NAGALAND: 336. 1988).

Ecology: Ait extremely rare fern and is
nowhere common in the Western Himalaya. It usual-
ly grows on moist and humus-rich dark shaded, forest
floor, near Hat at 1300 m, and generally sporulates
during the month of August.

Specimens examined: Kumaun Himalaya,
Pithoragarh district, Hat near Didihat (1300 m), H.C.
Pande 24, dated 26 September 1989. Voucher
specimens are deposited in Herbarium, Department
of Botany, Kumaun University Campus, Almora.

Distribution: INDIA: Western Himalaya; rare in
Kumaun West, Eastern Himalaya; S. India; Burma,
Sri Lanka, China, W. Australia, Polynesia, Malaya

Peninsula and Island, Japan.

The occurrence of this species in north-western
Himalayas was reported by Hooker (from Kumaun),
MacDonel (from Chamba) vide Hope 1903, and Trot-
ter (from Kashmir) vide Stewart 1945. In 1906
Duthie also reported this species from Kumaun on
the authority of Hooker. Recently, Dhir (1980) in
FERNS OF NORTH-WESTERN HIMALAYAS and Pande
(1990) in CENSUS OF KUMAUN FERNS included this
species on the basis of the earlier records. Dixit
(1984) also did not mention the distribution of this
species in north-western Himalayas. Thus it is clear
that none of the subsequent workers could collect this
species from any part of north-western Himalayas
after Hooker, Trotter and MacDonel. Our collection
in 1989 was thus after a long gap. It is in danger of
extinction in the Kumaun Himalaya. Therefore, steps
should be taken immediately for its conservation. As
ferns are very sensitive to habitat destruction, habitat
preservation is the only suitable conservation method
to protect these plants. Simultaneously efforts should
be made to transplant them wherever their peculiar
niches are available. This taxon should be incor-
porated in the National list of Endangered species.

C.S.I.R., New Delhi is acknowledged for finan-
cial help.

P. C. PANDE

November 23, 1991 H.C. PANDE

392

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

40. WALSURA PINNATA HASSK. (MELIACEAE) FROM ANDAMAN
ISLANDS — A NEW RECORD FOR INDIAN FLORA

(With a text- figure)

The genus Walsura Roxb. has about 40 species
mainly distributed in India, South China, Burma,
north-west Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo and Java
(Willis 1966). In India, the genus is represented by
five species (Santapau and Henry 1973), viz. W. tri-
folia (A. Juss.) Harms, W. tubulata Hiem, W. robusta
Roxb., W. hypoleuca Kurz and W. candollei King, the
last being endemic to the Andaman group of islands.

W. pinnata Hassk., hitherto known to be en-
demic to Java, is being reported here from Andaman
islands, as an addition to the Indian flora. The
specimens were collected while exploring the
proposed North Andaman Biosphere Reserve areas
and also from the Mt. Harriet hill ranges in South An-
daman. The following description is provided based

Fig. 1. Walsura pinnata Hassk. — twig with inflorescence.

on these specimens.

Walsura pinnata Hassk., Retzia, 1: 147. 1963;
Backer & Van Den Brink, FI. Java, 2: 129. 1965.

Trees 10-12 m tall; stem slender, faintly but-
tressed at the base, bark grey to light brown;
branchlets faintly ribbed, pubescent, older parts
glabrescent. Leaves up to 30 cm long, imparipinnate;
petiole up to 8 cm long; leaflets sub-opposite, 3-5,
12-15 x 3. 0-4.5 cm, glaucous beneath, ovate -oblong,
entire, retuse or shortly acuminate, lateral nerves 10-
13 pairs, conspicuously pink and anastomising below
the margin, intercalated veins well developed;
petiolules glaucous, 0.8-1. 5 cm long (in terminal
leaflets up to 5 cm). Flowers in axillary and terminal
panicles or corymbs, peduncle and pedicels pink,
finely hairy. Sepals 5, 0.7-0.75 x 0.4-0.45 mm, trian-
gular, connate, puberulous. Petals 5, 3.0-3.3 x 1.3-1.5
mm, white, erect-upcurved, ovate-oblong,
puberulous. Stamens 10, 1. 8-2.0 mm long, hairy
around the disc; filaments 1.2-1. 5 mm, free or shortly
connate, flattened, bidentate at the apex, anthers
basifixed, ovoid. Disc annular, puberulous, fleshy.
Ovary 2-celled with two ovules in each; style short,
stigma broad. Fruit unknown.

Specimens examined: Milannagar, North An-
daman Island, 12 December 1990, P.S.N. Rao 15718
(PBL); Shole Bay, Mt. Harriet, S. Andaman, 19 May
1990, Sam P. Mathew 20539 (PBL).

Distribution: INDIA (Andaman islands) and

Java.

As this species occurs nowhere else in India and
the distribution being rare with a restricted popula-
tion of only a few trees, steps should be taken for
habitat conservation in view of various developmen-
tal activities taking place in the Andamans.

We thank Dr. B.D. Sharma, Director, Botanical
Survey of India, Calcutta and K.C. Malick, Scientist -
SD, A & N Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Port
Blair for encouragement. Thanks are also due to Dr.
P.W. Leenhouts and Dr. Max Van Balgooy,
Rijksherbarium, Leiden, The Netherlands for con-
firming the identification of the specimens.

P.S.N. RAO

October 16, 1991 SAM P. MATHEW

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

393

R EFERENCES

Santapau, H. & Henry, A.N. (1973): A Dictionery of Willis, J. C. (1966): A Dictionery of Flowering plants and
Flowering plants. C S I R, New Delhi. Ferns. The University Press, Cambridge.

41. DIGITAR1A SIAMENSIS HENR. (POACEAE) — ADDITION TO THE

INDIAN FLORA

(With ten text-figures)

While scrutinising the grasses collected from
Santhal Pargana Division of Bihar, we came across
an interesting grass collected from Godda district on

5 September 1987, which on critical examination was
identified as Digitaria siamensis Henr. Earlier this
extremely rare grass has been reported from Burma
(Hooker 1896 FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA, 7). It was
found growing along river banks, associated with
Digitaria stricta Roth ex Roem. et Schult., D.
setigera Roth apud Roem. et Schult., Hetero pogon
contortus (Leduce) P. Beauv. and RottboeUia
cochinchinensis (L.) Clayton. Apparently the plant
shows similarity with D. stricta in having clavate-
tipped hairs on lower glume and lower lemma.
However, it can be readily distinguished from
D. • stricta by the presence of well developed
upper glumes, longer spikelets and hairless pedi-
cels.

A collection of the above taxon by Kurz (Acc.
no. 518608 CAL) from Rajmahal Hills, is deposited
in CAL, Howrah. However, this grass is not men-
tioned in any literature on grasses of India. Therefore,
detailed description, illustration, phenological and
ecological notes are given to help in ascertaining its
range of distribution in other parts of the country. The
voucher specimen is deposited in Bhagalpur Univer-
sity Herbarium.

Digitaria siamensis Henr. Monogr. Gen.
Digitaria 692. 1950; Bor, Gr. of Burma, Ceylon, Ind.

6 Pak. 305. 1960.

Annual, up to 30 cm high. Culms erect, slender,
branched at base, glabrous. Leaf-blades 3-15 x 0.3-

0.5 cm, linear to linear-lanceolate, minutely scabrid
on both surfaces, base narrow, margins scabrid, apex
acute; sheaths compressed, up to 12 cm long, keeled,
scabrid, margins with tubercle-based hairs; ligules
lacerate, up to 5 mm long. Racemes 3-6, up to 12 cm
long, alternate on an elongated axis; rhachis not
winged, angles scabrid; pedicels unequal, up to 1.5
mm long, minutely scabrid, tip discoid. Spikelets 1.6-
2 mm long, elliptic-oblong, acute. Lower glume ab-
sent. Upper glume 1.6-2 mm long, 3-nerved, two
nerves adjacent to mid nerve, densely clavate-tipped
hairs, other glabrous, acute, margins with clavate-
tipped hairs. Lower lemma similar to the upper
glume, empty, hyaline, 5-nerved, mid-nerve glabrous,
two adjacent nerves hairy, margins with clavate-
tipped hairs, obtuse, epaleate. Upper lemma 1.5-1.8
mm long, hermaphrodite, coriaceous, glabrous, yel-
low, apiculate, margins incurved; palea similar to the
upper lemma. Stamens three; anthers up to 1.5 mm
long.

Flowers: August-December.

Ecology: Along river banks, foothills; rare.

Specimens examined: Shibpur, Godda district,
5 September 1987, R.R. Jha 6558; Rajmahal Hills,
Sahibganj district, Kurzs.n. (CAL acc. no. 518608).

We are greateful to the Joint Director, Central
National Herbarium, Indian Botanic Garden,
Howrah, for permission to consult the herbarium and
CSIR, New Delhi for financial assistance.

R.R.JHA

October 29, 1991 S. K. VARMA

42. LECTOTYPIFI CATION OF BAUHINIA GLAUCA SSP. TENUIFLORA

(LEGUMINOSAE)

While attempting to designate a lectotype for
Bauhinia glauca ssp. tenuijlora (C.B. Clarke) Larsen
& Larsen, a plant originally described from Manipur
by Clarke (J. Linn. Soc. 25: 18, t.6. 1889), it was ob-

served that Larsen et al. (FI. Cambodge, Laos & Viet-
nam 18: 184. 1980) cited only the collection of Watt
(no. 6915 K, photo. - CAL!) as type material.

However, Clarke (J. Linn. Soc. 25: 2. 1889) in

394

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

10x X 10

mm

Figs. 1-10. Digitaria siamensis Henr.

1. Habit; 2. Inflorescence; 3. Spikelet; 4. Upper glume; 5. Lower lemma; 6. Upper lemma; 7. Palea; 8. Stigma; 9. Stamen;

10. Hairs.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

395

connection with his work on the plants of Kohima
and Manipur, stated that Thiselton Dyer had re-
quested him to take up also the collections of Dr.
Watt (which were roughly examined and tabulated)
in the Kew herbarium so that everything might be
known concerning the plants of Kohima and
Manipur. But Clarke soon realised that Dr. Watt did
not wish him to name and describe his collections,
and so based the work solely on his own collections
except for the binomials of the new species (in cases
where proposed by Watt in MSS.) which he had
come across while comparing his own collections
With those of Watt. Hence, the collections (CM.
Clarke 42255, 42304 and 42342 ) of this taxon cited
in the protologue should be the most appropriate
material for lectotypification rather than that of

Watt’s, where the name was initially proposed - a
decision also in conformity with Article 7.4 of ICBN
(Berlin Code 1988).

Thus from the existing syntypes: Nongjaibang,
Muneypoor, 1700 ft., 30 Nov. 1985, CM. Clarke
42304 D (CAL!), E (K, photo.- CAL!); 42342 A (K,
photo. - CAL!), B (CAL!) - “A loose pod mounted
on the same herbarium sheet bearing the flowering
specimen CM. Clarke 42304 D (CAL).” and C (K,
photo - CAL!) we select CM. Clarke 42304 E (K) as
its lectotype.

We are thankful to the authorities of the Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew for providing the type
photographs.

S. BANDYOPADHYAY
October 21, 1991 B. D. SHARMA

ERRATA

Vol 89(1)

Miscellaneous Note No. 32. Record of the cone shell Conus cumingii (Reeve, 1848) from Bombay seas,
p. 143, left column

For In some of these publications the occurrence of C. cumingii has been mentioned.

Read In none of these publications has the occurrence of C. cumingii been mentioned.

ERRATA

Vol. 89(3)

Wintering Water Birds at point Calimere, Tamil Nadu
On p. 324, Right column,

Line 1,

For Chklidonias hybrida
Read Chlidonias hybrida
Line 2,

For comon Read common

Alagar Rajan, S.

Arun, B.

Athreya, Vidya R
Balachandran, S.

Balasubramanian, P.

Bandyopadhyay, S.
Bapat, Navin N.
Bharos, A.MX.
Bharos, Ajit
Choudhury, A

Devarshi, Dhirendra
Ganesh, T.

Grubh, R.B.

Ilangakoon, Anouk

Jha, RR.

Kalsi, R.S.
Karthikeyan, S.
Kazmierczak, K J.
Khera, S.

Kulkami, C.V.

Kumar, Ramesh
Kurup, D.K. Narayana

Mahendra, W.P.

Manakadan, Ranjit

Mathew, Sam P.
Mohan Kumar, C.

Naik, Sattyasheel

Nanda, Neelima

INDEX OF AUTHORS, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023 374,375

22, ‘Navarang’, I main, \fysya Bank colony n, Bannerghatta Road,

Bangalore 560 076 360

Arunachala, 5 II A Cross Road, Dollars Colony, Bangalore 560 024 376

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023 373,373, 377

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023 375,377

Botanical Survey of India, P.O. Botanical Garden, Howrah 711 103 393

Paburai Chowk, Bhuj, Kutch 370 001 366, 378

MIG-29, Padmanabhpur, Durg, Madhya Pradesh 491 001 376

27 MIG, Indravati Colony, Raipur 492 001 377

Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium, Islampur Road, Guwahati,

Assam 781 007 380

Dept, of Zoology, M.S J. College, Bharatpur 321 001 385

Pondicherry University, T.N.E.B. Quarters, Upper Kodayar 627 427 374

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023 379

Fauna International Trust, 218/1, Bauddhaloka Mawatha, Colombo 7,

Sri Lanka 363

Gram Vikas, Mohuda Post, Via Berhampur, Dist. Ganjan, Orissa 760 002 . 393

Dept, of Zoology, M.L.N. College, Yamuna Nagar, Haryana 135 001 368

24, Opp. Banashankari Temple, 8th Block Jayanagar P.O., Bangalore 560 082 360, 375, 376

9, Norwich Road, Northwood, Middlesex, England HA 6 1ND, 373

Dept, of Zoology, M.L.N. College, Yamuna Nagar, Haryana 135 001, 368

B/4, Sharadashram, Bhavani Shankar Road, Dadar, Bombay 400 028 384

Botanical Survey of India, Andaman & Nicobar Circle, Port Blair 744 102 389

Kerala Forest Dept., Camp Pushpakam, Mudavanmugal, Poojappura P.O.,

Trivandrum 695 012 365

Marine Mammal Programme, National Aquatic Resources Agency,

Crow Island, Colombo 15, Sri Lanka 363

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023 367, 378

Botanical Survey of India, Andaman & Nicobar Circle, Port Blair 744 102 392

Office of the Superintendent, Customs and Central Excise,

Kayamkulam, Kerala 365

Naik Hospital, 781/782, Shukrawar Peth, "Laxmi Chhaya", Opp. Jain Mandir,

Pune 411002 367

Dept, of Zoology, Punjab University, Chandigarh 160 014 388

Natarajan, V. Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023 . 367, 373, 375, 375, 377

Pajni, H.R. Dept, of Zoology, Punjab University, Chandigarh 168 014 .. 388

Pande, H.C. Dept, of Botany, Kumaun University Campus, Almora 263 601 391

Pande, P.Q Dept, of Botany, Kumaun University Campus, Almora 263 601 391

Pandey, Sanjeeva Wildlife Instt. of India, PO Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 248 001 .„ 361

Panicker, K.N. Vector Control Research Centre, Indira Nagar, Pondicherry 605 006 386

Patel, B.H. Dept, of Zoology, Sir P.P. Institute of Sciences, Bhavnagar 364 002 382

Prasad. J.N. 13, 8th cross, 30th main, J.P. Nagar I Phase, Bangalore 560 078 360, 382

Rao, P.S.N. Botanical Survey of India, Andaman & Nicobar Circle,

Port Blair 744 102 . 392

Rao, Y.N. Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023 375

Rosalind, Lima Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023 373, 377

Satheesan, SM. Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023 379

Sharma, B D. Botanical Survey of India, P-8 Braboume Road, Calcutta 700 001 393

Sharma, Satish Kumar World Forestry Arboretum, Jhalana Dungri, Jaipur 302 004 374, 378

Singh, Pratap Office of the Chief Wildlife Warden, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh 376

Smetacek, Peter Himos Instt. of Sciences, Jones Estate, P.O. Bhimtal, Nainital 263 136 389 385

Srinivasan, R. Vector Control Research Centre, Indira Nagar, Pondicherry 605 006 386

Srivastava, S.K. Botanical Survey of India, Andaman & Nicobar Circle,

Port Blair 744 102 389

Subasinghe, H.AK, Marine Mammal Programme, National Aquatic Resources

Agency, Crow Island, Colombo 15, Sri Lanka 363

Taher, Humayun 6-3-249/3, Road No. 1, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad 500 034 368

Tehsin, Raza 41, Panchwati, Udaipur 313 001 383

Tiwari, Manjula Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Centre for Herpetology, Post Bag 4,

Mamallapuram 603 104 383

Trigunayat, MM. Dept, of Zoology, Ruia College, Ramgarh, Sikar 385

Varma, S.K. Dept, of Botany, Bhagalpur University, Bhagalpur 812 007 393

Vyas, Raju Zoo Inspector, Say aji Bang Zoo, Vadodara 390 018 382

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ys Bank Ltd., 13, St. Jame’s Sq., London SWIY 4LF. Account No. 1101091.

The subscription of members elected in October, November and December covers the
cnod from the date of their election to the end of December of the following year.

CONTENTS

ON THE ENDANGERED INDIAN TROUT Barifius bola (HAM.)

( With a text- figure)

By C. V. Kulkarni * * • • • • • • ♦ » •

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN
BATS — PART XIII — MALE REPRODUCTIVE PATTERNS IN THREE
BATS ( With a plate and four text-figures )

By A. Gopalakrishna, P. N. Choudhari, A. Madhavan, D. R. Patil and N. Badwaik

NOTES ON THE ORANGERUMPED HONEY GUIDE Indicator xanthonotus AND
ITS ASSOCIATION WITH THE HIMALAYAN HONEY BEE Apis laboriosa
By Benjamin A. Underwood *

A KEY FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN GENERA OF FAMILY
MEGACHILIDAE (HYMENOPTERA : APOIDEA) (With fifteen text-figures )
By Rajiv K. Gupta

SURVEY OF THE GORAL Nemorhaedus goral (HARDWICKE) IN HIMACHAL
PRADESH (With three text-figures )

By Paolo Cavallini • • *

INSECT-HOST-PLANT INTERACTION IN RELATION TO DEVELOPMENT OF
Diaphania indica (SAUNDERS) (LEPIDOPTERA : PYRALIDAE)

By Clement Peter and B. V. David

SYMPATRIC DISTRIBUTION OF GHARIAL Gavialis gangeticus AND MUGGER
Crocodylus palustris IN INDIA (With a text-figure)

By R. J. Rao and B. C. Choudhury

WINTERING WATERBIRDS AT POINT CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU
(With a text- figure)

By V. Natarajan

PARASITIC WASPS OF THE GENUS Tetrastichus HALID AY (HYMENOPTERA:
EULOPHIDAE) FROM NORTHERN INDIA (With seventy-four text-figures)
By M. A. Khan and S. N. Sushil •

ON THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF CERTAIN SPECIES OF Pavetta
(RUBLACEAE) FROM THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT
By D. B. Deb and R. C. Rout

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . . ............ • • . • • • * ••

277

282

290

296

302

308

312

316

329

348

353

360

Printed by Bro. Paulinus at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 103
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