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THE JOURNAL
OF
COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY
AND PSYCHOLOGY
EDITORIAL BOARD
Henry H. DonALpsoN ApOLPH MEYER
The Wistar Institute Pathological Institute, New York
C. Jupson Herrick OuiveR 8. Strona
University of Chicago Columbia University
HERBERT S. JENNINGS JoHun B. Watson
Johns Hopkins University Johns Hopkins University
J. B. Jounston Rospert M. YERKES —
University of Minnesota Harvard University
VOLUME XIx
1909
PHILADELPHIA, PA.
THE WISTAR INSTITUTE OF ANATOMY AND BIOLOGY
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The Journal of
Comparative Neurology and Psychology
CONTENTS OF VOL. XIX, 1909.
Number 1, April, 1909.
PAG,
Some Experiments Bearing upon Color Vision in Monkeys. By JouHn B.
Watson. (From the Psychological Laboratory of the University of
Ohicago.) With Five Pigures: ... 2.00... ee 5 oe clot cent nce rceene 1
The Expressions of Emotion in the Pigeons. I. The Blond Ring-dove.
(Turtur Risorius). By Wattace Craic. (From the Department of
Zoology of the University of Chicago.) With One Plate ............ 29
The Reaction to Tactile Stimuli and the Development of the Swimming
Movement in Embryos of Diemyctylus Torosus, Hschscholtz. By G. EH.
Cocuitn. (Studies from the Neurological Laboratory of Denison
University. No. XXII.) With Six Figures .......:. 2.5.2... Keeueei ess 83
Sensations Following Nerve Division. By SHEPHERD Ivory FRANZ. (From
the Laboratory of the Government Hospital for the Insane, Wash-
ington, D. OC.) I. Pressure-like Sensations. With Five Figures .... 107
Alterations in the Spinal Ganglion Cells Following Neurotomy. By S.
Wa.LreR Ranson. (From the Anatomical Laboratory of the Univer-
Sion Cnicago:). Introdutions Wath Six Hg URS terse -)eleus ols teyehel'« 125
Number 2, May, 1909.
On the Relation of the Body Length to the Body Weight and to the Weight
of the Brain and of the Spinal Cord in the Albino Rat (Mus Norvegi-
cus var. Albus). By Henry H. Donatpson. (Professor of Neurology
at the Wistar Institute.) With Three Wigures!.::...-............0.. 155
Note on the Formulas Used for Calculating the Weight of the Brain in
the Albino Rats. By SHINKISHI HaTaL. (From the Wistar Institute.) 169
The Nervus Terminalis (Nerve of Pinkus) in the Frog. By C. JupSON
Herrick. (From the Anatomical Laboratory of the University of
OECHIO,)) * WAM MAKES GoopdaaobooocaboogdooccuoMdogubduonOL 175
The Nervus Terminalis in the Carp. By R. E. SaHetpon. (From the Ana-
tomical Laboratory of the University of Chicago.) With Seven Figures. 191
The Criteria of Homology in the Peripheral Nervous System. By C. Jup-
son Herrick. (From the Anatomical Laboratory of the University
Gj) CHRO) 35 Pro HD OA OOS WACO OGIO 2 con Co Gad olen Oo oD 203
LAiGEREy . IN(CTIGRS: As Oc OIRO Oo eaianiom 6 oidic Cao dod 05 6.0 oSelo ow Ga como Gar 211
lv Contents.
Number 3, June, 1909.
PAGH.
On Sensations Following Nerve Division. By SHEPHERD Ivory FRANZ.
(From the Laboratories of the Government Hospital for the Insane,
Washington, D. C.) II. The Sensibility of the Hairs. With Seven
[Dieaieae MAAN HOD Ooh AD coo Gal boon bo COD oUU boo dom eG bDOb GosagEOGoOUnS
Modifiability of Behavior in its Relations to the Age and Sex of the Danc-
ing Mouse. By Roperr M. YERKES. (From the Harvard Psychological
Laboratory.) With Four Figures .......... fierie ws ashe. tanaiie, cue Mepersiane eke te Swerve
The Reactions of the Dogfish to Chemical Stimuli. By RALteH E. SHELDON.
(Contribution from the Woods Hole Laboratory of the United States
Bureau of Fisheries.) With Three Figures
Ce
The Work of J. von Uexkuell on the Physiology of Movements and Be-
lnvayatorey asi JEG [Sh GPowaAGNels) Gooccoconaccsmeoodcnd ideredocc hatoneiaie ert
Number 4, July, 1909.
Imitation in Monkeys. By M. E. Haccerry. (From the Harvard Psycho-
logical Laboratory.) With Thirteen Figures ...................-.--
Number 5, November, 1909.
The Morphology of the Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. By J. B. JOHN-
ston. (University of Minnesota.) With Forty-five Figures..........
Some Experiments upon the Behavior of Squirrels. By C. S. YOAKUM.
(From the Psychological Laboratory of the University of Chicago.) ,
Visio Mba Mee 5 qo adoongocd cuconodoooUddcoddedeoonosenasccKoaC
Tropic and Shock Reactions in Perichseta and Lumbricus. By His He
Harper. (From the Zoological Laboratory of Northwestern Univer-
sity.) With Two Figures .............2.05+--2 +02 cers eer eeeeenrns
IGE, INVNGES gan goconcomooonodbonco Boo DDDDKO DOGO DOH dDUZUGGOOuCGONS
Number 6, December, 1909.
The Radix Mesencephalica Trigemini. By J. B. JOHNSTON. (University
of Minnesota.) With Thirty-two Figures ...........- PEE Shh ome cic
A New Association Fiber Tract in the Cerebrum with Remarks on the
Fiber Tract Dissection Method of Studying the Brain. By E. J.
CurRAN. (Harvard Medical School.) With Three Plates .........-
Visual Discrimination in Raccoons. By L. W. Corr and F. M. Lone. With
One: Migure’ |. . slevale cos eleye eyes cuees sicher Oks epee eRe) RR hme toon lean lennon
A Statistical Study of the Medullated Nerve Fibers Innervating the Legs
of the Leopard Frog (Rana Pipiens) after Unilateral section of the
Ventral Roots. By Eizasrra H. Dunn. (From the Anatomical
Laboratory of the University of Chicago.) With One JNAIRE Ata aa oo
Factors Determining the Reactions of the Larva of Tenebrio Molitor. By
Max Morse. With Two Figures .............2---+--e0ees--s seers
215
237
278
313
337
457
041
569
589
593
SUBJECT AND AUDHOR- INDEX
VOLUME XIX.
LTERATIONS in the spinal ganglion cells
following neurotomy, 125.
EHAVIOR, modifiability of, in its relations
to the age and sex of the dancing
mouse, 237.
Of squirrels, some experiments upon, 541.
Body length, relation of, to body weight and
to the weight of the brain and of the
spinal cord in the albino rat, 155.
Body weight, relation of body weight to,
and to the weight of the brain and of
the spinal cord in the albino rat, 155.
ARP, the nervus terminalis in, 191.
Cerebrum, a new association fiber
tract in the, 645.
CoGHILL, G. E. The reaction to tactile
stimuli and the development of the
swimming movement in embryos of
Diemyctylus torosus, Eschscholtz, 83.
CoLp,L. W., and F. M. Lone. Visual dis-
crimination in raccoons, 657.
Color vision in monkeys, some experiments
bearing upon, 1.
CRAIG, WALLACE.
tion in the pigeons.
dove, 29.
CURRAN, E. J. A new association fiber
tract in the cerebrum, 645.
The expressions of emo-
The blond ring-
OGFISH, the reactions of, to chemical
D stimuli, 273.
DONALDSON, Hpnry H. On the relation of
the body length to the body weight
and to the weight of the brain and
ce spinal cord in the albino rat,
5.
Dunn, HE. H. A statistical study of the
medullated nerve fibers innervating the
legs of the leopard frog after unilat-
eral section of the ventral roots, 685.
MOTION in the pigeons, the expressions
E of. I. The blond ring-dove, 29.
IBER tract in the cerebrum, a new asso-
ciation, 645.
Forebrain vesicle in vertebrates, the morph-
ology of, 457.
Formulas used for calculating weight of the
brain in albino rats, 169.
Sensations fol-
I. The pres-
II. The sen-
FRANZ, SHEPHERD Ivory.
lowing nerve division.
sure-like sensations, 107.
sibility of the hairs, 215.
Frog, the nervus terminalis in the, 175.
ANGLION cells, alterations in the spinal,
S following neurotomy, 125
Hs M. E. Imitation in monkeys,
337.
Harper, B. H. Tropic and shock reactions
in Pericheta and Lumbricus, 569.
Harar, SHINKISHI. Note on the formulas
used for calculating the weight of the
brain in albino rats, 169.
Herrick, C. JuDSoN. The nervus terminalis
in the frog, 175.
The criteria of homology in the periph-
eral nervous system, 203.
Homology in the peripheral nervous sys-
tem, the criteria of, 203.
| fica in monkeys, 337.
ENNINGS, H. S. The work of J. von
Uexkuell on the physiology of move-
ments and behavior, 313.
JOHNSTON, J. B. The morphology of the
forebrain vesicle in vertebrates, 457.
The radix mesencephalica trigemini, 593.
onG, F. M., and L. W. Coun. Visual
discrimination in raccoons, 657.
Lumbricus, Pericheta and, tropic and shock
reaction in, 569.
: (735)
736
legs of the leopard frog after uni-
lateral section of the ventral roots,
a statistical study of, 685.
MU tee ot nerve fibers innervating the
Modifiability of behavior in its relations to
the age and sex of the dancing mouse,
92
mot.
Monkeys, imitation in, 387.
Some experiments bearing upon color
vision in, 1.
Morphology of the forebrain vesicle in ver-
tebrates, 457.
Morsk, Max. Factors determining the reac-
tions of the larya of Tenebrio molitor,
(eal
Mouse, modifiability of behavior in its rela-
tions to the age and sex of the danc-
ing; 23%.
PRVE division, sensations following. I.
The pressure-like sensations, 107.
Il. The sensibility of the hairs, 215.
Nervous system, the criteria of homology
in the peripheral, 203.
Nervus terminalis in the carp, the, 191.
In the frog, 175.
Neurotomy, alterations in the spinal gan-
glion cells following, 125.
tropic and
shock reactions in, 569.
Physiology of movements and behavior,
the work of J. yon Uexkuell on the,
SiS:
Pigeons, the expressions of emotion in the,
I. Blond ringdove, 29.
Pao and Lumbricus,
Pinkus, nerve of, in the frog, 175.
in, 657.
the,
ACCOONS, visual discrimination
Radix mesencephalica trigemini,
593.
Rana pipiens, a statistical study of the
medulated nerve fibers innervating
the legs of the leopard frog. after
paheteeal section of the ventral roots,
Ranson, S. Wawvtor. Alterations in the
spinal ganglion cells following neurot-
omy, 125.
Rat, relation of the body length to the body
weight and to the weight of the brain
and of the spinal cord in the albino,
155.
Weight of the brain in albino, note on
the formulas used for calculating, 169.
Reactions in pericheta and
tropic and shock, 569.
Of the larva of Tenebrio molitor, factors
determing the, 721.
lumbricus,
Index.
ENSATIONS following nerve divisions. I.
The pressure-like sensations, 107.
Il. The sensibility of the hairs, 215.
SHELDON, R. E. The neryus terminalis in
the carp, 191.
The reactions of the dogfish to chemical
stimuli, 273.
Spinal cord in the albino rat, relation of
the body length to the body weight
and to the weight of the brain and of
the, 155
Spinal ganglion cells, alterations
following neurotomy, 125.
in the,
Squirrels, some experiments upon the _ be-
havior of, 541.
Stimuli, the reactions of the dogfish to, 273.
The reaction to tactile, and the devel-
opment of the swimming movement
in embryo of Diemctylus_ torosus,
Eschscholtz, 83.
Swimming movement in embryos of Die-
myctylus torosus, Hschscholtz, the re-
action to tactile stimuli and the de
velopment of, 83.
HE stimuli, the reaction to, and the
development of the swimming move-
ment in embryos of Diemyctylus
torosus, Eschscholtz, 83.
Tenebrio molitor, factors determining the
reactions of the larva of, 721.
Trigemini, the radix mesencephalica, 593.
PXKUELL, J. voN, the work of, on the
physiology of movements and behavior,
Biles
Neeoe discrimination in raccoons, 657.
sanece de_ l’intelligence, George
Bohn, 589.
Review of the animal mind. Second
volume of the Animal Behavior series,
edited by R. M. Yerkes, 211.
WATSON, JOHN B. Some experiments bear-
ing upon color vision in monkeys, 1.
Weight of brain and of the spinal cord in
the albino rat, relation of the body
length to the body weight and to, 155.
Weight of the brain in the albino rats, note
on formulas used for calculating the,
169.
W “sance M. F. Review of La nais-
ERKES, RoBeERT M. Modifiability of be-
havior in its relation to the age and
sex of the dancing mouse, 237.
Yoakum, C. S. Some experiments upon the
behavior of squirrels, 541.
The Journal of
Comparative Neurology and Psychology
VoLuME XIX
APRIL, 1909 NuMBER I
SOME EXPERIMENTS BEARING UPON COLOR VISION
IN MONKEYS.
BY
JOHN B. WATSON.
From the Psychological Laboratory of the University of Chicago.
WITH FIVE FIGURES.
For over a year, the writer has been experimenting with apparatus
for obtaining large bands of spectral light suitable for use as stimuli
in testing the color vision of animals by means of the discrimination
method. In the process of constructing the apparatus finally adopted,
the writer has availed himself liberally of the assistance of Pro-
fessors Gale and Milliken of the physics department of the Uni-
versity of Chicago, and of Professor R. W. Wood of the physics
department of the Johns Hopkins University. He is also under deep
obligation to Professors Angell and Carr for many valuable sug-
gestions.
The actual accumulation of the data bearing upon color vision
in monkeys began March 12th and ended August 20, 1908. Two
rhesus monkeys (J. and B.) and one cebus (H.), all gentle and
accustomed to experimentation, were the subjects used in the investi-
gation. The report is given in its present incomplete form, because
of the fact that the writer's work could not be continued at the
University of Chicago. The apparatus used there, however, has
been duplicated in the Hopkins laboratory and the investigation
will be continued in the latter place both upon two of the monkeys,
THE JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PsyCHOLOGY.—VoL, XIX, No. 1.
2 Fournal of Comparative. Neurology and Psychology.
J. and B., which served as subjects in the present work and upon
other monkeys. In addition to continuing the tests upon color
vision, steps are being taken thoroughly to test the delicacy of the
white-light vision of the monkeys and their sensitivity to differences
in the size and form of visual stimuli.
In view of these further tests, which are concerned with the
nature and delicacy of the visual reactions as a whole of this animal,
it would seem to be premature in this preliminary report to enter
into any general discussion of color vision in animals or to take up
the related structural facts which bear upon color vision. The
color, vision of several different species of animals is being tested in
the various laboratories and for this additional reason the writer
will confine his statements on the historical side strictly to the work
of Kinnaman, which, so far as the writer is aware, is the only
study of the color vision of this animal which can lay any claim
to scientific accuracy.
Kinnaman’s' work was certainly as careful and as exact as his
method would permit. His stimuli were obtained by means of light
reflected from pigmented papers. The method was roughly as fol-
lows: A board, 1 inch by 7 inches, and 5 feet long contained ‘six
holes pierced at regular distances. Each hole was large enough
to admit the bottom of a cylindrical glass. The convex surface of
each glass was covered with colored papers or with different grays.
Food was kept with one of the colored glasses, the position of which
could be varied at will after each test. The discriminations were
made rapidly. ‘In order to determine whether brightness or color
was the basis for discrimination four control tests were made. In
three of these, I attempted to determine whether the monkeys could
discriminate greys and colors varying by the same degree of bright-
ness equally well. If blue and red, for example, with a difference
in brightness of 15° (determined by the flicker method) were differ-
entiated perfectly, and two grays differing by 15° very imperfectly,
then color very probably was the basis of the discrimination in our
first series of tests.” Both original tests and control tests were
1American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 13, p. 98.
Watson, Color Vision in Monkeys. Z
carefully made and so satisfactory were the results obtained from
them that we find the author expressing himself somewhat extra-
vagantly as follows:
“1. There can be no doubt that monkeys perceive colors.
“2. Two grays having a given degree of difference in bright-
ness are not discriminated as well as two colors having an equal
difference in brightness.
“3. For accurate discrimination of difference in brightness a
difference of about 35 degrees or 9 per cent of the white constituent
of the gray is necessary.
“4, The monkeys are able to distinguish colors from grays
though the brightnesses are the same.
“5. The male appears to have a preference for bright colors,
but blue seems to be discriminated against.”
“6. In two instances there were indications of at least a low
form of general notion.”
For detailed reasons, which can not be entered into here, the
assertion is ventured that the use of colored papers can never give
us a satisfactory test of color vision in animals.® Certainly, the
writer has room for “doubt” both in Kinnaman’s work and in his
own. The fact that there is a high percentage of correct choices
of the positive color in both investigations cannot be doubted, but
that the correct choices were made upon basis of ‘hue’ and not
that of ‘brightness’ cannot be decided so easily as Kinnaman sup-
poses. It would not be at all ridiculous for one, skeptical of the
possibility of testing the color vision of animals, to assert that every
discrimination which has been made between two colored papers
by an animal could have been made if it had been totally color-blind.
As a reason for such scepticism, a few of the defects of this method
as a whole may be mentioned now:
1. The surfaces of the papers differ greatly, owing to accidents
*Blue certainly was not discriminated against by the animals used by the
writer. See Table VI.
“The committee appointed by the American Psychological Associution at the
1907 meeting to report upon methods and apparatus for testing vision in
animals will take up in its report the defects and advantages of the various
‘methods of testing color vision.
4 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
in manufacture, dyeing, ironing, ete. In addition, it is extremely
difficult to bend colored papers around glasses or to paste them upon
doors so accurately that slight differences in form, size and depth
do not appear. To sum up these defects under 1, we may say
that colored papers afford numerous secondary criteria.
2. They do not reflect monochromatic bands, but overlapping
bands. This is especially true of those reflecting the shorter wave
lengths. |
3. Lhe range of intensity obtainable in them is so limited, that
if any given region of the spectrum should offer to the animal a
different order of intensity from that which the same region offers to
our own eyes, the slight change which we could introduce in the
brightness of a given stimulus, by substituting a paper of the same
color only lighter or darken (to our own eyes) maght not at all
reverse for the animal the intensity relation originally existing
between the colors.
Yerkes, in his work on the dancing mouse, mentions most of
these objections and shows by experiment that for that animal the
red end of the spectrum is probably extremely weak in intensity.
Whether or, not the different parts of the spectrum possess the same
intensity for the eye of the monkey, as they do for our own, is
a question which we have at present no data for deciding, but cer-
tainly in the present state of our knowledge we cannot assume such
to be the case.
Believing that many problems in the study of color vision in
animals cannot be solved without the aid of a continuous spectrum,
and being more or less disheartened by the failure of colored papers
and filters (as they have heretofore been used) to furnish suitable
stimuli for testing even the more elementary questions at issue, the
writer began work upon a spectral light apparatus which it is hoped
will make possible an experimental treatment of the following
problems:
1. Has the animal the power to discriminate between any given
color and any other selected color with equal ease, when the relative
‘Yerkes, R. M. The Dancing Mouse. The Macmillan Company, 1908.
Watson, Color Vision in Monkeys. 5
intensity of either color, and the absolute intensity of both may he
altered at will? In investigating this problem, we ought to be able
to find totally color blind animals, red-green blind animals, animals
with normal color vision, if such differences in sensitivity exist.
After the problem has been solved, color theories based upon the
phylogenetic development of a photo-chemical molecule will or will
not have bases in fact.
2. How nearly identical in wave length may any two colors
be and still afford a basis for the animal to discriminate between
them (the qualitative ‘difference limen’, D.L.) ?
3. How nearly identical in intensity may two bands of the same
wave length be and still afford a basis for discrimination (the D.L.
for intensity) ?
4. Do the different parts of the spectrum possess different thresh-
old values (stimulus limen, R.L.) ?
5. Is the spectrum of a given animal wider or narrower than
the average width of the spectrum of man ?
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS.
As Figs. 1 and 2 show, the light apparatus is made upon the
principle of a spectrometer. Fig. 1 shows, in order, the are, A,
the condensing lens, L,, the slit, S,, the collimating lens, L,, the
prism, P, the mirror, M,, and the lens, LZ, (all are enclosed in a
system of dark boxes).
The arc is an ordinary hand-feed are. The direct 220 v. current
supplying the are is furnished by the university power-house. This
current is very steady and uniform. The positive (cored) carbon
is placed horizontally and in the axis of the optical system. The are
is so arranged that it can be adjusted by the experimenter in the
adjoining room at K (Fig. 2). Two long rods, RR, extending
from the are into the experimental room permit this. AC in Fig. 1
shows the gearing system by means of which the long rods are
brought into connection with the short feeding rods of the are.
After practice the experimenter can control the are at K through
‘In the apparatus to be described, a double image prism would afford the
conditions for this test,
6 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
long periods of time without allowing sensible alteration in its
intensity. Since the are is not in the dark-room where the animals
react, the noise made by it is not a source of disturbance. When
burning well, this are rarely makes a noise which is noticeable even
near at hand, after the heavy wooden box (metal lined) has been
closed.
The lens used as a condenser is an ordinary 4” biconvex read-
ing glass with 8” focus. This lens gives a clearly defined image
of the crater of the positive carbon at its focus.
The slit, S;, which is placed at the focus of [,, is a common op-
tical slit with knife edge opening. Its width was adjusted once
for all to give a spectrum of high intensity and was never thereafter
changed.
The collimating lens, Z,, is a heavy 314” achromatic lens with
a focal distance of 18”. The slit, S,, is in the focus of this lens,
consequently the face of the 65 mm. heavy flint glass prism, P, is
filled with parallel light admitted by it. The now refracted beam
falls upon the mirror, M, (the use of this mirror is necessitated
by the narrowness of the room) which is silvered upon its anterior
surface. This mirror reflects the beam through the achromatic
lens, £3, (similar in all respects to LZ, except that D,’s focal distance
"is 24”),
The lens, L;, brings the refracted beam to a focus upon the double
slit, S,, (not shown in Figs. 1 and 2, but shown separately in
Fig. 3) in a series of colored images of S,. The solar lines are
plainly visible and serve as a guide in the selection of particular
wave lengths. The apparatus can be so arranged (by revolving
M, upon its axis) that these lines shall coincide with definite mm.
divisions of the slit.®
In order that this double slit may be more easily understood, the
following description is given: Fig. 3 shows the slit horizontally.
The sharply outlined spectrum falls upon the polished surface of
the slit between 0 on the SC scale, and 0 on the SC, scale. Two
selected portions of the spectrum pass out between the knife edge
*For example, the Na line can be made to fall upon 3 of the scale SC, ete.
Watson, Color Vision in Monkeys. 7
openings, J-J,, and J,-J,. The width of these openings is controlled
by means of the micrometer screw system Cal, HS, K, B, the mechan-
ism of which is well known (i. e., turning Cal, e. g., forces the nut,
K, backwards or forwards as the case may be and consequently the
edge of the jaw at J advances or recedes from J/,).
The two small jaws, J; and J2, must be moved by hand. They are
held in place (i. e., in the grooved track of the slit) by means of
a small bowed spring. Since they are cut accurately to fit the
track in which J and /, slide, they are held firmly in vertical posi-
tion by means of the spring. If it is desired to have the opening,
J-J,, admit some other part of the spectrum, the apparatus easily
permits it. Suppose we desire to have the opening at 6 instead of
at 3.65, as it stands in the diagram (see relation of scale SC to
index J). We turn the screw, Cal, until J falls at 6. The small
jaw, J,, is then pushed up flush against J. J is then pushed
forward, carrying J, with it for whatever, width of slit is desired ;
J is then backed again to 6. This leaves the opening, J-J,, in its
new position optically perfect. By means of the micrometer screw
head this distance is made accurate to 1/1000 mm. This would
leave a much wider space at 0 than before. This variable opening
at 0 is closed with a strip of black cardboard. Four tiny points,
D, Pi. Po» Pz, On the jaws, J, and Jo, facilitate this.”
The position of this slit in the system can be inferred from an
examination of Fig. 2: L, of Fig. 1 is shown on the right in Fig.
92; S, is at the focus of this lens, 24” distant. The two small
vertical mirrors, M, and M,, placed at an angle of 45° so as to form
a horizontal V (with apex directed towards S, and midway between
the two openings) serve to catch the two selected beams (e. g., red
and green) issuing from the openings, J-J, and J-,J, of S, and to
reflect them to the mirrors, M, and M, respectively. These latter
two mirrors in turn reflect the two beams in a parallel way down
the room to the screEN. The width between these two mirrors
can be adjusted to any desired distance. Since the rays as they
issue from the openings of S. are diverging, we have a broad, diffuse,
™The slots, Sl and SJ, serve to admit bolts for attaching slit as a whole
permanently in its vertical position.
Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
N
— | B J i
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COLOR VISION IN MONKEYS
JOHN B. WATSON
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THY JOURNAL OF ComPaRATIVH NBUROLOGY AND PsycHOLOGY.—Vou, RIK, Nov 1:
,; Hi
te haa
Watson, Color Vision in Monkeys.
Fie. 5.
10 Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
faint band of red and of green light on the screen. In order to
intensify and sharply define the bands on the screen, two small
achromatic lenses, L, and L;, are interposed in the pathways of
the two beams, #& and G respectively. These two lenses are of short
focal length (6”). They project sharply defined and enlarged
images of the two openings of S, upon the sereen (marked rED
and GREEN in the diagram). These images are about 7” in height
and 114” in width. .
Four reversing mirrors, RM, are used in order to reverse the
right and left positions of the two beams. These mirrors revolve
in a vertical plane. They are mounted in bearings in such a way
that the small weights, Wgt, pull them back to the 45° position
whenever the cords, CRM, are slackened, as in the diagram. These
cords are jointly fastened to a rod at X. A single forward pull
upon this rod brings all four mirrors to the 180° position, in which
position they no longer intercept the two beams.
A glance at the apparatus will show that when, e. g., the red is
on the left, the reversing mirrors have to intercept the beam; when
it is on the right, they no longer intercept it and the beam is
reflected directly from the mirror, M,, to the screen. It is clear
from this that the absolute intensity of the two bands is slightly
less in the “reversed position” than in the normal. But this redue-
tion occurs in both bands equally.8 In order to compensate for
this reduction, a vertical sliding bar, SB, is placed in the pathway
of the beams. 1” x 2” windows are eut in this bar at the points
where the beams impinge upon it. One half of each: window is
“All the mirrors in the system are silvered on the anterior surface. They
are kept highly polished by the use of “jewelers’ rouge.” When not in use,
they are kept covered with silk handkerchiefs. The absorption of the light
consequently is kept constant and at a minimum.
[Since the mirrors used in the apparatus are a source of a great deal of
trouble and care and since their use causes a certain variation in the absolute
‘intensity of the light, effort was made to find a substitute for them. After
some experimentation it was found that total reflection prisms could be
made to separate the beams, to space them properly, and finally to reverse
them. In addition the dark room at Hopkins is large enough to accommodate
the apparatus without the use of the mirror, M,, behind the large prism.
The whole apparatus is now “self-maintaining” and completely constant so
far as the absorption of the light is concerned. ]
Watson, Color Vision in Monkeys. en
left open, the other half is covered with a sufficient number of
strips of plate glass to compensate for the absorption of the reversing
mirrors. To one end of this bar a spring is attached. When this
spring operates alone, the bar is held in such position that the
beams of light have to pass through the open halves of the windows.
A eord, CSB, runs from the opposite end of the bar around to the
rod at XY, which controls the mirrors. Pulling upon this cord
brings the sliding bar forward to such a position that the beams
have to fall upon the halves of the openings which are covered
by the plate glass. This bar is made to work synchronously with
the mirrors in such a way that when the reversing mirrors are “out”
the plate glass windows are “in” and vice versa. A simple forward
pull or a release of the rod at VY adjusts both mirrors and bar. This
compensatory device was used in certain of the control tests described
below (all of the red-green), but since many trials showed that the
reactions of the animals were not altered by its insertion or removal,
its use was discontinued.?
Behind the opaque screen, there is a vertically placed 12” x 24”
pane of acid ground glass (acid ground is less granular than common
ground glass; milk glass would have been used, could it have been
obtained). The moment the screen is raised by pulling upon H,
the two bright-colored bands (surfaces) appear. Immediately behind
each of these bands (they are 8” apart)'® a hole is cut in the plat-
form to admit the food-boxes shown in Fig. 4. A glass partition,
GP, set in a low wooden base serves to keep the animal from opening
both food-boxes at once. It also serves to force the animal to go
clearly to the right or to the left and to keep a position habit from
forming."
*"However, if one were working with two colors approximately equal in
intensity to the animal, it might very well happen that this change in absolute
intensity would, owing to possible onset of the Purkinje phenomenon, alter the
intensity relation for the animal.
»This distance depends upon the distance of M, from M,.
“Before this partition was at hand, one monkey, whose records are not
given, went always to the right, then down the screen of ground glass to the
left until he came to the box which contained the food.
i) ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Mernop or ConrroLiting THE INTENSITY OF THE Two Licuts.
The diagrams (Figs. 1 and 2) show that the absolute intensity
of the entire spectrum may be changed by opening or closing the
slit S,. Since the present tests are not concerned with faint or
weak spectra (as such), the width of this slit, as has been stated,
was kept constant and as wide as was possible still to permit a
sharply defined spectrum at S,. The intensity of the two selected
bands can be altered separately in two ways: By attaching an iris
diaphragm (or better, possibly, an Aubert) to each of the two
projecting lenses, 1, and LZ, or by the use of an episcotister.
In the experiments here reported, the intensity of the red and
of the green was controlled by the use of the iris diaphragm, while
that of the blue and of the yellow was controlled by the episcotister.
The chief objection to the diaphragm lies in the fact that the width
of the band changes slightly when the diaphragm is opened or closed.
By an oversight, the spectroscopic reading was taken only when the
diaphragm was completely open. It was my intention to return
to the red-green discrimination during the summer months when
it was possible to obtain sunlight, and to use both the diaphragm
and the episcotister, but I found that the time at my disposal did
not permit this. Accordingly, all the red-green tests reported below
were made with the are-as a source; and all changes in intensity
of the two bands were made by means of the diaphragm (in table
of constants, e. g., “red maximum” was obtained by a wide open
5S
diaphragm, “red minimum” by a fixed pinhole opening in the
diaphragm). On the other hand, all changes in intensity in the
blue-yellow tests were made by means of the episcotister. In the
present state of color photometry, it is desirable to have some check
upon photometric readings. The episcotister furnishes such a check
by allowing us to increase or decrease in a constant way the angular
opening through which the beam is allowed to pass. In the present
work, the episcotister proved eminently satisfactory. In the table
of constants given below, the maximum yellow, e. g., was the normal
intensity of the beam as it came from S,; the minimum yellow was
the intensity of the beam after it had been interrupted by the
episcotister, set with a 30° opening (15° on each side). The angle
Watson, Color Vision in Monkeys. 13
of 30° was chosen as the minimum after several preliminary trials.
It was desirable to keep the minimum intensity of any beam always
well over the human threshold. Any smaller angle did not permit
this, with sunlight as the source. That this minimum was also well
above the animal’s (reaction) threshold was tested in the following
way: The episcotister, set at the minimum (30°), was allowed to
interrupt the blue; the yellow was cut out at S, and the animal
tested at XY in the ordinary way. When the screen was raised, only
the blue band appeared. As a result, it was found in every case
that the animal followed the hight regardless of its right or left posi-
tion. The blue was then cut out at S, and the yellow interrupted,
with similar results. There is the possibility, however, that the
minimum intensity was over the ‘brightness limen’ but not over
the ‘color limen.’ This objection cannot be met until extended
threshold tests have been made.
In conducting such experiments in the future, the following pro-
cedure will be adopted: first, during the formation of the associa-
tion, an episcotister opened to the maximum (320°) will interrupt
each beam continuously during all tests;'* second, after the associa-
tion has been established, the control tests will be made with the
two episcotisters set at any desired angle; third, the iris diaphragm
will be used as an additional control.®
The episcotister was run at a very high rate of speed. As a
test as to whether the beams were uniform for the animal, the screen
2In duplicating the apparatus at Hopkins, the motor and the two episcotisters
were mounted upon a small revolving table. This table is so arranged that a
pull on a cord (at X, Fig. 2, where the experimenter sits) will interchange
the positions of the two episcotisters, thus making it possible to have the
animal on the one trial react, e. g., to “minimum red,’ “maximum green,”
and on the next to “maximum red,” “minimum green.”
8Tt will be remembered that there are three common ways in which intensity
in the physiological sense can be altered: (1) by decreasing the amplitude
of the ether waves of the beam which falls upon a given retinal area (increas-
ing distance of source) ; (2) by lessening density of beam (use of diaphragms,
ete.) ; (3) by interrupting beam (episcotister). In order to test whether the
physiological effect, e. g., of distancing the source of the beam is the same
as interrupting it, it is desirable to make changes in intensity by employing
all three methods. The desirability of the use of the episcotister and dia-
. phragm has been assumed in the present work.
14 ‘“fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
was sometimes raised before the episcotister had gained full speed.
The flickering ght never failed to frighten the animals. They
would never leave my shoulder to make a choice until the lights
appeared perfectly steady to my own eyes.
Mertuop or Dererminine Invrensiry oF ILLUMINATION OF
Mownocuromatic Banps.
After vainly trying to obtain a photometric reading of the minimal
intensity of the monochromatic bands,!4 with a photometer based
upon the Joly principle, I finally, on the advice of Professor
Milliken, abandoned the photometer and had resort to the simple
apparatus, the ground plan of which is shown in Fig. 5. In the
diagram, V is a band of monochromatic light visible upon the
ground glass surface. C is a white surface (bristol-board; plaster-
paris is preferable) equal in width to V, which reflects light to
the prism, P, from a source the intensity, and distance from C' of
which, is known. P is a 90° prism silvered on the two surfaces
which reflect the images of V and C into the eye at H. The distances
from V to P and from C to P are equal, 15.5 cm. The distance
from P to EF is 20 em. The total distance from 2 to V approx-
imately equals the distance of the color from the eye of the monkey
when he reaches the partition GP in Fig. 2 and makes his choice as
evidenced by his going to the right or to the left of the partition (the
monkey B. often stopped at this point and turned his head first to
the right, then to the left, ete., before finally making his choice).
The photometric determinations were made in a dark-room under
conditions as nearly as possible like those under which the animal
reacts. The eye was dark-adapted (15 to 30 minutes). A com-
fortable position was taken with the eye at H so that a clear reflected
image of V appeared. An assistant then lighted a standard electric
light which was screened from the observer’s eye by the opaque
screen, OS, and mounted it upon the board, B, which was graduated
in em. The distance of this light was varied until the observer at
HL judged the two lights to be equal. The judgments made under
“They are not really sources in the technical sense, but surfaces.
Watson, Color Vision in Monkeys. 15
these conditions are introspectively similar to those made with an
ordinary photometer. The images of V and C appear side by
side, with no dividing surface between. Six judgments for each
change in the intensity of the band were made, three ascending and
three descending, and the results averaged.
The units in which the results below are given are ‘“hefner-
> In other words, the apparatus measures the “intensity
meters.’
of illumination” of the variable surface, V, in terms of C, the ‘“‘in-
tensity of illumination” of which can be ealeulated from the for-
mula:
ee
r
(@= 45° in all cases; r is read directly from the scale of B).
The following table of constants gives the wave lengths of the
four bands used in the present work and their “intensity of illumina-
tion”’ under the various conditions.
TABLE OF CONSTANTS.
é |
Standard White)
Designation of Variable Light. Light. Average Distance from C. Hefner-Meters.
1. Max. Sun. Yellow LGSesip: 49.8 + 2.8 cm. 56.33
2. Min. ae os Hefner 294418 ‘ 8.18
‘ Max. ss Blue GRE: 84.6 + 3.4 “ 19.51
4. Min. te ne Hefner 46.8 + 2.5 “ BES
5. Max. Arc Yellow 5) ©; 10: 810+ 4.0 “ 6.65
6. - Blue 5) © 19). 128.0 + 2.8 “ 2.665
Ue a ch Green ONCan: 86.0 + 5.2 “ 5.90
8 ue ad Red 5 ¢. p. 72.0 + 4.0 “ 8.42
9 Whi, Green | Hefner _— 130.0 + 3.6 “ .418
10. Min. Bt Red ot 69.0 + 2.8 ‘ 1.485
WiptH or MonocHromatic Banps.'®
Red = A 6485 — 5790.
Yellow = 2» 5750 — 5600.
Green = A 5250 — 4825.
Blue = A 4800 — 4650.
*’The angle 6 refers to the angle at which the light from the source falls
upon the cardboard C. 5
“These are broad spectral bands, mutually exclusive, but not ‘“monochro-
matic’ in the sense in which the physicists use that term.
\
16 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Merruop or PRESENTING THE STIMULI.
The animals were carried from their living room to the dark-
room, and allowed to remain there for two or three minutes. I
3-27 6 0 100 ee | he os
3-28 6 | 0 100 i | ot Ss
3-29 6 0 100 A | ss ow
3-30 6 0 100 oe a |
3-31 5 1 83 e ee aes
4-1 5 0 100 ee Se emir
4-2 5 1 83 Scam ameacaT XN peact
4-5 | 5 1 Soe oie ae es hoe ts
4-6 6 0) 100 | an | a | ve
Ts 5 1 | g3 | “ | “ | “
| i
B—With Stimulus Variable.
4-8 0 100 Are | Min. Max. |
4-9 9 3 75 7 Misr a |
4-10 12 &} 80 | = Min. oe
4-11 8 1 89 | ae oe oo
4-12 14 2 Si 5) G ni
4-13 12 4 TED Wilt ete ss ‘« | Animal very hungry.
4-14 9 i 90 oe | Max. Min.
4-16 8 4 66.6 ee aN eabe ‘* | Fed too much.
4-17 9 1 90 Be ewe sone
4-19 5 1 83 gob ili ue en
-~ Change in intensity made in middle
4-19 6 0 1000) | Min. | Max.) | of series.
4-20 14 0 100 | S K* %
4-22 9 1 90 ee | ~ se
4-23 7 2 TEL sane eV siexcs Min.
4-26 13 0 100 he E Max.
4-27 12 1 92 Max. | Min. | Only lower half of red exposed.
*E designates subjective quality.
The above tests were continued from April 27th to May 28th. An average of from 85-90 per cent
of correct choices was maintained throughout the whole period. In these last tests, all variations in
the presentation of the stimuli which could be thought of were introduced, such as presenting the
red on the right and left alternately, red twice on right, once on left, then three times on right and
three on left, ete. On account of the position error erftering into B’s reactions, he was fully one
month behind J. Since it was desirable to keep J in practice, he was put through all the control
tests with B.
24 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
TABLE II.
H’s Reactions TO ReD-GREEN
A—With Stimulus Constant.
Dat Red. | Green. |Per Cent-| source Intensit Remarks
Elite : * | Correct. ye | aS
|
| Red. | Green. |
3-18 0 Ca as) Are | Max. | Max. |
3-19 1 3 25 Samet | eo 3
3-20 9: 4 33.3 oe ss tae
3-21 0 6 0) ie a os
3-22 4 2 66.6 4 oe
3-23 1 5 16.6 oe ts i
3-24 4 2 (Sd af ue
3-25 3 3 50 oe a3 Hy
3-26 4 2 66.6 4 a9 oa
3-27 4 2 (Aa) || = a
3-28 3 3 50 eee us Si
3-29 5 1 83 Uy of a
3-30 3 3 50 Ss oy Of
3-31 6 0 100 ey 7. sss Disturbance in general physical con-
dition of animal for several days.
| Position error became noticeable
when tests were again started with
animal, 5 days later, animal going
| always to left. This error persisted
until May 4. In the interim 6-10
trials per day were given. ‘The in-
troduction of a partition broke up
error.
5- 4 8 el 89 a i Hi
5- 5 8 1 89 i a a :
B—With Stimulus Variable.
5- 6 6 0 100 Are Max. Min.
5- 8 8 2 80 ipa ia PES eal | Waa ie
5- 9 8 2 80 er He | i
5-10 8 2 80 23 ie ae
5-11 10 1 90 a a “y
5-12 8 2: 80 e e -
5-13 10 2, 83 ve eS st
5-14 9 1 90 ue es fie
5-15 9 1 90 a3 = oa
5-17 13 1 93 mie so me
5-18 6 1 86 oe ey | ‘* )| Change in intensity made in middle of
5-18 7 0 100 a EK. | Max.) series.
5-19 11 (0) 100 ag 2 S
5-20 u 5 58.3 we re os Animal too hungry; all 5 errors made
in succession.
5-21 11 1 91 ie si os
5-22 14 2 87 6 Min e
5-23 9 1 90 ee es tS
5-24 9 1 90 “oe “ce oe
5-25 16 0 100 - Max Min. |
5-26 | 15 2 88 oa ue a Only lower half of red exposed.
RO |) 1 4 75) a 13% 5 | Red 4 as wide as green.
5-28 | 12 0 100 a Min. Perl eT as ie
|
Watson, Color Vision in Monkeys. 25
TABLE III.
B’s Reactions TO RED-GREEN.
B was given test for test with J (see J’s record) with similar averages up to March 25th. Notice-
able position error began to appear which grew steadily worse. This error, as in H’s case, was
finally eliminated by the introduction of the glass partition. The error persisted for fifty-one
days. Ten to twelve trials were given per day during this entire period.
A—With Stimulus Constant.
Per Cent.
|
Date. | Red. | Green. Gorrect! | Source Intensity. Remarks.
| [fd SS ee ee ee ee ee ere SS) ee — —
| |
Red | Green.
5-15—5-20 Held 90 Are Max. Max. | This average will serve as_ basis for
¥ ay'age : | comparison with those in Ba
B—With Stimulus Variable.
— ~ ‘se = = . ——es — =
Pore ies 93 Are | E. | Max.
5-22 14 2; 87 re ie | Ss
5-23 13 1 93 a Min oe
5-25 15 1 94 | mn Max Min.
5-26 15 2 88 SS ce of Only lower half of red exposed.
5-27 12 2 85 a er te Half vertical strip of red shown. Ani-
| | mal frightened.
26 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
TABLE IV.
J’s REAcTIONS TO BLUE-YELLOW.
A—With Stimulus Constant.
Date. | Blue. | Yellow Fete eeut Source Intensity. Remarks.
| | ]
Blue. | Yellow
7-14 4 aa i) 90) | Are Max. | Max.
7-15 6 4 | 60 | My a i
7-16 8 3 Uae) = me Se
eile) 9 4 Olea ees a 00
7-18 12 5 71 ys! os aS |
7-19 10 HW ioG ae iG sf
7-20 17 8 68 | o vy | “
7-21 12 1 92 fs Me | i
7-22 12 2 86 Ko ee ff
7-23 | 13 2 8&6 a a }
7-24 11 0 100 a Me ss
7-26 16 6 as oes Te) Diam eae Disturbing noise.
7-27 18 5 78 Sun- os fae
| light.
7-28 14 1 93 | Are 2 s
7-29 15 Ae | Oma \eSun= es me
| light.
7-30 | 17 4) gi: | Are “s is
7-31 14 3 82 | Sun- a “
| | light.
8= 1 15 3 83 op re es
3- 4 13 1 | 93 | oe “ “oe
8- 5 13 3 81 | a se He
eT Sig) 1 OS eal ot m2 %
8- 7 18 2 90 } a rs ne
B—With Stimulus Variable.
|
8-8 12 1 | 92 Sun- | Max. | Min.
light
8-10 18 2 90 He HD oe
8-12 17 6 74 Are a Max.
S213) || rots 1 | 94 | Sun- vs as
light
8-15 | 8 4 GHG | = } ce ss Monkey growing very careless. I
| | | | pulled him back vigorously so as to
| | | punish when errors were made, hop-
| | ing thereby to obtain a more careful
choice.
8-16 Min. blue was thrown in for the first time. Monkey was entirely confused. After jerking
him back vigorously for several trials, he began to go always over to left, out of range of beam;
then, after remaining still for a moment, he would suddenly thrust out his paw to open left-hand
box regardless of color exposed there. I tried in many ways to overcome this position error, even
to the extent of allowing him to react as in the beginning, to max. yellow and blue with no changes,
but the error was not overcome in the time at my disposal.
Watson, Color Vision in Monkeys. 27
TABLE V.
H’s Reacrions TO BLuE- YELLOW.
A—With Stimulus Constant.
Date. Blue. Yellow ieee: Source Intensity. Remarks.
= 2 | acre ESS Se Th Pate
| Blue. | Yellow
a ; 2 60 Are Max. | Max.
7T- 5 44 oe ae oe
7-16 4 8 Bey eB) oe oe | +e
7-17 10 10 50 a = x
7-18 8 3 73 is . | >
7-19 4 4 | 50 | ae oe oe
720 1. 5 | 58 | oe oe oe
(ot 8 6 57 oe oe ae
as 2 | 11 | 5 69 “ec sé 6
T=93~ | 11 6 65 “e “ec “6
7-24 | 12 33 80 ag | wy ~
7-26 | 12 3 80 a a | 4
7-27 | 18 5 | 78 | Sun |“ “s
| | ight. |
=2Ruie 29 6 | 60 Are us “s
7-29 | 15 4 | 79 | sue 2 =
| light
7-30 | 14 2 Sigor ||) eAne ‘ a
7-31 | 14 4 78 Sur - “a First 3 choices wrong.
| light
8- 1 | iP? if 92 1 ae ae
8- 2 | 17 2 90 s a Me 2
= sit ali 5 69 es ss * Made very angry by being jerked back
aes | ae on errors.
i 2 | 86 lgeres “ “
cE Gea 3 85 ‘: as “oe
8— Tf 10 | 0 100 oe ae ae |
| qreelie tt ems | E
B—With, Stimulus Variable.
OS | oak 0 | 100 Sun- | Max. | Min.
| light. |. |
8-10 | 14 OF} 100 hj See or locas
8-12 | 10 10) 100 }) Are: 7 Be Max.
8-13 15 0 100 Sun | - f
light. |
8-14 | 10 1 | 90 | 1g “ on
8-16 | 21 5* si | ee PAN? alle 1 ee A
8-16 | 8 Oo | 100 ee Max. | Min. || Changes in intensity made in midst of
| | | | eries
| | series.
S16) = 8) 4 89 | aes Mier:
eye I Te | 2 86 ie Pe ae Changes in intensity made in midst of
| 5
8-17 | 13 2 Son The Min. aaifleesericssmm ;
8-18 8 0 100 mene Vlas: Me Half vertical strip of blue shown.
8-18 8 0 100 ae come seers Lower half of blue shown.
8-19 10 0 100 ze ~ | o
8-20 15 0 100 | De Te ei kL ya Pa fete Surface value of colors altered by past-
ing tissue paper over glass.
*T wo of the five errors were made when the sun was overcast.
28
Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
TABLE VI.
B’s REAcTIONS TO BLUE-YELLOW.
A—With Stimulus Constant.
: Per Cent
Date. | Blue. ‘Yellow Garredt: Source _—_— Intensity. Remarks.
| | | Blue. | Yellow
7-14 | 2 3 40 Are Max. | Max.
7-15 6 | 4 60 4 os *
7-16 | U | 3 70 se as He
(17 8 4 66.6 “ so a
TAS) || #IG | 8 2 89 se et
7-19 PAR} 0 100 ~ rie on
7-20 18 | 2 90 Se ~ io
(EON UE Tl 93 fe z os
(22 2 | 1 92 w Ke ae
(POR) I) le Mec us ot a
7-24 ils} | 0 100 on oe Se
7-26 | 12) | 2 87 se we .
1-27 18 2 90 Sun- oy eee
light.
7-28 17 5 Ue Are ae : Change to fainter spectrum seemed to
| be noticed.
7-29 15) 2 88 Sun- ce we
light.
7-30 14 Ons eLOO Are ne -
7-31 14 0 100 Sun- oS af
light.
Gai 9 0 | 100 zs of 26
8- 4 13 1 93 7 on Sa
mole ih Wy 0 | 100 “ “ i
B—With Stimulus Variable.
= ts) 4) — ila! 0 100 Sun- | Max. | Min.
light. |
8-10 16 1 94 sy os oe
8-12 | 13 0 100 | Are s | Max.
8-13 15 (0) 100 | Sun- ay o
| 1 ght
8-15 10 OPP 00 | oS ae tg
8-15 13 Sy i, fehl es Min Oe By mistake on this day the episcotister,
set in the tests on the other animals
usually with a 30° opening, was
closed to 10°. The animal dashed to
the yellow on his first two trials, then
| became steady and made only one
| more error in the series. Filmy clouds
were passing over the sun and at
times the blue was barely over my
own threshold.
8-16 17 1 94 os ae ea)
8-16 8 0 | 100 > Max ““ || Changes in intensity made in midst of
series.
8-16 5 0 100 | Min ni f
8-16 | 8 0 100" |) | Max: 4) “Min:)
8-17 17 ) |) ilofo [tates Min. | Max.
8-17 | 17 OF 100 | - Max | Min. | | Changes in intensity made in midst of
series.
8-17 14 (0) 100 re ne Max.
8-18 8 0 100 | es a : Half vertical strip of yellow shown.
8-18 8 0) 100 ey ee 5S el ie Half vertical strip of blue shown.
S=(gn 5 10 0 100 a) ws a of
= Oe OF too Ne ee ae st Surface value altered by pasting tissue
paper over surface of ground glass.
THE
Introduction—Purposes of this study—Acknowledgements
Description of sounds made by the blond ring-dove, and accompanying
EXPRESSIONS OF EMOTION IN THE PIGEONS.
I. THE BLOND RING-DOVE (Turtur risorius).
BY
WALLACE CRAIG.
From the Department of Zoology of the University of Chicago.
WitH ONE PLATE.
CONTENTS.
TINOV EMT SMES bese secre genic actopewars tel’ rotates ov cube caval RCE uae re ER eatin
Prefatory remarks
Ear RL OT CON opecten sino cane rite haste Parcrehe ays Chey ee cieVion. ala oC RAGE eT hie Ok RAST
DMR Oa Taleestereweneerecrsiaw ens rove tetencuces vey seas Se toate aT bs Oca Pe eres Seo ee
Spee AGL ATI TM aascersigstenel ogee Re) cua se iets ogee AR fe A) iiss ls Ni era RS oe Mere oar ad see
4. Cry intermediate between the alarm and the kah............
Sys) LEANN IREUI estsregeattrre OU s ORE R OUR ONE CU CRCRRE RRR ETCLEr Sr che EMEP Or
(Ci eRe kordineamryelcale warrelscts omits eee sane eee
Gill) ethesicalh=of-ExGibemienttins,. ar «suerte: tess cea coe) eee
Gel) Pe hines copula OMmanO ler tee ani eicetemcwncee ein eee
GSR CIT ATO CMe Stereos aes, orca tey elec orig teow ane Sn eisai cite aueven bom iatcew coo Sens an
7. Parent’s call when ready to feed the young...................
8. Cry
intermediate between the kah and the coo................
GRATER COO Rr ererrteat ero he eee or meet Sl coay atin: TORTS Oi ae Bub ako a wo eee
(Op) SeeRhesmerch=cooworstuherson gaara eee eee
(GLeT) FN eR GO wall = COO. es toxcye iss ortole cre veveuciceaie enone, eee
(GETS) Pe Rh eynes t= Calley eyes cs essen o chcla shotskerntercee ts Secor ie
ikeshistorvaomwuheblondering-dovenarrs a: 2 asc cease aaeeeeee erica
ASCSM TMIN OO une miewemGlew han octane ineinnrene
DEevelopmentiOk WHERVOUNG Arce cas eon oer erten
1 02) a) esl OSA RES CRT Oe Chee MeN RCROISTa Cicero orc ice a oie
THeEACHANe EVOL VOUCC aia ces sirens e naetevalene el meenioieie takers
HitSteappearancemotuilencOOmaeracii erence
IGauslevenves Or Olol lobrigoonodosodoodpoccoscocboaacece
Hi Waley(el iW te uetnee Me cuhoricr eRe Co OO AatO.Oroiche cto Chae
SWIMM Cre Ghenaoy oes Sooonogoscannceuavccugear
. Beginning of 2 g AlvCy. Clee recy cre noe ie oe
B.’ Beg g of the annual cycl
L/ororb oven ao linden bol cence emIsnG casicia cora'e.o oto pio oe aero 6 Dance
CYS BecinminerorwheWrooducy cles emcee eee
Copulation, nest-building, and egg-laying.............
IDS MUTE Rik xen ole een mre ier eomicectard pencick! do cla ab acy aoe
Changinesplaceston the; mestc rs crsnsrteic) waiersreieeae ys
Cz hem bRoodney.cle COnuUNIECOm demo eee en einer
Incubation, brooding, and preparation for a new brood
ON OO Cucina
First appearance of the cries of the adult: the alarm-note and
o 0 6 6 6 0 8:0
THE JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.—VoL, XIX, No. 1.
30 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Ble’ The seasonalvey.cle; scombimilediierasrarieractereieis oiehss ysrelere eno eieieione ks)
The lapse of brooding and loss of voice at the end of the breed-
INS SEASON: 552. Eee ciene Oecactsnenso ce etelene ee lelenee hantial sae tayo tomea narelnlegeneas 7S
A's Theclite: cycle; comune dee ereeereeicicee te oleeueruc ici cucicteisrsrereienel renin: 7S
Thesprime of lite amdkoldlase ss ceqaryevccs euevsroaie roy yeas chiens iter 7S
Summaryof the life-history cessor ae iac cero omnis tet) ters) suai Tis
INTRODUCTION.
This study of the behavior of pigeons was undertaken seven years
ago with intention—first, to describe the various sounds produced
by one type species of pigeon, and the bodily movements which in-
variably accompany the utterance of the sounds; second, to compare
these with the sounds and movements of all the species in Professor
Whitman’s large collection of living pigeons; third, to throw light
upon any problems which seemed naturally to connect with the study
as it progressed. The present paper is drawn up to fulfill the first
of these intentions. It is a descriptive account of the vocal and
bodily expressions of emotion in one species chosen as a type. It
may make this first paper more valuable if I indicate briefly the
nature of the work by which it is to be followed. The following is a
brief outline of the whole.
1. Description of the vocal and bodily expressions of emotion in
the blond ring-dove. Life-history of this species, in so far as it
concerns the use of voice and accompanying gesture (present paper).
2. Comparison of the sounds and gestures of different species;
showing specific characteristics, homologies, and the possibility of
voice and gesture throwing light on problems of phylogeny.
3. Inheritance. The forms of expression in pigeons are strictly he-
reditary. They are not learned by imitation (copying). In hybrids
the voice is intermediate, except when it is imperfectly developed.
4. Variation. Comparative study shows that the vocal utter-
ances vary from group to group in a manner indicating determinate
or orthogenetie variation.
5. Selection. Pigeons are subject to sexual selection of a kind
more or less like that described by Hacker. But the theory of
Hicker, Valentin. Der Gesang der V6gel. Jena, 1900. Hiicker’s state-
ment is an improvement upon that of Groos, in his “Die Spiele der Thiere,”
Jena, 1896.
Craic, Expressions of Emotion in Pigeons. 2a
sexual selection takes account of only a fragment of the great utility
of the voice. Voice and gesture are of prime importance through
all the cycles of the life-history. This is shown, but not at all fully
explained, in the present paper. It is somewhat further shown in the
following (No. 6).
6. Socrology. A preliminary account of the sociologie interpre-
tation of pigeon behavior has already been published.?
7. Psychology. The psychologic conclusions are so numerous
and so intimately connected with the details of description, that it
is impracticable to summarize them in this place.
My indebtedness to Professor Whitman is so evident from begin-
ning to end of the paper that there is no need to speak of its details.
I wish, however, to acknowledge in gratitude the two chief debts I
owe to him. In the first place, Professor Whitman knows the
emotions, the voices, and the gestures of the pigeons very much better
than I do; he has told me a great many facts about the birds which
my more limited experience has not afforded; and he has always
given helpful answers to my questions as to what a bird is thinking
about when it does a certain act. In the second place, more im-
portant than the facts, I owe much to Professor Whitman for the
influence of his spirit of research. Enthusiasm and steadiness of
labor, sympathetic insight into the animal mind,. patience with details,
yet a constant reference to general problems, I hope I have learned
to some degree. I wish to express grateful obligations also to the
University of Chicago and to the Marine Biological Laboratory at
Woods Hole, especially for that freedom which allows a student to
develop his own ideas.
DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS AND ACCOMPANYING MOVEMENTS.
Preratory Remarks.
There is among scientists a widespread impression that bird-songs
are not susceptible of accurate description. But this impression is
*The voices of pigeons regarded as a means of social control. The American
Journal of Sociology, Vol. 14, 1908, pp. 86-100.
\
2 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
certainly erroneous, at least so far as the utterances of pigeons are
concerned. It may be granted that the qualities (timbres) and the
intensities of sounds cannot be accurately determined outside of the
physical laboratory; but in this respect the qualities and intensities
of sounds are not very different from shades of color, feeling to the
fingers, and many such vague impressions which are used in so-called
accurate description. Those features of sounds which have to do with
pitch and with time, on the other hand, are as susceptible of accurate
description as are the forms and dimensions of visible organs.
It must be remembered, too, that for the purpose of comparative
study, a description need not go minutely into every detail. This
study is to include a comparison of each utterance of the ring-dove
with other utterances of the same bird, and with corresponding utter-
ances of the opposite sex, of the young, and of different species. For
all of these comparisons it suffices to have a general knowledge of
each utterance as regards timbre and intensity and an accurate
knowledge of each as regards pitch and time.
For the study of expression, on the contrary, it is desirable that
intensity and timbre, in addition to the other two sets of characteris-
tics, be measured with extreme accuracy. Such a work of measure-
ment, for one species of pigeon alone, would involve years of labor;
indeed, such work is just beginning to be done, and its methods are
just beginning to be developed, even for the human voice.* Hence
we must be content for the present to describe the changes of ex-
pression in the dove’s voice by means of non-quantitative musical
signs and popular language; and though these means of description
are broad and indefinite, they are full of meaning, and may convey
a good idea of expression.
There is only one point in which I have found it necessary to
depart in any way from the regular musical notation. That point
concerns the glide, or portamento. Pigeons’ notes very commonly
glide with absolute continuity from one pitch to another. I have
not been able to find any convenient musical sign which indicates such
a glide, as distinct from a mere legato; hence, I have adopted the
*. W. Scripture. The Elements of Experimental Phonetics. New York,
1902, pp. xvi + 627, Pl. xxvi.
Craic, Expressions of Emotion in Pigeons. 33
double slur, thus,
which must always be understood to mean a perfect glide, or porta-
mento.
1. Srimence.
Many birds, especially among the Oscines, are uttering some sound
continually, being silent only when they are asleep. For example,
the various species of American blackbird (as, Quiscalus, Agelaius)
repeat their “chuck” so frequently, both while flying and while perch-
ing, that the presence of a flock is always made known to the ear at
a considerable distance. The Fringillide, similarly, are ever repeat-
ing a short “chip” or “chirrup.” But the ring-dove has no such
incessantly repeated note. ‘The dove’s notes are voiced only when
prompted by some form of excitement. When engaged in any non-
social occupation, such as eating, drinking, preening its feathers, or
merely resting, the ring-dove is silent. And when on the wing, even
in the midst of excitement, the blond ring-dove never utters any sound,
except on rare occasions (only one occasion within my experience)
an apparently involuntary grunt. Some other forms of birds even
prostitute their most useful notes to purposes of play. The blue jay
(Cyanocitta cristata), for example, often gives alarming cries when
no danger is near, and seems to enjoy, so far as the limits of avian
intelligence will allow, the consternation which it can thus produce
among its feathered neighbors. But the pigeons, perhaps on account
of their lower grade of intelligence, are incapable of carrying play
to such a point; they never use the alarm-note except when really
alarmed. Certain of the dove’s calls are given at times in a manner
which might be styled half-serious, half-playful; but of the utter-
ances of the adult ring-dove, there is only one (the song, p. 47) which
ever appears to be given and enjoyed purely for, its own sake.
34. ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
De) aac:
In the case of any object threatening or frightening a ring-doyve,
the bird being, for one reason or another, disinclined to turn tail and
flee, it exhibits attitudes and movements of terror and anger which
we may call, for the sake of brevity, the expression of fear. The
reasons why the bird may be disinclined to turn tail are numerous:
it may be young and unable to fly; sick or wounded and hence unable
to effect. a speedy retreat; it may be defending its nest or its mate;
or it may be simply quarreling with a neighbor on equal terms. In
all such cases the dove shows the expression of fear, which is now to
be deseribed ; these cases are to be distinguished from those in which
the dove uses its energies merely to escape and fly away, for then it
shows a very different expression which we call alarm and which
will be described later.
The expression of fear in the ring-dove is not at all peculiar to
the species; it is essentially the same as the expression of fear in all
birds, and very similar to the expression of fear in reptiles and mam-
mals. It consists chiefly in the erection of appendages—bristling
the feathers, spreading the tail, lifting the wings—and in the emission
of threatening sounds. It should be noticed that in the expression
of this emotion all the feathers are raised to the utmost degree; in
sudden fright the tail also is widely spread. The wing nearest to
the feared object is raised and is used to strike with, dealing blows
of great power and of such swiftness that, if a man allows his hand
to be struck at, the hand feels the blow before the eye can see it. In
some cases the near wing alone is raised, but in many cases the two
wings are raised symmetrically. The head is drawn in close to the
body, but is always turned toward the object of fear, ready to deal
blows with the beak. The eye assumes a ferocious glare, utterly
different from its ordinary mild look. This great change in the eye
is caused largely by the following conditions. The eyelids are drawn
back so as to open the eye to the widest limit; such wide-openness
gives a staring appearance to the eye of any creature, and gives to
the eye of the dove an especial glare, by exposing the maximum of
the fiery red iris. The black pupil of the eye also remains large,
not contracting to a pin-point as in the case of some of the other emo-
Craic, Expressions of Emotion in Pigeons. 35
tions. Since the feathers of the head are slightly raised, they swell
out around the eye and give somewhat the effect of a frown. Whether
these changes are sufficient to account for the total change in ex-
pression of the eye, I do not know. The important point, in any
ease, is, that the change in expression of this one important feature
is just as marked as the change in appearance of the bird as a whole.
The sounds emitted under the influence of fear are various. Those
ordinarily given in these circumstances are a hiss and a snapping of
the bill. Both of these, however, are so feeble that they appear to
be but impotent relics of a once powerful snap and hiss. They are
so feeble, indeed, that an observer recognizes them by seeing a pufting
movement and seeing the bill close, rather than by hearing either the
hiss or the snap.
Kah on alighting on perch.
Pitch of the “s” not definitely determined. The ‘a’ is a hard chest-tone,
impure.
Each note begins with the sibilant sound but drops suddenly into
the lower pitch. As the bird grows older the sibilant is reduced more
and more, but many weeks elapse before it has entirely disappeared.
I have observed a slight trace of it in the alarm-note, for example,
at the age of seventeen weeks.
The change of voice is due, no doubt, merely to the development
of the vocal organs, just as it is in the adolescent man. This puts
it on a different plane from the other developmental changes in ex-
pression. The inception of the fear reaction, of the alarm-note, of
the kah, or of the coo, and the changes in the form of the coo, must
be due to the coming into play of fresh tracts and centers in the
nervous system. But the deepening of the voice must be due to
62 Ffournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
‘
changes in the syrinx. Observation of the birds leads me to believe
that they have no control whatever over the breaking of the voice;
it is purely mechanical.
First appearance of the coo.—The first attempts at cooing usually
appear much later than the alarm and the kah. Only in one ease,
in a bird which showed other signs of precocity, did the song originate
on the same day as the kah, the twenty-seventh day. In the nest-
mate of this bird the coo was not heard until the fortieth day; in
another bird not until the forty-seventh day, and not decisively until
the fiftieth day. The first coo is thus very variable in the time of
its appearance. And it is equally variable in its character. The
variable character of the early cooing is shown in this quotation from
my notes. The young bird “takes few hasty steps toward mother on
perch, head directed toward her, giving kah in squeaky voice. He
repeats this about three times, then stands up straight and stiff (in
attitude of male in the up phase of the bowing-coo), then he bows,
down and up several times, making not a sound. He goes through
much the same performance two or three times. Little later he
gives coo in a purely squeaky voice (pitch a”) without bowing.”
In this ease, then, the perch-coo and the bowing-coo apparently ‘de-
veloped at the same time; but, while the perch-coo was audible, the
bowing-coo, if sounding at all, had not passed the threshold of audi-
bility. In many eases, however, I think that the bowing-coo precedes
the perch-coo by a day at least. This was true of the nest-mate of
the bird just referred to: ‘After giving the kah in its squeaky
voice, bird went through bowing motion, roughly, making just a single
short note now and then, pitch 9’, sometimes two notes, with time-
interval between, and second higher than first by one tone or less.”
In another case the first coo was a “perfectly nondescript sound.
Much resembled its attempts at kah, but notes more irregular, some
of them more prolonged.” All these accounts go to show that the
coo at its first appearance is not only variable but extremely imper-
fect. While the alarm-note springs into being perfectly formed,
as it were, and the kah, at its inception, is almost as perfect, the coo,
at first, is an insignificant fragment which does not in the least
suggest the sound it is ultimately to assume. It seems that in those
Craic, Expressions of Emotion in Pigeons. 63
individuals in which the coo appears very late, it is correspondingly
well developed when it does appear.
Development of rhythm and melody.—The modulation of the
alarm-note and of the kah being practically of the adult type from
the very beginning, these utterances exhibit no development in rhythm
or inflection. The coos are the only utterances which go through a
long course of development in modulation.
By the third month, the coo has been extended considerably. There
is a greater number of notes, and the notes are, on an average, of
longer duration. But even at this time the rhythm is so imperfectly
developed, so irregular, that it often bears little resemblance to that
in the adult song. Moreover, the rhythm varies so much, even in
a single series of coos, that one must conclude it is largely accidental.
The following are examples.
NO.3e.
2) Bee eae Se SS I |
| fin, @8 8 GS 6 6 TT (=i
Bh Sree wl ua =o
AN Psa eS aH ~~
™
kukuku kuku uuu
Q 56th day. Nest-call coo.
Time: 5 crotchets per second. Attitude: nest-call. Tune very variable. In
fact, no constant tune at all.
NO.33 A ier ee
ST _ = SEE nS ET ES GS
Y OS, SS Bae ae | OS ie ee SS ee Re
a Al Ve W—mikthweer WA ee eee ee) eee
NU 4; (ej Ee Se AN A Ye Ee) eo ee a SS SS
ka u kur ku ku ku ka iu
NO. 331C:
eS
ka uU kur kau ku
36 82nd day.
Though the coo is so formless at first, it very soon begins to show
the general form of the adult coo. It comes to consist uniformly
64 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
of three notes, and gradually this trisyllable comes to have exactly
the accent, the tone-quality, and the melody of the adult coo. But
even after attaining the trisyllabie form the early coo has three
definite differences from the adult utterance, as follows:
First. The different notes of the coo are separated more in the
young than in the adult, often allowing a considerable rest between.
This fact, together with the general character of the utterance, gives
the impression that the young bird coos with difficulty and at the
expense of considerable effort.
Second. The rolling sound, represented by the letter r, is absent
from the earlest coos, and develops rather slowly, for even when it
does first appear it is a perfunctory performance.
Third. The appendix to the coo, represented by the syllables ‘‘go 0,”
is not given until the age of three or four months, and when it is
first given it is only a monosyllable.
In addition to the three features enumerated, the juvenile coo is
characterized by poverty in the quality of sound and a hurriedness
and lack of all beauty in the inflection. As the bird grows older,
the coo becomes loud, voluminous, and mellow, and acquires a grace-
ful, gliding inflection, which, without changing the general form of
the melody, gives it an entirely new and improved character.
The perch-coo and the bowing-coo develop at an equal rate and
become practically of the adult form at the age of about seventeen
weeks. But at this age the nest-call coo is still decidedly imperfect
(at least in the male). All through the development of voice the
nest-call lags behind the other coos. This is perhaps because the nest-
eall is purely a sexual expression, whereas the other two forms of
coo are used to express emotions which may be developed before
sexual maturity, such as combativeness, or simple good-spirits.
Influence of old birds.—Pigeons, young and old, are extremely
sensitive to suggestion. The young ones often give a certain note
when they hear the parents give it; this is noticed as soon as the first
of the adult cries appears, i. e., the alarm-note. The more the young
hear other birds, the more they eall. Thus the calling of other birds
may lead the young to give a certain sound earlier than they would
give it if left alone. But the young do not imitate the adults, in
Craic, Expressions of Emotion in Pigeons. 65
the sense of copying them, or learning new sounds. The forms of
utterance (herein the pigeons differ from many other birds) are
strictly hereditary.
The charge.—The charge is associated in its development with
the kah, as has already been stated (page 40), and thus appears at
an early age, even at the age of twenty-seven days. The charging
activity in the young, as in the adult, includes chasing another bird,
pecking her (or him), assuming the peculiar horizontal attitude,
progressing by leaps as well as by steps, and uttering the kah (kah-
of-excitement). But each of these acts is at first of a weak and gentle
sort. The charging activity, like the vocal activities, passes through
a prolonged and gradual development before it reaches the form
seen in the adult.
Development of certain other instincts—Since the first attempts
at cooing appear at an age of from twenty-seven to forty-seven days,
it might seem that they are too early to have any sexual significance
whatever. Yet some activities connected with sex begin at an
equally early age,—sitting on eggs, for example. In one instance,
on the twenty-first day, a fresh egg having been laid by the mother,
the young one entered the nest, observed the egg intently, and care-
fully sat on it. At fifty-one days, a young one entered the nest,
settled very carefully on the pair of eggs, sat for several minutes,
and when the father tried to drive it off persisted for a considerable
time in holding its position. ‘This sitting on the eggs is not an ac-
cident, for the little fellow is very careful to have the eggs under him,
and if there are two eggs he takes a great deal of pains in trying to
get them both under, finally settling down upon them with that side-
wise rocking movement always seen in the case of the adult.
A young female showed the courting propensities of her sex,
practising the art upon her father, at a very early age. It is difficult
to say at just what age this began, because it is impossible to draw a
sharp line between filial and amorous attentions. At fifty-six days
this young female responded to the cooing of the father and some
other pigeons by assuming the nest-call attitude, head down and
wings shaking, and making an attempt at the nest-call coo. At sev-
enty-four days she showed the typical courting behavior, for in the
66 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
evening by lamp-light she huddled close to the father and preened
his breast and neck, sometimes preening her own feathers in that
spasmodic manner which is a sign of eros, and sometimes inter-
rupting these proceedings to give the nest-call coo. From this day
forth she did not cease to show her readiness and anxiety to mate.
SUMMARY OF DEVELOPMENT.
‘Development of cries
Development and decline of the voice and habits of the) The change of voice.
and habits of the nestling.
adult.
Ist day. Voice just audible.
Voice a stimulus to parent.
Young and parent communicate also
by touch,
No fear.
3d day. Eyes begin to open.
About 6th day. Slight expression of
fear.
10th to 12th day. Young are left un-
covered by parents all day. }
Expression of fear reaches a maxi-
mum.
9th to 14th day. Young first leave’ the|12th to 14th day. Ex-
nest. pression of alarm.
Begin to pick up food. < Alarm-note. |
Begging begins to be accompanied
by shaking of wings.
Expression of fear begins to decline.
15th to 17th day. First night out of
nest.
15th to 24th day and later. Weaning. /21ist day and later. Sit
Maximum development of baby voice] on eggs. |
and of begging behavior. ,
27th day. The kah.
27th to 38th day. The
charge.
27th to 47th day. The4 weeks. First im-
coo. | purity in baby
voice (?).
56th to 119th day. The Gth week. Distinet
p nest-call coo. break in baby voice.
i4th day. Female 3 months. Alarm and
shows courting be) kah nearly as in
havior. | adult.
4 to 6 months. Coos 17 i
all differentiated and MR eee
perfected. of the sibilant.
4 months and_ later.
Begin to breed.
B’. BreGinNING OF THE ANNUAL CYCLE.
The age at which a ring-dove begins to breed depends upon the
season, for the tendency is in all cases to begin breeding in the
spring. Birds maturing in the autumn are delayed by the tendency
Craic, Expressions of Emotion in Pigeons. 67
to sexual inactivity in winter; and birds maturing in the spring are
accelerated, in comparison, by the tendency to begin breeding in
spring.
The autumn and the early winter are marked not only by inac-
tivity in breeding but also by disuse of the voice; at least a disuse
as compared with its copious use at other seasons.
But as winter advances, long before warm weather has definitely
set im, a change toward the musical life is noticeable. The voice
is used more and more, and it gradually regains the volume of sound
and perfection of form which characterize it in spring and summer.
Whether the preliminary exercise of the voice aids at all in its devel-
opment, it would be difficult to say. The fact is that the perfection
of the voice and the tendency to use it arise gradually and coinci-
dentally ; and it seems probable that each aids the other. Yet there
are reasons for believing that practice has very little effect in de-
veloping the voice of the dove.
As the birds begin to coo, they naturally begin to coo to each other ;
and while the whole pigtonry bombards the ear with an abundance
of sounds, each pen presents to the eye an abundant spectacle of
bowing and charging, wooing and fighting, love and jealousy. This
may continue a long time before each bird secures a mate. But, to
notice in detail the formation of a union between two birds, it is
more convenient to study the case of two ring-doves isolated in cages.
If a cage containing an unmated male ring-dove be suddenly
brought alongside another cage containing another ring-dove, of un-
known sex, the male becomes highly excited at once, and gives vent
to his excitement in all possible ways. First he bows and coos with
all his might, and he continues to do so for a long time. Then he
charges about the cage, assuming the attitude peculiar to the charge,
and frequently repeating the loud kah-of-excitement. At intervals
he stops to glare at the strange bird and sometimes to peck at it
through the bars, but soon he starts again to bow-and-coo and charge.
After more or less of this display of aggressive impulse, he begins
to show eros, by a certain spasmodic preening of the inside of the
wing (a movement which invariably accompanies erotic activity),
and by assuming the nest-calling attitude and sounding the nest-call.
68 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
If left beside the stranger’s cage for some hours, the male must
sometimes rest and be silent; but even the intervals of rest and silence
are broken frequently by series of perch-coos. This behavior on
the part of the male is useful in that it stimulates the strange bird to
respond, and, in responding, to reveal its sex.
If the strange bird be a male, it shows similar excitement and
aggressiveness. And the two males are sure to fight if they can
reach one another.
But if the strange bird be a female, she acts far otherwise. She
is at first very indifferent, unles she is particularly anxious to mate.
And after some days, when she begins to show an interest in the male,
she does not give the bowing-coo, nor charge up and down the cage,
nor show other signs of pugnacity and aggressiveness. So far from
tending to aggress upon the male, her conduct is rather an expression
of submission to him. She shows a certain excitement; for instance
when she utters the kah it is a kah expressive of gentle excitement.
But she spends the greater part of her time in alluring the male by
means of the nest-calling performance—the nest-calling attitude,
seductive cooing, and gentle flip of the wings. She often tries to get
through the bars of her cage to the male; and, failing to do so, she
sometimes lies down with one side pressed against the bars. She
shows eros by the usual method of preening inside the wing; she
may even take the copulation position while the male is cooing and
bowing to her.
When the male sees the strange bird behaving in this submissive
and seductive manner, he loses the intensity of his pugnacity ; though
he always continues to be masterful. He spends less time now in the
bowing-coo and more time in nest-calling and in trying to get to the
female. If the doors are now opened and the birds allowed to come
together, they become mated. The time it takes the doves to become
mated varies greatly. In case of some old, experienced birds that
are ready and anxious to mate, two or three days in contiguous cages
may make them acquainted, and then as soon as the doors are opened
and they come together, they are ready to copulate. In other cases,
especially in cases of inexperienced birds, the male is so cruel to the
female at first that it is not safe to leave her with him until after a
CRATG, Ex pressions of Emotion in Pigeons. 69
long period—even weeks—of acquaintanceship. But once the birds
have had their attention concentrated on each other and have become
affectionate, the business of breeding proceeds smoothly and rapidly.
C’. BrGginnInG or THE Broop CyctrE.
In the preparation for a brood of young, whether it be the first
brood of the season or a later brood, there is always first a period
such as has been described, in which the male by means of the kah-
of-excitement, the bowing-coo, charging upon the female and even
pecking her severely, gains a mastery over the female that draws her
attention to himself to the exclusion of all other males which may
come in sight or which may be surviving in the female’s memory.
The female on her part submits herself to the male and draws his
attention to her. And both birds become worked up to a state of
tense sexual excitement. This period is always followed by a second
period in which the excitement, venting itself in copulation and in
work upon the nest, becomes less violent, though perhaps not less
powerful. The charge and the kah-of-excitement fall to a very low
ebb, and even the bowing-coo is used much less than at first; but the
perch-coo and the nest-call are in frequent requisition.
Copulation is repeated a great number of times, there bemg many
repetitions per day and continuance for a number of days. It is
continued until near the time when the first egg is laid; and some-
times even after the first egg is laid. The number of days of copula-
tion seems to be ordinarily four or five; but there is at hand as I
write, a pair of birds still continuing a series which they began
‘fifteen days ago. The number of copulations or attempts at copula-
tion in one day, I have never determined under normal conditions.
In certain abnormal experimental conditions, devised for another
purpose, I counted on several different days from twelve to fifteen
attempts per day. I should think that even in normal cage conditions
the number of attempts might be equally great.
The first day of copulation is a day of high excitement, and the
divers expressions of this excitement may be divided into two classes ;
namely, those that occur through a great part of the day in general,
70 = fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
and those that occur immediately before each act of copulation.
Throughout the greater part of the day, the male frequently gives the
bowing-coo, the nest-call, or the perch-coo, the female gives the nest-
eall, and both birds kah frequently and loudly. Preening of the
feathers in a spasmodic manner, especially the preening of the wing
on the inner side, and the preening of the head of the mate as the
two birds sit side by side, are equally characteristic activities of the
day. Immediately before copulation there is usually a special cooing
and a special show of eros by preening inside the wing, and there
is invariably the act of billing, the female putting her bill into the
mouth of the male, and he disgorging a little of the contents of his
crop for her to take. This is the signal, as it were, which is imme-
diately followed by copulation.
The search for a nesting-site and the building of a nest, which have
been going on at the same time with the operations already described,
are accompanied by a great deal of vocal performance, especially
nest-calling. Both birds engage in the search for a nesting-site.
When either bird has found a likely place, it sits there and nest-calls
by the hour.. The mate, hearing this call, is drawn to the spot, and
then both sit together and nest-eall, gently flip their wings, and
preen each other’s heads for a long period. The construction of
the nest is carried on by one bird, usually the female, sitting in the
nest and building in the materials which are brought by its mate.
Each time the male brings a straw the female receives it with the
gentle flip of the wings and the nest-eall.
When the eggs have been laid, the male and the female take turns
most regularly in sitting on them. This fact gives to the daily
program during incubation a complexity and definiteness which are
not equalled at any other time in the dove’s life. The present point
in the life-history is therefore a good place at whieh to insert a de-
scription of the daily eycle.
DY Dae Damay Cxcrn.
The daily cycle of activities reaches its maximum complexity
and its greatest definiteness at the time of incubation. At any other
time it is indeed noticeable that the birds follow a daily program:
Craic, Expressions of Emotion in Pigeons. aa
they always wake with the sun; they begin to coo before leaving the
roost; they are most active in the early morning, fighting and love-
making, cooing and calling and running about; they rest, or even
sleep, in the hottest part of the day; in the evening they are again
active and musical; they go to roost as soon as the light has begun
to fade; they frequently coo after going to roost; and, finally, while
strictly diurnal in their habits, and helpless at night as are most
diurnal birds, yet they may often be set cooing at night by the hghting
of a lamp, by a bright moon, by the cooing of other birds, or perhaps
by their own inward inclination.
In order to obtain a more complete record of the daily cycle during
incubation, I have more than once watched the birds continuously
for half a day at a time, noting every movement and every utterance,
now from before dawn until noon, and again from noon until night.
Thus on July 2d I entered the room at 3.50 A. M. The birds
were still in their nocturnal positions, female on the nest, and male on
the perch. At 3.54, although there was not yet light enough to read
by, the male cooed four times; the female in answer cooed four times ;
he cooed once at the end of her song. Then he preened his feathers.
Cooing and dressing the feathers always occupy the first part of the
day. The coos given were mainly of the perch-eoo type, varied at
intervals by series of bowing-coos; but at 5.09 A. M. the male turned
on his perch so as to get his head in a corner, and gave the nest-call,
continuing until he had repeated it twenty-four times. Not until
5.36, or one hour and forty minutes after I first heard him coo, did
the male come down from his perch to feed. The female greeted
him with gently fluttering wings, and as he flew up on the perch and
down again, she again gave this sign of feminine affection. Thus
matters continued, with but little interruption, until at 8.19 A. M.
the male took his place on the nest. In these four and a half hours
from the time of waking to that of taking his place on the nest, the
male repeated his coo 487 times! He gave about 70 bowing-coos,
386 perch-coos, and 24 nest-calls. The bowing and perch-coos were
given in 95 separate series, each series consisting of from one to ten
coos. The female during all this time cooed only once; this once
was when, in answer to the male’s song of four coos at dawn she
72. Ffournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
gave a similar series of four coos. After that she often fluttered her
wings when the male happened near the nest, but she never cooed.
The male’s 487 coos were pretty evenly distributed over the whole
time. But they began at the hour of dawn with a somewhat slower
rate than the average, rose to a maximum just after the bird had
left his roost and breakfasted, and then declined somewhat until the
time of taking the nest.
The male takes the nest at 8.30 A. M. and keeps it until 4.45 P. M.,
when he yields it again to the female, who sits steadily until 8.30
the next morning. Of course the birds are not punctual to a single
minute, but their regularity during early incubation, if nothing
oceurs to disturb them, is remarkable. Towards the close of ineu-
bation, and after hatching, they are much less regular. And at any
time, the presence of other birds or of alarming objects is likely to
throw them out of the regular order. Thus on the 2d of July which
I have been describing, the female left the nest at 8.15 A. M., being
alarmed by the barking of a dog, and the male entered the empty
nest at 8.19, which was probably a few minutes earlier than he would
otherwise have done. The most potent disturbing factor, however,
is the presence of other birds, which arouses the jealousy of the male.
Changing places on the nest.—When the male comes, at his due
time, to relieve the sitting female, or when the female comes similarly
to relieve the sitting male, there is always a little communication or
ceremony. ‘There is little difference in behavior between the male
and the female on this occasion. There is much variation in the
ceremony, but the usual procedure is about as follows. The bird
that is out, comes to the nest, giving the kah as it arrives; it Jumps
on the edge of the nest-box, kahs again, flips its wings and tickles the
head of its sitting mate. The sitting bird responds by fluttering
its wings and showing evident satisfaction with its mate’s attention.
This exchange of greeting is usually sufficient; after a few caresses,
and sometimes cooings, on the part of each bird, the sitting bird
gently rises and steps forward, and the other steps in behind and
settles upon the eggs. It sometimes happens that the sitting bird
leaves before the other comes, as in the case mentioned above when
the sound of a dog’s bark caused the female to leave a little before
Craic, Expressions of Emotion in Pigeons. mB
her time. On the other hand, it is not uncommon for the sitting
bird to be unwilling to leave, and for the bird that is due on the nest
to paw the sitting bird’s back, probe with its bill all around the
sitting bird, feeling for the eggs, and finally enter the nest and
squeeze the former occupant until at last, slowly and deliberately,
it leaves the nest. This happens especially when the eggs have just
hatched, for the feeling of the young birds under the breast appar-
ently is a greater attraction than the feeling of mere eggs; and so
it often happens that both birds sit at once on the young, crowding
each other, and each trying to cover as much as possible of the coveted
nestlings.
That the touch of the eggs or young and of the nest itself give
pleasure and satisfaction to the sitting bird, is evident from many
highly expressive acts; such as the manner in which the bird ar-
ranges the eggs with its bill, touching them again and again, arrang-
ing and re-arranging many times; from the complacency with which
it finally settles down upon them; and from the absorbed interest it
shows in arranging the straws and gently picking at anything about
the nest (cf. p. 75.)
When the male has taken the nest, all is quiet. The sitting bird
always makes itself as inconspicuous as possible. Though this useful
instinct has lapsed to some extent in the long-domesticated ring-dove,
yet even the male of this house-bird rarely coos when on the nest.
On this day on which the male cooed 487 times before taking the
nest, he did not coo after that for three hours, and then he gave only
one series of six coos. The female, after leaving the nest, goes first
to breakfast at the seed-cup, after which she flies about the cage,
preens her feathers, and busies herself with such small matters.
Most of her activities have little interest for the present discussion,
but it is worthy of note that she often alights on the edge of the nest-
box, and on doing so she often sounds the kah. The female, it
would seem, is always somewhat more attached to the nest than is
the male. Although the female often uses the kah, she goes but little
at any time; during the four hours I watched this female after her
leaving the nest, she sang only once, a series of four coos.
In the middle of the day, no matter at what stage of the brood
74. ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
cycle, the birds always sleep, or rest. The sitting male thus sleeps
through the hottest hours. But the first and last hours of his
brooding are spent in alert, though quiet, wakefulness.
When the male is again free from the nest in the evening, he in-
dulges in another period of cooing, though a much less noisy period
than that of the morning. When first relieved by the female, having
had a long fast, he goes at once to feed; then he usually performs an
elaborate toilet; and only gradually does he rise to the evening
musical performance. This performance, indeed, as has been men:
tioned, is much less than that of the morning: for example, to compare
with that morning’s performance of July 2d which has already been
described, I made a similarly complete observation on an afternoon
just four days previous, with the result that, during the whole time
between leaving the nest and going to roost, 1. e. 344 hours (as
against 414 hours for the morning), the male sang only 16 times
(as against 95), making 65 coos (as against 487); moreover, while
70 of the morning’s repetitions were accompanied by bowing and 24
were of the suppliant type known as the nest-call, the evening per-
formance was entirely of that less emotional and less elaborate type
known as the perch-coo. The cooing generally reaches a maximum
just before the bird goes to roost. After taking the roost, the male
usually coos a number of times, but his songs become rapidly less
frequent till all is silent. And this silence ensues while daylight
is still much brighter than that by which the bird first begins to coo
in the morning; which again makes the songster’s evening perform-
ance inferior to that of the morning.
C”. Tur Broop Cyciz, ContTINvED.
After the laying of the eggs, pigeons in general spend their days
in comparative quiet. This is not always very evident in the common
ring-dove, as may be gathered from the foregoing pages; but in some
of the wild species the change is sudden and almost complete. The
birds go about with a haunted look, with a perpetual expression of
alarm, as it were. The male sings only at sunrise and at sunset,
and when singing he goes away from the nest as far as possible.
Craic, Expressions of Emotion in Pigeons. 75
Even when it is necessary to sound the alarm-note while on the nest,
the bird subdues its voice into something very like a whisper. The
quietness of the brooding time is thus a forced quiet, an active silence,
eaused by inhibition. In fact, in the tame ring-dove, which has so
far lost its fear as to be at ease even during brooding, the inhibition
is largely removed, and the birds are far more noisy during incuba-
tion than are any of the wild species. Strong attachment of the
mates to one another is shown throughout the brood cycle by tame
and wild species alike. The notion that the comparative quietness
of the birds during brooding is due to lack of conju
mistake.
gal feeling, is a
Quietness and retirement form only one phase of a great alteration
of disposition during brooding; another phase is a sudden defensive
bravery and irascibility. The sitting bird, whether male or female,
defends the nest as valiantly as a brooding hen. And even when
off duty from incubation each bird is now more bold than ever in
attacking and driving away enemies.
The eggs hatch in 14 days; that is to say, on the 14th day after
the laying of the second egg. The hatching of the eggs, the arrival]
of the young, gives again a stimulus of the same sort with the first
appearance of the eggs, and makes the parents again still more quiet,
more jealous, and more devoted to their parental duties. It has
already been shown (page 73) that the movement of the young under
the breast of the parent is a stimulus to the latter. Professor Whit-
man has found that when he needed a foster-parent for some valuable
young pigeon, he could take a ring-dove whose eggs were not yet
ready to hatch, and, by stroking her breast gently with his fingers
in imitation of the movements of the young, he could induce her to
commence feeding. Thus we see that the feeling of the movements
of the young is a stimulus not only to the feeding impulse but at the
same time to the secretion of “pigeon’s milk” in the crop. That
the young are a greater attraction than are the eggs to the sitting
bird, is evidenced by, the frequency with which the parents sit both
together on the little birds, often crowding each other to get a larger
share of the coveted nestlings. That the hatching-out of the young
gives an additional stimulus to maternal jealousy, is shown by the
76 = “fFournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
fact that if, on the day of hatching, there are fledglings still in the
cage from a former brood, the mother now ceases to tolerate the
presence of those fledglings; her eye begins to glare and her feathers
to bristle, and soon she attacks her fledged offspring with such fury
that the owner is obliged, for humanity’s sake, to take them out of
her cage.
Within a few days after the hatching of the eggs, the birds begin
to become irregular in their brooding hours. The young are still
kept covered, to be sure, but the occasional desire of the parents to
sit both at the same time, and the frequent necessity of their coming
to feed their young, gradually breaks up the regularity of the sitting
exchanges. Brooding ceases entirely, at least if the birds are kept
indoors, in a period of 10 to 12 days.
But while brooding has thus been gradually given over, the business
of feeding has become rapidly more and more arduous, as a result
of the rapid increase in size of the young and the enormous develop-
ment of their begging powers. There may even be added a new note
to the parents’ vocabulary at this time, a eall to the young to feed.
But as soon as the young have reached their maximum importunity
they, begin to pick some food from the ground, and the parents, tired
and sore-mouthed from the feeding of youngsters almost as large
as themselves, are ready to quit feeding; thus the young are gradually
weaned, at an age ranging from about 15 to 25 days. The mother
quits feeding before the father, for she is always more devoted to
the next pair of eggs and young, while the father feeds the fledglings
in the day-time and roosts beside them at night.
A succeeding pair of eggs and young has already been mentioned.
Preparation for such begins very early, in that the parents, while
feeding young, commence another round of cooing and love-making
and mating; the cycle of one brood is not finished before the cycle
of the next is begun. Just how early the new eycle will be begun,
depends upon the season and upon all the cireumstances. As to
season: In the spring and early summer the succession of broods is
more rapid than at any other time of year. As to other circum-
stances: For example, the destruction of eggs or young at any
stage sets the parents at once to cooing and love-making. Professor
Craic, Expressions of Emotion in Pigeons. |
C
s
Whitman, on removing the eggs from a nest, has observed the birds
to begin fondling one another within half an hour afterwards. When
only one egg hatches, so that the labor of feeding is only half what
it usually is, the birds have more energy and come more quickly
to the preparation for a new brood. The shortest interval I have
observed between hatching and laying is, when only one bird is
reared, 15 days; when two birds are reared, 14 days.
In the normal course of events the inauguration of a new brood
eyele is gradual, being a repetition, perhaps somewhat abbreviated,
of the performance by which the birds first become mated. There
is first a period of bowing and cooing by the male and a gradual rise
of excitement in both birds; then a period of copulation, nest-calling,
and nest-building, with a gradual decline in the excitement, followed
by the laying of the eggs and the birds’ devotion again to incubation.
Thus (even before the old brood cycle is finished) is a new brood
cycle begun.
It has been said that after the birds have begun a new round of
mating they still foster the young of the last brood, but there is a
limit to this fostering of the old fledglings; there comes a time when
the parents not only refuse to feed them but cease to tolerate their
presence. This desertion of the former brood happens much earlier
with the female parent; so soon as the mother has taken to sitting
again, she begins to acquire a hostile attitude towards her nearly
grown-up-children ; so far from feeding them, she pecks at them when
they try to share the seed-cup with her; and so far from brooding
them, she keeps them always at a little distance from her body.
Affairs generally continue in this smoldering condition for several
days; but a day comes—and according to my observation it is almost
invariably the day on which the new eggs hateh—when the fire of
this maternal jealousy bursts forth and the mother perseeutes the
fledglings with such fury that if they were not taken from the cage
they would perhaps even be killed. The male, though not nearly so
aggressive in this matter, has become more or less completely indiffer-
cut to the old fledglings, and shows no regret at their departure.
Thus ends the brood cycle.
%
78 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
B”. Tue Srasonat Crore, ‘Continue.
Renewed efforts, as shown in cooing, kahing, nest-building, and
a host of other activities, are necessary to initiate each brood cycle.
If the birds be disinclined to effort, from any cause, such disin-
clination will delay or prevent the commencement of another brood
eycle. This is what happens in the molting season, beginning in the
latter part of August. There may be a decrease of breeding power,
especially in some pigeons, even before the molt; but most of the do-
mestic ring-doves retain ample breeding powers up to the time when
the molt begins to diminish their general vitality. The breeding
powers lost at this time are not regained, by the wild species, until
the following spring; and though the domestic ring-dove may be bred
all through the autumn and winter, yet the frequency of repetitions
of the brood cycle is lessened, the health of the birds may suffer,
and it is evident that this extension of the breeding season is unna-
tural. Coincident with the lapse of breeding propensity, in all spe-
cies of pigeons, is a loss of voice, a loss especially of the more emo-
tional, more musical notes. The loss of voice is not so conspicuous
in the domesticated and unnatural ring-dove. The loss of song is
not complete even in most of the wild species, for their coos may be
heard at irregular intervals through the months of September and
October at least; but the coo at this time is in some cases notably
different from that of the breeding-season. And though the songs
may be given thus sporadically, their sum total is exceedingly small.
The comparative silence which reigns in the pigeonry is gloomy;
the hushing of the birds in August is an annual surprise, a change
so sudden and so great that one does not become accustomed to it.
A”. Tur Lire Crcue, ContTINueED.
Though ring-doves begin to breed at a very early age, even at four
months, and thereafter continue to pass through the regular succes-
sion of brood cycles and annual cycles, Professor Whitman has found
that they do not reach their maximum breeding powers until the age
of about three years. After that age, the breeding powers remain
at the maximum for some years.
Craic, Expressions of Emotion in Pigeons. 79
Professor Whitman has kept blond ring-doves till they were
about ten years old. In one such case he knew pretty definitely that
the bird’s death was due to causes other than old age. Yet he thinks
that he has observed somewhat of a decline in the breeding powers in
a bird about ten years old,
SumMMary oF THE Lire-Hisrory.
A’. Beginning of the life cycle.
The voice of the young ring-dove is heard the first day, and is
useful to induce the parents to commence feeding (page 55).
The voice of the growing young is useful to cause the parents to
give a sufficient amount of food, and to continue feeding until the
young one is able to feed itself (page 57).
Fear begins to be shown as soon as the young have the full use of
their eyes (page 55).
Alarm develops somewhat later, 12th to 14th day (page 59).
The kah appears often on the 27th day (page 60).
The charge appears on the 27th day or later (page 65).
The coo appears from the 27th to the 47th day (page 62). It
is at first very imperfect, and develops very slowly to the adult form.
Development of the voice is of two sorts which may be referred
to two causes; namely, development of the syrinx or vocal apparatus,
and development of the nervous system (page 61).
The young often give cries at the suggestion of the parents, but
they do not imitate the cries of the parents (page 64).
B’. Beginning of the annual cycle.
The elaborate cooing and other performances of the spring season
serve to proclaim the sex of each bird (there being no markings
distinctive of sex), to bring the birds together in pairs, and to unite
each pair by a firm bond (pages 66-69).
CO’. Beginning of the brood cycle.
The male and the female, by mutual stimulation and self-stimu-
lation, work up a pitch of excitement sufficient to start them on the
arduous, month-long labors of the brood cycle (page 69 ).
80 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
After days of copulation and nest-building, all of which are con-
trolled by cooing and other ceremonies, two eggs are laid and the
birds enter upon fourteen days of brooding,
D. The daily cycle.
The male and the female take turns very regularly in sitting on
the eggs. Each time when one bird relieves the other, there is a
ceremonial communication between them.
C”. The brooding cycle, continued.
After the eggs are laid, the birds are guardedly quiet when near the
nest, but there is no diminution of conjugal affection (page 74).
The hatching of the eggs, and the movements of the young under
the breast, are strong stimuli to the parents (page 73).
The parents may even add at this time a new call to their vocab-
ularly, a call to the young to feed (pages 43, 44, 76).
The parents, while still feeding the young, gradually work up,
by cooing and other performances, to that pitch of excitement which
is needed to start a new brood cycle (page 76).
B”. The annual cycle, continued,
At the end of the summer, especially when the molt begins, the
birds have not sufficient energy to work up to the beginning of a new
brood eyele. Thus brooding stops.
A”. The life cycle, continued.
Pigeons do not reach their maximum breeding powers until an age
of about three years.
The length of life is not definitely known.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE.
Fic. 1.—The alarm (page 35). Both are in the attitude of alarm; but
the more extreme in attitude is the adult bird, distinguished by the black
half-ring on the neck.
Fic. -2.—The charge (page 42). Male.
Fic. 3. The perch coo (page 47). The bird that is cooing is an adult male.
The other bird is a young one.
Fic. 4. —The nest-call (page 51). The bird with its head down in the nest
is a male, nest-calling to the other bird, which is a female.
Fics. 5 and 6.—The bowing-coo (page 48). Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 both show
the same bird (an adult male) in a phase of the bowing-coo, Fig. 5 showing
the up phase, and Fig. 6 the down phase. The bird is bowing-and-cooing to
his own image in a large mirror which was placed close against the end of
the cage for the purpose of getting these photographs.
EXPRESSIONS OF EMOTION IN PIGEONS.
WALLACE CRAIG,
THE JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.—VOL. XIX, No. 1.
TE REACTION TO TACTILE STIMUEEL AND. TEE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE SWIMMING MOVE-
MENT IN EMBRYOS OF DIEMYCTYLUS
TOROSUS, ESCHSCHOLTZ.
BY
G. EH. COGHILL.
Studies from the Neurological Laboratory of Denison University, No. XXII.
WitH Six FIGURES.
In 1906 I began a series of experiments upon embryos of Rana
and Amblystoma with a view to determining whether there is any
regularity in the earliest neuro-muscular responses to tactile stimuli
in the amphibian embryo. During the season of 1907 these ex-
periments were continued upon embryos of Diemyctylus torosus,
Eschscholtz (Triton torosus). Although the work of the first year
gave interesting results and convinced me that the field of investi-
gation was a fruitful one, it was less exhaustive and critical in its
methods than the later work has been, and there is no occasion to
give an account of it in this connection. It will, therefore, receive
no further treatment here and all the data and discussions of this
paper will.relate exclusively to Diemyctylus torosus.
These experiments were originally planned for correlated ana-
tomical and physiological studies. As an introduction to such
work upon Amphibia they form the basis for the anatomical part,
since they reveal distinct phases in the development of neuro-muscu-
lar response to the most primitive system of cutaneous receptors.
But, apart from this significance to pure anatomy and physiology,
“they are, of themselves, an interesting contribution to the science
of animal behavior, for they deal with a most important phase of
behavior, namely, its very beginning in the embryo. If, for in-
stance, there is any such thing as a “simple reflex,” such as Sherring-
THE JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.—VoL. XIX, No. 1.
84 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
ton suggests,’ it must be found in the earliest reflexes of the embryo
as observed in these experiments, and if it is possible to trace the
development of a “simple reflex” into a form of acknowledged in-
stinetive behavior, this link in the development of behavior would
seem to appear in the development of the swimming movement as
deseribed in the following pages.
In view of this bearing of the experiments upon the subject of
animal behavior certain results of the experimental part of my in-
vestigations are here made known before the anatomical phase of
the work has been completed.
Merrnops.
The embryos were removed from the egg membranes at various
stages in development, ordinarily before they showed any sign of
irritability to tactile stimuli. They were then placed in shallow
Petri dishes, a single specimen in a dish, and tested from time to
time for reactions. Usually an experiment continued until ‘the
animal began to swim.
The stimulus employed was a touch with the end of a rather fine
human hair, mounted in such a way as to render the touch very
gentle. The extreme sensitiveness of some very young embryos is
remarkable. Even the touch of a fine piece of lint will at times
evoke a vigorous response, as if it were a violent irritant.
Without critical consideration the tactile nature of this mode of
stimulation might be held in doubt. The touch of a hair such as
was used in these investigations might easily cause a considerable
pressure, so that there might be a question whether the responses
were to a strictly tactile stimulus or to a mechanical stimulus upon
the muscles or central nervous system. Indeed, in the very early
phase of development, when the irritability was for some reason
unusually low, some of the reactions, I believe, may have been to
direct. pressure upon the muscles or central nervous system. But
such instances, if they occurred at all, in these investigations, were,
1Sherrington, Charles S. “The Integrative Action of the Nervous System,”
p. 8.
CocuHILL, The Reaction to Tactile Stimult. 85
I believe, relatively rare. For instance, when the stimulus is
applied to the under side of the head as the animal lies on its side,
and the response is a movement of the head away from the side
touched, it is inconceivable that this response is to a direct pressure
upon the muscles effecting the movement, and it seems altogether
iprobable that such a stimulus could be brought to bear upon the
central nervous system directly in such a manner as to give rise to
a constant form of response. Or, in case the stimulus is applied
to the margin of the dorsal or ventral caudal fin and a movement
ot the head only results, as regularly oceurs in certain phases of
development, it is absolutely impossible for such a reaction to be
given in response to pressure either upon the acting muscles or upon
the central nervous system. As reactions of this sort occur here
and there throughout nearly every one of my experiments, it seems
to me certain that the stimulus employed was, with possibly rare
exceptions, purely tactile, and that, so far as the mode of stimulation
is concerned, my conclusions are valid.
Ordinarily the stimulus was applied to the upper side of the
specimen as it lay on its side on the bottom of the dish. Frequently,
however, it was applied to the under side of the specimen from
beneath, in order to determine whether contact with the dish had any
influence on the mode of reaction, but it was impossible to detect
any factor of this kind in the responses. Some embryos, also, were
suspended in an upright position and tested for the same purpose,
and with the same result.
An individual record in detail was kept of each embryo from the
time it was removed from the egg membranes till the end of the ex-
periment. In the record of each trial, or application of the stim-
ulus, the following factors were noted particularly: the region and
side touched, the form of the response and the time of the trial.
Tabulated schemes for rapid recording were tried in my first experi-
ments of 1906, but it soon became apparent that such forms could
not be adhered to, for they were necessarily based upon presump-
tions of some sort and were, therefore, a hindrance rather than a
help to alert observation. These methods were wholly abandoned
and have no part in the records from which this paper is written,
86 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Reaction ro TactinEe STIMULI.
A. Response to Stimulation on the Head.
According to their reaction to a touch on the side of the head, -
in the region innervated by n. trigeminus or n. vagus, embryos of
Diemyctylus torosus may be grouped according to three types, as
follows:
Type I. Embryos which from the beginning and during a consid-
erable period, respond regularly or almost regularly with a move-
ment of the head directed away from the side touched.
Type II. Embryos which for a relatively short period at first
respond irregularly with movements of the head toward or away
from the side touched, and then enter upon a relatively long period
of response like that of Type I.
Type Ill. Embryos which are at first asymmetrical in response,
that is to say, they move their head in one direction only, regardless
of the side touched, and then enter upon a short period of irregu-
larity like the first period of Type II, and finally upon a relatively
long period of response like that of Type I. Or individuals of
this type may pass directly from the period of asymmetry to the
regular form of Type I. The accompanying charts illustrate the
behavior of typical specimens from each of these three types. The
first column on the left in these charts records the serial number of
the trials made, and the record of each trial is represented in the
corresponding horizontal line to the right. The figures in the second
column from the left record the time in hours and minutes that
elapsed since the last preceding trial in each case. The diagrams in
the third column from the left represent the form of reaction in the
various trials. Where there is more than one diagram in a space
these are to be read from left to right, and each represents a distinct
phase in a series of movements. The arrow occasionally placed in
these spaces indicates that a cephalo-caudal progression of the move-
ment was distinctly observed. Where an “S” oceurs the specimen
swam, and the following diagram in the same space indicates the
composition of the swimming movement. It should be noted that
these diagrams of the movements are simply free-hand representa-
Cocuit1, The Reaction to Tactile Stimult. 87
tions of the reaction according to written descriptions made at the
time of trial. They can not be considered as absolutely accurate
in every detail, but they do represent truthfully the general order
of the development of trunk movements in these animals.
The curves of the charts represent the side touched and the
direction of the initial movement in, the reaction relative to the
side touched. The solid line records the direction of the movement
of the head; divergence to the left from the vertical records a
movement toward the side touched; divergence towards the right,
away from the side touched ; conincidence with the vertical, undeter-
mined. The broken line records the side touched; divergence to
the left signifies a touch on the left side of the head; divergence to
the right, a touch on the right side; a blank, no record. Obviously,
where the two curves are parallel the movement recorded was to the
left; where they diverge or converge the recorded movement was
towards the right.
The apparent incompleteness in the serial numbers of the trials
in the first column of some charts is due to the fact that in these ex-
periments alternate or occasional trials were being made with refer-
ence to touch on the tail bud. The charts represent perfect series
of trials with reference to touch on the side of the head.
The charts presented here are selected from a series which, with
descriptions, has been deposited with the Wistar Institute of Anat-
omy and Biology, for the advantage of students who may be inter-
ested in a more exhaustive report of my experiments than this paper
affords.
The accompanying table presents schematically some of the data
upon which this classification into three types is based. It is the
tabulation of the records of 36 specimens which have been selected
solely upon the basis of completeness of the record and duration
of the experiment. Owing to the difficulties in the manipulation
of the work and unavoidable hindrances many experiments were
not carried continuously through the entire period which is here
under consideration, and, although contributing materially to the
evidence on the problem as a whole, can not, on that account, be in-
cluded in a comparative study of this kind.
ournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
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1 Into this center all impulses would seem to flow in
erder to be directed in such a way upon the musculature of the trunk
as to give rise to locomotion. Clearly the development of an eye or
ear as such in its earliest functional condition has no part in deter-
mining this region of centralization. The controlling factor in this
centralization is the motor system: a cephalization in response to
the prepotency of the requirements of effectors and not in response
to the demands of the cephalic receptive fields.
Phylogenetically, then, the most primitive cephalization of the
nervous system may have occurred, also, in response to the demands
for locomotion and have given rise to a center of control in the region
corresponding to the lower portion of the myelencephalon or the
upper portion of the medulla spinals. Quite in harmony with this
suggestion is the convincing evidence that Johnston® presents for the
migration caudad of the afferent roots of the cranial nerves. Such
a change in their course would lead them more directly into this
primitive locomotor center. Upon this hypothesis, also, the economy
““The Nervous System of Vertebrates,’ Chapter III.
102 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
of the arrangement of the special cutaneous nerves of fishes and
amphibians is obvious. It is not to be supposed that the cephali-
zation of the locomotor effectors is, in any respect, a direct cause
of the cephalo-caudal migration of the special cutaneous receptors
and conductors, but such a cephalization would certainly favor
the development of such systems, for, as already suggested, their
peripheral conductors hold essentially the same relation to the cephalic
part of the central system as do the most primitive central conductors
from the trunk.
It should be noted here that a certain amount of locomotion may
be acquired by an amphibian embryo by other movements than the
S reaction as described above. The body may be flexed, for in-
stance, and straightened by a series of secondary, vibratory move-
ments. Such a reaction propels the animal on its side in a circle
or spiral path. Also, a rapid succession of reversed flexures, in
which no S reaction can be detected, may give swimming in a zigzag,
erratic course. But normal, upright swimming in a direct course is,
according to my observations, attained only through the perfecting
of the S reaction and its performance in series.
As already suggested, this development of the swimming movement
is of interest from the point of view of animal behavior. We now
see that swimming, which may be regarded as instinctive in these
forms, arises as the elaboration of the simplest known reflex in the
embryo, the contraction of the most cephalic trunk muscles. Certain
forms of the flexure, such as the U reaction and the coiled reaction,
do not seem to be in the direct line of the development of the swim-
ming movement, being simply intensive or tetanic forms of the or-
dinary flexures. On the other hand, the other types of flexure
develop in a regular order and in a remarkably constant manner
into the movements of locomotion. Now none of these simple flex-
ures can be regarded as having any value as trials, since the Diemyc-
tylus swims perfectly upon leaving the egg membranes in the normal .
course of development, and within them it can gain no practical ex-
perience for swimming out of movements of any sort. Instinctive
swimming, therefore, and the simplest reflex alike, are inherent in
the neuro-muscular system of the embryo, and while the former de-
CocuHit., The Reaction to Tactile Stimult. 103
velops in a regular order out of the latter, the movements themselves,
which conform to this order, can have no selective value. The
question naturally follows whether in forms which do not admit of
such early experiments, such as birds, many quadrupeds and primates,
the various forms of locomotion, as well as other forms of behavior,
which, in a greater or less degree, appear to develop out of a series
of trials, may not conform to the same law. It seems altogether pos-
sible that im such cases, also, the so-called erratic movements may
have only a trophic value. As such they would be essential to the
perfecting of movements, but would have no directive value in the
development of responses.
If, moreover, this hypothesis is valid for the ontogenetic origin
and development of instinctive behavior it would seem plausible,
also, as a theory of phylogenetic development. Its application to
phylogenesis, though, would clearly be in opposition to the idea,
which is accepted by various psychologists, that instinctive behavior
has somehow been reflected back into the race from the intelligent
type,—or psychologically expressed, that instinet is a phylogenetic
derivative of intelligence. "or the latter hypothesis, I am not aware
that there is any direct, experimental proof, while we do see, in such
vertebrates as Amphibia which admit of early experimentation,
instinctive behavior (locomotion) developing directly out of the
simplest known reflex. However, while we seem to have a definite
conception of the psychic parallel of the former (instinct), the con-
cept of the psychic parallel of the latter is much less definite, and
largely disregarded by psychologists. Yet it would seem that in the
ontogenetic developments of the psychie life of Diemyetylus there
must be puite as definite a reflex-psychosis concomitant with the earli-
est and simplest reflex as there is an Instinet-psychosis with the later
instinctive behavior in the form, for example, of locomotion; for,
although the neuroses of the simple reflex are evidently not as
elaborate as are those of locomotion, they are quite as definite in form.
But, however this hypothesis of the relation of the instinct to the
reflex may appeal to the psychologist, an adequate knowledge of the
behavior of Diemyct¥lus must take into account the origin and de-
velopment of locomotion from the simple reflex; for this reflex
104 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
represents the simplest known physiological unit of the somatic
neuro-muscular system, or of the somatic “action system.” The
relation of this unit to any of the more complex neuro-muscular
processes is certainly an essential factor in the problem of behavior,
or of physiology in the broadest sense.
In presenting the mode of locomotion of the amphibian embryo
it is not my intention to antagonize the current explanation of the
propelling factors of the swimming movement of fishes, ordinarily
described as being, in effect, the same as that of a sculling oar. The
latter explanation, so far as I am aware, is offered with reference to
the adult fish, and it might not apply to an embryonic or very young
fish. Quite conceivably, the swimming movement might become
modified during growth, in response to changes in body form, modes
of feeding and other factors of behavior; and it is still quite possible
that in the adult fish there is a cephalo-caudal progression of move-
ment which is obscured by other factors of special adaptation.
This contribution should not be submitted without reference to
the splendid work of Paton’ on the reaction of vertebrate embryos.
This is the only paper accessible to me that bears in any respect im-
mediately upon the work in hand. Paton’s contribution, however,
is chiefly upon the development of fishes, with merely a reference to
Rana and Amblystoma, and is particularly devoted to the spontaneous
movements. Such movements would seem to be much more common
in embryos of fishes than in embryos of Diemyctylus. The latter,
during the early phases of irritability to touch, may be under obser-
vation for hours without making a perceptible spontaneous move-
ment of the trunk, cardiac and branchial movements not being taken
into account in my work.
My approach to the problem of physiologico-anatomieal correla-
tions in the development of the neuro-muscular system of vertebrates
differs materially from that of Paton’s method. Paton undertakes
“to determine in a general, but not in a specific way” how far the
reactions are dependent upon “the functional activity of a nervous
™The Reaction of the Vertebrate Embryo and the Associated Changes in the
Nervous System.” Mittheilungen a. d. zoologischen Station zu Neapel, Bd. 18,
Heft 2 u. 3, 1907.
CocuHitt, The Reaction to Tactile Stimult. 105
system” and dismisses the study of specific reactions as impracticable,
on account of the “apparently conflicting” data; but my work clearly
demonstrates that, in response to the stimulus employed in my experi-
ments, embryos of Diemyctylus have a very definite and regular
mode of response, during certain phases of development. In fact I
have yet to find the first individual that, through any considerable
period, reacts contrary to the mode described in this paper, that is
to say, no embryo has yet come under my observation that regularly
moves its head toward the side touched when the stimulation is on
the head. Nor have I found a single embryo that, observed for a
considerable period, has not fallen under one of the three types which
I have here described.
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SENSATIONS FOLLOWING NERVE DIVISION.
BY
SHEPHERD IVORY FRANZ.
From the Laboratories of the Government Hospital for the Insane,
Washington, D. C.
With Five FIGURES.
I.—Tur PRESSURE-LIKE SENSATIONS.
Since the confirmation and elaboration by Goldscheider, by von
Frey and by others, of the discovery of Blix that there are points
or areas on the skin sensitive only to certain forms of stimulation,
physiologists have assumed a form of punctate sensibility in the
skin. ‘The work of these investigators has been taken to show that
in the skin special nerves subserve the following sensations: heat,
cold, pain and pressure (touch). On the other hand, the recent
work of Head and his co-workers has not only cast considerable
doubt on the validity of the broad generalization of punctate sen-
sibility, but it is also plain that the earlier hypothesis is not in
accord with the results obtained on man after injury or section of
peripheral nerves.
HTead, it will be remembered, investigated the sensibility to light
touch, to different degrees of temperature, to pressure, to dual
‘stimuli, to pain, to size and to movement in patients following
injury or section of peripheral nerves and he carried his inquiries
up to the point of recovery for all forms of sensation. The criticism
of the older hypothesis, which was made possible because of these
recent pathological studies, may well be summed up in the words
of Head: “When the median nerve is divided, sensation is entirely
lost over a considerable part of both index and middle fingers. Over
the palm, within the area said by anatomists to be supplied by this
nerve, sensation is usually diminished and not completely abolished.
THE JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PSYyCHOLOGY.—VOL. XIX, No. 1.
108 “‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
In a similar manner, division of the ulnar nerve produces complete
insensibility of the little finger, and of a variable part of the palm
and the ulnar half of the ring finger. Such is the usual statement of
surgeons and anatomists. . . . The most careful examination of
the hand fails to show the shghtest diminution in sensation over the
median half of the palm in consequence of division of the ulnar
nerve. What has always been called the diminished sensibility
produced by the division of a nerve is really a condition in which
some kinds of sensibility are lost and others retained.” ?
The results of careful examinations of about eighty patients, in
whom the nerves of arm or leg had been divided or injured, led to
the following conclusions: “The sensory mechanism in the peripheral
nerves 1s found to consist of three systems:
“(A) Deep sensibility, capable of answering to pressure and to
the movement of parts, and even capable of producing pain under the
influence of excessive pressure, or when the joint is injured. The
fibers subserving this form of sensation run mainly with the motor
nerves, and are not destroyed by division of all the sensory nerves
to the skin.
“(B) Protopathic sensibility, capable of responding to painful
cutaneous stimuli, and to the extremes of heat and cold. This is
the great reflex system, producing a rapid widely diffused response,
unaccompanied by any definite appreciation of the locality of the
spot stimulated.
“(C) EHpieritic sensibility, by which we gain the power of cutane-
ous localization, of the discrimination of two points, and of the finer
grades of temperature, called cool and warm.” *
The separate sensation elements in each of the three forms of
sensibility may be tabulated as follows:
“Loss of epicritic sensibility abolishes: recognition of light touch
over hairless parts or parts that have been shaved ; cutaneous localiza-
tion; discrimination of compass points; appreciation of difference
in size, including the accurate discrimination of the head from the
1Head, Rivers and Sherren: The Afferent Nervous System from a New
Aspect. Brain, 1905, Vol. 28, p. 100.
With 104 dab
Franz, Sensations following Nerve Division. 109
point of a pin apart from the pain of the prick (acuesthesia) ; dis-
crimination of intermediate degrees of temperature, from about
25° C. to about 40° C. .
“Loss of protopathic sensibility abolishes: cutaneous pain, espe-
cially that produced by pricking, burning, or freezing, together with
that of stimulation with the painful interrupted current; over hair-
clad parts, plucking the hairs ceases to be painful; sensations of
heat from temperature above 45° C.; sensations of cold from tem-
peratures below 20° C.
“After destruction of all cutaneous afferent fibers the part is still
‘endowed with deep sensibility, pressure can be recognized, and its
gradual increases appreciated; pain is produced by excessive pres-
sure (measured by the algometer); movements of muscles can be
recognized ; the point of application of pressure can be localized; the
patient can recognize the extent and direction of movement produced
passively in all joints within the affected area.”*
It will be seen, therefore, that the examination of patients in
whom nerves have been injured or cut reveals many different degrees
or qualities of sensation in addition to the four which, from the
examination of normal individuals alone, have been supposed to be
the only sensory elements. ‘The main points of difference between
the old and the new view—so far as the enumeration of sensations
is concerned—are as follows: There is apparently a difference
between the sensations of hot and warm, and between those of cold
and cool; touch is different from pressure; there are different kinds
of pain.
When, for example, the ulnar nerve has been cut, examination
of the skin with various stimulating objects shows that over the
hairless portions of the fourth and ring fingers light touches with
a wisp of cotton wood or with a fine camel’s-hair brush are not felt ;
the hair-clad parts may or may not react to such stimuli, depending
upon the location of the lesion; parts of these fingers will not be
sensitive to temperature stimuli, and perhaps not to pressure; there
may, or may not, be sensations from pricks of a pin; and if the
“Wead and Thompson: The Grouping of Afferent Impulses within the Spinal
Cord. Brain, 1906, Vol. 29, p. 551.
110 ©“fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
fingers can not be moved voluntarily there will be a loss of sensibility
to movement passively produced. Some of these effects may be found
over a variable extent of the palm and the back of the hand. In
Fig. 1 is given the condition found in a man following an operation
in which part of the ulnar nerve was excised. The area insensitive
to light touch and to the intermediate degrees of temperatures in-
cluded all the little finger, about three-quarters of the ring finger,
and about two-fifths of the palm and back of the hand. Part of
Fic. 1.—The extent of loss of sensation following the division of the ulnar
nerve at the elbow. The part marked with horizontal lines was insensitive
to light touches, and to intermediate degrees of temperatures. The vertical
line area (cross-hatched on account of its being included within the area
insensitive to touch), was, in addition, insensitive to pressures and to pain.
Adapted from Head and Sherren.
this area was insensitive to deep touch and no sensation was got from
the vibrations of a tuning fork. This area was also analgesic.
In this and other cases in which losses of sensibility were found,
the ability to appreciate touch was tested with a wisp of cotton wool
lightly brushed over the parts. When such a piece of cotton wool
is carried over the skin of a normal individual, there is a distinct
feeling of touch, which is magnified, perhaps altered, wherever
the hairs are touched. The cotton wool should be very lightly
grouped in a bundle, not tied, and I have found that on the hand
a piece of cotton wool, weighing 55.5 mg., with a bending pressure
of from 200 to 300 mg. will be accurately appreciated over the parts
FRANZ, Sensations following Nerve Division. Tae
which are not calloused.t On the lips and parts of the face, a wisp
of cotton wool weighing 20 mg. and bending at 200 to 250 mg., was
just sufficient to produce a sensation. At times it is more convenient
to use a camel’s-hair brush, although Head has objected to the use
of this instrument. I find it to be a more constant stimulus, in that
it remains the same in bending strength for long periods. With
cotton wool it is difficult, if not impossible, to select for each day’s
series of experiments an amount equal to that used on previous
days, and if the same piece be used on successive days, it soon loses
its original strength. In the experimental results that follow, I
have used both cotton wool and a camel’s-hair brush. I selected a
long haired brush from which I cut off most of the outside hairs,
leaving a brush 24 mm. long from the end of the hairs to the inser-
tion, with about 125 hairs. As thus modified, the bending strength
of the brush was 100 mg. for very slight bending, and about 200 mg.
for more extensive bending. These figures are to be compared with
the bending strength of the wisps of cotton wool mentioned above.
I have found that the same results follow the use of the brush as
the use of the cotton wool, and since, as mentioned above, it 1s more
constant, it can be used for many patients as well as the same
patient at different times.
For further tests I have employed the touch instrument of Bloch,
which is illustrated in the accompanying figure. To a piece of wood
was attached a spring steel wire A which was bent at a right angle
B; the long part of this wire A measured six inches. The area of
cross section was about 0.1 square mm.
no. 3; vol. 8, no. 11; Ref. Rev. of Newrol. and Psych., vol.
PV Pok
WARRINGTON, W. B., and GRIFFITH, IF.
704. On the cells of the spinal ganglia and on the relationship of
their histological structure to the axonal distribution. Brain,
vol. 2%, Dp. 297.
Ranson, 8S. W.
*°06. Retrograde degeneration in the spinal nerves. Jour. Comp.
Neur. and Psych., vol. 16.
‘0S. The architectural relation of the afferent elements entering
into the formation of the spinal nerves. Jowr. Comp Neuwr.
and Psych., vol. 18.
150 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Fic. 1. Zeiss, Ocular 4, Objective 8—Drawing traced from photo-micro-
graph of a transverse section through the control second cervical ganglion of
a young white rat twenty days after the operation, showing the character-
istics of the normal ganglion. In the center is a clear area representing the
dorsal root fibers. Note the size of the large cells, also the large number of
small cells.
Fic. 2. Zeiss, Ocular 4, Objective 8.—Drawing traced from a photo-micro-
graph of a transverse section through the “operated” second cervical ganglion
of a young rat twenty days after the operation. ‘This section illustrates the
alterations which have occurred in the ganglion as a result of division of the
nerve. It can be readily seen by comparing Figs. 1 and 2 that there have
occurred both an atrophy of the ganglion as a whole and a decrease in the
number of the cells. It is apparent at a glance that the cells in the operated
ganglion are predominately of the medium size. None are as large as the
largest cells seen in the normal ganglion, due to the fact that the cells have
already begun to show some atrophy. The most striking feature is the loss
of the small cells.
Ranson, A/terations in Spinal Ganglion Cells.
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152 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Via. 3. Zeiss, Ocular 4, Objective 1/12.—Drawing of a small area from a
transverse section through the “operated” second cervical ganglion of a young
white rat five days after the operation. With the exception of one medium-
sized cell, all of the cells show more or less extensive chromatolysis. The
medium sized non-reacting cell is distinctively of the coarsely granular type.
The usual features of chromatolysis can be seen in the reacting cells. Notice
the extreme peripheral position of the nuclei of the small cells.
Iic. 4. Zeiss, Ocular 4, Objective 1/12—Drawings of a small area of a
section through the same ganglion as that represented in Fig. 2. It repre-
sents the condition in the ganglion twenty days after the section of the nerve.
The most striking feature is that the large cells have almost regained their
normal appearance. The nuclei are centric and there is a large amount of
chromatic granules distributed in the normal manner throughout the pro-
toplasm.
Mek tay
the capsule, from the second cervical ganglion of a rat eight days after the
operation.
Fic. 6.—Showing a cell distended by a large vacuole, from the second cer-
vical ganglion of a rat seven days after the operation.
Showing a degenerated cell penetrated by proliferating cells from
“Te
Ranson, Alterations in Spinal Ganglion Cells. B53
dice, 5, Hie. 6:
a
7
q PECG. !
The Journal of
Comparative Neurology and Psychology
Vo_umE XIX May, 1909 NuMBER 2
ON ite: REGATON OK SHE BODY ENG TE TO. EH
BODY WEIGHT AND TO>-THE WEIGHT OF THE
BRAIN AND OR VEE SPINAL -CORDSIN ELE
ALBINO RAT (MUS NORVEGICUS
Woalie wUbiclUhswe
BY
HENRY H. DONALDSON.
Professor of Neurology at The Wistar Institute.
WITH THREE FIGURES.
In a recent paper (Donaldson, 08) the relations of the body
weight to the weight of the brain and of the spinal cord in the
albino rat have been described.
In addition to the determination of the body weight it was stated
in the paper just cited (pp. 346-7) that measurements had also
been made on the body length (trunk and head) of some of the rats,
but to avoid confusion the discussion of this character and_ its
relations was reserved for the present paper.
The reasons for making a series of linear measurements on the
albino rat were briefly the following :—
1. To obtain a second general measure of the body growth of
the albino rat in terms other than those of weight.
2. To gather data by which to determine the body weight and
body length ratio for the variety measured.
This ratio is valuable because it gives a notion of the general
shape of the animal and also enables us to state whether there are
THE JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.—VOL. XEN NOA 2)
156 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
differences in this relation according to sex, as well as to make com-
parisons with other forms.
It also permits the determination of the influence of dwarfing and
other modifying conditions on the weight-length relation.
3. Both the weight of the brain and of the spinal cord can be
related to the body length, and the measurement on body length thus
made to furnish an additional datum from which the weights of the
brain and of the spinal cord can be inferred. As we shall see, this
datum is a much better one than body weight, especially in those
cases where, for one reason or another, the animal has become
emaciated.
4. If we consider the body length of the rat to correspond in a
general way with the sitting height in man, we have one more
means of comparing the growth changes in the two forms.
In the following pages we shall discuss these points, so far as
they have been worked out. For the mathematical treatment of
the results I am indebted to my colleague, Dr. Hatai, who is pub-
lishing at this same time some notes on the formulas previously
used by both of us (Hatai, *08; Donaldson, ’08), as well as giving
a new and more general formula for determining the weight of the
brain from the body weight (Hatai, ’09).
The technique of weighing and measuring was that described in
the earlier paper (Donaldson, ’08).. A number of complete rec-
ords on the albino rat have been added to those on hand at that
time. Moreover, for the relation of body weight to the body length
alone, additional records have been obtained by weighing and meas-
uring animals which had been anesthetized lightly.
It was my first intention to print the full series of individual
records (235 males, 173 females) in a general table at the end of
this paper. I have, however, decided not to do so for the following *
reasons :—
First.—Printing such a general table would involve repeating a
number of the records already published in a former paper (Don-
aldson, ’08), and would in turn need to be again repeated in a forth-
coming paper on the change in the percentage of water during the
growth of the nervous system.
BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD OF RAT, CHART 1.
HENRY H. DONALDSON,
240 BODY LENGTH
180
160
140
120
100
BODY WEIGHT
Gms. 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 - 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
To show in the abino rat, the body length in millimeters according to body weight in grams. Records for 170 males @, and 148 females X, The theoretic curve for the sexes combined
is based on formula (4).
Tue JournaL or Comparative NEUROLOGY AND PsycHOLOGy.—VOL. XIX, No. 2.
ay 4 : . br, 7 i. ‘
yj ; \ 156 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology. : }
a
Dona.pson, Brain and Spinal Cord of Rat. 157
Second.—The individual records have been tabulated and are on
file at the Institute. They are therefore available for use by other
investigators, and may be had by application to the Director of
The Wistar Institute.
Third.—It is hoped that this condition will be only temporary,
and that when this group of investigations is completed, the entire
series of individual records employed for them can be printed in
the form of tables in a special brochure, thus making them generally
available. At this time only the mean values of the observation are
tabulated.
We turn at once, therefore, to the consideration of the special
questions :—
1. The body length of the albino rat according to body weight.
On Chart I, so far as is possible without confusion, the individual
records for body length (170 males and 148 females) are entered
according to the body weight. The continuous line on the chart
shows the theoretical curve. As can be seen, the distribution of
the records is such as to fit a theoretical curve that rises with dimin-
ishing rapidity, and so far as it can be plotted, is still bending
towards the horizontal. A distinction between the sexes in the rela-
tion of body length to body weight, though present, is hardly to be
seen on Chart I. The mean values for the body lengths are given in
Table 2. Making use of these data, the weight length ratios have
been determined for the series in hand.
Table 1 gives the numerical expression of the relations obtained
by dividing the calculated body length (for both sexes combined,
see Table 2) by the body weight.
The ratios thus obtained are given in Table 1, and these show
that the albino rat becomes relatively shorter as its weight in-
creases.
By means of a correlation table based on groups differing by
10 grams in body weight and 10 mm. in body length, the mean
statures for given body weights have been calculated. This has
been done for each sex separately, as well as for both sexes taken
together, and the final values obtained are given in Table 2.
When the means for the males are compared with those for the
158 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
females (see Chart II, based on 179 males and 160 females) it
will be observed that the latter run slightly below the former. The
difference, though small, has significance, as we shall show later.
However, for the general discussion at this time the results are
not separated according to sex, but are treated together.
TABLE 1.
THkr RATIOS OBTAINED BY DIVIDING THE Bopy LENGTH BY. THE WEIGHT I
THE CASE or Mus Norvecicus VAR. ALBUS.
Body length
Body weight mm. Ratios
gms. | Both sexes combined Ay
(See Table 2.)
5 51.9 10.38
15 77.6 5.17
25 94.8 3.78
35 109.1 3.11
45 120.5 2.67
55 130.6 2.37
65 137.7 Py ailit
75 144.9 1.93
85 152.0 1.78
95 157.7 1.66
105 | 163.4 1.55
115 | 167 .7 1.45
125 173.5 1.38
135 UGE sv 1.31
145 180.6 1.24
155 } 184.9 TLS
165 | 189.2 1.24
175 | 192.0 1.09
185 | 194.9 1.05
195 197.8 1.01
205 200.6 seri
215 203.5 .94
225 206.3 -91
235 209.2 -89
245 210.6 85
255 | 213.5 -83
265 216.4 -81
275 217.8 -79
285 220.6 afte
295 222.1 75
305 224.9 -73
315 226.4 -71
325 227.8 -70
The theoretical curve which most closely represents the change
in body length with increasing body weight, is given by the
formula (4)
y = 148 log (x 4- 15) — 134
where y represents the body length and x the body weight.
This is a formula of the same type as those used for determining
the weight of the brain and of the spinal cord in relation to the
BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD OF RAT. CHART II
HENRY H. DONALDSON.
BODY LENGTH
FEMALE
BODY WEIGHT
Gms. 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320.
To show in the albino rat, the mean values for the body length according to body weight, sexes separated; ————— males, ........ females. The theoretic curve is not drawn,
as it would confuse the other lines.
Tue JOURNAL or Comparative NeuROLOGY AND PsycHoLoGy.—VoL. XIX, No. 2.
vy et i eee an
Redd ance
* gee
jadert
pee
eee PO ™ The
= ‘i. ye <
: OT a
earete pe Nhe? oes re povienestoen ee
Donatpson, Brain and Spinal Cord of Rat. 159
weight of the body, and the type has been already discussed in a
previous paper (Donaldson, 708, p. 350).
In this connection, however, there are some points to be corrected
and further discussed. The consideration of these points is taken
up in a paper by Dr. Hatai which appears at this time.
TABLE 2.
Mean body length according to body weight in Mus norvegicus var. albus.
The body length as given in the last column has been calculated by the
formula (4), y=148 log (x + 15) — 134.
Bopy LENGTH OBSERVED. |
Body |—— = = - — = Saran Body length in
Werent | Frequen- Mean Frequen- Mean Frequen- Mean by geet
cies. mm. cies. mm. | cies. mm.
M M F F M.+F. M.+F
|
5 12 59.2 12 58.3 24 58.8 51.9
15 15 @6ie3 24 75.4 39 75.9 US
25 11 STL 8 96.3 19 97.0 94.8
35 8 108.8 8 105.0 16 106.9 109.1
45 5 121.0 ala 121.4 16 Zee, 120.5
55 Ul 130.7 13 125.0 20 127.9 130.6
65 9 134.0 5 131.0 | 14 132'-5 137 .7
75 9 141.6 5 139.0 14 140.3 144.9
85 8 152.5 4 147.5 12 150.0 152.0
95 6 156.6 10 154.0 16 535483 VST A7.
105 6 165.0 9 159.4 15 162.2 163.4
115 12 166.7 9 165.0 21 165.8 167.7
125 7 iA! 15 AsO 22 171.6 le @s3et9)
135 9 176.1 4 175.0 13 175.6 UOC Sf
145 5 181.0 4 180.0 9 180.5 180.6
155 9 184.0 6 185.0 15 184.5 184.9
165 Uf 188.0 6 183.3 13 185.7 189.2
175 4 192.5 P4 190.0 6 191.3 192.0
185 5 193.0 3 188.3 8 190.7 194.9
195 2 195.0 0 2 195.0 197.8
205 7 200.7 2 195.0 9 197.9 200.6
215 4 202.5 4 202.5 203.5
225 2 205.0 2 205.0 206.3
235 0 ) 209.2
245 7 210.0 2 210.0 210.6
255 3 215.0 3 215.0 213.5)
265 2 220.0 2 220.0 216.4
275 1 215.0 1 215.0 217.8
285 0 0 220.6
295 1 205.0 1 205.0 222.1
305 0 0) 224.9
315 0 0 226.4
325 1 225.0 i 225.0 227.8
The co-efficient of correlation between the body weight and body
length, the records being grouped as stated above, is found to be .90.
It is possible, therefore, to infer the body weight from the
stature, and vice versa, provided the body weight is normal.
At the same time it is evident that body weight is much more
open to fluctuations than is the body length, and therefore the body
length is the better standard.
160 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
2. The relation of the weight of the brain and of the spinal cord
to the body length.
We shall consider each division of the central nervous system sep-
arately.
(a) The relation of the weight of the brain to the body length.
When the data on brain weight are plotted according to the body
length, we obtain the distribution of individual entries (196 males,
TABLE 3.
CALCULATED BRAIN WEIGHTS AND SPINAL CorD WEIGHTS ACCORDING TO Bopy
LENGTH IN Mus Norvecicus VAR. ALBUS,
Data FOR BotH SEXES COMBINED.
Body weight Brain weight Spinal cord weight
Body length gms. | gms. gms.
mm. Calculated by | Calculated by Calculated by
Formula (4). Formula (8). Formula (3).
50 4.5* .204* .031*
55 6.6 | -409 047
60 Tots) | noe -059
65 9.7 . 660 077
70 Wa Se -827 088
75 13.9 .962 . 106
80 16.6 1.065 .129
90 21.8 | 1.191 .159
100 PAY 1.288 194
110 36.6 1.379 .235
120 44.7 1.442 .270
130 ais II | 1.504 305
140 67.4 | 1.561 346
150 81.6 | 1.612 381
160 102.4 | 1.675 .428
170 118.7 | 1.714 -463
180 142.0 1.760 -498
190 169.5 1.811 039
200 201.3 1.851 580
210 239.1 | 1.897 -621
220 283.6 | 1.942 656
225 324.0 | 1.977 -691
* Since the formulas do not allow of extrapolation toward the lower end of the curve, the
averages of the observed values are here employed.
137 females as shown on Chart III. The difference between the two
sexes is slight, and in this instance therefore the data for both
sexes will be treated together.
The theoretic curve which fits the means most closely has been
obtained in the following manner :—
For the body lengths given in Table 3, the body weights were
calculated by formula (4) transposed as follows:—
BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD OF RAT. Ai
HENRY H. DONALDSON.
Gms.
2.40
2.20
2.00
BRAIN WEIGHT
1.80
wlenee
1.60
1.40
1.20
1.00
-80
60 "
ets ee
: xy gt Roopa raat sre? :
40 Le . ax cea “: ox! ? me
a. ee Ty
20s as
arp x2 5 oe
—exees—ne—2gs— 0 2o——-2-
BODY LENGTH
“mm. 50 60 70 80 90 100 no 120 130 140 150 160
To show in the albino rat, the brain weight and spinal cord weight according to body length.
curve is based on formula (8).
170 180 190 200 210 220
(1) Upper entries, brain. Individual records, 196 males @, 137 females X, The theoretic
(2) Lower entries, spinal cord, 189 males @, 187 females X. The theoretic curve is based on formula (3).
THe JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PsycHoLogy.—Vou. XIX. No, 2:
Dona.pson, Brain and Spinal Cord of Rat. 1601
where x represents the body weight and y the body length.
On the basis of the body weights thus determined the weight of
the brain can be caleulated by the revised formula (8)
ey pene. =) Ie x 1.56 )
pyesd ae . x 158 :
2 pe Nleee anyone 1.424
J 1
[ age =F =] Beall wlelicluls) ah oie ldijerte! tefiet ia" serie ltaliaiancuiiae sella tel teiios (= ~iieiee.e (8)
1 + (log x) ™ 1 + (logx)”
as given by Hatai, ’09, in this number of this journal, in which
y represents the weight of the brain and x the body weight.
The computation is simpler, however, if we use
y = .554 + .569 log (x — 8.7)...(1) (Donaldson, ’08)
when x > 10, and a special formula
ve boo lor (s)) == .87 5 CG) lata 08)
when x < 10.
The results obtained from these two formulas are identical with
those from formula (8), and are given in the third column of
Table 3. The corresponding curve is shown by the continuous line
on Chart ITI.
When the means are determined by the aid of a correlation table,
in which the records are arranged in groups differing by 10 mm, in
body length and 0.1 gms. in brain weight, the co-efficient of correla-
tion between body length and brain weight is found to be .86, which
is high.
(b) The relation of the weight of the spinal cord to the body
length.
When the individual records for the weight of the spinal cord
are plotted in relation to the body length, we obtain results which
are surprisingly regular. See Table 3 and Chart III (189 males,
137 females).
As in the case of the determination of the brain weights, the
162 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
body weights used were those caleulated by formula (4), and then
the theoretical curve which fits these results most closely has been
obtained by the use of the formula (3). (Donaldson, 708.)
y = .585 log (x + 21) — 0.795 (3)
where y represents the weight of the spinal cord and x the weight
of the body.
This curve apparently forms a straight line, though in reality it
is a trifle convex towards the base line.
From the correlation table based on groups differing by 10 mm.
in body length and .04 gms. in spinal cord weight, we obtain a co-
efficient of correlation which is .99, being almost perfect.
It will be seen from the foregoing that the weight of the spinal
cord can be inferred from the body length with a high degree of
accuracy.
In this connection an application of the foregoing data can be
made at once. It was noted in a previous paper (Donaldson, 708,
p. 360) that for rats of the same body weight, but of different sex,
the central nervous system in the male was shghtly heavier than in
the female. The question naturally arises, therefore, whether there
is any somatic character with which this difference in the weight
of the central nervous system according to sex can be connected. I
shall endeavor to show that in the sex difference in body length we
find such a character.
It has been pointed out in the present paper (p. 158) that for
the same body weight the males have a slightly greater body length
than the females. It will be of interest, therefore, to determine
whether this difference in body length is sufficient to account for
the difference in the weight of the central nervous system.
It is to be remembered in this connection that when males and
females of like body weights are compared, the brain in the male
is absolutely heavier, but the spinal cord is absolutely lighter. (Don-
aldson, ’08. )
The relative difference is slightly greater in the case of the spinal
cord, but the absolute mass of the brain is so much greater than that
of the cord that as a final result the entire central nervous system
is found to be heavier in the male.
Dona.pson, Brain and Spinal Cord of Rat. 163
If we turn now to the preceding Table 2, we find the percentage
difference between the body lengths for the two sexes (as deter-
mined from the average of the percentage differences between the
five pairs ranging from 155 to 205 gms. in body weight) to be
1.74 per cent. in favor of the male. That is, on the average, mature
males of a given body weight exceed by 1.74 per cent. in body
length females of a like body weight.
If now we select the body length of 193 mm., which is that for
the male having a body weight of 185 grams (see Table 2), and
consider that this body length is 101.74 per cent. of the correspond-
ing female body length, we find by calculation that the body length
of the latter is 189.7 mm., thus giving an absolute difference of
3.3 mm. in favor of the male. In order to determine what difference
in the weight of the central nervous system would correspond to this
difference in body length, we may refer to the preceding Table 3,
where the weight of the nervous system (both sexes combined) is
given according to the body lengths. From this table it is possible
to determine how much increase in the weight of the nervous system
corresponds to an increase of 1 mm. in body length. Taking the en-
tries from the body lengths of 180 to 210 mm., we obtain the fol-
lowing :—
Average increase in
From Increase in body length the weight of the
central nervous system
180-190 i Snomar 0092
191-200 1 mm. O81
201-210 1 mm. OO8T
ali SINGS eRe Oreos ory See REO RR HA Sc Sn .OO87 gins.
If the average difference in weight for 1 mm., as shown by the
table, is .0O87 gms., 3.3 mm. would imply an absolute difference
of .02871 grams. This amount is 1.20 per cent. of the weight of
the nervous system for a rat 195 mm. in body length (this is the
mid-value between 180 mm. and 210 mm., the limits taken in the
foregoing table). In Table 6, of the previous paper, Donaldson, ’08,
it appears as an average of all the groups taken in pairs, that
for rats of like body weight, but different sex, the entire central
164 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
nervous system in the male exceeds that in the female by 1.13 per
cent.’
It will be seen from the foregoing that the increase in the weight
of the nervous system in the female, when the body length is made
equal to that of the male, is 1.20 per cent, and the anticipated
difference is 1.15 per cent. It follows that the difference according
to sex in specimeus of like body weight is accounted for by the differ-
ence in stature, the female having the smaller central nervous
system because the stature of the female is less than that of the
male.
When, therefore, the influence of body weight and of stature is
taken into account, the weight of the entire central nervous system
in the two sexes is similar. It still remains true, however, that there
is a characteristic division of this total weight according to sex,
whereby the male has a slightly heavier brain, but a lighter spinal
cord. These results are in accord with the more recent observa-
tions on the human nervous system. (Brain: Blakeman, ’05; La-
picque, ’08. Spinal cord: Mies, 793; Pfister, ’03, and Donaldson,
08.)
Comparison oF THE Bopy Lenetu or toe Asino Rar Wrru
THE Sittinc Heicur or Man.
The objection is often made that the length measurements on the
lower mammals cannot be compared with the measurements of stat-
ure in man because of the differences in the relation of the head
to the trunk, and of the trunk to the legs.
As a matter of fact, however, the body Tength (trunk + head)
which we have taken in the rat involves measurements of the pelvis,
vertebral column and the skull quite comparable with those made
in determining the sitting height in man. The chief difference is in
the case of the skull which is measured from base to vertex in man,
while in the rat the measurement is along the fronto-occipital axis,
and so includes the nasal bones. These latter grow a trifle more
rapidly than the cranium, especially in the male (Hatai, ’07), but
*The value of 8 per cent given in Donaldson, ’08, page 360, ninth line, is an
error. The correct value is 1.18 per cent as given above.
Donatpson, Brain and Spinal Cord of Rat. 165
the difference becomes insignificant in comparison with the other
parts of the skeleton which contribute so much more to the total
result.
We, therefore, conclude that a comparison between the body
length of the albino rat and the sitting height of man may be prop-
erly made.
The purpose of making such a comparison is to determine whether
the rat is similar to man in the way in which this character changes
with age.
It is not a character which at the time needs to be studied in
detail and so only very general statements are necessary.
In his study on the growth of school children at Worcester, Mass.,
West (792) made records for the sitting height in both sexes be-
tween the ages of 5 years and 21 years. The results are charted
in his Fig. 1 (p. 32) and given in his Table 1 (p. 35).
If we take the average values of the sitting height in man for
the two sexes, first at 19 years of age and again at 5 years of age,
we find the following :—
Situeheieht ate19) years. vs. sas sama. oo 873 mm.
Sumo mevediiate oD VEATS). 2 $s. <4 s.« sinle matey sess < 595 min.
DimeneMCem lin os Si. die Fats cette bee ee 278 mm.
Percentage gain, 47 per cent.
For comparison it is necessary to determine the increase in body
length in the albino rat during the corresponding interval.
Computing from birth as the zero age, and taking the time unit
for the rat on one-thirtieth of that for man (see Donaldson, ’06), we
obtain the following :—
_ Nineteen years of human age correspond with 220 days of rat
age.
Five years of human age correspond with 60 days of rat age.
Table 9, in Donaldson, ’08, shows that 220 days correspond with
an average body weight of 234 grams, and of 60 days, with 78 grams.
The corresponding body lengths in the rat, as shown in Table 2,
are for
166 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
2 OA» OTATIG! pone nce hcicN Noh sees aan ae Net area eee emt 209 mm.
(8. SEAMS <\s 4.5 ee ee ere ee 147 mm.
DitterenGes.sccc.s ee ee ee eee 62 mm.
Percentage gain, 42 per cent.
It appears, therefore, that while the sitting height in man increased
47 per cent during the greater portion of the active growing period,
the body length in the rat increased 42 per cent during the cor-
responding period.
Though not exactly alike, these figures represent changes of the
same order, and this is all that we desire to show at the present
time. The value of this determination, so far as it can be foreseen,
is to indicate that the spinal cord during growth is subject to
approximately the same relative amount of passive lengthening in
both man and the albino rat.
ConcLUSIONS.
1. In the albino rat the ratio obtaimed by dividing the body
weight by the body length diminishes as the body weight in-
creases.
2. Among rats of the same body weight, the males have a slightly
greater body length than the females.
3. The correlation between body weight and body length is high,
being .90.
4. The correlation between body length and brain weight is high,
being .86.
5. The correlation between body length and the weight of the
‘spinal cord is nearly perfect, being .99.
6. The greater weight of the central nervous system in male,
as compared with female rats of like body weight, is completely
explained by the greater body length of the males. This result
agrees with the more recent observations on man.
7. The relative increase in the body length of the rat during
active growth is similar to the increase in the sitting height of
man during the corresponding period. Hence, in both forms, the
Donatpson, Brain and Spinal Cord of Rat. 167
spinal cord is subject to a corresponding amount of passive length-
ening.
8. The body length is a better datum than the body weight from
which to infer the weight of the brain or of the spinal cord. This
is especially true when there is any reason to suspect emaciation
of the body.
9. A mean of the two determinations of the weight of the brain
or of the spinal cord (1) from the body weight (when normal)
and (2) the body length, will give better approximations than the
determination based on either datum alone.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
BLAKEMAN, J.
1905. A study of the biometric constants of English brain-weights, and
their relationships to external physical measurements. Bio-
metrika, vol. 4, pp. 124-160.
Donawtpson, H. H.
1906. A comparison of the white rat with man in respect to the growth
of the entire body. Boas Memorial Volume, pp. 5-6.
1908. A comparison of the albino rat with man in respect to the growth
of the brain and of the spinal cord. Journ. Comp. Neurol.,
vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 3845-892.
HatTat, S.
1907. Studies on the variation and correlation of skull measurements in
both sexes of mature albino rats (Mus norvegicus var.
albus). Amer. Journ. Anat., vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 428-441.
1908. Preliminary note on the size and condition of the central nervous
system in albino rats experimentally stunted. Journ. Comp.
Neurol., vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 151-155.
1909. Note on the formulas used for calculating the weight of the brain
in the albino rats. Journ. Comp. Neurol., vol. 19, no. 2.
Migs, J.
1893. Ueber das Gewicht des Ritickenmarkes. Centralbl. f. Nervenheil-
kunde wu. Psychiatrie, S. 1-4.
PFISTER, H.,
1903. Zur Anthropologie des Riickenmarks. Neurol. Centralb., Bd. 22,
S. 757 und 819.
WEST, G. M.
1892. Anthropometrische Untersuchungen tiber die Schulkinder in Wor-
cester, Mass., Amerika. Archiv f. Anthropologie, vol. 22,
pp. 13-48.
NOTE ON THE FORMULAS USED FOR CALCULATING
TEE WEIGH OR TEE BRAN NS Ee
ALBINO RATS.
BY
SHINKISHI HATAT.
Associate in Neurology at The Wistar Institute.
In previous papers (Hatai, ’08; Donaldson, ’08) the formulas for
calculating the weight of the brain and of the spinal cord in rela-
tion to the body weight were determined on the assumption that
the amount of increment to the weight of these parts is proportional
to the reciprocal of the body weight plus a constant or
where y is the weight of the brain or spinal cord in grams and
x the weight of the body in grams.
Integration of (1) gives at once the value of y.
Thus:
; 1 ea haliaelce
yah |) can er eas (x +a) +e
or in our previous notation (Donaldson, ’08) :
y =A+C log (x + f)
This type of logarithmic formula has been used by the present
writer (708) and Donaldson (’08) and was found to be very sat-
isfactory for representing the relation between the body weight and
the weight of the brain or spinal cord.
This type was further employed by Donaldson (’09) to repre-
sent the relation between the body weight and body length and was
proved by him to be satisfactory.
THE JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PsycHoLoGy.—Voun. XIX, No. 2
170 © ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
The formula in each case was as follows:
Brain weight Ory — -509Nog (a — 76.7) 120004 aes eae (3)
Spinal cord weight or y= .585 log (k+21 )—0.795.......... (4)
Body length or y= 143) logiGa4- 15 i oa ee (5)
Although the formulas (4) and (5) are entirely free from theo-
retical objections within the interval x = (5 grams, 325 grams),
the formula (3), however, has two defects when we apply it to
the case of x < 8.7. The first defect, which appears when x, the
body weight, is less than 8.7 grams, is due to the fact that the
resulting value of (x— 8.7) becomes a negative quantity and the
logarithm of such a quantity is necessarily imaginary. The diffi-
culty thus presented is, however, merely a theoretical one, since for
the purpose of computation the following method may be em-
ployed.
Let us consider the two cases when x is greater than @ and when
x is less than q then we have
(A) dyn when x >@
dx (Gx)
(B) dye eee when x (2)
9
Es 1 1
s= +3v@-¢@)|,5-pel Wetery ir (6)
where W(z) and }(z) are (some) functions of z, The sum of the
first n terms of S becomes obviously
W (2) — 9 (4)
S =¢ (2) +
n f (2) sey
172 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
When (z) < 1, the limit of 2" is zero for n = « and consequently
s=w (z).
On the other hand, where (z) > 1, 2° tends to « and therefore
in this case S = d(z). (See Jordan “Course d’analyse,’ Tome I,
p. 320.)
We have shown already that the brain weights in rats in which
the body weights are greater than 10 grams, can be calculated by
the formula
y=2569 log (x 8st Orab4 = Fo ln oho ee woe ee (3)
Later we found that the brain weights in rats in which the body
weight lay between 5-10 grams may be calculated by a special
formula for this portion of the curve, namely:
WO ORs Ga) = Sie ere a i eee ee (7)
and therefore in the two formulas (3) and (7) y can be considered
as the function of log x.
The values calculated by the latter formula (7) agree perfectly
with the ideal line which completes the brain-weight curve between
5 and 10 grams of body weight.
As has been shown already, the formula (6) is perfectly general
in its application when two conditions are satisfied ; namely, when
z| < 1 in the other.
We also found that not only are the two formulas (3) and (7)
functions of log x, but that (1) is applicable to rats in which the
body weights are more than 10 grams or | log x | > 1, while formula
(7) is applicable to rats in which the body weight is less than 10
grams or | log x | < 1. This satisfies all the necessary conditions.
Thus a combination of the two formulas (3) and (7) will enable
us to calculate the brain weight for any given body weight from
5 grams to 320 grams. (Extrapolation may be used towards the
upper end of the curve).
The final formula is represented by the following :—
> 1 in one ease and
Z
1.56 -569 ~
logx (x — 8.7) — 0.316 ‘ x1.56
Vines ee IS (02 eae BACCO LE 1.424
. ° (x —8.7)
1 1 *
[ ——— - = | PP (8)
1+ (logx)" 1+ (log x)"
in which y represents the brain weight and x the body weight.
Hata, Weight of the Brain. 173
As to the actual use of the above formula, I may add the follow-
ing remarks.
As was mentioned already, the series reduces to
@ (log x) =.569 log (x —8.7) + 0.554
when (log x) is greater than 1; while, on the other hand, the series
reduces to
W (log x) =1.56 log x —.87
when (log x) is less than 1. Therefore it is only necessary to note
whether we are treating rats in which the body weights are greater
or less than 10 grams.
If the body weight is greater than 10 grams, we can simply use
¢@ (log x) or y=.569 log (x —8.7) +0.554
and if it is less than 10 grams, the other formula
w (log x) or y=1.56 log x —.87
Of course, one can determine the brain weight directly from the
formula (8) after some laborious calculation; nevertheless such a
procedure has no advantage over the simpler process described above.
The present formula (8) is desirable simply, first, because it is
free from the theoretical objections; and, second, because by it we
can express the complicated relations existing between the body
and brain under a single generalized form.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
. DoNALDSON, H. H.
1908. A comparison of the albino rat with man in respect to the
growth of the brain and of the spinal cord. J. of Comp.
Neurol., vol. 18, no. 4.
1909. On the relation of the body length to the body weight and to
the weight of the brain and of the spinal cord in the albino
rat (Mus norvegicus var. albus). J. of Comp. Neurol., vol.
19, no. 2.
Hatal, S.
1908. Preliminary note on the size and condition of the central
nervous system in albino rats experimentally stunted. J. of
Comp. Neurol., vol. 18, no. 2.
THE NERVUS TERMINALIS (NERVE OF PINKUS)
tN TEE: EROG:
BY
C. JUDSON HERRICK.
From the Anatomical Laboratory of the University of Chicago.
WitH TEN FIGURES.
A ganglionated nerve connected with the forebrain and inti-
mately associated with the nervus olfactorius has been described
in nearly all groups of fishes. The first clear description of such
a nerve is that of Pinkus (794) for Protopterus. It was termed
the nervus terminalis by Locy, in 1905, and accurately described
in twenty genera (27 species) of selachians, and it was mentioned by
Allis (97) as occurring in Amia. Brookover (’08) has deseribed
it more fully in Amia and Lepidosteus and at the meeting of the
Association of American Anatomists in Baltimore, December, 1908,
Brookover and Sheldon reported the presence of a similar nerve
in the teleosts. Further literature on the subject is cited by the
authors mentioned.
Ernst de Vries (’05) described a transitory ganglion on the
vomeronasal nerve of mammals and suggested that the nerve of
the organon vomeronasale (Jacobson’s organ) of higher vertebrates
is homologous with the nervus terminalis of fishes. Since, however,
the organon vomeronasale of mammals is lined with sensory epi-
thelium of the same type as the undoubted olfactory parts of the
nose and gives rise to nerve fibers indistinguishable from other
fila olfactoria (Read, ’08), it is probable that its innervation does
not differ from that of the other parts of the olfactory organ. In
this case it is difficult to see how the nerve of the organon vomero-
nasale can be compared with the nervus terminalis of fishes, for
the latter fibers are not known to connect with the specific cells of
THE JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PSyCHOLOGY.—VobL. XIX, No. 2,
176 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
the olfactory mucous membrane, they bear a ganglion on their course
and centrally, in most if not in all cases, they do not connect with
the olfactory bulbs but with the brain farther caudad in the vicinity
of the recessus preopticus or lamina terminalis. It may, therefore,
be concluded that, while the nervus terminalis occurs in fishes gen-
erally, its presence has not hitherto been demonstrated in the adults
of any forms above the fishes.
In examining preparations of the brain of the frog prepared by
the Golgi method I found an impregnation of nerve fibers which
conform so closely to the central course of the nervus terminalis
of selachians and dipnoans that I have no hesitation in consider-
ing them homologous. In the first series of sections in which this
nerve was seen its fibers were completely impregnated on both right
and left sides from a position rostrad of the olfactory bulbs to
their decussation in the lamina terminalis; and, since the olfactory
nerves and tracts were for the most part unimpregnated, the course
of the nervus terminalis could be followed with precision. These
findings were subsequently verified in several series of adult and
larval frogs, as follows:
Transverse sections of adult Rana pipiens by the Golgi method
(the series referred to above, Figs. 1 to 7). E
Sagittal sections of adult Rana pipiens by the Golgi method.
Transverse sections of the adult Rana pipiens by the Weigert
method. In this series the process of decolorization of the sections
was incompletely carried out, leaving considerable color in the back-
ground, so that, though the intra-cerebral course of the nervus ter-
minalis is unmedullated, the course of the tract could neverthe-
less be followed with precision. Other series of Weigert sections
permitted the nerve to be identified where it enters the brain, but
not through the brain substance, on account of the complete decol-
orization of its fibers.
Transverse sections of a half-grown frog tadpole by the Golgi
method, illustrating the. whole central course of the nerve and its
free terminal arborizations in the lamina terminalis (Figs. 9 and
10):
Horizontal sections of an old larva of Rana eatesbiana 30 mm.
Herrick, Nervus Terminalis of Frog. 17
long, stained with Delafield’s hematoxylin and erythrosin (Fig.
8).
In these five specimens all, or nearly all, of the intra-cerebral
course of this nerve was followed on both the right and the left
sides. In several other specimens, both larval and adult, smaller
portions of the nerve were also seen. For all of the sections on
which this work is based I am indebted to the skill of my assistant,
Mr, P. S. McKibben. The findings are briefly these.
In the series of transverse sections made by the Golgi method
through the brain of the adult frog first referred to, at the level
of the olfactory bulbs (Figs. 3 and 4), there is impregnated a com-
pact fascicle of a few (probably less than 40) unmedullated nerve
fibers on each side, lying between the meninges and the ventral
surfaces of the olfactory bulbs. This is the nervus terminalis.
When followed caudad the nerves of the right and left sides are
found to be similar; but rostrad they exhibit slight differences.
On the left side at the extreme rostral end of the olfactory bulb
the nervus terminalis has separated from the meninges and joined
one of the small fascicles of fila olfactoria on the ventral border
of the nervus olfactorius (Fig. 2). None of the: fila olfactoria
of this fascicle are impregnated, so that it is easy to follow the
nervus terminalis separately on this side. Scattered fila olfactoria
are impregnated in other parts of the nervus olfactorius and these
are indistinguishable in appearance from the fibers of the nervus
terminalis. Less than 1 mm. rostrad of the olfactory bulb (Fig.
1) the nervus terminalis passes from the ventral to the medial
aspect of the nervus olfactorius, still embedded in its marginal
layer, and here it disappears from view. At about this level the
impregnated fila olfactoria also lose their stain, so that it is prob-
able that the nervus terminalis continues fariiee rostrad in the
nervus olfactorius, though its fibers are not farther impregnated
in my preparations.
On the right side the relations are essentially the same, but not
so clearly demonstrable on account of the fact that impregnated
fila olfactoria mingle in some places with the fibers of the nervus
terminalis: and the latter is not so compact a fascicle. Its fibers
178 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
lie somewhat more deeply embedded in the nervus olfactorius than
those of the left nerve. They curve dorsad and mesad before dis-
appearing, as on the other side.
Passing caudad, the fila olfactoria enter the bulbus olfactorius,
but the fibers of the nervus terminalis separate from them ven-
trally and constitute a small compact bundle of fibers lying in the
meninges ventrally of the olfactory bulbs (Figs. 3 and 4). This
position is maintained until they have passed caudad of all of the
formatio bulbaris (glomerular formation) of the olfactory bulbs,
where they turn abruptly dorso-mesad and enter the substance of
the cerebral hemisphere at its ventro-medial border. The point of
entrance of these fibers varies somewhat in different specimens. It
is in the adult aways farther caudad than any of the formatio bul-
baris of the ventral and medial aspects of the olfactory bulbs, and
in all but one of the observed cases farther caudad than the for-
matio bulbaris of the bulbulus accessorius on the lateral aspect of
the olfactory bulb.
Having entered the brain, the nervus terminalis passes caudad
(Fig. 5), turning slightly dorsad and laterad in its course, embedded
in the ventral part of the hemisphere about midway between the
ventral border of the lateral ventricle and the medial wall of the
hemisphere. The fibers of the tractus olfactorius medialis le ven-
trally and medially of it and those of the median forebrain bundle
dorsally of it. Upon reaching the lamina terminalis (Fig. 6), it
ascends more rapidly between the lateral forebrain bundle and the
crossed portion of the medial forebrain bundle to enter the middle
part of the anterior commissure complex dorsally of the pre-optic
recess, where it decussates (Fig. 7). The fibers can be clearly
traced across the meson in a compact bundle, but their exact place
of termination has not been determined. These relations were con-
firmed in every detail in the transverse Weigert series, and in every-
thing except the decussation in the anterior commissure in the
sagittal Golgi series.
In one of my series of transverse sections through the brain of
the adult R. pipiens prepared by the method of Cajal the nervus
terminalis can be followed in its course through the cerebral hemi-
Herrick, Nervus Terminalis of Frog. 179
sphere on one side. Neither the fila olfactoria nor the fibers of
the nervus terminalis are stained, and therefore the peripheral rela-
tions cannot be determined. The nervus terminalis (unstained) is
seen to detach itself from the olfactory nerve under the olfactory
bulb and to pass back to the lamina terminalis exactly as already
described. Within the brain it is surrounded by a dense mass of
deeply stained fibers belonging to the secondary olfactory and other
systems, so that it can easily be followed back to its decussation as
a clear yellow area surrounded by a dark field of impregnated
fibers.
Professor J. B. Johnston informs me that in 1905 he observed
a similar nerve in Golgi sections of the adult frog brain; but since
he had no control of this single observation, it was not published.
In the Golgi sections of the young larva (Figs. 9 and 10) the
nervus terminalis is seen to enter the lamina terminalis and there
its fibers arborize, some of the free termini crossing the meson and
some remaining uncrossed. Other histological preparations of the
larva show that the cells in the region of these arborizations are
much crowded, forming the nucleus medianus septi. It is probable
that in the adult also the nerve ends in the nucleus medianus septi,
either wholly crossed or partly crossed and partly direct, as in the
tadpole.
In the horizontal series of sections through the brain of an old
larva of Rana catesbiana stained with hematoxylin and erythrosin
very nearly the whole intra-cerebral course of the nervus terminalis
is shown in four consecutive sections, as seen in Fig. 8. The
nucleus medianus septi does not appear here. It lies immediately
dorsally of the plane figured as a dense mass of cells which crosses
the median plane in the lamina terminalis directly ventrally of the
foramen of Monro.
The relations of the nervus terminalis of the larva are essentially
similar, so far as observed, to those of the adult frog, save that the
nerve enters the brain relatively farther rostrad and farther laterad
in the larva. Fig. 8 shows it penetrating the formatio bulbaris
rostrad of the bulbulus aecessorius. It seems probable to me that
the point of entrance of the nervus terminalis remains relatively
180 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
fixed, the changed relations of the adult being due to a farther
growth of the olfactory bulbs rostrad rather than to a recession of
the nervus terminalis caudad. In the adult the olfactory capsules
lie far rostrad of the olfactory bulbs, while in the larva they he
in about the same transverse plane, the olfactory nerves passing out
to them almost laterally.
In none of my preparations have I been able to trace the fibers
of the nervus terminalis distally more than about 1 mm. beyond the
olfactory bulbs. I have not examined the peripheral relations of the
olfactory nerve and nasal capsules in the adult frog. In several
preparations of frog tadpoles (probably R. pipiens) I have found
cells scattered along the peripheral course of the nervus olfactorius
which differ from the sheath cells of the fila olfactoria. The clear-
est case observed is a large tadpole taken just before the metamor-
phosis, which was prepared by the method of Cajal and cut into
horizontal sections. Scattered along the ventral surface of the olfac-
tory nerve in the middle part of its course are more than 100 nuclei
which -differ conspicuously from the sheath nuclei among which
they lie, being round or broadly oval and twice as wide as the nar-
rowly oblong sheath nuclei. They are seattered along the olfactory
nerve from its foramen through the skull to the point where it
breaks up to spread over the olfactory mucous membrane. From
the similarity of these nuclei to those found by Brookover on the
nervus terminalis of ganoids and teleosts I incline to regard them
as belonging to ganglion cells of the nervus terminalis of the frog,
though I have not been able to demonstrate their fibrous connee-
tions.
The exact central connection of the nervus terminalis also demands
further investigation. The single impregnation of the terminal
arborizations in the lamina terminalis of the young larva is not
altogether conclusive and this observation must be verified and
extended before much weight can be given to it. One is, however,
struck by the similarity between this observation and the deserip-
tions of Locy of the central relations of the nervus terminalis in
the selachians.
In conclusion, it seems clear that the nerve here described in
Herrick, Nervus Terminalis of Frog. 181
the frog is morphologically similar to the nervus terminalis of fishes,
so far as our information extends.
LITERATURE CITED.
ALLIS, E. P.
1897. The cranial muscles and cranial and _ first Spinal nerves in
Amia calva. Journ. Morph., vol. Osmias
LBRooKOVER, C.
1908. Pinkus’s nerve in Amia and Lepidosteus (Abstract.) Science,
INS SS, vols 27%, no. 702 p. 913.
Locy, W. A.
1905. On a newly-recognized nerve connected with the forebrain of
selachians. Anat. Anz., vol. 26, nos. 2 and 3.
Pinkus, F.
1894. Ueber einen noch nicht beschriebenen Hirnnerven des Protop-
terus annectens. Anat. Anz., vol. 9, no. 18, pp. 562-566.
READ, IFFIE, A.
1908. 60.
Each olfactory nerve is broken up into numerous fasciculi, some of the larger
of which are indicated by the dotted outlines. A small proportion of the fibers
of the olfactory nerve (fila olfactoria) are impregnated, some of these fibers
being scattered singly among the fasciculi of the nerve, others aggregated into
more or less definite bundles. The fascicle marked n. terminalis on the left
side is unmixed with fila olfactoria; on the right side the two fascicles so
designated are probably of mixed character.
vn. terminalcs
Fic. 2. Through the olfactory nerves just at their entrance into the olfactory
bulbs. >< 30.
The most rostrally placed glomeruli occupy the dorsal part of the section.
The fila olfactoria occupy the middle and ventral parts of the section and only
a few of them are impregnated. The nervus terminalis is embedded in the
most ventral part of each olfactory nerve and all of its fibers are impregnated.
4
Herrick, Nervus Terminalis of Frog. 183
as Ny hh. “gtinule- aN
. \ Veelts al
\
Salk
Mi. terminalis’
Iria. 5. Through the olfactory bulbs at the level of the rostral ends of the
rhinoceles. < 30.
The stippled area surrounding each rhinoceele indicates the extent of the
layer of granule cells, most of which are not impregnated in the preparation.
A few impregnated granules are drawn on the right side. Several typical
neurones of the mitral cell layer are drawn on the left side. Fibers of the
tractus olfactorius pass dorsad from all parts of the mitral cell layer. The
glomerular layer lies farther ventrally, while the layer of fila olfactoria
occupies the extreme ventral part of each bulb. The nervus terminalis has
separated from the fila olfactoria on each side and lies between the latter
and the meninges.
184 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Smterminalis
Fic. 4. Through the olfactory bulbs at the level of the rostral end of the
bulbulus accessorius. > 30.
The layer of granule cells is indicated by the stippled area, ventrally of
which is the layer of mitral cells (unimpregnated). The dorsal half of the
section is occupied by secondary olfactory cells, two of which are imperfectly
impregnated. The fibers of the lateral secondary olfactory tracts are not im-
pregnated. They lie chiefly along the dorso-lateral border of the section ex-
ternal to the dotted line. The olfactory glomeruli are limited to the extreme
ventral part of the section. The nervus terminalis lies still farther ventrally
close to the meninges.
Herrick, Nervus Terminalis of Frog. 185
tr olfactorius med.
ied. forebrain bundle
Wat. forebrain bundle
-n.terminalis
ventro-lateralts
Fie. 5. Through the cerebral hemisphere between the olfactory bulb and the
lamina terminalis. x 80.
The lateral and medial basal forebrain bundles are impregnated and the
_ heurones marked @ and b send their axones into these two bundles respectively.
The tract marked tr. olfactorius medialis contains also other elements, par-
ticularly olfactory fibers of the third order for the nucleus medianus septi.
The ventral fibers of the lateral secondary olfactory tract are impregnated,
but not the dorsal fibers of this tract. The nervus terminalis lies ventrally
of the median forebrain bundle and laterally of the tr. olfactorius medialis.
186 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
. _-tr olfactorius septi
Se /
vi
ZF
et Ge: forebrain bund le
30.
The tract marked medial forebrain bundle on the right side is composed
chiefly of the crossed portion of this tract (cf. fig. 7). Fibers of the uncrossed
portion of this tract arise from the cells marked 0b on the left side. As in fig. 5,
the tract marked tr. olfactorius medialis contains also tertiary olfactory fibers
for the nucleus medianus septi.
Herrick, Nervus Terminalis of Frog. 187
Vat. forebrain bundle
Fic. 7. Section immediately rostral to the decussation of the nervus
terminalis in the lamina teminalis. x 30.
The decussation of the medial forebrain bundle (med. f. b. 6.) occupies the
ventral part of the lamina terminalis. The commissura hippocampi (dorsal
commissure) is approaching the lamina terminalis from the dorsal side. The
other elements of the anterior commissure complex lie farther caudad.
188 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Fic. 8. Composite drawing of horizontal sections through the brain of a
tadpole of Rana catesbiana about 30 mm. long, to show the central course of
the nervus terminalis. > 50.
The specimen was beginning the metamorphosis when preserved, having
the hind leg buds about 6 mm, long. Sections were cut in the horizontal plane
30 microns thick and stained with Delafield’s hrmatoxylin followed by
erythrosin. In these sections the nuclei of the cells are clearly stained and
some of the forebrain tracts. Among the latter is the nervus terminalis on
both sides. Distally this nerve can be followed only a very short distance after
leaving the brain, its fibers being mingled with fila olfactoria and indistin-
guishable from them, both being unmedullated. Centrally the nerve can be
followed back to the lamina terminalis, where it plainly decussates in the
anterior Commissure.
All of the details of this figure are taken from section 19 of the series,
except parts of the nervus terminalis which are taken from the neighboring
sections whose numbers they bear. Section 19 shows the nerve at its point of
entrance into the rostral end of the hemisphere and also its decussation in the
lamina terminalis. With the aid of the camera lucida I have projected upon
the outline of this section the remainder of the intra-cerebral course of the
nerve, which is all included within the three sections lying next ventrad (sec-
tions 20, 21 and 22). Three elements of the anterior commissure complex are
shown, the decussation of the nervus terminalis, the decussation of the lateral
forebrain bundle and the commissure of the corpora striata. The decussation
of the medial forebrain bundle lies in the plane of the section, but it is not
stained in the preparation; cf. fig. 7.
Herrick, Nervus Terminalis of Frog. 189
n.terminalis
/
if
ide ral fore-
if
oi
pl
recessus
preopticus
optic
chiasma
190 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
trolfactoyxiu< _n.terminals
\
~\
N
Fic. 9. A transverse section through the brain of a half-grown frog tadpole,
taken just behind the olfactory bulbs. Golgi method. > 70.
The nervus terminalis is shown immediately after its entrance into the
cerebral hemisphere. A few fibers of the tractus olfactorius are impregnated
ventrally of it.
hucleus
medianus sept
ue p
hervus
Fic. 10. The section following immediately caudad of the one shown in fig.
SE SS AOE :
The section is very thick and shows almost the whole central course of the
nervus terminalis and its ending by free arborizations in the nucleus medianus
septi. The tractus olfactorius lateralis is also impregnated.
THE NERVUS TERMINALIS IN THE CARP.
BY
R. H. SHELDON.
From the Anatomical Laboratory of the University of Chicago.
WITH SEVEN FIGURES.
_ Fritsch figured in 1878 the stump of a nerve arising mesad of the
olfactory from the rostral aspect of the brain of Galeus canis. This
he called an “‘iiberzihliger Nerv.” Our present knowledge concern-
ing it is, however, due almost entirely to the work of the last few
years, during which its existence has been demonstrated in group
after group among the lower vertebrates. Pinkus, ’94, 795, in Pro-
topterus was the first to trace and describe the entire course of the
nerve which he called simply, “ein neuer Nery.” Allis, ?97, found
the nerve in Amia but added nothing concerning its structure and
connections, naming it, however, the nerve of Pinkus. Locy, 799,
in Acanthias deseribed a nerve, closely associated with the olfac-
tory, as in the eases previously reported, but ganglionated. Pinkus
-had founds cells in connection with the nerve in Protopterus, but
hesitated to call them a ganglion. In 1902 Sewertzoff described
in Ceratodus embryos a similar ganglionic nerve which he named
the nervus preopticus owing to the fact that it appears to arise near
the preoptic recess in Dipnoans. Later, Burckhardt, in 1905, found
the same nerve in adult Ceratodus. Loecy in several papers, ’03,
05a, ’05b, takes up in detail its occurrence in different groups of sela-
chians, its peripheral and central connections and its embryonic
history. He pointed out its homology with the nerve of Pinkus in
Protopterus and Amia and the nervus preopticus of Ceratodus, pro-
posing for it the name of nervus terminalis. Brookover, ’08, demon-
strated a ganglion for the nerve in Amia and Lepidosteus, adding
also to our knowledge of its peripheral connections.
THE JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.—VOL. XIX, No. 2.
192 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Until very recently, however, its presence in forms other than the
selachians, ganoids and dipnoans has not been demonstrated. At
the Baltimore meeting of the Association of American Anatomists,
in a joint paper, Brookover and I reported its existence in teleosts,
describing its ganglion, and peripheral and central connections. At
the same time Herrick showed that it is also present in both the
larval and adult frog.
This paper takes up in detail the central course of the nerve in
the carp, Cyprinus carpio. It consists entirely of a tract of un-
medullated fibers which was traced by means of the following
methods and material.
1. Weigert method.
(a) Four transverse series of the entire olfactory crura, bulbs
and nasal capsules of adult individuals about 50 em. in length.
(b) Two longitudinal series through the olfactory bulbs and cap-
sules of similar adults.
(c) Two transverse series through the cerebral hemispheres of
adults.
(d) One transverse series through the entire head of a young
carp about 2 em. in length.
These were stained by a modification of the straight Weigert
method which left the unmedullated fibers a reddish brown. This
method was particularly valuable, as the tract is, for most of its
extent, surrounded by medullated fibers from which it stands out
quite distinctly.
2. Vom Rath method.
One transverse and one longitudinal series through the olfactory
erura, bulbs and capsules of an adult about 30 em. in length. This
method also gave good results, as the unmedullated fibers appear
hghter in color than the medullated.
3. Cajal method.
Two transverse series through the cerebral hemispheres of an
adult about 35 em. long. In my preparations the nervus terminalis
is an orange yellow, while the medullated fibers surrounding it are
nearly black. These series were of especial value in showing the
decussation of the nerve in the anterior commissure.
4. Toluidin blue and thionin methods.
SHELDON, Nervus Terminalis in the Carp. 193
(a) Two transverse series through the bulbs and capsules in an
individual of 35 em. length.
(b) One longitudinal series through the bulbs and capsules of a
fish 30 em. long.
(c) One transverse series through the hemispheres of an indi-
vidual 40 em. in length.
By these two methods one can easily demonstrate the peripheral
ganglion and the nucleus in which the fibers end centrally.
As noted in the paper reported before the Association of Amer-
ican Anatomists, numerous scattered ganglionic cells are found on
the ventro-median side of the olfactory nerve about half way be-
tween the formatio bulbaris and the olfactory capsule. Cells of
the same type are also found caudad to the glomerular region and
rostrad to the nasal capsules, diminishing rapidly in numbers, how-
ever, as one passes caudad or rostrad from the main group of cells.
It was also noted that Cajal preparations show coarse fibers which
ean be traced from these cells rostrad to the olfactory mucous mem-
brane, where they are distributed to the epithelium with the olfac-
tory nerve fibers.
The tract which forms the central course of the nerve is easily
distinguished about half way between the caudal and cephalic ends
of the olfactory bulb on its ventro-median side. Here it is sur-
rounded by the medullated fibers of the tractus olfacto-lobaris
medialis as shown in Fig. 1. Rostrad of this point, however, it
is soon lost, as the medullated fibers either end or seek a new posi-
tion, leaving the nerve surrounded only by the unmedullated fibers
of the olfactory nerve. Scattered among these fibers in this region
are the cells of the peripheral ganglion. As the tract passes caudad
from the bulb it continues to hold its position on the ventro-median
aspect but migrates peripherally until it les next the meninges,
surrounded on three sides, however, by the tractus olfacto-lobaris
medialis (Fig. 2). This relation holds throughout the length of
the olfactory crus (see Fig. 8). On reaching the cerebral hemi-
spheres the tract turns dorso-laterad through the tractus olfacto-
lobaris medialis to le, for a time, between the latter and the radix
olfactoria medialis propria (Fig. 4). It holds this position for some
194 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
distance lying partly enclosed by the tractus olfacto-lobaris medialis.
When the anterior commissure is reached, however, it turns ab-
ruptly mesad (Fig. 5) and largely decussates in the mid-line (Fig.
6) in the most rostral part of the commissure. Part of the
fibers apparently do not cross but end on the same side. The exact
termination of the fibers could not be demonstrated. It is certain,
however, that they end close to the mid-line, without doubt in the
dense nucleus of small cells shown in Fig. 7.
As was stated in the earlier report, it should be noted that the
connection between the central tract and the peripheral ganglion
with its fibers has not been established and cannot be except by for-
tunate Golgi or Cajal preparations. There can be little doubt, how-
ever, that this is the nervus terminalis for the following reasons.
The ganglion and peripheral distribution of the fibres are identical
with the condition found by Brookover in Amia and Lepidosteus
in connection with what is undoubtedly the nervus terminalis. It
is also similar to that described for Protopterus by Pinkus, for
Ceratodus by Sewertzoff and for selachians by Locy. The course
of the central tract corresponds to that shown for the nervus ter-
minalis of selachians by Loey, who worked out the central termina-
tion in some detail. Still stronger support comes from the findings
of Herrick in the frog. In this form the nerve takes the same
course through the brain, including the decussation. Peripherally,
however, the nerve leaves the brain to run in the meninges rostrad
past the formatio bulbaris so there can be no question as to its char-
acter.
Summarizing: there is little doubt that there exists in the carp
a nerve comparable morphologically to the nerve of Pinkus or the
nervus terminalis of other fishes and the frog.
Hutt LABoratory oF ANATOMY,
The University of Chicago, January 18, 1909.
SHELDON, Nervus Terminalis in the Carp. 195
LITERATURE CITED.
ALLIS, EB. P. -
1897. The cranial muscles and cranial and first spinal nerves in
Amia calva. Jour. Morph., vol. 12, no. 3, March, 1897, pp.
487-SOS, pls. XX-XXXVIII.
BinG, ROBERT AND BURCKILARDT, RUDOLF.
1905. Das Centralnervensystem von Ceratodus forsteri. Semon,
Zoolog. Forschungsreisen in Austral. wu. d. Malay. Arch., pp.
513-584, Taf. XLII, 35 Fig. in Text.
BROOKOVER, CHAS.
1908. Pinkus’s nerve in Amia and Lepidosteus. Science, N. §., vol.
27, no. 702, June 12, 1908, pp. 913-914.
IRITSCH, G.
1878. Untersuchungen iiber den feineren Bau des Fischgehirus.
Berlin, 1878, pp. 1-94, i-xy, 13 pls.
Herrick, C. JUDSON.
1909. The nervus terminalis (nerve of Pinkus) in the frog. Report
at Baltimore meeting, Assoc. Amer. Anat., 1909; and Journ.
Comp. Neurol. and Psych., vol. 19, no. 2.
Locy, W. A.
1899. New facts regarding the development of the olfactory nerve.
Anat. Anz., Bd. 16, no. 12, pp. 273-290, Fig. 1-14.
1903. A new cranial nerve in selachians. Mark Anniversary Vol,
article IIT, pp. 89-55, pls. V-VI, 1908.
1905a. To assist in the definition of the area in
which protopathie sensibility remained and from which the epieritic
sensibility had departed, I carefully examined the hairy parts of
2H. Head, W. H. R. Rivers and J. Sherren. The Afferent Nervous System
from a new Aspect. Brain, 1905, vol. 28, p. 108.
7H]. Head and J. Sherren. The Consequences of Injury to the Peripheral
Nerves in Man. Brain, 1905, vol. 28, p. 241.
“Head and Sherren. Op. cit., p. 242.
‘For an account of the lesions and general sensibility changes see my article
in Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., 1909, vol. 19, pp. 107-124.
Franz, Sensations Following Nerve Division. 21
, is ik
the forearm and hand, plucking individual hairs, and also brushing
the hairs with cotton wool or with the ight camel’s hair brush. The
results obtained on this patient are sutticiently different from Head’s
reports to warrant a rather full description of the sensibility of
the hairs.
Over the parts of the hand and forearm which are quite normal,
immediately a hair is touched there is felt a sensation, apparently
sunilar to that when the skin is hghtly touched with a blunt in-
strument, such as a pencil. This sensation results, I find, from the
movement of the hair, and it is emphasized when more than one
hair is moved or when more than one hair is grasped with forceps.
After a hair has been firmly grasped with forceps and slight traction
is exerted upon it, the sensation becomes clearer, or more intensive,
and when sufficient traction is exerted a distinct feeling or sensa-
tion of pain supervenes. The pain appears to differ in character
from that produced by extremes of pressure, as for example that
produced by an algometer, for it is rather burning in character.
Observations such as these were made by H. (the subject of the ex-
periments to be reported here) and by me, and confirmed by repeated
experiments at various sittings.
On the other hand, as may be expected from the results of Head’s
experiments, over parts which are not normal the hairs react in a
totally different fashion. On the volar side of H’s forearm, near
the bend of the elbow, I marked off an area which ineluded subareas
in which the different forms of sensibility were altered. First I
examined carefully the sensibility of the hairs to traction. I went
-over the whole forearm and hand wherever hairs were found, and
marked in red ink a line between the area which was sensitive and
that which was insensitive to such stimulation. The hand and arm
were then photographed and from the photograph was traced Fig. 1,
which is here reproduced. The area in which traction on the hairs
was not accompanied by a pressure-like or by a pain sensation is
that marked with vertical lines. The upper part of the arm, beyond
the elbow, I did not carefully investigate, for it seemed that some
of the change to be found there might be, and probably was, due
to the cutting of superficial skin nerves both at the time of the accident
218 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
and at the subsequent operation. The extent of this area is much
larger than the area of loss of protopathic sensibility as determined
by the methods of Head, and the extensive character of the change
led me to a more careful examination of parts of the area. Since
time did not permit the careful mapping of the whole area, I selected
for more careful work two areas, one on the volar side of the forearm
near the bend of the elbow, the other on the dorsal-ulnar side of the
arm near the wrist.
Fia. 1.—Diagram of hand and forearm of subject in whom ulnar and
median nerves were cut at elbow. Scars of original accident and of operation
shown above elbow. Area marked with vertical lines represents area in which
hairs are insensitive to plucking. The diagram was made from a tracing of
a photograph, and the distortion of the hand is due to the peculiar position in
which the patient holds the fingers.
An illustration of the upper of these two areas as it was marked
in red ink on the arm of the subject is given in Fig. 2. The line
separating the area of pain-on-pulling-hairs from that of no-pain-on-
pulling-hairs is approximately that between areas D and E. In
general contour, however, it is more irregular and more nearly ap-
proaches the shape of the lowest line on the figure. The extent of
this area in which pulling the hairs did not result in a sensation of
FRANZ, Sensations Following Nerve Division. 219
pain or in a pressure-like sensation was determined as accurately as
possible. Once the general line was found, I went carefully over
all the hairs within a centimeter of the line and mapped out the exact
area in which plucking did not result in pressure-like or in pain
sensations. Within the areas F and G, I found none of the hairs to
be sensitive to plucking. Throughout this area and below G, the
usual pressure-like and pain sensations were not produced by pulling
the hairs, even when two or more hairs were pulled out with their
roots. In area E the plucking of only a very few hairs on the upper
Jee. Be
Fic. 2.—Diagram of upper inner part of forearm. MHorizontal areas G, F,
and E were insensitive to plucking of hairs. Below G pressures were not
felt, likewise traction and brushing of hairs. Horizontal areas A, B, and C
had all forms of sensibility intact. Areas E, F, and G were sensitive to
brushing of hairs.
*
border of some of the squares resulted in sensations, while stimulation
of some of the hairs at the lower border of area D was not accom-
panied by the proper kind of sensation. The extent of the lack of
proper sensations in the hairs may then be said to be in the horizontal
areas K, F and G. Although the plucking of hairs in area E was not
accompanied by a normal sensation of pain and the pressure-like sen-
sation, such as are produced by plucking the hairs over normal parts,
when several, say five or six, were pulled at one time a feeling of
an indefinable (to the patient) character was obtained. The subject
220 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
could not make any good comparison with any other known kinds
of sensation, for it was different from pressure and was not like
the sensations obtained by brushing or plucking the hairs over normal
parts. The feeling (or sensation) could not be localized beyond the
general (upper or lower) part of the arm. From numerous stimula-
tions and repeated experiments the feeling or sensation was found
to depend upon the movement of the skin in neighboring regions.
When great care was taken not to move the skin in near-by regions,
this unusual and ill-defined sensation did not result. Throughout
the series of experiments the patient reported that, although he per-
ceived the plucking of the hairs, it should be understood that at
no time within the area of the diagram did the sensations have the
same quality or character as that produced by plucking the hairs
on the right arm. How much of this curious sensation difference
was due to suggestion and how much to an actual change can not
be determined, but it is fair to assume that the patient was ordinarily
trustworthy.
After locating as accurately as possible the area in which the hairs
were insensitive to traction, I mapped out the area in which the hairs
were sensitive to stimulation with cotton wool. When, on normal
parts, the hairs were lightly brushed with cotton wool, the sensation
was immediately perceived, and an accurate localization was made
of the place where the stimulus was given. When the hairs are
stimulated as they lie, we find that many hairs from widely separated
regions may be stimulated. This is particularly so if the hairs happen
to be long and overlap each other to any extent. To determine
“with some precision the presence or absence of this form of sensibility,
I carefully lifted the hairs overlapping any special part and stimu-
lated only those which were immediately beneath those that had been
lifted. In carrying on the experiment in this way it was possible
to locate quite accurately the extent of this kind of hair sensibility
and the error of determining the line of division between sensitive
and non-sensitive parts was not more than a few millimeters.
The results of this careful examination were quite unusual and
wholly unexpected. T found the hairs to be sensitive to stimulation
of cotton wool or of the light eamel’s hair brush in all the areas
FRANZ, Sensations Following Nerve Division. 221
above the lowest line on the diagram, Fig. 2. It will be noticed, there-
fore, that the fifteen square centimeters embraced in the horizontal
areas E, I and G were sensitive to this form of stimulation but not
sensitive to the stimulation of traction.
When this large area was shaved, it was found that stimulation
of the skin with cotton wool or with a camel’s hair brush was ac-
companied by sensation only in the horizontal subareas A, B and
C. In these same areas other forms of epicritic sensibility, e. g.,
the appreciation of two-ness, were also present.
Ulna
ee gs ee
HiGae3st
Fic. 3.—Back of forearm near wrist. Horizontal area A, loss of all forms
of sensibility. Area B, hairs do not respond to cotton wool or to traction.
Area C, hairs react to cotton wool, not to traction with pain sensation, but
with only pressurelike feeling. Areas D and E, hairs react to cotton wool
and to traction. Area I, brushing hairs and traction on them felt more
plainly than in any other areas. Area D and radialwards, area in which
epicritic sensibility retained.
This unexpected result on the upper part of the arm led me to
a further examination of another section of the arm ten days later.
The second area was on the outer and ulnar side of the forearm
beginning about 8 cm. from the fold of the wrist and extending up
the arm a distance of 5 em. This part of the arm is shown in
Fig. 3. Area A in the figure is the area insensitive to pressures.
Area B is separated for convenience, but experimentally not sharply
to be distinguished, from area A and is that part of the arm in which
pressures usually, but not always, were felt. The wavy line separates
222 “‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
the areas in which the hairs do (C) and do not (B) respond to
stimulation with cotton wool. The dotted line separates the areas
in which plucking the hairs produced pain and no pain. Areas D
and E are areas in which the hairs reacted both to cotton wool and
to traction. Area C is the area in which plucking the hairs produced
a sensation similar to that of pressure or to that of brushing the
hairs, but in this area no pain was felt even when the hairs were
pulled out with their roots. In area B plucking of the hairs was ac-
companied by no pain and the hairs did not appear to be sensitive
to any form of stimulation. At times in this area, as happened
with the area near the elbow, when more than three or four hairs
were pulled simultaneously a sensation was obtained. This was
poorly localized, but appeared to be in neighboring more normal
areas. Here also it was found that the movement of the neighboring
parts appeared to be the determining factor in the production of the
sensation. The sensation from this form of stimulation was de-
scribed as similar to that of moving the hairs with cotton wool or
with the camel’s hair brush, and also partly like that of lightly
touching the part with a blunt instrument.
When this part of the arm was shaved it was found that cotton
wool could be appreciated in areas D and E. In these areas different
degrees of temperature could also be appreciated and the subject
reported marked sensation differences between cool and cold, and
between warm and hot stimuli.®
The above facts may be summarized as follows: When the ulnar
and median nerves are cut, over parts of the hand and arm it is
found that the hairs are not sensitive to plucking at a time when
lightly brushing the hairs on the same areas is appreciated as a
stimulus. The parts in which there is insensibility to plucking the
hairs are within the area that, in accordance with Head’s differential
signs, may be described as possessing protopathie sensibility, but
in which the epicritie sensibility has been abolished.
It appears, therefore, that we have in the hairs two forms of
sensibility, one for traction and the other for light pressures or
°A full report of the temperature findings in this portion of the arm will be
found in Section III of this article, beyond.
FRANZ, Sensations Following Nerve Division. 2.23
movements. The results, I believe, cannot be explained, as von
Frey has attempted to explain all of Head’s results,’ as a difference
in threshold values; for in traction we deal with amounts of stimuli
much greater (or at least on normal parts they appear much greater)
than that of brushing the hairs with cotton wool. Such a two-fold
function in the hairs is in accord with the findings of a two-fold
nerve supply to the hairs,® although the results on animals have
not been confirmed for the common (bodily) hairs of man. So
far as I am aware, the only results to be compared with these on
the hair sensibility are those on temperature sensations to be reported
in the next section and the few results by Head and Sherren
on temperature sensations. In one or two cases these authors, it will
be remembered, found parts of the skin not sensitive to hot (above
45° C.) and to cold (below 10° C.) objects, but found the same
parts when stimulated with temperatures of moderate degree to be
sensitive and to give appropriate warm and cool sensations.
III. Temprrature SENSATIONS.
From examinations of normal individuals it appears that there
are special points on the skin that react to stimuli by giving a sensa-
tion of heat or cold, but that in the small areas between these
temperature points no sensations of hotness or coldness can be evoked
by stimuli. On the other hand, when we stimulate the skin with
areas of heated or cooled objects rather than with points the sensa-
tions of warmth or coolness result. The areal sensations appear to
differ from those in which separate spots are stimulated in that only
one sensation is obtained, and there is not an apparent mixture of
heat and cold from the spots that may be stimulated in the area.
For the understanding of these differences in sensation no explana-
tion has been offered that meets with universal approval, but the
analogy of the rods and cones in the retina has been made. It is
‘von Frey. The Distribution of Afferent Nerves in the Skin. Jour. Amer.
Med. Assn., 1906, vol. 47, pp. 645-648. :
°F. Tello. Terminaciones sensitivas en pelos y otros organos. T'rab. del.
lab. de Invest. Biol. de la Univ. de Madrid (S. Ramon y Cajal), 1906,
tomo 4, pp. 49-77.
224 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
said that if the area of the skin which is stimulated has a few spots
that ordinarily give an intense sensation of coolness or warmth,
the areal stimulation takes this character and that the spots which
normally give a weaker sensation help to fill up and to make the
areal stimulation continuous. In other words, it is assumed that
when more than one spot is stimulated, the general character of
the resultant sensation depends upon the sensation that is most
intense in the spots stimulated.°
It will be remembered that in their examinations of sensations
following nerve injury, Head and his collaborators found certain
sensation losses that appear not to conform with the hypothesis of
special nerve endings for warmth and coolness alone. Certain of
their results appear unaccountable on the supposition of loss of
certain numbers of the fibers that supply the end organs concerned
with the sensations of warmth and cold,—supposedly Ruffini’s eylin-
ders and Krause’s end bulbs, respectively. Their work has cast
considerable doubt on the singularity of the sensations of warmth
and coolness and it appears from their examination of cases in which
nerves have been injured or cut that there are two sets of nerves,
four different fibers, which convey temperature sensations. The
two sets belong respectively to the epicritic and protopathic systems,
the former being concerned with medium temperatures, which are
appreciated as warmness and coolness, while the latter mediates the
sensations which may be spoken of as hotness and coldness.”°
The results of temperature experiments made by me on a patient
(H.) in whose arm the median and ulnar nerves were cut confirm,
in a general way, those reported by Head."' In some particulars,
however, differences were found.
Over parts which were insensitive to pressures no sensations of
temperature were obtained, even from those temperatures which
caused a burning of the skin. H. at one time placed his hand
“On this see Titchener. Haxrperimental Psychology, vol. 1, part 2, pp. 87-91.
“Head and Sherren. The Consequences of Injury to the Peripheral Nerves
in Man. Brain, 1905, vol. 28, pp. 224-228.
“For an account of the patient and for other sensation differences, see Franz:
this Journal, vol. 19, pp. 107-124.
FRANZ, Sensations Following Nerve Division. 225
against a steam radiator and produced a burn about 1 em. in diameter,
without appreciating that his hand was in contact with a hot surface.
This burn did not heal, as Head has noted in similar cases, as
‘rapidly as burns on normal parts, and it was over ten weeks before
this area of the side of the hand took on a healthy appearance.
During this time no pain or feeling of temperature could be ob-
tained from this part of the hand. Temperatures as high as I dared
use in the experiments, without causing a burn, were not felt. In
the same way low temperatures were not appreciated on this part
of the arm and hand. A test tube, the temperature of which had
been lowered to —5° C. was not felt and during cold weather the
patient had to depend upon the sensations from the thumb and the
radial part of the arm to determine when the hand should be covered.
In the areas of the hand and arm in which protopathic sensibility
remained, the extremes of temperature were easily appreciated, al-
though the medium temperatures did not call forth a sensation. In
the area retaining also the epicritic sense, however, both extreme
and medium temperatures were readily appreciated.
In the experiments with my subject, I used heated or cooled test
tubes, 12.5 mm. in diameter with hemispherical bottoms. These
were filled with water and in each tube a thermometer was inserted
so that the temperature could be read directly after or before stimulat-
ing any part of the skin. The tubes were placed on the skin and
pressed only with their own weight. It was found that at no place
of stimulation did an area more than 8 mm. in diameter rest upon
the skin. For cold sensations the test tubes were cooled by being
placed in a mixture of ice and salt, and for the lowest temperature
the tubes were cooled to —5° C. For lesser degrees of cold, for tem-
peratures of about 20° C. the tubes were immersed in cooled water.
For testing for sensations of warmth and hotness the tubes were
immersed in a water bath that almost completely covered the test
tubes. Irregular orders were followed in determining the temper-
ature sensations, and no indication was given the subject what the
next kind of stimulation was to be. Moreover, the same square cen-
timeter was never tested twice by the same stimulus in succession.
The tubes were allowed to rest on the skin for only one or two sec-
226 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
onds. Immediately before the test tube was placed on the skin, the
signal word “Now” was given and after the test tube had been
lifted, the subject reported whether or not he had felt anything and
also the quality of the stimulation. The usual procedure of request-
ing judgments when no stimulus or when an indifferent stimulus
was given was tried to see whether or not the subject guessed. After
some preliminary trials, the subject used exclusively the terms “hot,”
“warm,” “cool,” ‘cold,’ “pressure,” and ‘‘do not feel anything.”
The subject also often voluntarily compared the temperature sensa-
tions of two or more stimuli in order and these reports gave a clue
io certain differences that will be reported later. Throughout the
test it was impossible to keep from the subject the knowledge that he
was being tested for temperature sensations, and whenever he reported
that the stimulus was accompanied by a sensation of pressure only,
he was asked to try to determine the character of the temperature.
At these times he was able to make a judgment only when a stimulus
was repeated, and after the test tube had been left on the skin from
10 to 60 seconds, until in all probability there had been time for
radiation of the heat or transmission of the stimulus to more nearly
normal parts. .
A series of early experiments on the hand showed certain devia-
tions from the results of Head and Sherren, and for this reason,
two areas were selected for careful examination, those which had
been previously used for the determination of the hair sensibility
on the upper part of the forearm near the bend of the elbow, and
on the lower part of the forearm near the wrist.”
In the area near the bend of the elbow, each square centimeter
was tested separately, but in irregular order that no suggestion might
be given or obtained of the extent of the loss of temperature sensa-
tion, and each area was carefully gone over three times with each
form of stimulation. The resultant sensations that were reported
were, with two exceptions to be mentioned, the same in all three
tests, and the uniformity is a striking evidence of the accuracy of
the observations. In experiments in this area, no attempt was made
“Figures 2 and 38, pp. 219 and 221, illustrate the areas which were carefully
tested.
FRANZ, Sensations Following Nerve Division. 227
to keep the temperature of the test tubes constant beyond that of
having them cold, cool, warm or hot to corresponding parts of a
normal individual, but temperature degrees were always noted and
records made at the time. In Fig. 4 is shown the area on the upper
I 2 5B 4 -)
NSSAS
OF Tem Oo) Oh ol >
Nera OE AG) ar Cis Cle a
Hires As
Wie. 4.—Ilustrating the sensations accompanying temperature stimuli on
the upper volar part of the forearm. Each of the four parts of the figure
represents the same area of skin. The lowest line is the extent of the loss
of pressure sensations. The line above area D separates, but not so sharply
on the skin, the area of epicritic sensibility (A, B and C), from that of pro-
topathic sensibility (D, E, F and G). Vertical lines, sensations of warmth.
Horizontal lines, sensations of hotness. Diagonal lines running from top to
the right, sensations of coldness. Diagonal lines running from the top to
the left, sensations of coolness.
part of the forearm divided into its component square centimeters
with the results from each kind of temperature stimulation.
In only two cases, with very cold stimuli, 2°-10° ©., did the
three answers differ and in both cases, once each in the two
228 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
squares E4 and KE5, the stimulus was perceived as cold. The
four parts of the figure represent the sensations from the stimuli
which normally would be called cold (2°-10° C.), cool (15°-22° C.),
warm (30°-40° C.) and hot (45°-60° C.). The lines running down-
ward from the left indicate sensation ‘cold,’ the lines running down-
ward from the right indicate the sensation ‘cool,’ the vertical lines
indicate the sensation ‘warm,’ and the horizontal lines indicate the
sensation ‘hot.’
With the lowest temperatures all the areas responded with some
form of sensation. The areas A, B and C reacted uniformly with
the sensation cold, and the square centimeter D5 also reacted in the
same manner. Once each, as has previously been mentioned, K2 and
K4 gave a feeling of cold, while in each of these squares two other
similar stimuli were reported to feel cool. With the next grade of
stimulus, cool, there was a wider distribution of cool feeling than
there was of cold feeling with the lowest temperatures, the areas
comprising A, B, C and D, and of E and F the square centimeters
marked 4 and 5.
The feeling of warmness was obtained over areas A, B and C
uniformly with temperatures from 30°-40° C., and in D the subject
reported a similar feeling but ‘only slightly warm.” With stimuli
from 45°-60° C., areas A, B and C reacted always to the stimulus
as “hot,” while areas D, EK, F and G gave the feeling of warmth.
Areas A, B and © are areas in which hot is distinguished from
warm and cold is distinguished from cool. Areas E, F and G are
areas in which only hot or cold stimuli are invariably distinguished,
although area D5 reacted to cold, areas K2 and K4 reacted once to
cold, D1—5 and also E4, E5, F4 and F5 reacted to cool stimuli.
Area ID reacted to warm stimuli with an appropriate reaction, but
the intensity of the stimulus appeared to be less than in the neigh-
boring area C. With the hot stimulus areas A, B and C reacted in
a normal manner, while the other areas reacted to the same stimulus
with the sensation of warmth. It will be noted that in the area
in which the epicritic sensibility remained intact, coolness and cold-
ness and warmness and hotness were always distinguished. This
comprised the horizontal sections, A, B and C.
FRANZ, Sensations Following Nerve Division. 229
The area near the wrist gave similar results, although in the ex-
periments of this region I did not map out the area according to
squares and have to offer only the general results on the horizontal
areas. In this case, however, I was careful to keep the temperature
of stimulation constant for each area, and each time the stimulus
was applied it was of the intensity noted on the diagram. The
results of these experiments are shown in Fig. 5. Five dif-
10°C. 20-G.
~—— One ee -——_— Se Ke we KK —
res 15.
Fie. 5.—Skin area on ulnar aspect of forearm hear wrist. Area A, no
pressure sensations felt. Areas B and C pressures felt and protopathic sen-
sibility retained. Areas D and BH, pressures and touch appreciated and epicritic
sensibility intact. For explanations of sensations of temperature, see legend
to Fig. 4.
ferent degrees of the stimulus were chosen, —5°, 10°, 20°, 40° and
60° C. The coldest stimulus felt cold in areas D and E, cool in
area C. A temperature of 10° C. felt cold in areas D and EK, but
did not eall forth a sensation of temperature when placed on area C.
20° C. was reported cool in areas D and E, but was indifferent
in the other areas. Stimuli of 40° C. were felt warm in areas C,
D and E, but indifferent in areas A and B. In area C the subject
230 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
noted that this temperature was “just warm,” “only slightly warm,”
ete., not so warm a sensation as that given by the stimulus in the
areas D and EK. Likewise with a stimulus of 60° C. The area in
which warm sensations were obtained were B and C, but the sensa-
tions from area B were not so intensive as those in area C. This
temperature was felt in areas D and E always as hot.
The parts of the arm which did not retain their ability to appre-
ciate pressures, area below G in Fig. 4, and area A in Fig. 5, did not
respond at any time to any, temperature stimulus. Areas G, F, E
and D in Fig. 4 and area B and C in Fig. 5 may be said to have
retained the protopathic sensibility in addition to the deep_sensi-
bility, and in these areas hot stimuli were felt to be only warm,
while cold stimuli were felt to be only cool. In the upper forearm
area D-G there was no response, as a rule, to the intermediate
degrees of temperature. ‘The remainder of the area A-C responded
accurately to all degrees of temperature stimuli. In the area near
the wrist, only D and E reacted well to all degrees of temperature,
and showed the presence of epicritic sensibility. Areas B and C
failed to respond to medium degrees of temperature and their response
to the extremes was not well marked.
At different times during the examination of these two arm areas,
the following experiment was tried: The test tube, instead of being
placed with its end on the skin, was placed so that three to four
centimeters of its length extended over the horizontal areas which
gave such widely different results. In these experiments the subject
described the sensations which were produced and the accounts are
in accord with the observations made when the small horizontal
areas were stimulated by the end of the test tube. Near the wrist
when cold, —5° C., was used, the subject reported that toward the
radius the sensation was of extreme cold, but near the axis of the arm
the sensation was only cool. In a similar way the sensation from
60° C. was described as hot near the radius and warm near the
axis of the wrist. The places from which respectively cool and
warm sensations were obtained when cold and hot stimuli were given
were pointed to by the subject and they correspond closely to the
area OC. This area it will be remembered was found by the previous
Franz, Sensations Following Nerve Division. 231
experiments to give these sorts of sensations with the extremes of
temperature. On the upper part of the forearm similar results were
obtained. In this case the subject was permitted to keep his eyes
open and to mark with his other hand the places where the stimuli
changed in quality. The marking of the division between the areas
was not clear and distinct, but between two points, about two centi-
meters apart, the difference in the sensations was reported to be
marked. These results are in accord, therefore, with those of stimula-
tion of the individual square centimeters and they strengthen the
impression that the sensation difference that was reported in the
first series was not due to radiation or conduction. These results
are quite unlike the results in normal individuals, for in the latter
Pressure
Eres 6%
Fic. 6.—Area insensitive to cold stimuli, compared with the loss of pressure
sensations. Area insensitive to cold inclosed within heavy line. Area marked
with vertical lines insensitive to pressures.
we find the most intense sensations at the places where the warm
or cool object leaves the skin, and the intermediate area appears to
be stimulated uniformly with the same temperature.
On the hand, experiments similar to those on the arm were made,
but with not so many different temperatures. The results of these
experiments are given in Figs. 6 and 7. In Fig. 6 is shown the area
of the hand insensitive to cold stimulation. This included the ulnar
quarters of the palm and the back of the hand, the whole of the
fourth and ring fingers, the first two joints of the second and index
fingers and about half of the thumb. For comparison, the area in-
sensitive to pressure with a pencil is illustrated on the same diagram
232 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
by the use of vertical lines. In only a small portion of the third
finger does the area of insensitivity to pressure go beyond that of
insensitivity to cold. Fig. 7 gives in a similar way the area insens-
itive to hot stimuli. For comparison, with the areal loss of cold
and hot sensations, the area insensitive to light touch is drawn. On
the back of the hand and on the index finger the area of insensibility
to light touch is greater than that to heat, while on the thumb the
area for hot sensation loss is greater than for light touch. With
the exception of a very slight portion of the thumb the area in-
sensitive to cold is included within that insensitive to light touch.
In a general way, therefore, these results, as has already been
Wie, 7
Fic. 7.—Area insensitive to hot stimuli, compared with loss of sensations
to light touch. Area insensitive to hot stimuli inclosed within heavy lines.
Area marked with horizontal lines insensitive to light touches (cotton wool
and camel hair brush).
said, confirm the observations of Head. The facts that do not agree
with those of Head are: There are different extents of areas respond-
ing to different degrees of temperature; the area for the appreciation
of hot stimuli, for example, not being the same as that for the ap-
preciation of cold stimuli as such; temperatures of extreme degree
are felt like medium temperatures or call forth sensations of warm-
ness or coolness on areas which do not respond to the medium tem-
peratures with a corresponding sensation of warmth or coolness.
The results obtained from the arm may be taken to mean that
whenever a cold or hot stimulus was given there was a radiation of
effect from the stimulated area to the neighboring areas. This
Franz, Sensations Following Nerve Division. 238
explanation would also account for the less widely felt sensations
from the medium degrees of temperature when the individual square
centimeters were separately stimulated. Such an explanation would
not account, it seems to me, for the results which were obtained when
an extended line was stimulated rather than a small area. It appears
more probable that, as Head contends, for temperature sensations
we have two sets of nerves, one of which responds to the extremes
of temperatures and the other to the medium temperatures. These
two sets of nerves correspond to the forms of sensibility that are
called respectively protopathic and epicritic, but in a different way
than that deseribed by Head and his co-workers. The results from
my subject show that, although hot and cold stimuli produce sensa-
tions in areas endowed with the protopathie form of sensibility,
the sensations correspond to those produced in normal areas by
stimulation with medium temperatures. This at first sight looks
as if we were dealing solely with differences in threshold values,
but this hypothesis does not account for another apparently anomalous
condition which was found by Head and Sherren, viz., the loss
of the ability to sense the extremes of temperatures with the reten-
tion of the ability to sense medium temperatures.
It seems to me that the temperature results, taken in connection
with those which have been described in my articles on the ‘Pressure-
hike’ and ‘Hair Sensibilities,’ show there is an overlapping of the
nerves, or rather there is an overlapping of nerve supply, and that
the sensation differences which were found in this case are to be
explained as due to the presence or absence of certain nerve endings
or of nerve fibers. It is possible that the sensations of coolness and
warmth are protopathic, while those of coldness and hotness are
epicritic. This, it will be observed, is contrary to Head’s belief.
Received for publication December 7, 1908.
Nore.—Since the articles on sensations following nerve division were written
I received the number of Brain in which Rivers and Head give the results of
careful examinations made on Head’s arm in which the radial nerve was
divided near the elbow (W. H. R. Rivers and Henry Head. A Human
Experiment in Nerve Division. Brain, 1908, vol. 31, Part 123, pp. 328-450).
Some of the new observations reported by Rivers and Head indicate a con-
dition on Head’s arm similar to that found by me on H., but some of these
234 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
anomalies are not sufficiently discussed. A full account of this recent work,
with criticisms of special parts of it, will be found in a forthcoming number
of the Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods. In this
review I shall make a careful comparison of the present work with that of
Rivers and Head, and with that of Trotter and Davies (Journal of Physiology,
London, 1909, vol. 38, pp. 184-246), which has also appeared since my articles
have been in type. At present I wish to call attention to only a few matters
reported in these two recent articles.
The recovery of sensibility to light touch is considered by Rivers and
Head to be dependent upon the regeneration of the so-called touch spots.
These touch spots are, according to these authors, grouped about the hairs
and much, if not all, of the sensibility of the hairs depends upon the presence
of the nerve endings which make up these touch spots. They say, for example,
“Over hair-clad parts these touch spots are strictly associated with the roots
of the hairs, they express the sensibility to mechanical stimuli to that part
of the hair which lies beneath the surface of the skin. Almost every hair is
a delicate tactile sense-organ; any movement of its tip is transmitted to its
root with the increasing power of a lever, setting up tactile impulses.” We
find, however, they report in one part of their paper that tactile sensations
(sensations to light touch) could be evoked only after a period of 365 days
following the operation, but in another place we are informed that “‘No sen-
sations were obtained from the hairs until 86 days after the operation, when
there were found four hairs that gave a sensation when they were plucked.”
It is also noted that 161 days following the operation the hairs on the arm
were sensitive to the stimulation of brushing with cotton wool, although the
sensibility to light touch did not return for 365 days. Surface indications are
that Rivers and Head were dealing with the same form of dissociation of the
hair sensibility which has been described by me in the foregoing papers, but
that they did not carefully investigate this matter. At any rate, from their
account of the sensibility of the hairs we are justified in assuming that the
hair sensibility was found by them to be independent of the presence of dis-
tinct touch spots and that their observations upon the sensibility of the hairs,
casually reported, support the view expressed in the foregoing paper.
According to Rivers and Head all temperature sensations also depend upon
sensation spots, and the differences in temperature sensations described by
Head and Sherren in a former paper are now reported to be due to the
presence of a greater or less number of cold or hot spots in the epicritic
and protopathic areas respectively. Head still holds the view that in an
area in which there is no epicritic sensibility only the extremes of temperature
will be appreciated, while in the area endowed with epicritic sense there
is the ability to appreciate the intermediate degrees of temperature. It is not
clear that Head had sensations similar to those of my subject, but we read
“It would seem that the number of spots stimulated is of greater importance
than the intensity of cold by which the sensation is evoked.’ In experi-
ments in which his arm was tested by cold areas of different size Head reported
a cool large area to feel colder than an ice cold small area, in the former
case there being a number of spots stimulated and in the latter only one.
Franz, Sensations Following Nerve Divtiston. 2215
On account of the fewness of the spots in the protopathic area it is difficult to
see how the protopathic skin would give the hot and cold sensations even
from the stimulation of comparatively large areas and how the sensations
could be of the same intensity as those from normal parts. Head’s observa-
tions on the temperature sensations are at variance with those reported by me,
but it should be remarked that Trotter and Davies were not only unable
to confirm Head’s observations, but that, in fact, they obtained results
similar to those reported here.
The matter of the sensibility to light touch needs hold our attention for
only a brief time. The gradual increase in sensitivity from the anesthetic area
outwards has also been demonstrated by Trotter and Davies in even a more
convincing manner than that given by me. They have shown that the sensi-
bility of individual touch spots differs at different times during the period of
recovery, and it is very plain that the sensory disturbances following the
section of a nerve are more widespread than Head and his collaborators admit.
It is of some interest to note that a criticism of the cotton wool method of
testing light touch has also been made by Trotter and Davies and that for
similar tests they used a brush.
April 26, 1909.
MODIFIABILITY OF BEHAVIOR IN ITS RELATIONS
TO THE AGE AND SEX OF THE DANCING MOUSE.
BY
ROBERT M. YERKES.
From the Harvard Psychological Laboratory.
Witu Four FIGuREs.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
I. Introductory statements: the dancer as material for the investiga-
(GO Cie [ROSIN Ole JORIS Son condomoacescctgcocoooocuduoS 237
II. Relation of age and sex to rapidity of acquisition of a visual dis-
CANE ORK es ety MMe anc ha hoceomuiod sicade ccs ose 238
III. Sensitiveness to electrie stimulus, in its relation to age and sex.... 249
IV. Strength of electric stimulus, in its relation to rapidity of habit-
HOM GL OM = ctenctorses susie cise aia vile, &eolee oneas st oahetolion s telisKarsutel’e ue uek oheuel-e leltomete epeows 252
VY. Relation of difficultness of discrimination to rapidity of habit-
LORIMAWON Ae GUHELEME BAeCSe acre seers sie ceehetelsl vie) cle ec-lekeneneuehenenerers 2559
1. Experiments with cardboards in discrimination box...... 255
2. Experiments with discrimination box in dark-room...... 259
3. Experiments with one side of discrimination box covered
iN “VALYINS CESTEOCS 2 oes. 0c0 w) 2e Sic wie Fue xe) ses ae eae ones 263
VI. Relation of age to rapidity of acquisition of labyrinth habits...... 265
VES Conclusionssanas SUMMA, c/s elses oles + cleus e cisis oie) euch elel heel oie) eb etelienetehancite 267
I. INTRODUCTORY STATEMENTS: THE DANCER AS MATERIAL FOR
THE INVESTIGATION OF PROBLEMS OF BEHAVIOR.
The dancing mouse is well adapted, by its abundant and in certain
respects peculiar activity, to experiments on behavior. Taking
advantage of this fact, I have used it extensively as material for the
development of methods and the revelation of problems, both physi-
ological and psychological. That the results which have been
obtained are typically mammalian I am not prepared to assert. This,
however, is, for my immediate purposes, secondary in importance
to the methodological values of the work. Animal psychology is
urgently in need of exact methods of research. It is an appreciation
THE JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PsycHoLoGy.—Vou. XIX, No. 38.
238 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
of this fact that has shaped my experimental work during the past
five years, and that now leads me to offer the following results of
my study of the dancer primarily as a contribution to the evolution
of method and as an aid to the profitable formulation of problems.
This paper is a direct continuation of the studies in the behavior of
the dancer which are described in my book, “The Dancing Mouse.’’*
Although I have attempted so to write the paper that both methods
and results shall be intelligible to those readers who are not familiar
with the details of previous publications,’ it has been necessary—ain
order to keep my account within reasonable space limits—for me to
omit everything except the chief points, in connection with methods
which I have previously described, and a concise statement of new
results. In other words, I have been forced to assume much more
knowledge on the part of the reader than I should if this were my
first publication on the subject.
Certain problems concerning the relation of age and sex to
habit-formation which were proposed in my book, and either left un-
solved or only partially solved, are brought nearer to satisfactory
solution by the results herein reported, and a multitude of new prob-
lems are revealed. To me, however, the investigation presents itself
simply as another step toward a realization of the complexity of the
phenomena of behavior and of the need for accurate analytic methods.
II. RELATION OF AGE AND SEX TO RAPIDITY OF ACQUISITION
OF A. VISUAL DISCRIMINATION HABIT.
Can the dancer acquire a given habit with the same rapidity at
different ages? ‘This question was the starting point of a study of
plasticity which has already been reported in part.* Before present-
ing the results of my experiments I shall very briefly, with the help of
figures which are reproduced from an earlier paper, describe the
method of work.
Yerkes, Robert M. The Dancing Mouse: a study in animal behavior. New
York, The Macmillan Company, 1907. xxi + 290.
“Yerkes, Robert M. and Dodson, John D. The Relation of Strength of
Stimulus to Rapidity of Habit-formation. Jour. of Comp. Neur. and Psy., vol.
18, p. 459-482, 1908.
*The Dancing Mouse, pp. 270-275.
YERKES, Modifiability of Behavior 2.39
The habit whose formation was studied quantitatively, in the case
of groups of dancers consisting of five pairs each, for the ages of one
month, four months, seven months, and ten months, may be called
the white-black discrimination habit. It involved the discrimination
resale liivel, D
Fie. 1.—Discrimination box. W, electric box with white cardboards; B,
electric box with black cardboards.
Fic. 2.—Ground plan of discrimination box. A, nest-box; B, entrance
chamber; W W, electric boxes; L, doorway of left electric box; R, doorway
from right electric box to alley; O, swinging door between alley and A; JC,
induction apparatus; C, electric battery; K, key in circuit.
of the entrances to two boxes, one of which was white and the other
black, and the entering of the white box. Any attempt to enter the
black box was punished by an electric shock.
Figures 1 and 2 show the experiment box in perspective and in
240 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
ground plan, respectively. The subject, after being placed in the nest
box, A, by the experimenter, was permitted to pass into the entrance
chamber, B. Then a piece of cardboard, which was placed between
the animal and the opening into A, was slowly moved toward L, R,
of Figure 2. Thus the dancer was brought face to face with the two
entrances, L and R, of this figure (B and W, 2. e., black and white
of Figure 1). One of these it would soon attempt to enter in order
to escape to the nest box, and thus find space for dancing. If it
started to enter the black box (and this might be either the box on
the left, L, or the box on the right, R, for the white and black card-
boards, which were at the entrances and within the boxes, could be
transferred readily by the experimenter) it was immediately given
a weak electric shock by the closing of the key, K. This usually
caused it to retreat from the box and to try the other entrance. In
case it entered the black box in spite of the shock, it was not permitted
to escape by way of E and O to the nest box, but instead was forced
to return to B and again make choice of an entrance. This was
continued until the white box was chosen, then the animal was allowed
to return to A. After an interval of one or two minutes it was given
another opportunity to select the right entrance. This was con-
tinued until the white box had been chosen ten times. Such a group
of ten trials constitutes what we shall refer to as a series. One series
was given each individual daily from the beginning of experimenta-
tion until the acquisition of a perfect habit of.discrimination and
choice.
The positions of the white and black cardboards were changed in
precisely the same way for each individual according to an order
which has already been described.* These shifts in the position of
the white box were made in order to prevent the mouse from acquir-
ing the habit of going regularly to the entrance at the left or at the
right.
An experiment (test or trial) was recorded as yielding an error of
choice if the mouse entered the wrong box far enough to get a shock;
as yielding a correct choice if, without first entering the black box,
‘Jour. of Comp. Neur. and Psy., vol. 18, p. 461, 1908.
YERKES, Modifiability of Behavior. 241
it entered the white one and passed through to the nest box. In the
tables appear the number of errors per series made day after day by
the various individuals. At the outset of the experiments each mouse
was given two series of what may be called “preference tests.” In
connection with these tests no electric shock was given and the mouse
was permitted to enter and pass through either the white or the black
box, for it was the sole purpose of the experimenter to discover, by
means of these series, any initial preference that the subject might
have for either the white or the black box.
A habit of discriminating between the boxes, and of uniformly
choosing to enter the white one, was considered perfect when the
mouse made no errors in three successive daily series. As a measure
of the rapidity of habit-formation we may use the number of tests
between the beginning of the first training series (following pref-
erence series B) and the end of the series which preceded the three
perfect series. This measure of rapidity of learning, which I have
named the index of plasticity, proves to be extremely useful for pur-
poses of comparison.
To ascertain age differences in rapidity of white-black-habit forma-
tion I used groups of individuals which, so far as I could tell, differed
from one another constantly only in age. Five males and five females
constituted each group, and four such groups were used. During
their lives all of the animals were kept under the same conditions.
They were paired at the age of twenty-five days, and thereafter a male
and a female were kept in a separate cage and were placed in the ex-
periment box for their daily training at the same time and given
their tests alternately.
We may now examine the results of the experiments. Table 1 con-
tains records of the number of errors of choice made by each of the in-
dividuals of the one-month-old group in each daily series. The num-
bers at the top of the columns refer to the mice. Even numbers
always designate males; odd numbers, females. The two preference
series are indicated by the letters A and B. No. 210, it will be noted,
made six erroneous choices in each of the preference series and also in
the first training series; that is, he attempted to enter the black box
instead of the white box six times in ten. In subsequent training se
~
fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
242
TABLE 1.
RELATION OF AGE TO MODIFIABILITY OF BEHAVIOR
HABIT
WHITE-BLACK DISCRIMINATION
Results for dancers one month old
FEMALES,
MALES.
ONCONOMVOANAATHNOCOS
ONMMMAMANTOTANOOO
254 | 410
252.
m~o
ann |
6
6
OANHHANRTANOCTROnOCCS
OMdtAAMAAOnOoCSO
od | |
ie i) )
a} NO |
pee (yo
o wo
- |
< |
wo
ra mo
bo
or) |
ne Hin | MAMMNOCHAANCOCOSO
|
=
Yo) Volts)
N
for) }
x INO |
N
in
— fo alte ¢) RMIMARANROROCSO
SONNOKDAWHNOSCOS
IMANOAAAOOO
ANMMAOnOTAOCS
Ns MOAAANROCO
MAHANAHIOAROSCS
LAMM AHAAAAOOCO
OAMMIMINAOSOO
‘ on Ld
ANC HID Or OO Sm Sts NS
TABLE 2.
RELATION OF AGE TO MODIFIABILITY OF BEHAVIOR
WHITE-BLACK DISCRIMINATION HABIT
Results for dancers four months old
FEMALES.
MALES.
At
coin
wag |
oO =H
os
alive} |
ADNONDNOCNOGCONAHOCCO
WMAMAAANOROOOG
QOAMANANANAOnROCOSO
OAM AMOOAAAONOCnNCOO
HHMOIMANAMOR AA HOOO
MAMA ARONCOO
NANTON OOoOnOOCSo
ONOOHAHAHHOOCOOHHONOCCO
MMHMMANNARHOSG ©
OwMwM MM AANNONOTOOCO
Series.
rrMOMMAAHANAAHOOS
DIN MID AMO HANH MDOnOnOOCO
YERKES, Modifiability of Behavior. 243
ries the number of errors made by this individual rapidly decreased
until in the seventh series only one was made. Then followed three
perfect series. For this individual, since he acquired a perfect habit
as the result of seventy training tests, the index of plasticity is 70.
The tables contain, in addition to the individual results, the average
number of errors per series for the males and for the females.
TABLE 3.
RELATION OF AGE TO MODIFIABILITY OF BEHAVIOR
WHITE-BLACK DISCRIMINATION HABit
Results for dancers seven months old
MALEs. FEMALES.
] | ]
Series. | 92 96 98 | 116 | 120 | Average. 91 93 99 101 , 109 | Average.
| } | | |
A ) 6 5 7 | Boe 4 4 7 6 @ || ed!
B 7 4 7 3 is 5.2 6 6 i 5 7 6.2
| |
ie Wee hese eine, Ven yen S 4.8 Be een erat Sens 5.8
2 | 4 5 Gig led Si 2586 2 3 7 6 2 4.0
3 4 3 Zoi Bee liens A A 4 4 6 4.4
4 7 5 4 | 5 3 4.8 A 3 6 4 4.0
5 By oi) 5 | 4 BT eae 5 3 5 2 3 | 3.6
6 Bo 2 4 4 | 3.6 5 2 + 2 2 3.0
7 I eso, ral 1 4 4 | 226 1 4 4 3 2) oes
8 eG 2 3 2 4 3.4 2 4 2 pe? 3 2.6
9 2 1 30S 5 3.2 1 5 it i) oi 1 1.8
10 5 1 3 4 yy Men 8.03 0 2 2 0 3 1.4
11 fal 1 3 1 ill 0 1 a) ail 1 0.8
12 2 | & 1 4 1 2.0 1 1 Gi Bh 2 1.4
13 | 6) 1 3 Bi GG 2 Sy he O OQ i.e
14 eS 1 3 Pa aaa 1 1 | @ | € Oe | 37 0)4
15 hecvote te @ 4 2 OF) 2088 1 1 0 1 ON OkG
16 1 i o 0 0 2 056 0 i 1 | -@:2
17 10 0 0 2 0.6 1 0 0 0.2
18 lhe 0 1 0 0.4 0 0 0 Q
19 0 0 1 0.2 0 0
20 ha 1 1 0.4 0 0
21 Vest | 0 1 0.4
22 0 eco ee 0.2 |
23 1 i OF ih 0 0.2 |
24 0 | 1 0.2 |
25 0 | 0 0 |
26 0) | 0 0 |
27 0) 0 | |
|
|
|
Any one who compares this account of my investigation of the re-
lation of age to rapidity of learning with my earlier account will
discover that only two pairs of dancers of one month of age for which
results were given previously? have place in the group under dis-
cussion. This is due to the fact that I felt it highly desirable to re-
peat the experiments with one-month individuals in order to make
“Phe Dancing Mouse, pp. 243, 273.
Len} b ’
244 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
sure that in the interval which had elapsed between the beginning of
this portion of my work and its completion no important changes in
the plasticity of the race had oceurred.® As a matter of fact this
precaution proved unnecessary, for no important differences appeared
as the result of the interruption of the investigation.
The condensed results for the four-month individuals appear simi-
TABLE 4.
RELATION OF AGE TO MODIFIABILITY OF BEHAVIOR
WHITE-BLACK DISCRIMINATION HABIT
Results jor dancers ten and twelve months old
MALES. FEMALES.
Series. 90 | 112*| 142 | 144 | 196 | Average. ] 97* | 113*| 119 | 123 | 141 | Average.
\ |
A | 6 6 5 5 6 5.6 5 8 i 5 4 5.8
B 5 5 6 6 5 5.4 5 7 6 5 4 5.6
ee ES fee || ee = & = he (2 eo eee us Ei
| | |
1 ) 2 2 7 4 5 4.8 7 6 5 6 4 5.6
2 | 6 4 Ba, 24 3 4.4 4 3 7 4 5 4.6
3 ez 3 reel nad 4 5.2 4 6 8 7 3 5.6
4 3 4 Ey | 3 5 4.4 7 3 5 5 3 4.6
5 5 4 Ey |e ze 1 358 4 2 3 2 6 3.4
6 3 4 alt, EZ 3 3.6 ® 2 1 1 5 B®
7 3 5 3 3 4 3.6 2 3 1 0 7 2.6
8 3 2 2 5 4 She 2 1 2 1 5 2.2
9 4 3 2 4 1 2.8 1 1 1 1 4 1.6
10 3 4 1 1 0 1.8 1 1 0 1 1 0.8
11 1 1 1 1 0 0.8 1 0 0 1 2 0.8
12 1 2 1 1 0 1.0 2 0 Te eeO 2 1.0
13 2 1 0 1 0.8 0 0 0 1 0 0.2
14 0 3 1 1 1.0 0 1 0 1 0.4
15 1 1 1 0 0.6 0 1 0 0 0.2
16 0 i | 1 0.4 0 0 1 0.2
17 0 | il 1 0.4 0 1 0.2
18 0 0 On| mel 0.2 eo) | O 0
19 Pt || a 0.4 ant) 0
20 | (10. @ || a | + 0.2 | | 0 0
21 | | O | O | 0 | |
22 | o | o | 0 | |
23 | | © | 0 |
|
"Twelve months old.
larly in Table 2, and those for the seven-month individuals in Table 3.
In the ten-month group (Table 4) I have included the results for
three mice which were twelve months old. Although it is not wholly
satisfactory to do this, it seemed better than to deal with the three
individuals separately. At any rate nothing is concealed by averag-
ing the results for the ten mice, for the individual results are avail-
able.
To make comparisons easier, I have brought together in Table 5
°An epidemic which destroyed almost all of my mice caused a delay of
over a year.
YERKES, Modifiability of Behavior. 24.5
the averages for the males and females of each group. This table
presents also the general averages for each sex. Inspection of these
results reveals the following significant facts.
(1) The females exhibit a stronger initial preference for the
black box than do the males. Both, however, choose the black box
more frequently than the white box, in the preference series. Since
TABLE 5.
GENERAL RESULTS OF THE STuDY OF THE RELATION OF AGE TO MODIFIABILITY
OF BEHAVIOR.
Each result in the table is either the average number of errors in
ten tests for five individuals, or the general average
for twenty individuals.
MALES. " FEMALES.
Series. 1 mo. | 4mo. 7 mo. |10 mo.) Gen. Av. | 1 mo. 4mo.| 7mo. 10mo. Gen. Av.
AS oy See Sry), 5-89 | 5.6 5.60 G2 | Ose Nebel 58 5.90
Be |. 5.0) 6-2 | Ye.2)s 5 5.50 6-0) | 524° 1) 6-2) | 5.6 5.80
1 52 0F P5RG. | 428-1! 4.8 5.05 536) |, 5.2% | 35-8) a 526 5.50
2 SHO) jh pear | 25.6)-|), 454 4.55 3.2 | 2.8 | 4.0 | 4.6 3.65
3 Bide) ARG a| 8.8" 5.2 4.20 3.0 | 3.2 | 4.4 | 5.6 4.05
4 3.2) | 3.6 | 4.8 | 4.4 4.00 2.6) | 2.60) 4.0) | «4.6 3.45
5 2.6|) (3:4) |) 4.6) || 3.8 3.60 Ppa oa\| 2) NES le ea 2.85
6 M8) | 2h4y | 35651) 3-6 2.85 Tete WS Be) 52 2.15
7 Ne2> 2245 v2.6: || 3.6 2.45 14.) 2.25 | 2.8" | 256 2.25
8 0.4 | 42.8 | 3.4 | 3.2 2.45 108 |) 20.61.) 42:6) | 9252 1.60
9 Ore 220 5) Se aioe 8 2.10 1 2e pd soe | iS k Slo 1.45
10 Op2 a0) || 36.4} 1-8 1.65 Or2> | 0266 )| 14AS One 0.75
11 OP) £6. fe F058 0.95 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.8 | 0:8 0.65
12 OW | sOs6i24 9250) |= 00 0.90 Om |) 0.2") 0s io 0.75
13 Os i O%A- | 16> | 201.8 0.70 O22 -| 0:4. | 12) | “Ou 0.50
14 Os | 2:4) 1.0 0.85 0 0. | 0.4.) O:4 0.20
15 0.2 0.8 0.6 0.40 0 0 0.6 0.2 0.20
16 0.) 0.6 | 0.4 0.25 0 O | O82. On2 0.10
17 Gi 0.65} 7034 0.25 0.2 | 0.2 0.10
18 O | .0.4 |) 0.2 0.15 a0 0 0
19 0.2 | 0.4 0.15 30 0 0
20 0.4 | 0.2 0.15 oa 0 3 0 6 0
| aS STS LE IE
13 0 1 1* 72 1*
14 | 0 0 1 3 i)
15 0 0 1 0
16 2 1 1 0
17 0 0 2
18 0 0 0
19 1 0 1
20 1 0
21 i 0
22 2 0
23 0
24 0
25 0
“*At this point condition of discrimination was changed from “‘easy”’ to “difficult.”
relation of age to rapidity of habit-formation is more complex than
certain statements made by students of animal behavior would lead
one to suppose.
My experiments reveal the presence and importance of a number
of variable factors in the white-black discrimination habit; and
until we know accurately the values and relations of these several
YERKES, Modi fiability of Behavior. 259
factors it would be rash indeed to make general statements concern-
ing the relation of age to plasticity. We must limit ourselves care-
fully to particular statements, for what holds of one condition of
training may not hold at all of what appears to be a very similar
condition.
TABLE 11.
INDICES OF PLASTICITY FOR DANCERS OF DIFFERENT AGES, TRAINED UNDER
CONDITIONS OF DIFFICULT OR OF HASY VISUAL DISCRIMINATION.
CONDITION OF DISCRIMINATION.
No. of dancer. DIFFICULT. EASY.
ae Ree ca Mn ee eee in a. aae | oT
| Young dancers— Old dancers— Young dancers— | Old dancers—
1 month old. | 12 months old 1 month old. | 8 months old.
112 | | 160
113 | 100
204 | 40
121 | 40
292 60 |
291 80
430 50
432 50
136 | 40
166 20
416 60
105 90
Averages. 70 | 130 62.5 i 35.0
2. Experiments with discrimination box im dark-room. The
results of the experiments which have just been described suggested
to me the idea that ability to acquire the white-black visual dis-
crimination habit depends largely upon two factors: capacity for
visual discrimination and associative memory. The facts of plas-
ticity thus far revealed might be accounted for, it would seem, by
the assumption that in the young dancer capacity for visual dis-
crimination was either greater at the outset or more readily devel-
oped than in the case of old individuals, whereas associative memory
is more highly developed in the old than in the young mice. This
hypothesis I immediately attempted to test experimentally. If it
be correct, young mice should develop the capacity to discriminate
slight differences in luminosity more quickly than old mice. To
test this matter I planned a series of training experiments with
the apparatus which I have previously described'!! as the Weber’s
“The Dancing Mouse, p. 118.
260 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
law apparatus. It is a discrimination box in which the two
boxes which have heretofore been referred to as white and black are
illuminated by standardized incandescent lamps. There are no card-
boards and difference in illumination, as desired, is obtained by
shifting the position of the source of light for one of the boxes.
This apparatus permits easy and fairly accurate measurements of
the absolute and relative illumination of the two boxes, and in this
respect it is more satisfactory than the cardboard method. Its chief
disadvantage is that it compels experimentation in a dark-room or
at least with artificial illumination of the boxes.
In the Weber’s law apparatus two pairs of dancers were trained
systematically until they had been given almost a thousand tests.
The individuals represent the age limits of the plasticity experi-
ments. The old ones, Nos. 170 and 95, were ten and twelve months,
respectively; the young ones, Nos. 294 and 293, were one month
old. Instead of a single series of ten tests per day, all these indi-
viduals were given two such series each day.
To start with, all the mice possessed perfectly formed habits of
choosing the white box, in the old white-black discrimination appa-
ratus. Experiments in the Weber’s law apparatus were begun with
the two boxes illuminated the one by 80 hefners, the other by 20
hefners. The difference in luminosity in this case may be stated as
three-fourths, since the latter value is only one-fourth the former.
I have found it convenient to keep one of these values constant
throughout a training experiment and to vary the latter as need
dictated. The fixed value, which may then be known as the standard,
is indicated in the table by the abbreviation S. The other value,
which may be known as the variable, is indicated by the abbrevia-
tion V.
A habit was considered perfect in this experiment when a dancer
succeeded in choosing without error in two successive series. As soon
as ability to. discriminate a certain degree of difference in luminosity
had been acquired, the amount of the difference was reduced and
the training continued under the more difficult condition of discrim-
ination. We may now examine the results of this experiment as they
appear in Table 12.
YERKES, Modifiability of Behavior. 261
At the outset the condition of discrimination was fairly easy and
the old dancers learned to choose correctly with 110 tests, the young
TABLE 12.
RELATION OF DISCRIMINATING ABILITY TO AGE.
EXPERIMENTS WITH WEBER’S LAW APPARATUS.
Dancers 10-12 Mo. Dancers 1 Mo. OLp. Dancers 10-12 Mo. | Dancers 1 Mo. Op.
Series No. 170 No. 95. Series No. 294 No. 293] Series No. 170 No.95 Series No. 294 No. 293
S.80h.V. 20 h. Difference three-fourths. S. 80 h.V.60h. Difference one-fourth.
aha 8 1 9 6 AA Sia ges 41 AW lead
2 4 5 2 8 5 45 I. 7° 5 42 2 4
3 7 6 3 3 4 46. || A | 3 43 4 3
4 5 3 4 6 4 Al) Siem lhe et 44 3 7
5) a: 3 5 4 1 AS OLetlipes 45 8 6
6 1 3 6 5 0 AGE Ras 4 46 3 7
Z 1 3 7 iy) |e 50) ty) el 2 47 2 6
: 51 4 4 48 3 4
8 1 2 8 5 0 52 4 5 49 2 5
9 1 1 9 3 1 53 3 4 50 3 6
10 0 0 10 3 0 54 3 2 51 9 3
11 0 2 11 to} 6 55 Sh 3 52 2 3
| 56 oN 53 4 4
a 4 0 12 2 0 57 eas |e 54 3 4
13 (0) 1 13 1 | a 58 3 | 5 55 4 3
14 0 0 14 ie 59 2 | 5 Be tl Lae 5
15 On He 0) 15 Os! 60 | 3 i @ i |) ee 5
| Gly a eS 58 3 5
16 tee 16 One| 62 2 4 59 2 3
63 | 2 4 60 3 5
64 3 6 61 6 7
S. 80h. V.40h. Difference one-half. a Z 2 oz : y
Lie eS ie Waly 0 2 67 3 4 64 3 va
1g || @ 0 18 1 2 68 2 3 65 Dateless
1G) i 28 3 19 5 4 69 2 4 66 fe k |o
20 2 1 20 1 1 70 2 4 67 QP
21 0 3 21 1 3 71 3 4 66 Ae ala BS
22 1 3 22 1 1 72 3 5 69 2 3
23 3 0 23 3 2 73 3 2 70 4 0
24 1 1 24 2 5 74 2 4 71 5 2
25 1 2 25 2 5 75 2 3 72 2 3
26 1 2 26 0 3 76 hale ee 73 3 4
27 1 1 Tee: 3 77 2 @ 74 2 5
28 0 0 Oe ieca. | 50 S. 80 h. V. 26.66 L. Difference one-third.
29 2 1 | 29 2 | 0 78 2 4 75 2 0
| 79 1 3 76 2 2
30 1 il 30) | 0 } 2 80 1 5 a7 9 3
31 i i) Sies| 1 | 0 81 9 6 73 1 9
32 0 1 32 | OP ee 82 1 1 79 0 1
33 PA 2 33 1 2 83 4 5 80 0 1
34 1 0 34 4 0
385 2 2 35 2 0 84 2 5 81 3
36 2 1 36 0 0 85 1 3 82 0
37 DB 2 ee] 1 Pi 86 1 2 geo 4
38 3 1 38 1 87 4 3 Sate 3
39 1 0 39 0 88 2 3 85 | 3
40 0 2 40 0 89 3 5 86 3
41 1 1 S. 80 h.V.32h. Difference two-fifths.
42 0 0 ay i ak fp il 87 ened
By || 0) 0 | 91 10 alliances 88 3
ones, with 95. In view of the results of the previous section we
might have expected the young individuals to learn more slowly than
262 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
the old ones. But we must remember that the conditions of this
experiment are markedly different from those in which cardboards
were used to render the two boxes visually distinguishable.
Next the amount of difference in luminosity was reduced to one-
half, and the experiment continued. Again the young individuals ac-
quired the habit more quickly than the old ones. The index of
plasticity for the old is 250, for the young it is 165.
With a difference in luminosity of only one-fourth, the training
was now continued for several days, but as no one of the four mice
succeeded in acquiring a perfect habit it was changed finally to
one-third. It is noteworthy that in the thirty-four series (340
tests) that were given to the mice with the difference one-fourth,
the old individuals did not succeed in making a correct series,
whereas both of the young mice did. With the difference one-
third, No. 294 quickly acquired a perfect habit, and No. 293 came
very near to doing so, but failed in twelve series. At the con-
clusion of the twelfth series, neither of the old individuals had
learned to choose correctly, with the difference one-third.
Although the results of this experiment are not as convincing
as they might be, they do indicate that young dancers can ac-
quire the ability to discriminate slight differences in luminosity
more readily than can old individuals. It is conceivable, then,
although by no means demonstrated as true, that the young indi-
viduals in the plasticity experiments acquired the white-black habit
more quickly than the old individuals did because they could dis-
criminate better or acquired discriminating ability more rapidly
and not because they acquired an association more readily. In
this event, our experiment measures differences in visual discrim-
ination, and in changes which it undergoes with training instead
of associative plasticity.
I have already shown'? that the dancer is capable, as the result
of prolonged training, of developing the power to discriminate be-
tween boxes which differ from one another in illumination by
less than one-tenth. This fact becomes important at this point, for
“The Dancing Mouse, pp. 127, 128.
YERKES, Modifiability of Behavior. 263
we are forced to ask, Do the plasticity experiments reveal anything
except age differences with respect to what might be termed the
educability of light vision? With the hope of getting further hight
on this problem, I carried out additional experiments, with the indi-
viduals used in the Weber’s law apparatus, by a method whose form
and results will now be described.
3. Haperiments with one side of discrimination box covered in
varying degrees. For this work the cardboards were removed from
the discrimination box which had served for the plasticity experi-
ments, and difference in the illumination of the two boxes was ob-
tained by covering, with a piece of black cardboard, the whole or a
part of the top of one of the two small boxes. The total inside length
of the boxes was 29 em. I have described the condition of the darker
box by giving in terms of a fraction the amount of the top which was
covered. Thus 18/29 means that the cardboard covered 18 of the
29 em., beginning at the entrance and extending toward the rear
of the box. Shifting the lighter box (the one to be chosen) from
side to side involved merely the moving of the black cardboard
from the top of one box to the top of the other.
After the experiments just reported had been completed, mice
Nos. 170, 95, 294, and 293 were given training tests in the dis-
crimination box under the above conditions. Table 13 presents
the condition of discrimination as well as the results of the various
series of tests. When, as at the outset, the whole of one box was
covered, discrimination was extremely easy, because the boxes dif-
fered greatly in illumination.
From the first, as the data of Table 13 indicate, the young
animals learned more rapidly than did the old ones. We have in
these results, therefore, additional support for the belief that dis-
criminating ability is more readily gained by the young dancer.
It may not be out of place to remark here that the simple form of
the lighter-darker discrimination apparatus which served for this
series of experiments is precisely what should have been used
throughout this investigation. It has taken me years to learn that
it is not only possible, but also perfectly easy, to devise a con-
dition of experimentation which should be readily and accurately
264 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
describable as to the difference of brightness of the two boxes and
satisfactory in its results. I cannot too strongly urge, from my
present point of view, the avoidance of cardboards as means of
testing visual discrimination. The conditions of many of my ex-
periments are practically indescribable so far as absolute value of
illumination is concerned, yet, as I now see it, they might perfectly
well have been describable with a fair degree of accuracy.
TABLE 13.
RELATION OF AGE TO ABILITY TO DISCRIMINATE ON THE BASIS OF DIFFERENCE
IN ILLUMINATION, AND TO THE CAPACITY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF
VISUAL DISCRIMINATION.
|
| Dancers 10-12 Montus OLp. Dancers 1 MontH OLp.
Series. | : 2
Portion of darker | Portion of darker
box covered by No. 170. No. 95. box covered by | No. 294. No. 293.
| card. card.
1 | Whole. 5 5 Whole. 5 3
2 2 6 4 4
3 2 1 0 1
4 1 0) 0 0)
5 0 0 0 0
es es
6 0 0 48 0 0
see | ee
a (0) 0 32 1 1
8 2 | 1 0 0
9 3 | 0 | ) 0
10 3 | 0) 5 2
11 0 1 | 3 | 1
12 2 2 oy | 4 2
13 2 2 0 See 2 | 1
14 & By 0 5 4 2
15 2; 5 2 35 2 | 1
16 . ee 2 s | Ve al 3
17 2 4 1 25 0 1
18 fs 4 1 os 2 2
19 a5 4 2, 2; 1 0
20 $5 4 1 |
21 35 2 3
|
|
if
|
|
|
|
|
|
Having now tested the first of the two important factors in the
the acquisition of the white-black discrimination habit, namely,
ability to gain visual discriminating power (the educability of
white-light vision), we must turn to the second factor and in-
quire whether associative memory changes with age.
It occurred to me that since the labyrinth habit, as conclusively
proved by Professor Watson’* for the white rat, depends more
*Watson, J. B. Winezesthetic and Organic Sensations: Their Role in the
Reactions of the White Rat to the Maze. Psychol. Rev. Mon. Supp., vol. 8,
no. 2, 1907. vi + 100 pp.
YERKES, Modifiability of Behavior. 265
largely upon kineesthetie sense data than upon vision or any other
special sense, it might serve well to reveal age differences in asso-
ciative ability. In this connection we may ask, therefore, Do old
dancers learn labyrinth paths more readily than young ones 4
VI. RELATION OF AGE TO RAPIDITY OF ACQUISITION OF
LABYRINTH HABITS.
For the labyrinth experiments I selected two mazes which
I had previously used for the study of educability in the dancer:
they are designated as D and C in my book.'* D is what I have
described as the regular type of maze, and C as the irregular.
Training in labyrinth D was given first to each of ten dancers of
from one to two months of age, and likewise to the same number
of about ten months of age. About a month after the completion
of the training in labyrinth D, the same individuals were trained
in labyrinth C.
In all cases the experiments were conducted as follows. Two
mice, a male and a female from the same cage, were placed in the
nest box of the labyrinth together. One at a time they were given
first a preliminary test in which they were permitted to find their
way from the entrance to the exit of the labyrinth without being
disturbed, and then training tests in which they received a shght
electric shock each time they made an error in the choice of a
path. The tests were continued without interruption, first one
individual then the other being tested, until each had perfectly
learned the path. A habit was considered as perfect when an
individual succeeded in traversing the maze twice in succession
without a mistake. Records were kept of the number of errors in
choice of a path and of the time consumed in finding the way from
entrance to exit.
As typical series of results I present in Table 14 the time and
error records in labyrinth D of No. 416, a six-week dancer, and No.
166, a nine-month individual. The young mouse was slower than
the old one in most of the tests, but he acquired a perfect habit
“The Dancing Mouse, pp. 219, 222.
266 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
no less quickly. I need scarcely state that the time records have
little value for our present purposes, and are therefore omitted,
except in the case of Table 14.
TABLE 14.
RELATION OF AGE TO RAPIDITY OF ACQUISITION OF LABYRINTH HABITS. TyYPI-
CAL SERIES OF RESULTS GIVEN BY Two MALES IN LABYRINTH D.
Dancer 6 WEEKS OLD. Dancer 9 Montus OLp.
No. 416. No. 166
Number of trial.
Time in seconds. | Number of errors. | Time in seconds. | Number of errors.
Preliminary. 280 | 31 161 19
1 240 60 56 6
2 134 24 25 4
3 53 6 62 8
4 22 0 143 17
5 141 3) 62 8
6 15 0 57 6
Uf Ze 1 sil 3
8 14 0 15 0
9 63 6 46 3
10 58 2 29 2,
Wi 15 0 20 0
ale 12 0 13 0
TABLE 15.
RELATION OF AGE TO RAPIDITY OF ACQUISITION OF LABYRINTH HABITS.
Results in the table indicate the number of trials up to the point at
which no errors occurred for at least two consecutive trials.
Dancers 1-2 Montus OLp. | | Dancers 10 Montus Op.
] |
Number of Results for | Results for | Nuniber of Results for Results for
animal. Labyrinth D. | Labyrinth C. animal. Labyrinth D. | Labyrinth C.
256 as | 27 : 92 15 22
258 8 22 | 96 6 6
396 15 26 | | 98 6 19
398 16 14 120 9 12
418 13 | ai 166 | 10 —
Avy. for Males. | ile) | 19.2 Ay. for Males. 9.2 14.7+
179 4 | 16 91 19 8
181 19 9 93 15 13
255 10 18 97 6 11
263 6 7 99 8 19
395 13 — 109 | 10 a
Av. for Ay. for
Females. 10.4 1255 | Females. LG 11.6
Gen. Ay. 10.9 16.2 Gen. Avy. 10.4 13.0
The general results of the labyrinth experiments appear in Table
15. Averages are given for the sexes separately, inasmuch as so
YERKES, Modifiability of Behavtor. 267
often heretofore we have discovered sex differences to be of import-
ance for the interpretation of our results. Comparing the young
dancers with the old, we note that the males of one to two months
of age acquire both the labyrinth D and the labyrinth C habits
considerably less quickly, as measured by the number of tests, than
the ten-month individuals. In the case of the two groups of
females there is practically no difference in rapidity of learning.
The general averages likewise show that the old dancers are some-
what superior to the young in ability to learn these labyrinth
paths.
What evidence we have, favors the conclusion that the associative
memory of the dancer improves somewhat during the first year
of life. Possibly change in the ‘‘apperceptive mass” is responsible.
It is only fair to admit, in concluding the presentation of experi-
mental data, that I consider this problem unsolved, for I have
presented insufficient evidence to convince the critical observer that
associative memory improves with age.
VII. CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY.
This attempt to discover the relation of age and sex of the dane-
ing mouse to plasticity, or rapidity of habit formation, makes
possible interesting and important, albeit not altogether favorable,
comments upon the methods of the investigation. As the. work
progressed it became increasingly clear that the use of cardboards
as means of producing different degrees of illumination of the two
boxes between which the mouse was forced to discriminate was
unsatisfactory. Chief among the objections to this method may be
mentioned the practical impossibility of keeping the difference
in illumination constant throughout even a single series; the im-
possibility of determining accurately, except by very elaborate and
time-consuming methods, either the relative or the absolute illu-
mination of the white and black boxes; the impossibility of chang-
*Photometric determinations of the amount of light reflected by the white
and the black cardboards which were used throughout these experiments
indicate that the white cardboard reflected about 10.5 times as much light as
the black cardboard. For a careful measurement of these values of the card-
boards I am indebted to Professor J. W. Baird.
268 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
ing the amount of difference in the illumination of the boxes with
ease and accuracy. These are only a few of the objections to white,
grey, and black cardboards or papers that experience enables me
to raise. Naturally I shall neither use them nor recommend their
use hereafter in investigations of the visual powers of animals.
Later, in connection with a report on “Methods of studying vision
in animals” which is to be made by the committee on standardiza-
tion of tests of the American Psychological Association, I shall pro-
pose a substitute method.
The investigation has shown, I believe, the great importance
of choosing conditions of experimentation which may be readily
and accurately measured and controlled, and of determining, as a
preliminary to any experimental study of habit-formation, the value
for the individual animal of the several important factors in the
experimental situation. It has further shown that we should work
with individuals, and with relatively simple and perfectly analyz-
able situations; and that no treatment of our results is so likely
to hide their real significance as the averaging of groups of ob-
servations for different individuals. Evidently the best prepara-
tion for an experiment is a thoroughgoing study of the character-
istics of each animal to be used in the investigation; and the best
result which an experiment can yield is evidence of the relation
of experimentally controlled conditions to the particular traits of
an individual animal. Averages are important, but we should
not sacrifice individual facts for the purpose of presenting them.
The primary aim of the investigation, it will be remembered, was
the discovery of the relation of plasticity to age and sex. The
data prove that dancers at the age of one month acquire the white-
black habit more rapidly than do older individuals, and that the
females, on the average, acquire the habit more rapidly than do
the males. Of great importance is the fact (represented by the
curves of Fig. 3) that whereas the females make more mistakes
of choice at first than do the males they very soon begin to choose
with a higher degree of accuracy, and ultimately acquire a perfect
habit with considerably fewer training tests than the males.
That these age and sex differences in the form of the habit-
YeRKES, Modifiability of Behavior. 269
formation curves are not necessarily indicative of general differ-
ences in plasticity is rendered evident by the results of the sections
on sensitiveness, strength of stimulus, and difficultness of discrim-
ination. For in the light of these results we are able to name as
two important, and to a certain extent independently variable, con-
ditions upon which the acquisition of the visual habit depends, (a)
ability to sense the difference in illumination of the two boxes and
(b) ability to associate the darker box with the electric shock.
Evidently an individual which possesses, highly developed white
light vision and is capable of distinguishing very slight differences
in illumination may, at the same time, possess little ability to asso-
ciate stimuli. The data of section V indicate that what we have
called age and sex differences in plasticity are in all probability, to be
referred to differences in visual discriminating ability and in “‘asso-
ciative memory.” Admitting that the results of the experiments
justify only tentative conclusions, we may say that the young dancer
seems to be somewhat superior to the old individual in ability to dis-
eriminate on the basis of difference in illumination, whereas the
old individual seems to associate stimuli somewhat more rapidly,
if anything, than the young dancer.
This suggestion, for it is scarcely more than that, of the way
in which a habit may break up into two relatively independent
factors is one of the most interesting results of the investigation. It
strongly emphasizes the importance of studying the various sense
factors separately and of attempting to discover upon what exter-
nal and internal conditions “associative memory” depends.
To sum up the results of the investigation point by point, if ap-
pears that—
1. The dancer at one month of age acquires a particular white-
black visual discrimination habit more rapidly than do older indi-
viduals. From the first until the seventh month there is a steady
and marked decrease in rapidity of habit-formation; from the
seventh to the tenth month the direction of change is reversed.
These statements hold for both sexes.
2. Young males acquire the habit more quickly than young fe-
males, but between the ages of four and ten months (at least) the
females acquire the habit the more quickly.
270 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
3. Curves of learning for the sexes indicate that the female makes
more mistakes early in the training tests than does the male, but
that this condition soon gives place to greater accuracy of choice on
the part of the female.
4. Initial preference for the white or the black box does not
seem to be a very important determinant of the rate of habit-forma-
tion.
5. Tests of sensitiveness indicate that the male dancer is some-
what more sensitive to electric stimuli than the female. There
are no evidences of changes in sensitiveness with change in age.
6. The strength of the electric stimulus which is used as an
incentive for habit-formation is extremely important as a determi-
nant of rate of habit-formation. For a given animal and condition
of visual discrimination there is a certain strength of stimulus
which is most favorable for the acquisition of the habit (the optimal
stimulus).
7. It is extremely important that experimenters discover the
optimal stimulus for habit-formation.
8. For the dancer the following law appears to hold in connec-
tion with the particular habit under consideration and for the
electric stimulus. As difficultness of visual discrimination in-
creases that strength of electric stimulus which 1s most favorable
(the optimal) to habit-formation approaches the threshold. The
easier the habit the stronger that stimulus which most quickly
forces its acquisition; the more difficult the habit the weaker the
stimulus which most quickly forces its acquisition. .
9. A given difference in the illumination of the boxes which are
to be discriminated cannot be detected with equal ease by old and
young dancers. When the difference in illumination is slight the
young individuals detect it more readily than the old mice; when
the difference is great, the old individuals apparently detect it as
readily as do the young mice.
10. The capacity for “associative memory” is greater, if any-
thing, in the dancer of ten months of age than in the one-month
individual. This is indicated by certain results of the visual dis-
crimination experiments and by the results of labyrinth tests.
YERKES, Modiftability of Behavior. 271
11. The results of this investigation indicate, then, that the ac-
quisition of a visual discrimination habit depends upon two inde-
pendently variable (within limits) capacities in the dancer: (1)
the power to detect differences in illumination or to gain this power
(educability of white-light vision), and (2) the power to associate
the darker box with the electric shock (associative memory). The
former of these capacities seems to be greater in the young than
in the old dancer; the latter seems to be somewhat greater in the
old than in the young individual.
12. Should the statements just made hold true for animals gen-
erally, it is evidently important that the senses be trained early in
life and that the development of associative memory be furthered
later. Investigation of the problems suggested by our results should
vield important practical data for the science of education.
THE REACTIONS OF THE DOGFISH TO CHEMICAL
STIMULI.
BY
RALPH BDWARD SHELDON.
Contribution from the Woods Hole Laboratory of the United States
Bureau of Fisheries.*
WitH THREE FIGURES.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
1HayE Rove hb KCL Val namin taeate tots erie NO OaIe AO oOo too cio UD dob Dae taco ocd.c ooo as 273
CondiWonsPrOL.expPerimyESmlasLOy a atecs pees siete eieeeis eter econ Reenter Porat 276
IRGRKE NOMS COMUNNCO Go obcuen done oon og biah dooctb opp ceanoboasconos2o0€ 278
Sensitiveness to chemical stimuli.
BESPELINTVEMGA] ESM i 5oe ooh. s. wl enssaces siete onset femasser oe) ey ous fe wake) wien sh ene en 281
ENTVAIIV SIS OL PES UES. «ors wo Sus coseign Sims. sion Sees his road urele totocer aoeus nen CRS Cue] Raa CRORE PEER 281
Operations.
DESHRUCHOM Of theaspinalOcOrd, sss dacs ce ecu ere ick errno 288
ANNE HO OIE Tovey RjowTNMIGORO Geoe dn ubocodcoscnconoucosdaneusmacaa 289
IMMervanoneand Teachons of the) MOSES a-s soe ae eerie 291
Ghemicalssensationy as sa ssense=quality...2 ...)- ars ce cases eee citreus eirarenore none 294
(COTE TTESNOTORSE Wc. cintees Oc Se RICE Oe oae nce tear On sont. cle tiensscne 5 Gb d do dicid op aoe 294
SSUUMMMIT TENT fat syei role bese ye ke sect sieod atts ls apesh wig + guineas olane oe lone) opal Htetiaisnet ac tene feet 297
SOMOS ENT ys ge ecbeasets ve wseas ele tes es ceiee 4 cuss faye su toitaseieace sstauepeh oMeaehc homemade omete aural metas 299
JENSEN x Ae SPS Sh Ouch eRe CRG AEG Rh ER EMC ee AE REECE LOM ae Hoary chore er ot ence ity eens cites oo 308
In TRODUCTORY.
The smooth dogfish, Mustelus canis (Mitchell), was the subject
of experiment in an endeavor to find out the sensitiveness of the gen-
eral body surface to chemical stimuli and the extent to which the
nerves of general sensation share in the reactions called forth through
stimulation of the mouth and nostrils. In the investigation of these
problems certain accessory points, such as the spinal animal and the
innervation of the olfactory capsules, are taken up. The substances
*Published by permission of George M. Bowers, U. 8S. Commissioner of
Fisheries.
THE JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.—VOL. XIX, No. 3.
274 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
used as stimuli were those known to affect the gustatory, and to a less
extent the olfactory sense, in higher forms.
The work was-carried out at the laboratory of the U. S. Bureau
of Fisheries at Woods Hole. I wish to express to the Director, Dr.
F. B. Sumner, my appreciation of his assistance in furnishing me
with every facility necessary for the successful prosecution of the
work. The subject was originally taken up in 1907 under the direc-
tion of Dr. G. H. Parker in the Zoological Laboratory at Harvard
University. I desire to tender to him my thanks for many helpful
suggestions made both at that time and at the Woods Hole laboratory.
During the last few years much has been done, particularly among
the invertebrates, on the reactions of animals to different kinds of
stimuli. Part of this work has been concerned with chemical stimula-
tion, the character of which is shown by the work of Pearl (’03), Bell
(706) and Jennings (704 and’06). So far as the vertebrates are con-
cerned, work on chemical stimulation has dealt almost exclusively with
their two chief organs of chemical sense, smell and taste. A serious
attempt has been made, however, to determine for the organs and their
functions a physico-chemical basis. Haycraft (87) was one of the
first to attempt seriously to deal with taste from a strictly chemical
standpoint. He was followed shortly by Corin (88). The most im-
portant work of this character appeared about a decade ago from sev-
eral sources simultaneously. Overton (’97) considered osmosis, while
Kahlenberg (’98, ’00), Richards (’98, ’00), Kastle (’98) and
Hoéber and Kiesow (’98) have taken up critically the physical and
chemical characters of substances which stimulate the gustatory ap-
paratus in man, together with the chemistry of taste itself. Still more
recently Herlitzka (07) and particularly Sternberg, in a series of
papers published from 1898 to 1906, have made a detailed study of
the chemical basis of sweet, sour, salty, bitter, metallic, electrical and
alkaline tastes.
Many other writers have made a physiological study of the action
of this same series of chemical substances on the gustatory apparatus
of man. This includes the work of Kiesow (94b), Haycroft (00a),
Hinig (’01), Nagel (05) and Lemberger (’08), together with nu-
merous others, practically all of whom, however, consider in this con-
SHELDON, Reactions to Chemical Stimult. 27.5
mection only the taste buds and associated nerves. Other authors have
argued that, in addition to these structures, the nerves of general
sensation take part in the sense of taste in man. Such a view is sup-
ported by the work of Camerer (’70), von Vintschgau (’79b), von
Anrep (780), Adduceo and Mosso (’86), Hooper (’87), Berthold
(’88), Oehrwall (91), Shore (’92), Kiesow (’94a), Vinci (’97, 799),
Fontane (’02), Ferrari (04) and Herlitzka (’07).
Extensive work has also been done on the sense of smell in man
from the physiological, and to a less extent the chemical viewpoint,
as may be seen by consulting bibliographies such as that given by
Zwaardemaker (795) and Bawden (’01). There will be no general
consideration of the subject here, as it does not bear directly on the
problem at hand. It is to be noted, however, that in connection with
the olfactory organ as well as the gustatory, the free nerve endings
take part in the reactions secured. Physiological evidence is noted
by Haycraft (00b), while the presence of such terminations has been
demonstrated by a number of writers from Grassi and Castronovo in
1889 to Read (1908).
In spite of the evidence presented by these authors, outside the
single work of Griitzner (’94), little has been done on mammals to-
ward a study of the reactions of the free nerve termini gener-
ally to chemical stimuli. This has been due partly to precon-
ceived ideas on chemical sense and partly to the feeling that nothing
is to be gained by a general study of the chemical sense among the
vertebrates,—even to the extent of including smell and taste under
the same category. Such is the view of Zwaardemaker, who says
(03), “Bei den Wirbelthieren jedoch sind Geruchs- und Ge-
schmackssinn in vieler Hinsicht so grundverschieden, dass es meines
Erachtens keine Empfehlung verdient, sie zusammen zu behandeln.”
On the chemical senses of the lower vertebrates little has been done.
Bateson (’90a, ’90b) discussed the senses of smell, taste, and touch
in several fishes. The work is of little value in the present
connection. In 1894 Nagel published his great monograph on smell
and taste. Nagel repeatedly uses the term chemical sense, always
meaning, however, the combined organs of taste and smell and not a
general chemical sense. He stimulated selachians, teleosts, and am-
276 “fournal of Com parative Neurology and Psychology.
phibia by means of solutions of different chemicals. The selachians
were very sensitive to weak stimuli, reacting to dilute solutions of
vanillin all over the body, but to quinine only about the head. Bar-
bus failed to react to salty, sweet, bitter, or sour substances on the
general body surface, while Gusterostend reacted to quinine only about
the head. With Cobitus and Gobius he obtained reactions with
meat juice and sugar solutions. Lophius was sensitive to chemical
stimuli over the entire skin. Triton, the only amphibian tested, re-
acted on stimulation of the head only. It is evident from later work,
particularly that of Herrick (02, ’03c) and Parker (707, ’08a, ’O8b),
that Nagel’s results did not permit the drawing of sound conclusions,
partly because of the substances used as stimuli, and partly because
he failed to differentiate between fishes with taste buds on the outer
surface and those lacking such structures with their visceral sensory
innervation. Herrick ((02) was concerned almost exclusively with
the sense of taste, in a narrow sense, that is, the reactions to sapid
solutions through stimulation of the taste buds. He performed a few
experiments of a general chemical nature, insufficient, however, to per-
mit any conclusions. Almost the only work on vertebrates which
takes up the reactions of the nerves of general sensation to chemical
stimuli is that of Parker (’07, 08a, 08) on Amphioxus and Ameiu-
rus. His results will be ee later.
Considering that a general chemical sense is probably more primi-
tive in phylogeny than taste and smell and that a careful study of
such a general sense may do much to make clearer the development
of these two senses, as well as their physiology, it is strange that so
little has been done on this topic. This is especially true in the lower
vertebrates, where, in many eases, it is difficult to separate the re-
actions due to stimulation of the organs of taste and smell from those
due to the nerves of general sensation.
Conpirions OF EXPERIMENTATION.
The substances used in this work were hydrochloric, nitric, and
sulphuric acids for acid stimuli; sodium, ammonium, and hthium
chlorides for saline stimuli; sodium hydroxide for alkaline; cane
sugar, dextrose, saccharine, and its carbonate for sweet; and quinine
SHELDON, Reactions to Chemical Stimult. Qi
hydrochloride, picric acid, ammonium and sodium picrates for bitter.
All were made up in distilled water on the basis of the gram-molecu-
lar solution. The inorganic acids were prepared as normal solutions,
titrated against an alkali of known strength for accuracy. The
other solutions were made up by weight, the concentration first used
as a test depending partly on the solubility of the chemical used. The
chlorides were prepared as 5n solutions, the sugars 3n, sodium hy-
droxide as n, saccharine n/6, quinine hydrochloride n/10, picric acid
and its salts n/15. In the experimental work all of these solutions
were gradually diluted until the limit of reaction was reached. Sut-
ficient time was given between tests at different degrees of concen-
tration and with different substances to eliminate after-etfect.
A large number of dogfishes were used in the experiments in order
to rule out individual variation. Most of the normal fishes used were
those caught in the fish traps and placed shortly in tanks about a
meter and a half long, two-thirds of a meter wide and a third of a
meter deep. A current of sea water was kept constantly running
through the tanks. . After a few days in these tanks the fishes could
be handled with little difficulty. For most of the work, individual
adult dogfishes were removed and placed in a smaller trough about
eighty cm. long, thirty em. wide and fifteen em. deep, through which
a strong current of sea water was flowing. After a little handling the
animals would lie quietly in this trough either on the dorsum or ven-
ter, submitting to a certain amount of manipulation. In cases where
it was necessary to have part of the animal out of water or where the
fish was very unruly it was fastened to a frame.
Application of the Stimulus.—The solutions were applied by means
of a pipette and were, in most cases, ejected slowly with the tip ot
the pipette about two millimeters from the skin of the fish. In such
cases the fish was completely covered with water. Where it was es-
sential that the region stimulated should be out of water absorbent
cotton saturated with the solution was usually apphed. Occasionally,
however, the solution was ejected directly against the skin and the
time of the tactile reaction taken, after which the slower chemical re-
action could usually be identified. In stimulation of the mouth or
nasal capsules a metal guard, closely fitted to the snout, was placed
278 ‘Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
between the two sets of apertures preventing diffusion of the stimulus |
from one set to the other.
Regions Tested.—With each solution used, approximately fifty
places on the body were tested at each concentration used, and the
time of reaction always recorded with a stop watch. These regions
included the mouth, nostrils, spiracles, anus, claspers, and selected
places on the fins, dorsal, lateral, and ventral surfaces of the fish. For
the location of these points see figures 1 and 2.
REACTIONS OBTAINED.
The reactions obtained varied according to the part of the body
stimulated, as follows: Stimulation of the mouth or spiracles is fol-
lowed by one or more violent gulps, accompanied, of course, by a
quick ejection of water through the branchial openings. A more rapid
respiration for a greater or less length of time, depending on the
stimulus, follows this. This is the only reaction secured by chemi-
cal stimulation of the mouth and spiracles, and it is secured by stimu-
lus of no other region. When the nostrils are stimulated by any of
the substances used, the reaction is likewise very characteristic. It
consists essentially of a very quick jerk of the head. This reaction is
likewise secured by stimulation of no other region. In the case of the
paired fins the characteristic reaction is a quick movement of the
fins, usually of a vibratory type. Often, particularly if the stimulus
is weak, the first reaction is a turning or movement of the whole fin
toward the stimulus, occasionally away from it, followed usually by
vibration of the fin. With the median fins the reactions are very
similar. ‘The more usual reaction, however, begins with the movement
of the fin toward the stimulus. Often the small caudal finlets of the
median dorsals and the anal fin will react by a rapid vibration, even
though that part of the fin is not stimulated. If this reaction occurs,
it usually begins by a quick movement of the finlet toward the stimu-
lus, more rarely away from it. When the finlet of either the anal or
second dorsal fin takes part in the reaction, the other does also, so
that the action of the two is simultaneous and in the same direction.
When the caudal fin is stimulated, the reaction consists in a rather
slow sidewise movement of the tail either toward, or away from, the
SHELDON, Reactions to Chemical Stimult. 279
stimulus. This is evidently the beginning of a swimming movement.
Stimulation of the anus results usually in bending over ventrad of the
pelvie fins. Occasionally the fins react alternately in an attempt to
turn the body over. If the. stimulus is strong or long continued,
these reactions are followed by a lateral squirming of this part of the
fish enlminating in the swimming away of the animal. Stimulation
of the claspers results in a quick lateral movement and vibration of
the structures. The head responds by a rather slow movement away
from the solution. In general, stimulation of the dorsal, lateral, and
ventral surfaces, other than those already mentioned, results in a
movement of the fish which is very evidently a part of the general
swimming movement. In fact, stimulus of almost any region of the
fins or body, if persisted in, will transfer the local reaction to one
which forms part of the swimming movement of the animal. ‘This
is shown especially in the case of stimulation of the fins or lateral
surfaces. If the caudal, second dorsal, or anal fin is stimulated and
the reaction is toward the stimulus, for instance, there will often be
a movement of the first dorsal fin but in the opposite direction. The
same relation holds true if the first dorsal fin is stimulated. Often
a reaction of all the fins is secured. For example, there will be a
movement toward the stimulus by the caudal, anal, and second dorsal
fins, a movement away from the stimulated side by the first dorsal
fin, an upward movement of the paired fins on the side stimulated
and a downward movement on the opposite side. This reaction was
first pointed out to me by Dr. Parker as a response secured by tactile
stimulation of the same regions. Such reactions are unquestionably
part of the general swimming movements of the fish, as may be seen
by observing the animal in an aquarium. As caused by chemical
stimuli, they are evidently of a kind to preserve the fish from injury,
enabling it to remove itself from an injurious environment. Very
similar reactions are secured by stimulation of the sides of the body
and tail. In general it can be said that a slight stimulus ealls forth
a local response, while a stronger or longer-continued stimulus almost
invariably results either in a new reaction which is part of the swim-
ming movement, or else in a gradual change of the local reaction into
such a part of the swimming movement. The former occurs where
280 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
the loeal reaction differs decidedly from the swimming movements,
as in the case of stimulation of the mouth, while the latter holds in
cases where the two are similar, as in the reactions due to stimula-
tion of the fins. Certain interesting special cases are to be noted. If
the dorsum or side of the fish near the small finlets of the dorsal or
anal fins be stimulated, a quick movement of the finlets toward the
side stimulated, usually followed by vibration of the finlet, occurs.
This may be a reaction to remove an irritant, as is noted in the case
of the frog when a drop of acetic acid is placed on the skin, or it may
be part of the swimming movement, as seems more probable. Evi-
dence against the former interpretation is offered by results which
Parker obtained by tactile stimulation. He found that tactile stimu-
lation of the dorsum near the finlet of the second dorsal fin caused
this reaction; but he also found that if he now stimulated a point be-
tween the finlet and the mid-dorsal line on the same side the finlet
continued to wipe the skin, but ventrad of the point now stimulated.
It would, therefore, appear that the reaction is called forth by stimu-
lation of any part of the side in this region and is not a local response
to remove an irritant. It might be argued, however, that the power
of localization is not well developed in this form. The strongest evi-
dence in favor of the second interpretation is that when the skin be-
side both dorsal finlets is stimulated on the same side at the same time
one turns to one side and one to another, as is the case when the
animal is swimming. This reaction of the finlets was one of the most
dcheate found. Reactions could be secured by stimulation of the skin
beside the second dorsal finlet when all the remainder of the body was
insensitive.
If the claspers are turned to one side and the venter underneath
stimulated, a quick vibration of the claspers over this point follows.
This is probably part of the general swimming movement also, al-
though its constancy and accuracy suggest the wiping reaction. In
the case of the pectorals, however, when the ventral surface between
them is stimulated there follows a quick seissors-like action of the two
fins over the point stimulated. If one fin is held, the reaction takes
place with the other alone. This reaction is not a part of the general
swimming movement, is yery consistent and accurate, and apparently
is of the same character as the wiping reaction of the frog. It is
SHELDON, Reactions to Chemical Stomult. 28t
probably purposeful only in the sense that such a reaction is of a gen-
eral preservative character such as is discussed by Sherrington (706),
This reaction often occurs, also, when the pectoral itself is stimulated,
particularly on its median margin.
SENSITIVENESs To Curmican SriMuLt.
deperimental Results.—The least stimulus which will cause a re-
action, the comparative sensitiveness of different parts of the body,
and the time of reaction for the different substances used are shown
in the tables. The data were obtained under the following conditions.
Several animals were always used for the tests and the figures given
are based on results obtained from two or more individuals. From
three to five tests were made at each point stimulated, with each solu-
tion used, and at each different degree of concentration of that solu-
tion. When individuals were used as controls, however, fewer tests
were made if these demonstrated that the reactions were in conformity
with those first obtained. Before the solutions were applied, both
distilled and sea water were used to make certain that no reaction
would result from their use, exclusive of the test solution. So much
variation in the reaction time between different individauls was oted
that both upper and lower limit in seconds are stated for each point
tested. These limits differ considerably in many eases, yet it is easy
to see that there is a general difference in the reaction time for dif-
ferent regions of the body and for different degrees of concentration
of the solutions. J*or all tests on the dorsal or lateral surfaces, the
fish lay on the venter; while for experiments on the ventral surface,
it lay on the dorsal or dorso-lateral aspect. About ten of the points
stimulated are omitted from the tables.
Analysis of Results.—It will be noted that the same reactions are
secured by the use of any of the inorganic acids used as stimuli, that
is, the reactions are due to the hydrogen ions. The reactions to the
acids in the more concentrated solutions are very strong and definite.
In nearly every part of the body they take place as quickly as me-
chanical conditions will permit, that is to say, almost instantaneously.
With the decrease in concentration the reaction time becomes a trifle
longer. Practically the entire body is sensitive to n/20 acid, the head
282 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
PrcTrORALS. | PECTORALS.
Basr. MARGIN.
PrELvics
Subs. Base.
Mth. | Spir. | Nost. | Anus.
PreLvics.
MARGIN.
and
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SHELDON, Reactions to Chemical Stimult.
Dorsat. Sreconp Dorsat. ANAL CAUDAL. Heap. SNour.
Dors. ere us a ‘Dors. or, oa / Vent Zi | Vent. wi | oa 7
tip. Finl. | Base. tip. Finl. | Base. | tip. Finl. | Base. | marg.| Tip. | Dors. | Vent. | Dors. Vent.
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22) be Zo: 24 25 | 26 27 28
| lier | Tae
| | | | |
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3-6 4-5 3-5 6-8 5-6 2-6 6-8 2-4 4-7 | 5-7 | o-t 0 5-7 5-0 7-0
3-8 4-8 3-8 6-0 5-9 3-8 10-12} 4-10; 4-11; 6-9 3-12; 0 | 5-8 0 |) 70)
0 4-0 | * 0 * * x ee 6-0 0 * 0 0 0 | O
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0 0 1 @ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10) 0 0 0)
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4-14 14-18! 7-14 4-12} 8-16} 5-7 7-9 6-14 9-16} 8-14! 6-0 5-0 0 0
8-13 10-0 | 8-13) 8-18] 12-13 6-10) 5-9 0 7-0 0 0
0 0 0 * * 0 * * 0) 0 0 0 0) 10) 0
0 0 | O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10) 0 | 0
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12-36 12-20} 12-19} 9-19] 8-16} 8-21} 6-24] 6-15] 11-23| 15-22} 8-25) 4-0 7-13| O 7-0
6-36 | 12-0 13-25, 19-0 6-32} 7-14) 18-20] 6-19 0 10-21) O 7-0 0) 0
0 LO) 0 |} O 0. 10) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 | Oo 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Gre 0
|
(537 | TWP! O22e7|| alg. ale) See) |) Taka!) Gals 12-16] 8-22) 9-35/ 14 42 0
if ieee ag ft ft ft t it tt t 0 0 0 | 0
0 0 0 0 0 0) 0 0 10) 0 0 10) 0 0
| |
se |
|
| i
| |
0 0) | 0 0 0) 0 0 0 0 | O 0 i) | 0 0) 0
| |
x | x ois x x x x 5s x | x x x x eg x
= Es je
| ike
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
* | | ieee
|
|
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 @) 0 | 0 0 0 0
284 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Dorsat Asprecr LatreraL ASPECT. VENTRAL ASPECT.
Subs; |— SS —= = = =
and Ceph. | 1D | Betw.| 2D | Vent.) Mid- | Anal.) Tail. | Betw.| Mid- | Clas- | Dors. | Caud
Cone. | of 1D) Finl. | Dors. | Finl. | of 1D! dle. Finl. | pect. | dle. | pers. | of cl. | of el
29 30 | 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 | 39 40 41
- =| |
HCl, | |
HNO;
H.SO, 2-3 1-4 1-3 1-2 1-3 2
n/1 1-4 1-4 3-6 1-2 1-4 2-3 1-2 2-7 3-6 a) 2-4 2-6
n/10 | 3-5 2-3 4-8 2-4 3-7 2-7 1-2 2-6 SI) 3-8 2-7 2-8
n/20 3-5 3-4 4-8 2--6 3-4 2-6 * 0 * * * * 0
n/40 | 4-0 | * 0 * 0 * * 17*0 | 0 0 0 | 9#78| 0
n/50 | O * 18*22 18*0 0 * 3 0 0 0 0 * 0
n/75 0 | 18*30 | 0 18*30) O 0 |
n/100, 0 0 |
NaOH | |
n/1 | | | |
n/5 2 | Baloo :
n/10 6-9 4-10! 6-9 6-11| 8-17) 8-17) 5-8 5=8) 4-0) 0 5-15 ' 10-14
n/20 | 0 9-0 | 0 4-13 | 0 0 0 0 |
n/30 0 * 0 * fe W) 0 aS 10) 0 0 | es * | =
n/40 | 0 0 0 cr SPO 0 * 0 0 (ies ic 3 a ae
n/50 | * | * 0 | 3% * | *
n/60 | * 0 | eo alle a a)
n/70 | | * | 0 0
lem | |
NHC | | | | |
5n 0 | | 12-21| 5-24) 7-14) 15 7-26; 5-12| 7-27] 13-27) 5-14] 7-8 | 20-37
2n | 25-0 | 7-0 | 25-0 5-32 * 10-15] 11-0 6-16 | 10-22 8-18
n/1 | 0 OKO * 0 0 + 0 0 Oy Ome ee
Quin. |
h.chl. | | |
n/10 | 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 | O
n/20 | |
p/30 | | |
n/40 |
= — i}
Picr. |
acid. |
n/15 6-35.) (5-8 10-12} 5-8 0 2-10 | 6-10} 7-10) 8-11 3-10 12-15
n/30 | 20-40 | 20 | 20 20 it 23-29 | ft 9-27 if 12—42 | 22-45
n/60 | O * 0 * 0 0 * 0 0 0 = JP a3 *
n/120 0 0 OF ail Ono 0
Am. and | | |
Sod. lines | | }
pier. | |
n/15 0 10*20 | O- | 10*20| O 0 | 10*20! O 15*30! 0 0 | 15*20) O
n/30 0 | 0 | O | } | 0
Sacch.
n/6 | x: x x X. x x: x aX: x x x 3x x
Carb. |
of |
Sacch. ; | |
n/6 0 0 0 0 0) 0 0 0 po) 0 0 0 0
Cane | | |
sug. and | | |
dext. | |
sn | O 0 10 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 | 0
SHELDON, Reactions to Chemical Sitmult. 285
SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE TABLES.
Numbers at the heads of columns refer to the points stimulated as shown
on Figs. 1 and 2. Other numbers indicate the reaction time in seconds.
— is equivalent to the word to.
* signifies that a reaction was secured with the region stimulated out of
water, according to some of the methods already described. The reaction
time in such cases was rarely taken. The exceptions are indicated by the
replacement of — by *.
~ refers to cases in which the reaction was secured with the region tested
under water, the reaction time not being taken. This sign usually signifies
that the reaction was very weak and incomplete.
x is used in one case where the reaction was very strong and definite,
but where the reaction time was not taken.
0 indicates that no reaction could be secured with the fish, either under
or out of water. When used after another number it signifies that no
reactions were secured in two or three of the five tests made.
Where blank spaces occur no tests were made.
Am. and Sod. picr., ammonium and sodium picrates; Betw., between ;
Cane sug. and dext., cane sugar and dextrose; Carb. of Sacch., the carbonate
of benzylsulphonic amide formed by the neutralization of saccharine by
sodium carbonate; Caud., caudal or caudad; Ceph., cephalad; cl., claspers;
cone., concentration; Dors., dorsal or dorsals; /finl., finlet, caudal prolonga-
tion of anal and dorsal fins; marg., margin; Mth., mouth; Nost., nostrils;
pect., pectorals; Picr. acid, picrie acid, trinitrophenol; Quin. h.chl. quinine
hydrochloride; Spir., spiracle; Subs., substances used as stimuli; Vent., ven-
tral or ventrad; 1D, first dorsal fin; 2D, second dorsal fin.
being the only part at all insensitive. At n/40 the body surface gen-
erally reacts, although the reactions are less definite, particularly on
stimulation of much of the dorsal surface. At 1/50 the mouth,
spiracle, anus, nostrils, fins, claspers, and side are still sensitive, as
is also the dorsal surface beside the finlets. Stimulation of the mouth,
spiracle, claspers and skin beside the finlets by n/75 still calls forth
a reaction. At n/100 no reaction could be obtained, although the fish
in many cases seemed to perceive the stimulus. In all this work many
observatious were made which indicate that the dogfish actually feels
stimuli to which it does not react to an appreciable extent. One
probably comes to a point in decreasing the concentration of the solu-
tions where the stimulus is perceived yet not sufficiently strong to
cause action of any kind on the part of the animal. All of the re-
actions secured at n/40 or less were weak, although usually definite.
The reactions to acids in general are characterized by their quickness
286 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
and definiteness. There are rarely premonitory symptoms of any
kind before the reaction takes place, even though the reaction time is
long. In summary, it is evident that the dogfish is sensitive to acids
of a solution of n/75, both in the mouth and spiracle in which are
found taste buds, and also on the outer body surface when no such
structures are found.
NaOlIl is the only hydroxide given in the table, although experi-
ments were made with KOH which indicate that essentially similar
reactions would be secured by its use. To NaOH. the dogfish reacts
quickly and definitely in the stronger solutions, although not quite so
quickly as to acids. It will be noted likewise that the animal is not
sensitive generally to so dilute solutions. Reactions are secured from
the general body surface, however, to a solution of n/70. It is of
special importance to note that the mouth and spiracle are almost in-
sensitive to alkalis except im very strong concentration. Some shght
chemical reactions take place between the hydroxide and the sea
water, as was the case with the acids used also. This probably renders
the solutions less powerful than they would otherwise be. |
To salts the reactions are slower than to acids and alkalis. The
responses to both lithium and ammonium chlorides are practically the
same. No reactions to sodium chloride could, however, be obtained.
This is due, doubtless, to its presence in such quantities in the sea
water. The reactions to the chlorides are usually preceded by pre-
mnonitory symptoms a few seconds before the definite reaction occurs.
These consist of a local or general uneasiness. The reactions are also
often prolonged, continuing for a few seconds after the stimulus is
removed. It will be noted here, as in the case of the alkali, that the
general body surface is more sensitive than the mouth. Definite re-
actions are secured from the former to a 2n solution, while the fish
shows a sensitiveness to a normal solution. The mouth and spiracle,
however, react very weakly to solutions as strong as 5n, and almost
never to a lesser degree of concentration. The general lack of effect
of the solutions of a weaker grade than normal is probably due to
the fact that the salts of the sea water make it about a 5/8 normal
solution. This interpretation is supported by the results when NaCl
was used and also by the tests made by Parker (O08b) on the fresh
SHELDON, Reactions to Chemical Stimult. 287
water catfish (Aimeiurus), which is quite sensitive to salts. The re-
actions secured by the use of salts are not due to osmosis, as sugar
solutions of equal osmotic strength have no effect.
Reactions to quinine hydrochloride take place only in the mouth
and spiracles, that is, reactions to quinine take place only on stimu-
lation of surfaces bearing taste buds, as Parker found for the catfish.
The dogfish is extremely sensitive to pieric acid. In strong solution
it is extremely distasteful and the animal responds vigorously. The
response is slow, however, and there are usually premonitory symp-
toms before the reaction, as noted for salts. Reactions are also often
prolonged after the stimulus is removed. The mouth and body sur-
face are sensitive to n/60 unquestionably, while an apparent uneasi-
ness of the fish seems to indicate that it feels in the mouth, spiracles
and nostrils a still greater degree of dilution. Picric acid was used
by Parker (07, ’08b) as a bitter stimulus. It was with this idea in
mind that the substance was used on the dogfish. It might be argued,
nevertheless, that inasmuch as aquatic forms are very sensitive to
acid stimuli, the reaction in this case is due to the acid radical in the
trinitrophenol rather than to the base which gives to us the bitter
taste of picric acid. To test this point neutral ammonium and sodium
picrates were used. Both of these are as bitter to the human taste as
is pieric acid. From the tables it will be seen that the fish is by no
ineans as sensitive to these as it is to the picrie acid, although weak
reactions can be secured by the use of strong solutions. The results
show that it can not be assumed that the stimulus of picric acid rests
entirely or even largely with the base, but that the acid radical is
probably responsible almost entirely for its influence on fishes. It
is evident, however, that the base does possess a stimulating power,
as shght reactions were secured to the neutral picrates. It ean be
stated, therefore, that the dogfish reacts to substances which give us a
bitter taste. To stimuli of this character the mouth is more sensitive
than is the remainder of the body. On the whole, the fish seems less
sensitive to bitter substances than to the other kinds of stimuli used.
Outside of picric acid the animal showed little distaste for the solu-
tions used, even though reactions were secured.
No reaction at all could be obtained to sugars. This holds true
288 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
for all aquatic vertebrates, due probably to the fact that sweet sub-
stances are substantially unknown to aquatic life. To saccharine or
benzylsulphonie amide very quick and definite reactions were always
secured. Thinking that this reaction was probably due to the acid
radical, the saccharine was neutralized by sodium carbonate, the re-
sulting product being as sweet to man as is the saccharine. No re-
actions at all were then secured, proving that those first obtained were
due to the acid radical.
Comparing different regions of the body as to sensitiveness, it will
be noted that the head is least sensitive, while the mouth, nostrils,
paired fins, particularly the pelvic, the anal and dorsal, especially
the second dorsal, are more sensitive. Areas of skin closely asso-
elated with the dorsal and anal finlets are included with these fins.
OPERATIONS.
Some operations were next performed to find out what part of the
nervous system takes part in these responses. After operations no
fishes were subjected to experimentation until at least twenty-four
hours had elapsed. Narecotization was accomplished by a mixture
of ether and water from the effects of which the animals did not ap-
pear to suffer in any way.
Destruction of the Spinal Cord.—In this experiment the tail was
cut off, the caudal artery and vein plugged with cotton and the cord
entirely destroyed as far cephalad as the cephalic margin of the first
dorsal fin by means of a small steel wire. This method was suggested
to me by Dr. Parker, who had used it with much success. By this
operation the peripheral innervation of all of the caudal part and
middle of the body is destroyed, except that from the lateral Hne
nerve. The individuals subjected to this operation lie in the water
perfectly motionless so far as the caudal part of the body is concerned,
occasionally trying feebly to swim by means of the pectoral fins. The
skin caudally gradually turned white as is the case with dead dogfish.
Such fishes lived, however, for some weeks. As was to be expected,
no reactions could be obtained chemically either by stimulation of
the general body surface or the lateral line. Parker (705) showed that
the function of the lateral line is to respond to slow mass movements
’
SHELDON, Reactions to Chemical Stimutlt. 289
of water. The head is sensitive to chemical stimuli after the opera-
tion as before.
Section of the Spinal Cord—The cut was made about two centi-
meters cephalad of the first dorsal fin. After the operation the fishes
lived for weeks, differing from the normal individuals in their ordi-
nary actions only in the fact that the caudal part of the body kept up
a constant swimming. The fish would be propelled to the side of the
tank, where it would remain for hours keeping up a vigorous swimn-
ining movement of all the body caudad of the cut. This was never
observed to cease until the death of the animal. Bethe (99) noted
this same swimming after section of the cord in the dogfish, but found
that there were intervals of cessation. When this fish was tested with
the solutions used on the normal fish, it was found that the caudal part
of the body was more sensitive than before. The reactions take place
from a fraction of a second to a few seconds quicker than before,
the reactions seemed more positive and definite and some of the fishes
studied reacted to slightly weaker solution. The reactions of the head
were practically normal. After most of the operations many of the
fishes failed to react to quite so weak a solution as before, due, prob-
ably, to the shock of the operation or to diminished vitality. The
reactions of the spinal fish are almost never long continued after
stimulation with salts or picric acid, contrary to the condition in the
normal animal.
Several points are involved in these experiments. These are, how
does the spinal fish differ from the normal and why? Is the observed
difference due to a lack of inhibition by the brain, the use of the new
paths for the reflexes, or stimulation of the cut ends at the cephalic
end of the cord? Taking up the first: Danilewski (792) on Amphi-
oxus found that ‘voluntary’ movements ceased with removal of the
rostral part, the only action recorded taking place in response to
definite stimuli, He concluded that the centers for movement lie in
the rostral part of the animal. Steiner (88) worked on the lamprey,
selachians, ganoids, and teleosts. In the lamprey he found no volun-
tary movement of the caudal part after section, while the other fishes
acted about as usual after section of the cord except for the dead
weight of the head. Steiner believed that the centers for equilibrium
290 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
and voluntary motion lie in the cord. Loeb (91) found that a dog-
fish with the cord cut was no longer able to orient itself, even though
it could swim off readily. Bethe (99) observed no difficulty in the
swimming movements of the spinal dogfish. Pfliiger (55) and
Bickel (97) took up the study of the spinal eel. The former found
that the eel had no difficulty in maintaining its equilibrium and could
swim readily, while the latter says that the spinal eel is incapable of
remaining in the normal position and can swim only forward. The
normal individual can swim in both directions. The spinal, frog has
been studied with great care. Pfliiger (53) found that the spinal
frog still retained its musele tonus and could spring; Mendelssohn
°83, 785) found the reflexes good after section of the cord;
Steiner (785) observed no change in the reactions; Schrader (’87)
obtained similar results. Moore and Oertel (°99): found, however,
that the reflexes were increased, although fatigue occurred quickly.
Babak (03,05, ’07) found that section of the cord in the larval frog
resulted in no loss of power in the spinal part. In regard to mammals,
particularly man, there is a mass of experimental and clinical evi-
dence on the results of the separation of the spinal cord from the
brain. This is presented mainly by Rosenthal (75, ’?84); Bastian
(90); Burns (793, 796); Rosenthal and Mendelssohn (97) ; Senator
(98); Brauer (99); Moore and Oertel (99); Walton (02); Wal-
ton and Paul (’06), Sherrington (97, ’?00b, 705, ’?0Ga, ?06b); and
Sherrington and Laslett (03). In mammals, as observed by most in-
vestigators, the loss of reflex power is very great, often practically to-
tal after a break in the functional continuity of the cord and brain. It
is evident, therefore, as is emphasized by Sherrington, Walton, and
Walton and Paul, that in the ascent of the animal scale the cord loses.
its power as an automatic center and becomes less and less capable of
responding to stimul.
Tn the fishes under observation in these experiments no lack of the
power of equilibrium was observed. This may easily be due to the
fact that the innervation of the pectoral fins was left intact. This
probably accounts for the different results obtained by Loeb and
Bickel.
The greater activity and sensitiveness of the caudal part of the
SHELDON, Reactions to Chemical Stimult. 291
fish after section of the cord are due, in all probability, to a removal
of inhibition from the higher centers, by the use of shorter paths, or
to both. Pike (08) believes that the second is the true explanation.
He considers that normally the long paths by way of the brain are
made use of. After section, pathways through the cord must serve,
giving a shorter are which requires less time for the transmission of
the impulses. This is supported by the conclusions of Moore and
Oertel who suggest, however, that the higher centers may have a regu-
latory rather than an inhibitory influence over the cord. Walton and
Paul think that the cord is particularly for active, instantaneous and
violent reflexes. It is probable that use of shorter paths by the re-
flexes has much to do with the result secured, but the evidence pre-
sented im the literature is strong in support of the view that the brain
possesses an influence over the cord of a regulatory type, at least.
Wiping movements of the fins and finlets occur as in the normal
animal, This is in line with the results in the spinal frog and ean not,
in either case, be considered purposeful, as Howell (’05) and Sher-
rington (06b) clearly show. Such movements in a spinal animal
are simply such as are of a general protective nature for the normal
animal or else form a part of the habitual action of the organism.
No spinal shock was observed. This is as would be expected.
Steiner, Loeb, Bickel, and Bethe do not mention it for fishes. Moore
and Oertel show that it is shght in the frog and passes off quickly.
In maminals, as is well known from the work of Bastion (99), Burns
(93), Sherrington (797, ’00b), Senator (98), Babaék (07) and Pike
(08) the influence of shock is greatest. These citations fall in
line with the statement made above to the effect that the power of the
cord as an automatic center decreases as one ascends the animal seale.
Probably in the dogfish many of the reactions of the caudal part of
the animal take place normally through the cord, so*that section of it
brings about little change.
The Innervation and Reactions of the Nostrils.—It will be noted
from the chart that the nostrils are very sensitive to the solutions
used as stimuli. The reactions obtained were also very decided. The
question arises as to whether these are due to the olfactory nerves or
the nerves of general sensation. Accordingly, different nerves were
292 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
cut in order to clear up this pot. The only nerve hitherto known to
supply the nasal mucosa in the dogfish is the olfactory. It has long
been known that the trigeminus nerve supplies this region of the head
for tactile sensation, but none of its fibers have been traced to the
olfactory capsule.
Aichel (95) found trigeminal fibers in the olfactory mucous mem-
brane of embryonic teleosts, but was uncertain as to their derivation.
Jagodowski (701) observed the same fibers. Later, Sheldon (’08)
demonstrated the existence of fibers, derived from the trigeminal
nerve, in the mucous membrane of the adult earp. Retzius (92) in
the frog and Rubaschin (703) in the chick obtained similar results.
Tn the lower mammals and man such an innervation has been demon-
strated by Grassi and Castronovo (789), Ramon y Cajal (789, 793),
van Gehuchten (790), von Brunn (792), von Lenhossék (792),
Retzius (’92), Disse (94) and Read (’08).
In the dogfish the trigeminal nerve is divided into four rami.
These are the ophthalmicus superficialis to the dorsum of the snout,
closely associated with the ophthalmicus superficialis facialis of the
lateralis system; the ophthalmicus profundus to the side of the head
and snout; the maxillaris to the upper jaw and the mandibularis to
the lower. These latter two are bound together for some distance
from the brain in close association also with the bucealis. All of
these trigeminal rami are general sensory with the exception of the
mandibularis which is combined general sensory and motor (Strong,
03). The relations of all these rami except the ophthalmicus super-
facialis are shown in fig. 3.
The olfactory crura were first cut in an endeavor to destroy the
sense of smell. At first the section was made from the dorsum, but
this operation was usually fatal. Such fishes would either die inside
of twenty-four hours or else react very feebly. Finally the method
of Lyon (00) was adopted. The fish was etherized, the mouth pried
open as far as possible and the olfactory erura reached: by means of
an incision in the roof of the mouth. The maxillaris and mandibu-
laris were also reached in the same way (see fig. 3). Before the cut
was made the mucosa was reflected as shown in the figure, then a
piece of cartilage was removed, care being taken not. to cut any of the
SHELDON, Reactions to Chemical Stimult. 293
blood vessels of the roof of the mouth, as this leads to serious bleeding.
The location of the vessels to be avoided is shown in the dissection.
The fishes seemed to suffer no ill effect from this operation and would
live for some weeks thereafter. The profundus and superficialis
nerves were cut by means of an incision into the orbit at the caudal
marein of the eye ball.
After section of the olfactory crura, stimulation of the nostrils
causes the same reactions as were obtained for normal fishes. It is,
therefore, evident that these reactions are not due to stimulation of
the olfactory nerve. When the four rami of the trigeminal are cut
and the olfactory left intact, no reactions are secured. This shows
clearly that the reactions obtained are due to the nerves of general
sensation. The associated nerves of the lateralis system have been
proved to be insensitive to chemical stimulation. The following
nerves were next cut without destroying the reactions; the ophthal-
micus superficialis, the ophthalmicus profundus and the oph. sup. and
oph. prot. together. When the maxillaris-mandibularis trunk is cut,
however, all reactions cease. When normal fishes are taken, this
trunk cut on one side and not on the other, stimulation of the nostril
on the operated side calls forth no responses, while the nostril on the
normal side is as sensitive as before. As the mandibularis nerve goes
to the lower jaw exclusively, it is evident that the sensitiveness of the
nostrils to the chemical stimuli used is due to the maxillaris nerve.
These experiments also show that the nostrils in selachians are imner-
vated by the trigeminal nerve, as is the case in most other vertebrates.
Some odorous substances were also used in the nostrils although
without results so far as the sense of smell is concerned. The sub-
stances used were the oils of cloves, pennyroyal, thyme and aniline
oil. a sOS, a San LalO=IEhOs
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Some CnHaractrenristic Dicra.
“We may quietly throw overboard the entire sum of our knowledge
thus far acquired, so far as it comes from experiments on the frog’s
leg. The nerve-muscle preparation has misled us in almost every
point” (30> ip. 3a),
Jenninos, Uexkill on Physiology of Behavior. 315
“Furthermore all electro-physiological experiments on muscles
have shown themselves to be biologically worthless, so that we may
here pass them over in silence” (29, p. 28).
“The fate of biology in Europe, in spite of the efforts of excellent
workers, seems to me to be sealed. One need not be a
prophet to predict that in a few years biology will be an American
science” (29, preface).
“The question of the function of the nervous system in the animal
body has aroused a strife between two sciences that must end with
the annihilation of one of the two combatants,—and the champions
of both sides are determined to carry the combat to the end. * gi
While the comparative psychologists debated concerning the amount
of sensation, memory, reflection, that one should attribute to these
animals, there arose in the growing science of comparative physiology
an enemy to the death of all comparative psychology” (24, pp. 212,
213). |
“Before objective investigation the sensations, the memory, and
thoughts of animals disappeared like fluttering forms of vapor.
The iron chain of objective changes, which began with the stimula-
tion of the sense organ and finished with the movement of the muscle,
was welded together in the middle. Nowhere remained a smallest
spot for the psyche of the animal. Basing itself on these incontesta-
ble facts, comparative physiology pronounced the psychological con-
clusions mere superstitious and denied comparative psychology the
right to call itself a science’ (24, Dee 2aay)e
“We stand on the eve of a seientifie bankruptey, whose conse-
quenees are as yet incalculable. Darwinism is to be stricken from
the list of scientific theories” (33, Paso
“Concerning the origin of species we know, after fifty vears of
unparalleled effort and investigation, only the one thing, that it does
not take place as Darwin thought it did. A positive enrichment of
our knowledge has not resulted. The whole enormous intellectual
labor was in vain” (31, p. 168).
“When in biology one has freed himself from the idea of develop-
ment,—an idea which has at last been hunted to final death—vso
that one is again in position to look upon each animal as a unity
316 “fournal of Com parative Neurology and Psychology.
closed within itself, instead of as the last chance product of an an-
cestral series that has been speculated together, then form and color
gain a new interest and a heightened brilliance” (30, p. 318).
“Driesch succeeded in proving that the germ cell does not possess
a trace of machine-like structure, but consists of throughout equiva-
lent parts. With that fell the dogma that the organism is only a
machine. Even if life occurs in the fully organized creature in a
machine-like way, the organization of a structureless germ into a
complicated structure is a power sui generis, which is found only in
living things and stands without analogy” (33, p. 9).
“Tt is not to be denied that the vitalists are the victors all along
the line. After having put an end to Darwinism, they have seized
upon the entire field of the production of animal form, and now
threaten the last positions of their opponents” (38, p. 14).
“So there persists in the outer world of objects an unresolvable con-
tradictoriness—” (29, p. 129).
Inrropuctory CHARACTERIZATION.
J. von Uexkill, of Heidelberg, has long been one of the most
active and original workers in the physiology of behavior; his work
will be found of the highest interest to all seriously concerned with
these matters. It undertakes for the lower animals much the same
sort of analysis that Sherrington gives us for higher ones, though
with many features that are in the highest degree original. Further,
an examination of his work has hardly less interest as a study in
scientific ideals and method than for the concrete results attained.
That he has been led to radical and iconoclastic views, and that he is
not afraid to express these views with decision and picturesqueness
will be evident from the quotations given above. The pessimistic
impression given by the quotations taken together will not escape
the reader; this pessimism appears rather an unintentional result
than as characteristic of the animated and militant spirit of our
author. The sweeping and perhaps ill-founded character of some
of the propositions advanced should not prejudice the reader against
the accuracy of the author’s work in his own field; this would be
a serious mistake.
Jennincs, Uexkiill on Physiology of Behavior. 317
INVESTIGATIONS.
Von Uexkiill began as a student of the nerve-muscle preparation
of the frog (1). He quickly determined to carry the study of the
questions involved to the lower animals; this plan, carried out largely
at the Naples Station, led to fundamental results. The work first
undertaken was a study of the reflexes of the cuttle-fish (2, 3, 4, 7).
This was followed by a study of certain sensory problems on the
skate (9), by work on the muscle and nerve physiology of the worm
Sipuneulus (11, 25), and by an extensive series of thorough and
fundamental papers on the nerve-musele and sensory physiology of
the sea urchin (10, 12, 18, 15, 16, 19, 20). Through these studies
the author had developed the outlines of an original system of nerve-
muscle physiology, having at its basis the concept of tonus. This
system he developed farther in the series of Studies on Tonus (25,
27, 28, 30, 31),
is still in progress, and which we hope may count many numbers
a series dealing with various invertebrates, which
besides the five that have appeared. Arising in connection with his
systematic series of investigations there have come from his pen
many incidental contributions, including notes on special points in
nerve-muscle physiology (1, 5, 6, 8, 14, 17, 32), studies of rhythm
(25, 26), and discussions of fundamental scientific questions (18, 22,
24, 33). In 1905 a brief textbook (29) was published, giving an
outline of the views to which he had come, with directions for prac-
tical work.
Characteristic of v. Uexkiill is the intellectual working over of
results at the time they are reached, so as to give a graphie and com-
prehensible scheme of the way processes occur. This appears in
the very first studies, on the cuttle-fish (2, 3, 4, 7); they show the
author’s characteristic abhorrence of everything vague, and particu-
larly his objection to psychic explanations in physiology. They
contain much important detail on the physiology of muscle and
nerve. The paper on the skate (9) is largely a polemie against the
use of terms implying consciousness in the nerve physiology of lower
animals, directed mainly against W. Nagel. The account of the
skate is intended to illustrate the purely objective treatment of the
facts, and is perhaps not in itself a strong example of the value of
318 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
the method. In this polemic, as in later work, is seen the positive,
definite character of the author’s thought, with no appreciation for
shadings, transitions or compromises; sharpness of concept and of
distinctions, black or white, is demanded everywhere.
Tur Work on THE SEA URCHIN.
It is in the series of papers on the sea urchin (10, 12, 18, 16, 19,
20) that the author “strikes his pace” and brings out clearly the
important phenomena which form the basis for his peculiar system
of concepts. The plan of investigation is to work out the structure of
the muscular, nervous and skeletal systems and the way they act
together to produce the characteristic behavior of the animal; to work
out “the biological plan’ of the sea urchin. The paper on Reflexes
in the Sea Urchin (12) gives a general sketch of this biological plan
and the main reflexes which make up the behavior; the structure of
the simple nervous system, the reflexes of the pedicellarix, the spines,
the tube-feet, the teeth, are briefly described. Then followed in
1899 a thorough detailed paper on the physiology of the pedicellariz
(16), a paper which must form the point of departure for all further
work on these organs. The history of our knowledge of the pedi-
cellarize, their structure, the different sorts, their uses and particu-
larly the laws of their movements, are developed in great detail.
In 1900 came a similarly thorough, and perhaps still more impor-
tant, study of the movements of the spines (19). Special studies
were made of the reactions of the spines to light and shadow (13,
20); for the purpose of obtaining species favorable for this work
the author made a trip to the east coast of Africa; the outfit for this
trip is deseribed in a separate paper (21).
In general, v. Uexkiill found that the various organs of the sea
‘an perform a number ot
urchin,—each spine, each pedicellaria,
different acts or reflexes, and that these reflexes occur to a large
degree independently of each other, so that they may occur when the
organ in question is isolated on a small piece of the shell. Thus each
organ is a “reflex person.” Yet all the differing reflexes of these
various “persons” are of such a character that they work together
in asystematie way to perform the necessary functions of the animal.
Jennincs, Uexkiill on Physiology of Behavior. 319
They carry it about, toward food and away from danger, keep the
sea urchin clean, capture prey, combat against enemies, and _ all
together do the work of life in a competent way. This is brought
about without any regulation by a “higher center,’ merely through
the essentially independent activities of the various parts. Therefore
the sea urchin is characterized as a “republic of reflexes.” The
apparent unity of action is due merely to the way the different
actions of the different parts fit into one another, by a sort of preéstab-
lished harmony. “It is not that the action is unified, but that the
movements are ordered; that is, the setting off of the different reflexes
is not the result of a common central impulse, but the separate reflex
ares are so constructed and so fitted together that the synchronous
but independent setting off of the reflexes, as a result of an external
stimulus, produces a definite general action of the animal, just as
happens in animals in which a common center produces the actions”
(16, p. 390). “When a dog runs, the animal moves its feet. When
the sea urchin runs, the feet move the animal’? (19, p. 73).
But the author finds that the separate reflex-persons are not abso-
lutely independent; impulses may pass from one to the other, im
such a way as to produce a unified action of all. But this is due
merely to a set of nerve nets having a special arrangement; it is
a matter of interconnections, not of regulation from a “higher
center.” The question may be raised whether this distinction does
not depend on an undefined and mystical use of the term higher
center. If the higher center, in accordance with the illuminating
ideas of Loeb, is after all essentially a place for complex inter-
connections, then the difference between the sea urchin and higher
animals is only one of degree.
Von Uexkill finds that the separate reflexes of the various organs
are not absolutely stereotyped, but the action of each part is
changed at times in certain ways, often depending on the action of
neighboring parts. We have then in the sea urchin an opportunity
of studying codrdination in its most elementary condition, and thus
perhaps of determining the fundamental nature of the phenomena
involved. This animal is a sort of model, which can be taken to
pieces without serious alteration of the action of the parts; yet in
320 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
the animal as a whole the parts do influence one another. The
author therefore took in hand a thorough study of the changes in
the reflexes and the way they influence each other, undertaking to
formulate and define precisely the underlying phenomena. It is
here that we find the origin of the most important concepts in von
Uexkiill’s highly original formulation of behavior. It will be worth
while therefore to examine carefully a sample of the author’s method
of analysis; for this purpose we select certain features in the
physiology of the spines.
TypricaL Exampie or Mrtruop or ANALYSIS.
It will be recalled that the rounded shell of the sea urchin is
covered with long spines. Each spine is a tapering calcareous rod,
with a concavity at its base, by which it articulates with a hemi-
spherical elevation of the shell. The spine is held in position by
two circles of muscles radiating from the circumference of its base
to the shell. These muscles, and particularly the inner circle, are
steadily pulling upon the spine, thus holding it stiffly in position.
This pulling takes place without external stimulus; it is due to a
certain amount of tension which forms the normal condition of the
muscles and continues without any such repeated contractions or trem-
ors as are called tetanus. That is, the muscles have a certain normal
fonus. This tonus becomes the central concept in v. Uexkill’s
formulation of the physiology of movement. The imner layer of
muscles is devoted chiefly to maintaining by its constant tension a
certain position of the spine; it is an example of one of the two great
types of muscular action——the “Sperrung” or tension, as dis-
tinguished from actual contraction, involving shortening. The outer
circle of muscles is more active in its changes; they shorten quickly
and readily, thus moving the spine in various ways. They exemplify
the other great type of muscular aetion,—* Verhkiirzung,’—shorten-
ing or contraction. Tension and contraction v. Uexkiill shows occur
quite independently of each other, and this independence, with all its
theoretical and practical consequences, comes to play a very great
part in the later development of v. Uexkill’s views; he finds it
throughout animals (see 32). The neglect of the fact that we have
Jennincs, Uexkiill on Physiology of Behavior. 321
here two entirely different functions has, the author believes, led
all nerve-muscle physiology into false paths.
The first reflex shown by the spines is as follows: When a cer-
tain spot on the body is moderately stimulated, the surrounding
spines bend toward it. The muscles of the side of the spine next
the point stimulated contract; that is, their tonus is increased.
Thus the points of the spines are directed, for example, toward an
approaching enemy.
But if the stimulus is very intense, the reaction just described is
reversed; the spines bend away from the point stimulated. This
result is produced by a decrease in the tonus of the muscles on the
side of the spine facing the point stimulated. Thus from the same
spot on the body opposite effects may be produced, depending on the
strength of the stimulus. This phenomenon is called by v. Uexkill
reversal of the reflex (‘‘Reflexumkehr”) ; it is observed in other or-
gans of the sea urchin and other animals, under various conditions.
The author holds it to be due to some sort of apparatus in the ganglion
cells; an apparatus that he calls the “tonus switch” (“Tonusschal-
ter”). This reversal is well seen in the spines when a strong chemical
stimulus affects the body. Now, a further consequence of such a
powerful stimulus is seen. After such a stimulus, even a weak
stimulus, which formerly caused the spines to bend toward the spot
stimulated, now causes them to bend away. So the same stimulus
on the same spot may cause two different reactions, depending on
what stimulus has preceded it. This phenomenon, very common in
animals, v. Uexkiill calls the “switching” of the tonus (“Schaltung” ) ;
he holds it due to the same apparatus as the reversal of the reflex.
The two reactions of the spines serve, under natural conditions,
certain functions. The bending toward a stimulated point serves for
defense; the bending away under a strong stimulus, particularly a
chemical one, preserves the spines from injury, while giving oppor-
tunity for the action of certain large poisonous pedicellariz, which
now bend their envenomed jaws toward the region attacked and seize
whatever is there present.
Certain other facts in the physiology of the spines are of extreme
importance. A steady tension, not violent, exercised on the muscles
322 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
of the spines causes them to lose their tonus; they become limp.
This effect of tension on tonus is common among animals. If then
a spine is pressed steadily to one side by the fingers, or by the weight
of the animal’s body, the muscles on the side pressed lose their
tonus. The spine, therefore, becomes loosely movable in certain
directions, but not in others. On the other hand, a sudden violent
increase of tension, or a mechanical jar, increases the tonus, so that
the spines stand out firmly.
Now, the loss of tonus, caused in the way just described, is con-
ducted, doubtless by the nervous network, to the neighboring spines.
This conduction occurs in such a way that it is the muscles of corre-
sponding sides of the neighboring spines that lose their tonus. (‘This
involves complicated conditions in the nervous net; v. Uexkiill holds
that it shows the existence of many independent nets.) Hence when
a spine is pressed toward one side, the neighboring spines likewise
bend in the same direction. This v. Uexkiill calls the chaining of the
reflexes (‘‘Reflexverkettung”). It shows itself (an important fact )
most readily when the spine is bent toward the mouth; the other
spines also bend toward the mouth.
These facts have the following result. When a spot on the body
is strongly stimulated, so that the spines bend away from it, the
disturbance is not limited to those in the immediate neighborhood.
The spines in bending away press upon the surrounding spines,
tending to bend them down. They are more easily bent toward
the mouth than elsewhere, so a new set of spines bend over in that
direction. They again press on the next spines, bending them in
turn toward the mouth. Thus a sort of wave passes toward the
mouth from the point stimulated, the spines bending in turn far over
toward the mouth, then back again. The entire phenomenon vy.
Uexkiill calls the wandering of the center of excitation (“*Wanderung
des Erregungsmittelpunkts” ).
Another most important fact shows itself. Muscles that are not
in tonus are much more easily stimulated to contraction than those
which are in tonus. When the muscles have their usual strong
fonus, it requires a powerful stimulus to cause them to contract
further. But muscles which have lost their tonus as a result of
Jennincs, Uexkiill on Physiology of Behavior. 323
steady tension (as deseribed above), contract readily in response
to even a weak stimulus, tending thus to bend the spine toward that
side on which there has been tension.
From this a number of peculiar facts result. As we have seen,
a moderate stimulus at a certain point tends to cause the spines to
bend toward that point. If, as a result of pressure, the muscles that
face the point stimulated have lost their tonus, they respond readily ;
the spine at onee bends toward the side stimulated. But if the
spines have been pressed over in the opposite direction, so that their
muscles facing the point of stimulation are in strong tonus, no
effect is produced; the spines retain their position. Hence, when
a spot on the body is stimulated, certain spines will respond while
others will not, depending on the previous tonus of their muscles.
This phenomenon y. Uexkiill calls “Klinkung’’; those spines which
are in such a condition or position that they can respond to the
stimulus are said to be “eingeklinkt”; those which are not are ‘‘aus-
geklinkt.”” These expressions may perhaps be translated by “in
eireuit” and “out of circuit,”
comparing the spines with instru:
ments in an electric circuit. This condition of affairs has great
importance for the functioning of the spines in locomotion and else-
where, and parallel conditions are found in other organisms.
A similar analysis is given by the author for the pedicellariz,
tube-feet, teeth, ete.
Thus by a close and thorough study vy. Uexkiill has been able to
analyze and formulate a number of what have been called vaguely
the varying “physiological states” of organs or organisms; such
analysis is needed for all cases. By making use of the concepts of
Reflexumkehr, Reflexverkettung, Wanderung des Erregungsmittel-
punkts, Schaltung, Klinkung, and by observing the changes in tonus
and the rules for its increase and decrease, one can explain some of
the most important features in the behavior of the sea urchin under
natural conditions ; locomotion, negative reactions to various stimuh,
defenee from enemies, capture of food, ete. It is, of course, no
disparagement of the value of this analysis that it does not exhaust
the matter for the sea urchin. Thus, when the animal is turned
on its back, its spines move in ways that would not be expected
324 “fournal of Com parative Neurology and Psychology.
from the physiological analysis based on their other movements (19,
p. 105); if they did the sea urchin would not regain its normal
position. In the starfish the method of action may be changed by
the formation of habits, and this is doubtless true also for the sea
urchin. Thus any formulation that is complete must provide also
for the laws of change of behavior; for its regulatory features.
Possibly no complete formulation can ever be reached, but the most
direct way to approach it is by such analysis as v. Uexkiull gives.
Later INVESTIGATIONS.
We have given this account of the spines as a type of v. Uexkill’s
methods of analysis; by following carefully such a concrete case
the reader will get a better idea of the nature and justification of
his work than by any systematic survey of the concepts to which
he finally comes. Let us now follow further the development of
these concepts. As we have seen, the central concept is that of tonus,
and the laws of the changes of tonus are the chief object of research.
To research on this matter, to studying the properties of tonus in
various organisms, and to devising schemata which shall help us
to understand how it acts, and hence how behavior takes place, have
been devoted the later researches of v. Uexkiill. He has thus far
analyzed from this point of view, besides the sea urchin, the worm
Sipunculus (25), the brittle-star (27), the leech (28), the heart-
shaped sea urchin (30), and the dragon fly (31). In the latest
contribution, on the dragon fly, v. Uexkiill attempts to make provi-
sion for a modification of the machinery of behavior through the
experiences of the organisms. It would manifestly be impossible to
resume here these researches, filled as they are with minute and
technical detail.
V. Urxkiit1’s System or Concepts.
A view of v. Uexkiill’s system of concepts can be gotten most
directly from his “Guide to Experimental Biology” (29). But
here one does not see the development of the ideas; the actual grounds
that have given origin one after another to the peculiar concepts, so
that they are likely to seem on first introduction bizarre and artificial,
having little similarity to anything dealt with in orthodox physiology.
Jennincs, Uexkiill on Physiology of Behavior. 325
The fundamental concept is fonus. Just what are we to under-
stand by this? V. Uexkiill at first defines it merely as the sum of
those manifestations of the life of the cell that produce effects on
external things (as distinguished from the internal energy used in
metabolism, ete.) (19, p. 78). As his work develops, he finds need
for a more precise idea of tonus. It is defined as a “form of
energy” which has the property of flowing in certain ways (20, p.
474). The concept of tonus gradually becomes more and more
definite. For purposes of handling and imaging it with ease, it
becomes convenient to think of tonus as a fluid, which flows through
a set of tubes (the nerves). This fluid becomes at last identified
with Bethe’s “Fibrillensiure,’—an actual chemical, visible under the
microscope (27, p. 31). But this identification is not held to uni-
formly.
This fluid tonus is contained in a system of tubes, the nerves.
“The structure of the nervous system may then be conceived as an
ageregate of peculiar vessels united one with another, which inter-
change and equalize each other’s contents with relation both to
pressure and quantity’ (25, p. 305). From the nerves the tonus
either passes into the muscles, or causes in them the production
of a fluid with similar properties, giving rise to either tension
(“Sperrung”’) or contraction (“Verkiirzung’). In dealing with
tonus, either in the nerves or the muscles, we must distinguish its
quantity from its pressure; these may vary independently, so that
any given quantity may have high or low pressure. On the quan-
ity of tonus depends the contraction of muscles; on the pressure,
the tension of muscles.
There are certain general laws 1. r the movements of tonus. In
simple nerve nets it always flows into muscles that are extended
(causing them to contract again). This is attributed to a change
in the capacity of the muscles; extended muscles have greater capac-
ity than contracted ones, so in extending they suck, as it were, the
tonus out of the nerves. This property gives a remarkable degree
of self-regulation to the action of the nerves and muscles.
Tn most animals, further, the tonus shows a marked tendency to
flow toward a-certain part of the body,—usually the anterior end,—
326 Ffournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
so that this part responds when any part of the body is stimulated.
This part to which tonus flows as water flows into a valley is
denominated, with poetic feeling, the vale of tonus (‘“Tonustal,” 25,
p- 310; 29, p. 56). After the tonus has flowed into certain muscles,
it is possible (in some cases at least) to capture and hold it there,
by cutting the nerves leading to the muscles (‘‘Tonusfang,” 25, p.
302); the muscles then remain contracted.
During rest the fluid tonus is gradually used up and disappears ;
at stimulation it is newly manufactured. There exist, however,
reservoirs of tonus in the nervous system, so that the lost tonus
of the muscles ean be replaced without new manufacture.
The nervous system then contains, besides a system of communi-
eating tubes, reservoirs of tonus; at the same time it is an elaborate
apparatus for controlling the distribution of tonus. Each muscle
has somewhere in the nervous system an organ which is its “repre-
sentative’ (25, p. 303; 29, p. 44). The office of this representative
is to see that the tonus pressure in the muscle remains sufficient to
‘ause the tension of the musele to correspond to the weight which it
has to bear. When the pressure in the muscle is insufficient, this
acts on the representative (through the nerve) causing it to increase
the pressure, until this raises the tension so as to support the weight.
The increased pressure is produced by the fact that the representative
uses up a certain quantity of tonus to increase the pressure of what
is left.
The author’s further development of this system consists in work-
ing out in detail the structure and action of this system of tubes,
reservoirs and other machinery, by which the distribution of tonus
is controlled. Main tubes, feeders, reservoirs, valves, ete., are de-
vised and represented by diagrams, till we finally get figures which
resemble the plan for a dye-works or a flour mill (see for example
the schema for Sipunculus, 25, Tafel 6).
The method of presentation is in general the ideal construction
of an apparatus which could produce the results shown by the
organisms. In this construction no attempt is made to represent
apparatus that actually exists in the organism; it is merely a figure or
illustration; ‘fa mere schema in accordance with which one can group
Jenninos, Uexkiill on Phystology of Behavior. 327
the experimentally found facts in a convenient way” (25, p. 287).
“The schema of indirect investigation is not a theory at all, but
merely a sign language by means of which it is possible to at once
express new results in a graphie (‘anschaulich’) way” (27, p. 31).
All emphasis is laid on making the illustration thus “anschaulich” ;
that is, of such a character that one can “see through it”; see how
it would work as a machine works. The author makes extensive
use of this “fictitious schema” (25, p. 291), basing long discussions
for the greater part of entire papers on its properties. Perhaps
nowhere else in biology has a figure of speech, as it were, been
worked out in such tremendous detail, through a long series of
papers. .
Regarded thus as a figure or illustration, the author appears very
successful in constructing apparatus that would produce results simi-
lar in their compheation and regulatory character to the processes
observed in organisms. This has necessarily been done, of course, by
attributing new characteristics to the various components when
required. The tonus is sometimes given the characters of a definite
material fluid, and much pains is taken to account for the entire
quantity ; again, it may be produced or disappear as required ; some-
times it is considered a form of energy; at times it shows the prop-
erties of electricity in producing effects by induction (31, p. 195) ;
at times we are informed that the figure of a fluid quite fails (25, p.
213). When the author attempts to show how his compleated
machinery may become modified in a way corresponding to the pro-
duction of what are called psychologically memory images (31),
clearness has to be given up, and the entire figure becomes uncon-
vincing.
As to the value of this figurative and artificial method of pre-
senting the results of work, opinions will, of course, differ. The
point can be best discussed in connection with a review of the guiding
principles and scientific ideals in the author’s work; to this we
now turn. It is peculiarly true in the work of v. Uexkiill that the
author’s concrete results cannot be understood without an apprecis-
tion of the principles that have guided him. This will lead us to «
consideration of his general and theoretical papers.
328 =fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
TneroretTicaL Vrews Anp Guiprne PRINCIPLES.
Perhaps the main characteristic shown throughout v. Uexkiill’s
work is the abhorrence of anything vague, ill-defined or mystical.
In his early papers he sets forth clearly the ideal of scientific work as
the discovery and presentation of what is verifiable or demonstrable.
“We have to do only with processes that can be objectively demon-
strated, and to write the history of these processes in an animal
from the moment of stimulation to the resulting reaction” (9, p.
559). This led him at once into a polemic against authors that used
psychic explanations in work on animal behavior (see 7, p. 608; 9,
ete.). The circle was soon widened, and in 1902 v. Uexkiill declares
that a war of extermination has arisen between comparative physiol-
ogy and comparative psychology, a war that spells annihilation for
one of the combatants and “both are determined to carry the fight
to the end” (24). His fundamental point is, of course, the fact
that there is no way of observing or verifying the existence of
psychic phenomena in animals, so that they cannot form a part of
a strictly verifiable science; and a further postulate is that all ob-
jective processes can and should be fully presented and accounted
for without bringing in anything from outside. To substitute psy-
chological interpretations for certain steps of objective experimental
analysis is vicious and destructive of consistent science. V.
Uexkiill’s polemic papers take extreme positions and are written with
much picturesqueness of statement; they are of great value for
rousing to a realization of the difficulties those who need such a
spur. Apparently, however, all the valuable results that would
be reached by utterly destroying the unhappy comparative psy-
chologists would be equally well attained by keeping carefully sepa-
rate the two fields of work. If the experimenter never substitutes a
psychological explanation for a physiological one, he may also be
interested, as a separate problem, in the development of mind, with-
out injury to his objective scientific work.
This same demand for objective verifiable results, without admix-
ture of anything else, has led v. Uexkiill to take a part, with Beer,
Bethe, and others, in trying to establish a purely objective nomen-
clature for the processes occurring in the movements of animals (18;
Jenninos, Uexkiill on Phystology of Behavior. 329
see also 29). This nomenclature has philosophical value and has
“been used by a few authors, though its employment is by no means
common. There is difficulty, as with all ideal system of nomen-
clature, devised before investigation is complete, in the fact that its
use often implies a precise knowledge of the nature of the phenomena,
when such knowledge does not exist. To give precisely the correct
name to a process implies that we know fully the nature of the
process.
The author’s abhorrence of the vague later becomes still more
accentuated in the demand (which we have noticed above im our ac-
count of his investigations) that work shall be presented always in a
way that is “anschaulich”; that is, in such a way that one can see
just how the processes would occur, as one sees how a machine works
from knowing its structure. It is extraordinary to what an extent
the author makes the attainment of this ‘Anschaulichkeit” the chief
object of biological setence; he declares it plumply to be the “most
essential character of all’? (“die allerwesentlichste”) for the science
of biology (31, p. 184). ‘Biology is in its essence ‘Anschauung’ ”
(33, p. 16)..) “Only the anschaulich structural diagram, not prov-
ing, but showing the unified working together of different factors, is
adequate to the requirement of bringing the life processes together
into an intelligible unity without omitting life itself” (31, p. 185).
It is only by grasping fully the fact that ‘‘Anschaulichkeit’? is the
author’s ideal, that one can understand many of the peculiarities of
his work.
The first far-reaching consequence of this ideal arises from the
fact that that which is “anschaulich” is not always that which is
verifiable. The author is therefore sometimes compelled to a choice
between the two, and in his later papers he at such times deliberately
chooses the ‘Anschaulichkeit” in preference to verifiableness. He
thus falls into contradiction with his own earlier requirement that we
shall deal only with what is cbjectively demonstrable (“objectiv
nachweisbar,” 9, p. 559), as well as with the procedure of other in-
‘The word intuition, by which “Anschawing” is commonly translated, cer-
tainly fails to carry to most minds the same graphic idea as the German word,
so that I do not employ it.
330 © fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
vestigators to whom it is more important that scientific propositions
shall be verifiable than that they shall be anschaulich. Let us here
look in a general way at the contrast between the results reached by
making ‘Anschaulichkeit” the ideal, and those which flow from
making verifiableness the ideal.
For many investigators the object of science is to prepare a system
of verifiable propositions, in order that we may know what to depend
on in our conduct; “to know what is true in order to do what is
right,” as Huxley put it. Verifiable propositions are propositions
that say “Under such and such conditions you will find such and
such things to oceur or exist.”” Now, if one supples the conditions
set forth, and does not find the predicted things to occur or exist, the
proposition is not verifiable, and many would therefore hold that it
should be stricken from science. A large proportion of the propo-
sitions concerning machine-like structures in organisms, given by v.
Uexkiill, do not even profess to be verifiable. One of the main
objects of investigation is to find out what particular kinds of
machines are present in animals, and how these actually present
machines have arisen and how they are changing. This object is
incompatible with the mere assumption of fictitious machines, for
the first result of investigation with this object in view is to cancel
these fictitious machines. This would indeed leave our science for
a time less sharply formulated, but “at a certain stage in the develop-
ment of a science a degree of vagueness is what best consists with
fertility,’® for reference of the phenoniena to complete fictitious
machines tends to cut off search for the real ones. When we have
found out what really occurs in organisms and what machines
actually exist there, then our knowledge will be as ‘‘anschaulich”
as the facts warrant, no more, no less.
To the present reviewer it seems that, even for practical purposes,
the author has overestimated the value of a rather gross “Anschau-
lichkeit.”. The bringing in of machine-like — structures,—tubes,
valves, ete.,—that confessedly do not exist, seems rather to confuse
“Or, put in a form which holds whatever one’s theories, “when you have
such and such experiences, you will have such and such other experiences.”
‘Vim. James, Psychology, Preface.
Jenninos, Uexkill on Physiology of Behavior. 331
than to aid the mind. It is not possible to conclude directly from
the properties of the assumed machines as to what physiological
properties one will find, for the parallelism is far from complete,
so one must try to keep the system of machinery separate from the
system of physiological facts; there are two systems to grasp in place
of one. The reader finds it difficult if not impossible to disentangle
statements which the author wishes to present as verifiable facts,
from statements which are a mere necessity for carrying out the
figurative schema. V. Uexkiill shows all through his work an
astounding facility in coneluding as to the structures that must be
present, from the functions which he sees performed. The reader
wonders whether these structures are held to actually exist, or whether
they are part of the fictitious schema. The reviewer finds that for
his own use it becomes necessary in reading v. Uexkill’s work to
ask “Now, what did the author here actually observe and demon-
strate?’ It then becomes necessary to transform or almost. re-write
a paper before the verifiable results can be disentangled from the
figurative presentation. I believe that this condition of affairs has
prevented the work of v. Uexkiill from exercising the great influence
that it deserves from its importance. Nothing would be more help-
ful to most readers than for the author, after putting his results
together in the figurative language of his peculiar system as he has
done in his Guide (29), to give us a new compendium of his experi-
ments and results, making the test of admission that which is veri-
fiable, or at least that which the author believes will be found veri-
fiable. This would not involve, of course, the omission of his im-
portant concepts of “Schaltung,” “Klinkung” and the lke, for these
are hames for experimentally verifiable processes and conditions ; nor
would it involve the omission of general laws, as verifiable statements
that apply to whole classes of objects; nor would it exclude hypoth-
eses, presented as such, for these are propositions which the author
believes will be found verifiable on further investigation. It would
involve simply the omission of what the author himself recognizes as
fictitious. I believe it would be found that nothing of value had been
lost; that the author’s important work would stand out with a clear-
ness not before attained. Further, in the technical accounts of his
332 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
investigations, it would be extremely helpful if the author would at
least segregate carefully his verifiable, experimental, results from
his fictitious schema, if he finds that he cannot bring himself to
totally abandon the latter.
This demand for “Anschaulichkeit” rather than verifiableness in
a scientific account is what has led to an apparent opposition between
vy. Uexkiill’s work and that of some others. Such is the case, I
judge, with the differences between his work and my own. He pre-
sents his work in an ‘“anschaulich” form that is confessedly not
verifiable, while I have tried to present strictly what is verifiable,
whether immediately “anschaulich” or not. The results are bound
to be different in the two cases. If my work should be presented
by the aid of “anschaulich” fictions, or if v. Uexkiill should preseut
his own results without these fictions, the two accounts would show
a most gratifying agreement; this is especially true now that. v.
Uexkiill has included, in his last Study (31) attempts to show how
his machines could be modified by the influences which act on the
organism. I have never argued against the existence of machine-
like arrangements in organisms. My point was merely that these
machines are not fixed and final, but that they are continually
changed by the environment and by the action of the organism itself.*
Personally I believe that even these changes occur in an essentially
machine-hke way.
The demand for “Anschaulichkeit” at all costs is apparently what
has led the author to certain extreme views; to his separating and cou-
trasting biology and physiology; and to his tendency to fall into vital-
‘In his recent paper on New Questions in Haperimental Biology (38) Vv.
Uexkiill, in presenting a graphic picture of my exposition if carried to a
logical extreme, has attributed to me extreme views which I have never held.
He says that I “denied the existence of the reflex; denied the existence of
any Structure in the central nervous system.” This statement I am
sure is given as part or an “anschaulich”’’ fictitious schema, not as a state-
ment of verifiable fact; I have made no such denial. Again he quotes me
as saying that “the organism is only something happening,’ when what I
said is that “The organism is something happening.” The difference is like
the difference between black and white. I was trying to insist upon certain
facts that had heen commonly left out of account,—not trying to substitute
these facts for everything else known.
Jenninos, Uexkill on Physiology of Behavior. 333
ism at certain junctures. Having abandoned (in favor of the con-
struction of fictitious machines) the requirement of finding out what
are the real forces at work in organisms, of finding out what machines
actually do exist (as determined by the test of verification), the
author finds himself in opposition to physiology, which searches pre-
cisely for the real (verifiable) forces, materials and machines of
organisms. To escape this opposition, v. Uexkiill renounces physiol-
ogy and all its works; renounces finding out the causes of things, and
‘alls himself a biologist only; biology he maintains has an entirely
different purpose from physiology. ‘We distinguish two sciences of
animate nature; Physiology, which arranges her materials according
to causality; Biology, which arranges her materials according to pur-
posiveness (Zweckmiissigkeit )” (29, Vorwort). The purpose of biol-
ogy is to work out the plan according to which the body is made up
and acts (33, pp. 10, 11, ete.). The materials—the actual chemical
and physical substances, properties and forees—used in realizing the
plan, do not concern biology, but form the field of physiology (28,
p- 376). Hence the biologist may content himself with schemata
which reproduce what the organism does, even though the organism
and the schema are operated by different forces acting on different
materials in different arrangements. Thus “When I for example lay
out the plan of structure of a worm, and in so doimg use any con-
venient physical schema, it doesn’t occur to me at all to touch upon
a physical problem. One may always think of any other force
as at work in the same object. I am not concerned with that. I
seek only for a fitting expression in order to make the plan of the
animal anschaulich” (28, p. 377). The biologist need not concern
himself with causal questions; with physiology. “It is therefore not
to be complained of if we biologists, who are asking about the fune-
tions of animals, look with much coolness at the end problems of
physiology” (28, p. 377). ‘
Renouncing then a causal study for biology, and holding that
“Anschaulichkeit” or the demonstration of the production of proc-
esses In a machine-like way is the “‘most essential of all” things in
biological explanations, v. Uexkiill naturally gets into serious diffi-
culties when he confronts processes which he is unable to present as
334 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
“anschaulich” by “searching about for a satisfactory mechanical
scheme of structure” (31, p. 188). Such he feels that he finds in
all developmental processes, both in development from the egg, and
in the development of new features in movement and the organs of
movement. “It is greatly to be regretted that we must give up the
hope of finding an anschaulich structural schema for animal develop-
ment. But there is no structure that could explain (veranschau-
lichen) its own production” (31, p. 185). Since, then, it is impos-
sible to bring development under the only poimt of view which seems
to v. Uexkiill to give a satisfactory explanation, he finds it necessary
to take refuge in vitalism. He is, however, under no illusions as
to vitalism’s being an explanation; it is a mere renunciation; “when
we therefore give over the production of form to vitalism, this giv-
ing over involves a renunciation of all real understanding in this
science” (31, p. 187). In his latest paper v. Uexkiill counts himself,
if I understand him correctly, as a vitalist so far as developmental
processes go, but as a “‘machinalist” so far as the functioning of
developed organs is concerned (33, p. 14).
If in place of making “Anschaulichkeit” the end to be reached,
one takes verifiableness as his aim, a very different set of views
will be reached in biology. There are many fields of exact science
in which such ‘“Anschaulichkeit” as v. Uexkiill demands is not re-
quired. To understand how water is produced from oxygen and
hydrogen, most chemists do not construct a fictitious machine on the
plan of a flour mill or a dynamo. They merely accept the fact as a
datum, in connection with other similar facts. V. Uexkiill himself
mentions a number of fields of science which are not ‘“anschaulich”
in character (33, p. 16), so that it seems extraordinary to found
vitalism on the basis that biology is similar to other sciences in this
respect! The only condition that science requires in order that
accepted principles of explanation shall apply is this; that differ-
ences in resulting conditions shall always be found to be pre-
ceded by differences in foregoing conditions, so that nothing shall
happen undetermined. But why oxygen and hydrogen in the pro-
portion of one to two should give the properties of water rather
than those of aleohol we do not know any more than we know why
Jenninos, Uexkiill on Physiology of Behavior. 335
in biology one combination produces a sea urchin, another a star-
fish. Throughout both chemistry and biology we find unpredictable
results produced by new combinations. The repeated changes shown
by the development of an organism seem, as to intelligibility, quite
on a par with a series of transformations due to recombinations of
chemicals. If in either field the same combination under the same
conditions should sometimes produce one result, sometimes another,
then indeed science would be in distress, and it biology were the
field in which this occurred, then the biologist might perhaps grasp
at vitalism as a drowning man grasps at a straw. Our quotation
from vy. Uexkill (given above, p. 316), in which he holds that
Driesch has shown that the germ cell “does not possess a trace of
machine-like structure, but consists of throughout equivalent parts”
and that it is “structureless,” perhaps implies that he conceives
this distressing condition to have been reached. But those who have
spent years in working with the astoundingly complex machine-
like structures and processes in the chromatin of the germ cell, and
have considered the demonstrative evidence brought forward by
Boveri, Wilson, Herbst and many others as to the distinctive func-
tions of these various parts in development, will find the statement
that the germ cell is structureless and composed of throughout equiva-
lent parts so absolutely schematic and fictitious as to omit all the
truth!
Taking verifiableness as our aim will likewise leave biology and
physiology resting peacefully in union. We shall be interested in
the plan of the organism so far as it 1s verifiable; and to work out
the verifiable plan we shall be forced to consider the actual forces,
inaterials and arrangements, not fictitious ones. Doubtless physiol-
ogy has in practice become narrowed; the remedy les in broadening
it till it includes everything verifiable in the study of the processes
of organisms.
Criticism of theoretical points is not a proper close for a con-
sideration of work of such solid value as that of v. Uexkiill. Though
we may differ from him in theoretical ideal and in method of pres-
entation, we must recognize the fundamental soundness of his
methods of actual work. Never was a truer principle set forth for
330 © “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
successful biological investigation than that the first requirement
is “The continued and accurate observation of the ving animal in
its environment” (29, p. 75). And v. Uexkill has done more
toward an analysis of the internal processes in the behavior of lower
animals than perhaps anyone else.
The Journal of
Comparative Neurology and Psychology
Votume XIX JuLy, 1909 NuMBER 4
IMITATION IN MONKEYS.
BY
M. EH. HAGGERTY.
From the Harvard Psychological Laboratory.
WitH THIRTEEN IIGURES.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Tee InGroductory, Stabeme>nntsy 2. s/n. saree serssene oncisi aes erenel clsteenehelopsl ook eteheeiene 337
hie Descriprion=ands Care of Animals Sitidledarsneyarmrrrereledenerste et aeieiee lel 340
PI Method Oe Invest atone cctesccs.o0e ain ie tcl edave, Suenerenel se acoeelleseusre aietere Rea 348
Vie HE XPELIMEeNntS andy RESULES! soars wisescareve eletey cuca ehatonen oreo clit Roteucisueber heute 355
V. General Summary of Results and Conclusions ................<.. 433
I. IntTRopDUcTORY STATEMENTS.
1. Statement of Problem. Popular opinion has generally attrib-
uted to monkeys the ability to learn by imitation. As will appear
later, experimental evidence on the matter has been of a conflicting
nature, but in the main it has not supported the popular belief. The
general problem of imitation presents itself in the form of two
questions: Do monkeys imitate human beings? and Do they imitate
one another? It is conceivable and, indeed, quite probable that an
animal which fails to copy the acts of persons, may yet imitate indi-
viduals of its own species. In the native state, monkeys must have
innumerable opportunities to imitate one another, whereas they
rarely, if ever, have opportunity to imitate human beings. Further-
THE JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PSyCHOLOGY.—VouL. XIX, No. 4.
338 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
more, a monkey lifting a latch is a very different stimulus for an
observing monkey from a person lifting the same latch. In view of
these considerations it is important In an experimental study of
imitation in monkeys to deal separately with the two questions pro-
posed above. The first question, Do monkeys imitate human beings ¢
is only indirectly related to the natural activities of the animals;
the second, Do they imitate one another? is extremely important
for an understanding of the behavior and mental life of monkeys.
To discover in what ways certain species of monkeys are influenced
hy one another’s acts has been the chief aim of the investigation
which I have here to report.
2, History of Present Investigation. The investigation was be-
eun in the Harvard Psychological Laboratory in October, 1907.
From that time until June, 1908, the experimenter devoted himself
(a) to studying the behavior of three Cebus monkeys; (b) to making
experiments with these individuals for the purpose of developing
methods of testing imitative ability, and (c) to devising and con-
structing apparatus for experimental work.
In June, 1908, the investigation was transferred to the New York
Zodlogical Park in order to make use of the large collection of mon-
keys available there. The apparatus which had been built in Cam-
bridge, and two of the Cebus monkeys which had been used in the
preliminary experiments were taken to the Park. Here, under
peculiarly favorable conditions the investigation was continued until
September. Well-prepared apparatus and methods of experimental
procedure, the fine collection of animals and the excellent local
conditions provided by those in charge of the Park, greatly facili-
tated the work and within the short space of ten weeks much was
accomplished in the way of results.
3. The Work of Other Investigators.—Noteworthy observations
concerning the imitative ability of monkeys have been made under
experimental conditions by Thorndike’, by Kinnaman’, by Hob-
‘THORNDIKE, Epwarp L. The Mental Life of the Monkeys. Psychological
Review, Monograph Supplement, vol. 3, no. 5, 57 pp. 1901.
"KKINNAMAN, A. J. Mental Life of Two Macacus Rhesus Monkeys in Cap-
tivity. American Journal of Psychology, vol. 13, pp. 98-148 ; 173-218. 1902.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 339
house,* and by Watson.* In the main these observations are but
indirectly related to the present investigation, for they are largely
concerned with the animal’s ability to copy the acts of human beings.
On this ground, the work of Hobhouse, which gave positive results,
may be excluded from this discussion. The other three investigators,
who studied the tendency of monkeys to imitate one another, used,
in one form or another, the problem method. One monkey was
taught to get food by manipulating a mechanical device; then
another monkey was allowed to learn the act by watching the trained
animal perform. None of the investigators has given the problem
an extended study, since the observations in this particular were
incidental to studies of wider scope.
Thorndike reports a series of five experiments on a Cebus monkey.
This animal, “No. 3,” was, at the time of the experiments, ‘‘on
terms of war” with No. 1, the animal he was to imitate. In none
of the imitation tests did ‘‘No. 3” learn to do the act. Thorndike
concludes: “There is clearly no evidence here of any imitation of
No. 1 by No. 3. There was also apparently nothing like purposive
watching on the part of No. 3.” “This lack of any special curiosity
about the doings of their own species characterized the general be-
havior of all three of my monkeys and in itself lessens the proba-
bility that they learn much from one another.’
Kinnaman observed two cases where the conduct of a male rhesus
caused the female to learn an act. The problem was to get food
by manipulating a mechanism—in one case, the pulling of a plug,
in the other, the bearing down of a lever. In each case, the female
was given opportunity to get food but failed. The male was then
allowed to get food while she was present and watching. In each
ease she went at once, after seeing the male get food, and operated
the mechanism and repeated the performance numerous times later.
Kinnaman says: “Here we have a copy in the form of an act. It
was copied almost in detail, and that, too, so far as the place of
*HosHouse, L. T. Mind in Evolution. Chap. X. London. 1901.
‘Watson, JOHN B. Imitation in Monkeys. Psychological Bulletin, vol. 5,
pp. 169-178. 1908.
Sar):
sp. 42:
340 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
laying hold of the plug and the direction of the pull were con-
cerned, both requiring very radical changes from the monkey’s own
previous efforts. He also says, “It seems to me that the two cases
with the box are quite as good examples of imitation as could well
298
997
be gotten even with human beings.
Watson’s contribution to this subject is the latest and agrees with
Thorndike’s in giving negative results. He reports three imitation
tests made upon two Macacus rhesus monkeys. In no one of these
tests did the watching animal learn to get food by seeing another
animal get it. He concludes, “I unhesitatingly affirm that there
was never the slightest evidence of inferential imitation manifested
in the actions of any of these animals.’”®
If we group the work of the three investigators together, we have
ten imitation tests in which four animals were used. One animal
manifested imitative behavior in two different tests. None of the
other three animals showed any tendency to imitate. From such
fragmentary and conflicting evidence it is impossible to conclude
what role imitation plays in the behavior of monkeys and the need
for further investigation is apparent.
4. Acknowledgments.—In presenting this report of my investiga-
tion, I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to the Harvard
Psychological Laboratory and, in particular, to Professor Robert
M. Yerkes, at whose suggestion I undertook the investigation. His
sympathetic codperation at every stage of it has been invaluable. To
Dr. William T. Hornaday, Director of the New York Zodlogical
Park, I am deeply indebted for the opportunity to use the facilities
of that great institution. His interest and generosity did much to
further my work. The photographs which are here reproduced
were made for me by Mr. E. R. Sanborn, the Staff Photographer
of the Park. I am grateful for his services.
II. DescriprioN AND CARE OF ANIMALS STUDIED.
1. Cebus Monkeys.
(a) General Characteristics—In my experiments I have used
™. 144.
Spe 22.
es Us
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 341
eleven animals from two genera and seven species. Eight of them
represent five species of Cebus monkeys. This is the genus with
which we are familiar as the consort of organ grinders. The home
of these monkeys is South America, especially the head waters of
the Amazon and northward into Central America, where they live
a gregarious life in the tree tops, feeding on fruit, nuts and insects.
TABLE 1.
NuMBER, SPECIES, SEX AND PROBABLE AGE OF ANIMALS USED IN THE
INVESTIGATION.
|
No. Species. | Sex. Age. Remarks.
No. 1........| Cebus lunatus _ Female 3 years | Bought of dealer in
New York.
NOR oe | Male 3. Bought of dealer in
New York.
Nowe me re “ hypoleucus | “ | Dene Bought of dealer in
| New York.
INOF 4is.fo2s, 2". “ fatuellus | Female Gries Had been several
| years in Park.
INOR Osaaete: SS eecApucinus.: > | . Dee Had been several
| years in Park.
Nos 'Giaer, ace Pn lunatus Male aa Had been several
years in Park.
INOS Sen she “ hypoleucus oo dame In Park but eight
| | weeks.
NOZO.. es “flavus a 1 year In Park but eight
weeks.
No mlOtsy) fr: Macacus rhesus Female 4 years | In Park two years.
Nome o gs | Male Sas In Park two years.
INOS ore. 4 cynomolgus, | eee. In Park two years.
They travel about by leaping from one tree to another; in this
arboreal life their long grasping tails serve them better than a
fifth hand would. The facial portion of the skull is small in com-
parison with the cranial portion, and many specimens have quite
prominent foreheads. Forbes notes that the cerebral cortex is
almost as much convoluted as it is in the Old World Apes. The
forehead, usually bare of hair, is often wrinkled, giving the mon-
keys the appearance of being “burdened with sorrows, which,” as
Dr. Hornaday remarks, “most captive monkeys certainly are!”
The Cebus monkeys are cowards except toward those they can
easily vanquish. One fight is usually enough to settle the supre-
macy of a cage. The whipped animal seldom makes another effort
342 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
to rule. The victor, however, often delights in continuing punish-
ment which the vanquished receives with howls and shrieks of fear.
The noise made by the victim is out of all proportion to the injury
inflicted. A slap, a theft of banana, or even a threat often arouses
piercing shrieks.
No. 6 and No. 4 were together one day in a small cage. It was
about feeding time and both wanted to be at the wire front. No.
6 was in the way of No. 4 and she slapped him with the palm of
her hand. He retreated and doubled up in his characteristic fashion,
moving his body up and down and yelling loudly. Any movement
of No. 4, even so much as the turn of her head toward him, served
to release another volume of shrieks. This continued for several
minutes with no further demonstration on the part of No. 4.
On another day, No. 4 was sitting on a brace in the experiment
cage with her hands on the wire. Without allowing her to see
me move, I touched my finger to the back of her index finger. As
if struck by an electric current she leaped to the floor and began
to yell vehemently and continued to do so for some time.
IT am informed by Dr. Hornaday that the Cebus monkeys which
are marketed in this country are obtained when quite young. The
offspring rides about on the mother’s back and hunters shoot the
mother, who falls to the ground with the young still clinging to
her. The small animal is then caught and kept in captivity until
the keeper desires to ship it to market. This makes it next to
impossible for any one who buys these monkeys of dealers to know
much about their previous experience.
In a study such as this, however, it is desirable to know all that
ean be known of each animal’s normal activities, so at the risk of
multiplying words, I shall give a brief account cf each animal used.
(b) Characteristics of Individual Animals.—No. 1, Cebus lunatus,
female, and No. 2, Cebus lunatus, male, were obtained from an
animal dealer in New York City. When they came to the Har-
vard Psychological Laboratory in November, 1907, they were ap-
parently about three years old and were in excellent physical condi-
tion.
No. 1 made herself at home from the start and on the third day
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 343
would sit on my knee and eat her banana out of my hand. Within
a short time she would ride on my shoulder as I walked about the
laboratory, thus being sure to keep near whatever food I might
have in my hand. No. 2, however, was more cautious, never coming
near except when No. 1 preceded him, and retreating whenever he
eot his food. His favorite position was sitting on the floor of the
cage with No. 1 sitting in front, and his arms clasped tightly
around her body. When No. 1 moved, No. 2 would start ner-
vously and try to keep close to her, never once taking his sparkling
brown eyes off the persons in the room. Gradually his fear wore
off and with No. 1 he went curiously about the cage, biting at every
projecting piece of wood, and poking his fingers into every crack
and cranny. | _IwrratinG No. 26
| Number of times : j
| No. 2 performed wamber of times | Number of times | ‘Time in
Date—1908. ier No. 1 saw No. 2. |No. 1 saw in part.| Result. | Minutes.
Jan. 30a 7 3 3 Failed. | 30
Jan. 30b 6 3 3 LL Be | 30
Jan oles 22. 11 8 3 Fos “30
Repeies. she 4 17 10 7 F 30
Heb. Gos... 10 10 | -F 30
Kebsl0. .. 12 10 2 F 30
Heb. U7 22s. 12 | 10 2 F 30
Feb. 18... . .| 13 | 10 1 aa 30
Hebetore .: 10 10 hee yee 30
Feb 20es< 12 10 2 F 30
Ben eots 10 10 F 30
Bebe 25.5... 12 10 2 Note 2 30
Rebsa26se0-4| 22 20 | F | 30
Heb 27. 20 20 1 F 30
Hebeose ee. . 23 20 3 he ar 30
Hebio9.... 33 | 20 3 F 30
March 2.... 23 | 20 | 3 oe 30
| }
Motte... | 253 rae F204 35 ek 510
S means fine the imitator did ear fie i. ste ior of the imitatee.
. F means that the imitator failed to repeat the behavior of the imitatee.
The time is always given in minutes unless otherwise indicated. It was taken
with an ordinary watch and where it is recorded in seconds the time was taken from
the second hand.
How No. 1 Learned.—March 8. No. 1 had been given more than two hundred
opportunities to see No. 2 perform the operation and had profited frequently
by getting food. It then seemed certain that she would not learn to work the
device from seeing No. 2 do it. A stick, two inches wide, was placed from the
wire front of the cage to the chute. Within eight minutes, No. 1 had
climbed the side of the cage, had walked on the stick to the chute, had swung
down and thrusting her hand up the chute had opened the door. The
stick was then removed while No. 1 was on the floor. When her
food was eaten she became very active, making long leaps all about
358 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
the cage, but never once to the chute. She then settled down to
her usual behavior and after ten minutes the stick was replaced. She
pulled the string once and the stick was again removed. She then resumed
her usual conduct for almost ten minutes more. Then, when under the
chute, she looked up and her eyes accidentally fell on the chute. She rushed
up the front of the cage and leaped to the chute, swung herself down and
worked the device. This she repeated several times, although in a much
less skillful way than No. 2 was able to do it.
2. CHUTE EXPERIMENT B.
A. Description of Device.
This apparatus was a modification of the one used in Chute Experi-
ment A.
Frem the top of the experiment cage (fig. 3), 30 em. from the board side
and 40 cm. from the board end, a hollow wooden chute, a, 5 cm. square,
projected into the cage a distance of TO cm. Inside this chute, 40 cm.
from the lower end was a trap door, 0, hinged to drop downward, but held
up by a rubber elastic. To the bottom of this trap door was attached a
string, ¢, which hung down to within 10 cm. of the lower edge of the chute.
A coiled wire spring, d, was tied to the lower end of the string to serve for a
hand-hold for the animals. In the top of the cage was a tube leading into
the chute from a small feeder (fig. 19, f,) adjusted on top of the cage.
By pulling a string, attached to the feeder, the experimenter could drop food
(sunflower seed and chopped peanuts) upon the trap door.* Two horizontal
rungs nailed to the sides of the chute helped the animal to support himself on
the chute.
The problem set for the animal was to leap from the wire front or end
of the cage and, while holding to the chute, to swing his head and shoulders
down, thrust one hand up the inside of the chute, grasp the coiled spring, and
pull the trap door down. The food on the top of the door would then fall to
the floor, unless checked by striking the body of the animal. In either case
the animal could get it.
B. Behavior of No. 2.
No. 2 had learned to work the mechanism in Chute Experiment A. But
when he was first put into the new cage, four months after his last experi-
ence in the old one, he apparently had no memory of the chute. Only after
several minutes did he go to it. He jumped to it from the front wire. He
stopped to examine the opening in the end before he thrust his hand into
it. In the old cage he usually thrust his hand into the opening without
“The essential part of the feeder was a copper plate, 38 cm. wide and 6 mm.
thick, arranged to slide back and forth in grooves beneath a food hopper. In
the plate was a circular opening into which the food dropped from the hopper.
When the string was pulled this opening, full of food, was drawn over a tube
leading into the chute, into which the food dropped.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 359
looking at it. After examination, he pushed his hand up the inside and
touched the string. Then he became very eager to work and would have
worked continually (fig. 4).
C. Behavior of No. 13.
Preliminary trials.—VFirst trial, August 23. On entering the cage, No. 13
climbed to X where he sat for a short time. He then walked along the brace
until opposite the chute, when he leaned out toward the chute and touched
it with his hands, a little way above the lower edge. Drawing his body back
from the chute, he walked along to X and went down to the floor. Several
times he climbed up and down the wire parts of the cage and then tried to
get out at the door. He went back and forth from the door to X. In his
endeavor to get out of the cage, he pushed on the small doors repeatedly
and even climbed the wire front to push on the upper part of the large
door. Next he settled at XY and looked about. He moved down to the floor
and up and down the wire. Moving along the brace to the door, he tried to
push it open. He then descended to the floor. He tried to climb the corner
post opposite X and then climbed the wire to the top of the front, going
to the floor again and then up to XY. He was active during the entire time
he was in the cage, but he took no notice of the chute after the first three
minutes.
Second trial, August 24. The movements of No. 18 on this day were as
follows: Up the end of the cage; to the floor; up to the brace and along the
brace to opposite the chute; leaned over to the chute and put hands on the
lower rung; felt up and down the edges of the chute nearest him; tried to bite
the edges of the chute; back to the wire and to the floor; again up to
the brace and leaned over to the chute; again bit the edges of the chute; to
the floor, about, and looked up at the chute from exactly under it; to the
door; up to X and perched; to the floor and hunted about; bit the door;
again to X and perched, looking out through the wire; down to the floor to
get a roach and back to the brace; up the wire front, and back to X; to the
door and back to X; along the brace; putting his hands over on the
chute, he swung his body to the chute and climbed up on it to the top
of the cage and looked at the screws, etc.; tried to bite rung; back to brace
and perched at YX.
Third trial, August 26. Behavior as follows: Climbed wire; perched at X;
to the floor; to the door; up front and around to the top of the wire end;
back to X where he sat for a little time; to the floor and hunted all about; to
the place where L* had been and hunted for it; back to X and along the
brace to the large door; turned around, faced the chute, but paid no attention
to it; to the floor, all about and back up to XY; along the brace to the chute;
leaned over to it; put hands on the near edges and looked up and down;
grasped rung in one hand and pushed other up and down the edges of the
chute; back to X; to the chute and clung to it while he examined the top of
*An opening where he had gotten food in a previous experiment.
360 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
the cage; on the chute two minutes and then slid down to the end and
dropped off; again to the chute and examined the crack in the top of the
cage; perched on the rung and looked out of the cage; bit at the edges and
then jumped off.
Fourth trial, August 27. Behavior as follows: To X and sat down; along
the brace and back to X and to the floor; up the front and along the brace to
X and up the end of the cage; to the floor and about all the edges looking
for food; up to X, along the brace, and to the floor; about the floor and to
the door, which he tried to open; to the end of the cage; up, around to the
front and sat at XY; up the end of the cage and down to the floor; to the
corner opposite X; to the front, up and sat at Y; up and down the wire; up
the front, around to the end and back to the front; to the end and down to
the floor; up to X and sat; up the front of the cage and shook it.
FWitth trial, August 29. Behavior as follows: Up and down the end of the
cage; to the door and up the front; to the chute and sat on the rungs; back
to front and to X where he sat for some time; to the floor and to the door,
which he tried persistently to open; climbed the front and looked about; to
the floor and pushed on the door very hard; up the front and perched at X;
up the end of the cage and back to X; along the brace and pushed at the
chute; to X and down to the door; up the front and to the chute; back to
the brace and along it to the end of the cage and back to X; to the floor
and back to X; looked up at X from the floor; afterward climbed to X and
sat there during the remaining part of the time.
Imitation test—No. 13 imitating No. 4.* First test. No. 13 was put into the
observation box and the box was set on the floor of the cage so that No.
15 could have a good view of the chute. No. 4 was put into the cage and,
at once, began to get food from the chute. No. 13 was attentive to every
movement. His record in seeing is as follows: 4
Performance 1. No. 15 saw perfectly and became very threatening and eager
to get out of the cage.
Pp. 2. Just as No. 4 thrust her hand up the chute, No. 13 looked down.
As a result he did not see the pull. He saw her eating food and shook his
box with such force that he moved it about over the floor.
P. 3. No. 18 saw perfectly and sat on the floor of his box attentively watch-
ing No. 4 eat her food.
P. 4. No. 15 saw perfectly and was eager to get out.
P. 5. No. 13 saw fairly well; he was eager to get out of the box; failing to
get free he sat on the floor of his box and watched No. 4 eat the food.
These performances did not occupy more than five minutes. No. 4 was now
removed and No. 13 was released in the cage. At first he looked about over
the floor for food and then climbed the front wire, stopping on the brace
opposite the chute. He leaned over to the chute and while still standing on
the brace with his feet, tried to thrust a hand into the bottom of the chute.
Ivailing in this, he ran along the brace to X and back again to opposite the
*The learning of No. 4 will be given later.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 301
chute; catching the rung of the chute in his hands he drew himself over to
it; finding himself above the end of the chute he tried to let his body down,
first on one side and then on the other, until in the most awkward manner
he managed to get near enough to the end to thrust a hand up the inside
far enough to reach the string. At once he pulled and the food came tum-
bling down on his chest and to the floor. Dropping to the floor he picked up
the food and ate it. The time from the removal of No. 4 was 40 seconds.
Within one minute he climbed the front wire, reached the chute, and got food
in the same manner. On reaching the chute the third time he did not pull
himself above the end, but holding to the rung with his hands he dropped
his body below the end and placing his feet against the back of the
cage steadied himself while he thrust the free hand up inside and pulled
the string. Time: 40 seconds. From this time on No. 13 repeated the per-
formance as rapidly as his food was eaten. Within ten minutes he had gotten
food eleven times and had eaten it all. From the moment he was released in
the cage he seemed bent on getting the food. In his efforts, he made but one
useless movement, namely, when he drew back from the chute after first
putting his hands on it. This, however, did not indicate a wavering from
the end in view. It was merely a drawing back for the renewed effort which
he immediately made.
Summary of Behavior of No. 13 in Chute Haperiment B.
During the preliminary trials No. 18 was exceedingly active, but at the
end of the time he had made no progress toward a solution of the problem.
He had gone to the chute, but there was no evidence that this was more than
a random act in his movements about the cage. He did not notice the end
of the chute and in no way did he seem to connect the chute with getting
food. During his last trial he was quiet much of the time.
After his preliminary trials he saw No. 4 getting food at the end of
the chute five times. He was confined in an observation box so that he
could not follow No. 4 about. He did not get any food and he experienced the
result in no way. However, when he was released in the cage his behavior
was strikingly different from his behavior during any of his preliminary trials.
He went almost directly to the place where he had seen No. 4 get food and
within two-thirds of a minute he had gotten food for himself by doing
essentially the same act No. 4 had done while he was watching her.
TABLE 3.
No. 13 Imiratine No. 4.
Number of times rs pe EAS ; ¢
Date No. 4 performed Number of times | Number of times Result. Time in
says. avert No. 13 saw. No. 13 saw in part. Seconds.
362 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
D. Behavior of No. 4.
First trial. No. 4 spent her time on the floor and the sides of the cage.
She was fairly active. After four minutes of random movements about
the cage, she hung by her tail and two feet to the front of the cage opposite
the chute and swung her body around crane-like toward the chute, looking
at it steadily. She then moved about the cage as if she had nothing to do;
she either sat quietly or leisurely climbed the cage.
Second trial. No. 4 walked about on the floor; then climbed the wire
and looked about. Once or twice she examined the cracks in the floor and
in the door. She looked at the chute twice and looked out through the wire
toward the window.
Third trial. During the third period No. 4 spent her time on the floor
and in climbing the wire. Several times she pulled on the brace across the
front of the cage and then remained quiet. She paid no attention to the
chute during the entire time she was in the éage.
Fourth trial. On the fourth day No. 4 spent most of her time perched on
the brace. She varied this by climbing up and down, catching roaches, and
looking out through the wire and the window. She displayed no interest in
the chute during the entire time she was in the cage.
Fifth trial. On the fifth day No. 4 spent her entire time on the floor, op
the brace, and in climbing the wire. Most of the time she sat still, and when
disturbed, simply changed her position and settled down again.
No. 4 paid most attention to the chute on her first day’s trial. On the
second day she gave it less attention, and on the third, fourth and fifth days
none whatever.
Imitation tests—No. 4 imitating No. 2—The animals were put into the
cage together. At first No. 2 was afraid of No. 4, who walked about the
floor and climbed the wire at her will. As No. 2 would not work at the
chute because of his fear, No. 4 was put into the observation box and the
box was placed on the floor of the cage. No. 2 was still afraid and refused
to work for some time. After twenty minutes, he leaped to the chute and
pulled the string. No. 4 did not see him, but some of the food fell into
her box and she ate it. Fifteen minutes later No. 2 jumped to the chute,
but he did not pull the string. No. 4 saw him on the chute. Later No. 2
jumped to the chute, pulled the string and caught a seed on his chest.
No. 4 saw him on the chute, but did not see him pull the string. The next
time No. 4 saw nothing, but got food. No. 2 then became more frightened
at No. 4 and refused to jump to the chute during the rest of the morning.
Since No. 4 had not seen the entire performance once, she was not given
an opportunity to get the food.
Second trial. This trial was made on the afternoon of the same day as
the previous test. No. 2 was still much frightened and worked very slowly.
The first time he pulled the string and got food, No. 4 was looking. He
pulled the string again, but not hard enough to get food, and No. 4 saw
him. No. 2 did the same thing again and No. 4 saw him. The fourth
time No. 2 pulled the string he got food, but No. 4 did not see. In all, No.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 363
4 saw No. 2 at the chute and pulling the string twice; once she saw him with
food at the end of the chute, and twice she got food which fell into her box.
No. 2 was now taken out and No. 4 was released from the observation box.
She at once climbed the wire front opposite the chute. Then she leaned
toward the chute as far as she could while still holding to the wire with
one hand. She drew herself back and descended to the floor, went to the
door and then to the wire end, climbed the end opposite the chute, threw her
head, shoulders and arms toward the chute, catching the lower part of it in
her hands. Then she let go the wire with her feet and tail and drew her
body over to the chute, catching it by her feet and wrapping her tail around
it. She then swung her head down under the chute and looked up into it,
at the same time thrusting her hand up inside. She rattled the metal hand-
hold against the side of the chute and in a moment pulled it. The food
fell on her chest and on the floor. The interval was less than one minute,
from the time No. 2 was taken from the cage. She then dropped to the floor,
ate the food, and climbing the front of the cage, leaped to the chute again
and repeated the act in two minutes. She repeated it again in three minutes,
and again in five minutes from the time No. 2 was removed, in the mean-
time, eating all the food that fell to the floor. She repeated the act again
in one minute and six times more within the next twelve minutes. In all
she operated the mechanism eleven times in twenty minutes and ate all the
food—about thirty sunflower seeds. She would now work the device as often
as she got the food eaten.
Her manner of solving the problem was direct from the first, and with one
exception, without loss of time or motion.
Summary of Behavior of No. 4 in Chute Experiment B.
No. 4 was quite active during her first preliminary trials, but during the
later ones she was more quiet and wholly indifferent to the presence of the
chute. The conditions of her imitation test differed from the test of No.
13 in the fact that No. 4 herself ate some of the food that came from the
chute when No. 2 pulled the string, whereas No. 183 had only seen without
experiencing ae result of the act. The behavior of No. 4 after being released
in the cage was like that of No. 18, in that there was a marked change
from the behavior of the preliminary trials. She went directly to the chute
and performed the act she had witnessed, securing the same result.
TABLE 4.
No. 4 Imiratine No. 2
|ieee Ton
Dee Nae Number of times | Number of times Result Time in
; ” aye Giese. No. 4 saw. No. 4 saw in part ; Seconds.
duly. 29 ...°.: 3 ) 1 No test.
July 29.. 4 | 2 | 2 8 55
|
Potals.2 25 7 2 | 3 S 55
364 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
EH. Behavior of No. 11.
Preliminary trials. First trial, August 24. No. 11 was very active and
very hungry when put into the cage. He moved about as follows:
Across the floor to the end; up the wire and down again; to the door
and looked up at the chute; chewed and pushed at the door trying to get it
open; to the front and to the end; up, and back to the floor; to the door;
to the front and back to the door, where he was very vigorous in his efforts
to get out; to the front; up to the brace and looked all about the chute; shook
the cage; to the floor and to the end; looked out through the wire; up the
cage and shook it vigorously; to the door and made frantic efforts to get it
open; repeated this soon again; up to XY and perched; to the floor and
about; tried the door again and walked about the floor; tried the door again
and walked about the floor; up to XY and perched; to the floor and up to the
wire front; shook the cage vigorously and returned to the floor; again made
frantic efforts to open the door; up to X and sat on the brace; to the door
and frantic to open it; to the end of the cage and up the wire; around to the
front and reached one arm over to the chute and shook it; to the floor and
about; again climbed the front of the cage and reached to the chute; to
and perched.
Second trial, August 25. Behavior as follows: Up to the brace and down;
repeated; while on the wire looked at the chute; shook the cage; to the
end of the cage and down to the floor; looked all about; up the front and
shook the cage with great vigor; down to the floor and searched about for
food; up the front and shook the cage again; perched on the brace and sur-
veyed the chute carefully for some time; perched at XY; to the floor and sat
near the end; to the front and sat looking out through the wire; to the door
and tried to open it; up the front and perched at XY; carefully surveyed the
inside of the cage and looked out through the wire; looked squarely at the
chute; up the front and shook the cage vigorously; back to X and sat for
some time; to the floor and about.
Third trial, August 26. It was past feeding time and the animal was
abnormally hungry. He was, therefore, fed on entering the cage, but not
enough to satisfy him and he went about the cage as usual looking for food.
His movements were as follows: Up the front of the cage and along the
brace to the end and down to the floor; from underneath the chute he looked
up at it steadily and then climbed the end to X where he perched and
looked about the cage; shook the cage vigorously and perched again; to the
floor and tried to open the door; looked toward the chute and then climbed
the end of the cage to X; along the brace; back to XY and to the floor; up
to X and down the end of the cage again to the floor; sat under the chute;
jumped to wire front and ran along the brace to X; to the floor; picked up
some hulls and smelled them; repeated this several times.
Fourth trial, August 27. No. 11 behaved as follows: Up the end and down
to the floor; about the floor and up the front to X, where he perched; to
the floor and back; to the floor and sat, looking out through the wires; up
the front and shook the cage; to the floor and sat at the end of the floor
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 365
of the cage; walked about the floor and climbed the front of the cage; to
the floor and sat near the end of the cage; crossed the floor to the door and
climbed the front wire; along the brace to Y, where he perched; to the floor and
looked about; to the door and up the front to VY; down to the floor, where
he sat looking out at the end wire; very alert, but the chute apparently
had no interest for him; to the door and pushed, in an effort to get out;
he had been very eager to get into the cage, but was now just as eager to
get out.
Fifth trial, August 28. The behavior of No. 11 on this day was evidence
that he did not expect to find food in the cage. Most of his efforts seemed to
be directed toward getting out of the cage. There was no reason for his
desiring to leave the cage other than the lack of interest on the inside
and his desire to be back in the cage with his mate. He was not in the
least frightened. His behavior was as follows: Up the end of the cage and
down to the floor; up the front and down to the door; about the floor and
to the top of the wire front; around to the top and down to X, where he sat
for some time, uttering a cooing call; after a short time, to the floor and
about; sat down near the wire end for a time; up the front and shook
the cage; to X and perched; to the floor and grabbed the front wire, shaking
the cage very vigorously; up to Y and perched for some time; down to the
floor and back up to XY ; along the brace and back to XY, where he stayed during
the remainder of the time.
Imitation tests—No. 11 imitating No. 4. First test. No. 11 was placed
in the observation-box, which was then placed on the floor of the cage; No.
4 was free in the cage. No. 11’s record in seeing was:
Performance 1. No. 11 was distracted; saw No. 4 on the chute, but did not
see the pulling of the string. He saw her eat the food on the floor.
P. 2. No. 11 saw No. 4 on the chute; saw her swinging at the end; saw her
pull the string and get the food.
P. 3. No. 11 saw No. 4 leap to the chute, swing down, pull the string, and
get the food.
P. 4. No. 11 saw No. 4 on the chute; saw her swing down and get the
food; he jumped at the side of his box in an effort to get out.
No. 4 now spent some time on the floor getting food and No. 11 watched her
attentively passing from one end to the other of his box as No. 4 walked about.
Several times he jumped at her striking the side of his box; when she climbed
upon his box he became very threatening.
P. 5. With his eyes No. 11 followed No. 4 about the floor and up over his
box to the chute. During the pulling of the string his eyes were riveted on
her. She dropped one seed in his box and he ate it.
P. 6. Same as P. 5, except that No. 11 did not get food. No. 11 was very
threatening toward No. 4.
No. 4 was now removed and No. 11 was released in the cage. His first
movement was to work at the door in an effort to get out of the cage. He
then went up to the brace, leaned over to the chute and placing one hand on
the side of it, attempted to pull it toward him; he then grabbed the edge of
the lower end of the chute in his hand and pulled. Letting go of the chute
366 © “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
he went to XY, where he perched for some time. Going to the floor he walked
about and then looked up at the chute; he tried to jump to it from the floor,
but, though he touched the rung with his hand, he was not able to hold.
He then walked about the floor and climbed the front of the cage, walked
along the brace and leaning over to the chute, pulled it as before. Going to
the floor, he tried to climb the corner post near the chute. Failing in this,
he jumped to the chute from the floor, holding with both hands. Pulling
himself up to the chute, he bit the rungs and then worked his way around
the chute biting at all the edges, but not turning his head down to the end
of the chute. Leaping to the front of the cage, he descended to the floor and
walked about. Once again he jumped for the chute, but failed to hold on.
He then walked about the cage and climbed to Y, where he perched for
the remainder of the time.
Second test. Conditions were the same as in the preceding test. The
record of No. 11’s seeing was as follows:
Performance 1. No. 11 was looking at the experimenter and did not see.
P. 2. No. 11 saw, though his attention was divided between the experimenter
and No. 4.
P. 3 to P. 5. No. 11 saw fairly well, but did not threaten as on the day before.
P. 6. No. 11 saw perfectly.
No. 4 was now removed and No. 11 was released in the cage. He found a
seed on the floor and ate it. He jumped to the chute from the floor, but
could not hold. Sitting down beneath the chute he looked up at it and then
walked about the floor looking for food. He climbed to Y, but returned
to the floor after a minute, going to the door, where he tried to get out.
Failing to open it, he went to the wire end of the cage and sat on the
floor. He tried the door again and then climbed to Y, but after one minute
came to the floor and sat down. Turning toward the chute, he jumped for it,
and catching hold, drew himself up to the chute. For some time he sat
on the rung; then he bit his way around the chute. He then shook the
chute so hard that the iron attached to the string on the inside rattled. He
was then quiet, looking about the cage and at the sides and edges of the
chute. Twice more he shook the chute with such vigor that he all but tore
it from its fastening at the top of the cage. Becoming quiet, he sat
for a moment and then leaped to the front of the cage. He went to Y and
perched for a moment; he then went to the floor and sat near the wire end
of the cage. Time: 25 minutes.
Third test. No. 13 had by this time learned to get food and he was used
as the imitatee since, in size and general behavior he was much more
like No. 11 than was No. 4. No. 11 was put into the observation-box and
the box was placed on the floor of the cage. No. 18 was not at first
inclined to work, but moved all about the cage. He finally went to the
chute and hunted along the top of the cage for roaches. Several times
he jumped from the wire side of the cage to the chute and back to the wire.
Performance 1. At last he went to the chute slowly and pulled the string,
getting food. No. 11 saw every movement perfectly. No. 13 was suffering
from a fall he had gotten a short time before when fighting with No. 10.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 367
He seemed afraid of No. 11. When he would work no more, he was taken
out and No. 4 was substituted.
No. 4 operated the chute eleven times. Nine of these performances No. 11
saw. He was alert and every muscle was tense.
In all, No. 11 had seen ten times during this test and a total of twenty
times in the three tests.
No. 4 was now removed and No. 11 was released in the cage. He first
looked over the floor for food and finding none, climbed the wire front and
went over to the chute, shaking it with such vigor that he almost tore it
loose from the top of the cage. Jumping back to the brace he went to X
and to the floor. Passing to a position immediately under the chute he
jumped up to it from the floor and climbed up on it. Without stopping to
make examination he swung his body down, held to the rung with one
hand, placed his feet against the back of the cage for support and, thrust-
ing the other hand up inside the chute, pulled the string. The food fell
onto his chest and on the floor. The time, from the removal of No. 4, was
60 seconds.
Having eaten the food, he again jumped to the chute and in the same
position tried to pull the string, but not being able to hold his weight with
one hand he had to catch with both; he then pulled himself up on the
chute, and having regained his equilibrium swung down and got food as
before.
Again he jumped to the chute from the floor, catching the rung in one
hand and curling up so as to grasp the rung with his feet also. Then holding
by his feet and one hand, he thrust the other hand into the chute as before
and got food. He repeated this in exactly the same way, at once. Again he
repeated this in the same way, except that he placed his feet against the
back of the cage instead of on the rungs of the chute. From this time on he
got food as rapidly as he could eat it, most of the time hanging below the
chute with his feet braced against the back of the cage.
Summary of Behavior of No. 11 in Chute Experiment B.
No. 11’s preliminary trials were much like those of No. 13 and No. 4.
‘They ended with No. 11 not having got food and with his being indifferent to the
means of getting it. The stimulus-complex was the same as in the case of
No. 4, i. e., No. 11 saw No. 4 getting the food and experienced the result of her
act himself. When he was released from the observation-box, his behavior
was different from what it had been in the preliminary trials. However, it
was not sufficiently like the behavior of No. 4 to bring the same result. His
attention had been directed to the chute, but not to that part of it which
would enable him to get food. -
After his second observation his interest in the chute seemed increased,
as evidenced by the great vigor with which he shook it. The third test
seemed to direct his attention to the important part of the mechanism and
he succeeded in getting food as No. 4 had done in his presence. The result,
in the case of No. 11, differed from the result in each of the previous cases
368 + “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
in that No. 18 and No. 4 both repeated the act which they had seen imme-
diately. No. 11, on the other hand, seemed to learn a part of the act at a
time, and only after repeated opportunity to see it, did he learn fully to
attend to the act as it was performed in his presence.
TABLE 5.
No. 11 Imrratine No. 4.
| Number of times |
| Ww Fc : Number of times _Number of times Time in
DES [Ses pate Gores No. 11 saw. No. 11 saw in part. PSS: | minutes.
|
es — =e ee Se Z 3
Aug. 28..... | 6 5 1 F 10
AUIS S28 eee | 6 5 F 10
Aug. 29. 12 10 S 1
Rotel 24 20 1 S) 21
IF’. Behavior of No. 6
Preliminary trials.—First trial. The first few minutes were spent on the
floor. After four minutes No. 6 climbed the cage front and reached to the
chute with his hands. He repeated this a minute later. A minute later he
looked at the chute from the floor, climbed the front of the cage and grabbed
the lower edge of the chute in his hands. This he repeated once, and then
spent the rest of the time on the floor of the cage.
Second trial. On the second day No. 6 climbed about the cage, then reached
to the chute and put one hand slightly into the end of it. He gave no further
attention to it and went to the floor. Later, he climbed the front and while
holding with tail and feet to the wire reached to the chute, clasping a hand
on each side of it about four inches from bottom. This he repeated after eight
minutes, and once more before the close of the time.
Third trial. On the third day, No. 6 reached to the chute as on the previous
day, after five minutes in the cage. Later, he reached to the chute and
tried to get his hands and feet on it while holding to the wire with his tail.
Fourth trial. On the fourth day his only attention to the chute was to
look at it once and to attempt to get to it as on the previous day while holding
to the wire with his tail. Failing, he spent the rest of his time on the floor.
Fifth trial. On the fifth day No. 6 once climbed the wire and looked at
the chute. Later, after running about the floor, he climbed the front of the
cage and jumped to the chute to get a cockroach on the back of the cage.
While there he explored the top of the cage and jumped back to the side.
Once more he leaped to the chute, but he leaped back immediately. During
the latter part of the time he remained quietly on the floor of the cage.
Imitation tests.—No. 6 imitating No. 2.—First test. No. 6 was put into the
observation-box, which was set on the bottom of the experiment cage. No. 2
was free in the cage. No. 2 was interested in No. 6 and pretended fight.
Once he ran up the wire, jumped to the chute and leaped to the wire again
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 369
at once. Then both animals pretended fight toward another animal which
was making a noise behind a curtain.
Performance 1. No. 2 jumped to the chute and jumped back to the wire
without pulling the string. No. 6 saw.
P. 2. No. 2 jumped to the chute and pulled the string. No. 6 saw No. 2
on the chute and saw food fall.
P. 3. No. 6 saw as before. An empty shell bounced into the box and
No. 6 got it.
P. 4. No. 6 saw No. 2 on the chute, looked away, heard the sound of the
trap door, looked back and saw No. 2 at the end of the chute and the
food falling to the floor. No. 2 now jumped to the chute twice, but he
did not pull the string. No. 6 saw him jump.
P. 5. No. 2 jumped to the chute, pulled the string and the food fell to
the floor. No. 2 now jumped to the chute and jumped back to the wire.
No. 6 saw nothing No. 2 did.
P. 6. No. 6 saw the entire performance.
No. 2 was now taken out. No. 6 was released from the observation-box.
He climbed the cage at the front and reaching over to the chute pushed a
hand up inside. He could not reach the string. This occurred only 30 seconds
from time of release. He then went down to the floor.
Immediately, he climbed the wire opposite the chute, jumped to it, threw
his head and shoulders down, reached up inside and pulled at the string,
but, though he gave what seemed a strong pull, it was not sufficient to
open the trap door. He raised his body up, but at once bent down again
and looked up the chute. He then leaped to the floor. All fhis happened
within two minutes from the time of his release from the observation-box.
Four minutes later he repeated the entire performance, and then dropped
to the floor. Four minutes later he leaped to the chute, but did not go to
the end of it. He explored the top of the cage instead, leaped back to the
wire, and went down to the floor. He did not seem as vigorous as usual.
Three minutes later, he jumped to the chute and in attempting to get in
position at the bottom of the chute, lost his hold and dropped to the floor.
This he repeated five minutes later. He held with one hand to the rungs
on the chute and allowed his feet and body to hang below. Holding thus
-with one hand, he tried to put the other up the inside of the chute and
being unable to hold himself longer dropped to the floor.
Five minutes later he jumped to the chute and pulled the string, but not
hard enough to get the food.
Second test. Conditions were the same as in the previous test. No. 2
was now more active and worked rapidly.
Performance 1 to P. 2. No. 6 saw No. 2 jump to the chute, then looked
away, heard the rattle at the chute and looked back to see No. 2 at the
end of the chute and food falling to the floor.
Six times more No. 2 operated the chute. No. 6 saw the entire perform-
ance each time but one; this one he saw in part.
When No. 2 was out No. 6 found a grain of food on the floor of the
cage and ate it. He then climbed the wire, jumped to the chute, and swing-
370 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
ing down to the end of the chute pulled the string, but failed to get food.
Then he swung down to the floor. Time: one minute. He tried again imme-
diately, but failed to hold and dropped to the floor. After six minutes he
jumped to the chute, touched the string with his hand, but did not pull it.
Third test. Conditions were the same as in the previous test.
Performance 1. No. 6 was playing and saw only in part.
P. 2. No. 6 saw the entire performance, though not steadily.
P. 3. No. 6 saw the entire performance.
No. 6 now became angry at No. 2 and tried to get out of his box. No. 2
became frightened and ceased to work for some time. He lay stretched out
on the floor and after repeated efforts to get him to work he was taken
out, and No. 6 was released in the cage.
No. 6 immediately climbed the front of the cage, leaped across to the
chute, swung with one hand to the rung, looked up the chute, pushed his
other hand up, lost his grip and fell to the floor. He repeated this within
two minutes. Twice again within two minutes he jumped to the chute.
Then he jumped to the chute, hung by one hand and looked up inside. He
looked at the chute often. He tried again to hang by one hand and look up
the chute, but dropped to the floor. He later jumped to the chute twice
and looked at the top of the cage.
Fourth test, No. 6 imitating No. 4. Same conditions as before, except
that No. 4 was substituted for No. 2.
No. 4 got food fourteen times. No. 6 saw the entire performance five
times; seven times he saw the performance in part.
After No. 4 was removed and No. 6 was released, the latter went at once
to the front, climbed the wire, jumped to the chute, held by his right hand
and touched the string. Then he changed to hold by his left hand and
thrust his right hand up to touch the string. After this he dropped to
the floor. He repeated this in less than two minutes, not changing hands
while on the chute, however. Five minutes later he leaped to the chute,
but did not swing down. He did not seem to “get the hang” of holding to
the chute with his feet as some of the other animals did. He gave no
further attention to the chute.
Fifth test. The conditions were the same as in the preceding test. No.
6’s record in seeing No. 4 was:
Performance 1. No. 6 only saw food strike floor.
P. 2 to P. 10. No. 6 saw the entire performance.
P. 11. No. 6 saw in part.
P. 12. No. 6 saw the entire performance.
No. 4 was taken out and No. 6 was released. No. 6 found a seed on
the floor and ate it. After two minutes, No. 6 jumped to the chute, but
only examined a crack in the cage door. At the end of five minutes, No. 6
jumped to the chute and searched the inside of the chute with his hand,
but he did not pull the string. He then took his leisure about the cage till
the end of 10 minutes.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. By
Summary of Behavior of No. 6 in Chute Experiment B.
No. 6 differed from each of the previously mentioned animals in his pre-
liminary trials. He gave some attention to the end of the chute, on the
second day, putting one hand into the end of it a short distance. On the
later days, however, he ignored the end of the chute entirely. The stimulus-
complex in the first test was the same as in the case of No. 13, namely,
the sight of another animal performing an act and getting food thereby.
The effect on No. 6 was evident, for within thirty seconds after being released
in the cage he had repeated a part of the act he had seen; within a minute
he had tried again and repeated the act in every particular, except in the
amount of force with which he pulled. This difference, however, kept him
from getting the food. Although he failed, he repeated the act entire or in
part several times during the next few minutes.
After his second series of observations, he repeated the entire act again,
but failed to exert sufficient strength to accomplish the result. During the
succeeding tests he persisted in going to the chute, although he ceased to
pull the string. He did not cease to investigate the inside of the chute with
eyes and hands, although his only means of connecting the chute with food
had been his observation of another animal getting food at the chute.
TABLE 6.
No. 6 Imrratine No. 2.
| | |
Date: Ne Number of times | Number of times Resuli | Time in
| fhe act. No. 6 saw. No. 6 saw in part. | | minutes.
| |
JNO, 1) ction 6 5 2 3 S 2
Magee se | 8 5 | 3 Ss 10
/ SUR ee | 3 2 1 S 18
No. 6 Imrratine No. 4.
ap eOh cua: 14 | 5 7 Sea 10
NS ey de ea 12 | 10 1 | S | 10
Total.....| 41 24 15 Papas | 50
G. Behavior of No. 5.
Preliminary trials.—First trial, July 30.—Within one minute after entering
the cage, No. 5 had climbed to the chute and had found the string with
her hand. She was able to reach the chute from the side of the cage by
help of her long legs and tail, which supported her while she grasped the
chute in her hands. Later she reached the chute from the end of the cage.
Then she swung to it from the side and looked up at the end. She then
tried to use her foot to pull the string, and failing, climbed up the chute
and examined the top of the cage. Then she braced her feet against the
372 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
corner post and pushed the chute with her hands. She was taken with
sneezing and, descending, rubbed her nose on the floor. Her time was up
soon after this.
Second trial, July 31. On the second day No. 5 reached to the chute with
her hands, put one hand up the inside and pulled at the string, but not
hard enough to cause the food to drop. Five minutes later she did the same
except that she did not pull the string. After the next five minutes she
climbed up on the chute and examined the top of the cage. Then she swung
her head and shoulders down, touched the string with her hand and dropped
to the floor.
Third trial, July 31. On the third day No. 5 was quiet about the cage as if
nothing interesting were present. She spent most of her time on the floor.
Fourth trial, August 1. No. 5 ran up and down the wire several times.
Then she surveyed the chute and the whole top of the cage from below.
She climbed to the chute and examined the top and back of the cage. Then
she remained quietly on the floor for ten minutes, after which she looked
up at the chute, climbed the cage, reached the chute and struck at the
string several times with her hand.
Fifth trial, August 1. At the fifth trial No. 5 was indifferent in the cage
for five minutes. Then she climbed to the chute, examined the top of the
cage, threw her head down, reached to the string and played with it but
did not pull it. Later she jumped to the chute again and examined the
back of the cage. The remainder of the time she spent on the floor.
~
Imitation tests.—No. 5 imitating No. 2.—First test. No. 2 and No. 5 were
put into the cage together. After a little time No. 2 jumped to the chute.
No. 5 climbed the wire opposite the chute, leaned over, put her hand up
the inside and touched the string, but did not pull it. No. 5 then went to
the floor and No. 2 pulled the string. Two seeds fell to the floor and No. 5
got them. No. 5 did not see the string pulled. The second time No. 2 pulled
the string, No. 5 did not see. She heard the seeds drop to the floor and
got them, jumping down from the wire front ahead of No. 2. The third
time, No. 5 heard No. 2 at the chute and looked up just in time to see
him pull the string and to see the seeds fall. No. 5 then went up the wire,
jumped to the chute, and tried to pull the string, but did not pull hard
enough to get food. No. 2 then became excited and refused to work.
Second test. No. 5 was put into the observation-box and the box was
set on the floor of the cage. No. 2 was put into the cage and at once
went to work.
Performance 1 to P. 5. No. 5 saw No. 2 on the chute and saw the food
drop. She did not see him pull the string.
P. 6. She saw the entire performance.
P. 7. She saw it in part.
When No. 2 was out No. 5 was released. She climbed the front of the
cage and leaning over to the chute tried to put one hand up the inside, but
could not do it. Time: 50 seconds. She went down to the floor and at
once climbed the wire again. She jumped to the chute, wrapped her tail
around it, put her feet on the rung, threw head and shoulders down and
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. Big
looked up inside the chute. She put her hand up and was in the midst of
an interested examination when a sneeze from the side cage startled her
and she dropped to the floor. Her examination was more direct and longer
than at any previous time.
She climbed the cage, jumped to the chute and repeated the examination
a minute later. Then she dropped to the floor and wandered about. Six
minutes later she jumped to the chute, but only examined the top of the cage.
Third test. No. 5 was not attentive to No. 2. The latter got food seven-
teen times. Of these performances, No. 5 saw but five; six times she
saw in part.
No. 2 was then removed and No. 5 was released from the observation-box.
For a time she searched the floor and edges for food. After three minutes
she climbed the wire, reached to the chute with her hands and tried to put
one hand up the inside, but failed. Then she climbed down to the floor
and sat in the corner.
Later she vomited grass which she had eaten out of her bedding and
then went about the cage quietly. Her lack of activity was probably due
to sickness of stomach.
Fourth test. The box containing No. 5 was fastened to the side of the
cage on a level with the lower part of the chute. No. 4 was used instead
of No. 2.
Performance 1 and P. 2. No. 5 saw all except No. 4’s putting his hand up.
P. 3 and P. 5. No. 5 saw entire performance.
P. 4. No. 5 saw nothing.
P. 6 and P. 7. No. 5 was not interested in No. 4 on the chute; she bowed
her head and slept while No. 4 got food.
P. 8 to P. 10. No. 5 saw the entire performance.
No. 4 was now taken out and No. 5 was released from the observation-box.
She went at once to the front, climbed the wire, reached to the chute, put
one hand up and pulled, but not hard enough to get food. No. 5 was some-
what frightened by the demonstrations of anger which No. 4 made when
she was taken out of the cage. No. 5 gave no further attention to the
chute during the ten minutes.
Fifth test. No. 5 was put into a box on the floor where she could see
No. 2 at the chute. Her record in seeing No. 2 pull the string was as follows:
Performance 1. No. 5 saw nothing.
P. 2. No. 5 saw entire performance.
P. 3 and P. 4. No. 5 saw in part.
Here the apparatus gave some trouble and the test was delayed.
P. 5. No. 5 did not see.
P. 6 and P. 7. No. 5 saw the entire performance.
P. 8 and P. 9. No. 5 did not see the pull; saw food strike floor.
P. 10 and P. 11. No. 5 saw perfectly.
No. 2 was taken out and No. 5 was released. Immediately she climbed
to the chute and pulled the string, but not hard enough to get food. Time: 40
seconds. A minute later she threw her head down and looked up the inside
374. Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
of chute. Later she climbed to the chute, but paid no attention to it. Nor
did she pay any more attention to it during the entire time in the cage.
Sixth test. The conditions were the same as in the previous test, except
that the string in the chute was lengthened four cm. Of seventeen per-
formances No. 5 saw five completely, six in part, and six not at all. Toward
the end of the time she seemed sleepy and paid but little attention.
When No. 2 was out and No. 5 was released she at once climbed to the
chute and took a long, steady look up the inside of it, but did not put
her hand up. Time: 40 seconds. She then took her leisure about the cage,
caught a roach and perched on the brace.
Summary of Behavior of No. 5 in Chute Experiment B.
No. 5 did not present the same problem in the imitation tests as the
animals previously discussed. She had already performed every part of
the act necessary to get food. She had evidently failed because of not
exerting sufficient strength. Her interest in the chute seemed to wane in
the fourth and fifth preliminary trials and to be accentuated after observing
No. 2 in the first and second tests. During the later tests she repeated
the act of the animal seen, but she never got the food, and in the fifth test
she merely looked up the inside of the chute without putting her hand in.
It seems fair to infer that the increase of interest manifested in the first
and second tests and the continuation of interest in the chute through the
successive tests was due to No. 5 seeing the other animals getting food at
the end of the chute.
TABLE 7.
No. 5 Imrratine No. 2. No. 5 Iwrratine No. 4.
| |
Dates | None aes | Number of times | Number of times | Regult. Time in
| the act. | No. 5 saw. | No. 5 saw in part. minutes.
AT eA | 3 | 1 0 | F
Aug. 5...... | 7 | 1 6 lees 10
AUER cea ily 5 6 | Ss 10
HN Obooecs 10 5 2 S 10
AUTO Wis oars 11 5 2 | S 10
PND iF 5 Bt | 17 | 5 6 | S 10
Totals... .| 65 | 22 22 | S 50
H. Behavior of No. 8.
Preliminary trials.—First trial. No. 3 moved about slowly in the cage
during the entire fifteen minutes, but gave no attention to the device for
getting food. He spent his time on the floor and the wire parts of the cage.
Second trial. No. 3 spent the first few minutes on the floor and then
climbed the wire and came back to the floor several times. Once when on
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 375
the wire front he looked steadily at the chute. Then he climbed about the
cage and played on the floor. Once again he took a direct look at the
chute from the front of the cage and then played about on the floor.
Third trial. On the third day No. 3 climbed the wire and played on the
floor, but paid no attention to the chute.
Fourth trial. On the fourth day he climbed the wire and then spent his
time on the floor, going from one corner to another and crouching with his
face toward the center of the cage. Occasionally he surveyed the top of
the cage. Then he climbed to the brace (across front of cage) and perched.
Later he went to sleep on the floor in the corner. Then he climbed the
cage and looked about, but took no notice of the chute during the fifteen
minutes.
Fifth trial. On the fifth day he remained on the floor for a minute and
then climbed the wire. He then sat in the corner of the cage for five
minutes before he climbed the wire again. Then he went to rest in another
corner. No attention to the chute.
Imitation tests —No. 3 imitating No. 2.—¥irst test. No. 2 and No. 3 were
put into the cage together. No. 3 was attentive to No. 2 from the first,
partly in order to escape punishment. Each time No. 2 pulled the string,
No. 3 got food, and when he got a grain of sunflower seed the second time,
No. 2 punished him. No. 3 cried and saw only in part the next time.
Three times he saw the whole performance from the floor at different angles
and twice from the front of the cage on a level with the chute.
After No. 2 had been taken out No. 3 busied himself on the floor for
a few minutes picking over the hulls No. 2 had left. Then he surveyed
the chute from the four corners (on the floor) of the cage. Once he
climbed the front wire and looked at the chute from its own level. Then
he went to the floor and rested in the corner of the cage.
Second test. Conditions were the same as in the previous test. No. 3
was again afraid of No. 2 after the second drop of food. He saw the first
two times perfectly from the floor, but missed the third because of his
fear of No. 2. The next three times he saw the entire performance from
the floor.
With No. 2 out No. 3 went hunting among the empty hulls as before.
Then he looked upward toward the chute several times from different posi-
tions on the floor. Later he climbed the front of the cage opposite the chute
and looked back over his shoulders at it. Then he went down to the floor
and remained there.
Third test. Conditions were the same as in the preceding tests. No. 3
was attentive to every move of No. 2 and saw him jump to the chute
and pull the string each time but one. He did not get food, however,
because of his fear of punishment. At the seventh time, No. 5 got food.
Although No. 3 looked steadily at No. 2 when he pulled, it was difficult
for him to see No. 2’s hand go up the chute because No. 2’s body often
got in the way.
The first five minutes after No. 2 was out No. 3 was on the floor hunting
over hulls dropped by No. 2 and fingering the cracks in the floor. Several
376 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
times he looked up at the chute. Then he climbed the cage wire, but did
not look at the chute. Later, when under the chute, he looked at it steadily
and then started for the front as if to climb, but was turned away by
seeing a hull on the floor.
Fourth test. The conditions were the same as in the preceding tests.
No. 2 got food fourteen times. Ten of these performances No. 3 saw com-
pletely; the other four he saw in part. He kept away from No. 2 because
No. 2 slapped him.
When No. 2 was out No. 3 spent his time on the floor hunting over empty
hulls and paid absolutely no attention to the chute during the entire time.
No. 3 was so little influenced by seeing No. 2 obtain food that it seemed
useless to continue the tests longer. They were, therefore, discontinued.
Summary of Behavior of No. 3 in Chute Experiment B,
No. 38 was not nearly so active in the preliminary trials as the animals pre-
viously discussed. In the imitation tests he seemed to see what was done.
What he saw, however, did not seem to influence his behavior in any way
unless it was to increase his looking at the chute. He failed to make any
effort to get the food for himself.
TABLE 8.
No. 3 Inrratine No. 2.
:
Number of times
Date | No. 2 performed Number of times | Number of times | Resuii, 9 |) uimenm
: “Fis, eves. No. 3 saw. No. 3 saw in part. | yp a | minutes,
PNW Bo 8 5 4 F | 10
AUIS Siete es 6 5 F == 10
Aig Sita. 11 1 | once pest)
Aug. 5.. 14 10 4 Tema ine 2)
Rotalesser | 39 30 8 F | 40
General Summary of Results of Chute Hauperument A and Chute
Huperiment B.
Taking Chute Experiment B as a whole, we have to consider six
animals, no two of which exhibited exactly the same behavior. In
the cases of No. 13, No. 4, No. 11 and No. 6, there is a similarity
in that each animal showed a decided change of behavior after wit-
nessing another animal get food from the chute. Each of these
animals repeated with more or less exactness of detail the act which
it had seen the other animal perform. Without meaning to imply
Haccerrty, Imitation in Monkeys. 277.
anything as to the mental processes accompanying it, I shall call
such behavior imitation. As I shall use it in this paper, the word
imitation is a conceptual short cut to describe a complex form of
behavior. It always implies these things: (a) The animal which
imitates observes an act of another animal; (b) More or less directly
thereafter its behavior is modified in the direction of the act ob-
served; (c) This modification is usually sudden; (d) The behavior
is changed to a considerable degree and, when wholly successful, to
an exact copy of the act observed. In every case of behavior which
T shall call imitative, the animal had abundant opportunity to learn
the act by himself so that his repeating the act of the imitatee was
apparently due to his observation of that animal performing.
In the case of No. 3 and in the case of No. 1 in Chute Experi-
ment A, there was almost no evidence that the act of the performing
animal influenced the animal which saw.
The case of No.5 is unique. Before seeing another animal per-
form the act, she had herself done every part of the act necessary
to get food. The only way in which she could have been influenced
was by being stimulated to exert more force on the pull or by being
stimulated to a repetition of the act. She was not influenced in
the first way, but the regularity with which she went to the chute
after seeing the other animal get food, suggests that she was influ-
enced in the second way. In her habits, she was much like No. 4 and
No. 6, and the clear evidence for imitation in the conduct of each
of these animals furnishes some ground for a similar interpretation
of the behavior of No. 5. However, the evidence on the point is
not conclusive and remains rather a conviction in the mind of the
experimenter than an established fact.
TABLE 9.
RESULTS OF CHUTE EXPERIMENT A AND CHUTE EXPERIMENT B.
ie
INUMbeH! OF ANIMAS TISEGS act ot 5S ao 0's sp cvecols. ova vn ee eve miel ovace, ola) cuatecere eave teusia ole oretoders 7
Casest Of SUCCESS HUST AGIONS ao. 5a 2.cldicvs a: Srepeveronetatecs, setae! ccctesateeietre tener arelavele pateve S
CASsesTOn partiallvasiccesstiuleimibatiOni .vrsaeer eee ciel eee eres 2
Cases of failure to imitate............ EEE DO CREO Ie 2
378 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
TABLE 9. (Continued.)
Resuuts or CHuTE EXPERIMENT A AND CHUTE EXPERIMENT B.
II.
Cases of imitation when the imitator was confined during the activity
OF the simMitALES Sa psve. cst leroterste ee doe ooo ehetetone he teiel elovalls tetetepel enon tereRere MeierovoLere cherie +)
Cases of imitation when both animals were together in the cage............ 0
ee
Cases Of Immediate amita lio meter tercnererscter tele tel stele er onciotelsctemenene: ole eter onokeiauehetsn els +
Gases ofseradallcimil tail Oneal eryeteyorietereteretnereretletlel foteeNeteh consist ts oheiclorne Rca ot
IV.
Cases of imitation in which the imitating animal did not himself experi-
ence the result of the act before performing..................)..++.+.- 3
Cases of imitation in which the imitating animal did experience the result
oLtheyact before pertorming sterner elemental teroete eerste aeieiete 2
3. RopE EXPERIMENT.
A. Description of Device.
For this experiment a hole 5 cm. square was cut in board D, 26 cm. from
the top of the cage, fig. 5. A door was hinged to one side and opened
outward. It was cut so as to fit snugly and when closed was flush with the
inside of the board. The only evidence of an opening was the sharp line
around the square where the door fitted the board. Before this door, and
27 cm. from it, an inch rope, b, hung from a screw eye in the top of the
cage to the floor.
In order to get food the animal must climb the rope and, while supporting
himself on the rope, push the door open, reach through it and get the food
on the outside of the cage. The food was supplied by means of a two-
inch leatherette belt connected with the experimenter’s table, which stood
four feet from the cage. This convenience, together with a string by
which the door could be closed after the animal had opened it, made it
possible to manage the entire apparatus from the experimenter’s table.
There was nothing on the inside of the cage to denote the food on the
outside.
B. Behavior of No. 2.
Preliminary trials—The following preliminary observations were made
in the old cage at the Harvard Laboratory. Each trial lasted 30 minutes.
First trial. At first No. 2 walked about the floor and climbed the
front of the cage. He then went about the cage, and once, in passing,
touched the rope with his hand. Again he touched it as he went about the
cage. He was very active and ran about the cage very rapidly, but made
no effort to climb the rope.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 379
Second trial. On the second day the experiment was disturbed by No. 2
getting out of the cage. During the time he was in the cage he made no
effort to climb the rope.
Third trial. On the third day he went rapidly about the cage as on
the first day. Once, in passing, he picked up the end of the rope. During
the thirty minutes, however, he made no effort to climb it.
Fourth trial. On the fourth day No. 2 was quite active and kept moving
during the entire thirty minutes, passing over every bit of floor space many
times and being repeatedly on every part of the front and end of the cage.
He noticed the rope only to touch it momentarily in passing.
Fifth trial. On the fifth day No. 2 was active and eager to get out of
the cage. Once he grabbed the rope in his tail and ran up the front of
the cage. Later he bit the end of the rope once.
Sixth trial. On the sixth day he was very wild, possibly due to the death
of his mate the day before. He made no effort to climb the rope.
Seventh trial. On the seventh day No. 2 behaved as usual. His only
notice of the rope was to push it aside in passing.
Highth trial. No. 2 behaved as usual. Once he stood on his feet and
grasped the rope with his hands one above the other as if to climb.
Ninth trial. On this day No. 2 grasped the rope once in the same manner
as on the previous day, but let go of it at once. He repeated this several
times, but showed no other intention of climbing. He did not look up when
holding the rope.
Tenth trial. On the tenth day he went about the cage in his usual way.
Once or twice he hooked his tail around the rope and ran up the front of
the cage, dropping the rope when half way up.
Hleventh trial. On the eleventh and twelfth days he went about the
cage as usual and displayed no interest in the rope.
Imitation tests.—No. 2 imitating No. 3.—These tests were made in New
York. Both animals were in the cage together.
First test. No. 3 got food twelve times. Ten times No. 2 saw him eating
the food and once saw the entire performance. Twice when watching No. 3
eat while on the rope, No. 2 climbed the front wire and leaned toward the
rope as if trying to get to the door. During the rest of the time No. 2
was distracted by the other monkeys in the living cages nearby.
Second test. No. 8 was very active and climbed the rope often and
rapidly. No. 2 was not accustomed to watch No. 3 and did not look at
him, but tried to see out the window and into the other cages. Four times
when No. 2 saw No. 3 on the rope he leaned out from the side of the
cage toward the rope. Once when No. 3 pushed the rope toward the front
of the cage No. 2 caught it in his hands and swung his weight on his
hands, but held on to the wire with his feet and tail. Several times when
No. 3 was up the rope No. 2 caught the end of it from the floor. No. 2
saw five times in fourteen. When No. 3 was taken out after performing
the trick fourteen times, No. 2 tried to climb the post in the corner next
to the rope and got two feet from the floor by the help of small sticks
nailed to the post. Then he stood on the floor and grasped the rope in
380 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
both hands as if to climb, but although he looked up, he did not lift him-
self from the floor. He tried to climb the post again as before, but when
he failed he did not turn to the rope at once; he did, however, a moment
later. During the last five minutes of the fifteen he remained in the cage
after No. 3 was out, he sat in the corner near the rope, part of the time
holding it in his hands.
Third test. No. 2 was more or less distracted by other monkeys in the
room and not being very hungry did not observe No. 3 closely. He saw
the whole act five times in twelve. He did not watch from first to last.
It was counted if he saw No. 8 climb the rope and also get the food,
even though his attention was not continuous. In no case, however, did
No. 2 watch No. 3 continuously from the time he left the floor until he
got the food. No. 2 saw by glances only. Three times he swung out from
the wire front and twice he tried to climb the post as in the previous test.
When No. 3 was taken out No. 2 ran about the cage. He grasped the
end of the rope when on the floor. He looked up at the door and tried to
climb the post. Then he grasped the rope with one hand above the other
as if to climb. Dropping the rope he turned to the post, then back to the
rope, grasping it in his hands and bearing part of his weight on it. It
swung and he took a few steps. Again he grasped the rope and bit the
end of it. Then he grasped it with two hands and one foot. Then he
turned to the post and put his hands and one foot on it. Then on the
other foot he turned as on a pivot and grasped the rope with the three
members he had placed on the post. Then he ran to the front of the cage
and back to the rope, grasping it again with two hands and one foot and
bearing some weight on it, but not enough to lift the other foot from the
ground. Then he grasped the rope in his hands and rushed to the wire
to climb. This he repeated, wholly or in part, several times more in the
next two minutes. He was then taken out twenty minutes after No. 3
had been removed.
Fourth test. When No. 2 and No. 3 came into the cage together No. 2
was very attentive to everything No. 3 did and looked often toward the
food door. When No. 8 climbed the rope, No. 2 climbed the wire front of
the cage on the first and second trials. When No. 3 pushed against the
door with his hands his feet pushed the rope over toward No. 2, who was
on the wire front of the cage. No. 2 was eager to grasp the rope and
once did grasp it in his hands, but would not let go of the wire with his
feet. When No. 3 got the food the rope swung back to a perpendicular
position, and No. 2, holding with feet and tail to the wire, threw his
body out toward the rope. He repeated this motion several times, and
when No. 3 got food the third time No. 2 was able to grab it out of his
hands. This he did on the fourth and fifth trials also. No. 38 was then
removed and No. 2 became very active on the wire, throwing his body
vigorously toward the rope, and failing to grasp it, he repeated the act
at once. His motions increased and he seemed frantic to catch the rope.
Finally he jumped, catching the rope and holding. At once he jumped
back to the wire, and ran down to the floor; he quickly climbed the rope
Haccerty, [mutation in Monkeys. 381
twice and then jumped from the rope to the wire. Then he climbed the
rope, opened the door by pushing on it with his teeth as No. 3 had done,
and got food. Next he tried to climb the post in the corner, and then
ran up the rope again and got the food. During the next ten minutes he
climbed the rope twelve times, getting food most of the times.
Summary of Behavior of No. 2 in the Rope Haperiment.
No. 2 during a long series of preliminary trials did not climb the rope
nor pay any attention to it or to the food door. During the first imitation
tests he was not attentive to No. 3, but gradually became so as he saw
him getting food, and in the last test his attention was riveted on No. 3
during the whole of the time No. 3 was in the cage. His learning to do
what No. 3 did was also a gradual process. When his attention was
directed to the food door his first effort to get to it was by climbing the
wire front of the cage. His next step was to learn to bear a portion of
his weight on the rope. When he got food from No. 3 there was a notice-
able increase in his apparent desire to get to the door. The stimulation
seemed to increase steadily until finally it forced him to leap to the rope
and back to the wire and then to climb the rope from the floor. Once on
the rope, he repeated exactly the act of No. 3 and got food in the same way.
TABLE 10.
No. 2 Imrratine No. 3.
| eee | |
Date ee ea eae Number of times | Number of times Result Time in
: | "Raa Deh. | No. 2 saw. | No. 2 saw in part. . minutes.
July 12.05 | 1 | 1 | 10 F 10
alivy 2s | 14 | 5 8 F 10
July 3...... 12 5 | 7 EF 10
uiliye Aen = oy: 5 5 S
|
|
Total... 49 | 16 | 25 Wass 30
CO. Behavior of No. 4.
Preliminary trials.—First trial. No. 4 spent the first few minutes on the
floor picking over nut hulls. Then she became very active about the cage.
She climbed the rope and investigated the top of the cage and the cracks
between the boards. She spent the most of the remaining time on the floor.
Second trial. On the second day No. 4 spent most of the time on the
floor swaying back and forth before the door. Nothing inside seemed to
interest her and she wanted to get out. Twice she climbed the wire slowly,
but paid no attention to the rope.
Third trial. On the third day No. 4 was not so active as usual and
perched on the brace most of the time. She gave no attention to the rope.
382 ‘Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Fourth trial. On the fourth day No. 4 behaved as usual, spending most
of her time on the wire and brace. When on the floor she swayed back
and forth before the wire and gave no attention to the rope.
Fifth trial. On the fifth day No. 4 spent most of her time in the corner
of the cage farthest from the rope and gave no attention whatever to it.
Imitation tests.—No. 4 imitating No. 2.—¥irst test. No. 4 was placed in
the observation-box which was fastened to the front of the cage on a level
with the food door.
No. 4 was on the floor of the observation-box. She was swaying as usual
and this somewhat frightened No. 2, so that he climbed the rope only after
three minutes and then jumped to the wire without getting food. This he
repeated three times. Then he climbed the rope, tried the door, but failed
to push it open. He jumped to the wire at once, after pushing. Then
he climbed the rope and opened the door. No. 4 saw in part. No. 2 then
tried the door four times unsuccessfully. Climbing the rope brought him
close to No. 4 and his fear did not allow him to make a good effort. Then
he climbed the rope and opened the door, getting food. No. 4 saw the
entire performance.
No. 2 was then removed and No. 4 was released. She climbed the wire
on the front of the cage and then on the end. Then she climbed the rope
and reached to the hole in the top of the cage. She looked at the door,
put her ‘nose to it, and jumped to the front wire, and went to the floor.
She then climbed up and down the front and climbed the rope looking at
the door and jumping to the front of the cage. Again, she climbed the
rope and looked all about the door more intently than before. She re-
turned to the floor, climbed the end of the cage and perched on the brace
at X. Again she climbed the rope, examined the top of it, and looked
all about the door. Then she became interested in out of doors and soon
her time was up.
Second test. No. 4 was in the box as before and No. 2 was somewhat
slow and fearful. No. 4 saw five of No. 2’s twelve performances com-
pletely ; four other times she saw a part of the performance.
No. 2 was removed and No. 4 was released. She climbed the rope at
once (5 seconds) and smelled and licked the door. ‘Then she returned to
the floor. She again climbed the rope and examined the top of it. She
looked at the food door carefully, but after coming to the floor she gave
no further attention to the rope or the door.
No. 4 imitating No. 6.*—Third test. No. 4 was in the box on the floor.
Performance 1. No. 6 climbed at once to the door, pushed it open with
his hand and got food. No. 4 saw him smacking his lips when the food
was gone, but saw nothing more.
P. 2. No. 4 saw No. 6 reach through the open door and get food, but saw
nothing more.
In the sixteen following performances No. 4 saw the entire performance
*The behavior of No, 6 will be given later, page 385.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 383
twice; she saw No. 6 climb the rope three times, and eleven times she
saw nothing.
No. 6 was removed and No. 4 was released. She at once climbed the
rope and looked about the food door, but made no effort to open it. She
examined the hole in the top and returned to the floor. She climbed the
front of the cage and leaped to the rope. She looked at the door, put her
palm against it and rubbed her hand over the door. She then fingered
the crack around the door, but did not push the door open. She returned
to the floor and worked about the edges of the floor for some time. She
then climbed the rope, but gave no attention to the door. After a little
more wandering she perched on the brace at X and remained quiet.
Fourth test. No. 4 was put in the observation-box on a level with the
food door.
Performance 1. No. 4 saw the entire performance.
P. 2. No. 4 saw the entire performance. No. 6 hesitated to climb for fear of
No. 4.
P. 3. No. 6 was slow at the door because of watching No. 4 and No. 4 saw
perfectly every move.
P. 4 and P. 5. No. 4 saw all except the push on the door. She looked down
just as No. 6 pushed. ;
P. 6 and P. 7. No. 4 saw perfectly.
No. 6 was removed and No. 4 was released; she ran up the rope and
put her nose to the food door, but gave no push. She returned to the floor
and climbed the wire end and front and examined the edge of the cage
door. She spent the remainder of her time without attention to the door
or the rope. Later she perched on the brace at X and “hunted fleas.”’
Fifth test. No. 4 was in the box on a level with the door. No. 6 climbed
the rope and opened the door nine times. No. 4 saw every part of the
performance five times; three times she saw in part.
When No. 4 was released she at once climbed the rope and looked at
the food door. Then she jumped to the wire front and returned to the
floor. She examined about the floor edges and climbed up and down the
wire. Then she climbed the rope and passed her hand over the food door,
but did not push with any force. She then looked at the top of the cage
and leaped to the wire front. She perched on the brace at X for the last
five minutes.
Sixth test. No. 4 was in the box on a level with the food door. No. 6
got food seventeen times. No. 4 saw the entire performance eight times;
once she saw in part.
No. 6 was removed and No. 4 was released. She walked across the
floor to the wire end and climbed half way up. ‘Then she leisurely climbed
down and walked over to the corner opposite the rope, turned to the
rope and climbed it. She stopped exactly at the door, put her right hand
against the upper edge of the door, her fingers striking the board above,
and pushed. Failing to open the door, she put her left hand lower down
on the door, her palm this time striking the board below the door. She
pushed again, but failed to open the door, probably because more of the
384 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
force of her effort affected the board than the door. Then she changed
back to the right hand and planted it squarely in the center of the door,
neither her fingers nor palm touching the board. She gave a hard push and
the door opened. ‘Time: two minutes. She got the piece of food near
the door and thrust her arm farther out and got the piece of banana on
the place next below. Then she pushed the door open as fast as I closed
it and got food three times. This she repeated ten times as rapidly as
the device was reset.
Her hand when placed flat against the door reached from the top to
the bottom and was almost as broad as the door. ‘To open the door she
must place her hand in the center of it, in order not to strike the edges
of the board in some place.
Summary of Behavior of No. 4 in the Rope Experiment.
The problem as it came to No. 4 was different from the problem of No. 2.
She did not need to learn to climb the rope. She did this as if it were a
familiar act during her first few minutes in the cage. What she had to
learn was to open the food door. Her own unaided efforts helped her
not at all, and during the last four preliminary trials she kept entirely
away from the rope. Her first observation of the imitatee attracted her
again to the rope and to the food door, but she did nothing except to
nose about the door. Her second test again directed her attention to
the door and possibly increased that attention. The third test augmented
her attention to the door and she rubbed her palm over it and fingered
the edges. After the fourth test her interest seemed to lag, but after the
fifth her attention was as great as after the third. In both the third and
fifth tests she used her hand at the proper place and in much the same
manner as had the performing animal. ‘The sixth test served to make
TABLE 11.
No. 4 Imiratine No. 2.
|
ee
| Number of times
|
| |
Date | No. 2 performed | Number of times | Number of times | Recut. |
: : d | N | :
Time in
RD Ze. o. 4 saw. | No. 4 saw in part. minutes.
Aug. 10..... 2 1 | 1 Pe | 10
ANISe LOR eee | 12 | 5 | 4 | FE | 10
No. 4 Imrratine No. 6.
Aug. 11..... 18 2 A al ask a at
PN Wl 5.5 ae 7 5 2 | F 10
AIS aD Se 9 5 3 F 10
ACI ELD eas 17 8 1 Ss 2
Totals....| 65 26 15 | 'S) 52
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 385
definite the imitative behavior. She repeatedly tried to do what she had
seen done and finally succeeded. At no time, until she performed the act
herself, did she experience the result of the act, the stimulus-complex
being the other animal performing an act and getting food.
D. Behavior of No. 6.
Preliminary trials. First trial. No. 6 was very active climbing all about
the wire and running about on the floor. He caught the rope in his hands
and later in his tail. He climbed the rope and in attempting to jump from
the rope to the front of the cage he put his foot against the food door and
the door opened. He did not notice it, however, and it was closed before
he saw what he had done. He climbed the rope several times after and took
no notice of the door.
Second trial. On the second day No. 6 was very active on the wire and
the rope, but took no notice of the door.
Third trial. On the third day No. 6 behaved as usual, climbing about
the wire. He took no notice of the rope.
Fourth trial. On the fourth day No. 6 climbed the wire several times,
each time carrying the rope up in his tail. Later he climbed the rope,
swung back and forth on it, and after two or three oscillations he leaped
to the wire front. He took no notice of the food door.
Fifth trial. On the fifth day he grasped the rope and ran in a circle
on the floor. Then he swung on the end of the rope twice. Then he
grasped the rope in his tail three feet from the floor and allowed his body
to swing. He dropped to the floor and caught flies. He climbed the rope
and examined the cracks in the top of the cage. During his entire time in
the cage he took no notice of the food door.
Imitation tests—No. 6 imitating No. 2.—No. 6 was put into the observa-
tion-box and the box was put on the floor of the cage.
Performance 1. No. 2 spent the first few minutes on the floor of the
cage, on the box, and in climbing the wire. He climbed the rope, but came
down without any attention to the food door. No. 6 saw No. 2 on the rope.
No. 2 again climbed the rope and worked at the door slightly, but did
not open it: No. 6 saw all the movements of No. 2. No. 2. then became
frightened at No. 6 and did not work.
P. 2. No. 6 saw No. 2 with the food, but nothing more.
P. 3. No. 2 now became angry and pretended to fight, hanging over the box
by his tail and shrieking loudly. No. 6 on the inside of the box jumped
and threatened. No. 2 retreated to the corner by the rope and shrieked.
Suddenly No. 6 stopped jumping, put his head on one side and purred. No.
2 had done this just before and now repeated it. His fear was gone; he
shot up the rope, opened the door and got food. As No. 2 climbed the
rope No. 6 looked out through the wire, and when he turned again toward
No. 2 the latter was eating his banana. At once No. 6 began to jump up
and down in his box to show his anger. No. 2 was again frightened and
for several minutes the shrieking was renewed.
386 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
P. 4. At once No. 2 jumped to the rope from the front of the cage, but
came to the floor without opening the door. He then walked about on
the floor for several minutes. Then he climbed the rope, gave one push
on the door, but failed to open it. He soon climbed again, opened the door
and got food. No. 6 saw him with the food and threatened him; No. 2
shrieked; No. 6 folded his arms; No. 2 lay down on the floor. No. 6
jumped up and down; No. 2 came near the box, and seemed to have no fear.
P. 5. No. 2 climbed the rope, opened the door and got food. No. 6 saw all.
P. 6 to P. 8. No. 2 did as in P. 4. No. 6 saw No. 2 on the rope and at
the door, but did not see him open the door.
No. 2 then sat on the floor quietly for several minutes.
P. 9. No. 2 climbed the rope and opened ‘the door, but did not get the
food which had dropped off the belt. The food was replaced and No. 2 got
it. No. 6 saw all but the opening of the door.
No. 2 was now removed and No. 6 was released in the cage. At once
he climbed the rope, put his hand against the door, but failed to open it.
He then swung down, hanging by his tail to the rope, and dropped to the
floor. He then climbed the rope and examined a hole in the top of the
cage. He came to the floor again. Again he climbed the rope and examined
all about the door; pushed on the door, but did not open it; he bit at the
edge of the door and again pushed on it, opening it. He got the food and
descended the rope, immediately afterward climbing the wire.
When the device was reset No. 6 climbed the rope and examined the door
with his teeth and fingers; he worked at the edge with his fingers. He then
jumped to the wire and in so doing put his foot against the door pushing it
slightly; he leaped back at once and pushed the door open with his hand, get-
ting the food.
When the device was reset No. 6 tried to open the door with his fingers
and after one effort leaped to the wire. Leaping back he tried to bite the edge
of the door and then by a vigorous push with his hand forced it open and
got food. The device was reset and No. 6 climbed the rope at once. Placing
his palm flat against the door he opened it with the first effort. He repeated
the act as soon as the device was ready to operate, and four times more
within a few minutes.
In all No. 6 opened the door and got food nine times within sixteen minutes.
Summary of Behavior of No. 6 in the Rope Experiment.
No. 6, like No. 4, was free on the rope from the first. He became indif-
ferent to it during the later trials and made no progress toward getting food.
When he was placed in the observation-box to watch No. 2 he was very attentive
to what No. 2 did and seemed quite excited by the conduct of the latter. He
saw the entire performance once and in part three times. When he was
released his behavior was markedly different from what it had been in the
preliminary trials. His attention was directed to the proper place to get
the food, and after a few random movements he succeeded in getting food
for himself in a manner similar to that which he had seen.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 387
TABLE 12.
No. 6 Imrratine No. 2.
Number of times
Date. No. 2 performed Number of times | Number of times Result. Time in
the act. No. 6 saw. No. 6 saw in part. | minutes.
Pulyeoo 9 1 3 S 5
EH. Behavior of No. 5.
Preliminary trials.—First trial. No. 5 as usual was very active. She
climbed the wire side and end of the cage. She climbed the rope and thrust
her arm through a hole in the top of the cage. She then hung to the rope
at the top of the cage and tried to see through all the cracks in the top.
She did not notice the door.
Second trial. On the second day No. 5 behaved as before, going all about
the cage, on the wire, up the rope, etc., but did not observe the door.
Third trial. On the third day No. 5 showed no interest in the rope, but
spent her time going about the cage.
Fourth trial. No. 5 climbed the wire; returning to the floor, she pushed on
the door where she had entered. Once she grasped the rope in passing.
Later she climbed the rope, but displayed no notice of the food door.
Fifth trial. On the fifth day No. 5 was active on the floor, on the wire
and at the entering door. She grasped the rope in her tail several times ;
three times she climbed it, but took no notice of the food door.
Imitation tests —No. 5 imitating No. 2.—First test. Both animals were
free in the cage.
Performance 1. No. 5 did not see.
P. 2. No. 5 saw No. 2 get food and climbed the rope after him.
P.3. No. 5 saw the getting of food, but did not see the push on the door.
No. 5 saw the entire performance from the brace at X.
No. 5 saw in part.
No. 5 saw from the front and opposite the rope.
No. 5 saw the entire performance and climbed the rope before the door
was closed.
P. 8. No. 5 saw the entire performance.
When No. 2 was taken out No. 5 climbed the rope at once and put her hand
on the door. She then became interested in the top of the cage. Three
minutes Jater she climbed the rope and put her nose to the food door, but
she did not push on it. Two minutes later she repeated this performance.
Between the two performances and afterwards she went about the cage,
climbed the wire and roamed about the floor for food. Apparently she was
very hungry.
Second test. No. 5 was put into the observation-box, which was set on
the floor of the cage.
eh Sae
I oR Yb
388 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Performance 1 to P. 4. No. 5 saw No. 2 push the door open with his hand
in his usual way.
P. 5 to P. 7. No. 5 did not see.
P. 8. No. 5 saw No. 2 at the door with the food and tried to get out of her
box. This frightened No. 2 and he became quiet.
P. 9. No. 5 did not see No. 2 until he jumped back to the wire with food.
P. 10. No. 5 saw perfectly.
No. 2 was taken out and No. 5 was released. She walked about the floor and
made some efforts to push her hand through the wire to get a paper and to
reach the belt. Then she climbed the rope, stopped when half way up to spat
a fly, climbed to a small hole above the food door and tried to see out. Then
she went down to the floor, walked about and climbed the wire. She jumped
to the rope, but took no notice of the door. This she repeated later. Then she
went to the floor, became quiet and curled up to sleep.
Third test. No. 5 was put into the observation-box on a level with the upper
part of the rope and the food door.
Performance 1 to P. 8. She saw perfectly.
P. 4. No. 5 saw nothing.
P.5. No. 5 saw perfectly and jumped at the side of the box as if to get food.
P.6. No. 5 saw in part.
P.7. No. 5 saw perfectly.
No. 2 was removed and No. 5 was released. She ran up the rope, but took
no notice of the food door. She examined the top of the cage with the eye
and hand and returned to the floor. She then climbed the rope and examined
the food door with her eyes and hand, but did not push on it. She then
climbed the wire from the floor and returned to the floor and looked about.
She crouched near the door and slept, curled up in a characteristic fashion of
her own.
Fourth test. No. 5 was again put into a box on a level with the food
door. No. 2 was free in the cage. He got food sixteen times. Five of
these performances No. 5 saw completely; five other times she saw in part.
No. 2 was removed and No. 5 was released. No. 5 at once climbed the rope,
but a noise frightened her and she jumped to the wire front at once. Then she
climbed about the wire and walked about the floor. Next she climbed the
rope and looked and smelled about the food door. She returned to the
floor and crouched in one corner. Then she lay down and slept.
Fifth test. No. 5 was put into a box on a level with the food door. No.
6 was used instead of No. 2.
At no time did she seem interested in No. 6. Her seeing was accidental
and passive. At times when she saw No. 6 going up the rope or at the
door she would turn away to look at the floor of her box. No. 5 saw five of
fourteen performances completely ; five other times she saw in part.
No. 6 was then taken out and No. 5 was released. She spent the entire
ten minutes on the floor and in climbing the wire parts of the cage without
once going to the rope. At the end of ten minutes she climbed the rope
and looked at a crack in the cage door and at a hole in the top of the
eage. She took no notice of the food door while on the rope.
Haccerrty, Imitation in Monkeys. 389
She climbed up and down the wire and perched at the brace until she
was removed.
Sixth test. Both animals were free in the cage.
Performance 1. No. 6 pushed the door open and got food. No. 5 saw and
jumped to the rope from the front of the cage.
P.2. No. 5 again saw from the front of the cage and jumped to the rope.
She put her hand against the door, but did not push.
P. 3 to P. 6. No. 5 saw only in part, the eating of food.
P.7. No. 5 saw perfectly and started up the rope, but when the food door
was closed she came down.
P.S. No. 5 saw and climbed to the food door, but did not push.
P. 9. No. 5 saw perfectly.
P.10. No. 5 saw, climbed to the food door and looked through before it
was closed.
P.11. No. 5 saw and jumped to the rope while No. 6 was still getting
food. Before the door could be closed she had her nose at the opening and
was looking out. When it was closed she immediately pushed it open. In
pushing she put her palm squarely against the door.
There was a marked difference between the behavior of No. 5 at this
time and her previous conduct. Before, as noted, she had not been inter-
ested. Now she became interested and No. 6's movements directed her
attention at once to the food door and kept it there almost all the time
until she had learned.
After her first effort she could do the trick perfectly, and she repeated it
six times within a few minutes.
TABLE 13.
No. 5 Imrratine No. 2. No. 5 Imiratrine No. 6.
Date eee ee Number of times | Number of times Result Time in
: Pinciaem o. 5 saw. | No. 5 saw in part. ; | minutes.
= . Ls Ss aa _— —_— | =
AL OO era: 8 5 2 F 10
Pe MDs cae 8 5 1 iy 10
Aug. 10..... 7 | 5 1 Pa tO
ANUS NPB SSes| 16 | 5 | 5 F 10
No. 5 Imrtatinea No. 6.
Aiea Vor eae: | 14 5 5 F | 10
‘While No.
dita eee 11 7 4 S | 6 was
present.
otal. vc; 64 32 18 8 55
390 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Summary of Behavior of No. 5 in the Rope Hxaperiment.
Like No. 4 and No. 6, No. 5 had to learn to open the door only. In the
first test her attention was directed to the door; she went to it, nosed
about it and put her hand on the door. The second test did not add any-
thing to her learning, but in the third test she repeated her behavior of
the first test. The fifth test added nothing to her ability, but in the sixth,
when she was free in the cage with No. 6, his conduct directed her attention
to the food door and kept it there until she had learned to get food. At no time
did she get food for herself in connection with the performance of No. 6,
and the stimulus was never more than No. 6 performing an act and getting
the result.
General Summary of the Results of the Rope Experiment.
Considering together the four animals used in the Rope Experi-
ment we may note a similarity in the general behavior. First, no
animal failed to learn. Second, in the preliminary trials there was
a total indifference to the food door and either total or increasing
inattention to the rope. Third, without exception, the first imita-
tion test served to direct attention to the door and to the rope. In
the case of No. 6, imitation was complete in the first test. Fourth,
in the cases in which imitation was not complete in the first test,
the successive tests augmented the imitator’s attention and in no
case were more than six tests needed to perfect the learning process.
Here, as in the chute experiments, we have attentive watching on
the part of the imitating animals, followed by an abrupt and radical
modification of behavior in the direction of the act observed. This
is imitation as we have defined it.
TABLE 14.
RESULTS OF THE ROPE HW}XPERIMENT.
ie
Number: Of vamimlall SeSCCctencnsiee cncisiaercecesietsteilsuonstteietclotel sieuckolenetent tenet t-eencRel ll oionet=ia 4
CASES OF (SUCEESS Hulse HaELOMY weyers etereesesiete sieve eee suave) norekcuc tou stete Netto tet oi-d bale ialet ot olsic 4
Cases of partially successful imitation.........5........+.2-0s+ +22 esos eeeans 0
GasesiOf Sailers cies cise ote crete eae tine elcier ole ncliel sie Aeeonoatonel ohele its Morano coo 0)
10K
Cases of imitation when the imitator was confined during the activity of
thie SMITA TCO Leg ccie orev s etna, oleteie poise Beever eneust noua honeneMoitoustsvoneuhoeacienstel aneteNe reel -Rekenets 2
Cases of imitation when the two animals were in the cage together........ 2
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 391
IMO
Cases. of Immedinte- imitations ssj.ccrsvacieiecos ele ete evere ue aes orenaliore too vets sels eleuene 1
Cases’ of crad wads imitatl Omeaerciecvemlers sien wreverous atern aejes, eeeealctom hone Sere eemabre ce 3
Vi;
Cases of imitation in which the imitating animal did not himself experience
che result-of thesact=before) performing ibs .nrem | oeente se cele aeleielcre reise) crore 3
Cases of imitation in which the imitating animal did experience the result
of the) act-before pertor mim or tte ity ac. oltarcisiecttrens 6 cnet © cua cis clever eieweinioney eters 1
4, PAPER PXPERIMENT.
A. Description of Device.
For this experiment board # was used. An opening 17 cm. square was
cut, the lower edge 30 cm. from the floor of the cage. The opening was
covered on the outside by a hinge door. In the center of this door a hole
5 cm. in diameter was cut and on the outside of the door, just at the lower
edge of the circular opening was fastened a food box. With the door open,
a sheet of ordinary writing paper was laid over the opening and the door
was then closed upon it. The hole in the door and the food in the box
were thus hidden by the paper (fig. 6).
The animal could get food by breaking the paper and reaching through
the circular hole. On the inside of board H was a wooden screen which,
when dropped down, covered the whole device. When the paper and food were
in place, and the animal or animals in the cage, this screen could be lifted
by the experimenter by means of a string. When an animal had broken the
paper, the screen was lowered by the experimenter and a new piece of
paper was inserted. Then the screen was lifted and all was ready for a second
test.
B. Behavior of No. 2.
On five different days, from April 6 to April 10, No. 2 was in the cage alone
for thirty minutes each day. He did not get food from the box and made
but little investigation of the paper. The most he did toward getting food
was on April 7th, when he went to the paper, put his hands on the lower
edge of the opening and bit at the paper, but did not tear it through.
On April 21, in order to help No. 2 to learn, the experimenter punched
a hole in the paper with the point of a lead pencil and the monkey thrust
one finger through and tore a larger hole. This was repeated a number
of times and No. 2 learned to tear the paper by biting when no opening
was made. On April 22 he got food in this way ten times in seven or
eight minutes.
C. Behavior of No. 3.
Preliminary trials—No. 3 was given four trials of thirty minutes each
in the old cage in the Harvard Laboratory. In each of the first two trials
392 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
he went to the opening and put his hands on the lower edge of the frame.
In the third and fourth trials No. 3 was wholly indifferent to the device,
not going to it once.
He was given a fifth trial of fifteen minutes in the new cage at the New
York Zodlogical Park. During this trial he went about the cage leisurely,
but gave the paper no attention.
Imitation tests—No. 3 imitating No. 2.—The two animals were in the
cage together in each of the following tests.
First test. No. 2 tore the paper and got food, and No. 8 got some of the
seeds which No. 2 dropped. No. 3 did not go to the paper. This was repeated
twice; the third time No. 3 went to the paper and looked. The fourth and
fifth times No. 3 did not see, but the sixth time he went to the paper before
the screen was lifted and turned away as No. 2 tore the paper. The seventh
time No. 3 got food through the hole after the paper had been torn by No. 2.
No. 2 was now taken out. No. 3 looked at the paper, but became inter-
ested in the other monkeys, who were chattering in the nearby cages. He paid
no further attention to the paper during the fifteen minutes.
Second test. No. 2 tore a hole in the paper and stepped back. No. 3 went
up, thrust his hand through and got food. No. 2 was now taken out for
five minutes and No. 3 went to the paper and examined it. He did not
bite or push. This he repeated four times.
Third test. No. 2 was now put back and immediately got food. No. 3
searched the box after him, but got nothing. When No. 2 opened it again
No. 3 got food, but he failed the next time. No. 2 was now removed. No. 3
went to the place and bit at the paper, but not hard enough to break it
through. This he repeated three times.
Fourth test. No. 2 opened the paper and No. 38 grabbed the torn paper
and pulled it away. This was repeated twice and then, while No. 2 was
eating, No. 3 went to the paper, put his nose against it and pushed. He did
not, however, use his teeth. After No. 2 bit through the paper the next two
times No. 3 used his hands to tear a larger opening.
When No. 2 was removed from the cage No. 38 went at once to the paper
and bit through and got food. This he repeated four times, getting food the
last time in ten seconds.
TABLE 15.
No. 3 Imrratine No. 2.
vi 8) i ES | ase is . : .
Date eG aee | Number of times | Number of times | Rect, | Time in
pots hrs aie, No. 3 saw. No. 3 saw in part. é minutes.
| | |
J ee See Bs SE | ee
Jail yale eee 7 | 5 F 10
July alee 1 | 1 Fr 10
Sly Onan 2 2 F 10
wih Siocon os 3 3 S) t
Motalieacer 13 11 S 305
Haccerty, Imitation in“Monkeys. 393
Summary of Behavior of No. 3 in the Paper Experiment.
The case of No. 3 is a process of gradual imitation similar to that of No.
11 in Chute Experiment B and of No. 2, No. 4 and No. 5 in the Rope
Experiment. The first test directed his attention to the paper and each test
thereafter increased that attention and its attendant activity. During the
tests he got food a number of times; finally, he repeated the act of No. 2
in the fourth test, after haying seen No. 2 get food eleven times.
D. Behavior of No. 10.
Preliminary trials—First trial, August 13. No. 10 at frst was frightened,
due to some disturbance in getting her into the cage. She went about the
floor rapidly and up and down the wire as if looking for some way of escape.
Once she went to the paper, examined the lower edge of the frame and
climbed up on it. Going to the side of the cage, she reached through the wire
and tried to pick up straws on the floor outside. She climbed the wire and
returned to the floor at once. She now became very persistent in trying to
get the straws on the outside, stopping in her efforts only to walk about
the cage. She found a hole in the floor which had been used in a former
test; she worked at this for a moment; then grasping the frame at the
paper in both hands, she shook it vigorously. Then she returned to the
straws again. Climbing to X, she perched for a moment and then went
to the floor and examined the cracks in the floor and in the door. Then
she climbed the wire and remained quiet during the remainder of the time.
Second trial, August 17. No. 10 was on the upper part of the wire end
during the first eight minutes. Then she was driven to the floor, where
she sat in the corner near the paper. Several times she climbed up on the
frame about the paper. Then she sat with folded hands near it. Shortly
she climbed the cage front. She went to the floor again and sat near the
paper. She climbed the wire front and returned to the paper, surveying
it with her eyes. She climbed upon the frame and then climbed the front
of the cage. She returned to the floor and walked about.
Third trial, August 18. No. 10 went at once to the wire in her usual
excited manner and remained near the top for two minutes. Then she came
to the floor; she walked to the door and back to the end of the cage,
climbing the wire end. This she repeated several times immediately and
continued to repeat it during the next five minutes. From the upper part of
the end she surveyed the floor and sides of the cage. She went to the floor
and for a little time sat in the corner near the paper. Then she moved over
and sat near the wire end. Then she mounted the wire end.
Fourth trial, August 19. Behavior as follows: Up wire end and looked
about; around to the front of the cage; back to end and surveyed floor from
upper part of it; around to the front and back to end; to floor and walked
over to the door; about, looking through the wire and up the end; again
to the floor and to the door, back to end and up; around to front and down
to the door; glanced at the paper in passing; up the end and back and
forth about the wire; to the floor and the door, about the floor; quite free
394 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
to go about the floor; put hand on frame near paper in passing; up end of
cage.
Fifth trial, August 20. Behavior as follows: On floor and then turned to
door which was still open; looked out intently; climbed the cage end; to
the front and down to the floor; across to the end and down; around to
front; down to the floor; to door and up the end of cage again; to floor and
up end of the cage; to the floor; to the door; sat near wire end and
climbed cage again. ‘To the floor and to the door; sat near the paper; to door
and back to wire end, sat on the floor and then climbed the cage.
Sixth trial, August 21. Behavior as follows: Up the end of the cage
and remained for some time; to the front to catch a cockroach and back
to the end; surveyed whole cage from end; around to front and down to
the floor to look at the door; back up the end of cage; down again; about
the floor and up the end of the cage; about the wire. No. 10 was given
a sixth test because this was her first experience in the cage and in the
earlier tests she had seem disturbed.
Imitation tests—wNo. 10 imitating No. 11.—¥First test. No. 10 was in the
observation-box on the floor of the cage. No. 11 was free in the cage. No. 10
was attentive to what No. 11 did.
P. 1 to P. 5. No. 10 saw perfectly.
No. 11 was then removed and No. 10 was released in the cage. Imme-
diately she climbed the end to the top and looked back to the floor, to the
door, and to the screen. She went to the front, still looking downward.
She went to the floor, to the door, and looked at the paper. She turned and
climbed the end of the cage again. She went to the front of the cage and
looked down at the door and the paper. She went down as far as the brace
and looked at the screen. Then she went to the floor, put her hands on the
lower edge of the frame and looked at the paper carefully. She turned back
to the end of the cage and climbed the wire. Again she went down to the
brace and surveyed the floor. She went down to the door and then climbed
the wire end again. She repeated this within one minute. She seemed more
interested in escaping than in getting food. Again she went to the floor,
looked about beneath the frame, and again climbed the end of the cage.
Second test. Conditions same as in previous test. No. 10 was very atten-
tive to the movements of No. 11 and saw as follows:
P. 1 to P. 3. No. 10 saw perfectly.
She tried to get out of the observation-box and shook it vigorously.
P. 4. No. 10 saw perfectly and shook the box.
P. 5. No. 10 saw fairly well.
When No. 11 was released, she ran up the end of the cage. She went
to the front and looked at the door and floor. She went to the floor and
about to the door. She climbed the end of the cage and returned again to
the floor; she went to the paper and put her left hand on upper part and
pushed; then she put her right hand on the lower part and pushed. Then
she climbed the end of the cage and held fast to wire with head turned back
toward paper; she went slowly down to the floor and walked across to the
paper; she put two hands up on lower edge of frame and bit a hole at
Haccerty, [mutation in Monkeys. 395
exactly the right place. She then put her hand in and got food. Time: two
minutes.
She tore away all the paper and tried for some time to find more food.
Failing in this she climbed the end of the cage again. She remained there
until the device was reset. Then she looked around at it for some time.
Finally, she went slowly around to the front, climbed down to the floor,
tried to look through wire at animals in the living cages, stopped an instant
at the door, went on to the paper and with feet on the lower edge of the
frame bit a hole in the paper. She thrust her fingers into the hole and
tore the paper all off, getting the food.
She then climbed the cage and waited until the device was reset. At
once she went to the floor and across to the paper. She bit at it, but the
paper did not break. Again she tried it with the same result. Then she
tried to break it with her hand. She climbed the end of the cage and
remained there a minute. Again she went to the floor and tried to bite
through the paper, but failed as before. She walked about the floor and
again returned to the paper. This time she bit at the edge of the hole and
literally wore a hole in the paper by rubbing her teeth over the wood. When
she had made a small hole, she poked one finger through the opening and
by a very hard pull tore the heavy bond paper.
Summary of Behavior of No. 10 in the Paper Experiment.
In the preliminary trials No. 10 gave almost no attention to the paper,
merely looking at it once and passing over it in climbing upon the frame which
surrounded it. In the first test she watched No. 11 intently and when he
was out of the cage, she manifested an increased interest in the paper. The
second test increased this interest and she repeated exactly the behavior of
No. 11 within two minutes after his removal.
TABLE 16.
No. 10 Imrratine No. 11.
=
Number of times e one eae hn 2 ; :
Date: Nan all merisemed | Number of times | Number of times Result Time in
Reet | No. 10 saw. No. 10 saw in part. ‘| minutes.
|
Aug. 23..... 5 | 5 2 12
Aug. 24..... 5 5 S) 2
Rotalesen. 10 10 N) 14
E. Behavior of No. 9.
Preliminary trials.—¥irst trial, July 2. No. 9 was active about the cage.
He went to the paper and put his hands on the lower part of the frame.
He repeated this soon again. Then he climbed the wire in front; then he
396 fournal of Com parative Neurology and Psychology.
climbed upon the frame at the paper. He whined and called most of the
time he was in the cage.
Second trial, July 3. No. 9 took no notice of the paper during the entire
fifteen minutes he was in the cage. He climbed about the cage and tried to
push the door open.
Third trial, July 4. No. 9 was very active about the cage, but paid no
attention to the paper during the first minutes in the cage. Later he went to
the paper, bit at the frame and climbed upon it.
Fourth trial, July 5. In the fifth trial No. 9 climbed about the cage
and upon the screen frame about the paper. He made no effort to tear the
paper.
Fifth trial, July 5. The behavior of No. 9 in the fifth trial was similar
to what it was on the previous days. He gave no attention to the paper.
Imitation tests—No. 9 imitating No. 2.—The two animals were in the
cage together in each of the following tests.
First test. No. 9 was not at first inclined to be attentive to No. 2. It was
not until No. 2 got food the fifth time that he apparently saw the act.
Then he put his hands on the bottom of the screen frame and reached one
hand through the hole, but he got no food. Several times before the device
could be reset No. 9 went to the screen and bit it and climbed upon it. He
had not been near the screen that day. During the sixth, seventh and
eighth. manipulations by No. 2, No. 9 was beside him and saw what was
done. Each time he put his hand into the opening, but got no food; each
time he climbed upon the lifted screen.
After No. 2 had been taken out No. 9 was quite active, running all about
the cage. He went to the screen several times and bit at the edge of the
frame. Once he pushed his hand up over the paper and at another time he
bit at the inner edge of the frame next the paper.
Second test. No. 9 saw each time and was near No. 2 in the corner of
the cage. During the third, fourth, and fifth performances No. 9’s hands
were on the lower edge of the frame and after the paper had been torn
No. 9 got food along with No. 2.
When No. 2 had been taken out No. 9 went to the paper, climbed
upon the frame and jumped to the wire. He returned to the paper
and bit at the edge of the frame, but not at the paper. Several minutes
later he went to the paper and put his nose to it. This he repeated
three times. At the last time of the three, he sat on the bottom of the
frame and tried the. paper with his fingers. He finally tore it and got food
at the end of fourteen minutes. When the device was reset No. 9 went to
it and sat on the lower edge of the frame. He tried to tear the paper with his
fingers, but failed to make a hole. He later went to it and bit at the
edge of the frame, but not at the paper. A little later he examined the paper
with his nose, but did not bite it.
Third test. No. 9 saw perfectly five times in six and got food twice.
When alone he went to the paper, examined it with his nose, and went
away. Later he went to the paper and fingered the edges. He then went
away, returning once more during the fifteen minutes, but doing nothing.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 207)
Fourth test. This test was made forty-seven days after the preceding one.
The conditions were the same as in the preceding test except that No. 6
was used instead of No. 2.
Performance 1. No. 9 saw and was just back of No. 6 when he tore the
paper.
P. 2. No. 9 was on the back of No. 6, but his head was turned away.
Because No. 9 insisted on riding on the cab back of No. 6, the latter was
removed and No, 2 was substituted.
P. 8 to P. 7. No. 9 saw No. 2 at the paper from front wire and came
down to it. He reached his hand in to get food, but No. 2 had taken it all.
When No. 2 was out No. 9 came down from the wire, climbed the screen
frame, and sat on the edge. He jumped to the wire front, but at once
returned to the corner by the paper and sat on the floor for some time
looking at the paper and at that part of the cage. He then climbed the
front of the cage. Twice he came to the floor, climbed the frame at the
paper and jumped back to the wire front. After spending some time about
the cage and on the floor, he climbed the screen frame and tried to bite
the paper. He was too small to reach the hole from the floor and when he
got upon the lower edge of the frame his body covered the place where he
should bite the paper.
Fifth test. No. 9 and No. 2 were in the cage together. Since No. 9 was
so small, a box was placed on the floor below the paper so that he
could climb upon it and thus have a more nearly equal chance with the
larger animals in exerting his force against the paper.
P.1. No. 9 saw from the middle of floor.
Pp. 2. No. 9 saw in part.
P.3. No. 9 saw from the wire front above the brace.
P.4. No. 9 did not see the paper torn and did not come down for some
time. He saw No. 2 eat the food, sitting on the box.
During each of the previous times he had searched the hole for food and
got none. He now paid no attention to the place. No. 2 was allowed to
continue eating food at the opening. No. 9 ran all about the cage, but paid no
attention to No. 2 and the paper. Finally No. 9 went to the box and got
sunflower seed and a piece of banana.
P.5. No. 9 saw from the top of the wire front. He came down for food
and No. 2 punished him; he ran up the cage crying.
P. 6 to P. 10. Did not see. Watching the experimenter.
P. 11 to P. 12. No. 9 saw from above X.
No. 2 was now removed. No. 9 ran up and down the wire and about the
floor. Then he went to the box. He looked about for a moment and then
pushed his hand over the upper part of the paper above the hole and around
the upper edge of the paper. He looked at it and then climbed the wire
and went about the cage.
After climbing about the cage, he came back to the paper, and put his
hands against it. He did not get his hand over the opening, although he
rubbed them about the paper considerably. He then played about the cage.
398 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Sixth test. No. 9 was put into the observation-box and No. 6 was free
in the cage.
RP. 1 and P22. No. 9) saw in’ part
P. 3 to P. 7. No. 9 saw the entire performance.
No. 6 was taken out and No. 9 was released. No. 9 ran up the wire, and
came back to the floor and to the paper; he looked at it and climbed up on
it. He then ran up the wire. Again he went to the paper and bit at the
edge of it. Then he climbed up on it and jumped to the wire front. He
repeated this performance twice. Then he ran all about the cage and came
back to the screen. This he did repeatedly. He seemed more bent on
getting out of the cage than on getting food. Several times he put his
nose to the paper, but was not persistent about it, looking away at once.
Later he bit the lower edge of the frame. Still later he bit at the frame
next the edge of the paper.
Seventh test. The box was below the screen. No. 9 and No. 2 were free
in the cage.
P.1. No. 9 saw and got a sunflower seed through the opening.
P.2. No. 9 did not see, although he sat near and must have heard the
paper tear. He seemed indifferent to No. 2’s getting food.
P.3. No. 9 saw from post above Y, but did not seem interested.
P.4. No. 9 saw from upper part of wire end.
P. 5-P. 6. No. 9 saw from the wire above X.
P.7. No. 9 saw from the wire above X, and going to floor got a
grape skin No. 2 had dropped.
P.S. No. 9 saw from wire above X. He went to the paper and put his
hand in after No. 2 had left.
P.9. No. 9 saw from above X. He went to the floor, put grape skin
in his mouth, and went to the paper, where he put his hand in the hole.
No. 2 jumped at him and struck him.
P.10. No. 9 did not see.
P.11. No. 9 saw from upper part of wire end; he got grape skin and
went to the hole as before.
P.12. No. 9 saw from wire above X.
No. 2 was taken out and No. 9 was left alone. He climbed the cage
front at first. He came down to the box beneath paper, and looked all
about the paper; climbed frame, jumped to front and ran to end of the
cage. Again he went to box and looked all about the paper. He fingered
the lower edge of the frame and then put his left hand flat against paper
above the hole and pushed; he shoved palm over upper left-hand part of
paper. Then he pushed his right hand over lower right-hand corner in
the same way. Then he sat on the box and looked. After some time at
box he climbed the wire to the upper part of the end. He soon went
back to the box, where he sat before the paper and looked all about it.
He climbed the frame, jumped to the front and ran up to the top of the
wire end. He repeated this entire performance. He went to the box again,
looked at the paper and the frame, and returned to the front and end of
the cage.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 399
Summary of Behavior of No. 9 in the Paper Hxaperiment.
During the five preliminary trials No. 9 gave the paper no attention.
The first test brought forth imitative behavior in that No. 9 put his hand
through the hole to get food after seeing No. 2 get food. After the removal
of No. 2, No. 9 pushed his hand up over the paper as if to tear it, a thing
he had not done in the preliminary trials. The second test increased this
attention and after repeated fingering at the paper he tore it off and got
food. In the later tests he did not succeed in breaking through the paper,
but he repeated the movements of No. 2 and gave persistent attention to
the paper. His failure was possibly due not to the absence of the tendency
to imitate, but to the lack of muscular power to exert sufficient strength to
break the paper.
TABLE 17.
No. 9 ImitaTtina No. 2.
I ber of times : Ag ; :
Date | NE eee a Number of times | Number of times | Result Time in
; Keaec tieaet | No. 9 saw. No. 9 saw in part. "| minutes.
| : | | |
July eG: 8 1 2 Fr 10
ule. fe 1 5: 5 5 S 15
ithye"8:.-5 2: 6 5 Fr 10
No. 9 Imrratine No. 6.
Aug. 24.....| 7 | 5 2 F 12
PAN B24 re | 4 | 2 il F 10
No. 9 Imrratine No. 2.
Aug. 24..... 8 3 He al) 10
Aug. 24..... 7 5 2 F 10
NUR PAD oo oc 12 10 F 15
Total 57 | 39 i S | 82
General Summary of the Results of the Paper Experiment.
That the problem set in the Paper Experiment was one easy of
solution is evidenced by the fact that of eight animals all but three
learned it alone, most of them in the first trial. Of the three animals
which did not learn it alone two learned it by a process of gradual
imitation. The other one was never more than partially successful,
but his failure seemed due to a lack of physical strength rather than
to a failure to repeat the act which he saw performed.
400 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Here again, we note attention on the part of the observing animal
and a subsequent marked change of behavior (somewhat sudden)
in the direction of the behavior observed in the performing animal.
TABLE 18.
RESULTS OF THE PAPER EXPERIMENT.
I
NHN Ae Loe Chemin WSCOl whey avdMMlHOKON IWESHES) Koadcacdoadcooconoocdecosddode 3
CASES Of SUCCESS ly IMITATION epee eee crs oesey eliotn euoueeale shel crehcnepel tclek stat elceteye ersten 2
Cases of pantiallliys SUCCESSiml MiMitationmesew eel tieriier rer etor titel acict metre al
Cases Of Sfailure iO: MTtAlews mele hate tae eters ceoretemener orci eaten iis Rosters sicusceroma)
ie
Cases of imitation when the imitator was confined during the activity of
ENE TMNICATEE «6 iss sc5 Sis So wet ena rede are cli ndere eee ere ne at ouch ome ee rare ee thoteae to ane: ol eioreienes aft
Cases of imitation when the two animals were in the cage together ........ 2
IHU
CaASes- OL MMEeda te MM DAGON News reas eetete sects hele eel aren a ener terete tetereteiens 0
Cases ofseraduall amibacionee cna siete ereraicke is erorctets ote rekon relist teotteneler keine 3
EVe
Cases of imitation in which the imitating animal did not himself experi-
ence the result of the act before performing it ...................-.-+-- 1
Cases in which the imitating animal did experience the result of the act
before. performine, iG sige sd sect onc el ccem ere eee hee Racer rem eaeiaat Melero 2
5. SCREEN EXPERIMENT.
A. Description of Device.
The device in this experiment was a modification of the one used in the
Paper Experiment. The paper was not used. The string which lifted the
screen (fig. 7, @)was removed.
The act which the animal had to perform was to push the screen up with
one hand and with the other reach through the hole and get food. No animal
was tried in this experiment which had not previously gotten food in the
Paper Experiment.
B. Behavior of No. 4.
No. 4 first pushed the screen up when the paper was being adjusted in the
Paper HExperiment. She did not, however, tear the paper. The screen
dropped back in place and she lifted it again. The fourth time she pushed
the sereen up, it stuck and did not drop back. She then tore the paper.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 401
When the device was reset, No. 4 pushed the screen up and tore the paper.
Thereafter, she lifted the screen and got food when she wanted to.
C. Behavior of No. 6.
Preliminary trials —First trial. No. 6 was active, climbing up and down
the wire, and upon the screen. He fingered about the edges of the screen,
but made no effort to raise it.
Second trial. The second day No. 6 ran all about the cage, climbing the
wire and upon the screen. He examined the screw eye where the string
had been attached, but made no effort to lift the screen.
Third trial. On the third day he seemed interested in all parts of the
cage, examining every crack and hole in it. He fingered the top of the screen
as if to move it. Six times he climbed upon the screen. The remainder of
the time he busied himself catching flies.
Fourth trial. On the fourth day No. 6 paid no attention to the screen
during the fifteen minutes.
Vifth trial. No. 6 paid but little more attention to the screen on the
fifth day. Three times he climbed upon it to jump to the wire front and
three times he examined the hole above the screen.
Imitation tests—No. 6 imitating No. 4.—The two animals were put into
the cage together in each of the following tests.
First test. No. 6 was at first indifferent to the movements of No. 4. He
usually saw No. 4 get the food, but failed to see him lift the screen. In the
six times No. 4 lifted it in the test, No. 6 appeared to see twice. After No. 4
had been taken out, No. 6 paid no attention to the screen for ten minutes.
Second test. The first four times No. 4 lifted the screen No. 6 did not
see. He was picking over the hulls left on the floor. The fifth time he saw
from the opposite corner of the cage, and while No. 4 was up on the wire
front eating, No. 6 went to the screen and looked. The sixth time the screen
stuck when lifted, and No. 6 put his hand in and got food. After the seventh
time No. 6 went to the screen and pushed on the lower edge of the frame.
Then he pulled at the top and went away. He went back immediately and
putting both hands on the screen pushed. He then went away, but when
No. 4 lifted the screen he saw and went at once to it. Putting his hands
on it he pushed it up one-third of the way. Then he pushed it up so as to
reveal the hole, and got food. No. 4 pushed it up again and No. 6 saw. Imme-
diately No. 6 lifted the screen and got food.
After No. 4 had been taken out No. 6 lifted the screen eight times in
ten minutes. He could do it perfectly.
Summary of Behavior of No. 6 in the Screen Haperiment.
No. 6 had seen the screen go up in the Paper Experiment and he had
experienced getting food when the screen was lifted. However, his five pre-
liminary trials in the Screen Experiment did not lead him to get food.
When first in the cage with No. 4 he was not inclined to be attentive.
When he saw No. 4 getting food in the second test he at once became inter-
402 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
ested in the screen. When once his attention was centered on the screen
he very soon repeated the behavior of No. 4, not at first in a perfect way, but
in his fifth effort he did it in exactly the way No. 4 had done the act in his
presence.
TABLE 19.
No. 6 Imiratine No. 4.
Dates None oes | Number of times | Number of times | Result. Time in
” F55 Biers, | No. 6 saw. No. 6 saw in part. | minutes.
ze | |
July Gt - 6 | 2 4 | F 10
Wulys Tae 11 | 6 S 12
| |
Totals <0. 17 | 8 4 | aS 22
D. Behavior of No. 56.
Preliminary trials.—First trial. No. 5 examined the cage all over, but
she manifested no particular interest in the screen. After ten mintues she
looked it over slightly.
Second trial. On the second day she looked out through the wire, poked
her fingers through the hole in the door, and then went to the screen and
pulled at the screw eye. She was quite active, climbing about the cage
rapidly. Once more she went to the screen, and then spent the remainder
of the time catching flies.
Third trial. On the third day she bit at the screen frame and pulled at
the screen during the first few minutes. She then spent the rest of her
time as on the previous day.
Fourth trial. On the fourth day No. 5 showed more interest in the
screen at first. She tried to shake the screen frame. Later she fingered
the screen and bit at the frame.
Fifth trial. On the fifth day No. 5 bit at the screen frame several times
and climbed upon it twice. Most of the time, however, she spent in other
parts of the cage.
Imitation tests.—No. 5 initating No. 4 and No. 6.—In all of the following
tests the two animals were in the cage together.
First test. No. 5 was somewhat wary of No. 4 and did not come near.
She saw No. 4 open the screen once in three times. When No. 4 was taken
out No. 5 went to the screen and examined it, but she gave it no persistent
attention. Later she fingered the lower edge of the screen.
Second test. No. 5 was attentive and saw the lifting of the screen five
limes.
When No. 4 was out No. 5 went at once to the screen and pulled at the
top of it. She then ceased to be interested in it and examined other parts
of the cage.
Haccerrty, Imitation in Monkeys. 403
Third test. No. 5 was very hungry. She saw No. 4 open the screen once
in the first three times. After the third trial, while No. 4 was up the wire
front, eating, No. 5 went to the screen and examined it. She put her
fingers into the cracks and climbed upon it to examine the top. The fifth and
sixth times she saw plainly, and after each went to the screen and examined
it. The seventh time No. 5 saw and hurried to the screen, but No. 4 let it
drop and No. 5 turned away without trying to manipulate it. 10 aes: 10
July 14.. 20 | 15 F 10
July 15.. 30 20 he Pad 10
July 31.. 26 | 15 3 sank 10
aes ot 10 5 F 10
Total..... | 147 106 5 (ee 134
H. Behavior of No. 2.
Preliminary trials.—First trial. No. 2 was not active. He examined the
sereen with his nose and hands and bit at the screw eye in the top of it.
Second trial. On the second day No. 2 pushed the screen, but did not
lift it; later he climbed upon it and examined the top of it. This he
repeated twice.
Third trial. The third day’s behavior was similar to that of the previous
day. No. 2 pulled and gnawed at the screen and the screen frame. Part of
the time he worked vigorously. Most of the time, however, he was in other
parts of the cage.
Fourth trial. On the fourth day No. 2 was more vigorous than ever. He
spent five minutes without intermission chewing at the bottom of the screen
frame. He then quit and looked at a hole in the door. He made another
brief examination of the top of the screen and went away. Several times he
returned and examined the screen, once lifting one corner of it by pulling
on the screw eye at the top.
Fifth trial. No. 2 was active at the screen, pulling at the top and biting the
lower part of the frame. He made no progress, however.
Imitation tests—No. 2 imitating No. 4.—During all of these tests No. 2
and No. 4 were together in the experiment cage. ;
406 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
First test. It was the first time No. 2 and No. 4 were together. They
caressed at once and then No. 4 went to the screen. She lifted it five times
and got food each time. No. 2 sat by her and seemed to see every movement,
although his excitement may have kept his attention from centering on what
she was doing. When No. 4 was removed No. 2 displayed no more than
usual interest in the screen. He climbed to it, picked at it with his fingers and
used it as a stand to climb up the post.
Second test. No. 2 was excited and was attentive to No. 4. He ate the
apple crumbs which she dropped after the first opening. At the second and
fifth opening he was “picking fleas,’ and did not see the screen go up.
While she was eating her fifth feed he went to the screen and examined it.
The sixth and seventh times she lifted it, he saw perfectly. After the
seventh he went to the screen and pushed against the lower edge of the
frame and then bit at it where it joined the cage post.
After No. 4 had been taken out No. 2 began to work at the screen. He
picked at the lower edge of the frame where it joined the post and then
climbed upon the screen. He was too excited to work persistently, running
to the side of the cage and starting at every noise. He worked intermittently
for six minutes. Then when at the opposite side of the cage he started, ran
to the screen and gave a single push upward on the lower edge of the
frame. He then put both hands on the frame, but did not push. Because of
his activity the period was prolonged to fifteen minutes.
Third test. No. 2 saw No. 4 the first time she got food and climbed the
cage to get food from her. He saw the second time and got food from the
hole while the screen stuck. When his food was gone No. 2 went to the
screen and pulled at the top and pushed at the lower edge. He saw the
third time, but became interested in picking fleas from No. 4 instead of
getting food. The fourth and fifth times he saw perfectly.
After No. 4 had been taken out No. 2 ran about the cage, but paid no
attention to the screen for the first four minutes. Then he worked at the
lower edge of the screen a little.
Fourth test. After the third performance No. 2 went to the screen and
touched it. After the fourth he went to it, put his hands against it and
pushed, but he failed to lift it. Each of the five times he saw very well.
After No. 4 had been removed No. 2 went to the screen a number of times
and put his hands on it. He also bit the lower part of the frame and climbed
upon the screen.
Fifth test. No. 2 saw No. 4 well each time. He went to the screen after
No. 4 had opened it and remained there while No. 4 ate her food. His
efforts to get food were feeble.
After No. 4 had been taken out No. 2 climbed up on the screen a number
of times, but in no case did he seem bent on getting the food.
Sixth test. No. 2 was interested in No. 4 and saw her get food each time
in twenty.
July 1 (2: Cee 20 10 F 10
Tialiys Wisse 2 | 25 10 | S 20
Total..... 68 30 kegees 50
Summary of Behavior of No. 2 in the Plug Experiment.
The Plug Experiment set a different problem from any of the experiments
already described. The food was obtained at one place, but the door could
be opened only by working at a place removed from the door.
No. 2 made no progress toward a solution of the problem during his pre-
liminary trials. The first three tests did not aid him. In the fourth test
No. 5 made more rapid trips between the door and the plug. She seemed
414 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
quite excited. Probably her increased activity served as an increased stimu-
lation to No. 2, for after her removal he gave more continuous attention to
the door, and then went from the door to the plug and pulled. He repeatedly
tried the plug and finally succeeded in pulling it out. After his first success,
however, he did not go to the door, although he did after the next. The
one experience, however, did not establish a perfect act, for when the device
was reset he did not go at once to the plug, but worked at the door instead.
He gave up trying to get the food and went about the cage. He went to
the plug again only when his eyes accidentally (so it seemed) fell upon it.
In the third experience there was apparent an element of accident, but
after he got food the third time, he seemed to know the trick perfectly.
D. Behavior of No. 6.
Preliminary trials.—First trial. No. 6 climbed the cage and then went to
the door and pushed at it. He examined all about it and then climbed the
wire. He grasped the plug three times. Then he went back to the door six
times and pushed it. Later he bit the plug.
Second trial. No. 6 was very playful. He leaped about the floor and up
the wire. Once he went to the food door and later he went to the plug and
bit it. He then went back to the floor and to the food door. He pushed
at it and then played about the cage.
Third trial. No. 6 showed no interest in either the door or the plug.
Fourth trial. On the fourth day No. 6 was very active. He looked at
the door and later perched at the plug, but he made no effort to pull it out.
Fifth trial. On the fifth day No. 6 went to the door and looked at the
food. Then he ran about the cage. He was totally indifferent to the plug,
and although he had been eager to get into the cage he was eager to leave
it at the end of the period.
Imitation tests —No. 6 imitating No. 5.—The two animals were in the cage
together in each of the following tests.
First test. No. 6 soon discovered the food outside of the glass door and
when No. 5 opened it No. 6 got the food. No. 5 punished him several times
and No. 6 cried so much that his howling compelled his removal.
Second test. No. 6 was in the cage with No. 5 while she opened the door
twenty times. He rarely saw—not more than five times in the twenty. No.
6 learned that the door opened and was inclined to sit in front of it. This
turned his back to the plug and he did not see No. 5 pull it. Finally No.
5 drove him away from the door and he saw her pull the plug a few times.
When No. 5 was removed No. 6 went to the door and examined it. Then
he ran up to the plug, bit at the end of it, and tried to pull it out. He ran
down to the door at once. He climbed to the plug and worked at it with
his hands. Several times he repeated this trip from the plug to the door
and back to the plug.
Third test. No. 5 was very eager to get the food. No. 6 saw only occa-
sionally—five times in fifteen.
When No. 5 was removed No. 6 gave his first attention to the door. Then
he climbed to the plug, but did not work at it. He worked persistently at
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys, 415
the door. Finally he opened the door by working at it directly and got
the food.
Fourth test. No. 5 was exceedingly active and after getting food would
pull the string a number of times before the door was reset or the food
replaced. No. 6 saw her ten times in fourteen.
When No. 5 was out No. 6 became very active about the door, working
continuously to get the food. Once he ran up the wire and bit the plug.
Fifth test. At first No. 6 was quite indifferent to No. 5, but he became
attentive as he saw No. 5 getting food. When No. 5 pulled the plug the
eighth time No. 6 climbed the post and pulled it after her. As he pulled it
he looked at the door. This he repeated after the ninth performance also,
and again after the tenth.
When No. 5 was removed No. 6 went at once to the door; then he played
up the wire and came down again to the door. Then he ran up to the plug
and pulled it until he got the door open, two minutes after the removal of
No. 5. When the apparatus was reset No. 6 began to work at the door.
After one minute he climbed the cage, took one look through the wire, and
went back to the door. Then in the midst of vigorous pushing at the door
he suddenly stopped, fairly flew up the wire to the plug, and pulled it
vigorously until it came out and the door opened. He came down quickly
and got the food. He repeated this twice in two minutes. The next time
the plug stuck, and although he worked at it vigorously, it was ten minutes
before he succeeded in pulling it out. He had run about the cage somewhat
during that time. He opened the door once afterward.
TABLE 26.
No. 6 Imrratine No. 5.
| Number of times : ae . : : F
Date: | No. 5 performed Number of times Number of times Result. Time in
ihe eye No. 6 saw. No. 6 saw in part. minutes.
‘ill Sear 8 | 1 F 10
Palais ee 20 5 F 10
Dulyatse ge 15 5 F 10
Dialy. Tass. 14 10 F 10
Awl WSyee 5 oe 16 10 S 10
Totals. 73 | 30 | 1 S 50
Summary of Behavior of No. 6 in the Plug Experiment.
In his first preliminary trial No. 6 gave some attention to the food door and
to the plug. His interest in the plug disappeared in the later trials. The
second imitation test, which may be reckoned as the first, served to direct
his interest to the plug. The third and fourth tests did not seem to increase
this interest nor to make it productive of profitable results. The fifth test
did show a decided increase of attention to the movements of No. 5, and,
416 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
finally, a repetition of those movements. The association between the door
and the plug, however, did not seem perfect until after No. 6 had succeeded
several times in pulling the plug and in getting food. The tendency of No. 6
was to center his attention on the door and, after failure there, to resort to
the plug. This may have been due to the fact that he once got food by
working directly at the door.
General Summary of the Results of the Plug Experiment.
In nicety of imitative behavior, the Plug Experiment furnishes
less satisfactory results than do some of the other experiments. This
is no doubt due in part to the fact that the food door and the
means of its opening were in different parts of the cage. The two
things could not well be within the range of vision at the same time.
In transferring attention from the door to the plug the animal
usually lost sight of the door. He did not see the imitatee pull the
plug and at the same time see the result of the pull. In case he
saw the plug pulled, his eyes must follow the imitatee back to the
door in order to see the result. Despite this difficulty, the experi-
ment yielded two cases of behavior in which the influence of the
imitatee was sufficient to guide the behavior of the observing animals
to a successful issue. In the successful behavior there seemed to
be an element of accident. It is impossible, however, to explain
the conduct of either No. 6 or No. 2 as a case of random movement
and accidental success, for prolonged opportunity to solve the problem
in this way resulted in failure for each of them. Nor does it seem
possible to think that No. 2 or No. 6 repeated the movements of No.
5 merely from seeing her perform the act and without connecting with
her act the result which followed it. Each of the animals failed to
pull the plug after seeing it pulled, until there had been abundant
opportunity to see the performing animal get food.
TABLE 27.
RESULTS OF THE PLUG EXPERIMENT.
1k
Number of animals ised sintimitationetestsee cece eee ioiieitinene ee Spelt
Cases: of Successful -imilitationiccs aceon cove aohoie cow iene ek IOP IGiSIcreear Shoe
Cases) of “partially successtull imitations eee oer reece 0
Casesvofetailures to imitates eee sane is lataaaeneshoke etnias Greene ln ckave een ne
Haccerty, [mutation in Monkeys. 417
1a
Cases of imitation when the imitator was confined during the activity of
thre AMIR CCS Se srate. crs secre eeetee tater seatals orc re or olelw eine! oh eee ren seek tay Soe ern tere 0
Cases of imitation when the two animals were together in the cage........ 2
Tee
Cases sof “immediate pamita toms cate oa, oo shcudaves.cretersbotere a Setenere aoe eee aie 0
@ases) ofseraduall imitated Ome crac cre sare sce oe og frais sic seeds ee a ce aioe eee Zs
IW
Cases of imitation in which the imitating animal did not himself experience
the result of the act before performing it.................. pete ee eees al
Cases of imitation in which the imitating animal did experience the result
OLothevactybeLone speLrORmMimn flit ccs ects cis cero custard orlerreneeia htehel cee Retort: al
7. BUTTON EXPERIMENT.
A. Description of Device.
In this test the slide door (fig. 8, @) used in the Plug Experiment was
the place where the animal could get food. It could be opened by a button
(fig. 10, b) in board D, which must be pushed to the right. This button was
S cm. broad at the largest breadth of its pear shape and 14 ecm. long. Its
lower edge was 22 cm. from the floor. A string, ¢, fastened to the back
part of the button passed through a hole, 5 cm. in diameter, in board D,
and along the outside of the cage to the slide door. The button was fastened
to Board D at the top by a small bolt. A small knob fastened to the middle
of the button enabled the animal to grasp it easily. A screw eye in the
board prevented the button from being pushed to the left. The animal
could get food by pushing the button to the right and then passing to the
slide door in board A which had been opened by the movement of the button.
B. Behavior of No. 3.
Preliminary trials.—First trial. No. 3 worked at the door, biting the edges
for ten minutes. He then walked to the button, gave one bite at it, and
came back to the door. Later he repeated this, biting the knob on the button.
He climbed the cage a number of times and then sat in the corner of the
cage near the food door.
Second trial. On the second day No. 3 went to the door and bit at the
edge, but not so vigorously on account of nails that had been driven into the
edges of the opening to protect it. He went twice to the button and bit the
edges. Then he ran about the cage, and finally rested in the corner near the
food door.
Third trial. The third day No. 3 again worked at the food door, biting the
edges. Then he went to the button, bit at it and came back to the door. He
repeated this behavior four times in three minutes.
418 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Fourth trial. On the fourth day No. 3 paid no attention to the door or to
the button.
Fifth trial. On the fifth day he worked at the door for a short time.
Then he climbed about the cage and ended the period by sitting in the corner
near the button. Once he bit at the button.
Imitation tests.—No. 3 imitating No. 2.—Both animals were put into the
cage together in each of the following tests.
First test. No. 3 was not attentive to No. 2 at first and was somewhat
afraid. He saw four times fairly well. Several times the experimenter pre-
vented No. 2 from opening the door because No. 3 was not watching.
When No. 2 was out No. 3 went to the door and worked vigorously for
three minutes. He then went to the button, bit it and pulled as No. 2 had
done. He came back to the door at once. Then he returned to the button,
bit it, and came back to the door. Later he went to the button a number
of times.
Second test. No. 8 was afraid and avoided the door and button while
No. 2 was present. No. 2 was very active and opened the door much oftener
than No. 3 saw. He saw five times in nineteen.
When No. 2 was out No. 3 worked at the door intermittently for several
minutes, going once to the button and biting it.
Third test. No. 2 and No. 38 were on good terms and No. 3 kept near No.
2 and-watched him most of the time. No. 2 worked very rapidly, but
No. 3 saw him ivell, five times in ten.
When No. 2 was out No. 3 worked at the door for a little time, and then
went to the button and pulled it back with his teeth. This movement was
different from his previous acts at the button, which were mere bites with
no effort to pull. He looked out at the opening behind the button and then
went to the door and got food. Time: two minutes after the removal of
No. 2. He repeated the entire performance within one minute and six times
more within ten minutes.
TABLE 28.
No. 3 Imrratine No. 2.
Number of times
Date No. 2 performed Number of times | Number of times Result Time in
: RS aie No. 4 saw. | No. 4 saw in part. ; minutes.
¢ |
duly 2enee 9 4 2 Bs eal
July, 276s 19 5 4 ‘ee 00
uly 28ers 10 5 3 Sa WW
Motalaeee | 38 14 9 S 30
Summary of Behavior of No. 3 in the Button Experiment.
At first No. 38 manifested an interest in the door and in the button, but
this interest waned as the preliminary trials were continued, and seemed
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 419
entirely gone in the fourth and fifth. It received a decided accentuation in
the first test, after No. 38 had seen No. 2 get food four times. In the second
test it seemed about the same, but in the third test it led No. 3 to repeat in
detail the movements of No. 2 and to secure the same result.
C. Behavior of No. 4.
Preliminary trials.—Virst test. After four minutes in the cage No. 4 went
to the button, put both hands on it, bit at the knob and bottom of the button
and turned away. She spent the remainder of the time on the floor of the
cage and on the wire. She returned to the door a number of times, but made
but little effort to get food.
Second trial. On the second day No. 4 went to the door frequently and
occasionally to the button, but she made no effort to manipulate either.
She was anxious to get out of the cage.
Third trial. On the third day No. 4 went to the door, but made no effort
to get food. Later she smelled at the button, but made no effort to move it.
Fourth trial. On the fourth day No. 4 paid no attention to either the
door or the button.
TVifth trial. On the fifth day the behavior of No. 4 was as usual. She bit
at the button once or twice in passing and went to the door twice.
Imitation tests.—No. 4 imitating No. 2.—In each of the following tests
both animals were in the cage together.
Tirst test. No. 4 at first was not inclined to notice No. 2. .She saw five
times in twenty-three. No. 2 was frequently prevented from opening the door
until No. 4 was looking. She often saw the door open, but paid no attention
to the button or to No. 2. When finally she saw No. 2 push the button, she
went immediately and did the same thing. She did it three times more
while No. 2 was present.
When No. 2 was out No. 4 worked two minutes at the door and then walked
over to the button and pushed it back. This disclosed the opening behind the
button and she thrust her hand out. She withdrew it immediately and came
back to the door and got food. When the apparatus was reset she went
to the button immediately; pushed it back, thrust her hand out and came at
once to the door and got food. She repeated this four times. Then she
ceased to thrust her hand out, and came immediately to the opened door.
Within five minutes she had gotten food ten times.
Summary of Behavior of No. 4 in the Button Experiment.
The behavior of No. 4 was decidedly changed by seeing No. 2 push back
the button. For five days, fifteen minutes per day, she had had the oppor-
tunity to get the food by pushing the button, but had not done so. Yet she
pushed the button within five seconds after seeing No. 2 do it. There is no
evidence as to whether she connected the button with the food at the time.
The directness with which she later went from the door to the bution,
pushed it back and came back to the door to get food would indicate that she
had made the connection, That the association was complete after the
420 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
second experience is evidenced by the directness and rapidity with which she
continued to perform the act.
TABLE 29.
No. 4 Imiratine No. 2.
| | |
Number of times | : | |
F Number of times
i Hera 2 ;
Date. 2 4 Number of times | Result. Time in
Ne Ne eee No. 4 saw. | No. 4 saw in part. | ee | minutes.
. | |
Jalye dice see 23 5 | 3 8 10
D. Behavior of No. 5.
Preliminary trials.—First trial. No. 5 worked at the door; then she climbed
the cage and came back to the door. She went to the button and spatted it
with both hands. Later she bit at the screw eye, held the button, and bit
it. She then turned and pushed it with her feet. Later she grabbed the
screw eye in her hand and bit it. After twelve minutes she placed herself
opposite the door and plunged against it twice with great force. She went to
the button, and, placing herself opposite it, plunged against it twice in the
same manner. Then she went to the door and looked. She then plunged
against the button and spatted it several times; she went once to the door
and looked. Later she bit again at the screw eye; she then went from
the door to the button and back to the door.
Second trial. On the second day No. 5 worked at the door for the first
four minutes. She then went to the button and spatted it. Later she hocked
her tail in the wire about three feet above the door, placed her feet on the
board A, and, with head down, she lifted her body out from the board and
threw her weight on her hands against the door.
Third trial. On the third day No. 5 went to the door, climbed the cage,
and after several minutes went to the button and spatted it. During the
remainder of the time she went about the cage in the usual way, paying no
attention to the door or the button.
Fourth trial. On the fourth day No. 5 went to the door once. Once she
went to the button and taking the screw eye in the left hand spatted the
button with the right. She gave no further attention to door or button.
Fifth trial. On the fifth day No. 5 went about the cage mostly indifferent
to the door and button. Once she spatted the button and bit it. She spent
a little time at the door when she was first placed in the cage.
Imitation tests —No. 5 imitating No. 2 and No. 4.—The animals were in the
cage together in each of the following tests.
Wirst test. No. 5 watched No. 2 closely and saw the entire performance five
times in ten. The first time she saw No. 2 push the button she followed and
pushed it back herself. She did not follow to the food. She did this three
times on seeing No. 2 do it and usually missed seeing him get food.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 421
When No. 2 was out No. 5 worked vigorously at the door and then went to
the button and pulled at the screw eye and the knob, but not in such a way
as to open it. Three times she went to the button and back to the door.
Second test. No. 5 saw No. 2 push the button five times in thirteen, but
did not follow him to the food door.
After No. 2 had been taken out No. 5 became quite eager about the door for
a minute. She went to the button, but made no effort to move it.
Third test. No. 4 was used instead of No. 2. No. 5 saw No. 4 five times
in fifteen. She did not follow her about, but kept out of her way.
When No. 4 was removed No. 5 worked a little while at the door and then
played about the cage for ten minutes.
Fourth test. No. 5 was afraid of No. 4 and kept away from her, owing
to the punishment No. 4+ had given her. She kept close watch on No. 4,
however, and saw her move the button back and get food. This she saw
ten times in nineteen.
With No. 4 out No. 5 looked through the door at the food, but did not work
vigorously. She took her leisure about the cage for ten minutes.
Vifth test. No. 2 was again used. No. 2 pushed the button and No. 5
followed and pushed it, and coming to the door got food. No. 5 retreated to
the front of the cage and kept her eyes on No. 2. Each time when No. 2 pushed
the button No. 5 came to the door for food. She thus prevented him from
getting any, for he was afraid of her. Once (fifth trial) she got food, and
immediately went to the button and pushed it back.
No. 5 became much more attentive to No. 2 than at any time previously
and her eyes flashed froin the door to No. 2 and from No. 2 to the door, and
always when he pushed the button she came to the door. After seeing him
three times more she went to the button again, pushed it back and went
directly to the door for food. This she repeated three times, the first two
times coming directly to the door, and the third stopping for a moment to
examine the opening behind the button. This she repeated once and then
performed the entire act six times, not stopping to make any examination
of the button.
Summary of Behavior of No. 5 in the Button Hxperiment.
Despite her unusual and persistent activity No. 5 did not once push the
button during her preliminary trials. Yet she did push it at once after
seeing No. 2 do it. Three times she repeated this, but not once did she go to
the food door after doing so. What she had learned seemed to avail her
nothing until the fifth test. She then followed No. 2 through his entire act
of pushing the button and coming to the door to get food. She maintained
a heightened interest in No. 2 during the whole of his ten performances, and
by the end of the time was able to get food for herself as she had seen him do
it. It should be noted that after pushing the button back and securing no
result she ceased to push it during the second, third and fourth tests. Where
this conduct reappeared it was connected with the getting of the food.
422 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
TABLE 30.
No. 5 Imrratine No. 2 anp No. 4.
|
| co .
| Number of times
}
Date No. 2 and No. 4 | Number of times | Number of times Result Time in
. performed the act. No. 5 saw. No. 5 saw in part. ‘| minutes.
July 2 7eoee 10 5 | 1 ae a (0)
F 10
Julys28e-eee| 13 5 | 4
No. 5 Imtratine No. 4.
July 28.....| 15 | 5 | 3 eons 10
July 29... 19 | 10 | paw 10
K as 3 ate oe oe. oe 8) | ¢) Ee Wests
No. 5 Imrratine No. 2.
| | | While No.
July. 30's .5 10 | 10 | | 5 | 2was
be a | present.
35 | a
Tolls 6 on - 67
E. Behavior of No. 6.
Preliminary trials.—First trial. No. 6 was very frantic about the food
door. He rushed to where the plug had been in the Plug Experiment and
worked at the hole in the post. He looked at the button and put his hands
on it, but made no effort to move it. Later he bit at it. He then gave
up his efforts.
Second trial. On the second day No. 6 tried the door as before, but on
account of nails which had been driven in the edge he could not bite it. Once
he went to the button and put his hands on it, and ten minutes later bit at
it in passing.
Third trial. The third day there was the usual behavior about the cage.
No. 6 worked at the door for several minutes and once pulled at the screw
eye. Then he took his leisure about the cage.
Fourth trial. On the fourth day No. 6 was very active at the door, biting
and pushing it. Once he grabbed the screw eye in passing. He then played
about the cage, going to the door frequently, but not working at it.
Fifth trial. On the fifth day No. 6 tried the door a few times, but not
vigorously as on previous days. He bit at the button in passing.
Imitation tests.—No. 6 imitating No. 4.—Both animals were in the cage
together in each of the following tests.
First test. After the first few minutes No. 6 became afraid of No. 4
and kept away from her. In fifty-five perfomances No. 6 saw only three
times. The first time he saw No. 4 move the button, he followed and did the
same thing himself, but did not follow No. 4 to the door. When No. 4
was removed No. 6 went at once to the food door and worked incessantly
and with great vigor for five minutes. Once during the time he went to the
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 423
button and bit it. He did not come back to the door and he went to many
other places in the cage as well as to the button. At other times, when
near it he paid no attention to the button.
Second test. No. 6 was not so frightened as in the previous test and
remained on the floor near No. 4 five times in nineteen. He saw her push
the button and get food. The second and fourth times he saw No. 4 push
the button he went to it and looked out at the opening.
When No. 4 was out No. 6 became very active with his teeth and hands
at the door. After nine minutes he went to the button and pushed it with
his hands, but as the push was directly toward the beard, and not to one
side, as was necessary to open the door, he did not succeed. Later he put
his hand on the screw eye.
Third test. No. 6 watched more attentively than in the first test and saw
five times in twenty-seven.
When No. 4 was removed No. 6 worked incessantly at the food door with
his hands, feet, and teeth. He used his tail to thrust through the wire when
he could not reach around with his hand. Once he thrust his tail around
the corner of the cage and caught the string to which the banana was
attached. He was not allowed to get food in this way. He paid no attention
to the button during the time.
Fourth test. No. 6 was more attentive than on any previous day and saw
five times in eleven. After seeing the fourth time he went to the button
and pushed with his hand, but not in such a way as to open the door. After
the fifth time he bit at the lower edge of the button.
After No. 4 was out No. 6 did not go to the button. He worked more or
less intermittently at the door for ten minutes.
Fifth test. No. 4 worked slowly and gave No. 6 a good opportunity to see,
but he was not attentive and saw only seven times in forty-one. Then his
look was not direct. The first time he saw, he went to the button and looked
through the hole behind it.
When No. 5 was out No. 6 got food by fingering at the door. Then he
worked at the door and once bit the button, but he was not at all active.
Sixth test. No. 6 kept his attention on the door during thirty-two per-
formances, but rarely turned his attention to the button even though No. 4
went from the door to the button and back to the door for food repeatedly.
His attention was almost wholly on the door. Ten times in the thirty-two
he saw No. 4 push the button.
When No. 4 was out No. 6 became very eager at the door and continued
so for ten minutes, but did not once go to the button.
Seventh test. No. 6 was quite indifferent to all the movements of No. 4.
He often looked at the door as No. 4 left it to go to the button. It was not
clear whether No. 4’s leaving the door suggested that the door was about to
open, or whether No. 6 was all the time interested in the door and showed
his interest only when No. 4 left the way clear. He saw five times In thirty-
five and then only by glances.
When No. 4 was out No. 6 became at once interested in the door and
worked at it most of the time for five minutes. Then he ran about the cage,
but paid no attention to the button.
424 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Highth test. No. 5 was used instead of No. 4. No. 6 was not at all
attentive to No. 5. At times he watched the door when No. 5 went to the
button. He was not afraid of No. 5, so did not run away. No. 5 worked
rapidly and moved the button with wide movements of her arms. No. 6,
however, showed no interest in the button.
When No. 5 was out No. 6 paid no attention to the button and but little
to the door.
Ninth test. No. 6 was very indifferent to the movements of No. 5 except
at the door. He often saw No. 5 get the food at the door and twice got food
there himself. The movement of No. 5 from the door to the button and
back to the door apparently meant nothing to him.
When alone No. 6 worked intermittently at the door for ten minutes, but
did not notice the button.
Tenth test. No. 6 saw five times in the twelve that No. 5 opened the door.
When No. 5 was removed No. 6 became busy at the door, but paid no
attention to the button during ten minutes.
Summary of Behavior of No. 6 in the Button Experiment.
What No. 6 saw in the Button Experiment seemed to profit him nothing.
Once he repeated the movement of No. 4 in pushing back the button, but
he did not at that time nor later connect the button with the food door. At
no time did he give good attention to what was done in his presence, in the
ten tests seeing only fifty-one out of three hundred and three performances.
TABLE 31.
No. 6 Imiratine No. 4 anv No. 5.
Date Number of cimes | Number of times | Number of times Result. Time jn
performed the act.| No. 6 saw. No. 6 saw in part. minutes.
— = Si — = =| |
July 2725. 55 | 3 | 2 F 10
Julie 2 Seer 19 5 F 10
July 28 Dil | 5 F 10
July 29..... 11 | 5 3 F 10
Julive29 eee 41 | 7 F 10
Jalkhy S0)5c00 < oo 10 Je 10
July 30eeee 35 | 5 F 10
No. 6 Imrratine No. 5.
|
July 30.2. 50 3 | F | 10
INN OD) ee cae 21 3 | 10 F 10
Aue 18), 12 5 | F 10
Total 303 51 Ee F 100
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 425
reneral Summary of the Results of the Button Kxperiment.
Taken as a whole the Button Experiment gives three cases of
unitation, no one of them immediately successful in detail. In the
eases of No. 4, No. 5 and No. 3, there was an immediate modification
of behavior, but in no ease was there an exact repetition of the
behavior of the performing animal. It did not require many repeti-
tions of the act, however, for each animal to learn to perform the
act perfectly. F
TABLE 382
RESULTS OF THE BUTTON EXPERIMENT.
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Cases of imitation in which the imitating animal did not himself experi-
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8. STRING EXPERIMENT.
A. Description of Device.
From the top of the experiment cage (fig. 11) strings 1, 5, 6, and 7 were
dropped downward along each of the corner posts to within 18 cm. of the
floor of the cage. Along the back of the cage and 15 cm. apart were sus-
pended three other strings, 2, 3, and 4, in like manner. To the lower end
of each string was fastened a small knob, k. In the following observations
on the behavior of the animals 2¢ indicates the second string at the place
where it enters the cage, and 2k indicates the knob attached to the end of
the second string.
426 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
In the lower part of board B, 6 cm. from the floor, was a circular opening,
L, 5 cm. in diameter. On the outside of the board was a square chute
(fig. 12, a), the bottom of which, 0, was level with the bottom of the circular
opening, LZ. In the chute, a little way above the opening, was a trap door, ¢,
which could be opened by a lever, d, to which could be fastened any one of
the seven strings above described. In this experiment, string 2 was so
attached. By pulling this string the animal on the inside of the cage
could open the trap door in the chute and thus cause the food on the door
to fall to the bottom of the chute or roll out into the cage through the
opening in board B. In either case the monkey could get it.
B. Behavior of No. 13.
Preliminary trials.—First trial, August 14. When No. 13 enetred the cage
he went at once to L and looked at the opening. He then went to 6% and,
taking it in his hand, bit it, dropping it after the first bite. Recrossing to 1k
he did the same thing, immediately afterward climbing the wire end of the
cage. Returning to the floor he went to 5 and to L, thence crossing the
floor to 6, biting Gk and recrossing to 2k and biting it. He then moved
about as follows: up the wire; around to 6; back to 1; on the wire; to the
floor; to 2k and bit; thrust his hand into L; to 5k and bit; to 4% and bit;
to the small door and pushed; to 7k and bit; to 2 and started to climb,
but turned his attention to 1 and 8; thrust his hand into LZ; to the door and
to 5; across to 7 and up the wire to X. The time for the above described
behavior was four minutes.
He then continued as follows: perched at X; to the floor; to the door and
chewed the edges; up to X and perched; to the floor; thrust hand into L;
up to X, perched and played with 7; to 1; back to 7 and to the floor; to 6
and looked at it; around to 1 and looked; on around to 7 and up to X; to the
floor; to 5; up to the top of the cage and examined the hole in the top;
to the floor; to 4 and to 7; up to X; to the floor, the door, and back to
X; pulled 7 up to him; about the wire front; to the floor and about the floor
to 35k, which he took in his hand; up to XY; to the floor; to the door and car-
ried 6k up to X; to the floor and to 2k; carried 2k in his hand up to X
and looked it over; then to the floor and around the cage to 5, 4, 3, and 2
in succession. He gave a jerk at 2 and dropped it.
Second trial, August 15. No. 13 was active as on the previous day, but
spent more time in looking and less in running about. He first ran up and
down the wire several times; then he went to L and looked in. His later
movements were as follows: up the wire; to the floor; to the door and bit
at the edges; to LZ and looked; up the wire to the brace and back to the
floor; to the corner post at 5k and bit the post; up the wire and bit at it;
down to the floor and again up the wire on the front of the cage; perched at
X for some time and then went to the floor and bit 7k; carried 1k up to X
and worked with it; bit the knob and the end of the string; pulled 7% up to
X and chewed it; then went to the floor and walked about; carried 1k up
the side of the cage; after some time returned to the floor, bit at 5k; carried
2k up the wire to X and farther up the wire.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 427
In none of his movements did he display the same eagerness and expectation
as in the previous trial.
Third trial, August 17. On this day No. 18 was even less active than on
the second day. He went up the wire to the brace and returned to the floor,
going to the door, pushing on it and passing around to L. He then carried
2k up to X and bit at the string, dropping it almost immediately. Then he
climbed the wire, but returned to XY, where he perched and remained for
some time looking about the cage. Later he went to the floor and examined
all around the edge of the floor, but soon returned to Y, where he remained
for some time again. Twice later he climbed the wire to the top, but spent
all the rest of his time at Y, looking about the inside of the cage and out
through the wire.
Fourth trial, August 18. The behavior of No. 18 was about the same as
in the preceding trial; he climbed to X and returned to the floor; he touched
dk and 4k; then he carried 2k up to Y and bit at the string, dropping it after
a moment. For several minutes he sat at Y. Then he drew 7k up to him
and worked at it for some time. At first he worked directly at the knot and
made some progress toward untying it. Then, as if discouraged, he began
biting and pulling the protruding end of the string. At the end of several
minutes’ continuous work he dropped 7k and went to the floor, tried to climb
the post at 5 and passed on to 2k, which he carried up to X, where he
chewed at the knot in the string. After a moment he let it drop and swing
back to its place. Two minutes later he went to the floor and to L, at which
he looked intently. Climbing the wire to XY, he perched for the remaining
few minutes he was in the cage.
Fifth trial, August 19. No. 13’s behavior was about the same as on
the previous day. He climbed up and down the wire several times and
examined around the edge of the floor. Carrying 2k up to X, he bit at the
knot once and dropped it. Then he played up and down the wire, and going
to the door tried to open it, afterwards carrying 6k up to X, biting it and
dropping it when he climbed higher up the wire. He climbed to the upper
part of the wire and chewed at the edges of the cage frame, but quit when
spoken to. Again he carried 6k up the side and end of the cage, dropped it,
and settled at X for several minutes. Later he went to the floor, to L,
to the door and carried 6h up to X. He dropped it at once and remained
quiet. Once again he went to the floor and carried 2k up to X, where he
chewed the string and licked the knob.
Imitation tests.—No. 13 imitating No. 5.—F¥irst test. No. 18 was put into
the observation-box and the box was placed on the floor of the experiment
cage exactly in front of L. This position enabled No. 13 to see all the move-
ments of No. 5 in getting food. No. 5 was free in the cage. The two animals
had never been together before and No. 5 was much frightened. Instead of
working at getting food she crouched in the corners of the cage and occa-
sionally dashed at No. 13 as if to frighten him. Once No. 5 ran up the wire
end and leaning over to 2¢ pulled it with her teeth. No. 13 did not see the
pull, but he saw No. 5 leaning over to the place. He became demonstrative,
and No. 5 did nothing but crouch for several minutes. The observation-box
428 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
was then moved farther away from L, and No. 5 went to Z and got food.
No. 13 saw her get it. He was very impatient and tried repeatedly to get
out of the box, working at the door and shaking the box vigorously. No. 5
again waited and after some time went cautiously to 2k; she took it in her
hand, but did not pull with sufficient strength to drop the food. No. 18 saw
her do this. For some time No. 5 refused to work on the floor, but she
attempted to get to 2f several times. This she was prevented from doing.
Finally she became accustomed to the presence of No. 18 and moved about the
floor freely. She then became very eager to get food. Within a few minutes
she had operated the mechanism seven times. The record for No. 18 was
as follows:
Performance 1. No. 13 saw well.
Pp. 2, P. 5, and P. 6. No. 13 did not see.
P. 3, P. 4, and P. 7. No. 13 saw and was eager to get out of his box.
If we count the times No. 5 pulled the string, but did not get food, No. 15
saw the performance five times, four of which he saw entire and one in part.
No. 5 was now removed from the cage and No. 13 was released. At once he
climbed the end of the cage to 2¢ and taking it in his teeth, he pulled it
several times. Then he went to the floor and walked about; after some time
he went to L and got the food that had dropped when he pulled 2¢. When the
food had been eaten he climbed to 2¢ and pulled the string with his teeth.
The dropping of the food made a noise, but No. 18 did not notice it. After
several more pulls he went down to XY and sat there for a short time. Then
he went to the floor and walked about, later going to L and discovering the
food. Stowing it in his cheeks he went up to X and ate it. When it was
gone he wanted to go up to 2¢ again, but was not allowed to do so. He then
perched at Y, and looked about for some time. Going to the floor, he stopped
at LZ, looked in, took hold of 2k, dropped it, looked at LZ again and walked
away. He climbed to XY, and returned to the floor after a little while. He
took 2k in his hands, dropped it and looked into L. Then he carried 2k up
to X and played with it.
Second test. The conditions were the same as before. No. 5 was not so
frightened and worked at once. The record of No. 13 was:
Performance 1. No. 13 saw very well.
PAP ee eG NO» osGldanounsee:
P. 3 and P. 4. No. 13 saw well.
P. 7 and P. 8. No. 13 saw No. 5 get food, but did not see the pull.
P. 9. No. 13 saw, but did not seem attentive.
Of the nine times that No. 5 got food No. 13 saw the whole performance
four times and in part twice. No. 5 was then removed and No. 15 was
released. At once he went to L and got a grain of sunflower seed that
No. 5 had left, and carrying it up to Y, ate it. He then wanted to go to 2t,
but was not allowed to do so. He went down to the floor and to L, merely
looked at it and passed on to the door. He returned to Z at once. Searching
about he found another seed, which he carried up to X and ate. When the
food was gone he attempted to go up to 2¢, but was prevented. He went to
the floor and walked about, going to LZ twice. Once he looked at 2k, took
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 429
it in his hand, but did not pull. After looking at it a moment he carried it
up to XY, where he bit at it and dropped it. Then he went to the floor, walked
about, and climbed back up to Y, where he remained during the remainder of
the time.
Third test. This test was made immediately after the previous one and
the conditions were the same. The record of No. 13 was:
Performance 1 to P. 5. No. 18 saw the whole performance and was very say-
age in his demonstrations toward No. 5, jumping at the side of the cage with’
wide-open mouth.
Only twice did No. 18 turn his head away from No. 5 and then only for a
moment each time.
No. 5 was now taken out and No. 13 was released. He was very slow of
movement walking about the floor. Twice he went to L. and then climbed
the wire to X, where he perched for a little while. Going to the floor, he
passed the door and thence to L, looking into the hole several times. In one
hand he took 3k and in the other he took 2k, but did not pull at either.
Dropping both he climbed the end of the cage, but returned at once to the
floor. Stopping at L, he clawed the opening with his hand and then climbed
the wire to the brace. Going to the floor he tried the door where he had
entered the cage and went to L, returning again to the door.
For several minutes he worked at the door trying to open it. Once he
stopped to turn about and look in at ZL, but renewed his efforts at the door
immediately. Giving up opening the door, he went to L, took 3k in his
hands, dropped it and started to carry 2h up the wire, but dropped it;
clinbed to X and perched, playing with 7 and 7k.
Fourth test. Conditions were the same as in the previous test. The
record of No. 18 was as follows:
Performance 1. No. 18 saw plainly.
P.2. No. 13 did not see and did not seem to be interested as on the day
before.
P. 3. and P. 4. No. 13 saw.
P.5. No. 13 saw very well.
P.6 and P.7. No. 18 did not see.
When No. 18 was released he at once climbed to XY, returning to the floor
immediately. Going to LZ he looked in and put his hand into the opening.
Passing up by YX, he tried to get up to 2k, but was not allowed to do so. He
returned to the floor and walked about; glimbed to Y again; and, returning
to the floor, he went to 1 and looked in. He then climbed to XY and up and
down the wire end of the cage. Once again he went to Z and put his hand
into the opening.
Fifth test. No. 5 and No. 13 were put into the cage together this time. ~
Performance 1. No. 13 was at X when No. 5 pulled the string the first
time; he saw her pull and saw her get food. Climbing down he got the
food which No. 5 had not yet eaten. He then became very threatening and
No. 5 was frightened.
P.2. No. 18 saw again from X and got the food as before. No. 5 was
still afraid of No. 13, who was threatening. When No. 13 had eaten the
430 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
food he did not climb the cage as before, but kept near Z. Only once did
he go up, and then to chase No. 5.
». 3. While No. 18 was at the brace after chasing No. 5 down No. 5 pulled
the string. No. 13 saw this and after a moment he went to Z and got the
food. From this on he came to the floor whenever he saw No. 5 near L.
In her turn No. 5 assumed a threatening attitude toward No. 153.
P.4. No. 18 saw perfectly from the brace and came slowly down and got
the food. No. 5 was not inclined to eat the seeds, having an appetite only
for grapes.
P.5. No. 18 saw while on the floor. No. 5 got the grapes and No. 138 got
the seeds.
P.6. No. 5 pulled the string while No. 13 was climbing the wire. He
jumped to the floor and rushed to L; No. 5 fled up the wire.
P.7. No. 5 pulled the string when No. 18 was eighteen inches away. He
rushed to Z and got the grape. A moment later when No. 5 went near the
opening, No. 18 rushed to the place and kept such a close watch that for
some time No. 5 could not get near 2h.
P.Sto P.10. No. 18 saw from XY and drove No. 5 away before she could
get the food.
P.11. No. 5 got the grape and No. 13 got the seeds and went up to X to eat
them.
No. 5 was now removed. No. 13 finished eating the seeds he had gotten
and then went to the floor, to L, and back up to XY. He spent almost the
entire ten minutes at Y. Near the end of the time he went to 1 and examined
it carefully. Then he looked up at knobs 2k and 3k, put his hand on 2k,
took it off, and looked back at ZL. He then climbed to XY, returned to L, and
went back to YX.
Sixth test. No. 13 and No. 5 were put into the cage together again. No.
5 was afraid of No. 18 and kept away from him.
Performance 1. No. 5 pulled the string and got the food. No. 18 saw from
the wire near the top of the end of the cage. Coming quickly to the floor,
he searched L vigorously.
P.2. No. 5 pulled the string. No. 18 saw plainly and went to Ll. He tried
to get food, but No. 5 had taken it.
.5. No. 18 saw while on the floor near L, and going to the place searched
a long time for food. Twice he put his hand on 2k.
P.4. No. 18 kept near No. 5 at LZ, and when she pulled the string she had
to reach her arm over the head of No. 13. His whole attention was on her
movements and he saw perfectly.
P.5. No. 13 was beside No. 5 at LZ and saw perfectly. He got the grape
and frightened No. 5 away.
P.6. No. 18 saw perfectly, got the food and sat by ZL, so No. 5 did not
return. Once he put his left hand on 2k and straightened out his arm as
if to pull, but he did not exert much force on the string. Immediately he
thrust his other hand into LZ. Again he took 2k in his left hand, straight-
ened his arm as before, immediately afterward thrusting his right hand
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 431
into Z. A third time he put his left hand on 2k, straightened his arm and
followed this action by thrusting his right hand into LZ as before. He then
went away from L.
P.7 to P.10. No. 18 watched No. 5 carefully and drove her away from
the food, which he ate. He then went up to X and watched No. 5. When
she went near 2k he dashed for L.
No. 5 was now removed and No. 13 was left alone in the cage. Not all
the food that No. 5 had brought down had been eaten, and No. 13 con-
tinued eating, going to L to get the seeds and climbing to X to eat them.
When he could find no more food he sat at L and scratched the edge of
the opening with his hand. Then he grabbed 2k and pounded it against
the board; taking 3k in his right hand and 2% in his left, he pounded them
together; afterward he did the same with 2k and ijk. He then went up to X
and perched for a moment, but almost immediately went to the floor and to L.
Thrusting his hand in he searched for food and then looked into the opening
intently. Looking up, he took hold of 2k with his left hand and pounded
the board with it vigorously, then bit it and dropped its Taking 2k in his
hands he went up to Y, dropping the string as soon as he was settled on the
brace. His eyes turned at once to ZL and he went down to it and searched for
food; he picked up 2h in both hands and looked at it carefully; then he
pounded the board with it. Dropping it he went up to XY, returning at once to
L; he grabbed 2k in his hand, put it gently against 7k and dropped both of
them; he returned to Y, and, coming down to L, he did the same thing over
with 2k and ik. He went up to X and tried to go up to 2t, but was pre-
vented. He then perched at Y, looking at L for one minute. He was intent
on the getting of food at L, but he seemed puzzled. After looking intently at L
and the strings he went to the floor and tol, stopping to sit down and look
the string and opening all over. Then he again went up to X.
Again No. 15 left his place at Y and went to the door, pushing on it in an
effort to get out. Being unable to get out, he turned away from the door to
L and sat down in front of it. Quite slowly he looked it all over and, in the
same deliberate manner he looked up to 2k, took hold of it with his left hand
and gave a steady and vigorous pull. The food dropped to the bottom of
the chute and his right hand shot into the opening and pulled it out. The
‘food was soon eaten and No. 13 immediately pulled the string again with
his left hand, getting the food in the same way as before. Without once leay-
ing his place, he pulled the string six times, eating the food between the
pulls. While eating the food the third time, he put his hand up to 2k
several times, but he did not pull hard enough to get the food. When his
food was gone, however, he pulled the string with a jerk and the food
came. Repeatedly he dallied with the string in this manner while eating the
food, but he never failed to give a vigorous pull when the food was gone.
For fifteen minutes he sat before L, getting food repeatedly. He pulled the
string fourteen times in addition to the ones already mentioned, a total of
twenty times in all. The time from the removal of No. 5 until No. 18 got
food the first time was twelve minutes.
432 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
TABLE 33.
No. 13 Invrratine No. 5.
Number of times | Number of times
Date. No. 5 performed No. 13 saw the | Number of times Result. Time in
the act. entire performance No. 13 saw in part. minutes.
Aug. 25 7 4 1 F 10
PNW, P35) 5 3 boc 9 4 2 F 10
Aug 25 meee 5 5 F 10
ANIC 26) e er 7 4 F 10
J NUE PAD eae 11 9 F 10
PN Pls cack 10 10 Ss 12
Total 49 36 3 S 62
Summary of the Results of the String Experiment.
After No. 15 had failed to solve the problem in his preliminary
trials, he was allowed to see No. 5 pull the string. During the first
tests he was confined in the observation-box. After four tests he
still failed, when left alone in the cage. He was then put into the
experiment cage with No. 5. The two animals were strange to each
other, and No. 13, being the larger, was inclined to follow No. 5
about the cage, punishing her as opportunity offered. Because of
this, he was usually near No. 5, when she pulled the string, and
often frightened her away before she could get the food. After she
had been removed, No. 13, repeatedly searched the food opening,
and worked alternately with the three strings nearest the food open-
ing. He seemed to have associated the strings with the getting of
food.
When No. 5 was put back into the cage, No. 13, was more atten-
tive than formerly. After No. 5 had been removed, No. 13, worked
more continuously at L and at the strings. He now singled out
string 2 from the others. He grabbed the knob at the end of the
string, in his hands; he pounded it against the board, carried it up
the wire, and pounded it against the knobs attached to the other
strings. Frequently, during this behavior he dropped the string and
searched L for food. He had advanced one step in his learning. It
was not strings that were associated with the getting of food, but it
was a particular string.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 433
The only possible explanation for this centering of attention ou
a particular string, was that No. 13 was imitating the act of No. 5.
By repeated and varied effort, No. 13 finally repeated in exact detail
the behavior he had witnessed.
TABLE 34.
RESULTS OF THE STRING HXPERIMENT,
Its
Number of animals used in imitation tests. 2.5.02 6.3. c ses sees eens orn
Cases! Of: Successfull simitations..0% Secs vied ocloaa pe cas heels ae tee enor Sefeoul
CasesnompartiallyesiuCCeSShul smi taltON Sprcueterte nouns enevotoh omen tenedeisteneletetvietc aco
ele
Cases of imitation when the imitator was confined during the activity of
(HaVEXSaI Ne ODES NI clot AeA ee ee eee APRA eerie A ecm icntnG choo. bic.0. o-oo 0.
Cases of imitation when the two animals were together in the cage........ 1
NOE
Cases OfeimMmMediateiMTEAGL OMe. care sins cool eye sien eieokeelerene Fd ile. Saysenantens ers coomeo Al
CASESHO fe SEA MIA MIM AGLOME «aire crs sus es) costes elesioiltevercaciiete e olene iva atereten iy eeu 1
EV
Cases of imitation in which the imitating animal did not himself experi-
encerthe resultof the: act before) PeLLOLrmine TU. rec mcrae eit el sileraeteerereele )
Cases of imitation in which the imitating animal did experience the result
OlsthesachHeroresperko mmm Gl Gere teeters ciels eier hele eeeveneih oh raenen Neer eer tions al
V. Generar SuMMARY OF RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS.
Cases of Imitation.
(a) With Respect to the Several Hxperiments.—The seven ex
periments (Chute Experiments A and B are counted as one) to
which the several animals were subjected, yielded a total of sixteen
cases of successful imitation, three of which were immediate, and
five cases of partially successful imitation. No one of the experi-
ments failed to yield at least one case. Four of the experiments
yielded imitation, successful or partially successful, for every animal
given the full series of tests (100). The other three gave a total
of five failures.
434 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
In tabular form this appears as follows:
CASES OF
CASES OF FAILURE TO
IMITATION. IMITATE.
Chute Experiment A and B.......... 5 2
Rope: Raperinient 4 etree eee )
Paper Haxpertment, 26 2.55% tc. <= es 3 )
Sereen Hixperimiemtra.: eau: soe oe ee aban: 2
Pine siperindterit mete aa s e ee 2 0
Bitton Bexperitve nt: eyegs ecm ss ence 3 i
String Experiment ........ Soar ee Bes’ 0
oma eto er ae ears 21 5
(b) With Respect to the Individual Animals.—Of the eleven
animals used, all but two exhibited imitative behavior. These two
were given the full series of imitation tests and are recorded as
absolute failures. Of the nine animals which exhibited imitative
behavior, seven were successful in each experiment in which they
were used. No. 3 succeeded twice and failed twice; No. 6 sue-
ceeded four times and failed once. No. 5 made the best record,
solving three of the problems alone or with slight help from the
experimenter and learning all the others (four) by imitation. The
record of No. 2 is almost the same, but he required more aid from
the experimenter in learning one of the tricks. No. 4 learned two
tricks alone, failed on two, and learned three by imitation. No. 9,
No. 10, and No. 11, each had one opportunity to manifest imitative
behavior, and no one of them failed to do it. No. 13 had two oppor-
tunities and imitated in both cases.
On the basis of their ability to learn by imitation the animals
may be arranged in three classes.
The first includes those animals which did not manifest a failure.
Here would come No. 2, No. 4, No. 5, No. 9, No. 10, No. 11 and
No. 13.
In the second group are the animals which succeeded in some
tests and failed in others. Here are No. 3 and No. 6.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monke YS. 435
The third group contains those animals which failed to manifest
imitative behavior. Here are No. 1 and No. 8.
The accompanying table exhibits the records of the individual
animals.
TABLE 35.
Recorp oF InpIvipuAL ANIMALS.
F | No. of experi-
N | No. of experi- ments in which OES Gee Cases of failure
umber. | ments learned imitation tests | Cases of imitation. to imitate.
independently. were given. |
INO Alene see ae 0 i! | 0 1
No.) 22: 2 3 3 0
NO, Bee il 4 | 2 2
No. 4.. 2 3 3 | 0
NOs 5 3 4 | 4 } 0
No. 6.. 1 5) | 4 1
IN@s oes 1 1 0 1
INO; Qe 0 1 1 0
WOO ooae tate ol 0) 1 1 | 0
Noll 2 esis 2 1 | 1 | 0
INO StS ae el 2, 2 | 2 0
(c.) With Respect to the Several Species—The number of cases
of imitation per species is of interest. The results show that the
tendency to learn by imitation is not confined to any one species or
genus among those studied. The number of animals used is too
small and the variation in the number of experiments to which the
several animals were subjected is too great for these results to
have any significance in showing the relative imitative ability of
the various species.
Cebusd(6 specimens) arte osc, 3. a ween tae Ree or aly
Cebus lunatus (2 specimens)................. {¢
Cebus fatuellus (1 specimem) ...,)......5...% 3
Cebus capucinus (1 specimen).............. yet
Cebus flavus (ijspecimen).. on eee eee ei
Cebus hypoleucus (1 specimen).............. 2
Mivcneus: ((Sespecwmens’) ts: J s.8 5 chon eee any We ae 4
Macacus rhesus (2 specimens)............... 2
Macacus cynomologus (1 specimen)....... Beets oD
Of the two animals which failed one was a Cebus lunatus and
the other was a Cebus hypoleucus.
436 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
TABLE 56.
THE RESULTS OF THE SEVEN EXPERIMENTS.
if
Number of animals: used: in! TMTrabion TeSES se om eet ote le eerie enero *26
Cases of Successtul imitations ereterere aie pete te a oie ne rete re eto een= 5 okra aangerers - 16
Gases) of partially Sucecesshinl) immita tm deer eraclotte siete) eretelet tele teustetekel= per 5
CASES Of fallure sto TMA. ee eto ieee eer ane ence ar cleaner 5
ine
Cases of imitation when the imitator was confined during the activity of
the. dMItAtees. Sas haw ree lee eee er emeele aye eRe Sie of otehe ete oeeaeo eect n eet 8
Cases of imitation when the two animals were together in the cage........ 18
alike
@ases obsmmediate imitatlones see an cure eee eet eee tele ete teed ele ot 5
Cases Of eradualy imMiaWOne ces race einer ened eter are ahaa tod Sooo ebio. 16
LV.
Cases of imitation in which the imitating animal did not himself experi-
ence the result of the act before performing it................+eeee eee ant!
Cases of imitation in which the imitating animal did experience the result
of the ack before: perrormiimne Ws. ose ete «lene orci eletat stele oie wh aPa “lobe telah ca 10
V. ;
Cases of imitation where the result of the act was obtained at the place
where “the: acto was, DELLOTIMICG Sse eel ooo alle claveray tebe) tel arotsl otal stot ther 16
Cases of imitation in which the act was performed at one place and the |
result was optamed) at anopiers place se. pee teteke oislste eras liek fete ienat Pele tet -elle =
*Counting each animal once for each experiment in which it was used.
2. Features of Imitative Behavior.
(a) Relation Between Animals.—It is significant to note that
imitation did not always occur between animals thoroughly accus-
tomed to each other. It might be supposed that congeniality be-
tween animals was a good condition for imitation, but that this is
not necessarily so the results of my experiments seem to indicate.
As I shall show later, familiarity tends to lessen attention, to make
each animal follow its own tendencies. Strangeness and a certain
amount of pugnacity seem effective in arousing attention, which
is the first condition for imitation. In the String Experiment No.
5 was a total stranger to No. 13 and the latter was highly attentive
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 437
to her every movement. The same is true of No. 2 and No. 4, of
No. 4 and No. 11 and of No. 4 and No. 13 in the chute experiment.
The cases of imitation between animals wholly congenial are less
than one-half of the cases recorded.
(6) Levels of Imitative Behavior—Monkeys react to the pres-
ence of one another in various ways. At least four levels of reaction
are well defined. The first of these is characterized by the simple
arrest of attention. One animal walks across the floor of the cage
or climbs a pole, and another animal looks in its direction. That
monkeys manifest this sort of reaction requires no extended experi-
mentation to prove. Every moving object, and much more, every
moving monkey catches their attention. In my investigation the
cases where animals failed to respond in this way may be grouped
into two classes. The first group has to do with animals which,
through being caged together, had become thoroughly aceustomed
to each other’s behavior. No. 6, who had lived in a cage with No. 4,
often seemed unaffected by her conduct when he was put into the
experiment cage with her. He would go about the cage hunting food
and pay no attention to the actions of No. 4 who might be getting
food at the time. If, however, under the same circumstances, No. 2,
a strange animal, was substituted for No. 4, No. 6 would become
alert and apparently see everything No. 2 did. There were other
cases of the same sort.
The other group of cases are those in which one animal had
whipped another. The whipped animal usually attended to his
enemy only to avoid him. When the latter’s attention was directed
toward some object in a distant part of the cage, the vanquished
animal went about hunting food for himself and did not see what
the other animal did. It was, of course, quite otherwise with the
bully. He was usually inclined to watch his victim, unless some-
thing more interesting presented itself.
These cases in which the attention of a monkey was not attracted
by the act of another monkey seem explainable by the circumstances
under which they occurred. They serve, therefore, to emphasize
more strongly the point that monkeys do tend to give attention to
the acts of one another. Since such attention is the invariable ante-
438 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
cedent of any behavior that may be called imitative it is important
to note that it exists.
A level of social response more advanced than mere looking is
following. Tere again, it requires but little observation of monkeys
to show that the tendency to follow is very strong, especially among
the Cebus monkeys.
More complicated than mere looking or following is behavior of
this sort: One animal performs an act, gets food in a given locality
and goes away. Another animal which observes this behavior goes,
immediately after, to that locality, as if to get food. What the
second animal does in that locality seems at this level of behavior
to have no relation to the behavior of the first animal. There were
numerous instances of this sort of behavior among the animals
which I have studied. In the Sereen Experiment, in particular,
there were clear cases. No, 5 repeatedly went to the corner of the
cage where No. 4 had gotten food by lifting the screen. The same
was true of No. 2, but in neither of these cases did the imitating
animal repeat the behavior of No. 4 with sufficient definiteness to
succeed. In Chute Experiment B, No. 11’s attention was directed
to the chute but not to the end of it. When we take account of
the fact that. No. 5, No. 2, and No. 11, in the instances noted,
changed their behavior either in form or in strength from what it
had previously been, it is fair to speak of their behavior as imitation.
This is the simplest form of behavior to which I have applied the
term in this paper. In such cases I have spoken of partially suc-
cessful imitation.
-More clearly entitled to be called imitation is that behavior in
which the animal responds to an imitatee, not only by going to a
definite locality, but by attacking a particular object. In his imita-
tion test in Chute Experiment B, No. 13 went at once to the end
of the chute, thrust his hand up the inside, grasped the string, and
pulled. The same was true of No. 4, and of No. 6 in the same
experiment, of No. 6 in the Rope Experiment and of No. 4 in the
Button Experiment. In these cases, attention was centered on a
definite object. This investigation presents a number of other cases
of similar behavior. It was not always true that when a monkey
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 439
attacked the right object he repeated the movement of the imitatee
in detail. The impulse seemed to be to do something to the object,
and the imitating animal used his hands and teeth interchangeably.
As a result the behavior of the imitator was often ill adapted to
secure the profitable result. Repetition of the act usually refined
such behavior until it was correct.
The most perfect type of imitation is exact repetition in detail of
the act of the imitatee. The case of No. 13 in the Chute Experiment
already cited is an example. So also is the behavior of No. 3 in
the Button Experiment, and of No. 6 in the Rope Experiment.
The investigation furnishes a number of other cases which are
approximately as good.
(c) The Stimulus to Imitative Behavior.—Some of the animals
which I have studied learned to manipulate mechanisms unaided.
No. 2 did this with the chute, No. 4 did it with the screen, and a
number of the monkeys learned to get food by tearing the paper.
In the case of the Paper Experiment and in the case of No. 2 in
the Chute Experiment, the stimulus was the mechanism itself.
That the mechanism was not a sufficient stimulus in many eases is
evident from the large number of failures to learn unaided which
the investigation furnishes.
In the Chute Experiments eight different animals were given the
preliminary trials and of these six showed no interest in the’ end
of the chute, most of them not even going to it. This, of course,
does not prove that they might not have learned how to get food
‘if the trials had been indefinitely prolonged, nor is it necessary to
prove this latter thesis in order to interpret the behavior of the
monkeys as imitation. What these preliminary tests do establish is
the improbability that a sudden change of behavior should occur in
the sixth trial with 70% of the animals used. For the stimulus to
this sudden change we must look to something other than ithe
mechanism itself.
It may not be out of place at this point, to say a word in reply
to a criticism often made upon the use of animals kept in a zodlogical
garden. The criticism is, that such animals have had innumerable
pportunities to learn to do acts about which the experimenter can-
440 “‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
not know, and hence he cannot tell what causes his animals to act as
they do. This criticism does not hold against this investigation for
every animal was given abundant opportunity to manifest his
random activities and to exhibit his stock of tricks. That the situ-
ations were unfamiliar is evidenced by the animals’ repeated failures
to learn. That this criticism is less important than it has been made
to seem is evidenced by two facts which come out in this study. First,
of the two animals which made the best records in the investigation,
No. 5 and No. 2, one had been in the garden several years, the
other had never been in the garden until June, 1908, when he was
shipped there from Cambridge. He had been bought from a dealer
and was presumably fresh from the forest. The other fact is that
not one of the Park monkeys learned to work the chute unaided,
whereas No. 2 did.
The additional stimulus in the imitation tests was an animal
working at the mechanism and food coming from the mechanism.
The relative value of these two elements in the imitation-stimulus,
this investigation does not show. That in certain cases the presence
of the animal was necessary, there is sufficient evidence. The be-
havior of No. 6 in the Screen Experiment is a case in point. No. 6
had seen the screen lifted in the Paper Experiment. Immediately
thereafter, he had torn the paper and obtained food. He had done
this repeatedly and thus had learned that there was food behind
the screen. Yet throughout his entire preliminary trials he failed
to lift the sereen. It was only after he had seen No. 4 get food by
lifting the sereen that he did the act himself.
The case of No. 5 in the Button Experiment illustrates the same
thing. She had had a great deal of experience with the slide door.
Over and over she had served as the imitatee in the Plug Experi-
ment and had eaten more than a dozen bananas which she had
gotten after opening the door. Yet she was helpless to get the
food when the door was opened by the button. She learned to push
the button by watching No. 2 push it.
On the other hand, there is evidence to show that in certain cases
the behavior of the animal unaccompanied by any profitable result
is not sufficient to produce imitation. In general, the monkeys did
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 441
not display much tendency to repeat the mere acts of other monkeys.
That they did not imitate in this way may have been due to the
conditions of the experiments. Where opportunity was given for
imitation, food was given as a reward. It often happened that when
the attention of the imitator was only slight it would be greatly
accentuated when the imitatee began to get food. No. 10 and No.
11 were kept in the same cage. No. 10 whipped No. 11 and treated
him with indifference. Yet when she saw him get food in the
Paper Experiment, she at once showed an accentuation of the objec-
tive marks of attention. In the Rope Experiment, No. 2 was in-
different to the behavier of No. 3 until he saw No. 8 with food
and his attention was not drawn to the food door until he saw No. 3
get food there. His interest in No. 8 steadily inereased until he
got food for himself. The same comment may be made upon the
behavior of No. 8 when watching No. 2 in the Paper Experiment.
In general, No. 4 lorded it over No. 6 and No. 5 when in the living
cages, but she invariably became attentive to them when she saw
them getting food in the experiment cage. .
Thus the facts would indicate that not only the act of the animal,
but also the profitable result of that act was « necessary factor in
producing imitation. By further experimentation I hope to dis-
cover the relative importance of these two elements.
GERTY, Imitation in Monkeys. 443
~
J
Hac
a, trap door; 0,
Wick ale
Old cage (see text, p. 355), Chute Experiment A.
device to hold door shut; c, chute; d, string; e, iron for monkey to grasp.
(Drawn by B. Spencer Greenfield.)
444 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Fic. 2. New cage (see text, p. 351). a, 0, c¢, d, front frame; e, f, g, h,
back frame; i, 7, k, | and m, n, 0, p, end frames; q, brace across front of
cage; «, bolts holding frames together; A, B, C, D, boards covering back
of cage; H, F, G, boards covering end of cage; # and G, door; H, I, J,
boards covering top of cage; Z, floor; S, slide door in large door; h’, door
hinges; ww, wing nuts; X, end of brace where animals frequently perched.
(Drawn by B. Spencer Greenfield.)
IDE. BY
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 445
® «S game” " om
am
New cage showing chute, a, with one side open; 0b. trap door; 6,
‘ing; d, wire spring handle; e, rungs. Page 358.
446 ‘Yournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Vic. 4. No. 2 getting food in Chute Experiment B, characteristic position.
Page 358.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 447
Fic. 5. No. 6 getting food in the Rope Experiment. Page 385.
448 “fournal of Com parative Neurology and Psychology.
ee mo et tn
|
‘
f
a
'
Fic. 6. No. 6 tearing the paper in the Paper Experiment. Page 391.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 449
Fic. 7. No. 4, to the right, pushing up the screen, a, in the Screen Experi-
ment. Page 400.
Aiea
a;
+ + a
ite ears
Fic. 8. No. 5 pulling the plug in the Plug Experiment; a, slide door;
bo, string; ¢, plug. Page 411.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 451
Fic. 9. No. 5 getting food after pulling plug (Fic. 8); a, slide door; b
string; c, plug. Page 412.
>
452 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
it
ar
Bit
a ee
Fig. 10. No. 4 pushing the button, 6, in the Button Experiment; a, slide
door; ¢, string. Page 419.
Haccerty, Imitation in Monkeys. 453
Fig. 11. New cage adjusted for the string experiment; ZL, opening where
food came into the cage; 7, 2, 3, 4. 5. 7, strings; 2t, where string 2 entered
the cage; 2k, the knob at the end of string 2. Page 425.
454 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
|
i
|
|
'
Tic. 12. New cage adjusted for the String Experiment; a, chute; JD,
bottom of chute on a level with opening into the cage; ¢, trap door; d, lever;
2, string 2; f, feeder. Page 426.
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Monkeys.
1711
zon
Haccerty, /[muitat
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t. Page 432.
xXperimen
No. 13 getting food in the String E
EG: a3:
The Journal of
Comparative Neurology and Psychology
VoLumE XIX _
NOVEMBER, 190 NuMBER
>
THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE FOREBRAIN VESICLE
IN VERTEBRATES.?
BY
J. B. JOHNSTON.
University of Minnesota.
WITH FORTY-FIVE FIGURES.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
TiO CULE TT OM ey cnsgers ©. ata eile sok Versio overiaasie. st e).c, eile’ ets ot.stiel' c \eveve tat clei velit fojetecslonsueveyeteverere 458
epee) CSCIITH LV [ATi bye cp encrepe ores ore) soared one. avesroreSrriedacn er sre ene teia Suemtohersto nme rerernesere 462
ME) REV CIOSTOMTC Se Ke ete see. Soenle arate sie cs ves dene ei eted olen sseyeue enero, aie toleel umeeten 462
DP AS elachiamsy 027 see ee bids ecahe, Gk oo coe. af aite ca sly laces Brats toh venAcr nel operates 464
INOteSHOnshneademorpnologye eatin etriecieletcncaerersneten tenets 464
Development, Of; the? LOEW RAT iis secsie 12) siete ors clcleiel ote ehauene 479
a. The optic vesicle and the primitive optic groove 479
bs Lhe tlooriok thevdiencephalomy yet ci-s-tcre ete cists oie 482
Ge RO0k OLmneRdienceplialonancs eee ciclo cie crteiotee errs 487
8. Ganoids and teleosts .......... FIRE OOO BOA DD ORR O OIG KO.Cre 488
AL. INO OMBNTS): A ooadogucodaucooodGocdcudUde GoD” a fata ro joie afore nee 489
aS AVCHELLCS PROMO WIL OS in. cic andes e's crakeyomi titeue wie. fie pene seer esaion ore ewes 495
Gem VET TTT A Steet te otecs icvsre toes ois ares oe tele ch oges Vokes ol aro¥e oted ana kerenctoneperer 495
Neurological studies from the Institute of Anatomy, University of Minne-
sota, No. 6.
THH JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PsSYCHOLOGY.—VOoL. XIX, No. 5.
458 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
I]. DiS@ussiOi: oc stere arose cles e eal era oor eee Ito Der eeh iene ee 504
1.) Dhesanterior end of the head vangdsprainet- eee eee eee 504
2. The homology of the saccus) vasculosus 2244. 4-42 sere eee 5OG
3. Segmentation of the neural tube in front of the cerebellum. 507
4. Boundary between diencephalon and telencephalon ........ 508
5. The. ventricles.and)sthestelag. atcmecusiccctearcisye terion iene none 5138
6. Dorsal and ventral zones in the diencephalon and_ telen-
ols) 0) 0YFH (0) OR peeneen eee ACOA Oiaewta 9 cio cana oma HOO oo cu pas. 516
(eo sLalliumiot thertelencephulomimc seein rei teceieterrene 518
SP Divisions mand enomenclaburen .- eerie erst teint bien reneiew rene 525
Summary, and CONCIUSIOMS® airec cele ote olor eet tele aro) el ol ol ote eee Eee 582
Proposeds LEVaASIOMMOL UME ySINAG eee vele ce elelele etal ele telnet nents aad 533
In all classes of vertebrates the forebrain vesicle of the early
embryo gives rise to two secondary brain segments, the diencephalon
and telencephalon. The morphological features of the diencephalon
are remarkably constant throughout the vertebrate series, although
this segment is the most peculiar and irregular in form. There is
always a membraneous roof, tela chorioidea and one or two epiphyses.
The dorsal border of the lateral wall presents a paired enlargement
known as the ganglion habenule, to which comes from the telen-
cephalon a tract of fibers which often appears as a gross feature—
the stria medullaris. The massive lateral walls bound a third ventricle
which is narrow from side to side. In these lateral walls develop
a considerable number of special centers of which the lateral genic-
ulate bodies are recognizable microscopically in fishes. The ventral
wall of the diencephalon is depressed and variously shaped according
to the degree of development of the olfactory and gustatory organs.
From in front the optic tracts enter through the base and run up
in the lateral walls. Behind the chiasma is found always in the
embryo and usually in the adult (fishes, amphibians, reptiles) a
transverse groove or depression known as the recessus postopticus.
Behind this is a wider depression which in mammals is provided with
thick walls, the tuber cinereum, but in fishes and amphibians is a
broad bilobed structure with thinner walls, coneave within, known
as the lobi inferiores. Between these and continuing backward and
downward from them is a thin walled sac, the saccus vasculosus.
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 459
This forms the neural part of the hypophysis im mammals and pro-
jects more or less directly downward from the tuber cinereum. The
connection of the sac with the tuber cinereum is the infundibulum
and its cavity may be called the infundibular cavity or recess. The
posterior part of the ventral wall forms a second bilobed structure,
the corpora mammillaria.
The telencephalon shows greater changes of form and size in
different vertebrates than any other segment of the brain. At the
same time the essential morphological relations are completely pre-
served throughout the series from cyclostomes to man. It is part
of the purpose of this paper to make this fact more clear and ex-
plicit with regard to certain features of the forebrain, but those
features upon which there are no differences of opinion may first be
sketched. The telencephalon is very deeply bilobed—bifureated—in
front. Each forward prolongation receives an olfactory nerve and
is known as the olfactory bulb. This may be closely applied to the
body of the telencephalon as in cyclostomes and amphibians, or it may
be removed by a longer or shorter distance as in most other classes. In
the latter case there is an obvious olfactory tract. The body of the
telencephalon is always bilobed, the lateral halves being joined by
thinner portions which are usually membraneous or thickened only
by nerve fibers. Only in selachians is there a considerable thicken-
ing of the median part of the roof by gray matter. The ventricle
which continues forward from that of the diencephalon is always
bifureated, each lateral division extending into the olfactory bulb
(except in some adult mammals where it becomes obliterated during
development). A membraneous roof continuous with the tela cho-
rioidea of the third ventricle extends over the whole length of
the telencephalon except the olfactory tracts and bulbs. In all
classes the lateral halves of the telencephalon are connected at the
rostral end by the lamina terminalis, a membrane formed by the
closing of the anterior neuropore of the embryo. This lamina is
always thickened by transverse fibers of two or more systems and
sometimes divided into two bundles, the commissura anterior. At
the lower border of the lamina terminalis is a prominent depression
which lies just in front of the optic chiasma and is therefore called
460 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
the recessus preopticus. In the walls of the lateral ventricles are
found the secondary olfactory centers and the corpora striata. To
these in higher forms are added more complex cortical structures
which in mammals become the predominant part of the telencephalon.
The above mentioned general features of the forebrain are univer-
sally recognized and require no further comment. Other features
remain less well understood or their interpretation is in dispute so
that they present problems for solution. These problems may be
stated here, and will be discussed after the description of certain
features in the embryonic and adult brain which contribute to their
solution.
1. The anterior end of the brain. It is generally recognized that
the lamina terminalis represents the seam of closure of the anterior
neuropore, but the location in the adult brain of the lower border of
the neuropore is placed by different authors at various points between
the anterior commissure and the infundibulum. The determination
of the anterior end of the brain is of fundamental importance for
fixing the segmental order of the parts of the forebrain along the
brain axis. Thus, if the anterior end of the brain is at the infundi-
bulum, the optic portion of the hypothalamus.together with all the
telencephalon would be dorsal structures, while if the anterior end
lies at the preoptic recess the optic part of the hypothalamus must
be considered as belonging to the ventral portion of the brain. In
the latter case the olfactory centers would belong to the first segment,
in the former they would fall behind the optic chiasma around the
dorsal margin.
2. The boundary between the diencephalon and _. telencephalon.
This problem is closely bound up with the first one. Although His
placed the anterior end of the base of the adult brain behind the
infundibulum and included the pars optica hypothalami in the telen-
cephalon, most authors have referred the pars optica to the dien-
cephalon and this is the obvious meaning of the tables of the BNA.
In the roof of the brain of true fishes and amphibians and in the
brains of embryos of most vertebrates occurs a well marked trans-
verse fold of the membraneous roof, the velum transversum. This is
considered as marking the boundary between di- and telencephalon in
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 461
the roof. In cyclostomes this is only slightly marked and has been
clearly described recently by Sterzi. In mammals the velum has
not been recognized hitherto and therefore the boundary line in ques-
tion is wholly uncertain in mammals.
3. The problem of the membraneous roof and its relations to the
massive walls and the nervous pallium. This question naturally
presented itself to the earlier neurologists because of the obvious
great differences between the mammalian or human brain in which
the ventricles were apparently wholly covered by massive nervous
structures and that of lower forms, especially teleostean fishes, in
which a relatively great expanse of membraneous roof covers a broad
ventricle in the telencephalon. A discussion of this problem natur-
ally involves consideration of the next.
4. The problem of the median and lateral ventricles in the telen-
cephalon and the interventricular foramina. Does the telencephalon
possess a median ventricle? One interpretation of the mammalian
brain would assign the whole median ventricle in front of the pos-
terior commissure to the diencephalon (third ventricle). The walls
bounding this ventricle then belong to the diencephalon and the
boundary between di- and telencephalon is assumed to be the inter-
ventricular foramina. * If, however, the pars optica hypothalami and
lamina terminalis belong to the telencephalon, as was held by His,
they must carry with them into the telencephalon the adjacent front
part of the IIId ventricle. In the brain of a fish or even of an amphi-
bian there appears at first sight to be a large median ventricle belong-
ing to the telencephalon and it is more or less diffieult to fix the
location of the foramina leading into the lateral ventricles. In the
teleostean and ganoid brain only the olfactory tracts and bulbs appear
to possess distinct cavities which could be called lateral ventricles
and the whole of the olfactory centers and corpora striata are found
in the lateral walls of the median ventricle. There is, therefore,
need to determine whether a part of the median ventricle belongs
to the telencephalon and to fix for the different classes of vertebrates
the homologue of the interventricular foramina.
5. Subdivision of the di- and telencephalon with reference to the
longitudinal zones laid down by His in other segments of the brain.
462 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
The determination of the anterior end of the brain will fix the extent
of the floor plate and roof plate of His and will show the point at
which the prolongation of the suleus limitans must end. In the
midbrain, hindbrain and spinal cord the suleus limitans divides the
lateral walls into dorsal or alar plate and ventral or basal plate. In
the di- and telencephalon this suleus can searcely be distinguished
with certainty, but the fact that zones of widely different functions
are separated by this suleus when present leads one to seek the equiva-
lent of these zones and the position of the sulcus in the di- and telen-
cephalon.
Other problems concerning the internal morphology and genetic
history of the telencephalon—the origin of the pallium in relation
to the primary centers, the evolution of functional localization, ete.,—
will be discussed in the present paper only so far as necessary in
connection with the subject of nomenclature.
I. Descriptive Parr.
In this part will be brought together under each class of vertebrates
the data which bear upon these problems. As will be seen, the new
facts to be brought forward are chiefly embryological (selachians,
amphibians, mammals). The summaries of facts which have been
previously published will be made as brief as possible and the reader
is referred to the original papers for more complete accounts.
1. Cyclostomes.
In cyclostomes is found a completely bilobed telencephalon, almost
as strongly marked as in any class of vertebrates. The reascn for
taking especial account of this fact in the telencephalon is that the
division into symmetrical lateral halves which is present in all parts
of the central nervous system is more pronounced in the telencephalon
and in mammals and man becomes one of the most striking features
of the whole brain. The cause for the decided division of the telen-
cephalon is to be found without doubt in the presence of paired olfac-
tory organs and the importance of the sense of smell. In amphioxus
the front end of the brain is not bilobed because there is no localized
olfactory epithelium. In cyclostomes the olfactory organ is paired
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 463
in the embryo and the mode of development of the mouth, hypophysis
and olfactory pit shows that the paired definite olfactory organs are
older than the circular mouth. These organs have, therefore, exerted
an influence on the brain for a long time previous to the period when
eyclostome characters became permanently fixed, and the result is
the bilobed telencephalon. This is seen in the presence of massive
lateral walls which are connected above, below and in front by rela-
tively thin membranes which are thickened only by transverse fibers
and nowhere contain gray matter. It is seen in the forward projec-
tion of the olfactory bulbs into which the paired olfactory nerves
enter. The olfactory bulbs are sessile ; there is no extended olfactory
tract or peduncle. It is seen further in the lateral extensions of the
ventricle to which attention has been called by Studnicka and the
writer (1906). These are rather wide cavities extending into the
olfactory bulbs and connected with the median ventricle by narrower
openings, the interventricular foramina. Owing to the pushing back-
ward of the telencephalon in cyclostomes the lateral ventricle presents
a posterior prolongation similar to but not homologous with the
posterior horn of the ventricle in mammals. The tela chorioidea of
the IIId ventricle forms in front of the nuclei habenule a broad low
dorsal sac whose roof in some species is depressed by the epiphysial
bodies lying over it. In front of this is a shght transverse fold
(better seen in embryos than in the adult) first described by Sterzi
(1907) which this author homologizes with the velum transversum of
other vertebrates. This velum is continued laterally around the
brain by a constriction (groove) without and a fold (ridge) within
which marks the boundary between the diencephalon and telenceph-
alon. In front of the velum transversum the roof continues for some
distance as a thin membrane, the Jamina supraneuroporica of Sterzi,
and then is thickened by the fibers of the superior olfactory decus-
sation. According to Sterzi, the point corresponding to the neuro-
poric recess of other vertebrates is at the front or lower border of this
decussation.
The conditions in cyclostome embryos (solid nerve cord, solid con-
nection of brain with ectoderm instead of open neuropore, compact-
ness of structure) are not favorable for the study of the anterior
464 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
end of the brain, and the discussions of v. Kupffer, Koltzoff and
others do not seem to the writer to offer anything of value in the
present state of our knowledge. (See note, p. 535.)
It should be noted that the ridge in the brain floor which contains
the optic chiasma and other decussating tracts is especially high and
prominent in cyclostomes and that the pit behind the ridge, recessus
postopticus, is quite as deep and sharply marked as that in front of
the ridge, recessus preopticus (commonly called recessus opticus).
2. Selachians.
Notes on Head Morphology.
In the adult selachian brain the diencephalon presents no peculiar-
ities of especial importance to our problems. The limit between the
Tectum mesencephali
| p De \, __— Cerebellum
Nee
s x > Tabane:
mre _— Tub. acust.
Nucleus habenule,
Velum transversum | fe ~ ee
Epiphysis f c
OI
Paraphysis
Telencephalon i H (
\ ‘A
4 Com. infima
>——-Sac. vase. Lobus visceralis
Rec. neurop. ve Ee
Rec. prop. Lobus inferior
i
Optie chiasma
Fie. 1. The mesial surface of the right half of the brain of Mustelus.
From Johnston, 1906. For the significance of the abbreviations used on all of
the figures, see the list at the end of this article.
diencephalon and telencephalon is clearly marked dorsally by a deep
velum transversum which forms the anterior wall of the dorsal sac
belonging to the diencephalon, and the posterior wall of the para-
physis belonging to the telencephalon (Fig. 1). In front of the para-
physis the membraneous roof is complexly infolded to form the plexus
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 465
chorwoideus of the telencephalon. The anterior limb of the plexus
is attached to the massive nervous wall which overarches the front
part of the median ventricle. In the more primitive selachians such
as Heptanchus and in Chimera the massive roof is smaller and the
membraneous roof extends farther forward. As shown in Fig. 1,
the massive roof is pierced from the dorsocephalic surface by a vas-
eular canal which reaches nearly to the ventricle. This has been
interpreted (Johnston, 1906) as the remnant of a deep groove which
separated the lateral lobes of the telencephalon earlier in the phylo-
Fic. 2. A, an outline of the brain and brain ventricles of Mustelus as
“_-
seen from above. B, a diagram of one side of the fore-brain to show the
primitive relations of the wall and ventricle. From Johnston, 1906.
geny of selachians, and the process by which the present form was
reached is indicated by the accompanying diagram (Fig. 2, B).
That portion of the massive roof which lies behind the vascular
canal is formed by the great growth of the lateral walls and it has
for its basis a fiber-decussation which is comparable in position and
in a part of its fiber components to the superior olfactory decussation
of Petromyzon. In selachians, then, owing to the enormous devel-
opment of the olfactory centers, that part of the membraneous roof of
the telencephalon which contains fibers in cyclostomes is invaded by
gray matter as well.
466 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
The form of the ventricle is shown in Fig. 2, and it is necessary
only to point out that quite distinct lateral ventricles are present.
that they extend into the olfactory bulbs and that they are connected
with the median ventricle by the interventricular foramina. A tri-
angular prolongation of the median ventricle projects a short distance
in front of the interventricular foramina to meet the vascular canal
mentioned above. This is the recessus neuroporicus.
The solution of the problems of the anterior end of the brain and
of the boundary between diencephalon and telencephalon requires the
study of the development. Although all the essential facts were first
acquired from the study of amphibian embryos (see below), it was
thought best to extend the study to other vertebrates, and as the sela-
chians present the most primitive conditions the description of certain
important processes hitherto overlooked will be given first as they
are seen in embryos of Squalus acanthias.
For the material for this study IT am deeply indebted to Dr. H. V.
Neal. When I wrote to Dr. Neal of my findings in Amblystoma
and of the desirability of a control study upon selachian embryos
he generously sent me from his magnificent collection of mounted
preparations of Squalus embryos, the specimens representing the
stages from B to M of Balfour’s notation. These preparations in-
clude whole mounts and sections in all three planes prepared by vari-
ous stains. These are the preparations upon which was based Neal’s
very valuable paper of 1898 on the segmentation of the nervous
system. My attention has been directed chiefly to stages from F (15
somites) to K and M. It has been a great pleasure to verify the clear
and accurate descriptions given by Neal of these embryos. I have
studied the brain, cranial ganglia, the mesectoderm derived from the
neural crest, the mesodermic somites, the branchial clefts and arches,
and have given especial care to the region about the forebrain and the
premandibular and anterior head cavities. I have made plate recon-
structions from frontal and sagittal sections of several stages and have
had numerous camera drawings made to illustrate points not shown
in the models.
I wish to comment briefly, on the basis of these preparations, upon
certain problems that have been under discussion in past years which
have some bearing on the special problems being considered here.
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 467
Upon the question of the value of the pre-otic “head cavities”
as dorsal somites, Neal’s statements seem to me very careful and con-
servative. With regard to the differentiation of sclerotome and
myotome, the preparations seem to me to warrant a positive state-
ment that a sclerotome is clearly differentiated in the second or
mandibular somite as well as in the third. I am in perfect agree-
ment with Neal’s interpretation of the preotic head cavities, including
the anterior cavity of Platt as dorsal somites.
Upon the question of a lost branchiomere between the mandibular
and hyoid arches, which I have discussed elsewhere (1905) I have
been surprised to find so little evidence in the preparations of Squalus.
While the third somite lies over the hyomandibular cleft and is
somewhat constricted or dumb-bell shaped, its two parts enclose a
single cavity and the somite extends over the hyoid arch with the
mesodermie core of which it is connected. The fourth somite is
smaller than the third and shows that it is rudimentary. While it
reaches forward to the hyoid arch, it is connected with the mesoderm
of the first branchial arch. The fifth somite has practically corre-
sponding relations to the second branchial cleft and the following
(second) branchial arch. The sixth somite is clearly connected with
the third branchial arch and the seventh somite with the fourth
branchial arch. These relations, indeed, may be clearly inferred
from Neal’s admirable drawings from cleared specimens, Figs. 15.
16,17. These correspond to the stages from which I have drawn the
conclusions stated above. The posterior ends of somites (2), 3, 4.
and 5 are connected with their respective branchial arches.
I must here make reference to a series of papers on the head prob-
lem coming from Prof. H. E. Ziegler’s laboratory in Jena (Klink-
hardt 1905, Guthke 1906, Ziegler 1908, Brohmer 1909). These
authors discuss the fundamental questions of segmentation and the
relationship of the cranial nerves. The total material on which the
deseriptions and conclusions are based consists of ten selachian em-
bryos including four of Torpedo between the stage I-K and 20 mm. ;
four of Spinax in the stages K, L, M-N, and 7.78 mm.; one of Chlamy-
doselachus in the stage L-M; and one of Acanthias 22 mm. in length.
468 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
One new idea is introduced into the subject of head morphology,
namely that in the mesoderm the two structures in each segment
heretofore known as the somite and the branchial arch together con-
stitute the somite, and the junction of the branchial arch with the
pericardial cavity is to be compared with the junction of the trunk
somite with the peritoneal cavity. This conception is used in support
of the view that mesomerism and branchiomerism coincide. It may
be questioned whether the new conception is not more in need of sup-
port than that for whose support it was called in. The material
which these authors have studied is far from adequate for the study
of the primitive segmentation of the head or the morphology of the
cranial nerves. This is especially noticeable in their statements re-
garding the anterior head cavity, which could not be studied in the
material on which they worked, and the other head somites, whose
development is well advanced in the earliest stage represented in their
material. In determining the first segment of the head no value is
attached to the first two brain vesicles, the eye, the olfactory nerve.
the nervus terminalis, the rudimentary nervus thalamicus, or the
epiphyses. The first segment is that of the premandibular somite
and the ophthalmicus profundus (to which the name Ciliarganglion
is given). This nerve is related to the brain behind the cerebellum
in the embryos studied by Ziegler and his colleagues, but whether
they would include all the brain in front of the cerebellum in the
first or premandibular segment is not stated. Most of the processes
upon which an intelligent judgment regarding the primitive segmenta-
tion of the head can be based have been completed in selachian em-
bryos prior to the earliest stage studied by these authors,
With regard to the mesectoderm derived from the neural crest
which extends down into the mandibular and other visceral arches
from the cranial ganglia, I can fully confirm the statements made by
Neal and illustrated in his Plate 3 (1898). To these statements
one addition requires to be made which is at the same time an addi-
tion to the early history of the anterior head cavity and preoral ento-
derm. The details of the earliest appearance of the anterior head
cavity have not been given by Miss Platt or by Neal, who was con-
cerned chiefly with neural segmentation, and Dohrn’s (1904) treat-
ment of the anterior head cavity is unsatisfactory.
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 469
Hoffmann’s description (1896) is more complete, but he failed
to recognize the source of the mesectoderm beneath the terminal ridge.
What he describes as a median mass between the lower border of the
neuropore and the “infundibulum” connecting the anterior head
Fie. 38. Squalus acanthias, 17 somites, median sagittal section. The noto-
chord is marked by cross lines and the undifferentiated median mass and pre-
oral entoderm by dots.
te ia a * EOI SOY x Re i
Z: ora
: Ver eperee 8 eee
Beescniiaee wae
Fic. 4. Detail of a part of the section drawn in Fig 3. > 100.
cavities with one another is the mesectoderm derived from the termi-
nal part of the neural crest to be described below.
In embryos of 15 somites the notochord is continuous anteriorly
with a thickened mass lying over the anterior end of the archen-
teron and separated from the entoderm, Laterally the mandibular
470 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
somite is connected with both the notochord and the median undiffer-
entiated mass. The archenteron is drawn out anteriorly to a very
slender pointed cavity (Figs. 3, 4, 5) which ends beneath a depres-
sion in the floor of the brain usually called by authors the infundib-
ulum. As this is not the infundibulum I shall for the present refer
to this part of the brain as the “infundibulum,” using quotation
marks. Following a series of transverse sections forward one sees
Fic. 5. Squalus ac., 15 somites, medial view of a model of the right half
of the head. ** part of neural tube which is still open. 25..
RN ee
Wie. 6. Squalus ac., Balfour’s stage D, sagittal section of anterior end.
.
eine
/ \ \
f | ra a |
ie Op.V. | |
|
\ &
: r po ;
bx ane
x isi’ aa OY
\ age ose a &
© en
ae BB
Fic. 7. Squalus ac., 18 somites, frontal section through the premandibular
somite and median mass. ‘The right side of the section is a little further
dorsal than the left and the cavity of the somite shows only on the right.
< 150.
In embryos of 18 somites the cavity of the premandibular somite
(som 1, v. Wijhe) is first seen in the lateral part of the undifferen-
tiated mass above described (Fig. 7). The median part of this mass
maintains the relations just described.
In embryo of 19 somites the mesoderm and preoral entoderm show
no change but a very noteworthy structure has appeared between
472 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
ectoderm and brain, surrounding the anterior end of the preoral
entoderm. Paired sheets or flaps of cells migrating from the ecto-
derm at the lips of the neuropore extend in between the ectoderm and
brain and surround the anterior part of the preoral entoderm on its
under or ectal surface. These sheets of cells resemble in every way
the neural crest in other parts of the embryo and should be con-
sidered as the terminal part of the neural crests.
In embryos of 24 somites the premandibular cavities are some
what larger and especially longer. The bodies of these somites are
ne t
Le bel i fee
Fiag. 8. Squalus ac., 22 somites, frontal section through the terminal neural
crest. > 150.
in contact with the mandibular somite, are still continuous with the
median mass and converge forward and downward like the arms of
a letter V to fuse completely with the median mass. In the lateral
part of the median mass directly forward from the premandibular
somites and behind the “infundibulum” are found the first indica-
tions of the anterior head cavities. Many mitoses appear here,
especially in the front wall of this cavity. The preoral entoderm
continues forward beneath the “infundibulum.” As compared with
earlier stages, before the formation of the anterior cavities the pre-
oral entoderm is very slender and at one point beneath the “infun-
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 473
dibulum” it is completely obliterated. In some embryos it is impos-
sible to distinguish any preoral entoderm beneath the brain in front
of the “infundibulum,” but in others there is no doubt whatever
that a slender rod of cells lying in this position is the remnant of
the anterior part of the preoral entoderm. This rod of cells is sur-
rounded by cells (mesectoderm) derived from the neural crest above
deseribed, which constitute by far the largest part of the cells lying
in this position. This mesectoderm forms a considerable mass of
cells filling a lens-shaped space between brain and ectoderm and
between “infundibulum” and neuropore and also extends as a sheet
Fic. 9. Neal’s Fig. 11 modified by addition of the terminal part of the
neural crest. The figure represents the lateral yiew of a cleared embryo of
Squalus of 24-25 somites and shows the extent of the mesectoderm derived
from the neural crest.
along the sides of the “infundibulum” beneath the optic vesicle.
Fig. 9 is a copy of Neal’s Fig. 11, Pl. 3, of this stage, with the addi-
tion of this mesectoderm.
In one embryo of 26 somites (Fig. 10) I have found the slender
rod of preoral entoderm persisting beneath the “infundibulum,” but
from this time on it is impossible to recognize entoderm in this
position. The “infundibulum” has become depressed until it is in
contact with the ectoderm and at the same time, whether because of
pressure from the “infundibulum” or not, the median part of the
preoral entoderm becomes obliterated while its lateral portions form
474 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
themselves into the walls of the anterior head cavities. The mesen-
chymatous cells beneath the front end of the brain are in over-
whelming proportion of ectodermal (neural crest) origin.
In Dohrn’s beautiful plates illustrating his articles on the man-
dibular and premandibular cavities, this terminal neural crest is
clearly shown. See especially Pl. 9, Figs. 7-12. Dohrn does not
distinguish between premandibular mesoderm and the mesectoderm
of neural crest origin. The latter he calls the anterior part of the
premandibular mesoderm (Prem. 1) after the “infundibulum” has
Fic. 10. Squalus ac., 26 somites, frontal section. inf., the so-called infun-
dibulum.
pressed down to meet the ectoderm. In Fig. 8 the origin of this
from the neuropore is strongly suggested, especially as the spot
marked neurop. is at the wpper border of the lamina terminalis,
some distance dorsal to the extreme point to which the preoral ento-
derm or premandibular mesoderm ever reaches. In Dr, Neal’s
preparations which I have studied the entoderm has a different
tone from the other tissues and there is a decided difference in the
form of the cells and in the size of the nuclei between the preman-
dibular mesoderm and the terminal neural crest mesectoderm.
In embryos of 29 and 30 somites (Figs. 11 and 12) premandibular
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 475
and anterior head cavities are small, separate from each other, but
both connected with the median mass which is crowded behind the
“infundibulum.” The median band connecting the anterior cavities
Fie. 11. Squalus ac., 30 somites, frontal section through premandibular and
anterior head cavities. >< 150.
is small and disappears at this stage. The premandibular somites
retain the connection with the median mass in which cavities appear
in later stages and finally fuse with the cavities of the premandib-
ular somites as fully described by Neal and others. The anterior
476 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
cavities extend forward at the sides of the “infundibular” region in
the position in which they were first described by Miss Platt. Ex-
cept where they are in contact with the premandibular somite the
Fic. 12. Squalus ac., 29 somites, frontal section through the premandibular
and anterior head cavities. These cavities are slightly more advanced in
development than in the 30 somite embryo shown in Fig. 11. 150.
anterior somites are almost completely ensheathed by the mesec-
toderm derived from the region of the neuropore. The mesectoderm
sheet derived from the thalamic nerve rudiment has now come down
behind the eye and met with this which lies beneath the eye. From
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 477
this stage onward Neal’s figures 12, 13, ete., show the distribution
of neural erest mesectoderm almost correctly. The mesectoderm
lying in the region between the optic vesicle and somite 1 should
be continued as a thin sheet between the brain and ectoderm beneath
the neuropore and the origin of all this part from the terminal part
of the neural crest should be taken into account.
Fie. 138. Squalus ac., 39 somites, frontal section through the anterior head
cavities, showing their relation to the premandibular somite (left side) and
the mesectoderm derived from the terminal neural crest. The connection
between n. thalamicus and terminal neural crest shows on the right side.
< 150.
The relations of the anterior head cavities to somite 1 and to the
mesectoderm remain essentially unchanged up to embryos of 50
somites. Figs. 12, 11, 13, 14 show these relations in frontal sec-
tions of embryos with 29, 30 and 39 somites. The brain, mesoderm
and mesectoderm with the cranial ganglia have been modelled in an
embryo with 42 somites and Fig. 15 shows these relations as seen in
the model.
478 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Fic. 14. Section from same series as Fig. 13, passing through the tip of the
anterior head cavity on the left side and in front of this cavity on the right
side. >< 150.
At.m-eCc.
Fic. 15. Squalus ac., 42 somites. Left view of a model of the brain, meso-
derm, ganglia and mesectoderm derived from the neural crest. The auditory
pit with the ectoderm bordering it are also shown. » 50. The boundaries of
the mesoderm are marked in black lines. 3, 4, 5, somites of Van Wijhe’s
series.
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 479
Development of the Forebrain.
a. The Optic Vesicle and the Primitive Optic Groove.—The early
appearance of the optic vesicles on the open neural plate has been
deseribed by Locy (1895), and the writer has elsewhere (1905,
1906, 1909) brought together the evidence that the optic vesicle is
derived from the alar plate of the embryonic neural tube. The
study of its relations for the present purpose begins with embryos
of about 15 somites. The medial surface of the right half of a
model of the head of such an embryo is shown in Fig. 5. The neural
tube has a cephalic flexure and is open at the neuropore and for a
short distance along the dorsal surface. The lateral wall presents
two coneavities, a broad shallow one for the mid-brain and a deeper
one for the forebrain. The depth of this concavity is due chiefly
to the formation of the optic vesicle, which seems to involve the
greater part of the lateral wall of the forebrain vesicle. In the
floor of the brain the optic vesicles of the two sides are connected
with one another by a transverse groove or depression which has
heretofore been called the “infundibulum.” That it does not be-
come the infundibulum will be shown farther on. Its relation to
the optic vesicles and its later history suggest that it be called the
primitive optic groove. Its relations to the preoral entoderm as
above described and to the neuropore as seen in Figs. 3, 4 and 5
show that this groove is in the floor-plate of the brain some distance
behind the anterior end of the entoderm. J
In the embryos with 17 somites, Figs. 3 and 4, the neuropore is
closed except at a single point which shows as a thin place in one
section of 62/, microns thickness. The distance from the primitive
optic groove to this point is greater than the distance to the lower
border of the neuropore in the embryo of 15 somites. The arrange-
ment of the cells in the lower lip of the closing neuropore as seen
in transverse and frontal sections shows that there is a process of
fusion of the lips of the neuropore from below upward and therefore
the last point of the neuropore to remain open is a point in the
dorsal seam of the neural tube some distance removed from the
anterior border of the neural plate. This part of the seam of closure
which represents the length of the neuropore is what is called the
480 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
lamina terminalis. This is not very long in the embryo of 17
somites, but grows distinctly in length as the forebrain expands.
The apparent great thickness of the lamina terminalis in Fig. 3 is
of course due to the persistence of the fusion of ectoderm and brain
wall at this time. The primitive optic groove is deeper and:sharper
in outline than in the last stage.
The relations in an embryo of 24 somites are shown in Fig. 16
representing the medial view of a model of the right half of the
head. In this is seen the depression of the primitive optic groove
until its wall comes into contact with the ectoderm and cuts off the
Fic. 16. Squalus ac., 24 somites, medial aspect of a model of the right half
of the head. > 75.
front part of the preoral entoderm as before described. ‘The lens-
shaped space in front of the primitive optic groove is filled chiefly
by mesectoderm from the terminal part of the neural crest. The
lamina terminalis is marked by a small triangular pit above, the
neuroporic recess, and by a rounded shallow pit below. This pit
occupies the lower portion of the neuropore space and may therefore
be called the terminal pit. The optic vesicle is now stalked and the
cavity of the stalk is seen near the base of the brain. It is notice-
able that this cavity no longer communicates directly with the primi-
tive optic groove. It seems equally closely related to the terminal
pit. Between the two pits the brain wall is somewhat thickened.
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 481
This thickening corresponds to the anterior border of the neural plate
and the lower border of the neuropore. It is the terminal ridge
of the early embryo with open neural plate, Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6. From
this terminal thickening a ridge is seen in Fig. 16 running obliquely
eaudo-laterad behind the optic vesicle and cutting it off from commu-
nication with the primitive optic groove. This is the beginning of
a change in the relations of the optic vesicle which the following
stages show completed.
An embryo of 42 somites is shown in Fig. 17 drawn from a model
of the right half of the head and a corresponding model of an
embryo of Balfour’s stage K is shown in Fig. 18. In these it is
Fic. 17. Squalus ac., 42 somites, medial aspect of a model of the right half
of the head. This is the same embryo as the one shown in Fig. 15.
clear that the optic vesicle is no longer connected with the primitive
optic groove, but the two vesicles are now connected with one another
by the terminal pit at the lower border of the lamina terminalis.
This is the pit which remains connected with the hollow optic stalk
as long as that persists and is known in the adult as the recessus
opticus (His) ; better called recessus prwopticus.
In the latter part of Balfour’s stage K the optic tract fibers begin
to appear in the chiasma. ‘This lies immediately behind the terminal
pit and in front of the primitive optic groove (Figs. 22, A and B).
and therefore lies in the terminal ridge. The lateral prolongation
of this ridge, which has been described as running obliquely across
482 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
the primitive optic groove (Fig. 16), furnishes a pathway for the
optic tract fibers as they grow in from the retina to the optic centers
in the thalamus and tectum opticum. The ridge may therefore be
called the optic ridge. The primitive optic groove from this stage
on is to be seen just behind the transverse ridge occupied by the optic
chiasma and other decussations. Referring to the general descrip-
tion at the beginning of this article it will be seen that what I have
called the terminal pit in the early embryo is the same as that called
by His the optic recess, and that to which I have in all my previous
Fig. 18. Squalus ac., late stage K of Balfour, medial aspect of a model of
the right half of the head. x 25.
papers given the name of preoptic recess. The primitive optic
groove I have heretofore called the postoptic recess. These terms
have been used by some other authors (Mrs. Gage, Sterzi, and others),
but not by all. I wish to emphasize the necessity of recognizing
the two pits and applying to them clearly distinctive names, because
they are both related to the optie vesicle and because the postoptic
recess has heretofore been confused with the infundibulum.
b. Remainder of the Floor of the Diencephalon.—As soon as the
head-bend of the brain tube appears, a broad depression of the floor
of the forebrain vesicle can be seen which corresponds to the future
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 483
inferior lobes (Fig. 16). The anterior part of this is the relatively
deep and sharply marked primitive optic groove. The posterior
boundary is less definitely marked by a slight projection of the brain
floor into the ventricle. This is the tuberculum posterius. As the
broad inferior lobes involve nearly the whole floor of the diencephalon,
neither the infundibulum nor the mammillary bodies are to be
recognized at this time. Both are developed later within the general
O)
Fic. 19. Squalus ac., 60 somites, parasagittal section near the middle line.
The mouth is open. Primitive inferior lobes, epiphysis and velum transversum.
< 33.
area of the primitive inferior lobes, as specialized portions of their
walls,
The mammillary bodies are indicated by a rounded eaudal pro-
jection of the depressed floor of the diencephalon in embryos with
about 80 somites (Figs. 20, 21, 22).
The infundibular recess is not found until after the completion
of the changes described in connection with the optic recesses. As
in man the infundibulum is the funnel-shaped depression leading
from the floor of the tuber cinereum into the neural part of the
484 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
pituitary body, so in fishes the infundibular recess must be that
somewhat funnel-shaped or trough-shaped depression in the floor
of the inferior lobes which leads into the saceus vasculosus, this
being the neural portion of the pituitary body in fishes.
The angle of ectoderm from which the hypophysis will be devel-
oped can be readily recognized by the stage when the depression of
the primitive optic groove has pushed the preoral entoderm out of
the way and come into contact with the ectoderm. The hypophysial
Fic. 20. Squalus ac., 80 somites, median sagittal section. \ 33. Pre- and
postoptic recesses, mamillary recess, epiphysis and velum transversum.
ectoderm is in contact with the posterior surface of this depressed
part of the brain floor. As the hypophysis pushes in (Figs. 18, 19,
and following) its anterior limb remains in contact with the posterior
wall of the primitive optic groove. The hypophysis grows back in
contact with the rounded surface of the inferior lobes, insinuating
itself between the brain floor and the median mass connecting the
premandibular somites. As this mass in early stages connects the
anterior head cavities also with one another, it may be said that the
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 485
in-pushing hypophysis remains always in front of the entoderm and
mesoderm except so much of the preoral entoderm as is cut off by
the primitive optic groove and aborted beneath the terminal ridge.
By stage M (Fig. 22) the hypophysis begins to be constricted off
from the ectoderm. It presents a shorter anterior lobe which is
Fie. 21. Squalus ac. stage M. sagittal section. > 33. Pre- and post-
optic, infundibular and mammillary recesses, epiphysis and velum transversum.
The fibers of the optic chiasma appear in the terminal ridge.
directed toward the optic chiasma and a longer posterior lobe which
is directed toward the mammillary recess. Opposite the tip of the
posterior lobe a special outgrowth of the brain wall represents the
beginning of the saccus vasculosus. Although the term infundibulum
scarcely applies to anything in the fish brain, yet the depression
from which the saceus grows out is the region which corresponds
486 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
to the infundibulum of man. ‘The relative position of all these
structures is shown in Fig. 22, A and B, from a sagittal series of
an embryo in stage M.
The study of sections can be controlled in these young stages by
the study of cleared whole embryos. Neal has given a most instruc-
tive series of figures from such cleared embryos and I can attest
the accuracy and faithfulness of these figures. If Figs. 7 to 11 of
Neal’s Plate 3 be examined, it will be seen that the optic vesicle
shifts from the “infundibulum” to a point in front of the anterior
head cavity. This agrees with what I have described above. I
have carefully studied these whole embryos with the Braus-Driner
binocular and find that all the facts with regard to the form and
position of parts in the optic region of the brain derived ‘from the
study of sections and models can be seen with perfect clearness in
the whole embryos.
In Dohrn’s papers on the mandibular and premandibular somites
(1904) the relations of neural plate and preoral entoderm discussed
in this section and the last are beautifully illustrated. Plates 1.
4, 6, 7, 9 and 11 show the early stages in the formation of the primi-
tive optic groove and terminal ridge and the relations of the preoral
entoderm and premandibular mesoderm derived from it. As is
well known, the anterior head cavity of Miss Platt is found only in
the Squalidz and Dohrn does not regard it as a somite. I am forced
to believe, however, that he has not analyzed the conditions in
Squalus acanthias with sufficient care, and that to this is to be attrib-
uted his attitude toward the anterior head cavity as well as his failure
to recognize the terminal neural crest and the mesectoderm derived
from it. In his figures the primitive optic groove is labelled “infun-
dibulum,” but it is perfectly clear to me that it is the groove related
to the optic vesicles. See Pl. 9, Fig. 9, where the groove marked
Inf. is the base of the optic stalk. In Pl. 1, Fig. 15, the reference
line Hnt. Zw. passes across the primitive optic groove at the front
and the true infundibular recess near the deep end of the hypophy-
sis. Compare Figs. 23, 24, and 25 of this paper. The terminal
ridge is especially clear in Dohrn’s Pl. 11, where early stages show
its form as well as the early stages of Amblystoma (see below).
Jounston, Forebrain Vestcle in Vertebrates. 487
c. Roof of the Diencephalon.—In the roof of the interbrain the
development of the velum transversum, dorsal sac, epiphysis and
paraphysis has been well described (Minot, Sterzi) so that I have
= a
sims
em TTI
Fic. 22. Squalus ac., stage M, two sagittal sections near the median plane.
25. In addition to the features shown in earlier figures, the optic chiasma,
anterior, posterior and habenular Commissures are seen.
nothing new to add. I wish only to note that a careful considera-
tion of Dr. Neal’s sections and of the models made from them leads
me to believe that the segmental position of the optic vesicle is
488 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
practically the same as that of the transverse velum. The velum
does not become prominent until after the optic vesicle is well
formed (stage IX), but in some specimens a slight fold representing
it can be recognized in models of embryos as early as 24 somites or
earlier. J am inclined to think that the velum represents an infold-
ing of the brain wall which is begun early on account of the with-
drawal of material from the alar plate to form the optic vesicle.
It is the second neuromere whose dorsal half thus gives rise to the
retina, while its ventral half becomes depressed and bulged ventro-
caudally to form the primitive inferior lobes above referred to.
3. Ganoids and Teleosts.
The diencephalon presents no features of especial importance.
There is a greater development of the inferior lobes than in sela-
chians, although the olfactory apparatus is of less importance. This
is doubtless to be attributed to the much greater importance of the
gustatory apparatus in ganoids and teleosts. The saccus vasculosus
reaches a very great development in some of these forms and it has
been shown that there is an intermingling of the epithelial sacs of
the saccus with those of the hypophysis. The optic tracts form a
chiasma in the floor of the brain in some forms and in others cross
at some distance from the brain.
The telencephalon presents certain great peculiarities. It is usu-
ally somewhat more elongated than that of most selachians and re-
sembles that of Chimera or Heptanchus. Also the telencephalon
has no massive roof, but only a broad membraneous tela continuous
with that of the diencephalon. The boundary between the di- and
telencephalon in the roof is marked by a velum transversum which
forms the front wall of the dorsal sac of the diencephalon.
The membraneous roof of the telencephalon is much more exten-
sive than in selachians or other vertebrates. In many cases the lateral
walls of the telencephalon are rolled outward (laterad) so that the
morphological dorsal border is directed laterad or latero-ventrad.
This makes the membraneous roof in these forms exceedingly broad.
The ventricle is correspondingly extensive and toward its anterior
end divides into lateral ventricles which extend into the olfactory
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 489
bulbs. These relations have been described and figured by several
authors. (See Kappers 1906, 1907, Johnston, 1906, Fig. 151.)
4. Amphibians.
In the adult amphibian brain the large size of the telencephalon
and the form and relations of its nervous and membraneous portions
are of interest for our problems. The large telencephalon has
thinner walls and larger lateral ventricles than are found in sela-
chians. The lateral ventricles are connected with the median ven-
iG 23% Fic. 24.
Fic. 28. Amblystoma punctatum, neural plate stage. Sagittal section of
head end. Ectoderm dark, neural plate medium, entoderm light. 25.
Fic. 24. -Amblystoma p., neuropore stage. Sagittal section. The section
falls to one side of the median plane in the dorsal region and shows the
mesoderm lateral to the notochord. Its cephalic limit is the same as that
of the notochord. >< 25.
tricles by wide but well defined interventricular foramina (Johns-
ton 1906, Fig. 150, 151). The lateral ventricles extend forward
into the olfactory bulbs and also have a caudal prolongation into the
so-called occipital pole of the hemisphere.
The tela of the diencephalon is separated from the membraneous
roof of the telencephalon by a prominent velum transversum which
in the adult becomes complexly folded in connection with the chorioid
plexus. In front of the velum is a highly developed paraphysis.
490 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Practically the whole of the membraneous roof of the telenceph-
alon is involved in the two complex structures, the chorioid plexuses
which extend into the lateral ventricles and the paraphysis which
projects upward between the lateral lobes. The essential fact is
that the membraneous roof extends forward over the interventricular
foramina to meet the lamina terminalis. The roof of the telen-
cephalon near the middle line is membraneous for its whole length.
The questions regarding the anterior end of the brain and the
boundary between diencephalon and telencephalon have been most
Fic. 25. Amblystoma p., after closure of neuropore, model of the right
half of the head, viewed from the medial surface. < 28.
carefully studied in embryos of Amblystoma punctatum. In these
embryos the entoderm, mesoderm and notochord present essentially _
the same features and the same relations to the brain as in selachians,
In particular, the premandibular somites, the median undifferentiated
mass in which the notochord ends anteriorly, and the preoral ento-
derm have the same disposition as in selachians. The only difference
is that all the structures are more compact in amphibians and the
preoral entoderm is shorter. As Figs. 23, 24, 25 show, the preoral
entoderm fills the angle between the floor of the neural tube (neural
plate) and the ectoderm and there is a short prolongation of the
archenteric cavity into it in front of the site of the future mouth.
The neural plate is bounded by neural folds which meet in front
in the transverse terminal ridge. This terminal ridge marks the line
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 491
along which ectoderm and neural plate meet and, when the neural
plate rolls up into a tube, the ridge forms the lower border of the
neuropore. These relations are as simple and clear in Amblystoma
as in Squalus (Figs. 23, 24). Even after the neuropore has closed
the arrangement of cells and nuclei in this region shows the outline
of the terminal ridge. After the brain is separated from the ecto-
derm the terminal ridge forms a distinct fold, convex toward the
ventricle (Fig. 26), which in later stages is occupied by the fibers
of the optic tracts in the chiasma (Fig. 33). No neuroporic recess
is to be seen in A. punctatum in early stages following the closure
ie, PAB.
Fic. 26. Amblystoma p., invagination of hypophysis beginning; primitive
inferior lobes. Sagittal section of head. > 25.
Fie. 27. Amblystoma p., hypophysial invagination at its height ; velum
transversum and epiphysis; median sagittal section reconstructed from several
sections. > 25.
‘of the neuropore, but in later stages a slight pit is found which
may correspond to the neuroporic recess described in other forms
(Fig. 33).
The early appearance of the retinal areas on the neural plate
was first described by Eycleshymer (1890) and the fact that the
optic vesicles are formed from the lateral parts of the neural plate
has been pointed out by the writer (1905, 1906). While the neural
plate is still open the retinal pits are connected with one another
by a shallow groove running just behind the terminal ridge (Fig.
23, r. po). As the neural plate rolls up and the optic vesicles are
evaginated this groove grows deeper (Figs. 24, 25) and by the time
492 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
the neuropore is closed the front end of the neural tube presents a
prominent depression resting against the preoral entoderm and con-
ic. 28. Amblystoma p., a little more advanced than the one shown in
Fig. 27. Parasagittal section through the optic ridge. < 40.
FAAS ee
emer no) ele
Fic. 29. Amblystoma p., of about the same stage as that in Fig. 28. Model
of the right half of the brain seen from the medial surface. > 40.
C.S:
de
necting the optic vesicles (Fig. 25). This is the primitive optic
groove as described in Squalus. The model of this stage shows a
second angle at the front of the neural tube, separated from the
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 493
primitive optic groove by the terminal ridge. This is a pit formed
in the lower part of the neuropore and is the terminal pit (Fig. 25).
From the earliest stages after the formation of the neural plate
and folds, the region from which the hypophysis will be formed can
be accurately located. In a median sagittal section of any stage
up to the time when the hypophysis is invaginated, a slight réen-
trant angle is seen between the terminal ridge and the preoral ento-
derm. The ectoderm of this angle will form the hypophysis. When
the neuropore closes this hypophysial ectoderm is slightly thickened
and is continuous with the lower border of the thick plate formed
Fic. 30. Amblystoma p., stage when the paraphysis is formed. Model of
the right half of the head seen from the medial surface. The model was
made from a series of sagittal sections which were oblique to the longitudinal
- axis, so that the surface of the model lies in the median plane at the fore
brain but passes to the left of the middle at the hindbrain. » 46.
by the fusion of ectoderm and neural tube in the neuropore. When
the hypophysis begins to push in it presses on the anterior surface
of the preoral entoderm and as the primitive optic groove becomes
depressed the brain wall presses on the preoral entoderm from above.
In this way the preoral entoderm is pushed back and the hypophysis
. Insinuates itself between the entoderm and the posterior wall of the
primitive optic groove as in Squalus. The preoral entoderm be-
comes shorter and blunter, but none of it is cut off as in Squalus.
494 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
The only important difference between Amblystoma and Squalus is
that anterior head cavities are not formed in Amblystoma. In later
stages the preoral entoderm and median mass proliferate as mesen-
chyme, so that essentially the same end is reached as in Squalus.
In some embryos are found indications of a connection of the
archentoderm with the hypophysis through the preoral entoderm,
but this and the details of the formation of the hypophysis will be
described in another paper.
As development proceeds the same shifting in the relations of the
optic vesicles is seen as has been described in Squalus. In the lateral
wall of the forebrain vesicle a thickening is formed which runs
Fic. 31. Amblystoma p., nearly the same stage as that shown in Fig. 30,
median sagittal section of forebrain and midbrain. x 40.
Fic. 32. Amblystoma p., later stage, median sagittal section. Note the ex-
treme curvature of the brain in this and following stages. > 40.
from the terminal ridge in the middle line obliquely latero-caudad
across the primitive optic groove. ‘This thickening is formed in
anticipation of the ingrowth of optic tract fibers and may be called
the optic ridge. It separates the optic vesicles from the primitive
optic groove and causes them to be connected by the terminal pit.
Figs. 25, 28, 29, 30 show this in sections and models.
By the time the optic ridge is formed the floor of the forebrain
vesicle has become depressed to form broad primitive inferior lobes
and in the caudal wall of this a mammuillary recess marks the begin-
ning of the mammillary bodies (Figs. 26 and 27). This is bounded
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 495
caudally by the tuberculum posterius. Later, when the hypophysis
has reached its definitive position a saccus outgrowth from the
inferior lobes appears and the region at which it is connected with
the brain may be called the infundibulum. There are therefore in
the floor of the forebrain vesicle four recesses formed as in selachians:
terminal pit or preoptic recess, primitive optic groove or postoptic
recess, infundibulum and mammillary recess,
The formation of the velum transversum, epiphysis and para-
physis need not be described as they are already known (Minot and
others). These structures are represented in Figs. 30, 31, 32, 33.
Vig. 33. Amblystoma p., all the chief features of the forebrain developed.
Median sagital section. < 40.
5. Reptiles and Birds.
I have to say here only that the study of whole mounts of chick
embryos between 20 and 40 hours of incubation shows that the same
relations exist in the region of the optic chiasma as in Squalus and
Amblystoma. In early embryos the optic vesicles are connected
by a primitive optic groove behind the terminal ridge. Later, the
optic ridge is formed, the terminal pit becomes connected with the
cavities of the optic stalks, and the optic chiasma occupies the
terminal ridge.
6. Mammals.
The chief peculiarity of the mammalian brain is the great size of
the cerebral hemispheres. In the adult, as is well known, there is
496 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
-
a membraneous tela over the median ventricle and this is continued
as the roof of the interventricular foramen into the wall of each
hemisphere. In front of the foramina the tela meets the lamina
terminalis, so that as in amphibians there is a membraneous tela in
the median region of.the telencephalon for its whole length. For the
morphological relations of this tela, the ventricles and the chorioid
plexuses it is necessary to study the embryology.
While in all lower classes, except cyclostomes, a prominent velum
transversum marks the boundary between diencephalon and _ telen-
cephalon, in mammals the velum has not heretofore been recognized.
The large collection of pig embryos in this laboratory gives excel-
Fic. 34. Pig embryo of 5 mm. Model of right half of head seen from
medial surface. The optic vesicles are still connected with the primitive
optic groove. The Roman numerals indicate the brain neuromeres. < 25.
lent opportunity for comparison with the lower classes described
above.
The earliest stage available is a 5 mm, pig cut in transverse series
from which a model of the brain has been made (Fig. 34). From
the figure it will be seen that this brain agrees very closely with
that of the Squalus embryo of about 20 somites. The cavity of the
optic stalk is continuous with a groove which traverses the median
line, the primitive optic groove. Behind this is the primitive inferior
lobe, a ventral expansion bounded caudally by the tubereulum pos-
terius. In front of the primitive optic groove is a transverse ridge
whose cross section in the median plane presents the form of an arch.
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 497
This is the terminal ridge. In front of this is a median pit, the
terminal pit. Following the lamina terminalis around the front end
of the brain there is found in the dorsal wall a distinct transverse
fold, followed by an arched portion and a second more shallow fold.
In this fold and for some distance behind it are seen in later embryos
the fibers of the posterior commissure and the decussation of the
tectum mesencephali. The more anterior and deeper of the two
Fig. 35. Pig embryo, 6 mm, A., median sagittal section. B and C, para-
sagittal sections. Neuromeres numbered in Roman. > 20.
folds is the velum transversum, as the further description will make
clear. In embryos of 6 and 7 mm. the same change of relations in
the optic region takes place as has been described above for Squalus
and Amblystoma. The terminal ridge becomes prolonged caudo-
laterad as the optic ridge and in these later appear the optic chiasma
and tracts. The identity of these structures in the classes of animals
studied is absolutely clear.
498 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
The time of development of the mammillary recesses and of the
neural part of the hypophysis (sacecus vasculosus) varies somewhat
in pig embryos. In most 6 mm, embryos the mammillary recess is
already clearly recognizable as a caudal expansion of the primitive
inferior lobe (Fig. 35, A) whose border above and behind is the
tubereulum posterius. From now on the mammillary recess is always
clear. Between it and the primitive optic groove the hypophysis
lies against the under surface of the primitive inferior lobe. In
some 6 mm. embryos there is to be seen just behind the tip of the
Fic. 386. Pig embryo, 9 mm., median sagittal section. >< 20.
hypophysis in sagittal section a slight, but definite, depression and
thickening in the brain floor, the beginning of the evagination of the
neural part of the hypophysis. This shows a variable development
in embryos between 6 mm. and 9 mm., but is always clearly present in
9 mm. embryos (Fig. 36). After this time the sae grows out and
enwraps the tip of the hypophysis and the relations familiar to all
embryologists are established. The outgrowth of this sac is the ear-
liest mark of the position of the infundibulum and this is a consid-
erable distance behind the primitive optic groove, as in selachians
and amphibians. In later development the floor of the primitive
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 499
inferior lobe becomes drawn down in funnel shape and the lateral
portions become thickened as the tuber cinereum. — It is one of the
peculiarities of the mammalian and human brain that the infun-
dibulum is drawn down close behind the chiasma and forms a deeper
and narrower funnel than in lower vertebrates. There is no funda-
mental difference of relations,
The evidence that the fold in the roof which has been called the
velum transversum is correctly identified may be seen in Figs. 34
lic. 387. Pig embryo, 12 mm. Median sagittal section, reconstructed from
several sections. »< 15.
to 39. The posterior commissure is a point about which there is no
dispute. In the arch (neuromere) in front of it appears later the
epiphysis (Fig. 38). In front of the epiphysis and in the same arch
appears the commissura habenularis. This arch then is the roof of
the diencephalon. It is bounded in front in all other classes of
vertebrates by the velum transversum. ‘The fold to which this name
has been given lies in the proper segmental position. This is further
supported by its relations to the structures in front of it. Immedi-
ately in front of the velum the roof is raised in a distinct arch.
500 §=fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
This corresponds in position to the paraphysis of lower forms (cf.
Figs. 30 to 33): Since there is no glandular development known
in mammals, it may be called the paraphysal arch, a name which
Minot (1901) applies to the corresponding structure in birds. In
front of the paraphysal arch a membrane continues forward to meet
the lamina terminalis. When the lateral cerebral vesicles are formed
it is seen (Figs, 387, 38, 39) that this membrane lies over the ventricle
between the interventricular foramina.
Fic. 38. Pig embryo, 15 mm. Median sagittal section of the forebrain.
The dotted outline of the hemisphere is reconstructed from several sections.
aly
As development proceeds the velum transversum becomes a fold
with a sharper angle but less deep in proportion to the size of the
brain. The paraphysal arch remains a distinct median pouch until
the lateral vesicles are well formed. In sagittal sections to one side
of the median plane the lateral ventricle appears as a dorsal cavity
opening by way of the interventricular foramen in front of the
paraphysal arch into the median ventricle. (Fig. 38, 39.) These
simple relations persist up to the 17 mm. stage or later. By the
_
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 501
15 to 17 mm. embryo the chorioid plexus of the lateral ventricle is
forming. Its position with reference to the velum transversum is
shown in a parasagittal section of a 17 mm. embryo (Fig. 40) and
in three frontal sections of the brain of a 15 mm. embryo (Fig. 41).
The velum transversum is not only a dorsal fold, but is continued
around the lateral wall of the brain as the constriction (external fur-
Fic. 39. Pig embryo, 17 mm. Median sagittal section reconstructed from
several sections. The outline of the hemisphere lateral to the median plane
is shown in dotted lines. 12%.
row and internal ridge) between the diencephalon and the telen-
cephalon. By the stage mentioned the cerebral vesicle is sufficiently
expanded to push back past the boundary line. In the angle between
the vesicle and the diencephalon appears the chorioid plexus pushing
into the lateral ventricle. It appears as a folding of the anterior
wall or limb of the velum transversum and its lateral prolongation.
502 Ffournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
In this way appears the chorioid fissure whose further history need
y opi J
not be traced. Near the median plane the plexus appears as a fold
projecting into the interventricular foramen and separated from the
Fic. 40. A parasagittal section from the embryo drawn in Fig. 39.
Fic. 41. Pig embryo, 15 mm. Three sections from a frontal series showing
the relations of the chorioid fissure and plexus to the lateral hemisphere
and the thalamus. The section to the left is the most ventral, that to the
right the most dorsal.
velum transversum by the paraphysal arch. From this stage on the
plexus grows rapidly and becomes very large and in the median
region both the velum and the paraphysal arch become involved in
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 503
the plexus and their identity is lost. If the paraphysis is to be found
in adult mammals it should be looked for in the chorioid plexus in
the middle line between the interventricular foramina. The mem-
braneous roof extending forward from the paraphysal arch to meet
the lamina terminalis is relatively long in the embryo, spanning the
wide opening into the lateral ventricles. In later development these
interventricular foramina grow much less rapidly than the hemi-
spheres and the roof in question becomes of insignificant length.
This is due in part also to the expansion of the lamina terminalis by
the commissures which develop in it.
The neuroporie recess can be located with certainty in the pig
embryos. In young stages there appears a slight ridge in each
lateral wall just rostral to the preoptic recess. This is the beginning
of the corpus striatum. As the two ridges converge toward the mid-
dle line they cause a thickening of the lamina terminalis above the
preoptic recess (Figs. 88 and 39, between r. p. and r. n.). This is
the location of the anterior commissure in later stages. Above this
thickening is another pit which in 15 mm. embryos is a smooth
rounded concavity in the middle line, not a transverse groove (Fig.
38). That this is the recessus neuroporicus seems clear from the
fact that it is above the corpus striatum and below the interventricular
foramina. As the striatum and lateral vesicles grow this pit becomes
deeper and more pointed.
Three of the young human embryos described in recent years
seem to the writer to give clear evidence that the relations in the
optic region are the same in man as in fishes, amphibians and other
mammals. The embryo described by Low (1908) shows optic pits
on the open neural plate. These are apparently connected with one
another by a groove running across the middle line parallel with the
terminal ridge. The embryo described by Broman (1896) is 3 mm.
long and has the neuropore closed. It shows the terminal ridge
essentially like that of Squalus or of Amblystoma. The optic
vesicles are connected with the primitive optic groove caudal to the
terminal ridge. Broman noticed the terminal ridge and gave to its
ectal, concave surface the name ‘Fossa interocularis,” but did not
speak of its significance. The embryo described by Mrs. Gage
504 “fournal.of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
(1905) is a trifle larger and considerably more advanced in develop-
ment. In it the optie vesicles are connected with the pit formed in
the neuropore-space. ‘This pit seems to correspond to the preoptic
recess above described. From these three embryos it appears very
probable that the course of development in man is the same as in the
pig and lower forms.
II. Dzscussion.
1. The Anterior Hnd of the Head and Brain.—Owing chiefly to
the lack of certain essential facts, an extensive literature has grown
up about the question of the anterior end of the brain. Since the
facts which were wanting are supplied in the preceding pages, a
detailed review of the discussions from v. Kupffer and His onward
would be unprofitable. ‘The determination of the anterior end of
the brain is a matter of direct observation. In the study of succes-
sive stages in the early development of a selachian, an amphibian
and a mammal the essential facts are found to be perfectly clear,
and the three forms agree in the form changes of the brain and in
the relations of the brain to the ectoderm, entoderm and mesoderm.
The anterior boundary of the neural plate is formed by a trans-
verse ridge, the terminal ridge, which is continuous with the neural
folds bounding the neural plate laterally. This terminal ridge is
clearly seen in successive stages and is readily followed up to the
time when the optic chiasma is formed in it. The optic chiasma
therefore occupies the anterior border of the floor plate of the brain.
This is a matter of fact, not of interpretation.
Behind the terminal ridge lies a transverse groove which laterally
becomes continuous with the optic pits or vesicles. This is to be
seen from the earliest stages when the optic pits are recognizable in
the neural tube or, indeed, on the open neural plate. This groove
is the depression which His (1892, 1893) called the recessus infun-
dibuli and which v. Kupffer (1893) called the sinus postopticus.
Later workers have followed His, although his own numerous figures
(1892) show that there are two distinct depressions in the region
between the chiasma and the mammillary recess. It is clear also
(His, 1892, Fig. 2 and p. 162) that the opening into the saccus
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 505
vasculosus represents the infundibulum and the depression which he
ealls recessus infundibuli must be something else. ‘This depression
I have called the recessus postopticus (1902, 1906). Because of its
relation to the optic pits I have called this in the early-embryo the
primitive optic groove.
This primitive optic groove forms a ventral projection of the brain
floor which outwardly might be considered as a transverse ridge and
it was to this external ridge that His gave the name Basilarleiste.
To the groove within he gave the name recessus infundibuli s. basil-
aris. The Basilarleiste of His is not a thickening of the brain floor
but a fold which appears within as the primitive optic groove. It is
important to make this clear because of the incomparable value of
His’s work in matters of general morphology. The Basilarleiste in
the embryos studied by His meets the front end of the notochord and
of the entoderm (Seessel’s sac). Upon this relation of the brain to
the notochord and entoderm His based the conclusion that the Basil-
arleiste or the recessus infundibuli formed the anterior end of the
brain floor. “‘In der vorderen Endflache endigt die Gehirnaxe und
es bedarf einiger Vertsindigung dariber, wohin dies Ende zu ver-
legen sei. In Anschlusse an y. Baer und andere habe ich selber
in friiheren Arbeiten dies Ende in das Infundibulum oder richtiger
ausgedriickt, in die Mitte der Basilarleiste verlegt. Andere, wie
neuerdings Keibel, lassen die Gehirnaxe im Chiasma opticum aus-
laufen. Die Discussion dartiber, wer mit seiner Behauptung im
Recht sei, hat nur dann einen Sinn, wenn man zuvor festgestellt hat,
was unter Gehirnaxe fiir eine Linie zu verstehen sei. Ich selber habe
darunter stets die Mittellinie des Hirnbodens verstanden. Das
heisst die Linie, welche, wenigstens auf friiheren Stufen lings der
Chorda, als der anerkannten K6rperaxe verlauft. Diese basilare
Axe endigt unzweifelhaft in der Basilarleiste. Versteht man dagegen
unter Gehirnaxe eine Linie, welche der Mitte der Réhrenlichtung
folgt, so wird diese mittlere Axe in einer Ebene liegen, welche die
Grund- und die Fliigelplatte des Gehirns von einander scheidet, und
ihr Endpunkt trifft die vordere Endfliche im Recessus opticus, bez.
dicht vor dem Ort des Chiasma opticum. Wollen wir zur basilaren
und zur mittleren Axe noch eine dritte dorsale Lingsaxe oder Lings-
506 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
linie annehmen, so haben wir deren Ende am oberen Rande der
Lamina terminalis zu suchen, vor der Stelle, wo die Fissura
chorioidea ihren Anfang nimmt.”’
Now it must be noticed that more recent work (Platt 1891, Hoff-
mann 1896, Neal 1898, and others) has shown that the entoderm
does not end anteriorly in contact with the Basilarleiste, but extends
forward beneath the terminal ridge. His did not study sufficiently
early stages to see this. Early stages show clearly that the basal axis
of the brain ends not in the Basilarleiste but in the terminal ridge
in which later the optic chiasma appears. Furthermore, this is
equally true of selachians, amphibians, birds and mammals. It is
altogether probable that the same is true of petromyzonts also, for
the depression called by Koltzoff “infundibulum” is doubtless the
same as the primitive optic groove of other forms. In all vertebrates
studied by the writer the entoderm extends forward beneath the
transverse ridge which afterward becomes the optic chiasma. The
definition of the anterior end of the head previously given (Johnston,
1905) may now be simplified to read: in all vertebrates the anterior
end of the head is the point at which the brain plate meets the gen-
eral ectoderm at the same time that it comes into contact with the
anterior end of the entoderm. This point is marked in the adult by
the optic chiasma.
It has been shown in this paper that the depression in front of the
optic chiasma which has been known to His and other authors as the
recessus opticus, is related to the optic vesicles only secondarily and
is primarily a pit in the basal part of the neuropore (lamina termi-
nalis).
2. The Homology of the Saccus Vasculosus—Here I wish only
to point out the homology of the saccus vasculosus of lower verte-
brates with the neural part of the pituitary body in man. The saccus
vasculosus is an evagination from the floor of the diencephalon which
is more or less branched, is lined by ependymal cells and sensory
cells, and is supphed by nerve fibers ending in its epithelial lining.
In all lower forms it comes into close relations with the hypophysis.
In many cases the subdivisions of the two structures become inter-
mingled or interlaced. In man the neural part of the pituitary body
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 507
has the same relations but the cavity becomes obliterated. During
early development the evagination appears in identical manner and
relations in all vertebrates and the writer can see no ground for
doubting the complete homology of the structure in all vertebrates.
This homology was understood by His but seems not to be univer-
sally accepted. Edinger (1908, p, 203) publishes a schematic figure
of a sagittal section of the vertebrate brain in which he shows an
infundibulum: in contact with the hypophysis and behind it a wholly
separate evagination of the brain floor which he calls the saccus
vasculosus. ‘This diagram stands in contradiction to the drawings
from actual specimens in the same book (Fig. 167, Chimera; Fig.
175, 176, Varanus; Fig. 178, Ammoccetes; Fig. 181, Siredon; Fig.
219, Hexanchus). In all of these there is only one evagination of
the brain floor between the optic chiasma and the mammillary bodies
and it comes into relation with the hypophysis. The writer does not
know of any vertebrate in which the condition shown in Edinger’s
diagram is found.
3. Segmentation of the Neural Tube in Front of the Cerebellum.—
In the hindbrain the neuromeres are generally recognized as brain
segments corresponding to the segments of the organs in the head.
In front of the cerebellum there is no such unanimity of opinion. The
writer has discussed this subject at length (1905) and has found
nothing in the studies here reported to change any of the conclusions
there expressed. On the contrary, the conclusions there based on indi-
rect evidence from other authors are confirmed by direct observation.
The segments in the mes-, di- and telencephalon are clearly indicated
in Fig. 42, representing parasagittal sections of the brain of a pig
of 7mm. The optic vesicle is here seen somewhat out of line with
the other neuromeres but no one would doubt that it represents one
brain segment. In front of it is the first segment, from which the
telencephalon is formed. Opposite the optic vesicles in the median
region is the velum transversum. Behind the optic vesicle are
clearly seen in the figure three segments. In connection with the
first of these (neuromere iii) appears later the epiphysis. The other
two (iv and v) obviously enter into the mesencephalon. In selach-
ians these two segments have connected with them respectively the
508 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
thalamic nerve of Miss Platt which probably forms the ciliary gan-
glion, and the part of the neural crest which forms the ophthalmic
division of the trigeminus. The terminal part of the neural crest in
close relation with the neuropore presumably gives rise to the
ganglion of the nervus terminalis in selachians. If this be true, every
neuromere of the embryonic brain has connected with it in one class
of vertebrates or another some sensory nerve or sense organ (includ-
ing the optic vesicle and epiphysis. The five brain segments are
equally clearly to be seen in Figs. 34 and 35.
4. Boundary between Diencephalon and Telencephalon.—The pos-
fod
Fic. 42. Pig embryo, 7 mm. Two parasagittal sections to show the seg-
ments of the forebrain and mid-brain. Compare figs. 34, 35 and 18.
terior boundary of the diencephalon has never been in dispute. It
is the constriction between the forebrain and midbrain vesicles and
is later marked dorsally by the posterior commissure and ventrally
by the tubereulum posterius. When the forebrain vesicle becomes
divided into diencephalon and telencephalon the exact location of
the boundary between them has not been entirely clear. In all verte-
brates in which a definite velum transversum is recognizable this is
considered as the mark of the boundary. The existence of a
paraphysis and lateral plexus chorioideus in front of the velum and
of a dorsal sac and one or two epiphyses behind it is now so thor-
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 509
oughly understood as to need no further comment (Gaupp 1898,
Minot 1901, Johnston 1905, 1906).
The velum transversum has been described in eyclostome embryos
by Sterzi (1908) and in mammals in the foregoing pages, so that
the boundary line sought for is now clear in the brain roof in all
classes of vertebrates. From the velum transversum a groove or
constriction continues around the sides of the brain. Owing to the
early evagination of the optic vesicles this constriction in the dorsal
half of the brain oceupies the space left vacant, so to speak, by the
withdrawal of the retinal tissue. Ventrally the groove is to be
thought of as lying in front of the neuromere to which the optic
vesicle belongs. The diencephalon consists in its dorsal half of but
one neuromere after the withdrawal of the optic vesicle ; in its ventral
half it includes two neuromeres, the more posterior of which is
narrow while the more anterior one forms the depression of the brain
floor which I have called the primitive inferior lobe. The boundary
between the diencephalon and the telencephalon in the brain floor has
been in dispute because of the obseurity which has existed over the
optic recesses and the anterior end of the brain.
His placed the boundary behind the infundibulum and assigned
the pars optica hypothalami to the telencephalon. He was led to this
by his conviction that the telencephalon consisted of a complete brain
ring or segment and by his belief that the end of the brain axis was
in the Basilarleiste or infundibular recess. As shown above, the
optic chiasma is formed in the terminal ridge and therefore occupies
the extreme anterior border of the floor plate of the neural tube. If
the telencephalon is a complete transverse segment of the brain, as
His always insisted, there is no alternative but to include the optic
chiasma within it. The primitive optic groove which bounds the
optic chiasma behind belongs to the same neuromere with the optic
vesicles and therefore is included in the diencephalon. The telen-
cephalon can include no more than the optie chiasma and the associ-
ated decussations in the brain floor which lie in the terminal ridge.
The boundary between the diencephalon and telencephalon is marked
by the velum transversum above and by the primitive optic groove or
postoptic recess below. In adult mammals, in which both these land-
510 6“fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
marks have disappeared, the boundary ean be defined by a line drawn
just behind the interventricular foramen and meeting the posterior
surtace of the chiasma ridge (Fig. 44).
The external groove which separates the diencephalon and telen-
cephalon is usually well marked and in the brains of amphibians,
Fic, 48. Sketches to illustrate the boundary line between the diencephalon
and the telencephalon. The brains of a selachian (A) and an amphibian
(B) are outlined as seen from the medial surface and the boundary set by
His is indicated by a dotted line, that fixed in this paper by a heavy con-
tinuous line.
reptiles and mammals increases in depth and prominence with the
enlargement of the cerebral hemispheres. The description of the
early development has shown that the lateral chorioid plexus is
formed in mammals immediately in front of the velum transversum
and of the groove which continues from the velum transversum
around the lateral wall of the brain. From this it results that in the
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. gi
adult the chorioid fissure is found at the bottom of the very deep
groove between the hemispheres and the brain stem and that the
boundary between diencephalon and telencephalon runs just along
the posterior (thalamic) border of the fissure. These relations are
clearly set forth by G. Elliot Smith in a recent paper (1908) on the
forebrain of Lepidosiren, which agrees in essentials with that of
mammals.
Fic. 44. Sketch of the human brain for comparison with Fig. 43.
When the internal structure of the brain is taken into account it
is seen that the boundary line indicated by the development separates
centers of different significance. Before it lie the primary and sec-
ondary olfactory centers, behind it in the nucleus habenule and
inferior lobes (tuber cinereum) lie the tertiary olfactory centers with
reflex functions. This is not true of the boundary line laid down by
His which placed the region of the infundibulum (pars optica
hypothalami)y in the telencephalon. His was apparently not followed
512 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
in this by the Basle nomenclature commission and the tables of
neurological terms adopted by the commission contradict His’s
explanatory notes in that the tables place the pars optica hypothalami
in the diencephalon while His states that it belongs to the telen-
cephalon. (See His, 1895, pp. 161, 162.) This is perhaps because
anatomists generally have felt the incongruity of assigning the tuber
cinereum, infundibulum and hypophysis to the telencephalon. This
objection fails when only the chiasma and the fiber decussations
adjacent to it are included in the telencephalon.
The usage adopted by the BNA goes to the other extreme and
involves at least as bad consequences. The BNA ineludes the lamina
terminalis in the pars optica hypothalami, and implies that the
lamina terminalis is the front wall of the diencephalon. The discus-
sion of this usage, which is widely followed by anatomists, will come
best in the next section, but here it may be pointed out that it implies
the inclusion in the diencephalon of various structures which cer-
tainly can not be so interpreted.
a. The lamina terminalis contains the anterior commissure, and
according to the researches of G. Elliot Smith the corpus callosum
and hippocampal commissure develop in it also. These commissures
would then all fall in the anterior wall of the diencephalon. This is
obviously impractical and confusing and would lead to endless diffi-
culties in fixing an arbitrary boundary.
b. The gray matter in the wall of the preoptic recess constitutes
generally in vertebrates an important secondary olfactory center
which, unless there are strong reasons for assigning it to the dien-
cephalon, should be placed with the other secondary olfactory centers
in the telencephalon. All the facts of development and general mor-
phology, however, favor the retention of this center in the telen-
cephalon.
c. In many fish-like vertebrates the larger part of the telencephalon
(corpus striatum and olfactory lobe) lies lateral to the lamina
terminalis and forms the wall of the median ventricle. These struc-
tures in fishes would be included in the diencephalon and there would
be endless confusion as to the boundary line in various classes. No
such confusion and no practical difficulties in the description of the
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 513
adult brain arise from the recognition of the boundary suggested
above which is clearly marked in the development.
5. The Ventricles and the Tela.—An essential part of the question
of the boundary between diencephalon and telencephalon is the prob-
lem of the median ventricle; specifically, does any part of the median
ventricle belong to the telencephalon? The view held by His was
that the anterior part of the median ventricle belonged, with the
pars optica hypothalami, to the telencephalon. The view which
makes the lamina terminalis the anterior wall of the diencephalon
assigns the whole of the median ventricle in front of the aqueduct
to the diencephalon. It is obvious that the writer must agree with
His in recognizing a median ventricle in the telencephalon, although
a shorter part of the median ventricle is included than was included
by His. The above diagrams (Figs. 48 and 44) show the boundary
line of His and that adopted by the writer and it is clear that the short
part of the median ventricle between this line and the lamina
terminalis belongs to the telencephalon and makes communication
with the lateral ventricle through the interventricular foramina.
The view which regards the lamina terminalis as the anterior wall
of the diencephalon and of its ventricle denies the existence of any
median portion in the telencephalon. This means one of two things:
either the diencephalon is the terminal segment of the brain and the
telencephalon hes lateral to it as two hemispheres, or the dien-
cephalon is terminal and the telencephalon consists of ultra-terminal
hemispheres. Neither of these is true. Aside from the fact that the
latter view involves a contradiction in terms, it cannot be considered,
because all the evidence shows that the hemispheres are lateral struc-
tures. (a) In the ontogeny of all vertebrates the hemispheres arise
as evaginations or expansions of the lateral brain wall behind the
lamina terminalis; (6) the lateral ventricles thus formed remain
always as lateral prolongations of the ventricle and the median veu-
tricle always extends forward beyond the interventricular foramina ;
(c) when the hemispheres by their great growth push forward beyond
the lamina terminalis, as they do in most vertebrates, they are still
connected with the lateral wall of the brain stem and in the middle
line the lamina terminalis is always the most anterior structure of
514 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
the brain in the adult as in the embryo. It is no more true to say
that the telencephalon is ultra-terminal than to say that it is post-
optic or post-velar. The occipital lobe extends as far behind the
velum transversum as the frontal lobe extends in front of the lamina
terminalis. The whole hemisphere is a great expansion of a part of
the lateral wall of the brain between the lamina terminalis in front
and the optic vesicles and primitive optic grooves behind. ‘The point
in dispute is whether that portion of the preoptic brain segment
which is not carried out in the hemispheres belongs in the dien-
cephalon or the telencephalon.
The first step in answering this question is to see clearly that in
the early embryo the lateral hemispheres and the median portion
exist together undifferentiated as a simple ring or segment in front
of the optic vesicles. This segment is bounded from the earliest
stages, even before the neural tube is closed, by the sharply marked
primitive optic groove and the optic vesicles. It is only some time
after the formation of the optic vesicles that the dorsal part of this
simple segment bulges out at either side to form the lateral hemi-
spheres. If the segment is simple at the start, is there any ground
for separating the ventral part and adding it to the diencephalon
which hes behind the primitive optic groove? The only thing to
give support to this view is the connection of the hollow optic stalk
with the preoptic recess. Since the optic vesicles have always been
referred to the diencephalon, their close relation to the lamina termi-
nalis through the preoptic recess suggests the inclusion of the lamina
terminalis in the diencephalon. Now, however, it is shown that the
optic vesicles are primarily connected with the post-optic recess and
are only secondarily related to the preoptic recess.
In view of this there remains no ground for separating the median
and lateral structures which develop from this primitive first seg-
ment. The embryological facts leave only one course open, namely,
to consider the lateral hemispheres as the dorsal portion, the region
of the optic chiasma as the ventral portion of one segment.
Finally, it is impossible to harmonize the relations of the velum
transversum in lower vertebrates and in all embryos with the view
that the lamina terminalis bounds the diencephalon. That the velum
JoHNSTON, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 515
transversum marks this boundary dorsally is universally agreed. It
stands at some distance from the lamina terminalis, however, and
if the boundary line is to follow the latter it must run along the root
of the brain and then around its front wall, an obvious absurdity.
A reeent writer on the development of the forebrain (Fanny
Fuchs, 1908) states that it is only for practical convenience in
describing early stages that the term telencephalon should be used at
all. Whatever is left after the development of the hemispheres (she
recognizes tacitly that there is something left) should be reckoned
with the diencephalon. She states that in Rana the telencephalon
has no roof because the di- telencephalic groove meets the upper end
of the lamina terminalis. Since she has not studied early stages,
has not recognized the velum transversum and gives no figures to
show what she includes in the lamina terminalis, her conclusions on
this point can have little value. Such figures as Fraulein Fuchs
cives show a long median ventricle extending far forward beyond the
interventricular foramina. The roof of this, as the writer’s own
preparations show, is the same as the roof of the similar median
ventricle in all other vertebrates, namely a membrane reaching from
the velum transversum to the upper border of the lamina terminalis.
Fraulein Fuchs has simply included this roof in what she calls
the lamina terminalis. This author has studied only the obvious
features in the later stages of the development of the forebrain and
these give no sufficient ground for any conclusions regarding the
morphological value of the telencephalon. There may be quoted here
the conclusion of His in his paper on the general morphology of
the brain (1892, p. 383): “dass eine solche allgemeine Morphologie
nur dann endgiiltig zu gewinnen ist, wenn wir auf die allerersten
Entwicklungsstufen zuriickgreifen.”
The tela chorioidea of the third ventricle and lateral ventricles
requires some comment. It must be noted first that in all verte-
brates, embryo and adult, a membraneous tela extends over both
diencephalon and telencephalon from the habenular commissure to
the dorsal border of the lamina terminalis. In all vertebrates except
adults of higher forms there is an obvious narrow place in the nervous
brain wall between the diencephalon and telencephalon, and the tela
516 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
is widest here. ‘This seems to the writer to be due to the with-
drawal of nervous material from the dorsal part of the lateral brain
walls to form the optic vesicles. This withdrawal of retina-sub-
stance leaves a gap which is filled by membraneous tela only. The
tela in the median region of the telencephalon is perfectly evident
in any brain, embryonic or adult, so far as the writer is acquainted.
From the posterior part of this tela next to the velum transversum
arises the paraphysis or the rudimentary paraphysal arch, and
forward from that the tela stretches across the median ventricle be-
tween the interventricular foramina. It is equally evident that at
all stages of development these foramina are roofed by lateral pro-
longations of the tela. This is true of all forms with the apparent
exception of cyclostomes, teleosts and ganoids. In cyclostomes this
is probably due to the compression of the forebrain by the oral
funnel and olfactory organ. In ganoids and teleosts the interven-
tricular foramina have been widened beyond recognition by the
eversion of the lateral walls. In amphibians and higher forms the
prolongation of the tela over the interventricular foramina to become
the roof of the lateral ventricles has great importance for the forma-
tion of the lateral plexuses. The beginning of these has been de-
scribed and the only further comment which the writer wishes to
make is that the complexity and mystery which the text-books throw
around the relations of the velum interpositum and the lateral
plexuses should be brushed aside for the sake of the student, who
finds the subject difficult enough without artificial stumbling blocks
being put in his way. The student should be told simply that the
median tela extends laterally as the roof of the lateral ventricle and
this becomes infolded to form the lateral plexus. This process con-
tinues around the side wall just in front of the junction of the
hemisphere and thalamus.
6. Dorsal and Ventral Zones in Diencephalon and Telencephalon.
—The suleus limitans of His marks the boundary between alar plate
(dorsal zone) and basal plate (ventral zone). The dorsal zone
throughout the central nervous system is sensory, the ventral zone
motor. Both zones include gray matter and fiber tracts belonging
to the correlating mechanisms, and in those segments in which the
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 517
primary sensory or motor centers are reduced or wanting owing to
reduction or absence of the peripheral organs, the correlating mechan-
isms constitute the whole of the zone concerned. The writer has
repeatedly (1902, 1905, 1906, 1909) emphasized the fact that the
longitudinal zones constitute the most fundamental divisions of the
brain and hence the sulcus limitans is the most important landmark
in the brain. The two sulci converge at the anterior end of the
brain to meet in the lamina terminalis and this meeting-point marks
the anterior end of the central axis of the brain. The end of this
axis His placed at about the middle of his lamina terminalis, namely
in the recessus preopticus. The facts set forth in this paper show
that the chiasma region must be taken from the lamina terminalis
and added to the brain floor. Still, in the writer’s opinion, the
central brain axis has its ending in the recessus preopticus (Figs.
43 and 44). The reasons for this are to be found-in the following
facts: (a) the ventral zone of the brain becomes greatly reduced
in volume in front of the third nerve by the absence of all motor
centers; (b) it is further reduced by the distribution of fiber tracts
to various parts of the diencephalon and telencephalon; (c) the
sensory centers are represented in the telencephalon by the large
olfactory apparatus; (d) the correlating mechanism of the dorsal
zone is greatly hypertrophied in connection with the olfactory centers
and in higher forms in connection with the somatie cortical centers
‘(neopallium). In other words the ventral zone at the front end
of the brain is represented chiefly by the decussating fibers (optic
chiasma and commissures of Gudden and Meynert) of the ventral
commissural system, while the dorsal zone contains both sensory and
correlating mechanisms which are very large. These facts account
for the bending down of the sulci lmitantes to meet near the ventral
border of the lamina terminalis. There is no evidence known to the
writer tending to show that the recessus neuroporicus has any sig-
nificance in this connection. It is only a convenient practical mark
of the dorsal border of the lamina terminalis and the anterior end
of the brain roof.
In the diencephalon the location of the suleus limitans is still
more difficult. The typical formation of the ventral zone extends
518 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
no farther forward than the nucleus of the III nerve, or at most
the nucleus of origin of descending fibers in the medial longitudinal
fasciculus. ‘The ventral commissural system is interrupted by the
downgrowth of the substantia reticularis to form the inferior lobes
and mammillary bodies. This downgrowth has so completely altered
the relations of parts in the diencephalon that it is practically impos-
sible to trace a boundary line between dorsal and ventral zones. The
inferior lobes themselves doubtless represent a part of the correlat-
ing substance of the dorsal zones (Johnston 1906, p. 277 and fol.).
7. Pallium of the Telencephalon.—A long discussion has been
waged over the subject of the general morphology of the pallium
since the discoyery by Rabl-Riickhard (1882) of the forebrain roof
of teleosts. It would not be profitable to enter into the details of
this discussion. The hypothesis of Rabl-Riickhard and Edinger
was to the effect that lower forms possessed no true or nervous
pallium, but that the membraneous pallium as seen in teleosts and
other fishes has been transformed into a massive pallium by the
development of nervous elements in it. The hypothesis of Ahlborn
was that the anlage or beginnings of the pallium of higher forms
must be found in the massive portions of the brain of lower forms,
that a membraneous (ependymal) roof can never be transformed into
a nervous pallium. For many years the Rabl-Riickhard-Edinger
hypothesis dominated the field of forebrain morphology by sheer
force of the authority of its sponsors. Studnicka made an effort
to show the truth of the Ahlborn thesis, but for the time was over-
borne by Edinger and his followers. Although in his first work the
present writer accepted Edinger’s views, a wider study of the sub-
ject led him to a treatment in 1906 much more nearly in accord
with the view of Ahlborn and Studnicka. Kappers and others
have added to the discussion and with the fuller knowledge of the
comparative anatomical and embryological facts the general morph-
ology of the membraneous and nervous portions of the forebrain
may be regarded as a closed subject. Much of the discussion has
been due to misunderstanding and differences in the use of terms
and it will be sufficient here to define the terms applied to the parts
of the forebrain and indicate briefly the differences in form in various
classes of vertebrates.
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 519
The term hemisphere is applied in the BNA to each half of the
telencephalon. It would therefore include the right or left half
of all that les in front of a plane passing behind the interventricular
foramina and the chiasma-ridge. It is well known that this portion
of the brain is not hemispherical in form in all classes. It is some-
what so in cyclostomes, many selachians, amphibians, reptiles, birds
and mammals. In Heptanchus, Hexanchus, Chimera the hemi-
sphere is more elongated and the membraneous roof is more exten-
sive. In ganoids and teleosts the width of the membraneous roof
is greatly exaggerated. ‘The nervous walls are rolled outward so
that the membraneous roof is attached along the lateral or even
latero-ventral aspect and arches up over the ventricle. This ever-
sion of the forebrain walls in teleosts has made the term hemisphere
inapplicable in the descriptive sense. However, most of the organs
which make up the hemisphere in other forms are present in the
teleostean telencephalon and these organs hold the same fundamental
morphological relations to one another and to other parts of the
brain. Therefore the term hemisphere may be employed throughout
the vertebrate series, although in no two classes does the telenceph-
alon approach in the same degree the form of a sphere.
In each hemisphere are represented nervous and membraneous
portions. ‘The membraneous portions include the lamina terminalis
and the tela chorioidea. The lamina terminalis is supposed to be
coextensive with the anterior neuropore, but there is no neuropore
in eyclostomes and teleosts and in some other vertebrates (some
amphibians at least) the upper border of the neuropore is not marked
in the early embryos. Where an unambiguous recessus neuropor-
icus exists it is the clear mark of the dorsal border of the lamina
terminalis. Where this landmark is not clear an arbitrary border
for the lamina terminalis must be placed at some distance in front
of the interventricular foramina. ‘The tela forms the roof from the
lamina terminalis to the tela of the diencephalon, from which it is
separated by the infolded velum transversum. ‘The term pars supra-
neuroporica of the lamina terminalis which was used by Burckhardt
(1894) and is used by Edinger for this portion of the brain roof is
wholly without justification. ;
520 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
The nervous portion of the hemisphere includes numerous struc-
tures the arrangement of which will be spoken of in the next section
on nomenclature. The term pallium has been loosely used by various
authors for the membraneous roof of the telencephalon, the dorsal
part of the nervous portion and the superficial cell layers in the
nervous portion. Edinger uses it in all these senses and in the last
edition of his textbook (1908, Bd. 2, p. 249) he distinctly states
that the epithelial roof of the teleostean telencephalon is the pallium.
“Dieses Dach der Hirnblase heisst Hirnmantel, Pallium cerebri.
Dazu gehért auch der auf Fig. 220 noch rein epithelial gebliebene
Abschnitt, derselbe, welcher schon bei den Selachiern und Amphibien
aus eigentlicher Gehirnsubstanz besteht.” This ambiguity is very
unfortunate. Since we have the convenient term tela for the mem-
braneous roof of the forebrain, the term palliwm should be reserved
for the cerebral cortex. The question, then, whether teleosts (or
other forms) possess a pallium should be answered, not with Rabl-
Riickhard by pointing to the membraneous roof, but by ascertaming
whether there is present any nervous substance whose fiber connec-
tions and functions warrant its being compared with the cortex of
higher forms.
It is still too early to define in an exact way what is meant by
cerebral cortex. It is not sufficient to define it as superficial layers
of cells in the telencephalon because in all classes of vertebrates and
in man, superficial gray matter is found in the forebrain whose
fiber connections and functions are very different from those of the
true cortex. To say that the cortex consists of superficial gray in
the roof or dorsal wall of the forebrain gives no means of deter-
mining its extent or boundaries. Although the term cortex implies
and was first used for superficial layers, it has come in recent years
to signify the brain substance which constitutes certain functional
mechanisms, whether superficial or not. It is necessary to define the
cortex by its fiber connections and from the functional point of view.
In mammals the general cortex is understood to be a collection of
highly complex centers which exercise functions of correlation and
control over bodily movements, ete., through lower sensory and motor
centers. The sensory impressions coming to these cortical centers
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 521
usually pass over chains of three neurones. The existence of neurone
chains of only two links connecting the peripheral sensory surtace
with the cortex is somewhat in dispute, but it is certain that such
chains are relatively few in number. The general cortex provides
in its structure the means for association and correlation between
the areas concerned with various modes of sense impressions. This
general cortex has its efferent pathway over the cortico-spinal tract
and other bundles descending through the cerebrai peduncle.
In lower vertebrates, in which the general cortex is not yet known,
the telencephalon seems to consist of olfactory centers and corpus
striatum and it is generally believed that the first cortex to appear
was olfactory in function. The writer was the first to attempt a
definition of the olfactory cortex (1901, p. 239). It was pointed
out that the cortical center receives olfactory fibers of the third
order, not of the second order. The olfactory pathway consists of:
fila olfactoria—bulbus and tractus olfactorius—lobus olfactorius and
its efferent fibers—cortex. This definition of the cortex has since
been adopted and further developed by Kappers (Kappers and Theu-
nissen 1908, Kappers 1908). However, olfactory fibers of the
third order run to other centers in addition to the cortex. In the
diencephalon the nucleus habenule and hypothalamus, and in the
telencephalon itself, the epistriatum (nucleus amygdale in mam-
mals), receive olfactory fibers of the third order (Edinger 1896,
Johnston 1898, 1901, Kappers 1906, 1908). The epistriatum fulfills
this definition in selachians, ganoids and perhaps teleosts when there
is no other part of the forebrain that does meet the conditions. How-
ever, in higher vertebrates (Kappers 1908) a part of the epistriatum
becomes gradually pushed back until it finally occupies a position
in immediate proximity to the pyriform lobe (nucleus amygdalz),
while a true cortical formation appears in the roof of the hemi-
sphere in dipnoans (Elliot Smith 1908) and all higher classes.
Now the epistriatum of forms above fishes, whose history has been
so beautifully traced by Kappers (1908) does not represent all of
the formation to which he gives the name epistriatum in selachians.
The writer has shown that the epistriatum in Petromyzon (1902)
and Acipenser (1898, 1901) receives an ascending tract from the
522 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
hypothalamus and Kappers (1906, 1908) has recognized this tract
also in selachians. I have interpreted this as an ascending gusta-
tory tract (1906, p. 304). The center into which the tract enters
at first (Petromyzon) receives secondary olfactory fibers, but in
most fishes, especially the selachians in which the olfactory appa-
ratus is highly developed, receives tertiary fibers as well. The
entrance of an ascending, presumably gustatory tract, into a ter-
tiary olfactory center in fishes creates a condition analogous to
that found in the general cortex of mammals; namely, a center serv-
ing for the correlation of two sorts of sense impressions which are
received over neurone chains of three links. We seem, therefore,
to have in the so-called epistriatum of fishes a primitive olfactory
cortex. The gray matter does not consist of superficial layers of
cells, but forms part of the wall of the ventricle.
This primitive epistriatum, as seen in Petromyzon and Selachians,
is not all accounted for in the history of what Edinger and Kappers
call the epistriatum in higher forms. The primitive epistriatum
lies in the side wall (floor and roof) of the selachian forebrain
(Kappers). The fiber connections which I have worked out in the
greatest detail in Petromyzon and Acipenser, show that the epistri-
atal formation in the side wall continues caudad to the border of the
diencephalon, 7. ¢., nearly to the nucleus habenule. This is the region
called by Kappers the dorsal part of the prethalamus. That this is
telencephalic territory is readily shown by the fact that the velum
transversum is attached to the lateral wall of the brain just in front of
the ganglion habenule and behind the peculiar structure here being
considered. The primitive epistriatum therefore consists of (1) a
dorsal or roof portion, (2) an epistriatum in the narrow sense resting
upon the striatum (palostriatum, Kappers) and (3) a caudal portion
forming part of the wall of the median ventricle of the telencephalon.
I have shown (1906, Chap. 18) that the caudal portion is of greatest
size and importance in Petromyzon, is still of considerable impor-
tance in Necturus, and in mammals is represented by a small struc-
ture called by older authors the paraphysis but shown by Elhot
Smith (1896) to be a nervous structure. The caudal portion de-
creases in size and importance in the vertebrate series. The second
JOHNSTON, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 523
portion is the true epistriatum which Kappers has traced through the
phylogenetic series up to the nucleus amygdale of mammals.
The dorsal portion of the primitive epistriatum is seen in the roof
in Petromyzon and typical selachians, probably in the short roof
overhanging a shallow lateral ventricle in Chimera, Heptanchus and
Hexanchus, and possibly in a corresponding structure in ganoids at
the anterior end of the olfactory lobe. This structure has generally
been wholly lost sight of in ganoids and teleosts and when it reap-
pears in dipnoans and amphibians in exactly the same position and
relations as in selachians it has been treated as a new structure, the
pallial formation or hippocampus. It must be recognized that the
ganoids and teleosts have no other significance than that of a side
branch of the phyletic line. The dipnoan brain represents the next
step in advance from the selachian, and in the dipnoans the pallial
formation appears just where the dorsal part of the primitive epis-
triatum is found in selachians. The further history of this olfac-
tory pallium has been so clearly worked out by Elliot Smith and
others that no further comment on it is needed.
When all fishes are taken into account it is seen that all three
parts of the primitive epistriatum receive olfactory fibers and ascend-
ing fibers from the hypothalamus. Only the dorsal portien develops
into what is universally recognized as olfactory cortex in higher
forms (hippocampal formation). Now if it be shown that the
ascending tract (gustatory) from the hypothalamus enters the hippo-
campus we could say that throughout the whole vertebrate series the
archipallium (Elliot Smith) is a correlating center for olfactory
and gustatory impulses. If it should prove true that the gusta-
tory center is in the hippocampal formation, all parts of the cortex
can be defined as correlating centers; the archipallium for olfac-
tory and gustatory impulses, the neopallium for impulses coming
from the eye, ear, skin, muscles and joints. General visceral sensa-
tion would be represented also in the archipallium.
I have long felt that the term epistriatum is an unfortunate one.
In only the smaller number of forms is it descriptive of the structure
to which it is applied. The view expressed here and in 1906 is that
the body which Edinger called epistriatum is a part of a more
524 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
extensive formation which in primitive forms has essentially the
same structure and connections in all of its parts. This statement of
fact is subject to revision if further studies show it to be incorrect.
With regard to the name, however, I find that the extension of the
term epistriatum to include all of this formation has led to miscon-
ceptions of my meaning. This formation may be described as the
visceral correlating center of the telencephalon, or as the correlating
substance of the visceral sensory zone of the telencephalon. Instead
of the term primitive epistriatum used above, this might be called
the primitive visceral cortex. The dorsal portion of it becomes the
true visceral cortex (archipallium) when it receives tertiary olfactory
and gustatory fibers.
Some of the factors which enter into the definition of the term
cortex cerebri may be indicated as follows:
a. The term is applied only to structures in the telencephalon
(excludes lobi inferiores, ete.) ;
b. The afferent paths of the cortex are predominantly of the third
order (excludes the secondary olfactory centers; the cortex shows an
uncertain grade of development in the more primitive forms) ;
c. The cortex serves functions of correlation for afferent impulses
of two or more kinds (olfactory, gustatory, optic, auditory, ete. ;
excludes the epistriatum sensu stricto or nucleus amygdule) ;
Whether such correlating centers are superficial in position is
not of essential importance. The general cortex of mammals is
separated from the ventricle only by fibers related to the cortex itself,
i. e., by its own white matter. The question of superficial position
is of much less importance in the case of the cerebral cortex than in
that of the inferior olives, the medial and lateral geniculate bodies,
and other centers which are separated from the ventricle by
voluminous fiber bundles and gray masses which have no direct rela-
tion to themselves.
The point of view of the writer stands in contrast to that of Kappers
who in his recent paper (1909) extends the concept of cortex to the
lobus olfactorius (“‘paleeocortex”) although the centers concerned are
simple secondary olfactory centers throughout the vertebrate series.
His reason for this is that these centers occupy a superficial position
JOHNSTON, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 525
in mammals (e. g., cortex lobi pyriformis). Elsewhere Kappers
insists upon tertiary afferent pathways as the essential eriterion of
the cortex. The use of two different criteria at different times leads
to confusion of thought. I would not apply the term cortex or
paleocortex to these secondary olfactory centers, but would use the
simple terms lobus olfactorius, lobus pyriformis, ete. T would apply
the term cortex to certain functional mechanisms. The above sugges-
tions toward the definition of these mechanisms are of necessity incom
plete and in part hpyothetical. If such a term as paleeocortex were
used it should be applied to the morphological forerunner (homologue )
of the true cortex.
8. Divisions and Nomenclature. The nomenclature of the brain
adopted by the Basle commission is still the best that we have.
largely because it embodied the results of the indefatigable work and
keen insight of His. Before suggesting certain changes in the
BNA tables to bring them into accord with the facts I wish to
examine briefly the nomenclature offered by some recent authors.
Edinger has shown great fertility and enterprise in the production
of new names in brain anatomy. Edinger’s terms have arisen from
his comparative studies of adult brains and are the expression of his
effort to present large and obvious relationships in attractive form.
He considers the lamina terminalis as the anterior boundary of the
diencephalon, agreeing with the BNA. The narrow portion of the
brain extending forward from the optic chiasma (very long in Chim-
wra) he calls the prethalamus (1908, p. 194). When he comes to
describe the telencephalon (p. 251) he describes the lamina terminalis
as the plate which unites the two halves of the telencephalon. He
treats the anterior commissure system as belonging to the telen-
cephalon and even speaks of the “recessus prechiasmaticus” as one
feature of the telencephalon. Here is a contradiction for which
there is no remedy in Edinger’s mode of treatment. The difficulty
is augmented by Edinger’s definition of the primitive basal portion
of the telencephalon (hypospherium): the primary and secondary
olfactory centers and the corpus striatum. Now the floor of what
Edinger calls prethalamus is a secondary olfactory center which I
have called the nucleus preeopticus. It receives fibers from the bulbus
526 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
olfactorius and gives rise to some fibers of the tractus olfacto-
habenularis. Considerations of practical. convenience and clearness
would dictate that this secondary olfactory center be included in the
telencephalon, not in the diencephalon.
Edinger distinguishes a neencephalon from a_paleencephalon.
His paleeencephalon includes the lower segments of the brain together
with that portion of the telencephalon which he calls the hypo-
spherium. The neencephalon is the same as his epispheerium and
includes the tertiary olfactory centers (Elliot Smith’s archipallium)
and the general cortex (Grosshirn, Elliot Smith’s neopallium). Is
it true that the whole of the lower segments of the brain are to be
set in contrast to that part of the telencephalon to which the name
epispherium is given? Are the centers for the cochlear nerve in the
medulla oblongata, the inferior olives, the nucleus dentatus in the
cerebellum and the auditory centers in the inferior colliculus and
metathalamus older than the tertiary olfactory centers or the general
cortex? Or is it true only that our knowledge of them is older?
The terms paleencephalon and neencephalon are undoubtedly useful
as expressions of the functional evolution and growth in organiza-
tion of the whole brain; but as descriptive terms for the topographical
features of the brain they would not be useful in the lower brain
segments and are decidedly misleading when applied to the forebrain
alone.
The terms hypospherium and epispherium seem to apply fairly
well in mammals, but I see no advantage in introducing new terms
which will not apply to the brains of lower vertebrates as well.
In describing the minor divisions of the telencephalon Edinger is
neither consistent with himself nor with the majority of authors.
His description of the olfactory centers is quite confusing and con-
tains several self-contradictions. The body into which the olfactory
nerve enters he calls (1908, p. 252) the lobus olfactorius. Almost
all recent authors have agreed to use the name bulbus olfactorius for
this, while the term lobus olfactorius is given to the collection of
secondary centers which make up a greater or less part of the body
of the forebrain. To this posterior part Edinger proposes to give
the name lobus parolfactorius. This term replaces the term area
JOHNSTON, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 527
olfactoria which Edinger used earlier (1896, p. 141). The present
‘use of lobus parolfactorius is likely to lead to confusion with the
area parolfactoria Broce used by the BNA, which is only a specific
part of the whole group of secondary olfactory centers. Edinger
uses the term area parolfactoria in the BNA sense in Figs. 247, 275,
279, which are old figures reproduced in this edition without revision.
This disregard by Edinger of the usage of the majority of other
authors is responsible largely for confusion which arises in the work
of younger authors or those who are not thoroughly famihar with
the internal structure of the brain. For example, Fuchs (1908)
calls the bulbar formation in the frog larva “lobus olfactorius” and
applies the term “hemisphere” to the rest of the telencephalon. The
confusion of other authors who attempt to follow Edinger’s work
would be less if Edinger himself always used his terms in the same
sense. On p. 260 of the same book he uses the term lobus parolfac-
torius as synonymous with tuberculum olfactorium at least in rep-
tiles, birds and mammals. This center, Edinger thinks, is a special
center for the oral sense, an interpretation which G. Elliot Smith
(1909) shows to be wholly improbable. To the secondary olfactory
center which covers the lateral and ventral surface of the striatum
Edinger gives the names lobus olfactorius (Figs. 230, 231, 234).
area olfactoria (Figs. 247, 273, 274), cortex olfactorius (Figs.
240, 265, 280), and nucleus teenie (Fig. 239).
Professor C. J. Herrick in the course of a very valuable paper
on the subdivision of the brain (1908) gives expression to the cur-
rent idea of the telencephalon in the following sentences. “The
telencephalon is well named. It is terminal, not only in position but
also in point of time, having been added relatively late in the
phylogeny to the rostral end of the original neural tube. The BNA
has done well to omit from it the pars optiea hypothalami which was
originally tabulated as part of this region by Professor His. Origi-
nally developed as primary and secondary olfactory centers, it has
added successively more and more complexity during the whole
course of phylogenetic history.” I quote this not for the sake of
criticising Herrick’s work—for the whole spirit of his paper and
most of the details of it are in perfect harmony with my own views—
528 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
but because it brings out clearly the difference between the results
of the comparative study of adult brains and the results of a com-
plete genetic method in which embryology contributes its just share.
The early development shows that as matter of fact the telencephalon
is not added late in the phylogeny but is actually the first segment
of the original neural tube in all classes of vertebrates. A certain
part of this segment expands and grows in complexity with the
increasing complexity of the vertebrate organism and of its mode of
life. Further, it is clear that the telencephalon originally contained
more than primary and secondary olfactory centers. The existence
of the nervus terminalis is evidence of this; the existence of preoral
entoderm and of a well developed neural crest in the telencephalic
segment of the embryo is evidence of it; the existence of a well
developed correlating center, the corpus striatum, in the brains of
all vertebrates, is further evidence. Of all the authors who have
represented the telencephalon as purely olfactory in funetion, not
one has shown or attempted to show that the corpus striatum is
accounted for by its relations to the olfactory centers alone. The
present writer is the only one who has given facts to show the path-
way of impulses both to and from the epistriatum and the striatum
in lower vertebrates. In my description of the brains of Acipenser
(1898, 1901) and Petromyzon (1902) I showed that olfactory tract
fibers ended in the epistriatum and that fibers arising from the cells
of the epistriatum ended in the striatum. From the striatum the
well known basal bundle (Edinger, Van Gehuchten) passed back-
ward. These results have been confirmed by Kappers (1906, 1908)
but Edinger has persistently disregarded the fact that in his descrip-
tions of the forebrain no fiber tracts are mentioned which would
enable either the epistriatum or the striatum to carry out any fune-
tions whatsoever. In the last edition of Edinger’s textbook the
epistriatum is represented as an end-station for olfactory tract fibers.
but no fibers are described in lower vertebrates which go from the
epistriatum to any other part of the brain. The striatum, on the
other hand, gives rise to the tractus strio-thalamicus, but no fibers
are described which come to end in the striatum. The epistriatum
receives olfactory impulses but has no way of giving out any
impulses; the striatum has an efferent pathway but receives no
Jounston, Forebrain Vesicle in Vertebrates. 529
impulses. Neither of these important forebrain centers is provided
with the means of carrying on any function.
As a further indication that the primitive forebrain has some func-
tions in addition to the olfactory sense, the writer has described two
ascending tracts to the forebrain. One of these, the tractus lobo-
epistriaticus, is believed to carry up gustatory impulses to the
epistriatum from the tertiary gustatory center in the hypothalamus
(fishes and amphibia 1898, 1901, 1902, 1906). If this hypothesis
is correct the epistriatum must be regarded ‘as a correlating center
for smell and taste and so a forerunner of the smell-taste cortex.
A second tract has been traced in Acipenser (1901) from the
tectum opticum only as far forward as the optic chiasma where it
enters the telencephalon. Whether it ends in the corpus striatum
or in some other part of the forebrain remains to be seen. In my
textbook (1906, p. 336) I have pointed out that the entrance of
such a tract as this into the telencephalon constitutes evidence of the
beginning of the correlating centers which in higher vertebrates we
eall the neopallium. The writer has been convinced for some years
that the elements or beginnings of all the chief parts of the telen-
cephalon of mammals and man are to be found in the telencephalon
of primitive vertebrates.
Herrick’s revision of the nomenclature of the diencephalon and
mesencephalon contains two new terms, ophthalmencephalon, and
medithalamus. As a pedogogie term based on function, “ophthalm-
encephalon”’
has my hearty approval. As a morphological sub-
division of the brain it is open to the objection that the regions
included—retina, chiasma, lateral geniculate bodies, pulvinar and
tectum opticum—do not have sufficient morphological unity. The
term medithalamus is offered by Herrick provisionally for the things
left over after the ophthalmencephalon has been set apart. It thus in-
cludes the central gray and a number of nuclei of diverse func-
tions. The fact that it must include the medial geniculate body on
the lateral surface of the diencephalon seems to the writer a fatal
objection to the term medithalamus.
In the diencephalon the epithalamus and hypothalamus are fairly
clearly marked both functionally and morphologically. The hypo-
530 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
thalamus requires new definition both toward the thalamus and toward
the telencephalon. The latter is furnished in the new facts brought
out in this paper; the proper boundary between thalamus and
hypothalamus can be determined only after we have fuller knowledge
of the internal structure. The metathalamus and thalamus each pre-
sents morphological unity and cannot well be improved upon at
present. The chief changes needed in the BNA at present are such
as are required by the new facts regarding the telencephalon and the
boundary between it-and the diencephalon. These will be indicated
below.
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Note. At ‘a’ the box was turned to face in a different direction. At ‘b’ it
was turned. back to the original position. ‘X’ represents the effect of a definite
emotional element accidentally introduced into the experiment. It is described in
a note on p. 549.
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Fic. 2. Constructed from Table II. A. Curves for squirrels 1 and 4. (Pre-
viously untrained.) AB. Curve for squirrels 2 and 3. (Previously trained in
“sawdust-box”’ and in “outside latch box.’’)
552 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
to top of cage; tried to open door from top of box; climbed off box, tried door,
went completely around box and worked at door again; thence to south side,
and back to door and then around box again. Finally left problem-box.
Climbed back on top, then off over string and to door; went back on top once
more, bit at wire netting of cage enclosing problem-box; went around north
side, and then back to box; nosed string; played with string, then came to
south side, tried door, sat and gnawed at wood for two minutes. Stopped;
ran around cage several times and went to door again; bit at nail in corner
of box; then climbed on top, pulled and bit at string while there until the
door came open. Did not notice that door was open and continued to tear
at string and pull and tug at wire netting for one minute. Entered, time:
19-15 min.
Aug. 1, 07, 12 M. Male No. 2 (trained), second trial: Sratched at north
side; at back; ran on top, down to south side; looked around; drank water
out of a vessel in corner of large cage; ran over top of box and scratched
at door; worked very hard here for almost a minute; scratched at north side.
Pulled and tugged at wire netting on top of cage near the point where string
was passed through; examined floor of large cage and scratched at door of
problem-box ; ran around box, listened, ran around again, listened; scratched
at door and then at south corner, listened, etc. Stopped work after 61 min-
utes and refused to start again.
Squirrel No. 1, male (untrained), second trial: Touched door with nose, and
then ran around box; ran over top of box; repeated this five or six times,
trying door each time as he passed it. At intervals would run all over large
cage. No scratching or working at door, simply touched it or tried to enter,
as if door were open. Time: 4.18 minutes.
Squirrel No. 4, female (untrained), second trial: Ran around box, then over
it five or six times; tried door twice; touched string several times in running
over the box; pulled string, gave two tugs; opened it and jumped from box
and ran into food. Time: 2.91 minutes.
Tt will be seen from these notes that the trained squirrels Nos. 2
and 3 both attempted to enter by biting and scratching at the door
and by scratching sawdust, sticks and shavings away from the
bottom of the problem-box on all four sides. The movements
throughout were evidently those of the early learning processes.
The notes also show individual differences quite plainly. Both had
learned the two boxes, the sawdust and outside latch boxes. The
tendency of No. 3, the female, was to bite and scratch at the door
as she had done in learning the outside latch problem. In her work
there was very little and, after a few slight attempts, no scratching
of the sawdust at the bottom of the box. On the other hand, the
male did not carry over the movements learned in his work upon
Yoakum, Behavior of Squirrels. 553
the outside latch box, but did carry over scratching and gnawing
movements acquired in the sawdust box. Both animals apparently
found the task of breaking the habits acquired in the one or the other
of the earlier experiments almost insuperable. The slightest noise
or movement in the room, or the failure on their part to raise the
latch at the first pull on the string, would invariably drive them
to use some one or mere of these previously acquired movements.
The work of the untrained squirrels, Nos. 1 and 4, was of a
much different type. “Useless” movements were as much in evi-
dence, and their activity was at all times as great as that of Nos.
2 and 3. However, the movements of 1 and 4 were random move-
ments, “useless” in the sense of not getting the animal nearer its
food, and further “useless” since they did not carry out any one par-
ticular line of attack, as did the movements of squirrels Nos. 2 and
3. Pulling the string, biting at the wire, running over the box,
etc., were random activities directed toward food. The scratching
and steady work at the door by the trained animals constituted
an activity which the most casual observer would judge to be directed
toward effecting a definite mode of entrance to the food box.
An interesting point in learning to attend to the string came out
in the work of all four animals. At first, the string went unnoticed
or was subjected to the least possible scrutiny and the first pulling
was entirely accidental. At the seventh, eighth and ninth trials, the
string itself was singled out and became the point of the most eager
attack. When found, it was subjected to the severest kind of strains.
Hemp string no longer withstood their attacks and had to be replaced
by electric light cord, and finally by flexible steel wire. The associa-
tion between the string and the food supply had become definite, but
the movements used in pulling the string had not yet become auto-
matic. After the ninth and tenth trials, the unnecessary time and
energy spent on the string were gradually eliminated, until finally a
single pull on the string became the cue for a rush to the door. Fre-
quently in later trials, this pull was made so hastily that it failed
to open the door.
(c) The Maze.—The method of conducting the experiments on
the maze is practically a repetition of that adopted in work upon the
TABLE III.
SHOWING INDIVIDUAL AND AVERAGE TIME OF SUCCESSIVE TRIALS IN
THE Maze. (Two ANIMALS.)
No. of No. I | No. IV |
Trial | Woes | seriale | Average
1 29.00 1.25 5D
2 10.25 3.80 7.02
| 3 9.56 1.86 5.71
4 4.75 1.05 2.80
5 6.33 2.50 4.41
6 3.14 1.83 2.48
i 1222 1.86 1.54
8 1.19 .70 94
9 2.33 1.08 1.95
| 10 1.91 65 1.28
11 1.45 “38 91
12 .67 eel 74
13 85 .83 84
14 .58 61 59
15 43 66 54
16 *4 00 | 255 2.27
17 .29 | 61 “45
18 1.40 | 56 98
19 .56 | 45 | 50
20 60 | 55 | 57
21 45 45 | ieee
22 . 60 .63 | 61 |
23 45 36 | Al
28 -98 38 68
25 00 28 30
26 .86 26 56
27 .80 26 53
28 66 | 26 46
29 -41 .25 33 |
| 30 .80 50 65
3l .ol .28 | 39
32 26 25 OF
| 33 34 26 30
34 .40 25 32
35 20 29 24
36 22 | .28 25
37 50 | .26 38
38 40%) .30 32
39 50 .26 38
40 36 26 31
41 50 25 36
42 - 40 . 26 33
43 ail .28 D4
44 23 28 25
45 .23 BOR 25
46 .30 26 98
47 25 | .40 32
48 35 35 Binge
49 48 | BS ot wea
50 35 “98 Woe)
ee |
*No particular reason can be found for the high record of squirrel No. 1 in the
16th trial. All the conditions were as usual, the animal simply stopped in the maze.
No errors.
33)
Yoakum, Behavror of Squtrrels.
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556 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
white rat. The Hampton Court maze used in the preliminary rat
experiments at the Chicago laboratory was employed in this test."
It was covered with wire netting. ‘The food box was so arranged
that the animal could be transferred to the entrance by means of a
small control page described above (p. 544). A sliding trap door was
inserted in the passageway just in front of the last turn which led to
the food box. This was left open during the running of the maze
and was closed as soon as the squirrel had entered the food compart-
ment. Such precautions were necessary in order to prevent the
return of the animal after the nut had been found or when it was
desired to remove him from the food box for another trial, or to
return him to his cage after the trials of the day had been com-
pleted.
The numerical results of the record are quite similar to the curve
t.14 The accompanying
given by the learning process of the white ra
table and curves show the records made by the two squirrels which
learned the maze.
The process of learning the maze is for these two squirrels similar
in all essential particulars to that of the rat. The early trials were
characterized by all possible errors and hesitancies. Time and time
again the animal would almost make the run perfectly, only to stop
at the last runway and return to the starting place. The elimination
of errors was fairly gradual with certain persistent errors lasting in
both animals until as late as the twentieth trial.
One point was noticed which seems worthy of mention. The ani-
mals, even after having completely learned the maze, were easily
disturbed. The slightest movement on the part of the observer, any
noise outside of the room, or a bright beam of sunlight on any part
of the maze, all must be investigated before the squirrel would con-
tinue. The hungriest squirrel could be stopped at any place in the
runway and made to turn into a cul-de-sac or to go back to the
starting point by moving the finger along the wire netting above
him. If the observer happened to appear anywhere within the squir-
See WATSON, J. B., Kinzsthetic and Organic Sensations: their Réle in the
Reactions of the White Rat to the Maze, p. 10.
4Cf. WATSON, op. cit., appendix.
TABLE IV.
SHowi1na EFFectT oF DARKENING MAZE AND OF RoTATING MAZE.
‘Rial tera Wonnine Average
Total Darkness
1 38 oo 45
2 26 .41 BE
S 30 cao 31
4 26 1.40 83
5 30 .45 37
6. 31 as 42
i( 58 ie 55
8 45 .45 45
9 30 .95 62
10 28 a 31
11 26 .43 34
12 30 .41 35
iS 28 36 32
14 28 .30 29
Lights on
15 28 36 By
16 25 .30 oT
17 .26 Sil 28
18 26 .30 28
19 .26 .30 .28
20 .26 .40 foo
Maze turned 180°
21 46 .96 71
22 1.05 .66 85
23 Ral 61 46
24 1205 .46 75
25 38 oo 35
26 .36 25 31
27 EST a5 28
28 238
29 30
30 .28
31 .41
32 .46
33 a3
34 30
35 28
36 dues
37 .26
38 3s
Maze turned 270°
1 Se nod 1.91
2 30 .46 38
3 60 .30 45
4 28 .26 27
5 28 -25 DT.
6 40 .28 34
(i .30 .36 33
8 .28
Maze turned 360° |
3 “88° 133
38 . 26 32
30 .83 56
35 .33 34
ONMUIkWNe
ow
i)
558 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
rel’s field of vision, the animal would stop a moment and look up, or
try to get out, at the place nearest the observer. Timidity also often
produced hesitancies and slowed the time without actually resulting
in error. The actual care of the squirrel in the maze turns out to
be distinctly more difficult than is the case with the white rat. The
former is much more easily disturbed emotionally than the latter.
Curiosity and the desire for social contact with the experimenter also
often cause interruptions in the squirrel’s run through the maze.
(d) Effects of Darkening the Maze and of Rotating the Maze.—
Table IV and Fig. 4, appended below, show the effects of darkening
the maze and of rotating the maze 180°, 270°, and 360° on two squir-
rels trained to run the maze in the light.
The irregularity in the record apparently produced by the absence
of the light appeared only when the light was turned out after the
animals had obtained their “cue.” That it is caused by distinctly
emotional changes and not by a loss of “cues” due to the darkness,
follows from the fact that when all lights in the room were turned
out before the squirrel was started, there was neither hesitancy nor
error. Even in the cases where the lights were turned out after the
animal had started, a simple hesitancy was the only error present—
the rest of the trip being made as automatically as in the light.
When the maze was rotated 180° and 270° respectively, the be-
havior of the animal was decidedly different. Errors were a fre-
quent occurrence. The animals often ran back to the starting place,
hesitating and disturbed on both the forward and the backward runs.
The rotation to 270° seemed provocative of the greatest confusion.
The last error after the change was made appeared at the tenth trial.
The rotation to 360°, after practise at the two positions just men-
tioned, produced no errors. There was slight confusion, however,
and the time was slower than the fastest perfect time of the earlier
tests. This series of trials does not appear in the curve.
These records have not added much in any exact way to our
knowledge of the sensory “cues” used by the squirrel in learning and
later in automatically running the maze. Those who observed the
animals at any time were convinced that the sensory factors operative
in the learning process and in the perfected maze habit were other
559
Yoakum, Behavior of Squirrels.
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560 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
than those contributed by the distance receptors. These latter sense
organs frequently presented difficulties to the learning process rather
than actually assisting it. Such cannot be considered as rigidly
proved, but the general and specific behavior of the animals points
to such a conclusion.
Ill. Tests on TemMPprERATURE SENSE.
The habit of the squirrels on cold days or whenever the tempera-
ture of the room became decidedly lower than usual, of burrowing
under shavings, sawdust or cotton, led to an attempt to devise means
of testing the temperature sense by the use of the discrimination
method. In this connection, the animal’s method of covering itself
is interesting. The squirrel will draw the shavings, or cotton, up
in a pile in one corner of the cage, and will then burrow into it.
When finally hidden in the pile, all that is visible is a portion of ©
the tail; if this is drawn aside the tip of the nose and finally the |
entire head become visible. The little animal thus lies curled up
in its nest with the tail as the final addition to its covering.
The temperature test to be described was made in the first place
with a view to determining the general features of the temperature
sense; in the second place, for the purpose of testing the range and
fineness of this sense. ‘The tests as originally planned are not com-
pleted. One of the animals was accidentally killed, and the work on
the other was stopped by reason of the experimenter’s removal to
a distant locality. It is probably better to look upon these results
as being qualitative and preliminary rather than to consider them
as being standards quantitatively determined.
The apparatus was constructed as follows: Two galvanized iron
boxes (A and B, Fig. 5) were made with outside dimensions of
9 x 9 x 24 inches. They were built like square-sided pipes, as
shown in the drawing, the inner opening being 5 x 5 inches and
running the entire length of the box. The space between the outer
and inner jackets was two inches deep and entirely enclosed the
central cavity with the exception of the ends. This enclosed space
was supplied with three vents, an inlet (I), an outlet (O) for the
water supply, and an air vent (V) to relieve the pressure when
Yoakum, Behavior of Squirrels. 561
Py Hy
/
562 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
water was admitted to the vessel, or when the vessel was emptied.
This third vent was not needed so long as the circulation of water
was constant. The outlet was placed at the bottom of the encircling
jacket and brought to a level with the upper part of the box.
Arranged thus, it could be used to siphon all the water out, which not
only prevented the possibility of rust, but also at the same time
afforded the opportunity for beginning work immediately on sub-
sequent days, by eliminating the necessity of heating a large body
of cooled water in the jackets.
In the bottom of each of these 5 x 5 inch inner passages small
cubical pans were sunk flush with the floor to a depth of one inch.
These pans served as food receptacles. They were placed near the
end farthest from the opening used as an entrance for the animal
(thus avoiding any possibility of the use of vision). The back of
each box was covered by a ground glass plate, behind which a 16
candle power light (EL) was placed. The boxes were painted
throughout a dull black, and every effort exerted to make them abso-
lutely alike. The experimenter found this successful so far as his
own discrimination was concerned.
The temperature of these boxes was regulated by forcing hot and
cold water of the desired temperature to circulate through them.
A triple faucet was used, two vents giving cold and hot water, respect-
ively, and the third so attached that the water from the first two
could be mixed and any desired temperature of water obtained.
The overflow ran into a sink near by.
The regulation of the temperature was not wholly exact. In the
first place, the temperature of the room varied slightly from day
to day. The extreme limit of this variation during this series of
experiments was 3 degrees. The temperature near the experimental
boxes necessarily varied according as the needs of the experiment
demanded high or low temperatures. Further, this surrounding air
varied considerably during the experiment. It was finally decided
that the temperature should be said to be that obtained by a rapidly
registering Centigrade chemical thermometer when its glass surface
was held against the inner surface of the uniformly heated box,
five inches from the mouth or entrance. The mercury of the bulb
Yoakum, Behavior of Squirrels. 563
TABLE V.
Tests ON TEMPERATURE DISCRIMINATION OF SQUIRRELS.
Male Squirrel Female Squirrel
Series | 40°C. | 15° ©. 4oec. | 25° ©. 40°C. | 25°C. | 40°C. | 30°C.
by days | Right Wrong Right |Wrong Right | Wrong Right Wrong
1 1 3 4 0 4 | Z is 5
ey 2 3 4 0 0 6 6 2
3 33 4 2 2 4 3 9 Dy
4 3 0 4 0 5 4 9 2
5 6 1 1 3 3 6 if 0
6 3 2, 4 1 5 4 4 3
a 6 yy 2 0 Gl 3 6 1
8 6 0 2 1 9 0 4 1
9 4 0 5 0 3 0 6 1
10 5 0 4 2, 5 2, 5 3
11 5 0 6 0 8 1 8 1
12 4 0 3 if 4 1 7 3
il 10 0 My 0 10 O
14 4 0) It 0 9 0
15} 2 2 3 0) 10 0)
16 2 1 2 0
We 4 0 4 0
18 3 0 3 0
19 3 0
Totals: | 225 elie 59 10 86 32 76 24
eit Ast iia | | = ——| nee
Percentage. .80% | 85% | 73% | 76%
1 At this point a change in conditions was made, see p. 567.
2 Exclusive of series 15, 16, 17 and 18.
did not come in contact with the side of the box. It was determined
by a series of trials that when the temperature thus obtained was 40°
- Centigrade, the air in the center of the opening the same distance
from the entrance was from 1.5° to 1.25° lower. These conditions
were kept constant and tested before and during each daily series of
experiments.
Flexible rubber tubing was used for making the water connec-
tions from the overhead piping. This tubing permitted the raising
of one box over the other, which was necessary in order to rule out
the position factor. Shifting the large heavy boxes was done by
means of a rope and pully (P). The temperature boxes them-
selves, the space in front of them, the passageway between them,
564 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
and a considerable space behind them, were screened in by wire net-
ting. Sliding wire partitions served to confine the animal in any
desired portion of the enclosed space during the adjustment of the
apparatus. The passageway between the boxes as they stood in
position was five inches wide. The animal entered from behind
and passed between the boxes to the open space in front, and there
had the choice of turning into the opening of either box.
It will be seen that these tests were made upon few animals. All
of the animals, however, were in good condition and the experimenter
feels that the results, as far as they go, are representative.
The first set of tests was made upon the male squirrel. The
conditions of this test were as follows: Box A, the standard (which
contained the food in all the tests), was kept at a temperature of
40° + 2° C. Box B, the variable, during the formation of the dis-
crimination habit was kept at the temperature of 15° + 2° C. A
record of this test 1s shown in the first three columns of Table V.
After discrimination had become definite, the temperature of the
variable box was raised to 25° + 2° C. Columns 4 and 5 of the same
table show the results of this change.
The second set of tests was made upon a female. In this case,
as in the one above, the standard box A was kept at a temperature of
40° + 2° C., but the variable B was kept at a temperature of
25° + 2° ©. After the association had become definite, the tempera-
ture of the variable was raised to 30° + 2° C. The latter part of
this test (discrimination between 40° and 30°) was not completed,
but the work was carried far enough to leave no doubt that the dis-
crimination of this difference was possible. Table V, columns 6, 7,
8 and 9, show the results of the whole test.
A similar set of tests was made upon three white rats. Table VI
shows the records of these animals and the temperatures used.
(a) Discussion of results of tests upon squirrels.—The behavior
of the squirrels in this test varies little from recorded descriptions
of like experiments in other sensory fields. The “controls” used
were such as to eliminate sensory factors other than that of tem-
perature. It may be well to mention in some detail the precautions
taken.
Yoakum, Behavior of Squirrels. 565
Position was ruled out by reversing the direction of the turn
the animal must make to enter the proper box. Our experience in
this part of the control is quite similar to Professor Yerkes’ descrip-
tion.?®
TABLE VI.
Tests ON TEMPERATURE DISCRIMINATION OF WHITE Rats.
No. 1 No. 2 No. 3
= = | = = == a8 =
Series 40° C 24° C | 40° C 24° C, 40° C 24° C
by days Right Wrong | Right Wrong Right Wrong
E wee sae ie
| |
| |
1 3 Cee eer ae Ss lie eS 3
2 3 3 | 3 3 4 D
3 2 4 | 4 2 4 3
4 3 2 3 3 3 3
5 Dee 2 aaines ill 6 2 4 3
6 2 | 0) | 4 0 | ih 2D
al 3 2 | 5 0 4 1
8 2 Oy | 4 3 3 2,
9 6 2 | 2 4 4 2
10 Tees n | 3 1 | 4 1
il | 2 0 | 6 1 ! 5 2
12 2 3 || 5 0) | 6 1
13 9 Z 5 0 4 2
14 9- 0 | 5 0 5 0
15 10 (pil amnesia a ee 10 1
16 10 OF el) 5.08. Fel eO 9 0
17 Ira) ally xy 10 0
18 HS) geclOe Gee r eeas 10 0
-——- —« —
Totals. ..-2\ 75 25 | (96 | 2 93 27
[seer Meaete 6 esl | ! ele
Percentages. . .75 % ! 81 % | EGS
It was found impossible to eliminate the position factor to the
point where it became non-operative. This failure to rule out posi-
tion was used in the latter part of the series as a semi-control test.
Going twice or three times into the box in one position was sufficient
to establish a preference in favor of that side. Changing the right-
left relation of the boxes at this stage constituted a severe test, both of
the temperature association and of the squirrel’s patience. No
failures to choose correctly between the boxes are recorded at the
stage where this test was tried.
~’The Dancing Mouse, The Macmillan Co., ’07, p. 91 ff.
566 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
As has already been mentioned, all visual difference between the
boxes was eliminated. The boxes were of the same size, both were
painted black and closed at the back by ground glass windows.
Behind these windows, 16 ¢. p. electric lights were placed in order
to prevent the possibility of unequal lighting (at times these lights
were interchanged). ‘The food boxes were sunk into the bottom of
the passage way, and nut hulls and the kernels used for food could
not be seen from the upper part of the entrance. To prevent any
possibility of this, however, both food boxes were partly filled with
empty nut hulls, and toward the close of a series, with whole nuts
and pieces of nuts. In a control test, both hghts behind the boxes
were turned off entirely, leaving both boxes in total darkness; finally,
first one light and then the other was turned off to determine the
firmness of the association.
Smell was eliminated by rubbing the side and bottom of the five-
inch passage way with nut kernels and with other aromatic sub-
stances.. Food was frequently placed in both food boxes, when the
discrimination had been established, to test thoroughly the absence
or presence of smell associations as well as visual.
In order to be certain that all the factors other than temperature
were alike in both boxes, the box which was made the standard on one
day (40°) was used as the variable on the succeeding day. This al-
teration was not constant, 7. e., not made every other day. It was
feared that even this regularity might be learned by the squirrel, so
that the change of the standard temperature from one box to another
was made quite frequently in the midst of a single day’s series.
To prevent discrimination in the runway on any basis whatever,
the sides were covered with asbestos. It was not particularly in-
tended that discrimination on the basis of temperature should not
take place here, but in order to eliminate secondary criteria, it
seemed better to eliminate differences in temperature as well.
After the association had been formed, an effort was made to de-
termine how the squirrel detected the temperature of the box. This
was very incompletely done, for the reason that it was desired to
confuse the animal as little as possible in order that the later experi-
ments might proceed immediately. Asbestos pieces were prepared
Yoakum, Behavior of Squirrels. 567
to fit snugly over the front lower edge of the entrance. These were
placed over both boxes and thus shut out all temperature discrimina-
tion by contact, thus forcing the animal to depend upon the air in
the entrance to the tunnel. The effect is shown in the records of
the first set of tests, series 15, 16, 17 and 18, Table V.
The squirrel was plainly confused, which he showed by sniffing
the air and testing each box once or even twice before entering. He
soon learned, however, to depend upon the air at the entrance of the
box in deciding which box to enter. It seems quite possible that
under the first set of conditions, the squirrel was discriminating
partly by actual contact with the metal of the box and partly by
means of the air at the entrance.
(b) Discussion of results of tests upon white rats—Table VI
shows the work of three white rats on temperature discrimination.
The method used was slightly ditferent from that pursued with the
squirrels. The rats seemed so uncertain and irregular in their early
tests, that it was practically necessary to develop a position habit.
Such a habit was accordingly developed and then broken. The rat
learned to find the food in one box by position, then the position
was changed and he was compelled to learn a new position. To the
observer at least the earlier stages of the learning process seemed
to be much more easily detected by this method than by the method
used in the experiments upon the squirrels.
IV. Concuvusion.
1. In the solution of the problems placed before the squirrel in
the series of experiments, it is shown that the squirrel learns by the
trial and error method. His learning curves are in the main similar
to the curves representing the learning processes in the white rat.
2. The greater irregularities in the curves obtained from the squir-
rel may, perhaps, be explained on the basis of emotional factors that
are more prominent in these animals than in the rat. The greater
sensivity to emotional disturbances seems to be due to the fact that
the distance receptors play a larger role in the life of the squirrel
than in the rat. Experimental proof of this seems possible.
3. Successful training in certain problems is highly prejudicial
568 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
to the further training of the same animal in problems which pre-
sent a large number of similar conditions. Different methods of
opening the same problem box constitute such unfavorable conditions.
A latch problem box and the maze, for example, do not present
enough identical conditions to interfere with the learning process of
the one when the other has been learned first.
4. The grey squirrel and the white rat can form associations upon
the basis of a temperature sense. Actual tests show that the squirrel
can discriminate between two boxes when they differ in temperature
by 25°. In the case of one animal tested, a difference of 10° in
the temperature of the box was found discriminable. Further tests
with a more accurate apparatus would in all probability show that
the discriminable difference in temperature may be much less. The
experiments upon the white rats show that a difference of 16° is
easily discriminated.
5. Incentives which may be used easily in further investigations
with the squirrel are: hunger, disagreeable odors and tastes (bad
nuts, onions, etc.), gnawing impulses, and love of exercise and greater
freedom. ‘This last incentive is especially strong in the squirrel.
The ability of the squirrel to detect an edible nut from a faulty
one probably contains the sense, or senses, in which the keenest dis-
criminative power of the squirrel is reached.
TROPIC AND SHOCK REACTIONS IN PERICHATA
AND LUMBRICUS.
BY
EK. H. HARPER.
From the Zoological Laboratory of Northwestern University.
Wi1TH Two FIGURES.
CONTENTS.
PAGH
TTL OG UC CLOT tasare coe treks tersreseneyetereciece Orevereie astro tue res htaelierelie Sees ere stelcre ste allem avers 569
MovementsroG Perichetay oie. cle sis « ccexstsyelsie olaeiele sietehecone Leone cheer opens: voewets 569
Methods or Stimulant ompacres <'<'sc%e1s chee sc. clei se aysicereileie verereiwie: oiavsccuelens 572
ChemicalyStimulation or the Anterior Wmdl s2iae accsmctesielscleisis Scicleis <' s 572
INGE ATIVE S EEA CLONE UY) CS te stcysscrs: sisua evan ole. epayete: oipiate iisietere ar eterrereseleleveretererstolstte 573
Relations top thesmuscwlaburer seri. ace wane ceiver eels son anal rons chores 575
Frequency of the reaction types under different degrees of stimulation 576
VATA Uy en Olt UCR y [CS eachevaus auecelels ©. s2aiere isco Where: Sebevev neve SUG ok oreteleie me ec 576
The tropic tendency in the different reaction types ..............e. 578
The two-phased character of the reaction types ............2..s00- - 580
BU muersemMedsemprindli chee responses! a... cre cic to iele » 175.
the near vicinity. In Catostomus (young’) the cells have a similar
arrangement, the great majority being grouped around the anterior
end of the cavity of the tectum, a few being found along the mid-
dorsal line and an occasional cell placed farther laterally. In brief,
in selachians the cells are much more numerous, extend the whole
length of the tectum and the largest collection is in the posterior
region; in ganoids and teleosts the cells are fewer, are confined to
the anterior half of the tectum and are collected chiefly at the
604 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
anterior border. In fishes I have seen none of the large cells along
the course of this bundle caudal to the velum medullare anterius.
In Necturus the cells are found throughout the length of the
tectum, are most numerous in the posterior part and are very few
near the anterior border. Except near the anterior border, every
transverse section of the tectum shows from three to six of these
cells and one or two of the number are situated laterally, somewhere
within the medial one-half of the tectum. One cell was seen at the
lateral border of the tectum. In Cryptobranchus the arrangement is
similar, but the greater number of cells are in the anterior half of
By
S.
PAu
bt
A
Vic. 6. < 50.
Acipenser, and the mammals studied including the human embryos.
The course of the bundle in Seyllium eanicula, Acipenser and Nec-
turus was described in my previous paper. I wish to make certain
additional notes on the basis of preparations made since that paper
612 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
was published. In Seyllium canicula the course of the radix mesen-
cephalica through the cerebellum was somewhat complex and I sug-
gested that this accounted for Edinger’s mistaking this bundle for ¢
tractus tecto-cerebellaris. In Seyllium stellare the course of the
bundle is identical with that in S. canicula except that it makes a
much less complex bend or loop in passing through the cerebellum
into the velum medullare anterius. The course of the bundle is so
direct that there is no chance of losing or mistaking it in following it
Tic. 11. Acipenser rubicundus; some cells of the nucleus tecti as seen in a
transverse section. The bundle of fibers is the beginning of the radix mesen-
cephalica. 175.
through transverse sections. The same is true of Squalus acanthias.
Also, in sagittal sections of Scyllium: stellare the whole course of the
bundle is very clearly followed (Figs. 9 and 10). The way in
which the mesencephalic bundle crosses the motor root bundles in
these sagittal sections makes it quite impossible to make any mistake
as to which root the mesencephalic bundle enters.
In Acipenser the bundle was previously followed only into the
tectum, not to its cells of origin. I have since traced the bundle in
JoHNsTON, The Radix Mesencephalica Trigemint. 613
other preparations with perfect clearness around the lateral part of
the tectum to the nucleus magnocellularis tecti. The fibers run in a
broad bundle immediately outside the ependymal layer and at the
anterior border of the tectum are seen in transverse sections bending
toward the median line and joining the large cells (Fig. 11).
In the turtle the whole course of the bundle is remarkably clear.
At its exit there is some intermingling with the motor roots, which is
not seen in fishes or amphibians and suggests the complex relations
seen in adult mammals.
In mammals the structures in the region of the trigeminal roots
are more crowded than in lower vertebrates and the relations of the
mesencephale root have been difficult to make out on that account.
So long as the fact that the cells of origin lay in the brain did not
seem to be of especial importance for the interpretation of the bundle,
authors inclined to believe that it joined the sensory root. After the
formulation of the neurone doctrine and the law that sensory fibers
arise from peripheral ganglion cells and motor fibers from central
cells, most authors saw a connection of the mesencephalic bundle with
the motor root of the trigeminus. I believe that this accounts for the
change of opinion from Meynert and the older authors to Kolliker,
Van Gehuchten, Cajal and recent authors. The mesencephalic root
is very difficult to trace to its exit in mammals, the differences of
opinion are most natural, and the opportunities for seeing what one
wishes to see are admirable. When I first studied this root in
Seyllium I fully expected to find it join the motor root, as I had
been convinced so far as mammals and birds were concerned by the
work of Cajal and of Wallenberg. I was greatly surprised by what
I found in Seyllium, but in all the forms studied since I have never
been able to trace the bundle into the motor root or to find good
reason for doubting its connection with the sensory root.
Instead of burdening the paper with an extended description and
with numerous figures of the various brains, I will make one or two
notes on the course of the bundle in adult brains and depend upon the
figures from the human embryonic and feetal brains to demonstrate
the essential relations in mammals. It is necessary to give attention
only to the relations of this bundle to the motor and sensory roots,
since the course of the upper part of the bundle is well understood.
614 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
The first mammal in which the bundle was followed with certainty
was the mole, whose brain is comparatively simple and primitive.
In it the bundle runs caudad over the motor nucleus without any
complex relation to it and then bends downward and forward to
enter the spinal trigeminal tract and leave the brain in the sensory
root. The large cells in the locus coeruleus are widely separated from
br Con |
=== a2
| V mes aes
V motZ, Poet
vit :
S
Fie. 12. Sketches to show the course of the mesencephalic root in the
common rat. 25. Camera drawing.
seen that these fibers form definite bundles which go out with the
motor root. They are the crossed fibers of the motor trigeminus.
These are all the fibers which enter the motor root in this specimen.
The mesencephalic root continues in the transverse plane from the
sensory root to a point dorsal to the motor nucleus, where it turns
forward to go through the isthmus to the tectum mesencephali. The
connection of the mesencephalic bundle with the sensory root in this
Jounston, The Radix Mesencephalica Trigemint. 623
section is unmistakable, since both lie in the plane of the transverse
section and the mesencephalic fibers run directly among the sensory
bundles. The motor bundles are crossing the mesencephalic bundle
obliquely. In the sections caudal to this one, other fasciculi of the
/
Ij,
ig’
/ “i /)
Hy Hs
fl ml
Vmes.
Vmot nuc
Fie. 20. Section next anterior to that shown in Fig. 19. An interlacing of
the mesencephalic fibers with the crossed motor fibers. The two form with the
sensory root a Y-shaped figure. The mesencephalic fibers descend among the
sensory fibers in the stem of the Y, while the motor fibers in their oblique
course forward leave the section at the point where the two bundles interlace.
mesencephalic bundle are cut lengthwise and show exactly the same
relations as are seen in this section. In the section next cephalad
there is an interlacing of the fibers of the crossed motor root with
the most cephalic fibers of the mesencephalic bundle. As this is the
624 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
point at which all the confusion of the two kinds of fibers arises, this
section is drawn in Fig. 20. The motor roots are cut obliquely, the
sensory root is cut nearer to its point of exit. The crossed motor
bundle crosses the mesencephalic bundle at such an angle that the
two kinds of fibers can be clearly distinguished. It is not necessary
to describe other sections of this series. Cephalad from this the
mesencephalic bundle has its usual position. The relative position
of the cell column of the mesencephale root and the motor nucleus is
clear in these sections. The motor nucleus extends forward six
sections from the one drawn in Fig. 20, and the cells of the mesen-
cephalic root appear in the fourth section cephalad from that of Fig.
20, so that there is an overlapping of the two for three sections of
this series or six sections of the complete series. The cells of the
mesencephalic root le one millimeter or more dorsal to the motor
nucleus and are separated from it by the bulk of the mesencephalic
bundle itself and by the crossed motor bundle.
Tn this embryo the mesencephalic root, coming from its cell column
which lies dorsal and cephalic to and separated from the motor
nucleus, runs ventro-laterad lateral and caudal to the motor bundles,
which it crosses obliquely, and leaves the brain in the heart of the
sensory root.
Fetus of 42 em., transverse sections. The 42 em. feetus is taken
up next in order to compare the transverse sections with those just
described. One section from each half of the brain is shown in Figs.
21 and 22. The two sections are nearly at the same level. In the
section through the left half of the brain (Fig. 21) the cerebellar
portion was broken away as indicated by the dotted line; in the right
hand section (Fig. 22) the reticular formation was broken as indi-
cated by the dotted line, but neither of these breaks in any way
affected the structures under consideration. An examination of the
figures will show that the chief relations here are identical with those
in the earlier foetus. Medullation is now much more general. The
reticular formation contains many medullated fibers and the pons,
acustic area and cerebellum show fairly numerous fibers. The
sensory root is cut just at the point where a part of its fibers are
turning into the spinal trigeminal tract, which is better formed on
Jounston, The Radix Mesencephalica Trigemini. 625
the right (Fig. 22), since that section is somewhat further caudal
than the left-hand one. Many fibers of the sensory root enter the
chief sensory nucleus and the cephalic end of the substantia gela-
tt NSS
Lane SO NET
les
Vsens e ~~ ese e
es
N
Fie. 21. Human feetus, 42 cm.
roots on the left side.
surface of the pons.
leave the section.
x 20.
Transverse section through the trigeminal
The short heavy line at the left below is the outer
@, £, x indicate the ends of the motor bundles, where they
All the fibers below and to the left from these are sensory.
tinosa. In each section is seen a large bundle of sensory fibers pass-
ing dorsad over the outer surface of the sensory nucleus. A part of
the fibers enter that nucleus, the remainder seem to pass on to the
cerebellum.
626 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
The motor nucleus is indicated in Fig. 21 by a dotted line and in
Fig. 22 by the line along which the section was broken. Its dorso-
lateral surface is covered, as in the younger specimen, by bundles of
the motor root. On each side there is a broad but loose bundle of
decussating fibers and beneath this are denser bundles of fibers arising
\
I1Vven
a LEO"
iw
aes aN
\N\S
V mot eee SS -
‘
\
Fie. 22. Same specimen as in Fig. 21, two sections farther caudal on the
right side. < 20.
from the motor nucleus of the same side. The motor bundles run
ventro-cephalad and are cut obliquely in the section a short distance
ventral to the lower border of the motor nucleus.
The mesencephalic root of both sides is clearly formed of fibers
from the sensory root and only obliquely crosses the motor bundles
Jounston, The Radix Mesencephalica Trigemini. 627
as those pass downward and forward beneath it. In sections caudal
to those shown in these figures the same relations maintain, except
that the mesencephalic bundle is more widely separated from the
motor bundles in successive sections. It is seen in Fig. 21 that fibers
pass out from the mesencephalic bundle to end in the sensory nucleus.
The close relation of this bundle to the sensory nucleus is clearer in
the next sections caudad. Here it is distinctly seen that the mesen-
cephalic bundle runs through the sensory nucleus and in the case of
many sensory fibers it is difficult to tell whether they accompany the
bundle or end in the sensory nucleus. Also it appears that many
sensory root fibers run through the lateral part of the sensory nucleus
or over its lateral surface and continue parallel with the mesen-
cephalic bundle to enter the cerebellum. Some of these relations are
shown in Fig. 22, which is taken from the second section in this
series caudal to the one shown in Fig. 21. In the sections next
cephalad from those figured, the same interlacing of mesencephalic
fibers with decussating motor fibers as was seen in the 27 cm. fcetus
is present and gives a confused picture. This interlacing is difficult
to unravel in transverse sections because of the greater number of
fibers medullated as compared with the younger stage and a drawing
of this would not be clear unless it were made diagrammatic by
omitting many of the fibers. The study of the sections convinces me
that there is only an interlacing together with a certain crowding, as
compared with the younger foetus, and that the mesencephalic fibers
all join the sensory root. From the horizontal sections next to be
described this interlacing is drawn as accurately as possible under
the camera without any schematizing, and the evidence for the con-
clusion here stated will be seen in those figures. It should be borne
in mind, however, that in both the series of transverse sections above
described the greater part of the mesencephalic root clearly passes
down to the sensory root wholly separate from the motor root, so that
any doubt that might exist regarding its possible relation to the
motor root would attach to only the small part of its fibers.
The cells of the mesencephalic root are drawn in black in Figs. 21
and 22. It is clearly seen here that these cells are separated from
the motor nucleus by the motor root bundles and by the arcuate
628 “‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
:
Wy p
Mi
jy /
Fic. 28. Human foetus, 37 cm., frontal section through the inferior colliculus
and isthmus. >» 20. Description in the text.
Jounston, The Radix Mesencephalica Trigemint. 629
fibers of the acustic area. In these figures the cells are removed from
the motor nucleus by about the diameter of that nucleus itself. The
cells shown in Fig. 22 are the nearest cells to the motor nucleus.
Feetus of 87 em., horizontal or frontal sections. From this series
nine sections are drawn (Figs. 23 to 32) showing the course of the
mesencephalic root from the mid-brain to its exit in the trigeminus.
For the purpose of demonstrating whether this bundle is connected
with the motor or sensory root it will be best to follow it from above
downward in the description. In sections through the decussation
IV vent
Fic. 24. The sixth section of this series (12 of the whole series presumably)
ventral to that drawn in Fig. 23. > 20. Description in text.
of the trochlearis the mesencephalic bundle is seen passing forward
deep in the corpora quadrigemina, or rather along their base, and
reaching nearly to the bundles of the posterior commissure. Cells
are seen at intervals along the bundle, twenty or more being counted
in a single section on one side. A drawing of such a section has not
been made because this part of the course of the bundle is familiar
to every one. Fig. 23 shows a section of the mesencephalic bundle
beneath the posterior colliculus at the point where it begins to turn
ventrally. Far forward appears the root of the trochlearis, to the
left is the lateral lemniscus, and between them is the brachium con-
630 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
junctivum whose fibers are lghtly medullated. In Fig. 24 the
greater part of the fibers have turned ventrad and are ent across in
the section. Owing to the fact that the fibers of this bundle are cut
across in the frontal series, their course will not appeal so quickly
to the eye in the following figures as in those taken from the trans-
verse series, but the evidence of the relations of the fibers will be
much more complete from an examination of both series of figures.
In Fig. 24 the mesencephalic root appears as several small bundles
of fibers obliquely placed in the section. The fibers may now be
grouped into three main areas as an aid in tracing their further
course. These areas are indicated roughly by the position of the
IV vent
Fic. 25. The third section of this series ventral to the last. >< 20. Descrip-
tion in text.
letters a, b and ¢. The fibers adjacent to b and ¢ form one fairly
continuous flattened bundle which is wider cephalo-caudad. Adjacent
to a are numerous oblique fibers, some of which are Jonger than
others. These belong to the more ventrally placed bundles in the
mesencephalon and are just now joining the root-bundle. Between
a and the bundle b-c in this figure are some intermediate fibers which
in Fig. 25 have joined } orc. In Fig. 26 the motor nucleus appears
and is outlined by a dotted line and by the motor bundles which
partly embrace its caudal surface. At least a part of the broad
bundle running diagonally past the motor nucleus consists of decus-
sating motor fibers from the other side. For convenience the motor
bundles will be designated by the last letters of the alphabet and
these decussating fibers are labeled z, while the homolateral bundles
Jounston, The Radix Mesencephalica Trigemint. 631
y and x are seen arising from the nucleus. It should be noticed now
that the mesencephalic bundle b-c hes caudo-lateral to the motor
nucleus and is distinct from the motor bundles. It will make the
understanding of the following figures more easy if the reader holds
in mind that from here on the mesencephalic root is destined to run
latero-ventrad and slightly caudad to its point of exit, while the
motor root bundles run ventro-cephalad and laterad, so that at this
point the bundle b-c shows its nearest approach to the motor bundles.
It is this bundle b-c whose separate course has been clearly shown in
the transverse sections. The bundle a in this figure is to be found
(i ee f :
Coan VN
lV vent.
Fic. 26. The second section of this series ventral to the last. 20. Descrip-
tion in text.
among the motor bundles, this being the point at which the inter-
lacing already described takes place. The fibers will be recognized
as a row of short lines set at an angle to the direction of the motor
fibers. It is in reality a very thin flat bundle which lies chiefly
between the decussating and homolateral motor fibers. This section
is the one in which these fibers are most completely intermingled
with the motor fibers. To render the relations more clear, I have
drawn the same section at a higher magnification so as to be able to
show the exact position of the fibers of bundle a more clearly (Fig.
27). Every fiber is drawn under the camera with great care. I am
unable to find a single fiber of the mesencephalic bundle which seems
to turn into the motor bundles.
632 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Above and below the section just described the relations of bundle
a are entirely clear. Proceeding with the series, Fig. 28 shows the
full extent of the motor nucleus and all of the motor bundles formed.
The nucleus is pear-shaped with the small end caudad. A few decus-
sating motor fibers are seen passing over this small part of the
nucleus to join the bundle z which receives also fibers from this part
of the nucleus. The bundle y is also a mixed bundle of decussating
and homolateral fibers. From the large cephalic part of the nucleus
are being formed the remaining motor bundles which are marked
LAE
mone GAs
KZ
LZ
Fic. 27. Same as in Fig. 26. > 78. Description in text.
v, w and a. Between the bundles w and y are seen the curving fibers
of the bundle a of the mesencephalic root, just extricating themselves
from the motor bundle a. Lateral to the bundle a are seen the fibers
of the bundle b-c, now loosely scattered. The letters a, b and ¢ stand
at the angles of a triangle which includes the fibers of the mesen-
cephalic root and nearly all the fibers appearing within this triangle
belong to that root. All these fibers are clearly traced in the inter-
mediate sections. It is probable in this and the following sections
that a few of the fibers in the a-b-c area end in the sensory nucleus,
Jounston, The Radix Mesencephalica Trigemini. 633
for as Fig 28 clearly shows, the mesencephalic root is running
directly through the sensory nucleus. There now appears in this
section the most dorsal portion of the main sensory root of the
trigeminus, just at the point where it is giving fibers to the sensory
nucleus and where the most of its fibers are turning caudad as the
spinal trigeminal tract. There also appear in the figure the root of
the vestibularis and of the motor facialis.
In Fig. 29 appear besides the sensory and motor roots and nuclei
of the trigeminus, the motor facialis, the cochlearis, fibers of the
Fic. 28. The fourth section of this series ventral to the last. 20. Descrip-
tion in text.
trapezoid body, ete. The motor bundles of the trigeminus are col-
lected opposite the cephalic end of the motor nucleus, except the
bundle z, which still receives decussating fibers and is closely related
to bundle a of the mesencephalic root. The fibers of the b-c area
have now collected into two fairly distinct groups of small bundles.
The bundles ¢ are evidently joining the sensory root and are inter-
mingled with the fibers which are passing caudad in the spinal tri-
geminal tract. The other relations in this figure will be clear from
the labelling.
634 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
The following figures require little comment in addition to the
description given beneath each. The sensory and motor roots now
run on to their places of exit, the motor in front of the sensory. Of
the motor root bundles, the one which is chiefly composed of decus-
sating fibers, bundle z, lags behind the others, remains close to the
Z~ Nmot.cr.
SY,
. &
KE
y
Fic. 29. The third section of this series ventral to the last. x 20. The
heavy lines to the left mark the outer surface of the brain. Description in the
text.
sensory root and leaves the brain as a separate rootlet in this fcetus.
Of the mesencephalic root the bundle ¢ joined the sensory root in
Fig. 29, the bundle 6 enters the sensory root in Fig. 30, while the
bundle a appears as three small compact bundles, the last of which
is seen joining the sensory root in Fig. 31. The relations of the
Jounston, The Radix Mesencephalica Trigemini. 635
spinal trigeminal tract, the cochlearis, the facialis and the trapezoid
body are drawn for the sake of orientation.
Fic. 30. The fifth section of this series ventral to the last. x
20. Descrip-
tion in the text.
The horizontal sections of the 37 cm. foetus fully support the
description of the mesencephalic root in the transverse sections of
636 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
the 27 and 42 em. stages. The general conclusion may be stated
thus: in the human embryo of 15.5 mm. the mesencephalic root of
the trigeminus is connected with the sensory root and is clearly not
connected with the motor root or nucleus, but is widely separated
Jee, BA
Fic. 31. The second section of this series ventral to the last. » 20. The
motor and sensory roots of the trigeminus, the cochlearis and motor facialis
are shown. The outer surface of the pons is toward the left. A broken
line separates the motor and sensory roots. The fibers of the motor bundles
have a much darker and more opaque stain than those of the sensory bundles.
Fic. 32. The sixth section of this series ventral to the last. » 20. The
motor and sensory roots of the trigeminus are shown near their point of exit.
In these last two sections there is nothing except their deeper stain to indicate
that bundles y and ¢ are motor bundles. They are readily traced continuously
through the series as described in the text. The broken line separates the
motor and sensory roots.
from them; in the later foetus of 27, 37 and 42 cm. stages the mesen-
cephalic root is gradually crowded closer to the motor nucleus and
root and where it passes over the dorso-caudal surface of the nucleus
a small part of its fibers are interlaced with the decussating motor
fibers and with a few of the homolateral fibers; by far the greater
Jounston, The Radix Mescenphalica Trigemini. 637
part of the root remains wholly distinct from the motor root and
nucleus; all the fibers of this root mingle intimately in the sensory
root of the trigeminus with the fibers which end in the chief sensory
nucleus and with those which go to form the spinal trigeminal tract.
Discussion AND CONCLUSIONS.
The important considerations regarding this mesencephalic root
are (1) the character and significance of its cells of origin; (2) the
course, position and connections of the bundle in the brain and
(3) the peripheral distribution of its fibers.
That the fibers arise from cells in the brain in all classes of verte-
brates there is now, I believe, no reasonable doubt. I have shown in
this paper that in fishes and amphibians the great majority of these
cells lie in or near the mid-dorsal line in the tectum mesencephali.
Since the same root bundle of the trigeminus arises from these cells
and from those in the locus ceeruleus in mammals, I know no reason
to doubt, and I know of no author who doubts, that the cells in the
two situations belong to the same category. We are dealing with the
same set of cells throughout all vertebrates and those in mammals
must be regarded as having migrated farther from the place of origin,
at the mid-dorsal line. The facts are all in favor of the supposition
that these cells have been derived from the neural crest just as the
giant ganglion cells in the spinal cord have been. The cells located
in the locus cceruleus in mammals will require some additional ex-
planation such as the supposition that they have migrated probably
from the mesencephalic segment along the course of the nerve bundle.
T see no possibility of denying that these cells arise in the extreme
dorsal region of the brain in all vertebrates and I know of no other
structures with which they can be compared than the giant cells in
the spinal cord. The reason for comparing these with one another
is that both send their processes out in sensory nerves.
The similarity of the mesencephalic cells in size, form and struc-
ture to the spinal ganglion cells and to the dorsal cells of the spinal
cord is another strong argument. It is important to notice that in
both classes of cells bipolar and unipolar examples are found which
give rise to coarse peripheral processes (dendrites) and slender cen-
638 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
tral processes (axones). ‘I'he ground for this comparison is as
perfect as can be desired so far as the animals thus far studied are
concerned.
I have already pointed out that the bundle has essentially the same
course and position in the brains of all classes and I need only repeat
that it is always situated in the dorsal zone of the brain. ‘There is
not known in any part of the brain or spinal cord of any vertebrate
a root bundle of any motor nerve which runs longitudinally in the
dorsal half of the brain wall. The trochlearis is the only motor
nerve which enters the dorsal zone of the brain in any part of its
course, and that only to decussate. On the other hand, all the sensory
nerves, their roots and longitudinal bundles in all vertebrates are
strictly confined to the dorsal half of the neural tube. This is not a
demonstration that this bundle is sensory in function, but it shows
that the presupposition is that it should be sensory. We expect all
primary bundles in the dorsal half of the brain wall to be sensory ; the
burden of proof rests with thosé who would consider this bundle to
be motor.
The connections of the bundle in the brain require further study.
Since all the evidence goes to show that the large processes of the
cells are peripheral sensory fibers comparable to the peripheral pro-
cesses of the spinal ganglion cells or the dorsal cells of the spinal
cord, we should look for connections in the brain similar to those set
up by the central processes of the spinal ganglion cells. I have
shown (1900) that the giant cells in the cord of fishes are bipolar
and that their axones run in the dorsal tracts, so that these neurones
resemble embryonic spinal ganglion cells in everything but the posi-
tion of their cell bodies. The cells in the mesencephalon of the toad
are unipolar, bipolar or multipolar and possess true axones which
enter the substance of the tectum. The same is probably true of the
bipolar cells deseribed by Merkel and Krause and of those which I
have seen in the rabbit. I consider it probable also that one of the
several processes which Kdlliker saw on these cells may have been a
true axone. The same may be said of the two cells figured by Van
Gehuchten. Each has a slender ascending process which is probably
the true axone. My line of reasoning here is that the existence of
Jounston, The Radix Mesecenphalica Trigemim. 639
true axones with central distribution is what we should expect in
view of the fact that the peripheral process goes into the sensory
nerve and is therefore the dendrite, and in view of the disposition
of the processes of the giant or dorsal cells of the spinal cord which
is well understood. I am satisfied that such central axones entering
the substance of the tectum are not uncommon in fishes and amphi-
bians. If the bipolar (and multipolar) cells in mammals are inter-
preted in the most simple and direct manner, they must be placed in
the same category. But the majority of cells in mammals seem to
have only a single process which sends collaterals into the motor
nucleus of the trigeminus. Are these collaterals to be regarded as
the central axone and the point of their origin as the T-division of
the single process of the ganglion cell? I should hold this hypothesis
in doubt until we have a very thorough knowledge of these neurones.
It involves the supposition that these neurones begin as bipolar cells
(already known), change into unipolar cells as do the spinal ganglion
cells, and that the single process grows to an enormous length in
ease of those neurones whose cell bodies lie in the tectum. On the
other hand, Van Gehuchten figures the collaterals from the large
processes at the level of the motor nucleus of the trigeminus in the
trout, while from his figures and from my sections of Acipenser and
selachians I believe that the cell bodies in the tectum bear true axones.
The only other case in the vertebrate nervous system which comes to
my mind in which axones or axonic collaterals are given off from the
afferent or dendritic process of a neurone in addition to an axone
arising from the cell body, is the case of the giant cells in the spinal
cord of fishes (l. ¢., p. 376). These neurones possess ascending
axones arising from the cell body and descending axones arising from
the dendrite. (For other conditions occurring see the paper referred
to.) The motor collaterals in the case of the trout (Van Gehuchten)
and mouse (Cajal) would seem to correspond closely to the descend-
ing axone arising from the dendrite of the giant cells in the cord of
teleosts. This suggests the hypothesis that what may be called a
descending or accessory axone has grown in importance in higher
forms, while the true axone ending in the tectum has been reduced and
possibly is absent from most of the cells in mammals. On this
640 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
hypothesis the motor collaterals would be analogous (not homologous)
to the motor collaterals in the spinal cord, and serve for direct reflexes
between the sensory surfaces about the mouth and the muscles con-
trolled by the trigeminus. ‘This is perhaps the most important
function of the mesencephalic root bundle and is sufficient to account
for the growing predominance of the motor collaterals.
I have gone thus far with these speculations in order to show that
very interesting problems lie here for other workers—to determine
more completely the morphology of these neurones in all classes of
vertebrates, the disposition of their central processes, their origin
and development and especially the history of the several processes,
the axones and the motor collaterals. The size of the mesencephalic
root and its constancy in all classes of vertebrates are sufficient proot
of its importance and of the value of further studies along the lines
indicated.
The peripheral course of the fibers is the one point of crucial
importance in the question at issue. In showing that the mesen-
cephalic root bundle in selachians, ganoids, urodeles, anura, reptiles,
insectivores, rodents, ungulates, carnivores, and man leaves the brain
in the sensory root, I believe that I have established the strongest
probability that the bundle is sensory in function. In mammals and
man the motor root runs over the surface of the trigeminal ganglion
without interchange of fibers. Im many lower forms the motor root
is almost as distinct. I do not know of any case in vertebrates in
which motor fibers leave the brain in a sensory root and join the
motor rami peripherally.
Exact and conclusive proof of the sensory character of this bundle
would be obtained by one or a combination of the following opera-
tions: (a) Destruction of the cells of origin or cutting the mesen-
cephalic root at any point central to the Gasserian ganglion without
injury to the latter, followed by examination of the peripheral trunks
of the trigeminus by the Marchi method to determine the distribution
of the degenerated fibers. (b) Violent tearing out of one of the
peripheral sensory rami in each of several animals with later study
of the cells of origin to determine which ramus it is whose rupture
causes destruction of the cells by retrograde degeneration. I have
not found time or favorable conditions to attempt these operations.
Jounston, The Radix Mesencephalica Trigemini. 641
One clinical case has come to my notice in the hterature which
furnishes almost as clear results as could be expected from the second
form of operation. This is the case of facial atrophy reported by
Mendel (1888). The patient had suffered, twenty-five years before
her death, from interstitial neuritis of the left trigeminus. Micro-
scople examination of the trigeminus showed the end products of
the neuritis in the root and all the rami, but the maxillary division
was very much more seriously affected than any other part of the
nerve. In some sections of the maxillary nerve there appeared only
small islands of normal nerve fibers among the thick connective tissue
septa. The cells of the trigeminal ganglion appeared entirely normal.
In the brain the only abnormal changes found were the reduction in
the size of the mesencephalic bundle of the trigeminus and reduction
in the number of the cells in the substantia ferruginea on the left
side as compared with the right. The facial nerve showed no change
either centrally or peripherally. The motor nucleus of the tri-
geminus was normal. The vesicular cells in the mesencephalon from
which part of the mesencephalic bundle arises appeared normal.
Mendel interpreted his results as evidence that the mesencephalic
bundle had specific trophic functions. The simplest interpretation
seems to me to be that the destruction of nerve fibers in the peripheral
rami had resulted in retrograde degeneration of part of the fibers of
the mesencephalic bundle and atrophy of their cells of origin. The
Gasserian ganglion appeared normal, the motor nucleus appeared
normal. Either there had been no degeneration in either of those
or the atrophy of certain cells had been so complete in the course of
twenty-five years that there were no results apparent to Mendel.
The Gasserian ganglion, however, had not offered a block to the
degeneration of fibers of the mesencephalic bundle passing through
it, and the atrophy of cells in the comparatively small locus cceruleus
could be detected by counting. The division of the nerve which was
much the most deeply affected is wholly sensory. The obvious con-
clusion is that the mesencephalic bundle is sensory in function and
this harmonizes with all the considerations urged in the present
paper.
Although I began the study of this bundle four and a half years
642 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
ago, fully expecting to find it a motor bundle as described by Cajal,
Wallenberg and others, I have been unable to find any good evidence
for this interpretation.
I have pointed out (1905, 1906) that the existence of a general
sensory (cutaneous) column extending up into the tectum mesen-
cephali is a strong support for the theory of primitive functional
divisions of the nervous system with which all readers of recent
literature have become familiar. This general interpretation rests
upon the demonstration of true axones of the ganglion cells ending
in the tectum and is more secure than before so far as the primitive
brain is concerned. The hypothesis suggested above implies that the
tectum mesencephali in mammals has largely lost its primary general
sensory function.
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN ALL THE FIGURES.
a,b,c, bun@les of the radix mesencephalica.
Aq., Aqueduct. -
br. conj., brachium conjunctivum.
cblm., cerebellum.
Cc. p., commissura posterior.
c. r., corpus restiforme.
dec. vel., decussatio veli. >
ep., epiphysis.
lem. lat., lemniscus lateralis.
loc. ceer., locus coeruleus.
nue. coch., nucleus cochlearis.
nuc. hab., nucleus habenule.
s., Sensory nucleus of trigeminus.
s. 1., sulcus limitans.
sg. or sub. gel., substantia gelatinosa.
ter. gust., tertiary gustatory tract.
tr. sp. V, tractus spinalis trigemini.
V cebllr, cerebellar fibers of trigeminus.
V g, ganglion trigemini.
V mes, radix mesencephalica trigemini.
V mot, motor root of trigeminus.
V mot. cr., decussating fibers of motor trigeminus.
V mot. nuc., motor nucleus of trigeminus.
V sens, sensory root of trigeminus.
VIII c, nervus cochlearis.
VIII vest., nervus vestibularis.
Ven, fourth ventricle.
v, Ww, £. y, 2, bundles of the motor root of the trigeminus.
Jounston, The Radix Mesencephalica Trigemint. 643
LIST OF PAPERS CITED.
BECHTEREW.
1887. Ueber die Trigeminuswurzeln. Newrolog. Centralb., 1887.
1899. Die Leitungsbahnen im Gehirn und Riickenmark. Leipzig, 1899.
BREGMAN.
1892. Ueber experimentelle aufsteigende Degeneration motorischer und
sensibler Hirnnerven. Jahrbicher f. Psychiatrie, Vol. 11.
CAJAL.
1896. Beitrag zum Studium der Medulla Oblongata, des Kleinhirns und
des Ursprungs der Gehirnnerven. Leipzig, 1896.
GOLGI. .
1893. Intorno all’ origine del quarto neryo cerebrale. Atti della reale
Accad. dei Lincei, Ser. V, Vol. II.
HELD.
1893. Beitrige zur feineren Anatomie des Kleinhirns und des Hirn-
stammes. Archiv f. Anat. und Entwickl., 1893.
HARRISON.
1901. Ueber die Histogenese des peripheren Nervensystems bei Salmo
salar. Archiv f. mikrosk. Anat. und Entwickl., Vol. 57.
JOHNSTON.
1900. The Giant Ganglion Cells of Catostomus and Coregonus. Journal of
Comparative Neurology, Vol. 10.
1905. The Radix mesencephalica trigemini. The ganglion isthmi. Anat.
Anzg., Vol. 27.
1906. The Nervous System of Vertebrates. P. Blakiston’s Sons & Oo.,
Philadelphia.
KOLLIKER.
1896. Gewebelehre. 6te. Auflage, Vol. 2.
LUGARO.
1894. Sull’ origine di aleuni nervi encefalici. Archivio di ottalmologia,
Vol. 2.
MENDEL.
1888. Zur Lehre von der Hemiatrophia facialis. Neurolog. Centralb.,
1888.
MEYNERT.
1871. The Brain of Mammals. In Stricker’s Handbuch der Lehre von
den Geweben. American Translation. Wm. Wood & Co., New
York, 1872.
PONIATOWSKY.
1892. Ueber die Trigeminuswurzel im Gehirne des Menschen nebst einigen
vergleichend-anatomischen Bemerkungen. Jahrbiicher f. Psychi-
atrie, Vol. 11.
RAMON.
1904. Origen del nervio masticador en las aves, reptiles y batracios.
Trabajos del lab. d. invest. biol. de la Univ. d. Madrid, Vol. 3.
644 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
SABIN.
1901. An Atlas of the Medulla and Midbrain. Friedenwald Company, Bal-
timore, 1901.
SARGENT.
1904. The Optic Reflex Apparatus of Vertebrates for Short-circuit Trans-
mission of Motor Reflexes through Reissner’s Fiber ; its, Morph-
ology, Ontogeny, Phylogeny and Function. Bul. Mus. Comp.
Zool., Vol. 45.
TELLO.
1909. Contribucion al conocimento del encefalo de Jos teleosteos. Los
nucleos bulbares. Trabajos d. Lab. d. invest. biol. de la Univ.
d. Madrid, Vol. T.
VAN GEHUCHTEN.
1895. De Vorigine du pathétique et de la racine supérieure du trigumeau.
Bull. de VAcad. Royale des Sciences de Belgique. 38 Serie,
Vol. 29.
1895 a. Les cellules de Rohon dans la moelle epiniére et la moelle allongée
de la truite (trutta fario). Bruxelles, 1895.
1897. Contribution a l’étude des cellules dorsales (Hinterzellen) de la
moelle epiniére des vertebres inferieurs. Bruxelles, 1897.
W ALLENBERG.
1904. Neue Untersuchungen iiber den Hirnstamm der Taube. Anat.
Anzeiger, Vol. 25.
1904, Nachtrag zu meinem Artikel tiber die cerebrale Trigeminuswurzel
der Vogel. Anat. Anzeiger, Vol. 25.
A NEW ASSOCIATION FIBER TRACT IN THE
CEREBRUM.
Wirn Remarks oN THE Fiser Tract Dissection Meruop or
STUDYING THE BRAIN.
BY
EK. J. CURRAN,
Assistant in Anatomy, Medical School of Harvard University.
WITH THREE PLATES.
In April and May, 1908, while as an undergraduate pursuing the
elective course in advanced anatomy in the Harvard Medical School
under Professor Dwight, I was repeatedly and agreeably surprised
with the ease and accuracy with which many of the fiber tracts of the
brain, the nuclei, and the deep origins of some of the nerves could be
dissected by methods slightiy modified from those employed in study-
ing other parts of the body. Through the kindness of Professor
Dwight and Dr..Warren, I was allowed to use a large number of
brains for dissection, in the course of which new and impressive
pictures of well-known structures were continually occurring. With
such novelty and distinctness did these stand out that one not familiar
with the original works of the early anatomists would almost be con-
vineed that a new method of attacking the difficult problems of brain
anatomy had been discovered. The attempt to follow fiber tracts by
dissection seems to be the most natural method for investigation of the
larger structures in the brain, and one that would be first thought of.
So it is not surprising to learn that before the advent of the micro-
scope, among the different methods of brain study attempted by our
predecessors, fiber-tract dissection had a place, and many of the
larger structures were displayed with considerable skill. With the
introduction of the microscope, however, this method became
neglected, and one cannot see in the text-books of to-day a single
THE JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.—VOL. XIX, No; 6.
‘
646 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
example of a fiber tract dissection of any merit. Prof. J. B. John-
ston,’ University of Minnesota, published in November, 1908, an
excellent paper on brain dissection in which is mapped out an
elaborate course which he follows in teaching and in which anatomy
is taught with reference to the function. In this paper the following of
the tracts of known function is emphasized and dissection of some of
the large bundles in the cerebrum is described. Recently Dr. Jamie-
son*® published two beautiful dissections, and made on appeal for this
kind of work as an adjunet to the section studies now so much used.
I learned from this publication that he had been dissecting brains
for the past four years. Professor Hoeve also has been successfully
doing fiber tract dissection." As to the reliability of the method,
Dr. Jamieson says that he has never been obliged to abandon a
tract as an artifact; and this has also been my experience. So
reliable do I consider it that I have been using it as an adjunct
in research work, and in the following pages I shall endeavor to
convince the reader that not only may an adequate idea of well known
structures be acquired, but that by the use of this method new tracts
may be discovered which can finally be verified by the microscope,
and more easily thus verified on account of their having first been
dissected. Microscopie sections of such can be cut in the direction
of the fibers, and this does not entail the work of following a large
series of transverse or, as is more usually the case, oblique sections,
which in an adult human brain must be so large and numerous that
the danger of losing the continuity is always very great. I have
used the dissection method in class this year, and am convinced that
it makes the work of the teacher and that of the student much easier
and, as compared with the section studies, renders demonstration of
the essentials of brain anatomy perfectly simple.
Mernops.
To prepare the brain for dissection, any of the hardening fluids in
general use will give good results; but I prefer a 10 per cent formalin
solution injected through the carotid artery while the brain is an situ.
*Anat. Record, Nov., 1908.
“Jour. of Anat. and Phys., April, 1909.
°Anat. Record, April, 1909, p. 247.
Curran, 4 New Assoctation Fiber Tract. 647
If we use a stronger solution the fibers will be firmer for dissection,
but the nuclei will become bleached, and there will be no definite line
of demarcation to distinguish the gray from the white matter. The
brain should remain im situ for a day or two; this is a sufficient
length of time to allow of hardening to such a degree as will enable
it to retain its shape. It should then be removed and placed carefully
in a 10 per cent solution of formalin for three weeks or a month. I
have also obtained good results when the brain was taken out shortly
after death and preserved in the above solution without carotid injec-
tion. In case of early removal, the fluid has time to penetrate -to the
center before softening takes place.
The only instrument necessary is a blunt pair of forceps which,
when closed, are smooth and even at the edges where they meet. When
such forceps are closed, they act as a blunt dissector. As well as
separating fibers with the forceps thus arranged, it is sometimes
necessary to lift bundles out of their places and to pull on them in
order to ascertain the direction of their fibers. For this purpose the
interlocking ridges should be fine and transverse in direction, to
permit of a gentle but firm grip on small bundles of fibers without
the danger of tearing or breaking them. Forceps with a few large
sharp teeth at the end should not be used. When museum prepara-
tions are being made, a very sharp knife will be of use to cut off
ragged ends and to trim the dissection. 'Too much trimming some-
times produces a dissection which, though finely finished, is less
instructive than one which has not been trimmed at all. The
latter shows the direction of the fibers, and any work that is to be
done on it should not be such as would obscure this; otherwise the
full value of the work would be lost.
In developing skill in this method, it is necessary to have an
abundance of material at one’s disposal. Almost every viewpoint
revealed by dissection will be new, and the dissector will often be
unwilling to proceed further with the dissection in hand, because in
trying to show a deep set of structures he will have displayed a new
and attractive view of another set, not originally intended, which
perhaps lie more superficially than or close to the structures first
intended to be shown. , Although it may be desirable to save this
648 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
specimen, it must be destroyed in further proceeding to make the
one first attempted. Consequently the best plan in such a case is to
begin anew on another brain if there is plenty of material available.
The fibers of the brain are so easily removed that one has to be con-
tinually on guard against proceeding too quickly and attempting to
show too much at once. It is better to show a little in each dissec-
tion and to do a greater number to cover the ground. For this
reason I recommend beginning at the cortex, studying the superficial
fibers first, and making a series of dissections, each deeper than the
preceding one, until the whole brain has been gone through. It is
well to dwell upon some of the difficulties to be met with, and to say
something of the methods which I use to overcome or diminish them.
By careful observation during the dissection of over 200 brains,
human and others, I was able to gather certain facts, and abstract
with tolerable accuracy certain laws regarding the structure of the
white matter of the brain, which have been of great use to me in my
subsequent dissections. The chief difficulties are caused by inter-
crossings with other tracts. These intercrossings take place at various
angles, and on this depends the degree of difficulty. The nearer to a
right-angled crossing it is, the more difficult it will be to dissect.
If the fibers are almost parallel—or merely interlocking at an acute
angle—the tract can easily be followed, but if the angle at which
they cross each other is much greater than this, it will be impos-
sible to dissect them unless one tract is markedly larger than the
other, or its fibers are in isolated bundles. When one tract is much
smaller than the other, it becomes lost at the intercrossing and only
the larger one can be followed. The intercrossing and intermixing
of fibers from different systems is, for obvious reasons, greater near
the cortex than is to be found deeper, consequently the superficial
dissections and the terminals in the cortex of deep dissections are
less certainly made out than deeper tracts themselves. I have also
observed that fibers arising in adjacent convolutions or adjacent
nuclei and going to a distance to be distributed to adjacent areas soon
gather together and continue in a compact bundle, which is in some
cases thoroughly isolated from the surrounding structures until near
the points of distribution, when they spread out and proceed to their
Curran, 4 New Association Fiber Tract. 649
different places of termination. Moreover, the more distant the
areas united by these fibers, the deeper are they from the surface ;
and, conversely, the more superficial the fibers in the cortex are, the
closer are the areas they unite. In other words, the long associating
fibers le deeply and the sort lie superficially. This is an important
and a helpful law; for it enables us, when we meet a tract lying
deeply, to say with tolerable certainty that it unites distant parts of
the cortex or distant nuclei. A tract is more easily dissected if fol-
lowed from the place where it appears as a separate bundle to its
distribution in the cortex. Owing to the tendency of fibers to form
into bundles in all long tracts there is a line of cleavage which, if
found and followed, assists us to overcome the intercrossing diffi-
eulty which appears as we approach the cortex from within. Ens
‘ SUS Wea tip
=)
3s .
3 -Cna. (t. pt.) N
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Occ. lobe
,
THD JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PsycHOLOGY.—VoL. XIX, No. 6
PLATE II.
Hig. 3.
Photograph of a dissection of the brain, from the lateral aspect. Oce.
lobe, occipital lobe. F. 0. f. i, F. 0. f£. i7, F. 0. £. 1% fasciculus occipite-
frontalis inferior, cut before it reaches the frontal lobe. Nue. lent., nucleus
lentiformis. IF. trans. o.*, F. trans. 0.°, fase. trans. oce., greater part removed
to show the fibers of the fasciculus occipito-frontalis inferior at this place
as it spreads over the posterior horn of the lateral ventricle. F. o. f. i2, shows
some of the fibers of the fase. occip. front. inf. as they curve round the under —
surface of the posterior part of the descending horn of the lateral ventricle
and the posterior horn itself, as they proceed to the under surface of the
occipital pole. Hipp., cut edge of hippocampus major. F. are., anterior
descending branch of fase. arcuatus entering the white substance of the sup.
temp. convolution. F. are.’, fasc. arcuatus (horizontal part). L. g. b., lat-
eral geniculate body. Cna., corona radiata, temporal part. Corona, corona
radiata to frontal lobe. Ant. ¢., ant. ¢*, anterior commissure. Roof desc.
h., roof of descending horn of iat. ventricle. The roof of desc. horn is made
up of fibers of the thalamic radiation, the tapetum, stria semicircularis, and
tail of the caudate nucleus. Ext. c., part of the ext. capsule left on the nue.
lentiformis.
Fic. 4.
Photograph of a rough dissection of the full course of fasc. occip. frontalis
inf., F. o. f. i1, and F. o. f. i.2, seen from the lateral aspect. The fase. unci-
natus has been removed, and also the descending branches of the fase. arcua-
tus (F. are.) have been cut off and dissected away, and the transverse ver-
tical. occipital associating bundle has been removed. Ext. cap., external
capsule. Opt. tr., optic tract. Ant. ¢?, broken edge of anterior commissure
as it spreads out into the temporal lobe. Corp. alb., corpus albicans. Cr.,
crus cerebri. Cna., edge of the temporal part of corona radiata.
A NEW ASSOCIATION FIBER TRACT. ; PLATE II.
E. J. CURRAN,
"
x > x =
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> ° Se SF Se >
2. Soy GS SO es
WS i) to = 7, : i) ps
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Opt. tract
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THE JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PsycHOLOGY.—VOL. XIX, No. 6.
a
s>
a
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a oa bike My
os
re
f
PLATE III.
ail, 5,
A drawing of a transverse section of a brain cut in line A, Fig. 8, to
show the position of the fasc. occip. frontalis inf. and other structures in
relationship with it. The index lines explain the drawing.
HiGs 6G.
A drawing of a section cut at position of line B, Fig. 8, showing the
fase. oce. front. inf. in relation with other structures in the cross section.
N. r., nucleus ruber. S. n., substantia nigra. L. v., lateral ventricle. N. 1.,
nucleus lentiformis. Other abbreviations in the plate explain themselves.
IRIE ZC
A drawing of a section in the line C, Fig. 8, showing relation of the fase.
occip. frontalis infr. to the posterior horn of lateral ventricle and surround-
ing structures. The position of the fasc. o. f. i. and optic radiation are not
shown as intercrossing, but it must be understood that a great deal of inter-
mixing of fibers takes place here which cannot be represented in the drawing.
Fie. 8.
This is a rough drawing of the outlines of the brain from which the pre-
ceding cross sections were made, the exact positions of which are shown by
the lines A, B and C. The dotted lines from the frontal to the occipital lobe
represent diagrammatically the course of the fibers of the fasciculus occipito-
frontalis inferior.
A NEW ASSOCIATION FIBER TRACT, PLATE III.
EB. J. CURRAN.
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callosum
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Tur JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PsyYCHOLOGY.-—VOL. XIX, No. 6.
VISUAL DISCRIMINATION IN RACCOONS.
BY
L. W. COLE anp F. M. LONG.
WitH ONE FIGURE.
In a former paper concerning the behavior of raccoons certain dis-
criminations which they made between two colored objects which
differed both in color and brightness were deseribed.' These were
purely sensory discriminations (7. e., an added motor factor which
the animals later spontaneously contributed to the experiment was
not an essential feature of it). We wished, if possible, to ascertain,
further, whether these animals can discriminate colors of equal bright-
ness, and some months after the above mentioned paper was published
we began at the University of Oklahoma the experiments here de-
seribed. The work was completed at Harvard University. The
method used was that of employing reflected light under conditions
of daylight illumination.
In using this method we at first adopted the procedure which
Kinnaman had used in investigating the color vision of monkeys.?
Later this procedure was modified in order to adapt it for use with
the raccoon. The method has been used, with varying details, in
1CoLr, L. W. Concerning the intelligence of raccoons. Jour. of Comp.
Neur. and Psych., vol. 17, pp. 211-261. 1907.
*KINNAMAN, A. J. Mental life of two Macacus rhesus monkeys in captivity.
Amer. Jour. of Psych., vol. 13, pp. 98-148 and 173-216. 1902.
THE JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.—VoL. XIX, No. 6.
658 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
researches on the color vision of the dog by Himstedt and Nagel,’ by
Samojloff and Pheophilaktowa,* and by Orbeli.?
Since the results obtained by these workers are important, it seems
desirable to give a brief account of their investigations. Nagel
believes, because of the very common occurrence of protective colora-
tion in animals, that ability to discriminate colors must be widely
distributed in the animal kingdom.® He holds to this view especially
in the case of birds and mammals.‘ Believing, then, that the negative
results of Lubbock’s experiments® were inconclusive,? Himstedt and
Nagel proceeded as follows. They first taught a poodle to bring them
a red ball (or rod) at the command “bring red.” When the animal
had learned to do this, balls of blue, of gray, and of other shades of
red were added. From among these balls, the animal learned to
bring a very bright red at the first command, at the second, strawberry
red, then carmine, then, if no more reds were present, a bright orange
colored ball, and finally
Jv?
would select a ball covered with Bismarek-brown of a distinctly
if he was still commanded to bring red, he
reddish hue. Thus the animal seemed to discriminate red and its
similars (for us), from other colors, and from grays. Later, Him-
stedt extended the training to other colors, with a like result.
Samojloff and Pheophilaktowa pursued the following plan. They
first pasted a disk of green paper on the front of a small box in which
they placed a small bit of food. The dog was taught to get the food
’Himstepr, F., and Nacer, W. A. Versuche iiber die Reizwirkung verschie-
dener Strahlenarten auf Menschen- und Tieraugen. Festschrift der Albrecht-
Ludwigs-Universitit in Freiburg. 1902.
4SAMOJLOFF, A., und PHEOPHILAKTOWA, A. Ueber die Farbenwalrnehmung
beim Hunde. Zent. f. Physiol., Bd. 21, S. 1383. 1907.
SYERKES, R. M., and Morcuuis, Sercius. The method of Pawlow in aninal
psychology. Psych. Bull., vol. 6, pp. 257-273. 1909. This review includes a
synopsis of the dissertation of Orbeli. Orpetit, L. A. Conditioned reflexes
resulting from optical stimulation of the dog. Dissertation. St. Petersburg.
1908. (Russian.)
®NaceL, W. A. Der Farbensinn der Tiere. S. 5. 1901.
™S. 14.
‘Lusppock, J. On the senses, instincts and intelligence of animals, p, 277.
1888.
®*NAGEL, W. A. Der Farbensinn der Tiere. S. 19-29. 1901.
Cote anD Lone, Visual Discrimination in Raccoons. 659
from this box. Next they placed beside the first box two others like
it except that they bore disks cut from Nendel’s series of gray papers.
In order to get the food the dog must now discriminate the green disk
from the gray ones. At first the lightest grays were used. Nos. 1
and 2, then the darker ones in order up to No. 50. In the first series
of 615 trials the dog made, on the average, 30 per cent of mistakes,
while in the second series of 560 trials this was reduced to 10 per
cent. In the first series, grays No. 17 and No. 18 were so often
confused with the green that the investigators at first thought the dog
was quite unable to make the discrimination. It was also only after
much training that he was able to distinguish the dark gray from the
green. So slow was his progress in learning that Samojloff and
Pheophilaktowa changed the question whether the dog discriminates
colors, to the question whether he can, after much practice, be brought
to do so. From the evidence of their records they answer this ques-
tion in the affirmative, but apparently not with perfect confidence.
Orbeli used the salivary reflex method of Pawlow. By this method,
after the presentation of a particular stimulus has been repeatedly
accompanied by the act of feeding the dog, the presence of the
stimulus will cause a secretion of saliva. The amount of the secre-
tion and, to a less extent, its degree of viscidity, serve to indicate the
intensity of the stimulation.
By means of a projecting lantern, visual stimuli were thrown on a
screen in front of the dog. Thus the animal’s perception of form,
size, movement, brightness and color was tested. Images of various
colors (red, yellow, green, blue and violet) were received on the
screen.
As to color vision, Orbeli derives the following conclusion from the
results of his experiments. ‘A study of conditioned salivary reflexes
furnishes no indication that rays of light of different wave-length are
received as distinct stimuli by the eye of the dog. Conditioned
salivary reflexes are always determined by changes in the intensity
of light independently of its composition” (quality).
Samojloff and Pheophilaktowa set out to answer two questions,
namely, (1) whether the dog discriminates colored from equally
bright gray objects, and (2) whether he discriminates equally bright
660 fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
but differently colored objects. They seem to have answered only
the first question (as restated above). Our experiments sought for
an answer to the second question in the case of the raccoon.
The objects which were presented to the raccoons to discriminate
were thirty-nine of the Milton Bradley colored papers and five of the
Hering gray papers of equal (and nearly equal) brightness with
certain groups of the colors, as determined by Rood’s flicker method."
According to their respective brightnesses, these forty-four papers
were divided into six groups of six each, one group of five, and three
papers of equal brightness with three others were substituted for the
latter during a part of the experiments recorded in Table 14. The
flicker method as employed by Rood is inexact from the standpoint of
human psychology, yet the flicker principle is being employed increas-
ingly in color photometry."
Our thanks are due to Professor Titchener for retesting for us by
the flicker method the first group of colored papers selected and for
valuable suggestions with regard to them. We are also indebted to
Professor Yerkes for criticism and assistance.
In order to select our groups of colored papers, we first made fifty
Maxwell disks from the successive grays of the Hering series, then
ninety disks from the standard colors, the tints, and the shades of
the Bradley series. We then selected one of the gray disks, e. g.,
No. 5, and, under a high illumination of diffused daylight, we com-
bined it with an equal area of each of the colored disks in order. The
color mixer was made to rotate thirty-three and six-tenths times per
second. The observer faced this compound disk of equal parts of the
gray and the color at a distance of one meter. If, at this rate of
rotation and in this illumination, a colored disk gave no flicker per-
ceptible to either of two observers it was assumed to be of equal
brightness with the gray. We attempted further to reduce any
difference of brightness by testing the raccoons under a much lower
illumination than that under which we selected the colors. The
colored papers thus selected were afterwards compared as to amount
Roop, O. N. Ona color system. Amer. Jour. of Sci., vol. 44, pp. 268-270.
1892.
“TITCHENER, E. B Hap. Psych. vol. 2, Pt. 2) ps Si. | 190b:
CoLe AND Lone, Visual Discrimination in Raccoons. 661
of flicker with the grays just lighter and just darker than the one we
were using as a standard.
After a group of colors corresponding to a certain gray had been
selected the proportions of black and white in the gray were deter-
mined by comparing it with a composite disk of the Bradley black
and white. This involved a comparison of a moving with a motion-
less disk of a different texture and doubtless our judgments here are
not especially accurate. However, the figures which give the propor-
tion of white in each gray disk serve merely as descriptive terms in
Table 1 and have nothing to do with the experiments.
The tests of the colors by the flicker method were made in as high
an illumination as the observers found at all practicable between the
hours of ten a. mM. and three p. m. on cloudless days. The experi-
ments with the raccoons were conducted in a very much lower illumi-
nation but during the same hours. The papers, both gray and colored,
had been in the laboratory about one year at the beginning of the
tests. They were kept covered in the drawers of the paper case which,
we may add, was not resorted to by students. It is evident from
the notes of fading in Table 1 that some of the colors were not as
dark as recently purchased papers. For example, violet shade 1, and
red orange shade 2, which, on June 28th matched Gray No. 25, had
faded by December 27th to match Gray No. 20 and, therefore, they
appear in both groups.
After the brightness of the papers of Group 5 had been determined,
they were sent to Professor Titchener in order to ascertain whether
our use of the flicker method had been reasonably accurate. He wrote
us as follows: ‘I have no objection, then, to your quoting me (if
you eare to do so) to the effect that by this method the first four disks
were practically equivalent and the fifth only a little out of the way
byebeme. too, bright.” .> 0%. “You may ‘say, 2) thinks that. the
animals judged these four by color alone, provided, of course, that we
make the initial assumption that their scale of brightness values
coincides with our own.” The “first four disks” were violet-blue tint
2, orange-yellow shade 1, red-violet tint 1, and red-orange tint 1.
Under the high illumination that we used, red-orange tint 1 gave a
just noticeable sensation of flicker.
662 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
In the tables, we have given each group of papers the number of
the gray in Hering’s series which was used as a brightness standard
in selecting the colored papers which constitute the group. There
are twenty-one colors which gave no flicker, when rotated with their
respective grays, twelve which gave a just noticeable flicker sensation,
and six which gave an amount of flicker just noticeably greater than
that of the twelve colors. In Table 1 these degrees of flicker are
designated by the numerals 0, 1, and 2, respectively.
TABLE 1.
BRIGHTNESS OF CERTAIN MILTON BRADLEY COLORED PAPERS AS DETERMINED BY
Roop’s FLickeER METHOp.
GROUP 2.
(December 27, 1907.)
Hering’s Gray Paper No. 2—81.5 per cent white.
Green blue... cisc acs wien eee ee 10) 00) hese Crone Atoiorere ee O
Mellow-=2reeny ss.) ccrescries ce eee TCLTON Sal reve vewestereevcrerere O
Orangve-vellOvweeer see oe eee CHING Se dias ee heen 0
Orange Stas cs acces sere ers Cin Sis. 5, ie cus Peteene 0)
GLECN=OLANGE: © -cesseyeee ye ere Ba Bho) rene eeciois ies oS Oe aft
Vellow-orangee coe naa eee ee ELIE LES secre setenoetan ravens 2
GROUP 5.
(June 28, 1907.)
Hering’s Gray Paper No. 5=44 per cent white.
Rie@d=violeth x sacteaces epccreen ce WALO Yall erces rrseeenc eke ores 0)
Violet=blue! (aveccake eee et AGL by eee cenanay ewereve: cremoiess 0
@range=yellow micmene ceo: Sha demon. erg. ss o:sierecetene 0
Red-oranee) hiss do eee PUTING Mie aes ors oeteretetetan: if
WVIOICE cities srets one ierae cll ELTA Ges Beets eescertogee 2
Group 10.
(December 25, 1907.)
Hering’s Gray Paper No. 1023 per cent white.
Belew Glebe seis. 2 ise carats cuales ah ulster soaks tle ncchontenere tele O
GiTCONEDINIE. pin nus Seteetevapetoney tite eae el eteneus ik ote Rote tatoo sus omahe 0
OTANI GE). sietcccce c oxch stators cheustebeseers SHAME My aresyer sc) cue istes 7)
Yellow-greeni . am «sie ce eee er Shade erased motte 0)
ROG 325% dies nekeigh eeae oat ere uchs LalITl a Colon ORe OEE moi 0
Yellow-oran@e cece). eects a Shade 2a eetsrsiscesSeeaccetee 1
Blwe-26e@n: S525 cscte eleia ceteton Shade reserencn. chcuenere ee 2
Red-violet: «225 oie 3 Sete orn ase See 2.
Cote and Lone, Visual Discrimination in Raccoons. 663
Group 15.
(December 26, 1907.)
Hering’s Gray Paper No. 15—=15 per cent white.
COTATI 5S Npots ecce che ware: slistin rete ey oveuer ie oilens tuahese elec cee e 1
Red-orange ...... tiesto ae Shiadendls.nraae ste ew sleek 1
Wil OTC Te apcvs atop tone teteveuiacshc cetera astte ia tale oiccoak erswanaitione! ser Otive ene Oe 1
GrEONEDNWE Nok «ateusvaisra sre jous aie Slhadey oles se ccct were sccrsters 2
ORAM SEL EMpeysieorehs tous fetoteysielees he, a a0a Tau elensus clare ole ace 2
Grovur 20.
(December 27, 1907.)
Hering’s Gray Paper No. 20 = 11.25 per cent white.
Wi OLG twos cretcidiss 80,6 etepcnet aca aliens oe Sliaid Qala waceve saeco O
BWeavlOlets eciacctouseqsherasinie ne Sly eF lieeaiiie a sie, ele omer 0
PLUG eitera's, sishal aban teviey ote-cchshece Peters Rie We uate eialn mbhoxeeeters ata 0
Vi lets DIME erect aicic acts ave lepsidivists we clete di uabarsv the tea. shes ster gs 1
VEU-OPAN GES corse) sues oeeas sere VaR IGeyrAae clo.¢ bia aerdiors 1
REO=VaA Glebe .ietaciecic.cuss ereueve mee SHaAMe Wists cicists eerees Z
GrRovuPp 25.
(June 28, 1907.)
Hering’s Gray Paper No. 25=—49.8 per cent white. .
BIWe=ViOlets sacle ces eae wrens Shader uric st eerste evs 0
Wa Ole tabIWey cth.ieo's ene eco cise o's STON aly eres tonshevercte srayane cf)
WC asic eve cists ails, siesta es 3 alle Shader ness cou wouctn 0
IVCG=OPAN GE woes eeeee hice shaden2ranwemtue eee Ove
NATO IEE Cac Orngs BORA ere crerniors Shader ale yy save sccsuaere Oz
GROUP. 30.
(December 27, 1907.)
Hering’s Gray Paper No. 30=7.75 per cent white.
Wi OLGtEDER Sw aaiee cs creree eres os Slladen2iecac ca sites oes 0
Green- DUE" wisce Were tet e sists Shade@s2ane wissen ce 1
OnranGe=ned!= jiavceckiase id ones Shader sero. 1
Red-violets 25. steyrevaweere eco Shade as wae cei 2
After we had secured a series of colors of equal brightness, as deter-
mined by the flicker method, we covered each of five ordinary drinking
glasses, or tumblers, with one of the colored papers of the series, and
a sixth with the gray equal in brightness to the colors. These six .
glasses, thus covered, with differently colored papers, were to be
YRaded by December 26th almost to match gray No. 20.
664 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
presented to the animal simultaneously in order to determine whether
he would learn to select the glass in which food was placed. Only
two animals were used, as we had found in numerous earlier tests
with four animals that they did not exhibit individual differences of
behavior so pronounced as to invalidate general conclusions. These
animals are designated by numbers as in the earlier paper.'*
As a means of presenting the row of glasses to the animal, we
first employed a board such as Kinnaman™ had used in testing the
color vision of monkeys, and Davis'’ afterwards employed for the
same purpose with raccoons. In this board, 5 feet by 8 inches by
114 inches, round holes, eight inches apart, were sunk to the depth of
one-half inch. Into these holes the bottoms of the glasses fitted
closely. The position of the food glass on this board was changed
after each trial.
This board was used by us on the floor for two days. On the
third day we raised it four inches above the floor, and later ten inches
above it. Thus raised on supports, we used it for the tests of the
three following days. We give the results obtained with this piece of
apparatus for each of the two raccoons during the six days. The
average number of trials per day was 198. The colors of Group 5
were used and the food was placed in the glass covered with OYS 1.
The percentages of right choices are given to the nearest integer.
TABLE 2.
Raccoon No. 2.
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6
AVA Seer 27% 22% 21% 16% 14% 15%
WiSiie2 19% 10% 16% 14% 14% 15%
ON Silene 18% 15% 17% 23% 24% 24%
TKO ME bos Soe 18% | 18% 12% 18% 15% 16%
WAP A OTE 2095 20% 12% 16% 18%
Gray 5... 2! O97 vile DGG We tA 17% 17% 17%
BCoLE, L. W. Concerning the intelligence of raccoons. Jour, Comp. Neur.
and Psych., vol. 17, pp. 211-261. 1907.
“UKINNAMAN, A. J. Mental life of the two Macacus rhesus monkeys in
captivity. Amer. Jour. of Psych., vol. 13, p. 189. 1902.
bDHavis, H. B. The raccoon: a study in animal intelligence. Amer. Jour.
of Psych., vol. 18, p. 479. 1907.
Cote AND Lone, Visual Discrimination in Raccoons 665
TABLE 3.
Raccoon No. 3.
Day. 1 ra a aaa cam Boe pene
PR ie se 9% 6% | 25% 18% 10% 16%
VBI...) 37% PO Sa TCA el Re 9% 13%
OYS:1......|.- 27938 20% 2G, | 239% 29%, 23%
ROTI... 40%, 11% 11% 12% 20% 19%
‘ge ee 9% 40% 12% 13% 18% 10%
Gray 5..... 14% 30% 17% 18% 14% 19%
It is evident from these tables that Raccoon No. 2 did select the
food color more often than any other color after the first three days,
and that No. 8 did the same on the third day and thereafter. Six-
teen and two-thirds per cent would have been chance selection, yet
an average of nearly twenty-four per cent persisted after the third
day’s practice with No. 2 and after the second day’s practice with
No. 3. Since this per cent continued during 700 trials, the fact
must receive consideration, for this deviation from chance could not
be maintained during so many trials except by some constantly
operating cause.
The investigator who uses this apparatus, however, must assume
that the animal’s hunger will impel him to pass by every glass except
the one in which food has been found in the preceding trials. This
assumption certainly is not justified in the case of the raccoon, for
the animal has a strong instinctive tendency to explore every opening
it finds. An auger hole in the floor, the space beneath a chip, or an
uneven board, the experimenter’s pockets, cuff, or the bottom of his
trousers’ leg were all provocative of this reaction. The naturalists
tell us that the raccoon secures his food by reaching into the holes of
crawfish, getting minnows or insects from the water-filled tracks of
eattle, and by catching the beetles and bugs which he finds under
chips and pieces of bark in the forest. However this may be, we
found that at first the raccoons could not pass by a single food con-
tainer without both reaching into it and looking into it. Instead,
the animal would go to one end of the row of vessels, explore the first
% This high per cent of right choices is doubtless accidental, as we had to dis-
continue work with this raccoon after twenty-two trials on this day.
666 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
one carefully by touch and sight, then the next, and so on until the
vessel with food in it was found. It would then go on in the same
way to the end of the row, and often back again, rarely skipping a
single vessel. When, in the later trials, they made 24 per cent of
right choices, they of course passed by some of the glasses which did
not contain food.
Because of this instinctive propensity of the raccoon, it seemed
plain to us that open feeding vessels would not serve satisfactorily to
test the visual sense of this animal. We did not, however, leave the
question to be decided by observation alone. For after having tested
our animals by means of closed vessels for some time we returned,
in the case of Raccoon No. 3, to the use of the Kinnaman apparatus
to see whether the former type of numerical record would reappear.
Thus we have in the following tables, the record of this raccoon
while learning to discriminate RVT 1 and, after his choices were
nearly perfect with closed glasses, his record on the same colors with
open glasses. The figures represent series of thirty trials each.
TABLE 4." TABLE 5.
Closed Glasses. Open Glasses.
Raccoon No. 3. | Raccoon No. 3.
2 : | d face
By Wu es ee te eree 1s DA 757 oe ma GES VEDale ets (a eee mee
god kag ee Ree teenth 1 Dek alle BE Noe eae 6 Dh iS: iGreen
OVS IE Soa ee Eee ete 3) Se heel OMG shee ee 6) C7 SEO) BA eos
ROT dite eee Sake: ROW isa sean. 4 oy DO? ae
Vin Deine ee ne of reas wl NUE eee Conn eS 11
Grays ce Fe ee 1 Grave bie aay OMe eee ten Oo)
Wotallic sti. Ameer 30 30 30 1 Total......30 30 30 30 30 30
It is evident from these records that open feeding vessels may
actually obscure a discrimination habit which is fairly well estab-
lished. Yerkes has shown, in the case of the crab, that a test which
runs counter to a strong instinctive impulse is unsatisfactory.'® As
“Hood was placed in all the glasses after the first series of thirty trials
and the food-glass was frequently exchanged for another of the same color
in order that it might not become soiled by the animal’s paws.
YERKES, R. M. Habit formation in the green crab, Carcinus granulatus.
Biol. Bull., vol. 3, p. 241. 1902. :
CoLte anpd Lone, Visual Discrimination in Raccoons. 667
tests of raccoons with open feeding vessels seem to have just this
defect, we devised the apparatus which is shown in Fig. 1.
I
|
i
Via. 1. Color discrimination apparatus.
In this device the feeding vessels were clamped up against the
cross-board so that the animal must select the glass at which he pulled
by its outside appearance only, and without being able either to reach
into it or to look into it before it was selected. By means of the
thumb buttons at the rear of the apparatus every glass, except the
one containing food, was locked against the top board. A pull on this
glass depressed the short arm of the lever and exposed the top of the
glass. A pull, or even the slightest touch, on any other than the
food glass was recorded as a wrong choice. When the animal had
secured the food, he was removed to the other end of the room, while
an assistant placed food in the glass and changed its position in the
row of glasses. The changes of position were made at random, ex-
cept when the animal had formed a habit of approaching one end
of the row. In that case we sometimes avoided putting the food glass
at that end, in order that it might not be the first glass approached.
On the first day that we used this apparatus, Raccoon No. 2 was
given 171 trials, and he selected the food-glass 122 times, thus giving
71 per cent of right choices. The last thirty-seven choices were all
correct. The next day, however, this animal made but 35 per cent
of correct choices. (Our notes show that he was not hungry, and
often touched no-food glasses in passing along the row.) Below is
668 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
given a table of the results of the trials of the next three days for
this raccoon. The trials are henceforth divided into series of thirty
each. The food glass was OYS 1.
TABLE 6.
OYS 1 in Group 5.
Raccoon No. 2.
Color. Third Day. Fourth Day. | Fifth Day.
+) |
RVI Sem egeaebe sas) Uo are me 4 | 1
VBE) fe sete 1 1 1
ONSile eae lim 2ORZ8eaOrc9) 23 28 29 29 30 24 30
OMAR eee ce ele ean esl 3
VR Oe Aa eee 2 1 1 1
Giravye Ose es tal 1
| ge irae Pe —- || a ——
Total | 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 | 30 30
The behavior of Raccoon No. 3 toward the same series of colors
was not unlike that of No. 2. The first day on which the former was
tried with closed glasses he made 55 per cent of right choices. He
seemed to learn more slowly than No. 2, but throughout the records
there is evidence that the effects of previous training persisted longer
with him. Hence later tables show that he made better records on
new colors than did No. 2. The record of his choices for the second
and succeeding days appears in Table 7. OYS 1 was the food-
color, and in other respects the table is like the preceding one.
TABLE 7.
OYS 1 in Group 5.
Raccoon No. 3.
Color. | Second Day. Third Day. | Fourth Day. Fifth Day.
fs |
VET 4 33 A 2h Seal ieee taal Qe I
VIB OD: a alee 4 4 2 S nil coe yi 1
OAS) laste eats SiO) WS lO al) Gs $113920) 22°26) | 22222629027
ROT Neto 5 5 e481 Wi Sea Gem Ona epee an | ripe as en
WIN) | 4 3 5 A Oe ao Saas De 5} | WAL
Gray 5 5 5 5 Ibs 4) Se lees a) 2
Motaler tay. | 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 | 30 30 30 30 30. 30 30 30 30 30
|
|
|
Cote anp Lone, Visual Discrimination in Raccoons. 669
Since Raccoon No. 3 learned to select the food container twenty-
nine out of thirty times while No. 2 made series of thirty perfect
choices, it is evident that the power to discriminate between the
colored glasses was present. By what means the discrimination was
made will be discussed later. From the beginning, we noticed that
neither of the raccoons ever swerved toward the food-glass from a
distance of even a foot. Instead the animal would come to the row
of glasses, and then, with his nose close to them, he would go along
the row until the food-glass was found. There was often very prompt
recognition of this glass when the animal came close to it, e. g., he
sometimes came to the glass next to it, when, instead of looking at
the latter, he seemed all at once to catch sight of the food-glass and
would make a sudden grasp for it. In a very few cases, also, after
the animal had almost or quite passed the food-glass, he suddenly
seemed to recognize it, and turned back.
From the very beginning of the tests with closed glasses, we at-
tempted, by means of control tests and various precautionary methods,
to determine whether the raccoons were selecting the food-glass by
smell or by sight. While these tests were interpolated at numerous
places in the series of experiments, it will be clearer to group them
together and discuss them later. Consequently we shall give here the
records of the animals’ learning to discriminate various food-glasses.
These will appear in the order of the experiments, but the reader
will remember that some of the control tests interrupted the series
so that this order is not quite consecutive in time.
So far the animals have learned to select OYS 1. VBT 2 was
next used as a food-color. Learning to select this glass involved, of
course, ceasing to react positively to OYS 1. Hence Tables 8 and
9 show the unlearning of the reaction to OYS 1 and the learning
to select VBT 2.
Using the same group of papers we next placed food in the glass
covered with Gray 5, so that the animal was forced to select the gray
from among the colored papers.
In the same series of papers, Group 5, we next taught the animals
to select RVT 1. Raccoon No. 2 selected this color fourteen, twenty,
twenty-four, and thirty times, respectively, in four series of thirty
670 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
TABLE 8.
VBT 2 in Group 5.
Raccoon No. 2.
Color. First Day. Second Day. Third Day.
Re Vibele stacey oy n Monaee in eg eave 2
Vi ap ote fcc) pete Oe At atG iO 1s} DAs Pay 20 28 29 29 30
ONS al aerate esa ee 4 410 10 8 IQ 3B DiS sya ll
RO Wal este Oe Ae AOD 1
Vr DAT EAI Raoe 5, sory Ae it 1 1 il 1a Fei IL
(Gigzhy Mascvouceccses|) OS 1 3 Tk il 2
Rotallet én ceo | 30 30 30 30 30 | 330) Si). a0) aX) 30 30 30 30 30
TABLE 9.
VBT 2 in Group 5.
Raccoon No. 3.
Color. First Day. Second Day. | Third Day.
RVT 1 i go Os a1 Gita 5 ae Nope! Gar tae eta 9
Wis be rads see ataliael 7 13) 24" 22-19) |) 2239 262 20M1Ge26
OYS 1 IQ). Bio S&S 6 5 6 Did DD ram by
Oat: a A he ee 4 2 3 3 dl it
Al RAS aaa nny ot SY ayy Zee pier il 4 1 1 i . 5 2 (COG Roel 2h eke at 1 2
Gray 10 !9 2 1 1 1 || YOT 1....) Aare oe 1 10 4
Mofale=:| 9 301.30 30 30 | cee 30 30 30 30 30) 30 30 30
19 For a third test of thirty trials YGS 2, RT 1, and RV were substituted for BV, GB, and Gray
10. Both the animals selected YGS 2 twice, RT 1 once and the food color, OS 1, twenty-seven times.
672 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
It seems evident from a comparison of Table 15, with the preced-
ing tables and with the following one, that light colors were most
difficult for the animals to discriminate. If such is the case, the
rather long time required to learn the series which matched Gray 5,
is partly accounted for. Group 5 was the first one we tried, and
some time was required for the animals to learn to operate the mech-
anism. As this was soon learned, however, our tables show that dis-
criminations were more readily made among dark than among light
colors.
TABLE 16. TABLE 17.
VS 1 in Group 20. GBS 2 in Group 30.
Color. Raccoon No. 2. Raccoon No. 3. | Color. Raccoon No. 2. | Raccoon No. 3.
|
Wis) tle scocdl JO Pid 247 PA) Xe), P48) AVASiS wine 3 1 it 3
Bis leer. 8 2 Z 1 || GBS 2 lige ePapf 743) 29 14
BAe se 2 ORS 2 Smeal: 5
Wi ees 2 1 2 JRAVAS) Bs 5 1 5
ROS 2 Hall 22, Gray 30.. 1 2
RVS 1 4 1 1 4 1 ih —- — — — ~ =
= SS — — — || Total...| 30 30 30 30 30
ARMS So) SO) S80) std) ait) ail) axl) |
| |
It seemed to us that No. 3 made most of his errors when he seemed
to be looking at the colors with his left eye. Since his twenty-nine
correct choices in the first thirty trials of the above series showed
that he could discriminate the food-color, we compelled him to walk
along the row of glasses from left to right in the second series of
thirty trials. His correct choices were at once reduced to fourteen.
Our suspicion that his left eye was defective arose from the fact that
the animal, unless prevented from doing so, invaribly went to the
right end of the row of glasses, then along it to the left with his right
eye thus nearest to the row. The above reduction in the number of
his right choices, and our record of his earlier errors, indicate that
his vision with the left eye was poor as compared with the right eye,
and as compared with the vision of Raccoon No. 2.
The records above do not give all the training in discrimination of
colored papers which was demanded of the raccoons, for some of the
control tests required many trials. The tables do show, however, that
Cote anp Lone, Visual Discrimination in Raccoons. 673
nine different colors and one gray have been selected by the raccoons
from colors which were equally bright for the human eye. In all,
thirty-nine different colors were used, and from these the ten food-
colors had to be chosen. Up to this point, however, we cannot be sure
that the selections were not made by the sense of smell.
The Possibility of Selection by Odor Differences. We have al-
ready stated that the raccoons never swerved toward the food-glass
from a distance of one or two feet. In fact, they seemed to be unable
to distinguish the food-glass from the others at a distance of more
than four or five inches. Thus the animal’s nose was always very
close to the glasses and we were always confronted with the possibility
that a keen sensitiveness to odors might account for the behavior we
observed. The discrimination by smell might have come about in
any one of three ways. (1) The animal might have detected the
odor of food when near the glass which contained food. (2) He
might, as it were, follow his own trail, and this might be done in
either of two ways: (a) since the animal ate the food from his paws
and also laid hold of the food-glass more than the others he might soon
get an odor of food from the outside of the glass; (b) he might in a
similar way detect the native odor of his paws as stronger on the
food-glass than on the others, due to repeated pulling at the glass even
though he did not communicate the odor of food to it. The last
supposition while hardly probable is, nevertheless, possible. (3) The
animal might be able to discriminate between the odors of the pig-
ments of the colored papers.
With closed glasses the first possibility is easy to deal with. We
used bread as food and often allowed it to become so dry that it had
hardly any odor for us. In addition to this we put food in all the
glasses, usually the same amount that we put in the food-glass, some-
times more than that glass contained. From the first day’s work
with closed vessels our rule was to put food in all of them during at
least half of the trials. In a large part of the experiments, we put
food in all at the beginning of the day’s work. During a smaller
portion of the time all the glasses contained food during the last
thirty or sixty trials. In no case did this seem to modify either the
animal’s behavior or his record of discriminations.
674 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
Was the animal following his own trail? We first met this pos-
sible difficulty by providing for each set of colored glasses six food-
glasses all of the same color. After five trials with one glass we re-
moved it from the room and put a second one in its place. After
five or six trials more, a third food-glass was used and so on. Had
the animal been selecting the food-glass by any odor attached to it
(except that of its pigment) this exchange of food-glasses should have
confused him. It did not do so, and in the later experiments we
changed the food-glass only every tenth trial. Again, if the animal
were selecting the food-color by any odor except that of the pigment,
he should learn to select a food-glass from a group, all of which were
covered with the same color. On July 15th No. 2 was given a set
of glasses covered with OYS 1, and he pulled at all of them. At the
end of half an hour he had so scratched the yellow papers that the
scratched places would soon have served as distinguishing marks.
The result was the same with No. 3. He was tested with the six
yellow glasses on the same day. We repeated such tests with the
food-color of several later groups. We also filled the glass holder
with tumblers, all of which were covered with Gray 5, and gave the
animals opportunity for olfactory discrimination. In the first thirty
trials Raccoon No. 2 made seventy-eight pulls at the glasses, eleven
of which were at the food-glass, but in six of these eleven cases the
food-glass was the first one to which the animal came. He passed
by one of the glasses only nine times in the seventy-eight attempts.
We restate these facts in the same order in the first line of Table 18.
These records show that the animals soon ceased to try to dis-
tinguish one glass from another and pulled blindly at almost all of
them. By going but part way down the row and then returning to
the point of beginning, it was possible for the animals to pull re-
peatedly at several of the glasses without coming to the one which
contained food, and thus to make such records as those of the last
series in each table. The failure of the animals in this experiment
gives further evidence that they were not using smell in the color
tests.
On continuing these experiments with No. 2, though he was very
hungry, the large number of selections which yielded no food seemed,
to a great extent, to inhibit the impulse to pull at the glasses.
CoLe anv Lone, Visual Discrimination in Raccoons. 675
We next varied the experiment by rubbing apple on the inside of the
food-glass. Both the raccoons then very promptly learned to select it,
but now we could often make out distinct sniffing and the animals held
the nose very close to the top of the glass as they had not done hefore.
This is doubtless the best evidence we have that odor was not a guide
in the color tests. If the animal had to direct his nose to the top of
the glasses in order to detect the odor of apple in a glass whose inner
surface had been thoroughly rubbed with it, then any odor less strong
TABLE 18.
Gray 5 in a Group of Gray 5.
Raccoon No. 2.
| | . |
No. of Series of | No: of Pulls No. of Pulls at | Food Glass First | Passed by With-
30 Trials each. | o Wise Food-Glass. | One Reached. out Pulling.
1 | 78 | 1 6 9
2 | 63 16 6 25
3 | 60 | 18 9 22
4 | 141 6 4 8
|
TABLE 19.
Gray 5 in a Group of Gray 5.
Raccoon No. 3.
No. of Series of | N f Pulls | No. of Pulls at Food Glass First | Passed by With-
30 Trials each. OOS Food-Glass. One Reached. out Pulling.
= | : ind es! Z uy
1 | ae | 12 7 | 5
2 Hela 9 7 i
3 104 5) 5 1
4 199 2 2 0
than this could have had no effect or else it surely would have
elicited the same behavior. The same reaction was elicited by the
use of meat and cake as food. The only odor not excluded by these
experiments is that possibly due to the different pigments of the col-
ored papers. True, the papers had been kept for some months in
the same drawer, and the glasses were close together in the row, yet
this only makes discrimination by the pigment odor improbable, not
impossible.
676 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
In order to exclude this type of discrimination, we first placed
the colored papers inside the glasses. We believed that this would
so diminish the pigment odor, if it did exist, as to put it below the
threshold of the animal. Or, if not, that it would so reduce the
pigment odor that it would be completely eclipsed by the food odor
when food was placed in all the glasses. In the light of the experi-
ment above, in which apple was used as a stimulus, it is practically
certain that, with the colored papers inside the glasses, no odor of the
pigment could be sensed by the raccoons.
The effect, for the human eye, of putting the paper inside the
glasses was to make only a vertical strip of color visible in each
glass. While the intensity of the colors seemed much reduced, the
reduction seemed equal for all the papers, so that differences in
brightness seemed no more pronounced than before. The test proved
to be a very difficult one. We had taught the animals to select
VBT 2 as a food-color when the papers were on the outside of the
glasses. We continued to use it as a food-color after putting them
within the tumblers. The results of the experiment are shown in
Tables 20 and 21.
TABLE 20.
VBT 2 in Group 5.—Papers inside the Glasses.
Raccoon No. 2.
7 E
Color. | First Day. Second Day. Third Day. Fourth Day. -
| —
|
Vesa al 1 ¢ 3 i ALG ab vay) 1h RS (¢ 4 2
VBI os sees Oy Gy ley) es lik es Pah) ley) al) Pal || GI a) BE Ae,
ONS eee ct ts 10 4 4 TEN teh GE tay 229} 1
DRA OM Da OR aso es PS aa Ta Ne i ee aye NI Le (6) ee) euays 1 2 1 1
VD eee eae 233 UN lcm) steve 2+ a 6 4 1 4 i 2 246
(ChenY DY cocgooqas 5. 68 VSP Teo ore. 4 Ponane Di Del ae)
Motaleneence 5 S000 30 30 30 30 30 | 30 30 30 30 30 | 30 30 30 30
* Our supply of OYS 1 was exhausted and on this day we used a second
glass covered with Gray 5 to which the responses were 5, 5 and 4, respectively.
Though only the vertical strip of color was visible, the raccoons
succeeded in selecting the food-glass twenty-five and twenty-six times,
respectively, on the fourth day of training.
CoLeE anpD Lone, Visual Discrimination in Raccoons. 677
TABLE 21.
VBT 2 in Group 5.—Papers inside the Glasses.
Raccoon No. 3.
Color. | First Day. | Second Day. Third Day. Fourth Day.
AK 3 £3 5 6 2g) sien ono
Vib? 7 QU Oki. 14 16 16 13 13 24 24 25
OMNIS Mi Neco 15) 4 1 1 6 1 1 ie aa
HO Mele Se es os 6 4 66 1 3 Po | 6
Wap 5 a BF D Siac 2 2 3) 2
Gray LS carey tirade 4 O38) 2 -@ eG ee, 2 2
INOUE ooo boob 30 | 30 30 30 30 30 10 30 30 | 25* 30 30 30
* Due to error in counting trials.
As a further means of excluding the pigment odor, we coated the
paper-covered glasses of Group 20 with shellac, with the result shown
in Table 22.
TABLE 22.
VS 1 in Group 20.—All Glasses Covered with Shellac.
Color. Raccoon No. 2. Raccoon No. 3.
BAS ate apes se. 20 cicttesecs 5 3 3 1 1 2
Beary eae | i 4 1 1 1 ] 1 2
ROSIE Boredetstsie cicvestessie'| Oo S524 2 26 25 29 30 £28
\WCLEAY Seog oe oP | 4 3 1 1
EL OSO2 rats oie kod eleven ave 9 1 1 1
RAV AS ices recteee ese aes 5 1 1 J 1
Bocas t 30 30-30" 730) 30 30 30 630 ~— 30
In the two tests recorded above the two animals should have failed
to discriminate if they were selecting the food-glass by the odor of
the pigment.
In case of discrimination by odor the raccoons should choose cor-
rectly in the dark. They were tried in the dark on Group 30 which,
it will be remembered, they had learned very readily by daylight.
Each animal was given thirty trials. Raccoon No. 2 selected the
food-glass six times, No. 3 selected it five times. Apparently these
choices were made only when the food-glass was the first one to which
they came. In all other cases they pulled at every glass in order until
678 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
the food-glass was reached. In cases of turning back before food was
obtained they pulled at some of the glasses twice in each trial. Except
in the first fifteen trials with Raccoon No. 2 there was food in only
one glass, GBS 2.
It seems fair to conclude, from these experiments, that the animals
were not making their selections of the food vessel by means of the
odor of the food, of the pigment, nor of their own paws. Evidently
the discrimination was a matter of vision or of some sense unknown
to us.
Visual Discrimination. Since the possibility of discrimination by
means of the sense of smell has been eliminated, we must inquire by
what visual criteria the different colored papers were distinguished.
Watson has pointed out that “the surfaces of the papers differ greatly
owing to accidents in manufacture, dyeing, ironing, etc.,” and that
there is difficulty in ‘pasting them upon surfaces so that slight differ-
ences do not appear.*° Discrimination by means of these criteria
must-be guarded against, and in the case of the raccoons it was done
as follows. (1) Not one food-glass alone was used but a half dozen
different ones of the same color. (2) As already stated (p. 674), at
the end of a test, we filled the glass holder with six glasses of the
same color to see whether the animals could pick out the single one
in which food was placed. They simply pulled at every glass.
Besides testing the animals, in this way, on several colored papers,
they were also tried on gray and white. It seems apparent, there-
fore, that they were not being guided in their choices by any secondary
criteria which the papers may have presented. The possibilities,
then, seemed limited to two. Either the animals discriminated
between the several glasses (a) by means of their brightness differ-
ences, or (b) by means of their differences in color.
(a) As we have stated, the colors were selected so as to be of
equal and very nearly equal brightness for the human eye, and as
wide a range of brightnesses was used as the ninety colored papers
would furnish. The value of our tests rests on the assumption that
colors of equal brightness for the human eye may be somewhere near
Watson, J. B. Some experiments bearing upon color vision in monkeys.
Jour. Comn. Neur. and Psych., vol. 19, pp. 3-4. 1909.
Cote and Lone, Visual Discrimination in Raccoons. 679
equal in brightness for the raccoon. We now have to ask whether
there is any evidence to justify this assumption.
After training our animals to select Gray 5 from the colored papers
of Group 5 we substituted for the latter Grays 3, 4, 6, 7 and 8 of
the Hering series. Raccoon No. 2 was given only sixty trials with
these papers. The results appear in Table 23.
TABLE 23.
Gray 5 in Grays 3-8 inclusive.
Gray. Raccoon No. 2. Raccoon No, 3.
3 3 1 sil 1
a 17 1
5 Omelg 2S 2 LON ee
6 yy 5 il 1
a 3 2 if
8 DP) 1 2, 1
Total 30 30 30) 30) 30) 30
It appears from this table that Raccoon No. 2 confused Gray 4
with Gray 5 in the first thirty trials and showed, in the second thirty,
that he was learning to discriminate Gray 5. This animal was not
hungry, as he had just been given ninety trials on Grays 5, 10, 15,
20, 25, and 30, which series presented no difficulty of discrimina-
tion. ‘Table 23 shows that Raccoon No. 3 made very few mistakes.
It seems evident, when these records are compared with those of
the color-discrimination tables, that the brightness differences between
the colors of any group were less for the raccoon than the brightness
differences between any two of these consecutively numbered gray
papers. This agrees with human vision, for Professor Titch-
ener wrote us as follows: “We tried to arrange the four equivalent
disks in a scale or order of apparent brightness, by the eye alone;
and we got into great difficulties at once. I do not think that any
two of us would have taken the same arrangement except by chance.
We all felt pretty sure that VT2 was the lightest of the five, though
it is true that suggestion (from experiments I have mentioned) may
have played a part here.”
680 Fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
If the raccoons were discriminating the colored papers by bright-
ness differences alone these differences must have been very near
their difference threshold for brightness, for they learned very slowly
to make the discriminations. But the brightness difference between
some pairs of these papers was greater than that between other pairs,
since some of the colors were inexact matches for the gray. If, then,
we were not below their difference threshold with the exact matches,
but only near that threshold, the inexact matches should not have been
chosen at all, or at least, fewer mistakes should have been made on
inexact matches. As a fact almost an equal number was made on
each class, as shown by the following table.
TABLE 24.
Ragone ae 2 3 Ya rc hme re fa SE allo) 3 2 3 | 2) 8 | Total average.
Average number of | |
errors on exact | | | |
MaAtCHeS. sr. - | 9.6|20.3/15.3) 6.3 | 41|16.5| 26) 5 can 3 | 5.3 ee eco lp() |p Ab to) | 12.04
Average number of| | |
errors on inexact) | | |
matches........ | 10. WSS Se ls eat I Gol, | abre |) 2AS5"| LON) 455) 2655815 625) 282 5 4 | 12.76
|
| | | a“
|
-_— = — ~
The total averages for exact and inexact matches are practically
the same. ‘This seems to be excellent evidence that we were below
the animal’s difference threshold for brightness. If such was the
case, they must have been discriminating by color differences alone.
In this average are included all the colors, both dark and light, so
that the figures apply to the whole range of papers used.
When Yerkes tested the dancing mouse by means of colored papers
the records showed at once that the dancer cannot distinguish green
from blue, nor violet from red.?!_ As the raccoons have given no case
of failure to discriminate colored papers, it would seem from this
comparison that their vision is more nearly like that of human beings
than like that of the dancing mouse, or the common mouse.??
Table 25 gives the average number of the raccoons’ errors on
each wrong color and the number of their errors on each gray. Of
course, records for Gray 5 which were made after we had used it
“YERKES, R. M. The dancing mouse, pp. 147 and 149. 1907.
=WAuGH, K. T. The role of vision in the mental life of the mouse. Doctor’s
thesis, Harvard University. 1907. (Unpublished.)
CoLE and Lone, Visual Discrimination in Raccoons. 681
The records for other
grays are those obtained after the animals had been brought to avoid
Gray 5, by having been trained on VBT 2 as a food-glass in the
group to which Gray 5 belonged.
as a food-glass do not appear in the table.
TABLE 25.
Raccoon No. | 2 2 3 OF Bi 3 |Total 2 | 3 HN" 83 2 3 Zz 3 | Total
Av. number of se- | |
lections of each | |
wrong color... ..| LOMPBLGE Zale smea|| a7 44 | 17 | 30.6 |1388.5]| 2.2 | Path MPa MN abate dye ZheBr Ma aie cai PY Ae)
Number of selec- | |
tions of gray... 9 | 24. 15. 6 | 49 | 16/16. |135. || 0 | O 220) 3 73 ik 2 10.
| | | | |
If by the use of the flicker method we did not secure colors which
were equally bright, for the animals, with the gray which was used
as a standard, they should not have made wrong choices by selecting
the gray. Or, at most, they should have made very few such errors.
The first half of Table 25 shows almost as many mistakes on the
gray as on any single wrong color, though some hundreds of trials
which should have discouraged the tendeney to make these mistakes
on gray, preceded those which are tabulated (see pp. 667 and 668).
In the latter half of the table the animals seem to have profited by the
fact that they had never found food in the gray. This might be
because of a difference in brightness, or because, after long practice
with food in colored glasses, the animals began to pay more attention
to the colored papers and less to the grays.
Comparison of the tables, then, reduces the question to this. If
the papers were not equally bright for the animals they should have
made fewer mistakes than they did. This is shown by their records
on the consecutive grays. On the other hand, if the papers were
equally bright for the animals and yet they were color-blind, the
excellent records they made on the food-glasses finds no explanation.
(b) So far, then, as evidence can be gained by the use of reflected
light, we think it probable that the raccoon can be made to discrimi-
nate objects by their color alone. We do not think that in their native
state they are often called upon to make pure color discriminations.
Samojloff and Pheophilaktowa concluded, only, that the dog can
682 “fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
make color discriminations, not that he does so without training.**
Our raccoons also required many trials before they made fairly good
records with the first group of papers which we used.
We state the above conclusion tentatively only because the use
of reflected light is possibly inadequate for the solution of this prob-
lem. We regard our work as preliminary, and we hope to complete
the investigation by the use of methods, which had not been
described until our experiments were almost completed.
Summary. (1) Open feeding vessels were unsatisfactory in test-
ing visual discrimination in raccoons because of an instinctive tend-
ency they have to explore such vessels by touch.
(2) In the cases of discrimination described in this paper the
raccoons seemed not to make a selection with the eyes at a distance
of more than four or five inches from the glasses.
(3) So far as evidence can be gained by our use of the method of
reflected light, it indicates that the raccoon is able to discriminate
by differences of color.
(4) Many trials were required with the first group of colors used
before a high per cent of right choices was made.
(5) The animals learned most quickly to select the food-glass
when dark groups of colored papers were used.
Memory for Visual Differences. Thirty-four days after the rac-
coons had learned to select RVT 1 as a food-color, and without train-
ing during this period, they were again tried with food in this glass.
Raccoon No. 2 gave no evidence of having been trained on this group
of papers and selected RVT 1 9, 16, 23, and 29 times respectively
in each of four series of thirty trials. His learning series for
RVT 1 was 14, 29, 24, and 30 correct choices in each series of thirty
trials. Raccoon No. 3 selected the RVT 1 27 times out of the first
*2S,amMosLorr, A., und PHEoPHILAKTOWA, A. Ueber die Farbenwahrnehmung
beim Hunde. Zent. f. Physiol., Bd. 21, S. 133.
“YprKes, R. M. The dancing mouse, p. 152 ff. 1907. Methods of studying
color vision in animals. Science, N. S., vol. 29, p. 482. 1909. Also WATSON,
J. B. Some experiments bearing upon color vision in monkeys. Jour. Comp.
Neur. and Psych., vol. 19, p. 1, 1909.
Cote AnD Lone, Visual Discrimination in Raccoons. 683
thirty trials and was perfect in the second thirty. He thus selected
the food-glass three times more in each of the two re-learning series
than in the learning series. One hundred and eight days later,
and meantime without practice, he selected this color 15, 25, and 29
times in each series. ‘The utmost that can be said, therefore, is that
in the case of the two animals, relearning was a little more rapidly
accomplished than learning. So, also, must the fact of much more
rapid learning in the later experiments be given some weight after
due allowance is made for the darker colors being easier for the ani-
mals to discriminate. Group 2, for example, which was not dark,
was evidently learned much more quickly than it would have been
without previous training. ‘The animals’ behavior is thus greatly
modified by past experience, but the effect of having learned to
discriminate objects by means of a specific brightness or color differ-
ence, at any rate if that difference be shght, does not last more than
a few days. This might be expected since in its native state the
raccoon is probably not called upon either to detect or remember such
slight differences as were used in these experiments.
Finally, it may be remarked that the animal which gave the better
“memory” record above for discrimination of colored papers was the
one which gave evidence of superior motor memory for fastenings.
This animal also required the greatest number of trials in both cases
for the original formation of the associations. So much evidence for
a mechanical law of association in animal psychology.
A STATESTICAL STUDY OF THE MEDULLATED NERVE
FIBERS INNERVATING THE LEGS OF THE
LEOPARD FROG, RANA PIPIENS, AFTER
UNILATERAL SECTION OF THE
VENTRAL ROOTS.
BY
ELIZABETH HOPKINS DUNN.
From the Anatomical Laboratory of the University of Chicago.
WitH ONE FIGURE,
CONTENTS.
PAGE
The material studied and the methods employed ....................... 685
Distribution of the nerve branches supplying the leg of the leopard frog
anadevots fro oe Hy im: PAL CULAN \ yo sels couse cene al evel oteletotets ) ini primanry, branches! tomhiche. passerine 242 241 213
8 ,|| In primary ‘branches'to thigh:.-..4-%. - <2: 287 276 233
13° | ta primary branches to thighs... 4... sot 269
5’ | In primary branches to thigh:..2:......... | 289
16 |) Above branchesito'shanks.22-4.55.52s een. | 239 195 165
i eAbovelbranches tomshankeseeee rae ee 245
10| | Below branches to shank...--5......55.4.- bg? 143 106
i \eBelows branches toishamlcarsss eee eee: kOe
16s lnebranchesstorsh sank aerate 17/33 179 128
Gi si branchesitons hia eens ier ener ee 20 197 145
11) eine boranchesstorshanl< selenite ete Vere alkeyoyees =| |
4 intbranchesavonsh anlar eee eee ae renene eee | 224
|
could be distinguished from the cutaneous branches containing affer-
ent medullated fibers by the greater number of nerve fibers of a
uniform size in the muscular branches. In the present study, after
Dunn, Medullated Nerve Fibers. 715
eliminating the efferent fibers, it appears that among the afferent nerve
fibers the greatest number of nerve fibers of uniform size pass to the
muscles.
All the findings in this study regarding the size of the medullated
nerve fibers point to a fundamental uniformity underlying their dis-
tribution. The probabilities seem to lie between two alternatives.
Hither, first, a difference of function must be correlated with size;
this might be possible among the cutaneous nerve fibers where a
greater variation in size is coexistent with the need for transmission
of various cutaneous sensations. Or, second, size may depend upon
the amount of tissue to be innervated by the single fiber. Some pre-
liminary measurements still unpublished seem to show that in the
case of the medullated efferent fibers a direct relation exists between
the diameter of the muscle fiber and that of the nerve fiber by which
it is innervated.
Herrick, 1902, in discussing the significance of the size of nerve
fibers in fishes, states, page 333, “that each functional system of
peripheral nerves has tolerably definite fiber characteristics, the basis
for which is unknown; that these characteristics are by no means
invariable, but that fibers of a given system may show considerable
differences in caliber and medullation in a single animal, and that
some of these differences, at least, can be correlated with the degree
of functional development of the peripheral end-organ.”
Johnston, 1908, has a very suggestive paper on the significance
of the caliber of the parts of the neurone in which he points out the
extreme differences in size in the non-medullated nerve fibers of the
lamprey.
A further discussion of the literature cannot be made at this time,
but it is hoped that an accumulation of findings may make possible
a later discussion of the caliber of the medullated nerve fiber in the
leopard frog.
Tt has been shown, Dunn, 1902, that the largest medullated nerve
fibers passing to the leg of the frog are not found iat levels below the
thigh but appear in the primary branches to the thigh. This finding
discredited the theory of Schwalbe that the largest nerve fibers run
the longest distance.
716 ‘fournal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
In the course of the present investigation it was found possible to
corroborate the previous finding by a study of the conditions in the
unoperated leg of frog E, and to determine the condition existing
among the afferent nerve fibers in the left or operated leg of frog E.
Table XVII gives the measurements from frog E for the afferent
fibers, and for the combined afferent and efferent fibers, and for the
combined nerve fibers from frog IIB. Because of the absence of
efferent nerve fibers from the operated leg of frog E the total number
of nerve fibers is decreased at each level. To make possible com-
parison with the unoperated leg and with frog IIB both the full
number and the relative number were included, the latter in each
instance standing alone below the former.
The findings for frog IIB are confirmed by the measurements for
the unoperated leg of frog E. The average area of the 22 largest
nerve fibers at the level above the branches to the thigh is 257 square
micra. That of the corresponding 16 nerve fibers at the level below
the branches is 194 square micra, while the corresponding 8 nerve
fibers in the branches have an average area of 276 square micra.
Similarly the largest nerve fibers at the entrance to the shank are
found in the branches to the shank and not in the main trunks below
the branches.
In the operated leg there is shown a similar distribution of the
largest afferent nerve fibers at each level to the tissues of the adjacent
seoment. Table XVII shows that larger medullated nerve fibers,
both muscular and cutaneous, are found in the thigh than in the
shank.
RELATION oF THE ‘AREA OF THE AxIS CYLINDER TO THE AREA OF
THE MrpuLLARY SHEATH IN Cross SECTIONS OF THE LARGEST
MeEpDULLATED NERVE FIBERS IN THE OPERATED LEG oF Froe E.
A swollen condition of the individual nerve fibers in the operated
leg is shown by the uniformly larger size of the nerve fibers on this
side when compared with corresponding nerve fibers on the unoper-
ated side. As this condition prevails throughout the leg it does not
vitiate the results of a comparison of the caliber of the nerve fibers
at various levels of the operated leg. It does unfortunately prevent
Dunn, Medullated Nerve Fibers. 717
that comparison of the nerve fibers of the operated leg with those of
the unoperated leg, by which we might ascertain the relative sizes of
the largest afferent and efferent nerve fibers.
TABLE XVIII.
Showing the ratio of the average areas in square micra of the ten largest medullated
nerve fibers to the average areas of their axis cylinders at. various levels in the
operated le leg of frog E
Axones. Fibers. Ratio A:B.
Ae: B.
N. ischiadicus above branches to thigh... . 143.99 294.98 1: 2.50
N. ischiadicus below branches to thigh....| 158.37 Zola > AAO,
Imvbranchesitotnighe we... , ites
Tt
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