444 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Education. — Instruction in the principles of meclianics and in their
practical application to agriculture should be given to youths above the
age of fourteen. By means of short courses and extension lectures the
needs of farmers and specialized woikers who require more than a
general knowledge of agricultural machinery could probably be met,
and local authorities should be encouraged to provide instruction in
such subjects as tractor driving and mechanics, and the principles of
internal combustion engines.

The committee recognize the difficulty in securing e:&icient instruc-
tors. The type of instructor required is a combination of the engineer
and the agriculturist. Instruction in engineering, including work-
shop practice, should form the basis of his training, and should be
followed by instruction in agriculture.

Agricultural machinery should be given a more prominent place
in the curricula of agricultural colleges and farm institutes, and in.
the case of the former there should be attached to the staff at least
one specialist whose whole time would be available for teaching and
advisory work on this svibject.

Further, there should be available at each institution besides the
machinery and implements used on the farm, a well-equipped
machinery workshop, and an exhibition of the principal types of
machines and implements on the market.

Advice and Propaganda. — Expert advice on the subject of agri-
cultural machinery should be provided in all counties, and the
Ministry of Agriculture should encourage and co-ordinate demonstra-
tions of agricultural machinery in every county or area. Local
lectures illustrated by the lantern and kinematograph should be
encouraged, and for this purpose lantern slides and kinematograph
films, illustrating the use and care of agricultural implements and
machines, might be provided by the Ministry of \griculture.

As to propaganda, the committee is of opinion that nothing
promises such success as demonstrations conducted by persons of known
impartiality and adequate technical knowledge. But not everything
can be demonstrated, and there is also need of the above-mentioned
lectures with kinema and lantern, and well-chosen and attractive
posters and pamphlets. These, in turn, may be sujJplemented by
attractively written and illustrated articles supplied to the local press-

Plant Nurseries in Quarantine for Pests.

The nurseries listed in the last two issues of the Journal
(pages 287 and 348) were still in quarantine on the 1st July, 1920^.
with the exception of the following, which have been released: —

E. Krohn, Esselen Street, Pretoria.

J. H. Laubscher, Graaff-Reinet.

Botanic Gardens, Graaff-Reinet,

Keep your Journals I The contents, will be indexed every six
months and a copy of the index sent to each subscriber.

Rodent Injury to Trees. 445

RODENT INJURY TO TREES.

Cause, Prevention, and Repair.

By W. F. ScHLUPP, B.Sc. (Agr.), Entomologist, School of
Agriculture and Experiment Station, Potchefstroom, Transvaal.

Rodent injury to trees is of frequent occurrence in certain parts of
the Union. In this article the various ways and means of dealing
with the problem are discussed. The farmer or fruit grower can
select the method best suited to his own particular case.

The trees most commonly injured are those of the orchard, but
occasionally shade trees and plantations are damaged. This article
deals principally with the protection of fruit trees, but some of the
methods described are adaptable in other cases.

The rodents responsible for the damage are hares, field mice and
rats. In addition to rodents, small antelopes sometimes do much
injury.

Cause of Rodent Injury. — The damage is nearly always done in
winter and spring, and the immediate cause is a lack of green plants
and other food. However, in most of the cases that have come to the
notice of the writer the primary cause has been neglect of the
orchard. By allowing a rank growth of grass and weeds to spring
up, favourable conditions for rodents are produced; the vegetation
affording the animals a shelter from hawks, owls, and other natural
enemies

Preventive Measures. — The best preventive measure is clean
cultivation. By this we mean keeping the orchard free of weeds,
etc., during the dry season, as it is in dry winters and springs that
the trees are generally attacked. During the wet summer season a
cover crop may be grown, but at the end of the rainy season this,
should be ploughed under and not allowed to remain on the ground
over winter. Grass and other vegetation growing around trees should
be destroyed. In addition to sheltering rodents, rank vegetation may
sometimes increase the chance of damage by insects and fungi.

When all that is desired is protection of the trees from a few(
rodents that occasionally enter the orchard, the winter prunings are
sometimes left lying on the ground until spring, in order that the
animals may feed upon these instead of upon the trees. A few
cabbages, mangels, etc., could also be placed about the orchard. This
is sometimes successful in preventing injury, but is only a com-
promise measure and may at times result in attracting a few more
rodents to the vicinity.

Fencing. — Rat and mouse proof fences are practically out of the
question. For hares, poultry netting with l^-inch meshes is suitable.
A height of 3 feet is suggested, although 2^ feet or even 2 feet would

16

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UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

JOURNAL

OF THE DEPARTMENT OF

AGRICULTURE

Volume L-APRIL to DECEMBER, 1920

Published bi/ tJic

DEPARTMENT OF AGRIGULTUBE

PRETORIA

NHU YORK
GARDEN

PRETORIA

The Government Printing and Stationery Office

1921

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

PAGE

Cottle, Export of, from the Union to Great Britain (Note) 196

Cattle, Importation of 159

Cattle in the Union 278

Cattle, Poisoning of, by Feeding on Ergotized Paspalum 422

Cattle, Poisoning of, by Feeding on Old Mealie Lands 138

Cattle, Sale of, in Southern Rhodesia (Note) 596

Cattle, The Prevention of Contagious Abortion in 8

Cause and Prevention of Lamziekte, The 221

Cereal Crops and of Supply, Prospects of (Note) 582

Cereal Experiments at the School of Agriculture, Elsenburg, Results of

Winter 45, 111

Cereals, Position of the World's (Note) 608

Cheese, Butter and (Note) '. 482

Cheese, Butter and Export of (Note) 607, 708

Cheese, Poor Grnde Australian (Note) 804

Chemical Analysis of Soils 341

Chemical Laboratories, New (Note) ... 610

Cigar Tobacco Investigations 427

Cinema Films Depicting South African Agriculture, Exhii)ition of (Noto)... 70;3

Citrus Canker, The Eradication of 124

I'iti-us Export, Experiments (Note) 622

Citrus Export, Season 1920 (Note) 291, 740

Citrus Fruit Shipments, Preventing Wastage in (Note) 799

Coccidiosis of the Fowl 815

Composition and Valuation of Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs 368, 591

Consignors of Produce, Advice to (Note) 608

Contagious Abortion in Cattle, The Prevention of 8

Co-operation in Agriculture, Fundamental Principles of 383

Co-operation in England, Agricultural (Note) 257

Corrigenda /. 591, 679, 795, 867

Cotton Culture 615, 795

Cotton Exports (Note) 350

Cotton Gins (Note) 588

Cotton Growers' Competitions 804

Cotton-growing Prospects (Note) 192

Cotton-seed, Importation of (Note) 709

Cotton-seed, The Danger Lurking in Imported (Note) 798

Cow-testing Associations 149

Crop and Live Stock Report 107, 218, 313, 410, 506, 602, 696, 791, 887

Crops, 1919-20, The Union's Summer (Note) 428

Crops, The World's (Note) 483, 710

Crossing of North African and South African Ostriches, The 737

Dairy, Plan of a Small Farm 862

Dairy Show, London, Successful Exhibits (Note) 83

Daslieen Root, Madumba (Note) 806

Departmental Notices 316

Department of Agriculture during the War, The ... 183, 271, 363, 463, 561, 643

Dipping of She(-p in So-called Carbolic Dips, The 536

Dipping, Sheep, The Use of Hard or Saline Waters for 40

Dipping Tanks, Pretoria District (Note) 803

Dip-testing Apparatus (Note) 610

Disease, Animal (Note) 705

Diseases in the Union, Outbreaks of Animal 779, 880

Domestic Animals and Poultry in South Africa, Ticks Fonnd on Man and 317

Drought Commission (Note) .. 611

Drought of 1918-19, The ! 144

Drying-out of Maize during Bail Transit (Note) 398

East Coast Fever in the Pretoria District (Note) 455, 612

East Coast Fever, Practical Hints for the Prevention and Eradication of 58

East Coast Fever, Recent Outbreaks of (Note) 396

Effects of Storms on Certain Forests in the Tsolo District, Cape Province 750

Egg-laying Competition 172 (Note) 614

Egg-laying Competition, Cedara (Note) 707

Eggs, Export of (Note) 611

Index to Volume I. iii

PAGE

Eggs and Poultry, South African, Export of 258

Eggs, South. African Standard for, and Poultry 64

Elevators, Grain (Note) 397

Employees on Farms (Note) 530

Entomological Conference, A Successful (Note) ... 607

Entomology, Notes from the Division of 168

Euccdyptiis Globulus ) Parasitic Attack on 852

European Corn Borer, The (Note) 123

European Foul Brood Bee Disease 245

Experiments, Citrus Export (Note) 622

Experiments and Investigations 162, 281, 388, 478

Experiments, Land for: " Prinshof " (Note) 610

Export of Cattle from the Union to Great Britain (Note) 196

Extent of the Union and the Area Cultivated (Note) 394

Factors that Affect the Growth, Reproduction, and Maturity of Tobacco 728
Farm Foods, The Fertilizers, Seeds, and Pest Remedies Act (No. 21 of

1917) 32

Farm Labour, Recruitment of (Note) 290"

Farming in the Early Cape Days 531

Farms, Employees on (Note) 530

Fattening, Lamb 458

Feeding Stuffs, Composition and Valuation of Fertili.z;ers and 368

Fencing (Note) 382, 591

Fencing Mateiials (Note) 642'

Fertility of the Soil, Building up the 755

Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs, Composition and Valuation of 368, 591

Fertilizers, Farm Foods, Seeds, and Pest Remedies Act i,No. 21 of 1917) 32'

Fibre Plants, South African 570

Fire Protection, Methods of 413

Flag Smut of Wheat 252

Flanagan, The Gift of the Late Mr. (Note) 85

Flowering Plants of South Africa, The (Note) 705

Foul Brood Bee Disease, European 245'

Fowl, Coccidiosis of the 815

Fowl Lice, Naphthalene for (Note) 557

Friesland Bull, "Admiral Beatty," The (Note) 288

Fruit and Vegetables, A Great Manvifacturing Scheme (Note) .. 390

Fruit Crop, Western Pravince (Note) 584

Fruit Export (Note) 625, 721, 861

Fruit Export Act, The 349'

Fruit Export, July, 1920: A Record Shipment (,Note) 585-

Fruit-fly Remedy, The Mally 859

Fuller, 'Mr. Claude: A Recognition (Note) 711

Fundanipnt^'l Principles of Co-operation in Agriculture 383-

Gazette, Notes from the 94, 204, 304, 402, 492, 587, 681, 772, 869"

Geese 732'

Grafted Vineyards .. 5G1

Grain-eating Birds: A Poison (Note) 560'

Grain Elevators (Note; J 397

Grain, etc.. Export of 106, 217, 244, 340, 505, 589, 754, 833.

Grain, Sterilizatiort of (Note) [. ... 828-

Growing of Mine Props on the High Veld, The 261

Gum, South African, A (Note) 75, 834

Ham and Bacon (Note) , 612'

Hemp, Ambari or Deccan (South African Fibre Plants) 570

Hibiscus cannahinus, L. (South African Fibre Plants) 570

Hides and Skins 809, 858

Hides, Curing of (Note) 83

Hides, Pure Salt for (Note) 851

Hides, Wet, for Shipment: Marking of Goods (Note) 167

Hive made from Paraffin Boxes, A Cheap Serviceable 844

Honey (Note) ' 270

Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

PAGE

Importation of Cattle, The 159

Imported, Purc-brccl Stock 678

Index for the Journal ^Note) 581

Infectious Diarrhoea: " Bioedpens " in Lambs 286

Inoculation and Dosing of Breeding Ewes (Note) 808

Inspection of Vines : Notice to Viticulturists and Vine Nurserymen (Note) 711

International Refrigeration Conference at Paris (Note) 289

Investigation and Research 76

Investigations and Experiments 162, 281, 388, 478

Irrigation, Brak in its Relation to 13

Irrigation Enterprise in the United States of America 829

Irrigation in the Union 676

■Jams, South African (Note) 44

John, Death of Mr. W. O. (Note) 701

Jointed Cactus Extermination, Prickly Pear and (Note) 481

■Journal, Important Notice (Note) 187

Journal of the Department of Agriculture 1

Kaffir Corn, Production in the Union (Note) 182

Karakul Sheep , 509, 626

Karakul Sheep, Registration of (Note) 710

Kudzu 558

Lamb Fattening 458

Lambs, "Bioedpens" in: Infectious Diarrhoea 286

Lamziekte. The Cause and Prevention of 221

Leaf Spot of the Pea Nut or Monkey Nut, A 528

Library of the Department of Agriculture, The 135

Limestone Resources of the Union (Note) 80

Literature, Agricultural (Note) 805

Literature, Recent Agricultural 96, 206, 305, 403, 496, 593, 687, 780, 876

Live Stock Mortality in the Union (Note) 295

Live Stock (Pure-bred Stock Imported) 678

Live Stock, Sale of, at Cedara School of Agriculture (Note) 490

Live Stock, Sale of, at Grootfontein (Note) 611

Local Market, The (Note) (see under "Market") ... 606

Locusts, Control of (Mote) 708

Locusts (Note) 797

Lucerne-seed (Note) 841

Lung-sickness: An Outbreak (Note) 612

Machinery, Development of Agricultural 442

Madumba (Dasheen) Root (Note) 806

Maize, Cost of Production of (Note) 600, 801

Maize Crop of the Union, The (Note) 294

Maize Crop, 1920, United States (Note) 801

Maize during Rail Transit, Drying Out of (Note) 397

Maize Production in the Four Provinces (Note) 186

Mallet and Wattle Bark (Note) 706

Mally Fruit-fly Remedy. The 859

" Mariendahl," Purchase of (Note) 194

Marketing of Meat (Note) 486

Market Prices, Local .... 110, 220, 315, 412, 508, 604, 679, 698, 699, 793,

794, 890, 891

Mealie Lands, Poisoning of Cattle bv Feeding on Old 138

Meat Export (Note) ... '. 82

Meat, Frozen (Note) 54

Meat, Marketing of (Note) 486

Meat Statistics 105, 216, 312, 409, 504, 601, 695, 790, 887

Meat Supplies for the United Kingdom 655

Meetings of Officers of the Department (Note) 797

Menace of Anthrax, The 671, 795

Merino Ram, The (Note) 189

Mine Props on the High Veld, The Growing of 261

Minister of Agriculture, The (Note) 187

Monkey Nut, Leaf Spot of the Pea Nut or 528

Monkey Nut (Pea-nut Growing) (Note) 642

Index to Volume I.

PAGE

Mohair Market (Note) 731

Mohair, V'aluable Exhibit of Manufactured, and AVooI (Note) 717

Myhibris Beetles 741

Nagana (Note) 705

Naphthalene for Fowl Lice (Note) 557

Notes from the Divisions 168, 591, 685, 777, 874

Orange River, Along the 359

Orange Stocks Used in California (Note) 654

Organization of Farmers (Note) 161

Ostriches, The Crossing of North African and South African 737

Ostrich Feathers (Note) ... ._. 480

Oversea Market, South African Produce on the

86, 200, 300, 411, 493, 589, 683, 774, 871

Taper, Shortage of 221

Pappea capensis Seed 760, 867

Parasitic Attack on Eucalypfiis tjlohulus 852

Pa-palum. Poisoning of Cattle by Feeding en Ergotized 422

Pea-nut Growing (Note) 642

Pea Nut or Monkey Nut, A Leaf Spot of the 528

Pernicious Scale in the Orange Free State (Note) 171

Pest, Fighting a Notorious: Pink Boll-worm (Note) 527

Pest Remedies Act (iSo. 21 of 1917), The Fertilizers, Farm Foods, Seeds,

and 32

Pests, Imported (Note) 169

Pig as an Economical Producer of Food, The 623

Pig Production (Note) 277

Pink Boll-worm (see Note, Fighting a Notorious Pest) 527

Pirbright Cattle-Testing Station (Note) 85

Plan of a Small Farm Dairy 862

Plant Nurseries in Quarantine for Pests (Note)

190, 287, 348, 444, 590, 670, 740, 818

Poisoning of Cattle by Feeding on Ergotized Paspalum 422

Poisoning of Cattle by Feeding on Old Mealie Lands 138

Poison, A: Grain-eating Birds (Note) 560

Poisons, Rat (Note) 485

Poor-white Problem, The (Note) 764

Pork and Bscon, South African (Note) 457

Poultry and Eggs, South African, Export of 258

Poultry and Eggs, South African Standard for 64

Poultry Congress, World's (Note) 706

Poultry in South Africa, Ticks Found on Man and His Domestic Animals

and 317

Poultry Shows: Organization (Note) 196

Poultry Yard Mo-nth by Month 197, 298, 400, 489, 585, 679, 770, 867

Practical Hints for tlie Prevention and Eradication of East Coast Fever... 58

Prevention of Lamziekte, The Cause and 221

Prices, Oversea, of South African Produce

91, 202, 302, 495, 590, 684, 776, 795, 873

Prickly Pear (Note) 802

Prickly Pear and Jointed Cactus Extermination (Note) 481

Prickly Pear as a Stock Food 848

" Prinshof " : Land for Experiments (Note) 610

Produce, Advice to Consignors of (Note) 608

Produce on Show, South African (Note) 569

Produce on the Oversea Market, South African

86, 200, 300, 411, 493, 589, 683, 774, 871
Produce, Oversea Prices of South African

91, 202, 302. 495, 590, 684, 776, 795, 873

Producer of Food, The Pig as an Economical 623

Productive Wealth of the Union (Note) 582

Progress of Agriculture in South Africa, The 3

Pure-bred Stock Imported 678

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

PAGE

Railage of Sheep to Fresh Pasturage (Note) ., 428

Railway Figures, Interesting (Note) 426

Railway Transport: Hints to Consignors (Note) 581

Rams, Care of (Note) 395

Rat Poisons (Note) 485

Rats, Danger of (Note) 260

Rats in Sugar-cane 55^

Recruitment of Farm Labour (Note) 290

Refrigeration Conference at Paris, International (Note) 289'

Research and Investigation 76-

Results of Winter Cereal Experiments at the School of Agriculture,

Elsenburg 45, 111

Retirement of the Secretarj' for Agriculture (Note) 605-

Rhodesian Cattle and Maize (Note) 580

Rinderpest (Note) 803-

Rodent Injury to Trees 445

Sale of Cattle m Southern Rhodesia (Note) 596-

Sale of Live Stock at Cedara School of Agriculture (Note) 490'

Sale of Live Stock at Grootfontein (Note) 611

Scholarships in Agriculture. Oversea (Note) 704

Schools of Agriculture and Experiment Stations, At the

100, 209, 308, 406, 500, 597, 690, 785, 881

Secretary for Agriculture, Retirement of the (Note) 605

Seed, Pappea capensis 760, 867

Seeds, Export of (Note) 188

Seeds, Some Common Adulterants Found in Agricultural 26

Seeds : The Fertilizers, Farm Foods, and Pest Remedies Act (No. 21

of 1917) 32'

Seville Oranges (Note) 866

Sheep and AVool Industry, Concerning the (Note) 79

Sheep for the Export Trade, Breeding 838

Sheep in So-called Carbolic Dips, The Dipping of 536

Sheep, Railage of, to P"'resh Pasturage (Note) 428

Sheep, The IJse of Hard or vSaline Waters for Dipping 40

Shortage of Foodstuffs and Raw Materials (Note) 81

Skins, Hides and 809, 858

Skins, Seal, Remarkable Prices (Note) 208

Skins, Sheep and Goat (Note) 187

Soil, Building up the Fertility of the 755

Soils, Chemical Analvsis of 341, 796

Soils of the Cape Province, The Agriculture and 152, 351, 429, 660, 819

Soils, Representative Transvaal 704, 722

Spinose Ear-tick, The 647

Springhaas (Note) 314

Staff Changes, Appointments, Transfers, etc.

92, 203, 303, 411, 488, 592, 694, 789, 887

Stock Food, Prickly Pear as a ... 848

Storms on Certain Forests in the Tsolo District, Cape Province, The

Effects of 750

Straw, V/heat, and Its Value to the Land 712

Sugar-cane, Rats in 55

Sunflower Seed Export (Note) 659

Ticks Found on Man and His Domestic Animals and Poultry in South

Africa 317

Timber Resources, The Union's (Note) 675

Timber Supply, The Union's (Note) 807

Tobacco, Cigar, Investigations 427

Tobacco, Factors that Affect the Growth, Reproduction, and Maturity of 728

Tobacco-leaf Beetle (Note) .'. ... 168

Tobacco-leaf Sing (Note) 709

Toktokje Beetles in Millions (Not'-) 169

Toll of the War, The 646

Tomato Canker, A 718

Tractors, Offer of (Note) 749

Trade, The Union's External 213^

Index to Volume I. vii

PAGE

Transvaal Soils, Representative 704, 722

Trees, Rodent Injury to 445

Tsetse Fly Investigations (Note) '95)

Turkeys 472

Use of Hard or Saline Waters for Sheep Dipping, The 40

Vaccines, etc.. Telegraphic Requests for (Note) 171

Vegetable Garden, the 199, 299, 401, 491 586, 681, 770, 868

Vegetables, Fruit and: A Great Manufacturing Scheme (Note) 390

Vines, Inspection of : Notice to Viticulturists and Vine Nurserymen (Note) 711

Vineyards, Grafted 560

Vintage of South Australia, The 1920 754

War, Agriculture and the 66

War, The Department of Agriculture during the ... 183, 271, 363, 463, 551, 643

AVar, Toll of the 646

Wattle Bark, Composition of Natal (Note) 702

Wattle Bark, Mallet and 706

Weeds of South Africa: "Canada Thistle" 73

Wheat and Flour (Note) 367

Wheat Crop of 1919-20, The World'.s (Note) 296

Wheat Crop of the World, The (Note) 808

Wheat, Flag Smut of 252

Wheat-growing in South Africa (Note) 194

Wheat Production of the Union (Note) 190

Wheat-straw and Its Value to the Land 712

Wheat, The World's: A Forecast (Note) 609

Willow Leaves, Food Value of 456

Wine and Brandy, Prize (Note) 291

Wine Competition, 1919, Colonial (Note) 193

Winter Cereal Experiments at the School of Agriculture, Elsenburg,

Results of 45, 111

Women's Work (Note) 158

Wool Industry, The (Note) 609

Wool Prices, The Great Advance in (Note) 296

Wool, Valuable Exhibit of Manufactured, and Mohair (Note) 717

World's Cereals, The Position of the (Note) 608

World's Crops (Note) ... 483, 710

World's Harvest, The (Note) 134

World, Wheat Crop of the (Note) 808

AUTHORS' INDEX.

PAGE

Baguley, A., B.Sc, F.I.C.— Building up the Fertility of the Soil 755

Baker, E., B.Sc, Lecturer in Botany, Elsenburg School of Agriculture —

Methods of Fire Protection ... '. 413

LJedford, G. A. H., 1<\E.S., Entomologist, Division of Veterinary
Besearch, Onderstepoort, Transvaal — Ticks Found on Man and His

Domestic Animals and Poultry in South Africa 317

Botha, C. Graham, Chief Archivist for the Union— Farming in the Early

Cape Days 531

Bottomley, A.M., B.A., Mycologist, Division of Botany; and K. A.
Carlson, Conservator of Forests, Transvaal Conservancy — Parasitic

Attack on Evcalyptvs r/lohiihis 852

Carlson, K. A., Conservator of Forests, Transvaal Conservancy — The

Growing of Mine Props on the High Veld 261

Carlson, K. A., Conservator of Forests, Transvaal Conservancy, and
A. M. Bottomley, B.A., Mycologist, Division of Botany — Parasitic

Attack on Eitcalypt us glohiihts 852

Cillie, P. J. (C.'s son). Member of Commission of Investigation — Grafted

Vineyards Report 561

Cleghorne, W. S. H., B.Sc, A.M.I.Mech.E., Lecturer in Engineering,

School of Agriculture, Potchefstroom — Plan of a Small Farm Dairy 862
Cross, T. B., Poultry Instructor, School of Agriculture, Cedara —

Egg-laying Competition, 1918-19 172

Turkeys 472

Curson, H. H., M.R.C.V.S., Veterinary Research Officer, Grahamstown —

Coccidiosis of the Fowl 815

Doidge, E. M., M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Mycologist, Division of Botany —

The ^Eradication of Citrus Canker 124

A Tomato Canker 718

Hall, Thos. D., B.A.. M.S.Agr.— Food Value of Willow Leaves 456

John, W. O., Lecturer in Poultry, Elsenburg School of Agriculture —

South African Standard for Poultrv and Eggs 64

Export of wSouth African Eggs and Poultry, 1919 258

Geese 732

Juritz, Chas. F., M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C., Agricultural Research Chemist —

The Use of Hard or Saline AVaters for Sheep Dipping 40

Wheat-straw and its Value to the Land 712

Calcium Cvanamide 765

Prickly Pear as a Stock Footl ... 848

Joubert, F., Assistant Instructor in Dairying, Elsenburg School of Agri-
culture— Cow-testing Associations ". 149

King, H. E., Secretaty, South African National Union — Canning Clubs 548
Koch, Pioter, B.ScAgr., Manager, Tobacco Experiment Station, Elsen-
burg, Mulders Vlei — Cotton Culture 615

Ijansdell, K. A., Division cf Botany; and I. B. Pole-Evans, M.A., D.Sc,
F.L.S., Chief, Division of Botany —

The Weeds of South Africa— Notes on ''Canada Thistle" 73

Lansdell, K. A., Division of Botany —

Some Common Adulterants Found in Agricultural Seeds 26

P'tpppo CO pen sis Seed 760

A South African Gum (Comhretum erythrophyllum, Burch.) ... 834
Lounsbury, C. P., B.Sc, Chief, Division of Entomology— European Foul

Brood Bee Disease 245

Marcliand, B. de C, B.A., D.Sc, Chief, Division of Chemistry —

The Fertilizers, Farm Foods, Seeds, and Pest Remedies Act (No.

21 of 1917) 32

Chemical Analysis of vSoils 341

Representative Transvaal Soils, I 722

Meynhardt, G. J., Assistant Experimentalist; and T. G. W. Reinecke,
Principal — Results of Winter Cereal Experiments at School of Agri-
culture, Elsenburg 45, 111

Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

PAGE

Mitchell, D. T., M.R.C.V.S., Veterinary Research Laboratory, Onderste-
poort —

Poisoning of Cattle by Feeding on Old Mealie Lands 138

Poisoning of Cattle by Feeding on Ergoti?;ed Paspalum 422

Morkel, W. A. K., M.Sc, Lecturer in Animal Husbandry, Elsenburg

School of Agriculture — The Pig as an Economical Producer of Food 623
Perold, A. J., B.A., Ph.D., Member of Committee of Investigation —

Grafted Vineyards Report 561

Pole-Evans, I. B., M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Chief, Division of Botany and
Plant Pathology; and K. A. Landsell, Division of Botany — The

Weeds of South Africa: Notes on "Canada Thistle" 73

Pole-Evans, I. B., M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Chief, Division of Botany and
Plant Pathology — South African Fibre Plants (Ambari or Deccan

Hemp. Hibiscus cannabinus, L.) 570

Putterill, V. A., M.A., Mycologist, Division of Botany — Flag Smut of

Wheat ; 252

Reinecke, T. G. W., Principal; and G. I. Meynhardt, Assistant Experi-
mentalist— -Results of Winter Cereal Experiments at the School of

Agriculture, Elsenburg 45, 111

Retief, Jobs., Registrar of Co-operative Agricultural Societies — Funda-
mental Principles of Co-operation in Agriculture 383

Ribbink, Paul, librarian — The Library of the Department of Agri-
culture 135

Rivers, O., Officer in Charge of Sheep, School of Agriculture, Potchef-
stroom —

Lamb-Fattoning 458

Breeding Sheep for the Export Trade 838

Robinson, E. M., M.R.C.V.S., Veterinary Research Officer, Onderste-

poort — The Prevention of Contagious Abortion in Cattle 8

Scherffius, W. H.. M.Sc, Chief, Division of Tobacco and Cotton-
Cigar -tobacco Investigation 427

Factors that Affect the Growth, Reproduction, and Maturitv of

Tobacco \ ... 728

Schlupp, W. F., B.ScAgr., Entomologist, School of Agriculture, Potchef-
stroom —

Bodent Injury to Trees 44ri

Mylabris Beetles 741

Skaife, S. H., M.A., Entomologist, School of Agriculture, Cedara. —

Rats in Sugar-cane 55

A Cheap Serviceable Hive Made from Paraffin Boxes 842

Stead, Arthur, B.Sc, F.C.S., Lecturer in Chemistry, Grootfontein School
of Agriculture —

Brak in Its Relation to Irrigation 13

The Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province... 152, 351, 429, 660, 819

The Dipping of Sheep in So-called Carbolic Dips 536

Stent, Sydney M., Botanist, Division of Botany, Pretoria — Kudzu

(I'euniria tliii.nhprfjiana) ..' 558

Story, Colin, Baddaford, Fort Beaufort — The Spinose Ear-tick 647

Stuart, J. S. Niblock, Acting District Forest Officer, Umtata— The Effects

of Storms on Certain Forests in the Tsolo District, Cape Province... 750
Theiler, Sir Arnold, K.C.M.G., Director of Lamziekte Research — The

Cause and Prevention of Lamziekte 221

Tribolet, I., Chief, Division of Horticulture —

The Fruit Export Act 349

Along the Orange River , 359

Van der Bijl, Paul A., M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Mycologist in Charge, Natal

Herbarium — A Leaf Spot of the Pea Nut or Monkey Nut Plant ... 528
Van Niekerk, S. W., Government Viticulturist, Member of Committee of

Investigation — Grafted Vineyards Report 561

Wahl, R,. Owen, B.A. (Hons.), Lecturer in Zoology and Entomology,

Grootfontein School of Agriculture — Karakul Sheep 626

Webb, Jas. L., F.R.C.V.S., G.V.O., Ixopo— Practical Hints for the Preven-
tion and Eradication of Eost Coast Fever 58

WiiUams, C. 0., B.Sc. A.R.C.S., Chemist, School of Agriculture,

Cedara — Composition iind Valuation of Fertilizers ajid Feeding Stuff 368

Vol. 1.

APRIL, 1920.

No. I.

r Issued BY AUTHORITY of the
iNisTER OF Agriculture.

PRINCIPAL CONTEXTS

The Progress of Agriculture in South Africa.
The Prevention of Contagious Abortion in Cattle.
Brak in its Relation to Irrigation.

The Weeds of South Africa. Notes on "Canada Thistle."
Results of Winter Cereal Experiments at Elsenburg — I.
Fertilizers, Farm Foods, Seeds and Pest Remedies Act (No. 21 of 1917).
The Use of Hard or Salme Waters for Sheep Dipping-
South African Standard for Poultry and Eggs.
Rats in Sugar-Cane .

Practical Hints for the Prevention and Eradication of East Coast Fever.
Some Common Adulterants found m Agricultural Seeds.

339-l.-).1.20 -12,000.

Prkiori.^.: The Gt>verniiiinit Printing ami Scatlonery Office. 192ii.

NOTICE TO CONSIGNORS OF FRUIT.

WESTERN PROVINCE FRUIT SEASON, 1920: RAILWAY FACILITIES.

[Note. Alth()UL:li the bulk of the deciduous fruit crop of 1920 will have been disposed
of by the time this note— furnished by the Railway Administration — is likely to appear, the
information it contains remains of interest and its appeal for co-operation continues. — ■
Acting Editor ]

Following the practice in vogvie for a uuiuber of years, the Rail-
way Administration has again made special arrangements for the
transit of the Western Province fruit crop to Union markets, as well
as the more distant markets in adjoining territories and also to the
ports for shipment overseas.

The publication of the principal features of the system followed
for handling the fruit crops in transit by rail may stimulate interest
amongst producers and lead to a more hearty co-operation on their
pai't with the railway authorities, so as to ensure the maximum success
in the movement of fruit crops. It is not, of course, suggested that
co-operation has hitherto been entirely or even generally lacking.

Owing to the crops in the more southern regions of the fruit area
maturing earlier than those beyond the Paarl District, it is possible
to deal with the bulJc of the crops from the two areas separately.
During January-February Huguenot Station is the centralizing depot
for all consignments of fruit (except when in full truck loads), and to
this station tlie traffic is forwarded by certain trains. On arrival at
the depot it is sorted out and made up into full truck loads for the
different destinations or, when there is not sufficient for any one
destination station, for a series of stations within a particular area,
thereby ensuring a minimum of handling and delay at the various
depots en route.

Similarly, during the months of March and April, a concentra-
tion depot will be established at De Dooms for the purpose of sorting
out, marshalling, and despatching fruit in the manner most suitable
to secure its arrival at destination in a proper condition.

From the centralized points the traffic is sent forward by a special
train, connections being made at junction stations for consignments
destined for points off the main route.

To secure as far as practicable direct connections and to avoid
^veek-end arrivals, the following are the days on which fruit for the

\_C()iitinnfd Oil j)'igi' -'^ (if <'Orr)'.

CONTENTS.

APRIL, 1920.

"The Journal of the Department of Agriculture' ... ... ... i

The Progress of Agriculture in South Africa... ... ... ... S

The Prevention of Contagious Abortion in Cattle ... ... ... 8

Brak in its Relation to Irrigation ... ... ... ... ... 13

Some common Adulterants found in A(4Ricultural Seeds ... ... 2Ct

The iFertilizers. Farm Foods, Seeds, and Pest Remedies Act (No. 21 of

1917);... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... H2

The Use of Hard or Saline Waters for Sheep Dipping ... ... 40

Results of Winter Cereal Experiments at the School of A(jricultuue.

Elsenburg, Mulder's Vlei, Cape Province ... ... ... 45

Rats in Sugar-Cane ... ... ... ... ... ... ... o.>

Practical Hints for the Prevention and Eradication of East Coast Fetkr .^S

South African Standard for Poultry and Eggs ... ... ... 64

Agriculture and the War ... ... ... ... ... ... en

" The Weeds of South Africa" ... ... ... ... ... ... 73

Eeseakch,and Investigation ... ... ... ... ... ... 7(;

Notes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7^

Concerning tlie Sheep and W(jol Industry — Anthrax — Limestone Resources
of the Union Shortage of Foodstuffs and Raw Materials— Meat Export —
Successful Exhibits. London Dairy Show — Curing of Hides — Pirbright Cattle
Testing Station— The Gift of the Late Mr. H. G. Flanagan — Brands and
Earmarks (page 12) — Advisory Committee on Agficultural Matters Qiage
25) -South African .Jams (page 44) — Frozen Meat (page 54) -Agricultural
Policy (page 72) — South African Gum (page 7.")).

South .African Produce on the Oversea Market ... ... ... st-i

Oversea Prices of South African I'hodi ce ... ... ... ... ;i]

Staff ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... <»2

Staff Changes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ;i2

Notes from the "Gazette" ... ... ... ... ... ... 94

Recent Agricultural Literature ... ... ... ... kg

At the Schools of Agriculture and Kxperiment Stations ... ... lOO

Meat Statistics... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... i05

Export of Grain, etc. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 106

Crop and Live Stock Reim.ikt ... ... ... ... ... ... i07

liOCAL Markki- Prices ... ... ... ... ... ... ... no

DATES OF AGRICULTURAL SHOWS STILL
TO BE HELD.

(As Notified at 29th February, 1920.)

CAPE PROVINCE.
East London. — 7th and 8th April

T^^ANSVAAL PROVINCE.

Witwatersrand. — 31st March to 5th April.
Rustenburg. — 24th May.

Klerksdorp.— 26th and 27th May.
Pretoria. — 31st May to 2nd June.

NATAL PROVINCE.

Newcastle Agricultural Society. — 2nd and
3rd .June.

Vrijheid Agricultural Society. — 8th June.

Dundee Agricultural Society. — 10th and
1 Ith June.

Klip River Agricultural Society (Lady-
smith). — liith and 16th June.

Umvoti Agr cultural Society (Greytown). —
16th and 17th June.

Weenen Agricultural Society (Estcourt). —
17th and 18th June.

Royal Agricultural Society (Maritzburg).- —

22nd to 25th June.
Durban and Coast Agricultural Society

(Durban). -29th June to 2nd Ju:y.
Zululand Show Society (Eshowe). — 7th July.
Richmond Agricultural Society. — 14th July.
Dronk Vlei Agricultural Society. — 14th July,
Camperdown Agricultural Society. — 21st

July.
Ixopo Agricultural Society. — 22nd July.

ORANGE FREE STATE.

flarrismith. — 1st or 2nd week in April. | 'Bethlehem.--14th and 15th April.

LIB J?.* ^r

NEW >

JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT
OF AGRICULTURE.

Vol. I. APRIL, 1920. No. 1.

I'tiblislied moQthly in English and Afrikaans by the Department of Agriculture

Union of South Africa.

Subscription: Within the Union and South- West Protectorate. 5s, (ntlierwise 6Sm)
per annum, post free, payable in advance.

Applications, with subscriptions, to be sent to the Government
Printer, Box 373, Pretoria.

THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE."

The Official Organ of the Department.

The publication of The Agricultural Journal of the Union of South
Africa, the late official organ of the Department of Agriculture, was
suspended, to the regret of the Department, in August, 1914. owing to
the financial situation created by the war. The lack of an official
organ has been a source of great inconvenience and loss ])oth to the
Department and the farming community, for with the suspen-
sion of the Journal one of the principal means of keeping the public
advised of the activities of the Department was closed. That tlie
Journal fulfilled its functions in the past, and that its revival is neces-
sary in the interests of all engaged directly or indirectly in the
farming industry, is evidenced by the widespread desire for its re-
publication. Happily, circumstances permit of the publication again
of the Journal, the first number of which is now offered to the public.

Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

As in the past, the object ot the Journal will be to get into close
touch with all engaged in agriculture by keeping them intornied of
what the Department is doing-, and of such matters affecting their
interests as come under its purview, and by publishing for their benefit
articles dealing with the many and diverse problems which face the
farmer in vSouth Africa.

The Ageicultiteal Peess,

In announcing the reissue of the Journal, it is desired to state
that it is not intended to compete with the agricultural Press of the
country, but to supplemeiit its efforts, and the opportunity is taken to
express appreciation of the good services rendered to the country by
the agricultural Press, which is proving invaluable in the dis-semina-
tiou of information to the farmer.

The function of the Journal will be to act as a link between the
farmer and the Dei)aTtment of State which is charged with the
furtherance of his interests. The information it will publish will,
for the most part, be ofticial, and therefore of a nature not otherwise
readily accessible to the farmer.

It lias been decided to charge subscribers resident in tlie Union
(including the South -West Protectorate) at the rate of 5s. per annum,
and outside the Union 6s. per annum, post free, subscriptions being
payable in advance. The income which will be obtained from sub-
scriptions is likely to be far short of the cost of printing and publish-
ing the Journal. On the other hand, it is desired that the Journal
will be accessible to and valued by all whose interests it is intended to
serve, and that the small charge will have tlie effect of inducing the
support of all who are in need of the assistance which the Journal will
rendei', and who will appreciate the benefits it will confer.

The Progress of Agriculture in South Africa.

THE PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE IN
SOUTH AFRICA.

A RetrosDect.

Since tlie dawn of ao-riciilturnl entevpiiso in South Africa, when the
eaiiy settlers on the shores of Table Bay f>'rew ve<>etal)les for their
own consumption and for provisioning" the slii-ps oi the Netherlands
East India Company, the story of husbandry in our country shows
an unceasing- strug-gle with conditions of Nature— often forbidding
and ungracious. It shows, also, achieTement in spite of tlie many
and peculiar ])robleniS which beset the toilers whose livelihood
depended on the fruits wrung from the soil. The history of every
country reveals difhculties contended with in subduing untamed
Nature to the will of man, and tlie story of South Africa's struggle
wiJi rank Mith that of any countiy in its magnitude and varying
fortunes.

Much has been achieved since the earU' days, when vegetable
growing de^eloped into vine culture and wheat growing-, and w4ien
stock-breeding first commenced. Numerous plagues, pests, and
droughts have been encouritered tind overcome, and many economic
problems have been solved. Agricultural South Africa has left behind
it for ever the days of bare existence and of dependence on the produce
of otJier lands. When the first glow of wea!th from the mines revealed
by contrast the liumble part of uur ag-riculture, there was heard the
word that the country's wealth lay solely in its minerals. That is
also of the past, for such progress has been made that agriculture is
now recognized as the premier industry of the Union. The cares and
anxieties of past problems soften and fade as time goes on, and one
looks ever to the future with its hopes and possibilities. Indeed, in
his eagerness to meet the morrow, man is apt to forget the small
beginnings of early days and to undervalue the work already
accomplished.

It is therefore at this stage of our agricultural hislory that there
may be profit in reviewing the progress of the past, so that as we
look back over the distance travelled, we may take stock of the
finished work that has led us onwards to our present development.

Evidence abounds of the remarkable advance of farming in recent
years, and there are few, if any, countries in the world which can,
comparatively speaking, show better progress than ours. Although
the conditions set up by the war augmented and hastened the
prosperity we now enjoy, the root of the real and substantial progress
we have made is the unremitting efforts of the farmer and the Depart-
ment of Agriculture in South Africa. While the individual and
collective activity of the farmer is, naturally, the greatest factor in
the agricultural progress of the country, an important part is played
by the Department, and it is this that will form the main subject
of this review.

Our agricultural progress is refiected in increased production,
decreasing imports, and increasing exports of farm produce, improved

Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

methods ot fanning', the rising value of farm land, and in many other
ways. For instance, in 1898, the year before the Ang-lo-Boer war,
there were imported into South Africa £3,500,000 wortli of grain,
meat, and other foodstuffs, and the value of agricultural expoTts
(excluding- ostrich feathers) amounted to £3,800,000, of which wool
and moliair contributed £3,000,000. Against this, in 1918, when
]>oi)nlation was greater and prices much higher, the imports of similar
ioodstuft's had fallen to £2,165,317, while the exports of farm produce
(excluding- ostrich feathers) amounted to £17,610,042. Further,
whereas in 1898 maize and maize meal to the value of £184,312 were
imported into South Africa, the trade has now been reversed, and in
1918 we exported £2,262,469 worth of these products. It is true that
ill 1918 our ex])orts l)enetited by the prevailing high prices, but on
tlie other h;ind our oversea export trade suffered through lack of
trcijiht and ot arrested ])roduction owing to scarcity of fertilizers, etc.
See how dairying has advanced. The days of individual and
often hapliazaid butter-making have vanished, and co-operative dairy-
ing is lapidlv spreading. In 1898 we imported butter and substitutes
to tlip value of £289,041 and cheese £98,433, but twenty years later
^^•e c.rportcd £96,75(j woith of butter and £25,911 of cheese, both of a
liigli standard of quality.

I'he same tendency is noted in all oar imports and exports; the
one is steadily decreasing and the other, both in quantity and quality,
rapidly rising. No longer do we import huge quantities of meat;
instead the past few years have seen the commencement of what is
probably going to be one of the Union's chief: agricultural exports —
meat. No longer does imported jam vie with, and often oust, our
local jams; to-cUiy the home article is found on all tables and is finding
its way to the oveisea market. Wool, still our most important pastoral
exiiort, continues to mount rapidly in value; the phenomenal prices
obtained for it recently are in the minds of all. The trade in wattle
bark and extract, an entirely new industry, lias made great progress,
and it is interesting to note that a portion of our production goes to
Australia, the home of the wattle. Sugar is now an exportable
commodity; formerly it was imported to meet deficient production.
In addition, several new products are coming to the fore. Lucerne
seed is being exported to the Argentine and Australia; beans are sent
to Enaland for seed and for consvunption ; the shipments of cotton are
increasing, and chicory and several minor crops are also very
promising. Tobacco growing is an important industry, and markers
l^eyond the local one are necessary for its produce. A short time ago
pigs wero much neglected; now they are in great demand for bacon.
The i)roduction of eggs (considered a small matter by the farmer with
wide acres, but of much importance to many people and the country
at large) instances also the spirit of progress, for instead of importing
large quantities as in earlier years, we now supply our own wants and
have an ap])reciable surplus for export.

A sigiiihcant feature of our progress is revealed in the value of
farir requisites imported. During the year before the Anglo- Boer
war, 181)8. the imports ol agricultural machinery and implements
were valued at £192,471, whereas in 1913 they amounted to £B15,885.
This is remarkable when the comparatively small number of farmers
in the ITnion is taken into account.

While the returns of imports and exports furnish a good

The Progress of Agriculture in South Africa. 5

indication, they do not fully disclose the progress that has been made
;ind which, perhaps, is whollj- realized by those only who have lived
in South Africa for the past twenty years. Althoug'h much remains
to be done, farming- has emerg-ed from its old status and is now on an
entirely different plane. The majority of farms are fenced and
frequently sub-divided into paddocks, superior farm buildings have
been erected, while irrigation works and other permanent improve-
ments are seen on all sides. Transport and marketing facilities
improve yearly, and, above all, better methods of farming are
practised. Individualistic and nomadic occupation has given way to
settled organized industry. The development of mining (bringing
money into the country), an extended railway system, and other
agencies, also have their share in the forward movement: the war
which ravaged the country seventeen years ago, and the recent
conflict in Europe and elsewhere, have left in their wake the need for
greater production and enterprise ; our young men have visited and
returned from countries oversea with valuable experience; and men
from other parts have made their homes with us and have brought
with them new ideas and learning. These advantages have materially
aided us in our fight with the problems of South Africa's climate,
soil, and economics.

Out of the failures and successes of the past is evolved outstand-
ing evidence of the country's suitability for pastoral pursuits. The
improvement in recent years in our live stock has been wonderful.
There has been a steady stream into the Union of high-class animals
from Europe, Australia, and elsewhere, and splendid studs have
been established. AVell over 60,000 pure-bred animals have been
registered in the South African Stud Books, and locally-bred stock
have sold for huge sums, merino rams fetching £1500 each ; a Fries-
land bull, " Admiral Beatty," bred at the Potchefstroom School of
Agriculture and Experiment Station, was sold recently tor £5250.

Departments of State, such as Agriculture, Railways, Posts,
Lands, Irrigation, Forestry, Land Bank, etc., have played a large
part in our marked development, especially during the past two
decades, and it is probable that in no country with resources similar
to ours has the State fostered and guided its agricultural industry
more systematically and thoroughly. At the outbreak of the Anglo-
Boer war there were Departments of Agriculture in the Cape Colony
and in Natal, but in the Transvaal and the Orange Free State there
were no organizations of this nature; in the two latter territories
systematic control and organization of agriculture was introduced
under Crown Government following the conclusion of hostilities. The
evolution of the Union Department of Agriculture is well known ; it
is organized on similar lines to those which characterized the late
Transvaal Department, the latter having been modelled largely upon
the United States Department of Agriculture.

When established, the present Department of Agriculture was
found at the outset to lack scientific and technical officers, a great
disability in the successful control of an industry like farming. The
building up of a scientific staff was proceeded with, and though
recently hampered by the war, its numbers are now nearly double
what they were at the time of Union, but still not nearly what they
ought to be. Then, also, suitable equipment for dealing with the
many problems awaiting investigation was sadly lacking, and this

Journal of the Department of AciRicuLTURE.

hiul to be made o'ood in the face of serious difficulties: much is still
needed, but much, also, has been accomplished, and at present the
Department possesses laboratories, etc., which have been instrumental
in many ways in the rapid rise of the Union's farming industry. At
(Jnderstepoort, near Pretoria, there is now one of the largest and
best equipped institutions in the Avorld for investigating diseases of
anijnals peculiar to warm countries, and from it results of the greatest
scientific and practical value have been obtained. In Pretoria and
at the various schools of agriculture and experiment stations, build-
ings and other foims of equipment are being gradually extended.
Altogether the Department is in an immeasurably better position than
it was a few years ago, and able, therefore, to cope to a large extent
with the many calls upon it resulting from the visible expansion of
agriculture in South Africa.

Valuable progress has been made in legislation aifecting the
farmer. Comprehensive and up-to-date Acts dealing with diseases of
live stock and crops, and with fencing, dairying, exports, etc., have
been passed. Combined with these there are other Acts, such as
those concerning irrigation, land settlement, land bank, forestry,
census, etc. The whole covers a wide field and provides an excellent
I'lisis of legislation.

The history of the eradication and control of diseases of live
stock, and the men who figure so prominently in it, discloses the wide
gull: between the old days of grappling with diseases of obscure
o'rigin, or of fleeing from them, and the present standard of know-
ledge and equipment. Uui country is particularly prone to epizootic
diseases, but much has been done in their control and suppression.
We are free from foot-and-mouth disease, such a plague in Europe,
liinderpest has heen efiectually stamped out, as well as lung-sickness.
Swine fever, mange, glanders, and epizootic lymphangitis have been
reduced to small proportions. The cause of East Coast fever, red-
water, gall-sickness and gallamziekte, blue-tongue in .sheep, and
other diseases, has l)een discovered, and it is believed that fresh
discoveries are imminent. The value of this knowledge must be worth
millions of pounds every year to the country. These discoveries have
no\v rendered possible the keeping of animals in parts admirably
suited for stock, bul which formerly could not be used, and, generally,
have been the main factor in tlie gratifying progress observed in the
livestock industry which is of such moment to the Union.

Another chapter in our history concerns the combating of local
and imported diseases of stock, the development of our economic
plants, and the introduction and distribution of new varieties. The
present dimensions and importance of our maize crop owe much to
the teaching of officers of the Department, who created interest in
maize growing and advocated improved methods of cultivation,
selection of seed, etc. The introduction of teff grass has had far-
reaching and beneficial results; indeed, this crop now vies with lucerne
and has an acreage double that of the latter crop. In like manner
the Depaitment has brought to the notice of farmers with good,
practical results, several leguminous crops. Kikuyu grass has proved
an excellent pa.sture grass in places suited to it, and is being widely
giown. The Department's aid also in developing the tobacco and
cotton indiistries is bearing fruit to-day.

One of the scourges of the country, the periodic invasion by

The Progress of Agriculture in South Africa. 7

Itjcusts, lias lieen mastered by particularly Inilliaiit and successful
o]j^'aiiizatiou. Altlioug-h there are grounds for believing that visita-
tions may be expected from time to time, with the measures now in
vogue for combating them tliere is no cause for alarm, and the
devastation formerly caused by the i)est Meed no longer be feared.
The terrible havoc caused by the locust is well known, and the passing
of this menace forms an epoch in the forwari' march of our agriculture.

So in many other branches of farming the stimulus of the Depart-
ment has been beneficial. The remarkable progress of dairying has
ah'eady been refeired to. A share is claimed in the development of
citrus and deciduous fruit culture and marketing, in the suppression
of scab combined with the immense advance in the standard of our
sheep and the sorting and packing of wool for market, in the informa-
tion obtained through the researches of oui' chemists, especially in
soils and fertilizers, while the building up of a comprehensive library
of ao-ricultural literature places a wealth of knowledge at the door
01 all.

Probably one of the most useful and successful of all the Depart-
ment's activities, and of unsui'passed importance in the country's
advance, was the education of farmers through the establishment of
schools of agriculture. The work allotted to these institutions is
varied and far reaching; the education given to students, the distribu-
tion of bulletins, the delivering of lectures and demonstrations given
to faimers. and advice freely given have all added to the uplifting
of afjriculture. Another striking sign of our advance is the establish-
ment of the Government Faculties of Agriculture at the University
oi Stellenbosch and the Transvaal University College.

Xot without precedent in other countries, the spread of co-opera-
tion in the Union has at times been chequered, but it is daily
I ecoming more firmly established, and its helpfulness is spreading
far and wide. The Department has aided in the establishment and
supervision of many co-operative societies, xli isiug from the growing-
spirit of co-operation are increased production and improved quality,
but, above all, is the gratifying sense of greater benefits which will
follow the ever strengthening bonds of co-operation in the Union.

The faaming' industry comprises many branches, each with its
particular problems. Much can be written on the progress made by
each, and statistical and other evidence thereof can be adduced. It
is not possible to do so, however, in this short review, and we must
be content to direct attention to some of the phases of progress and
lely on the reader's knowledge of agricultural conditions a few years
back and of what they are to-day. That our progress has increased with
the years is evident. Compared with the jjosition of certain countries,
our advance will appear to have been slow; compared with our own
resources and disabilities the advance of recent years has been remark-
able. We now stand at the threshold of gjeater achievement, for
out of our past experience there has been created an atmosphere of
scientific inquiry and a desire for good, thoroua-h work which augur
^Aell. In our retrospect we pay homage to the struggles of our
agricultural pioneers, and are grateful for the example set us by
competent and earnest men who have done so much in uplifting us.
In the knowledge that our young men are learning the lessons of the
past and are taking advantage of the facilities existing to-day for
education and research, we turn with hope to the future.

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

THE PREVENTION OF CONTAGIOUS ABORTION

IN CATTLE.

By E. M. Robinson, M.R..C.V.8., Veterinary Research Officer,
Veterinary Research Laboratory. Onderstepoort.

In view of the great importance of cattle-breeding to tiie future of
South Africa, a popular article on the pTevention of contagious
abortion in cattle should prove very useful to stock-owners. The
present position as regards the distribution of the disease is that there
are very few parts of the Union which have no infected farms. Not
only does the disease spread rapidly through dairy herds, but under
ranching conditions on some of the largest cattle farms in the country
it has swept right througdi the herds, reducing the annual increase
by births of calves to practically nothing for two or three successive
years. Amongst the natives' cattle in the western and noTthern
Ti-ansvaal the disease has, in many places, become more or less
endemic, and an equilibrium has been reached, so that a fair number
of abortions occur annually, but most of the cows calve normally.
The danger of further spread is a very real one, as at present a great
many farmers do not realize the danger of buying cows from other
farms without first finding out whether those farms are free from the
disease or not.

As this article is chiefly devoted to preventive measures against
contagious abortion, it will not be necessary to give a long description
of the symptoms of the disease, as these have been given fully in a
bulletin by Sir Arnold Theiler (Local Series No. 25, 1918, Department
of Agriculture, Union of South Africa). In the ordinary case a cow
or heifer will, without any previous symptoms, abort, the foetus
usually being at about the seventh month of pregnancy. Premature
calving may take place at any time during the 280 days of the
gestation period, wherein lies one of the chief dangers, as, when
abortion occurs in the first three months of pregnancy, the foetal
membranes practically always come away with the foetus, and unless
the cow is tied up in a stall, the foetus may never be seen and the
cow will shortly afterwards come in season again. Unless an owner
is on his guard such a case may be overlooked and the cow simply
considered as not having held to service. After the fourth or fifth
month of gestation it is usual for the afterbirth to be retained after
an abortion, and there is usually a brownish discharge from the
vagina, sometimes containing small yellowish lumps, but there may
be very little discharge at all. A further source of danger is the
cow which calves at the right time, but gives birth to a calf, normal
in size, but weak, and retention of the afterbirth occurs. Some
cows will even give birth to strong healthy calves and not retain the
afterbirth for more than twenty-four hours. Such animals are a
dangerous source of infection to uninfected stock, as they have infected
afterbirths and spread infection, althougli not to the same degree as
a cow with the typical symptoms does. Practically without exception,
infected cows harbour tlie organism of contagious abortion in the

The Prevention of Contagious Abortion in Cattle. 1>

udder, and the milk remains infected constantly for periods up to
six or seven years in some cases, even after several apparently normal
calves have been produced. Uterine infection in a slight degree
during gestation remains for several years, the probability being that
at every pregnancy after abortion the uterus becomes reinfected from
the udder.

As regards the channels of infection, it seems certain that the
great majority of cows become infected bj^ eating infected material,
such as portions of an infected afterbirth or food contaminated with
the infected discharges from a case of abortion. If a cow does not
eat her own afterbirth or portions that break off, it is practically
certain to be eaten by other cattle, as one may frequently observe.

The amount of infection spread during one act of abortion and
during the few succeeding days is very great, so that too much care
cannot be taken in disposing of infected material. The bull as a
carrier of infection probably does not play anything like the part he
was once assumed to. Usually by the time a cow comes into season
again after aborting, there is very little, if any, infection left in the
vagina or uterus, as secondary infections such as those caused by
ordinary pus-producing organisms rapidly take its place, and it has
been found impossible with the methods at our disposal to trace any
abortion infection in the uterus or vagina six weeks to two months
after an aboTtion.

The bull may act in a mechanical way as an agent in transferring
infection from one cow to another, but probably plays no big role as
a spreader of infection. It would be unwise, however, to dismiss him
altogether as an infecting agency, as it has been found that in a small
proportion of cases bulls which have been exposed to abortion infection
do actually develop lesions of the genital tract. Several cases have
been reported from the United States of America of bulls which had
infection of the testicles and vesiculae seminales, the receptacles for
the semen after it is formed, but no experimental work had been done
to determine whether such bulls could infect cows.

What part infected milk plays in the spread of infection, we do
not know yet, but it seems unlikely that it is a very important one.
It is possible that in a few cases the milker infects one cow from
another during the milking, as the disease can be produced by infect-
ing the uddeT through the teats, but usually it requires a large
quantity of infected material. The possibility of the foeces of calves
which drink infected milk being a source of infection has not been
experimentally determined, as it is practically impossible to isolate
the organism of abortion from a mixture of bacteria such as is found
in foeces.

As regards the resistance of the causal organism of contagious
abortion to atmospheric conditions in South Africa, experiments are
at present in progress to determine this. Much difficulty has been
experienced in determining the presence of abortion organisms in a
mixture with others as well, and so far guinea-pig inoculation has
had to be relied on. The guinea-pig is susceptible to infection, and
can be used to isolate the abortion bacillus from contaminated
material, but, unfortunately, there are many organisms, in air and
soil, which rapidly kill guinea-pigs. The disease produced by the
abortion bacillus in guinea-pigs is a chronic one, and great enlarge-
ment of the spleen is usually the only lesion found M'hen the animals

10 Journal of the Department of Agrioulturk.

are killed two months aftei^ inoculation. From this enlarged spleen
the abortion bacillus can be obtained in pure culture in most cases.
From tlie experiments so' far carried out, it Avould seem that the
resistance of tl\e abortion organism to heat and drying is much greater
than was formerly thought, therefore the necessity for the proper
disposal of infected material is emphasized.

The diagnosis of contagious abortion clinically is not always easy,
as it has to be differentiated from abortion due to other causes. When
several abortions occur in a herd at or near the same time, and the
cows have retained afterbirths, the diagnosis is rarely in doubt, but
should this not be the case, the first abortion may not be taken much
notice of. particularly if no others occur shortly afterwards. The
diagnosis by means of the agglutination test, which can only be
carried out in a bacteriological laboratory, is a very practical and
useful method, but necessitates the taking of a sample of blood from
the suspected animal. This test of the blood, or rather the serum of
the blood, will show whether the animal is infected, but an abortion
cannot be predicted, for, as has been previously stated, all infected
cows do not abort. Abortions due to injuries are probably not as
frequent as was formerly thought, but in South Africa, redwater and
other diseases, which caiise liigh temperatures in the affected animals,
often produce abortion, though larely with retention of the afterbirtli.
A few cases have lately been reported from the ITnited States of
America of cases due to another organism, the so-called " vibrio of
abortion," but as yet it is not known whether tliis organism occurs
in South Africa or not. Some years ago a substance called " Abortin "
was made from a culture of abortion bacilli and used to diagnose the
disease by observing whether any reaction took place in the suspected
animal after subcutaneous inoculation of the material, as occurs in
tub,erculosis and glanders with tuberculin and mallein respectively.
" Abortin " was found to be quite unreliable as a diagnostic agent, so
quickly fell into disuse.

As regards treatment of a case of abortion to prevent further
spread, it is essential to isolate the cow at once in a stable or kraal
to which no other cattle have access. If the abortion has occurred
in a stall near to another cow, as in a cow byre, very thorough disin-
fection is necessary. All the bedding should be burnt, and the
whole byre thoroughly scrubbed out with a strong disinfectant
solution such as any of the coal-tar disinfeciants. This disin-
fection should b<^ done \ ery thoroughly, and if the foetus is found
it should be burnt. The cow, when isolated, should have her hind-
quaiters scrublTcd every day for a week with disinfectant, and the
afterbirth, if retainevl. must be removecl. It is difficult and
unnecessary to remove a retained afterbirth before the forty-eighth
hour after calving or abortion, but it should not be allowed to remain
more than three days. The womb should be washed out every day
with two or three gallons of normal salt solution, 1 part common
salt to 100 parts of water, or 2 tablespoonfuls to a gallon. Disin-
fectants are to be avoided for washing out the womb, as they cause
stiaining' and do not haA-e any marked beneficial effect. The best
method of washing out the womb is to get a piece of thin hose-pipe
about 4 or 5 feet long, and in one end to fix a tin or glass funnel.
If the flee end of the pipe is put through the mouth of the womb and
the salt solution poured into the funnel held about two feet higher

The Prevention of Contagious Abortion in Cattle. U

than the cow's hack, the Huid will ruu into the womb easily and will
siphon out again when the funnel is lowered, a distinct advantage
eve]' syringing. All the fluid should be removed if possible, and what
does not siphon out shouhl l)e nio})})ed up with pieces of cotton wool.
The removal of a retained after])irth presents some difficulty to the
inexperienced, and a good deal of i)ractice is necessary before one
can be removed properly. In removing- it, the hand should l)e passed
through the mouth of the womb and the afterbirth peeled off the
cotyledons or button-like bodies on the uterine wall. Gentle traction
should be exerted on the afterbirth to assist in the loosening process,
but great care should be taken not to break it, as in that case bits
may stay in the Avomb and not l)e found. When removed, the after-
birth should be very effectively destroyed, if possible by fire. If the
cow has a discharge from the womb it should be waslied out every
day with normal salt solution till the discharge stops. A solution of
hypochlorite of soda in the i)ro])ortion of 1 i)art to 200 of water may
be used before the salt solution, and will often remove bits of dead
tissue which would not otherwise come away. After the discharge
has stopped the cow should not be returned to the herd, but kept apait
and, if the first case in the herd, it would probably pay to send her
to the butcher. If several abortions occur, a separate herd of infected
cows must be made and a si)ecial luill kept for it alone. The size of
the herd determines the policy to l)e adoi)ted when introducing
measures for the control t)f the disease. Hn some of the large ranches
with nioie than 1000 cattle tiie disease lias got out of hand so quickly
that it was decided to allow it to spread through the whole ranch as
([uickly as possible, as it is known that most cows (hi not abort twice,
and a small proportion only more than twice. In lliis way the heavy
loss occurs only in a period of about two years an<l is not a constant
annual loss. This method is only to be lecommended where control
b7v- isolation of infected animals is impossible and nntil protective
vaccination can be introduced on a large scale. In tjie case of a
small herd m which several abortions occur, it is a good plan to
is(date the infected cows and have the sera of the remaining aiJparently
normal cows subjected to the serological test at intervals of two
months. Although troublesome, this method of cleaning a herd from
infected cattle can be carried out effectively on a small scale, and is
applicable to valuable herds. AVheu a herd of infected cows is
maintained, it must have a separate attendant, as even milking of an
uninfected cow by any one who has recently milked an infected cow
should not be allowed.

Preventive vaccination seems to be the most hopeful method of
dealing with the disease in the future. It has been carried out on
a large scale in the British Isles during the past few years with
success, and a few herds have been inoculated recently in South Africa
with promising results, but it has not yet been introduced generally
ill this country. The method of vaccination consists in inoculating
heifers about two months before they are put to the bull for the first
time with a large dose of living abortion bacilli subcutaneously.
Uninfected cows can be inoculated before being again put to the
b.ull. AVhen vaccinated in this way. about 90 to 95 per cent, of the
animals w411 calve normally though exposed to natural infection.
Dead cultures gave disappointing lesults both as preventive and
curative agents. The introduction of vaccination means an admission
that the disease cannot be checked in any other way, and will mean

12 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

tliat all the herds in the country will have to be inoculated sooner
or later. The vaccine will find its widest application amongst ranch-
inr;- heids, as in small hreeding herds control by means of isolating
infected cattle would probably be found better. Quarantine measures
were introduced in South Africa some years ago for the control of
contagious abortion, but recent findings with regard to the course
of the disease have caused them to be temporarily suspended.

The oiitlook as regards the prevention and control of contagious
abortioii in South Africa becomes more hopeful as the stock-owner's
interest in prevention of stock diseases increases and preventive
measures leceive more attention than curative ones. The disease is
bound to spread further than it has done so far, but the jnethods of
diagnosis in use during the last few years i)robably account for the
increase in the number of infected farms. There is no law at present
to prevent a farmer from selling a cow which has aborted, and many
such cows have been sold with other cows' calves passed off as their
own. It is the stock-owner himself who should be on his guard
against introducing the disease into his herd when buying fresh
cattle, particularly on auction sales wheie the history of the cattle
is obscure, and he should take all reasonable precautions to prevent
wliat may result in something of the nature of a catastrophe to his
c;itt]e, ivvolving heavy financial loss.

Brands and Earmarks.

A new method of branding and earmarking stock has been devised
by Mr. W. A. M. Eobertson, B.V.Sc, Chief Veterinary Officer
attached to the Live Stock Division, Department of Agriculture,
Melbourne, Victoria, which has aroused a good deal of interest and
has been widely noted in the Press.

According to available particulars of the system, branding is
imprinted by means of a hot iron (fire branding) in the same way as
our branding is done. The only difference in the two systems, as^ far
as can at present be ascertained, is that straight lines are employed
instead of angles (letters and numerals), as used in the system laid
down in Ordinance No. 15 of 1904 (Transvaal). Further inquiries
are, however, being made into the matter.

When legislation is contemplated and a Consolidation Bill
dealing with the branding of live stock in the Union is being prepared,
" Kobertson's Method of Branding and Earmarking Stock," as well
as the methods in force in other countries, will receive careful con-
sideration with a view to our system being modified, if desirable.

Brak in its Relation to Irrigation. \'-'>

BRAK IN ITS RELATION TO IRRIGATION.

By Arthur vStead. B.vSc, F.C.S., Lectiuer in Chemistry,
Grootfontein vScliool of ARricultiiie.

[This article was originally delivered in the form of a lecture at a meeting of the Cradock
Farmers' Association and was printed iu a section of the Press. In view of the
importance of the subject, the lecture is published in full together with illustrations
furnished by Mr. Stead. — ACTING Editor.]

The result of long experience lias led me to tlie belief tJiat brak is mudi
more widespread, and its deleterious eft'ects of much greater economic
importance than is generally supposed ; of economic importance,
because cjuantities too small to be visible or detectable by taste are
yet able to depress the yields of crops, thereby discounting* the value
of irrigation works to a degree that demands attention.

I propose to deal with the subject in a simple way, and yet, at
the same time, somewhat fully, even at the risk of touching on aspects
that may not be of particular local application. I feel sure that your
patient attention can be relied upon.

The Variable Effect of Brak.

The same c^uantity of the same kind of brak affects the yield of no
two different crops to the same degree ; and indeed this varying- effect
applies also to different varieties or strains of the same crop. This
means that plants possess varying powers of resistance to brak. A
similar condition of affairs is to be found in the animal kingdom, for
do we not all know that, given the same adverse conditions, the
resistance of dift'erent animals to them differs enormously, that
different breeds of the same animal resist to quite different degrees,
and also that animals of the same breed may show varying powers of
resistance.

This at once suggests that wherever brak conditions obtain it may
be possible, by growing the right strain of the right crop, to reduce
the evil effects of the brak of any particular soil to a minimum.
Probably the best way to get the best lesisting strains is by selecting
seed from plants which are found to be much superioi' to the average.

Declining Yields following Irrigation.

Let us inquire why it is that our wheat crop, for instance, gives
poor yields in comparison with those obtained in Europe.

The farmer when questioned on this point generally replies that if
he had the water when he wanted it he could equal the European
average every time. My experience is that he cannot continuously
do so.

I know of instances in which lands, situated in areas of too little
rainfall to produce any crop, have been, brought under permanent
irrigation and have yielded as much as ten bag's of wheat per acre ;
while the most that could be got out of them a few years later was five

14 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

or six bags. Tliis mems a decline in yield of nearly half. It also
mepns that for that particular crop the value of the irrigation works
lias depreciated 50 per cent., wliicli is surely an alarming* develop-
ment.

There may he those who would put down tlie decline to the soil
having heconip depleted of one or more plant foods. The possibility
of iliis having happened in so short a time is very remote indeed,
especially Av'tli respect to the type of land usually irrigated. It is
much more likely that the use of water has introduced what may be
termed " adverse " or " limiting " factors, the action of which results
in full benefit not being derived from the water supply.

Frequently the limiting factor is brak and sometimes it is an
excess of water.

Yields in the Presence of Brak.

Now, although brak may prevent any yield whatever being
obtained, and even prevent the germination of seed, it must not be
thought that even if averag'e yields are obtained there is no })rak. As
a matter of fact a little brak in the soil is a good thing, provided it is
of the right kind. The right kind of brak assists in maintaining" a
good physical condition of the soil without which the latter cannot
give its maximum yields. Brak also exerts a beneficial influence in
rendering the i)hint nutrients of the soil available. But brak of
whatever kind, if present in excess, leads to diminished yields,
the decrement being proportionate to the excess of brak. The
greatest losses are no doubt those which are not noticed ; they are
akin to, say, a return of 4 per cent, on money invested, when by
better management 5 to T per cent, would be obtained. Losses from
brak only follow when water is used wasteful ly. By wastefully is
meant in either too little or in too great quantity. Included in the
latter instances are lands whose condition is such that they, should
not be irrigated at all.

Irrigation Demands Knowledge and Skill.

The onlooker is apt to assume that it is a much simpler matter to
grow crops under permanent irrigation than under a good rainfall;
but there is not the least doubt that the production of cro])s under
irrigation demands much more skill and knowledge than the produc-
tion of crops under rainfall only. One has only to consider why so
many millions of money have been lost in the shape of lauds ruined
by irrigation to appreciate the truth of my assertion.

The Meaning to be Assigned to the word " Brak."

Before i)roceeding further it is necessary that we should be agreed
upon the meaning to be assigned to the term "brak." The word is
closely related to the English word "brackish," Avhich means salty.
If " brak " be used in this sense, then it is only when a water or soil
is salty to the taste that it can be said to be brak. There are farmer?
who hold this view, especially in the north-west, where a fresh water
is one that tastes neither salty nor bitter as distinct from one that
does.

Such re})uted fresh water may, however, be quite unsuited for

Brak in its Relation to Irkigation.

15

Plate I.

Photograph of part of a field of mealies. The mealies in the foreground and in the
background have grown well, and have tasselled. The dark line running
. thnjugh the centre of the mealie field marks the boundary of an area of very
slow and inferior growth resulting from bad texture of the soil prr.duced by the
action of exi'ess of water. This area of poor growth is seen to beiter advantage
in Plate II, which is reproduced from a photograph taken from a point at right
angles to the position from which the above photograph was taken.

Plate II

Another view of the field of mealies which appears in Plate I. The plants in dark
area are of poor growth and have not yet tasselled. Many of them are also
yellowish in colour. Note area of superior fully tasselled growth surrounding
this patch.

ItJ Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

irrigation. For example, a water described in the north-west as
lekker vars water " was found on analysis to contain no less than
89 parts of sodium carbonate per 100,000 parts water, an amount
which would cause considerable injury if applied to a stiff soil or even
to a fine sandy loam.

Again, there are farmers who would not regard a soil as brak
unless it were visibly so. A soil may, however, be white at the surface
with a certain kind of brak and yet produce good crops, while a
quantity of another kind of brak insufl&cient to be visible would cause
much more harm.

There are others who, regardless of taste, consider any whitish
appearance on the surface of the soil (especially if this resulted after
water had run over it) as brak ; there are. those who describe any land
now bare, but formerly clothed with vegetation, as brak land, whereas
it may or it may not be brak. Frequently, and often with truth,
permanently wet land is described as brak, whereas it may not be
t)rak.

In the Karroo waters are frequently described as brak which are
really only rather hard ; presumably on account of the whitish residue
they leave behind on natural evaporation. Then, again, certain
muddy waters are sometimes stated to be brak, presumably because of
the shiny paint-like coating of silt they leave behind them, whereas
no water that is brak in the sense that it is salty would leave siich a
deposit.

Enough has been said to indicate the need for a standard meaning
of the term " brak;" The meaning attached to the term in this paper
and the one which, if I may presume to say so, should be adopted
generally is that condition of a soil or of a water in which, for agri-
cultural purposes, there is an excess of any kind of salt. This
meaning is practically the meaning assigned to the term " alkali " in
America or " usar " in India, when used in reference to soil.

Included in the teirtn "salt" in the above definition are common salt
(sodium chloride), glauber salt (sulphate of soda), carbonate of soda,
bicarbonate of soda, nitrate of soda (Chili saltpetre), the corre-
sponding- salts of potash, epsom salts (sulphate of magnesia), and
others. The commonest constituents of brak are one or more of the
first four.

Of these the most feared is carbonate of soda, the least feared
sulphate of soda. It is this latter salt with which the soil may be
white and yet produce crops. It is the misfortune of the Union that
a very large proportion of its waters which are available for irrigation
contain more or less carbonate of soda, usually in the form of bi-
carbonate of soda, however.

The Origin of Brak in Inland Soils.

Lands close to the sea are brak because the sea water has rendered
them so ; but the occurrence of brak lands hundreds of miles inland,
and at altitudes of several thousand feet above sea-level, cannot be
explained in this way.

It will be found that wherever brak lands occur inland the annual
rainfall is low — usually less than 2 inches.

Now in the natural course of events salts are continuously being
formed in the soil through certain natural agencies, as, for instance.

Brak in iTf^ Relation to Irrigation.

17

Platr. III.

Photograph of good, had, and indifferent plants taken out of the
field, photographs of which appear in Plates I and II. The
smallest plant is about 2 feet high only. All plants are of
the same age.

18 Journal of the Department op Agriculture,

chang'es of water, air, and temperature. In districts of plenty of
rain the salts thus formed are dissolved as the rain sinks through the
soil and are eventually carried to the g-round-water and out into the
natural drainage channels of the region, i.e. the rivers. The amount
of salt formed is, relatively speaking, A^ery small even in the course of
a whole year ; but such as it is, it gets carried out into the rivers and
finally into the sea. The amount of water in the sea does not increase
with time ; because the sea loses as much water by evaporation as it
gains in rain and from the rivers which flow into it. The water
evaporates, but the salts are not able to do this and are therefore left
behind in the sea. Thus we may presume that the sea was originally
fresh water, but that it has gradually become salt at the expense of
tlieland.

Xow let us consider the case of a rainfall Avhich is not sufficient
to cause drainage from the soil. Evidently the salts which are formed
in the soil must remain there, so that soil which in the beginning was
not brak has become brak through there not having been sufficient rain
to cleanse it. Now among the salts which are gradually formed in
soils are some which serve plants for food. Therefore in arid lands
not only do tlie soils contain brak, they also contain considerable
accumulations of available plant food. That is why our Karroo soils
are so much more fertile than, say, our coastal soils.

Lands of the arid interior are therefore more or less brak, and,
furthermore, comparatively rich in plant food, because the rainfall
has not been sufhcient to cause drainage from them. Generally
speaking the soil contains more or less brak wherever it is necessary
to irrigate to grow crops. Brak waters, however, may be found in
humid as well as in arid regions.

Distribution of Beak in the Soil.

The brak of any given soil may be concentrated at one or more
levels, or it may be somewhat evenly distributed throughout the depth
of the soil. Whatever the distribution be it has been determined by
several factors, among which are (a) the nature of the soil, (b) its
vegetal covering, and (c) the rainfall. Irrigation tends to alter the
distribution of brak in the soil. Its action in this respect may be
anything from good to bad.

I now propose to examine from the brak jioint of view some of
the more frequent soil conditions.

(a) 71if' Soil is Freely Pervieahle anil the Underdraiiiage is Good.

If sufficient water be used to cause a general movement of water
throvigh the soil and out the latter will be gradually freed of any brak
it originally possessed. When these are the conditions the irrigator
seldom experiences trouble. If, however, he has not sufficient water
to cause adequate drainage he mav experience the dreaded "rise of
brak."

(b) The Soil is Pervieahle hut the Drainage is Bad.

It is evident that unless some artificial system of drainage is
supplied the application of water cannot remove any brak from the
soil. On tlie otiier hand, the application of water in the absence of

HRAK 1i\ its HiiLATION TO IRHICATION.

T.t

Plate IV.

Photograph of a poition of tlie same meahe field at the junction of good and bad
growth. This photograph was taken 80 days from seeding and before the
mealies liad tasselled. The best plants were then 8 feet high, the worst less
then a foot and a half. Note how the ground is cracked open, showing that the
soil contains much clay. It is just the type easily deteriorated by excessive
water.

Plafp. V

The Effect of Brak.

Photograph of a portion of the same field. Here a watercourse had been filled in
with material from a military manure dump. Th<4 mealies have OOt been able
to withstand the effect of the excess of nitrates in the soil,

20 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

drainag-e will gradually raise the water-table, rendering any deep-
rooted crop that may be in occupation of the soil unthrifty, and
accumulating- the bralc of the soil nearer and nearer to the surface
will finally render the soil unfit for any agricultural purpose. The
deeper the soil the longer this evil will be developing, provided the
same amount of water is applied to the shallow as to tlie deep soil.
If the soil, however, is deep enough it is possible to irrigate it success-
fully, even if very brak, provided one has a good water and the
lequisite skill. The basis of the method of handling the water under
these circumstances is by a first heavy Avatering to drive tlie brak deep
down so as to leave several feet, if possible, of dry soil between the
ground water and the depth to which the irrigation water has
penetrated. Subsequent waterings should be sufficient in quantity
to meet the needs of the crop, but no more. It will usually happen
that after a few years the brak which had been driven down has com-
menced to rise again ; it is again driven down by a heavy watering.

(c) The Soil is Not Permeable hut the Drainage is Good.

This is a condition that not only occurs naturally, but is also
created as a result of irrigation. It is evident that the good drainage
cannot be made use of until the soil has been rendered permeable. A
special instance of tlie kind is the occurrence of hard pan at a less or
greater distance beloAv the surface. The worst type of hard pan is
that due to the cementing action of sodium carbonate. Such a pan is
almost entirely impervious to water, unless this latter contain consti-
tuents such as gypsum, which are able to destroy sodium carbonate.
It cannot be too strongly emphasized tliat tlie irrigation of an imper-
meable soil is a very hazardous undertaking.

(d) Tlie Soil is ] mpeniieahle and tlie Drainayc is Bad.

It would be difficult to imagine a more adverse condition of the
soil. Usually such land is impossible of utilization.

Having outlined the more important types of soil conditions and
the principles underlying the treatment they should receive, I now
proceed to a few happenings that are common in irrigation practice.

The Appearance of Beak after Irrigation.

Let us suppose that we have a paraffin tin full of soil, and
further, that we make the soil thoroughly wet by pouring water on
the top of it. If, now, we place this tin in the sun the soil will
sooner of later dry out. The soil loses the water added to it by the
l)rocess known as evaporation. The water at the surface is lost first,
and as it is lost more rises from below to take its place, so that finally
there is none remaining in the tin. The last water to be lost is
naturally that which penetrated deepest.

Now, let it be supposed that in filling- the tin we mixed some salt
in with the lower soil. The water which penetrates down to the lower
soil will dissolve the salt, and finally will carry it towards the surface,
where the water will evaporate and, since it cannot take the salt with
it into the air, leave the salt behind. Thus by watering soil which
contained salt in its lower layers we have brought the salt from the
lower layers to the top layers. Something of the same kind occurs

Brak in its Relation to Irrkjatiox.

21

■^-

J..-- ■ .-:>;V : >• - *-■

^'^#^v^-%^.'jsMJ^fM-:!^

Plate VI.

The Effect of Brak.

Photograph of a high corner of the same mealie field where brak had killed some of
the plants and rendered others unthrifty. The brak in this case consists chiefly
of common salt. The use of more wai er here would have driven the brak down.
Note the white effloresence of brak in the field as well as at the side of the furrow.

Plate VII.

An alarming RigE of Brak.

This photograph is of land below a dam. Water held on the other side of the dam
wall has raised the very brak subsoil water to within "capillary" reach of the
surface. As the subsoil water evaporates, it leaves the salts behind as a white
effloresence. Maay acres of land below this dam are too brak to support useful
vegetation. Note also the line of brak in the dam wall.

JulJHXAL OF THl<] DkPARTM liXI' OK A(;i! KUTi/i'URK.

wlieii soil wliicii at the beginning' siiovved no brak ;it the surface becomes
brak after irrigation. When this happens and the drainage is good
it is because the irrigator has nsed insufficient water to wash the alkali
out througli the drainage. Tlie practice of applying water in several
light irrigations in place of a fewer number of heavier ones is a
])rolific cause of this kind of trouble. The practice has also the added
objection that it tends to make the })lant shallow rooted, which of
itself is a considerable handica]).

It should now be clear that wherevei- brak exists tlie method of
irrigation should be such that there is on the Avhole a downward move-
ment of water, because, if on the wliole the movement be upward, tlie
l)rak of this soil dowii to the depih tlie water penetrates is slowly but
suj-ely brought to the surface.

The reason why brak should not be allowed to lise to the surface
is that brak has ils greatest power for injury when it is in the neigh-
l)ourhood of the rootcrown of the plant. Illustrative of this is the
fact that land too l)rak at the surface to grow anything useful may,
l)y a single heavy irrigation, be reclaimed for cultivation at least for
a time, the heavy irrigation having the effect of diiving the brak
deep into the soil.

It happens only too frequently that the irrigator has too little
water to enable him to keep the brak well down. If this be so much
can be done to improve matters by maintaining an efficient soil mulch
which not only reduces tlie evaporation of moisture from th.e soil to
the air, but also })revents the accumulation of brak at the surface of
the soil. The choice of crop is also an ir.iDortant matter. The best
crops under the circumstances are those which send their roots down
deeply and at the same time shade the soil well, as. for instance,
lucerne.

The deep rooting habit is beneficial in this way. If the crop is
deep rooted much of the watei it takes up from the soil enters its roots
down in the soil. This being so, the amount of water which can
]iossibly be evaporated at the surface is correspondently reduced, and
with it the amount of b'rak. Thus, in the case of lucerne, we have a
crop which is often difficult to establish on brak land, but which, once
its roots are down and it shades the soil, is able to tolerate brak to a
higher degree than most useful crops.

The appearance of brak at the surface consequent on irrigation is
known amongst irrigators as " the rise of brak." Speaking generally,
the rise of l)rak is proportionate to the amount of water evaporated at
the surface of the soil. Anything that reduces the amount of evapora-
tion at the surface of the soil therefore reduces the rise of })rak.

It must be understood that in no case does all the brak of a soil
rise to the surface. Neither must it be forgotten that there may be a
rise of bralc of sufficient degree to cause decline in crop yields and yet
not sufficient to be discernable. Again, there may be a rise of brak
only towards the end of the season. In this case the crop may have
done s])lendidly at the beginning, yet indifferently towards the end.

The effect of cultivation in preventing injury from brak is so
gieat that the late Professor Hilgard (than whom no one living has
had a wider experience of brak problems) states in his book on soils
that deep preparation of the land (to assist the downward movement
of water) and the maintenance of an efficient soil-mulch (to prevent
evaporation) are the prime essentials to success.

Brak in its Relation to Irrigation. 23

Are Bkak AVatees Usable uxder Certain Circumstances ?

Connected with the rise of lirak the question of the use of brak
water may he considered.

If the water contains sodium carbonate and it is used on stiff
soils tliese latter will he rendered more difficult to till and perhaps
quite impermeable to water.

This is particularly the case with waters which remain muddy
for a long time on account of the sodium carbonate they contain. On
the other hand a very loose soil is much improved by irrigation with
such a water.

Lands which are irrigated witli sodium carbonate waters should
be manured with gypsum, v.hicli will destroy the sodium carbonate.

Frequently an effect of using sodium carbonate waters is to
produce an impervious layer at a greater or less depth below the
surface. This layer has the effect of restricting the penetration of
roots and also of reducing the amount of water that can be used in
one irrigation. If the water is also a muddy one the ef5:ect is similar,
but often the top soil is so hadl\- affected that it will not let water
through it sufficiently fast. Cultivation helps in such cases at first,
but in the end becomes more and more difficult owing to the
deteriorated physical condition of the soil.

If a water does not contain sodium carbonate, but is otherwise
highly charged with salts, it may sometimes be used with advantage.
As to whether this can be done will dejjend on the degree of brakness
and on the manner of usage. Such waters can only be used on soils
that are highly permeable to water and possessed of excellent under
drainage. Such a water must permeate deeply and pass out as
drainage. It must therefore be used in heavy waterings. Under no
circumstances should these be light, unless they are immediately
followed by irrigation with good water, the combined irrigations
being sufficient to cause the necessary penetration and drainage. In
this way a brak water may be used to eke out an inadequate supply of
fresh water.

Leakage from Canals and Fijrrgws.

Where canals run through sandy land or other porous strata a
good deal of trouble is experienced and lands are eventually ruined.

Canals usually occupy the higher levels of the land they irrigate.
The water which seeps from them not only tends to fill tip the soil in
the vicinity of the leakage, but also travels underground along a line
of natural drainage and may eventually find its way into a river.
If, however, the rate of travel is not sufficient to keep pace with the
seepage from the canals the soil will gradually fill up with water
But before this happens much damage will have been done.

The rising water-table will kill out lucerne and other deep-rooted
cultures in the worst type of case ; in others the crop will become
unthrifty. The reason for this is that t ,e bottom roots get drowned.
If the lands are sloping signs of trouble are often first noticed in the
lower lying lands, which ma^' become permanently moist right to the
surface. If the soil throtigh which the seeping water passed contained
much brak a lot of it will be accumulated in these lower lying lands.
Now a waterlogged soil is bad enough, but when an excessive quantity

24 Journal of the Department of A(;riculture.

of brak accompauies the couditiou the result cau be better imagined
than described. I have met instances where even the brak bushes
have died.

Wlien the sub-soil water has risen high enough to keep the surface
soil permanently moist it will in most cases entail drastic and costly
measures to prevent the trouble from spreading. Timely warning of
what is happening is of great advantage in such cases. This may be
obtained by observing the water-levels in a series of boreholes, which
can be very cheaply put down with an ordinary post auger, having
extra lengths of rod if necessary. If the water-level in any hole rises
the irrigator may know that he is putting more water on the land than
the drainage can cope with.

Every irrigator should have a post auger not only for making
holes in which to observe ground water levels, but also to see how deep
the water sinks at the spot on which it is applied. This is necessary
because the same watering will sink to different depths in different
lands. The method of applying water and allowing it to run into a
bed until it has reached the lower end may result in too much or too
little water being applied. If the soil is porous too much water will
sink in at the top end of the bed. while if the soil is stiff too little will
penetrate any where.

The Penetration of Soil by AVater.

When land is irrigated for the first time it may not take the water
so well as it does. on the next occasion. Thereafter there is only too
frequently a progressive decline in the rate at which the water
penetrates. This applies particularly to soils that could be classed as
loams and clays.

This deterioration in the physical properties of the soil is always
greatest in cases where water is used in excess. The desirable crumb-
like structure of the soil g-ets destroyed and the soil becomes more or
less consolidated. I cannot here enter into the causes save to say that
if in the course of irrigation there is a development of sodium
carbonate in the soil this may arise through using too much water or
it may be added in the water. Unfortunately for us the occurrence of
carbonate of soda in the waters available for irrigation is very general,
which means that much of the soil that can be irrigated requires very
careful and intelligent handling to prevent it from deteriorating. In
a case which has recently come under my notice five or six years of
irrigation have resulted in the greatest difficulty being experienced in
producing what at be^t can be called a poor seed-bed. The following-
are the operations necessary to prepare that land for seeding : —

The land is first watered, it is then disced, rolled, ploughed,
disced again, and then harrowed with a zig-zag harrow.

I was shown some land that had been watered a week previously
as the first step in the above operations. The land had a dry skin,
but below this it was very wet and pasty to a depth of about six inches :
below this depth it was much drier and of apparently good physical
condition. It is evident that the water could not penetrate properly.
By the time the soil is sufficiently dry to turn over, the surface has
dried out to a hard unbreakable mass. This land is yielding about
five to six bags of wheat per acre. (3ne can imagine what the yield
would be if it were possible to form a good seed bed.

Brak in its Relation to Irrigation.

Summary.

1. Where the rainfall is so slight that it is necessary to irrigate
crops, the soil contains more or less brak.

2. Brak waters may occur in both dry and humid areas.

■J. By brak is meant a condition of soil or water in which there
is too much saline matter for agricultural purposes.

4. If a soil is well drained and is permeable to water no trouble
is experienced from l)rak if sufficient water is applied to cause
drainage. By causing drainage the soil is gradually freed from the
brak it contained.

5. Soils that are permeable to water but lacking in drainage
should, if sufficient water is applied to them to cause drainage, be
artificially drained to prevent tlie soil from becoming waterlogged.

6. When not enough water is applied to the soil to cause a general
downward movement of water, brak may gradually accumulate at ;ie
surface.

7. Brak should not be allowed to accumulate at the surface,
because it is in this position that it is able to do most harm.

8. Deep preparation of the soil and the maintenance of a surface
mulch to prevent evaporation are essential to success in cultivating
brak lands.

9. Crops which are deep rooted and which shade the land are the
best for brak lands, because they prevent evaporation at the surface
and therefore the rise of brak.

10. Lands may be ruined by leaking canals and furrows unless
the drainage is sufficiently good to deal with the excess water.

11. Brak waters may be used for irrigation under special condi-
tions, but the use of water which contains sodium carbonate is not to
be recommended for the finer types of soil, especially if the water is
muddy. The action of the sodium carbonate, in addition to its effect
on the crop, is to render the soil impermeable and to depreciate its
tillage qualities.

12. Irrigation farming requires much more skill and knowledge
than rainfall farming.

Advisory Committee on Agricultural Matters.

A Government Notice (Xo. 238 of 4th February, 1920) states that
the Minister of Agriculture has approved of the appointment of the
Executive Committee of the South African Agricultural Union as a
Committee to advise him on matters relating to agriculture.

JorUNAL OF THE DePA'KTMENT OF A(;RirULTURE.

SOME COMMON ADULTERANTS FOUND IN
AGRICULTURAL SEEDS.

By K. A. Lansdell, Division ui Botany, Pretoria.

[This article is the tirst cif a series to be published descnbiug' the coiimidii imimritieis
in seed and how they can be recognized — Acting Editou.]

There can he little doubt that nnuiy of the foreign weeds now found
in South Africa have lieen introduced into this country by the
nnportation of impure seed, also that the sowing of impure seed
is largely responsible for the spread of weed pests in the Union.

Farmers frecjuently send in to this Division for determination
weeds which more often than not are asserted to have suddenly
appeared on the lands and were not noticed before. The usual
explanation is that they were introduced as impurities in seed which
had been sown. It is essential that farmers should see that the seed
they buy is free from such impurities. If this simple precaution is
taken in time, expense entailed in fighting the weeds will not only be
saved, but a better crop will result, as the growing w^eeds rob the soil
of moisture and mineral foods. Some of the common impurities
found in agricultural seeds are Dodder (Cuscufa spp.), Burw^eed
(Xanthiinn sinnosum), Cockle-bur (Xanthium spp.), the Malta Thistle
(Centaurea iiieliteiisis), the Spear Thistle (Cnicus lanceolatus), Star
Burr {AcantJiospermum spp.), Mexican Poppy (Argevione Mexicana),
Khaki Weed {Alternanthera achyrantJia), and the Dwarf Marigold
(SchkuJiria honariensis) .

The most dangerous imparity of clover seed is that of dodder.
If dodder is introduced into a lucerne crop and allowed to ripen its
seeds the ground may become infected for at least five to Xi'^n years.
Superficially the seeds of many weeds resemble those of the assi ciated
agricultural crop seed so closely that a sample or seed must l)e
examined carefully if the impurities are to be detected. In ]iiaking
an analysis of seed, first of all the contents of the bag or c'ifferent
parts of the bulk should be emptied out and thoroughly mixed. A
small sample is then taken from the top, middle, aiid l)ottom of the
receptacle containing the seed. These three samples are mixed und
spread on a sheet of white paper and carefully examined. The aid
of a simi)le magiiifying gla.ss will be found useful in many cases.
With a needle or some other pointed instrument separate the impuri-
ties from the good seed. By weighing the impurities and com-
paring tiie weight with the samph^ a rough estimate can be made ot
the total weight of impure seed in the bulk of the sample.

Dodder in Lucerne.

Plate I, figs. 1 and 2 ; Plate II, figs. 1 and 3. The seed ot Dodder is
spherical or oval in shape, greyish or yellowish-brown in colour, and
the surface is slightly rough. It resfiiihlfs Ihe lucerne seed vei'y
much, but the latter is l;trg*er and l\i(liu\v-sha])e(l.

SoMK Common ADLTLi'ErivNrs found in Agricultural Seeds. 27

f

Kr(i. 1. Fi(i. 2.

KlG.

Fk;. 4.

iS^

It-'

Fi<i. fi.

Fi<;. 7 Fi(i. S. Fi(i. '.».

Fio. !0. Fk;. 11.

Fig. ]•>.

Via. i:5.

Fig. 1. — Dodder Seed (Natural Size).

Fig. 2. — Dodder Seed (Enlarged).

Fig. 3.— Malta Thistle Seed (Natural Size).

Flu. 4.— Malta Tliistle (Enlarged).

Fig. .0. — Spear Thistle Seed (Natural Size).

Fig. 6. — Spear Thistle Seed (Enlarged), with Pappus removed.

Fig. 7. — Russian Tumble Seed (Natural Size).

Fig. 8. — Russian Tumble Seed (Enlarged).

Fig. 9. — Russian Tumljle Seed (Enlarged), inside of Seed.

Fig. 10. — Mexican Poppy Seed (Natural Size).

Fig. 11.— Mexican Poppy Seed (Enlarged).

Fig. 12.— Milk Thistle ^-eed (Natural Size).

Fig. 13. — Milii Thistle Seed (Enlarged), with Papi)us removed.

Plafp 1.

K. A. Lansdell,

Dirisiun nf Hutdiiij.

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

^ £>0I3£>WM
Fig. 1 and 3. — Dodder in Luoenu'.

Plate II.

Fig. 2 and 3.— The Malta Thistle in Clover Seed.

Some Common Adulterants found in Agricultural Seeds. 29

Fia. 1 and 8. —The Spear Thistle in Clover Seed.

pi,>fi> ur.

Fk;. 2 and 3. — Russian Tumble Weed in Clover Seed.

;50 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

Fig. 1 and 3.— The Mexicaq Poppy in Brassica Seed.

Plnfe TV.

KlG. 2 and 3.— The MiJk Thistle in Artichoke " Seed ".

Some Common Adulterants pound in Agricultural Seeds. :)\

The Malta Thistle in Clover Seed.

Plate I, figs. 3 and 4; Plate II, figs. 2 and 3. The seeds of
the Malta Thistle {Centaurea melitensis, L.) are oblong in
outline, with darker grey longitudinal markings, and often witli a
shiny coat. The base terminates in a small hook, and the apex may
be tipped with stiff hairs. The seeds are easily recognized in
clover, as the short stiff hairs seldom fall away and the seeds of clover
are quite devoid of hairs.

The vSi'EAR Thistle in Clover Seed.

Plate I, figs. 5 and 6: Plate III, figs. 1 and 3. The seeds of the
Spear Tliistle (Cnicus hnrccolafus, L.) are fiattened, oblong in
outlipf, shining, light-grey in colour with blackish longitudinal
markings, and the apex is tipped with long feathery hairs. As the
feathery hairs often become detached from the seed, the large
size and tlie presence of the long-itudinal black markings have to be
relied upon for distinguisliing these seeds from that of clover.

Russian Tumble Weed in Clover Seed.

Plate I, figs. 7 and 8; Plate III, figs. 2 and 8. The seeds of
Russian Tumble Weed (SnlsoJn Ixoli) are very small, irregular in
shape, somewhat resembling a flattened top, and are reddish-yellow
in colour. It can at once be distinguished from clover seed, which
are oval or kidney-shaped, by the small projection in the middle of
the seed. The seeds of the Salsola are so small that a magnifying
glass should be used to detect them.

The Mexican Poppy in Bras ska Seed.

Plate I, figs. 9 and 10; Plate lY, figs. 1 and 3. The seed of the
Mexican Poppy (Argemone Me.riomia) is spherical, black in colour,
with a pitted surface and is crested on one side.

It resembles the seed of the brassica very much, but can be at
once distinguished by the pitted surface.

The Milk Thistle in Artichoke Seed.

Plate I, figs. U and 12; Plate IV, figs. 2 and 3. The Milk
Thistle (Silyhujn marianuin) has oblong flattened seeds, blunt at
the base, shining, and brown in colour, with numerous black
markings. At the apex are long fine hairs which often fall away
when the seed is dry. They resemble the seed of the artichoke
in shape, but ore not so long and are darker in colour.

N .B. — The seeds were photographed by Dr. E. P. Phillips of this
Division,

32 Journal of the Dep^\rtment of Agriculture.

THE FERTILIZERS, FARM FOODS, SEEDS, AND
PEST REMEDIES ACT (No. 21 of 1917).*

ITS OBJECT AND APPLICATION.

By B. DE C. Makciiand, B.A.. D.Sc, Chief, Divisiou of Cliemistry

In 1017 an Act was passed wliich jnoverns the sale of fertilizers, farm
foods, seeds, and pest remedies. This Act was brought into force on
the 30th November, 1918, and regulations, made under Section 7
thereof, relating to the sale of fertilizers and farm foods were
published in the Gazette of the 30th August, 1918. Subsequently
these regulations were withdrawn and amended regulations, published
in the Gazette of the 28th March, 1919, came into force on the 1st
April, 1919.

The object of the Act is to protect purchasers of the articles
named from having worthless ones imposed upon them. The main
principle of the Act is contained in Sections 3 and 6. These may
therefore be quoted in full : —

Section 3 (1). — Every person who sells any fertilizer shall give
or send to the purchaser at the time of delivery an invoice stating the
quantity sold, the name or brand under which the fertilizer is regis-
tered, and also the chemical constituents thereof which have been
registered as prescribed by regulation in respect of such fertilizer.
That statement in the invoice shall be deemed to be a guarantee that
the article is as described therein.

(2) Every person who sells any farm food shall give or send to
the purchaser at the time of delivery an invoice stating the quantity
sold, the name and brand under which the farm food is registered,
and also the chemical constiituents thereof which have been registered
as prescribed by regulation in respect of such farm food. That state-
ment in the invoice shall be deemed to be a guarantee that the article
is as described therein.

Section 6. — No person shall supply any fertilizer, farm food.
seed, or pest remedy which is not of the nature, composition, or quality
as described when sold to the purchaser.

" The wdiole Act, together with the regulations, is really summed
up in these two sections; the other sections are, for the most part,
concerned with the application of these two.

Registration.

Section 3 provides also that fertilizers and farm foods must be
registered, wliile Regulations Nos. 1 and 2 prescribe liow this is to be
done.

The procedure is as follows : —

Every vendor of a fertilizer or farm food must fill in certain
forms in duplicate: these forms are forwarded to the Department of
Agriculture. If found in order, that is correctly filled in and
complying with any regulations that have been made in respect to

* In this article Section refers to the sections of Act No. 21 of 1917, while Seffulation
refers to those published under Government Notice No. 4.S6 of 1919.

Notes on the Fertilizer Act.

33

the article to be registered, these forms are signed by the Head of the
Department or by some one acting on Jjis behalf, one form being
returned to the sender and the other filed in the register kept by the
Department. No fee is charged for such registration. No person
may sell any fertilizer or farm food in respect of which such a certi-
ficate has not been issued. (Regulation No. 1.)

Any vendor in the second place must be in possession of an invoice
or other evidence of registration before he may sell a fertilizer or farm
food. (Regulation No. 30.)

Invoices.

Having duly registered his wares the seller must, as prescribed
by Section 3, give the purchaser an invoice setting out the registered
particulars of the fertilizer or farm food ; this invoice is by Section 3
a guarantee.

It is to be noted that a vendor in the second place miLst also give
an invoice.

For his own protection the puichaser should see that he gets an
invoice in the form prescribed by Regulation No. G or by Regulation
No. 20. The forms are as follows: —

1. — For Fertilizers.

Phospbo

Soluble

in
Water.

ric Oxide

Soluble
in 2

per cent.
Citric
Acid

Solution.

jer cent.
Total.

Nitrogen Potash
per cent, per cent.

Lime
per cent.

*

Iron Oxide

and
Alumina
per cent.

The Form
in which
Nitrogen
is Present.

The Form

in which

Potash

is Present.

'

i

i

* To be filled in in the case of raw phosphate rock.

Note. — Plain percentages must in all cases be inserted, not a
range of figures. Percentages must not be stated beyond the first
decimal place.

2. — For Farm Foods.

Protein.

Fat (Ether
Extract).

Fibre.

Moisture.

Ash.

Phosphoric
Acid.

" Only to be filled in in the case of bone meal, bone dust, and bone flour.

Note. — Plain percentages must in all cases be inserted, not a
range of figures. Percentages must not be stated beyond the first
decimal place.

It is to be noted that in addition to the particulars of the chemical
composition of the fertilizer or farm food the invoice must bear the
name or brand under which the article is registered.

34 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Brand.

In order to prevent confusion each fertilizer or farm food must
be given a " brand." A brand is defined as " the impression of any
letter, number, geometrical iigure, mark, sign, or character, or com-
bination thereof of sufficient size and of suitable colour to be easily
legible, upon any bag, barrel, package, or parcel containing any
particular brand of fertilizer, farm food, seeds, 'U' pest remedy, and
sufficient to identify it and to distinguish it from any other kind of
fertilizer, farm food, seeds, or pest remedy, or in the case of seeds
within such bag, barrel, package, or parcel." (Section 26.)

In short, a brand is of the nature of a trade mark. The brand
serves to distinguish the bone meal, for example, sold by one firm
from that sold by another. A register of brands is kept by the
Department, and " the acceptance for registration of any proposed
brand or brands shall be subject to the approval of the Department,
and no brand deemed by the Department to be so similar to one
already registered as to be liable to be mistaken for the latter or to
be of an insufficiently difitiuctive nature for the purposes of these
regulations shall be accepted for registration."

The brand must be legibly and durably marked on all receptacles
in which fertilizers or farm foods are offered for sale or sold.
(Regulation 5.)

A vendor is not compelled to use a different brand for each class
of fertilizer sold ; thus there may be an " XYZ " brand of bone meal
and an " XYZ " basic slag offered by the same firm, the name of the
fertilizer serving in such case to distinguish the one from the other.
The same vendor is not, however, permitted to use the same brand for
two fertilizers having the same name but differing in chemical com-
position. For example, if a vendor wishes to register two qualities of
bone meal he may do so provided a separate brand is used for each.
Thus: —

Firm. Name of Fertilizer. Brand.

(1) AB & CO. Bone Meal. XYZ

(2) AB & CO. Bone Meal. PQR

The net result is that every fertilizer offered for sale is dis-
tinguished from every other by the name taken in conjunction with
the brand.

Naturk.

The fertilizer must be sold under the appropriate name. This
is so obvious as to need no explanation. The nature of the fertilizers
which may be sold under certain names is, however, defined or
partially defined by some of the regulations. Thus, bone dust must
be of such fineness as to permit of at least 50 per cent, thereof passing
a sieve having round holes 1 mm. in diameter [Eegulation No. 15
(2)], whilst basic slag must be sufficiently fine to permit of at least
80 per cent, thereof passing a specified sieve [Regulation No. 11 (2)].
Attention is particularly called to the definitions .if sulphate of potash
and muriate of potash implied by Regulation No. 18 (1). No ferti-
lizer may be sold under the name sulphate of potash (potassium
sulphate) unless it " contains " at least 48 per cent, of potash, that is,
the article must consist of not less than 88.5 per cent, of actual
jjotassium sulphate; and similarly for muriate of j)otasli.

Notes on the Fertilizer xVct. 35

Potash salts of less purity are supposed not lo be entitled to the
name applied to the pure article. It is to be noted that for many
common commercial fertilizers no standards are laid down. In a
number of these, such as nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia,
the " refraction," as it is called in the trade — that is the percentage
of matter other than that chemically entitled to the name used — is
practically constant and the articles are to all intents standardized by
the trade. Should occasion arise, however, it is obvious that the
principle adopted for potash salts could be extended to other ferti-
lizers. No definitions have been adopted with respect to farm foods,
but as a matter of course the article must actually be what it purports
to be.

Control.

Under Sections 14 and 15 an officer in the public service who acts
under written authority from the Department may enter any premises
where fertilizers, farm foods, etc., are kept or suspected of being kept
for sale and purchase samples of these articles. These samples must
be divided each into three parts, one of which must be sent to an
analyst duly appointed. The officer purchasing, l>eing a buyer, must
be furnished with an invoice. Should the fertilizer or farm food be
found upon analysis or examination to be not of the nature, composi-
tion, or quality as described in the invoice proceedings may be insti-
tuted against the seller for contravention of Section G or of any regula-
tion which may apply in the particular case. Another portion of the
sample must be handed to the seller, who may, if he doiibts the
analysis furnished by the official analyst, submit the portion for
analysis to any analyst not being in Government employ. The seller
may also, under certain conditions, demand a fmther analysis.
(Section 19.)

Any purchaser of a fertilizer or farm food, iiot being the officer
authorized thereto, may under certain conditions take samples and
submit them to a duly appointed analyst. (Regulation No. 27.) The
regulation should be carefully studied by those who desire to take
advantage thereof. It must be remembered that failure to comply
with the details will -almost certainly stultify any subsequent legal
proceedings.

Saving Clauses.

A vendor in the second place who purchases a duly registered
fertilizer or farm food under a written warranty and, having no
reason to believe that the article was otherwise, who sells it in the
same state as that in whicli he bought it is not liable for any short-
comings in the article.

Further, if the seller prove that the sample was not representa-
tive, which it might not be in certain cases, and if he prove in addi-
tion that there is reasonable ground for believing that the article was
fraudulently placed in the containing leceptacle he shall be dis-
charged.* (Section 21.)

It should he noted that proof of intention to defraud is not
necessary . (Section 20.)

* Cases similar to those which would fall under this portion of Section 21 are not
unknown. In a recent prosecution for milk adulteration, one analyst found about 3^ per
cent, of fat in one portion of the sample while another found over 11 per cent, in another.
It is obvious that the portions were not the same, the fault lay in the sample or the sampling.

36 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Limits.

In Reg-ulation No. 24 a table of limits is given, and it is provided
that " fertilizers and farm foods shall be deemed to be sufficiently in
accord with the guaranteed or reg'istered composition if upon analysis
the actual percentages be found not to fall below those stated in the
invoice or in the certificate of registration by more than the limits set
forth in this regulation."

This regulation requires some little explanation. At first sight
it would appear that a vendor is permitted to register and invoice a
certain quantity of any constituent over and above the quantity
actually contained in the fertilizer. The "limit" fixed for total
phosphoric oxide in bone meal, for example, is 1 per cent. ; if a sample
of bone meal, registered and invoiced as containing 24 per cent, of
phosphoric oxide, were found upon analysis to contain 23 per cent, it
would be " deemed to be sufficiently in accord with the guaranteed or
registered composition." This does not mean, however, that the
buyer, in assessing the value of a fertilizer, must take the limits into
consideration ; he must not argue that if 18 per cent, of phosphoric
oxide in superphosphate is guaranteed he can only count on getting
an article containing 17.5 per cent, (the limit in this case is 0.5 per
cent.). It is true that a vendor might increase the guaranteed
amount by the limit with intent to defraud, but this is unlikely, as a
study of the reasons for fixing the limits will show. It must be
remembered in the first place that fertilizers and farm foods are, as a
rule, sold in comparatively large quantities, that a sample taken for
analysis is small (it is fixed by regulation as of about 6 lb. weight),
and that the actual portion analysed by fhe analyst is much smaller
still. It is obvious that if two different samples are analysed exactly
the same analytical results will only be obtained if the material is
perfectly uniform. Uniformity of two or more samples is aimed at
by the method of sampling prescribed by Regulation No. 22, but
absolute uniformity is difficult of attainment. The vendor, if he
employs a mixing process, tries to make tlie article as uniform as
possible. He must do this because for application to the soil a
fertilizer must be uniform, since the farmer would be very dissatisfied
if he found after the fertilizer had been distributed that all the active
ingredients were concentrated on one portion of the land while the
other portion had received little or none. The crop would probably
suffer on both portions.

The person taking the sample also tries to secure uniformity by
taking portions from several packages, mixing these well, and then
taking a portion of this mixture. This process is repeated by the
analyst in "sampling down," as it is called. Certain articles are
manufactured in a very uniform condition, others can easily be mixed
to a high degree of uniformity, others again are extremely difficult to
mix so as to secure reasonable homogeneity. This is taken into
account in fixing the limits, which are not the same for all classes of
fertilizers and farm foods. Another source of any difference there
may be in the analyses of two samples is the analytical error. There
is always a certain amount of experimental error in analytical pro-
cesses. These are not performed with the absolute mathematical
precision of a machine. Part of the error is due to the method
employed in the analysis. Few. if any, analytical processes are

Notes on the Fertilizer Act. 37

absolutely exact; the error may be infinitesimal, but it is there never-
theless. Then again there is the personal factor ; cases arise in which
one analyst may consistently get higher results than another analyst
using the same process and working- under the same conditions.
People are not machines, and no two people are exactly alike. It
must be noted, however, that the errors in the analysis may be either
plus or minus errors ; that is, if the analyst repeats the analysis many
times some of the results will be too low, some too high, while a few
may be exact. There is just as much likelihood that the result will
be too low as that it will be too high. The analytical error is as a
rule very much less than the error in sampling and mixing. The
limit is fixed at a figure which it is believed is higher than any
ordinary errors of sampling and analysij^ can possibly be. This is
in order to give the guarantee every benefit of these errors. We now
see that a vendor who deliberately guarantees more of any ingredient
than he knows the fertilizer or farm food to contain loses this benefit.
Let us take the example quoted above of a bone meal guaranteed to
contain 24 per cent, of phosphoric oxide, but actually containing
23 per cent. Supposing the analyst to report 22.8 per cent., the bone
meal will be reported as not sufficiently in accord with the gii;"
composition and the vendor is liable to prosecution. Yet the difference
between the 23 per cent, actually pi-esent and the 'liZ.S per cent, found
may well be due to errors of sampling and analysis. Had the vendor
guaranteed only the 23 per cent, actually present he would be pro-
tected against the small error of 0.2 per cent. As it is, he has
deliberately thrown away this protection by an over-guarantee.
Merchants should take this into account in framing their registrations
and guarantees. The registration figures are presumably based on
the results obtained by an analyst employed by the vendor. Such a
figure is also open to errors of sampling and analysis, and these errors
may take the opposite direction to those which come into play in the
official analysis. Manufacturers would be well adyised to round off
the figures furnished by their analysts. For example, if the analyst
reports 15.7 per cent, water soluble phosphoric oxide in a. superphos-
phate, the safest plan is to guarantee 15.5 per cent. No monetary loss
is incurred, as there can be no appreciable difference in selling price.
Many firms adopt this principle, and it is certain that they are not
losers thereby, as the security that their guarantees will never be
challenged and that a prosecution on this score w\il] never be instituted
(and a prosecution means a great deal, even if there be no conviction),
will amply pay for any small but doubtful loss sustained by under-
guaranteeing.

Conclusion.

Two points may be brought to the notice of vendors. Firstly,
thait a range of figures, e.g. " nitrogen 2 to 3 per cent." is not
admissible in either registration or invoice, and, secondly, that per-
centages must be given to one decivial jjlace only.

These provisions, contained in the footnote to Regulation No. 2,
do not seem to have sufhciently attracted the attention of those
responsible for the completion of the registration forms.

It will be seen that the buyer of fertilizers and farm foods is
protected by the guarantee from having worthless articles imposed
upon him. He can no longer be misled by specious advertisements,

38 Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

unaccompanied by fig-ures setting out the composition of the article,
or by figures which are intended to be misleading.

The manufacturer or vendor of fertilizers or farm foods is pro-
tected against the unfair competition of worthless goods, and has his
wares placed on an equal basis, or on as equal a basis as is possible,
with those of all other vendors. The seller who supplies a fair article
at a fair price is safeguarded ag'ainst the trader who supplies a low-
grade article at a hig-h price, justifying the price by some specious
argument as to quality of the goods.

An examination of the registrations effected during the first year
of the operation of the Act shows that the number and variety of
ready-mixed " complete " fertilizers offered for sale is enormous. We
are of opinion that this is a mistaken policy for the fertilizer trade.
It is impossible that a " coihplete " fertilizer for any particular crop
will be equally effective on that crop in all cases. Cases of failure to
increase crop yields are bound to occur, with the result that the
particular fertilizer gets a bad name. Another effect which such
failures have is the general disrepute in which commercial fertilizers
are held by certain farmers. The majority of farmers in South Africa
have to be educated in the use of fertilizers. If, when the farmer has
been induced to take up commercial fertilizers, a failure ensues the
result is that that farmer will buy no more fertilizer for a long time
to come, and the value of commercial fertilizers will have to be
demonstrated to him a second time. ' Before the Act came into force
complaints were made from time to time by farmers that the com-
mercial fertilizers they had bought were " no good." Analysis
frequently showed that the quality of the fertilizer was good ; in
many cases the best that was to be had. Failure was due merely to
the unsuitability of the fertilizer for the particular case. We feel
sure that it is not to the ultimate good of the country as a whole, nor
in the long run to the merchant, to persist in the practice of supplying
and using standard mixtures for all cases. We have not reached a
stage in agricultiiral science in which it is possible to lay down rules
for manuring. Each case is a problem which must be considered on
its merits. Vendors are not agreed as to the proportions of the
various ingredients which should be supplied for a particular crop.
It is impossible under the circumstances that they should be agreed.
The following table, compiled from the registrations published in the
Gazette of the 2nd January, 1920, is given as an index of the range
in mixed fertilizers, intended for the maize crop, offered for sale in
the Union.

Motes ox the Fertilizer Act.

39

Registered Composit

ion.

Ratios : Nitrogen taken as Unit.

Nitrogen.

Phosphoric
Oxide.

Potash.

Nitrogen. ^S:.™

Potash.

Per cent. Per cent.

Per cent.

2

10

6.5

5

3.3

2

9

2

4.5

1

3

12

1

4

0.3

2.5 11

1.5

4.4

O.H

2.5

9

2

3.6

0.8

2

12

3

6

1.0

2

9

2

4.5

1

3

12

1

4

0.3

2.5 12

0

4.8 1

0

1.5 12

2

8 1

1.3

2 ! 13

3

6.5

1.5

2.5 12.5

2 1

5

0.8

2.5 10

1,5 1

4

0.6

2.5 9.5

3 1

3.8

1.2

2.5 9.5

2,5 1

3.8

1

2.5 15

2.3 ' 1

6

1

2 13

1.5 1

6.5

0.8

3 15

3 1

5

1

1.8 13.1

2.7 1

7.3

1.5

2.0 14

2 1 1

5.C

0.8

1.5 12

2,5

1

8

1.7

2.2 8.5

2.5

3.9

1.1

3.0 5.5

4.0

1.8

1.3

2.2 i 13.5

5.0

6.1

2.3

1 9

3

1

9

3

3 1 12

1

4

0.3

2.5 9,5

2.5

3.8

1

We find that for one of nitrogen the proportion of phosphoric
oxide varies from 1.8 to 9, while potash varies from 0 to 3.3. On
examining- some of the mixed fertilizers offered one would conclude
that manuring- was a fairly exact science, as instance the following : —

Crop for which

Nitrogen.

Phosphoric Oxide.

Potash.

Fertilizer
is intended.

Soluble in
Citric Acid.

Total.

Tobacco

Potato

Vine

Grain

Per cent.
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0

Per cent.

8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0

Per cent.

9.0

9.0
10.0
10.0

Per cent.
3.5
3.0
3.0
2.5

The apparent nicety with which these crops can. judging by the
above figures, distinguish variations in the proportions in which the
fertilizer constituents are present is remukable. We are confident
that these differences would not be reflected by the crop under
ordinary farming conditions. It would have been better had the
manufacturers confined themselves to one mixture only.

It is possible, of course, that in the Aariety of maize fertilizers
listed above the farmer may find one which exactly suits his require-
ments, but no farmer can afford to determine by experiment — the only
satisfactory way — which will be the most suitable for his conditions.

40 Journal of the Deparpmbnt of Agriculture.

THE USE OF HARD OR SALINE WATERS FOR
SHEEP DIPPING.

By Dr. Chas. F. Jueitz, M.A., F.I.C., AgTiciiltural Research

Chemist.

About ten years ago representatious were made to me regarding' the
difficulty experienced by farmers in certain districts in securing a
uniform dippiug fluid when mixing the natural waters of those
distiicts with well-known proprietary sheep and cattle dips. A few
tests were subsequently made in the laboratories of the Cape Depart-
ment of Agriculture, then under my charge, and the indications at
the time pointed to the desirability of a more extensive investigation
of the subject. Recently the subject again came before my notice,
and, under the circumstances, it may serve a useful purpose to record
some details of the tests above alluded to.

Early in 1909 the Magistrate of Calvinia wrote to the Depart-
ment commenting on the failure of dipping operations to eradicate
scab, and suggesting that this failure might be due to the insolubility
of the dipping materials in the waters of the district. jS^o analysis
of those waters had up to that date been made in the Cape laboratories,
but it appeared likely that they would be found to contain lime and
magnesia salts, and the suggestion was accordingly made by me thai
an investigation be made with a view to ascertain whether such brak
waters diminish or prevent the solubility of carbolic dips, in respect
of which it seemed probable that their action would be chiefly
manifested. At the same time I proposed to test the effect on
sodium arsenite and on lime and sulphur dips. The last iiamed, I
considered, would present the least difficulty with brak waters. The
plan was to procure three or four gallons of brak water from different
sources and to make a chemical analysis of each ; also to test the
dissolving effect (a) of the brak waters, and (h) of pure distilled
water, by shaking each up separately with sodium arsenite in the
proportion of 5.4 grammes of the arsenite to 1 litre of water, i.e. in
the proportion (5 lb. per 100 gallons) recommended for practical
dipping operations.

In October, 1909, it was reported that waters on the farms
Biesjesvlakte and Roodeklipheuvel, in Area II, Clanwilliam Division,
would not mix either with Cooper's dip or with carbolic dips. Two
samples of water were accordingly procured from the farms mentioned.

The Use ok Hard or Saline Waters for Sheep Dipping. 41

The samples were analysed by Mr. E. V. Flack, the analyses resulting
as follows : —

In grains per gallon —

Biesjesvlakte. iioodeklipheu vel.

Total solids at 105° C 526.12 510.16

Total solids at 180° C 492.52 486.64

Silica ... 1.53 3.85

Oxide of iron and alumina ... .77 .42

Lime 25.69 59.92

Magnesia 33.69 14.31

Alkalies calculated as XaJ»... 189.62 166.62

Sulphuric oxide 29.52 9.33

Chlorine 279.28 282.07

Carbon dioxide 2.83 1.14

In parts jjer 100,000—

Temporary hardness 9.20 3.70

The proportions of salts contained in solutioii may. therefore, be
assumed to be the following, in g-rains per gallon : —

Biesjesvlakte. Roodeklipbeuvel.

Calcium carbonate 6.43 2.59

Calcium sulphate 50.18 15.86

Calcium chloride 2.82 102.95

Magnesium chloride 80.62 34.00

Sodium chloride 357.83 314.44

Mixing tests made in the laboratory showed that these waters
refused to mix with carbolic dips, but that sodium arsenite dissolved
in them quite easily. Difficulty was experienced in obtaining a good
solution of sodium arsenite in sea-water, and, after standing, a
precipitate occurred showing that sea-water is unsuitable foi' mixing
with sodium arsenite dips.

In 1913 three samples of water weie obtained fioni Ihe following-
sources in the Calvinia Division : —

1. Sous Puts.

2. Yerdwaal Vlei Puts.

3. Bitterputs East Puts.

The following were the analytical results, stated in grains per
gallon : —

1. 2. 3.

Total solids at 105° C 388.4 464.0 734.8

Total solids at 180° C 374.6 445.0 709.2

Silica 2.64 2.60 3.24

Oxide of iron and alumina ... .56 .32 1.60

Lime 28.48 38.48 67.00

Magnesia 26.96 49.54 77.41

Alkalies calculated as Na,0 109.10 94.78 150.66

Carbon dioxide — 5.98 14.48

Sulphuric oxide 87.50 173.07 203.02

Chlorine 132.95 82.01 191.35

Sulphuretted hydrogen — 2.25 —

Free sulphuric acid 2.35 — -^

42 Journal of the Department of Agriculture!.

Prom these figures it was calculated that the waters contained
the following- salts in solution : —

1. 2. 3.

Calcivim carbonate — 13.59 32.91

Calcium sulphate 69.16 74.91 117.96

Magnesium sulphate 67.35 148.62 200.44

Magnesium chloride 10.71 — 25.18

Sodium sulphate — 53.06 —

Sodium chloride 205.90 135.14 284.31

These waters also failed to form satisfactory emulsions with a
carbolic dipping fluid, a precipitate being formed in tlie water
immediately upon addition of the dip. On attempting to use the
waters so as to make up solutions of 80 per cent, arsenite of soda of
the strength prescribed for dipping, i.e. in the proportion of 3 lb.
of the arsenite to 100 gallons of water, 5.71 ounces remained undis-
solved in the case of No. 1, 2.86 ounces in the case of No. 2, and
2.98 ounces in the case of No. 3. The quantity of water received was
insufficient to allow of a complete test with lime and sulphur dips,
but as such tests seemed very desirable I suggested (in April, 1913)
that further samples of the Calvinia waters be procured for this
special purpose. The Secretary for Agriculture looked upon the
results above recorded as confirming- suspicions which he had had
for some time, and was very anxious that the experiments in connec-
tion with lime and sulphur dips should be carried out, and directions
were given accordingly. The laboratory had, however, by that time
been transferred to the Department of the Interior, and, as far as I
am aware, no further steps were taken in the matter.

About a year previous to the last work on the Calvinia waters, it
had been persistently reported from the Kentani district in the
Transkei, that solutions of soduim arsenite, made up at proper
strength, had failed to destroy ticks, although solutions containing
the same proportions of arsenite were said to have yielded good results
elsewhere. The presence of salts in the water was suggested as a
remotely possible reason of diminished efficiency. Samples* of water
from nine different localities in the district were therefore procured
and tested with regard to their saline contents with the following
results, in grains per gallon : —

Locality. Total Dissolved Salts. Chlorine.

Qombolo 40.60 14.2

Macibe 30.52 11.5

Nytura 30.24 8.7

Takazi 52.08 16.9

Gqungqe , 67.48 . 29.8

Nxaxo 37.80 10.1

Godidi 39.48 12.8

Ndebe 18.76 3.0

Teko 15.40 2.3

In addition to the above laboratory examinations, practical tests
were made with all these waters for the purpose of ascertaining their
suitability for use with sodium arsenite. The results of these tests
were satisfactory in every case, no precipitation of arsenic taking
place.

It is apparently still quite uncertain whether calcium,

The Use of Hard or Saline Waters for Sheep Dipping. 43

magnesium, or sodium salts in waters influence the solubility of the
dips more, and also whether it is the sulphate or the chloride of any
of these three elements that has the greater inhibiting effect. More-
over, as already pointed out, certain classes of dips may be seriously
affected — at least by some of the above salts — and otheis either not
at all, or else by otlier salts. What is needed, therefore, in order to
perfect such an investigation, is to correlate the waters of a particular
district with the class of dip to which they are best suited.

Experience in the United States.

Quite opportunely for the conditions in South Africa the United
States Department of Agriculture has recently issued, in Farmer's
Bulletin No. 798, on " The Sheep Tick," a warning against the use of
certain classes of sheep dips, particularly of the carbolic type, with
brak, alkali, or hard waters. It will undoubtedly be of advantage
to take over some of the cautions and advice there given.

In the United States, as with us, hard or brak waters are found
more or less frequently in all parts, and, where it is possible to do so,
their use for dipping purposes should be avoided.

When soft water is used for making* up a dip the mixture has
greater wetting* power than when some of the hard waters are used.
If the wetting power of a mixed dip is low the fluid has a tendency
to form small bead-like drops all over the wool instead of uniformly
covering the entire surface. If we increase the wetting power of
such a mixture we make it more efficient because we ensure the more
even distribution of the active principle and the maximum possible
wetting for all parts of the animal that are covered by the liquid.
Even good dips may become ineft'ective if they are made up with
alkali water. In this respect, then, the American experience confirms
our own.

Before any coal-tar, creosote, cresol, or carbolic dip is mixed with
hard of alkali (brak) water, a test should be made to see whether such
admixture results in a permanently uniform fluid ; or whether a
separation between the liquids occurs, something like when oil and
water are shaken up and left to stand for a short while; or else,
.whether a soft semi-solid, or curdy precipitate or sediment settles
down. Such a test may be carried out by placing a measured quantity
of dip in a clean bottle or jar of clear glass and adding to this, mixing
thoroughly meanwhile, approximately the same pi'oportion of water
(preferably warm) that would be added to the dip in actual piactice.
If after standing for one hour the mixture is no longer uniform, tut
separates out in two layers — if, for instance, an oily layer or a mass
of globules appears either on the surface or at the bottom of the
mixture, that kind of water should be regarded as unfit for making
up the dip, at all events without further treatment.

In some cases, however, it is impossible to get any other than
permanently hard waters for making- up dips. It is then necessary
to "break" the water by adding to it carbonate of soda in the pro-
portion of from 1 to 4 pounds of salt per 100 gallons of water, accord-
ing to the hardness of the latter. In bad cases, however, it would be
desirable to have the water analysed and obtain professional advice
on the best manner of correcting the water so as to render it suitable
for preparation of dipping mixtures.

44 JOURXAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The Natural Waters of the Uniox.

As far as concerns a cliemical survey of the natural waters of the
Union, nothing- very extensive has yet been done, but attention may
be directed to tlie series of articles in the Cope of Good Hope Agricul-
tural Journal of May — July, 1908, in which I discussed the under-
ground waters of the Cape Province. The purest waters examined
were (1) the soft waters of the Table Mountain geological series, that
is to say, those flowing from the ranges of lofty mountains which
extend southwards from the neighbourhood of Van Rhynsdorp to
Paarl and Stellenbosch, and eastwards from Swellendam to Humans-
dorp, and (2) those of the Stormberg series, i.e. the belt of country
bordering on the Drakensberg, in the north-east of the Province.
The total mineral salts dissolved in the Table Mountain waters are
generally under 10 grains per gallon. In the waters of the Karroo
formation lime and magnesium compounds abound, rendering them
hard, either temporarily, owing to the presence of calcium and
magnesium carbonates, or permanently on account of the presence
of calcium and magnesium sulphates, together with sodium sulphate
and chloride. The total salts usually range between 80 and 150
grains per gallon. The waters of the Malmesbury beds contain a
wide range of salts in solution, from 50 up to 400 grains per gallon,
chiefly sodium and magnesium chlorides, and the salinity of the
Bokkeveld beds seems to be even higher, in one case over 700 grains
of salt per gallon having been found. Other geological formations
yielding very saline waters are the Dwyka and TJitenhage series.
The former stretches, in its widest extent, north-eastwards from
Calvinia to Kimberley, while the largest area covered by the latter
covers the Divisions of TJitenhage and Alexandria. Sodium chloride
and calcium carbonate appear to be the principal salts in those waters,
but in some cases large proportions of magnesium chloride are also
found. In the TJitenhage formation the saline contents of various
waters have been found to be 500, 800, 1100, and even 2200' grains
per gallon.

The whole subject discussed in these pages needs, however,
fuller inquiry, not only from the point of view of the distribution of
various types of saline and hard waters within the Union, but also
in regard to the effect of these different types of water on sheep and
cattle dips.

South African Jams.

x4.mended Statutory Pules and Orders governing the import prices
of colonial jams in the United Kingdom have recently been issued,
which provide a much better price for Cape gooseberry jam than
formerly. The inclusion in the schedules of jams made from melons
will also help them. It has been decided that komfijts do not fall
under the definition of jams, and they will, therefore, be admitted
without restriction of prices. The amendments are mainly due to
representations made by the Acting Trade Commissioner in London
to the authorities concerned, and o\:r thanks are due to Mr. Canham
for liis efforts.

Results of Winter Cereal Experiments. 45

RESULTS OF WINTER CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT
THE SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE, ELSENBURG,
MULDER'S VLEI, CAPE PROVINCE.

By T. G. W. Reinecke, Principal, and G. -J. Meynhardt,
Assistant Experimentalist.

Cereal investigations have been carried on at tlie School of Agri-
culture, Elsenburg, for several years. Unfortunately, owing- to the
hilly nature of the farm, the soil is of varying composition and depth.
It was found extremely difficult to select a site for the Experimental
Division where the soil was sufficiently uniform to yield comparable
and reliable results. The present site is, according to the records,
the third one selected since the founding of the school. Work was
commenced on this site in 1915. Even here it soon became apparent,
in the case of the fertilizer trials, that the number of check plots
provided was totally inadequate to eliminate the effect of soil
differences.

The investigations in progress embrace the following: — Rotation,
soil fertility, fodder, seeding experiments, and variety trials.

ROTATIOX AXD SoiL FERTILITY EXPERIMENTS.

Ca) Comparative Valves of Various Crops as Crreen Manures.

These trials were commenced in 1915. The following has been
the rotation practised and the fertilizer treatment applied: —

Year.

Rotation.

Fertilizer Treatment per Acre.

1915 .,

Green Manure

.. 100 lb. Basic Slag.

25 lb. Muriate of Potash.

1916 .,

.. Oats

70 lb. Basic Slag.

70 lb. Superphosphate.

35 lb. Kraal Ash.

15 lb. Nitrate of Potash.

1917 .

.. Green Manure

.. 100 lb. Basic Slag.

25 lb. Muriate of Potash, plus 20 lb.
of Nitrate of Soda to Mustard
and Oats.

1918 ... Wheat ... ... 75 lb. Superphosphate.

75 lb. Government Guano.

1919 ... Oats ... ... 75 lb. Superphosphate.

75 lb. Government Guano.
.50 lb. Nitrate of Soda as top
dressing.

46

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Table I.
Yields of Oats and Wheat Crops.

Yield in Lb. per Acre.

Kind of Green Manure.

Grain and Straw.

Grain.

Oats.
1916.

Wheat.
1918.

Oats.
1919.

Oats.
1916.

Wheat.
1918.

Oats.
1919.

Lupins, 1915 )

Burt Oats, 19171

C . .r - , ( 1915)

Spring Vetch ■[ ^g^y [

English Mustard jj^jyi

Field Peas \\llj\

Hairy Vetches 1 }^J^ [

2470
3405
4018
3777
3282

1700
2087
2880
3003
223/

1870
2291
2250
2446
2326

1170* 647

1700* i 870

i
1873 i 1230

!

1837 1280
1 735 920

687
843
892
918
883

The results marked * are each the average of two plots only ; the other results are the
averages of three plots in each case.

Note. — In the case of the plots planted to lupins in 1915 it should
be mentioned that the germination of the seed was very unsatis-
factory. No seed was o})tainable in 1917, so that Burt oats was sub-
stituted for lupins.

Of the remaining- four legumes which were given proper trial
field peas and_ English mustard have proved the best. The mustard
received in 1917 a small dressing of nitrate of soda in addition to the
phosphate and piotassic fertilizers applied to tlVe legumes. The
results from mustard are nevertheless remarkable.

It appears that hairy vetch must be considored a better green
manure than spring vetch.

The high yields of oats in 191H and of wheat in 1918 are signi-
ficant. In the case of the plots where field peas and mustard were
ploughed in, these yields are double the returns normally obtained
from this type of soil with a fertilizer treatment, such as the grain
crops received in the two applications prior to their harvest. The
yield of oats in 1916 for both green manures amounts to appro:?^-
mately twelve bags per acre, and the yield of wheat in 1918 six bags
per acre. The large yields must be attributed to the green manure.

Where the green manure can be cheaply grown by being sown at
a time when the operation does not interfere with the seeding of
marketable crops such as wheat or oats, the system is strongly recom-
mended. The operations of fallowing usually commence after the
middle of June. Erom this time on to the end of August catch green
manure crops should be sown on the fallowed land and ploughed
under in late spring, before the soil has become loo hard — if possible,
as soon as the crops are in full flower. Field peas lend themselves
admirably to this system of soil improvement and are being grown
extensively for this purpose on the farm lands of this station.

The seed should be sown fairly thick, and, if possible, a portion
of the phosphatic fertilizer intended for the succeeding gjrain crop

Results of Winter Cereal Experiments. 47

should be applied at the same time ; this ensures a more vigorous
growth of peas in the time available, and an improvement in the
action of such slow acting phosphate fertilizers as basic slag and
bone dust.

It is realized that field pea seed is very expensive to-day, but
this system of soil improvement and enrichment is probably more
economical and as efficient as any other.

Pea seed can be grown cheaply enough by Ihe farmer himself in
this section of the country. Early seeding is, however, very necessary
where peas are to be grown as a field crop for seed. The crop must be
sown in this case at the very earliest opportunity in autumn in order
that the seed may have hardened by the time the (caterpillar (Heliothis
ohsoleta) becomes most active in the spring.

(b) Green Manures versus Feediufj off l)y Stock as a Means of
Im.prov in g Fe rtility .

In this experiment the system of soil improvement by means of
ploughing under a green manure crop is compared with a system in
which the same crop is fed oif by stock.

In conjunction with these two series of plots a third series is run
as a check in which the entire crop is removed as hay.

A comparison of the three systems of soil treatment resulting
from —

(a) ploughing under an oat and vetch crop,

(6) grazing off an oat and vetch crop,

(c) removing as hay an oat and vetch crop,

as measured by the returns from the subsequent crops of wheat,
receiving the identical treatment with a standard fertilizer dressing,
has been carried on for four years.

The rotation for'all plots in the experiment was the following: —

1916 — Oats and vetch.

19ir_Wheat.

1918— Wheat.

1919— Same as 1916, etc.

The fertilizer treatment was as follows: —

Per Acre.
Oats and Vetch Crop, 1916 ... <S0 lb. Superphosphate.

40 lb. Kraal Ash.

15 lb. Nitrate of Soda.
Wheat, 1917 100 lb. Superphosphate..

50 lb. Nitrate of Soda.

25 lb. Muriate of Potash.

Wheat, 1918 75 lb. Superphosphate.

75 lb. Government Guano.

48

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Yields of wheat for the different systems of soil treatment are
given below : —

Table II.

Treatment.

Yield of Grain and Straw
in lb. per Acre.

Yield of Grain
per Acre.

in lb.

1916.

1917.

1918.

Average.

1917.

1918.

Average.

A.
B.

C-

— Oats and Vetch Crops plough-
ed in

—Oats and Vetch Crop grazed
off

—Oats and Vetch Crop removed
as hay

2734 1038
1464 1 1126
1324 994

1886
1295
1159

880
523
471

406
444

382

643
483
426

The above yields are the averages of five plots in each case.

After carrying oats and vetches the plots were all ploughed in
the spring', the green manure plots some four weeks before the others.

It will be noticed that the system of returning the whole oats
and vetch crop to the soil has resulted in an average annual return
of wheat per acre of a little over three bags ; feeding off with sheep
not quite two and a half bags per acre ; and removing the crop as hay
a little over two bags. Greater differences may v)e expected between
systems B and C as time goes on, for although the system of cropping
outlined in C is better than that usually practised by grain farmers,
the farmer cannot hope to maintain the organic matter content nor
the nitrogen balance of his soil by this means only.

The attention of grain farmers is drawn to system B of soil treat-
ment. A similar system by which one crop in a grain rotation is
grazed off by sheep could with advantage be adopted by many growers.
A large proportion of the plant food and a fair proportion of the
organic matter of the crop will be returned to the soil by this means.
The system has gained favour in many parts (f Australia, where
merino or cross-bred ewes with cross-bred lambs at foot are grazed on
crops such as oats or kale.

The relative economy of these systems of soil treatment can only
be determined later when results have been obtained over a longer
period and the treatments have affected the soil in a definite way, in
spite of opposing influences which may be at work. >

Manurial Experiments.

These can be divided under three heads: —

1. Liming experiments, of which there are three intended to test
the relative merits for soil improvement of caustic lime as against
ground limestone, and to decide the most economical dressings of
these forms of lime to apply.

2. Trials with Saldanha Bay raw rock phosphate.

3. General manurial experiment, which will later show amongst
other things —

(a) Which is the best form of phosphate for this soil — super-
phosphate, basic slag, bone dust, or Cape Cross phosphate.

Results of Winter Cereal Experiments. 49

{b) The necessity or otherwise for cereals of dressings of
nitrogen and potash fertilizers in addition to phosphates
on this soil.

In all these experiments wheat and oats were grown under a
definite system of rotation.

On account of the unevenness of soil, definite conclusions cannot
be drawn yet from the results of these experiments. As mentioned
earlier in this article, the number of check plots was found insufficient.
For instance, it became apparent in 1917 in the general manurial
experiment that three check plots out of a total of eighteen plots were
not sufficient to counteract the effect of soil differences, and the
number was in consequence increased to six.

From the results obtained thus far, the Avriters feel justified,
however, in concluding that bone dust and basic slag are both suitable
phosphatic fertilizers for this type of soil, provided the fertilizers can
be added to fallowed land (" braak " land) some time before seeding,
dnder such a system better returns and a more liealtliy condition of
the soil will result from the use of bone dust or basic slag than from
the use of superphosphate in this climate and on this type of soil.

The rotations practised in the various experiments mentioned are
the following : —

(a) Wheat. (c) Wheat.
Oats. Oats.

Field Peas as Green Manure. Fallow with catch, Green

Manure Crop of Field Peas.

(b) Wheat. (d) Wheat.

Oats. Oats and Vetch for Hay.

Field Peas for Grain. Pea Oats for Grain.

hulls and residues re- Fallow with catch. Green
turned to the soil. Manure Crop of Field Peas.

The last rotation is considered a good one in this section of the
country, and is one which should, at any rate to some extent, maintain
the supply of organic matter and nitrogen in the soil. The catch
green manure crop of peas is not always as bulky a crop as may be
desired. As stated before, thick seeding should be resorted to, and
this at ,the present prices of field pea seed makf's the system some-
what expensive. The amount of organic matter in the grain soils of
the Western Province is, however, a consideration of paramount
importance, and of the methods at our disposal to-day for effectively
and economically maintaining the organic matter content of the soil
the system outlined is probably one of the best, for the reason that
nitrogen is added to the soil as well in a cheap way.

Hay Fodder Experiments.

These experiments consist of the growing of mixed crops of
legumes and cereals in order to determine (1) which varieties combined
will give the largest yield of a nutritious, palatable hay, and (2) the
best rates of seeding.

Tables III, IV, V, VI give the yields of hay per acre for the
years 1916, 1917, 1918. and 1919 respectively, in each case in order
of size of yields.

50

Journal of the Department of AoRtctTLTURE.

Table III.
Yields of Hay for 1916.

Fodder Mixture :

Hay neld

in lb.
per Acre.

Fodder Mixture :

Hay Yield

in lb.
per Acre.

Seeding per Acre.

Seeding per

Acre.

Algerian Oats ... 50 11

>.)

8,810

Van Niekerk Wheat

35 lb. \

25 „ )

5,870

Hairy Vetch ... 20 ,

, J

Spring Vetch

Burt Oats 50 ,

Field Peas 50 ,

:l

8,310

Rye

Spring Vetch

30 „ )
50 ,. )

5,630

Smyrna Oats ... 50.,

. 1

8,010

Cape Barley

20 „ )

Field Peas 50 ,

Rve

20 „ \

5,620

Algerian Oats ... 10 ,

. )

Spring Vetch

20 „ j

Rye 10 ,

,

7,880

Cape Barley

40 „ 1
50 „ j

5,4.30

Hairy Vetch ... 25 ,

■ )

Field Peas

Spring Early Wheat 35 ,

:1

7 520

Cape Barley

20 „ )

Spring Vetch ... 25 ,

Smyrna Oats

20 „ \

5,160

Huguenot Wheat ... 35 ,

:(

7 250

Spring Vetch

25 „ j

Spring Vetch ... 25 ,

Algerian Oats

10 „

Thew Wheat ... 35 ,

, 1

0,900

Rye

10 „

5,035*

Spring Vetch ... 25 ,

Spring Vetch

20 „

Mediah Wheat ... 35 ,

6,680

Cape Barley

40 „ 1

4,970

Spring Vetch ... 25 ,

Spring Vetch

25 „ )

Algerian Oats ... 50 ,

1 1

6,435*

Nepal Barley

40 „ [

4,080

Spring Vetch ... 20 ,

, 1

Field Peas

50 „ j

Rye 40 ,

Field Peas 50 ,

6,390

Yields marked thus * are averages of two plots.

In the year succeeding this trial, rye and Cape barley were not
sown in the same fodder mixture, as together they yielded too coarse
a hay ; neither was Cape barley sown in the same mixture with oats,
as it proved too early maturing for any of the varieties of oats.

The varieties of wheat tried proved unsuitable for hay mixtures,
the cured fodder being unpalatable and too coarse. These wheats
were in consequence not tried again.

Both Cape barley and rye were found too early to be sown with
hairy vetch, and were subsequent to this season confined to mixtures
with spring or French winter vetch.

Table IV.
Yields of Hay for 1917.

Hay Mixture :
Seeding per Acre.

Yield Hay

in lb.
per Acre.

Hay Mixture :
Seeding per Acre.

Yield Hav

in lb. ■

per Acre.

Algerian Oats ... 50 lb

Hairy Vetch ... 20

Cape Barley ... 40

Field Peas 50

Burt Oats 40

Field Peas 50

Rye 30

French Winter Vetch 50

Smyrna Oats ... 50

French Winter Vetch 20

Algerian Oats ... 75

Spring Vttch ... 50

3,130

2,660

2,565*

2,390

2.310

2,065*

Algerian Oats ... 30 lb.

Spring Vetch ... 40 „

Algerian Oats ... 50 „

Spring Vetch ... 20

Burt Oats 50

French Winter Vetch 20

Algerian Oats ... 40

Spring Vetch ... 30

Rye 20

French Winter Vetch 30

Algerian Oats ... 40

Spring Vetch ... 25

:\

2,055*

2,040*

1,900

1,895*

1,850

1,825*

Yields marked thus * are averages of two plots.

Results op Winter Cereal Experiments.

51

Yields of uiixtures of oats, rye, and vetches were very
low and are not given in the table. Similarly, mixtures of gluyas
and Union wheats with vetches gave low yields and a poor hay in
each case. The inclusion of wheat in these experiments was dis-
continued in the following seasons.

The hay produced from either Cape barley or rye with vetches
was not readily eaten by stock, so that these crops were also omitted
from the hay mixtures after 1917.

From a study of the above results it will be .seen that the sowing
of greater quantities of vetch seed than 20 lb. to the acre were not
justified in oat and vetch mixtures.

Table V.

Yiclch of Hail for 1918.

Hay Mixture :

Yield in lb.

Hay Mixture :

Yield in lb.

Seeding per Acre.

per Acre.

Seeding per Acre

per Acre.

Smyrna Oats ... 50 lb. )

2,600

Burt Oats 45 lb

1

2,340*

Spring Vetch ... 20 „ [

Hairy Vetch ... 15 „

Algerian Oats ... 50 „ 1

2,580

Smyrna Oats ... 50 „

(

2,235*

Hairy Vetch ... 20 „ )

Hairy Vetch ... 10 „

Smyrna Oats ... 45 „ |
Spring Vetch ... 15 „ i

2,560*

Burt Oats 50 „

Hairy Vetch ... 10 „

)
)

2,125*

Burt Oats ... . 50 „ i

2,390

Burt Oats 40 „

t

1,680*

Spring Vetch ... 20 .. I

Field Peas .50 ..

1

Yields marked * are averages of two plots.

Peas were found to give an impalatable hay, and moreover the
crop proved too early for any of the varieties of oats grown. The
growing- of peas was in consequence discontinued in these experi-
ments.

Although Smyrna oats and spring vetch have given a slightly
better return of hay to the acre than Algerian oats and hairy vetch,
yet the Smyrna oat cannot be recommended for the purpose of hay,
as it yields relatively coarse fodder.

Where a mixture of oats and vetch is to be ^lown for silage the
Smyrna variety could with advantage be grown with a variety of
vetch ; since it is about fourteen days earlier maturing than Algerian
oats, spring or French winter vetch should be chosen in preference
to hairy vetch.

At this stage of the experiment it was concluded that not less
than 50 lb. of oat seed to the acre should be sown along with vetches
in order to obtain maximum yields of hay.

Table VI.
Yields of Hay for 1919.

Hay Mixture : Seeding per Acre.

ay Yield in lb.
per Acre.

Algerian Oat'^
Hairy Vetch ...
Texas Oats ...
French Winter Vetch
Burt Oats
Spring Vetch...

50 1b.
20 „
50 „
20 .,

50 „
20 „

1,936*
1,676*
1,426*

* These yields are average's for five plots in each case and represent, therefore, good standards
of comparison of the various combinations of cereal and vetch.

52

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

It will be observed that Smyrna oats was replaced by Texas for
the reason previously mentioned that the former does not make a good
hay.

Two rotation experiments in a range in which wheat is grown
every third year, and is followed by two crops of oats for hay in one
case and two crops of a mixture of oats and vetches in the other,
furnish comparative results in respect of the hay produced.

These results are given in Table VII hereunder.

Table VII.
Hay Yields.

Kind of Hay. Seeding per Acre in lb.

Hay Yield in lb. per Acre.

A. — Oats alone

B.— Oats and Vetch ...j

50 Algerian Oats

30 Algerian Oats

20 Spring Vetch

30 Algerian Oats

20 French Winter Vetch

1918.
3,666

[ 3,372

I _
)

1919.
2,354

2,4.S0

There were five plots under each treatment, >o that the results in
each case are averages of five plots.

In both the years 1918 and 1919 the same plots carried the same
crops. In 1920 the whole range will again carry wheat. The
rotation for the two halves of the range will be : —

A.

B.

-1st Year :
2nd Year
3rd Year :
-1st Year
2nd Year
3rd Year :

Oats for hay.

Oats for hav.

Wheat.

Oats and vetches for hay.

Oats and vetches for hav.

Wheat.

As regards the actual yield of hay, oats alone gave a higher yield
in 1918 than oats and vetch, but in the following year the position
was reversed. The oats in the oats and vetch plots appeared more
vigorous during the period of growth in 1919 than that in the plots
under oats alone.

The feeding value of oat and vetch hay is far superior to that of
oats alone. Stock also prefer the mixed hay. Although there is
more work involved in the curing of the mixed hav (this applies to
all legumes), yet the farmer is well compensated for the extra trouble
and expense involved in the higher feeding value of the hay produced.

Vetch hay, whether it be the hairy, spring, or French winter
variety is greatly relished by stock, and in protein content it stands
on a level with lucerne hay. An oats and vetch mixture makes good
ensilage. The crop should, however, be cut when the oats are in the
dough stage if possible. For ensilage a mixture of 50 lb. Smyrna
oats and 20 lb. spring vetch or French winter ""an be recommended.
Such a crop should be sown early so that it can be cut and put into

Results of Winter Cereal Experiments. 53

the silo in October. In any ordinary season in these parts an after-
math of vetches will spring- np and will afford very nseful grazing,
or may be ploughed in as a green niannre.

In a good season at this institution a fair crop of seed has been
obtained from the second growth of vetch. Owing to the ravages of
the caterpillar, especially on soil which had previously carried
legumes, this is considered about the safest method of producing vetch
seed in these parts.

Crops of vetch seed have, however, been successfully grown on
areas of this farm where legumes had not been planted for some con-
siderable time previously, away from any source of infestation by the
green caterpillar. In this case the vetches were sown early in April
(a plan similar to that adopted for peas) so that the seed could harden
before the caterpillar pest is at its worst.

Mention should be made of the fact that cojumercial vetch seed
may contain seed of the many varieties of wild vetch. These are
troublesome plants as weeds, especially in a wheat crop. As the seed
of one of our commonest wild vetches found here has a diameter about
equal to the thickness of a wheat kernel, wheat is not readily cleaned
of these seeds by winnowing.

Stock w^ill readily eat the wild vetch when green, so that the
weed can be kept under by grazing the stubble and cultivated fallow
(" braak ") lands with sheep or cattle.

Summary.

1. Taking into consideration both palatability of hay and yield
per acre, combination of the various varieties of oats and vetches have
been found the best for hay.

2. Hairy vetch and Algerian oats have consistently given the
highest yield of hay.

3. Where an earlier maturing crop is desired, hairv vetch should
be substituted by spring or French winter in combination with
Burt, Algerian, or Texas oats, vide results 1916, 1917, 1918, and 1919.

4. For ensilage a mixture of Smyrna oats and spring or French
winter vetch can be recommended in addition to the mixtures
mentioned under 2 and 3.

5. Rye, barley, wheat, and field peas have not been found desir-
able crops for hay mixtures.

G. To obtain maximum yields of mixed hay i>er acre with oats
and vetches, no less than 50 lb. oats should be sown per acre.

7. The quantities of oats and vetch seed recominended to be sown
are 50 lb. oats and 20 lb. vetch per acre.

Seeding Experiments.
Drillinf] versus Broadcasting of Seed, and Fertilizer.

Experiments with cereal crops to compare ihe system of drilling
in seed and fertilizer with that of broadcasting both by hand have
yielded results which prove very definitely the advantage of drilling.

Results are appended in Table YTIT.

54

Journal op the Department- of Agriculture.

Table VIII.

Variety and (Quantity Becd
Sown per Acre.

Size of
Plot.

Yield Grain per Acre.

Increase

Year.

Seed and

Fertilizer

Drilled.

Seed and

Fertilizer

Broadcasted.

per Acre

due to

Drilling.

1915
lUlf)
1918
1919

Wlieat 35 1b.

Algciiiin OatH... ... 15 „

Wheat (Union Sel. 81) 45 „
Wheat (Gluyas Early) 50 „

}, acre

J

1 ",
1 „

385 lb.

I,5H8 „

817 „

1,042 „

305 lb.
1,460 „
609 „
675 „

80 lb.
128 „
208 „
367 „

NoTK. — In (ivory year I lie drcssiii','- of Icilili/ci- mikI seed was the
sanie for bolli nictliods of sowing'.

Tlie drill is uiidouhledly a valuable adjuiKtt for successful wheal
f^'i'owing. In practice the farmer will find that his drill is economical
of seed as well as fertilizer, and in all cases he can expect much better
yields from drill ino- than from broadcastino-.

Seceding- by the method of liroadcastin<>' necessiiates two
harrowinp's as aoainst one harrowin"' in the case of drill in<>-. If it
be assumed tliercfoie that the faimer can ])lou<>h lu the sowing' seaspn
a maximum aiea of 24 acres pei' day, it is calculnlcd Ihat in seeding
and fertilizing this area by hand-sowing- he requires two labourers to
do the sowing- and a thii'd labourer with four lig-ht draught animals
to handle the harrow, whereas to diill the same area would require
two 6-fo()t drills, each handled by one lal)ourer and four light draught
animals.

(This article will be (concluded in the iiext, number of the JounuiJ,
when variety trials of wheat and oats will be dealt with.)

Frozen Meat.

The Secretary of Slalc tor tli(> Colonies sends advice of an applica-
iion made 1o the Norwegian (loveT-nment for an (»xce])tion to the pro-
hibition of the importaiion of ficsh meat into Norway from oveiseas, to
be made in favour of irozen meat from the liritish r)versea Dominions.
Should such ixM-mission be obtained it will be necessary foi- exporters
to com])ly with ihe regulations of the Norweg-ian veterinary
authorities. While the quantity of fresh Danish beef available
precludes anything; like a demand at present for frozen meat in
"Norway, it is understood that there is a g'ood market for salt mutton,
which may he imported into Norway from any country subject to
the ordinary veterinary regulations.

Rats in Sugar-Cane. 55

RATS IN SUGAR-CANE.

By S. H. Skaife, M.A., Entomologist, Scliool of Aorioiilture, Cedara.

?\[atal.

On tlie whole the siig'ar ])J a liters in South Africa are singularly
fortunate in having very few pests of importance to contend with.
Compared with the conditions found in other sugar-growing countries,
the plantations liere are remaikahly free from su('h trouhles as fungous
diseases, borers, mealy-hug, froghoppers, etc. Recently, however, the
sugar farms on the Unifolozi Flats have suffered severe losses from the
depredations of rats.

The rats in question are not the cane rats proper, Thryonomys
swinderenianus , but four or five different species of ordinary field rats.
They are present in enormous numbers in fields of cane ten months old
and older. Cane younger than ten months is not troubled much by
these rats as it does not seem to afford them enough slieltei; against
owls and hawks. The rats are found on all the farms along tlie banks
of the Umfolozi River, but in most cases the damage is moderate com-
pared with what is found on two or three farms along the north bank.
On these farms the rats teem and cause great damage by gnawing
through tlie base of the cane, causing it to fall and dry out. Mr. Jack
Martens, of River View, whose farm is perhaps the worst infested of
all, was cutting during November last (on the occasion of the writer's
visit tliere) only seven tons of cane to the acre instead of an average of
thirty-five tons.

The rats causing the trouble are nearly allied to the common house
rats and resemble tliem closely in general appearance. They are
apparently widely spread in South Africa, yet it is seldom we hear of
them causing such serious damage as related above. They are reported
to be giving trouble at Enifjangeni, not as a pest of sugar-cane, but as a
nuisance in a cotton field where they robbed the bolls as soon as they
were open, removed the seed, and lined their nests with the fibre.
An experimental plot of cotton on Mr. Duncan's farm, at Umfolozi,
was treated in exactly the same manner, and although the plants did
well, there was no cotton to be gathered as the rats took it all.

The trouble at Umfolozi seems to be entirely due to an upset in
the balance of nature. The farms in this district suffered severely
from floods in February, 1918, and the jilanters state that hundreds of
snakes were killed by these floods. Formerly snakes were very common
in the plantations but now they are seldom seen. Thus the rats were
rid of one of their chief enemies and consequently have been able to
breed enormously under the ideal conditions of an abundant
food supply, ample shelter, and freedom from persecution. Hawks
and owls abound, but as the rats make their homes amid the dense
growth and thick trash of the older fields they are practically immune
from attacks by these enemies. The theory that the present outbreak
is indirectly due to the floods is borne out by the fact that the worst
infested farms are those which suffered most from the floods.

56 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

In all probability the balance of nature will be restored sooner or
later. Tlie natural enemies of the rats will be attracted by the
abundance of their prey, and in the presence of an ample food supply
they in turn will breed up and eventually restore the rodents to their
original numbers. But in the meantime something has to be done to
check the damage.

The chief object of the writer's visit to Umfolozi early in Novem-
ber last was to try out a virus kindly supplied by the Union Com-
merciale, Smith Street, Durban. This virus is manufactured by the
Pasteur Institute, Paris; it is sent out in tubes and known as " Pate
Verte." It is said to have been highly effective against rats in the
trenches during the late war. The application of the virus is very
simple ; it has to be spread on bait and placed where the rats can get
at it and devour it.

Two dozen field rats were captured and placed in a large
roomy cage. Every day for a week these rats were fed
on short lengths of sugar-cane smeared liberally with the
virus. They ate the cane quite freely, yet at the end
of the week all were as healthy and happy as some others
which were not fed on the virus. Either these particular species
are immune from tlie organisms which are pathogenic to ordinary rats,
or else the virus had lost its virility owing to its age. One of the first
essentials in using a virus is to obtain it as fresh as possible, otherwise
the disease-producing organisms may die out or lose their virulence.
The virus used at Umfolozi was at least two months old, and this may
have been the cause of its failure to act.

Several Poisox Baits

were tried on other caged rats to see if a bait could be
found which was more attractive than sugar-cane. The poison
used in every case was a sweetened 2 per cent, solution of
strychnia hydrochloride. Extensive experiments in America have
proved that strychnine is about the best poison to use in the destruction
of rodents. The soluble hydrochloride was used as it is more easily
applied to the baits in the form of a solution than the insoluble strych-
nine crystals. Raisins, slices of potato, sweet potato, carrot, and short
lengths of fresh cane were soaked in the 2 per cent, solution for an
hour or so and then placed in the cages with the rats. Next morning-
twelve out of the twenty rats were dead and during the day seven more
died leaving only one alive. The raisins, potato, sweet potato, and
carrot had been left severely alone, but the cane had been freely eaten.
Thus it was found easy enough to destroy cage specimens but the
application of the bait under field conditions was a different matter.
The poisoned cane could not be scattered broadcast owing to the danger
of oxen finding it and eating it. It was also found impracticable to
search for the holes and place the bait down each hole owing to the
dense growth of the older plantations and the thick covering of dead
foliage.

A third method that was tried seemed more hopeful. It is the
practice of the planters to burn the trash and dead vegetation before
cutting their cane. By surrounding a field as it was being burnt it was
found that very few rats were driven out by the fire and still less were
found dead after the fire. Thus it was concluded that they were all

KATS IN Sugar-Cane. 57

driven into their buirows by the fire and an attempt was made to dig
them out. The majority of the holes were found to be lodged among
the roots of the cane, consequently it was impossible to dig out the rats
without injuring the roots to a certain extent. The burrows were by
no means deep and were easily opened up. In nearly every case one
or more rats were found at the bottom of each burrow and in some
cases as many as ten were found in one hole. The rats were dazed and
stupefied by the fire and were easily caught and destroyed.

Thus we have here a comparatively simple means of getting this
pest under control under the present conditions. The planters could
burn off just enough cane early in the morning to sufiice for the day's
cutting. After the cane has been cut the natives could be set on to
dig out and destroy the rats on the piece of land just cut. It would be
inadvisable to leave the destruction of the rats till next day for from
observations made it would seem that the great majority of the rats,
if not all, trek overnight from the field that has been cut into the
neighbouring standing cane.

From the planters' point of view there are two objections to this
measure. First the roots of the cane are somewhat injured by the
digging, and secondly labour is scarce and difiicult to obtain. But the
need for some such remedy is desperate, and the present writer is con-
vinced that the loss entailed by the damage to the roots and cost of
labour will fully be set off by the increased crops obtained.

The expense and trouble of the suggested remedies are surely
justified in the case of a pest which causes such heavy losses as the
present one, amounting to 75 per cent, of the crop or more on at least
two of the farms visited.

The planters are very keen on the idea of a virus which will start
an epidemic among the rats and eventually wipe them out. Nothing
could be better, provided such a virus could be found. In the first
place, although several viruses have been put on the market at various
times, seldom have any of these proved satisfactory. The rats in the
trenches in Flanders were congregated in large numbers over small
areas, were mostly ravenously hungry, and were easily induced to take
the baits offered. Under these conditions the use of a virus proved
very effective, but it is extremely doubtful whether the same effects
would be obtained by the use of a virus in the cane fields. In the
second place, it is very difficult to obtain fresh virus in South Africa.
The writer made inquiries of most of the big dealers in agricultural
supplies in Pietermaritzburg and Durban, and only from the Union
Commerciale was he able to obtain any at all. The latter firm had
only two tubes in stock and these were generously placed at the
writer's disposal for experimental purposes. This meagre supply was
all used up at Umfolozi with the results detailed above. Thus it
would seem that the planters' hope of the pest being overcome by the
use of a virus is doomed to disappointment, and that some such
measures as those discussed in this article will have to be adopted,
troublesome and expensive though they seem.

58 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

PRACTICAL HINTS FOR THE PREVENTION AND
ERADICATION OF EAST COAST FEVER.

By Jas. L. Webb, F.E.C.V.S., G.V.O., Ixopo.

All tlie information necessary for the prevention and eradication of
East Coast fe\'er has from time to time been given to the stock-owning
community, and while I can bring forward nothing better than has
already been advocated, a reiteration of the methods, together with a
few notes on their practical application, may perhaps serve a nsefnl
purpose -

Preventive Measures.

1. Cattle-proof Fences and Gates around the Farms. — East Coast
fever is spread by the dropping of infected ticks ; this may be done by
cattle, infected with the disease, being driven or straying on to clean
areas, and can to a great extent be obviated by good boundary fences,
gates, and fenced roads. Ticks may also be picked up on clothing,
blankets, numnahs, hay, thatch, grass, and carried long distances
from infected to clean veld. Natives attending feasts on infected
areas, and then returning to clean farms, are, to my mind, a possible
source of danger in that they are liable to carry infected ticks ; and
donkeys with long coats, trekking over infected ground, might pick
up ticks which, without attaching themselves, drop off after a time.
Ticks may also be carried from infected veld by flooded rivers and
deposited on clean areas, so that although good fences are a protec-
tion against the principal source of infection it is possible for infected
ticks to gain access to clean farms in spite of them.

2. Regular Dipping and Hand-dressiiig . — I think it can now be
taken for g-ranted that farmers recognize the necessity of regular
dipping, but many perhaps consider that the immersion of their cattle
once every seven days in a standard strength arsenical solution is
sufficient to prevent an outbreak of East Coast fever. Such is un-
doubtedly not the case ; it will, of course, lessen the number of ticks
and minimize the risk, but it will not act as an absolute preventive.
It would be necessary to dip every three or five days, and at the same
time thoroughly hand-dress the ears and under the tails and the brushes
of the tails. I think one might safely say if this were properly
carried out it would act as an absolute preventive measure. Farms
adjacent to infected areas are, as one would expect, most likely to
become infected even although they are properly fenced. This was
exemplified in the Ixopo District, where five farms adjoining an
infected one, all of them fenced, became infected. On four of these
farms the first case was diagnosed and the disease went no further.
It is, therefore, obviously necessary to go in for short interval dipping
and hand-dressing on farms adjoining badly infected ones.

3. Diagnosis of the First Ca\se. — The diagnosis of the first case of
East Coast fever on a farm is one of the best methods of preventing
its further extension. In the Ixopo District, on twelve farms where
the first case was diagnosed and active measures taken at once, no

Practical Hints : East Coast Fever. 59

further cases occurred ; this speaks well lor early diagnosis. In
order to obtain this desirable result fanners must not rely on their
own diagnosis of sickness or deatlis amongst their cattle unless the
cause is quite obvious. Smears must be sent from any beast about
the death of which there is the slightest suspicion. Do not say a
death is due to such diseases as gall-sickness, redwater, vegetable
poisoning, snake bite, quarter evil, etc., without sending a smear. It
is often impossible for an expert to determine (especially in tick-
conveyed diseases) without the aid of the microscope, so always go to
the trouble of sending a smear to the proper authorities.

Taking of Smears. — I would like to give a word of advice here
about the taking of smears, as hundreds are forwarded which are quite
useless for the purpose of diagnosis for several reasons, the commonest
being that they are taken too long after death, with the result that
any disease organisms present are obscured by those of putrefaction.
Smears are also sometimes taken on improper material, such as
coloured glass, convex bottle glass, dirty glass, and even paper. It
shonld be remembered that the most reliable diagnosis for East Coast
fever is obtained from a smear taken from the inside of a lymphatic
gland or the spleen (milt). A bloodsmear is jjot nearly so good,
although better than nothing, and is the only material an amateur is
likely to obtain successfully from the live animal. In order to make
a good smear from a dead animal, the sooner it is taken after death
the better. Remove a lymph gland — the one in front of the shoulder
is perhaps the easiest to get at — have a piece of thin clean clear glass
ready, cut the gland open with a clean knife, then lig-htly draw the
surface of tlie glass over the cut surface of the gland and allow it to
dry, or, if the spleen is selected, cut it open and remove a little of the
contents on the point of a pen knife, spread this as thinly as possible
over the glass with tlie edge of the knife ; on no account stick the
pieces of glass together like a sandwich with the material in between,
as such a method is quite useless. Although, as before mentioned,
smears should be taken from a lymph gland or the milt for the
diagnosis of East Coast fever, it is as well at tlie same time to send a
blood smear taken- from an ear, for then if the disease happens to be
redwater, anaplasmosis, trypanosomiasis, or anthrax it can often be
diagnosed.

It is frequently inconvenient for a farmer to attend to take smears
from a beast which dies at a native kraal on his property. (I take it
every farmer insists on such deaths being reported to him.) To
obviate the necessity for personal inspection, show the natives how to
remove a lymph gland and instruct them to always bring such a
gland from any beast which dies, no matter what they consider has
been the cause of death. From this take a smear and forward for
microscopical examination. I have personally found this system to
answer well on infected farms, as it enables one to know the number
of deaths which are occurring and to ascertain also the date of the
last death from East Coast fever.

Possibly fear of the fifteen months' quarantine regulation deters
some farmers from being too anxious to know from what disease a
beast may have died, but it is undoubtedly better to choose the lesser
of the two evils and put up with the quarantine rather than risk the
gross infection of their farms with its resultant heavy losses.

60 Journal of the Departmknt of Agriculture.

4. Supervision over Cattle owned by Native Tenants. — In many
instances an outbreak of East Coast fever on a European-owned farm
first occurs amongst tiie cattle owned by native tenants. Farmers
would be well advised to keep a count of all sucli cattle and to see that
the full number is brought to the tank on each dipping day, also to
insist that no cattle are brought on or taken off the farm without their
consent being first obtained.

This point requires emphasizing. It is my experience that
farmers rarely know the number of cattle owned by their native
tenants. In two outbreaks amongst native-owned cattle recently
attended by me the farmer in one case thought his tenants had about
thirty head, but when they came to be counted he was surprised to
find there were seventy. In the other case one hundred and fifty was
the number given, and there were found to be two hundred and sixty.
Owing to this slackness, especially when the cattle are rarely seen, it
is impossible for a farmer to know whether any cattle have been taken
o& or brought on his farm without his knowledge. It is a direct
encouragement to natives to evade the permit system, besides being a
grave danger. Natives often have cattle at kraals in widely separated
parts of a district, and if disease breaks out at a particular kraal the
various owners want to get their cattle away. If they can take them
to a farm where they know the addition will not be discovered the
chances are they will do so, the result being a fresh infected centre.
If practicable, it is an advantage to segregate the native cattle to a
given part of the farm, fence them off, and give them a separate
dipping- tank. Under such conditions it would often not be necessary
to place the whole of the farm under quarantine.

Methods for Eradication of East Coast Fever,

1. Short Inter cal Dipping and Hand-dressing . — As previously
mentioned, the dipping of cattle every seven days will not prevent an
outbreak of East Coast fever ; therefore as a means of eradicating the
disease it is almost useless. Short interval dipping must consequently
be introduced immediately an outbreak on a farm is discovered. This
means the immersion of cattle in an arsenical solution containing ^ lb,
arsenite of soda to each 100 gallons of water every five days, or in a
solution containing 1 lb, of arsenite of soda per 100 gallons every
three days. Either appears to be equally efficacious; the former
method is rather severe on milch cows, working oxen, and calves; the
latter being less severe, apparently having no ill effects, but it
probably interferes more with the ordinary routine of the farm work.
A compromise between these two dipping periods is a bi-weekly
dipping, viz., every third and fourth day. This answers well, pro-
viding the arsenical strength is increased 25 per cent, and, as the
cattle get used to it, 50 per cent., viz., 1| to 1^ lb. of arsenite of soda
per 100 gallons of water. I might here mention that in several
instances where gross infection existed better results were obtained
by the use of the full " laboratory" mixture, which, in addition to
arsenite of soda, contains soft soap and paraffin, although I prefer
adding to the dip, in the proportion of 1 gallon to every 1000 gallons,
one of the soluble carbolic dips, such as kerol. This has the effect of
keeping the dip sweet and the carbolic odour probably prevents ticks
attaching themselves as quickly as they otherwise would. Although

Practical Hints : East Coast ^'ever. 61

regular dipping- in the correct strength arsenical solution is absolutely
essential, yet even this fails unless it is accompanied with thorough
hand-dressing inside the ears, under the tails and brushes of the tails,
especially so once the veld is grossly infected. There are several
methods of applying the hand-dressing solution, but to start with it
is very necessary that a substantial long race should be erected into
which the cattle can pass as they leave the tank, and where they can
be closely jammed while the dressing is applied. When large
numbers of cattle have to be handled perhaps the easiest way is to
have buckets containing an arsenical solution of the same strength as
that contained in the tank and to apply it by means of a suitable
sprayer — a large garden syringe with a spray nozzle answers well; by
this method the solution reaches the ticks situated in the depths of the
ears ; and when the hand-dressing is left to natives to handle they
are more likely so to apply the solution thoroughly than by any other
method. If the dip from the tank is used it should be strained
through a piece of sacking before use so as to remove hair which
would otherwise block the syring-e. A useful solution for ear-dressing
is made of Cooper's powder dip — 3 ounces rubbed into paste with
a little water; mix with f lb. of soft soap and a little more water,
and a wine bottleful of raw linseed oil, mix, then add a wine bottleful
of paraffin, mix the whole thoroughly together, then add water
gradually, stirring all the time to make the mixture up to 4 gallons;
this can be applied with paint brushes or with swabs, or the syringe,
both to the ears and under the tails. The brushes of the fails should
be clipped, or at any rate the hair cut off level with the docks so that
the dip can get at the ticks there.

A few tips to prevent ill results from dipping : —

(a) Have an isometer, and so make sure the tank is kept at

proper strength. If under it is useless for the purpose
required, and if over the cattle are likely to get scalded.

(b) Never send thirsty cattle to be dipped ; they are apt to

drink the arsenical solution, and it does not take much to
kill a beast. I know of two instances, which happened
just recently, where valuable imported cattle, a Devon
cow and a Shorthorn bull, drank dip before entering the
tank — the former recovered, the latter died.

(c) Remove the thick winter coats over the back and loins by

means of a curry comb, otherwise they absorb too much
dip and it then remains too long in contact with the skin,
resulting in scalded and broken skin through which at
subsequent dippings the arsenic can gain access to the
system with fatal results. These ill-effects are aggravated
if cattle with matted coats are exposed to rain, as the
moisture dissolves the arsenic.

(d) Remove all scum from a tank, as this settles on the backs
of cattle and is also a cause of scalding, especially if the
coats are long.

(e) Keep tanks full. Cattle are less likely to injure themselves

when entering or going out.

(/) Have a good fence around the tank and kraals to prevent
cattle gaining access to them when not being dipped.

&2 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Have a deep hole dug within this fenced enclosure into
which throw scum and the dirty dip, etc., when the tank
is cleaned out. Numbers of cattle are poisoned through
drinking dip out of sumps and even the tank itself, by
licking up the scum which has been thrown out, and by
licking- earth around the tank which has been saturated
with overflow, etc., from the tank and draining pens.

(g) Use a dredger to remove the sediment which collects at the
bottom of tanks ; this prevents waste, as the whole tank
will not require cleaning out so often.

2. Isolation or Destruction of all Diseased Animals. — Theo-
retically this should not be necessary, for the reason that if all
diseased cattle are dipped and hand-dressed regularly at short intervals
no ticks capable of conveying infection should escape, but in practice
it is found too risky to leave diseased animals to roam at will.
Dipping, and more particularly hand-dressing of the ears, around ihe
eyes, etc., are generally not sufficiently thorough to obviate the escape
of a few ticks. Again, when cattle are very ill they cannot travel
any distance to a tank, and of course to leave them undipped is fatal
to the eradication of the disease, consequently the destruction or
isolation of all the diseased cattle is strongly recommended (the former
for preference), but natives often object to even their sick cattle being
destroyed, and in that case the diseased animals must be isolated in a
small, well-fenced camp and not removed even for dipping- purposes.

3. Grass Burning. — On infected farms the grass should be burned
at the season when it is likely to destroy the greatest number of ticks,
which would be as early as possible in the winter when the grass has
dried sufficiently.

4. Temjjerature Camps. — Tliis method of dealing with an out-
break of East Coast fever is generally impracticable. It gives
excellent results where clean fenced veld can be obtained, but infec-
tion is rarely confined to any particular paddock. The procedure is
to temperature the whole herd on the infected land. All cattle with
normal temperatures are placed in a paddock known to be free from
infection ; tliese cattle must now be temperatured early every morning
for thirty days, and any showing abnormal temperatures are destroyed
or returned to the infected part of the farm. This method often
means that the cattle in the clean paddock are cut off from the dipping
tank because they cannot reach it without passing over infected veld.
It answers well when cattle can be temperatured and removed from an
infected farm on to a clean one provided with a tank.

Cattle Movements.

I have made no mention of the control of cattle movement under
the permit system as a means of preventing the spread of East Coast
fever. This undoubtedly plays an important part in combating the
disease, but it hardly comes within the province of individual farmers,
who can, however, help considerably towards its practical application.

The present system no doubt often proves irksome to both
European and native cattle owners, and the latter especially some-
times go away dissatisfied when their applications for movement of
cattle are refused, because they cannot grasp the necessity for such

Practical Hints : East Coast Fever. - 63

action when, for instance, concerned with a quarantined area on which
no deaths have occurred for six or twelve months. A better spirit of
co-operation might be engendered if farmers would explain to their
native tenants the reason why they have to obtain permits and show
Ihem the danger to his neighbours of an individual who moves cattle
without a permit, especially after it has been refused by the authori-
ties, or who fails to comply w4tli the conditions of a permit. It is
not natives alone who offend against the permit system. Only
recently it came to my notice that a European who bought cattle at a
sale, and who received a permit to remove them to his farm by rail,
decided that this was too much trouble or expense and sent them oif
by road. He may or may not have known the route was through
infected farms, but it was, and the cattle went to his farm situated in
a clean area in another district. This shows the danger to a district
an individual can be who fails to carry out the conditions of a permit.

Farmers could lielp in the course of their travels by seeing that
natives driving cattle were in possession of correct permits. They
might also, when they do not desire their native tenants to bring
more cattle on to their farms, directly refuse. They should not give
them a note to the permit officer setting* forth the native's r^uire-
ments and ask him to refuse same, when from an East Coast fever
point of view such refusal cannot be justified, nor should they send
their natives with notes asking for permits which they know are
bound to be refused. It is not fair in such cases to put the onus of
refusal on tlie officials.

East Coast fever is a disease which undoubtedly could be eradi-
cated from the country if every stock owner could be prevailed upon
to carry out the necessary measures. As has been demonstrated in
numerous instances, it is a comparatively easy matter to wipe the
disease off farms and native locations, and the losses are not heavy
provided the disease is diagnosed early ; consequently with the co-
operation of stock owners and officials it should be i)ossible to rid the
whole country of the disease. The great stumbling'-block is the native
population, wlio do not understand the nature of the disease and the
way it is carried from sick to healthy cattle, and therefore do not
realize the necessity for the preventive measures adopted. The only
way to deal with them is to place all native-owned cattle under a
certain amount of European supervision— on European-owned farms
where there is a resident white man such supervision should be part of
his duty, and in native locations the Government provide the necessary
supervision. It is the native-owned farms and farms with absentee
landlords, and many of the Crown lands, which want looking after,
for these farms are usually situated in the least accessible and hottest
parts of the country, where it is most suitable for tick-life and
consequently most likely to harbour tick-conveyed diseases. It is
difficult to obtain the services of reliable men who will live in these
areas and carry on the work of supervision. In tie Ixopo District,
I am glad to say, practically all native-owned cattle outside the
private farms receive a certain amount of supervision, mostly by
Europeans living close to the native areas concerned. This system
of local supervision has g*iven good results and is less expensive to the
country.

64 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

SOUTH AFRICAN STANDARD FOR POULTRY

AND EGGS.

By W. 0. John, Lecturer iu Pouliiy, Elsenbiirg School of

Agriculture.

Live Table Poultry.

Characteristics of Table Fowls. — They may be of any breed or
cross, provided they conform to the desired shape and quality.

Head. — Eye, comb, face, wattles, etc., a bright healthy appear-
ance.

Body. — Characteristic of the particular bleed. Shape, broad and
deep; breast, broad and well rounded; breast-bone, long- and straight,
carrying ample flesh; back, broad and moderately long; skiji, supple,
elastic, and of fine texture (indicating* health and condition) ; colour
of skill, white preferred, other colour permissible; feathers, full coat
(blood feathers or stubs undesirable).

Legs and Feet. — Characteristic of breed, of medium length, as
fine in bone as is consistent with breed, set well apart, allowing for
development of breast meat. Legs covered with clean, smooth scales
(denoting- youth) ; colour, white preferred, other colour permissible.

Weight. — In accordance with age and breed. All other points
being equal, a determining factor will be the best weight according
to age.

Scale of Points.

Size and shape 10

Uniformity of quality 15

Youthfulness .'. 10

Quantity and quality of breast meat 10

Long straight breast-bone 15

Fineness of bone 10

Texture and elasticity of skin 10

Colour of skin 5

Absence of oft'al and surplus fat 10

Condition of feathers 5

100

Serious Defects. — Crooked breast, excessive coarseness, abdominal
fat, aged, full of blood feathers, lack of uniformity where pairs or
Irios are shown, any sign of ill-health.

Dressed or Trussed Table Poultry.

The general characteristics applying to live table poultry will
hold good in this standard, with the exception that the method of
killing, drawing, shaping, trussing, and the general excellence of the
finished bird must receive due consideration.

Note. — Head and legs should be left on (as an index to health
and age), but must be properly cleaned.

South African Standard for Poultry and Eggs. 65

Scale of Points.

Size, quality, and age 10

Quantity and quality of breast meat 10

Length of breast-bone (5), straight keel or

breast-bone (5). fineness of bone (5) 15

Absence of offal and surplus fat 10

Skin, texture (5), appearance (5), colour (5) ... 15

Correct bleeding 10

Attractive shaping 10

,, trussing 10

General marketable appearance 10

100

Serious Defects. — Badly bled, skin torn or blistered, any
unsightly openings in body (due to bad trussing), excessive coarse-
ness, excessive abdominal fat, aged, crooked or bent breast, dirty or
scaly legs, etc.

Eggs.

The general character of the exhibit should be uniformity of
shape, size, colour, quality of shell, freshness, and weight.

Exhibit of 12 eggs : every egg should be (as nearly as possible)
of the same shade, i.e. white, brown, or tinted; to be displayed on
round dishes or plates, and weighing from 26 oz. to the dozen upwards
for fowl eggs, and 35 oz. and upwards to the dozen for cluck eggs.
When packed in boxes, commercial or otherwise, method of packing
to be given due consideration.

Scale of Points.

Uniformity of shape 10

,, ,, size 10

,, ,, colour 10

Quality of shell 10

Freshness 25

Weight 25

Best display on dish (12 eggs; or jjacking in

box (any number) 10

100

Serious Defects. — Fowl eggs less than 24 oz. to the dozen or duck
eggs less than 35 oz. to the dozen, great lack of uniformity, dirty or
soiled eggs, and stale eggs.

6& Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

AGRICULTURE AND THE WAR.

Effect on Importations of Essentials.

Position at the Close of 1919.

The farming' industry in South Africa is dependent on a number of
articles which are not produced in the country. The outbreak of war
caused a general dislocation in their importation, freightage was
scarce and expensive, oversea production fell off in some cases owing
to the manufacture of war essentials, the needs of manufacturing
countries were first considered causing a slirinkage of products avail-
able for oversea customers, and, generally, obtaining supplies was a
serious problem. Restrictions on the export of merchandise con-
tributed to the difficulty.

The goods ordinarily obtained from oversea directly essential to
our agricultural industry are chiefly : —

Eertilizers.

Agricultural machinery.

Agricultural implements.

Fencing material.

Seeds, sprays, dipping material, etc.

Hereunder are statements of importations for the ten years 1909
to 1918 inclusive. Examination thereof, taking into account
enhanced costs caused by the war, will indicate the extent to which
oversea supplies diminished during the war.

A brief report on the effect on our agriculture by the curtail-
ment of these supplies and the outlook in regard thereto at the end
of 1919 is given below in respect of certain essential articles, viz. : —

Fertilizers .

The soils of the Union are, as a rule, by no means rich, particu-
larly in the winter rainfall area of the Cape Province, where the
greater portion of the Union's wheat production is grown. With the
exception of about 6000 tons Government guano per annum and a
certain amount of bone manure, the Union was entirely dependent
iipon countries oversea for its supplies of artificial fertilizers, to the
extent shown in the statement hereunder. Phosphatic fertilizers are
most required for the Union's soils, nitrogenous ones, with the excep-
tion of guano wliich is obtained in South Africa, not being used to
any extent in this country ; in fact, sulphate of ammonia, a con-
centrated nitrogenous manure manufactured in Natal, is now being-
exported from the Union. Phosphatic fertilizers were obtained almost
entirely from Great Britain and the continent of Europe and when
war broke out these sources of supply were entirely closed. Efforts
were made to obtain vsupplies from the United vStates of America and
Japan, but none was to be had except at prohibitive prices. An

Agriculture ajsd the Wak. 07

endeavour was made also to procure phospliatic rock from the
Seychelles Islands, but owing to the difficulty of freight nothing has
yet come of the matter ; these phosphates were sold, prior to the out-
break of war, at from 45s. to 50s. per ton, and were mainly shipped to
Hamburg for the manufacture of superphosphates. At the same time
the possibility of local production received earnest attention and all
known or likely sources of fertilizers in the Union were inquired
into, but no new supplies of importance were disclosed. The position
in the Union was acute. Owing to high prices all available bones in
the country were collected and other materials of manurial value
were used to the utmost. The supply of Government guano \yas
restricted to the growing of wheat in view of the pressiug need for
increased production of the crop, and the screenings from the guano
islands were also collected, and used for fruit trees and vines. To
what extent these expedients helped to relieve the situation cannot be
gauged, but there is evidence that the lack of fertilizers seriously
curtailed the area put under crop and lowered the crop return per
acre. The Government was asked to procure and sell fertilizers
from overseas, but it was considered wiser for supplies to come
through the usual trade channels, though at the same time no effort
was spared by the Department of Agriculture to assist merchants to
obtain supplies for sale; an exception was made, however, in respect
of a deposit of phosphatic guano at Cape Cross, in the South-Western
Protectorate, formerly German South-West Africa, estimated at 4000
tons, which was purchased by the Government for re-sale to farmers
in the same way as Government guano. Shipping difficulties gave
trouble in removing tjiis deposit, and supplies came in slowly, 737
tons having come to hand at the end of March, 1918, the total quantity
sold and delivered at the end of 1919 being 3826 tons. Attention
was given also to the deposit of iron and alumina phosphates at
Saldanha Bay, but this has proved disappointing.

The requirements of the United Kingdom at one time were
absorbing most of its production of phosphatic manures, only small
quantities of super being released for export. The position at the end
of 1919, though still abnormal, was becoming easier, fairly large con-
signments of superphosphate and basic slag coming in. Prices were
still ruling high. It is estimated that the Union requires annually
soiuetliing like 35,000 tons superphosphate and 10,000 tons basic slag,
witli the prospect of steadily increasing requirements, and supplies
are much below this figure; the imports of "manures and fertili-
zers " for the year 1919, aniounted to 12,617 tons only, mostly
imported during the last few months of the year.

It will be seen, therefore, that the commencement of 1920 finds
the Union still in a parlous position, and nece^sitj urges the ex-
I)loiting of every likely source of supply.

Agricultural Machinery and Implements.

The Ujiion agriculturists' dependence on the manufactures of
other lands, especially in agricultural machinery, is well known, and
a long continued stoppage of supplies would paralyze the country's
agricultural industry. The Customs returns hereunder show the
extent to which the Union's supplies fell of! after the outbreak of war.
Manufacturers oversea, in many cases, directed their energies to war

()8 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

munitions ; the consequent falling off in manufactures (for which also
the country of origin had first lien), together with the scarcity and high
rate of freight, created a serious shortage in the Union. Yet, on the
other hand, agricultural development continued to extend in this
country, and, in the instance of its 2500 crop correspondents, who
report on the average and condition of the main crops, seldom was
lack of machinery and implements put forward as a cause of reduced
acreage. Apparently good stocks of machinery and implements were
in the country at the outbreak of war, while their rising cost and
growing scarcity induced the farmer to take greater care of his goods,
and their life was thus considerably prolonged. The half-used and
partially discarded article was requisitioned, renovated, and put into
use again. Local firms were able to cope to a large extent with the
work of renovation and to manufacture locally numbers of plough-
shares and implements. Althoug'h prices increased very considerably,
the farmer, with greater care of his goods and with the incentive of
rising prices for his produce, was able to pay increased prices for his
machinery and, generally, realizing his opportunity, spared no effort
to make the most of his time and cultivated to the utmost. Thus it
is that, notwithstanding a diminishing overseas supply of agricultural
machinery and implements, the development of the Union continued.
It follows, however, that pre-war stocks will become exhausted
and renovated machinery will wear out, and unless oversea supplies
come in more freely the Union's agriculture will eventually suffer
very materially. It is not apparent that this position has yet been
readied; on the other hand all restriction on importations have been
removed and goods are coming into the country, but generally the
position was still abnormal at the end of 1919 and the Union's require-
ments continued to exceed supplies.

Fencing Material.

Among the benefits of fencing are labour saving (in that it
obviates the employment of herders, etc.), the protection of crops and
stock, and the minimizing of disease dissemination. The Census of
1918 shows there were 76,149 farms in the Union (exclusive of native
locations, reserves, etc.), 88,498 of which were wholly fenced and
29,667 partially. The Union is dependent on overseas supplies of
fencing material, and a lack thereof would react on agricultural
development. As a result of the war supplies fell to a very low ebb,
and at one time were practically unobtainable, while prices were pro-
hibitive, rising to three or four times as much as was formerly paid,
and very little fencing was carried out as a consequence. The posi-
tion at the close of 1919 was a little easier, however, material coming
in more readily with a slight decline in prices. Things had not, of
course, reverted to pre-war conditions both in regard to supplies and
prices, and fencing was not being extended to the same extent as
would otherwise have been the case.

Dips.

Dipping of live stock is essential in this country, materials for
the purpose being largely imported from overseas. Arsenite of soda
is the principal material used in cattle dipping, and on the outbreak
of war supplies fell oft' so considerably tliat the Government had to

Agriculture and the War. 69

grant exemptions in certain cases of compulsory dipping owing- to lack
of material. Every effort was made to secure supplies oversea and
freightage for same, but the country's requirements could not
adequately be met and the situation became serious. Relief was
obtained eventually by the establishment of a local factory, which
commenced the manufacture of arsenite of soda for sale at a reasonble
price. As fal' as can be seen this factory, together with an easier
situation overseas, was meeting the local demand and no fear of
dearth of the article is now anticipated.

Lime and sulphur, largely used in the preparation of sheep dip,
were also difficult to obtain and prices ruled very high, so that farmers
curtailed dipping as much as possible. Prices at tlie end of 1919 were
still high, but supplies appeared to be sufficient for immediate require-
ments and there was no apprehension of a dearth.

It is likely that live stock were affected by a scarcity of dipping
materials — to what extent cannot be judged — but no marked set-back
in animal husbandry has resulted, and the position was very near to
normal at the close of 1919 so far as supplies were concerned.

Agricultural Seed.

At the outbreak of war the Union had progressed far in the matter
of producing its seed requirements, but it was still necessary to import
certain seeds such as potato, mangold, swede, turnip, cauliflower,
vetch, etc. Supplies ran low as a couvsequence of the war and the Agri-
cultural Department was approached by seedsmen in regard thereto.
While the importation of seed from oversea was disturbed, consign-
ments continued to reach the country, and although difficulty in
obtaining supplies and the high price of seed must naturally have
had a retarding influence, there is no evidence that develop-
ment was reduced in any marked degree on this account. On the
other hand, the growth of seed to meet local requirements was greatly
stimulated, and the Union's locally grown seed now compares favour-
ably with that of other countries. So far as could be seen the position
of overseas' seed supply was easy at the end of the year and no hard-
ships through scarcity were known.

Other Materials.

The price of various materials for spraying fruit trees, etc.,
rose considerably and cases of difficulty in obtaining supplies w^ere
reported, but generally there was, and is, no marked shortage as a
result of the war, and in this respect no set-back to agriculture
occurred.

At one time during the war there was a shortage of tin-plate used
for the manufacture of cheese-making utensils, and the industry was
seriously retarded, but supplies were procured and the situation
became easy.

A general survey of the country's agricultural progress during
the past years of war brings prominently into view the fact that —
owing to unprecedented high prices for produce, the necessity for
augmenting local supplies, and the world's demand for foodstuffs —
there was sufficient incentive to our argriculturists to produce to the
utmost. Thus notwithstanding limitations to our development caused

70

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

by the scarcity of essentials, the acreage under crop in the Union was
increased oenerally and especially in wheat and maize. It is signi-
ficant, also, that reported shrinkaoes in acreage were due almost
entirely to adverse climatic conditions, and in a number of cases to
lack of fertilizers and seed. Scarcity of labour was also a cause of
restricted sowings in some districts, but while the war drew from the
country a large number of coloured and native persons it did not very
materially aggravate the agricultural labour question which has been
and continues to be a source of difficulty in parts of tlie Union.

The Customs returns of exports hereunder demonstrate the extent
to M'hich agricultural and pastoral products were exported, showing
generally a marked increase on pre-war exports and pointing to a
gratifying extension of the agricultural industry.

It may be mentioned liere that the activities of tlie Department
of Agriculture were severely handicapped during the war owing to
the absence of many of its officers on <Vctive Service, the difficulties of
obtaining- new officers, and the restriction of expenditure, in addition
to its having to cope with special functions and questions arising out
of the war.

It is clear tliat the scarcity of overseas supplies did affect our
agricultural development, but to what extent no statistical data are
available. In spite, however, of this retarding influence the country
progressed agriculturally, and to-day it holds a more important posi-
tion among the world's agricultural producers tlian it did before the
war, while its future prospects have ncA er been brighter. The position
at the end of 1919 in respect of the adequate supply of certain essen-
tials was still somewhat obscure and trade far from normal, but with
the withdrawal of restrictions and the resumption of manufactures the
position is steadily improving, so that it is hoped that at no distant
date adequate supplies will be available to meet the Union's i-pquire-
ments.

Value of Imports of certain Articles used
IN Agriculture.

* Including Cattle Dip.

t Including i:i3(i.419 from Australia.

Agriculture and the War.

71

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72

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Imports of Fertilizers (Tons of 2,000 lb.).

q-j

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o

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II

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1910

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366

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1911

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875

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1912

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400

—

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8,585

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1914

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231

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377

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1915

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1916

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1917

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1918

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6,792

5,056

779

Agricultural Policy.

Mr. Lloyd George addressed in London on the 21st October last
a large gathering of farmers and others concerned with agriculture, and
outlined the policy which would be pursued by the Imperial Govern-
ment with the object of uplifting agriculture in the British Isles. He
referred to the decline of agriculture in that country since 18T0, and
the causes thereof, and stated that, notwithstanding its present
position, and the fact that foodstuffs to the value of £150,000,000
which could be raised in country were being imported annually from
abroad, agriculture remained their greatest industry. The numbers
of those engaged in it, the populations directly dependent upon it,
its importance from the point of view of the security of the State, its
position as the nursery for workers from which otiier industries of the
land have been built up, all pointed to the premier importance of
agriculture in the British Isles. By increased agricultural produc-
tion, the State would receive as great a sei*vice as that rendered by
any other industry, and the present depreciated value of the British
sovereign owing to the adverse balance of trade would be removed.

In order to induce increased cultivation a definite policy was
needed, which should include guaranteed security to the cultivator,
for " Confidence is the best fertilizer of the soil." This security was,
firstly, that of tlie State, so that the farmer will not be ruined by
unexpected developments in the outside agricultural world ; secondly,
tlie guarantee by tlie landlord of security of tenure of the laud; and,
thirdly, the determination of the farmer himself to produce as much
as possible.

" Co-operation," Mr. Lloyd George stated, " is the word for
Capital and Labour in all industries at the present moment, and with-
out it we shall fail." Credit facilities, transport facilities, scientific
State aid, and the regeneration of rural life were also mentioned as
matters of vital importance to the successful forward movement of
agriculture in the British Isles, and formed part of the Government's
agricultural policy.

* Included with " Artific'.al."

t Classified as "Artificial."

" The Weeds of South Africa." 73

THE WEEDS OF SOUTH AFRICA."

Notes on " Canada Thistle "
(" Cnicus Arvensis, " Hoffm.— Family " Conipositae ").

By I. B. Pole Evans, M.A. D.Sc, F.L.S., Chief, Division of
Botany and Plant Pathology, and K. Lansdell, Division of
Botany.

[NOTK. — It is intended to publish these notes, with coloured plate, in the series of
articles entitled "The Weeds of South Africa," issued by the Department as Local Series
Bulletins. — Acting Editor.]

The " Canada Thistle," also termed " Thistles," " Cursed
Thistle," " Green Thistle," " Creeping- Thistle," " Prickly Thistle,"
is of European origin.

It is found in most countries in the world, including South
Africa, where at present it has only been reported from the borders of
Natal, the Transvaal, and from the Cathcart Division in the Cape
Province.

Without doubt, it is one of the worst weed pests known to agri-
culture. Nearly every European country has wrestled with it, as
well as the United States, Canada, and New Zealand.

The most noxious part of the " Canada Thistle " is the horizontal
creeping root stock. These are round and slender, and look like
tough, white whip cords lying 2 to 3 feet underground. They creep
in every direction, often to a length of a dozen feet or more, and send
up new plants at short intervals. Its rapid spread is due to these root
stocks, while each cut joint is able to produce a new set of plants.

The plant is an erect perennial, growing to a height of 1 to 4 feet.
The stem is slender and free from prickles. The leaves at first appear
in a dense cluster, then alternately along the stem. They are from 3
to 5 inches long, very much cut, and armed with sharp spines along the
margin, vivid g'reen in colour on the surface, lighter in colour beneath.
The flowers are " thistle-like," and borne on long flower stalks, which
are smooth. The flowers are male and female, and are borne on
different plants. They are nearly always purple in colour, although
white flowers may sometimes be found.

The " seed " is comparatively smooth, of a light brown colour,
slightly curved to one side. The apex is equipped with bristle-like
hairs called the "Pappus"; when these hairs fall off the apex is
cup-shaped, with a pointed tubercle in the centre. The body of the
seed tapers slightly to the base, which is round. The plant is pro-
pagated by seed, and the creeping root stock. The former are dis-
tributed by birds, threshing* machines, sheep, hay, agricultural seeds,
and manure.

In America and New Zealand every means known has been adopted
to cope with the spread of this plant. The following extract on the

74

Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

eradication of " Canada Thistle " on grazing lands is taken from the

New Zealand Department of Agricnlture " Leaflets for Farmers " : —

" Any measures preventing the plant from developing leaves

will be effective. The following have been thoroughly tried : Cnt

the thistles down close to the ground — if a large patch use a scythe —
then dose the ground well with a solution of arsenic, carbolic acid, or
other poison. The wash from sheep dips will do, or even a liberal
dressing of common salt. Repeat the treatment if possible as soon as

"The Weeds of South Africa." 75

the. ])laiits show above ground ; never allow them to develop leaves.
Eeniember that the leaves are tlie lungs of the plant, and without
tliem it must die. Even old-established plants will, by this treatment,
be eradicated in two years; a proper vigilance will prevent the pest
ever again obtaining a foothold.

" The expense and trouble will be more than repaid by the result,
i.e. extermination, and that will be more clieaply and niore easily
effected now than some years hence. The ' Canada Thistle ' never
dies out. Slowly but surely its roots penetrate in all directions, and
if the farmer does not eradicate the thistle, the thistle will eradicate
the farmer."

South African Gum.

Gum tragacanth is a species of gum produced in Asia Minor and
used in calico printing, medical compounds, leather manufacture, etc.
The present price locally of the gum is from 15s. to 20s. per lb.
Finding it difficult to obtain a supply for use in his tannery and boot-
making factory at Silverton, near Pretoria, where the gum is used as
a finishing compound for putting a gloss on leather, Mr. Chas. Maggs
approached this Department for assistance in an endeavour to secure
raw supplies in the Union. Tlie matter was at once taken in hand
by Dr. Pole Evans, the Chief of tlie Division of Botany, who was
able in a very short space of time to provide a gum, the product of
our local vegetation, Avhich after severe tests was pronounced by
Mr. Maggs to be highly suitable, and satisfactory for his purpose.
Observations made by the Botanical Division show that the local gum
has better keeping qualities than the imported article. There is a
large demand for gums of this nature, and a sample has been sent
to the Imperial Institute for valuation on the London market. The
local gum was obtained from the tree known botanically as Covi-
hretum. salicifolimn and locally as the " Rodeblad," " Vaderlands-
wilg," or " Bosveld-wilg," which groAv^; plentifully in the neighbour-
hood of Pretoria, seeds freely, and is apparently easily raised from
seed.

It may be added that in appreciation of tlie many services
rendered him by the Division of Botany and of its valuable work in
exploiting the natural resources of our country, as instanced above,
Mr. Maggs has sent Dr. Pole Evans a cheque for £100 to be devoted
towards the furtherance of botanical research work, for which there
is such a wide field in the Union.

7G Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

RESEARCH AND INVESTIGATION.

Department of Agriculture.

In. addition to the performance of their current duties, the various
Divisions of the Department of Agriculture are largely engaged in
original research and investigation. The subjects of these may be
roughly classified into five groups as follows : —

(a) Diseases of animals.

(6) Diseases of plants.

(c) Insect pests.

(d) Improvements of crops.

(e) Utilization of various natural and other resources.

In addition to the above, a botanical survey of the Union is
being carried on under the Chief, Division of Botany, and a con-
sultive committee.

The activities of the various Divisions are as shown hereunder.

(a) DISEASES OF ANIMALS.

Division of Yetebinaey Eeseaech.

Diseases cine to Bacteria.

Anthraa-. — Investigation of method of infection; variations in
and nature of immunity. Improvements in producing protective
vaccine.

Contagious Abortion. — Natural and artificial methods of infec-
tion. Biological study of causal bacterial and protective vaccina-
tion.

Quarter Evil of Cattle. — Improved methods of vaccine produc-
tion.

Redicater of Cattle. — Biology of parasite. Improved methods of
immunizing susceptible cattle.

Gallsickness of Cattle. — Nature of causal organism in conjunc-
tion with red water in cattle specially imported for the purpose.

Dourine or Malade du Coit.- — Isolation of trypanosome with a
view to establishing a strain in experimental animals by means of
which a diagnosis of infected animals can be made by sereological
methods.

Biliary Fever in Dogs. — Methods of protective immunization and
treatment of animals already infected.

Diseases due to Filtrate Viruses.

Horse Sickness. — Entomological surveys of horse sickness areas.
Transmission experiments with suspected mosquitoes. Nature of
immunity conferred by inoculation and best means of protection by
serum therapy. Study of the virus.

Heartwater of Cattle. — Demonstration of nature of virus. Possi-
bility of establishing immunity by vaccination.

Research and Investigation. 77

Diseases due to Plant Poisons.

Feeding tests with suspected plants or fungi.

Diseases due to Parasites.

Investigation of life-history of Strongylus filaria, DistoTua Jiepa-
ticum, and Strungylus instahilis. The pathological conditions pro-
duced in the infected host. Methods of prophylactic and medical
treatment.

Diseases of Unknown Origin.

Staggers in Horses. — Pathological studies to clear up conditions
conducive to causation and enable control of disease.

Staggers in Cattle. — Research to confirm results of feeding expe-
riments.

Dunzielcte in Horses. — Experiments to ascertain causal agent,
incubation period, etc.

Stijfzielde in Cattle. — Investigations and ecological survey to
ascertain if disease is caused by a veld plant.

Osteoporosis in Horses. — Investigation with a view to elucidating
cause.

Lamziekte in Cattle and associated condition of Pica. — Research
as to means of prevention.

Gauwziekte in Sheep. — Experiments with a view to confirming
theory that disease is of plant origin and to ascertain actual causal
agent.

The Biochemical Section of the Division is carrying on work on —

(a) Animal nutrition with special reference to malnutrition

and diseases influenced by diet.

(b) Phytochemistry and soil chemistry in reference to pica as

precursor to lamziekte.

(c) Production of toxins by putrefactive bacteria with special

reference to lamziekte.

(d) Chemical and physiological investigation of vSouth African
poisonous plants.

(e) Chemical study of parasiticides.

(/) Dips, dipping, and control of changes in dipping tanks.

Division of Botany.

Botanical investigations, in conjunction with Division of Veteri-
nary Research, of gallamziekte, gouAvziekte, jagziekte, geel-dikkop,
stijfziekte, dunziekte.

(6) DISEASES OF PLANTS.

Division of Botany.

Research work into citrus canker, potato and tomato diseases.
Bacterial spot of citrus, bacterial blight of pear blossoms, citrus fruit
spot, black spot of mangoes, die-back of fruit trees, apple cracking
disease, dry-rot of maize, walnut bacteriosis, bean bacteriosis, root
disease of sugar-cane, cane leaf-spot, cotton bacterial spot, almond
and apricot die-back, and flag smut of wheat.

78 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

(c) INVESTIGATION OF INSECT PESTS.

Division of Entomology.

Special study of maize stalkborer, tobacco leaf beetle (Lema

hilineata), cotton insects, specially tbe Soudan bollworn. Scale

insects, specially Chrysowphalus dictyosperTni. Woolly aphis,
termites, false codling moth, and lucerne caterpillar.

(d) IMPEOVEMENT OF CROPS.

Division of Tobacco and Cotton.

Tobacco. — Establishment of new varieties by hybridization.
Purifying- established varieties by close in-breeding. Increasing leaf
numbers, shape of leaf, flavour, and aroma by selection and in-breed-
ing. Testing different styles of curing sheds. Fertilizer and crop
rotation experiments.

Cotton. — Improvement of existing varieties by selection. Variety
comparative tests for heaviest yields and best quality lint. Planting
at different distances to ascertain which will give heaviest yields.
Patooning to determine utility of perennial crops as compared with
annual planting. Comparison of crop from locally grown as against
imported seed.

Agricultural Research Chemist.

Investigation, chemical and physical, of wheat soils of the Union
and similarly of tobacco soils, with a view to ascertaining the soil
condition which yields the best crops.

Division of Chemistry.

Interaction between fertilizers and certain typical Transvaal
soils.

(e) UTILIZATION OF NATURAL AND OTHER RESOURCES.

Division of Botany.

Investigation of fibre plants, plants useful for paper-making,
dye plants, food plants, oil plants, medicinal plants, indigenous
grasses, veld-burning and overstocking.

Agricultural Research Chemist.

Utilization of waste from wool washeries. Examination of brines,
bitters, and salts from South African saltpans. Chemical examina-
tion of fodder plants and poisonous plants. Examination of rock
likely to contain phosphates. Study of oils from different varieties
of eucalyptus and oil-content of eucalyptus leaves at various stages
of growth.

Division of Chemistry.

Investigation of the active principle of " slangbossie," the
alleged antidote for snakebite.

{Note. — In addition to the above, a great deal of work is being
done at the Schools of Agriculture, particulars of which will be
given in ensuing numbers of the Journal. — Acting Editor.)

Notes. 79

NOTES.

Concerning the Sheep and Wool Industry.

Mr. A. G. Michaeliaii, Principal Sheep and Wool Expert, Depart-
ment of Ao-riciilture, left early in Fei)rnary last for Australia to pur-
chase stud sheep for the Government and also for private individuals.
Accompanying Mr. Michaelian were six young South Africans pro-
ceeding to the" Sydney Technical College on Government scholarships
for the study of sheep and wool. Their names are A. G. J. van Zyl,
A. M. le Grange, F. C. P. Stow, A. E. van der Merwe, B. Hartigan,
and J. H. Kruger, and they were chosen as among the best students
in the sheep and wool course held last year at the Grootfontein School
of Agriculture, Middelburg, Cape. They will return to the Union
for service in the Department at the end of 1921.

Anthrax.

A Press Circular (No. 9/1919, dated 5th July, 1919) was issued
by the Department drawing attention to the dangers of anthrax in
wool, mohair, skins, hides, etc., recommending certain precautions
to prevent the spread of the disease and to ensure disinfection of our
produce, and pointing out the adverse mannei' in which our exports
of such produce would be affected in case the disease spreads. In
this connection farmers are advised that the Imperial Parliament has
passed an Act to control the importation of goods infected or likely
to be infected w^ith anthrax, and to provide for the disinfection of any
such goods. It is styled the Anthrax Prevention Act, 1919, and
provides for the prevention of importation into the United Kingdom,
either absolutely or except at any specified ports and subject to any
specified conditions as to disinfection and otherwise, of goods infected
or likely to be infected with anthrax. It empowers the Imperial
Government to declare goods of any specified class which are of any
specified origin, or are exported from or through any specified country
or place, as likely to be infected with anthrax. It provides also for
the carrying out in the United Kingdom of the disinfection of
infected goods and the cost of all services in connection with such
disinfection are chargeable to the importer. It is obvious, therefore,
that farmers residing in anthrax-infected areas should leave no stone
unturned to deal in a radical manner with cases of *this disease which
may occiir on their holdings. No' animal dying under suspicious
circumstances should be skinned or cut up; smears should be taken
from the blood of the ear of suspected animals and sent to the Govern-
ment Laboratory, Ondei'stepoort, for examination and report ; deaths
should be reported to the police and carcasses of such animals should
be burned or buried at a depth of six feet, preferably in quicklime,
in some spot where they are not likely to contaminate any water
supply, and the graves fenced in or bushed over. When the existence
of the disease is definitely confiruied, no time should be lost in
inoculating in-contacts.

80 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Limestone Resources of the Union.

Attention is directed to a report* submitted by the Director of the
Geological Survey on the limestones of the Transvaal and part of
Bechuanaland and Natal. This is the first part of the survey ; the
work is still in progress, and a report on the limestones of the rest of
the Union will be issued at a later date. The introduction to the
above report states : " Among the foremost essentials of any industrial
community is a good supply of limestone, conveniently situated, and
of suitable quality, and the present investigation has been undertaken
with a view to ascertaining to what extent and in what localities a
supply of limestone is available suited to the various requirements of
modern industry." The uses of limestone are many, one of them belug-
as a fertilizer for agricultural purposes, and the report deals with the
origin and distribution of limestones, and gives full particulars of the
locality, character of the deposit and of the limestone found in that
part of the Union investigated thus far, so that the purchaser and
user of limestone will find information as to the localities in which
suitable material may be found. Many of these deposits (of secondary
limestone) scattered over the country may ultimately be of considerable
importance for local agriculture as sources of agricultural lime.
Special reference is made to the deposits of lime suitable for agricul-
tural purposes found at the following localities : —

Umzimkulu, Natal (used by sugar planters).

Northern Waterberg : Farms Zwartberg No. 1037, Welvaart

No. 1194, Van Wijksfontein No. 1195.
Pietersburg : Farm Vaalboschlaagte No. 614.
Potchefstroom : Farms Roodepoort No. 22, i^landskuil No. 110.
Marico : Farms Paardevallei No. 62, Weltevreden No. 61,

Kruis Eiver No. 154, Kalkfontein No. 60, Vergenoegd

No. 3, Uitvlucht No. 63, Kaalplaats No. 97, Buffelshoek

No. 284.
Christiana: Bessieslaagte No. 23 (Nooitgedacht).
Lydenburg : Kalkfontein No. 1488.
Bechuanaland : Laxey, on the Mashowing Eiver, Gamolilio.

In connection with the use of lime for agricultural purposes the
report states: "It is probable that the supply of lime ....
may ultimately take the first place from the broad point of view of
national importance," and, further on: "The great increase in
fertility which generally follows upon the application of dressings of
lime in such cases has often been pointed out. Over the greater part
of the well watered areas of South Africa the soil is extremely deficient
in lime, especially in the eastern portion, and when the fact is realized
by the farmers themselves, there can be no doubt that a very large
demand for agricultural lime will arise, if it can be supi)]ied at a
sufiiciently reasonable price."

The chief object for using lime agriculturally is to neutralize the
acid in the soil ; also, it loosens and improves the texture of heavy
clay soils and consolidates excessively light and sandy soils. The

* " The Limestone Resources of the Union." Vol. L— "The Limestones of the Transvaal
and portions of Bechuanaland and Zululand," by W. Wybergh, with a Chapter on the
Deposits of Port Shepstone and Hermansburg, Natal, by A. L. du Toit, D.Sc, F.G.S.
Geologist). (Price 5s., Government Printer, Pretoria.)

Notes.

81

class of lime and its application are dealt with in tlie repoil, as well
as other matters affecting its use in agricultural production. Alto-
gether, the report is of much importance and interest, and brings to
the fore the existence in the Union of a mineral which, with other
so-called " base metals." is worthy of attention.

Shortage of Foodstuffs and Raw Materials.

The world's shortage of foodstuff's and raw materials creates a
great opportunity for South African agricultural enterprise.

In analysing the situation in Europe, Mr. Henry Hoover, the
United States Food Administrator, estimates that the population of
Europe is at least 100,000,000 greater than can be supported without
imports. In order to pay for these imports they must live by the pro-
duction and distribution of their exports, and the situation is aggra-
vated not only by lack of imported raw materials but by low production
of European raw materials. Generally, in production, Europe is far
below her requirements to maintain life and health and unparalleled
importation is needed to meet the deficiency. Mr. Hoover states
" unless productivity can be rapidly increased Ihere can be nothing
but political, moral, and economic chaos " ; and, further, " The entire
surplus productivity of the Western Hemisphere is totally incapable
of meeting the present deficiency in European production if it is long
continued." The only solution of the problem lies in increased
production and at the maximum individual effort.

In view of the great shortage the following figures of produciion
in the Northern Hemisphere are extracted from the last Bulletin
received, at the time of writing, from the International -Institute of
Agriculture, Rome (No. 12. December, 1919). These figures include
most of the principal producing areas in the Northern Hemisphere, but
some countries, especially in Europe, have not furnished statistics,
and, of course, are not included.

Yield of certain of the Northern Hemisphere Crops, 1919.
(Note.— 1 quintal = 220 lb.)

-

Percentage of 1919

compared with

1919

1918

Five Years'

Crop.

(Provisional
Figures).

(Final
Estimates).

Average,
1913 to 1917.

1918
(1918=100).

Average,

1913 to 1917

(Average=

100).

Quintals.

Quintals.

Quintals.

Wheat

564,652,7Hfi

609.146.074

58.5, 16.3, .508

92-7

96-5

Rye

48,O.S4,040

48,641,037

38.204,289

98-8

125-7 '

Barley

l.S0,751,909

l.'53,.57.5.397

131,227,392

85-1

99-6

Oats

313,73.5.(192

370,368,9.50

344,.399,516

84-7

91-1

Maize

794,.519,lo6

691,717,311

760,640,896

114-9

104-5

Potatoes

21.5,719,521

245,050,287

208,472,170

88-0

103-5

82

Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

The following details of certain of tlie large producing countries
are interesting. The figures are included in the above totals : —

Pe-centageof 1919

com pa 1

ed with

1919

1918

Five Years'

5 Yt ars'

Average,

1913to 1917

Crop.

(Provisional

(Final

Avei'age,

Figures).

Estimates).

1913tui917.

1918
(1918=100).

(Average=

100).

117/^',//-

Quintals.

Quintals.

Quintals.

U.S.A. Winter ...

194.()7().B30

151,987.480

151,100,619

128-1

128-8

U.S.A. Spring ...

55.294,747

97,610,456

64,078,385

56-6

86 • 3

Biitish India

7t^.22H,846

100.812,183

97,459,228

75-6

78-2

Canada

5:1441.610

51.458.747

71,647,070

103-9

74-6

France ...

48.4HS.170

61.4:35.840

61,135.155

78-8

79-6

Italy

4 6,148.000

49.885,000

47,303.000

92 - 5

97-6

England and Wales

17..372,198

22.926,.337

15,156.409

75-8

114-6

Rye —

U.S.A

21,477,0.54

22,907,384

12.700,754

93 - 8

169-1

France

7,070,010

7,349,860

9,1.'>0,100

96-2

77-3

Spain

6,868,088

. 7,733,:387

6.652,778

88-8

103-2

Barley —

U.S.A

43,173,441

55,817,965

43,372,480

77-3

99-5

Japan

19.917,774

19,432,145

18.889.239

102-5

105-5

Spain

19.--<79.7fi3

19,703.426

16.922,852

98-4

114-5

Oats—

U.S.A

177.013,473

223,292.809

19.3.236,.S08

79-3

91-6

Cinada

6:^405,394

65,745,914

63,37:3,692

96-4

100-1

France ...

24.429,320

25.619,760

39,569,562

95-4

61-7

Ma he —

U.S.A

739,2:32,602

656.060,584

698,362,139

112-7

105-9

Potntaex —

U.S.A

95.807,124

108.892,849

9^,622,970

88-0

96-2

Canada

35.912,056

28.403,761

20.140,3:30

126-4

178-3

Certain other crops are also reported upon ; among them the
linseed crop in 1919 is estimated to be 39.5 per cent, less than the
average crop from 1913 to 1917, while, on the other hand, the sugar
beet crop is 115.3 per cent, greater.

In the United States of America the toliacco crop of 1919 is 20.6
per cent, greater than the average crop for the five years 1913 to
1917, but its cotton crop is 16.7 per cent, smaller.

The position in regard to the 1919-20 crops in the Southern
Hemisphere is not yet reported by the Institute; the 1918-19 crop of
wheat, it may be pointed out, was 5.9 per cent, greater than the
average crop for the five years 1912-13 to 1916-17, but it was 29.9 per
cent, less than the 1917-18 crop.

Meat Export.

A cargo of 40,880 quarters of South African beef was shipped on
the 20th August, 1919, per s.s. " Meissonier,'" on order for the
Imperial Government, and was landed at Genoa on the 12th Septem-
ber and following days. " The following is extracted from the report
of the Eeceiving Commission in Genoa on the shipment: — "On
inspecting the cargo the meat was found to be in perfect condition of

Notes. 83

preservation and freezing*. It did not, however, have a good appear-
ance owing', in our opinion, to the preparation being not very good,
a fact due to what we consider as insufficient experience on the part
of the workmen engag'ed in the slaughtering. With regard to the
quality of the meat, we think that the cargo cannot he regarded as
good as the meat imported from Brazil and from the Argentine.

On the whole the meat was foiind to be lean. The quarters were
large, belonging to rather bony animals, and in our opinion they will
Dot yield more than 50 per cent, of meat. The meat was of dark,
redish colour, the fatty parts being of yellovvdsh colour, thus indicat-
ing that the cattle were not of a very fine breed and rather mixed with
regard to age and sex."

Successful Exhibits, London Dairy Show.

At the last London Dairy Show held at Islington, 21st October,
1919, the outstanding feature of the South African exhibits was the
success of cheese exhibits from East Griqualand for which Messrs.
Jack Moxham, Co-operative Industries, Limited, Eustfontein, Kok-
stad. East Griqualand, obtained the Eirst Prize and Gold Medal,
and Mr. T. T. Joyner, Glen Edward, Franklin, East Griqualand,
the Second Prize and Silver Medal. A third exhibit from the Rocky
Ridge Cheese Eactory, Kokstad, East Griqualand, was judged to be
almost equal in quality to the two winning ones, but was disqualified
owing to certain conditions regarding size and weight uot being
complied with. These being the first exhibits of South African cheese
at the London Dairy Show, where they are in competition with the
I>roduce of other countries (over twenty New Zealand factories were
competing), our success is very gratifying. The judge was particularly
pleased Avith the quality of the cheese, which he pronounced as
excellent.

The butter exhibits entered for competition did not meet with the
same success as the cheese. The London Dairy Show takes place,
however, at a time of the year when our cream is extremely scarce and
its quality far below show standards ; while this would always be an
obstacle, the judge's criticisms generally will prove valuable and will,
it is trusted, lead to the better success of our butter at future shows.

Curing of Hides.

The Trade Commissioner for South Africa in London, when
recently in Holland, visited the warehouses of the Amsterdam Hide
and Leather Exchange and was much impressed with the quality of
the hides imported from Java, which were on view in large
quantities. There was a neatness and finish about them which
indicated that great pains were taken to prepare this very important
article in the best possible manner for the export trade.

Inquiries revealed that hides exported from Java are treated on
the following lines: —

(1) The hides are carefully taken oft the animals in a neat
manner by skilled slaughtermen. In skinning, great care
is taken that the hide is not cut in any way, for incisions

84 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

are the cause of the so-called " skin cuts," and when the
hides are cut to some depth tliere appear in the leather
what is still worse, namely the " skinholes."

(2) After the hide has been taken off the animal, it is placed

on a table and whatever flesh there may have remained on
it is scraped off with a knife (specially made for this pur-
pose). Care is also taken that the hide is cleared of all
blood, slime, and fat.

(3) It is recommended to take the skin of the head and the legs

off the hide (legs to be cut off' at the knees).

It is strongly recommended that hides, before undergoing the
drying process, be immersed in a weak solution of poison. In Java,
the so-called " Hamburger skin poison " is used, specially manufac-
tured for this purpose. During the war this skin poison was also
imported from America. Directions for use are issued with the tins
of poison by the manufacturers. The fresh hides are salted slightly
and then dried. This is termed the dry-salted process.

The Drying Process. — This is done in different ways. One firm
dries the hides in the sun, the other under trees or in the shade, others
again do the drying in an open shed, etc. The last mentioned is
considered the best method, because the hides do not get sunburnt
and are not exposed to rain. Hain and sun have harmful effect on
the hide, and tanners are very particular on this point.

The Stretching of Hides. — This is best done on frames which in
Java are made of bamboo. The hides, when dry enough, are folded
lengthways (from head to tail) with flesh side out and hair inside.
The hides are piled on top of one another and left in well ventilated
place until they are thoroughly dry.

Sorting of Hides. — Sorting of hides is done in the following
manner : —

(1) Extra heavy.

(2) Heavy.

(3) Middling.

(4) Extra light.

Under no circumstances must tlie different qualities or grades
1, 2, 3, 4 be mixed.

Damage to Hides. — Animals are often branded, once or more, on
the most valuable parts of the skin. The brandmarks or rather burnt
patches turn into holes when tanning is in process; this happens also
to the skins of animals cut by barbed wire, etc.

Loss through Bad Flaying. — In this connection it is interesting
to note that a prominent member of the Farmers' Federation of the
United Kingdom, Mr. Densham, who visited South Africa at the
end of 1919, and studied at first hand the local leather industry,
lays stress on the need for the improvement of South African hides.
He calculated that in the Rand and Pretoria districts alone a sum of
at least £150,000 per annum is being lost owing to bad flaying. His
experience showed that bad flaying made our hides unsuitable for
sole leather, and that during the war the Argentine hide received
preference on this account when purchases where made for military
purposes. Mr. Densham advocates the formation of an association,
such as the one now operating in England, which arranges at various
places demonstrations on the best methods of flaying.

Notes. «5

Pirbright Cattle Testing Station,

We liave been favoured .with extracts from letters written by a
prominent exporter of cattle Avbo recently visited the Pirbright Cattle
Testing Station, Surrey, England, where pure-bred stock for South
Africa are tested prior to export, to satisfy himself that the animals
there were well cared for. In relating his visit he writes: "I have
nothing but a most flattering report to send you of my visit. . . .
The premises are ideal, out in the open country, the loose boxes are
built of brick, whitewashed inside, and the woodwork creosoted ; they
(the stock) seem to be getting an abundance of good hay, and a ration
of 2 lb. linseed cake, 2 lb. bruised oats, and 4 lb. bran daily, plus
14 lb. of roots, and good water ad lib. is at their disposal. Every-
thing is clean and comfortable ; the animals are all isolated from each
other ; the boxes are beautifully ventilated ; the doors are in two
halves ; the upper half can be opened and left open at pleasure when
the weather is fine. There are two ranges of loose boxes, with a fine
stretch of grass paddock between the two rows, where the animals
can be individually exercised. The cattle are conveyed to and from
the station by cattle floats."

The Gift of the Late Mr. H. G. Flanagan.

The National Herbarium has been enriched by the acquisition of
Mr. Flanag-an's herbarium, which he bequeathed to the ITnion Govern-
ment. The value of this collection cannot be estimated in money, as
it contains a great many types and unique specimens of South African
plants.

Tlie late Mr. Flanagan was a well-known farmer in the Komgha
District, and was a partner in the firm of Messrs. Flanagan Brothers.
He was not only a successful farmer but a man of very wide tastes in
scientific matters. He was a keen botanical collector, and was con-
sidered by some herbarium workers to have excelled any of his con-
temporaries in the excellent manner in which he prepared his
specimens. For many years he was a constant correspondent on
botanical matters with tlie late Professor MacOwan, and then with the
late Dr. Bolus. He built up a very fine herbarium, wliich is an almost
complete record of the flora of the Komgha District, but his collection
also contains plants from the Molteno District, Witzieshoek in the
Orange Free State, the Mont-aux-Sources, Rhodesia, and Pondoland.
By exchanges his herbarium was enriched by specimens from other
parts of South Africa. Many South African plants were collected
for the first time by Mr. Flanagan, and in glancing through the
recent volumes of the " Flora Capensis " and other botanical publica-
tions this is evidenced by the large number of species named after
him.

S6 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE ON THE
OVERSEA MARKET.

Notes from Reports of the Acting Trade
Commissioner.

Year 1919.

Ostrich feathers were put up to auction for the first time since the
war in June last year, when 27,000 lb. were sold for a total value of
£30,000; prices being 24 to 25 per cent, hio'her than in 1914. Later
on, neutral and allied countries were mnkino' inquiries for South
African feathers. The Trade Commissioner arranged for displays
in the windows of prominent West End Stores in London. It is con-
sidered these displays will have a direct value in view of the spring
sales and fashions. He has also arranged for a series of public sales
of ostrich feathers during the year 1920.

Wool. — The first series of wool sales since the war were held in
May and June, when South African free wools of poor quality were
offered, as also Government wools. Practically the whole of the
August wool offerings of 7,248 bales were purchased for export. Com-
petition during September was very keen, Britisii, Continental, and
American buyers competing. The French demand increased in
October, when greasy wools were much sought. The November
auctions closed on a basis fully on a par with tlie high level values
established for Australian Merino wools. It was further somewhat
difficult to arrive at the actual clean basis on which wools were then
selling. However, taking good, 12-months' combing wools, it worked
out at from 125d. to 128d. per lb. ex London Warehouse, top-making
sorts costing from llOd. to llSd. and 6-months' from 75d. to 80d.
French competition for long, greasy combing wools continued keen
during December. Considerable quantities of South African wools,
forming part of the Imperial Government's purchases,
were also offered, and these had a somewhat depressing effect on the
market. Some of these wools had been on hand for a considerable
time, with consequent depreciation in quality.

The mohair market was not very strong, owing- to large stocks of
Turkey mohair offering, and also because the machinery plant avail-
able to many mohair spinners had been reduced by being turned into
wool spinning'.

French buyers continued for a time keen on Cape Merino Skins.
Shippers are recommended to make offers, c.i.f. Bordeaux, as soon as
direct steamers are available.

Cotton seed of good, average quality was estimated at £24 per
ton, c.i.f. United Kingdom, The Trades Commissioner, however,
reports that it was difficult to give prices in the absence of samples.
As the prices for cotton seed are governed by the ascertained oil content
of the seed, he urged that average samples of the year's crop be sent
him for valuation, and recommended that the seed shipped be delinted
as far as possible.

Raisin shipinents showed a great improv-ement, which was most
gratifying, and the grading left little to be desired.

South African Produce on the Oversea Market. 87

White Granulated Sugar was of excellent quality and was
expected to be admitted in time at a preferential rate of duty.

71ie Wattle Bark market remained very firm, owing' in a large
measure to the extreme shortage of stock and big demands from the.
Continent, prices for parcels afloat being quoted at £18. 15s. for
ground and £18. 10s. chopped. The demand for chopped bark
increased later on, particularly for shipments direct to Antwerp,
Marseilles, and Bordeaux. Wattle Extract was quoted at £44 per ton
on account of the demand exceeding the supply. These conditions
prevailed till the close of the year. Some delay in the delivery of
the November bark extract shipments was occasioned owing to deten-
tion by the Customs Authorities on account of the alleged sugar
content of the material. Tlirougli tlie energetic intervention of the
Trade Commissioner the parcels were eventually released.

Meat shipments were well reported on, both as regards quality and
butchery. Bdcon shipments were satisfactory, but Fork was defective
in August. The manner of slaughtering and preparing for export
left much to be desired, especially in the November shipments, which
had a deleterious effect on the market. For Beef I he quartering* of the
hinds was deficient; they can with advantage show 94 instead of 85
joints of the vertebrae. It is also thought that much will be gained
by chilling tlie meat before quartering. Union meat shippers should
prepare for keen competition in the near future, by having- first-class
shipments for the London market.

Horns came in demand in August, with the result that of the
125,000 South African ox and cow horns offered 124,000 were sold.

Poultry and eggs were prominent in September, and continued
very popular. The shipments gave consideralile satisfaction. As the
Russian supplies of the past could not be depended on, all supplies
from South Africa are welcome, thus affording an opportunity for the
South African trade in this line of becoming established on the London
market. The e^g shipments for November of 3831 cases were quite
satisfactory as regards condition, quality, and grading; the demand
was good, and no difficulty was experienced in disposing of them.
The condition of the Christmas consignment of turkeys was very good,
but not of fowls and geese, the latter being inferior in size and
quality. Prospects for frozen poultry remain good, but shippers must
put up their goods in an attractive manner, paying due regard to'
proper grading, packing, etc. Some small parcels of turkeys, geese,
and fowls were found to be unfit for sale.

Exhibits. — The Trade Commissioner mentions that the show
window exhibition continues to arouse a good deal of interest. He
has arranged for an extensive programme of exhibition in the United
Kingdom and on the Continent, including a special display of
ostrich feathers. It is intended later on to transfer this exhibit to
Paris. A special display of the principal produce from the Union was
put up at the Utrecht Fair (Holland) on the 24th February. The
display will be transferred to Brussels early in April. Arrangements
are also being made to have the South African fruit export trade
represented at the shows of the Royal Horticultural Society, the
Royal Agricultural Society, and at the Bath and the West of England
Agricultural Shows. The Swiss Government has invited the Union
to be represented at the Dominions Exhibition to be held in Lucerne
in July next.

88 JOUENAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.

January, 1920.

Wool. — Public sales of privately owned South African wool were
held during' January, and 4071 bales were catalogued. The wool
attracted considerable interest and bids came freely. Brokers state
that the selection m greasy wools, although by no means good, was
better than on previous occasions, but there was still too large a pro-
portion of small lots of unattractive poorly grown staple. For the
long combings, competition was excellent at prices which showed no
appreciable change from those ruling on the 17th December. Short
rubbishy parcels were irregular and weak at a 5 per cent, decline.
Snow wliites, on the whole, were a belter lot than previously. W lulst
there was nothing of super quality or bulk, there were several parcels
of medium lengtli which showed good style and appearance. On the
average, there was no change in prices for snow whites, though the
tendency was in buyers' favour. There were very few Trans keis or
Basutos on ofl^er. There was a fair show of fine crossbreds, coarse
whites, greys, etc., for which the demand Mas not so good as it was
in December.

Prices. — The highest figure paid for greasy combings was 60d.
This was secured for tiie top line of a well-bred, well-classed clip fiom
the Heidelberg District. Other Westerns sold at from 40d. to 46d.
The best price for Easterns was 50d., which was paid for a rather
short-grown Kaffrarian lot. Other prices, for wools shipped from Port
Elizabeth, ranged from between 38d. for moderate lengtli staple to
442d. for a good combing of different yield. Some so-called Natals
of fair length made up to 43-2-d. Short supers were a poor lot. The
lowest fetched in the neighbourhood of 23d., and the better ones went
up to about 30d.

Snow Whites. — These made a fair show. Bid. was paid for a
bright clean Western of moderate length. The Paarls on oft^er were
on the small side, and were mostly withdrawn. 80d. was made for
the best of the Port Elizabeth parcels. Smaller and more specky lots
sold round about TOd., and good seconds made from 56d. to 62d.
East Londons were rather poor, being mostly short as well as faulty.
They sold betw-een 58d. and 65d. Natals sold up to 76d. The best
of the fine crossbreds were withdrawn. Lower lots sold at 56d., coarse
whites at 42d., blacks at 56d., and greys at 50d. There was very
little demand for white or coloured kempies.

The date of the next sales is not yet fixed, but it will probably
be about the middle of February.

Mohair.— A few transactions in good Cape Firsts have taken place
during the past month, but inquiries continue to be very small, as
spinners appear to be hard pressed to deliver w-ool yarns and cannot
aft'ord to put machinery on to mohair. There is little, if any, demand
for lower class hair, which is, at the moment, quite unsaleable.
The last transaction in winter hair was at 25fd. delivered at Bradford,
but it is problematical whether this price would be obtainable to-day.

Goatskins. — At the public auctions held on the 22nd January,
68,231 Cape goatskins were offered and 21,987 sold. Brokers report
that, apart from several shipments from Mossel Bay, there was a poor
representation from the Western Province, nor were there any
standard lines from Algoa Bay or East London ; in fact, the catalogues

South African Produce on the Oversea Market. 89

were largely made up of secondary grades and damages. Heavy and
medium weights of Western Province origin advanced about 2d. per
lb., and on light and extra light the gain may be put at 5 per cent.
In "dry damages" and bastard skins there was no appreciable
change. The few sales of Eastern Province skins afforded little or no
indication of the market, and brokers regard values in this category
as nominally unchanged to a fraction higher for good selections.

Angora Skins. — On the same occasion 180,066 Cape Angora skins
were offered and 29.221 sold. On the whole there is no change in
prices to report, and inquiry was again much restricted; a slight
advance was secured for a line of Algoa Bay skins of " light " selec-
tion, and a fair number of " clips " changed hands at quite firm
rates.

Cape Sheepskins. — Cape sheepskins auctions were held on the
14th January, when 137,974 Cape sheepskins were offered, and 76,011
sold. The collection was not very attractive, the supplv of really good
skins with full-grown wool being on a small scale. There was only a
moderate attendance of buyers. Combing wools of the best kinds sold
at Id. per lb. over the rates nding at last auction. Long wools,
particularly when on the short side, were frenuentlv Id. per lb. lower.
Short wools, also, were in most cases reduced in value to a like extent,
and shorn were by no means in demand. Full-wooUed lambs sold
without change. Damaged combings and long wools were usually
Id. per lb. lower. Damaged short were in small request, nor was
there much interest shown for damaged shorn.

Coarse-woolled sheepskins secured rather better competition, but
on the whole were unchanged.

Of 57,428 Common Cape (Glovers) sheepskins offered, 18,862 were
sold. The standard selections of large and medium skins were mainly
represented by Mossel Bav product, and for these an advance was
obtained of about 15s. to 20s. per dozen over the prices ruling in the
November auction. Bye sorts were in poor request.

Wafile BarJi. — The market of late has been fairlv active, and
chopped is to-day worth £22. 10s. per ton c.i.f., whilst ground is
ruling at £22. 15s. The demand from the Continent is decidedly
weaker owing' to the recent arrival of large direct shipments.

Ostrich Feathers. — Ostrich feather auctions were held at the
Mincing Lone Saleroom on the 2nd and 8vd instant, when 2212 lots
were catalogued, the weight being 98.600 lb. as against 84,000 lb.
in September last. Several parcels had certain limits put upon them,
which were somewhat higher than present values, and, as a result,
withdrawals were frequent. Only about 1000 lots were sold, realizing
approximately £100,000. There was a good attendance of buvers, and
France and America appeared to take a large proportion of the goods
sold, but the Home trade was quiet. Although this was the first sale
held since September, 1919, the demand was not up to expectations.
It is thought that the heavy depreciation on certain of the foreign
exchanges, coupled with delays in transport, may have largely con-
tributed to the limited demand, and in order to help buyers the
brokers have decided to postpone the next sale until the 3rd May.

Beef. — During January certain small parcels of South African
beef were placed on Smithiield market, and, on the whole, the condi-
tion has been satisfactory. Whilst the meat generally may be

DO Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

described as quite useful, it is still very plain. The Loudon market
is at the moment full up with larg-e supplies of imported meat, and
it is only witli difficulty that the maximum prices can be realized for
the very best quality. The following are the averai^-e prices ruling-
for imported frozen beef : — -

Brazilian: Hinds, 6s. 8d. to 7s. 8d. per stone of 8 lb.; fores,

3s. 8d. to 4s. 8d. per stone of 8 lb.
South African : Hinds, 6s. 8d. to 7s. 8d. per stone of 8 lb. ;

fores, 4s. 4d. to 5s. 4d. per stone of 8 lb.
Argentine: Hinds, 7s. 8d. per stone of 8 lb.; fores, 5s. 8d. per

stone of 8 lb.
New Zealand: Hinds, 7s. to 7s'. 8d. per stone of 8 lb.; fores,

5s. to 5s. 8d. per stone of 8 lb.
Australian : Hinds, 7s. to 7s. 8d. per stone of 8 Jb. ; fores,

5s. to 5s. 8d. per stone of 8 lb.
New Zealand and Australian sheep and lambs, 7s. per stone.

From Monday, 2nd February, the price of imported beef will be
reduced by 2d. per lb.

Drugs. — The first drug auction of the year was held on 15th
January, when various South African products were offered.

Aloes. — Sixty-nine cases were catalogued, but only 16 cases were
offered. These were all sold. The balance of what was catalogued,
ex "Durham Castle," could not be landed in time to be sampled for
sale. Prices were decidedly dearer; fair to good hard bright selling
at 78s. to 80s., whilst hard but rather drossy brought 77s., with one
case hard bright but mixed part livery 73s. per cwt.

Since the last sales there has been a good demand at steadily
advancing prices, "best" having been sold at 77s. 6d. to 80s.

With regard to c.i.f. business I am informed by the brokers
that very little has been done owing to shippers not being in a position
to make offers. The last price paid was 57s. 6d. per cwt, c.i.f. London,
but in their opinion 60s. could be obtained to-day, as buyers are asking
for offers.

Buchu. — A fair business has taken place at very satisfactory
prices. Most of what has recently arrived has now been sold. Present
values will, no doubt, be maintained until supplies of the new crop
arrive on the London market, and at the present time it is very
difficult to estimate what the prices will be for the new season's crop.
Brokers are inclined to the opinion ihat prices might fall.

Guaza. — Very slow trade, with pi-actically no demand. Eighty-
one packages offered and all withdrawn, there being no bids of any
sort.

Argol. — Seventy-four packages (Lees) offered aiid withdrawn,
there being no demand for low-testing quality. Good quality (Argol)
remains in good demand. Fair to good grey and Avhite, 100s. to 105s. ;
brownish or good pink, 85s. to 95s. per cwt.

Quince Seed. — In auction nothing offered, but brokers state that
a c.i.f. offer at about 3s. would probably lead to business.

Liquorice Root. — Not any offered, but in fair demand.

Myrtle Berry Wa^.— -Present value \s rather uncertain. Brokers
quote fair quality, 130s. per cwt.

Oversea Prices of South African Produce. 91

OVERSEA PRICES OF SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE.

February, 1920.

Market Prices of South African Produce in the United Kingdom,

CABLED BY THE AcTING TrADE COMMISSIONER, LoNDON.

Siiiif/t African IVool.

February prices show no change of any importance as com]iarofl with January : slight
tendency downwards.

Mo/ujir.

No change.

Cape Hides.

Wet Salted, heavy Is. Gd. to Is. 9d. per lb.

Dry Salted ..'. 2s. 2d. to 2s. 2^d. per lb.

Dry Is. 8d. to 2s. .S^d. per lb.

Cape Anf/ora Skint.

Heavy ... ... ... ... Is. Sd. per lb.

Light ... ... ... ... 2s. per lb. Damaged, in proportion.

Cape Merino Sherp SJ/in.'s.

Extra long 2s. 4d. to 2s. lod.

Long 2s. to 2?. 4d.

Short Is. .5d. to Is. lOd.

Shorn Is. fid. to Is. lid.

Common Cape Glover Sheep SJ.-inx.

Extra large C8. 1.5s. to ■ell. l(is. 6d. per doz.

Medium -£6. 10s. 6d. to £10. ' per doz,

Light M.4. to £6. .5s. per doz.

Bitter Aloex.

70s. to 85s. per cwt.

jXatal Wattle Barlt.

Chopped ; £21. 1.5s.

Ground £22. 10s, c.i.f. per ton.

South African Beef, Hinds.
7s. per stone, 71b.

South African Beef, Fores.

5s. per stone, 7 lb. Market is vciy uncertain.

Cotton (February futures).

Highest 28.25d.

Lowest ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 27-o7d.

All other articles, no change.

92 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

STAFF.

Department of Agriculture (including Agricultural

Education).

HEADS UF DIVISIONS.

administration.

Secretary for Agriculture. — F. B. Smith, C.M.G.

Dnder-Secretary for Agriculture. — P. J. du Toit (presently engaged on the Public Service

Commission of Inquirj')-
Acting Under-Secretary for Agriculture.— G. N. Williams.
Under-Secretary for Agriculture (Education). — E. I. Macmillan, B.S.A.

DIVISIONS.

Sheep.— Chief : B. G. L. Enslin.

Veterinary Research. — Director of Veterinary Research : V^acant.

Veterinary. — Principal Veterinary Surgeon : C. E. Gray, M.R.C.V.S.

Dairying. — Superintendent of Dairying : E. 0. Challis.

Botany.— Chief : I. B. Pole Eva"s,'M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

Toi acco and Cotton.— f hief : W. H. Scherffius, M.Sc.

Horticulture. — C^hief : I. Triboiet.

Viticulture. — Government Viticulturist : S. W. van Niekerk.

Entomology. — tJhief : C. P. Lounsbury, B.Sc.

Chemistry.— Chief : B. de C. Marchand, B.A., B.Sc.

Chemical Research. — Agricultural Research Chemist : C. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C.

Library. — Librarian : P. J. S. Ribbink.

Co-operation. — Registrar, Agricultural Co-operative Societies : J. Retief.

Dry Farming. — Government Agronomist : H. S. du Toit.

Guano Islands. — Superintt ndent : W. R. Zeederberg.

Grain Inspection. — Chief Ins-pector of Grain : G. F. Nussey.

Brands and Fencing. — Registrar of Brands and Controller of Fencing : M. van Niekerk

(Acting).
Journal of Agriculture. — Editor : G. W. Klerck (Acting).

SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

Elsenburg (Cape) ... ... ... Principal: W. J. Lamont.

Groofontein (Cape) ... ... ... „ R. W. Thornton.

Ceciara (Natal) „ J Fisher, B.Sc, N.D. A.

Glen (Orange Free State) „ M. J. A. Joubert, B.S.A.

Potchefstroom (Transvaal) „ T. G. W. Ridnecke, B.A., M.Sc.Ag.

STAFF CHANGES.

(1) Agriculture.
Date. Name of Official and Nature op Change, etc.

12/9/19 E. K. Jacklin : Appointed Assistant Inspector of Co-operative Societies. Trans-
ferred from Audit Oi!ice.

30/9/19 S. Keightley : Senior Sheep Inspector, Bedford, Cape Province. Superannuated.

l/Ui/19 Miss. A. M. Corbishley : Appointed Assistant at Kew in connection with the
South Afcican Bo anical Survey.

8/10/19 Dr. Kind Dr. Scheuber, and Dr. Meier : Appointed Veterinary Research Officers
on three years' agreement.
27/10/19 Dr. E. C. Gill : Appointed Veterinary Research Officer on three years' agreement.
31/12/19 C. K. D^wey : Dairy Instructor. Resigned.

22/1/20 A. A. Curson : Veterinary Research Officer, transferred from Veterinary Research
Laboratory, Onderstepoort, to take charge of V^eterinary Research Laboratory,
Grahamstown, vacant through death of Dr. Robertson.

29/2/20 T. Hamilton : Dairy Inspector. Resigned.

Staff Changes, 9:i

(2) Agricultukal Education.

Datk. Name op Official and Nature of Change, etc.

6/9/19 E. G. Parish, B.Sc. : Transferred from Elsenburg to Glen School of Agriculture
as Vice-Principal.
31/10/19 Alex. Holm : Under->-ecretary for Agriculture (Education), resigned to take up
the post of Director of Agriculture, Nairobi, British East Afi'ica. Mr. Holm
was the first General Manager of the Potchefstroom Experiment Farm
(1903), and on the establishment of the School of Agriculture at that centre
was appointed Principal (1909). On 1st October, 1912, he accepted the
post of Under-Secretary for Agriculture (Education), which he held until
date of leaving th-i Department.
1/11/19 E. J. Macmillan B.S.A. : I'rincipal, School of Agriculture and Experiment
Station, Potchefstroom, was appointed Undei'-Secretary for Agriculture
(Education) on the resignation of Mr. Holm. Mr. Macmillan, before accepting
the Principalship of Potchefstroom, served from 190-1 in several capacities in
the Orange Frte State Department of Agriculture, Bloemfontein.
31/10/19 P. Fowlie, N.D.A. (Hons.) N.D.D. : Itinerant Instructor and Experimentalist,
School of Agricultuie, Cedara. Resigned.
31 '1/20 Miss C. Lavec ur : Lecturer in Domestic Science. Resigned.

31/1/20 D. J. Pot^ieter, B Sc. (Agr.) : Itinerant Instructor and Experimentalist, School of
Agriculture, Gien. Resigned.
1/2/20 J. Quiiilan, P>.A., M.R.C.V.S. : Lecuirerin Veterinary Science, School of Agriculture,
Potchefstroom, transferred to Veterinary Research Laboratory, Onderstepoort.
20/12/19 E. Holmes Smith, BSc. : Botanist, School of Agriculture, Potchefstr' om. Resigned.
2/20 T. G. W. Reinecke, B.A., M.Sc. (Agr.). : Principal, School of Agriculture, Elsen-
burg, fransferred to Potch 'fstro im clce E. J. Macmillan, B.S.A,
2/20 W. J. Lamont : Vice- Principal, Grqotfoutein School of Agriculture, promoted to
Elsenburg.

MOVEMENTS, ETC., OF OFFICERS.

Sheep Division.

After an ab<^ence of seven months, Mr. Enslin, Chief of the Sheep Division, has returned
to the Union from a tour in Europe and America, and resumed his duties in the Division.

Senior Sheep and Wool Expert McCail has been temporardy transferred to Headquar-
ters and appointed Acting Principal Sheep and Wool Expert during Mr. Michaelian's
absence in Australia. Mr. Leo Visser, after successfully completing his course in sheep and
wool in Australia, has been appoimed Sheep and Wool Expeit in the Union. Mr. 0. C.
Weeber has been transferred to the South- West Africa Protectorate, where he has taken
up the post of Principal Sheep Inspector.

Dairy Division.

Dairy Inspector Gow has been away for the past three months in East Griqualand
inspecting all cheese factories and creameries under the Dairy Industry and Factory Acts,
and instructing in cheese making and grading cheese. Owing to the resignation of Mr. J.
F. Stephenson, Official Cheese Grader in that District, Mr. H. G. Rae was appointed in his
place on twelve months' probation, and has accompanied Inspector Gow for the past four
or five weeks for the purpose of being initiated into his duties. Dairy Inspector Oosterlaak
has been busily engaged for some time past in various parts of the Transvaal, where, since
the late rains, dairying is once more going ahead.

Veterinary Research.

Mr. R. E. Montgomery, at present on leave in England, has accepted a post under the
Uganda Administration, and the Union Government has agreed to his transfer. Arrange-
ments are not yet complete as to Mr. Montgomery's successor.

94

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

NOTES FROM THE "GAZETTE."

Attention is drawn to the following matters of interest wliich appeared in the Union
Gorernvient Gazette.

Gazette. (Abbreviations: " Proc.'' — Proclaraation ; "G.N." — Government Notice.)

No. Date. Items.

1016 24/12/19 The removal of citrus trees from certain areas in the Districts of
Rustenburg, Waterberg, and Pretoria is prohibited by G.N. No. 172
of 1919 (Agricultural Pests Act. 1911).

1016 24/12/19 The compulsory dipping of cattle in " seven -day," "five-day.'" and

1018 9/1/20 "three-day" dijs in certain areas in the Districts of Zoutpansberg,

1023 30/1/20 Barberton, Pretoria, Pietersburg, Piet Retief. Richmond, New

1025 6/2/20 Hanover, Pietermaritzburg, Weenen, Lions River, Klip River,

1026 13/2/20 Umzimkuln, and Mount Ayliff is required by G.N. Nos. 1719 of

1028 20/2/20 1919. and 78, 240. 289, 324. and 370 of 1920.

1029 27/2/20

1016 24/12/19 Regulations for eradication of scab in the Union superseding those
previously published under G.N. Nos. 1183 and 1184 of 1914. and
1288 of 1917, came into force on 1st January, 1920, as per G.N.
Nos. 1702 and 1703 of 1919 (Diseases of Stock Act, 1911).

1016 24/12/19 A regulation prescribing the manner of reporting deaths of stock and
the treatment of carcasses of such stock in certain Magisterial areas
in the Transvaal, appears in G.N. No. 1722 of 1919.

1016 24/12/19 The Minister of Agriculture has declared the "felling season" for
indigenous timber in the Transkeian Conservancy to be from
1st April to 30th September in each year, with effect as from
1st January. 1920. (G.N No. 1727 of 1919.)

1029 27/2/20 The slipping season for indigenous wood in the Transkeian Forest
Conservancy will in future remain open until the 31st March
following the close of the felling season. All wood not slipped by
that date will be forfeited to the Government unless permission has
been previously obtained. G.N. JNo. 1859 of 1914 is accordingly
amended. (G.X. 340.)

1016 24/12/19 The Governor-General has approved of certain regulations for the
insurance of mules and horses against death whi'e undergoing
treatment for immunization. (G.N. No. 1728 of 1919.)

1021 16/1/20 The disposal of certain Crown lands by public auction at Calvinia and

1028 20/2/20 Lady Frere on 28th and 10th April ; at Robertson, Upington, and

Clanwilliam on 24th April, 11th and 21st May ; at Ladismith and

East London on 8th and 1st May, respectively, is notified in G.N.

Nos. 109, 110, 315, and 316 of 1920.

The sale of certain Crown lands in various districts of the Transvaal,
in terms of section 5 of the Crown Lands Disposal Ordinance,
1903 (Transvaal), has been approved of by the Governor-General.
(G.N. No. 304 of 1920.)

Under the same section referred to above, the Governor-General has
sanctioned the setting apart of certain lands in various districts of
the Transvaal as public reserves. (G.N. No. 306 of 1920.)

The Governor-General has further approved under the above Ordinance
the cancellation of certain reserves at Vereeniging and Schweizer
Reneke. (G.N. No. 321 of 1920.)

1016 24/12/19 Jam has been added to the list of articles for which a permit is required
for export. (G.N. No. lOOl oi 1919.)

NOTKS FROM THE " GaZ^TTK."

Gazette. (Abbreviations: " Proc." — Proclamation; "G.N." — Guvernment Notice.

No. Date. Item?.

1021 16/1/20 Irrigation Districts of Tabankulu, Trauskei ; Klein Klaas VoogHs River,
Piobertson : George Impala, Barberton ; and Umfolozi, Natal ; have
been established by Proc. Nos. 8, 9, 10, and 13 of 1919, and the
boundaries of the Leeuw Gamka Irrigation District in Prince
Albert, amended by Proc. No. 12 of 1919.

1023 30/1/20 Semi-protection under the Scab Regulations has been extended to the

102.5 6/2/20 Districts of Bredasdorp, Swellendam, Caledon, Stellenbosch, Paarl,

Malmesbury, and the northern portion of the Cape District

(G N. No. 173) ; also to the Districts of Ixopo, Ipolela, Impendhle,

Lions River, and Estcourt. (G.N. No. 285 of 1920.)

1025 6/2/20 The 3flnuter of Agriculture has approved, of the appointment of the

Executive Committee of the South African Agricnltural Union as
a committee to advise him on matters relating to agricnlture.
(G.N, No. 238 of 1920.)

1025 6/2/20 Lists of European and native stock brands registered during the quarter

ended 31st December, 1919, for the Transvaal, are published in
G.N. No. 258, 1920, and lists for the Orange Free State and the
Cape in G.N. Nos. 257 and 259, 1920, repectively.

1026 13/2/20 Amended Regulations for the export of fruit are published in terms of

section 7 of the Fruit Export Act (No. 17 of 1914). (G.N. No. 260,
1320.)

1026 13/2/20 The compulsory dipping of sheep under the Scab Regulations is required
in the Districts of Ixopo, Ipolela, Impendhle, Lions River, Estcourt,
Elliot, Barkly East, and portion of Aliwal North (G.N. No. 293 of
1920) ; Edenburg, Smithfield, Bl' emfontein (G.N. No. 368) ; and
must be completed in the Natal and Orange Free State districts
mentioned above by 31st May, 1920. (G.N. No. 256 of 1920.)

1026 13/2/20 Woodcutter boards for the Crown forests in the George, Knysna, and
HumansdoJ'p Districts have been appointed by the Minister of
Agriculture, with effect from 1st January, 1920. (G.N. No. 264
of 1920.)

1026 13/2/20 The grain of maize and barley has been included in the term " Maize
and Barley Plants" for purposes of section 2 of the Agricultural
Pests Act, 1911. (Proc. 32 of 1920.) Section 9 (2) of^ he above
Act requires that the importation of such plants shall be subject to
certain restrictions and the grain of maize and barley imported
into tiie Union from oversea is declared subject to these restrictions.
(Proc. No. 33 of 1920.)

1 028 20/2/20 The demarcation of the Barkhuis Berg Forest Reserve and of a certain

1029 27/2/20 lot in Harkerville Forest Reserve in the Division of Knysna is

defined in G.N. Nos. 308 and 343 of 1920, and of Tonti Forest
Block, Flagstaff, in G.N. No. 358.

1029 27/2/20 Regulations in connection with the taking of the Second, Annual •Censv.s
of Agricultural, Horii cultural, Y it i cultural, Dairying and Pastoral
Production, have been approved of by the Governor-General under
the Statistics Act of 1914. Penalties for non-compliance with these
regulations are also provided. The census will be taken in April.
(G.N. No. 344.)

1029 27/2/20 Application for the lease of certain Zoutpansberg and Bethal holdings
will be received by the Lands Departmi-nt up to 9th April under the
provisions of the Land Settlement Act, No. 12 of 1912, and Crown
Lands Disposal Orainance. 1903 (Transvaal). (G.N. Nos. 339,
349, 353.)

1029 27/2/20 The Department of Mines and Industries notifies that f?«t> 5t'Ao?a;'s/(/j/:;«
for the study abroad of Industries and Commerce will be awarded
in 1920, and will be open to persons resident within the Union.
The value of each scholarship will be £250 for a period of two years
or more according to circumstances. Intending applicants should
refer for further particulars to G.N. No. 350, 1920.

96 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

RECENT AGRICULTURAL LITERATURE.

By The Librarian, Department op Agriculture.

L— union government publications.

(4) Department ok Agriculture.

Bulletins published t/ettceen the '20th October, 1919, a??d! lat March, 1920 {obtainable from the Librarian
Department of Agricullure) : —

r, • Number of

Price per copy. Publication.

Id. Dry-Land Farming:, by H. S. du Toit L.S. 82.

Id. Sugar-Cane Culture, by E. R. Gessner... ... ... ... ... L.S. 84.

Id. Fruit-Diying, by I. Tribolet L.S. 85.

Gratis. Report of Motor-Tractor Ploughing Trials at the Elsenburg School of L.S. 86.

Agriculture, Mulder's Vlei, C.P.

Gratis. Sixth Congre«s:of Co-operative Agricultural Societies in the Transvaal L.S. 87.

and Orange Free State, held at Pretoria on the 13th May, 1919

Id. Report on the First Duck Egg-Laying Competition, held at Cedara L.S. 88.

Id. Report on the Fifth Egg- Laying Competition, held at Potchefstroom L.S. 89.

3d. Pigs and Piggeries, by Morkel and Cleghorne... ... ... ... 2/1919.

Id. Breeding Experiments, with N. and S. African Ostriches, PartV, by 3/1919.

Prof. Duerden

3d. Observations on Soil Erosion, by Wm. Torrance ... ... ... 4/1919.

Id. The Fig and Willow Borer, by D. Gunn 6/1919.

Id. Breeding Experiments with N. and S. African Ostriches, Part VI, by 7/1919.

Prof. Duerden

3d. Fourth Report on Cattle-Feeding Experiments, held at Cedara and 8/1919.

Potchefstroom

Id. Report on Cold Storage Conditions for Export Fi'uit at Capetown, by 2/1920.

I. B. Pole Evans

(5) Miscellaneous Reports, etc., of interest to Farmers.

{Obtainable from the Government Printer, Pretoria.)

Is. OfEceof Census and Statistics: Quarterly Abstractof Union Statistics, S.P. 15.
No 1, January. 1920

Office of Census and Statistic^, Pretoria: Statistics of Population, 1917 U.G. 37 — '19.

Excise, Superintendent of. Report of, 31st December, 1918 U.G.2.S— '19.

Deeds, Registrars of the several Provinces of the Union, 1917 ... U.G. 8 — '19.

Housing Committee. RepTt of ... ... ... ... ... ... U.G. 4 — '20.

Irrigation, Director of. Report, 1st April, 1917, to 31st March, 1918 U.G. 49— '18.

Kakamas Commission of Inquiry ... ... ... ... ... U.G. 55 — '19.

Lands, Department of, R. port 1st January. 1917, to 3 1st March, 1918 U.G. 5.S— '18.

Mines and Industries, Department of, Report year ended 31st Decem- U.G. 38 — '19.
ber, 1918

Native Affairs. Department of, Report, 1913-1918 U.G. 7— '19.

Railways and Harbours, Report of, year ended 31st March 1919 ... U.G. 59 — '19.

Souih-West Africa, The Mandate f(jr. and Draft Conventinns ... U.G. 44 — '19.

Surveyors-Geneial of the several Provinces of the Union, 1917, Report U.G. 9 — '19.

Taxation of Incomes derived from Farming operations ... ... U.G. 8 — '19.

Wheat-growing, Departmental Committee on ... ... ... LT.G. 42 — '19.

5s.

6d.

Is.

9d.

.5s.

6d.

7s.

6d.

Is.

7s.

6d.

10s.

6d.

5s.

6d.

2s.

6d.

9d.

2s.

6d.

2s.

6d.

6s.

6d.

II.— THE AGRICULTURAL PRESS OF SOUTHERN AND TROPICAL AFRICA.
Some Articles of Interest.

Die Boer (Bijvoegsel tot "De Volkstem"), Pretoria, 13 Februarie 1920.
Achteruitgang Beesboerderij.
Besproeiing van die Kalihari.
Koei-crtjes of Kafferboontjes, deur G. J. Bosman, B.Sc.

Recent Agricultural Literature. 97

Die Jioererrouw (Posbus 984, Pretoria). Februarie 1920.
Die eerste Voortiekkersvrouw van Suid-Afrika.
Goggas op Hoenders.
Hoe om Saadplantjies aan te kweek.

T/ie Farmers Journal (Nairobi, B.E.A.), Thursday, 29th January, 1920.
A Simple Farm Shed, by H. F. Birchal.
Hints on Coffee Growing in British East Africa.
Geology of Planes, by Thomas Scott, B.Sc.
East Africa as the World's Future.
Spice Gardens, by W. J. Thomson.

The Farmers' Weehly (Bloemfontein), 18th February, 1920.
Farm Mechanics, by Geo. Morgan.
Wind-Power for Mills.

From Hide to Leather, by C. Williams, Chemist, School of Agiiculture, Cedara.
Tagasaste and Tree Lucerne, by J. P. F. Sellschop, School of Agriculture,

Potchefstroora.
With the Botanical Division : A chat with Dr. Pole Evans,

Die Lundbcmiver (Posbus 1035, Pretoria), 31 Desember 1919.
Angora Bokhaar.

Notule van 'n vergadering van die DagelikseBestuur van die Transvaalse Landbouw
Unie, Donderdag, 18 Desember 1919.

Die Landbonw Weekhlad (Posbus 267, Bloemfontein), 18 Februarie 1920.
Waterpasse, deel 5, deur R. J. van Pieenen.
Mielies, Wisselbouw, G. J. Bosman.
Oorbosluis, deur J. C. Faure.

The Natal Witness (Supplement," The Farmers' Day," Pietermaritzburg), 14th February, 1920.
Poultry-Keeping.
Pig Breeding and Management, by W. A. K. Morkel, M. Sc.

Mhodesia Agrlcultu ral Journal (Department of Agriculture, Salisbury, Rhodesia), February,
1920.

Ensilage, by J. A. T. Walters.

Notes on the Theory and Practice of Feeding Cattle in Southern Rhodesia, by

R. C. Simons.
Tobacco Culture : Growing on the Farm, by H. W. Tavlor, B.Agric.
Salisbury White Maize, by H. G. Mundy, F.L.S.
Tobacco Pests of Rliodesia, by K. W. Jack, F.L.S.
Percentage of Butter Fat in Cream, by A. Brunn.

Statistics of Crops grown by Europeans in Southern Rhodesia, 1918-19, by F.iEyles.
The Hydraulic Ram, by A. C. Jennings, A.M., I.C.E.
Afforestation in Zululand, by J. S. Henkel.
Poultry, by A. Little.

Cattle on Shares, by E. A. Nobbs, Ph.D., etc.
Stock Regulations.
First Annual Egg- Laying Test, Rhodesia, 1920-21.

The Smith African Dairyman (Box 925, Durban), January, 1920.
Mr. Bains and Co-operative Creameries.
The Famous Breeds of Britain : The Shorthorn, Pait 3, by Farmer George.

TIte South African Farm, News (Box 963, Johannesburg), January, 1920.
A Separate Party.
The Cost of Living, by Oupa.
Cattle Industry, by Bos.

Notes on Farms : the position in Natal, by .J. Forsyth Ingram.
Meat Profiteering, by R. W. Hodges.
Is rain responsible for the lack of stock food and the starvation of cattle, or is

the farmer ?
Silos for the Masses, Part 2.
Bacteria of the Dairy Industry.
Dairy Farming, by W. H. Courtenay.
Pig-Raising and Bacon-Curing in South Africa.
Agricultural Motor-Power, by August Karlson.
The Farm Orchard, by H. B. Terry.

98 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

The South African Fruit Grouper and Small Holder (Box 3958, Johannesburg), December..
J919.

Aphicides, by W. F. iSchlui:p, Entomologist, School of Agriculture, Potchefstroom.
New Freights for South Africa, by Colonist.

South African Gardeniny and Country Life (Box 3958, Johannesburg), January, 1920.
A Drought Garden, by D. Fairbridge.
Plants of the Bible and Biblical Lands, Part 5.
A Frosty Garden.
Carnations from a commercial point of view.

'Hie South African Journal of Industries, January, 1920.

Vegetable Fats and Oils, by Professor M. Rindl, LN.G.

South African Rubber, by T. R. Pirn. F.L.S., etc.

Olives, by 1. Tribolet.

Employers and Employees, by H. Warrington Smyth, M.A., C.M.G.

Research Scholarships and Grants-in-Aid.

South African Poidtry Magazine (Bloemfontein), January, 1920.

The World's Poultry Congress : Meeting at the Hague, September, 1921.
Throttling the Industry, by " Cape South-Western."
The Industry Defended, by " Progressive.''

The South African Poultry Association : Official Minutes of the I61h Annual
Conference, Pretoria, 10th-15th November, 1919.

The Poultry Bevieic and Small Holder (Johannesburg), 1st February, 1920.
South African Ancona Club, Annual General Meeting.
Poultry Farming for a Living, by Graham Hope.
Tuberculosis of Poultry.

South African Sugar Journal (Box 925, Durban), February, 1920.
The Victor Cane-Cutter.

Natal Planters' Union : Suggested Amalgamation of the Unions.
Scientific Co-operation needed.
Notes on the Cotton Industry, by W. B. Wilson, B.S.Agric.

The Sun and Agricultural Journal of South Africa (Box 634, Johanne.sburg), November,
1919.

Agriculture and Industry, by N. O. Curry.

My Industrial Tour, by the Editor (Dr. Wm. McDonald).

South African Pioneers (1): "Mr. T. W. Beckett."

Agricultural Stagnation, b}' C. E. Wilson, Secretary, Soutli African Grain Trade

Association.
The Afrikander Cattle Industry, by Pieter Koch, B.Sc.
The Romantic Story of Tcfi^.
Correspondents' School of Agriculture : Lecture No. 1 : "On the Pea Nut or

G round Nut."

II (.--AGRICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS IN OTHER PARTS.

REVIEWS AND EXTRACTS.

(a) Royal Commissiox on Agricultdrk :,lNTiiiaM Repokt (CD. 173).

"The Journal of theMinistryof Agriculture," London (formerly the Board of Agriculture),,
commenting, in the January, 1920, numljer on the above Report (issued 19th December, 1919),.
states that the main recommendation put forward is that guaranteed minimum prices should
be fixed annually in respect of wheat, barley, and oats grown in Great Britain on the same-
principle and conditions as laid down in Part 1 of the Corn Production Act, 1917, the
producer being allowed an unrestricted market for his produce but the State retaining the
Tight to control jn-ices in case of national emergency. The object of the proposed guarantees
is to encourage the growth of cereals and arable cultivation. Recommendations are made
regarding the basis for the annual fixing of prices. Accomf^ anying the report is the minority
report, with arguments against the policy of guarantees and in favour of leaving the: farmers-
free to cultivate without guarantees their land according to their own views, and to obtain
prices for their cereals not less than those at which grain is imported. One member favours-
continuous guarantees for wheat and oats, based on the level of agricultural wages, with a
minimum of restriction on farmers' freedom of action.

KECENT AGRICULTURAL LITERATURE. . 99

(J) Electrolytic Treatment of Seeds before Sowing (Wolfeyn Process).

This process is claimed to cause marked increase in yield, and forms the subject of an
article by E. J. Russell, D.Sc, F.E.S., in the January issue of the "Journal of the Ministry of
Agriculture," London. The result of various experiments at Rot hamsted and elsewhere is
that electrified seed failed to give any increase in yield under the carefully controlled
conditions of an experiment station trial, and the process, therefore, lacks certainty and
cannot be compared in effectiveness with manuring, which succeeds nearly every time if
properly carried out. The writer of the aiticle is not prepared, on present evidence, to say
that the process never succeeds, but the risk of failure seems so great that the farmer should
look upon it as an adventure which may ov may not prove ^irofitable.

(f) LivK Stock Ixsurancb Institute of Lower Austria.
(Cattle Section, 19U to 1918.)

Hermann Kallburner, in the International Review of Agricultural Economics for
January, 1920, shows the development of this class of insurance in Austria, notwithstanding
the veiy great difficulties and losses caused by the war. In 1913-14 the Institute paid out
damages on 2*i^3 percent, as against 3-40 per cent, in 1917-18 of all cattle insured. 'Jhe
average insured va'ue of a hea<l of cattle was in September, 1913, 3S7 crowns and in
September, 1918, 04S crowns (1 crown = 100 heller = lOd. at par''. The rise is connected
with the increase in prices of butchers' stock and draught cattle. The tariff of premiums in
force since October, 1916, is shown in the article.

During the period ftated the Institute paid on 72,594 casfsof loss, damages amounting
to 22,340,168 crowns. In addition to the numerous losses against which animals may be
insured, the Institute is extending its insurance to losses resulting from epidemics (foot and
mouth disease, anthrax, rabies, glanders, itifluenza, pulmonary phthisis), transport, pregnancy
and consequent diseases, castration and other operations, etc. Owners of small live stock,
especiallj' of pigs and goats, will be able to insure their animals in future.

(jl) International Institute op Agriculture, Rome.

The eighth volume of the recently published " Annuaire International de Legislation
Agricole " (International Year-Book of Agricultural Legislation) surveys the world's
legislation in 1918, that is, during the concluding period of the war, and the transition
from a state of war to one of peace. It is a volume of 1200 pages. In accordance with the
metbrd followed in previous years, the more important legislative provisions are printed in
exten-w, translated into French, while of the others only the title, both in the original
language and in French, is given, together with the number and date of the official
publication in wLich they appear. The International Ins-titute of Agriculture keeps in its
archives of documentation the complete text of all these measures. The Year- lx)ok contains
also a long analyt'cal introduction in English, briefly describing the laws and orders
published in full in the volume. This introduction indicates the general lines of Agricultural
Legislati( n promulgated in 1918 in the various countries of the world. Two indices make
the Year- book easy to consult : the first, a chronological index by countries; the second, a
subject index. There is also a full table of contents in English. The price of the volume
is 15 francs, and may be obtained by forwarding an order for that amount to the "Institut
International d'Agriculture, Serv'ce des abonnements et publications," Villa Umberto 1,
Rcme, Italy.

(e) "The Right Use of Lime in Soil Improvement."

This book, by Alva Algee, Secretary of the New Jersey State Department of Agriculture,
recently published by the Orange Judd Company, New Yf rk (Kegan Paul, Trench Tiubner
& Co., London), is a valuaV)le addition to the existing literature on the subject, and will do
much to dispel the doubt and indecision regarding the value and use of lime in the land.
Careful investigation into the relative values of various forms and sources c f lime are of
comparatively recent date, and rgricultural literature 20 years ago contained little about soil
acidity. The author divides his book into the following chapters : Lime and soils ; sour
soils ; evidences of acidity ; tests for acidity ; sources of lime ; definitions ; ground limestone :
storing lime in the soil; fresh burned lime; burning lime; lime hydrate ; other forms of
lime ; magnesian lime ; what shall one buy ; application ; amount of lime p'^r acre ; special
crop demands.

100 Journal of the Department of AriRicuLTURE.

AT THE SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND
EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

January and Febrviary, 1920.

CERARA, NATAL.

January, 1920.

CliTnatic. — The rainfall for January, 1920 (up to and includino; the 27th) was
6.9 inches. The mean maximum temperature was 78° and the mean minimum
•59.2°. The weather was hot at the beginning of the niontli with mists at night.
There were steady rains in the middle of the month. The winds were moderate,
and on the whole climatic conditions were very favourable for agriculture.

Field Operations. — Silage, maize, and cowpeas were planted early in the
month. Japanese millet, vetches, teff, and linseed were also sown.

Crops. — The main grain crop of maize (Hickory King) was planted in
November and December and growth was satisfactory during the month. Top
grub is giving little trouble as most of the first generation were destroyed by
means of a trap crop. One hundred and forty acres were planted with Hickory
King. One hundred and thirty-one acres of maize for silage were planted at
the beginning of the month and germination and progress have been good.
Twenty acres of cow-peas were planted in October last but have made slow pro-
gress. Thirty acres more were planted at the beginning of the month and are
doing well. Sixty acres have been ploughed for teff grass this month and the
seed sown has germinated well. About twenty acres have lieen seeded. Ten and
a half acres of Up-to-date and Flourl)all potatoes wei'e planted in September and
Octol)er, but these have suffered somewhat from drought and the yield is poor.
Fourteen acres of Japanese millet and three acres of linseed were sown.
Germination has been good.

Stock. — The welcome rains during the montli greatly improved the condition
of the veld. The stock are doing very well and the milk yield is improving.
There were two births during the month, a Shorthorn heifer calf and a Friesland
bull calf.

Orchard. — Operations during the month have been mainly directed to
harvesting fruit. Fruit fly has given much trouble altliough frequent spray-
ings with fly-bait have been applied. The failure of the bait to check the fly
is ascribed to the fact that the frequent rains wash off the bait almost as soon
33 it is applied. Fresh growth has started on the trees owing to the rains. A
cover crop has lieen sown to check this and summer pruning is receiving atten-
tion.

February, 1920.

Climate. — The rainfall for the month (up to and including the 22nd) was
6.97 inches. The average number of hours of sunshine per day was 6.4 hours.
On the whole the days were overclouded with rain at frequent intervals, in fact
the rain has been in excess of agricultural needs.

Field Operations. — Soya beans, cowpeas, Kikuyu grass, teff, and rape were
planted. The harvesting and selection of potatoes has commenced.

Crops. — Hickory King maize has made good growth and a fair yield is
probable.

About five acres of linseed have been destroyed by an outbreak of caterpillars
closely resembling the army worm. This pest is, however, being rapidly killed
off by diseases and parasites and little further trouble is anticipated from them.

Stock. — During the montli four Ayrshire calves were born and one Shorthorn.
One Shorthorn cow died of old age. One of the cows developed milk fever the
day after calving, but this was cured in five hours by inflating the udder.

Schools of Agriculture and Experiment Stations. 101

Orchard.— The continued wet %veather has favoiired the development of
iungous diseases. The phim harvest is now finished and the harvesting and
stx)ring of apples is proceeding. A large portion of the orchard lias heen planted
with green manuring crops.

Students.- — Sixty students are in residence at present; six are taking a
special course at Winkel Spruit.

ELSENBURG, MULDER'S VLEI, CAPE.

Janu.\ry, 1920.

Exceptionally diy and hot weather prevailed. The total rainfall regis-
tered was but 0.03 inches as against the normal average of 0.96 inches, and the
>Iiade temperature reached 98° F. on several occasions. As a result the summer
<rops (maize and rape mainly) suffered and are not up to usual .standard at the
time of writing, and natural grazing is scarce. Considerable scorching of fruit
occurred in both vineyard and orchard and young fruit trees are somewhat
back wa id.

Farm and Live Stock. — Field operations were carried out under difficulties.
The entire experimental fields for 1920 experiments were disc-cultivated, about
S5 acres of farm land ploughed, and about 30 acres under maize cultivated.
'I'here are approximately 40 acres of land under maize, 20 acres being under
irrigation. This crop will be used for ensilage. About 45 acres of land are
under rape, which provided feed for the stock during December and January.
Further, there are 2o to 30 acres of lucerne lands, and a few acres under
sorghums.

The grape crop appears to be ripening fairly well. Varieties susceptible to
oidium had been sulphured at the end of December, and no trace of the disease
<an be noticed. A certain amount of summer pruning was carried out in the
orchard and the bulk of the plum crop harve.sted. The quality of the latter was
uniformly good.

At the time of writing the live stock, in spite of the scarcity of natural feed,
are all in good condition, except a few individuals, notably among the sheep.
Fortunately a considerable quantity of oat and vetch silage has been available.
The cattle herds were submitted to tests for contagious abortion early in the
month by Mr. J. B. Quinlan, M.R.C.V.S. The Elsenburg herds were found to
be quite free of the disease, but four cows of the Mariendahl herd reacted to
the test; a few others were doubtful cases, among them the bull used by the
previous owner of the farm. The four cows and the bull were immediately dis-
posed of to the butcher.

Experimental and Investigational Work. — A considerable amount of experi-
mental and investigational work is in progress in the several divisions.

Extension Work. — A great deal of extension work was carried out during the
month in most divisions of the institution, consisting mainly of external lectures,
visits to farms in order to give advice, and attendance at the offices of the
Department of Agriciiltui'c, Capetown, for consultation purposes. Worthy of
special mention is the short course in wine-making held at Elsenburg from the
•5th to the 10th of January (inclusive), which was attended by twenty-four men,
and included both lectures and laboratory work.

On the 22nd instant the Annual Poultry Conference was held at Elsenburg
and was attended by some 220 pei-sons. It was very successful, the lectures and
papers l)eing of a high order and the discussion following each most keen.

On the 13th instant a party of Aristralian troops paid a visit to the institu-
tion and evinced great interest in the various phases of work being carried out.

The School. — The number of applications received to date for the present
school year, which will commence on 2nd February, is far in excess of the
accommodation of Elsenburg and Mariendahl together. The enrolment of
accepted students to date numbers 93, of whom 57 are returned soldiers.

February, 1920.

The severe drought of the past months continued unbroken, except for a
•small precipitation of 0.17 inches on the 9th instant which afforded a very slight
measure of relief. This represents the total rainfall for the month as against
the normal average of 0.49 inches. The weather was somewhat hot and windy,
but not excessive in either respect. The maximum temperature recorded was
95° F. on the 2nd instant and the miminum 49.5° F. on the 24th.

102 Journal OF the Department of Agriculture.

Field Crops and Fruit.

Though, the growth of rape has not been up to standaid this season the
crop was of incalculable benefit to stock for grazing purposes during the month,
both at Elsenburg and at Mariendahl. The dry weather has been a great set-
back to the maize crop, but about 70 tons of ensilage were obtained from 20 acres
grown without irrigation.

Three hundred bags of oats were threshed at Elsenlnirg this month, and 760
bags of oats and 10 bags of rye at Mariendahl : 300 bags of seed oats (four
standard varieties) and 200 bags of seed wheat (thirteen standard varieties) were
available for disposal to fanners.

The applications for seed numbered over 300, so that only small quantities
could be allocated to each aiiplicant. It should be understood that this institu-
tion cannot and does not aim to supply to any one applicant more than a
small quantity of seed, and from this the farmer is expected to produce his own
seed for future seasons. Further, our object is to propagate seed especially
suited to the areas served by ElsenDurg. so that no seed is supplied to applicants
in other areas.

The vintage was started on the 6th instant and completed during the month.
The chief varieties dealt with being White French, Steen, Hermitage, and Green
Grape. Wine Stone (Argol) to the value of £51. 8s. was obtained from the
casks. Over 18 tons of grapes from the Mariendahl vineyard were sold.

The Chalcot and Burbank plum crops were picked, the yields on the whole
being poor. The pear crop is exceptionally poor this season, many trees having
failed to set any fruit at all. The varieties taken in during the month were
Clapp's Favourite, William's Bon Chretien, and Beurre Hardy at Elsenburg, and
William's only at Mariendahl. A south-east gale early in the month caused
heavy windfalls in both orchards. A quantity of apples, prunes, sultanas, and
William's pears is being dried.

Live Stock. — As a whole the live stock are in excellent condition, though
natural grazing is very poor. During the month there were twenty-three cows
in milk at Elsenburg and forty-six at Mariendahl. A lot of twelve pigs was sold
to the Wellington Bacon Factory at 9d. per pound live weight, and a numbei- of
young boars and sows from the experimental pig lots has been booked for sale
at seven to ten guineas a piece, prices which speak well for the quality of the
animals bred in the experimental lots.

Experimental and Investigation TFo/7c. — The fifth application of dusts md
sprays in connection with the codling moth control experiments was made, and
the investigation concluded. Unfortunately the general pear crop of this season
is so poor that the records obtained cannot be considered reliable ; the same
applies to the records in connection with experiments on fusicladium control.

In the chicory experiments roots were collected, dried, and roasted, and
samples of the ground chicory were submitted to firms in Capetown. It is ((in-
cluded that good chicory can be grown in this area.

A number of samples of agricultural material (fetrilizers, spray fluids, v.ater,
feeding stuffs, etc.), was analysed and reported on in the Chemical Laboratory.

The School. — The 1920 session started on the 2nd instant, the total enrolmint
of students being 95.

GLEN, ORANGE FREE STATE.

January, 1920.

Climatic Conditions. — Ten duststorms of varying intensity were experienced
during the month, the worst being on the 10th. The result of these is seen in
the deposit of sand over the place, which is banking up into small dunes. The
drought is not yet broken and the country is still parched and dry, the grass
remaining brown with no sign of young shoots worth speaking of.

The rainfall for the month was .66 inches over seven days; heaviest fall .24
inches. In the corresponding month last year the rainfall was 4.71 inches over
eight days; heaviest fall 1.85 inches. The rainfall for December, 1919, was only
.4 inches, and for the previous six months less than half the average rainfall
for the period. Thus there has not yet been suflBcient rain to permit of
ploughing, nor has any seed been planted in the dry lands.

The School. — ^The new session has commenced with 15 senior diploma
students, 35 junior students, and 5 one year practical training students.
Amongst the 50 diploma students are 27 returned soldiers.

Schools of Agricultube and Experiment Stations. 103

Field Operations. — Owing to the continued drought field operations were
confined entirely to the irrigable lands. Irrigation of lucerne has been con-
tinued; teff, oats, and mealies have been seeded, and mangels planted.

Crops.- — These are all very backward. ,

Live Stock. — The veld is only just carrying on the stock. All the camps are
stocked so that very little change of grazing can be given to the animals. Oats,
mealies, and bran are being fed to mares, and foals at grass. The condition of
the stock is being fairly well maintained ; the great difficulty will be a few months
ahead unless very good rains soon arrive. There is very little grazing beyond
the bush ; grass has made no growth whatever. A South Devon bull was cah'ed
during the month, weighing 137 lb. A young Lincoln red bull, Nelsrust Governor
McCallum, has been purchased from Nelsrust and is in use in the herd. Mr.
Southey's Wanganella ram. Pride 2nd, has been hired for six weeks for the
Wangenella Stud Flock.

Staff. — Several staff changes are taking place this month, Mr. Lewis, .stock-
man; Mr. Van der Walt, shepherd; and Mr. Potgieter, B.Sc, experimentalist,
are resigning. The new appointments made are Mr. Forsyth, stockman; Mr.
Watermeyer, shepherd ; Mr. Joubert Cilliers, lecturer in engineering.

Febrxj.\ry, 1920.

Crops. — The rainfall for the month was 4.86 inches. Although it was too
late for ordinary summer crops, maize for ensilage, teff and rye were planted
and sown immediately it rained. As warm weather with occasional showers con-
tinued throughout the month crops and veld made rapid growth.

The prospects of wintering of stock on the veld are very promising. Great
difficulty will, however, be experienced to obtain the required quantity of bulk
feed for the winter.

Live Stock.— Although no direct losses have occurred through poverty,
several deaths have taken place, indirectly due to the prolonged drought.

School. — It is expected that the one year returned soldier students will be
in residence early next month, as the building is nearing completion.

Eqiiipment .— Several buildings are in the course of erection, namely, dairy
and three staff houses.

Considerable improvement has been made at the poultry plant. Several
big runs were sub-divided and twelve houses were made.

GROOTFONTEIN, MIDDELBURG, CAPE.

January and February, 1920.

Diploma Course Students. — The institution opened on the 26th January with
33 senior students and 37 junior students; total 70. This is the full complement.

Returned Soldiers' Course. — This course reopened on the 10th January, after
a fortnight's break, with a full complement of 22 men. The work carried out by
these returned soldier students, and their attention to their work, has been
excellent.

Farm Section. — During the month of January owing to the unparalleled
•drought, practically all work at Grootfontein, as well as in the surrounding area,
came to a .standstill, every effort being made to keep the stock in good condition.
On the 28th Jajiuary rain started to fall, and on the 30th the drought broke and
1.34 inches was registered for the month. During February the rains continued,
and over 6 inches has been registered for Febriiary. This permitted of farming
operations going ahead. Forty acres of teff were sown, the same area of
millet ; 20 acres laid down to Kikuyu grass, and ploughing is being continued
every day for the purpose of putting in oats and other winter cereals for
winter grazing and for next year's fodder crops. It is intended to use the
millet for silage. It is expected to reap 100 tons of lucerne at about the end of
February or early in March.

Experimental Section. — Some splendid results were secured in this section,
especially with regard to wheat selections and hybrids, and Mr. Donkin, the
experimentalist in charge, is preparing reports on this work for publication at
the earliest possible date. The experiments with Kikuyu grass and Soudan
grass, etc., have also proved very successful.

104 Journal of the Department of Agriculture,

Sheep Section.- — Mr. Warren, lecturer on sheep and wool, is conducting very
useful experiments with regard to the feeding of sheep, using specific quantities
of food daily and weighing the sheep every week. The results procured should
be of great value to the sheep farmers as a whole.

The Grootfontein agricultural and stock exhibit is going as a whole to the
Port Elizabeth show, and portions of the exhiliits are being divided up between
Molteno and Aliwal North.

Live Stock. — The following numbers of animals of diffeiont breeds aie kept
at the institution for tuitional purposes, etc. : —

Cattle. — Frieslands. Shorthorns, Herefords. Africanders. Hereford

cross Africanders ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 259

Oxen :01

Mules 21

Horses ... ... ... ... 52

Donkeys 42

Sheep. — Wanganellii. Tasnianian, cross-breds. Karakuls ... ... 1447

Angora goats ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . • . 20( )

Ostriches ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 162

Pigs 33

Poultry, various breeds ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 818

Water fowl, various breeds ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 22

Total 3157

POTCHEFSTROOM, TRANSVAAL.

Janu.\ry and February, 1920.

The total number of students receiving instruction from this institution is
112, about 50 per cent, of whom are returned soldiers.

Live Stock. — The drought which continued through the latter part of last
year and into the beginning of this year naturally affected the condition of the
beef herds and dry stock, but in spite of the trying conditions most of the
animals kept remarkably well.

Crops. — The drought is responsible for the poor condition of crops at this
time of the year. Late crops benefited much from the light showers that fell
during January, and the prospects are considerably improved. The supply of
irrigation water was reduced very much and had naturally to be used for the
lucerne lands. To forestall the effects of the drought as much cultivation as
possible was applied to the maize crops and kept these growing fairly well.
When the prospects of good grain and seed crops became doubtful, every oppor-
tunity was taken to establish good fodder crops. The light showers followed by
spells of drought and hot days made the establishment of good teff crops impossi-
ble and lands had to be resown again and again ; however, the good soaking rains
during the first week of this month promise some success Avith this crop, while
things in general are improving very rapidly.

Meat Statistics.

lOi

MEAT STATISTICS.

I. — Rktuun of Beef Inspected and Passed for Export during
THE month op February, 1920.

Cattle.

Carcasses.

Place.

Inspected.

Rejected.

Passed.

Inspected.

Rejected.

Passed.

Durban

938

938

938

84|

853i

Pietermaritzburg ...

612

—

612

612

40i

571 i

Pretoria

—

—

—

—

—

—

JohaDnesburg

— .

—

—

—

—

—

Bloemfontein

—

—

—

—

—

— ■

Capetown ...

338

338

338

196

142

Port Elizabeth

—

—

—

—

—

Germiston

—

—

—

—

—

—

Total

1,888

—

1,888

1,888

32 U

1,566|

Beef actually exported during the month of February, 1920 : Total 2,295 quarters
iEx Durban 477 quarters ; Ex Capetown 1,818 quarters.)

Total shipments of Beef in quarters —

1916 ... 115,992 1918 ... 123,354 *1920 ... 2,295

1917 ... 309,214 1919 ... 285,367

II.— Return of Cattle Imported into the Union from adjoining

Territories.

Total from 1st January,

Territory.

Irap.trted February, 1920.

1920, to
29th February, 1920.

For Slaughter —

No.

No.

Rhodesia

1,791

3,868

Beohuanaland Protectorate

1,524

3,225

H. W. Africa „

1,379

2,754

Swaziland

104

517

Basutoland

—

—

Fc Breeding —

Rhodesia

800

1,952

Bechnanaland Protectorate

1,029
6.627

1,280

Total

13,596

Summary of Imports.

Calendar Year. For Slaughter.

For Breeding.

Total.

1917
1918
1919

No.
26,580
47,970
36,767
40,574

No. No.
26,580

5,440 53,410
13,286 .50,053
16,693 57,267

* Total to 29th February, 1920.

1 1 st July to 31st December only.

106 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

EXPORT OF GRAIN, ETC.

Return of Grain, etc., Graded and Exported through the various Ports
during the month of february, 1920.

Note.— In this return the gross weight per bag of Maize is 203 lb., Maize Meal 183 lb., Hominy Chop IS3 lb. Kaffir Corn
203 lb., Oats 158 lb., Barley 163 lb., Eye 203 lb., Beans 203 lb., Peas 203 lb., Lucerne Seed 103 lb., Miliet (average)
^0 lb.

Port.

1 i 1
V » u „ oi,- ^ Total No. of Bags

Grain etc dSrfnf ^"^ S'^'PP""* stocks on Hand on
• ^"'- F«brulrv l<wn ^"""^ ^^^ -'"'y- l^^^' *" 29th February, 1920.
February, 1920. | 29th February, 1920.

Capetown . .

Maize
Maize Mea
Hominy C
Kaffir Con
Oats..
Barley
Eye . .
Beans
Peas

Lucerne S
Millet

lop ..

sea '. '.

1,900
26,923

91.5
•19

178.954

326,437

5,825

28,550

20,828

504

629

2..550

4,604
.309

1,088
184

IHRB.VX

Maize
Maize Meal
Hominy Cliop
Kaffir Corn
Oats..
Barley
Eye .
Beans
Peas

Lucerne Seed
Millet

200
9,677

255,672
528,095

6,215
3,648

945

7.851
.800

12.3

24.280
1.726

East London

Maize
Maize Mea
Hominy C
Kaffir Core
Oats..
Barley
Eye ..
Beans
Peas

Lucerne S
Millet

1 '.'. '.
hop . .

;'ed '.'. '.

■ ^

123,400

114.208

4,7.58

2.415

1,630

420

4.285

Por.T Elizabeth ..

Maize

Maize Meal
Hominy Chop . .
Kaffir Corn

Oats

Barley

Eye

Beans

Peas

Lucerne Seed . .
Millet

9,435

160,49.'!
14,704

3,.387

5,465

450

2.1.34

LOI'RENCO M.tRQUES

Maize

Maize Meal

Kaffir Corn

Beans

4,4.38

16,376
34,627

400

-

Summary.

Exported

Total Exported

Stoclis on Hand

1st July, 1019,

at all Ports

to 29th February, 1920.

on 29th February. 1920.

Bags.

Bags.

Bags.

Maize

15,993

7.84,895

2,154

Maize Meal

36,600

1,018,071

29,608

Hominy Chop

—

5,82.3

—

Kaffir Corn . .

—

43,110

—

Oats

—

23,976

—

Barley

—

8,884

—

Rye

—

3,104

—

Beans

915

11,671

1,860

Peas

—

,800

—

Lucerne Seed

49

4,604

—

Millet

~

484

—

TOTALS . .

53,557

1,854,374

83,617

Crop and Live Stock Report. 107

CROP AND LIVE STOCK REPORT.

February, 1920.

MAIZE.

Correspondents were asked to report on the condition of the crops in their neighboiir-
■hoofi as at 29tb February, 1920.

A revision of the estimated normal prodnction 1919-20 was deemed necessary, ond
the basis was increased to 12,705,100 bags.

As compared with the condition of the crop at 31st January. 1920, the prospects are
stated to have improved owing to favourable weather during February, 1920, by 6 per cent.,
so that the estimated production has risen from 10,338,500 to 10,971,200 or an increase of
«32,700 bags.

At this figure the crop prospects still remain 14 per cent, below normal for the Union.
As applied to the various Provinces, the improved prospects are reported to be as follows : —
Cape Province, 11 per cent. ; Transvaal, nil; Orange Free State, 9 per cent. ; and Natal,
2 per cent.

While the Western High Veld (^Transvaal) shows an improvement of 26 per cent, as
compared with the previous montli, a decline was reported of 7 per cent, in the Eastern
High Veld, 2 per cent, in Central Transvaal, and 1 per cent, in the Low Veld, leaving the
position as at 29th Februar}', 1920. at 16 per cent, below normal, or the same as at 31st
January, 1920.

Lydenburg reports show the condition to be 8 per cent, above normal, and in the Orange
Free State, Bethlehem and Vrede are reported as expecting a crop of 3 and 2 per cent,
above normal respectively.

KAFFIR CORN.

The pro-pects in respect of this crop are reported to have improved to an extent of 4
per cent, for the Union, the estimated production for the current season now being 1,162,000
bags as against 1,089,800 at the end of the previous month.

The prospects in the various Provinces are reported to have improved as follows : —
Cape Province by 13 per cent., Transvaal by 3 per cent., Orange Free State by 8 per cent.,
and Natal by 2 per cent.

In the Transvaal, the position in the Central Districts remains unchanged, whereas
increased prospects of 2 per cent, areireported from the Eastern High Veld and 27 per cent,
from the Western High Veld. On the other hand, a decline of 5 per cent, is reported from
Ihe Low Veld.

TOBACCO.

As far as this product is concerned, the crops appear to have revived even to a larger
extent, an improvement of 9 per cent, being reported for the Union, distributed as follows : —

Cape Province, 1 1 per cent. ; Transvaal, 7 per cent.; Orange Free State, l.'i per cent.;
and Natal, 9 per cent.

As a result of these improved conditions, the estimated production has risen from
7,370,500 lb. as at 31st January, 1920, to 8,791,800 lb. as at 29th February, 1920.

108

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

CONDITION OF LIVE vSTOCK.
Compiletl from Reports furnished by Sheep and Stock Inspector?.

Area.

Large Stock.

Small Stock.

Cape—

South West

North Western...

South Coast

Soutliern Karroo

Central Karroo...
Northern Karroo

Eastern Karroo

Bechuanaland ...

Griqualand West
North Eastern ...

Border ...
Transkeian Territories.

Transvaal —

Eastern High Veld

Central ...

Western High Veld
Low VeM

Medium. Good in Caledon,
Paarl,Cape, Stellenbosch,and
parts of Piquetberg and Swel-
lendam ; |ioor in Ceres. Bre-
dasdorp, and )iarts of Wor-
cester

Medium, to poor. Good in Ken-
hardt and parts of Calvinia

Medium. Good in Alexandria.

Bathurst, and parts of Hii-

niansdorp, George, and Uiten-

hage
Poor. Medium in Ou(1tshoorn

and Unionda'e
Med ill III to poor
Poor. Good in Richmond and

medium in Colesberg
Poor. Medium in Bedford and

parts of Cradock and Steyns-

burg
Good to medium. Fat in parts

of Vryburg and Mafeking

(rood to medhiiii

Medium to poor. Fat in parts
of Elliot, Barkly East, and
Maclear. Good in parts of
Wodehouse, Maclear. and
Barkly East

Good, to medium. Fat in
parts of East London and
poor in parts of QueenFtown

Good to medium. Fat in Elliot-
dale, Flagstaff, and Taban-
kulu, and in parts of Bizana,
Matatiele, St. Marks, Mount
Fletcher, Tsolo, Mount Currie,
Libode, Mqanduli, Umzim-
Vulu, and Willowvale.

Good to medium. Fat in parts
of Bethal, Standerton, and
Wakkerstroom

Good to medlnm. Fat in parts
of Heidelberg, Krugersdorp,
Rustenburg, and Potchef-
stroom

Good,. Fat in Marico and
medium in parts of Chris-
tiana

Good to medium. Fat in parts
of Pietersburg, Waterberg,
and Louis Tricbardt ; medium
in Barberton and parts of
livdenbnrg.

Good tv medium. Poor in Bre-
dasdorp and parts of Ceres
and Woicester.

Medium. Poor in Hopetown,
Van Rhynsdorp, and parts of
Fraserburg, Namaqualand,
Victoria West, and Calvinia.

Medium. Gocd in parts of
Humanrdorp, Uitenliage, and
George.

Poor. Medium in Oudtsboorn

and Uniondale.
Medium to poor.
Poor. Good in Richmond and

medium in Colesberg.
Medium to poor.

Good to medium. Fat in parts
of Mafeking and poor in parts
of Gordon ia.

Medium. Poor in Kimberley.

Medium to poor. Fat in parts of
Barkly East, Maclear, Elliot,
and Herschel ; good in parts
of Molteno and Maclear :
j)oor in Albert and jiarts of
Elliot.

Good to medium. Fat in parts
of East London and King-
williamstown.

Fat to good. Medium in parts
of Engcobo, Idutywa, Ken-
tan i, 1 Matatiele, and Port St.
.Johns.

Good to medium. Fat in parts

of Carolina, Middelburg, Piet

Retief, and Ermelo.
Good to medium. Fat in parts

of Krugersdorp, Rustenburg,

and Potchefstroom.

Good. Fat in Christiana and
medium in parts of Lichten-
burg.

Good to medium. Fat in parts
of Pietersburg, Lydenburg,
Waterberg, and Lonis Tri-
chardt.

Crop and Live Stock Report.

Ht'.>

Area.

Orange Free State
North Eastern ...

^orth Western...
South Eastern ...

South Western ...

Natal—

High Veld or Highland

Middle Veld or Midland
Coast

Large Stock.

Small Stock.

Good to Medium. Fat in parts
of Vrede and Harrismith

Good to medium. Poor in parts

of Kroonstad
Medium to poor. Good in

Wepenaar, Zastron,and Ficks-

burg, and fat in Thaba 'Xchu
Medium and Poor. Fat in

parts of Boshof and in a few

parts good

Good to medium. Fat in parts
of Dundee, Utrecht, Vryheid,
and Paulpietersburg

Fat to good

Good to medium. Fat in parts
of Dundee, Utrecht, Paul-
pietersburg, and Vryheid

Good to medium. Fat in parts
of Vrede, Frankfort, Bethle-
hem, and Harrismith.

(rood to medium.

Good to medium. Fat in parts
of Thaba 'Nchu, Smithfield.
and Ficksburg.

Medium. Gootl in Philippolis
and parts of Boshof, Faure-
smith, and Bloemfontein.

Good. Fat in Paulpietersburg
and in parts of Utrecht, Vry-
heid, and Dundee ; medium
in Bergville.

Fid to good. Medium in Hel{)-
makaar.

Good. Fat in parts of Paul-
pietersburg. Dundee, Utrecht,
and Vrylieid : poor in parts
of Bergvillf.

FARMERS.

The Journal of the Department of Agriculture is i3ublislied
in your interests.

It is to be printed in English and Afrikaans, and issued
once every montli.

Ever^^ farmer should subscrilic to it and keep it for
reference.

The subscription for residents in the Union and Soutli-
West Protectorate is 5s. per annum, i^ost free, paj^able in
advance.

Send a postal note for 5s. with your name and address
(an application form is attached to this number) to the
Oovernment Printer, Box 373, Pretoria.

This will ensure you getting the Journal regularly.

110

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

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VOL. I.

MAY, 1920.

NO. 2.

AnINU N4

Hi

Issued BY AUTHORITY of the
Minister of Agriculture.

P R I X C I PAL COX TEXT S

Results of Winter Cereal Experiments at Elsenburg— II.

The Eradication of Citrus Canker.

Poisoning of Cattle by Feeding on old Mealie Lands.

The Drought of 1918/19.

The Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province— I.

Cow Testing Associations.

The Library of the Department of Agriculture.

Importation of Cattle.

Egg- Laying Competition: Cedara School of Agriculture.

The Botanical Survey of the Union.

The Department of Agriculture during the War— I.

Experiments and Investigations — I and II.

Li8T OF Bulletins Available for Distribution.

LIST OF BULLETINS AVAILABLE FOR
DISTRIBUTION.

Application to be made to the Department of
Agriculture, Pretoria.

Applicants for bulletins are requested kindly to quote the ftdl nianber of
each, as shown hereunder, and to enclose also payment for same. The cost
of each bulletin is indicated; those not marked are issued gratis.

AGRICULTURF.

Agriculture, Law of Diminishing Return in. By H. H. W. de Villiers, B.A.

U.R. 20/1914.
Dr\' Farming. By H. S. du Toit, Superintendent, Government Dry-land

Station, Lichtenburg. T.F.B. 130.
Drv Farming, What is. Bv Dr. \y . Macdonald, Dr\-land Agronomist.

T F.B. q6. " "

Dry-land Farming. By H. S. du Toit 3d. L.S. 82.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.

National College of Agriculture for South Africa. By Dr. W. Macdonald,

Editor, Uftion Agricultural Journal. U.R. 1/1913.
National College of Agriculture for the Transvaal. By Dr. W. Macdonald,

Editor, Union Agricullural Journal. U.P.
National College of Agriculture for <^he Transvaal, III. By Dr. W.

Macdonald, Editor, Union Agrictdtural Journal. U.P.

BOTANY.
Gem-'.ral.

Bordeaux Mixture, The Prepai^ation of. By E. Doidge, M.A., Assistant Plant

Pathologist. U.F.S.^ 20.
Collecting of Botanical Specimens and the Alaking of a Herbarium. By

E. Percy Phillips, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Division of Botany. L.S. 71.
Prosofis jidifiora, Tht Mesquite or Algaraba Tie.e; and Prosofis -puhescens,

the Screw Bean. By C. C. Robertson, M.F., Research Officer, Forest

Department. U.R. 67/1914.
Seed Testing, The Value of. By E. Harrison and E. Baker, School of

Agriculture, Cedara. 'J.R. io/iq£4.
Water Hvacinth. By Miss S. M. Stent, Herbarium Assistant, Division of

Botany. U.R. 68/1913-

Plant Diseases.

Apple, Bitter Pit of the. Bv I. B. Pole Evans, B.A., B.Sc, F.L.S., Plant

Pathologist. T.S.B. i.
\pple Tree Canker or Black Rot Fungus in South Africa. Bv I. B. Pole

Evans, M.A , B.Sc, F.L.S., Plaiit Pathologist. T.F.B. 25 and U.F.B. 12.
Copper Carbonate, Ammoniacal Solution of. By E. Doidge, M.A. , Assistant

Plant Pathologist. U.F.B. 17.
Citrus Canker. By I. B. Pole Evans, M.A., B.Sc, F.L.S., Chief, Division of

Botanv and Plant Patholcg\-. L.S 30.
Citrus Fruits, A New Disease of. Bv I. B. Pole Evans, M.A., B.Sc, F.L.S.

U.F.B. 14.
Citrus Canker and its Eradication, The Characteristics of. Bv E. M. Doidge,

M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. id. 3/J918.
Cane, Root Diseases in. By P. v. d. Bijl, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. id. 4/1918.
Dikvoet, Club Root oc Finger and Toe {Plasmodiophora brassicae Woronin)

in South Africa. By I. B. Pole Evans, M.A., B.Sc, F.L.S., Chief,

Division of Plant Pathology and M\cology. U.R. 39/1913-

{Continued on page Hi of cover.

CONTENTS.

MAY, 1920.

Pace
Hesults of Winter Cereal Experiments at the School of Agriculture,

Elsenburg, Mulders Vlei, Cape Province ... ... ... Ill

The Eradication of Citrus Canker ... ... ... ... ... 124

The Library of the Department of Agriculture ... ... ... 135

Poisoning of Cattle by feeding on old mealie lands ... ... ... 138

The Drought of 1918-19 ... ... ... ... ... ... lU

Cow-Testing Associations ... ... ... ... ... ... 149

The Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province ... ... ... 152

Importation of Cattle ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 159

Experiments and Investigations ... ... ... ... ... 162

Notes from the Divisions ... ... ... ... ... ... 168

Egg-Laying Competition ... ... ... ... ... ... 172

The Botanical Survey of the Union ... ... ... ... ... ISO

The Department of Agriculture during the War ... ... ... 183

JNOTES ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 187

Important Notice — The Minister of Agriculture — Sheep and Goat Skins — Exi»ort
of Seed — The Merino Ram — Plant Nurseries in Quarantine for Pests — Wheat
Production of the Union — Cotton Growing Prospects— Colonial Wine Competi-
tion. 1919 : Awards and .Judges" Rei)ort — Purchase of "Mariendahl'" — Wheat
Growing in South Africa — Export of Cattle from the Union to Great Britain —
Poultry Shows : Organization — The European Corn Borer (page 123) — The
World's Harvest (page 134) — Women's Woik (page 158) — Organization of
Farmers (page 161) — Wet Hides for Shipment — Marking of Goods (page 167)
— Telegraphic Requests for Vaccines, etc. (page 171) — KafBr Corn : Production
in the Union (page 182) — Maize Production in the Four Provinces (page 186) —
Scab: Protected Districts (page 20 1) -Seal Skins: Remarkable Prices
(page 208).

The Poultry Yard Month by Month ... ... ... ... ... 197

The Vegetable Garden ... ... ... ... 199

South African Produce on the Oversea Market ... ... ... 200

•Oversea Prices of South African Produce ... ... ... ... 202

Staff Changes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 203

Notes from the "Gazette" ... ... ... ... ... ... 204

JRecent Agricultural Literature ... ... ... ... 206

At the Schools of Agriculture and Experiment Stations ... ... 209

Dates of Agricultural Shows j^till to be held ... ... ... 212

The Union's External Trade ... ... ... ... ... ... 213

Meat Statistics... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 216

Export of Grain, etc. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 217

Crop and Live Stock Report ... ... ... ... ... ... 218

Xocal Market Prices ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 220

STAFF.

Department of Agriculture (including Agricultural

Education).

HEADS OF DIVISIONS.

ADMINISTRATION.

Secretary for Agriculture. — F. B. Smith, C.M.G.

Dnder-Secretary for Agriculture. — P. J. du Toit (presently engaged on the Public Service
Commission of Inquiry).

Acting Under-Secretary for Agriculture.- G. N. Williams, D.S.O.

Under-Secretary for Agriculture (Education). — E. -J. Macmillan, B.S.A.

DIVISIONS.

Sheep.— Chief : B. G. L. Enslin. D.S.O.

Veterinary Research. — Director of Veterinary Research and Education : Sir Arnold Theiler..
K. C.M.G.

Veterinary. — Principal Veterinary Surgeon : C. E. Gray, M.R.C.V.S.

Dairying. — Superintendent of Dairying : E. 0. Challis.

Botany.— Chief : I. B. Pole Evans, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

Tabacco and Cotton.— Chief : W. H. Scherffius, M.Sc.

Horticulture. —Chief : I. Tribolet.

Viticulture. — Govei'nment Viticulturist : S. W. van Niekerk.

Entomology. — Chief : C. P. Lounsbury, B.Sc.

Chemistry.— Chief : B. de C. Marchand, B.A., D.Sc.

Chemical Research. — Agricultural Research Chemist : C. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C,

Libi'ary. — Librarian : P. J. S. Ribbink.

Co-operation. — Registrar, Agricultural Co-operative Societies : J, Relief.

Dry Farming. — Government Agronomist": H. S. du Toit.

Guano Islands. — Superintendent : W. R. Zeederberg.

Grain Inspection. — Chief Insijector of Grain : G. F. Nussey.

Journal of Agriculture. — Editor : G. W. Klerck (Acting).

SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

Elsenburg (Cape) Principal : W. J. Lamont.

Grootfontein (Cape) „ R. W. Thornton.

Cedara (Natal) „ J. Fisher, B.Sc, N.D.A-.

Glen (Orange Free State) „ M. J. A. Joubert, B.S.A.

Potchefstroom (Transvaal) ,. T. G. W. Reinecke, B.A., M.Sc.Ag.

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Journal of the Department
OF Agriculture.

Vol. I.

MAY, 1920.

No. 2.

Published monthly in English and Afrikaans by the Department of Agriculture,

Union of South Africa.

Subscription: Within the Union and South-VVest Protectorate, 5s, (otiierwise 6s,)
per annum, post free, paj'able in advance.

Applications, with siibscriptions, to be sent to the Government
Printer, Box 373, Pretoria.

RESULTS OF WINTER CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT
THE SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE, ELSENBURG,
MULDERS VLEI, CAPE PROVINCE.

By T. G. W. Eeinecke, Principal, and G. J. Meynhardt,
Assistant Experimentalist.

[The first part of this article appeared in last month's Journal. — Acting Editor.]

variety trials of wheat and oats.

Wheat Varieties.
I.—" Common " or Soft Wheats.
II.—" Durum " or Hard Wheats.

Adaptah/littj of flic Two Classes of Wheat.

The area served by this Institution comprises the coastal districts
from Namaqualand to Knysna, extending inland to embrace the
Districts of Ceres, Worcester, and Montagu. Considerable variations
of soil and climate are observed in this area. There, are for instance,
remarkable differences in the rainfall of the various districts, as will
readily be seen from the following- table : —

District.

Time of Precipitation.

Average

Rainfall.

Elsenburg, Paarl

Van Rhynsdorp
Darling...

April to November

1 „ „ September

28

4— G
14 — 16

inches.

Caledon

„ October

18—20

Ruggens, Bredasdorp

Coastal, „

„ „ September

„ ,. October

1.5—18
18—22

Montagu (inland)

Knysna...

„ „ September

May „ February

8—10
.SO

"

112 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

Generally speaking", the coastal districts from Piquetberg to
Bredasdorj), and some of the adjoining- inland districts with anniial
rainfall of from 10-30 inches, are better adapted to the cultivation
of the " common " or soft wheats; whereas the inland sections, such
as the Districts of Worcester, Robertson, Montagu, and a portion of
Riversdale, with a rainfall below 10 inches, are more suited to the
" durums " or hard wheats.

The " durums " are known to thrive better than the soft wheats
in drier sections; on the other hand, the latter do better under more
humid conditions.

Further, it is significant to note that the wheat areas of the
coastal belt have shallow soils which are acid in nature and of poor
mechanical condition, whereas the inland districts referred to have
in general a porous soil of great depth which is rich in lime.

COMMON " OR SOFT WHEATS.

Classificatioti according to Maturity. — Generally speaking, wheats
are classified as follows : —

(1) Early ; (2) Medium Early ; (3) Midseason ; (4) Medium
Late ; (5) Late.

For our purpose we shall confine the classification to three groups
only, viz. :■ — (a) Early; (6) Midseason; (c) Late.

The latter classification is used, as it indicates better the various
periods of maturity of each class. However, it should not be assumed
that all varieties coming under the same class are necessarily of
" identical maturity," e.g. Florence wheat is classed under (a),
but is considerably earlier than either Primrose or Gluyas, which
are included in the same class. Again, Rieti and Kleintrouw -both
belong to groiip (c), but the former is several weeks later than Klein-
trouw.

Li discussing varieties of wheat in reg-ard to their suitability for
various sections of the country, one of the main considerations is the
question of rust resistance. Certain varieties of wheat are un-
doubtedly more rust-resistant than others, e.g. the very late variety
Rieti. although it may show rust, is not affected by the fungus to the
same extent as Federation, Wolkoorn, and Steinwedel.

On the other hand, certain wheats, owing to the length of their
growing period, usually escape rust when sown in late autumn or
early winter, for the reason that by the time rust appears Qate spring)
the plants have reached a stage of growth when the fungus has little
or no effect on the kernel.

No variety of wheat can, however, be claimed to be " rust proof."
It must be remembered that the susceptibility to rust varies according
to the season, yet the varieties given in accompanying Tables I. II,
and III have thus far all shown fair rust-resistant and rust-escaping
qualities. Varieties which are not satisfactory in this respect have
been divscarded. A list of these is to be found in Table lY of this
article. Tables I, II, and III specify Early, Midseason, and Late
varieties respectively, which are recommended for the south-west
Cape.

Results of Winter Cereal Experiments.

M .S

1-9

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114

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

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Results of Winter Cereal Experiments. 115

Description of Varieties.

Florence. — Imported originally from Australia, and is the earliest
variety grown. It is of medium height and of good stooling capacity.
The ears are white, tapering, slightly tip-bearded, and of medium
size. The grain is white and plump. This variety can be recom-
mended for all parts of the south-west Cape, especially where the
growing period is a short one and the rainfall light. It should,
however, be remembered that it is very liable to shatter in some
localities; therefore it should be harvested betimes whenever east
winds are prevalent.

Primrose, Sel. 54-2. — Somewhat later than Florence. It tillers
fairly well. The straw is thin, strong, and self-supporting, although
inclined to be long. The ear is white, long, tapering, and beardless.
The original Primrose was imported from Australia. The selection
made at this institution has a long, plump kernel very similar to that
of Gluyas Early, wliereas that of the original Primrose is flat, round,
and deeply keeled.

Primrose is recommended for both the coastal and inland districts
of the south-west Cape. In the latter districts it is subject to injury
by frost, and thus should not be sown too early.

Gluyas Early, Sel. 41-2. — Gluyas Early is of about the same
maturity as Primrose. It is of medium height, does not tiller too
well, and is very liable to lodge.

The glumes are brown and the ears tip-bearded with spikelets
rather irregularly set. The kernel is long, full, and white.

The original Gluyas was imported from Australia. The selection
made at this Institution does not differ materially from the Gluyas so
widely gTOwn by the farmers of the Western Province. As already
mentioned it is of about the same maturity as Primrose, and these
two varieties are often grown together, tor the reason that this
practice makes harvesting easier, in that Primrose — which has a
strong, self-supporting straw, lielps to keep the Gluyas from lodging.

Van Niekerk is medium early and grows to an average height.
Has heavy foliage and coarse straw which is liable to lodge. The
cars are brown, flaked with white, and are fully bearded. The kernel
IS long, plump, and white. This variety is not a consistent yielder,
and is therefore not as strongly recommended as other varieties in
this class.

Selection 4-3. — A few days later than Van Niekerk. It stools
exceedingly well and has a tall yet self-supporting straw. The ear
is very similar to that of Van Niekerk, except that it is club-tipped
and tip-bearded and shows a slight wave. The kernel is long, plump,
and white.

Selection 7-2. — Also a selection made locally. Grows to an
average height and tillers remarkably well for a medium early
variety. The ear is long, bald, and wliite with spikelets irregularly
set. The kernel is small, round, and white.

Union tSelections. — Tliese selections of wheat have originated
from a cross between the Australian variety Gluyas Early and the
variety Darling.

]16 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Dr. Nobbs, the Director of Agriculture in Rhodesia, is credited
with making the cross at Elsenburg about the year iyu< . The various
selections grown to-day are the progeny of the original crossbred, and
were made by Prof. Neethling in 1912. Some ten to fourteen of the
most promising selections have now been growm here for the past six
.seasons. The returns of these selections for the last four years on large
plots (one-fifth acre) are very promising. These are given in Table I
above.

On account of inequalities of soil the experimental fields were
removed in 1914-15 to the present site. For this and other seasons
the returns for these two years of the Union selections as well as of
certain of the other standard varieties are not included in the table of
results.

As can be seen from the table of results, and as is the experience
of farmers throughout the coastal belt from Darling to Bredasdorp,
the selections must be considered better yielders than any of the
early varieties.

As compared with Gluyas Early, which is still extensively grown
in the sections referred to, the Union Selections are better yielders,
tiller better, and are less liable to lodge. The Union Selections are,
however, subject to rust in certain localities and in certain seasons.
The early maturing selections are not affected to the same extent as
the later ones, such as Unions 28 and 116.

Before a description of each of the UTnion Selections, recom-
juended for the coastal belt of the south-west Cape, is given, a short
description of the other parent Darling is necessary.

Darling. — This is a tall-growing variety which stools moderately
well. It has a hollow straw which is inclined to he weak on soils of
liigh fertility. The ears are creamy white in colour, bald, fairly
long, and inclined to taper. The spikelets are open ; the grain is
small, plump, and white.

The following cliaracteristics are possessed by the various UTnion
Selections : —

(1) Some show the bald characteristic of the parent Darling,
whereas others are tip-bearded like Gluyas.

(2) The majority have light or dark-brown ears, but a few are

creamy white in ear like the parent Darling.

(3) As regards maturity, U. 52 is ihe earliest; U. 17, 11, and

94-1 are somewhat later; and U. 28, 81, and 116 are the
latest.

(4) It is interesting to note that U. 52, 9, and 17 resemble the

parent Gluyas in foliage, straw, and especially in shape,
colour, and size of the ear; whereas U. 94-1 and 116
resemble in these respects the parent Darling.

Bombay , Sel. 44-3. — The variety Bombay was originally intro-
duced from India and closely resembles the variety Kleinkoorn, grown
extensively in some of the inland districts of the Cape. Bombay is a
short-growing- variety, varying in height from 2-2^ feet. The selec-
tion 44-3 tillers well, has a thin strong straw, but is inclined to lodge.

Results of Winter Cereal Experiments.

117

The ear is fully bearded and brown. The kernels are small, semi-
hard, white, and somewhat long-.

Kleinkoorn is considered the oldest variety known to farmers in
this country. Of recent years it has been subject to rust. It is
interesting- to note that this variety is favoured in many of the Karroo
Districts and in the Transvaal, where it is grown both under dryland
conditions and under irrigation.

Florence x Gluyas Crossbred, Sel. 17, is a cross between the
varieties Florence and Gluyas Early and is of quite recent origin.
This selection has been grown for the last three years only. In this
season the selection showed two distinct strains whicli have been
separated and will in future be grown apart. The cross-bred
Florence x Gluyas promises exceedingly well and should be
favoured in those sections of the south-west Cape where the seasons
are short.

Table II.

Midseason Varieties.

Variety.

Grain Yield in lb.
per Acre.

Average

Return per

Acre.

Remarks.

1916.

1917.

1918.

1919.

Bobs X Rieti No. 10 ...

Darlvan ...

Red Egyptian No. 29-1
Spring Early

American No. S

Rieti X Gluyas No. 81...

— 1,175

— 630
990 ! GIO

1,215 630

— 1 725

1,000

996

738
390

750

1,058

1,015

1.123

990

890

785

1,078
1,015
916
S32
781
7.53

BoJ)s X Rieti No. 10. — A cross between the Australian variety
Bobs and ordinary Rieti. Bobs is essentially a midseason variety,
whereas Rieti is the latest variety cultivated locally. The cross is
several weeks earlier than the Rieti parent, although in appearance
very similar to it. It has a long light brown ear, fully bearded. It
tillers exceedingly well, has a thin culm, and grows well above the
average height. The kernel is very like that of Gluyas Early, except
that it is dark in colour. This selection, although inclined to shatter,
does not show the tendency to the same extent as some of the other
selections of this cross.

Darlvan. — This variety has become very popular of recent years.
It has a white ear which is club-tipped and slightly tip-bearded. The
grain is short, plump, and white. The plant tillers well and possesses
a straw which, although coarse, is self-supporting. This is the
Darlvan generally grown, and not the cross-bred between Darling and
Van Niekerk of the same name.

Red Egyptian No. 29-1. — A straight selection of Red Egyptian,
better known as Rooi-heentje. It also goes under the names of Rooi-
koring or Rooi-baard. The ears are short, club-tipped with short

118

Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

beard, and reddish brown smooth chaff. The kernel is red and soft.
This variety grows erect, is l)elow the aveiage height, and tillers
exceedingly well. It is both drought and rust-resistant, and is often
gTown with good results nnder irrigation.

Spring Early. — This selection has a light brown full-bearded ear.
The grain is long, red, and semi-hard. This variety is still exten-
sively grown throughout all parts of the south-west Cape, especially
in the Districts of Caledon and Bredasdorp. where the rainfall is
moderate. The variety is subject to rust in sections where the season
is long and the rainfall heavy.

Americon No. 8. — A selection of the Australian variety. The
ears are long, narrow, compact, and beardless with smooth brown
chaff. It holds the grain exceedingly well. The kernel is small,
round, red, and soft. This selection is tall growing with thin strong-
straw. This variety is not recomended for areas with a large rainfall
since it is subject to rust. It is suited to those inland areas where
south winds are prevalent at harvest time and where dry conditions
prevail.

Rieti X Gluyas No. 81. — A cross l)etween the ordinary Rieti
and the Australian variety Gluyas Early. The ears are brown, fully
bearded, and of an average size. The kernel is large, plump, and
white. This cross tillers moderately well ; grows to an average height
and has a self-suporting erect straw. The object of this cross was to
get an earlier maturing variety than Rieti. and one wliich would stool
better and not show the same tendency to shatter. This selection
possesses a white kernel unlike the other selections of the same cross-
bred. In addition it does not shatter as readily as the parent Rieti.

Table III.
Late Varieties.

Variety.

Grail Yield in lb.
per Acre.

Average

Return

per Acre.

Remarks.

1916.

1917.

1918.

1919,

Kleintrouw, Selec-
tion 12-1
Rieti 36-1

Bossiesveld or Stan-
dcrton Winter

Uppercut ...

Selection J.

1,445
1,595

1,325

1,395
1.025

742

560

595

-ISO
565

1,278

882

88.«

726
750

1,200
1,045

825
900

1,171
1,041

908

867
841

About two weeks earlier than

Rieti.
The latest variety grown in

this area; has gocd rust-
resistant qualiiies.
Several days earlier than

Rieti. It is exceedingly

liable to shatter.
A few days earlier than

Kleintrouw.
Of the same maturity as

P.o siesv. Id.

Kleintroinv Sel. 12-1. — A selection made in 1907 from a bulk crop
of Australian wheat, the seed of which was originally imported by
the Government. The ear is medium long-, white, and tip-bearded.
The grain is small, white, plump, and soft. This selection grows to

Results op Winter Cereal Experiments.

119

a medium Jieight with abundant foliage and tillers exceedingly well.
The straw is thin and erect. This variety is several weeks earlier
than Rieti. !:;«]

Rieti 36-1. — This is a straight selection of long-eared Rieti so
extensively grown by the farmers of the south-west Cape. The ear is
brown, very long, lax, tapering, and fully bearded with spikelets set
far apart. The kernel is large, plump, dark brown, and soft. Tillers
exceedingly well with a long self-suporting straw. This variety
shatters badly. For short seasons this variety has proved too late.

Bossies veld or Standerton Winter. — This variety is believed to be
the same as Red Victoria. The former is grown in the south-west
Cape, whereas Red Victoria is grown in the high veld of the Trans-
vaal. The ear is white, fully bearded, and of average size. The
straw is fine yet self-supporting. The kernel is small, round, red, and
soft. This variety is very liable to shatter and should be cut betimes
wherever south winds are prevalent at harvest time,

Uppercut. — A selection from the Australian variety. It is
similar to Kleintrouw, but has a shorter ear and does not tiller to the
same extent as does Kleintrouw. The kernel is small, round, white,
and inclined to be soft.

Selection " /." — A local selection, believed to be a strain of
ordinary Rieti. The ear, although long and fully bearded, is more
compact than that of Rieti. The kernel is large, plump, very dark,
and soft. This variety tillers well and is not so liable to shatter as is
the case with Rieti.

Table IV,

This table contains a detailed list of varieties which have now
been under trial for a )iumber of years, but which have proved
unsuited to the conditions of this area: —

Variety,

Maturity.

General Remarks.

Yandilla King

Late

White ear, tip-bearded, plump, white kernel. Tall
growing, with coarse straw.

Marquis

„

Long, white, tapering, tip-bearded ear. Small plump,
red kernel.

MarshallsNo. 3 ...

„

Long, white, symmetrical, tip-bearded ear. Plump,
white kernel,

Comeback

Mid-seasou

Light-brown, tip-bearded ear ; white plump kernel.
Thin erect straw,

Genoa

I)

White, compact, bald ear, Small white kernel. Tall
growing.

Heynes Blue Stem

Very Late

The' ear is white and slightly tip-bearded. The glumes
are hairy : the kernels large and reddish brown. On
account of very late maturity and poor rust resist-
ance, this variety has n^ver yielded a crop.

Bobs

Mid-season

Long, white, bald ear. Small, round, white kernel ;
coarse straw.

Siebritz

White, fully bearded ear ; dark red ; serai-hard grain.

Darling

Long, white, tapering, bald ear with small, round white
kernel.

Du Toit

»

White, tip-bearded ear, with small, round, white kernel,
thin, erect culm.

Kleiukoorn

Early

Fully bearded, brown ear, plumi) kernel, short growing.

120

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Table IV — {cuntinued).

Variety.

Maturity.

General Remarks.

Sonora

John Brown

Wolkoorn ...

Federation
Baard Koorn
Leaps Prolific
Bunyip

Eksteen
Firbank

Steinwedel

Prelude

Hawkesbury

Fourie

My burgh ...

Cedar

Huron

(3ross-bred on

Preston

Karkov

Rymer

Jonathan ...
Red Fife ...

Warren
Huguenot ...

Alaska Winter

Late
Mid-season

Early

Mid-season
Early

Mid-season

Early
Late

Mid-season

Late

Mid-season
Late

Mid-season
Late

Late

white
Hay

Short, brown, bald ear ; glumes hairy ; small, round,

white kernel. Very similar to Wolkoorn in ear and

kernel.
Long, tapering, light-brown ear with white, plump

kernel.
Brown, regular ear ; glumes hairy, small, round, white

kernel.
Brown, square, bald ear ; grain white and soft,
White, bearded ear, with white kernel
Short, white, tip-bearded ear ; white kernel.
Tip-bearded, broad, white ear ; large, round,

kernel ; short coarse straw ; an Australian

Wheat.
White, bearded ear ; also goes under the names of "Vroe

Baard" or "Eenbeen."
Long, white, tapering, bald ear with soft, white kernel.

Grows tall and is very liable to lodge ; an Australian

Hay Wheat.
White ear, tip-bearded and very similar to Bunyip.

White, soft kernel and is grown in Australia for hay

purposes.
White, fully-bearded ear, small red kernel ; very

susceptible to rust.
Long, white, bald ear, white, round kernel, weak straw.
Long, fully-bearded, white ear, long, amber kernel.
Long, white, fully-bearded ear ; long, dark kernel ;

coarse, weak straw.
Long, tapering, bald, white ear, Small red kernel. Very

liable to lodge.
Long, white ear, which is slightly tip-bearded. Broad,

dark kernel,
Tapering, white, tip-bearded ear. Glumes hairy ; grain,

white and plump,
Bearded, brown ear ; small, round, white and red, soft

kernel.
Bearded, creamish white ear : small, red, soft kernel.

Very susceptible to rust.
White, tapering, bald ear ; white kernel ; shatters

readily.
White, bald ear ; grain plump and white.
Very long, white bearded ear ; small, red kerrel ; shatters

readily.
Short, white bald ear with white kernel
Durum type ; a beardless selection ,of Medeah ; long,

whitt. flinty kernel; an Australian Hay Wheat,
Durum type. On account of its branching head is also

called "Sewe Aar." The kernel is small, round and

soft, A very poor yielder.

II.

DURUM " OE HAED WHEATS.

As previously mentioned in tliis article, on ;iccount of soil and
climatic conditions the Dnrunis have thus far given exceedingly low
retiirns in the coastal areas, and we feel justified in saying' that their
cultivation should be restricted to the inland Karroo soils.

Table V gives tlie returns per acre for 1910-19 inclusive of a few
varieties of this class of wheat.

Results of Winter Cereal Experiments.

121

Table Y.
Hard Wheats.

Yield in It

. per Acre.

Variety.

General Kemarks.

1916.

1917.

1918.

1919.

Medeah 35-9

525

400

612

656

Our S. A. Medeah, also called "Zwart
Baard." In Russia it goes under the
name of " Chernouska." White ear
with black beard. Grain light : ten-
dency to produce soft kernels here.
This is the oldest known durum in
these sections.

Yellow Nicaragua,

— 405

618

—

Y'ellow in ear and beard, with large, deep,

Selection 20-2

yellow grain. Grows above the average
height.

Belotouika, Selec-

4.50

552

—

Similar to Nicaragua, but with more

tion 10-1

compact ear and shorter glumes. Light
yellow, long grain.

Van Heerden, Elsen-

—

498

—

Very like Belotourka, but with a short

burg Selection

broad ear, which is plump ; typical,
durum kernel.

Kubanka, Selec-

—

—

636

415

This is very like Belotourka, but with a

tion 52-1

broader ear. Large, light yellow grain.

Z 37. Local Selec-

—

435

600

405

Creamy white ear and beard. Tillers

tion

well. Dark grain with percentage of
soft grains.

Alaska Winter

250

475

Also known as " Sewe Aar." It is very
liable to rust and gives a very poor
'grain return.

Huguenot

25.-.

100

A beardless selection of Medeah, very
susceptible to rust.

The following' varieties are still under trial: — Black Don, Black
Persian, Black Goose, Wild Goose, Taute, Golden Ball, Bontaar.

S UMMARY : Wheats .

Of the early wheats. Union Selections 17, 7, 11, 62, 31, 81, and 116
should be g-iven preference in the south-west Cape over both Gluyas
Early and Primrose, the two varieties most commonly grown in this
area.

In those sections where the seasons are short Union 52 is recom-
mended, since it is the earliest maturing of any of the Union Selec-
tions.

Florence is the quickest maturing variety of all the early wheats
which can be recommended for the south-west Cape. It is especially
suited to sections with a small rainfall and short rainy season. It
can be sown later than any other variety irentioned in Table I. _

Of the mid-season varieties, the cross-bred Bobs x Rieti Sel.
No. 10 is very promising. This wheat and Red Egyption have both
yielded better than Spring Early, the standard variety of this class.

Of the late varieties, Kleintrouw must be given preference over
Rieti, the standard late wheat of the south-west Cape, in regard to
both yield and earliness of maturity. Rieti is extremely late and in
consequence the crop will suffer in short seasons from drought and
from shattering by south-east winds.

122

JOUENAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.

OAT YAEIETIES.

At one time the only oat variety grown in this area was the old
Cape Oat (Boerhawer), but for various reasons this variety has
practically disappeared from local cultivation. At present Algerian
is the best known and most popular oat, and Texas is also an exten-
sively cultivated variety. These two varieties and a number of others
have been submitted to trial at this station for several years.

Table VI shows the relative grain yields of the different varieties
undergoing trial.

Table YI.

Variety.

Grain Yield in lb. per Acre.

916. 1917. 1918. 1919.

Average Return

for

4 Years.

Algerian
Sidonian
Smyrna
River Plate
Texas ...
Appier...
Bancroft
Burt ...

1,020
1.060
1.120
95.5
805
785
7.35
870

1,110

1.030

1,805

i,.33r.

1,080

1,375

970

1.098

1,500

1,025

1,124

1,445

1,200

1,014

1.525

855

5*00

1 ,655

885

798

1,525

8.35

1,025

990

1,241
1,213
1,172
1,137
1,136
1,049
986
930

Algerian. — This is certainly the most popular variety throughout
the Union. It possesses the advantage of having a very fine straw
which makes a good oat-hay and at the same time is a very consistent
yielder of grain.

Sidonian. — This variety has a large kernel. It tillers exceed-
ingly well but has a coarse straw which ^s very liable to lodge. It is
of late maturity and suited only to the coastal areas.

Smyrna. — A strong growing variety with abnormally large grain.
The straw is very coarse, which makes it unsuitable for hay purposes.
It is about fourteen days earlier than Algerian. This variety has
given very good results on inland Karroo soils, especially under
irrigation.

River Plate. — This variety has a plump, white kernel. It tillers
well, but is weak in straw and inclined to shatter. It is of the same
maturity as Sidonian.

Texas. — A short-growing variety with fine straw and short,
plump, red kernel. Although slightly later thin Algerian it is
extensively grown in the coastal districts of the south-west Cape.

Appier .-—Lil^e Texas, this variety grows below 'the average
height. It tillers well, but has a weak straw and is inclined to
shatter.

Bancroft. — This variety is of the same maturity as Texas and has
a plump, brown kernel. The straw is very weak and liable to lodge.

Burt.-—\ variety with fine straw and light kernel. It tillers
very well, is of exceedingly early maturity, and is particularly suited
for hay. It is, however, liable to shatter where south winds are
prevalent at harvest time.

Results of Winter Cereal Experiments. 123

Summary: Oats.

Algerian is still deservedly the most popular oat variety of the
south-west Cape for ])oth hay and grain. As a grain oat, Texas stands
second to Algerian in the same area.

Burt is a variety of recent introduction, and is becoming popular
as a hay oat on account of its extremely early maturity. This variety,
due to the sniallness and lightness of its grain is not favoured as a
g-rain oat.

Smyrna is better suited to the inland sections of the South Karroo
than to the coastal belt, and answers well under irrigation. It yields
a coarse hay and is chiefly grown for grain.

The Eviropean Corn Borer.

Maize, a plant of American origin, has met in South
Africa a native African insect, the maize stalk borer, which
damages the growing plant more than all other insects
combined. Quite a different insect, but one which attacks the plant
in much the same way, has lately found its way Troni the old world to
America. It attacks a very wide variety of plants apart from maize
and other plants of the grass family, and it is thought to have got
into America with importations of hemp from Europe. In 1917 it
was discovered near Boston, Massachusetts, and an investigation dis-
closed that it occurred throughout an area of only about a hundred
square miles. By the middle of 1919 this infested area had increased
to 1600 square miles, and two supplementary infested areas had been
discovered. The Florida Plant Board's Quarterly Bulletin states as
follows about the pest: — "What is regarded by entomologists as one
of the most serious insect pests yet found in the United States has
occupied an area of 1400 square miles near Boston, Mass., an area of
about 200 square miles on Cape Cod, and still another area of 300
square miles at Schenectady, New York. This insect is the European
corn borer, Pyrausta nuhilnlis Hubner, and it Ihi-eatens to do more
damage, in the aggregate, than any pest with which the farmers or
fruit growers of America have yet had to contend. Already the
States of Massachusetts and New York have each expended nearly
1100,000.00 in fighting it, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture
is using a Congressional appropriation of |250,000.00 for the same
purpose, appropriated by Congress in August, 1019. The Depart-
ment is asking for an additional appropriation of |500,000.00, and a
conference of State Commissioners of Agriculture and Official Ento-
mologists, held at Albany, N.Y., and Boston, Mass., on 28th and 29th
August, has recommended to Congress that |2, 000, 000. 00 be appro-
priated at once to combat the pest, with the additional appropriation,
later, of as many more millions of dollars as may be necessary "

124 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

THE ERADICATION OF CITRUS CANKER.

By E. M. DoiDGE, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Mycologist,
Division of Botany.

In the South African Journal of Industries for January, 1919, the
citrus canker situation up to December, 1918, was reviewed by
Dr. Pole Evans in an article entitled " Citrus Canker in South Africa
and its Eradication."

The progress made during the past few months has fully justified
the determination of the Government to continue the eradication
campaign, and there is every indication that the opinion expressed by
Dr. Pole Evans that eradication can be accomplished in two or three
years' time will be justified.

The following table shows the number of orchard trees found
infected each month from 1st July, 1917, when the regular inspection
was organized : —

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

Canker has been found on 98 properties, on 53 of these all citrus
trees have been destroyed, so that there is no possibility of reinfection.
The total sum paid in compensation up to date is £71,862. 17s. 8d.

A more detailed statement is appended showing the farms
involved and the localities where canker is likely to recur, and the
accompanying maps illustrate the progress of the disease since the
publication of the article in the Journal of Industries for January,
1919.

1917.

1918.

1919

—

3,889

25

—

1,878

61

—

2,134

60

—

934

88

—

513

45

—

602

19

217

119

5

65

6

32

248

159

19

13

228

8

35

60

2

1,182

50

2

1,750

10,572

366

The Ekadication of Citrus Canker.

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126

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

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The Eradication of Citrus Canker.

127

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128

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last iEound.

OS
03

P

00

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p.

00

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S -5^1-5 -51 X'P

a a£-
ra c s

I-? 1-5 1-5

tH

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Number

of

Infected

Properties.

■*

(M

CI

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-*

-

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'til

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(3

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3
a

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a

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02

The Eradication op Citrus Canker.

129

w

O

02
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Properties
on which all
Citrus Trees
have been
Destroyed.

iH

0

0

0

-

Date

on which

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last found.

05
S

i

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Mar.
May
June
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.0
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6

130 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Some explanation is necessary in connection with the possibility
of further infection indicated in the last column. There are only two
farms, namely, De Kroon No. 420 and Buifelspoort No. 668. on which
the disease is likely to recur to any extent; some infection may also he
found on Bokfontein No. 647 and Hartebeesthoek No. 524. but it is
not anticipated that any laro^e number of trees will be involved.
On a number of farms (6), Elandsdrift No. 284, Greylingspost No.
Ill, Eietfonteiu No. 431, Eoodepoort No. 2148, Schoonfrezicht No.
144, Yissershoek No. 45, it is very unlikely that canker will recur,
but as the diseased orchards have not been entirely destroyed it is
within the bounds of possibility that further infection may be found,
and these orchards are being- kept under strict surveillance. There are
twenty-three farms on which all diseased orchards have been destroyed,
and hence no further infection is possible; the sites of the orchards
which have been burned are, however, periodically inspected, as
canker is occasionally found on sucker shoots g^rowing" from pieces of
root left in the ground. In destroying" and removing- the trees it is
impossible to be certain that the roots are entirely destroyed. The
sucker shoots sometimes become infected from canker organisms in
the soil, where they can survive for a considerable time.

Every possible precaution is being" taken to prevent fresh out-
breaks. No planting" of citrus trees is allowed in the quarantined area,
except by special permit [see Agrricultural Pests (Citrus Canker) Act,
1919, appended]. Permission to raise or plant citrus trees is only
given where the proposed orchard site is at a safe distance from an
infected area, and trees must be obtained from a nursery outside the
quarantined area. No sanction for raising nurseries in the quaran-
tined area is granted at present.

Act (No. 10, 1919) to Amend the Agricultueal Pests Act, 1911,

IN RESPECT OF LaND OR PlaNTS InFECTED WITH CiTRUS CaNKER.

Be it enacted by the King's Most Excellency Majesty, the Senate
and tlie House of Assembly of the Union of South Africa, as follows :

1. (1) Except with the. permission of the Minister of Agriculture,
no person shall, after the commencement of this Act, plant or raise
or keep any citrus plant —

(a) on any land on which any citrus plant has, owing to the
presence of citrus canker, been destroyed on the authority
of the Minister of Agriculture under the powers of the
Agricultural Pests Act 1911 (Act No. 11, 1911) or on any
land adjacent to such land ; or

(h) on any land within an area proclaimed or notified under the
said Act to be a quarantined or restricted area by reason
of the presence of citrus canker :

But nothing in this section shall be construed as prohibiting the keep-
ing on any such land of plants existing- thereon on the eighth dav
of July, 1918.

(2) Any person who contravenes the provisions of this section
shall be guilty of an offence and liable on conviction to the penalties
prescribed by section twenty-seven of the said Act.

The Eradication of Citrus Canker.

131

0.

<

43

o

Q

o

132 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

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The Eradication op Citrus Canker.

133

'^^stenburc-d^

134 t:.; Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

2. (1) Notwithstanding' anything contained in section seven or
in section fifteen of the said Act, no compensation shall be paid to the
owner or occupier of any nursery or of any premises, in respect of —

{a) the destruction after the thirty-first day of March, 1920, of
any plant on account of its having been infected with citrus
canker ; or

(h) the destruction after the commencement of this Act of any
plant planted, raised, or kept in contravention of section
one of this Act.

(2) Notwithstanding anything in the said Act contained, any
agreement entered into with the Department of Agriculture since
the eighth day of July, 1918, whereby any person has undertaken not
to claim compensation under the said Act in respect of the destruction
of his plants by reason of the presence of citrus canker shall be binding
on such person and on any person deriving from him title to the land
on which the plants existed.

3. This Act may be cited for all
Pests (Citrus Canker) Act 1919.

purposes as the Agricultural

The World's Harvest.

The following interesting statistics are extracted from the Inter-
national Crop Heport, February, 1920: —

Northern HeTnisphere, 1919.

Percentage of
World's Yield
Represented.

Yield 1919, compared with

Crop.

1918 (=100).

Average 1913-17
(= 100).

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Wheat*

60

93-3

96-5

Barley

40

80-2

88-5

Oats

55

86-9

90-2

Maize

75

115-6

104-9

Potatoes

25

96-1

94-4

Tobacco

60

101-8

118-5

Cotton

80

104-4

94-9

Wine

80

105-4

109-4

* In the Southern Hemisphere the Australian wheat crop of 1919-20 is only 54 - 4 per cent,
the quantity of the previous season's yield 'and as low as 38-3 per cent, of the country's
average yield for the five years ended 1917-18.

Library of the Department of Agriculture. 135

THE LIBRARY OF THE DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE.

Bj^ Paul Ribbink, Librarian.

The Library of the Department at Pretoria is becoming one of the
most valuable assets the research worker in agriculture and the
farmer have at .their disposal. Housed in a noble circular room
in the Union Buildings with radiating book shelves of teak, it is
becoming indispensable to the Department, and a great attraction
to a numerous aiid increasing body of students of agriculture and
journalists, as well as to practical farmers. The reading tables are
laden with agricultural literature from every part of the world, some
8000 diiferent serials in all. The shelves contain books covering
every branch of agriculture and other allied subjects.

A library constitutes part of the tools of trade of the investigator
of agricultural matters, who, with a well equipped collection at his
service, finds his work greatly lightened through the possession of
data already published in connection with similar problems in other
countries. In many cases the country is saved months of salaried
time and considerable experimental funds on investigation, through
the possession of its library, and the more up-to-date and complete
that library is, the greater the efficiency the Department and its value
to the public. Libraries form a most vital part of a nation's equip-
ment to hold its own in the struggle for a-n honourable place in
civilization and a fair share of the benefits thereof.

In other countries, such as Great Britain and the United States,
the value of business literature has been recognized, and we even
find large business houses and banks possessing their own collections ;
notable among these in the United States of America are the National
City Bank with 20,000 volumes and 400,000 indexed pamphlets;
the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company with 19,000 volumes, and
the J. P. Morgan Company with more than 6000 volumes.

The new Library catalogue is now being prepared and will be
published during this year. The general arrangement, cataloguing,
and classification is on the Dewey decimal system, although in a
form modified to suit the immediate requirements of the collection.
The number of books amounts to roughly 9000 bound volumes and
5000 unbound volumes, witli 14,000 bulletins and leaflets, and 3000
periodicals. The main subjects, numbering about 500 with numerous
sections, are grouped somewhat as follows and are limited to publica-
tions bearing on agricidture and its branches : —

(1) General literature, including biography, travels, history,

etc.

(2) Reference books (such as dictionaries, encyclopaedias,

directories, etc.).

(3) Public documents (blue books, etc.).

136

Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

Library op the Department of Agriculture. 137

(4) Bibliography (including- library and piiblisliers' cata-

logues, etc.).

(5) Economic sciences (statistics of various countries, educa-

tion, political and social economy, finance, labour,
wage.^:, rent, commerce, etc.).

(6) Useful arts (engineering, manufactures, trades, etc.).

(7) Mathematics (surveying, etc.).

(8) Agriculture (and all its branches).

(9) Physical science (physics, geography, meteorology,

chemistry, geology, etc.).

(10) Biological science (natural history, zoology', entomology,

embryology, evolution, heredity, botany, bacteriology,
pathology, etc.).

(11) vScientific periodicals and societies (transactions, memoirs,

etc.).

Among these numerous works there are, naturally, items of

Outstanding Interest to Every One.

For instance, under travels Ave find books like those of Barrow oil,
travels in Southern Africa with early descriptions of the country,
and numerous illustrations and valuable information concerning
products, animals, etc. Under agriculture such works as transla-
tions of the treatises by " Cato and Varro " on Roman farm manage-
ment make excellent reading, and are invaluable to the student of
agricultural history and economics. Many works of this descrip-
tion written in the days of ancient Rome and Greece enunciate prin-
ciples which still hold good to-day and give opinions and advice
remarkable for their wisdom. Under botany, Johan Commelin's
work, published in Amsterdam in 1697, is of particular interest to
South Africa, containing as it does descriptions of plants found at
the Cape of Good Hope and sent to the Botanic Gardens in Amster-
dam by Governor Simon van der Stel. A most important part of
the collection is formed by the old English classics, such as the
works of Jethro Tull (1674-1740), Sir John Sinclair (1754-1835),
Arthur Young (1741-1820), etc. Many other items of considerable
interest could be mentioned. Naturally, up-to-date works for the
practical farmer bulk largely ; for example, a person wishing to build
a silo on modern lines can find what he wants as well as the one
wanting to know the particular crops most likely to bring him in the
best returns in his district.

Though the Library is still far from complete, the casual visitor
will find that its value has not been over-rated. His appetite for
books of general culture and literary interest will be well satisfied,
while, at the same time, the practical value of the library to him,
either as a farmer or as a student, will be considerable, and he will
be stimulated to further reading, either by repeating his visits or by
making use of the scheme under which ordinary books (which do not
include works of reference) are lent out under special regulations,
copies of which may be obtained from the Librarian,

138 Journal of the Department oi' AoRictTLTURE.

POISONING OF CATTLE BY FEEDING ON OLD
MEALIE LANDS.

By D. T. Mitchell, M.R.C.V.S., Acting' Director of Veieriuary
Research, Veterinary Researcli Laboratory, Onderstepoort.

During recent years, in various parts of Natal, a number of cases
of paralysis in cattle ha^e occurred wlien the animals have been
allowed access to uiealie lands for grazing purposes in the latter
part of the winter.

It is customary in Natal, when harvesting mealies, to discard
all badly formed cobs, which are either left on the stalk or dropped
on the ground. In this way, when catfJe are changed to old lands,
there are lying* around considerable numbers of old and damaged
cobs which have been exposed to the weather for some months, and
these are readily eaten by the cattle. Owing to this, and to the
fact that ihe cobs are found in many of the districts in a very
mouldy condition, it has been suspected by farmers, in areas where
the paralysis among* cattle occurs, that this condition is due to cattle
eating a large quantity of these diseased mealies. Positive experi-
mental evidence on the subject was, however, lacking. Feeding tests
carried out at the Veterinary Research Laboratory, Pretoria, witli
material (mealies on cob) obtained in the Ixopo Division, Natal,
failed to give any positive results. The animals used in these experi-
ments were two sheep, two goats, one calf, and one mule. The
experiments were continued for three weeks, during Avhich time the
calf, sheep, and goats received an average total of 33 lb. of cobs
pel' week, and the mule 15.5 lb. per week.

During the last five weeks of the tests soaked mealies were given.
One heifer was fed on a culture of the fungus grown on crushed
maize from one to one-and-a-half months; this animal consumed
23 lb. of this material between 19th and 31st March. No symptoms
other than a slight loss of weight could be observed in any of the
animals under observation.

From the subsequent experiments on Diplodia-infected maize it
would appear that the quantities fed at Pretoria were too small to
produce effects, or, what is more probable, that the supply of cobs
forwarded, for experiment contained only a small percentage of
infected grains.

Reference to these experiments will be found in a pamphlet*
published by Dr. Van der Byl, of the Division of Plant Pathology.

This pamphlet gives a detailed description of Diplodia zea, with
photographs of infected maize cobs, and shonld be consulted by those
interested in the feeding tests referred to herein.

*" Preliminary Investigation of the Deterioration of Maize infected with D'ljiUulia Zeae
(Schw.) Lev." from the Transactions of the Royal Soceity of South Africa, Vol, IV, Part 3,
1915.

Poisoning of Cattle. . 139

From these previous experiments it was concluded that the maize
so infected had no harmful effect on animals to which it was fed.

Although these results were fairly conclusive, the experience
of many farmers pointed definitely to the harmful results of allow-
ing cattle to graze in mealie lands where cobs were abundant and
which, for the first few days at any rate, constituted almost the sole
article of diet.

Por this reason it was decided to commence a series of experi-
ments at the Maritzburg Laboratory, utilizing mealie cobs obtained
from farms where the disease had recently occurred.

Through the assistance of Mr. Power, Senior Veterinary Surgeon,
Katal, sufficient material was obtained for the tests from various
farmers in the Estcourt DiA^sion. Some cobs were forwarded to
the Government Botanist, Pretoria, for determination of the infect-
ing fungus present, and were reported on by him as follows: ''The
mealie cobs referred to in your minute of 30th September last are
infected with the fungus Diplodia zea."

For the tests four oxen were selected which had been on the
station for about two years and had been fed only on grass in the
paddocks adjoining the laboratory. These animals were about five
years old and in good condition. During the experiments they were
tied up in the stable and watered by hand with water obtained from
the river close by. The mealies on the cob were fed as received from
the farmers, but in all cases the mealie grains only were eaten, the
central core being- rejected. It is, therefore, difficult to say definitely
what weight of material was actually eaten.

Quantities of material fed : —

Ox No. 88 mOlh.

Ox No. 90 2701b.

Ox No. 94 2251b.

Ox No. 87 ad lib. about 1451b.

Of these four animals one ox did not show any departure from
the normal, and the remaining three developed typical symptoms.

General Notes on the Experiment.

With the exception of Ox No. 87, the feeding on the mealie
cobs was discontinued as soon as the first symptoms were shown. In
the case of Ox No. 87 the feeding was continued up to the time of
death. It is considered that had the feeding of cobs been discon-
tinued when symptoms of improvement were sJiown, death would not
have ensued. In the other animals under experiment no medicinal
treatment of any sort was administered, and the recovery in their
case is attributed to the fact that as soon as the first symptoms of
paralysis or inco-ordmation of movement were first observed the
animals were not given any more mealie cobs. The additional ration
of sug"ar-cane which was administered in their case could not be
supposed to have any special curative infiuence other than that
exercised in general by the good nursing which was accorded to
the cattle. The amount of cobs fed to the experimental animals was
considerable. In the case of Ox No. 87, it was observed that
although this animal consumed the smallest quantity it was followed
by fatal results, and that although a similar quantity of mealie cobs

140 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

of the same lot was fed to animal No. 94, this animal recovered.
The effect produced would doubtless depend on the degree of infection
of any particular lot of cobs with fungus, but in view of the above-
mentioned fact it would appear that the particular idiosyncrasy of
the animal was also a determiniag factor.

The general health of the animals in experiment did not seem
to be greatly affected. The appetite was well maintained, and with
the exception of a slight degree of diarrhoea iu the earlier stages
no derangement of the stomach or intestines could be noted. In the
latter stages constipation was present.

Practically no elevation of temperature was noted, and it Avas
on this account, associated with the fact that the appetite was main-
tained well throughout, that there was such a slight loss of condition
in the animals during experiments.

The foregoing experiments demonstrated conclusively that the
feeding of oxen with mealie cobs infected with Diplodia zea produced
a condition in the laboratory experimental animals which was indis-
tinguishable from that occurring in cattle which gained access to
mealie lands, and it was therefore concluded that the conditions were
one and the same. As it was still not possible to say what was the
actual exciting cause of the intoxication — whether it was due to the
fungus, to the products of its metabolism, or to alterations in the
starchy content of the grain on which the fungus was growing — a
series of experiments were therefore undertaken to elucidate this
point.

Through the kindness of Dr. Van der Byl a pure culture of
Diplodia zea was obtained and a number of preliminary experiments
undertaken in order to ascertain under what conditions the fungus
could be grown in bulk on maize, etc.

After some preliminary work it was found that the Diplodia
would grow well at 27° C. in Mason's jars filled with sterile crushed
maize. The lids of these jars had a half-inch opening drilled through
to allow for inoculation of the medium with fungus spores. Growth
was allowed to proceed for two months.

Notes on the Expeeiments.

Of the three animals which partook of the culture of Diplodia on
sterile maize in quantities of 20 lb. each two developed symptoms.

These symptoms resembled those produced by feeding on infected
cobs, but the onset after the commencement of feeding was shorter,
and the symptoms were much more acute. The period during which
clinical symptoms remained was shorter and recovery more rapid.
These differences can be accounted for by the fact that the animals
received a large dose of more highly concentrated material than was
the case in the cob-fed animals.

The absence of symptoms in one ox may have been due to a
tolerance resulting from an attack in the preceding year.

Conclusions.

From these experiments it was concluded that a condition indis-
tinguishable clinically from that produced by feeding on infected
cobs or occurring naturally in infected mealie lands could be set up
by feeding on a culture of Diplodia zea grown on sterile maize.

Poisoning of Cattle. 141

Further experiments were carried out to determine whether allied
species of fungi (mucor) grown under identical conditions woidd
produce similar symptoms and whether Diplorlia zca grown on a cellu-
lose medium would give rise to tlie condition when the medium was
fed.

All these experiments gave negative results.

General Conclusions.

(1) That a disease in cattle characterized by inco-ordination of
movement and paralysis is set up by feeding on mealie cobs which
are infected with Diplodia zea.

(2) The cultures of DipJodia zea grown on sterile maize when i
fed produce clinical symptoms- indistinguishable from those set up
b}^ feeding on infected cobs.

(3) That the intensity of the symptoms and the mortality depend
upon the quantity fed and on the percentage of infection present in
the grains.

(4) That cultures of allied species of fungi grown on maize are
incapable of setting up similar clinical symptoms.

(5) That the causal factor is not the fungus itself, but must be
looked for in the material which is formed as a result of the inter-
action of DipJodia zca during its development in the starchy content
of the maize giains.

General DESfRiPTiON.

The following is a brief description of the disease as it occurs
under veld conditions: —

Geographical Distrihuiion. — In Natal the reports of the presence
of the disease would appear to be limited to the high veld parts of
the country, and in these areas the occurrence of a disease in cattle
resembling this condition has been very common during the last two
seasons. In most cases it has been impossible to entirely eliminate
all other factors, such as poisoning by poisonous plants, etc., owing
to lack of opportunity to investigate each outbreak reported, but it
may be taken that cases of the disease have occurred in most of the
high veld mealie-producing centres of Natal. The losses were most
severe during the season preceding these experiments in the Estcourt
Division, and it was from this district solely that the material was
obtained for experimental purposes. Reports of a few outbreaks
have also come to hand from the Ixopo Division, but material obtained
from this district failed -to reproduce the disease in animals at the
Research Laboratory, Onderstepoort.

Seasonal Occurrence. — The disease is limited to the late winter
months, July to September. This is the period when veld grazing
is very scanty, and it is the custom for farmers to turn their cattle
at this time into the mealie lands for better food.

Animals Affected. — The disease is limited to cattle, animals of
all ages and sexes being equally susceptible. Some reports have
mentioned the fact that sheep were also susceptible, but up to the
present it has not been possible to confirm this. Horses, mules, and

142 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

donkeys would not appear to be susceptible, as these animals graze
over the same area where cattle are dying of the disease without suffer-
ing any harmful results. No cases have been recorded of goats or
pigs having been affected.

Caiuse. — The disease is only found associated with mealie lands,
and it is popularly supposed by the farmers of the affected areas that
it is caused by feeding on mealie cobs which have lain for some months
on the ground. In the experimental investigations mealies which
had been subjected to these conditions were found to be capable of
producing a similar train of symptoms, and this supports the opinion
of the farmers. Examination of the cobs fed revealed the fact that
a very great percentage were infected with tne fungus Diplodia zea.
Experiment evidence has shown that cultures of Diplodia zea in sterile
maize when fed to animals can set up clinical symptoms which are
similar to those shown in animals contracting the disease naturally,
and further experiments indicate that the results are produced by a
substance of, at present, unknown composition formed during the
growth of the fungus in the maize grains.

Time after Exposure at which the First Symptoms are Shown.

In natural conditions in the veld, cases have been known to occur
in six to eight days after the animals were placed in the lands. In
the laboratory experiments the shortest time which elapsed between
ihe commencement of feeding- on the cobs until the first symptoms
were shown was three (hiys and the longest fifteen days. The animal
which developed symptoms in three days was a very ravenous feeder,
and this may account for the short time which elapsed before
symptoms were shown. It may be taken that the development of the
symptoms depends on the quantity eaten and the condition of the cobs
with reference to their degree of infection by the fungus.

Symptoms. — The first symptoms noted are lachrymation and
salivation accompanied by slight quivering of the muscles of the flank
and shoulder. The back is slightly arched, and the animal stands
with its legs farther apart than normal. The head is carried low
and the ears droop slightly; the faeces are mostly soft, but no
diarrhoea is present. In this stage, if the animal is walked, only
slight symptoms of inco-ordination of movement are to be noticed.
Later, these symptoms are aggravated — profuse salivation and
lachrymation are apparent — muscular tremors become general. The
coat stares, liack is very much arched, and the animal has a dejected
appearance. Progression is slow and the animal only walks when
compelled to do so. Symptoms of inco-ordination of movements are
evinced by high stepping of the legs. Lateral swaying of the body
and sometimes a tendency to progress with the hindquarters bent to
one side. The animal falls after walking a short distance, unless
supported. These symptoms last for about one or two days, after
which the animal is unable to rise without assistance, and when lifted
stands with the legs wide apart and the head down, and showing
irregular spasmodic contractions of the leg muscles. The tail is
flaccid ; on walking the animal knuckles over at the fetlocks of both
fore and hind limbs, frequently plunging head foremost on the
ground after a short distance. Sensation is retained in the muscles.
Rumination is suspended, but the animal feeds occasionally and

Poisoning of Cattle. l4o

(Iriiiks fairly well. It cobs are .still adiniiiisiered to tlie animal the
syinptonis Ijecome more pronounced, and soon the animal is unable
to stand on being' lifted. It remains lying on the ground, feeding
occasionally. Constipation now ensues, the faeces which are passed
being coated with mucous, wliich is blood-tinged. Death is preceded
by a complete loss of tone of the muscles, the animal lying stretched
out and comparatively limp.

If feeding on the mealie cobs is discontinued when well-marked
clinical symptonis develop, recovery is fairly rapid. The appetite
leturns and the animal feeds on green stuffs freely. The symptoms of
])aralysis disappear in a few days, but stiffness in movements persists
foi' some time. In one case w^hich recovered, knuckling over at the
fetlocks continued iov over a week when other symptoms had
disappeared and the animal developed a bony callus on the anterior
aspect of the fetlock joints of the fore legs.

The temperature shows practically no alteration throughout the
illness. The pulse is early affected, becoming rapid and thready,
and in the case which termimtted fatally almost imperceptible for the
last two days of life.

Lesions on Fost-Mortem . — In one case which was available for
examination the cliief lesions present Avere a well-marked catarrhal
enteritis, affecting the small and large intestines. Acute diffuse
hyperaemia of both kidneys and well-marked congestion of both lungs.

Moitalifi/. — The mortality varies considerably on the various
farms. In some, practically all the animals which develop symptoms
succumb, while in others a large percentage recover. It would appear
that tlie mortality is greater in the lattei' pait of the season.

Treatment. — No treatment was adopted in the case of the animals
which recovered and in which the disease had been artificially pro-
duced, other than good nursing. It is necessary to remove the
animals at once from the lands as soon as the initial symptoms
appear. Affected animals should be given a saline purge, so as to
empty the intestines of ingested irritant material. The animal
should, if possible, be housed and given some green food, oi" if none
is available an addition of a daily dose of linseed oil to the ordinary
food is indicated.

Fievention. — Collection of all danuiged cobs at the harvesting
sliould be practised. As the suspected causal fungus is most prevalent
in old mealie lands, these lands should be allowed to lie fallow for a
season or, if this is impossible owing to lack of other suitable agri-
cnltuial lands on the farm, strong measures sliould be adopted to get
rid of the fungus itself on the lands. In view of the fact that the
fungus had been demonstrated in the stalks as well as in the cobs, it
woiild be advisable to burn off all the vegetation in the lands as soon
after the mealies are hai'V'ested as was possible. By this means,
complete sterilization of the whole area would be ensured, and in the
following season the cattle might be allowed access to the mealie lands
with safety.

It is strongly recommended, however, whatever general treat-
ment of the lands is carried out. that on succeeding years all cobs
shoidd be harvested.

144

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

THE DROUaHT OF 1918-1919.

Estimated Loss of Live Stock and Produce.

Although there are some parts of tlie country where rain is still
sorely needed (March, 1920), the great drought which pre-
vailed over a wide extent of the ITnioii during 1918-1919
has now happily spent itself, and we can endeavour to form
an estimate of the loss to our pastoral and agricultural
industries by one of the severest dry spells known in the history
of South Africa. It will be recognized that from such information
as is available an estimate only can be framed, but though the
actual loss and its full economic effects on the country will never be
known, it is considered that the information now placed before the
public is reasonably accurate and will show clearly the degree of loss
we have sustained and justify the natural dread with which farmers
view the recurring droughts which rob them of their stock and crops.
In obtaining information as to the effects of the drought, the
Department had the assistance of all magistrates and sheep inspectors,
whose knowledge of local conditions enabled them to give, as a rule,
valuable details of mortality of stock and decrease of crop produc-
tion in the areas served by them, and it is largely on this information
that the estimates hereunder have been based.

Rainfall.

To determine the extent to which the conditions prevailing
generally throughout the Union during' 1919 are reflected in the rain-
fall for that year as compared with previous years, a schedule was
prepared from information supplied by the Meteorological Office
giving in detail the annual rainfall at various centres in the Union
over a period of years extending from 1900 to 1919 inclusive. This
shows that, with the exception of 1903, the rainfall of 1919 was the
lowest during the past twenty years. The following summary sets out
the position clearly : —

TMean Rainfall (inches) for Years :

Province.

(5)
1900-4.

1905-9.

(5) (5)
1910-4. 1915-9.

(20) Total Rain-
1900-19. fall, 1919.

Ca])e

Natal

Transvaal ...
Orange Free State

16-42
34-67
25-12
20-12

1 8 - 02
42-63
29-17
20-79

17-51
40-79
25-83
19-27

16-64
42-95
29-03
iTBO

17-15
40-40
26-96
20 - L5

13-03
34-19
22-54
14-27

Total Average ...

24-08

27-65

25 - 85

27-56

26-24

21-19

It will be observed that compared with the average rainfall for
the stated periods of five years from 1900, and for the whole period of
the past twenty jears, the total rainfall in 1919 is deficient in each
instance.

Thk Drought of 19J.S-li^)l'.i.

145

Estimated Losses of Live Stock.

Apart iroin the Transkeiaii Territories, where it wavS not possible
to obtain reliable figures, the drought is estimated to have been the
direct cause of the following losses : —

Laige Stock.

Total :

Through
Poveitv.

Through
Poverty.

Small 8 ock.

Through

Slaughter of

Offspring.

Total.

Cape ...

Natal

Transvaal

Orange Free State

Total

No.
10O,25J
11,0!:>0
48.000
GI,3S.-,

21(),32o

No.

l'.2(J7,400

32,350

187,000

'.>74,(00

3,4(J(>,7.-)0

No.

l,]t53,UOO

19,300

112,700

fi20,300

No.
3,431,300

.51,(;50

2!iy^70O

1,.'.94!300

l,i)lf,.2()0 5,37(),9r)0

Losses of large stock were severest in tlie Cape ProAince, where
().7G per cent, of the total cattle is estimated to have perished. In
the Xortliern Karoo 3L51 per cent, died, and in the Central and
l<]astern Karoo nearly 12 per cent. Heavy losses were reported also
Irom the western high veld of the Transvaal and the south-west of
the Orange Free State, estimated at 12.05 per cent, and 10.19 per
cent, respectively of tlie total animals. For the whole Union, it is
estimated that 3.98 per cent, of its total large stock was lost.

In adult small stock the deaths through poverty were 11.02
i)er cent, of the Union's total, nearly three times the percentage
mortality of large stock. The Karoo and north-western districts of
the Cape suffered most, the flocks there being depleted by from 20
l)er cent, to 24 per cent.

It is among- the progeny of the small stock, however, that
enormous losses occurred, the total for the Union lieing placed at 45.16
per cent. Again the Karoo districts show the greatest losses, the
mortality in the Northern Karoo being as high as 89.05 per cent.
The Southern Karoo with 78.11 per cent, and the north-western
Orange Fre^^ State with 72.52 per cent, also suffered severely.

Losses of Crops.

With tlie aid of its crop correspondents, the Department was able
1(j gauge the extent to which the lack, of rain affected the principal
crops of the country. From this cause it is estimated that the follow-
ing quantity of produce was lost: —

Crop.

Cape.

Transvaal.

Orange
Free State.

Natal.

Total
Union.

Wheat, I'.U!) ...

bags

(i02,3oO

44,300

110,200

762,800

Oats (Hay), 191'.i

.. bundles

9,996,800

2,302,0C0

4.082,300

—

10,981.100

,. ((xiain), 191'.t

Ijags

321,200

39,300

107,800

—

468,300

r.arlev, 1919 ...

,.

147,fi0O

—

7.7uO

—

l-.5,3O0

.Maize, 1918 19

„

1,021.142

1.030,318

1,989,000

482,700

5,123,760

Kaffir Corn, 1918 19

>j

202,400

130,300

70,100

127,200

536,00o

Tobacco, 19:8-19

lb.

1,. 503,800

382,400

12,900

13,70C

1,972,800

(Note. — Oat-hay,

v bags, 200 lb.)

lb. per bundle; barley, 150 lb. per bag; all

14(; Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

Tlie effects of tlie drought are epitomized in the statement of
percentag'es given hereunder, revealing tlie areas of the TTnion from
which the heaviest toll was exacted.

An examination of the percentage deficiency in rainfall as com-
pared with the mortality of cattle and stock and decreased agricultural
production discloses some apparently disproportionate features, the
solution of which would have to he sought for and found in a variety
of factors such as

(1) the relative extent of the various areas and the feeding

capacity of the natural vehl thereof;

(2) the facilities of producing and providing artificial feeding;

(3) the ratio of evaporation as api)lied to each area, having

regard to topographical conditions;

(4) the locality of the various areas in relation to what are

known to be the arid or semi-arid regions of the Union.

Conclusion.

Tu addition to the actual losses of stock and crops, the natural
increase of live stock has been adversely affected through losses
actually sustained in breeding- stock, and also the reduced capacity
of breeding stock, which survived the adverse conditions, to produce
offspring. Owing to the impoverished condition of tlie surviving
stock, it was (juite impossible in some districts to ])ut rams to the
ilocks.

That the drought has most adversely affected a number of farmers,
paiticnlarly those with slender resources, is, unhai)pily true, but it
came at a time of uuprecedently high prices for wool, skins, hides,
and produce generally, and this has been of great assistance to the
l)ulk of our farmers in mitigating its effects. Although conditions
in the native territories did at one time threaten disastrous results
as far as foodstuffs, particularly maize, were concerned, the tension
lias since materially been lelieved, and any cause for alarm which
may have existed has practically disap])eared.

The Drought of l"J18-r.il9.

147

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148 Journal of the Dlipahtment of A(;Rie'ULTrin3.

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('()\v-Testin(4 Associations. 149

COW-TESTING ASSOCIATIONS.

By r. JouBERT, Assistant Instriictoi' in Dairying. Klsenburg School

of Agricultiive.

The keeping- ot records in an intelligible and dependable torni of tl)e
milk production of dairy cows is very hirgely responsible for the
rapid development and improvements whicli have taken place in our
dair}^ herds in the past few years. In this respect the breeders of
Fries cattle have been doing good work, especially in keeping records
of heavy producers. The statement that the grade cow has no value
as a breeder has little weight among dairymen who know the real
situation. It must be recognized that, for many years to come, the
great bulk of our dairy products will be obtained from grade cows.

It is not every one Avho can go in for pure-))re(l dairy females, and
from our best graded female stock must come our futiire dairy herds.
It is because the grade cow has a real value as a breeder that our
dairymen must take up cow-testing work, so that they may know
more definitely from which cows it will be worth while to save the
heifer calves, and also which cows are the most jjrofitable to keep.

The Origin of Cow-TESTiNCi and the (trowth of the Movement.

The keeping of milk records of cows had its origin in Denmark in
the year 1892. The first association for carrying on cow-testing was
established at Askov, in Denmark, in 1895. Since tlien the move-
ment has grown with increasing rapidity, and at the i)resent time its
branches ha\e extended into every i)art of the world where the
dairying industry is regarded ^s important.

Cow-testing has been introduced into South Africa at a com-
paratively recent date, and is at the ])resent time almost entirely
confined to pure-bred herds.

In 1913 the first cow-testing association was established in South
Africa at Darling (Cape), under the supervision of the Darling
Creamery. During the period of the v.ar the work was discontinued,
but even in the course of its short existence it did some sjjlendid work,
and enlightened the farmers on many hidden facts of the industry.
Later on, similar associations were started at Mooi Biver, Xatal, and
in the Orange Free State. Members of these associations agree to
submit their entire herd of cows for purposes of ascertaining their
production by means of weights of milk and tests of butter-fat.
Towards the end of 1916 the Friesland Cattle Breeders' Association of
South Africa decided on an official milk record scheme for Friesland
cows, the recording work of which is now being carried out in accord-
ance with the most up-to-date methods by the officers of the Dairy
Division of the Department of Agriculture.

With these associations (apart from the Friesland Breeders'
Association) the test is carried out in the following manner : A man
experienced in handling the Gerber test, and with the required know-
ledge in dairying, is engaged by the association, and visits each herd

150

.Journal of the Department of A(;riculture.

once a •month, usually in time for the e\ening' milking-. His method
of procedure is usually as follows : —

(1) Weighs and samples the milk from each cow that evening-.

(2) Makes an estimate of the feed give}! each cow per d;iy.

(3) Ag-ain weighs and samples ench cow's milk the following

morning.

(4) Tests the sami)les of milk v.f eiich cow for percentage of

butter-fat.

(5) Computes the total feed consumed for the month by each

cow.

(6) Computes the total milk })roduced for the month by each

cow, using the weights obtained as an average.

(7) Computes the butter-fat produced for the month ])y each

cow. using the average test as the test for the montli.

(8) At the end of the year he computes the profit or loss on each

cow by estimating the amount for feed consumed, figured
at market prices, as against the milk yield and butter-fat
produced, calculated at the creamery prices.

Thus at the end of a cow's lactation ])eriod, the farmer has before
him iri a concise form full particulars of the cow's performance,
including costs of feeds, cost of producing a gallon of milk and a
pound of hutter-fat, profit over cost of feeding, etc. This informa-
tion gives the farmer a veiy close ap])roxima1<> idea of the profit or
loss on each individual cow in the lierd.

The Oujects of Keeping Milk 1{e(okj)s

are principally to find out the annual production of milk and butter-
fat of each cow, so that poor and unprofital)le ones may be detected
and eliminated from the herd, and the future herd be built up from
the progeny of tlie cows wliich give a large yield of milk rich in
fat. When a record of the cost of food and attendance for each cow
is kept in conjunction with the millr records, the farmer is furnished
with the necessary data for comparing cows both in respect of economy
in producing chea]) milk and butter-fat and capacity for yielding
large quantities.

The profit which could he made Ironi each cow, by utilizing her
milk for any particular purpose, may be calculated by valuing the
milk at the price for which it could be sold for that particular purpose,
and then subtracting from it the cost of upkeep of the cow. The
following records illustrate that the cow which produces the greatest
(juantities of milk and butter-fat is not necessaiily the most economical
one : —

Cow A
„ 1^

Lb. of

Milk

Yielded.

l."...o21
J 1 . S4 7
1 0 . 00.".

Per cent,
of B.F.
ill Milk.

2. SI
2.92
3 . H2

; Cost of

Lb. of Fat ' Food find

Yielded. Attend-

, ancp.

Cost of Cost of

gallon of Producing
Milk. 1 lb. Fat.

428
34(5
332

£ s.
28 n
21 0
IS 18

d.

d.
4.37

4.2(;

4 . .53

d.

1 .". . 8

I I..T

1 3 . C,

Cow-Testing Associations. 151

These figures show that althoiig-li Cow A yields the kirgest
quantities of milk and butter-fat, yet Cow B is more economical, pro-
ducing milk and butter-fat at a lower cost, while of the three cows C is
the most economical in the production of butter-fat.

The profit which would be derived from each of these cows if the
butter-fat were sold to a creamery at tlie average price of Is. 4d. per
lb. is shown in the followine: table: —

Profit.

Cow

A

„

H

"

C

C s.

(1.

C

s.

d.

£

s

<i.

428

28 10

s

'.'S

T)

.")

(1

")

;{

:!46

23 1

4

L'l

(1

H

2

1

1

•^■^■2

22 2

«

l.s

IS

r>

;i

4

s

This table shows tliat cow A, tliough the greater producer, is the
least profitable in the production of butter-fat.

It must be understood, however, that it is the exception rather
than the rule that the cow with tlie lesser yield is more economical
than the cow with tlie greater yield. Tt is mentioned here merely for
showing the information which may be gained from the milk records,
and not to cast reflections on the economy of the cows with the high
milk yield. In the present instance, cows A and l^ may have been
fed uneconomical ly.

The Advanta(;ks of Testing,

The keeping of records and the testing of cows give the farmer a
greater interest in his cows and in his farming generally. It is known
that cows owned by a farmer who keeps milk records are better fed and
better managed than those of one who neglects this important work.
The keeping of milk records acts as a guide to proper and judicious
feeding. It affords a means of selecting the best cows for breeding
high-class dairy cattle, and indicates a method of identifying bad or
unprofitable cows with a view to their elimination from the herd.
Where the milk is weighed daily the records serve as a guide to tlie
health of the cows, as well as a clieck on the milkers.

Milk records are generally responsible for greater cleanliness in
and around the cowsheds and in the handling of the milk, resulting
in better and cleaner milk. After an experience of a few years with
these associations. I find that the work is being constantly more highly
appreciated by the dairyman.

While there is to-day a world shortage of milk, butter, and
cheese, and labour and foodstuffs are scarce and dear, we cannot lay
too much stress on the importance of going in for the best animal only.
The only method of finding out which is the best cow is by submitting
the milk of each individual cow to the Babcock or Gerber test.

152 Journal op the Department of A<iRicuLTURE.

THE AGRICULTURE AND SOILS OF THE CAPE

PROVINCE.

]^\ Arthur Stead, B.Sc, F.C.S., Lecturer in Chemistry, Groot-
fontein Scliool of Agriculture, Middelburg, Cape.

Introductory.

TTiVDER the above title it is proposed from time to time to record the
progress made by the Chemical Section of the Grootfontein School of
Agriculture in soil survey work.

The work was begun during 1915, but owing to depleted and ever-
changing staffs consequent on the war much less progress has been
made than had been anticipated. IS'one of the work has yet been
finished, but it is thought that some of it has reached a stage which
would justify the issue of a report in the interests of farmers.

In soil survey work it is iiighly desirable that the soil chemist
should collaborate with the botanist and the geologist. While there
are hopes of such co-operation in the future it has been hardly possible
up to the i)resent on account of shortness of stalf and press of work.
The writer would, however, acknowledge valuable assistance received
from Dr. Pole Evans, of the Botanical Division, and Dr. Rogers and
T)r. I)u Toit, of the Geogological Survey.

It might l)e urged tliat such work as this should await the time
when the desired collaboration would be assured ; but that might
mean that our farmers would have to wait i.udefinitely for information
concerning the chemical and physical characteristics of their soils
which they riglitly look to tlie Department of Agriculture to furnish.

It will, therefore, l)e understood that these articles are published
with the full knowledge that the data on which they are founded are
incomplete in important respects ; also with the knowledge that the
best has been done under the abnormal circumstances that liave
obtained during the past years of war and disorganization.

I.

THE WITKOP DISTIUCT.

About two hours by motor from Burgersdorp, east south-east of
that place, and about midway between it and Jamestown, there is a
characteristicallv coloured and shaped \n\e of rock called Witkop.
(See Plate 1.)

The kop, doubtless, gave its name to the farm on which it is
situated, the farm its name to the Post Office, and the latter its name
to the surrounding area.

Witkop Post Office is situated on a plateau high up in the Storm -
bergen at an altitude of at least 6000 feet above sea level. The
climate of the district is, therefore, healthy and invigorating, cool in

Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province. Uu]

I'latc I.

Witkcip

Plate 11.

buiglieisdorp Town Hall ami Market t'la.cic-.

154: Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

summer, cold and somewhat bleak in winter. Stock of all kinds do
well, and little trouble is experienced on account of disease. The
country is well covered with grass, but trees and scrub are con-
spicuous by their absence, excepting- round the homesteads, where
they api)ear to thrive so well tliat one wonders vxhy, in such a bleak
winter area, nothing- has been done in the way of alforestation or the
jjlanting" of shelter belts for the protection of cattle and sheep.
Owing to the severity of the winter lambing- does not take place until
October, when the weather is not only warmer but the veld good and
the sheep in excellent condition. Clean flocks are shorn in February,
scabby ones in November. There would appear to be a good number
wlio shear during the latter month.

The average rainfall is about 24 inches. Januaiy, February, and
March are the rainiest months. vSnow usually falls in winter, and
September generally yields enough rain to ensure a good crop of wheat
and adequate grazing for the lambing ewes.

The climatic conditions on the whole would seem to be particularly
suited to wheat, which is the principal crop. Barley, oats, rye, and
])otatoes are also grown. The last-named crop is a somewhat recent
introduction, due to Mr. Brumberg, the storekeeper, postmaster, and
produce dealer at Witkop. It would appear that the potato crop had
set the Witkoj) farmers thinking. They had foimd that to grow
jxjtatoes before wheat meant a considerable inci-ease in the yield of the
latter croj). All woe convinced on that jioint.

But it would appear that all did not wish to grow potatoes,
because that crop calls for a greater amount of tillage than any other
crop they had grown hitherto. The farmer wanted also to introduce
the potato effect on all the wheat he grew, but he could not do this
l)ecause of the impossibility of putting as much land under potatoes one
year as he desired to sow to wheat the next. Doubtless, the knowledge
that legumes possessed the i)ower of enriching the soil had spread to
Witkop, and nothing was more natural than io suspect the potato to be
endowed with similar power.

Thus it came that the Witkop farmers asked us to investigate their
soils and tell them what fertilizers would seive the same jjui-pose as
the potato crop and give less trouble.

Potato and Wiikat C'ilture.

Lands intended for potatoes are ploughed in March. Xew lands
are ploughed shallow, old lands deej). They are then allowed to lie
exposed to the winter weather until August, when they are again
l)loughed, cross-ploughed, and harrowed. The potatoes are planted
in ^N'ovember, the sets licing dropped into furrows made by the plough
as the land is being ploughed for the fourth time. Probably, also,
the land is harrowed. The usual distance between the sets is 10 inches
in and 28 inches between the lOws. The favourite varietv is " Up-to-
d.ite."

Frequently, during the growing season, the crop is tilled for the
])urposp of keeping down weeds, and, finally, it is lifted with forks
from about May onwards.

It is evident that the laud for wheat following ])otatoes has
received very thorough tillage, not only in the preparation for the
l)<)tato crop, but also throughout the period the latter occupies the

Agriculture and soils of the Cape Province. Ifif)

ir>6 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

o-ioiui(l. Tliis thorough (•iiltivation not only has the effect of increas-
ing" the avaihible plant food in the soil, but it also results in the con-
servation of a large proportion of the usually abundant rainfall of
January to March. When, however, wheat follows wheat, there is a
minimum of cultivation. The crop is not cultivated during growth,
and the stubble is not ploughed in until it is time to sow the next croj).
When that time arrives the land is ploughed, the seed sown broadcast,
and harrowed in. Owing to the compacted state of the soil much of
the rain which falls in January, February, and March is lost to the
succeeding crop. This is in striking contrast to what hap])ens when
wheat follows potatoes and most of the late summer rains are conserved
in the soil.

If this be the correct interpretation of tlie relationship of the
potato crop to the wheat crop that follows it. no fertilizer can take the
place of the former crop, but much benefit would be derived from
breaking up the stubble as soon after harvest as possible and repeating
the operation should the rains compact the soil or weeds take possession
of it.

It would, liowever. seem that tlie farmer is prevented from plougli-
ing after harvest by reason of the necessity to transport his grain to
Burgersdorp, which is over thirty miles distant. If that be so, then no
great improvement of methods can be expected until siich a time as
the transport difficulty is solved in the shape of liettei- railway
facilities.

Co-operation. — The distiift is fortunate in the possession of a
co-opeiative cheese factorv, i.e. the Stormberg Cheese Factory.
Fanners can dis])ose of all their surplus milk at this factory at a
reasonable price, and if the supplier should happen to be a shareholder
he usually receives a bonus as well as a diAidend. There is no doubt
that this cheese factory, apart from beino- n commercial success, has
made itself felt as a factor in the agricultural development of the
district. Farmers findins- that it costs no more to feed good than
inferior cattle are gradually im]n'oving their herds. With improved
herds will follow better methods of farming, for since it pays well to
feed good cattle the farmer will endeavour to produce more food-
stuffs.

In 1917 the output of the factorv was 25',501 lb. of clieese. a figuir
that had increased in 1918 to 34.695 lb.

The valuation of farms for Divisional Council purposes is from £3
to £4 per morgen. but in the open market from £6 to £8 is easilv
obtaincfl. The price of land is certainlv rising here t^s in other parts
of the Fnion, as mav be gathered from the fact that a portion of Wit-
kop W3S sold not lopQ- ago for over £11 per mors-en. A competent
authority q-ives it as his opinion that a value of £20 per morgen is not
excessive for the best of cultivated lands.

The main source of income to the farmer would appear to be sheep.
Crops also return a good outlay on expenditure, and cattle are a very
useful sideline.

Fertilizers have not been used up to the present, so there is hope
that, by a iudicious scheme of manuring and the increase in foodstuffs
produced that would follow, the stock carrying capacity of farms can
be enlarged.

AciRirULTURE AND SOILS OF THE CaPE PROVINCE. l")?

At the present time a farm of 600 morgen, of wliicli about one-
fourth is under cultivation, will carry throughout the year 1000 small
and 150 big- stock, by no means a mean achievement.

The times for sowing", reaping-, lambing, etc., are somewhat
dift'erent from those vrhich obtain in districts of lower altitude, but
similar latitude. The following- "Farm Year" according- to Mr.
Andrew de Klerk, of Lemoenkraal, will, therefore, be of interest: —

Jannury-Feln-uary ... Reaping, threshing, and tvaiis])0i-ting produce

to J5urgersth)rp.

February ... ... Shearing.

March ... ... New and old lands are ploughed in ])repara-

tion for potatoes.

April ... ... ... Rye is sold for grazing purposes.

May ... ... ... Potatoes are lifted and put in pits.

May-July ... ... Wheat and oats are sown, also l)arley, particul-

arly in July.

August ... ... Potato lands are rei)loughed and harrowed.

September ... ... Work is confined principally to sheep and

transportation of ])otatoes to Burgersdorp.

October ... ... Lambing.

Novembei- ... ... Potatoes are i)lanted.

December ... ... Usually a slack month. Potatoes are cii hi vated

to keep down the weeds.

Soils, Crops and Yielos.

Three princijial classe-; or types (it soil ;iie iccognized by the
larmer, i.e.

(1) the black turf* ;

(2) the sand-bultt;

(3) the mixed sand and turf.

llic hlack turf is a heavy clay loam, rich in organic matter, which
is found in valley bottoms. The g-round water level is usually not
more that a few feet from the surface, while the water itself is well
charged with carbonates.

This type of soil is noted for its lasting fertility. Most crops grow
too rank on it, barley invariably lodging. This is the best wheat soil
of the district. As far as that crop is concerned the only drawback
to the soil is that the crop freciuently g-ets lodged. Potatoes are grown
sometimes on the lighter types of this soil.

When virgin, a forty-fold+ leturn of wheat is obtained in a good
season, and the soil continues to gi\e excellent crops for twenty-five
years at least.

The simd-hult is a sedentary fine sandy soil, retentive of moivsture,
but infertile, even when virgin.

* Turf is here doubtless used iu the same sense as the Danish word "torf," meaning
peat.

t A gentle undulation is called a •' bult."

+ The farmer usually reckons his crop yields in bags from a bag of seed sown. Since
the amount of seed sown per acre varies with district, the following data are furnished : —
A full hag of wheat sows 2 morgen, of barley L^ morgen, of oats li morgen, of rye 'for seed)
8 morgen, and 12 bags of potatoes plant one morgen (2 1/9 acres).

158 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

Wlien virgin this soil gives a seven-fold return of potatoes in a
good season. If potatoes are grown the following year the yield would
not be more than three-fold.

Wheat grown after the first crop of potatoes gives a maximum
return of eighteen-fold, dropping to ten-fold the next year, and
becoming so low the year after as to l^e unpayable. Rye is generally
sown at this stage, and yields about fifteen-fold. After one or two
crops of rye luive been taken the land is allowed to revert to pastvirage,
and soon becomes covered with blauwzaad gi-ass, blaiiwbloemetjes, and
Cape clover, which afford very good grazing. With regard to the
vegetation just mentioned, this only applies to sand-bult soil derived
from red beds.

lite mixed turf is a colluvial soil lying at the lower slopes of rather
steep hills. It is similar in mechanical make-u]) to tlie sand-bult type,
but it is fairly rich in organic matter. It gives not only better yields,
but it lasts longer under cultivation.

Virgin land of this type will give a ten-fold return of potatoes,
followed the next year by a thirty to forty-fold return of wheat. If
potatoes follow, the yield would decrease by about one-fifth of the
virgin yield. Wheat would now yield no more than from fifteen to
twenty-fold, and this return would be maintained for several years,
provided potatoes and wheat alternate. It may be mentioned that
potatoes do not give satisfactory returns if grown two years in succes-
sion on the same land.

On virgin land one bag of oats will give 1500 bundles weighing
about 2T00 lb., dropping to 1000 bundles the third year, after which
there woubl ap])ear to be no further decline.

[The next instalment of this report will deal with the geology of
the area, the chemical and mechanical composition of the soils, and
suggestions for their manurial treatment.]

Women's Work.

Each country has its own problems and conditions; "distance
lends enchantment," but closer acquaintance sometimes brings into
view the sterner realities of a country, and, possibly, as time and
space divide us from the land we have left its own problems seem less
formidable and in contrast its privileges are more to be desired. That
this is the experience of a lady who received a Government bursary
for study in Domestic Science, and is now at the University of McGill,
Canada, is evident from letters written to her mother in South Africa.
Avhich we have been permitted to see. She writes: — " ... I
would never like to live in this country, because there are no natives
to do the dirty work, and one has to do it all oneself. The daughters
of the farmers here work just as hard as the men. They have to do
all the milking, and have to help with the ploughing, and as for
taking out the potatoes and onions, the girls have to do it all. Thank
heaven I am a South African!"

Importation of Cattle. U)9

IMPORTATION OF CATTLE.

Measures to Prevent Introduction of Disease.

The liistory ot South Africa's efforts to prevent the introduction into
her borders of animal diseases, stretclies back many j-ears, and figuring
prominently in it are tlie legislative measures passed for preventing
the importation of tuberculous cattle. No cattle from oversea were
permitted to enter the country without passing the tuberculin test at
the port of entry. Importers, as a consequence, took the precaution
of having tlieir cattle tested and passed by veterinary surgeons oversea,
whose l)ona fides and competency were unquestioned, but notwith-
standing this, many of these animals (G per cent, or more in some
years) reacted to the tuberculin test when applied on arrival in South
Africa. Importers and breeders in South Africa, to whom the matter
was one of great moment, were greatly exercised as to the means
of removing the cause of the loss and delay which ( nsued. Repeated
requests and resolutions came from various influential agricultural
bodies and breeders' associations for suitable arrangements to be
made for the testing, ^\'herever jjossible, of cattle prior to export, so as
to ensure the shipment f)f sound animals only, and remove the neces-
sity of the test on arrival in South Africa. As an outcome, tlie matter
was taken in hand by General Botha, who, when in England in 1911,
entered into negotiations with the British Government, resulting in
the establishment by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries of a
Testing Station at Pirbright, vSurrey, for the reception of cattle to be
tested for tuberculosis prior to export to the Union , thus centralizing
all testing under Government supervision, and doing away witli the

Old and rxsAxisFACTORV Method

of having cattle tested on private farms under varying conditions.
The necessary legislation, prepared in conformity with the wishes of
the farmers of South Africa, to meet the new conditions was provided
in the Diseases of Stock Act Amendment Act, 1916, which makes it
compulsory for cattle arriving from oversea from countries making
satisfactory provision for the establishment of a Government Testing
Station to he provided with a certificate to the effect that they have
been isolated at such a station for not less than twenty-eight days,
subsequently subjected to and successfully passed the tuberculin test,
and thereafter sent direct to the ship. Cattle from countries where no
Government testing stations are provided, will, according to the Act,
be quarantined at the port of arrival in South Africa and tested as
heretofore, owners being given the option of removing, at their own
expense, rea(,-ting animals to the country of origin or having them
destroyed without compensation.

At present the> only testing station meeting the requirements of
the Act is the one at Pirbright, but soon after that was

1()() Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

completed war broke out, and slii])])i)io- difficulties rendered
its use impracticable, consequently the old arrangement of
testing cattle on arrival at tlie T^nion seaports bad to be
continued. Tbis was the position until towards tlie latter balf
of 1919, wlien circumstances permitted the station reverting to its
oidginal purpose. Consequently Government Notice No. 1140 of the
2Ttb August last was issued making it compulsory for all cattle from
(ireat Britain arriving at the TTnion ports on or after the 1st Novem-
lier, 1919, to pass througli Pirbriglit and be subject to the provisions
of the Act (No. 25 of 1916) referred to above. It may here be
mentioned that while the TTnion Government has the right to retest
any animal which, on arrival from Great Britain, presents symptoms
or appearances suspicious of tui)erculosis, or any other proclaimed
disease, and to destroy it if the animal gives a positive reaction, it is
not expected that the need for detention or retest is likely to arise
in many instances after animals have passed through Pirbriglit.

Accumulation of Stock Awaiting Shipment.

As is well known, the close of the war found a great shortage in
fi'eightage and large numbers of cattle intended for export were accu-
mulated in Great Britain awaiting shipment, while a gradual improve-
ment in shipping facilities lead to increased puichases of cattle for
South Africa. The result was, as was to be expected, that the accom-
modation at Pirbriglit (sufficient for 100 head of cattle) was strained
to its utmost, and congestion arose causing some delay in treating all
the animals awaiting the required quarantine and testing prior to
shipment. It is anticipated, however, that Avhen the first rush is over
and the export of cattle becomes normal and shipping is more regular,
the accommodation at Pirbriglit will prove to be ample, and that
exporters will no longer have the difficulty or delay which was
experienced at the outset. Tliere is, of course, no objection to the
provision of other Government testing stations, similar to Pirbright,
should the export of pure-bred stock assume such proportions as to
justify it. In this connection the Department has already been
approached by Sir Henry Dundas, a member of the Council of the
Highland and Agricultural Society, Scotland, who pointed out some
of the difficulties which will be experienced by Scottish breeders in
sending cattle to Pirbright. Sir Henry was advised that such cattle
might be tested in Scotland, provided a station were established there,
under Government control similar to the one at Pirbright, but that
under no circumstances will the Government of South Africa be satis-
fied with tests carried out on the premises of the breeder.

Importers are naturally anxious for the well-being of their stock
at Pirbright; tliere is no need to fear on that account, as cattle are
well cared for at the station. A short paragraph appeared in the
April, 1920, number of the Journal giving the result of a visit to
Pirbright by a prominent exporter of stock, whose remarks form an
unsolicited testimonial to the excellent conditions prevailing there,
and coming from one whose interests are largely centred in the busi-
ness, should in itself bring reassurance to importers in tlie Union.

It has come to the notice of this Department that certain
importers, whose animals are accompanied by Pirlpright certificates,
are not appointing agents to receive these animals on arrival at the

iMl'ORTATION OF CATTLE. 161

port of entry, being- api)areutly under the impression that the Depart-
ment will undertake to supervise transhipment, feedino-. and the for-
warding- of their stork. As this is impracticable, the owners of such
animals are reminded that it is still necessary to adhere to the old
system of appointing- agents to look after these animals when they
land and to make arrangements with the Railway Department for
despatch to their destination when the usual formalities respecting
permits, etc.. have been complied with.

Organization of Farmers.

The Paarl Farmers' Association (one (jf the oldest of its kind in
the country) is actively engaged in an endeavour to establish similar
organizations throughout the Western Province, it being felt that this
important agricultural area of the Union lacked proper organization
among farmers whose intere.sts were suffering as a result. It was con-
sidered that a network of active associations would result in marked
benefit and ensure, moreover, proper weight to the many interests
of Western Province farmers when discussed at the meetings of repre-
sentative agricultural bodies. The movement is receiving the warm
approval of the Government, it being recognized that the establishment
of such associations throughout the country would carry many benefits.
The Paarl Farmers' xissociation was established in 1894, and the
following extract from a leaflet issued by its secretary and treasurer,
Mr. James Gribble. gives the object of the Association : —

"The Association is a voluntary union of farmers to protect
the interests of, and to advance farming industries. Friendly
discussions take place at the monthly meetings ; committees are
appointed to inquire into matters and to carry out certain duties.
Vigilance is exercised where action is necessary in any question
affecting the industry, and the Association serA'es as a channel
whereby the views and requirements of the district can be better
placed before the Government than by individual effort. The
Association is also a convenient medium whereby experts from
the Department of Agriculture can come into closer touch with
and assist farmers. Individual members obtain benefit by means
of the stock fairs, in the purchase of sheep manure, distribution
of farming literature, useful information and assistance through
their secretary, and farmers in the district will find it to their
advantage to join, not, however, to obtain direct benefit in return
for subscriptions paid or time given, but with the true desire to
co-operate with each other for the good of the country."

It is pleasing to hear from Mr. Gribble that many requests reach
him, not only from the Western Province, but from other parts of the
Union as well, for information and advice in starting and working a
Farmers' Association, an earnest of the spirit of organization among
farmers to-dav.

162 Journal of the Department of AitRicitlture.

EXPERIMENTS AND INVESTIGATIONS.

Work at the Schools of Agriculture and Experiment
Stations and Sub-Stations.

[A review of the research and imestigational work being carried out by the various Divis^ioiis
of the Department of Agriculture appeared in the April, 1920, number of the J«vrnal.
— AcTixfi Editor.]

I.— AT CE13ARA, NATAL.

liOTATlOiV MaNUKIAL ExrERTMEXT.

At the School of Ag-riculture, Cedara, Natal, an investigatiou is in
progress to determine which is the better farming- practice nnder
Xatal conditions (a) the continued use of quickly available phosphates
such as superphosphate, (h) the use of insoluble pliosphates. It is
generally recog'nized that superphosphate gives a larger and more
immediate return when compared with other phosphatic manures, but
the question it is desired to settle is whether continued use of this
manure is a sound practice when carried on for a considerable term of
years. In order to test this, land has been chosen which has hitherto
never l)een fertilized and which has recently been broken up. Two
areas have been chosen, one for treatment with the readily available
forms of phosphoric acid, and the other for the insoluble form such
as vSaldanha Bay ])l)osphate. These manures are not being- used
alone, but limed plots (slaked lime) are being- tried out with the
superphosphate plots and ground limestone plots along with the
insoluble phos})l)ate plots. Manure of the same value year by year is
lieing api>lied, and the exi)eriment is designed to rnn for a number of
ye-trs. The land is being cropped under a rotation system, which

IS

Maize — First year.

Maize — Second year.

Teff— Tliird year.

Cowpeas and Soya Beans — Fourth year.

After a number of years data will be available to i)rove M-hether
(n) or (6) is the better farming practice. A system of per-
manent agriculture should aim at the gradual betterment of the soils
of the farm, and not their depletion. The use of superphosphate on
soils of the red doleritic type is open to question as to its being good
practice. There are considerable data to prove that the residual
value of superphosphate on such soils is practically n/7, the unused-
phosphate reverting into iron or aluminium phosphate, very insoluble
forms in the soil, and so i)assing beyond the power of the plant
immediate! v to attack.

Experiments and Investigations. IGo

The use of phosphates wliit-h are not readily soluble, on the other
iiand, will build up in the soil a reserve of phosphate which, under-
<>-oing' natural decomposition, will in the course of a fe^v years, it is
believed, yield ui) a sufficiency of plant food for crops.

By the use of limestone and insoluble phosphate together it is
thouf^ht that it may be possible so to alter the nature of the soil that
legumes may be grown with comparative ease. At present clovers,
lucerne, beans, etc., are practical failures on the majority of Natal
farms, and this experiment is designed to try and bring the soil into
a condition suited to legumes. If this can be accomnli.^hed. the agri-
culture of the Avhole Province may be advanced to a considerably
higher scale.

EXPEEIMKXTAL EeKOK IX MviZK TlUVLS.

Trials are to be cairied out during the present season on maize
to determine what error must be allowed for in the explanation of
results secured from manurial trials, etc. Variations in yields are due
to many causes. Soil irregularity; -irregularity of manuring; of
planting; irregularity of weed growth; of insect attack, etc., all
tend to render the results of experiments of less value than they
ought to be. This season an endeavour is being made on maize
lands to treat them with as great uniformity in every respect as is
i)ractically possible. Results will be obtained from these ])lots which
will be of value as showing what error may occur in any experiments
connected with the maize industry, and what margin must be allowed
for in the results secured from experiments when the results are being
interpreted. Far too frequently i)ractices are formulated from the
results of experiments upon diiferences which are completely covered
by the experimental error.

Exi'ERIMEXTS WITH CtKASSKS.

A trial is in progress at the present time with several different
kinds of grasses to determine their yielding capacity, their longevity,
and their suitability to ^il'atal soils in the mist-belt. In a pastoral
country it is highly desirous that as much knowledge as possible
should be obtained regarding grasses, both indigenous and exotic.
Though Natal has upwards of 200 different species of grasses little
has hitherto been done to determine if any of them are suitable for
planting or sowing.

A commencement has been inade with small plots of indigenous
grasses, and tliese small plots are to be extended considerably this
year.

Trials on a larger scale aie l)eiug made with —

Kikuyu Grass (Penmsetum lonr/isfi/Jmin.

Tall Fescue (Frsfuco elatior).

Cocksfoot (Dactylis glome rat a).

Rhodes Grass (Cliloris (ia]fana).

Still larger areas of Kikuyu Grass are being put down to test its value
as a pasture grass, and later on to prove the possiliility or otherwise
of eradication of this grass. Should it prove to be fairly easily
eradicated it will prove a most welcome aid to a system of rotatioji
where two or three years' pasture is included to rest the land.

I(JJ: Journal of the DErARTMENT of A(iRicuLTaRE.

Co-operative Experiments.

Objections may be, and frequently are, lodged against experi-
ments because they are not typical of the different parts of the
country, i.e. a true finding for the iniddle veld areas is not necessarily
correct for the higher A-eld areas. In order to overcome these objec-
tions a commencement has been made in the carrying out of experi-
ments at various centres in the Province. These experiments are
carried out on a co-operative basis with different farmers. Experi-
ments are being conducted in the Ladysmith District and in the
Thornville Junction District upon maize, cowpeas, and teff, worked
in rotation to avoid as far as possible the single crop abuse, and to
encourage systems of diversified agriculture. These experiments are
as follows : —

First year — Maize.

vSecond year — Maize.

Third year— Teff.

Fourth year — Cowpeas.

The cowpea is the restorative crop for the grain crop, and the teff'
crop is a cleaning crop on account of the density of cover which it
yields. The cowpeas are cut for hay in some of the experiments and
ploughed in in others.

A scheme of manuring is also in operation in conjunction with
these rotation experiments. Results to date seem to prove the feasi-
bility and desirability of such a system of crop rotation, and also rhe
need for diversified farming, where stock forms a not unimporiant
part of the farmer's activities.

The Improvement of the Yield of Crops by vSeed Selection.

A commencement was made three or four years ago in the
improvement of the maize yield by a correct system of seed selection,
but for various reasons it has not been possible to continue with this
work, but the importance is su-ih that, in spite of many difficulties, it
is being undertaken again.

By a system of selection the sugar content of the sugar beet has
been raised to 20 per cent, from a modest 4-5 per cent. The low yield
of maize in the Union is capable of very considerable improvement by
correct seed selection. Tlie farmer of to-day is too apt to take seed
maize which is only apparently good, whereas what is required are
high-yielding varieties in which high yields are an inborn character.

Improvement by selection is also to be carried out on the potato
crop, which is also a])t to be sorely neglected in so far as correct
seed selection is concerned. With correct selection an endeavour will
be made to prove whethei- it is possible or not to do without fresh
importations of seed potatoes, a practice very generally in vogue at
the present time.

Indigenous Forage Plants.

Trials are being undertaken to determine the value of indigenous
species of plants as forage plants.

It has been observed that where cattle have access to it none ci
the indigenous cowpea (VIgnop), which is a perenniaU is allowed lo

Experiments and iNVEsTKiATioNS. 1(1')

grow, flower, and seed, due to the hard grazing which it receives. At
Cedara, in areas fenced off from grazing^ this plant is rapidly
increasing, so that at the end of November, when in full flower, the
areas have a distinct purplish tinge due to the colour of the blooms.
Seeing- that sucli a plant is readily eaten by stock, and knowing the
value of the cowpea as a cattle food, an endeavour is being made to
propagate this plant from cuttings with a view to the establishment
of an area for the growth of seed. The advantages of an area of a
permanent crop of this description are obvious, and such crops are
badly needed.

Another legume Avith wliich trials are to be made is an indigenous
lotus. This plant is closely grazed where stock have access to it, but
in fenced off areas it grows Avell and seeds. Seeds are to be collected
this season to try if it is not possible to establish areas of this plant,
which will rival lucerne in value as a forage plant.

A species of indigenous clover, found chiefly on the edges of
vleis, will likewise receive attentiou.

Water Grass (Cyperus esculentus).

A thorough study of this plant is contemplated, as it is considered
that this is the worst weed which the farmer has to contend with.
The seeding of the plant and its life-cycle are to be studied. The
influence of organic matter upon its virility and various methods of
eradication are to be tried. Sprays, ploughings, and grazing are all
to be tried in an endeavour to And some easy means of combating
this weed.

Thk Wattle Pests.

Investigational work on tlie diseases of the wattle bagworm
{Acantho psyche junodi Heylaerts) is being carried out, mainly with
the object of deteiunining whetlier it is possible to utilize any fungal
diseases in the artificial control of this serious wattle pest. The chief
of these diseases is a deadly fungous disease {Isaria psyalndae, Pole
Evans). This disease has already been investigated by the Chief of
the Division of Botany, but the work was dropped some time ago,
partly owing to the poor results of preliminary field tests and partly
owing- to pressure of other work. The object of the investigational
work now being carried out is to determine the modes of infection,
the development of the parasite within its liost, the seasonal history
of tlie fungus, whether it has alternative hosts or not, and also to find
out if possible some simple and inexpensive means of cultivating this
fungus artificially, so that spores may be obtained in sufficient
quantities for field tests.

Other diseases of the wattle bagworm, such as wilt and a bacterial
disease, will also receive attention as time permits.

The brown cockchafer (Hyperpholes .sommere Burm) is a destruc-
tive i>est both in the larvae and adult states ; as a white grub buried
in the soil it feeds on the roots of various plants, and as an adult
beetle it feeds on wattle foliage.

The larva is attacked by a fungus, an Isaria ap, very similar to
the fungus of the bagworm. It may be identical, and the cockchafer
grub may be an alternative host, therefore this disease is also being
studied.

1 <')(') Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Finally, the obsciue " frogliopper " disease of young wattle trees
is being investigated. " Frogbopper " causes a malformation and
stunting of young ttees and entails mucb damage in some plantations.
The cause of tl^is distorted growth has never been determined, and it
is obviously iinpossil)lr to prescri})e remedial measures until the cause
of t]ie trouble is 1sMKn\ii.

liTVE Stock Investigations'.

Sevei'al breeds of cattle, both beef and dairy, are maintained at
the institution and their behaviour noted u.uder identical conditions.
Investigations into the cost of producing milk are also to be under-
taken. Little is known as regards the cost of milk production in this
Province, and detailed costs will be of great value to the many farmers
engaged in the dairying business.

Feeding ti'iiils with oxen are curried out from time to time also.

]5i.oss()MixG IIec:ords.

There aie many factors wliich require to be taken into considera-
tion in the establishment of an orchard, not the least being the suit-
ability of the varieties selected to the locality. The environment may
I'.e ideal yet poor results obtained, due to negligence of the following
factor. Pollen from certain flowers is sometimes ineffective in the
flowers in which it is produced, due to several factors which need not
be discussed here. Such flowers fail to produce fruit. In order to
obtain a setting* of fruit in a variety of thi,? nature, it is essential to
have pollen from a different variety to effect the necessary pollination.
It is evident, therefore, that Avhere pollen is required for this purpose
the two varieties of plants must flower at the same time, or very
nearly so. The factor, therefore, of the mixing of varieties of apples,
varieties of pears, etc., becomes very important, and where a variety
is self-sterile another A^ariety, blooming at the same time, must be
introduced.

Careful record is kept of the blossoming times of different varie-
ties of fruit at Cedara, and this information, together with that
obtained at other centres in the I^nion, will be i)ublished in due
course.

II.— AT WIXKF.L SPRFIT. XATAL.

Sttgai?-cane.

At the sub-station at Wiukel Spruit trials are being made willi
various manures upon sugar-cane, and with the effect of trashing
against burning of cane. Varieties of cane are also being tested.
Whilst the Uba is the standard cane at the present time, other canes
are promising to do better than this under identical conditions. These
are being tried out further before any definite statement can be made
I'egardiug them. Soft canes are also being iried, but up to the present
they have not proved a success.

Trials with the planting of tips, butts, and middles are in
])rogress, as likewise manurial trials.

Experiments and Investigations. 107

Fibre Crops.

TriaJs are in jJiogTess with several species of fibre i)]aiils to
ascertain the most promising' under local conditions. Sisal, Furcraea,
N^ew Zealand Flax, and other fibres are beino- cultivated.

Frlits.

Pineapples. — Variety trials with about a dozen varieties are in
prog'ress. Distance of planting experiments running' conjointly with
a rotation experiment with various leg'umes are also in progress. The
leg-umes, which pineapjjles are following-, are g-rouud nuts, ovvpeas,
and Canadian Wonder beans.

Btiiurnas. — Variety trials with about tAventy varieties have been
in progress for some time now, and the sections are coming into
bearing, so that data will soon be available as to tlie variety which is
proving itself most suited to the coastal lielt.

Citrus. — Trials with several varieties of oranges, lemons, and
grape fruit have been in progress several years, and data now are
becoming available as to the advisability or otherwise of endeavouring
to grow citrus on the coast belt.

Mangoes and Avocada Fears. — Sections of land have lately been
planted with l)oth these varieties of fruits, and research work into
their grafting, budding, etc.. with im])roved varieties is being under-
taken.

Starch Ck-ops.

The chief starch-producing crops grown, tliougii not for extrac-
tion purposes, are sweet jjotatoes, arrowroot, and cassava, xlbout
fifteen varieties of sweet potatoes are undergoing trial, ten of these
having very recently been received from T^.S.A. It is expected to
find from these, varieties that will reach maturity during the short
summer months frequently experienced on the high veld.

Several varieties of arrowroot and cassava are under trial.

Ginger is also grown and large crops ])roduced, but tliere api)ears
to be no market for tlie ginger root at ])resent.

Wet Hides for Shipment— Marking of G-oods.

The Union-Castle Mail S.S. Company draw attention to the
extreme difficulty experienced by their London principals in sorting
out according to marks the various shipments of wet hides. This is
attributed to the fact that the tin disk attached to each bundle rusts,
with the result that the marks are illegible on arrival at the port of
discharge. It has therefore been decided by the Railway Dei)artment
that only consignments bearing zinc or strong galvanized-iron or
wooden disks with the marks clearly stami)ed thereon are to be
accepted for shipment.

[6H Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

NOTES FROM THE DIVISIONS.

])IVISIOX UF ENTOMOLOGY.

Au.stralidn IJiuj. — About thirty years ago tlie Australian Lug or
Dorthesia (Iceri/d imrchnxi) was a frightful pest to citrus trees, roses.
and certain other plants in parts of the Cape Province. It had
reached Capetown from Anstralia in 187''^), and gradually increased
and spread. In 1892 the so-called A'edalia ladybird (Novius
cardinniis) was introduced and the pest was sp'eedily subjugated.
Ever since, however, there have been local outbreaks of the bug here
and there all over the country, and a close search in almost any large
garden or orchard in which grow any of the most favoured food plants
of the insect will disclose its presence in small numbers. The
Vedalia, and to a minor extent certain native lad3^birds, soon find the
occurrence unaided and practically extinguish them ; but every year
apprehension of trees being hilled leads to a number of urgent appeals
for ladybirds being- made to the Government. Tlie bug* is generally
far more prevalent along- the Witwatersrand thirn anywhere else in
the country, a circumstance associated with the 'lio-h altitude and the
abundance of trees favourable to the insect. In the warmer parts of the
country the Yedalia appears to keep actively after the bug through-
out the winter, while in the high veld it is rarely much in evidence
except at midsummer, and the bug breeds for months with little
molestation. For reasons not very clear the bug was much less
common around Johannesburg in the 1918-19 season than for years
previously ; and it was far more prevalent in Pretoria through the
winter and spring of 1919 than at any time since Union, and probably
ever before. The season was particularly dry, aiid a few black wattle
street trees succumbed to the combined weakening effect of the insect
and the drought. Many scores of black wattle and jacaranda trees
were quite heavily infested, and not a few of the latter kind of tree
seemed to suffer seriously from the attack. The Vedalia seemed
absent through the winter and spring, but as summer came on it
showed up everywhere, and in a feAV weeks suppressed the outbreak
and then quickly dropped out of sight again. In early December
thousands of the ladybird in all stages could be collected in an hour
or so, where in January it Avas hard to find any at all. The Division
for some time has been endeavouring to have colonies of the ladyl)ird
reach Ceylon and Brazil alive in order to suppress outbreaks of the
bug in those countries. There is hope that success luis attended recent
shipments.

Tohacco Leaf Beetle. — Tobacco groAvers throughout South Africa
are asked to be on the watch for, and to report to the Division of
Entomology, the presence on growing tobacco of a slender yellow and
black striped beetle about one quarter inch in length AAhicli develops

K0TEt4,FR0M THJi] DIVISIONS : ENTOMOLOGY. IG'J

from a sliiuy sliiglike g-iub. The insect in question, Leriui bilineata,
is believed to be an accidental importation ir^m South America,
whence it may not unreasonably be suspectd to have come with forage
during the South African war about twenty years ago. Since 1913
it has been reported from Durban, Cedara, Paulpietersburg, and Mooi
River in Natal ; from Piet Retief and Wakkerstroom in the Trans-
\aal; and from the Tarka and Bathurst Districts of the Cape Pro-
vince. The experience of Piet lletief tobacco growers indicates that
the insect is a pest that may necessitate systematic spraying with an
arsenical poison several times everj^ season, and that this may con-
siderably increase the cost of tobacco production. The beetles are long
lived. The female lays eggs oft and on for several mouths, generally
in clusters of 15 to 40, and to a total of 1000 to 2000. The eggs are
long and yellow, and the clusters are easily found on the leaves of the
food plants. The slimy grubs feed up rapidly, and in summer mature
in about two weeks from the laying of the eggs. They then go to the
ground to pupate, and the beetles emerge in about another fortnight.
Breeding ceases during the fall and adult beetles live over to the
following summer. Living beetles have been foand deep in a bale of
cured tobacco, and are said by farmers to be common in curing sheds.
It is therefore suspected that the pest is being spread with shipments
of newly baled tobacco, and that in the fall and winter it may also
hide itself in other produce and thus be carried to distant places.
Besides tobacco, the insect feeds readily on stinkblaar {Stravioniinn)
and on several weeds {P Ivy salts and Nicandra) closely related lo the
Cape gooseberry. The plants are sometimes quite destroyed.
Fortunately tlie insect feeds but little on the potato plant.

Imported Pests. — The tobacco leaf beetle is not the only South Ame-
rican insect that has spread to South Africa. The Argentine ant is a
notorious example. It is popularly supposed to have reached the Cape
Peninsula with forage from Argentina during the South xVfrican war ;
but as a matter of fact it occurred both at Stelienbosch and King-
williamstown years before, and it is likely to have got to South Africa
from Madeira. Another apparent introduction liom South America
is a Melyrid beetle named Astyliis atromaculatus, which in the last
few years has been observed to be verj- common in lucerne fields near
Pretoria. It is a small yellow and black beetle somewhat resembling
the smallest of the Mylabrid beetles that so commoiily feast on flowers,
often showing a partiality for the blossoms of broad beans and of apple
trees, but the Melyrids have the reputation of being beneficial insects.
Their larvae are said to l)e carnivorous, and the beetles are credited
witli living on insect eggs and small soft-bodied insects.

Toktokje Beetles in }LiUions. — During December, Mr. P. E.
Potter, Divisional Superintendent, South African Railways, Pretoria,
sent to the Division of Entomology specimens of a toktokje beetle that
he wrote occurred in great numbers for about five miles along the
railway near Granite (Zouti)aiisberg District). He added : " Some
two years ago, I am told, the beetles infested the neighbourhood in
millions. They were able to eross over one rail by means of the
ballast, which was packed on the outer side. ])ut they could not escape
from between the rails, as the inner side afforded a sheer height of
some 3i inches, and the beetles w^ro thus tr;q)ppfl between the rails

170

JOURXAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and died in millions. These beetles seem to travel from the west,
going' in an easterly direction."

Dr. L. Peringney, Director of the S.A. Museum, identified the
species as Fsaitivwdes illotus, Py. The number of species of
Psammodes is very great, and many of the various species are so much
alike that it is difficult to separate them. As a class they are familiar
insects in the veld. ])eing' the large, heavy-bodied, brownish to black,
non-flying beetles that one so commonly sees lumbering along without
apparent pur])ose. Occasionally they pause and tap the bare ground

T(iK-T()K.iE : At top, larva, about full grown : at left, puj^a
removed from cell ; at right, adult beetle. All enlarged

one-half.

smartly with the tip of the abdomen, thus producing the peculiar
knocking noise, a. sex call, that gives them their popular name. The
beetles appear to be practically harmless ; but the larvae of all kinds
are supposed to feed on the roots of plants, and so the railway must
be considered to b^e serving a useful purpose in trapping beetles to
their death. Occasionally larvae are found damaging the roots of
inaize and wheat, but they seem to be far more abundant at the roots
of veld grasses than in cultivated lands.

Buttevfjes ill Sivarjiis. — Xorthern Natal and much of the
southern part of the Transvaal was treated during December to the
novelty of prodigious numbers of white Initterflies all flying in one
direction. Judging from the letters that reached the Division of
Entomology the movement was at its height between the 7th and 18th
of the month. Xot unnaturally many farmers thought that the
butterflies portended outbreaks of the mystery (armj^) worm or of some

Notes from the Divisions: Entomology. 171

similar pest, but the particular l)utterfly (Belcifjis mesenfina) is not
one known to trouble cultivated i)lants. The otficers of the division
are ignorant as to where the hordes came from, and even as to the
usual food plants of the species; but the butterfly has been reared at
Pretoria from a common veld bush (Rhus sp. probably i-iviinalis),
and it is suspected that it is the larvae of this species that sometimes
defoliates the witstam tree (C(ippari.'< albitrunca). Swarms of the
same butterfly have beeii reported in other years, not only in Natal
and the Transvaal, but in the Orang-e Free State and eastern districts
of the Cape Province. While the insects seen at one time all proceed
in one direction, the direction of movement is variable. At Pretoria
the movement was oeuerally nf)rtherly, but on one morjiing- one of the
officers of the Division observed that it was then easterlj'. Two
correspondents wrote that it was to the north-west, two others that it
was north-east, and others tliat it was east; several stated that it was
ao-ainst the wind.

rcniicioiis Scale in f/ir Orunfje Free Stntc. — J.-'enicious (San Jose)
scale was first recoo-nized in South Africa during 1911, when it was
discovered at a number of centres in the Transvaal and Xatal. As
the years have o-one by it has become more and more a pest in the
localities where it is under observation, but it is still more a g'arden
than an orchard pest. The town of Pretoria is fast becomino-
generally infested, and each year for several years the plant nurseries
in and near the town have been found to have become invaded ; much
of the time of one plant inspector is taken Uji with precautions
exercised against the spread of the pest with plants sent away from
the town. No occurrence of the iiisect is known or suspected any-
where in the Cape Province, and until recently the only occurrences
known in the Orange Free State were at Kroonstad and at Viljoens
Drift, the latter a small place across the river from Yereeniging, in
the Transvaal. It now appears that the insect occurs in the Free
State, near the Natal border. Writing in -January from Thoreng.
P.O. Harrismith. a correspondent sent specimens to the Division of
Entomology with tlie information: — "I am sending you a i)iece of
plum branch infested with a blue-grey scale which is fast killing
apples too. This Innrible pest crams the branches and sucks the sap;
in a few weeks the tree is dead." The insect, in reality, is generally
present two or more seasons before a ti'ee is likely to succumb to its
attack, but it commonly baijjx'ns that it is not cbsei'ved until trees
are damaged bevond recoverv.

Telegraphic Requests for Vaccines, etc.

Urgent telegrams for vaccines, etc., are frequently addressed to
tlie head office of the Department in the Union Buildings. Pretoria,
and have to be sent on to the Laboratory at Onderstepoort, thus causing
delay. All applications of this nature should be made direct to the
Director of Veterinary Research, Oiiderstepoori. whose telegrajjliic
address is " Microbe," Pretoria.

172 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

EGG LAYING COMPETITION.

Report on the Second Egg-Laying Competition held at
the School of Agriculture, Cedara, Natal, 22nd
April, 1918, to 21st April, 1919.

By T. B. Cross, Poultry Instructor.

The second egg-laying competition, open to breeders of pure-bred
poultry residing in South Africa, commenced on 22nd xlpril, 1918,
and terminated on the 21st April, 1919.

Site, etc. — The site, houses, and runs were exactly the same as
those in use in the first egg-laying competition held at Cedara in
1917-1918, a full description of which is giA'en in Ikilletin (Local
Series) No. 70, obtainable from the Librarian, Department of Agri-
culture, Pretoria, at Id. per copy.

Entries. — Twenty competitors made entries of twenty-four pens,
each pen containing five birds.

The competing pens consisted of : —
15 pens of White Leghorns.

4 pens of White Wyandottes.

1 pen of Anconas.

1 pen of Black Leghorns.

1 pen of Barred Plymouth Eocks.

1 pen of Black Orpingtons.

1 pen of White Orpingtons.

With the exception of three pens of White Leghorns from the
Transvaal, all entries were from competitors residing in Natal.

Generally speaking, the quality of the competing birds was not
nearly so good as in the previous competition ; many immature birds
were entered, and several did not lay for the first three months of
the competition.

In the heavy breeds, particularly Black Orpingtons, birds of
exhibition iy\)e were included in the pen and consequently did poorly.

The moult commenced early and was very prolonged ; this maj'
have been influenced by the extremely bad hatching season
experienced the previous year, hence the poor average records. The
weather during the competition was normal for the locality ; the
climate at Cedara is very changeable, and in summer hot days are
invariably followed by cold misty nights, which certainly does not
tend to stimulate egg-production.

The conditions governing the competition were similar to those
in the former contest, viz., from the commencement of the competi-
tion only 2-02. eggs being accepted, but If to 2 oz. eggs were recorded.

Feeding Menu. — The feeding menu was similar to that of the
first competition, wet mash being fed in the morning, green food at
noon, and grain in the afternoon ; flint grit, oyster-shell, and vegetable

E(I(;-Layin(; (Jompktition : (Jedara.

c'liaicoal were always before the birds; fresh Muter was sui)i)lied daily,
and always shaded.

The mash consisted of equal parts by bulk of wheaten bran and
pollard and green food, chiefly rape, cabbage, and lettuce, cooked
overnight, to which was added meat meal in the proportion of Ih to
2 lb. per 100 birds; to this was added a small quantity of salt. The
daily allowance of mash was about 2 oz. per bird. At noon, finely
chopped green food was supplied ; this varied according to the season,
but more than sufficient was alwaj^s available. The following was
chiefly used : Lettuce, rape, cabKage, green buckwheat, and Kikuyu
grass.

In the afternoon, usually about 4 p.m. in summer and half an
hour earlier in winter, grain was fed in the scratching litter ; as in
the previous competition the ration consisted of two parts oats, two
parts kaffir corn, one part each of l)uckwheat, sunflower seed, and
crushed maize.

In wet stormy weather a little extra grain was given at noon to
keep the birds employed under cover. The allowance of grain per
bird per diem was about 2 oz.

Epsom salts were occasionally given in the mash during the fine
weather. A plentiful supply of scratching litter being on hand, a
frequent change was made.

The quantities of food consumed were : —

Food.

Weight.

Amount.

11).

£

s.

<1.

Wheaten Bran ...

1 .650

7

s

('>

Meat Meal

625

4

7

6

Pollard

1 .59i

8

0

0

Mealie Meal ...

250

1

0

7.^

Green Food

1,375

2

10

0

.^494

£23

6

7i

Oats

1 .220

6

2

0

Kaffir Corn

1.280

I'l

2

3

Buckwheat

850

5

12

"i

Crushed Maize...

875

3

3

ii

Sunflower Seed

450

2

'-'

0

4,675

£23

5

2f

GriL and Ov.stei-shel

830

4

3

4

Cliarcoiil

350

I

1

0

Salt, cuarirc

40

(1

.-,

()

Epsom Salts ...

—

0

5

0

1,220

£5

14

4

'I'OTALS

Mash

5,494

23

6

n

Grain

4,675

23

5

2i

Grit, e(c. ...

1,220

5

14

4

1 1 ,389

£52

6

n

The total cost of feeding during th<> twelve months was
t*52. Gs. 2|d., giving an average cost i)er l-ird jter aiinani of tSs. 8kl.

174

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

E(j(j J^roilMcfion. — The total yifld for tlie twelve months was: —

Standard weio-lit eg-o-s 10,882

T^nderweio-ht 2,747

Total 13,579

Average per hird 118.16.

The total value of eggs laid during the competition was
ill3. Is. 3jd. These were valued on the basis of the prices ruling
on the nearest market (Pietermaritzhurg) during the year. The
average price of first grade eggs was 2s. 6|d. and second grade
Is. lUd

Analysis of Egg-Production.

Rieeil.

Under .")0.

.-.1 100.

101-1.50.

1.51 180.

181-2(10.

Tutal.

White Lrgborn

4

13

42

1.5

1

75

White Wvandotte

1

n

12

■)

20

Ancona

'•\

1

1

.5

Black Leohorn

2

3

5

Barred Rock ...

8

1

1

5

Black Orpingtmi

—

:,

—

_

.5

White Orpington

1

4

—

—

5

'I'oTAf,

120

Deaths.

Cause.

Pen No.

.

-m-

-jijj

' , ' —

Total.

2.

8.

9.

10.

11.

14.
1

18.

-19.

20.

21. 22.

23.

Tuberculosis...

1

1

2

1

(1

Abscess on the Ksd-

1

phagLis

—

—

—

.

__.

1

__

1

Pneumonia ...

_

—

1

■

.__

1

Peritonitis ...

.^_

1

—

—

—

, —

^^

1

_L.

\

2

Tumour on Gizzard...

—

-

I

—

.

1

2

Rupture of Blood

Vessel

—

—

—

1

1

Rupture of Oviduct

—

—

—

—

1

1

—

—

1

3

TlilA(,

1

2

3

2

1

1
1 1^1

1

1 1

IC.

Re.tectiov.

Pen No. () 1 Pen No. ](j 1

Pen No. 8 1 Pen No. 18 1

Pen No. 11 1

Sixteen deaths occurred from various causes, five birds were
rejected, and four Avere rephtced. Two of the birds rejected were
" going light," one from anaemia, one rlieumatism, and one tumour
in al)domen.

Egg-Laying Competition : Cedaha.

17;")

Weights. — The average weight per bird in the competition pens
are as follows, taken in October, 1918: —

Pea No.

Breed.

Average Weight
per Bird.

9

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

White Leghorn

White Wyandotte
Black Leghorn ...
White Leghorn ...

White Orpington
White Leghorn ...

Black Orpington
White Leghorn ...
Barred Rock
White Leghorn ...

White Wyandotte

White Leghorn ...

White Wyandotte
Ancona ...
White Leghorn ...

2 lb.

15

oz

3 ,.

4

^^

H „

3

»

i „

7

,.

3 ..

10

^,

2 „

14

„

3 ,.

0

„

2

12

„

4 ..

15

^,

3 ,.

0

3 „

u
3

•y

14

,^

5 „

4

^,

3 „

4

^,

3 „

1
11

"

3 „

8

,,

3 „

5

„

3 „

5

2

1

"

Awards.

The silver and bronze medals presented by the South African
Poultry Association for the pens laying the gjeatest number of
standard weight eggs during the competition were won by Pens Nos.
13 and 19, both White Leghorns, the property of Messrs. Crozier
and Brown, Johannesburg, and H. E. Dunning, Pietermaritzburg,
respectively. Pen No. 13 laid 671 full-weight eggs, 52 under- weight,
and No. 19, 656 full-weight eggs and 74 under-weight.

A generous donation of <£5s. 5s. each was made by the following
poultry clubs to the prize list of the conipetiton :— The Natal Poultry
Club, the Durban and Coast Poultry Club, and the Klip River Poultry
Club; and £1. Is. from the Greenwood Park and Red Hill Poultry
Club.

This was allocated by the advisory sub-committee as follows : —

(a) £2. 2s. for pen of light breeds laying the largest number
of standard eggs during the competition. Won by Pen
No. 13, White Leghorns, the property of Messrs. Crozier
& Brown, Johannesburg with 671 full-weight eggs.

(6) £1. Is. runner-up to winner of (a). Won by Pen No. 19,
White Leghorns, the property of Mr. H. E. Dunning,
Pietermaritzburg, with 656 full-weight eggs.

(c) £2. 2s. for pen of heavy breeds laying the largest number
of standard eggs during the currency of competition. Won
by Pen No. 17, White Wyandottes, the property of Mr.
C. B. Upton, Pietermaritzburg, with 618 full-weight eggs.

176 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

{d) £1. Is. I'uiinei-up to winnei uf (c). Won by Pen No. 4,
Whife Wyandottes, the property of Mr. C. Amas, Pieter-
niaritzbnrg, Avitli 530 full-weight egg's.

(e) £2. 2s. for individual White Leghorn laying largest
number of standard eggs during currency of competition.
AVon by Hen No. 71, Pen No. 15, the property of Mr. P.
Porritt, Pietermaritzburg, with 155 full- weight eggs.

(/) £1. Is. runner-up to winner of {e). Won by Hen No. 75,
Pen No. 15, the property of Mr. Porritt, Pietermaritz-
burg, with 155 full-weight eggs.

(</) £1. Is. for individual light breed, other than White
Leghorn, laying the largest number of standard eggs
during the currency of the competition. Won by Hen
No. 110, Pen No. 22. Ancona, the property of Mr. W. C.
Perguson. Dundee. Natal, with 139 full-weight eg'gs.

(//) £1. Is. for individual White Wyandotte laying largest
number of standard weight eggs during currency of com-
petition. Won by Hen No. 19, Pen No. 4, the property
of Mr. C. Amas, Pietermaritzburg, with 141 full-weight

eggs.

(/) £1. Is. for individual heavy breed, other than White
Wyandotte, laying largest number of standard weight
eggs during currency of competition. Won by Hen No.
59, Pen No. 12, Black Orpington, the property of Mr. M.
J. C. Anderson, Vrylieid, with 78 fuU-Meight eggs.

(;/) £2. 2s. for hen laying largest number of standard eggs
during last three months of competition. Won by Pen
No. 22, Ancoiias, the i)roperty of Mr. W. C. Ferguson,
Dundee, Natal, with 98 full-weight eggs.

Summary.

Duration of contest, 12 months.

Number of pens, 24.

Number of birds, 120.

Total number of eggs laid. 13,579.

Value of eggs laid, £113. Is. ^A.

Cost of feeding, £52. 6s. 2id.

Profit over cost of feeding, £60. 15s. Id.

Average market price ])er dozen, 2s. G^d. first grade, Is. llkl.

second grade.
Average cost of feeding to produce 1 dozen eggs, 11.09d.
Average number of eggs laid per pen, 565.74.
xiverage number of eggs laid per bird, 113.16.
Average cost of food per pen. £2. 3s. 7d.
Average cost per hen, 8s. 8 Ad.
Profit over cost of food per i)en, £2. 10s. 7Ad.
Profit over cost of food per pen, 10s. lid.

Eggs laid by winning pen, 2 oz. and over, 671; If to 2 oz., 52.
Highest value of eggs laid by any pen, £6. 10s. 6^d.
Lowest value of eggs laid by any pen, £2. 4s. Hid.

Egg-Layino Competition : Cedara.

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178

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

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180 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

THE BOTANICAL SURVEY OF THE UNION.

A Matter of Far-reaching Importance.

A matter wliicli had long- been advocated by the Division of
Botany and urg-ed on by the Scientific and Technical Committee took
definite shape when on the 18th February, 1918, at a meeting for the
purpose of discussing- the organization of a Botanical Survey of the
TTnion, attended by officers of the Divisions of Botany and of
Veterinary Research, the Forest Department and the Schools of Agri-
culture, it was unanimously decided that the aims and scope of the
survey should be : —

(1) -To continue and extend the survey and systematic work

already carried out by the Division of Botany on the
vegetation of the country.

(2) To continue and extend the survey work already carried out

by the Division of Veterinary Eesearch on the relation of
such vegetation to tlie unsolved stock diseases of South
Africa.

(3) To continue and extend the collections of the plant parasites

of the indigenous vegetation already made by the Division
of Botany and proceed with its examination as a possible
reservoir of diseases of cultivated plants and of domesti-
cated animals, and, in particular, map their distribution.

(4) To continue and extend the work already accomplished by

the Forest Department in further ascertaining the composi-
tion of the indigenous forests, the value of their products,
and their industrial possibilities.

(5) To study the vegetation from an industrial point of view.

(6) To study the vegetation in its relation to agricultural and

pastoral developments.

(7) To study the plant succession under natural and artificial

conditions.

(8) To study the vegetation of the veld in connection with its

feeding value and carrying capacity and distinguish
botanically between "sour" and "sweet" velds, good
and bad pastures.

(9) To study the disturbing influence of burning, manuring,

cultivation, drainage, irrigation, overstocking, insect and
plant pests on the natural vegetation.

(10) To study plant distribution according to geological,
orographical, and climatalogical conditions, and the con-
ditions which influence the different plant formations.

(11) To extend our knowledge of the medicinal and poisonous
plants of the countr5^

The Botanical Survey" of the Union. 181

(12) To study the influence ot >Soutli African conditions on the
structure and physiolog^y of our plants and in particular
the causes which give rise to non-parasitic diseases.

(lo) To compare and correlate oui' flora and its associated
animal and plant diseases with those existing in other parts
of the world under somewhat similar telluric and climatic
conditions.

(14) To devote Imore attention to the soil and its micro-
organisms.

At the same meeting the best means of carrying out such a
survey and of securing proper organization, co-ordination, and co-
operation between the Government Dei)artments concerned and volun-
tary workers were unanimously agreed upon. Tliey included the
appointment of the Chief, Division of Botany, as director, with, the
assistance of an advisory committee; the dividing of the country into
convenient botanical areas, each controlled by a botanist; the estab-
lisliment of a Central Herbarium at Pretoria with regional herbaria,
and the working thereof; the special examination at Kew of all plants
submitted (Miss A. M. Corbishley was appointed for this purpose on
the 1st October last) ; the publication from time to time of all matters
of interest arising from the survey, etc.

The scheme was approved of by the Minister of Agriculture, the
following Advisory Committee being formed: —

I. B. Pole Evans, M.A., D.Sc. F.L.S.. Chief, Division of

Plant Pathology and Botany, and Director of the Survey.
Professor J. W. Bews', M.A., D.Sc, Natal University College.
Mrs. L. Bolus, B.A.. South African College, Capetown.
Dr. R. Marloth, M.A., Ph.D., Capetown.'
Professor G. Potts, M.Sc, Ph.D., Grey University College,

Bloemfontein.
Professor S. Schonland, M.A., Pli.D., Ehodes University

College, Grahamstown.
C. E. Legat, B.Sc, Chief Conservator of Forests;
E. E. Montgomery. M.R.C.V.S., Director of Veterinary

Research.

The Ad\isory Committee met twice in 1918, once each in Cape-
town and Pretoria, making considerable progress in matters of
organization, and drew up the following division of the country into
administrative areas, viz. : —

1. The south-western area under Dr. Marloth.

2. Tlie south-eastern area under Professor Schonland.

8. The eastern area, including Pondoland, Natal, and Zulu-
land, under Professor Bews.

■1. The Orange Free State and Basutoland under Professor
Potts.

5. Griqualand West and all the country north of the Vaal
River under the direct supervision of the Director of the
Survey.

lcS2 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

Thk First Publication

will soon be issued as Memoir (No. 1) by Professor Schonlaiid
on " The Phanerogamic Flora of the Divisions of Uiten-
hag-e and Port Elizabeth," being an account of the flowering plants
of these Divisions, and forming a companion to the lists, published
by the South African Philosophical Society and the Royal Society of
South Africa, of the plants of the Cape Peninsula (by Bolus and
Wolley Dod) and of Natal (by J. Medley Wood).

An appreciative note on the establishment of the Botanic Survey
appears in the Bulletin of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (No. 10,
1919), in which the writer refers to " the enlightenment of outlook
in matters connected with the learning of scientific knowledge on
practical affairs which experience has taught us to expect on the part
of the Government of the Union of South Africa."

Kafftr Corn— Production in the Union.

The following statement shows the total quantity of Kaffir corn
grown in the four Provinces of the l^nion (note : 1 muid = 200 lb.) : —

Province

Cape of Good Hope

Natal

Transvaal

Orange Fiee State ...

Total— Union ...

A comparison of the Census returns of 1911 and 1918 shows that,
while the production of Kaffir corn made an appreciable forward move-
ment in the Cape and Transvaal Provinces, there is a considerable
falling off in the production of the crop in Natal, and in the Orange
Free State also there is a small reduction.

The above figures show that the total kaffir corn crop in 1918 was
produced as follows : — -

In Cape of Good Hope 26 per cent.

Natal 19 ,,

Transvaal 46 ,, ,.

Oranoe Free State 9 ,,

Census 1911

(1910 Crop).

Mnids.

Ceiisus 1918
(1918 Crop).

Mnids.

Estimated

Crop, 1919.

Muid=.

Estimated

Crop, 1919.

Muids.

299,422

465,683

254,500

220,200

594,132

337,024

334,700

433,400

462,758

837,650

631,800

653,200

191,414

161,058

129,000

104,800

1,547,726

1,801,415

1,350,000

1,411,600

100

* Preliminary estimate. Adverse weather conditions have reduced the prospects. See
the Crop Report, page 218.

The Department of Agriculture during the War. 183

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DURING

THE WAR.

[This article briefly reviews the work carried out by the various branches of the Department
during the years of the war, and irecords some achievements despite the manj^
difficulties encountered through the abnormal conditions then existing. - Acting
Editor.]

Evidence of the advance of agriculture in Soutli Africa is visible on
all sides. The application of scientific metliods of farming, the
growth of concerted effort, and organization engendered by education
and the experience of the past are bearing fruit in greater production,
increasing numbers of pure-bred Iv^e stock, and a higher standard in
the quality of our products. Our country, which not so long ago had
to depend — if not for its life, then for most of its comfort — on the
production and energy of other countries, has now shaken off this
stigma ; its importance as an exporting country looms ever larger in
the eyes of the world and the promise of future development was
never brighter.

The Department of Agriculture is charged with the duty of pro-
moting and guiding the country's agricultural activities, and un-
ceasingly watches over and strives to advance the interests relegated
to it. The task is a great one, for it involves the building up of the
farming industry, which has truly been termed " the backbone of the
country." The Department, as constituted to-day, is one of the out-
standing forces in the life of the Union, and it is well that the farmers
of the country whose interests are so dependent on its activities should
know what is being done by their own Department and realize the
efforts it is putting forward to ensure their well-being.

An agricultural journal enables the Department to keep in touch
with the farmers, but this means was denied it since August, 1914,
and in order therefore to bridge in a measure the hiatus, and to give a
brief sketch of some of the matters coming xmder the purview of the
Department during the stress of the great war, the following notes are
given. To do so will necessitate touching on a wide range of subjects,
and many of far-reaching importance in themselves which entailed
considerable anxiety, thought, and time on the part of the Department,
have had perforce to be passed without special reference. Fuller
particulars are obtainable from the published annual leports of the
Department for the financial years covering the period dealt with in
this article.

The situation created by the war was a most trying one. Besides
seriously reducing the staff by withdrawing officers from it and
rendering it impossible to fill many of. the vacancies occurring in it,
the war imposed a great many additional duties upon the Department
of a pressing nature and far from easy to discharge, whilst the ensuing
financial stringency and the increased cost of running the Department
contributed to the difficulty of the task. Indirectly, also, the war
added materially to the work of the Department, for the resultant
high prices and keen demand for foodstuffs and products of the soil
gave a great impetus to agriculture, leading to many branches of

184 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

farming' coming- to tlie fore earlier than they otherwise would have
done. Like many young industries, these new developments required
a great deal of attention to enable them to make the most of the
unique opportunity presented of establishing themselves. The
necessity of those industries becoming- self-supporting- and gaining a
footing' in the overseas market, on which they will ultimately have
to depend, demanded unremitting attention. Although, as will be
seen, a good deal of work was done and advances made in many
directions, the risks with a depleted staff were considerable, par-
ticularly in connection with diseases of stock. The war, therefore,
greatly upset the Department and caused tlie postponement of many
extensions that were in progress or imminent when hostilities broke
out, and which would have materially increased its usefulness.

Before passing on to the work done by the various divisions of
the Department, it is felt that the public should know what it costs
the countrv. 'The following figures show the total expenditure and

revenue, viz.

: —

-

(1) Agriculture (exclusive

(2) Agr

i cultural

Totnl Excess

Year ended

of Agricultural

Education).

Educ

ation.

of Expen-

31st March.

diture over

Expenditure.

Revenue.

Expenditure.

Revenue.

Revenue.

£

£

£

£

£

1915 ...

394,(;33

()2,116

87,442

42,709

377,250

1916 ...

382,945

100,279

73,238

24,821

325,083

1917 ...

397,5G4

86,19G

72,923

27,961

356,330

1918 ...

50().00t;

124,918

81,778

38,339

418,527

Veterinary Division.

This division deals with the prevention of the introduction of
contagious diseases of live stock into the Fnion, with the eradication
of such diseases as are already present, and with the protection of live
stock against enzootic diseases by inoculation and other means. It
also advises and assists farmers regarding diseases of stock.

During the financial year 1914-15 East Coast fever was severe in
the Transkeian Territories, and varying fortunes were reported from
other parts of the Union, some areas which liad previously been
declared clear showing fresh outbreaks of tlie disease while others
shook it off. In Natal the outbreaks showed a decline, althougli the
disease was still widespread in Zululand. Tliere was a good deal of
mortality from anthrax, while an abundant rainfall induced virulent
and widespread horse-sickness and blue-tongue. Gallamziekte was
gradually breaking out in new centres. Nagaiia was spreading in
Zululand, but the ])osition in regard to glanders and lung-sickness
was satisfactory.

During 1915-1() about half of the professional staff' and a number
of stock inspectors of the Veterinary Division were on active service,
and the work of coping with animal diseases was greatly handicapped.
With the exception of anthrax and East Coast fever, there was
fortunately no serious extension of disease of any kind. Outbreaks of
anthrax were numerous in the Transvaal and Cape Provinces, while
East Coast fever showed a considerable recrudescence in Natal and in
a lesser degree in the Transvaal ; the position in the Cape Province
was easing, though still bad in native areas. The policy in regard to
tuberculosis in cattle was maintained, but the vStock Disease Act was

The Department of Agriculture during the War. 185

aineuded to allow of tlie atliiiis.sioii of cattle into the Union without
being tested for tuberculosis after arrival, provided they had been
tested at a Government station in the country of origin, immediately
before shipment, in a manner approved by the Minister. Othei
scheduled contagious diseases were not much in evidence, nor were
horse-sickness, blue-tongue, and other non-scheduled epizootic diseases
as prevalent as usual.

Altliough labouring under great difficulties in 1916-17 owing to
continued shortage of staff, due principally to the war, no serious
extensions of contagious diseases occurred, and on the contrary good
prog-ress was made, the outlook being encouraging. This is a matter
for congratulation in view of the grave risks attending the movements
of live stock for military purposes without the means of sufficient
veterinary supervision.

During the year an additional duty was placed on the division
through being made responsible for the inspection of meat prior to
export, which was stimulated by the war and commenced earlier than
was contemplated. East Coast fever continued to give cause for alarm,
and in the Transvaal and Natal there were extensions of the disease
in certain centres, but the erection of dipping tanks and fencing was
having beneficial results, and though no great improvement in the
disease was disclosed by statistics, the position was considered to be
better and more hopeful than it had yet been. With the exception of
East Coast fever, anthrax was responsible this year for greater
mortality among'st live stock than the whole of the other contagious
diseases combined. It increased rapidly, particularly in the Trans-
vaal. Owing to staff shortage little could be done in regard to tuber-
culosis in cattle. There was considerable discussion in regard to the
question of the amount of compensation (one-quarter of the value)
paid for animals slaughtered on account of tuberculosis, which it was
held should ])e increased to three-quarters of the value. The testing
of cattle prior to shipment could not be carried into effect owing to
the war, so imported cattle were continued to be tested at the ports.
Of 455 cattle tested 3.5 per cent, reacted and were destroyed. In
order to facilitate trade, arrangements were made for the admission
into the Union of slaughter cattle from Rhodesia and Swaziland in
the same way as from the Bechuanaland Protectorate, and altogether
43,689 slaug-hter cattle were brought into the Union during the year.

The year 1917-18 witnessed a continuance of the shortage of staff
and the attendant danger of the spread of animal disease, but
fortunately nothing untoward occurred. During the year. 1380 out-
breaks of disease were dealt with, 1127 animals from oversea were
examined at the ports, and the introduction of 51.000 head of cattle
from adjoining territories was supervised. East Coast fever continued
to engage the major portion of attention. In the Transvaal the
disease continued in several districts, and though its virulence had
abated in Natal, fresh outbreaks constantly appeared. The regrettable
continuance of the disease was attributed in a large measure to lack of
thorough dipping, a result to some extent of the cost of dipping-
materials. The policy regarding tuberculosis continued in force, and
although a Bill was introduced in Parliament increasing the amount
of compensation payable, congestion of w^ork in Parliament caused
the matter to lapse. The testing of cattle for tuberculosis before ship-
ment to the Union was still not possible owing to the war. Anthrax

ISi; Journal of the DepartmeiXt of Agriculture.

caused a good deal of trouble and was prevalent — one outbreak in
lioshoi being more virulent in type than any previously experienced.
Contagious abortion caused considerable loss, and no satisfactory
method for treating the disease has been devised. Early in the year
disquieting reports were received of the spread of rinderpest iu
(xernian East Africa, and with a view to preventing the spread of the
disease southward a commission was sent to inquire into the matter.
This commission was occupied for over a year, and as a result of their
efforts their object seems to have been achieved by the immunizatiou
of about 100,000 head of native cattle in a belt of country extending
from Lake Xyasa to Lake Tanganyika, wdiich checked the southward
extension of the disease. The season being a wet one, a number of
non-proclaimed diseases, such as horse-sickness, blue-tongue, wire-
worm and other parasites in sheep were more prevalent, but, on the.
other hand, gallamziekte in cattle was less in evidence than usual.
The supervision of meat exported was continued, practically the whole
quantity exported, 279,085 quarters, which arrived in good condition,
being purchased by the Lnperial Government at 5|d. per lb. f.o.b.
The meat, which was largely derived from unimproved cattle of the
country, Avas reported as being good, but a fair amount of it was
considered only third rate in quality, being apparently from oldish
animals.

(This review will be continued in subsequent issues of the
Journal.)

Maize Production in the Four Provinces.

The following table showing the total production of maize in
the four Provinces will prove useful for purposes of comparison (note :
I muid - 200 lb.): —

Census lyil Census 1918 Estimated Estimated

Provikce. (1910 Crop). (1918 Crop). Crop, 1919. Crop, 1920.

Muids. Muids. Molds. Miiids.

Cape of Good Hope 1,727,864 2,387,488 1.415,000 1,296,000

Natal 1,805,745 1,443,898 1,855.000 2,143,200

Transvaal 3,310,613 4,553,921 5,139,000 5,536,500

Orange Free State 1,788,294 4,254,784 3,151,000 3,765,300

Total— Union ... 8,632,516 12,640,091 11,560,000 12,741,600*

Thus the Union's production of maize in 1918 was 46 per cent,
greater than it was eight years previously, while the 1919 crop is
estimated to be 8.5 per cent, less than that of 1918, owing principally
to unfavourable conditions.

The above figures show that in 1918 the Union's total crop was
produced as follows:- —

In Cape of Good Hope 19 per cent.

In Natal 11 per cent.

In Transvaal 36 per cent.

In Orange Free State 34 per cent.

100 per cent.

* Preliminary estimate. Adverse weather has reduced the prospects. See the Crop
Report on page 21 S.

NOTE.S. llSi

NOTES.
IMPORTANT NOTICE.

The Journal will contain most of tlie matter published by
the Department. It is sent to all libraries in the Union, as
well as to various other institutions and societies, while the sub-
scription, 5s. per annum, is small, consequently it should be within
the reach of all. As a comprehensive index of its contents will be
published half-yearly, inquirers for advice on any subject which has
appeared in the Journal are likely in future to be referred to the
number in question for the information they require.

It is essential, therefore, that all who wish to avail themselves
of the advice and information tendered by the Department should
•

Obtain and Keep each Number,

as published, of the Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Apart from and in addition to the matter printed in the Journal,
special bulletins will be published from time to time as occasion

demands. They will be issued as "Science Bulletin No " or

"Bulletin No ," as the case may be, notification thereof being-
made in the Journal and copies being- obtainable on application to
the Department of Agriculture.

The Minister of Agriculture.

It is announced (14th April, 1920) that the Hoiiourabje H. C.
van Heerden has resig-ned the Portfolio of Agriculture, and that this
Portfolio will be taken over by the Honourable F. S. Malan, in
addition to those of Mines and Industries and of Education.

Sheep and Goat Skins.

In June last year a small consignment of sheep and goat skins
was sent to London to ascertain whether a trade in this class of skin
could not be established on the market there. Reports on the con-
signment are to the effect that the tannage, though somewhat dark,
is one that would find a satisfactory sale in Londan, but that the skins
were very much mixed in quality, size, and substance, and would need
proper grading and sorting if they are to be saleable. Many of them
were catalogued as light in substance, broken (some very badly) on
the grain, ill-shapen, and holey, and lightly ribbed. Only skins of
good quality, evenly classed for size and substance, are saleable.

A well-known local firm of fellmongers and tanners, commenting
on the matter, states that the majority of sheep-skins marketed in the
Union are of very inferior quality owing to lack of care by farmers.
The flaying is bad and the drying worse, reducing the value of the
skin. Greater care would mean higher prices, easily attainable by

188 Journal uf the Department of Aorioulture.

salting skins and shade drying* them so as to ensure their remaining
flexible and not cracking on the g-rain when packed. This tiini
states : —

*' In our experience of buyiug* wliat are marketed here as
sound sheep-skins, we think only some 14 per cent, on average
give sound pelts on removing wool and tanning skins, and when
you take into consideration the difference in value between an
absolutely sound pelt and an inferior one (probably 3s.), it is
easily shown that the loss amounts to thousands of pounds in the
course of a year."

Export of Seed.

In view of inquiries received from New York regarding the
purchase from the Union of certain classes of seed, the following
extract from the Seed Importation Act of the United States of
America (24th August, 1912) is given for general information: —

(1) The importation into the United States of seeds. of alfalfa,
l>arley, Canadian blue grass, Kentucky blue grass, awnless bronie
grass, buckwheat, clover, field corn, Kaifir corn, meadow fescue, flax,
millet, oats, orchard grass, rape, redtop. rye, sorghum, timothy, and
wheat, or mixtures of seeds containing any of such seeds as one of
the principal component parts, which are adulterated or unfit for
seeding purposes under the terms of this Act, is hereby prohibited;
provided, however, that such seed may be delivered to the owner or
consignee thereof under bond, to be recleaned in accordance with and
subject to such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may
prescribe, and when cleaned to the standard of purity specified in this
Act for admission into the United States such seed may be released to
the owner or consignee thereof after the screenings or other refuse
removed from such seed shall have l^een disi)osed of.

(2) That seed shall be considered adulterated within the meaning
of this Act : First, when seed of red clover contains more than 3
per cent, by weight of seed of yellow trefoil, or any other seed of
similar appearance to and of lower market value than seed of red
clover. Second, when seed of alfalfa contains more than 3 per cent,
by weight of seed of yellow trefoil, burr clover, and sweet clover,
singly or combined. Third, when any kind or variety of the seeds or
any mixtuie contaiiis more than 5 ])er cent, by weight of seed of
another kind or variety of lower market value and of similar appear-
ance ; provided that the mixture of the seed of white and alsike clover,
red and alsike clover, or alsike clover and timothy, shall not be deemed
an adulteration under this section.

(3) The seed shall be considered unfit for seeding purposes within
the meaning of this Act : First, when any kind or variety of clover
or alfalfa seed contains more than one seed of dodder to five grammes
of clover or alfalfa seed respectively. Second, when any kind or
variety of the seeds or any mixture described in Section 1 of this Act
contains more than 3 per cent, by weight of seeds of weeds.

(Note. — -Regulations superseding previous ones for the enforce-
ment of the above Act wei-e issued under Treasury Decision No. 35363
to take effect from 15th May, 1915.)

Notes.

181)

The Merino Ram.

Mr. A. G. Michaeliaii. Principal Sheep and Wool Expert, gives
the following description* of what is considered an ideal ram. This
number includes an illustration (" The Merino Earn ") of a merino
ram bred in South Africa whicli bears out this description:- —

" The merino ram should he a well-built, symmetrical sheep,
standing on four good, strong, straight legs, wide across the shouldei-
and loins, with a deep chest, straig^ht back, and well sprung ribs. He
should have good thighs, b.e well let down and roomv, with a good

Photo of ;i Maffiiilicent Ham, hied in Snurli Afiica.

underline. He sliould luive a strong, well-sliaped, masculine head,
with good, thick, weil-cui"^;ed horns of a good colour, showing distinct
corrugation; a kind, soft, open face, with a kind eye, a broad, tliick
muzzle, witli a good, sound mouth and soft, downy ears. The liead
must be set on the body with a rather short, thick neck.

He should have a full, bold, even front, with a good tail, and
should move with a free, liold, masculine carriage.

He should be well and evenly covered with a strong, l)rig]it,
masculine fleece, with plenty of ' guts ' in it, of good length, full of
character and quality, with a good tip."

* Jmtrnnl af Tndvxtr'ir.'i. Vol II. No. 4, p. 37?

i

190

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Plant Nurseries in Quarantine for Pests.

The following plant nurseries have been quarantined because of
insect pests and plant diseases. Some of the quarantines may be
remoyed before the coming winter sale season, and a few even before
this notice reaches the public. The position shown is that on 10th
April. The nurseries in Natal, Orange Free State, and portions of
the Transvaal have not yet been inspected for the present season.

During the existence of a quarantine, the occupier of the nursery
is forbidden to dispose of any of the plants involved.

Name of Nurseryman.

Address.

Cause of
Quarantine.

Extent of Quarantine.

S. Todd & Sons

Pietermaritzburg

Red scale

Portion of citrus.

D. A. English k Co. ...

,,

,. „

„ „ „

F. Grace

Berlin. C. P. ...

„ „

» » n

P. C. S. Gavlard

„

All of citrus.

Smith Bros

Vineyard, Uiten-
hage

Portion of figs and pears.

Municipal Nursery ...

St. George's Park,

Circular purple

Palms.

Port Elizabeth

scale

W.H.Oliver

Ea«t London

Red scale

Whole nu-sery (apples).

J. Hobson & Co.

Kinywilliamstown

„ ,.

Portion of citrus.

Botanic Gardens

Graaff-Reinet ...

» J)

All citrus.

„ „

,.

Woolly aphis

All apples.

J. H. Laubscher

»

Red scale

All citrus and figs.

Municipal Nursery ...

Somerset East ...

!5 »

All citius.

W. T. Atwood

Observatory, C.T.

Whole nursery.

C. F. Marais

Wellington

All citrus.

J, S. Rossouw ...

,,

„ „

N. S. V. d. Merwe

j^

I> >5

E. Krohn

Mare Street, Pre-

Pernicious scale and

Whole nursery.

toria

other pests

E. Krohn

Esselen Street, Pre-

Pernicious sf aleaud

Part of nursery ; various

toria

other pe^ts

kinds of plants.

V. d. Wal & Reese ...

Derdepoort, Pre-

Pernicious scale...

Parts of peaches, plums.

toria

and pears.

Wheat Production of the Union.

It is well known that the Union does not produce sufficient wheat
to meet local requirements — to what extent will be gathered from the
following table of importations into the Union of wheat (including
flour reduced to grain) : —

Imports in 1912

,, 1913

„ 1914

„ 1915

„ 1916

„ 1917

„ 1918

„ 1919

1,271,367 bags (200 lb.).

2,244,22'4 „

1,637,797 „

1.561,196 „

1,697,046 ,,

1,134,226 „

534,000 ,,

588.600 .,

There was an increase of 23 per cent, in the acreage put under wheat
in 1917, and, according to the last Census, the total wheat production
of the Union that year was 3.044.855 bags, a record for the Union.

Notes.

191

the average yield per acre <'not including' native grown wheal) being
2.98 bagsror'9.93 bushels of 60 lb. The condition of the 1917 crop is
estimated, however, to have been slightly below normal, so that a full
return may be taken at about 3 bags, or 10 bushels per acre. (Note. —
The estimated crop in 1918 was 2,695,000 bags and 1,990,000 bags in
1919.)

According to the Census, the actual returns for 1917 were as
follows : —

Yield per Acre, 1917.

Cape 3.08 bags or 10.27 bushels.

Natal 1.74 ,. .. 5.8

Transvaal 2.79 .. .. 9.3

Orange Free State. . . 2.47 ,. ,. 8.23 ,,

XTnion 2.98 ., .. 9.93 ,,

It is estimated, however, that the 1917 crop was below normal,
and that a full yield per acre should have been as follows : —

Percentage below
Normal.

Cape 2 percent.

Transvaal 30 ,,

Orange Free State 7 ,,

Union 5 , ,

Estimated full Yield per Acre in an
Ordinary Favourable Season.

3.14 bags or 10.47 bushels.
3.99 ,, ., 13.29 ,,
2.66 ,. ,, 8.85 ,,

3.14

10.45

It is interesting to compare the above with the wlieat yields
obtained in the principal wheat growing countries of the world, as
shown in the table hereunder : —

Average Yield per Acre in Bushels.

1911-1913. 1916.

United States 14.6 11.75

Eussia in Europe (a) 10 9.07 (1914)

India 12.2 10.23

Canada 20.17 21.18

France 19.8 16.08

Australia 12.1 13.22

Argentine (h) 9.3 10.19

Italy 16.3 14.65

Germany 33.1 27.75(1915)

Hungary (c) 19.9 17.89 (1915)

Spain 12.8 14.66

Russia in Asia (a) 10 12.44

(a) Average for the Russian Empire ; (b) Average for 1912-14 ;
(c) including Austria.

In some of the smaller producing countries the yield was as
follows : —United Kingdom (1911-13), 32.2 bushels; (1916), 28.48
bushels; New Zealand (1916), 23.20 bushels. The highest return for
1916 was 38.52 bushels in Denmark, and the lowest 4.69 in Tunis.

192 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Cotton Growing Prospects.

Mr. W. H. Sclierffius, Chief, Division of Tobacco and Cotton, who
has recently returned from a visit to the United States, spending a
few weeks also in England, asked to give his views on the cotton
market and its bearing on South African cotton gi^owing, states that
with cotton, as given in the latest reports, standing at about 2s. Id.
per 1 lb. of lint in England for American middlings, the outlook
for the cotton farmer in South Africa is exceedingly good, for should
he produce a crop of only 600 lb. of seed cotton per acre, it is worth
£15 to £20. A number of farmers who have been growing cotton
for the past two or three years have produced double and some more
than double this amount. With the world demand for more cotton
and a shortage increasing each year, there is little prospect of the
price falling to any considerable extent for years to come. Mr.
Sclierffius doubts whether American middlings will ever again be
(juoted at less than Is. per lb.

That South African cotton growers are alive to the situation is
e^ idenced by the fact that over a hundred have entered a competition
given l)y the British Cotton Growers' Association, who offer prizes of
£'50 and £25 respectively for the best 50 acres and 10 acres of cotton.
In awarding the prizes the main points considered are—

(a) best cultural methods employed ;

(b) yield ; and

(c) quality.

]ih. Sclierffius will decide on the first two points, while the quality
will be judged by one of the experts of the Association.

South Africa has now passed the " sample stage " m cotton
culture. Last year the Union produced approximately 2,000,000 lb.
of seed cotton, and if the season improves tlie acreage planted this
year should give a considerable increase over last season.

Tliere are a number of jjcople who intend to go in for cotton
culture on a plantation basis, each undertaking running into hundreds
of acres. It is known that certain farmers have this year moje than
■100 acres each under cotton, and that there is contemplated the
starting also of a steam plough system next year with a view to
l)lanting hundreds of acres to cotton.

Our ginning facilities have greatly improved in the last few
years, but if the increase in cotton production progresses at the present
rate, considerable increase in the number of gins will be required.
Then, also, the time is approaching when oil mills will be needed to
work the seed into stock food, in the form of cake and meal, and also
for the extraction of the oil for food and commercial purposes. Such
a mill, it is believed, is now in process of construction.

Mr. Sclierffius advises prospective growers that while the cotton
plant is exceedingly delicate and tender when very young, once it is
established, a few weeks old, there is no commercial crop that stands
drought better. Information desired on cotton culture may be
obtained by communicating with the Chief, Tobacco and Cotton Divi-
sion, Union Buildings, Pl'etoria.

Notes. 103

Colonial Wine Competition, 1919— Awards and Judges'
Report.

At the Brewers' Exhibition held towards the close of 1919 at the
Royal Agricultural Hall, Islington, London, a number of samples of
South xifrican wines were entered in the Colonial Wine Competition
and received awards in the following- classes, Australian wines taking
all the first prizes : —

3rd Prize (Class B). — Red, light claret type, two years old or

over.
•3rd Prize (Class. C). — Red, full-bodied. Burgundy type, two

years old or over.
2nd Prize (Class F). — Muscat character and rich white wines,

over 30 per cent, alcohol, two years old or over.
3rd Prize (Class K). — Red, light claret type, two years old or

over.
3rd Prize (Class L). — Red, full-bodied. Burgundy type, two

years old or over.

The jurors, reporting on the wines and spirits exhibited, state
that owing, unfortunately, to transport difficulties the wines submitted
for competition were not so numerous as in the years before the war,
and several of the samples were found out of condition and difficult to
judge, otherwise the specimens received were of a satisfactory quality.
Altogether there were 111 samples of wines and spirits from Australia
and South Africa, and these were arranged in classes according to the
entries, viz. : —

Isf.—Lif/ht White Wine.'^.

These wines were of good character and should be popular, several
showing fine quality and a marked improvement.

2iid. — Red Claret Type.

This class was well represented, and the wines generally were well
made, sound, reliable, and of good style.

3rd. — Full Burgundy Type.

This class also had a number of exhibits ; the wines have good
body, some fairly pronounced in style, and the quality generally good,
althoug'h they did not show such a rich fruity character as some of
those submitted in previous years.

4th. — Sweet Muscatel and Port Types.

These wines are pleasant and agreeable, and some excellent
samples were found in both the light and ruby colours.

btli. — Sparlding Wines.

A distinct improvement has been made in this class, some of the
samples being of good style and quality and most attractive.

6^:/?. — Brandy.

These samples varied considerably in quality and style, one,
however, being of special merit.

Speaking generally, the samples exhibited were of a good market-
able variety and well worthy of competing with those from the older

194 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

wine-producing countries. It is pleasing to note that South Africa
was more fully represented, and there should be a future for its wine
products, the exhibits being- very promising. The Australian section,
however, with its greater variety, still obtains the best results.

Purchase of " Mariendahl."

About the middle of May, 1919, at the time when the Govern-
ment scheme for the training of returned soldiers was being
formulated, and it had been decided that the schools of agriculture
would take a lead in the training of these men, the farm Mariendahl,
adjoining Elsenburg, came on the market. The ow^ner, Mr. W.
Gilchrist, asked for tenders for the purchase of the farm as a running
concern, and the Secretary for Lands, on behalf of the Government,
proved the successful tenderer. The place was taken over on the
2nd June, 1919.

The immediate object of the purchase was to provide for the
training of returned soldiers at the Elsenburg School of Agriculture.
Under the scheme of training decided on there are two courses open
for soldiers : —

(a) The regular school course, which is the ofiicial two-year
diploma course.

(6) A one-year's course, which is almost entirely practical and
in which no systematic courses of lectures are given in
those branches of farming taught at Elsenburg.

Since Mariendahl was well stocked and liberally equipped with
implements, etc., it was possible with little expense to adapt the
place so as to afford the men a suitable course in practical agriculture.

Mariendahl had been organized as a dairy farm by the late
owner, who held contracts for the supply of fresh chilled milk to
several institutions, etc., in Capetown, and his dairy herd (some 150
head of Cape cattle, mostly of the Fries strain) was tested annually
and freed of tuberculosis. These were included in the purchase, as
were also the draught animals.

Amongst the large quantity of tools, machinery, and implements
purchased with the farm, there is a l|-ton refrigerating plant with the
necessary operating engine. The engine is adapted also for workitig
a grain grinder, silage cutter, etc. The farm buildings consist of
a long, rambling homestead, a cowbyre for 80 cows, a dairy for cool-
ing and handling milk, two wooden silos, one v.^agon and implement
shed with horse stable and stores. In addition there are a roomy
manager's cottage and several smaller cottages for white and coloured
employees.

The farm consists of 900 acres, the greater proportion of which is
arable land, utilized for the growing of grain and forage crops for
the cattle. There are, however, 22 acres planted to pear trees and
15 acres to vines.

When the farm was taken over, the homestead was remodelled
at small expense to form a hostel for students, and as early as the end
of August there were in residence there a matron and 25 students.

The manager's cottage is occupied by a field instructor, who is
also the ofiicer responsible for the details of the management of the
farm and the discipline of the soldier apprentices.

Notes. 195

By the end of September the herd of cattle had been reduced to
80 head as a result of the transfers of breeding stock to other training-
farms. The jield of milk at the time of writing would approximate
90 gallons per diem.

Early in the spring, a young orchard of 1100 trees comprising
about equal numbers of apricots, peaches, and prune trees was
planted, and the vineyard enlarged by another 3000 vines. In addi-
tion about 2 acres of land have been planted to turkish tobacco. It
is proposed to develop these branches of farming in order to afford a
better general training for all students.

The soil at Elsenburg is not as suitable for the growing of the
varieties of fruit mentioned as that of Mariendahl. Further, it is
considered that in the future Mariendahl farm, as an adjunct of
Elsenburg, should be run as a commercial unit, and that the experi-
mental and investigational work in field, orchard, and vineyard,
should be confined to Elsenburg. Such an arrangement would be of
great educational value to future farmers of this part of the country.

Wheat Growing in South Africa.

Wheat growing in our country presents problems both of a
cultural and economic nature, and the report* of the Departmental
Committee appointed by the Minister of Agriculture to inquire into
the conditions of wheat growing in the Union gives a comprehensive
view of the subject. It is dealt with in relation to the whole
farming system in our wheat-growing areas, and constitutes therefore
a permanent record of a considerable part of our agriculture, for
wheat is the most important of all the autumn and winter-sown cereal
crops in the IJnion, and ranks second to maize in the value of farm
crops produced in South Africa. The Committee's duties consisted of
(a) an educational campaign and (b) an economic investigation, so
that the evidence obtained from the large number of interviewed
people experienced in the several branches of the subject and the
findings of the Committee, together with the statistical and technical
data included in the report, form a valuable work.

The report deals with the factors affecting production in the
various areas of the IJnion capable of wheat cultivation; comments on
difficulties of transportation and labour; outlines the work of the
Department of Agriculture in assisting wheat growers by experiments,
seed breeding, distribution of pure seed. etc. ; gives the miller's point
of view ; describes the system of marketing with the need for an inde-
pendent system of rural finance for the agricultural industry, etc.
The absence of uniformity of grades receives attention, and certain
remedies are suggested. The influence of the war on local wheat
production, the increased cost thereof, and the war measures adopted
in other countries to increase wheat production, are also referred to.
Altogether, a great deal of important information and advice is g-iven
in the report, which should prove most valuable to the farmer, the
student, and others concerned in the position of the Union as regards
its production of that vital article — the bread of the people.

*" Report of the Departmental Committee on Wheat Growing." U.G. 4"2. 1910;
price 6s. fid. ; obtainable from the Government Printer. Pretoria.

196 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

Export of Cattle from the Union to Great Britain.

An Order (No. 10056, of 5tli May, 1919) oi the Board of AgTicul-
ture and Fisheries brings once more into operation the law (suspended
for a while) concerning- the prohibited introduction into a port of Great
Britain of cattle, sheep, g'oats, or swine from certain countries,
whether such animals are carried as ship's stores or otherwise. As an
outcome of representations, however, regarding the admission of
Friesland cattle from the Union, advice has been received that thej^
Avill be admitted into Great Britain on the following conditions: —

(a) Tliat the cattle would only be imported on the order of
bona fide purchasers in Great Britain and under the.
auspices of the Government of the Union of South Africa
and of a recognized breed society.

(/>) That the importations would be limited to pedigree cattle
of the Holstein (Friesland) breed.

(c) That the cattle would be required to be landed at a foreign

animals' quarantine station to be defined by an Order of
the Minister, and be there detained and isolated for a
period of four calendar months after landing, the Ministry
reserving to themselves the right to slaughter all or any
of the animals without compensation other than the
sum realized by way of salvage of the carcasses in tlie event
of the appearance amongst them of foot-and-mouth disease,
contagious pleuro-pneumonia, or cattle plague.

(d) All expenses incurred in connection with the import of

cattle in question would have to be borne by the importers.

Poultry Shows: Organization.

We have received a useful little pamphlet entitled " A Few
Notes and Suggestions for the Organization and Conduct of Poultry
Clubs and Shows," compiled by Mr. P. H. Taylor, Secretary to the
South African Poultry Association. The object of the pamphlet is
to assist newly-formed poultry clubs and agricultural societies in
organizing poultry shows, and secretaries of such bodies would be
well advised to obtain a copy. We understand the Poultry Associa-
tion will be pleased to supply copies on application to P.O. Box 692,
Pretoria.

We advise you to get each copy of the Journal and to keep it.
A full index will be sent every six months to each subscriber.
Experience proves the Journal to be a useful book of reference. It
will be so in the future. Every farmer is asked to get the Jounjal
and not -to4ese-it.— T-t is likely that some day, in answer to an- inquiry,
you may be referred to an article in the Journal. Keep your Journal !

The Poultry Yard Monih by Month. li>7

THE POULTRY YARD MONTH BY MONTH,

By J. J. JoKDAAN, Lecturer and Instiuctor in Poultry, School of Agriculture, Glen

Orange Free State.

Since in practice the South African poultry breeder's year commences with the breeding
season, these notes will start with the present number of the Journal and be continued
monthly for twelve months.

In view of the vast extent of the Union and its varying conditions of climate, soil,
environment, etc., notes such as these can serve as a general guide only. They do not
profess to contain all that requires to be done in each month in the year, but are intended
to show the irreducible minimum vvhicli must be done month by month by the poultry
breeder who wishes to run his business or hobby on correct and profitable lines.

It would lead us too far to attempt in these notes to deal with more than a small
proportion of those diseases, accidents, and untoward occurrences which may — and indeed
do— crop up from time to time even in the best regulated poultry yard, and which are, and
must remain, matters for the individual breeder to deal with to the best of his ability. In
this connection it may be pointed out tliat the Poultry Instructor at the School of Agricul-
ture which serves the area in which the breeder resides, is at all times ready and willing to
furnish advice in all matters relating to the poultry yard, free of charge — when in difficulty
or doubt a letter to him is well worth while.

The following points, which constitute the main principles of poultry breeding and are
applicable to the whole year, may here be mentioned in order to avoid repetition month by
month, viz. : —

Fresh, sweet soil in the runs.
Abundance of cool, clean, drinking water.
Suitable and sufficient housing accommodation.
Correct and regular feeding.

MAY.

Egg Production.

New laid eggs are very expensive during this month. Endeavour therefore to obtain
all eggs possible from pullets and hens not in the breeding pens, using forcing foods and
spices if necessary ; the price of new laid eggs will warrant this at this time of year.

Warm housing at night, exercise during the day, abundance of green food and drinking
water, and warm mash in the mornings, to which a liberal amount of meat meal, Crayferine,
or cut green bone has been added, and good wholesome grain food dug into the ground,
giving as much variety as is obtainable, should produce eggs if the birds are of a laying
strain.

Feeding.

The following will be found a good laying mash : —
3 parts bran (wheaten).
2 parts crushed oats.
6 parts lucerne-hay or meal.
1 part pollard,
i part meat meal, Crayferine, or green bone.

198 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Breeding Pens.

The same mash, minus the meat meal, Crayferine, and green bone, fed " dry '' to the
breeding hens in the morning, and the grain food fed at night with liberal supplies of green
food at midday, should suffice.

Specially see to the feeding of the male bird ; he must be kept in good condition ; feed
him separately from the hens at midday with a little table scraps.

Do not allow the temptation of high prices for new laid eggs to lead you into forcing
the brfeding-pen birds to produce abnormally, for this will only be at the cost of fertility
and will result in weakened chicks.

Nor should eagerness to fill the incubator, or to supply orders for day-old chicks or
settings of eegs, lead to the above, as it is a poor policy in the end.

Again, do not put more hens to the male bird than he can possibly fertilize. The follow-
ing are safe numbers as a guide. Heavy varieties, 3 to 6. Light varieties, 5 to 9.

This is one of the best months of the year to hatch chicks, but they must be from eggs
produced normally.

All eggs should be gathered daily, as eggs if exposed to frost are liable to give poor
hatching results, and are not so good for eating owing to evaporation being sc much more
rapid.

Incubation.

Visit your incubator room at night just before retiring, and note the temperature of
the room as well as that of the drawer ; a little attention in this direction may prevent
losses from " dead in shell."

If the hens go broody, give them eggs ; they are useful in looking after incubated chicks
as these hatch. In spite of all the abuse showered on the old broody hen in regard to broken
eggs, insects, etc., there are few of our large breeders who do not hatch their show aud com-
petition winners under the hen.

When the machine is due to hatch, do not open the drawer to show every friend the
little things coming out. Once a day is the most it should be done. The drawer should
on no account be opened more than ouce daily during the hatching period.

Chickena.

After being hatched do not feed the chicks for .^6 to 48 hours or bowel trouble will
result.

Their first feed should be coarse sand or very fine flint grit. Therefore, for the first
three or four weeks coarse oatmeal and chicken Croats are best, with liberal feeds of finely
chopped green food and ants, but no damp or moistened food should be given them.

Milk to drink will also be found excellent, but it should always be given either sour or
fresh. The foimer is better.

The feeding should be a little at a time, but often, about every three hours as much as
they will clean up readily.

Do not pamper or attempt to rear weak chicks, as these are a fruitful source of trouble
even if they do live.

Visit your small chicks after having been to the incubator house and see that they are
comfortable ; observation and interest will soon show if they are, and if not, what is wrong.

Should the air smell foul on opening the lid of the brooder, the ventilation is bad. If
the chicks are swaiming upon each other they are either cold or seeking fresh air. If
screaming and shivering, they are cold, wanting warmth. If gasping and drooping wings,
they are overheated and need more ventilation. If sleeping and spread out over the floor,
they are contented and comfortable. Feel their crops ; at night these should be hard and
full.

The Journal aims at keeping farmers informed of what the
Department of Agriculture is doing, also of sucli matters ajffecting
their interests as come under its purview. The Journal contains
original articles for the guidance of the farmer on the many and
diverse problems which face him. Every farmer should lead it and
keep it.

The Vegetable Garden. 199

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.

May, 1920.

By H. B. Terky, Cert. R.H.S.. Lecturer in Horticulture, School of Agriculture,

Potchefstroom.

Much can be done to augment the supply of vegetables for winter and spring use-
Digging, trenching, and manuring are of the greatest importance at this lime of the year.
All decaying matter from passing crops should be destroyed and buried to prevent the
breeding of insect pests.

The following may be sown in open ground, not to be transplanted : —

Bkoad Beans. — Sow in drills 2 feet 6 inches apart and place the beans 12 inches apart in
the rows. They like a fairly heavy soil that has been well manured. Do not attempt
to cramp this crop otherwise the pods will not set.

Lettuce. — Cos varieties such as White Paris, etc., should be sown. This popular salad
requires rich moist ground and cannot be well grown without. Do not sow too
thickly and thin out to about 9 inches apart.

Parsnip. — A small sowing may be made. Deep well worked soil is essential ; thin out the
seedlings before they choke one another by overcrowding.

Peas. — May continue to be sown. Stratagem, Pride of the Market, Dr. McLean, Sutton's
Matchless are all useful. Where very severe frosts are experienced, the peas are liable
to become frosted.

Radish. — Make continuous sowing of Turnip Rooted, French Breakfast, and other quick
maturing sorts. The reason radishes become puffy, hollow, and hot is because they
are not used fast enough.

Spinach. — Given some well manured ground and a plentiful supply of water, together with
plenty of hoeing later, a sowing of Prickly Winter may be made.

Turnips. — Make good sowings of Six Weeks, Red Top White Globe, Jersey Lily; thin
the seedlings out when strong enough to prevent them falling over ; failure to thin out
ruins the crop.

Onions. — Transplant seedlings from sowing made in February or March ; the ground should
have been prepared some time ago. Before planting, the soil should be made firm as
onions dislike a spongy soil to root in. Make the rows 15 inches apart, and set the
plants 6 to 8 inches apart in the rows. Do not plant deeper than 1 inch, as good
bulbs are only produced at or on the surface.

Leeks. — If available may be transplanted in a similar manner to onions.

Celert. — Should be making good progress, and will need to be tied up with paper
before earthing up to blanch the stalks. Water should be generously given to enable
this crop to become crisp.

Cabbage. — May still be transplanted, and provided the soil is rich they will make good
growth during the winter and provide a certain crop for spring use when most
vegetables aie scarce.

Cauliflowers. — Will soon be tit for cutting, that is the early sorts ; as the heads appear
it is advisable to break in a few of the inner leaves to protect the flower from the
weather. Provide copious supplies of water if good heads are desired.

Mustard and Cress. — May be sown in tins and boxes under cover or on the stoep. When
grown in the open it does not attain sufficient length for cutting, but under partial
shade it easily reaches 3 to 4 inches quickly.

(The writer will be pleased to give further information on application to him.)

200 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE ON THE
OVERSEA MARKET.

Extracts from Report of the Acting Trade
Commissioner.

February, 1920.

Wool. — At the February auctions, which conchided on the 27th instant,
5688 bales of South African "free" wool were offered. The market, however,
was most disappointing and a large proportion of the quantities offered was
withdrawn, owino; partly to the high limits put on the various parcels. The
improvement which took place in the prices for Australian merinos was not
shared by greasy Cape wools at any period during the sales, and although
during the .second week of the auctions there was a certain amount of Continental
competition for medium and inferior snow whites which caused an advance of
about 5 per cent., this appreciation was not maintained, and at the close of the
sales prices for all descriptions were about on a par with the closing rates of the
January auctions.

The following are the nominal quotations now ruling for South African
Avool : —

Western Eastern ,r ,

rrovuico. Frovmce.

Snow white, super ... ... SOd. to 95d. 75d. to 91d.

Snow white, average to good ... 64d. to 79d. — —

Snow white, short ... ... ... — ()()d. to 74d. —

Snow white, inferior ... ... 42d. to 63d. — —

Snow white, faxilty ... ... ... — 38d. to 59d. —

Scoured, super ... ... ... — — 60d. to SOd.

Scoured, inferior ... ... ... — — 38d. to 59d.

Grease, superior 38d. to 60d. 40d. to 68d. 39d. to 54d.

Grease, average to good 26d. to 37d. 29d. to 39d. 27d. to 38d.

Grease, inferior ISd. to 25d. 18d. to 28d. 18d. to 26d.

Mohair. — The market demand for mohair was qiiiet during the month, the
only feature of interest being the offering of 500 bales at public auction on the
18th February. There was a fair attendance of buyers but competition was very
small and the bulk of the mohair was withdraw'n.

The following prices are based on those realized at the auction : —

Summer kids, 37d. to 43d. per lb.

Summer firsts, 26d. to 28d. per lb.

Winter hair, 24d. per lb.

Mixed, 12d. to 20d. per lb.

Greys, 14d. per lb.

Hides. — Auction sales were held on the 5th February, and the otferings of
South African hides were considerable, but a large proportion of the goods were
of an unattractive nature. Wet salted hides were not dealt in to any great
extent, but dry and dry salted of " heavy " weight, of first and second selections,
which were in small supply, appreciated about ^d. to Id. per lb. as compared
with January prices. Extra heavy weights, chiefly dry salted of good quality,
sold at fully l^d. per lb. above the rates ruling at the previous sales. Third and
fourth class skins were not in demand. Kips and calf skins of first and second
selections .secured good comjietition, but thirds were in poor demand.

The following are the average prices ruling for South African hides, c.i.f.
terms : —

Wet salted (best heavy), 18d. to 21d. per lb.

Dry hides (heavv), 2dd. to 27^d. per lb.

Dry salted, 26d. to 26^- per lb.

Second quality hides, about Id. per lb. less.

Kips and calf skins (firsts). 325(1. to SS^d. P^i" lb.

Kips and calf skins (seconds). 29jd. to 30id. per lb.

South African Produce on the Oversea Market. 201

Sheep Skins. — Auction sales were held on the 26th February, when 323,789
Cape sheep skins were offered and 209.046 sold. On the whole the collection was
moderately attractive. In many cases the comlnng and long-woolled sknis were
irregular in growth of wool, and there were few large strings of Western
Province origin.

The skins sold at the following average prices : —
Extra long wool. 26Jd. to 30d. up to 33:id. per lb.
Long wool. 24d. to 272d. up to 29id. per lb.
Short wool. 18d. to 21d. up to 2o5d. per lb.
Shorn wool. 17id. to 20d. up to 23id. per lb.
Lambs. 17d. to 21d. up to 24id. per lb.
Coarse long wool. 19Jd. to 20d. up to 21^d. per lb.

Glovers' Skins. — Of 68,788 common Cape (Glovers') sheep skins offered
9294 sold. The small turnover was practically confined to the standard selec-
tions of large and medium skins, and of the.se Mossel Bay consignments sold at
an advance of about 15 per cent, over the January auction rates. In by-sorts
there was little or no trade, and the limits imposed by shippers are far above the
figures at which glove manufacturers find it worth while to put such grades
into work.

Common (Glover.^'). — Extra large. loOs. to 195s. up to 235s. per dozen;
medium, 120s. to 135s. up to 200s. per dozen ; light medium, 80s. to 100s. up to
125s. per dozen

Wattle Hark and Extract. — The present price for chopped is £21. 15s. and for
ground £22. 10s. Extract is at present standing at £47 c.i.f. with upward
tendency in .sympathy with Quebracho.

Ostrich Feathers. — Since the sales on the 2nd February the market has
been rather quiet, but prices have remained firm. Broken wings, common blacks
and drabs and boos are in fair demand, but best wings are not much inquired
for at the moment. The market is still handicapped by the low rate of
exchange between Paris and London.

Meat. — During the month several parcels of South African beef were placed
on the market, and the quality was somewhat better than certain previous
shipments this season. A price up to 7s. a stone (8 lb.) for hindquarters has
been made for prime quality, but the greater portion averaged from 5s. lOd. to
6s. 6d. for hinds and 4s. 6d. for forequarters

Scab: Protected Districts.

The Scab Regulations provide for the establishment of " Protected
Areas," i.e. areas which are either wholly free from scab or contain
a small percentage of infection only, and into which no stock is
allowed, unless clean and twice dipped under supervision of an
inspector. In the beginning of 1917 eight districts in the Cape Pro-
vince were proclaimed protected. This number was gradu-illy in-
creased, with the result that (at the beginning of March) in the "Jape
51 districts are so protected; in the Orange Free State, 5; in the
Transvaal, 6; and in Natal, 5.

In addition, three districts in the Cape and three in the Orange
Free State are undergoing a compulsory dipping with a view to pro-
tection. On account of the very severe drought of the past year, it
was not possible to carry out dipping to any extent, otherwise greater
progress woiild have been shown. It may be mentioned that from the
Cape Peninsula to East London all the coastal districts are protected.

202 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

OVERSEA PRICES OF SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE.

March, 1920.

Market Prices of South African Produce in the United Kingdom,

CABLED BY THE AcTING TrADE COMMISSIONER, LoNDON.

Simf/i. Africa 71 M'ool.

4500 balfs offered March auction. Long, greasy combing 5 per cent, dearer.
Prices other wool on a par with February auction.

Mohair.

No change.

Cape Hides.

Market dull ; prices nominal.

Cape Aufiora Skins.

Nominally o per cent, decline.

Cape Merino Sheep Shins.

Firm ; prices unchanged. •

Natal Wattle Bark.

Market declined owing to large stock.

Chopped €18 10 0 spot or to arrive.

Ground 19 15 0 to £20 5 0 c.i.f.

Ostrich leathers.

Demand quiet.

Maize.

S.A. No. 2 White Flat : inquiries being made @ 8ns. c.i.f.

(La Plata maize, May shipments 70s.. May-June shipments 68s. fid., 68s. 9d.)

South African Beef.

Hinds 6s. 2d. per stone (8 lb.)

Forea 4s. „ „ (8 lb.)

South African Tobacco.

Virginian type : Is. 3d. to 2s. 6d. per lb. in accordance with grades.

Cotton (March futures).

Highest 27. Od.

Lowest 2(M2d.

Cotton Seed.

Market quiet. (Egyptian April-May shipments. £2S : Bombay. £17 spot, April-
May shipments, £16. 15s.)

Sunflower Seed.

£60 per ton, small lots for feeding purposes. £25 to £30 per ton, crushed.

Hornji.

Large £9 15 0 to £14 L5 0 per 100.

Medium 4 o 0 „ 5 10 6 „

.'^mall 12 6,, 2 3 0 ,.

Staff Changes. 20;i

STAFF CHANGES.

(1") Ageicultuee.

Date. Name of Official and Natuee of Change, etc.

29/2/20 A. ¥. Harber : District Veterinary Surgeon. Natiil. Resigned.
9/2/20 Dr. M. Zschokke and Dr. R. Schaire" : Appointed as Veterinary Research Officers

on three years' agreement.
29/1/20 R. W. M. Mettam : Appointed as Veterinary Research Officer on three years'

agreement.
9/2/20 G. Mclnfyre and J. F. Mclntyre : Appointed as District Veterinary Surgeons,

with Headquarters at Vryheid and Potchefstroom respectively, on three

years' agreement.
1/2/20 V. A. Puitt-rill : Transferred from Division of Botany, Pretoria, as Mycologist in

charge at Capetown.
9/2/20 J. Cheere Emmett : Senior Sheep Inspector, Vryheid, resigned to stand for

Parliament.
2/3/20 B. W. Sutton : Appointed as Dairy Inspector.

(2) Ageicultural Education.

Date. Name of Official and Natuee of Change, etc.

lfi/3/20 J. W. Cleghorne : Appointed Lecturer in Engineering at the School of
Agriculture, Glen.

— E. K. Hall, M.ScAg., recently returned to South Africa on completion

of his studies at the Universitj' of Illinois, U S.A., has been appointed
Lecturer in Animal Husbandry at the School of Agriculture, Glen, Orange
Free State.
29/3/20 P. J. J. Fourie, M.R.C.V.S., who was granted a Government Scholarship in
1915, to pursue his studies at the Royal Veterinary College, Dublin, has
recently returned an;^ has been appointed Lecturer in Veterinary Science at
the School of Agriculture, Grootfontein.

— B. S. Parkin, M.R.C.V.S., who was granted a similar scholarship to Mr. Fourie,

has been appointed to the Lectureship in Veterinary Science at the School of
Agriculture, Elsenburg. Mr. Parkin, after qualifying about July, 1918,
enlisted in the Imperial Army and saw service in India and the Afghanistan
Border.

— R. Bigalke, formerly Assistant Chemist at the School of Agriculture, Potchef-

stroom, and subsequently employed in the Departamento Maritime at
Louren^o Marques, has been appointed Lecturer in Zoology and Entomology
at the School of Agriculture, Glen.

MOVEMENTS, ETC.. OF OFFICERS.

Sheep Division.

Mr. L. H. Visser, Sheep and Wool Expert, lately returned from studying in Australia,
has been appointed to the Western Province a'ea, with hi adquarters at Paarl. Mr. Visser
passed with ^'■Honours'' in his tiiial examinations in Sydney, and was placed second in a
class of 40. Portion of his two years' stay in Australia was spent on the well-known
Bundeman station. Farmers desirous of securing Mr. Visser's services should write to him
direct at Paarl, Cape Province.

Mr. V. Loxton, Sheep and Wool Expert, has been appointed to Natal and East Griqua-
land area, which includes also portion of the Orange Free State as far as Harrismith. His
headquarters and address will be Colonial Buildings, Pietermaritzburg.

Mr. D. L. Mellet, Sheep and Wool Expert, has been appointed to assist the Lecturer in
Sheep and Wool at the Grootfontein School of Agriculture, Middelburg, Cape Province, for
six months, but he will be able to undertake also a limited amount of urgent work, sheep-
classing and mating, in that area.

204 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

Veterinary Research.

Owing to Mr. R. E. Montgomery's impending transfer to the Uganda Protectorate. Sir
Arnold Theiler will again assume control of the Division, together with the Veterinary
College which is being established at Onderstepoort.

Horticultural Division.

Mr, Tribolet, the Chief, proposes to visit the following centres, leaving Pretoria on the
3rd of May and returning on the 2f|th. Lectures will be given in places where they can be
arranged and farms visited where convenient : — Warmbaths, Nylstroom. Haakdoorn, Pot-
gietersrust, Pietersburg, Zoelcmakaar, Bandolierkop. Tiouis Trichardt, Mara, Diiivelskloof,
Tzaneen-Haenertsburg, Acornhoek, Godwan River.

Agricultural Education.

Mr. A. C. Pigott, Farm Manager, Potchefstroom School of Agriculture, has returned to
duty after a period of long vacation in the United Kingdom. Mr. E. Baker, B.Sc, Lecturer
in Botany, Elsenburg School of Agriculture, proposes leaving shortly on a six months' visit
to England.

NOTES FROM THE "GAZETTE."

Attention is drawn to the following matters of interest which appeared
in the Union Govemmpnt Gnzette.: —

(Abbreviations: " Proc." — Proclamation; "G.N." — Government Notice.)

Gazette.

No. Date. Items.

1027 18/2/20 The duty on wheat in the grain, wheaten flour, and wheaten
meal, and maize in the grain ; as imposed in Class I of the
First Schedule to Act No. 26 of 1914, has been temporarily
suspended (by the Govern or-Genei*al) until Parliament
passes suitable legislation during the present session.
(G.N. No. 303.)

1032 12/3/20 The Governor-General has approved of the reduction of the stock
rate in the Kentani District from Is. 6d. to Is. G.N.
No. 914 of 1919 is amended accordingly. (G.N. No. 429.)

1032 12/3/20 The compulsory dipping of cattle in the three-day and five-day

1034 19/3/20 dips respectively has been ordered in certain portions of

1036 26/3/20 the Dundee, Ixopo, Umvoti, Estcourt, Ngotshe, Camper-

1040 9/4/20 down, Paulpietersburg, Butterworth, Idutywa, Umzimkulu.

Willowvale, Queenstown, Mount AylifF, Zoutpansberg,

Pietersburg, and Lydenburg Districts. (G.N. Nos. 424,

449, 486, 544, 565, 613.)

1039 1/4/20 The compulsory dipping of sheep has been ordered in Carnarvon
District (G.N. No. 450), Rouxville and Bethulie Districts
(G.N. No. 462), and Maclear District (G.N. No. 559).

1034 19/3/20 The Department of Native Affairs publishes regulations for the
eradication of various noxious weeds in the Shiloh Mission
Station, in the Division of Queenstown, and in the Esson
Mission Station, Uitenhage Division, under the Mission
Stations and Communal Reserves Act, No. 29 of 1909 (Cape),
the regulations to be carried out by the Boards of Manage-
ment of the above locations. (G.N. No. 468/9).

1034 19/3/20 It is notified that the importation of maize and barley, under
permit referred to in Proclamation No. 33 of 1920, will
only be allowed in small quantities as seed intended foi
sowing, and then only when the introduction is deemed
desirable. Further requirements are also laid down under
which permits are to be applied for. (G.N. No. 506 —
17/3/20.)

Notes from the " Gazette." 205

(Abbreviations: " Proc." — Proclamation; "G.N." — Government Notice.)

Gazette.

No. Date. Items.

1034 19/3/20 The Secretary for Lands notifies that the sale of farms in certain
districts of the Sonth-West Protectorate has been approved
of by the Governor-General in terms of the 1912 Land
Settlements Act, as amended by South-West Protectorate
Land Settlement Proclamation" No. 14 of 1920. (G.N.
No. 466.)

The appointment of members to the South-West Pro-
tectorate Land Board, in terms of the Act and Proclama-
tion above referred to, is also notified. (G.N. No. 467).

The Crown Lands referred to in G.N. No. 315 of
20th February, 1920, which are to be 'sold in front of
the Court-house, at 10 a.m., on the 11th May, are now
stated to be Peace Islands Nos. 1 and 2 in the Orange
River, Division of Kenhardt. (G.N. No. 481.)

Certain Crown lands in Gordonia District will be sold
by public auction in front of the Magistrate's Office in
TJpington on the 11th Mav, at 11 o'clock forenoon. (G.N.
No. 489.)

1036 26/3/20 The Secretary for Lands will receive applications up to the 7th
May for the allotment of certain holdings in the Standerton
District on Conditional Purchase Lease. (G.N. No. 535).

1040 9/4/20 Up to the 13th May applications for unallotted farms in the
South-West Protectorate will be received by the Department
of Lands, Windhuk. Full particulars are given in G. N.
No. 590.

1040 9/4/20 Applications for certain lands in the Zoutpansberg District will
be received by the Secretary for Lands, Pretoria, up to
21st May. (G.N. No. 592.)

1036 26/2/20 Regulations for reporting and controlling the disease known as
Dourine in Equines have been approved of by the Governor-
General under the Stock Disea.ses Act (No. 14 of 1911).
(G.N. No. 542.)

968 26/3/20. The High Commissioner for South Africa notifies in the Official
Gazette that the amount of duty payable under the
Bechuanaland Protectorate Cattle Export Duty Proclama-
tion, 1916, shall be raised from 2s. 6d. to 5s. The provi-
sions in the Proclamation respecting "calves" are also
amended. (Proc. No. 9.)

The Hlatikulu District of SAvaziland is declared an
infected area on account of East Coast fever in the above
Gazette. (Notice No. 25 in terms of Swaziland Diseases of
Stock Proc, 1918.)

1040 9/4/20 All brands registered in the Cape Province under the Cape Acts
No. 12 of 1890 and No. 4 of 1897, for the quarter ending
31st December, 1919, are published in G.N. No. 600.

The brands registered in the same period for the Free
State under the Orange River Colony Brands Registration
Ordinance of 1903, are notified in G.N. No. 619.

Do not lose your copy of the Journal. A full index will be sent
subsc-ribers every six months. The Journal will prove a useful book
of reference to every farmer. In time it will be a valuable com-
pendium of advice and information on farming in South Africa.

206 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

RECENT AGRICULTURAL LITERATURE.

Bv Paul Ribbink, Librarian, Department of Agriculture.

I.— UNION government PUBLICATIONS.

MiSCELLANEOITS REPORTS, ETC., OF INTEREST TO FARMERS.

(Ohtaindble from the Government Printer, Pretoria.)

„ . Number of

Price per copy. Publication.
Ss. Forest Department, Annual Report for the year ending 31st March,

1919. Including Report on Railway Sleeper Plantations ... U.G. 47 — '19.

Is. Meat Trade Commission appointed to inquire into the condition of

the Meat Trade of the Union. Report U.G.9— '20.

II.— THE AGRICULTURAL PRESS OF SOUTHERN AND TROPICAL AFRICA.

Selected Articles.

Bi^ Boer (Biivoegsel tot " De Volkstem"), Pretoria.

20 Februarie 1920. Kongres van die Transvaalse Skaap- en Bokboere (14 Februa-

rie 1920 te Volksrust).
12 Maart 1920. Die Mieliekwessie.
26 Maart 1920. Landbou en Landbouskole.

Die Boerevroiiiv (Posbus 984, Pretoria).

Maart 1920. 'n Kleindogter van Jan van Riebeek.
lets oor Bije en Heuning.

Farmers'' Advocate, South African (P.O. Box 247, Bloemfontein).
January, 1920. Anthrax : Cause, Symptoms, Treatment.

How to grow Winter Food for Dairy Cows. HI. Ensilage, by W. E. (IJlark.
February, 1920. Settlement Possibilities in South- West Africa, by D. W. Drew,

"m.l.a.

Hereford Cattle, by W. G. C. Butteu.
March, 1920. Agricultural Lime.

'The Farmers' Jounuil (Nairobi, B.E.A.).

5th February, 1920. East Africa as the World's future Spice Gardens, by

W. J. Thompson, M.R.C.A. (Continued from Vol. 2, No. 5.)
18th March, 1920. Gelding of Stock, by Stockman.

The Farmers' Weekly (Bloemfontein).

25th February, 1920. The New Protectorate (South-West Africa), by German

Settler.
3rd March, 1920. Wheat Economics, by H. Wolfe, M.Sc.Agric. (Concluded in

issue of 16th March.)
10th March, 1920. The Rosebank Show. (List of Awards given in issue of

17th March, 1920.)
24th March, 1920. Maize in South Africa. (G. J. Bosman, B.S.A.)

Port Elizabeth Show. (List of Winners in issue of 31st March, 1920.)
31st March, 1920. Hand-rearing of Calves, by H. Cooke, B.S A.

Friesland Breeders Meeting. Annual Meeting, Bloemfontein, 24th March.

1920.
The Central Show, Bloemfontein, 23rd to 25th March, 1920.

Recent Agricultural Literature. 207

Die Landbouwer (Posbus 1035, Pretoria).

1.") Februarie 1920. No. 17. Venneerdering van ons Mielie-produksie.

Die Landhouio Weehhlad ("Posbus 267, Bloemfontein).

10 Jlaart 1920. No. 38. ^toommasiene en Verbrandingsniotors op die Plaas, deur

W. S. H. Cleghorne.
24 Maart 1 920. Die Reenval van Suidafrika.

The Natal Witness (Supplement, " The Farmers" D.iy," Pietermaritzburu).
«th iVTarcb, 1920. The Cotton Industry,
nth Mai-cli, 1920. Beef Production (to be continued).
2()th Maich, 1920. Successful Dairying.

The Sovth African Dairynian (Fox 925, Durban).

February, 1920. No. 4, Famous Breeds of Britain. No. 2, "Devons", by
" Farmer George ". (Continued in March issue, No. 3.)

The Sovth African Funn A'eics (Box 96H, .Johannesburg).

February, 1920. The Horse-Breeding Industry, by W. H. Courtenay.

7'he Smitli African Fruit Grower and Small Holder (Box 3958, Johannesburg).
February, 1920. Are our Fruit Export Regulations wrong ?

Sov.'h African Gardening and Country Life (Box 3958, Johannesburg).

February, 1920. The Koopman-De Wet House, by Dorothea Fairbridge. (Con-
tinued in March, 1920, issue.)

llic South African Journal of Industries (Government Printer, Pretoria).

February, 1920. No. 2. Tea Industiy in South Africa. — I, by Hon. W. F.
" Clayton, M.L.A.
Vegetable Fats and Oils. — II, by M. Hindi, Ing.D.

South African Poultry Maqazine (Bloemfontein).

' March, 1920. No'. 98. Utility v. Exhibition, by K. Vivyan.

Official Egg-Laying Competitions, by E. P. Kirkwood, Maritzburg.

The Soutit African Poultry Beview and Small Holder (Johannesburg).

March, 1!)20. No. 11. Breeding to Standard, by A. A. Colville.

South African Sugar Journal (Box 925, Durban).

March, 1920. New Method of Treating Uba Juice.

Notes on the Cotton IndustrA', by VV. B. Wilson. B.S.Agric.

The Snti and Agricultural Journal of South Africa (Box 634, Johannesburg).

January, 1920. New Zealand Tall Fescue {Festuca Arundinacea}, by Joseph

Burt t- Davy.
February, 1920. Electrification of Cane-Sugar Mills, by Chas. Griffith, O.B.E.
March, 1920. The Sunflower, its Uses and Cultivation, by Joseph Burtt-Davy.

The 11 Vv'/.' Ihid (Box 413, Pietermaritzburg).

3rd April, 1920. The Peanut or Earthnut.

10th April. 1920. Cleanliness in Dairying, by " Agricultur."

III.— AGRICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS IN OTHER PARTS.

REVIEWS AND EXTRACTS.

Cold Storage of Fruit. — This has received special attention in New Zealand and
forms the subject of an article in the Netv Zealand Journal of Agriculture for January,
1920, Vol. XX, No. 1. Advice is given on -the stage of ripeness at which the various
varieties of apples and pears are to be picked, also a summary of findings resulting from
variftus tests to which the fruit was subjected at different i)eriods of storage. In addition,
tests made of the results of careless and careful handling, respectively, emphasized the great
importance of placing the fruit in storage in the best possible condition promptly after
picking. In regard to wrapping, apples were found to l)e of better general appearance if
wrapped before cold storage, but it made little difference to pears. The results of the
experiments demonstrate the important part of the orchardist in the ultimate success of the
cold storage of fruit.

208 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

Licks for Live Stock. — The Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales for Januaiy.
1920, Vol. XXXI, Part I, contains an interesting article on Licks tor Live Stock for different
classes of country. A list is given of formulae recommended for different ailments and
includes the following : — Stornach Worms (fluke) ; Worms in Lambs ; Lungworm in Sheep :
Defective Botie Development ; Osteo nialicia ; Lime for Stock ; Anti-partum Parahsis in
Sheep ; New Disease in Sheep (Black Disease).

A few of the formulae contain such substances as bone meal, bone ash, calcium phos-
phate or lime, to supply material deficient in soil or herbage, and may be legardcd as bone-
forming salts. The bulk of the ingredients have medicinal action and are not met with in
the soils. The article deals with samples of soil analysed, stated to have been used as a
" natural lick " by stock, especially sheep, and, in the case of "Black Disease", repoited to
have a beneficial effect.

The Beet Sugar Industry. — In the Victorian Journal of J f/ricultv re iovFehrnary
1920, is a continued article from the December, 1919, and January, 1920, issues. The two
previous papers dealt with the general reasons for further development of the industry with
an account of its history in the colon}-, by-products, cultivation, seeding and fertilizing, and
harvesting. February's contribution deals with beet seed, new beet sugar factories, re<}uire-
ments for their establishment and consequent success, capacity, cost, etc. In addition,
general information is given regarding the industrj^ in some of the princi{)al beet sugar
producing countries. We learn that in the United States of America there are nearly lUO
factories producing 800,000 tons of beet sugar while cane interests represent about 2.50,000
tons, and Americas home requirements are over 4,000,000 tons per annum, mostly imported
from Cuba as cane sugar. The American Government is encouraging ex])ansion of sugar
beet growing.

Pepsin verms Rennet in Cheese-Making.— Mr. H. M. Mcrker, in the Journal of
Dairy Science, Vol. II, No. (5, November, 1919, states that owing to conditions mainly
brought about by the war, pepsin has replaced rennet almost entirely in cheese-making,
except in cheese of the sweet curd variety. It is being used in all parts of the world and is
much cheaper. Experienced cheese-makers have concluded, after several years' experience,
that the loss of butter-fat in the whey is the same with either { epsin or rennet. Pepsin may
be activated by the addition of hydrochloric acid to a limited extent, and decidedly
a(;tivated when used in conjunction with soluble calcium salts. The three important points to
1)0 observed in connection with the use of pepsin are : —

(1) The addition of a good, live starter (lactic acid culture).

(2) The milk should be heated to 88° F.

(3) The acidity should be 0-20 per cent, lactic acid before adding the pepsin.

Seal Skins— Remarkable Prices.

Sealing upeiations iiie carried out at the various Government
Gruano Islands, and the skins obtained are shipped ^o London for sale.
The prices obtained in 1914-15 ruled low, for some shipments only 9s.
per skin being obtained, and during' the 1915-16 season sealing opera-
tions were entirely suspended owing to the slump prevailing in the
fur skin market. Tlie following year there was a rise in the market,
and sealing was renewed, the skins obtaining satisfactory prices. The
market continued to rise, the prices per skin in 1917-18 being from
.31s. 2d to 37s. 6d. ; in 1918-19 the average was £2. 18s. Advice is
now received of remarkably hig'h prices on the London market on the
29th January last for Government seal skins, pup skins realizing from
£15. 15s. to <£33. 10s., the average price of two shipments being
i'22. 19s. 6d. and £21. 12s. lOd. Practically all the skins were
bought on account of America, and it is believed they are lieing-
shipped there direct.

Schools of AoRicuLTrRE and Experiment Stations. 209

AT THE SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND
EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

March, 1920.

CEDARA. NATAL.

Climatic. — The rainfiiU for the month (up to and including the 23rd) was
6.93 inches. The mean maximum temperature was 71.8° F. and the mean
minimum 57.4. On the whole the weather was unfavourable to the crops, most
of tlie days being overclouded with continuous light rains.

Field Operations.- — Kale, rape, parsnips, and Kikuyu grass were planted,
and potatoes and sunflowers harvested.

Crops. — The maize crop still promises well despite the excessive rains, but
the cow-peas have been adveisely affected and are suffering severely from fungous
diseases. The sunflowers made excellent growth on heavy vlei soil and the
artichokes promise a good yield. The millet has made excellent growth and the
bulk of it is being ciit for green fodder.

Stocl'. — Three Friesland calves were boin during the month, one heifer and
two bulls. The Aberdeen-Angus show cow. Nannie of Denoon, gave birth to a fine
heifer calf on the 16th of the month. One Ayr.shrie calf, a heifer, was born.
Four Shorthorn heifers from Onderstepoort were added to the stock during the
month. All the stock are in fine condition.

Orchard. — Woolly aphis seems to have flourished in the orchard during the
continiial wet weather. This pest was treated with tobacco wash, paraffin
emulsion. Harbas, and resin wash, the last spray giving the best results. Pear
leaf 1)light and tlie bitter rot of apples have done a certain amount of damage
despite continual spraying with bordeaux mixture.

Chemical Laboratory. — A sample of an extract from a local indigenous tree,
said to have good tanning properties, was analysed. The analysis of the dry.
solid extract showed that it contained only 43 per cent, of tannin matter, while
the colour was exceedingly deep, and in every way compared very unfavourably
with wattle extract. A specimen of latex from an indigenous plant submitted
for examination had over 57.98 per cent, of resins and only 13 per cent, of pure
rubber, which precluded its exploitation as a source of rubber, although it
might possibly be used for other purposes. The work carried out just before the
war on the composition of Natal wattle bark has been resumed, and a start
has also been made with investigating the composition and comparative nutritive
value of the more common indigenous grasses.

Entomological Section. — A large brown ant, I'htijiolrpi.s rn.'itodiens, is giving
trouble to some farmers in the New Hanover district, worrying stock and
natives by biting ferociously. The same 'ant occurs at Cedara but gives no
trouble. Experiments with poison baits, cyanide solution, and corrosive subli-
mate have proved that the sul)limate is the most efficacious remedy-. Some
wattle plantations around Pietermaritzburg have l)een l)adly infested with bag-
worms this season, but the la.st heavy rains of the past three months have cau.sed
great mortality among them, due chiefly to the fungous disease and to polyhedrae
wilt, an obscure disease that is very virulent and highly contagious.

ELSENBURG. MULDER'S VLEI, CAPE.

The weather generally was fairly cool, though still al)normally dry. Tlie
total rainfall recorded to date is 0.17 inches, which fell on_ the 20tli instant,
whereas the normal March rainfall is 1.12 inches. The maximum temperature
recorded was 92.8° F. on the 19th instant.

210 Journal of the Department of Agrihulturb.

Field Operations and Crops. — The preparation of land for the coming
season's crops has been seriously delayed by the continued drought, both on the
farm and in the Experimental Division. About 50 acres of " braak " land were
summer ploughed this month, but it was impossible to plough the stubble lands
on account of the hardness of the soil.

A further 22-acre field of maize was cut and turned into ensilage, the yield
being aliout 80 tons; 40 tons of vlei grass were cut and stacked for bedding
purposes; 150 Ijags of oats (Algerian) and 50 bags of rye were threshed during
the month.

In connection with the vintage, the wines were racked this month and the
casks filled.

In the Horticultural Division several varieties of pears were picked and
packed for the local markets. The Beurre Bosc, Louise Bonne, Forelle, and
KeifFer (in part) varieties were picked, the yields of Beurre Bosc and Forelle
being poor, but the Louise Bonne and Keiffer crops were fairly good, lioth in
yield and quality. 139 trays of Louise Bonne pears were sent to the Johannes-
burg market and realized five shillings per tray. A few trays of Keiffer pears
were also sent to Johannesburg, but the bulk of the crop was cut Tip for drying
purposes.

Live Stock. — The condition of the live stock in general is fair. Milk yields
of the dairy cattle dropped somewhat during the month. The pigs are in good
condition, and a large number of sows farrowed during the past three or four
weeks. A number of pigs from the experimental pig lots Mere sold, as follows :
Five large black gelts for breeding purposes at 10 guineas each; eight large
black barrows to the Wellington Bacon Factory at £7. 10s. each; and six cross-
bred large black Berkshire pigs at tiie same price.

Buildings — The old dairy bui!di))g, which was destroyed by fire some time
back, has been rebuilt, and is now used ])y the Experimentalist as a seed store,
ofl&ce, and laboratory. A fine modern dairy is in process of l)uilding at present
and is nearing completion. An intensive lireeding house is being built in the
poultry division. Work was continued on this during the month, and the house
is now about one-half completed.

Experimental and Investigational Work. — AVork in the experimental division
is still held back by the dry weather, no fertilizers having been applied yet, due
to the impossibility of working the land. Tlie othei' laboratory and field experi-
ments are progressing favourably.

Itosehanh Show. — The AVestei n Piovince Agricultural Society's Annual Show
was held at Rosebank on the 2nd to 5th March, inclusive. A large number of
Elsenl)urg live stock, principally cattle, was exhibited, and a general exhibit
representative of all divisions of the school was also staged as part of the
Government exhibit. The live stock exhibits were awarded nine first prizes, five
seconds, and one third, as well as two championships (Jersey bull and Jersey cow).
The .Jersey cattle were outstanding in thc>ir classes. In the group classes the
Elsenburg entries were awarded second prize in both heavy and light breeds
(Friesland and Jersey respectively). With only two exceptions the live stock
exhibit consisted entirely of animals bred at Elsenburg, and the two exceptions
were buth unplaced. Several membei's of the staff acted as judges in various
sections at the show.

The entire stiulent l)ody attended the show and was conducted around in
gioups by different memljers of the. staff to each .section of the show in turn.
In this Avay they received much useful instruction in regard to the judging of all
classes of stock and farm produce, as well as a great deal of valuable general
information in regard to the various exhibits.

The live stock judging competition proved a great success, the judging of
the students being very creditable in all the classes. The students who took
part in the butter-making competition also acquitted themselves very well, one of
them being awarded the championship.

GLEN, ORANGE FREE STATE.

Climatic. — The total rainfall for the month up to date (26th) was 6.29
inches. The bulk was registered during the first week of the month, when the
Modder River overflowed its banks in various places we.st of Glen. Considerable
damage was done to pumping plants and several farmers were obliged to leave
their homes as they were completely surrounded by water. Fortunately no damage

Schools of Agriculture and Experiment Stations. 211

was done to the pumping plant here, although some expenditure was incurred
in removing a heav^y deposit of mud and overhauling the plant as it was cpm-
pletely submerged.

Crops. — Field operations were interfered with consideral)ly owing to the
excessive rains. It was only possible to get on the irrigated land last week, so
that ploughing, seeding, etc., was practically at a standstill. On the dry lands
(sandy soils) 35 acres of rye were planted for winter feed. Whatever crops were
planted before the heavy rains, as also the veld, made al)normal growtli during
the month. Although grain feed, such as oats, will be scarce during the winter,
there will be an abundance of grazing and I)ulk feed. The planting of oats and
weeding of lands are in full swing. Owing to the wet condition of the lands
weeds have become very bad.

Live Stock. — All are in good condition. Three Friesland heifei's are due
to calf .shortly and will be entered in the official milking competition. Ten
donkeys, some registered and other not, were sold at the Bloemfontein show on
the 2.5th, and realized from £17. 10s. to £42. 10s. each.

Six animals, consisting of one Clydesdale stallion, one Percheron stallion, and
two mares and two Catalonian donkey jacks were exhibited at the Bloemfon-
tein show, and five first and one second prizes were secured.

Extension Work. — The Winburg, Ladybrand, and Bloemfontein shows were
visited by members of the staff and various sections were judged.

The School. — There are fifty-nine students now in residence.

General. — Considerable research work in connection with proposed irrigation
works are proceeding in the chemical laboratories.

The Bloemfontein show, as usual, attracted a large number of fanners and
exhibits from various parts of the Union. The jiidging competition instituted
this year was of particular interest to the schools, a judging team from each
competing. Grootfontein came first, with Potchefstrooni second, and Glen a
close third.

GROOTFONTEIN, MIDDELBURG, CAPE.

Climatic. — Rainfall for February, 6.76 inches on fifteen days. Mean tempera-
ture : Maximum, 79.7°; minimum, 57.5°.

Students. — The returned soldier six months' course men were given a sur-
prise or test examination. All pas.sed in the various subjects, such as cattle and
sheep judging, soils and manures, horticulture, etc., many with honours.

Farm Section. — Hay-making is in full swing, the lucerne crops being
exceptionally fine. The teff and millett are promising well, and the oats are
looking exceptionally promising.

Experimental Section. — Some ten acres of land have been laid down to a
sheep feeding experiment, testing various varieties of oats, barley, etc. Only
the varieties which proved best last season are being retested and several
additional varieties.

Sheep Section. — Special work was carried out in this section in connection
with the Inter-School Judging Competition, Bloemfontein, on the 23rd inst.,
which was won by Grootfontein. Special work was carried out in the
cattle section for the same reason.

Chemical Section. — During the month analytical work was pressed forward.
Thirty-one samples were received for examination, and a certain amount of
extension work was carried out by the officer in charge.

General. — Diiring the month the Entomologist, with the assistance of other
ofl&cers, continued to fight the fly trouble, which has increased since the rains.

POTCHEFSTROOM, TRANSVAAL.

The School. — The number of students in residence during March was as
follows: Diploma (sacond year), 31; diploma (first year), 35; one year, 7;
ex-soldiers (one year course), 39.

The Staff. — Mr. May, M.R.C.V.S., was transferred from the Veterinary
Division as lecturer in veterinai'y science at this institution. Mr. Walenkamp

212

Journal of the Department of Agriculture,

has been appointed assistant to the Horticulturist, and Mr. A. Skibbe, formerly
assistant chemist at Elsenbnrg, has been appointed to this position held here
by Mr. G. M. Hay, now resigned to take up other studies. During the month
several officers were absent judging and lecturing at the agricultural shows held
at Amersfoort, Middelburg, Ermelo, Bloemfontein, Krugersdorp, Vrede, Carolina,
Johannesburg, and S.A.R. Poultry Show, Johannesburg, while other extension
work was also carried out whenever possible.

Crops. — These have derived much benefit from the heavy rainfall, amounting
to 7.98 inches, which was recorded during February, and the outlook is much
brighter than it was earlier in February.

The prosf)ects of the maize crop improved greatly during the month, and
there is now every promise of a fairly good yield per acre. A fine stand of over
26 acres of mangels has been obtained and the roots are developing, fast. 74
acres of teff have been sown this season and a very fair crop is likely to be
harvested. Nearly 60 acres of leguminous crops have been planted this season
for seed, hay, silage purposes, and green manuring, good growth has been made.
Other crops, such as potatoes, pumpkins, and tobacco have also grown well and
give promise of heavy yields.

lAve Stock. — All have greatly improved in condition with the good pastures
obtained after the heavy rains, and animals for the AVitwatersrand Agricultural
Show received hand-feedi)ig and were got into show condition.

Poultry. — The egg-laying competition started on the 1st inst., there being
sixty-nine pens of four birds per pen.

Horticultural. — All the late maturing varieties of apples and pears were
harvested, stored, or disposed of. The work of ploughing the orchard was begun
and will be continued until the whole has been completed one way.

DATES OF AGRICULTURAL SHOWS STILL
TO BE HELD.

(As Notified at 31st March, 1920.)

TRANSVAAL PROVINCE.

Klerksdorp.— 18th and 19th May.
Lichtenburg.^ — 2Ist May.
Wolmaransstad. — 26th May.
Haenertsburg. — 27th May.
Pretoria. — 31st May to 2ud June.
Potcbef Btroom , — 9th June.

Rustenburg, 9th June.
Pietersburg. — 16th and 17th June.
Barberton. — 18th June.
Tzaneen. — 9th July.
Nylstroom.— 29tli and 30th July.

NATAL PROVINCE.

Newcastle Agricultural Society. — 2nd and

3rd June.
Vrijheid Agricultural Society. — 8th June.
Dundee Agricultural Society. — 10th and

11th June.
Klip River Agricultural Society (Lady-

smitb). — l.oth and 16th June.
Umvoti Agricultural Society (Greytown). —

16th and 1 7th June.
Weenen Agricultural Society (Estcourt). —

17th and 18th June.

Royal Agricultural Society (Maritzburg). —

22nd to 25fh June.
Durban and Coast Agricultural Society

(Durban). -29th June to 2nd July.
Zuluiaiid Show Society (Eshowe). — 7th July.
Richmond Agricul'ural Society. — 14th July.
Dionk Vlei Agricultural Society. — 14th July,
Camperdown Agricultural Society. — 21st

July.
Ixopo Agricultural Society. — 22Ed July.

The UisrioN's External Trade. ^

213

THE UNION'S EXTERNAL TRADE.

I.— IMPOKTS.
(Exetadiug' Removals from Rhodesia.)

Artifle.

Twelve Months ended 31st December.

1918.

Quantity.

Value.

1919.

Quantity.

Value.

lb.

(1) Animals Living.

Horses, mares, geldings ... No.

Bulls and oxen ... ... „

Cow.'S and calves ...

Donkeys and jackasses ... ,.

Sheep and lambs ... ... ,.

Pigs ,

Poultry ... ...

All other ... ... ... „

Total

(2) Certain Articles of Food mid

Drink.

Butter

Cheese

Coffee, raw...
Condiments
Confectionery, etc.
Corn, grain, meal, etc.

Beans and peas ...

Dholl

Maize

Malt

Oats

Wheat

Flour (or meal), wheateu
Dripping and fats for food
Farinaceous preparations...
Fruit, Fresh

Almonds and nuts ...
Dates

Dried and others
Bottled and tinned . . .
Lard and substitutes
Meats —

Salted (bacon, ham, etc.)

Tinned

Milk, condensed
Pickles and sauces...
.Rice...
Spices

Spirits (potable) ...
Sugar and products

Tea

Vegetables, tinned...

Vinegar

Wines

galls.
. lb.

galls.

Total all articles of food and
drink (including other items
not enumerated above) ...

15t»
207
475
18
149
5
233

2,425,369

233,908

47,616,892

1,324,705

936,436

958,965

4,559,497

44,836

1,181.375

23,8x4

75,414,159

23.598.271

413,326

1,751,902

5,107.047

1,176.212

350.831

65,531

22,825

343,779

1,332,016

3,853^842

1,041,370

76,939,758

4,743,160

433,722

44,947.998

10,237,455

353.537

17,102

63.727

15,295

20,961

32,568

1,800

9,141

115

501

527

80,908

167,227

14.498

So 1,986

42,663

67,278

9,^44

25,557

196

15,083

160

444,620

209,667

13,018

43,448

801

64,495

17,740

12,927

2.913

1,192

15,736

7S,105
140,851

52,476
151^176
195,342
411,703
330,123
472.274

10,407
3,664

55,509

4,722,118

183

19,972

375

86,100

28

365

356,0.35

20,334

17,52.5,617

504,868

2,636,120

2,519,.350
2.762,569
1,299,961
2,132,927

45,199,647

54,390,182

749,2.38

4,740,832

1,666.915

1,771,680

1,531,806

71,296

32,571

109,820

1,680,359

8,647,089

1,150,7.56

40,981,699

3,59.3,330

271,747

73,694

7,346,990

767,185

24,007

47.512

20.245

243,197

26,516

14.3,022

r)8(t

.S52
638

435,150

32,226

2,037

690,871

32,651
223,435

22,208

30,494

4,319

22,159

278,466

460,377

30.861

109,429

2,.343

36,334

32,295

57,.o03

4,065

2,537

6,054

88,003
342,553

64,900
381,040
112,539
30.3,312

73,577
421,601

24,828
8,519

73,411

4,851,859

214

Journal of the Department of xVgriculture.

I.— IMPORTS -^continued).
( Excluding Removals from Rhodesia.)

Twelve Months ended 31st December.

Article.

1918.

Quantity.

V^alue.

1919.

Quantity.

Value.

(3) Mlxeellaneo'uit.

£

1
i

£

Fencing materials ... cwts.

—

80.3.i3

— j

334,767

Fodder and forage

lb.

1.263,75«<

4,391

1,577.180 ,

5,300

Hides and skins

,,

2,101.471

75,047

2.566.313 !

143,406

Hops cwts.

4,999

35,178

4,695 :

37.596

AsfricuUural machinery and

implements

No.

—

580,071

—

765,992

Water boring machinery

—

1,865

—

2.687

Windmills

—

30,25 1

—

71.323

Wool presses

—

*

— 1

4,390

Manures and fertilizers ...

lb.

33,133.831

117,123

25.234.777

r2.937

Seeds, garden and vegetable

218,962

29,602

258,809 ■

27.794

Sheep and cattle dips ...

—

72,473

—

156.348

Tobacco, Unmanufactured

449.876

32,708

354,812

4 2.369

Cigars, cigarettes

121,417

72,566

)41.836

107.344

Other manufactures

6.5,111

6.011

56,255

9,688

Wood and timber cub

ft.
ER-

—

1.063,282

--

1.247,180

Total Imports of M

CHANDISE (ineliiding

im-

1

ports from Rhodesia")

...

—

J 7 397.389

—

46,712.795

1

* Not distinguished.

(Note. — The total value of merchandise imported and re-exported was £4.036,501 in
1918 and =63.966.629 in 1919.)

II.— EXPORTS OF SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE.
(Excluding Removals to Rhodesia and Ships' Stores.)

Twelve Months ended 31st December.

Article.

1918.

1919.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

1

Value.

(1) Animalx Liiing.

Horses, mares, and geldings No
Mules and donkevs ... „

Pigs ' ,

Sheep and lambs ,,

All other „

282

154

3,444

2,025

£

5.784
2.995

11,190
2,306

32,210

263

260

3,762

1,849

i

9,563
5,129
8,896
2.221
21.172

Total

—

54,485

46,981

The Union's External Trade.

215

II.— EXPORTS OF SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE— (mm /ww^rf).
(Excluding Removals to Rhodesia and Ships' Stores.)

Article.

Twelve Months ended 3 1st December.

1918.

1919.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

A^alue.

(2) Certain Articles of Food and

Drink.
Butter and substitutes ... lbs._
Cheese ... ... ... „

Confectionery and jams ... „

Eggs No.

Fruit, dried and preserved lb.
Fruit, Fresh — No. of

Citrus ... ... boxes

Deciduous ... ... „

Grapes ... ... ... „

All other

Corn, grain and meal —

Maize lb

Maize meal

All other... ... ... „

Meats, fresh and frozen ... „

„ preserved and cured „
Spirits, potable ... galls.

Sugar, syrup, molasses,

treacle ... ... ... lb.

Vegetables ... ...

Wines

l..'^38.67^
424.993
3,681.880
1,713,828
4.053,477

4.076

34.813

6,883

.509.495,794

167.11.-).! 24

32.291,* .-)3

18.712.44 7

105.962

5.609,087

756,102

452,428

&

97,548
25,911
102,163
12.136
91,841

2,777

9,034

1,982

■ 3,154

1,600,137
662,332
273,943
469,.538
7,880
175,427

3.352

50,772

112,613

Total all articles of food and
drink (including otlier items
not enumerated above) ...

(3) Miscellaneous.

Aloes ... ... ... lb.

Bark, wattle ... ... „

„ extract ... ... „

Buchu leaves ... ... „

Cotton, raw ... ... „

Hair, Angora ...

Hides and skins ... ... „

Horns ... ... ... ,.

Manures ... ... ... ,,

Ostrich feathers ... ... ,,

Tobacco, all kinds... ... „

Wool ,

Total Merchandise of
South African produc-
tion Exported [inrluditiff
removals to Rhodesia)

539,677

107.904,898

8.339,4.59

89,675

183.228

19,645,681

194,971
4.798,932

108,924

1,731,947

11.5.6.34,498

4.041,482

6,417

287,220

124.887

16,948

11,799

1,641,889

2.288.465

2,355

67,538

88.628

159.593

9.(;89,630

434,914
1,. 52.5,638
8.950.031
7.132,481
6.731,895

54.677
74,698
14,253

246.265,197

367.87.5,772

82.081,307

44.670.938

1,347,716

38,243,756

8,917,253

402.656

35.259
80,417

235,335
61.456

199,249

38.973

14,398

4,456

7,598

1.145.408
1.836.180

451,751

1,084,745

86,228

492,776

56.599

33,865

106,349

28,912,736

1,202.982

126,645,584

13,761,262

149,166

289,890

16.942,021

1,861,116

10,723.606

904,611

1,603,672

184,927,986

6.330,248

13.522

386,096

216,086

37.130

19,251

1.654.235

4.985.353

24,565

127,799

1,646,014

137,326

17.919,088

48,132.123

The Journal is llie I)epaitmeiit'.s medium of making- known iis
activities. It contains information of value to every farmer in the
Union Keep it for reference.

216

Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

MEAT STATISTICS.

L — Retukn of Beef Inspected and Passed fok P]xport during

THE MONTH OF MARCH, 1920.

Cattle.

Carcasses.

Place.

Inspected.

1
Rejected. Passed.

Inspected. Rejected.

Passed.

Durban

Pietermaritzburg ...
Pretoria
Joharnesburg
Blof mfontein

Capetown

Port Elizabeth
Germiston

2,137

462

49

72

—

2,137

462

45

72

87f

2,049J- '

455^

4.0

72

Total

2,720

—

—

2,716

94i

2,621|

Beef actually exported during the month of March, 1920 : Total 1,852 quarters.
{£J,r Durban 1,702 quarters ; Ex Capetown 150 quarters.)

Total shipments of Beef in quarters —

1916 ... 11.5,992 1918 ... 123,354 *1920 ... 4,147

1917 ... 309,214 1919 ... 285.367

II.— Return of Cattle Imported into the Union from adjoining

Territories.

Total from 1st January,

Territory.

Imported March, 1920.

1920, to
31st March, 1920.

For Slaughter-

No.

No.

Rhodesia

1,02 1

4,892

Bechuanaland Protectorate

2,228

5 4n3

S. W. Africa

1,080

3,834

Swaziland

91

608

Basutoland ...

.

Fo'" B'eediiig —

Rhodesia

1,392

3,344

Bechuanaland Protectorate

2,455

3,735

Total

8.270

21,866

Summary of Imports.

Calendar Year.

For Slaughter.

■
For Breeding.

Total.

tl916
1917
1918
1919

No.
26,580
47,970
36,767
40,574

No.

.5,440
13.286
16,693

No.
26,680
53,410
50,053
57,267

Total to 31st March, 1920.

1 1st July to 31st December only.

Export of Grain, etc.

217

EXPORT OF GRAIN, ETC.

Retuhn op Grain, etc., Graded and Exported through the various Ports
during the month of march, 1920.

KorE. — In this return the groBS weight per bag of Maize is 203 lb., Maize Meal 183 lb., Hominy Chop 183 lb., KafSr Corn
203 lb., Oats 153 lb.. Barley 163 lb., Eye 203 lb., Beans 203 lb., Peas 208 lb.. Lucerne Seed 103 lb.. Millet (average)
220 lb.

No. of Bags Shipped

during

March, 1920.

Total No. of Bags

Shipped

from 1st July, 1919, to

31st March, 1920.

Stocks on Hand on
31st March, 1920.

East London

Port Bljzaeeth

LOCHENCO MaBQUES

Maize
Maize Meal
Hominy Chop
Kaffir Corn
Oats..
Barley
Rye ..
Beans
Peas
Lucerne Seed
Millet

Maize
Maize Meal
Hominy Chop
Kaffir Corn

OHtS..

Barley
Rye .
Beans
Peas
Lucerne Seed
MiUet

Maize
Maize Meal
Hominy Chop
Kaffir Corn
Oats..
Barley
Rye .
Beans
Peas
Lucerne Seed
Millet

Maize

Maize Meal
Eafflr Corn
Beans

178,954

326,935

5,825

28,550

20,328

504

629

2,550

943

7,851
.^WO

Maize

1

Maize Meal

Hominy Chop

Kaffir Corn

O ts..

Ba-ley

Rye .

Beans

.

Peas

Lucerne Seed

Millet

.

2,415

1,530

420

3,687

5,465

450

16,376
34,627

Summary.

Exported
March, 1920.

Total Exported

Stocks on Hand

1st July, 1U19,

at all Ports

to Slst March, 1920.

on Blst March. 1920.

Bags.

Bags.

Bags.

Maize

—

734,895

810

Maize Meal . .

14,2.54

1,032,325

40

Hominy Chop

—

5,825

—

Kaffir Corn . .

—

43,110

Oats

—

23,976

Barley

—

8,;^84

—

Rye

—

3,104

—

Beans

—

11.671

1,441

Peas

-

800

—

Lucerne Seed

■ 1 • -

4,604

—

MUlet

-

434

—

TOTAI.S . .

14.254

1,868.628

9,291

218 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

CROP AND LIVE STOCK REPORT.

Marcli, 1920.

MAIZE.

Reports received this month deal with the progress being made by the
growing crop, its condition as at 31st March being as follows: —

Cape Province. — As compared with conditions at the end of February there
is a decline of 2 per cent. While prospects have improved in the South Coast
Districts, there has been a severe set-back in Bechuanaland owing principally to
the abnormal rains causing damage. In the Transkei also excessive rains caused
some damage, whereas frost in some parts reduced the prospects by 1 per cent.

Transvaal. — The crop condition is reported to have declined 10 per cent., as
compared with the previous month. Throughout the Eastern High Veld the
prevalence of frost caused a good deal of damage, the anticipated yield falling
from 17 per cent, to 29 per cent, lielow normal. In addition, droughty condi-
tions were stated to be prevalent in parts of Middelburg and Standerton Dis-
tricts. In the Central Districts the absence of rain, particularly in Heidelberg
and parts of Pretoria, caused an appreciable decline. Frost and scarcity of rain
likewise reduced the prospects in the Western High \'eld where the crop
declined by 3 per cent.

Orange Free State. — Although the presence of frost caused some damage to
the crops the reduced prospects are not so marked as in the case of the Trans-
vaal. The decline was confined mainly to the North-eastern Districts. Normal
conditions are, however, still reported to exi.st in Bethlehem and Vrede, and
fairly satisfactory in Lindley and Senekal. The District of Harrismitli and
parts of Heilbron experienced early frosts, which placed the crop at 27 and 26
per cent., respectively, below normal. The South-eastern and South-western
Districts were able to report slightly improved conditions, resulting from the
rains which fell in these parts.

Xatal. — The condition of the crops continued practically the same as
reported at the end of February.

Summary. — The area under cultivation this season is estimated to he 21 per
cent, less than last year, yielding, under ordinary normal conditions, 12,741,600
bags. Owing, however, to the adverse conditions under which crops are matur-
ing, the estimated production is expected to be 20 per cent, less or 10,234,400
bags. According to the latest available figures, the estimated consumption in
the Union is considered to be 9,500,000 bags.

From these figures it might be inferred that there is likely to l)e a surplus
of about 600,000 bags, but, in view of the difficulties attending any reliable fore-
cast, owing to the uncertainty of the extent to which crops may have suffered
jis a result of the frost, it would seem desirable to await the reports disclosing
the final condition of the crop at 30th June, 1920.

KAFFIR CORN.

The prospects of this crop at the end of March in the Cape Province are
practically unchanged.

In the Transvaal there is a marked falling off in condition in the Eastern
High Veld owing to frost and grub in many parts, and similar conditions are
reported from the Free State.

While there is a decline in the crop condition in Natal the estimated pro-
duction is not expected to be affected to any appreciable extent.

Sumvxary. — The reports for March point to an e.stimated further decrea.se of
21,200 bags, the crop being estimated at 19 per cent, below normal at which
figure it should return 1,140,800 bags.

Crop and Live Stock Report.

219

TOBACCO.

Tlie condition of the crop is reported as follows at 31st March, 1920 : —

The croiJ of the Cape Province has declined 7 per cent, and is now 34 per
cent, below normal as compared with 27 per cent, at the end of the previous
month. In Oudtshoorn District it is reported to have declined from 16 per cent.
to 35 per cent, below normal, owing to droughty conditions in those parts.

In the Transvaal a very slight decline is reported. In the Orange Free
State conditions have improved, the position being 5 per cent, below normal as
compared with 10 per cent, at the end of the previous month.

The prospects in Natal remain practically unaltered.

Sumyiniry. — The crop condition for the Union declined by 4 per cent, during
the month and is 24 per cent, below normal, which reduces the originally
estimated production to one of 8,386,100 lb.

SUGAR CANE.

The Natal Sugar Association reports as follows for February, 1920: —
Heavy rainfall was general during February, and on the North Coast and
Zululand temperature conditions favoured rapid growth. On the South Coast
rainfall was also very heavy, but the temperature conditions were less favourable.
Generally the condition of crop can be reported as within 5 per cent, of normal.

CONDITION OF LIVE STOCK.
Compiled from Reports furnished by Sheep and Stock Inspectors.

Area.

Large Stock

Small Stock.

Cape —

South-Wost

GootJ

Good.

North-West

Medium to jwor

Medium to jwor.

South Coast

Good to medium

Medium.

Southern Karroo

Medium

Good to medium.

Central Karroo

Good to medium

Good to medium.

Northern Karroo

Good to medium

Good to medium.

Eastern Karroo

Medium

Good.

Bechuanaland

Fat

Good. Fat in parts.

Griqaalaiid West

Fcit

Good. Fat in parts.

North-Eastern ...

Fat. Good to medium in parts

Fut. Good to medium in par

Border ...

Good. Fat in parts

Good. Fat in parts.

Transkeian Territories...

Good. Fat in parts

Good. Fat in parts.

Tr.\nsvaal —

Eastern High Vel<l

Good. Fat in parts ...

Good. Fat in parts.

Central

Good. Fat in parts

Good to medium.

Western High Yeld ...

Good. Fat in parts

Good.

Low Veld

Fat to good

Good. Fat in parts.

Orange Free ^.tate

North-Eastern

Fat to good

Fat.

North- Western

Good to medium

Good. Fat in parts.

South-Eai-tern

Good

Good.

South- Western ...

Good

Fat to good.

Natal —

High Veld or Highlands

Fat to good

Fat to good. Medium in part

Middle Veld:or Midlands

Fat to good

Fat to good.

Coast

Good. Fat in parts ... ...

Good to medium.

Keep yt.ur Joumalsl The contents will be indexed every
months and a copy of the index sent to each subscriber.

SIX

220

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

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5^

Issued BY AUTHORITY of the
Minister of Agriculture,

W

V R I X C I P A L C () X T K X T S

The Cause and Prevention of Lamziekte.

European Foul- Brood Bee Disease.

Flag Smut of Wheat.

Export of South i African Eggs and Poultry.

The Growing of Mine Props on the High Veld.

The Department of Agriculture during the War — II.

Cattle in the Union.

Experiments and Investigations — III, \W , and \\

Infectious Diarrhoea: " Bloedpens ' in Lambs.

List of Bulletins Available for Distribution.

LIST OF BULLETINS AVAILABLE FOR
DISTRIBUTION.

Application to be made to the Department of
Agriculture, Pretoria.

Applicants for bulletins are requested kindly io quote the full number of
each, as shown hereunder, and to enclose also payment for same. The cost
of each bulletin i? indirate<l : those not marked nre issued s;ratis.

ENTOMOLOGY.

Bee Moth Superstition. Reprinted fruni the Agrictiltui'dl Jonrnal. May. k»i4.

U.R. 33/ 1Q14.
The Bagrada Bug. By D. Gunn, Division of Entomology, id. q/iqi8.
Bla( k Wattle, Some In.sects Injurious to the. By C. H. Hardenburg, M.A.,

Division of Entomology. 6d. 1/1918.
<':ibbage Moth, The Small. Bv D. Gunn, Division of Entomology, id. l.K.

8 igi7-
•Codlmg-Moth. By C. P. Loun.-bury, Ghief. Division of Entomology; and

i C. Faure. Or.mge Fiee State EntooQologist. 3d. L.S. 22.
■Codling-Moth and Us Control in the Western Province. By F. W. Petty,

H.A., Entomologist, School of Agriculture, Elsenburg. 3d. U.S.B. 9.
■Cc tton Pests in South Atrici, A Preliminary Report on. By C. K. Brain,

M.Sc, M.A.. Divi-ion of Entomology, id. L.S. 59.
The European Foul Brood. By C. P. Lounsburv, Chief, Division of

Entomology, id. 10 loiS
The Fig ;ind Willo'.v Borei. By D. Gunn, Division of Entomology. id.

6/ 1919.
The White-lined Grape Vine Sphinx .Moth. B\ D. Gunn, Division of

Entomology, id. 11,1918.
Phoracantha Beetle, The. By C. P. Lounsbury, Chief, Division of Entomology,

id. L.S 24.
Remedies and Advict' for vhc Treatment of Insect Pests. ( Illustrated Chart.)

IS. 3d.
Poison Bait Remedy for House Fly. By C. P. Lounsbury, Chief, Division of

Entomology. L.S. 27.
Sweet Potato Sphinx, The. By J. C. Faure, B.S., M.A., Division of

Entomology, rd. ILR. 20/1914.
Potito Tuber Mcth. By William F. Schlupp, B.Sc. (Agric), Entomologist,

School of Agriculture, Potchefstroom. id. U.R. 4T917.
Pea and Beau Weeril. By S. Skaife, B.A. (Hon.), Division of Entomology.

3d. 12/1918.
Pernicious .Scale. By C. K. Brain, M.Sc. M.A. id. L.S. 61.
■Quince Borer and its Contnd. By F. W. Pettey, B A., Entomologist, Elsen-
burg Agricultural School. 3d. U.R. 2/1017-
Skin Maggot on Man. \j\- C. J-'ullor, Divi^iun of Entomology. L^R. 47 1914.
Warble Flies. By C. P. Lounsbury, Divi-ion of Entomology. U.R. 36, 1914.
Wattle Bagworm. By C. Fuller. Division of Entomology. 3d. U.R. 28, 1913.
Wheat Louse. The. By W. Moore, B.A. , Lecturer in Entomology and Zoology,

Srlioo! of Agriculture, Potchcf-trmm. U.R. 29 1013.

\^C<nttiniir<] (III pogr Hi (if lorer.

CONTENTS.

lUNE, 1920.

Paok

221

. 245

252

. 258

. 261

271

278

281

286

Cnriff^renr

28S

The Cause and Pkevkntion of Lamziekte

European Foul-brood Bee Disease

Flag Smut of Wheat

Exi'OKT OF South African Egg?? and b'ouLi ry, Vkak litUt

The Growing or Mine Props on the High Veld

The Department of Agriculturk during the War

Cattle in the Unuon : the Trade in Beef

Experiments and Investigations

Infectious DiARRHa-:A : " Bloedpens '" in LAiiKs ...

Notes ... ... ...

The FriL-.8lan<l Bull " Admiral Bcatty" — International Kefrigeration Conference
at Paris -Recruitment of Farm Labour — Citrus Export Season. 1920 — Prize
Wine and Brandy — The Maize Crop of the Union — Live Stock Mortality in the
Union— The World's Wheat Crop of 1919-20— The Great Advance in Wot.1
Prices — Shortage of Paper (page 221) — Export of Grain, etc. (page 244) —
Agricultural Co-operation in England (page 257) — The Danger of Bats (page
260) — Honey (page 270) Pig Production (page 277") — Springhaas (page 814).

The Poultry Yard Month by Month

The Vegetable Garden

South African Produce on the Oversea ]\Iarket

Dates of Agricultural Shows still to be held

Oversea Prices of South African Produce

Staff : Appointments, Transfers, etc. ...

Notes from the "Gazette"

Recent Agricultural Literature

At the Schools of Agriculture and Experiment Stath»ns

Meat Statistics...

Crop and Live Stock Report

Local Market Prices

Departmental Notices ...

298

29»

mo

801
302
30S
304
305
308
312

31 a

315
316

STAFF.

Department of Agriculture (including Agricultural

Education).

HEADS OF DIVTSrONS.

ADMINISTRATION.

Secretary for Agriculture. — F. B. Smith, (MVI.G.

Under-Secretary for Agriculture. — P. J. du Toit (presently engaged on the Public Service
Commission of Inquiiy).

Acting Under-Secretary for Agriculture.— G. N. Williams, D.S.O.

Under-Secretary for Agriculture (Education). E. J. Maoniillan, B.S.A.

Acting Chief Clerk.— F. W. Green.

DIVISIONS.

Sheep.— Chief : B. G. L. Enslin. D.S.O.

Veterinary Research.- -Director of Veterinary- Education aud Research : Sir Arnold Theiler.
K.C.M.G.

Veterinary. — Principal Veterinary Surgeon : (■. K. Gray, M.R.C.V.S.

Dairying. — Superintendent of Dairying : E. O. Cliallis.

Botany.— Chief : I. B. Pole Evans, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

Tobacco and Cotton.— Chief : W. H. Scherffius, M.Sc.

Horticulture. —Chief : I. Tribolet.

Viticulture. — Government Viticulturist : S. W. van Xi(»kerk.

Entomology. — Chief : C. P. Lounsbury, B.Sc.

Chemistry.- Chief : B. de C. MaVchand, B.A., D.Sc.

Chemical Research.--Agricultural Research Chemist : C. F. Jurit/,. M.A., D.Sc, F.l.C.

Tiibrary. — Librarian : P. .J. S. Ribbink.

Co-operation. — Registrar, Agricultural Co-ofierative Societies : .1. Retief.

Dry Farming. — Government Agronomist : H. S. du Toit.

Ouano Islands. — Superintendent : W. R. Zeederberg.

Orain Inspection. — Chief Inspector of Grain : G. F. Nussey.

.Tournal of .Agriculture. — Editor : G. W. Klerck (Acting).

SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTLIRE AND EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

Klsenburg (Cape) Piincipal : W . .1. Laniont.

(irootfontein (Capr I ... ... ... .. R. W. Tliornton.

Cedara (Natal) .. .J, Fisher, B.Sc, N.D.A.

Glen (Orange Free State) ,. M. J. A. Joubert, B.S.A.

Potchefstroom (Transvaal) .. T. G. \V. Keinecke, B.A., M.ScAg.

Journal of the Department
OF Agriculture.

Vol. I. JUNE, 1920. No. 3.

Piililished monthly in English and Afrikaans by the Department of Agriculture,

Union of South Africa.

SuBSCRTPTTON : Within the Union and South-West Protectorate, 3s, (otherwise 6s,)
per annum, post free, payable in advance.

Applications, with subscriptions, to be sent to the Government
Printer, Box 37.S, Pretoria.

SHORTAGE OF PAPER.

We regret to annoiiuce that owing to the shortage of paper, it is
necessary, for the time being, to confine the size of the Journal to the
smallest limits. Further, the quality of paper on hand precludes ix
s.itisfactory reproduction of certain illustrations, consequently a num-
ber which ordinarily would have appeared will need to be withdrawn.

THE CAUSE AND PREVENTION OF LAMZIEKTE.

By Sir Arnold Theiler, K.C.M.G., Director of Lamziekte

Research.

(Being results of investiqntions undertalien hy Sir Arnold /heller,
' Professor P. R. V'iljoen, Dr.. H. H. Green, Dr. P. J. du Toit,
and Dr. H. Meier.) *

Introduction.

Fn March of last year \\w announcement was made that the cause of
lamziekte had been (lisco\ered, and an explanation was offeied which
harmonized the previously conflicting views concerning the etiology
of the disease. It was then shown experimentally that the primary

* Note. — In the work upon i_,amziekte, co-operation was arranged between Mr. R. E.
Montgomerj- and myself, as between the Lamziekte Researcli Laboratory at Armoedsvlakte
and the Veterinary Research Division at Onderstepoort. the latter division being initially
under the charge of Mr. R. E. Montgomery as Director, and subsequently under tliat of
Mr. D. T. Mitchell as Acting Director.

In regard to the botanical work involved in the investigations, I wish to take this
opportunity of expressing my great obligations to Dr. I. B. Pole Evans, Chief of the Division
of Botany, Pretoria, for his unfailing help.

I also wish te express my appreciation of the work of the general staff, more particuLarly
that of Mr. Theo. Meyer, technical officer in charge of Armoedsvlakte, for his enthusiastic
devotion to the experiments. — A.T.

9

222 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

cause responsible for disease and death, was a toxin derived from
animal debris scattered about the veld.

It may be recalled that an intoxication theory had been put
forward eight years ago by the senior author, l)ut that the toxin was
at that time associated witb the vegetation of tlic lamziekte areas
rather than \\\\\\ the animal deliris common to farms all over the
country. In the revised exposition tlie vegetation of tlie lamziekte areas
still plays a prominent role, but now becomes the renn)te and not i)n'
juimiiry cause. It accounts for a subsidiary complaint termed
" osteophagia," practically harmless in itself and not sufficiently
serious to deserve the name " disease," but of the utmost practical
consequence as an essential link in the etiological chain of lamziekte.

Another old view of causation (the " pasteurella theory ") main-
tained that lamziekte was due to infection of the animal by a patho-
genic bacterium, and, although this had to be abandoned when
experimental investigation rendered it untenable, the new explana-
tion revived the idea of bacterial activity from an altogetlier diiferevt
angle of vision. Instead of a " pathogenic l)acterium " it jjredicated
a " toxicogenic -saprophyte " ; that is to say, an organism which lives
on dead organic matter but which does not infect the living animal,
or is harmless to the live animal until it has operated upon the
carcass of a dead one.

Finally, the new view explained why it was that lamziekte was
mainly a disease of cattle, and although occasionally reported in the
goat and the ostrich, did not occur naturally amongst animals such
as the sheep and the horse.

Indeed, nearly all the earlier theories on the causation of lam-
ziekte became involved in the new view, in the light of which they
all showed up as "partial truths." For this reason, perhaps, its
eiumciation was promptlv folloAved by a shoal of claimants foi the
honour of discovery. The novelty of the explanation offered in
March, 1919, was simplv that it seized upon the idea of a toxicogenic
saprophyte and forged together into one complete, chain all the loose
links of the past. As a coherent conception of causation it rendered
positive proof possible and opened a fresh field for experimental
inquiry into methods foi' control of the disease.

The experimental work of the past year has abundantly justified
the earlier announcement, and much has been done towards
developing the original conception in directions of practical
conseqiience to the farmer. Methods for the prevention of lamziekte
are being worked out, and it is hoped that within the next few years
this dreaded disease will be lirought under control and the areas
decimated in the past once more liecome profitable for cattle
rearing.

The purpose of this article is to give a })Opular account of the
facts so far ascertained and of the lines of attack now being followed
up, the detailed exposition of the experimental protocols being
reserved for a more technical publication. Figures, wearisome to
the general reader, will be avoided as far as possible and only a
running commentary offered.

The Chain of CArsATioN.

The conception itself was communicated in a Press interview for
the Farmers' Weekly of 7th May last year, but may be recapitulated

The Cause and Prevention of I.a.mziekte. :22;)

in different fasliion here. The etiological chain may, for purposes
of popular exposition, be shown in six links, enumerated as
follows :

1. The toxin which poisons the animal.

2. The toxicogenic saprophytes whioli elaborate the toxin.

o. The carcass material out of which llie loxin is manufac-
tured.

4. The pica (^allotriophagia, osteophagia) or depraved appetite

which impels the animal to eat decomposing matter which
it would otherwise shun.

5. The vegetation which produces the pica, ihe soil upon which

that vegetation grows, and the climate of the district.
G. The susceptibility of the animal concerned, towards pica
and towards the toxin.

In considering lamziekte only as a naturally contracted disease
of cattle this last link falls away, since all cattle are susceptible to
the toxin and nearly all cattle are susceptible to pica, although the
degree of abnormal craving is partly a question of individual
idiosyncrasy. But it must not be forgotten that goats, ostriches,
and poultry can also contract lamziekte naturally, and that one of
the first consequences of the discovery was the proof that nearly all
animals could develop lam/iekte experimentally. The disease has
been produced experimentally in horses, sheep, goats, rabbits, guinea-
pigs, ostriches, and ducks, and could doubtless be produced in man,
if any of our staff were bold enough to try the experiment.

With ostriches and poultry Link 4 of the etiological chain
is unnecessary, since they do not need to display pica, but may
pick up fragments of toxic bones or carrion in the ordinary course
of events. Fortunately, they are less susceptible to the toxin than
are cattle. Goats occasionally eat " pensmist " permeated with toxin
from the carcass, and so contract lamziekte without necessarily
showing pica. It has also been reported that donkeys are occasionally
observed to eat " pensmist," in which case stray cases of natural lam-
ziekte in donkeys are easy to understand.

It is also interesting to mention that rats appear to be very
resistant to the toxin ; in more than one case a rat being found to
stand a dose big enough to kill an ox. This is fortunate for the rat,
since — although one does not speak of it as possessed of depraved
appetite — hunger may drive such, an omnivorous animal to- eat toxic
material.

Sheep are very susceptible to the toxin, and the only reason why
they do not contract lamziekte naturally is that they do not develop
the comparatively trivial "osteophagia" or "bone-craving," even
iliough exposed to the same veld conditions as the cattle. The
growing practice of stocking the lamziekte areas Avith sheep, simply
l)ecause cattle could no longer be reared profitably, now finds its
explanation not in the fact that sheep are immune to lamziekte. but
in the fact that they are not " bone-eaters."

At this point it should be pointed out that the practice of rearing
sheep alouf/ with, cattle on the lamziekte areas has in the past
increased the incidence of lamziekte amongst the cattle. The sheep.

224 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

though they 3o not naturally contract the disease themselves, die
from other causes, and since the farmer has rarely troubled to remove
dead sheep from the veld they have supplied one of the commonest
sources of toxic carcass .material. Sheep and cattle should therefore
not be reared on the same veld unless every precaution is taken to
keep the farm clean.

Horses, donkeys, and most other live stock are also susceptible
to the toxin but, like sheep, do not contract lamziekte because they
do not develop pica.

The susceptibility to pica is therefore an important link in
explaining why lamziekte is dominantly a disease of cattle, and why
it is so rarely reported in other animals. Other animals only get it
by accident.

In regard to the susceptibility to the toxin itself, the main
practical bearing as it affects cattle concerns the possibility of
establishing an immunity.

Of the six links in our chain each one is equally important from

a general scientific point of view. From a practical point of view

'the most important link is the one we can break most easily and most

cheaply. But since we are not yet quite certain which this is, the

problem must be studied as a whole in a broad scientific spirit.

Any one effective break is sufficient to eradicate lamziekte, and
the reason why the disease is not rampant over greater areas in South
Africa than is actually the case, is simply that there are many places
in which the chain happens to be naturall}- broken. It is a well-
known fact that lamziekte has been steadily spreading over the
country and appearing on farms where it was formerly unknown.
This is because one or other of the missing links is supplied by the
operation of some other cause, and one of the preventive measures of
the future may well take the direction of blocking the insertion of
missing links into new areas.

Whether the control of lamziekte in the known lamziekte areas
will be sufficient to prevent its spread to areas now healthy, depends
altogether upon the method of control adopted. Thus, if the method
adopted is the complete destruction of all carcass material (Link
3), then lamziekte could never spread. But if the chain were
only broken by an immunizing process (Link 6) it would not
completely prevent the spread. It would only protect the individual
animal but would not remove the cause.

To break Link 2 of the chain without breaking Link 3
is practically impossible, since tli^ organisms are sporulating ones
and infect the soil. Once into the soil we have no practical method
of dealing with thein, although they may die out of their own accord
in the course of years if, by removing all carcass material, they are
prevented from multiplying.

It may well happen, however, that Link 2 is naturally absent
in certain areas. It this is so, and the toxicoe'enic saprophytes, i.e.
the particular bacteria which elaborate the poison from the decaying
animal remains, are absent on any farm, there can be no lamziekte.
Carcasses then undergo the ordinary non-toxic type of putrefaction
occasioned by ordinary harmless bacteria, and the rotten bones, bits
of hide, flesh, etc.. do not produce the disease even if the cattle have
pica and eat the obnoxious material. This is a state of affairs which

The Cause aKd Prevention of Lamziekte. 225

does seem to exist in parts of South Africa — on most Natal farms, for
instance — and presumably exists in those countries where pica is
reported but where lamziekte is not recognized. But if an animal
leaves a lamziekte area and dies soon after in a clean area, its own
carcass (Link 3) ma}' serve as pabulum for the multiplication of the
toxicogenic saprophytes (Link 2) introduced into its own intestine
while grazing on the lamziekte region. Toxic material (Link 1)
maj' then be produced and a large number of organisms scattered
around the immediate vicinity. If this .happeils in a district where
conditions (Link 5) are such that pica (Link 4) is prevalent, a new
focus of lamziekte may be set up and the disease so appear in an area
in which it was previously- unknown.

It does not necessarily follow that an animal so dying will
reproduce large numbers of the toxicogenic saprophytes, but it Tnay,
and certainly often docs. Other factors, as not yet fully understood,
also govern the decomposition of carcasses and regulate the extent
to which a live animal can scatter Link 2. If the organisms are so
introduced into a new area they may remain in the soil for some time
after the carcass has decomposed and is no longer toxic, but if they
get no chance of perpetuating tliemselves by infecting a fresh carcass
they probably die out in time, under competition with the normal soi-l
bacteria and protozoa. If, on the other hand, animals are dying in
tlie ncAv area from otlier causes, such as drought, fresh carcasses may
become infected and the lamziekte organisms thus be multiplied. If
for some reason pica is present in the new area, but is not acute, the
mortality from lamziekte may remain low, appear in some years and
not in others (Link 5), and possibly even disappear altogether.

With this short illustration of the interaction of the different
factors involved, we may proceed to consider in more detail a few of
the asjjects of tlie experimental work of the year which has elapsed
since the present explanation was first propounded.

For this purpose we may take the links in the order in which
tliey were enumerated, at the same time indicating their inter-
dependence upon one another by overlapping in the discussion.

The Toxix.

We have stated that the eating of carrion causes lamziekte, and
it may again be emphasized that any sort of carrion may serve as
origin of the toxin. It happens that rotten bones are probably the
most frequent source actually ingested by the cattle, but this does
not mean that such bones are more toxic than other carcass material.
It merely means that bone material is less obnoxious, and that even
those animals showing the most depraved appetite will pick and
clioose when they get the chance. The pica is dominantly an " osteo-
phagia," i.e. a craving for bones, and if the cattle -3an gratify it with
bones they will, generally speaking, not touch anything else.
Indeed, unless osteophagia is acute they will select the sweetest bones
thay can find.

When pica is very bad, cattle will blindly attempt to satisfy it in
all sorts of ways and go for hide, dried fragments of flesh, coal, rags,
and even tins. The scientific name of this form of craving is " allo-
triophagia," i.e. a craving for all sorts of unusual things, as distinct
from " osteophagia " or bone-craving proper. But generally' the

22('» Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

preference is for bones, and for this reason rotten bones represent one
of the most serious sources of danger. It must, however, be
emphasized that this most frequent source of toxin is not the most
toxic material available, and tliat a small amount of putrefying flesh
may frequently kill more rapidly than a large amount of rotten bones.
Any sort of carrion, of whatever origin, is liable to contain the toxin
and is therefore dangerous. Lamziekte has been produced experi-
mentally at Armoedsvlakte by drenching material obtained from the
carcass of a horse, an ox, a sheep, a lamb, a goat, a kid, a steeubok,
a mierkat, a fowl, and an ostrich. The toxicity of the material varies
with the nature of the material itself, with the stage of decomposition,
and with the conditions of putrefaction, but if the causal organism is
there no animal debris is safe.

The most toxic material of alJ iias been prepared in the
laboratory, where the conditions of putrefaction are under control.
It is now quite easy to prepare laboratory carcass material (cultures
in minced liver) so toxic that O.UOOl gm. (less tlian a quarter-
millionth of an ounce) per kilogram l)ody-weiglit is fatal to cattle by
subcutaneous injection, i.e. less than half a grain can be made to
produce typical lamziekte in a beast weighing over 600 lb.

When given by the mouth the amount of this laboratory carcass
material required is much larger, but even then less than a gram
(about one-tJiirtieth of an ounce) may prove fatal. In one experi-
ment 2i grams, or about one-tenth of an ounce, of what we regarded
as only moderately toxic material, produced typical lamziekte in a
beast weighing 700 lb. in less than a week. It is quite possible that
natural material in the veld may be found as toxic as our laboratory
product, but so far veld material has only been found which is capable
of producing the disease in quantities of one ounce or more.

An animal showing marked craving may easily ingest several
ounces of obnoxious material or several pounds of less objectionable
stuff. Of bones, the natural selection of the craver, the quantity
ingested may be extraordinarily liigh. A marked craver will chew
bones for hours at a stretch. The behaviour of a batch of such cravers
l)efore a, testing trough of sterilized bones {vide infra) is characteristic
and noisy, the crunching and crackling being referred to by the staff
at Armoedsvlakte as the "bone concert." The actual quantity of
toxic bones required to produce lamziekte may vary from a few ounces
of stinking bones to a few pounds of slightly odorous bones. By the
time bones are bleached and "sweet" the toxicity has practically
disappeared, and owing to the selective tendencies of the cattle the
picking of such bones then tends to become a preventive of lamziekte
instead of a cause. This is what we call the " bone paradox " — bones
slay and bones save !

Other material, such as flesh, also becomes non-toxic in course of
time, but by reason of its chemical coini)Osition can never become
preventive of pica.

The length of time material remains toxic on the veld is aot
known with certainty, but it must vary considerably with the time
of the year, the rate of putrefaction, and the weathering to which it
is subjected. Even bones can certainly remain toxic for over six
months, and other material probably longer.

Within limits the rapidity of onset of lamziekte is prouurtioual

The Cause and Preventiox of Lamziekte. 227

to the quantity of toxin ingested. The difference between the acute
and sub-acute form of the disease is largely dependent upon the
amount eaten, and in experimental work an animal can be killed in
fiom seventeen hours to ten days almost at will, ])y varying the size of
the dose. Doses appruiu^hiug (lie " niiniruuni letl)al dose '' generally
produce typical symptoms in about five days.

The toxin itself is thermo-liable, i.e. is easily destroyed b> heat.
It is destroyed in a few minutes at 80° C. and at 75° C. by more
])rolonged heating. Sterilized hones, which were toxic before
heating, can be used to cure pica.

The toxicity of 0.0001 c.c. per kilo, previously mentioned, refers
to the Berkefeld filtrate of a highly toxic culture in minced liver
< issue. The closest analogy we can find for the lamziekte toxin is
(lie toxin of B. hofiilhiris, but complete identity with this toxin is
excluded by its physiological l)ehaviour towards different animals.
AVith a species of animal for which botulinus toxin may be very
poisonous the lamziekte toxin apjjears to operate less powerfully, and
vice versa. . The symptoms of expeiimental botulism in catile are
also distinctly different from- lamziekte.

Tn regard to n practical attemnt to break the -tioloQ-ical yhain at
Uie loxin point little need be siiid. The obvious thing to do is to
collect all material to which any suspicion of toxicity can attach,
burn it, bury it, or fence it up out of the reach of stock.

The ToxTcoGENir Saprophytic Bacteria.

The fact that an organism or group of organisms is responsible
for the toxin production was a priori obvious once the nature of the
toxic material was discovered. Direct proof was obtained by the
usual laboratory methods of sub-cultivation, and indeed the inost
toxic laboratory material we now possess was derived by sub-culture
in suitable media ''minced liver tissue) from the very sample of veld
bones which led to the discovery of the cause of lamziekte.

The fact that the organisms concerned in producing the toxin
are saprophytic rather than parasitic, i.e. flourish in dead organic
matter rather than in the living animal, was at once suggested by the
obserA^tion that the experimental production of the disease was
quantitatively related to the amount of infected material fed. It was
also supported by the fact that all the experiments of earlier years
upon the transmission of lamziekte on the theory of a pathoffenic
bacterial cause, were negative, and that the disease had been shown
to be neither infectious nor contasrious in the scientifically accepted
sense. Further evidence was readily obtained by the injection and
drenching of sterile toxin obtained by passing extracts of toxic
material through a Berkefeld filter. Such a filter retained the
bacteria, as evidenced bv cultnral study of the filtrate, but allowed
the toxin to pass throusrh. As converse proposition, cultures which
were toxic in large amount were found to be non-infective in small
amount, and material in which the toxin was destroyed by a heat
treatment (75° C. to 80° C.) which did not destroy the spores, failed
to produce lamziekte. The toxin therefore produced the disease wheii
separated from the bacteria, but the spores did not produce the disease
when separated from the toxin. Apparently the living animal is able
to get rid of any bacteria with which it may happen to hero ^e

228 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

infected, before these bacteria have had time to produce toxin, and
the disease only occurs when the organisms grow saprophyticaily
upon dead organic matter.

The organisms themselves belong to the anaerobic group, i.e.
they only grow in absence of air or in association with aerobes which
take up such oxygen of the air as finds access to the putrefying
material, or in association with oxidizing enzymes and easily oxidiz-
able organic matter (e.g. in liver tissue exposed to air). The fact
that they grow in mixed culture with other organisms explains why
it is that carcass m^tterial exposed to the atmosT)here becomes toxic.
It must not be imagined that they are the cause of putrefaction.
They may possibly contribute to decomposition, but the real stinking
putrefaction is the woik of the other common bacteria with which
they are associated.

As just s+ated. they are sporulating ore-anisms, and although
toxic material may be rendered non-toxic by boiling for a few minutes
it may become toxic airain after the undestroyed "-pores have germi-
riated out. To sterilize toxic material completely it is necessary
either to heat under steam pressure at about 180° C. or to boil on
each of" three successive days.

So far the causal organism has not been isolated in pure culture,
although that may be accomplished at any moment now. The
technical difficulties in the way are ronsiderable. Impure toxic
fultures, however, are easily obtained, in which three different sporu-
lating organisms are ronstantly present. Two of thpse dominate the
fultures, but when taken alone produce no toxin. The predominant
one appears to be B. pvfrificiis. a common soil anaerobe. The
second dominant organism is a ''racquet" form. The third is of
" drum-stick " form, and is the one to which suspicion attaches at
the moment.

Since the different members have not yet been completely separated
it is not yet possible to state which is responsible for toxin production.
Indeed, we are rather inclined to think that two. or all three, are
essential: that ordinary putrefactive bacteria prepare the medium
for the particular bacteria which actually produce the toxin. At first
we were inclined to consider that we were dealing with B. hofulinrnt,
but comparison of the physiological effect of lamziekte toxin with the
toxin from two different strains of botulinus excludes identity.

All these details will be cleared up in tim.e, but meanwhile the
more urgent economic experiment's reouired for the elucidation of
practical points, are being pressed with the highly virulent toxin
producpd in mixed cultures. As already mention'^d. this toxin is so
powerful that a quantity of 0.0001 c.c, or a few millionth parts of
an ounce per kilogram body-weight, injected under the skin, is
sufficient to produce lamziekte in cattle. The dosage required to
produce the disease experimentally in other animals such as horses,
sheep, goats, rabbits, guinea-pigs, ostriches, and poultry, varies
according to the species of the aiiimal. The minimum lethal dose
produces typical lamziekte in cattle in about five days, but the period
can easily be reduced to within twenty-four hours by sufficiently
increasing the dose.

Once it had been established that lamziekte i< ju-oduced by a
toxin elaborated bv bacterial action in carcasses undergoing putre-
faction: that in all probability it is produced in no other way: and

The Cause and Preven'Tion of Lamziekte. 229

that it is not produced by normal putrefaction occasioned by the
ordinary widely distributed bacteria ; the question naturally arose :
How does a carcass become infected under natural conditions?

Experiments were carried out to answer this question. A cow
which had died on the veld from another disease was allowed to
decompose with an intact skin. Putrefaction set in rapidly. After
twenty hours the spleen was removed and drenched to a tollie, which
duly developed lamziekte and died. Although the dose of putrefying
material was fairly high, the period of twenty hours represents a rate
of toxin production which is phenomenally rapid. As a rule a few
days elapse before carcass material is toxic. The interesting point
in this experiment, liowever, is just the very fact that the brevity of
the period practically excludes infection of the spleen from the out-
side througl) the intact skin, and throws the weiglit of evidence in
favour of infection from the intestinal contents of the carcass imme-
diately after death. The intestinal contents themselves could, of
course, easily be infected by the ingestion of infective but non-toxic
juaterial, without producing death. Partially' bleached bones, from
which the toxicity has disappeared but which still harbour spores of
the toxicogenic saprophyte, are very common on the veld, and such
material would infect the intestine without necessarily doing any
liarm to the animal. Another source of harmless infection of the
intestine may be particles of infected soil, and grass infected by spore-
laden dust from the site of an old cadaver. This experiment indicates
an infection from the ituide of the carcass.

Another interesting experiment was carried out with a ftill-time
foetus from a cow which died on the eve of calving. Since there is
no direct intercourse between the blood of tlie mother and the blood
of the foetus, it may be accepted that the unborn calf was not infected
with bacteria from the cow. This calf was at once removed and
exposed to putrefaction on the veld. Material subsequently collected
from it, and drenched to a tollie. promptly produced lamziekte.
This calf, then, represents a case of infection from the outride.

Control experiments were carried out in fenced paddocks at
Onderstepoort, i.e. a non-pica area free from lamziekte. Post-
mortem-room carcasses, to which no suspicion of lamziekte infection
was attached, were exposed on the local veld. Putrefaction set in as
usual, but the carcass material proved non-toxic. Certain animals
were then drenched with toxic material sent from Armoedsvlakte,
contracted lamziekte, and died. Ou putrefaction these carcasses now
proved toxic, thus indicating again the infection of the cadaver
through the intestine. The disease could readily be maintained in
the Onderstepoort paddock by carrying the infection through
successive animals, poisoning each one by drenching the carcass
material of its predecessor in woe. This was done through seven
generations, and then abandoned as a conclusive experiment. A
tendency, however, was noted towards non-toxic putrefaction in some
of the animals (negative duplicate experiments) drenched with experi-
mentally produced carcass materinl, thus suo-o-esting that tlie local
conditions (climate, competitive putrefactive flora, etc.) were less
favourable to toxin prodtiction than at Armoedsvlakte. On the other
hand, a non-infected carcass from the post mortem table, exposed in
the vicinity of the toxic carcasses of the experimental paddock,

2oO Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

developed toxin production, thus indicatiEg that infection could hv
transmitted over some consideial)le intervening space.

In regard to Onderstepoort a low degree of natural infection
does, however, exist, since in more than one case last summer a local
carcass developed a toxicity which could not he traced to foreign
infection. Whether this low natural infection is a permanent feature
of the area, or wliether it is merely maintained on the Onderstepoort
farm hy the constant introduction of animals from the outside, is not
yet clear. In any case it does not matter much, since there is
practically no pica on the farm, and therefore no danger of the stock
jicquiring natural lamziekte.

In regard to the natural distril)ulion of the causal organism
throughout the country very little can be said as yet. We know that
there are areas in which the organism is present, but in which no lam-
ziekte occurs because pica is absent ; and we know that there are
extensive areas in which pica occurs but from which the organism
appears to be absent, and which are therefore free from lamziekte;
but that is all.

In regard to the scattering of infection, four common modes may
be reg'arded as important- — blow-flies for short distances, and dust,
birds, and moving animals, for longer distances.

When examining a carcass undergoing decom])ositi()]i during the
warmer parts of the year, the presence of blow-iiy larvae in enormous
numbers is noted, and these larvae undoubtedly assist in the rapid
putrefaction of the cadaver. They are themselves toxic, and although
generally left untouched by pica animals, they, can produce the disease
experimentally when drenched in sufficient amount. The pupae from
such larvae are also toxic, and the causal organisms can be obtained
in mixed culture either from larvae or pupae. Undoubtedly the
blow-fly larvae help to distribiite the toxin-producing bacteria
throughout the carcass, especially by carrying the infection from the
aerobic surfaces into the anaerobic depths of the tissues; while the
blow-flies themselves can help to scatter infection by mechanical
carriage from one carcass to another.

But in the winter months, when blow-flies are absent, carcasses
may still develop toxicity, and the flies are therefore by no means
essential to distribution. Under these conditions we must assume
infection from soil and dust. As already mentioned, the causal
organisms produce spores, and, as in the analogous cases of anthrax
and c{uarter-evil, such spores may remain A'iable in the soil for a
considerable length of time. Exactly how long an infected soil can
remain infected we do not know. It is an interesting- i)roblem for the
future to determine the interval over which a soil can harbour viable
spores or germinated bacteria, in competition with the normal soil
flora, once the favourite habitat (carcass material) is abolished.

We have just stated that carcasses nuiy develop toxicity in the
winter time, but it must now be emphasized that winter decomposition
is not nearly so dangerous as the rajjid jjutrefaction of summer.
During the last winter season at Armoedsvlakte a considerable pro-
portion of the carcasses were found non-toxic, and of the carcasses
Avhich were toxic a larger quantity of debris was required to produce
the disease. During the cold dry weather the tendency of the carcass
is I'ather to mummify than to putrefy. Blow-fly ^arvae, those agents

The Cause and Prevention of Lamziekte. 231

of speedy dissolution, are absent, and both temperature and humidity
are against rapid putrefaction,. Furthermore, the absence of larvae
to ensure toxic infection throughout the whole cadaver, and of the
bknv-ilies themselves to act as meclianical carriei's from carcass to
carcass, throws the onus of infection upon soil and dust, and so leaves
greater opportunity for ordinary non-toxic putrefaction wherever the
soil is not heavily infected and aerial spores are infrequent. Some-
times such carcasses are toxic in one part and non-toxic in another,
indicating a localized rather than a generalized infection with the
toxicogenic saprophyte.

As another instance of the influence of weather upon the toxicity
of carrion may be cited the observation that carcasses are less toxic
after lieavy rains, particularly old carcasses of which the skeleton is
the major portion. Tlie most poisonous parts of ibe residual putre-
fying soft tissues are washed down into the soil, the carcass remnants
are ])artially leached out and aerated, and conditions tend to be
created for the dominance of a more aerobic flora which is not only
subversive of the interests of the anaerobes, but which may possibly
tend to destroy the preformed toxin. The bleaching and
" sweetening " of toxic bones is hastened by the leaching and
aerating action of rains, and the toxicity steadily falls off with time.
Tlie influence of rains may possibly have another effect merely in
virtue of the water conveyed to the carcass. From laboratory experi-
ments it would appear that toxin production is much less marked in
liquid than in semi-solid media, although this perhaps depends upon
the quantity of substrate as well as the quantity of water. Whatever
be the explanation, the fact remains that carrion is rendered less toxic
by the weathering action of rain.

The seasonal variation of toxicity of carcass material is of great
importance in connection with the control of lamziekte, especially in
relation to the seasonal variation of '' osteophagia " {mde infra).

Returning to the spread of the causal organism, we may regard
the long-distance carriers as birds and moving stock ; to a less extent
dogs or jackals, and wind laden with dust. Dogs and jackals
carrying bones and carcass material, are certainly responsible in some
cases for carrying infection from place to place on the same farm
and to neighbouring farms. S])ores may also be distributed through
their faeces.

The spread of the actual spijres is to some extent analogous to the
spread of anthrax spores, but there are important differences arising
from the fact that anthrax is an infectious disease in the ordinary
sense of attacking the live animal, while lamziekte is not, strictly
speaking, an infections disease at all. It is simply a ptomaine
poisoning of saprophytic origin, and only affects certain species of
animals under certain sjiecified and localized environmental condi-
tions. Tf it ever became desirable to biing it within the
scope of an Infectious Diseases Act it might be sclieduled in popular
language as infectious, but in the scientific sense it is no more an
infectious disease than is botulism or ergotism, both of which spread
by infection — of dead matter in the former case, and of the living
plant in the latter.

"We know, however, that a beast can carrv the causal Imcteria in
its intestines, and that these can multiply as soon as the animal dies;

232 JOUKNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

but we do not know how long- sncb bacteiia can remain in an animal
once it has been removed out of a lanf ziekte area if it does not die ;
nor do we know to what extent its faeces will scatter spores. If the
beast should die outside a lamziekte area, we do know, from the
Onderstepoort experiments, that its carcass is very likely to become
toxic, but we do not know enoug-h concernino^ environmental condi-
tions of putrefaction, and localization of pica, to know how likely it
is that such will propagate the disease.

These are all points which have to be cleared up in the future.
Meanwhile we must admit that the disease can spread, and is steadily
spreading* to areas in whicli it was formerly unknown. Experience
shows that the scattering- of the causal organisms is a slow process,
but it is none the less a serious menace which must be brought under
control.

At present there are many areas in which pica is prevalent, but
in which the disease is unknown. Such are the danger "grounds.
In Natal, for instance, the carcass material collected for experimental
purposes has so far proved non-toxic, although grathered from farms
on which craving- was very pronounced. Some of these areas may
possibly be safeguarded by a moister climate, and other conditions of
putrefaction about which we know little as yet. But there are also
areas in which we know that no safeg-uards exist and which are only
saved by the localized character of their infection ; as, for instance,
on two neighbouring- farms, with the same climate, on the same type
of soil, and belong-ing- to the same owner, who adopts the same pre-
cautions ag-ainst the disease in both places, but finds his mortality
hig-h on one and neglicrible on the other. Such differences are most
probablv due to a difference in soil infection and the absence of
mechanical carriers of spores from one area to the other. Once a
carcass on the clean farm becomes infected, however, the process of
multinlication of the toxicogenic saprophytes may proceed very
rapidly. Each animal that dies of lamziekte. or from anv other
cause, is then liable to become a breedings ground, and infection may
become so heavy as to drivp the unfortunate owner to abandon cattle
rearing altogether.

In reg-ard to the measures for controlling- lamziekte it is
practically hopeless to attempt to eliminate the organism by any
other means than destroying- its food supply, i.e. by cleaning- the
farm of all carcass material. If this is done the remaining- soil
infection will slowly die down, and so long- as all dead animals are
disposed of as soon as discovered, the bacteria may possibly die out
altogether, and the danger from undetected small fragments of carrion
so disappear.

The M\teetal oft of which the Toxtn is Manufactured.

So mucli has been said on this matter under the two preceding-
headings thatjittle remains to be discussed. It is sufficient to
emphasize again that any dead animal whatsoever, from whatsoever
cause it died, can serve as substrate or material out of which the toxin
can be elaborated.

The important constituent of the substrate is the protein or nitro-
genous matter, and all the tissues of the body are associated with
protein. Even bone contains just about as much nitrogenous organic

The Cause and Prevention op Lamziekte. 233

matter as it does mineral matter. Toxin production may vary with the
nature of the tissue, and appears to he more active in tissues such as
liver and spleen than in muscle and bone, hut it can occur in any
part of a carcass provided the conditions of life of the toxicogenic
bacteria are suitable.

It is more than likely that- protein-rich veo-etable matevial such as
beans would also prove to be a good substrate, although this has not
actually been tested, and it is not impossible that any dead vegetable
matter at all could serve for toxin production provided the requisite
degree of anaerobiosis (exclusion of air^ vcere maintained.
Fortunately the organism is not parasitic upon the living plant any
more than upon the living animal, and altliougli dead vegetation
may possibly serve as substrate the dead grasses of grazing areas are
too freely permeated by air to be anv source of danger. ^ We should
not be surprised, however, if an occasional infection in a silo occurred,
and the disease broke out in anv animals which -uere fed upon th '
silage. But such stray happenings would not be reported as lam
ziekte and need not be considered.

The point of importance is that in the lamziekte areas dead
animal matter is practically the only source of danger, and that at
certain times of the year such carrion can become so violently toxic
that although a farin appears to be clean, and no carcasses of large
animals can be found, vet the presence of carrion derived from such
small animals as lizards, frogs, tortoises, barbels, hares, mierkats,
birds, liguans, etc., may be legitimately held responsible for a small
outbreak of lamziekte. Indeed, experience has shown that when pica
is at its worst during the drougbtv season after the spring rains, the
worst cravers amongst a herd will eat such unusual things. Cattle
have been actually observed to eat dead barbels, and it is now possible
to understand why lamziekte has been definitely associated with pans,
in the minds of some farmers.

The greatest source of danger is. of course, from large -animals
dyinc on the veld, wounded game, cattle, sheep, lost lambs, kids, or
ostrich chicks: also calves or foals which have been slipped and are
not missed at once. Naturally enough, so long as the carcasses of
large animals are carefully disposed of. so long will the greatest
danger be removed, but so long as the carrion of even the smallest
beast of the field is there, so long can a small mortality from lam-
ziekte be expected at certain seasons of the year on farms where pica
is acute. This mortality mav be negligible during the cold winter
months, when such carrion of small animals tends to shrivel up and
mummifv rather than to putrefy, but it cannot be altogether dis-
counted in the summer.

The raw material from which the lamziekte toxin is elaborated
thus represents the most important link in the etiological chain, and
it is there that the first effort should always be made to break the
chain. If all carrion is removed, toxin pi'oduction is excluded and
the toxicogenic saprophytes will die out altogether in time. It is,
however, practically impossible to remove animal debris completely,
and some small amounts are sure to be overlooked ; but overlooked
carrion becomes non-toxic in course of time by further decomposition
and weathering, and although it may certainly remain toxic for six
months, or perhaps even a year, it will sooner or later lose its
poisonous character. By reducing the general level of veld carrion,

284 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

the general level of veld infection is also reduced, and the risk attach-
ing- to overlooked carcasses of small animals will become negligible,
and may finally disappear altogether.

Since the difficulties of completely clearing all carrion from the
veld are considerable, the margin of safety is increased by trying
to break the chain of causation of lamziekte at two points ihstead of
only one. The second point of weakness which the farmer can get at
immediately, is represented bv the depraved appetite or pica of the
cattle.

Pica ob Depraved x\ppetite.

It is a generally known fact that over large areas of South
Africa, cattle show an abnormal craving, particularly for bones.
Indeed the fact is so well known that farmers in many districts look
upon it as a natural thing and" only notice it when it becomes so
pronounced as to constitute a public nuisance, i.e. when the cattle
cong*regate around the homestead or Kaffir huts, devour the washing,
bags, clothes, riems, skins, and miscellaneous rubbish, and persist-
ently return when driven away. Such aciite manifestations are what
is understood ])y craving in the worst districts, and a man brought
up in such districts will quite ignore the subdued craving, manifested
only for bones, which is common on farms where pica is comparatively
mild.

As already mentioned, the term pica, in the ordinary dictionary
sense, means depraved appetite of any sort, and of any origin. In
the human subject, for instance, it sometimes occurs as a concomitant
of ovarian disease. The general craving for rubbish is termed
" allotriophagia " and the distinctive craving for bones is termed
" osteophagia." The pica of the lamziekte areas is probably due
mainly to one cause (shortage of phosphorus), and its distinction
from other forms of pica must therefore be kept in mind.

Un^derstanding the true connection between pica and lamziekte
as we now do, it is easy to realize why some sort of connection between
the two should have ])een so frecjuently surmised by the observant
farmer. In correspondence, farmers have frequently drawn atten-
tion to the fact that Avhen craving appeared lamziekte was not far
off. Indeed, Br. Hutcheon, of the old C^ape Veterinary Service, went
so far as to explain bone-eating as a definite premonitory symptom,
and to formulate a definite deficiency theory in which lack of lime
and jihosphate was held to be the cause of lamziekte. We now under-
stand exactly where his hj^pothesis breaks down, and although it
failed to explain lamziekte it can profitably be revived to explain
osteophagia. Hutcheon's vieAv, however, was empirically useful in
breaking a link of a then unknown chain, and it was made the basis
of bone-feeding experiments 1)y Borthwick and by Spriudl — Borth-
wiek at Wittelclayrug and S])ruell at Xoopmansfontein, distinctly
sliowing that if bone meal were sui)plied regularlv at the rate of three
Id four tables])oonfu1s a day, the mortality from lamziekte was
mateiially reduced. We now understand the full (connection ; bone
meal })reaks Link 4 (craving) of our etiological chain and Link I,
the primary cause (toxin), is accordingly separated.

But the Hutcheon hypothesis failed to tliroAv any light on the
immediate cause of the disease and was abandoned when it was found
that craving and lamziekte were not iTivariably associated together;

The Cause and Prevention op Lamziekte. 23")

that ou some very bad pica farms lamziekte was unknown. The hone
paradox was not suspected — that the giving of sweet bone meal merely
prevented the ingestion of toxic veld bones. The second link, the
toxicogenic saprophyte, was not surmised.

Furthermore, the psychological circumstance, referred to above,
obscured the truth ; the circumstance that farmers, and indeed most
veterinary surgeons who were aware that even European cattle some-
times '' ate the washing olf the village green," took no notice of mild
bone chewing", but regarded it as normal, and treated it rather as a
harmless pastime indulged in by the cattle to pass eternity upon an
uninteresting veld. This led to the constant reiteration that lam-
ziekte occurred independently of pica. Obviously, if this had been
true, and lamziekte and pica each occurred independently of one
another, there could be no fundamental relation between the two
diseases.

It was not until the real nature of lamziekte, as a special kind
of ptomaine poisoning, had been grasped, and the chain of causation
visualized as a whole, that the full distinction between a natural
predilection for a sweet bone and a genuine abnormal craving', became
apparent. Once the idea of the toxicogenic saprophyte was brought
in as etiological link, it became obvious that although pica could,
quite well occur without lamziekte, and lamziekte perhaps occur
accidentally (as it does experimentally) without pica, lamziekte could
only occur as an enzootic and epizootic disease in areas where pica
w'as fairly pronounced.

This led to the necessity of introducing into our Avork some
system of ineasunng craving on a quantitative basis, so as to be able
to distinguish between the comparatively normal and the definitely
abnormal, and express both the degree of pica and the prevalence of
pica on some definite chartable basis. This w-as done by utilizing
bones at vaiying stages of decomposition. It Avas found quite easy
to pick a stinking bone wliich only those animals showing a very
marked, craving would touch and a perfectly bleached sweet bone
whioh practically every animal would chew, or at least toy with.
Intermediate degrees of craving could be identified by intermediate
bones, but since this was cumbersome for routine testing of cattle,
only two grades of bone were actually adopted — " sweet or bleached "
and " distinctly rotten." The latter were picked out as veld bones
which would produce lamziekte if drenched in sufficient amount, but
were then sterilized to render tlieni non-toxic. The former were
selected so as to be quite unobjectionable to anj' beast which showed
any clearly defined craving at all, but to be sufficiently objectionable
to the real normal non-era ver.

In measuring craving, a very simple method of routine testing
Avas adopted. Two sets of troughs, placed at opposite ends of a large
enclosure, were provided with test bones, one with the sweet and
the other with the sterilized rotten. The cattle to be tested were
admitted first to the rotten bones. The number Avhich picked and
chewed these was noted and recorded as ''inarked cravers." Those
which refused to touch the rotten bones were then admitted to the
sweet bones, and the number which picked and chewed again noted.
These were recorded as "mild cravers." The remainder which, by
the way, would still usually take a ration of sweet bone meal if
peered, Arere entered up as '' uon-cravers."

2'M\ Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

All the cattle at Armoedsvlakte were tested once a week as iv
matter of routine, so that the effect of treatment and the seasonal
variation of craving could be plotted in the form of curves showing
the effect of the particular factor under investigation. Really
scientific records of osteophagia were thus obtained for the first time.

The seasonal variation curve dates back to May, 1919, when 40
I)er cent, of all grazing animals admitted to the test showed craving.
There was then a gradual increase until 5th August, when the
maximum craving was reached, and 80 per cent, of all the cattle ate
rotten bones. From that date onwards a gradual descent in the curve
was noted, until 27th October, by which time the craving had again
fallen to 40 per cent. During this period the weather had been
continuously dry, but as it grew warmer the spring vegetation began
to appear, and this is regarded as responsible for the diminution in
pica. During the ensuing fortnight rain fell, the young vegetation
became almost luxuriant, and by the middle of November the craving
had rapidly fallen to 6 per cent, of all the animals tested ; had
vanished except for the more or less chronic cravers.

This minimum ci'aving was maintained through a fortnight of
rainless weather, and then, as the young grass wilted, it rapidly
returned, reaching a maximum of 82 per cent, within three weeks.
For the next two months of drought it oscillated around this figure.-

The craving curve, up to that date, therefore showed pionounced
craving while the cattle were grazing upon the old grass of the pre-
ceding rainy season, reduced craving as the young spring vegetation
began to shoot, practically no craving after the beneficial effect of
the rains upon the young grass, but a recrudescence of craving
during the ensuing drought when the young grass wilted and
shrivelled up — a craving which remained high so long as the drought
continued.

In the middle of January, 1920, the drought broke, the pasture
rapidly recovered, and it was naturally thought that the craving would
again disappear. The unexpected happened, however, and notwith-
standing the ample supply of good green grass, and the absence of
wilting, the craving did not fall to the previous 6 per cent., but only
to 50 per cent. As the age of the grass advanced towards maturity,
the craving curve again rose, and by the end of March once more
stood at 80 per cent, of all the cattle tested.

This behaviour was a little difficult to understand at first, but was
found to be correlateable with the phosphorus content of the growing
vegetation. We cannot yet offer a complete explanation of the precise
]elationship between the wilting of the young grass and the rise in
the pica curve, but we hope to get further evidence next time the
phenomenon occurs. The general behaviour, however, can be satis-
factorily explained upon a phosphorus-deficiencj' theory which we
hope to elaborate finally as main factor in the explanation of pica ;
not necessarily as only factor, and not necessarily in the conven-
tionally accepted sense of a deficiency disease. In passing, it must
be made clear that any such hypothesis bears no relation to any sort
of deficiency theory for lamziekte per se, but bears only on the
correlated craving ; further, that it has nothing to do with
osteomalacia or osteoporosis or any other disease which has been
mixed up with lamziekte in the past and is confused with it still by
some recent authors.

The Causk and Prevention of Lamziekte. 237

DuriDg- the period of initial high craving, hay cut from the
gja^iing areas showed the very small proportion of 0.08 per cent,
phosphoric oxide. During the period of rapid growth after the rains,
the young grass showed 0.56 per cent, of phosphoric oxide, or seven
times as much. During' the period of lowest craving the phosphorus
content remained fairly high, and as the craving rose again the
percentage of phosphorus in the grass steadily fell. By 15th January
it was down to 0.18 per cent, phosphoric oxide.

The poor response of the craving curve to the second rains is
explained by the fact that the ageing vegetation, though green and
fairly luxuriant, remained low in phosphorus; the older plants con-
iaining propoitionately less than tlie young spring shoots.

The phosphorus curve and the pica curve are roughly iiiveise to
one another, and up to the date of the last analysis the bone-eating
increases as the phosphorus in the grass diminishes. It is too soon
to sa}' how rigorous the relationship is, but the general trend is
borne out by facts obtained from other experiments.

Generally speaking, a liberal mixed ration rich in phosphorus
reduces the craving fairly quickly, though much depends upon the
components of the mixture ; and a single ration of Avheat bran con-
taining 2 per cent, phosphoric oxide reduces craving in grazing
animals in a few weeks, when fed at the rate of about 2 lb. per day.
The quantity of bran required appears to be roughly proportional to
its phosphorus content. Curiously enough, however, lucerne hay of
phosphoric oxide conteiit 0.5 per cent., fed at the rate of 10 lb. per
day over a period of six weeks, did not reduce craving in a batch of
ten gra55ing animals ; although the absolute phosphorus intake was
just as high as in the case of the bran-fed cattle. This observation
requires repetition and elucidation, but meanwhile suggests that it
is not only the actual proportion of phosphorus which is important,
but also the balance of other constituents in the mineral matter of
the plant. This is a complicated question and may therefore be
left for discussion in a more technical paper.

It would appear that craving can be removed bj- almost any
phosphorus compound, provided it is assimilable and convertible
into the form of phosphate. Bone meal, the obvious preventive for
bone craving, generally reduces pica almost to zero within a month
when fed at the rate of about 4 ounces per head per day, although
the quantity required varies throughout the season and is larger with
some animals than with others. As soon as the bone meal is with-
drawn the craving begins to return, and in the course of a fe^\ weeks
comes back to the percentage shown by grazing controls. The winter
craving requires rather more bone meal for reduction than does the
summer craving — a fact correlated with the phosphorus content of
the vegetation. With cows, heifers, and young oxen, a craving
removed by bone meal returns rather more rapidly after cessation of
dosing than in the case of working oxen. A very heavy ration of
bone meal of about 1 lb. per day may sometimes reduce the craving
to zero in one or two weeks. If lamziekte is bad, therefore, large
quantities (^ lb. to 1 lb.) should be given until the osteophagia
subsides.

Calcium phosphate can take the place of bone meal, and this
compound is quantitatively superior to bone meal if fed as precipi-
tated calcium phosphate, but inferior if fed as ground minera}

238 Journal ob^ thk Department op Agriculture.

phosphate. Not only the quantity of phosphate must be taken into
consideration^ but also its availability.

Sodium phosphate can take the place of calcium phosphate.

Pure phosphoric acid is rapidly effective when given either in the
drinking' water or in the form of a paste made up Avitli mealie meal.
The quantity required per day corresponds roughly to the quantity
of phosphorus in an effective daily ration of bran, and 16 to 26 gram
(phosphoric oxide) per head reduces craving completely in a few
weeks' thne, in all but the most persistent cases.

Whatever substance be fed, it seems that the common factor of
phosphorus must always be present. The behaviour with pure phos-
phoric acid indicates that the base in combination is unimportant,
except in so far as it affects the absorption and utilization of the
comjiound itself. The compromise between " cheapness " of com-
pound and " efficacy per unit of phosphoric oxide " has not yet been
arrived at, but we hope to get some South African firm to put a cheap
easily digestible phosphate on the market. Meanwhile we recommend
bone meal as the cheapest prophylactic on sale. Compounds of
elements necessary for i^lant nutrition, other than phosphorus, do
not reduce pica when fed in excess, noi- does plant ash as a whole.

vSubstances such as sulphur, salt, iron sulphate, mineral acids,
organic acids, arsenical compounds, kerol, glauber salts, aromatic
drugs, and other non-phosphatic compounds which have been tested,
all failed to reduce craving. Strong acids such as hydrochloric, and
bases such as lime, show a tendency towards aggravating the craving.
This is probably explicable upon the phosphorus hypothesis; increased
urinary elimination of food phosphorus in the former case, and
decreased absorption from the gut in the latter.

Incidentally it may be remarked that a high ratio of lime to
phosphorus in the mineral matter of a plant may possibly have a
similar eft'ect to a low absolute percentage of phosphorus, and we are
yet prepared to substitnte an excess-lime hypothesis for a i)hosphorus-
deficiency theory. We do not yet wish to bind ourselves to any one
single explanation of the observed facts, but wish to avoid adopting
too simple an explanation for what may yet turn out to be a
complicated business.

The fact remains, however, that administration of suitable
phosphorus-rich materials has so far proved the only way of reducing
craving, while lack of phosphorus appe,ars to be the common factor
in the production of osteophagia under various conditions.

This latter point was illustrated by showing that the vegetation
of the lamziekte veld at Armoedsvlakte maintained pica, and could
produce pica Avhen fed in stalls either as cut hay or as botanically
independent grasses. Thus mixed hay, krul grass {Digitaria
eriantha), and besem grass {Aristida uniplum.is) all reproduced pica
in cattle in which craving had been previously removed on a balanced
ration. But low phosphorus content was the recognizable common
factor.

An independent experiment, designed from the opposite angle,
was carried out at Onderstepoort, in an area free from lamziekte, in
an enclosure devoid of growing vegetation. A ration of wheat chaff
(as coarse fodder), selected as low in phosphorus as possible (0.16 per
cent, phosphoric oxide), and Fanko, a flaked maize product (breakfast
food) containing only 0.09 per cent, phosphoric oxide, was com-
pounded so as to provide as low an absolute intake of phosphorus a^

The Cause and Prevention of Lamziekte. 239

possible. Ten cravers sent from Armoedsvlakte were placed on a
balanced ration until the craving had disappeared and were then
switched over on to this phosphorus-low synthetic ration, derived
wholly from products of a non-lamziekte area. The craving was
slowly reproduced. This evidence, taken together v\-ith the Armoeds-
vlakte tests and the phosphoric acid experiment, affords strong-
support for a straiglitforAvard ])hosphorus-deflcien."y theory for the
explanation of osteophagia.

If tbis view is valid and we can call osteophagia a mild deficiency
disease, we have a very interesting instance of a physiological abnor-
mality which in itself is of no particular consequence, but which is
of enormous importance as a link in the etiological chain of a truly
devastating disease. It is perhaps difficult to understand how cattle
can grow to maturity, reproduce their kind, and complete the cycle
of their being as fat well-conditioned beasts, when the veld is deficient
in a constituent essential to their metabolism. We would expect the
"law of the minimum " to hold, and a minimum of any one necessary
dietary factor to control the growth of the animal. But in the spring
of this year the weight and condition of the cattle increased most
markedly just as the craving became most acute. The fact must
simply be that these lieasts get more than their physiological
minimum, but less than their o})timum requirements; that the veld
is not so deficient as to induce real phosphorus starvation, but merely
so deficient as to induce a cry for more. Tiiis raises the very
interesting question of minimum phosphorus requirements of cattle,
the text-book statements of which would seem to require revision. In
osteophagia we have an indicator of considerable value.

It may be emphasized that individual variation of craving in
different cattle is very great, and that although liberal feeding with
bone meal, bran, or other phosphorus-rich material, will stop pica in
the great majority of cases, a few individuals retain their ctraving
very persistently and require very large doses of bone meal over
extended periods before the osteophagia disappears. Is there in this
a tendency for- ciaving to degenerate into habit? Of an animal so
losing its fastidiousness as to minimize the distinc-tion between a
slightly rotten bone and a wliolly clean ])one? Or can pica liave more
than one origin?

The habit or predilection aspect of the question is of some
interest to the farmer's pocket wlien he proposes to reduce pica by
feeding bone meal. If bone meal is supplied ad lib. erstwhile cravers
will cheerfully go on eating it long after they are reduced below the
point at which they would i)ick up dangerous rotten bones, or even
bleached bones, from the veld. Sweet bone meal is something of a
" delicatessen " even to the perfectly normal beast, and there is the
curions fact, Avhich nmy be called the " second bone jjaradox," that
cattle which will no longer chew a sweet bone will readily eat the
same bone if it is ground ui> 1o a fine meal.

In practice, therefore, ]K)ue meal should be given on some definite
system, so as to keep down the expense. Not all cattle are cravers,
and hence it is not necessary to feed the whole herd. The marked
cravers, which are most liable to contract lamziekte, can be picked
out by periodic testing against sterilized rotten bones in troughs,
much in the manner described already. As craving is manifested
the bone-eaters can be separated from the others and fed on bone

240 JOFRNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

meal; three or four ounces per head per day, or more (^ to 1 lb.) if
lamziekte is rife, and it is necessary to reduce the craving quickly.
Testing should be carried out as a matter of weekly or fortnightly
routine during the most dangerous part of the year, in order to sort
out the animals which develop craving later, and readjust the ration
of bone meal for those which are losing pica.

Since the toxicity of carcass material is usually at its worst
during the _ period of the droughts, i.e. in the spring and early
summer, this is the time when it is most essential to control craving.
In the winter, when overlooked carrion is less toxic, it may be found
cheaper to take a small risk th'an to feed expensive bone meal, even
if the craving is markedly present. As mentioned earlier, we- shall
probably be able to introduce a cheaper substance for reducing
craving, but meanwhile the farmer had better stick to bone meal as
such, and remember that the more thoroughly he cleans his farm from
carcass material the less necessary does the supplementary bone
feeding bpcome.

At this point it should be emphasized that the expense of bone
meal feeding should not be debited wholly against protection from
lamziekte. A bone meal ration improves the condition of the cattle
of the lamziekte areas most markedly, and the farmer will generally
find that the increased price he gets for the beasts he puts on the
market will more than pay the cost of the bone m'eal. The difference
in general thrift, glossy skin, and sleekness of appearance, may well
add a pound or two to the cash value of an animal.

Reverting again to the nature of pica, we may explain that we
regard abnormal craving as a nervous disorder which may possibly
be produced by some injurious constituent of a diet as well as by lack
of a necessary constituent, and perhaps even occur as a secondary
condition in other maladies. In passing, it may be again recalled
that extreme pica may be manifested not only towards the phosphates
(bones) which are lacking, but towards anything at all — the white-
wash of a wall or the wire of a fence.

The wool-eating of sheep, for instance, is a form of abnormal
appetite which need bear no relationship to phosphate deficiency —
a type of deficiency to which sheep are less susceptible than cattle,
and which therefore does not manifest itself as bone-eating. And it
may be further added that, with cattle, any circumstance which
upsets the beast may temporarily reduce its craving ; a railway
journey, a sudden change of diet, an attack of diarrhoea, or the per-
manent low health of semi-starvation. This is a circumstance which
must not be lost sight of in experimental work. The best conditioned
animals are also usually those which show the worst craving, and as
cattle fall off in condition they tend to lose craving. It is a common
wail of the farmer tliat he loses his best beasts from lamziekte, while
the poverty-stricken weeds most frequently escape.

We Inay now make a few comments on the fifth link of the
etiological chain, upon which we are stringing the discussion.

Composition of Veld Vegetation and Soil.

We have_ just stated that we believe, tentatively at least, that the
main factor in the production of osteophagia concerns the lack of
phosphorus in the vegetation. This, however, does not exclude an
influence of other variations in the composition of the veld grasses.

The Cause and Prevention of Lamziekte. 241

It may well be, and to a certain extent must be, tbat the percentage
of phosphorus in a grass has to be correlated with its general feeding
value, and with the season of the year, in getting at a full explana-
tion of pica; that a mere analysis of vegetation for phosphorus
content is but a poor indication of the extent to which it is likely to
produce osteophagia ; and that neither the percentage amount nor
the absolute daily intake of phosphorus can be considered alone, but
that the proportion required is partly conditioned by the total amount
of food metabolized. There are several experimental indications
pointing in this direction which have to be worked up in the future,
imt for the moment we may content ourselves with a generalized
phosphorus theory.

In passing, it may be mentioned that youngr crass growing over
burned veld, and subsequently subjected to drought, appeared to
produce more marked craving in grazing cattle than did neighbour-
ing unburnt veld.

In regard to the chemical composition of the soil it mav at once
be stated that, other things being equal, a soil very low in phosphoric
oxide Avill tend to produce a veg-etation low in phosphorus content,
but that a limit is set by the minimum physiological reouirements for
growth of the plants concerned. The available phosphorus content
of a soil is reflected even more in the density of the vegetation it can
carry than in the phosphorus content of that vegetation, and a small
increase in the available phosphate of a soil (as by manurins") is more
likely to reflect itself in an increased luxuriance of srrowth. Other
factors also enter, and climate — especially rainfall— is important.

Although, then, low phosphate content is characteristic of the
soils of lamziekte areas (a fact emphasized by .Turitz twenty years
ngo). a mere analysis of a particular soil is not sufficient to enable
one to estimate the degree of pica which will characterize the area
from which the soil is sampled. Two soils in different districts mav
show a similar nnnlvsis but yet differ in resrard to the incidence of
pica in the cattle thev support, and. a«5 alreadv shown, the degree of
pica •''5 dependput ur»on the season of the vear.

The question of soil composition in relation to pica does, however,
deserve more attention than it has hitherto received, especially since
the soil from different parts of the same lamziekte farm may vary
considernblv both in composition and in depth. This is the case at
Armoedsvlakte.

Certain manurial experiments are also in progress at Armoeds-
vlakte, but these are directed bv theoretical rather than immediately
practical considerations, since it is felt that any attempt to alleviate
pica bv phosphatic dressings would be far too costly over the wide
lamziekte areas of cheap land. Tlieoreticallv it miffht be possible to
break the etioloo-ical chain at this link, but so long as the farming f
the areas remains extensive rather than intensive the job would cost
more than the market value of the land. It may be casually
remarked in passing that any bone meal fed to cattle is not wasted
wholly in guardinsr against mortality from lamziekte, but o>oes to
enrich the soil and increase the burden of vegetation it can carry: a
very minor consideration, however, in view of the size of the areas
in question and the low price of the land. The effect of bone meal
on the condition of the animals — already mentioned as enhancing
their market value — is a more remunerative consideration.

242 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

Class of Animal and Susceptibility to Disease.

It has already been slated tliat most animals, including- sheep and
horses, are susceptible to the lamziekte toxin, but never contract the
natural disease simply because they do not develop pica, and hence,
never, except by accident, ingest obnoxious material. For practical
purposes, excluding- the stray natural cases amongst goats, ostriches,
and poultry, cattle come into almost exclusive consideration.

At this point, therefore, it is only proposed to refer to the
possibility of breaking the etiological chain by reducing the suscepti-
bility of the beasts threatened with the disease; ^'n other Avords, by
immunizing them against the toxin which they are liable to ])ick up
from the veld. There is a possibility of doing- this by injection of a
modified toxin and so engendering an anti-toxin in the body of the
animal. This problem is a difficult one, since nature, and not man,
confers immunity. Experience has shown that any natural immunity
which exists towards the toxin is of very short duration, and cattle
which have just recovered from one attack of lamziekte can succumb
to pnother very soon after. But it is just theoretically possible to
build up an experimental immunity of longer dumtion and perhans
devise a scheme whereby a temporary immunity could be made to tide
over an urgent period, and so gain time to break the chain of
causation at another link.

This line of attack is being" vigorously pursued, but it is too soon
to hold out any prospect of success.

Although it is desirable for the control of lamziekte to have as
many ways of breaking the etioloarical chain as possible, it must asfain
be emphasized that only by breaking Link 3, i.e. removing
material out of which the toxin is manufactured, can the cai/se he
revioved. Attack at Link 6, i.e. decreasing the susceptibility
of the animal, can only protect the particular aninml immunized,
and that probably only for a very short time. It will not prevent
toxin production, which can occur in carcasses of animals dying from
other diseases or from drought, and which therefore can spread all
over the couniry irrespective of the use of a possible lamziekte
vaccine. All efforts to clean the farm must therefore be made, and
in the process the farmer can comfort himself with the reflection that
he is not only stamping- out lamziekte, but other diseases, such as
anthrax, as well.

The degree of success depends upon the ene'"-'- of the farmer
himself; At Armoedsvlakie, where the mortality from lamziekte was
30 per cent, in 1914, the mortality with a herd of 500 cattle was
reduced to below 2 per cent, after the measures here advocated were
adopted in 1919.

CONCLTTSTON PRACTICAL MeASUBES FOR PREVENTION.

'Ihis article may now be concluded with a few provisional
I)ractical directiojis for control, based upon the lueasures followed at
Armoedsvlakte diii-iug the last season. They will be improved upon
later, but for the jjiesent they will be found servicoable. They may
})e addressed personally to tlie farmer who has suffered most heavily
from lamziekte in the past:^ — •

1. Clean your farm of all bones and carrion and Icee}) it clean.

For this purpose it is necessary to secure all rarcass inaterial of
the animals which die on the farm and deposit it in some safe place,

The Cause and Prevention of Lamziekte. 243

such as a dry well or jackal-proof camp, where dog's or wild animals
cannot get at it. If any animal is suspected of havinj^- died of
anthrax it should be liuried and not merely fenced in.

The veld should also be searched when calves or foals are slipped ;
for lost lambs, kids, or ostrich chicks : thoroughly search also for the
carcasses or remains of all wild animals, even the small ones such as
birds, hares, mierkats, tortoises, etc.

2. The bones of the animals so collected need not be destroyed,
but can be utilized for testing your animals for bone-craving
;iceording to the method described below.

Such test hones should not be completely bleached, but so selected
i'.s to have a slitjhth/ putrid odour, so that only cravers will touch
them. They must then be sterilized by boiling or steaming them for
one Jiour on each of three successive days. These sterilized bones
should still smell putrid, but if properly sterilized will be perfectly
harmless.

3. Now test your entire herd of cattle to find out which animals'
are bone-eaters (cravers) and which not.

To do this, place the sterilized rotten bones in troughs and bring
your animals up to them in groups of about ten, leaving them
sufficient time to pick up and chew the bones if they wish to. The
animals which nre thus proved to be bone-eaters should be removed
from the herd.

4. Now fe^d the bone-eaters icilh. hone meal.

You need not go to the expense of feeding the other animals
which are not cravers and will therefore not get lamziekte. Such
animals would still eat sweet bone meal if offered, but they will not
j)ick up toxic rotten bones from the veld.

The craving" can be stopped quickest by giving a large daily
ration of bone meal (h lb. to 1 lb.) to each of the bone-eaters. The
craving will then disappear in from one to three Aveeks' time. In
order to ascertain this, test the animals once a week or once a fort-
night.

When once the craving for bones has stopped :t can be kept down
by supplying a small daily ration (3 to 4 oz.) of bone meal. Test
the animals regularly to make sure of this.

The animals Avhich continue to eat the sterilized rotten bones or
test bones should receive the large ration until the craving stops.
They can then go on to the small ration.

5. In the meantime the animals that did not eat bones at the
first test should be retested to find out whether any of them have
since acquired a craving. All such cravers should be removed from
the herd and treated in the way indicated above.

6. The feeding of hone meal is best carried out with a large
number of small troughs. If the number of bone-eaters is too large
the herd sliould be divided up into two or more lots, each lot to
contain not more animnls than the number of troughs available.

If this is not done, and too few troughs are used, the weaker
animals will not get a chance of eating their ration and their craving
will not be removed.

It is advisable to mix a little bran with the bone meal. A little
sa.lt may also be added, although this is not really necessary.

244 Journal of the Department of Agriculturi^.

7. Boue meal need not be fed all the year round, since this would
be too expensive. It should be supplied when the craving is at its
worst. This will be found to be during the dry season, in the spring
and early summer, before the heavy rains set in. After the rains
the craving may almost disappear for some time, ])ut it may return
towards autumn.

During the winter bone meal feeding is not so necessary, although
craving may be present to some extent. This is because any carcasses
of small animals, which you have failed to find, are not so poisonous
as in summer. But if you miss much carcass jnaterial it will be
necessary to feed bone meal all the year round. If you keep your
farm as clean as possible all the year round it will only be necessary
to give bone meal during that part of the summer when craving is at
its worst. If you could only manage to keep your farm perfectly
free from all carcass material you would not need to feed bone meal
at all.

8. By carrying out the bone meal feeding according to the
scheme detailed here, i.e.

(a) feeding only to bone-eaters and not to the entire herd ;

(6) reducing the ration when the craving stops :

(c) feeding only during certain seasons of the year;

you will find the cost comparatively low and you will be able to afford
i1, especially as the improved condition of your cattle will itself
recompense you.

9. Itemember that on the experimental farm of Armoedsvlakte
the losses from lamziekte amounted to 30 per cent, of all the cattle
in 1914, but that in 1919, when the system of control here described
was first introduced, the losses fell to less than 2 per cent. The
system has therefore been tried and found effective. If the system
is carried out metJiodicalbj it will be found much less troublesome
than it appears at first sight.

10. As last injunction, remember the first paragraph: — Clean
ijour farm and keep it clean.

Export of Grain, etc.

Pressure on space, combined with the present small export of
grain, etc., requires the suspension of the statistical table under the
above head x^i^blished in the past two issues of the Journal. The
position on the 31st March, 1920, was given on page 217 of the May,
1920, Journal. Returns for April, 1920, show there were shipped 275
bags mealie meal, 145 bags lucerne seed, 430 bags beans, and 672
bags millet. The stocks on hand at all ports on 30th April was (in
bags): Maize, 642; maize meal, 1424; and beans, 911.

Do not lose your copy of the Journal. A full index will be sent
subscribers every six months. The Journal will prove a useful book
of reference to every farmer. In time it will be a valuable com-
pendium of advice and infomiation on farming in South Africa.

European Foul-brood Bee Disease. 245

EUROPEAN FOUL-BROOD BEE DISEASE.

By C. P. TjOunsbuky, B.Sc, Chief, Division of P^ntonioloov

Prevalence of the Disease.

The existence of European foul-brood in the Union was officially
announced in De])artnient of Ag-riculture Bulletin Xo. 10. 1918. At
the time of the announcement Mr. A. -T. Attridi>e, of the Division of
Entomolojry, was about to visit various localities in the four Provinces
to deteiniiue whether or not the disease Mas of wide occurrence and
to make observations bearing: on its importance. Mr. Attridge's
tour had to be greatly curtailed owino- to the pandemic that swept
South Africa at the time, and it has not seemed worth while since
to continue with tlie inspection. He was unable to visit the south-
eastern and southci'n districts of the Cape as had been i)lanned, but
it does not seein ]irol)able that the conditions prevailing' in those
parts are much bcttei' oi- worse in respect of bee diseases than were
foiHul to prevail elsewheie. He visited and inspected apiaries in and
near Potchefstroom, Tohannesburg", Pretoria, Pustenburg:, Pieter-
maritzburg-, Durban. Bloemfontein, and Queenstown ; and in one or
more of the apiaries at or near each of these centres he foinid diseased
larvae which, by subsequent miscroscojnc examination, the writer
became satisfied suffeied from European foul-brood. An iHihealthy
or dead larva here and tliere in a comb was found in the majority of
colonies, but there were only a few much drseased colonies, and more
often than otherwise in these exceptional cases +he trouble present
appeared to be entirely apart from foul-brood. The sporadic uu-
liealthy larvae were in many instances victims of foul-brood, while
(juite as commonly it was decided that the disease named sacbrood
was the affliction and in other cases what the trouble was remained
undecided. The most pronounced cases of foul-brood were in apiaries
of experienced and relatively well-informed bee-men who were
incredulous when they were told the disease was present. As the
outcome of the inspection I have come to the conclusion that
European foul-brood occurs ])ractically all over the country, but
that it is exceptional for it to ravagv colonies seriously. Before
Mr. Attridg-e went on the tour we knew the disease in the Malmes-
biH'y, Cape, Stellenbostdi, Paarl. and Caledon Districts, and we have
since obtained ])ositive evidence of an outbreak near St(Mkstroom,
Ca]ie Province.

CeKI ATNTV OF THE TnENTIFICATIOX.

Tile disease was first broug-ht to official notice in South Africa
tliroug'h an extensive outbreak in the Berg" liiver-Hopefield area of
the Malmesbury District late in 1917. Material was then sent to the
U.S.A. Bureau of Entomology to determine if the conclusion that

24() Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

the disease was really European foul-brood v.as correct. The reply
received removed any room for doubting the identification.

When on his long- tour of inspection, Mr. Attridpre took specimens
Irom most of tlie colonies in. which he found evidence of disease,
lakino- full frames of l)rood in many instances and he sent these
l»]omptly \o Pretoria. The material thus olitained was subjected to
close study by Dr. C. K. Brain, of the Division, and by the writei.
Ill the course of the laboratory work hundreds of stained smeais wen'
examined, and a larg-e number of bouillon cultures made of orpranisms
found in dead and dying- brood'. The particular organism. Bacillus
pluton, which, after a most painstaking and prolonged investigation,
officers of the TT.S.A. Bureau of Entomology concluded was
responsible for foul-brood, was nearly always demonstrated when the
general appearances were indicative of the disease; and. as described
to l)e characteristic by the American investigators, Bacilhis alvei was
generally found in the association. The former organism does not
iidmit of cultivation in oidinary culture media and its recognition
depended entirely on the " miscroscopic picture," while the deter-
mination of the organism acce])ted as B. alvei was confirmed by
culture tests. Subsequently a score or more of prepared smears,
representative of specimens from various localities, were sent to the
TT.S.A. Bureau of Entomology for the favour of examination l)y its
bee-disease specialists, and abundant authorilative confirmation of the
identifications was thus obtained.

Organisms other than B. pluton and B. alvei found at Washing-
ton to occur in the smears included Bacillus Tulgatus, Bacilhis
orplieus, and Streptococcus apis. What was suspected to be Bacilhts
vieseytrtericus was also found.

SUBSIDKNCE OF BeRG RivER-HoPEFIELD OUTBREAK.

The outbreak of the disease in the Berg Tiiver-Hopefield area
practically died out with the 1917-18 honey season. Under instruc-
tions, Mr. Attridge spent nearly a week during December, 1918, in
making an inspection of the principal stands. He found the great
majority of colonies to be strong and working Avell, and without
obvious signs of disease. Only in very exceptional colonies did he
find much dead brood. He sent full frames from seven such diseased
colonies, at as many places, to Pretoria for study, and only in speci-
mens from two of the places were the typical European foul-brood
organisms demonstrated. In all the other cases there were found
only organisms that are believed to be saprophytic, and it is conjec-
tured that the biood died owing to beinq- subiected to bad bee-
keeping conditions. Colonies having ceased to die out and the pro-
duction of honey having again become satisfactory, without the
application of measures to suppress foul-brood. T think that the heavy
losses in 1915-17 must have been due far more to unfavourable seasons
in association with negligent bee-keeping than due to foul-brood.
The bee-keepers concerned may resent the imputation that their
methods are faulty; and perhaps in fairness I should add that, for
all I know, their careless ways may be more efficient in the long run
than would be the much closer attention to details that good bee-
keeping demands. The bees in the normal year, under the prevailing
climatic and plant conditions, seem to be quite capablp of looking

European Foul-brood Bee Disease. 247

after themselves with very little attentiou ; aiid in tlie case of large
apiaries it may be more profitable, under the prevailing- labour condi-
tions, to risk occasional heavy losses than to go to the trouble of
guarding against them.

To ascertain if the improvement in 1917-18 had been continued
I wrote to a number of prominent Western Province bee-keepers in
the past October. The leading Malmesbury District bee-keeper, in
the course of his reply, stated: —

Last year my apiaries, bar the infected one, came through
all right and gave me a good crop. This season swarms are all
strong, even in the infected a])iary, and I expect a heavier crop.
There are very few signs of any colonies liaving European foul-
brood, so that, in my opinion, the disease, has not come to stay.

The person who probably keeps the largest number of colonies
in the Caledon District replied, inter alia: —

I have to report that my bees wintered well. I have not
yet come across any symptoms of the disease, but have not yet
handled all the colonies. . . Where the disease was present
in a few cells of the brood of certain colonies last autumn T have
found the bees to have recovered entirely, liaving built up
rapidly during tlie last month. In cases of weak colonies I have
found this to be due only to old queens.

Another Caledon bee-keeper wrote : —

In the spring a year ago my bees were in a \ery bad way from
foul-brooil and 1 suppose insufficient stores for the winter. Ten
out of thirty colonies had dwindled away and died, and the rest
were weaker than 1 had ever known them (I have kept bees here
since 1911). By last autumn (May, 1919) 1 had increased my
bees to thii'ty strong colonies, and I left a super jjartially filled
with honey on each for their winter supplies. I examined my bees
on the 21st October and found all except two colonies pretty
strong, and some very strong indeed, with supeis quite full of
honey. The two weak colonies have foul-])rood ; the others I
have not examined this spring, tliough last s})ring every hive had
foul-brood.

Conditions under which European Foul-jjrood Occurs.

It was pointed out in Bulletin No. 10 that European foul-bicod
is far more in evidence during the spring and early summer thai! at
other times of the year. On this phase of the subject Dr. E. E.
Phillips, the Chief Apiculturist of the U.S.A. Department of Agri-
culture, wrote to the Division of Entomology, under date of 18th
August, 1919, as follows: —

. You will, I am sure, find European foul-brood more
prevalent in poor seasons, especially those in which the earlier
honey-flows are meagre. In 1918 there was an epidemic of the
disease in Michigan, when the clover honey-flow failed, and this
year New York and Indiana are hard hit, in both States the
clover honey-flow being rather poor. This probably accounts
for conditions with you in 1915-17. AVlien the early honey-flows
fail all colonies are weakened, making them easy prey for the

248 Journal of the Department. of AGfRicuLTtiRE.

disease. As I have previously explained, by providing proper
conaitions in the wintering of the bees and by providing abun-
dant stores to last over in case of early dearth, the bee-keeper
may almost entirely prevent an outbreak even in a region where
the disease is endemic.

Treatment for European Foul-hroou.

In Bulletin iSo. JO (pages 9-12) advice by Dr. Phillips, in a letter
dated 30th March, 1918, is given in respect of the treatment of
European foul-brood ; but so much i-s quoted on more drastic measures
that one may get tlie impression that the advice in the letter is
inadequate. Dr Phillips lias since written to say he is no longer
sceptical of the soundness of the dequeening remedy known as tlie
Alexander treatment, and that the common failure of this remedy
was due to its application to weak colonies. He refers to U.S.A.
Farmers' Bulletin No. 975 for the latest knowledge on the subject.
This bulletin is entitled " The Control of European Foul-brood," and
Dr. Phillips is its author. The following paragraphs contain the
information most needed to supplement what is stated in the account
of the disease pu})lished in our Bulletin No. 10: —

European foul-brood is a disease of weak colonies. While
at times one may observe larvae dead of this disease in strong
colonies, usually they are removed before the disease can do
much harm. It should be pointed out, further, that it is the
colony which is failing to increase in strength in the spring
which is most seriously affected, for a small colony which is rich
in young and vigorous bees, and which is increasing in strength,
is often able to overcome the disease. It is therefore a disease
of weak rather than small colonies. The disease is prevalent in
the spring and early summer. . . . The disease disappears
later in the summer unless the colony has become so badly
weakened that it cannot remove the dead larvae. Such weakened
colonies usually die in winter or in a time of dearth. Colonies
do not as a rule die as a direct result of European foul-brood.
There may still remain some dead larvae in the combs, showing
that the bees have not been able to remove all of them, but in
any but the worst cases even these disappear. If conditions
which commonly prevail in early summer again appear there
may be a recurrence of the disease the same season.

This disappearance of the disease usually accompanies the
beginning of the honey-flow. At this time, unless the colony
has already reached maximum strength, there is a rapid increase
in brood rearing and the colony increases in strength, bringing
about conditions unfavourable for the development of the
disease. If the honey-flow fails, the disease may continue, and
under such conditions is at its worst. It should be noted that in
regions where the early honey-flows are uncertain or usually
lacking European foul-brood has done 'the most damage, for in
years of failure the disease spreads with such rapidity that the
entire region becomes badly infected. European foul-brood is
rarely observed in regions where an early honey-flow is certain.

The earliest brood of the year usually escapes with little
loss. . . . This in all probability is due to the fact that the

European Foul-bhood Bee Disease. 24i)

colonies have been able to remove most of the disease during the
previous summer and there has been left only a little ot the
infecting material.

The bees are able under suitable conditions of colony strength
and resistance to clean the cells so thoroughly that when future
larvae are reared in these cells the disease is not contracted.

The method of spread of the disease is not well known,
although there is some evidence that the infection is carried
chiefl}' hy nurse bees. It has been observed that under some
circumstances it may be transmitted through feeding, but the
experience of bee-keepers indicates that contaminated honey is
not the common means of carrying the disease. It is well known
tliat honey from infected colonies may be given to healthy
colonies with entire safety, provided the healthy colonies are in
such condition that they are able to resist the disease. It is
therefore not necessary to disinfect the honey from colonies
having European foul-brood, as is the case with that from
colonies suffering from American foul-brood.

It has not been found necessary to disinfect hives, combs,
or frames from diseased colonies. This does not indicate that
the germ causing the disease is absent from such material, but
that if present it does not do any damage.

Strength of colony is fully as important as resistant stock.
Unfortunately too many bee-keepers fail to provide conditions
necessary to the bees in order that the colonies may be at the
proper strength in time to combat European loul-brood success-
fully. It is good bee-keeping to have all colonies strong, and
nothing leads to large honey crops as does this factor, yet
throughout the country there are thousands of bee-keepers who
annually fail to get half the crop through failure to have strong
colonies at the right time. When the honey-flow comes early in
the season, as is the case throughout most of the United States,
it is important that every colony be at maximum strength early
in the spring. Since European foul-brood appears in the spring
and early summer good bee-keeping practice again coincides with
the requirements for preventing the ravages of this disease.

One difficulty arises from the fact that there is no standard
for strength of colony, and what one bee-keeper considers a
strong colony may be considered weak by another and better
bee-keeper. At the opening of the honey-flow every colony
from which a full crop is to be expected should be strong enough
to have ten full combs of Langstroth size filled with brood. Of
course this brood may be in a larger number ni combs, since the
bees usually store some honey at the tc" of each comb, but it
is easy to estimate the brood in terms of full combs. If, now,
we accept the same standard for the desired strength of colony
for the purpose of resisting European foul-brood, we will have a
condition under which (assuming resistant stock) this disease will
never get a stait in any colony in the apiary. It is, of course,
recognized that such a standard is seldom realized before or at
the beginning of the honey-flow, and this fact is the reason for
the loss of so much honey as well as the full explanation of the
ravages of European foul-brood in so many places. It is

25(» .loURXAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF A(;RICULTURE.

suggested that each bee-keeper in a region M'here European foul-
brood exists ask himself whether his colonies are actually in as
good condition at tlie opening of the year as he has supposed,
and that he find out how strong the colonies may be made by
providing the best of conditions for the development of the colony
population. A bee-keeper whose colonies do not measure up to
this standard should not condemn the standard until he assures
himself that it is entirely impossible, under his condition?, 1o
reach it.

Obviously the proper Avintering of bees becomes a matter of
tlie liighest importance in regions where European foul-brood is
found. Those who fail to practice good wintering are the ones
who first lose so many colonies that they become discouraged
and give up bee-keeping, wliile those whose wintering has been
better are able to treat the disease, although their standard of
colony strength may not be high enough entirely to ward it off.

(jrood bee-keeping, in so far as handling the bees is concerned,
consists of providing conditions in the fall so that the colony is
full of young, vigorous bees for winter ; of providing conditions
of ])rotection and good stores, such that the bees are not depleted
in numbers and vitality during the winter by excessive heat-
productioii ; of piovidiiig jjlenty of stores, adequate room for
breeding, and abundant protection during the i)eriod of heavy
l)rood-rearing in the sjjring ; and of prevejitiiig* reduction in the
strength of the colony by swarming. All of these things, and
there are no others of importance, pertain to keeping colonies
strong. The bee-keeper who ])rovidcs conditions such that the
bees can keep up their strength will not only reap the honey-croi)
but he will escape the lavages of Euiopean foul-brood.

To a large degree the failure of American bee-keepers to get
their, colonies strong enough is due to the use of small hives that
are insufficiently jirotected during the winter and spring. The
single-Avalled hive was first made as a means of reducing the cost.
Such a hive is a good tool for a bee-keeper, but it is a poor home
for the bees. When the 10-frame hive was found too large to be
filled with bees in time tor them to go into the supers as soon as
the honey-flow opened, instead of protecting the hive the use of
the 8-frame hive was commonly adopted. This hive is in rather
general use throughout the United States, althoug'h fortunately
it is now being replaced by tlie lO-frame hive in many localities.
In order that the bee-keeper may reduce his labour, it would be
well to raise the standard of colony strength bv providinc better
])rotection and more looni for the bees. This will to a large
degree eliminate the spring manipulations so often practised,
will get better crops, and wW] make European foul-brood a ininor
trouble of the apiary.

When strong colonies, headed by vigoious queens, of
resistant stock are present European foul-brood will usually make
little, if any, headway, yet from time to time there may appear
cases which require treatment. The shaking treatment used for
American foul-l>rood is often advocated for European foul-brood,
and is recommended by many inspectors of apiaries. It was
recommended in previous publications of this Department, but

European Foul-brood Bek Disease. 251

later observations show that other methods r re more reliable.
. . . The same amount of stores left with the colony the
previous fall will usually do more good than heavy spring"
feeding as a means of disease control.

The remedial measures here described should he iisrd only to
remove the disease if it enters the apiary. Preventive measures
should then be ('mi)loyed lo avoid a recurrence of the disease.

The dead larvae arc easily removed from the cells, and the
jcmedial treatment serves to i)rovide conditions such that these
may be lemoved by the bees during- a period when no new diseased
material is appearing in the combs. Usually the queen is
removed from the colony, and, since a queen whose colony
becomes badly infected is rarely of any value, she is killed. In
five or six days all queen cells are removed, so that the colony is
hopelessly queenless. The workers do not clean out the dise.ised
cells so rn])idly unless they have a queen or a queen-cell. . .
[f only a few diseased cells are observed, and if the colony is
fairly "poi»ul(. us, the queen may sim])ly be caged and relciisod
later when the dead broud is removed.

The length of time necessary foi' the cleaning out of the
dead larvae varies with the strength of the colony, and for weak
colonies it may be necessary to wait until all brood has emerged
before giving' a young queen. This method should not be
employed unless each colony has enough bees to sustain at least
five combs full of bjood. Some colonies seem to clean out dead
brood more rapidly tluin others of the same strength. If the
honey-flow comes earlv it will usually be possible to reduce the
period of queenlessness to a few days. A bee-keeper may use the
time necessary tor cleaning up as an 'ndication of the strength of
his colonies, for if he finds a long time needed he may be sure
that his colonies, for some reason, are not as - asperous as they
should be. If it is certain that there will be no honey-flow until
midsummer or later it isMiot so necessary, from the standpoint of
good bee-keeping, to have all colonies strong so early in the year,
but it is surely an exceptional ]oc;di(y where there is notliing for
the bees to get in early summer. , ,

Where the bee-keeper is dependent on a late honey-flow it is
often desirable to move the bees durin'^- the early part of the
season to some place where nectar may be obtained. This will
often be easier and less expensive than treating the colonies.
Tor example, the author was shown a location in the west where
European foul-brood caused great annoyance during the s])rin<-''.
while apiaries not many miles away were able to get enough
nectar to ward off the disease, and at the same time to give the
bee-keeper enough profit to justify the expense and time of
movino-. In such a case preventiA^e measures are cheaper and
better 'than the remedial measures here described.

The Journal is the Department's medium of making known its
activities. It contains information of value to every farmer m the
Tin ion Keep it for reference.

252 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

FLAG SMUT OF WHEAT.

By V. A. Pt^ttertll, M.A., Mycologist, Division of Botany,
Department of Agriculture.

Flag smut in wheat, commonly known also as " Tulp brand " or
" Stoel brand " is a disease which has only lately been brought to the

Fig. L

notice of the Division of I'otany, but which has probably been present
in 8outh Africa for a najnber of years. It has been known in
Australia as a serious trouble since 1868, and has been recorded on
wheat in Japan, 1895, and on wiieat in India, 1906.

Flag Smut of Wheat.

253

According to Mc Alpine, in South Australia it does as mucli
damage as rust, and in Victoria and New South Wales it is not
uncommon for half the wheat crop to be lost through it. In South
Africa during the last two or three years wheat farmers at Zeerust.
in the Marico District of the Ttansvaal, have been considerably alarmed
at the loss in their wheat crops sustained through the ravages of this
smut. While the total loss up to now may not be considered very
great in that district, yet in some wheat-fields lately visited almost
half the crop was found to be affected.

Eig. 1 is a photograph of the yield of an average square yard of
a badly diseased wheat-field near Zeerust; No. 1 shows the partially
diseased stools, the diseased stalks on the left, and the stalks which
have formed ears on the right; No. II shows the totally diseased stools,

Fui. 2.

and No. Ill those whicli had formed normal ears, and on which no
indications oT the disease were visible. The actual numbers of
diseased and of healthy stools in the product of this square yard was
counted, and was as follows : —

Healthy stools 33

Ears produced by the above 85

Diseased stools 20

Partially diseased stools T

Healthy ears produced by the above 9

Diseased stalks 10

Thus the actual percentage of stools showing disease, as compared
io llie number of healthy stools in this field, would be 45 per cent.
10

254 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

General Characters and Symptoms.

The disease first becomes visible to the naked eye as black streaks
on the leaves, parallel with the veins, and extending along- the length
of the leaf blade. (See Fig. 2, which is an enlarged drawino- of a
portion of a leaf.) ' '^

The whole plant is stunted, and the leaves frequently become
much twisted and distorted. The whole stool may be diseased, in

Fig 3.

which case it is killed outright, or else only some of the shoots of the
stool, the rest forming normal ears, though undersized ones. The
general appearance of a typically diseased wheat plant reminds one
ot a comnion cattle tulp plant, and it is from this similarity in appear-
ance which has given rise to the South African name of " fulp brand "
i ^^^^^lisease (Fig. 3). Fig. 4 is a photogi-aph taken in a wheat-field
where the disease is prevalent, and shows in the foreground a normal
stool on the right, and a diseased one on the left ; the latter is less than

FLA(i Smut of Wheat

255

half the height of the former, and has made no evident attempt to
form ears. As a riile the plant is attacked so severely that it is unable
to produce even young ears; sometimes a diseased stalk does form an
ear with grain, but usually the ear is attacked while still very young
and enclosed in its leaf sheath.

Cause of Disease.

Flag smut of wheat is caused by a fungus, Urocystis fritisi,
Koern., and is ne;iily related to other -mut-causing fungi, such as

Fi<;. U

e.g., stinking smut of wheat or loose smut of oats. The only parts
of the fungus which one can see without the aid of a microscope are
the spores or seed-like bodies of the fungus ; these are black, and are
readily visible, but only because they are produced in such vast
numbers. Each spore itself measures only about one-thousandth of
an inch in diameter, so tin. t about a million spores pliaced side by side
in a single layer would cover an area of only one square inch. Fig.
5 is a drawing of a single spore, magnified about 1800 times, showing

•25 a

Journal op the Dbpartmknt op Agriculture.

how it is divided internally into a number of compartments or cells,
two in this case, and surrounded by a jacket of smaller, lighter-
coloured cells outside, which protects it from the effects of prolonged
diought. The spores are produced in the tissues of the leaves and are
visible internally as the black streak previously mentioned, and are
liberated as a black, sooty powder. (See Fig. 2.)

Infection.

Infection of the wheat plant probably takes place when it is in
the seedling stage, through spores of the fungus which are present in
the soil. Each spore germinates by sending out a short germ tube at
the end of which a number of daughter spores are formed. These
are much smaller than the mother spore, and each is able to infect the
growing tissue ot' the wheat plant. The fungous threads, known
collectively as the mycelium of the fungus, permeate the tissues of the

Fig 5.

wheat plant and cause the stunted growth and distortion of the stalks
and the leaves. Ultimately, wlien the food supply provided by the
host begins to be exhausted, the mycelium divides up in various ways
to form the spores, which turn black. The -wheat-plant, if badly
diseased, is, as a rule, killed at this stage, and many of the spores find
their way to the soil, where they rest "and lie in wait" for next
season's wheat crop.

Pre VENTi VE Measures .

As infection comes from spores present in the soil, it can be
understood that the usual treatment of the seed with chemicals, such
as formalin, etc., which are used for the control of other cereal smuts,
is not going to be much help. This treatment is of value, however,
in that any smut spores adhering to the seed coat would be killed, and
thus the danger of introducing the disease into clean lands would be
lessened to some extent.

.^

Flag Smut of Wheat. 257

The straw from a diseased crop, if practicable, should be burnt;
at any rate, it should not be fed to the cattle, as the resulting manure
will contain smut spores, which are quite capable of causing infection.
The same is true of the very dangerous practice of allowing the
diseased straw to rot in the cattle kraals, in order to augment the
supply of manure, which is afterwards ridden back to the wheat lands,
often to prove a very doubtful blessing. Infection may be spread in
many other ways; spores may be blown about by the wind, or they
may be carried about from one place io anothea- in the mud or
the soles of one's boots or on animals' hoofs, or by irrigation water.
Up to the present the only means which can be recommended to
check the disease is to refrain from planting wheat for several seasons
in soil which has borne a diseased crop; that is, practise crop rotation.
As wheat is the only cereal attacked, as far as is known, by the smut,
other cereals, besides other field crops, can be grown without danger.
Further, wlien a wheat land is known to be free from the smut, no
effort should be too great to see that land remains clean, and on no
account should manure be applied to it which might possibly be con-
taminated with the spores of the fungus.

Conclusion.

The reason why flag smut has failed to cause the consternation
amongst wheat-growers which, from the possibilities for destructive-
ness it seems to possess, one might have expected, is owing possibly to
the insignificance as regards appearance and to the dwarfed and
withered growth of the diseased as compared to the healthy plants.
It is sincerely to be hoped that every precaution will be taken to pre-
vent the spread of this disease, otherwise it may become a very
serious pest in our wheat districts.

Agricultural Co-operation in England.

An interesting feature of agricultural co-operation in England is
the great strides made during the past year. This is referred to in
an article on the subject by the Secretary of the Agricultural Organiza-
tion Society, London, who shows that the conditions which prevailed
in England shortly after the war, such as the unstable market in
farmers' requirements, uncertainty as to results following decontrol,
the prospect of keen competition in imported food, etc., caused appre-
hension among farmers for the future of their industry. As a conse-
quence a campaign for greater agricultural co-operation was started,
which, under the prevailing circumstances, met with instant success.
Indeed, the progress made is described as being little short of
phenomenal. Agricultural co-operation is, of course, not new in
England, but its growth since the war almost entitles it to be described
as a new movement, and one which is certain to affect very consider-
ably the future of agriculture in that country.

Keep your Journals ! The contents will be indexed every six
months and a copy of the index sent to each subscriber.

258

Journal ot' the Department of Agriculture.

EXPORT OF SOUTH AFRICAN EGGS AND
POULTRY, YEAR 1919.

Report by W. 0. John, Officer Administering Egg Export
Regulations, Elsenburg School of Agriculture, Mulders Vlei.

Owing to difficulties in obtaining steamer space, there was no over-
sea export during 1918. By 1919 conditions had somewhat
improved, the armistice had been concluded, and the high hopes for
better export facilities in 1919 were not disappointed,' more than
sufficient space being available.

The shipments for the year 1919 were as follows : February, 2166
cases ; September, 5321 cases ; October, 4166 cases ; and November,
4527 cases. Total, 16,180 cases.

This constitutes another record in our egg export. Previous
exports were : —

Vear. No. of Cases. Year. No. of Cases. Year. No. of Cases.

1914 ... 1,927 IQIC) ... 14,'.159 1918 ... Nil.

1915 ... 5,968 1917 ... 12,18i^ 1919 ... 16,180
It will be seen that steady progress is being made with our export

business, while at the same time the interests of the South African
consumer are guarded. At no time during the year was there aj
dearth of eggs on the home markets, care being taken to safeguard
against any possible shortage. Charges have been levelled at the
Department of permitting over-export, and that eggs will be 8s. to
10s. a dozen during coming autumn and winter in conseqlience. It
may be well to show the fallacy of such an argument.

During the year 1919, the Union exported to United Kingdom
ports 5,938,072 eggs, and our total exports to all countries reached
7,613,824 eggs. It will therefore be seen that our total export was less
than one egg per head of fowls, the numbers of fowls in the Union
being 8,436,140, according to the Agricultural Census of 5th May, 1918.

This, I think, proves conclusively that South Africa has not
over-exported.

The following returns show the export of eggs and poultry, both
as merchandise and ships' stores during the year 1919: —

Eggs.

Live Poultry.

Frozen Poultry.

Country.

No.

Value.

No.

Value.

Lb.

Value.
£

United Kingdom

British East Africa

Ascension ...

South- West Africa Pro. ...

Belgian Congo

Portuguese East Africa ...
Southern Rhodesia
Northern Rhodesia

5,9.38,072

200
221,743
404,372
566,414

480.779
2,244

.50,247

2
2.293

4,836

4,05«

4.545

18

64

6

1 .969

r.36

5.362

5.768

472

72

7
591
153
865
1.361
216

88,734

4,. 390
.5,157

.5,164

.344
400

Total

Shipped as Ships' stores...

7,613,824 65.999
1,529,309 17.031

14,177
19,530

3,265
4,51 3

98,281
136,860

.5,908
9,371

Grand i Total...

9,143.133 83.030

33,707

7,778

235.141

1.5.279

Export of South African Eggs and Poultry. 251)

Of the eggs exported, the Western Province (Cape) produced
13,388 cases of 360 eggs. Northern areas and Natal were responsible
for 778 cases. It will therefore be seen that nearly the whole oversea
export trade was supplied by the Cape. The export to Portuguese
East Africa, Rhodesia, Belgian Congo, etc., is better distributed.
Johannesburg shares largely with the Cape in this trade. The trade
in ship's stores is confined chiefly to Capetown, and Durban in a
lesser degree.

Regulations. — It was found that all shippers were keen on
observing the regulations. In one or two instances only Mas it neces-
sary to compel shippers to regrade and repack the whole of the parcel.

Grading. — On the whole there is room for improvement in
respect of several marks. Many on the other hand are excellently
graded. Some few attempt the dodge of packing good eggs on top
and in the bottom layers, so that whatever side may be opened good
grade may be in sight, then they pack indifferently graded eggs in
the middle of cases. This is poor policy for the packer, as every one
packing in this way is placed on the " not to be trusted " list. Two
or three of such shippers have been the cause of some rather adverse
comments from London. However, the " marks " and " shippers "
are known, and strict watch will be kept on their future packing.

Packing on the whole was very good. Evidence of this is found
in the fact that breakages in transit are returned as practically nil.

Reception on London Market.- — Reports from the Trade Com-
missioner in London show that on the whole South Africa can rightly
be proud of the excellent reputation made in London by its eggs.
Public opinion places them next in order of merit to the Irish or
Danish eggs. Let us see that we maintain that position. What
we must see to is that our eggs are first grade for size and quality,
and we shall hold our own in any market.

Egg Prices. — The highest prices in London for first grade was
120s. per case of 360 eggs, and the lowest price 100s. to 102s. The
very high prices realized is due to the fact that nothing but the best
in regard to freshness was allowed to be sent; 90 per cent, of the
whole total was first grade.

Export 0¥ Poultry to London.

During 1919 was the first occasion on which South Africa
attempted shipping poultry on a commercial scale. There were
three shipments, one each in September, October, and November,
comprising 4 cases of ducks, 40 of geese, 61 of fowls, and 733 of
turkeys, a total weight of 88,734 lb.

The London trade reports on these shipments show that there is
much room for improvement in killing, grading, and packing
poultry for export.

The export officer reports having examined all the poultry
placed on board at Capetown, and found only one packer's mark
which could be said to approach export requirements. Under this
mark the birds had been properly bled, were tied attractively, grade
quite fair quality of birds, individually excellent, collectively left
something to be desired as regards evenness in size. Taking the
parcel as a whole it was good, and was well reported on from London.

260 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Other marks contained birds of excellent quality as regards fat-
ness, etc., but badly bled, and packed before the carcasses had been
cooled right through, and badly graded and unattractive when
opened up. These are faults that must be remedied, and no doubt
will be, as packers get better acquainted with ui)-to-date killing
methods.

The area from which the poultry came is very general. Some
of the very best turkeys examined were Orange Free State bred and
Johannesburg killed and packed. The quality of these birds left
little to be desired. Xatal was responsible for some very nice parcels
also. Johannesburg on the whole sent forward the greatest number
of uniformly good quality ; Capetown sent one or two marks of very
fair quality.

Poultry Prices. — Average per lb., 2s. 4d. to 2s. 6d. for turkeys;
Is. 4d. to Is. 6d. for geese; Is. 6d. to Is. lOd. for ducks; and Is. 2d.
to Is. 4d. for fowls; according to grade and appearance on opening up.

On the whole it is thought that South African shippers are to be
congratulated on the year's export trade.

Regarding future shipments of poultry, the following is advised :
Kill properly by " bleeding," do not break the neck, grade to uniform
size and weight, thoroughly cool before packing, pack in standard
boxes, tie up each bird attractively, wrapping the head in grease
paper, also each bird wrapped separately. Stencil plainly on case
the number and sex of birds, gross and net weight, for example: —

Mark -,?f
o.A.

Turkey Hens. 10.

Net Weight. 80 \h.

Gross Weight. 95 lb.

Remember always that when taking the net weight of birds
at time of packing to allow 2i to 3 lb. for shrinkage when freezing ;
if this is done, the "net" stenciled weight should fairly represent
the contents. Alwaj's pack poultry for freezing in a way that when
the case is opened up, the contents are shown in the most attractive
manner possible. Given this attention the future of our export is
assured.

The Danger of Rats.

The attention of maize and grain growers, dealers, and others
engaged in the handling and storage of grain, forage, and foodstuffs
is drawn to the outbreak of bubonic plague in the Hoopstad District.
The disease is primarily a rat disease and infection is carried from
rat to man by fleas. There is serious danger of spread of the disease
by sick and dead rats in broken maize sacks, forage, etc., and as
maize in the affected area is now being collected, no time should be
lost in starting an anti-rat campaign by all persons concerned. Rats
and mice are a serious menace both as carriers of plague and as
destroyers of agricultural production, and farmers throughout tbe
•country are advised to keep their farms clear of them.

The Growing of Mine Props on the High Veld. 201

THE GROWING OF MINE PROPS ON THE
HIGH VELD.

By K. A. Carlson, Conservator of Forests, TraDsvaal Conservancy.

[Reprints of this article will be issued by the Forest Department as " Forest
Department Bulletin No. 1 of 1920," and correspondence on the subject should be
addressed to that Department. — Acting Editor.]

Introductory Remarks.

Afforestation is a subject which has been receiving a great amount
of attention during- recent years, and the shortage of timber during
the war greatly accentuated interest in the matter. While it is
recognized that the growing of timber for technical purposes involves
a large outlay of capital, from which large returns cannot be expected
tor many years, and is therefore an undertaking more suited for
State and other permanent institutions than private enterprise, yet
the cultivation of trees, especially when they are likely to bring in
a comparatively early return, is a proposition which appeals to many.
It is therefore not surprising that large numbers of trees have been
and are being planted on the high veld for the production of rough
mining timber, props, and lagging-, especially as such planting at
the same time can l)e made to provide shade and shelter for stock
and crops and to improve farms generally.

Many applications for advice on this subject are received by the
Forest Department, and this bulletin has been prepared with a view
to assisting people who intend to plant with the above object.

In so far as the growing of mine props is concerned, a word of
warning must be given. The market for mine props is not unlimited,
and over-production within the next few decades is not improbable.
As it is the fashion now to start syndicates for the production of this
class of material, usually on what is described as the '^ plot system,"
it is well that promoters and investors alike should bear this in mind.
Before embarking on a scheme of tree-planting, the following factors
should be taken into consideration and each one carefully studied.

Situation.

Although some classes of industrial timbers can be grown,
within limitations, in parts of the high veld table lands, this area
cannot compete in the production of high grade material of large
dimensions with true forest land on and in the vicinity of our eastern
mountain ranges and escarpments with their liigher rainfall and more
equable climate. The high veld, however, is well enough adapted
for growing- props, lagging, fuel, and other low-grade oood. A large
portion of the high veld area has the advantage of proximity to
markets, an important factor in these days of increasing railway

262 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

rates. It Avill be readily understood that the ratio of transport cliarges
permissible on timber is in direct proportion to the quality of the
material. The advantag-e of proximity to market enjoyed by most
of the high veld area is, however, somewhat oounterbalanced by the
severity of climatic conditions.

Soil.

A careful examination of soil conditions is very important in
selecting- a site. Superficially there appears to be little or no varia-
tion of the soil over large stretches of the gently undulating ])]ains.
But if test pits are sunk, considerable variation in depth will often be
found, due to presence of banks of " ou' klip " and other solid rocks or
impei'meable clays and pan formation, more or less near the surface.
Such conditions may have far reaching effects on the growth of the
trees, and may lead to serious loss if not guarded against from the
start. Trees often flourish for a number of favourable years even on
shallow soil and then go off suddenly, hence the error of planting
in such ground may not be discovered for some years.

Surface Vegetation.

The nature of the surface vegetation is an important factor to
consider. Virgin veld is by far tlie best, as very little cultivation
after planting is then necessary. Weedy old lands, on the other
hand, give much trouble in this respect, and the best plan is to clean
them tli.oroughly before planting. Such weeds exhaust the surface
moisture necessary for young trees that have not yet got their roots
into the sub-soil, and the cost of cleaning after planting is far greater
than before. Besides, many blanks will occur, always expensive to
refill, whieli, if neg'lected, will result in understocking; also in risk
from fire and bad growth. Nothing' will be lost in growth by waiting
a year or two while the soil is being cleaned before planting. Teif
is a useful crop for this purpose, and brings in a good return. Quick
grass is particularly deadly, especially to drought tender species,
such as Euc. viminalis, and should be got rid of at all cost before
planting, otherwise land infested with it should he left alone if the
expense of cleaning is considered too great. During the drought in
1919 large and small patclies of this species, even up to ten years
of age, and on deep soil, died on the high veld due to presence of
quick grass in open stands, while the same species on much Kballower
soil, but in " normal " stands and free from quick grass, remained
unaffected.

Climate .

Droughts, frosts, and cold winds are the principal climatic
influences adversely affecting tree growth on the high veld. The
erratic variations in these influences and the impossibility of fore-
seeing when extremes aie likely to occur, have to be taken into
account when embarking on a large scheme of planting. Wliat may
seem clearly indicated some years may appear equally clearly be
contradicted in oilier seasons. Given a fair season or two to start
with, a right selection of species and situation, and aft'orestation may
seem a simple enough proposition for a time. But only a close study

The Growing of Mine Props on the High Veld, 263

over a long" period of years, noting- the behaviour of each species
during a variety of seasons and in all manner of situations, will
enaljle the planter to avoid climatic traps and pitfalls. The results
of study and experience up to the present time are given under the
heading- " sylvicultural notes," each species being- dealt with
separately.

E SPA CEMENT.

Espacement has an important bearing- not only on the successful
establishment of a stand of trees, but on its future development, the
quality of wood produced, and tiie general economy of manag-ement.
Too often tho-se intending- "^0 g-o in for afforestation are under an
impression that planting espacement is a common factor which can
be applied to any species, situation, or circumstances, and that some
day they will harvest approximately the same number of trees that
were originally planted. Such is far from being- the case. Nature's
method is to regenerate in more or less dense mass formation which,
when unassisted by man, has to undergo a slow process of survival
of the fittest before final development is leaclied. The science of
forestry, evolved by man, consists in hastening this process to secure
his needs more quickly. We cannot, however, afford to discard
nature's example entirely, and must base our sylvicultural methods
on certain fundamental natural principles. One of tiiese principles
is to secure what is technically known as "forest conditions" at an
early stage. In a young stand this condition is reached when it is
sufficiently dense to ex(dude weed-growth without necessity for
further cultivation, and no stand on the high veld can be considered
established, or safe against damage from frost, drought, and fire,
until then. To attain this end most economically, the planting
espacement has to be varied .according to differences in rate of growth
and individual habits of species, such as natural erectness or other-
wise of stem, density of lower branches, etc.

Having secured " forest conditions," the forester's attention is
next concentrated on maintaining what is known as a "normal
stand " throughout the remainder of the rotation. By '' normal
stand" is understood that particular density which, without
sacrificing " forest conditions," will maintain noimally vigorous
growth in the best stems. Everything- depends on maintaining this
density. A too open stand is exposed to the dangers of understocking,
and, if too dense, loss of increment takes place. As the stand
develops the correct density is maintained by a process of thinning
whereby espacement is constantly increased and the number of stems
to the acre reduced. This operation is of the utmost importance,
and demands great skill and experience. The lungs and stomach of
a tree lie in its crown, hence it must be >^een to that the crowns of
those individuals intended for the main crop are properly developed
and not allowed to deteriorate. Every species has its own individuality
of habit which must be taken into account when thinning. Further-
more, its habit varies according to situation and age, and whether
it is growing pure or in mixture with other kinds. Where, as in
this country, many hundreds of species have to be dealt with in
scores of different situations and mixtures, the number of combina-
tions that have to be studied may be more readily imagined than
calculated. But one thing should be remembered, an error of

264 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

judgment ii) the conducting of tliiuuings may not be eradicated
throughout the rotation of a crop.

Choice of Species.

As ilie bullv of tlie timbering in the mines is required to last
only a few years, durability is not essential. A low grade quality
of timber can therefore be used, provided it is sufficiently straight.
Advantage is taken of this circumstance to plant ihe most rapid
growing species without consideration as to durability. A certain
amount of strength is, however, necessary, and experience goes to
show that in this respect Eucalyptus coriacea, when grown on the
high veld, fails to come up to the required standar/t. AYith this
exception, and a few othei's tliat will be referred to later,' the choice
of species is mainly limited by soil and climatic conditions.

To meet the above requirements, the following are the principal
species used, viz.. Eucalyptus niminalis, Euc. rostrata, Euc. Maidenii,
Euc. glohidus, and Euc. sidero.rylnn . The requirements of each are
discussed in detail hereunder.

Syliviculttjr.4l Notes.

The following notes apply only to the species above referred to
under the coiidilions to be met with on the high veld, and must not
be taken as applicable to all j)arts of the country.

E%( ca lyp i u s v im ina lis .

This i.s the favourite tree on account of its rapid growth and
hardiness to frost, though not quite immune in exceptional seasons
or in bad frost hollows. It is sensitive to drought on shallow soils
and on lands infesied with quick grass, but hardy enough on deep,
clean soil. It should be safe on 6 feet or more of soil where the
rainfall ranges from 24 to 30 inches. The lower the rainfall the
greatei- the depth of soil required. Sub-soil is included in the
expression "depth of soil," provided it is sufficiently porous for
moisture and roots to i)enetrate. This tree may flourish for some
years even in shallow soil, but is then liable to fail suddenly when
the limit of moistiire is reached. A planting espacement of G feet
by 6 feet (1210 to the acre)' is, as a rule, the safest. In good condi-
tions a light thinning or cleaning may be required in the fourth or
fifth year. Thir.nings have to be repeated at intervals up to the
tenth of twelfth year. Light and frequent thinnings are the best,
but much depends on the seasons experienced, the frequency and
degree being regulated accordingly. The final stand suitable for
]nine props is reached at the age of twelve to fifteen years in favour-
able circumstances, and should then consist of approximately 450
to 500 trees to the acre, averaging 8 to 12 inches in diameter at
breast height. The first cleaning will produce mosth'- laths and
■ sticks. Later on lagging, sprag's, and firewood will be got, and, still
later, a percentage of props will be included in the thinnings. The
following table may be used as a rough guide for thinning a stand
of Eucalyptus viviinalis in a good situation with a planting espace-
ment of 6 feet by 6 feet intended f oi' props : —

Original stand 1210 trees per acre.

Fourth to fifth year thin to ... 900
Fifth to sixth year thin to ... 750 ,, ,, .

Sixth to seventh year thin to... 600 ,, ,,

Spventli +0 eightli vear Ihin to 500 ,, .,

The Growing of Mine Props on the High Veld. 265

In exceptionally favourable conditious tlie planting espacenient
may be made wide]', 9 feet by 9 feet being- tlie limit (538 trees to the
acre). In this case only a little thinning will be needed towards tlie
latter part of the rotation. But, as a rule, this plan is not recom-
mended, as it involves much more cultivation and incurs the risk of
introducing quick grass, which may be fatal to the crop. In the
wider espacement greater thickness is attained in the lower part of
the bole in a short time, but, on the other hand, this tends to a more
pronounced taper. Though prop sizes are thus secured somewhat
earlier in the bottom lengths, there is more waste in the upper part,
and the percentage of props in the final stand will be smaller than
iii a stand that lias been kept normal from the start. If, on the other
hand, telling in a widely espaced stand is delayed until the upper
part of the stem is more developed, the lower part will become too
thick for props.

The wood is of an inferior quality, and is unsuitable for
industrial purposes even when mature. Its present commercial
value is entirely due to tbe present scarcity of timber, serving Avell
enough for temporary purposes where nothing better can be got.
It is planted on a large scale, almost exclusively by private enter-
prise, especially in the vicinity of the mines. How long the demand
for this class of timber will be maintained it is impossible to say,
but should the supply of props at any time exceed the demand, the
market for Eucalyptus viminalis timber will become restricted, and
will disappear entirely when sufficient better class timber is available.

Eucalyptus rostrata.

This timber is strong and durable when mature, and is therefore
useful for any industrial purposes where such (jualities are needed.
A good depth of soil, say, G feet or more, is required for it to attain
large saw-log dimensions, but less depth will suffice for props, say,
down to 3 feet. It needs sub-soil moisture, and does not object to
brak or to inundation in a fairly mild climate, but is less frost-hardy
than Euc. vit/ilnalis during the first few seasons, and must therefor
be kept out of low-lying situations on the high Aeld. Once well
established it will withstand any cold experienced in these parts,
and does not suffer from drought if the stand, is kept sufficiently
dense to exclude quick grass. The crown is usually light, and in
an open stand its natural liabit is branchy and crooked, hence close
planting and early thinning is necessary to produce straight stems.
A planting espacement of 4 feet by 4 feet (2722 to the acre)is there-
fore recommended as the safest, especially in weedy lands. In good
clean ground, 6 feet or more in depth, 5 feet by 5 feet (1742 to the
acre) may suffice. It is a fairly fast grower, but takes about five
years longer than Euc. ciininalis to attain prop sizes. On the other
hand it is a safer permanent crop in case the demand for props
should decline.

Eucalyptus Maidenii.

This tree is of comparatively recent introduction, the oldest
stands in the Transvaal being about thirteen years. But sufficient
experience has been gathered to justify advantage being taken of
its many good qualities, provided great care is exercised in selecting
the right situation. It is a handsome tree with a foliage difficult to

266 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

distinguisji from Kuc. globulus (the ordiuary blue guui), but it differs
from the latter in haying a cleaner and straighter stem less inclined
to taper. So far it has also proved hardier to frost and drought than
the latter within certain limits of soil and situation. On the high
veld these limitations are G feet of soil, avoidance of frost- hollows,
protection against cold winds, and 24 inches average rainfall. Other
conditions being favourable, less than 24 inches may suffire, but this
cannot be said for certain. Rate of growtli is perhaps slightly in
its favour ovei- Euc. glohvlus, and almost, if not quite, equal to that
of Euc. viminalis. Like Eve. rosfrata and Eve. r/lohulns it is liable
to be cut by very cold winds during the first two or three seasons,
but will be safe if these are survived. In .situations exposed to cold
wind, the best plan is to plant only behind the sJielter of blocks or
belts of Eve. riminalis, and if any failures occur they should be
filled up at once with the latter species. A planting espacement of
6 feet by 6 feet is recommended rso that the trees will close up quickly
and protect each other from cold. At this espacement up to 15 or
even 20 per cent, of failures can be neglected unless they occur in
large patches. There is little information available as to quality of
the wood, except that it is hard and strong. It is probably at least
equal to that of the blue gum. In a normal stand of 6 feet by 6 feet,
thinning should commence about th" fourth or fifth year. Under
proper treatment it should attain prop sizes as quickly as Eue.
vimivalis, and it is probable that a normal stand will then contain a
higher percentage of props to lagging and firewood than the latter,
but as will have been gathered, greater skill is necessary in sylvi-
cultural treatment so as to minimize risk of failure.

Euea lijptu.s <j lo hu Ivs .

The ordinary blue gum is too well known to need description.
As for its sylvicultural treatment and attainments on the high veld,
all that need be said is that they are about the sajiie as for Euc
Maidenii, except that the precautions stipulated in case of the latter
are even more necessary. The timber of Eue. glohulus is of good
quality for many industrial purposes when grown to maturity and
properly seasoned. It will, however, only reach that maturity under
favourable conditions.

Other Euealypts.

There are a number of other euealypts grown on the high veld
with more or less success, such as Eve. stvartiana, Eue. eoriacea, Eue.
cinera, Eue. gunnii, Euc. amygdaliiia, and Eue. sideroxylon. The
last mentioned is the only one of these that produces a strong and
durable commercial timber, and may be worth planting in situations
too dry for Euc. rostrata, though it also requires good conditions to
reach its best development. The reason it is not included among
those specially recommended is that, conditions being equal, it
produces a smaller volume per acre than Eue. rostrata, to which it
otherwise approximf\tes in respect of sylvicultural treatment. The
timber of the other species are no better than, and in some respects
inferior to, Eue. vi ninalis, and mostly of slower growth, so that there
is no object in grvwing them except for shelter.

The Growing of Mine Props on the High Veld. 2ti7

Eucalyptus Deanei.

Is a later introductiou of some promise, but not yet widely enough
tested. It is similar to Euc. viminalis in growth and appearance,
and has the advantage of a denser foliage.

Cost of Planting and Maintenance.

It is of little value to base the costs of operations for any
particular scheme on general averages as so much depends on local
conditions. Costs should be worked out at "per acre" as a fixed
unit, not per tree as is so frequently done. The reason for this will
be readily understood when it is pointed out that whereas tlie original
planting may be anything from 1210 to 2722 trees to the acre, the
final crop may vary from 50 to 500 trees per acre according to the
size and quality of material it is intended to produce. The balance
of the trees are, of course, accounted for in failure and thinnings,
the value of which may vary from nothing to nearly equal that of
those felled in the final crop. The following are the main items that
have to be taken into account in calculating costs : —

1. Administration and supervision.

2. Preparation of planting plan.

3. Fencing.

4. Preparation of ground.

5. Transplants.

6. Planting.

T. Cultivation,

8. Fire protection.

9. Thinning.
10. Trnnsjjort.

From the notes here appended each operator, with his knowledge
of local conditions, is best able to calculate costs of operations for
himself.

1. Adininistratioii and Supervision.

On the skill and economy of the management from start to finish
depends the ultimate success or failure of the whole scheme. The
operations dealt with in this paper are of the simplest known in
forestry. Yet unless the administration is guided by expert sylvi-
cultural knowledge and experience, there are many pitfalls for the
unwary, all of which tend to financial loss if not guarded against.
Given proper technical guidance, actual siipervision becomes a mere
question of common sense and energy.

It goes without saying that under competent supervision the
larger the area dealt with, up to a point, the lower will be the cost
per acre under this head. It is also self-evident that economy of
administration and supervision is not so much a question of £. s. d. as
of its quality.

2. Preparation of Planting Plan.

Planting schemes are too often entered upon without a definitely
worked out plan. As a rule there is too much huriy to plant any-
thing anywhere as soon as the idea is first conceived in order not to

268 JOURKAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

lose a season. This hurry leads to doing- things in the wrong- order,
and may involve the loss of much time and money. Preparation of
the planting- plan includes a detailed examination of every part of
the area ; a rough survey and construction of a map on which should
be shown a complete system of compartments, roads, nurseries,
buildings, etc., for tlie most convenient and econo)nic future working
of thff scheme; a comprehensive scheme for protection against fire
or cold Avinds; allocation of species to each compartment according
to soil, aspect, and elevation; regulation of espacements ; directions
as to the order in which planting should proceed, and numerous other
details. Close attention to such details in proper sequence does
more to lessen costs than is usually realized.

3. Fencing.

This cost has to be calculated according to ruling rates at time
of erection. Cost per acre is smaller for compact areas of regular
shape than scattered, irregular, or long and narrow strips.

4. Preparation of Ground.

New ground should be broken in late summer before it dries out,
and fallowed through winter. Before planting the following summer
the ground muSt be cross-ploughed and brought to a tilth as for
ordinary field crops. The cost per acre will depend on local conditions
of labour, stock, and implements used, or on the ruling contract rates.
Weedy old lands must be brought to as clean a condition as possible
befor-L planting, especially if there is quick grass. This is done most
economically by cropping with teff grass.

5. Transplants.

The cost of transplants depends on the number requij-ed per acre
as regulated by the espacement (6 feet x 6 feet = 1210; 5 feet x 5
feet = 1742 ; 4 feet x 4 feet = 2722) and the number of i-eplace-
ments that may be necessary. In a large enough venture to warrant
the employment of a nurseryman, it is cheaper to raise the trans-
plants on the spot and save transport. The present Government
tariff for transplants is £?) per 1000, exclusive of railage.

0. Plan ting.

A gang of twentj- men under a good overseer should, if properly
organized, plant from 10,000 to 20,000 trees a day on easy ground,
depending on their skill and experience. The number of reliable
planting days during a season, taking a genei'al average for the high
veld, is probably not more than twenty. The necessity for thorough
organization to make the most of these is therefore apparent.

The cost per acre will vary according to the necessary espace-
ment, local labour conditions, and the efficiency of the organization.

7. Cultiration.

Cost of cultivation after plaiiting is mainly affected by the
surface condition of the soil and the rapidity with which trees close
up and kill the grass and weeds. This cost may vary from a few
shillings per acre in clean virgin soil to several pounds in weedy old
Ian Is, especially if the stand is understocked on account of too wide
plaating- or failures. In the latter event weeds may get so out of

The Growing op Mine Props on the High Veld. 269

hand as to preclude the use of cultivators, and hand labour has to be
resorted to. Once a " stand " has attained " forest conditions," no
further cultivation is necessary.

8. Fire Protection

In a properly laid out plantation under efficient management,
the cost of fire protection should be small. This cost may, however,
easily become unduly swelled hy bad planning in the first instance
and by delay in arriving at " forest conditions." The risk of loss
from fire is smallest in a well kept ''normal stand" and becomes
greater- the more a stand deviates from the normal.

9. Thinning.

It has been pointed out that after establishing " forest
conditions," the next consideration is to maintain a " normal stand "
throughout the rotation of the crop by means of periodic thinnings.
Also that the degree and frequency of these thinnings must be
regulated according to the species, situation, variation of seasons,
and the class of material it is desired to produce. The first thinning
is usually called a cleaning when the material removed is too small
or inferior to yield a monetary return. As a rule the cost of cleaning-
is very small. In the vicinity of markets the sale of material from
subsequent thinnings should more than cover the cost of the operation
to an ever increasing extent, thus bringing in a gradually growing
interest on the capital outlay before the final crop is felled.

It is safer to thin lightly and frequently than too heavily at one
time, but undue delay may result in serious loss of growth and injury
to the final crop.

10. Tran:iport.

Cost of transport has a very important bearing on the financial
result, and depends entirely on local conditions. Valuable timbers
can, of course, stand a much higher rate of transport than low grade
material.

Yield.

When it was first decided to write this Btilletin, it was hoped to
include some average figures of yield for certain of the more important
species, such as Euc. viminalis, Euc. rostrata, and Euc. globulus, of
which there are many private plantations on the high veld, and more
particularly within the " Rand " area, ranging from ten to thirty
years of age. On investigating these it was found, however, that in
no single instance have they been treated on proper sylvicultural
lines, nor have any records been kept in the necessary form, and there
are no Government plantations within the areas which are typical
of the conditions of soil, climate, and species dealt with in the present
publication. Under the circumstances all idea of including even
approximate figures of yield had to be reluctantly abandoned for the
present.

Plot System.

The ustial system on which a tree planting sjaidicate bases its
prospectus is to divide the area into 10 or 20 acre plots and to offer
these to the public as freehold stands. There are some serious draw-
backs to this plan which are probably not realized either by promoters
or investors.

27o Journal of the Department oe Agriculture.

It has been sliown tliat over any given extent of area, however
uniform superficially, there is certain to be more or less important
changes of conditions which affect tree growth. While each investor
pays an equal amount for his plot, he has no guarantee that he will
secure an equal share in the results, and it is a pure gamble whether
he obtains the best results or hardly any at all. Once an investor
has secured his plot he is, presumably, at liberty to treat it in any
way he considers fit to the danger of adjoining plotholders. Thus
he may fail to secure it against risk from fire, or by untimely or
excessive cutting expose his neighbours to damage from winds or
violent storms. Failure to remove trees weakened by drought may
result in attacks by borers such as the phoracantha beetle and other
similar insect pests, which may spread throughout the whole
plantation.

Truly economic management can only be effected by treating an
area as a Avhole. Costs of operations carried out separately on small
plots aie always much more expensive. This is, no doubt, recognized
by promoters or they would not offer to do the planting for investors.
But this principle applies even more to the processes of tii inning,
final felling, and marketing. Possibly promoters may be willing
to undertake these operations also at a price, but even then many
obstacles to economy may arise unless complete unanimity exists
between plotholders as to manner of treatment and time and methods
of disposal.

Ill eluded in the purchase price, syndicates usually make them-
selves responsible for maintenance during the first three years. There
is, however, no guarantee that the essential "forest condition" will
have been attained by that time, and, as has already been shown, a
stand cannot be said to be finally established until this condition is
attained. As a rule, ten to twelve years are estimated for the final
crop, but twelve to fifteen is more probable for Euc. viminalis and
Euc. Maidenii, and then only under good conditions, while the
average for Eiic. rostrata and Euc. sideroxylon is considerably longer.

That a little knowledge is a dangerous thing is more applicable
in forestry than most other activities because of the long time one
has to look ahead. Yet expert knowledge is often claimed on the
slenderest basis, such as a few years' experience in tree-planting; or
it is thought that a chat with an expert will suffice to gain enough
knowledge for all practical purposes.

The above remarks are not intended to discourage aff'orestation,
for which there are undoubtedly good prospects when conducted on
sound lines, but to help the beginner to steer clear of the many
points of danger which may lead to financial wreck if not seen in time.

Honey.

In connection with the Grocers' Exhibition to be held in Loudon
on the 18th September, 1920, a colonial honey competition is being
arranged. Full particulars may be obtained on application to the
Acting Trade Commissioner, 90 Cannon Street, London, who is pre-
pared to receive samples of honey for exhibition and to arrange for
their entry.

The Department of agriculture during the War. 271

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DURING

THE WAR.

[This article, which commenced in the May, 1920, issue, briefly reviews the work carried out
by the various branches of the Department during the years of the war, and records
some achievements despite the many difficulties encountered through the abnormal
conditions then existing. — Acting Editor.]

Sheep and Wool.

This division is cliarged with the eradication of scab, the promo-
tion of sheep and goat industries by advising- upon the grading and
management of sheep and goats, and the preparation and marketing
of wool and mohair.

During the year 1914-15 operations against scab received a severe
set-back. The rebellion and the campaign in West Africa caused the
absence of over 100 sheep inspectors, and, in addition, excessive rains
in the northern Provinces brought on serious outbreaks of various
diseases amongst sheep, so that dipping operations were impeded in
many parts. At this time, also, the regulations regarding scab were
made more stringent, and power was given to proclaim as protected
any area free from scab, and no small stock could be moved into such
area unless at prescribed times and places.

This year saw on the whole a reduction as compared with the
previous year in the quality and value of exported wool. Shortly
after the outbreak of war the market for wool was dislocated and
prices for merino woo] dropped to a low figure, the demand being
chiefly for cross-bred wool (suitable for soldiers' uniforms), which is
not largely grown in South Africa. The world's supply of this class
of wool, 'lowever, apparently could not meet the demand, and merino
wool had to some extent to be brought into use. Arrangements were
also made with the British Government for supplying the American
market. is a consequence the demand for merino wool increased
rapidly and prices recovered correspondingly from the low prices
which ruled at the end of 1914.

In 1915-16 the absence of several officers on military duties was
a considerr^ble handicap, while the old trouble continued of areas
controlled by many individual sheep inspectors being too large for
one man to do justice to. Then, also, the rebellion referred to above
rendered it impossible to control movements of infected stock over a
wide area of the Union.

Owing to disorganization no statistics could be collected in 1914
regarding the extent of infection of scab in sheep, but during that
year, as already stated, there was a large increase in the number of
infected sheep. In 1915, however, the position was considerably
improved, as the new conditions regarding staff, etc., were being-
coped with, but the set-back was not made good, the percentage of
infected flocks at the end of 1915 being 1.43 as compared with 0.99 in
1913. The numbers oi sheep and goats were seriously depleted, due
principally to drought in 1915, which was estimated tO have accounted

272 Journal of the Department oe Agriculture.

for tliree million head, of wliicli two and a half million were lost in
the Cape Province. The number of sheep and goats showed a great
reduction during the two years, being 47,214,000 in 1913 and
40,352,000 in 1915. Although the flocks showed a falling off in
numbers, the quality of our sheep and wool continued to improve, and
much was done by the sheep and wool experts in attaining this
progress. Classing flocks, establishing studs, selecting rams,
inspecting sheep for the Stud Book, lecturing, demonstrat-
ing, judging at shows, and generally advising and assisting
farmers with their sheej) and wool were all matters which engrossed
their attention. At this time began the rise in the price of wool,
which was later to reach such undieamed of heights, and the great
loss of stock from drougdit referred to above was thus accentuated by
the high prices realized for wool and mohair. At the end of 1916
greasy wool fetched from Is. Id. to Is. Qhd. per lb. for superior
quality, from lOd. to Is. 3d. for average quality, and from 7d. to lid.
for inferior quality, while mohair realized at the same time 14d. to
18|-d. per lb.

The set-back in the campaign against scab owing to the causes
mentioned above was entirely overcome in 1916-17, the percentage of
infected flocks at the end of 1916 being .81 as compared with 1.43 in
1915 and .99 in 1913. Improvement continued also in the farming
of woolled sheep, and further stimulus was given by the high prices
which prevailed for wool and mutton. Large sales of stud sheep were
held at which high prices were realized, both for imported and home-
bred sheep. The price of wool continued its upward course, merino
greasy wool lieing sold at from lOid. to Is. lid. per lb, at the coast,
and from lid. to 2s. 4d. per lb. in London, towards the close of
1916. At this time also the importation of mutton was a thing of the
past, thus foreshadowing a future export trade in mutton, which, in
addition to wool, is such a great feature in sheep countries like
Australia, New Zealand, and the Argentine.

During- 1917-18 the position regarding scab infection continued to
Improve, the percentage of infected flocks at the end of 1917 being
.36 as compared witli .81 the year before. This improvement was.
noticeable also in the condition of the sheej) arriving at the abattoirs.
The policy of selecting areas free from scab (and large enough to
warrant the necessary precautions without unduly hampering rhe
movement of sheep), protecting them from reinfection, and increasing
them by the addition of adjoining areas as they become clean, was
continued with satisfactory results, and but for lack of staff its
application would have been more extensive.

Although the preparation of wool for the market was better than
in earlier years, serious complaints were made of false packing, a
practice which should be vigorously suppressed ; the shortage of
freight also emphasized the necessity for the proper pressing of bales.
It was estimated that South African wool occupied 50 per cent, more
cargo space than Australian wool. The wool clip was a good one and
wool never reached so high a figure before. The shortage of freight,
however, resulted in a large accumulation of wool at the coast, with
the consequent danger of damage by moth and other agencies. The
matter was represented to the Imperial Government, who confirmed
the position regarding freight shortage and offered to purchase the
whole of the clip, delivered at the ports, at 55 per cent, above the price

The Department op Agriculture during the War. 273

paid for wool ew warehouse diuiug- the year previous to the outbreak
of war, plus half the profit, if any, realized by the sale of wool not
required for the use of the British Government or its allies, which it
was estimated would be about half the wool, these beino- the terms on
which the Australian and Ngav Zealand wool clips were bought. A
conference of leading- farmers and wool buyers and merchants was
held at Pretoria to consider this offer, and as an outcome the Imperial
Government withdrew their orig-inal scheme in favour of one agreeing
to purchase any wool offered within thirty days, the wool to be
delivered at warehouse at the ports and paid for after valuation.
Under this arrangement about one-third of the wool clip was sold, but
at that time, contrary to expectations, freight to the United States of
America and Japan became available, and the better class wools were
purchased freely on behalf of those countries at about 4d. per lb.
above the price obtained under the Government scheme. This was
represented to the Imperial Government, who consented to the with-
drawal of wool already registered under their scheme by any one
desirous of doing so, and this relaxation was availed of to the extent
of 59.597 bales. Thanks, therefore, to the offer of the Imperial
Government and the unexpected buying- on behalf of the United States
of American and Japan, the problem of the accumulated stocks was
solved .

The Sheep Division strives to eradicate scab. Much good work
is done in this direction and infection has been reduced to small pro-
portions, but comment is often made on the continued presence of the
trouble and the failure to eradicate it entirely and permanently. It
must lie realized, however, that there are few, if any, countries in the
world in which the disease is more difficult to cope with than South
Africa. The vastness of the country, rendering supervision and
control arduous and difficult, scarcity of water, recurring periods of
droug'ht and the consequent trekking of sheep, kraaling of sheep for
protection against jackals and other vermin, are serious obstacles to
contend with. Then, also, large numbers of non-woolled sheep and
g'oats harbour scab, and the disease does not cause the same measure of
loss in the value of their produce as would occur in that of woolled
sheep ; the former class of sheep is largely owned by backward
fanners, and it is obvious that, lacking the same incentive to cleanse
as impels the owner of the woolled sheep, the menace of scab will
continue in such quarters until the danger can adequately be coped
with. The matter is complicated by the large number of natives
scattered throughout the country who almost invariably have grazing
around their kraals a few non-woolled sheep and goats, which are a
further source of scab. Thus it is that while in parts of the country
occupied by progressive farmers with the necessary facilities for
dealing- with the disease, scab has been entirely eradicated, there are
parts where it still prevails, and the danger of the reinfection of clean
areas continues and has to be guarded against. Consequently
complete eradication, if ever accomplished, will be a lengthy business,
but there are good prospects of speedy control in the chief wool-
producing areas and a gradual improvement in others. The erection
of dipping tanks, the extension of fencing, the decrease of trekking hy
road and conveyance of slieep by rail, and the destruction of vermin
are all helping to reduce scab. Above all, the evergrowing interest
in sheep and wool by progressive farmers who, determined to kee]i

274 Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

their flocks clean, will demand equal care Ironi their neig'hbours in
the cleansing" of flocks, will lead eventually to the almost complete
absence of scab in the country. In tlie meantime the carrying' out of
the laws framed with this end in view must be continued. Any
relaxation may lead to a serious set-back as witnessed during 1914-15,
when circumstances necessitated the absence of a number of sheep
inspectors. On the other hand, efficiency and economy call for a
strengthening of the numbers detailed to combat the disease, for, in
addition to the advantages the farmer will derive by a speedy control
of scab, an increased expenditure for a short period w^ould be cheaper
in the long run than the present heavy expendituie indefinitely.

Veteeinary Eese.\rch.

The Union possesses one of the largest and best equipped institu-
tions in the world for investigating diseases of animals peculiar to
warm countries, and results of the greatest value both from scientific
and practical points of view have been obtained from it.

During the war the institute had to work under the greatest
difliculties owing to the absence of ofiicers on active service, shortage
of stores, etc., but on the whole it carried out successfully its func-
tions under the most adverse conditions that have existed in the
history of the division.

It was of paramount importance to maintain the routine activities
of the division, and the extent to which this was done will be recog-
nized when it is mentioned that from the 1st April, 1914, to the 31st
March, 1918, there were prepared and distributed the following
numbers of doses: Blue-tongue vaccine, 6,019,974; redwater and gall-
sickness vaccine, 56,823; anthrax vaccine, 1,796,260; black-quarter
vaccine, 919,386; mallein (issued to Defence Department), 40,000;
tuberculin (approximate number imported and distributed), 28,000;
and vaccine lymph (1914-15 only, since when in hands of medical
authorities), 412,693.

In addition, 73,099 microscopical and pathological anatomical
specimens were examined, 2818 mules inoculated against horse-
sickness (2 per cent, died), agglutination tests for contagious abortion
conducted, while a number of reports and papers were published and
lectures delivered. The quantity of correspondence dealt with was
large, the number of letters and telegrams received and dispatched
amounting to 250,856.

As much time as possible was devoted during 1914-15 to research
and investigations into the many problems facing the stockowner,
among others being an investigation on the spot of the disease of
Nagana (Trypanosomiasis), which was spreading in Zululand, and
certain recommendations made (1915-16) for preventing its spread
by localizing game, the agency by which the disease was spread.
Experiments were continued in regard to protective inocula-
tion against horse-sickness, and extensive experiments in
dipping as a preventive of the disease were also under consideration.
During the year Professor Hediuger, of Basle University, who was
specially engaged to investigate the cause of gallamziekte, advanced
a theory regarding the presence of " Sarcosporidia," which, however,
was eventually found not to be the cause of the disease, and a further
series of experiments was undertaken by Sir Arnold Theiler and Mr.
P. R. Yiljoen.

The Department of Agriculture during the War. 275

In J915-16 there were tliree laboratories — Onderstep'* irt,
Grahamstown, and Allerton — and two field stations, one near Yryburg,
Cape, and the other in the Orange Free State, the three chief subjects
of research being gallaniziekte in cattle, horse-sickness, and wire-
worm in sheep. Dr. Heding-er's theory in regard to the cause of gal-
lamziekte being abandoned. Sir Arnold Theiler continued investigations
into the disease based on his original grass toxin theory. The work
in connection with horse-sickness progTessed favourably and reached a
stage promising the discovery ot a method conveying a high degree
of immunity with small risk of loss ; experiments in ascertaining
whether protection could be obtained by dipping wer^ also undertaken
at Onderstepoort and batches of horses were dipped at intervals of
tliree, five, and seven days in arsenite of soda, to which in some cases
was added a film of paraffin oil, fish, oil, etc. The results showed
that, although absolute protection could not be given, a satisfactory
percentage of horses that had been dipped at short intervals survived
natural infection. The life-history of wire-worm in sheep was
investigated further and the results published. Attention was given
to many other diseases (as detailed m the Annual Report of the
Director), all of which are of importance to the country.

The division was greatly handicapped in 1916-17 by the absence
of several members of the staff on active service, and in addition a
heavy tax on its time was imposed by a large increase in routine work,
diagnosing diseases, manutacturing preventives or remedies, but
despite these duties a number of investigations were undertaken which
have materially increased our knowledge of several diseases. Experi-
ments were continued into the cause of horse-sickness, 2859
horses being inoculated, but the practice was not perfected. On the
other hand, a safe and simple remedy for wire-worm and tape-worm
in sheep and lambs was discovered. Investigations into gallamziekte
were continued, but no definite conclusions regarding the character
of the disease were arrived at. In co-operation with the Division of
Botany it was discovered that jagziekte in horses and geeldikkop in
sheep are due to eating particular plants. Many other researches
were carried out in regard to diseases in horses, cattle, sheep, and
ostriches

During 1917-18 the inoculation of sheep for blue-tongue, introduced
by the division some years previously, was largely practised, and the
newly discovered remedy for wire-worm and tape-worm in sheep was
also very popular; and there is no doubt that the use of the two was
instrumental in saving the lives and improving the condition of
millions of sheep. This call for its services is a tribute to the use-
fulness of the division and indicates the greater attention now being
given to live stock. Experiments in the inoculation of horses against
horse-sickness gave better results than anticipated, but an unfortunate
outbreak of staggers hampered this work. Research concerning 1am-
ziekte in cattle was retarded through various causes. It was not
prevalent that year, and laboratory accommodation was limited. The
latter difficulty was removed, however, in 1918, when the investiga-
tions thus rendered possible led to the conclusion that the disease was
due to an intoxication with the poison that originates in putrid
substances, and is mostly found in remains of carcasses of animals of
any description, and that the primary condition for contraction of
lamziekte is an abnormal craving. This abnormal craving is brought
about by the condition of the pasture which varies at different times

276 Journal of the Department of A(4Riculture.

of the year. The disease is the result of two ditferent conditions/ one
intimately connected with the pasture and leading to abnormal craving,
and the other the intoxication with the toxin that is contained in
putrid material. Horse-sickness, pernicious anaemia, slapziekte, jag-
ziekte, and dunziekte in horses; anthrax, imapunga (black lung),
contagious abortion, and stijfziekte in cattle ; geeldikkop, scab, wire-
worm, and gouwziekte in sheep ; chick disease and worms in ostriches ;
were all subjects for research during the year, and details of the
results are published in the Annual Report of the Director.

DaIB YIN(! .

In June, 1914, the Superintendent of Dairying completed an
extensive tour of Australia and jN^ew Zealand, and his report contains
valuable information regarding the exportation of dairy production
and other matters affecting the industry. During that year (1914-15)
two experiments in the shipment of cream and butter were made, and
one of these consignments was reported on as unsurpassed by butter
from any other British Dominion.

There were fifty-two creameries, seventy cheese factories, and
about ninety-seven clieeseries in the Union in 1915-16, and the pro-
duction of butter and cheese made satisfactory progress, pointing to
a rapid development of the industry and the near approach of an
export trade. Small test shipments demonstrated the fact that South
African creamery butter would be favourably received on the English
market. Very high prices, ranging from Is. 6d. to Is. lOd. per lb.,
were paid for butter-fat during the season.

During the year 1916-17 the development of dairying went on
apace and the importations of butter and cheese, so considerable in
earlier years, were reduced to small dimensions, and, moreove]', the
year was an epoch-making one in the history of South African
dairying, for it witnessed the beginning of the export trade in butter.
Evidence of the growing interest of farmers in the industry was shown
in the numerous requests for assistance received by the Dairying Divi-
sion, whose officers were kept exceedingly busy iu giving' advice by
letter and in person, as well as in giving- lectures and demonstrations
and judging at shows, etc. The best of the butter and cheese sent to
England during the year was very favourably reported on and realized
as much as the best Canadian and New Zealand buttor, but a good
deal of it lacked uniformity and quality.

The year 1917-18 saw further strides in the imlustiy. Greater
quantities of butter than formerly were exported, and the imports fell
to a negligible figure. Not only was the production of butter and
cheese sufficient for our own requirements, but a considerable surplus
of butter and a small surplus of cheese were exported, for which,
owing to the needs of the British Government, an excellent market
was obtained. The growth of cheese-niitking in particular was
remarkable, the number of cheese factories increasing from the few
not many years previously to no less than 120. During* the year a
Cheese Grader and Instructor for Ea.st Griqualand was appointed (and
not long after cheese from this part of the Union obtained first and
second prizes in competition with the produce of other British
Dominions at the Islington Show, 1919), and a milk record scheme was
instituted by the Friesland Cattle Breeders' Association (the milk
records being supervised and controlled by this division), which will

The Department op Agriculture during the War. 277

be of great assistance to the breed and to dairying generally, and was
welcome as an indication of a disposition towards self-belp on the part
of the farmer. The year was an important one also in regard to
legislation, a Bill being presented to Parliament and eventually
passed (Dairy Industry Act, 1918) providing comprehensive and up-to-
date legislation on dairying matters, particularly the production and
grading' of butter and cheese for export.

Thus during the stress of the world war dairying made excellent
progress in South Africa. Nevertheless, as pointed out by the Super-
intendent of the Dairying Division, much remains to be done before
the industry will be placed on a thoroughly sound basis and be inde-
pendent of the stimulus afforded by the high prices caused by the war.
Although the improvement in dairy cattle has been remarkable, and
the management of stock, collecting- and transport of milk and cream,
and making of ])utter and cheese have shown such gratifying progress,
much scientific investigation is still necessary to enable us to keep
abreast of the times and solve some of the many problems confronting
the industry.

(This review will be continued in subsequent issues of the
J ournal.)

Pig Production.

• A prominent produce merchant of London visited the Union recently
to ascertain its business possibilities, and in reviewing the impressions
of his visit, refers to oui' wide scope for increasing production in pigs,
which, lie saj's, only wants impetus given to it by farmers generally.
As an illustration, he cites the case of Denmark (a small country in
comparison with ours) which in normal times killed from 45,000 to
60,000 pigs per week, for M'hicli there is a ready market in
England. Commenting on the pig as a " rent producer "
and its immunity from certain of the drawbacks attending
crop production, he states: "If fi-rmers went in largely
for pigs they would of necessity keep sufficient stock of
food to provide for droughts, and, further, the pig would not be
affected by hailstorms, as it instinctively makes for shelter." It has
been proved that we can produce suitable bacon hogs for the oversea
market. There was no better bacon in London during September and
October last than some from the Union, although, he points out, the
produce of some of our factories, while of fairly good quality, was
of entirely unsuitable cuts for the English market. " The Wiltshire
cut," he adds, " is the only form of cut tliat appeals to the English
trader — that is, the entire side, and it is further important that it
should be made widely known to bacon curers that a side of bacon
should weigh from 56 lb. to 75 or 80 lb. for export. Anything smaller
than 56 lb. does not produce good bacon. It becomes much too salt
and hard in the process of curing."

The Jounuil is llie Department's medium of making known its
activities. It contains information of value to every 'farmer in the
Union. Keep it for reference.

278

Journal op the Department of Aoriculture.

CATTLE IN THE UNION.

The Trade in Beef.

In view of the importance of our cattle iiuUistry and tlie place it is
expected to take as a source of the world's meat supply, the following
statistics will be of interest to all concerned in the development of
the industry.

The number of cattle in the Union and the increase of
our herds during" the past fourteen years may be gauged from the
following table: —

Number of Cattle in Each Province.

Year.

Cape of
Good Hope.

Natal.

Transvaal.

Orange
Free State.

Union.

1904 (General Census)

1911 „ „

1918 (Census of Agriculture) ...

1. '154. 390
2.71.5.330
2.410,934

666.903

456.087
977,252

515,956
1.339,298
1,888.413

363,204
1,286,234
1,575,295

3,500,453
5,796,949
6,851.924

Thus the number of live stock in the Union in 1918 was nearly double
(96 per cent, more) what it was in 1904 (when herds were depleted
after the Anglo-Boer war) and 18 per cent, greater than it was seven
years ago.

Deaths of Cattle. — The following table shows the mortality
among cattle during the two Census years 1910-11 and 1917-18 owing
to disease and drought, also the percentage of deaths compared with
the total number of stock : —

Year.

From Disease,

From Drought.

Total.

1910-11
1918-19

No.
249,807
219.227

Per Cent.
4-3
3-2

No.
188.066
20,497

Per Cent.
3-2*
0-3

No.
437,873
239,724

Per Cent.
7-5
3-5

The estimated mortality caused by the drought of 1918-19 was
fully dealt with in the May; 1920, issue of the Joxirnal.

Cattle in other Countries. — For purposes of comparing the posi-
tion of the Union with that of the principal cattle countries of the
world the following table is given: —

* Including causes other than drought and disease.

Cattle in the Union.

279

Country.

Year.

Total Number
of Cattle.

Country.

V ear.

Total Number
of Cattle.

India-British

1914-5

128,310.000*

B^ance

1913

14.807,000

India-Native States

191.^ 4

12,236.000*

United Kingdom

1910

11,765,000

United States

1910

61,804,000

)) ;•

1918

12,311,000

„ ,.

1920

68,132,000

Australia

1910

11,745,000

Russia in Europe ...

1914

32.704.000

„

1916

10,459,000

Russia in Asia

1914

17,334,000

Canada

1911

6,533,000

Brazil

1916

28.962. OOOf

»

1918

10,051,000

Argentine

1914

2.5,867,000

Austria

1910

9,159,000

Germany

1913

20,994.000

Hungary

1913

6,045,000

„

1915

20,317,000

Uruguay

1916

7,803,000

France

1910

14,-533.000

Italy

1914

6.646,000

Beef Exporting Countries. — The following is a list of the
principal beef exporting countries of the world during the years
1911-13: —

Beef Exported.

Country.

Average 1911-13.

Other Years.

Argentine...
Australia ...
United States
New Zealand
Denmark ...
China

United Kingdom.
Netherlands
Other Countries .

lb.
940,299,000
301,882,000
213,722,000

80,543,0001

43,485,000t
8,787,000

27,595,000§
.326,176,000§

36,957,000

lb.
1,067,680,000(1917)
307,545.000(1916)
401,923,000(1917)
111,700,000(1914-6 average)

36,961,000(1917)

Total all Couxteies ...

1,979,446,000

Beef Importing Countries. — In comparison with the above it is
found that the countries importing the largest quantities of beef were
as follows : —

Beef Imported
(Average 1911-13).
Lb.

1,413,965,000
256,296,000
212,150,000

— For some time

after the

United Kingdom

Netherlands

Germany

Imports and Exports of the Union.
Anglo-Boer war the country's herds were depleted in numbers, and
the demands for cattle-breeding purposes and transport work were so
considerable that large quantities of frozen meat had to be imported
to supply the requirements of the population, both civilian and
military. The steady progress since made is illustrated by the
following figures, which show that, whereas during the past four
years the imports of beef into the Union were negligible, the

* Including young Buffaloes,
t Including Buffaloes.

I The numbers of cattle in these countries were : New Zealand (1911) 2.020,001),
(1918)2,888,000; Denmark (1917) 2,453,000.

§ These countries also import large quantities as shown below.

26U

Journal of the Departmekt op AoRicULTrRE.

quantities exported (the bulk f^'oing to England and Egypt for
military purposes) assumed large proportions : —

Year.

Imports of Beef

Exports of Beef.

into the Union.

S.A. Produce.

l'J03

9,S,427.2.-,8 11..

1904

57,.582,99y „

—

1913

8.949.7.53 „

121 264 lb.

1914

737.950 ..

- 4 63.76? „

191.-,

16,957 „

.5,971.727 ..

1916

6,969 ..

17.686.121 ,.

1917 ...

5.6S0 ..

47.252.995 „

1918

Nil.

18.656,058 „

1919

Nil.

44,408,861 „

Tlie quantity exi)oited, however, does not represent the Union's
actual surplus, for numbers of cattle are imported into the Union from
adjoining territories as follows: — 19IG, 26,580*; I9I7, 53,410; and
1918, 50,053; an average of 43,348 liead per annum. In 1919 the
number introduced was 57,267.

The class of export meat averaged about 150 lb. per quarter, or
600 lb. per head of cattle. At tliat rate (he quantity of beef exported
during the years 1916-18 would be equivalent to an annual average
supply of 46,442 head of cattle, exclusive of the following quantity
of fresh South African beef exported as ships' .stores: — 1916,
1,574,491 lb.; 1917, 2,744,415 lb.; 1918, 2,470,309 lb.; total,
6,798,215 lb. ; equivalent to 3777 head of cattle j^^r nnnam. In
1919 tliere were sliipped 1,954,319 lb., or 3257 hend of cattle.

Summarized, the trade of 1916-19 was as follows: —

Estimated No. of Live Stock.

Source of Supiily.

Annual Average for Three
Calendar Years 1916-18.

Calendar Year 1919.

Exported. ! Imported.

Exported.

Imported.

Expoit of Heef

Beef as Shi j)s' Stores

Live Animals

From adjoining territories

46.442

3.777
1,180

59 li
43,348

74.01 5 -
3,257 —
1,077 1 60Gt
— j 57,267

51.399

43,942

78,349 57,873

Balance of Exports over Imports

7.457

20,476

The Actual Surplus of Beef. — This summary points, therefore, to
the conclusion that during the three years 1916-18 which herald the
beginning of the Union's meat export trade, the surplus of the
country's produce was comparatively small, being approximately at
the rate of 7457 head of cattle or 4,474,200 lb. of beef per annum.
In 1919, however, notwithstanding the prevalence of a .severe drought,
there was a surplus of some 20,476 head of cattle, equivalent to
12,285,600 lb. of beef, a marked increase on the average of the prior
three years.

Ist .luly to-31st December only.

t From 0\('rs".as onlv.

Experiments and Investigations. 281

EXPERIMENTS AND INVESTIGATIONS.

Work at the Schools of Agriculture and Experiment
Stations and Sub-Stations.

[Note. — In last month's issue the work in hand at Cedara and at Winkelspruil, Natal,
was reviewed. — ACTING Editor.]

III.— AT GEOOTFONTEIN, MIDDELBURG, CAPE.

(a) xIgricultural, Section.

Cereals. — The principal experimeuts in the above sectiou are cou-
nected with cereals, chiefly wheat. Several hundred varieties, selec-
tions, and cross-breds are being tested, and, where found suitable, are
issued to co-operative farmers.

About 100 of the best varieties are kept pure, a true to type
selected ear from each being sown each season. Some 360 selections
from cross-breds, importations from other countries, and from crops,
are also under test. Eighty varieties were received from overseas,
some of which are nevr cross-breds. Eighty-three varieties that have
been, and still are. showing good qualities are being increased for
purpose of distribution to farmers. One hundred and ten varieties
were sown in September to test resistance to rust. Forty varieties are
undergoing a " smut " resistance test, and twenty varieties from
coastal areas to note environment effects under Karroo conditions on
colour of chaff and grain.

Seventeen varieties of oats and eleven oi barley are being grown
as pure lines, and two varieties each of rye and emmer to increase seed
supply.

Lucerne. — Eight varieties are being tested for drought resistance,
one variety in an inoculation test, and eight new varieties have been
received from America and are now producing seed for increased area.

A variety (Chinese) is being allowed to seed for distribution, as
it has shown splendid frost and drought resistance, also an increased
area is being sown for production of seed.

Spi?ieless Cactus. — Thirty varieties are being grown, some of
which are giving good results ; about 100 selected leaves showing'
variation in growtli and freedom from spines and fruit are now grow-
ing in nursery plots. During season 1919, 8500 leaves were sold.

Other Experiments. — Twelve grasses, thirty-six millets, and kaffir
corn, beans, peas, vetches, mealies, mangolds, linseed, etc., are being
tested, also foi^r commercial fertilizers on Algerian oats, and a sheep-
feeding experiment (grazing) of about twelve acres, consisting of
wheats, oats, barle3^ emmer, rye, rape, and kale.

282 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Seed Distribution. — One hundred and twenty-eig-ht lots of seed,
amounting- to 2750 lb. in weight, were issued to thirty-nine farmers in
twenty districts on the co-operative principle ; this allows farmers
to make tests suitable to their local conditions.

(h) Poultry Section.

Fattening 'Tests. — The object of these tests is to collect data as
to the most suitable foods, also the most profitable breeds for table
birds, and to prove to breeders that it pays to fatten poultry for table
purposes.

Incubation. — Tests have been conducted with the object of
determining the most suitable periods during the first twenty-one
days of incubation) of supplying moisture to the eggs.

Laying Tests. — Sixty birds of various breeds are undergoing a
twelve months' test for egg production, the object of this being to find
out the best performers with a view of increasing the egg yield ; birds
are tested in their first year, and the proved producers are used in the
second year for breeding purposes.

(c) HORTICTTLTURAL SECTION.

The following experiments are in progress: —

(1) Various treatments to crab apple seed with a view to

ascertaining best treatment for propagating same.

(2) To ascertain whether crab apples from Yokohama, Japan,
are blight-proof in South Africa.

(3) Almond and peach as a stock for the Karroo.

(4) Quince cuttings and root grafts (quince) for stock purposes.

(5) Old blight-proof sweet apple and Northern Spy as a stock

for apples —

(a) to infest both stocks with blight in the nursery

and to ascertain whether they are absolutely

blight-proof ;
(6) easiest method of propagating above stocks.

(6) Myrobolan seedlings and cuttings for stock production.

(7) Various quantities of gypsum to ascertain the effect in
counteracting deleterious result of sodium carbonate
present in the soil.

(8) Best season and easiest way to propagate Old Man saltbush

(Atriplex numTnularia) . Testing five other varieties of

saltbush for germination and suitability.

(9) Cost, yield, and quality of vegetable seed, carrot, beet,
parsnip, and onion.

(10) Soil treatment to counteract tomato blight.

(11) Propagation of new variety of grape originating as a
sport on the black currant grape vine. The sport is white,
large, and fleshy, contains few seeds, and is probably suit-
able for raisin making.

(12) The breeding of new varieties of apricot to secure a late
blooming variety for this area; the hybrids were, un-
forunately, killed by late frost in October.

Experiments and Investigations. 28:^

{d) Ostrich Section.

Cross-breeding Experiments. — Experiments are being conducted
to find out whether the feathers of the ostrich can be improved by
introducing- the density and strength of the North African feather
into the length, breadth, and shapeliness of that of the South African
bird. For this purpose extensive cross-breeding experiments are
being conducted with North African and South African varieties of
ostrich.

Line-breeding experiments. — An attempt is being made to
ascertain to what extent line-breeding, i.e. (a) the mating together of
brother and sister, and (b) mating of father and daughter, can be
carried on with ostriches without having a detrimental effect on the
constitution of the bird.

The Best Breeding Age. — Experiments to find out whether the
first lot of chicks which a pair of birds produce are superior to those
produced later in life.

Hotv long the same Birds should be Mated together. — ^Experi-
ments are being conducted to ascertain whether the breeding birds
should not be mated differently each year. That is, when breeders
are mated the same way over a considerable period whether the chicks
do not gradually deteriorate in quality.

Number of Feathers in the Wing. — It has been ascertained that
a great variety exists in the numbers of feathers produced in the wings
of different birds. An attempt is being made by mating together
birds with high numbers and others with low numbers, to find out
whether these numbers cannot be relatively increased or decreased in
their progeny.

2'he Pineal Vesicle. — It has been found that a structure similar
to the pineal vesicle found in some reptiles exists in the embryo of the
ostrich. This structure appears for a few days and again disappears
before hatching. Investigations are being made to find out whether
this structure is actually similar to the pineal vesicle or third eye
of reptiles.

Embryology. — Up to the present practically no work has been
done on the embryology of the ostrich. An attempt is now being
made to collect and preserve a complete set of embryos from the start
of incubation to the time of hatching.

(e) Chemical Section.

Soil and water investigations are being continued. Reports
dealing with these will be published in the Journal from time to time.

(/) Zoological Section.

Karakul sheep investigations are still in progress. Reports from
1916 to date are being published in the Journal. Investigation work
to ascertain secondary host of tapeworm in ostriches.

284 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

IV.— IN THE COASTAL AREA.

The following agricultural experiments are directed from the
Grootfontein 'School of Agriculture: —

Uitenhage District. — Varieties of lucerne, grasses, mangolds,
clovers, peas, barleys, rye, and flax = 6^ acres on Sundays River.
Manurial wheat experiment = 2^ acres. Elands River.

Htirtiansdovp District. — Cereals varieties : 57 wheat, 10 oats, 8
barley, 2 rye, 1 emmer.

Manurial experiment with wheat, in all 21 acres.

Hankey Municipality . — Continuation of lucerne experiment, also
beans, maize, mangolds, ground nuts, etc. = 2 acres ; manurial experi-
ment with wheat at farm Orange Grove = 2\ acres.

Uniondale District. — Farm Somerset's Gift, manurial experiment
with wheat = 2^ acres.

Albany District. — At farm Mount Pleasant, manurial experiment
with wheat = 2\ acies.

Note. — Several summer crop experiments will be commenced
throughout this area as soon as rain falls.

v.— AT GLEN. ORANGE FREE STATE.

(«) Aghicultural Section.

The Experimentalist is devoting his attention to the following
points with crops : —

1. Varieties rnost suitable for the various parts of the Orange Free
State. — Special attention is devoted to (a) length of vegetative period,
so that information may be available as to whether the various sorts
will have time to ripen in any special district with short season ; (6)
selection within the varieties; (c) resistance to rust and other plant
diseases; (d) suitability of varieties for poor soil. The results of the
above experiments will give a fair idea of the kind of crop that can be
recommended in various circumstances.

2. Quantity of seed to be sown per acre or morgen. — In this con-
nection consideration will be given to (a) the purpose for which the
crop was planted ; mealies, for example, are planted more thickly for
silage than for grain; (b) the quantity of seed per acre or morgen
with different rainfalls; (c) distance of planting for best result; (d)
quantity of seed necessary under (a) and (b) for irrigated and dry
lands.

3. Fodder crops. — (a) Arrangements for a regular supply of
green food throughout the year; (b) mixed crops, e.g. mealies and
cowpeas, or peas and oats; (c) suitability of crops for grazing,
especially in winter.

4. Time of planting. — The influence that the time of planting has
on the harvest. The time o| the first rain has an important bearing
on this question, also the object whether for seed or fodder.

Experiments and Investigations. 285

5. Rotation. — Importance of rotation in connection with the
following points : (a) Preventing" exhaustion of tbe soil. Tests will
be made in grean manuring-, e.g. the best crops to use for the purpose.
(b) The liest rotation for the various sorts of farms, e.g. a grain farmer
needs a diflferent rotation from a cattle farmer.

6. Manuring Trials. — (a) The best manures to use for the various
farm crops; (h) the quantity necessary for different soils; (c) the
residual effect of various manures.

(h) Poultry Section.

Problems connected with incubation are among the chief occupy-
ing attention at the present time. Experiments are in progress in
determining the cause (and. if possible, tlie remedy) of chicle " dead
in shell." The effects of extra supply of oxygen in the egg-drawer
are lieing tested, and individunl records of Ihe incniiatiori results for a
large number of hens nre being kept to determine whether " dead in
shell " is not either wholly or largely a (|nestion of heieditary weak-
ness in the present stock.

Efforts are being made to determine the sex of chickens at the
time of hatching or within twenty-four hours. Eor some years now
laying strains of Silver ("ampines. White Wyandottes. Speckled
Sussex, and Tjight Sussex aie built up by selection and by testing in
single pens.

(<•) rTiEMisTRY Section.

The time of the i)resent staff is fully occu})ie(l Avith routine work
of analysis of soils and other samples sent in. It is hoped when
proper facilities are provided to commence plot experiments and to
undertake a systematic study of the various kinds of soil in the neigh-
bourhood of the Institution.

(d) Animal Husb.andrt.

The lectuier hopes soon to commence investigation into tlie cost
of production of milk and of pip,"s for bacon.

(e) Economic Kesearcji.

(a) The most paying croj)s; the cost of cultivation and the result
must be carefully compared. This must run over a period of at least
five years in order to have satisfactory records for such crops as
lucerne. (h) The degree to which intensive farming can be carried
out. This will naturally differ with the different crops, distance from
market, etc. The object is simply to determine how much capital
invested one acre or morgen can carry before it ceases to be productive.

(/) Co-operative Experiments.

Close contact with the farmers of each district in connection with
the above points is desirable. Farmers will thus be invited to assist
as much as possible in getting definite and reliable results. For this
purpose seed, etc., will be distributed to any farmer who is willing to
assist.

11

2<S6 Journal of the Department of AGRicTTLTURii;.

INFECTIOUS DIARRHCEA: " BLOEDPENS " IN

LAMBS.

Several requests liaving" been received foi- remedies or i)reA-entives in
cases of infectious diarrlnjea among young- farm stock, the folloAving
notes on the disease are extracted from the AgricvUvraJ Jovrnal of
the Cape of Good Hope {^o. 2, Vol. XXXII) : —

Bloedpens is confined to very young lambs, and has been shown
to be due to an infective organism which enters the system of the young
animal through the navel cord, either during or immedialely :ifter
birth.

The cord w liicli jmsses llirough the navel is made up, among other
matters, of blood vessels, whicdi. in the womb, carry the nutritive
blood from the mother to the f(etus, and the used-up impure blood
from the foetus to the mother. At birth tliis cord is severed, and the
blood flow stopped by ;i clot whicli forms in the vessels. Soon after
separation the end of the cord shri\els, and the aperture through
which it piisses heals u]). The extremity of the cord in the navel dies,
and, under favourable circumstances, itecomes absorbed. Conditions
which fnvour the :(l)sor])tioii of the desul ])art hasten the closing of the
navel so that in ;i healthy, new-born animal Ihere is a iiatural process
to j)revent the entrance oT injurious mattei' through ii. Tt is well
knowji to i)hysiologists and i)a1 hoh)gisis that anything which retards
the natural healing ])rocess favours the growth of microbes (disease
germs) there, and affords a means for llieir entrance into the blood
vessels whicli distribute Iheni thiough the system. — (Professor
Penherthy.)

It will be seen, therefoic, thai anything which cxcicise a (h'bili-
tating influence on the neAvly-])orn animal, such as cold, stormv
weather, a feeble and debilitated condition oF the mother, due to defec-
tive feeding or other unfavourable conditions, previous to himbing,
would tend to retard the healing and closing of the navel, and thus
leave it to a condition favourable to the entrance of infective
f)rganisms. and in this manner predispose the young animal to ])ecome
affected. But. as already remarked, all these adverse surroundings
are merely circumstances which favour the develoi)ment of this com-
I)laint, the originating cause of the disease is a special infective
organism which enters the system of the young animal through tiie
open vessels of the cord either during or immediately after birth.
It is further evident that this affection is contag'ioiis, and may be
introduced into a herd or flock by an affected calf or lamb, and it the
conditions are favourable to its development it may spread through
the herd or flock, affVcting a large proportion of the young soon after
they are dropped.

Treatment. — This should be preventive, principally. Care should
l)e exercised not to introduce an affected lamb into the fold, and
if the disease makes its ajjpearance in the flock the
affected ones witji their mothers should be pr(uni)tly removed from
the others and kept completely separated, having separate veld as

Infectious Diarrhcea : "Bloedpens" in Lambs.

287

well as separate kraals. All the suceeediu<>' laiiii)s slioiild have their
navels cleaned and disinfeeted, and, when dry, painted over M'ith
tincture of iodine as soon after they are dropped as possihle.

The dry surface manure of the kraal should be cleared oi¥ :uul
hurned. All the sheds in which such animals have been placed should
be tlioroug'hly cleaned and disinfected. But if the disease becomes
])revalent, the whole of the pregnant ewes v^liiidi have still to lamb
should be placed in a new kraal, or one in whicii no such cases have
occurred.

Au/s tn T rcdf incitf . — It is very evident that the hnnb's stomach
is weak and uiiabh' 1o digest tlie ordinary (juantity of milk which its
mother supplies, hence the teats of the ewes should be diawn. so as to
limit the amount which the sick lamb can obtain, and in bunbs over
a week old, in addition to the common salt solution lecommended,
give a tablesi)oonful of g'laubei- salts, or bicarbonate of soda, mixed
in a wineg-lassful of wai'm water, and carefully administered.

Plant Nurseries in Quarantine for Pests.

.\o ne\\- (|uaiant iiies on nuiseri'es were applied up to Isl May and
three announccMl under date of lOth Ai)ril (ciOc May Jouiiui], p. 190)
have been withdrawn. The list of quarantines in force on 1st May
is as follows : —

Name of Nurservmaii.

Address.

Cause of
Qna;aniiiie.

Extent of Quarantine.

S. Todil A: Son.s

D. A. English & ( 'o.
F. Grace

P. C. S. (iaylard
Smith Bros. ...

Municipal Nursny

W. H.Oliver ...
.1. Holison iV Co.
Botanic- Gardens

J, H. Laubscher
Municipal Nurserv
W. T. Atwood
C. F. Marais ...

E. Krohn

E. Kroliii

Pietermaritzburg
Berlin, "c. P. ...

Vineyard, Uiten-

hage
St. rioorges Park,

Port Elizabetii
Ea't l.onilou
KiniiwilliauistowM
Graaff-Ueinet

Somerset East ...

Observatory, C.T.

Wellington

Mare Street, Pre-
toria

Esselen Street, Pii -
tori a

l»ed scale

Portion ot' citrus.

All of citrus.
Portion of figs and

p(;ais.

Circular purpl'' Palms.

scale

Kcd scale ... I Whole nu'sriy (ajiii

„ „ ... Portion of citrus.

„ ,, ... ' All citrus.

Woolly aphis ... All apples.

Ued scale ... All citrus and figs.

„ „ ... I All citrus.

„ ,, ... I Whole nursery.

„ „ ... All citrus.

Pernicious scale and Whole nursery.

other pests j

Pernicious scaleaudi Part of nursery : v:

other pests j kinds of plants.

Irs).

])() not lose your copy of the ■JmiiiuiJ. A full index '^ill lie sent
subscribers every six months. The Jouriud will prove a useful book
of reference to every farmer. In time it will be a valuable com-
jiendium of advice and information on farming in South Africa.

288

Journal of the Department of A(iRicuLTURE.

NOTES.

The Friesland Bull " Admiral Beatty."

Frieslands have topped the sale lists in South Africa for some
years, and the Friesland bull, " Admiral Beatty." Reg. No. 987, S.A.
Stud Book, is the most renowned sire of any breed which has ])een
seen in the country. His dam was Foekje XIX, No. 4097, N.R.S..
by Jan, Xo. 3265, F.R.S. This cow was imported by the School (4

^K

91

■

■

M

■

Ht>

H

■

►

^

1

1

If

'4m

^^

^"

■'■' .1

^

■nP'

^j9

^^S

^^tfMiil

►■■

IBjfe 4.

1

1

^^^K

i^^^l

1

1

1

The I Friesland Bull "Admiral Beatty."

Agriculture, Potchefstroom, in 1913, and was then in calf to the bull
Alva VI, Xo. 1144S, N.R.S. The calf was born at Potchefstroom on
13th October, 1913, and was sold in September of the following year
at the Annual Stock Sales to Messrs. Brown & Fleming, Balfour.
This bull has been a winner at many shows, but it is as a sire that
" Admiral Beatty " has proved his great worth and has achieved such
noted success. He was sold in July, 1917, to the Hon. Joseph
Baynes, Xelsrust, for £1000, and two years later was repurchased by
his former owners at the record price of £5000.

Notes.

289

Many of the progeny of " Admiral Beatty " have already been
sold at high prices. The following list shows the principal sales of
his get during the first three yeais in use as a sire: —

Bull.

Nel's Rust Beattv ...£3400

Craigie Elect II.:. ... 2000

„ A'lf 1700

,, Footprint ... 950

Elect I 750

„ Pride II 650

,, Pride I 500

„ Arnold 500

,, Heather 350

Dorando ... 310

Heifer.

Craigie Bess ...
Beatrice
Heike...
Ella ...
Elsie ...
Ziempje
Afke ...
Roosje

£500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500

A son of Craigie Bess, hv Kopjiies Kraal Marthus, was sold at
last September sales for £2000.

International Refrigeration Conference at Paris.

The vast trade in the world's supply of perishable foodstuffs
depends upon the adequate supply of cold storage accommodation.
The subject is a complex and far-reaching one, and one affecting the
well-being^ of many countries, whose interests in the matter are
identical. Accordingly the subject of refrigeration was taken up
internationally in 1908, when the Association Internationale du
Froid, a semi-official organization, was created. This association
performed a useful initial function, but was interrupted by the out-
break of war. In June, 1919, however, at the initiative of the French
(jovernment, the Governments, States, Dominions, and Colonies
entitled to immediate membership in the League of Nations were
invited to participate in an International Conference on Refrigera-
tion for the purpose of creating an international official organization
for the study of questions ou refrigeration in place of the association
formed in 1908. -

The Conference was held in Paris on the 15th, 16th, and 17th
December, 1919. Thirty-eight vStates, Dominions, and Colonies
responded to the invitation of the French Government and sent
delegates to the Conference, at which a scheme was drafted for the
formation of an International Institute of Refrigeration under the
control and authority of a general Conference composed of represen-
tatives nominated by the participating Governments. The principal
objects of the Institute are : —

1. To stimulate investigations into scientific, technical, and
industrial questions of international scope, relating to the
refrigerating industry.

2. To examine measures respecting the best methods of conserva-
tion, transit, and distribution of perishable produce.

3. To publish all information concerning the world's frozen food
situation, compiled from a triple standpoint : origin of production,
circulation, consumption.

290 Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

4. To centralize for the purpose of iiniuediate publication all
technical, economical, and statistical reports and documents rehited
to the production and use of refrigeration.

5. To concentrate, with a view to remedial administrative
measures, all existing- laws ai)d legislative data that in any way
affect international exchanges of produce.

0. To organize International Eefrigeration Congresses.

7. To be in constant communication with adherent professional
and scientific bodies in order to determine the practical value of
their conclusions and adoption.

All (juestions affecting the economic interests, legislation, or
administration of a State are excluded from the activities of the
Institute.

The ahove covers a very wide field, and the realization of the
objects of the pioposed Institute will confer a benefit on all i)eople
whose daily needs depend upon the proper conservation and handling
of i^erishable foodstuffs. The Fnion Govenunent has agreed to
subscribe towards the funds of the Institute and will share in the
benefits which such association will confer.

A Congress to deliberate on and confirm the draft scheiiic will be
held in Paris on the 21st June. 1920, at which duly accredited
rei>resentatives of the various countries concerned are being invited
to be present.

Recruitment of Farm Labour.

The Secretary foi- .Native Affairs draws attention to the constant
and ever-increasing demand for native labour for every class of
employment which makes the position of farmers most difficult, as
geiieially they cannot afford to pay the same wages as emi)loyers of
Jal)our in industrial conccuns. Their efforts to engage labour per-
sonally lesult moie often than not in disa])i)C)intment. whilst the
enii)loyment of labour agents is often too ex})ensive and \insatisfactory
to lie indulged in.

As recruiting ])ersonally or through an individual labour agent
has not heen found satisfactory, two alternatives suggest themselves,
w'A. : —

(a) For the farmers to combine and arrange for some established
recruiting organization to suppl}- their wants. If this is done, it
will be necessary for the farmers to subscribe to stringent reguhitions.
subject to penalties for infringement.

(6) For the farmers to combine and form their own recruiting
organization in competition with the organizations already in the
field. Here again stringent regulations would be necessary.

The Transkeian Territories and the northern Transvial are the
most likely areas in which to recruit farm labour. Whilst Natal and
/uiuland contain birge numbers of natives, experience shows th:it the
])rosj)ects of securing there any appreciable number for f;irm work are
unfavourable.

Laws goveiixing Native Recjruitment.

Farmers are not prohibited by the provisions of Act No. 15 of
l!)ll fiom sending out mitives in their emjdoy to engage natives

Notes. 291

whether orer or under the age of 18 years for eniph)yment in domestic,
agricultural, or general farming' operations, unless the farmer or the
native so sent out is in effect acting- as a laboui' agent or, in the case
(if the native, as a runner.

When a farmer or other person in the course of ohiaining natives
lor his own employment procures natives on l>elialf of another farmer,
hut is not engaged in the lecruitment of natives for profit as an
habitual business or as his trade or calling* he will not, by such
isolated act of recruiting, be deemed to be practising as a labour
agent and to fall within the requirements of the Act.

If. however, a body of farmers or other individuals united undei-
an organization for the jirocuring or supplying of native laboui
actively undeitake i-ecruiting, the agent oi- agents acting on behalf
of such an organization will necessarily come under the provisions of
the law and be required to be licensed. Under the provisions of
Section G of the Act, a licence cannot be issued in the name of such
company, partnership, or association, and such agents are prohibited
from recruiting natives under the age of eighteen years.

As an em])loyer of agricultural lalxmr can recruit natives for his
personal employment, he can exercise this power through the medium
of a servant, whether European or native, and such servant need not
be licensed.

]iy Section 8 (3) of the Act, a labour agent cannot recruit for
more than one employer of native labouiers without the consent of
the Director of Native Laboui-. By the provisions of paragraph (2)
of Government Xotice Xo. 179'». of December. 1912. the magistrate
of the district is vested with the powers conferred on the Director
when the endorsement sought is to recruit for employment in
agricultural or domestic service.

Citrus Export Season, 1920.

The citrus croj) of 1920 is likely to be a light one, but the
quality of the fruit generally will be above the average. A small
crop, combined with a shortage of fruit boxes, will naturally affect
the export trade this season. About 2000 tons i)er mouth of cold
stoi'age space will be available on steamships for carrying the fruit to
tlie oversea market, and as few pines are exj)ected for export, the
space should be sutticient to cope with the trade. It is estimated
that next year some 4000 tons of cold storage accommodation will be
required monthly during the season (four months) for the citrus and
pineapple export trade.

Prize Wine and Brandy.

An analysis was carried out by Mr. St. C. O. Sinclair, Government
Analyst, Capetown, of twenty-five samples of wine and one sample of
brandv, awarded prizes at the Western Province Agricultural Society
Wine'Show. 1919.

292 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

The following are the analytical results: —

Wine.

B

Prize No.
and Description.

Alco-
hol by
Vol."

%

Ex-
tract.

%

Ash.
%

Fixed
Acid.

%

Vol.
Acid
p.m.

Sulphurous
Oxide.

Sul-

CM

o

Total

Free.

phate.*,

as SO.,.

^2;

m p.l.| lu.p.l.

.%

(/ass 1. — Lifht B.y White Wine.

1st. Lion Distillery
2nd. R. Cloete ...

10-82

l-f..T

•If.

•540

• (■) 1 8

lhH-{\

!■>•(;

11-8U

2-0.-.

••I'.i

•71fi

■S7(i

163-2

7^2

•028
•013

C'l/tss ■?. — L'ujht White Wine (xlightLy sweetish ti/jie).

3 2nd. Lion Distillery ...

13-60 ^•46

.29

•393

•(532

Claxx.i. -J) y White Wine {Sherry Type)

\\?^■^^ i:\-\ -031

2nd. Lion Distillery

13-30 2-09

•22 •.'512

S40

Class 6. — Stein.

2nd. Lion Distillery ... j 10-0".

1^.53

•10

.492 -708

Class 7. — Green drape.

I40^.s -.•«

17fi^8 4'

1st. Lion Distillery

lO^CO 1-80

17

•544

•r.72 174-0 i\-0

Ist. Lion Diilillery

Class 8— White French.

10^78 ll •SO -17 1 ..".70 •(;3fi lfi4

(i-4

Class '.>.— Riesling nr San rig noil Blanr.

1st. Lion Distillery

11-20

1-79 I •lo

•559

•606

176^8 5-6

Cliisx lO. — Ai'y other variety of Wine.

9 Ist. Lion Distilkry ... ; 10^71

1-67

16 -519 -708

Class 11.— Light Dry Bed Wme (^Claret Type).

182^4

13

13-60

2-95

•30

•S.'.O

•726

33^6

24-0

14-50

2-18

•25

•507

•618

19^2

12^6

iv:-2i

2^40

•27

• (-.25

..«>58

«6^0

20-4

1st. F. F. Versfeld
2ud. 0. Rathfelder
3rd. High Cmista
Estate

Class 12. — Light Dry Bed Win? (^B.rgvndy Typei.

1st. F. F. Versfeld

13-29

2-72 -30

•551 ^834

30^0

rVr/.v.v 13.- Ueary Bed Wine. {Port Type).

•043

•028

•026

.027

•039

•027

•040
•029
• 03U

22-H -021

8-4

14 Isl. R. Cloete ...

17^20

9^55 -3tM -r'fiS

(\u.^s Z.5.— Hernriti ge {Dry).

•378

15

16
17

lat. O, Rathfelder

1st. O. Rathfelder
2nd. F. F. Yersft Id

13 -50

2-29

•503 -.".58

Cla.^s 16.— Cabernet dr Saurigrum.

26^4 I 15^0

2.^.-2 15-6

•034

•023

12^82
13-60

2^32 i -25
2-62 -29

-600
•508

•588
•798

21-0
30-0

14-4 .034
24-0 -024

Notes.

293

Prize No.
aud Defcoriptioii.

Alco-
hol by
Vol.

%

Ex-
tract.

%

Ash.

%

Fixed
Acid.

%

Vol.
Acid
p.m.

Sulphurous
Oxide.

Total. Frej

tn.p.l. I m p.l.

Sul-
phates,
as SO.,.

%

18

19
20

21
22

23
24

25

Class 18. — Wine made from any otho.r vjriety of Grapi.

1st. U. Kathfeldor ... 13-80 2-55 j -30 1 -568
Class 20.— Light Drij Whifj- Wine.

■612 30-6

21-0

let. Lion Distillery
2nd. Lion Distillery

11-05 1-74
10-70 ; 1-62

-18

•540

1
•774: 199-2

9-0

•15

•556

•fil6 169-2

10-2

Class 21. —Light Dry Bed Wine (Claret Type:)

Isl. 0. Rathfelder ... 13-^0 2-09 i -24 -480 -588 21-0

Reserve. HigL Constant ia 13-10 2-2o ' -28 -607 '576 24-0

!• state I I

Clans 22. — Light Dry Red Wine {liurgundy 'lype)

I

1st. 0. Rathfelder ... 1 13-31 2-25

Reserve. High Conslantia j 1237 2-24

Estate I

( 'la Ks 24. — lied 1 1 7 ne

18-0
18-0

2fi

•545

•4.S8

27-6

18-0

2G

•600

-621

19-8

16-2

1st. A. P. Burger

16-64 118-05

•54

•515

1-260

33-6 1 12-8

•046

•026
•024

•038
•025

-028
-Ool

-034

Brandy.

Class 19. — Pure Wine Brandy.

S'lmnl ' Pi'izc No. and Description.

20 1st— N. Thatcher: —

Proof spirit 105.0 per cent.

Equivalent to 5° O.P.

Sike's hydroineter reading- on original

sample 4.8° O.P.

Absolute alcohol by volume 59.9 per cent.

Extract in grammes per 100 c.c .09

Ash in grammes per 100 c.c .01

In Parts per 100,000 of Absolute Alcohol.

Volatile acids 55.0

Compound ethers 160.1

Higher alcohols 303.9

Aldehydes 17.5

Furfural .42

Total secondary constituents 536.92

Rem.irks.

Samples Nos. 10, 12, 13, and 17 contain free sulphurous oxide in
excess of the limits allowed by Section 2 (e) of Act No. 15 of 1913.
The remaining samples comply with the provisions of the Act.

In the cases of Samples Nos. 2, 4, 19, and 25, the volatile acid
exceeds the limits laid down in the Society's regulations.

294 Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

The Maize Crop of the Union.

It is iuteiestiiig- to compare the position of the' irnion's principal
( ro]» witli the ])roduction of maize in the foiomost maize growing'
countries of the Axorlcl. For this purpose tlie following statistics
are given : —

Total Pre ductioii.

1<)10 ... United States 2,504, 19:^., 825 bu.shels.

1U15 ... Hungary 175,025,170 ..

1916 ... Argentine Republic 156,202,330 .,

1915 ... Rununiia 83,767,793

1915 ... British India ... 79,684,680 ,,

1916 .. Italy 76,326,678 ,,

1916 ... Russia in Europe 69,786,137 ,,

Far I /if 1917-18 .•ii'asan the Unian produced 42,133,633 ,,

In Mexico a very large acreage is put to maize, ranking next
to that of the United States, but poor agricultural methods result
in poor yields. The latest available statistics show that in 1906
Mexico in-oduced 110.005.000 bushels.

The total production of the princii)al nuiize growing cou)itries
of the world is given (U.S.A. Year Book, 1918) at 3.642,103,000
bushels in 1916, the annual average production for 1911-13 being
3,813.408.000 bushels and for 1914-16. 3.873,868.000 buslu'ls.

The 1917-18 maize season in the Union was an unfavourable one,
sowings and the early growth of the crop having been affected by
excessive rains, and it is estimated that the final condition of the
crop Avhich was returned by the Census as being 12,640,0!)0 bags of
200 lb. was 32 per cent, below normal. Therefore, had the season
been nn (jrdinarily favourable one the crop would have yielded
approximately 18,588,000 bags or 61.960,000 bushels of 60 lb.'

Yield per Acre. — The yield i)er acre obtained in tlie T^nion is
\('i>' low in comparison with that obtained in other countries as
the following figures show: —

Yield |HT Acre.

191 (i ... United States 23.63 bushels.

1915 ... Hungary ... 28.26 ,,

1916 ... Argentine Republic 15,73 ,,

1915 ... Eumania 16.09 .,

1915 ... British India 13.12 ,,

1916 ... Italy 19.93 ,,

1916 ... Russia in Europe 19.04 ,,

The return per acre in the Union for 1917-18 was 7.3 ,,

The above leturn per acre of 7.3 bushels is equivalent to 2.2 bags
per acre, but had the season been favourable the full return per acre in
the Union would have been approximately 3.2 bags or 10.7 bushels,
not taking into account the production of native locations, reserves,
etc.

Notes. :2'.)5

Live Stock Mortality in the Union.

An examination ot the Census statistics recently published
furnishes the followino- interesting- aspect of the deaths aniono- the live
stock of the Union duiino- the Census years of 1910-11 and 1917-18: —

Peraenfdfje of deaths in coinparison iritJi the fota] » inn her of

Live Stock.

Class.

Cattle

Sheep

Goats ...

Piffs

Ostriclie.s

Horses. Mules, and Asses

Horses and Mules onlv

Di-aths from Disease.

Total Deaths from
all Causes.

I!tl0-ll.

1917 18.

1010-11.

1917-18.

per cent.

per cent.

per cent.

per cent.

4.3

3.2

* . ;")

3 . :,

1.8

\0.\(a)

12.3

1 .'. . 1

.'.1

V2.\Q,)

s.(;

lo.4

—

—

—

"1.4

11.9

—

20.3

23.1

—

—

3.2

8.3

—

10.3

—

10. ;»

(rt) Exclusive of lambs. (*) Exclusive of kids.

Mouetari) Loss t/uoi/f/h Mortalitj/ in Lire Sf(je/,\ — The folloAvinfj-
lahh' sliows the returns of live stock which died durino' 1917-18, and
an approximate valuation thereof. Tlie latter is considered to he a
soniewliat low valuation tit ordinary prices, and if the hijL^'her prices
n(j\v ciUK'nt were applied the loss would, of cour.se, show a higher
h oil re : —

,,, ,. ^., , Tiital So. of X'aine per ,. , , i. ,

Class ol M(K-i<. ,, ,, ,, Inlal Niiltic.

Peat lis. Head.

Horses and Mules 94,741 £'1'^ 0 0 fl .l:;(J.892

A.s.s(.s 28,f)8;i 4 0 0 94.7:52

Cattle... 2:^9,724 G 0 0 1.4;58.:544

Sheep 2,4G1,300 0 15 0 1.845,975

Lambs 2.064,699 0 6 0 619,410

Goi.ts 726,689 0 10 0 863,845

Kids 510,209 0 4 0 102,042

rio>s 56,658 1 0 0 56,658

Ostriches 72.716 2 0 0 145.482

Tot:il £5,802.880

Thus, of the total estimated value of live stock lost during- 1917-18.
sheej) and floats contributed 50 j)er cent; ctittle, 25 per cent. ; horses.
mules, and as.ses, 21 per cent.; o.striches, 8 per cent: and pig's, 1 per
cent. : total, 100 per cent.

An estimate ot the loss of live stock owing' to the severe drought of
1918-19 is published in the Any, 1920. issue of the Journal,

296 Journal of the Department of Agriculture,

The World's Wheat Crop of 1919-20.

The latest International Crop Report from Rome (March, 1920)
shows that the wheat crop of 1919-20 in the Southern Hemisphere is
estimated to be 3 per cent, less than the previous season, and about
the same shortag"e compared with the average crop of the previous five
seasons. The severe droug-ht which visited Australia is reflected in
the fact that the wheat crop there was about 46 per cent, less than in
1918-19 and 62 per cent, less than the averapfe (-rop of the prior five
seasons. The situation was saved, however, by a crop in Arg-entina
far above the average. 16 per cent, more wheat being obtained than in
1918-19, and 43 per cent, more than tlie average crop of the five years
1913-14 to 1917-18. The 1919-20 Argentina crop is estimated at
58,280,000 quintals (220 lb.) and the Australian one 11,975,000 quin
tals. The Union's crop Mas estimated at 1,804,400 quintals.

The vast bulk of tlie world's wheat is produced in the Northern
Hemisphere, and, basing calculations on the statistics published liy
the International Institute of Agriculture for tbe five wheat seasons
of 1913-14 to 1917-18, the total annual crop of the world may be placed
approximately as follows: —

Northern Hemisphere 1 .010,000,000 quintals.

Southern Hemisphere 83,000,000

World's total ... 1,093,000,000 .. (220 lb.)

The world's wheat croj) of 1919-20 is estimated to be about 3.5
per cent, smaller than tbe above average crop and 6.2 per cent, less
than the crop of 1918-19.

The Great Advance in Wool Prices.

The breeding of wooUed sheep is the oldest and most important
of the Union's agricultural and pastoral industries, and the
unprecedented prices obtained during the past year, due chiefly to
conditions set up by the war. will mark an epoch in the history of
the industry in South Africa.

A review of the trend of prices between 1913 and 1919 at the
four principal wool exporting ports, Durban, Port Elizabeth, Mossel
Baj'-, and East London, shows that there was little difference in the
average prices obtained at tliese markets. In each of the four
centres the price of wool gradually advanced from 1913 to September,
1919, and then between September and December jumped 100 per
cent. In Durban the average price advanced from 7d. in
1913 to 30d. in September, 1919. In Port Elizabeth the advance
was 7fd. to 22d.; in East London and also Mossel Bay from 7id. to
28d. Then, on to December, 1919, the price of wool throughotlt
the Um'on beat all previous records. For some clips extra-
ordinarily high pi-ices were obtained ; in Durban 60d. per lb. was.
touched, in Port Elizabeth 85§d. (the Union's record — for a clip of
Mr. J. S. Minnaar), in East London 76d., and in Mossel Bay 64^d.,
the average during these months being about 45d. per lb.

Notes. 297

In these averages the values of the fleece wool only have been
taken into account and the prices of pieces, locks, and bellies omitted.

The following table gives the highest and average prices per lb.
at each port for the years 1913 to 1919 : —

Vkar.

Durban.

Port
Elizabeth.

East

London.

MOSSKT.

Hay.

Highest.

Average.

Highest.

Average.

Highest.

Average.

Highest. A

verag(\

d.

d.

d.

(1.

d.

d.

d.

d.

1913 ...

... 12

T

12

"^3

12

8f

—

11

1914 ...

... 13

10

11

7f

10

8

—

9

1915 ...

... 15

12

m

^

14

9i-

—

m

1916 ...

... 25

19

25i

lOf

26^.

19

—

19

1917 ...

... 32

24

29

151

30

20i

—

24

1918 ...

... 29

21

31

17f

30

21

2^

22

1919 ...

.. 60

30

85i

22

76

28

64i

39

The average price over the Union in 1913 was 8|d. per lb. In

1918 it was 20^d. per lb. Thus in five years wool had advanced 141
per cent, in value. Then in September, 1919, there was a sudden
rise of about 100 per cent, on the 1918 values, and at the close of

1919 wool fetched between 240 per cent, n^^^\ 250 per cent, more than
in 1913.

Taking the total quantity of grease wool exported during the

past ten years, we find that the average value for customs purposes
was as follows : —

1910 7.30d. per lb. 1915 7.07d. per lb.

1911 6.79d. per lb. 1916 10.64d. per lb.

1912 6.88d. per lb. 1917 15.84d. per lb.

1913 7.54d. per lb. 1918 16.48d. per lb.

1914 7.23d. per lb. 1919 19.63d. per lb.

While the great advance in the value of wool was due to the
war, prices were also influenced by the marked improvement in the
quality of wool which South Africa has been producing during the
last few years. A gradual improvement has been taking place for
the last fifteen years, but it has become especially marked in recent
years, and the present high value of wool should act as a stimulus
to farmers in the continued improvement of theii produce, so that the
wool of South Africti may at no distant date be equal to that of any
(ountrv.

We advise you to get each copy of the Journal and to keep it.
A full index will be sent every six months to each subscriber.
Experience proves the Jovinal to be a useful book of reference. It
will be so in the future. Every farmer is asked to get the Journal
and not to lose it. It is likely that some day, in answer to an inquiry,
you may be referred to an article in the Journal. Keep your Journal !

2W .lOURNAIi OP THE DEPARTMENT OF A(; 1{ H TLTURE.

THE POULTRY YARD MONTH BY MONTH.

Hy .1. .) . JoitDAAN, Lfctuicr ;iii<l Iiisti-uctoi in I'oultiv, (;i('ii. Otiiii^c Vn-o Sliitf

June.

Fi'idiiitj.

Good ciiciiliition is essential to good healtli ; tlierefore j)rovide exercise
liy digging all grain food into the ground 8 to 12 inehes de(>]i. Tlivowing it into
ciiaff, leaves, etc.. is not severe enough.

A good plan is to have a place dug. say, 6 feet .square for the pnipose.

The feeding of the bleeding l)irds shoidd he of the hest and closely studied.
Avoid warm mashes and all forcing foods. Good, sound, hard grain is hest.

Green food, grit, and oyster shell or lime should be pi'ovided ad lib. If gi'e^en
food is scarce or unobtainable, oats, barley, mealies, kaftir corn, or any other
availal)le grain should be sjjrouted ; the feeding values aie excellent, and green
lood is essential to fertility. Cabbage, lettuce, barley, mangel wurzel. oi- dry
lucerne hay soaked oveinight ii; warm water are all good. To .sprout grain,
take as much as is required for a day. put it into a grain 1)ag, tie fast and
place in a l)ncket of water (warm is best) until saturated, and then place in a
dark coiner and keep moist and covered with old bags, etc. In a week or ten
days, according to the weathei-, it will be fit for use. In feeding just throw the
tangled nia.ss of growth to the biids. they will soon shred it.

/'>(/(/ Frodactioit.

Laying l)ii(ls for table-egg |)r()duction must have Ntimulaling food. (See
last month's iu)tes and formula.)

Jireeding I'ms.

In the l)rtM'ding i)cn do not l>r lem[)ted into giving the male liird more Iumis
than will ensure strong fertility.

Shiiiriiifj.

The show sea.son is now at its height; be sure to atleiul at least one of the
leading show.s — the information to be gathered there is invaluable. If you are
not clear upon any point, look up the .judge and ask him; especially get him
to explain that class in which yon are interested or of which you are a breeder.

It is also wise to i'xhii)it some birds of your own breeding to compare your
stock with those of other l)reeders.

In sending your birds to the show see that the coop is well made, warm,
aiul roomy. Such a coop lasts longer, and as th(> bird is comfortable whilst
travelling its chances of winning are improved.

Two or three hours before sending the l)ird away, give it a pill the size
of, say, a walnut, consisting of equal parts ground chalk and ginger; it will
then be less likely to get sick or catch cold.

In replacing birds in the pens on their return from shows, do so at night ;
they are not so likely to fight.

A little Douglas Mixture in the drinking water foi- a day or two after
arrival will assist greatly in getting them over the effects of the travelling
and showing.

Douglas Mixture is made as follows: —

To 1 gallon water add tJ oz. sulphuric acid. ])()mv this on h lb. sidi^hate ol

iron.
AVlien the iron is dissolved and water is cool bottle and store for use.
The iisual do.se is one tablospoonful to each quart of drinking water.
Douglas ATixturc must always be given in enamel or earthenware vessels.

<Mci\eial.

In the coastal districts (excepting Natal) rain and cold weather may be
(>xpected. Scratching sheds must be provided in tliese parts.

In inland districts the birds must be kept warm at night, but not at the
expen.se of ventilation.

A few wheelbarrows full of ground or stable manure on the roof of the
sleeping quarters will go a long way towards adding warmth to them.

All water ves.sels slKuild l)e emptied at night and fresh water given the
birds in tlie morning. Dr'inking water that has been frozen Is liable to set up
bowel trouble.

TuE Vh:(;f/i'.u{lk (Jaudkx. 2i>9

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.

June, 1920.

|{\ II I!. Tiisitv. Cdl. K.II.S., !,(■( tiirc-i in il()rli(iiltuit\ Sclmui oi
A^ric iiltiuc, I'otclict^i I'H'iii.

'I'uK <)pi)nil unity slionM Ix- taken to clca:) iiji ilic \ ctictaMc s«'ctii)ii, <[csiroyin<i
by lire or l)iiiyiii;i r.iiy n'miiaiit> ol picvioiis ciops tliat may afloid sholtcv for
insoct pi'sts. Whik' Lliis is In-int^ tarried on, and hel'ore the soil i,s turned over,
apply iilieialiy any stable or Uraal manure ohtainaMe, ilien, attei- restiii': until
August or Septendjor, it -.vill lie in a condition to receive any croj).

TuKNiJ'S may still be sown tor succession; tlnn out tjie youni4 plants to
about 6 inches apart; use the thinnings as spinach.

Cakkots should be kept \V(>11 \vaterv>d and cultivated; thev will make very
little growth otherwise.

C.\BB.VGK and C.vcliki.owku re(iuire a similar culture, and both croi)^ must
lie watched to see that they do not suffer t'roni drought. The earliest heads
should now be ready to cut. As cauliflowers come on it is as well to break
down a few leaves over the heads to protect them t rom trost.

KoHi. R.\iu is a much neglected vegetable, and only needs to be better
known as an excellent Md)stitute tor turnips to cause it to be more extensively
cidtivated. It will grow where turnii).s have re|)eatedly failed, is easy to
germinate, and quick to mature.

Pk.vs may still lie sown lor spring use it the position is not subjected to
heavy frosts. All existing crops sliould b.- ke])t well \\at(>ied, as a great strain
is upon the plants when the pods a.ie tilling.

Radish may continue to be sown. A good ])lan is to sow this in the same
rows as lettuce; the radish matur(>s early and leaves the lettuce to utilize the
ground as a follow-on croj).

Onions. — Autumn seedlings should be planted out now and not delayed
any longer. Set them (Uit in straight rows, 15 to 18 inches apart. The soil
should be well firmed alter planting, and take care not to jdant deeper than
] inch.

C'ei-kky should now be fvdly developed and available for use. A little dry
grass spread over the plants will jirotect the leaves from fro.st hite ; keep the
plants earthed up and watered to make the stalks crisp.

Lkkks are advancing well and oidy re((uiie a few waterings to maintain
grfwth. Further planting may be made; treat like onions and give rich soil.

Jiuo.vn Hk.\ns should bi> sown to pod during October and November.
Progress above the ground may be slow, but the good root action below will be
made good use of wlien the weather l)ecomes wanner.

Asi'AR.XGUS. — Clean off any old top growths and spread a covering of well-
decayed stable manure over the beds. New crowns should he planted as soon
as possible; the beds should not be raised, but sunk slightly for prefeuence to
facilitate irrigation during dry weather in spring. Set the crowns 4 inches
deep and spread the roots well" out ; 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet between the rows
is required tor cultivation.

Rhuuai?!} of ordir.ary type will also require to be well manured after the
rubbish has been cleaned away from the recent crop. Old ciowns may be
lifted, divided, and replanted it more plants are needed. Winter rhubarb
(Topp's Crimson), if well watered and the .soil kept loose around the plants,
will sr.pply unlimited quantities of this delightful pie-Vv-y,etable throughout the
entire winter season.

;5()i» Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

Shallots aud Garlic— This is the best month for planting; most people
bury the small bnlbs too deeply; this is a mistake, tlie tops of the bulbs should
be just under the surface. Shallots are always needed in the kitchen, and
garlic as well when sauces and other condiments are being made.

Potatoes are best allowed to remain in the ground until required for use.
If lifted for storing let the tubers be placed in a pit and cover them with fine
soil or sand ; if exposed to too much light they turn green and are not fit for
human consumption.

Jeuusalem AuTiCHOKBS are produced under ground similar to potatoes.
They may be dug out now when required, and make a delightful change to the
usual vegetable.

Swiss Chakd, as a substitute for spinach, will continu(> to make plenty
of leaves if given liberal waterings and kept well hoed.

It is hoped that where provision has not been made for the growing of
vegetables on the farm, if only to supply the homestead with a change of
vegetables several times a week, a start will now be made, as the most important
sowing months arc rapidlj' approaching, and if one is prepared the rest is
simple.

SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE ON THE
OVERSEA MARKET.

Extracts from Report of the Acting Trade
Commissioner.

March, 1920.

Moot. — During the March series of auctions about 4600 bales of South
.\fiican free wool were catalogued. It was thought that the keen demand and
high prices paid for Australian merino wools would have improved the market
for South African wools. This was not the case, and during the first week of
the series when some 2600 bales of South African wools were put up for sale the
prices i-ealized showed no change from those which were secured in February last.

^ . I, • Prices Current at
rcljruary oalcs.

i'er lb. Per lb.

Snow white, extra super — none offered — 80d. to 91d.

Snow white, super— par 70d. to 82d. 66d. to 79d.

Snow white, medium — par o8d. to 69d. 56d. to 65d.

Snow white, inferior — par 40d. to 57d. 40d. to 55d.

Grease combing, long — 5 per cent, dearer ... 36d. to 75d. 34d. to 69d.

Grease combing, medium — par 24d. to 35d. 22d. to 33d.

Grease clothing, light — par 23d. to 35d. 23d. to 36d.

Grease clothing, heavy— par 18d. to 22d. 18d. to 22d.

Mohair. — The general trend of the mohair market during the past month
has been very quiet and sales have been restricted to small parcels of fine*
<(Uality hair. Hardly any transaction took place in South African mohair, prices
for which remained nominal.

Hides. — At the auction sales held on the 30th March considerable quantities
of South African hides, mostly from stock previously offered and not of a character
suitable for present trade requirements, were submitted for sale. The demand
was practically negligible, and only a few dry salted kips and calf skins were
sold at a decline of Id. to 2d. per lb. It is hoped that the market Avill improve
after the Easter holidays.

Sheep Skins. — At the March auctions a good selection of Cape skins was
offered. Good combing wools reached a higher level, but long wools declined
Id. to 2d. per lb. Capetown long wool skins fetched 245d. to 29^d; short.
18^d. to 19id. ; shorn, 18d. to 20d. Mossel Bay, extra long wool, 32d. to 34d.
The market at the close of the month was quite firm, both for woolled and
common skins with prices unchanged.

South African Produce on the Oversea Market.

301

Goat Skins. — Public auctions were held on the 11th instant when 154,649
Cape goat and 120,654 Cape angora skins were oflFered, and 34,293 and 11,379
sold respectively.

There was a small trade for goat skins and an improved demand
for angora standard qualities, heavy advanced 2d. per lb., medium Id. per lb.,
light and extra light sold at prices varying from Id. to 2d. per lb. above January
auction prices. "Clipped" advanced 2d. per lb., while "dry damages" were
unchanged on average.

Wattle Bark. — The market price of wattle bark during the past month
declined about £4 per ton, caused to a great extent by heavy shipments of
bark during January and February, and there are now stocks on hand far in
excess of market requirements. The trade considers that it will take a little
time for these stocks to bo absorbed before any increase in present prices may bo
looked for. Prices ruling to-day for chopped are from £18. 5s. to £18. 10s.
per ton. On the other hand, ground bark is at present in small supply, and
the price has been iiiaintained round abovit £19. 15s. to £20. 5s. c.i.f.

Sunflower Seed. — The present London market price of sunflower seed
for feeding purposes is about £60 per ton for small lots. It is recommended
that any shipments should be on a small scale, as any large quantity would
have an adverse effect on the market price.

Ostrich Feathers. — The demand for feathers throughout the past month has
been on the quiet side. The principal inquiry is still for nari'ow wings and
common coloured featheis. The better quality wing feathers have, however, been
sold in limited quantities. The adverse rate of exchange still continues to
restrict the Continental demand.

Tobacco. — Small consignments of South African tobacco continue to reach
the London market, and according to reports I'eceived from the trade, the prices
of Virginian typ" (Rustenlnntr) range from Is. 3d. to 2s. 6d. per lb. according
to the grade.

Cajje Aloes. — There has been a fair demand and prices are firm. Fairly
large supplies have been received from the Union but these are firmly held,
and good firsts are selling privately at 82s. 6d. to 85s. per cwt., whilst anything
below this grade is worth about 75s.

Beef. — Several consignments of South African beef have reached the London
niarki't during the month, and the average prices realized were 6s. 2d. for hind-
quarters and 4s. for forequarters per stone (8 lb.).

DATES OF AGRICULTURAL SHOWS STILL
TO BE HELD.

(As notified 30th April, 1920.)

I'otfliofilrooiii. — 9tlj .luiie.
Kustenbiu^r. — yth .luue.
F'ictershurc:.- KUh and 171 li .Jun

TRANSVAAL PROVINCK.

Barbertoii. — istli .Juuc
Tzaueen. — 9th July.
Nylstrooni.— 2'.ttli and :{(»Hi .Inly.

NATAL PROVINCK.

Newcastle Agricultural Society. — 2nd and
■3rd June.

Vrybeid Agricultural Society. — 8th June.

Dund-e Agricultural Society. — 10th and
11th June.

Klip River Agricultural Society (Lady-
smith"). — l.oth and Ifith June.

Umvoti Agr cultural Society (Greytown). —
16th and 17th June.

Weenen Agricultural Society (Estcourt). —
17th and 18th June.

Koyal Agricultural Society (Maritzburg). —

22nd to 25th June.
Durban and (Joast Agricultural Society

(Durban). -29th June to 2nd July.
Zululand Show Society (Eshowe). — 7th July.
Riclimond Agricul'ural Society. — 11th July.
Dronk Vlei Agricultural Society.— Hth July,
Camperdown Agricultural Society. — 21st

July.
Ixopo Agricultural Society. — 22nd July.

:\02 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

OVERSEA PRICES OF SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE.

April, 1920.

Markkt Pkicks <»i- Sol III Afkican Prodi ci'. ix iiii'; U nitkd KiNtiUOM,

CABLED n\ THE AcTlNG TrADE COMMISSIONER, LoNDON.

Ma>:,'.

Suuth Alricjiii No. 2 Wliile h'lal, offer «ls. e.i.f.

Ca/)fi Ofi/s.

• Rioted ilai'U Lane, 52s. jjur "iiuirter.

Sout/i Afrifiin Wool.

Ai)j)r()xlmately 300(i bales offoreil at auction. .")tli JLiv. Only 'jOO soUl. owing
hi.<,'h limit imposuil. Best greasy combing made u|i to Is. z^(\. per lb. Super
Suow-wliites, 7s. 2(1. per lb. Prices bliovdcc-liii" al>out 10 per cent, compared
with March sales.

Moluiir.

Fine Kid Hair in request. No demaiids for ordinary class hair. Turkey selling
Ironi 2s. 2d. to 2s. (i.l. per lb.

( II III' 1 lilies.

Dry salted. Is. 11. \d. : nominal be>t heavy, 2s. O.Ul.

Il,llis.

Market dull.

S/irep <S7.'/«.v.

Kull-wdolled skins, 2s. ImI. per lb. No deuiaiid> for other class.

(ii/ir A/ii/oni Sh'iiix.

I'lices nominal. Light, 2s. : Heavy, Is. Si\. jicr lb. Market dull.

Anted Wiiftlp. Jiark.

Chopped, Ml'; ground. K\S. lUs. c.i.f. Large stocks here ; lousiness neglected.

Cotton (American future May).

Highest, 2.">-.-)0d. ; lowest. 2:.-10d.

Aloes, Bitter.

Price from 7.)s. to br)s. per cwt.

O.stricli I'latkirs (cabled :)th May).

Auction Lotto lots offereil. Only half so'd. Fair ijuality wings good competition
only declined 10 per cent., but commoti wings 20 per cent, lower, no demand,
short sold badly, except black and drabs, s[)adonas cheaper.

Fruit (cabled 7th May).

••Saxon" shipment, (irapes, suiuewhat wasty : price, 7s . 12s.. up to 20s. Pears
in g(jod condition, .S^., ;»«., u]) to 12s.

Staff : Aimmuntmfxts, Tuansfej'.s, ktc. :UKi

STAFF: APPOINTMENTS, TRANSFERS, ETC.

(1) Aoitu'Ui/i riM>:.

Date. Namk of Okkicial and Natukf. of Chang i:. etc.

1/8/20 Sl)ce|i Inspector F. F. Kolhe : Pronidtcd Senior Sheep Inspector, Xatal. Her
.]. Clieei-c Kmmelt. resi^incd.

2.0/8/20 I!. K. .Mnni,i,'nm(;rv ; liireclui' of Veterinary Itesearcli. transferred to Uganda
Administration.

1/4/20 Senior Veterinaiy Otlieer A. A. (Joudall : Seconded to Sonth-West Africa
Administration.

18/1/20 District Vct(!iinary Surgeon G. McCall, Barberton : Resigned.

S/l/20 Sheep and Wool E.xpert L. H. Visscr : Transferred from Pretoria to Paarl.

(2) A(;i£ICl LTtlKAl, Kducation.

10/4/20 K. G. L. Smith : .Appointed Lecturer in Horticulture, School of Agriculture.
Glen.

1/4/20 H. Cooke, H.S.A.. Lecturer in Agricidturc at Grootfontein School of Agriculture
Appointed .\cting Vice- Principal at same Institution, riifi W.J. Lamont
transfcrreii to Principalship, Elsenl)urg.

1/5/20 K. Parish. B.Sc, \'ice-l*rinci|>al. Glen: Transferred as Technical Assistant to
Head Office.

l/fi/20 G. .J. Bosnian. B.S.A . Itinerant Instructor and Experimentalist. Pot ejiefst room :
Appointed .Voting Vice-Principal. Glen, rice E. Parisli.

81/5/20 M. Lundie, Assistant Chemist. Grootfontein: Resigned to acccjil position under
I'retoria Municijiality in connection with Sewage Works.

MOVEMENTS, ETC.. OF OFFICERS.

ENTO.MOLGCiTCAI. DiVlSloN.

The Chief of the Division of Entomology. Mr. C. P. Louusbury, proceeded to England
by the s.s. "Kinfaims Castle" on 7th May as the Union's official delegate to a conference of
official entomologists of the British Empire, convened at London to discuss problems in
Agricultural Entomology. The meeting will ho liekl under the auspices of the imperial
Bureau of Entomology, an organization sup]iorted by the Union Government in common
with other countries of the Empire. The confcrcDce was originally planned for III] 4 and
was postponed to 1st June of this year owing to the war. While oversea, Mr. Loimsbury
hopes to find time to make observations and inquiries in respect of European natural enemies
of the pustular oak scale, woolly ajihis, and codling-motli, and in connection with these
subjects may visit France and Italy after the <'onrerencc.

Vfterinaky Division.

At the lequest of the Government of Mozambique the services of Mr. J. -L G. Keppel.
Governraert Veterinary Officer, have been lent to that Government for si.x months, during
the absence on leave of their Chief Veterinary Surgeon.

:«)4

Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

NOTES FROM THE "GAZETTE."

Attention is drawn to the following matters of interest which appeared in tlio r?iinn
GorPDiment Guzrffe.

(iAZETTi;. (Abbreviations: Proc."'- Proclamation ; "G.N." -Government Noi ice.")

No. Date. Items.

1041 lt)/4/20 Owing to the absence of scab therein the Minister of Agi-icuUure has, under
1045 2:^/4/20 the Diseases of Stock Act (No. 14 (jf 1911), declared protected the

Districts of : —

(i) Ladylirand, Senekal, Winburg, Ficksburg, Thaba 'Nchu. Smithfield,
Edenbnrg, Wepener, and portions of Hoopstad, Kroonstad, Bloeni-
fontein, Boshof. Zastron, the Sub- District of Venterstad and |)Ortion8
and farms in Albert and Carnarvon. (G.N. Nos. 647, 707.)

(ii) Owing to the partial prevalence of scab the Minister of Agriculture

has approved of serai-protection being extended to a new .ist of 43

districts or portions of districts in the Cape. Orange Free State, and

the Transvaal. (G.N. Nos. 648, 649.)

1047 30/4/20 The compulsory dipping of sheep between 10th May and 30th June has been

ordered for the Prieska District under the Scab Regulations. (G.N. No.

745.)
1041 16/4/20 Compulsory Dipping of Cattle in the three and five day dips has been
1045 23/4/20 ordered by the Minister for the Districts of Nqutu, Barberton, Ladysmith,

1047 30/4/20 Game Reserve (Barberton), and portions of Vryheid, Estcourt, Ixopo,

10.50 7/5/20 Utrecht. Umvoti, and Camperdown Districts. (G'.N. Nos. G50, 706, 760,

and 792.)
1041 16/4/'^,0 Unallotted farms in certain Natal districts are notified for disposal by the

Secretary for Lands; applications to be made to the Surveyor-General,

Pietermaritzburg, up to the 28th May. (G.N. No. 660.)
1045 23/4/20 Lot No. 8630, Vlakte Rand, in the Montagu Division, is notified for disposal

by public auction, at 3.30 p.m., Wednesday. 23rd June, at the residence

of Mr. Joubert, of Warmwaterdrift. (G.N. No. 680.)
1045 23/4/20 The Great Fish River Irrigation District, with the definitions of it'!

boundaries, lias been proclaimed by Proclamation No. 63.
1045 23/4/20 Restrictions for the prevention and spread of Citrus Canker have been

proclaimed under the Agricultural Pests Act (No. 11 of 1914), and the

removal of citrus fruit and trees has been restricted in certain areas in

the Districts of Rustenburg, Waterberg. and Pntoria. f Proclamation

No. 67.)
1045 23/4/20 The appointment of W. J. J. Scheepers (r/w Mr. J. E. de Villiers) as an

Itinerant Water ('uurt Judge, with Headquarters at Capetown, is notified

in G.N. No. 681.
1045 2.3/4/20 The appointment of members of the Land B'urd of the South- West Africa

Protectorate under the Crown Land Disposal Ordinance (1903), as

amended by Protectorate of South- West Africa Crown Lands Disposal

Proclamation (No. 13 of 1920). is notified in G.N. No. 698.
1047 30/4/2(1 The conditions of lease, applying to unalienated Crown Lands in Natal and

Zululand unsuitable for European settlement pur()Oses, are amended in

certain respects (^maintenance, fencing, cost of dipping tanks, etc.).

(Proclamation No. 70.)
1047 30/4/20 From the 22nd April certain railway tariffs, including those on live stock,

have been increased, the special surcharge of 25 per cent, in the case of

stock being increased to 33^ per cent.
30/4/20 An allotment early in July of 1500 tons of guano to bona fide farmers and

gardeners within the Union is notified. Further particulars as to

conditions and manner of application appear in G.N. No. 288.
7/.5/20 The demarcation of The Kathu Forest Reserve, Block I, in the Division of

Kuruman, is notified. (G.N. No. 794.)

104'

1 0.'-.O

Rkcent Agricultural Literature. .iof)

RECENT AGRICULTURAL LITERATURE.

By l*Ari, HlHHlNK. I>IBKARIAN, DEPART.AfENT OF AfiniCIlLTURK.

I— UNION GOVKRNMKNT PUBLICATIONS.

MlSCKI.I-ANKOUS ReI'OKTS. ETC., OF INTEREST TO FARMERS.

(OhtaivahJe from ihe (lovernment Printer, I'retorin.)

N uinher of
J'rirc per copy. I'uhluation.

Is. Suininaiizi'd Report of the Proceeding's of the Gold

Conference held at Pretoria, 22nd October, 1919 ... U.G.18— '20

Is. Interim Report, Cost of Living Commission U.G.26

ri.— THE AGRICULIURAL I'RESS OF SOUTHERN AND TROPICAL

AFRICA.

Selected Articles.

Die Bnrr (Bijvoegsel tot " De Volksteni "), Pretoria.

9/4/20 Dr. Hartig's Middel tegen Gallamziekte.
30/4/20 Ekonomiese Sij van 0ns Boerderij. Lesing deur Dr. A. I.

Perold, gehou t^' Stellenbosch.
23/4/20 Krag op die Boereplaas, denr W. S. H. Cleghorne.

Die Boererroxiw (Poshns 984. Pretoria).

4/20 0ns Boterehuise in Transvaal en hulie Karakter, denr J. H.
Pierneef.

Formers' Advocate, South African (P.O. Box 247, Bloemfontein).

4/20 War Farming in Germany.

Breeding Merinos, Milk and Cream Testing, by A. de Wet.
Heavy Horse versus Ox, by A. Taute.

The Farmers' Journal (Nairobi, B.E.A.).

25/3/20 Cotton Growing.
1/4/20 Native Labour; Cotton Growing for B.E.A.
8/4/20 Turmeric, Cultivation and Uses.
Hints to Tobacco Growers.
l.')/4/20 Flax Problem. Storing Rain-water, by H. F. Birchall. Tea
Culture.

The Fa I lines' Weekhi (Bloemfontein).

7/4/20 Hand-rearing of Calves (2), bv H. Cook, B.S.A.
14/4/20 The Cotton Crop, by W. B. Wilson, B.S.A.

Hail Insurance (Editorial).
21/4/20 The Agricultural Department, by "Veritas."
Export Fruit, by G. Alex. Barnes.
Construction on Diversion Weirs, bv C. H. Warr»'n,

A.M.I.C.E., MIME.
Restriction of Prices.
28/4/20 Liver Fluke, by F. G. Cawston, M.D.

Die Landhovtrer (Posbus 1035, Pretoria).

28/2/20 Goedkoojj Bouwe op die Plnas (v(>rvoig uitgave dd. I."
Januarie 1920).

.'JOG Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Vie Landboinc W'eekblad (Posbus 267), Bloemfonteiii).

31/3/20 Bakteriee in die Landl)oii, II. Handelsopleiding vir Siiid-

atrikaners. Wateipasse, V, deur R. J. v. Reenen.

7/4/20 "Wat is die Profijt op mij Plaas. Verbetering van Grond deiir

Groenbemesting, deur D. Potgieter, B.Sc.

14/4/20 Grsondlu'idsleer vir die Boerplaas, denr Dr. A. .1 Stals.

Garsver])onwing. deur G. J. Bosnuni.
21/4/20 Invloed van Grond en Kliinaat op Taliak, deur Pieter Kocli,
B.Sc.
Hoe oiii 'n Vrugteboord uit te le. diMii' (). S. H. Reitn»eke.

The South Afiirni) Da'numnn (P.O. Box 925, Durban).

.■]/20 Tbc Mi!k Producers' Union Famous Breeds of Britain:

Devons and South Devons, 11, by Farmer George.

Official Notes on Friesland Cattle. The Butter Position.

Use of Starter in Cheese-making, by P. C. de Klerck.
4/20 Dairying Problems in Zululand. The Milk Producers' T'nion.

(Jfficial Notes on Frie.sland Cattle.

Thf South Afnntn Fdiiii Xcirs (P.O. Box 9(>1 Joliannesburg).

3/20 Fforse-liieeding in South Africa, by F. J. Finch-Smith.
Cattle Industry. IV, Special Purpose Cattle. Lamziekte
Investigation: A Visit to Armoedsvlakte, by J. F. Pentz.
Bacteria and Butter-making, II. Timber in tlie Union.

The South Afii'nv Fruit (;,ou-( r auil Sii.nll Tioldi ,• (P.O. Box 3958, Johannes-
burg).

3/20 AVluit Kruit Shall 1 Grow:- by B. AV. la Motte.

Soutli A f lira)) (ill iili'nitKi tinil Count iij Life (P.O. Box 3958, Johannesburg)

3/20 Our South Africa, 14: Stellenbo.sch, by Dorothea Fairbridge.

Amateur's Attempt a Home and Gaiden : No. 12. Fruit.

Practical Hints on Cutworm Destruction, by F. de

Ca.stelia. Native Plants. Plants of the Bible and

Biblical Lands, Vf.

South Afiiran Jouimil of Jiift uxtrit s (Government Printer, Pretoria).

3/20 Kconomics of "Wheat Pioduction, l)y H. "Wolfc', M.Sc. Power

Applied to Agrictilture, by W. S. H. Cleghorne.

'i'raiisport ]\fethods in South Africa, by Sir "Wm. Hoy

(continued in April issue).
4/20 Eggs for Inland and Oversea Mai-kets, l)y AV. O. John.

Fodder Trees and Shrubs for South African Faims, by

H. D. Leppan, B.Sc, Agriculture. Tea Cultuie, bv

Hon. AV. T. Clayton, M.L.A.

South Afiirnv J'oultnj Magazine (Bloemfontein).

4/20 Poultry Products on the Railway. Fxhibiting Table Poultry
and Eggs, by '-Utility."

South Ajiitan I'oultiii Ttrrit]r and Small Holder (Johannesburg).

4/20 Co-operatioTi. Utility White Leghorns. South African
Poultrv Association, Minutes of Executive Boaid Meet-
ing held on 6th March, 1920.

The South Afridin Suimr Journal (P.O. Box 925, Dui'ban).

4/20 Rest rictio?is on Sugar Prices. Notes on the Cotton Industry,
by W. B. Wilson, B.Sc, Agric. Electrification of Cane-
sugar Mills, by Chas. Griffith, O.B.F,. Housing of
Labourers*" on Sugar Estates.

Thr Sun II ml Aij rirultu ral Journal of South Africa (P.O. Box 634, Johannesburg).
4/20 The South African Grain Trade Association. Report on
the V.'heat Position, by C. E. AVilson, Secretary. The
South African Maize Breeders', Growers', and Judges'
Association : Report of Fifth Annual Aleeting held on
the 1st of April, 1920, in .lohannesburg.

RkCEN;!' AdRlOULTURAL LITERATURE. 307

Sunrlriji Times, F'firnwr.-i' Suppleiiienf. (Joliaunoshurg).

4/4/20 A Planting ('aIo!)dar, l)v G. .1 . Bosnian.
18/4/20 Strawboiiy Culuire, l).y" H. B. Terry.
2/5/20 Wliitr Ants of Sontli Africa, l)y ('."Fnilcr. (( 'out iiiucd lidiii
pievioiis issuos.)
Rnral TraTisport for Agricnitnral Jtuhistiifs, liy A<;ric()la.
(Continued from previous issues.)

Tin \Vr,l; El), I ( P.O. Box 413, Pietermaritzbur<i).

17/4/20 Milk Fever. Kaffir Corn and otlier Sorghums. Fowl Cholera.
24/4/20 Mineral Needs of the Dairy Cow. Diseases of Swine, III.
1/5/20 Silos and SJla^(\ Cuittire of flu- Potato. Jiiquid Manuic.

111.— AGRJCULTIRAL PUBLICATIONS IN OT)lFR PARTS.

J^KVIIiWS \M) FXTK.VCTS.

Control oj flumldil tj Conditions in Leninn Storaije. — This is dealt with Ijy
Mr. A. D. Shame) in an article appearino; in the March, 1920. issue of tlie Cali-
fornian Citrogivpli. A description is given of the instruments and means used foi-
regulating humidity conditions in the stor^ige rooms and among the numerous
conclusions arrived at it is shown that uniformly high humidity gave the best
resxdts witii the fruit, and tliat the late of natural curing depends uj)on the
temperature at which tlie fruit is held. At !)3° F. the green fi-nit cnivd within
nine days.

Wort Disease of tin' I'utato. — The .Jannary, 1!)20, number of the Scottish
■Journal of Agriculture, issued by the Board of Agriculture for Scotland, deals
with the scheme of certification of growing crops which are immune to the
disease. The inspection of growing crops was terminated in September last
and revealed that stocks of the older vari.^ties are far nun-e impure than those
of the newer varieties. Mixed stocks are being weeded out, older varieties are
being freed from admixture, and new varieties are being maintained in high
state of purity. Planting fiom certified stock of inimnn(> varieties will ultimately
lead to al)solute pure sLock reaching the market.

Conmlhin docrnin' n* (•ruin El< rotor. — We learn from the Conodion
.{(jrirultuiol Gazette of February, 1920, that the Canadian Govertiment has
erected and is operating five large elevators in the Dominion. The elevators
with fundamentally different functions to fulfil may be classified under three
headings of " Pul)lic. Terminal," "Interior Terminal." and "Transfer." The
Public Terminal Elevator at Port Arthur was completed in 1913, cost $1,500,000,
and has a capacity of 3,250,000 bushels of grain with a woi-khouse caijacity of
750,000 bushels. Two Interior Terminal Elevators at Moosejaw and Saskatoon,
Sask., respectively, were completed in October, 1914, costing $1,000,000 each!
the capacity of each being 3,50O,(J00 bushels with a \vorkhouse accommodation
of 112 bins for 500,000 bushels. Another elevator of the same type with a
capacity of 2.500.000 bushels was completed in 1915 at Calgary, Alta., costing a
little over $1,000,000. The third class, or Transfer Elevator, was erected in
1916, at Vai-couver, B.C., at a cost of $800,000.

Mdk Produrts in. America, and Europe. — Mr. W. Dempster, of the New
Zealand Department of Agriculture, contributes a very interesting article to the
February, 1920, Journol of .i(jrirulture of Xew Zealand, on his trip to America
and Europe investigating the manufacture and marketing of milk powder, sugar
milk, and other branches of dairying as carried out in those countries. A
review is given of the manufacture in the United States of skim-milk powder,
butter, Swiss cheese, sugar of milk, "jack cheese," muriatic-acid casein, con-
densed milk, casein, etc. English and Scotch methods of milk powder pioduc-
tion are dealt with, Holland being visited in the same connection. The author
giv-s a detailed account of his liTiding couceruing production and all factors
influencing iiroduction and marketing.

808 Journal of the Departmknt op Aortculttjre.

AT THE SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND
EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

April, 1920.

CEDARA, NATAL.

Climatic. — The raintall ioi- the niontli (up to and including the 23rd inst.)
was 1.37 inches. The mean maximum temperature was 71.2° F., and the mean
minimum 52.08°. The days were mostly bright and warm with cool nights.

Crops. — The maize for grain has produced good cobs and the crop promises
to be quite up to the average. Ensilage maize is now being cut and placed in
silos. The cow-pea crop was badly affected with leaf rust and very few pods
were formed. The crop was cut for ensilage. The turnips, rape, and kale have
all very good stands and promise heavy yields.

Field Experiments. — The linseed planted in January has produced a heavy
yield of seed, but the stalks are very short. Bimlipatam Jute, also planted in
January, has made very poor growth, the stalks not exceeding an average height
of 2 feet. The experimental maize plots are looking very well and a heavy yield
is expected.

Stock. — The condition of the stock is good and the veld is still in good
grazing condition. One Aberdeen-Angus heifer calf was born during the month.
The nine Aberdeen-Angus cattle shown at the Witwatersrand Show secured eleven
prizes, including the Dunne Challenge Cup, one reserve champion, and three

firsts.

Orchard. — The autum ])loughing and turning in of the cover crop is now
demanding attention. Citrus fruits are now beginning to ripen and manured
trees show a marked increase in the size of the fruit.

Chemical Laboratory. — Activities during the month were mostly confined
to the investigations commenced in the previous mouth, viz., (1) on the composi-
tion and tanning properties of wattle bark^ and (2) the composition and nutritive;
value of indigenous grasses.

.Ipiculture. — Two discovei-ies of great interest to l)ee-keepers were mad*;
during the month. First, it was found that the Isle of Wight disease, due to a
parasite known as Nosema Apis, is present here in South Africa. Hitherto it
^^■as thought that European Foulbrood was the only serioiis bee disease in
this country, but Isle of Wight disease has been found at Cedara and in some
neighbouring apiaries during the month. This disease must have I)een present
for some years past, but it has never l)een noticed before.

The second discovery is of a parasite fly, about the size of a house-fly, which
enters the hives with impunity and parasitises adult worker bees. The maggot
of this fly lives as a parasite in the abdomen of the bee and eventually kills it,
the maggot then leaving the dead I)ody of its victim and burying itself in the
ground and changing into a chrysalis, which eventually gives rise to the adult
fly. It is impo.ssible to estimate the ravages of this pest as numbers of the
parasitised bees must die out in the field. Both these pests are being made the
subject of further studies.

Students. — There are sixty-four students in residence to date. Three are
at present taking a special course at Winklespruit.

Schools of Agriculture and Experiment Stations. 309

ELSENBURG, MULDERS VLEI.

(limatic. — The first rainfall of any account since the beginning of the year
was on the 10th instant, when 0.82 inches was legistered. Though not
a very heavy fall, this was most useful as it softened the ground sufficiently to
enable the pushing forward of field operations so long delayed by drought. The
total rain for the month was 0.885 inches as against the normal average of 2.34
inches, and the weather on the whole was rather hot. The maximum tempera-
ture recorded was 92.5° F. on the 14th, and the minimum 48.3° on the 25th.

Field Operations and Crops. — Considerable field work was accomplished after
the 10th instant, including the sowing of 50 acres of farm land to oats and
65 acres to soiling and grazing crops, additional ploughing and harrowing in
both farm and experimental sections, and cultivation and fertilizing of lucerne
lands. Approximately 100 tons of stable manure were spread and worked into
the soil. The bulk of the Algerian oat crop was threshed, a yield of 600 muids
being obtained from 85 acres; 35 tons of straw were chaffed for use as dry
roughage during the winter.

Viticulfural Section. — A portion of the vineyard was i)loughed, manured,
and lined during the month, and the wines were racked.

Iloitiryltuial Section. — The month of April completed the fruit season at
Elsenburg. The rest of the Keiffer pear crop was picked, part being sold on
the Johannesburg market and the remainder cut up for drying. The crop was
not as lieavy as in previous seasons, but the quality was good. A large amount
of seed of several varieties was sown in the vegetable garden.

Live Stock. — The live stock on hand on the 1st April was as follows: — Cattle
(P"'rieslands and Jerseys), 86; sheep (Suffolks, Murrays, and cross-breds), 212;
horses and mules, 60; oxen, 6; donkey jack, 1; pigs (Large Black, Berkshires, and
Tamworths), 213; poultry, 716. Tn addition there were at Mariendahl : — Cattle
(grade), 101; oxen, 8; horses and mules. 17.

K:i:perimental and Investigational Work. — Investigations relating to the
preservatioji of eggs (by the lecturer in poultry) and the keeping qualities of
various fertilizer mixtures (by the lecturer in chemistry) were started this month.
Other experimental work in the various sections as previously described is pro-
gressing satisfactorily.

Staff. — During the month Mr. W. J. Lamont assumed duty as Principal at
Elsenburg, vice Mr. T. G. W. Reinecke, and Mr. B. S. Parkin was appointed to
the Lectureship in Veterinary Science. Mr. E. Baker, Lecturer in Botany, has
sailed for Europ;' on six months' vacational leave.

GLEN, ORANGE FREE STATE.

Crops. — The rainfall for the month was 1.44 inches. A slight frost was
registered on the 27th ultimo. Although the rainfall was small, crops and grass
continued to make normal growth. There is an almndant growth of grass, and
the prospect for the winter, as far as liulk feed is conc(>rned, promises well.
Maize planted at the end of January will give a fair return for ensilage pur-
poses, as no frost has ))een registered here during the month. A large quantity
of hay was gathered during the month. As a large acreage of the veld is
suitable for mowing it is proposed to cut a considerable quantity.

Jjivc Stock. — All the live stock are in excellent condition. The Friesland
cow D.O.A. 41 T, whicli gave the highest yield of butter-fat in the official test
as a senior four-year-old, liiis just calved again. She is in good condition, and
there is every chance of her performance coming up to expectations.

Extension Work.—A number of officers were absent on duty this month,
principally at shows.

School. — Five more students were received foi- the one year course during
the month. The accommodation for the diploma course is fully taxed. There
are only a few vacancies at the one year hostel.

lUO Journal of the Department op Agkiculture.

GKOOTFONTEIN. MIDDELBUEG, CAPE.

St iiilinf s. — Till' senior diploma coiii'se studcMits attended the Port EHzabetli
Show and acted as st(>ttards in tlie \'arious sections. They also acted in the
same capacity at the Middelhnro; Show, which was attended by all the students.

Judfiiiui (Jam petition. — The Inter-school Live Stock Judginfj; Competition,
held at Bloemfontein Show for the first time, was a matter of great interest to
all the stndents and staff of the institution, and particularlj' those who were
finally selected for the team which was to represent Grootfontein. Grootfontein
won the competition, secni-ing the highest marks as a team, and also the highest
marks amongst all individnnl competitors.

Staff. — Various membei's of the staff judgetl at shows ;ind also delivered
lectures and demonstrations on ^'arious subjects.

Sheep Course. — Close on eighty applications and inquiries weie received
from applicants foi- the special course in sheep and wool. The course was
ojjened on the 15th April; the twelve best candidates will be accepted after
undergoing an entrance or test examination.

'Jiio fii'st returned soldiers' course closed on the loth Apiil. and the new six
months' course for returned soldiers open on the 30th.

Sjircial Short or Wijiter Vncotion Coun^e-f. — The following coui'ses will be
held in June and July: —

(1) Nine days' sheep and av(jo] course from lOth June to the 18th June.

(2) Nine days' course in dairying, horticulture, and poultiy fiom the 10th

June to 18th June.

(3) General cour.se covering all subjects taught at this institution, with

the exception of tho.se enumerated in courses (1) and (2). and covering
.1 i)eriod of three weeks, ojiening on the 21st Juno and closing on the
lOtb Julv.

POTCHEFSTROOM. TRANSVAAL.

The weather during thi> month \\as dry, oidy 0.12 inches of I'ain being
legistered compared with 1.48 in April last year. The temperature was,
liowever, very mild; no frost occuned during the month. The maximum
temperature recorded was 86.6° F. on the 12th and the minimum 43.1° F. on the
18th. The dry weather following a comparatively dry ^larch has resulted m a
shrinkage of the maize crops, especially those grown foi- silage. The condition
of the veld is also below normal.

Farm Seetion. — On account of the dry condition of tlic ground, difficidtv was
(■x|)erienced in getting into gofxl tilth the lands intended for winter cereals.
Approximately 87 acres were ploughed and hai-rowed in preparation for winter
cereals. 79 acres of teff and lucerne were mown, yielding hay of excellent
quality ; 100 tons of maize silage was made, and in addition a fair amount of
cow-pea hay. It is estimated that the following foodstuffs will be on hand for
the winter : Lucerne hay, 160 tons ; teff hay, 40 tons ; sweet grass hay, 30 tons ;
cow-pea hay, 6 tons; maize silage, 200 tons. In addition there are 26 acres of
mangels and 2 acres of pvimpkins.

E.i:perimental Section. — Ranges of ground in the Experimental Division were
])iepared for the purpose of planting linseed, kale, rape, chic peas, susan peas,
vetches, and winter beans. In the fertility plots the range which carried cow-
jieas this season as a hay crop was fallowed in preparation for the ensuing maize
crop. Five acres of tepary beans and 1 acre of iron cow-peas were harvested
for the seed of which there is a great demand. In addition to the silage and hay
I'xperiments. varieties of beans and kaffir corn were harvested, also sugar-cane.
Napier fodder, and 'N Youti. In the variety trials of cow-peas and millets, the
crops Avere harvested, and in addition the crops of buckwheat and linseed in the
rotation experiments.

Schools op Agriculture and Experiment Stations. 311

Horticultural Sevtiun. — The truit season of 1919-20 again illustrated the
suitability of the soil and climate to pears. The dry season proved a suitable
one for grapes which is in accordance with i^revious experience. Some varieties
of apricots, Japanese plums, and peaches gave excellent crops despite the late
frost of 23rd Sejjtember. 1919 Ajjples liave proved extremely erratic in their
blossoming in the past season, and the disease of bittei- pit was very prevalent.
The trees are stunted and diseased; many will be pulled out this coming winter.
The cherry, nectarines, and domestic plum crops were failures. Great difficulty
is experienced this season, owing to the absence of rain, in getting the orchards
cleaned and cultivated. The ground is proving extremely hard. Th apple trees
are badly attacked l)y woolly aphis; the pest is being controlled by hand painting
of the trees with paraffin emulsion. A pruning experiment to illustrate the
effect of early normal and late pruning was commenced this montli.

Lire Stock. — Cattle have maintained their conditicjii. Tlie various lierds
will require heavy feeding, however, during the winter, owing to tlie p(n erty of
the veld. Sev?ral young animals inoculated agaiiist sponsiekte in December and
January last died of the disease in this month. The young stock were all
inoculated a second time against the disease. Twenty-four aged oxen and
twelve head of mixed cattle, discarded for various purposes, were disposed of at
prices ranging from £17. 12s. 6d. to £21 12s. 6d. All the herds were carefully
gone throtigh with the object of reducing undesirable animals before winter
sets in.

It is intended to abandon the crossing experiment of Sussex and Africander
cattle on Mendelian lines, and to dispose of all the progeny in the second
generation from cross-l)red btills ; l)Ut liefore doing so observations are being
taken on the animals of that generation in order to oljtain data of scientific
value. It is feared, however, that the numl)er of individuals are not stifficient
for the purpose. For this experiment it is proposed substituting grading work
with pedigree Hereford and Sussex bidls on Africander females as foundation
stock. This will yield data of practical value to ranchers who are attracted to
these two breeds for purposes of beef lireeding.

The supply of milk has lieen sufficient only to meet the domestic demands
of the school and farm and for calves. The quantity of cream available is
therefore not sufficient to supply the requirements of the ho.stels in respect of
btitter. For this purpose a certain amotint of cream is iieing bouglit.

Btit for a few mild cases of bhie-tongue, sheep Inne done well, although
the Romney Marsh ewes put to the rajii have fallen off somewhat owing to the
condition of the veld. These ewes have apparently all been .settled by the ram
this month, as also the Stiff oik x Persian and the Suffolk X Merino cross-breds
to the Suffolk rams. The Wanganella Merino stud ewes have commenced
lambing.

A numbei- of pigs, both of Large Black and Berk.shire breeds, was sold to
farmers for l)reeding ptirposes. The demand exceeds the available supply'.

Foultrij Division. — A small intensive house is being erected. The birds in
the breeding pens have come through the moidt very early this year, which
made it possible to get an early start with incubation. Two hundred young
chickens have l)een hatched thus far and by the end of August, at latest, it
is hoped to have hatched 1000 head.

Experimental and Investigational Work. — Three years work on " adhesive
washes designed to protect fruit trees from the attack of rodents " has been
completed, and the resttlt will be published. The entomologist has also tinder
investigation the following: — (a) Potato tuber moth; (}>) the angoumois grain
bug; (c) the control of rats and mice. Investigations into nitrification and the
lime requirements of soils is being continued by the chemist. The engineer made
an inspection of water power installations in Natal in company with Brother
Nivard. of the Mariannhill ^lonastery, who had installed these. A ntiml)er of
samples of agriculttiral matei'ials (fertilizers, foodstuffs, l)iak waters required
for dipping purposes) were analysed during the montli.

School. — Forty-four students, including all the second year diploma men, and
nearlj' all members of the staff, attended the Witwatersrand Agricultural Society
Show and assisted at the Government exhibit and as stewards to the Society.

Keep your .1 oiu)ial.^\ The contents will be indexed every six
months and a voyry of the index sent to each subscriber.

312

Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

MEAT STATISTICS.

I. — Return of Beep Inspected and Passed fob Export, Apkil, 1920.

Cattle.

Carcasses.

Place.

Inspected. Rejected.

1

Passed. Inspected. Rejected.

Passed.

Durbau

Pietermaritzburg .
Pretoria
JohaunesbuFii
Blof mfontein
Capetown ...
Port Elizabeth
Germiston ...

3,171

1,01 s

.584
110

3,171
1,018

584

110

1
3,171 299J
1,018 26f
4 —

584 —

J 10 5i

2,}*7M
99U

4
584

1041

Total

4,883

—

4,883 4,887 331^

4,555i

Beef actually exported during the month of April, 1920 : Total 17,563 quarters.
(A'* Durban 16,873 quarteis ; Ex Capetown 69(» quarters.)

Total shipments of Beef in quarters —

1916 ... 115,992 1918 ... 123,.354 *1920 ... 21,710

1917 ... 309,214 1919 ... 285,367

II.— Othek Meat Exported*: Pork, carcases 627; Bacon 79.160 lb.

III. — Return of Cattle Imported into thf. Union from adjoining Territories.

Territory.

Total from 1st January,

1920, to
3Uth April, 1920.

For Slaughter

No.

No.

Ithddesia

1,962

6,8.54

Bechuanaland Protectorate

1,796

7.249

S.-W. Africa „

1,232

5,066

Swaziland

15

623

Basutoland

For B'-eeding—

Rhodtsia

914

4,258

Bechuanaland Protectorate

2.474

6,209

Total

8,393

30,259

Summary op Imports.

Calendar Year. ' For Slaughter.

For Breeding. Total.

tl916
1917
1918
1919

No.
26,580
47,970
36,767
40,574

No. No.

— 26,580

5.440 53,410

13,286 50,053

16.693 57,267

* Total from 1st January to 30th April, 1920. f Ist July to 3l8t December only.

Crop and Live Stock Report.

313

CROP AND LIVE STOCK REPORT.

April, 1920.

MAIZE.

The cuiidition of the crop iu the Cape Province is reported to have sligfitly reduced the
prospects, as also in the Orange Free State and Natal. On the other hand, no perceptible
change has taken place in the Transvaal.

Taking the Union as a whole the crop remains at 20 per cent, below normal in condition
as at tne ei.d of April and is estimated to yield 10.161,900 bags. As was to be expected,
frosts were mainly responsible for the condition of crops, which owing to the late rains could
not be planted earlier. In the Eastern and Central Transvaal the maize borer appears to
have caused some damage as well as in the South-Eastern Districts in the Free State.

KAFFIR CORN.

The reports received from correspondents disclose practically the same conditions as in
espect of maize.

Where the prospects in the Cape Province have diminished from '68 to 41 per cent,
below ufirmal there has been on the other hand a slight improvement in Natal as well in the
Free State. The condition of the crop for the Union is placed at 20 per cent below normal,
at the end of April, estimated to yield 1,131,400 bags.

TOBACCO.

As compared with the previous month, the i)rospects of this crop have improved by
approximately 5 per cent, over the Union. Improved conditions are reported particularly
from Oudtshoorn and the Transkei. On the other hand a decline of 10 per cent, is reported
from the North-West Free State. At the end of April the crop is estimated to be lit per
cent, below normal in condition, wh'ch should yield 8.94!i,60O lb.

COTTON.

It is estimated that the 1918-19 season, under normal conditions, shoukl have given
2,322,000 llj. of seed cotton. As compared with that season, it would appear that the area
under cultivation in 1919-20 was as follows : — Transvaal, increase of 44 per cent. ; Natal,
increase of 8 per cent.

At the end of April, 1920, the information disclosed points to the fact that the condition
of the present crop was not so satisfactory in the Tiansvaal, a decline of 19 per cent, being
reported. In Natal, however, the pro^pects appear to be just about normal. The net
result, therefore, is that the current season may be expected to produce in the Tiansvaal.
I,133,7(j0 lb., and in Natal, 1.464, .500 lb., or a total of 2.60.5.200 lb. of seed cotton.

CONDITION OF LIVE STOCK.
ComiDiled from Reports furnished by Sheep and Stock Inspectors.

Area.

Large Stock.

Small Stock.

Cape—

South- West

Medium to poor

Medium to poor.

North- West

Oood to medium. Fat in parts

Good to medium. Fat in paits.

South Coast

Good to inedium

Good to medium.

Southern Karroo

Good to inedium. Poor in parts

Good to medium. Poor in parts.

Central Karroo

Fat to good

Fat to good.

Northern Karroo

Gond. Fat in parts

Good. Fat in part-.

Eastern Karroo

Good. Fat in parts

Good. Fat in parts.

Bechuanaland ...

Fat to good

Fat to good.

Griqualaud West

Fat to good

Fat. Medium in parts.

North-Eastern

Fat to good

Fat to good.

Border

Good. Fat in parts

Good. Fat in parts.

Transkeian Territories...

Fat to good. Medium in parts

Fat to good. Medium in parts.

;}U

Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

Area.

Large Stock

Small Stock.

Tkansvaal —

Eastern High Veld ' ...
Central ...

Western High Veld ...
Low Veld

Orange Fkee State
North- Eastern ...

North- Western

South-Eas^teru ...
Soutli-Western ...

Natal —

High Veld or Highlands
Middle Veldior Midlands
Coast

Good. Fat in jiarts ...
Good to mediinii. Fat in pari?
Good. Faf in jiarts ...
Good. Faf in paits ...

Fat lo i/ood

Good. Fill in parts

Faf to (jood

(Tood. Fat in i)arts

B'at td i/ood
Fat to f/ood
Good. Fat in jiarts

Good. Fat in parts.

Good to niedliim. Fat in parts

Good. Fat in parts.

Good. Fat in parts.

Fat to (jood.

Good. Fat in parts.

Fut to (jood.

Good. Fat in partg.

Fat to ijood.
B'at to good.
Good. Fat in parts.

Springhaas.

Tlie followiijo' letter from Professor .1. ]). F. (iilclirist, ("iiiversil y
of Capetown, P.O. Box 594. Capetown, is priblislied witli the request
that any one a1)le to throw lio-ht on this njatter of scientific research
will kindly communicate direct with Piofessor fxihdirist, who will
g-ladly give further particulars to those interested: —

" In an early description of the sprino-luuis {I'edctcs) in 1816, it
was asserted that this animal hnd ;i i)onch in llu^ :,l)donien similar to
that found in the kangaroo. At a Inter date this statement was
re})eated, but it was said that the pouch was not on the abdominal
j)art but further forward in the legion of the cliest, and that it was
rudinu'iitary and not used for the shelter of ilie young as in the
Icangaroo. None of tiie stiift'ed specimens of tlie s])ringh;ias in the
museums in Eurojx' or the Cape show such a jxnnh, and it has been
Inken for granted that the original statement was founded on a mis-
taken ol)ser\'ation. It may be, however, tbal tlie jxtuch only appears
in the adult female.

" It may be that some of your numerous readers can throw some
light on this problem. The disctjvery of a i)ouch in the springiiaas
would be of the greatest utility in determining the true nature of this
peculiar rodent, and some one who has the opporl'inity of procuring
or observing these animals nuty be abl(> to solve this ])roblem which is
puzzling scientific men, viz., as to whether they iire really a kitid of
hare or a kancaroo."

The ■Journal aims at keeping farmers in.formed of what the
Department of Agriculture is doing, also of such matters affecting
their interests as come under its purview. The Journal contains
orig'inal articles for the guidance of the fanner on the many and
diverse problems which face him. Every farmer should read it and
keep it.

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81t) Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

DEPARTMENTAL NOTICES.

AN UNRESERVKD SALE OF PURE-BRED STOCK WILL BE HELD AT
THE SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND EXPERIMENT FARM,
CEDARA, ON SATURDAY, 26th JUNE, 1920.

(Jaftle. — About seven Friesland bulls, nine Aberdeen-Angus bulls, eight Short-
horn bulls, three Friesland cows and heifers, eij^ht Shorthorn cows
and heifers.

Pigs. — .\b()ut twenty pigs of the Large Black and Berkshire breeds.

I'niiltry.- — A numliej' of pure-bred poultry.

All animals sold will be forwarded carriage paid to buyers' nearest railway
station.

For catalogue nnd further particulars :ipply to the Principal at above
jiddress.

E. J. Maomillan,

V litler-Secrefary for Agrioiltinc.

SHORT COURSES OK INS'J'HUCTION

will be held during the 1920 Winter Vacation at the Schools of Agriculture, as
i ollows : —

dinotfontein, Middelbuid. Cape Province. — 10th to 18th June: Sheep and AVool.
10th to 18th June : Poultry, Dairying, and Horticulture. 21st June to
10th July : Gen.3ral Farmers' Course.

Potchef-'itroom. Transvaal. — 17th to 26th June: Poultry, Dairying, and Horti-
culture. 29tli June to 14tli July : General Farmers' Course.

Ehenhurg, Mulders Vlei. — 21st June to 3rd July: General Course (including
Poultry, Dairying, nnd Horticulture). f?th July to 17th July: General
Farmers' Course.

(lien, Orange Free State. — 30th JuTie to 9th July: Sheep and Wool. 30th Juno
to 9th July: Horticulture :>.nd Poultry. 14th July to 4th August:
General Farmers' C'Ourse.

Women will be admitted to all the courses (except the General Farmers'
Course at Glen), though the courses in Poultry, Dairying, and Horticulture are
specially designed for them.

Candidates must be over eighteen years of age.

Fees (including instruction, board and lodging) : — Nine days' course, £2. 5s.;
two weeks' course, £3. 10s. ; three weeks' course, £5.

Smaller charges are made for those who make their own arrangements for
hoard and lodging.

Reduced railway fares, at single rate for return journey, will be granted.

Further particulars and conditions may be obtained from, and application
for admission should be made to. the lespective principals of the institutions
.iliove mentioned.

E. J. Macmillan,

V nder-!^ecretary for .igricvlture.

P R I N C I P A L C C) X T E X T S

Ticks found on Man and his Domestic Animals and Poultry in
South Africa.

Chemical Analysis of Soils.

The Fruit Export Act.

The Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province — II.

Along the Orange River.

The Department of Agriculture during the War — III.

Composition and Valuation of Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs.

Fundamental Principles of Co-operation in Agriculture.

Experiments and Investigations — VI.

Army Mystery Worm.

STAFF.

Department of Agriculture (including Agriculttiral

Education).

In publishing the following abridged list of certain members of the staff, the public is
notified that matters of an Administrative nature are dealt with by the Head Office in
Pretoria or by the Chiefs of the Divisif)ns located there or their representatives in the
Provinces, and all correspondence should be directed accordingly. Matters concerning farm
practice and advice on farming generally, should be referred to the I'riin'ifial of tlie School
•of Agriculture serving the area of the rnion (;oncernet1.

ADMIXISTKATIOX.

(^Ukton BriLDixns, Pretokia, Tkl. Add.: •' I,ANDBorw ".)

:Secretaiy for Agriculture. — F. P.. Smith, ('.M.C

<7nder-Se€refary for Agriculture. — P. ■!. <lu Toit (at present on the I'ui.ilic Service riimmis.siou

of Inquiry).
Acting Under-Secretary for Agriculture. — G. X. Williams, D.S.O.
Under-Secretary for Agriculture (Education). — E. .(. Macmillan, P>.S.A.
Acting Chief Clerk.— F. W. Green.
Bloemfoiitein : Inquiry Clerk.— G. F. -loubert. Tr!. Add. : " Landlwuw"

DIVISIONS.

:<lieep. — ( hief : 1>. G. L. Knslin. D.S.O.. Union Buildings, Pretoria. Tel. Add. : "Merino".
Principal Sheep Inspector. — W. Cronwright. Union Buildings. Pretoria. Te. Add.:
" Acarus".

Principal Sheep and Wool Expert : A. G. Micliaeliau, Union Buildings, Pretoria.
Tel. Add.: " Wolex".
A'eterinary Research. — Director of Veterinary Education an<l Ilesearch : Sir Arnold Theiler.
K.C.M.G., P.O. Box r.93. I'retoria. Tel.Add.: "Microbe".

Veterinary Research Officer : E ^I. Robinson, M.R.CV.S.. Allertuii. via Maiit/.biiig.
Tel. Add.: "Bacteria''.

Veterinary Research Officer : H. H. Curson. ^I.1!.C.\'.S., Grahainstown. Tel. Add.:
'• Institute ".
Veterinary. — Principal Veterinary Officer: C. E. Gray, M.R.CV.S, Union Buildings.
Pretoria. Tel. Add.: " Privet '".

Senior Veteriuaiy Officer : A. S[ireull. M.IJ.C.V.S., corner of ^tinnaar aiul Koch
Streets, Pretoria. Tel.Add.: " Veterinus".

Senior Veterinary Officer : K. W. Dixon, M.lt.C.V.S.. Parliament Street. Cape-
town. Tel.Add.: "Veterinus".

Senior Veterinary Officer : W. Power. JI.R.<".V.S., Colonial Buildings, Maritzburg.
Tel. Add.: " Veterinus".

Senior Veterinary Officer: A. Grist, M.R.CV.S.. Government Buildings, Blbem-
fontein. Tel.Add.: "Veterinus".

Senior Veterinary Officer : G. W. Freer. M.R.CV.S., Umtata. Tel. Ad.l. :
" Veterinus".
Dairying. — Superintendent of Dairying : E. 0. Cliallis, Union Buildings, Pretoria. Tel. Add.:

" Dairying".
Botauy.—Chief : I. B. Pole Evans, M.A., D.Se., F.L.S., P.O. Box '.t91, Pretoria. Tel. Add.:
" Mycologist ".

Mycologist : V. A. Putterill, M.A., Department of Agriculture, Capetown.
Mycologist : P. A. v. d. Bijl. M.A., D.Sc. F.L.S., Natal Herbarium, Beiea. Durban.
Tel.Add.: " Herl)arium '".
Tobacco and Cotton.— Chief : W. H. S.dierffius, M.Sc, Union Buildings, Pretoria. Tel. .Vdd.:'

" Tobacco ".
Horticulture. —Chief : I. Tribolet, Union Buildings, Pretoria. Tel. Add. " Hortus ".
Viticulture. — Government Viticulturist : S. W. van Niekerk, Elsenburg. Mulders \'lei. Cape.
Tel.Add.: " Viticulturist "<

\_C(jntinuod on pngr ill of cover.

CONTEXTS,

JULY. 1M20.

F.UfE

T1CK8 rorxK ON Max and his Iiumfstk Animals and Pon.TiM in Siumh

Africa ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 317

Chemicai. Anaf-Vsis 01- Soils ... ... ... ... ... ... 341

The P'iiriT E.ni^out Act : Notes on Amended IiEoii.atih.vs ... ... 34&

The A(iKicEr.TUi;E and Soies or the Cape Peon inci: ... ... ... 3,51

Alono the Oran(;e IiI\ek ... ... ... ... ... ... 3.")9

The Depakt.ment of Agricultike diimno the Wai; ... ... ... 3(iH

Composition and VAi.rATioN ov Fi:iaii.izERs and Feedini; Stiffs ... 368

P't NDA.MENTAE PlIINCIPLES OF Co-OPERATION IN AORIcrLTl-KE ... ... 3SS

E.XPEUl.MI'.NTS AND INVESTIGATIONS ... ... ... ... ... 38S

AKiiv Mysteri Wor.m : Action in Case of Eeciruence ... ••• ... 391

Notes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 31»4

Tiie Extent of the rnioii and the A;ea t 'iiltivate<l — Care of Kams^Reeent
Outbreaks of East Coast Fever — Grain Elevators — Drying-out of Mai'/.e during
Kail Transit — Export of Grain, etc.. (page 340) — Plant Nurseries in Quarantine
for Pests^ (page 348)^Cotton E.xpi.rt ([page 3r>0) -Afforestation (page 358) —
Wheat and Flour (page 367)— Fencing (page 382)— Fruit and Ve.setable.^ : A
Great Manufacturing Scheme (page 39iO — Advice on the Farm (page 393).

The I'on.TRv Vai:i) Month in ;\Ionth ... ... ... ... ... 400

The VE(;ErAP.i.E (iAUDEN ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40!

Notes F!if>M the ••(Gazette"" ... ... ... ... ... ... 40:.'

Recent AcnucuLTURAL LiTEiiAitin: ... ... ... ... 403

At the Schools of Agriculture and F",xperiment stations ... ... 4orj

Meat Statistics... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40I'

Crop and Li\e Stock riKi'oin ... ... ... ... ... ... 410

South African Produce on the Oversea Market ... ... ... 4ii

Staff: Appointments. Transfers, etc. ... ... ... ... ... 411

Local .Market Prices ... ... ... ... ... ... ... i\2

DEPARTMENTAL NOTICES.

FOREST DEPARTMENT.

TIMBER FOR SALE AT t'EDARA I'LANTATION.

Straight Gum Poles of various sizes from about six inches in dianietci- at the hutt
•downwards may be purchased in small or laree quantities from the Government Plantation,
Cedara, Natal. Enquiries stating size of pole desired (length and smallest diameter under
bark at the thin end) sliould be addressed to the Forester, Crdara, who will quote prices per
pole put on i-ail at Cedara Station.

Firewood, fencing droppers, and fenceposts are also available.

GROOTFONTEIN SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE.

Tlie premises used as administrative offices at the Grootfontein School of Agriculture
were destroyed by fire on the 24th May. As all records and correspondence wei-e lost,
applicants for entrance to courses, including the 1921 courses in Sheep and Wool and in
Dairying, are asked to repeat their applications.

E. .J. MacMillan,

/ ndrr-Srcrffn rji for A(iriciiltv re.

OLIVKS.

A small quantity of Redding Olive Seeds is avai able for distribution in one lb. parcels,

1600 seeds to the lb.

'J'he Redding is the best stock known on vhich to work the domestic varieties of olives.
It is a rapid grower and makes a very fine i-oot sys'em, Trees grafted on the Reildmg will
thrive over a bigger range of soil than if grafted on any other variety.

It is a Ivisable on planting, to lemove the pointed end of the seed, taking caie not to
injure the kernel. This will tend to give a far lietter and speedier germination then if the
~^eeds are planted whole.

Application should Ije made to the Chief. Division nf Hurticulture. Deiiartmcnt of
Agriculture. Union Budding.?. Pretoria.

DATES OF AGRICULTURAL SHOWS STILL
TO BE HELD.

(As notified 30tli June, 1920.)

TRANSVAAL I'ROVINCE.
Tzaneen.— 0th July. | Njlstroom.— 29th and I^Oth Jul}'.

NATAL PROVINCE

'Durban and Coast Agricultural Society

(Durban). -29th June to 2nd July.
Zululand Show Society (Eshowe). — 7t*h July.
-Riclimond Agricultural Society. — 14th July.

Dronk Vlei Agricultural Society. — 14th July,
Camperdown Agricultural Society. — 21st

July.
T.xo})0 Agricultural Society. — 22nd Julj'.

(Note. — The show at Vrijheid (Natal), has been postponed to 4th and 5th August, 1920.

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Journal of the Department
OE Agriculture.

Vol. L JULY, 1920. No. 4.

Published muiithly in English and Afrikaans by the Uepartnient ut' Agriculture,

Union of South Africa.

SUBSCRIPTION": Within the Union and South-West Protectorate, 5Sm (otherwise Cs»)
per annum, post free, payable in advance.

Applications, with subscription^;, to be sent to the Government
Printer. Box 878. Pretoiia.

TICKS FOUND ON MAN AND HIS DOMESTIC
ANIMALS AND POULTRY IN SOUTH AFRICA.

By G. A. H. liEDFOUD, I^.E.S., Entomologist, Division ot Veterinary
Research, Onderstepoort, TransvaaL

Ticks, as a number of farmers in South Africa are only too well aware,
play an important role in the transmission of certain diseases to
flomestic animals. Apart from this they also do a considerable amount
of harm when at all numerous by sucking- blood and setting- up irrita-
tion, which causes their hosts to lose their appetites and fall oif in
condition, and may even cause tlie death of their host without trans-
mitting a disease.

Sir Arnold Theiler recorded a case in a pamphlet he wrote,
entitled: "Diseases, Ticks, and their Eradication" (now out of
print), in which a horse, badly infected with Blue Ticks (Boophiliis
(lecolovatus), died from acute anaemia as a result of the tick infesta-
tion. No less than 14 lb. of Blue Ticks were collected from this animal
in three days, and tiiis amount only represented about hnlf the number
of ticks which had engorged on this animal.

The Spinose Ear Tick (Ornithodoros megnini), which has recently
been introduced into this country from America, and has now estab-
lished itself in many parts of the Cape Province and Orange Free
State, has often been known to kill sheep, goats and calves by the
irritation set up when feeding in the ears (it being only found in the
ears of its host).

Owing to the fact that the disea.ses transmitted by ticks aie only
conveyed by certain species and not by all, and that it is necessary
to adopt dift'erent methods for combating the different species of ticks,
it is of the utmost importance that farmers should be able to recognize
the different kinds of ticks found on their domestic animals and birds.
Also, when inti-oducing stock on to a farm from another district the
farmer sliould know whether or not there are any disease-transmitting
ticks on the animals, and whether there are any species pre.sent which

12

318 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

have not previously beeu found on his farm. Should any be found,
he should have the animals isolated immediately they arrive, and the
ticks destroyed.

In any case, it is advisable to have all animals dipped, both before
they leave a farm and after their arrival on another farm, because
animals may be badly infested with both larvae and nymphae of ticks,
and these are almost bound to escape notice on account of their small
size.

How many farms in South ATfrica have become infected with the
Spinose Ear Tick during recent years tli rough infected stock being
transferred from one farm to another? In answering this question
one may safely say hundreds, and the reason for this is because the
owners of tbese farms did not know anything about the ear tick, and
consequently did not have animals' ears examined and treated for
ticks when they arrived on the farms. Therefore the importance to a
farmer of knowing Ihe kinds of ticks found on his farm and the kinds
he is likely to introduce thereon, especially those kinds which are
capable of transmitting diseases, cannot be overestimated.

It is with the object of acquainting the farmer with tlie different
species of ticks known to be parasitic upon stock and poultry in this
country that this short pamphlet has been written. In it will 1)o
found a short resume of the classification of ticks, how to distinguish
the different kinds, and notes on eacli species, such as their life-
histories, the kinds of animals they are likely to be found on, the
diseases they transmit, and any other notes of interest.

The larvae and nymphae of the majority of species are by no
means easy to identify, especially without the aid of a microscope.
Tberefore, in tbis paper I have confined myself for the most part t(j
^^iving short descriptions and figures of the adults only.

The adults of some species can be easily recognized with the naked
eye by conspicuous coloured miirkings on the shields and by the colouj'
of the leg's; but others, especially some of the brown ticks, require
to be examined under a microscope.

The males are usually easier to determine than the females, and
ia order to establish ihe correct species of the latter, it is often advis-
able to look for the males, which are often to be found attached to the
under surfaces of the females, and to identify these.

Two other articles, it may be added, are also being published by
the Veterinary Research Division, one on the eradication of ticks-,
and the other dealing with the diseases transmitted bv ticks.

CLASSIFICATION OF TICKS.

Ticks belong to the order Acarina, which also includes the niites.
Ticks, and more especially mites, are often spoken of as insects, but
they are in no way related to them, being* as they are akin to the
spiders and scorpions.

Ticks, mites and spiders can be distinguished from insects at a
glance by the presence of four pairs of legs, at least in the adult and
nymphal stages, whereas insects never have more than three pairs of
true legs. Insects may also be distinguished by a pair of antennae
(feelers) projecting forwards in front of the head, which are never
present in ticks and mites, and by their liodies being divided into a
number of distinct segments.

Ticks found on Man and hfk Domestic Animals. Hl'.i

Ticks are not likely to be confused with mites, except perha])s
their larvae, and there are, few mites, none in fact, found on domestic
animals, which are likely to be mistaken for ticks. However, ticks
can always be distinguished from mites by the presence of a proboscis
(hypostome) beset with small backward projecting spines on the false
head or capitulum.

All ticks are l)lood-sucking parasites of mammals, birds, reptiles,
and amphibia (frogs, toads, etc.).

Ticks, which belong to the super-family Ixodoidea, are divided
into two groups called families, the Argasidae and Ixodidae. These
two families may be readily separated by the presence in the Ixodidae
of a scutum (hard chitinous plate) covering the upper surface of the
body in the males and fonning a small, round or oval plate on the
front part of the body in the females, nymphae and larvae. In the
Argasidae the bodies are more or less soft, without any chitinous
plate, and the sexes can only be distinguished by the shape of the
sexual opening which is situated on the ventral surface between the
two front pairs of legs. Other distinguishing characters are to be
found in the position of the false head and also the eyes when present.
In the Argasidae the false head is situated on the anterior portion of
♦ lie ventral surface, and in the adults and nymphae does not as a rule
project beyond the anterior margin of the body. Eyes usually
absent, when present, four m number, situated on the lateral margins
of the ventral surface of the body; the first pair close to the first pair
of legs, and the second pair between the third and fourth pairs of legs.

In the Ixodidae the false head is situated in front, and is always
plainly visible when viewed from above. The eyes, when present, two
in number, situated on the lateral margins of the scutum.

At least four stages occur in the development of ticks, namely,
^'gg, larva, nymph, and adult. In the Argasidae there are usually
two or more nymphal stages.

The eggs vary very slightly in the different species. They are
very small (l — 1 mm. in diameter) spherical or nearly so in shape,
smooth, and yellowish brown to dark reddish-brown in colour.

The larvae have six legs, are very small when tliey first hatch,
l)ut their bodies become distended when engorged.

The nymphs of Argasidae resemble the adult females and males,
and those of the Ixodidae the females only, except for the absence
of the sexual openings and other sexual characters, and, as :i rule, in
size.

Family Argasidae.

This family contains about seventeen species, of which seven are
known to occur in South Africa. Of these, only three need concern
us here. Thev are the Fowl Tick, the Tampan Tick, and the Rpinose
Ear Tick.

(1) The Foirl Tick (Argas persicus, Oken).

This tick is f)ften wrongly termed the Tampan. It is essentially a
parasite of fowls, but has also been found on ducks, geese, turkeys,
pigeons, ostriches and man. It is extremely common and widely
distributed throughout South Africa, and is also found in other parts
of the world.

The nymphae and adults can be distinguished from either of the
other two species under consideration here by their shape (compare

;>2() Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

figures 1, 2, o. and 4), and in any case are not likely to be confused
with them, as the latter are mainly parnsitic upon man and animals.
;ind very rarely attack 1)irds.

This species is the chief transmitting agent of the fowl spirochaete
(Spirochaeta mnrchouxi), which is usually fatal to birds. The ticks
become infected by feeding upon infected fowls, and are then capable
of transmitting the disease to susceptible birds for six or more months.

Apart from the fact that the ticks are able to transmit a disease
to fowls, they do a considerable amount of harm to them, and if they
aTe at all numerous they kill their hosts, the birds dying from loss of
blood and from the irritating effects produced by the ticks.

The Life Cycle is as follows: — The female ticks usually lay their
eggs in batches of about 20 to 100 in the cracks and crevices of walls
of fowl-houses, etc., or under the bark of trees. The eggs hatch in
about three weeks, and give rise to six-legged larvae which crawl
about in search of a host. They remain attached to the skin of thei]'
host for five to ten days, according to the temperature, and then they
drop off and moult into nymphae. The nymphae and adults, unlike
the larvae, are only temporary parasites, attacking their hosts chiefly
at night and hiding during the day in crevices of buildings or under
the bark of trees. They are rapid feeders, taking lA to 2 hours to
engorge themselves. The first nymph al stage lasts about three weeks,
and then they moult into the second uymphal stage, and again, after
some weeks, into adults. The adult females feed more plentifully
than the males, and usually about once a inontJi during the summer.
After each meal they lay a batcli of eggs. Lounsbury found that
the complete life cycle from ^g^ to egg* stage occupied about ten
months in this country. The larvae are only able to live for about
seven or eight weeks without food, but nymphae have been known
to live for a year without having had a meal, and the adults for two
to three years.

(2) The Tam-pan (Ornithodoros moubata, Murray).

This tick is not nearly so widelj* distributed in South Africa as
the Fowl Tick, but is usually plentiful in localities where it is found.
It usually occurs in desert tracts in the shade of trees and rocks, and
in native huts. It is mainly parasitic upon man and his domestic
animals.

This species transmits African Relapsing Fever or Tick Fever
to man in Central and East Africa, the Congo Free State, and Angola,
and has also been proved experimentally to be able to transmit
Spirochaeta inarchouxi to fowls.

The lAfe Cycle is as follows: — The females lay their eggs in
batches in sand or hollows in the ground excavated by the females.
The total number of eggs laid by a single female varies from about
90 to 150. The larva develops inside the &g^, and the young nympha
hatches out in eight to twenty-three days. • The first stage nympha is
able to feed soon after hatching, and after gorging moults into a
second stage nympha. There may be three or four nymphal stages
in all before the ticks reach maturity. Like the fowl ticks they are
able to survive for many months without food.

(3) The Spinose Ear Tick (Ornithodoros Megnini, Dvges).
This tick is a native of America, and was probably introduced
into the Union with stock coming from that eountrv.

Ticks found on Max and his Domestic Animals. ;521

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322 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

Duiiug- tile last few years Jt lias sprejid rapidly throughout the
Cape Province, Orange Free State, and Bechuanah^nd. It is also
found in parts of Natal and the southern portion of the Transvaal.

The ticks are only found in districts where the rainfall is very
low, and even in those districts become less numerous after heavy
rains. »

They are found only in the ears of their hosts, and usually find
their way to the meatus of the ears. They are chiefly parasitic upon
calves, sheep, and goats, but horses, donkeys, dogs, cats, and ostriches
are also attacked, and so is man ocasionally. The fluid these ticks
inject into their hosts whilst feeding causes great irritation, and the
result is that animals badly infected with these ticks fall off in con-
dition and lose their appetite. Calves, sheep, and goats have been
known to succumb when very badly infected. •

The adults are fiddle-shaped, brown or slate in colour, with yellow
legs, and without eyes. In general appearance they somewhat
I'esemble the Tampan Tick, but can be distinguished from that species
by the shape' of their bodies, and also by the integument, which is
pitted in this species and mammillated (covered with small pimples)
in the Tampan.

The nymphae can be distinguished by the surface of their bodies
being covered with small outstanding spines, which can be easily seen
by the aid of a pocket lens.

The larvae are pale in colour when they first hatch out, but after
engorg-ing they become swollen, white or red in colour, and their legs
and head can, as a rule, only be seen wlien the tick is examined with a
pocket lens. These engorged larvae are imable to move, and are
often mistaken by farmers for eggs.

The Life Cycle of this tick is as follows: — The female ticks lay
their eggs under stones on the veld, in cracks and crevices of trees,
gates or walls, or in any other place where they can get sheltered
from the sun. These eggs hatch out in about twenty-two to fifty-six
days, and give rise to six-legged larvae, which, as soon as they have
liatched, crawl about in search of a host, and as soon as they find one
they get into its ears and there commence to feed. The longest time
the larvae are able to live without food is about two to four months.
After engorging, which takes about five to 7 days, they become
quiescent, and are then unable to move until they have cast their
skins and become nymphae. The length of time the nymphae remain
on their host varies considerably. The shortest time in which they
can engorge themselves appears to be about a week, but may be con-
siderably prolong'ed in some cases. Hooker, in America, has observed
a nympha to abandon its host's ear thirty-five days after the larva had
been introduced, and in other cases the nymphae remained attached
aftei ninety-eight days had elapsed. Nymphae have also- been
observed at Onderstepoort to remain in the ears of their hosts for three
months. When engorged they leave their host and crawl about in
search of some sheltered spot where they can change into adults, which
takes from seven to thirty-one days. They then fertilize, and then
the females commence laying eggs, after which they die.

It is not necessary for the adults to nourish themselves before
copulating and ovipositing, as they are able to store up enough food
in the nymphal stage. Engorged nymphae collected from the ears of
their hosts in November, 1916, and kept in the laboratory in wooden

Ticks found on Man and his Domestic Animals. 323

boxes moulted into adults in seven to nine days. A number of them
died about two to five months after they were removed from their
hosts, whilst others, including a male which fertilized a female soon
after it had moulted into an adult, still remained alive after six
months.

Megnin states that lie lias kept some 0 nieijuini alive for two years
without food.

Family Ixodidae.

This is a large family comprising about 220 species. Of these,
•iO are known to occur in South Africa.

Before proceeding to give a short account of each of the most
important species, it will first of all be necessary to briefly describe the
life cycles of these ticks, as they (the life cycles) are not only different
from those of the species belonging to the family Argasidae, but also
vary in some of these species, and this is a very important factor one
has to take into consideration when exterminating ticks.

The Life History.

The engorged females after leaving their hosts search for some
sheltered spot on the ground, such as under stones, where thej^ can
lay their eggs. The female, when she once starts to lay eggs, con-
tinues laying until her body becomes flat and empty, wlieii she dies.
The number of eggs laid by a single female varies according to the
species, but usuallv several thousands of eggs are laid. The Blue
Tick lays 1000-2500 eggs, the species of Brown Ticks from 3000 to
5700, the Bont-leg Tick may lay from 10,000 to 15,000, and the Bout
Tick about 18,500.

The eggs may take anything from 18 days to a month or two. or
even longer to hatch, the period depending upon the species and
climatic conditions.

The larvae soon alter they have escaped horn the egg are ready
to feed, and they then climb up ,a blade of grass or plant and wait
patiently for a host to pass by. Should a suitable animal pass within
their reach they promptly cling to it by means of their legs, which are
provided with claws, and, having selected a suitable spot, insert their
mouth-parts into the flesh and commence to feed. On the other
hand, should the larvae be so unfortunate as to not meet with a host,
which many, in fact the majority, which hatch in the course of a
year undoubtedly do, they must of course eventually die of starvation.

The ticks belonging to this family may be classed into three
groups — those which require only one host upon which to complete
their life cycle, those requiring two hosts, and those requiring three
hosts.

Group 1. — Ticks which, for the completion of their life cycle,
require only one host. To this group belongs the Blue Tick. The
larvae of this tick moults into a nymph on its host, and the nymph
again moults into an adult on the same animal. Pairing takes place
upon the host, and the females drop oft' when they have gorged them-
selves'.

Group 2. — Ticks which require two hosts for the completion of
their life cycle. To this group belongs the Red Tick. The larvae
moults into a nymph on the host, and the nymph drops off when it
has engorged. After remaining on the ground for about three weeks

VIl Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

it moults into an adult, which again has to find another host. Pair-
ing takes place on the host, and the females drop off when they have
gorged.

Group 3. — Ticks which require three hosts for the completion of
their life cycles. To this group belongs the Dog Tick, the Brown
Ticks (except Rhlpice-phalu^ bur\^a), the Bont-leg Tick, and the Bont
Tick. The larvae of these ticks, having found an animal and gorged,
drop off, and, after remaining on tlie ground for some time, moulf
into nymphs, which, in turn, have to find another host. Having done
so, they engorge, and then drop otf, and, after a lapse of time, moult
into adults, which again have to seek another host. Pairing takes
place on the host, and tlie females leave tlieii' host Avhen they have
engorged.

All the above ticks do not confine themselves to a single species of
animal, and all the stages may be found either on the same kind of
animal or on different kinds. In the case of the Bont-leg Tick, how-
ever, the larvae and nymphae are not, as a rule, found on the same
species of host as the adults.

The male§ of the ticks belonging to this family remain on their
host much longer than the females, and never, except in exceptional
circumstances perhaps, drop off their host to find another one, or get
on to another animal that may happen to come in contact with its
host.

(1) T/ic Sheep Paialijsis Tick or /'u.^sel Tick (Ixodes pilosus, Koch).

This species, as one of its vernacular names implies, causes
paralysis in sheep, especially in merinos. A single specimen is often
capable of producing the malady, but by no means can all individuals
of this species produce the disease, as the ticks are often found on
perfectly healthy animals. The affection usually occurs in May and
June, and is probably due to a toxin which is injected by the tick into
the blood of its host when feeding. Animals struck do not often die.
and usually soon recover after the ticks have been removed. In
removing them care should be taken not to leave the proboscis of the
tick in the flesh.

This species ij> a medium-sized tick (being roughly about the size
of the well-known Blue Tick), and can be distinguished by the absence
of eyes, and by the presence of a pregenital, a median, a pair of
adanal and an anal plate on the ventral surface of the males (fig. 6).
and in the female by the presence of an anal groove on the ventral
surface.

The only ticks with which this species is likely to be confused are,
with the exception of Ixodes ruhicundns, Neu., the Dog Tick
(Haemapliy sails leaclii) and the Blue Tick {BoophiJus decoloratus) ,
which, apart from lacking the above-mentioned plates in the males
and the anal groove in the females, differ in haA'ing a shorter proboscis
and palpi.

The males and unengorged females are reddish-brown in colour,
and the engorged females are slate-coloured, and of a peculiar shape —
the body being larger behind than in front.

This tick is chiefly confined to the Cape Province, but has also
been recorded from the Orange Free State. It is usually found in
grass districts. A variety of this species (var. Jioirardi) is known to

Ticks found on Man and his Domestic Animals. :V2')

occur ill the Transvitiil. iiiul lias also heen found in Durban, lin1 it is
by no means common.

The type has been found on sheep, g-oats. ox. mule, horse, cat,
dog', pig", leopard, bushbuek and man. and its vaiiety principally on
dog-, but Howard has also taken it on a cat, a hedgehog, and a b;)1.

The life history of this tick is unknown.

(2) Ixodes rubicundus, Neinnaun.
This tick is very similar to the foregoing species, from which ii
is distinguished by both the anal plate of the male and the anal groove
of the female being parallel, whereas in Lvode<< pilosus they are
horseshoe shaped. It is by no means a common tick, and has only
been found on sheep in the Cape Province. It is also capalde of pro-
ducing paralysis in sheep. I have received a female and male from
Air. H. W. Andrews of this Division, who took them off a paralysed
sheep at Middelburg, Cape Province. They were the only ticks found
on the animal, and it recovered shortly after the ticks had been
lemoved .

The Dog Tick (Haemaphysalis leachi, And.).

(J haracters.— Thin is a small tick easily recognisable by the
absence of eyes, the short hypostome and palpi, the latter of which are
triangular in shape, and by the absence of plates and adanal shields
on the ventral surface of the male.

The males and unengorged females arc btdwn in colour, and the
engorged females slate blue.

This tick is common and widely distribuied throughout Africa,
It is essentially a parasite of dogs and cats, and wild animals of the
dog and cat tribes, e.g. jackal, lion, leopard, civet cat, etc. It has
also occasionally l)een found on cattle and hedgehogs, and nymphs are
sometimes met with on rats and mice. They attach themselves to the
head and body of theii- host.

TJie L/ife Historij. — This species requires three hosts in order to
complete its life cycle. The females lay on an average about 5000
eggs, which take about a month to hatch. After about a week the
larvae are ready to feed, and when they have found a host they remain
attached for 2-T days. Having engorged, they drop to the ground
and moult into nymphs in about a month's time. The nymphs, after
finding a host, remain attached 2-7 days, and then drop to the ground,
where they change into adults in about 10-15 days or so. The adults,
after finding' a host, remain feeding' upon it for about twelve days, but
the males remain much longer. The females usually commence to
lay eggs in 3-7 days after leaving- their host, the period varying
according to the climatic conditions. This tick is not found in the
Pretoria district of the Transvaal in winter — the cold period being-
passed in the egg stage.

Relation to Disease. — This tick is the principal transmitting agent
of canine piroplasmosis or biliary fever to dogs in South Africa. The
organism causing the disease is imbibed by females when sucking
blood of an infected animal ; it then undergoes development in the
tick and penetrates the eggs. The larvae on hatching, although
infected, are not capable of transmitting the disease, nor are the
nymphs, but the adults are. Infected adults have been known to
tran.smit the disease after having fasted for seven months,

:^2& Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Dogs which have harl the disease and recovered retain the infec-
tion.

The Red Tick (Rhipicephalus evertsi, Neu.)

Cliaracters. — This tick, like all the others belonging- to the genns
Rhipicephalus, has a short proboscis and palpi, possess eyes and
festoons, and the males have a pair of adanal and accessory adanal
shields on the under surface of their bodies. The males c^n easily be
recognized by their red legs, black shield (scutum), which is densely
pitted, and by the under surface and margin of the upper surface of
their bodies being also red. The females also have a dark scutum, and
their bodies are dnrk brown wlien unengorged and reddish-brown when
engorged.

This common species is found on all the domestic animals, except
pigs, and also occurs on hares and various species of buck.

The Life History. — It is a two-host tick. The eggs hatch in
about thirty days in summer. The young larvae on finding a host
usually attach themselves to the ears and flanks, and after gorging
moult into nymphs on the animal. After 10-15 days they drop off
as engorged nymphae, and moult into adults on the ground in 22-25
days. The adults usually attach themselves to the anus or scutum
of their host, the females remaining on 6-9 days, and the males much
longer.

Larvae have been kept alive for seven months without food, and
the adults for a year.

Relation to Disease. — The Red Tick is a carrier of one of the two
organisms which produce equine piroplasmosis or biliary fever in
horses, and has also been proved experimentally to be capable of trans-
mitting East Coast fever and a disease formally called " gall-sick-
ness " (which ]s produced by the organism Piroplasmu mutans) to
cattle. However, the part played by this tick in the transmission of
East Coast fever is probably insignificant. All the above diseases are
transmitted by the larvae and nymphae feeding on infected animals
and transmitting the disease to suvsceptible animals in their adult
stage.

In addition to these, this tick has also been proved to transmii
redwater to cattle and spirillosis, which occurs in horses, cattle, and
sheep. Both these diseases may be transmitted to susceptible animals
by larvae which have become infected through their mothers feeding
on an infected animal, and also in the case of redwater, by adults
which have derived their infection through feeding on an infected
animal in their larval and nymphal stages.

7' he Brown Tick (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, Neu).
Characters. — This species differs from the Red Tick in having,
like the remainder of the ticks belonging to the genus Rhipicephalus,
brown legs. The males differ from the other kinds of brown ticks by
the punctuation on the scutum being mostly small and not very
numerous, especially on the margin. When fully fed the males have
a long, pointed tail. The females also differ from the other brown
ticks in the size and number of the punctuations on the scutum, but
their determination is by no means easy. It is therefore advisable for
the farmer to collect the males, which may often be found attached to
the under surface of the bodies of the females, and to identifv these.

Ticks found on Man and his DoMESTrc Animals. 327

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:y26 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

This tick is common and widely distributed in Soutli Africa. It
is parasitic upon* cattle, liorse, mule, sheep, g'oat, dog", hares, and
diii'erent species of buck. It is found on the head or l»ody, or in the
cars of its host.

Life History. — The JJrown Tick requires three hosts in order to
complete its life cycle. The females lay about 3000 to 5700 eggs,
which take about twenty-eight days to hatch in summer, and from two
to three mouths or more in winter. The larvae remain on their host
from three to seven days, and after dropping off moult into- nymphs in
sixteen to twenty-one days. The nymphs also remain three to seven
days on their host. They moult into adults on the ground after a
period of about \e\\ to eighteen days. The females usually remain
on their host for about a week, but in some instances the period may
be prolonged to about three weeks.

Larvae have been kept alive without Icod for seven to eleven
months, the nymphs for six and a hair uionths, and the adults for
nearly twenty-six months.

Relation to Disease. — The Brown Tick is the chief transmitting
agent of East Coast fever to cattle, and has also been proved to be
capable of transmitting the disea.se foimally known as " gall-sickness "
in cattle, whicdi is produced by Piroplasiini mutatis, red^vater in cattle
and gastro-enteritis, or " Nairobi Sheep Disease," as it is commonly
called, which occurs in sheep and goats in British East Africa.

East Coast fever may be transmitted either by the nymphs which
become infected through feeding on an animal suffering from the
disease in their laiwal stage, or by the adults which got infected in
their nymphal stage. Infective nymphs and adults lose their infec-
tion after feeding on a clean animal. Eedwater may be transmitted
either by adults which have fed on an infected animal in their
nymphal stage or by larvae whose mothers acquired the infection
through feeding on an infected animal. There can be little doubt,
however, that the Blue Tick is the chief earner of the organism pro-
ducing this disease in this country. " Nairobi Sheep Disease " was
demonstrated by Mr. Montgomery in East Africa to be transmitted by
the adults, which became infected throng^ feeding on an infected
animal in their nymplial stag'o. Fortunately, this disease does not
occur in the ITnion.

The Cape Brown Tide (Ivhipicephalus capeusis, Koch).

This tick is by no means common in South Africa. It closely
resembles the common Brown Tick, from which it is mainly distin-
guishable by the scutum or shield l)eing more densely covered with
small pits or punctations. It has also been proved to be capable of
transmitting East Coast fever to cattle. Other hosts of this tick are
the horse, goat, and dog.

The life cycle is 'similar to that of the foregoing species.

The Blach-pitted Tick (Rhipicephalus simus. Koch).

This tick can be distinguished from the other brown ticks .by the
^:cutum being darker in colour, and by the punctations on its surface
being fewer, and in the males they are usually arranged in longi-
tudinal lines. The males when fed sometimes possess a tail. It is a
fairly common species in South Africa, and is usually found attached

Ticks found on Man and his Domestic Animals. 329

to the body or in the ears of the dog, ox, horse. <>;():it. sheep, vurious
species of buck, hares, and bush pigs.

This tick is also concerned m the transmission of East Coast fever
to cattle, and has, in addition, been proved to transmit gall-sickness
to cattle. Gall-sickness is transmitted by larvae whose niotliers
became infected through feeding on an infected animal.

The life cycle is similar to that of tlie Brown Tick.

77je European Brown Tick (Rhiplcephalu^ sanguineus, Latr.).

This species closely resembles the Brown Tick, from which it can
l>e distinguished by its smaller size, and by the punctations on the
scutum being more variable in size. The males, when fully fed, often
have a small, stumpy caudal protrusion (tail). This tick is fairly
common in South Africa. It is mainly parasitic upon dogs, but has
also been found on cattle, sheep, and cats, and on wild animals, such
as hares, animals of the dog tribe, etc. They are usually found on
the bodies of their hosts.

Life History. — This tick, like the other brown ticks, requires
Ihiee hosts in order to complete its life cycle. The females lay 1400
lo 8400 eggs, which take about seventeen to nineteen days to hatch.
Tlie larvae remain four days on their host, and, after dropping off.
take five to eight days to moult into nymphs. The nymphs also
remain four days on their host, and take eleven to twelve days to mouli
into adults. The females remain on their host for seven to twenty-
one days.

IJiifed larvae have been kept alive for 253 days, nymphs for
ninety-seven days, and adults for as long as 570 days without food.

Relation to Disease. — It has l)eeri proved to be a carrier of biliary
fever or canine piroplasmosis to dogs in India, and probably plays a
part in the transmission of this disease in South Africa, but not to the
same extent as that of the Dog Tick (Haeniaphjtjsalis leachi , And.).

The piroplasm may be transmitted either by the nymphs of
R. sanguineus, which have become infected through their mothers
feeding on an infected dog, or by adults which have fed on an infected
dog in their nymphal stage, whereas it is only transmitted by the
adults of H. leachi, which have derived their infectivity through their
mothers feeding- on an infected animal.

There are three other species of Brown Ticks which have been
recorded from South Africa, namely, the Eyed Tick (Rhipicephalus
oculatus. ]^eu.), the Congo Brown Tick (Rhipicephalvs hmulntus,
Xeu.), and Rhipicephalus bursa, Can. and Fanzago.

The Eyed Tick has, like the Red Tick, hemispherical eyes,
whereas all the other brown ticks have flat eyes. It has been found on
cattle in the Transvaal and East Africa, ajid on a hare in Damaraland.
It is very rare.

The*^ Congo Brown Tick is another rare species in South Africa,
it having only been taken in the Zoutpansberg District, Transvaal.
It can be distinguished by the shape of the adanal shields of the male,
which are produced behind into two points. This tick is found on
cattle, sheep, goat, dog, antelope, and hedgehog.

Rhipicephalus bursa has been recorded from the Transvaal and
Cape Province, but it is not a common species in this country It is

33»» Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

found chiefly iu North Africa and Southern Europe. II is innasitic
upon all domestic animals.

None of these three species has been known to be carriers of any
disease, but it is probable that all are capable of transmittino' East
Coast fever.

Argentine or Lounshury\s Tick (Margaropus withemi. Karsch).

Characters. — The males can easily be recog-nized by the fourth
pair of leg's being very much larger than any of the others, and by
the abdomen having a distinct caudal protru.sion (tailK On the under
surface of the body there is a peculiar shaped plate in front of the
anus. They are wliite in colour, with a brown shield which is often
marked with dark lines, and the legs are pale with narrow, dark
bands at the joints.

The females closely resemble the lihu* Tick, from which they ran
be distinguished by their larger size, and V)y their legs being bniuh-d
as in the male.

This is a South American tick, which was probably imported into
ihis country during the Boer War with mules or horses from the
Argentine. It is a common tick in luany parts of the Orange Free
State and Basutoland. It is mainly parasitic upon horses, and is
occasionally found on cattle. It has occasionally been found at flic
Yeterinary Research Laboratory. Onderstepoort. on horses from the
Free State, but it ^ery soon dies out here, no doubt owing to the
climatic conditions being unsuited for it.

The life history of this species is unknown, and the tick is not
known to be able to transmit any disease.

The Blue Tick CBoophilus decoloratus, Koch).

Characters. — Hypostome and palpi veiy short, anal grooves and
festoons absent, eyes present, males and unengorged females very
small, the latter with a small scutum.

The engorged females can be recognized by their blue colour and
pale, yellow legs, and the males by their yellowish-brown colour and
yellow legs, the presence of adanal and accessory adanal shields on
the ventral surface of the abdomen, which are long and pointed
behind, the tips being usually visible when the ticks are viewed from
above, and finally liy the abdomen terminating in a short, pointed
tail behind.

This is the commonest tick found in South Africa : it is chiefly
found on cattle and horses, but also occurs on sheep, goats, and dogs.
They are usually found on the body and head of their host, and the
immature forms are often very plentiful in the ears.

Life History. — This tick requires only one host in order to com-
plete its life cycle. The females lay on an average 1000 to 2500 egg^.
which take about three to ^x weeks to hatch. The larvae, after
gorging, remain adhered to their host and moult into nymphs, which
reattach themselves immediately: when fully engorged they remain
in situ and moult into adults, vvhich again attach themselves. The
engorged females drop off in twenty-two to thirty-eight days (twenty-
two days in summer and about thirty to thirty-eight days in winter)
lifter they get on to their host as unfed larvae.

The unfed larvae have been kept alive for six months, but as a
rule thev will not live more than three months witliout food.

' Ticks found on Man and his Domestic Animals. 331

'■V

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:i82 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Relation to Diseases.— Thin tick is tlie well-known transmitting:
ai^ent of the organisms producing redwater and gall-sickness in cattle
in South Africa, and is also the transmitting agent of spirocliaetosis
to cattle, sheep, and horses in this country-. The organism whicli
causes redwater is known as Piroplasma bigermnu/n. that
causing gall-sickness as Anaplasjna w^rginale, and spirochaetosis is
(■aused by Spirochaeta theileri . All these diseases are transmitted to
susceptible animals by larvae which have become infected through
tlieir mothers feeding either on animals suffering from the disease, or
on animals which jiave had the disease and recovered, the animals
retaining the infection of any of these diseases for an indefinite period
after they have recovered from them.

There is another species of Blue Tick found in Soutji Africa,
namely, the Australian Blue Tick (Boophihis tuistralis. Fuller), whicli
closely resembles the South African species in appearance. It is not
a common tick in this country, having only been found in the southern
parts of the Cape Province. Like its near relation, it can tiansrait
redwater or bovine piroplasmosis to cattle, and will probably be
found capable of transmitting gall-sickness and spirochaetosis.

The Bont-leq Tick (Hyalomma aegyptiura, lAnn).

Characters. — Hypostome and palpi long: eyes present; festoons
absent; legs red, with pale bands. The males have white bodies, and
tjie scutum is dark brown or black : on the under surface of the body
tliere are a pair ot adanal shields and two pairs of chitinized points,
the first pair being situated on each sirlo of the adanal shields, and
tlie second pair beneath them.

This species is widely distrilajtcd thioughout Africa, and
is also found in Southern Europe and Asia. It is not
often met with in South Africa, its place being taken in this country
l)y the var. ivipressnm, Neu., which is a common tick here; it may
eventually prove to be a distinct species. The variety differs from
the type mainly in the scutum or shield being much more densely
punctated. It is found on all the domestic animals, and also on
various species of buck, hares. bush-])igs, and birds, such as the
ostrich, fowls, etc. They usually attach themselves to the anus and
scutum of their host, but may also be found on the body.

The Life History. — The Bont-leg Tick requires either two or three
hosts for the completion of its life cycle. The females lay on an
average about 10,000 to 15,000 eggs, which take about a month to
hatch. The larvae take four to fifteen days to engorge, at the end
of which time they either drop off their host to moult, or they remain
attached to the animal and moult in situ, in which case they engorge
and drop off' in three and a half to six and a half weeks after they get
on to their host as larvae. The females remain about a week on their
host.

Unfed larvae have been kept alive for a year; nymphs for three
months, and adults for over two years Avithout food.

Relation to Disease. — This tick is not known to transmit any
disease, but Prof. Nuttall suspects that it may convey one of the two
organisms which causes biliary fever in horses, the assumption being
based upon the fact that the geographical distribution of one of the
organisms whi«-^h produces the disease mul this tick coincide with one
another.

Ticks pound ox Man and his Domestic Animals. :v^'^

0

♦

J^^.

/•

■ A

J^ 20

Pig 21

ns

r^ -y^

Tijc^lZ

■V?^-

Fig. 14

?>M Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

J'/ic Bont Ttck (xViul)lyomj)i;i lu'l)i;t(MU)i, Koch).

Characters. — All the species of Aviblyomma are as a rule easy \o
identify owing to cliaracteristic coloured markings on the scutum,
wiiicli differ in the different species. The following characters are
common to all species belonging* to the genus Amhlyomma: —

Scutum generally ornamented and the legs banded : rostrum and
])alpi long; eyes and festoons present; males without adanal shields.

The males and females of the Bont Tick have the scutum
yellowish with usually a red and green tinge, and with dark brown or
l)lack markings.

This tick is widely distributed in South Africa, but more
Frequently occurs on the low than on the high veld. It is parasitic
upon all the domestic animals and upon a number of wild animals,
also on fowls and ostriches. They usually attach themselves to the
scutum and anus of their host, but also occur on the body.

Life History. — It is a three-host tick. The females may lay as
many as 18,500 eggs, which takes about 7 to 10 weeks or longer to haiidi .
The larvae remain on their host from 4 to 20 days, and moult into
nymphs in from twelve to four months after dropping off. The
nymphs take from four to twenty days to engorge, and after dropping
off usually remain on the ground 18-25 days before moulting into
adiilts, but have been known to take 160 days to moult. The females
take 6-25 days to engorge, and after leaving their host, remain on
the ground from a week to ten weeks before they commence egg-laying.
Larvae have been kept alive without food for almost a year, the
nymphs for 180 to 250 days, and adults for nearly two years.

Relation to Disease. — The Bont Tick is the chief transmitting
agent of heartwater to cattle, sheep and goats in South Africa. The
disease is transmitted by either the nymphs which have fed on an
animal suffering from the disease in their larval stage, or by the
adults, which fed in their larval or nymphal stage on such an aimal.

jS'ymphs which acquired their infection in the larval stage can
feed on a non-infected animal without losing the infection.

The Variegated Tick (Amblyomma variegatum, Fahr.).

Characters. — This tick can be recognized by the scutum of the
females and males being redtfish-yellow bordered with green, and with
black markings.

This species is found in parts of the Transvaal and Cape Pjo-
vince, but is by no means a common species. It is principally found
on cattle, but also occurs on horses, goats, sheep, zebra and rhinoceros.

The life cycle is similar to that of the Bont Tick.

Relation to Disease. — We have recently proved by experiments
that the Variegated Tick can transmit heartwater to goats. A number
of nymphs, which had become infected in their larval stage through
feeding on an animal suffering from the disease, were sent to us from
East Africa by Mr. Montgomery. On arrival the majority were
found to be dead, but 30 were placed in the ears of three goats, five
in each ear, and two of the goats showed typical symptoms of the
disease and died. Blood taken from tbese goats and injected into
sheep produced the disease.

Ticks found on Man and his Domestic Animals. 335

Fi^£9.

;536 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

• The ToitDise Tick (Ambh-oiuma maimoreum. Koch).

This tick is a common parasite of tortoises in South Africa.
Larvae and nym])lis liave been found on the ox and goats, npon which
they feed readily. It also occurs on the rhinoceros, and has occa-
sionally been found on birds, snakes and lizards.

The scutum of the females and males is d.nlc with several pale
yellowish marking's, which arc often more or less irregular, and in old
specimens ill-defined.

The life history of this tick is unknown. It is not known 'lo
convey any disease.

List of the Ticks which have been found on M.vn aAd his Domestic

Animals and Poultry in South Africa.
Man —

Fowl Tick { Argus per.sicus, Oken).

Bat Tick (Argus vespertilionis, Latr.).

Tampan Tick {Omithodoros mouhatu, Murray).
Ornithodoios savignyi, Aud,
Ornithodoros pavimentosus, Neu.

Spinose Ear Tick (Ornithodoros megnini, Duges).

Penguin Tick {Ornithodoros talaje var. capensis, IVeii.)

Sheep Paralysis Tick (Ixodes piiosus, Koch).

Red Tick (RhipicephaUis evertsi, Neu.).

Brown Tick (Rliipicephalus append iculatus, Neu.).

Black-pitted Tick (Rhipicephalus siinus, Koch).

Hont-leg Tick (Hyulonnnn aegyptiuin, Linn.).

Hyalomma aegyptium, var. impressvvi, Neu.

Bont Tick (A/nhlyotnnia hehraeuin, Koch).
Horse —

Spinose Ear Tick {Ornithodoros incgnini, Duges).

Sheep Paralysis Tick (Ixodes piiosus, Koch).

Red Tick (Rhipicephalus exertsi, ISTeu.).

Brown Tick (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, Neu.).

Cape Brown Tick (RJii/)icephalus capensis, Koch).

Congo Brown Tick (Rhipicephalus hmulatus, Neu.).

Black-pitted Tick (Rliipicep)ialus sinius, Koch).

Brown Tick (Rhipicephalus bursa, Canes, and Fan.).

Argentine Tick (Margaropus icitheuii, Karsch).

Blue Tick (Boophilus decoloratus, Koch).

Australian Blue Tick (Boophilus australis. Fuller). ■

Bont-leg Tick (Hyalomma aegyptiuvi, Linn.).

Hyalomma aegyptium, var. inipressv/in , ^«cu.

Bont Tick (Amhlyouiuia hehraeum, Koch).

Variegated Tick (Amhlyomma rariegatwin, Fabr.).
Ass- —

Spinose Ear Tick (Ornithodoros megnini, Duges).

Red Tick (Rhipicephalus evertsi, Neu.).

Argentine Tick (Margaropus u-ithemi, Karsch).

Blue Tick (Boophilus decoloratus, Koch).

Bont-leg Tick (Hyalomma aegyptium, Linn.).

Hyalomma aegyptium, var. iwjyressnm, Neu.

Bont Tick (Amhlyomma aegyptium, Linn.).

Ticks found on Man and his Domestic Animals. :W7

Mule—

Spiuosc EiU Tick (Ornithodoiox iiief/nini, Duges).
Sheep Paralysis Tick ( Ixodes pilosus, Koch).
Red Tick (Rhipiceplialus evertsi, Neu.)-
Brown Tick {R]iii>icephalu.'< (ippeiidiculatus, Xeii.)-
Argentine Tick {Marginopus witliemi, Karsch).
Blue Tick (Boophilus decoloiatins, Koch).
Bout-leg- Tick {Hijalomnia aegyptiiim, Liun.).

Hyalomma aegyptium, var. iniprr.s.sH in, Ncii.
Bout Tick (Amhlyumiiui hchraeuin, Koch).
Variegated Tick (A inhJyoni iiui rdiiegntniv , Fahr.).

Cattle —

Tampan {Oniitliodoros inoubata, Muiray).

Oinithodoios savigiiyi. And.
Spiuose Ear Tick {Ornithodoros viegnim, Dugcs).
Sheep Paralysis Tick (Ixodes pilosus, Kotdi).
Dog Tick (Haemaphy sails leachi, And.).
Red Tick (Ehipicephalus evertsi, ]S"eu.).
Brown Tick (Rhlpicephalus appendiculatus, Xeu.).
Eyed Tick {lihipicepluilus oculafus).
Cape Brown Tick ( Rliipiceplialus capensis, Koch).
Congo Brown Tick (RJiipiccphalus lunuhitus, Neu.).
European Brown Tick (RInpicephalus sanguineus, Eatr.).
Black-pitted Tick (RhipicepJialns sinius, Koch).

Rhipicephalus bursa, Canes, and Ean.
Argentine or Lounsbury's Tick (Margaropus tvithemi, Karsch).
Blue Tick (BoophHus decoloratus. Koch).
Australian Blue Tick (Boophilus anstralis. Fuller).
Bont-leg Tick (Hyalomma aegyptium, Einn.).

Hyalomma aegyptium, var. impressuvi, Neu.
liout Tick (Amblyonima hebraeum, Kocli).
Variegated Tick (Amblyowma variegatum, Eahr.).
Tortoise Tick (Amblyomma marmoreum, Koch). Earvae and
nympliae only.

Sheep —

Tampan {(Jrnithodoios inoubata, Murray).
Ornithadoros savignyi, Aud.

Ornithodoros fiavi moiitosus, Xeu.. S()utli-\\ est Atrica.
Spinose Ear Tick (Ornithodoros inegnini, Duges).
Sheep Paralysis or Russet Tick (Ixodes pilosus, Koch).

Ixodes pilosus, var. lioivardi, Neu.
Ixodes rubicundus, Neu.
Red Tick (Rhipicephalus evertsi, Neu.).
■ Brown Tick (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, Neu.).
European Brown Tick (Rhipicephalus sanguineus, Eatr.).
Black-pitted Tick (Rhipicephalus siinus, Koch).

Rhipicephalus bursa. Canes, and Fan.
Blue Tick (Boophilus decoloratus, Koch).
Bont-leg Tick (Hyalomma aegyptium, Linn.).

Hyalomma aegyptium, var. ivipressum, N^n.
Bont Tick (Amblyomma hebraeum, Koch).
Variegated Tick (Amblyomma variegatum, Fahr.).

ri.JH Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

(roat-

Tanipan {Omiihudurot! moubata, Murray).

Ornitliodoros savignyi, And.
Spinose Enr Tick (Ornitliodoros megnini, Duges).
Slieep Paralysis or Russet Tick {Ixodes pilosus, Kocli).
Red Tick (Rhipicephalus evertsi, Neii.).
Brown Tick (RJiipicepJialus appendiculatus, Neu.).
fa])*' Bi'own Tick (Rhipicephalus capensis, Kocli)-
Black-pitted Tick (RJiipiccphalus sinnis, Kocli).
Bont-leg" Tick (Hi/alonu/Ki aef/ijptiuin. liliiii.).

Hyaloinnia aegyptium, var. iiiiprc.Hsuin, Nen.
Bout Tick {Aiiihly omnia hehraeinii, Kocli).
Variegated Tick (Avihlyoinma variegatuin, Fabr.).
Tortoise Tick {Ainhlyomwa marmoreum, KocB). Larvae and
nyni])ltae only.

f'>g-

/),u

Cat-

Kussef Tick (Lvode.^ pilosus, Koch;.
Cape Brown Tick (Rhipicephalus cnpeusv

Tampan {ilruilhudoros iiiouliata. Murray).
vSpinose Ear Tick (Ornithodoros megnini, Duges).
.Slice]) Paralysis or Russet Tick {Ixodes jnlosux, Koch).

Ixodes pilosus. var. howardi, Neu.
Dog Tick (HaemapJiysalis leach i, Aud.).
Euro])can Brown Tick (RhipicepJialus sangi/incus, Latr).
Red Tick {RhipicepJialus evertsi, Neu.).
Brown Tick (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, Neu.).
lilack-pitted Tick (Rhipicephalus simus, Koch).
Cape Brown Tick (Rhipicephalus capensis, Koch).
Congo Brown Tick (Rhipicephalus lunulatus, Neu.)

Rhipicephalus hursa, Canes, and Fan.
Blue Tick (Boophilus decoloratuf<. Koch).
Bont-leg Tick (Hyalomma aegyj'tium, Linn.).

Hyalomma aegyptium, var. impressum , Neu.
Bont Tick (Amhlyomnia hehraeum. Koch).

Spinose Ear Tick (Ornitliodoros megnini, Duges).
Shee}) Paralysis or Russet Tick (Ixodes pilosus, Koch).

Ixodes pilosus, var. howardi, Neu.
Dog Tick [Haemaphysalis leachi, Aud.).
European Brown Tick (Rhipicepluilus sanguineus, Latr.).
Bont-leg Tick (Hyalomma aegyptium, Linn.).

Ostrich- —

Fowl Tick (At gas petsicus, Oken.).

Spinose Ear Tick (Ornithodoros me'gnint, Duges).

Bont-leg Tick (Hyalomma aegyptium, var. impressum, Neu.).

Bont Tick (Amhtyomma hehraeum . Koch).

Ticks found on Man and his Domestic Animals.

:\:\o

Foicls-

Fowl Tick (Argas persicus, Okeii.;.

'I'aiiipitn Tirk {Orniihodorus inoubata, Murray).

Ornithodoros savignyi, Aud.

Ornithodoros parimentosus, Xeii., Soulh-AVesl
Africa .
Penguiu Tick (Ornithodoros talaje, var. capensis). Cape Province.
Bont-leg" Tick (Hyaloinma aegyptium, var. impresxum, Neu.).
Bont Tick ( Amhlyom.Tva hphraptim, Koch).

Tiirkeys, Geese, Ducks, and Pigeons —

The Fowl Tick (Argas persicus, Oken.).

Table of Diseases Transmitted by South African Ticks.

Disease.

TT ^ Organism causing

**®^'^- Disease.

Transmitted by.

Kast Coast Fever or i Cattle
Rhodesian Fever \

Redwater or Bovine i Cattle
Piroplasmosis

TheUpiia parni

Rh ipiceph alus apprn di nihitv .v
Rht//icep/iali/s capen-iix.
Bli ipiceph a Itt x s i m v ■•< .
lihipicephiihtu erertui .

Biliary Fcvrr or Equine
Piroplasmosis

Biliary Fever or Canine
Piroplasmosis

Gall-sickness (form of)
Oall-siekness ...
fleartwatPi

Spirillosis

Human Tick Feverf ...
Fowl Spirochaetosis ...

Horse
Mule
Donkey

Dog

Cattle

Cattle
Sheep
Goats

Horse
Cattle
Sheep

Man

Fowls

Piri>pla.iiiiu hige.niinv'ii Soophilus decoloratii.i.
Booohilus (lustralis.

Xuti/illia fiz/ui

Piropldxma r/niix
Piroplaxniti mutunx

Rhipicephalu!f\appendie'nlatus
Rliip icephalnx e rerH i .

Rh ip icppha In s erertx i .

Haemaphysalis leachi.
Rhipicephalnx xanfivivrxx. '■'

Rhipieephalus appendiculiitux
Rhipicephalvs erertxi.

Anopla.tvui marqinalp Bonphilus decoloratux.
Rhipicephaln.f slmux.

U/tra ri.tible rin/x

Sprraphapta tlipih'ri

Spirochueta dwttoni
Spirocliaefa marchouxi

Ambly omnia hebraeum .
A mhlyomma rariegaiiim.

Boophihix decoloratu-s.
Rhipicpphalna prertn.

Ornithodoros movhata.

Argas persicus.
Orni'hodoros mouhata.

* This tick was proved to transmit the disease in India.

t This disease is not known tn occur in the Union of South Africa.

340

Journal of the Department of A(4Riculture.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Fig.

1.

t'lo;.

2.

Fig.

3.

J''ig.

4,

Fis.

5,

Fip;.

6.

Fig.

t .

F\fr.

8.

Fis.

y.

1^'ig.

iU.

Fig.

li.

Fig.

12.

Fis.

13.

Fie;.

14.

Fig.

].5,

Fig.

16.

F.g.

17.

FiR.

18.

Fi^.

19.

Fifi.

20.

Fig.

21.

Fig.

22.

Fig.

23.

Fig.

24.

Fi^.

25.

Fig.

26.

F.g.

27.

Fis.

28.

Fig.

29.

-Fowl Tick {Aryas pcrsicus), adult.

-Tampan Tick {Ornithodorus mouhata), adult.

-Spinose Ear Tick (0. viegnini). nymph.

-Spinose Ear Tick (0. mpgnini), adult.

-Sheep Paralysis Tick (Ixodes pilosiis), male (upper surface).

-Sheep Paralysis Tick {Ixodes pllosus), male (under surface).

-Dog Tick {Hacmaphysalis leachi). male (upper surface).

-Dog Tick (Haemaphysalis leachi), male (under surface).

-Red Tick {lihipicephalus cvertsi), male (upper surface).

-Red Tick (BhipicephaJiis evertsi). male (under surface).

-Cape Brown Tick (li. capensis), male (upper surface).

-Black-pitted Tick {B. simus), male (upper surface).

-Brown Tick (B.. appendictdatus). dorsal surface of male (after Nuttall).

-Brown Tick {B. appendiculatn^). ventral suriace of male (after Nuttall).

-Brown Tick {B. appendiculatus), dorsal surface of female (after

Nuttall).
-European Brown Tick (B. sanguineus), dorsal surface of female (aftei-

Cun'liff).
-European Brown Tick (B. sanguijieus), dorsal .'surface of male (after

Cunliff).
-European Brown Tick (7i*. sniuiHineus). ventral surface of male (after

Cunliff).
-Life-cycle of the Brown Tick {B. appendiculatus).

n. Eggs; c. unengorged larva; /. engorged larva; h. unengorged
nymph; g. engorged nymjjh ; d. male; h. unengorged female;
e. engorged female.
-Argentine Tick {Murgoropvs u-itlirmi), male (dorsal surface).
-Argentine Tick {Margaropvs iriffumi). engorged female (dorsal

.surface).
-Blue Tick (Boophilus decolorafus), male (dor.sal surface).
-Blue Tick (Boojjhihis decolorat u s) , male (ventral .surface).
-Blue Tick (Boophilus decoloratus), engorged female (dorsal surface).
-Bont Leg Tick (Hi/alomma impressum), male (dorsal surface).
-Bout Leg Tick (Ilyalomma impressum), male (ventral surface).
-Bont Tick (Amhlyomma hchraeum), male.
-Bont Tick (Amhlyomma hchraeuiti), female.
-Variegated Tick (A. varirgafum). male.

REFERENCE LETTERS.

A. — Hypostome or proboscis. M.-

B. — Chelicerae or mandibles. N.-

C. — Palpus (four-jointed). O.-

D. — Capitulum or "false head." P.-

E. — Porose areas (only present in Q.-

the females of Ixodidae). R.-

F. — Scutum or dorsal shield. S.-

G.— Eye. T.-

H. — Cervical groove. U.-

I. — Festoon. V.-

J. — Epiracle or respiratoroy W.-

appartus. X.-

K. — Pregenital plate. . Z.-
L. — Caudal process.

-Genital orifice.
-Median plate.
-Ann.s.

-Adanal plate.
-Anal plate.
-Genital groove.
-Anal groove.
-Adanal shield.
-Accessary adanal shield.
-Coxa (first joint of leg).
-Tar.sus (sixth joint of leg).
-Haller's sense organ.
-Chitinized points.

Export of Grain, etc.

The Chief Inspector of Grain leports that luring- May. 1920.
there were exported (all from Capetown) 108 bag'.s of beans and 139
l)ag's of maize meal, while the stocks on hand on the 31st of that
month were five bags lucerne seed at Capetown and 3641 bags of
maize meal at Dnrban.

Chemical Analysis of Hoils. 'M\

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS.

B. DE ('. Makchand, 13. a., D.iSc, Chief, Divisiou ot Clieiiii.sU.> ,
Depaitmeut of Agricultiiie.

Farmeus iij Soutli Africa me apt to attach too little or too much
iinportance to .soil analysis. Those who do not submit samples of the
.soil from their farms for examination iu the laboratories of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture are not actuated, for the most part, by a disbelief
iu the value of such analyses, but apparently are merely neglectful or
ignorant of tlie facilities oftered. In many cases the farmer is satis-
fied with the yield obtained under his methods of cultiyation and does
not seek to obtain g-reater returns. Htliers, no doubt, are well aware
of tlie cajiacity of their soils for crop i)roduction and of the most
profitable manures to use, and have learnt by experience the most
suitable crops to grow.

On file other hand, the belief in the value of soil analysis is by
some carried to extremes. The soil chemist is credited with almost
supernatural powers, such jjowers that if he really possessed them
would enabh' him to become a millionaire in a short space of time,
if he only hail the land to farm on. Frequently in the Division of
Chemistry we have a matchboxful of soil sent in. the sender writing'
from a box number in a big town, with the request that the soil be
analysed and a report furnished as to manures required, crops to
g-row, trees to plant, or if teif will do better than tall fescue, and so on.

IVoAv if a soil chemist, say, in South Africa, were given a sam])l('
of soil coming' from the West Indies, he would be able to determine
the quantities of the various plant food constituents present in tliaf
soil and ])robably to give reliable advice on a scheme of manuiing', bul
unless he knew where the sample came from, and were acquainted with
conditions in that locality, he would be utterly at sea on the question
of suitable crops or trees. The suitability of a particular crop to
particular soils only holds provided other conditions are the same.
Climate is one of the most important factors in the selection of the
crop. It would be absurd, for example, to say that a soil from the
high veld districts of the Transvaal was suitable for mangoes, yet as a
soil it mig'ht well be exactly similar to soils on which mangoes are
successfully grown in the low veld oi' Xatal.

Yet many persons who submit samples of soil are positively
annoyed when asked for more information or even for a sample of
reasonable size.

The object of this article is to attempt to indicate the limitations
as well as the value of soil analysis.

In the laboratories of the Division of Chemistry two types of
chemical analysis of soils are carried out : (1) The so-called " com-
plete analysis," and (2) a partial analysis.

We will briefly discuss these and endeavour to explain what is to
he learnt fjom them.

.'u2 .tot^xal of the department of agriculture.

Complete Analysis.

1. The folloAviii*)' is a statement of a " coniijlrU' analysis" of a
soil as carried out by the Division of Chemistry: —

I'ci- cent.
Stones, o^(M• >\ nun. diameter ... ... 1.5

C/iijij)(>sil/o/i of Air-diij Fine Koiih.

Moisture ;].40

Loss on ignition ... ... ... ... 9.4t'^

Insoluble matter ... ... ... ... 56.99

Iron oxide and alnmina ... ... ... 28.65

Lime 0.09

Magnesia ... ... ... ... ... 0.14

Potash 0.12

Phosphoric oxide ... ... ... ... 0.04

Total 99.86

Containing" —

IN'itrogen ... 0.106

''Available" potash 0.0078

" Available " phosphoric oxide ... 0.0007

Calcinm carbonate ... ... ... 0.02

Such a statement can convey but little information Xu I lie average
fanner so that some explanation is necessary: —

(a) Stones. — When the soil sample is received it is spread out to
lu'come air-dry, that is, to assume such a moisture content that no
further moisture will be gained or lost while the sample is handled.
W'lie)) air-dry, the sample is lightly crushed, until all lumps are
lirolcen iip, and passed through a sieve having round holes <3 mm. in
diameter. The portion failing to pass this sieve, and which actuall.y
consists of stones of greater size than 3 mm. diameter, is weighed, the
percentage calculated, and entered as "stones." This portion of the
soil is of no use whatever as a source of nutriment for plants, though
the piesence of a considerable ^quantity of small stones may
undoubtedly affect the texture of a soil. A samj)]e of soil recently-
examined contained nearh^ 50 i)er cent, of stones greater than 3 mm.
in diameter, almost all of which were less than 6 mm. The remainder
of the soil consisted of still smaller pebbles and clay, and had it not
been for the high proportion of stones, the soil must have been heavy
to work whereas actually it behaved like a free working loam. Such
cases are, of course, exceptional, and we may be, satisfied by consider-
ing the " stones " as a measure of the inert valueless material present
in a soil.

(h) Moisture. — The air-dry soil still retains, some water. The
percentage of this gives some indication of the water-retaining
capacity of the soil. Loose, sandy soils retain less " moisture " than
clays or loams or soils with much organic matter. In twenty-five
sandy soils the average percentage of moisture in the air-dry samples
was 0.72 while the average of twenty-five samples of " black turf,"
well known as a heavy soil which retains water well, was 8.42 per cent.

Chemical Analysis of Soils. ;U3

(g) Lo.^s on Ignition. — This is the loss iu weight which occurs
when the dry soil is strongly heated. It represents chiefly organic
matter, water of constitution, and carbon dioxide derived from the
decomposition of certain carbonates when such are present. In the
absence of large quantities of carbonates the '' loss on ignition " is a
measure, though a rough one, of the amount of organic matter present
in the soil. Organic matter is largely derived from vegetable material
which has once grown on the soil, the residues of previous crops,
remains of native vegetation, and, if manuring has been practised,
the products of decay of the manure, all go to make up the organic
matter in soils. With the exception of certain peaty vlei soils and
one or two others, South African soils contain but little organic
matter as compared with the soils of more humid countries. This
is due to the rapidity with which decay takes place under our condi-
tions. The presence of organic matter largely influences the water
retaining capacity of soils. It is also a carrier of plant food con-
stituents. The organic matter is the store liouse in which combined
nitrogen is held in the soil and from which it slowly becomes available
to plants. Eoughly speaking, the greater the amount of organic
matter, the higher is the percentage of nitrogen. The organic matter
in the soil is the source from which the micro-organisms,, which are
present in all soils, derive their energy. These micro-organisms play
important parts in the 'changes which combined nitrogen undergoes
in the soil, in nitrogen fixation, and in the decay of non-nitrogenous
organic matter in the soil, liberating carbon dioxide.

(</) Insoluble Matter. — When the soil sample is analysed a por-
tion is extracted, under certain definite conditions, with acid. That
port which does not yield to the treatment, and is not dissolved, is
termed "insoluble matter." The quantity is of no significance as
regards the fertility of the soil but gives some indication of the
texture of the soil and is a valuable factor in soil classification.
This insoluble matter still contains a certain amount of those elements,
calcium, magnesium, potassium, and phosphorus (though seldom much
of the last named) which are important as plant food constituents,
but these are supposed to be present in foims of combination "in whicli
they cannot be assimilated by plants.*

(e) Iron Oxide and Alumina. — The percentage of iron oxide and
alumina in the acid extract of the soil has no practical significance.
The amount is usually highest in heaA^y clay soils and lowest in sandy
soils. Soils containing over 15 per cent, of iron oxide and alumina
are usually heavy. The percentages of iron oxide and alumina either
together or singly are of assistance in soil classification.

(/) Lime. — Lime is one of the essential plant food constituents
without which a plant cannot thrive. There is usually sufficient lime
present in a soil to satisfy the needs of the crop. Many of our soils
contain very little lime of which much is of no value. The lime in a
soil which is of real value is that present as carbonate. The figure
given for '' calcium carbonate" represents the total carbonates in the
soil calculated as calcium carbonate. This is the form of lime which

* Hopkins, C. G., Univ. HI. Agric. Exp. Stat., Bulletin 182, has, however, shown that
under suitable condition.^ plants are able to assimilate potash left in the "insoluble matter"
after extraction with ar-id.

344 JotritNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AdRlCULTtTRE.

is necessary to pievenl soil acidily. to [jidiiiotc h;ic1cii;il jictioii niid
to prevent certain diseases.

Tlie K^ures tor total lime are ot less si/^niHcance, hut i1 niiisl lie
remembered that soils containing ,a good quantity of total lime
usually, though not always, contain adequate amounts of calcium
carbonaie. It is obvions that if the total lime be low the percentage
of calcium carbonate cannot be high.

To illnstrate the importance of the percentage of carbonate of
lime in contradistinction to total lime it may be mentioned that some
South African soils have been found to contain what would usually be
regarded as high percentage of lime l)ut have been found to contain
little or no ca)l)onate of lime. Three samples of soil analysed a few
years ago contained 1.48 per cent., 0.79 ])e]' cent., and 2.87 per cent,
of total lime but were actually acid.

(fi) Mafjnesia. — Magnesia is one of the essential ])lant foods
though, in general, soils contain sufficient magnesia for crop require-
inents. The assimilation of magnesia appears to be connected with
that of phosphoric oxide. There is a certain amount of evidence to
show that when magnesia is in excess over lime in a soil the amount
of phosphoric oxide assimilated is greater than when lime is in excess
over magnesia.

It is also considered that a lai gc excess of jnagnesia over lime is
detrimental. The whole question is obscure, but it may be accepted
that it is ])referal)le that a soil should contain more lime than
magnesia.

(Ji) Potash. — This is one of the essential plant food constituents
and is also one of those which it is customary to supply in the form of
fertili;5crs. It is therefore necessary to determine whether a soil stands
in need of potash manures or not. The question of the supply of
potash to the plant by the soil is an extremely difficult one. Many
of our soils contain enormous stores ot potash, some of the granite soils
of the Transvaal contain about 4 per cent, of total potash, that is.
the potash extracted by hydrochloric acid together Avith that remain-
ing in tke " insoluble matter." As previously mentioned, Hopkins
has shown that plants are able to assimilate potash from the acid
extracted " insoluble matter" obtained in soil analysis. It is one of
the most difficult problems in the interpretation of soil analysis to
determine whether the soil stands in need of potash fertilizers or not.

There can he no question that the value of potash fertilizers is
tremendously overrated. As an aid to intensive cultivation as
practised in Europe potash manuring is necessary, but it is the writer's
belief, based on an examination of the available data obtained in
reliable manurial experiments, that potash manures are superfluous, in
fact money wasted, in at least 90 per cent, of cases in this country.
Yet according to the methods for the chemical analysis of soils used
in South Africa (there are two) about 50 per cent, of our soils are
reported as deficient in potash.

The "available potash," as determined by Dyer's citric acid
method, seems to he a much more reliable guide to the potash require-
ments of South African soils.

(i) Phosplioric Oxide. — Phosphoric oxide is one of the most
important plant food constituents. In South Africa it is perhaps of
the greatest importance economically. In fact the chief manurial

Chemical Analysis of Soils. 845

problem in this countiy is that of tlie supply of phosphates to the soil.
Of the South African soils, the analyses of which have been recorded,
some 90 per cent, are deficient in this essential constituent. JN^ot only
is the deficiency indicated in t!ie analyses but it is well known that
markedly increased yields aie almost invariably o))taiued when phos-
phatic manures are used. When the g-reat deficiency in phosphoric
oxide in the soils is coupled, as it is in vSouth Africa, with a system
of farming in which large quantities of grain and forage crops con-
taining relatively enormous quantities of phosphoric oxide are sold oi¥
the farms it is obvious tJiat the supply of phosi)hates is of prime
importance. In one year's maize crop alone phosphoric oxide equiva-
lent to about 35,000 tons of 16 per cent, superphosphate is removed
from the soils of the Union. The greater part of this is not returned
to the soil from which it was drawn.

(;') Nitrogen. — The nitrogen in tJie soil occurs chiefly in the
organic matter, but before it can be utilized by plants it must be
converted by micro-organisms into other forms, chiefly nitrates,
which can be assimilated. Most soils deficient in organic matter and
nitrogen are also deficient in nitrates. The amount of nitrogen which
must be present in the soil in order to render tlie application of
nitrogenous manures unnecessary is for South Africa rather lower than
is supposed to be necessary in Europe. The problem of the supply of
nitrogen in the soil is not one which should worry the farmer. In a
good S3'stem of farming no nitrogenous manures need be bought since
the supply in the soil can always be maintained by green manuring.

(k) " Avnil(il)lc " /^otaslt and PhospJioric O.ride. — These repre-
sent the quantities ot these constituents which are supposed to be
immediately available lo, or assimilable by, plants. While the
" total " potash and phosphoric oxide may be said to represent the
reserve stocks present in the soil the "available" potash and phos-
phoric oxide represent what is at the immediate disposal of the plant
and serve as an indication of the necessity or olherwise for the supply
of these constituents in the manure.

Partial Analysis.

2. The partial analysis to determine uianurial needs consists of
the determination of lime, magnesia, nitrogen, available potash, and
available phosphoric oxide. This partial analysis does not gi^^e much
information as regards soil classification or on the ultimate potentiali-
ties of the soil. It merely serves to indicate the lines which, manurial
treatment should take.

The following is a statement of the i-esults obtained by a jiartial
analysis of a sample of soil : —

Per cent.

Lime 3.66

Magnesia ... ... ... .. ... 0.45

Xitrogen 0.092

" Available" i)otash 0.0145

" .\vailable " phosphoric oxide 0.0060

It should be noted that the information furnished by such a
partial analysis is much less complete than that furnished by a com-
plete analysis, and tliat on lliis account the interpretation is

:i4() .loFRXAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

practically limited to a kiiowledge of the maniirial treatment which
would be immediately beneficial.

'). Let us now consider the complete analysis given on page 2,
iiiid endeavour to learn what the figures teach us about the soil : —

(a) The percentage of stones is low and can have no effect,
good or bad.

(h) The percentage of water retained is fair. The soil
probably retains water reasonably well.

(c) The percentage of organic matter is good for a South
African soil. (It must be noted that in this case the loss on
ignition includes only a very small amount of carbon dioxide
since the percentage of calcium carbonate is so small.)

(d) The percentage of insoluble matter is low while that of
iron oxide and alumina is high. The conclusion drawn from this
is that the soil is heavy.

(e) The percentage of lime is low and is lower than that of
magnesia. The excess of magnesia over lime is, however,
probably too small to have any effect. The percentage of calcium
carbonate is very low. The soil may he sour or acid or if not al
])resent acid may easily become so under cultivation. The
general conclusion is that the application of lime would be bene-
ficial, if not immediately, in the long run.

(/) The total percentage of potash is probably adequate.
The amount of "available" potash is near the border line. In
all probability the soil does not stand in need of potash manuring
:nid the application of such manures will be unprofitable.

(,g) The soil is woefully deficient in phosphoric oxide, more
particularly in immediately available phosphoric oxide. Further,
owing to the high percentage of iron oxide and alumina and the
low percentage of lime and magnesia, it is probable that most of
ihe phosphoric oxide present is locked up in a form of combina-
lioii which will prevent it from becoming available in the future.

(h) The percentage of nitrogen would l)e considered to be
barely adequate in Europe. Under South African conditions
this soil would bear *two or three crops without the application
of nitrogenous manures, but thereafter the store of nitrogen would
have to be replenished.

To summarize the information obtained about this soil from a
consideration of the chemical analysis, we have: —

1. The soil is not stony.

2. The soil holds moisture fairly well.

3. The soil contains a good amount of organic matter.

4. It is probably heavy.

5. The application of lime will probably be beneficial.

6. Potash manures will probably have no effect.

7. Good increases should be obtained by the use of suitable

phosphatic manures.

8. The soil does not stand in immediate need of nitrogenou'^

manuring but is not inexhaustible in this respect.

Chemical Analysis of Soils. Ml

It will be uotieed that uotliing has .been learnt regarding the
suitability of the soil for any particular crop or crops. There are
other factors which must be known before any opinion can be
expressed. Since the soil is probably heavy, and the samples analysed
are also always examined as regards texture, when this will have been
confirmed, it is probably well suited for cereals, including wheat. Tlie
* farmer wiould, however, be rather annoyed if he were advised to grow
wheat on the land from which this sample came as it is situated in
the Transvaal, in the region of summer rainfall, and cannot, at least
at present, be irrigated. If a soil sample can be identified as the
same or as similar to one already well known, provided climatic con-
ditions are similar, the most suitable crops can be suggested. This
may occur in perhaps 10 per cent, of cases, one of the chief reasons
why better information is not available being that farmers seldom
trouble to determine what crops are most suited to the special condi-
tions obtaining on their farms. As a general rule the South African
farmer sets out to grow some crop or other, maize, let us say, and
maize he grows, though it may pay him far better to grow some-
thing else. It is this lack of experiment on the part of farmers which
renders it so difficult, verging on the impossible, to advise as to the
most suitable crops. With some crops, and notably with forest trees,
it is climate, not soil, which is the determining factor in the
suitability for any particular locality. IVot that soil conditions must
be ignored, but they are in many cases only a secondary considera-
tion.

To return to our soil, we may say that, quite apart from the
irrigation question, it is unsuitable for lucerne on chemical grounds,
owing to the small percentage of calcium carbonate ; that it is probably
too heavy for successful potato growing; and that the soil is suited
to cotton and sugar-cane. It is to be noted that of the above conclu-
sions only one, that the soil is unsuitable for lucerne, is dediiced
from the chemical analyses. The others are dependent on the texture.
It must also be particularly noted that of the crops for which the
soil is said to be suited the possibility of cultivating cane and wheat
are also dependent on conditions quite extraneous to the soil itself,
namely, climate and water supply.

Of course the soil is suitable for growing any of the commoner
and less specialized farm crops; maize, teff, oats, barley may be
successfully grown on a great variety of soils.

If the complete chemical analysis of a soil furnishes so little
information as to crops it follows that a partial analysis wall furnish
less. The partial analysis carried out by the Division of Chemistry
must not be expected to furnish any information other than a basis for
suggesting a scheme of manuring. We learn from the foregoing
partial analysis that the soil is well supplied with lime, with potash,
and fairly well with both nitrogen and phosphoric oxide. Green
manuring and the application of some phosphatic manure should
form the basis of the system of maintenance of fertility.

The Farmer's Part.

It must not be supposed from what has been said that soil analysis
is altogether without value. A value it certainly has if properly con-
sidered, but it must not be looked upon its a sort of magic touchstone

;J48 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

which has ouly to be applied iu order to enable the farmer to take a
short ciil to prosperity. The necessity for experiment and trial on
the part of the farmer still remains, though a knowledge of the
chemical comijosition of the soil may prevent haphazard experiments
on wrong- lines and indicate the direction which experiments should
take.

A quotation from a leading authority on soils may not»be out of
l»lace : — *

III some cases it will be possible by a chemical analysis to
pronounce a g-iven soil to be unsuited to a particular crop :
as a rule, however, it is not its chemical composition which
fits the land for a particular crop, l)ut its mechanical
texture, water-bearing- power, drainage, etc. In most cases
the soil can be adjusted to the crop by manure, though the
process may be unsound from an economic standpoint, but
no expenditure can rectify unsatisfactory texture, e.g.
convert a iiglit sand into a good wlieat land.

It is interesting to note, however, tliat the conversion of a light
soil into a loam or of a clay into a soil of lighter texture by the
addition of clay or of sand has actually been proposed in this country.

Farmers who wash to have soil samples analysed should remember
the limitations i)()inted out above.

Those desirous of having soil samples analysed should first com-
municate with the officer concerned in order to obtain particulars li
methods of taking samples, quantities to send, and the iniorniation to
supply regarding the samples, before sendino such samples, in ord"7-
(" avoid the disappointment and delay which is inevitable if small or
jnipjoperly taken samples are forwarded.

It is highly desirable that samjjles should be subiritted a
reasonable time before the advice asked is to be acted on. It is
naturally impossible for the laboratories of the Department of Agricul-
ture to maintain stafts large enough to permit of all samples bein<>'
dealt with immediately on receipt. The greater proportion of the son
samples received by the Division of Chemistry an-ive at the beginning
of the planting- season, frequently accompanied by the request that a
repoit 1)6 furnished at once as the sender wishes to plant next week.
This IS in any case quite impossible since even a partial soil analysis
takes about a week to carry out. Farmers are, therefore, requested to
submit samples of soil for analysis as early as possible in oider lo
avoid disappointment. After all there is no reason why .■Mimid rs
should not be taken and submitted immediately after a crop has I eeji
harvested instead of just prior to planting a new one.

Plant Nurseries in Quarantine for Pests.

The nurseries published in hist month's issue of the Jouniai (page
287) were still in quarantine on the 1st June, 1920. To their number
,niust be added the Silverdale Xursery, Maritzburg, on which quaran-
tine has been imposed for White Peach Scale and Red Scale on
peaches.

Hall, A. D., "The Soil." 2ii(l Edition. \k KIT.

The Fruit Export Act. M9

THE FRUIT EXPORT ACT.

Notes on Amended Regulations.

By I. Tribolet, Chief, Division of Horticulture.

AMENDEto regulations under the Fruit Export Act appeared in the
Govei'mnent Gazette of 13th February, 1920, and some of the out-
standing features are noted hereunder : —

Oranges. — The 26 in. by 12 in. by 12 in. box is adopted for
oranges instead of the 26 in. by 12A in. by 12^ in. The half box is
therefore 26 in. by 12 in. Depth optional.

Apple Box. — The adoption of the 18 in. by Hi in. by 10 in.,
inside measurement, is equal to one of 2070 cubic inches
capacity, and as the Imperial bushel equals 2219 cubic inches the box
is somewhat less than a bushel in capacity. This was done alter com-
municating with the Governments of Australia and Tasmania who are
working on the same lines. This box both here and in Canada is
taking the place of the 20 in. by 11 in. by 10 in. one, the jj-eneral idea
being to make it the universal standard apple box.

Tlie Pineapple Boxes are 27 in. by 16 in. and 27 in. by 14 in.
Depths optional remain. These measurements may be found to be not
entirely satisfactory, and it is quite possible that in the course of one
or two seasons something better may be evolved.

Marking Both Ends of the Boxes. — At the urgent request of those
handling our fruits on shipboard and overseas it was decided to have
the shipping mark of the agent appointed by the exporter placed on
the one end of the box. On the other end the marking in accordance
with Section 6 (a), (6), (c), and (d), still obtains.

Fruit Boxes. — It almost seems that if some improvement in boxes
does not soon take place the wood of which they are made will have
to be standardized and included in the regulations. Such flimsy
receptacles were turned out last season that tliey were hardly fit to
carry fruit across the street, let alone a long railway and sea journey.
This was especially noticeable in the citrus l)oxes, and accounts for a
good deal of the wastage that was heard of. It is hoped, therefore,
that this phase of the export trade will show improvement next
season, otherwise a good deal of fruit intended for export will not get
further than our own docks. This is given as a timely warning.

Third Class Fruit. — A change has been made in the terms
designating the third class fruit. Previously it was known as
"Graded,'^ now it is known as ''Choice." so that the grades are
" Extra Selected," '' Selected," " Choice," "Lowest Grade."

The pear " Idaho " has been added to the list of those that are
not recommended for export.

The Methley plum has been sized as follows: — Extra selected,.
If in. ; selected, 1^ in. ; choice, 1^ in. ; lowest grade below \\ in.,
2 inches being considered too high for extra selected in this variety.

13

350 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Jiegradinf/. — ITuder Section 16 of tlie reg'iilations we have the
following: — "Boxes of frnit marked so as to represent a grade
higher than the correct grade shall be re-marked by the inspector,
and if otherwise complying with the regulations shall be branded and
stamped by the inspector as provided in section four of the Act."

If packers cannot get nearer the official grades than was the
case last season, Section 16 will have to be altered somewhat in this
nninner : — "Boxes of frnit marked so as to represent a grade higher
ihan the correct g-rade shall be degraded l)y the inspector and held
over until such time a-; they can be re-marked, branded, or stam])ed
I\v tlie exporter, his agent, or servant before being shipped, etc."

A certain amount of error is allowable and may occasionally take
l)lace in the marking- of boxes, but an inspector cannot possibly devote
his time to re-marking and correcting if the amount of wrong grading
that happened last season is continued.

Packiuf/. — A great many i^ackers seem to have no sense of pro-
portion as to the ainount of wood wool to put in peach boxes. In
some cases there is practically none, and in others again practically
half the package is of wood wool, and instead of liaving twenty-eight
fruits the package only runs to eighteen or .so. In the first instance
the scant wood wool packer seems to want to save wood wool on
account of it being so expensive, and often says so. In the second
case, the idea is often to give the peaches a chance of arriving at
their destination in a Letter condition than they Avould otherwise do.
Both methods are faulty, as in both instances the fruit arrives in
worse condition than it should. The box with too much wood wool
makes a loose pack and the fruit shakes and wobbles about in the box,
and does so more and more as it is handled. Besides, it g-ives our
packs a bad name. People who buy a box of fruit like to see it as full
of fruit as it reasonably can be. They do not like to pa.y fruit prices
for wood Avool. The grape packs that I have seen are very good
indeed. The outstanding fault with other fruits is that the packing is
a little slack.

The regulatioivs. although amended from time to time, cannot be
looked upon as being anything' like perfect, and niy suggestions for
improvements or beneficial amendments from gTOwers, exporters, and
shipping firms will always be welcomed and given due consideration
by the Chief of the Horticultural Division. Department of Agricul-
ture.

Cotton Exports.

The following interesting figures give the total, exports of cotton
from the United vStates. Biitish India, and Egyj)t, the countries from
which the world's main supply of cotton is obtained : —

Season 1st September ,> • .^ i /o.nv n n Season 1st September /i,,-, ^„w /.da u, ^

to 31st August. ^""^^^^' ^220 lb.) ^^ .^j^^ _^Jg^g^_ Quintals (220 lb.)

I'.il3-ini4 ... :iO,811,9oO J*J17-19IS ... 15,129,600

1914-1915 ... 27,228,200 1918-1919 ... 17,762,700

1915-1916 ... 22,057,300 1919-1920 ... 14,068,400"

1916-1917 ... 19,450.200

Total for 6 months, 1st Se])tember to end of Febinarv.

Agriculture a\d Soils of the Cape Province. ;)51

THE AGRICULTURE AND SOILS OF THE CAPE

PROVINCE.

By Arthuk Stead, B.Sc, F.C.S., Research Chemist,
Grootfoiitein School of Agricxiltiire, Middelburg-, Cape.

WITKOP-BrRGHERSDOEP.

(Continued frnvi page 158, .1/////, 1920.)

Geological.
A FEW words ill explanation of the selection of the soil samples
are necessary because, owino- to oircnmstances, it was not possible to
follow a definite geological plan.

The writer had visited Witkop to speak at a farmers' meeting
about the factors which are concerned in the growth of crops, in-
cluding food supply. During the discussion at the meeting requests
were made that samples oF soil typical of the area should ])e analysed,
and these having been agieed to. it became necessary to consider ways
and means oi obtaining rejjresentative samples.

No maps* were available excepting the altogetlier unsuital)le
divisional niaps.t Tt was therefore considered advisable to rely on
the judgment of the farmers, Avho were accordingly recjuested to form
tliemselves into a committee and decide which farms would furnish
typical samples.

In every case, however, the actual spots sam])led were selected by
,the writer. Tlie following is a list of the farms from which samples
were taken : —

Paardenverlies. Kalkfontein. Krauifonlein. Lcmoen Kraal.

Olivier's Rust. The Willows. Witkop.

The topography and the geologyj of the area, the farms, and
the approximate localities from w^hich the samples were taken, are
indicated by the map on Plate III, which map has been reproduced
from an adaptation! of Dunn's Map of the Stormberg Coalfields.il

Du Toit in recent years revised a portion of Dunn's work, in-
cluding the farms Wonderpoort, Dankfontein, and Vaalbank, which
adjoin The Willows, Olivier's Rust, and Kraaifontein. That author
states " the revision has necessitated only a few alterations in the
boundaries of the sub-divisions of the strata Iniilding rip the area,
bnt great changes have been made in the course of mapping the
dolerite sheets. "II

* The existence of the out-of-print geolup;ical map of Dunn was then unsuspected and it

was only through the courtesy of Dr. A. L. du Toit that one of the few existing copies
liccame available subsequently.

t These maps are out of date and very lacking in topograj)hical detail.

X The greatest use has been made of the Reports of the Geological Commission (Cape),
nnd of "The Geology of the Cape Colony." by Rogers and Du Toit, wliile the writer is greatly
imlelited to the latter author for having read over these notes and made suggestions.

§ By my colleague. E. J. v. Meerten, Lecturer in Engineering.

jl E. .T. Dunn, Report on the Stormberg Coalfields, G4— '78, C.T.

^ A. L. du Toit, Geological Commission, 16th Annual Report.

352 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Dunn's map would therefore, excepting the dolerite- sheets, faith-
tuUy reflect the general geological features of the Witkop area. Dunn
would, for instance, appear to have mapped as volcanic beds a dolerite
sheet which occurs on the high ground in the neighbourhood of Yaal-
bank and Dankf ontein ; but since the chemical composition of the
volanic beds and dolerite seem to be very similar no great error will
be made for soil purposes if Dunn's map be accepted as correct. It
is, however, very probable that the volcanic beds weather more readily
than dolerite.

Reference to the geological map (Plate III) shows that the strata
of the Witkop area belong to the Stormberg series of the Kan'oo
system of rocks, together with intrusive dykes and sheets of dolerite.

Proceeding downwards, the Stormberg series consists of the
following groups : —

4. Volcanic beds.

3. Cave sandstone.

2. Red beds.

1. Molteno ])eds.

Volcanic Beds. — The volcanic lavas " are all basaltic in com-
position, varying from coarse-grained doleritic types to highly vesi-
cular varieties, while there is a considerable development of volcanic
ash. ... At the boundary of Dankf ontein with Vaalbank the
cave sandstone is overlain by nearly 300 feet of volcanic ash, followed
by an almost similar thickness of lavas."*

The actual chemical composition of these lavas would not appear
to be known. They contain, however, the following minerals: —

Lime-soda Felspars.

Augite. 1

Olivine. iSilicates of lime and magnesia with more or less iron.

Enstatite.J

Magnetite.

Apatite — Calcium phosphate with calcium fluoride or rliloride.

Agates.

Calcite — Calcium carbonate.

Lime-soda zeolites.

(The last three are found filling the steamholes of the amygda-
loidal lavas.)

The petrological descriptions of the volcanic beds afford no indica-
tion as to the amount of potash they contain, but probably they
contain a similar quantity to dolerite, i.e. about 0.7 per cent.

Soils derived from these beds would be somewhat clayey, but well
provided with pho^sphoric oxide, potash, lime, and magnesia. The
abundance of these food elements will have led, in the course of time,
to an abundant fixation of nitrogen by the soil. Soils derived from
the volcanic beds should therefore be of high fertility, provided
always that, in addition to food supply, the other factors necessary
for plant growth are normally present. As a matter of fact the
farmers of the area recognize the soils derived from the volcanic beds
as among' their best.

Cave Sandstone. — The cave sandstone is a massive fine-grained
uniform rock, probably an aeolian deposit,! which consists very

* A. L. du Toit, Geological Commission, 16th Annual Report.
t ^- ^- du Toit, in a private communication.

Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province.

JI.

ITT.

7.3

74.0

2.33

2.28

2.10

3.04

2.58

2.;'.(i

Xyi Journal of thh Department of Aoriculture.

largely ol quartz o-rnins which are rounded to ouly a small degTee. It
contains angular fragments of microcline and ortboclase (potash
felspars), fragments of plagioclase (a lime-soda felspar), and a little
white mica (a potasli-magnesian mineral). There would not appear
to have been made any numbei' of chemical analyses of representative
samples of this group, or indeed of any of the groups of the Stormberg
series, but the following ])artial analyses taken from the 1902 re])or1
of the Geological Commission are quoted for what they are wortli : —

I. Cave sandstone from N'Quatsha's Xek.
II. Greenish blue standstone from red beds below the forinei-.
III. Typical red day that occurs in the cave sandstone and red
beds.

I.

Silica 83.5

Calcinni oxide ... .07

Sodium oxide 1 .55

Potassium oxide... 1.44

One would have liked to find in the Geological Commission's
Iicpoits quantitative idiemical analyses of typical specimens of locks
from several localities, and it is furtiier a matter of great regret that
no figuies for the i)hospboric oxide contents of the various rocks are
available. No doubt the Director of the Survey recognized the
desirability of such records; but in a new country many things have
to wait. It should, however, be obvious that such quantitative data
would considerably increase the value of the geological survey to
agriculture.

Reference has already liecn made 1o llie thickness of the cave
stnidstone at the boundary of Yaalbank and Dankfontein ; on AVonder-
])oort it is about 150 feet thick, and no more than 40 feet in the
neighbourhood of Dankfontein's Nek, a point neai" which samples
Nos. 608 and 60!) were collected.

The most remarkable feature of the cave sandstone is the fantastic
shapes into which it weathers. Often the rock is hollowed out below
so as to form shallow caves, in which the ])rimitive Bushman artist-
hunter lived, decorating the pale-coloured walls of his abode with
characteristic paintings of men and of animals, done in red, yellow,
and black pigment. Such paintings may still be seen near the head
of the kloof that descends from the plateau down to the Witkop
homestead.

Since cave sandstone consists mainly of silica in the shape of
quartz grains, and since it would seem to be poor in all plantfood-
containing minerals, it is to be expected that the soils derived solely
from it will be of a rather poor, fine, sandy type: while it is also to be
expected that conjointly with volcanic beds or dolerite it would give
rise to a fairly fertile and easily worked soil.

Red Beds. — These beds are so called owing to their characteristic
colour. The junction between them and the cave sandstone is well
marked, but it is not always easy to draw the line which divides them
from the lower Molteno beds.

The most characteristic locks of the group are red, purple and
blue mudstones and shales. Red sandstones and yellow and white
fine-grained feLspathic sandstones are also common. Calcareous

Agriculture and Soils op the Cape I^rovince. * ;};35

)e

nodules are met with in some of the strata and would seem to 1
associated witli fiao-ments of hone.

TlM^'red I)eds wentlter easily, nnd for tins iviison ;iro well coveivd

'* "^^m:

Specimens of Bushnicu Carvings on Stone.

With soil on the fiats: in this process their high colonring- is destroyed,
the product heing- yellow or l)rownish in tint. (Jne would" expect the
soils to he of a sandy to tine sanely type, possessing a i)liosphoric oxide

;»or. JoUHXAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and lime cuutent that varies according to the pie.seiiee or absence ot
calcareous nodules in the parent rock. If the analyses quoted under
■' Cave sandstone " higher up may be relied on as typical, the soils
From the )ed beds should contain more jjotash than the soils from the
cave sandstone, a point which appears to be brought out by the
chemical analyses of the soils.

Moltetw Beds. — These beds derive their name troiu the higliei-
lying ground of the Molteuo Division. Reference to the map on
Plate III shows that they occupy the flats on the farms Paarden-
verlies, Kalkfontein, and Kraaifontein, from which latter farm a
tongue proceeds up the kloof which passes the homestead of AVitkoj).
'i'he fiats of all ot the other farms are occupied by red beds.

The Molteuo beds consist of alternating grey or yellow shales and
gritty sandstones. The lattei' frequently contain much potash-felspar
and some mica, but calcareous nodules are never found. The finer-
grained sandstones are loose in texture and weather easily. Nothing
seems to be on i-ecord regarding the phosphatic contents of this group :
a sample from the neighbourhood of Stomiberg Junction was, how-
ever, found to contain 0.06 per cent, of phosphoric oxide — a very low
figure. In other areas the Molteuo l>eds have a poor leputation as
soil producers, a reputation that is nunntained in the sand-bult soils
of Paardenverlies ; the type of soil is sandy and of a degree of fineness
that varies according as the soil is derived from sandstones or shales.

Dolcrite Intrusions. — Dolerite is the name given to the heavy,
dark, hard igneous rock which occurs in more or less rounded shapes
0)1 the boulder-strewn kopjes of the Karroo, or in massive foini
capping the hills and mountains. It must not be presumed, howevei ,
that dolerite is confined to the Karroo, for it is to be found from east
to west of the central portion of South Alrica. When freshly biokeji
it is bluish black in colour, although the more acid varieties are some-
what ])ale]'. Typical d(deiite contains the following minerals: —

Labradorite (lime-soda felspar).

Augite.

Olivine.

Magnetite.
All of the^e minerals, it will be noted, occur in the ^oiciinic l)eds
described above. Several analyses of dolerite have been published,
and according to Rogers and Du Toit ■ the following may be taken as
typical : —

/'t'r coil.

Silica -I'J.T

Alumina 11.4

Ferric oxide 9.0

Ferrous oxide vJ.T

Lime Il.ti

Magnesia 7.4

Potash 0.7

Soda 2.15 ■

Water 1.4

.Vdded to these we have found 0.17 per cent, of })hosi)horic uxide in a
sample of doleiite from the Stormberg area. It would a])pear that
the phosphoric oxide occurs as needles of apatite.

'■' "The Geology of the C§pe Colony."

ACKICCl/IMIlK AND SOILS <)l' THK CAI'K PHoVINCK. ;*).")7

Dolerite «>ive.s rise to luther clayey soils coiitaiiuii^- railicr more,
than average amounts of lime and magnesia, together with fair
quantities of potash and phosphoric oxide. If not too chiyey the soils
are usually of high fertility, and, generally speaking, dolerite
exercises a favourable infiuenre on the fertility ol the soils derived
from the sandstones, niuds;tones, and shales of the Stormhorg series of
rocks. This influence is to he seen on I'aardenverlies.

The Soils : Ttif.tk Desckiption, Physical and riiEMK ai. Composi
TioN, ANTi Geological Origin.

In recording the data under this heading it has been thought
advisable to proceed according to the farm of origin, as being the more
interesting to the general reader, rathei' than according to geological
origin.

phit,' rv

Tlie Hoiiif'^tf'ad "' I'aanlriivcilic;

/\nn(lrnrrilit's-~Mr. I', (i. r . H///.

This taini is the nearest of the series to Jiurghersdorj), and,
nioieover, the lowest in altitude; its climate is iiieiefore not (juite so
rigorous as that of the higliei -lying faims. Mealies can be grown
and many kinds of fruit and \(^getables are grown with success and
ease.

The homestead (vitJc Plate IV) is situated to the left oi' the road
as one goes from Burghersdorp to Witkop Post Office, and lies under
a characteristic kop which is built up of Molteno beds crowned with a
dolerite sheet. This mountain is an outlier of a (diain that runs north-
westward towards Konimandant's Kop.

Black soils of reputed high fertility and suitability lor wheat-
growing lie at the foot of this range; their fertility is doubtless due
to the effect of the dolerite sheet with which the range is (.-apped, and
which seems to have weathered considerably. These soils were not
sampled.

On the opposite side of the road there is a large area of sand-bult
soil of low fertility lying over the Molteno beds; it is light })rownisli

358 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

red in colour and sandy. Antheaps are conspicuous, pointing to good
drainage and good aeration. The natural herbage consists of " rooi-
zuur gras " (red sour grass) and " blauwsaad gras " (blue seed grass),
and its distribution indicated uniformity in soil conditions. Soil of
this type has the repr.tation of keeping moist during dry weather, a
property doubtless due it its physical composition being such that
allows of the ready movement of water in any direction. Xo matter
what crops are grown on this type of soil the yields are poor, even
when the soil is virgin. Seeing that the rainfall is good and that
other factors are favourable, one cannot resist the conclusion that the
poor yields are to be associated with an inadequacy of the food supply.
Sample No. G12 was taken from this area and represents virgin soil.

Further from the road, nearer Kalkfontein and not far from the
Brandziek Kraal Spruit, there is a blackish soil at the foot of a low
dolerite-capped ridge of Molteno beds. It has the reputation of being
a good soil and well suited to wheat culture ; the farmer would call it
a mixed sand and turf soil. The indigenous vegetation consists of
" blauw saad " and " rooi plat blaar " (red flat leaf) grasses, a little
Cape clover, and a few sour Karroo bosjes. It is representative of a
soil derived from both Molteno beds and dolerite. Sample No. 614
was taken here, and may be considered representative of the virgin
soil.

(Further instalments Avill be published in subsequent issues of the
Jo}(rna1.)

Afforestation.

Thq great need for afforestation in South Africa is preached on
all sides, both from an economic and a climatic point of view, and
because a greater number of schemes for extensive tree planting are
not being commenced throughout the country, many ascribe it to lack
of enterprise on the part of the State. Like irrigation, the planning
of an afforestation scheme calls for the consideration of many points of
scientific importance and requires properly trained men to satisfactorily
carry it out. The position in the Union to-day is that the Govern-
ment is prepared to find the money for the purpose of putting into
operation many more afforestation projects, but the additional trained
staff, so essential to work of this nature, is not available. The Forest
Department is working at its utmost capacity to cope with tlie many
projects already in progress, and has a number of selected students
in training abroad who should be available in the next few years to
auo'ment its personnel, when afforestation seliemes to ;i wider extent
than is now practicable can be dealt with.

While much has already been done for the country, as evidenced
by the amount of local timber placed on the market during the war
and subsequently to meet the shortage of oversea supplies, the Forest
Department cannot do everything and the individual must also play
his part. If every farmer sought the advice of the Forest Depart-
ment and the facilities it is eager to dispense, and earnestly
endeavoured to grow even a few trees, not only would he be the means
of adding to the wealth of his country but he would also ensure to
himself an additional income and at the same time beautify his farm.
We reap to-day the benefit conferred on us by our pioneer tree-
planters; let us continue the good work, each in his own way realizing
that however smnll the beginning, [t is a step in the right direction.-

Along the Orange River. 359

ALONG THE ORANGE RIVER.

A Trip to Upington, Louisvale, Keimoes, Friersdale,
Cannon Island, Rooikop Island, Kakanias, and
Marchand, 5th-20tli November, 1919.

Jiy I. Tkibolet, Chief, Division of Hoiticulturc

In accordance Avitli instructions to proceed to certain districts in the
Cape Province for tlic pnrpose of givin<;' advice to farmers o]i citrus
culture as well as on other branches of aj^iiculture, 1 saw Mr. Coetzee
at his farm " Glen Allan," neai- Prieska, and wilh his assistance
airanged an itinerary, etc. 1 reached Upington on Saturday after-
noon, the 8th November lasf, mid was met by Mr. Biggs and conveyed
across the river to Louisvale, an irrigation settlement of some extent,
on which are about 110 settlers, ranging from the raw Englishman
io the Dutch bywoner, >vith some capable Dutch farmers interspersed.
The Big'gs Brothers appear to be the dominating' factor in Louisvale.
I met some of the farmers there, and visited the farms of the Bigg's
Brothers and the holdings of Maine, Kruis, and others, TTpington.
I spent Monday, the iOth, in looking round the plantations near
Cpington. The Mayor, Mr. Van Copi)enliagen, accompanied me to
several holdings and introduced me to a number of farmers. Mr.
Wither, the magistrate, and Dr. Borcherds also put me in touch Avith
some of the principal men about here.

On Tuesday, the 11th, I took car from Upington to Keimoes,
visiting- some farms along the river. I also touched at Cannon Island,
wliicli is some 2000 morgen in extent. Six separate weirs, or
shutter dams, are here being constructed under the supervision of
Mr. Hawkes, of the Irrigation Department ; some of these are well
on towards completion, and, when the whole scheme is finished, will
give a high-water level, taking in some land on the liver banks and
supplying the island with storage waters, as well as giving power
for running* a hydro-electric plant for pumping, lighting, etc. I
did not make Keimoes that night, but camped at a farm known as
(Airrie's Camp. Prom there I visited a few settlements on the
islands in the river, notably those of Mr. H. Stein and the Jannasch
Brothers. Their cultures are mostly lucerne and deciduous and
citrus trees, the latter having been cut to the ground by frost,
Stein losing over 1000 and Jannasch some hundreds of trees. The
deciduous trees were nlso completely depleted of their fruit by the
frost.

On Wednesday, the 12th. I was fortunate in getting a motor from
Currie's Camp to Keimoes, and thence on to Rooikop Island, which
l)elongs to a syndicate managed by Mr. Seipker. Grapes and lucerne
are the principal cultures, both proving very profitable. Prom there
1 visited Mr. Sexton's farm on the outskirts of Keimoes. His planta-
tions consist of vines and deciduous fruit trees of various sorts,
citrus trees, and lucerne, everything looking very well and in good
(irder. His place is, I should say, the show one of the district. Mr.
Lenoff's citrus grove of 1600 orange trees was next visited. The

860 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

oldest trees not killed by frost are four years old. A great part of
the grove is composed of replants put in year by year, as the trees
were cut back by the frost, so that it has a very uneven appearance.
The crop this year on the older trees was destroyed by frost. Tlie
soil is excellent, but Mr. Lenoif has not yet had any return from
the citrus. Had the plot been under lucerne he would have had
returns of from £'1500 to £2000 for the four years, and very much
more at the present price of lucerne.

I left Keimoes at 6 o'clock on the morning of the llSth, having
been advised to take a cart and four horses instead of a car. The
advice was quite sound, for the long distance and heavy sand through
which we passed made it an almost

Impossible Road roii a Cak ;

at any rate with a car there would have been many stoppages and
much pushing, Mhich at a temperature of 104 in the shade is very
undesirable exercise. I reached Kakamas, after breaking- a spring,
at about 1 p.m. I spent the afternoon in looking round and finding-
out Avho w-as in authority there. Unfortunately, both Mr. Conradie
and Mr. Beyers were unavoidably absent, as well as the Rev. Mr.
Shaw. Une of the clerks, Mr. Marchand, ottered to show me round
the erven in the immediate vicinity, but having- already had a g-ood
look round, and having- had conversations with different plotholders
as to prospects, state of crops, etc., I thought it better to take a car
and run down the river, through Marchand, as i'ar as cultivatiou
extended, meet some of the plotholders, get what information 1
could, as well as give them any advice I thought might be useful to
them. They all seemed very keen to pick up " tips," especially those
g-rowing- fruit trees and vines, as they seem less informed on these
lines than on the growing- of wheat and lucerne. They have very
little idea of the pruning- of trees or vineSj particularly in the earlier
stages of growth. Most of the vineyards are established witli
ung-rafted cuttings, which is somewhat risky, although they may
run tor many years in that sandy soil without any serious damage
being- done by Phylloxera. They find the establishment of a vine-
yard with grafted vines rather beyond their means, and before
Phylloxera makes any headway, they will Avell be able to reconstitute
their vineyards from what they have made from their cuttings.

On the 15th I returned to Keimoes. where a meeting- had
been advertised to ti»ke place at 4 i).m. Tlie attendance
was rather disappointing, as only ten of the most lu-ominent
men put in an appearance, all of wdiom I had already met. It
was certainly a rather inopportune time to get an attendance at a
meeting, as the wheat was just ripe, and those who w^ere not reaping
were scaring birds from the ripe grain. I visited a few more of the
holders there, incidentally Father Fages, of the Catholic Mission,
who, I believe, is the only one making wine in the district. I sampled
liis yintage, and found it only fair to middling. His vinej'ard, in
fact the whole of the property, is in excellent order. He runs the
school with 30 to 40 attendants, has a flour mill, teaches the scholars
furniture making, etc. I also sampled some brandy on Rooikop Island
made by the manager, Mr. Seipker, and consider it the best young
brandy I have tasted in this country. It was made from Hanepoot
grapes and is very high class indeed. Speaking to an ex-Excise
officer, now a sergeant of police, I was told that the Brandy Board at

Along the Orange River. 361

Capetown have set aside samples of the brandy as samples for Cape
brandy farmers to work up to. I can quite believe that this mig-ht
be so.

That night I started for Upington, got as far as Currie's Camp,
and on Monday morning, the 17th, reached Upington and attended to
correspondence which had been sent on from Pretoria. On the 18th
I got a lift in the irrigation engineer's motor-car as far as Louisvale,
where I held a meeting in a big store at 4 p.m. There was, con-
sidering the busy time with the wheat and the birds, a very good
attendance, over 40 plotholders turning up, and they kept me busy
for over a couple of hours. I had a very good translator, so that they
got the lecture both in Dutch a"nd English. I got back to Upington
at 10 p.m.

On Wednesday, the 19th, during the morning I visited a few
places near by, and in the afternoon held a meeting in the bioscope
hall. The mayor, Mr. Coppenhagen, presided and was also kind
enough to act as translator. This meeting was extremely disappoint-
ing as far as attendance was concerned, only 15 farmers being
present, although nine days' notice was given. The next morning
I left for Potchefstroom on my way to Pretoria, which I reached on
Sunday, the 23rd.

Impressions and Possibilities.

At first sight the country, excepting the strip of verdure on the
islands and the margins of the river, struck me as being a desert
waste and almost worthless even for stock, but on inquiry and observa-
tion I found that such was not the case. The farms, outside of the
influence of the river moisture, with sandy soil and scattered bushes
here and there seem almost unfit even for running goats, yet it was
about the only place m tlie Union from which really fat stock off natural
grazing were being sent to market, and, from the magistrate's
statistics at that date, not one animal had been reported as having
died from poverty or starvation through the prevailing drought.
Farms that four years ago were bought for £3000, and considered
dear at that figure, are now being sought after at from £9000 to
£10,000, but no business doing. The lands commanded by water,
such as the islands and the river bed, and the margins of the river
are exceedingly fertile and sell at £100 per morgen in the rough and
up to £180 per morgen, according to the amount of clearing and
levelling that has been done on them. If laid down to lucerne £210
per morgen is the lowest at which they can be obtained.

The principal crops grown are wheat, lucerne, citrus, and vines,
all under irrigation, and in the order set down. Very good crops of
wheat are grown, the yield being about 20 bags per morgen; lucerne,
at a low estimate, gives 2| tons per morgen with six cuttings in the
season, that is 15 tons per morgen per annum of lucerne hay; vines
will give anything from 15 to 20 tons of grapes per morgen ; oranges
in frostless spots give heavy yields of first-class fruit, so I am told.

Lucerne and Vines

are the two cultures that should be encouraged, and from what I
have seen of the place will prove the most remunerative and most
stable. The whole trend of my lectures and conversations with plot-
holders was to that effect, although a great many other things, such

3t)2 JOUENAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

as vegetables, tobacco, dates, etc., might uot also very profitably
be grown. It is pathetic to learn that on an irrigation settlement,
such as the one under consideration. Upington is supplied with
vegetables from De Aar. With "Wiudhuk on the one side and the
big towns of the Union on the other, fortunes could be made with
vegetables. How well they grow can be realized by considering that
it takes 96 onions only to fill a muid sack.

In my addresses I demonstrated the prevailing practice of grow-
ing wheat. I let the audience give their own prices and figures,
and wrote them down on the blackboard, and it was agreed that the
following yields and prices were fair and average for normal times : —

Wheat, 1 morgen, 20 bags at 30s. per bag £30

Lucerne, 1 morgen, 15 tons for 6 cuts, at £4 per ton ... £00
Grapes, 1 morgen, 15 tons = 3 tons raisins at 3d. per lb..

at £25 per ton £75

Tlie price for wheat was considered somewhat high and that of
lucerne and grapes under the average. I pointed out that for every
1000 morgen under wheat instead of luc6rne, they lose £30,000 per
annum, and that for every 1000 morgen under wheat instead of vines
for raisin making, they lose £-15,000 per annum. In growing wheat
instead of citrus they lose even more, but as they have had such a
knock over the citrus business I could not think of recommending
them to go on except very slowly. A few years ago they planted
from 20,000 to 30,000 orange, trees, and of these there are not 20
alive to-day. They covered them from the frost for the first three
years, and this year took the covers off at about the usual time, but
three frosts in succession cut them to the ground and destroyed most
of the crop on the old trees. It is too risky in the river bed. I should
say that

Date Palms

could most successfuUj' be grown throughout this area, and there is
no question as to their bearing, as the specimens I saw give prolific
crops of verj' fine fruit. They might be grown on the banks of the
channels and on the margins of the irrigated areas without breaking
into the lucerne, vine, or other cultures. Thej^ are easy to grow and
start bearing at anything from 3 to 5 years after planting the off-
shoots, and Popenhoe considers that at a low yield and a low price
50 trees should give a gross return of about £200. The groves are
planted at about 50 trees to the acre ; the gross return would thus be
about £200 per acre. Upkeep in the way of cultivation, etc.. is very
light, cost of water being the heaviest item. The palms are very
deep-rooting', the roots being found at depths of over 20 feet; they
also develop systems of lateral roots, which extend in masses around
the stem, running out for over 20 feet. The trees are dioecious, that
is, having the male and the female flowers on separate trees. Artificial
fertilization is necessary" to obtain good results. One good male tree
will produce siifKcient pollen to fertilize a hundred female trees, but
to be safe the proportion is usiuilly put at three to four.

The settlers generally along the river are very ignorant of horti-
cultural matters, and visits should be made now and again by officers
of the Department to put them riglit at any rate on general \-itnl
questions.

The Department of Agriculture during the War. iJtiH

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DURING

THE WAR.

[This article, which commenced in the May, 1920, issue, briefly reviews the work carried out
by the various branches of the Department during the years of war, and records
some achievements despite the many difficulties encountered through the abnormal
conditions then existing. — ACTixfj Editor.]

Botany .

The Division of Botany is engaged in the investigation and
control of diseases of plants produced by fungous and physiological
causes and the study and collection of fungi of economic importance.
It is also concerned with the investigation of the merits of indigenous
plants of economic importance and of poisonous plants and noxious
weeds, the identification of plants, the introduction and testing of
economic jjlants from ahroud. ;ind the improvement of farm crops by
breeding*.

The principal work carried out at the Botanical Experiment
Station, Pretoria, in 1914-15 was the testing under local conditions
of a number of imported grasses and the cultivation of certain indi-
genous ones, and promising results were obtained with some. A good
deal of attention was given also to experiments in connection with
maize and potato diseases. " Eooibloem " (witchweed) investiga-
tions were continued : in connection therewith the action of certain
chemicals on seed-infested soil was tried with negative lesults.
Researches into certain bacterial diseases of plants were also conducted.

In 1915-16 the laboratory accommodation was increased and
valuable presents of named and mounted plates of plants were
received. Tlie division worked in close conjunction with the
Veterinary Research Division in the botanical investigations con-
nected with gallamziekte and gouwziekte. The " rooibloem " investi-
gations were continued and a practical method for dealing with the
weed was discovered. The kikuyu grass obtained from British East
Africa gave promising results and has since become very popular both
as an ornamental and fodder grass. A disease affecting citrus fruit
discovered in 1914 in the Drakenstein Yalley, near Paarl, was since
found to be present in a number of other places in the Cape south-
western districts. Infected nurseries were quarantined and the
disease was investigated, it being ascertained that it was due to an
undertermined bacterial organism. At the same time also a great
deal of routine and research work was performed in connection with
plant pathology, though the work was handicapped by the lack of
greenhouses.

During 1916-17 citrus canker was detected in the Union. It had
apparently been introduced with a consignment of citrus trees from
Japan about 1905. which was planted at Warmbaths Experiment
Station. Every effort was made by the Department to stamp out the
disease and prevent its spread, but for all that it was discovered lo
have spread to several other centres. The division is tackling this

364 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

serious disease, and all facts coming to liglit will be published.
Investigations were also conducted into the bacterial blight of pear
blossom, citrus verrucosis and mottling, blossom end rot in tomatoes,
and early blight in potatoes. In conjunction with the Division of
Veterinary Research extensive experiments were tried with the object
of ascertaining the relationship between vegetation and certain obscure
diseases of animals, and it was definitely established that two diseases
(geeldikkop in sheep and jagziekte in horses) are caused by particular
plants. Information of great scientific interest was obtained in the
course of these inquiries calculated to lead to important discoveries
in the future regarding diseases of live stock. Experiments as to the
economic value of local and imported plants were carried out — flax,
oil seeds, tanning materials, drugs, fibres, etc., useful for industrial
or medical purposes, receiving attention. One of them, Hibiscus
cannibus, gave promise of being suitable for grain bags, and if this
proves to be the case it will be a matter of much importance to the
country, as the plant grows prolifically in the Transvaal. The kikuyu
grass was distributed to a large number of applicants, and there was
also a keen demand for leaves of the spineless cactus.

The investigations into the relationship of flora with animal
diseases was continued in conjunction with the Veterinary Research
Division in 1917-18, and researches were conducted into a number of
diseases that were causing damage to crops. The campaign against
citrus canker occupied a great deal of the division's resources, the
measures of dealing with the disease being continued, involving the
close inspection of infected orchards and the destruction of infected
trees, and the delicate matter of fixing a scale of compensation for
trees destroyed was satisfactorily arranged. Although abnormal wet
conditions favoured the spread of the disease, there was good reason to
believe that it was well in hand and would ultimately be stamped out.
Attention was given also to investigating plants of economic
importance, and valuable reports, details of which are published in
the Division's Annual Report, were obtained from the Imperial
Institute, London. During the year steps were taken to organize a
botanical survey of the Union. With a view to stimulating interest
in the suppression of noxious weeds specimens of them were displayed
at the chief agricultural shows and the issue of a series of popular
leaflets on the weeds was commenced. The demand for kikuyu grass
was keen, and the grass is likely to prove very useful both for pastures
and lawns. The delay in connection with an experiment station
greatly handicapped the division, preventing many important and
pressing lines of investigation.

Tobacco and Cotton Division.

As its name implies, this division is concerned with the promotion
of the tobacco and cotton industries. Experiments are conducted in
the breeding and growth of tobacco and in the curing, fermentation,
and preparation of tobacco for the market. Approved varieties of
tobacco and cotton seed are distributed amongst farmers, and advice
is given to them personally and by correspondence and publications.

During the year 1914-15 the object of the division was steadily
pursued. The tobacco crop was unduly affected by inclement weather
in the Transvaal, and there was also a considerable reduction in the
Turkish tobacco crop. Good prices were obtained for the better

The Department of Agriculture during the War. 365

grades of tobacco, aud the co-operative societies at Rustenburg and iu
the districts near Capetown made good progress. Due to tbe results
obtained at the Rustenburg Experiment Station and its influence
among local farmers, cotton growing made satisfactory progress, and
good hope was expressed at the possibility of marked development in
the future. About 400,000 lb. seed cotton were produced in the
District of Rustenburg and about 60,000 lb. iu other parts of the
Union, this being the highest quantity yet produced in the Union,
and since then the production has constantly increased.

In 1915-16 much useful work was carried cut at the various stations
by experiments in breeding new varieties of cotton and tobacco, the
use of fertilizers, methods of cultivation, and the curing of tobacco.
In addition, the field officers of the Department devoted much atten-
tion to individual farmers by visiting them and giving advice and
lecturing at farmers' meetings. Prices of tobacco during the year
were good, and both the tobacco warehouses at Rustenburg and Paarl
had a successful year and disposed of all their stocks. The two
ginning plants in Rustenburg ginned and baled over 400,000 lb. of
seed cotton, the entire crop being sold at prices varying from 7d. to
T^d. per lb. The year established cotton orowing more firmly, and
the pioneer work of the past was rewarded in the promise of a
successful future for the industry, which, if fulfilled, will be of great
benefit to the country. Cotton is a good drought resister and will
furnish a useful additional crop in areas where the rang-e of crop is
at present somewhat limited ; moreover, it is adapted for farmers in
a small as well as a large way, and provides work suitable for native
women and children. The quality of cotton grown in our country is
excellent and usually realizes more in England than does the same
variety from elsewhere.

In 1916-17 experimental and other work proceeded as usual at the
Rustenburg, Elsenburg, and Piet Retief stations, but the station at
Tzaneen was closed and transferred to the Lands Department for the
purpose of its inclusion in a settlement scheme, for which it was
considered to be better suited. The four field officers of the division
were busily employed in instructing farmers and conducting field
experiments, and their services were greatly appreciated and in much
request. Unfavourable weather curtailed the tobacco crop, but prices
were good and there was a ready sale for all classes of tobacco. A
feature of the year was the fact that for the first time in the history of
the industry the exports of tobacco from the Union exceeded the
imports of manufactured and unmanufactured tobacco. The growing
of cotton was further extended in the Transvaal and Natal, and the
crop was estimated to be about one million pounds of seed cotton.

Good progress was made in 1917-18, the experiment stations
continuing investigations and experiments in various phases of the
industry, and the field officers disseminating useful knowledge in the
cultivation, etc., of the two crops. Unfortunately, the tobacco crop
was subjected for several seasons past to successive bad years owing to
unfavourable weather; nevertheless, the industry continued to expand.
The two tobacco associations at Rustenburg and Paarl again had a
successful year and disposed of their holdings at good prices. Largely
due to the efforts of Mr. Oosthuizen, who was in charge of the experi-
mental and other work in the Orange Free State, a tobacco limited
liability company was formed at Parijs, Yredefort District, and its

:)66 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

existence is liJiely to prove of great advantage to the growers of that
district. Another indication of the forward movement of the industry
was the formation during the year of an association composed of
tobacco organizations in the Union and Rhodesia, its objects being to
co-ordinate the methods of handling and disi)osing of leaf tobacco and
to bring growers and manufacturers of tobacco into closer relation to
their mutual benefit. Cotton growing continued to expand and a
greater crop than the i)revious season w^as expected, (^wing to (he
war high prices were realized for lint, and prospects of a firm demand
in the future encouraged the extension oE the crop. The question of
a cotton-seed crushing plant received attention, and if carried out will
prove valuable, as the present method of crushing seed is wasteful
and no benefit is derived from the oil, a very valuable by-product.
Demands for tobacco and cotton seed supplied by the division were
great and could not all be met. During the year several bulletins and
articles on various subjects concerning the industry were published,
and an exhibit of tobacco and cotton was placed on the pi'incipal
agricultural shows held in the Union.

Division of Horticulture.

The fruit industry of the Union depends in a large measure on
the disposal of its fruit on oversea markets, and the year 1914-15
witnessed the commencement of a ciirtailment in the export of fiesh
fruit owing to the war and the consequent lack of suitable freight.
For this reason the export trade showed a marked falling off as
compared with the prior season, 1913-14. The deciduous crop of
1914-15 was, however, a small one. Xt this time also the exportalrcn
of meat began, which further aggravated the position caused by the
limited cold storage accommodation through the witlidrawal of many
steamers for war purposes. During the year a Fruit Export Act,
making compulsory the inspection of firuit exported for sale, was passed
by Parliament. The provisions of the Act necessitated amended
regulations, which have proved very satisfactory. Useful work was
carried out by the Citrus Experiment Station at Warmbaths and by
visits to farmers and demonstrations in various parts of the Union
in connection with tree planting, pruning of trees, and the packing
of oranges for export. Plantations of oranges and pines were
extended in the localities suitable for them, and generally the
excellent prices obtained oversea continued to encourage the growing
of fruit in the Union.

In 1915-16 the division was busily employed as usual in advising
fruit growers, grading fruit for export, and assisting the industry
generally, and the services of its officers were in great demand. The
industry suffered greatly through lack of freight caused l\v the war,
])ut such fruit as could be exported fetched abnormal prices.
Fortunately an extension by the Railway Administration of their
refrigerator fruit service enabled much of the fruit, which in the
ordinary course would have been exported, to be sold in the Union at
remunerative prices. The quantity exported was 257,314 boxes, as
compared with 319,829 boxes the previous year (1914-15). Statistics
obtained showed a great extension in the number of fruit trees planted,
and the question of providing additional cold storage on steamers
received much consideration. There was a considerable increase in
the production of dried fruit and jam in the Western Province of the

The Department of Agriculture during the War. 367

Cape; two fiuit-dryiug' cuncenis were established during the year
aud the industry made great progress.

A continuance of freight shortage in 1916-17 pressed heavily on
many fruit growers, but the situation was relieved by the facilities
for disposal of fruit locally, especially citrus fruit. The restriction
in the exports of fresh fruit and the good markets obtainable for dried
fruit, canned fruit, and jam resulted in a great extension of those
branches of the industry. Tlie Experiment Station at Warmbaths was
maintained as usual, and the horticultural experiment stations at the
agricultural scliools were developed, experiments witli sub-tropical
fruits also being conducted at Winkel Spruit, Natal. Notwith-
standing the serious position caused by the freight question, the year
showed a forward movement in the industry, and the division's staff
did useful work in the many directions calling for their attention,
being largely instrumental also in the opening nj) of local markds
for fresh fruit.

The conditions set u]) by the war continued during the year
1917-18, and though the i)rices obtained locally for the l)est fruit were
not as high as would have been realized oversea, yet the prosperity m
the Union brought satisfactory prices and the local market for fruit
was extended. Dried fruit, canning, aud jam-making made further
})rogress. helped in a large measure by the existing conditions.
During the year a conference of the officers of the division and of
the lecturers in horticulture .il the schools of agriculture and
experiment stations, and of certaiii leading fruit growers and nursery-
men, was held at Elsenburg, at. which many matters of importance to
the industry were discussed. Interest in all classes of fruit growing
continued to increase and notable expansion in oranges, apples, and
pineapples took place, pointing to the near approach of a considerable
export trade, particularly in citrus fruits and pineapples.

(This review will be continued in subsequent issues of the
Journal.)

Wheat and Flour.

The following' table shows the total exi)orts of wheat and flour from
the world's principal exporting countries, Canada, United States,
liritish India, Argentina, and Australia. The exports from Russia
and Roumania, which totalled 60,309.700 quintals in 1913-1914, are
not included : —

Season 1st August to ,, ■ . i /.to,, lu n Season 1st AuKUst to ,, . ^ . ^.-,,,, ,, ^

:?lst July. '^^'"t^^^^ ^220 lb.) .^,^j^ j^^^- Quintals (220 lb.)

I'.n3-1914 ... ]21,()10,r>0() 1917-1918 ... 127,280,400

1914-1915 ... 144,178,«)00 1918-1919 ... 150.893,800

1915-19ir. ... U;8,3GO,200 1919-1920 ... 89,854,300=:=

1916-1917 ... 152,158,600

The Journal is the Department's medium of making known its
activities. It contains information of value to every farmer in the
Union Keep it for reference.

"Total for (J mouths only (August January ).

368 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

COMPOSITION AND VALUATION OF FERTILIZERS
AND FEEDING STUFFS.

By C. 0. Williams, B.Sc, A.R.C.S., Chemist, Scliool oi Agriculture,

Cedara. Natal.

This article originally appeared in the various newspapers and
journals circulating- more particularly in Natal, but has been re-
written and adapted for insertion in the Journal of Agriculture so as
to be applicable to the whole Union. The object of the article more
especially is to enable farmers and ag-riculturists generally to ascertain
for themselves the comparative values of the various fertilizers and
feeding- stuffs on the market at the present time.

Fertilizers.

It may be mentioned at the outset that the present condition of
the fertilizer market is far from normal, and it is liable to so many
sudden fluctuations that any fig-ures given in this article are to be
accepted as very approximate, and may have ^o be appreciably
modified before the end oif the season.

Distinction between the Market Value and Agricultural Value of </■

Fertilizer.

It should be pointed out that the commercial or market values
dealt with in this article are different to the agricultural or real values
of the corresponding fertilizing ingredients to the farmer. - The
market value of a manure is determined by the cost of the materials
which enter into its composition and depends upon commercial condi-
tions, i.e. on supply and demand; if the demand is great while the
supply is small the price will be high, and conversely. The agricul-
tural value, on the other hand, is the real value of a manure to the
farmer in bringing about an increase in his crops and in building up
" condition " in the soil. This agricultural value would be greater
for some crops than for others, and would also depend largely upon
the soil, locality, climate, etc. To further explain this distinction
let us take an example: — Nitrate of soda during ihe war reached an
exceptionally high price owing to its use in the manufacture of
explosives, and even now it is over double the price asked for it a few
years ago. Most soils in South Africa respond very poorly to nitro-
genous fertilizing, so that nitrate of soda at the present high price is
liardly an economical proposition to the ordinary farmer; that is, its
market value is out of proportion to its agricultural value.

Th^ Constituents on which the Valuation of Fertilizers is Based.

The three elements usually found deficient in soils for the healthy
growth of plants are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, so that
compounds containing any of these three elements have often to be
supplied in the form of manures or fertilizers.

The nitrogen must usually be combined with certain other
elements, in the form of a nitrate, before it can be absorbed by the

Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs. 361)

roots of plants, but ammoniacal and certain organic compounds of
nitrogen, if applied to the soil, will ultimately be converted by the
aid of bacterial organisms into nitrates, so that any of the three
classes off nitrogenous compounds mentioned above may be used
as sources of nitrogen for plants. In valuing nitrogenous fertilizers
it is the amount of the nitrog'en in them that is ascertained as being
the essential element common to them all. It must be observed,
however, that there are other compounds of nitrogen, such as the
sulphocyanides for instance, which are harmful to plants, so that
they would be worse than useless foi- fertilizing purposes.

The element phosphorus cannot be used for application to the
soil as a plant food, and there are some compounds of this element
which are also strong plant poisons. Phosphorus in combination with
oxygen to form phosi)horous pentoxide or phosphoric oxide is an
essential constituent of all phosphates, and these are the class of
phosphorous compounds utilized as phosphatic fertilizers. Amongst
the chief phosphates applied to the soil are the various i)hosphates
of calcium, mag-nesium. iron, and aluminium, as they all contain
phosphoric oxide — ^that is the constituent estimated in all analyses of
such fertilizers and to which monetary value is attached. Potassium
is a metal, and as such obviously cannot be utilized by plants as food,
but compounds of potassium in the form of salts are usually very
soluble, and when present in the soil can be assimilated by plants.
For example, potassium combined with the element chlorine forms
potassium chloride, and this salt is often applied as a fertilizer.
Again, potassium when combined with oxygen forms potassium oxide
or potash, and a combination of this oxide with sulphur trioxide gives
us potassium sulphate (sulphate of potash), and this salt is also
largely used as a potassic fertilizer. Potash combined with carbon
dioxide (carbonic acid gas) prtuluces potassium carlionate, which is
present to a large extent in wood-ash. another substance applied to
the soil very often as a source of potassium. Although the element
potassium in the two last-mentioned compounds is present as an oxide
(potash), the first mentioned, potassium chloride, does not contain the
potassium as oxide at all, and the alternate name of chloride of potash
for this compound is a misnomer. It is, however, the practice in
analysing this latter substance, after estimating the amount of
potassium present, to calculate from it the equivalent amount of
potassium oxide and to give the result as so much potash.

De<fi.)iitio?i of Unit Values.

It has already been explained that the most important fertilizing-
constituents in a manure are : —

1. Nitrogen, which may be present either as a nitrate, as an
ammoniacal compound, or as such organic compounds as the proteins
or albuminoids.

2. Phosphorus, generally in the form of a phosphate, in which
Ihe amount of the phosphoric oxide always present is estimated.

8. Potassium, usually present as a soluble salt, and in which the
equivalent amount of potassium oxide or potash is generally given.
Therefore, when calculating the value of a manure, only these con-
stituents are usually taken into account.

In valuing a fertilizer it would be possible to calculate, for
instance, the price per pound of each of these fundamental con-
stituents in it but the more convenient method is to ascertain the

;)70 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

price of a iniit of each constituent, this imit consistiuj? of 1 per cent,
(or one-hundredth) of a ton, i.e. 20 lb. This unit value of a con-
stituent may therefore be obtained by dividino; the total of this con-
stituent present in a ton of the fertilizer by the percentage amount of
the constituent. For example, supposing the price of nitrate of soda
(containing- 15.5 per cent, of nitrogen) is £25 per ton, then the unit
value of the nitrogen in it is £25, divided by 15.5, or 32s. 3d.

The unit values given below are the averages calculated from
the retail lists of the chief dealers in the Union at the commencement
of the present season. They are therefore based on the cash or short-
credit prices Cjuoted f.o.r. at the place of storage or manufacture,
which is in almost all cases either Durban, Capetown, Tohannesburg,
or their immediate neighbourhoods. The more remote ihe farmer's
lilace from the manuic luaiket the greater will he the cost of i]\r
Fertilizer to him on account of tbe added cost of carriage and handling.
[n such cases the scales of uiiii \alues drawn uj) For tlie tliree main
centres of the Union need not I)e altered, but after calculating the
value of the fertilizer, f.o.r. Durban, say, by means of the lists given
below, the cost of carriage and handling from the consignor's railway
station to the district in (juestion must be added in order to fix its
cost to the farmer at its final destination.

The wholesale cost of the raw materials or the landed cost of the
imi)orted fertilizers would vary appreciably throughout the Union, so
it would be manifestly unfair to fix a single scale of unit values to
apply throughout the whole Union. For instance, the freight on
imported fertilizers and raw materials would be greater from Eurojjc
or America to Durban than to Capetown; also, n manufacturer oi-
merchant in Johannesburg would have to pay railage in addition to
the freight charges to one of the coast ports. For this reason three
scales of unit values have been drawn up. The first gives the averages
of the prices quoted by the dealers in Durban and the Province of
Xatal, the second applies to Capetown and the Cape Province
generally, while the third gives the average for fertilizers manuifac-
tured in Johannesburg and in the whole of the Transvaal. So far as
the writer is aware there have been no brands of fertilizers registered
by manufacturers or importers in the Orange Free State.

LU-ts of T^nil Values.

When compiling such a list it is onlv the sim])le fertilizers that
are taken into consideration, for in the case of a mixed fertilizer there
is the additional charge, of varying amount, to cover the cost of
mixing, handling, rel)agging. etc. By taking the average of the
values ])er unit in the case of each fei tilizing constituent in all brands
of simple fertilizers of the same nature placed on the market this year,
the following lists of unit values were obtained. In most instances
the number of simple fertilizers of any particular class offered for
sale is so small that no true average is possible. There is no brand
of nitrate of soda, for instance, quoted in Xatal at the present time:
only one brand of sulphate of ammonia, one blood meal, five quota-
tions for superphosphates, two for dissolved bones, and none for i)otash
compounds. In the Cape and Transvaal Provinces the numlDer of
((uotations for the above-mentioned single fertilizers is even less.
Again, owing to the unstable state of the market at present, the

Feetilizers a\d Feeding Stuefs. ;>71

calculated unit values of any particular constituent of the few ferti-
lizers of the same nature differ so very widely that very anomalous
results are obtained. As an illustration in the case "of the most
common class of simple fertilizers (bone meal), tliere are only seven
brands knbwn to the wi'iter to be on the Cape market at the* present
day ; the unit value of the citric acid-soluble phosphoric oxide in
these varies from Ts. 6d. in the lowest case up to a maximum of
10s. 8d., giving an average all through of a little over 9s.

The unit value of the nitrogen is given separately for the different
classes of nitrogenous fertilizers, for the rate of availability of this
constituent varies in each and the applicableness of each class is not
the same for all types of soils and crops. In the cases of nitrate of
soda, sulphate of ammonia, and blood or meat meal the value per unit
of tlie nitrogen was calculated direct. The nitrogen in the organic
substance of bone is less readily available to plants than that in blood
or meat meal, as owing to the tough nature of this gelatinous material
it does not decompose so rapidly in the soil ; for this reason the unit
value of nitrogen in bone meals has been arbitrarily fixed at about
four-fifths the unit value in blood or meat meal. In genuine dissolved
bones, however, the organic matter has been partially decomposed
and disintegrated by treatment with acid, and the nitrogen is reckoned
as being of the same value as in dried blood. Very often such inferior
organic materials as horn and hoof waste, hair, leathers, skin and
leather waste, wool and silk waste or shoddy, tanning refuse, etc.,
are ground up for use as fertilizers, but the rate at which the nitrogen
becomes available in such substances is very slow. These, however,
are often used as a source of nitrogen in mixed fertilizers owing to
their cheapness. When the guaranteed analysis of locally manufac-
tured mixed fertilizer states that the source of the nitrogen in it is
organic, it is fairly safe to assume that it is in the form of bone meal,
unless it is specifically stated otherwise, although it must be stated
that dried blood or meat meal is often employed in such mixtures.

The citric acid-soluble phosphoric oxide is assumed to be of the
same value in all phosphatic fertilizers (except basic slag) as that
calculated for bone meals. The insoluble phosphoric oxide is also
arbitrarily assumed to have a unit value equal to half that of the
citric acid-soluble phosphoric oxide, but, strictly speaking, the real
value is far from being uniform. The insoluble phosphates in some
materials become more readily available in the soil than others; also,
the finer the material is ground the more readily available the in-
soluble phosphate in it becomes, and consequently the more valuable
this constituent should be.

There is very little in the way of potash salts imported into South
Africa at the present time, and there is absolutely none for sale
separately. The unit values of the potash in the form of sulphate
and chloride have been calculated from data supplied by one of the
wholesale firms in Natal, and these figures should be taken as only
approximate. The potash materials used mostly' for fertilizing
purposes at present are wood-ash. Karroo-ash, and kraal-ash. in all
of which the potash is in the form of carbonate. One firm in par-
ticular states in its price list that all their fertilizers contain more
than sufficient sulphate of lime to convert any carbonate of potash
present almost entirely into sulphate of potash, prod. icing at the same
time carbonate of liiue. It is true that such a chemical reaction takes

372 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

place readily when solutions of these two coiuijounds are added one to
the other, but this reaction would take place very slowly in the soil,
and that only when the sulphate of lime is present in a large excess.

It should also be pointed out that in the case of some of the
Provinces no data were available for calculating the unit values of
some of the fertilizing constituents. For instance, in the case of the
Cape Province, no trustworthy information could be obtained as to
the probable unit value of the nitrogen in blood and meat meals. In
such a case as this, the unit value obtained from data in one of the
other Provinces (in this particular instance Natal) is given in tlio
subjoined lists: —

1 .—-Nitrogen .

^1 , ., , Unif Values for

Natal. (Jape. li'ansvaal.

s. d. s. d. s. d.

(1) jN'itric nitrogen in nitrate of soda ... 81 -i :'^1 3 31 3

(2) Ammoniacal nitrogen in sulphate of

ammonia 34 (1 34 0 34 (i

('{) Organic nitrogen in blood and meat

meals 25 6 25 f) 25 3.

(4) Organic nitrogen in dissolved bones... 25 G 25 fi 25 3,

(5) Organic nitrogen in raw bone products 20 0 20 0 20 0

2. — PJiospliorir O.ridc.

(1) Water-.soluble phosphoric oxide in

superphosphate 14 :'. 21 0 19 0

(2) Water-soluble pbosplioric oxide in dis-

solved bones 15 0 20 !) 20 0

(3) Citric-solulile pliosplioric oxide in

basic slag 14 3 14 3 14 3,

(4) Citric-soluble phosphoric oxide in

bone products, etc 8 (> 9 0 9 0

(5) Insoluble phosphoric oxide 4 3 4 (i 4 0

?>.— Potash.

(1) As carbonate 7 0 7 0 7 0

(2) As chloride 10 (i 10 G 10 (i

(3) As sulphate ; 14 0 14 0 14 0

Note. — In case of a fertilizer where figures are given lor water-
soluble, citric-soluble, and total phosphoric oxide the insoluble phos-
phoric oxide is the difference between the total and citric-soluble
phosphoric oxide. Again, in valuing such a fertilizer it is only to
that portion of the citric-soluble phosphoric oxide not included in the
water-soluble part that the unit value for citric-soluble applies. For
example, if a superphosphate contains 14 per cent, water-soluble,
16 per cent, citric-soluble, and 17 per cent, total phosphoric oxide, it
will be necessary first to calculate the value of the 14 per cent, water-
soluble phosphoric oxide, then the value of the remaining 2 per
cent, citric-soluble, and, lastly, the 1 per cent. iusolu})le phosphoric
oxide.

Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs. 373

Purposes of Unit Valuation.

The list of unit valiie.s given above is useful from two points of
\ie\v. First, it enables us to find whether a certain fertilizer is com-
mercially worth the price asked for it or not. As an illustration, we
shall take from one of this year's price lists the figures showing* the
guaranteed composition of a bone meal. They guarantee 18 per cent,
of citric-soluble phosphoric oxide, 23 per cent, o'f total phosphoric
oxide, and 4 per cent, of nitrogen. The price is £11. 15s. per ton
f .o.r. at the factory. Tlie calculation of the estimated market value is
as follows, the unit values for Xatal being applicable in this case : —

Value of nitrogen: 4 per cent., at 20s £4 0 0

Value o'f citric-soluble j)h()sphoric oxide: 18 per cent.,

at 8s. 6d 7 13 U

Value of insoluble phosphoric oxide: 5 per cent., at

4s. 3d 113

Estimated market value £12 14

It is seen from the calculation that the price c^sked for this bone
meal is appreciably below the average market value for the season.

The list may also be einployed to compare the commercial values
of different brands of fertilizers of the same nature, thus enabling the
buyer to select that brand which will give him the best value for the
money spent. In connection with this it is hardly necessary to point
out that the highest priced manure is not necessarily the dearest; in
fact it is generally the other way about, in case of simple fertilizers
especially. For instance, a certain firm is offering this season bone
dust at £11. 15s. per ton and bone meal at £11. 5s.. but on working
out the values it is found that the former is the better value, without
even taking into account the fact that the bone dust is the finer
grinding, and therefore more readily available in the soil. Further-
more, in the case of the higher priced fertilizer, but which shows
better value, there is less carriage to pay on worthless material so far
as fertilizing the soil is concerned.

In connection with this point it may be mentioned that there is a
U'udency shown by firms to add a considerable amount of practicall}'
worthless material as a filler to the mixed fertilizers they turn out.
chiefly in order to keep the selling price per ton down to a reasonable
figure. This is due to the prejudice shown by the farmer against
paying a high price for his fertilizer, no matter what its composition
may be. For the reasons given above this is absolutely false economy,
and before deciding which brand of fertilizer he should buy the
farmer ought to find out the comparative values of all the suitable
brands offered by means of the above list of unit values, giving the
preference to the more concentrated fertilizers, everything else being
equal .

To give an illustration of this second use of the unit values, let
us compare two mixed fertilizers, supposed to be offered by different
firms in the same town in Xatal, say: — One Ciuotes at £10 per ton,
guaranteeing 10 per cent, citric-solulile phosphoric oxide, 15 per cent,
total phosphoric oxide. 3 per cent, nitrogen, and 3 per cent, potash.

374 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

The calculation in the case of this first fertilizer is as follows : —

Value of nitrogen: 3 per cent., at 20s £o U 0

Value of citric-soluble phosphoric oxide: 10 per cent.,

at 8s. 6d ... 4 o 0

Value of insolul)le phosphoric oxide : 5 per cent., at 4s. ^)d. 1 1 'i

Value of potash : o pei- cent., at 7s 1 1 0

Coiit of handling', mixing, rebag-ging", etc 0 i2 0

Estimated commercial value jxt tdii i'!J ]!) !)

The estimated value of iliis fertilizer is 100 pe]' cent, x
p|^ — ', or 100 per cent, of the price asked for it; that is, the

seller's price is the same as the estimated market value.

The second firm quotes at £12. 15s. per ton, with a guarantee of
10 per cent, citric-soluble phosphoric oxide, 10 per cent, total phos-
phoric oxide, 2.5 per cent, nitrogen, and 2.3 ])er (ent. potash.

In this case we have : —

Value o^f nitrogen : 2.5 per cent., at 20s ... £2 10 0

Value of citric-soluble phosphoric oxide: 10 i)er cent.,

at 8s. 6d 4 5 0

Value of insoluble phosphoric oxide : 6 per cent., at 4s. 3d. 15 6

Value of potash: 2.3 per cent., at 7s 0 16 0

Cost of handling, mixing, rebagging, etc 0 12 6

Estimated commercial value i'O 9 0

The estimated value of this leitilizer is 100 per cent, x

£9. 9s.

n-in ic 1 or only 74 iier cent, of the i)rice iisked for it: that is, the
±12. 15s. • ^

real market value is only about three-quarters the seller's price.

Both fertilizers are supposed to lie (|Uoted for cash, f.o.r. at ihe
same station, so the item of carriage would be tlie .-ame in both cases
and need not be taken into consideration.

There is no possible doubt in this particiilar case which is the
better value to the farmer, for although the second fertilizer is quoted
at £2. 15s. more per ton than the former its real commercial value is
considerably less.' Under normal conditions of the fertilizer market
it is not usual to find such a big- difference as that in the comparativ(>
\alues of two brands of fertilizers offered by different firms, bui it
serves as an extreme illustration to farmers to be careful alwaj'S to
ascertain whether they are g-etting the best value or not in the case
of the particular fertilizer they propose buying.

It should be mentioned here that special or mixed fertilizers sold
as suitable for certain crops are often considerably higher in price
than their real commercial value warrants. They are also sometimes
badly compounded, very inferior ingredients being used, and the pro-
portions of the various fertilizing constituents may not be the best for
that particular crop on normal soils in this country; in fact there
may be some constituent present that is not needed at all for the
j)articular soil on whi(4i it is proposed to empty the fertilizer, and the
pro]iortion that is best foi' one type of soil is far from being the best

FkrtilizeIrS and Feeding Stuffs. 375

for another type. Therefore, for several reasons, it is often preferable
for the farmer to prepare his own mixtures. This can readily be done
on a clean floor, taking care that the ingredients employed are in a
fine state of sub-division and are thoroughly and uniformly mixed.
Caution is to l)e shown in the choice of ingredients, for there are some
substances which cause a deleterious chemical or physical reaction
when intimately mixed, especially if the mixture is jdlowed to remain
for some time before being sown, so that the resulting product
deteriorates in value very considerably. For example, the mixing of
a material containing lime, especially if caustic, with superphosphate
would cause a partial reversion of the water-soluble phosphate to a
less soluble and available form. It must, however, be admitted that
many firms put their mixed fertilizers on the market at a reasonable
cost and in a better mechanical condition than a farmer can hope to
prepare his home-made mixtures. It therefore behoves every buyer
to scrutinize each price list very carefully and calculate which is
more economical, to purchase a particular brand o<f mixed fertilizer
at a fair value, or to compound his own special mixture.

It must again be emphasized that the above unit values are not
given for the purpose df indicating the agricultural value of a fertilizer
or the return which may reasonablv be expected from the use of it,
for that is also largely controlled by (among other factors) the season,
character of the soil, kind of crop, and method of applying the
fertilizer.

Oilier Considerations concerning the Valve of a Manure.

Another point to remember is that no attempt has been made
when making the lists of unit values to differentiate between the
quality of the ingredients of the same nature in different fertilizers.
The mechanical condition of the ingredients in a fertilizer is an
important consideration, and especially is this true of those fertilizing
constituents which are insoluble. It may be laid down as a general
principle that the availability of a given insoluble fertilizing con-
stituent will vary with its fineness, and for this reason, in case of such
fertilizers as bone meal and basic slag", the fineness of the material
must be guaranteed to be within certain limits. As before mentioned,
in the above list the insoluble phosphate in the coarsest bone meal is
assumed to be o^f the same value as that in the finest bone flour, which
in practice is far from being the case. Another thing in connection
with' the mechanical condition of fertilizers is to insist that all the
ingredients present have an approximately equal degree of fineness,
for if a heavy, finely-ground material (for example) is mixed with
coarse, bulky material they will soon become more or less separated,
and the result will be a fertilizer very variable in composition and
from which it would be very difficult to obtain a representative sample
for analysis, the coarser material preponderating at the top of the bag
while the finer material will have worked its way down to the bottom.

Analysis of Fertilizers to Farmers.

The sale of fertilizers and farm foods throughout the Union is
now regulated under the Act No. 21 of 1917, according to which
" Every person who sells any fertilizer (or farm food) sliall g'ive or
send to the purchaser at the time of delivery an invoice stating the
quantity sold, the name or brand under which the fertilizer (or farm

lilt; Journal of the Department op A(4Rictjlture.

food) is registered, and the chemical constituents thereof which have
been registered as prescribed by regulations in respect of such ferti-
lizer (or farm food). That statement in the invoice shall be deemed
to be a guarantee that the article is as described therein." vShould a
buyer have reason to doubt the accuracy of the guarantee the regula-
tions under the Act provide him with the means of having his consign-
ment sampled and analysed. The exact procedure to follow can be
ascertained from the Government regulations issued under the abo\e-
mentioned Act, copies of which can be obtained on application to the
Secretary for Agriculture, Pretoria. An article on the subject was
published in the April, 1920, number of the Journal.

The importance of thorough and careful sampling is not realized
fully by many people. Out of a consignment of 50 tons, say, the
proportion sent to the analyst is almost infinitesimal, therefore
extreme care should be taken that this comparatively small amount is
thoroughly representative of the whole bulk. We very often have
only a fraction of an ounce forwarded to us for analysis, and that
perhaps taken from the mouth of one of the bags. Further, this
small quantity is generally sent loose in an envelope, paper-wrapper,
or a coarse linen or canvas bag, with the consequence that a large
proportion of the finer material will have escaped be'fore the package
has reached the laboratory. It is recommended that at least a couple
of pounds of the material, after careful sampling, should be forwarded
in a close-fitting tin or wooden box and sealed.

Should a bona fide farmer require an analysis to be done without
making use of the machinery of the Act for the purpose the same
care should be taken with the sampling, and a copy of the guaranteed
analysis should accompany the sample in all cases. The fees laid
down in the tariff of the Department of Agriculture for such analysis
amount to ten shillings only, provided that no more than three
detenninations are involved in the analysis, otherwise the fee charged
is fifteen shillings. This work is done in the laboratories of the
various Schools of Agriculture throughout the Fnion.

In addition to the analysis of the fertilizers we are always ready
to advise farmers with regard "to the valuation and comparison of any
particular fertilizers they seek information about, but it is difficult,
however, to give definite opinion concerning the suitability of a certain
fertilizer for a particular crop on the soil in question and to advise on
the best amount io apply. This depends largely on the capabilities of
the soil, and although a chemical analysis of the soil will very often
help considerably in coming to a decision on the matter, the chemical
composition of the soil as revealed by such analysis is only one of the
many factors that govern its fertility; the climate, the aspect, the
natural drainage, the physical structure and mechanical constitu-
tion of the soil, the mode of cultivation adopted, etc., have all, in
addition to the composition of the soil, a great deal to do with its
natural fertility.

Lime Manures.

These include all the so-called " lime materials " that are applied
to the soil chiefly for their ameliorative effect on its texture and
acidity. The different forms of lime employed for this purpose are : —

1 . — Calciuvi Oxide .

This is applied ohiefiy in the form of quicklime or burnt lime,
which is manufactured bv heating some form of natural calcium

Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs, 377

carbonate (or carbonate of lime), such as limestone, in order to
decompose this compound and drive off carbon dioxide. Thus,
calcium carbonate decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
Quicklime or burnt lime ordinarily contains, besides free calcium
oxide, small proportions of calcium carbonate and calcium hydrate,
together with the mineral impurities originally present in the lime
stone, as well as a certain amount of ash from the fuel employed,

2. — Calcium Hydrate.

The commercial form of this is known as slaked lime, and is
produced by adding^ the proper quantity of water to quicklime, the«e
two chemically combining with the generation of a considerable
amount of heat. Pure calcium hydrate would be a combination of
approximately 76 per cent, of calcium oxide and 14 per cent, of water,
but in ordinary slaked lime there would of course be present the
original impurities of the burnt lime, and a portion of the calcium
oxide Avould have changed to calcium carbonate.

The above forms oi lime go under the term of caustic lime owing
to their alkaline nature.

3. — CalciuTn Carbonate.

This is commonly known as carbonate of lime, and is found in
nature as limestone, marble, chalk, coral, etc., but there is always a
certain proportion of other substances present as impurities in these
natural materials. In contradistinction to the caustic limes these
forms are termed mild jimes. Either of these natural forms of
carbonate of lime may be ground up finely for applying to the soil as
a manure, and this fine powdery product is sold nnder the name of
agricultural lime, but the term " lime," strictly speaking, should
only be applied to calcium oxide. When buying this agricultural
lime it is very necessary to know how pure it is, that is, the percentage
of calcium carbonate actually present. Pure calcium carbonate is a
combination of 56 per cent, of calcium oxide with 44 per cent, of carbon
dioxide, but no agricultural lime placed on the market is absolutely
pure calcium carbonate. Therefore, supposing an agricultural lime
is guaranteed to contain 55 per cent, of calcium oxide it is very
essential to know whether all that calcium oxide is present in
combination with carbon dioxide as calcium carbonate or not, for in
such a material other combinations of calcium oxide may not be of so
much use from a manurial point of view.

From the above explanations it is evident that in all the above
forms of lime manures the essential constituent is the calcium oxide
that is present, either in the free state or in combination with water
(as hydrate), or with carbon dioxide (as carbonate). It is therefore
customary to value a lime manure by the amount of calcium oxide
present in it in any of these three forms. Lime manures do not
come under the scope of the Fertilizers Act, therefore it is not com-
pulsory on sellers to give a guaranteed analysis of such materials, but
when buying any of them it is advisable that such a guarantee be
insisted upon, for there is a very great difference ^n the composition
and quality of the various agricultural limes, for instance, that are
on the market at the present time.

378 .loUKNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Unit Value of the Calcium Oxide in Lime Manures.

It has been very difficult to obtain definite information from
dealers with regard to the composition of the various lime manures
that are being offered for sale, and tlie writer has found by actual
analysis that tlie figures submitted in some cases are far from being
reliable. Therefore the attempt to arrive at an approximate unit
value for the calcium oxide has only been made in the case of the
agricultural limes. From the price lists and pamnhlets received
from most of the dealers in such materials it has been calculated that
the unit value o'f the calcium oxide (in the form of carbonate) in agri-
cultural limes, works out to approximately 6d., supposing the consign-
ment to be retailed per ton in bags, f.o.r. at the works, the price
including cost of bags as in fertilizers.

Comparative Valuation of Lime Manures.

By the aid of the calculated unit value given in the preceding
paragraph it is possible, as with a fertilizer, to ascertain whether a
certain agricultural lime is being- offered for sale at a fair vaine or
not, tor the estimated true market value could be calculated by
multiplying the unit value by the percentage of calcium oxide
piesent as u carbonate. But even without assuming the correctness
of this unit value as applied to lime manures we can compare two
agricultu]'al limes, for instance, and find out which is the better
value.

To take an example, suppose a certain agricultural lime con-
taining 88 per cent, of carbonate of lime is quoted at £1. 2s. fid.
per ton, while another brand containing 95 per cent, of carbonate of
lime is being offered for £M . 8s. 6d., the terms of the sale being
identical in both cases. In the first brand every unit of carbonate of
lime is worth £1. 2s. 6d. -^ 88, or os. Id., while in the second the
price of carbonate of lime per unit works out to £1. 8s. fid. -^ 95, or
8s. fid., which is decidedh/ greater.

Although the first agricultural lime works out to be the cheapei"
it may not really be so to a certain farmer when the item of carriage
is also taken into consideration, for in the case of such cheap bulky
materials as these this latter item is of great comparative importance.
In fact, before comparing prices, it is better to add in each case tlie
carriage and other incidental expenses of transport on to the dealer's
price f.o.r. at the works, for the total (T-ost of the consignment at the
farmer's owa door is the essential thing to know.

Feeding Stuffs.

Tlie number of artificial farm foods on the South African market
at the present time is so small that it is not out of the question to
attempt making out a list of unit values for each of the food con-
stituents, but a method Avill be exjjlained of comparing different
feeding stuffs with the view of ascertaining approximately their
relative value commercially.

TJie Constituents of Foods.

The regula;tions under the T:)reviously mentioned Act requires that
all dealers must give on their invoices a guarantee T^ith regard to the
composition of a farm food, stating tlie proportions present of the

Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs. 379

fullowing constitueuts : — Protein, fibre, moisture, mid ash, tlie per-
centage of soluble carbohydrates being calculated by finding- tlie
difference between 100 and tlie total of the other percentages.

The moisture in feeding stuffs varies considerably, being as low as
8 or 9 per cent, in oil cakes and as high as 90 per cent, in roots. In
the case of artificial foods it is better that the amount of water should
be low, in order that the proportion of food constituents be corre-
spondingly higher, for it is unnecessary and uneconomical to pay
carriage on water in a foodstuff.

The ash is the mitiera' portion left after igniting the material in
the open air until all the volatile and organic matter has disappeared.
This mineral matter, although no money value is attached to it com-
mercially, is an essential constituent in food, for it is necessary for
the building up and the repairing of the skeleton and the various
tissues of the body, and also for the proper performance of the diges-
tive, respirative, and circulatory processes. Young r ninials especially
are liable to suft'er in development should their food be deficient in
mineral constituents, and it A-ery often becomes iiecessary to supple-
ment their ordinary food with a ration of such mineral substances as
bone meal and common salt.

The crude fi.hie is mainly made up of cellulose, one of the carbo-
hydrates, and is usually regarded as being the portion of the food
that would resist digestion if fed to an animal, and is therefore not
given a value from a commercial point of view. Although it is not
absorbed to any appreciable extent into the animal system it is a
mistake to think that the crude fibre has no digestive value and is
unnecessary in the animal's diet. During the process of digestion it
is necessary that the digestive organs should be comifortably full in
order to promote the desired movements of the organs and of the food
contained therein. There must therefore be a large propoition of
i]idigestible matter present, besides the digestible portion, in order to
make up the necessary bulk.

The soluble caihohijdrates comprise the sugars, starches, gums,
and similar compounds. They are all composed of the element
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Tn the animal system they are
oxidized and converted ultimately into water and carbon dioxide
(carbonic acid gas), at the same time generating heat and other forms
of energy in the animal body.

The fats and oils also comprise the same elements as the carbo-
liydrates and have the same functions to perform Jn the body. Their
power in this respect is nearly two and a half times that of the carbo-
hydrates and are consequently so much more valuable as food con-
stituents.

The pi'oteins or albuminoids contaivi besides the above-mentioned
elements nitrogen, sulphur, and ])hosphorus. The typical protein is
albumen, of which the "white'' of an egg is altogether composed;
the glutens are also proteins and are i)resent in the seeds of the
different cereals. With the exception of the mineral portion of the
skeleton and the layers of fat in the body practically all the other
tissues are composed of proteins.

Food Unit.^.

For the purpose of the commercial valuation of a farm food it is
alwa\-^ assumed that it is only the proteins, fats, and soluble carbo-
liydratrs that have a monetary value, and by adopting the same

380 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

procedure as iu the case of fertilizer's it would be possible to arrive at a
list of unit values for each of these constituents, but, as previously
explained, it is not proposed to do this.

It is, however, generally assumed that the comparative value of
the protein and fat in all foods is approximately equal, and that each
is equal to two and a half times the value of an equal weight of
soluble carbohydrates. On this assumption 1 per cent, of the soluble
carbohydrates in a ton. i.e. 20 lb., is taken as a unit, so that the total
number of food units in the substance is found by multiplying the
sum of the percentages of the protein and the fat by 2.5, and add to
that sum the percentage of the soluble carbohydrates. Thus :

jSTumber of food units = 2.5 (protein + fat) + soluble carbo-
hydrates.

■ Comparative Valuation of Feeding Stuffs.

If we divide the price per ton of any food by the number of food
units we get the monetary value of one food unit in it. By going
through this calculation for all the different farm foods at present on
the South African market it is found that the average value per food
unit comes approximately to 2s. 3d., taking in every case the cash
retail price per ton, in bags f .o.r. at the works or place of retail.

This calculated average unit value can be taken as a guide for
estimating the commercial value of any particular feeding stuff offered
for sale, and to see whether the retail price at which it is offered com-
pares favourably or not with this estimate. To give an example,
suppose a farm food was placed on tlie market at £15 per ton, having
the following constituents guaranteed : —

Protein, 40 per cent. ; fat, 10 per cent. ; and soluble carbo-
hydrates, 30 per cent. ; total number of food units =
2.\5(40+10)+30==155; estimated value == 2s. 3d. x 155 =
£17. 9s.

This calculation shows that the retail price of such a food would
be considerably below the average market value of these foods at the
present time.

But, as shown in connection with lime manures, we can compare
the value of two or more different foods without assuming the correct-
ness of the unit value given in the previous paragraph. For instance,
suppose two oilcakes were offered for sale, of which the particulars
are as follows : —

No. 1. — -Price, £11. 10s. per ton; guaranteed protein, 43.5 per
cent. ; fat, 8.5 per cent. ; soluble carbohvdrates, 26.0 per
cent.; number of food units = 2.5 (43.5V 8.5) + 26.0 -
156; value of one food unit = £11. 10s. -^ 156 = Is. 6d.

No. 2. — Price, £9 per ton; guaranteed protein, 43.8 per cent. ;
fat, 9.2 per cent. ; soluble carbohydrates, 22.0 per cent. ;
number of food units = 2.5(43.8 + 9.2) + 22.0 = 154.5;
value of one food unit == £9 -^ 154.5 =^ Is. 2d.

The second cake is therefore the better value to the buyer, as
being 4d. per unit cheaper.

It must be pointed out, however, that it is not always the food
that works out the cheaper per food unit that is the ])est for the stock

Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs. o81

owner to buy. if, for instance, he requires the foodstuffs for the
feeding- of young- stock, then the proportion of proteins should be
high as compared with that of non-proteins, for the proteins are
particularly concerned with the building- up of tissues. On the other
liand, for animals only moderately worked or for those in store condi-
tion it is better to have foods rich in fats and carbohydrates, the con-
stituents which are sources of heat and energy in the animal system,
for there is comparatively little waste of tissues in the body in cases
like these, so the proportion of protein matter in the food can be
appreciably lower.

Other Factors Governing the Feeding Value of a. Foodstajf.

The value of a food depends very largely upon its chemical
composition, but its mechanical condition, palatability, digestibility,
method of preparation, etc., have all a great influence also upon its
feeding value. To take the question of mechanical condition, for
instance, mealie meal is far more thoroughly digested than the whole
or partially broken grain, for the smaller the particles of the food
are the larger is the surface exposed to the action of the digestive
juices. Again, it is not of much use putting a highly nutritious food
like some of the oilcakes before an animal if it has no taste for it and
lelfuses to consume it, but it must })e remembered, however, that
palatability is greatly influenced and controlled by familiarity and
habit with regard to food.

Concerning the question of digestibility, in ome foods like hay
a)id straw the proportion of the various constituents digested is low,
whereas in the case of most of the cakes and meals practically all the
food constituents are digestible. In the method of rough commercial
comparative valuation given in this article the question of digestibility
is ignored, so the comparison should only be made between foods
which have approximately the same digestive coefficients for the
corresponding food constituents. For instance most of the different
brands of oilcakes might safely be compared in this way with one
another, for approximately the &ame proportion of each corresponding
food constituent would be digestible in all of tliem. As an example,
it is found in most cases of this particular class of foods that the
percentage of the total protein that is digested bv stock is roughly
the same. On the other hand, we could not compare in this way the
commercial value of a certain sami)le of hay witJi any of the oilcakes,
for instance, because the proportion of each food constituent digestible
is much lower in the former.

Manurial Value of Foods.

Another factor of importance in determining the relative values
of foods in their effect upon the quality and quantity of the resulting
manure obtained from the animals that are being fed on them. A'
foodstuff may thus be of considerable value to the farmer after it has
passed through the animal, yet the market price of a foodstuff often
bears no relation to its manurial value, the commercial value being
determined by its worth as a food simply and not as a manure in
addition.

Oil or fat is one of the most costly constituents of a feeding stuff,
because, as previouslv mentioned, it is a source of far more energv in

14

38a Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

the animal body than the same weight of the soluble carbohydrates.
Both of these food constituents owe their value almost entirely to the
fact that they are sources of heat and energy, as well as promoting
when in excess the formation of fatty tissue. On the other hand, the
protein, besides being the constituent that builds up and replaces the
worn-out muscular tissue of the body, is also the source of nitrogen in
the resulting manure ; it therefore has a considerable residual manurial
value in addition to its value as a food constituent pure and simple.
In the metliod given above of estimating the value of feeding stuffs
by food units, the manurial value as well as the feeding value of each
constituent is taken into consideration, although, as previously stated,
the mineral matter of the food is not taken into account in this respect.

It would be beyond the scope of this article to deal exhaustively
with this aspect of the subject and to attempt to give figures showing
the probable proportion of the various fertilizing constituents from a
food that would be found ultimately in the manure, but it is certainly
a point that a farmer should bear in mind when buying artificial
foods. Speaking generally, the oilcakes yield the richest manure, as
they contain the largest proportion of nitrogen and phosphoric oxide,
with a fair amount of potash. Next to these come the leguminous
seeds and bran. The cereal grains are slightly inferior to the ordinary
meadow or veld hay in this respect, while roots are ihe poorest of all.

In conclusion, the fact must again be emphasized that the unit
values given in this article, owing to the abnormal conditions of the
market, are only very approximate indeed. Also, since the prices of
fertilizers and feeding stuff's fluctuate such a great deal at present,
some of the unit values that were approximately correct for the
beginning of the year may be very far out by now. For these reasons
undue stress must not be laid on their correctness for comparing
l)rices of fertilizers and feeding stuffs as the season advances, but the
writer hopes to be able from time to time to correct these lists and to
publish them in the Journal. Of course as the market becomes more
stabilized more and more reliance can be placed on the list of unit
values drawn up.

Fencing.

The following fence is recommended for stock purposes : — Strain-
ing posts of iron in good, hard wood, to be placed not more than 400
yards apart. Standards of iron on good, hard wood, the latter to be
not less than 6 inches in diameter at the thin ends, to be placed not
more than 20 yards apart. Droppers not less than four between eacli
two standards. Wire not less than four strands of barbed wire.
Gates where necessary over public roads should be 15 feet long and
constnicted as laid down in Act No. 17 of 1912 (Section 28).

The Journal aims at keeping farmers informed of what the
Department of Agriculture is doing, also of such matters affecting
their interests as come under its purview. The Journal contains
original articles for the guidance of the farmer on the many and
diverse problems which face him. Every farmer should lead it and
keep it.

Principles of Co-operation in Agriculture. 38o

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF CO-OPERATION
IN AGRICULTURE.

liy JoHS. Eetief, llegistrar of Co-operative Agricultural Societies.

The success of farming, like that of all other producing' businesses,
depends not only upon the application of proper methods of produc-
tion, but also upon the exercise of business ?cunien in marketing the
products of the business.

During recent years much has l^een done to introduce improved
methods of production, but if our farmers are to receive a reasonable
return for their investment of capital v.nd labour, they must resort
not only to scientific methods of production and labour but must also
find the shortest and least expensive route l^etween the producer and
the consumer. In other words, farmers liiust co-operate in placiiig
their business on a proper organized basis.

Organization is generally admitted to be essential for success in
practically every phase of industrial activity. It is the fundamental
principle accepted by all business men in their operations.

In South Africa farmers are beginning to realize that they cannot
proceed as heretofore, and that organization has become necessary for
them also. Finding that individual efforts would be of little avail
against the forces opposed to them, our farmers are beginning to see
that, as farmers, their interests are identical, and that their only hope
of success lies in co-operative effort, each helping the other, and all
working together.

There is, however, a great deal of confusion in the use of the
term "co-operation," asapplied to agricultural efforts.

The true co-operatiAe association, whether with limited liability
registered under our Companies Acts, or with unlimited liablity regis-
tered under our Co-operatiA^e Acts, is an association of farmers who
unite in an effort to handle their common interests through an agency
controlled by themselves on the principle of an industrial democracy,
and exclusively for their own benefit.

The object of agricultural co-operation is to ensure that the farmer
receives not only the profits due to him as a labourer, but also the
profits which he may have earned as a business man by grading,
developing, and marketing the products first raised by hiin as a
labourer. The idea is to secure these extra profits for the farmers
as a class, as well as to provide for their equitable distribution among
individual farmers by dividing the profits on the basis of patronage
instead of on the basis of capital.

Agricultural Co-operation simply means that the farmer takes
control of all the branches of his own busines,s — he must not only
produce but must also, as far as possible, deliver his products to the
consumer — i.e. he must get into closer contact with the consumer^

We have in the Union two forms of Co-operative Associations —
those with limited liability and those in which the liabilty of members
is unlimited.

384 Journal of the Department op Agricultdre.

The Co-operative Associations formed with unlimited liability,
and registered under our Co-operative Acts, are, of course, entirely
co-operative, in that they are associations formed exclusively for the
benefit of the members, whose voting power is based on equality of
membership, whose membership is confined exclusively to producers,
and whose earnings are distributed on the basis of the product. This
cannot be said of all the limited liability co-operative associations in
the Union registered under the Companies Acts of the different Pro-,
vinces. Some of these are masquerading as co-operative associations,
hui are in reality conducted for the benefit of the shareholders rather
than for that of the producers, and cannot therefore be termed co-
operative .

The true co-operative association formed with limited liability
differs fundamentally from the ordinary joint-stock company conducted
for profit, and nothing marks the difference between the two so clearly
as the division of profits.

In an ordinary joint stock company a distribution of profits woiild
take place in direct proportion to the capital invested if it should
appear as the result of the year's business that there was a surplus after
paying all just debts, and making proper allowance for depreciation of
property, and also generally after an allocation of a pi'oportion of the
profits to the Reserve Funds. In a co-operative association witli
limited liability, on the other hand, such surplus is returned to the
member in proportion to the volume of the business transacted by him
with the association, after, of course, a fair rate of interest is paid for
tlie use of capital actually employed in the business.

Another important point of difference between a limited liability
co-operative association and an ordinary joint-stock company is the
method of voting. In the latter the voting is conducted on a money
bosis, and the man with the largest monetary interests controls the
affairs of the company, whereas in a co-operative association the voting
power is based on the equality of membership, i.e. on the principle
of " one man one vote," and no proxies are allowed to be issued. This
serves as an effective safeguard against the concentration of power in
the hands of one man or of a few. The history of the co-operative
movement in Europe shows that this fundamental principle is sound.

Tliese are two of the most important principles which distinguish
a co-operative association from an ordinary joint-stock company.

The remarks which follow are applicable to both forms of co-
operative associations, whether formed with limited liability or un-
limited liability.

The history of co-operation in Euiope and in the several other
countries where co-operation means so much to the farmers to-day
that they cannot possibly do without it, shows that, especially in the
beginning, great difficulties are to be contended with. One of these
difficulties is the strong opposition with which the co-operative move-
ment is confronted wherever it is commenced. The co-operative
association, as a rule, is calle<l upon from the very beginning to com-
pete with persons oi- organizations whose interests are affected by it.
Every conceivable form of misrepiesentation will be levelled against
it, and every other weapon known to competition will be utilized to
put it out of business.

This opposition we have experienced to a certain extent in this
countrv also.

Principles ok Co-oPERATrox in AGRKTi/rrjUK. H8'>

The fact that co-operative associations have to contend witli such
strong" opposition should serve to prove to farmers that there is some-
thing radically wrong v/ith their own business. • Instead of dishearten-
ing them, it should be to them the deciding factor in answering the
question whether or not co-operation is necessary for them.

The farmer, however, does not always view the matter in this
light. In all countries he is difficult to move, and is naturally a
strong individualist. He is averse to delegating authority over his
affairs to anj* one, and when he is faced by some kind of adversity in liis
association, or is confronted witli tlie skilful arguments of those who
aim at destroying tlie organization and keeping him working as an
individual, he is apt to weaken and finally to leave the org-anization,
unless he feels the need of co-operation by reason of the fact that his
existence as a farmer is threatened by existing conditions.

It follows, therefore, that to be permanently successful a co-
operative association must be founded on economic necessity. The
reason for its existence must lie in .some vital service which it is
expected to perform if it is to live in tjie face of the opposition to
which it will be subjected

It would, therefore, be well to begin to co-operate first of all in
those lines of agricultural production in which it is felt that the
greatest need for co-operation exists.

Necessity plays a great part in co-operation. It is one of the
chief factors which lead to concerted action and loyalty amongst
farmers in time of adversity.

As long as the foundation is sound, members should not become
discouraged when the initial efforts of their society are necessarily
small and inauspicious. It is very often advisable to begin in a small
way and allow the business to extend in the degree that members
gain experience and confidence in the society.

There are many large and powerful co-operative organizations in
other countries to-day which began in the humblest of ways.

But it is important that a society should not be established pre-
maturely. Before deciding on the formation of a co-operative
organization, all the pros and cons should carefully be considered, and
every precaution should be taken as would be done before commencing
any other kind of business.

A point I would like to emphasize is that, whereas the causes of
failure of any ordinary business are usually ascribed to bad manage-
ment or something oi that nature, the blame, in the case of a co-opera-
tive society, is generally put on co-operation itself. The actual cause
of failure (in the majority of cases violation of the fundamental prin-
ciples of co-operation) is lost sight o'f, and peoj)le jump to the con-
clusion that it is co-operation which is a failui^^. The result is that
the failure of any co-operative societ}' tends to discredit the movement
throughout the country, and adversely to affect its progress.

In the preliminary stages of the movement, failures can, of course,
hardly be avoided, and were experienced even in those older countries
where co-operation has met with such a marked degree of success, but,
for the reason just mentioned, it is essential that everything should be
done to avoid tliein as much as possible.

In forming a co-oper;itive society, care should be taken not to
foUhw blindly the systems practised in other countries, however
successful they may have proved there. It would be well to accept

386 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

the precept of proving all things and holding fast that which is good.
Local conditions should carefully be studied and the systems in vogue
elsewhere should be modified to suit our own requirements.

When once the society has been safely launched, the closest atten-
tion should be given to the management.

The individual producer is likely to gauge the requirements of
management by the size of his own particular business, and very often
falls short in his estimate when he is called upon to act on the board
of directors and is charged with the responsibility of providing an
efficient management for the successful handling- oi a collective busi-
ness. It is, therefore, of the utmost importance that care should be
exercised by the members in selecting from amongst themselves the
men into whose hands the direction of the affairs of their association
will be entrusted. It should be remembered that the success of a co-
operative association depends very largely on efficiency in manage-
ment and the only factor which should, therefore, be considered in
selecting the members of the board should be "fitness." There
should be no " respect of persons " in the sense of a man and his
relations.

The great difficulty, however, in most co-operative organizations
is the lack of appreciation of the need for a high order of organizing
and business ability on the part of the employees. This is very often
noticeable in the appointment by the directors of the manager and
othei: officials.

No business can ever become a success if the officials, and especi-
ally tlie manager, are incompetent, and a co-operative association is
certainly no exception to this rule.

There is often also a tendency on the part of the members to rely
too completely upon the directors for the proper conduct of their joint
affairs, and, similarly, on the part of the directors to delegate their
functions to the manager, or such other person as is charged with the
performance of the practical business of the association. If, in such
circumstances, the "integrity of the manager is beyond reproach, and
he is a highly capable person who has at the same time a clear con-
ception of the underlying purpose of the organization, all may be
well, but if this is not the case, then the co-operative association is
bound to be short-lived.

One of the problems which the management always has before it
is the keeping alive of the interest of the members, who should be
encouraged to take an active part in the development and organization
of their society. Their confidence should be gained by keeping them
fully posted with the details of the business ; the methods employed
should be an open book to them, and there should be nothing mysterious
about the management and control of the business.

The answer to the question as to the manner in which the manage-
ment should proceed in putting the society's produce on the market
covers a very wide field. Generally speaking, it becomes a matter of
adaptability to local conditions and circumstances, while much
depends on the particular kind of produce which the society has for
disposal. It may be to the advantage of a society formed for the
disposal of a certain kind of produce to establish depots and sell the
produce by retail, in which case great care should be taken to secure
the services of a manager who is thoroughly versed in that class of

Principles of Co-operation in Agriculture. 387

trade, while the loyal and active support of the members would also
be required in order to maintain a uniform supply.

Ag-ain, societies may find it necessary to combine and establish
a central distributing and supply agency.

Whatever the conditions and circumstances may be, it should be
made a fundamental rule that no risk whatever should be incurred.
There should, for instance, be no speculation with members' produce
by attempting- to " rig- " the market, or something- of that nature, even
if the society or combination of societies is strong enough to do so.
The risk involved in such a procedure may not be very great, provided
there is a steady, assured market for the kind of produce the society
has for disposal, but it becomes quite a different matter when the kind
of produce is generally an uncertain crop, and the consumption varies
a g'reat deal, so that prices are likely to be affected in a way not to be
foreseen.

Coming now to the question of audit, the history of agricultural
co-operation in other countries, and I may add in our own, furnishes
a clear indication that regular and detailed investigations of the books
and affairs of co-operative associations by persons thoroughly versed in
the intricacies of the particular business transacted, are essential.

Auditing a co-operative society's accounts is a different matter
altogether from auditing those of an ordinary business. The methods
of business, the aims, the accepted practices, are different. Also the
nature of the business transacted by some societies is such that the
cumulative effect of the mistakes made is not immediately discernible,
and it follows, therefore, that unless very special attention is given to
this important matter, the results are sure to be disastrous.

I have already referred to ihe very important question of good
management. I now wish to offer a few remarks on something equally
essential, if not more so, namely, the loyalty of members. It is neces-
sary that each member should bear in mind that the success of the
organization depends upon the combined eff'orts of its members in
giving every possible support to the movement. They should fully
realize that the association's interest is their interest; its gain their
gain ; its loss their loss. There should be no yielding to the seductive
blandishments of interested persons anxious, for obvious reasons, to
break up their association, even at a temporary sacrifice.

No member should, in handling his crop, be interested only in his
own immediate success, and look upon his association merely as a new
shop at which he may deal or otherwise at his pleasure. The associa-
tion must know definitely what it is expected to do. It is clearly
impossible to form a correct estimate of the volume of the business to
be handled, the expenses to be incurred, and the preparation to be
made to transact the affairs in an orderly and economical manner if
the loyalty of the members cannot be depended upon.

The surest way of procuring that loyalty is obviously for the
association to offer some distinct and direct material benefit. The
members must believe that the co-operative principle is sound, and
this belief must be founded on the Inisiness results of the organization,
as well as on its larg'er influence on the development of the industry
as a whole.

388 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

EXPERIMENTS AND INVESTIGATIONS.

Work at the Schools of Agriculture and Experiment
Stations and Sub-Stations.

[In the last two issues of the Journal the work in liand at (!edaia, Grootfontein,
Glen, and sub-stations was reviewed. — Acting Editor.]

VI.— AT ELSENBTTRG, MFLDEUS VLET, CAPE.

FlKLD HUSBANDKY DIVISION.

Manurial E.vpenments — (1) To determine the most profitable
fertilizer or combination of fertilizers for wheat and oats on the light
sandy loams of the sonth-west Cape and with a rotation of crops. The
rotation employed is : — (1) Fallow, with a cover crop of peas ploughed
under, followed by (2) wheat, followed by (3) oats and vetches for
hay, followed by (4) oats for grain. The fertilizers used and the
amounts applied jjer acre are:^ — Basic slag 200 lb., superphosphate
200 lb., })lood meal 140 lb.. l)one meal 200 lb., muriate of potash
'30 lb., ground limestone oOO lb., Ca])e Cross phosphate 200 lb., fresh
stable manure 2^ tons.

(2) This is an experiment with a similar object, but with a
different rotation and different fertilizers. The rotation is (1) wheat
for grain, (2) oats for grain. (3) peas for grain. The fertilizers used
are: — Government guano, Saldanha Bay phosphate, gypsum, slaked
lime, kraal manure. There are ako green manure plots, in which
the peas are not allowed to go to grain, but are ploughed under.

(3) This is a liming experiment to determine the best forms and
the most profitable quantities of lime to apply, and whether lime is
of any advantage without fertilizer being applied as well.

Cereal Variety Trials. — Seventy plots are under different varieties
of wheat, oats, and barleys for a study of tlieir rharacteristics and
yield. Sixty plots are further used for acclimatization of seed of
more promising varieties, and this seed is sent out to farmers for co-
operative experiments. There are in addition 120 single-ear rows for
selection work.

Experiments witli Green Manure Crops and Fodder Crops.- —
(a) Different varieties of green manurecrops followed bv wheat

and oats.
ih) Testing a green manure crop of peas as against cultivated

fallow, the succeeding crops being wheat and oats.
(c) Vetch and oat-hay crop versus oat-hay, followed by wheat,

to test the effect of the legume (vetch).
{d) Feeding-off versus ploughed-under versva cut-for-hay, of a

vetch and oat crop, to test the effect on the succeeding

wheat crop.
(e) Rate of seeding trial with oat and vetcli for hay.
(/) Variety tests of oat and vetch for hay.
(//) Variety of clovers as a cover crop with oals.
(//) Seed -product] on from vetches.

Experiments and Investigations. 389

Animai- Husi!am)!;v Division.

Determining' tJie relative efficiency ot cross-breeding- reruns
straiglit-breeding- in tlie economical production of bacon pigs with
ordinary farm foods. Data are collected as to quantities consumed
per pig from weaning- time till marketing-, w4tli costs of production,
etc. This experiment is intended to last for three years. Berkshires,
Large Blacks, and Tamworths are the breeds used. The Berkshires
and Larg-e Blacks are bred straight and also crossed both ways.
Tamwortli sows are crossed with both Berkshire and Large Black
boars.

Chemistry Division.

Laboratory. — (a) A study of the '" ammonification " and " nitri-
fication " processes under ordinary field conditions as related to the
soil nitrogen problem.

(b) A study of the effect of liming of soils ,n the nitrification
processes.

(c) A study of the effect of " braaking " (fallowing) land on the
nitrification process.

Fat Culture. — Tests with Saldanha Bay phosphate on wheat.

Field. — Comparison of different forms of phosphatic fertilizers on
limed and unlimed soils.

Further investigations are planned and will be carried out as sor u
as chemical equipment arriA'es from Euiope.

YiTic TLTiKAi. Division.

(a) Experiments in callusing and grafting.

(b) The suitability of American stocks for different European

vines in different soils.

(c) Manurial trials in vineyard.

(d) Investigations into fermentation of wines and the use of
tannin and potassium metabisulphite ; also into the (larifi-
cation of wines by refrigeration and the use of isinglass and
gelatine.

HORTICILTUKAI- Dl VIS ION.

(a) Mauurial experiments with pears.

(b) Budding and gi-afting olives to determine best method and

best time of year.

(c) Propagation of olives by cuttings — ^time and methol.

(a) An attempt to find a more suitable apple stock than the
Northern Spy now used.

(e) Pruning experiments with apples and pears to force bearing-

of non-production trees.
(/) Stock expei-iment Mith plums — plum stock vcr.<ii(.^ peach.

Botany Division.

Investigation and experiments in the control of fusicladin7n in
pears. Spraying at different times between the late winter and two
v\'eeks after the petals ha-\e fallen ; 232 trees of different varieties are
under treatment. The sprays used are Lime Sulphur and Bordeaux
for spring nnd summer spraying', and Formalin for winter spraying.

390 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

Entomological Division.

Dusting and spraying- trials in the orchard to determine (1) the
effect of Bordeaux liquid on lead arsenate when the two are used in
conjunction in the control of codling moth; (2) the relative efficiency
of lead arsenate paste, lead arsenate powder, calcium arsenate paste,
calcium arsenate powder, and arsenate of soda in the control of
codling moth ; the practicability of dusting in place of spraying in the
control of codling moth and fusicladium.

PoFLTRY Division.

Investigation into preservation of eggs by cold storage and other
methods. Investigation into the transmission of coccidiosis by
inoculftion.

Fruit and Vegetables : A Great Manufacturing Scheme.

Representatives of certain well-know^n British manufacturers have
recently been touring the Union with a view to establishing a number
of factories for jam-making and vegetable canning, commodities for
which their firms are world-famous. Fully conversant with both the
business and technical aspects concerning' the numerous preserved food
products dealt with, these representatives have visited a large number
of centres, keeping in view the possibilities, present and future, of
starting similar manufactures in the Union. Their first aim is to
select centres, promising sufficient produce, labour, etc., to warrant
the establishment of, say, four factories, mostly on the coast or at
any rate in a big town,. each factory to be on not less than a twenty
acre stand so as to provide ample room for expansion. The chief
products required are apricots, plums, peaches, apples, pine-
apples, Seville oranges, vegetables (such as beans, tomatoes, etc.),
and, in a lesser degree, tropical and sub-tropical fruits, such as
mangoes and pawpaws.

When it is mentioned that such huge quantities as 10,000 tons
each of apricots, plums, and Seville oranges — quantities far beyond
the present capacity of the Union — could be dealt with by the pro-
jected factories, as a start, and that several millions of money will
be forthcoming for investment in these operations, the magnitude of
the scheme and its importance to the Union will be realized. Indeed,
the firms concerned, it is understood, are prepared to face considerable
initial financial loss, provided supplies of raw materials are in sight
ensuring an annual expansion of the trade. Naturally the impetus to
fruit-growing would be great. It is understood that the scheme
provides for assisting growers to establish and maintain large areas
of fruit, etc., provided that portion of their produce is supplied to the
factories for a number of years, either at a contract price or
prevailing market rates.

What the outcome of the visit will be is not yet known. That
the required annual supply of fruit, etc., cannot be met in full for
some years to come is certain, but we believe that as a result of their
tour, the representatives are favourably impressed with the outlook
and the possibilities of development for fruit-growing- in South Africa.

Army Mystery Worm. 391

ARMY MYSTERY WORM.

Action in Case of Recurrence.

The suiiiiuer of 1918-1919 will long be remembered for the extra-
ordinary outbreaks of the Mystery Army Worm (Laphyc/vui exempta)
ill various parts of the Union, and the consequent loss of grazing and
tefl:'-grass which would have been invaluable during the terrible
drought through which the area affected has since passed. During
the following summer little was heard of the insect. Early in March,
1919, a plant inspector of the Division of Entomology found larvse
rather numerous in a few localities in and near Durban. They were
most abundant in swampy places at TJmgeni, but three acres of young
sugar-cane in a nearby plantation had been completely fed off by
them, numerous parasites of a number of kinds were busy amongst
them, and wilt disease was also observed. The presence of the insect
elsewhere in the country was not confirmed, although in December,
1919, two official reports of outbreaks were made to the Division.
The first of these came from Gqobonco, Engcobo district, Transkei,
and the other from the Beaufort West district, where the caterpillar
was observed in considerable numbers on certain farms shortly after
the first rains fell.

Beyond these two early reports nothing further was heard, but
the pest must have been present and breeding in the south-westerc
districts, for on the 26th April, 1920, Mr. David Gunn, the
Entomologist stationed at Port Elizabeth, reports : "I received an
urgent request for assistance from farmers near Witteklip, on the
Avontuur railway line (TJitenhage district). One farmer stated that
millions of caterpillars were present in his fields, and were destroying
all his crops. I proceeded to AVitteklip on the morning of the 21st
instant, and met a number of farmers who infonned me that extensive
damage had been done to potato, barley, and maize fields. In several
instances large fields of barley had been completely destroyed, and
would have to be resowm. Upon visiting the farm Rocklands, I found
that about ten acres of barley had been completely destroyed, and
half of a large field of young maize plants which was grown as gi'een
fodder for dairy cows. About three-quarters of a field of potatoes had
also been completely destroyed. Million.<i of caterpillars were present
on this farm, and at the request of farmers in the neighbourhood I
prepared a quantity of sweetened poisoned bait in order to save a field
of young maize. As millions of caterpillars in all stages of develop-
ment were feeding on the plants, two boys with large branches of
trees were first sent through the field in the afternoon to brush the
caterpillars on to the ground, and afterw^ards the sweetened poisoned
bait was sown thinly throughout the rows. The field was examined
the following morning, and the work was found to be successful, as
every caterpillar which had been brushed off the plants had eaten the
bait and had died in consequence. The farmers were fully satisfied
with this demonstration., and proceeded to thei farms to adopt the

392 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

same method. ... I am fully couvinced that the sweetened poison
bait is the most eiiective method for controlling' this pest. Before my
arrival at Witteklip, one farmer had rolled part of a field of infested
mai?e with a heavy roller to save this crop, but only a few cater-
pillars were destroyed. I was informed by several farmers that this
insect pest had destroyed all the crops in Garntoos Valley, Humans-
dorp district, and during my absence a telephone message was
received from Hankey to the eflect that the caterpillars were present in
large numbers and were causing- extensive damage.

" 1 made a careful investigation on the farm Kocklands, and
found that the caterpillars had come from the veld near the cultivated
fields. The owner of the farm informeil me that the damage had been
done so quicklj- that he had only noticed it three days before my
a rrival . ' '

The attack on potatoes is thought to be unusual. A newspaper
account of the outbreak stated that large fields of cauliflowers were
destroyed, but it appears that in this case the mysteiy worm was
confused Avith the small cabbage worm. It is conjectured that the
parent mystery worm moths came from the north-east. If the moths
that result from the present caterpillars take the same direction in
migrating', they will be carried out to sea.

Action in Cask of Eecukrence.

if in future an outbreak of the insect should occur in any part
of the Union, farmers whose crops or veld suffer should report at once
to their mag-istrate in order that this Department may be put in
possession of information bj^ which the severity and extent and
probable spread of the visitation may be judged. It is likely that
the caterpillars escape observation, or at least fail to arouse apprehen-
sion, until they are nearly f ull-g ro \vn . 'IVff and other sown grasses
in which the caterpillars are abundant should be promptly mown in
order to save them and to expose more fully the insects to their many
natural enemies. The grass may be expected to grow again and yield
a g'ood cutting later unless frost interferes. So far as the veld is
concerned, remedial measures are impracticable ; but for the purpose
of saving young maize, grain, or grass from worms which might
migrate into the lands from the veld or from already infested crops,
poisoned bait is efiicient. The bait may be made of bran or other such
food while still fresh. Grass is naturally the most convenient and
cheapest bait on most farms. The other necessary ingredients are
arsenite of soda (or other insecticidal form of arsenic), sugar or
molasses, and water. The preparations recommended are one pound
of arsenite, two pounds of sugar or two quarts of molasses, and 16
gallons of water with as much bran or finely cut grass as the liquid
will thoroughly moisten. Sixteen gallons are sufficient for 150 lb. of
bran or 200 lb. of green stuff. Bran bait is easy to prepare and to
spread. The bran should be sprinkled and meanwhile turned over
and over until it is uniformly moist, but not sloppy; when it is wetted
to the right consistency, it can be broadcasted so thinly that no stock
can pick it up. Green stuff is best wetted by immersing it in the
liquid ; it should then be drained. The bait can be spread over grass
land or in grain crops, but it is not often that a farmer will care to go
to the expense and trouble of baiting whole lands. However, the
baiting of entire fields is not an uncommon practice in the United

Army Mystery Worm. :i9;*)

States and Canada in combating grasshoppers. About a hundred
pounds of bait should he spread to the acre. In general, baiting is
most useful in checking the migration of the mystery worm from the
veld or from ravaged lands into new lands. It is advised that a few
furrows be ploughed immediately in front of the movement and
heavily baited. The soil can be harrowed afterwards, and thus any
danger to stock be removed.' The baiting should be extended into
the lands if many of the worms get past the barriei'. If arsenit* of
soda is not available, it is recommended that anj^ strongly arsenical
cattle dipping preparation be tried in its stead, employing three times
the strength of solution used in long-interval dii)ping.

Advice on the Farm.

A well-known farmer in the Caledon district, commenting on an
api)lication by the Department for certain instructors and experi-
mentalists, says that he strongly advocates the appointment of good
])ractical men able to explain to the farmer on his farm the latest
results of agricultural investigations and to demonstrate to him how
to apply this knowledge, bearing in mind local conditions. He con-
siders practical education on the farm by Government experts of
greater value and cheaper than the establishment of numbers of
experiment farms, but admits that specially selected stations for
experimental work are indispensable. Referring to the wheat and
wool industries of his district, he emphazizes the necessity for economy
in production, and considers that wheat growing and sheep farming
should go hand in hand in order to improve the fertility of the soil
and increase its production. He advocates the use of suitable lands
as sheep pasturage and the growing* of green crops in rotation for the
same purpose to provide for economy in production and aid in the
improvement of soil feitility, green crops not consumed to be turned
under as manure.

The policy of the Department follows closely the lines suggested
above. Apart from the research and experiments of the various
divisions, experimental and investigational work is being' centred at
the five schools of ag*riculture and experiment stations, and from these
five points extension work is carried out, such as co-operative experi-
ments on private farms and lectures and demonstrations throughout
the country. Experiments in the feeding of sheep and the increase of
soil fertility, very much of the nature outlined above, are now being-
conducted at certain of the experiment stations.

The Department is alive to the value of practical demonstrations
on the farm by qualified instructors. The foundation of such advice is
laid in the experiment stations and the lessons learned there will in
the course of time reach the farmer. It must not be overlooked,
however, that experimental work extends sometimes over many years
and that suitable officers have to be trained. The country is vast and
its problems many, so that time, patience, and money are necessary.
As it is, the best that the men and money available can give is being-
put before the farmer, and year by year he reaps the benefit of inves-
tigations commenced long since.

)J94 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

NOTES.

The Extent of the Union and the Area Cultivated.

The Extent of the Farm Lands. — The Union is a high-lying
fountrv with more than 40 per cent, of its extent 4000 feet above sea-
level, "and covers 473,096 sqnare miles, or 302,782,000 acres. The
latest statistics (Census, 1918) regarding the manner in which the land
is used show that in 1918 there were 76,149 farms, and that the area
taken up in farming (including native locations, reserves, etc.) was
229,270,000 acres. Thus it Avill be seen that of the total extent of the
TTuion 75 per cent, is taken up in farm lands.

Land under Cultivation. — In 1918 the area cultivated was as
follows : —

Agricultural Crops 7,502,416 aci-es.

Fruit 181,762

' Timber 462,096

Fallow 1,940,290

INTative Locations, Reserves, etc. ... 3,769,588* ,,

Total 13,856,152 acres.

In other words, 4.57 per cent, of the whole extent of the Union
was cultivated in 1918.

For purposes of ascertaining the progress made in recent years
reference to the 1911 Census shows that the area of land cultivated
then was —

Under cultivation 3,282,971 morgen

Lying fallow 892,929 ,,

4,175,900 morgen

or 8,815,800 acres, being equal to 2.91 per cent, of the Union's total
acreage. This shows that during- the years 1911 to 1918 the extent
of land under cultivation had increased by 5,040,352 acres, or 1.66
per cent.

Acreage under Cultivation in Other Countries. — It is interesting
to observe the position in other countries, and the following table
is compiled for the purpose of showing how the Union compares
with other parts of the world in so far as cultivation of the boil is
concerned. It must be borne in mind, of course, that in some
countries where the percentage of cultivated land is low, arid or
arctic conditions prevail over a wide area, and the proportion of pro-
ductiA^e land is very small. The percentages hereunder were classified

Not enumerated separately.

Notes, 395

7 '- — ~~~~ "■ ~

and reported hj the International Institute of Agriculture, and in
most instances give the position some years ago. The names of the
countries are given in the order of the greatest acreage under cultiva-
tion.

PropoTtioii of Cultivated Land, including Fallow Land and. Artificial
Grass Lands, to the total area of the country.

Per cent.

Per cen

t.

1.

United States ...

.. 15.4

11.

Canada ...

... .8

2,

British India

.. 43.0

12.

United Ki

Dgdom 23.2

3!

Russia (European)

.. 19.2

13.

Japan

... 18.7

.

4.

Germany

.. 47.7

14.

Australia

.8

5.

Austria-Hn ngar y

.. 39.8

15.

Roumania

... 46.1

6.

France ...

.. 45.2

16.

Algeria ...

... 9.1

7.

Argentine

.. G.l

17.

Sweden ...

... 8.3

8.

Spain

.. 33.1

18.

Union 0/

Sot

Uh

9.

Russia (Asiatic)... •

.8

Africa

... 2.9

(1910)

10.

Italy

.. 47.7

4.57

(1918)

The highest percentage published is that of 66.2 per cent, for
Denmark, Belgium being next with 49.2 per cent., but of the total
extent of these countries 94 per cent, and ^^ per cent, respectively
was productive land. The lowest percentage is .8 per cent, each in
Canada, Australia, and Asiatic Eussia, but the productive land in
these countries is small, being only 2.6 per cent., 6.3 per cent., and
17.8 per cent, respectively of the total area.

Care of Rams.

Mr. A. G. Michaelian, Principal Sheep and Wool Expert, gives
the following advice: —

Every sheep farmer should have suitable ram paddocks in which
he should run his rams when they are not working. If these paddocks
contain plenty of good, sweet, nutritious feed in sufficient quantity all
the year round, it should not be necessary to artificially feed flock or
stud rams, veld bred or otherwise, which are to be used among ewes
at the rate of 2 per cent. Of course, if you are not in good sheep
country, where sufficient nutritious feed is available all the year
round, it will be necessary to augment the rams' feed artificially
whether they are intended to go to work or not. Should a special ram
be required to serve, say, eighty ewes or more, he would require extra
feeding whilst working, unless, of course, there is an abundance of
good feed in the paddock and the farmer can see that the ram is
holding his own. If it is found necessary to feed the ram while he
is working he should be brought in and fed at, say, between 10 and
11 o'clock in'the morning accompanied by two or three of his ewes to
keep him from fretting. He must be turned out again at, say, four
in the afternoon, when it is cool. The ram should have two feeds
whilst inside.

It is not advisable to take the ram out from the eAves during the
night. Generally speaking, rams should remain with the ewes from
six to seven weeks. Rams should never run with ewes unless they
are wanted to work. If rams are allowed to run with the ewes the
whole year round they will never be fit. It should be the object of

396 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

sheep farms to get their rams iuto good hard working coudition aud
not " hog " fat. To be fair to the rams they should not be asked to
work with more than two months' wool on.

Various foods are used to feed sheep, such as crushed oats,
crushed mealies, bran, lucerne hay, oaten hay, and also teff. It ifl not
advisable to feed grain or hay independently. They should he mixed
to get the best results. I have found the following* a satisfa(;tory sheep
feed : 40 lb. crushed oats, 10 lb. bran, 50 lb. finely chopped good
oat-hay. This is thoroughly mixed and a little salt can advantage-
ously be added. A change can sometimes be made by adding or
substituting crushed mealies and using the lucerne-hay and oat-hay
in equal proportions. Bran should always be added. There is no hard
and fast rule regarding the different proportions, but I have found
the above very good. Sheep should only receive Mliat they will clean
up at one feed.

Powdered raddle is generally used to put on the ram to show
which ewes he has jumped on. The raddle mark on the ewes' rump
is, however, no guarantee that she has been tupped. I have seen rams
repeatedly jump upon ewes and not serve them. Personally I never
worry about raddling rams.

The farmer must remember that it is his business to see that
the ewes are in good condition so that they may easily come in season.
To my mind this is the only way to ensure a good percentage of lambs.

I consider it is a mistake to put ewes in full wool to the ram.

However fit the rams are, if the ewes do not come in season you
cannot expect a good lambing.

Recent Outbreaks of East Coast Fever.

Pecent outbreaks of East Coast fever have given rise to con-
siderable alarm and the following brief statement on the subject is
made for general information. In Natal and the Transvaal the
situation is not regarded as critical, though in the latter Province
i-ecent developments in certain areas are causing much anxiety. Out-
breaks have occurred in parts of the Zoutpansberg, Barberton, and
Piet Retief , and are being dealt with by the Veterinary Division, but
public attention is centred on the occurrence of the disease as reported
from various centres in the Pretoria District. The situation in this
district is one of great difficulty, for hundreds, if not thousands, of
cattle entering the bushveld for winter grazing must have traversed
the infected areas. Every effort is being made to check the spread of
the disease by increasing the police supeiwision in the district so as to
prevent illicit movements of stock, and it is trusted that the measures
adopted wilj have the desired result of stamping out the disease.

The adequate control of East Coast fever has been seriously
hampered during the years of the war. Shortage of staff, high cost
and lack of dipping and fencing materials, and. recently, the severe
drought, have all combined to make the task of dealing with the
disease a most formidable one, and it is feai"ed that the position in the
Union has not improved as much as it might have done under more
favourable conditions. Indeed it is fortunate that under the circuni-
staufes more nutbreakfl have not occurred.

Notes. 397

The Department is alive to the pressing necessity of extirpating-
East Coast fever, and attention is being g-iven to further scientific
research into tick destruction and a specific remedy for the disease.
The fencing of infected areas is an important feature in controlling
the spread of the disease and facilities for the speedier supply of
fencing and dipping materials than at present obtains are being con-
sidered. But the success of any operations depends in a large measure
upon the curtailment of the movements of cattle, and if the co-opera-
tion of the community could be obtained in the suspension of ox
transport for a reasonable period in any infected district, the position
could be manifestly improved. In like manner the quarantine period,
although irksome to stock owners, will need to be rigorously enforced.

The regulations governing the control of East Coast fever are well
known. In the April, 1920, number of the Journal an article was
published giving- practical hints for the prevention and eradication
of the disease. That the ill-effects of the war have retarded the
control of the disease is unfortunate, but that greater ills in extensive
outbreaks have not followed is correspondingly fortunate. The
alarming spread of the disease in Pretoria is an outcome of the
disabilities occasioned by lack of men and materials and to some
extent to public indifference to the requirements of the law respecting
diseases of stock. The Department views the position seriously but
does not consider that, generally, it is critical. By all means in its
power will it g*rapple with the spreading disease, and it looks to the
farming community, especially those in, or in the neighbourhood of,
infected areas, to co-operate with it in stamping out the disease.

G-rain Elevators.

The attention of farmers is directed to the report* of Mr. Wm.
Littlejolm Philip on the subject of grain elevators, a matter of great
public interest and far-reaching- importance to farmers. The report
states: "An elevator system may g-enerally be described as follows:
A system of handling grain in bulk instead of in bag; a system
which deals with all kinds of grain, whether for local consumption or
export and of handling the grain in the most economical manner; a
system of providing safe storage and negotiable certificate ; and a
system which is particularly economical from a Eailway and Harbour
point of view." The report sets out plainly the many advantages of
an elevator system which is devised not solely to facilitate export trade
but for inland trade as well.

Mr. Littlejohn Philip's recommendations are substantially those
of the Grain Elevators Committee, excepting that instead of three
port elevators he advocates that two only (one at Durban and one at
Capetown) should be erected at present, and instead of sixty-two
country elevators seventy-one are considered necessai-y. The two
elevators for the ports are proposed to have a storage capacity of 72,000
tons and the seventy-one country elevators 160,200 tons, the estimated
total cost involved being £1,799.000. Against this outlay the net
financial saving which will accrue to the counti-y is estimated at
£479.055 per annum.

* " Grain Elevators for Union of South Africa." Obtainable from the Government
Printer, Pretoria, Price 3s.

398 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

In a memoraudum accompanying the report, Sir AVilliam Hoy,
the General Manager of Eailways and Harbours, supports the com-
plete scheme of port and country elevators recommended by Mr. Little-
john Philip but suggests that a commencement be made with seventeen
country elevators to feed the port elevator at Durban and a like
number to feed the one at Capetown, the remainder to be built later
on as experience dictates. He states: " Assuming that steps are not
taken to commence construction work until the necessary funds have
been authorized by Parliament, say, until July or August next, it is
certain that the elevators could not be erected in time for the 1922
crop. As a matter of fact, matters would require to be carried out
expeditiously to have them ready for the 1923 crop."

The report points out that all costs, expenditure, losses, and
expenses of sale incurred between production and ultimate sale,
reduce the amount which the farmer gets for his grain. The elevator
system is designed primarily to help the farmer in this respect;
indeed it is estimated that as a result he should obtain from Is. to
2s. more for every 200 lb. produced, and at the same tinie be relieved
of all anxiety as to safe storage and forced sale. His position is
sensibly improved, for when his grain is deposited in an elevator he
will receive a negotiable certificate enabling him to raise money, if
required, and to sell at an opportune time. But the benefits are by
no means confined to farmers, for grain merchants, in the widest
acceptance of the term, and storekeepers will materially be assisted
as their risks in liandling the grain are reduced and their business
operations simplified ; bankers, also, will have the advantage of hold-
ing excellent security for money advanced to the farmer. Altogether
the economical handling of the trade will benefit both producer and
consumer, and it is considered*that present production will be doubled
within five years after the system is fully established.

The matter is of great moment to agriculturists, and the report,
which contains much interesting information regarding the TJnion's
maize crop, should be in the hands of every farmer interested in the
production and distribution of maize, wheat, and oats.

Drying-out of Maize during Rail Transit.

In connection with tlie Grain Elevator Inquiry an intei'esting
moisture test was carried out by the Chief Inspector of Grain in
co-operation with the Eailway Department, the object being to ascer-
tain the extent to which maize dries out during rail transit to the
ports. Great care was exercised in the matter. At certain stations
samples were drawn from bags of maize consigned to Durban and
Capetown about an hour before dispatch, three bags, duly marked,
in each consignment being chosen, one at the top of the truck, another
in the centre, and the third at the bottom, so as to check the influence
of sun and atmosphere. These samples were forwarded in hermetically
sealed tins Ijy the station masters concerned to the Chief Inspector of
Grain at Pretoria, who tested them for their moisture content. The
same test was applied by the grain graders at the ports, who drew
samples from the marked bags immediately on their arrival. The
result of the test is set forth in the following statement from the
Chief Inspector of Grain: —

Notes.

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400 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

THE POULTRY YARD MONTH BY MONTH.

I'>y J. J. JoKDAAN, Lecturer and lustiuctor in Poultry, Uleu. Orange Free State.

July. •

Breeding Pens.

In the breeding pens, one lieu in the heavy and two in the light breeds may be added
to the number if the fertility has been good, say 80 per cent. Do not neglect the male bird
bui continue his special feeding and keep him in good condition by feeding him separately
from the hens.

Feeding.

Remember birds eat more in cold than in warm weather. Owing to the extreme cold,
nature demands a good deal from the bird, to keep up its bodily heat and energy, and also
to produce eggs ; this all demands abundance of good food. Green food must he fed if eggs
are to be forthcoming— see that they get it.

Incubatiun.

Incubatiou should be the order of the day, but in your eagerness for uumVjers of chicks
do not become careless, but remember that the quality of the birds and eggs later on will be
according to the care given the testing and grading of the eggs for incubation. Disinftct the
machine each time a hatch comes off, thoroughly wash with some disinfectant, inside and
out. Do not forget the drying box. Before putting in the fresh eggs also submit it to
the formalin treatment. (See April notes.)

The colder the night the more reason why the incubator room and chick brooders should
be visited before you retire to rest.

Chickeiix.

Chicks four weeks old and upwards, until they are eight weeks old, should now be taken
off the oatmeal feeding and fed as follows (dry for preference and only moistened occasionally
as a change) : —

Early inovning ma.s/i : 1 part oatmeal, 1 part mealie meal, 4 parts bran, and 6 parts
lucerne-hay.

Every three hours following the mash, feed alternately : — Cracked wheat, cracked kafKr
corn, cracked mealies, Japanese millet.

Grit, oyster shell, and fine charcoal should be before them constantly and green foods
•as often and as much as possible.

Keeping the brooder sleeping quarters well aired during the day, by opening the lid and
letting the sun into 'the brooder, and keeping the floor scrupulously clean, will also ensure
health.

Runs.

The ground in the chicken runs should be sown with some fast growing plant or shrub,
such as rape or barley, to act as shade and windbreaks for the chicks when taken from the
brooders. This will be found most necessary during August and September when wind will
play havoc with the chicks unless they are protected.

Disease.

Roup and colds are most common now, especially if sleeping quarters are badly ventilated
or overcrowded. A piece of asafoetida and camphor, each of the. size of a walnut, tied up in
a rag along with a small stone, and kept in the drinking water, will ward these off to a large
extent.

The Vegetable Garden. 401

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.

July, 1920.

By fl. 1). TiiKKY. Ccrt.R.H.S., Lecturer in Horticulture. Scbool ni Agriculture

Potchefstrooni.

This is the coldest mouth oi' the year, aucl frosts may be expected every night, esi)ecially
on the high veld. It will be practically impossible to raise seedlings in the open except in
sheltered positions. Frames or pits should be used for laising a few early plants of cabbage,
tomato, marrow, and cucumber. In tropical districts where frost is rare, French beans,
marrows, cucumber, sweet corn, tomato, etc , are sown or transplanted for early or succession
crops.

Aetichokes. — Jerusalem Antichokes may be planted now. The tui^eis should be planteil
as soon after lifting as possible as they do not keep well out of the ground.

Asparagus. — New crowns should be planted this month ; established beds should be
well forked over and given a top dressing of well rotted stable manure or kraal manure if
not already done.

Khubakb. — Winter (Topp's Crimson) will continue to give a supi)ly of stalks if kept
watered ; crowns of the summer varieties should be planted now. Established crowns may
be forced by placing old cement barrels or parraffin tins with tops and bottoms knocked out
over the crowns ; pack stable manure around the covers and loosely cover over the tops.
Grive plenty of water.

Seakale and Chicory may be forced in a similai' manner to rhubarb.

Hehbs such as thyme, marjoram, sage, and mint, should be divided and replanted.

Broad Beans may still be sown. If the earlier sown plants become frosted do not
despair ; they will break out again. In warm localities where growth is rapid, it is often
necessary to nip out the growing point to cause the pods to set.

Cabbage. — Sow a little seed of such early sorts as Surehead, Webbs" Emperor. Enfield
Market, St. John's Day, Winningstad. Give a little protection until germinated.

Lettuce. — Continue to sow Cos varieties. In warmer districts cabbage varieties may be
sown again : Curled Neapolitan, Boston, Iceberg.

Peas. Sow Stratagem, American Wonder, Gradus, Black-Eyed Susan, Marrow-fat.
Lettuce or raddish may be sown between the rows if the peas are sown 3 feet apart in rows.

Onions may be sown for salads : next month will be early enough to put in main crop
for summer.

Radish may be sown for succession : try sowing with lettuce between the rows of
peas.

Tomatoes. — Under cover, or in a sunken pit sow a tin of some early .sort such as
Carter's Sunrise, Earliest-of-all, Earliana, Bonnie Best ; germination may be slow but strong
plants will be available for early transplanting should an opportunity occur. After
germination give plenty of light and air to harden the seedlings off. .

Turnips. — Continue to sow for succession ; supply plenty of water, as a check will ruin
the crop. Keep a sharp lookout for Bagrada Bug and endeavour to suppress it.

Kohl Rabi is hardier than turnips and often succeeds where turnips fail ; both White
and Purple Vienna may be sown.

Shallots. — Get these planted during the present month. Let the rows be one foot
apart, about 6 inches between each bulb.

Potatoes. — It is too soon to plant, but the ground should be prepared, the sets obtained,
and placed in shallow boxes to begin sprouting.

402 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

1067

28 '5/20

1051

14/5/20

1051

2 1 '5/20

NOTES FROM THE "GAZETTE."

Attention is drawn to the following matters of interest wiiich appeared in the Union
(iorernment Oazette.

Gazette. (Abbreviations; - Proc.'' — Proclamation; "G.N." — Government Notice.)

No. Date. Items.

1051 14/5/20 Under the Diseases of Stock Act (No. 14, 1911) the compulsory dipping of

1054 21/5/20 cattle in the three, five, and sixty day dip has been ordered by the

Minister of Agriculture for portions of the Zoutpansberg, Paulpieters-
burg, Heidelberg, New Hanover, Rarberton, Prrtoria, Piet Pietief,
Ngotshe, Umzimkulu, Umvoti, and Lions River Districts. (G.N. Nos.
822, 881, 930, and 9H2).
Dipping of cattle for East Coast Fever in the five-day dip has been made
compulsory for certain farms in the Pretoria District. (G.N. No. 400.)
The proposed demarcation of the Paf ane Plantation. Tabankulu District,
is notified in terms of the Forests Act (No. 16 of 1913). (G.N. No. 837.)
The Poortfontein Irrigation District, in the Divisions of Swellendam and
Ladismith, has been declared as such, with the definition of the boun-
daries, by Proclamation No. 85, and the Lower Kaap Irrigation District
in the Barberton District, with the definition of its boundaries, by Proc.
No. 86.

1051 21/6/20 In terms of Sub-section (1) of Section five of the Fencing Act (No. 17 of
1912), the Governor-General has declared that as from 20th May,
1920, contributions to the cost of fencing are obligatory in the surveyed
portion of the District of Port St. Johns specially acquired for European
occupation. (Proc No. 87).

1054 21/5/20 On the request of the Divisional Council of Mafeking, the Governor-General
has declared that Seciion thirty-six of the Stock and Produce Theft
Repression Consolidation Act of 1893, shall come into operation for the
-Division of Mafeking as from 21st May, 1920. (Proc. No. 89.)

105 4 21/6/20 A limited number of Government Scholarships, and the conditions under
which these will be awarded, arj notified in G.N. No. 893.

1051 21/5/20 The Stock Regulations, as far as the reporting of Stock Diseases is concerned,

1060 4/6/20 have been amended by G.N. No. 846 ; and the persons to whom and

the periods within which the reports have to be made (as provided for
in G.N. No. 1703 of 1919) are determined by G.N. No. 963.

1057 28/5/20 Demarcations of the Forest Reserves of Zomeikomst Plantation in the
Pietersburg District, and of Harland and HeathercIifEe in the Uitenhage
Division, have been notified in G.N. Nos. 910 and 911.

]0()(> 4/6/20 Harkerville Forest Reserve, Knj-ssa Division, with its demarcation has been
proclaimed by G.N. No. 946.

1057. 28/5/20 On account of the resignation of Mr. E. R. Montgomery, the Minister of
Agriculture has approved of the appointment in his stead of Sir Arnold
Theiler, K.C.M.G., as a member of the Advisory Committee of tlie
Botanical Survey of the Union.

1057 28/5/20 Certain portions of the Indwe Sub- Division of the Wodehouse District, are
proclaimed as an East Coast Fever Area under the Stock Diseases Act
(No. 14 of 1911) and stock movements therein are restricted. (G.N.
No. 92i*.)

1057 28/5/20 Up to the 9th July applications will be received by the Department of
Lands, Pretoria, for the disposal on conditional purchase lease of certain
farms in the Heilbron District (G.N. No. 917), and by the Secretary
for Lands, c/o the Survey<n--General, Pietermaritzburg, in respect of
certain farms in the KUp Kiver and Dundee Divisions. (G.N. No. 919.)

1O60 4/6/20 Semi-protection under the Scab Regulations has been extended to certain
areas adjoining the Steynsburg Division as defined in the Schedule to
G.N. No. 951.

1(160 4/6/20 The Educational Standard for Apprentices entering the Government Farm,
Groot Constantia, will be Standard VI. as from Ist June, 1920, Instead
of Standard iV. (G.N. No. 426.)

Recent Agricultural Literature. 403

RECENT AGRICULTURAL LITERATURE.

By Paul Ribbink, Libhauian, Department of AaKiccLTURE.

I.— UNION GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS.

Miscellaneous Reports, etc., of interest to Farmers.

(Ohtainahle from the Government Printer, Pretoria.)

Sp. 6d. Agricultural Census, 1918 : Statistics of Agricultural and Pastoral

Production U.G.5.3— '19

28. Census of the European White Races — Part IV. Conjugal Con-
dition U.G.52— '19

3s. Grain Elevaters for Union of South Africa. Report of \Vm.

Littlejohn Philip, Esq., O.B.E U.G. .S— '20

9d. International Labour Conference at Washington. Report of

South African Government Delegate ... ... ... ... U.G. 27 — '20

3s. fid. Land and Agricultural Bank of South Africa. Report for the

year 1919 ... U.G. 33— '20

9d. Returned Soldiers. Reports dealing with the subject of re-
turned soldiers and the assistance granted to them for

period 1st September, 1918, to 31st December, 1919 ... U.G. 22— '20

7s. fid. Statistics of Production. Statistics of Factories and Productive
Industries (excluding Mining and Quarrying) in the T'^nion

for the year 19f7-1918 (3rd Industrial Census. 1919) ... U.G. 17— '20

II.— THE AGRICULTURAL PRESS OF SOUTHERN AND TROPICAL AFRICA.

Self.cted Articles.

Die Boer (Bjjvoegsel tot "De Volkstem"), Pretoria.

7/5/20 Dr. Theiler oor Gallamsiekte. Landbon in ons Leerplan ; Lesing gehou

deur Mnr. J. C. Fauie.
14/5/20 Boerderij in 1919,

Lie Boerevrouw (Posbus 984, Pretoria).

4/20 Spesiale Mielienummer : " Die Mieliedogter." Die Mielies van Nooit-
gedag, deur E. N. Marais. Die gebruik van Mielies in die Ntjvver-
heid. Mieliestrooihoede. Mielies ala Voedsel, deur J. van Duyn.

Fnrmerit' Advocate, South African (P.O. Box 247, Bloemfontein).

5/20 Conquering the Locusts. With Pen and Camera at Shows. How to grow
Winter Food for Dairy Cows— IV : Hay, by W. Clarke.

The Farmers' Journal (Nairobi, B.E.A.).

22/4/20 A Flax Disease (Flax Wilt). Limestone, Lime and Cement, by Mancunian.

Silkworm Rearing.
29/4/20 Citrus Nursery (^co7itinued) by E. Bester. Hydraulic Ram Pumps, by

H. F. Birchdll. Administration of Medicine to Animals, by L. H.

Saunders.

40-4 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

The Farmers' Weekly (Bloemfoutein).

5/5/20 Farm Furniture, III, by " Watcrbcig '. Tips ou Imgatiou— II, by C. H
Warren. Artificial Incubators, by Malcolm Macfarlane.

12/5/20 Home-Made Farm Appliances, by Geo. Morgan. The Cotton Croji. bv
W. B. Wilson. Plant-Poisons, by W. T. Mitchell, M.R.C.V.S.

l'.t/5/20 The Conquest of Snake Venohi, by F. W. Fitzsimons. F.Z.S. Plant-
Poisons ^continued).

26/6/20 Birds : Their Value to Man, by F. V/. Fitzsimons, F.Z.S. Tips on
Irrigation — III. The Curing Season. Farm Furniture — IV.

Die Lavdbouio Weehhlad (Posbus 267, Bloemfontein).
5/5/20 Die Friesland Ras.
12/5/20 Boeresaamwerk, deur A. P. J. Fourie. Turkse-Tabakbou, I, deur P.

Koch, B.Sc.
19/5/20 Laudbou-opvoeding in die Skole, deur Prof. A. M. Bosman.
26/5/20 Uogverbouwing, deur G. J. Bosman. Landbouwouderwijs in Middelbare
Skole. ' •

Sovfh African Dairyman (P.O. Box 925, Durban).

5/20 The Making of ( Uieddar Cheese, by B. L. dc Klerk. Practical Pig-keeping.

Stndli Africa?! Farm A'ew.^ (P.O. Box 963, Johannesburg).

4/20 Bacteria in Cheese. Spraying for Fungous Diseases.

Siivt/i African Fruit Grower ami Small Holder (l\0. Box 3958, tlohannesburg).

5/20 Pieminders for the Incoming Month, by H. B. Terry. Mistakes in Lemon
Cultivation, Ijy A. E.,.Bester. Why some Orchards are not Profitable.

South African (Tardcniny and Country Life (P.O. Box -3958, Johannesburg).

. 5/20 South African Birds of Economic Value, by K. G. and E. Warren. Shrubs

for Small Gardens. Some May Garden Suggestions, by Peter.
Amateurs Attempt a Home and Garden, No. 13. Fruit. B.

Sovth African Journal of Indiidrics (Goveranient Printer, Pretoria).

5/20 The Union's Trade in 1919. by H. K. Vere-Hodge. Wood-charcoal and
its Manufacture, by J. J. Kotze. The Industries of Pretoria. Trans-
port Methods in South African Rural Transport, by Sir Wm. Hoy,
Kt., C.B. Datum Stramonium.

South African Poultry Magazine (Bloemfontein).

5/20 South of the Hex, another little Rock Argument, by L.A.C. Wm. A

Bartlett, Esq., R.E.S.S. South African Poultry Association : Official

Minutes of the Sixteenth Annual Conference, Pretoria, November,
1919.

Sinith African Poultry Review and Small Holder (Johannesburg).

5/20 Utility versux Fancy. A Hen's Egg-Producing Potentialities, Mr. Hogan's
Mathematical System, by W. N. Home. Hints on Rearing Chicks, by
Sebright. Poultry Clubs and Shows : Suggestions for Organization
and Conduct (contimied from April issue), by P. H. Taylor. Fancy
vermis Utility, by Drastic.

South African Sugar Jo^irnal (P.O. Box 925, Durban).

5/20 The Increased Price for Sugar. Empire Sugar. A Fertilizer Transaction.
Notes on the Cotton Industry, by W. B. Wilson, B.Sc.'Agric.

Recent Agricultural Literature. 405

The Sun and Agrioulturul Journal of South Africti (P.O. Box 634. Jdhauueshurg).

5/20 The Hartebeestiiooit Su'^pension Bridge. South African Maize Breeders'.
Growers', and Judges' Association : Report of General Meeting, Ist
April, 1920. Fixing the Prices of Food.stuffs— II, by B. J. Boupkc.
South African Grain Trade Association, by C. E. Wilson. Makers
of South African Agriculture : W. .1. Palmer. B.Sc.

Sunday Times (Farmers' Supplement) Johannesburg.

9/5/20 Sudan Grass, hy G. J. Bosman. Fruit Growing in Natal, by Spoorweg.
Turkey Rearing, by Malcolm Macfarlane,

16/5/20 Farming and Stock Raising in Rhodesia, by Pioneer. Vegetable Oils and
Oilseeds, by S. H. Doyle Qcontinved). Importance of Spraying. How
to Calve a Cow. by A. Hodder {continued).

23/5/20. What we Want from the Farmer— IV, Sheep. Planting Orchard Trees,
by J. M. Sim. The Elevator System. Grain Production in South
Africa, by M. Edward.

30/5/20 Sunflower as a Crop, by G. J. Bosman. Tobacco Culture in South Africa,
by VV. E. Leigh. The Rosella, by Delver. Some Facts about Goats.

The Weeh End (P.O. Box 413. Pietermaritzburg).

8/5/20 Glanders and Farcy. Water and the Wand. Problem of Desiccation.

15/5/20 Undesirable Stallions. Rotation of Croi)s. Chicken Production.

22/5/20 Facts about Fertilizers — IV. Breeding foi Tick Immunity. Cultivation
of Flax.

29/5/20 Organization of Farmers. Cultivation of Buckwheat. Making Cheddar
Cheese.

11 1. -AGRICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS IN OTHER PARTS.

REVIEWS AND EXTRACTS.

The Matimj and. Bveedimj of Poultnj. bj' H. M. Lamon and R. R. Slocum. This is a
new book published by the Orange Judd Co. New York (Kegan Paul & Co., London). The
subject is one whi^h has not yet been dealt with so exhaustively, and coming from tw(j
practical poultry men in the Bureau of Animal Industry of the United States Department
of Agriculture, it should prove exceedingly valuable to all pcultry breeders. The book aims
at placing at the disposal of breeders a guide for the production of such types of birds as
have been standardized in the American Standard of Pe/fectiun. Methods of the most
successful breeders are given, and the most likely tendencies and defects which may prove
troublesome are indicated and emphasized. The work is divided into the following chaptei's
which sufficiently indicate its scope : — Definition of Common Breeding terms ; Principles
of Breeding ; Breeding for Increased Production ; and the following classes of Poultry.
American. Asiatic. Mediterranean, English, Polish, Hamburg French, Continental, Game and
Bantam, Oriental, Ornamental Bantam ; Miscellaneous, and Preparing Fowls for the Show.
The book is profusely illustrated, contains 368 pages, bound in cloth, and costs .$2'50 net,
from the Orange Judd Co.. 315-321 Fourth Avenue, New York.

Farming for South African Schools — Book 1, by Rev. W. G. Dowsley, B.A..
published in English and Afrikaans, b}"^ De Nationale Pers Beperkt, Capetown, at 4s. 9d.
per copy, is one of the most useful and needed books published in recent years. It is to be
followed by other books of a similar nature and will not only comprise a complete course
for the averaae scholar of the upper standards of the primary school, but will be invaluable
to the teacher at primary schools and normal colleges, as well as to practical farmers. Book
I introduces us to agriculture, treats on the soil, tillage, and implements, and additions to
the soil. Further chapters deal with fruit trees, pruning, forest trees, and vegetables, A
feature of the book is the numerous excellent illustrations, and it certainly should find a
place on the bookshelf of every South African farmer and student.

406 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

AT THE SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND
EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

May, 1920.

CEDARA, NATAL.

C'Vnutic. — The rainfall for the month was 0'56", The mean maximum temperature
was 69-37° F. and the mean minimum temperature 47- 9i°. The highest maximum, 76-8°,
was reached on the 9th and the lowest minimum, 32- 5°, on the 28th.

Crops. — A large quantity of silage maize has been cut, and grain maize is being cut
and stocked in the field. The crop is somewhat below expectations owing to the cold
experienced in February. Cowpeas have been cut and made into hay, the yields being poor
owing to leaf rust. The millet and sunflowers have been cut. Turnips, kale, and rape
are making excellent growth and should provide much frf sh feed duriisg winter months.
The veld grass is still yielding good grazing and a large quantity has been cut and made
into hay.

Field E.i'periment.i. — The experimental plots of grass have been harvested. The Kikuyu
gave an excellent yield and responded well to fertilizers. Tall fescue gave satisfactory
results, and a fairly heavy yield of succulent fodder ; cocksfoot yielded less than the others,
being affected by rust. The experiment with cowpeas for rust resistance indicates superi-
ority of the New Era variety.

Stock. — The stock as a whole are doing well owing to the mildness of the season and
the good condition of the veld. The show and sale cattle are now receiving special attention.
Eleven calves were born during the month, three Fries ands (two bulls and one heifer) two
Ayrshires (heifers) three Aberdeen-Angus (two bulls and one heifer) three shorthorns (one
bull and two heifers).

Dairy Conference. — The Second Annual Daiiy Conference was held on the 21st, and
was well attended, about 200 visitors bei) g present. After the stock was inspected the
Principal gave a demonstration lecture on " Types of D.iiry Cattle," typical examples of each
being biought before the audience and the various points illustrated. Af:er lunch the
visitors inspected a display o' dairy utensils and of various kinds of foodstuffs a- d fodder.
The Dairy Instructor lectured on " Variations in Tests of Cream and Milk," the Chemist
on " Feeas and Feeding," and Mr. Angus on " Some Factors in Milk Production."

Chemical Lahoratory. — The routine analytical work on samples sent in by the public
was very heavy, being cbiefly soils, tanning materials, and toxicological materials. The
latter were almost all ingesta and organs of beasts, the cause of death in each case evidently
being arsenic. The large number of such sam les constantly received here for examination
shows that comparatively large numbers of stock are lost from this cause, often due to
criminal actions of servants, but a'so sometimes caused by the negligence of farmers them-
selves.

A consignment of Gerber Butyrometers manufactured by a British firm was tested for
accuracy of graduations, in accordance with the regulations of the Dairy Act. Most of
them were found to be very inaccurate and the dealer was advised to return the whole con-
signment to the manufacturers.

Entuinoloyy. — Complaints were received during the month from various parts of Natal
of the depredations of certain species of caterpillars on vegetables, winter potatoes having
suffered severely. The caterpillars closely resemble the army worms, and farmers are
inclined to consider them the same, but, although nearly allied, they are not the aimy worms
proper. Spraying with a mixture of 1| lb. of arsenate of L^ad powder in 40 gallons of
water is recommended.

Schools of Agriculture and Experiment Stations. 407

ELSENBURG, MULDERS VLEI, CAPE.

Climatic. — Good soaking rains fell early in the month and also in the latter part, the
total precipitation being 4-97 inches, one inch more than the normal average for May.
Except for a few days, rather co'd weather prevailed. The maximum temperature recorded
was 84-3° F. on the 20th, and the minimum 42- 6° F. on the 24th.

Field Operations and Crop.^. — Considerable ploughing, harrowing, and sowing were
carried out during the month both at Elsenburg and Mariendahl, oats, rape, and vetches
being the chief crops put m. It is anticipated that all the seeding operations will be com-
pleted within ti e first two weeks of Jiine. Practically the entire seeding for the 1920
manurial an I fodder experiments and variety trials, has been completed.

A large part of the horticultural area was ploughed, and the greater part of the main
orahard was planted with field peas for gieen manure. About 17oO lb. of dried fruit was
disposed of.

Lire stock. — The condition of the live stock on both farms is satisfactory, except at
Mariendahl, where the young stock are rather backward. The milk yield at ElsenVjurg
showed a slight iuciease toward the end of the month.

Half of the new intensive poultry house is now in occupation, 148 hens and pullets
bavitg been placed therein.

Experimental and Investigational Work. — The 1920 field experiments are in full swing
at present, also two manurial experiments in the orchard. A considerable amount of
investigational work is in progress in the scientific and other sections of the Institution.

Entension Work. — Several external lectures were delivered by various members of the
staflp, and a number of farms was visited for the purpose of giving advice re crops, stock,
etc. A party of Australian troops visited the Institution on the 13th instant, and was
shown the different divisions.

Sch'iol. — Student work, both theory and practical, is progressing very satisfactorily. At
present the students are writing their second quarterly examinations.

GR00THY)^TE1N, MIDDELBURG. CAFE.

We regret to state that a disastrous fire occurred at the Grootfontein School of Agricul-
ture on the night of the 24th May, 1920, when the building used as an office was destroyed.
Unfortunately many valuable records were lost and the work of the Institution was greatly
interfered with, so that tlie usual monthly notes will need to be left over this month.

POTCHEFSTROOM, TRANSVAAL.

Climatic. — The weather during May was exceptionally mild. The minimum temper-
ature did not reach freezing poinL until the 27th. Tliis was followed by a colJ snap on the
morning of the 28th, when 8 degrees of frost were registered. Welcome rains le 1 between
the 12th and Inth, totalling 0-68 inches. The rain was of great assistance in obtaining a
good tilth on land intended for winter cereals and lucerne.

Farm Sec-ion — Good progress was made in the preparation of land for winter cereals
and next season's maize crops. In all, 112 acres were ploughed, 81 acres harrow jtl twice,
and 81 acres rolled. Approximatelj^ 140 acies will be sown to winter cereals, viz., 54 acres
to varieties of wheat, 54 acres to Algeiian cats and 32 acres to other varieties of oals,
emmer wheat, and early rye. Wherever possible, all land to be sown to maize and other
crops in the spring is being broken up now. During the month 54 acres were sown to

40.S JoUHNAI, OF THE DePAKTMENT OF AGRK^ULTURE,

Algerian oats, and 27 to lucerne. The seeding of the wheat crop was, according to approved
practice on this station, left over to the first week in June. Sixty tons of maize silage was
made and 30 acres of the maize grain crop harvested. The whole crop of Potchefstroom Pearl,
Eureka, and Chester County Mama oth will be selected by hand for seed. There is, every
promise that a fair quantity of first-class seed grain will be obtained this season.

Live stock Section. — Four aged cows and one cross-bred steer were disposed of to the
butcher. Nine calves were born during the month including a few Herefords. Spring calves
from the beef breeds have ueen weaned. Calves are all in good growing condition. Thus
far 53 lambs have been dropped from the Wangacella stud flt.ck, and are doing excellently.
Thirteen pigs were disposed of for breeding purposes.

In connection with the cross-breeding experiments with Afrikander and Sussex Cattle,
measurements of individuals of the two parental breeds and the two filial generations were
taken. In the former instance, the original Afrikander dams, where still available, were
also measured.

Exjwrbiieutal and Inventigut'iuiial Work. — Varieties of kaffir corn Mere harvested.
Samples of pure seed from self-fertilized heads were cleaned and stored, and the seed of
those heads hybridized by hand. The two acres of land under kaffir corn were ploughed
and cleared of all stalks to prevent the spread of the maize stalk borer. Harvesting of
maize in the rotation experiments was undertaken and also the cultivation, manurial.
rates of seeding, and hybridization tests. Varieties of cowpeas, beans, and summer wheats
(hybrids) were harvested. The latter are beitg tested in order to determine their rust-resisting
qualities under our summer conditions. Velvet beans were turned in early in the month on
certain ranges which were sown to varieties of wheat later in the month.

'In the breeding cage, beds were prepared and sown to various crosses of wheat in their
first and second gtnerations. The extension to the plant breeding cage has nearly been
completed.

Trials by the Entomologist on the eradication of ants in houses yielded results which
showed that poisonous bait containing antimony potassium tartrate was fairly effective.
A mixture containing 2 grammes of this substance and 30 grammes sugar to 100 c.c. water
was used. Search for the maize stalk borer showed very few first generation larvae, but a
heavy infestation of second generation larvae was found. The rooting out and burning of
maize stalks before spring sets in with the object of reducing injury by this pest in the
ensuing season, becomes yearly more necessary.

Horticultural Section. — The whole orchard has been cross- ploughed and brought into
good order. It was found necessary, owing to the early dry weather, to irrigate all young
trees.

Poidtrj/ I)iii.^-i(>n. — The output of eggs in the Egg Laying Competition was very gratify-
ing, early in the month, but there was a reduction during the latter part. The explanation
for this cannot be readily found unless it be the rain which fell at the middle of the month.
Stock birds are doing well and the egg yield from these has been very good for this time of
year. Chickens are coming along splendidly. Never in the history of the station has there
been such a fine, well-grown crop of chickens at this time of year.

Extension IF<»r/<'..— Various members of the stafl", ofiSciating in most cases as judges,
visited the following shows during the month ; —

Klerksdorp, 18th and lUih ; Lichtenburg, 21st ; Zeerust, 20th and 21st : Wolmaransstad,
26th and 27th ; Haenertsburg,- 27th ; Pretoria, 31st.

A representative exhibit of cattle was sent to the Klerksdorp show and the Crop Exhibit
from the Farm and Experimental Sections, was staged at the Zeerust show.

We advise you to get each copy of the Journal and to keep it.
A full index will be sent every six mouths to each subscriber.
Experience proves the .Journal to be a useful book of reference. It
will be so in the future. Every farmer is asked to get the Journal
and not to lose it. It is likely that some day, in answer to an inquiry,
you may be referred to an article in the Journal. Keep your Journal !

Meat Statistics.

409

MEAT STATISTICS.

I. — Return of Beef Inspected and Passed for Export, May, 1920.

Cattle.

Carcasses.

Place.

Inspected.

Eejected.

Passed.

Inspected.

Rejected.

Passed.

Durban

3,956

3,956

■
3,956

229

3,727

Pietermaritzbiirg ...

1,570

--

1,570

1,570

65i

l,504i

Pretoria

— .

—

—

—

—

—

JohaDnesburg

381

—

381

381

—

381

Blofmfontein

—

—

—

—

—

Capetown ...

282

—

282

282

47f.

234^

Port Elizabeth

—

—

—

—

Germiston

—

—

■ —

—

—

—

Total

fi,189

—

6,189

6,189

342i

5,846|

Beef actually exported during the month of May, 1920 : Total 12,938 quarters.
{ E.C Durban 11,985 quarters ; E:p Capetown 953 quarters.)

Total shipments of Beef in quarters —

1916 ... 115,992 1918 ... 123,354 *1920 ... 34,648

1917 ... 309,214 1919 ... 285,367

H. — Other Meat Exported*: Pork, carcasses 1006; Bacon 79.160 lb.

[II. — Return op Cattle Imported into the Union from adjoining Territories.

Total from 1st .January.

Territory.

Imported May,

1920.

1920, to
31st May, 1920.

For Slaughter —

No.

No.

Rhodesia

2, .524

9,378

Bechuanaland Protectorate

1,633

8,882

S.-W, Africa

783

5,149

Swaziland

25

648

Basutoland

—

—

For Breeding —

Rhodesia

917

0,175

Bechuanaland Protectorate

1,557

7,766

Total

7.439

36,998

Summary of Imports.

Total from 1st January to 31st May, 1920.

1st July to 31st December only.

410

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

CROP AND LIVE STOCK REPORT.

May, 1920.

MAIZE.

Reports received from correspondents disclose a further decline of 2 per cent, iu tlie
condition of the crop at 31st May, 1920. and the estimated production for this season is
expected to be 9,984,000 bags.

While an improvement of 1 per cent, is reported in the Transvaal there has been a
decline in the Cape Province of 5 per cent., and .3 per cent, both in Natal and the Orange
Free State. For the whole Union the crop is averaged at 22 per cent, below normal.
Frosts in varying degrees of intensity have been reported from practically every part except
the coastal and the low-lying regions. In the Border districts of tne Cape Province droughty
conditions were prevalent. As far as pests and insects are concerned these appear to be
singularly absent, the only exceptions being a few isolated spots in the Transkei. and
Standerton in the Transvaal.

KAFFIR CORN.

The condition of this crop at 31st May, 1920, is practically identical with that
reported at the end of the previous month. The total production this season is estimated
to be 1,132.500 bags.

TOBACCO.

As compared with the previous month, reports received show a further decline of
1 per cent. In the crop condition for the Union, the estimated production at 31st May. 1920.
being placed at 8.897.200 lb.

REAN8.

According to the 1918 census which represented the actual production for the 1917-18
season, the quantity produced in the Union was 256,472 bags.

Taking these figures as a basis an estimate has been framed from which it appears that
the Union is likely to produce this season 251,300 bags.

Taking the Union as a whole, the ai-ea under cultivation for 1919-20 as compared with
1917-18 (i.e. two years previously) showed a decline of 4 per cent. In fhe Transkei there
was an increase of 4 per cent., and 3 per cent, in the Transvaal, whereas smaller quantities
were cultivated in other parts of the Union.

CONDITION OF LIVE STOCK.

Compiled from Report,s furnished by Sheep and Stock Inspectors.

Area.

Large Stock.

•

Small Stock.

Cape—

South- West

Medium tojMor

Medium to jjoor.

North- West

Good to medium. Fat in parts

Good to medium. Fat in parts.

South Coast

Good to medium. Fat in ])ai-ts

Good to medium. Fat in parts.

Southern Karroo

Good to medium

Good, to medium.

Central Karroo

Fat to good

Fat to good.

Northern Karroo

Fat to good

Fat to good.

Eastern Karroo

Good. Fat in parts ...

Good. Fat in parts.

Bechuanaland

Fat to good. Medium in parts

Fat to good. Medium in parts.

Griqualand West

Good. Fat in parts ...

Good. Medium in parts.

North- Eastern

Fat to good. Medium in parts

Good. Fat in parts.

Border

Good to medium. Fat in parts

Good to medium. Fat in parts.

Transkeian Territories...

Good to niedivm. Fat in parts

Good to medium. Fat in parts.

Crop and Live arocK Report.

411

Area.

Large Stock

Small Stock

Transvaal—

Eastern High Veld
Central ...

Western High Veld ...
Low Veld

Orange Free State -

North- Eastern

North- Western...
South-Ea?tern ...
South- Western ...

Natal —

High Veld or Highlands
Middle Veld or Midlands
Coast

Good.

Fat in

parts ...

Good.

Fat

in

parts.

Good t(

medium. Fat in

parts

Good.

Fat

m

parts.

Good.

Fat in

parts ...

. Good.

Fat

in

parts.

Good.

Fat in

parts ...

Good.

Fat

in

part-.

Good to medium. Fat in parts

Good. Fat in paits

Good. Fat in parts ...
Good. Fat in parts ...

Good. Fat in parts
Good. Fat in parts
Good. Fat in parts

Good. Fat in parts.
Good. Fat in parts.
Fat to good.
Good. Fat in parts.

Good. Fat in parts.
Good. Fat in parts.
Good. Fat in parts.

SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE ON THE
OVERSEA MARKET.

April, 1920.

Owing to pressure of other duties, the Acting Trade Commissioner in London states that he
is unable to furnish for the month of April, 1920, the usual detailed monthly report on
South African produce on the oversea markets. He reports, however, under date of the 8th
May, 1920, that a big slump has apparently set in in all classes of raw materials. For instance,
wool has dropped 10 per cent. ; hides have been offered on auction and elicited practically
no bids ; ostrich frathers have declined, and large stocks of wattle bark are on the market for
which no offers can be obtained, or at prices which will show a loss. Mr. Cauham states
that general opinion in London is that speculation has taken place and prices early in the
year reached such a level that the buyers now show no tendency to operate, while one of
the principal factors in the depression prevailing is the adverse rate of exchange which
practically debars Continental firms from ]Mircbasing supplies of raw materials in London.

STAFF: APPOINTMENTS, TRANSFERS, ETC.

Date.

1/4/20

20/2/20

16/4/20
7/5/20

:-11/.o/20

Name of Official and Nature of Change, etc.

Sir A. Tkeiler, K.C.M.G. : Appointed as Director of Veterinary Education

and Research.
Proffin.sor P. R. Viljoe/i : Lecturer in Veterinary Science at the Transvaal

University College, reappointed to the Department ss a Senior Research

Officer.
District Vetcri)uiry Surgeon G. U . Lee (Seconded to the South-West Africa

Protectorate Administration) : Resigned.

C Fuller : Appointed Acting Chief, Division of Entomology, during the absence
on special duty of Mr. C. P. Lounsbury attending Conference of Entomolo-
gists in England.

./. C. Faure : Entomologist. Department of Agriculture, resijiued to assume
Professorship in Entomology at the Trnnsvaal T^niversity College.

>x: (u -a

'■ c^ ^"^ 2 >> a ri ::

>. ^ p.

o<=-i 1^ f q st: — — -s
^.C ^ -°e ir: = a t: £-

IMxM X C I V A L C O X T K X T S .

Methods of Fire Protection.

Poisoning of Cattle by Feeding on Ergotized Paspalum.

The Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province -111.

Rodent Injury to Trees.

Lamb Fattening.

The Department of Agriculture during the War — IV.

Turkeys.

Food Value of Willow Leaves.

Cigar-Tobacco Investigations.

Development of Agricultural Machinery.

Experiments and Investigations — VH.

424X— 22.ii.20 — 10,1X>U

PiiKioRiA: The Government Printing ami Stationery Office 15120.

List op Bulletins Available for Distribution.

LIST OF BULLETINS AVAILABLE FOR
DISTRIBUTION.

Application to be made to the Department of
Agriculture, Pretoria.

Applicants for bulletins are requested kindly to quote the full number of
each, as shown hereunder, and to enclose also payment for sanae. The cost
of each bulletin is indicated ; those not marked are issued gratis.

LIVE STOCK.
Poultry.

Caponizing. By R. Bourlay. Poultry Expert, Potchefstroom Experimental
Farm. X'.R. 21/1Q12.

Chicken Rearing. By J. J. Jordaan, Glea, Orange Free State, id. L.S. 58.

Ehicks, The Managen'cnt of. By T B. Cross, Poultry Instructor, School of
Agriculture, Cedaru. id. L.S. r^.

Egg-laying Competition held at the School of Agriculture, Potchefstroom,
Report on the Second, id. L.S. g.

Egg-laying Competition held at the School of Agriculture, Potchefstroom,
Report on the Third, id. L.S. 43.

Egg-laving Competition held at the School of Agriculture, Potchefstroom,
Report 'I the Fourth ai'd the First at Cedara School of .-Agriculture,
id. L.S. 70.

Egg- laying Competition held at the School of .Agriculture, Potchefstroom,
Report on the Fifth, id. L.S. b'g.

First Duck Egg-laying Competition, Cedara. id. L.S. 88.

Egg Production. By Arthur Little, Lecturer in Poultry Keeping, Grootfon-
tein. id. H.R. 37/1912.

Eggs, Handling, Packing, Storage, and Transport of. By W. O. John, School
of Agriculture, Elsenburg. id. L.S. 42.

Egg Societies, Model Regulations for Co-operative. By J. Retief. L.S. 51.

Incubation in South .\frica. By R. Bourlay, School of Agriculture, Potchef-
stroom. id. L.S. 47.

Poultry, Common Household Remedies for. By A. Little, Lecturer in Poultry,
Cirootfontein. 40/1912.

Poultry Pests and How to .Deal with them. By vV. O. John, Lecturer in
Poultry, School of .Agriculture, Elsenburg. id 12/1916.

Poultry Yard Month by Month, The. By J. J. Jordaan, Lecturer and
Instructor in Poultr\ , School of Agriculture, Glen, Orange Free State,
id. L.S. 3--

Poultry on the Farm in South Africa. By J. J. Jordaan. id. U.R. 84/1915.

[Continued cm page Hi of cover.

CONTENTS.

AUGUST. l'>20.

Pacje

Methods of Fire Protection ... ... ... ... ... ... 413

Poisoning of Cattle by Feeding on Er(;otized Paspalum ... ... 422

CiuAR-ToBAcco Investigations... ... ... ... ... ... 427

The Agriculture and Soils of thk Cape Province ... ... ... 42'.>

Development of Agricultural Machinery ... ... ... ... 44^-

TionENT In.(uri" to Trees ... ... ... ... ... ... 44.-,

Food Value of Willow Leavi:> ... ... ... ... ... ... 4.r,(;

Lamb Fattening ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 45<i

The Department of Agricultike during the War ... ... ... 4(5;;

Turkeys... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 479

Experiments and ]nvestigathin.< ... ... ... ... ... 47^

l^OTES ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 480

Ostrich Feathers — Frickl.v Pear and JointLd Cactus Exteiniinati^m^Butter
and Cheese — The World's Crops — Piat Poisori^^Marketing of Meat : Facilities
for Farmer.-. — Interesting Piailway Figaro (page 426) — Eailage of Sheep to
Fresh Pasturage (page 428)— The Union's Summer Crojxs, 19i;t-20 (page 428)
— Plant Nurseries in Quarantine for Pests (page 444)— East Coast Fever in
the Pretoria District (page 455)— South African Pork and Bacon (page 457) —
Sale of Live Stock at Cedara School of Agriculture (page 490).

Staff : Appointments, Transfers, etc. ... ... ... 48§

The Poultry Yard Month by Month ... ... ... ... ... 489

The Vegetable Garden ... ... ... ... 49]

Notes from the "Gazette" ... ... ... ... ... __ 492

South African Produce on the Oversea Market ... ... ... 411^

Oversea Prices of South African Produce ... ... .. ... 49.>

Kkcent Agricultural Literature ... ... ... ... 495

At the Schools of Agriculture and Experiment Stations ... ... 500

Meat Statistics... ... ... ... ... ... ... _, 504

Export of <iRAiN. etc. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5o.->

<3rop and Live Stock Report ... ... ... ... ... ... 506

liOCAL Market Prices ... ... ... ... .». ... ... ,50s

DEPARTMENTAL NOTICES.

FORES'J' DEPAKTMEXT.

TDfBEU FOR SALE AT CEDARA PLANTATION.

Straight Gum Poles of various sizes from about six inches in diameter at the butt
downwards may be purchased in small or larjie quantities from the Government Plantation,
Cedara, Natal. Inquiries stating size of pule desired (length and smallest diameter under
bark at the thin end) should be addressed to the P'orester. Ci'darn, who will quote prices per
pole put on rail at Cedara Station.

Firewood, fencing droppers, and fenceposts arc also available.

GROOTFONTEIX SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE.

The premises used as administrative offices at the Grootfontein School of Agriculture
were destroyed by tire on the 24th May. As all records and correspondence were lost,
applicants for entrance to courses, including the 1921 courses in Sheep and Wool and in
Dairying, are asked to repeat their applications.

E. J. MacMillan,

V luh-r-St'ri-ptnry for Af/rir/ilture.

OLIVES.

A small quantity of Redding Olive Seeds is available for distribution in one lb. pai'cels,

1 (iOO seeds tt) the lb.

The Redding is the best stock known on which to work the domestic varieties of olives.
It is a rapid grower and makes a very fine root s}^slem. Trees grafted on the Redding will
thrive over a bigger range of soil than if grafted on any other variety.

It is advisable on planting, to remove the pointed end of the seed, taking care not to
injure the kernel. This will tend to give a far better and speedier germination than if the
seeds are planted whole.

Application should be made to the Chief, Division of Horticulture. Department of
j^griculturc, Union P)ui]dings. Pretoria.

SCHOOL OF AGlilCULTURE AND EXPERIMENT STATION,
POTCHEFSTROOM.

The following varieties of seeds are for sale Applica'ions stating the quantities of seed
requiieJ should be addressed to the Principal of the above Institution not later than 31st
August, 1920. Applicants are requested not to forward remittance until they have been
inlormed of the quantities of seed allotted to them : —

JLiize. — " Potchefstroom Pearl." Also limited amounts of •' Cnester County
Mammoth" and "Red Cob Cango." Price : 30s. per 100 lb.

Cowpeas. — "Iron," a medium late variety which has proved the heaviest yi'^lder of hay
and grain at the above station. Price : 3d. per lb.

Monliey Xuts. — "Virginia Bunch" and ''Tennessee." Price : (5d. per lb.

Beam. — "Tepary,"" commercially termed "Small Haricot." A very prolific and

drought-resistant plant, suitable for edible purposes as a dry bean only. Price :

«d. per lb.
Sjii/ieless factii.^ /^mce.*. — Newest varieties Price : 3d. per leaf.

Journal of the Department
OF Agriculture.

Vol. I. AUGUST, 1920. No. 5.

Published monthly in English ami Afrikaans by the Department of Agriculture,

Union of South Africa.

Subscription: Within the Union and Sonth-VVest Pmtectorate, 5s« (otherwise 6Sm)
per annum, post free, payable in advance.

Applications, with subscriptions, to be sent to the Government
Printer, Box 378, Pretoria.

METHODS OF FIRE PROTECTION.

With Special Reference to Fires caused by Sparks from

Railway Engines.

By E. Baker, B.Sc, Lecturer in Botany, Elsenbiirg School of

Agriculture.

Fire constitutes one of tlie greatest clangers to wliicli our forests,
plantations, and veld areas are exposed. The indigenous hush, the
cultivated woods with their thick even-aged plantations, types of veld
(including such areas- as the bushveld with its masses of dead trees),
the grain lands, and the sugar-cane plantations, are all subject to
ravages by fire.

Causes of Fire.

Before dealing with methods of control and prevention, it would
be well to consider what are the chief causes of fire breaking out in
the areas mentioned above. First among these are those fires due
directly to sparks from railway engines.

A second cause may be put down to veld burning. In some
instances the farmer v.ishes to burn a certain amount of veld, perhaps
for his own protection or for securing early grazing, and the fire gets
beyond his control, causing damage to his own and very often to his
neighbours' properties.

Another cause may be put down to carelessness or malice. At
certain times of the year when trekking through the bushveld, one

15

414 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

may reckon on seeing at least one fire each day. These fires burn-
ing out in many instances large areas, are impoverishing the veld
and, in addition, are driving the game to more inaccessible localities.
Many of the sweet annual grasses are disappearing, leaving the
coarser, wir\\, and tufted grasses to take hold of the land. Such
fires are due also to the carelessness at times of hunters and others,
who on leaving their camping grounds do not take sufficient precau-
tions to extinguish their fires.

Empty or broken glass bottles, lying in the grass, may also be
the direct cause of a fire breaking out. To guard against this,
legislation, patrols, and the compulsory service of inhabitants in
assisting to extinguish the fires would be of great value if these areas
were more thickly populated, but at present the more important need
ia the permeation of every class of people in, or visiting, these parts,
with the knowledge that it is necessary to save and preserve the
forests, bush lands, etc. This, at the present time is probably of the
greatest importance. All classes of inhabitants should be alive to the
seriousness and evils of fire, so that in course of time fires as the
result of carelessness will be reduced to a minimum. So stringent
are the laws in some of the European countries that it is illegal even
to smoke a cigarette or an uncovered pipe in certain areas. No
veld burning should take place without the presence of a sufficient
number of beaters to effectively control the burning. There is,
however, in some parts of the country where railways pass through
forests, an ever-present possibility of fire, and the Railway Depart-
ment should not be blamed for their engines persistently coughing
out glowing cinders, which may cause fires on lands adjoining the
railway line, until the owners of such lands have taken proper precau-
tions for minimizing the effects of any such fires.

Development of Forest Fires, etc.

A fire always .depends on , the inflammability of the ground cover.
If this consists of damp succulent growth or if the area is cleared of
dry fallen twigs, so that the trees rise out of practically bare mineral
soil, a fire is impossible. All forest fires originate from ground fires,
which increase in size or die out, according to the quality of the
inflammable material on the ground. If this is suitable to the growth
of the fire, the flames sooner or later leap up into the crowns and
convert the wood into a sea of flame. The flames in the crowns of
the trees precede the ground part of the fire, scattering burning frag-
ments, which may cross roads, streams, or bare places, and under
such circumstances the fire assumes proportions which are only with
great difficulty and expense got under control.

A fire in the crowns of trees can only spread when the ground
file follows it, feeding it from below. If, for some reason, the ground
fire loses its fuel for some distance, the crown fire dies out of itself.
On this principle, the methods adopted against forest fires are based.

A fire may easily be extinguished if one can commence opera-
tions immediately^ after its start, by sweeping closely over the ground
towards the fire with wet sacks or with leafy branches of trees. This
sweeping is more effective than beating, as beating the flames from
above causes sparks to be scattered, initiating new small fires, which
require additional help to extinguish. It nearly always happens,
however, that the heat of a fire travelling with the wind is so great

Methods op Fire Protection.

415

that oue cannot work before it. Attention should then be paid to the
iianks of the fire, and an attempt made to gradually reduce its width
down to a point where it may eventually be extinguished.

^/^. o/: //r^ ^^ ^^^^^^c^^e^^.

Fig. 1. — Indicating beaters moving in the direction of the wind along the
flanks of the fire.

In the ease of a forest fire, if the fire has risen to the crowns,
this method is of no use, for a crown fire cannot be extinguished
directly. In sugar-cane fields and mealie lands the nature of the
crop is such that it is almost impossible to adopt this method of
attack, and the only practicable course is that of lighting a counter-
fire. Th^ counter-fire is started where an opportunity is offered by
lighting a continuous line of small fires across the front of the
oncoming fire. The small fires are made to travel towards the main
fire and checked from travelling in the opposite direction. Such
opportunities are offered by roads, streams, swamp areas, or pre-
viously constructed breaks or paths.

The counter-fires, travelling against the wind, proceed slowly
at first and, in the case of forests, do little damage to trees, except
in young woods or plantations. As the counter-fires approach the
main fire, they are caught in the wind current and move more rapidly
until they unite with the main fire. This union causes both fires to
die out, as there is no longer any ground covering to feed the flames
in the crown's. Great care should be taken in making the counter-
fire. The distance at which it may be started from the oncoming
fire will depend on the nature of the crop and the strength of the

41 (i

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

wind. If started too near the main fire, before it has spread suffici-
ently, the main fire will be on it, and, being thus assisted, will rage
more vigorously than before.

Fig. 2.— Showing the shape of the flame area, with crown fire preceding

the ground fire.

<ajr>

Fig, 3, — Indicating how the ground fire becomes a crown fire, and how at (a)
a fire path reduces the possibility of the formation of a crown fire.

Where such natural opportunities as roads, streams, etc., for
the lighting of a counter-fire are absent, suitable paths should be
made at the time of planting, and in these days when farmers are
planting larger areas to timber, it is advisable to divide such areas
into 5 or 10 acre blocks, with surrounding borders at from 5 to 6
yards wide, free from vegetation.

In gum and coniferous plantations, the strips or borders should
be cultivated during the years of greatest danger from fire, i.e. during

Methods of Fire Protection. Ml

the first years of growth, up to the time of the first or second thinning
of the trees. The loss of wood-growing space is not serious, for a
strip 6 yards broad is nearly always overgrown by the crowns of the
trees on its border. These strips also serve as roads for the transport
of thinnirgs, etc. In Germany, a crop such as Seradella is sometimes
raised on these strips, with the view to providing food for the forest
animals, thus checking the damage they might otherwise do to the
bark of the trees, while at the same time assisting in keeping the
strips clean by eating down the growth.

Most of the cane fields and mealie lands are divided up into
hlocks, and if more of our farmers would adopt similar precautions
for their veld areas, by ploughing strips where natural opportunities
do not obtain and where the need for such strips is indicated, the
constant recurrence of burnt areas as are now to be seen might
appreciably be reduced.

As regards the

Fires originating from Railway Engines,

the endeavours of railway engineers to remove the danger of fire by
arrangements in the smoke stacks for preventing the scattering of
glowing cinders from the locomotives, have met with little or no
satisfactory results. The falling of the burning fragments from the
ash boxes may be preventible to some extent, but those falling on
the track are not responsible for much damage. At the same time
it is not possible to stop the sparks which fly from the smoke stack,
without affecting the draught necessary for the heat required by the
engines. This does not perhaps apply to the engines for transporta-
tion of the sugar-cane to the mills, for here spark arresters are used,
as the rapidity of locomotion is of secondary importance.

With the use of oil-fuel engines the danger would be obviated,
but until such time some arrangement is required on both sides of
the line that will in itself afford protection against the possibility
of causing fires in the planted areas. On the knowledge that the
breaking up of the ground constitutes a remedy against the spreading
of fire, a strip kept free from vegetation should be provided on each
side of the railway track.

The danger of causing a fire by engine sparks depends on^ —

(1) The size of the glowing particles.

(2) The strength and direction of the wind.

(3) The inflammability of the ground cover.

The larger the cinders, the more easily may they start a fire.
If the ground cover in a wood is but slightly inflammable, it may
be sufficient to divide the railway track from the plantations by a
strip, kept cultivated, so that a fire starting on the side of the rail-
way line cannot run over into the wood. Under certain conditions,
it has been proved that where a railway line passes through a forest,
and the wood comes close up to the line, the danger of fire is smaller
than when the woods are furtner off. If the wood is close to the
line, the wind is diverted to follow the narrow passage along the
track, wliereas the sparks may be blown across broader openings into
the wood.

Efficient protection is therefore afforded by having "safety belts
of trees along each side of and close up to the railway line, and land
is used also for growing timber, which otherwise would lie idle and
probably be a menace. Sparks have been observed to glow at

418

Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

distances of 80-100 yards from the railway line, and if a strip 100
yards wide on each side of the line is to be kept bare for each mile
of railway 72 acres of land must either lie idle or be used for some
succulent crop, which is not likely to catch tire. In many instances
it would be more profitable ,ta grow timber on these strips, as the
land may be too poor for agricultural purposes.

To protect plantations from sparks from railway engines, the
safety belts of trees should be about 15 yards broad and separated
from the main plantation by a path 5-6 feet wide and from the rail-
way embankment hy a strip about 4 feet wide. These two paths
should be united every 20 yards ov so by cross-paths, which should
always be kept clean.

The following diagram indicates the method of laying out such
belts, as practised in the pine forests of northern Germany: —

^^^^^

A .% ^;|
4

4\n

A ^ A

n 1

ii Mil ill

(^)

i^) <-(C} ^/i^<~y<-;^

^

/VMM- 1

€Mm4

ISHI

Hi

imk^^

y

-> ^

TIT4
4* 4 1,
1 4. A 4

^ '^ 4 '^
4 4 4 i
I ±%. %

•f ^ 4^ 4

'\ f %■ 4''

Fi<;. 4. — («) High forest, (h') imd (d) Clean strips. (O YouDg protection belt. (»?) .Em-
bankment with clean strip in centre. (/) Railway track, {g) Older protection
belt for protecting young plantation (/O.

Methods of Fire Protection. i\9

Similar belts of trees might be used in the protection of siigar-
icane areas or where there is great danger of veld fires being caused
by sparks from railway engines. Where it is impracticable to plant
trees through veld areas, rectangular patches may be made, and the
litter from the paths thrown into these patches and burnt off when
convenient.

Dry grass and bush growth on the sides of the railway line are
often set on fire, and in order to check this fire from doing serious
damage, a strip about a yard wide should be cleared in addition and
running parallel to the 4-feet strip bordering the plantation.

The ground covering of dry inflammable material in

The Safety Belt

•should l>e removed. All dry branches, tufts of grass, heath, etc.,
should be cleared, and the trees — except the row of trees nearest to
the railway line — shoidd be pruned up to about 4 feet. The green
branches on the borders of the belt should be retained down to the
earth as far as possible. The closer the screen nearest to the railwaj^
track, the better does the protection belt fulfil its function of catch-
ing the flying sparks and of stopping them from flying over into the
plantation. To attain this object, the arrangement of the trees in
the safety belt must be continuous, without any great gaps. The
trees should not be planted too closely, for the flames rise higher
hetween close-standing stems than between those standing further
apart: moreover, the crowns of the former do not develop so well.

As the trees in old plantations are wider apart than in young
plantations, and because high trees may be a menace to the railwaj^
track and to telegraph wires, it is advisable to choose a short rotation
for the protection belt. In settling this rotation, the purpose of the
protection belt should first be considered. The question of the yield
of timber is of secondary importance. The protection belt only
becomes effective when it has reached a height equal to that of the
smoke stack of the railway engine, and owing to the danger from
sparks being carried by the wind, the protection belt should not be
cut over on both sides of the line at the same time, but should, on
one side at least, consist of high forest. Neither should the planta-
tion behind the shelter belt be cut down and restocked so long as
the protection belt in front of it is still so low that it cannot check
the flying sparks successfully.

If it is impossible to avoid having a dangerous young growth
behind an insufficiently soft protection belt, as in newly afforested
areas, a second protection belt, similar to the first, should be laid
down and maintained until the first belt can undertake the work
of protection.

The danger is least where the railway runs through cuttings, so
that the height of the smoke stack is less than that of the banks. In
this case, only the strip, a yard wide, between the railway bank and
the wood is necessary, but unless the cutting extends for some con-
siderable distance it would be advisable to lay out the 15-yard broad
shelter belts.

The danger is greatest .)ii llie convex side of curves, but if
the protection growth is sufficiently close to form an eft'ective screen,
no damage Avill be done, for the sparks cannot form a direct kindling
of tlie free crowns.

420 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

The danger would also appear to be great where the metals lie
on a high embankment, the locomotive funnel thus being exposed to
the wind. The sparks certainly fly somewhat further than on open
level ground, but they take a longer time to fall to the ground. At
the same time, owing to the grade of the embankment, the safety
strip is of necessity at a considerable distance from the metals, so
that the trees of this belt can catch the sparks as well as if they stood
close up to the line.

If a new railway line is to be laid through an existing planta-
tion, the same type of protection belt may be adopted. It is only
necessary to clear as broad a way as is required for the construction
of the railway. On both sides of the line the protection belts may be-
formed as above described.

The crop remains, but the ground is cleared of all inflammable
material, and if the trees are too widely scattered or devoid of
branches for a considerable height, underplanting with some species
of trees which will stand a fair amount of shade may be resorted to
On the sides of the belt nearest the railway. If the trees of the shelter
belt must be removed on account of age, the belt should immediately
be restocked, and a strip of the main portion of the v»"ood converted
into a safety belt.

In the kind of

Tree Suitable for Planting,

the following qualities should be present: —

(1) The tree must be suited to the soil so that it may flourisb
as well as possible.

(2) It should form a thick or resistant bark as soon as possible,.

so that it may not be killed by a moderate ground iire.

(3) Its crown must be thick enough to catch flying sparks and

to shade the ground, so that a strong growth of grass and
bush is impossible.

On first consideration, broad-leaved trees are more suitable than
pines, but when broad-leaved trees, such as oak, etc., flourish, the
ground is as a rule damper and danger from fire less than where
pines may thrive.

On dry sandy soils, the common cluster pine is probably the most
ejfficient kind for the construction of safety belts, and when planted
as transplants, 4 feet by 4 feet, in preference to sowing, they soon-
develop a bark sufficiently resistant to small ground fires. At this-
espacement, a single horse-hoe can be used during the early life of
the belt to keep the ground well cultivated, but if impossible the
rows should be cultivated by hand. The hoeing should be done until
the trees have reached a sufficient height to form a canopy, and thus
prevent the growth of the ground vegetation. When the trees are
about 4 feet high, the lower dry and suppressed branches should be
pruned off, except on the outermost borders, where all live branches
may be retained.

Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) and Black Wattle (A.
decurren^) also form effective screens under suitable conditions. The
accompanying illustration shows such a belt of Black Wattle, used
on a hillside on the sugar estates at Mount Edgecombe, Natal.

Methods of Fire Protection.

421

The Blackwood, under suitable conditions, is an excelleni tree
for safety belt work. It has a fairly hard bark and retains its lateral
branches well on the sides exposed to light, neither does it produce
straggling" branches, as other trees might.

During early life certain species of Eucalyptus might be quite
efficient. AVhere soil conditions are good, they make rapid develop-
ment, and when felled the regeneration due to coppice growth

provides an excellent screen at an early age. Unfortunately, how-
ever, many of the gums tend to produce bare stems for a consider-
able distf.nce as they advance in age, and where gums are planted
in the protection belts a mixture, using some shade-bearing tree with
the gum, would probably be of greater value.

The cultivation of the strips is best done by means of a rubber
adapted for forest work. If the strips are very long, the shape of
the protection belt may be modified as shown in the following figure,
so that an animal-drawn cultivator may be worked continuously.

^^j^^ ^f^j.^ ^\^./f ^^ f^^^^;j j~

/f/i/iwoy IifticK

Fig-. 5, — \ii) Forest, {h) Modified protectioii brlt to allow of cultivator working continuously.

422 Journal op thb Department op Agriculture.

POISONING OF CATTLE BY FEEDING ON
ERGOTIZED PASPALUM.

By D. T. Mitchell, M.R.C.V.S., Yeterinaiy Eesearch
Laboratory, Onderstepoort.

The cultivation of paspalum on au extensive scale as cattle feed in
the Province of Xatal is of comparatively recent date, and althougli
during che first few years the results justified the labour involved, in
recent years it has been noted that in cattle which were allowed
access to the paspaluni lands at a certain season, symptoms of
inco-ordination of movement appeared in a large percentage of them,
which disappeared slowly on changing the grazing ground to natural
veld. Serious outbreaks were reported from various parts of the
Province, and, of these, four were investigated.

Two occurred in TJmvoti County, one involving a large dairy
herd and the other a number of young stock, heifers and oxen. A
third outbreak was reported from the Town Hill, near Maritzburg,
where clinical symptoms were found to be present in about 50 per
cent, of the cows of a dairy herd. A number of young oxen and
heifers at the Government Experimental Farm, Cedara, were
inspected at an inquiry held there, and were found to be affected
with characteristic symptoms identical with those noted in previous
outbreaks.

In all these cases symptoms had appeared in the cattle grazing
on paspaluni pastures which were in the seeding stage, and in each
case it was noted that a very large percentage of the heads of the
grasses were infected with a fungus of the Ergot type.- Specimens
were collected and submitted to Dr. Pole Evans, Plant Pathologist,
who reported that the fungus present was Claviceps paspali, which
had been noted in other parts of the world to produce a similar tr^in
of symptoms to those shown by the cattle in the affected herds under
observation. Of the species of ergot possessing definite poisonous
principles producing pathological or functional alterations in man
and animals, the best known is Claviceps purpurea, the ergot which
infects grain and rye grasses. The distribution of this fungus is
very widespread, and its toxic properties have been recognized since
the earliest times.

Dissemination of the spores of the fungus Claviceps paspali has
been noted to have been brought about by a species of beetle of the
family Carahidae, which collects the spores from the germinating
Sclerotia on the ground, and on climbing up the tall stems of the
grass in order to get a high point to fly from, transmits the spores
to the flowering heads of the grasses. Here a further development
occurs. The pistil of the flower is attacked and a mycelium is produced,
growing as a mass of thread between the glumes of the grass. Conidia
result from this mass, and a sticky substance, popularly known as
"honey dew," is found which materially a.ssists in spore dissemina-
tion. These spores are transmitted from plant to plant in various

Poisoning of Cattle. 4:26

ways by insect* which feed on the honey-dew. and by the movement
of animals feeding in the infected pasture and by wind causing contact
of infected with healthy heads. In cattle grazing on paspalum
infected with ergot at this stage of its development, it will be not«d
that hairs in the lips, cheeks, upper parts of the legs, and along the
abdomen are stuck together with this " honey-dew " exudation. From
this mass of fungus threads the ripe sclerotm are formed.

The symptoms produced in cattle by feeding on ergotized grass
vary according to the species of the infecting ergots. C. purpurea
sets up a very definite train of symptoms, commencing with diarrhoea,
lameness, and stiffness in the limbs, affecting particularly the lower
joints, associated with coldness and insensibility of the parts affected.
This is followed by sloughing of the part and separation of the dead
tissue usually in the neighbourhood of a joint. Portions of a limb
may be sloughed off, for example, a toe, or in some cases the slough
may involve the fetlock joint resulting in separation occurring at
this point. The ears and tail are frequently affected, partial or almost
complete loss resulting.

Lesions may also be noted affecting the mucous membranes.
^Necrotic patches may appear on the buccal mucous membrane and
h^T^eraemia affecting the intestinal mucous membranes is of frequent
occurrence. Abortion very frequently occurs in animals which are
pregnant. There is little systematic disturbance except in complicated
cases, and temperature is not elevated.

The American investigators. Brown and Rauck. carried out a
series of animal tests in 1914-15 to determine whether C. paspali was
capable of producing toxic symptoms in animals. Positive results
were obtained by feeding guinea-pigs on the ripe sclerotia. 40-80
selerotia, when fed daijy, produced symptoms of marked sensibility,
and after a few days in-co-ordination of movement occurred, resulting
in death after a period of complete paralysis. Commercial ergot
extract {C. purpurea) was found to produce no distinct ill effects. The
administration of j-l c.c. on four successive days produced only
temporary sluggishness.

The ripe sclerotia given to calves, ad. Hh., produced hyper-
sensitiveness after two days, and, later, in-co-ordination of movement
followed by frequent paroxysms, and, later, prostration and death.

In order to ascertain whether C . paspali, which is known to infect
a high percentage of paspalum lands in this country, would reproduce
the symptoms in experimental animals which were observed in
America « in animals feeding on infected pastures, a series of experi-
ments were arranged at the Veterinary Research Laboratory. Six
animals were selected for the tests, and the ergot-infected paspalum
was collected from old paspalum lands at the Government Experi-
mental Station at Cedara. The method of collection was by stripping
the infected heads by hand, the material resulting being a mixture
of portions of the seed heads and a fairly high percentage of ripe
sclerotia. This material was fed within a few days after collection
in a mixture of bran and a small quantity of chopped lucerne.

From the experiments it was noted that feeding with 9 lb. -12 lb.
quantities of infected heads produces a definite and diagnostic train
of symptoms. The initial symptoms appeared in each case on the
second day after the infected heads were fed to the animals and were
characterized by muscular tremors, hypersensitiveness, increased

424 ■ Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

glandular secretion, and increases in respirations and pulse rate.
These symptoms were rapidly followed by in-co-ordination of move-
ment, lack of tone of the leg muscles, loss of appetite, and constipa-
tion. Recovery was noted to commence about the fifth or sixth day,
and from this onward slow improvement was shown. The animals on
being turned out to graze were kept under observation for a further
period, and it was noted that recovery could not be considered to be
complete until at least two months had elapsed from the time the
meal of infected heads was partaken of. Abortion did not occur.
One animal calved normally-three months later.

A short description of the disease as it appears under natural
conditions in this country is here given, together with suggestions
for preventive measures to be adopted.

Cause. — The causal agent of ergotism in South Africa has been
demonstrated to be C . paspali, associated with paspalum lands which
have been established for some years. So far, no cases of true ergotism
due to ingestion of grass or grain infected with C. purpurea have
been reported, and it is doubtful whether this latter fungus exists in
any part of the Union to such an extent as to produce clinical
symptoms in animals.

Distribution. — The infection is not very widespread, but it may
be looked upon as general throughout the midland portion of Natal.
Outbreaks which have been reported were limited to the midlands.
No cases were reported from the northern portion adjacent to the
Drakensberg range or from the coastal belt. In the latter area, how-
ever, this is understood as being owing to the absence of frosts and
to the humid conditions which exist for the greater part of the year —
natural grazing is plentiful and the necessity for providing additional
grazing during the seasons when veld grazing is scanty is not felt.
Paspalum has only been cultivated to a limited extent in this area.
In the midlands the cultivation of paspalum had been undertaken
on a fairly extensive scale in former years, and in seasons which
favour the growth of the fungus, it is almost impossible to find an
area under this grass which is not grosslj^ infected. Even along the
roadsides, where accidentally sown plants are to be found, these are
almost constantly found to be infested.

Occurrence. — The occurrence of the condition among cattle feed-
ing on paspalum lands varies each year, and is chiefly dependent on
the extent to which the grass is infected. Like most fungi, warm
humid conditions favour development and dissemination, and so, as
is to be expected, the percentage of infected paspalum heads in a
pasture is very much greater in seasons where a mild winter is
followed by frequent rains during the spring and early summer. The
stage of growth at which the fungus is able to set up the characteristic
symptoms is limited to the period when the sclerotia are ripe, which
coincides with the ripening of the grass seeds. During the " honey-
dew " period the cattle appear to be able to eat the infected grass with
impunity. It was noted that cattle feeding on paspalum on which
ripe sclerotia were present evinced a special fondness for the high
standing diseased heads after a meal of the lower and more succulent
foliage had been collected. This point has also been commented upon
by Brown and Ranck. Symptoms are usually developed about a week
after exposure in the infected pasture, and the percentage of animals

Poisoning of Cattle. 425

which show clinical symptoms varied from 5 to 60 per cent, in the
outbreaks investigated.

Animals Affected. — The condition was only noted to occur in
cattle, and young stock of from fourteen months to two years appeared
to be more susceptible than adult cattle. Horses, donkeys, sheep, and
goats grazed on the infected grass without developing any clinical
symptoms. This apparent immunity may, to some extent, be due to
the different method of grazing adopted by these animals by which
little of the infected heads would be collected. No fondness for
diseased heads, as observed in cattle, was noted in these animals.

Symptoms. — The symptoms in the affected animals vary in
intensity from a slight in-co-ordination of movements to complete
paralysis. Hyperaesthesia and increased respirations were not so
marked in the cases which occurred under natural conditions as were
noted in those produced experimentally.

In the majority of instances the natural cases were comparatively
mild, the symptoms shown consisted of staring coat, high stepping
movement of the front legs in walking, defective vision indicated by
an absence of any attempt to avoid holes in the ground or obstacles,
occasional stumbling, lateral swaying of the hindquarters, and a
general lowering of muscular tone. Appetite is unimpaired in the
early stages, but, later, there is loss of appetite, and in consequence
the animal has a " tucked-up " appearance. The most acute cases were
seen among some eighteen-month-old oxen wliich had been feeding
on infected grass for some weeks. Few cases of partial paralysis were
noted, and these affected animals exhibited marked symptoms of
hyperaesthesia, hurried respirations, and a rapid thready pulse.

Mortality. — A few cases of deaths from the condition were
reported, but in none of the outbreaks personally investigated did any
mortality occur. This may have been due to the fact that in these
cases the owners were advised to remove the animals at once and
provide good nursing for badly affected ones, but in general it may
be taken that in uncomplicated cases the mortality is almost negligible.
The resulting loss of condition is the greatest economic factor to be
considered, and though clinically affected animals recover from the
acute symptoms fairly rapidly it requires a considerable time on a
good nursing diet to recover from the effects of the intoxication, and
the animal's general physique, especially in growing animals, suffers
in conse(iuence.

Treatment. — The treatment which was found to give most rapid
results after the necessary removal from the paspalum lands consisted
of a saline purge followed by a few days' rationing on green lucerne
or barley, the idea being merely to prevent further ingestion and to
assist in elimination of the unabsorbed toxic elements in the digestive
tract.

Prophylactic measures consist of reaping and collection of the
grass during the flowering season, at which time the material collected
from the lands may be fed to cattle with perfect safety. Burning
of unreaped lands during the winter will have the effect of destroying
most of the resting forms of the fungus, but this procedure is not to
be recommended on account of harmful effect of the fire on the grass
roots. Heavy stocking at the commencement of the summer before
the flowering season will be found to be effectual. By this means

426 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

the formation of flowering heads is prevented and infection of the
pasture is rendered impossible.

In the outbreak at Cedara which involved a herd of young- oxen,
a number of deaths from red water occurred after recovery was almost
complete. The grazing gtouud on which these animals ran was
" redwater veld," but as the animals hid been reared in the area,
and as no cases occurred in cattle of a similar age- grazing in adjoining
camps, it was considered that the mortality was due to a breakdown
in immunity resulting from lowered vitality due to ergot intoxication.
The absence of abortion in pregnant animals contracting the disease
under natural conditions and also of any sj'inptoms of neciosis or
sloughing was noted in the outbreaks reported and investigated. The
condition does not give rise to any immunity or distaste for the fungus,
and animals again allowed access to lands in which the infection is
present during the same or succeeding year will develop all the
characteristic symptoms.

Interesting Railway Figures.

In Bulletin No. 3, 1920, issued by the General Manager ot Rail-
ways and Harbours, some interesting figures are published concern-
ing the railway systems in other countries compared with that of
the Union. It is shown that the average cost per mile of railway
in Great Britain is £56,317; France, £30,789; Germany, £24,053;
United States, £15,909; and Australia, £10,263; while in the Union
it is lower than any of these countries, being £9823. Of course, the
higher this cost becomes the more revenue will be required to meet
interest charges.

The Union is a vast country with a small population, and has a
far-reaching railway system. This is reflected in Ihe following
statistics showing the number of inhabitants per mile of railway
line in the Union as compared with other countries : —

No of No. of

^ . Inhabitants ^ , Innuliitanta

Country. n, ., Country. ,,.,

•' per Mile -^ per Mile

of Line of T/'ne.

Russia in Europe 3360 France 1241

Italy 3162 Switzerland 1177

Holland 2880 Denmark 1105

Spain ...... 1967 United States 404

Great Britain 1943 Australasia 257

Austria-Hungary 1792 Canada 200

Germany 1698 Union of South Africa

Belgium 1356 (Europeans only) ... 147

The Journal aims at keeping farmers informed of what the
Department of Agriculture is doing, also of such matters affecting
their interests as come under its purview. The Journal contains
original articles for the guidance of the farmer on the many and
diverse problems which face him. Every farmer should tead it and
keep it.

Cigar-Tobacco Investigations. 427

OIGAR-TOBACCO INVESTIGATIONS.

Bj W. H. ScHERFFius, M.Sc, Chief, Division of
Tobacco and Cotton.

During my visit to the United States in 1919, I inspected the planta-
tions, curing sheds, and warehouses of the American Sumatra
Tobacco Company, Quincey, Florida. This company is making
splendid progress in the production of cigar wrapper tobacco. Their
methods are of the most progressive to be found anywhere. They have
hundreds of acres of tobacco, all grown under cheese-cloth or lattice,
and in some cases both cheese-cloth and lattice are used. The tobacco
grown in this manner is used to cover high-class cigars. It is
interesting to note that they commence harvesting the leaves when the
first flowers appear. The flower-heads are broken out, but the suckers
are not removed. The harvesting is complete three weeks after the
plants are topped. The curing process is preferably a slow one,
consisting of a slight drying during the day and absorbing some
moisture during the night. When the leaves are thoroughly cured
they are taken off the laths, packed in cases, and sent to the packing
or rehandling warehouse. The tobacco remains in the cases for weeks,
till the manager is ready to ferment it, when it is taken out of the.
cases and put into large bulks ; if necessary, moisture is added to
start fermentation. The temperature is raised to about 118-120° F.
If the temperature begins to rise or fall before five or six days, the
stack is pull«ed down and rebuilt. Stacks are usually pulled down
and rebuilt three or four times ; then the tobacco is put back in the
cases to await sorting, grading, retieing, and rebulking in bale lots,
one on top of the other. Here the process of fermentation is
completed, and the tobacco is again put in the cases to hold its
moisture till it can be made into bales. The bales are covered with
Indian fibre and hessian, and the parcel is crated ready for shipping.
The weight of the parcel is net 180 lb., gross 188 lb. The cost of
producing an acre of this tobacco, approximately 1150 lb., is about
1600.00 or a-bout 60 cents per lb. A good crop will give about 40
per cent, first-grade stuff.

Santiago de Las Vegas.

The methods employed in Cuba differ in many respects to those
in Arnerica, but the underlying principles are the same. I visited the
experiment station at Santiago, and saw their methods of preparing
seed-beds, which are sterilized with steam, instead of the usual
practices. Their soil is very similar in appearance fo much of our
red sandy and clay loam soils. My attention was called to the fact
that many of their tobacco lands were surrounded and interlaced
with palm trees or banana bushes. The seedlings are transplanted
when they are about 8 inches long. The plants are topped, but not

42iS Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

suckered, similar to the American method. Harvesting begins about
45 days after the date of transplanting, and about 15 to 20 days are
required to complete the harvest. Their curing sheds are board or
plank walls with high heavy thatched roofs. After the tobncco is
cured, it goes to the packing house, where it is fermented at 45 to 50°
ceutrigrade, sorted, graded, and baled; then it goes into the hands of
the jobbers, and from them it is distributed amongst the
manufacturei-s.

I visited some of the packing houses in Havana and saw the
tobacco being prepared for distribution amongst the manufacturers.
The Cubans cover their bales with heavy palm leaves or bark which
serves the double purpose of keeping the tobacco from damaging and
retaining the moisture in the leaf. The bales are made up of 4
hands to the carrot, 80 carrots to the bale, and the bale weighs 80 to
100 lb.

The finest grade of cigar wrapper sells for about £800.00 per bale
or 110.00 per pound.

The district Santiago de Las Yegas stands first in the production
of cigar wrapper. The district Vuelta Abago leads in the produc-
tion of fine filler.

Railage of Sheep to Fresh Pasturage.

In Bulletin No. 6 of the General Manager of Railways and
Harbours it is stated that 413,267 sheep were carried by rail to fresh
pasturage during the year 1919 and the three months ended 31st>
March, 1920 — a further illustration of the serious effects of the
drought and the tax it imposed upon the Administration's resources
in trucks and haulage. This is apart from ordinary live stock
transport and takes no account of the large number of large stock
removed to fresh pasturage. If all the sheep railed to fresh pasturage
were returned they would total 826,534. The actual railage charges,
at full ordinary tariffs for the forward journey, were £31,010. The
animals are returned to original forwarding stations free of charge.
On their return one-half the forward journey railage is rebated, so
that if all the animals were returned, the Administration would only
receive £15,505 compared with £62,020, had ordinary rates been
applied. The reduced rates work out less than 1.28d. per truck per
mile.

The Union's Summer Crops, 1919-20.

The attention of readers is directed to the Department's Crop
Report for June, 1920, published in this issue, which gives the final
returns for this season's crops of maize, kaffir corn, and tobacco, show-
ing the estimated total yield of each of these crops.

The Journal is the Department's medium of making known its
activities. It contains information of value to every farmer in the
Union Keep it for reference.

Agriculture and Soils op the Cape Province. 42'.>

THE AGRICULTURE AND SOILS OF THE CAPE

PROVINCE.

By Arthur Stead, B.Sc, F.C.S., Research Chemist, Grootfontein
School of Agriculture, Middelburg, Cape.

I.

Witkop— Burghersdorp.

{The previous instalments of this article ap-peared in the May and
July 7ium,bers of tJie Journal.— Acf/r/^' Editor.)

Over the spruit there is a turf-looking soil whose reputation for
fertility is better than that of the adjacent higher-lying Molteno
beds " zandbult " soil. Sample No. 613 was taken here. The
natural vegetation of the soil consists mainly of " zuurgras " ; but
here and there is to be found a plant of " blamvzaadgras." The
soil is probably alluvial to some extent, because in the spruit were
a number of dolerite boulders, washed down, presumably, from the
dolerite-capped red beds on Kalkfontein. At the time the sample
was taken the land was being prepared for potatoes, a crop to w^hich
the soil is said to be well suited.

Before discussing the analytical figures of this report, it is
considered advisable in the interests of the general reader to devote
a few pages to a consideration of the several factors which are
concerned in the growth of crops, giving at the same time some
indication of the bearing of the analytical figures on the estimation
of the fertility of the soil and its suitability for particular crops.

Factors in Plant Growth.*

Six principal factors are concerned in the growth of crops. They
are : —

1. Light.

2. Temperature.

3. Air supply.

4. Water supply.

5. Food supply.

6. Harmful factors.

The first five factors must all be present for growth to be possible ;
if any of these five factors is present to an inadequate degree only,
crop yields will suffer accordingly.

Harmful Factors. — Should any harmful factor be present, the crop
yields will be below normal in proportion to the intensity of the action
of the harmful factor. Attacks by insect pests, diseases, and so on
are harmful factors capable of untold dama_ge to crops. For instance,
rust now prevents the wheat crop from yielding grain' in the

* The foUowmo: remarks are based to a considerable extent on the admirable account
given by E. J. Russell, F.R.S., in "Soil Conditions and Plant Growth."

430 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

Alexandria district, while the same soil transported to Middelbnrg
still yields excellent returns of that crop. Factors such as diseases
and insect pests do not, however, come within the province of the
chemist; it is therefore proposed not to deal with them further than
drawing attention to them.

Among harmful chemical factors are the conditions known as
soil acidity and " bralc." Both conditions are capable of entirelj-
preventing the growth of normal crops, no matter how favourable
ntlior factors may be.

The brak condition of soil is not at all likely to be met with in
the area under consideration, so that subject need not be pursued
further. Acidity of the soil, on the other hand, is likely to be very
prevalent. Reference to all of the analyses recorded in this report
will show that out of thirteen samples all, except two, are acid to
litmus, viz., they turn blue litmus paper red.

Now the principal function of carbonates in the soil is to prevent
the development of the acid condition, a condition which is not only
harmful in a direct manner to cultivated plants, but also indirectly
in that it prevents the normal activities of certain soil organisms
whose function it is to prepare food for assimilation l)y the plant
roots.

Owing to the importance of carbonates just indicated, it is usual
to estimate the quantity present when analysing a sample of soil.
Of all the samples, No. 616 alone is well supplied with carbonates.

Fortunately, it is a simple matter to correct a soil for acidity.
This is best done by adding an appropriate quantity of ground lime-
stone. So great have been the immediate oenefits following such
applications that they have been repeated in some cases too often,
as witness the old saying: —

"Lime and lime without manure

Will make both land and farmer poor."

Light. — Crops cannot be grown in the dark, because sunlight is
necessary to the utilization by the plant of the food (carbondioxide)
it obtains from the atmosphere. The farmer makes use of this fact
when he grows a crop of teff grass to smother weeds. The teff grows
so quickly that it soon shuts off the sunlight from the slower growing
weeds.

Temperature. — The importance of temperature in crop produc-
tion is perhaps too often overlooked. Everyone knows that if the
weather is too cold there is no growth, and that certain crops may be
killed by frost. So also if the weather is too hot growth comes to a
standstill ; but not in all cases, because some crops like hot weather
best. The fact is that the temperature requirements of crops vary
considerably.

Potatoes, for instance, require cool weather and a cool soil foi
best results : wlieat likes cold weather at the start and a cool soil ;
thereafter it needs hot weather for ripening.

Maize, kaffir corn, pumpkins, melons, and cotton are crops for
which hot weather is essential. The first-mentioned crops thrive in
the cool climate of Witkop ; the last-mentioned are either not grown
at all or do badly.

It "should be evident that if the temperature conditions are not
right, the crop .yield cannot be good, no matter how favourable the
other factors may be.

Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province. 481

The mechanical composition of the soil, taken in conjunction
with the climate of a particular locality, enables one to form an
estimate of the temperature suitability of that soil for a particular
crop.

Reference to Table 1 hereunder will show that the mechanical
analysis classifies the soil particles into groups of various sizes, the
coarsest being sand and the finest clay. Now, the coarser the soil,
the hotter it becomes during the heat of the day, while the greater
the proportion of fine particles (viz., silt and clay) it contains, the
cooler it will keep. Similar differences exist with reference to soil
temperature changes as winter gives place to spring. The sandier
the soil, the sooner it warms up to the general air temperature. Thus,
under the temperate climatic conditions of, say, England, sandy
soils are often valuable because they are " early," while clay soils
are commonly known as cold and " late."

Speaking rather generally, the temperature properties of clay
soils are undesirable in cool climates, but very valuable in hot
localities; while the reverse holds with reference to sandy soils.

One must evidenth' therefore always consider climatic condi-
tions and the mechanical composition of the soil in conjunction. To
come to actual instances, a sandy soil which is just right for
potatoes under Witkop conditions, would be too hot under
Burghersdorp conditions ; or a sandy soil situated in the Karroo
would give only a poor crop of wheat, whereas the same soil situated
in the Witkop district would return quite good yields. We have
dealt with this matter somewhat lengthily, because in our experience
the farmer often ascribes to a lack of plantfood in the soil what
ought really to be ascribed to unsuitable climatic conditions, par-
ticularly temperature conditions.

Air Supply. — It is only below ground that the air (oxygen)
supply is likely to be deficient, and then only in the case of soils
which contain large percentages of finest particles, i.e. the loams and
clays. Even the most compact soil contains a considerable quantity
of air, the presence of which is revealed when a lump is placed under
water; as the w^ater enters the soil the air is driven out and escapes
as bubbles.

Soil is therefore not to be regarded as a solid mass, but rather
as a porous mass whose solid particles are packed more or less closely
together. The particles touch one another at one or more points ;
between them are spaces which, if the soil is quite dry, are entirely
filled with air. If, however, the soil is moist, part of the air-space,
i.e. that contiguous to the soil particles, is taken up by water. (A
fair picture will be obtained if one imagines the soil particles to be
covered with a film of water whose thickness will depend on the
amount of moisture in the soil.)

Since sand particles are relatively large (see sizes in Table I
hereundei) the spaces between them are correspondingly big; there
is therefore little friction impeding the movement of air in a sandy
soil.

In the case of soils which contain large percentages of finest
particles (i.e. silt and clay), the spaces between particles are so small
that the movement of air is very much impeded.

Speaking generally, the movement of air is easy in sandy but
difficult in clay soils ; the renewal of the air of sandy soils is there-
fore accomplished much more readily than the renewal of the air of
clay soils.

432 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Now, the roots of plants and other living things in the soil
require air for the oxygen gas it contains. They use this oxygen
gas up ; it is therefore necessary that the soil air be renewed from
time to time. This is accomplished naturally by the movements of
air which take place between the atmosphere above ground and that
below ground.

If the air (oxygen) supply in the soil be deficient, one would
expect the root system to suffer; one would expect to find a better
developed root system in the sandy as compared with the clayey soil.
Every farmer knows that this is so. A well aerated soil and a good
root system go together, as do also a poorly aerated soil and a feeble
root system.

Much can be done by skilful tillage and management to improve
the air supply of the finest types of soil ; the skilful husbandman is
able to cause the finest particles of this class of soil to coalesce, the
compound particles so formed then behaving much like the coarser
sand particles. Calcium and magnesium carbonates are also able to
bring about this desirable coalescence of the clay particles; that is
another reason why " carbonates " figure in the mechanical analysis
of the soil ; the more carbonates the soil contains, the more clay it
may contain and yet be tillable.

It will be obvious that the more extensive the root system, the
better able will the plant be to obtain the food it requires from the
soil. We shall see later that this means that less percentages of
food suffice in the case of sandy soils than are necessary in the case
of clayey soils.

If an animal be shut up in an air-tight box, it would not die
immediately, but as soon as it had used up the oxygen of the air
in the box (or, to be correct, a part of it only) it would die from
suffocation. A plant will die from suff'ocation if the air supply
available to its roots is sufficiently restricted.

This sometimes happens in practice when a growing crop is
submerged for too long a period, either in a natural way or by
irrigation.

Not only is it necessary to avoid the condition described in the
preceding paragraph, it is also necessary for best results to keep the
water supply in the soil below a certain limit.

According to King* ideal conditions exist in the soil when of
a cubic foot (= 100 per cent.) 44.24 per cent, consists of solid par-
ticles, 33.63 per cent, of air, and 22.13 per cent, of water. A larger
proportion of water than that means a deficient air supply. These
figures are not quoted with a view to suggesting that the farmer
can maintain such conditions in his soil, but rather to point out that
too much water is as much to be guarded against as a deficiency.

Soils that in their natural state contained so much water (and
therefore so little air) as to be useless ft)r the growth of crops have
frequently been made highly productive through drainage which
removes and prevents the subsequent accummulation of excess water.

We have seen that air supply is a very important factor in plant
growth, and further that it is influenced by the mechanical composi-
tion of the soil, tillage, and water supply.

Since the air requirements of crops vary a good deal, the
mechanical analysis of the soil is to be regarded as an aid in deciding

* F. H. King, " Soil Management."

Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province. 433

for what crops a particular soil is suited ; crops wliicli require good
aeration cannot be grown on soils whose particles consist mainly of
clay and silt.

Wate7' Supply. — Water is to plant growth what a mainspring is
to a watch ; it is that which sets the processes of growth in motion
and keeps them going. All crops need laige quantities of water,
some more than others, and they obtain all of it from the soil through
their roots. Provided the amount of water in the soil is not so great
as to interfere with the air supply, the crop yield, other things being
equal, will be proportional to the water supply.

Not only must a certain quantity of water be available to the
crop; it must be there when the crop needs it. Spells of drought are
always liable to reduce crop yields, especially at certain critical
periods of growth, as at the flowering stage.

A farmer can, therefore, only depend on the rainfall to supply
the moisture factor when rains are sufficiently abundant and
frequent. Given one and the same rainfall, however, soils of different
types absorb and retain it to very different degrees.

■ Even violent rains are absorbed completely by sandy soils, but
th^re would be a very considerable run-off in the case of the finest
types of soil, because water can only penetrate a soil as quickly as
air escapes from it.

On the other hand, sandy soils have very little power of retain-
ing rainfall,, so that much of which falls escapes as drainage. Clay
soil, however, has very great power to retain water, and is therefore
in this respect a more desirable type of soil than a sand. Since
water sinks into a clay soil much slower than into a sand, the latter
type of soil is ready for ploughing after rain much sooner than the
clay, and because the latter type of soil remains wet at the surface
longer there is a greater loss of moisture from it through evaporation.

Coarse sandy soils have very little power to lift water, so that
although there may be ground water at no great depth, the sand
above it may be quite dry. Clays, on the other hand, have very great
water lifting power, but the water ascends very slowly ; so slowly in
the case of heavy clays that crops growing on them may suffer
severely in times of drought, although there is plenty of moisture
in the lower levels of the soil.

It is evident that both sands and clays have good as well as bad
points. Neither type is a good one for farming on rainfall. The
ideal soil for that purpose is one in which water moves readily up,
down, and sideways, and one which, at the same time, is able to
absorb and retain a fair amount of the rain that falls upon it. Since
it is the finest particles which ar^ responsible chiefly for the ability
of the soil to retain moisture, and since these same particles are
responsible for its water lifting power, for the slowness of movement
of water in it, and for its slow absorbing properties, the ideal soil
will be one which contains enough fine particles to make it retentive,
yet not enough seriously to impede the movements of water in it.
Such soils are the loams, particularly the fine sandy loams, a type
of soil which contains from 10 to 15 per cent, of clay.

The mechanical analysis of the soil, by indicating the propor-
tions of fine to coarse particles, therefore assists one in forming an
opinion as to the water properties of it.

It will be noted that " humus " figures in the mechanical
analysis. Humus is even more retentive of moisture than clay, and

434 JOUENAL OP THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

generally speaking its properties with reference fo the moisture condi-
tions of the soil are similar to those of clay, excepting that it does
not usually hinder the movement of water to anything like the same
degree; indeed, humus, by causing the clay i)articles to aggregate,
assists the movement of water in clay soils. A good humus content
is invaluable in sandy soils, as it tends to bind the particles together
as well as to increase the moisture-holding capacity of the soil.

Reference to the mechanical analyses Vvill show that in some
cases figures relating to the permeability of the soil to water are
given. By permeability is meant the rate at which water passes
downwards through the soil. These figures are to be regarded as
■complementary to the figures which give the proportions of various
sizes of particles, but which do not indicate to what extent the
particles are aggregated.

Plate V.

Showing the effect of a deficient food supply on the crop and the effect produced
by applying the deficient food substance to the soil.

The mealies are growing on a virgin soil derived from the Molteno Beds.
Where the growth is poor no manure was applied ; but where the growth
is fair a phosphatic manure had been sown with the seed.

The importance of water in plant growth will be manifest from
the following four points: —

1. All plants contain considerably more water than any other

substance. For example, about 90 per cent, of a mangel
consists of water.

2. The presence of water in its tissues prevents the sun from

drying it up and thereby killing it.

3. It forms the vehicle by which the plant obtains its food

from the soil and thereafter distributes it throughout its
tissues.

4. It plays a very great part, directly and indirectly, in the

preparation of the food substances which the plant obtains
from the soil.

Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province. 4ii5

It is evident that the importance of water to plant life is diflficult
to over-estimate, especially in this country of ours where the rainfall
is both uncertain and light.

Food Supply. — If crop yields are consistently poor the farmer
more often than not ascribes the bad yields to a deficient food supply
in the soil. Sometimes he is right, but just as often wrong, for
food supply is only one of several factors whose presence is necessary
to plant growth. Before attributing bad yields to a lack of food,
one should always make certain that none of the other factors is
wanting.

Doubtless there are many instances on record in which soils have
been deficient in plant food right from the start, also in which the
supply of food has seriously diminished owing to long continued
cultivation. Many also are the instances in which the yields of
crops have been considerably increased by the addition to the soil
of one or more plant foods.

It will have been gathered that there is more than one kind of
plant food; as a matter of fact there are at least a dozen kinds. Of
the foodstuffs required by plants one, i.e. carbondioxide, is obtained
from the atmosphere. The plant takes this gas in through microscopical
openings on its leaves, from which one may reasonably conclude that
good leaf development is essential to good yields. The rest of the
food substances are taken from the soil through the roots. There
are, however, no openings on roots comparable to those on leaves
through wdiich the plant takes its food from the soil ; but the food
enters the plant by its roots. These latter are constructed of material
which allows water to pass through it, carrying with it substances
(including food substances) which it has dissolved from the soil. No
matter how finely substances are divided .they cannot pass through
the roots of a plant unless they are soluble in water and are actually
dissolved in it.

Water is therefore rightly regarded as the vehicle Oy which food
is transported from the soil to the plant. It therefore follows that
if the water factor is deficient, so must the food factor be in effect;
also that no benefit can be expected from the artificial increase of
the food supply (manuring) until the defect in the water factor has
been remedied.

It should, however, be stated here that, given two soils identical
in every respect, except that the one contains plenty of all kinds of
available plant food, the other being somewhat deficient in that
respect, the former will produce crops at a less water cost than the
latter. This means that up to a point an abundant food supply
economizes the water supply.

It was stated higher up that no plant food substance can enter
the roots of a plant unless it be first dissolved in the water of the soil.
Now, only a very small fraction of the plant food substances in the
soil are soluble in water; that is, almost the whole quantity ie
insoluble and therefore unavailable for immediate use by the plant.
Consequent on these facts, two groups of food substances are
recognized in the soil, i.e. —

(a) Dormant or unavailable food substances.

(b) Water-soluble or available food substances.

436 JOUKNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The chemical analysis of the soil is usually designed to furnish
the percentages of (a) + (b) ; hardly ever is it attempted to give
particulars regarding (b), owing to manipulative difficulties.
Frequently, however, an analysis furnishes figures which, on the
average, indicate whether there is a sufficiency or not of water-
soluble plant food in the soil, i.e. figures showing the percentages of
plant food which can be extracted from the soil by means of a weak
acid solution, such as a 1 per cent, solution of the acid of lemons,
i.e. citric acid.

The analyses of this report give the figures for (a) + (6), and
the percentages of potash and phosphoric oxide extractable by a 1
per cent, solution of citric acid, called " available " in the analysis.

It may be asked with fairness, " Why give the figures for (a)
+ (?;) at all?" This is hardly the place to discuss the matteii,
except to say that the figures for (a) + (b) represent the " capital "
of the soil in plant food, and that of this " capital " a very small
percentage becomes available year by year. Naturally, the larger the
" capital," the greater the output of available plant food to be
expected, although the expected does not always happen.

The output of " available " plant food is governed by the action
on the dormant plant food of those several natural processes which
are grouped together under the term " weathering."

Anything that increases the intensity of the weathering processes
in the soil increases the output of available plant food. The benefits
derivable from thorough tillage are to be attributed in no small degree
to the increased " weathering " effect thereby produced.

Further, by many comparisons of crop yields with the amounts
of dormant plant food in the soil, it has been possible to arrive at
certain standards of sufficiency and deficiency which, provided other
conditions are normal, afford a useful guide.

Some dormant food substances become available less readily than
others, however, a fact which sometimes leads to wrong deductions
when the chemical analysis gives figures for (a) + (b) only ; likewise
also if the dormant plant food in a soil becomes available at a faster
rate than usual. The geological origin of the soil and the figures
obtained by extracting the soil with a 1 per cent, solution of citric
acid afford a useful check in such cases ; how useful will be apparent
when we come to consider the analytical figures for the Paarden-
verlies soils.

It is now necessary to come to closer grips with the actual food
substances the plant takes from the soil. Since of the large number
required only three (one or more), are ever likely to be present in
deficient amount, the discussion will be limited to these three only.
They are suitable compounds of phosphorus, of nitrogen, and of
potassium. For convenience these compounds figure in the analysis
as phosphoric oxide, nitrogen, and potash; it must, hoicever, be
reviemhered that it is alioays " compounds " of these substances
which are being dealt ivith.

Nitrogen. — Nitrogen is that food element whose effect is seen
particularly in the foliage, etc. AVith a deficient nitiogen supply
there is poor, sometimes yellowish, growth ; if the nitrogen supply is
adequate the foliage is abundant and of a bright healthy green
colour; while, if the nitrogenous supply is excessive, the growth is
rank, slow to ripen, does not seed well, and is particularly susceptible

Agriculture and Soils op the Cape Province. 437

to attacks by disease and insect pests. The nitrogen factor would
not appear to be deficient in our average soil ; on the other hand, it
is doubtless often excessive.

Phosphoric Oxide. — Suitable compounds of phosphoric oxide
exert a very beneficial effect on root development and on tillering
(stooling). Its effect in this respect is particularly marked on soils
of poor aeration ; not so much on sandy soils. An abundant supply
of phosphatic food shortens the period necessary for the plant to come
to maturity, and, when this food factor is deficient in comparison
with nitrogen, artificial additions result in a considerable increase in
the yields of tubers to top, seed to straw, etc.

Furtherj an adequate supply of phosphatic food produces crops
of much higher feeding value than if the supply is inadequate.

The average soils of the Union would seem to be more deficient
in phosphatic food than in any other.

Potash. — Potassium is that food element which is responsible for
the " filling out " of grain. Other factors being normal, an
inadequate supply of potash leads to grain of dull appearance,
" thin " and often of low germinating vitality. A plentiful supply
of potash tends to keep the plant growing in droughty times, and
confers on the plant a greater resistance to certain diseases.

Potatoes, beet, mangels, and tobacco are among the crops which
require more potash than is usually found in average soil.

Rectifying Deficiencies in Food Supply. — If the food supply is
deficient, matters may be improved by adding substances called
manures or fertilizers to the soil.

Manures are substances which add water-soluble food substances
to the soil or food substances which, when added to the soil, become
readily soluble in the soil water. Superphosphate is an example of
a water-soluble phosphatic manure, while basic slag and bone, if
ground to a sufficient degree of fineness, are examples of phosphatic
manures which are not water-soluble, but which become readily
water-soluble when applied to the soil. Nitrate of soda and
ammonium sulphate are examples of water-soluble nitrogenous
fertilizers, blood and meat meal being insoluble, but becoming readily
soluble in the soil. Sulphate of potash is a water-soluble potassic
fertilizer, as are also certain plant ashes. These latter are, however,
not generally usable owing to the fact that under certain conditions
(deficient rainfall among them) their use would introduce a harmful
factor, as well as food, into the soil.

Kraal manure, stable manure, Government guano, and bat guano
are examples of fertilizers which supply all three food substances, and
all of them contain water-soluble and water-insoluble food substances.
Further, the amounts of plant-food substances present in these
manures are not well balanced ; phosphatic food substance, in which
our soils are most deficient, is also most deficient in these fertilizers.

Manures are not to be used in any haphazzard fashion ; the
correct choice depends not only on soil conditions, but also on the
crop it is desired to grow and on climatic conditions. There is no
such thing as a "best" fertilizer; what is best in one case may be
worst in another.

The reader having perused the above sketch of factors in plant
growth should now be able to appreciate the discussion of the
analytical figures.

438

Journal op the Department of agriculture.

Table /.
Analysis of Soils from, Paardenverlies .

No. 612.
Zandbult.

Mechanical Analysis.

Colour

Fine earth, below 1 mm.

Coarse sand, 1-0-2 mm.

Fine sand, 0-2-0 -04 mm.

Silt, 0-04-0-01 mm.

Fine silt, 0-01-0-002 mm

Clay, below 0-002 mm. ..,

Soluble in N/5 Hydrochloric acid

Reaction to Litmus

Carbonates...

Humus

Loss on Ignition ...

Moisture

Permeability to water ...

Chemical Ajialyxin
Nitrogen

Insoluble inorganic residue
Lime

Magnesia ...
Potash

"Available" Potash
Phosphoric Oxide...
"Available" Phosphoric Oxide .

Light reddish
brown.
Per Cent.
100
21-24
54-63
3
3

• 66
•9

11-75
0-56

Acid.
Nil.
1-93
3-2
0-83
3-35

0-08
?8-C.
0-35
0-24
0 - 40
0-006
0-053
0-003

Dark reddish
brown.
Per Cent.
100
15-25
46-41
10-95
9-39
11-82
0-67
Acid.
0-005
1-96
3 • 5
0-82
0 • 53

O-ll
88-2
0-28
0-20
0-57
0-032
0-048
0-013

No. 614.

Under
Dolerite

Ridge.

Black.

Per Cent.
100

8-38
33-06
14-08
16-07
19-95

0-71
Acid.

0-005

3-6

5 • 5

1-96

0 - 34

0-1.-)
83-7
0-53
O-.oO
0-47
0-033
0-100
0-018

Discussion of Analytical Results.

Particulars of the analytical processes by which the above results
were obtained will form an appendix to this report.

Mechanical Analysis.
Tlie analysis shows that the soil particles have been sorted out
into five groups, i.e. —

(1) Coarse sand, 1.0.2 mm.

(2) Fine sand, 0.2-0.04 mm.

(3) Silt, 0. 04-0. 01 mm.

(4) Fine silt. 0.01-0.002 mm.

(5) Clay, below 0.002 mm.

The figures which immediately follow the group name indicate
the diameter of the particles in the group. For example, coarse
sand, 1-0.2 mm., means that the diameter of particles classed as
coarse sand varies between one millimetre* and 0.2 millimetre.

A few words concerning the principal properties of the various
groups will not be out of place.

It has already been indicated that the clay particles are the
finest, the sand particles the coarsest, and the silt particles inter-
mediate in size, also that the properties of the various particles

One millimetre is roughly ^^^ of an inch.

Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province. 439

depend largely on their size. The coarsest particles (viz., coarse
sand) are roughly the very opposite in properties to the finest (viz.,
clay), as will be apparent from the following parallel comparison: —

Clay. Coarse Sand.

The individual particles are invisible The particles are plainly visible to-

to the eye, even when aided by the unaided eye.

the most powerful microscope.

When rubbed with water clay be- Does not become sticky or impervi-

comes very sticky and impervious. ous under similar treatment.

Clay is very plastic when moist, that Coarse sand can be moulded into

is, it can be moulded into shapes ; shapes when wet, but the particles

these shapes are retained when fall apart as soon as the moisture

the clay dries and even when it evaporates, viz., the particles have

is fired. Clay particles therefore no cohesion except when wet»

possess the property of cohesive- Thus coarse sand tends to keep

ness to a high degree. Clay in the the soil open and powdery.

soil binds the particles together —

into clods if the soil has been

badly worked, into granules or

crumbs if properly tilled.

When dry clay is wetted it swells No such changes take place with

and gives out heat. On drying coarse sand when similarly

again it contracts. [A soil which treated.

contains much clay cracks open

when it dries out.]

Clay impedes the movements of air Coarse sand permits of the free

and water. movement of air and water.

Clay retains much water. Coarse sand retains very little water.

. Fine sand unlike coarse possesses cohesiveness ; the particles of
this group tend to cake together. If a soil contains very much fine
sand it usually "crusts " after irrigation or rain. Its power to retain
water is only slightly better than that of coarse sand.

Silt is a very valuable constituent of soils; while fine enough to
retard, it does not prevent the ready movement of water; it retains
a fair quantity of water and possesses the power of lifting water well
by the so-called capillary action.

Fine silt has great water-retaining power ; it is, however, neither
so impervious nor so plastic as clay. Fine silt hinders the movement
of water and air in the soil and is a valuable constituent provided
the soil contains little clay; should, however, the soil contain much
clay, the presence of fine silt only serves to accentuate its undesirable
physical properties.

Hiimus possesses many properties similar to those of clay"; for
example, it is highly retentive of moisture, it expands when wetted
and it is very efficacious in binding particles of sand together, also
particles of clay. Humus therefore improves the physical properties
of both sands and clays.

Carhonates.— Under this head are included carbonate of lime
and carbonate of magnesia. Both these substances are grouped
together because their effect on the physical properties of the soil is
similar. These carbonates have a veiy beneficial effect in making clay
soils easier to work, owing to the fact that they dissolve in the soil
water to a sufficient extent to produce a granulating or flocculating
eft'ect on clay. Chemically these two carbonates act in the direction

440 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

of preventing the soil from becoming acid or of correcting acidity, if
such has already developed.

Coming to the analytical features of the samples, it is found
that No. 612 contains a moderate quantity of clay, little fine silt and
silt, much fine and much coarse sand; viz., it contains much material
which allows of but little which prevents the movement of air and
water. The soil should therefore be one of high permeability ; the
figure (3.35) in Table I shows that such is actually the case. Owing
to the large percentage of fine sand (55 per cent.), this soil would
probably harden at the surface on drying. No. 613 contains less of
both grades of sand, the same amount of clay and about three times
as much fine silt and silt; viz., the soil contains considerably less
material which facilitates and more which hinders the movements
of air and water. These facts find reflection in the analysis which
gives the permeability as 0.53, or only one-sixth of that of No. 612.

Apart from permeability, owing to the high percentage of coarse
particles in No. 612, the soil must be of low retentive power, both
as regards moisture and plant food, while No. 613 with its higher
percentage of finer particles will be raore retentive. One would
deduce from the analysis that No. 613 is the more desirable of the
two, and that 612, unless it be underlain by a more retentive sub-soil,
would be Jikely to suffer from drought unless the rains fell frequently.

We shall see presently that from the chemical point of view, No.

613 is also the better soil.

In No. 614, both clay and silt are considerably higher than in
either of the preceding samples, and both coarse and fine sand are
considerably less. The further fall in permeability shown by the
analysis is therefore understandable ; one might, indeed, have
expected an even greater fall were it not that No. 614 contains about
twice as much humus as No. 613, the effect of humus being to keep
the clay soil in a granulated condition (vide svpra).

The higher percentages of finest particles and of humus in No.

614 make it a more retentive soil than No. 613, much more retentive
■than No. 612.

In wet seasons, if such are ever experienced in the Witkop
district. No. 614 would probably retain too much Avater; No. 612 no
more than sufficient. In average seasons, crops might suffer from
drought on No. 614, because that soil would be likely not to absorb
a sufficiency of the rainfall, while No. 612 would also carrj^ too little
moisture, because it has no great power of retention. No. 613, by
absorbing fairly well and retaining well what it absorbs, would prob-
ably be in a position in an average season to supply crops better with
moisture than either of the others.

*A1] three soils are deficient in carbonates and are acid; that is,
they contain a harmful factor.

Chemical Analysis.

Nitrogen. — No. 614 contains twice as much nitrogen as No. 612,
No. 613 occupying an intermediate position. So far as our experience
goes, the nitrogen supply would seem to be ample in all cases.

Lime. — In no case does the supply of lime appear inadequate
for food pui'poses. Note that the soil in No. 614 derived from the
dolerite-c?pped sandstone ridge is the richest in lime.

Magnesia. — The remarks under " lime " apply here also. Note
also that the mechanical analysis returns the amount of carbonates

Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province. 441

(viz., lime and magnesia carbonates) as nil in the case of No. 612,
and a mere trace in the other two cases.

Potash. — The figures for potash are similar in all cases and
appear to indicate sufficiency; but they represent "capital" and
not "available." The "available" potash is ample only in No.
613 and No. 614 ; No. 612 contains only about one-fifth of the
" available " potash contained by the other two soils, and is doubt-
less deficient in that respect.

Phosphoiic Oxide. — No. 614 is well provided with this plant-food
substance, and a fair proportion of it is available. The amounts of
phosphoric oxide in Nos. 612 and 613 are low, but it should be noted
that No. 613 contains much more "available" phosphoric oxide
than No. 612 and nearly as much as No. 614. No. 613 contains a
fair quantity of " available " phosphoric oxide, while No. 612 is
deficient.

It is evident from the foregoing discussion that whether judged
by the chemical or by the mechanical analysis, soil No. 612 is
decidedly inferior to either No. 613 or No. 614.

Recommendations.

No. 612. — This soil is deficient in carbonates, in "available"
potash and in " available " phosphoric oxide. The soil is also of
low retentiveness. The first-mentioned deficiency can be corrected
by the application of finely ground limestone. The deficiencies in
plant food would be best met by the application of a suitable manure,
as, for instance, a mixture of 250 lb. bone dust and 2000 lb. kraal
manure (dry sifted material), these quantities being sufficient for a
morgen for ordinary crops.

Green manuring is recommended for the purpose of increasing
the amount of humus in the soil, as this would make the soil more
retentive, thereby improving the moisture factor.

The mechanical composition of this soil would indicate that it is
more suitable for potatoes than No. 613 on which that crop is grown.
This would doubtless be the case were the seasons such that the crop
did not suffer from want of moisture, and provided the farmer would
supply the deficient plant food. Should it be attempted to grow
potatoes on this land, the alx)ve-mentioned mixture should be applied
to half a morgen, and the kraal manure could be doubled in quantity
with advantage.

No. 613 would benefit by green manuring, the application of
bone dust, and of agricultural lime. Good tillage would also prove
of greatest benefit. The soil is, perhaps, rather fine in texture for
potatoes. No. 612 being the more desirable type; but what it loses
in that respect it more than gains over No. 612 by its other
superiorities.

No. 614 requires good tillage more than anything else, and it
would probably benefit from a dressing of agricultural lime. It is a
rather heavy soil, and would appear to be well suited to wheat. Light
dressings of superphosphate or dissolved bones at seeding time would
doubtless improve the root development of crops and through that
the yields.

[Further instalments will be published in subsequent issues of the
, Journal. ]

4:42 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY.

A Movement to Promote Greater and more Economic

Prodviction.

The insistent and universal demand for greater agricultural produc-
tion brings into prominence one of tlie chief iactors which will enable
the world's producers to cope a\ itli the call for more foodstuff — the
extended and intellig-ent use of agricultural machinery. It is common
knowledge that with the passing of the years there has taken place a
perceptible improvement in the various classes of machinery designed
to aid the agriculturist, and labour-saving devices have steadily come
into use. But agricultural machinery does not yet occupy the place
it should in the economy of the farm, due chiefly, no doubt, to cheap-
ness of labour and also to a measure of conservatism usual to the fann-
ing industry which moves deliberately where any change from farming
methods of the past is concerned. It must be admitted, however,
that the employment of agricultural machinery is fraught with many
problems to the farmer. There are numerous classes and types of
machinery on the market, and to a large extent the farmer is dependent
upon the advice of the implement manufacturer or his agent in select-
ing any machine or implement he may be thinking of l)uying. It is
true that he may ha^se the advice of his neighbours or of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, and may have had the opportunity of seeing* the
particular machine or implement at work, but notwithstanding these
aids, it is the experience of many farmers that they have often pur-
chased machinery of little use to them, being of a type unsuitable
perhaps to the locality, and agriculture has suffered as a consequence.
Another cause retarding the more extended and efficient use of labour-
aiding appliances to-day, is the lack of skilled workers. Owing to
the facilities for raising and feeding oxen, and the use of native
labour, South Africa has not hitherto felt a pressing need for certain
classes of machinery, the adoption of which has consequently been
slow.

The war has brought about a change in the attitude of many
farmers, especially those in older countries, towards the use of
machinery, one of the chief causes of this new outlook being the
shortage of labour and the advance in the wages of farm workers.
Alive to the altered conditions, the pressing need for increased pro-
duction, and the great importance which the use of agricultural
machinery and implements will hold in the future develoj^ment of
agriculture, the Ministry of Ag-riculture and Fisheries, London,
appointed a Committee to iuquire into the many phases of the subject,
and we have before us a copy of the Committee's report* dealing

* Report of the Departmental Committee on Agricultural Machinery (Ministry of
Agriculture and Fisheries), obtainable from His Majesty's Stationery Office, London.
Price Is. net (No. Cmd. 506). " ,

Development of Agricultural Machinery. 443

particularly with advice as to the further steps which should be taken
to promote the development of agricultural machinery.

The future prosperity of the Union is subject largely to the exten-
sion of its agricultural activities and the magnitude of any forward
movement in the development of our resources will depend in a great
measure on the proper and increased use of agricultural machinery
by our farmers. Therefore the subject of the inquiry referred to above
is of undoubted interest to the farmer of South Africa, and we give
the following few extracts of the report, being recouimendations of
the Committee for adoption in the British Isles, which will outline the
trend of the movement there, and may be of special application to our
country.

Testing. — The committee recommends : " That provision should
be made by the Ministry of Agriculture for the thorough testing of
agricultural machines and implements, and for the publication of the
results." It is further recommended that a permanent organization
be set up for the fulfilment of the above aims, and that any manufac-
turer or agent should have the right to submit for testing and report
any machinery or implement already on sale or ready for sale. It
should be a condition that the results of all tests be published and
accessible to all persons interested. Any authorized person submitting
a machine for test should have the privilege of obtaining any sugges-
tions for possible irnprovements which, may have occurred to the
officers making the test.

These test conditions sliould be of as M'ide a range as possible.
For example, tractors and ploughs might i)e under continuous test for
a period little less than a year, whereas for a binder probably six or
seven weeks would suffice. Field tests should be supplemented by
laboratory and workshop tests, and the whole should be so devised as
to enable the report to include a precise specification of the machine,
its qualities and actual performance under the conditions recorded.

After expressing the opinion tliat the above work could not suit-
ably be undertaken by the universities or by a public association of
persons inteiested in agricultural engineering, tlie committee goes on
to recommend that the Ministry of Agriculture itself should undertake
the work, and 'that a Central Advisory Committee to the Ministry be
appointed with representation by the agricultural engineering trade,
and agriculture, and containing also a small official element. The
actual worl; of testing sliould be in th(^ hands of qualified technical
officers.

As a Ijeginniiig:, it is proposed to use the facilities existing at
Agricultural Institutions, or any other that can be made available
elsewhere. At a later date a special testing station may be necessary.

Trials. — The committee recommends that State recognition should
be given to properly conducted trials of agricultural machinery
•organized by Agricultural Societies or Trade Associations.

Inventions. — The Ministry of Agriculture should provide for
advice to inventors of new ag-ricultural machines and implements, and
for assistance in selected cases in the preparation of drawings, work-
ing models, or experimental machines.

Inforinaiion. — The Ministr\' of Agriculture should establish an
information bureau for the collection, classification, and collation of
information relating to agricultural machinery and implements.

•44-!: Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Education. — Instruction in the principles of mechanics and in their
practical application to agriculture should be given to youtlis above the
age of fourteen. By means of short courses and extension lectures the
needs of farmers and specialized workers who require more than a
general knowledge of agricultural machinery could probably be met,
and local authorities should be encouraged to provide instruction in
such subjects as tractor driving and mechanics, and the principles of
internal combustion engines.

The committee recognize the difficulty in securing efficient instruc-
tors. The type of instructor required is a combination of the engineer
and the agriculturist. Instruction in engineering, including work-
shop practice, should form the basis of his training, and should be
followed by instruction in agriculture.

Agricultural machinery should be given a more prominent place-
in the curricula of agricultural colleges and farm institutes, and in.
the case of the former there should be attached to the staff at least
one specialist whose whole time would be available for teaching and
advisory work on this subject.

Further, there should be available at each institution besides the
machinery and implements used on the farm, a well-equipped
machinery workshop, and an exhibition of the principal typos of
machines and implements on the market.

Advice and Propaganda. — Expert advice on. the subject of agri-
cultural machinery should be provided in all counties, and the
Ministry of Agriculture should encourage and co-ordinate demonstra-
tions of agricultural machinery in every county or area. Local
lectures illustrated by the lantern and kinematograph should be
encouraged, and for this purpose lantern slides and kinematograph
films, illustrating the use and care of agricultural implements and
machines, might be provided by the Ministry of 'Vgriculture.

As to propaganda, ihe committee is of opinion that nothing
promises such success as demonstrations conducted by persons of known
impartiality and adequate technical knowledge. But not everything
can be demonstrated, and there is also need of the above-mentioned
lectures with kinema and Inntern, and well-chosen and attractive
posters and pamphlets. These, in turn, may be sujiplemented by
attractively written and illustrated articles supplied to the local press-

Plant Nurseries in Quarantine for Pests.

The nurseries listed in the last two issues of the Journal
(pages 287 and 348) were still in quarantine on the 1st July, 1920^
with the exception of the following, which have been released: —

E. Krohn, Esselen Street, Pretoria,

J. H. Laubscher, Graaft-Heinet.

Botanic Gardens, Graaft'-Reinet.

Keep your Journals I The contents, will be indexed every six
months and a copy of the index sent to each subscriber.

Rodent Injury to Trees. 445

RODENT INJURY TO TREES.

Cause, Prevention, and Repair.

By W. r. ScHLUPP, B.Sc. (Agr.), Entomologist, School of
Agriculture and Experiment Station, Potchefstroom, Transvaal.

Rodent injury to trees is of frequent occurrence in certain parts of
the Union. In this article the various ways and means of dealing
with the problem are discussed. The farmer or fruit grower can
select the method best suited to his own particular case.

The trees most commonly injured are those of the orchard, but
occasionally shade trees and plantations are damaged. This article
deals principally with the protection of fruit trees, but some of the
methods described are adaptable in other cases.

The rodents responsible for the damage are hares, field mice and
rats. In addition to rodents, small antelopes sometimes do much
injury.

Cause of Rodent Injury. — The damage is nearly always done in
winter and spring, and the immediate cause is a lack of green plants
and other food. However, in most of the cases that have come to the
notice of the writer the primary cause has been neglect of the
orchard. By allowing a rank growth of grass and weeds to spring
up, favourable conditions for rodents are produced ; the vegetation
affording the animals a shelter from hawks, owls, and other natural
enemies

Preventive Measures. — The best preventive measure is clean
cultivation. By this we mean keeping the orchard free of weeds,
etc., during the dry season, as it is in dry winters and springs that
the trees are generally attacked. During the wet summer season a
cover crop may be grown, but at the end of the rainy season this,
should be ploughed under and not allowed to remain on the ground
over winter. Grass and other vegetation growing around trees should
be destroyed. In addition to sheltering rodents, rank vegetation may
sometimes increase the chance of damage by insects and fungi.

When all that is desired is protection of the trees from a few
rodents that occasionally enter the orchard, the winter prunings are
sometimes left lying on the ground until spring, in order that the-
animals may feed upon these instead of upon the trees. A few
cabbages, mangels, etc., could also be placed about the orchard. This
is sometimes successful in preventing injury, but is only a com-
promise measure and may at times result in attracting a few more
rodents to the vicinity.

Fencing. — Rat and mouse proof fences are practically out of the
question. For hares, poultry netting with l^-inch meshes is suitable.
A height of 3 feet is suggested, although 2| feet or even 2 feet would

16

446

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

probably be sufficient. Fencing against rabbits has been practised
over immense areas in Australia, and to a less extent in Europe and
America, but the present high price of material will prevent any
extensive use of it in South Africa. For buck, a high and fairly
rigid fence is required.

Mechanical Protectors for Fruit Trees.

Mechanical protection is particularly adapted for small trees. It
consists in enclosing the trunks in some suitable material. The
practice that obtains in some farm orchards of allowing sprouts to
grow from near the surface of the soil, thus forming two or three
trunks instead of one, is objectionable from several standpoints, and
renders the use of protectors difficult.

Plate 1 illustrates the use of different materials. Beginning on
the left of the picture, these materials are : (a) Wire-netting, (h)
maize stalks, (c) bagging, (d) paper.

(ij) Wire-Netting.

L'LATE

(h) Maize Stalks.

(<0 Bagging

Photo by Ca-poini
(rf) Paper.

Wire-netting. — Galvanized netting is suitable. A piece wide
enough to encircle the trunk very loosely (a piece about 1 foot wide is
used for a small tree) is cut and bent to form a cylinder, and, after
being placed in position is secured by twisting together the projecting
ends of the wire. Stakes may be used to prevent the cylinders from
being pressed against the tree trunk.

One-inch mesh will protect the trees against hares, but a mesh
sufficiently small to keep out mice should always be used, if it can

Rodent Injury to Trees. 447

be obtained. Even wire mosquito gauze can be used, but it is less
durable than netting made from larger wire.

Maize Stalks. — Dry stalks are cut into suitable lengths and bound
around the trunk. Unless the tree is perfectly straight, considerable
trouble is experienced in getting them to fit properly. Splitting the
stalks sometimes solves this difficulty. Reeds may be used as a sub-
stitute. Stalks and reeds furnish excellent protection and the
material costs nothing, but they often prove rather expensive if the
labour is taken into consideration.

Bagging. — This is a good material for use. Rodents do not gnaw
through it; and in the case of large trees, or trees with branching
trunks, protectors made of this material are practically the only ones
tliat can be put in position easily. A few old bags are generally
available on the farm, and others that will serve the object, such as
old coal bags, can often be obtained at a cheap rate.

Faqjer. — Any strong paper, with the exception of that contain-
ing tar, will answer the purpose and will generally prove satisfactory
as a wrapping material, provided, of course, that a proper thickness
is used. It is said that in countries where the ground lies covered
with snow for a long period rabbits will tear through paper, but hares
are not so pressed here by hunger.

With regard to the comparative merit of the different materials,
the netting has the most to recommend it. The cylinders can be put
on the trees when the latter are small and left on until the trees are
large; whereas protectors made from the other materials must bej
removed each summer, otherwise there is danger of insects and fungi
finding shelter under them and injuring the tree.

RErELLEXT Sprays.

In the United States of America lime-sulphur sprajs have been
found to be of considerable value in protecting trees from the attack
of rodents. Their weak point is that the effect does not last through-
out a season. However, as a precautionary measure late winter oi^
early spring spraying with lime-sulphur can be recommended, as, in
addition to having some value as a repellent for rodents, it is one
of the very best " general winter clean-up sprays " known. It is
fairly effective against most kinds of scale insects, helps to prevent
the development of fungous diseases, and has an invigorating effect
upon the tree.

To prepare lime-sulphur spray, heat 5 gallons of water, and to
this slowly add 10 lb. of quicklime. Mix 20 lb. of sulphur to a thin
paste with a little water, and stir it into the lime while the latter is
still slaking. Add 5 gallons of water and boil until the sulphur is all
dissolved, stirring continually. Add water when necessary, keeping
the quantity in the cooking vessel up to 10 gallons. Boiling generally
takes from 45 minutes to 1 hour. When cooking is completed, strain
the liquid, add enough water to make 50 gallons of spray, and use.
If there is doubt as to the purity of the lime, or if slaked lime is
used, the quantity should be increased to 15 or 20 lb. Reliable brands
of ready prepared lime-sulphur can be purchased in shops, eitheu
in a concentrated liquid form or as a dry powder.

448 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Repellent Washes.

Repellent washes can be recommended, but it must be
remembered that they are not absolutely infallible ; occasionally they
fail to save the trees from injury. They are applied to the trunks
with a brush, and deter animals from gnawing the bark because of
an objectionable taste or odour. A great variety of substances are
used. Some are without any real value, but others are distinctly
useful and generally fulfil their purpose.

Aloes and other bitter substances do not afford sufficient protec-
tion, as many rodents do not object to bitterness.

Coal-tar dips, carbolic acid, etc., lose their effectiveness very
quickly, and have to be renewed at short intervals. Moreover, if used
too strong thej will injure tender young tissue. They cannot be
recommended, except perhaps for emergency use.

Stockholm tar and coal-tar, though effective, should not be used,
as they are very injurious to young trees. The effect does not always
show at once. In the writer's experiments, tar preparations w^ere
applied during the last week of August, 1918, to seedling peach trees
about the thickness of the thumb. The trees came into leaf and
showed no injury for several weeks, but they died before autumn.
Young shoots were killed very quickly. Even tarred roofing paper
is said to produce severe injury to young trees.

Limewash has some merit, but it is not so effective as certain
other washes, and it does not stick well. Salt is sometimes added to
make it more adhesive, but on the farm Turffontein, Welverdiend,
where it was tried, the hares injured the treated trees badly. The
salt seemed to att^-act the rodents. The addition of soot does not appear
to make much difference in effectiveness. Carbide lime soon loses
its characteristic odour, and does not seem to be very much superior
to ordinary lime. The Minnesota Station recommends that limewash
be coloured a deep blue by the addition of copper sulphate (blue-
stone), but, as will be seen later, such a wash did not prove to be
very adhesive at Potchefstroom.

Blood has given very good results against hares. Judging by
the antipathy that cattle have for it, blood should also be an excellent
thing for use when fruit trees are attacked by buck. Probably the
effectiveness could be increased by mixing it with water in which a
little glue is dissolved, in order to make it more adhesive. If the
trees are to be protected from mice, blood must not be used, as it
attracts these pests instead of repelling them.

Sulphur is used in many storehouses as a repellent for rats and
mice., The value of lime-sulphur spray has already been discussed.
Everything considered, a tree paint containing sulphur seems to be
the most promising deterrent for general use. Such paints are stated
to have given good results in oversea countries. Aside from effective-
ness, sulphur has the advantage of being beneficial rather than harm-
ful to the tree.

Experiments with Repellent Washes.

With the object of finding a wash that was sufficiently adhesive,
experiments were conducted by the writer for the past three seasons

Rodent Injury to Trees. 449

at the Potehefstroom Experiment Station. Most of the washes that
were used contained sulphur. The mixtures were tested by painting-
them on young- seedling peach trees, standard privets, oaks, etc., and
on the back of large eucalyptus trees. Air-slaked lime was used in
making up the washes, quicklime not being available.

In 1917 an experiment was conducted to test the reputed virtues
of cactus juice as an adhesive. When sliced and soaked in water, at
the rate of one pound to a gallon, spineless cactus yielded a thick
gelatinous mixture. Washes were applied during the first week of
August, and were of the following composition : —

1. Plain limewash, made with lime and water.

2. One part lime and one part sulphur, in cactus solution.

3. Two parts lime and one part sulphur, in cactus solution.

4. Three parts lime and one part sulphur, in cactus solution.

None of the washes proved to adhere satisfactorily^ Although
the cactus solution appeared to be very sticky, the washes prepared
with it washed ojB: the trees just as quickly as the plain limewash.

The following washes were applied on 24th August, 1918 : —

1. Plain limewash.

2. One part lime and one part sulphur in dilute iron-sulphate

solution.

3. One part lime and one part superphosphate in copper-

sulphate solution.

Upon drying, No. 3 formed a coating that could not even be
rubbed off, and it appeared that a wash of a most adhesive nature
had been found. However, when heavy rains fell. No. 3 was the first
to go. Results from No. 2 were not conclusive. As No. 3 at first
gave much promise, the following tests were begun on 26th August : —

1. Plain limewash.

2. Lime, in copper-sulphate solution.

3. Two parts lime and one part' sulphur in copper-sulphate

solution.

4. Superphosphate in copper-sulphate solution.

5. Two parts superphosphate and one part sulphur in copper-

sulphate solution.

6. One part superphosphate and one part lime in water.

7. Two parts superphosphate, two parts lime, and one part

sulphur in water.

8. Two parts superphosphate, two parts lime, and one part

sulphur in copper-sulphate solution.

The copper sulphate was present at the rate of 1 lb. in 8 gallons of
the water used in making up the mixtures. It appeared to add slightly
to the adhesiveness of the washes, but a heavy rain (1.68 inches) fell
on 1st September, and the coatings on the trees were badly injured,
and began to disappear. On 25th October not a coating was left.
In the interval between the two dat^s mentioned the rainfall was 4.11

450 Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

inclies. This was distributed over eleven days, but most of it fell
as heavy showers on three days.

Washes as listed were applied on 17th Septeraber, 1920 : —

1. Plain limewash.

2. One part sulphur, one part lime, and one part tobacco dusty

in thin glue.

3. Two parts sulphur, two parts lime, one part tobacco dust,.

in thin glue.

4. 1 lb. sulphur, 1 pint tobacco dust, and 1 lb. hard soap, iifc

1 gallon of water.

5. 1 lb. sulphur, 1 pint tobacco dust, 1 lb. soap, and 1 lb..

lime, in 1 gallon of water.

On 25th September the following were added to the test : —

6. One part portland cement and one part sulphur, in sour

skimmed milk.

7. One part portland cement, one part sulphur, and one part.

lime, in sour skimmed milk.

No rain fell until November, but by that time the limewash had
peeled off the trees. The other washes withstood the November rains,
consisting of six light showers, two of nearly one-half inch each, and
two rains of 1.07 and 1.42 inclies respectively, making a total of 4.02
inches. In December only 1.62 inches of rain fell, distributed over
nine days.

In January, 1920, there were four days on which rain fell in
amounts ranging from .46 to 1.31 inches, besides eight other days on^
which light showers occurred, making a total of 4.05 inches of rain-
fall for the month. The January rain washed away the mixtures
prepared with glue, and injured the others.

In February there were six light showers, four ranging in amount
from approximately one-half to one inch each, besides one heavy
downpour in which 4.18 inches fell, most of it within a couple of
hours. The total rainfall for the month was 7.98 inches. The
February rains practically completed the work of the January ones,
as at the end of the month very little except traces of the washes
remained. Following the glue mixtures, Nos. 4 and 5 were the first
to go, then 6, and finally 7.

No injury from any of the washes could be seen, except in one
case when the mixtures 4 and 5 were boiled. The alkali of the soap
evidently united with some of the sulphur, with the result that the
washes injured leaves and tender young shoots. When there v/as no
boiling, there was no injury. As regards the glue, it was used at the
rate of 1 lb. in 4 gallons of water. It would probably be better to
use a stronger mixture.

Conclusions from E^perimejits. — The washes used the third year
M'ere the only ones of much value. It is not always safe to form.
definite conclusions from one season's results ; but, as the washes
appeared- to be perfectly safe, and as they withstood a much greater-
amount of rain than falls during the period when trees are liable-

Rodent Injury to Trees. 451

to injury by rodents, the following suggestions for repellent washes
are advanced tentatively: —

{a) Equal parts of portland cement, sulphur, and slaked lime,
mixed with sour skimmed milk.

(6) A mixture of 1 lb. each of sulphur, lime, and soap, in 1
gallon of water. The soap should be dissolved in hot
water and the sulphur and lime stirred into the liquid. It
mixes readily. Use Mhile warm. Tf quicklime is used,
it should be slaked in a little water, and then added to
the soap and sulphur mixture.

(c) A mixture of sulphur, lime, and glue. Dissolve 1 lb. of
glue in 2 to 4 gallons of water, then, if slaked lime is used,
mix the sulphur and lime together and stir into the glue
solution.

Tobacco dust may be added to anjr of tTie above washes if desired.
The mixtures should be applied to the trees whenever there is danger
of rodent attack.

Poison Washes.

The virulent soluble arsenical compounds such as arsenite of
■soda must never be used in washes, as serious injury or even the death
of the tree will be the result. The extent of injury wnll depend upon
the strength of the solution and the age of the tree. There are little
data available regarding the use of insoluble arsenicals. One case
has come to the notice of the writer in which fruit trees were painted
"with a fairly strong wash of lead-arsenate paste and water. The
treatment did not prove to be very effective, as hares continued to
attack the trees.

Strychnine washes have been used in Idaho, California, and other
western States of America in recent j-ears. A typical one is j)repared
as follows : Dissolve 1 ounce of strychnine sulphate (the hydrochloride
could be used) in 3 quarts of boiling water and h. lb- of thy laundry
starch in 1 pint of cold water, and then mix the two solutions
together. Boil until the paste is clear, and while boiling add 6
ounces of glycerine, stirring thoroughly. When cool enough, apply
with a paint brush to the tree trunk.

The above quantity will do for a large number of small trees.
It is said that rodents attacking the trees are soon killed by the poison,
and that there is practically no injury to the trees by the wash.

It should be remembered that strychnine is a deadly poison, and
must be handled with care.

Poison Baits for the Destruction of Rodents.

When rodent pests become numerous, destruction is always advis-
able, and in plantations it is the only practicable remedy, as applying
washes to thousands of trees is out of the question. Poisoning is the
cheapest method of destruction. Of the different poisons which might
be used strychnine is by far the best, and is the only one that will
be considered here.

Hares. — When these cannot be kept in check by shooting, they
are sometimes poisoned by introducing- a little strychnine into fruits
■<or vegetables, and placing these about the orchard, either on the

452 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

ground or stuck on short sticks. Small twigs cut from fruit trees
and dipped in a syrup or paste containing strychnine are at timeg
successful as baits.

For extensive work a grain bait is generally used, and for this
purpose " Colorado Formula No. 15 " is recommended. Obtain from
the chemist 1 ounce of powdered strychnine alkaloid. Be certain that
it is the alkaloid, and that it is finely powdered. Mix the strychnine
and 1 teaspoonful of saccharine in 1 quart of water, add h pint of fine
salt and \ pint of wheat flour, mix thoroughly (an e^g beater is a
good implement to use) and bring to a boil, stirring continually and
making certain that the paste does not scorch. Then pour the paste
over 10 quarts of grain (about 20 lb), mix thoroughly, and spread
out to dry. This bait can be kept indefinitely.

A simpler bait, which, however, is hardly so effective, may be
made as follows : Dissolve 1 ounce of strychnine sulphate or hydro-
chloride in a gallon of hot water, add 4 lb. of cheap sugar or 5 gallon
of treacle and 20 lb. of grain, and simmer until the liquid is absorbed
by the grain. This bait must be used at once, as it will soon ferment.

Different kinds of grain could be used, but maize is generally
satisfactory. Before putting out the bait, the hares should first be
fed for tvvo or three nights with unpoisoned grain. If this grain is
eaten, no feed should be given for a night, then on the following
evening the poisoned bait should be put out, a tablespoonful in a
place.

Best results are obtained by running a few shallow furrows
through the lands and placing the bait in them.

Field Mice and Rats. — The following bait has given excellent
results against South African veld mice : Dissolve a small cupful
of laundry starch in a little cold water, add about 3 pints of boiling
water, stir, and pour the paste over 40 lb. of crushed grain. Mix 1
ounce of powdered strychnine, 1 ounce of common baking soda, and
a teaspoonful of saccharine (the latter is not absolutely necessary),
place in a pepper box, and sift it over the grain. Mix thoroughly, let
stand for a couple of hours, and then use, placing about a teaspoonful
in a spot.

The United States of America Bureau of Biological Survey has
used very successfully a simple convenient bait prepared by sifting
the poison mixture from the pepper box on to dry crushed wheat. No
paste is used. The same Bui*eau has had very good results in winter
with a bait prepared as follows : Moisten 30 lb. of finely cut dry
lucerne hay with water. Dissolve 1 ounce of strychnine sulphate (the
hydrochloride can be used) in 2 gallons of hot water, and sprinkle
it over the lucerne. This bait is cheap, convenient, less dangerous
than grain to birds, and is well worthy of trial.

Treatment of Injured Trees.

Small irregular wounds should be trimmed, so as to leave smooth
edges, and then covered with grafting- wax to exclude the air and
prevent drying out of the tissues. If wax is not available a plaster
of fresh cow dung and clay should be bound over the wound.

For a grafting wax, Mr. E. A. Davis, late Chief Horticulturist
for the Union, recommends the following as being suited to our condi-
tions : Melt together in a suitable vessel, such as an iron kaffir pot,
6 lb. of crushed resin, i lb. of beeswax, and 1 oz. of raw linseed'

Rodent Injury to Trees.

453

oil. Stir while lieating- and do not let it boil. Apply with a brush
while warm; it is too hard for use when cold.

Bridge Grafting.

For large wounds other treat-
ment is necessary. When small
trees are badly injured, it is
best to replace them with new
ones ; but the death of a large
tree means a considerable loss.
When such trees have been
girdled or otherwise badly
injured they can be saved by
bridge grafting. Plate 2 shows
a two-year old graft on a pear
tree that had been girdled, and
shows what may be done in the
way of saving a tree. Plates 2
and 3,' and also the following
concise description, are taken
from Farmers' Bulletin No.
710 of the United States
Department of Agriculture
("Bridge Grafting of Fruit
Trees," by W. F. Fletcher): —
" A bridge graft is made
by using scions or small limbs
to connect the two portions of
the bark of a stock which have
been separated by an injury; in
other words, the injured area is
bridged by a scion or scions,
the ends of which unite with the
uninjured parts above and below
the wound in such a manner
that a connection between the
tissues is established.

" Bridge grafting may be
used successfully on almost any
kind of fruit tree that admits
of being readily propagated by
grafting. In practice there is
occasion to resort to it much more frequently with the apple than with
any other fruit, but pear trees are often treated, at least in some
sections. No reason is apparent why the method should not be
successful on plums and cherries. Peaches graft less readily than
the other trees mentioned and there may be some question as to the
usefulness of the method in the case of this fruit.

''To be effective, bridge grafting must be done in the spring
before growth starts, though sometimes it can be done after growth
starts if dormant scions for that purpose can be secured. As rodents
sometimes injure trees m late spring, the grafting must be done
promptly.

" In preparing the wound to receive the graft, the injured part
should be thoroughly cleansed ; all dead tissue cut away. . . . The

Plate 2.

454

Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

irregular edges of the bark (plate 8, fig. A) at the upper and lower
edges of the wound should be cut back evenly, as shown in fig. B.

" The scions which form the bridge should be selected from wood
of the previous season's growth. Either branches which grew the-
preceding season or water sprouts that are a year old may be used.

"It is important that the scions should be a little longer than
the space that is to be bridged. This is in order that the middle
portion of the scions when put in position shall arch slightly over
the central part of the wound. This is illustrated in fig. D, where
a longitudinal section of a bridge graft is shown.

" Before being placed in position, the scions are bevelled at each
end, both bevelled surfaces being on the same side of the scion, as-
shown in fig. C. This bevelling should be done with a long sloping*
cut, so that the wedge-shaped ends thus formed will be relatively

Plate 3

Details of bridge grafting. — 4, The trunk of a tree giHled by mice ;
i?, the wound cleansed and the bark along the margins trimmed back
to healthy, growing tissue ; C, a scion with bevelled ends ready for
insertion : B, longitudinal section of the tiunk with scions in place,
showing their insertion under the bark of the trunk {w) ; E, scions in
place ready for waxing.

thin, to permit their being thrust well under the bark without danger
of separating it unduly from the cambium at the point of insertion.
Eeference to fig. D illustrates this feature. The placing of the scions
in position is facilitated if the bark at the margins of the wound is
slit for a short distance at the points where the ends are to bo inserted
(fig. C).

" The number of scions required for a bridge graft will depend
largely upon the size of the trunk. No fixed rule can be given. The
larger the number,- the more complete will be the restoration of the
connection between the parts above and below the wound ; V)ut, if
placed too close together, the bark at the margins of tlie wound
between the scions will be raised. The starting of the bark, except
at the immediate points of insertion of the scions, must be avoided.

Rodent Injury to Trees. 455

" In placing- the scions, it is of the greatest importance that the
■cambium of the scions which is exposed in the sloping cuts at the
ends be brought into intimate contact with the cambium that lies
under the bark at the margins of the wounded area. The "union of
scion and tree can only occur where the cambium layers of the two
come together. The scions may be .secured in their proper positions,
if need be, by driving a small nail through each end into the trunk.
This will aid in drawing the cambium of scion and trunk closely
together.

" The operation is completed by thoroughly covering- the area
occupied by the ends of the scions and the margins of the wound with
grafting wax, strips of waxed cloth, or some other means that will
•adequately prevent the parts from drying out.

" When a valuable large tree has been badly injured, a method
frequently adopted in western America is to plant two-year old seed-
lings around the base of the tree and graft their tops into the trunk
above the girdled space. V-shaped vertical grooves extending through
the cambium are cut just above the wounded area in the bark of the
tree to be treated. The tops of the small trees are shaped to corres-
pond with these grooves. The two are then accurately fitted together
in such a manner as to bring the cambium of one in contact with that
■of the other. Small nails may be driven through the tops of the trees
into the trunk, to hold the parts firmly together. . . . The wounds
incident to joining the tops of the small trees to the trunk of the large
■one shouJd be well covered with wax, to prevent drying out."

East Coast Fever in the Pretoria District.

In connection with the serious outbreaks of East Coast fever in
the Pretoria District, the Minister of Agriculture — at Capetown for
the Parliamentary session — visited Pretoria on the 17th June, for the
purpose of holding meetings to discuss means of fighting the disease.
Three meetings were held, two in Pretoria, and the third at the
Premier Mine. The first was attended by members of the Pretoria
Municipality, the Pretoria Society of Agriculture and Industries,
prominent dairymen of Pretoria, and representatives from the western
portion of the town ; at the second meeting the situation was discussed
with the Advisory Board (as then constituted) and representatives of
the Police and the Veterinary Division. The third meeting held next
day at the Premier Mine was attended by a large number of farmers.
As an outcome of these meetings, it was decided to dissolve the
existing Board, and elect one consisting of a representative each from
each ward, the Pretoria Municipality, the west end of Pretoria, and
the Innesdale Municipality, with the Magistrate of Pretoria as chair-
man. Representatives of the Police and Veterinary Division will
attend meetings of this committee, sub-committees to be formed
in each ward to represent matters to the central committee. The
first meeting of the central committee, which has now been elected,
has been called for the 7th July. The best possible steps are being
taken to combat the spread of the disease, and it is trusted that the
situation will very adequately be controlled as a result.

456

Journal op the Department of Agriculture,

FOOD VALUE OF WILLOW LEAVES.

Notes from the Chemical Laboratory, School of
Agriculture and Experiment Station, Potchef-
stroom.

By Thos. D. Hall, B.A., M.S.Agr

Willow leaves are greatly sought after by cattle and other live stock,
and it is often thought that it is only because this is the first green
substance that appears on the dry, brown landscape ; it will be seen,
however, from the following analyses that willow leaves are highly
nutritious. These figures are from the analyses of willow leaves of
the " Weeping willow " variety containing also, besides leaves, the
soft stems at the ends of the branches.

Substance.

Moisture.

Crude
Protein.

Crude
Fat.

Crude
Fibre.

Carbo-
hydrates
N.F.E.

Ash.

Willow leaves —

Sample No. 1 (fresh)
„ „ 2( „ )
„ „ 3( „ )

Per cent.
68.46
71.77
62.56

Per cent.
5.32
5.47
5.55

Per cent.
1.47
1.84
2.36 •

Per cent.
5.01

7.77
8.15

Per cent.
16.93
9.94

17.77

Per cent.
2.81
3.21
3.61

Average

67.59

5.44

1.89

6.97

14.88

3.21

The same samples
air-dried contain —

No. 1

„ 2

„ 3

9.68

10.07

9.94

15.25
17.25
13.62

4-54

5.83
5.68

14.37
24.52
19.61

47.12
31 .61
42.47

8.08

10.12

8.68

Average

10.09

15.37

5.35

19.50

40.4

8.94

These samples were taken at intei*\'als of more than a week apart
during the feeding experiment on chickens conducted by Mr. R.
Bourlay, of this Institution, comparing the value of green willow
leaves with green lucerne. Those wanting more details of the experi-
ment are referred to Press Circular No. 9, 1917, " Willow Leaves as
a Green Food for Chicks." Mr. Bourlay summarizes his results thus :
" It will be seen that in six weeks the chickens which were fed on
willow leaves gained 2 lb- in weight over those fed on green lucerne,
or an average gain of two and two-third oz. per chick."

Various inquiries about willow leaves have been received, so that
it has been decided to publish these figures for general information.
It is well to compare the analyses of dry willow leaves with lucerne
hay, cowpea hay, and teff hay.

Food Value op Willow Leaves.

457

Composition of some Important Hays.

Hay.

Moisture.

Crude
Protein.

Crude
Fat.

Crude
Fibre.

Carbo-
hydrates
N.F.E.

Ash.

Lucerne

Cowpea

Teff

Per cent.
8.0
8.2
8.2

Per cent.

15.5

13.2

6.0

Per cent.
2.4
2.4
1.1

Per cent.
.34.8
30.5
34.8

Per cent.
.80.6
39.6
43.2

Per cent.
8.9
6.3
6.7

Comparing the average composition of the dried willow leaves,
we see that it is about equal to lucerne in quantity of protein, but it
has not yet been determined whether the q.uality of the protein is
better or worse than that of lucerne. It has more than twice as much
crude fat, a little more than half as much crude fibre, and 10 per cent,
more carbohydrates, and the same quantity of ash. The ash of these
willow leaves was analysed by Mr. G. M. Hay, B.A., Assistant
Chemist, and it will be noted that the mineral composition of the ash
is excellent for ffrowing- animals or birds.

Silica

Iron oxide

Calcium oxide ..
Mag-nesium oxide
Potassium oxide
Phosphoric oxide

Partial Composition of Ash
of Willow Leaves
aud Twigs.

3.268 per cent.
3.692
31.360
12.620

9.926

5.040 ..

Partial Composition of Ash
of Lucerne
(Armsby).

not given.

not given.

22.96 per cent.

9.61
28.91
15.57

This shows that in some respects the willow ash is better and in
others the lucerne.

Actual feeding" tests are, however, better than analyses, and
Mr. Bourlay has shown that for growing chicks willow leaves g*ive
better results than equal quantities of lucerne.

South African Pork and Bacon.

Reporting on a consignment of pork and bacon recently shipped
from the Union to the London market, the Acting Trade Commis-
sioner states that the pork arrived in extremely good condition, being
a marked improvement on other consignments seen by him. The type of
pig used is described as a useful butcher's pig, being of handy weights
varying trom 60 to 90 lb., but it is considered that the breed needs
much improving, as the majority of the pigs were described as being
half wild. It is pointed out also that the dressing of these pigs was
not up to standard, the methods of scalding calling for improvement,
the skins being very dark in colour and suffering in comparison with
the clear white colour of English and American dressed hogs.

The bacon was considered extremely useful meat, and both it
and the pork secured the maximum controlled price.

458 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

LAMB FATTENING.

By 0. Rivers, Officer in Charge of Slieep, Scliool of Agriculture,

Potchefstroom.

In order to add to the data concerning the exact amount of feed and
its cost for fattening winter lambs, an experiment was carried out at
the School of Agriculture, Potchefstroom, from 1st July to 8th
September, 1919, on slightly different lines to previous ones, and an
accurate account kept of feed used during the ten weeks.

Types Used. — The lambs fattened were twenty first-cross by
Suffolk rams from blackhead Persian ewes (Illustration I), and twelve
second-cross by Suffolk rams from first-cross Suffolk-Persian ewes
(Illustration II). Seventeen lambs of the above crosses, twelve of
which were first-cross and five second-cross Suffolk-Persians, were
kept as controls.

] remarks on Types. — It will be seen at once in Illustrations I and
II tbat there is a great difference between the two crosses, the
second-cross being much stouter built, with a fuller thigh, and
altogether superior as a mutton sheep to the first-cross, carrying also
a superior fleece of wool, and appearing to mature earlier.

Controls. — The seventeen controls were not given any grain, being
entirely on green oats or lucerne during the whole time the experiment
was being carried out.

Ages. — The lambs were dropped between the 10th April and the
26th April on veld at Brakspruit, and kept there until the 29th of
May, being then of an average age of six weeks two days. They were
then put on a lucerne paddock until the 30th June, when they were
weighed and shifted on to Algerian oats to be fattened.

Salt Lick. — Salt lick, composed of 100 lb. salt, 4 lb. sulphur, and
3 lb. sulphate of iron was always obtainable.

Worms. — On 10th and 28th July and 11th and 18th August it was
found necessary to dose all the lambs for tapeworms. Worm powder
from the Government Laboratories was used. The lambs were weaned
on 18th August at the average age of four months to save green feed,
which was only sufficient to keep them going properly.

Method of Feeding. — The system of feeding was as follows :
From the 1st July to the 8th September the lambs were yarded morn-
ing and evening and drafted off from their mothers into another yard
with sufficient feeding troughs in it to allow room for all to feed at
once. Sixty feet were used. During the first period of fourteen days
a number of ewes were allowed to, feed with the lambs to teach them,
the ewes being daily gradually reduced in number until the lambs got

Lamb Fattening.

459

Fig. I.— First- Cross Suffolk-Persians.

Fig. 11.— rfecond-Cross Suffolk- Persians.

460

Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

used to drafting themselves off and feeding- alone. In this first period
of fourteen days only 110 lb. of feed was used for thirty-two lambs
and an average of ten ewes daily.

Weighing. — At intervals of fourteen days from 1st July to 8th
September (five periods of fourteen days each) the lambs were
weighed. The following chart shows the increases in weight: —

W.

><•

y

SO

y

y

y

y

'

y

y

y

y

y

80

.-^

/

/

^^

./

..^y*^^^

/

y^^'^"^^

fe3

/
/

W 70

/

,-••••

es

/

f

— ^^»«i«*e

w

/

^y

**

^

/

^

K

y

*^

/

/

P3
'A

/

y

^ 60

/

y

■<

y

j^ ,«^

y

X ..•• "

/

Jt -.**'''

/

•*

/

,..•1^^'*

2?dCr

iss.

/St rr
... ., Contro

OSS.

's(l?t&20d Cross)

50

/^

40

/?t 2"<^ SC^

Periods of 14 Days each.

afj

Ration of Minted Feed. — As will be seen in Tables I, II, and III
hereunder, the ration supplied seems very low in weight, but as the
lambs would not eat up any more it appeared sufficient. They were
tried with an increase frequently, but would leave a little unconsumed
every time an increase was made.

Lamb Fattening.

4fil

Table I.

be

a

I
Average Fortnightly Weights

is=

68

Type.

0) -•

(in lb.).

Average Dail
Gain.

a
'S

o

.a .
.22 -^

<x>

1st.

2nd.

3rd.

4th.

5th.

lb.

lb.

lb.

lb.

Per

cent.

Second-Cross

53.00

60.33

69,75

79.58

86.66

92.91

.578

39.91

92.91

75.31

First -Cross

14.50

51.00

57.50

67.00

74.00

7P.00

.478

33.50

78.00

75.27

Mixed Controls ...

43.75

53-75

56.28

69.78

69.18

70.94

.388

27.19

70.94

62.81

Table II.
Fortnightly ration for thirty-two lambs in pounds :

Grazing

DD. Algerian

Oat Crop

Lambs'

Total

plus

Daily

Weight

Periods of 14 Days each.

Ration

of

Crushed

Wheat

Crushed

each.

Feed.

Mealies.

Bran.

Oats.

lb.

lb.

lb.

lb.

lb.

1st ...

72

18

20

.245

110

2nd

91

31

31

.34

153

3rd

91

31

31

.34

153

4th

98

34

34

.37

166

.5th ...

134

73

60*

.594

267

Totals

486

187

176

—

849

Table III.
Fortnightly ration of mixed feed for each lamb :

Periods.

First.

Second.

Third. Fourth. Fifth.

1

Total Weight.

lb.
3-44

lb.
4.78

lb.

4.78

lb. lb.
5.19 8.4

lb.
26-59

Averages. — The average weight at starting was 47.69 lb. for each
of the thirty-two lambs fed and for the seventeen mixed controls 43.75
lb. each. The average weight at the finish was 83.6 lb. each for the
former, showing a gain on feed of 35.91 lb. each, and for the seventeen
controls, fed on green feed only, 70.94 lb. each, showing a gain of
27.19 lb. each.

The average gain per cent, on the starting weight of the thirty-
two fed lambs was 75.29 per cent, on their weight before feeding, and
of the seventeen mixed controls 62.31 per cent. ^

* Nut meal in place of oats.

462 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Values. — Taking' the value of the fed Lnmhs before starting- to
feed at^ say, 9d. per lb. on 50 per cent, of their live weight =
17s. 10|d. each, and their value at lOd. per lb. on 50 per cent, of their
finished weight = £1. 14s. lOd. each, leaves a gain of 16s. ll|d. each.
The controls valued on the same basis work out at the start =
16s. 4|d., and finish at £1. 9s. 6Ad., showing- a g-ain of 13s. Ifd. each.

s. d.

Gain on fed lambs 16 Hi

Less cost of feed per head 2 2^

Net g-ain on fed lambs 14 9t

Gain on controls 13 If

Leaving' on account of the fed lambs a gain of 1 7 J each.

CoTnparisons. — The lambs averaged 3.94 lb. more in weight than
the controls at the start, and if they increased at the same rate as the
controls, namely, by 62.31 per cent., would have ended at 6.45 lb.

s. d.
50 per cent, of 3.94 lb. = 1.97 lb. at 9d. = 1 5f

50 per cent, of 6.45 lb. = 3.225 lb. at lOd. =

Showing a gain of 1 2^

This would reduce the gain on the fattened lambs (Is. 7hd. minus
Is. 2M.) to 5d. each.

This result is obtained without taking into consideration any cost
for labour or other preliminary expenses.

Prices of Feed. — Feed has been charged at current rates, viz.,
second or third grade mealies at 16s. per bag, bran at 7s. 6d. per 100
lb., oats at 4s. per bushel (10s. per 100 lb.), and nutmeal at 8s. per
100 lb.

Crushed mealies 486 lb. ... £1 18 lOA

Bran 187 lb. ... 0 14 0^

Oats 116 lb. ... 0 11 101

Nutmeal 60 lb. ... 0 4 9A

Total cost of feed £3 9 6f

Or, per head, on 32 lambs fed ... £0 2 2J

Summary of Results.

At the current rates for foodstuffs, taking- into consideration the
extra labour and cost of grinding-, and initial expenditure, the con-
clusions arrived at are that lambs of, say, 45 lb. weight at ten weeks
old, if fed on plenty of green feed, such as oats or lucerne, will gain
weight very rapidly, and if their feed is changed often will give
results in net profits equal to, or even better than, fed lambs plus
green feed.

As the unfed controls started at a disadvantage of about 4 lb. each
in live weight, it is shown that it was a handicap which, all things
being equal, would have given an even smaller gain on the fed lambs.

The Department of Agriculture during the War. 4(33

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DURING

THE WAR.

[This article, which commenced in the May, 1920, issue, briefly reviews the work carried out
by the various branches of the Department during the years of the war, and records
some achievements despite the many difficulties encountered through the abnormal
conditions then existing. — Acting Editor.]

Viticulture.

Tlie Division of Viticulture is charged with the duty of advising-
farmers in all matters relating to the culture of the vine_ and the
manufacture of wine, brandy, and vingear. As was experienced m
other divisions of the Department, the year 1914-15 saw a serious
interference in research and other work owing to staff shortage caused
by the war, and much that was contemplated, especially at the Oeno-
logical Institute, had to be curtailed. Eoutine work was satisfactorily
disposed of and lectures were given to short-course students and at
several farmers' meetings. Experiments in various districts as to the
most suitable American vines for different soils were continued, and
at the Paarl Experiment Station the experiments in regard to trellising,
manuring, varieties, etc., were carried on. There was a considerable
shortage in production of wine throughout the viticultural districts,
and owing to unfavourable weather conditions during tlie ripening
stage of the grapes the quantity of wine made at Groot Constantia
Wine Farm was the smallest for many years. In 1914 the production
reached 15,689 gallons, and in 1915 only 9,485 gallons. In 1915-16
the division was fully equipped, having the farm at Groot Constantia
and the Experiment Stations at Elsenburg and Paarl to conduct the
necessary research into the problems affecting the industry, but the
work was hampered by lack of a sufficient number of scientific officers,
who carried out, however, as much as was possible with useful results.
Lectures were given to short-course students and also at farmers'
meetings, many individual farmers were visited by the Government
Viticulturist, experiments were carried on at the Paarl Viticultural
Station with its collection of some 200 varieties of wine and table
grapes, and generally the interests of the industry were catered for.
A number of varieties of table grapes new to the tJnion were shipped
to England during the season and valuable information was obtained
as to their suitability to our country. Owing to the desire of the
Manager of Groot Constantia Wine Farm to retire at an early date,
an arrangement was made to initiate the incoming manager into the
methods of wine-making found successful on the farm and other
matters so as to ensure continuity in the successful management of
the estate. The farm vintage produced 9899 gallons in 1916. The
Union's vintage of 1916, although of good quality, was not large, and
the price obtained for it as a consequence was satisfactory to the
producers. While no marked progress was shown in the wine-making
industry, the area under vines increased owing to the planting out of
t^ble grape varieties, for which the demand oversea is good and prices

464 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

very remunerative. The viticultural industry depends for expansion
on the creation of an export trade. While the outbreak of war, with
the consequent curtailment of cold storage accommodation, was a
serious blow to exporters of table grapes, it caused a reduction in the
production of wine in France, resulting in an opening for South
African wines for which inquiries were made by English firms, and
thus opening the way for a wider market than hitherto for our wines.

In 1916-17 some useful research and analytical work was per-
formed in the laboratories ; numerous inquiries were dealt with in
regard to viticulture and wine-making; many visits were paid to
farmers for the purpose of advising them or making observations ; a
number of lectures were delivered at different centres ; and arti<^,ies
were published on certain aspects of viticulture. The demand for
cuttings of vines true to name obtainable from the division was great.
During the 1917 vintage 129 bottles of pure Levures were issued, and
the use of these cultures, particularly by winemakers who had come
under the influence of the division, was extensive. At Groot Con-
stantia an apprenticeship scheme was inaugurated with the object of
giving practical training in viticulture and horticulture to youths
whose means and educational attainments would not permit of their
attending one of the schools of agriculture. Accommodation was
provided for twenty, but double that number applied for admission,
and practically all the manual work on the farm was carried out by
these students. The season was fair for wine-making, rhe quality of
the wine was excellent, and the total farm vintage amounted to 15,402
gallons. The country's grape crop of 1916 would have been extra-
ordinarily good but for a severe summer. The price for the average
wine varied from £4 to £6 per leaguer, red wines being in greater
demand than white. Grape brandy averaged about £16 per leaguer
and wine brandy about £20.

Dr. Perold, who combined the duties of Chiet of the Division of
Viticulture with that of Principal of Elsenburg, lesigned in 1917-18
in order to become Dean of the Faculty of Agriculture at the newly
constituted University at Elsenburg, and Mr. S. W. van Niekerk was
appointed Acting Chief of the Division. A limited staff owing to
war conditions was just sufficient to cope with the most pressing of
the technical work of the division, and much-needed scientific inves-
tigation had necessarily to be kept in abeyance, while it was not
possible to do as much in the way of visiting farms as could have been
wished. However, during the year lectures on wine-making were
given at various centres, and some eighty farms were visited by the
viticulturist. A successful short course was held attended by twenty-
two, and evidence was shown of the advantages derived from these
courses. The collection of grapes at the Paarl Experiment Station was
enlarged by new varieties from England, Australia, etc. Mr. T. L.
Watermeyer, who had been in charge of the Government Wine Farm.
Groot Constantia, and universally recognized as one of the best wine-
makers and foremost authorities on wine in the country, died on the
2nd November, 1917 — a great loss to the country and the Department
in particular. Owing to consequent staff changes it was arranged
to include the farm, with Mr. S. van Renen as manager, with the
Division of Viticulture instead of allowing it to remain as an indepen-
dent unit as during the late Mr. Watermeyer's time of office. The
system of training young men at Groot Constantia was successfully

The Department of Agriculture during the War. 465

carried on, and of the twenty apprentices there suitable positions for
nine were obtained during" the year. The farm vintage amounted to
13,400 gallons. A considerable amount of matured wine in stock
from previous years was sold locally, the outbreak of war causing
certain negotiations then in progress for the sale of the wine in
England to fall through. The season's grape crop was fair; the
market, however, was very irregular. With a view to steadying the
market and ensuring fair prices, wine farmers and merchants formed
a co-operative society, called the Co-operative Wine Farmers' Associa-
tion of South Africa, Limited, which received wide support.

Entomology.

This division deals with the suppression of locusts, inspection of
nurseries, restrictions on traffic in plants, fruit, etc. It disseminates
advice on insect problems by publication and correspondence ; it
carries out experiments and demonstrations regarding the suppression
of insect pests, and studies are made of the life-cycles, etc., ol'
insects of economic importance.

In 1914-15, owing to the war, there was a large reduction in the
importation of plants, fruit, and potatoes, imports of the last named
being particularly free from serious disease. Codling-moth v/as dis-
covered in certain districts, which were closed to the introduction of
fruits liable to carry the pest. The brown locust appeared in parts of
the Orange Free State. Investigational work covering a wide range of
matters was carried out, including false codling-moth, bagrada bug,
scale insects, white ants, wattle insects, parasites of the black scale,
vine mealy bug, Argentine ant, house-fly, etc.

The Chief of the Division was absent for a considerable period of
1915-16, spending part of the time studying the developments of
economic entomology in Australia, Canada, and the United States.
During the year a quarantine station for imported varieties of sugar-
cane was established at Durban, the Natal Sugar Association bearing
the whole of the cost involved. Investigation work was continued,
and mention may be made of the success attending the method
advocated by the division for dealing with the house-fly. The most
noteworthy work of the division for the year was the campaign against
locusts in the central and north-western portions of the Cape Province
and the south-west of the Orange Free State. The outbreak was worst
over an area of 20,000 miles in the south-western Orange Free State
and Bechuanaland, stretching into Griqualand West and neigh-
bouring Cape districts. In all 28,000 swarms were destroyed, the
total cost of the campaign amounting to £10,000. This saved the
country from what would certainly have been a dire calamity.

In 1916-17 the normal work of the division, such as the inspection
of nurseries and of plants imported from oversea, etc., was carried on
as usual. A number of articles and notes relating to entomological
subjects of immediate concern were issued and several investigations
were conducted. Following on the outbreak of locusts in 1915-16 it
was found that the number of scattered locusts that remained had by
rapid increase and grouping together assumed formidable proportions,
and though the infestation was not as great as the year before, it was
widely distributed and caused as much work to the officers of the
division. The infestation occurred in remote, dry, and thinly inhabited

466 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

parts of the Uuion, and was therefore exceedingly difficult to deal
with. Despite the obstacles encountered, the division was successful
in accounting for most of the locusts before any great damage had
been done to the crops. Valuable lessons in dealing with the plague
were learnt from this campaign ; unfortunately it iiad become evident
that the prospect of eventually exterminating the pest within the
Union was remote, and that constant vigilance was necessary in order
to cope with future outbreaks.

During 1917-18 the division was chiefly occupied in suppressing
locusts, in inspecting* nurseries and imported plants, and advising
farmers on matters relating to injurious insects. Attention was given
to many insect pests, such as the maize stalkborer, pea and bean
weevils, Arg*entine ant, antesia bug, vine mealy bug, white ant, scale
insects, etc. A number of bulletins and articles were issued and
numerous addresses delivered at farmers' meetings and at schools and
colleges. Unfortunately, foul brood of bees was discovered in several
parts of the south-western Cape Province, this being* the first notice
of this trouble in South Africa. Owing principally to the war, but
also because many plants, formerly imported, are now being ra.sed in
the country, there was a decrease in the number reaching the Union
from overseas.

Contrary to expectations, there was a severe outbreak of brown
locusts, more extensive than any since the great visitation of a decade
previous. The campaign to combat the plague was carried out on the
same lines as in previous years. Hatching took place in the drier and
more remote parts of the Union, over an area of approximately 200,000
square miles. This necessitated much arduous work, and credit is due
to the officers who, as a result of their labours, compassed the destruc-
tion of 37,800 swarms of voetgangers. Yery few swarms escaped.
Unfortunately, the campaign was attended by a number of deaths of
live stock by poisoning*, but this was due to abnormal climatic condi-
tions in certain areas, coupled with carelessness in the use of the locust
poison. A measure of compensation was given for losses of stock in
cases where animals had died from grazing on veld on which locusts
liad been destroyed. The campaign is estimated to have cost £26,000,
of which the Government's share, including compensation, was
£16,500. The damage done by the locusis was comparatively light
because they were quickly killed, but, had tliey been allowed to fly,
the swarms would undoubtedly have caused enormous damage in the
more fertile and closely settled parts of the country, and their descen-
dants would have caused still greater havoc.

Chemistry.

The Division of Chemistry investigates problems of general or
special importance and, in conjunction with similar work carried out
at the agricultural schools, undertakes the analysis for farmers of
soils, manures, and foodstuffs.

During 1914-15 the officers of the division were fully occupied in
coping with the analytical and other work relegated to it. The
control of the sale of fertilizers in the Cape Province, the only
Province where legislation in that respect was in force, was continued.
Since then new fertilizer legislation for the Union has been introduced
(Act No. 21 of 1917), which falls under the administration of the
dhemistry Division.

The Department of Agriculture during the War. 467

The division was mainly occupied with the analyses of soils,
manures, and feeding stuffs during 1915-16. Owing to lack of facili-
ties and smallness of the staff, which conditions then prevailing
prevented increasing, little research was possible. The situation was
relieved to some extent, however, by work carried out at the labora-
tories at the agricultural schools and experiment stations. None of
the soils analysed during the year presented any very striking
features, the general characteristics being a poverty of lime and
phosphates and a sufficiency of potash in available form. A large
number of samples of bat guano were analysed ; the manure was
found to be variable in composition owing to the amount of sand or
earth mixed with it, and usually of poor quality. Samples of lime-
stone submitted showed that lime admirably adapted for agricultural
purposes was available.

The year 1916-17 brought a heavy loss to the division in the
death of its Chief, Mr. H. J. Vipond, who was killed in action in
Flanders in February, 1917. Dr. Marchand acted as chemist, and
the appointment has since been confirmed. During the year
Dr. Juritz was transferred from the Department of the Interior to
this Department as Agricultural llesearch Chemist. He is stationed
at Capetown and conducts' investigations and collects information on
subjects of special or pressing- imj)ortance.

The division was occupied almost entirely with analyses of
various substances of importance from an agricultural point of view,
of which soils and fertilizers formed the greater portion. The soils
analysed proved to be very similar in type to those analysed in
previous years, and were usually sufficiently supplied with potash, but
deficient in lime and phosphates. It was pointed out that farmers
do not inform the division of the results obtained from the treatment
recommended by it in connection with soils analysed, nor do they take
samples according to the method prescribed by the division, conse-
quently the value to the country generally obtained from these
analyses is not as great as it might be. The provision for chemical
work at the agricultural schools and experiment stations was greatly
improved, and while this helped to relieve the Division of Chemistry,
much necessary work awaiting it could not be undertaken owing to
lack of staff and laboratory facilities.

Insufficient accommodation and the situation created by the war
prevented any extensions in 1917-18, the work undertaken by the
division being chiefly of a routine character, consisting mainly of the
analysis of soils and other substances. The analysis of soils for
farmers as obtaining was, it was concluded, of little value to farmers
or the division owing to the practical impossibility of determining the
requirements of a soil from a bare analysis, and the neglect of farmers
of carry out the instructions for the taking of samples and to inform
the division of the results of its recommendations for manurial and
other treatment of the soil analysed. It was considered that, instead,
greater advantage would result from a systematic soil survey of the
Union. Regulations to be enforced under the Fertilizers Act were
drafted by a conference composed of the Acting Chemist, the llesearch
Chemist, and the Lecturer in Chemistry at each of the schools of
agriculture.

During the year the llesearch Chemist at Capetown was chiefly
occupied in conducting inquiries into the possibilities and prospects

4G8 Journal op the Department of Agriculture,

of paper-making- within the Union and in investigating the supplies
of fertilizers available in the country, at the request of the Scientific
and Technical Committee. He also furnished the committee with
reports on several other subjects and investigated a number o£
substances of importance to the country. The results of these investi-
gations are discussed in his annual report.

The Library.

The object of the library is to provide as complete a collection of
agricultural literature as possible for the purpose of reference. The
library is open to the public and books may be borrowed on certain
conditions.

Owing to the situation arising through the war and the need for
curtailing expenditure the publication of the Agricultural Jmtrnal was
suspended in 1914, and the librarian was entrusted with the issue of
all reports and bulletins, etc., printed. These publications were
issued gratis to applicants up to 1st October, 1918, but with a view to
preventing wastage of the bulletins a small charge was then placed on
some of the more important ones. The following table shows the
number of publications published and the number of copies issued
to applicants each year : —

NuTuher of Publications.
1915-16. 1916-17. " 1917-18. 1918-19.

176 91 97 88

Number of Bulletins, etc., Issued to Applicants.

191.5-16. 19ie-17. 1917-18. 1918-19.

(Figures not available) 6,500 47,940 44,026

In view of the need for keeping expenditure within the lowest
possible limits, the grant for the library for the period of the war
was reduced. Progress was maintained, however, and the library
was added to to the extent shown in the following table : —

Additions to Library of Corriplete Bound Volumes.
1915-16. 1916-17. 1917-18. 1918-19.

616 565 718 853

The scope of literature in the library may be gauged by its
contents, there being at the 31st March, 1919, 8080 bound volumes
and 5000 unbound volumes, with 13,700 bulletins and leaflets and
2000 periodicals. In addition to this, some 13,800 books are deposited
with the divisions and schools. Mention should also be made of the
acquisition at a cost of £500 of the Galpin Library, which is housed
with the Division of Botany, Pretoria.

A feature of the year 19.15-16 was the inauguration of the scheme
to lend books from the library to farmers on payment of a deposit and
postage, and on 31st March, 1919, some 233 farmers were availing
themselves of the privilege.

The Department of Agriculture during the War. 469

Co-operative Agricultural Societies.

The Division of Co-operation is mainly concerned with the
establishment and control of co-operative agricultural societies regis-
tered under the provisions of the Co-operative Agricultural Societies
Acts in force in the Transvaal and Orange Free State.

Several changes took place on the stafi of the division during^
1914-15 ; the Registrar and Assistant Inspector resigned to take up
posts in the Central Agency for Co-operative Societies. During the
year the extent of the transactions of most of the societies was affected
by drought, and several of them sustained loss on the year's working
as a consequence. There were eighteen societies established in terms
of the Co-operative Acts, and, while progress was made by many of
them, others again were not conducted as satisfactorily as could be
wished, the position of two or three being very unsatisfactory. On
the whole, however, the societies showed a distinct improvement m
the way in which the majority of them conducted their business, and
as a result of the year's working had materially strengthened their
financial position. A serious mistake made by many was the custom
of giving indiscriminate credit to members in connection with the
sale of farming implements.

In 1915-16 three more co-operative societies (in the Orange Free
State) were in process of formation. Of the eighteen societies one
was liquidated during the year, and the condition of four others was
unsatisfactory, the finances of the remainder being considered sound.
The membership was 10,825, their turnover being 919,891 bags of
maize, 2,057,203 lb. of tobacco, and £107.039 worth of other produce,
and farming requisites to the value of £139,052, the societies doing a
great deal of good in assisting farmers to dispose of their mealies and
tobacco and steadying the trade in these products. _ While there was
progress in the general administration of the societies, it was evident
that mistakes were made in credit sales and the holding of produce for
a rise in the markets, matters contrary to the principles of co-opera-
tion. ' The troubles in which some of the societies became involved
were due primarily to want of knowledge and supervision ; careless
ness in the admission of members to the societies, which have un-
limited liability, and lack of attention and personal interest by
members to the expenditure and affairs of the societies.

There were twenty co-operative societies in existence in 1916-17,
most of them almost entirely occupied with the sale of maize and a
certain amount of other produce and the purchase and supplying of
agricultural implements and other farm requisites. One society,
however, was devoted to the handling of tobacco, another maintained
a threshing machine, a third dealt with the supply of dairy cows to
its members and the sale of milk, and a fourth manufactured cheese.
The societies had a total membership of 10,234, their turnover being
644,899 bags of maize, 1,544,076 lb. of tobacco, and £76,959 worth of
other produce, and farming requisites to the value of £140,481. The
turnover in produce for the year 1916 was less than that for 1915
owing to a poor harvest. The division was fully occupied in advising"
and inspecting the several societies under its aegis and generally in
promoting the growth of co-operation. The benefits derived from
these societies were many, both growers and consumers of the products
dealt with being helped. The majority of the societies were in a

470 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

satisfactory condition, but in some there was room for much improve-
ment. The country presents many difficulties in the firm establish-
ment of co-operative societies, and the lack of interest taken by the
members as a whole in the work of those in existence continued to
be one of the chief weaknesses. Experience showed, however, that
many of the troubles into which societies had fallen could be guarded
ag-ainst by strict supervision, and the division, in conjunction with
the Land Bank, made every effort to control and guide the societies
to their advantage.

Agricultural co-operation continued to expand, and in 1917-18
the number of societies had increased, there being sixteen in the
Transvaal and seven in the Orange Free State. The number of
members was 9818, and the total turnover £594,477. While the
membership was not as large as two years previously, the stamp of
members had improved considerably owing to the expulsion of useless
ones and the admission of such only as were likely to be useful and
loyal. A conference of representatives of the societies was held in
Pretoria, at which important matters relating to co-operation were
discussed. On the whole, a considerable improvement was manifested
during the year, the well-managed societies continuing to progress
and the weaker ones awakening to the methods ensuring success. The
division exercised careful control, and every effort was made to guide
the societies so as to avoid the mistakes and pitfalls of the past.

In addition to the societies registered under the Co-operative Agri-
cultural Societies Acts in force, there are a number of others, formed
and conducted by farmers and others interested in rural pursuits for
their mutual benefit, which do not fall under any of the Acts referred
to, and though they have not adopted the principle of unlimited
liability they are essentially co-operative in character. These societies
have been confined mainly to the Cape and Natal Provinces and deal
with many matters concerning the preparation and sale of produce,
purchasing of supplies, etc., and vary considerably, as might be
expected, in size and in the extent of their operations. They -have
had their difficulties to contend with, and all have not been uniformly
successful, but the majority have done well. The scientific and
technical officers of this Department have assisted all types of society
impartially, and have even been instrumental in establishing some of
them.

Dry-land Farming.

The Division oE Dry-land Farming conducts experiments and
disseminates information in regard to cultural methods of agriculture
known as dry- farming.

In 1914-15 two of the subsidiary Dry-land Experiment Stations
were closed down, the central station at Lichtenburg and the one at
Pietersburg, conducted in co-opeiation with the municipality there,
being maintained. While the Division's activities were curtailed in
this direction, they were expanded by greater attention being given
to co-operative experiments carried out on farms by farmers them-
selves, a policy adopted for the fatui'e operations of the division.
Experiments were carried out and information disseminated during
the year in regard to the improvement of the system of farming
generally and to the proper methods of dry-farming particularly, and
evidence continued to come to hand of greater yields per acre on

The Department of Agriculture during the War. 471

account of a growing knowledge of the system, better seed, and
cultivation. Cultivation was extended in consequence, also the use
of up-to-date agricultuial implements. Some good results were
obtained from experiments in wheat and oats tested for rust resistance.

Much work was done by the division during 1915-16 in spreading^
the knowledge of dry-farming and the suitability of certain tested
crops for dry areas by letter, lecture, and co-operative experiments
on the farm, as well as by experiments conducted at the stations. A
great amount of interest in the better utilization of the soil in the
drier (and generally more backward) parts of the Union was aroused,
resulting in improved methods of farming in those areas. The system
of co-operative experiments conducted by farmers on their farms under
the supervision of the division was extended, and not only was the
expense proved to be less, but the good to be accomplished greater
than would be the case in experiments carried out at subsidiary
stations as largely practised in the past.

The policy of co-operative experiments was further extended in
1916-17, and, owing to circumstances arising through lack of staff,
necessity for curtailed expenditure, etc., arrangements were Aiade for
closing at the end of the year the Dry-land Station at Lichtenburg
which had been established in January, 1909.

For purposes of co-operative experiments, £500 was set aside for
the purchase of seed true to type. The small staff composing the
division was fully employed in furthering its objects by encouraging
farmers in the conservation of water and best methods of cultivating
the soil, advocating, lecturing, and demonstrating the use of dought-
resistant crops suitable for dry areas and in many other ways
advanciag the cause of the agriculturist. There was a marked
awakening' among many farmers in such matters as studying soils and
climatic conditions, the value of experiments on the farm, the proper
preparation of seed-beds, the use of up-to-date implements, the
suppression of weeds, the value of sufficient humus and increasing
the water-holding capacity and fertility of the soil, the need to
ascertain the most suitable crop, and so on. While the principles of
cultivation, etc . advocated by the Department were receiving an
ever-widening circle of followers, the need for education therein was
still very apparent, calling for much future effort.

Thus, during 1917-18, the division was continuously engaged in
advising farmers on matters relating to dry-farming and in conduct-
ing experiments in various parts of the country in co-operation with
them. Experiments were continued at the Experiment Station at
Pietersburg; the one at liichtenburg having been closed down, the
administration of the division was centred in Pretoria. An idea
of the extent of inquiry and adAice conducted during the year by
correspondence alone may be gaug'ed by the fact that 4896 letters
were received and 4486 dispatched. The principle of co-operative
experiments met with success, evidence of the lessons learnt therefrom
coming to hand.

[This review will be continued in subsequent issues of the
Journal.^

Keep your Journals ! The contents will be indexed every six
months and a copy of the index sent to each subscriber.

472 Journal of the Dbpartment of Agriculture.

TURKEYS.

By T. B. Cross, Poultry Instructor, School of Agriculture,

Cedara, Natal,

Turkeys have beeu domesticated for a great number of years, but
still may be found in their wild state in Northern America. Other
denizens of the poultry-yard have greatly increased in size and weight,
but not so the turkey. Wild males have been shot weighing as much
as 60 lb., whereas the greatest weight obtained in the domesticated
bird is about 46 lb. This is purposely mentioned, as in our experience
we find that turkeys always thrive best if kept under the most natural
conditions. Undoubtedly the most popular breed in South Africa is
the American bron..e, and this is not difficult to understand, as they
are the largest, very hardy, and well adapted to this climate. White
Austrian, or White Holland and Black Turkeys are not bred in large
numbers, and from a commercial aspect do not compare favourably
with the Bronze, though of late the White has improved considerably
in size.

American Bronze.

The general characteristics of this breed are as follows : Head,
long and broad and carunculated (i.e. covered with fleshy
protuberances). Beak, strong, curved, well set in the head. Eyes,
full. Throat tvattle, large and pendent. Neck, long, curving back-
ward toward the tail, the top and most of the front carunculated.
Body, long, deep through the centre, and well rounded. Breast, broad
and full ; the cock's beard long, bristling, and prominent. Back,
somewhat curving, rising from the neck to the centre and descending
in a graceful curve to the tail. Wings, large and powerful, carried
well up and closely to the sides. Tail, long and drooping, the end
almost touching the ground. Legs, long, stout and
strong. T'oes, straight and strong. Carriage, stately and upright.
Plumage, hard and glossy. In the Poultry Club standard (English)
the following weights are given for adult birds; Bronze cock, 36 lb. ;
hen. 20 lb. Black cock, 27 lb. ; hen, 18 lb. White cock, 26 lb. ; hen,
16 lb.

Colour of the ATuerican Bronze.

Beak, light horn at tlie tip and dark at the base. Eyes, dark hazel
or brown. Head (including face, jaws, throat wattle, and caruncles),
brilliant red, changeable to blue-white. Legs and Feet, black,
approaching brown in young birds and of a pink or flesh-hue in adults.
Plunmge of Cock: Neck, light, brilliant bronze. Beard, black. Back,
light brilliant bronze, each feather terminating in a narrow black

Turkeys. 473

band extending across the end. Breast, dark brilliant bronze. Body,
black, shaded with bronze, but not so brilliant as that of the breast.
Winps: Bows, black, with a brilliant bronze or green lustre; coverts,
rich bronze, the feathers terminating in a black band and forming a
broad band across the wings when folded, and separated from the
primaries by a glossy black ribbon-like mark formed by the ends of
the coverts ; primaries, black or dark brown, pencilled across with bars
of white or grey, the more evenly the better; secondaries, similar to
the primaries, the colours changing to a bronze brown as the middle
of the back is approached, but with little admixture of white ; an
edging of white or brown on the primaries or secondaries is very
objectionable. Tail, dull black, each feather regularly pencilled with
narrow bands of brown, ending in a broad black band with a wide
edging of dull white or grey, the coverts dull black or dark brown,
each feather regularly pencilled with narrow bands of brown, ending
in a wide black and bronze band extending across the feather, with a
wide edging of white or grey. The more distinct the colours through-
out the whole plumage the better.

Plumaqe of the Bronze Hen. — Similar to that of the cock (but
not so brilliant nor so clearly defined), except an edging of white on
the featliers of the back, breast, body, and wing-bows, the edging to
be narrow in front and gradually widen as it approaches the rear.

The White.

Beak, pink or flesh-coloured. Eyes and Head, as in the bronze.
Leps and Feet, white or pmk-white. Pluinafje, pure white; the cock's
beard, deep black.

The Black.

Beak, dark horn or slate-black. Eyes, dark hazel. Head, as in
the Bronze. Legs and Feet, dark lead or slate-black. Plumage,
lustrous black.

In all breeds, crooked breast-bone, wry or twisted tail, or any
deformity, are considered serious defects. For exhibition very small
specimens or birds differing in colour of plumage from the standard
should be passed over.

The Breeding Stock.

In selecting the breeding stock great care should be taken that
they are strong, vigorous, and, above all, healthy; very small or
overgrown birds should on no account be bred from, the craze for size
does much harm, especially if very heavy males are used. Let the
" torn," as the turkey cock is generally called, be a typical specimen,
unrelated to the hens, and not too heavy : 25 to 30 lb. for a stock bird
in hard condition is quite enough ; he should have good depth of body,
with full rounded breast. The breast- bone should be long and
perfectly straight, as turkeys are bred principally for the table; this
is a most important point in both sexes. The thighs, long, stout, and
well apart; shanks, large and strong, and toes well spread and
perfectly straight. A turkey cock is better at two to four years old
as a breeder than a year old bird ; Bronze turkeys breed very true to

47'J: Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

type and colour, so there is no need to inbreed to fix these or any
other points. Up to ten or twelve hens may be mated to a vigorous
toin ; they should be at least twelve months old, but preferably two-
or three years, well grown, and vigorous, but not more than 20 lb.
in weight; abnormally large hens may win in the show pen, but as.
breeders are invariably a failure.

To breed turkeys successfully free range is absolutely essential;,
thev are naturally of a restless and roving disposition, and if closely
confined quickly become listless and fall oft in condition. Adult
stock do not require any house or shelter, and remain in perfect health
and condition if roosting out all the year round. The roosting place
should, however, be enclosed by wire-netting to protect them from
thieves and vermin. The perches, which can be erected between trees
or substantial uprights, should not be more than 3 or 4 feet high, as
turkovs are liable to injure their feet in flying down from high
roosts; the perches, which can be of wattle or gum saplings sawn in
half should be smooth of surface and not less than three inches broad.
It is not advisable to keep other poultry with them, as both turkey
cocks and hens are apt to bully and often severely injure other birds.

During the l)reeding season, turkey hens often suffer injury
through the attentions of a vigorous male, and such hens should be
removed until the back has healed.

Feeding .

The breeding stock may be fed as follows : Mash in the morning-
consisting of equal parts of bran and pollard mixed to a crumbly
consistency with water, or once or twice weekly in winter with soup ;
to this kitchen scraps of vegetables, meat, and bread may be added;
if plenty of insect life is obtainable soup and meat may be withheld.
In winter, when grass is scarce, cooked vegetables may with advantage
be added to the mash, and choi)ped cabbage, etc., fed at noon. Mash
should always be fed in troughs, and approximately one handful to
each bird will be found sufficient. In the evening grain may be
given ; oats and wheat are excellent, but maize and katfir corn should
be fed with discretion, especially near the beginning of the breeding
season. Flint grit and oyster-shell should always be available. The
amount of food fed to a flock of turkeys must necessarily depend to
a great extent on what they can find in the fields; for instance, it
wheat stubble is close at hand they can be driven there in the morning
and left until night, and feeding them is quite unnecessary.

Hatching and Rearing.

The first eggs may be expected about the end of June, and the
hens should be allowed to select their own nests, as they will sehh.ni
lay in nests prepared for them ; at this period they exhibit great
shyness and should on on account be interfered with so long as the
nest is in a safe and suitable place. As tlie eggs are laid they should
be removed and safely stored in a cool room and turned daily ; unless
a nest egg is left in the nest the hen will probably desert it.

AVIien broody, unless under exceptional circumstances, it is
advisable to bring the hen in and set her in a suitable place where
no dogs or vermin are likely to disturb her.

Turkeys. 475

Turkey eggs incubate in twenty-eight days, and may be hatched
out under ordinary hens, turkey hens, or in an incubator, but,
generally speaking, poults, as the turkey chicks are called, thrive
better with a turkey hen. Not more than fifteen or sixteen eggs
should be given to a turkey hen to hatch, or more than ten to an
ordinary hen. Turkey hens often sit too closely, especially if near
a spot where many people pass, and settings are sometimes spoilt by
over-bi^ooding. The spot chosen for the nest should be on soft ground
lined with hay and a roomy box put over it for shelter ; needless to
say, a site likely to be flooded should not be selected, and on no account
should the nest be made up on a wooden floor. Food, water, and grit
should be put down near the nest so that the hen can come o& to
feed, etc., at will; during the period of incubation small, yellow
maize is the best grain to feed; mash should not be given. Until the
hen is settled in her new nest it is advisable to give her a few nest
eggs, otherwise valuable eggs may be spoiled. If possible, the nest
should only be visited when the hen is oft.

Twenty-four hours after the chicks are hatched they should be
moved with the hen to the run or yard they are to occupy. Runs that
have been used for other poultry will not do for poults ; the ground
must be sweet and clean, and if under short grass so much the better.
Turkey hens, if given complete liberty with their brood, are likely
to wander too far and run all but the strongest off their legs. Poults
cannot stand any dampness, so on no account should they be allowed
to get wet by rain or by running in long grass. It is better, therefore,
not to give them free range until about fourteen days old. Milk in
any form is excellent for them, not only mixed in their soft food,
but also to drink. A sudden change, however, from sweet to sour
milk must be guarded against, otlierwise diarrhoea may result. For
the first week dry bread, coarse oatmeal, boiled rice and bran sligthly
moistened with milk forms an excellent feed ; to this can be added or
fed separately finely chopped green food such as succulent green grass,
lettuce, lucerne, or, better still, onion tops; only a little food should
be put down at a time, just sufficient for them to clear up readily.
Food or green stuff must not be allowed to lie about the run ; after
the first week a little meat food is necessary, finely chopped liver or
green bone until the poults can get insect life for themselves. Fine
grit or sand and vegetable charcoal should always be available ; the
latter may be dusted over the mash two or three times weekly with
advantage. After the first week, and until three months old, four
feeds daily should be given, the first morning feed to consist of mash,
the basis of which should be wheaten bran, to which may be added
household scraps boiled overnight, or one part of Sussex ground oats
to two of bran, mixed with milk; in cold weather a little maize meal
can be added to the above. At first all grain should be finely broken
up as in chick mixtures, but whole grain, with the exception of maize,
may be given when four or five weeks old ; the latter should be
crushed. When the turkey poults become red about the head and
neck they may be taken from their parent; if not she will probably
induce them to roost at night, which will spoil (i,e, dent or cause to
become, crooked) their breast-bones, a bad fault in a bird required
for the table.

Until four months old, young turkeys are better at night if shut
up in a roomy shed, the floor well covered Avith dry litter; during a

476 Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

spell of dry weather they should be put out to roost in the open and
allowed to remain out whatever the weather may be. As with the
breeding stock the perches must not be more than three or four feet
hif?h, and at least three inches wide.

If flocks of young- turkeys are inclined to hang about the house,
it is advisable to drive them afield every morning in ordel- that they
get as much insect life as possible; they will quickly learn to go into
the lands and forage for themselves. Young turkeys intended for the
market in South Africa at Christmas time should not be too closely
penned up to be fattened, in fact where the range is good and insect
life plentiful it is unnecessary. Increase the feed and add milk to
the mash ; Sussex ground oats are a valuable addition to the latter and
tend to whiten the flesh.

Killing and Plucking.

Before killing, turkeys should be kept without food for eighteen
to twenty-four hours and without water for eight; if they are killed
with full crops the skin quickly becomes discoloured. To kill quickly
it is advisable to hang .the turkey by the legs to a strong hook in the
wall or to a beam, so that the head is at a convenient height, the
wings should be locked behind the back, open the turkey's mouth
with a sharp narrow-bladed knife, cut the jugular vein on each side
of the throat, then push the point of the knife up the roof of the
mouth into the brain, slightly turning the knife before withdrawing
it. Commence to pluck immediately before the body gets cold ; do
not remove the feathers by dipping the body into hot water, it may
be quicker, but it spoils the look of the carcass and hardens the flesh.
For home consumption the bird may be killed by dislocating the neck,
but for market or export this gives it an unsightly appearance as the
neck is swollen with congealed blood.

Diseases.

Turkeys are subject to most of the ailments and diseases which
attack fowls, but are seldom anything but hardy after they are six
months old. The following are most commonly met with in rearing
poults.

Colds. — Young turkeys, from two to four months old, are rather
subject to colds ; it seldom affects those that are big enough to roost
in the open, but poults housed in unsuitable quarters. The first
symptoms are a swelling on one or both sides of the head, watery
eyes and nostrils. First give a small dose of epsom salts, say, one
teaspoonful in a tablespoonful of warm water. To reduce the swelling,
bathe the head daily in warm water with a little boracic acid added.
Give daily, until better, three or four drops of chlorodyne in a tea-
spoonful of sweet oil and add some chopped onion to the morning mash.

Roup. — In cases of roup the above-mentioned symptoms are often
present and, in addition, an offensive smelling discharge from the
nostrils. Treat as in colds, but wash the head, eyes, mouth, and
nosti'ils daily with a solution of sulphate of copper. To make a suit-
able solution, dissolve 1 oz. of sulphate of copper in 10 oz. of rain or

Turkeys. 477

soft water, add 1 tablespoonf ul to each quart of drinking water ;
double the strength for washing the head, etc. Roup is a contagious
disease, and sick birds should be isolated; bread and milk is the best
food for a sick bird.

In diphthertic roup patches of yellowish matter appear in the
mouth, throat, and frequently under the eyes; treatment is seldom
satisfactory, and it is safer, if many birds are kept, to destroy and
burn the body. As in all cases of a contagious nature, the remainder
of the flock should be given a clean house and a change of ground
without delay ; a little permanganate of potash, sufficient to make
it pinkish, should be put in the drinking water.

Chicken-pox. — This disease, sometimes known as warts, may be
recognized by a number of small black sores or scabs about the head
and sometimes on the bare skin under the wings. Wash the sores
daily with a fairly strong solution of permanganate of potash or
vinegar and warm water, carefully removing the scab or crust of all
sores, which should be anointed with carbolized vaseline or flowers
of sulphur and lard. Give daily two or three pills of equal parts of
flowers of sulphur and lard, about half an inch in length, and the
thickness of a pencil. Feed on soft mash only and allow plenty of
green food. This is not a serious disease, but birds may become blind
by the warts forming on the eyelids, as they frequently do, and may
starve if not hand-fed. As a precautionary measure during the hot
summer months, one ounce of flowers of sulphur may be added to the
mash of every fifteeen birds once a week.

Scaly Leg. — This unsightly ailment is not common among turkeys,
but can easily be cured by washing the legs with soap and warm
water and applying paraffin oil. Several applications are necessary
to effect a permanent cure.

Burnblefoot. — A swelling on the sole of the foot caused by hard
dry ground or by flying down from high perches. Keep the patient
on soft litrer and paint every other day with iodine. Should an
abscess form, it is advisable to lance it and apply a bread or linseed
poultice to withdraw the accumulated pus. Bandage the foot to keep
out dirt and wash daily with a weak solution of permanganate of
potash or bichloride of mercury.

Leg Weakness. — When growing rapidly, young turkeys,
especially the cocks, are subject to this ailment; they squat on their
hocks and generally appear weak on the leg. Give plenty of animal
food, such as chopped liver or green bone, and a little Parrish's
Chemical Food in the drinking water. Remove to another pen if the
others are inclined to bully, a thing young turkey cocks are often
guilty of.

We advise you to get each copy of the Journal and to keep it.
A full index will be sent every six months to each subscriber.
Experience proves the .Journal to be a useful book of reference. It
will be so in the future. Every farmer is asked to get the Journal
and not to lose it. It is likely that some day, in answer to an inquiry,
you may be referred to an article in the Journal. Keep your Journal !

17

478 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

EXPERIMENTS AND INVESTIGATIONS.

Work at the Schools of Agriculture and Experiment
Stations and Sub-Stations.

[This article completes the series of reviews appearing in preceding issues of the
Jonrnal, on the work in hand at the Schools. — Acting Editor.]

VII.— AT POTCHEFSTROOM, TRANSVAAL.

Field Experiments.

In conjunction with the Chemistry Section, a manurial rotation
experiment is being carried out on eight acres of dry-land.

Grasses. — Several plots of pasture and other grasses are under
observation. Kikuyu, Natal, Fescue, and Phalaris grasses are doing
remarkably well.

Lucerne. — Another ten one-twentieth acre plots of lucerne have
been laid down to observe the variety, characteristics, difference in
growth in local and imported seed, longevity, and frost and drought
resistance.

Clovers. — Eight one-twentieth acre plots of clover have been laid
down during the past year; all the varieties seem to suffer from severe
frosts and heat.

Peanuts. — Five varieties of peanuts were grown as a variety trial,
and two acres were planted for the purpose of increasing the supply of
seed.

Mangels. — To produce seed bearing strains of mangels, several
varieties have been grown for purposes of selection. A seed produc-
ing strain is now being fixed.

Kale and Rape. — These crops have been grown in a " distance
trial " and seeding test.

Beans.- — A large number of bean varieties have been grown, but
were not successful, owing to the drought.

Fibre Plants. — Several of these were grown and samples have
been sent to the Division of Botany, Pretoria, for the purpose of fibre
extraction.

Cowpeas. — This pulse is doing remarkably well ; eight varieties
were included in the variety test. About one acre of the iron variety
has been grown for seed.

Experiments and Investigations. 479

Soya Beans. — Six varieties of Soya Beans were included in the
Soya Bean Variety Trials.

Maize. — Experiments have been conducted in connection with
"Cultivation," "Varieties," '; Planting-," and " Rotations."
Results of these trials will be furnished later.

Spineless Cactus. — About one acre has been planted with varieties
of Spineless Cactus. These are required for distribution later.

Rotations. — Experiments in connection with maize and wheat
rotations are being continued.

New Importations. — Several new varieties of grasses, pulses, and
loot crops were introduced from A'arious places and grown, in most
cases, successfully. These included Sudan grass, vSesbania, Dahl
bean, Arotalaria, and Jack beans.

Horticulture. — Spraying experiments for apple-bark blister, and
plum bark-cracking disease. For the former, bordeaux mixture,
followed by gargoyle red spraying oil has proved very efficacious.

Pollination tests for Wickson plum : Satsuma has proved to be
the best pollinator.

Tests with Hycol for the control of Black Peach Aphis and
Woolly Aphis.

Fertility and sterility tests by bagging of blossoms.

Experiments in retarding blossoming with peach, apricot, apple,
and pear.

Chemistry . — Xitrification studies on the dry-land fertilizer rota-
tion plots, and on fallow and virgin soils.

Glucose and starch yields of different vaiieties of maize.
The lime requirements of soils, qualitative and quantitative.
Methods of making tobacco extracts.

Agricultural Engineering. — Analyses of charcoals made from
different timbers grown in the Union, together with engine trials.

Entomology. — The control of Mylabris beetles : Results prove
tliat hand collecting is the most practicable and effective remedy.

The protection of seed maize from birds and vermin.

Storage of grain : Results show that weevils are not able to live
in grain stored in sn iron tank rendered air-tight })y sealing with
white lead.

Agonomois grain moth : Results indicate that carbon bisulphate
and heat are the only effective killing agents.

Destructive birds : The effectiveness of poisons is being studied.

House flies : Dilute solutions of lime sulphur spray with a small
amount of sodium arsenite, have proved very effective in destroying
flies in stables, gutters, etc.

Rodents — Protective measures : A separate article on the subject
appears in this number of the Journal.

Plant Breeder. — Hybridization and selection of wheat, kaffir corn,
and maize for the improvement of existing varieties and the produc-
tion of new ones.

480 Journal of the Department op Agriculture,

NOTES.

Ostrich Feathers.

The ostrich feather industry of South Africa, which dates from
the year 1865, has been subject to depressions and booms from time
to time. It boomed in the late 'seventies and early 'eighties, while
a few years later it collapsed, reviving again in the later 'nineties.
From 1905 it made great progress which culminated in 1913, when
the value of feathers exported was nearly 3 million pounds sterling.
Then came another slump and the war, and for five years the industry
sank, until in 1918 the export of feathers was lower than it was thirty
years ago. However, the year just passed brought a revival in the
trade, as will be seen from the statistics hereunder, the auctions of
ostrich feathers being resumed in London before a large number of
English and French buyers, Italy also being represented.

The following statement of the quantity and value of ostrich
feathers exported from South Africa indicates the progress or other-
wise of the industry. The average price per lb. for feathers in 1913,
when the industry was at its zenith, was, it will be noted, only
about half what it was in 1880, when the market was also booming : —

Oversea Trade in Ostrich Feathers.

Quantity i^ i i i. a r> •

T-, ^ 1 valued at Aveiase Price

Exported.

lb. £ per lb.

1870 28,786 91,229 £3 3 0

1875 40,569 304,933 6 3 0

1880 163,065 883,632 5 8 0

1885 251,984 585,279 2 6 0

1890 212,276 517,009 2 8 0

1895 353,626 ' 527,742 1 10 0

1900 412,832 879,751 2 2 0

1905 471,024 1,081,187 2 5 0

1910 741,078 2,272,846 3 14

1911 826,992 2,253,140 2 14 6

1912 999,704 2,609,638 2 12 2

1913 1,023,307 2,953,587 2 17 9

1914 755,325 1,342,717 1 15 6

1915 948,945 743,772 0 15 8

1916 452,080 486,362 116

1917 219,048 175,019 0 15 11

1918 108,924 88,628 0 16 3

1919 904,611 1,646,014 1 16 4

The exports for the first three months of 1920 average £2. 5s. lOd.
per lb.

Cape

of Good

Hope.

Natal.

Trans-
vaal.

Orange
Free

State.

Union.

375,970

1,523

14

1,323

360,830

728,087

4,111

5,441

9,097

746,736

756,923

5,081

4,591

9,718

776,313

379,427

4,259

8,927

6,415

399,028

300,906

6,022

3,110

4,227

314,265

2(^490

1,900

2,820

3,860

282,070

Notes. 481

Numher of Birds. — The following table, showing the total
number of ostriches in the Union at various dates, will serve to
illustrate the advance of the industry between 1904 and 1913 and
the effect of the ensuing slump : —

Year.

1904 (General Census)
1911 (General Census)

1913 (31st December)

1916 (30th June)

1918 (Census of Agriculture)

1919* 2(^490

Prickly Pear and Jointed Cactus Extermination.

Eradication of jointed cactus and prickly pear has been a difficult
and costly problem. Both weeds grow on good soils and their destruc-
tion and the prevention of their spreading are most important.

Many means for eradicating the pest have been tried. Mr. P. M.
Rademeyer ^introduced an exterminator several years ago, which was
tested but not found veiy effective. Convinced of the efficacy of
his preparation, Mr. Rademeyer continued experimenting with and
improving it, until in 1917, with the co-operation of the Agricultural
Department, a further test was carried out on the farm Review, in
the Bedford district. Two tracts of land with dense growth of jointed
cactus and several large prickly pear trees were sprayed on the 2nd
August, 1917. One portion was treated with Rademeyer's exter-
minator at the rate of 55 gallons per acre, diluted with luke-warm
water to a strength of 6 J per cent., costing at that time £4. 2s. 6d.
(or £2. 8s. 5d. pre-war cost). The other portion was sprayed with
arsenite of soda at the rate of 440 lb. per acre, diluted with cold
water to a strength of 5 per cent., costing at that time £22 (or £5. 10s.
pre-war cost). Labour and spraying operations cost an additional
5s. per acre for Rademeyer's exterminator, as water had to be heated
and applied warm to make it effective.

The great advantage of this exterminator over arsenite of' soda
is that it is harmless to man and beast. The spray can be handled
without danger to skin or clothing; open sores and cuts on the hands
are not affected by the spray. A number of oxen were each fed on
one-third gallon of the spray mixed and well soaked with lucerne-
hay and prickly pear fruit and came to no harm. On the other hand,
arsenite of soda is poisonous to stock, and special care must be taken
when it is applied and the area sprayed must be fenced.

Two and a half months after spraying (18th October, 1917), the
plots were finally inspected and the results found most satisfactory,
practically all the jointed cactus and prickly pear having completely
rotted on the plot treated with Rademeyer's mixture. Where
arsenite of soda had been used, however, a number of live cactus

* Excluding Native Locations, Keseives, etc.

482

Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

joints and bulbs, also prickly pear leaves, were found to have started
growing again.

Of the two methods Rademeyer's exterminator proved to be more
effective and less costly ; in addition, handling was not dangerous,
and no fencing was required.

The hand-spray pumps used for the test, it may be added, were
not satisfactory, but improved hand-pumps are now obtainable, which
will ensure a wider spray.

All applications for the Rademeyer exterminator should be made
to the Provincial Secretary, Capetown. It is supplied in 3-gallon
drums at a charge of twopence per gallon (plus 5s. per drum, which
will be refunded, less 10 per cent., on return of empty drums).
Directions for mixing and use are supplied with each consignment.

Butter and Cheese.

The dairy industry in the Union has assumed a position of
considerable importance, and whereas only a few years ago it was
necessary to import large quantities of butter and cheese to supple-
ment local requirements, such strides have been made in recent years
that the Union, under normal conditions, is now able to export a
considerable surplus of butter, while in cheese it is self-supporting.

The following statistics illustrate the extent to which South
Africa in past years has been dependent on overseas supplies of butter
and cheese, and how materially the position has improved. The
marked decrease in the large quantities of condensed milk formerly
imported will also be observed.

Net. imports (i.e. gross total, less quantity re-exjjorted both as
merchandise and ships' stores) : —

Year.

1911 ...

1912 ...

1913 ...

1914 ...

1915 ...

1916 ...

1917 ..

1918 ...

1919 ..

It will be seen that up to the date of the war, the importations
of the above-mentioned commodities remained at a high and fairly
constant level. But the outbreak of war and derangement of normal
trade conditions, combined with the necessity and opportunity foi-
increased local production, caused importations to fall considerably
year by year.

* Imported, 26,891 ft. ; exported, 58,641 ft. : balance over imports, 31,750 ft.
t Imported, 20,334 ft. ; exported, 25,088 ft. ; balance over imports. 4754 ft.
X Included in first column.

Butter and

Substitutes.

Butter.:^

Cheese.

Condensed
Milk.

ft

ft.

ft.

ft.

5,549,782

3,746,810

4,900,774

22,119,633

6,429,032

4,748,453

5,121,498

20,631,632

5,648,119

3,688,834

5,571,394

22,423,370

5,496,450

3,758,753

5,144,916

20,660,865

3,851,977

1,820,377

3,857,136

18,466,863

1,964;677

91,682

1,818,320

13,046,612

961,237

*

423,992

11,663,844

514,303

33,582

176,849

1,451,794

631,538

247,368

t

6,760,738

Notes. 483

While imports have dwindled, our exports have developed to
such an extent that there is now a reversal of trade in our favour, as
borne out in the following figures: —

Exports of South African Produce (Ships' Stores included).

ft ft. ft.

1916 1.587,320 1,586,572 36,088

1917 :. 3,122,725 3,111,821 110,555

1918 ,. 1,562,846 1,544,000 487,872

1919 521,752 512,588 1,560,782

The Union's Production.

According to the 1918 Census, the production (exclusive of that
produced in factories) during the year 1917-18 was butter 8,079,100
lb. ; cheese, 1,754,500 lb. ; and the last Industrial Census shows that
during the year 1917-18 the total output of the factories in the Union
was : Butter. 12,014,229 lb. ; cheese, 4,277,227 lb.

Therefore the Union's total production in 1917-18 was : Butter,
20,093,300 lb.; cheese, 6,031,700 lb.

The development of dairying is illustrated also by the following
estimates given by the Superintendent of Dairying : —

Estimated Production in. the Union.

Calendar «„+,.„„ nu « Calendar t, », riu

Ygj^P Butter. Cheese. Yg . Butter. Che'^se.

ft. ft. ft. ft.

1912 ... 10,441,000 — 1916 ... 16,014,000 1,975,500

1913 ... 10,741,000 520,809 1917 ... 19,412,000 4,266,000

1914 ... 10,682,000 605,700 1918 ... 19,221,090 6,816,000

1915 ... 13,407,000 1,098,800 1919 ... 14,288,300 3,703,600

The figures for 1919 are tentative and subject to revision upon
receipt of further information, but they serve the purpose of demon-
strating the serious extent to wdiich our production of butter and
cheese was reduced through the severe drought of 1919.

The World's Crops.

Uncertainty and anxiety prevail as to the position of the world's
production of foodstuffs and its ability to meet the great existing'
demand for the necessities of life. At a time when this vital matter
is receiving more than the passing attention generally given to it,
the work of the International Institute of Agriculture at Rome comes
into prominence, for in addition to other important matters, the.
Institute is concerned with the careful collection and compilation
of statistics showing the world's production of crops, and the figures
hereunder are taken from the latest report of the Institute to hand,

* Included in first column.

484

Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

that for April, 1920. These figures are the summary of information
received from all countries for which complete statistics for the last
seven years are available, and give the position in these countries in
the northern hemisphere for the crop season of 1919 and in the
southern hemisphere for the 1919-20 season.

Summary of Crop Production.

Yield of 1919 and 1919-20 compared with

Crop.

Estimated

Pe'centage of

the World's

Total Yield

represented.

Per Cent.

Wheat

62

Rye

14

Barley

42

Oats

60

Maize

78

Rice ,

60

Potatoes ...

30

Sugar beet ...

25

Wine

76

Linseed

80

Tobacco

55

Cotton

96

Silk cocoons

86

Season 1918

Average of Five
Years

and 1918-19
(= 100).

prior to
1918 and 1918-19

Per Cent.

(Average = 100).
Per Cent.

93.9

96.4

103.5

108.7

81.2

88.1

87.8

91.4

119.1

104.7

137.0

110.3

94.0

87.2

106.0

88.0

105.4

109.4

96.9

93.8

100.0

124.7

103f6

95.8

104.3

123.4

It will be observed that in respect of several crops, the Institute
has information covering a comparatively small portion only of the
world's producing area. In the case of cotton, however, the informa-
tion available is almost complete, as it concerns 96 per cent, of the
world's production, and here we find that the past season's crop
was 3.6 per cent, greater than the year before, but that it fell 4.2
per cent, below the average crop obtained during the five seasons
previous to the last.

In over three quarters of the world's maize belt, the crop last
year averaged 19.1 per cent, greater than the year before and also
4.7 per cent, greater than the average of the five seasons previous to
the last one.

It is chiefly in regard to wheat, however, that the greatest
moment attaches at present, and the figures disclose the fact that
during the past season the crop reaped in certain countries, repre-
senting 62 per cent, of the world's total producing area, was 6.1 per
cent, smaller than the yield of the prior season, and also 3.6 per cent,
less than the average crop obtained from these countries during the
five years previous to the last oue. So much for the past, but what
of the season facing us? The Institute's report does not, of course,
contain iniormation regarding wheat sowings in the southern hemis-
phere this 1920-21 season, but it publishes certain statistics of the

Notes. 485

sowing- of 1919-20 winter cereals in the northern hemisphere. Here
it is found that in certain countries (Spain, France, Scotland,
Roumania, Bessarabia, Canada, United States, British India, Japan,
and Tunis) representing 40 per cent, of the average area under crop
during- the five years 1913-14 to 1917-18 the acreage under wheat
shows a further downward tendency. In these countries the total
area sown is 7.7 per cent, smaller than that of the last winter
(1918-19) and 9 per cent, less than the average acreage under crop
during the five seasons prior to the last. This falling off is caused
principally by decreased sowings in the United States, where the
acreage under wheat is as much as 23.2 per cent, less than the pre-
vious year and 3.5 per cent, less than the average of the five years'
period. On the other hand, in British India the past winter sowings
were 21.5 per cent, greater than those of the previous season, but are
still under the five years' average to the extent of 9.4 per cent;
Although, as will be seen, the position in certain important producing
countries is not reported, the above figures should give some indica-
tion in respect of a large portion of the world's wheat supply.

In so far as the wheat production of the Union is concerned,
certain figures were published in the May, 1920, issue of the Journal
(page 190). Information in regard to the present season's sowings
is now being obtained, and will be published in the Crop Report in
next month's issue.

Note. — Since writing the above, a Renter message, dated 2nd
July from Rome, has appeared in the Press to the effect that, accord-
ing to statistics issued by the International Institute of Agriculture,
indications point to a good European harvest, the outlook for the
coming year not justifying serious anxiety either for importers or
exporters.

Rat Poisons.

A recent issue of the " Tropical Diseases Bulletin " contains, in
a discussion of plague, the information quoted hereunder in respect
of rat destruction : —

The importance of rat-killing is beginning to be realized in Eng-
land, as shown by experiments conducted at the Zoological Gardens,
London, by Mr. E. Boulenger. The experience gained being, in
chief part, as useful in the tropics as in temperate climates, the
following account of results observed are reproduced from The Times
(London) : —

" Giving the conclusions he (Mr. Boulenger) had arrived at, he
said that squill poison, the extract of the bulk of the common
Mediterranean plant, Scilla Tnaritim a, which in the small quantities
necessary for rat destruction is harmless to domestic animals, gave
the most satisfactory results. It is best used by soaking bread in a
solution of the poison mixed with milk. Barium carbonate, of which
1| to 2 grains kills a rat, although 10-15 grains are harmless to a
chicken aud 100 grains to a dog, is next best. It should be mixed
with tallow, and smeared on bread. It can be used effectively with
squills. It has the effect of making the rats thirsty, and after it has
been put down, bowls of squills and milk should be placed where th©
rats will go to drink.

4:SQ JOUENAL OP THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

"Strychnine was not used; it is known to be thoroughly effec-
tive, but it is too dangerous for general use. Phosphorus and
arsenic, although effective are also very dangerous, and were found in
practice less successful than the harmless squills and barium
carbonate. Plaster of paris, magnesium sulphate, and croton were
taken, even when thoroughly disguised, only when no other food was
available, and therefore were inefficient as raticides. As to viruses,
there was no doubt that these were sometimes successful, but a large
body of evidence showed that their action was extremely unreliable,
and that rat populations could acquire toleration of them. The
gassing method kills not only adult rats, but the newly born in their
nests.

" Very many different kind of traps, some of them of remarkable
ingenuity were tested. Some, including those most commonly sold,
were useless; others had occasional successes. The most successful
type was that known as the ' Brailsford,' a long narrow wire cage,
open at each end, but with a central platform with a bait acting on
a spring, which closed both doors.- The suspicions of the rats were
not awakened if apparently there was a clear way."

Scilla maritiina (continues the article) has not, so far as the
writer is aware, been generally recognized as a rat poison, but as
the method which gave Mr. Boulenger the " most satisfactory
results," it will doubtless at once gain attention. Barium carbonate
has long been employed in the United States, and has been regarded
favourably. ... In the Punjab, a satisfactory mixture of fish paste
and a phosphorus compound is made locally under official auspices,
and is reputed to yield good results. In experiments conducted with
various recognized poisons for rats in the Ma.dras Presidency in
1905, it was found that Danysz virus, even after careful culture,
proved untrustworthy, and that the " common-sense rat extermi-
nator," a phosphorus preparation of Canadian origin, gave the most
satisfactory effects. ... In the matter of avoidance of the rat's
objection to human-handled baits, it is requisite that the bread or
bananas used be manipulated by means of knife and fork, instead
of direct handling ; whilst traps may be made less obnoxious by the
attempt to get rid of the human odour by dipping them into boiling
water. According to some rat catchers in England, a trace of
aniseed as a scent on traps is effective ; but of this the writer has no
knowledge in practice.

Marketing of Meat: Facilities for Farmers.

The following particulars of the facilities provided at Johannes-
burg and Pretoria for the sale, under municipal control, of live stock
are published for general information : —

At Johannesburg.

Live stock for sale may be consigned direct to the Director, Live
Stock Market, Johannesburg, and will be sold by public auction to
the highest bidder.

The railway consignment note may be marked " To Pay," and
the amount of railage will be deducted from proceeds of sale.

Notes.

487

Stock should be consig-ned so as to arrive in Johannesburg' on
Tuesdays, Wednesdays, or Thursdays, and not on Saturdays, Sundays,
or public holidays.

Commission charged on sales is 4 per cent, (four per cent.), which
includes all market dues. All slaughter stock sold on the market is
sold with a Johannesburg Abattoir guarantee, i.e. in the event of any
stock being condemned for disease in the Abattoir, the buyer does not
pay for these. To cover the vendor in the case of condemnation, all
slaughter stock, forwarded to the Director for sale, is insured, as per
following table showing premiums and indemnity: —

Description,

Premium
per Head.

Amount of Indemnity.

Cattle (over 1 2 months)

Calves (under 12 months) ...

Sheep, Lambs, and Goats

Pigs (up to 100 lb. live weight) ...
Pigs (over 100 lb. live weight)

te. 6d.

3d.

2d.
Is. 6d.

2s.

Full J rice realized.

Full price realized.

Full price realized.

Hd. per lb. dressed weight of carcass.

3d. per lb. dressed weight of carcass.

As pigs are sold by live weight (with the exception of very small
sucking pigs), a charge of Is. per 25 pigs, or part of 25, is made for
weighing, and a weight certificate issued. All weighing of pigs is
done by municipal officials.

There are two methods by which stock may be disposed of : —

(1) At so much per head "on hoof " in the live stock market

by public auction.

(2) Slaughter of the animals and the sale of the carcasses, hide,

offal, fat, etc., separately.

For animals sold by No. 1 method, 4 per cent, commission on
price realized covers all charges, and by No. 2 method, the following
are the abattoir and slaughtering charges, in addition to 4 per cent,
commission : —

Abattoir Charge.

Cattle ... ... 2s. Gd. per head

Sheep ... ... 6d. „ „

Goats... ... ... 9d. „ „

Calves ... ... Is. „ ,,

Pigs Is.

Slaughteritig <Jharge.

4s. 9d. per head.
7d. „ „

Is. (jd. per head.
Is. 6d. per 100 lb. and ik\.
each 100 lb. over.

for

In the event of a reserve price not being realized, animals may be
slaughtered, the hide, offal, fat, etc., sold at once, and the jareus^es
placed in the Abattoir Cold Storage for sale at a later date, for which
the charges would be as follows, in addition to 4 per cent. coinTnission
and above-mentioned abattoir and slaughtering charges: —

For every quarter of beef. Is. 6d. per week or part thereof.

Sheep carcass, 6d. per week or part thereof.

Calf carcass, 6d. per week or part thereof.

Pig carcass, 6d. per 100 lb. per week or part thereof.

All pigs forwarded for sale are examined before sale in the Live
Stock Market for visible infection of measles, and any found so iufected

488 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

are not sold or insured, but are forwarded to the Abattoir to be

slaughtered and dressed; the fat is then stripped o^ the carcass and

sold on account of the vendor. In the ei'ent of this being- done the

vendor is debited with al-attoir and slaughtering charges as under: —

Abattoir Charge. Slaughtering Charge.

Is. per pig. Is. 6d. per 100 lb. and 6d. for every additional 100 lb.

or part.

In the event of any very poor pigs being found visibly infected,
and from which no fat is available, they are destroyed without further
charge to the vendor. It is, therefore, advisable to examine all pigs
for visible measle infection before sending for sale, and any found
infected should not be forivarded.

A weekly report of prices ruling on the* Live Stock Market is
published every Saturday, and farmers desirous of having thece for-
warded to them should make applic'ation to the Director for their
names and addresses to be entered on the Mailing List.

At Pretoria.

The facilities and the scales of charges at Pretoria are about the
same as those at Johannesburg, excepting that at Pretoria the
scheme of insurance has not yet been introduced, but is
now under consideration. The sales are held at Pretoria West
on every Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday, and animals should be
consigned direct to the Manager, Live Stock Market, Pretoria West.
All stock sent in by farmers will be off-loaded and peuned, also grazed,
free of charge, prior to being sold. All pens have arrangements for
watering stock, and, if desired, the municipality will provide feeding
for animals at a nominal charge. The municipal railway siding runs
into the stock yards, and allows for expeditious handling of animals.
The quarantine section is ample, and can deal with any number of
stock from quarantine areas for sale by auction or for slaughtering
and sale by dead weight. Conjiected with the Abattoir is an up-to-
date chilling room where carcasses are thoroughly chilled prior to
sale, and presented to buyers in the best possible condition.

STAFF: APPOINTMENTS, TRANSFERS, ETC.

Date. Name of Official and Nature of Change, etc.

1/6/20 Dr. J P. ran Zijl : Chemist at Glen transferred to Veterinary Research Division,
Onderstepoort.
12/6/20 W. E. Footne?; 3I.R.C.V.S. : Appointed as District Veterinary Surgeon (tem-
porarily stationed at Pretoria).
21/6/20 A. V. M. Salter : Sheep and Wool Expert, Fauresmith, Orange Free State, died.
1/7/20 Dr. P. J. du Tuit : Senior Veteiinary Resenrch Officer, promoted to be Sub-
Director for Research and Education and Professor of Hygiene.
1/7/20 Dr. H. H. Green : Physiological Chemist promoted Sub-Director for Research
and Education and Proftsror of Bio Chemist; y.
14/6/20 Mr. G.v.d. W. de Koch cf the Transvaal University College : Appointed as
Senior Research Otficer and Professor of Anatomy.

The Poultry Yard Month by Month.

489

THE POULTRY YARD MONTH BY MONTH.

By J. J. JoRDAAN, Lecturer and Instructor in Poultry, Glen, Orange Free State.

August.

Feeding. — This is one of the diffic^^lt months of the year in which to obtain
green food, and in no month is it so necessary for growing chicks, prospective
show or laving-competition winners. They want a liberal allowance, and the
breeding-pen also demands it, if health and fertility are desired. Soaked
lucerne-hay should be available if nothing else is to be had, although sprouted
grain should be possible to all. (See June notes.)

Chickens.— Separate all cockerels from the pullets; this helps an retarding
early development of egg organs and tends towards increased size and rapid
growth. While separating them examine each one for insects or nits around
the head and under the throat, and if seen anoint with a little of the following :
4 parts salad oil, 1 part paraffin, J part creosote.

Watch for leg weakness and cramp am.ongst the cockerels, especially those
of the heavy varieties, and if seen add a tablespoonful of bone-meal to the
mash for each ten birds, or a tablespoonful of Parishes' Chemical Food to each
quart of drinking water. An extra feed at night by lantern light will also help
towards rapid growth. Remember that the chicken has a large body to build
up in a comparatively short period, and requires abundance of food for this, and
that the nights are long.

Cull strictly — all poor doers will later be poor producers, and therefore
unprofitable. Culling also keeps down expenses otherwise necessary for labour,
feeding, and housing, as well as leaving more room for the good ones. Unless
you are a breeder with a large connection it will be found advantageous to
dispose of the cockerels as " broilers " ; South Africa is waking up to this trade.

Disease. — Eye roup and ordinary roup will show if sleeping quarters are
draughty.

Breedings-pens. — Two or three hens may be added to the number in the
breeding-pen, but do not neglect the male bird. The better he is the more
attention he will pay to the hens and the more he will neglect his own feeding.

Egg Production. — This is one of the best months of the year for hatching
light breed pullets for autumn and winter egg production.

General. — Wind in all its fury may be expected in the latter part of the
month, and few things will be found more detrimental to the vigorous growth
of chicks, or cause a more sudden drop in the egg output. Windbreaks or
screens should, therefore, be made, if they have not been grown.

A useful windbreak screen can be made as illustrated below : —

Wire

Wire

All that is required are : 3 7-foot iron standards, or other available posts ;
6 3-inch bolts; 2 pieces of wire 8 feet long; 3 bundles stout grass or mealie
stalks ; a few pieces of tarred twine.

Cut one of the standards into three pieces 2 feet 4 inches long, have a hole
drilled into each end of the standards for bolting and making frame as sketched.
Frame might also be put together with wire instead of bolts. Fasten the two

490

Journal of thk Department of Agriculture.

lengths of plain wire to the three cross sections of the frame, and over this
spread the three bundles of grass, and with tarred twine fasten to the frame
and wires.

When complete, stand one on each side of the fence dividing the runs as
shown below, with the grass on the outside of frame ; they make excellent
shades and windbreaks, and are cheap and durable.

fence

Shade

Ducks, goslings, and turkey poults should be hatched from now on.

New laid eggs will commence coming in, so dispose of all preserved eggs
during this month.

Prepare ground for growing greenstuff during the summer.

Dip all the adult fowls in one of the commercial dips; ^he usual strength
is 1 to 100 or 120 parts of water.

All houses, brooders, nests, etc., should be well sprayed with a strong
solution of dip and then painted with solignum or carbolineum, preferably upon
a hot day, in order to check the breeding of insects and preserve the wood.

Remove ground and manure, and whitewash the roof of the house both inside
and out Avith lime, to which a liberal amount of salt has been added.

Sale of Live Stock at Cedara School of Agriculture.

The annual sale of pure-bred live stock at Cedara was held on
the 26th June, the day following the close of the Maritzburg show.
There was a large attendance of buyers from all parts of the Union,
and good prices were obtained. The following is a summary of the
number of animals offered and (he prices realized : —

No.

Kind.

Highest.

Lowest.

Average
1920.

Total.

£ s.

d.

£ s.

d.

£ s.

d.

£

8. d.

7

Friesland Bulls

300 0

0

135 0

0

188 11

6

1,320

0 0

3

„ Cows and Heifers

117 10

0

82 10

0

103 6

8

310

0 0

9

Shorthorn Bulls

160 0

0

70 0

0

110 5

6

992

10 0

6

„ Cows and Heifers

80 0

0

5? 10

0

70 0

0

420

0 0

9

Aberdeen -Angus Bulls

150 0

0

100 0

0

121 2

3

1,090

0 0

1

Ayrshire Bull

—

— .

41 0

0

41

0 0

2

,, Cows and Heifers

7.5 0

0

50 0

0

62 10

0

125

0 0

3

Berkshire Boars

9 5

0

7 10

0

8 8

4

25

5 0

h

„ Sows

9 0

0

6 10

0

7 4

0

36

0 0

9

Large Black Boars ...

6 10

0

2 10

0

3 13

4

33

0 0

7

„ „ Sows ...

8 10

0

3 5

0

5 18

7

41

10 0

36

Fowls

1 15

0

1 5

•

0

1 9

4

52

15 0

£4,487

0 0

Summary.

Cattle ...
Pigs
Poultry ...

£4,298 10 0

135 15 0

52 15 0

£4,487 0 0

The Vegetable Garden. 491

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN,

August, 1920.

By H. B. Terry, Cert. R.H.S., Lecturer in Horticulture. School of
Agriculture, Potchefstroom.

As this month begins the sowing calendar for the spring and summer, all spare
ground that has not been dug over and manured should be so prepared without
delay.

Under cover for protection from frosts the following may be sown : —

Cabbage. — Early Jersey, Wakefield, Surehead, Copenhagen Market, Castle.
These are not mammoth varieties, but as they mature early they all help in
giving successional crops.

Cauliflower. — Early heading varieties are Early London, Gilt Edge, Snow-
ball. An early crop and a late crop are all that can be successfully grown.
The summer heat is too great for others.

Tomato. — Earliana, Bonnie Best, Beauty, Sunrise, Matchless. It is best to
sow these in tins or boxes and give a little bottom heat by placing the tins on
a well tramped bed of stable manure.

Mustard and Cress should be sown in boxes and protected to cause the
plants to grow quickly and stand erect.

In open ground, according to climatic conditions, there is a great variety of
vegetables that may be sown in drills.

Broad Beans. — Further sowings may be made; they require fairly rich soil
and at all times plenty of water.

Beetroot. — Eclipse, Egyptian, Turnip-rooted are good sorts to sow now.
Thin out the young seedlings later on and transplant.

f Carrots. — Early Dutch Horn, Chantenay, and Model may be sown to
mature during November and December.

Knol-kohl (Kool Rabi). — White Vienna, Goliath should be sown for succes-
sion. The young seedlings should be thinned early and ti'ansplanted.

Radish. — All varieties excepting China Rose and Spanish.

Turnips. — A good sowing should be made for spring use.

Peas.— Where severe frosts have prevented sowings the present is a good
time to commence. Dwarf sorts such as Daisy, Gradus, American Wonder,
Stratagem, Pride of the Market give the earliest yield. Late sorts may also be
sown to follow on and prolong the season. Peas are not as a rule successfully
grown if sown later.

Herbs. — Mint, Marjoram, Thyme, and Sage may be lifted, divided, and
replanted.

Asparagus. — No time should be lost in completing the planting of this
delicious vegetable. The crowns commence to grow early and any check is
disastrous.

Rhubarb may be divided and replanted. Old established crowns may be
forced to provide early succulent stalks by placing half barrels, buckets, or
parafl&n tins over them and giving plenty of water. Care should be taken not
to overdo the forcing, otherwise it weakens the plant.

Scarlet Runner Beans.- — These roots unless removed will break into growth
this spring and give an early crop. The soil around them should be covered
with manure and left. It is too early for other varieties of beans to be sown.

Lettuce. — Both Cos and Cabbage varieties may be sown. If too crowded
the seedlings may be transplanted and given copious supplies of water.

Chicory and Seakale will provide a beautiful lot of stalks for boiling as
vegetables if treated in the same way as described above for rhubarb.

To grow vegetables successfully they must be kept continually on the move
and never allowed to check. The soil should always be kept loose and moist.
Don't keep on continually sprinkling the soil. (Give a good soaking, then
cultivate when dry enough. This keeeps down weeds, saves watering, and allows
air to get down to the roots.

492 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

NOTES FROM THE "GAZETTE."

Attention is drawn to the following matters of interest which appeared
in the Union Government Gazette: —

(Abbreviations: " Proc." — Proclanaation ; "G.N." — Government Notice.)

Gazette.
No. Date. Items.

1062 11/6/20 The regulations restricting the movements of cattle within the
Indwe Sub-Division of Wodehouse district on account of East
Coast fever, have been amended. (G.N. No. 929.)
1062 11/6/20 The appointment of certain gentlemen as officers of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture for the purpose of imposing provisional
quarantines on farms in the Pretoria District on which the
presence of East Coast fever is suspected, is notified in G.N.
No. 986.
1062 11/6/20 The Minister of Agriculture has approved of the withdrawal of
the restrictions on public sales of cattle in the Mount Fletcher
district. (G.N. No. 1000.)
1062 11/6/20 Compulsory dipping of cattle in the five-day dip in certain
1064 18/6/20 portions, of the districts of Umvoti, Lions River, Umzimkulu,

1068 25/6/20 Ixopo, Ladysmith, Krantzkop, Estcourt, Port Shepstone,

1071 2/7/20 Pietermaritzburg, Impendhle, New Hanover, Richmond, and

Durban ; in the three-day dip in portions of Zoutpansberg,
Pretoria, Barberton, and Piet Retief; and in the seven-day
dip in portions of Lydenburg, is required in terms of G.N.
Nos. 1001, 1048, 1083, 1132.
1062 11/6/20 Crown lands in the Division of Kenhardt will be offered for sale
by public auction on Saturday, 21st August, 1920, at 11 a.m.,
in front of the Magistrate's Office, Kenhardt. (G.N. No. 988.)
1064 18/6/20 The cutting and removal of rushes used by natives for the
making of mats is prohibited in certain native locations ii?
the district of Mqanduli, Tembuland. The period of such
prohibition and other conditions are stipulated in G.N. No.
100.
1064 18/6/20 Both the " Thethlelele " and "Chevy Chase" Plantations, in
the Mount Fletcher district, are to be declared demarcated
forests by the Minister in tei-ms of Act No. 16 of 1913.
(G.N. Nos. 1022 and 1023.)
1064 18/6/20 The districts of Riversdale, Ladismith, Swellendam, and portion
of Bredasdorp, have been declared protected areas for pur-
poses of the scab regulations framed under the Stock Diseases
Act, No. 14 of 1911. The movement of sheep and goats within,
into, and out of such areas are governed by the above-men-
tioned regulations. (G.N. No. 1036.)
1064 18/6/20 Under the Stock Diseases Act, No. 14 of 1911, the Minister has
restricted the movements of cattle in respect of the Pretoria
Municipal Area and Town Lands. (G.N. No. 1049.)
1064 18/6/20 For the purposes of the Stock Diseases Act, the Minister has
declared the farms Jachtpad, Witumveloos, and Rusthof
(Sub-division A of Onverwacht No. 63) to be in the Vryheid
District.
1064 18/6/20 The Forest Department publishes the Prospectus of the School
for Foresters and Forest Apprentices, giving full particulars
as to purpose of the courses, the subjects they embrace, con-
ditions of admission, etc. (G.N. No. 470.)

A notification to intending students desirous of entering
the courses referred to above is published in G.N. No. 471.
1068 25/6/20 The tarift' for forest produce, as fixed by G.N. No. 1809 of 1914,
issued by the Forest Department, has been amended to
2s. 6d. per wagon load of "grass" for thatch; and for
" reed " for thatch to 10s. per 1000 bundles of not more than
10 inches in circumference. (G.N. No. 1067.)

Notes from the "Gazette." 493

(Abbreviations: " Proc." — Proclamation; "G.N." — Government Notice.)
Gazette.
No. Date. Items.

1068 25/6/20 The three-day interval for cattle dipping on the farm Harte-
beestpoort, Pretoria District, has been extended to five days
from 20th June, 1920. (G.N. No. 503.)

1062 25/6/20 The Public Service Commission has been authorized to nominate,
subject to Government approval, from among South African
scholars proceeding to or studying at the Forest Schools
attached to the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, Edin-
burgh, or any other forest school of equal standing, candidates
for ultimate appointment in the Union Forest Department.
Further particulars may be had from the Secretary of the
Commission, Pretoria, and are published in Public Service
Commission Notice, p. 643.

1071 2/7/20 The various areas comprising the Harkerville Forest Reserve, in
the Division of Knysna, are defined in the Schedule to G.N.
No. 946, which cancels previous notices regarding this reserve.

1071 2/7/20 An Advisory Committee on East Coast fever for the District
of Pretoria has been appointed by the Minister of Agricul-
ture, and the names of the members and consultative members
published. (G.N. No. 1141.)

1071 2/7/20 Water Regulations for the Klipdrift Settlement, Polchefstroom,
approved bv the Governor-General, are published in G.N.
No. 1140.
983 2/7/20 The High Commissioner notifies in the Official Gazette that
under the Game Preservation Law for Swaziland (Game
Preservation Ordinance, 1905, of the Transvaal), certain birds
and animals mentioned in the Schedule to the Proclamation
shall be protected in certain districts of Swaziland as from
the date of publication (22/6/20) up to the 1st May, 1923.
(Proc. No. 1.)

SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE ON THE
OVERSEA MARKET.

Extracts from Report of the Acting Trade
Commissioner.

May, 1920.

Wool.- — At the wool auctions held on the 3rd June, about 2000 bales of
South African free wools were offered. The market is described as being in a
demoralized condition, and greasy wools were more or less unsaleable. While
it is practically impossible to give a basis for prices, as far as any particular
quotation can be made, greasy combings were from 25 to 30 per cent, below last
sales rates. As regards Snow Whites, there was only a slight competition, and a
few sales were effected on a basis of a decline of 10 per cent, on superior
qualities, from 20 per cent, to 25 per cent, in the case of medium sorts, and
from 10 per cent, to 15 per cent, as regards inferior descriptions.

Mohair. — The market is quite lifeless, and the tendency of the article is
downward, probably in sympathy with wool. The price of the best quality
Cape hair has been more or less maintained at about 28d. to 29d. per lb., and
winter hair is quoted nominally at 21d. Other classes of mohair are for the
moment practically unsaleable. Turkey hair is quoted at 26d. to 27d. per lb.
for fair average quality.

Hides. — During the last six weeks there have been practically no buyers of
raw hides, and the Cape hides catalogued for the public sales of the 13th May
and 3rd June are nearly all still on hand, though a decline of 25 per cent,
would be accepted by many holders.

4;U Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Skins. — Goat and sheep skins are in the same position as hides, and no
business of any importance has taken place. The few transactions recorded
show a drop of about 33 per cent., but there are few buyers even at this
reduction. The prospect is not encouraging, and a further fall in values of
from 10 per cent, to 15 per cent, is expected.

Wattle Bark. — The market is at present very dull, and practically no
Imsiness is being done. Large stocks have accumulated and sellers are willing
to take £15. 15s. per ton c.i.f. for chopped. Ground bark is a little firmer at
about £17. 10s. to £17. 15s. per ton c.i.f. I am informed that fairly large
parcels are now afloat for the Continent, but the demand has fallen off con-
siderably. The general slump in leather manufactured goods is naturally affect-
ing the price of all raw materials used by the tanners, and the fact that there
are large supplies of Valonia and other similar tanning materials available has
also tended to depreciate the value of bark.

Maize. — During the past month no business has been done. Rhodesian
No. 2 maize has been offered at 100s. per quarter c.i.f. on the basis of freight
at 150s. per ton, but buyers will not pay this price. No. 2 South African is
offered at about 105s. c.i.f. There is a good inquiry for all kinds of maize, but
the trade is of opinion that the present level of prices, both of Argentine and
South African maize, is too high to allow business. Argentine shippers are
asking about 75s. per quarter c.i.f., which would make South African worth
about 77s. 6d. to 80s. per quarter, but at present only about 72s. is obtainable
for Argentine, and, therefore, it might not be possible to secure more than
75s. to 77s. 6d. for South African.

Kaffir Corn. — About 90s. per quarter is obtainable for this article for prompt
shipment, but I am informed that shippers are not able to offer at less than
100s.

Ostrich Feathers. — Since the auction sales held on the 3rd May the market
has shown no appreciable signs of improvement. The Whitsun holidays have
also handicapped business to some extent. Inquiries have been made for Tipless
and Medium quality sound Feminas and Femina Boos, but the demand for all
other grades remains restricted owing principally to the unstable position of
the foreign exchanges.

The Plumage Bill, which passed its second reading in the House of Commons
(luring last month, is now being considered in committee, but owing to the con-
gestion of business little progress has so far been made. I may state that the
trade here and on the Continent strongly resent the proposed legislation, which
they contend will not only fail in achieving any useful purpose, but, indirectly,
will adversely affect the feather trade, ostrich and otherwise. The manufacturers
of feathers in France have, through their association, protested against the
proposed legislation, and have pointed out to the Feather Association in London
that the position is very serious, for if the Bill is finally adopted the French
Government may be called upon, as a matter of reciprocity, to prohibit the
import of ostrich feathers. The position is being carefully watched, but in the
opinion of the trade here the possibility of any such action on the part of the
French Government as indicated, is considered to be very remote. I may say
that the French Government has recently reinstated certain prohibitions of
importation, the greater proportion of which are not actually indispensable
to the requirements of the population. These include feathers, but only such
as are ornamental, prepared, or mounted. Feathers in their natural state
(which are what really concern us) are not in any way affected. The import-
ance of the feather industry in France will, it is considered, be a sufl&cient
safeguard against any undue interference with the .ostrich feather as an article
of export.

Dried Fruit. — The Food Controller has decided to decontrol dried fruits before
the next season begins. In accordance with this decision the Dried Fruits
(Restriction) Order, 1919, the Dried Fruits (Wholesale Prices) Order, 1919, and
the Dried Fruits (Retail Prices) Order, 1918, will be revoked as from Monday,
2nd August. After that date there will be no. restriction on the import of
dried fruits into the United Kingdom by private traders, and the maximum
wholesale and retail prices at present in operation will be withdrawn. The
Ministry states that it holds sufl&cient stocks of dried fruits to enable it to
prevent any attempts to raise prices unduly, not only during the remainder
of the present season, but also throughout next autumn, when the new crops
will be brought to this country.

Oversea Prices of South African Produce. 495

OVERSEA PRICES OF SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE.

May and June, 1920.

Market Prices of South African Produce in the United Kingdom,

CABLED BY THE AcTlNG TrADE COMMISSIONER, LoNDON.

South African W(yol.

May, 1920. Greasy combing 25 per cent, to 30 per cent, below last sale prices.
Snow-whites only slight competition. Prices showed decline 10 per cent, for
■ superior qualities, 20 per cent, to 25 per cent, for medium, and 10 per cent, to
15 per cent, for inferior descriptions.
June. 1920. Wool auctions 8th and 10th only a small quantity changed hands.
Greasy combing 25 to 30 per cent, below last sales prices. Snow-whites only
slight competition. Prices showed decline 10 per cent, superior qualities, 20
to 25 per cent, medium, and 10 to 15 per cent, inferior descriptions.

Mohair.

May, 1920. Market shows tendency to decMne in sympathy with wool. Best
quality S. A. Mohair, 2s. 4d. to 2s. 5d. per lb.; Winters, Is. 9d.; Turkey, 2s. 2d.
to 2s. 3d.
June, 1920. Practically no transactions.

Cape Hidex.

May, 1920. Market stagnant.

Sheep Skins.

May, 1920. Market stagnaiit for Cape Merino.

June, 1920. Cape Merino. Practically no buying since April ; few transactions

show general decline of about 25 per cent, since March. There is at present

no prospect of any improvement.

Natal Wattle Bark.

May, 1920. Market dull. Chopped, £14 c.i.f. per ton.

June, 1920. £15. 10s. c.i.f. per ton chopped ; £17 ground.
Maize.

May, 1920. South African No. 2 White Flat, worth about 77s. 6d. to 80s. per
quarter, 480 lb.

June, 1920. South African No. 2 White Flat, market stagnant, 70s. to 72s. 6d.
Argentine 59s. to bis.
Maize Meal.

May, 1920. Practically no market.

Kaffir Corn.

May, 1920. 90s. per quarter, 480 lb., for prompt shipment.

Ostrich leathers.

May, 1920. Unchanged.

June, 1920. Improved demand but no alteration in prices.

Cotton.

May, 1920. Highest, 25-4.5d. ; lowest, 24- 63d.

June, 1920. June future closed at 24'48d., July, 24d. ; highest for last week
24-25d. ; lowest, 23-65d.

S.A. Oranges.

June, 1920. Now arriving in good condition, meeting most favourable market, prices
35s. to 55s.

Cajje Fruit.

June, 1920. Not satisfactory, being too coarse and light, fair prices obtained due
to temporary shortage but only best fruit should be shipped.

495 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

RECENT AGRICULTURAL LITERATURE.

By Paul Ribbink, Librarian, Department of Agriculture.

I.— UNION GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS.

Miscellaneous Reports, etc., of Interest to Farmers.

A. — Department of Agriculture.

Bulletins ohtainahle from the Department of Agriculture, Pretoria.

Number of

Price per copy. Publication.

Gratis. Veterinary Research and Education in South Africa, 5/1920
Address by Sir Arnold Theiler, K.C.M.G.

3d. The South African Locust Poison, by Ernest Anderson, Science Bul-

M.S., Ph.D. letinNo. 15.

2s. 6d. Botanical Survey of South Africa, Phanerogamic Flora Memoir No.

of the Divisions of Uitenhage and Port Elizabeth, 1.
by S. Schonland.

B. — Miscellaneous Reports, etc., of Interest to Farmers.
(Obtainable from the Government Printer, Pretoria.)

3s. 6d. Census of the European or AVhite Races of the Union U.G. 51 — '19.

of South Africa, 1918, Part II, Ages.

5s. Od. Census of the European or White Races of the Union U.G. 1 — '20.

of South Africa, 1918, Part III, Education.

5s. Od. Report of tlie Under-Secretary for Education of the U.G. 41 — '19

Union of South Africa, year ended 31st December,

1918.

Is. Od. Profiteerinji Bill : First Report of the Select Committee, S.C. 8— '20.

June, 1920.

— Registration of Pedigree Live Stock Bill : Report of the S.C. 13 — '20.

Select Committee.

Is. 3d. South-West Protectorate: Report of the Administrator U.G. 40 — '20.

for the year 1919.

II.— THE AGRICULTURAL PRESS OF SOUTHERN AND TROPICAL

AFRICA.

Selected Articles.

Die Boer (Bijvoegsel tot De Volkstem), Pretoria.
21/5/20 Dynamiet op die Plaas.

28/5/20 Soedangras, deur G. J. Bosman, Bosluispes en Omheining.
11/6/20 Lanisiekte of Gallamsiekte, uittreksel van lesing gehou deur

Dr. Hartig.
18/6/20 Kunsmis en hoe om dit te gebruik, deur J. Fisher {vervolg).

Daling mielieprijs.

Die Boerevromv (Posbus 984, Pretoria).

6/20 Die Werkvolk op 'n Boereplaas, deur oud-president F. W. Reitz.
Kalkoene, deur J. J. Jordaan. Meubelwedstrijd. Bijeboerderij
vir Beginners, deur G. R. von Wielligh.

Recent Agricultural Literature, 497

Farmers' Advocate, South African (P.O. Box 247, Bloemfontein).

6/20 Whe<it Cultivation in South Africa: Results of Experiments with
" Yeoman " Seed, by J. E. Donkin. With Pen and Camera
at the Shows. Pig Management. Grazing, by D. P.
MacDonald.

The Farmers' Journal (Nairobi, B.E.A.).

6/5/20 Humus, What can be done with the refuse of the farm. Diseases

of Para, by W. Small,
13/5/20 Rearing the Calf, by J. F. de Vine. Diseases of F ar a , (continued).

Contagious Pleuro-pneumonia of cattle.
20/5/20 Impressions of the East African Flax Industry. The Citrus

Nursery, by A. Bester {continued). Rats: What is being done

in England.
27/5/20 Management of the Milking Herd.
3/6/20 Flax Unity.
10/6/20 Rules for Butter-making. Diseases of Dogs.

The Farmers' Weekly (Bloemfontein).

2/6/20 Tips on Irrigation, bv C. F. AVarren, A.M.I.C.E. (4). How to
Throw a Horse* by A. Hodder, M.R.C.V.S. On Selecting a
Tractor. The Shorthorn Breed. Monthly Review.
9/6/20 Birds: In Orchards and Grounds, by F. W. Fitzsimons, F.Z.S.
Pig Breeding and Management, by " Granob." Farming in
South America, by Dr. Eric Nobbs. Farm Furniture, by
"Waterberg."

16/6/20 Income Tax, bv '-Accountant." Glanders and Farcy, by
A. Hodder, M.R.C.V.S. Tips on Irrigation. The Soil Mulch.

23/6/20 Birds and Pasture, by F. W. Fitzsimons, F.Z.S. Thirstland
, Redemption, Editorial.

30/6/20 Stunip Pulling (Special). The Sublime in Agriculture, by
"J. M. G."' Milk and Cream Tests, by J. Toens. Farming
in South America (confinued). Feeding of Dairy Stock, by
C. Williams. The Season for Fluks Infection, by F. G.
Cawston, M.D.

The Independent (Salisbury, Rhodesia).

21 /5/20 (Vol. 1, No. 1). Cattle Dipping.

28/5/20 Well Waters, How to Purifv. Control of Export Maize, by

"Cereal."
4/6/20 Microbes and the Farm, by L. E. W. Bevan (continued). The

Irrigation of the Kalahari, by A. Karlson (continued). From

Farm to Factory, the Dairy Industry of Rhodesia, by F. D.

Walker. The Kudzu Vine, by F. Eyles.
11/6/20 Maize: The Economical Value of Seed Selection, by " Ager."
18/6/20 Pise Work, by D. L. McLachlan. Home-made Windmill, by A. C.

Jennings.
25/6/20 The Ancient Ruins in Rhodesia, by F. Eyles. War Settlement:

The work in Rhodesia, by R. C. Simmons.

Die Landbouwer (Posbus 1035, Pretoria).

15/3/20 Op water wag of lei. Vermeerdering van ons mielieproduksie
(vervolg). Ons Hoenderpraatjie.

Die Landbouw Weekhlad (Posbus 267, Bloemfontein).

2/6/20 Mielies en Groente Inkuiling, deur G. J. Bosman. Die Kunsmis
in Holland. Landbou-onderwijs in Middelbare Skole (vervolg).
9/6/20 Die Grondkombefs. Pluimveedag tfe Glen, O.V.S. Volstruisveer-
industrie.

16/6/20 Suidatrikaanse Rijsmiere, deur Claude Fuller.

23/6/20 Kort Landlouwkursusse. Landboukunde in die Skool, vereistes
vir Matriek na Junie 1920. Bestanddele van Portland Sement,
deur " Meerkat " (vervolg).

30/6/20 Landljoutoestande in Rhodesia, deur oom Gert. Dorre Suid-
Afrika, deur J. D. Schonken. Landbou-onderwijs in die Skool,
deur Dr. T. de V. Malherbe. Goeie Saad, deur 6. Nel.

498 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

South African Dairyman (P.O. Box 925, Durban).

6/20 Dairying Demonstration at Cedara, 21st May. OflBcial Notes on
Friesland Cattle. The Acid Test for Milk.

South African Farm Nr\rs (P.O. Box 963, Johanne.sburg).

6/20 Rand Cattle Farmers' Fight against Anthrax. Red Polled Cattle,
by Farmer George. The 1920 Settlers.

South African Fiuit Grower and Small Holder (P.O. Box 5958, Johannesburg).
6/20 The Value of Superphosphate as a Fertilizer, by B. Wulf. French
Gardening improved npon.

South African Gardening and Country TAfe (P.O. Box 3958, Johannesburg).

6/20 How to Grow Vegetables. The Forming and Pruning of Fruit
Trees. Poyits to Observe in Practical Pruning.

South African Journal of Industries (Government Printer, Pretoria).

6/20 Fertilizer Production and Natural Fertilizers in the Union, bv
C. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc. Artificial Stock Foods and their
Manufacture, by W. Jarvis Palmer, B.S.A. Vegetable Fats and
Oils : IV. — Semi-drying Oils, by Prof. M. Rindl. The Iron and
Steel Industry. Transport Methods in South Africa : IV. —
Ruril Transport {continued), by Sir Wm. Hoy, Kt., C.B.
Products of the Peanut. f

South African Foultry Hevieio and Small Holder (Johannesburg).

6/20 The Ancona, by W. G. Looney. Stick to your birds, no necessity
for panic over price of food-stuffs. Poultry-keeping on Practical
and Paying Lines, by W. C. Archibald.
South African Poultry Bcview and Small Holder (Johannesburg).

6/20 Our Need. The Ancona, by W. G. Looney. The Goat, or Poultry-
m.an's Cow, by Geo. R. Vivyan. Hens in their third laying
year; does it pay to keep them? by H. Curtiss. Roup, Con-
tagious Catarrh.
South African Sugar Journal (P.O. Box 925, Durban).

6/20 Annual General Meeting of the Natal Planters' Union, 7th June,
1920. White Sugar Manufacture in Natal, by AVm. Clacher.
Notes on the Cotton Industry, by W. B. Wilson.
The Sun and Agricultural Journal of South Africa (P.O. Box 634, Johannesburg).
6/20 Transvaal to Tangier, scheme for railway to Paris and London
through the heart of Africa. Seed Selection of Tobacco, by
Pieter Koch. Electric Light and Power from small streams
(No. 2), by A. M. Daniels. Preparation and Packing of Produce
for Market, by G. Bidwell. The South African Grain Trade
Association.
Sunday Tiines (Farmers' Supplement), Johannesburg.

6/6/20 Chemistry of Animal Nutrition, by J. S. Jamieson. Building an
Incubator House, by Malcolm MacFarlane. Rat Destruction.
Veterinary School.
13/6/20 Milking. Velvet Beans. Irrigation and Cultivation of Orchards.
20/6/20 Buying a Goat. The Soy Bean.

27/6/20 Big FortTines in Trees and Timber. Problems in Beef Production,
by P. J. Naude. East Coast Fever, the necessity for hand-
dressing. Winter Control of Fruit and Garden Pests, by
" Entos."

III.— AGRICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS IN OTHER PARTS.

(1) The following interesting extracts are taken from a series of papers
entitled "The Biologist on the Farm," contributed by Prof. J. Arthur Thomson,
M.A., LL.D., in the Journal of the Scottish Board of Agricidture for January,
1920 : —

Tivins and Twins. — We are not sure that many people are quite clear as
to the two kinds of twins. When a sheep or a cow, or any animal ordinarily
producing a single offspring gives rise simultaneously to two, these may be
fraternal twins or identical twins. In the first case the two offspring develop
from two distinct egg-cells ; they are often dissimilar, and they may be of
different sexes. In the second case the two offspring develop from one egg-cell;
they are duplicates of one another, and they ar^ always of the same sex. The

Recent Agricultural Literature. 499

Nine-Banded Armadillo of Texas normally and habitually produces quadruplets
from one ovum. These are enveloped in a common foetal membrane, and they
are always of the same sex.

The Mystery of Monsters. — It is interesting to note some recent experiments
cm minnows which have thrown fresh light on monster-lambs, monster-calves,
and the other ungainly things that sometimes crop up. From_ minnow to
monster. What is the meaning of creatures with one eye instead of two, with
one ear, Vv'ith peculiar nostrils, and all that sort of thing? An old answer,
which has a great deal of truth in it, pointed to the fact that when an animal
is developing it has to some extent to retread the path of racial evolution, and
that if something goes wrong with the feeding of the embryo there may be what
are called " arrests of development." Thus the nostrils may remain externally
connected widi the'front of the mouth, instead of being separated off in the
normal fashion. When the arrest or stopi^age of development occurs and the
creature is Ijorn with the part unfinished, we have what is called " haro-lip " in
man. It is a minor monstrosity in man; it is normal in the hare! Now many
monstrosities are cleared up when we regard them as due to arrests in develop-
ment. But there are others on which this idea throws no light, and go we
welcome a suggestion that comes from Dr. E. I. Werber's experiments on the
American minnow. He subjected the developing eggs to various chemicals, such
as butyric acid, and he got all .sorts of monstrosities in eyes and ears, nostrils
and mouth, heart and fins. The chemical intrusion seemed to have a dislocating
and partially dissolving influence on the developing embryo, especially towards
the head end. Hence monstrosities. But the question naturally rises: Is
this more than a biological curiosity? How could any respectable embryo in
natural conditions become subjected to butyric acid? liut we must be patient.
Part of the food of higher animals consists of carbohydrates, such as starch and
sugar; when the chemical routine that goes on in the body in connection with
carbohydrates goes " agley " in a certain way, one of the results of the dis-
turl)ance is the formation of butyric acid. If this butyric acid was formed in
the l)ody of the pregnant mother it might affect the unborn offspring, her close
partner, and might produce monstrosities. This seems to us to be a big contii-
bution towards the solution of the mystery of monsters.

The Control of Sex comes Nearer. — It maj' be said with fairness, we think,
that almost all the recent work on the determination of sex in birds and
.mammals points to the conclusion that the sex is settled when the egg-cell is
fertilized, if not before that. Some very careful investigations on pigeons by
Prof. Oscar Riddle force one to think. He makes it practically certain that
pigeons lay two kinds of eggs, which differ fiom one another in the rate or
intensity of their chemical processes. One kind of egg has a comparatively low
storage capacity, a high oxidizing cajjacity, and a relatively higher intensity
of chemical changes (or metabolism) ; and this type of egg develops into a cock
bird. The contrasted type of egg, with' higher storage caj^acity, relatively less
intense metabolism, lower percentage of water, higher total percentage of fat
and phosphorus, and greater energy-value in the yolk (as determined by the
calorimeter), develops into a hen bird. It is very interesting to find also that
an intermediate type of egg, produced early in the season, will develop into a
female bird with a good many masculine features about her. Moreover, chemical
analyses of the blood of full-g'own male and female pigeons show that the con-
stitutional differences which can be detected in the two kinds of ova persist
in adult life. These experiments furnish a corroboration of the thesis worked
out by Geddes and Thomson in The Evolution of Sex as far back as 1889, that
temaleness is a.ssociated with a relative preponderance of constructive, or up-
building or anabolic physiological processes; and conversely for maleness. In
short, the sexes differ fundamentally in their physiological gearing, in the rate
or intensity of particular vital processes.

(2) Versla(je7i en Mededeelingcn van de Direktie van den Landbouw in Neder-
land, No. 1 ot 1920, deals with the damage done to Agriculture, Horticulture,
and Forestry by game and injurious animals. Figures are given of the estimatecl
damage caused in the different provinces, and methods of combating the pests
dealt with. The greatest damage is said to be caused l)y birds, especially
sparrows, crows, and pigeons. The report recommends that, where necessary,
land-owners or game licencees be ijistructed to eradicate stich injurious game
within a certain period, after which, if not sufficiently reduced, the State, in
consultation with Provincial Commissions, will employ persons to complete the
work.

500 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

AT THE SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND
EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

June, 1920.

CEDARA, NATAL.

Climatic. — From 29th May to 25th June (inclusive) the mean maximum
temperature has been 62.65° F., and the mean minimum temperature 39.33° F.
The highest maximum temper j-ture, 75° F. was registered on 4th June, and the
lowest minimum, 31° F. on 30th May. The total rainfall for the period was
.07 inches. The days were bright and sunny and the nights frosty. There
was a slight fall of snow on the hills on 23rd June.

Crops. — The cow-peas have been cut and cured for hay. Turnips, Kale, and
Rape are now being cut and fed to dairy stock. During the month veld-hay
and potatoes were harvested and oats planted.

Field Experiments. — The Kikuyu grass has been affected by the intense
frosts and has dried off considerably, but growth is still vigorous just below
the soil surface. In sheltered places the grass still retains its green colour.
Tall Fescue has resisted the frosts well, only the growing tops being affected.
The Cocksfoot has also been very little affected by the frosts and has retained
its green colour. The Napier fodder has not withstood the cold well and has
turned brown. Some new varieties of potatoes are being tried under winter
conditions.

Chemical Laboratory. — A large number of samples were analysed in the
laboratory during the month, nearly half being tanning materials of various
kinds. A sample of ash from the spent bark was found to contain over 50 per
cent, carbonate of lime, nearly 3i per cent, phosphoric oxide, and 3 per cent,
potash, so that it has quite an appreciable manure value. A bark of an
indigenous tree was also analysed and found to contain 23 per cent, of tanning
matter. It seems that there is an unlimited supply of this bark, and the
sender is confident that extract could be manufactured from it at an appreciably
lower cost than from the black wattle. The colour, however, is deeper than that
of the wattle, although the objectionable red tint is not very prominent. Of
three dipping fluids analysed, two showed that a very large proportion of the
arsenite originally present had been oxidized to arsenate of soda, so that its
presence could not be detected by the isometer and other similar methods that
are often used by farmers for testing their dips. As the arsenate has been
proved to have practically half the scalding and insecticidal effect that the
arsenite of soda has, it is possible that grave errors often arise through trusting
solely to the isometer, and not having a proper chemical analysis periodically
made of the fluid in the tank, as a check on the isometer readings.

Stock. — The stock are all in excellent condition. Three calves were born
during the month, one Friesland bull, one Shorthorn heifer, and one Aberdeen-
Angus heifer. Fourteen head of cattle were shown at the Royal Agricultural
Show, Pietermaritzburg, and these secured fourteen prizes, including a cham-
pionship and three specials.

Stoch Sale. — The Annual Stock Sale was held at Cedara on 26th June,
when 37 cattle, 23 pigs, and 12 pens of poultry were sold, the total proceeds
of the sale being £4487. The prices on the whole were good, the poultry, for
example, being sold at an average of 30s. per bird.

Schools op Agriculture and Experiment Stations. 501 •

ELSENBURG, MULDER'S VLEI, CAPE.

Climatic- — The chief feature of the month was the exceptionally large
rainfall, a precipitation of 7.625 inches being recorded up to the 25th instant.
This is the greatest rainfall for»tlie month of June since 1905, when 8.12 inches
were received (during the entire month). The normal average for June is
4.55 inches. Strong northerly breezes and fairly cold weather were experienced,
the maximum temperature recorded being 73° F. on the 2nd instant, and the
minimum 33° F. on the 1st.

Field Operations and Crops. — The ploughing and seeding operations planned
for early in June were seriously delayed by the exces.sive wetness of the lands.
There still remain some 50 acres of farm land to be ploughed and 100 acres to
be seeded. Cereal crops seeded before the wet spell are looking fairly well,
though held back somewhat by the cold. Fields carrying rape and imported
vetch show poor germination, in the latter case only about 20 per cent. Lucerne
has grown well and is at present of great value to the lambing ewes. The
pruning of fruit trees and vines was started during the month, but owing to
bad weather not much could be done. Grafted vines are at present being trans-
ferred from the nursery to the main vineyard.

Experimental Division. — The greater portion of the field experiments had
been planted under favourable weather conditions, but two ranges of " mixed
fodder " experiments and one range carrying various green manures were held
over pending the arrival of Hairy Vetch and English Winter Vetch seed. These
three ranges were planted rather late in the month, under weather conditions
anything but favourable. Three one-sixth acre plots were seeded to barley
varieties, and some one hundred and fifty test rows of wheat and oats were also
planted. The latter represent the end of single-ear selections made in 1918 and
planted for the first time during 1919 season.

The heavy rains caused rather serious erosion in several of the experimental
ranges.

Live Stock. — All live stock suffered more or less owing to the wet and cold
weather. Natural grazing is still of very little value, and the grazing crops
are not sufficiently advanced to be used as yet. The condition of the cattle
is fair, but milk yields dropped considerably. The lambing season started at
the beginning of the month. The percentage lambing is very satisfactory, but
many losses occurred through exposure. The cross-bred lambs are fine and
healthy on the whole, but the Murrays appeared very weak at birth, and
deformities occurred in several cases. To date no Suffolk lambs have been
dropped. Several sows farrowed during the month, and accommodation at
Elsenburg is becoming too limited. For this reason a lot of young pigs were
removed to Mariendahl.

Investigational Work. — Investigations in regard to the changes taking place
in the mixtures of (1) superphosphate and bone-dust, (2) superphosphate, bone-
dust, and Government guano, showed that the decrease in water solubility of
the phosphoric oxide after six weeks is negligible (less than 1 per cent.), contrary
to popular belief.

Extension Work. — Eight samjjles of fertilizers were analysed and reported
upon in the chemical laboratory, and several veterinary specimens were examined
to confirm suspicion of poisoning of stock.

A number of farms was visited during the month by different lecturers in
order to advise the owners in regard to various matters.

The School. — The six-weeks' winter vacation for regular students started
on 12th June, and the first general short course (two weeks) began on the 21st
instant. The number of students attending this course is 34, of whom 23 are
women.

GLEN, ORANGE FREE STATE.

No rainfall during the month, and cold weather continued throughout.

Crops. — Owing to the cold weather, crops are not making any growth.

Live Stock. — In spite of the unfavourable weather all stock are doing well.
The nucleus of an Africander herd was established by the transfer of 1 bull
and 10 cows from Potchefstroom.

5u2 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

School. — The regular students left for their vacation on the 23rd, and the
Sheep and Wool an^ Horticulture and Poultry Short Courses commenced on
the 30th. Thirty-five .students for the sheep and wool and eighteen for the horti-
culture and poultry course were admitted.

The dairy building is nearing completion jvnd work on three staff houses is
also proceeding.

GROOTFONTEIN, MIDDELBURG, CAPE.

During the month the weather experienced was undoubtedly the worst ever
recorded in this part of the country for this period of the year. The following
are the minimum readings of over 10 degrees of frost since the 25th May :
27th May, 17 degrees of frost; 28th May, 13 degrees; 29th May, 11 degrees;
1st June, 12 degrees; 2nd June, 13 degrees; 7th June, 10 degrees; 24th June,
15 degrees.

This extreme cold has been accompanied by heavy windstorms, correspond-
ing with the heavy rainstorms experienced in the Western Province.

Field Operations and Crops. — Twenty-one acres of land were prepared and
laid down to oats; thirty aci'es of " boer manna " was hai-vested : the crop was
very inferior. Many tons also of vlei hay were harvested.

Live Stock.- — The condition of live stock, on the whole, is good. The stud
sheep are lambing slowly, and the lambs are looking well. Cattle have, however,
fallen off in condition, due to the excessive cold and high Avinds. Eighteen
ostriches were sold at the local stock fair, and, considering the market, realized
fair prices.

Experimental and Investigational Work. — A large number of experimental
plots have been sown, and a considerable area for dry land experiments is in
course of preparation. Investigational work is being carried out in connection
with the liver tape-worm in sheep, etc.

Buildings. — On the 24th of May the office block of buildings, including the
engineer's lecture-room, the agronomy laboratory, library, etc., was destroyed
by fire, with all records. The students' quarters are at present being used, but
it is hoped that permanent offices will be erected in the near future.

Students. — The special dairy course, sheep and wool course, six-months'
soldier course, and diploma course students left for their holidays on the 5th
June, and, with the exception of the diploma course men, the rest of the
students resume duty on the 29th instant. On the 9th instant, the nine-days'
sheep and wool course opened with 54 students, and the special nine-days' course
in dairying, poultry, and horticulture opened on the same date with 10 students.
These courses were completed on the 19th instant, and on the 21st instant the
three-weeks' general course opened with 18 students. 'All the short course
students have proved exceptionally keen at their work, and it is regretted that
a number of applications had to be refused, due to lack of accommodation.

POTCHEFSTROOM, TRANSVAAL.

Extremely cold weather was experienced during the whole month. Minimum
temperatures of 19° were registered on four nights. The absolute minimum
for the month was 18.4° F., which occurred on the 27th instant. No rain fell.
The extreme cold weather, it is thought, will have a beneficial effect in destroy-
ing stalk bojer on land ploughed after the maize crop was removed.

Farm Section. — The supply of irrigation water available has been adequate
for irrigating the vegetable garden, and also 250 acres, including all the land
under winter cereals. The following varieties of wheat were sown at the begin-
ning of the month on large plots, varying from ^ acre to 6 acres : American
No. 8, Gluyas Early, Spring Early, Black Don, Pusa No. 4, Pusa No. 12, Come-
back, Bombay, Federation, and Lalkusawala.

Twenty acres were sown to the variety American No. 8, which is showing
great promise in this section of the country. It is favoured by the miller, yields
well, and is resistant to attack by birds. About 15 bushel lots were distributed
free to farmers in this and other districts for co-operative experiments.

Schools of Agriculture and Experlment Stations. 503

Harvesting of the maize crop is still proceeding. Chester County Mammoth
yielded eight and three-fifth bags to the acre, and Yellow Cob Cango lOi bags
to the acre. The main maize crop, Potchefstroom Pearl, has not yet been
thrashed.

The shortage of bedding this year necessitated cutting of veld-grass on
neighbouring farms for this purpose. Carting of gravel for maintenance of
roads and bridges is being proceeded with, also pruning of forestry trees and
the thinning out of shelter belts.

Live Stock. — In spite of the severe winter conditions live stock are well
maintaining their condition. Feeding of young breeding stock of the dairy
breeds and weaner calves of all breeds took place during the month. The dairy
cows are in good condition, but great difficulty is experienced in maintaining
the supply of milk. Two calves were dropped during the month from the dairy
herds. Nine aged cows, most of dairy breeds, out of the contagious abortion
camp, were sold from the quarantine yards, Municipal Abattoirs, Johannesburg.
The Africander stud bull " Weeskind " and ten cows were transferred to the
School of Agriculture, Glen. One Berkshire sow farrowed. One Berkshire and
one Large Black boar were sold for breeding purposes.

Experiment (Sec^fOfl.— Ranges of wheat in the rotation experiments were
planted. The maize from the variety rotation, cultivation, manurial and seeding
trials was threshed. Varieties of beans and peanut were harvested and the
former were threshed.

The plant breeder spent some time in describing, classifying, and recording
his wheat and kaffir corn crosses. Samples of grain of the various kafiBr corns
have been submitted to milling tests. Winter sowings of hybrids and selections
of wheat were carried out in the breeding-cage.

Horticultural Section.- — The vegetable crops suffered severely from frost.
Bagrada Bug has been persistent in its attacks on cabbages, kohlrabi, and
turnips; paraffin emulsion spray was used to combat this pest. Cabbages were
sprayed with arsenate of lead against cabbage moth larvae and with paraffin
emulsion against aphides. Several varieties of peaches blossomed out of season
early this month.

Poultry Section. — The egg-laying competition has progressed favoui-ably.
The output of eggs was gratifying, showing an improvement on that of May,
despite the cold weather. Young chicks in several cases succumbed to the
severe cold. The stock birds continue to lay fairly well.

Engineering Section. — A ploughing demonstration was held with the
Ransomes Demon plough. A report on the demonstration was prepared for
publication.

Plans for moulds required in the construction of Pise huts were prepared.
A commencement will soon be made with the building of native huts in Pise
work.

Entomological Section. — Field experiments were carried out on the best
methods of destroying birds with poison bait without endangering poultry and
other farm animals. Wired crates and raised platforms were tried. Excellent
results were obtained by the formula 3 parts antimony potassium tartrah, 60
parts granulated sugar, and 75 parts water, for the destruction of ants.

Short Courses. — The "small holders" course in dairying, poultry, and
horticulture, along with the minor subjects, apiculture, entomology, and
chemistry, which ran from 17th June to 26th July, is considered to have been
an unqualified success : 55 students attended, of which number 31 were women.
The keenness and attention of students was very noticeable compared with that
shown in the same course last year. Most of therii weie farmers or prospective
ones, and their wives and daughters.

The farmers' course opened on the 29th June, the attendance numbering
78 (64 men and 14 women), the large majority being farmers.

Keep your Journals ! The contents will be indexed every six
montlis and a copy of the index sent to each subscriber.

504

Journal of the Department of Agriculture,

MEAT STATISTICS.

I. — Rettjkn of Beef Inspected akd Passed for Expoet, June, 1920.

Cattle.

Carcasses.

Place.

Inspected.

Rejected. Passed,

Inspected.

Rejected.

Passed.

Durban

Pietermaritzburg ...
Pretoria
Johannesburg
Blof mfontein

Capetown

Port Elizabeth
Germiston

3,188
.521

263

—

3,188
.521

263

.3,188
521

263

1531
16

3,084i
505

263

Total

3,972

—

3,972

3,972

169J

3,802i

Beef actually exported during the month of June, 1920 : Total 1681 quarters.
(^Ex Durban 681 quarters ; Ex Capetown 1000 quarters.)

Total shipments of Beef in quarters —

1916 ... 11.5,992 1918 ... 12.3,354 *1920 ... 36,329

1917 .„ 309,214 1919 ,,. 285,367

II. — Other Meat Exported*: Pork, carcasses 263; Bacon 13.323 lb.

III.— Return of Cattle Imported into the Union from adjoining Territories.

Total from 1st January,

Territory.

Imported June, 1920.

1920, to
30th June, 1920,

For Slaughter-

No.

No.

Rhodesia

2,766

12,144

Bechuanaland Protectorate

2,047

10.929

S.-W, Africa

1,158

6,307

Swaziland

77

725

Basutoland .,,

—

—

For Breeding —

Rhodesia

1,476

6,651

Bechuanaland Protectorate

1,144

8,910

Total

8,668

45,666

Summary of Imports.

Calendar Year.

For Slaughter.

For Breeding.

Total.

tl916
1917
1918
1919

No.
26,580
47,970
36,767
40,574

No.

5.440
13,286
16,693

No.
26,580
53,410
50,053
57,267

* Total from 1st January to 30th June, 1920.

1 1st July to 31st December only.

Export of Grain, etc.

505

EXPORT OF GRAIN, ETC.

Return of Grain, etc., Graded and Exported through the various Ports

DURING the month OF JUNE, 1920.

Note. — In this return the gross weight per bag of Maize is 203 lb., Maize Meal 183 lb., Hominy Chop ia3 lb., Kaffir Corn
208 lb., Oats 153 lb.. Barley 163 lb.. Eye 203 lb.. Beans 203 lb.. Peas 208 lb.. Lucerne Seed 103 lb.. Millet (average
220 lb.

Port.

Grain, etc.

No. of Bags Shipped

during

June! 1920.

Total No. of Bags

Shipped

from 1st July, 1919, to

80th June, 1920.

Stocks on Hand on
30th June, 1920.

Capetown . .

Maize

_

178,954

237

Maize Meal

327,349

—

Hominy Chop ..

—

5,825

—

Kaffir Corn

28,550

—

Oats

20,328

—

Barley

—

504

—

Eye

629

—

Beans

11*2

2,770

—

Peas

--

—

—

Lucerne Seed . .

4,7S4

—

Millet

~

809

^

Durban

Maize

255,672

Maize i^Feal

541,851

Hominy Chop . .

—

Kaffir Corn

6,215

Oats

•8,648

.

Barley

—

Eye

■■ —

945

Beans

8,281

Peas

300

Lucerne Seed . .

—

MiUet

672

1,469

~

East London

Maize

123,400

Maize Meal

—

114,208

Hominy Chop ..

—

—

Kaffir Corn

—

4,768

O.^ts

—

—

Barley

—

2,415

Rye

—

1,630

Beans

—

420

Peas

—

—

Lucerne Seed . .

—

—

Millet

"

~

Port Elizabeth ..

Maize

160,493

Maize Meal

—

14,704

Hominy Chop ..

—

—

—

Kaffir Corn

—

3,587

Oats

—

—

Barley

—

5,465

—

Rye

—

—

Beans

—

450

Peas

—

Lucerne Seed . .

—

Millet

~"

LOURENCO MaEQDES

Maize

_

16,376

Maize Meal

—

34,627

r

Kaffir Corn

—

—

Beans

~

400

~

Summary.

Exported
June, 1920.

Total Exported

Stocks on Hand

1st July, 1919,

at all Ports

to 30th June, 1920.

on SOth June, 1920.

Bags.

Bags.

Bags.

Maize . .

—

734,896

237

Maize Meal . .

— ■

1,032,739

—

Hominy Chop

—

5,825

—

Kaffir Corn . .

—

43,110

—

Oats

—

23,976

—

Barley

—

8,384

—

Rye

—

3,104

—

Beans

112

12,821

—

Peas

—

800

—

Lucerne Seed

5

4,754

—

Millet

072

1,778

—

TOTAIS . .

789

1,871,186

237

506

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

CROP AND LIVE STOCK REPORT.

June, 1920.

Final 1919-20 Report for Maize, Kaffir Corn, and Tobacco.

The following statement shows the estimated production of the crops mentioned
according to reports received from crop correspondents at the end of Jure, 1920.

The maize crop is estimated to yield 10,096,600 bags and under normal conditions the
Dnion requires for its own consumption^something like 9,500,000 bags. The country has,
however, passed through a severe period of drought and it is not unlikely that the cons'ump-
tion of maize may be affected to some extent.

Estimated

Production.

Crop Condition (Normal = 100).

1919-20 Season.

Maize.

Kaffir Corn.

Maize.

Kaffir Corn.

Above
Normal.

Below
Normal.

Above
Normal.

Below
Normal.

Cape Province —

South Coast

Bechuanaland

Border

North East

Transkei
Unrepresented districts

• Bags

(200 lb.)

45.400

103.200

94,800

36,800

492,400

52,300

Bags

(200 lb.)

2,200

44,000

9,800

2,300

61,900

7,800

—

38
26
34
52
37
36

—

43
33

50
70
43
42

824,900

128,000

—

36

—

42

Transvaal Province —
Eastern High Veld ...
Central
Western High Veld ...

Low Veld

Unrepresented districts

1,790,500

1,253,100

500.900

743,100

3,600

40,700
144,900

71,400

261,300

5,600

—

24
28
23
5
22

—

20
27
26
13
20

4,291,200

52.3.900

—

22

—

20

Orange Free State —

Noi-th-East

North- West

South- East

South-West

Unrepresented districts

1,892,600

585,400

508,500

11,600

12,700

45,200

15,900

7,300

3,500

300

—

17
21
34
57
21

—

27
22
44
60
30

2,960.800

72,200

—

21

—

30

Natal Province —

High Veld

Middle Veld

Coast

Unrepresented districts

303,300

299,300

1,411,200

5,900

10,900
125,000
263,.500

21,300

—

1

8-

6

6

—

■ 9
7

1
3

2,019,700

420,700

-

6

—

3

UNION

10,096,600

1,144,800

—

21

— '

19

Season 1918-19 ... Maize, 11,561,200; Kaffir Corn, 1,349,800 (Estimated Production).

1917-18... „ 12,640,090; „ „ 1,801,415 (Production— Census, 1918).

Crop and Live Stock Report.

507

tobacco.

The average return of the Union's tobacco crop for t" e 1919-20 season is estimated to
be 20 per cent, below normal, the total yield being estima'ed at 8,897.200 lb., viz. : — Cape
Province, 3,215,000 lb.; Transvaal, 4,781,200 1b.: Orange Free State. 2.5-1,700 lb. : and
Natal, (516,300 1b. The 1918-19 season's crop was estimated to be 12,429,000 lb. and that
of 1917-18 is given as 14,931,153 lb. by the Cen.sus of 1918.

CONDITION OF LIVE STOCK.
Compiled from Reports furnished by Sheep and Stock Inspectors.

Area.

Large Stock.

Small Stock.

Cape—

South- West

North- West

South Coast
Southern Karroo
Central Karroo...
Northern Karroo
Eastern Karroo
Bechuanaland ...
Griqualaud West
North-Eastern ...
Border ...
Transkeian Territories...

Transvaal^

Eastern High Veld
Central ...
Western High Veld
Low Veld

Orange Free State -
North-Eastern ...
North- Western...

South-Eastern

South-Western ...

Natal —

High Veld or Highlands
Middle Veld or Midlands
Coast

Poor. Medium in parts

Good to medium. Fat in part

Good to medium. Fat in pari s^

Medium. Fat in parts

Good. Fat in parts ...

Fat to good

Good. Medium in parts

Fat to good

Good. Fat in parts ...

Medium. Fat in parts

Good to medium. Fat in parts

Medium. Good in parts

Medium. Good in parts
Medium. Good in parts
Good to medium
Good. Fat in parts ...

Good to medium. Fat in parts
Good. Fat in parts ...
Good. Fat in parts ...
Good to medium

Good to medium
Good to medium
Good to medium

Poor. Medium in parts.
Good to medium. Fat in parts.
Good to medium. Fat in parts.
Med um. Fat in parts.
Good. Fat in parts.
Good. Fat in j^arts.
Good. Medium in parts.
Fat to good.

Medium. Good in parts.
Medium-. Fat in parts.
Good to medium. Fat in parts.
Medium. Good in parts.

Medium. Good in parts.
Good to medium.
Good to medium.
Good. Fat in parts.

Good to medium. Fat in parts.
Good. Fat in parts.
Good. Fat in parts.
Good to medium..

Good, to medium.
Good to medium.
Good to medium.

Read the Journal ! It acts a.s a link between you and the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, which, is charged with the furtherance of your
interests. It publishes information for the most part of an official
nature not otherwise readily accessible. An index will be sent you
every six months, so keep the Journal. It will prove useful as a book
of reference.

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Karakul Sheep.

A Leaf Spot of the Pea-Nut or Monkey-Nut Plant.

Farming in the Early Cape Days.

The Dipping of Sheep in so-called Carbolic Dips.

Canning Clubs.

" Kudzu."

Grafted Vineyards.

South African Fibre Plants — Ambari or Deccan Hemp.

The Department of Agriculture during the War — V.

Chemical Analyses of Agricultural Materials.

DiiPAliTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF AGRICULTURAL
MATERIALS.

Regulations and Tariff.

It is hereby notilietl foi' nuneral infoiiuation that BONA fide Fakmers may, until
f-ot-ther notice, obtain analytical determination in accordance with the subjoined tariff of
chartreiH at the chemical laboratories of the Dcpaitme t of Agriculture. Samples taken
witliiu the area,s defined below should be addi-essed as indicated hereunder : —

{'I) The coastal dihtricts from Namaqualaud to Knysna and extendiag inland to Ceres,
Worce.ster, and Moiitairu : Principal, School of Aprictiiture, Elaenburp^, Mulder's
Vlei. Cape Province.

(fi) Tranrivaal, British Bechuanaland, Griqualand West : Principal, Schtxil of
Agriculture, Potchefstroom, Transvaal.

(<') Natal and Griqualand East : Principal, School of Agriculture, Cedara, Natal.

(il) Remaining portion of Cape Province, i.e. portion south of Orange River (excluding
Elsenburg area and Griqualand East) : Principal, School of Agriculture, Groot-
fontcin, Middelburg, Cape.

(/•) Grange Free State : I'rincipal, School of Agricultui'e, Glen, Orange Free State.

Samples may also be sent to the Chemist. Department of Agriculture, Pretoria. The
Inquiry Officer in Capetown and the office of the Senior Veterinary Surgeon, Pietermarite-
hurg, will also receive samples for forwa_rding to KIseiiinirg and Cedara respective!}'.

The officers named should be advised of the dispatch of samples-.

The conditions under which samples will be reci'ived ai-e as follows : —

1 . In no case will a sample be accepted for analysis unless the full instructions

as to taking it, which will be furnished by the Department on request,
have been complied with, and all the particulars required concerning' the
I sample supplied.

2. The right is reserved <if re-fusing such samples as may not Ije considereil of sufficient

pul)lic importance to warrant an;Uysis.

3. No sample will be accepted unless plainly labelled inside and outside the

package with the name and address of the sender.

4. Reports upon or results of analyses may only be used by the persons submitting the

s.ample<s for private purposes,

.0. The Depai'tment reserves the i-ight to publish the results of analyses peiformed
;; by it.

i\. In case the examination of any article should prove to furnish, or be considere*!
likely to furnish, results of suffi-^ient general interest, it will })e in the discretion
, of the Department to forego any. of the charges in the subjoine<l tariff.

7. Postage on carriage must be prepaid by the sender, who must also send
remittance covering cost of analysis.

{^Continned on page iii of cover.

CONTENTS.

SEPTEMBER, l'>20.

Paob

Karakul Sheep ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .'i09

A Leaf Spot op the Pea-Nut or Monkey-Nut Plant ... ... ... 528

Farming in the Early Capk Days ... ... ... ... ... 531

The Dipping of sheep in so-called Carbolic Dips ... ... ... 53C

Canning Cluiss ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 548

The Department of Agriculture during the War ... ... ... 551

" KuDZr '" (^Piif-niriti 77ii/nhr)-</i/rnti) ... ... ... ... ... 558

Graeted Vineyards ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 561

South African Fibre Plants— Ambahi or Deccan Hemp ... ... 570

Notes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 581

Index for the Jonriuil — Railway TiansporL : Hints to Consignors — Prospects
of Cereal Crops and of Supply — Productive Wealth of the Union — Western
Province Fruit Crop — Fighting' a Notorious Pest (page 527) — Employees on
Farms (page 580) — Naphthalene for Fowl Lice ([lage 557) — Grain-eating
Bird- : A Poison (page 560) — Soutli African Produce on Show (page 569) —
Ehodesian Cattle and Maize (page 580)— Fruit Export. July, 1920: A Eecord
Shipment (page 585) — Cotton Gins (page 58><) — Export of Grain, etc. (page
589) — Plant Nurseries in Quarantine diage 590) — Sale of Cattle in Southern
Rhodesia (page 590) — Cost of Production nf Maize (page 600).

The Poultry Yard Month by Month ... ... ... ... ... 585

The VECiETABLE Garden ... ... ... ... 586

Notes from the "Gazette" ... ... ... ... ... ... 587

South African Produce on the Oversea Market ... ... ... 589

Oversea Prices of South African Produce ... ... ... ... 590

Notes from the Divisions ... ... ... ... ... ... 591

Corrigenda ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 591

Staff : Appointments, Transfers, etc. ... ... ... ... ... 592

Recent Agricultural Literature ... ... ... ... 593

At the Schools of Agriculture and Experiment Stations ... ... 597

Meat Statistics... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 601

Crop and Live Stock Report ... ... ... ... ... ... 602

Local Market Prices ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 604

DEPARTMENTAL NOTICES.

AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT.

STALLIONS AT STUD.

Hiir-^r .-iihI Ddiiki'y Stallions will stand at stud at the various schools of ag^rirultuiv from
Jlotli August, 15)20. to"l5th January. 192L

KecN : £2 surviro of oaL-h mare, (irazin^: and frudiiiLi' oxtia.

Fill' further paitieulars ."ijiply to the rcspectivi' Principals nf the Institutions referred to.
viz.: — Elsenburg, Mulder's Vlei. ('.P.: Urootfoiii.in, Middelliur--, ('.p.: (ilcn, O.F.S. :
Potchefstrooin, Transvaal : f'edara. Natal.

SPINELESS CACTUS.

A number of leaves uf spineless cactus are available for disposal from the Schools of
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The minimum quantity supplied to any one purchaser is 10 leaves.

?d. per leaf from 10 to 100 leaves.

2 id. per leaf from 100 to .-,00 leaves.

2d. per leaf over 500 leaves.

FREE ISSUE OF SBKD.

On application tq the Principal, School of Agriculture, Potchefsti-oom. small lots of the
following varieties of seed will be distributed free to farmer.^ on a co-operative experimental
basis : —

Cowpeas (-'Taylor," "New Era"'): Millets ("Oolden." "Japanese""): Soya Beans
(" Hollybrook,'" "Black"): Buckwheat: Australian Salt Hush ("Old Man""): Napier
Fodder Koots ; and Sugar Ganc Koors.

FOREST DEPARTMENT.

TIMBEIi.

Straight gum poles of various sizes from about six inches in diameter at the
butt downwards may be purchased in small or large (piantities from the Government
Plantation, Cedara, Natal. In(iuiries stating size of pole desired (length and smallest
<liameter under bark at the thin end) should be addressed to the Forester, Cedara, who will
quote prices per pole put on lail at Cedara Station.

Firewood, fencing di'oppeis, and fence posts are also available.

LANDS DEPARTMENT.

LAND FOR SETTLERS.

All iM(|uirics i-egarding settlemenl on ('I'own lands slundd be addressed \n tlie
Secretary for Lands, Union Buildings, Pietoi'ia. In(|uirics ma3', however, also be made at
the Land Depart meni. Branch Office, New Law Courts, Queen Victoria Street, Cai)etown,
regardnig l.ind in lln' Cape Province, and at the Branch Office, Survej'or-Grenerars Office,
Pietermavitzburg, in so far as land in Natal is cotu'crned. ln(piiries regarding land in i he
South-West Protect oiaie should be addressed to the Secretary for Lands, Windhuk.

The Department of Lands, Pretoria, issues a booklet, "Land for Settlers" (June. 1920),
gratis on application, wliicli contains information regarding the main points of the Seltk'meiit
.\cts and other matters which every intending settler should know. The Department
imaintaiiis a staff to deal with inquiries and applications for lands, and pros[>ective settlers
;m't' advised to eommiinieate direct with the Department.

Journal of the Department
OF Agriculture.

Vol. I. SKFTEMBER, 192iK No. 6.

Published monthly in English and Afrikaans by the Department of Agriculture,

Union of South Africa.

SUBSCRIPTION" : Within the Union and Sonth-West Protectorate, Ss, (otherwise GSm)
per annum, post free, payable in advance.

Applications, with subscriptions, to be sent to the Government
Printer, Box 378, Pretoria.

KARAKUL SHEEP.

liy R. Owen Wahl, B.A. (Hons.), Lecturer in Zoology and
Entomology, Grootfontein School of Agriculture, Middelburg
(Cape), Officer in Charge of Karakul Sheep Investigations.
(In consultation with A. D. Thompson. Manager, Karakul
Stud Farm. South -AVest Protectorate.)

Origin.

Kauakl'l sheep produce the lambskins known to commerce chiefly
as "Persian Lamb," from which various furs, such as astrakhan,
broad tail, karakul, etc., are made. They are eastern sheep, their
home being the arid region of 'Western Russian Turkestan, which
includes the Kizil-Kum and Kara-Kum deserts and the Khanates of
Bokhara and Khiva, districts situated east of the Caspian Sea and
north of xAfghanistan.

The word karakul means in Sart "black lake," and refers to
the lake and town of that name in Bokhara which is an important
centre in the lamb-fur and sheepskin industry, and this name has
been used hj the European Russians to indicate the fur-producing
sheep of those regions. In Central Asia, however, this term is not
used, the names for the sheep being Arabi, Duzbai, and Shiraz.

Considerable difference of opinion exists as to the origin of these
slieep, those who claim to be authorities on tlie subiert differing

18

510 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

considerably among tliemselves in points of detail. Dr. C. C. Ycung,
of America, maintains that all karaknl slieep are descended from
the black danadar, a long-tailed sheep, and the original fur-bearing
stock of Central Asia. These danadars, crossed with fat-rumped
slieep, give rise to the fat-tailed karakul of to-day. As the question
is not one which concerns us in this article, nothing further need be
said on the subject, except that, as indicated above, the karakul was
originally a "made" sheep, i.e. brought into existence by crossing
existing breeds.

Conditions in Bokhara.

The desert regions in the native home of these sheep are
*" exceedingly barren, and consist of sand-dunes and saline steppes
which support a thorny shrub {HaJoa-ylon ammodendron,, Bungl),
and where there is no drifting sand and the soil is clayey in nature, a
little grass in spring. During the summer it is very hot and there
is very little rain, while in winter the temperature falls below zero.
Under such trying climatic extremes it is little wonder that the
karakul sheep have earned the reputation of being perhaps the hardiest
of all domesticated animals." Duststorms in summer and snowstorms
iij Avinter are frequent, and, altogether, the conditions are such as
would require an animal of exceptional hardiness to exist under them.
In some respects tlie conditions which pertain in the Karroo and other
areas of the Union and of South-West Africa are not greatly unlike
those of their native land.

The KAJtAKUL Sheep Industry in Bokhara.

* " The karakul sheep industry centres in the foothills of the
mountains tliat form the southern bmuidary of Bokhara, the cultivated
land in the valleys being utilized for gardens and orchards. The
flocks are driven in the autumn, when the first snow falls, from their
summer quarters on the high plateaux into the ' kislilaks ' of the
valleys. They are kept there until tJie lambing season is past, and
in early spring thej^ are driven back to the higher desert grazings
which are unsuited to cultivation. The sheep are always kept in the
open, and during winter more or less protected from the cold winds
. in the hollow of the mountains, and live mostly on dry stalks kept
clear of snow by the wind,

" The lambing season is regulated by tying rags round the belly
of the ram, and is timed for the best part of the year, when food is
most plentiful. The lambs are weaned in midsummer, but the ewes
are kept in mill< \uitil the late autumn, and a cheese, described as
the ' pride of Southern Asiatic Russia ' is made from it. The natives
of Bokhara chiim tliat the milk from karakul sheep is the richest
and the most nourishing obtained from any living animal. It is
also supposed to liave properties which tend to cure tuberculosis.

t " Good fur-producing karakuls are found only in very limited
numbers and on certain ranches owned by Bokhara noblemen, who.

* Prof. R. Wallace in "Transactions of the Tliird International Congress of Tropical
Agriculture."

t Quoted from an article on karakul sheep by Prof. Robert Wallace in "Transactions
of the Third International Congress of Tropical Agriculture."

Karakul Sheep. 511

however, do not even make an attempt to prevent in-breeding or to
secure the elimination from the breeding- stock of Afghan blood,
which is indicated by the fine downy wool nnderneath the hairy
fleeces. The result is that good sheep and good lamb-furs are steadily
decreasing in numbers and are believed to be within measurable
distance of extinction."

Importations into other Cot'ntries.

The ever-increasing demand for furs, and the ever-decreasing
supply of furs owing to the destruction of fur-bearing animals, has
led to the importation of karakul sheep into various countries.
Through the elforts of Dr. Sinitzen, the Eussian authority on these
sheep, they were introduced into the Crimea, where they have done
well. In 1902 Paul Thorer, the senior partner of one of the lorgest
fur merchant houses in Leipzig, visited Bokhara, nnd on his return
interested the King of Saxony and originated the idea of trying them
in the German Colonies. This idea was taken up by the late Director
of the Agricultural Institute at Halle, Professor Kuhn, who, in
1903, secured 4 rams and 20 ewes of what were believed to be
pure karakuls from Bokhara. These sheep apparently did not do
very well, and there is reason to fear that their selection had not
been made witli sufficient care to exclude the fine uiiderwool so fatal
to the production of iiigh-class fur, for, in 1912, Dr. C. C. Young
reported that " he examined 60 ewes descended from Thorer' s
flock and found only three of them devoid of the fatal down-like
underwool." Professor Kulin's flock was, it is said, purchased in

1910 by a Mr. Max Teinert, of South-West Africa. They do not
appear to have thrived there either, as, when the author visited this
gentleman's Hock in 1917, there were not more than thirty pure-bred
karakvils alive.

An attempt to establish these sheep in the Trans-Caspian district
of Eussia bj- the Agricultural Department of that country has also
been a failure, owing to the wrong class of sheep being selected,
and Dr. Young, after examining 1500 of these so-called karakuls,
reports that he " did not find one fur-producing* sheep, all being
Arabi-Afghans," that is, having the fine woolled Afghan sheep blood
in them.

The same wrong type seems to have been introduced in 1909 into
Eoumania. Before the European war karakul fur-breeding- was
reported to be a growing and successful industry i]i Austria, and in

1911 the Emperior of Austria presented the then President of the
Argentine Eepublic with a flock of 20 karakul sheep. The result
of this importation is unknown to us at present.

A much more important importation was made by Dr. C. C.
Young, of the United vStates of America. In 1908 he imported 15
pure-bred karakuls (10 ewes and 5 rams), and in 1914 he succeeded,
m spite of the existing prohibition against foreigners entering the
country, in obtaining another specially selected flock of about the
same size. It is understood that Dr. Young claims to have the best
karakuls that ever left Bokhara.

One or two rams have also been obtained by Professor Wallace,
of the Fniversity of Edinburgh, and are being used for experiments
in crossing with various British breeds.

512 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Introduction into Sottth Africa.

In February, 1907, a sheep breeder of Berlin drew the atteutioii
of the German Imperial Government to karakvil sheep, and urged
that these sheep should be given a trial in Soutli-West Africa, as, in
the opinion of others, including Professor Kuhn, of Halle, these
sheep were of great value on account of the lambs' pelts, and that
they required a dry country with dry grazing. The German Imperial
Government decided to try the experiment : 22 Bams and 252
ewes were accordingly shipped to South- West Africa, and arrived at
Swakopmund in February, 1909. These sheep were, according to
the German records, and also to Professor Robert Wallace, of Edin-
burgh, "selected with the greatest care in Bokhara from the best
fioclts in the country.'^ It speaks well for the hardiness of the sheep
that in the long journey by road and rail from Bokhara to Germany
only one sheep died. On their arrival in South Africa they were sent
to the Government farm Fiirstenwalde, where, unfortunately, many
died within a few months, chiefly from pneumonic and parasitic
diseases, and in 1912 the flock consisted of 42 rams and 182 ewes,
while some 82 sheep had been sold to farmers. In 1913 a further
small importation was made, the sheep coming from Halle, and in
1914, a few months before war w-as declared, a large number of ewes
were imported from Bokliara via Eussia. It is worthy of mention that
many of the best of the old ewes at present in the Government flocks
are of this second Russian importation.

When the country was surrendered to the Fnion troops the
pure-bred flock consisted of 80 rams and 360 ewes.

In 1916 this flock was moved to the Government farm Utjituesu,
near Windhuk, and placed in the charge of Mr. Thompson, and there
they have remained to date.

In 1916 also, the Minister of Agriculture agreed to allow the
importation of part of this flock into the Union, and 3 rams and 84
ewes were transferred to the Grootfontein School of Agriculture,
Middelburg (Cape). In 191T. 25 ewes, carefully selected by the
writer, who had been put in charge of the investigations into the
breeding of these sheep, were added to the flock, and since that date
a few rams have also been transferred there. Tli Karroo conditions
suited the sheep excellently, and, in spite of the recent years of
drought and the sale of about 130 young rams and 75 ewes, the
flock at Grootfontein numbers 150 ewes, exclusive of lambs, and
10 rams.

II.

Description.

Confonnai ii>n.~^'Yh.<d karakul is essentially a liairy, fat-tailed
sheep, not very unlike, the africander in conformation, although
larger. The rams are usually horned, although hornless specimens
are by no means uncommon, while the ewes are usually hornless,
horn ell specimens being decidedly uncommon. The head is rather
long and somewliat narrow, the nose markedly roman, especially in
the rams, and tapering rather abruptly towards the muzzle. The
nostrils are narrow and slit-like, with their lips folded in. This is
probably a provision of nature to guard against the driving sand of
their native country, and is a characteristic wliicli can with advantage

Karakul Sheep. 513

be bred out iu favour of wider nostrils. The head should be wide
above the eyes and the bridge of the nose broad, bold and strongly
arched transversely. Plate I, the ram " Edward," of the Grootfon-
tein stud, shows a karakul of good oppearance. The ears vary con-
sideiably iu size, some sheep having practically no external ears,
while in others they are large and drooping. This variation in the
size of the ears is due to the fact that among the originally imported
ewes some, said to belong to the " Arabi " strain of karakuls, pos-
sessed these short ears, and also one of the rams. As it was previously
mentioned that " Arabi-Afghans " were useless as fur-breeding sheep,
let it be clearly understood that the short-eared '" Arabis " just men-
tioned are not "Arabi-Afghans," but high-class fur-producing
karakuls; in fact, the ram referred to has, to date, proved the best
sire of tight-curled lustrous lambs we have. He is the ram " Jacob "
mentioned again later. The best breeding ewe at Grootfontein also has
small pointed ears. The crest of the head should have hairy covering,
the woolly crest so often seen being undesirable. The head and face
is always covered with short black hair, which should be soft and
lustrous. Often a giey-tipped nose occurs and a grey lower lip, but
further no white should appear on the head or face except a white
crest or white patches at the points from which the horns should
spring. The teeth are large and strong, being rather superior to
those of the merino, some of the ewes botii iu the South-West Protec-
torate Administration and in the Union Government flocks over ten
years of age still having good teeth. The chest is only fairly deep
and broad, and the heart girth is not large in comparison to that of
a well-built merino ; the ribs are often not Avell sprung, while the
wither is high and inclined to be sharp. These features, combined
with the drooping rump, due to the heavy tail, give the sheep an
appearance of ugliness in the eyes of those used to merinos, but for
all its apparent lack of constitution the karakul is the hardiest of
hardy sheep; in fact, it has been stated that tliey are the hardiest
of all domesticated animals. The best type of tail is broad U-shaped,
and flat at the base, rather short and tapering abruptly to a charac-
teristic twisted tip which starts to grow upward and then falls over
and hangs down in a line more or less that of its central axis.
Another type of tail, which is often seen, is much larger and tapers
more gradually to the characteristic tip, while a bad type tapers
gradually from its base and is without the curved tip at its end. The
first type of tail mentioned is preferred to the others, as it is more
shapely and does not drag the rump down to the same extent as the
second type. In ewe lambs the tail is usually amputated at an early
age, as its removal facilitates the process of mating. Tailless ewes
have a much more pleasing appearance when grown, as the rump
is much less drooping. (Process of tailing is described later.) The
leys are rather long and have clean,* hard, smooth bone. They are
covered with soft, short, black, lustrous hair like the face. The hoofs
are large, deep, hard, and black.

Covering. — The fleece should be of clean hail', free froni soft
woolly matter, and opening freely to the skin. This freeuess from
wool is a most important point in sheep about three years of age.
The presence of wool in the lamb pelt spoils it for fur purposes, and
consequently woolly parents are to be avoided. As the sheep grow
older the majority of them become more and more woolly, until

514 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

veiy little of the true hairy covering- is left. Some, however, remain
free from this woolly undergrowth all their lives, and these are con-
sidered of special value. (The woolliness in the fleece will be further
discussed later on.)

The quality of the hair is of great importance, as our investiga-
tions have shown ULore and more that, to produce lamb pelts having
the desired lustre which gives the fur its extraordinary beauty and
its value, the right quality of hair is essential in the parents. The
quality may be soft, medium, or strong, but it must be kindly to the
touch and have a lustre indicating an abundance of life in the hair.
Harshness, almost always accompanied by fu5;ziness, is most undesir-
able.

On opening the fleece of a good karakul it will be noticed that
there if; a distinct crimj) in the hair near the skin. This crimp is not
at all like that found in wool, being infinitely larger and confined
to that half of the staple nearest the animal's body. Its presence is
a most desirable feature if it is of the right kind. Good crimp should
be well defined, should commence close to the skin, should lie jiai'^llel
with the surface of the body, and should give place to a wave at about
half the length of the hair. A fleece having crimp of this nature opens
freely to the skin. If the crimp lies at an angle with the body surface
it is bad, and although there may be a great deal of it it is an indica-
tion in most cases that the animal at birth had a m_ost undesirable
type of curl. Crimp of this kind causes a matted fleece, difficult to
open cleanly to the skin.

It is, of couj'se, most desirable to have the crimp occurring evenly
over the whole body, but this is very rarely the case. The best
crimp is fouud on tlie shoulder and leg an 1 the- worst occurs on the
ribs.

The lengtli of the staple should be about 8 inches for twelve
months' growth, while its density, which is correlated with type of
curl and quality of hair, is poor as compared with the pure-bred
woolled Persian. The covering of the tail and belly should be as
similar to that of the body as possible.

Tlie External Appearance of the Fleece. — Let it be emphasized
at the commencement of these remarks that what follows is what the
writer knows to be correct, but that there is much to learn with
regard to the appearance of the fleeces of good and of bad sheep. The
subject is one of considerable difficulty, and until more specially
marked lambs attain to maturity we are not in a position to say in
all cases by the appearance of the adult fleece what the sheep was
like as a lamb, or, conversely, what sort of an adult fleece any
particular lamb will have. Lambs of *"A" type when
matured sheep have a fleece of an even external appearance (see
Plate 2a). There may be a distinct wave in the covering,
but the hair is never twisted into locks like those seen in
a well-bred Angora goat. Often beautifully curled lambs
grow wp to have perfectly plain fleeces externally, and
especially is this the case when they are strong-haired as adults.
Any sheep having a fleece really curly in appearance must be looked
upon with stispicion, and if the hair is, in addition, fuzzy and harsh
and shows much curl, the sheep is best culled. A curly,

* For explanation of "A" and "B" types, seo "Lambs : their pelts, etc."

Karakul Sheep.

515

Plate 1.— Tj^pical Kurakul Ram. Grootfontein Stud Ram "Edward." (Photo by
N. H. Shaw.) Platk 2a. — Yearhng ;iam of "A" type, with smooth external
appearance of Fleece. (Photo by Author.) Plate 2b. — Yeailing Ram of
"." type, with curly and fuzzy external appearance of Heece. (Photo by
Author.) Pla e 8. — Karakul lamb, with good - Pipe" curl. (Photo by A. D.
Thompson.) Pla e 4. — Stud Ham "Jacob," v/itli woolly Fleece due to age.
(Phoio by Author.)

516 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

fuzzy appearance of fleece (see Plate 2b) indicates tliat the
sheep as a lamb had a "nigger" pelt (see Plate 7) or
Avas, anyhow, of the "B" type (see Lambs: their pelts,
etc.). Even if the external appearance of the fleece is plain,
but the hair itself is of a harsh quality, the sheep was as a lamb
of the undesirable "B" type. Such a fleece if opened would show
strong crimp standing out at all angles from the body surface. Again,
some sheep having an external superficial appearance of fleece much
like that just described as resulting from lambs witli " nigger " pelts,
prove on handling to have good quality hair. Such sheep probably
had as lambs a type of curl known as "walnut," and as this is a
most desirable type of curl they are thus valuable sheep. We, how-
ever, require to know much more about this most important feature
of these sheep.

The colour of the fleece varies considerably. On the new-born
lamb it is a jet black, and continues so until it is first shorn, when
the lamb is six months of age. The next fleece grown usually shows
some grey hairs mixed with the black, which still predominates,
though it often bleaches reddish-brown. After the age of twelve
months is reached, there is an increase in the greyness of the covering,
and when the sheep is from two and a half to three years old it has
a fleece of the colour it will keep until it ages, when it again becomes
brownish, due often, as mentioned above, to the presence of wool.
Often the colour of the adult is so grey that the sheep appear white
at a short distance, and, if this is due to hair and not to wool, it is
not undesirable. While no colour is bad if the fleece has the
desirable qualities indicated above, a bright blue-grey is preferred.

The Presence of Wool. — It was mentioned above that the presence
of wool in the fleece was most undesirable, and it is felt that some-
thing more should be said about this most important factor. Experi-
ments in crossing with wool sheep, such as the merino or high grades
of woolled Persians, prove that even when a fair amount of curl is
obtained the appearance of woolliness spoils the pelts for furs. This
wool i^ersists in the higher grades, and any person grading up a
flock for pelt breeding should be most careful to avoid wool in any
form. The total absence of wool in pure-bred stock is also greatly
to be desired, and, as stated before, sheep which remain free from
wool all their lives can rightly be considered of exceptional value.
Most of the karakuls in South Africa, however, develop some woolliness
with age, and yet produce lambs having the highest lustre and the
most desirable type of curl. Even lambs Avhicii left nothing to be
desired in lustre and but little in curl at birth often show an appreci-
able amount of wool after twelve months of age. As an instance,
mention can be made of a ram lamb bred in the South-West Protec-
torate from an old ram "Jacob" imported with the first consign-
ment in 19U9. This sheep is, to date, the best lamb we have bred,
having splendid "pipe " curl and lustre (see Plate 3). He is now
decidedly woolly on his head. "Jacob" himself is a very old ram,
being at least twelve years of age, and has now a fleece practically
all wool (see Plate 4), although what hair he has shows that in his
youth he must have had a splendid covering. He is, however, the
best sire in South Africa for getting good curl pelts, and eight of
his sons are or have been at stud on the two Government farms, while
a grandson is shortly to be added to the Grootfontein stud. From
many instances similar to the above it would appear that in many

Karakul Sheep. 517

karakuls the wool makes its appearance after the animal is beyond
tlie age when its pelt is of value for the purpose of making furs, and
is consequently of no account in breeding' fur pelts. Many lambs do,
however, show woolliness in their lamb covering-, and as the wool
present in the former cases may, for all we know, express itself
earlier in the animal's life at any time, the best rule to follow is to
avoid wool of any form in a karakul of any age.

It is sometimes difficult to find wool on a g'ood karakul without
the aid of a microscope. If any breeder tbinks he has such an animal
let him look carefully behind the head, round the bases of the
ears, on the belly, and round the base of the tail. If he finds no
woolly substance there, he can be satisfied that lie has in his posses-
sion a most valuable sheep.

In judging the woolliness of the average karakul, however,
allowance must be made for age. Almost invariably some hair will
be found on the rump and upper leg, which will indicate what the
fleece was like when the animal was at its best.

The value of the fleece is dealt with under the heading of
" Management." The covering of the lambs is quite different from
that of the adult, being jet black, lustrous, and curly.

III.

Lambs : Their Pelts and Their Classification.

As karakul sheep are bred chiefly as fur-bearing animals, and
as their value in that direction lies in the pelt of the young lamb,
the greatest attention should be given to the study of the lambs
when the pelts are at their best. This is when tlie lambs are from
0-4 days old, when the most desirable pelts should be jet black and
exceedingly glossy. The quality of the hair should be kindly to the
touch and fairly soft, and the tips of the individual hairs should be
so curled so as to be tucked away out of sight, thus giving the pelt a
smooth appearance. If these tips are not so hidden the pelt has a
ragged appearance, which detracts greatly frour its value as a fur.
The curls should be tight, and much of the value depends upon the
irregular arrangement of the curls all over the body. The most
desirable kind of curl is that known as the pipe or caterpillar. Here
the curls are caterpillar-shaped, about the thickness of an ordinary
lead pencil in diameter, and of various lengths. Such curl is seen
on the lambs in Plates 3 and 5. In classing young lambs with
pipe-curl careful note is made whether the curl is heavy, medium,
or light, depending upon the diameter of the pipe. These pipes vary
considerably in length and may lun in any direction, often forming
most artistic designs. Another verj- desirable kind of curl is that
to which the name walnut has been given. This curl is difficult to
describe. It resembles the edible portions of a walnut which has
been broken in half, and appears to be formed by the hair growing
out in all directions from given points.

This curl rarely, if ever, appears over the whole surface of the
body, being usually associated with pipe curls. A third valuable kind
of pelt is that known as the " watered silk,'' in which clearly defined
curls seldom occur, most of the pelt being covered with hair thrown
into strong, firm, irregular corrugations. The highest lustre is found
on skins of this type, which is indeed the nearest approach to the

518 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

"broad tail" or premature skins so highly prized by furriers. The
corrugations aud smooth, partially developed curls give an appear-
ance of "shot" or "watered" silk to the pelt. Imitations of this
type of fur are very numerous; in fact, most of the so-calied astrakhan
fur coats worn are imitations of these pelts (see Plate 6). TJudesir-
abie pelts all carry hair of quite a difterent quality and gloss to tnat
just described. The quality is much harsher, and even if the curl is
good the lustre is very inferior. Good quality of hair always gives
a blue-black lustre like that seen on a black horse still wet from being
washed, while bad quality hair gives a reddish-black lustre, or is
dull. As lustre cannot be imparted to the fur by any artificial means,
the value of the pelt depends largely upon it.

The most undesirable curl is that known as the "nigger" (see
Plate 7). Here the curls are found like those on the head of a
kaffir. The tips of the hairs are always exposed, giving the pelt a
ragged, fuzzy appearance, and the lustre is very poor. Finally there
is a curl which occurs in both the qualities of hair mentioned above.
This curl is knoAvn as the " corkscrew " (Plate 8), and is much
like that instrument in appearance if one imagines it compressed
from above downwards. This curl has also been likened to a burr-
clover seed-pod, and that term was used in the description of the
1916 lambs at Grootfontein. It has now beeu discarded for "the term
corkscrew. As the result of observations extending over four years
the following classification of lambs, according to their pelts, has been
evolved. Lambs having the qualfty of hair described as occurring
in desirable pelts are classified as belonging to the Type " ,4," and
arc then divided into classes, Al, A2, x\3, and A4, depending upon
the tightness of the curl, its evenness of distribution over the body
of the lamb, the lustre of the pelt, and its freeness from raggedness.
"Watered silk" lambs are classed as above, but the letters " Ws "
are added to indicate their nature. Tyiyc " B " includes all lambs
with the wrong quality of hair described under "undesirable pelts."
This quality of hair is always accompanied by a peculiar reddish
lustre or by dullness. Classes Bl, B2, B3, B4 are recognized as in
A, for it is quite possible for a lamb of this type to have very definite
pipe or waluut curls; in fact, the tightest-curled lambs got usually
belong to this type, but the quality of the hair is undesirable, and
tlie lustre is poor, and the pelts are consequently of much less value
as furs.

Up to the present it bas been customary in the South- West
Protectorate flock to use type C and even D.

Tyjye C is used for lambs having pelts in which Ihe predominating
curl is corkscrew, but as many of these lambs have hair of the A
quality and others of B quality, it would seem that this type C
might well be done away with, and the presence of the corkscrew curl
indicated by the adding of the letters " Cs " to the letter indicating the
type in which the corkscrew appears, thus 3ACs would indicate that
the corkscrew is present but that the hair was of the A type. After
all, A and B types refer to quality of hair and lush^e and not to curl,
and the corkscrew is only a kind of curl and often the result of mating
two good sheep of A type, when, if the resulting lamb is too long-
haired it either has very open curls, or, if much curl is present, it
takes the form of a corkscrew.

Type I) has also occasionally been used in the South-West Protec-
torate cl'assifications, but no good purpose can be served by retaijiing it.

Karakul Sheep.

519

Plate 5. — Karakul Lamb, with good "Pipe" curl and lustre. (Plioto hy A. D.
Thompson.) Plate 6. — Karakul Lamb, with "Watered-Silk"' pelt somewhat
over-developed. (Photo by A. D. Thompson.) Plate 7. — Karakul Lamb, with
'"Nigger" curl having no lustre. (Photo by A. D. Thompson.) Plate 8. —
Karakul Lamb, with "Corkscrew" curl. (Photo by A. D. Thompson.) Plate
y. — Karakul Lambs of same type of curl, with opening of curl due to age.
(Photo by Author.)

520 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

In classing lambs, therefore, the types recognized are A and B
only.

In classing' lambs as above, physique, etc., is not taken into
consideration at all, only the pelt, from a fur point of view, being
judged. Any defect such as an overshot or an undershot jaw is,
of course, noted, and tlie lambs killed, but if the pelt is all that is to
be desired, such a lamb might still be classed as Al.

The best age to describe lambs to do them justice is when they
are from tliree to four days old, but much depends upon the type of
curl and the length of the hair, and only experience can tell the
breeder when any particular lamb will be at its best. " Watered silk "
lambs as a rule become very curly by the time they are seven days of
age, and if they are then described such description would not be at
all a correct record of wbat the lamb actually was at its best.

The curl and lustre and nature of the lamb pelt changes rapidly.
For the first forty-eight hours after birth the hair has not yet taken
its jjroper place and the pelt does not show at its best. After three
or four days the curl opens considerably; the hair becomes too long,
often the lustre lessens and the pelt is useless as a fur (see Plate 9).

At botli tlie Grootfontein and the Otjituesu studs each lamb is
carefullv described under the lieadings shown hereunder (Fie 11^).

Fig. 10.

Specimen page from Lamh De.scriptioji Begister showing meihod in trhich
the lambs arc descrihed.

G.K.

340 Ewe.

Sire.

Dam.

Class.

. Russel "

S.W.A. 68

1st A Sp. medium heavy

Date of De=cri[)tion.

1st September, 191P
Mouth: Good.
Nose: Slight roman.

Ears: Large, covering with slight wave.
Covering of head : AVavy and glossy.
Covering of face : Wavy and glossy.
General appearance of head : Very good.

Curl: Pipes, perpendicular, especially well defined on shoulders and lower neck.
Short curved pipes on flank and hind leg, few walnuts.

Type of curl : Medium heavy A.

Lustre: Very good.

Quality: Good A, medium soft.

Density : Good.

Length : Very slightly on long side.

Belly: Very fair medium.

Covering of legs : Slight wav(^ and glossy.

Tail: Good, rather long point.

Bone: Good, well-built lamb.

Class : 1st A special, medium heavy.

Value :

Remarks : Pipes very well defined and of various lengths and shapes. Entirely
free from any raggedness ; wet lustre ; best lamb dropped this season, etc.

Mate G.K. 340 to " Nimrod."

Mate S.W.A. 68 to " L. Russel" 1920.

Karakul Sheep. 521

Such descriptions are absolutely necessary, as the mating of the sheep
depends upon the curl, etc., of the pelt. The mating- of the ewe lambs
is thus done with the lamb before the breeder, and it would seem that
this method of mating will always have to be followed while the
breeder's object is the improvement of the curl. We can never know
sufficiently about the fleece of the adult to be able to tell exactly what
the curl was like as a lamb, where it needed tightening up, etc., and
in the case of ram lambs it is perhaps more important. If these lamb
descriptions are not made and kept and used as the ultimate deciding
factor, many a ram which had a very indifferent pelt will be kept
for stud because of build, size, and other good points. It is our
practice at Grootfontein to note at the time a lamb is described, in
the case of rams, whether the sheep is good enough to watch with
tho possibility of using him at stud later. All the rams thus noted
are carefully examined later and a final decision come to, but no
other rams are ever considered for retaining no matter how well they
grow out or how promising their fleece at ten or eleven months of
age may seem.

Breeders are also strongly recommended to photograph all the
ewe lambs born, except " niggers " or others having such faults so as
to enable the owner to cull them, and also all the ram lambs which
m.ay possibly be retained at stud. It is impossible by means of
description alone to recall the pelt of every lamb to mind, and when,
after breeding for some years, the breeder has to decide which of two
rams to keep for stud, reference to the photos of their dams and
grand-dams will almost always enable the correct choice to be made.
Such an instance actually occurred on Grootfontein during this lamb-
ing season, when it became necessary to select a son of one of the old
stud rams. The choice laj^ between two lambs, one a class lA and
the other a 1-2A, i.e. just a shade looser in curl. Eeference to the
lamb photos of the dams decided the writer in favour of the 1-2A
beyond all doubt. For these photos a postcard size camera is best, as
the photos are quite large enough and they can easily be retained in
postcard albums.

For the information of breeders a page out of the lamb book at
Grootfontein is annexed. It will be seen that at the top of the page
occurs the lamb's number and sex. On the first line the date of birth,
parentage, and class, and then follows the description. Notice also
that the future mating of the lamb is given at the foot of the page,
and the mating of the dam for the following season. These matings
are, of course, often changed Avhen young rams are tried at stud, but
the type of curl, etc., of each ram is, of course, known, and, should
any change be necessary, a ram of the same type is used.

Tagging Lambs. — Every lamb, when its description is taken,
should be tagged with a numbered tag. This is essential for purposes
of keeping proper registers, for purposes of mating, etc. It is the
praitice in both the Government flocks to tag all pure-bred karakuls
in the right ear only at present, and all grade karakuls in the left
ear. This method has this great advantage, that it prevents any
possible mistake arising if a tag is lost, as the tear will at once
indicate whether the sheep was pure-bred or not. It has been found
on Grootfontein that tagging close to the base of the front of the
ear is much more satisfactory than tagging at the back, none of the
tags in tlie former position having been torn out.

522 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

Arrangements are at present being made for the uegistration of
pure-bred karakul sheep in the South African Stud Book, and when
this has been accomplished further tags may be necessary. It is
stiongly urged, however, that breeders who purchased pure-bred
sheep recently should continue tagging in the way suggested. The
breeder's initials or the name of his farm might, with advantage,
be stamped on the reverse side of the tag. In order to prevent con-
fusion later, when the Stud Book regulations come into force, breeders
should note that the letters " S.W.A." on the reverse side of the
tag form the mark of pure-bred karakul sheep bred by the South-West
Protectorate Administration, and that the letters " G.K." are used
at Grootfontein. These combinations, therefore, should not be used
by piivate breeders.

KiLLiNCi : Skinning and Peeparing the Pelts for
Market.

The lamb pelts, to be of any value for furs, necessitate the
slaughtering of the lambs at the age when their curl is at its best.
The throat must be cut to allow as much blood as possible to escape,
and the skin must then immediately be removed. This is done by
making a straight cut from the neck in the usual way. As every
part of the pelt is of value, the cuts in it must be as few and as
straight as possible. AVhen the skin has been removed it should be
carefully washed in clean water to remove blood, etc., which may be
adhering to it, and then dipped into a weak solution of arsenite of
soda in water for about half a miniite. (This solution must not be
stronger than 5 per cent.) After this precaution against moth has
been taken the skin is gently stretched (taking great care not to over-
stretch) on a frame, and is dried in the shade. Drying is best done in
a sliady shed through which the air is constantly circulating. It is
fatal to dry pelts in the sun, as they become " burnt" and lose most
of their value, because burnt pelts will not stand the processes of
working up into furs. AVhen the skins are dry they are packed in
flat bundles and shipped overseas to the furriers in that state. A
small amount of salt may be put on the skin when it is ready to be
dried.

Lambs born dead or prematurely born lambs should be bled at
once, as if this is not done the pelts M'ill not stand the working* up into
furs. In any case, however, the premature skins are more or less
weak a]id do not wear nearly as well as the others. There appears to
be a belief i)revalent that it is necessary to kill the ewe to obtain the
best type of skin from the unborn lamb. This is, of course, quite
without foundation and wrong. The belief probably originated
through the higii value placed on the pelts of aborted lambs of a
certain type, and also through the existence of a disease in Bokhara
which causes the ewes to abort. As a matter of fact a considerable
number of skins, in fact the great majority, would not be as valuable
if their owners had been aborted lambs. Only certain types of curl
would be better if aborted. Some, again, even if carried the full
time, appear to have been born before their time, while curls like the
" nigger " would never be really suitable no matter how soon or
late the lambs were born.

Karakul Sheep. 523

IV.

Karakuls in South Africa.

As already stated, karakuls are very liardy animaks, aiid are
particularly well suited tor the semi-arid regions wliich comprise a
considerable poi'tion of the Union of South Afnca. Their hardiDess
is to be expected from their environment in their native country,
and no effort has been spared to keep up this hardiness. In the
Union Government flock at Grootfontein the lambs are turned out
into the veld with their dams at about seven days of age, and the
sheep never receive anj- additions to the food they find for themselves.
(Even the stud rams are treated in tliis manner ) The ewes are
exceptionally good mothers, cases of ewes refusing to "take" their
lambs being almost unknown. They have further a very abundant
supply of rich nourishing milk, and, as the lambs are big and strong
at birth (the average weight being ten pounds), they thrive splendidly,
and in the four lambing seasons at Grootfontein, during which
some 380 pure-bred lambs have been dropped, there have not been a
dozen deaths through what might be termed natural causes. In 1916
a .small number of the ewe lambs died as tlie result of having their
taihi cut off, and an occasional lamb is still lost now through this
operation, but otherwise it is seldom indeed that a lamb dies. The
average weight of the veld-grown lambs in 1916 was just under 52 lb.
at three months of age. In 1919 the weights were less favourable,
but as no real rain ever fell from the time the lambs were born, and
as consequently the grazing might have been much better when they
were weaned, the results were really not bad. The average weiglit
of 59 ewe iambs at weaning was 51 lb. The lowest weiglit was 30 lb.,
a lamb whose dam was killed by jackals, and the highest weight
was 68 lb. The average weight of 54 ram lambs, grown under the
same conditions, was 541b., the weights varying between 28 lb. and TTlb.
EvV'^s cliangiijg their milk incisors for their permanent teeth averaged
69 lb., varying from 34 lb. to 85 lb., while rams of the same age
averaged 88| lb., varying from 76 lb. to 109 lb. The average weight
of 10 pure-bred aethers born September-October, 1918, was, on the
15th September, 1919, 87 1/5 lb., and that of the rams for the same
age 931 lb., ranging from 84 lb. to 103 lb. Ewes with two incisor
teeth up averaged 98 lb., varying from 82 lb. to 112 lb., while the
12 heaviest averaged 106 lb. Rams of the same age averaged 103 lb.,
the weights varying between 83 lb. and 127 lb. All the weights up
to this point were of sheep which had had to contend with indifferent
grazing due to droughty conditions. The following weights of ewes,
taken Eebruary, 1919, were taken just after the lambs were weaned,
when the ewes were in the lowest possible condition and not carrying
much covering either. Four-toothed ewes averaged 88 lb., as against
98 lb. for two-toothed ewes. Six-toothed ewes averaged the same,
i.e. 88 lb., while full-mouth ewes averaged 104 lb, A few dry full-
mouth ewos weighed up to 135 lb., which is, however, still under
what well-grown karakul ewes should weigh. The weight of the
pure-bred rams are of less value, as rams, except those retained for
stud or for special observation, are sold at twelve months of age,
consequently the figures given refer to much smaller numbers tlian
those available for the ewes. Four-toothed rams averaged 131 lb. ;

524 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

six-toothed rams 138 lb.; and fuU-moutli rams 144 lb., the
hig-hesi weight being 156 lb. If run on permanent pasture the
weights would be much g-reater, but as it is our intention to keep
these sheep under conditions as near those which exist on the
majority of farms, the above weights are a truer indication of the
size attained by them. The heaviest karakul the writer has seen was
a ram sold in 1916, which weighed 206 lb. (For the convenience of
reader^ the above weights are repeated with those given when dealing
with g]-ade karakuls. This enables a ready comparison to be made.)

Tvarakuls are great walkers and good climbers, going into stony
kopjes much higher than the merinos or other sheep on Grootfontein.
They cover the ground over which they are grazing rapidly, and, if
ill a flock with other sheep, soon separate themselves out and leave the
otiiers behind. If put into a lucerne paddock they graze up and
down it, seldom remaining long in one place. They are markedly
unsociable, and prefer the company of their own kind when mixed
witli other sheep, as indicated above. The ewes are most devoted
mothers, even young ewes with their first lambs looking after their
offspring most carefully, usually coming straight up to any one who
has caught a lamb. As they are very heavy milkers they must be
watched should they lose a lamb through any cause, as it is necessary
to miJk them dry a few times to prevent udder trouble.

As regards their food, they eat anytJiing that can be eaten,
and will thrive where many another breed would succumb to hunger.
Thev are particularh^ fond of dry grazing, not necessarily droughty
grazing, but dry grass, bush, etc. They have been seen on Groot-
fontein to relish and look for dried maize leaves which were ignored
by the merinos in the flock. There does not appear to be a great
craving for green grazing, and a flock of ewes have been seen to
walk through a paddock of lucerne without attempting to feed.

Until the opportunity for further investigation occurs it would
perhaps be too much to say that karakuls do not thrive on an entirely
green diet, but certainly, when in 1916-lT the stud rams were run
on lucerne and grass, one of them, while appearing in normal health
and vigour throughout the period, lost 20 lb. in weight in about
four months. ,

Karakul sheep have a great appetite for salt and should be freelj'
supplied with this substance.

In the State-owned flocks the ewes are bred from only once a
year. On Grootfontein the rams are paddocked with their ewes in late
March or April, and the lambs are dropped in August to September.
The ewes appear to come into use best at this time of the year, and an
attempt made in 1917 to obtain autumn lambs resulted in very few-
lambs indeed. In the Protectorate flock there are two lambing seasons
a year, namely, in April and November. This is necessary as the
flock is too large to enable the officer in charge to do justice to all
the lambs should they all be born in a month or six weeks. The rams
run with the ewes for six weeks and are then removed.

As the lambs have to be killed to obtain the pelts the writer has
often been asked how the flock increases in size. Two methods of
getting over this difficulty are possible. In the first, only the ram
lambs, except those retained for stud, are killed for pelts, and only
those ewe lambs which are considered undesirable as breeding stock.
In the second, two lambings a year, or three in two years, should be

Karakul Sheep. a'i.'i

attempted. If the grazing' is good enough to lamb the ewes twice
a year, and if the ewes will come into use, as they will if in anything
like fair condition, the lambs born at the period most unfavourable
for raising them would be killed, and those born at the better time of
the year to add to the flock. When the breeder has once got his flock
to the size at which he means to maintain it, he can go back to lambing
his ewes once a year and kill off everything except what he wishes to
retain to replace old ewes or to add better ewe lambs of exceptional
curl and lustre as he improves his flock.

Many people express their repugnance at killing baby lambs,
and yet this is done so often in South Africa that the argument is
scarcely a sound one. In years of drought such as we are experiencing
at present, one hears of the cutting of lambs' throats to save their
dams, from all over the country, and the throats of thousands of lambs
and sheep and other animals are cut daily for the supply of food.
The operation is quick and practically painless, and there is no long-
lingering death in agony such as comes to so many of our wild animals
from the rifles of our sportsmen, who, strangely enough , often talk
about this cruelty to the lambs. Also it must be always borne in mind
that it was the intention of the Department of Agriculture, and it is
still the hope of those responsible, that karakul sheep will be bred
in those regions of our country where droughts are more frequent than
good years, and that farmers in such regions will, in the karakul,
have an animal the lamb of which, should it be necessary to have it:?
throat cut, will bring in a good return for breeding it, instead of being
a dead loss as is the case with all other breeds of sheep.

Again, in hloed-yens areas, where many lambs sicken and die
yearly the karakul sheep offer such unique advantages as should make
many farmers in such areas give them a trial. With these sheep,
if the lamb sickens, its throat is cut and its skin is sold, say, for 20s.,
which is what any but a bad skin would realize, and the farmer has
benefited to the extent of this sum.

Another great point in favour of karakul sheep is its resistance
to " stekgras." Owing to the hairy covering these sheep are not
affected by this grass to anything like the extent the woolled breeds
are, and yet have a covering which brings in something when clipped.

The breeders who have been grading up sheep with pure-bred
rams since 1916 speak highly of tins resistance to "stekgras" and
to the hardiness of even grade karakuls in resisting droughts, and
the fact that some of them come back every year to purchase rams
proves that they mean what they say.

V.

Management,

Under this heading the only points considered are those in which
karakul sheep require treatment different from other breeds.

Shearing. — The lambs should be shorn for the first time when
they are six months old ; if left longer the weight or warmth of the
fleece seems to be detrimental to their development. It is best to

526 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

shear every six mouths, as the fleece is incliued to mat if left for a
whole year, and as the sheep undoubtedly do better if shorn twice in
twelve months. Just after shearing, karakul sheep cannot stand wet
cold, being like Angora goats in this respect, and sliould be treated in
the same way. Every breeder should allow his adult sheep to go for
a whole year without shearing once when they are still young, as this
will enable him to find out much information as to the length of
staple, which would help him with his mating and prevent many
"corkscrew" lambs from being born. It will also show him clearly
which are his really clean-haired sheep, as they will mate far less
than those which have woolliness in their fleece.

The Value of the Fleece. — Before the war the fleece of the adult
sheep realized about 4|d. to 6d. per lb., and was used for various
purposes, such as stuffing saddles, etc. The war caused a consider.-^ble
rise in the value of the fleece, and up to 12Ad. was obtained for the
Grootfontein clip. The flist hair of the lambs, and the second to an
extent, appear to be the most valuable, as they are softer, less kempy,
and more uniform in texture than the subsequent growths. The staple
of the adult sheep, if allowed to grow for twelve months obtains a
leng'th of from 7 to 14 inches, while the weight of the fleece is about
5 lb. The heaviest clipped on Grootfontein weighed 9 lb.

The Ampufaiion of the Eice Lambs' Tails. — As the tails of the
adult sheep are often of such a size as to interfere with the act of
mating, some difficulty was experienced in getting some ewes in lamb
when these investigations were first begun. Hand serving had to be
done and much time expended. It was, therefore, decided to cut
back the tails of all the ewe lambs, and after several methods had
been tried the following, evolved in the South-West Protectorate
flock, was finally adopted. The lamb is held in the usual way when
tailing or castrating by an assistant and the tail is tlioroughlj- washed
with a disinfectant by tlie operator. The tail is then laid in the palm
of the hand of the operator to allow the bony axis to assume its normal
position, and is then firmly grasped at its base, right against the
body of the lamb, by the assistant who is holding the lamb. The
operator, holding the tail in his left hand, ligatures the arteries which
run very close to the caudal vertebral column, as follows : A half-
circle surgical needle, threaded with strong twine or plaited silk,
which has been dipped in disinfectant, is passed from the one side of
the bone, round the back of it, and out again on the other side of
the bone. (The needle is inserted about one-third of an inch from the
bone, and should reappear about the same distance from it on the
other side; it need not appear outside the skin at the under side of
the tail at all. The silk having thus been passed round the bone and
arteries, is tied as tightly as the operator can tie it. This ligature
prevents any bleeding from the only artei-ies which matter. The
operator now feels for the second or third join between the vertebrae
of the tail, counting from its base, and, having found such a join,
he proceeds to cut through it and then cuts away the flesh and fatty
'matter on both sides. (A scalpel or castrating knife can be used for
this operation, and all the operator has to be careful about is that
he does not strike the bone itself, as the lambs seem to suffer from the
bone shock, which is very often fatal.) Having cut off the tail three
stitches are put in to draw the flaps of the skin together, one in the
centre opposite the severed bonj- axis; and one about half-way betv^•een

Karakul Sheep. 527

this central stitcli and the edge of the wound. The wound is then
again washed with disinfectant and the lamb put back with its dam. It
is best to keep it quiet in a shady place for the rest of the day, or for
some hours at least. The following day the ligature round the bone
is removed, and if there is a dry scab on the wound and there is any
danger from blow-flies tlie scab sliould be painted over with Stockholm
tar. There is no necessity to remove tlie other three stitches.

Lambs to be operated on should always be brought to tlie pLice of
operating the niglit before the tailing is done, and the cutting* should
take place early next morning, while it is yet cool and before the
lambs have run about and got heated up.

By using this n.iethod the breeder can be sure that his losses
t])rough this operation will be so small as to be negligible.

Weaninr/. — Owing to the vigorous growth and early maturity of
the young rams, it is necessary to wean them at the age of about
3| months. If left longer than this there is danger of them tupping
the ewes and consequently of having lambs born to unknown sires,
coming on at all times of the year. The ewe lambs can be left some-
vvdiat longer if the condition of the veld permits it.

[77; (' second part of this article will aijpear, irith illustratio7is,
in next month" s Journal. Lt deals with mating, cross-hrceding, etc.~\

Fighting a Notorious Pest.

The United States Department of Agriculture is striving hard
to keep the " pink boll worm " out of its country. This notorious
pest has proved a frightful scourge in Egypt, and it has spread to
several distant lands, inclusive of Mexico. Amongst other measures
to prevent its accidental introduction, all raw cotton imported into
America is fumigated with cyanide gas. The fumigation is carried
out in immense steel cylinders, somewhat like those used in creosoting
timber. The bales of cotton are run into the cylinders on trucks,
and by exhausting the air from the chambers and then admitting the
gas, the poison is forced throughout the mass of cotton, carrying
death to any insects that may be present. The growing of cotton
is prohibited in a wide belt of country adjoining the infested area of
Mexico, and aeroplanes are used to locate any fields that may be
planted in ignorance of or in violation of the law. The disinfection
of railway cars, etc., coming from Mexico is required, and for this
purpose five special fumigation buildings have been erected, in which
cars are treated bodily. Fifteen cars at once can be treated in the
largest of these buildings. Specially designed apparatus is used for
generating, distributing, and expelling the gas. It is expected that
the cost of the chemicals for generating the gas in these buildings
will amount to £'20,000 a year. The pink boll worm is not known
nearer the Union than Zanzibar on the East Coast. It is spread
chiefly through the medium of seed, and even a small parcel of
infested seed might suffice to get it permanently established in a
new country.

528

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

A LEAF SPOT OF THE PEA-NUT OR MONKEY-
NUT PLANT.

Caused by the fungus Septogloeum arachidis, Rac

By Paul A. van dee, Bijl, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Mycologist in
Charge, Natal Herbarium.

The object of this brief note is to call attention to the existence of a
serious disease noticed especially along the coastal region of Natal on
pea-nut or monkey-nut plants (Arachis hypogea).

Fig. 1. — Photograph of Leaves aiul Stem of the Monkey-Nut I'lant
suffering from attack by the Fungus Sfi/iftifflnfium a/'i(c/nJis.
Note the Black Spots.

The disease shows itself as black, circular to irregular spots or
flecks which, though more prevalent on the leaves, occur also on
the leaf stalks and stems (fig. 1). It is caused by a microscopic
fungus, known scientifically as Septogloeum arachidis, which invades
Ihe tissues of tho nionkey-iiut plant. The vegetative part or myrelium

A Leaf Spot op the Pea-Nut or Monkey-Nut Plant. 529

of the fungus ramifies primarily in the air spaces between the cell
tissue, and gives out sucking organs into the cells through which the
fungus draws nourishment from the cells and ultimately kills them.

The attacked leaves die early and shrivel up or fall ; a field badly
infected presents a gloomy spectacle of plants, showing only a few
newly formed leaves, the remainder being dead and shrivelled up,
while some plants are in great part quite leafless.

When the fungus has killed a smaller or larger area of the plant
tissues, it liegins to sliow signs of fructifying, and forms in the black

FiG. 2 (Highly MaKnifial). — Spores ot tlic Fungus and showing
some which Gorminaf(.'(l in Water.

nreas small dark dots or specks about the size of a pin-point and more
or less concentrically arranged.

These dots are due to a cluster of fungal threads which break
through the epidermis of the plant, and whose function is to form
the spores of the fungus, and thus, much to the annoyance of the
agriculturist, to ensure the spread and perpetuation of the disease.

The spore-bearing layer which thus breaks through the
epidermis forms elongated, light-coloured. 1-5 celled spores (fig. 2),

580

Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

The individual spores are microscopic in size and measure approxi-
mately .015 - .02 X .004 of an inch. Thej- germinate readily in
water (fig'. 2), and should they land on the leaves of monkey-nnt
plants under conditions favourable for growth, would cause the black
spots there within a few days. The spore layers form especially on
the under surface of the leaves, where they are concentrically
arranged in the black spots, but they also form, though less
abundantly, on the upper surface and on other parts of the plant
attacked.

Two fungi have been recorded as responsible for leaf spots iu
monkey-nut plants, viz., Septorjloeinn arachidis and Cercospora
2)ersoiiata. These names, however, appear to be different names
given to one and the same fungus, and as the Soutli African one
shows affinities Avith Srpfor/loruvi rather than Cercospora . we refer
it to the former.

In South Africa this leaf spot is recorded from the Transvaal,
British East Africa, and Natal. In foreign countries it is mentioned
from Java, Ceylon. Phillipine Islands, and the West Indies.

The damage caused at times b^' the fungus is sufficiently serious
to warrant the taking of steps to overcome its ravages. With this
object in view, it is recommended that the material from diseased
fields be burnt or else deeply ploughed in without chance of it coming
to the surface before thoroughly rotted. C]*op rotation should be
resorted to in old lands. A protective or preventive spray with
some fungicide may be applied in regions where the trouble is known
to occur, and I would point out the necessity of spraying early before
there are signs of the disease. Spraying will not benefit plants
already badly diseased, though even in these cases it is a distinct
advantage by reason of it killing the spores of the fungus through
which the disease is disseminated.

Employees on Farms.

According to the last census, tlie following was the average
number, sex, and race of emplovees on farms in the Union during the
vear 1917-1918: —

ProviiKe.

Europea and
other Whites.

Natives.

Indians and other

Asiatics

Other Colon icd.

Males.

Femalo^^

Males. Females.

Males.

Females.

Mak-s.

Female^.

Cape of Good

Hope

Natal

Transvaal
Orange Free

State

23,615

2,281

7,863
7,997

6,393 70,933

576 54,084
2.497 69,968
3,399 59,638

30,536

12,960
2.M17
35,737

786

18,405
436

46

3,920

78

36,566

334

524

1,249

11,301

65
231

527

Total ...

41,756

12,865 1 254,623

104,350

19,627 4,U41

38,673

12,124

Farming in the Early Cape Days. 531

FARMING IN THE EARLY CAPE DAYS.

By C. Graham Botha, ("hief Arciiivist for the Union.

[At this stage of uiir agiicuUuial development when the t'litiue holds bright promise of
continuing expansinn, it is interesting and not without profit to ponder awhile over the
early days "f our history an<l the conditions under which the f. rmers of those times
labouied. We welcfime the foUowuig sketch tiom the pen of Mr. C. Giaham Botha, who was
recertly ap])i)inieil Chief Aichi\ist tov the Union ani-i [niblish it as affording a comparison
between the present and the distant past. — Acting Editor.]

Iiv looking tliiough the records of several generations back there are
many which throw an interesting- light upon early farming at the
Cape. In comparison with present-day conditions it is observed
that while methods have improved, the trials and tribulations with
which the farmer still has to contend were ever jiresent in the years
gone by. Drought, rust in Avheat, cattle diseases, etc., were always
the dread of the agriculturist. In the following paragraphs I wish
to jot down a few facts of general interest whirli are to be found
in the records of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In 1652
the Dutch East India Company established itself in Table Valley
solely with the object of having a refreshment station to supply fresh
victuals to its ships passing to and from India. Its primary object
was to trade in the East Indies and various sub-stations, of which
the Cape was one. The first colonists to settle here were discharged
servants of the Company, who had been given their freedom in 1657
and grants of land along the Liesbeek River at Eondebosch to grow
corn and undertake farming. These were the first farmers of the
Cape Colony. They were at first designated as freemen to distinguish
them from those in the service of the Company, and the diary or
official journal gives many references to their manifold difficulties.
If it was not the failure of their crops then it was the devastation
by the Hottentots. An entry like this: "The freeman all warned
to be on their guard, in order not to be surprised, also not to go
about unarmed ; those unprovided with fire-arms to apply for some at
the Company's armoury," gives a good idea of the troubles thej'
encountered through the Hottentots.

At first the Company considered that it could supply its ships
in the bay with fresh meat, vegetables, and grain by its own under-
takings, but this was found to be very unsatisfactory and expensive.
In the course of time colonists were encouraged to settle here, and
help was given them in setting up for themselves. By the beginning
of the eighteenth centurj^ a fair number of burghers had settled at
the Cape, most of whom were engaged in farming. Between 1671
and 1685 a few families from Holland settled in South Africa as
colonists, and a few years after came the French refugees. Before
1711 immigration had practically ceased, but the number of colonists
was increased by the dischargee of servants of the Company. The
latter had no fixed idea of making this country a colon}-, the primary
object being the maintenance of a refreshment station at the Cape.
During the course of two or three generations it became apparent
that the gradual extension and prosperity of the land was converting

532 Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

it into an agTicultural country. The change was imperceptible, and
however much it was contrary to the wishes and expectations of the
founders, was bound to come. In course of time the Company gave
up its agricultural undertakings, both in corn-raising and cattle
breeding, and looked to the colonists for its grain, meat, and wine.

Early Land Tenuee.

The majority of farms held during the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries were on loan tenure. A good pasturage was
selected by the grazier, and he applied to the Government for per-
mission to settle there for a year. If the place was suitable he had to
renew his licence annually, but if it proved unsuitable he would
abandon it in course of time and seek fresh pastures further afield,
applying again for a new licence. The constant migration of the
stock farmer gradually led to the extension of the colony's boundaries.
The rights of the farmer in respect of the ground were those of a
lessee ; he had no donniniuin in the ground and could not sell it, but
was entitled to dispose of the buildings {opatal) which he had erected
thereon. The Government, if it so wished, had the right of resuming
occupation of the land or of not renewing the lease, in which case
it would pay out the farmer for the value of the (■pstal. This
uncertainty of tenure did not as a rule perturb the farmer, whose
lease as a general practice was always renewed. This early law of
land tenure in the Cape Colony was altered by a Proclamation in
1813, which placed the issue of land grants on the footing it is to-day,
land being given out either in freehold or on perpetual quitrent.

It must be of historic interest to farmers to-day to learn how
a loan place {leenings plaats) was granted. After he liad chosen
his land, the agriculturist petitioned Government for the right of
occupation, giving a name to some spring or spot round Avhich the
property was situated. In passing, it might be remarked that this
explains the origin of many of the farm names in the old Cape Colony
ending in fontein, as Springfontein, Matjesfontein, Grootfontein,
Rheebokfontein, etc. This petition was referred to the landdrost
or magistrate of the district, and supporting evidence was obtained
from the proprietors of the neighbouring ground that they had no
objection to the grant being sanctioned. By instructions issued in
1805 the fieldcornet was directed to go to the selected spot and walk
half-an-hour in everj^ direction, provided it did not encroach on any
land reserved by Government or already occupied. A central spot
called the ordonnantie was chosen, and at half-an-hour's walk
on every side from here were the points of the boundaries. As
^'walking off" the distance was somewhat uncertain in determining
the extent, it was decided that a distance of 750 roods was to be
equal to half-an-hour's walk. This gave an area of 3000 morgen.
No objection having been raised to the issue of a permit to occupy
the land on loan, the same was duly registered at the office of the
secretary to the Council of Policy — later on at the Revenue Office.

The Fiest Experiment.

Early attempts were made by the Government to produce such
articles as cotton, indigo, olive oil, tobacco, silk, etc. In 1682 direc-
tions were given to cultivate flax, hemp, and indigo, but the
experiments 3howed that it would not answer sufficiently well to

Farming in the Early Cape Days. 533

encourage the farmer to grow these plants. In 1719 a quantity of
indigo seed was sent from Batavia with a man who understood its
cultivation. After some years of trial it was found unsuitable as a
general crop. In Yau Eiebeek's days the olive was first planted,
and for some years after was considered as a plant which would
succeed. Simon van der Stel tried the cultivation of this tree and
planted the trees in everj- kind of soil and in different positions, hut
the results do not appear to have been very satisfactory. Some of
the French refugees made experiments with it by grafting on the
wild olive of the country. Trial after trial was made, and it was
found that while some of the trees grew well, many died nfl: suddenly
wdthout cause. In others the fruit dropped off while still young.
Trials were made in the growing of tobacco leaf, but were abandoned.
A man who had experience in the cultivation and manufacture of
tobacco was sent from Amsterdam in 1719. He travelled through
what is now the Paarl district, through Stellenbosch, up to Tulbagh
and Riebeek Kasteel examining the soil. In the light cf later
events it is interesting to observe that he reported that everywhere
the soil was unfit for the cultivation of the tobacco plant. It was
heavy clay, he wrote, while the tobacco required black sandy soil.
If planted in the summer it suffered from heat and drought, whilst
the small sprouts were beaten off the stalk by the south-east winds.
In the rainy season the plants did not thrive, and another drawback
was that a shed had to be erected on every tobacco field to dry the
green leaves, which, being j^oung, could not be conveyed two or
three miles from one place to another, owing to injury by the motion
of the A^ehicles, and thus rendered useless. Several experiments in
the manufacture of silk were made, but in 1735 the idea of making
it pay was abandoned.

Wheat Gkowing.

The production of wheat, the making of wine, and cattle rearing
would appear to have been amongst the principal pursuits of the
farming community in the colony. The first agriculturists tilled
the soil along the banks of the Liesbeek, and as the farmer pushed
further inland areas in the Western Province, which are to-day well
known as grain-raising centres, were recognized as such in the
eighteenth centurj'. In 1684 the first consignment of grain was
exported from the country. The farmers were only allowed to sell
their wheat to the Company, and it is interesting to see what prices
they were paid. In lo6(j they received lis. 8d. per muid, and four
years later the Company paid them 7s. 5d. per 100 lb., for there was
not sufficient production to provide for the garrison and people, and
it was considered that this price would encourage the farmer to
produce more. From 1685, for a period of more than thirty years,
the average price for wheat was 12s. 6d. per muid, and between that
price and about 10s. seems to have been the amount paid during the
eighteenth century.

The wheat was threshed in those days practically in the same
manner as it is done in some parts of the country to-day. Within
circular enclosure the ground was levelled and hardened, a mud wall
being built round this. The sheaves were spread out, and either
horses, oxen, or donkeys driven into the enclosure and made to go
round and round until the ears had been separated from the stalks.

584 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

A man stood in the middle of this " floor " or " trap vloer " and kept
the animals on the go by flicking a long whip. When the animals
were tired the grain was collected by throwing up the trampled
mass to the wind when the chaff was blown away and the seed fell
on the floor.

Wine-making.

In 1G54 the vine was introduced into the colony from the Ehine
provinces and within the next few years further consignments were
received from there and France. Commander Simon van der Stel
obtained different varieties of cuttings from France, Germany, and
Spain, and a few years after Stellenbosch district had been con-
stituted the vine was growing luxuriantly. In 1059 the first wine
was made in South Africa from the muscadel by Commander Jan
van Riebeek, who appears to have been the only person possessing the
Imowledge to do so. The early efforts to induce the farmers to send
their wine to Batavia were unsuccessful, as they wanted a local
market and were unable to wait a whole year for payment of their
goods. About 1718 the authorities of the Company in Holland
thought that if the flavour of the Cape wine could be improved a
nuirket might be found in Europe and in India. Tliey were then
paying the farmer £6 per Jcgger (leaguer) for ordinary wine for the
use of their ships, and £8 for old wine for use in the hospital. The
Constantia wine had already gained a reputation in Europe. In
1789 the colonists were given permission to export wine to Holland,
provided it went in the Company's ships, and a freight of £1. 13s. 4d.
— afterwards raised to £2. 3s. 4d. (per legger) — was paid. Towards
the close of the eighteenth century the wine farmers of Stellenbosch,
Drakenstein, French Hoek, and Wagenmaker's Yallei (now
Wellington) lived in large substantially built houses, which had the
aspect of ease and comfort as far as their inteiior fittings and furni-
ture were concerned. The work of delving and cleaning the vine-
yard, pruning the vines, gathering the grapes, and pressing and
storing them was undertaken by slaves under tlie supervision of
Europeans.

One of the principal pursuits of the farming community was
that of

Cattle Rearing.

In the first days of the settlement the cattle were obtained from the
natives and trading parties were sent out by the Government for
that purpose. The farmers, however, were strictly prohibited from
bartering with the Hottentots. In 1700 this prohi]>ition was with-
drawn for a few years only as far as cattle trade was concerned,
when severe penalties were again imposed to prevent the bartering of
cattle. One of the first cattle sicknesses which appeared at the Cape
was in 1659, when horned cattle and sheep died in great numbers.
It is not known what the nature of the disease was, but the Govern-
ment attributed t'he illness to the action of the Almighty, and believed
that it was sent as a punishment for sins. It was resolved to hold a
prayer meeting at 4 p.m. every Wednesday to pray that the Lord
might withdraw his anger from the people, and assist them against
their enemies. Again in 1714 an unknown cattle disease made' its
appearance and in 1723 tongue and hoof sickness broke out. Meat
became scarce and a law was published which prohibited the sale of

Farminc; in the Early Cape Days. 535

fiesL meat or vegetables to strangers under pain of being deported
in addition to being fined nearly £70. The average price of meat
sold to the inhal)itants was from two to three pence per pound.

Life on the Boeder

of the colony during the eighteenth century was fraught with many
difficulties. Drought, followed by excessive rain and cold, caused
much stock mortality. Depredations liy the wily and swift-footed
Bushman made the farmer often abandon his farm. E-obberies were
of constant occurrence, and a reward of £3 per head was offered by
the authorities for every Bushman thief, male or female, delivered at
the Cape. Life was in danger, and the farmer had ever to be on the
look-out. What the Kaffirs were to the Eastern Province farmer of
last century, so the Bushmen were to the farmer living in the Graaff-
Eeinet during the prior century. This district at that time embraced
virtually the wliole of the Eastern Province of to-day, extended right
up to Colesberg-, and had as its western boundaries the Gamka River,
Zwartbergen Pange, and the Gamtoos Eiver. Almost every farm
household made its own soap and candles, very much on the same
principle as they are still made to-day in some parts of the country.
Soap was made from the fat of animals aud mixed with the ashes
of a shrub which grew in great quantities. Tavo kinds of candles
were made, " vet kerse " and " water kerse." The former was made
either from the pure tallow or tallow hardened with a vegetable
wax obtainable in many parts of the country. The tallow while still
soft was poured into tin candle moulds. The water candles were
made by dipping alternately the wick into the softened tallow and
water. In case of ailments every household depended upon their box
of " Hallische medicamenten " or " huisapotheek." Herbs and other
medicinal plants were often used, such as the buchu plant, and the
farmers' wives were adepts at giving " first aid " in cases of ordinary
illnesses.

Once a year the farmer set off in his tented wagon for Capetown
with his butter, candles, soap, hides, etc., which he would sell or
barter foi household necessaries, such as tea, coff'ee, sugar, rice, etc.
Most of the crockery used on the farms was tin, as porcelain ware was
liable to be broken on the long journej'^s. •

Wool Production.

In closing this brief account of early farming life at the Cape,
a word might be said about the attempts to produce wool. As early
as the beginning of the eighteenth century the directors were anxious
to procure sheep's wool from South Africa. Between 1700 and 1704
a small quantity was sent, and Governor Willem Adriaan van der
Stel wrote to Holland for rams and ewes of good breed from Europe
and sheep from Java and Persia. Some years later a quantity of
wool was sent to Holland, but the quality proved bad. In 1713 we
read that one man got 500 lb. of wool from his Persian sheep, and
this was bought by the Government at 5d. per lb. Towards the last
years of the Company's regime a fair quantity of coarse wool was
produced. During the 1781 war some enterprising colonists formed
the idea of manufacturing blankets and cloth, as there had been a
great scarcity of blankets and rough cloth.

536 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

THE DIPPING OF SHEEP IN SO-CALLED
CARBOLIC DIPS.

The Risk that may attend the Practice.

By AiiTHLK Stead, i».Sc., E-esearch Chemist, Giootfoiitein Scliool
of As'i'iciiltiire, Middelbiirg', Cape.

[Being tlie substance of a {taper read by Mr. Stead at a meetinii of theTechnicnl Otticeis
Association, Grootfontein School of Agriculture, on the 13th February, 1919, together with
a note on the Physiological Action "of tlio Phenols, by Mr. P. J. J. Fourie, M.R.C.V.S.,
Lecturer in Veterinary Science.]

While sheep lariueis would uot seem to be in tlie habit of using this
type of dip for the eradication of scab, it seems clear that such pre-
parations are frequently used for the purpose of destroying keds, and
that not a few valua1)le sheep liave been killed in the process.

The dips are sold as non-poisonous; while that designation may
be true under certain conditions, it is not so under others.

The common name for these dips would seem to indicate that
they contain carbolic acid (viz., phenol, CgHsOH), but usually this
is not the case. Presumablj the name has arisen from the '^ disin-
fectant " odour they possess, or possibly they have been so named
because they are made from materials obtained in the course of the
extraction of carbolic acid from coal-tar. Perhaps, however, the most
likely derivation ot the common name arises from the fact that phenol
and creosols (these latter are higher members of a group of
compounds which is called the Phenol Group, because ot
the many chemical similarities that exist between members
of the group and phenol itself) have been in the past,
when in -admixture particularly, indiscriminately called
"carbolic acid." Thus on page 177 of Wynter Blyth's "Poisons,
their Effects and Detection," it is stated : " It must always be borne
in mind that, witli regard to statistics generally, the term * carbolic
acid ' is not used by coroners, juries, or medicttl men in a strictly
chemical sense, the term being made to include disinfecting fluids,
which are almost wholly composed of creosols, and contain scarcely
any phenol."

There are very many kinds of these dips on tlie market, and
usually they are sold under proprietary names. The starting point
of a great many of them is the " creosote oil " fraction of coal-tar from
Avhich naphthaleue has been separated. This liquid contains creosols
and other phenols, together with some pyridin and a large proportion
of hydrocarbons, the composition and properties of many of which
are very little known.

A much better name for these dips would be " coal-tar creosote
dips."

The Dipping of Sheep in so-called Carbolic Dips. 587

Now, creosote oil is practically insoluble in water; it is therefore
necessary to treat it so that when mixed with water it will give a
])ermanent uniform fluid from Avhich the oils will not separate. There
are two directions in which this can be accomplished, i.e. (1) by treat-
ing the oils so that they will dissolve in water, and (2) by treating
the oils so that they will form, when mixed witli water, a permanent
uniform emulsion. In the making of these dips a combination of
these two methods is used. The phenols are changed into soluble
substances by meiuis of caustic soda, which soluble sidtstances (cresy-
Intes among others) remain soluble on dilution of the dip with water:
while the remaining oily compounds are dissolved in a rosin* soap.

In making the dip the manufacturer takes the creosote oil and
dissolves therein the requisite quantity of rosin, after which he adds
a calculated amount of caustic soda solution. The mixture is then
l^oiled to saponify tr.e abietic acid, that is to produce rosin soap. If
the operations have been properly conducted a clear, brownish, tarry-
smelling liquid results which, on dilution with water, should form a
whitish uniform emulsion from which no oily globules will separate
on standing.

Having outlined the nature of the substances! v»ith which this
article is concerned, the circumstances surrounding two or three
dippings which were attended with fatal results may now be recounted.

('OAL-TAK ])ip " A."

Early in 1917 the writer was asked to investigate a sample of dip.
here called " A," for poisons. The owner of some valuable sheep had
dipped them in a mixture of one part of '' A " to 150 parts of water.
The tank used had a capacity of about 300 gallons.

The dipping was carried out early one morning ; the same evening
the sheep appeared to be all right, but by the following morning two
had died. Eventually 11 died out of a total of 68; all the casualties
occurred amongst the first 33. i.e. : Of first lot of 12 dipped, 6
died ; of second lot of 21 dipped, 5 died ; of third lot of 35 dipped
none died.

Veterinary Surgeon Simson saw the sheep and described their
symptoms as follows : —

Ante-mortem symptoms —

Respiration accelerated, short and painful; there was a slight
mucous nasal discharge ; there was some swelling in the laryngeal
region; there was, before death, slight tympanitis.

Post-mortem symptoms —

Pneumonia in all; nephritis in three; bile-stained mucus in the
duodenum and mucosa appeared to be in a catarrhal state ; the bladder
Avas contracted and contained about a tablespoonful of white mucus ;

* Rosin consists chiefly of aliictic acivl wliicli, on boiling with caustic soda, gives sodium
abietate, a substance which possesses remarkable powers in emulsifying oily materials.

t There is another type of carbolic dip whose origin is coal-tar, i.e. the cresylic acid dip.
This dip is made from somewhat impure coal-tar derived creosols, caustic? potash, and linseed
oil. Since the cresyJates formed are soluble in water and since the materials used in the
manufacture contain only very small quantities of hydrocarbons, this dip on dilution with
soft water remains clear. Lysol is a member of this class of dip.

o38 Journal of the Department op agriculture.

mucosa of aboniasiini, moutli, and pharyjix were noinial, and likewise
other internal organs.

The veterinary officer ascribed death as being due to the absorp-
tion of some poison from tlie dip.

The Government xVnalyst at liloemfontein, to whom the matter
had been referred, suggested that the sheep had taken some of the
dip down the windpip*^ ; bat this hypothesis did not explain wdiy
there was over 30 per cent, mortality among-st the first 33 sheep dipped
and none amongst the last 35. Furthermore, the owner noticed no
coughing' or other eaily signs of distress amongst the animals.

The proprietois of the dip appear to liave ascribed the mortality
to pneumonia caused by a too cold dipping fluid ; the absence of
moitalitv amongst the last 35 dipped being due to the warming of
the dip by the first 33.

That there have been numerous comi)hunts from farmers who
have dipped in this type of dip would appear to be obvious from the
following extracts tiken from a booklet of instructions issued by the
proprietors of one of these " carbolic " dips : —

" Dip in a solution not weaker than 1 in 150 nor stronger than
1 in 125, and keep in the tank for two minutes BY THE CLOCK."

(Presumably a greater concentration than 1 in 125 and a longer
immersion than two minutes would be unsafe for that particular dip.)

The following comes under the heading "Two Warnings": —
" Every spring and early summer some farmers I'ose sheep after
dipping. They choose a ' splendid dipi)]ng day,' but forget that the
water is as cold as ice. The si^eep that die are always am.ong those
first dipped. Before death they wheeze and rattle when listened to
carefully. When the water is cold, the warmer the day the greater
the shock to the sheep. The first forty or so warm up the water and
take the chill off in a small tank,* but don't forg'et, they take the chill
away with them.* From one to eight days after this they are dying
of pneumonia, while you curse the particular dip you used, and
swear never to use it again, and to warn your neighbours about it.
The dip w^as not at fault: plain water would probably have been a
good deal worse, not containing any stimulating value to counteract
the cbill."

During the course of correspondence the owner of these sheep
stated that he knew of six other cases in which sheep dipped in
"carbolic dips " had died, and as in his own case ilie mortali+y w^as
confined to the first sheep dipped; he also stated that Assistant Chief
Sheep Inspector Fincham had expressed the opinion that the reason
why the first sheep to be dipped die is owing to tlie water used being
hard ; and also that his experience of carbolic dips is that where they
are mixed with hard water the first few sheep put through the dip
suffer badly.

It woubl seem clear every one is agreed that, when " carbolic "
dip is used, the first sheep dipped may suffer more or less, while the
last do not suffer owing to some change which takes place in the
dipping fluid.

Examination of dip " A " showed that it did not contain arsenic,
that true phenol was practically absent, but that it contained higher
phenols, pyridin, hydrocarbons, soda and water.

* The italics are mine. — A. S.

The Dipping of Sheep in so-called Carbolic Dips. o39

Siic]\ a dip is usually described as non-poisonous, presumably
because it contains neither tlie highly corrosive poison phenol nor the
violently poisonous arsenic, or, perhaps, because if only moderate
quantities of the dip be taken internally, fatal results will not follow.

Samples of the water actually used in the dipping were not avail-
able, because, in making the dip, a little rain-water from the dam
was mixed with fountain water; quantities of the fountain water
were, however, obtained. Since dam waters are usually softer than
fountain waters it may be assumed that the water actually used in
mixing the dip Avas somewhat softer than the fountain water.
Analysis of the latter showed it to contain : —

Grammes per
100,uOO c.c.

Sodium bicarbonate 7.9

Calcium and magnesium carbonates 21.0

Sodium chloride 0.5

Free carbon-dioxide 1.87

The water would be described as a moderately and temporarily
hard sodium bicarbonate water.

Experiments made with this water and dip " A " in the propor-
tions 1 to 150 showed that it did not give a perfect emulsion ; that
there was a considerable separation of oily globules.

The following are some of the resnlts of these experiments : —

Mi.vfu/'es of "A ' ' aru] icaler in the proporfion 1 : 150.

Mixture. Oils Separated.

(1) " A " to fountain water 13.5

(2) Fountain water to "A" 10.9

(3) " A " to distilled water 3.7

(4) Distilled water to " A " 3.1

The emulsioiis were made by thoroiigh mixing and agitation;
after they had stood 10 minutes the separated oils were removed and
weighed, the removal of them taking- about half an hour to accom-
plish. It will be observed that the amount of non-emulsified oils is
very considei'able in the case of the fountain water, and appieciable
in the case of the distilled water mixtures. It is also obvious that
the better emulsions were obtained by adding the water to the dip.

Seeing that the dip would not give a perfect emulsion with dis-
tilled water it appeared that " A " mig-ht be an imperfectly made dip ;
that, for instance, not enough soda and rosin had been used in its
])reparation. This Avould not appear to be the sole cause leading to
the separation of the oils, for a mixture prepared by adding distilled
water that had been recently boiled to an appi'opriate quantity of " A "
^ATe a much less visible separation of oils.

Now, the boiling' of tiie distilled water would have the effect of
driving out any carbon-dioxide gas it contained. A further experi-
ment, consisting in passing* through the emulsion a stream of carbon-
dioxide, was, therefore, made, and it caused a considerable separation
of oils, showing that carbon-dioxide could destroy enrulsions of " A."
Its action in this respect would seem to be due, in part, to the fact
that it has the property of decomposing cresylates; it has also another

r)4() Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

possible effect, to wliich reference will be made later. Analysis of the
distilled water showed that it contained rather more than 5 grammes
of the g-as in 100,000 c.c, wliich is quite an appreciable quantity.
Since analysis of the fountain water showed it to contain only one-
third of that amount, ii is obvious that the vastly greater separation
of oils from the mixtures made with fountain water must be due to
some other cause than that of dissolved carbon-dioxide. It was also
found that the separation of oils from the fountain water emulsions was
not immediately complete, although it was practically so in the case
of distilled-water emulsions.

Solutions of manj^ salts, including common ^alt (as, for instance,
" brak " water), have a very powerful effect in destroying these
emulsions, but the amount of salt in the fountain water is not nearly
sufficient to produce such a result. The fountain water, however,
contains carbonates of calcium and magnesium; it is to them that we
must look as the principal agents which renijer the fountain water so
unsuitable for mixings with dip " A."

Let us now see how their action can be explained.

Earlier in this article it is stated that the emulsification of these
dips on admixture with water is effected through the agency of sodium
abietate, the active constituent of rosin soap. The abietates of calcium
and magnesium are insoluble in water, so that, when rosin .soap is
mixed with water containing soluble compounds of these elements, it
will be decomposed. Applying this to dip, it follows that if sufficient
of its rosin soap is destroyed by the calcium and magnesium compounds
contained by the water, a perfect emulsion cannot form or, if it does
form, it will be broken down. It would therefore seem that Mr.
Fincham's opinion quoted higher up is vvell founded. Still, other
factors may operate in destroying- these emulsions which, in some
respects, are like colloidal suspensions, as, for instance, suspensions of
clay. Sometimes these are very stable, sometimes not. Small quan-
tities of salts, including common salt, calcium and magnesium
chlorides, sulphates, and bicarbonates have a very powerful effect in
upsetting permanent suspensions of this kind; there would seem to be
little doubt that they are similarly effective in upsetting the
equilibrium of the emulsoid suspensions formed by mixing coal-tar
dips with water.

Salts break up clay suspensions by causing the ultra-microscopical
particles of clay to aggregate, viz., they flocculate the clay particles.
In an emulsion of dip one has, in place of solid particles, ultra-micro-
scopical liquid oily particles in suspension; so exceedingly small are
they that they pass readily through the pores of the finest filter
papers, and, like deflocculated clay particles, are able to remain in
uniform suspension throughout the water. When, however, the water
is one that acts in a direction cpposite to the dispersive action of the
soap (such a water is one which contains appreciable amounts of any
of the salts mentioned above), there is every possibility ox the emulsion
being flocculated, or broken up. Suspensions of clay in natural waters
may be sometimes flocculated by carbon-dioxide; the possibility of
this gas acting on dip emulsions in this manner must, therefore, not
be overlooked.

In order to test whether the free carbon-dioxide in the fountain
water exerted any appreciable effect in destroying the emulsion of

The Dipping of Sheep in so-called Carbolic Dips. 541

''A," some of the water was placed in a cliamber from which all air
was pumped. This had the effect of extracting from the water a good
proportion of its dissolved gases, including carbon-dioxide. The water
was then used to make an emulsion with *' A." The result was a
separation of 9.7 per cent, of oils, viz., 1.2 per cent, less than occurred
when the untreated fountain water was added to " A." It would,
therefore, seem that one must not overlook the presence in them of
free carbon-dioxide when judging of the suitability of a water for
mixing with a '^ carbolic " dip.

The effect of removing both carbon-dioxide and calcium and
magnesium carbonates was studied in the following* way: — A water
of the kind we are dealing with loses its free carbon-dioxide and
deposits neorly all of its magnesium and calcium carbonates on being
boiled. A quantity of water was, therefore, boiled until its original
bulk was reduced to about one-half. The carbonates which separated
out were then removed by filtration, and the original volume of the
water restored by the addition of carbon-dioxide-free distilled water.
The water was then cooled to room temperature, after which an
appropriate quantity of " A " was mixed with it. The result was
that only 4.7 per cent, of the oils separated.

Yet another experiment was made.

Every one knows that when soap is added to hard water, as in
washing, a curdy precipitate is formed, and that the harder the water
the more soap one requires to produce a lather. The calcium and
magnesium salts of waters are those responsible for the formation of
the curdy precipitate, and it is not until the maximum amount of
curdy precipitate has been formed that the water will yield a per-
manent lather. Further, the curdy precipitate contains the calcium
and magnesium that were responsible for the hardness of the water.
In other words, soap softens water by removing calcium and
magnesium salts from it as a curdy precipitate.

A quantity of water was, therefore, taken, and to it rather more
than enough soap solution was added to produce a permanent lather
on shaking. The curdy precipitate formed was separated by filtra-
tion, after which the water had added to it an appropriate quantity
of " A." Only 3.4 per cent, of oils separated out; another proof that
the destruction of the soap of the dip is very largely responsible for
the failure of it to form a true emulsion. It should, however, be
observed that although there was in this experiment an excess of soap
there was still an appreciable separation of oils ; tliis means that the
separation of the oils is not due to hardness of water alone.

The results of the experiments are now summarized: —

(1) It was not found possible to obtain a true emulsion by

mixing " A " with either fountain or distilled water; but
distilled water mixtures contained very much less separated
oils than the fountain water mixtures.

(2) The most perfect emulsion was obtained by boiling the dis-

tilled water before mixing it with "A," the explanation
being that boiling expelled dissolved carbon-dioxide from
the water.

(3) A slightly improved emulsion was obtained with fountain

water by placing it in a vacuum cliamber (to remove
carbon-dioxide) before mixing it with " A."
19

542 Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

(4) All emulsioii equally good as that made with unboiled

distilled water was obtained by softening- the water with
soap prior to mixing it with "A."

(5) An emulsion almost equal to that above described in (4)

was obtained hy partially softening the water prior to use
by boiling it.

The conclusions drawn from the above five points are (1) "A"
does not give a perfect emulsion with fountain water chiefly because
the latter is somewhat har.l, and (2) because it contains dissolved
carbon-dioxide ; (3) it is also possible that " A " had not been properly
manufactured. There is another point that would seem to have con-
siderable significance, which is that the full separation of oils from the
untreated fountain "water mixture took some time, althoug-h the major
quantity separated within half an hour. Further, it was found that
two or three filtrations through blotting-paper sufficed to free the
emulsions from their separated oils. The questions that now must be
answered are : " Why did the dip kill the sheep?" and " Why did all
of the casualties occur amongst the first 33 dipped?"

The writer's conclusion is that the first sheep dipped took with
them out of the tank, not a chill, as sugg-ested by the pamphlet, but
separated oils; that througdi this they were, in effect, dipped in too
strong solution. It might be asked : '' Why did" not all the 33 die? "
It should be remembered in this connection that the separation of the
oils was found not to be an instantaneous process; but more important
still is tlie well-known fact that, of human beings, some are much
more resistant than others to the poisonous action of the constituents
of this class of dip; it is only reasonable to presume that similar
idiosyncrasies obtain amongst sheep.

Dip ''B."

Before the end of that year another case came under the writer's
notice, in which a coal-tar dip, used to destroy keds, was suspected of
killing sheep as well. This dip is referred to as " B."

In this case the dip was mixed and used according to instructions,
excepting that rather more v/ater was used than prescribed.

The owner of the sheep stated that Jiis sheep had ])een dipped a
day or two previously, and that many of them had died. The writer
visited the flock, and was fortunate enough to be accompanied by
Mr. E. N. S. Warren, the Lecturer in Sheej) and Wool at Grootfon-
tein.

The method of dipping was described by the owner, and Mr.
Warren was satisfied that the cause of mortality could not be ascribed
to any fault in tlie handling of the sheep. The following- are the
particulars of the dipping': —

The dipping tank used was much larger than that used wiih dip
"A"; its capacity was well over 600 gallons; 560 gallons of dip
were actually used.

The sheep dipped numbered 285; they were dipped in four lots,
i.e. : —

(1) 40 rams; (2) 180 ewes; (3) 15 ewes with lambs; (4) 50 ewe
lambs, 7 to 8 months old.

Deaths.— Of lot (1). 14; of lot (2), 1.

The Dipping of Sheep in so-called Carbolic Dips. 543

No other deaths occurred, but on our arrival at the farm several
sheep Vf'ere in a very liad state, i.e. several of lot (I), I5 of lot (2), none
of lot (3), and 3 of lot (4).

For these sick sheep, brandy and wliite of egg was prescribed, a
treatment which proved efficacious.

The ante-mortem symptoms Avere described as follows : —

"The animals were noticed to stand panting* a good deal; they
were very short of ])reath ; tliey got tired, went down and died. They
passed water frequently, and there was a frothy discharge from the
nostrils."

On opening some of tlie sheep tliat had died the following appear-
ances were noted : —

Lungs: Mucli inflamed and congested; tissue appeared to be

soft.
Windpipe : Inflamed, and containing frothy matter right up to

the nostrils.
Gullet: Normal.
Throat : Normal.
Mouth: Bluish, otherwise normal.
First, Second, and Third Stomachs : Normal.
Fourth Stomach : Somewhat inflamed.
Liver : Normal .
Bladder: Very contracted and liard, and containing- a very

little wliitish coagulated fluid.
Intestines : Very much inflamed and containing- whitish mucoid

substance.

It will be observed tliat the al)ove symptoms bear a considerable
resemblance to those described by Veterinary Surgeon Simson in con-
nection with dip " A."

Analysis of the Water' (grammes per 100,000 c.c).

Sodium carbonate 1.59

Calcium and magnesium carbonates 25.50

Sodium chloride 2.94

Free carbon-dioxide Nil.

This water would be described as a moderately hard one. It
differs principally from that described above in that it contains less
sodium carbonate, more salt, and no free carbon-dioxide. Tlie dip was
not analysed; it was obviously a coal-tar dip.

Experiments with water and " B " showed that on mixing them
according to directions it was impossible to obtain a good emulsion.
No quantitative measurements of the amount of separated oils were
made, as it was not thought necessary.

Asked by the proprietors of " B," the writer informed them that
in his opinion the sheep had been killed by the absorption through the
skin of the phenoloid substances of the dip, and that the mortality
was almost entirely confined to the first lot of sheep suggested these
had removed the separated oily globules in their fleeces, leaving the
dip in a less dangerous condition for those that subsequently passed
through it.

544 JOtlRNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.

This view was not accepted ; a test dipping- made with another
water, reputed to be " brak," seemed to show that the writer may have
been mistaken. Some months after this test dipping, however, he
was able to analyse the water; it contained: —

Grammes per
100,000 c.c.

Sodium carbonate 12.0

Calcium and magnesium carbonate 29.0

Sodium chloride 3.0

Free carbon-dioxide Nil.

The analysis shows the water to be very similar to that used at
the farm where the fatalities occurred, excepting- that it was a little
bit harder; also that it contained a good deal more sodium carbonate,
a point possibly in favour of a non-separation of oils from the emulsion.
It is also necessary to state that between the time of the test dipping
and the time the water was analysed, there had been several months
of drought, which suggests that the water may not have been so hard
at the time of the test dipping.

Another point in connection with the test dipping is that a less
quantity of dip was made — less than half that mad'e when the sheep
were killed. This alone means that somewhere about half as much
separation only occurred. It was stated, however, that although no
sheep actuallj^ died from the test dipping, some were badly affected.

Wishing, however, to satisfy themselves by actual trial, the pro-
prietors of " B " arranged for a test dipping in the tank and with the
water used when the deaths occurred. The writer was asked to be
present at the dipping, an invitation which was gladly accepted.

Dip of prescribed strength to the amount of 490 gallons was
made, and through this 55 sheep were passed ; of them four had died
within a few days of the dipping ; others would probably have died
had they not been dosed with brandy and white of egg.

This test dipping left no doubt as to the harmiulness of the dip
when used with that water.

It was noticed that when the dip was made there was a consider-
able separation of oils. A sample was taken of the well-mixed dip
before the sheep were put through, and a further sample after the
dipping had been completed. On placing these in separating funnels,
it was found that there ^^ere, practically, no separated oils in the
latter; but a considerable quantity in the former, proving that the
sheep do take out the separated oils in their fleeces. This was also
obvious from the very dark colour of the fleeces of some of them.

Further, a sample of urine taken from the bladder of one of the
sheep that died was found to contain decomposition products of
phenols. This was to be expected if the animal had died from phenolic
poisoning, because the urine is the channel through which these
poisons are eliminated. Since, from observation the sheep had not
taken dip through the mouth, it would seem that there must have been
absorption through the skin.

It may be added that medical literature abounds with cases where
death has followed the extensive covering of the body with carbolic
fluids. An instance is taken from Wynter Blyth's book, page 181.
A surgeon prescribed for two joiners who suffered from scabies a

The Dipping of Sheep in so-called Carbolic Dips. 545

lotion which contained 33.26 grammes carbolic acid in 240 c.c. Each
man was estimated to have used 13.37 grammes of carbolic acid. One
of the men died; the snrvivor described liis own symptoms as follows :

" He and iiis comi^anion stood in front ol the fire and rubbed
the lotion in ; he rubbed it into his legs, breast, and front
part of his body; the other parts were mutually rubbed.
Whilst rubbing- his right arm, and drying it before the
fire, he felt a burning sensation, a tightness and giddiness,
and mentioned his sensations to his companion, who
laughed. This condition lasted from five to seven minutes,
but he did not remember whether his companion com-
plained of anytliing*, nor did he know what became of him,
nor how he himself came to be in bed. He was found
holding on to the joiners' bench, looking with wide,
staring eyes, like a drunken man, and was delirious for half
an hour." He soon recovered. *' The other joiner seems
to have died as suddenly as if he had taken prussic acid.
He called to his mother, ' Ich habe einen Rausch,' and
died with pale, livid face after taking two deep, short
inspirations."

" The post-mortem showed the sinuses filled with mucli fluid
blood, and the vessels of the pia mater congested. Frothy, dark,
fluid blood was found in the lungs, which were hyperaemic; the tissues
of the epiglottis and air-tubes were reddened and covered with a dark,
frotlij' slime. Both ventricles — the venae cavae and the vessels of
the spleen and kidneys — were filled with dark, fluid blood. The
muscles were very red ; there was no special odour."

It should be pointed out that the lotion used probably contained
true phenols, as well as creosols, so that a comparison with the effects
caused by carbolic dips would not be altogether just. It is, however,
known that for some animals, at least, the higher phenols and crude
creosols are just as poisonous, if not more so, than pure phenol, More-
over, reference to veterinary literature indicates that the application of
coal-tar dip emulsion to the skin of cats and dogs is attended with
considerable risk; I have, however, been unable to find any reference
to their bad effect on sheep.

The question arises : Could anything be done to make these dips
safe with all waters? This is a matter which requires investigation. It
may, however, be pointed out that the first sheep that go through the
dip — usually the farmer's best, presumably because the dip is then
clean — t-ake the dangerous separated oils out with them. It might,
therefore, be possible to" free the dip v\'ash of its separated oils by draw-
ing absorbent material through it; for example, a framework bearing
absorbent material could be drav/n slowly upwards from the bottom
of the tank and out; this would take out most if not all of the
separated oils. Softening the water before use or adding more soap
to the concentrated dip are also methods which suggest themselves.
There is also good reason for believing that small tanks are safest.
If the water is " brak " the separation of oils is so obvious that one
cannot help noticing it and danger is avoided. It would seem to be
the water that causes the separation of minute globules of oil which
is so dangerous; of this type are the waters dealt with here. Tiny
globules, unless specially searched for, may also be easily overlooked.

546 Journal of the DEPARTMEiNT of Agriculture.

As to the remedial measires, stimulants are valuable. The
animal could also be washed well with a solution of epsom salts in
water; an hypodermic injection of a watery solution of glauber salts
is also recommended.

Very recently another coal-tar dipping fatality, involving- the loss
of many valuable sheep, has come to notice. The dip, here called
" C," for scab eradication, was directed to be used at a strength 1 :70.
The strength used ])y the farmer Avas 6 dijj to 680 water, or, rougldy,
1 to 113, his object being to destroy " keds." The water contained
carbon-dioxide, and was moderately hard (26.5 grammes carbonates
per 100,000 c.c). It gave an imperfect emulsion with Dip " C " ;
but a mixture of the same water wath storm water gave an emulsion
from w^hich practically nothing separated ; the mixed water also con-
tained carbon-dioxide, but was only about one-half as hard as tbe
fountain water.

The result of the dipping was as follows : —

Of 1st lot of 26 8 died, or 30.7 per ceut.

Of 2nd lot of 25 T ,, ,, 28.0 ,.

Of 3rd lot of 43 2 ,, ,, 9.3 ,,

Of 4th, 5th, or 6th lot of approximately

20 sheep .'. 1 ., ,, 5.0

Of last lot of 125 2 ,, ,, 1.6 ,,

Total 20 6.9 per cent.

The above figures show very pointedly the progressive decline in
the toxicity of the dipping fluid as the sheep are dipped.

The following are the symptoms described by Government
Veterinary Officer Simson, who saw some of the sheep before they died,
and who also made post-mortems: —

Ante-inortem —

(1) Respirations accelerated with occasional grunt, as if

respirations were painful.

(2) Odema between jaws and on face of one animal.

Post-mortem (3 rams)—

(1) Subcutaneous odema and congestion, most marked in one

with heavy folds on neck ; the other two animals were of a
plainer bodied type.

(2) Lungs : Intense congestion or pneumonia.

(3) Nephritis in one.

(4) Bladders contracted and containing whitish mucoid

material.

(5) Blood smears ; negative.

(These post-nuutems were not made immediately after death.)

It jnay be stated that Mr. Simson's diagnosis in connection with
the above mortality was that the " sheep had been poisoned in dipping
by absorption of phenoloid substances through incomplete emulsion
of dip and water."

The Dipping of Sheep in so-called Carbolic Dips. 547

The object in now publishing this paper is to warn both sheep
farmers and dip proprietors that while these so-called carbolic dips are
safe with some waters they are unsafe with otliers.

The most dangerous Avater would appear to be that which is
moderately liard ; because the oily globules separated under these
conditions are very tinv and easily overlooked (as in cases " B " and
"C" above).

Probably the most reliable test for the separation of dip oils, in
cases of doubt, is to prepare some of the dip wash and pour it through
a piece of blotting or filter paper folded so as to fit a funnel. Some,
at least, of the separated oils should be retained by the paper. The
risk that sometimes attends the dipping* of sheep in these fluids has
also been noted in America, and farmers liave been warned accord-
ingly {vide Farmer's Bulletin No. 798, U.S.A. Department of Agri-
culture) .

NOTE ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF CARBOLIC

ACID.

By P J. J. Eourie, M.P.O.V.S., Lecturer in Veterinary Science,
Grootfontein School of Agriculture.

Wallis Hoare, in his Veterinary Therapeutics, ascribes to toxic
doses of carbolic acid a special action on the nervous and circulatory
systems.

" On the nervous system after primary stimulation it produces
paralysis of the medulla and spinal cord."

This would account for the nervous symtoms which are described
in connection with poisoning by this agent, i.e. "muscular tremors,
staggering gait, accelerated respirations, convidsions succeeded by
coma . ' '

" on the circulation after jirimary stimulation, it causes
fall in blood jiressure."

On this account one would expect +o find on post-mortem examina-
tion great congestion of the lungs.

" The urine assumes a characteristic olive green or brown colour."

This was found in one of the cases referred to by Mr. Stead.

Why the bladder was usually empty and contracted may pro-
bably be explained on the ground that the poison which becomes
excreted through the kidneys acted as a local irritant in the bladder,
and caused the reflex contraction of this organ.

The s\d)cutaneous haemonhages referred -to in the paper are pro-
bably due to the toxic influence of the material on the capillary walls.
The post-mortem changes, according to Wallis Hoare are —

" patches of inflammation in the stomach and intestines, and
the kidneys may show' inflammatory clianges."

548 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

CANNING CLUBS.

By H. E. King, Secretary, South African National Union.

The world war called into being many new kinds of industrial
activity, and the constantly increasing cost of living has revived
forms of domestic handicraft which had fallen into disuse. The
preservation of fruit in Great Britain had been to a large extent left
to big packing establishments, which were able to turn out superior
grades of tinned goods at very moderate prices. During the war,
however, efforts were made to stimulate the manufacture of jam and
the preservation of fruit in the home. In America, co-operative
canning has been carried on with success for some time, and lately
there has arisen a desire in South Africa to establish canning clubs
on somewhat similar lines. It is well that in this country of widely
separated markets there should be an organized movement to induce
women to conserve, by means of home canning and preserving, fruit
and vegetable products that would otherwise go to Waste. While the
production of such forms of food for use in the home is essential, it
is desirable that they be prepared in such a manner and be of such
a quality as will fit the surplus for sale as a commercial commodity.
It may therefore be valuable to show how these clubs can be worked.
They do not aim at production on a large scale, but rather at catering
for those who have a preference for home-made products.

Canning clubs are groups of persons who buy co-operatively a
canning outfit, and use it in common. In America the work is done
by women, assisted by Government with expert advice, and, if
wanted, expert supervision. Although many women in South Africa
are adepts at preserving food in small quantities for the home, their
methods are unsuited to the economical production of a commercial
commodity. For that reason it is essential that they should combine
so as to reduce the cost of prodtiction to the lowest possible figure
and to ensure a uniform quality of article.

In every centre where fruit and vegetables are plentiful, and
where there is a sufficient number of people living in close proximity,
the women concerned should form themselves into a* co-operative
society, with a small capital, payable in calls of 5s., as may be
required. A large room should be secured and fitted with the neces-
sary equipment, a canner, peeling machines, soldering apparatus,
bottles and tins, together with strong tables and chairs. The cost
of all these need not exceed £25 to £30. A supply of sugar sufficient
for the products it is expected to treat during the year should be
purchased in bulk at wholesale rates, together with a stock of any
other articles, such as cans, bottles, labels, etc., likely to be required
during the season. This is one of the purposes for which capital is
needed.

The wcmhers of the society must secure all their supplies at
the loicest prices, and therefore they must he in a position to buy
for cash.

Canning Club*. 549

Having equipped and stocked tlie premises, the club will be
leadv to receive from members supplies of fruit and vegetables.
Additional quantities may be purchased if desired from outside
sources. A record will be kept of each quantity sent in and the
value thereof, which will be decided by a small committee appointed
for the purpose. Members having agreed on the share of the work
to be done by each will then meet daily and can the different products
on lines to be decided beforehand. Some will attend to the peeling,
some to the preparation of the fruit and vegetables, and others to
the cooking and the packing. Efficiency will be increased by
specialization in particular branches of work. Where it is necessary
to hire labour, it will be paid from the common fund, but for econo-
mical reasons as little outside help as possible should be used. One
member should be told off to keep records of cost, so that the amount
expended on the production of any particular article can be readily
ascertained. In the end the finished articles will be marketed in bulk
and the profits distributed pro rata, i.e. according to the value of the
fruit, etc., supplied by a member, or the amount of work done by
her, which will be reckoned as worth so much per hour.

Women will be able to bring their fruit and vegetables to a
common centre and can or bottle them by the most up-to-date methods
and in the most expeditious manner. The cost will be reduced by
the purchase of everything at wholesale rates. And bj^ reason of the
quantities produced on a uniform system sales on commercial lines
will be possible. The quantities to be dealt with will be limited only
by the supplies offering and the energy of the members.

Briefiy the object of these clubs is to enable members to can or
bottle their fruit and vegetables, and convert them into saleable
articles. They may buy back any quantity they may wish to retain
for their own use.

In its early stages each club will necessarily be on experimental
lines, but in time as the work progresses and develops and the skill
of the workers becomes assured, a definite scheme will be evolved.

The following are suggestions for the early operations of a
club : —

1. One or two members to be appointed to take charge, and a
secretary elected. The first year these posts should be honorary,
but once the canning club is established and has proved itself, their
services should be remunerated and included as part of the cost of
production.

2. Products " put up " during the first year should be disposed
of locally. In the second yffar, when greater efficiency has been
attained, they may be put on the market, after due inspeclion,
properly labelled, and with the club stamp, which should stand as a
guarantee of excellence.

3. At the end of a fixed period profits to be divided, only loorking
nnevihers to participate in this privilege.

4. A register to be kept showing time and labour put in by each
member; members to benefit according to their share of the work, i.e.
they will be credited with the cash value of such work.

5. All materials used, i.e. fruit, sugar, jars, tins, fuel, etc., to
be purchased by the club.

550 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

6. An accurate account to be kept by the secretary of all expen-
diture and receipts.

7. Should any money be borrowed or advanced by members or
others, interest must be paid thereon at a rate to be agreed upon.

Each club will require : —

(a) A canning outfit, with a capacity of several hundred cans
or jars daily; (&) a supply of jars and tins; (c) soldering
outfit; (d) suitable workroom; (e) tables, chairs, and
utensils.

Any woman can be a member of the club, but need not neces-
sarily be a ivorking member. Non-working members will pay a
yearly subscription, and be entitled to purchase the articles made at
the same rates at which sales to others are made. Working members
only share in profits. Working members should be divided into
groups and working days appointed. It is in order to avoid confusion
and to arrive at actual costs, that all materials and work sliould be
paid for, not necessarily at once, but at regular intervals.

Later, when the club has grown in size and efficiency, it can
be reformed on larger lines, and registered under tlie Co-operative
Societies Act.

In order to arrive at exact costs, it is essential that accurate
records be kept. The following is an

Example of Account.

Order No. 64.— Date of work 26-27-28 Dec, 1920.

Description and quantity of products treated : 5000 yellow
peaches.

Eeceived from Mrs. Smith, 1000 at 3s. ... £1 10 0

,, Prinsloo, KTOO at 3s. 1 10 0

,, Jones, 1000 at 3s. ... 1 10 0

,, P. ITya, 500 at 3s. ... 0 15 0

Purchased, 1500 at 3s 2 5 0

£1 10 0

Sugar used: 125 lb. at 5d £2 12 1

Containers used: 500 at 8s. 6(1. doz. ... 17 14 2

Labelling, etc 1 7 6

Fuel and sundries 1 5 0

Labour: Mrs. Green, 8 liours at 2s. 6d. ... 10 0

Mrs. Swart, 8 hours at 2s. 6d. ... 10 0

Mrs. Malherbe, 12hoursat2s. 6d. 1 10 0

Overhead charges (use of equipment, etc.). 3 5 0

£29 13 9

Total cost of production of 500 tins = 18s. per

dozen tins £37 3 9

This is the kind of account that should be kept, but the figures
are only approximate.

The Department of Agricultuke during the War. 551

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DURING

THE WAR.

[This article, which commenced in the May, 1920, issue, briefly reviews the work carried out
by the various branches of the Department during the j'ears of the war, and records
some achievements despite the many difficulties encountered through the abnormal
conditions then existing. — Acting Editor.]

Guano Islands.

The office of the Guano Islands undertakes the conservation,
collection, shipment, and sale to the public of guano, seal skins, etc.,
obtained on the various islands belonging to the Union, and is charged
with the administration of all matters connected therewith.

The crop of guano collected in 1914 was the highest on record,
being 8133 tons, of which 7076 tons were distributed, the balance
being left in reserve against possible shortage in the future. The
sale price was increased from £5 to £7. 10s. per ton, operating from
the commencement of 1915. During the season 4172 seal skins were
secured; prices for skins ruled low, for some shipments only 9s. per
skin being obtained. The erection of a sea-wall round a large part
of Ichaboo, our principal guano-producing island, was proceeded
with, the purpose being to increase the breeding area available for
the birds and so ensure an increase in the guano yield.

During 1915-16 the demand for guano increased, noi withstanding
the advance in the price, and exceeded the supply. The consumption
was almost entirely confined to the south-western Cape districts.
Compared with the prices charged for artificial fertilizers, even in
normal times, the charge of £7. 10s. per ton for guano was very
cheap. The practice, which had been in operation for a few years,
of maintaining a reserve for the purpose of supplementing the supply
in lean years, bore fruit at this time, and the reserve in hand was
most useful on account of the dearth of fertilizers resulting from the
war. The total yield (which was affected by abnormal weather condi-
tions) for the year was 7220 tons, a decrease of over 900 tons on the
record yield of the previous year, but still above the average annual
yield. Over half a million eggs were collected and disposed of, but
sealing operations were entirely suspended throughout the year owing
to the slump then prevailing in the fur-skin market. Altogether this
branch of the Department's activities brought in a profit of £41,961
for the year. Owing to the increase in the cost of freight, bags,
supplies, etc., the cost of collection rose considerably.

A continuance of unseasonable weather and an absence of fish
during" part of the year, which affected the birds' breeding season,
were the cause of a further decline in the guano output, which
totalled 6900 tons for 1916. In consequence of rising costs following
the war, it M-as necessary again to increase the charge for guano,
which from the beginning of 1917 was £10 per ton, this being about
the market value of the article in normal times. The demand
continued to be far in excess of the supply, the quantity applied for in

552 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

1916 totalling- 26,594 tons, while only 6118 tons were supplied, about
95 per cent, of which was absorbed principally by the Districts of
Malmesbury, Paarl, Cape, Caledon, and Stellenbosch, the demand
from other centres of the Union remaining- very much as in former
years. In how far the applications were affected by the high price of
grain and of artificial fertilizers cannot be gauged, but every effort
was made to allot the g-uano as fairly as possible and to g-uard against
inflated individual orders. Over 544,000 eggs were collected, while
a rise in the seal skin market brought a reuewal of sealing operations,
which resulted in 878 skins being- obtained nnd shipped to London;
they fetched very satisfactory prices. The net profit derived from
the Guano Islands in 1916 was £19,663.

Similar conditions to those which prevailed during the previous
year affected the yield of guano in 1917-18, the total being 6965 tons.
The demand as usual exceeded the supply, and the guano was disposed
of by allotment as before, but two changes were made in the sale of it.
Owing to the necessity for growing as much wheat and other grain
and potatoes as possible the use of guano was restricted to those crops,
and with a view to preventing inflated applications and ensuring its
use for the specified crops only the applications received from the
chief consuming- districts were, with the assistance of magistrates and
field cornets, carefully scrutinized and after revision dealt with in
the ordinary way. Nearly all the guano was sent to districts in the
south-west of the Cape Province. In conseouence of mortality among
penguins it was decided to confine the collection of eggs to Dassen
Island only, the number obtained in 1917 being 410,400, for which
£2137. 10s. was paid. Sealing operations, in view of the rise in the
market for skins and oil, were proceeded with, resulting in 7015 skins
and 3846 gallons of oil for the year, the skins beiner sold in London at
prices varying from 31s. 2d. to 37s. 6d. each. The year's working
resulted in a profit (exclusive of free issues and services) of £37,120.
In order to augment the supply of fertilizers, of which there was a
serious shortage in the country, arrang-ements were entered into for
collecting from certain islands what is known as " riddlings," that is
the rubbish (nests, etc.) taken out of the guano collections in the
process of cleaning, which, though not of course as valuable as guano,
was useful for vines, fruit trees, and other permanent crops, and
helped to relieve the situation. A quantity of approximately 4000
tons of guano phosphate from Cape Cross, in the South-West Pro-
tectorate, was purchased from a syndicate, who had previously been in
the habit of shipping it to Europe, for £9. 10s. per ton f.o.b. Cape-
town. Then, also, a deposit upon Bird Island was investigated in
the hope that it miffht be useful as a fertilizer, but upon analysis it
was found to be of little manurial value.

Grain Division.

This division is entrusted with the grading- of grain, etc.,
exported from the Union.

The grading of maize in 1914-15 continued to give satisfaction in
essential particulars both t<» buyers ovei-sea and to shippers, the
quantity of maize exported during the year being 1,156.247 bags, arid
the exports of oats (1914) totalling 83,357 bags. A small quantity of
barley was shipped, this being the first occasion of bnrley in any

The Department of Agricultuee during the War. 553

quantity being exported to Europe, due solely to war conditions. A
few thousand tons of lueeme-hay were exported for account of the
Imperial military authorities, and on the whole satisfactory reports
were received as to the quality. The division undertook the inspec-
tion of the lucerne before shipment, and of the total quantity pre-
sented for export 149 tons were rejected by the inspector. The annual
maize conference, at which merchants, producers, the TJnion-Castle
Shipping" Company, and the Government are represented, was held
regularly each year and much benefit derived therefrom. Owing to
the war the Union-Co stle Company renounced its agreement with the
Government to convey maize to Europe at 10s. per ton, and fixed the
freight rate at 30s., which was subsequently raised to 52s. 6d. A
drop at that time in the market price in England for the cereal meant
small returns for the farmer, and the position was aggravated by lack
of sufficient accommodation on steamers to dispose of our surplus, a
matter which received the earnest attention of the Government.

The 1915 maize crop was the largest on record, being estimated
at 10,250,000 bags, and the quantity exported was approximately
2,484,000 bags. Australia was a very big buyer, takinfr no less than
632,190 bags, most of the balance going to the TTnited Kingdom. In
addition, the division passed for export during 1915-16 3066 bags of
barley, 85.466 bags of Kaffir corn (the latter for the first time in
quantity), 50 bags of lucerne seed to Australia (the first shipment of
this seed that had left the Union), 32,358 bags of oats (a reduction on
the previous year's shipments owing to additional consumption in the
Union for military purposes), and 229 bags of millet. The quality
of the maize exported during the season was excellent and very little
was rejected for unsoundness or other reasons. No complaints were
received of the grading, which appeared to have given complete satis-
faction. A large number of standard samples of maize and Kaffir
corn was sent out by the division. The question of freight" greatly
exercised the Government, and active steps were taken to secure cargo
space for our maize. The rate of freight was clianged during the
year, being fixed at 63s. on the 1st January, 1916, a favourable one
compared with the rates paid by Argentine shippers.

The produce passed for export by the division during the year
1916-17 was 1,334,608 bacs of maize. 11,871 bags of hominy chop,
772 bags of maize meal. 1842 bags of barley, and 5084 bags of Kaffir
corn. There was a falling off in quantity as compared with that
shipped the previous year owing to an unfavourable crop
season. The quality and condition of the maize was good. The
grading continued to give satisfaction both in this country and
abroad. In the United Kingdom our maize has o<ot an excellent
name, the grader's certificates being said to be so reliable as to be as
negotiable as bank notes. As a consequence of this excellent result
very little grain or seed of any kind was exported without reference
to the division, and many requests were made that the system of
crrading should be applied to the home as well as the export trade.
The export grades for maize and Kaffir corn fixed in 1915 were main-
tained, and large numbers of samples were made up and distributed.

The maize crop reaped in 1917 was the largest yet grown, and
during the year 1917-18 4,314,694 bags of maize and its products were
exported. The quantity, moreover, would have been greater but for
heavy rains which carried on into the ripening and ham'esting period

054 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

and partially through the winter months ; as a result the quality of
the grain was not so good as usual. The inadequacy of proper storing
facilities caused great loss through dampness, the present system of
storing and handling being expensive in addition. Consequently a
committee was formed for dealing with the maize traffic, and the
report eventually submitted by it favouring the erection of elevators
will have a far reaching beneficial effect on the trade. In the absence
of elevators, and with a view to assisting farmers and traders and of
preventing the shipment of damp maize to the ports, provision was
made during the year for the grading of maize at railway stations in
the chief maize-growing areas, four graders being appointed for the
purpose. Another feature of the year was the purchase of practically
the whole of our surplus maize by the Imperial Government at prices
based on those paid for the maize already bought by merchants.
Another new departure was the purchase by the Imperial Government
of large quantities of maize meal in the ITnion for use oversea. This
was the first occasion maize meal was exported in any quantity, and
with one exception the meal arrived in srood condition and gave
satisfaction. Our maize is well grown, is sent over in good condition
without being artificially dried, and its grading can be relied upon,
and it is interesting to note that our IVo. 2 maize was recommended to
farmers for growing maize for ensilage by the English Board of Agri-
culture. In addition to maize other products exported under the
supervision of the division were Kaffir corn 2796 bags, barley 7384
bags, dried peas 3258 bags, dried beans 1119 bags. The purchasers
of seeds exported from the Union all stipulate for certificates of
quality and purity by the Government, and the division did its best
to meet these demands. Standard samples of maize, etc., were made
up on the standard set in 1915, and a large number of sets was
disposed of to traders, farmers, and others interested in the export
and local trades.

Fe^TCING VXD Be AND s.

The administration of the laws relating to fencing and brands,
and the publication of the " Brands' Directory " required by the
Transvaal Brands Act, are matters forming a separate section of the
work of the Department.

Fencing. — This matter is governed by the provisions of the
Fencing Act of 1912 (No. 17), and though the high prices of fencing
mateiial caused by the war retarded the extension of fencing which
would otherwise have taken place, and the number of applications for
advances in terms of Section 3 of the Act decreased year by year,
there was nevertheless a forward movement and a smooth working of
the Act, it being clear that with a return to better conditions fencing
would be vigorously pursued, as its value was becoming* generally
recognized. The obligatory provisions of the Act were gradually
extended to those parts of the Union in which compulsory contribu-
tions by adjoining properties were not already enjoined by law.

Brands. — Legislation varies in the different Provinces, and in
Natal there is no Brands Act. The Orang-e Free State and Cape Acts
leave the choice of brands and of their position on the animals to the
applicants. The Transvaal Ordinance (No. 15 of 1904) limits the
choice to such of a series of brands, arranged on the three-piece

The Department or Agriculture during the War. 555

system, as have not already been allotted, and also prescribes the posi-
tion they are to occupy on the animal ; this system proves to be the
best in the interests of stock owners, and the need for nniformity
throughout the Union based on the Transvaal system was freely
expressed. Owiug to scarcity of paper it was not possible to publish
all the Brands' Directories, but the deficiency was met by tlie regular
publication of quarterly returns and of lists showing the additions
and amendments to the directories and the cancellations of brands.
The number of brands registered steadily increased during the period
of the war. This was specially noticeable in the Transvaal, where,
owing to its Brands Ordinance, farmers have availed themselves of
the benefits conferred by proper branding of stock, and registrations
far exceeded those in the Cape and Orange Free State Provinces, not-
withstanding that the Transvaal Act was of more recent date. On the
31st March, 1918, the total number of brands registered was 27,526,
of which 20,350 were in the Transvaal, 5647 in the Cape Province,
and 1529 in the Orange Free State.

Ckop and Live Stock Reports.

The need of reliable and up-to-date information regarding the
growth of the country's principal crops and their probable yield,
together with the condition of live stock, becoming increasingly felt,
the Department inaugurated a scheme of crop reports, and com-
mencing with September, 1915, a Crop and Live Stock Report has
since been published regularly every month. The principal crops of
the country were dealt with, and in the face of many difiiculties it
was endeavoured to keep the public informed of the progress made by
the crops month by month and to afford a means of arriving at an
estimate of probable production. A comprehensive statement
regarding* the condition of large and small stock throughout the Union
from a slaughtering point of view was also included. It is obvious
that reliable forecasts of crops production are essential ; farmers are
benefited both directly and indirectly — directly by being- kept
informed of crop prospects and prices outside of their own immediate
districts, and indirectly because the disinterested reports of the
Government tend to prevent the circulation of false or misleading
reports calculated to depress prices. Merchants in the distribution of
their wares, the railways in arranging- the handling and transport of
produce, and the shipping companies in the providing of freight, are
also benefited by reliable forecasts of crop production.

The following is a brief explanation of the system at present in
operation : —

1. In eacli producing district of the Union a number of farmers,
judiciously distributed, furnish gratuitously monthly crop reports.
Each of these farmers, who is known as a crop correspondent, reports
on the crops growing on his own farm and the farms adjoining it.

2. These reports are sent on a specified date to the Magistrate of
the district, where they are scrutinized, weighed, and averaged, the
result being telegraphed to Pretoria.

3. Two classes of reports (excepting iji respect of fruit) are
furnished by the crop correspondent, viz. : —

(a) When sowings are completed he fills in a card showing the
change (if any) in the area under crop as compared with

556 Journal of the^Department op Agriculture.

the previous year. For this purpose the figure 100 always
represents the acreage under crop the previous season.
Thus, for instance, if the acreage under maize in 1919 is
the same as in 1918, he will report 100; if it is, say, 50
per cent, greater, he will report 150 ; or if it is, say,
10 per cent, smaller, he will report 90, and so on.

Upon receipt of this information the Department's
estimate is made of the season's prospective normal yield.
(/;) After the above report has been furnished the crop corre-
spondent sends in monthly during the growing season a
report as to how the crop is progressing. If it is growing
as he would expect to see it in an ordinary favourable
season it is normal. Thus, if the crop is considered to be
making normal growth (in other words, has such appear-
ance as to promise a return per acre expected in an
ordinary favourable season), he reports normal, represented
by the figure 100. Variations from 100 indicate that the
condition of the crop is either above or below normal, as
the case may be.

Upon receipt of this information, the Department's
original estimate of the yield is amended month by month
as required should it be found that the crop growth is
above or below normal. When the crop has reached
maturity the estimate is finally fixed as a rule by accept-
ing the latest monthly report (for example, June in the
case of maize) as showing the final condition.

The success of the scheme depends upon the public spirited co-
operation of the farming community. The service is small. It
entails no letter-writing, but at the most a few minutes only in filling
in once a month a few items on a post card. Since the introduction
of the system the Department, with the assistance of Magistrates, has
steadily been educating the farmer in the method of reporting, per-
fecting the proper representation of each district, and generally
building up a system of crop forecasts which will be of great value to
our country. There is evidence that the Crop Report is attaining its
object and is becoming recognized as an indispensable adjunct of the
machinery of State.

Adulteration of Wines, Spirits, and Vinegar.

The administration of Act No. 15 of 1913, which prohibits the use
of certain substances in wine, spirits, and vinegar and regulates their
manufacture and sale, is carried out by the Department. A vigorous
pursuance of the provisions of the Act is fraught with much
importance to the viticultural industry, for it ensures the production
of a good article, protects the consumer, and prepares this country for
competition in the world's markets with the produce of other countries
by insisting on a standard of excellence in our viticultural products.
During 1914-15 770 samples of wine, brandy, whisky, gin, rum, and
vinegar were analysed, and 13 per cent, (mostly rum and vinegar)
were found to be adulterated, deficient, or not genuine. In addition
221 liquors were analysed on impoi'tation. In 1915-16
742 samples were analysed; again 13 per cent, (mostly vinegar and

The Department of Agriculture during the War. 557

brandy) being" found adulterated, etc. The following- year the
number of samples analysed was 1036, the number found adulterated,
etc., being 21 per cent., of which by far the largest number were
brandies. During 1917-18 the number of samples taken increased to
1234, and 21 per cent, of those analysed were deficient or adulterated,
again mostly brandies. Practically all cases of adulteration of spirits
were caused through the addition of water. In addition, 121 samples
of liquors were examined on importation. For contraventions of the
Act a large number of prosecutions were instituted by the Department
and many convictions followed, and generally satisfactory control of
that part of the liquor trade falling under its jurisdiction was
exercised.

[This review icill be concluded in the ne.rt issue of the Journal.]

Naphthalene for Fowl Lice.

In connection with the testing of proprietary insecticides, the
Insecticide Board of the United States Department of Agriculture
conducted a series of experiments to determine the value of
naphthalene against fowl lice. Naphthalene is said to be a very
common ingredient in proprietary lice powders, and to be also sold
in the form of nest eggs. The experiments are reported in the
October, 1919, issue of the Journal of Economic Entomology. The
findings are summarized as follows : —

1. Powders containing 5 per cent, or less of naphthalene are of

no value against lice.

2. Powders containing from 10 per cent, to 20 per cent, are

very effective.

3. As little as 10 per cent, naphthalene may temporarily injure

hens, if the powder is well rubbed in, and 60 per cent, or
more may kill the treated fowls under the same conditions.

4. Naphthalene (60 to 100 per cent.) sprinkled over the backs

of fowls at roost proved to be of considerable value against
lice.

5. Naphthalene nest eggs are of no value against lice on laying

or setting hens.

6. The data obtained indicate that setting hens, the eggs, and

possibly any chickens hatched, are injured by these eggs.

The failure of naphthalene nest eggs to control the lice is ascribed
to the fact that the vapour given off is over four times heavier than
air, and consequently does not work up through the feathers. The
nest eggs were also quite valueless against the common fowl mite.
The dusting of the fowls at night had to be done without disturbing
them much in order to be successful, and some failures were put down
to the powder being shaken off.

558 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

KUDZU " (Pueraria thunbergiana).

By vSydney M. Stent, Botanist, Division of Botany, Pretoria.

During the last few months so much has been written and talked
about the wonders of Kudzu, and so many letters of inquiry on the
subject are received daily by this Department, that a short resume
of the information we possess about this plant will be useful to our
readers, and we hope incidentally tO' ourselves, in reducing" somewhat
our increasing- and voluminous correspondence on the subject.

Kudzu, known botanically as Pueraria thunhergiana, is a woody
climber belonging to the bean family (Legu/ninosae). It is a native
of Japan, and in tliat country has many uses — the tliick roots contain
large quantities of starch which is used for human food, the stems
contain a fine fibre from which a certain kind of cloth is manufac-
tured, while the foliage is used and valued as fodder for all kinds of
stock, liorses being especially fond of it. It is said to be one of the
most rapid growers on record; in some cases the stems have been
known to attain a length of 60 feet in three months. It forms a very
ornamental covering for porches, verandas, or summer-houses, and
has been cultivated in the United States for this purpose for some
years, but it has recently only been exploited in that country as a
forage crop.

Mr. C. y. Piper, of the Department of Agriculture, Washington,
has published a short pamphlet on the subject of Kudzu, and he gives
the following advice as to its culture : —

CulUire. — Kudzu, when well established, covers the field
with a dense mass of herbage. Seeding is too expensive to advise
and is generally unsuccessful. Setting the rooted plants in the
field where they are to be grown is tlie best method. The plants,
however propagated, are set about 10 feet apart each way in the
field. They succeed best if put out very early in the spring.
During the first season the trailing runners cover the ground ;
the second season good crops are secured, but usually the largest
crops are not obtained till the third season and subsequently. A
crop of corn, soy beans, cowpeas, or peanuts can be grown between
the rows of Kudzu during the first season, and thus avoid losing
the use of the land. As Kudzu is a long-lived perennial it is
advisable to plant it only where the field can remain in this crop
for several years. Young plants are sometimes severely injured
by rabbits.

Seed. — The seeds of Kudzu do not germinate very well. If
used, they should be jjlanted in a well-prepared seed bed and the
plants transplanted very early in spring after they are well
rooted.

Cuttings. — Kudzu may be propagated by cuttings, but under
field conditions a large percentage fails, so the method can not
be recommended. The best success with cuttings has been secured

" KuDZU." - 559

by using well-iipeued wood and setting out xevy early m the
spring.

Transplanting . — A new field of Kudzu is best established by
the transplanting of well-rooted plants.

Grazing. — Kudzu may be utilized as pasture, but should not
be grazed too heavily ; two fields should be provided to graze
alternately. Some farmers allow the crop to grow until the dry
season of the fall, when other pasturage is likely to be scant.
There is some evidence that continuous lig'ht grazing will give
more feed than alternate heavy grazing. The crop is best
pastured by cattle, as hogs are inclined to dig out and eat the
starchy roots; indeed, hogs may thus be used io eradicate a field
of Kudzu when this becomes desirable.

Soiling or Green Feeding. — Kudzu is excellent for soiling,
as was shown by the experience of the Louisiana Agricultural
Experiment Station. During an extremely dry period the only
green foliage available was furnished by the Kudzu fields.

Hay. — Some fields in Northern Florida, after becoming well
established, have yielded three cuttings of hay a season, and
yields as high as 10 tons per acre have been reported. In other
fields the total yield has been smaller than that of velvet beans.
At Arlington Farm, Ya., Kudzu was harvested and cured in the
same manner as cowpeas. and an excellent quality of hay obtained.
Curing frames were used also, and if properly cocked Kudzu-hay
sheds rain without the use of any topping material. In fact some
of the hay was left in cocks all winter, and Avhen opened the
following spring was in excellent condition : only the outside
was brown and weathered, the forage within being of a bright-
green colour. Kudzu can be cut readily with a mower. The
hay cures more easily than most legumes, as the leaves are less
juicy.

The first mowing of a field, however, is sometimes difficult,
as the first crop is more tangled than succeeding ones. A good
device to use in very tangled crops is an old scythe blade fastened
vertically to the end of the cutter bar. The fi"st Grop»produced
is also likely to be difficult to rake, as the trailing stems along'
the ground are still strong ; therefore it is often better to use a
fork and make piles or rolls not too large to pitch on to a wagou.
There is practically no shedding of the leaves in curing.

Kudzu is said to make excellent hay and its feeding value is
about equal to clover and lucerne. Like most leguminous crops it is
a splendid soil renovator, enriching the poorest land, but even in the
United States it is only in the experimental stage, and Mr. Piper
lays special stress on the fact that though the value of the plant
both for hay and for grazing is acknowledged they have yet much
to learn about its habits and behaviour under varying conditions
before it can be pronounced on definitely.

In South Africa, Kudzu is little known and few experiments
have been carried out \\\i\\ it. In 1915 the Division of Botany
obtained a small quantity of seed from the U.S.A., and this was
sown at the Experimental Station. Groenkloof. The seed germinated

560 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

fairly well, but the young plants were killed off by the frost before
they had become Avell established.

Mr. McCallum, of Pigeonhole Farm, Tzaneen, obtained some
seed from which he raised about 100 small plants. These he planted
out, but only two survived, and he Avrites as follows :—" One plant
has grown vigorously and has an abundance of foliage. I tried to
dig it out but found this impossible as the roots penetrated over three
feet. . . . It is too early to speak favourably or unfavourably
about it. I have an idea that if I can establish it in my bushlands
it will be a great help, but so far I have not succeeded."

Reports from Rhodesia state that Kudzu has been g*rown success-
fully on the Government Experiment Station outside Salisbury,
where it is considered a useful grazing crop, but that the stems are
too tough and fibrous to make good hay.

Another small quantity of seed has been obtained by the Division
of Botany in order to carry out further trials with the plant, and the
results of these will be reported on later.

Kudzu seldom matures seed away from its own country. Most
of the seed is sent direct from Japan, the natural home of the plant,
and as far as we know the only firms in South Africa who advertise
seed or young plants are Distins (i^frican Seeds, Ltd.), Johannesburg,
and Carter Bros., Maritzburg.

Grrain-eating Birds : A Poison.

The following is recommended by the Principal, School of
xigriculture, Potchef stroom, as a poison for grain-eating birds : —

A paste of two cups of starch or three of flour is made with cold
water; boiling water is then added until the liquid measures three
bottles. The whole is boiled for a short while until the liquid becomes
translucent ; now stir in thoroughly one ounce of finely powdered
strychnine alkaloid: pour the liquid over 50 lb. of kaflfir corn grain,
or a mixture of kaffir corn and millet seeds, and stir so as to wet
every grain. The grain is allowed to dry, then bagged, properly
labelled and stored in* a safe place until required.

To poison the grain-eating birds, patches of dry grass are burnt
near the lands on which unpoisoned grain is thrown. As soon as the
swarms of " finks " have cleaned these up, sow the poisoned bait.
This method has been found most effective, and, if followed, there is
Tittle danger of destroying those species of birds which are of benefit
to the farmer.

Cmition. — Poison bait should not be distributed too near the
homestead, unless the ground can be fenced in with wire-netting,
otherwise poultry will be killed. The poisoned birds must not be
allowed to be eaten.

Graftee Vineyards. 561

GRAFTED VINEYARDS.

Report of the Commission of Investigation, consisting
of P. J, Cillie (C.'s son), A. I. Perold, B.A., Ph.D.,
and S. W. van Niekerk (Government Viticul-
turist).

Introduction.

Although the lecoustitutiou of our viueyards on Auierican stocks —
commenced some thirty years ago — has been more speedy and attended
with g'reater success than in otlier wine-producing countries of the
world, it must be acknowledged that in this connection there are
numerous difficulties which still require elucidation. It would
appear that this fact is recog-nized by the wine farmers themselves,
and as a consequence of representations which were made to the
Secretary for Agriculture by the Paarl and French Hoek Farmers'
Associations, as well as by individual farmers, the ])resent commission
was appointed to inspect and report upon the condition of our grafted
vineyards.

The report has been divided into three sections: — (1) Short
description of the usefulness of American stocks ; (2) summary of the
results of the investigation; and (3) recommendations.

(1) Short Description of the Usefulness of American Stocks.

It was originally the general impression that any American
stock was completely resistant to phylloxera. Experience has, how-
ever, taught us that this is not the case. Our wine farmers as a
whole do not apparently realize all the factors which will determine
whether any given American stock under certain ciicumstances will
be phylloxera resistant. The commission has therefore considered i^
advisable to deal brieflv ^itb this phase of the question before giving
the results of its findings.

In the first place it must be remembered that the success or failure
of a grafted vine is governed by its capacity for growth on the one
hand and the attacks of phylloxera on the other. Everj^ circumstance
which increases the former is to the advantage of the vine, and vice
versa. So far as the attacks of phylloxera are concerned, it will be
quite evident that everything which favours the attack is also a
source of danger to the vine, and vice versa.

Factors winch Influence Growth. Factors which Infl^uence the

Attacks of Phylloxera.

The stock. The stock

Soil. Soil.

Climate. Clima^.
Cultivation and manuring of soil.
Treatment of vine.

562 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

The Stock. — It is well known that certain stocks are, speaking
o-enerally, more vigorous growers than others (e.g. Mourvedre x
Rnpestris 1202). It is also acknowledged that on the inherent
characteristics of the stock v.'ill depend whether it will be attacked
by phylloxera or not. (A similar occurrence which we find in
animals, which on entering a vineyard will first devour the leaves
and shoots of Hanepoot before they touch any of the other kinds.)
Although phylloxera mnj be found on the roots of all types of
American stocks (species and varieties), some are only lightly affected
while others are completely destroyed.

If we plant tAvo kinds next to each other in the same soil (let us
say in the same receptacle) and then infect their roots with phylloxera,
we will find after a while" the roots of the one appreciably affected
with phylloxera, while the other will for practical purposes be clean.
Tt is of course understood that two varieties would be chosen Avhich
differed considerably in their power to resist phylloxera. From this
we see that phylloxera will attack one kind of stock more readily than
another. Moreover, the wounds caused by phvUoxera are not equally
serious to the roots of different lands, and the various types of
American stocks do not all possess the same capacity for closing up
lliese wounds or of allowing them to heal. Here it must be explained
that a stock is not killed because the phylloxera robs it of too much
of its sap or because it becomes poisoned, but because certain
organisms of decomposition present in the soil are enabled, through
fbe Avounds made by the phylloxera, to enter the roots and cause
ill em \o decay.

It will therefore be under-stood that different kinds of stocks will
under similar conditions show a varying degree of resistance \o
phylloxera.

Soil. — The soil is of the greatest importance in relation to the
growth of the vine as well as the attacks of phylloxera. In well-
drained soils of good depth and possessing a fair supply of plant food
ingredients (including water) a stock will make good growth. In
light, shallow soils, which are usually too wet in winter and too dry
during the summer, one cannot expect it to make satisfactory
progress. Where the foregoing statement applies we find that
American stocks exhibit great differences in their growth on different
soils. We can understand then that the soil is one of the most
important factors which we have to consider in making a choice of a
suitable stock.

That the soil exercises a greai influence on the attacks of
])hylloxera is evidenced by the fact th;it phylloxera destroys European
vines much sooner in clay soil than in sandy soil, while in a deep
fine sandy soil it either fails to destroy or infests only slightly. This
is the reason why the coastal portion of France, bordering on the
Mediterranean Sea, has been established on European stocks. In
this area we find deep, fine sandy soils in which phylloxera has an
almost negligible effect. In our own country there still exists old
ungrafted vineyards, established on deep, line sandy soils, which are
deteriorating at a very slow rate. By a sound system of fertilizing,
lliis deterioration may still further be I'elarded, and instances are
known of old ungrafted vinevards which, bv good manuring with

Grafted Vineyards. 563

Government guano, etc., have been miicli improved and again brought
to a productive condition after having become very poor.

Climate. — As the American stocks grow in North America, where
they are indigenous, under very variable conditions of climate it was
to be expected that, j)ropagated under South African conditions, they
would not all do equally well. This has also been the experience m
Europe. As a clear example, one might instance Jacquez. This
stock has long been regarded in Erance as unsuitable because of its
insufficient resistance to phylloxera. In this coiuitr}-, as is dorrectly
shown in the 1912 and 1914 reports on our grafted vineyards, on a
great many soils Jacque:? is an outstanding stock. Under certain
conditions here, however, it has not proved sufhciently resistant, and
for that reason must not be used as a stock. The explanation of this
behaviour must undoubtedly be sought in our climate, which is
lesponsible for stimulating the growth of the vine and enabling it to
mature its wood better than is the case in Europe. The last-named
factor, viz., the maturing of the wood, which is more particularly
shown in the accumulation of resers^e food (chiefly starch) in the
roots, stem, and shoots of the vino exercises a very great influence on
its growth and productiveness.

Climate, moreover, exercises a distinct effect on the life of
phylloxiera itself by providing mon'e suitable conditions for the
breeding of phylloxera in one season under a warm climate than in
an area with colder climates. This is the reason why phylloxera will
destroy the same stock grown under our climatic conditions more
rapidly than in the cold climate of middle Europe. We can, there-
fore, understand why it is so often the case that a grafted vineyard,
after a winter of low rainfall, followed by a dry summer, will suffer
from phylloxera and visibly deteriorate.

It is true that the American stocks are much more susceptible to
changes of climate than the European vines. Keeping this in view
we must not accept blindly the results of experinients carried out in
other countries with American stocks ; it is necessary to test them
under our local conditions in order to establish their degree of
suitability.

Cultivation and Manuring of the Soil. — The soil must be well
prepared (by trenching or deep ploughing) before the young vines
are planted so that they have a good start, and will be able to develop
their root system. If the soil is too wet it must be well drained
before the vines are planted. Further, the vineyard soil must be
worked in such a way that it is able to take up sufficient water and
lose the moisture during the summer as slowly as possible. This may
be accomplislied by keeping the surface soil loose and free of weeds.
The reason why these points are emphasized, although probably well
known, is because the investigation has revealed that a large number
of failures with grafted vineyards must be attributed simply to the
bad preparation and improper cultivation of the vineyard soil.

It stands to reason ihat proper fertilizing will stimulate the
growth of the vine and enable it to produce to a greater extent
without weakening the plant and thus rendering it susceptible to the
attacks of phylloxera. Poor soils particularly require a good dressing
of manure each year. The practice which obtains among some

664 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

farmers of manuring- their vineyards every second or third year is
one which cannot be condemned sufficiently, especially where the
soils are poor. The necessity for regular and proper manuring
becomes apparent when it is remerubered that the grafted vineyard
comes into bearing sooner and produces more heavily than the un-
grafted vines. ■

Treatment of Vine. — The vine must be kept liealthy so that the
leaves may have ample scope for discharging their normal functions.
In pruning, the vigour of the vine must be kept in mind, and it must
never be expected to do more than it can accomplish without injury.
Young vineyards particularly must not be allowed to bear too heavily
as this may be responsible for giving the vines a set back for a long
time, and from which there is sometimes no recovery. The commis-
sion knows of an instance where Muscadel or Jacquez — in a deep,
cool, reddish, gravelly soil — had begun in its fourth year to sufl^er
from phylloxera and was beginning to deteriorate, yet in that type of
soil Jacquez should have answered well. The reason was simply that
the vineyard had been treilised and pruned long, which had had the
elfect of producing altogether too large crops in its second and third
year, thereby weakening the vines to such an extent that they became
easily aftected with phylloxera. By advice of the Government Yiti-
culturist at that time, the grapes of the weak vines were removed
when quite undeveloped, and during the following winter the vines
were so pruned (short and few bearers) that in the succeeding harvest
they produced a very light crop, and to-day there is once more a nice
looking vineyard.

(2) Summary of Results or the Present Investigation.

The Commission instituted a careful inquiry into the grafted
vineyards in the most important wine districts, and more particularly
at certain places where it was known that the grafted vineyards were
in a bad or unsatisfactory condition.

Up to the present most of the vineyards in our country are
grafted on the following stocks: — Jacquez, Aramon, Metallica, Seed
Rupestris varieties, lliparia varieties, and 1202. To a limited extent
use is also made of Rupestris du Lot and the lliparia x Rupestris
hybrids 101-14, 3306, and 3309. The results of our investigation in
connection with these stocks may be briefly summarized as follows: —

Jacquez. — Where there is a sufficient rainfall and irrigation is
not practised, and where the soil is deep and open, this stock gives
satisfaction. On the deep sandy soils of Goudini, Jacquez is by far
the best stock for all kinds of grapes. On stiff clay soils, on shallow
soils, and on all soils which become too dry during the summer, it is
unsatisfactory and very often unsuitable, and must therefore not be
used.

In areas where irrigation is practised Jacquez must only be used
on deep open soils. It is essential that the soil should take up water
readily and that the irrigation should be sufficient, so that the vine
does not need to suffer from drought during the summer. Tlie stock
should also not be planted on stiff Karroo soils, which usually do not
take up water readily.

Grafted Vineyards. 565

Aramon. — What is understood here by Aramon is really a
mixture of Aramon x Rupestris Ganzin Nos. 1 and 2. It is to be
regretted that this is so, seeing" that the two, on different types of
soil, show great variation in growth and are thus responsible for
uneven vineyards. It is also possible that the Aramon No. 1, as it
is known to-day, is made up of two distinct kinds, and this question
will receive further examination immediately.

In general, the Commission holds the view that Aramon, as mixed
as it is, has in most cases proved a success, even though the majority
of the vineyards are not uniform. In every case where the large
vines had suckers they had either been grafted on Aramon No. 2 or
on Seed Rupestris — ^never on Aramon No. 1. On the Karroo soils the
vineyards grafted on Aramon are not so uneven. Those on Aramon
No. 1 are, if anything, better than those on No. 2.

The Commission made a careful investigation of some instances
of serious deterioration and actual failures of Aramon, both Nos. 1
and 2, in the Stellenbosch District. These consisted of Hermitage
and Stein Grape, grafted on Aramon and five and ten years old
respectively, on a light leddish brown, coarse, sandy hillsicle soil
with a gravel layer as sub-soil, which is frequently cemented into an
ironstone gravel. The soil is poor, very deficient in humus, and
exceptionally porous, so that it retains its plant food wdth difficulty,
and in 1916 the vineyard was weakened hy the enormous crop which
it liore. The poverty of the soil and the exceptionally heavy cro])
in 1916, coupled with only an average manuring, must be regarded as
the chief causes of the vineyard's deterioration. Probably matters
were accentuated by the bad winters of 1918 and 1919. The whole
vineyard is very poor and gives one the same impressions as an un-
grafted vineyard badly infested with phylloxera. Even the vines on
the " heuveltjes " are deteriorating. The vines are small, the canes
short and weak, while the roots are unhealthy and covered with
phylloxera. Many of the roots are already dead.

That the fault here lies mainly in the soil is shown by the fact
that Aramon on neighbouring farms was still doing well, but in
such instances the soil was deep and more of a bluish, light sandv
soil with more body in it, and thus better able to hold its plant food.
In the soil Avhere Aramon did so badly the sand grains were sharp
and clean.

In the Robertson District there was an instance of Hermitage on
Aramon, five years old, on stiff Karroo (heavy red loam) which had
produced the previous year from 6 to 7 leaguers per 1000 vines
(planted 3 feet 9 inches by 3 feet 9 inches), or 38 to 45 leaguers per
morgen. Here there was a patch of vines doing badly, and in some
cases the vines were actually dead. The roots of the weak vines were
covered with phylloxera. The main cause was apparently the large
crops, combined with the characteristic difficulty with which the soil
is able to absorb water. In ooneral we would like to point out that
grafted vineyards which are irrigated are much more susceptible to
the attacks of phylloxera M^hen the soil absorbs water with difficulty,
and where the vines therefore suffer from drought during the hot,
dry months of summer, than in those cases where tlie soil readily
absorbs water and the vines do not suffer from drought. In the
latter case most stocks will answer w"ll.

566 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Rupestris Metalhca. — The stock known here as Metallica is not
the Rupestris Metallica of Europe, but was orown at Groot Constantia
from imported Rupestris seed, and selected hy the late Mr. J. P. de
Waal when he was manager of the GoA^ernment Farm, Groot Con-
stantia, from which source it has spread over a wide area. Tlie fact
that it roots and grafts easily, grows vigorously, and comes into
hearing soon, earned great popularity for it from the start, and it
lias in consequence been used as a stock on a large scale. It soon
became apparent, however, that its grafted vines in most instances
began to deteriorate after eight to ten years, and a few years after
did not produce profitable crops. It does not stand drougJit, or
rather damp conditions, and in wet sandy soils it is easily destroyed
by root eels. It is therefore, quite correctly, seldom used as a stock.

Seed Rtipestris Varieties. — Under this heading is understood all
Rupestris varieties which are found in our grafted vineyards and
which have not so far received a definite name, but which inive been
propagated here from imported Rupestris Seed. Such varieties as
Rupestris du Lot, Rup. Martin, Rup. Mission, etc., were also
originally grown from seed but have since been kept pure, described,
and propagated by cuttings. Amongst the Seed Rupestris v.nieties
we come across such names as " Donkey or Le Roux Rupestris,"
" Appelkoosblaar " Rupestris, " Blinkl)laar " Rupestris. Large Leaf
Rupestris, etc., but these have never been studied and written up.
The investigation clearly showed that there are amongst these useless
as well as outstanding varieties. The old grafted vineyards (twenty
years and more) are very patchy, because at the time of planting a
mixture of varieties were used. In such vineyards one finds some
excellent large vines on Rupestris varieties, of which a .special study
has never been made and whose identity has therefore not up to the
present been established. It would seem that there are about three
varieties which produce such good results. From these it is proposed
to plant out cuttings in experimental plots in order to establish their
identity and to enable them being more closely studied. It is quite
possible that one or more of these varieties might turn out to belong-
to our best stocks, but then they must be propagated pure (along' pure
lines).

Riparia Varieties. — Of these Ave have Riparia Gloire de Mout-
liellier, and another Riparia variety which A'ery closely resembles the
first named, but which has not been grown pure, and another mixture
of Riparia A^arieties which is known as " Ou Riparia." All the
Riparia varieties have resisted phylloxera well, but the so-called
" Ou Riparia " usually produces small grafted \dnes. The Iavo first-
named varieties are good, particularly the Rip. Gloire de Mont-
pellier (usunlly called " Montpilje "), whicli unfortunately has in
very few instances been kept pure. The following remarks apply to
Rip. Gloire de Montpellier : — It seems as if it is a suitable stock for
all grape varieties, including Hanepoot. It induces the production
of good crops and is responsible for the grapes ripening eight to ten
days earlier than those on Jacquez planted on the same soil. The
Commission receiA^ed no complaints against it where it had been used
as a stock, except that the Annes might liaA'e been larger on the less
suitable soil, though CA^en then it has regularly produced satisfactory
crops. Although it is particularly suitalde on deep river or " kloof "

G^RAPTED Vineyards. 567

soils it appears that it also g'ives excellent results on decomposed
granite (hillside), resting on Malmesbury slate as we find at Elsen-
burg. In one instance in Agter (iroenberg, Hanepoot grafted both
on this stock and on -huquez stood side by side on the same deep,
cool, ])iountain land and were trellised ; the former showed more
vigorous g-rowth, better wood, had a much better colonr (late in
January, 1920), and had a better crop than the ^ines grafted on
Jacquez, although the latter was l)y no means poor.

Near llobertson we came across an interesting instance where
Hanepoot on Riparia Gloire de Montpellier, twelve years old, has
proved an immense success on stiff red Karroo soil. The surface soil
is a heavy red loam, only 5-10 inches deep, and lesting" on a hard
lime bank, which, however, does not contain sufficient lime to produce
chlorosis (leaf yellowing;). This vineyard is irrigated in the summer.
At the time of the inspection (about the middle of January) the vine-
yard had last been irrigated a month previously, and the vines were
still shooting and in the pink of condition. They were laden with
well developed grapes with sweet Hesliy berrie-s, wliich were ripe
eight to fourteen days earlier than the Hanepoot on Jacquez. The
vineyard on Jacquez, on the same type of soil, had a much worse
colour and was showing no signs of sprouting", altliough it had been
irrigated after the Hanepoot on Riparia. Complaint is sometimes
made that Riparia does not support its scion because of its compara-
tively slower growth and the tendency to produce top-heavy vines.
Although there is sometliing in this statement it applies to Rip. Gloire
de Montpellier only in its first few years, that is when it is ])lanted on
suitable soil.

Mourvedre and Rupcsiris A'o. 1202. — -This is ])robably the most
luxuriant grower amongst the American stocks in use here. It is
only during the jjast ten years that it has been grown to any appreci-
able extent, and more particularly as a stock for Hanepoot. It is
used mostly in the Constantia area and in the Districts of Robertson,
Montagu, and Worcester. The oldest established Hanepoot on 1202
which the commission encountered was fifteen years old., and was still
doing well. Because of its vigorous growth Hanepoot grafted on it
has a tendency towards non-setting. The grapes usually ripen eight
days later than those grafted on Jacquez when planted on the same
soil. During the first three years Hanepoot grafted on the stock will
show odd failures, but later, however, the vines do well. It is not
regarded as a very suitable stock for Hanepoot, but with other
varieties of grapes this difficulty is not experienced. On most soils
it generally does well, excepting in sandy soils, especially those which
are damp, in which it is easily destroyed by root eels. On clay soils
and Karroo soil it is a very suitable stock. On account of its vigorous
growth it is very useful for poor soils, although in such a case it must
receive a liberal treatment of manure in view of the fact that,
according to European experience, it is less able to withstand
phylloxera than Aramou, but is better in this respect than Jacquez.

101-14, 3300, 3309. — These three hybrids of Riparia and Rupestris
are not used to any great extent. 101-1-1 is the best, and up to the
present is most popular. In a large measure it has a Riparia
character. In the Commission's experience it was a complete success
everywhere. Hanepoot (ten years old and sometimes older) on this

568 Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

stock was excellent, l)ore a good crop and ripened its grapes early.
It answers well on a large variety of soils. On moist as well as fairly
dry soiLs and on light sandy soils, as well as in heavy clay and Karroo
soils, it has grown well and appears to have been a success as a stock.
It has in all probability a very good future, particularly as a stock
for Hanepoot, on soils where Jacquez cannot be relied on. In the
same vineyard in the Stellenbosch District, where Aramon was such a
failure, it is the best stock (eight years old) in the experimental plot,
much better in fact than both varieties of Aramon.

3306 and 3309 very often give successful results, particularly the
latter, for Hanepoot on moderately dry heavy soil. As 101-14 is,
however, superior to both these stocks there is at present no reason
for their propagation as well, but the existing experiments will
nevertheless be continued. All three are usually sufficiently resistant
to phylloxera.

Rupestris dii Lot. — This is generally a very vigorous grower and
most varieties of grapes, including Hanepoot, may be grafted on the
stock with successful results. Its flourishing growth is the reason foi-
its vines not bearing much during the first five years ; it is liable to
non-setting, and ought, therefore, to be pruned longer. It should
not be planted on shallow soils, excepting Karroo soils, on which it
thrives in spite of there being a lime bank near the surface. It is
suitable for heavy clay and loam soils, but is not a desirable stock
for sandy soils. It is one of the stocks that are most resistant to
phylloxera, and should be used to a greater extent on soils for which
it is suited, viz., deep clay soils and Karroo soils.

(3) Recommendations.

[ aneties luhicli are Reconiviended or Conde/iiined. — According to
the findings of the Commission, it is recommended that the following
stocks should receive preference when a selection is being made: —
101-14, 1202, Aramon No. 2, Eup. du Lot, Eip. Gloire de Mont-
pellier, and Jacquez. Further selections from amongst these varieties
will be determined by local considerations, as described in Part II
of this report.

On many soils in the Western Province Aramon No. 1 is still
suitable, but it is always inferior to Aramon No. 2. On Karroo soil
No. 1 is if anything better than No. 2, and thus the mixed Aramon
may therefore still be used on these areas.

Some of the best Seed Eupestris varieties ought to be grown when
they have been further investigated, and so long as they are pro-
pagated pure.

Metallica and the old Eiparias should not lie cultivated any
longer.

Registration and Inspection of Nurseries. — As it appeared during
the course of the investigation that most of the grafted vineyards
showed unevenness because the stocks used were of more than one
variety, and that most of the nurseries for the production of American
stocks for grafting purposes contained mixed varieties, the Commis-
sion strongly recommends that all nurseries for propagating American
stocks and grafted vines should be inspected annually and registered.
In this connection it may be pointed out that ins]ipctioji should

Grafted Vineyards. 569

include purity of mother plantations or stocks, purity of scions (e.g-.
Crystal must not be found amongst Hanepoot), and in addition the
all-round good care of the nursery. The Commission recommend.-^
further that the Secretary for Agriculture should appoint a capable
officer to undertake this work, and that from time to time a complete
list should appear in the Department's Journal showing all nurseries
regarding which the inspector has made a satisfactory report.

Experiviental Plots {Vineyards). — The existing experimental
areas, now mostly eight years old, which are fairly well distributed
over the wine districts, and are now already giving useful indications
regarding the stocks used, should be still further extended.

Future Covnnissions of Investigations. — In order to solve in a
satisfactory manner the problem of our grafted vineyards, the Com-
mission recommends that similar commissions of inquiry should be
appointed at least every five years, and that if possible one or more
of the members of the previous commission should be on the
succeeding one in order to be better able to note the change which
the grafted vineyards have undergone in the intervening period.

South African Produce on Show.

An appreciative article on the display of Soutli African ijroduce
at tlfc recent show of the Eoyal Agricultural Society, held at
Darlington, England, appears in the July, 1920, issue of " The
British and South African Export Gazette." Admirably staged
under the general supervision of the Union's Trade Commissioner in
London, Mr. A. Canham, there was a remarkably comprehensive
exhibit of South Africa's produce, including wool and mohair, hides
and skins, leather, wattle bark and extract, ostrich feathers, cotton,
tobacco, various cereals and fruits, wines, jams, dried fruit, meat,
butter, bacon, eggs, cheese, canned crayfish, minerals, timbers, and
fibres. There was evidence of extreme care and judgment in the
selection and preparation of each item, everything being most
attractively displayed. Altogether the exhibit is stated to have
constituted the most effective publicity effort hitlierto attempted
by the Union Government. The Royal Show is tlie largest of its
kind in England — perhaps in the whole world — and it is gratifying
to learn that this great opportunity of advertising the Union's
resources has been used with so much success. Following the out-
standing- victory of South African cheese exhibits at the London
Dairy Show last year (reference to which was made in the April, 1920,
number of the Jownal), the attractive display of our products at
the Royal Show is calculated to advertise the Union to good effect,
for, as the article referred to mentions, more than one manufacturer
has discovered a new source whence to draw his raw materials.

570 Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

SOUTH AFRICAN FIBRE PLANTS.

Ambari or Deccan Hemp : Hibiscus Cannabinus, L.

By I. B. Pole Evans, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Chief, Division of
Botany and Plant Pathology.

(This article appeared originally in the South Afrieuii Journal of Industries, Vol. 1, No. 3,
and. owing to the widespread interest in the subject, is now reprinted. — Acting Editor.)

Since the outbreak of war more than usual interest has been displayed
by the public in the resources of South Africa as regards fibre plants,
oil-producing plants, medicinal plants, tanning plants, and dye
plants, with the result that numerous inquiries, often accompanied by
specimens, have been submitted to the Division of Botany. Much
valuable information relating to these economic plants and tlieir dis-
tribution tliroughout the Union has thus been obtained.

In the present article one of these plants, which would seem to
deserve some attention, not only from botanists, but also from the
merchant and farmer, will be dealt with. The plant is known botani-
cally as Hibiscus cannahinus L. It is also called Ambari Hemp,
Deccan Hemp, Gambo Hemp, and Bimlipatam Jute. Locally it has
been referred to as "The Wild Stock Hose." Hibiscus cannabinus
produces a textile fibre which can be used for the manufacture of
coarse woven articles, such as bags and sacks, hessians, and horse-
cloths. It can also be employed for cheap cordage and yarns. The
fibre is bright and glossy, but coarse and harsh.

The plant is a native of Africa, but now widely distributed
throughout India, Asia, and Australia.

In India it is very largely cultivated for local use, but from
investigations which have recently been given to it by the two
Imperial economic botanists, resulting in the production of improved
varieties from wliich the best specimens of fibre yet submitted to
London merchants have been obtained, there is reason to believe that
this plant will become more extensively grown for export trade.

In South Africa at the present time Hibiscus cannabinus L. as a
fibre plant is practically unknown. It is certainly not cultivated,
but in many places is looked upon as a most noxious weed.

In India, where its cultivation is firmly established, two spinning
mills have been erected for some years for specially dealing with this
fibre. From it practically ail the agricultural cordage used in India
is manufactured locally. It is also employed in making gunnies,
coarse sack cloth, canvas, fishing nets, and paper.

Hibiscus cannabinus is an erect annual plant, attaining in South
Africa an average height of 5-il feet. In the veld it exhibits con-
siderable variation as regards its habit of branching, time of maturity,
and robnstness — points which all need careful attention when seed

80UTH African Fibre Plants.

Plate /.]

Fi^. 1.

Fig. 2.

572 JOURJiiAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Fhitc II.] Fig. 1.

Portion of Stem, showing C'a[)sulas.

HIBISCUS rAXXABINUS.

K. A. Lassdell Dirmon of Botany.

South African Fibre Plants.

573

is harvested. Some plants, when growing in the open, branch pro-
fusely (Plates I and TV), others frequently show no tendency to do so
even under similar conditions.

The stem and leaf-stalks are prickly. The leaves are deeply
divided and usually composed of 5-7 lobes (Plate II, Fig. 3).

The flowers are borne on the main stem and branches on a very
short stalk in the axil of the leaf and open singly from below upwards,
in the early hours of the morning. The flowers are creamy-white to
yellow, with a dark purple eye (Plate II, Fig. 2).

The seed capsule when ripe is globose, pointed, and bristly (Plate
II, Fig. 1).

The plant has been observed by the writer as a common weed in
all the warmer parts of the Transvaal, especially in the Barberton,
Waterberg, and Zoutpansberg Districts. It also occurs fairly plenti-
fully in Zululand.

■'H' *

Photo by I. B. Pole Evans/l

Plate HI. — Hlbucuti camiabinun growing in old mealie lands on the farm
Waterval, Duivels Kloof, Transvaal.

Plate III illustrates a typical invasion of mealie lands by this
plant in the Zoutpansberg District. At the time when the photo-
graph was taken (10th September, 1917) practically all the seed
capsules were ripe and had shed their seed.

Plate y depicts some plants taken from this heavily-infected tract
of land and tied into bundles ready for fibre extraction. These
plants were gathered, bundled, and forwarded to the Botanical
Laboratories, Pretoria, by Mr. Closterschulte, of the Westfalia Estates,
Duivels Kloof. In spite of tlieir age an excellent sample of fibre has
been obtained from them.

In some of the areas mentioned above the plant thrives to such
an extraordinary extent that the writer has seen large patches, both
of virgin veld and " lands " so completely covered that it was almost

20

574

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

impossible to walk through it, so dense was the growth of these
plants. The plants thrive best on dry, sandy, well-ventilated soils.

In India about 20 lb. of seed are sown to the acre and it is put
in broadcast. The crop usually takes 5-6 months to mature. The
plants are either reaped with a mower or pulled out by the roots as
soon as the first seed-pods are ripe and while the upper portion of the
plant is still in flower.

Photo bif 1. B. Pole Ecaiix.

Plate IV. — A much-branched plant of Hibiscus cannahinns,
growing on the farm Water val, Duivels Kloof, and
undesirable for seed purposes.

After reaping, the plants are tied into bundles and then retted in
water for ten days or more. Running water, if obtainable, is prefer-
able for this operation. The bundles are first placed in an upriglit
position in water so that the thicker root ends may be thoroughly
soaked. After a couple of days the bundles are laid horizontally and
entirely immersed.

South African Fibre Plants.

575

As soon as the retting- has advanced sufficiently the fibre is
stripped off by hand and cleaned by dashing- it against the surface of
the water or a board erected for the purpose. After washing, it is
wrung out and hung up to dry for a day. It is then twisted into
hanks and pressed into bales of some 400 lb. weight.

The yield of fibre per acre in India is said to be from 1-2 tons ;
no statistics regarding tlie yield per acre in South Africa are yet
available.

Samples of fibre from this plant growing in the Transvaal have
been submitted by the Department of Agriculture to the Imperial
Institute in London for analysis and report, on several occasions.
As far back as June, 1909, a small sample of this fibre, weighing

''^/^^St

.-;'"^'^\>L-

^.

^^^^Wk

^fe^l

|«

- ■:.=S

Wk

^^ml^^t^>m^

'- M&:- ^ym

.; '

'"'^^^^^m-kM

■■'■'.■■ wt

^^:- - '^r'^-C ■ "-y^'yi^^Kk

H^?^^IH:'

-m^mm^^.

- ' _ *." '^-•^

- - ■ -;■- ■;.. - 1

Sf^^^k

^^ti^^m

tt ^

%

ipK-'.

Mbk!^

W^- 12^^|J^^^H

i-yi-:

"B

Rs'^i..--:-

m

^^^^^H

"^-■'y\Ai^':M

i-

«> 1^ ^H

"'"^^J^

k

Phoio by J. B. Pole Evavs."]

Plate V. — Bundles of Hihiseus rannabinux from Westfalia Estate, Duivels Kloof,

Transvaal.

10^ oz., and obtained from Duivels Kloof in the Transvaal, was
reported upon by the Imperial Institute as follows : —

" The sample consisted of two bundles of nearly white, clean
fibre, of fair lustre, with a slight greenish- tint. One bundle
consisted of much harsher and more strappy fibre than the other.
In both cases the fibre was gummy and insufficiently retted.
Strength, good; length of staple, 3 feet 6 inches. The fibre was
unsuitable for chemical examination.

" Commercial Value. — If properly prepared these fibres
would command a fair price, as they are of excellent colour and
have good strength. But m their present insufficiently retted,
strappy condition, they would be of little or no commercial value,
since they could not be employed for spinning purposes.

576

Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

" The well-prepared fibre of Hibiscus cannahinus is
exported from India under the name of ' Bimlipatam jute,' and
finds a market as a jute substitute at approximately the same
price as the medium qualities of jute. A specimen of this Indian
Hibiscus fibre is sent herewith, which is worth about £15 per ton
at the present time (September, 1909)."

A further sample of this fibre, weighing 2 lb. l^ oz., was obtained
from Mr. M. Macpherson, of Barberton, Transvaal, and submitted

Photo by I. B. Pole Evava.']

Plate VI.' Bundle of Hihl.tcnx eannahimix ready for retting and
two lots of fibre extracted from similar sized bundles.

to the Imperial Institute in July, 1909.
follows : —

The Institute reported as

" The fibre had a fair lustre and an irregular pale greyish-
brown colour. It had not been well prepared, but the whole of
the material was gummy and some parts were strappy and con-
tained a good deal of adherent barky matter; these defects were

South African Fibre Plants. 577

probably due to insufficient retting-. Streng-th, good. Length of
staple about 6 feet. The fibre was not submitted to chemical
examination.

" The tangled state of the sample would also depreciate its
value, as it could not be used for spinning purposes without the
expenditure of much labour. Well-prepared Hibiscus fibre could
be used as a substitute for jute, and would probably be worth
about the same as ' medium jute,' which is now selling at £15
per ton in the London market."

Recently the fibre was brought more prominently to the Depart-
ment's notice by Mr. W. R. Pedley, of Nylstroom, Transvaal.

Mr. Pedley, in a letter to the Government Botanist, dated the
19th June, 1916, in asking for advice on the subject, wrote as
follows : —

" The plant from which this fibre is taken grows exceedingly
well in the sandy soil of the Northern Districts, and, should it
prove of commercial value, would make a very payable crop, as it
can be grown in our poorest soil with a minimum rainfall.

" The chief difiiculty, I fear, is the length of time it must
remain in water to clear it of vegetable matter.

" The sample I am sending has been in water for over eight
weeks and still has a certain amount of vegetable matter adhering.

" The vegetable matter can be got rid of by boiling, but
that process discolours the fibre to some extent, in addition to
which it would hardly be practicable to treat large quantities in
that way.

"I shall be glad of your opinion at an early date with a
view to collecting and distributing seed, which must be sown early
in the spring, as it takes some five or six months to mature.

The identity of the fibre was soon established, and all the avail-
able information regarding the plant and preparation of the fibre
placed at Mr. Pedley' s disposal.

On the 26th of June, in a further letter on the subject, Mr. Pedley
communicated the following interesting notes : —

" This plant, or rather weed, has been a curse to me since I
have been farming here, and not alone to me but to every farmer
around ; in fact some have given up lands on account of it. It
grows stoutly to the detriment of everything else. It has taken
me three years to clear one of my lands of it sufficiently to raise
a crop of mealies, and even now I anticipate a good germina-
tion with the first rains.

" To give you some idea of the durability of the fibre I
enclose witli other specimens a small sample taken from the
upholstery of my cart, where it has been for the last six Uionths,
prior to which it was lying on a ' land ' for about eighteen
months, from whence I carted about two wagon loads to my cattle
kraal, where the cattle trampled it to its present state.

" I am also forwarding you another sample of the fibre which
was cut green, cured, and then placed in water. The other sample
I sent you was from plants cut green (before seedpods opened) and
put straight into water.

" I should like to know which you consider the better sample
and I will on receipt of your reply send yon about 4 lb. I have

5?8 Journal of the Department op AGRictfLTiTRfi.

a quantity of each in water, and will take the fibre from which-
ever yon may think the best. Personally, I see little or no
difference.

" The plant grows to an average height of 5 or 6 feet and,
where allowed to grow unmolested, grows so densely that it is
extremely difficult to get oxen to face it when ploughing.

" Also, owing to its spiny nature it is a difiicult plant to
handle, but that could be overcome by using a reaping and bind-
ing machine. After al)out two days in water the spines cease to
be troublesome."

In August Mr. Pedley forwarded two bundles of fibre, each
weig'hing about 4 lb. The fibre in one bundle was stated to have been
taken from plants which were cut green and cured, and then immersed
in water for about nine weeks. The fibre in the other bundle had
been extracted from plants which had ripened their seeds and had
dried out on the land. This had been immersed in water for some
27 days.

These two samples were forwarded through the Department of
Industries to London for analysis and report, but were unfortunately
lost in transit between the Trades Commissioner's Ofiice and the
Imperial Institute.

Fortunately, Mr. Pedley was able to furnish a further supply of
each sample, and this in due course reached the Imperial Institute.

The reports on both samples are as follows : —

Imperial Institute.

Report ]\'<>. 1. — Results of the Examination of Hibiscus cannabinus
fibre from South Africa.

Imperial Institute No. 1679/17/1; date 26th July, 1917.

Reference.— Leiiex No. T.C.85/16, dated 31st March, 1917, from
the Trades Commissioner.

Number or Mark and Weight of Sample. — " Fibre of Hibiscus
cannabinus, cut green and immersed in water for 9 weeks. No. 141."
Weight 3i lb.

Description. — This fibre was of very variable character and colour.
It was rather harsh, and a considerable portion of the sample was
stiff and gummy, and had bark adhering to it. The better cleaned
portions were dull and weak and evidently over-retted. On the whole
the material was not well prepared.

Strength. — Uneven, but fair on the whole.

Length of Staple. — From 2 feet 6 inches to 4 feet 6 inches,
mostly about 3 feet.

Results of Examination : —

Present "Bimlipatain Jute"
sample. (/Z. cannabinus).

Moisture, per cent 8.9 12.5

Ash, per cent 0.7 1.3

(a) Hydrolysis, loss, per cent. ... 13.1 il.8

(6) Hydrolysis, loss, per cent. ... 19.7 15.1

Acid purification, loss ... 3.0 —

Loss on washing in water 2.3 75.4

Cellulose 73.0 . 75.4

South African Fibre Plants. 579

Commercial Valuation. — The fibre was submitted to a firm of
fibre merchants who stated that it was of similar quality to
Bimlipatam jute and suitable for use by jute spinners. Its value in
the open market (i.e. if saleable without official control) would be
about £45 to £50 per ton at the present time (July, 1917). The pre-
war value would have been £15 to £18 per ton.

Imperial Institute.

Report No. 2. — Results of the Examiination of Hibiscus cannabinus
fibre from South Africa.

ImpeHal Institute m. 1679/17/2; dated 26th July, 1917.

Reference.— Leii^r No. T.C. 85/16, dated 31st March, 1917, from
Trades Commissioner.

Number or Mark and Weight of Sample. — " Fibre of
H. cannabinus, cut after the seeds have ripened, and immersed 27
days. No. 142." Weig-ht, 3| lb.

Description. — Harsh fibre, of dirty grey colour, but fairly
lustrous. The material was gummy in parts and some adherent bark
was present, but it had been more evenly and carefully retted than the
preceding" sample No. 141.

Strength. — The fibre was of fairly g-ood strength, and stronger
on the whole than sample No. 141.

Length of Staple. — From 3 feet to 5 feet; average, 4 feet.

Results of Examination : —

Present ''Bimlipatam Jute"
Sample. (//. ca7inaMmis).

Moisture, per cent 10.4 12.5

Ash, percent 1.2 1.3

(a) Hydrolysis, loss, per cent. ... 13.5 11.8

(b) Hydrolysis, loss, per cent. ... 16.3 15.1
Acid purification, loss, percent. ... 1.0 —

Cellulose, percent 72.0 75.4

Loss on washing in water ... 1.2

Commercial Valuation. — The fibre was submitted to a firm of
fibre merchants, who stated that if properly prepared it would be quite
suitable for spinning with jute. They stated that its present value
in the open market would be about £45 per ton, and that its pre-war
value would have been about £15 per ton.

Remarks. — This fibre is of better strength than sample No. 141,
although inferior to it in colour. Both samples are short in staple
and not of very good quality, but similar fibres would be readily
saleable. The merchants who valued the samples desired to be
informed when commercial supplies of tbe fibre become available.

While these samples were under investigation at the Imperial
Institute, the extraction of the fibre has received some attention at
the Botanical Laboratories, Pretoria, with such facilities as are at
present available, and it has been proved conclusively that there is
no difficulty in retting the fibre under South African conditions.

With the temperature of the water varying from 18° C.-26° C,
the length of time required for immersion has been 10-14 days. The
vield of fibre from the bundles shown in Plates V and VI has been

580 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

from lO.T-11.9 per cent., and fibre of excellent quality has been
obtained.

There is, however, much yet to be learnt reg-arding this plant
before it can be recommended to g-roM^ers in South Africa for cultiva-
tion.

The main points deserving of consideration and worth further
attention are: —

1. Is there a market in South Africa for this class of fibre?

2. Can the fibre be produced in sufficient quantity and as a

payable proposition tc supply a local demand or build up
an export trade ?

3. Of the many varieties of Hibiscus cannahinus at present in

South Africa, which are the most suitable for cultivation
as regards yield and quality of fibre?

The only possibility of establishing a permanent industry with
crops of this kind is through the medium of science and careful
org'anization. The scientific botanist is necessary for the study and
improvement of the plants in the field, while the technologist is
required for the investigation of the fibre in the laboratory.

No results of any value from a field study of this crop could be
expected for at least five years, and such an investigation to be pro-
perly carried out would require the whole time of one or more qualified
investig-ators.

Hibiscus cannabinus thrives naturally in many parts of South
Africa. The crop is an easy one to grow. It produces a heavy yield
of fibre of excellent quality. The plant certainly has possibilities,
but until these have been thoroughly investigated on scientific lines
it cannot be recommended for trial on a commercial scale. Much has
already been achieved from the botanial study of this plant in India,
and there is no reason to suppose that similar results could not be
obtained in South Africa if the proper organization and machinery
were set in motion.

Specimens of Hibiscus cannabinus L. and its fibre may be seen
on application at the Botanical Laboratories, Pretoria.

Rhodesian Cattle and Maize^

The success of the exhibits of cattle and maize from Rhodesia
at the last Fat Stock Show at Johannesburg is commented upon by
the Director of Agriculture for Southern Rhodesia in his Annual
Report for 1919, as being an event of far-reaching* consequence, demon-
strating the potentialities of both Matabeleland and Mashonaland.
The twenty cattle exhibited secured five first prizes, three seconds, and
one third, one award being- the championship for the best ox in the
show. This achievement, it is stated, created a deep impression on
the minds of many South African stockmen. Added to this success
was that of the maize exhibited on tlie same occasion, which, it is
considered, will benefit not only the farmers concerned, but their
districts and the country at larg-e. "Great fillip," says Dr. Nobbs,
" has thus been given to the production of maize of high quality,
which must react on the whole crop as better seed is sought out and
used and the average standard improved."

Notes. 581

NOTES.

Index for the " Journal."

This number of the Jouriud is the sixth of the revived publica-
tion, the first number of which was published last April. In the
ordinary course it is proposed, as in the past, to issue an index for
every six numbers of the Journal, such six monthly numbers to
comprise one volume. In the present instance, however, we propose
to close the first volume at the end of the year, so as to allow future
volumes to cover the calendar year, from January to June, and from
July to December. Consequently the first volume and index of the
revived Journal will comprise nine numbers, from Ajuil to December,
1920. Each subscriber will receive a copy of the index, and occasion
is again taken to impress on subscribers the necessity of carefully
keeping each number of the Journal, together with the index which
will be issued from time to time, for the purpose of reference.

Railway Transport— Hints to Consignors.

The Eailway Department urges the necessity of exercising ever}^
care in the baling, bundling, tying, marking, and numbering of bales
and bundles of wool, hair, skins, and hides, and states that a little
extra labour and supervision would result in better handling of goods
and be well rewarded.

Bales of wool should in every case be marked with consignee's
initials or marks, the destination station's code mark, and the bale
number. In the case of skins and hides, where this is not practicable,
metal or wooden labels should be affixed. Bales of hides should be
secured with strong rope and not pieces of wire or string.

Compliance with the following regulations will prevent much
unnecessary delay in the delivery and transport of goods: —

Consignment Xotes.

Every wagon load of goods tendered for transport must be
accompanied by a separate consignment note of its contents. When
a consignment is not Drought to a station in one load, or at one time,
the consignment note accompanying each wagon load must be marked
" More to follow, and part lot of " (here specifying- the total con-
signment), with the exception of that accompanying the last load,
which should be marked " Balance." Each consignment note must
be complete in itself, and bear or be supported by all necessary
certificates, such as " South African Produce."

Delivery to other than the Actual Consignee.

Goods will not be delivered to other than tlie actual consignee,
unless the applicant produces the advice note issued by the Adminis-
tration, with the consignee's endorsement thereon authorizing

582 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

delivery to the applicant, or unless, before the issue of an advice note,
written instructions aie received from the consignee authorzing
delivery to the applicant, or unless the applicant is a third party
through, or to the care of whom, the goods are consigned. Any such
authority will he retained by the Administration as an order by the
consignee to deliver to the applicant. Consignees may leave with
the Administration a general delivery older in the prescribed form
instead of a delivery order for each consignment.

Prospects of Cereal Crops and of Supply.

According to the June, 1920, Bulletin of Agricultural and Com-
mercial Statistics, just published by the International Institute of
Agriculture, Rome, the official estimate of the winter wheat crop of
the United States of 1920 is 13.7 million tons, and that of the spring
crop 7.5 millions, a total of 21.2 million tons, or 27 per cent, below
that of last year, though only 4.9 per cent, less than the average of
the five years 1914 to 1918. It should be remembered, however, that
the actual quantity exported from the United States during the
current season is below the available surplus, so that stocks at the
end of this period will be greater than those held last year.

Canada reports an area under wheat 17 per cent, above the
average from 1914 to 1918, also an excellent crop prospect, and it
is therefore permissible to estimate that the yield will be equal to
the average of the period mentioned, and much larger than it was
in 1919.

On the basis of these statements, it is reasonable to expect that
the North American exportable surplus of wheat for the season
1920-21 will be larger than the exports during 1919-20,

Government control of wheat ceased in the United States on
1st June.

Crop conditions for wheat are favourable in Germany, Bulgaria,
France, England, Wales, Ireland, Luxemburg, Sweden, Egypt; and
average in Scotland, Italy, Poland, Switzerland, and Czecho-Slovakia.
In Hungaiy injury lias occurred owing to great heat in May.

The estimates of the recent wheat crops in British India have
been increased to 10.2 millions, and the new season is reported as
developing normally.

The rye crops are favourably mentioned in France, Sweden, and
Switzerland, as in average condition in Germany, Italy, and Luxem-
burg, and as poor in Poland and Czecho-Slovakio.

Vines and olives promise well in Italy.

Referring to the crops of the Southern Hemisphere for 1919-20,
the Bulletin for May, 1920, states that the maize crop in Argentina
is estimated at 32 per cent, over the average for the five years 1913-14
to 1917-18. This large yield may be an important factor in the
cereal resources of the coming season.

Productive Wealth of the Union.

The three great sources of production in the Union are from agricul-
ture, mining, and factories. No official statistics have yet been pub-
lished on the valuation of our agricultural production, but the matter

Notes.

583

is under consideration at present, and it is hoped to have this informa-
tion at no distant date. While no definite figures, therefore, can now
be given, this much may be said that it is the opinion of those who have
devoted much thought to tlie subject, that our agricultural production
is of greater value than either our minerals or factory output. "We
have statistics to show that the value of our mineral products during
the past decade has fluctuated between the vast sums of forty-three
and fifty-three million pounds sterling per annum. But the value of
the third source of productive enterprise in the Union — that of our
manufacturing industries — was unknown until a few years back, when
the first industrial Census was carried out by the Director of Census.
This revealed a source of wealth not fully realized until then, as will
be seen by the statistics given hereunder for the three years 1915-16 to
1917-18,* In studying these figures special attention is directed to
the secoud statement, and the column showing the value added by
manufacture to the materials used, a sum rising from eighteen
million to twenty-six and a half million pounds sterling, this being
the true indication of the value of our manufacturing industries. It
must be borne in mind also that the materials used are not all of
South African origin, to what extent will be gauged by the fact that
of the value of all materials used in 1917-18, £34,248,000, slightly
over half only was the produce of South Africa. A gratifying feature
in this respect, however, is that the proportion of South African
materials used is steadily rising.

Manufactuhing Industbies in the Union.
/. — Gross Value of Ouffnit.

Class of Inclustiy.

1915-16.

1916-17.

1917-18.

£

&

£

I.

Raw Material

36.3,904

531,123

1,126,801

II.

Stone, Clav, etc.

822,135

1.066,242

1.385,405

III.

Wood

1.078.892

1,294,683

1,757,693

IV.

Metal, Engineering:, etc.

7.566.728

8,106,748

10,094,404

V.

Food, Drink, etc. ... ... ... i

1.5.814.270

19,412,014

22,941,652

VI.

Clothing, Textiles, etc

1.301,298

1.744,456

2,416,444

VII.

Books, Printing, etc '

1.376,420

1,991,291

2,366.267

VIII.

Vehicles, etc

768,465

1 ,025.564

1,289,177

IX.

Shipbuilding, etc.

58.874

46,129

85.445

X.

Furniture, etc

552,829

831,297

1,015,640

XI.

Chemicals, etc

4.289.989

.5,304.415

6.8.54.019

XII.

Surgical Instruments, etc

10,691

20,969

27.847

XIII.

Jewellery, etc. ...

54,157

76,601

8.S.811

XIV.

Heat. Light, and Power

2,855,393

3,181,003

3,454.366

XV.

Leather and Leatherware

1,239,888

1,652,829

2.281,425

XVI.

Building and Contracting

2,077.9.36

2.803,744

.3,348.253

XVII.

Otlier Industries

Total a'.

203.013

368,306

299,791

40,434,882

49,457,414

60,828,440

£

&

£

Average Value of Output per Employee

399

399

453

Average Value of Output per head of

Mean White Population

29

35

42

Quarterly Abstract of Union Statistics. No. 1. 1920,

584

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

II. — Suvvmary .

Year.

No. of
Estab-
lish-
ments.

Hands
Em-
ployed.

Salaries

and

Wages

Paid.

Value of

Plant,
Machinery,
Land, and
Buildings.

Value of

Materials

Used.

Value
added by
Manu-
facture.

Value of
Output.

1916-16
1916-17
1917-18

3,998
5,305
5,918

101,178
123,842
134,211

£

8,912,857

10,436,694

12,227,700

&
24,537,449
28,598,521
35,133,50.-)

22,315,587
28,023,948
34,248,331

£
18,119,296
21,433,466
26,580,109

£
40,434,882
49,457,414
60,828,440

Western Province Fruit Crop.

According to figures furnished by tiie Railway Administration it
is estimated that the annual grape crop of the Western Province is
not far short of 100,000 tons, produced in the following districts,
A'iz. : —

Paarl 25,0D0 tons.

Worcester 22,0D0 „

Stellenbosch 18,500 ,,

Robertson 10,000 ,,

Montagu 9,500 ,,

Malmesbury 6.000 ,,

Tulbagh and Ceres 4,500 ,,

Capetown and Wynberg 3,000 , ,

Caledon ' 1,500 ,,

Total 100,000 tons.

With the price of wine averaging £20 a leaguer, and about 90
per cent, of the total grape crop bought up by the distillers, it followed
that table grapes were worth more than 10s. per 50-lb. basket during
the 1919-20 season, as compared with 2s. 6d. before the war.

Upwards of 20,000 tons of fresh fruit were carried over the South
African Railways during the 1919-20 Western Province deciduous
season, a slight reduction on the figures of the preceding'^ tliree seasons,
due, chiefly, to a larger quantity of grapes than usual being pressed
on the farms on accoiint of the abnormal price of wine. Of this total,
about 9000 tons went to the jam and drying factories, 6000 tons to the
markets in the Transvaal, Free State, Natal, Rhodesia, South -West
Africa, and the Cape Eastern and Border Provinces, 3000 tons to Cape-
town and other local markets, and 2000 tons to the Docks for export.

The annual production of AVestern Province deciduous fruits is
not far short of 130,000 tons, of which upwards of 90,000 tons of grapes
are pressed into wine, and about 15,000 tons of stone fruits and grapes
are dried on the farms, the remaining 20,000 or 25,000 tons of stone
fruits and grapes being transported by rail to the jam factories, the
fresh fruit markets throughout Soufli Africa, and to Capetown Docks
for export overseas,

The Poultry Yard Month by Month. 585

THE POULTRY YARD MONTH BY MONTH.

By J. J. JoEDAAN, Lecturer and lustructor in Poultry, Glen, Orange Free State.

September.

Chicliens. — The chickens must be closely watched and kept comfortable and warm at
night ; take care that they do not sleep in cold or damp quarters or roup is sure to follow, as
night follows day. Weariness must not be allowed to overcome one in giving them their
regular and constant feeding. Continue separating cockerels and pullets and also culling.
In culling, go over those again that appeared "good enough" last month.

The number of brooders, no doubt, will want increasing with the growth of the chicks.
Two lots of 25 chicks will always do better than one lot of hO. Examine the small chicks
frequently on the head, throat, and fluff, under wings, and tail for insects ; these are most
troublesome from this month onwards. Aa the weeping willows are now in leaf, the leaves
from these trees may be given to the chicks as a green food ; they should be finely chopped
before being fed to the birds.

Showing. — Exhibition breeders should have the birds intended for exhibition rung at
once, if this has not already been done. The most likely looking birds should be separated
and. given special attention ; it is from now on that the winner is made and not during the
two weeks before the show.

As a rough outline : — Heavy breeds will want bone-forming feed ; Tif/ lit -feathered breeds
need hard grain and pea and bean meal in the mash, %vhich is best dry ; Loose-feathered and
Jlvffy birds want plenty of slightly moist mash, with a small quantity of sulphur, linseed
meal, and ground sunflower added.

Incubation. — This is the last of the good months for incubation, so if the number of
chicks hatched is not the number desired, set all eggs possible that pass the test.

General. — This is the month in which the greatest and most sudden changes take place
both in weather and in temperature ; seldom are three successive days the same. Therefore,
be on the alert and prepared for any such change suddenly taking place. Adult birds will be
inclined to lay on fat ; keep them down in condition with a fortnightly dose of epsom salts
just to taste, in their drinking water, and by digging the grain into the ground. Fresh
drinking water should be given at least twice a day and kept shaded.

From now on to March dip all fowls monthly for insects and spray all nests, houses,
and brooders. Insects must be fought ; a little of the following powder sprinkled in
the nest fortnightly will do a lot towards this : — 1 part naphthalene (flaked), 20 parts
sulphur.

Fruit Export, July, 1920: A Record Shipment.

There were four shipments of fruit during July, 1920, totalling
33.390 boxes oranges, 2565 boxes naartjes, 1231 !)Oxes grape fruit,
and 252 boxes pineapples. Included in these figures is the ship-
ment of fruit per the " Balmoral Castle " on the 9th of the month
amounting to 16,894 boxes, of which 15,477 were oranges; this is the
record shipment of fruit, either citrus or deciduous, that has
left South Africa, the previous largest consignment being about
11,000 boxes of citrus fruit by the same steamer last season.

586 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.

September, 1920.

By H. B. Terry, Cert. R.H.S., Lecturer in Horticulture, School of
Agriculture, Potchefstroom.

The risk of frost is now much less, and tender crops may be sown in all but
the coldest localities. It is always worth while planting a few early seedlings
or sowing seed and taking a risk, if by such means an early crop is to be
secured, for vegetables are less plentiful during the next two months than at
any other time of the year

Tomato. — Plants .sliould be transplanted where no danger from frosts
exist; a few brauchets of macrocarpa or gum trees not only protect the plants
from heat and cold, but also from hail.

Dwarf French Beans.— Canadian Wonder, Refugee, etc., should be sown
in drills 15 to 18 inches apart ; place the beans about 6 inches apart in the
rows. Some growers prefer to sow beans in hills 1 foot apart, placing four
to six beans in each hill. Do not cover deeper than 1 inch.

Table Mealies. — Make a good sowing in most localities; use Early Ever-
green, Golden Bantam, Bothnia Bread, Maizena. These varieties are not ■
harmed should the outer leaves be slightly touched by frost.

Melons. — Water-melons prefer a warm rathej sandy soil and plenty of
manure. Make holes six feet apart each way, dig in the manure, and in each
hole place four to six seeds; later on select the best three and pull the others
out. Musk or Sweet Melon (Spanspek) is grown in a similar manner to
water-melons. Pi-ovision should be made for irrigation during diought.

Onions. — Sow Prizetaker, Golden Globe, Danver's Yellow, James Long,
Ailsa Craig. It is less work to sow in beds and transplant later on. Weeds
must be kept down at all costs.

Carrots. — Early Dutch Horn, Model, James' Intermediate, and Altringham
are useful early sorts to sow now. Let the drills be 15 inches apart to facilitate
weeding and thinning.

Cucumbers. — Sowinf^s may be made this month in favoured districts.
Forkhook Famous, White Spine, Long Green are useful sorts. Make holes about
4 feet apart and place four to six seeds in each hole, water freely, and, later
on, retain only the three strongest plants.

Kohl Rabi is a good substitute for turnips in summer ; it stands dry
weather very well.

Lettuce. — Sow cabbage varieties such as Boston, Neapolitan, Iceberg, etc. ;
do not allow the plants to want for water, as they will run to seed. Young
seedlings may be transplanted.

Vegetable Marrow and Squashes may be sown in hills or holes 4 feet
apart each way in fairly rich soil ; the earliest sorts are Custard Squashes,
closely followed by Long" White, Long Green. It is always advisable to grow
the bush type; the yield is greater and less space is required.

Celery. — Sow seed in tins or boxes under shelter.

Capsicum or Chillies. — Sow large round for cooking and long chili for
pickling. Sow the seed in boxes and transplant later on.

Beetroot. — Early roots may be obtained by sowing Eclipse, Egyptian
Turnip Rooted; thin out when strong enough. The tops when young make
an excellent substitute for spinach.

Leeks. — Seeds may still be sown in beds for transplanting; the soil may
be prepared meanwhile; make it fairly rich to push growth on.

Rhubarb, Jerusalem Artichokes, Herbs of all sorts should be divided
and transplanted.

Potatoes may be planted when no danger of late f^'osts is feared.

Notes e^rom the " Gazette.''

587

NOTES FROM THE "GAZETTE."

Attention is drawn to the t'ollowing matters of interest which appeared
in the Union Government Gazette: —

(Abbreviations :
Gazette.

No. Date.
1073 9/7/20

1073
1075
1077
1079
1081

1075
1077

1077
1077

1077
1077

9/7/20
16/7/20
23/7/20
30/7/20

6/8/20

1073 9/7/20

1075 16/7/20

16/7/20

23/7/20

23/7/20
23/7/20

23/7/20
23/7/20

1078 28/7/20

Proc." — Proclamation; "G.N." — Government Notice.)

Items.

1077 23/7/20

1077 23/7/20 A

Under the Fencing Act (No. 17 of 1912), contributions towards
the cost of dividing fences are obligatory as from the 9th
July, 1920, in the Hex River Ward, Rustenburg District.
(Proc. No. 113.)

Compulsoiy dipping of cattle in the three-day dip for portions
of the Districts of Zoutpansberg, Pietersburg, and Pretoria ;
in the five-day dip for portions of the Districts of Estcourt,
Idutywa, Lions River, Weenen, Pinetown, Babanango,
Umvoti, Inanda, Dundee, Ngotshe; and in the seven-day dip
for portions of the District of Pretoria, has been ordered by
the Minister. (G.N. Nos. 1166, 1218, 1294, 1345, 1381.)

By-laws of the Prins River Irrigation Board, Division of Ladi-
smith, under the Irrigation and Conservation of Waters Act
(No. 8 of 1912), are published in G.N. No. 1150.

Under the Stock Diseases Act, the Minister of Agricultuz'e has
prohibited, on account of East Coast Fever, the removal of
cattle into the south-western and north-western paddocks of
the Richmond Commonage, unless such movement is by
permit. (G.N. No. 1217.)

In terms of Act No. 16 of 1913, the Minister of Agriculture
intends declaring certain areas in the district of Kentani as
demarcated forests. (See Schedule, G.N. No. 1222.)

Proclamation No. 76 of 1919, under the Fencing Act, 1912,
regarding fencing of locations, has been amended in respect
of the rate to be levied from each male inhabitant, and also
as regards the date by which the rate levied is to be
collected. (Proc. No. 126.)

A Minister's Order regarding the removal by rail of scab-
infected sheep, in contravention of the Stock Diseases Act
(No. 14 of 1911), is contained in G.N. No. 1229.

Brands applied for by Europeans and natives up to 21st July,
1920, under the Brands Registration Acts, Nos. 12 of 1890
and 4 of 1897 (Cape of Good Hope), are published in G.N.
No. 1289.

Brands, both European and native, allotted and registered in
terms of the Great Stock Brands Ordinance (No. 15 of 1904,
Transvaal), for the quarter ended 31st March, 1920, are
published in G.N. No. 1292.

list of brands registered in the Orange Free State in terms
of the Orange Free State Brands Regulation Ordinance of
1903 is published in G.N. No. 1293.

Regulations governing the introduction into the Union of dogs
from Great Bi'itain are published in G.N. No. 1295.

Crown lauds in the M&lmesbury Division will be offered for
lease by public auction at Vredenburg, at 11 a.m., Tuesday,
14th September, 1920. Further particulars are contained
in G.N. No. 1265.

The Act for the incorporation of the South African Stud Book
Association and affiliated Societies, and other matters
incidental thereto, having the assent of the Governor-General,
is published in G.N. No. 1297.

588 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

(Abbreviations: " Proc." — Proclamation; "G.N." — Government Notice.)

Gazette.

No. Date. Items.

1079 30/7/20 Under the regulations for the administration of the Transkeian
Territories General Council (Proc. No. 143, 1915), the
Governor-General has imposed levies on stock (and a poll
rate) in certain Transkeian districts. The amounts payable
and dates when they fall due are published in G.N. No. 1305.

1079 30/7/20 The Minister of Agriculture has declared the Frankenwald
Estates (portions of Bergvallei No. 1 and Klipfontein No.
88) to be in the Germiston District for purposes of paragraph
sixteen of the Diseases of Stock Act (No. 14 of 1911).
(G.N. No. 1308.)

1079 30/7/20 The Minister of Agriculture has approved of certain gentlemen
in the Pretoria District as officers of the Department of
Agriculture for the purpose of empowering them to administer
regulations under the Stock Diseases Act. (G.N. No. 1319.)

1079 30/7/20 Applications for Crown lands, to be disposed of on conditional
purchase lease, in the Waterberg District, will be received by
the Department of Lands, Pretoria, up to the 10th Sep-
tember. (G.N. No. 1307.)

1079 30/7/20 Crown lands in the Divisions of Paarl, Kenhardt, and Tarka,
and the districts of Willowvale and Umzimkulu, will be
offered for sale by public auction on various dates in October
and at certain places mentioned in G.N. Nos. 1347 and 1348.

1081 6/8/20 The redemarcation of the Xorana Plantation, Mqanduli district,
is notified in G.N. No. 1372.

1081 6/8/20 For purposes of the administration of the Revised Scab Regula-
tions (G.N. No. 1703, 1919), the Minister has ordered that
the native areas referred to therein shall be as defined in
the Schedule to Act No. 27 of 1913. (G.N. No. 1362.)

1081 6/8/20 Crown lands available in terms of Proc. No. 102 of 1911 are
notified as being for disposal in the Divisions of Weenen,
Impendhle, and Estcourt. Applications will be received by
the Secretary for Lands, Pietermaritzburg, up to the 6th
September, 1920. (G.N. No. 1361.)

1081 6/8/20 Up to the 17th September applications will be received by the
Department of Lands, Pretoria, for Crown lands in the
Kenhardt Division that are to be disposed of on conditional
purchase lease. (G.N, No. 1398.)

1081 6/8/20 Crown lands in the Heilbron District will be disposed of under
similar conditions as referred to above. (G.N. No. 1399.)

Cotton Gins.

The two cottou gius situated at Durban and at Eustenburg aro
being reopened for the purpose of ginning small parcels of specially
selected seed cotton for farmers. The gin at Rustenburg is now open,
and any farmer wishing to take advantage of this otter may send
parcels to the Manager of the Experiment Station, llustenburg. The
Durban gin will be opened for similar work next season. Faruiers
sending parcels of cotton must prepay freight and give instructions
as to where the seed and lint are to be forwarded after being ginned.
A charge will be made to cover the cost of ginning and of returning
the products to the farmer. It must be clearly understood that the
Government will in no case do commercial ginning.

South African Produce on the Oversea Market. 589

SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE ON THE
OVERSEA MARKET.

Extracts from Report of the Acting Trade
Commissioner.

June, 1920.

Wool. — Auction sales were held on the 3rd, 8th, and 10th of June, but
only a small quantity of South African wool changed hands out of the 4400
bales offered. The bulk of the offerings did not obtain satisfactory bids and
were consequently withdrawn. A few parcels of greasy wools were purchased
by the manufacturers, but ordinary topmaking wools were passed over by
the Continental buyers as well as Home trade. It is very difficult indeed to
give a basis for prices, but the trade state that greasy combings at the above
auctions were from 25 to 30 per cent, below those ruling at the April-May
auctions. Snow Whites have not been so seriously affected, but superior
qualities have declined 10 per cent., medium sorts 20 to 25 per cent., and
inferior descriptions 10 to 15 per cent.

Mohair. — The market for this article is very quiet, and no transactions of
any importance have been recorded. The nominal prices given in my previous
report more or less apply to-day.

nicies and Skins. — The hide market is lifeless and buyers show no inclina-
tion to purchase. The few transactions that have taken place show a general
decline. According to the reports received from the trade here there is hardly
any prospect of an improvement for the next three months.

Sheep and goat skins are in a similar position to hides, and all descriptions
are neglected.

Wattle Bark. — The market continues dull, and with the large stocks at
present on hand an improvement cannot be expected for some time. The
position at the moment is that tanners are overstocked with raw materials
and have large supplies of leather on hand, with the result that short time
is being worked in the tanneries. The Continental demand has declined and
prices have fallen. Shipments from the Union have fallen off, but this may
help the situation later on, and it is hoped that the market will improve within
the next two months. At the moment £17. 10s. per ton for ground and
£15. 10s. for chopped, on the spot, is being asked, but these quotations are
nominal.

Ostrich Feathers. — During the past month the market for ostrich feathers
has shown no appreciable improvement in prices, but the demand for the
Home trade has to some extent improved. Continental buyers are, however,
still holding off, hoping for a further improvement in the exchanges. Wing
feathers of medium quality and short coloured feathers in hard and floss have
been principally in request.

South African Maize. — Here, again, the market is stagnant, and only 70s.
to 72s. 6d. per quarter c.i.f. is being offered for South African White Flat
No. 2. Argentine maize is quoted at 59s. to 61s. per quarter c.i.f.

Export of Grain, etc.

In last month's issue we publislied a statement (page 505) show-
ing the quantity of grain, etc., exported from the Union during the
seasonal year 1st July, 1919, to 30th June, 1920. For July, 1920,
the first month in the new seasonal year, returns show that 2763
bags maize, 420 bags maize meal, and 138 bags beans were exported,
while the stock on hand at the end of the month consisted of : maize,
2367 bags; maize meal, 29 bags; and lucerne seed, 35 bags.

590

JOI^RNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.

OVERSEA PRICES OF SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE.

July, 1920.

Market Peices of South African Produce in the United Kingdom,

CABLED BY THE TrADE COMMISSIONER, LONDON.

South Afrk-an Wool.

" 7000 bales South African wool offered July auction, but bidding poor. Large
proportion withdrawn. Few snowwhites. Greasies sold at 10 to 15 per cent,
below last sale prices."
Combing Wool.

Is. 5d. short, Is. shorn, lOd. nominal.
Mohair.

Unchanged.
Cape Hides.

Diy salted, best heavy. Is. 7.',d. Wet salted, Is. 2d.
Cape Mertno Shesp Skim.

Market is stagnant. Nominal prices.
C-iipe Ooai Skins.

Almost unsaleable.
Natal Wattle Hark.

Market dull. Chopped offered at £15 e.v Store.
South African Beef.

Hinds, .5s. 8d. to 6s. 8d. per 8 lb. ; Fores, 3s. 4d. to 4s. 4d. per 8 lb.
Ostrich leathers.

Market dull with fair business at aboirt previous rate for medium quality wing and
coloured feathers.
South African Cotton,

July futures closed 29th July, 2s.; highest, 25-04 ; lowest 2s.
La Plata Maize.

Parcels ex Store, 66s. per quarter ; August-September shipments, 60s, 6d. per
quarter ; September-October shipments, 60s. per quarter, c.i.f.

(Note. — A Renter message from London, dated 13th August, appearing in the Press,
advises the following quotations for maize : — August-September shijiment : White Flat,
808., nominal ; La Plata, 6.^s. paid. — AcTTNU Editor.)

Plant Nurseries in Quarantine.

No new quarantint^ on nur.series have been imposed since 1st
June last. The list of quarantines in force on 1st August, 1920, is
as follows : —

Name of Nurseryman.

Address.

Cause of
Quarantine.

Extent of Quarantine.

D. A. English & Co. ...

Piet«rmaritzburg

Red scale

Portion of citrus.

F. Grace

Berlin, C.P.

» 1) !?

P. C. S. Gaylard

„

„ „ „

Municipal Nursery ...

St. George's Park,

Circular purple

Palms.

Port Elizabeth

scale

J. Hobson & Co.

Kingwilliamstown

Red scale

Portion of citrus.

W. T. Atwood

Observatory, Cape-
town

„

Whole nursery.

C. F. Marais

Wellington

» »

All citrus.

E. Krohn

Mare Street, Pre-

Pernicious scale and

Whole nursery.

toria

other pests

Notes from the Divisions : Viticulture. 591

NOTES FROM THE DIVISIONS.

VITICULTURE.

Owing to the dry summer mouths of October, November, and December last, with two
inches less rainfall than in 1918, the general opinion was that the 1920 grape crop would be
far below normal — in certain areas as much as 50 per cent. less. It was remarkable, however,
that although considered an exceptionally dry season, the climate was very mild. To this
must be attributed the fact that, when the vintage started, farmers were jileasantly surprised
in obtaining far bigger crops than anticipated. Further, the 1920 vintage will probably
exceed the i919 crop by about 10,000 leaguers (127 gallons per leaguer). This increase may
be put down to new vines coming into bearing and also the fact that the price of wine was
so high that less raisins were made. Whereas the highest prices in 1919 were £20, and the
average f 10, they rose in 1920 to £30, with an average of £20. These prices naturally gave
an impetus to the laying out of new vineyards. The result is that grafted vines are being
sold at very high prices ; formerly a 1000 grafted vines cost from £5 to £12, to-day they are
sold at £12. 10s. to £25. According to one of the largest vine nurserymen, 75 per cent, of
the vines sold is Hermitage. This is not a good sign, as it shows that quantity is the chief
object. High prices enabled farmers better to manure their vines, and this was reflected
not only in increased crops, but complaints ;of deteriorating vineyards have considerably
decreased. On the other hand they have had a bad effect on the quality of wine, as anything
resembling wine demanded a ready sale. The practice of buying wines long before vintage,
regardless of quality, cannot be too strongly condemned. It leads to carelessness on the part
of the farmer, and consequently very inferior quality wines arc made.

The " Ko-operatieve Wijnbouwers Vereniging van Zuid-Afriiia, Bkt." has appointed an
expert to assist all farmers who are anxious to improve the quality of their wines, but as
this gentleman can only supervise a small quantity, and most of the crop was sold before t.he
vintage, the bulk of the 1920 crop is known to be of poor quality. That the production of
quantity, which is chiefly turned into spirits, is not desirable is recognized by the farmers.
With a view, therefore, of encouraging the export trade, which is Ijound to lead to quality
wines being in demand, a proposal has been made that merchants wishing to export wine,
and on account of high local prices finding the profit too small, shall be assisted by their
Societj\ who will contribute 6d. per gallon on condition that such wine must be bought direct
from the farmer as suitalile for export and should not be manipulated wines. This suggestion
has passed the preliminary stages, and it is hoped will be confirmed at tlie next meeting of
the Society.

During the last six months many wine farms have changed hands, and some at fancy
prices : quite a number of the buyers are men from oversea, who are keen on growing grapes
for export. We arc now daily dealing with queries as to best grape varieties for export, etc.

From figures that I have seen, it appears that a ton of grapes exported netted £100
aftei' deducting all expenses. (A ton of grapes is usually taken to rei)resent 1 leaguer of
wine.)

The wine market has dropped lately and prices are now between £12-£16.

The farmers are busy pruning and manuring their vineyards. Grafting operations have
also commenced. (S. W. van Niekerk, Government Viticulturist, July, 1920.)

CORRIGENDA.

July, 1920, issue of the Journal (Vol. I, No. 4).

Page 378, C om pa ratire Valuation of Lime Manures. In the second paragraph the
items 3s. Id. and 3s. 6d. should read : 3 -Id. and 3'6d. respectively.

Page 382, Fencing. — The word "in"' in second line and the word "on" in third
line to read "or" in each instance.

August, 1920, English issue, page 498. Owing to an inadvertent error in setting type, the
title of the publication South African Poultry Magazine (Bloemfontein), having
articles on the Ancona, etc, was erroneously substituted by that of another publication.

592 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

STAFF: APPOINTMENTS, TRANSFERS, ETC.

(1) Agrioulttjkb.

Date. Name of Official and Nature of Change, etc.

1/7/20 C. It. V. d. Merwe: Appointed as Assistant Chemist, Pretoria.
3/8/20 E. F. English: Assistant Chemist, resigned to take up Government

Bursary in America.
3/5/20 W. Cronwri(jht : Appointed Principal Sheep Inspector, vice Major

W. L. Currie, retired on pension.
3/5/20 M. Truter: Appointed Senior Sheep Inspector, Calvinia District, Cape

Province, vice W. Cronwright, promoted.
1/8/20 •/. G. Brandsen : Appointed District Veterinary Surgeon for the

Transkei.

(2) Agricultural Education.
24/7/20 A: B. Oliver: Appointed Itinerant Poultry Instructor, School of
Agriculture, Glen.
1/8/20 C. C. Bhodes: Appointed Itinerant Poultry Instructor, School of

Agriculture, Potchefstroom.
1/7/20 D. McLoughlin: Appointed Assistant Chemist, School of Agriculture,
Grootfontein.
21 11 l'2Q Miss M. E. Cairncross: Appointed Matron at School of Agriculture,

Cedara.
31/7/20 A. St. C. Caporn: Plant Breeder, School of Agriculture, Potchefstroom,
resigned.

MOVEMENTS OF OFFICERS.

Entomological Division.

Mr. C. P. Lounshury , Chief, Division of Entomology, resumed duty on the
12th August, on his return from the Imperial Conference of Entomologists in
London.

Veterinary Education and Research.

Sir A. Theiler, K.C.M.G., Director of Veterinary Education and Research,
has been granted six months' vacation and proceeds to Europe in September.
He intends to visit research institutes in Europe and probably also in America.
During his absence Dr. P. J. du Toit will act in his stead.

Tobacco and Cotton Division.

The Chief of the Tobacco and Cotton Division, Mr. W. B. Scherffi us, and
the Manager cf the Experimental Station, Rustenburg, Mr. J. du P. Oosthuizen,
propose making a tour of the Rustenburg District, lecturing at the centres and
on the dates as shown hereunder. All interested in tobacco and cotton culture
are invited to attend the lectures : —

Rustenburg Experiment Station, 13th September, 2 p.m. ; Rooiwal,
Mr. Camphor, 14th September, 10 a.m.; Kanieeldrift, Mr. Hahn, 14th
September, 3 p.m. ; Zoutpansdrift, Mr. Jan du Plessis, 15th September,
10 a.m. ; Middelfontein, Mr. Hendrik Botha, 16th September, 10 a.m. ;
Steinbokfontein No. 520, Mr. Mackay, 16th September, 3 p.m. ; Groot
Marico, Markson's Hotel, 17th September, 10 a.m.; Lindleyspoort, Mr.
Andries Macdonald, 17th September, 3 p.m.; Boschhoek, Mr. Gert Kirsten,
20th September, 10 a.m. ; Pilansberg (Buffelspan), Mr. Smit, 20th Septem-
ber, 2 p.m.; Mackayskraal, Mr. H. T. Russell, 21st September, 10 a.m.;
Rietfontein No. 826, Mr. Stander, 21st September, 3 p.m.; KHpgat, Mr.
Jacobus V. d. Venter, 22nd September, 10 a.m.; Drievierboom, Mr.
Crowthers, 23rd September, 2 p.m. ; Beaufort, Mr. S. Visser, 24th Sep-
tember, 10 a.m. ; Uitlanderskraal, Mr. J. L. Coetzee, 24th September,
3 p.m.

Dry-Farming Division.

Mr. PL. S. du Toit, Government Agronomist, intends visiting Ladybrand
and Kopjes in the beginning of September with a view to lecturing to farmers.

Recent Agricultural Literature. 593

RECENT AGRICULTURAL LITERATURE.

By Paul Ribbink, Librarian, Department of Agriciiltuie.

1.— UNION GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS.

A. — Department of Agriculture.

(Bulletins obtamable from the Department of Agrlcvlture, Pretoria.)

Number of
Price per copy. Publication.

Id. Preliminary Studies on some Fungi and Bacteria Science Bul-
respousible for the Deterioration of South African letin No. 12.
Sugars, by P. A. van der Bijl, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

B. — Miscellaneous Reports, etc., of Interest to Farmers.
{Obtainable from the Government Printer, Pretoria.)

Is. Od. Native Affairs: Second Report of the Select Committee S.C. 10a — '20.

Is. Od. Union Stati-stics, Quarterly, Abstract No. 3, July, 1920, S.P. 17.

issued by the Office of Census and Statistics of the

Union of South Africa.

2s. 6d. East Coast Fever in the Union: Select Committee's S.C. 3— '20.

Report.

5s .6d. Public Accounts, First and Second Reports of the Select S.C. 1 — '20.

Committee, July, 1920.

II.— THE AGRICULTURAL PRESS OF SOUTHERN AND TROPTCAL

AFRICA.

Selected Articles.

Die Bi)cr (Bijvoeg.sel tot Ve Volkstem), Pretoria.

25/6/20 Turkse Ta1)akbau. Kikoejoegras. Lusern.

9/7/20 Stamboek Vce-Wetson twerp.
16/7/20 Ko-operatie.
23/7/20 Ko-operatieve Kongres (Vervolg van Uitgawe van 25 Junie 1920).

Die Boerevrouw (Posbus 984, Pretoria).

7/20 lets oor Bije en Heuning. Vergroting van die Derde Mangel.
Bloem- en Groentetuin in Augustus. Lemoenvrugtekonfijt.
Onse Lomoenvrugte.

Fa/'Hirr.s' Advocate, South Africnn (P.O. Box 247, Bloemfontein).

7/20 The AYheat Stringency. Our Agricultural Schools: Are they on
right lines?. Reclaiming the Kalahari. Farm Devices : Simple
and Useful.

The Farmers' Journal (Nairobi, B.E.A.).

17/6/20 The Veterinary Department of B. E. A. Flax Caterpillars, by

F. W. Dry.'
24/6/20 Oil Resources. African Attractions, by Mysterex. Maturing
Young Bulls. Calving Diseases. The Motor Spirit Extremity :
East Africa's Opportunity.
1/7/20 Flax (concluded from issue of 17/6/20). Citrus Nursery (con-
cluded).
8/7/20 The Agricultural Census (B. E. A.). Flax Caterpillars. Notes

on Roping, by F. W. Dry. Veterinary Report of May, 1920.
15/7/20 The Farmers Taxes.' Incubators. Flax Growing, by Geo. M.
Hamilton.

594 Journal of the Department of Agrioulture.

The Farmers^ WeeJcly (Bloemfontein).

7/7/20 Maize Production Costs. Birds and Forests, by F. W. Fitzsimons.
Farming in Sonth America. Meat Freezing and Packing, by
E. A. Nobbs, Ph.D., B.Sc.

14/7/20 Bilharzia and Fluke. Farmers' Party Ideals. The Durban Show.
The White Ant Trouble, by J. Cole Rous. Gall-sickness
(Anaplasmosis), by A. F. Harber, M.R.C.V.S. The Ayrshire.
S. A. Stud Book Association Annual Meeting.

21/7/20 A Bacon Factory, by C. Handley. Birds and Health, by F. W.
Fitzsimons. Lamsiekte : Lecture by Sir Arnold Theiler at
Vrvburg. Agriculture in Rhodesia : The Director's Report for
19i9 (continued from the issue of 7/7/20). East Coast Fever
Problems : Some Rhodesian Recommendations.

28/7/20 Maize and Price Fixing. Educating our Boys, by C. W. Smith.
Milk Fever in Cows, by A. Hodder. National Botanic Gardens.
Red Polls. Windmills, by H. H. Murray. Transvaal Agricul-
tural Union, 18th Annual Conference, Barberton, 21/7/20.
Farming in South America: IV, by E. A. Nobbs, Ph.D., B.Sc.

The Independent (Salisbury, Rhodesia).

2/7/20 A Vital Report (East Coast Fever Committee). Grain Elevators.
9/7/20 Grain Elevators (contimied).
16/7/20 Planting for Profit: Advice to Sellers.
23/7/20 Bombing Beetles, Insect Mustard Gas. Cattle for the Congo.

Vie Lrindhnnirer (Posbus 1035, Pretoria).

30/7/20 Ondergrond Losmaak met Dinamiet. Vermeerdering van 0ns
Mielie Produksie. Kalvervrekte (verA'olg van uitgave van
29/2/20). Kaasmaak in die Algemeen en in Besonder op die
Plaas, deur J. Kruyswijk.

Z)/> iMndbonw WeckhJad (Posbus 267, Bloemfontein).

7/7/20 Veeversorging in Holland en Amerikn. Sement en Konkreet,

deur Meerkat (vervola).
14/7/20 Landboutoestaude in Rhodesia, deur G. Jordaan_ {vervolq).

Sement tMi Konkreet (vervolg). Landbouonderwijs in die

Skool, deur Dr. I. de V. Malherbe (vi'rvnlg). Aanlegging van

Boomgaarde, deur H. B. Terry. Melkboerderij, deur G. J.

Bosnian .
21/7/20 Beurse vir Landbouwstudie Oorsee. Dorre Suid-Afrika, deur J. D.

Schonken (vervolg). Die Bou van Damme, deur W. S. H.

Cleghorne.
28/7/20 Die Geskiedenis van Landbouw, deur P. L. Kriek. Skaapboerderij

in Australie (vervolg). 'n Wolfabriek.

The Rhodesia Agricultural Journal (Department of Agriculture, Salisbury).

6/20 Cream and its Production, by T. Hamilton. Measurement of
Land, by F. Eyles. Forestry in Rhodesia, by J. S. Henkel.
Cultivation of Rice in Southern Rhodesia, by H. G. Mundy.
Regulations governing Sale of Fertilizers and Farm Foods, by
E. V. Flack. Hints on Dips and Dip-Testing, by A. W.
Facer. A Mazoe Irrigation Scheme, by A. C. Jennings.
Rainfall Season 1919-1920, by C. L. Robertson.

South African Dairyman (P.O. Box 925, Durban).

7/20 Modern Dairy Farming, by I'^armer George (continued). OfiBcial
Notes on Friesland Cattle. The Milk Producers' Union : Meet-
ing of Central Governing Board. Milk and its Care, by
P. L. de Klerk.

South African Farm Ncu's (P.O. Box 963, Johannesburg).

7/20 Farmers' Party. Old British Breeds, "Sussex Cattle," by
Farmer George. Bacteria in relation to Cheese-making.

South African Fruit Grower and Small Holder (P.O. Box 8958, Johannesburg).
7/20 Minimum Quantity of Moisture Necessary for Crops, by H. S.
du Toit. Mistakes in Lemon Cultivation : Some Observations
in British East Africa, by A. E. Bester. Tree Planting in
Community, by H. E. King. Agriculture Elsewhere: the
ex-German Colonies, by F. H. Cooper.

RECENtl^AGRICtLTURAL LITERATURE. 59o

iSoutli African Gardening and Country Life (P.O. Box 3958, Johannesburg).

7/20 New Varieties oi tiie Queen of Summer (Roses). Some Useful
Hints on Rose Pruning. The National Botanic Gardens. In
a Free State Garden. South African Birds of Economic Value,
by R. G. & E. Warren.

South African Journal of Industries (Government Printer, Pretoria).

7/20 Power appHed to Agriculture: II. — Water Power, by W. S. H.
Cleghorne. Glucose and Starch from Maize, by T. D. Hall.
South African Federated Chamber of Industries : Annual
Convention of Manufacturers. Fertilizer Pi'oduction and
Natural Fertilizers in the Union: II., by Chas. F. Juritz.
Iron and Steel in the Union of South Africa : II. — The
Technical Aspect, by Prof. G, H. Stanley. The Geological
Survey: Annual Report of the Director. Transport Metnods
in South Africa: V., by Sir Wm. Hoy, Kt., C.B.

South African Poultry Magazine (Bloemfontein).

7/20 The Term Utility. Exhibition Poultry, by S. J. Hocking.
Farmers and Poultry Clubs. Poultry Keeping on Practical and
Paying Lines, by W. C. Archibald. Wyandottes, by H.
Moore.

South African Poultry lieview and Small Holder (Johannesburg).

7/20 On Conferences. South African Poultry Association: Monthly

Meeting of Executive Board. 12th June. The Championship

(12th Annual Show, Pretoria).
8/20 Long-Faced Tumblers, by W. B. Choles. Why Farmers should

become Members of Poultry Clubs.

South African Sugar Journal (P.O. Box 925, Durban).

7/20 The Ethics of Sugar Control, by A. Mortifee. Notes on the
Cotton Industry, by W. B. Wilson. The Arrowing of Sugar-
cane. Bagasse as a Paper-making Material. The Normal
Weight of Sugar.

The Sun and Agricultural Journal of South Africa (P.O. Box 634, Johannesburg).
7/20 Practical Talks with Farmers, by S. R. Forbes. The South African
Maize Breeders', Growers', and Judges' Association. Cattle:
The Kerry and the Dext3r.

Sunday Times (Farmers' Supplement), Johannesburg.

4/7/20 Tobacco Planting: II, by W. E. Leigh. Growing Cabbages for

Market, by H. B. Terry. Afrikander Cattle, by Prof. A. M.

Bosman. Animal Nutrition, by J. S. Jamieson.
11/7/20 Milk, by E. P. Berlyn. Rotation of Crops, by P. J. Naude.
18/7/20 Tobacco Growing, Seed Selection, by W. E. Leigh. Foods and

Feeding, by E. P. Berlyn. Feeding Farm Animals, by P. J.

Naude. Transit of Live Stock, by " Spoorweg " {continued).
25/7/20 What we want from the Farmer: III. — Marketable Vegetables.

Feeding of Farm Animals, by P. J. Naude. V'eterinary

Medicines, by J. S. Jamieson. Transport of Dead Meat, by

" Spoorweg."
1/8/20 Caprification of Smyrna Figs, by I. Tribolet. Castration of

Domestic Animals: I, by A. Hodder. Transport of Dead

Meat, by " Spoorweg."

III.— AGRICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS IN OTHER PARTS.

(1) "Ret Eerste Jaarboek van de Veeartsenijkundige Hoogeschool te
Utrecht (Holland), 1918-19" is of particular interest at present in view of
the recently created College of Veterinary Education at Ohderstepoort, Pretoria.
The year-book gives the speech of the " Rector-Magnificus," J. Wester, on the
occasion of the presentation of the rectorate, appropriately entitled Animalium
hominum que Saluti (To the welfare of animals and man). The inaugural speech
of Dr. H. Schornagel on the "Meat Hygiene" from an historical view-point,
and various biographical notes of new professors of necrology, lists of students,
successes at examinations and degrees conferred, together with title of thesis,
etc., bursaries and grants in aid of study, etc., are also included.

590 JOUBNAL OP THE DEPARTMENT OP | AGRICULTURE.

(2) The following is a further part of Professor J. A. Thomson's paper
entitled "The Biologist on the Farm," as appearing in the Scottish Journal of
Agriculture of January, 1920, and of which an abstract appeared in the previous
issue of this Journal:- —

"Free-Martins."- — A great deal has been said and written about "free-
martins," but, so far as we can see, there is no longer any room for doubt as
to what a "free-martin" is. When a cow has two calves of different sexes,
one may be a normal male and the other a " free-martin " — a sterile and
abnormal female. We have studied several. Externally and in its udder the
"free-martin" is distinctly a female, but the internal organs of reproduction
are more or less of the male type. We know that several good authorities have
maintained that the "free-martin" is a disguised male, but we have been
convinced by Prof. Frank R. Lillie's arguments that it is rather of the nature
of a female. What, then, is the explanation of the predominantly male character
of the internal reproductive organs.? Prof. Lillie's ingenious theory is that there
is a secondary fusion of the foetal membranes of the twin calves, and that the
development of the female twin is badly disturbed by sex-hormones or chemical
messengers which are carried in the blood that has been circulating in the
male twin. The " free-martin " and its male co-twin are, of course, the products
of two distinct ova.

" Bunts." — This is an ugly word for an ugly thing. It is technically applied
by breeders to undersized and abnormallly light new-born mammals, which are
produced when the mother is not in good condition during the time of gestation,
or sometimes when an unusually large number of young ones are born at once.
True " runts," which have been recently studied by Miss Helen Dean King in
the case of rats, are to be distinguished from small-sized offspring which are
born a little too soon or in unpropitious conditions. For in these cases it is
found that there is nothing radically wrong, and that careful nurture can be
made to counteract the birth-handicap. With true " runts," however, the
case is different. They are born with a growth-capacity so impaired that they
seldom grow beyond a certain stage. They may be said to be born old. If they
manage to grow up they tend to have an abnormally small nervous system,
and they are lacking in reproductive vigour. Fortunately, therefore, they are
in most cases unable to multiply after their kind. No one would be so foolish
as to try to breed from " runts." They are better dead.

Sale of Cattle in Southern Rhodesia.

In the course of his Annual Report for 1919, the Director of
Agriculture for Southern Rhodesia states: "An interesting- innova-
tion in the usual methods of selling cattle in this country was
initiated in April by the Farmers' Association of Plumtree, and has
since proved a most complete success. The association constructed
its own stock-yards, dipping-tank, and watering-troughs, appointed
an auctioneer, and arranged a series of sales. The cattle are marked,
cared for, and taken in charge for delivery by the society, and the
fees compare favourably with those of other sales, yet the prime costs
have been recovered, and future profits will be used for local public
purposes. Other very important advantages are that the local cattle
owner, including natives, soon acquire a true idea of the value of
their cattle, removing illusions, and helping them to do sound
business, whilst if dissatisfied with prices they can take the cattle
back to their farms without serious loss. A similar scheme has also
been adopted by the Sinoia Farmers' Association, and the plan is
worth widesjjread imitation."

Schools of Agriculture and Experiment Stations. 597

AT THE SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND
EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

July, 1920.

CEDARA, NATAL.

Cliivatic. — The rainfall from 26th June to 28th July was .009 inches. The
mean maximum temperature was 65.94° F., and the mean minimum temperature
41° F. The highest maximum temperature, 77.5° F., was experienced on 16th
July, and the lowest minimum, 35.3° F., on 7th July. During the month frost
was registered on nine days. The days were fine and bright, and the nights
cold.

Crops. — The maize has yielded satisfactorily. The Brassica crops are looking
well, but the grasses have been badly affected by severe frosts.

Field Experiments. — In the experimental plots of grasses, cocksfoot has
proved more frost resistant than tall fescue or Kikuyu. It still maintains its
green colour, whereas the others have turned yellow. The maize experiments
have now been harvested, and satisfactory data obtained. This crop has
responded vigorously to the application of phosphatic manures. Some new
varieties of potatoes are being tried and are showing iip well, and should produce
seed suitable for summer planting.

Stoch. — Ten calves were born during the month: Ancona, the champion
South African bred heifer (Johannesburg and Royal Shows) gave birth to a
fine biill calf. The other calves were four Shorthorns (three bulls, one heifer)
and five Frieslands (three bulls, two heifers). Three cases of gall-sickness were
treated by the Harber method with satisfactory results. All the stock is in
excellent condition. The following prizes were gained at the Pietermaritzburg
and Durban Agricultural Shows: —

Royal Show, Pietermaritzburg. — Champion, Aberdeen-Angus bull; special,
Aberdeen-Angus bull, South African bred; Drysdale Cup for family
group; also 1 first, 4 seconds, 2 thirds, and 3 highly commended.

Durban Show. — Champion, Aberdeen-Angus bull; reserve champion,
Aberdeen-Angus cow; also 6 firsts, 2 seconds, and 1 commended..

Students. — There aie now 57 students in residence at Cedara and 6 at
Winkle Spruit.

ELSENBURG, MULDERS VLEI, CAPE.

Climatic. — Soaking rains to the extent of 3.335 inches fell during the month,
the normal average being 4.04 inches. The maximum temperature recorded was
74.8° F. on the 12th instant, and the minimum 39.5° F. on the 7th instant.

Field Operations and Crops. — The seeding of all winter cereal crops was
completed during the first week of the month, rye l>eing the last crop sown.
The crojis on the low-lying lands are rather backward, due to the excessive
wetness of tlie soil, but those on the higher lands are looking very well. The

598 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

total areas of farm land sown to various crops between April and 10th July

are as follows : —

Elsenburg. Mariendahl.

Wheat (variety plots) 33 acres. —

Algerian oats 170 ,, 164 acres.

Burt oats 4 ,, 20 ,,

Texas oats 30 ,, —

Oats (variety plots) 11 ,, —

Barley ... .'. 2i ,, —

Rye 10 ,. 20 ,,

Oats and vetches (for ensilage) 40 ., 34 ,,

Grazing crops (rye, barley, oats, and rape) 114 ,, 46 ,,

Kale and rape (in rows) 12 ,, —

Total 426^ ,, 284 acres.

In addition there are 20 acres of established lucerne at Elsenburg, and
approximately 100 acres of land sown mainly to cereal crops in the experimental
division.

About 40 acres of orchard and vineyard were ploughed during the month,
and most of the pruning was completed.

Developinent. — 2000 forest trees were planted, and 8 acres of land prepared
for the sowing of pine seed and the plating of gums. A considerable amount
of road construction and repairing was effected at both Elsenburg and
Mariendahl, and a good deal of fencing erected.

Live Stock. — The condition of all live stock is satisfactory at present, and
the milk yield of the dairy herd increased during the month. Green barley
and lucerne grazing was of great value to stock, though natural grazing is
improving.

Extension Work. — A number of samples of agricultural materials was
analj^sed for farmers in the chemical laboratory, and a considerable amount of
outside work was done by officers in charge of the various sections, particularly
the veterinary.

The School. — The first winter vacation course ended on the 3rd July; the
second began on the 6th and ended on the 17th. Attending the second course
(" Farmers' " Course) were 12 women and 15 men. Though handicapped
by lack of instructors in certain subjects, both courses were very successful.

The school reopened for regular students on the 26tli of the month.

GLEN, ORANGE FREE STATE.

(Vimotic. — Cold and dry weather continued throughout the month. No
rain was registered.

School. — Two short course.s were held during the month, the horticulture
and poultry course and the sheep and wool course, running concurrently, from
30th June, 1920, to 9tli July, 1920. Seven students were admitted for the
former course and 38 for the latter.

The three-weeks' general farmers' course is now in progress and 16 students
were admitted.

The ordinary students are due back on the 10th August.

Extension Work. — Owing to the short courses, practically no extension Avork
was performed. During the month, Mr. H. R. Oliver, who was appointed
Itinerant Instructor in Poultry, assumed duty. His time will be devoted mostly
to extension work.

Farm. — Crops made very little growth during the month owing to the
cold weather. Stock are not affected to any extent by the weather, as grazing
is still plentiful. Green feed continues to be expensive.

The stud season opens on the 15th of next month. Two Catalonia n Jacks
and one Percheron stallion will stand at stud at Glen, and farmers may book
mares to them Full particulars may be obtained on application.

Schools of AGfticULtuRE and Experiment Stations. 599

GROOTFONTEIN, MIDDELBURG, CAPE.

Climatic. — During tlie month no rain fell, and drought conditions are
becoming severe in 'parts. High winds and cold have been prevalent; in
fact, the wind experienced is unparalleled for this month. The springs in
the Karroo are unusually strong, and, in many instances, are far stronger
than they have been since the big snowstorm at the close of the Anglo-Boer
war.

Temperature recorded : Maximum, 73° on the 20th ; minimum, 18° on
the 18th.

Field Operations and Crops.- — Considerable field work was carried out
during the niontli; 30 acres of land were ploughed, levelled, bedded, and sown
to oats. Approximately 70 acres of lucerne and oats were irrigated from
the springs and conservation dam, and some 30 tons of vlei-hay were stacked.

Live Stock. — In spite of the inclement weather the live stock at the institu-
tion are in good order. Stud sheep are lambing and the lambs are exceptionally
fine. The veld cattle, Herefords and Africanders, are in splendid condition,
but the working cattle are rather lower than usual at this time of the year.
In the area falling under Grootfontein there has been a number of outbreaks
of diseases amongst sheep, which, in some instances, are causing serious losses.
It is hoped to report further on this at a later date.

Field Experiments. — Many of the cereal experiments sown last month are
now looking well, and the sheep-feeding experiment is showing some striking
results with regard to the effect of grazing different varieties of oats, wheats,
and barleys, etc.

Students. — The short courses terminated on the 21st of this month (July).
For the nine-days' sheep and wool course 83 applications were received, but
owing to lack of accommodation only 62 were accepted, of which 58 finally
took the course. The nine-days' course in poultry, horticulture, and dairying
was attended by 10 students, and the three-weeks' general course by 21. All
these students were particularly keen on their work. The .special dairy, sheep,
and wool course students and returned soldiers came into residence on the
1st July, and the diploma course stiidents resumed duty on the 21st July.

POTCHEFSTROOM, TRANSVAAL.

Climatic. — Cold weather was experienced during the month. The absolute
minimum temperature registered was 27.0° on the 6th, and the absolute
maximum 76.8°. No rain fell during the period.

Farm Section. — The main farm operations consisted of harvesting maize,
sorting and classifying the crops for seed purposes. A good crop of Potchef-
stroom Pearl seed is being obtained. Three hundred and sixteen bags of maize
were thrashed for feeding purposes. About 160 acres of land were irrigated
during the month, which include the 140 acres sown to winter cei'eals. The
windbreak of eucalyptus trees along the main irrigation canal has been thinned
to supply the farm with timber. A considerable amount of gravel was carted
to repair the roads of the institution. Stones were removed from 28 acres of
lucerne land.

Live Stock. — Cattle are in good condition considering the time of the year
and the bad season. The Hereford, Sussex, and Africander breeding herds were
brought in from Brakspruit and put to the respective bulls during the month.
The two former herds were allowed to run on mealie stalks in temporarily fenced
fields in the arable section of this farm ; both are in good condition. The
Africander herd was run in the far railway camp ; the animals are in fair
condition only, as the grazing is poor. The object of running bulls of the beef
breed with the respective herds during the month of July is to obtain April
calviugs from those cows which were not settled during the summer.

Six cross-bred Sussex-Africander cows and heifers were sold at a local sale
in accordance with the arranged plan of abandoning the cross-breeding work on
Mendelian lines. Two Large Black boais wei-e sold for breeding purposes.
324 head of cattle were tested for tuberculosis, and all sale bulls were inoculated
for red-water and gall-sickness, which caused the animals to drop somewhat in
condition. 71 Wanganella lambs were born during the month.

Gi)0 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

One Fries calf died of sponsiekte, although inoculated on two distinct
occasions within twelve months against this disease. Cases of metritis, several of
ophthalmia, and a few cases of diarrhoea in dairy calves have to be reported.
These were successfully treated. One valuable Ayrshire cow died of abscesses in
the uterus.

Experimental Section. — Work done in this section consisted of hai'vesting
and weighing one acre of potatoes grown on dry land, m connection with
liming and manuring experiments; harveHing and weighing of all the remain-
ing peanut plots, two acres; planting of winter legumes, such as beans, peas,
etc., one acre.

One and one-third acre of land was laid down to barley on calcium nitrate
fertilized plots. One-half acre was planted with Berseem clover. Cleaning and
grading various varieties of seeds was carried out. Plots under fallow and
stubble were ploughed and winter cereals irrigated when necessary.

Horticulture Section. — The work of pruning has made good progress. Black
peach fly made an appearance, but only in small isolated colonies. Everything
is kept in readiness for spraying the fruit trees during August. To maintain a
continuous supply of vegetables, sowing and transplanting are done at regular
intervals.

The Lecturer in Horticulture delivered lectures in the Pretoria, Witwaters-
I'and, and Vereeniging Districts, which were well attended by growers and others
interested.

Poultry Section. — The stock birds were in good health during the month,
and the egg production for the breeding pen has been satisfactory.

Articles for Publication. — Articles on the "Destruction of Rodents" and
" Glucose and Starch from Maize " were prepared (for the Journal of Industries),
and one on " Die Bou van Damme."

School. — The " Farmers' Course " terminated on the 15th July. Of the 78
students enrolled, 73 were accommodated in the hostel here and 5 in Potchef-
stroom town. A certain number of teachers attended the course. Sixteen of the
students were women.

The school reopened for ordinary students on the 27th July.

Staff. — Mr. Mackinnon assumed duty here as an additional foreman and
field instructor on the 7th July. The plant breeder, Mr. A. St. C. Capoi'n,
resigned and relinquished his post at the end of the month.

It is witli deep regret that the death of Mr. J. R. Stenning, first grade and
senior clerk at the school, is reported. The deceased rendered valuable services
to this institution for fifteen years.

Cost of Production of Maize.

The Departmeut is undertaking an investigation of the cost of pro-
chiction of maize in various parts of the country. The investigations
will extend thiough some years, beginning with the coming season.
The scheme is, briefly, to submit a carefully prepared schedule to
growers, who will fill it in at the close of the season after having kept
an exact record of all labour involved in growing, harvesting, and
marketing the crop. From this record, as well as other infornuition
supplied in the schedule, the total cost of production as well as a
comparative analysis of costs, for dift^erent parts of the country, will
be worked out. All growers willing to participate in this work are
invited- to send their names and addresses to The Secretary for Agri-
culture, Pretoria. All information supplied in connection with this
investigation will, of coiirse, be treated as strictly confidential.

Meat Statistics.

601

MEAT STATISTICS.

I. — Retukn of Beef Inspected and Passed for Export, July, 1920.

Cattle.

Carcasses.

Place.

Inspected.

Rejected.

Passed.

Inspected.

Rejected.

Passed.

Durban

565

565

565

55

510

Pietermaritzburg

227

—

227

227

i

226|

Pretoria

—

—

—

—

Johannesburg

.528

—

528

528

—

528

Blofmfontein

—

—

—

—

Capetown ...

50

—

50

50

n

47i

Port Elizabeth

—

— .

—

—

Germiston ...

—

—

—

—

—

—

Total

1,370

—

1,370

1,370

58

1,312

Beef actually exported during the month of July, 1920 : Total, 1100 quarters
(^ex Durban, 850 quarters ; ex Capetown, 250 quarters).

Total shipments of Beef in quarters —

1916 ... 115,992 1918 ... 12.3,354 *1920 ... 37,429

1917 ... 309,214 1919 ... 285,367

II. — Other Meat Exported*: Pork, carcasses inspected and passed, 1502.

III.— Return of Cattle Imported into the Union prom adjoining Territories.

Total from 1st January,

Territory.

Imported July, 1920.

1920, to
31st July, 1920.

For Slaughter —

No.

No.

Rhodesia

3,525

15,669

Bechuanaland Protectorate

1,099

12,028

S.W. Africa

924

7,231

Swaziland

254

979

Basutoland

8

8

For Breeding-

Rhodesia

1,564

8,215

Bechuanaland Protectorate

1,185
8.5.59

10,095

Total

.54,225

Summary op Imports.

t

Calendar Year. J For Slaughter.

For Breeding.

■
Tctal.

11916
1917
1918
1919

No.
26,580
47,970
36,767
40,574

No.

5,440
13,286
16,693

No.
26,580
53,410
50,053
57,267

"Total from 1st January to 31st July, 1920.

1 1st July to 31st December only

(302

Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

CROP AND LIVE STOCK REPORT.

July, 1920.

CONDITION OF LIVE STOCK.
Compiled from Reports furnished by Sheep and Stock Inspectors.

Area.

Large Stock.

Small Stock.

Capk —

South- West

North- West

South Coast
Southern Karroo
Central Karroo...
Northern Karroo
Eastern Karroo
Bechuanaland ...
Qriqualand West

North- Eastern

Border

Transkeian Territories...

Transvaal —

Eastern High Veld
Central ...
Western High Veld
Low Veld

O RANGE Free State -
North-Eastern ...
North- Western .. .
South-Eastern ...
Sonth-Western ...

Natal —

High Veld or Highlands
Middle Veld or Midlands
Coast

Poor, Medium in parts
Good to medium. Fat in parts
Good to medium
Good ...

Good. ...

Good

Good ...
Good ...

Good

Medium

Good to medium

yfedium

Medium

Medium. Good in pans

Good to medium

Good to mpdiinn. Fat in [larts

(I'ood to medium
Good ...

Good. Fat in parts
Good to medium

Medium to poor.

Good to medium. Fat in parts.

Good to medium.

Good.

Good.

Good.

Good.

Good.

Good.

Medium.

Good to medium.

Medium.

Medium.

Medium. Good in parts.

Good to medium.

Good to medium. Fat in parts.

Good to mediuiii.

Good.

Good. Fat in parts.

Medium. Good in parts.

Good to medium
Good to medium
Good to medium.

Good to medium.
Good to medium.
Good to medium.

The 1920 Wheat, Oats, and Barley Sowings.

The Department's crop correspondents were requested to report this month on the area
put under wheat, oats, and barley this 1920 season. For the purpose the figure 100 is taken
as representing the acreage last season, and any change this season is shown by variations
from that figure. The accompanying statement, shows the position as revealed by these,
reports. While the main wheat producing districts of the Union report an increase in
acreage under this crop, the prevalence of drought principally is responsible for a considerable
shrinkage in certain other parts of the country, particularly those subject to summer rainfall.
so that the total acreage under wheat in the Union this season is estimated to be 2 per cent,
less than it was last year. Given an ordinary favourable season the crop from the reduced
acreage is estimated to yield 2,702,300 bags of wheat. On the other hand the Union's
requirements nonnally are estimated to be about 3,800,000 bags annually, consequently thei'e
is likely to be a shortage of nearly 1,100,000 bags of wheat which will need to be made good
by importation from other countries.

The following statement gives the estimated ^voAaction, prodded the .sea.ion proves to be
an ordinarfi fuvouruhle oiw and the crops make normal growth. For purposes of comparison
it may be added that last season's crops were considerably below normal in growth (j-ide
Crop and Live Stock Report, November, 1919) and it is estimated that the yield was
approximately 1,989,100 bags wheat, 1,604.100 bags oats, 36,357,800 bundles oat hay, and
347,900 bass barlev.

Crop and Live Stock Report.

603

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The Natal Sugar Association roports as follows for June, 1920 :— Reports from sugar
areas show an intensification of drought conditions, and alarming desiccation of canes.
The Empangeni area of Zululand alone gives a normal return : in all the other areas
the departure from normal varies from 20 to 33 percent. It is now accepted that." the
shortfall in the crop will be at least 20 per cent, and probably 25 per cent. Thisiwill give
a sugar crop of under 1 .50,000 tons,

604

Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

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Chemical Analyses of Agricultural Materials.

Continued from page ii of cover.']

TARIFP^ OF FKES FOR ANALYSFS.

•Soils :— £ s. d.

Lime 0 5 0

Partial analysis (to determiiiL' manurial riL-etls) ... ... ... ... 0 15 0

Analy.-;is for " brak" or "alkali" ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 L'» 0

Limestone and Lime : —

Lime 0 5 0

Gt'Ofral analysis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... <) 15 0

8ai,t and Brine : —

Chlorine 0 2 6

General analysis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 10 0

Wateh (for agricultural purposes only): —

Partial analysis (invohiuir not more tlinn thre<-^ determinations) ... ... 0 10 0

Genera! analysis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 10 0

Milk and Cream : —

Total solids ... ... ... ...^

Speeific gravity ...

Ftit (Vjj- ether extraction)

Fat (by butyrometer) ... ... ... ... ... (sec other tariff).

Partial analysis (total solids, spexulic sj:ravity, and fat by ether extraction)
General analysis (fat, total solids, spt^cific eravity, ash. and protein)
Qualitative test for boric acid...

0

2

<>

0

1

0

0

5

0

0

7

6

0

12

6

0

2

6

CHEE8E AND BUTTER : —

Moisture 0 2 6

Fat 0 5 0

Aeh or salt 0 2 6

General analysis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 012 6

€rRASSES, FODDERS, SiLAGE, AND FEEDING STUFFS IN GENERAL (other
than the reg littered ro7nmerciaI farm food-t'): —

Moisture...

Protein ...

Fat (by ether extraction)

Crude fibre

Ash

General analysis

>!u(;ar-Cane and Sugar Beet

Cane-sugar and glucose ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 10 0

General analysis (moisture, ash, protein, ame-sngar, and glucose) ... 0 15 0

>»ULPHUR : —

Finene-ss 0 2 6

Fnll examination as to purity... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 7 6

0

2

6

0

.1

0

0

0

0

0

.5

0

0

2

6

0

17

6

l^Coiitimied on brick of cover

Contirmed from page iii of cover. '\

TAIMFF OF FEES FOl! ANALYSIS— (rc///';;///^^/).

Dips, Insecticides, and FrxiiiciDEs : —

Nicotine ...

Total sulphur ...

LiuK'

Arsenic (arsenites and arsenates)

Fractional seiiaration of carbolic difi^

Estimation of phenols (approximate)

General analysis of insecticide or fiuiuicide

Tannine Materials and Tea : —

Tannin ...

General analysis of waitle bark or other tannin^u material

Colour ( bv tintometer) ...

& s. d.

0 10 0

(I 7 rt

0 r, 0

0 :^ 0

0 10 0

0 -1 (>

0 10 0

0 .5 0
0 7 6
0 1 0

Crude IUbber : —

General analysis

ToxiCOLOGiCAL MATERIALS (Inuusta, etc.): —

Qualitative tests for ar.scnic or other mineral poison

1 0 0

0 5 0

The valuation of a manure will be furnished on particulars of guaranteed analysis beint^-
submitted 1)V the incpiiver. For this information no fee will be charged.

(QUANTITIES WHICH MCST BE SUBMITTED FOR ANALYSIS.

Soils

Limestones and Linie ...

Salt

Brine

Water

Milk

Cream ...

Butter

Cheese ...

Grasses, Foddi'is. etc

Sugar-cane

Sugar Beet

Sulphur...

Dips (wash finni dipiiing-tank>)

Insecticides and Fungicides ...

Wattle Bark and rither tanning mat(

Tea

Crude Rubber ...

Ingesta and similai- to.xieological material

at lea

-t ;i lb.

„

•T ,.

,,

2 „

1 pint.

\ gallon

,.

1 pint.

8 oz.

3 L

aiies

10

lb.

4

OZ.

1

pint

1
1

lb.

J
4

OZ.

2

lb.

Charges for articles not enumerated in the above tarifE and any further information may
be obtaine<l on application to tlic officers above mentioned.

P R I X C I P A L C O X T E X T S

Cotton Culture.

Karakul Sheep — II.

The Spmose Ear-Tick.

The Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province — IV.

The Pig as an Economical Producer of Food.

The Department of Agriculture during the War — VI.

The Menace of Anthrax.

Meat Supplies for the L nited Kingdom.

^

STEWARTS AND LLOYDS (SOUTH AFRICA), LTD.

TUBES AND FITTINGS

P.O. Box 1195. P.O. Box 74.
JOHANNESBURG. PRETORIA.

P.O. Box 131, P.O. Box 296.
DURBAN. MARITZBURG.

AGENTS FOR :

National Gas Engine Co.,
Gas, Oil, and Petrol
Engines.

IRR GAT ON
AND WATER
SUPPLY OUR
SPEC AL TY.

AGENTS FOR : \

John Blake, Ltd.,

Hydraulic Rams. ,

i

Eagle Engineering Co.,
Ltd., Petrol Paraffin
Engines.

Thomas & Sons,
Windmills and Pumps.

Davey Paxman & Co.,
Steam Engines and
Boilers.

PUMPING PLANTS,

PIPE LINES,

AND

POWER UNITS

OF EVERY

DESCRIPTION.

Bell Bros., Ltd., Filter
and Water-Softening
Plants.

Gilbert Gilkes & Co.,
Water Turbines and
Centrifugal Pumps.

Glenfield & Kennedy,

Hydraulic Specialities. ;

1
1

IWirrlees, Bickerton &
Day, Diesel Oil Engines.

EST/MATES
FREE Of

AND ADVICE
- COST.

Clydesdale Steel Plates.

^.

CONTENTS.

OCTOBER, 1920.

Page

Notes ... ... ... ... ... ••. •■• •>'i>^

Retin ment of the Secretary for Agi'iculnnv— Tlie Local Marker— Expoit of
Butter and Cheese — A Sixccessful Eiitoraoloo-ical ('onferenct — The Position of
the World's Cereals — Advice to Consignors of Produce— The Wool Industry —
The World's Wheat: A Forei-ast— " Prinshof '' : Land for P]xi)eriments— New-
Chemical Laboratories— Dip-testinu- Apparatus— The I )rouuht Commission —
Sale of Live Stock, Groolfontein— Export of E,s;-,us— Ea>t Coast Fever : Pietoria
District in Au.uust, 1920— Lung-sickness : An Outbreak — Bacon and Ham—
Egg-laying Competition— Citrus Export : Exi)eriments (page 622) -Fruit
Export (page (>2.3)— Peanut (Irowing ([.age 642)— Fencing Mateiials (page
642)— Orange .Stocks used in California (page r.54)—Suntio\ver Seed Export
(page 6.59)— Plant Nurseries in Quarantine as" at 1st September, 1920 (page
670) — The Union's Timber Piesources (page 67")).

Cotton Culture.., ... ... ... ... ... ... .•• *Jl-^

The Pig as an Economical Producer of Foot) ... ... ... ... ''^3

Karakul Sheep ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 62tl

The Department of Agriculture durinc; the Wak ... ... ... 64:3

The Toll of the War ... ... ... ... ... ... ... <>-l6

The Spinose Ear-tick ... ... ... ... ... ... .•■ fi^"

Meat Supplies for the United Kingdom ... ... ... ... 'io5

The Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province— I ... ... ' -■• '''''^

The Menace of Anthrax ... ... ... ... ... ••• '>''

Irrigation in the Union ... ... ... ... ... ... 676

Pure-bred Stock Lm ported ... ... ... ... ... ... 67S

The Poultry Yard Month by Month ... ... ... ... ... 679

Corrigenda ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 679

The Vegetable Garden ... ... ... ... 680

Notes from the "Gazette" ... ... ... ... ... ... 6si

South African Produce on the Oversea Market ... ... ... • 683

Oversea Prices of South African Produce ... ... ... ... 684

Notes from the Divisions ... ... ... ... ... ... 68.5

Recent Agricultur.al Literature ... ... ... ... 687

At the Schools of Agriculture and [vxpkuiment Stations ... ... 6'.<(>

Staff : Appointments, Transfers, etc. ... ... ... ... ... i>94

Meat Statistics... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 69.">

Crop and Live Stock Report ... ... ... ... ... ... 69(;

Local Market Prices ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 698

The Local M.\rket ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (;99

Chemical Analyses of Agricultural Materials.

DEPARTME>'T OF AGEICULTrRE.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF AGRICULTURAL
MATERIALS

Methods of Taking Samples.

XoTE. — It' the sample is not repi'pseutative of the hulk, the results
of the analysis may he of little or no value. The accuracy of the
sampling- depends on the person taking the sample, and no means are
known whereby an absolutely correct sample may be taken by follow-
ing certain procedure. It is essential, therefore, that the person
taking the sample should be thoroughly satisfied that it is as repre-
sentative as possible. The analyst can only report on the same as
received l)y him.

Feeding Stuffs—

(/?) Grains, Meals, and Similar Feeding Stuffs (other

than registered commercial farm foods). — Fnr each ton of the quantity
held up to () tons take two bags: if it exceeds 6 tons, take one bag for
every additional ton over b. Each bag should be emptied separately
on a clean, dry floor, be well mixed with a spade, and one spadeful
then set r.side. The different spadefuls from each liag should then be
mixed together, and a sample of aliout 4 lb. taken from the heap.

(h) Green Fodders and Roughages. — Standing crops

should be sampled by cutting 10 to 20 or more handfuls from diffeivnt
parts of the field: if too large a quantity be so obtained, it should be
thoroughly mixed and a portion weighing about 10 lb. taken as the
sample. Cut green fodders and hays should be well mixed if possible,
and 10 to 20 or more handfuls taken from different parts of the whole
bulk: or handfuls should be taken from 10 to 20 or more sheaves or
bales.

(c) Roots and Tubers should be sampled by selecting average
specimeDs of the large, medium, and small roots forming the
quantity, as far as possible in the proportion in which these are
present. The number of individual roots or tubers comprised in the
sample should be 20 to -M) if tljey are small, or 9 to 12 if large,
according to si?e.

Water-
In taking samples of water great cleanliness is essential. Bottles
used for water samples must be thoroughly cleansed by washing, and
on no account must anv bottle, which after Avashing retains the smell

Chemical Analyses of Agricultural Materials. iii

of the previous contents, e.g. spirits or paraltin. be used. The bottle
should be mixed with the water which is to be analysed before being-
filled. Bottles should be nearly but not quite filled and should for
preference be closed with a glass stopper. Failing glass stoppered
bottles, clean new corks should be used. lu order to get a fair sample
from any running supply, such as the water puuiped from a borehole
or that drawn in pipes from a reservoir, the water should be allowed
to run for about an hour before collecting the sample.

If the sample is to be drawn from a stream or pond, the stoppered
or corked bottle should be immersed some little distance from the
bank and the stopper or cork withdrawn well below the surface. The
^topper or cork should be tied over with a piece of clean cloth.

In the case of wells, boreholes, and, as far as possible, springs,
the situations, depths, and nature of strata should be stated.

Liquids other tlian Water-
In sampling liquid substances, care should be taken to thoroughly
stir the contents of each package or drum before taking a sample.

Ingesta and Similar Toxicological Materials—

The advice of a veterinary surgeon should, if possible, always l)e
sought Ijefoie a sample of this nature is forwarded for analysis, and
precise information be given as to the nature of the poison suspected.
In the case of arsenical poisoning of stock, portions of those organs
showing marked inflammation should be included with some of the
ingesta. These samples should always be most carefully packed in
a screw-topped fruit jar or bottle.

Milk and Cream—

Mixed. — In taking a sample of mixed milk from a number
■of cows, the milk must be poured from one vessel to another several
times, and the sample must be taken immediately before the milk is
allowed to settle. If the sample is made up from mixed milk from
several vessels, it should contain the quantity from each vessel which
will ensure that the completed sample is an average of the whole bulk.
The stirring of the milk is in each case not sufficient.

One Cow. — The cow must be stripped thoroughly, the milk
strained and well mixed by pouring from one vessel to another several
times, and the sample must be taken immediately after, before the
milk is allowed to settle.

Cream samples should be prepared by stirring thoroughly and by
pouring the cream from one vessel to another several times, and the
sample must be taken immediately after.

(Note. If it is desired to take composite samples of milk or

-cream application should be made for full information and instruc-
tions, which will then be given.)

Chemical Ats^alyses op Agricultural Materials.

Bottles. — The sample bottles should contain about I pint of milk
or cream. They must be thoroughly cleaned, and each sample must
be labelled with the name of the owner; if it is taken from the mixed
milk of a herd it must be marked " mixed." In the case of samples
of individual cows each sample must, in addition to giving the name
of the owner, be marked with the name, number, or other identifica-
tion mark of the particular cow. Particulars of the breed of the cow
or herd must also be stated. If in the case of samples of mixed milk
the animals are not all pure bred, the particulars should be given as
" cross-bred " or " mixed breeding." Labels will be supplied on.
application. Care should be taken to have the bottles well corked
and sealed before dispatch.

Preservatices.—To each sample bottle of milk should be added
four to six drops of formalin (not more) and to each cream sample
five grains of powered potassium bichromate, or just as much as can
be carried on a threepenny piece.

In offering these facilities it is desired to place farmers in the
position of being able to determine the butter-fat content of the milk
of their herds and the percentage of butter-fat in the cream, to check
the working of the separator by testing samples of the separated milk,
and, lastly, to encourage the keeping of milk and butter-fat records.
In the latter instance, samples should be submitted at regular
intervals, either fortnightly or monthly. For any further particulars
or information inquiries should be addressed to the Principals of the
Agricultural Schools or the Superintendent of Dairying.

The result of these tests may only be used by the owner of the
samples for his private purposes, and must not be made use of in the
case of any dispute or legal action between contracting parties.

Sending of Samples.

Ordmarv materials, manures, feeding stuffs, etc., should be sent
in a tin or glass fruit jar (suitably packed to prevent breakage) with
closely fitting lid. Liquid samples must be sent in bottles, which will
be provided on application.

Soils-
Apply for special foini.

Regulations and Tariff-
Particulars were pul>lislied in last month's issue of the Journal.

F. B. SMITH, C.M.G.,
"he Retiring Secretary for Agriculture, Union of South Africa.

Journal of the Department
OF Agriculture.

Vol. I. OCTOBER, 1920. No. 7.

Published monthlj' in Englisli and Afrikaans by the Department of Agriculture,

Union of South Africa.

Subscription : Within the Union and South- West Protectorate, 5s, (otherwise SSm)
per annum, post free, payable in advance.

Applications, with subscriptions, to be sent to the Government
Printer, Box 378, Pretoria.

NOTES.

Retirement of the Secretary for Agriculture.

At the end of Avigiist last Mr. F. B. Smitli relinquished the post
of Secretary for Agriculture, })roceediug ou leave prior to retiring
on pension after nearly eighteen and a half years' service in South
Africa. The son of a fanner and educated privately and at
Camhridge, Mr. Smith has ahvays heen interested in the relations of
State to agriculture. He held various posts in England, his last
being Professor of Agricultuie and Vice-Principal at the vSouth-
E]astern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent, an institution with wliich
the names of eminent men in ihe agricultural world are connected,
and in the building- up of which Mr. Smith was prominently con-
cerned. In 19U0 he made an extensive tour in tlie United States
and Canada, where he investigated, the system of agricultural educa-
tion in vogue, publishing the result of his observations in a book
entitled " Agriculture in the Xew AVorld."

Mr. Smith's first connection with South Africa dates from the
26th April, 1902, when he came out from England to the post of
Agricultural Adviser to the Governor of the Transvaal, under Crown
Government, subsequently changed to Director of Agriculture in
September, 1902. Soon after li'is arrival he wrote a report to Lord
Milner regarding the organization of agriculture in the Transvaal,
and its recommendations Avere adopted almost entirely. Mr. Smith
was a member of the Transvaal Legislative Assembly in Crown
Colony days, and was also a member of the Transvaal Indigency
Commission, the report of which is so well known. He was an original
member of the Council of the University College in Johannesburg,
and on its division into the vSchool of Mines and the Transvaal
University College in Pretoria, became a member of the Council of

21

600 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

the latter. He was also a member of the Committee of the Govern-
ment Library, Pretoria, and up to Union was a member of the Com-
mittee of the Transvaal Zoological Gardens.

In addition to the book referred to, Mr. Smith has written various
papers on agricultural subjects, one on agricultural education being
read before the British Association in Johannesburg, and another,
" Some Observations on the Probable Effect of Closer Union of South
Africa upon Agriculture," before the South African Association for
the Advancement of Science.

At Union, Mr. Smith was appointed to his late position as
Secretary for Agriculture, when he had to undertake the great task
of forming an Agricultural Department for the Union in place of
those which had previously existed in the four component Colonies.

In the course of a letter to the Journal, written immediately
prior to his departure for England, where he has accepted a reader-
ship in Estate Management, oifered him by the University
School of Agriculture. Cambridge, Mr. Smith writes : " I
have endeavoured to make the Department a ])rofessional
one, and to organize it so that each branch of its work was
entrusted to men who had specialized in these particular lines, and
could devote their whole attention to them and in such a way that
the workers should be as closely in touch with their work on the one
hand and with the public on the other as it was possible for them to
be. My one aim has been to help the agriculture of the country by
every means within my power and particularly to build up the
Department as the most powerful instrument possessed by the State
for assisting it."

Mr. Smith has been associated with South Africa during a time
of transition and remoulding and of marked progress, and he takes
with him our good wishes for success in his new sphere of work.

Temporary Staff Arrangements.

Until a permanent successor to Mr. Smith is appointed and in
the absence of Mr. P. J. du Toit, the Under-Secretary, who is at
present engaged on the Public Service Commission of Inquiry, the
duties of the Secretary (excluding those pertaining to agricultural
education) will be carried on by Mr. G. N. Williams, who has been
acting as Under-Secretary for some considerable time in Mr. Du
Toit's absence.

Similarly, Mr. E. J. Macmillan, the Under-Secretary for Agri-
culture (Education) will control the section of the Department
concerned with matters of agricultural education.

The Local Market.

In addition to the local market prices of agricultural produce and
stock which are published monthly in the Jouimal, we propose, com-
mencing with this number, to include in future a brief review under
the above heading of the local market conditions and prices concerning
wool, mohair, hides, skins, and ostrich feathers. With this additional
information there will be available very necessary intelligence regard-
ing the prevailing market rates of the principal agricultural products
of the Union which should prove useful to farmers in respect both of
ciQTent prices and, in the course of time, as a record of past prices,

Notes. 607

Export of Butter and Cheese.

The wonderful recuperative powers of Soutli Africa have again
been strikingly demonstrated. The severe drought experienced
throughout the Union during last spring and early summer practically
brought dairying to a standstill, for farmers, barely able to keep
their cattle alive in some districts, found feeding f ir milk production
out of the question, with the result that there was an acute shortage
both of butter and cheese. The break of the drought about mid-
February brought a remarkable change, however, and the hitherto
idle creameries were soon working at high pressure.

The consumption of butter and cheese was greatly reduced during
the period of scarcity, owing to difficulty in obtaining supplies and
high prices. Butter and cheese have, however, been plentiful all
through the winter, but consumption has not yet returned
to normal. Statistics recently collected by the Division of
Dairying show that considerable quantities of butter and
cheese manufactured last season are still jield by factories,
and at the present rate of consumption there is no likelihood of these
stocks being disposed of in the Union before the new season com-
mences unless, of course, another drought, such as occurred last year,
delays the season.

Cheese supplies have been affected by the importation of quanti-
ties of Australian cheese, a good deal of which still remains unsold.

The prospects for the new season are favourable, and an early
commencement is expected, although production may at first be some-
what retarded in certain areas owing- to late calvings.

A Successful Entomological Conference.

In view of the importance of economic entomology and the
established fact that the control of insect life spells success in the
treatment of disease and in the production of foocl and other crops, it
is gratifying to learn of the satisfactory results of the recent Imperial
Entomological Conference held in London in June, 1920. Delegates
from the British Dominions, Colonies, etc., attended the conference,
the Union being represented by Mr. C. P. Lounsbury, Chief, Division
of Entomology, and many matters of great importance, both of an
economic and scientific nature, were discussed. Among the resolu-
tions passed, and evidencing the success of the conference, is one
advocating the holding of similar conferences every five years.
Another resolution recommended that the Imperial Bureau of
Entomology — an institution which, since its inauguration seven years
ago, has played such a prominent and valuable part in the entomo-
logical world — should be established on a permanent basis. Of special
interest at a time when there is such an insistent demand for expert
officers, is the finding of the conference " that the provision of an
adequate number of trained men to carry into effect existing plant
import legislation is of more immediate importance than the revision
or extension of such legislation."

Altogether there is every reason to believe that much benefit will
result from the deliberations of the conference, and that Mr.
Lounsbury 's association with it will be of direct gain to the Union.

608 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

The Position of the World's Cereals.

In regard to that question oi surpassing interest—the world's
grain supply — to wliicJi reference has heen made in previous
issues of the Jonrnah most opportune information is published
by the International Institute of Agriculture, in the shape
of a pamphlet entitled "Statistical Ts^otes on Cereals." After
furnishiuR' an accurate statement of the cereal situation
during the current season, and collating in tabular form
all available data as to yield, trade, consumption, prices and
rates of ocean freight for wheat and rye, conclusions of great value
are brought out as to the supply of wheat and rye. Taking into
account the requirements of importing countries and the available
supply of exporting countries, the Institute estimates that after
f-urnishing all demands there should be in the latter countries on
the 1st August, 1920, a stock on hand of at least 24 million quintals
(10 quintals = 1 ton app.).

The " Statistical Notes " include also the following forecasts
regarding the coming season, based upon such factors as are already
available : —

{a) Importing countries: The generally favourable character of
the summer points to a good harvest in Europe. If that
promise is lealized, it may be assumed that the aggregate require-
ments of the large importers will be appreciably less than in the
past year.

(!)) Exi)oiting countries: It is doubtful whether Roumania can
do anything material towards the world's supply next season, owing
to the seiiously reduced area sown last autumn. As regards Russia,
there is no means of forming a definite opinion. British India has
had a larger crop than last year and over the average. It therefore
seems prol)able that exports iiow prohibited will recommence next
season. The United States expect a crop falling short of that of
1919, but above the average of pre-war seasons. There are no official
Canadian estiinates yet available, but it is stated that the crop is
doing well and the yield may be considerably larger than last year's.
Taking into account the old crop stocks remaining on hand at the
opening of the new season, it may be assumed that the available
exportable surplus of wheat and, rye from North America during the
season 1920-21 will be greater than the quantity exported in the
current season. The outlook for the coming year, therefore, does
not appear to justify any serious anxiety, either with respect to the
needs of the importers or to the extent of available supplies in the
exporting countries.

Advice to Consignors of Produce.

Farmers forwarding produce to the coast should see that the bales
are properly marked with their initials, as well as those of the broker
to whom it is consigned. The contents of the bales should also be
marked thereon. Farmers are warned against the use of inferior or
second-hand woolpacks, as the wool so packed cannot be pressed to
comply with the present requirements of the shipping companies, and
consequently has to be repacked into new bales at the coast, which
means extra expense to the consignor.

NoTE^. 609

The Wool Industry.

We draw the attention of readers to the recently published report
of Mr. B. G. L. Enslin, Chief, Division of Sheep and Wool, on his
investigations in the Wool Industries of Great Britain and the TTnited
States of America. Mr. Enslin, who travelled oversea ior the pur-
pose, had unique opportunities of getting to the heart of things, and
that he did so very thoroughly is evident in the comprehensive nature
of his report, which deols with the following matters, viz.: —

(a) Tlie uses to which diiferent kinds of wool are ])ui and the

substitutes used.

(b) The most likely markets for South African wool, having
regard to the changed nuirket conditions brought about
by the war.

(c) The present Vv'ool situation of the world.

(//) The prevailing methods of selling and buying in diffeient
countries.

(e) The most satisfactory method for farmers to get up their
wool and market it.

(/) In what respects South African grown wool and mohair
fail to meet the requirements of manufacturers and how
defects may be remedied.

(g) The possibilities of starting factories in South Africa.

Dealing with the most important pastoral industry of the Union,
the report is of absorbing interest to a large number of farmers and
others concerned in the growing and selling of wool, and should
certainly fulfil its purpose — the betterment of the industry in South
Africa.

It is published as Bulletin No. 4, 1920. under the title "The
Wool Industry " and may be obtained at a cost of Is. (prepaid) from
this office.

The World's Wheat : A Forecast.

Sir James Wilson. K.C.S.I., who at one time was delegate for
Britain and the Dominions at the International Institute of Agricul-
ture, Eome, is a recognized authority on the economics of crop pro-
duction, and we are in receipt of an exhaustive review 1:y him on
the position of the world's wheat supply. In summarizing the
various statements and estimates set out in his review. Sir James
comes to the interesting conclusion that all the exporting countries
of the world, which on the pre-war average exported 170 million
quintals (ten quintals are approximately equal to one ton), are likely
to be able to spare for export during the year ending July, 1921,
something like 276 million quintals, while, on the other hand, the
importing countries of the world may not require to import more than
150 million quintals, leaving a surplus in the exporting countries of
126 million quintals of old wheat. He is further of opinion that even
if India, Roumania, and Russia export no wheat during the year
ending with July, 1921, the other exporting countries will probably
meet all the requirements of importing countries until then, and
yet have a surplus of o8 million quintals on the 1st August, 1921.

610 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

" Prmshof " : Land for Experiments.

The property " Priusiiof." situated to the west of, and iu tiie
near vicinity of the Union Buildings, Pretoria, has been placed at
the disposal of the Department of Agriculture for purposes of carry-
ing out experimental work. The property was being temporarily
used by the Faculty of Agriculture of the Transvaal University
College, who are in process of vacating it, and the Department will
enter into possession at an early date. In consequence of " Prinshof "
being taken over, the botanical station of the Department at Groen-
kloof, near Pretoria, will be closed and transferred to " Prinshof."
This will not, however, interfere with the veld-burning experiments
under the direction of Dr. Phillips, which will be continued on
portion of Groenkloof.

New Chemical Laboratories.

The new chemical laboratory buildings on the western slopes of
Meintjes Kop are nearing completion, and will afford a welcome vAd
to the Department in its activities. The buildings present a tine
appearance, are fitted with all the latest appliances, and will
house the Division of Chemistry which for many years has beeji
labouring under adverse conditions in inadequate quarters.
The Division will take possession at an early date, and
the situation of their new quarters near " Prinshof " will be of great
convenience for carrying out experiments on the newly acquired
land for that purpose, facilities which were sadly needed by the
Division and the lack of which proved a great handicap in the past.

Dip-testing Apparatus.

Eeferring to the evidence g-iveu on the value of dipping,
the Select Committee on the spread of East Coast fever in the Union
states, in the course of its report, that the proof is overwhelming as
to dipping and hand-dressing being' the only antidote to
effect the eventual eradication of the disease, and urges that no
pains should be spared in killing off the tick, which is proved to be
the carrier of nearly every known cattle disease throughout the
Union. The report brings out also the importance of dip testing,
and recommends that all dipping tanks should be tested regularly at
least once a month. The evidence is strong on this point, for, as
one witness stated in affirming the absolute necessity of testing the
solution. "It is no good dipping unless you have the right strength
of dip. . . . What is the use of dipping if your dip is not in order? "
In this connection we wish to point out, in view of the importance
of farmers being in possession of an efficacious dip tester, that a
suitable apparatus has been devised by Dr. Green, Biochemist at the
Government Veterinary Laboratory, Onderstepoort. A clear and
full description of the instrument, etc., is published in the Third
and Fouith Reports of the Director of Veterinary Research (Novem-
ber, 1915). The instrument is not on the market, nor is it patented,
and the attention of those interested in the matter is directed to the
publication referred to.

Notes. 611

The Drought Commission.

Followiug- a resolution by Parliament last session, the GoTern-
ment has decided to appoint a Commission to inquire into the best
means of avoiding losses by drought. The scope of inquiry will be
wide, the terms of reference being as follows: —

1. The methods by which losses to farmers owing to periodic

droughts in the drier parts of the Union may be prevented,
either by public or private action ; and in particular
wliether anj' changes in faiining methods are necessary
for this purpose.

2. Any improvements in farming conditions generally such

as the provision of more water, prevention of soil erosion,
and any other matters which have a close bearing on
point 1.

3. The methods by which indigency arising among the farm-

ing community in consequence of such losses could best be
dealt with.

4. Thorough investigation into the dilferent ways of producing

feeding by the cultivation of various grasses, etc.

The Commission will consist of Mr. H. S. du Toit, Dry Land
Agronomist, as chairman, together with a chemist of this Depart-
ment and an officer of the Irrigation Department.' Tliere will be
also two private members, namely Messrs. Gadd, of Middelburg,
Cape, and Kolbe, of Bloemfontein.

The Commission proposes to visit the drier parts of the Union
which are subject to recurring droughts, and in view of the great
importance of the matter, it is trusted that farmers and others will
render the Commission all assistance possible (when in their par-
ticular part of the country) by placing before it their views and
experiences, which will be most welcome. It is hoped that with the
co-operation of the farming community, the Commission's inquiries
will have beneficial results of the highest moment to farmers, and
mark an epoch in the advancement of agricultural South Africa.

Sale of Live Stock, Grootfontein.

Despite most inclement wea'ther, the sale of live stock at the
Grootfontein School of Agriculture. Middelburg, Cape, on the 2r)tli
August, resulted in fair prices being obtained. There were sold 4
donkeys, 4 Friesland bulls and 8 cows. 3 Hereford bulls, 3 Shorthorn
bulls, 3 Tasmanian rams and 2 ewes, 20 Wangauella rams and 13
ewes, 3 xingora rams. 2 Karakul rams and 15 ewes, and a number of
poultry, totalling £2596. 12s. 6d.

Export of Eggs.

The quantity of eggs exported last year amounted to 16,180 cases,
and provision is being made for the export of a limited number again
this season. Owing to the high cost oi poultry feeds it is not antici-
pated that the trade can be increased to any extent in the immediate
future, but it is important that an oversea outlet should be provided
for the surplus, and also that tlie trade already established should
be maintained.

G12 Journal of the Department of Agricltlture.

East Coast Fever: Pretoria District in August, 1920.

Fresh outbreaks occurred on llie farms Kameelpoort No. 278,
Papkuilfontein No. 575, Zanclspruit No. 109,.Mooiplaats No. 502, and
Harteheestfontein No. 555. None of these outbreiks, serious
thouodi they are. need cause g-i^eat alarm, as with the excep-
tion of Harteheestfontein No. 555 they are extensions of the alreadj^
infected area. Harteheestfontein is, however, in the clean area, but
as the disease was fortunately detected in its early stages, it is hoped
that the prompt steps taken to deal with it will be the means of
preventing" its further spread in that area. In the case of the other
new outbreaks referred to above, every endeavour is being made to
expedite the erection of tanks.

Lung-sickness: An Outbreak.

It is most regrettable that after being free from lung- sickness in
the Union for a considerable number of years, this disease has broken
out in the Transvaal, where, in spite of the precautions continuously
taken by the Department to prevent its introduction from the
Bechuan aland Protectorate, an outbreak of lung-sickness has occurred
on the farm Simson, on the Magalakwin Eiver, in the northern por-
tion of the Zoutpansberg District. The disease was undoubtedly
introduced through the illicit movement of fifteen head of cattle by
a native from the Tuli Block, in the southern Becliuanaland Protec-
torate. Immediately the outbieak was discovered and reported by
the police, it was decided to destroy all sick cattle and those m
immediate contact therewith, to the number of 110. Of these, 46
showed symptoms of the disease on post-mortem examination. Prior
to the discovery of the disease, 13 head had died, of which 8 were
among the cattle illegally introduced, the other 5 being cattle pre-
viously on the farm. The farm Simson has been placed under
quarantine, and all the cattle in the neighbourhood are being
inspected with a view to deciding what further action, if any, is
necessary.

Bacon and Hani.

We publish in this issue a short article by the Lecturer in Animal
Husbandry at Elsenburg on " The Pig as an Economical Producer of
Food," and as complementary thereto we offer the following statistics
on the production of hacon and ham in the Union. As is the case
with several of our products, the past few years have shown a marked
and gratifying change in our economic position, for whereas formerly
imports exceeded exports the reverse is now the case. Our imports,
which at one time were considerable, have now dwindled to a negli-
gible quantity, and the exports of bacon and ham have increased.

According to the Census the number of pigs in the Union was
as follows : — •

1904 679,084

1911 1,081,600

1918 1,043,224

AltLougli these statistics disclose a decrease of 38,000 in our pigs
between 1911 and 1918, the class of pig- bred in recent years has
greatly improved ; and while we have no statistics as to the proportion
of our pio-s_ suitable for bacon, it is cer^Sin that the number of
''bacon " pig-s in 1918 far exceeded the number in 1910, and as pigs
increase rapidly and l)reeders are improving the quality of tlieir stock,
we can expect a perceptible forward movement in the number and
standard of our pigs during the coming years.

According to Industrial Census returns the quantity of bacon and
ham put out by factoiies in the Union was as follows: —

1915-10: 2,021,175 1b.: valued at £107,524.
1910-17 : 2.803,190 lb. : valued at £176, 349.
1917-18: 4,772,4611b.: valued at £291,014.

In addition to the above, large numbers of pigs are slaughtered
on the farm or elsewhere and cured for home consumption. The 1918
Census shows that 2,313,000 lb. of bacon and ham were so produced
during 1917-18.

As will be observed hereunder, the balance between imports and
exports of bacon and ham during the calendar years 1917 and 1918
was comparatively small and leaving this factor out of account, and
not allowing for stocks on hand and stocks carried over, it is estimated
that the Union's consumption of bacon and ham in the year 1917-18
was approximately 7,100,000 lb. Indeed, that year would seem to
mark an epoch in the liistory of the industry, for, in view of the small
quantities of our imports, it may be taken that we -had at last reached
the position of being able to meet our own requirements in bacon and
ham. In tbe absence of statistics of production for the year 1918-19,
we turn to the published figures of imports and exports for the
calendar year 1919, which show that imports had dwindled to as low
as 41,258 lb., while exports of South African bacon and ham reached
1,393,614 lb. When it is remembered that the country suffered
during 1918-19 from one of the severest droughts in its history the
trade returns are gratifying, and point to the continued expansion
of our production in these commodities.

While statistics of production are availalile in resjject.of recent
years only, the Customs returns hereunder indicate clearly the trend
of our production since Union. There is nothing to show that during
the past decade our consumption of bacon and ham has not been at a
more or less uniform rate. On the other hand, it will lie observed
that it was necessary at one time to augment our local i)roduction by
considerable importations. During the four years prior to the war
(1911-14) our average annual importations were nearly 6,000,000 lb.
This quantity, wliich indicates the small amount formerly produced
in the Union, has to-day been supplanted by South African bacon and
ham, a striking example of prog-ress. While, therefore, our produc-
tion now appears to be sufficient for our present needs, there awaits
us a wide market overseas which ha«: already favourably received
some of our bacon and is able to absorb our surplus.

614 JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.

Bacon and Ham.

^^ . Exports of S.A. Produce

Year. Imiiortation into the Union. (including Ships' Stores).

lb.

Value.

ft.

X'alue.

1910

5.465.965

£231.203

1,502

£77

1911

6,072,066

229,134

1,674

83

1912

5.983,675

223,384

4,228

192

1913

6,187,229

264,429

2,104

117

1914

5,520.887

229,517

7,106

328

1915

4,488,447

211,174

5,743

345

191G

3,060,263

169,152

27,686

1,627

1917

422 622

27,154

87.239

6,587

1918

142,258

10,989

185,601

15,554

1919

41,258

3,865

1,393,614

90,454

Not]':. — Importatiiiis, includino- " salted and cured," averaged
annually about 3,450,000 lb. in 1897 and 1898, and 3,960.000 lb. in
1903 and 1904.

Egg-laying Competition.

The vSixtli Egg'-laying Competition, held at the Potchefstroom
School of Agriculture duriuQ- the six months 1st June, 1919, to 30th
November, was productive of interesting' and valuable data, as will
be seen from the following- summary of results, viz. : —

Number of pens, 48 (five birds); total number of birds, 240;
total number of eg-gs laid, 26,249, plus 112 unmarivetable (not included
in calculations) ; value of eg-gs laid, £233. 6s. 75d. ; cost of feeding-,
£81. 17s. lid.; profitover cost of feeding-, £151. 8s. 85d. ; average
market price of first grade eggs, 2s. 3M. per dozen; average
market price of second grade eggs, Is. lOd. per dozien ;
average cost of feed to produce 1 dozen eggs, 9.02 pence;
average number of eg-gs laid per pea (light breed), 568.9;
average number of eggs laid per hen (light breed). 113.8; average
number of eggs laid per pen (heavy breed), 510.2; average number of
eggs laid per hen (heavy breed), 102.03; average profit over cost of
feed per pen (light breed), £3. 6s. lOd. ; average profit over cost of
feed per hen (light breed), 13s. 4^d. ; average profit over cost of feed
per pen (heavy breed), £2. 16s. 9d. ; avejage profit over cost of feed
per hen (heavy breed), lis. 4Td. ; average cost of feed per pen,
£1. 14s. 2d.; averag'e cost of feed per hen, 6s. lOd. ; eggs laid b<y
winning pens: heavy hreed. 528 full ^'eight. 2 under weight, 2 un-
marketable; light breed, 608 full weight, 12 under weight, 3 un-
marketable; profit earned by winning pen : heavy breed, £3. 2s. 3jd. ;
light breed, £4. Os. 2Ad. ; highest value of egg's laid by any pen:
heavy breed. £5. lis. llkl.; light breed. £5. 17s. 3d.; lowest valua-
tion of eggs laid by any pen : heavy breed, £3. 3s. lOkl. ; light breed,
£4. Os. 6d.

Cotton Culture. 615

COTTON CULTURE.

By PiETER Koch, B.Sc.Aot., Manager, Tobacco Experiment
Station, Elsenbiirg', Mulder's Vlei.

The cotton plant is one of tbe most important, if not tlie most
important, fibre plant cultivated. From its products liundreds of
necessaries are manufactured. Eor instance, from tbe fibre, clotbes,
explosives, etc., are made; from tbe seed, oil, soap, a kind of butter,
and many otber articles; and from the seedmeal, animal foods, ferti-
lizers, and dyestuffs.

Tbe normal world production of cotton lint is about twenfy to
twenty-five million bales of 500 lb. eacb, and of tbis amount Soutb
Africa produces very little. Tbe farmers of our country bave been
trying to grow cotton for many years, but until a few years back
tbeir efforts bave met witb failure tbroug-b lack of knowledge of
cultural metbods and want of gins and means of conveyance. Cotton
culture bas, however, made rapid progress in recent years (since 1912),
especially in the warmer parts of tbe Transvaal and also in Natal,
and its future is very promising. Every year sees an increasing
acreage under cotton, so that at present some thousands of acres are
devoted exclusively to tbis purpose.

Botany. — Botanically cotton belongs to tbe Malvaceae, and falls
under tbe genus Gossypivm. Cotton is generally divided into two
groups, namely the American and the Asiatic group. In South
Africa the first group only is grown, which includes the TJplai.id
varieties (or Gossypium hirsutum). Sea Island (or Gassy p mm borha-
dense), and Peruvian Cotton (or Gossypium perwlanv.in). The first
of these three includes all tbe short and some of TJie long-staple
varieties, and is grown mostly in tbe Transvaal and Natal; tbe
'second named produces the best, longest, and most valuable lint, and
is grown on a small scale along the coastal regions of Natal find
Kaffraria: the third is the most important cotton of Egypt, and bas
a beautiful, glossy appearance and a yellowish colour. This variety is
still under experiment, and it bas not yet been proved whether it will
thrive in the ITnion.

Experiments bave also been made witb a tree cotton (Caravoiitca),
but witb unsatisfactory i-esults.

Nyasaland Upland is being grown in tbe coastal regions on a
small scale.

Tbe difference between Upland and Sea Island is that tbe former
is taller, witb longer and thinner branches, mucb longer leaves, and
small pointed bolls, and it ripens much later. Further, the fresh
flower is more velloAvisb in. colour, with red spots at tbe base, longer

616

Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

and finer fibres, and black smooth seeds. Some Upland varieties,
e.g". Peterkin, however, also possess smootli black seed. The fibre of
Upland measures from f to li inch in length, and that of Sea Island
from Ih to 2 inches.

Under cultivation cotton is generally considered to be an annual,
and is usually replanted every season, with the exception of the tree
variety. It is not yet possible to say whether ratooning- will be
practised permanently in future. (By ratooning is meant the method
of cutting- off the first crop close to the ground, when a new pLiut or
" volunteer "' takes its place the following year, re-seeding thus being
eliminated.) Authorities state that, after the second year, tlie lint of
such plants deteriorates greatly by losing- its gloss and strength — two
of the most important and desirable qualities of cotton fibre.

Piute I. •.fIn4o I'll W . II. S.

"Sea Island"' cotton plant with ilie leaves removed to show the bolls. —
Big Unieazi, Poit St. Johns.

Climate. — Cotton is eminenily suited to warm regions. Oiie of
the essential climatic conditions is a summei- rainfall of not less than
18 to 20 inclies, fairly well distributed over the whole period of
growth. During the first five or six weeks tlie i)lant is very delicate
and weak; consequently the soil should not be allowed to dry out too
much during that time. Thereafter the plant can withstand much
drought, the taproot being long and shooting well down. The plant
being very sensitive to frost, it is necessary that -lo frost occurs for
six or seven months where cotton is grown. In localities which are
subject to frost, planting should not be done before October, but also
not much later than November.

Cotton Culture. 617

During harvesting time it is desirable that the weather should be
dry and sunny. The plant reaches full maturity in about six months.

Soil. — This crop can be grown on nearly every kind of soil where
mealies groAv, though the most suitable are clayey and sandy loams.
Clay soils also give good results provided they are v/ell cultivated and
the seed is sown early. Light, sandy soils, however, should be
manured judiciously, otherwise the growth will be poor and a light
crop reaped. Tinder faA^ourable weather conditions turf soils will
occasionally yield excellent results. If the soil is very fertile
branches and leaves are foimetl at the expense of fruit.

Seed Selecfio7i. — The selection of seed plays a higlily important
part in cotton culture. It is essential that good seed be planted, and.
as the cotton plant is very sensitive to climatic and soil conditions,
the greatest care should be exercised in selecting seed plants. A
variety yielding the best results in one particular locality is very
often unsuited elsewhere. Tlie farmer is therefore advised to experi-
ment personally with ihe different varieties and keep the seed from
the most suitable plants for the following season's planting. Seed
should be kept only from those plants which show uniformity of type
and at the same time produce a great number of well-developed bolls.

It is further important that the seed matures normally and is
dried properly prior to its being stored. If it is stored in a heap in
a damp condition over-heating takes place and the power of germina-
tion is partly destroyed.

Most Sulfahlr Varieties. — It is not yet possible to determine
which are the most suitable varieties for the different localities of our
country. The only reliable method would be for a number of seasons
to test the most promising varieties. Only those giving the best
results are then grown. Tlie height of a plant is not always an
indication of its suitability. There are varieties of cotton which,
under very favourable conditions, attain a height of from eight to
nine feet, but those of about three feet usually give the highest yield.

For Transvaal conditions the large-boll varieties, such as
Bohemian, Bancroft, I?ussell, Cleveland, and others are to be
recommended. King, a small-boll variety, but very prolific, also
gives excellent results. Cook's Lcuig Staple can be grown with
success in the Avarmest and most fertile Darts of nortliern Transvaal.
Along the coastal regions of Natal and Kaffraria Cook's Long Staple,
Griffin, Bancroft, Toole, Nyasaland and Peterkin thrive well. The
small-boll varieties mature earlier that the large-boll varieties.

Soil Fertility and Rotation. — It is unnecessary to enlarge here on
the subject of improving the fertilitv of t]io soil iuid of practising
crop rotation, the subject having been discussed in detail in Bulletin
No. (». 1917, of the Tobacco and Cotton Division. It is only necessary
to point out that the cotton plant requires far more nitrogen than
phosphorus or potash. Nitrogen can easily and economically be
supplied to the soil by the use of leguminous crops, such as cowpeas,
velvet beans, and field peas. If the growth is poor and the plants
are yellowish the soil is deficient in nitrogen; if the plants mature
late and the bolls do not open well the soil is in need of phosphoric
acid; and ir the leaves contract rust and fall off there is a deficiency
in potash.

(U8

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Among the principal field crops grown commercially in South
Africa the cotton plant is the least exhausting. The following table,
taken from " Burkett's f'otton." is interesting: —

Plant Foods Drawn jrom the Soil by Crops.

Crop.

Nitrogen.

Phosphates.

Potash.

Total.

Cotton —

300 lb. of lint

650 lb. of seed

lb.

1-02

20.34

lb.

0-30

10-67 •

lb.
1-37

7-84

lb.

2-69

38-85

21-36

10-97

9-21

41-54

Mealies —

S^ hags

■iOOO lb. of stover

32-14
41-60

12-36
11-60

7-06
56-00

51-56
109-:^0

73 • 74

23-96

63-06

160-76

Wheat-
s' bags

2300 lb. of straw

19-75
13-57

7-44

2-76

5-10
11-73

32-29
28-06

33 -.32

10-20

1 6 • 83

60-35

* Tobacco —

1000 lb. leaves

353 lb. of stalk

44-00
12-00

5-00
2-00

52-00
17-00

101-00
31-00

56-00

7-00

69-00

132-00

1

We leave it to the reader to make comjiarisons and draw his own
conclusions from these figures.

The farmer should endeavour to obtain the greatest yields at a
minimum cost by methodical and scientific cultivation of the soil.
This we may call intensive cultivation as contrasted with extensive
cultivation. It is far better to grow 50 morgen of cotton yielding
1600 lb. of seed cotton per morgen than to grow 100 morg*en yielding
800 lb. per morgen. It is self-evident that intensive cultivation is
by far the better method for the development of the country.

Preparation of the Soil. — It is impossible to state with certainty
when and how the soil should be cultivated, as so much depends on
the class of soil and weather conditions. Where possible the lands
should be ploughed in autumn or the early winter, and as deep as
possible — 9 to 12 inches, depending on the nature and kind of soil
utilized. As soon as the first spring rains set in the lands should be
either ploughed again, if necessary, or rolled and harrowed to a fine
tilth. As soon as all danger of frost has disappeared the seed may be
planted. The earlier the planting the greater the chance for the
plants to come to full maturity and the higher the yield.

The seed germinates in from seven to twelve days. When the
plant is about forty to fifty days old the first squares appear ; after
that it takes about three weeks for the buds to open. From the open
flower till tlie boll opens it takes another fifty days. The warmer the
weather the sooner the bolls open.

Taken Irom " Killebrew and Mvrick's Tobacco Leaf."

Cotton CuLTtiiiE!.

tllS

When and How to Plant. — Seeding should be done between
October and the middle of November. In the remote, warm low veld
planting may be done till the end of November. In fertile soil the
distance between the rows should be 4 feet, but in poor soil not wider
than about 3 feet. In sticky or heavy soil the seed should be planted
thicker than in sandy, light soil. The young- plants emerge from the
ground similar to bean plants, and lieing, moreover, covered with fuzz,
which impedes germination, the depth of seeding should not be
greater than from 1 to 2 inches, otherwise the cotyledons are unable
to burst through the hard crust of earth which is formed after rain.

Forty lb. of seed per morgen is sufficient if a cotton planter is
used. (In the U.S.A. the rate of seeding is from 60 to 80 lb. per
morgen.) When the plants have reached a height of about 5 inches
they should be thinned out to a distajice of 12 or 15 inches. Thinning
is doue witli hand-hoes, or if the soil is soft and moist, by hand.

Plate II.

Photo h;i H. W. 1.

Cotton-iield nut reiiniriog- further i-ultivaiion.

CultLcation. — The object of cultivation is to destroy weeds which
would otherwise damage and perhaps choke the crop, to break the crust
of earth formed after rain followed by sunshine, to impede capillary
attraction and thus improve the moisture-liolding capacity of tlie
soil, and to facilitate the penetration of air into the soil. Proper
cultivation of the soil also improves the growth of useful ])acteria
;nid the chemical solution of the plant foods.

As soon as the plants are well above the ground cultivation
should be proceeded with and continued after each rain. At first the
cultivation may be deeper than afterwards, especially when a heavy
rain has caused packing of the soil. But when the plants have
attained a height of 10 to 12 inches the cultivator should not be set
deeper than 2 to 3 inches. The feeding roots of the cotton plant
spread from 3 to 9 inches under the surface of ^he ground ; deep

620

Journal of the Department of AGRicULTtfRE.

cultivation would consequently result in the breaking- of ilie roots
and the plants would suffer. (Jultivation should oe continued until
the flower buds or squares make their appearance. Shortly afterwards
this should l)e discontinued, otherwise the squares may be bruised and
tlie yield diminished accordingly.

Picking. — As soon as the cotton fields are white with open bolls,
or when about half of the bolls are open, harvesting' may be begun.
It takes about three picking's before the whole crop is g-athered.
When cotton is wet after rain or heavy dew harvesting should not be
proceeded with until it is dry. If it should be found that moist seed
cotton has been picked it should be spread open on the ground to dry
and then stored in a clean, dry, protected shed or on the loft.

Care should be taken to pick only clean seed cotton; all leaves,
pieces of boll, and other foreign nuitter are io be -liscarded, as such
impurities only detract from the value of the product. Soiled cotton

Plate 111.

[('ourfesji K. LotHcr.

Cotton-field ready for pi(jkiDc

should be picked and ginned separately. The enii)loyment of native
women and children for harvesting is the most economical. It is
light, clean, and attractive work. An active woman can collect as
much as 75 lb. per day it the plants are rather full of open bolls. The
averag'e is, however, about 50 lb. per day. Some natives who have
become skilled in the work can pick as much as 100 lb. per daj'.

Muid sacks are mostly used in this country for harvesting'. Un
either side of the opening' a riem or cord is fastened and then hung-
over the neck and shoulders of the picker.

The picking costs work out at about a farthing to halfpenny
per lb. of seed cotton.

Ginning and Preparation for the Market. — The cotton is conveyed
loose in wagons or in wool packs and bags to central establishments
for giijning. This consists in separating the lint from the s<^ed.

Cotton Culture. 621

About uiie-third of the weiglil of seed cotton is lint nnd the remainder
seed.

There are two kinds of gins in general use, namely, roller gins
and saw g-ins. The former is used for the long'-staple cottons, thereby
avoiding- breaking- or knotting of the fibres; the latter almost exclu-
sively for ginning the short-staple cottons with txiczy seeds. The
greater majority of gins are saw gins, as they do much quicker and
cheaper work. An ordinary roller gin requiring 2 horsepower can
treat about 35 D). of seed cotton per hour, whereas a saw g-in with the
same horsepower can gin 180 lb. per hour. The saws of the latter
have a velocity of approximately 450 revolutions per minute, and
the teeth of the saws pull the lint from the seed, while a brush
reA'olving- at high speed again removes the lint from the saws.

Before the invention of the roller gin in 1792 by Whitney and
Holmes in America, it took a inan a whole day to separate 1 lb. of
lint with his fingers (the general practice followed at that time).
After the machine had come in use the growing of cotton in North
America made enormous strides. The demand for gins in the Union
is being increasingly met, and to-day there are several gins per-
manently established in various parts of the Transvaal and Natal,
where the cotton industry is developing rapidly.

In South Africa, where manual labour is still in vogue, the
ginning costs are halfpenny per lb. lint, and in the U.S.A., where
the pneumatic system is in use, it amounts to only one-eighth of a
penny, or one-fourth of what it is here.

After being ginned the cotton is pressed by means of a
strong press into bales of 54 in. by 27 in. by 27 in., and weighing
500 lb. each. The bales are covered with hessian or sack cloth and
fastened with iron hoops to prevent them from expanding. South
African cotton bales are. as a whole, far neater and more attractive
than American bales.

Costs of Cultivation and Profits. — The costs and profits naturally
depend largely on the value of the ground, the weather conditions,
and the distance from the ginneries and the market. But even if
these conditions should be quite favourable sufficient labour must be
available at reasonable wages. Without sufficient cheap labour it is
practically impossible to grow cotton profitably. Fortunately most
parts of the Union suitable for the growing of cotton are well supplied
with natives with large families.

The costs work out at about £4 to £'G per morgen, and the profits,
under normal conditions, at £6 to £18. Since the world-war prices
have risen enormously and the profits are therefore much greater. It
is not possible to give definite figures, as so mu<"h depends on the
farmer himself and on circumstances. This, however, may be said
with certainty that, where conditions are favourable and the farmer
does his-duty, cotton is a profitable crop and pays better than mealies.
Moreover, the cotton plant in South Africa is not yet so subject to
insect pests and diseases as, for instance, it is in America, where the
profits of the cotton grower are greatly reduced by the depredations
of the cotton-boll weevil, the bollworm, fungus diseases, etc. If
cotton were to be grown here on a more extensive scale more pests
would most likely make their appearance, but in such contingency
Jijeaijs would no doubt be devised to combat thenf. Bollworms are at

(322 Journal of the Depar'Tment oe AGuicuLTtfRfi.

present the greatest pest the South African cotton grower has to
contend with.

Cotton lint has also the advantage that it can be kept many years
without any danger of deterioration or being damaged to any extent
by moths and mice, and there is an ever-increasing demand tor it.

Conclusion.

North America produces about 60 per cent, of the world's cotton.
I:i other countries, where cotton is grown to any appreciable extent,
e.g. Egypt and India, the possibilities of greater production are,
as far as we at present know, more or less limited. The only countries
where cotton can still be grown extensively are Africa and a few
South American Republics, especially Brazil. The future for cotton
culture in Mesopotamia appears to be good. Much is being done by
European commercial bodies to further cotton growing in Africa, as
it is a matter of life and death for the cotton factories on which
hundreds of millions of pounds have been invested, and on which
millions of people are dependent for their daily bread.

E\ery year the United States of America manufactures more of
its cotton, and more textile buildings are continually being erected,
with the result tLat the nuaiufacturers in England and on the Con-
linent are unable to obtain supplies for their own factories. The
demand is increasing much faster than the supply. Of the world's
population about 500,000.000 are properly clad, 750,000,000 partly
dressed, and 250,000,000 practically naked. The population of the
world is getting more civilized, and the first requirement next to food
is clothing in some form. The production ol wool, camel hair, and
other fibre suitable for clothing is so limited that at present the only
solution seems to be in a very much greater production of cotton.

The tendency is for prices still to rise, and the farmer need have
no fear whatever of over-production. In 1764 North America
exported eight bags of cotton to Liverpool, and tliis probably repre-
sented the whole amount exported during that year, whereas to-day
the export runs into millions of bales. The amount of cotton grown
here at present and exported to other countries may not be great, yet
it is most encouraging if one considers that the culture of this crop
is of recent date and practically unknown to most farmers of South
Africa, and, further, that the northern and eastern parts of the
Union, where cotton is successfully grown, are still sparsely populated
by whites. The prospects of the man who goes in for cotton growin,^
are decidedly good, and there is not the slightest reason why thousands
of farmers in the low veld should not give attention to this very
promising crop.

Citrus Export: Experiments.

A number of experiments are being carried out by the Govern-
ment Mycologist and the Chief, Division of Horticulture, in regard
to the carriage and keeping qualities of South African oranges from
various farms to the London market. Reports are being furnished
on each experiment, and it is hoped that valuation information will
be obtained bv this means.

The Pig as an Economical Producer of Food. G23

THE PIG AS AN ECONOMICAL PRODUCER

OF FOOD.

By W. A. K. MoRKEL, M.Sc, Lecturer in Animal Hnsbandry,
Elsenburg- School of Agriculture.

In Denmark, Ireland, America, and many other countries the pig
has justly earned such popular titles as " The Small Holder's Friend "
and " The Mortgage Lifter." Why? Because next to the dairy cow
he has proved himself to be the most economical animal machine for
converting the common feeding stuffs usually available on the farm
into edible animal products of the most desirable kind; and where
unmarketable produce, such as kitchen garbage and spoiled feed,
is concerned he is easily the most efficient of all our domestic animals
for converting it into marketable food.

It is a well recognized fact to-day that as the population of a
country increases so the pig industry is more and more realized. In
this respect the United States of America stands out as a typical
example, and there is no doubt in the writer's mind that, with closer
settlement steadily taking place in South Africa, our farmers, before
the close of another decade, will have built up the pig industry of
the country to that position to which it is entitled. And with its
favourable conditions in respect of water, shade, productive capabili-
ties of th» soil, and comparatively small farms, Xatal should become
the most prominent of all the Union Provinces in the building up of
our pig industry.

The relative efficiency of pigs as compared with sheep and oxen
in converting feeding stuffs into body gains, is clearly brought out in
the following figures by Lawes and Gilbert*: —

Comparative Returns from the Steer, Sheep, and Pig.

Oxen (Steer). Sheep. Pigf=.

W). tt). It).

Average light weight 1200 130 175

(a) Per head per week —

Total dry feed eaten 151 21 48

Increase in live M^eight 13.6 2.3 11.3

(b) Per 1000 Ih. J.w. per iceek—

Total dry feed eaten 125 160 ^ 270

Increase in live weight 11.3 17.6 64.3

(c) Required for 100 Ih. increase —

Total dry feed eaten 1109 912 420

Warrington : " Chemistry of the Farms."

624 JOUKIsAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

From the above table it will be seen that the feed consumption
and gain per capita made by the sheep and the pig- are less than that
made by the steer (oxen), due to their smaller size. When, however,
we consider the feed consumption and gain on the comparative basis
of a 1000 lb. live weight, it will be seen that while pigs consume about
2^ times as much feed as steers, their gain in live weight is nearly
six times that of steers, wliich more than balances the greater con-
sumption of feed. The feed of pigs is in a more concentrated and
dig-estible form, and for this reason they utilize less in digestion and
assimilation and thus have a large amount of feed over and above
the bodily needs for the production of gain than either steers or
sheep. In considering- the amount of feed suitable for man returned
by our different kinds of animals on the basis of 100 lb. of digestible
matter consumed by eacli, we find, accoiding to Joi-daii. the follow-
ing : —

Human Food PRODrcED by Farm Animals FRo^r 100 lh. of

DlGKSTTBLE MaTTER CONSUMED.

. . I Marketable Edible

Animal. t> i . w ij

ProfhictP. Solids.

ft. ft.

Cow (milk) 139 18

Pig (dressed) 25 15.6

Cow (cheese) 14.8 9.4

Calf (dressed) 30.5 8.1

Cow (butter) 6.4 5.4

Poultry (eggs) 19.6 5.1 ^

Poultry (dressed) ... ... 15.6 4.2

Lamb (dressed) 9.6 3.2

Steer (dressed) 8.3 2.8

iSheep (dressed) 7.0 2.6

According to this table the dairy cow ranks far above all our
domestic farm animals in her power to convert the ordivnn/ feeding
stulfs available on the farm into human food. The pig is a close
second and sheep are indisputably last. However, pig- fai'ming can
more often than not be reg^arded as a side line of the main farming
business, that is, the pig is the medium of marketing the by-products
of the farm and is easily the best of all animals for this purpose.
Where cattle are being fattened we find the ]3ig utilizing the
undigested feed in the droppings which would otlierwise have been
mere waste. On a dairy farm the best value for the farmer's separated
milk, butter-milk, or wliey may be obtained by letting the pig convert
it into a saleable product. Then, again, where mixed farming is
practised, and it is typical of many districts in South Africa, the pig-
will not only economically utilize all the available dairy by-products,
but also all the unmarketable products, such as undersized potatoes,
spoiled grain (when cooked), waste fruit, and kitchen refuse. Particu-
larly in the Western Province the pig is most useful for gleaning the
stubble fields and converting this otherwise wasted grain into ready
cash. It is in these respects that the pig shows up to the best
advantage and has no rival as a profit producer. In addition, pig

The Pig as an Economical Producer of Food. (525

farming ordinarily enjoys the following' advantages over other kinds
of live stock farming: —

' (1) It requires a comparatively small outlay of capital for breed-
ing stock and housing equipment in order to get into the business, and
it is also comparatively easy to get out without much, if any, financial
loss.

(2) No other kind of live stock farming offers such quick returns
as does pig farming. This is due to the early age at which the pig
will reprodv^ce. Thus a young sow is able to have her first litter at
about 12-14 months of age, and her second litter within 0 months of
her last farrowing*. In other words, by the time she is 18-20 months
of age she is able to return to her owner on the average about 15 pigs,
and will tlien l)egin to give him a steady income from month to montli.
In cattle farming, on the other hand, the breeder would just be think-
ing of having his heifers at 20 months of age served, and he would
have to wait for the best part of another year before getting his first
return. The sow by Ihat time would have raised another 15 pigs.
Thus the prolificacy of pigs — an average of about 8 pigs per litter,
depending upon the breed — and the fecundity of pigs, that is, the
prodiu-tion of two litters within the year (if under proper manage-
ment), are very significant advantages to the tenant farmer and the
small holder.

(3) In South Africa we appear to have a few additional advan-
tages in so far as pig' diseases, feeds, housing, and labour are con-
cerned. In disease, the greatest of which is "hog* cholera" — the
swine scourge of America and Europe — South Africa is comparatively
free. Outbreaks have occurred, but have not been frequent, nor of
sucli a severe nature as has been the case in England or America.
Owing to the mildness of our climate, the cost of housing is com-
paratively small, particularly where the system of having portable
pig-houses is adopted. These will provide sufficient protection from
the cold in winter and the heat in summer. The cheapness of our
native labour makes pig farming more profitable in Soutli Africa than
it is in other countries where only white labour is available. How-
ever, cheap labour becomes efficient labour only where strict super-
vision is practised. And last, but not least, maize and lucerne,
perhaps the two most highly valued pig feeds, can be economically
produced in many parts of the Union, as well as other crops making
excellent pig feed, such as rape, sweet potatoes. Jerusalem artichokes,
etc.

In the past there has been, and even at the present time there is
still, an inherited kind of prejudice against the pig, much of which
may probably be put down to ignorance of the possibilities of pig
production, and it is trusted that once the above facts are brought
lionie to oui- farmers many of them will at least give pig farming a
fair trial

Fruit Export.

There were three shipments of fruit during August, 1920,
totalling 27,260 boxes oranges, 1668 boxes naartjes, 416 boxes grape
fruit, and 21 boxes pines.

626 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

KARAKUL SHEEP.

By R. Owen Wahl, B.A. (Hons.), Lecturer in Zoology and
Entomology, Grootfontein School of Agriculture, Middelburg
(Cape), Officer in Charge of Karakul Sheep Investigations.
(In consultation with A. D. Thompson, Manager, Karakul
Stud Farm, South-West Protectorate.)

(Contimied from page 527.)

VI.

Mating of Karakul Sheep : Grootfontein School
Investigations .

Mention has been made of the practice of deciding upon the
mating of the ewe lamb at birth, and in connection with the very
vexing question of the mating of karakuls, it is felt that a short
account of the results of the investigations at the. Grootfontein School
of Agriculture may be of assistance to breeders. Some of the readers
of this article will have purchased pure-bred ewes at the recent stad
sale at Grootfontein, and will in many cases have some of the same
ewes with which the investigations were begun.

The first lambing season, of the then recently acquired pure-bred
karakuls, at Grootfontein, was a great disappointment. We had seen
very beautiful skins and expected the lambs to resemble them, but as
lamb after lamb was born dull of coat, fuzzy, or ragged, or a mass
of corkscrews, this was difficult to believe. Practically all the ewes
were put to one ram (No. 10/11, and named " MacPherson "), and
many of the lambs were "B " type (see Plate 11). and most of the
rest had a great amount of corkscrew in their pelts, giving them a
poor lustre and very ragged appearance (see Plate 12). A few
lambs from another of the original stud rams at Grootfontein,
namely, "Edward" (No. 68/68) (see Plate 1), were rather lacking
in the development of the curl, but were not ragged and had good
lustre (see Plate 13). This decided us to use "Edward"
extensively in 1917. The result of the 1916 lambing was: First
class, 5, of which 4 were of the border line between classes 1 and 2
and would have been classed in second in 1917: second class, 18.
of which 12 would have been in third in 1917; third class, 42, of
which 11 would have been in fourth in 1917; and fourth class, 5.

Information as to the lines along which to work was not forth-
coming from the Germans for the very good reason, as their records show,
that they had no definite system of mating, and tliat, while numerous
registers of various kinds were provided, none of them were kept
accurately. (Even their family registers are very inaccurate.) The
greatest problem, of course, was the improvement of the curl of the
pelts and how to set about this by mating adult sheep about which
nothing was known, except that woolliness was undesirable and crimp
was very desirable, was the cause of much thinking. A detailed

KARAKtJL SHEEf'.

({2?

description of every ewe in tlie flock, then 83 in number, was taken,
and any showing much crimp of any kind was especially noted.
The rams were examined again and again, and, in consequence, in

1917 " MacPherson " was discarded and . the other two rams,
"Edward" and "Blackie " (No. 117) were used <o great extent. It
was noticed in the 1917 lambs that a great improvement in lustre

628 JOUENAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OP AoRlCULTtTfefi.

was obtained, aud some lambs with good curl were also got, but on tlie
whole they were too loose in curl, and some " watered silk " lambs
were bred from " Edward.'' (This ram has since proved clearly
that he has a great tendency to get lambs of thut nature, ajid has,
consequently, been of the greatest use in stamping out "nigger"
curl and introducing quality into the flock. He also had the
advantage of being the best built of the rams first imported into the
Union.) It was decided to use this ram extensively in order to
break down the " nigger" curl tendency in many of the 1916
ewe lambs when they were mated in- 1918, and meanwhile (1917)
he was mated to those ew'cs which had dropped lambs in " B " in
1916.

Considerable disappointment was experienced when it was noted
that many of the ewes, especially noted as being very criiripy, were
the dams of the worst "nigger" lambs. It has since been found
that crimp correctly placed is a ^^ery desirable feature, but that if
it is wrongly placed it is about the worst feature one can have in
the fleece of a karakul to be used for breeding.

Early in 191T, 25 ewes selected by the writer from the Protectorate
flock were transferred to Grootfontein with an adult ram "Douglas "
(No. 44), together with a ram lamb of the Arabi or short-eared strain
and a son of " Jacob." These ewes were put to certain rams before
leaving Otjituesu, and from the drop which took place fiom October,
1917, to January, 1918, two of the rams at present at stud, namelv,
"L. Eussel" (G.K. 142) and "Llama" (G.K. 151), were obtained.
Both these rams are sons of an old, very clear-haired ram named
" Langman " (No. 25), of the South-West Protectorate stud, who has
done for that flock much the same work as " Edward " has done at Groot-
fontein. Excluding the lambs from the selected ewes, the result of
the 1917 mating was : First class, 10; second class, 22; third class, 22;
fourth class, 8. This was a great improvement of the previous year's
drop, especially as the standard of classing was raised somewhat.
There was still, however, much room for improvement, and much to
be learnt, and for the 1918 mating the ewe lambs of the 1916 drop
were also available. It was essential that all those of " B " type,
especially the " niggers," should be mostly mated to " Edward "
to flatten out the curl and to introduce quality; consequently, many
plain lambs in classes 3 and 4 Avere expected. Some of
" MacPherson's " plainer A-type lambs were put to the ram
" Douglas," a ram of much curl and at birth a first, with a very
highly valued pelt according to German records, and two of
"MacPherson's" rams were also tried at stud, although they were
only class 2-3A at birth. "Edward's" lambs were plain as expected,
and as the summary shows by the size of classes 3 and 4. The
lambs from "Douglas" on the " MacPhersou " ewes were all in
B, or bad corkscrew in A, and " MacPherson's " sons were, as
expected, failures, although one of them, "McTavish'* (No. K 2)
got a ram lamb which promises very well, and which will be
tried at stud in 1920. The other son, " McNab " (No. K44), was
too hard-haired and was a failure. " Douglas " was also a
failure, but perhaps the ewes did not suit him. (Note. — The rams
are purposely named to enable the breeders to trac-e the pedigrees
of their stock to a degree, and also for the sake of leaving some
record of these, the founders of the karakul flock in the Union;

Kaeakul Sheep. 629

see also remarks further on on the naming of rams.) The result
of the 1918 season was: First class, 23; second class, 28; third
class, 39; fourth class, 16. Although there were 16 in class four
the results were very satisfactory, as was expected that this
would be the result of the mating. The increase in the
number of first class lambs showed that in that direction also the work
was proceeding along the right lines. The drop in the number of
second class lambs is partly to be accounted for by the fact that some
of the better ewes were put to the untried rams to give them a fair
chance of proving themselves. Much information was gained from
this season's lambing. It showed clearly that a plain A-type ram,
or better still a " watered silk " ram, could break down much of the
undesirable curl and quality of B and " nigger " lambs, and that with
patience and using the right stamp of sire a fur-bearing flock could
he built up from what at first appeared to be very hopeless beginnings.
Another lesson learnt was that it was exceedingly dangerous to intro-
duce too much cuil through the ram without laiowledge of tlie exact
breeding of the ewes with which he is mated.

For the 1919 mating 6 rams were used, including the 2 young
sons of " Langman " mentioned above. One of these, "Llama," a
first A '"watered silk" at birth, was used to_ take much of the
stamping out work from "Edward." and was given almost all bad
ewcfc. of B type or "niggers." Their lambing from this tup has
just finished', and has been by far the best, for, although many
third classes were got, fourth classes were scarce, and the lustre
and quality of the hair generally was of a much higher order than
in 1918. This was expected, as 3 of the 6 rams used were born
on Grootfontein, and the officer in charge saw the other when it
was a lamb. " Blackie " and "Edward" were the two others.
Also, all the 1917 ewe lambs had their mating notes made
when they were born, and this _ method of mating, put into
practice for the first time, proved itself at once. The result was as
follows: First class, 25; second class, 37; third class, 40'; fourth
class, 6. It will be noted that there is an increase in the number of
first class lambs, an appreciable increase in the second class, an
increase in the number of thirds, but at the expense of the fourth class,
which contained only 6. Of the 40 lambs in the third class only 6
showed a B quality, and only one of these was a true B. None of
the 6 fourth class lambs were in B.

Eor the convenience of readers the percentages for the four years
are reprinted together: —

Season.

1st Class.

2nd Class.

3rd Class.

4th Class.

1916

7.14

25.71

60.00

7.14

1917

16.12

35.48

35.48

12.90

1918

21.69

26.41

36.79

15.09

1919

23.14

34.25

37.03

5.55

From the above results it can readily be seen that considerable
improvement can be made in the space of four years. In 1916 the
first and second class skins, that is the pelts, valuable as furs, together
totalled to 32.85 per cent, of the drop, while in 1919 it is 57.39 per
cent., or nearly 60 per cent, of the drop.

630 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

VII.

Points for the Breeder.

From the lessons learnt from the above results the following
points are strongly recommended to the breeder. Treat the first
lambing season you have as experimental, and correct your
mistakes from that. Find out from the Government all the
information you can about your ewes, and particularly what the
investigators think your rams are likely to do and what sort of ram
they would recommend you to buy. All B-type lambs, especially
" niggers," must be mated to an A-type ram, as plain as possible,
and one whose immediate parents at the very least were also both
of A type. This is very necessary, as often a lamb born of A type and
classed as such is out of a B or even a " nigger " ewe by a good ram,
and consequently has lots of B in his nature, which is certain to find
expression in the great majority of his progeny if put to B-type ewes.
It will be of great assistance to every breeder to arrange his lambing
for 1920 so as to have it OA^er by the time the annual sale of karakul
sheep takes place. By so doing he will be able to see whether the
ram or rams he has are giving good results with his ewes, and if he
desires to purchase one more suitable he will then have time to com-
municate with the writer at Grootfontein and find out if such a ram
is available. (About 20 yearling rams will be for sale, the majority
suitable for fur-pelt breeding.) Breeders are also strongly adA'ised
to purchase such rams even if they have to pay a good price for them,
and not to be tempted into buying some animal which is unsuilable
but which is being sold at a low figure. Bad quality of hair and poor
lustre in a flock, and, above all, " nigger " curl, can only be eradicated
by using good A-quality rams bred from A-quality parents on both
sides, and "watered silk" rams witli the proper length of staple are
tlie best for this purpose. Until quality and lustre are firmly estab-
lished a third class A " watered silk " ram bred correctly is of infinitely
greater value to any breeder of pure-bred karakul sheep than any
first class animal in AB or B, over even in A if one of his parents
has any tendency to produce B-type lambs, when correctly mated to
A-type stock, or was itself of that type as a lamb. It is best to use
plain "watered silk " or good A-curl rams for at least three genera-
tions on B's and " niggers," and only then to begin tightening up the
curl, still using A-type rams but with more definite curl (see Plates
3 and 5). Tliis point about introducing lustre and quality into a
flock before attempting to build up tightness of curl cannot be too
strongly emphasized. Once these essentials are established, tightness
of curl and strength of hair can be considered in the matings, and also
the length of staple. Lambs which have long soft hair at age of
description should be mated to rather strong-haired rams which were
rather short-haired as lambs, and so on as one would mate any other
class of stock to improve various weaknesses.

It will often be found that there is a great diiference in the lambs
produced by the same parents : some may even be in A and others
in B. Professor P. Wallace, in the article quoted from earlier,
mentions this fact, and says that " by some this has been attributed
to feed, though, like the colour and quality of the hair of some of
our (loniestic animals in this country, it is probably due to natural

Karakul Sheep. 6:u

constitutional variations." It appears to the writer, as lie has already
clearly indicated, that this variation is due mostly to the breeding of
the parents ; certainly vfhen such big variations occur as between
" A " and " B " types. In all cases when we know the breeding of
two sheep for a few generations back we can predict approximately
what the lamb's pelt will be like. Of course no two lambs are alike,
but type of curl, lustre, and quality can be jjredicted under the con-
ditions mentioned. It has already been shown that big A^ariations
in lambs from an " A " type ram can often be explained by the fact
that although he, himself, is of "A" type, one of his parents was
not, and even in a pure-bred ''A " ram, one of whose parents was a
" watered silk," and the other a tight-curled lamb, both kinds of curl
are transmitted by him. Such a ram, " L. Russel," is at present at
stud at Grootfontein. He was a first A Special, medium tight curl.
His sire was " Langman," who gets many "watered silk " lambs, and
his dam was a first A of good definite curl. Many of his progeny are
curly, tut a fair number are too open, due to the "watered silk"
blood he has in him. The curl of tlie ewe must, of course, also be
taken into consideration, but the ram appears to have much the
greater influence on the pelt.

As more is known about these sheep more will be published. For
the present what has been written is what has been found and proved
to be true, and will not cause any breeder to lose ground or time in
obtaining good results. Other investigations, such as the value of
rams with good tight curl and good lusti'e but with some " B " in
them, are being conducted in the near future at Grootfontein. (Such
a ram as a lamb is figured in Plate 14. Note the hard hair below
the hock.) It may be that such an animal will be of great value
when put to soft open curled ewes, but until this has been proved
breeders are advised to keep away from B-type rams even if they can
be bought for £2 and are classed IB.

As, for some years to come, karakul sheep will be more or less a
side-line with breeders and will probably not have the time devoted to
them required to make full descriptions of the lambs, and as many
will be unwilling to keep several rams to suit the weaknesses of small
numbers of ewes, breeders should use only A-type rams and mate
everything to them. Nothing can be lost by so doing, except perhaps
that some corkscrew may appear in some of the lambs. If such is
the case, a shorter stapled ram should be used on the dams of such
lambs and on the lambs themselves, as corkscrew appears to be the
result of too great length of staple.

As the purchasers of pure-bred karakuls are in a position to obtain
the pedigrees of the rams and ewes they have purchased, it might be
mentioned for their information and to enable them to avoid intro-
ducing too much blood from one ram, that both in the Protectorate
and at Grootfontein a certain system of naming rams is followed.
It is this : When a ram is used at stud it is named, the name begin-
ning with the same letter as his sires, or having this letter placed in
front of it. Thus the stud sons of "Jacob" are named "James,"
"Jubilee," "Jacobus," etc.; or, again, " Nineteen's " stud sons
are " Nimrod " and " N. Lustre " ; and " Langman 's " are " Llama "
and " L. Russel." The rams from which male lines can at present
be established are: "Jacob," "Nineteen," "Langman," " Swart-
booi," "Owen," "Robert," "George," "Blackie," "Edward,"

632 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

and " ^IncPheisoii.'' The rams (.lesceudcd fioiu llio other of the
imported rams have eithei been disposed of or havo not uot sons
good enough for stud purposes.

Before hn^ving' the sut),i(Mt of ninliug' somt> nuMition sliould he
made of the number of ewes which sliouhl be mated to one ram for
any given season. Owing the nature of the work at (Jrootfontein.
where there is oidy a small flock, the g-reatest number of ewes united
to any ram has usually been between ol) and 40. but in April this year
just over 100 ewes were jnit to "Edward." and the tup Morked veiy
well indeed, over 80 ewes lambing, and this does not include all the
ewes which were in lamb to him as some were sold before lambing at
the annual sale of this institution on the 5tli September, " J^dward "
was born in 1913.

VIII.

TiiK Kauakul as a Mttton Shkkp.

Huilt as it is to-day llu- kaialcnl is by no means an uleal mutton
she(>p, being too flat-rildied, not deep enough in ilu^ chest and heart
g'irth. and having rather a small leg for its size. It compares very
favourably with any of our native slbH"]). however. The mutton itself
is of an excellent quality, being- fine-grained and ha\ing' an excellent
taste. It is thought very hig!il> of in iMirop(>. where, indce<l, it is a
delicacy. At present the karakul is distinctly snialler than the pure-
bred woolled Persian, but the two breeds are so alike in most of their
points that there is no dinibt that if it were desired, they could be
built up to be quite as large iu every respect. As it is. when grade
karakuls and grade woolled Persians are mixed together, it is often
veiy difficult to tell them apart. Where a (juick maturing', hardy
sheep, dressing a good weight, is required, the karakul presents strong
(daims for recognition. (As evidence of their early nniturity the
individual weights of ten yearling pure-bred wethers, all still in
possession of their milk incisors, are given in pounds. Thev are:
90, 88, 87, 95. 84, 95, 82, 60. 100. 85; iotal. ST-J lb., oi- ST'lb. as
ail average weight.) These wetliers wei-e run on the veld all their lives
after they were a week old. Young pure-bred rams run with them,
and of the same age, averageil 9o:[ lb., th.e highest weight being
lO-'i lb. As already indicated, the hardiness of this breed, their ability
to cover wide areas in searcli of food, the nature of the food they can
exist on, antl their resistance to " stekgras," all help to make this
claim a very strong one in the arid regions of the X^nion. Again, as
well be seen in the section dealing with grade karakuls, even the first
ci'oss with such sheep as the jN'amaqna anil black-head Persian results
in a considerable increase of weigiit as compared with their dams,
at an early age, although in no case are the weights obtained e(]mil
to those scaled by the pure-bred karakul of similar age.

As a mutton sbeep, therefore, the karakul is superi()r to any of
our native sheep or to the merino, and, while it does not grow out
as big as the woolled Persian, its flesh is of the sanu^ excellent quality.
Pov the arid and semi-arid regions of the XTnioii it is difficult to
imagine a more suitable sheep, and, besides gaining weight and early
maturitv, and in almost all cases hardiness as well, the farmer who

ICarakul Sheep. 633

uses good A rams to grade up liis flock is also imx^roving the fur-pelt
qualities of his sheep), so that eventually he i-an farm pelts if he so
desires, or in any case he will get good compensation for the lambs
he so often has to kill to save the ewes in years of drought.

The karakul can doubtlessly be developed into a good mutton
sheep, but such is not the juesent intention, as every effort is being
concentrated on improving the fur-bearing qualities of this grand
bleed without losing anv of its hardiness.

IX.

Cross-breeding .

As the experiments in cross-breeding, or rather in grading up
from various native breeds hj the use of j)ure-bred karakul rams,
were begun in the Soutli-West African Protectorate before that
country was suriendeied to tlie Union, more information is available
from the flocks there, anrl Mr. A. D. Thorn j)Son is responsible for the
information given, except for that under the heading " Cross-breed-
ing at tbe Grootfontein Scliool of Agriculture.*' Mr. Thompson
says: " To start a cross-bred flock select the required number of ewes,
either of Africanders or black-head Persians, whichever are the cheaper
or the easier to obtain. As foundation stock there is little to choose
between them, what difference there is being in favour of the latter
breed. Should it be desired to start with Africanders, as even a flock
as possible sliould be selected, giving attention in this selection to
those most resembling black-head Persians. An Africander is not a
Xamaqua. the latter being a pure breed of sheep, having must finer
hair and far more woolly matter and in some cases showing more
lustre. It is, however, found that the gloss of the foundation ewes
has little influence on the first crosses, and still less on the higher
grades. They seem to inherit a sufficiently good gloss from their
karakul sire.

"After selecting the ewes, mate them to an "A" type sire of
any class in preference to one in "13" type, but, should such a ram
be unprocurable, use as good a " B " as possible. After the first
crosf- " B " sires should never be used. During the first ten days of
the lamb's life it should be classed, and, if it does not come up to a
ceitain standard, it should be culled, together with its dam. Ewes
thus culled should be replaced by others until a sufficiently large
number of good juoducing ewes is obtained. Verj- little describing is
necessary with the first cross, but gloss and kind of curl or suggestion
to curl should always be noted. From the second cross, where a fair
amount of curl should be found, a ciireful description should be made.
It has been found that some third-cross lambs are not as good as the
second cross, and this is, no doubt, in mast cases due to the exaggera-
tion of weakness in the second cross, caused by using rams having the
same faults.

"Africander and black-head Persian ewes gave isppioximately
36 per cent, first class lambs, while the Xamaquas gave only 7 per cent.
Tliese ewes were mated to tlie same rams running in the same flock.

634 JOURNAL 01* THE iDBPARtMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

At the secoud crossing all classes mated the same way gave practically
the same proportionate results. The results obtained at a later mating,
when ewes were mated according to their class, quite different results
were obtained, namely, Africanders and black-head Persians gave
approximately 53 per cent, first class, and T^ainaquas 50 per cent. The
class of lamb they produced at the previous mating was also taken
into consideration. (Note. — When Mr. Thompson speaks of
Classes 1, 2, etc., in cross-breeding, he naturally does not mean that
the pelts in these classes are of the same standard or value as in the
corresponding classes used in judging pure-bred pelts. The practice
of having different standards for the different crosses appears to me
to be needless, and apt to give rise to confusion, and is not followed
at Grootfontein.)

" It is, therefore, quite clear that classing the lambs and mating
the dams accordingly will lead to success, and it is quite certain that
if a certain amount of culling has been done the results would have
been still better. Tbis system also shows that Nam-iqua ewes may also
be used successfully provided rams of the necessary types and classes
are obtainable when required.

'' For the above results three types of rams Avere used, namely,
very highly developed 'A,' good ' B,' and 'watered silk.' 'B' type
rams appear to do better on the Namaqua ewes than on the black-head
Persians, due probably to the fineness and softness of hair of the first-
named breed.

" Owing to the limited number of ' A ' type I'ams, the following
suggestion is made: Use 'A' type of any class for at least the two
first crosses, then use a good ' B ' to increase the development of
the curl, then again use 'A ' and then 'B,' and so on. In all cases
the type of curl of the ewes to be mated should be taken into con-
sideration, and 'B' type .rams .should never be used on ewes which
showed signs of ' nigger ' curl as lambs. Such ewes should either be
culled or the ' nigger ' tendency eradicated in their lambs, and in these
lambs' progeny until a plain fourth class ' A ' or a ' watered silk ' is
obtained. In this way ' B ' rams could be used either for first crossing
or on third and fifth crosses. By 1hat time there should be con-
siderably more 'A' type rams, and 'B' could be done away with.
If careful mating and culling are exercised it is certain that high-
class lambs may be expected from the third cross upwards, equal and
better than many pure-bred lambs, always providing that pure-bred
ramb of superior quality are used. Taking* all things into considera-
tion, therefore, the safest, if not the most economic, line, to follow
is to use Africander or black-head Persian ewes and ' A ' type rams
throughout. This is especially recommended on farms where the
almost indispensable small camps required for mating small lots of
slieep are not available, for if the separate lots. are to be herded there
is almost certain to be some mixing up of the lots through the careless-
ness of herders.

" Other experiments, such as the merino and heidschrucken
crosses, are of no consequence. In the former case the wool renders
the sheep unsuitable, the karakul being essentiallj^ a hairy sheep.
The heidschrucken gives fair results, especially in B, but, being a
foreign sheep, they would have to be imported, there being only about
six pure-bred ewes in the country. They are, besides, inferior lo the
Africander and black-head Persian as foundation stock.'

Karakul Sheep.

Use of Ceoss-beed Rams.

G35

" This practice is not lecommended at all except for the produc-
tion of sheep to be slaughtered for mutton, when seven-eighths and
liigher grade rams can he used to advantage on Africander and
Xamaqua ewes.

'mmammmmm

" As experiment, still under observation, has revealed the fact
that cross-bred rams on foundation ewes give very poor lesults, rams
respectively three-quarters, seven-eighths, and fifteen-sixteenths
karakul are being used, but for the present nothing definite can be

(536 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

stated as to which grade is best. Instances are on record where
three-quarter-bred rams gave better lambs than either the seven-
eighths or fifteen-sixteenths; while others -were very little better than
the original foundation ewes, except for a little colour. In no case
has a lamb by a cross-bred ram been as good as one by a pure-bred
ram from the same ewe. Examination of stock where farmers have
been using" cross-bred rams for several crossing's liave shown very
unsatisfactory results as far as the covering' is concerned, althoug'h
there is an improvement in carcass."

Progress of Cross-breeding in vSouth-West Africa.

"Outside the Government sheep or flocks very little is known
regarding" the progress in quality of fur excepting" on the farms in
the neighbourhood of the Government Stud Farm. Further than that
pure karakul rams are still in good demand, and are bought more or
less by breeders of long" standing". T\ew breeders are, however, added
to the list at almost every sale. The fact that the older breeders
repeatedly come back to make further purchases should suffice to
show that they have confidence in the future of the breed. In spite
of being" unable to dispose of the pelts for practically the last five
years they are still spending money on them. Gn the uiajority of
farms yet visited it is found that very little is done to establish any
particular type of curl, and on many not even the grade is distin-
guished by any mark. Indiscriminate mating is found on every farm,
irrespective of class, grade, or type of either ram or ewe. So long
as a ram is pura he is bought and used. Odd breeders ascei-tain the
type or class and endeavour to purchase on the same line. Grading
with cross-bred rams has been largely done, and the results outside
the mutton point of view, as already mentioned, are anything but
satisfactory."

Cross-breeding at the Grootfontein School of
Agriculture.

The object in view in undertaking the cross-breeding experiments,
or, rather, the grading-up experiments, at this institution were two-
fold : (a) To determine wliich of the easily procurable classes of ewes
in the Union would be most suitable for pelt-breeding, and (b) whether
karakul rams could with advantage be used for obtaining" bigger and
heavier sheep for mutton purposes, using- the same ewes as in («i),
and whether the covering of the adult grade sheep would have any
commercial value.

With these objects in view the following types of foundation
ewes were purchased; (1) Blackhead Persians (see Plate 15);
(2) j^amaquas (see Plate 16) ; (3) low-grade woolled Persians (see
Plate IT)" (4) high-grade v.^oolled Persians (see Plate 18); (5) a few
ewes graded from merinos by pure v.'oolled Pei'sian rams (see Plate 19).

Unfortunately we did not then possess the knowledge we now have
about the relative values of A and B type rams, and the use of any
pure-bred rams available has introduced some undesirable features
into the first crosses, i.e. half-bred karakuls, in the first two years of
the experiment. Since then only high quality A-type rams have
beeii used.

Karakul Sheep.

637

Plate 19. — Grade Woolled Persian Merino Foundation p]we. (Pnoto by Author.)
Plate 20. — Second cross Karakul Black Headed Persian Lamb. (Photo by
Author.) Plate 21. — Group of first cross Karakul Black Headed Persian
Yearling Ewes. (Photo by Author.)

638 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

The first-gTade lambs born showed the following- results : The
best stapled and curl pelt lambs were obtained from the low-grade
Avoolled Persian ewes, due, doubtless, to the length of staple of these
ewes. The next best were from Namaquas, and the third from black-
head Persians. The half-bred Namaqua-karakuls liad better lustre
due to the softness of the dam's covering, while that of the kempy
black-head Persians was not as good. The high-grade woolled Persian
ewes all dropped either white lambs with black points, or black
"nigger" curl lambs, while the grade Persian-merinos all had
"nigger" curl lambs. By far the greater majority of the first-cross
lambs were black or piebald. In the Namaqua crosses the charac-
teristics of the karakul were much more plainly stamped than in the
black-head Persian crosses. In this latter breed the lambs are in
physique exceedingly like their dams, but are bigger, and black
instead of white. The shape of the head is much more that of the
dam's breed, and even in the second cross this is usuaJly the case
(see Plate 20). The first cross from woolled Persians are very like
the pure karakul in both body and head, due to this sheep being very
similar to karakuls in conformation. The resemblance to the pure
karakul is even more marked when these crosses are full-grown, when
they can easily be mistaken for pure-bred karakuls at a casual glance.

The three-quarter bred or second-cross grades show that the
T^amaquas or black-head Persians are must better as foundation stock
for pelt-breeding than the other more woolly breeds, although some
of the lambs from the low grade Persians have pelts quite equal to
those of woolly pure-bred karakul lambs. There are indications,
however, that the black-liead Persians are better than the Namaquas.
and the conformation of these sheep is also better thnii the latter breed.
Plate 21 shows a group of first-cross karakul-black-head Persian
ewes just cutting their first permanent incisors.

It would, therefore, appear that the black-head Persian ewes are
the best of the breeds, tried to date, to use as foundation stock for
grading up lambs with fur pelts. As Mr. Thompson lias already dealt
with how to set about building up a flock, there is no occasion to add
anything* on that subject, except that our experience leads us to
recommend the use of A-type rams only, and that tightness of curl
can well be left until quality of hair and lustre are thoroughly estab-
lished in a flock. If it is found that good prices are not obtained, due
to lack m tightness of curl, while quality and lustre are being estab-
lished, the male lambs should be castrated and sold as slaug'hter-
stock in the usual Avay. Later, when the curl is tighter, still through
the use of tight A rams, the high prices will come, and by that time
the breeder will have sufficient expei'ience to know whether he can
risk using a good AB ram to tighten the curl yet more. In tlie mean-
time the investigations at Grootfontein and Otjituesu will liave yielded
some definite results, which will also be at the disposal of the breeder.

A breed with which grading experiments have not yet been made,
but which appear in many respects the most likely for the production
of pelts of high value, is the " ronderib Africander," and it is hoped
to obtain sufficient ewes of this breed very shortly to commence an
investigation into their possibilities as foundation stock.

When we come to the second portion of the investigation, namely,
the influence of karakul sires in producing offspring which mature
quickly and which show an appreciable increase in weight over their

Karakul Sheep. 639

dams, we have very encouraging results. To make this investigation
complete the flocks used should have been double the size, so that
half the ewes of each breed could liave been put to karakul rams,
and the other half to rams of their own breed, and all the lambs
dropped shoiild have been raised under the same conditions. It was,
however, impossible to obtain permission to do this, although it is still
hoped that now that sufficient first-cross lambs Jiave been obtained
from the foundation ewes, permission will be granted to mate these
ewes to rams of their own breed. These lambs should, on the same
veld, give some valuable information on the points required.

All the weights given belo^' were taken in February, 1919, after
a diy spring and summer, and none of the sheep had had any
additional feeding. The weights refer to half-bred or first crosses
only, i.e. the progeny of foundation ewes put to pure-bred karakul
rams, except where otherwise stated. The foundation ewes, i.e. the
dams of the ( ross-breds, were all, at the time of weighing, ewes having
six or eight permanent incisors. The average weights were as follows :

Foundation ewes —

(1) Grade woolled Persians from merinos 841- ib.

(2) Grade woolled Persians 86J lb.

(3) I'ure-bred black-head Persians 74 lb.

(4) Puie-bred Xnmaciuas 781b.

Pure karahul and grade Iambs 4^-b^ months old —
Pure Karakuls. Woolled Persians. B. H. Persiaxs. Namaquas.

Ewes. Wethers. Ewes. Wethers, Ewes. Wethers. Ewes. Wethers.

.51 lb. .% lb. .58 lb. iV2h lb. .56;, lb. 57i lb. 63 lb. .56 lb.

Average iveights at changing teeth —

69 1b. 87', lb. No sheep. 78 1b. 64i lb. 64 1b. (U^ lb. 69 1b.

Average loeights two permanent incisors —
98 lb. 108 lb. 89^ lb. None. 88| lb. None. 83 lb. None.

It will be seen from the above weights tliat in eveiy^ case the
average weig^ht of the first-grade .sheep at two teeth up was greater
than that of their dams as fully grown sheej).

No information as to the value of the adult fleece of the first
grade is at present available. As will be seen in Plate 21 even
the first-cross piogeny from the kempy black-head Persian have quite
decent coverings, and in the case of the other classes of grades this
covering is longer and of better texture.

X.

Trade in Karakul Skins.

The following is taken from an earlier bulletin on karakul sheep
by Mr. Alex. Holm: "Much interesting information with regard
to the trade in. and value of, karakul skins is given in the report made

640 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

by M. Karapov to the Russian GovernmeBt. Tliis report has been trans-
lated and published by the Union Department of Agriculture (Bulletin
No. IT of 1914). It states that from the Khanate of Bokhara there
are exported from one and one-fifth to one and a half million skins per
annum, valued at nearly £1,000,000, and that there has been a steady
advance in price for many years past. About fifteen years ago the
highest price was 8 roubles (about ]6s.) per skin, and it is stated
that in recent years this price has been almost doubled. During his
visit to Bokhara in 1910, the best ram-skins were sold at about 24s.
each. Dealing with the trade in ' hundreds of thousands of pieces
to the value of millions of roubles' (note, a rouble about 2s.)
he gives the following average prices: —

1895 3.91 roubles (about 8s.).

1902 6.63 roubles (about 13s. 3d.).

1909 8.70 roubles (about 16s. 9d.).

" In this way the price has risen by 70 per cent, in the first eight
years, and by 31 per cent, in the second eight years, or by 122.5 per
cent, in the whole period of fifteen years. Add to this the rise since
1909, which amounts to 25 to 30 per cent., and we have, in comparison
with 1895, a total rise of 180 per cent. These prices refer io raw
undyed skins. The chief markets for their sale are I^ijni-Novgorod
unci Moscow. At the former it would appear that about one million
skins are sold annually, of a value over £500,000. Before being
manufactured into garments the skins are tanned and dyed. The
dyeing process has been chiefiy done at Leipzig, from which the skins
are exported largely to Russia. Leipzig handled annually about
;>85,000 skins, valued at -six million marks (£300.000), or an average
of 16s. per skin."

Since the above bulletin was written there has been a further
increase in the prices paid for skins. This is due to several causes,
such as the large amount of money spent by munition and other
war workers in England and France, the shutting out of Bokhara
from the European markets, etc. That country, however, is still
the scene of severe fighting, and the fur-bearing flocks are probably
greatly decreased in number, and this is also the case in Bessarabia.
Further, the natives of Bokhara have for years past been slaughtering
their best lambs for the sake of the prices obtained, and they have
never bred karakuls on scientific lines or even taken any precautions
against in-breeding or contamination with foreign blood. There has,
of course, been no attempt made at any method of mating. We have
thus in South Africa every chance of building up an industry in
these pelts which will put it ahead of any other country, especially
as our native sheep, and others readily obtained, are splendidly suited
for grading up flocks for the production of pelts of high value.

In order to obtain some idea of what could be expected for grade
karakul pelts, a small consignment of twenty skins was sent to London
to the Trades Commissioner, who submitted them for valuation to
Messrs. Martin & Sons, Ltd., 68 Upper Thames Street, London, E.C.
Unfortunately the pelts were shipped on the " Kenilworth Castle " on
her ill-fated voyage, and the pelts 'were consequently considerably
damaged by salt water. In their report Messrs. Martin & Sons, Ltd..
stated that in valuing the pelts they had, as far as possible, regarded
them as if undamaged. Grade pelts of all classes were sent, even

Karakul Sheep. G41

althougli we knew that some were very inferior, and the values placed
on tliem were clear proof tliat the opinions formed as to what con-
stituted good pelts were correct. These valuations varied from Is. to
£2. 10s. per skin. The two skins valued at 50s. each were from
seven-eighth karakul Iambs, i.e. the tliird-cross karakuls on
Africander foundation ewes.

As many pelts, far superior to those sent, are obtained every yeai'
in the Government pure-bred flocks, it can safely be assumed that
£3 each could be readily obtained for pelts of good quality. At the
above valuations the pelt of a lamb as described in Plate 10 is worth
at least £4 to £4. 10s.

With reference to the actual marketing of skins, nothing definite
can be said at present, except that the market exists, and that breeders,
by communicating with the firm mentioned above, can make their
own arrangements. The Department of Agriculture is at present
inquiring into this matter, and the result of these inquiries will be
made known in due course. We may add that in 1917 we saw the
report on some skins sent from South- West Africa 1o the United
States of America. The skins were purchased by the firm to whom
they were sent at prices varying between 16s. and 23s. each, and an
order was placed for 4000 skins of the same quality. Some skins,
somewhat superior to those sent to the United States of America, and
supplied by the same breeder, were sent to London in the consigment
mentioned above, and were valued as high as 30s. each. These skins
were all seven -eighth karakul.

(jENEKAL.

Breeders of karakul sheep will be interested to learn that at the
conclusion of the annual stock sale at the Grootfontein School of
xVgriculture, held on 5th September, 1919, a meeting of owners of
pure-bred karakuls was held. Mr. Alex. Holm, the Under-Secretary
for Agriculture, to whose energy the Union owes the introduction of
this breed of sheep, presided. At the request of the meeting Mr. Holm
promised to bring before the Council of the South African Stud Book
Association the desirability of providing for the registration of
jjure-hred karakul sheep. That is sheep whose parents on both sides
can be traced back, without the introduction of any foreign blood, to
the original importations into South-West Africa. At the time of
writing no further information is available on this subject, but there
is little doubt that such a register will be opened, as it is most impera-
tive, it only for the protection of owners of pure-bred stock. Many
grade karakuls appear to have been disposed of already as pure-
bred stock, and intending purchasers are warned against the great
danger of purchasing alleged pure-bred karakuls without making
certain that they are absolutely pure-bred.

A certain number of pure-bred karakuls, both rams and ewes,
will in future be offered annually at the sale at Grootfontein, and it
is only at this sale that Government-bred sheep can be obtained, always
excepting any other sales arranged by the Administration of the
South-AVest Protectorate, of pure-bred stock of their breeding.

Inquiries from breeders in the Union relative to these sheep
should be addressed to the Principal, Grootfontein School of Agricul-
iure, Middelburg, Cape.

642 Journal of t^e DeparI^menT op Agricult^urU.

Conclusion.

While the writer is aware that much has been left unsaid, it is
hoped that this article will be of use to those breedino" either pure
karakuls or g'rades.

Where merino sheep thrive it would be a great pity to displace
them with karakuls or any other breed of sheep, but for the large areas
which at present support only '' bastard " sheep, or which have much
'■' stekgras," or are areas liable to outbreaks of " bloedpens " or to
prolonged droughts, there is no sheep equal to the karakul, and
farmers would do well to give this magnificent breed a trial.

Peanut Growing.

Many inquiries on peanut growing are received and the following
few points are given as a guide to those who contemplate going in
for the crop.

One of the most important points is the selection of seed. Farmers
should see that the seed is imiform, as it often happens that the
planting of a miscellaneous collection of seed means an indifferent
stand and results in a poor yield. It is the general practice to use
shelled nuts for planting, although equally good results have been
obtained by planting imshelled seed 8 to 3^ feet apart. Peanuts
can be grown on almost any soil containing a fair proportion of lime,
but is is advisable to plant, if possible, on a sandy loam soil ; about
28 to 30 lb. per acre is required. It is very necessary to plant the
seed early in the summer, as it takes fully five months to mature,
and is rather sensitive to frost. As a soil renovator the peanut is
rich in nitrogen and contains a considerable amount of phosphoric
acid and potash, comparing favourably with the constituents of
cotton seed, and as a fertilizer the vines are nearly as valuable as the
cowpea itself.

The peanut is fast becoming a staple commodity. Already large
quantities are being used as roasted nuts for eating and other pur-
poses. Peanut butter is being recognized as an excellent substitute
for ordinary butter. It is also used largely in the manufacture of
soap, and contains a most valuable oil, for which there is a large
demand.

Fencing Materials.

The Department has no fencing materials for disposal, but
owners of farms or lessees or allotees from the Government with the
option of purchase, can obtain loans from the 'Land Bank, in terms of
Section 3 of the Fencing Act, No. 17 of 1912, for the purpose of
purchasing materials to fence the outside boundary lines of their
holdings and to cover the other costs incidental thereto. Such loans
are repayable by annual instalments over a period of 10 years, bearing
interest at the rate of 4 per cent. Further particulars and applica-
tion forms are obtainable from every magistrate or direct from the
General Manager of the Land Bank, Pretoria.

The Department op Agriculture during the War. 643

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DURING

THE WAR.

[This article, which commenced in the Ma\', 1920, issue, and is conchided in this, briefly
reviews the work carried out by the various branches of the Department during the
years of the war, and records some achievements despite the many difficulties
encountered through the abnormal conditions then existing. — Acting Editor.]

Agricultural Education.

The foregoing- outline of the work carried out by the various
divisions of the Department does not deal with that important part of
its activities known as " ag-ricultural education." details of which are
published in its annual reports. The functions falling under this
branch of the Department are manj-, including' the teaching and
training- of students at the five ag-ricultural schools and experiment
stations, agricultural research, experiments and investigations, exten-
sion work, lectures and demonstrations, improvement and manage-
ment of stock and crops, etc. Agricultural education, therefore, is
concerned with a large number of measures taken to improve our
knowledge of the agricultural conditions of the country and the
dissemination of that knowledge among the farming population. The
staff at the agricultural schools and experiment stations collaborate
and co-operate with the officers of the different divisions at head-
quarters (referred to earlier in this article) engaged in research and
investigational work. The combined effort is bearing fruit in an
increase of our knowledge of agricultural conditions, practice, and
problems, as witnessed in the position of agriculture to-day compared
with not so many years ago. It is not possible to include in this
article all the many and diverse matters which were dealt with by the
agricultural education section, with its five agricultural schools and
experiment stations (each in itself a miniature department of agri-
culture for the area relegated to its sphere of operations), and brief
reference onlj- will he made of certain main subjects, common to all
the institutions, which came under purview during the time of the
war.

As has been referred to in connection with other divisions the
outbreak of war, with its trail of consequences such as staff shortage
and financial stringency, was the cause of arresting to a large extent
the steady forward progress of agricultural education. Nevertheless,
in the face of many difficulties, the work accomplished in 1914-15 and
since has brought many benefits to the farmer, who has come to rely
more and more on the services of Government officials. The number
of students in residence at the various schools was affected by tii"-
large number which left to join the military forces, as clearly shown
in the following table, viz. : —

Attendance in Regular Courses.

N... N...

1914 205 191T 109

1915- 104 1918 126

1916 130

644 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

The staffs of the different schools were strengthened from time to
time by the appointment of a number of Government students who
had completed their studies abroad, but the country is so vast and the
demands so great that many more additions are necessary. It is
interesting- to note here that forty-five scholarships for study oversea
have been granted since Union, previous to which thirty-three had
been granted. Thirty-two returned scholars are in Government
service, thirty are still engaged in studying; eleven others, who were
appointed to posts, have left the service.

The suspension of the Agricultural Journal at this time meant that
effective publication could not be given to the work of the officers of
the Department. However, during 1914-15 twenty-three articles
dealing with agriculture and agricultural science, and giving the
results of experiment and research work, were published, and by other
means also the public was kept informed of the work being done at
the schools. In addition to work at the schools 190 lectures and
demonstrations at various centres, attended in all bv 7000 people,
were given ; fifty-two agricultural shows were assisted in connection
with judging, and an exhibit portraying agricultural educational
activity was sent to eleven of them ; 440 farms and poultry yards
were visited for purposes of giving advice ; and 8000 letters of an
advisory nature were wa-itten. There were six different courses in
operation during the year embracing a wide range of subjects and
attended by the various grades of students for which they were
intended. In 1915 there were 104 students at the schools, and in
addition 136 meu and 81 women attended the short courses.

A great deal of experimental work was carried out on the expei'I-
ment farms attached to each school, the results being published, v.v(]
progress was made in conducting co-operative experiments either wHh
farmers on their own farms or in conjunction with agricultural
societies. Apart from the ordinary variety trials and manurinl
experiments upon different crops, notable results were obtained in
chemical investigations in the tannin contents of wattle bark, feeding
experiments concerning the production of beef, ostrich breeding and
management, life histories of insect pests and methods of control, plant
breeding, etc.

Arrangements were made for the chemical analyses for farmers
of agricultural soils, manures, feeding stuffs, etc., and 617 such
analyses were completed during the year. Also 99 samples of milk
and cream were tested for butter-fat contents. Five sub-experiment
stations and stud farms were closed down ann their activities trans-
ferred to the agricultural schools. The different breeds and numbers
of pure-bred stock to be maintained at each agricultural school were
decided upon, all siirplus stock being- disposed of during the year.

Development in regard to buildings and implements was arrested
by the war, but a number of minor works were carried out bv the
staff of the schools concerned.

While the conditions set up bv the war continued to exert a dis-
turbing influence upon the agricultural schools and experiment
stations, it was possible nevertheless to carry on with much useful
work, and during the year 1915-16 members of the staff of the schools
gave 301 lectures and demonstrations attended by 9684 people, visited
1019 farms, were in attendance at 121 agricultural shows (at certain
of which carefully prepared educational exhibits were placed and live

The Department op Agriculture during the War. 645

stock representative of various breeds exhibited > and disposed of 9621
inquiries by correspondence, and the Lecturer in Household Science
carried out very useful extension work. In addition to the instruction
given the 130 students at the schools, the short courses proved to be
very popular and were attended by 185 men and women, the
attendance increasing* to~300 during the next two years. Cnniorences
on poultry-keeping, wheat growing, and other subjects, and likewise
the annual stock sales, were well attended, while large numbers of
farmers visited the various institutions.

A number of bulletins were published and articles written for the
Press, and despite the depletion of the staffs some very interesting
investigations were conducted, also a great many experiments and
demonstrations with crops, manures, animal feeding, etc., and a large
number of analyses of soils, fertilizers, foodstuffs, etc., were under-
taken for farmers.

The sales of surplus stock during the year realized £7304, and
arrangements made for the use of stallions at the institutions were
availed of to the extent of 149 mares. The total area of land under
cultivation to provide for the live stock maintained and to enable a
proper training (suitable for South African conditions) to be given to
students was 2810 acres.

In like manner, though hampered and retarded by the war and
the shortage of staff, the many and various branches of work were
continued during the ensuing years (1916-17 and 1917-18). An
indication of what was accomplished in certain directions is given in
the following figures: —

,, , Inquiries

replied to.

1916-17 ... 10,981
1917-18 ... 11,377

The amount of research and experimental work, analyses and
reports for farmers, itinerant instruction, etc., continued to increase,
the demands on the services of the staff showing a growing apprecia-
tion by farmers of the value to be derived from the agricultural
schools in the many directions in which practical help was forth-
coming from them. Statistics show that during the past five years
100,000 persons received advice and as.sistance from the schools eithei-
by means of lectures, correspondence, or visits.

During the two years ended 31st March, 1918, ninety-seven
articles were written by the staff'. The arrangements for the use of
stud stallions were continued and largely availed of ; the sales of pure-
bred stock realized £11,882 in 1916, £17,399 in 1917, and in 1918
reached £28,251. 16s. 9d. ; and the area maintained under cultivation
was approximately 3120 acres.

Altogether, evidence was abundant of the influence and value of
the agricultural schools and experiment farms connected with them
in the agricultural life of the country. The gratifying progress made
in agriculture and stock breeding was undoubtedly assisted by the
officers of agricultural education, who took an active and leading part
th-erein, and had the war not set up many obstacles and difficulties it
is certain that the Department's activities would have extended con-
siderably further and have contributed in no small degree to the
greater development of scientific agriculture in the TTnion,

Lecture's and Attendance

«i

Visits

Demonstrations at

DllOWS

Attended.

to

given. Lectures, etc.

Farmers.

316 13,602

120

914

389 15,461

144

889

()4(.i

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

THE TOLL OF THE WAR.

In an article entitled " The Department ot Agriculture during-
the War," which appeared in the May, 1920, and subsequent issues
of the Jovrnal, and is concluded in this issue, a short review is given
of the work carried out by the various branches of the Department
during" the stress of the war.

We wish, also, specially to record the number of officers of the
Department who were on military service in various capacities during"
the war, and to name those who lost their lives in the fulfilment of
their duty.

1. Total number on active service: Agriculture, 253; Agricul-
tural Education, 55; total, 308.

2. Tlie following particulars are given of those who lost their
lives : —

Name.

Post.

Period.

Rank and Unit.

Theatre.

Brenchlev, J..

Clerical Assistant

Oct.. 1914-Jul3s

Tpr. 1 St MountedRiflcs :

South-West

M.C.

1915; Sep., 191G-

2nd Lieutenant Cold-

Africa ;

Oct., 1917

stream Guards

Frajice.

De Villiers.

Sheep Inspector

Oct.. 19H^Nov..

Coradt. Col. Mentz"s

Rebellion.

D.J.

1914

Column

Howell. S.

Clerical Assistant

Aug., 1914-June.

Pte. 1st Eastern Rifles ;

Rebellion ;

1915; March. 1916

Pte. 1st S.A.I.

South-West

Oct.. 1916

Africa ;
Europe.

Kill lay. ,1. A.

Cleric

August, 1915-July,
1916

Pte. 4th S.A.I.

Europe.

Lambert, M.

Stock Inspector

Oct., 1914-Jan.,

Tpr. Southern Rifles ;

South-West

1915; Jan., 1915-

Pte. Hai tigan's Horse ;

Africa ;

May, 1915 ; Oct.,

Pte. 2nd S.A.I.

Do.;

1916-April, 1917

Europe.

Lundie, W.A.

Clerical Assistant

Aug., 19i4-Aug..

Pte. 1 2th Pretoria Regt. ;

German East

1915; Sep., 1915-

Pte. 3rd S.A.I.

Africa ;

July, 1916

Europe.

Payer, F. V.

Stock Ins]jector

Sep.,' 1916-Nov..

Tpr. 2nd Mounted Bri-

German East

1916 ; Nov., 1916-

gade ; GunnerS.A.H.A.

Africa ;

Oct., 1917

Europe.

Parsons, C. B.

Assistant Hoiti-

Dec, 1914-Julv.

Pte. D.E.O.R. : Lieut.

Rebellion ;

culturist, Elsen-

1916

1st S.A.I.

South-West

berg School of

Africa ;

Agriculture

France.

Scrooby. M.J.

Stockman, A^eter-

July, iyi7-Dec.,

Driver S.A.S.C. (M.T.)

German East

inary Research

1918

Africa.

Division

Shaw.C.M.G.

Sheep Inspector

Aug., 1915-Sep..
1917

Pte. 4th S.A.I. Brigade

Europe.

Sunshine. A.J.

Stock Inspector

Sc{)., 1916-Nov..

Tpr. S.A.H. CM. G. Sec-

German East

1916; Nov., 1916

tion); Pte. 2nd S.A.I.

Afri( a ;

Sept.. 1917

Brigade

Europe.

Vipond, H.J.

Chief Chemist

July, 1915-Feb.,
1917

Pte. Coldstream Guards

France.

VVor.sley,J. A.

Govt. Veterinary
Officer

August, 1914

Capt. S.A.M.R.

Soutli-West
Africa.

The Spinose Ear-Tick. 647

THE SPINOSE EAR-TICK.

Practical Suggestions for Suppression.

By Colin Stoi?v, Baddatord, Fort Beaufort.

Reininted from the Farmer's Weekly, 10th December, 1919, p.
1977, icith comments by C. P. Lounsbmy, Chief, Division of
Entomology, Deportment of Agriculture.

AVhile spending* some time in the Aliwal North District last year the
writer amused himself with the study of the spinose ear-tick, a com-
paratively recent introduction into this country and a most obnoxious
stock pest. As this tick and its habits are not so widely known as
our coinmon cattle ticks the following" notes may be of interest : —

The spinose ear-tick must not be confused with the red tick,
whose first two stages are passed in the ears of cattle. It takes its
names from minute bristles, or spines, which cover the body when a
nymph, the form most familiar to those who know the tick. (For
those who have forgotten, a tick's life is divided into three stages —
the larval, the nymphal, and the adult). The tick is unlike other
cattle ticks in that there is no shield on the back, fit resembles the
tampan in appearance, and has its mouth parts on the underside of
the body at the extreme forword end. It is found on cattle and sheep,
and less commonly on other domestic animals : its feeding ground is
the ear only and nowhere else.* Boys who come much in contact
with cattle and the cattle kraal are also liable to infection, and during
my short experience with the tick two young natives had to be treated.
The tick causes considerable discomfort within the ear and may be so
deep seated as to be out of sight. If not suspected, the pain and
subsequent abscess would he difficult to account for. The larva being
extremely small and greyish-white in colour can easily gain access to
the ear unnoticed and unfelt, and it may be several days bdfore its
presence is suspected.

* Mr. Story has since learned that an occasional ppecimen attaches and feeds ou the
skin, at least "in the case of woolled sheep. When visiting a Colesburg District farm, he
found in two instances a nearly full-grown nymph to be the cause of a sheep biting at its
side as if irritated. His examination disclosed no swelling where the tick was attached but
the presence of excrement in the surrounding wool indicated that the specimen had been
located for sorne time where it was found. — C, P. L.

648 Journal of the Department of Agriculture,

Where Infection Lies.

As in appearance, so in life-history, the spinose ear-tick is'
different from all other cattle ticks. It is a pest of the stable and the
kraal much more than the veld. Where the tick has lately made its
appearance the milk cows in the kraal, particularly if they sleep
there, may be heavily infested while the dry cattle in the veld are
clean, a fact no doubt due to a peculiarity in the li*fe-cycle of the tick
to be later noted. The females are said to lay their eggs in cracks
and crevices of fencing- posts, in stone walls, and under stones in the
veld. Personally, however, the writer was not successful in finding
adult ticks in any of these places. The favourite place would appear
to be the loose, dry manure which fills the spaces between the stones
at the bottom df the kraal wall and some distance in — six to nine
inches. Here numerous adults, male and female, were found, and
large numbers of newly hatched larvae. These are remarkably act.'ve
six-legged little creatures, and resemble the colour of their surround-
ings so much that they are hard to find. They are present in greatest
numbers close to the base of the wall, and rapidly diminish in numbers
with each yard of distance from the wall. The farthest distance
from home where odd larvae were seen was six yards. Like " seed "
ticks in the veld, the ear-tick larvae become greatly agitated and
extraordinarily active on the ap])i-onch of a host and move relatively
at a great rate. Any one standing for a minute or less within the
precincts of a colony will notice on close observation ticks making
towards him ifrom all directions. Cows and calves lying near the
walls of an infected kraal are practically certain to have a number of
larvae in their ears jiext day, although they will not be seen for
several d.ays, when the ticks are partially engorged.

Stages of Development.

In the case of a sheep that was infected for experimental purposes
larvae took from six to ten days to get through the moult. The fed
larva before moulting is milk-white in colour; a few are bright pink.
The legs cannot be distinguished unless under low power of the
microscope, neither is any movement to be seen; the fed larva has
about eight times the bulk of the unfed form. The emerging nymph
is somewhat leggy, wrinkled, and thick skinned, the latter allowing
for abundant expansion and the former providing <or the easy trans-
port of a very much bulkier body. This is now the unfed form of
the familiar spinose ear-tick, although it would never appear so, so
great is the difference in size between the newly moulted and the fully
fed 'forms. Without leaving the ears the nymph settle down to feed
again, and in the case under observation all the ticks had left the
ears in thirty-six days. This feeding period varies greatly, however;
according to Mr. Bedford, of the Division of Veterinary Research, it
varies from one week to three months. The nymphs moult in about
three weeks — this time also varies — and in another four weeks
females may be seen laying eggs. When the nymphs leave the ears
they do not return to a host again, but, crawling to some sheltered
spot, they moult and pair without further nourishment. The adult
ticks are the same size as the fed nymphs, and differ in having a
minutely pitted skin and no spines. They also show genital orifices,
which i^TP nl^sent ii) fhe nymphal forms, .

The Spinose Ear- Tick. 649

The Only Eemedy.

The ear-tick is a difficult tick to kill. Tank dipping does not
affect it, as its feeding ground within the ear is beyond the reach of
the dip. Cattle must be caught and the ears hand-dressed. Ordinary
dips are not satisfactory, as the tick has extraordinary resisting
powers. Petrol has no effect on them, and pure paraffin kills only on
the second day, and sometimes not even then. The mixture recom-
mended by Mr. Bedford — Stockholm tar, oil (any kind), and turpen-
tine, 2: 2: 1 — is an excellent killer, but care must be taken not to
smear the hair in the ear, otherwise when the ear is flapped the
mixture reaches the eye and causes rather severe irritation. Cooper's
have a special preparation for the spinose ear-tick wliicli has been
found most satisfactory. It is a thin fluid mixture which soon dries,
and therefore does not gain access to the eyes. As the tick leaves its
host a sexless nymph there is not the same cliance of males and
females meeting in the open veld as there is in the kraal. This,
together with the fact that larvae do not appeal- able to survive five
months' starvation, doubtless accounts for the mild veld infection.
The source of serious infection is therefore the kraal and cow-stable,
and cattle can be used in those places as a means of getting rid of
the tick. It is not feasible to exterminate the tick by burning or
spraying, as the moulting nymphs and laying females are protected
by tile kraal wall and I'V a covering of kraal manure.

How TO Clean a Faem.

Infected kraals and cattle may be cleaned by systematic ear-
dressing, say, once, a fortnight. The cattle attract the larvae, and
provided every beast in the la-aal is treated with an effective mixture
few ticks can escape. The wash should be allowed to run well down
into the ear, and the ear worked with the hand as the tick is very
deep-seated and many of them far out of sight. In post-mortem cases
many ticks were found in places that could only be reached by
cutting to the extreme base otf the external ear, and in one instance
on opening the ear to the osseous tube, which projects from the skull,
one or two nymphs were found within it. In heavily infected kraals
cows and calves will be found to have the hollows and grooves of the
ear, and also the passage to the middle ear, packed with ticks in all
stages from newly attached larvae to large mature nymphs. The ear
presents a very dirty and messy appearance, due to discharges from
the bitten places, together with numerous moulted skins, and it is
difficult at first glance to distinguish any but the larger nymphs.
Fed larvae, owing to their whiteness, their invisible legs, and their
immobility, are sometimes mistaken for eggs, while the fed nypmhs
are taken for females. Young calves up to three months suffer most
from the ear-tick. Its bite seems to be highly poisonous, resulting in
swellings at the base of the ear, at the point of the jaw, and in the
throat. There is often a copious discharge from the ear, and the calf
rapidly goes off condition, ceases to feed, and ultimately dies. On
one farm where the ear-tick had only recently made its appearance
the owner lost eight calves in as many weeks. In every case abscesses
were present. Before the advent of the tick a calf dying from disease
was practically unknown. After one or two fortnightly dressings the
rows and calves were entirely free from nymphs, Uie swelling begau

650 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

to disappear, and the animals returned to normal condition. There
is no doubt if this treatment were kept up it would not be lono- before
the ticks were so reduced as to be of little account.

PRECAUTIONS NeC:ESS.\RY.

Farmers bringing cattle from a known ear-tick area to a clean
district should have all animals hand-dressed immediately before
leaving, whether ticks are evident or not, and in case some ticks may
still be present on arrival at their destination it would be advisable
to hand-dress again at least once and to keep the animals under
observation for a week or two. A great risk of introducing- this tick
to a clean area lies in the fact that the tick may Cjuite commonly be
present and its presen(;e impossible to detect. Apparently clean ears
are no guarantee that tick^ are not present.

Comments by C. P. Lounsbury.

The writer of the foregoing article, Mr. Colin Story, is a graduate
of the Elsenburg School of x4.griculture. and was an officer oi the
Department of Agriculture for a number of years before he took up
farming about 1906. When with th^^ Department he was concerned
with stock dipping experiments for the destruction of ticks, and in
the years that have intervened he has maintained his old interest in
ticks. It was therefore but natural that when considerations for
health necessitated his leading a rather inactive outdoor life in the
Aliwal North District for several months he should divert himself
with a study of the ear-tick, a species new in his experience. He had
no account of the tick by any previous student to influence his observa-
tions, and hence his conclusions are quite unbiassed and those of a
practical farmer with an unusually sound general knowledge of ticks.
Later he received from me a copy of Mr. G. A. IT. Bedford's paper
which was published as Local Series Bulletin Xo. 18 of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture. Believing that a simple, straight forward
article on the ear-tick, such as he would write, would find particular
favour with the ^farmers of the country who have the misforiune to
have the tick on their stock. I urged Mr. Story to write up his observa-
tions and get them ])ublished in the Fanner'' >i Weekly. He acted on
my advice, and now, with his permission, the article is here repro-
duced. The opportunity is taken to offer a few couiments and to
draw attention to points on which Mr. Story's observations are not
fullv in accord with the statements given in the leading American
account of the tick (IT.S.D.A. Bur. Ent. Bull. 106).

Relation to Other Kinds of Tichs. — The common stock-infesting
ticks, that is the bont, liont-leg, blue, red, brown. Cape brown, black-
pitted, and russet ticks, are all J^mclid ticks, and have many features
in common not found in the spinose ear-tick. The latter is an Argasid
tick along with the true tampan that attacks man, the fowl-tick (often
called tampan), the bat-tick, and the penguin-tick. The Argasid
ticks all lack the firm, non-stretching '' "shield " present on the back

The Spinose Ear-Tick. 651

of all the Ixodid ticks and have tougher, more leathery, skins. They
vary in their feeding habits much more than do tlie Ixodid ticks, all
of which, so far as known, have three active life-stages — larval,
nymphal, and adult — during each of which they attack the animal.
The spinose ear-tick also has three active stages, and only three
apparently, but the adult stage does not take food. The true tampan
has six active stages, but it does not take nourishment in the first,
while the fowl-tick has four and attacks the host in all of them. In
appearance the adult spinose ear-tick most resembles tlie true tampan,
but it is distinguished by a slight constriction of its body behind the
middle which has led to it being called fiddle (violin) shaped. The
nymph, the stage most commonly seen, is the only tick, so far as
known, that has a spiny skin.

Many kinds of ticks attach themselves to the ears of animals, but
the larvae and nymphs of the spinose ear-tick and the larvae and
nj^mphs of the red tick are the only kinds, in South Africa at least,
known to attach deep in the ear. The red tick is one olf the most
widely distributed ticks in the country. Its young are quite common
in the ears of farm stock ; in fact they seem to feed almost exclusively
there, but they are not known to cause serious distress, and their
similarity in appearance to the common blue cattle-tick is sufficient
to enable farmers to distinguish them from the very dift'erent spinose
ear-ticks.

Hiding Places of Adult Ticks. — Mr. Story's observations that the
favourite place for the females to lay in "would appear to be the
loose dry manure which fills the spaces between the stones at the
bottom of the kraal wall " maj^ be thought somewhat difficult to
reconcile with the American statement that the ticks "" crawl up
several feet from the ground and secrete themselves in cracks and
crevices of the boards and tiinbers near the mangers, in the bark of
trees, etc." But Mr. Story's conclusions in this connection are
probably quite correct for the ordinary South African conditions.
The ticks evidently have no need to crawl high, and are well content
to come to rest in loose dry dung, filling a dark hole near the ground
level. Such situations are generally readily available in kraals, calf-
sheds, and the like. Mr. J. C. Faure, of the Division, in January of
the present year spent a couple of days at a Kimberley District farm
in studying the habits of the species in the light of Mr. Story's
observations. At this farm there is a cow kraal with a connecting
calf kraal and a connecting milking-shed. The walls are of rough
stones set in dagga (puddled mud), and only the milking-shed is
roofed. In the shed there are partitions to kee]) the cows separated,
each formed of a few upright and a few horizontal eucalyptus poles,
from which the most of the bark has been removed. The poles have
cracked deeply in drying and thus afford numerous crevices in which
ticks may secrete themselves. A considerable number o'f the ticks
were dug out of holes in the wall both of the open calf-shed and of
the covered milking-shed, the majority at or close to the surface level
and sheltered in the pulverized manure that had accumulated there.
Several were found in two crevices about two feet up 'from the ground.
None was found higher, yet there may have been some out of reach
or in holes that were not probed. But hours spent in probing the
cracks in the partition poles in the covered shed disclosed about
twenty adults, many nymphal skins, and e^g shells from ten inches

652 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

to six feet above the ground and more or less hidden in dust, old cob-
webs, etc. Many more were found in the vertical poles than in the
horizontal ones. About a dozen adults and nymplis were also found
in deep dust amongst the cobble stones of the floor of the shed under
feeding-boxes suspended about three inches above the floor. A long
search under stones in the part of the extensive calf pasture nearest
to the kraals, and where the animals .appeared to congregate most
when at liberty, failed to reveal even a single tick ; but five adults
were found in the dust beneath a corrugated-iron water-trough in
this enclosure several hundred yards distant from the kraal, and
twelve more were found in the dust underneath a salt-trough, although
none under near-by stones. Similarly no trace of the pest was found
under stones in the adjoining camp for grown cattle, but the first
scratch in the dust under a water-trough there brought an adult to
light, while another adult was found beneath a salt-trough.

How do the Seed Ticks get to Stock? — Larvae otf all kinds of
Ixodid ticks, so far as known, cluster on the grass or on other support,
generally at the tip of a projection, and there wait for an animal to
brush them off in passing by the place. Only a slight disturbance is
required to excite them and to cause them to stretch out their front
legs in readiness to scramble on to an animal. The American account
of the ear-tick seems to suggest that it behaves m much the same
way, for after telling that adults, eggs, and larvae are found several
feet above the ground it goes on to say: — "Such a habit is of
advantage to the larvae in finding their way to the ears of the host,
as cattle using infested stalls or rubbing against infested trees and
fences undoubtedly pick up large numbers." Mr. Story's observa-
tions, on the contrary, are to the effect that the larva crawls to the
animal. Mr. Faure's observations at the Kimberley farm are in keep-
ing with Mr. Story's, except that he was unable to notice the larvae
"making towards him from all directions." Mr. Faure, however,
did not find a great number of eggs and larvae, and it may be that he
was rather early in the season to see them in greatest abundance.
Mr. Story studied the tick chiefly in March. Mr. Faure saw only a
few of the larvae on the ground or elsewhere than at nlaces where he
raked out adults. Half an hour's watch of the ground in" the milking-
shed brought only three to his sight. One of the three was walking
away from him, but when he laid a finger on the ground about an
inch behind it it turned back and crawled on to his hand. The
other two were only six to nine inches off when first seen, and they
were moving away; he put his hand down an inch or so behind one
Off them, but it kept its direction. At another place in the shed he
got a weak calt to lie on the ground a foot or two out from the nearest
poles, and he then watched closely for larval ticks for about an hour.
During the period three larvae were seen, and all three went straight
to the calf and climbed on to it — one on to its tail and two on to it^.
legs. They were soon lost to sight in the hair. When first seen
these larvae were, respectively, about eight, twelve, and eighteen
inches away from the call. At another time four weio noticc-d en
the ground near poles in the shed, and one of these was seen to move
over the dry manure and dust about four feet in a few minutes ; it
seemed unaware that a potential host was near it, and merely walked
around a finger placed in its way. Other larvae were also observed
wandering about aimlessly on the ground, and one was observed on

The Spinose E^ar-Tick. 653

the back of a calf. The largest uumbei ol larvae seen together was
under the salt-trough in the calf camp. These larvae were very
active when disturbed, but they evinced no tendency to make for
Mr. Faure nor to get on to his hand, which he put on the ground a
few inches from them — they rather seemed to want to get out of the
sunliglit. It evidently does not take tlie larvae long to find the ears
and to settle down to feed. One calif that was born about 8 o'clock
in the morning was examined at m o'clock in the afternoon of the
next day, and already ten ]ar\^ae were seen to have started to feed in
its ears.

Lonpevifij of flic Tick. — The unfed larvae appear to be short
lived compared with the larvae of Ixodid ticks. Most of those
hatched under casual observation at the Division's office have died
within a month. In the American account alluded to it is stated that
under favourable conditions they may live for eighty days, but there
is reason to assume few live as long as that, while Ixodid larvae live
far longer waiting ifor an animal. It follows that the chances are
very much against the very small larvae succeeding in getting on to
an animal in the open veld. Then while Ixodid ticks mate before
they feed up and the females are therefoit.' ready to lay eggs when
they drop, the females of the ear-ticks must find mates off the animal,
and hence the chances are heavily against the ear-ticks that aje
dropped in the open veld becoming mated. It is for these reasons
that the ear-tick is far more common in kraaled stock than in animals
that roam at large in the veld day and night.

The female ear-tick does not lay her eggs until she has mated,
and she seems able to wait a very long time for a mate. Under date
of 10th January, 1919, a nymphal tick taken from the ear of a man
at Capetown was sent to the Division. In a few days it morlted and
proved to be a female. It was kept alone in a glass cube until 25th
November, or for nearly eleven months after it would have mated had
it had an opportunity. A male that had shed its nymphal skin on
20th November was then placed in the tube, and a few days later, on
the 29th, the two ticks were seen to be together. Eight days later,
6th December, the female hegan busily to lay eggs. The American
bulletin referred to ahove tells of one unmated female that remained
alive for eighteen months Mr. Faure has had one female live still
longer. It was one of a number of specimens confined together in a
small box, and it was seen to be alive twenty-two mouths from the
iime it was taken from the ear. Whether it mated and laid eggs or
not is unknown. The ear-ticks do not lay all their eggs at once,
another respect in which they differ radically from Ixodid ticks, but
lay intermittently for months. The American bulletin states that one
female, given a mate as soon as she had moulted the nymphal skin,
did not finally cease laying until 191 days from the moult; she had
spread the laying of her eggs over six months. These facts are of
interest because they indicate how infection might be kept up on a
farm even were remedial and preventive measures that effectively
prevented the maturing of any ticks and the introduction o^f any fresh
infection kept up for a full year or even nearly two years. A few
treatments in summer, as recommended by Mr. Story, however, should
show a marked diminution in the severity of the pest ; and it stands
to reason that in the construction of new kraals and sheds, and in the

tJ54

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

reconstruction di old ones, the advantage there would be in having
them as tick-proof as practicable should be given full consideration.

OO-- A,

■tt

L. 6.

SpiNOSt; Eak-Tick. — A, eggs; B, the iinfcl six-footed larva that climbs on
to the animal ; C, D, the fed larva seen from above and the underside,
which shows its legs ; E, the fed nymph as it leaves the ear. All figures
much more than life-size ; the actual size of the fed nymph is about that
of figure B.

Orange Stocks used in California.

In a recent letter received by the Chief of the Division of
Entomology from Washington the following information, on the
authority of Professor A. D. Shamel, is given in regard to the
source of the citrus seed used for the production of stock for budding
oranges in California. It is to be noted that the kind of stock used
almost exclusively, i.e. " sour " stock, has never been a success in
South Africa. The paragraph reads: —

" The source of seed used for orange stocks for citrus in
California is primarily the sour orange seed imported into California
from Florida. We raise a small quantity of sour stock seed in
California, but probably 99 per cent, of this seed used by nurserymen
comes from Florida. We are now experimenting with some seed of
the Seville orange which we secured from a Canadian marmalade
manufacturing establishment which uses imported Spanish Seville
oranges for making marmalade. It may be that source of supply
will supplant that of Florida, because v^e have had great difficulty
during the past year in securing adequate supplies of Florida seed.
This condition has resulted in a shortage of stock in California at this
time. In the past year about 100 bushels of Florida sour orange
seed was received from Florida and planted in California. I
remember that one year before the war 1000 bushels of Florida-grown
stock seed was planted by citrus nurserymen in southern
California."

Meat Supplies for the United Kingdom.

655

MEAT SUPPLIES FOR THE UNITED KINGDOBI

Tlie Union's Share in the Beef Trade.

We have received a copy uf Parliaiueutaiy Paper (Cnid. 456) contain-
ing tlie lepoit of the Committee ai)p()inted by the Board of Trade
to consider tlie means of securing sufficient meat supplies for the
United Kingdom, and in view of the future meat export trade of the
Union and its interests in the United Kingdom market, the report
(which, it may be mentioned, is not concerned with pork, bacon, and
ham) contains valuable information to Ihose concerned in the produc-
tion and export of meat in South Africa.

The Committee held 30 meetings and interviewed 03 represen-
tative witnesses covering many phases of the matter, especially in
regard to the development of meat production in the United King-
dom and in the British Oversea Dominions and to the protection of
British markets and of producing countries within the Empire from
domination by foreign organizations.

The position of tlie United Kingdom regarding supplies is
summarized as follows: —

Beef
and
Veal.

Per Cent.

Ai-enuje 5 years ended June, 1914—

Home-raised 61 .o

Imported 38.5

100

100

Mutton

and
Lamb.

Per Cent.

54.2
45.8

100

100

Total.
Per Cent.

59.1

40.9

100

Year ended June, 1914 —

Home-raised

... 59.7

50.3

56.8

Imported —

British Dominions ...

T.S

3T.8

17.2

Foreign Countries . . .

... 82.5

11.9

26

100

The estimated meat consumption of the United Kingdom requires
an importation annually of froin 750,000 to 800,000 tons of beef and

656 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

mutton iu the near future, while the depletion during- the war of the
flocks and herds of the belligerent countries and an increased habit
of meat-eating point to an importation by the continent of Europe, for
some years at least, that will be limited only by the means of transport
and the capacity of the importing countries to pay for the meat.
France, Italy, and Belgium alone require at least about 450,000 tons
annually, to say nothing of other European countries. Then also a
resumption of importations by the American meat companies is
likely. Altt)gether the demand for imported chilled and frozen meat
is estinu^ted at from 1,350,000 to 1,450,000 tons annually.

The quantity the oversea Dominions are expected to have avail-
able for export during the next few years is estimated to be as
follows : —

Annual Surplus.

Canada

Australia ...
New Zealand
South Africa

Total ....

The elective meat-exporting capacity of foreign countries, not
taking into account China and other possible contributors, is shown
in the following table : —

Beet Muttou.

Tons. Tons.

Argentine and Uruguay 600,000 70,000

Patagonia (Argentine and Chili) — 30,000

Brazil 250,000 —

Venezuela 8,000 —

Paraguay 5,000 —

Madagascar 8,000 —

Beef.

Mutton.

'Inns.

Tons.

25,000

—

120.000

70,000

40,000

160,000

25,000

—

210,000

230,000

871,000 100,000

In the course of their report, the Committee deals with many
phases of the subject, such as the control of British insulated ship-
ping, the United States meat companies, production in the United
Kingdom and in the oversea Dominions, distribution in the United
Kingdom, general anti-trust measures, etc. Of special interest to
the Union are the proposals for insuring, protection from foreign
competition, and the question of guaranteed purchase by the Imperial
Goverument, which are discussed at length. Under the subject of

Meat Supplies for the United Kingdom. eJ57

production by the oversea Dominions, the followino' statement is
made : —

"38. We are impressed by the way in which production in the
Dominions has developed without any artificial stimulus. The real
problems are those of improving- quality, extirpating disease, and
providing against the risk of drought, and these can only be dealt
with locally, and not from the United Kingdom.

" As far as regards beef, the future lies with the chilled variety,
and the prospect of bringing it from Australia and New Zealand
continues to be remote, but the possibilities of development of trade
from Canada and South Africa were laid before us by witnesses. So
far as Australia (except Queensland) and New Zealand are concerned,
the future lies with the production of mutton and lamb, and the
development in the recent past has been continuous and vigorous.
The demand in the United Kingdom is increasing and the prospects
of developing new markets in the United »States and on the continent
of Europe are bright. The Imperial Government may usefully help
by diplomatic action in securing the removal of unjustifiable restric-
tions on importation and in obtaining for the Dominions a fair share
of the European and American trade."

The

Conclusions and Recommendations

of the Committee of special interest to the Union are given here-
under; the other matters dealt with are shipping, taxation, and the
control of meat trade : —

" The evidence laid before us shows, in our opinion, that, apart
from the exigencies arising out of war conditions, there is little risk
of a shortage of the quantity of imported meat required to supplement
our home production. So far, indeed, as mutton and lamb are
concerned we are satisfied that the Empire can become self-supporting
within a few years, but the case is different with beef, as this country
must for a considerable time be dependent on South America for the
bulk of its imports. In view of the strong position held by American
companies in the South American meat trade, the witnesses, with
few exceptions, were agreed that some action was desirable and
necessary to safeguard the interests of British producers and traders
at home and abroad, and by so doing to protect consumers from the
menace of a monopoly, but there was no general agreement amongst
them as to the best measures to be taken in order to secure this end.

We believe that the stimulation of supplies from within the
Empire and the protection of British interests outside the Empire
form the best basis for ensuring sufficient supplies for the United
Kingdom, and we are strongly of opinion that this should be accepted
as the permanent Government policy. The specific measures that
may from time to time be required can be determined when occasion
arises, but the public adoption of this policy will give confidence and
encouragement to British producers at home, in the Dominions, and
in foreign countries."

Production in the United Kingdom.

The Committee makes several recommendations with the object
of ensuring an increase in the total quantity of meat production in
the United Kingdom, such as (a) the provision of bulls and rams of

658 Journal of the Department op agriculture.

good quality of easy access to farmers ; (b) prevention of the introduc-
tion of contagious disease among live stock, also inquiry into a
scheme of national insurance against tuberculosis ; (c) the spread of
knowledge among farmers as to the best methods of feeding stock ;
(d) the provision of slaughter-houses and auction marts and sale-
yards under the direct control of farmers and the sale of stock by
dead-weight at co-operative slaughter-houses ; (e) where cattle are not
sold by dead weight, but on the basis of live weight, all cattle exposed
for sale to be weighed and the weights notified before sale ; (/)
better sanitation for markets, slaughter-houses, and shops, and better
provision for transport, etc.

PUODLCTION IN THK ()v1:K.SKA DOMINIONS.

" We regard the control or supervision of meat production in
the Dominions as a matter for them alone, but in order to ensure
unity of action by the several Governments, we advise that there
should be frequent inter-communication on this subject by conference
or otherwise. As an example of action in regard to which general
consideration might be desirable, we would refer to the recent New
Zealand Act for the licensing of meat exporters.

" Meat production in the Dominions may be expected to continue
to progress rapidly, and the existence of a ready market in the
United Kingdom for the bulk of their exports is the best guarantee
of such development. Some further aid can, however, be given by
assisting them to secure new markets.

" (a) We recommend that diplomatic action be taken to obtain
the removal of all unjustifiable restrictions on the importation of
Dominion meat into foreign countries, including the surtaxe
d^ entrepot on meat transhipped from the United Kingdom. Further,
if any action is to be taken for the feeding of the countries ravaged
by the war, we consider that every effort should be made to secure a
share of the trade for the Dominions.

" (6) We also recommend that Government contracts for meat
should be confined to British producers in the United Kingdom and
in the Dominions."

The Union's Hesponse.

The beef export of the Union is still in its infancy, and much
has to bs learnt from our own and also the experience of other export-
ing countries regarding the requirements of the oversea market,
involving such weighty considerations as breeding, feeding,
slaughtering, preparation for market and shipping. Other British
Dominions have established their market, but the Union is still a
pioneer, and has yet to create a trade in beef of a quality and attrac-
tiveness equal or superior to that of other exporting countries, where
the meat industry has become a highly specialized one. In the build-
ing up of such an industry the farmer has to lay the foundation. The
country looks to him to produce the article of best quality by the care-
fully considered breeding and feeding of his stock. Tliis is the first
and greatest essential, but its ultimate success depends upon the
slaughterer and the packer, branches of the industry which call foj
special knowledge and e5;perience, Haphazard methods on the part

Mrat Supplies for the United Kingdom. 659

of eithor the producer, butcher, or packer mean discouragement and
delay in the forward movement of our meat export trade, and it is our
duty to draw attention to the pitfalls which must be avoided and the
ideal whicli must be striven after to enable us to attain the standard
we desire.

In a pamphlet issued by this Department (L.S. 83) — " The South
African Export Trade in Beef " — is set out briefly oversea reports
on some of our early shipments. From them we learn with pleasure
that the quality of the meat was better than might have been expected
from a country where breeding was largely confined to the production
of animels for draught purposes, and that it compared favourably
with that of the pioneer shipments from either Australia or the
Argentine. The criticism of an Italian expert on a consignment
unloaded at Spezzia in Italy is of special interest to farmers, for,
in dealing with the characteristics and quality of the meat, he
comments most favourably on its taste and tenderness, which are the
main attributes of a table meat, and expresses the opinion that our
meat is assured of successful penetration into European markets when
certain defects in tlie article are removed. This improvement, how-
ever, will never come about so long as we breed an animal first for
transport and then for the butcher. We have yet to reach the stage
where the specialization of our product will enable us to compete
with the highly improved cattle of other countries. This Depart-
ment is concerned primarily with the fostering of an industry in
breeding the right class of cattle for the special purpose of beef
export. It looks confidently to the farmer to work with it and avail
himself of its assistance in an earnest endeavour rapidly to achieve
this end.

Sunflower Seed Export.

As reflecting the general opinion of buyers oversea, the Acting-
Trade Commissioner draws attention to a letter received by him from
a prominent London firm recommending South African shippers to
grade sunflower seed to colour, for at present it is the usual experience
that parcels exported contain black, white, grey, and striped seeds.
It is also suggested that, failing grading in the above manner,,
business will considerably be facilitated if the seed could be
thoroughly bulked, so that the seed is uniform, and .sold overseas
on sample as " mixed sunflower seed."

It may be mentioned that the Government graders at the Union
ports are prepared to inspect sunflowei- seed for good marketable con-
dition only and to certify accordingly. Beyond this they are not
able at present to do anything, as no grading regulations for sun-
flower seed have vet been issued.

ti60 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

THE AGRICULTURE AND SOILS OF THE CAPE

PROVINCE.

By Arthur Stead, Ti.So., F.C.8., Eeseaicli Chemist. (Tinntfontein
School of Agriculture, Middelburg, Cape.

Witkop— Burghersdorp.

[The previous instalments ot this article ai)peareJ in the Maj^, July, and August
numbers of the Journal. — ACTING Editor.]

K.\LKF0NTE1N : Mr. C. S. CoLLETT AND Mr. DE KlERK.

Upstream troni Paardenverlies the country rises g'radually until at
Mr. Collett's lioniestead — the homestead of the original Kalkfontein —
the altitude is some 400 feet liigher than that of the homestead of
Paardenverlies.

For the most part Xalkfontein overlies Molteno Beds, which are
flanked on three sides by heig-hts of Eed Beds, these latter on the
western side forming' part of the mountain chain known locally as
the Kapok Hoogte, viz.. the Snow Hills. Surmounting the Red Beds,
particularly on the mountains above Mr. Collett's homestead, there
are considerable masses of dolerite, the leachings from wliich have
doubtless given rise \o the ''lime"" spring whicli gave the farm its
name.

Around the homestead there is a goodly number of splendidly
grown trees, including oaks, poplars, and gums ; specimens of the
elder shrub are also to be seen there in a thriving condition. Notice
able also around the homestead are outcrops of reddish-tmted.
glittering sandstone of very coarse grain.

From just below the homestead a vlei runs in the direction of
Paardenverlies. From the central portion of it No. 607, a composite
sample of virgin soil, was taken. The vegetation of the vlei consists
of koel biesjes, rooi platbaar, en blauw and rooi ruigte grasses —
both much relished by cattle — with Icweek grass and, in places, tulp.
There is also an abundance of a yellow-flowered legume (a trefoil),
whose roots were found to be well covered with nodules of nitrogen-
fixing' bacteria. The kweek grass occurs only where the vlei soil is
covered with an inch or so of reddish sandy " wash " from a flanking
outcrop of Molteno Beds •, it would therefore seem that the sandy
covering has n great deal to do with the presence of the kweek grass.
The occurrence of koel biesjes points to the presence at no great depth
of a plentiful supply of underground water.

No. 610 represents a composite sample of virgin soil taken at the
boundary of Mr. Collett's and Mr. de Klerk's lands, and is repre-
sentative of a " vlakte " soil* which overlies Molteno Beds, but
which doubtless also to a considerable extent has been derived from

* A "\iakie" is a '"flats."

Agriculture and Soils op the Cape Province.

661

the fiankiiig- dolerite-capped Ked Beds. The vegetation of thi> area
consits of a mixture of sweet and sour grasses, including rooi plat-
blaar and rooi ruigte, but adjoining the spruit which runs thiougli
the flat a fair nuniher of Karroo bosjes is to be seen.

Table II
Analysis of Soils froin Kalkfontein.

So. 607.

No. 610.

Colour

Mechtinieal Aiudifxh.'^

Fine earth
Coarse sand ...
Fine sand

Silt

Finp silt

Clay

Soluble in N/.5 hydrcchloric acid...

Reaction to litmus ...

Carbonates ...

Humus

Loss on ignition

Moisture

Chi'iiticdl A/inli/.s
Nitrogen

Insoluble inorganic residue
Lime ...
Magnesia
Potash

"Available" potash ...
Phosphoric oxide

" Avt.ilable '' phosphoric oxide

Black.

Dark 1)ro\vi

Per Cent.

Per Cent.

100

100

20 • 62

9-1.0

26-21

31-49

8- 06

2-53

9-86

26-35

1 9 • 9".

23-80

2-20

1-37

Alkaline

Acid

0-10

0-025

5-60

3-20

8-87

4-00

4 • 70

1-18

0-2:1

76-97
1-09
0-66
0-57
0-019
0-114
n-021

0-11
84-51
0-54
0-45
i»-58
0-022
11-053
()-019

Vlei soils are frequently very clayey, but No. 607 is only
moderately so and, furthermore, contains a laig-e quantity (20.6
per cent.) of coarse sand, the presence of which — due no doubt to
some extent to the "wash" from the frequent outcrops along* its
margins of coarse-grained sandstones — will assist materially in
counteracting the undesirable properties of the clay. No. 607 also
contains an admirable quantity of humus, so that although it contains
as much clay as No. 614. Paaidenverlies, the effect of the coarse sand
and humus will be to make it an easier working soil than No. 614,
and, moreover, should make it better able to resist drought.

Chemically, the soil is a good one also. It contains a very
adequate supply of nitrogen — probably too much for oats and barley —
and quantities of potash and of phosphoric oxide which, for South
African soils, are, in the total, considerable, and, moreover, satis-
factory as regards availability. The soil is alkaline owing to the fact
that it contains 0.1 per cent, of calcium carbonate.

Judging from the mechanical analysis. No. 610 shows a consider-
able resemblance to No. 614 — the figures for coarse and fine sands are
almost identical in both soils, while the totals for the silts, plus clay,
are also nearlv the same. Thev differ, however, in that No. 610

* For sizes of particles see under " Paarden\erlies," above.

662 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

contains much less silt than No. 614 — more fine silt and a little more
clay. No. 610 contains rather less organic matter than No. 614 and
rather less humus. One concludes that although there is a resemblance
between the two soils No. 614 has the better physical make-up.

Considered chemically. No. 610 and No. 614 also show close
agreement, excepting that No. 610 contains much less total phosphoric
oxide. Considering the fineness of the texture of tlie latter soil one
is inclined to think that, notwithstanding the fair amount of avail-
able phosphoric oxide it contains, it would respond to phosphatic
manuring. [See remarks on page 437 concerning the action of
phosphoric oxide on the development of roots.] Like most of the soils
of the Witkop area, No. 610 is acid to litmus, a condition that may
be corrected by the application of agricultural lime.

A comparison of the figures for insoluble inorganic residue in
soils Nos. 610 and 607 is not without interest, for, if due allowance
be made for their different content in moisture and in organic matter,
the figures are nearly identical (viz., 89.1 per cent, and 88.5 per
cent.), which suggests that the mineral skeleton of the soils has a
common origin and that the present mechanical ond chemical
differences revealed by analysis originate in the steeper gradients
laound No. 607, and in the iiresence under the latter at no great depth
of a calcareous water which has given the soil an alkaline reaction
and has led to the accumulation of a valuable quantity of humus.
While it can be expected tha+ liming, phosphatic manuring, and
green manuring would do much to improve No. 610, it is not to be
expected that there is any ])racticable method by which it could be
made to equal No. 607.

Witkop axd Ki; aaifoxteix : Mk. 1). \. Kan.nkmfaer.

Reference to the geological map on page 353 will show the posi-
tions of Kraaifontein and Witkop relative to Kalkfontein, as well as
their geological characteristics.

The portions of Witkop and Kraaifontein with which we are
concerned are in the kloof, reference to which was made on page 356.

The kloof bottom is of Molteno Beds, while its head and cliffs are
of Eed Beds. It is to be noted that tlie spruit which passes down the
kloof drains an area of volcanic beds situated at the southern corner
of Witkop ; also that dolerite dykes occur on both sides of the kloof,
one of them passing through the kloof.

The homestead of Witkop is situated in the kloof at a distance
of less than a mile from its head and at an altitude some 250 feet
lower than the plateau on which Witkop Post Office stands. Near
the head of this kloof are some caves which contain some fine samples
of Bushman art.

The soil of the upper part of the kloof, viz., from the homestead
upwards is of a rich black colour near the spruit, becoming browner
the further one gets away from the water-course. No. 617, a com-
posite sample of virgin soil, was derived from a land close to the
spruit, and not far above the homestead.

The vegetation of the neighbourhood consists of kamfer bos,
blauwsaad, and kweek grasses, together Avith, here and there, a clover
plant. If left undisturbed the land becomes quickly covered with

Agriculture and Soils op the Cape Province.

66:^

reeds, from which one may conclude that there is plenty of under-
o-round moisture.

When sampled the soil was very dry, but it has the reputation of
retaining water well, a property we have confirmed in the laboratory.

Potatoes and wheat are said to grow well on thi« soil, but no
precise details of yields were available.

Samples jN"o. 618 and No. 619 are from Kraaifontein lands worked
from Witkop homestead. Xo. 618 is a composite sample from Kraai-
fontein New Land. This land is situated near the mouth of a short,
wide kloof in the Red Beds on the eastern side of the spruit which
comes down from Witko]). The soil is dark brown in colour and fine
in texture.

The natural vegetation of this area consisted of kweek and blauw-
saad grasses, plenty of clover, a yellow-flowered aster, and tulp.

Xo. 619 is a sample from a 10-year old land situated between
Kraaifontein Xew Land and Witkop homestead. The land is
decidedly hig-h-lying ; in fact it might be called a bult land. The
soil is sandy, reddish brovrn in colour, and in every way much like
the sandbult soil from Paardenverlies.

The vegetation of this area was originally zuur rooigras.

Precise details of yields from this land were not obtainable.
Wheat, oats, and potatoes had been tried on it, the first-mentioned
crop yielding at the rate of fifteen from one on a recent occasion.

T.\BLE III.

Analysis of the Soils from Witkop and Kraaifontein.

No. 617.

No. 618.

No. 619.

Mechanical Anali/six.

Colour

Dark black.

Dark brown

Reddish
brown.

Per Cent.

Per Cent.

Per Cent.

Fine earth

100

100

97-70

Coarse sand

13-69

6-61

13-30

Fine sand

29-95

32-22

55-35

Silt

13-53

18-25

7-11

Fine silt

9-89

19-30

6-40

Clay

20-07

14-9fi

12-93

Soluble in N/5 hydrochloric acid

1-24

1-80

0-90

Reaction to litmus

Acid

.\cid

Acid

Carbonates

0-042

0-025

0-025

Humus

.5-50

2-96

0-77

Loss on ignition

7-70

4-90

2-68

Moisture

3-10

1-58

0-90

Permeability to water

0-43

n-.30

2-56

f 7/ em icn I A mi h/x is.

Nitrogen ...

0-21

0-12

0-08

Insoluble inorganic residue

74-40

87-o0

90-20

Lime

0-87

0-42

0-21

Magnesia

0-52

0-3.-

0-23

Potash

0-55

0-51

0-46

"Available" potash

0-013

0-027

0-022

Phosphoric oxide

0-082

0-047

0-042

" Available " phosphoric o.x:ide

0-013

0-008

0-003

(i64 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Under the fiiiiiatic conditions of Witkop it is to be expected that
a soil containing 20 per cent, of clay will be difficult to till, provided
no factors are present to modify the colloidal influence of the 'ilaj-.
That No. 617, containing- 20.6 per cent, of clay, possesses a physical
structure suitable for potato culture must then be ascribed to the
" lightening " influence of the considerable quantities of coarse sand
and clay it contains and to the absence of any considerable quantity
of fine silt.

IN^ow No. 618 contains 5.7 per cent, less clay than No. 617. May
one, therefore, conclude that it is an easier soil to work? If the pro-
portions of humus and coarse sand were the same as those of No. 617
such a conclusion would be justified, provided also that the proportion
of fine silt was not greater. Reference to the analysis will show that
these conditions are not fulfilled, that No. 618 contains less of both
coarse sand and humus together with a larger proportion of fine silt.
What No. 618 appears to gain in physical make-up in comparison
with No. 617 it probably more than loses in the other indicated
directions, a view that is supported by the permeabilities of the two
soils to water. No. 618 being onlv three-quarters as permeable as
No. 617. . . \

Physically considered No. 617 is therefore the better soil of the
two, while both should respond well to intelligent methods of tillage.

From a chemical point of view No. 617 is superior to No. 618 in
iilmost every respect; but although that is so, No. 617 is by no means
as good as it could be — it is not, for example, so well provided with
phosphoric oxide as the soils of Kalkfontein and stands in need of
phosphatic manuring. No. 618 is very deficient in available phos-
jilioric oxide.

No. 619 is a very poor soil indeed and veiy much like the zaiid-
biilt soil from Paardenverlies.

The Willows : Me. Andrew de Klerk.

The farm Willows lies to the east of Witkop. Samples Nos. 615
and 616 were taken here.

The homestead is situated ou the eastern side of the stream which
comes down past Yaalkop from the volcanic beds about four miles
distant. At it are to be seen some rather young specimens of the
macrocarpa cypress, English gooseberry, and red currant; there are
also some poplars.

Sample No. 615 repiesents a mixed sand and turf soil situated
on the slope at the foot of Yaalkop and facing about north. The
natural vegetation of this area consists of rooigras and rooi
platblaar grass, together with plenty of clover, which grows
quite tall if protected from stock The roots of the clover
are well covered with bacterial nodules. The data regarding
crops given on page 158 apply particularly to this soil.
Vaalkop is built up of red and white sandstones, which figure in
Dunn's map as Red Beds. The map shows that a dolerite dyke passes
through the kop. No. 616 was taken from the vlei at a point opposite
the homestead and over the stream leferrexl to in the foregoing para-
graph. Underground water is hereabouts about three feet below the
surface.

Agriculture and Soils op the Cape Province.

665

Lucerne is growing on a part oi this land, and in the opinion of
the owner is doing quite well ; this soil is, however, better suited to
wheat than to any other crop.

The natural vegetation of this vlei consists for the most part of
rooi platblaar grass, togetlier Avith a fair amount of clover, the roots
of the latter being well infested with bacillus radiciroln .

Table IV.
Analysis of Soils from The Willows.

No. 615.

No. 616.

Mechanical Analysit.

Colour

Dark brown

Black.

Per Cent.

Per Cent.

Fine earth

100

1 00

Coarse sand ...

'

8-66

4-90

Fine sand

56-24

28-77

Silt

9-21

7-80

Fine silt

6-30

11-33

Clay

13-22

24-78

Soluble in N/5 hydrochloric acid ...

0-76

7-59

Reaction to litmus

Acid

Alkaline

Carbonates ...

0-025

.")-80

Humus

3-62

5-60

Loss on ignition

4-20

y-50

Moisture

1-10

3-30

Permeability to water

1-31

0-116

Chcniiciil Analijstiii.

Nitrogen

0-13

0-26

Insoluble inorganic residue

87-56

70-67

Lime ...

0-35

3-80

Magnesia

0-30

0-97

Potash

0-52

0-54

" Available ''

potash ...

0-025

0-034

Phosphoric oxide

0-078

0-117

" .Vvailable "

phosphoric o.xide

0-012

0-02S

No. 615 contains a moderate amount of clay and a fair quantity
of humus. It is quite permeable to water and. unless underlain by
a more impermeable stratum, would probably need rain at fairly
frequent intervals. It contains a very large percentage of fine sand
which would tend to make it dry hard at the surface. Chemically,
the soil is somewhat deficient in total phosphates, from which one
would conclude that phosphatic manuring would give a good response
after the land had been cropped several times. That this soil is
suited to potato culture is evident from its mechanical composition
and the climatic conditions ; the chemical composition is also favour-
able to potato culture, excepting that the soil is rather deficient in
jdiosphates, both total and available.

No. 616, the vlei soil, is a very strong calcareous loam containing
plenty of organic matter and a very large quantity of calcium carbo-
nate. It would appear to require no manurial treatment other than
such as may be required for special crops. Oats grow too rank and
barley and some varieties of wheat get laid if grown upon this soil.

666 Journal op the Department oi^ Agriculture.

The rank growth * is doubtless due to the high nitrogen content and
the abundant supply of underground water. It may here be
mentioned that this type of soil is first and foremost a wheat soil,
Bietti being the best variety to sow. Eooi Lama (the local name,
apparently, for a mucb sown wheat) also does well on this type of
soil, but Egyptian Red, also a variety frequently sown in tlie Witkop
district, grows rank and gets laid.

Beyond skilful cultivation, it would appear that this soil requires
no other treatment; it still yields very good crops after many years
of cultivation. According to the farmer's classification this soil
belongs to the black turf class.

Plate\Vl. The Homestead "The Willows."

The trees without leaves are poplars ; the willows are hidden by the house. The
hedge is of the macrocarpa cypress. Pines of several varieties have been planted
here and are doing splendidly ; they are 8 years old, at least 15-18 feet high, and
their trunks about 10 inches in diameter.

Lemofn Kkaal : Mes. i)k Klekk.

The homestead of Lemoen Eraal lies almost direct north of The
Willows homestead. Only one sample Avas taken fiom this farm, i.e.
No. 611. The geologicarmap (p. 353) will show that the bult from
which this sample was derived is far removed from any influence by
dolerite or by lava. It would therefore seem tliat it may be taken as
representing a true Red Beds soil.

The soil is decidedly sandy and, moreover, very poor; it yields
not more than ten from one in the case of wheat and six from one in
the case of potatoes. Some peas were growing on tlie land at the time
it was sampled; they were very vmhealtby in appearaiice and their
loots bore no nodules.

See remarks under Nitrogen, page J 36.

Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province.

667

The natural veg-etation consisted cliieHy of rooi zuiufi'ras with
some blaiiwsaad gras.

Tahle V.

Aiuily^is vf the Soil from Leinoen Kraal.

No. 611.

Mfichanical A nalysin

Coloiii

Fine earth
Coarse sand ...
Fine sand

Silt

Fine silt

Clay

Soluble in N/.") hydrochloric acid ...

Re.iction to litmus .,.

Carbonates

Humus

Loss on ignition

Moisture

Permeability ...

('Iipi)iU'iil AniihiKix
Niti'ogen

Insoluble inorganic matter...
Lime ...
Magnesia
Potash...

"Available" jiotash
I'hosphoric oxide

"Available" phosphoric oxide

K eddish

brown.

Per Cent.

100

24 • 55

54-06

4-27

3-89

8-88

0-68

Acid

0-03

1-83

2-90

0-41

3-36

0-08
91-13

o-2<;

0-20

0-28

0-015

0-05

0-003

The mechanical analysis shows that the soil is rather more sandy
than the saudhult .'-oil from Paardenverlies, i.e. No. G12. Chemically
it is slightly different, in that it contains a notable quantity of avail-
able potash and a very small quantity (0.03 per cent.) of calcium
carbonate. The soil is poorly retentive of water, but, since water
moves through it readily, it will always be moist near the surface so
long as the sub-soil has not dried out.

The manurial treatment recommended for this soil is the same as
that recommended for the Paardenverlies sandbult soil. (See page
441.)

Complaint was made thnt the use of water from a borehole near
the homestead made tlie soil hard. A partial analysis of the water
was made with the following results : —

Total solids 35.2 grams per 100,000 c.c.

Chlorine 4.6 ,, ,,

Calcium and magnesium carbonates ... 21.75 ,,

Sodium carbonate 5.56

It is possible that the effect complained of was caused by the
sodium carbonate. The origin of the carbonates in this water would
appear to be, in part at least, the felspar of the dolerite and lava
which occurs in the vicinitv.

668 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Olivier's Rust: Mk. J. H. Olivier.

The remaining two samples of the series, i.e. No. 608 and
No. 609, were taken from the hind called Bo'Land, which is situated
only a short distance from Dankfontein's Nek. The close proximity
of the large mass of lava overlying exposed cave sandstone is worthy
of note. There is also what appears to be a dolerite dyke to the south,
while the soils themselves lie above Red Beds.

From the hills the land slopes down to the stream at the bottom
of the valley where the soil is very black ; nearer the hills it is lightei-
in colour and, moreover, is not uniform in tint, some areas being much
lig-hter than others.

No. 608 is a composite sample of the soil nearer the hills; No. 609
a composite sample of the black soil. No. 608 is underlain by a

Plate VII. The Homestead " Olivier's Rust."

The hills iu the background are of cave .sandstone, covered with volcanic rock,
which is weathering readily. The macrocarpa cypress trees on the right are 25 years
old, about 25 feet high, and their trunks from 10 inches to 15 inches in diameter.

reddish sandy sub-soil, below Avhich is " potciay." No. 608 would
seem to be regarded as a mixed sand and turf soil : it is suitable for
potatoes and wheat

The natural vegetation consists of zuur rooigras for the most
part, together with some rooi platblaar grass.

No. 609 is reckoned amongst the black turf soils; it is clayey and
at a depth of about 12 feet ground water occurs. The soil is not a
good potato soil, but excellent for wheat, Rooi Koren and Rooi Lama
being the varieties best suited to it. The natural vegetation consists
of the same grasses found en the higher-lying land, but rooi platblaar
predominates, and in additioji there is a good proportion of blauw-
lilommetjes.

An attempt was being made to establish lucerne on this lower-
lying land. At the time the samples were taken the plants were very
young, so that it is not possible to state whether or not the land is
suitable for lucerne culture.

Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province.

{^i:>'^

Regarding- the patchy colour of the area from which No. 608 was
taken it is impossible without further investigation to say what the
variability originates in ; it may be connected with the variable
thickness of the exposed beds of cave sandstone which lie above it.

Table VI.

Analysis of Soils from. Olivif^r' s Rust.

No. 608.

No. 609.

Meclinniciil A nali/.sis.

Colour

Dark brown.

Black.

Per Cent.

Per Cent.

Fine earth

100

100

Coarse sand

2-08

2-22

Fine sand

TA • G2

31-04

Silt

10-81

13-08

Fine silt

11-34

13-96.

Clay

12-78

25-18

Soluble in N/5 hydroclilniic acid ...

0-87

2-59

Reaction to litmus ...

Acid

Acid

Carbonates

0-035

0-045

Humus

3-19

6-00

Loss on ignition

5-70

9-30

Permeability to water

0-58

—

Moisture

1-41

2-21

( 'lipin irii J . 1 tialysls.

Nitrogen

- 0-16

0-20

Insoluble inorganic matter. .

85-90

79-19

Lime ...

0-58

1-20

Magnesia

0-44

0 - 85

Potash

0-40

0-63

" Available "' potasu ..

0-028

0-025

Phosphoric oxide

0-055

0-055

"Available" phosphoric oxide

0-019

0-021

The mechanical analysis shows that these two soils contain very
much less coarse sand than any of the other soils of the series. Thi'S
feature is to be associated with their origin from rocks built up of fine
particles, particularly the fine-grained cave sandstone.

No. 608 bears considerable resemblance to the mixed sand and
turf soil from The WiJlows (No. 615), both chemically and
mechanically. The chief mechanical differences are that No. 608
contains less than a quarter as much coarse sand as No. 615, slightly
more silt, 5 per cent, more fine silt, and about the same quantity of
clay. The net result is that No. 608 has a somewhat finer texture,
which is reflected in the greater permeability to water of No. 615.
Chemically, No. 608 is somewhat superior to No. 615 in every respect.
Bearing these differences in mind the remarks made hig-her up in
connection with No. 615 also apply to No. 608.

Comparing No. 609 with the black turf soil of The Willows one
finds considerable differences. AVhile the amounts of clay in the two
soils do not differ materially, and No. 609 contains no more than
8 per cent, more silt and fine silt, one would expect a considerable

23

670

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

difference in the working- properties of the two soils owing to the
fact that No. 609 contains very little carbonates, while No. 616
contains nearly 6 per cent., the presence of which has a very profound
influence in making the clayey soils workable. No. 616 is also much
better stocked with jilant food materials. The presence of so much
carbonate of lime in No. 616 doubtless also is responsible for the fact
that lucerne has been found a suita])le crop for it. For lucerne to
thrive on No. 609 it would be necessary to apply lime to the soil or to
irrig-ate it with a water which contains plenty of lime. There is no
doubt, however, that No. 609 is a good wheat soil.

(To he concluded.)

Cross-breds (Sussex and Africanders).

Plant Nurseries in Quarantine as at 1st September,
1920.

Name of Nurseryman.

Address.

Cause of
Quarantinp.

Extent of Quarantine.

Mrs. A. W. Godwin ...

Durban

Red scale, Dictyo.t-
perm i, Erlocoeryu
araucariae

Palms, Araucarias, Roses.

D. A. English k Co. ...
W. T. Attwood

E. Krohn

Pieterniaritzburg

Capetown

Mare Street, Pre-

Red scale
Pernicious scale and

Portion of citrus.
Whole nursery.

C. F. Marais

toria
Wellington

. other pests
Red scale

All citrus.

Municipal Nursery ...

St. George's Park,
Port Elizabeth

f. iic)(i<

Palms.

F. Grace

Berlin, C.P.

Ited scale

Portion of citrus.

P. Gay lard

J. Hobson & Co.

Kingwilliamstown

," I ",

The Menace of Anthrax. 671

THE MENACE OF ANTHRAX.

The Spread of the Disease and How it may be Arrested.

The attention of the ])ul)lic is centred to-day on the alarming' out-
breaks of East Coast fever that have recently come to light, a
serious matter which is being combated by all the power this Depart-
ment possesses. At a time, therefore, when we stand on the brink of
perhaps enormous losses through the ravages of this disease (for the
future trend of infection is still obscure and the situation is fraught
with anxiety), and the public can realize the dangers from disease
which attend the live stock industry of the Union, we wish to draw
special attention to the ever-present menace which faces us in the
presence of anthrax. The animal diseases in the Union demand the
constant vigilance and unremitting research of this Department, and
call for the co-operation of the farmer which, in this vast country, is
the hinge on whicli depends either progressive improvement or
recurring setbacks in the campaign to free the Union from the tlirall
of animal disease and hasten the achievement of that goal towards
which our eyes are set — South Africa, a great meat producing country.
The road to this end is beset with difficulties, and the one transcending
all (East Coast fever included) is the danger v.hich lurks in the spread
of anthrax. This disease is not only the cause of serious mortality
in live stock, but is also a menace to human life in whicli it continues
to exact its toll. Here is a matter which concerns not only the farmer
but the whole community, for the interests of public health as well as
those of the stock owner are involved.

Description of the Disease.

Anthrax is a contagious disease caused bj^ a microbe, Bacillus
(inthracis.

Human beings and all animals are liable to the disease, which is
seen chiefly in cattle, pigs, and sheep, but not uncommonly in horses.

It shows itself suddenly and is very fatal, usually lasting forty-
eight hours. In South Africa it does not often spread with rapidity
from animal to aninial, but may affect a number of swine at the s.ime
time if they have been fed on anthrax flesh or organs.

A beast which a short time before appeared to be well is found
dead or in a dying condition ; frequently blood oozes from the nostrils
and the anus. In cattle there are no typical symptoms, but in hoises
and pigs the throat is often found to be swollen.

Th€ carcass is swollen. Blood is found aicnind the nostrils and
anus. The muscles are often infiltrated with blood at certain points.
The lungs and glands are congested. The spleen is very much
enlarged ; it is softer and darker than normal and its substance usually
resembles tar.

In equines, anthrax infection not infrequently manifests itself
by the appearance of extensive subcutaneous swellings, frequently
involving the brisket or the lower surface of the abdomen. In this

()72 JOUENAL OF THE-I)EPARTMENl? OF AGRlCULTtlRE.

form tlie progress of the disease is less rapid and auimals occasionally
recover.

In South Africa the enlargement of the spleen as a diagnostic
sign has not the same value as in many other countries, for the red-
water type of disease also gives rise to enlargement of the spleen.
In the latter tj'pe of disease, however, the spleen is not so soft nor is
it so tar-like as in the case of anthrax. The flesh is very dangerous
to animals and human beings.

The Present Position.

It is of great concern that anthrax is becoming increasingly
serious in the Union. The Principal Veterinary Ofhcer reports that
in many areas the veld has become so severely contaminated that
heavy losses are frequently sustained even when stock owners are
prompt in inoculating their stock, and repeated inoculations (and that
through no fault in the vaccine) become necessary to check the
mortality. There is no doubt that the disease is being perpetuated
through carcasses of animals dying of anthrax left to lie on the veld
or, worse still, being cut up for the sake of meat and the hide, and
no abatement in the scourge can be expected until tiiese practices are
rigorously suppressed. Tbat there are not more deaths among human
beings on account of tlie careless manner m v/hich anthrax carcasses
are handled is surprising, unless it is that the native community,
who are the greatest oft'enders, enjoy a considerable degree of
immunity from the disease. The tact remains, however, that great
care is needed in disposing of infected animals, and failure in this
respect is fraught with imminent danger to man and beast. And the
disease continues to spread. From reports covering the period of
twelve months ended 31st March last, it appears that anthrax is
prevalent everywhere in the Cape Province, except in the Karroo, but
that only a small proportion of the cases are brought to the notice of
the authorities ; during this period 54 outbreaks were reported, 456
animals died, and 1162 were inoculated. In the Transvaal the
mortality was 1300 head, 803 outbreaks having been reported, and
83,300 animals inoculated. The report tor Natal shows 75 outbreaks,
375 deaths, and 35,173 head inoculated. Anthrax is by far the most
serious of all the scheduled diseases in the Orange Free State, where
the number of outbreaks has increased greatly during the period
under review, being 315 as compared with 122 the jjrevious year.
There were 2788 deaths, while 65,910 head were inoculated. To
control the disease in the native territories is a matter of great
difficulty owing to the indifference of the native to the risks incurred
in cutting up anthrax carcasses and the consumption thereof, a matter
of frequent occurrence. Added to this the native is not easily induced
to get his cattle reinoculated when the disease occurs within a short
time of inoculation. During the year 211 outbreaks in the Transkei
were diagnosed by this Department and 52,887 animals inoculated,
and the prevalence of the disease in this part of the Union is causing
much anxiety.

How THE Scourge may be Overcome.

The figures given above demonstrate the loss in animals, and
when the imminent peril to human life is taken into account the need

TheiMenack of Anthrax. G73

for strong" action in removing the danger from our midst must
appeal to all, and we earnestly hope that, with this end in view, the
few simple measures given hereunder will be carried out scrupulously
and honestly : —

1. On no account should the carcasses of animals found dead, or
dying suddenly witliout oaowing any previous illness, be opened or
skinned. Many such deaths are undoubtedly due to anthrax, and the
risks run by any one handling such carcasses, either for the purpose
of making post-mortems, removing the meat, or taking off the skins,
are very great. Human beings are readily infected and the illness
which ensues is rapid i-snd frequently fatal, and the contamination of
the veld, which follows the opening of an anthrax carcass, tends to
perpetuate infection and almost inevitably leads to further losses of
stock.

2. All carcasses of suspected animals — and all animals dying
suddenly should be regarded as suspects — must be buried intact after
taking a blood smear. This is done by cutting into one of the
superficial veins of the ear which only permits the escape of a drop
or two of blood, care being taken after the operation is completed to
disinfect the knife used for this purpose by placing it in a 10 per cent,
solution of Jeyes' fluid or other disinfectant, or by boiling it in water
for ten minutes. The animal should be buried at a depth of not less
than six feet, preferably in quicklime, as near the place where it died
as possible, but away from any spot where it might contaminate water
supply. After burial, if the report received of the result of the
examination of the blood smear shows that the disease has been
anthrax, the grave should be bushed over or enclosed in a rough fence
to prevent animals from grazing over it. In handling carcasses great
care should be taken not to allow any discharge from it to get on the
clothes or person of any one touching it, and the ground where the
animal has lain should be soaked in a 10 per cent, solution of Jeyes'
fluid, and any discharges should be scraped up and thrown into tiie
grave in which the animal is buried, while the hands should be
thoroughly washed with disinfectant.

3. The Veterinary Division will be greatly aided in its efforts to
control this disease if all suspicious deaths are reported at the nearest
police post and blood smears are taken by owners. The division will
then advise owners as to the precautions to be taken to reduce the risk
of further loss and to check the spread of infection.

Blood smears should be made preferably on special glass slides
(generally obtainable from the nearest police post), otherwise on any
small slip of glass, which should first be thoroughly cleansed with hot
water and wiped dry with a clean cloth. Blood for the smears should
be obtained by incising one of the small superficial veins on the outer
surface of the ear which will allow the escape of a drop or two of
blood; of this a small quantity should be placed on the slide, either
with a piece of clean dry glass or with the point of the knife, then the
edge of a second slide or the edge of the knife should be placed at an
acute angle on the slide on which the blood has been put, and the edge
of the slide or knife gently drawn across the slide so as to .spread the
blood into the thinnest possible film. The blood smear should then
be dried by waving it in the air, and each smear should be wrapped
in a separate piece of paper and packed for posting, together with a

674 Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

note giving the name and address of the owner, the species of animal
from which the smear was taken, and stating the disease which is
suspected. In posting the smear the address should vary with the
Province — in the case of the Orange Free State it should he sent to
the Senior Veterinary Officer, Bloemfontein ; in the Cape it should
go to the Senior Veterinary Officer, Capetown, or to the Director of
the Veterinary Institute, Grahamstown ; in Natal to the Assistant
Director of Veterinary Research, Allerton Laboratory, Maritzburg;
in the Transkei to the Senior Veterinary Officer, Umtata; and in the
Transvaal to the Director of Veterinary Eesearch, P.O. Box 593,
Pretoria.

4. In the event of the disease turning out to be anthrax all in-
contact cattle should be inoculated as soon as possible. The Veterinary
Division will assist farmers by arranging for a veterinary officer to
demonstrate the method of inoculation whenever practicable. The
vaccine for inoculating can be obtained on application from the
Director, Veterinary Institute, Grahamstown, the Assistant Director
of Veterinary Research, Allerton Laboratory, Maritzburg, or from
the Director of Veterinary Research, P.O. Box 593, Pretoria; cash
should accompany all orders. The price of the vaccine is 5s. for
twenty-five doses for cattle, and 5s. for fifty doses for sheep. Full
instructions as to how to inoculate are issued with the vaccine, and
suitable syringes for the operation can generally be obtained through
local chemists or direct from any surgical instrument-maker.

Anthrax may Seriously Damage the Union's Trade.

The prevalence of anthrax in a country is viewed with mistrust
by other countries importing its products, and in addition to the
Union's first concern already referred to, that of protecting human
life and preserving our live stock, it is of great moment at this period
in our history that no suspicion of taint from anthrax should be
attached to any of our products. In the April issue of the Journal
(p. 79) we drew attention to the stringent measures adopted by the
Imperial authorities to prevent the introduction into the United
Kingdom of any goods infected or likely to be infected with anthrax.
And it is certain that a spreading of the disease in the Union will
retard our overseas trade. This would result in a serious set back to
our meat export trade which is only in its infaucj'^, and which there-
fore has to be nursed and built up with the greatest care, for no
country will receive our exports with open arms unless effectual
measures are taken for their protection. Other animal products,
such as wool, hides, and skins are affected in like manner, and any
restriction in the export of these articles would be a calamity.

It is forbidden to dissect the carcass of an animal known to have
died of anthrax, and there are regulations, with pains and penalties
for their non-observance, for the purpose of controlling and stamping
out this fell disease. It may be that in a measure the disease
continues to spread because the penalties inflicted for disregard of the
law are not sufficiently heavy. That there are other countries where
infringements of the regulations dealing with the control of cattle
disease are more severely dealt with than in South Africa is well
known. As an example of this rigour there appeared recently in the
Press a messag-e from London that two Norfolk farmers have been

The Menace of Anthrax.

675

fined 500 guineas for not notifying foot and mouth disease among
their sheep and moving tliem on the main road. This message has
its own significance to stock owners in the Union, where the penalties
prescribed and inflicted are smaller, yet where the industry at stake
is of vital importance to the country. It is not, however, the fear of
the law which is likely to rid the country of anthrax, but the whole-
hearted co-operation of stock owners in the proper disposal of infected
carcasses, which has been proved to be the most important factor in
arresting the spread of tlie disease. It is regrettable but true that in
our experience the stock-owning community appear to be indifferent
to the great danger in carelessly handling anthrax carcasses. Yet
the effective eradication of the disease depends more upon the efforts
of the individual farmer than upon any action which can be taken by
this Department, and so long as this indifference on the part of stock
owners to their legal and moral obligation exists we run the grave
risks attending the disease. We repeat, therefore, that anthrax is an
ever-present danger and fraught with greater possibilities for evil
tlmn any of the other animal diseases which beset our land, and it is
the bounden duty of every true citizen of South Africa to do his share,
however irksome it may be, in freeing the country of this plague.

Herd of Pedigree Africanders.

The Union's Timber Resources.

The Forest Department states that the more accessible forests
of the Union will in the next ten or fifteen years have been more or
less worked over and the supplies of virgin timber extracted. After
that the yield from the indigenous forests can be expected to drop
very considerably, probably to a half of the present output.

It is difficult, of course, to forecast how the country will be
opened up in the meantime, and it is just possible that some of the
forests, now remote, may become accessible, and thus enable the
present output to be maintained for a further period of years. On
the other hand, the plantations of exotic species may be expected to
develop and the output from them can be relied upon to increase
steadily. At present, however, and for some years yet, these planta-
tions will yield only preliminary thinnings in the shape of mining
timber, poles, fuel, etc., but as they grow older a regular and
gradunllv increasing amount of saw-timber will be produced.

676 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

IRRIGATION IN THE UNION.

The report of the Director of Irrigation for tlie year ended 31st
March, 1919,* is a document of great public interest, for the future
of the country is closely associated with the trend of its irrigation
policy, arid the report includes a valuable review of what has been
done in the past in this respect, leading up to the present establish-
ment of the Irrigation Department and determination of the policy
devised for its future operations. Mr. Kanthack states in the course
of his report that, notwithstanding the disability generally associated
with the war, the Irrig^ation Department has, since 1916, been engaged
in a most active policy of progressive development, and year after
year Parliament has not hesitated to vote large sums of money for this
purpose. But no matter how lavish the Government may be in
supplying funds for the furtherance of a inatter of such vital
importance to the country, progress is limited by the available
staff to devise and carry out the irrigation projects, and the Depart-
ment has now reached a stage where enlargement is imperative if the
same rate of progress as in recent years is to be maintained.

The report outlines the evolution of our irrigation policy which,
based primarily on methods of flood irrigation in vogue in the Cape
Colony, was completelj'- changed by later happenings. The drought
of 1913-15 and the slump in ostrich feathers — an industry responsible
for the early inception of irrigation enterprise in South Afric due to
the necessities of lucerne cultivation — followed by the war, brought
home to farmers the fact that their future lay in the production of
agricultural staples for which there was firm demand, and with this
came the conviction that the prevailing method of flood irrigation
would not suffice, and that a more secure supply of water must be
assured during critical seasons of the vear. This certain supply could
only be attained by the conservation of water in large storage
reservoirs. Foreseeing the inevitable change in the country's require-
ments, the Government was prepared in a measure to meet the position
thus created, and in spite of the many adverse conditions caused by
the war it made

Conservation the Keynote of its Policy.

To this end it was necessary, in the first instance, to
give preference to areas already served by large flood irriga-
tion schemes constructed bv Irrigation Boards with Govern-
ment money, and, secondly, to such of these areas not
hitherto controlled by Irrigation Boards, such as the Olifants
Piver Yalley in Oudtshoorn. Finally, new areas, in which little or
no previous irrigation development had taken place, received atten-
iion, all such schemes being, however, brought under the conti'ol of

* Obtainable froni theiGrovernmejjt Printer ; price 7s. 6d,

Irrigation in the Union. 67?

Irrigation Boards, for wliicli purpose a uimiber of uew and very large
districts Jiave had to be constituted.

The extent to wbiek the Government's policy of conservation has
been developed is gaug-ed by the fact that there are at present eleven
large conservation projects launched on the co-operative principle
(that is, co-operative groups of farmers under the control and supervi-
sion of the Irrigation Department), which are either under construc-
tion or about to be commenced, and all are to be built by means of
loans approved by Parliament. These loans aggi^egate 2j million
sterling, and the rateable area of irrigable land to be served by these
schemes amounts to 88,000 morgen. Altogether the total amount of
public money wliicli, since 1914, Parliament has agreed to invest in
conservation schemes of this nature is 3i million sterling, and the
total area which will be irrigated by them is approximately 120,000
morgen.

Assistance to Farmers.

Further in the course of his report, the Director refers to the
large number of cases in which informal advice on irrigation matters
is given to farmers by circle engineers, which bears much indirect
fruit tending generally to promote irrigation development. Reference
is also made to the provision under Section 6 of the Irrigation Act for
the furnishing of advice to bona fide farmers at very low fees. Since
1914 the number of cases in which professional advice was given to
farmers and public bodies was 1062.

The enhanced price of material and the higher prices paid to
drillmen have raised considerably the cost to Government of drilling,
and it must be recognized that under existing conditions the assistance
rendered to farmers (for which no increased charge is made) in this
very important matter is substantial. Generally, the operations of
the boring branch were adversely affected during the year by shortage
of technical staff and the high cost of tools and consumable stores.
The influenza epidemic, combined with comparatively early rains in
September 1918, was principally responsible for a diminished demand
for boring from farmers, but nevertheless during the year 252 bore-
holes were completed for farmers, municipalities, and the Railway
Administration, the average depth being 138 feet, an increase of 21
feet on the previous year ; the average daily yield per borehole increas-
ing from 19,000 to 24,800 gallons, indicating that better results may
generally be expected from deeper boring.

It may be mentioned that, according to information received from
the Irrigation Department, the interesting fact is established that the
success of the boring- branch has been marked, for of all the drilling
operations undertaken by it something like 10 per cent, only have
been failures.

The report deals in detail with the various matters falling under
the jurisdiction of the Irrigation Department and with the many
schemes on which it is now employed. It affords a comprehensive
view of irrigation enterprise in South Africa, a subject of arresting
interest to a country of uncertain rainfall and of vast extents of arid
land.

678

JOUENAL OF THE t)BPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUtlfi.

PURE-BRED STOCK IMPORTED.

The following' is a return of pedigTee stock imported (freight free)
in terms of the vS.A. Ocean Mail Contract since its commencement in
October, 1912, to 30th June, 1920: —

Cattle.

Rheed.

ri-

liion.

Total.

0

3t, l'.H2— 1/

1/17^

1/

4/1 s

- 1/1/I9--

31/3/17. 31

/3/18.

31

/ 12/1 8. 30/6/20.

Shorthoi'u

1057
434

129
14

81
3

22
12

1289

Devon

463

Ayrshire

268

13

17

—

298

Aberdeen- Angus ..

228

70

40

4

342

Friesland

247

—

—

. —

247

Hereford

87

36

15

4

142

Lincoln

80

8

1

—

89

Hed Poll

66

9

5

1

81

Sussex

29

13

2

2

46

Jersey

29

1

—

—

30

Holstein

26

—

■ —

■ —

26

Kerry

12

■ —

■ —

—

12

Brown Lewis

14

—

—

—

14

Longhorn

9
6

2

—

—

11

jN^etherlands Horned...

6

Galloway

—

—

5

—

5

Guernsey

—

1

—

—

1

Swiss and others .

26

—

—

45

26

Totals

2618

296

169

3128

Other Animals.

HOKSES.

Shee

p.

Pigs.

~

Breed.

No.

Breed.

No.

Breed.

No.

French

19

Cotswold

2

Large Bhick

... 9")

Clydes:!ale

74

Shropshire

127

Berkshire

... 98

Suffolk

11

Suffolk

42

Tamworth

... 6

Hackney

79

Wensleyda

e ...

58

Royal Ulster

... 3

Hunter ...

11

Hampshire

8

Lincoln ...

... 2

Shire

22

Lincoln

43

Other Breeds

... 23

Percheron

It;

Dartmoor

4

Oldenburg

2

Oxford Down

12

Welsh

11

Dorset Horn ...

22

Yorkshire Coach

8

Blackface

"5

Cleveland

1

Romney ]\'

arsh

157

Other Breeds ...

94

Cheviot

2

Jackasses

4

Border Leicester
Bveland Flock

14
10

Radfield

6

Coombe D<

irk

1

Total

352

Total

513

Total

227

The Poultry Yard Month by Month. 679

THE POULTRY YARD MONTH BY MONTH.

By J. J. JoRDAAN, Lecturer and Instructor in Poultry, Glen, Orange Free State.

October.

Incubation. — This is the last month of the year in which it is advisable to
hatch chickens. Goslings, turkeys, and ducklings may still be hatched, but
young ones must have ample shade and dry sleeping quarters. Infertility and
an over large percentage of " dead in shell " may be accounted for, to a large
extent, by the male bird being exhausted. Try replacing him with the reserve
bird in the breeding pen.

Eggs. — Sell all the settings of eggs possible; a reduction in price will often
help in this direction. Although some of the poultry breeders who sell at fancy prices
condemn this method, it certainly pays better to sell settings at half-price than
at the price of new-laid eggs at this time of the year. The industry is, as a
matter of fact, advanced by such sales at a reduced price to farmers and others
who, availing themselves of the reduction, obtain a better class of poultry and
thereby increase their egg output, yet do not become serious competitors to
the breeder later on. Watergla.ss all supplies of surplus eggs if prices are
unreasonably low.

Feeding. — See that all food and drinking vessels are kept scrupulously clean.
Add just enough permanganate of potash to the drinking water to make it
slightly pinkish in colour. Heating and stimulating foods, such as mealies,
kafiir corn, and barley, affect the liver, and should, therefore, be fed sparingly.

Chickens. — Before retiring to rest see that your small chicks are safe and in
no danger of being flooded out during the night. Thunderstorms come up
unexpectedly at this time of the year. Dampness, chill, and sudden changes in
the temperature are liable to set up white diarrhoea in small chicks.

Disease. — Be on the lookoiit for chicken-pox and roup, and on the first
signs of any outbreak take stringent measures. In the case of chicken-pox
isolate the sick bird at once. Give each of the other chicks a small sidphur pill
as large as an ordinary size bean. Spray the sleeping quarters, and, if possible,
remove the birds to a fresh run. Give liberal supply of green food. The sick
bird should have the sulphur pill and a dose of epsom salts besides ; feed on
soft food and greens. In giving epsom salts, 1 teaspoonful to a tablespoonful
of water is the dose for all adult birds; young birds in proportion.

Wash the face and head or affected part with a strong solution of perman-
ganate of potash; break off the crust from the wart and drop in one or two
permanganate crystals. Another treatment is to wash head and face, etc., with
a mixture of equal parts vinegar and water and rub on carbolic vaseline. In
two or three days the bird is usually fit to be returned to the run. The treatment
in regard to roup is similar as regards feeding and isolation. In addition, night
and morning give the sick bird one grain tabloid of " ammoniated quinine,"
wipe the face and nostrils with an old rag, and wash with sulphate of copper
solution (one ounce di.s.solved in a pint of water). If it does not recover by this
treatment in four or five days then destroy it.

Breeding Pens. — In many cases breeding pens can .still be sold, especially
tested ones; the.se should be advertised for .sale. Beginners should watch for
these chances and buy proved breeding pens.

CORRIGENDA.

August, 1920, issue of Juvnixl (Vol. I. No. 5), page 508.

Tbe Market Master, Kingwilliamstown, stages that the market prices for beef and
mutton at that centre should read Beef 7d. to lOd., and Mutton i)d. to Is., instead of as
advised and printed originally.

680 JOUENAL OP THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.

October, 1920.

By H. B. Terry, Cert. R.H.S., Lecturer in Horticulture, School of
Agriculture, Potchefstroom.

Taken on an avercage the present spring season may be considered an early
one ; sowings may he made of all summer crops, though it would be wise to
omit Broad Beans, Turnips, and Cauliflowe.- at this stage.

Beans (Dwarf). — Canadian Wonder, Wax Podded, Everbearing, Sugar
Beans, Stringless, Natal Red, White Kidney, etc., may be sown in drills
15 to 18 inches apart; 6 to 8 lb. of seed required per acre. These dwarf kinds
are usually ready for table in eight weeks. Soaking the seed hastens germina-
tion.

Beetroot. — Make a good sowing of Eclipse, Egyptian, Crosby's. The rows
need only be 20 inches apart ; thinning the seedlings out to 6 inches in the
rows materially as.sists the crop.

Cabbage.— Sow Surehead, Castle, Mammoth, Early Offenham, to transplant
end of November for first crop. Grow seedlings in rich soil to force them
along all the time and so ward off attacks of aphis.

Carrot. — Continue to sow for succession ; water freely, and keep down
weeds to ensure a tender crop.

Celery. — Early plants may now be planted in trenches.

Cucumber.- — General sowings may now be made, either in clumps of three
or singly in rows.

Egg Plant. — Should be sown or transplanted 3 feet apart each way. This
is a delicious vegetable when sliced, fried in butter, and served with raw
tomatoes.

Leeks. — Transplant all available seedlings and sow another small lot to
follow on.

Lettuce. — To be successful this must now be grown quickly. Iceberg,
Neapolitan, Continuity, Boston, etc., are suitable cabbage varieties.

Melons. — Sow Watermelons and Sweet Melons. Keep the soil moist and
clean; watch for cutworms.

Mealies. — Sweet Corn should be sown largely; do not put in too much
at one time ; sow fortnightly.

Onions. — Plant out all available seedlings. Autumn-sown crops should
now be forming bulbs ; plenty of water is necessary to enable them to develop
fully. Sow Eaily Golden Globe, Prizetaker, Au.stralian Brown, Ailsa Craig.

Parsnips. — Hollow Crown, Student, Gearnsey are useful sorts to sow now.
The soil must be deep and well worked.

Peas. — Sow a main crop of Black-Eyed Susan. As a rule the summer heat
is too great for other varieties.

Pumpkins. — Make a large sowing of good long-keeping varieties.

Squashes, such as Custard, Long White, Long Green, Bush, and Hubbard
are useful summer sorts.

Tomatoes. ^ — Early raised plants may now be transplanted in almost every
district. The plants come into bearing much earlier if staked and the laterals
are pinched out from the axis of the leaves.

Radish. — Sow French Breakfast, Turnip Rooted for succession; grow these
quickly and use when ready, otherwise they bolt to seed.

Pot.\toes. — Plant tubers for main crop now; give liberal supplies of manure;
keep a lookout for any sign of leaf blight and spray with bordeaux mixture.

Herbs.- — Herbs of all sorts should be divided and replanted without further
delay.

Spinach. — Where the o'dinary sorts are diflBcult to cultivate, New Zealand
spinach will be found very successful. It should be sown 2 feet apart in
drills; later, thin out seedlings to 1 foot apart. The young growths may be
continually cut for u.se throughout the summer.

Notes prom the "Gazette." 681

NOTES FROM THE "GAZETTE."

Attention is drawn to the following matters of interest which appeared
in the Union Government Gazette: —

(Abbreviations: " Proc." — Proclamation; "G.N." — Government Notice.)

Gazette.

No. Date. Items.

1084 13/8/20 Under the Scab Regulations, the Matatiele Commonage has
been withdrawn from the restriction of movements of sheep
imposed by Government Notice No. 1268 of 1914, as fi'om
9th August, 1920. (G.N. No. 1414.)

1084 13/8/20 The protection granted to portions of the districts of Middelburg
and Richmond under the Scab Regulations (G.N. No. 619
of 1919) has been extended to include a number of farms
in the Murraysburg and Graaff-Reinet districts. (G.N. No.
1415.)

1084 13/8/20 A portion of the Lusikisiki Forest Reserve, called the Ntsubane
(6.2) Extension, is to be a demarcated Forest. (G.N. No.
1417.)

1084 13/8/20 Mr. T. P. J. du Plessis, B.A., M.Sc, of the Grootfontein School
of Agriculture has lieen appointed, in terms of the Dairy
Industry Act (No. 16, 1918), to tost, for accuracy, all test
bottles, pipettes, and measuring glasses used in connection
with the testing of milk and cream. (G.N. No. 1422.)

1084—13/8/20 Mr. Thos. Douglas' portion of the farm Witkoppen No. 141 has
been declared by the Minister of Agriculture, for purposes of
paragraph (a), Section 16, of the Diseases of Stock Act,
to be in the Witwatersrand District. (G.N. No. 1448.)

1084 13/8/20 Compulsory dipping of cattle in the three-day dip has been
1088 20/8/20 ordered by the Minister of Agriculture for portions of the

1090 27/8/20 Barberton, Pretoria, Piet Retief Districts, and in the five-

1092 3/9/20 day dip for portions of the Paulpietersburg, Estcourt,

Babanango, Richmond, and Umvoti Districts. (G.N. Nos.

1450, 1491, 1554, 1593.)

1084 13/8/20 On account of outbreaks of East Coast fever thereon, various
1088 20/8/20 farms in the Districts of Barberton, Pretoria, Paulpieters-

1090 27/8/20 burg, Weenen, Estrourt, Umzimkulu, Richmond, Umvoti, and

1092 3/9/20 Piet Retief have been declared infected areas. (G.N. Nos.

1451, 1493, 1555, 1592.)

1084 13/8/20 Stock brands allotted and registered during the quarter ended
30th June, 1920, in terms of Great Stock Brands Ordinance
(No. 15 of U;04, Transvaal), are published. (G.N. No. 1454.)

1084 13/8/20 Crown lands in the Divisions of Malmesbury and the Cape will
be offered for sale by public auction at Malmesbury, in
front of the Public Offices, at 11 a.m., 22nd October, 1920,
and at Capetown, outside the Civil Commissioner's Office,"
Adderley Street, at 10 a.m., 15th October, 1920, respectively.
(G.N. No. 1429.)

1087 19/8/20 The Land Settlements Acts (Nos. 12 of 1912 and 23 of 1917)

have been amended in regard to advances to groups of lessees
for implements, stock, etc., co.st of boring operations, and in
other respects. (Act No. 28 of 1920.)

1088 20/8/20 A stock rate has been imposed by the Governor-General on

every native person in the District of Tsolo in respect of
each head of cattle in his charge on l.st July, 1920. (G.N.
No. 1460.)

682 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

(Abbreviations: " Proc." — Proclamation; "G.N." — Government Notice.)
Gazette.
No. Date. Items.

1088 20/8/20 Semi-protection, und'^r the Scab Regulations, has been extended
to certain locations in the Mount Fletcher District, and for
which purpose they have been added to the Maclear District.
(G.N. No. 1484.)

1088 20/8/20 A further list of brands registered in the Cape Province is
contained in G.N. No. 1492.

1088 20/8/20 The proposed resumption of possession by the Government of
Gertskraal Outspan, in Steytlerville, and of Compagniesdrift
Outspan, in Stellenbo.sch, is notified in G.N Nos. 1468 and
1488.

1090 27/8/20 The private forests or plantations, the property of the Potchef-
stroom Municipal Council, and situated in the Potchefstroom
town lands, are to be brought under the operation of certain
portions of the Forest Act, No. 16 of 1913 (G.N. No. 150),
as are also the forests and plantations on the private pro-
perty known as Kraaibosch, in the Division of George (por-
tions A, B, C, and D). (G.N. No. 151.)

1090 27/8/20 The Gwatju Ward of the Queenstown district has been with-
drawn from the list of East Coast fever areas published in
G.N. No. 558 of 1912. (G.N. No. 1.53.3.)

1090 27/8/20 Agricultural lots in the township of Douglas, Division of
Herbert, will be offered for sale by public auction on Satur-
day, 6th November, 10 a.m., in front of the Court-house,
Douglas. (G.N. No. 1535.)

1092 3/9/20 Regulations under the Dairy Industry Act (No. 16, 1918), for
the proper branding of butter, butter su])stitutes, and
margarine in cases or packets, and of cheese in crates or
boxes, are contained in the Schedule to G.N. No. 1565.

1092 3/9/20 Under the Agricultural Pests Act, No. 11 of 1911, the regula-
tions, published in G.N. No. 306, 1912, have been amended
by the inclusion of seed maize and seed barley, as far as
the fees in respect of disinfecting consignments from oversea
are concerned. (G.N. No. 1575.)

1092 3/9/20 An amendment of the regulation of the size of boxes to be
used in the export of naartjes is published in G.N. No. 1577.

1092 3/9/20 Owing to the retirement of Mr. F. B. Smith, C.M.G.,
Secretary for Agriculture, and the absence of Mr. P. J. dii
Toit, Under-Secretary for Agricultvire, on the Civil Service
Commission of Inquiry, the following temporary appoint-
ments are published: Mr. G. N. Williams, D.S.O., to perform
the functions of Secretary for Agriculture in regard to
Vote 27, "Agriculture," Mr. F. W. Green to act as Under-
secretary for Agriculture, and Mr. M. v. Niekerk to act as
Chief Clerk. (G.N. No. L501.)

1092 3/9/20 Compulsory dipping of sheep and goats for portions of the
Williston and Kenhardt districts, and the period within
which such dipping is to be completed, is published in Govern-
ment Notice No. 1594.

1092 3/9/20 Special regulations for the control and management of the
Crown forests in the Tianskeian Territories, involving the
removals of forest produce, depasturing of cattle, areas closed
to grazing, etc., are published in G.N. No. 1605.

1092 3/9/20 The Minister of Agriculture has declared the area described
in the Schedule to G.N. No. 358 of 1920 as a proposed demar-
cated forest, to be now the demarcated Tonti Forest. (G.N.
No. 1606.)

1092 3/9/20 Applications for Crown farms in the Divisions of Kuruman and
Gordonia will be received by the Secretary for Lands,
Pretoria, up to the 15th October. They will be disposed of
on conditional purchase lease. (G.N. No. 1607.)
Crown holdings in Ermelo, Standerton, Bethal, and Vrede
Districts are also to be disposed of on conditional ijurchase
lease, to be applied for before 15th October, as above. (G.N.
Nos. 1608 and 1609.)

South African Produce on the Oversea Market. 68.'^

SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE ON THE
OVERSEA MARKET.

Extracts from Report of the Trade Comniissioner.

July, 1920.

11 ""/. — The wool niaikot during the past niontli has l)een ver^' depressed,
and of the 7000 bales of vSouth African wools offered at public auction on the
19th Jul}' only 430 bales were sold, although I understand a few hundred bales
were disposed of privately after the auctions. At the auction of Government-
owned Australian wools on the 6th to 16th July, want of confidence on the part
of buyers was most noticeable, and withdrawals were frequent, medium and
inferior wools at tiriies being quite unsaleable. Since the London auction
sales of Government-owned wools have been held at Liverpool, Hull, and
Antwerp, but large quantities were withdrawn, and the market still shows a
downward tendency.

Mohair. — According to brokers' reports, the demand during the past week
has shown no signs of improvement, and very iew transactions have taken
l)lace. Many holders appear anxious to reduce tlieir stocks, and consequently
prices tend to weaken. There is a complete absence of mohair yarn orders,
with little to no likelihood of any improvement in the near future.

Hides and Skins. — Auction sales were held during the past month, but the
result was most disappointing, and hardly any transactions took place. At the
time of writing the market is stagnant. The situation on the Continent is
having an adverse effect on the trade, and supplies of hides now in the United
Kingdom are more than the home trade can absorb.

Sheei>skias. — The market is, to some extent, affected by the wool position,
and transactions are few and far between, and any demand is mainly for
combing wools, at a basis of value equivalent to about 2d. per lb. below that
of the May auctions. At the auctions held on the 16th July, combing wools
were in request at the above rate, but long wools were not wanted and declined
about 3d. per lb., or even more.

Short and shorn were very weak, whilst lambs damaged wools and coarse-
wuollod skins were not in request.

There was only a very small demand for Common Cape Glovers Skins at
the recent auctions. A few of the better grades were sold, but by-sorts and
damages were neglected. The nominal decline, according to brokers' reports,
was from 40s. to 50s. per dozen.

Wattle Bark. — The market is very quiet, and chopped bark is being offered
at ;£lo per ton ex store. Large quantities, I understand, are in store either
at London, Southampton, or Liverpool, and until these are worked off there
does nut appear any immediate likelihood of prices showing an upward
tendency.

Ostrich Feathers. — The market during the month was on the quiet side, but
a small amount of business was transacted at about previous rates. According
to the brokers the demand generally has been for medium quality wings, which
are needed for present requirements, whilst there has been some inquiry for
coloured feathers of all descriptions.

Maize, Barley, and Oats. — The following " Baltic " report of the 5th August
indicates the position of the market: " Maize opened easier, but closed steadier,
the market having a better feeling in view of the fairly good demand for
Government stock. La Plate ex store selling at 66s., and to South Coast ports
at 65s. For parcels of La Plata c.i.f. August-September 60s. 6d. has been paid,
and 60s. for September-October. A cargo of Galatz/Foxanian, August-Septem-
ber, is held for 67s. Bristol Channel is bidding 62s. 6d. for La Plata parcels
July-August. Barley quiet and easier, with only a small trade done in No. 3

684 Journal of the Department of AoRicuLTURfi.

Canada Western to Glasgow and No. 4 to Avonmouth at 76s. for tlip former port
July-August, and 68s. the latter August-September. Oats firm, and again
dearer owing to scarcity. La Plata 42 lb. June-July made 52s., while for f.a.q.
afloat 52s. 6d. and 53s. has been paid, 48s. 9d. for July-August and 47s. 9d. for
August-September. ' '

Note. — Prices quoted as per quarter.

Meat. — Shipments of South African meat continue to reach the market
here, the condition on arrival being good, but the quality continues mixed.
The trade during the past month has been rather slow, and prices for hind-
quarters have ranged from 5s. 8d. to 6s. 8d., whilst forequarters have made from
3s. 4d. to 4s. 4d. per stone (8 lb.), according to quality.

liaisins. — The new crop of Valencias is estimated at some 6000 tons, but this
is subject to modification. A few parcels of Australian and Cape arrived during
the last few weeks, and the quality is excellent, but the demand is a little
checked by the high prices. Cape raisins are quoted at 120s.

Jam. — Shipments of this season's South African jam have foi' some time
past been reaching this market, and from reports received the condition and
quality are quite satisfactory, and the demand is steady.

Crayfish. — Shipments of crayfish have recently arrived in good condition
and are meeting an improved market. Prices range from 90s. to 105s. per case.
The bulk of the supplies have, as usual, gone forward to France.

OVERSEA PRICES OF SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE.

Market Prices of South African Produce in the United Kingdom,

CABLED BY THE TrADE COMMISSIONER, LONDON, ON IOtH

September, 1920.

Woo/. — 5955 bales free South African wool offered August sales. Competitions much better
thaa two previous sales. Prices showed advance from par to 5 per cent, on considerable
quantities offered.

[A Renter message dated 4th Sepl ember, appearing in the Press, states that the
seventh series of Colonial wool sales closed tbat da3\ Of 94,000 bales catalogued 26,000
were withdrawn, 25,000 were exported to the Continent, and 2000 went to America.
The attendance was good throughout, and tliere was strong competition for all Merinos
showing quality.

Continental buyers operated mueli more freely as compared with the July sales.
Merinos were 5 to 15 per cent, higher.

Fine cross-breds were in good demand at an average advance of 5 per cent at the
lieginning of the series ; they weakened somewluit later, and are now (juoted at par for
better sorts, while top making styles are 5 per cent, lower.

Of Cape wools 6000 bales were offered on importers' account. Tlie Ijest couiliiiig
grease wools were quoted 5 per cent, higher, while other grades were noiuinally un-
changed.

The prices of Australian scoured i-aiiged from 15d. to 82^1., grease, 13d. to 72id.
Cape snow whites, 31d. to 80d.; and greasy. 12d. to 34d. — Acting Editor.]

Moha a: — Transactions still few. Price favours buyers.

Cape Hldex. — Dry salted, Is. OM. to Is. 9d. per lb.; Wet salted heavy. Is. 2d. to Is. 3d. per lli.;
Light, Is. 2d. to Is. 2kl. per lb. nominal.

[A Keuter message of the llth September states that hides at the Bermondsey
auctions were tirmer. At the sale of Cape hides 1(5,000 were offered but were not sold,
although the sellers were willing to entertain reasonable offers. The leather trade has
slackened. — ACTlNa EDITOR.]

CapeMerino Sheep Skinx. — Combing wool, Is. 3^d. to Is. 7d. ; long, Is. to Is. 2.1d.; short and
shorn, yd. to Is. per lb. nominal.

Common Cape Glover Sheep. Skim. — Large, £6 ; medium, 90s. ; light, 80s. nominal.

Natul Wattle Ba)'li.—Gho\)]}Q(\,£.\^. 10s.; ground, £15. 10s., stores, London.

KOTBS FROM THE DIVISIONS. 685

04rirh Fcatlu'rx. — Auctimis hckl 6tli Miid 7tli Septenit)er. Outstaudiu^u: feature was sale of S20
cases Westei'ii Feathers without reserve ; 1700 cases offered, 1000 sold, realizing
approximately £81,000. Paris largest buyer, which should pi'omisc well for the future
fashions. America demand sinill. Best (|uality white aiirl feniinas remain practically
unchanged, seconds and thirds declined Id percent, to 15 per cent., common much
cheaper. Byocks, 10 per cent, to l.j per cent, lower : Spadonas. light, very firm ; coloured,
easier: Boos, blacks, dral)s, floss, declined 15 percent, to 20 per cent. Next sales,
7th February.

Maize. — South African No. 2, While Flat. Parcel 77s. 6d. to 80s. per quarter offered United
Kingdom or Continental Ports. Ln Plata .]fai:i'. — August-September shipments
67s. ()d. ; September-Octoljcr shipments, 6(is. 'M\.

Jfoi:e Meal.— £.18. lOs., possibly £18. 15s. can be olitained.

Kaffir Corn. — 90s. per quarter offered.

South African Jieef. — Hinds, 58. ; Fores, 3s. per stone 8 lb.

Dried Fruit. — [A Renter calile dated 11th September states that dried fruit was selling
well. Tlie demand for Gape raisins was good, little remaining unsold. — ACTING
Editok.]

Market Prices for other Produce of Interest to South Africa.

Cottou.—Awj^wsi future closed at 20-38; September future, highest 21-18; closed 2nd
September 18-98.

( otto)i St'c/I. — Quiet. Bombay to Hull August-September shipments, £14 paid.

Cotton Seed Oil. — Spot Hull quoted Egyptian crude, 708. : Boml)ay crude, tjOs.

Edfjs. — English, 45s.; Irish, H8s. to 40s.; Danish, 38s. to 42s.; Ohinese, 31s. to 32s.; Canadian.
35s. to 3(5s. per long hundred.

Bacon.— ^i\\\ controlled. Maximum prices £10. 4s. per cwt. for gi'een Wiltshire sides in
bales.

Porh. — Good market for imported frozen : worth approximately 10s. jier stone.

NOTES FROM THE DIVISIONS.

VITICULTURE.

July being a wet month outside work was handicapped, but August was better,
althougli we had a shower nearly every week-end. Many farms in tlie Darling,
Malmesbury, Paarl, and Stellenbosch districts were visited on extension work.
Thousands of American stocks and scions were disti'ibuted from Constantia,
Paarl Viticultiiral Station, and Elsenbvirg. Of the table grapes over fifty
varieties were distributed, " Rosaki " and " Gros Colman " being the chief
grapes in demand. There was quite a demand for the " Donzillinho de
Castallo " and " Donzillinho de Gallego," although really grapes for port wines:
on account of their ripening very early and having a pleasant taste, with a
faint " Muscadel " flavour, they may yet prove valuable as table grapes for the
local market. I should like to draw exporters' attention to the " Barlinka," as
there Avas only a small demand for them. This grape is late, and can be left long
on the vine. It is known to travel well. On account of its dark colour it has
a better chance on the London market than the "Raisin Blanc," which is a
white grape, and mostly planted to have something late. Export agents point
out, also, in their circulars that our white grapes did not do s© well late in
the season because they had to compete with the coloured hot-house grapes.

The cultivation of vineyards is now in full swing. The pruning was finished
early in August. Grafting is also going on. At Elsenburg some grafted vines
were stratified in boxes, into which the vines were packed with a mixture of
two-thirds sawdust and one-third charcoal. These boxes were placed in a stable,
and after three weeks they were nicely callused at the place of union between
scion and stock, whereas those stratified in the ordinary way outside showed
no gigns of callus.

()8() Journal op* the Department of AGRicuLttTRE.

Seven new experiniciiUil plots of <j;!-iit'ted vines 'were laid ont in the
Robertson, Worcester, Stellenbosch, Pnarl, and Mahneshury districts. In
co-operation w ith farmers, certain grapes grafted on " 10-12 " varieties of
American stocks, were planted rn the farms to ascertain which stock is the
best for certain soils, climate, etc.

HORTICULTURE.

Kverytliinji; augurs well for a lunijii r crop of all kinds of fruits in the
Western Province. The ground has received the best soaking it lias had for
years, and deep-rooted cultures will benefit greatly if good cultivation is
practised. Boxwood supply is the bugbear of the situation, and large numbers
of pine trees are being cut down for the purpose. Hugh areas of fruit trees
and vines are being planted, especially in the Stellenbosch, Paarl, Wellington,
Ceres, Drakenstein, and French Hoek areas. Apricot cidture is receiving
special attention. Practically all the nurserymen are sold out of this particular
line. Farms are changing hands at a rapid rate in the above-mentioned districts
at almost fabulous prices. A prominent fruit grower is turning out first-class
fruit export and lug boxes from his own forests planted twenty years ago. He
has also nullified the effects of lemon rot by regularly spraying packs, houses,
and boxes with an effective solution of formalin.

At the Docks citrus export is in full swing. That some of the packers of
oranges have still much to learn is evident when one sees the loose packs, the
excessive bulges, and the "absence of hoop-iron strapping round the centres of
the boxes.

A great many of the earlier oranges shipped should not be picked for export,
and something will need to be done next season to prevent them going overseas.
A considerable amount of fruit from certain areas were frosted and a good deal
dried out. Some of the Rustenburg packs which came forward in bad condition
last season were first class this season, owing to more suijervision exercised in
orchard and pack-house. A large proportion of the celebrated Clanwilliam
oranges showed ten to twenty i)er cent, waste on arrival at docks, the reason
probably being excessive winter rains.

With an ample supply of boxes and available shipping for next season, tne
citrus export should make a big forward movement.

AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION.

At no period in the history of the co-operative movement in this country
has such keen interest been displayed in the subject of agricultural co-operation
as at the present time.

Although the operations of this Division are as yet confined to the establish-
ment, registration, and control of co-operative agricultural societies in the
Transvaal and Orange Free State Provinces only, letters are received from
all parts of the Union, requesting information as to the steps to be taken for
establishing co-operative societies, and the general principles underlying the
formation of such organizations. During August last no less than six applica-
tions were received for the registration of societies in different centres of the
Transvaal and Orange Free State Provinces. One new society, having as its
main objects the disposal of members' produce and the supply of agricultural
implements, was registered in the Orange Free State during August, with an
initial membership of 52. This society is established in one of the best wool
districts of the Province, and it is expected that before long many more farmers
will join ; with good management there is every reason to believe that the
society will prove a success. Another recently established general produce and
supply society commenced active operations in the beginning of the month, and
its prospects,' too, are very promising. Meetings have already been convened
for the formation of three other similar societies, which will probably also be
registered in the near future.

As an indication of the development of the movement, it may be mentioned
that during August 523 farmers were enrolled as members of the existing
societies operating in the Transvaal and Orange Free State.

From information to hand it may safely be said that the total turnover
in maize of the existing societies during the present season will be far
greater than that of any previous season.

Recent Agricultttral Literature. 687

RECENT AGRICULTURAL LITERATURE.

By Paul Ribbink, Librarian, Department of Agriculture.
1.— UNION GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS.

A. — Department op Agriculture.

(Bulletins ohtainahle from the Department of Agriculture, Pretoria.)

Number of
Price per copy. Publication.

. Is. 0(1. The Wool Industry. A Report on Investigations in the Bulletin No.
Wool Industries of Great Britain and the United 4/1920.

States of America, with a view to the Betterment
of the Industry in South Africa.

B. — Miscellaneous Reports, etc., of Interest to Farmers.
(Obtainable from the Government Printer, Pretoria.)

3.S. 6d. Advisory Board of Industry and Science: Report for U.G. 43 — '20.

the Year 1919.

10s. 6d. Estimates of the Expenditure to be defrayed from U.G. 6 & 49

Revenue Funds during the Year ending 31st March, — '20.

1921 (excluding Railways and Harbours).

3s. Od. Factories and Labour Divisions of the Department of U.G. 42 — '20.

Mines and Industries: Annual Report for the period

1/5/1919 to 31/12/1919 and 1/1/1919 to 31/12/1919,

respectively.

6s. 6d. Police: Report of the Commissioner for the Year 1918... U.G. 2— '20.

3s. Od. Postma.ster-General : Report for the Year 1919 ... U.G. 38— '20.

2.S 6d. Surveyors-General of the several Provinces of the U.G. 41 — '20.

Union : Reports for the Year 1918.

II.— THE AGRICULTURAL PRESS OF SOUTHERN AND TROPTCAL

AFRICA.

Selected Articles.

7>tfi Boer (Byvoegsel tot Be Volkstem), Pretoria.
13/8/20 Dr. Theiler oor Lamsiekte.

20/8/20 Skapetentoonstelling, Sydney, Australie. Boer en Handel.
27/8/20 Kunsmisstowwe, deur C. R. van der Merwe.
3/9/20 Gallamziekte. (Polemiek tussen Dr. Hartig en Sir Arnold Theiler.)

Die Boerevrouw (Posbus 984, Pretoria).

8/20 lets oor Bye en Henning, deur G. R. von Wielligh. Hoe om
Hoenders te Voer. Die Gemmerplant en wat daarvan kan
gemaak word, deur Mev. Dr. van Wyk. Huisnieubileer, deur
Jeanette van Duyn,
Farmers' Advocate, South African (P.O. Box 247, Bloemfontein).

8/20 Official Milk Records. Industries and Agriculture. Dry-land
Farming in Utah, by H. W. Turpin. The Holstein-Friesian of
America, by W. A. K. Morkel.

The Farmers' Journal (Nairobi, B.E.A.).

22/7/20 Farmers' Taxes. Housing the Pig.
29/7/20 Farmers' Taxes. Milk Recording.
5/8/20 Notes on Sugar-making Machinery. Ramie Fibre Culture. How
to Preserve Skins and other Trophies.
12/8/20 Agriculture in Rhodesia. Stump-pulling with Home-made
Apparatus. Herd Testing in Australia. Nativ^es' Work aiid
Wages.

688 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

The Farmers' Weekly (Bloemfontein).

4/8/20 Vindication of the Dip. Birds as Scavengers, by F. W. Fitz-

simons. Agriculture in our Schools, by G. Otto. East Coast

Fever Inquiry.
11/8/20 Wool Manufacturing in South Africa, by J. P. MacLaren.

Farming in South America: V, by E. A. Nobbs.
18/8/20 Johannesburg Municipal Market: Trading Results for Year

ended 30/6/20. Agriculture in the South-West Protectorate.

Grass Farming. Birds and the Balance of Nature, by F. W.

Fitzsimons.
25/8/20 Notes on Cotton Growing, by Gossypium. Federated Farmers'

Co-operative Association: Report on Meeting of 1st July, 1920,

at Durban. Farming in South America : VI. Meat Packing,

by E. A. Nobbs. Export of Frieslands.
1/9/20 Droughts and how they are Caused, by C. K. Hall. A Farm

Dwelling-house, by W. S. H. Cleghorne.

The Independent (Salisbury, Rhodesia).

30/7/20 The Maize Outlook, by " Ager." Handling Cattle.

6/8/20 Insure the Cattle Industry. Beef for Export, by C. S. Jobling.
13/8/20 Be Up and Doing (on the Establishment of a Veterinary Research

Laboratory for Rhodesia). Beef for Export (continued). The

Salisbury Show : Amazing Maize.
20/8/20 Nature Study, by F. Eyles. The Africander Cattle, by A. G. S. R.

The £15,000 Scheme. A Bacteriological Laboratory for

Rhodesia. Veterinary Research Address, by Mr. Bevan.
27/8/20 The Meat Industry. Food Preserving. Veterinary Research:

Address by Mr. Bevan {continued). Grow Wheat. The Old

Days (continued). The 1890 Column.

Vie Landbouwer (Posbus 1035, Pretoria).

8/20 Onse Landboutentoonstellings. Die Skaaphoerdery, deur T. P.
van der Walt. Bewerke van Teffhooi. Losmaak van onder-
grond met Dinamiet (vervolg).

Die Landbouw Weekblad, (Posbus 267, Bloemfontein).

4/8/20 Die Heilige Aarde, deur L. H. Bailey. Dorro Suidafrika, deur
J. D. Schonken (vervolg). Tjikorie Verbouing, deur
G. Bosman. Die Kunsmatige Vermeerdering van Byekolonies
(vervolg). Landbouonderwys in die Skool, deur G. J. Otto.

11/8/20 Landboutoestande in Rhodesie : V, deur G. Jordaan. Dorre Suid-
afrika, deur J. D. Schonken (vervolg).

18/8/20 Skaaphoerdery in Australie, deur T. P. van der Walt (vervolg).
Dorre Suidafrika, deur J. D. Schonken (vervolg). Lamsiekte,
deur Dr. Arnold Theiler.

25/8/20 Profyt in Boerdery in Suidafrika. Ko-operasie, deur Dr. J. E.
Holloway. Landbouopvoeding in die Skool, deur F. Geldenhuys.
Suidafrikaanse Rysmiere, deur C. Puller.
1/9/20 Landboutoestande in Rhodesie: VI, deur G. Jordaan. Dorre
Suidafrika, deur J. D. Schonken (vervolg). 'n Boek oor Boer-
dery in Afrikaans: II (vervolg). Voedsel vir die Plaasdier.

Mitteihinqen der Farmwirtschafts-Geaelhchaft fur Suedjve.'tfafrika (Post-sach
128, Windhuk, S.W.A.).

10/7/20 Eine Landplage, Paul Ritter. Karakuls, Gustav Voigts. Jahres-

bericht des " Verbandes " fur 1920.
20/7/20 Der Wassermangel der Brunnen und seine Abhilfe, G. Dresselhaus.

Ueber den weiteren Weg unserer Landesrinderzucht, H.

Huettenhain. Lahmseuche oder Gallamziekte, Dr. R. Hartig.
1/8/20 Erfahrungen mit der Wunschelrute, R. Sarnow.
15/8/20 Tatsachen zur Eingeborenenfrage 11. Die Kennzeichnung des

Kleinviehs, Otto Henning. Harnsteine bei Ochsen, Dr. G.

Schmid. Verwertung von Ruckstanden bei der Herstellung

vom Fleischextrakt, Fr. Hirsch.

The Nafinvnl Tinnk of South Africa, Ltd., Monthly Trade Report.

31/8/20 South African Business and Prospects. Crops and liive Stock,

Recent Agricultural Literature. 689

The Rhodesia Agricultural Journal (Department of Agriculture, Salisbury).

8/20 Statistics of Live Stock and Animal Produce for 1919. The Shows.
Report of the Chief Veterinary Surgeon for 1919. Cultivation
of Rice (continued). Report of the Veterinary Bacteriologist
for 1919. Forestry in Rhodesia, by J. S. Henkel. Develop-
ment of Flavour in Butter, by T. Hamilton. Manuring of
Maize, by G. N. Blackshaw. Roundworm Infection of Calves,
by H. E. Hornby. Poultry Husbandry, by A. Little.

South African Dairyman (P.O. Box 925, Durban).

8/20 Maritzburg and the Price of Milk. Feeding of Pigs. Simple

Book-keeping. A Guide for Farmers.
9/20 The Milk Producers' Union. The Neutralization of Acids and
and Alkalies, by P. L. de Klerk. Notes on Silage Making, by
Farmer George'. The Jersey Breed, by M. Sackville-West.

South African Farm News (P.O. Box 963, Johannesburg).

8/20 Farmers' Party.— Boere Party. S.A.U. Farmers' Party.—
S.A.U. Boere Party. Herefords, by Farmer George. The
Cattle Industry : V, by Bos.

South African Fruit Grower and Small Holder (P.O. Box 8958, Johannesburg).
8/20 Anthracnose or Zwart Roest of the Grape. Agriculture Else-
where: the ex-German Colonies (continued), by F. H. Cooper.
Mistakes in Lemon Cultivation (British East Africa), by A. E.
Bester.

South African Gardening and Country Life (P.O. Box 3958, Johannesburg).

8/20 Carnation Growing in South Africa, by A. G. Murray. The
Gables of Holland and the Cape, by Dorothea Fairbridge.

South African Journal of Industries (Government Printer, Pretoria).

8/20 The Prickly Pear (Opuntia) : I, by Chas. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc.
The South African Fisheries Survey, by H. Warington Smyth,
C.M.G., M.A. An Oilshale Industry for South Africa, by
T. G. Trevor. Sugar and Sugar Products, by W. Jex. Water-
power in the Union of South Africa: I, by F. E. Kanthack,
C.M.G. Iron and Steel Industry in the Union of South
Africa: III, by Professor G. H. Stanley. Vegetable Fats and
Oils: V, by Professor M. Rindl. South African Federated
Chamber of Industries : II.

South African Poultry Magazine (Bloemfontein).

8/20 Poultry Keeping on Practical Paying Lines, by W. C. Archibald.
The Breeding Season, by Utility. The Jungle Fowl and its
Descendants, by Geo. R. Vivyan.

South African Poultry Beview and Small Holder (Johannesburg).

9/20 An Embargo on Egg Export? All Utility and all Fancy: An
American View. S. A. Poultry Association: Monthly Meeting
of the Executive Board. Egg-laying Competitions: Results
for July, 1920.

South African Railways and Harbours Magazine (Publicity Department, South
African Railways, Johannesburg).
9/20 A Visit to the Belgian Congo, by P. A. Masters, South African
Railways. Poultry Club : A Successful Week.

South African Sugar Journal (P.O. Box 925, Durban).

8/20 Sugar Raised to £51 per ton. A New Sugar Milling Company
for Natal. Recent Aspects of the Natal Sugar Position. Sugar
Industry in the Fiji Islands. Cotton on the Soutli Coast.

The Sun and Agricultural Journal of South Africa (P.O. Box 634, Johannesburg).
8/20 Transvaal to Tangier: III. The Industries of Durban: Match-
making. Maize Exhibits on Durban Show, by W. H. Scherffius.
Cotton in Natal. Fertilizers for the Farmer. The Safco
Factory. Maize Growing. The South African Maize Breeders',
Growers', and Judges' Association.

690 Journal of the Department of Agriculture,

Sunday Times (Farmers' Supplement), Johannesburg.

8/8/20 Cheddar Cheese, by D. Deenink. The Werribee Research Farm,
V)y F. T. Nicholson. Castration of Domestic Animals: II, by
A. Hodder.

15/8/20 The Apple, by J. M. Sim. Caprification of Smyrna Figs (con-
tinued), by I. Tribolet. British East Africa Coffee Growing,
by W. S. Bromhead. Silo Construction, by S. 6. Carlyle and
J. McCaig. Maize Growing, by G. J. Bosman.

22/8/20 British East Africa Flax Growing, by W. S. Bromhead. In-
breeding, by J. H. R. Bisschop. The Mammary Glands of
the Cow, by A. Hodder.

29/8/20 Tsetse Fly Disease, by A. Hodder. Caprification of Smyrna Figs,
by I. Tribolet {continued). The Wheat Situation, by F. T.
Nicholson.
5jdl20 Cultivation of the Osier. Planting Mealies, by G. J. Bosman.
The South-West Protectorate : Farming and Ranching
Prospects, by J. H. Hume. Exhibition of Maize, by P J.
Naude. Sheep in Australia, by F. T. Nicholson.

III.— REVIEWS.

^^ Farming for S. African Schools," Book II, by the Reverend W. G.
Dowsley, B.A., is among new publications received. This part deals with the
Life of Farm Plants, Tobacco, Cotton, Sugar-cane, Insects, Bee-keeping, and
Internal Parasites. The book is excellently illustrated and should be in the
posession of every one interested in South African agriculture. It is published
l)y De Nafcionale Pers, Beperkt, Capetown.

The Herd Book of the Friesland Cattle Breeders' Association of South
Africa, Volume I, has just made its apepa ranee, and contains a record of all
Friesland cattle approved and admitted for registry since the publication of
Volume 12 of the S.A. Stud Book up to 30th June, 1919. The volume contains,
besides the ordinary subject matter of a Herdbook, useful information on the
constitution and rules o? the association and an index to names of owners and
breeders.

The South African Shorthorn Herd Book, Volume I, 1919, containing the
pedigrees of C.H.B. and Lincoln Red males and females entered up to 30th
June, 1919, is published by the Shorthorn Society of South Africa under the
authority of the S.A. Stud Book Association. It includes, in addition to
pedigrees, etc., the articles of association, rules, regulations, etc., and other
useful information for breeders.

AT THE SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND
EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

Augvist, 1920.

CEDARA, NATAL.

Climatic. — The rainfall for the month (29th July to 26th August) was .05
inches. The mean maximum temperature was 67.92° F., and the mean minimum
43.95° F. The highest maximum temperature, 83° F., was registered on 26th
August, and the lowest minimum, 37.8° F., on 4th August. Slight frosts were
experienced on the 4th and 5lli of the month.

Crops. — The oat forage crops are showing up well. The Brassicn crops are
!)eing cut for green food. At present the veld looks parched, but is showing
signs of fresh growth. Farming operations are now centred on the preparation
of lands for the coming planting season.

Field Experiment,^. — Data for last season's experiments are now to hand
and are being prepared with a view to the publication of results. The kikuyu
grass is now showing rapid growth owing to the improving daily temperature
and light rains. The tall fescue and cocksfoot have been adversely affected by
the severe winter, but they promise renewed growth, liutthnelia compressa, an

Schools of AGRlcuLTURfe and Experiment Stations. 69l

indigenous grass, Las wintered well in a dry area, and is now quite fresh and
vigorous. Some new varieties of potatoes have been carefully nursed through
the winter and are now responding well to improved weather conditions.

Stock. — Three Shorthorn calves Avere born during the month, one of these
being a fine bull calf from the champion cow 32S. One of the calves was
deformed and died shortly after birth. All the stock are in fairly good condition.
The majority are being fed with silage.

Horticulture. — Pruning is now completed, and the trees have been given a
dormant spray of lime-sulphur, 1 in 8. The pears were sprayed with a 1 in 30
mixture, as the buds are already expanding. Many of the peaches and the
Keiffer and I^e Comte pears are already well in bloom. The plums are just
breaking. An experimental orchard for the testing of different varieties has
been started, varieties showing greatest resistance to woully aphis having been
worked on French crab stocks.

Chemical Laboratory. — Most of the samples analysed in the laboratoi-y this
nu)nth were soils forwarded by farmers in order to ascertain the manurial needs.
As usual, all the soils were distinctly acid in reaction and contained but a
minute proportion of carbonate of lime. This shows that lime is a very
important manure to supply the needs of Natal soils, and, although no startling
improvement may be seen in the crop production in the first season, the beneficial
effects of the continued application of lime will be apparent after a few seasons.
It must be remembered, however, that the application of lime will not make
up for the deficiency of any other constituents, such as phosphate or potash,
but it will undoubtedly assist in rendering available any of these constituents
that may be present in an insoluble form.

Studerds. — There were 59 probationers in residence at Cedara and 5 at
AVinkle Spruit at the end of the month.

ELSENBURG, MULDERS VLEI, CAPE.

Climatic. — Mild weather prevailed practically throughout the month, and
the rainfall was comparatively small — 1.64 inches (26th July to 25th August),
the normal average being over 4 inches. The maximum temperature recorded
was 81.4° F. on the 24th instant, and the minimum 39.4° F. on the 12th.

Field Operations, Crops, etc. — The only crop sown during the month was
rape, an additional 22 acres being put in. A large amount of " braaking " was
effected, and about 150 acres of gi-owing crops cultivated. The cereal crops, on
the whole, are looking well. Approximately 60 acres of land were prepared for
the sowing of mealies. The manuring, ploughing, and pruning of the vine-
yards were completed. At Mariendahl a further area of 8 acres was ploughed
and subsoiled for the planting of vines. Pruning operations in the orchards
were completed. All the deciduous fruit trees were sprayed with lime-sulphur,
1-15 and 1-10. About 3000 Redding olive seeds, 60 almond stocks, a number of
fig cuttings, and plum and almond-rooted seedlings were planted.

Live Stock. — With the improvement of natural pastures the condition of the
stock in general is improving, and the milk yield of the dairy herds shows a
further increase. Thirteen cows of the Friesland herd are entered for the
Advanced Registry. Orders for pure-bred pigs are increasingly numerous from
all parts of the Union, and eight Large Blacks will shortly be dispatched to the
South-West Protectorate.

Experimental and Investigational Work. — The experimental ranges, on the
whole, are looking very well, particularly the "variety" plots. But certain
ranges which were unavoidably planted rather late, notably the " Mixed
Fodder " experiments, are backward, due to late planting and to the cold, wet
nature of the soil.

Interesting observations are being made in regard to the following crosses :
Berkshire boar-Tamworth sow, Berkshire boar-Large Black sow. Large Black
boai-Tam worth sow, Large Black boar-Berkshire sow. In addition, many
Berkshires and Large Blacks are being kept for straight breeding. Accurate
records are being kept in regard to the prolificacy of the various crosses and
pure-breds, the gestation and oestrum periods, and also the weights and feed
consumption of all animals from tiifte of weaning until of marketable age.
The relative eflBciency of the various types as " baconers " will also be determined.

Other investigations in regard to spraying, and soil and fertilizer problems
are progressing satisfactorily.

692 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Extension Work.- — During the month there was the usual Lirge demand upon
the time of most of the oflBcers in charge of the various sections for external
work, mainly visits to farms in advisory capacity.

A number of soils was examined in the chemical laboratory in regard
to the growth of Turkish tobacco, low productivity, "alkali" problem, etc.;
a number of fertilizer and other materials was also analysed.

The School. — A new course in Apiculture has been started for both junior
and senior students.

GLEN, ORANGE FREE STATE.

(ieneriil. — The month was comparatiA'ely mild. A few duststorms were
experienced ; .65 inch of rain was registered on the 20th. There is still an
abundance of grass, and the young grass is appearing as a result of the rain.

School. — The regular students returned from their midwinter vacation on
the 10th. The total number of students in residence is 66.

Building Operations. — The new dairy will soon be completed, also three
residences for the staff. Minor buildings, such as storeroom, bathroom, and
calf pens were erected by the farm.

Farm. — Crops have improved considerably during the month. The greater
area of the land intended for summer cultivation has been ploughed. Consider-
able maintenance work is just now being performed on the irrigation furrows.

Live Stock. — The stock all maintain their condition. Many animals are now
stabled, including those which are to be offered for sale on the 14th proximo.
Another heifer, " Glen Geertje," qualified for the Advanced Registry.

Experimental. — Winter experiments have been limited this year to variety
tests only, and are looking very promising. The summer experiments will be
extended to embrace various phases of the work.

Entomological. — This officer, together with the Lecturer in Horticulture,
visited the orchards and gardens at Warrenton and Ritchie Settlements. As
the plotholders at these places make their living almost exclusively by producing
fruit and vegetables a considerable amount of useful work can be performed
in the direction of proper pruning of trees and combating insect pests. It is
proposed to follow up this work, and, in addition, include other settlements.
The feeding habits of meerkats are also being investigated.

Horticulture. — The last of the pruning was done shortly after the return of
the students. A considerable area has also been sown to vegetables.

GROOTFONTEIN, MIDDELBURG, CAPE.

Climatic- — Excessive drought conditions continue, high winds alternating
with cold, and the condition of stock in parts is not what it should be at this
season of the year. Heavy mortality in sheep is taking place on some farms,
due to intestinal worms.

Horticultural Section. — Both orchards have been pruned during the month
by the senior and the returned soldier students. Irrigation has also been con-
ducted with a view to retarding the blossoming of the trees.

The diversity of opinion that exists as to the advisability of irrigation before
blossoming of fruit trees has led to the following experiment this season to
provide data as to the stage when most damage is sustained from late frosts :

Two plots containing trees of the same varieties of fruit have been treated
thus : Plot 1. — Irrigated (flood method) when the buds started to swell. Plot 2. —
Check plot not irrigated.

Soil thermometers have been placed in each plot, one each 2 feet, and
one each at 4 feet below the surface of soil, to find the difference of temperature,
for the lower the temperature the less likelihood of the trees blossoming. A
blossoming record will bo kept of the two plots, also percentages of fruit that
set on selected branches of each of the varieties of fruit. These branches have
been selected and the fruit Ijuds counted.

Farm Crops. — Notwith.standing the adverse conditions that prevailed during
the last two months in the form of high winds and severe frosts, fodder crops,
consisting of 85 acres sown with various kinds of oats, made satisfactory progress.

Agricultural Experimental Section. — An area of 8 acres of the above is
devoted to an experiment conducted with the view to establishing the relative
values of (a) sowing in wet soil, with the proper dry surface mulch, and sowing

Schools of Agriculture and Experiment Stations. «)93

in dry soil and wetting afterwards to obtain germination. Both methods are to
have the same treatment subsequently as to watering, etc. ; (b) broadcasting
versus drilling; (c) guano versus no guano. The soil contains a high percentage
of lime, and owing to negative results in the past it is thought possible that
the lime might neutralize the otherwise beneficial effect of the fertilizer; hence
the comparative experiment.

All wheat, oats, and barley experiments are making good growth, a
bird-resisting variety of wheat being foremost. Several root selections were
made from the Chinese variety of lucerne; this variety is now about a foot high,
and, although heavy frosts wera experienced during the month it has not been
affected. In the sheep-feeding experiment the Durum wheats and Cape rye
are giving the most growth ; cold weather has retarded (and in some
cases killed) the barleys, rape, kale, and oats. Thousands of spineless cactus
leaves have been cut for delivery in September.

Dairy Section.- — The special dairy course students of this institution paid
a visit to the Tweespruit Dairies and the Bloemfontein Creamery. Practical
instruction was given in the manufacturing of cheddar and gouda cheese, the
judging and grading of cheese, and the grading of cream. The visit was of
great educational value to the men, who intend qualifying for responsible positions
in factory dairies. The students also paid a visit to the municipal sewage farm.
The operations dealing with the disposal of the .*iewage were closely followed, and
information was elicited dealing with the crops raised, yield, etc.

(Jhemical Section. — Arrangements are in hand for the condiict of irrigation
experiments at this institution, the chemical section collaborating with other
sections interested in the work. During the hist few months several samples
of water have been submitted for analy.sis, with the complaint that they had
proved injurious to crops. In every case the water was found to be " brak."

Sheep Section. — On the 26tb of July thirteen special .sheep and wool
students accompanied Mr. Mellet, Government Sheep Expert, on the annual
tour arranged in conjunction with this course, visiting various farms and the
Stud Ram Sales at Bloemfontein.

Poultry Section. — Organized by the S. A. Railways Poultry Club, a highly
successful "Poultry Week" was held at Johannesburg, from the 9th to the
14th of the month. It was the annual exhibition of poultry appliances and com-
mercial products. Lectures and practical demonstrations were given daily by
the Lecturers in Poultry from the Agricultural Schools at Potchefstroom, Glen,
and Grootfontein. Some 3300 people attended, evidence of the public's interest.

POTCHEFSTROOM, TRANSVAAL.

Climatic. — Mild weather was experienced during the month, the absolute
maximum temperature registered amounted to 83.5° on the 29th. The absolute
minimum reached 27° on two days, the 5th and 16th respectively. A few
degrees of frost were registered on five nights only during the early part of
the month. The weather was overcast on several days, but no rain fell. Severe
winds from the north-west were experienced during the latter stages of the
period under revdew. Scarcity of irrigation Avater has become apparent very
early this season.

Farm Section. — Some 12 acres of black soil were ploughed, disk-harrowed,
sown to oats and vetch, and rolled. This crop was sown as an experiment to
provide grazing for sheep in the early spring. This black soil has broken down
remarkably well ; 60 acres under lucerne have been cultivated with Lucerne
King Cultivator.

Top-dressings of Government guano were applied early in the month to
the crops of wheat and oats. All the winter cereal crops have been irrigated
and .subsequently harrowed. A small piece of ground near the farm buildings,
to be sub-divided and fenced in for pig camps, has been sown to lucerne. There
is promise of a good stand. 160 bags of rnaize were thrashed. Owing to the
scarcity of bedding a large quantity of veld grass was cut on a neighbouring
farm. Other farm operations consisted of fencing, road-making, sorting and
grading of seed maize.

Live Stock. — Cattle are m.iintaining their condition well. Breeding cows of
beef breed have run on mealie stalks and have been fed on mangels. They are
in good condition, but, unfortunately, owing to the drought of last year, a
poor crop of spring calves is expected.

694 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

A consignment of 4 gelts and 1 boar of the Large Black breed was received
from Elsenburg School of Agriculture, and also 2 sows and 1 Berkshire boar from
the Laurenceford Estate, Somerset West, and the Tokai Reformatory Retreat.
With this new blood it is hopv^d to considerably improve the class of pig bred
here.

One cross-bred and three pure-bred calves were born during the month. One
pure-bred calf died of sponsiekte, in spite of the fact that the animal was
inoculated in December and again in April last. Since the above occurrence all
young cattle have l)een reinonulated with double vaccine for sponsiekte.

Experimental Sectimi. — The work consisted chiefly in irrigating, harrowing,
strangering, and labelling of wheat plots in the variety trials.

Staff. — Mr. Dawson, a graduate from the Ohio University, assumed duty
here as Experimentalist and Lecturer in Field Husbandry. ' The temporary
services of Mr. F. J. Gibb have been obtained as Lecturer in Botany. A travelling
instructor for the Transvaal Province, in the person of Mr. C. C. Rhodes, has
been added to the staff of the Poultrv Division.

STAFF: APPOINTMENTS, TRANSFERS, ETC.

(1) Agriculture.
12/8/20 S. T. Jackson, M.li.C.V.S.: Appointed District Veterinary Surgeon

and for the present stationed at Pretoria.
17/8/20 Lloyd Worrall: Appointed on three years' agreement as Instructor in
the Tobacco and Cotton Division and stationed at Barber ton.
3/9/20 G. N. WiUiams, Acting Under-Secretary, to act as Secretary for
Agriculture. F. W. Green, Acting Chief Clerk, to act as tfnder-
Secretary; and ^f. ran Niekcrk, Principal Clerk, to act as
Chief Clerk.

(2) Agricultural Education.

4/8/20 Max Edelman: Appointed Assistant Lecturer in Field Husbandry and
Experimentalist, School of Agriculture, Cedara.

MOVEMENTS OF OFFICERS.

Mr. C. E. Gray, Principal Veterinary OflBcer, has been granted three
months' leave. During his absence Mr. J. B. Borthwick, Assistant Principal
Veterinary Officer, will act as Principal Veterinary Officer.

Senior Research Officers P. B. Viljoen and G. M. llohinson sailed for Europe
on the 17th September for purpose of special study.

Mr. G. van Foreest, Live Stock Officer, proposes visiting the Eastern Pro-
vince of the Cape during the month of October for the purpose of lecturing to
and advising farmers on cattle breeding. His itinerary will embrace Sterk-
stroom, Imvani, and other places on the railway line to East London.

Mr. W. G. Mason, Director of Training Farms, has been requested to pny a
visit of inspection to the Government Experiment Farms in the South-West
Protectorate, with a view to advising as to their organization and management.
He will leave for Windhuk on the 3rd of October.

Mr. W. 0. John, Lecturer in Poultry at the School of Agriculture, Elsen-
burg, has been seriously indisposed for some time, and is unable to attend to his
usual duties. In the meantime Mr. It. JiourUnj, Poultry Lecturer at the
Potchefstroom School, will carry out the inspection of eggs for export, and has
been seconded temporarily to Capetown for this purpose.

Miss Bosalie Oostliuisen, Government Overseas Scholar in Domestic Science,
having completed a two-years' course in Canada, has returned to South Africa.

Mesdames M. van Diiyn, I. van der Merwe, and E. Ferguson, who were
granted Government Scholarships in Domestic Science at the same time as
Miss Oosthuisen, are also expected to return shortly.

Miss M. Davidtsz and Miss B. Fouche have been offered an extension of
their scholarships and will probably continue their studies in America for a
year or two longer.

Meat Statistics.

695

MEAT STATISTICS.

I. — Ketukn of Bekp Inspected and Passed fou Export, August, 1920.

Cattle.

Carcasses.

Place.

Inspected.

Rejected.

Passed.

Inspected.

Rejected.

Passed.

Durban

Pietermaritzburg ...

Pretoria

Johannesburg
Bloemfontein

Capetown

Port Elizabeth
Germiston

942
721

255

—

942
721

255

942
721

255

24|
11

91 7A
710

255

Total

1,918

—

1,!»18

1,91S

35|

l,882i

Beef actually exported during the month of August, 1920 : Total, 4715 quarters
(ex Durban, 41^05 quarters ; ex Capetown, 410 quarters).

Total shipments of Beef in quarters —

191fi ... 115,992 1918 ... 123,354 *1920 ... 42,144
1917 ... 309,214 1919 ... 285,367

II. — Other Meat Exported*: Pork, carcasses inspected and passed, 3169.

III. — Return of Cattle Imported into the Union from adjoining Territories.

Territory.

Imported August, 1920.

Total from 1st January,

1920, to

31st August, 1920.

For Slaughter —

No.

No.

Rhodesia

4,352

20,021

Bechuanaland Protectorate

1,696

13,724

S.W. Africa „

1.757

8,988

Swaziland

180

1,159

Basutoland

8

For Breeding —

Rhodesia

853

8,568

Bechuanaland Protectorate

3,503

13,598

Total

11,841

66,066

Summary op Imports.

Calendar Year.

For Slaughter.

For Breeding.

Total.

tl916
1917
1918
1919

No.
26,580
47,970
36,767
40,574

>lO.

5,440
13,286
16,693

No.
26,580
53,410
50,053
57,267

Total from 1st January to 31st August, 1920. f Ist July to 31st December only.

696

Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

CROP AND LIVE STOCK REPORT.

August, 1920.

CONDITION OF LIVE STOCK.

Compiled from Reports furnished by Sheep and Stock Inspectors.

Area.

Large Stock.

Small Stock.

Cape—

South-West

3Iedii/iii to poor. Good in

parts

Good to medium. Pour in parts.

North-West

Good to medmm. Fat in

parts

Good, to medium. Fat in parts.

South Coast

Good, to medium. Fat in

parts

Good to medium. Fat in parts.

Southern Karroo

Good. Fat in parts ...

Good. Fat in parts.

Central Karroo...

Guod, Fat in parts ...

Good. Fat in parts.

Northern Karroo

Good ...

Good.

Eastern Karroo

Medium. Good in parts

Medium. Good in parts.

Bechuanaland

Good to medium. P'at in

jiarts

Good, to medium. Fat in parts.

Griqualand West

Good

Good.

North-Eastern

Medium

Medium.

Border

Medium. Good in parts

Medium. Good in parts.

Transkeian Territories...

Medium. Poor in parts

Medium. Poor in parts.

Transvaal—

Eastern High Veld

Medium

Medium.

Central ...

Medium

...

Medium..

Western High Veld ...

Good to medium.

Good to medium.

Low Veld

Good to medium

...

Good to medium.

Orange Free State

North-Eastern

Medium. Guod in parts

Medium. Good in parts.

North- Western .. .

Good

Good.

South-Eastern ...

Medium. Good in parts

Medium. Good in parts.

South- Western ...

Good, to medium.

Medium. Good in parts.

Natal—

Hif^h Veld or Highlands

Medium. Good in parts

Mediuiu. Good in parts.

Middle Veld or Midlands

Medium. Good in parts

Mediu)u, Good in parts.

Coast

Mediu7)i. Good in parts

Medium. Good in parts.

CONDITION OF CROPS.

Aceordine to reports from crop correspondent-!, weatlier conditiuns were generally
favourable during August in the principal wheat producing area of the Union, and the crop
there is estimated to Ije in very good condition. Outside of tliis area, which is su})ject to
winter I'ainfall, the crop is icported to be suflfeving, very severely is some districts, from
drouglit. In the soutli-eastcrn Orantre Free State, wheat louse and l)irds are troublesome.

Crop and Live Stock Report.

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The Natal Sugar Assuciatioii repents as follows for July. l!)2n : — A further fall in
condition of eaiie crop is reported for July. Enipaiigeni which was reported iiornial last
month has fallen to 80 and in every other area a fall is lecorded. This detiuitely places the
crop 20 to 25 per cent, below normal. Weather has been very dry. P^mpangeni ;irea had
an inch of rain, the Tugela area from 0' 25 to 0-4 inch, Umvoti area 1 inch, and elsewhere
from 0*5 to "4 inch.

698

Journal of the t)EPARTMENf of Agriculture.

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699

THE LOCAL MARKET.

August, 1920.

(NOTE.-

-The local market prices of certain other agricaltuial produce and of stock,
are published elsewhere in this issue.)

WOOL.

The market continues exceedingly dull and very little business has been done during the
past month. A few sales of extra super comljing wool of good length and quality are
reported at prices ranging from 17d. to 20d. (ler \h. and medium su])er wool at 13d. to 16d.
per lb. The prices paid for these types of wool prior tn the decline of the market in February
last, was from 50d. to 60d. per lb. for the former type and from 25d. to 30il. per lb. for the
latter. Lai'ge stocks ]irincii)ally of medium and short wools, are now lying at the Coast, and
seeing that the forwarding of the new season's clip to the i)Oi-ts will commence at the end
of September, it is feared that buyers will not show any interest in the old stocks, unless
the^e are obtainable at a very low figure.

Cable advices from London report that the Government Wool sales oi)encd with improved
tone and that prices advanced .5 per cent. This is due to more competition mainly from
continental buyers and should help to relieve tlic i)resent severe depression in the market.

Owing to the slight demand for wool at the ports of the Union it is impossible to give
reliable figures as to present value and the following quotations must be regarded as nominal
and do not indicate prices actually obtained at Kiles during the past month. The classification
is tha' recommended bv the Central Wool Committee : —

Grease Wool,

d. d.

1 . Choice superfine sound combing.

well skirted, of good regulai
length ... ... ^

2. Su])erfine sound combing, well
skirted, similar in quality l)ut
not of such good length as type

1 ' ... 20

3. Extra super combing, dee))
stapled, sound, well skirted, of
less fine quality than ty])e 1 ... 18

4. Super combing, skirted

5. Good average combing

6. Average combing

7. Inferior combing, irregular,

very tender or otherwise defi-
cient ...

8. Extra super medium choice (9
to 10 months), well skirted ...

9. Super medium (9 to 10 months),
skirted ...

1 0. Average medium (8 to 9 months)
of not such good style as type 9 10

The above prices are for wool free

23 to 26

22

14
12

10

20
17
13',
11

14 „ 17

12 „ 13i

12

11. Inferior medium, 8 to 9 months 9

12. Choice superfine shorts, well
skirted 12

13. Superfine shorts, skirted ... 10

14. Goodbulkyshorts(6to8months) 9
1.5. Average shorts... ... ... 8

1(3. Inferior shorts ... ... ... 6

17. Native super ... ... ... !»

18. Native medium ... ... S

19. Native inferior... ... ... 7

20. Bellies and good pieces, combing 1 0

21. Bellies, etc., nuxed

22. Locks and second pieces

23. Super white coarse

24. Average white coarse ...
2.5. Inferior white coarse ...

27. Average coarse and coloured ...

28. Inferior coarse and coloured,
kempy ...

29. Cross-bred

d.
to 10

„ 14
,, 11
„ 10

» 0
„ 7
„ K'
„ 9
,, 8
„ 11
10
7

from seed and burr.

Snow Whites

d. d. I

6

10

1. Extra super snow white, good

bulk, free 40 to 48

2. Siiper snow whites, fair bulk,

free 33 „ 39

d. d.

3. Average snow whites, shorter

and faulty 27 to 30

4. Inferior 16 „ 20

700

Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

MOHAIR.

The market has for some time been in a very unsatisfactory position and prices have
gradually declined. Buyers at the Ports are at present without orders and expect a further
drop in values. The following are nominal quotations :—

Summer firsts-
Mixed hair
Basuto hair

d. d.

18 to 20

1.-) „ 18

\r, „ IS

Winter kids, special
Winter hair, averaire
Coloured haii-

d. d.

27 to 32

U „ 16

fi .. 7

HIDES AND SKINS.

There is little demand for hides and skins and prices have declined accordingly.
Towards the end of the month the market became somewhat easier, with goatskins firm, and
the following prices were obtained : —

Sound long woolled
Sound short
Damaged long. . .
Damaged sliort
Sound long, lamli-
Damaged
Sound ))elts
Damaged
Coarse and (•dloiin-d

skins

)er lb.

I)er lb

lOd.

Damaged coarse and coloured

... 4d.

7d.

(loatskius

... 22|d.

7.U1.

Angora skins ...

... 9d.

■Id.

Damaged goats and liastards

... llfd.

Hd.

Damaged Angoras

... M.

ad.

Hides. sUDilricd

... 12^

8d.

„ (Imaged

... 8d.

2^1.

„ ilrv salted

... 13^d.

Ul.

,. ,. damaged ...

... lOid.

OSTRICH FEATHERS.

Three public sales of feathers were held in Port Elizabeth during the month,
viz., 2nd, 9th, and 16th August. The total quantity of feathers disposed of
was 8578 lb., which realized the amount of £12,154. The weight of feathers
withdrawn or declared "not sold" was 2400 lb., valued at £3052.

It must be borne in mind when considering the weight and values of
feather's sold or " not sold " that, under present condilions, a fair proportion
of the goods change hands weekly amongst speculators. These goods handled by
speculators — as distinct from shippers — are sold and resold upon the markets,
which makes the totals rather misleading when considered from the producer's
point of view. The average price realized per pound for the three sales under
review was £1. 17s. lid. This price represents all lines, from primes, which
would probably average about £7 per lb., to th-3 very poorest of drabs, etc.,
which would only realize about 5s. per lb.

Prices remained comparatively steady, with the exception of the sale held
on the 9th, at which wings went considerably lower, while shorts were also
easier. At the sale on the 16th prices recovered to the level ruling at the
l)eginning of the month. This fall in prices may be ascribed as almost entirely
due to the poor average quality of the goods offered for sale. There was a very
large proportion of "speculators' lots" and "made-up" parcels, and competi-
tion on these lots is naturally always restricted.

The rise and fall in prices during the past three years has been due, in a
great measure, to the speculation in ostrich feathers, and the low prices ruling
at present are largely due to speculators having invested at fairly high prices
and now unwilling to part at lower rates. In this way the same parcels of
feathers are continually being offered for sale with a little re-sorting and
changing on each occasion.

All advices from England point towards business being very restricted
and prospects not too promising. The Continent is naturally handicapped by
exchange rates, and there would appear to be very little business taking place.

From the farming point of view this is considered one of the worst months.
The pinch of the dry season is beginning to be felt, necessitating extra feeding,
which at present is costly. Most reports indicate that the breeding season is
proceeding satisfactorily, and a fairly large number of chicks are being hatched.

PER AnINU IVI.

ssued by authority of the
Minister of Agriculture,

PRINCIPAL CONTEXTS

Wheat-Straw and its Value to the Land.

A Tomato Canker.

Representative Transvaal Soils — I.

Factors that Affect the Growth, Reproduction, and Maturity of Tobacco.

Geese.

The Crossing of North African and South African Ostriches-

Mylabris Beetles.

The Effects of Storms on Certain Forests in the Tsolo District, Cape

Province.
Building up the Fertility of the Soil.
Pappea capensis Seed.
Calcium Cyanamide.

STEWARTS AND LLOYDS (SOUTH AFRICA), LTD,

TUBES AND FITTINGS.

P.O. Box 1195. P.O. Box 74.
JOHANNESBURG. PRETORIA.

1
P.O. Box 131. P.O. Box 296.
DURBAN. MARITZBURa

AGE.XTS FOR .-

National Gas Engine Co.,
Gas, Oil, and Petrol
Engines.

RR GAT ON
AND WATER
SUPPLY OUR
SPEC AL TY.

AGENTS FOR :

John Blake, Ltd.,
Hydraulic Rams.

Eagle Engineering Co.,
Ltd., Petrol Paraffin
Engines.

Thomas & Sons,
Windmills and Pumps.

Davey Paxman & Co.,
Steam Engines and
Boilers.

PUMPING PLANTS,

PIPE LINES

AND

POWER UNITS

OF EVERY

DESCRIPTION.

Bell Bros., Ltd., Filter
and Water-Softening
Plants.

Gilbert Gilkes & Co.,
Water Turbines and
Centrifugal Pumps.

Glenfield & Kennedy,

Hydraulic Specialities.

Mirrlees, Bickerton &
Day, Diesel Oil Engines.

ESTIMATES
FREE Of

AND ADVICE
■ COST.

Clydesdale Steel Plates.

COXTEXTS.

XOVEMBER, 1920.

•OrXH AFRICAN OSTKICHE;

Notes ... ... ...

Death of Mr. W. 0. John — Composition of Xatal U'att e Bark— Exhibition of
Cinema Films depicting 8011th African Aericnlture — Representative Transvaal
Soils; —Oversea >cholar*hip> in Agriculture — Na<rana — Animal Di>ease — The
Flowering Plants of South Africa — Mallet and Wattle Bark— World's Poultrv
Coniness — Egg-laying Competion. Cedara — Export of Bnt:er and Cheese —
Control o' Loc-usts — Tobacco-leaf Slug — Importation of Cotton Seed — Registra-
tion of Karakul .^heep — The World's Crops — Mr. Claude Fuller : A Recognition
— Notice to Viticultnrists and Vine Xursorrmen : Inspec'ion of Vines — Valu-
able Exhibit of Manufactured Wool and Mohair (page 717) — Fruit Export
(page 721) — Mohair Market (page 781) — The New Apple-box (page 73«>) —
Citrus Export (page 740) — Plant Nurseries in Qaarantine as at 1st October.
1920 (page 740) — Offer of Tractors (page 749) — Export of Grain, etc. (page
7.o4) — The 192<» Vintage of South Australia (page 7.'>4) — The Poor White
Problem (page 7fi4).

Wheat-Straw axd its Value to the Land

A Tomato Canker

Representative Transvaal Soils

Factors that affect the Growth. Reproduction, and ^Iat
Tobacco

Geese

The Crossing of North African and

Mylabris Beetles

The Effects of Storms on certain Forests in the Tsolo
Cape Province

Building up the Fertility of the Soil

"Pappea capensis" Seed...

Calcium Cyanamide

The Poultry Yard Month by Month

The Vegetable GARDE^'

Notes from the "'Gazette"

South African Produce on the Oversea Market

Oversea Prices of South African Produce

Notes from the Divisions

Outbreaks of Animal Diseases in the Union ...

Recent .Agricultural Literature

At the Schools of Agriculture and Experiment ."Station

Staff : Appointments. Transfers, etc. ...

Meat Statistics ...

Crop and Live Stock Report

Local Market Prices

The Local Market

Corrigenda

Analysis of Soils — Methods of taking Samples

DiSTKICT,

712
718
722

728
732
737
741

750

75.5
760
763
770
770

774
776
. I 7
779
780
785
789
790
791
793
794
795
79&

DEPARTMENTAL NOTICES.

AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT.

GOVERNMENT GUANO.

It is herebj' notified that an allotment oi; guano will be made early in February next.

The total quantity of guano which will be available for distribution in this allotment
■cannot yet be determined, but all collections, ready in time for the forthcoming sowing
season, will be disposed of and delivered with as little delay as possible.

The distribution of the guano will be limited to bona fide farmers and gardeners only,
within the Union, who are requiring supplies for use during the period from February to
June. 1921.

Applications must be made on the prescribed furiii obtainable from the Superintendent,
Government Guano Islands, 69 Strand Street (P.O. Box 251), Capetown, and these will be
received and booked up to and including noon on Saturday, the 18th December, 1920, after
which date no further applications will, under any circumstances, be accepted or entertained
in respect to this allotment.

Applicants are warned that, in making applications for guano, the purposes for which
this fertilizer is required must be distinctly stated on the form of application and that only
the quaiitltji adualltj needed for titose pnrposes must he ashed for, as all inflated orders loill
he I i aide to be disallowed.

No application will be accepted, or considered, from any person who is not actually
farming on his own account, and only one application will be accepted in respect to any one
farm, portion of a farm, or group of farms under one ownersliip, or partnership, as the case
may be.

All applications must be signed by the individuals requiring the guano and in no case
will this fertilizer be supplied to or consigned to any persons other than those for whose use
it is actually required.

The price of guano will be £10 p3r ton of 2000 lb., or 20s. per bag of 200 lb.,
including bags, and delivered on rail at Capetown, or on board ship in Table Bay Docks, but
no remittances will be accepted until after allotments have been made.

Railage in all instances is payable by the consignee and must be prepaid where guano
is to be consigned to railway sidings.

All inquiries and apiilications for guano must be sent direct to the Superintendent,
Oo^'ernment Guano Islands, Capetown.

STALLIONS AT STUD.

Horse and Donkey Stallions will stand at stud at the various schools of agriculture from
15th August, 1920, to 15th January, 1921.

Fees : £2 service of each mare. Grazing and feeding extra.

For further particulars apply to the respective Principals of the Institutions referred to,
viz. :— Elsenburg, Mulder's Vlei, C.P. : Grootfontein, Middelburg, C.P. ; Glen, O.F.S. ;
Potchefstroom, Transvaal ; Cedara, Natal.

FOREST DEPARTMENT.

Farmers and others interested in treeplanting are invited to apply to the Forest
Department for advice as to the most suitable trees for growing in the various climates and
soils of the Union, and on the best methods to adopt in the formation of plantations, wind-
breaks and shelter- belts. Applications lor such advice should be addressed to the Forest
Officer nearest to the locality where it is intended planting should be done or to the
Conservators of Forests, Capetown, Knysna,Kingwilliamstown, Umtata, Maritzburg, Pretoria,
or Bloemfontein.

To encourage treeplanting, transplants of forest trees may be obtained from the Forest
Department Nurseries of which there are 26 situated throughout the Country and forest tree
seeds from the Conservator of Forests, Capetown, who has charge of the Department's
Seed Store.

Copies of the latest price-list (No. 642 of 1920) for both transplants and seeds are
obtainable from the Forest Officers mentioned in the foregoing or from the Chief Conservator
of Forests at Pretoria. This publication contains a considerable amount of information
useful to farmers and others desirous of planting trees and it also indicates that the average
price for young trees ready for planting out is only 6s. per 100. These are sold firmly
established in half paraffin tins, each tin containing about 25 transplants.

cm

<: "3

o .a

Qi an

t*3 -s

M en

Q c
flu o

Vi

O v

9 o

X

Journal of the Department
OF Agriculture.

Vol. I. NOVEMBER, 1920. No. S.

Published monthly in English and Afrikaans by the Department of Agriculture,

Union of South Africa.

Editor.- G. W, Klerck.

Subscription: Within the Union and South- West Protectorate, 5s, (otherwise 6Sm)
per annum, post free, payable in advance.

Applications, with subscriptions, to be sent to the Government
Printer, Box 378, Pretoria.

NOTES.

Death of Mr. W. O. John.

The Department has sustained a great loss in the death on the
28rd September last of Mr. W. 0. John. Mr. John's service in the
Department dates from 1913, and at the time of his death he was
the Lectnrer in Poultry at the ELsenburg- tScliool of Agriculture,
Mulder's Vlei, Cape. He came to South Africa many years ago with
a sound, practical knowledge of poultry farming, and during the
succeeding years devoted all his energy to the development of the
industry in this country. He was a zealous, enthusiastic colleague,
and his striking personality, combined with an aptitude for making
his lectures interesting and impressive, stamped him as a valuable
officer, while his kindly and straightforwaicl nature endeared him to
all who knew him. It follows, therefore, that liis services were in
constant demand, and he devoted himself unstintingly to his duties.
Among his many activities mention may be made of the prominent
part he took in the establishment of egg- circles and the supervision
of the egg-laying competitions at Rosebank ; from the first he super-
intended the building up of the export trade in eggs and poultry,
his last report on the subject appearing in the June, 1920, issue of
the Journal. He is the author of several articles of much value to
poultry farmers, and one of them, received shortly before his death,
appears in this issue of the Journal. Emerging from obscurity, the
poultry industry has taken a prominent place in recent years in
South African agriculture, and the name of Mr. John is closely
associated with its marked prog-ress ; indeed, he has been described
as the " Father of the Poultry Industry in South Africa." It is
with very deep regret, therefore, that we record the death at the
early age of fifty-two of a valued and much respected colleague, a
loss to the Department and to the community.

24

702 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Composition of Natal Wattle Bark.

The first of a series of articlevS on the above sul)ject hy Mr. C.
Williams, B.Sc, A.R.C.S., Chemist, School of Ao-riculture.
Cedara, appeared in the Agricultural Journal for July, 1914, and
afterwards was published by the Department of Agriculture as a
separate bulletin (No. 59, 1914). This article dealt with the composi-
tion of wattle bark from trees of various ages felled in the spring
and early summer in the neighbourhood of Cedara, situated in the
midlands of Natal.

The second article was also published as a bulletin (No. 72, 1915),
and contained a resumve of the results obtained in case of bark
stripped from trees in the same plantations during the subsequent
winter months. It also dealt with the tannin content of leaves and
twigs from wattle trees, and with the composition of the kino exuded
by the trees under certain conditions of growth.

A third article by Mr. Williams has now been published as
Bulletin No. 1, 1920 (obtainable on application from this office), in
which there is summarized the results of the investigation carried
out on the composition of the bark of trees from plantations on the
north coast of Natal, in order to ascertain whether there is any
marked difference or not in the tannin content and maturity as com-
pared with trees of corresponding ages grown in the midlands. The
colour of the infusion from the bark has also been estimated in each
case and compared with the colour of other tanning materials.

The article contains, in addition, the results of an investigation
conducted concerning the effect of keeping the wattle tannin liqUor
for a length of time, and also the effect of boiling it for some time.
This was carried out in order to assist extract manufacturers to find
out at what stages they may expect. any loss or deterioration in the
liquor.

Lastly, the composition and colour of commercial samples of
various wattle extracts manufactured in Natal are tabulated.

The conclusions drawn from the investigations, as described in
the three articles, are summarized as follow : —

1. Mature wattle bark when being thoroughly dried under natural
conditions in the open air loses slightly under half its weight, on an
average.

.2. In the case of wattle trees, the total amount of bark and of
tanning matter obtained from a tree increases fairly regularly with
the age, but the percentage of tanning matter was approximately the
same at all the ages examined from three up to seven years.

3. The development of the trees, and the weight of bark obtained
per tree, are very much inferior in case of those from the coast planta-
tions investigated than those from the higher altitudes of the midlands
of Natal. The coast trees seem to mature more rapidly, and the
percentage of tanning matter is generally higher for trees of cor-
responding ages, but the total weight of tanning matter obtained per
tree is on the average less than half that from trees of similar age
in the midlands.

4. There is a decided and continucnis decrease in the percentage
of tannin in the bark as Me ascend the tree.

NoTEls. 703

5. Individual trees of the same size, and from the same planta-
tion even, differ considerably in the thickness of their bark from
corresponding sections, showing that this factor depends very largely
on the conditions under which the tree has been growing.

6. The thickness of tlie bark is a fairly safe criterion of its rich-
ness in tanning' matter, no matter what the age of tlie tree is, provided
no " cnrkiness " has developed in the bark.

7. The colour of i]\v infusion from tlie bark (hM'])eus sliglitly witli
tlie age of the tree.

8. In the case of mature wattle bark that lias been carefully
harvested and dried in the open air, the depth of the red colour in
the infusion of standard strength obtained from it varies from 3 up
to 5 units, and the yellow colour usually varies from 3.5 to 7 units.
This compares favourably with most natural tanning materials.

9. When a weak extract from wattle bark is cooled and allowed
to stand, a large proportion of the difhcultly soluble bodies are soon
precipitated, with a corresponding loss of soluble non-tanning matter,
while the proportion of tanning matter slightly and gradually
increases.

10. When a weak extract is boiled for a moderate length of time,
there is only a slight loss of tanning matter with a corresponding
increase in the proportion of soluble non-tanning matter. There is,
however, a marked deterioration with regard to the colour of the
infusion.

11. In the commercial samples of solid wattle extracts manu-
factured in Natal, the proportion of tanning matter usually varies
from 59 up to 67 per cent.

Exhibition of Cinema Films depicting South African
Agriculture.

In connectiini with the Governmenf^s scheme for advertising the
Union and its resources, the Department of Mines and Industries, in
collaboration with this Department, is preparing a number of films
depicting farming scenes and operations in South Africa. The films,
which are to be shown first throughout the Union and subsequently
in a number of oversea countries, will illustrate the following :
Tobacco growing and manufacturing, fruit growing, fruit drying and
exporting, wine and brandy, dairying, cotton, forestry, ranching,
maize, land settlement in the Union, development of irrigation and
the Avater-power resources of the Union, wool, mohair, the Govern-
ment'-s share in promoting scientific agriculture (including
work at the schools of agriculture, experiment stations, and labora-
tories), transport and communications, etc.

This is an age of advertising, and the Union is falling into line
with other countries in making known our many resources. High
hopes are entertained that, as a result of the publicity campaign and
the attraction of capital and other advantages which are expected to
ensue, material benefit will accrue to the agricultural life of the
Union.

704 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

Representative Transvaal Soils.

Til this number we piibli.sli under the above heading the first of
a series of ai'ticles describing- certain well-known soil types occurring
in the Transvaal, their chemical and physical t'omposition, and their
behaviour under cultivation. These articles will set out also the
results obtained by the use of various manures and piit forward
suggestions for the treatment of the soil. The Division of Chemistry
possesses valuable data concerning the more important soil types
which have never been systematically written up, and these articles,
from the Chief and other officers of the Division, will serve this pur-
pose and place before the farmer information of a valuable nature.

Oversea Scholarships in Agriculture.

The following were the successful applicants for the scholarships
recently advertised by the Department of Agriculture : Field
Hushandry: J. D. Osborn, T.U.C., Pretoria; A. R. Pullen, T.F.C,
Pretoria; D. Moses, School of Agriculture, Potchef stroom ; A. E.
Saunders, Boshoff, Orange Free State. Tobacco arul Cotton: L. J.
Henning, T.IT.C, Pretoria ; P. J. IN'aude, T.TJ.C, Pretoria. Horticul-
ture: R. J. du Toit, Elsenburg School of Agriculture ; R. -T. Blatt,
Tohannesburg. Dairying : P. Toens, Cedara School of Agriculture ;
H. L. Neethling, Bloemfontein, Orange Free State. Entomology:
J. T. Potgieter, Stellenbosch University. Mohair : C. W. van der
Merwe, TTniversity of Capetown.

Nagana.

The outbreak of mortality among- cattle in Zululand caused by
the tsetse fiy which, following game recently protected in the near
vicinity ol settlers, has found its way to the live stock of the settlers,
has been receiving the careful consideration of the Government. The
throwing open of the game reserves is one of the steps taken with a
view to removing the danger. It has also been decided to carry out
extensive fencing in the Empangeni District, where the outside
boundary of Ntambana is to be fenced by the Lands Department. A
fence is also to be erected along the southern bank of the White
TJmfolozi River, but this presents certain difficulties which are receiv-
ing attention, and in connection therewith a scheme is being con-
sidered for the provision of motor transport for the use of the settlers.
The Provincial Administration of Natal will undertake the patrolling
of the zone between the two fences for the purpose of destroying any
game breaking through. It has been decided that there is to be
no slaughter of stock infected with Nagana.

Government Veterinary Officer Mclntyre is now stationed at
Empangeni, and his presence should be of much assistance to the
settlers.

Of special interest to farmers in the areas where the tsetse fly
abotinds is the decision of the Government to participate in a proposed
scheme for an investigation throughout Africa of the binomics of
tsetse fly, by undertaking investigations in Zululand at the expense
of the IJnion. The matter will be in the hands of the Division of
Entomology, and steps are being taken to commence operations at
once.

Notes. 705

Animal Disease.

The Acting' Priii('i])al Veterinary Officer states that there is no
cliang-e in the position of East Coast fever in the Pretoiia District ;
the disease is still present, and, while the matter is viewed seriously,
every effort is being made to prevent the spread of the disease and
eventually to eradicate it. The outbreak of lung'-sickness in the
Zoutpansberg ])istrict, referred to in last nioiitli's Jduriial, has
apparently been dealt with successfully, for further outbreaks have
not been reported. During the month of September last nothing- of
special significance occurred, according" to reports received from the
Department's veterinary officers, in the matter of outbreaks of animal
disease.

The Flowering Plants of South Africa.

There is to be published this month Vol. I, Xo. 1, of "The
Flowering Plants of South Africa," the foundation of a work destined
to occupj" an important position in the botanical science of this
country. Edited by Dr. I. B. Pole Evans, Chief, Division of Botany,
Pretoria, and Director of the Botanical Survey of the Union of South
Africa, the publication is the commencement of a series which will
])e issued every three months, and being a new departure in works of
ihis nature will largely contribute to a greater interest in tlie study and
cultivation of our indigenous plants. Each number will contain ten
coloured plates, with full descrij)tions of the plants illustrated. The
fiist part of the work includes the following plants: —

The African Agapantlius or Blue Lily (Agapa/ifJivs vmhcl-

latus), PI. 1.
M'Pahlela's Aloe (Aloe glohulifjeviDui), PL 2.
Foster's IN^amaqualand Daisy (Aictofi,< Fosteri), PL 3.
The Pretoria Cyrtanthus (Cyrtanthns confr■act^ls), PI. 4.
The Barberton Daisy (Gerhera Jame.^-oni), PL 5.
The Natal (iladiolus (Gladiolus P.sitfnci/ivs, v;ir. Coo/jen),

PL G.
Stoke's Leucadendron or Sugar Bush (Lcvcadoul ion Stolcoei),

male, PL T, female, PL 8.
The Wild Garlic— Wilde Knoflook (Tulhagliia uohwcac), PL 9.
The Yellow Arum (Richard ia angtistUoha) , PL 10.

While not an official publication of the Division of Botany, the
illustrations and descriptions are the work of members of the staff,
and sole credit for the initiation of this valuable work belongs to the
Division, and, it is pleasing to add, the funds making the publication
possible were donated by private individuals. This laudable object
of stimulating interest in our unicjue South African flora and of
ensuring for all time a carefully prepared record thereof, depends
upon public support through subscription, which it is trusted will
be forthcoming. " The Flowering Plants of South Africa " is pub-
lished by Messrs. L. Reeve & Co., Ltd., 6 Henrietta Street, Covent
Garden, London, the South African agents being- The Speciality
Press of Soutli Africa, P.O. Box 3958, Johannesburg, and P.(L Box
'A?^?^. Capeto\Aii. The aniinal subsci iption is OOs. (^postage 2s.).

706 Journal ot^ the Department oe* AGtucuLTtftfi.

Mallet and Wattle Bark.

The Principal of the Cedara Sclinol of Agriculture reports that
some samples of mallet hark growing- on a Natal farm were found on
analysis to have a tannin content tliat compai-ed very favourably with
that of mature black wattle bark, thoug-h the total yield of bark per
acre would lie much lower. The amount of tannin matter in the
air-dried bark from the base of tlie tree was 41 per cent., and from
the bark from the top of the tree the amount was 29 per cent. The
yellow greatly predominated in the colour of the infusion, and in this
respect it is probable that it would make a good mixture with wattle
bark as a tanning agent.

Experiments to ascertain the rate at which green wattle bark
loses its moisture wdien allowed to lie in the shade in hurdles away
from the influence of sun and weather, showed that on an average
28 per cent, of the weight was lost in forty-eight hours. To the many
extract factories in this Province who buy bark largely in the green
state these figures should be useful.

World's Poultry Congress.

Upon the initiative of the International Association of Poultry
Instructors and Investigators, arrangements are now in process for
the holding of a A¥orld's Poultry Congress. At the invitation of the
Netherlands Government the Congress, the first of its kind, will be
held at the Hague in the early part of September, 1921. Matters of
the highest interest to the poultry industry will be discussed at this
Congress, as will be seen from the range of subjects already set
down, viz. : (a) State and other official action, including reconstruc-
tion; (b) the training and necessary qualifications of poultry
instructors for educational and demonstration work ; (c) science of
breeding and its jjiactical application ; (d) experiments and investiga-
tion; (e) egg and poultry production as separate industries and in
connection with cultivation; (/) opportunities for women in the
poultry industry; (y) hygiene and disease; {Ji) organization and
influence of exhibitions and laying trials; (/) general management
and systems of incubation and rearing; (,/) international and national
trade' in eggs and poultry, inclusive of co-operation and oiganization
of poultry societies.

During the Congress it is proposed to hold an exliibition of
breeds of poultry from all parts of the world, also of poultry houses
and appliances used in different countries.

The Congress is arousing a great deal of attention, and in
England, Erance, Belgium, Denmark, the United States, and Cf.nada
influential committees have been formed for the purpose of assisting
the objects of the Congress and of electing representatives and collect-
ing exhibits. In the Union also the matter is receiving the attention
of tncse interested in the poultry industry, and, while it is not
probable that this Department Avill be able to spare any of its poultry
experts for attendance at the Congress an endeavour will be made for
a delegate representing the Department to be present. The question
of forming a committee for arranging the representation of South
Africa at the Congress will be discussed at ihe forthcoming conference
of the S.A. Poultrv Association to be held at Bulawayo on the 9th
November, 1920.

Notes. 707

Egg-laying Competition, Cedara.

The Third Egg-laying' Competition commenced on the 1st June,
1019, and terminated on the 30th November, 1919, a period of 183
days. The accommodation available was the .same as in the two
l)revions competitions, viz., 120 single pens. A full description of
the houses, runs, etc., is given in Bulletin Local Series No. TO, pub-
lished by the Department of Agriculture.

Twenty competitors made entries of 24 pens, each pen containing
5 birds. Of these pens, 17 were from Natal bi-eeders, 3 from the
Transvaal, 3 from the Orange Free State, and 1 from the Cape Pro-
vince. Of the 24 entries, 15 pens were Utility White Leghorns, G
White Wyandottes, and one each of the following- breeds : White
Orpington, Brown Leghorn, and Black Leghorn.

As in the previous competition, only 2-oz. eggs were counted from
the commencement. The majority of birds were not much handi-
capped on this account, as the competition did not begin until June.
The weather during the six mouths under review was not ideal for
egg production, being for the greater part very dry, and consequently
a large percentage of underweight eggs were laid.

The quality of the green food obtained was naturally- not of the
best owing* to the drought, and this, no doubt, was adverse to heavy
egg production.

Utility White Leghorns occupied the eight leading places at the
termination of the competition, and, on the whole, the White
Wyandottes did badly, chiefly owing to underweight eggs.

The silver and bronze medals presented by the South African
Poultry Association for the pens laying* the greatest number of
standard-weight eggs during the competition were won by Pens Nos.
12 and 5 (both Utility White Leghorns), the property of Mr. J. C.
Randies, Otto's Bluff, Natal, and Mr. R. Porritt, Pietermaritzburg,
Natal, respectively.

Pen No. 12 laid 530 full-weight eggs and 13 underweights, and
Pen No. 5, 511 full-weight eggs and 28 underweights in the period
of 183 days. The best individual record was made by hen No. 21.
Pen No. 5, with 123 full-weight eggs, no underweights, the property
of Mr. R. Porritt, Pietermaritzburg, Natal.

The total egg yield for the six months was 11,400, which includes
1811 eggs under 2 oz. but over If oz. This gives an average of
95 eggs per bird. The value of the eggs laid during* the competition
was £96. 5s. ll^d.

The cost of feeding during* the competition amounted to
£44. 8s. Tid., which, deducted from the value of eggs laid, gives a
profit over cost of feeding of £51. 17s. 3:fd., or, approximately, 8s. 8d.
on each bird.

As in the previous competitions, wet mash was fed in the morn-
ing, g*reen food at noon, and grain in the afternoon. All grain was
fed in scratching litter in order to make the birds exercise themselves
and keep them occupied. The average amount of mash consumed
per bird during the competition was 2.52 oz. per diem, and of grain
2.41 oz. ; this does not include green food at noon, or grit, oyster-
shell, and charcoal.

Eight deaths occurred, four being indirectly due to ovarian
trouble.

708 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

Export of Butter and Cheese.

Eeferriug to the question wliicli has arisen regarding the
advisability of permitting the export of butter and cheese, the
Superintendent of Dairying states that as an ontconie of the past
drought and other material drawbacks, prices i)aid to the farmer
for cream and milk were far in excess of those reasonably obtained
in fairly good seasons, added to which wages had increased and also
the cost of manufacturing the raw products into butter and cheese.
Therefore, the consumer had to pay a higher price for the finished
article, though the difference between tlie wholesale and retail prices
of these commodities needs adjustment — a matter outside the
province of the Department.

The high selling prices caused a decreased consumption to the
extent of at least 50 per cent., compared with previous years, and
an outlet had to be found elsewhere for surplus stocks. Payments
to farmers for milk or cream are made monthly by the jnnchasing
bodies, and, if they cannot dispose of the manufactured products
locally, an alternative must be found, in order to ensure regularity
in such monthly payments, and at prices consistent with those
obtained for the finished article. This can only be accomplished by
permitting the manufacturer to dispose of his wares to the best
advantage.

With reference to cheese, it is pointed out that the world's
markets for this commodity are entirely open, and manufacturers in
the Union are faced with a world-wide and keen competition, yet
notwithstanding, more than 50 per cent, of the known surplus stock,
after allowing for local requirements, is being withheld from export
to meet any unforeseen local demand, though such is not anticipated.

The position regarding the export of butter is also clear, for
only 25 per cent, of the stocks in the Union will be permitted to be
exported, and even assuming that the export of this quantity proves
to be excessive, provision has been made for supplementing stocks
from elsewhere, so that there need be no fear of a local shortage.

Control of Locusts.

At the recent coufereuce of the Orange Free State Agricultural
Association, a resolution was passed " that this conference appre-
ciates the very satisfactory results acliieved in connection with the
extermination of locusts, and urges the (jovernment to make every
endeavour, in view of the approach of the breeding season, to locate
and destroy any possible new swarms before they reach the flying
stage." We are pleased to say that the Division of Entomology has
been keeping the situation under keen observation and is ready to
deal with any developments. Large stocks of locust poison have
been prepared, and these together with the necessary pumps, are
now distributed and held in readiness for use at convenient centres.
Special inspections have already been made of areas where trouble
may arise, and altogether the public need have no apprehension of
the Department being found in a state of unpreparedness. But the
Department looks to the farmer for his co-operation. When voet-
gangers are seen and egg deposits known of, the mlatter should
immediately be reported, so that the occurrence may not be over-
looked. In this manner the farmer may be the eyes of the Depart-
ment and help very materiallj' in controlling the locust.

Notes. 709

Tobacco-leaf Slug.

Mr. C P. van der Merwe, Eutomologist, ])uiban, reports
that the tobacco-leaf .slug has put in an appearance in the tobacco
seed-beds in the Piet Retief District. At the beginning of October
eggs and larvae, in all stages up to apparently full grown, were
jiresent, and, according to rei)orts from some farmiers, were already
very destructive. The insect appears to be showing up earlier this
year than last, possibly because a greater number of adults have
hil)eriiaied. The later generation may also be expected to be more
numerous and serious loss to tobacco growers will ensue unless steps
ai'e taken to control tlie pest by spraying with arsenate of lead.

Importation of Cotton Seed.

Cotton growers and others concerned are reminded that the intro-
duction of any cotton seed whatever into the Union is illegal unless
the Department of Agriculture has issued a permit for it. A permit
is only given in the case of cotton seed intended for sowing, and then
only at the discretion of the Department, which considers exery appli-
cation on its individual merits. The precaution is taken because of
the very grave danger of most devastating pest insects getting into
the country through the medium of seed. The notorious Mexican boll
weevil J an introduced insect causing appalling losses in the United
States of America, the cotton phytoptid mite, one that has destroyed
whole crops in some of the West India Islands, and the even more
feared pink boll-worm, the pest that reduced Egyptian cotton produc-
tion by half a few years ago, all spread from country to country with
seed. The widespread establishment of any one of these pests in
South Africa would paralyse and perhaps entirely stop our cultivation
of cotton. Every one concerned is urged to assist in making known
the dangers of introducing seed and the necessity of obtaining a
permit before cotton seed is shipped to this country. There is always
a risk that in ignorance of the law seed may be brought in a
passenger's luggage and so escape detection by customs examiners.
There is also the risk of seed coming in by post through not being
declared. Moreover, the boll weevil and the pink boll-worm moth
may escape from infested seed brought to a port, although the con-
signee may not be allowed to take delivery of the seed. Therefore
it is important that no cotton seed should arrive except special lots
for which permits have been arranged. A person responsible for
introducing cotton seed in the absence of a permit is liable to a
heavy fine.

An illustration of the risk of pink boll-worm coming with seed
recently occurred in connection with a parcel of Egyptian seed
obtained from the British Cotton Growing Association. The seed
was in the possession of a passenger who landed at Durban en route
for the district of Lourenco Marques, where he intended to sow it.
A customs ofHcer detained the parcel, and it was ultimately sent
unopened to the Entomologist of the Department of Agriculture at
Lourenco Marques for inspection and fumigatioii. The inspection
disclosed living pink boll-worm larvae. The presence of many dead
larvae suggested that the seed had previously been treated for the
destruction of the pest, but evidently not with proper thoroughness.

The same pest was found in a small parcel of Egyptian seed sent
to this Department by our own Trade Commissioner in London,

710 Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

A tag label on the bag* bore tlie imprint " from tlie Imperial
Institute, South Kensington." xA.bout GO per cent, of the seed was
damaged by the insect, and among'st the many dead lai^vae found
were a number of active ones. This i.s mentioned to show how seed
coming from high-class institutions must be viewed with suspicion
as well as seed obtained in a commercial way.

Registration of Karakul Sheep.

It has been decided by tbe 8. A. Stud ]3ook Association to open
a Stud Eegister for Karakul Sheep. Only imported Karakuls
of fur-bearing type or the progeny of such on both sire's and dam's
side are eligible for registration, and all animals must be passed by
the association's inspector before being accepted for registration.

Mr. E,. Owen Wahl, who, in consultation with Mr. A. D.
Thompson, is the author of that interesting article " Karakul Sheep,"
which appeared in the last two issues of the Journal, has been
appointed inspector for the Cape Province, and Mr. Thompson for the
South-West Protectorate.

Breeders desiring to register their flocks should make application
to the Secretary, South African Stud Book Association, P.O. Box 708,
Capetown.

The World's Crops.

The August Bulletin of Agricultural and Commercial Statistics
of the International Institute of Agriculture announces that the
winter wheat crop in the United States improved during July, but
the estimates of spring wheat show a decline. The wheat crop in
Canada, where the harvest was in progress, shows a reduction on the
original estimate. The aggregate of IN^orth American wheat crops is,
therefore, now estimated at 28.9 million metric tons (1 metric
ton = 2204.6 lb. avoirdupois) against 80.9 in 1919, and 29.8 during
the five war years 1914 to 1918.

In Belgium, Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Canada, United States,
British India, Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, and Tunis the wheat crop of
1920 is estimated to produce 48.9 million metric tons, as compared
with 49.0 millions in 1919, and an average of 50.1 millions during
the five years 1914 to 1918.

No definite estimates are to hand from other countries, but the
wheat crop is reported as good in Bulgaria, Denmark, France, Luxem-
burg, Netherlands, Roumania, Serbia-Croatia-Slavonia, and Sweden,
average in Germany, Scotland, Ireland, Poland, and Czecho-Slovakia,
TdcIow average in England and Wales.

The area under wheat in Australia is reported to be 55 per cent,
larger than last year and 11 per cent, above the average 1914-15 to
1918-19. Information under date of ITth August reports weather and
crop conditions as good.

The aggregate wheat shipments from Argentina have exceeded
all estimates of available surplus during' 1920.

The cotton crop of the United States is estimated at 2.7 million
tons, being 10.5 per cent, larger than last year and 1 per cent, above
the five years' average. The sugar beet crop is estimated at 8.1
million tons, which is 39.4 per cent, larger than last year's yield and
52.8 per cent, over the average.

Notes. 711

Mr. Claude Fuller: A Recognition.

We are pleased to notice that the South African Biological
Society has awarded the Captain Scott Senior Medal for Research in
South Africa to Mr. Claude Fuller, Assistant Chief of the Division
of Entomology. We are given to understand that our colleague was
elected u.'ianimously for this award by the Special Medal Committee
of the Society, of v.hich Sir Arnold Theiler, Professor Ernest Warren,
Professor F. B. Fantham, Br. E. B. Marloth, and Dr. H. H. Green
are the members. The decision of tlic Medal Committee is a great
tribute to the recipient of the medal and most gratifying to the
Department of Agriculture and particularly to the Division of
Entomology.

The award was made iiioic especially foi- Mr. Fuller's researches
upon white ants in South xlfrica. His investigation as an economic
entomologist, his horticultural work in pioneering the export of
citrus fruit and pineapples from Natal, and his devising and carry-
ing into effect in Natal, during the progress of the Boer war, of the
sj^stem of destroying locusts under State control, also weighed with
the Medal Committee. We feel sure that the farming community
will appreciate the honour conferred upon an officer who has done
so much to help solve our problems of insect control and contribute
to the advancement of agriculture in the ITnion.

Notice to Viticulturists and Vine Nurserymen.—
Inspection of Vines.

According to the recommendation made by the Commission on
Crafted Vines, as published in the September number of the Journal,
this Department has arranged to inspect all mother-plantations of
American vines and nurseries of grafted vines, whose owners, whether
farmers or nuiserymen, desire to avail themselves of such inspection.

If a mother-plantation of American stocks is found to be true
to name, the inspector will give a certificate to that effect, or after
the party concerned has uprooted such plants as are not true to name.
In case of a nursery of grafted vines, a certificate will be given as to
the state of cultivation, growth, purity of scion and whether stocks
were obtained from a registered mother-plantation. The name of the
holder of such a certiiicate will be published in the Journal from
time to time. All those who wish to avail themselves of this inspec-
tion are iiivited to communicate with the Government Viticulturist,
Elsenburg, Mulder's Ylei, stating clearly the nearest railway station
as well as the best road for a motor-car to reach the farm.

It is urged that all nurserymen, as well as farmers who have
mother-plantations for their own use, will avail themselves of this
opportunity of securing a Government certificate. It will prove that
nurserymen are anxious to help the Department to supply to the
public only stocks true to name, which the public now demand and
Government officials advocate. To the farmer it will be a means of
enabling him to be quite sure that his stocks are true to name and
not a mixture of varieties vei-y closely related and difficult to dis-
tinguish. The economic advantages of establishing a vineyard on
stocks true to name are too well known to need any elaboration.

The Department is appealing to farmers and nurseiymen in their
own interests to respond to this invitation, and trusts that they will
extensively avail themselves of the facilities afforded.

712 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

WHEAT-STRAW AND ITS VALUE TO THE LAND.

J>y C'liAS. 1'. JiKiTz, M.A., ]).Sc., 1^M.( ., A<^ri(uliiiral Kescaich

C]iemi.st , Cai)ei()wn .

The fact that .straw possesses a value as fodder was patent as far
back as Biblical times, but even its worth as manure has been known
for a considerable period. Centuries ago it was customary for land-
owners to place an embargo on the removal of straw from their lands
by tenants. The latter were bound to consume on the farm all the
straw that they produced and to return it to the land.

The Departmental Committee on wheat-growijjg, whose report,
with summaries of evitlence taken in pra(tticaily every distric-t where
wheat is growii witJiin the Union (U.G. 42 — '19), was recently pre-
sented to Parliament, took occasion on its tour through the ITnion to
inquire of various gatherings of farmers what the practice in their
respective areas was with regard to utilizing the straw which
accumulates at every harvest from the cereal crops. The committee
repeatedly impressed on wheat-growers, particularly where it was
found that the grain lands were lacking in humus, the desirability
of returning the straw to the land, either directly by ploughing it
in, or indirectly by feeding to the live stock or using it as bedding
for the cattle and then applying the manure to the soil.

Below will be found a summary of the evidence given in this
connection, in respect of most of the divisions of the two extensive
areas in respect of which the committee considered inquiries of the
above character specially necessary, namely, the south-western part
of the Cape Province and the main area of the Transvaal. The
districts most concerned in the south-west Cape are Ceres, Tulbagh,
Caledon, Malmesbury, Swellendam, and Riversdale ; and in the
Transvaal the same question was raised in the Districts of Marico,
Pustenburg, Potchefstroom, and Middelburg.

In the Malmesbury district good results have in several cases
resulted from returning chaff to the land before fallowing. Evidence
was giAtn before the committee to the eff'ect that this practice had
restored lands which had become too exhausted to grow wheat. In
addition to the chaff' long straw was being returned to the soil, and
was found better suited for the lieavier than for the lighter soils. The
rate at which chaff or straw is applied to the soil in this district is
about one ton per acre. The surface of the land is first pretty well
covered with the straw, which is then allowed to dry on the land
before being ploughed in. This practice is becoming more and more
common throughout the district. In the sub-district of Darling, a
part of the Malmesbury district, all the straw, the committee was
informed, goes back on the land in the form of kraal manure. The
evidence given in another part of the same division, namely, in the
Moorreesburg district, was to tlie effVct thai the application of si raw
nm\ <]!nff to the hud, bgth - directly aud through the kraals, is a

Wheat-Straw and its Value to the Land. 713

general practice. At Hopefield the committee was told that no hay
or chaff is sold off the farms in the Saldauha Bay district, but all
goes back to the soil. In some districts the straw is returned to the
land by way of the kraals; in that of Ceres, for instance, although
some of the farmers are in the habit of selling their chaff, obtaining
a price of about Is. 6d. per bale of approximately 60 lb., most grain
farmers put their straw in the kraals and subsequently, when mixed
with manure, return it to the grain lands. A similar i)i()((Mlure is
adopted in the adjacent Tulbagli district, where the si raw which
has passed through tlie kraals is hrst of all put on the orcliards and
vineyaids, and any surplus given to the grain lauds. The experience
in this district is that the ai)plicatioii of straw lo lands which have lain
fallow is sound practice, but application just before sowing means
introduction of weeds and noxious insects.

At Caledon the gathering of agriculturists expressed the view that
if the straw could be put on the land without much expense it would
be of assistance, and it was thought that a stripping machine which
would remove the ears and leave the straw on tlie land might solve
the difficulty.

The above summarizes the practice said to be followed in the
more south-westerly districts, which contain soils that are chemically
amongst the poorest of all the grain lands in the Union, although
climatically better suited for winter wheat than any other areas.

On passing eastwards along the southern coast belt the committee
found that in the Swellendam district it is the general custom to
burn most of the wheat straw produced on the farms; a little of the
straw is made into kraal manure, and only some of the kraal manure
is put on the grain lands, uiost being used for kitchen gardens. In
the district of Riversdale the straw is sometimes burnt. In dry
seasons it is generally fed to the stock, but not in wet seasons. Some
farmers have been in the habit of ploughing in rotten straw and
found this to give good results. The straw is put into the kraals
for kraal manure, but it is not often that kraal manure is made in
this district.

On the way to the Eastern Province, while in the Long Kloof,
the committee was told at Joubertina that the straw is generally
burned; and at Misgund, although it is usual for many farmers to
put it through the kraals, it is also very largely burned. In the
Uitenhag-e district we were informed that most of the straw is left
to rot and wasted, although some of it is put into the kraals. Such
are the varieties of practice in the south-western and southern districts
of the Union, where the deficiency of humus in the soil is most
noticeable.

In the Transvaal similar evidence was given. In the Groot
Marico District, the evidence was to the effect: that most farmers put
kraal manure on their lands once in three years, and thus make
indirect use of the cereal straw, which is generally either put in
the kraals or fed to the cattle. In the Rustenburg District care is
taken that none of the straw is lost; directly or indirectly it all goes
back to the land, as much as possible being fed to the stock. The
straw is chiefly made use of as a winter feed, what is left at the
end of the winter being put into the kraals. In the Potchefstroom
District, according to evidence given at Ventersdorp, the wheat-straw
is all put into the kranls after the cattle have liad a iwu at tb&

714 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

heap. In the Middelburg District, tlie committee was assured by
farmers who gave evidence at Eooikraal, the value of returnino- the
straw to the soil is realized, and it is so applied, either directly or
indirectly through the kraals.

The committee, dealing in its report (pars. 28 and 24) with the
grain lands of the south-western region, pointed out that the out-
stniuling deficiency of these soils is humus or decayed organic matter,
Avliich hi valued as nrj(,'li for its quality of keejjing soils in good
physical condition as for its chemical constituents and proi)erties.
The report proceeds to advise that no economical means of supplying
humus to those soils sliould he omitted, and states that a very ready
and cheap method of assisting in tliis object is that of returning the
straw to the land after the giain lias been thrashed, either as suf;h,
or through the kraals or stables. The straw, it is pointed out, is a
valuable by-product, of which the fullest use should be made, instead
of its being left to waste on the farms, or being burned as undesirable
material, a proceeding which the committee, in its report, characterizes
as " a thoughtless process of soil-exliaustion, which leaves the farmer in
deeper debt each year to his soils." Knowing what we do of micro-
scopic ferments, we can the more readily understand how the organic
matter of straw, that is to say the part which can be burnt off, is
useful in forming food for the micro-organisms that help the crops
by causing fermentation and decay.

The report mentions three important directions in which the
addition of organic matter would improve the grain soils of the south-
western distiicts; it would give them body; it would improve their
physical texture; it would render them more absorptive and retentive
of moisture without being wet or boggy : a soil which contains much
organic matter is very porous and possesses considerable capillary
power. But the addition of organic matter would do more than this.
" The chief value of straw considered as a fertilizer," says Storer,
" must be attributed to the ash ingredients which are contained in it."
The grain farmers were rightly told, over and over again, during their
meetings with the committee, that the two main needs in making up
wheat-fertilizers are nitrogen and phosphates. During its growth a
wheat crop takes large quantities of nitrogen and phosphoric oxide
and a smaller proportion of potash out of the soil, but a wheat crop
can no more come to perfection without potash than it can without
nitrogen or phosphates. When straw is burned, the potash, lime, and
phosphoric oxide wdiich it contains are left behind in ash, bul even
when straw is not burned but applied to the land either direct or
through the kraals, all the ash-ingredients remain in it and so get
back into the soil. If the straw is returned to the land every season
the farmer thus uses these ash-ingredients over and over again, and
is saved the necessity of purchasing artificial fertilizers which he
would have to do in large quantities if he does not wish his ancestral
source of income, as the Departmental Committee phrased it in its
report, to present an overdrawn account for immediate attention ;
in other words, if he does not want his soil to become utterly
exhausted; the committee, in no uncertain terms, warned the farmers
ia the country's most extensive wheat areas of " the natural infer-
tility of the soils and their steady impoverishment under the present
cereal-cropping system,"

Professor F. H. Storer, in his work on " Agriculture in some of

Wheat-Steaw and its Value to the Land. 715

its relations with Chemistry" (Vol. 3, p. 63), quotes from S. W.
Johnson some very instructive fig-ures reoardiug the materials removed
from the soil by an acre of wheat. He found the total weight of the
crop — grain and straw together — to be 6440 lb. Of this 1840 lb. was
grain and 4600 straw. The entire crop takes out of the soil 120 lb.
of potash, nitrogen, and phosphoric oxide; of this 120 lb., 59 lb.
goes into the grain and 61 lb. into the straw. Moreover, of the 120 lb.,
48 lb. consists of nitrogen, 23 lb. of phosphoric oxide, and 49 lb.
of potash. That is to sny, the wheat crop, taken as a whole, needs
roughly half as much of phosphoric oxide as of eitlier nitrogen or
potash. It is, however, when we consider the composition of the grain
and straw separately that we notice the striking difference. Of the
48 lb. of nitrogen 34 lb. pass through the straw into the grain, and
only 14 lb. remain permanently m the straw; of the 23 lb. of
phosphoric oxide, 15 lb. pass over into the gTain and only 8 lb.
remain in the straw; with potash, on the other hand, the conditions
are reversed : out of the 49 lb. no less than 39 lb. are ultimately
found in the straw, while oidy 10 lb. are transferred into the grain.
The fact is that, as tiie grain of the maturing crop ripens, most of the
phosphoric oxide and nitrogen pass up out of the stalk and lodge in
the grain.

Consider now what it would mean if all the grain were sold off
the f ana and all the straw got rid of by burning or otherwise ; every
acre of cultivated soil would, under the above conditions, lose about
48 lb. of nitrogen, 23 lb. of phosphoric oxide, and 49 lb. of potash,
all of which would have to be returned to the soil in the form of
fertilizers. If only the grain were sold off and the straw put back
into the soil, the yearly loss per acre to be made good would amount
to 34 lb. of nitrogen and 15 lb. of phosphoric oxide, but only 10 lb.
of potash. In other words, the quantity of potash lost to the soil
by disposing of botii grain and straw is five times as great as when
only the grain is disposed of.

Of course the latter argument would not apply if the straw were
burnt and the ashes uniformly distributed over the stubble lands, but
such a course presents some practical difficulties, and even then the
loss of humus and nitrogen would still occur.

The manurial value of straw has of late been the subject of
investigation in some of the United States experiment stations, par-
ticularly those of the States of New York, South Dakota, and Illinois.
At the first-named station straw has been valued for purely fertilizing
purposes at fiom 16s. 8d. to 25s. per ton, while South Dakota valued
it at from 8s. 4d. to 20s. lOd. per ton. In this connection the
American Ferttlizer remarks that to burn or to waste straw is like
burning real money, seeing that straw is a richer fertilizer than stable
manure, containing more nitrogen, two and a half as much times as
mu(di phosphorus, more potash, and three times as much humus-
ma kill,?: materials. In support of this statement the following
percentage composition of straw and of stable manure is quoted : —

Straw. Manure.

Nitrogen .50 .48

Potash 30 to .90 .40

Phosphorus 25 .10

Moistijre 25.00 74.00

716 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

It hos been estimated by Professor Hosier, of the Illinois Experi-
ment Station, tbat the nitrogen and phosphorus contained in the stacks
of straw scattered over the State of Illinois are sufficient for the
production of abovit 11^ million additional bushels of wheat. The
quantity of phosphorus contained in these stacks of straw is equivalent
to that in three-quarter million dollars' worth of superphosphates.

The chemical composition, and consequently the value as manure,
of straw varies considerably with the degree of maturity of the crop
when cut. When perfectly mature the straw contains less nitrogen
than the green stalks, and, furthermore, when the season has been
moist the nitrogen may be considerably increased. The analytical
results consequently depend largely on the condition and maturity of
the straw.

Ingle, formerly Chief Chemist of the Transvaal, gives the follow-
ing as tlie average of manurial constituents of wheat straw: —

Nitrogen 48 per cent.

Potash ... ... 90

Phosphoric oxide 25 ,,

Lime 31 ,,

In another place the same writer records the following composi-
tion for wheat-straw as given in Bulletins of the United States Office
of Experiment Stations : —

Nitrogen 59 per cent.

Potash 51 ,,

Phosphoric oxide 12 ,,

Moisture 9.60

These last figures are evidently the results of analyses of air-dried
straw, while those in the first table, where a comparison is made with
stable manure, are based upon an article still containing a consider-
able proportion of moisture. Stockhardt gives the following results
for absolutely dry wheat-straw: —

Nitrogen 4 per cent.

Potash and soda 6 ,,

Phosphoric oxide 2 ,,

Lime and magnesia ... .3 ,,

Ordinary straw, he adds, contains from 8 to 12 per cent, of
moisture.

There is another side to the question which must not be lost
sight of; I give it in Professor Storer's words: —

" Eormerly, when there were no means of compressing straw for
sale, or transporting it when compressed, it was almost everywhere
regarded as an important resource for keeping up the fertility of
farms. But in modern times there are numberless situations where
straw is as readily saleable at a profit as any other crop, and in such
cases, i.e. wherever there is a market within reach, it is evident that
the straw should be sold as such, and the price of it expended, if need
be, in buying some other form of manure. For packing fragile
articles, and for bedding men and animals in cities, straw usually
commands a price which takes it out of the category of manures. It
should be seldom;, if ever, thought of as a manure nowadays in
regions where it is saleable."

Wheat-Straw and its Value to the Land. 717

Elsewhere Storer observes that it may be possible to purchase
with the proceeds of the sale of straw four times as much manure as
the straw itself actually contains.

It will be seen that the above paragraph lays down two condi-
tions : one has to do with the existence of suitable means for com-
pressing- and transporting', and the availability of a ready market;
the other refers to the employment of the proceeds of the sale of straw
in t])e i)urchase of other fertilizers. It would certainly be worth while
selling the straw under such conditions as these, but for the average
vSouth African grain farmer virtually they do not exist.

Many South African farmers are themselves fully aware, as we
have seen above, of the advantage of returning cereal straw to the
land : the pity is that it is not realized more extensively and that
there is not a more widespread adoption of a practice which will go
far not only to maintain our principal grain lands in good physical
condition, but will also render them more letentive of moisture and
thus better fitted to ])r()du<e sturdy crops and vigorous ears of corn.

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A Sussex Group.

Valuable Exhibit of Manufactured Wool and Mohair.

The Department is greatly indebted to Mr. C'has. Mallinson, who,
it will be remembered, was at one time Principal Sheep and Wool
Expert for the Union, for his services in collecting in England for
the Shee]> Division a most comprehensive exhibit showing the different
stag-es through which wool passes from the grease to the finished
article, both in worsteds and woollens, also one of mohair in the
different stages of manufacture. Mr. Mallinson experienced con-
siderable difficulty in obtaining the various samples, but writes that
the collection is much more elaborate and valuable than any that has
hitherto been seen in South Africa, and, of its kind, is unique. It
is proposed to house the exhibit in Pretoria and send it also to the
leading agricultural shows, where it will serve a valuable^ educative
purpose.

718 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

A TOMATO CANKER.

By E. M. 1)<)11)(;f., M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.. Assistani C^hief,
Division of Botany.

Introduction.

A DISEASE which may he described as a canker of tomatoes was first
noticed in fruit on the Pretoria market during' the summer of 1914.
It is most prevalent from January to March, and during- that period
each year (1914-1920) a large percentage of the fruit offered for sale
is disfigured, and rapidly becomes attacked by soft rot organisms
which enter the fruit through cracks caused by the scab lesions, and
destroy it within a few days.

The incidence of the disease has a direct relation to the rainfall.
Tomatoes which ripen in the early summer are seldom attacked, being-
grown under irrig-ation, and the disease is seldom observed up to
the end of November. From November to January the temperature
is high, and there is usually a considerable amount of rain ; moist,
humid conditions are favourable to the development of the disease.
The fruit can only become seriously scabbed when it is attacked by
the organism in the early stages of its development: this would
account for the non-appearance of the disease before December or
January. A few lesions are to be found on fruits as late as June,
but the disease can be recorded as serious only during the summer
months.

The occurrence of canker in fruit on the Pretoria market was
suggestive of the fact that the disease occurred in market gardens in
the district; several tomato growers were visited and the surmise
was found to be correct. Canker is a veiy common trouble in market
and private gardens in the Pretoria District; it is reported to occur
also in the Rustenburg District, but I have seen no specimens from
there, and beyond this nothing is known of the distribution of the
disease. It is not regarded as being- of a very serious nature, but a
large percentage of the fruit is disfigured, and much of it decays if
it is kept for a few days after ripening. The siimmer of 1919-20, when
most of the observations were made, was exceptionally dry; during
another season with heavier or more continuous rainfall the losses
would probably be far more serious, and the disease mig-ht ruin the
whole crop.

The "canker" lesions differ from those caused by other tomato
diseases attributed to bacteria. The wilt disease caused by Bacterimn
solanaccmum, Erw. Sm. is a distinctly vascular trouble, and causes a
characteristic wilting of the plants. AjyJanoharfer wichirjanense is
also found in the vessels. "Streak," described by Paine and liewley

A Tomato Canker,

719

as caused by Bacillvs lafJiyri, is characterized, as Uie name suggests,
'' by the formation of dark brown or black sunken patches on the
stem, varying from small spots to long furrows or blazes." On the
fruit it forms lig'ht or dark brown sunken patches, with lound or
iiregular outline.

The effects of the canker organism on leaf stem and fruit are
widely different from any of these, as will be evident from the detailed
description given later.

Symptoms of Disease.

On the lea\es tlie first indication of infection is the appeaiance

of numerous dark green, semi-translucent, water-soaked points on the

•under surface. In cases of artificial infection in autumn weather this

occurred 7-8 days after inoculation ; under summer conditions the

Tomatoes showing Typical "Cankers."

progress of the disease may be more rapid. The spots increase in size
and become round or irregular, and about 2 mm. in diameter; they
are slightly sunken and are often present in such numbers in the
neighbourhood of the lateral veins and leaf margins that they coalesce,
and produce irregular, discoloured streaks. The colour soon changes
from dark green to a purplish grey. The discoloration penetrates to
the upper surface, and the spots eventually consist of a smoke-grey
centre, which is thin and membranous, and surrounded by a deep
brown margin.

Where the spots are numerous the intervening leaf tissue becomes
dry and brown. In this way the affected portions of the leaf, epecially
the edges and the tips, become dead and dry, and break away, giving
the leaves a very raggy appearance; and many of the smaller leaflets

720 Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

are altogether destroyed. Alfected leaves show a tendency to curl
inwards, and are more or less twisted and distorted.

Spots on calyces, pedicels, and young parts of the stem are similar
in character to the leaf spots. On the calyx they may be numerous,
hut verj' minute and scattered, or less numerous and up to the 2-3 mm.
diameter; or they may form elongated streaks up to 5 or 6 mm. long.

Cankers are produced on older parts of tlie stem, es])ecially Avhere
the tissues have been somewhat injured by friction or otherwise. At
first there appear irregular, dark gieen, water-soaked areas, Avhich later
become corky-looking, slightly raised, roughened, and with numerous
small longitudinal cracks.

The surface has the appearance of having become blistered or
raised by abnormal tissue development underneath, with subsequent
cracking of the blistered areas. Cankers of irregular form and*
1-2 cm. in diameter are not uncommon. The discoloration does not
penetrate with the wood; it is aijpareutly confined to the cortex and
quite superficial.

In the field infected fruits are usually found immediately below-
diseased leaves, and are doubtless infected during rainy weather by
rain-drops which fall on infected leaves and subsequently drip on to
the young fruit. The majority of the iruit spots are at the stalk end,
but they are also found scattered over the sides and less frequently
on the blossom end.

A very minute green or brownish blister is the first indication
of infection; this blister may remain minute, about 1 mm. diameter,
or may increase in size up to about o mm., and become considerably
raised above the normal fruit tissue. Occasionally, presumably w^hen
weather conditions are unfavourable, infection does not proceed
further, and when the fruit is ripe these minute blister-like spots
have almost the appearance of fly-specks.

In the large majority of cases the point of infection becomes
surrounded by a dark green water-soaked area which spreads consider-
ably, and then begins to discolour from the centre. The centre
becomes dark brown, a water-soaked margin about 1 mm. wide is still
apparent, whilst the organism is active. Finally the epidermis
ruptures in the centre, showing whitish-brown over the discoloured
tissues like the broken edges of a blister. The spots are hard and
scabby in texture, and usually slightly convex, although in mature
fruit they may lie in slight depressions owing to arrested growth at
the point of infection.

vSingle scabs are usually not more than 5 mm. diameter, but they
are often so numerous and close together that they coalesce, forming
large, scabby areas several centimetres in extent. As the fruit
ripens the tissues round the infected areas remains green, forming a
green rim round the scabs, which is conspicuous on the red fruit. The
rifts in the epidermis become extended in cases of severe infection
and whitish-brown cracks are formed, many of them over 1 cm. in
length, and extending into unaffected tissues. These open the way
for putrifactive organisms, and the fruit usually rots in a few days
after ripening.

Thus the disease not only disfigures the fruit and reduces its
market value, but seriously affects its keeping qualities.

A Tomato Canker.

721

The Cause of the Disease.

The cause of this disease is a yellow bacterium belonging to
the same group as the organisms causing citrus canker, walnut blight,
black rot in cabbage, etc~ It is not identical with any of these, and
in a number of cross inoculation experiments it failed to infect any
of these hosts; it only attacks the tomato and a few closely related
l)lants. The bacterium appears to be one hitherto uudescribed, and
will be described in detail elsewliere under tlu> name Jhtcfcri u m
rcsicfiforiuTn n. sp.

CoNJ'UOi; OF llll'; l)lSlv\SE.

The organism is not very sensitive to the fungicides usually
employed in spraying solutions, and experience has shown that spray-
ing is of little use in cond)ating plant diseases caused by bacteria.
This is particularly the case with organisms disseminated chiefly by
rain-splash and infecting the plant through the stomata.

It appears to be the custom of the market gardeneis in the Pretoria
District to save seed from their own plants for the following season ;
this custom is probably in part responsible for carrying over the disease
from one season to another. Certain varieties are more susceptible
than others, but it has been found practically impossible to discover
the names of the varieties usually grown. The following methods
are therefore suggested for the control of the disease : —

(1) Selection of resistant varieties.

(2) Sterilization of the seed by means of formalin or mercuric

chloride.

(-')) A long crop rotation.

(4) Destruction of diseased fruit and of affected plants at the
end of the season.

In connection with (3) it will also be of importance that the irri-
gation furrows shall not be allowed to flow through the old tomato bed
to the site selected for tomatoes in the following season.

Fruit Export.

The following is a return of fruit shipped o^■erseas dui'ing the
month of September, 1920: —

Ux Ex East Ex Port Ex Mossel Ex

Variety.

Oranges ... .
Naartjes ... .

Lemons

Grape fruit
Pineapples

Durban. London. Elizabeth. Bay.
Boxes. Boxes. Boxes. Boxes.

1058 151 4568 81

— 304 —

Capetown.

Total.

Boxes.

Boxes.

17,991

23,849

172

172

50

50

441

441

—

304

Total ...

1058

151

4872 ^1 18,654 24,816

The total shiptnents from all ports during July aiid August, 1930,
were 37,438 and 29,365 boj^ps respectively. /

722 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

REPRESENTATIVE TRANSVAAL SOILS.

The Koedoespoort Red Loam.

By B. ])E C. Marchand, B.A., D.Sc, Chief, Divisiou of Chemistry.

Occurrence. — This soil type has been given the above name owing
to its occurrence on the farm Koedoespoort No. 299, near Pretoria,
where it has been the subject of considerable study. The type is
widely distributed, being found in the Pretoria, Eustenburg, Marico,
Krugersdorp, Potchefstroom, Heidelberg, Middelburg, Lydenburg,
Barberton, and Zoutpansberg Districts. This list does not pretend to
exhaust the possible occurrences ; the type is probably to be found
in other parts. Very similar soils occur also in Swaziland, in Natal,
and in Rhodesia.

Nature and Origin. — The Koedoespoort loam is a brick-red to
red-brown sandy clay soil, usually deep and easy to work in spite of
its apparent heavy texture. The sub-soil is usually a brighter red
than the surface soil, and is always stiffer. In some cases yellow
patches may be observed a short distance down, usually at from
18 inches depth onward. The brown varieties contain more organic
matter than the red, hence the difference in colour.

The typical soil is sedentary and is derived from the diabase*
intrusive in the Pretoria series, but may be influenced in some cases
by the shales of the same series. One or two other basic igneous rocks
also give rise to this soil type, of which the dolerite and the diabases
of the Waterberg system may be mentioned. The shales of the
Pretoria series do not, by themselves, give rise to the Koedoespoort
loam. It is not possible at present to give a detailed account of the
distribution of this soil type. Two very similar soil types must not
be confused with the one under discussion, viz., (;ertain heavy red
soils overlying the norite, and the amygdaloidal basalt of the bush-
veld, since these differ from the former type in an important respect,
they contain considerable quantities of lime.

* For the sake of simplicity no distinction is made between the intrusive diabase and
the contemporaneous amydaloidal lava.

Representative Transvaal Soils.

723

Chemical Composition. — To illustrate the chemical composition
of the Koedoespoort loam, the following analj'ses of samples from
various parts of the Transvaal are quoted : —

No

1154.

1977.

1985.

2034.

2039.

2170.

Farm

Koedoes-
poort No.

Koedoes-
poort No.

Witpoort
No. 26.

Scbaap-
kraal No.

Hekpo<jrt
No. 122.

Wonder-
fontein

299.

299.

205.

No. 41.

Ward

Aapies
River.

Aapies
River.

Mapoch.

Steen-
kampsberg.

—

Groot
Marico.

District

Pretoria.

Pretoria.

Middel-
burg.

Lyden-
burg.

Kiugers-
dorp.

Marico.

Stones over 3 m.m.

per cent.
Nil.

per cent.
1-5

per cent .
Nil.

per cent.
1-5

per cent.
Nil.

per cent.

Nil.

diam.

Moisture

6-60

3-40

8-52

2-25

4-04

4-06

Loss on ignition ...

8-86

9-43

7-78

12-12

9-33

8-30

Insoluble matter ...

00-20

56-99

64-77

52-52

53-55

56-73

Iron oxide and

28-35

28-65

23-98

32-66

33-67

30-44

alumina

Lime

0-35

0-09

0-16

0-23

0-14

0-21

Magnesia

0-46

0-14

0-17

0-11

0-14

0-14

Potash

0-27

0-12

0-15

0-18

0-08

0-19

Phosjihoric oxide ...

0-08

0-04

0-08

0-06

0-06

0-08

Total

100-17

99-86

100-61

100-08

101-01

100-15

Nitrogen ...

0-152

0-174

0-066

0-122

0-115

0-134

"Available" Potash

0-0096

0-0078

0-0186

0-0069

0-0086

0-0036

"Available" Phos-

0-0027

0-0007

0-0011

0-0005

0-0014

0-0009

phoric oxide

Chemically these soils are characterized by a high percentage
of iron oxide and alumina, the ferric oxide usually being in excess
as shown by the following : —

No. 1935.

Ferric oxide.
Alumina

per ceut.
10-16
13-82

No. 1977.

per cent.
18-59
10-06

No. 2034.

per cent.
18-99
13-67

while a comparatively large proportion of this ferric oxide is present
in a very finely divided state; an inadequate amount of lime, reason-
able percentages of potash (including "available" potash) and
nitrogen, and a great deficiency in phosphoric oxide, and particularly
in available phosplioric oxide.

A large proportion of the phosphoric oxide in these soils is locked
up in the larger particles, as the following figures show : —

No. 1977.

No. 2039.

Fine gravel ...
Phosphoric oxide
Phosphoric oxide in fine

'•ravel

per cent.
8-80
0-04
0-014

per cent.

10-80
0-06
0-015

724

Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

Tins pliosplioric oxide, amounting' to one-third of the total in
sample 1977 and one-quarter in sample 2039, cannot be in any way
available to plants (2).

Mechanical Composition. — The predominant mechanical fractions
in soils of this type are the clay, the sand, and the fine sand, the silt
fractious being subordinate, as is illustrated by the following
mechanical analysis : —

No. 1977.

No. 20H4.

No. 2089.

Moisture
Loss on ignition
Fine gravel ...
Sand ...
Fine sand

Silt

Fine silt
Clay ...

per cent.

3-40

9-43

8-80
l.-)-82
12-92

6-80

9-29
33-20

per cent.

2 - 25
12-12

3-37
18 -.50
11-8(1

4-73

9 • 50
36-00

per cent.

4-01

9-33
10-80
13-97
15-89

6-19

8-60
30-96

The clay is usually in a liighly flocculated condition, owing to
which fact a good tilth can be obtained after a short period of cultiva-
tion. The flocculating- agent is finely divided ferric oxide, which is
found in considerable amount in the clay fraction: —

No. 1977.

No. 2034.

Total ferric oxide*

Ferric oxide in clay fraction

per cent.
18-59

8-48

per cent.

18-99

7-00

Apart from its flocculating action on tJie clay, this fine ferric
oxide is the cause of the colour of these soils, the browner varieties
being also partly coloured by organic matter.

Under continued irrigation the Koedoespoort loam is apt to
puddle after a time and to form hard crust on the surface. These
conditions can easily be avoided by good cultivation and reasonable
care. The soil is easier to handle than one would expect from tlie
clay content, and would be called a stiff loam by the farmer rather
than a clay. The sub-soil is generally rather heavier than the surface
soil. The depth is variable, from 2 feet to well over 4 feet is usual.
The drainage is fairly good considering- the amount of clay. On no
account should the sub-soil be brought to the surface by trenching
or otherwise. For some reason, at present uncertain, the sub-soil is
unfertile, and if brought to the surface will cause trouble which
can only be rectified at great expense. If it is considered necessary
to trench, the method known as " false trenching" must be adopted.

The occurrence of brak (alkali) in the Koedoespoort loam has
not been observed or reported.

* The figures for both total ferric oxide and ferric oxide in the clay refer only to such
as is soluble in boiling concentrated hydrochloric acid.

Representative Transvaal Soils.

725

Manurial Experiments. — The following- results were obtained in
an experiment on Koedoespoort No. 299 witli potatoes in 1908 (1).
Sample No. 1154 was representative of the plots: —

Yield p

iv Acre.

Increase

Plot.

Mauure.

Application
jicr Acre.

(Saleable

Saleable.

Small.

only).

I

Mitratc of potash

200 lb.

4,214 lb.

416 lb.

486 lb.

II

Superphosphate

Nitrate of soda

400 „
200 „

)
)

6,264 „

416 „

2,536 „

III

Superphosphate
Sulphate of potash

400 „
2U0 ,.

i

)

6,232 „

608 „

2,504 „

IV

Nothing

—

3,728 „

512 „

—

V

Superphosphate

4O0 „

I

6,176 „

608 ,.

2,448 „

Nitrate of potash

200 „

VI

Stable manure...

10 tons

5,3.58 „

313 „

1,630 „

VII

Stable manure

10 tons

i

Superphosphate

400 lb.

6,414 „

684 „

2,686 „

Nitrate of potash

200 „

It will be noticed that in every case in which superphosphate was
applied an increase in saleable crop of about 2500 lb. was obtained.
It is unfortunate that there was no plot manured with superphosphate
alone. The indications are that all the increase on these plots was
due to the superjihosphate alone, and that the potash and nitrogenous
fertilizers applied had little or no effect. Otherwise it would be
curious if nitrate of soda, nitrate of potash, and sulphate of potash
had almost exactly the .same effect. It will also be noticed that the
application of ten tons per acre of stable manure did not give as
heavy a crop as the superphosphate mixtures.

In an experiment on maize on the same farm during' 1910-1912
the results were (3): —

First series : Mixed maize and velvet beans.

Plot.

Manure.

Application
per Acre.

Yield of Maize
per Acre.

Incr
1910-11.

ease.

1910 11.

1911 12.

1910-11.

■ 911-12.

1911-12.

1

Slaked lime

600 lb. Nil.

625 lb.

1,062 lb.

1 86 lb.

460 lb.

2

Slaked lime
Superphosphate...

600 „ Nil.
200 „ 200 lb.

['898 „

1,993 ,.

4.-)9 „

1,391 ,.

3

Weenen phosphate

1.000 „ Nil.

837 „

1,872 „

398 „

1,27(1 „

4

Superphosphate...

200 „ 200 lb.

813 „

1,822 „

374 .,

1,220 ,.

5

Basic slag

400 „ Nil.

1,106 „

2,220 „

667 „

1,618 „

(')

Nothing ...

~ ~

439 „

602 „

—

"

726

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Second series : Maize alone.

Plot.

Manure.

Application
per Acre.

Yield per Acre.

Increase.

1910-11.

1911-12.

1910-11.

1911-12.

1910 11.

1911 12.

7

Weenen phosphate*

1,000 lb.

Nil.

1,224 lb.

2,217 lb.

562 lb.

1.733 1b.

8

Nothing

—

—

662 ,.

484 „

—

—

9

Slaked lime

COO „

Nil.

896 „

X

234 „

—

10
11

Slaketl lime
Superphosphate ...
Basic slag

GOO „
200 „
400 „

Nil.

200 lb.

Nil.

1,214 „
1,497 „

X
2,433 „

552 „
835 ,.

1.949 „

12
13

Superphosphate...
Bone-meal

200 „
400 „

200 lb.

Nil.

1,199 „
1,612 „

X
1,734 „

537 „

9.50 ..

1,250 „

14

Superphosphate...
Nitrate of soda ...

200 „
150 „

200 lb,
100 „

1 1,459 „

X

797 „

—

1.5
16

Bone-meal
Superphosphate...
Superphosphate...
Nitrate of soda ...

200 „
100 „
200 „
150 .,

Nil.
100 lb.
200 „
100 „

1 1,305 „
h.336 „

2,016 „
X

643 „
674 ..

1,532 „

Sulphate of potash

100 „

50 „

Sample No. 1977 is representative of the soil of tlie experimental
plots. The plots marked x were, unfortunately, spoilt during the
season 1911-12.

The beneficial effect of phosphatic manures, and particularly of
the insoluble phosphates basic slag and ground Weenen phosphate,
is evident. The application of superphosphate to soils of this type
must result in a partial combination of the soluble phosphoric oxide
with the finely divided ferric oxide, whereby the activity of the
phosphate may be decreased. That this view is correct is substan-
tiated by the results obtained on Plots Nos. 2 and 4 in both years and
Plots Nos. 10 and 12 in the first season. The efficacy of the insoluble
phosphates applied in the first season on the second crop is most
marked. A sliglit increase, due to the nitrate of soda on Plot No. 14,
is indicated, while the addition of sulphate of potash resulted in a
decreased yield. The bone-meal plots deserve some remark, since
the consignment used was partially rotted and quickly available,
to which fact the big yield in the first season and comparatively low
yield in the second were due.

From a consideration of the chenrical ;ind i)hysical comjiosition
of the Ivoedoespoort loam and the results of the above-quoted manurial
experiments the following conclusions may be drawn : —

1. That the application of phosphates is essential in order to

raise good crops.

2. That nitrogenous and potassic manures are of little use.

3. That insoluble phosphates will give the best results, if not

immediately, at any rate in the long run.

4. That in order to maintain tilth and to maintain the native

supply of nitrogen in the soil, the incorporation of organic
matter is desirable.

5. That if superphosphate be used, lime should also be applied.

* This phosphate is no longer obtainable ; the results are given in order to show the
efiEect of a very insoluble phosphatic manure.

REPRliSEi^TATiVE ^RAifSVAAL SOILS. l2l

This leads us to the question of treatment which is the one of
most interest to the farmer. It is surprising-, liowever, to find how
few farmers work on any system as far as manures are concerned;
we have apparently not got as far as schemes for huildino- up fertility.
A rotation is desirable on all soils, and the manures should be adjusted
to the crop grown. The Koedoespoort loam is suited to most crops; in
spite of its clayey nature good if not extraordinary crops of potatoes
may be grown. It is unfortunate tliat rooibloem is jjrevalent and at
times ruinous to the maize crop. A proper lotation should include a
leguminous crop, ploughed under if necessary, or cropped by cattle,
or even cut for fodder. The scheme suggested is, therefore: —

1. Basic slag' 300-500 lb. every other year; or bone-meal

300-500 lb. every other year ; or superphosphate 150-300 lb.
every vear.

2. 500-1000 lb.' slaked or quicklime or 1000-2000 lb. " agricul-

tural lime " (ground limestone) every two or three years.

3. A leguminous crop (cowpeas will probably be best) ploughed

under every third or fourth year, or ten tons dung every
third year.
The treatment should be so arranged that one stage be carried
out each year somewhat after the following scheme for maize alone : —

Crop.

Treatment.

1st year ...

... Maize ...

... Phospliatic manure,

2nd year...

... Cowpeas

... Ploughed under.

3rd year . . .

... Maize ...

Or,

... Lime.

a rotation

suitable for a stock f;

armer :

—

Crop.

Treatment.

1st year ...

... Teff

. . .

... None.

2nd year...

... Cowpeas

... Lime and phosphat;

3rd year ...

... Maize ...

... None.

4th vear ...

... Maize ...

... Phosphatic manure

Or,
a rotation adopted at the experiment stations of the Tobacco and
Cotton Division (4), and for which the manurial treatment suggested
is : —

Crop. Treatment.

1st year ... ... Tobacco ... ... Phosphatic manure.

2nd year... ... Cotton ... ... ... Lime.

3rd year ... ... Legume ploughed under Phosphatic manure.

4th year ... ... Maize ... ... ... None.

If necessary a light dressing of sulphate of potash may be applied
to the tobacco crop or a dressing of nitrate of soda to the cotton crop,
though in most cases such additional manuring will hardly pay.

Rkferences.

(1) Watt, R. D., Transvaal Agricultural Jourruil, VII, 27th April.

1909.

(2) Yipond, H. J., Annual Reports, Division of Chemistry, 1910,

pp. 409-410; 1910-11, p. 376; 1913-14, pp. 225-226.

(3) Yipond, H. J., Union Agricultural Journal, II, 5, p. 618; lY, 4,

p. 529; and YI, 3, p. 493.

(4) Scherfiius, W. H., Union Agrirvlfvral Jouriuil, YIT. 6, p. 825.

728 Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE GROWTH, REPRO-
DUCTION, AND MATURITY OF TOBACCO.

]^y W. TI. S(iiKKFFirs, M.S., Chief, Division of Tobacco and

Cotton.

The various factors that affect the development of a crop of tobacco
are numerous. Probably tlie most important are light, temperature,
luoisture, chemical changes, and fertility of soil.

LIgJit. — I have purposely mentioned light first, as too frequently
we attach more importance to the other factors mentioned and leave
light out of consideration. A number of investigators have given
especial attention to this phase of plant life, and their results have
indicated that light plays a most important part in the growth and
reproduction of plants. This topic miglit be viewed from three
directions, namely: (1) Intensity of the light; (2) the quality, that
is, the wave lengths of the radiation; and (8) the duration.

As regards intensity of the light, there seems to be an optimum
amount suited for each plant species, and that optimum may be more
or less than the full intensity of the sun's light on a clear day in a
particular quarter of the globe. AVithin certain limits a reduction of
the intensity of the light has a tendency to lengthen the axis and
branches and also to increase the superficial area of leaf surface of a
good many species of plants.

1'he effects produced by different spectrum rays are very marked,
i hough nothing very decisive can be stated at present, tinder the
influence of red rays of light certain species of plants show an
abnoimal elongation of the axis, while under green and blue rays the
length of the axis is markedly reduced. Some plants show the greatest
groAvth under white light.

The dui'ation of daily exposure to light seems to have an important
bearing on the period of veg^etative grow^th of certain species, the
lengthening of the daylight period, showing a considerable shortening
of the period of vegetative growth, larger seeds pioduced, and an
increase in the flavour and aroma. The exclusion of light prevents the
development and functioning of the seed-forming agents, or sexual
reprodiiction ; on the other hand, the length of the seasonal daylight,
or if supplemented by artificial light, is a dominant factor m develop-
ing the staminate and pistillate reproductive organs, and, therefore,
the existence of the species.

Only moderate shortening or lengthening of the daylight period
tends to retard or accelerate, as the case may be, the sexual reproduc-
tion. If the daylight period is too short for production of seed the
plant tends to gigantism or indefinite vegetative development. While
under the influence of the correct length of daylight for a jiarticular
species an abundant flowering and fruiting may be expected. Thus
certain varieties may act as late or early niafuiiiig. depending on the

Growth, Reproduction, and Maturity of Tobacco. 729

ainouiit of (laylig'ht they may be exposed to as compared to the
optimum requirements of that species or variety.

Auuuals, biennials, and perennials may also he the results ot
seasonal rang*e of daylig-ht, as many species are, in a measure,
governed by lengtli of daylight rather than the retarding influence
of winter. Tlierefore, certain annuals may complete two cycles of
reproduction in a single season by subjecting the jolants to a suitable
lengtli of daylight or artificial light. Similarly, under certain reduced
light exposures, some annuals behave like non-flowering perennials.

Apparently- the rate of growth is directly proportionate to the
length of daily light exposure.

From the above one would conclude that the proper time for
seeding in order to get the correct amount of sunlight is important,
and that the seasonal range of daylight is an important factor in con-
trolling the natural distribution of plants.

TemjJerature and Moisture. — The various factors mentioned pre-
viously ai'e so vitally dependent one upon the other that it is important
to bear in mind that one of these factors, such as temperature, will
not give results approaching perfection without the other conditions
being favourable to the production of the crop. Tobacco is a plant
which is very sensitive to its surroundings, and we must not expect
a good development if the conditions under which we compel the plant
to grow are unfavourable. To obtain the fullest development in
growth the plant requires a humid atmosphere and a fairly high tem-
perature, though in my opinion it attains its greatest perfection in
temperate zone heat. It lias, however, been very clearly demon-
strated that certain varieties or types of tobacco will make good
development under the influence of high temperature, while others
show poor development. A notable example of this is found in the
White Burley types. They seem to reach the highest degree of
jjerfection in the Blue Grass Region of Kentucky; there is, however,
another factor which plays a vital part in this connection which will
be mentioned later. White Burley tobacco, when planted in this
country, with occasional exceptions, seems to become somewhat
dwarfed, and the different individuals show a Lick of uniformity in
their growth, and not infrequently the leaves show a parched or dried
condition during the growing period. It seems to thrive best in rather
a humid atmosphere and with a moderate temperature.

Cigar wrapper tobacco, which is probably the most highly
specialized type grown, seems to thrive best and, reach the highest
degree of perfection in growth, flavour, and aroma, in a high tempera-
ture with a fair amount of humidity. During the curing or drying
stage, to obtain the best results, the tobacco planter must use his best
judgment in this process, as the method of handling- his crop depends
largely on the type of tobacco he is attempting- to produce. For
example, in the production of cigar wrappers the curing process is
an alternating one, in which the tobacco should partially dry during
the day and at night it should absorb a certain amount of moisture —
this process is called " running," i.e. the cured portion of the tobacco
gradually changes from a yellow or green colour to a light mahogany
brown. In the production of so-called Virginian tobacco the process
is somewhat different; to secure the greatest amount of light-coloured
leaf the planter must for the first few days during the yellowing
l)rocess prevent curing, by kee])ing the atmosphere liumid, till the

730 Journal o^ the GePartMbNT of AGHlctLTtlRfi.

tobacco is properly yellow ; then the curing process is commenced and
is continued constantly to prevent " running " till the tobacco is
thoroughly dried. The relative amount of humidity and heat neces-
sary both during the yellowing period and the curing period are highly
important, as the results obtained depend largely on these factors.

The ageing or fermenting process should not be attempted by tlie
farmer where a warehouse is available, as it is purely a warehouse
operation and can only be done projjerly where large quantities of
tobacco are brought together and where suitable buildings are avail-
able.

Che/iitcal Clunujcs. — During the growing period there are certain
plant foods which become water soluble and are drawn into the plant
by means of fine root hairs on the plant. These plant foods, nitrogen,
potash, and phosphorus, in addition to certain other minerals such as
lime, magnesium, sulphur, iron, and carbon, are essential in building
up the cell-structure of the plant. During the growth, curing, and
fermentation of a crop of tobacco there are complex chemical changes
constantly going on ; starches are converted to sugars, alkaloidal
poisons are built up and broken down, nitrogen is probably used up
in this process and again liberated in the fermentation process. This
continuous chemical change is illustrated by the varying amounts of
nicotine found in tobacco at different stages. Generally speaking, as
a plant develops, there is a gradual increase in the nicotine. Seed-
lings at transplanting time will show approximately .25 per cent, of
nicotine, and at full maturity the plant may show 4 per cent, of
nicotine; if allowed to stand longer in the field and beconae over-
ripe it will show a slight falling off in the nicotine content. Likewise,
during the fermentation process, there is a reduction in the nicotine
content.

If one follows these changes, we see starch form and disappear,
sugar form and disappear, nitrates and nicotine increase and again
decrease. Citric, oxalic, and malic acids are present in the growing
plants, and these partially disappear in the cured leaf. Butyric and
acetic acids are present in fermented leaf. During the fermentation
process gases are formed by the breaking down of certain compounds;
ammonia is one of these gases, which is easily detected by the odour
in the fermenting room. Thus it is apparent that after a crop of
tobacco reaches the curing-slsed it is highly important that the curing
and fermenting be carried out with the greatest care in order that
the best qualities may be obtained.

Fertility of Soil. — The question of the fertility of the soil is one
which, though often discussed, is of such importance that I feel
justified in making a few comments on it before closing. I would
first like to impress the fact that the quantity of plant food in the
agricultural zone of the soil is a definite quantity, and every crop
grown on that soil takes away a portion of that definite quantity. So
it becomes a simple matter of reasoning, that if one continues to draw
on that stock of plant food without replacing it by means of fertilizers
or by growing deep-rooted manuring crops, he must expect in a few
years to see a falling off in yields. Again, constant cropping without
ploughing under manuring crops will reduce the humus or decaying
vegetable matter in the soil to such an extent that, although there
may be sufficient nitrogen, potash, and phosphorus to produce crops,
the soil niav be lifeless. This decaving vegetable matter acts like a

Growth, Reproduction, and Maturity of Tohacco. 731

sponge ill holding moisture in the soil and also provides a hahitat
for the soil bacteria, which is so essential to plant life.

Tobacco, which is sometimes spoken of as a potash plant, requires
a fair amount of plant food ; tlierefore, if a soil is not giving' good
yields, for lack of plant food, it is probably advisable to apply a com-
plete fertilizer carrying', say, 4 per cent, of potash, -^ per cent, of
uitrog'en, and 8 or 10 per cent, of phosphoric oxide. I would, how-
ever, advise caution in the use of nitrogen, especially in attempting
to produce yellow tobacco. IN^itrogen has a tendency to produce a
stronger, heavier, and darker tobacco. Potash should not be used for
tobacco in the form of a chloride, as chlorine is generally conceded
to be injurious to the burning quality of tobacco. Phosphoric oxide
seems to give an earlier maturity and a lighter coloured leaf. Pre-
viously we mentioned the Blue Grass Region of Kentucky as the
favourite home of the White Burley tobacco. Underlying this area
is a stratum of limestone, and the surface soil contains decomposed
limestone, and incidentally this soil shows a high percentage of avail-
able phosphoric oxide. It is probably the phosphorus or the com-
bination of phosphorus and lime together with a temperate heat that
makes this section ideal for the production of this particular type of
tobacco.

{Acknon-ledgnieiit. — Article by Garner and Allard was consulted
for certain facts and expressions.)

Gkoup of Herefords.

Mohair Market.

The Department has instituted inquiries into the position of the
mohair market overseas with a view to an expansion of trade in this
article. The weak state of the market at present is causing much
anxiety, and while the future is obscure it is trusted that some relief
may follow as a result of the inquiries.

732 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

GEESE.

By the late \V. O. Joikn, Lecturer in Poultiy, ELseuhiirg Scliuol (li

Ao'riciilture.

Historical. — There are several breeds of geese spread over various
portions of the world, especially Europe, northern Asia, and America.
The wild variety is known as the Grey-Lag, or ornithologically as
Anser cinereus. The commonest offshoots of the Grey-Lag are the
dark-grey ''Brent goose," the "Barnacle goose," and the "Canada
goose."

These is no doubt that all domesticated geese are descendants of
the common Grey-Lag (wild goose), and that the present difference
in general appearance, character, etc., is due to centuries of breeding
for the particular shape, colour, type, etc., that we now associate with
such well-known breeds as Toulouse geese or Embden geese. These
breeds are probably the oldest domestic fowls in history, as we find,
long prior to the Christian era, well-defined laws were followed in
selecting breeding stock.

Embden Geese. — Pure white in body; eyes, bright blue; beak,
orange coloured; legs and toes, deep orange. Male weighs 20-25 lb.,
female 16-20 lb.

Toulovse Geese. — Colour of head, neck, breast, and l)ack is grey;
wing and thigh feathers laced faintly with white; T);iunch and stein,
white: tail, dark grey, almost black; each feather is laced Avith white;
legs and toes, dark orange; bill, pale orange; eves, dark brown or
hazel. Male weighs 20-26 lb., female 16-20 lb.

Cliinesc Geese. — Two varieties, known as Brown Chinese and
AVhite Chinese. These are a very beautiful breed; tb(<y are hardy,
good foragers, good layers, and tlie young tliiive well. TJte White
Chinese. — Colour of both gander and goose": plumage, pure white:
shanks and toes orange-yellow; eyes, light blue; beak, orange-yellow;
knob at base of beak, orange. Gander weighs 12-14 lb., goose 8-10 lb.
The Brown Chinese. — Colour of gander and goose: head, brown;
knob, dark brown or black ; bill, black; eyes, hazel or brown; neck,
light brown or greyish brown, with dark brown stripe down back of
neck from head to body; wing, greyish brown; back, dark broAvn ;
tail, greyish brown; breast, greyish brown; body, greyish brown,
lighter in shade on under parts; legs and toes, dark orange.

The Cape Goose. — A very hardy breed, found chiefly in the
districts of Clanwilliam, Carnarvon, and such outlying areas. At
present it is not possible to state definitely how this bird has been
bred. It has characteristics so entirely its own that some consider'able
investigation will have to be made prior to attempting to fix its origin.
The colour of the male is pure white; eyes, pale or dark blue; legs,
orange; and beak, dark orange. The female is grey coloured (very
like Toulouse); eyes, dark blue; beak, orange with well-defined line

Geese. 733

of white around beak where it joins on to head; body, medium grey;
back, wing, and tliigh leathers finely hieed with very light grey
(almost white) ; legs and feet, dark orange. The gander weighs
10-12 lb., goose G-8 lb.

(It will be noticed that male and female are entirely dissimilar
in colour. This, of course, is an advantage, as it makes the selection
of the sex very easy.)

Management of the Breeding Stock.

The gander will mate with several females. It is better to have
as few males as possible in tlie flock, as this avoids quarrels. In the
smaller breeds of geese one gander to three geese would be sufficient,
and in heavier breeds, such as Embden and Toulouse, one gander to
two geese. It is necessary when changing matings to do so in Novem-
ber or December, as ganders do not change affections readily.

-^fjc /'-"' Mating. — Goslings, or yearling geese, should never be
bred from ; two-year-old birds are far better. If the female be three
or four years old it is sometimes an advantage to mate a young gander
of fifteen to eighteen months to such old geese.

The goose family live to a great age, and good specimens may
be bred from up to their tenth year, or even later, but, speaking
generally, geese are at their best breeding condition at from three to
hve years.

Housing. — Houses for geese need not be expensive structures:
the lean-to is best suited to their requirements. It must be built of a
size to accommodate tlie required number ; approximately 4 feet
floor space should be allowed for each adult bird. The house should
be open-fronted, having two ends, back, and roof, the front covered
with wire netting and facing sunrise ; the floor should stand about 4
inches above surrounding soil, and should be constructed of material
easily kept clean and, above all, dry. Geese contract disease if
allowed to sleep on a damp floor. To avoid this the floor should be
covered with deep litter, which should be changed from time to time.
Geese delight in cleanliness, and will not enter a filthy house if they
can avoid it.

Situation. — Geese can best be kept in places adjacent to grass-
lands, vleis, or along the banks of rivers where short succulent grass
is easily obtainable. Water, while beneficial, is not absolutely essen-
tial; a running stream, natural vlei, a river, dam, or small artificial
pond will serve their purpose, (ieese keep in better condition w^hen
swimming water is within reach.

Feeding adult birds. — Variety should be observed in feeding.
Geese have a special liking for grass, and a quantity of this w411 have
a particular bearing on the amount of other food given ; where short
succulent grass is plentiful for the greater portion of the year geese
need be fed in the evening only, but where grass is scarce it will be
necessary to feed them twice daily. Where this is practised, a mash
consisting of bran one part, mealie half part, should be mixed
with boiled vegetables and fed at the rate of 3 oz. per bird in the
morning; the geese should then be driven on to the land and kept
there during the day. The evening feed may consist of any usual

2.5

734 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

South African grain, snch as cracked mealies 1 part, oats 1 part,
barley 1 part, and, if available, kaffir corn 1 part. These to be
mixed together and fed in water in shallow vessels. During harvest-
ing period on grain farms geese should be driven on to the stubble
land, where they will find practically all the food they require, thus
economizing the food bill and cleansing the farm of fallen grain and
seed, a double advantage to the farmer.

Laying and Incubatioti. — As the laying sea-son approaches the
females will be seen walking around in search of suitable nesting-
places; frequently they carry straw or grasses in their moutlis, a
sure indication. A nest should be provided for each goose. It may
be made with half-a-dozen round sticks planted in the ground in a
circle with the top ends tied together, wigwam or tent fashion,
covered with grass, reeds, or sacking, with an opening- on one
side; the width of the nesting place should be 2| to 3 feet and
the height 3i feet. A good handful of straw or hay should be
placed in each nest; the goose will see to the rest. Geese carefully
hide their eggs. It is, however, better to remove the eggs as they are
laid. To do this without rousing suspicion, mark the first egg with
an indelible pencil and leave in the nest ; remove the second and all
subsequent eggs, otherwise they may become over-heated, chilled, or
stolen. When the goose becomes broody, remove the first egg and
give her all the other eggs to sit upon; she will usually cover from
ten to fifteen eggs, according to the size and breed of the goose. When
setting she must be kept as quiet as possible ; to this end it is an
advantage to remove the gander and place him in another paddock.
The sitting goose should have pure water within reach, also grain
and green food. During the last few days of incubation it is some-
times necessary to remove the goose, otherwise she will neglect
feeding. Her removal must be carried out most carefully, otherwise
the eggs may be broken, and should not be attempted unless it can be
done without injury to goose and eggs. The period of incubation is
from thirty-three to thirty-five daj's ; actual hatching period is forty-
eight hours. Experience has shown that goslings should be allowed
to hatch unaided : any attempt at helping them usually ends fatally
through the membranes being prematurely ruptured, causing death by
bleeding. Experience also teaches that a gosling unable to hatch
unaided is not worth the trouble of rearing.

Bearing Goslings. — Goslings should be removed one by one as
they hatch so as to prevent the mother from leaving the nest before
all the eggs are hatched; they should be placed in a basket lined with
flannel, or in a warm brooder. When all the young are hatched give
the goslings back to the mother, and she will watch over them with
great care. The gander may now be allowed to return to the goose
and her little family, as he helps her to protect the young and watct
over them very tenderly. Although goslings are very hardy they are
very susceptible to cold or rain, and it is best not to let them wander
far from the nest for the first few days, and not too far fropa suitable
shelter before they are two weeks old, so that they may be placed
under cover in case of rain. The gander becomes most fierce during
the periods he is assisting with the care of the young, therefore young
children should not be permitted to visit the young goslings until
thev are three to four weeks old.

Geese. 735

Care of the Young. — During the first few days goslings may be
given bread-crumbs, bran, cooked mealie meal, maslied potatoes mixed
witli milk, finely chopped vegetables, such as lettuce, young green
barley, or young green grass. A good way of providing the latter is
to procure a sod covered with short grass and place it near the nest or
brooder. When the young are fairly strong, i.e. about two weeks old,
they may be allowed to run at large with their mother, providing
always that they are not exposed to rainstorms. A goose will mother as
many as forty goslings. When they come in at night they should again
be given food as mentioned above. It will be seen that by setting
two or more geese simultaneously the broods of two may be given to
one, and the other goose returned to the breeding-pen. She will come
on to lay again shortly, and in that way produce two broods in a
season. Artificial rearing of goslings is also successful.

Fattening. — This takes twenty-five to thirty days. Geese to be
fattened should be given such grain as cracked mealies, rolled oats,
rolled barley, with a little mealie meal mixed with water ; raw chopped
mangels are also very good ; this diet should be given for about
fourteen days, then the cracked mealies should be discontinued and
the mealie meal increased. The mangel or other roots should be
boiled, mixed with bran, mealie meal, finely ground oats and barley,
and fed in troughs. It is an advantage if milk can be added to the
above, as it is claimed that milk fat produces a flavour of its own.
During the fattening period geese should be kept in crates or fattening
pens, with little or no liberty, giving food as indicated, with clean
water to drink.

Killing. — Geese are killed by sticking a knife in the roof of the
mouth, a quick motion severing the arteries and penetrating the brain.
The feathers are removed by dry plucking, care being taken to avoid
tearing the skin, which in a fat bird is very lender and tears easily.

CoTiivierdal or Marketable Geese. — In South Africa there is very
little demand for very heavy geese, such as Toulouse or Embden. the
most popular weight being ganders 10 to 12 lb., and geese 8-10 lb.
It will, therefore, be seen that, speaking commercially from a pojjular
market view-point, the two best breeds to meet the requirements of
the South African markets are the Chinese and Cape goose. Many
breeders, however, cross the Cape goose with the Embden or Toulouse
bird wath the object, it is claimed, of producing faster maturing
goslings. It is thought personally that very li-ttle is gained by this
procedure, as both the Chinese and Cape goose are particularly hardy
and quick maturing, and, as already mentioned, meet public require-
ments.

By-products. — The by-products from geese are the feathers and
down, and also their manure. The most valuable by-product is
undoubtedly down, which has given rise to a practice (greatly to be
deprecated) of cutting the down from the geese every month or six
weeks. This is a most cruel practice. Geese may, however, be plucked
once annually with advantage, that is, when the feathers are ripe,
usually in the month of December. It stands to reason that, just
prior to moulting, unless the feathers are plucked they would fall
out naturally and be lost, therefore there is no reason why all geese
should not be plucked just before the moulting period. To do this

736 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

properly the operator sliould sit upon a low stool or box with the goose
across his knees, the head beino;' towards the back of the body, and
the legs firmly held in the left hand. Two baskets are required, the
coarser down being placed in one and the finer in the other; in this
way the down is graded at the time of plucking. Only the down from
the breast, thighs, and paunch, should be removed ; all top feathers,
such as wings and back, should be left. Geese are susceptible to colds,
and the removel of these feathers may lead to the loss of geese from
cold or pneumonia.

Se.xes.— When just hatched goslings of the Embden breed are
bright yellow on the back; the others are grey, and the latter are
generally females and the former males. It is fairly easy to tell the
sex in an adult bird : the male is larger than the female and his cry
is shrill, while that of a female is harsh ; the neck is a little longer
and a little thinner in the male. The cheeks are less prominent, but
the posterior part of the upper mandible, which is generally of orange
colour up to the skull, is more prominent in the female. As two
indications are better than one it is best to inspect the sexual organ,
which furnishes absolute proof. In the female the sphincter, or
muscular tissue closing the anus, is folded and sinuous when stretched
with the fingers. In the male, on exerting a light pressure on the
same place, the sphincter soon appears; it protrudes more quickly in
warm weather and also in a mature male.

The New Apple-box.

The attention of apple growers is called to Clause 5, Section (h),
of the Regulations (Government Notice No. 260 of 6tli February, 1920)
under the Fruit Export Act, No. 17 of 1914, which reads: —

" The following fruits shall be packed in boxes the sizes of which
shall be : —

Inside Measurement.

(h) For apples, 18 in. by lU in. by 10 in."

This box has been substituted for the one 20 in. by 10 in. by 11 in.
previously in use for export. All growers catering for local trade
should adopt this size of box. It is a convenient packag-e, holding
just under one bushel, and, if generally used, will be far more satis-
factory both to seller and purchaser than the different sized boxes
now found on the various local markets.

In order to allow growers to dispose of their stocks of the old
size apple-box, the regulations respecting the new box will not be
vigorously enforced this season, but its use will be compulsory next
season.

Crossing op North and South African Ostriches. 737

THE CROSSING OF NORTH AFRICAN AND
SOUTH AFRICAN OSTRICHES.

The Success of the Experiment.

In 1912 some 130 ostriches from Nigeria were imported for tiie
purpose of crossing them with South African ostriches, with the object
of improving the feathers of the latter, and it is desired to give a
short account of the history of these birds and the reasons for their
importation.

Prior to 1911 it had been ascertained that the feathers of the
domesticated South African ostriches were of two distinct types. Tiie
one, in many respects — tliough enormously improved — resembled the
feathers of the wild ostriches which in former days were to be
found in large numbers all over South Africa ; the other was entirely
different from it and quite unlike the feathers of any of the indigenous
wikl birds of South Africa, the chief points of dilference being that
the former type was a large " thin," open feather, considerably
lacking in the two important qualities of density and strengtli, while
the latter was a small compact feather and had most remarkable
density and strength. The question arose, where did this dense type,
which differed remarkably from the native bird, originate? Inquiries
were accordingly made as to the birds imported into South Africa
in the past, and it was found that in 1876 four ostriches had
been introduced from North Africa. At the instance of Mr. R. W.
Thornton, then Government Agriculturist for the Cape Province, the
Department of Agriculture made a collection of feathers from the
wild ostriches of every land in which they were to be found. When
this collection came to hand it was found that certain feathers which
had been sent by the British Consul at Tripoli, but which had come
from the south-western Soudan, bore a striking resemblance to the
dense-feather type found in domestication in South Africa, and it
was deduced that the present South African type had evolved from the
original importation of North African birds.

Some time after this it was found that America was endeavouring
to secure ostriches with feathers of a dense type which, if successful,
would seriously compete with the Union's ostrich feather industry.
For this and other reasons the Government took into consideration the
advisability of importing some of these birds, and a meeting of the
South African Ostrich Breeders' Association was held. The question
was thoroughly discussed. A resolution was passed urging the Govern-
ment to send at once a Commission to the Soudan to further investi-
gate the matter. This was carried into effect, and in August, 1911, the
Commission, composed of Messrs. R. W. Thornton, J. M. P. Bowker,
and F. C. Smith, left South Africa and proceeded first to England,
where they secured the necessary passports and equipment, and from
thence to the west coast of Africa, touching at various ports and making

73.S Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

inquiries regarding the ostriches. They finally landed at Eorcados,
on the Niger Delta, and after proceeding about 500' miles up the
Niger left the river at Baro and struck due north. After journeying
about 300 miles in this direction they arrived at Kano, the great
central market for the vSoudan. Here they were enabled to examine
various parcels of feathers brought in from the surrounding districts,
and a fair quantity of the type which they were seeking were found
amongst them. The birds themselves, it was found, existed in their
wild state a considerable distance inland, and that large numbers are
killed each year by hunters for the sake of their feathers, while quite
a number of the chicks are caught at the nests and reared in captivity.
The methods of keeping these domesticated birds are very different to
our South African methods. The birds are kept in small pens about
six or eiglit feet square, and usually only one or two in a pen. Of
course, under these conditions they never breed, whilst the methods of
taking the feathers are not the humane ones employed in South
Africa, the feathers being pulled from the birds often before they are
ripe, the bird being plucked absolutely bare.

The chain of evidence in the history of the present South African
ostrich was, fortunately, established, for the four ostriches imported
in 1876, already referred to, were actually traced by the members of
the expedition as liaving come from the exact locality where the birds
of the dense-featlier type had been located. The son of the Arab
who had originally received the contract to supply these birds was
interviewed, and he gave full details of their long journey across the
Sahara and of the final shipping of the birds from a Tripolitan port.
With this proof of the correctness of their deductions the expedition
set about to procure what birds they could of the desired type and to
return to South Africa with them.

All the birds in British Nigeria were examined, and every one of
the right type was secured. Of these a total number of 150 were
purch':^.sed, and, after considerable difficulties, 132 of them finally
reached the Grootfontein School of Agriculture, Middelburg (Cape),
in May, 1912.

The total amount expended on the importation of the ostriches
was £7272. 19s. 6d., which included everything, such as money spent
on purchase of the ostriches, chartering of the boat from Lagos to
Capetown, salaries of officials, etc. The amount is small when com-
pared with the money spent by the Government on the importation of
cattle or sheep.

No internal parasites of any kind were found in the ostriches
in Nigeria. Ostrich tapeworm and wireworm seem to be non-existent
in that country, although the imported birds soon developed them
after arrival in South Africa.

As soon as the birds were landed in South Africa and before they
had recovered from the effects of the long journey they were con-
demned and pronounced to be quite useless by a number of individuals
who were expecting to see something superior to the domesticated
South African birds, forgetting that the latter had reached their
present high standard of quality after generations of selective
breeding.

In addition to the strain imposed on the birds by their long
journey by land and sea most of them had been subjected to very
severe treatment in the matter of plucking in their native land, and

Crossing of North and South African Ostriches. 739

the majority of their feather sockets had been permanently ruined.
Furthermore, they were imported not for their feathers but for cross-
ing- with the South African birds, so that their marked qualities of
density and strength would have a beneficial effect on the South
African birds, the feathers of which were weak in these two respects.
It is known that the feathers of the wild birds of the Soudan are of
a much higher standard than those of South Africa. Therefore, if
the present high standard plumes of the domesticated South African
liirds have been evolved by selective breeding from a relatively poorer
slock, the introduction of the stronger strain of the Nigerian bird was
calculated to give a much better product.

AccUviatization. — The birds reached South Africa just at the
beginning of winter. This was unfortunate, as the sudden change
from the heat of the tropics to the severe winter of the midlands of
South Africa was a very great strain on their constitutions. Then,
also, they suffered severely from wireworm and tapeworm, but by
means of continued dosing the trouble was eventually overcome,
enabling a start to be made in cross-breeding with South African
birds.

Experiments. — The chief objects of the first experiments were
(1) to find out whether the imported birds would breed with the South
African birds, (2) whether the progeny would be fertile, and (3)
whether the desirable characteristics of the northern bird could be
blended with those of the southern.

The following are the results of these experiments up to the
present : —

(1) The birds interbreed freely.

(2) The progeny are fertile both inter se and back to either of
the original varieties.

(3) The blending of the desired characteristics has been
remarkably successful. The feathers of some of the first crosses
can be rated as really first class. This was hardly hoped for
even by the most sanguine, as it was con-^idere(l that it would be
necessary to cross the birds several times before plumes of this
nature could be obtained. The feathers from these cross-bred
birds are quite equal in size to the first class South African primes,
and the desired characters of density and strength have been
introduced to a wonderful degree. The ostriches have been
crossed both ways, that is, North African cock with South African
hen, and vice versa, and in both cases the above-mentioned high
standard of feather has been reached in the progeny. Various
other crosses have also been obtained, namely, cross-bred bird
mated with either of the original strains, and also two cross-
breds mated together. The cross which up to the present has
proved most consistently successful has been where the cross-
bred bird was mated back to a South African bird. The resulting
progeny are three-quarter.s South African and one-quarter North
African, and out of twenty-odd birds thus bred at Grootfontein
last year every one is coiLsidered first class. A certain number of
pure North African ostriches are also being bred at Grootfontein
so that the strain may not be lost.

740 JOUKNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Certain other minor characteristics have been observed amongst
these cross-bred chicks : —

1. The birds take a good deal longer to reach full feather
maturity. With South African birds it is generally possible to form
a fairly accurate idea from examination of the " spadonas," or chick
feathers, as to what a bird will develop into at maturity. This has
proved quite impossible with the cross-bred chicks, and it is only on
the second or third crops of feathers that an accurate opinion of the
bird can be formed.

2. The cross-bred birds are by nature very wild and untractable.
This necessitates very careful rearing and management.

3. The cross-bred chicks are exceedingly healthy and compara-
tively easy to rear in comparison with South African chicks. In
appearance they cannot be said to favour either of the parent strains
more than the other. They vary in all degrees, from some exactly
resembling" the North African to others which could not be
distinguished from the South African bird.

The undoubted success of these cross-breeding experiments justifies
the Government's action in importing the Nigerian ostriches, for there
can be no doubt that had these birds fallen into the hands of any
other country it could in time, by means of selection and cross-
breeding, have built up a strain of birds which would have proved
serious rivals to our South African ostrich feather industry. As the
position stands at present, however. South Africa holds the lead both
for quantity and quality of feathers produced, and with this long-
start, and by means of a judicious infusion of Nigerian blood, the
industry should be secure. Should another country obtain a number
of these Nigerian ostriches it would take a number of years to reach
the present South African standard of quality of feathers, and by
that time, by means of the start mentioned above, it is hoped that our
industry will have relatively advanced.

Citrus Export.

Commenting on certain aspects of the export of citrus fruit
this year, the Trade Commissioner in London refers to the large
proportion of fruit shipped in ventilated hold and the excellent con-
dition generally in wdiich our fruit arrived; indeed, the opinion of
the trade is that never have South African oranges been marketed in
better condition. Mr. Canham is of opinion that the cool weather
experienced this year accounts in a measure for the satisfactory state
in which the fruit was received, but, notwithstanding the good condi-
tion of the fniit sent over in ventilated hold, he is emphatic on the
point that all our fruit should be shipped in cold storage, wliich, he
states, is the opinion also of the trade.

Plant Nurseries in Quarantine as at 1st October, 1920.

The nurseries listed in last mouth's Journal (page 670) were
still in quarantine on the 1st October, 1920. with the exception of
that of Mr. E. Krohn.

Mylabris Beetles. 741

MYLABRIS BEETLES.

By W. F. ScHLUPr, B.Sc, Entomologist, Scliool of Agriculture and
Experiment Station, Potclief.stroom, Transvaal.

There are a number of native Mylabris beetles that have been known
as plant pests since early days. In 1889 Omerod listed (1) several
species as injurious and quoted from a correspondent that " all our
Mylabridae are scourges," a rather sweeping statement.

These beetles are included in the family Meloidae (Cantharidae,
Mylabridae), a large group generally known by the cosmopolitan name
of " Blister Beetles," because of a vesicating property due to the
presence of cantharidiu, which, according to some writers, occurs in
the blood plasma. On account of a fluid that oozes from their joints
they are sometimes also known as " Oil Beetles." Because of a
fancied resemblance to the uniform of the Cape Mounted Rifles some
of the native forms are called " C.M.H. Beetles."

Of the above family Dr. Peringuey, Director of the South African
Museum, has listed thirty-four native species belonging to the genus
Mylabris and twenty-one belonging to the genus Cantharis (2).

The Meloidae as a rule are not above medium in size, but large
species are found among our South African Mylabrids. The species
most common at Potchefstroom, Mylabris oculata, a species that is
very common also in many other parts of the Union, is about one and
one-fourth inch long, and with its black and yellow colouring is a
conspicuous insect. As a rule it appears earlier than the fruit beetles
(Cetonids), coming about the time the fruit trees bloom. The writer
has taken it from bean plants in the low veld (Komati Ward) during
the middle of August, and doubtless it appears even earlier there.

Life-History of Blister Beetles.

To studies made many years ago by C. V. Riley in America and
M. Fabre in France we are indebted for much of our exact knowledge
of the life-history of these beetles. The larvae feed upon the egg*s of
other insects, and may be divided into two groups, viz. (a) those
that subsist upon the eggs of locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets, and
consequently do a great deal of good; and {h) those that feed upon
the egg's of wild bees. The larvae attach themselves to bees and are
thus carried to the nests. They often attach themselves by mistake to
other insects, and so get nothing except a free ride.

Aniong the American species that have been investigated many
belong to the first group. T. B. Fletcher states (3) that in India also
most of the larvae of the species for which the life-histories are known
(several of which belong to the genus Mylabris), are parasitic upon
the egQ masses of grasshoppers. In the absence of close studies we
may assume that the larvae of many of our South African Mylabrids
aie parasitic upon the eggs of locusts and grasshoppers, but this is
by no means certain, as all attempts to rear the insects have failed.

742 Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

Mr. Claude Fuller, Assistant Chief of the Division of Entomology,
has on a number of occasions found beetle larvae in the egg masses of
locusts in Natal, but the specific identity of the larvae is unknown.

Blister beetles have remarkable life-histories, in that they exhibit
the phenomenon of hypermetamorphosis, i.e. they pass through more
stages during their growth than do the ordinary beetles or other
insects. Thus, instead of egg, larva, pupa, and adult, there are three
different larval forms, a pseudopupa, and a pupa before the adult
stage is reached.

Food Habits and Status of the Beetles as Pests.

Our common Mylabrids injure the blossoms of plants, but since
the larvae are perhaps beneficial the question arises: Just how much
damage do the adults really do, and is it enough to make the destruc-
tion of the beetles advisable? Opinions will differ on this question.

Many years ago (1893) Dr. Peringuey remarked (4) that " It is
so seldom that a beetle proves to be useful to the farmer that, were
they plentiful in my garden, I would purposely sow a patch of beans
for the delectation of Mylabris, knowing full well that such a small
favour would be amply repaid."

On the other hand, the late Dr. J. B. Smith, an eminent econom'c
entomologist, leferring to some leaf-eating American blister beetles,
stated that: "In the larval stage they are beneficial, in so far as
they feel upon tiie eggs of grasshoppers, but it is questionable whethiM;
this benefit overbalances the damage they do as adults, and I never
hesitate to advise prompt measures for their destruction" (5).

With regard to the Indian species Fletcher makes the following
statement : " Blister beetles often do great damag*e to crops by devour-
ing the flowers and tender shoots. Cereals and leguminous crops are
especially subject to attack, and there seems to be some special attrac-
tion for these beetles in flowers of yellow colour. . . . Whether these
beetles are to be ranked as pests or beneficial insects is at present, how-
ever, an open question. In the adult state they certainly do harm to
crops. . . . If, therefore, the larva of a blister beetle destroys even
one egg-mass containing (say) forty eggs of a grasshopper the good it
accomplishes by so doing at this stage must be offset against any
damage it may do later as an adult, and the question we have to
answer is whether ihe damage tliat would have been done by the grass-
hoppers is greater tlian that done by the beetle that has destroyed
them. And for the present, at least, this must remain an open
question, and we can give Ihe blister beetles the benefit of the doubt "

Although the damage done by tlie Mylabrids in gardens is often
rather small when compared with that done by the fruit beetles
(Cetonids), they are undoubtedly a great nuisance at times, eating
and defiling tlie blossoms of ornamental plants, especially roses. They
injure the blossoms of fjuii trees, but here it is a question of whether
or not the settiniJ of the fruit is interfered with, and not one of damage
to the beauty of the trees. The blossoms of beans, peas, etc., are also
attacked, the beetles being particularly fond of these.

It has been the exi)erienco of the writer that the damage to plants,
as well as the number of beetles i)resent. is often over-estimated. It
is true that the blossoms are eaten, but are they entirely destroyed?

Mylarris Bel:tles. 74H

Some of them are, some are not. Dr, Pering'uey stated (4) that he had
examined beans and peas, and that of the flowers eaten 80 per cent,
had been previously fertilized; so in that particular case at least the
damage was much less than it appeared. In such cases control
measures are hardly necessary.

Damage to Foliage, etc. — However, considerable damage is some-
times done by the beetles, and apparently this damage is not always
confined to the blossoms. Mr. Jacobus Faure has called the attention
of the writer to two letters on file at the Office of the Division of
Entomology, in wiiicb M. cctdata appears in a different role. One
letter, from the Waratah Citrus Farm, Brits, Transvaal, states that
the beetles did considerable damage to tomatoes, beans, potato foliage,
elc. The other letter states that five niuids of potatoes were planted
on farm Sweetput, Content Station, Cape Province, that the crop was
entirely destroyed by beetles, and that it looked as though a hail-
storm had gone tlirough the lands.

When severe injury is done to crops, etc., one need not hesitate
to destroy the beefles. The Division of Entomology recommends the
destruction of the insects in all such cases. Even though the larvae
of our Mylabris beetles do feed upon the eggs of grasshoppers (a
point that has not been definitely established), the fact must be taken
into consideration that most of our common grasshoppers feed princi-
pally upon grasses, particularly those of the veld; and that the value
of this glass is relatively small when compared with the value of the
cultivated plants destroyed by the adult beetles. Furthermore, the
number of beetles coming to the fields and gardens is usually only a
small percentage of the number present in any given locality; there-
fore, killing them will hardly upset the " balance of nature."

Cantharidin.

Projjerties and f/.'>e5.— Blister beetles are dried and reduced to a
powder, which is ased in medicine under the name of " Cant ho rides."
From the powder a crystalline substance known as Cantharidin is
extiacted. This is occasionally used internally in minute doses as a
stimulant and diuretic; but its principal use. which is true also of
the powder, is in solutions, tinctures, plasters, etc., where a strong
irritant is desired. It has powerful blistering properties.

Cantharides was formerly much in vogue as an aphrodisiac, but
it is now recognized that its action in this respect is not great; and,
furthermore, that this aphrodisiacal action apjjears as a rule only
after tlie kidneys have been greatly irritated and often injured.

As a Poison. — Cantharidin is a powerful poison, the fatal dose,
according to Blyth (6), ranging from 1 grain upward, although
recovery from very large doses has taken place. For purposes of com-
parison it may be mentioned that the fatal dose of white arsenic is
stated by the same author to be about 2.5 grains.

Cantharides has been employed as a poison in at least one or two
criminal cases; and there have been many cases of accidental death
from its internal use, and also, it is said, even from its external use.
Biley and Johannsen state (7) that cases are not rare in which cattle
have been poisoned by feeding on herbage bearing a large number of
blister beetles. They also quote from the work of Robert that when

744 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

birds, frogs, etc., have fed on such beetles the flesh of these animals is
poisonous.

Dr. C. F. Juritz mentions (8) two comparatively recent cases
where kaffirs were killed by powdered Mylabris beetles administered
by native medicine men.

Coinmercial Sources. — The cautharides of commerce is derived
IDrincipally from a European blister beetle, the so-called " Spanish
Ely," Cantharis vesicatoria. There are other beetles that could be
utilized, but the one mentioned occurs in regions where labour has
been fairly cheap, the beetles are gregarious, are present in large
numbers, and are easily collected. There are other beetles that are
higher in contharidin content, in fact, some of our native beetles are
considerably higher.

Collection and Preparatton of Beetles. — The presence of the
Cantharides is manifested by the strong penetrating odour which they
difl'use to some distance. When by the aid of this smell they are
discovered, generally settled on an ash, they are collected in the
following manner : Very early in the morning a cloth of light tissue
is stretched out at the foot of the tree and the branches are shaken,
which causes the insects to fall. These, numbed by the cold of the
night, do not try to escape. When there is a sufficient quantity tlie
four corners are drawn up and the whole plunged into a tub of
vinegar diluted with water. This immersion causes the death of the
insects. They then carry them to a loft, or under a very airy shed.
To dry them they spread them out on hurdles covered with linen or
paper, and from time to time, to facilitate the operation, they are
moved about, either with a stick or with the hand, which is more
convenient; but it is then necessary to take the precaution of putting
on gloves, for, if touched with the naked hand, they would cause more
or less serious blisters. The same precaution must be observed in
gathering them.

When the Cantharides are quite dry, they are put into wooden
boxes or vessels of glass oi- earthenware hermetically sealed, and
preserved in a place protected from dam}). With these precautions
they may be kept for a long* while without losing any of their caustic
properties. Dumeril made blisters of Cantharides which had been
twenty-fours years in store, and which had lost none of their energy.
Whey dry, they are so light that a kilogramme contains nearly 13,000
insects (9).

Cantliaridiii Content of Exotic Species. — The yield from Canthari^.
vesicatoria ranges from 0.38 to 0.57 per cent, according to Blyth, and
from 0.38 to 0.62 per cent, according to Squire. Greenich, in the
" Introduction to the Study of Materia Medica," states that
occasionally 0.8 per cent., and sometimes even 1 per cent., is found.
Analyses by Ferrer showed 0.082 per cent, in the wings and their
cases; 0.088 per cent, in the head and antennae; 0.091 per cent, in
the legs; and 0.24 per cent, in the thorsix and abdomen.

In Mylabris cichorei Ferrer found 0.1 per cent. (?); in
M . punct'U'in 0.193 per cent. ; and in M . pustulata 0.33 per cent.
W^olff found .0815 per cent, in Lytta aspera; and Self found 1.215
per cent, in two Chinese species, viz., M. cichorei and M. sichie.
Robert states (10) that the amount of cantharidin varies from 0.4 or
0.5 per cent, to 2.57 per cent., depending on the species of beetle.

Mylarris Beetles.

745

Investigations of South ArmcAN Mylabrids.

IJiiiing the latter part of 1918 Mr. C. P. Loimsbury, Chief of the
Union Division of Entomology, suggested that as eantharidin had
reached a high price it might be possible to utilize Mylabrids and so
meet the cost of collecting them whea it becomes necessary to adopt
control measures. Accordingly, the question was taken np by the
wiiter and some data secured. The problem of collecting will be
disciissed under control measures.

Cyaneolyrra subcoriacea.

Mylabris lunafa.

Myiabris oculaho.

Loss in Live Weight. — When kept in cages the beetles lose a
certain amount of weight, principally by the expulsion of excreta.
\V hen kept in captivity for twenty-four hours beetles lost in weight
as follows : —

Lot 1 lost 12.4 per cent., Lot 2 lost 12.5 per cent., Lot 3 lost
17.8 per cent., Lot 4 lost 3.3 per cent.

Methods of Killing. — Three methods were employed : —

(a) The method described by Figuier was ineft'ective. A 15 per
cent, solution of stronf? vinegar was used, but beetles were swimming
on the surface of the liquid at the end of two hours, quite uninjured.
Other beetles were immersed in the solution for one hour, so that they

746 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

could not obtain even a bubble of air, but upon removal tliey soon
recovered. The vinegar had no effect at all,

(b) A sample was prepared by dropping the beetles into boiling
water, which, of course, produced instant death.

(c) Inserting a little cotton-wool, saturated with carbon bisul-
phide, into the tin containing the beetles was the most convenient
method, and, as will be seen later, proved to be the best one.

Method of Drying. — When spread in thin layers upon the floor
of a dry room the beetles dried well enough without the use of
aitificial heat.

Loss in Weight by Dryiiig. — Beetles collected in December, killed
with carbon bisulphide, weighed about an hour after death and again
on 15th January, 1919, showed the following losses in weight: —

Lot 1 lost TO. 2 per cent, in 44 days; Lot 2 last 60.5 per cent,
in 43 days; Lot 3 lost 65.0 per cent, in 42 days; Lot 4 lost
60.6 per cent, in 41 days ; Lot 5 lost 64.4 per cent, in 40
days; Lot 6 lost 65.0 per cent, in 40 days.

Number of Beetles per Quart and per Found. — About one hour
after being killed with carbon bisulphide the beetles (i.e. M. oculata)
were measured and weighed. It required from 275 to 300 to fill a
quart measure and from 300 to 400 to weigh a pound.

Results of Analyses. — Two lots of Mylahris oculata were prepared,
one by killing the beetles with carbon bisulphide, the other by drop-
pinp- them into boiling water. These beetles were analysed at the
laboratory of Dr. C. F. Juritz, Agricultural Research Chemist, Cape-
town. Dr. Juritz reported (8) the results as follows: —

Lot 1, killed by carbon bisulphide: 1.19 to 1.20 per cent, of

cantharidin.
Lot 2, killed by boiling water: 0.66 to 0.69 per cent, of
cantharidin.

The boiling water evidently causes a great loss of cantharidin, as
is seen by the difference between the two lots. Many of the beetles of
Lot 1 had been kept alive for twenty hours, and had lost weight by
excretion, but this will account for only a small part of the dilference
in cantharidin content, not more than one-tenth at most. If the
beetles are to be used they should be killed with carbon bisulphide.

Dr. Jurit/ obtained also a supply of Mylahris luniita from
another source. These contained 1.15 per cent, of cantharidin. A
mixed lot of museum specimens of Cyaneolytta subcoriacea and
(,'. pectoralis yielded only 0.9 per cent.

Commercial Possibilities. — The results of analyses show that our
Mylabris beetles are much higher in cantharidin than is Canthans
vesicatoria, and should the necessity ever arise they can be employed
for the production of the drug. However, the demand for cantharides
is at present so limited, according to the statement of a leading whole-
sale chemist, that it would be difficult to find a ready sale for the
beetles.

Moreover, the beetles, unlike the " Spanish Ely " of Europe, are
not gregarious : they must be captured one, two, or three at a time
instead of in masses; and, as already stated, the number present is
nearly always greatly over-estimated. If five hundred beetles are

Mylabris Beetles. 747

scattered over an acre of plants they appear to be fairly numerous.
Small gardens, where the writer failed to find one hundred beetles, were
described by the owners as "simply alive with them." When it is
considered that it requires about one thousand dried beetles to weigh
a pound it can be seen that unless the price is very high, collecting
merely for the sake of the sale price of the beetles would not be a
very remunerative business, with the exception, possibly, of a few
localities where the beetles are exceptionally abundant, and that as a
rule it is only when it is necessary to reduce damage that collecting
ciin be profitable.

The Control of Mylabris Beetles.

When control measures become necessary, spraying suggests
itself, but it is not a satisfactory remedy. In the first place, the
beetles are often rather scattered, making it necessary to spray quite
a large number of plants in order to kill a few beetles. Secondly, the
spraying is not effective enough to be worth while. It might possibly
be eltective when the beetles attack foliage, but they generally eat
flowers. The blossoms of plants are waxy, only a small amount of
spray adheres to them, and it requies a comparatively large dose of
poisoa to kill a large beetle. Collecting is cheaper and much more
effective than spraying.

Collecting.

Method. — The writer found collecting with the hands to be more
satisfactory than the use of a net, although the beetles have a
disagieeable habit of expelling the excreta when handled, and also
giving off large drops of a blistering fluid, especially from the femur-
tibia joints. Some people find that this fluid blisters their hands, but
it did not injure the hands of the writer nor those of three students
who assisted for a few days in collecting. If necessary gloves could
be worn.

The collector must work quietly, otherwise the beetles will fly
away. When the beetles are on trees, it is necessary to knock them off
with a sharp blow from a lath or stick.

Time:. — The writer did most of the collecting in the afternoon,
but when taking the beetles from fruit trees it became necessary to do
the work in the morning, as the insects were less active then than
later in the day. Collecting from trees was difl&cult even in the
mornings.

Killing. — If the beetles are not intended for use the most con-
venient method of dealing with them is to drop them into water on
wliich a little paraffin oil is floating. After passing* through the film
of oil they die within a couple of minutes, often in a few seconds.
Boiling water or carbon bisulphide could be used if desired.

Effectiveness of Collecting.

When one advises hand collecting as a control measure, one is
generally met with the statement: "The beetles fly into the garden
as fast as they can be collected." In order to determine just how
effective collecting really is the writer counted the number of beetles
taken each day in different gardens and kept records. To make the

748 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

comparison plain in the tables that follow, the number of beetles
taken in each garden the first day is stated as 100 per cent. Thus if
200 beetles were taken the first day, 50 the second, and 20 the third,
the figures would appear as 100 per cent., 25 per cent., and 10 per
cent., and so on.

Results in 1918. — Collecting was done in three gardens, marked
A, B, and C in the table. A and B were private gardens, C repre-
sents the vegetable garden of the Experimental Farm. In the first
two gardens the beetles were taken principally from ornamental
plants, in the third from broad beans, etc. The results were as
follows : —

Dec

Gaeden

A.

Garden B.

Garden C.

Per Cent,

Per Cent.

Per Cent.

. 1 ...

100-0

Dec.

5 ...

100-0

Dec, 12 ,., 100-0

9

89-2

6 ...

92-4

„ 13 ,,. 42-3

3 '.'.'.

33-0

7 .,.

28-0

„ 14 ,.. 10-5

4 ...

5 ...

13-3
5-3

8 ...

9 ...

19-6

2.S

„ 15 ... (no collection)
„ 16 ... 16-2

6 ...

3-0

10 .,.

0

„ 17 ... 20-3

7 ...

1-7

11 ,,,

0

„ 18 ... 14-6

8 ...

9 ...

0

0

12 ,..

13 ,,.

2-8
0

„ 19 ... (no collection)
„ 20 ... 1-6

10 ...

0

14 ,..

0

In gardens A and B only three or four beetles were found during
the rest of the season ; a few were found in C but not enough to be of
any consequence.

Results in 1919. — During the early part of the season the beetles
attacked the plum blossoms in the orchard (D) of the Experimental
Eaim, and later on the vegetable garden (E). Results of collection : —

Orchard D. Garden E.

Per Cent.

Oct.

28 .

.. 100-0

J5

29 .

.. 22-4

30 .

31 .

., (no collection)
.. 32-7

^OV.

J)

1 ,

2 .

3 .

.. (no collection)
.. (Rain)
.. 31-0

?5

4 .

.. 9-5

?9

5 .

.. 0-9

J?

6 .

.. 0

Per Cent.

Dec.

17 ,

,. 100-0

18 .

,, 34-8

19 .

., 19-6

20 .

., 2-2

21 .

,. (no collection)

22

0

23 ".

,, 0

24 .

0

No more beetles were found in either D or E during the rest of
the season. In the case of the plum orchard (D) this was partly due
to the fact that the weather suddenly became cool, and by the time
it became warm again most of the petals had fallen, but the major
factor in reducing the number of beetles was the collecting*. The rapid
elimination of the insects from the vegetable gardens was due entirely
to collecting, the superiority of the results over those of 1918 being
due, perhaps, to the fact that the beetles were less numerous in 1919
than during the previous year.

Mylarris Beetles. 749

The foregoing tables show that collecting was a very effective
measure in small gardens. The results from the vegetable garden in
1918 and from the orchard in 1919 were not quite so good, but, never-
theless, were fairly satisfactory. In large fields and orchards the
Jesuits are not likely to be always so good as those obtained by the
writer; yet, if properly carried out, collecting should prove an
effective control measure.

From five to thirty minutes were required each day for about a
week to clear the beetles from a small garden, so it can be seen that
controlling the pests in such cases is not a difficult proposition as a
rule. In orchards and fields it is a different matter, but our experi-
ence is that collecting is quite practicable. It requires a certain
amount of labour, but so does every other operation on the farm, and
the labour requiied for this work is less than it would appear on
first thought. Half a dozen boys working for an hour or two can cover
a pretty large area of ground.

References Cited.

(1) Omerod, E. A. — Notes and Descriptions of a Few Injurious Farm

and Fruit Insects of South Africa, pp. 21-22.

(2) Peringuey, L. — Transactions of the Roval Society of South

Africa, Vol. I, pp. 165-302.

(3) Fletcher, T. B.— Some South Indian Insects, pp. 154-155,

302-306.

(4) Peringuey, L. — Arj/i cult lira] Jout/ial of ilw Cape of Good Hope,

March, 1893 (Correspondence).

(5) Smith, J. B.— Economic Entomology, pp. 225-228.

(6) Wynter-Blvth, A. and M. — Poisons, their Effects and Detection,

pp. 491-497.

(7) Riley, W. A., and Johannsen, 0. A. — Handbook of Medical

Entomology, pp. 54-55.

(8) Juritz, C. F. — South African Joi/rnal of Incluxtries, Vol. II,

No. 5, pp. 466-472.

(9) Figuier. — Insect World (English Translation).
(10) Kobert, R. — Lehrbuch der Intoxikationen.

Offer of Tractors.

The Department has received an offer of a number of heavy
tractors of the caterpillar type, which were built for war purposes
and are now available for disposal. These are of 110 h.p., are petrol-
driven, and are capable of exerting a draw bar pull of six tons. The
use of petrol as fuel is undoubtedly a great disadvantage under
present circumstances. Any one interested in this type of tractor is
recommended to apply to the Secretary for Agriculture, Pretoria, for
further information.

750 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

THE EFFECTS OF STORMS ON CERTAIN FORESTS
IN THE TSOLO DISTRICT, CAPE PROVINCE.

By J. S. NiBLOCK Stuart, Acting District Forest Officer, Umtata.

During the early days of the present year two storms of exceptional
severity broke over the Ceka Group of Deinarcated Forests in the
Tsolo District of the Transkei, and the havoc wrought was so remark-
able that it is thought a short description of the storms and their
effects, illustrated by photographs, might prove of interest.

The Ceka Forests are in the form of a half -moon, and are
situated on a range of hills about 25 miles to the north of Umtata
and 15 miles to the south-west of the village of Tsolo.

It was on the 7th January, 1920, between midday and sunset,
that the storms raged in all their fury. According to sawyers work-
ing in the forests on that day, the morning was bright and sunny,
but at noon the sky became overcast and large drops of rain fell,
followed by terrific thunder and lightning, with a short spell of hail.
For two hours thereafter an exceptionally heavy downpour set in,
and then slowly abated until the rain almost subsided late in the
afternoon. But worse was to come, for a south-east wind heralded
another storm. This time overhanging storm-clouds seemed to burst
and to empty themselves with intense fury over the forests, continuing
until sunset, when the storm finally spent itself. During the whole
period of the storms there was a heavy, continuous roar, and it was
necessarj" to shout to be heard even at a short distance.

The flood-water rushed over krantzes, dislodging huge boulders,
uprooting trees, and washing away tons of soil in its wild race down-
wards and towards the partially dried-up forest streams, which in a
short time were converted into raging torrents. The Ceka and Bam-
bunyoko streams, normally about five yards wide, soon overflowed
their banks, sweeping away all traces of native gardens, until they
were roaring rivers about 80 yards wide.

The deluge caused extensive landslides, leaving open barren
gaps, forty to eighty yards wide, previously wooded, and masses of
trees, twisted and torn, boulders, soil, blue and bush buck, and all
manner of debris, were engulfed and swept out of the forests into
the Ceka and Bambunyoko Streams, and eventually into the Umtata
River, where they silted up at Luchaba Drift, fifteen miles away,
forming a huge barrier. This was fortunate, as the mass of timber
and debris might easily have carried away the girder bridge over the
Umtata River lower down.

The trees on the lower slopes of the forests resisted the mass of
rocks, trees, and soil swept down, thereby forming barriers 15 to
20 feet high. The impact of the debris on these standing trees was
tremendous, and they were severely bruised up to a height of 15 feet.
In one instance a large stone was found imbedded in the trunk of
a big yellowwood {Podocaryiis sp.). It is curious to relate that nearly

Effects of Storms on certain Forests, Cape Province. Tf)!

752

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Effects of Storms on certain Forests, Cape Province. 753

all these trees have since died from the damage they sustained, and
in working them up it is being found that water oozes out whilst
the logs are being sawn, that the timber is streaked with black, and
that it gives out an olfensive odour like that of stagnant water. Chips
of yellowwood showing these characteristics were submitted to the
Plant Pathologist for examination, and he reports that " the dis-
coloration in the wood is due to moisture at the roots. It is similar
to the trouble in oaks known as ' wet-foot,' due to the same cause.
Tliere is no fungus present — the walls of the cells are simply impreg-
nated with some resinous substance."

About one hundred trees of different species (Yellowwood —
Pndocarpvs sp., Stinkwood — Ocotea bullafa, Assegai — Curtisia
farjliica, Lemon — Xymalos monospora, Chestnut — Cnlodenclron

Showing track of the storms on the flats below the forests.

capense, and Pear — Ajwdtjtcs di iiiidlata), hov/ever, were swept out
of the forests and deposited on the flats below, a distance, in some
instances, of from 3 to 4 miles. The majority of these trees were
not very much damaged, although several were over 100 inches in
girth and over 30 feet in length. They have all since been converted
into timber by local sawyers.

Owing to the large amount of soil washed into the TTmtata Eiver
thousands of eels were carried down with the current in a choked
condition, and it was an interesting and unique sight to see them
J3eing hauled out from the banks in buckets, by rakes, and even by
hand.

The small colony of woodcutters living below the forests in
question and close to a small stream from Ihe Ceka Forest, at which

754 Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

they were wont to obtain their water supply, had a very anxious
and terrifying time. The stream, ordinarily about 5 yards broad,
soon overflowed its banks and widened out to about 100 yards, and
the flood-water rose to about 4 feet round some of the huts, completely
flooding them. In this emergency, escape being cut off, they fastened
their wagons with chains to tree stumps to place their wives and
families on should the flood increase. Fortunately the storm subsided
before this was necessary.

The plight of two native famalies living below the Bambunyoko
Forest might also be described. One, Mpipi by name, was working
in the forest on the day of the storms, but about noon he made for
his kraal, as he thouglit a storm was brewing. He and his family
occupied two huts on a ridge, and his neighbour also had two huts
on another ridge about 50 yards away. The water rushing from the
hills soon completely surrounded and cut them off from help, and
they had perforce to spend the night shaking with terror in their
huts. The water rose steadily and swept past in such force that it
carried off horses, fowls, goats, and pigs that happened to be standing
near one of the huts. The horses managed to crawl out lower down,
but four goats, a pig, and nearly all the fowls were lost. The fact
that this particular hut was built on sloping ground saved it from
being washed away, as the water rose to over 2 feet in height around
it.

It is difficult, if not impossible, to convey an adequate idea of
the extraordinary havoc wrought by these short but terrific storms.
Tlie accompanying photographs, showing the destruction, are accord-
ingly reproduced, as it is felt that they more than anything else,
except, perhaps an actual visit to the locality made immediately after
the storms, will at a glance show that which no words can properly
express.

Export of Grain, etc.

During August, 1920, 7267 bags maize and oOO of maize meal
were graded and exported through the various ports, while in Sep-
tember the exports were 8,111 bags maize, 650 bags maize meal,
6352 bags hominy chop, 125 bags oats, and 216 bags lucerne seed.
The total quantity of bags exported from the 1st July last to 30th
September was : Maize, 18,141; maize meal, 1370; hominy chop,
6352; oats, 125; beans, 138; and lucerne seed, 216. The stccks on
hand at all ports on the latter date were, m bags : Maize, 2881 ;
maize meal, 2541; hominy chop, 595; and lucerne seed, 60.

The 1920 Vintage of South Australia.

The 1920 vintage of South Australia was 5,085,939 gallons (a
decrease of 22.28 per cent, on the previous season), valued at £643,738.
The last three vintages substantially exceed all previous records.
Averaging the past five years 1916-1920, the following are the chief
items of the industry annually, viz. : Grapes used, 29,682 tons; M-ine
made, 4,726,431 gallons; average per ton, 159 gallons; estimated
value, £504,804; stocks, 6,113,960 gallons.

Building up the Fertility of the Soil. 755

BUILDING UP THE FERTILITY OF THE SOIL.

By A. Baguley, B.Sc, F.I.C.

By fertility of the soil is meant useful productiyity. We have to
recognize many limitations in useful productivity- due to various
causes, such as latitude, altitude, proximity of the sea or other water,
aspect, slope, position, sub-soil, etc. These aifect productivity in the
quantity and kinds of crops that can be grown with profit, and
generally do not admit of modification in building up the fertility
of the soil. This process, carried to completion, however, makes
possible a very much wider and more profitable range of crops.
Properly done it increases the certainty of the crop, and always it
enables the agriculturist to succeed with a minimum rainfall.

These advantages, together with the general low level of inherent
fertility in the soils of our country, make this matter one of import-
ance and interest. It is not enough to maintain fertility. We must
increase it to a notable degree. To do that safely and uniformly we
have to follow faithfully a few physical and chemical principles which
universal experience indicates.

Building up fertility is clearly associated with additions to the
soil. Other corisi derations are no less important and must have
attention if success is to be attained; such are, tillage, drainage,
weeding, and harvesting. But in addition to these necessary opera-
tions, we have to provide for the full supply of food and stimulation.
By increasing the amount and availability of plant food we build up
the fertility of the soil.

Usually several, sometimes all, of five essential things are lack-
ing. These are : —

I. Humus. — This term includes the remains of plant and animal
life, decayed to a stage far beyond recognition. It is usually dark
brown or black in colour, porous and absorbent of water and gases.
In this property and in composition it resembles charcoal. The power
which soils have of deodorizing and purifying dirty water may be
attributed largely to the humus they contain. Humus is not soluble
in water, but as oxidation proceeds it jaelds organic acids which are
useful solvents of soil material. It imparts mellowness to soil and
relieves the harshness belonging* to grit and sand. It provides home
and food for iu numerable micro-organisms which use it as a source
of energy, oxidizing atmospheric nitiogen, which thus becomes
capable of nourishing crop-plants.

Humus suffers loss and diminution in several ways : (a) By
oxidation in the soil; this is a leg-itimate loss, and the humus in
undergoing it serves its purpose. The process is rather rapid owing
to the high mean temperature ; it is increased by tillage operations
and by the use of quicklime, (b) By the activities of various creatures
such as ants, worms, larvae, and others, (c) By natural agencies as
fires, floods, and winds. Organic material is carried off and lost or
destroyed. Sometimes a fertile soil is overlaid by gravel and sand
or it may be washed away.

756 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

Humus in the soil is increased (a) by residues of crops and green
manures added to the soil; (b) by dung and kraal manure; (c) by
leaf mould and turfy material ; (d) by additions of seaweed where it
is available.

In the matter of buildings up the humus-content of the soil the
agriculturist has often to fight a losing battle. Where stock have
to be fed it is not good practice to plough in green crops. The
residues of crops grown and taken away are not sufficient to maintain
the humus of the soil. If such parts of the stalks of the nipalie crop
as are not eaten by stock were plou.o-hed in, the soil might gain. Very
often they are broken up and blown away or burned or otherwise lost
to the soil. The farmer might, by a little thought and care,
very much increase his stock of organic manure and secure correspond-
ing benefit to many crops.

The conservation of organic matter is a process that helps
itself a good deal. Better crops are grown and big-ger residues
are left. Some part of each successive application of organic
matter resists decay more strongly and persists. These parts
accumulate, and in time become a very valuable addition to the
soil material, giving it that highly prized quality called " condition,"
and making it more stable and uniform in crop-production, becoming,
in fact, a precious reserve of actual and potential fertility.

Organic manures which are the origin and sustainers of this
highly desirable "condition" should be the subject of thought and
study on the part of every farmer, and their augmentation- and use
should be the object of continual effort. Bedding ought to be used
freely and all residues incorporated in the dung-heap. Applications of
the fresh material are highly useful to the potato crop and to other
gross-feeding crops, while succeeding grain crops benefit to a notable
degree by the residual matters left by such applications.

Only in very exceptional circumstances ought quicklime to be
used in farm practice; where lime is required agricultural lime
(ground limestone) should always be chosen. Quicklime (caustic lime)
very rapidly uses up the precious luimus ; the carbonate of line is
comparatively very mild and economical in this respect.

II. A second essential is lime; this is often wanting. Some
crops, as potatoes, appear to flourish in its absence; some are
indifferent, as mealies; while others, like lucerne, depend upon it
to make profitable growth. Generally, for the usual purposes of
agriculture, the lime in soils requires additions. It performs several
functions.

(a) It is the one available corrective of acidity in soils. Acidity
arises from two causes. (1) The oxidation of organic matter gives rise
to numerous acid substances. These are neutralized by lime. As
oxidntion proceeds simjjler acids are produced, until, finally, carbonic
acid is arrived at, and the lime becomes available for further use. If
this were the only purpose to be served a small quantity of lime would
meet all requirements. The organic acids literally burn themselves
out, and the lime is regenerated. (2) The addition of fertilizing sub-
stances usually leads to acidity in soil. Superphosphates are strongly
acid substances, and when added to soil are dissolved in the soil water,
and then precipitated on the soil material. Salts of iron oxide and
alumina with phosphoric or sulphuric acid are formed. These are

Building up the Fertility of the Soil. 757

stioiigly acid in reaction and hurtfnl to plants, and they must be
decomposed with lime. Ammonium sulphate is broken up and
oxidized and becomes a source of sulphuric acid and nitric acid.
These acids must be neutralized by lime. Potash salts have their
potash removed and fixed by the crop. The sulphuric or hydrochloric
acid with wliich it was combined is set free in the soil and must be
neutralized by lime. In neutralizing' these sources of acidity the lime
is not regenerated, except in so far as the crop may assimilate the
acidic radicals of the salts formed. This is the case with the nitrate,
and to a less extent with the sulphate.

(b) Lime provides a neutral medium in wliich bacteria favourable
to farm crops can flourish. The productivity of the soil is dependent
largely on the activity and multiplication of useful micro-organisms,
which fix atmospheric nitrogen, produce nitric acid, and generally
give powerful aid in the dissolution of soil material.

(c) Lime prevents the harmful effects of a high proportion of
magnesia in the soil. Land in magnesian limestone districts is some-
times found that is more or less infertile and that does not respond
properly to fertilizers. The magnesium carbonate is a very effective
neutralizer of acids, but if lime is not abundant it proves dangerous
where fertilizers are used. Magnesia is required as food by plants
to a slight extent; they can find sufficient for their needs in all soils,
and it is not, therefore, required in fertilizers.

Where the magnesia in the soil exceeds the lime in amount, crops
sometimes make poor growth in spite of fertilizers. If lime is applied
the soils recover. The reason is to be found in the greater solubility
of magnesium compounds, especially magnesium sulphate (epsom
salt). This salt is very soluble in water, and, where soils contain more
magnesia than lime it is formed by double decomposition whenever
fertilizers containing sulphates are used. Sulphates are the com-
monest and most useful of all salts in fertilizers. They occur plenti-
fully in all dissolved phosphates. There is no other obtainable acid
that can be used or that is more suitable for use for this purpose than
sulphuric acid. The principal reason for this is that its use results in
the formation of gypsum, which is an excellent drying agent only
very sparingly soluble in water, and, therefore, harmless to plants.
Kow, where magnesia occurs too plentifully in soils, the application
of most fertilizers results in the formation of sulphate of magnesia.
This is a very effective plant poison, and its formation always leads
to a reduced crop.

Soils, therefore, containing magnesia in notable amounts are
particularly in need of lime, so that when fertilizers are applied the
liarmless gypsum may be formed and not the poisonous epsom salt.
The farmer may generally best give a dressing of a ton or more of
ground limestone per acre to the crop following potatoes in the
rotation.

III. A third requirement is nitrogen. This is very costly and has
often to be purchased. It is not easily retained by the soil and is
liable to loss in several ways. Therefore, except in so far as humus
may help, no attempt should be made to accumulate nitrogen in the
soil, as loss and disappointment would follow any such course of
action. In the matter of nitrogen farmers have to live from hand
to mouth.

758 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Care in the use of nitrogenous fertilizer is necessary, because
sometimes their free use would defeat the object in view by making
it hard or impossible to secure a seed crop. For these reasons mixed
fertilizers do not contain high percentages of nitrogen.

Nitrogen may be bought in three forms: —

(a) As nitrate. This is always soluble and highly available.

(6) As an ammonium salt. This is also highly soluble and avail-
able and frequently undergoes conversion into nitrate.

(c) As organic nitrogen. This is of many kinds and varies
greatly in value according to the ease with which it undergoes decay
and oxidation. Some kinds like those occurring in blood and urine
are of high value ; other forms such as those found in leather and
horn are of low value because they are so slow to become available.
If a highly active concentrated nitrogenous fertilizer is ever used, it
ought only to be applied sparingly, with full knowledge of its effects
and limitations.

IV. A fourtli necessary in building up fertility is potash. This
is a requirement of all crops, but especially of potatoes and tobacco.
Leguminous and root crops also benefit notably by its use, and in the
absence of kraal manure it is needed by all crops on sandy soils.

Potash salts to be useful should be soluble in water. Potash
occurs plentifully in some felspars, but it is highly insoluble and of
very low fertilizing power. The nitrate is too costly for use as a
fertilizer. The carbonate is not suitable owing to its caustic
properties, which make it an acive plant poison. The chloride is
objectionable owing to the formation of calcium chloride in the soil
by double decomposition. The only really useful and available salt
of potash, then, is the sulphate. This is very soluble in water, and
cannot be used freely because of that property. A reserve of potash
cannot be built up, and the farmer must use it as and when it is
required by crop and soil and lack of kraal manure.

It is this danger of too great concentration in a droughty time
which limits the amount of potash which may be used with advantage
in a mixed fertilizer. When concentrated salts of potash are used
alone, they ought to be applied sparingly with full knowledge that
the most profitable limit is soon reached and that an overdose will
result always in a reduced crop. This has been proved over and over
again in many countries, more especially with the potato crop.

V. Phosphoric oxide is a most important factor in building up
fertility. Supplies are obtainable in many forms, and all are useful
when ajjplied to soil. It may be accumulated in the soil with advan-
tage, because it is not subject to loss by fermentation or volatilization
or drainage. Its compounds in the soil are only slig-htly soluble in
water, and are, therefore, not dangerous to crops however plentiful
they may be. They are not caustic nor usually acid. The typical
form in fertilizers is that occurring in bone-dust. When this material
is properly prepared and of sufficient fineness, and applied to a soil
not wanting in humus or moisture, it is highly available, being readily
dissolved by the soil water as lequired. For permanent crops, as
lucerne, and fruit trees coarse bone-meal may be used with profit.
For crops with a short season of growth, and particulaj-ly on soils
deficient in organic matter recourse must be had sometimes to
dissolved phosphates. Bone and mineral superphosphates are forms

Building up the Fertility of the Soil. 759

very widely used. These soluble pliosphntes when applied to soil
become insoluble in a very finely divided form which plants generally
can make use of, and which, in the presence of lime, is quite safe.

A very superficial study of fertilizer price lists with their pub-
lished analyses will show in the case of mixed fertilizers for specified
crops that they uniformly contain a very hig-h proportion of
phosphoric oxide. There are several'reasons for this. They are: —

(a) Phosphoric oxide is not liable to loss from the soil even
when freely applied; nitrogen is.

(h) Phosphoric oxide is never dang'erous owing' to its numerous
insoluble forms. Potash salts are dangerous when freely
used, because they are all very soluble in water.

(c) Phosphoric oxide is comparatively very widely deficient

and there is more need, therefore, to afford a supply.

(d) Phosphoric oxide is returned to the soil less freely in the
various residues than are nitrogen and potash.

(e) Phosphoric oxide occurs more plentifully in produce sold

oft' the farm than does potash.

(/) Phosphoric oxide is not replenished from the air as nitrogen

is.

(g) The smallest part of phosphoric oxide that can be used by
the plant is about five times as heavy as the smallest part
of nitrogen that can be so used.

(h) Phosphoric oxide is built up into the seed to a greater
extent than potash. Potash is used in the plant over and
over again to bring about the changes in which it is active.
Less of it is therefore required.

Special fertilizers containing a low proportion of phosphoric
oxide are rarely needed, and when they are used, the reasons why
should be well understood, as loss and harm may easily follow.

The order of importance of the five requirements in building up
the fertility of the soil is : —

1. Humus, because (a) it is so commonly deficient in amount;

(6) it serves so many useful purposes; (c) it is the longest
step towards the desired goal.

2. Phosphoric oxide, because it is nearly always required and

is sold in most of the produce sent off the farm anti can
only be replaced by purchased fertilizer or foodstuff.

3. Lime.

4. Nitrogen.

5. Potash.

When considering the building up of fertility, the beneficial
effects of a change of crop ought not to be forgotten. In this connec-
tion, nearly any change adapted to the farmer's requirements can be
made to yield the main advantages of a well-designed rotation of
crops.

7G0 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

PAPPEA CAPENSIS SEED.

Report of the Imperial Institute, with Description
and Illustrations of the Species.

By K. A. Lansdell, Division of Botany, Pretoria,

The plant Papjyea capensis, Harv. & Sond., was first brought to the
notice of this Division by Mr. G. H. Harvey, the Honorary Secretary
of the Alicechile Farmers' Association, who wrote on 16th January,
1918, covering a sample of seeds: "I have been instructed by the
members of the above association to send you a sample of a wild fruit
tree seeds which contain oil. These trees are very plentiful among
the various kind of bush about these parts. Will you please let us
know if the oil when extracted is of any value, etc."

This sample was forwarded to Dr. J. Schlesinger, of the New
Transvaal Chemical Co., Ltd.. Delmore, who reported that ''you
will be interested to hear that our provisional test made with the
sample of the berries has given sufficiently encouraging results for
further investigating this matter."

Mr. Harvey, on being communicated with, forwarded to the
Division a sample of 20 lb. of the above seeds, and this was sent to
the Director of the Imperial Institute, London, who reports as
follows : —

" Pappea capensis " Seed from South Africa.

Description of Saiwple. — The sample weighed 14 lb., and con-
sisted of small reddish-brown seeds Avhich w^ere almost spherical,
and measured from 0.2 to 0.3 inch diameter. A fair number of the
seeds had been attacked by insects. The shells were brittle and could
easily be separated from, the soft kernels, which were yellow and
very oily.

The seed consisted of shell 35 i)er cent, and kernel 65 per cent.
The average weight of a single seed was 0.26 gramme, and of a kernel
O.IT gramme.

Results of Eiraviiiiotio7i.^T]\e entire seeds as received were .found
to contain 7.4 per cent, of moisture and to yield 47.8 per cent, of oil,
equivalent to a yield of 73.5 per cent, from the kernels.

The oil was of golden yellow colour and fairly viscous. It
deposited a small amount of stearin on standing. On chemical
examination it gave the following results, which are shown in com-
parison with the figures recorded for gTOund-uut and olive oils: —

Pappea Capensis" Seed.

761

Pappea

capeimm

trround-Nut Oil.

Olive Oil.

Oil.

Specific gravity at 15°/15° C...

0-9150

0-916 to 0-918

0-915 to 0-918

Solidifying point of fatty acid

39-5° C.

28-1 to 29-2

6-91 to 26-4

Acid value

13-1

—

—

Saponification value ...

188-0

190 to 196

190 to 195

Iodine value, per cent.

69 -S

87 to 98

80 to 87

ITnsaponifiable matter, percent.

0-54

0-4 to 0-S

0-5 to 2-0

Volatile acids, soluble

0-42

—

—

A'^olatile acids, insoluble

0-32

—

—

Acetyl value

21-1

9-06

10-64

Optical rotation

Nil.

—

—

The above figures indicate that the Pappea oil is of the
" noii-diyiiig " type, and could probably be used either for soap
manufacture or as a lubricant.

The residual meal left after extracting the oil from the entire
seeds was light brown, and had a mild, very faintly bitter flavour.
The meal similarly obtained from tlie decorticated kernels had a
similar flavour, but was of cream colour. Both these meals were
analysed at the Imperial Institute, and the results are given below in
comparison with the figures recorded for uiidecorticated and decorti-
cated cotton-seed meal : — •

Pappea eapenx'ix Meal.

Figures
f(

Piecorded

Meal from

Undecorti-

Meal from Decorti-

ir

cated Seeds.

cated Kernels.

Cotton-Seed Meal.

(I)

(2)

Calculated

to corre-

(1)

(2)

Calculated

to corre-

0)

(2)

As

spond to 6 "0

As

spond to 10

prepared

per cent.

prepared

per cent.

Un-

Decorti-
cated.

at the

of Fat for

at the

of Fat for

decorti-

Imperial

comparison

Imperial

comparison

cated.

Institute.

with the
Cotton-
seed Meal.

Institute.

with the

Cotton -

Seed Meal.

per cent.

per cent.

per cent.

per cent.

per cent.

per cent.

Moisture

9-2

8-7

7-4

6-7

13-75

7-4

Crude proteins

16-3

15-4

38-3

34-5

24-62

42 - 37

Consisting of :

True proteins ...

13-0

12-8

28-7

25-9

—

—

Other nitrogenous

substances ...

2-8

2-6

9-6

8-6

—

—

Fat

1-0

6-5

0-4

10-0

6-56

10-16

Carljohydrates (by

difference)

01-9

49-1

42-9

38-9

29-28

25-86

Fibre

18-6

17-5

5-1

4-6

21-19

7-06

Ash

8-0

2-8

5-9

5-3

4-60

7-15

Nutrient ratio

1 : 3-3

1 : 4-2

1:1-1

1 : 1-8

1 : 1-67

1:1-16

Food units

95

103

140

150

107

157

762 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Explanation of Plate.

Fig. L— Shoot showing Female Flower

Fig. 2. — Female Flower.

Fig. 3. — Shoot showing Male Flowers.

Fig. 4.— Male Flower.

^^-^ PAP PEA CAPENSIS,
HARV, & SOND.

K. A. L,\NSDELL,

Division of Botany
Pretoria.

'' Pappea Capen8Is" Seed. 763

The above figures indicate that the meals from the whole and
decorticated seed of Pappea capensis have a fairly good nutritive
value, though they are inferior to the corresponding products obtained
from cotton seed.

The Pappea meal contained no alkaloid or cyanogenetic glucoside,
but a saponin was present which gave the meal a slightly bitter
flavour. Emulsification and frothing tests were made with the meal
in comparison with tea-seed cake and Bassia longifolia meal, and
the results indicated that the Pappea meal contained a much smaller
amount of saponin than these materials. The meal could, however,
not be recommended as a feeding-stuff until practical trials have been
carried out to ascertain whether it is harmless.

If the meal should prove unsuitable for use as a feeding-stuff it
might be employed as a manure, but as the meal from the undecorti-
cated seed contains only about 2.6 per cent, of nitrogen and 0.7 per
cent, of phosphates (calculated as Po^l-) it would realize only a low
price in normal conditions. Rape-seed cake, which contains about
5 per cent, of nitrogen and 2.5 per cent, of phosphates, was sold in
pre-war times at about £2 per ton in the United Kingdom.

Coviviercial Value. — Samples of the seed and oil were submitted
for valuation to oil-seed crushers, who stated that the oil was not
suitable for edible purposes, and could not be rendered suitable by
any of the ordinary refining processes. The oil would, therefore,
have to be regarded mainly as a soap-making material, for which
purpose its value under normal conditions would be about equal to
that of cotton-seed oil, which, in ordinary circumstances, is worth
about £25 per ton in the United Kingdom, although it is at present
quoted at £1.10 per ton.

The market value of the seed will depend to some extent on
that of the residual meal, but the oil crushers stated that assuming
the residual meal to be of no value they were of opinion that these
Pappea capensis seeds would be saleable in the United Kingdom at a
price rather higher than that of cotton seed if they could be offered
in commercial quantities. In the present abnormal conditions the
seeds might realize as much as £30 per ton in the United Kingdom.
Cotton seed is at present quoted in the United Kingdom at £28. 10s. to
£29. 10s. per ton, but before the war the usual price was only £7
to £9 per ton.

Remarks . — These Pappea capensis seeds give a good yield of oil,
which could be used for soap-making or as a lubricant, and they would
be of interest to oil-seed crushers in the United States if large
supplies are available. The residual meals from both the whole and
decorticated seeds are not such rich feeding-stuffs as the correspond-
ing products from cotton seed, and they have a slightly bitter flavour
due to the presence of saponin. Feeding trials will, therefore, be
required in order to determine whether the meals could safely be
used as a cattle food.

Information should be furnished to the Imperial Institute as
to the quantity of the seeds likely to be available annually in South
Africa, together with an estimate of the price at which they could be
offered in the United Kingdom. It will then be possible to decide
whether it would be worth while to arrange for a large scale trial
in order to determine the exact value of the oil and the possibility
of using the meal or cake as a feeding-stuff.

764 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Desciiiption of Plant.

Fappca capensis is a difjpcious shi'iib or a tree up to 10-'>() feet
liigli. Stem and branches usually asb-coloured, striate, and covered
with scars of old branches or leaves. Branches spreading, forming* an
almost flat symmetrical crown. Leaves simple, alternate, thick,
sbortly petioled, crowded at the ends of the branches, 1-3 inches
long-, about % inch wide, oblong or obovate, rounded at the apex,
tapering to the base, smooth, witli a prominent midrib, lighter on the
under surface, with entire revolute margins which are sometimes
toothed in coppice shoots. Male flowers panicled, small. Female
ficAoers in 5-20 flowered racemes. Fruit globose, about the size of a
small cherry, covered with fine brown liairs. Seeds brown, spherical,
shining.

Fappea capensis S. occurs abundantly in certain parts of the
Eastern Province, and other species are found in the Transvaal,
Rhodesia, and Namaqualand.

The species is commonly known as the Wilde Pruim, Wild
Amandel, Berg Pruim, Kambessie, and Oliepetten. The native name
is Ilitze (meaning a stone), and in Ehodesia is called The Indaba
Tree.

The fruits of this tree were known to the early colonists as
having a savoury flavour, and that a vinous beverage could be pro-
duced from them. The ivernel was known to possess an oil which was
somewhat purgative.

Mr. Harvey states that while large quantities of fruits are pro-
duced each year they are difficidt to collect, as wild animals and birds
(also stock) are very fond of them, and they are soon eaten after
dropping from the trees.

The above report from the Imperial Institute is sufficiently
encouraging- to pay more attention to this source of oil, aud any one
interested in this may apply to the Chief, Division of Botany, Pre-
toria, for any further information received by the Division.

The Poor White Problem.

Dr. Dunstan, the Commissioner of Mentally Disordered and
Defective Pei'sons, states in his report* of November, 1919, that the
l)rimary cause of i)overty is the inherent incapacity as a result of
feeble-mindedness to compete on equal terms with normal individuals.
" The psycliological side of the poor white i)roblem," he states,
" re({uires quite as much attention and investigation as any other."
He points out that no scheme for solving problems of poverty can
succeed until the feeble-minded liave been weeded out and treated
separately from the normal unfortunate poor who can make good.
" Settlement schemes, labour colonies, and similar undertakings will
succeed if the feeble-minded are eliminated, but not otherwise, for
these unfortunates so far reduce tlie value of the result as to make
the scheme a failure, or at least seriously impair its chance of success."

* Report of the Commissioner of Mentally Disordered and Defective Persons for the
Union of South Africa. U.G. No. 31— '20. Price 4s.

Calcium Cyanamide. 765

CALCIUM CYANAMIDE.

Its Agricultural Use as a Fertilizer.

Uv ('has. v. Jukitz. M.A., F.I.C.. AoTicultiual Research Chemist.

Of all the varieties of fertilizers, good, indifferent, and bad, that are
usually applied to the soil, there is no class more important, and, at
the same time, more costly, than what has been termed the nitrogen
group. The fertilizers belonging to this class have the property of
stimulating the active growth of the plant and promote the formation
of its leaf system. They increase the size and weight of the ears in
cereal crops, but in the case of fruit-bearing plants they cause loss of
fruit by producing abnormal development of leaf and woody stem if
applied with too great liberality. While, therefore, it is essential
to be discreet in the use of the fertilizers of this group, it will easily
be realized that they are of great practical value to the crop. TJn-
fortunately the advantages of a proper use of nitrogenous fertilizers
are often as little understood as the caution necessary to prevent a
misuse. This, however, applies not merely in the case of fertilizers
of the nitrogen group, but wherever fertilizing of any kind has to be
practised, and hence has arisen the oft-quoted precept regarding the
need of " manuring with brains."

From the time that the value of nitrogen compounds as fertilizers
of the soil began to be realized, up to recent years, agricultural
chemists have been continuously keeping their thoughts on the vast
i|uantities of

Nitrogen ix tjik An;,

and striving for some means of securing portion of that nitrogen and
liringing it into the soil for the benefit of the crops. That this could
he done for very many years Avithout affecting the quantity of nitrogen
remaining in the air was evident, because as much as seven tons of
nitrogen rest on every square yard of the earth's surface, that is to
say, in the air over the TJnion of vSouth Africa alone, there is no less
than lOj million of million tons of nitrogen.

For a long time there seemed to be no way of utilizing this
stupendous store of nitrogen, and then, almost unexpectedly, after
much patient research, one method after another was announced and
practically applied. Amongst these was the process based on the use
of calcium carbide, the substance which had become prominent because
of its power of producing acetylene gas by mere addition of water, and
so affording an easy and portable ilium inant for bicycles, motor cars,
etc. When calcium carbide is heated to near 1200° C, and nitrogen
is passed over it, chemical combination takes place, and cyanamide or,
moire properly speaking, calcium cyanamide, is produced. The
article, as commonly purchased, contains about 50 to 55 per cent, of
pure calcium cyanamide, and this is the article which has lately come

2(;

766 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

into use as a fertilizer. As a supplier of nitrogen it has the adxantage
over sulphate of ammonia that it Joes not render acid any soils
deficient in carl)onate of lime.

It may l)e said at once that caJcium cyauaiiiide, as such, is (_»f

Xo Use wiiatevek to Plants,

but in the soil it slowly breaks up, and eventually compounds are
formed from it which are of distinct value to the plant. The ap})lica-
tion of calcium cyanamide to the soil is not without risk to the crop,
and in more than one way. As in many other cases, when a new idea
is introduced people do not take to it at once, but when once its value
heg-ins to dawn on them they fly to the opposite extreme and misuse
it or apply it in excess. After the first introduction of chemical
manures they speedily fell into disfavour simply because they had
been applied injudiciously or ig-norantly and brought disaster. This
is no arg-ument against the use of calcium cyanamide, but means
merely that it must be used with circumspection, and with brains.

Calcium cyanamide, as above remarked, breaks up in the soil.
This is due to the action on it of the soil water, and dicyanamide, a
substance poisonous to plants, is produced. The dicyanamide in turn
also decomposes, and ammonia is formed, with subsequent nitrifica-
tion. When first applied, therefore, calcium cyanamide is poisonous
in its action, but this effect slowly passes away. It follows, naturally,
from this that cyanamide must be applied some time before sowing-,
otherwise it v/ould prevent g-ermination of the seed. Hence, too, it
cannot as a rule be used as a top-dressing" when the young- crop has
appeared above ground. It has, nevertheless, been recommended foi'
cereals in this form. It must, in consequence, be looked upon as a
slow-acting" fertilizer.

The poisonous effect of cyanamide shortly after its a})i)licati()u io
the soil is not without its advantages. It is well known that heating-
the soil may increase the ultimate crop. A similar result has followed
the addition of such substances as carbon disulphide, naphthalene and
other g"ermicides, which destroy pests in the soil, not only such as
wireworms and others of that class, but also microscopic organisms,
whicl) may either injure the plant itself directly or indirectly by
destroying" the bacteria which aid it in its growth. Calcium carbide
has been used for such a purpose, and it is also easy lo see how similar
must be the action of the poisonous emissions from the cyanamide
when once it begins decomposing in the soil.

As far as the

Practical ArpnicATiON ,

Ihe effects, and the efficacy of cyanamide as a fertilizer is concerned,
there have been no investigations in South Africa, so that all our
information must be based on experiments carried on in other coun-
tries. Of some of these experiments I propose to give an outline, and
it will be seen m what respect their results are explained by the fore-
going remarks.

In Austria it has been found {Exp. Stn. Rec, vol. 33, p. 818) that
cyanamide retards the germination of both wheat and barley, particu-
larly the wheat, if supplied in proportions varying from one-tenth of
a ton to half a ton per acre. That, however, should not be regarded

Calcium Cvanamidr. 767

as condemnatory to the use of canamide, for other fertilizers may act
similarly. Large applications of nitrate of soda, for example, retard
the maturity of such crops as sugar beet. Cyanamide does the same,
and its addition does not result in as large an increase of sug-ar per
acre of beet as the addition of nitrate of lime or nitrate of soda.
When added immediately hefnre the sowing of the seed cyanamide
was found to liasten tlie development of l)eets (E.xp. Sfn. Fee, vol. o4,
V. 431).

Of course cyanamide sliould not be added in too larg-e (jUiintlties.
))ut then over-manuring of ony kind is apt to be harmful. It is con-
sidered ad\isable to limit the addition of cyanamide to GO 11). i)er ton
of a fertilizer containing half a ton of superphosphate.

The nltiinate action of cyanamide on vegetatioi] is virtually that
of ammonia and nitrates, for in the soil the cyanamide, in process of
time, becomes converted first into urea, then into ammonia, and
finally into nitrates, and these changes proceed more rapidly in
sterilized than in unsterilized soil.

In mixed fertilizers cyanamide causes reversion of the phosphoric
oxide, but no loss of nitrogen is involved. If such a mixture however,
is left to stand, its fertilizing value has been found to become less.
Again, it must be remarked, other materials cause similar reversion;
lime, for example, but lime is not for that reason discarded as a
fertilizer

A decidedly beneficial effect of cyanamide is that it retards
(lenitrification of other inorganic nitrogenous fertilizers, and so adds
to their durability '"while being itself also a nitrogenous fertilizer."
(Ej'p. Stn. Rec, vol 34, p. 220).

An injurious effect has been noticed on acid meadow soils which
are excessively damp (Exp. Stn. Rec, vol 34, p. 820), but this, too,
cannot be counted to the discredit of cyanamide.

C'yanamide has repeatedly been declared to possess a lower

FKirriLizTNG Value

than ammonium sulpliate or sodium nitrate as a constituent
of a mixed fertilizer, but it has been proved to be of special
value in increasing the yield of beets and potatoes, in which respect
it has been pronounced {Exp. Stn. Rec, vol. 34, p. 24), practically
equal to sodium nitrate, a mixture of cyanamide and sodium nitrate
being particularly recommended for all kinds of beet.

When used alone cyanamide has been recommended as a top-
dressing for grains but not for potatoes. In the latter case it gives
best results if harrowed in before planting. Hoffmann (Deut. Landw.
Presse, 1915, pp. 489, 490) has compared the value of cyanamide as a
i op-dressing with that of sodium nitrate and ammonium sulphate as
follows, as the result of exjjeriments (Exp. Stn. Rec, vol. 34, p. 622).

Sodium Ammonium

Nitrati'. Sulphate.

For rye 100 75.7

,, wheat 100 75.7

,, barley 100 77.1

' ,, oats 100 132.5

,, potatoes 100 85.0

Cyanamide.

72.9

79.1

80.1

82.0

62.2

7^>f^ Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

In tlie monthly Bulletin of Agricultural IntcJligence and Plant
Diseases for Febrnary, 1915, issued by the Inteinationol Institute of
Agriculture, several series of experiments with cyanamide and other
nitrogenous fertilizers are summarized, and the average results from
five experiment stations show that, if the nitrogen assimilated by
crops from nitrate of soda be reckoned as 100, that from sulphate of
ammonia is 78, and from cyanamide 65. In the March, 1916, issue of
the same Bulletin further experiments by Schneidewind are recorded.
He concludes that " stickstoffkalk " (which is virtually cyanamide)
may give much the same results as ammonium sulphate, hut is only
effective tf the weather is very dry during the chief gro\ring perwd .
In general, he admits its productive value is a litlle lower than that of
ammonium sulphate.

Even if its results are not quite as good as those of other nitrogen
fertilizers, calcium cyanamide is probably quite as profitahle in use as
those others, on account of its cheapness.

It has been estimated that cyanamide loses from 0.1 to 0.4 per
cent, of its nitrogen daily during storage, but experiments carried on
at Wye have shown that neither the moisture nor the carbon dioxide
of the air, nor both combined, could be responsible for this (E.rp. Stn.
Rec, vol 34, p. 724) and Monthly Bull, of Agric. Intell. and Plant
Diseases, May, 1915, p. 675).

In the foregoing remarks I have confined myself to cyanamide as
such, and liave not specially dealt with the question of its

Toxic Character

or that of any dicyanodiamide contained therein. The toxic nature
of dicyanodiamide should no more bar the use of cyanamide than the
fact that sodium perchlorate is apt to occur in nitrate of soda bars the
use of the latter as a fertilizer.

Dicyanodiamide is the prevailing form in which nitrogen is
present in granulated Norweg'ian cyanamide (lime nitrogen), and this
lime nitrogen has at least one advantage, namely, a less marked
tendency to revert the phosphoric oxide in superphosphate than the
more common (dusty) cyanamide (Exf. Stn. Rec, vol 35, p. 22).

It would appear that the presence of excess of dicyanodiamide
depends upon the process of manufacture, and as the expectation is
expressed that the nitrogen problem in the United States has the best
prospect of being met, as far as the agricultural requirements are
concerned, by the manufacture of cyanamide in that country (C. G.
Gilbert: vSmithson Inst, publication, vide E.rp. St/i. Rec, vol. 36,
p. 122), it is plain that there at least no fear exists of deleterious
effects resulting from its use. Moreover, even if the article now pro-
duced were not quite as suitable as it might be " it is only a question
of time " as Pranke remarks (Chem. Neu^s, vol. 100, pp. 20, 28; Journ.
Indus, and Eng. Chem., vol. 6, No. 5) until an ideal product is
developed and sold at the lowest prices. In the meantime, however,
the industry must have the support of the public.

If there were any well-g-rounded fear of harmful effects it does not
seem likely that calcium cyanamide would have the output that it has
already acquired. In 1904 the world's total production was 5000
tons; in 1909 it was 50,000; in 1914 it 275,000. In Canada, 'at the
beginning of 1916 oiip factory alone was turning out crude cyanamide

CAfA'lUM Cyanamide. 769

at the rate of soine tons per day, and " its prinoij)al use in this country
(America) is (to quote Pianke again) as a souice of nitrog'en in mixed
fertilizers." It is true that mucli of the cyanamide is converted into
ammonia, hut that is effected at a cheaper rate than that at wiiich ii
is possible to get ammonia from gas liijuor (Journal f ndus. (ind En().
('hem., vol. 8, p. KiO) and that is rather a recommendation foi- the
production of cj'anamide than otherwise.
As far as the

Poisonous Action

of the dicyanodiamide is concerned. Liechti and Truning-er
performed a series of experiments from which it appeared
that abnormal specimens of cyanamide, containing 7 per
cent, of nitrogen in the form of dicyanodiamide, affected injuriously
the yield of wheat grain and to a lesser extent wheat straw, as com-
pared with the normal cyanamide. (Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., vol.
35, p. 647, and Exp. Stn. Rec, vol. 36, p. 426). They found that
three months' storage of calcium cyanamide, in an atmosphere
saturated with moisture, converted the original cyanamide almost
wholly into dicyanodiamide, whereas during eight years storage in a
wooden box in a dry place no deterioration took place. Independent
experiments by Hager and Kern {Journ. Soc. Cherii. Jnd., vol. 35, p.
(S56) proved that cyanamide underwent no perceptible change during
seven months if no water was added ; there was very little immediate
change when 25 per cent, water was added, but in seven months the
dicyanodiamide had increased to 2.58 per cent. Wheii 50 per cent,
water was added profound changes took place, and the material set
to a hard, stone-like mass, which in 2h months contained 7.51, and
in seven months 9.17 per cent, of dicyanodiamide nitrogen. From
this it follows that calcium cyanamide which has got wet should be
used immediately, as otherwise it becomes converted into dicyano-
diamide.

I have above referred to the fact that Norwegian granulated
cyanamide contains dicyanodiamide. This may be due to the fact
that the granidated form is produced by the agency of water, a
method which Hag^er and Kern predict is not likely to succeed. In
1913 a granulated cyanamide was placed on the market made by
pressing damp cyanamide into briquettes, and this is no doubt the
method that is now used in Norway.

If the cyanamide be not thus g-ranulated its dustiness is apt to
produce a caustic action on the skin and mucous membranes, hence
the need of converting it into a non-powdery form.

Conclusion.

From what has been ascertained thus far, I am of opinion that if
proper care be taken in manufacture and storage no ill effects are to
be feared from the agricultural use of cyanamide, and I do not see the
slightest reason why, if manufactured in this country, it should not
l)e made good use of by our farmers.

If mixed with other fertilizers its incompatability with sulphate
of ammonia and with superphospiiate should be noted, but there is no
reason whv it should not be mixed with basic slag.

770 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

THE POULTRY YARD MONTH BY MONTH.

By J. J. JoRDAAN, Lecturer and Instructor in Poultry, Glen, Orange Free State.

November.

Breeding Pens. — The breeding pens should now he broken up.

Buns. — All the breeding pens should, if possible, he irrigated, and dug
over the following day at least 12 inches deep ; irrigated again, and after three
or four days redug and planted with a quick-growing plant : sunflower, mealies,
pumpkins, rape, or barley. Keep irrigating and cultivating until April or
May as conditions allow. Plant growth is the surest means of absorbing the
fowl manure and sweetening up the soil.

Male Birds. — Confine all males it is intended to keep for next season's
breeding in one run if large enough. To prevent them fighting, remove them
at night and place them all into one house, fairly dark. Feed and water them
in the house for four or five days, and then let them out one evening just before
dark. Wherever necessary remove the spurs from such birds before putting
them into the house. The operation is a simple one: cut a notch on top and
below the spur close to the leg, and with a sharp pruning shears cut off the
spur at the notches. Pour a little Friar's Balsam or sear with a hot iron to
stop the bleeding.

Table Poultry. — Place all the male birds it is desirable to dispose of along
with the culled cockerels, fatten, and get them ready for the South African
Christmas " chicken " trade. The hens are usually in good condition and fit
for killing at once ; prices are usually high at this time, so dispose of them as
soon as they stop laying.

Egg Production. — Some of the early hatched pullets will continue laying.
Give them a lil)eral allowance of meat meal to keep them at it, or they are liable
to go into a partial moult and stop laying until next spring. Continue preserving
all surplus eggs. A scratching shed for the young pullets will also help to
increase and keep up the egg output.

Cliickens. — Endeavour to remove the chickens to fresh runs and ground,
because there is nothing like it to promote growth.

Incuhation. — Examine all parts of the incubators, thoroughly disinfect the
machines, repair and replace any broken or missing parts, and store for next
season.

General. — Inland heavy rains may be expected. See that the runs are
well drained and that there are no stagnant pools of water about, or worms
will easily be contracted, especially by the young stock.

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.

November, 1920.

By H. B. Terry, Cert. R.H.S., Lecturer in Horticulture, School of
Agriculture, Potchefstroom.

All summer crops should l)e sown as soon as possible; temperature will rapidly
increase, and no further fear of frosts need be entertained. Do not neglect
to keep all crops well hoed or cultivated after rains. Transplanting, except
when on commercial lines, should be done towards evening, and the plants
well watered in.

The Vegetable Garden. 771

Asparagus. — Plenty of water is required to maintiiin tlie supply of young
growths for cutting. It is not advisable to cut too severely from recently
planted crowns. Seeds may now be sown to obtain new plants.

Artichokes. — The soil should be ridged up along the rows in a similar
manner to potatoes; this ensures heavy yields.

Bkans (Runner). — Growing crops should be well ahead now and in need
of no special treatment. Seeds may still be .sown this month; the best are
St. Fiacre, Scarlet Champion, Mont d'Or, Dutch Case Knife.

Beans (Dwarf). — As these are ready in eight weeks' time and the plants
stop producing unless constantly picked, further sowings should be made foi'
succession; use Sugar, Canadian Wonder, Burpee's Stringless, Golden Wax
Podded.

Lima Beans. — For a green vegetable these are delicious, and as a dry bean
they are invaluable in winter. Allow three feet between the rows and one foot
between each plant. There are two types, climbing and bush.

Beetroot. — Continue to sow for succession Red Globe, Eclip.se, and Egyptian
Turnip. These are quick-maturing, shallow-rooting varieties.

Carrots. — Sow quick developing sorts as Model, Horn, Oxheait. The rows
should be 15 to 20 inches apart, dependent upon method of cultivation. The
crop should be thinned early to allow for normal development ; if sown on
ridges large roots are obtained early.

Capsicum. — Young plants should be set out 2 feet 6 inches each way, not
closer; provide a short peg for each plant to prevent them being broken off
by the wind. These are also known as chillies.

Cucumbers. — A further sowing should be made towards the end of the
month to follow up previous crops.

Celery. — Make a good sowing to transplant in January.

Egg Fruit. — Transplant seedlings from .seed-tins : allow 3 feet apart each
way; when carrying fruit the plants may require staking to support them.

Lettuce. — All cabbage varieties may be sown now ; growth is rapid if
copious waterings are given. Let the rows be 12 to 15 inches apart. Neapolitan
is the quickest. All the year round Iceberg and Webb's Wonderful are also good.
Thin out at an early stage for salading.

Radish. — It is customary to sow the turnip-rooted varieties of radish with
the lettuce to save ground, and it is recommended, as the radishes are ready
and off weeks before the lettuce.

Melons. — Both Watermelons and Sweet Melons do best when sown in
November on the high veld. The soil should be well prepared, and the holes
or hills made at least 6 feet apart.

Onions. — Complete transplanting spring-sown onions; keep the soil clean
and not too loose; set the rows 15 to 18 inches apart. For producing pickling
onions choo.se a poor piece of land and sow thickly (not so thickly as to cause
the bulbs to rise out of the soil) such varieties as Queen, Bermuda, Silver King,
Bartletta. These should mature wher*^ sown.

Parsley. — Sow plentifully now and transplant into rows or borders for
winter use. Moss Curled, Triple Curled are suitable.

Pumpkins. — Sow largely of Boer Selected, Ironbark, Dundas, Large C'hee.se.

Squashes or Vegetable Marrow may be sown for succession ; use bush-
type, as these conserve space and yield heavier crops.

Sweet Corn. — Fortnightly sowings should l)e made according to require-
ments; Golden Bantam, Early Cory, Boer Bread, Maizena .should be drilled out
2 feet 6 inches apart and 1 foot apart in the rows. Keep down all suckers, as
these delay the formation of cobs.

Tomato. — Planting may now become general; for small gardens it is as
well to purchase a few plants from seedmen.

Potatoes. — Plant potatoes where opportunities did not occur last month.

772 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

NOTES FROM THE "GAZETTE.

Attention is drawn to tiie following matters of interest which appeared in
the Union Government Gazette :--

(Abbreviations: •■ Proc."' — Proclamation; '-G.N."' — Government Notice.)

Gazette.

No. Date. Items.

IOQ3 io/q/20 Professor E. Anderson (Transvaal University College); G. A.
Kolbe, Esq. (Orange Free State) ; and Colonel W. Arnott
(Natal) are appointed (among others) as members of the
Advisory Board of Industry and Science to advise on
Agriculture. (G.N. No. 1651.)

loyj io/Q/20 By Parliamentary resolution (Session 1Q20), and in terms of the
provisions of Forest Act, No. 16 of 1913, the piece of land
known as the Umnxesha Forest Reserve, Division of King-
williamston, has been withdrawn from the demarcated
for-sts area. (G.N. No. 161 8.)

1093 io/g/20 Mr. J. D. Borthwick, Assistant Principal Veterinary Surgeon,
has been appointed Acting Principal Veterinary Surgeon,
vice Mr. C. E. Gray, Principal Veterinary Surgeon, on
leave, as from 30th August, 1920. (G.N. No. 1619.)

To<)3 10/9/20 The area of Harkerville Forest, as described in G.N. No. 343
of 20/2/20, has, in terms of the Forest Act, No. 16 of 1913,
been declared a demarcated forest. (G.N. No. 1629.)

loyj io/() 20 Owing to partial prevalence of scab therein, the Minister has
ordenad that the District of Williston, as well as the area
mentioned in G.N. No. 1594 of 1920, and portion of Kenhardt
District be semi-protected areas, as provided for in G.N.
No. 1703 of 1919. (G.N. No. 1617.)

1093 10 9/20 All cattle in the District of Queenstown have to be dipped every
fourteen days (in the fourteen day dip), commencing three
months after 8th September, 1920, in manner prescribed b>'
G.N. No. 638 of 191 5. Cattle in the Gwatju Ward, how-
ever, shall continue to be dipped as provided for in G.N.
No. 551 of i()i6. (G.N. No. 1643.)

1093 10 () 20 In terms of ]3aragraph {a)^ Section 16. of the Stock Diseases
.\ct, the Minister has ordered that, after the expiry of three
months from 8th September, 1920, no cattle other than pure-
bred and grade cattle bearing the owner's distinctive mark,
shall be allowed to be moved within the District of Rusten-
burg unless thev bear the registered brand of the owner.
(G.N. 1644.)

1093 10 9 20 The compulsory dipping of cattle (1) ever\ five days (in the

1094 17 9'2o five-day dip) has been ordered for the Bizana Dis-

trict; portions of the Alfred, Entonjaneni and
Umfolozi Districts; for the areas specified in

io(j5 24 () 20 paragraph (c) of G.N. 1698; ard for portions of Umzimkulu

(Transkei), Umvoti, Babanango [paragraphs [a] and {h) of
G.X. No. 1799], and Willowmore [paragraph (r), G.N. No.

loijO i/io 20 -'799]; (2) every fourteen days (in the fourteen-day dip) for

the Mount Fletcher District, and for portions of Maclear: (3)
every seven days (in the seven-day dip) for the areas speci-
fied in paragraph [d), G.N. No. 1698, and Lydenburg [para-
graph (i), G. N. No. 1799]; (4) every ten days (in the
ten-day dip) for the areas specified in paragraph (e), G.N.
No. 1698; (5) every three days (in the three-day dip) for
portions of the B'arlDerton District. [G.N. Nos. 1647, 1698
(amended), 1756, 1799.]

Notes from the "■' Gazette." 773.

(Abbreviation-- : ••' Proc."- Proclamation ; "G.N." — Government Notice.)

Gazette.

No. Date. Itkms.

iog4 17 Q 20 Owing to absence on leave of Sir .Arnold Theiler, K.C.M.G..
Director of Veterinary Education and Research, the Assistant
Director, Dr. P. J. du Toit. has been ajipointed .-\cting
Director at Onderstepoort as from r^th September, !Q20.
(G.N. No. 1664.)

iog4 17 g/20 Compulsory dipping of sheep and goats, in terms of the Stock
ioq6 I 10 '20 Diseases Act and the Scab Regulations, has been ordered (i)

in the Districts of Fraserburg, Hopetown, Maraisburg,
Molteno, Tarka, Queenstown, Cradock, Pearston, l^tenhage,
Steytlerville, and Jansenville, within the period ist October
to 3Tst December, 1920 (G.N. No. i6q4) ; (2) for the Dis-
tricts of Ngqeleni and Libode (Transkei) within the respec-
tive periods ist October-joth November and [5th November-
31st December, 1020 (G.N. No. i6q6); (3) for the Districts
of Tsolo, Qumbu, Mount Frere, Mount AylifT, Mount
Fletcher, Matatiele, and Umzimkulu within the period ist
October-3ist December, ig20. (G.N. No. i8og.)

1004 '7 0 20 The Minister of Agriculture has ordered that three months
after 15th September, ig20, no permits for the movement of
cattle within the District of Pretoria will be issued other
than for cattle kept within the boundaries of a municipality
and subject to certain conditions, unless the owner has a
cattle dipping tank of his own at which his cattle are
being regularly dipped at specified intervals, or at other
tanks und^r conditions further outlined in G. N. No. 1697.

iog4 17 () 20 The disposal of Crown Lands by public auction is notified to
take place at 10 a.m. on 27th November in front of the
Court-house at Montagu; 10 a.m., nth December, in front of
the Court-house at Robertson; 10.30 a.m., 8th December, out-
side the Civil Commissioner s Office, Old Supreme Court
Buildings, Capetown; 2 p.m., i8th December, at Van Wijks-
vlei ; and 10 a.m., 18th December, in front of the Magis-
trate's Office at \^ictoria West. For further particulars see
G.N. No. 1711.

logs -4 Q 20 All stock brands registered under the Orange River Colony
Registration Ordinance, igi3, in the Free .State for the
quarter ended 30th June, 1020, are published in G.N. No.
1717.

Brands for horses, cattle, ostriches, sheep, and goats,
registered under the Brands Registration Acts, Nos. 12 of
i8go and 4 of i8g7 (Cape of Good Hope), for the quarter
ended 30th June, ig2o, appear in G.N. No. 1724.

rugs 24 g 20 Crown land, in the Division of .Albany, will be offered for
sale hy public auction in front of the Magistrate's Offices,
Grahamstown, at 10 a.m., on 5th January, ig2i. (G.N.
No. 1763.)

iog6 I 10/20 .\ Commission has been appointed to investigate and report
on the following : — Measures to prevent losses owing to
iog8 [5 10 20 drought; change of farming methods; improvements in

farming conditic ns ; indigency among the farming com-
munity in consequence of losses, and the production of
feeding by the cultivation of various grasses. The members
of the Commission are : —

H. S. Du Toit (Government .Agronomist — Chairman).
S. M. Gadd (Cape).
G. A. Kolbe (Orange Free State).

A. Stead, B.Sc, F.CS. (Grootfontein School of .Agricul-
ture).
R. \. B. Mussman, Secretarv.
(G.N. Nos. 1S05, 1871.)

774 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

(Abbreviations: " Proc." — Proclamation; "G.N." — Government Notice.)

Gazette.

No. Date. Items.

ioq6 1/10/20 Crown Lands in thj flumansdorp and Paarl Divisions will be
offered for sale by public auction respectiv2ly at Humans-
dorp in front of the Court-room at 10 a.m., 15th December,
and at Wellington in front of the Magistrate's Office at 11
a.m., 15th December, 1920. (G.N. No. 1806.)

ioq6 1/10/20 Applications will be received by the Department of Lands,
Pretoria, up to the 12th November, 1920, for the allotment
of certain Barberton holdings to be disposed of on lease.
Furter particulars to be had on reference to G.N. No. 181 1.

1096 I / 10 '20 The Department of Lands, Windhuk, will receive applications
up to the 9th November, 1920, for tlK> allotment of various
farms in the Windhuk district to be disposed of on lease for
a period of five yeais with option of purchase. For particu-
lars of farms and other conditions see G.N. No. 18 12.

SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE ON THE
OVERSEA MARKET.

Extracts from Report of the Trade Commissioner.

August, 1920.

Wool. — At the auction sales held on the 28th August, 5955 bales of South
African wool were offered. There was a large attendance of buyers, and
competition was much better than for the last mopth or two. This was not
reflected to any extent in increased prices, but a much better proportion of
sales were effected, and it was a welcome change from recent stagnation.
French buyers operated freely. Good, greasy wools of combing lengths were
most in request, and on these an advance of fully 5 per cent, was frequently
secured, but wasty wools of indifferent lengths showed no improvement. Snow
whites sold irregularly.

The prices as compared with the July series were : —

Current ■price.'; fer lb.

Snow white extra super, 5 per cent, dearer 6 id. to 8od.

Snow white super, par to 5 per cent, dearer .^Sd. to 6od.

Snow white medium, par to 5 per cent, dearer 36d. to 44d.

Snow white inferior, par to 5 per cent, dearer 26d. to 35d.

Grease combing, long, 5 per cent, dearer 2id. to si^d.

Grease combing, medium, par to 5 per cent, dearer isd. to 2od.

Grease clothing, light, par to 5 per cent, dearer i6d. to 22d.

Grease clothing, heavy, par to 5 per cent, dearer ... iid. to isd.

I gathered that the opinion held of the improvement is that the recent
demand was more or less of a momentary character, and due to certain branches
of the trade having of necessity tc secure sufficient supplies to carry them
on. It is, therefore, considered doubtful whether any further advance can
be expected in the near future. It is hoped, however, that prices for fine
class wools will remain at their present level. Supplies of this type of wool
at present are small. On the other hand, there are good supplies of coarse
wools, and prices for these are tending downwards. From opinions expressed
it is evident that the better prices obtained at the last sale must not be counted
upon too much as the tendency all round is for prices to decline. The
continental demand, fortunately, shows some signs of im.provement. It is

South African Produce on the Oversea Market. 775

scarcely necessary to state that the present labour troubles are adversely affect-
ing the market, and until a satisfactory settlement is reached buyers cannot
operate freely.

Mohair. — There has been practically no alteration in the mohair market
during the past month. The tone of the textile trade generally appears a little
more animated, but all buying is simply to cover the day's requirements.
Owing to the small outlet for mohair, transactions are stili few and far
between, and at prices favouring the buyers.

Hides. — Owing to the absence of demand the brokers decided to abandon
the raw hide sales, which were fixed for the lyth August. Piices throughout
the month remained unchanged.

Sheep Skins. — Auction sales were held en the 3rd September. 627,377
Cape sheep skins were offered, and 124,112 sold. The brokers report that the
collection, much of which had been previously offered, was fairly representa-
tive of the usual origins, and on the wholt: in fair condition, but many of the
combing wools were distinctly on the short side. There was a fair demand,
chiefly for export, for skins of really " extra long " staple, but a falling off
in bidding was always manifest, as the skins approached the '" long wool "
category.

Of 150,774 common Cape (glovers") sheep skins offered, 28,582 skins were
sold. Of extra large skins of standard selection there was no adequate repre-
sentation, but there is practically no change of value to record. For bye
shorts there was after the auction some exchange at prices representing a
reduction of about 20s. per dozen on previous nominal value.

Maize. — According to the Baltic F^xchange, maize is ruling very firm
owing to a good inquiry for near positions, helped b>' the strength of the freight
position and better Argentine options. A cargo of Rhodesian maize, approxi-
mately 4000 tons, has been resold at 80s. For parcels of South African No. 2
White Flat, 77s. 6d. to 80s. is about the nominal price offered for United
Kingdom and Continental ports. Parcels of La Plata shipping shipped made
60s. August-September and 67s. 6d. September-October.

Maize Meal. — There are buyers at £,\%. los., and possibly ^18. 15s. could
be obtained.

Kaffir Corn. — There is a good market for kaffir corn at about gos. per
quarter, but at the present moment no offers have been received from the
Union.

Beef. — The market is very difficult at present owing to the large quantities
of poor quality frozen meat in stoie. South African beef is worth approxi-
mately 5s. per stone (8 lb.) for hindquarters and 3s. for forequarters.

Pork. — The market is good for frozen pork, and thi- price to-day ranges
from I OS. to los. 3d. per stone of 8 lb.

Bacon. — This article is still controlled and supplies are on the small side.
Shipments from the Union would, therefore, be welcomed. The average price
recently paid for South African bacon was about 204s. per cwt. for Green
Wiltshire Sides in bales. Smoked baccn should on no account be shipped.

Eggs. — The old foreign egg connections are still missing, and the trade
is dependent chiefly on home supplies and Danish for best qualities, with an
occasional arrival of Chinese for lower grades. Later, Egyptian and Morocco
eggs and a certain quantity of cold stored Americans and Canadians will be
available. Trade has been bad during the past two months on account of
high prices and limited supplies.

Ostrich Feathers. — .Auction sales were held on the 6th and 7th September.
It will be remembered that at the auctions held in May last a heavy decline
was experienced, and it was decided to postpone further sales until September,
when it was hoped that an improvement would have taken place. These
expectations have only been partly realized, and the auctions just closed passed
off with less activity than had been hoped for. The most interesting feature
of the auction was the sale without reserve of 320 cases of western feathers,
part of which were very fine, and which met a fair demand. There does not
at present seem to be much demand from America, but Paris was fairly well
represented, and this, it is thought, augurs- well for the future fashions in
feathers. As regards prices, whites and feminas of good quality showed

776 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

practically no change, but seconds and thirds declined about ten to fifteen per
cent., whilst the common were much cheaper. Byocks were ten to fifteen per
cent, lower. Light spadonas were scarce, and sold well ; coloured, however,
were rather easier. Boos, blacks, drabs, and floss were much below the
average quality, and declined about 15 to 20 per cent, all round.

The total quantity offered was 1700 cases, of which 1000 cases were sold,
realizing /\Si,ooo. The next sale is fixed for 7th February, iq2i.

OVERSEA PRICES OF SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE.

Market Prices of South African Produce in the United Kingdom,

CABLKD BY THE TrADE COMMISSIONER, LONDON, ON THE 9tH

()(tobek, 1920.

U'ooL— Approximately 3000 bales free South African wool offered for sale
on 22nd September. Competition uncertain, and large quantities withdrawn.
No demand for best description Snow Whites, price 20 per cent, below last
sale rate; medium and inferior declined 15 per cent. Good demand for long,
greasy combings at 10 per cent, reduction, but medium and short greasies
declined 15 per cent. (Cabled 23rd September, 1920.) Prices show no change
since last cable, but markets have still lower tendency. (Cabled 9th October,
1920.)

Mohair. — Market unchanged.

Cape Hides.— Wet Salted, Is.; Dry Salted, Is. i^d. to Is. 5d. ; Best Heavy,
Is. 6d. per lb. nominal. Market dull.

Cape Merino Sheepskins and C:ipe (joat.skin.s. — Market dull; prices
unchanged.

Natal Wattle Burk. — Market dull; nominal value, £15 ground, £14 chopped.
Considerable stocks in hand.

Ostrich Feathers. — Market continues steady, but no alteration in prices.

Maize. — South African No. 2, White Flat, offered at 80s. Argentine quoted
at C2s. 6d. September-October shipments, 61s. 6d. October-November shipments.

Maize Meal, £18. 10s., but market very weak.

South African Baisins, in boxes, worth approximately £5 to £5. 5s. per
cwt., duty paid, but bags difficult of sale. Valencias, £6. 10s. to £7. Market
dull.

Market Prices for other Produce of Interest to South Africa.

Cotton. — Octol)er future, for week ended 1st October, highest 19.20; lowest,
16.30.

Cotton Seed. — Neglected. Bombay to Hull, September-October shipments,
October-November shipments, £15 sellers. Egyptian, of fair average quality,
new crops, to London, September-October shipments, £19. 10s. ; to Hull, £19. 5s.

Egsf.s.— Argentine, 34s.; Canadian, 34s., 35s.; Irish, 38s., 40s.; Danish,
39s., 42s.; English, 45s., 46s., per 120.

Bacor).— Canadian £10. 3s. ; American Wiltshire, £9. 5s. 6d. to £9. 12s. ;
Danish, £10. 8s. ; Irish. £14.

Crayfish. — Small stock. Quotations for goods to arrive, £5. 7s. 6d. to
£0. 10§., c.i.f. London, for 96 S-oz, flate.

Notes prom the Divisions. 777

NOTES FROM THE DIVISIONS.

AGHICUI/rURAL CO-OPERATION,

Thk month of Septeriilier liiis a^aiii |)i-ovf(l a very Inisy piMJod for tlie co-opera-
tive inaize societies in recci viii^ and providing storage accommodation for the
new crop, the bnlk of whicli lias now liecn delivered by the members.

Compared with tlie prices obtained by non-co-operatois, who, as a rule,
have to sell their maize immediately after reaping, when the market is generally
flooded, tlie prices for the previons season's crop realized by the societies on
behalf of their members were so satisfactory that they induced several hundreds af
farmers to enrol themselves as members of the older maize societies. In addi-
tion to this, many newly-established societies have recently commenced active
operations, so that, altogether, the turnover in maize this present season is
likely to be a record one.

Apart from the efforts of the central organizations in the direction of
closer co-operation in wool, wool-growers generally are displaying the keenest
interest in this subject. A very successful meeting was held at Wepener during
the month, consisting of representatives of several of the wool districts of the
western Orange Free State, and several further meetings were convened for
October in various wool centres of that Province for the purpose of forming
co-operative societies. There are still many difficulties to be overcome, but, as
the wool-growers are becoming alive to the necessity of introducing better
methods for disposing of their wool, the time cannot lie far off when they, also,
will be properly and effectively organized.

As the members of the Rustenburg Tobacco Society have now delivered the
bulk of their 1920 tobacco crop, it can safely be stated that the turnover of
this society during the current financial year will at least equal that of the
previous year, viz., 2,795,641 lb., or that even better results will probably be
achieved than in the previous year, when the society paid exceptionally high
prices to its members, and was in a position to add a sum of £8475 to its
reserve fund, which now stands at £29,997. 4s. 9d.

SHEEP.

Mr. J. J. McCall, Acting Principal Sheep and Wool Expert, travelled
extensively during September in the Bedford, Cradock, and Somerset East
districts, culling and mating stud sheep. He also attended the Bedford Ram
Fair for the purpose of selecting rams and advising prospective farmers.
Prices ruled high, and any animal showing exceptional quality was in demand.
One breeder realized up to £20. 15s. for his flock rams, while another averaged
£11 each for nearly 100 rams.

At the close of September rain had not yet fallen in the Albany district,
and a continuance of the drought will spell disaster for many farmers. Butter
was at famine prices, and milk unobtainable. The surrounding districts, how-
ever, though in need of more rain, are in a far better position, and all stock
are in a good condition. The lambing so far has been excellent; in fact, on some
farms it has been a record. In one flock of 400 ewes there were 40 per cent,
of ewes with twins.

The wool question is the burning topic amongst sheep farmers, and the
ultra-pessimistic reports from the coast add to the fears of a slump. The
last reports from Australia are. however, more encouraging, and. the papers
there promise sheep farmers a better outlook.

778 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

VETERINARY EDUCATION AND RESEARCH.

With the arrival of spring the work in this Division generally increases,
and continues to do so as the summer proceeds. The number of smears sent in
for diagonsis shows a steep rise. This increase in the number of deaths must
be attributed — apart from the ordinary di.seases which exact their toll all the
year round — in tlie first place, to poisonoufi plants which spring up with the
young vegetation. Farmers should be on the look-out for this, and keep their
animals away from those camps where Giftblaar and other poisonous plants
abound. The symptoms which these plant poisons produce are not very
characteristic; death generally comes on quickly, and treatment will, as a riile,
be too late. The post-mortem is practically negative. Death is usually vaguely
ascribed to Gall-sickness. The blood-smears show no changes at ail.

Anthrax and Blnckqunrter are still very frequent. There is no doub,t that
the former disease is gradually spreading over South Africa, and that it will
continue to do so as long as there are farmers who i-efuse to co-operate with the
Government authorities in their efforts to stamp out the disease. As long as
farmers refuse to report all cases of Anthrax immediately and to comply with
the regulations of the Veterinary Division, the disease will continue. Inocula-
tion alone will not remove it, valuable though this measure may be in pro-
tecting individual aninuils. Experiments are being carried out in this Division
to improve the present method of inoculation.

Blackquartcr (Qiuirter Evil, Sponsziekte) has been a cause of complaint for
some time. It woukl appear that a particularly virulent form of the disease
has been prevalent this year. The strain of Blackquartcr bacteria that was used
to produce oiir vaccine does not seem to have been strong enough in all cases
to protect animals against the natural infection on the veld. More potent
strains are now being collected from various parts of the country, and it is
hoped that the vaccine to be issued in future will give general satisfaction.
Experiments are also being carried out with a view to substituting a liquid
vaccine for the powder now in use. One point in regard to Blackquartei-
is often lost sight of by farmers, and that is that when the disease breaks out
the animals should at all costs be removed from the infected camp, otherwise
the inoculation cannot be expected to yield good results.

Blue-tongue can be expected at any time now that the rains have set in.
The Division has been very busy preparing vaccine, and there are more than a
million doses on hand ready for issue.

Horse-sickness will also soon make its appearance. Farmers are continually
asking us to do the inoculation for them at the laboratory. They are perfectly
willing to face the risks attached to the inoculation, and say they would rather
have two salted horses than three susceptible ones. It is hoped that it will
be possible to do this on a small scale in the near future. The greatest difficulty
to be overcome is stable accommodation. A stable is being erected for the
purpose, and, when completed, a beginning will be made with the inoculation.

The issue of liedwater vaccine has been causing the Division some trouble.
There are at present only six heifers providing practically the whole of South
Africa with vaccine. An order for ten more imported heifers was placed over
fifteen months ago, but so far it has been impossible to procure suitable animals.
It is hoped, however, that the difficulty will soon be overcome. Most farmers
are aware that the Redwater and Gall-sickness vaccine will not keep for more
than a few days. It is absolutely imperative, therefore, to obtain the vaccine
in the quickest way possible and to inoculate immediately oa arrival. Hence
it is very advisable to order the vaccine from the nearest Research Laboratory
(Onderstepoort, Pietermaritzburg, or Grahamstown).

'The Wire-worm Remedy issued by this Division seems to give general satis-
faction. Most of the complaints about worms in sheep that reach us now
refer to the nodular worm disease. A considerable amount of experimental
work is being carried out on this parasite at the present time, but no very
successful method of treatment has yet been found. In the meantime preventive
measures have to be resorted to. An article on this subject by Sir Arnold
Theiler will appear in the Journal in due course.

Outbreak of Animal Diseases in the Union.

779

TOBACCO AND COTTON.

The Chief of the Division (W. H. ScherflBus) and Assistant Chief (J. du P.
Oosthuizen) completed their tour of lectures scheduled for September. The
entire trip was a complete success, lectures at sixteen different localities in the
Rustenburg District being given. The average attendance at each meeting was
twenty. Judging from the keen interest displayed at every meeting, there is
likely to be a big increase in the amount of land planted to tobacco and cotton
during the coming season. At the lectures farmers were given an opportunity
of asking questions, and they made good use of it. Most of their questions
pertained to methods of planting and culture, harvesting, insect troubles, and
kinds of fertilizers suited to these crops.

At the Experiment Station the planting of cotton and the preparation of
tobacco lands aie now in progress. The newly appointed itinerant officer at
Barberton, Mr. Worrall, was fully occupied during September visiting farmers
and attending agricultural meetings.

In the Turkish tobacco area, the itinerant officer, Mr. Stella, has been kept
bus.y visiting the various farmers and advising them in regard to methods of
handling their seed-beds and preparation of land for the crop. The Manager of
the Tobacco Station, Mr. Koch, is planting both his experimental plots and
general crop. The same work is in progress at the Mariendahl farm for
returned soldiers.

A meeting of the tobacco farmers at Piet Retief for the 25th October has
been arranged, at which the Chief of the Tobacco and Cotton Division and on(>
of the Government entomologists will be in attendance, to arrange a series of
spraying experiments with the object of controlling the tobacco beetle, which is
doing so much mischief in that district.

OUTBREAKS OF ANIMAL DISEASES IN THE

UNION.

September, 1920.

■a

Tot a

1 No. of Outbreaks.

c3

.^

Disease.

Is

a,

O

a
H

During

September.

1920.

During

August,

1920.

From If-t

April, 1920.

to 30th Sept.,

1920.

East Coast Fever

4

fi

_

_.

]

11

14

121

Mange

15

1

r^T

—

5

7H

()H

22(1

Anthrax

60

12

s

89

^0

149

165

799

Dourine

—

—

7

—

—

7

5

27

Glanders

—

1

7

—

—

8

4

18

Epizootic

Lymphangitis

—

—

()

—

—

6

-,—

9

Tuberculosis ...

—

2

2

—

— ■

4

—

fi

Swine Fever ...

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

780 Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

RECENT AGRICULTURAL LITERATURE.

By Paul Ribbink, Librarian, Department of Agriculture

1— UNION GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS.

A. — Department of Agriculture.

Uiulhtina (ibtaituihlf jrom ilie Department of Agriculture, Pretoria.)

Number of
Price per copy. Puhlication.

Gratis. The Conipositiun of Natal Wattle Bark (Thiid Article), Bulletin No.
by C. O. Williams, B.Sc, A.R.O.S. 1/1920.

•Sd. Prieklv Pear as a Fodder for Stock, by Clias. F. Juritz, Science Bul-
M.A., D.Sc. * letin No.

16/1920.

B. — Miscellaneous Reports, etc., of Interest to Farmers.

(Ohtainahle from the Government Printer, Pretoria.)

OS. Od. Official Year Book of the Union of South Africa, No. 3, S.P. 14.

1919.

II.— THE AGRICULTURAL PRESS OF SOUTHERN AND TROPTCAL

AFRICA.

Selected Articles.
Die Boer (Byvoegsel tot De Volkstem), Pretoria.

10/9/20 Hogeveldklimaat vs. Zeeklimaat, deur Medicus.

24/9/20 Vrugtekwekerij in Suidafrika, lesing deur I. Tribolet. 't Zwai'te

Gevaar : III, deur P. J. Wannenburg.
1/10/20 Setlaarts in Australie, deur F. T. Nicholson.

Die Boerevrouio (Posbus 984, Pretoria).

9/20 lets oor Bye en Heuning, deur G. R. von Wielligh. Die Voeding
van Klein Kinders, deur Dr. A. F. Cleaver. Oor Dahlias.

Farmers' Advocate, South African (P.O. Box 247, Bloemfontein).

9/20 A Constructive Agriculturist, Mr. F. B. Smith. What the
Agricultural Department has done. Drv-land Farming in
Utah, by H. W. Turpin.

The Farmers' Journal (Nairobi, B.E.A.).

19/8/20 Cattle Dip Control, by A. C. Barnes. Coffee Die-back. Veterinary
Report for June, 1920. System of Book-keeping for Farmers.
26/8/20 Pigs and Prices, by Lt.-Col. W. K. Tucker. Flax Culture.
Retting. Gall-sickne.ss {Anap1a.<^mosis). Flax-scutching Revolu-
tionized.
2/9/20 Flax-growing and its Future. The Progress made by the East

Africa Flax Associanun, by A. Vincent. Basket-making.
9/9/20 Inquiry into the Life-history of the Coconut Beetles, by F. \V.
Dry. The Selection and Use of Agricultural Machineiy, by
Wiii. D. MacDonald.
16/9/20 The Rossi Process of Flax-retting.

The Farmers' Weekly (Bloemfontein).

8/9/20 Birds and Boys, by F. W. Fitzsimons. Showyards in South

America, by Dr. E. A. Nobbs. .
15/9/20 The Great Scottish Show.
22/9/20 Cattle Markets in South America, by Dr. E. A. Nobbs. Sugar

Production, by Nevison.
29/9/20 Internal Combustion Engines. Birds and Food, by F. W. Fitz-
simons.

Recent Agricultural Literature. 781

— ^_

VVic Indepe7ident (Salisbury, Rhodesia).
•5/9/20 Veld Pastures, by F. Eyies.
10/9/20 Wheat : Advice on Culture.
24/9/20 Soil Moisture, by F. Eyles.
1/10/20 Hints on Brickniaking, by G. T. Dyke.

Dir lAindhouwer (Posbus 1035, Pretoria).

15/9/20 Bolsjewisme en dii- Russiese Boer. Verboue van Taljak. Verboue

van Lynsaad. Die Wol Industrie.
.■<0/9/20 Grondbeniestin-i, deur Dr. B. de C Marrband. Gekondenseerde
of Hlikkies Melk.

Hir iMndbouw Weekblad (Posbus 267, Bloemfontein).

8/9/20 Sement en Konkreet (vprvolg). Landijouonderwys in die Skool
(vervol.g). Kaasmaak op die Plaas, deur Ed. O. C'hallis.
15/9/20 Wat is 'n Ko-operatiewe Vereniging? (vervolg).
22/9/20 Landbouonderwys in die Skool irnvolg). Koeiertverl)ouing, deur

G. J. Bosman.
29/9/20 Boereorganisasie Kongres, geliou te Bloemfontein, 15 Septenil)er
1920.

M in I'd iiH(/eii dm- l''iniinrirtsili(ifts-<U'.'<i'll.<ich(iff fiir Sui',1 ii-i'.sf<ifril,(i (I'ost-sacb
128, Windhuk, S.W.A.).
1/9/20 Der Orvvald von Omaruru, von W. Volkmann. Schau Omainru,
von Rosenow.
15/9/20 Der Regenfall in Gross-Namaland, von Dr. P Range. Milzbrand
Warnung, von A. Goodall. Der Shorthorn, von C. A. Pope.
Anaplasmose und Rinderzucht, von Dr. G. Schmid. Statistik,
Buchfiihrung und Farmerei, von Ph. Bender.

The NationnI Bank of South Africa, Ltd., Monthly Trade Bepnrt.

30/9/20 South African Business and Prospects. Crops and Live Stock.
South African Products.

South African Dairyman (P.O. Box 925, Durban).

10/20 Export of Butter and Cheese. The Work of Cow-testing Associa-
tions, by F. Joubert.

South African Farm News (P.O. Box 4860), Johannesburg).

9/20 Lessons of the Johannesburg Fat Stock Show. — Lessen van de
Johannesburg Vet Vee Tontoonstelling. Experts: Their Use
and Abuse.

South Africcrn Fruit drower and Smallholder (P.O. Box 3958, Johannesburg).
9/20 Citrus Growing in California, by Sir P. Fitzpatrick. Agriculture
in the ex-German Colonies, by F. H. Cooper. The Slug Cater-
pillar of Deciduous Fruit Trees.

Soutii African (hardening and Country Life (P.O. Box 3958, Johannesburg).

9/20 Hedges as they should be Grown. Carnation Growing in South
Africa, by A. G. Murray. Dahlias for Garden or Exhibition,
by W. Skevington.

South African Journal of Industries (Government Printer, Pretoria).

9/20 Cultivated Timber Trees: I, by T. R. Sim. The Water-power of
the Union of South Africa: II, by F. E. Kanthack, C.M.G.
The Prickly Pear: II, by Dr. Chas. Juritz. Pottery in the
Pretoria District. Destruction of Rodents: I, by W. F.
Schlupp. Advertising South Africa.

South African I'oultry Magazine (Bloemfontein).

9/20 Production and Handling of Eggs, by Utility. The Carnivorous
Animals of South Africa, by F. W. Fitzsimons. Feeding of
Poultry, by J. J. Jordaan.

South African Foultry Review and Small Holder (Johannesburg).

10/20 Wyandottes, by H. Moore. How Egg-laying Tests Benefit the
Poultry Industry, by Wm. A. Bartlet." The National Utility
Poultry Society of South Africa.

782 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

South African Sugar Journal (P.O. Box 925, Durban).

9/20 The Native Labour Shortage, by Mquieza. Premature Arrowing
of Sugar-cane.

The Sun and Agricultural Journal of South Africa (P.O. Box 634, Johannesburg).
9/20 Transvaal to Tangier: IV. The Peanut. South African Grain
Trade Association.

Sunday Times (Farmers' Supplement), Johannesburg.

12/9/20 Cultivation of Rhubarl), ))y H. B. Terry.

19/9/20 Judging Maize, by Boerseun.

26/9/20 Some South African Parasites, by R. Bigalke {rontinued).

Sterility, by A. Hodder, M.R.C.V.S.
3/10/20 Some South African Parasites (covtimied). Hou.ses Everlasting

in Pise, etc. Refrigeration on the Farm, by G. S. Cooper.

Sterility (continued).

IJT —SELECTED LIST OF BOOKS ADDED TO LIBRARY.

[Note. — The first number is that of the class to which the book belongs,
the last number is that of the book itself.]

(Jlasft No.

GENERAL.

017 Carnegie Institution. " Classified List of Publications of the Carnegie

Institution, Washington, 1919." No. 7067.
017 Lloyd, A. C. G. " Cape Peninsula List of Serials," Capetown, 1917.

No. 7070.
017 South African Railways and Harbours. "Catalogue of Books in the

Official Libraries at Johannesburg and Capetown," Johannesburg, 1920.

No. 7077.
050 Cory, G. E. " The Rise of South Africa," Vol. Ill, London, 1919. No.

7164.
110 Tauchnitz New Pocket Dictionaries : " Dictionary of Italian and English

Languages," Leipzig, 1920. No. 7088.
110 Wesley, J. E., and Stevens, Hills " Italian-English Dictionary," London,

19i4. No. 7086.
230 Hugo, I. J. " Karakter Tiepes van Kinders en HuUe Behandeling,"

Den Haag, 1918. No. 7076.
240 The Carnegie Institution, Washington. " Organization, Plan, and Scope,

with Articles of Incorporation and By-laws," Washington, 1902. No.

7075.
240 Petavel, J. W. " The Problem of Healthy Towns and Healthy Industrial

System," Calcutta, 1920. No. 7140.
290 Ministry of Munitions Raw Materials. Trading Accounts, with Reports

thereon to 31st March, 1919, of Raw Materials administered

during the War by the Surveyor-General of Supply at the War Office,

and subsequently transferred to the Ministry of Munitions, London.

No. 7105.
320 King, W. H. " Handljook of HydrauHcs," New York. No. 7099.
350 Macara, Bart., Sir Charles. "The International Idea in Industry,"

Manchester, 1920. No. 7129.
361 Davidis, H. " Practical Cook Book," Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1904. No.

7083.
380 " Derde Nederlandsche Jaarbeurs te Utrecht, Herinnerings Album, 1919,"

Den Haag, 1919. No. 7135.
380 " Tweede Nederlandsche Jaarbeurs, 1918, Herinnerings Album," Den

Haag, 1918. No. 7136.
380 Graadt van Roggen. " De Eerste Nederlandsche Jaarbeurs (Het Be-

zoek)," Utrecht, 1917. No. 7137.
380 Graadt van Roggen. " De Eerste Nederlandsche Jaarbeurs (Algemene

Indrukken)," Utrecht, 1917. No. 7138.
380 "Holland's Annual Industries Fair, Utrecht," Boekhoven Press, Utrecht,

1919. No. 7139.

Recent Agricultural Literature. 783

AGRICULTURE, LIVE STOCK, AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.

Class No.

400 International Harvester Co. "Miscellaneous Papers on Agriculture,"
Vol. I-V, Chicago. N.D. No. 7156.

400 Wickson, E. J. " Second Thousand Answered Questions in Californian
Agriculture," San Francisco, 1916. No. 7062.

400 Various Authors. " Farm Economy and Supplement," Toronto. N.D.
No. 7096.

411 Richardson, A. E. V. "Agricultural Education and Agricultural Develop-
ment in America," Melbourne, lOl.S. No. 7066.

420 Donaldson, H. "The Rat," Philadelphia. 191.5. No. 7079.

430 Vaughan, H. AV. " Types and Market Clas.ses of Live Stock."

430.7 " Poultry, Pigeons, Ostriches, etc.," C'ohiml)Us, Ohio, 1919. No. 7095.
430.7 Uippincott, W. A. " Poultry Production," Philadelphia, 1916. No. 7081

430.7 Menegaux, H. "L'Flevage de L'Austruche," Paris, 1913. No. 7121.

431 Ernst, W. Mohler, and Others. " Text-l)Ook of Milk Hygiene," London,

1914. No. 7117.

432.1 Dadant, C. P. " First Lessons in Bee-keeping," Hamilton, Illinois, 1919.

No. 7103.
432.1 Miller, Dr. C. A. " 'I'housand Answers to Bee-keeping Questions,"

Illinois, 1919. No. 7085.

450.8 Collins, Hoare. " Chemical Fertilizers and Parasiticides," London, 1920.

No. 7087.
450.8 " The Chilean Nitrate of Soda Propaganda," Maitland Street, Bloemfon-

tein. " What Nitrate of Soda is," 1920. No. 7072.
462 Maiden, J. H. " A Manual of the Gras.ses of New Soutli Wales," Sydney,

1898. No. 7131.
465 Beaumont Roberts. " Union Textile Fabrication," London. N.D. No.

7125.
465 Mitchell and Prideaux. " Fibres used in Textile and Allied Industries,"

London, 1910. No. 7124.

465 Wilson, W. B. " Cotton Growing in South Africa," Durban, 1!)18.

No. 7134.

466 Japan, Department of Agriculture. " The Statistical Tables of Formosan

Sugar Industry," Tokio. N.D. No. 7078.

466 The Chilean Nitrate of Soda Propagarida. " The Cultivation of Uba

Sugar-cane in South Africa," Bloemfontein. N.D. No. 7071.

467 The Chilean Nitrate of Soda Propaganda. " Die Bo-bemesting van

Graansoorte, Kaapstad." No. 7074.

471 Boyle, J. G. " Vegetable Growing," Philadelphia. No. 7082.

472 Hedrick, U. P., and Others. " The Cherries of New York," Albany,

1915. No. 7106. " The Peaches of New York," Albany, 1915. No.
7108.

472 Hedrick, U. P., and Others. "The Plums of New York," Albanv, 1911,

No. 7109.

473 Hedrick, U. P., and Others, " The Grapes of New Y^ork," Albanv, 1908.

No. 7107.

474 Wickson, E. J. " Californian Garden Flowers," San Francisco, 1915.

No. 7061.
477 Howard, A. " A Manual of the Timbers of the World," London, 1920.

No. 9093.
480 Blackburn, Samuel. " Problems in Farm Woodwork," Peoria, Illinois.

N.D. No. 7069.
480 Roehl, L. M. " Agricultural Woodworking," Milwaukee, Wisconsin,

1916. No. 7080.

483 Etchevery, B. A. " Irrigation Practice and Engineering," Vols. I, II,

III, New York, 1915. No. 7060.
483 Schwartz. " The Kalahari," Capetown. No. 7126.

SCIENCE GENERAL, PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, ETC.

541 Millikan, A. R. " The Electron," Chicago, 1917. No. 7097.
544 Gardner, A. A. " Paint Technology and Tests," New Y'ork. No. 7101.
544 Hinchley, J. W. " Chemical Engineering," London, 1914. No. 7159.
544 Vosmaer, H. " Praktisch Werktuigkundig Hulpboek," Rotterdam,
1913. No. 7127.

784 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

(llas.s No.
524.1 Andes, L. K. " Oil Colours and Printing Inks," London, 1903. No. 7091.

544 Furnell, John. " Students' Handbook of Paints, Colours, Oils, and

Varnishes," London, 1903. No. 7122.
544.1 Martin, G. " Animal and Vegt'talile Oils, Fats, and Waxes," London,
1920. No. 7098.

545 Wiley, H. " Beverages and their Adulterations," London, 1919. No.

7089.
550 Chamberlin, C. T. " The Origin of the Earth," Chicago, 1916. No. 7100.
550 Johnston, J. P. "The Mineral Industry of Rhodesia," London, 1911.

No. 7120.
514 Finch, J. H. " Topograithic;'.! Maps and Skotcli M;ipi)ing,"" N<'\\ ^'()rk,

1920. No. 7092.
514 MacCullough, Ernest. " Pia<i ic:il Suivcving," New Ydik, 1919. No.

7115.
514 Williamson, James. "Surveying and P"'iel<i ^^'ork," London, J915. No.

7116.
520 Jaeger. F. M. " fjcctiiies on lli.- I'rinciplcs ol SvMinH'frv," Amsterdam,

1917. No. 7128.
540 Dreapei-, W. P. "Notes on Chemical Rcscjuch," 2n(l Edition, i-ondon,

1920. No. 7160.

BIOLOGY, ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, MEDICINE, ETC.

620.7 Wilks, Rev. W. " Report on Genetics," London, 1907. No. 7065.

630 Reese, A. M. " Outlines of Economic Zoology," Philadelphia, 1919 No.

7094.
630.1 Carrington, H. " Vitality, Fasting, and Nutrition," London, 1908. No.

7123.
630.1 Sherrington, C. S. "Mammalian Physiology: A Course of Practical

Exercises," Oxford, 1919. No. 7146.

630 Howes, G. B. " Atlas of Practical Elementary Zoology," London, 1902.

No. 7084.

630.6 Balfour, Andrew. " War against Tropical Disea.se," London, 1920. No.
7167.

630.6995 Bandolier, Dr., and Roepke, Dr. " Tuljerculin in Diagno.^is and Treat-
ment," London, 1913. No. 7118.

630.6995 Riviere, Clive, and Morland. " Tuberculin Treatment," London, 1913.
No. 7119.

631 Dobell, Clifford. " The Amoebae Living in Man." London, 1919. No.

7104.
640 Junod, H. A. " The Life of a South African Tribe," I iuid II, Neuchatel

(Switzerland), 1912 and 1913. No. 7145.
650 Adami, J. G. " Medical Conti-ibutions to the Study of Evolution,"

London, 1918. No. 7132.

650 Van Noorden. "Metabolism and Practical Medicine," Vols. I, II, III,

London, 1907. No. 7102.

651 American Medical Association . " Useful Drugs," Chicago, 1920. No.

7064.
651 Hatcher, R, and Wilbert, M. " The Pharmacology of Useful Drugs,"

Chicago, 1915. No. 7068.
651 MacGuigan, Hugh. " Experimental Pharmacology," Philadelphia, 1919.

No. 7063.
651.3 Sayre, L. A. " Manual of Organic Materia Medica and Pharmacognosy,"

Philadelphia, 1917. No. 7147.
651.9 Vaughan, V. C. " Poisonous Pi-oteins," London, 1917. No. 7161.
671 Drude, Dr. Oscar von. " Die Okologie der Pflianzen. Braunschweig 1913."

No. 7143.
671.6 Cockayne, L. " New Zealand Plants and their Story," N.Z. 1919. No.

7144.
674 Smith. B. A, " Poisonous Plants of all Countries," London, 19d4. No

7058.

Schools of Agriculture and Experiment Stations. 785

AT THE SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND
EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

September, 1920.

CKDARA, XATAI.

ilimatic. — The rainfal! for ihv ])eriocl 27th August to 26th September,
inclusive, was .63 inches. The mean maximum shade temperature was 72.61°
F., and the mean minimum 4<S.4i° F. Th? highest maximum shade temjiera-
ture 87.5° F. was registered on 2Qth August, and the lowest minimum 39.0°
!■"., on 5th September. Tlic weather has been fine during the greater part of
the month. Northorh' winds prevailed, with occasional south-cast winds.
Flight rain fell on a few days.

Crofs. — The oats are making fair growth ; they are slightly affected by
rust, and are retarded by the prolonged drought. For the latter reason the
vetches are also backward. Paspalum and sheep's burnet are showing up well.
The veld grasses are showing green over the burnt-off areas, but badl\ need
rain.

Field Ex-periments. — The cocksfoot grass proved frost resistant during
the winter, but is now showing the effects of the drought. Rotthaelia
cow.fr easa is maintaining steady growth and resisting the drought very well.
Sheep's burnet has proved frost and drought resistant. A course of co-opera-
tive experiments carried out over a period of five years has proved the value
of cowpeas in a crop rotation. A series of experiments carried out to demon-
strate the value of soluble phosphates with and without lime, has provided very
useful data, of which details will be published later.

Stock. — Four calves were born during the month, one Ayrshire heifer from
dam iQ years old, two Friesland heifers (twins from F. 13), and one Fries-
land bull calf. One case of gallsickness was treated successfully. Grazing
is at present very poor; rain is badly needed. A young Friesland bull,
" Dunovan John Bull," a grandson of " Admiral Beatty," was purchased for this
institution at the Bloemfontein Stud Stock Sales, and it is hoped will prove
a valuable addition to the Friesland herd.

Chonical Laboratory. — The leaves and twigs of three species of bamboo
were analysed at the instance of a .'armer who found that they were eaten with
great avidity by stock during the winter when little green food is available.
The results of the analysis show that the twigs have no great feeding value,
but the leaves show up very favourably in this respect. The number of food
units present in the leaves and twigs combined is almost identical with the
amount found in the same weight of dry matter in ordinary veld grasses
growing on this farm. A wild chicory root examined was found to contain
an abnormally high percentage of sugars, there being nearly 4g per cent, of
sucrose in the dry matter and about 50 per cent, of total sugars.

Apiculture. — European foulbrood and sacbrood have recently reappeared
in some of the weaker rolonies. Dequeening a diseased colony for ten days,
and then requeening with a vigorous voung Italian queen is the remedy for
Furopean foulbrood now recommended by the American authorities. Italian
(jueens, however, are not obtainable in South Africa. Hence, queen rearing
from the best stocks in the apiary is being carried out, and the diseased hives
will be requeened with young queens of the yellow-banded African race of bees.
It will be interesting to note whether dequeening and requeening after an
interval will effect a cure under these conditions.

Students. — There were fifty-seven probationers in residence at Cedara at
the beginning of the month. Three were transferred from W inkle Spruit to
Cedara. Nine have left, seven of whom secured positions on farms, one was
allotted a Government holding, and one was discharged. Fifty-one proba-
tioners are in residence at present at Cedara and two at Winkle Spruit.

'86 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

ELSENBURG, MULDERS VLEI, CAPE.

CUmaiic. — The rainfall during the month was exceptionally heavy, 5.34
inches being recorded, as against the normal average of 2.68 inches. Most
of this rain fell l>etween the nth and 17th instant. The maximum tempera-
ture was 82° F. on the 22nd instant, and the minimum 43.5° F. on the 4th.

Field, Operations, Crops, etc. — A further quantity of rape seed was sown
for summer grazing, the total area under this crop at present being 80 acres.
The main " braaking " cperations are now completed, an area of 250 acres at
Elsenburg and Mariendahl being ready for next season's cereal crops. The
cereal crops are looking very well on both the farm lands and the experimental
section, the " variety ' plots making a particularly fine show. Approximately
7000 vines were planted at Mariendahl during the month. A number of apple
trees of several varieties weie planted in the orchard .it KUenburg, also a
number of olives, and in the nursery a (juantity of prune seed and olive
cuttings.

Lii'e Stock. — A further improvement in condition of all live s^ock is notice-
able. .All the cattle to be offered at the annual sale were submitted to the
tuberculin test with negative results.

A great increase in egg production is observed in the poultry section since
the installation of the intensive house. The average production is now 100
eggs per diem, and the fertility of the eggs of birds mated intensively appears
to be excellent.

Staff. — Mr. E. Baker, Lecturer in Botany, resumed duty at Elsenburg
during the month after six months' leave of absence.

It is with deepest regret that the death on the 24th instant of Mr. W. O.
John, Lecturer in Poultry, is reported. The institution and the poultry indus-
try in particular suffer a severe loss in his untimely decease.

GLEN, ORANGE FREE STATE.

Climatic. The weather was comparatively warm and dry, and high winds
have been prevalent. On the 4th and 5th .74 inch of rain was registered.
Frosts occurred on the nights of the 3rd, 14th, 24th and 2Sth.

School. — The total number of students in residence during the month was
64, consisting of 14 seniors, 38 iuniors, and 12 one-year students.

On the i8th, 26 students of the Normal College, Bloemfontein, visited the
institution, and were given lectures and demonstrations in liorticulture and
animal husbandry.

Farm. — Some of the winter cereals are coming into ear already, and if any
late frosts should occur considerable damage will ensue.

The fields intended for summer crops are being harrowed and put into a
good tilth so that when the spring rains arrive the seed beds would require
very little extra preparation. Some lucerne fields as well as some of the oat
crops were irrigated during the last week, and ought now to survive without
further application.

Live Stock. — The annual sale of pure-bred stock was held on the i4tli
instant whtjn the whole of the Lincoln Red herd was disposed of, in addition to
"the following animals : — 2 Percheron stallions, 3 Friesland cattle, 5 South
Devon bulls, 3 Berkshire pigs, 12 Large Black pigs, 13 AV-'anganella sheep, 6
Tasmanian sheep.

The stock offered for sale were in good condition, and the prices as a
whole were fairly satisfactory, and the amount of .£"3174. los. was realized.
The demand for pigs was keen, and the prices obtained were good.

The following stud bulls were aded to the herds during the month : —
1 South Devon bull, "George TIL"; 1 Friesland bull, "Sheltered Vale
Karel."

Educational Tours of Students. — On ist and 2nd September the senior
students attended the Beef Breed. Stud Sales, and on the 15th the Friesland
Stud Sales. On the 25th the senior students, accompanied Mr. Dormehl,
Conservator of Forests, to the Arboretum and certain plantations in Bloem-
fontein.

Schools op Agriculture and Experiment Stations. 787

Experiments. — The winter experiments with wheat, oats, and barley
promise well. The giound is being prepared for extensive summer crop
experiments. Variety tests with maize, beans, cowpeas, and other summer
crops will be conducted.

Horticulture. — The officer in charge of this section reports that the late
frosts during the month, unfortunately, killed the whole of a fine crop of
plums.

Various kinds of vegetable seed have been sown during the month.

(;rootfonteix, middelburc;, cape.

Climatic. — The maximum shade temperature was 88° F., with a mean
maximum of 71.2° F. The absolute minimum temperature was 26.5° F., with
a mean minimum of 38.5° F. Rain fell on two days with a total of 1.70 inches
for the month.

Sheep Section. — 175 Black Head Persians were purchased during the month
as an addition to our slaughter flock from which the hostel is supplied with
meat.

Mr. G. J. Schuurman examined the; stud sheep at this institution, and
passed one Wanganella ram and fifteen ewes and two Tasmanian ewes for the
South African Merino .Stud Book. He also examined the special sheep and
wool students in their final sheep iudging examination, and passed twelve out
of the fourteen entered.

At the annual stock sale on 25th August sheep realized excellent prices,
the top price being £ao<, for a Wanganella ram.

Shearing operations started on tne 15th September, students only being
employed on this work.

Horticultural Section. — Severe frosts on the 4th and 5th inst. killed the
blossoms on the early flowering varieties of fruit trees, demonstrating that
the planting of early flowering varieties is a somewhat risky procedure in this
area.

The rainfall of 1.45 inches on the 5th September has to a great extent
spoilt the irrigation experiments mentioned in last month's notes. The late
flowering trees promise a very fair crop of fruit.

Farm Section. — Owing to the good rains a very large amount of work has
been pushed forward. All land for summer crops, including mangolds, is
being prepared. Lucerne crops were irrigated, and the cereal crops are
promising exceptionally well. Stocks are also improving in condition

Chemical Section. — Investigational work was carried out in connection
with the suitability of certain calcareous soils for use in making dam walls.
Mr. Stead, the Research Chemist, has been appointed to serve on the Drought
Commission.

Coastal Co-operative Experiments. — The manurial and variety experiments
with cereals in the Uniondale and Humansdorp districts are very promising,
the growth being exceptionally good in the first-mentioned district. Lucerne
and numerious other varieties of seed were sown at Hankey and in the Sundays
River Valley last month. The germination of seed sown on experimental
plots at Hankey (Gamtoos River Valley) was good, and growth strong, whereas
the germination in the Sundays River Valley was very disappointing.

In all there are 268 experimental plots covering 4q acres at seven different
farms.

POTCHEFSTROOM, TRANSVAAL.

Climatic. — The evaporation for the month of September was very heavy.
The weather was overcast on several occasions, followed by desiccating winds.
No rain of any value fell until the night of the 27th, when .53 inch was regis-
tered. The minimum daily temperature varied from 5q.o° to 30.0°. The
absolute maximum shade temperature for the month was 87.5°, which was
reached on the 12th and 25th.

788 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Farm Section. — Sixty acres of oats and wheat, were irrigated during the
month. Winter cereal crops are very backward on account of tlie extreme
shortage of irrigation water. Fifty-four acres of lucerne lands have been
fertilized with superphosphate at the rate of 300 lb. to the acre. The shortage
of bedding has necessitated the cutting of further quantities of field grass for
this purpose. The mangold crop has been of great assistance in keeping stock
in good condition. Single roots of the Mammoth Long Red variety scaled 2^,
lb., and the average of a number of weighings of the larger roots amounted
to 17 lb.

Lk<e Stock. — The annual sale of live stock realized ^.'3614- iSS-.Qd. The
following are the average prices obtained for stock: — Horse stallions, £63;
Sussex bulls, ^162. us. lod. ; Friesland bulls, £ioS. i6s. id.; Hereford bulls,
/;68. 15s. 6d. ; Africander bulls, ^93. 6s.; Ayrshire bulls, £^2. 6s. gd. ; Wan-
ganella rams, stud, £-(). 5s. 6d. ; Wanganella rams, flock, £^o. 14s. id.;
Romney Marsh rams, /!i8. 4s. ; pigs, Berkshires, £y. 4s. ; pif^^s. Large Blacks,

^^Q. I2S. . , .

The prices realized on the whole are considered satisfactory, except in
the case of Wanganella selected flock and flock rams. On account of the large
number offered for sak and the few buvers, some of these rams did not
realize their full value.

Spring calving has commenced in the breeding herds. Fourteen calves
were boni during the month, one of which died from pneumonia. On
account of the diought cows have not much milk, and are being fed heavily.
Sheep are in excellent condition. They have run on lucerne and oats through-
out the month. One hundred and forty cross-bred Suffolk Persian lambs were
born during August and September, and are all doing well.

Experimental Section. — A large amount of maize, cowpea, and peanut
seed w-as distributed to farmers. The demand for seed maize and peanuts
was seven times greater than the available supply, and for cowpea seed twenty
times. The main obiect of this distribution is to supply the farmer with
sufficient approved varieties of cereals to enable him to produce for his own
requirements, and requests for seed for the main crop cannot be entertained.

A cetain amount of seed of promising varieties of crops such as soya
beans, cowpeas, and millets were distributed free to farmers for the purpose
of co-operative trials.

The maize ears submitted by the lads who took part in the maize com-
petition were entered in the juvenile section at the Witwatersrand Maize and
Fat Stock Show. \ report on the past year's competition is now being pre-
pared.

Varieties of potatoes, salt bushes, artichokes, and spineless cactus were
planted, and the wheat varieties were strangered and cleaned and the breeding
rows in the cage attended to.

Horticultural Section. — Light frosts were experienced during the 15th and
17th, and have, it is thought, done some damage to the fruit crop. Strong
winds were prevalent during the month, and made spraying a difficult matter.
Early blossoming pears were sprayed for codling moth. Thirteen rows of
diseased trees were grubbed out; the land under them will be dynamited and
prepared for replanting next year.

The apiary has been put in order for the coming season; stocks are
good, and the colonies seem prosperous.

Poultry Section. — The breeding season has now closed, and the breeding
pens are being broken up. The aim now is to stop laying and force an early
moult in 1921. The young stock are continuing to grow satisfactorily. The
demand for settings of eggs has been heavy. The birds in the egg-laying
competition have done veiy well. The quantity of eggs obtained during the
sixth period of the competition, iQth August to 15th September, exceeds that
of the previous period by 300.

In the Engineering Section the suction gas engine was fitted with brake
gear, and a test was run to determine the consumption of charcoal per brake
horse-power hour. The gas was also analysed, but showed too much oxygen
due to leakage of air into the producer.

School. — Four students for next years Diploma Course were admitted for
practical work only until the end of the current session. Five one-year
students in the Soldier Probationers' Course left the institution to start farming
operations of their own or with other farmers.

Staff : Appointments, Transfers, etc. 789

STAFF: APPOINTMENTS, TRANSFERS, ETC.

(1) Aguicultuke.

l/i)/2lJ F. J. r. (I. Kaai/: 'rraiisferred tiom tlie Department of .Jii.'>tic'e to this
Department as Senior Clerk in the Sheep Division.

lo/lt/2() r. J. du Toit : Appointed Acting Director of Veterinary Education
and Research during absence on leave and duty of Sir Arnold
Theiler.

21/9/20 (t. W. KJerck : Appointed Editor, Journal of the Department of
Agricultvre, as from 1st April, 1920.

(2) Agricultural Education.

27/8/20 Dawson, C. A.: Appointed Lecturer in Field Husl)andry and Experi-
mentalist, Potchefstroom.

20/10/20 Wolfe, H., Technical Assistant, Pietoria : Resigned to take up post
of Assistant Director of Agriculture, Tanganyika Territory.

4/9/20 Fuller, Mrs. E.: Appointed Matron of the School of Agriculture,
Grootfontein.

MOVEMENTS OF OFFU KHS.

.17;. /'. J. ihi Tail. Undei"-Secretary tor Agriculture, who has been on the
F'uhlic Service Commission of Inquiry f(;i 2^ years, returned to the Department
on the 14th October.

Mr. A. a. MirhaeUan. Principal Sheep and Wool Expert, returned to duty
ill the Sheep Division on ihe iilh October after an absence of eight months
;spent principally in Australia in connection with the sheep and wool industry.

(jovein nicnt Vetcnnani Siinjeon •/. Chalmers, who, until recentW, has lieen
in charge of the meat inspection at Durban, left on the 15th October for the
Argentine, where he has lieen sent by the Government to inquire into the system
of meat inspection in that country.

Domestic Science. — Miss M. van Duyn will be stationed in Pretoria, and
Mis.', a. Oo.'ithuiseji at the School of Agriculture, Glen, Orange Free State.

The Botanist at the Elsenburg School of Agriculture, Mr. E. Baker, returned
to duty on the 22nd September after a holiday of six months in England.

Dnnujht Commission. — Mr. Arthur Stead, Research Chemist at the Groot-
fontein School of Agriculture, has been appointed to this Commission. The Com-
mission propo.ses to hold the following meetings in the Orange Free State during
Novemljer : Bloemfontein (preliminary meeting of Commission), 12/11/20;
Bloemfontein meeting, 15/11/20; Brandfort, 17/11/20; Edenburg, 18/11/20;
Hoopstad, 20/11/20; BoshoflF. 22/11/20; .Jacobsdal, 24/11/20; Koffiefontein,
25/11/20; Fauresmith, 26/11/20; .Jager.sfontein, 26/11/20; LuckhofF, 29/11/20.

790

Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

MEAT STATISTICS.

I. — Retukn of Beef Inspected and Passed for Export, September, 1920.

Cattle.

Carcasses.

Place.

Inspected.

Rejected.

Passed.

Inspected.

Rejected.

Passed.

Durban

Pietermaritzburg
Pretoria
Johannesburg
Bloemfontein
Capetown ...
Port Elizabeth
Germiston ...

397
170

54
360

—

397
170

54
360

.397
170

54
360

7|

386f
170

54
352i

Total

••

981

—

981

981

18 963

Beef actually exported during the month of September, 1920 : Total, 13,723 quarters
(p,c Durban, 13,323 quarters ; ex Capetown, 400 quarters).

Total shipments of Beef in quarters —

1916 ... 115,992 1918 ... 123,354 *1920 ... 55,867

1917 ... 309,214 1919 ... 285,367

II. — Other Meat Exported*: Pork, carcasses inspected and passed, 5812.

III. — Return of Cattle Imported into the Union from adjoining Territories.

Territory.

Imported September, 1920.

Total from 1st January,

1920, to

30th September, 1 920.

For Slaughter —

No.

No.

Rhodesia

912

20,933

Bechuanaland Protectorate

1,243

14,967

S.W. Africa

1,480

10,468

Swaziland

56

1.215

Basutoland

—

8

for Breeding —

Rhodesia

—

8,568

Bechuanaland Protectorate

892

14,490

Total

4,583

70,649

Summary of Imports.

Calendar Year. For Slaughter.

For Breeding.

Total.

tl916
1917
1918
1919

No.
26,580
47,970
36,767
40,574

No.

5,440
13,286
16,693

No.
26,580
53,410
50,053
57,267

Total from 1st January to 30th September, 1920. f Ist July to 31st December only.

Crop and Live Stock Report.

791

CROP AND LIVE STOCK REPORT.

September, 1920.

CONDITION OF LIVE STOCK.

Compiled from Reports furnished by Sheep and Stock Inspectors.

Area.

Large Stock.

Small Stock.

Cape—

South-West

Good to medium

Good to medium.

North-West

Good to medium. Fat in parts

Good to medium. Fat in parts.

South Coast

Good to medivm. Fat in parts

Good to medium. Fat in parts.

Southern Karroo

Good. Fat in parts

Good. Fat in parts.

Central Karroo...

Good to medium

Good to medium.

Northern Karroo

Good to medium

Good to medium.

Eastern Karroo

Medium

Mediuui.

Bechuanaland

Good to 'medium. Fat in parts

Good to medium. Fat in parts.

Griqualand West

Good

Good.

North-Eastern

Meditim

Medium .

Border

Medium

Medium.

Transkeian Territories...

MfdiiiDi. Poor in parts

Medium. Poor in jiarts.

Transvaal—

Eastern High Veld

Mfdimii to poor

Medium to jmor.

Central . ...

Medium to poor

Med i u m to poo r .

Western High Veld

Medium. Good in jiarts

Medium. Good in parts.

Low Veld

Good to niediinn

Good to medium.

Orange Free State

North-Eastern

Medniiii. Gdiid in ]iarts

3Iedium. Good in parts.

North-Western

Good

Good.

South-Eastern ...

Med iu III

Medium.

South-Western

Mediin/i. Good in parts

Medium. Good in parts.

Natal—

High Veld or Highlands

Medium

Medium.

Middle Veld or Midlands

Medium, (iood in paits

Medium. Good in parts.

Coast

Good to medium

Good to medium.

WHEAT. OATS. AND BARLEY.

Correspondents estimated the condition of the crop as appearing on the .30th September,
1920, and from reports received it is estimated that the prospects of the Union's wheat crop
are very much the same as appeared at the end of the previous month. The crop in the
principal producing area of the country, the south-wesi districts of the Cape Province, is
fortunately progressing very favouralily, Init this is counterVialanccd by bad reports from
other parts of tlie Union where, it will lie cijserved from tlie statement published hereunder,
the crop is suffering from the effects of drought ))rincii)a]ly and is below normal in condition,
so that taking the Union as a whole the wheat crop is estimated to yield 5 per cent, less
than what was originally anticipated.

Oats and barley generally are not up to normal and reference to the statement will
show the extent to which these crops have been affected, mainly due to prevalence of dry
conditions as at the date of reporting. For all cereals the Orange Free State shows the
poorest returns and at present indications point to a shortfall on the original estimate of one
quarter in the case of wheat and over one third in respect of oats and barley.

792

Journal ov the Department of Agriculture.

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794

Journal op the Department op Agriculture.

THE LOCAL MARKET.

September, 1920.

(Note.

-The local market prices of certain other agricultiual produce and of stock
are aivea on page 798.)

wool.

The market continues quiet and very little business is being done. Onlj' a few buyers
are operating at present and in some cases the orders on hand have been cancelled. This
may probably be due to the unsettled conditions in England and the threatened coal strike
which would cause stagnation in all industries. Unless a satisfactory settlement is arrived
at soon it is feared that very few orders will be forthcoming. The latest advices received
from London report little competition amongst buyers and a further decline in prices.

The following nominal prices are quoted at the various ports : —

Grease Wool.

Pence
per lb.
Choice superfine Kaffrarian sound
combing, well skirted, of good

regular length ' 23 to 2.5

Extra super combing, deep stapled,

sound, and well skirted... ... 18 „ 21

Super combing, skirted ... ...1.") „ 20

Average combing ... ... ...11 „ 17

Super medium, skirted ... ... 14 „ 16

Average medium, skirted ... ... 12 „ 14

Inferior medium, skirted ... ... 10 ,, 12

Superfine shorts, skirted ... ... 10 „ 15

Average shorts

Inferior shorts

Native medium

Native inferior

Bellies aid good j)ieces, combint

Bellies, etc., mixed...

Locks and second pieces ...

Average white coarse

Average coarse and coloured

Cross-bred supers ...

Cross- V)red average...

Pence

per

lb.

... 8 to 12

... 6 „

8

... 10 „

11

... 8 „

10

...10 „

11

.. 9 „

10

... 6 „

7

... 6 „

7

... fi „

7

... 8 „

10

... 4 „

6

Snow \V^hite-<.

Extra super snow whites, good

bulk, free ' ... 42 to 50

Super snow whit<'s, fair Inilk, free .SS „ 39

Ordinary, shorter and faulty
Inferior

27 to 30
16 „ 18

MOHAIR.

The market remains inactive and only a few bales of good summer firsts have changed
hands at prices from 18d. to 28d. per lb. There have been no sales or inquiries for other
clahses of mohair.

HIDES AND SKINS.

There has been a good demand for hides and skins and large quantities have been
offered for sale at the various markets at the coast. The following j)rices are quoted : —

Sheep Skins.

Sound lonti' woolictl sheep skins

per lb. lOid. to lUd.

Damaged long woolled sheep

skins, per lb. ... ... 7d. „ 7fd.

Pelts, sound, per lb. ... ... figd. „ Sd.

Pelts, daT aged, per lb. ... 2^d. .. 3d.

Hair Capes, salted, each

7s. 3d. to 8s.

Hair ('apes, sundried, each ... 5s. 6d. „ (is.3d.
Coarse and coloured skins.

per lb 9id. ,. lOd.

Coarse and coloured skins,

damaged, per lb. ... ... Id. .. 4jd.

The Local Market.

795

Angoras, light, per lb. ... ltd.

Angoras, heavy and sundrie<l

pel" lb. ... ... ... 7rl.

Angoras, damaged ... ... 2d.

Goatskins, light, per lb.

•2\(l.

Goat Skins.

to IHd.

„ 7id.
„ 3d.
,. 221.1.

Goatskins, sundried, per lb. .
Goatskins, heavy, per lb.
Goatskins, damaged, per lb..
Bastards, sound
Bastards, damaged ...

ISd. to 19id.

17d. „ 18d.

9id. ,. lid.

16d. „ 17d.

Sd.

9Jd.

Sundried, sound, per lb.
Sundried, damaged, per lb

HiDE!

...12id. t.
...lid. „

13|d.
lUd.

Dry salted, sound, per lb. ... 13d. to 13^d.
Dry salted, damaged, per lb. 9d. „ lOd.

ostkk;h feathers.

Since the last report there have been five public sales of ostrich feathers in Port
Elizabeth, the prices and weights being as foUovFS : — Total weight sold 16, 128 lb., value
£23,306. Withdrawn or "not sold" 4143 lb., value £3142. During these sales, especially
the latter three, genuine shippers took a far larger proportion of the goods offered and thus
the totals given represent more accurately the weight and value of goods actually handled
than has been the case for some time previously. This is much to the benefit of the
market since, when the feathers are taken by shippers, only a few of them find their way
back to the market, whereas when they are bought by brokers, they may be and frequently
are returned to the same market again for sale with but slight modifications.

The average price per lb. of the feathers sold on the three sales under review was
£1. 8s. lOd., but as was pointed out previously, since the proportion of wings to short
feathers varies, this average figure gives little indication of the prices obtained.

There was no great variation in prices during the period under review. On 6th Septem-
ber, the date of the London feather sale, tiiere was a better demand and somewhat improved
competition on the Port Elizabeth market, and at the sale held on 20th September the
market showed a somewhat firmer tone.

Advices from overseas do not lead to anticipate any real improvement in prices in the
near future, although encouragement is to be found in the heavy purchases by France on
the London market.

Advices from Paris all state that at the present time ostrich feathers are very fashion-
able, and the present bad condition of the trade must therefore be due partly to the
unfavourable exchange rates of the franc and mark.

Although the London feather sales showed a decided fall in most of the chief lines, they
may on the whole be considered satisfactory, in view of the condition of trade generally.

As was pointed out in the last report it is impossible to give forecasts, but from the
general trend of the market, and improved competition, it seems unlikely that prices will
go ilower than they are at present. Nevertheless there is little indication of any great
improvement in the near future.

CORRIGENDA.

August, 1920, issue of Journal (Vol. I, No. ."■), page 49.5).
" Cape Fruit"' should read "Grape Fruit."

October, 1920, issue of JonnutJ (Vol. I, No. 7, page 674).

"The Menace of Anthrax." The prices quoted have been changed and are now as
follows for double anthrax vaccine : — For cattle, 3s. for 10 doses and 7s. 6d. for 25 doses.
For horses, mules, donkeys, sheep, and goats, 3s. for 20 doses, 7s. 6d. for 50 doses.

October, 1920, issue of Jonrnal (Vol. 1, No. 7, page 615).

Fourth line from bottom ; tlie word "former" should read "latter."

79(j Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

DEPARTMENT OF AGH FCITLTURE

ANALYSIS OF SOILS.

Methods of Taking Samples.

In taking; soil for analysis it is of the utmost importance that a truly
representative sample be secured, otherwise the analysis will be of little value.

If the type of soil varies from place to place in a field or farm, separate
representative samples of each type should be forwarded for analysis.

The depth to which a sample is taken is important. In some cases a
clear line of separation between the soil proper and the sub-soil is perceptible.
This is often shown by difference in colour, the soil being richer in organic
matter and therefore darker than the sub-soil. Under such circumstances the
sample of soil should be taken down to the line, but in no case to a depth of
more than a foot. In all casrs a sample of the sub-soil down to the depth of
2 feet must also be sent, separately.

METHOD OF TAKING SAMPLES.

Soil samples should be taken in one of the following ways: —

1. Having selected a representative spot, the vegetation upon it is removed
and a hole is dug with a sharp spade to the necessary depth. One side of the
bole is then trimmed with the spade so as to be smooth and vertical, the hole
lieing cleaned out. A slice of uniform thickness, about 3 or 4 inches, is then
lemoved by the spade down to the required depth. This slice is placed on a
clean board or sack and mixed ■'-/itli similar slices, oljtained in the same way
from other parts of the field. Finally, all the samples are thoroughly mixed
together with a trowel or the spade, the sticks, large stones, and roots removed,
and a portion of about 9 lb. placed, with a label giving details, in a clean box
or suitable bag of canvas, cloth, or other impervious material through whicli
the fine soil will not sift out during conveyance to the laboratory, the sample of
the sub-soil being kept separate from that of the soil proper.

2. Another method is to have wooden boxes 6 inches square and 12 inches
deep to hold the samples. A large hole is dug with a spade at the selected
spot and a square upright lilock of soil is left standing in the centre. This is
carefully trimmed with the spade until a box will just fit over it. The box is
inverted ovei- the ))lock and forced dowji, the spade slipped under, and the box
with its contents removed. A label giving particulars of the soil is put in
and the lid screwed on. A sample of the sub-soil beneath should be taken in a
similar manner.

Method (1) will, under ordinary circumstances, I)e found the most con-
venient.

In all cases full details as to exact locality, ett-., must be given on the
form provided for the purpose. The average annual rainfall and the altitude
should be stated as well.

BRAK SOUS.

Should an analysis of a soil be lequired on account of " brak " being
suspected, the method of taking the samples is similar to tliat described above,
excepting that, provided the soil appears uniform, it should be samjjled in six
sections and down to a depth of 3 feet. Should the soil not appear uniform
(for example, should hard and soft layers be encountered) the depths to which
the various sections of soil are t.iken should be governed by the thickness of
the varying layers.

(Note. — Regulations and tariff governing the analysis of agricultural
materials were published in the September, 1920, issue of the Journal, cover
pages ii, iii, and iv.)

PRINCIPAL CONTENTS

Hides and Skins.

Coccidiosis of the Fowl.

The Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province. — V.

Irrigation Enterprise in the United States of America.

A South African Gum.

Breeding Sheep for the Export Trade,

A Cheap Serviceable Hive.

Prickly Pear as a Stock Food.

Parasitic Attack on "Eucalyptus Globulus."

The Mally Fruit Fly Remedy.

Plan of a Small Farm Dairy.

r

STEWARTS AND LLOYDS (SOUTH AFRICA), LTD,

TUBES AND FITTINGS.

P.O. Box 1195,
JOHANNESBURG.

AGENTS FOR .-

National Gas Engine Co.,
Gas, Oil, and Petrol
Engines.

Eagle Engineering Co.,
Ltd., Petrol Paraffin
Engines.

Oavey Paxman & Co.,
Steam Engines and
Boilers.

Gilbert Gilkes & Co.,
Water Tiiriiines and
Centrifugal Pmnps.

irrlees, Bickerton &
Day, Diesel Oil Engines.

P.O. Box 74,
PRETORIA.

P.O. Box 131,
DURBAN.

IRRIGATION
AND WATER
SUPPLY OUR
SPECIALITY.

PUMPING PLANTS,

PIPE LINES

AND

POWER UNITS

OF EVERY

DESCRIPTION.

P.O. Box 296,
MARITZBURG. \

ESTIMATES AND ADVICE
FREE OF COST.

AGENTS FOR •

John Blake, Ltd.,
Hydraulic Rams.

Thomas & Sons,
Windmills and Pumps.

Bell Bros., Ltd., Filter
and Water-Softening
Plants.

Glenfield & Kennedy,
Hydraulic Specialities.

V.

CONTENTS.

DECEMBER, 1920.

Notes

Paob

797

Meeting,-, of Officers of the Department — Locusts — The Danger lurking in
Imported Cotton Seed — Tsetse Fly Investio;ations — Preventing Wa,stage in
Citrus Fruit Shipments — Anthrax Vaccines — Cost of Maize Product ion — United
States Maize Crop, 1920 — Prickly Pear — Beetle Pest — Dipping Tanks, Pretoria
District — Rinderpest — Poor Grade Australian Cheese — Cotton Growers' Com-
petition.^— Agricultural Literature — The Annual Report of the Department —
Madumba (Dasheen) Root — The Union's Timber Suiiply — The Wheat Crop of
the World — Inoculation and Dosing of Breeding Ewes — Plant Nurseries in
Quarantine as at 1st November. 1920 Cpage 818) — Sterilization of Grain (page
828) — Export of Grain, etc. (page 83B) — Lucerne Seed (page 841) — Pure Salt
for Hides (page 851) — Preparation of Hides and Skins (page 8.58) — Fruit
Export (page 86 H — Seville Oranees (page 8(!C>).

Hides and Skins... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ^09

coccidiosis of the fowl ... ... ... ... ... ... 815

The Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province ... ... ... 819

Irrigation Enterprise in the United States of America ... ... 829

A South African Gum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 834

Breeding Sheep for the Export Trade... ... ... ... ... 838

A Cheap Serviceable Hive made from Paraffin Boxes... ... ... 842

Prickly Pear as a STOt-K Food ... ... ... ... ... ... 848

Parasitic Attack on '-Eucalyptus Globulus" ... ... ... ... 852

The Mally Fruit Fly Remedy ... ... ... ... ... ... 839

Plan of a Small Farm Dairy ... ... ... ... ... ... 862

The Poultry Yard Month by Month ... ... ... ... ... 867

Corrigendum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 867

The Vegetable Garden ... ... ... ... 868

Notes from the "Gazette" ... ... ... ... ... ... 869

South African Produce on the Oversea Market ... ... ... 871

Oversea Prices of South African Produce ... ... .. ... 873

Notes from the Divisions ... ... ... ... ... ... 874

Recent Agricultural Literature ... ... ... ... 876

Outbreaks of Animal Diseases in the Union ... ... ... ... 880

At the Schools of Agriculture and Experiment Stations ... ... 881

Meat Statistics... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 886

Staff : Appointments, Transfers, etc. ... ... ... ... ... 887

Crop and Live Stock Report ... ... ... ... ... ... 887

Local Market Prices ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 890

The Local Market ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 891

DEPARTMENTAL NOTICES.

AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT.

GOVERNMENT GUANO.

It is hereby notified that an allotment of guaoo will be made early in February next.

The total cjuantity of guano which will be available for distribution in this allotment
cannot yet be determined, but all collections, ready in time for tbe forthcoming sowing'
season, will be disposed of and delivered with as little delay as possible.

The distribution of the guano will be limited to bona fide farmers and gardeners only,
within the Union, who are requiring supplies for use during the period from February to
June, 1921.

Applications must be made on the. prescfihed form obtainable from the Superintendent,
Government Guano Islands, 69 Strand Street (P.O. Box 251), Cajietown, arid these will be
received and booked ap to and including noon on Saturday, the 18th December, 1920, after
which date no further applications will, under any circumstances, be accepted or entertained
in respect to this allotment.

Applicants are warned that, in making applications for guano, the purposes for which
this fertilizer is required must be distinctly stated on the form of application and that only
the quantity actually needed for those purposes must he ashed for^ us all 'mjiated orders will
he llahle to be disalloired.

No application will be accepted, or considered, from any person who is not actually
farming on his own account, and only one application will be accepted in respect to any one
farm, portion of a farm, or group of farms under one ownership, or partnership, as the case
may be.

All applications must be signed by the individuals requiring the guano and in no case
will this fertilizer be supplied to or consigned to any persons other than those for whose use
it is actually required.

The price of guano will be £10 par ton of 2000 lb., or 20s. per bag of 200 lb.,
including bags, and delivered on rail at Capetown, or on board ship in Table Bay Docks, but
no remittances will he accepted untirafter allotments have been made.

Railage in all instances is payable by the consignee and must be prepaid where guano
is to be consigned to railway sidings.

All inquiries and applications for guano must be sent direct to the Superintendent,
Government Guano Islands, Capetown.

FOREST DEPARTMENT.

Farmers and others interested in treeplanting are invited to apply to the Forest
Department for advice as to the most suitable trees for growing in the various climates and
soils of the Union, and on the best methods to adopt in the formation of plantations, wind-
breaks and shelter- belts. Applications for such advice should be addressed to the Forest
Officer nearest to the locality where it is intended planting should be done or to the
Conservators of Forests, Capetown, Knysna,Kingwilliamstown, Umtata, Maritzburg, Pretoria,
or Bloemfontein.

To encourage treeplanting, transjilants of forest trees may he obtained from the Forest
Department Nurseries of which there are 26 situated throughout the Country and forest tree
seeds from the Conservator of Forests, Capetown, who has charge of the Department's
Seed Store.

Copies of the latest price-list (No. 642 of 1920) for both transplants and seeds are
obtainable from the Forest Officers mentioned in the foregoing or from the Chief Conservator
of Forests at Pretoria. This publication contains a considerable amount of information
useful to farmers and others desirous of planting trees and it also indicates that the average
price for young trees ready for planting out is only 6s. per 100. These are sold firmly
established in half paraffin tins, each tin containing about 25 transplants.

Journal of the Department
OF Agriculture.

Vol. I. DECEMBER, 1920. No. 9.

Published monthly in English and Afrikaans by the Department of Agriculture,

Union of South Africa.

Ediior: G. IV. Klorck.

Subscription: Within the Union and South-West Protectorate, 5Sm (otherwise SSm)
per annum, post fre?, payable in advance.

Applications, with subscriptions, to be sent to the Government
Printer, Box 37.H, Pretoria.

NOTES.

Meetings of Oflacers of the Department.

The Eig-lit Honoiua])le 1^". S. MaLan, M.L.A., Minister of Agricul-
ture, has inaugurated montlily meetings with the Secretary, the Under-
Secretaries, the Heads and Sul)-heads of Divisions, including the
Principals and Vice-PrincipaLs of Agricultural vSchools. The object
of these monthly meetings is to enable the chief officers of the Depart-
ment to become acquainted witli the work performed in the different
branches, and to engender a feeling of co-operation and unity. Officers
will by this means be in a better position also to answer inquiries by
the public with whom they may come in contact in the course of their
official travels. These meetings will be utilized for discussing
questions of policy and any new work projected. The first meeting was
lield on the 8th November and proved to be a great success.

Annual meetings of heads of divisions with officers who are
situated at outlying stations will also be held in order to give such
officers an opportunity of exchanging views and learning directly from
the head of their division, matters of importance which he maj- have
in view. Such meetings, it is believed, will facilitate work of officers
in the country and afford an opportunity for discussing suggestions
which they may desire to put forward. They cannot fail to stimu-
late interest in the work of officers. To a limited extent this was done
in the past, but it is proposed to make it a regular practice in future.

Locusts.

Up to 12th November voetgangers in small numbers had been
reported this spring in the Districts of Kimberley, Jacobsdal, Cradock,
Graaff-Peinet, and Willowmore. For the most part the insects occur

27

798 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

so scatteringly in the veld that effective operations against them are
impracticable. Evidently the hatching in Kimberley and Jacobsdal
was irregular and began very early, as by 1st November ncAvly Hedged
locusts were present along with small and large voetgangers. Some
early liatching must also have occurred somewhere near Conway, in
the Middelburg District north of Cradock, numerous flyers being
observed there on 4th November. The outbreak in tlie Willowmore
District is in Baviaans Kloof, a section of the country considerably
south of any place where locusts have been known to tlie Division of
Entomology for many years. It is thought quite prol)able that voet-
gangers in small swarms, small clusters, and as solitary individuals
are widespread in the Karroo, and that farmers are ignorant of their
presence or else disregarding them. Small clusters and solitary voet-
gangers cannot be satisfactorily combated in the veld, but swarms
can and should be, and farmers are earnestly urged to search dili-
gently for such aggregations of the insect and to destroy every one
located. Some farmers delude themselves into accepting that it is
useless for them to woiry about the first little swarms when they must
leave myriads of scattered locusts. liut the Division of Ento-
mology believes that tlie destruction of those swarms is particularly
important, and reasons that the more of them the farmers destroy the
greater will be the proportion of solitary locusts that will fall victims
to locust birds and o'ther natural enemies. Great locust trouble in
the past has followed big droughts. The 1919 drought in the Karroo
was one of the worst on record. The extent, to which locust swarms
will now develop de])ends on the extent to which the initial little
swarms are destroved bv man.

The Danger lurking in Imported Cotton Seed.

We drew attention in last month's Jounnal to the great risk
which faces our infant cotton industry in the introduction of cotton
seed and how the danger must be guarded against. Another instance
of the manner in which seed, bearing one of the most dreaded cotton
scourges, may be introduced, has been brought to our notice by the
Chief of the Division of Entomology.

A passenger for Portuguese East Africa who landed at Durban
recently had with him a small bag of Egyptian cotton seed procured
from the British Cotton Growing Association. The (Justoms Depart-
ment took possession of the parcel and passed it to the local
Entomologist, who, under instructions from Pretoria, forwarded it
intact, as arranged, to the Entomologist of Portuguese East Africa
for inspection and disinfection before delivery to the owner. The
seed was obtained from an association devoted to the encouragement
of cotton growing in British Dominions,, while all cotton seed from
Egypt is supposed to be machine-treated by heat as a precaution, but
it was feared that notwithstanding the seed might possibly be carrv-
ing the terribly destructive pink boll worm. The fear proved to be
well founded. On picking over the five pounds of seed contained in
the little bag 1430 seeds, or about 6 per cent, of the total, had been
eaten out by the pest, while five moths, six pupae, and fifty larvae
were found. Thirty of the larvae t^nd pupae were alive. The hold-
ing of cotton seed over for a year, it may be of interest to add, is not

Notes. 799

a reliable precaution against this pest. The Chief Entomologist of
Egypt has stated that worms have been found to survive in seed for
at least two and a halt years. These remarks may help the public
to understand why the Department of Agriculture has become
extremely particular about the introduction of cotton seed. Any one
who brings cotton seed into the country in ignorance of the regula-
tions on the subject, or who receives any uninspected foreign cotton
seed by post or otherwise, is earnestly urged to keep such seed tightly
enclosed and to communicate at once with the Department.
N^egligence may be the means of causing incalculable loss to South
Africa.

Tsetse Fly Investigations.

The Minister has instructed the Division of Entomology to station
an Entomologist without delay in the Empangeni area of Zululand to
conduct a special investigation of tsetse flies. Arrangements are
being made accordingly. The immediate necessity for the projected
investigation is the very serious loss of stock through Nagana that has
been experienced by recent settlers under a Government scheme. It
so chances, however, that the Imperial Government a short time ago
approached the CTnion Government to learn if the latter w^ould be
prepared to co-operate in a plan to have the bionomics of tsetse flies
studied on common lines, by special Entomologists, to be stationed in
suitable localities in six widely separated " fly belts," in as many of
the British countries of Africa. It w^as suggested one station be in
Nyasaliind, one in Southern Rhodesia, and one in Zululand. The
Union Government agreed to support the project, and undertook to
conduct an investigation in accordance with' the plan in Zululand at
its sole expense and to contribute a substantial sum annually to a
common fund for general purposes. If the Imperial sclieme comes to
fruition, the work now about to be started in Zululand will therefore
be conducted under the great advantages to be derived from similar
investigations, simultaneously carried on at other places under the
same general direction. The work of the several stations would he
co-ordinated through the Imperial Bureau of Entomology (London),
which would probably have an experienced tsetse fly investigator visit
each periodically. Each station, moreover, would be kept informed
of the progress being made at tlie others. It is expected that the
investigations will extend over Ave years, and it is hoped they will
disclose facts, through the knowledge of which tsetse fly transmitted
diseases of man and the lower animals may be successfully suppressed.

Preventing Wastage in Citrus Fruit Shipments.

During the past few months investigations were conducted into
the cause of wastage in our export citrus trade. These experiments
were carried out by Miss Thomson, B.A. (Cape), M.Sc. (Lojid.),
F.L.S., at Pretoria, and Mr. Putterill, M.A. (Cape), Government

800 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Mycologist, at Capetown, in close co-operation with the Trade Com-
missioner. The picking, grading, and packing had been under the
supervision of Mr. Hobson, Chief Inspector on the Citrus Canker staff,
who had also made a study of the handling of the fruit on the London
market.

The results obtained over the whole season's shipment of the
experimental consignments proved —

(1) that with reasonable care it is possible to land fruit in
London showing no waste ;

(2) that waste, when it does occur, is due to carelessness in

packing injured fruit, in packing too lightly, and in
stacking the packs insecurely in the ship.

Arrangements are further being made whereby a series of experi-
ments will be conducted next season to determine as fully as possible
the keeping qualities of citrus fruit, after subjection to conditions
prevailing in ventilated hold and cold stores.

Anthrax Vaccines.

In the last issue it was indicated that the Division of Veterinary
Education and Research was busy preparing a new vaccine against
Anthrax. This so-called Spore-vaccine has been tried at the Labora-
tory on a fairly large number of animals (horses, donkeys, cattle,
sheep, and goats) witli excellent results. The chief advantages are
the following : — (1) The vaccine seems to be perfectly harmless, so
that no evil results need be feared after inoculation if the instructions
are carefully carried out. (2) The degree of immunity conferred by
this new vaccine seems to be very much stronger than that which
followed on the inoculation with the old vaccine. Animals were
inoculated with the prescribed doses, and were then tested with
varying amounts of virulent anthrax germs to see whether they could
resist the infection. An example of such a test may be quoted. A
sheep was inoculated with a single dose of the vaccine (i- c.c.) and
showed no symptoms at all. A month later it received an injection
of 100,000 virulent anthrax spores without showing any reaction. It
may be mentioned that in the case of susceptible sheep, fifty virulent
anthrax spores generally form a fatal dose.

Before issuing this spore-vaccine to the public it will be tested
on a fairly large scale on a few badly infected farms (probably in the
Boshof District). As soon as this test is completed (towards the
end of November), the vaccine will be ready for issue to the farmers.

A printed leaflet will accompany each batch issued, and farmers
will be requested to fill in two forms and return them to the
Laboratory four weeks and one year respectively after the inocula-
tion. In this manner it will be possible to collect valuable informa-
tion on the results obtained with the new vaccine. It is hoped that
every farmer will co-oj)erate and assist the division in its endeavour
to check the spread of this dreadful disease.

Notes. 801

Cost of Maize Production.

With the co-operation of the Maine Breeders', Growers', and
Judges' Association, and with the assistance of interested farmers, an
attempt is being made by the Department to ascertain the cost of
production of maize.

The method, briefly, is to ask some representative growers in the
principal maize-growing areas to keep records of all labour and other
costs in producing a crop of maize on a selected area, on prepared
schedules supplied by the Department. It is recognized that this
method will possibly not produce such completely reliable results as
would a scheme whereby the full costs, over the whole farm, were
kept, inasmuch as it entails estimates of the value of ox labour and
other factors, but it is felt that to ask farmers to undertake the
labour involved in a complete account of the cost of production would
be unwarranted, since the partial or single crop method proposed will
give returns sufficiently accurate for the purpose in view.

It is anticipated that the information furnished by the records as
to the cost of growing and marketing maize in representative areas
will benefit not only the maize industry in general, by indicating the
minimum cost per bag at which maize can be grown — a question on
which there is so much erroneous opinion among both producers and
consumers— but also to a very great extent the individual farmers
participating, by providing them with detailed information of the
costs involved in producing their maize, and indicating means of
avoiding some portion of this expenditure or of cheapening their
methods or otherAvise lowering the cost of production in succeeding
seasons.

Mr, Parish, Technical Assistant to the Department, is in charge
of the work, and he is now engaged in visiting those farmers par-
ticipating in the scheme, in order to explain the methods of entering
up the schedules and labour record-sheets and any difficulties that
may arise, and further for the purpose of obtaining information on
the economics of maize production by inquiry amongst farmers.

Up to the present about forty schedules have been distributed in
the following areas: — TransvaaJ: Pretoria, Pietersburg, Mokeetsi,
Malelane, Devon, Standerton, Balfour, Rustenburg, Marico, Yenters-
dorp, Lichtenburg, Potchefstroom, Klerksdorp. Wolmaransstad ;
Orange Free State : Vierfontein, Rendezvous, Heilbron, Frankfort,
Senekal, Clocolan ; Natal: Richmond, Ladysmitli, Elandslaagte,
Mid-Illovo, Ixopo.

Progress and information of interest obtained as the work
proceeds will be reported month by month in the Journal.

United States Maize Crop, 1920.

According to the International Crop Report for September, 1920.
the maize crop of the United States, though 20 per cent, below normal
in condition, is estimated to jield 7.3 per cent, more than that of last
year and 13.4 per cent more than the average of the previous five
years.

802 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Prickly Pear.

We publish in this number au article by Dr. Juritz on " Prickly
Pear as a Stock Food," which will be read with interest and profit
by farmers situated in those parts of the Union where the prickly
pear abounds and where the problem of utilizing* or eradicating a
plant cumbering thousands of acres of land is ever present. The
phase of the problem discussed by Dr. Juritz is the one found thus
far to aiford the best means of making some use of the plant, but
even then its benefits are limited and not of any wide economic value.
The article sets out the feeding value of the prickly pear very clearly
and may be taken as the latest pronouncement on the subject by one
who has studied it carefully, not only in the aspect of the plant's
value as a stock food but in respect of other likely means of putting-
its unwelcome presence to the best possible economic use.

Dr. Juritz discusses the matter very thoroug*hly in a scientific
bulletin recently published, and those desirous of pursuing the subject
should certainly obtain a copy of the bulletin.* It may be had on
application to this office.

The spread of pricklj^ pear in the Union and methods for con-
trolling the pest have exercised the authorities for many years, but
serious as the matter is in South Africa, it is small when compared
with the situation in Australia, where it is estimated that the worst
species of prickly pear occupies over 22 million acres of land, and is
spreading at the rate of a million acres a year. It is to be expected,
therefore, that the subject has received much investigation in
Australia, and one of the latest publications dealing with the problem
is a bulletin (jNTo. 12) entitled "The Prickly Pear in Australia,"
issued by the Commonwealth Institute of Science and Industry. The
result of the Australian investigations, and they have been very
thorough, shows that of the great number of ways suggested for
utilizing the pear, the only one which has proved satisfactory is that
of feeding it to stock, and that only by the addition of various feed-
ing stuffs. " The manufacture from prickly pear," the report states,
"of alcohol, paper or cardboard, potash, and various other materials
has been suggested, but in all these cases the fact that prickly pear
consists very largely of water makes its profitable utilization very
unlikely." In the South African Joiimol of Industries (August and
September, 1920) Dr. Juritz discusses this industrial aspect of the
subject, dealing very fully with the various uses to which, it has
been considered, prickly pear might be put. This publication gives
the result of many years of investigation and experience of local con-
ditions, and contributes a valuable addition to the existing literature
on the subject.

But as an outcome of all these investigations it seems, as has
been the experience in Australia, that the real problem is the best
means of eradicating the pest, for its economic utilization offers no
satisfactory solution to the effective control of the plant. While,
therefore, we may derive a measure of utility from a pest occupying
large areas of fertile land, by using it as a stock food, the way out
of our difficulty appears to lie in the effectual extirpation of the plant
at a cost commensurate with the value of the land cleared.

* " Prickly Pear as a Fodder for Stock." Science Bulletin No. 16 [1920]. Price 3d.
(prepaid).

Notes. 803

Beetle Pest.

More numerous complaints of cockcliafer outbreaks tlian usual
are being- received this season by the Division of Entomology from
various parts of the Transvaal. Several species are concerned in these
attacks, the common one this year being- Adoretus tessulatus Burm.,
a beetle about half an inch in length and brownish in colour, with
interrupted lines down the back. The immature stages are i)assed in
the g-round, and the beetles emerg-e in the spring*, when they do
damag-e by feeding" at night on the more tender parts of phmts. This
year grapevine, rose, plum, and almond appear to suffer most. Other
plants being- attacked are peach, apricot, nectarine, apple, pear,
cherry, and oak; even cabbag-e, cauliflower, and turnip suffer on
occasion. Complete defoliation may result, but usually only the
tender parts are attacked. During- the day the beetles hide in the soil
beneath the infested plants, where they may be searched for and
destroyed. Spraying with arsenate of lead (four ounces of paste or
two ounces of powder) in four g-allons of water is the usual remedy for
cockchafers. A strong- mixture is surer to kill, but it must be borne
in mind that all stone fruits are liable to be injured. For these it is
advisable to use half the usual amount of poison, and alsoi to add a
like amount of lime. In small gardens hand-collecting* at night into
a paraffin tin containing* a little water with paraffin oil on top is
another efficient, though somewhat laborious, remedy.

Dipping Tanks, Pretoria District.

The prevalence of East Coast fever in the Pretoria District has
made drastic measures imperative. This particularly ajjplies to the
provision of cattle dipping- tanks by farmers who own stock. In the
November Journal, attention was drawn, under " Notes from the
Gazette," to Government Notice No. 1697 of 15th September, 1920,
containing- a Minister's Order to the effect that three months after
that date, i.e. after 15th December, 1920, the provisions thereof
restricting- the movements of cattle will take effect. These provisions
will be rigidly enforced. Stock owners in the Pretoria District will
do well to bear this in mind so as to be prepared to comply with tlie
order.

Rinderpest.

It will be remembered that considerable apprehension was caused
in the early part of 1917 by ominous reports of the spread of rinder-
pest in the territory then known as German East Africa, and prompt
steps were taken to prevent the spread of the disease southward, a
Commission being- appointed, with Mr. C. E. Gray, Principal
Veterinary Officer for the Union, at its head, for the purpose of deal-
ing* with the outbreak. This Commission w^as occupied for over a year
in establishing- a belt of immunized cattle over a larg-e area, stretching-
from Lake Nyasa to Lake Tanganyika, and their object, happily, was
achieved, for the southward trend of this fell disease was checked.
Mr. Gray's report* on the work of the Commission has now been

Report of the Rinijerpest Coiiqmissio;;, (U.G. No, h2 — "20.) Price Is. 6d,

804 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

publisbed, and gives an interesting- description of tiie liardsliips faced
and the work accomplished. The magnitude of the task may be
g'auged from the fact that in tlie course of its operations the Commis-
sion inoculated close on one hundred thousand head of cattle, all the
property of natives (if cattle levied by the military for commissariat
purposes are left out of account) and all in the territory referred to
above. Mr. Gray states that generally speaking the results from
inoculation of the animals against rinderpest were successful and
the mortality following inoculation was small, and all round was not
more than 5 per cent. Most farmers carry a vivid picture of the
ravages caused by the rinderpest invasion of this country many years
ago, and the success attending the operations of the Commission in
Central Africa brings the assurance that the means we now possess
of fighting the disease are a guarantee against a similar invasion in
the Union, another monument to the ach-ance made in overcoming
the cattle diseases which are found in southern and tropical Africa.

Poor Grade Australian Cheese.

A considerable quantity of Australian cheese, a good deal of
which was of inferior quality, was imported earlier in the year. As
a consequence some of our last season's cheddar cheese stocks are still
being held. It is expected, however, these will probably be exported
before the new season's comes on the market. The position is now
somewhat easier. Owing to its poor quality difficulty was experienced
in getting rid of the cheese locally, and several lots were re-exported
to Great Britain. It is feared that, at least in one instance, the
inferior article was thought to be of South African manufacture, and
is likely to have an undesirable effect on the export of our own cheese.
The matter is being fully investigated with a view to the good name
of the South African product being protected.

Cotton Growers' Competitions.

liitending competitors are reminded that all entries for the
cotton growers' competitions for the forthcoming season should reach
the Chief, Tobacco and Cotton Division, not later than the 15ih
Decejnber, 1920. Full particulars hav-.' already appeared in the Press.
Prizes amounting to £175 and £87. 10s. for 50 acres upwards and
10 acres up to 50 acres, respectively, of cotton, including the entire
crop except ratooned cotton, have been provided by the British
Cotton Growing Association, the conditions governing the competi-
tions being as follows : —

1. A cotton grower may compete in only one class.

2. There must be at least eight competitors in the first and

ten in the second competition, otherwise the prize money
is to be held over for a similar competition the following
year, etc,

Notes. 805

3. Tlie points for scoring- will be : (1) method of preparation of

land, cultivation, etc., 30 per cent. ; (2) quantity, 30 per
cent. ; (3) quality, 40 per cent.

4. Officers of tlie Tobacco and Cotton Division will judge and

score as to (1) cultural methods and handling the crop,
and (2) quantity.

5. Samples of 10 lb. will be taken from each competitor's crop

by officers of the Tobacco and Cotton Division.

6. Samples of 5 lb. each will be forwarded to the British Cotton

Growing Association, who will judge and score as to the
quality of the lint.

Cotton growing is rapidly increasing in the Union, aud we trust
that there will be many entrants for these competitions, which are
designed to encourage the cultivation of the ciop on the iight lines.
Whether the competitor be successful oi not. liis eftorts wiVl be njiiply
repaid in the practical experience he will gam by associatioi i com-
petition with other cotton growers.

Agricultural Literature.

Readers are reminded that the Department holds a stock of
bulletins dealing with various agricultural subjects of a South African
nature. Sections of these bulletins were published in the Journal
issues of May, June, July, and August last, and the complete list
will be sent, post free to inquirers, on application to the Editor. Most
of the bulletins are issued free of charge, but such as are priced,
according to the list, should be prepaid when application is made for
them. It may be explained that between August, 1914, and April,
1920, no Journal was issued by the Department, and, instead, bulletins
on various subjects were published from time to time; these are the
bulletins which, together with certain others, constitute the above list,
and are available to the public. With the advent of the Journal the
publication of articles in bulletin form disappears, excepting in the
case of Science Bulletins and other special publications, so that all
wishing to be equipped with the pronouncements of the Department
on the many important matters affecting farming in this country
should obtain the Journal, which is the Department's chief medium
for placing its valuable information before the public.

Our subscribers are reminded that the present issue (No. 9)
completes the first volume of the Journal for the year 1920, and if
previous numbers have been kept these should, together with the
index which will be published at the beginning of next year, form a
valuable asset to the farmers' library and serve as a basis of a complete
collection of Agricultural Journals for future years.

It is therefore essential that our readers carefully preserve their
Journals. Should missing or back numbers be required these may be
had from the Government Printer at 6d. per copy, payable in advance.
The index will be supplied free of charge to all subscribers.

806 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

The Annual Report of the Department,

Hitherto the auuual report has been au elaborate document and
has been regarded as the proper channel for recording- in detail the
activities of the Department. The rej)ort was issued for the financial
year which ends on the 31st March. This date being about the middle
of the Parliamentary Session, the preparation of the report had either
to be undertaken when other work was heaviest or had to be delayed
until the prorogation of Parliament. Usually delay occurred in its
preparation. The time taken in printing the bulky report also delaj^ed
its issue. The result has been a belated report which, although
retaining its value, had lost a great deal of its interest by the time it
reached the public. The report of the Department is really its
Agricultural Journal. The Department has come to the conclusion,
therefore, that, while a general review of its work for the year is
desirable, the report would serve all purposes if it were merely a brief
compendium relating the work in hand and the results achieved. The
report for 1918-19 is still in the press. That for 1919-20 will be issued
in the form described in this note and will appear simultaneouslj^ with
the earlier document.

It is proposed to remove the handicap of issuing the report for the
financial year. In future the twelve months ended 30th June will be
regarded as the report year. The report for 1919-20 will, therefore,
cover fifteen months. By altering the report year, as stated, it will be
possible to present to Parliament a more up-to-date report than has
hitherto been practicable.

Madumba (Dasheen) Root.

The Madumba is the tuberous rhizome of a plaut largely culti-
vated in tropical countries, and by some of the natives and Indians
in South Africa. The plant has a short stem, with arrow-shaped leaves
attached to foot-stalks rising from the ground. The rhizomes are
rich in carbohydrates, hence their value as a human food. An acid
substance is also present, which, however, is rendered harmless after
boiling. Tliey are commonly known as " Kafhr Potatoes " by the
Europeans in Xatal, who utilize them as a vegetable. Starch of
excellent quality may be obtained from the Madumba, manufactured
in the same way as in the case of arrowroot.

Cultivation.

Soil (Mid Cliiiiafc. — A sandy loam, rich in organic matter, is best
suited for the crop. It will not thrive on a clay soil or pure sands.
A warm climate is essential for its successful growth, and it will
stand excessive heat and moisture.

Pre/paration of the Land. — The land should be cross-ploughed
and well broken up by means of the disk harrow and worked with
the lespective tillage implements until a very fine tilth is obtained.
At time of planting, the soils should be free from weeds.

Notes. 807

Selection of Seed. — In order that an even crop may result, the
rhizomes should be divided into three grades before setting.

Planting. — This is performed at any time from September to
December. The rhizomes are planted in drills, 3 inches in depth,
3 feet apart, and 2 feet between each plant. They are covered with
soil, and later banked up.

After-cnltivation. — The drills should be kept free from weeds
and the soil in a loose condition. This can be accomplished by hand-
hoeing and cultivating between the rows at frequent intervals.

It takes approximately eight months for the crop to mature.
The rhizomes may be allowed to remain in tlie soil for some time after
they have ripened.

The Madumba finds a ready sale on the markets, and is largely
purchased by the natives. It also makes a good feed for pigs. The
yield cannot be compared with sweet potatoes. It is a much more
expensive crop to raise on account of the extra labour required in
weeding, whereas the sweet potato chokes out all weed growth after
a short period.

The following is the composition of Madumba tubers, analysed
at Cedara in January, 1913 : Moisture, 76.5; ash, 1.1. ; crude protein,
3.2; crude fat, 0.2; soluble carbohydrates, 17.8; crude fibre, 1.2.

The Union's Timber Supply.

In a short summary outlining the steps which should be taken
to protect and develop the forest resources of this country, the Forest
Department states that such resources are insignificant in proportion
to the Union's needs. The indigenous forests produce timbers which,
for special purpose, are unsurpassed in the world, and for which
there will always be a strong demand. In this connection the value
of Stinkwood (Ocotea hullata) for furniture and other purposes may
be mentioned. There is such a good market for it that it freely
fetches 10s. per cube. It is, therefore, of the utmost importance that
research and investigation should be instituted so that the most
effective steps may be taken to render the forests as highly productive
as possible. In their present uncultivated condition the forests yield
a very poor increment, but there is no doubt that, with the application
of proper sjlvicultural principles, they could give a greatly enhanced
yield. As a preliminary to tlie introduction of improved methods,
the urgency for the study of the sylvicultural requirements of the
numerous species composing the forests is undoubted. In the past,
owing to the insufficiency of the numbers of the trained staff, and
to the time of the few men qualified to undertake the subject Iseing
almost entirely devoted to administrative duties, there has been no
opportunity of dealing with the matter. The opening up of the forests
by roads, and the more complete utilization of the timber, are matters
that call for attention; while a carefid study of many of the timbers,
the uses and value of which are at present little known, is a matter
of great importance.

But the future of forestry in South Africa is dependent on the
extension of plantations, for the indigenous forests, even under proper

808 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

management, can never be expected to produce more than a fraction
of the country's requirements. Moreover, most of the indigenous
timbers are hardwoods, and the woods the country uses most largely
are softwoods. Fortunately, experience shows that these woods can
be grown successfully in selected portions of the Union, and it is
only by rapidly expanding the area under these plantations that the
Union can hope to become to any exteut independent of other countries
for its needs.

The Wheat Crop of the World.

In the September, 1920, International Crop Heport, published
in Rome, it is estimated that the approximate area sown to wheat in
the Argentine, Australia, and the Union this season is 11,486,900
hectares (1 hectare = 2.47 acres), which is 28.4 per cent, greater than
the acreage of the previous season and 2 per cent, greater than the
average area under wheat during the five years 1914-15 to 1918-19.
In the same report it is shown that in the Northern Hemisphere the
1920 wheat crop, covering an area representing about half of the
world's total yield, and including the United States and India, is
.1 per cent, more than in 1919, but 1.7 per cent, under the average
for the five years 1914-18.

Inoculation and Dosing of Breeding Ewes.

Mr. A. G. Michaelian, Principal Sheep and "Wool Expert,
furnishes the following note : —

Breeding or pregnant ewes should not be inoculated or dosed
whilst the rams are with them or during pregnancy.

Inoculation should take place at least one month before shearing
to enable the ewes to recover before they are shorn or put to the ram.
When ewes are put to the ram immediately or shortly after shearing,
the lambing- percentage will not be good. This applies to both rams
and ewes. The reason for this is that at no time during the twelve
months does a sheep grow wool more rapidly than during the first
three or four weeks after being shorn. Practically all the energy of
both rams and ewes is concentrated on the production of a coat to keep
them warm and not on reproduction. This fact should be obvious to
an experienced sheep man. Both rams and ewes should be shorn one
month before tupping time. Ram lambs, ewe lambs, dry sheep, and
maiden ewes not put to the ram may be dosed whenever necessary.
When necessary all sheep, whether dry or breeding, should be inocu-
lated one month before shearing.

If sheep are shorn whilst undergoing the mild attack or otherwise
of blue-tongue produced by the inoculation, it stands to reason that
they will be more susceptible to chills which are liable to produce an
aggravated form of the malady.

The Journal is the Department's medium of making known its
activities. It contains information of value to every farmer in the
Union. Keep it for reference.

Hides and Skins. 809

HIDES AND SKINS.

Usefvil Hints on Flaying.

Under the title " Butchering and Flaying," a helpful article was
published in the March, 1919, issue of the Journal of Industries, and
as there is room for much improvement in our methods of treating
hides and skins (we referred to this subject in our issue for April,
1920, under the heading "Curing of Hides"), we commend to the
careful attention of our farmers and others concerned, the following
advice taken from the article referred to. In studying the accom-
panying illustrations, which are all of cattle and their hides, it should
be noted that they apply equally well — and often more so — to sheep,
lambs, and calves.

Flaying in general can be summed up in a few words — see that
the knives used are suitable and in good order, and keep them out of
the hide or pelt when skinning.

Do not skin the legs down to the hoofs, but cut off at the rings
shown in the sketches. This lower part of the hide is useless to the
tanner.

Hides and skins are perisliahle goods, and great loss is often
sustained through their being spoiled for want of attention. At the
outset of their treatment they should be properly cooled. Do not lay
them in heaps when warm. If possible, hang sheepskins on hooks, and
spread hides out till their natural heat is gone. Keep them in a cool
place cut of the sun. Do not let them get wet. Hides and skins
that have been cooled, if allowed to get wet and put in heaps, will
rapidly generate heat and decompose ; a few hours is sufficient to do
much damage. These precautions are absolutely necessary in hot
weather, but even in the colder months hides and skins will spoil
if allowed to lie in heaps when warm or wet. When not seiit off
immediately during warm weather, and after they have been cooled,
they should be sprinkled on the flesh side with salt, which should be
spread evenly all over. It is essential that the edges and shanks
should be opened out and salted as well as the middle of the hide or
skin.

If once allowed to get tainted nothing can restore the damage
done, which shows even when the hide or skin is converted into
leather, while, on the other hand, if due attention is given to them
immediately after skinning in the slaughterhouse, there is less risk
of their going wrong at later stages.

Sometimes hides or skins are used to scald an occasional pig upon.
Naturally the process scalds the hide or skin beneath as well as the
pig, thereby completely spoiling the hide or pelt. It is actually
much cheaper to buy a proper scalding trough.

810

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Fat should be spread out aud allowed to cool, the larger pieces
being hung up. See that it is clean and free from guts and other
refuse. It is easier to get the guts clean whilst hot than when cold

This figure shows, approximately, the correct way of ripping, to take the horns out,
so as to leave the face and cheeks as valuable as possible.

Tripes should be emptied of the dung, and, lohilst still warm,
should be washed and then hung up to drip; they must not be washed
when cold.

Hides and Skinb.

811

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RippiKG OF Forelegs.

Ripping from top of breastbone to hixide of forelegs, the ripping from chin to breast
and thence onward being as straight as possible. The cross-ripping to hindlegs
is just included in this sketch, whilst the continuation to tlie tail-root cannot
of course, be shown.

^12

Journal op the t)BPARtMENT op Agriculture.

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818

814 Journal of the Department of AGtRlcuLTtTRE.

RiPPINa OF HlNDLECIS.

This sketch shows more particularly the correct way uf rippin-- at hindlcgs, the
general idea being to get the thin part of the legs on to the belly-side and the
stout part on to the tail-side. It also shows ripping from breastbone to i/iside
of forelegs. The ripping in all cases from tail-root to breast and thence on to
chin should l)e as straight as possible.

COCCIDIOSIS OP THE FOWL. 815

COCCIDIOSIS OF THE FOWL.

By H. H. CuBSON, M.E.C.V.S., Veterinary Kesearcli Officer,

Grahamstown.

This disease is very prevalent in tiie Cape Peninsula and probably
in other parts of tlie Union, and, as many poultry owners are not
even aware of its existence, and otiiers seem to regard it as a new
disease and are therefore ignorant of tlie ravages it may cause among
the'r birds, a brief description should prove useful, especially as the
disease is so important from an economic point of view.

Among poultry breeders coccidiosis is often known as " white
diarrhoea " from the most common and most evident symptom. The
term '" white diarrhoea " is, however, somewhat misleading, for there
are other diseases which have as a common symptom the passage of
fluid-like feeces, and in many cases of coccidiosis the discharge from
the bowels is green or yellowish-green.

Definition and Course of Disease.

Coccidiosis is the name applied to a disease which is caused by a
parasite (iCoccidium or Eimeria avintn) belonging to the class of
organisms known as Protozoa. The main clinical symptom is an
enteritis or inflammation of the lining membrane of the intestines.
The course of the disease may be acute, as is generally the case in
chicks, or clirnnic in the chicks that survive an acute attack and in
older birds. In certain outbreaks many of the birds are found dead
before the disease has been noticed ; in other cases they are ill a few
days and then die. In adult fowls, however, in the more chronic
stages of the malady, they may linger for a few weeks and then
succumb .

Cause of Disease.

The causal parasite (Cocci dium or Eimeria avium) is found in
the intestine. The cysts that are passed out with the fseces are of a
regular ovoid or spherical shape, and can only be detected with the
aid of a microscope.

The life-cycle of the parasite is somewhat complicated, involving
as it does more than half a dozen intermediate stages. The length
of the course, from the time the cysts become ingested with the food
or drinking water until a new generation of cysts is excreted in the
faeces, varies from eight to ten days. The cysts may then remain
alive in the crevices, etc.. of a poultry-run for at least twelve months
and during that time ag;iin become ingested, thus leinfecting the
birds.

Symptoms.

In the acute stage these, especially in birds that have unlimited
running" space, are often unobserved, but, if observed, they may be
described as follows : The onset is sudden and the chicks lose their

<S16 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

appetite, hut thirst is increased; they also appear dull, droop their
heads, and stand about in a listless manner. Associated with these
symptoms is diarrhoea, whicli, as mentioned above, is the most note-
worthy feature of the disease.

In the chronic form a progressive anaemic condition is seen ; the
featherless parts are pale, the growth of the bird is slow, and there
may eA^en be a paralysis of both limbs. The bird stands in a dejected
manner, the head droops, the eyes half close, the comb has a Ijluish
tinge, the feathers are ruffled, and gait is difhcult. There may be
alternately constipation and diarrhoea, and, finally, death results from
sheer weakness. The so-called "leg-weakness" is often due to
coccidiosis.

POST-MOETEM AprEARANCES.

In acute cases there is often nothing abnormal to be seen except
in the caeca (blind gut) which, one or both, are sometimes affected,
and may become distended to about double the normal size. On
opening, the contents are seen to consist of offensive smelling, yellow,
pasty-looking material. The mucous membrane shows inflammation,
which may be so severe that there has been shedding of the epithelial
lining. The inflammation is usually in patchy areas, but it may also
be diffused; the former, however, is the more usual. The remainder
of the large intestine down to the cloaca may even be affected in this
manner.

The duodenum is described by some authors as being the main
seat of the pathological changes, but in outbreaks observed in the
Cape Peninsula it is the caeca that show the most pronounced inflam-
matory changes.

When there has been diarrhoea the feathers in the region of the
cloacal opening* will naturally show adhering fsecal matter, either
white or yellowish-green in colour.

In clironic cases the carcass is generally emaciated and anaemic.
The inflammatory changes are all present except that they are chronic ;
the mucous membrane is greatly thickened and may sometimes show
white spots, which are heaped-up masses of coccidia and epithelial
cells. In some cases the liver becomes infected, showing white spots,
which are made up of coccidia r4nd liver cells.

Differential Diagatosis.

Fowl Cholera is, perhaps, the chief disease which may be
confounded with coccidiosis, as the onset and course of both maladies,
in the acute form, are somewhat similar. Microscopic examination,
however, differentiates the two, for cholera is due to an ovoid
bacterium which can be demonstrated in the blood by staining. In
the chronic form, which is seldom met with in fowl cholera, the joints
of one or both legs may become swollen, and these cases are often
confused with tuberculosis or gout of the joints.

Treatment.

Curative or medicinal is, in acvte stages, unsatisfactoiy. In
chronic cases the ideal treatment would be the administration of some
of the coal-tar derivatives. Naphthalin or its derivatives alpha- and
beta-naphthol, on account of their insolubility, are the most promising,

COCCIDIOSIS OF THE FOWL. 817

as these are parasiticides, antiseptics, and sedatives, and also check the
diarrhoea which so exhausts and debilitates the bird. The dose varies
from 1 grain to 3, accordino- to the size of the bird and frequency of
administration. The powder may be given as a pill, and along with
either castor or olive oil (i-1 teaspoonful).

A tonic and an astringent, such as iron sulphate, can be given in
the form of Douglas' mixture. This is prepared by dissolving one
ounce of iron sulphate in a quart of water, then add one drachm of
diluted sulphuric acid, and of this mixture put two teaspoonfuls in
a quart of drinking water, which must be kept in a shady spot. The
drinking vessel should be of earthenware or enamel.

Another remedy that has given considerable satisfaction is the
addition of powdered catechu to the drinking water, in the proportion
of 15 grains of catechu to a gallon of water; continue for fourteen
days and at the end of that time very few or no parasites at all should
be present in the faeces.

It must be remembered that the birds are extremely anaemic and
in a weakened state, therefore diet must be liberal and nourishing;
finely chopped or minced meat, boiled linseed, etc., should not be
omitted.

Preventive Treatment. — In dealing with this disease it is
important to remember that the excreta of diseased birds contains the
parasites. To eradicate this complaint the following directions should
be strictly adhered to : —

(1) All dead birds to be buried deeply or destroyed by burning.

(2) It is known that coccidia live for twelve months, possibly
much longer, after having been evacuated by an extremely infected
bird. It is therefore difficult to disinfect a poultry-run and a change
to fresh ground is necessary. If. hov/ever, the infected stock is moved
to fresh ground that ground will rapidly become infected. The old
stock should, therefore, be left where it is, any birds which show
symptoms of the disease being promptly killed. Only newly hatched
chicks' should be placed on the new ground, and all brooders, coops,
feeding and watering utensils should be thoroughly disinfected before
use. There must be no communication with the old infected yard.
In this connection it must be remembered that a person may
unknowingly convey infected material to the new " run " on his boots.

(3) If hens are used for hatching there is a danger that they may
infect the chicks; incubators are preferable, but, if hens are used,
then broody hens must be secured from a clean brood.

(4) If these suggestions cannot be carried out, or if fresh ground
cannot be provided, the best procedure is

(o) to kill all birds exhibiting the first symptoms of the

disease ;
(h) to take off about three inches of the top soil of the most

frequented parts of the runs and disinfect or burn it ;

(c) to disinfect thoroughly all houses, roosts, laying houses,

food and water utensils ;

(d) to use only healthy hens for setting; and

(e) to place eggs in a solution of 90 per cent, alcohol or first

wash in methylated spirits, allow to dry, and then dip
in perchloride of mercury (1-2000) before setting them.

818 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

If the disease is non-existent, then all new arrivals should be
viewed with suspicion and kept isolated until it is certain they are
free from the disease ; microscopical examination of the faeces is the
only reliable method of ascertaining the infection.

Newly purchased eg-gs for setting- purposes should be first washed
in methylated spirits, allowed to drv, and then dipped in perchloride
of mercury (1-2000).

The incubator trays, drying- boxes, brooders, market baskets,
crates, cag-es, and any articles likely to convey infection should be
thoroughly cleaned and then disinfected.

On farms, and wherever possible, a fresh site for coops and
hatching boxes, etc., should be selected every year, and the old
ground treated as recommended above.

Method or Disinfection.

It will be sufficient to Avash the incubator trays and drying boxes
with a 5 per cent, solution of Lysol, Hycol, or other carbolic prepara-
tion, und then allow to dry.

Coops, hatching boxes, brooders, perches, cages, and fowl-houses
should be scrubbed with boiling water and caustic soda. When dry,
the woodwork, etc., can be limewashed, and to the wash add some
disinfectant, such as Hycol.

The floor should be scraped and the scrapings burnt. Then may
follow either the sprinkling of freshly slaked lime or the spraying
with disinfectant. A very serviceable spraying fluid is paraffin
emulsion, which is easily prepared, thus: —

Hard soap J lb.

Boiling water 1 gallon.

Paraffin 2 gallons.

First dissolve soap in the water and then add the paraffin and
stir vigorously ; finally dilute with four times the amount of water.
The advantage of spraying is that the liquid more easily penetrates
the crevices and corners. A good plan is to paint the perches and
uprights and crevices with boiling tar, as ordinary limewash is soon
rubbed o£P.

As poultry farming is becoming more important every day and
owners are realizing the value of wellbred stock, the first lesson that
should be learnt is cleanliness. Any time spent on cleaning the
fowl-run is well worth the labour, and at the same time disease and
financial loss are reduced to a minimum.

Plant Nurseries in Quarantine as at 1st November, 1920.

The whole of Mr. Jas. Clark's nursery, Koch Street, Pretoria, has
been placed under quarantine for C. rossi and C. dictyospermi, and is
added to the list of quarantined nurseries as published in the Septem-
ber Journal (page 670), with the exception of Mr. Krohn's nursery.

Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province.

819

THE AGRICULTURE AND SOILS OF THE CAPE

PROVINCE.

By Arthur Stead, li.Sc, F.C.S., Research Clieniist, Grootfonteiii
School of Agiicultiue, Middelbiug-, Cape.

I.

Witkop— Burghersdorp.

{Concluded from page 670, Septemhev Journal.)

The principal particulars relatin«> to the toreg-oing described samples
of soil will be found collected hereunder in Table YII, which has been

Plate y,>. VI 11.

GKYt>Kur,

This kop is quite clone to Witkop Post Office. Up to the left of the picture the soils
are of reputed high value. In their formation volcanic beds have played a
considerable part.

compiled to facilitate comparisons. The basis of the order of arrang"c-
luent in the table i« that of the fanner's own classification, i.e. (1)
sandbult soil, (2) mixed sand and turf soil, (8) black turf soil.

Under the sandbult type fall Nos. 611, 612, and 619; the mixed
sand and turf type is represented by Nos. 608 and 615, while Nos. 607,
616, 609, and 617 make up the black turf group. This leaves Nos.
613, 614, 610, and 618 unclassified.

The average figures for the three types are set down in Table
VIII ; they indicate very clearly the chemical and mechanical
differences between the three types.

820

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Table VII.

Classified Summary of the Principal Features of the WitJwp Soils.

Farm of origin

Lemcen-

Paarden-

Kraaifon-

Paardeuver-

Olivicr's

kraal

verlies

tein

lies

Rust

Slim pie number

611

612

619

613

608

Underlying strata

Red Beds

Molteco

Molteno

Molteno

Red Beds

Beds

Beds

Beds

Surrounding strata which

Red Beds

Distant Rt-d

Cave Sand-

probably also have in-

Beds and

stone and

tiuenced soil composition

Dolerite

Volcanic
Beds

Local name for soil-type...

Sandbult

Sandbult

Sandbult

. —

Mixed sand
and turf

Colour

Reddish

Light redd-

Reddish

Dark reddish

Daik brown

brown

ish brown

brown

brown

Indigenous vegetation

Suur rooi-

Same as

Suur rooi-

Same as No.

Suur rooi-

gras and

No. 611

gras

611

aiid rooi

blauw-

platblaar

saad gras

grasses

Crops found most suitable

Rye and

Rye, oats,

Rye and

Potatoes

Potatoes and

oats

and maize

oats

wheat

Degree of fertility

Low

Low

Low

Fair

Very fair

Altitude above sea-level

6200 ft.

5700 ft.

6000 ft.

5800 ft.

6400 ft.

(approximate)

Period under crops

Virgin

Virgin

10 years

Practically
virgin

Practically
virgin

Analytical : —

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Fine earth

100

100

97-7

100

100

Coarse sand

24-5

21-2

13-3

15-3

2-1

Fine sand

51-1

54-6

55-4

46-4

54-*^0

Silt

4-3

3-7

7-1

11-0

10-8

Fine silt

3-9

3-9

6-4

9-4

11-3

Clay

8-9

11-8

12-9

11-8

12-8

Solubility in N/5 Hydro-

0-68

0-56

0-90

0-67

0-87

chloric acid

Reaction...

Acid

Acid

Acid

Acid

Acid

Carbonates

0.03

Nil

0-025

0-005

0-035

Humus

1-83

1-93

0-77

1-96

3-19

Loss on Ignition

2-90

3-20

2-70

3-50

6-7

Moisture

0-41

0-83

0-90

0-82

1-41

Permeability

3-36

3-35

2-56

0-53

0-58 .

Retentiveness ...

24-00

—

28-00

35-00

35-0

Nitrogen...

0-08

0-08

0-08

0-11

0-16

Insoluble inorganic mat-

91-13

88-60

90-20

88-20

85-9

ter

Lime

0-26

0-35

0-21

0-2*8

0-58

Magnesia

0-20

0-24

0-23

0-20

0-44

Potash

0-28

0-40

0-46

0-57

0-40

"Available" Potash...

0-015

0-006

0-022

0-032

0-028

Phosphoric oxide

0-05

0-053

0-042

0-048

0-055

"Available" Phosphoric

0-003

0-003

0-(;03

0-013

0-019

oxide

Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Proyince.

821

Table VII — {continued).

Classified Suminary of the Principal Features of fJie WitJioj) Soils

— (continued).

Farm of origin

The Willows

Kalkfontein

The Willows

Olivier's Rust

Sample number

615

607

616

609

Underlying strata

Red Beds

Molteno Beds

Red Beds

Red Beds

Surround'ng strata, which

Red Beds

Red Beds and

Volcanic Beds,

Volcanic Beds,

probably also have in-

with Do!er-

Dolerite

Cave Sand-

Cave Sand-

tiuenced soil composition

ite dyke

stone, and
Dolerite dykes

stone, and
Dolerite

Local name for soil-type ...

Mixed sand

Black turf

Black turf

Black turf

and turf

Cvlei)

(vlei)

Colour

Dark brown

Black

Black

Black

Indigenous vegetation

Same as 608
with some
clover as

Rooi platblaar,
rooi ruigte,
. blauw ruigte.

Rooi platblaar
grass with
some clover

Rooi platblaar
grass, blauw-
bloemetjes.

well

and kweek
grasses, to-
gether with a
yellow - flow-
ered trefoil

and some suur
rooigras

Crops found most suitable

Potatoes,
wheat, and
oats

Wheat

1 Wheat

Wheat and
possibly
lucerne

Degree of fertility

Very fair

High

High

High

Altitude above sea-level

r..iOO ft.

6000 ft.

61.50 ft.

6350 ft.

(approximate)

Period under crops

\'irgin

Virgin

Virgin

Practically
virgin

Analyical : —

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

F n.- e;i?th

100

100

100

IdO

Coarse sand

8-7

20-6

4-9

2-22

Fine san<l

56-2

26-2

28-8

31-0

Silt

9-2

8-1

7-8

13-1

Fine silt

6-3

9-86

11-3

14-0

Clay

lH-8

20-()

24-8

25-2

Solubility in N/.t Hydio-

0-76

2-20

7-59

2 -.59

chloric ac.d

Reac'ion ...

Acid

Alkaline

Alkaline

Acid

Carbonates

d-025

0-10

5-80

0-045

Humus ...

.^•62

5-60

5-60

6-00

Loss on Ignition

4-2

8-4

9-5

9-3

Moisture

rio

4-7

3-3

2-21

Permeability

1-31

—

0-116

—

Reteiitiveness

31-8

—

11-8

—

Nitrogen ...

0-13

0-23

0-26

0-20

Iiisulutile in iTganic mat-

87-6

77-0

70-7

79-2

ter

Lime

0-3.5

1-1)9

3-9

1-2

Magnesia

0-30

0-66

0-97

0-85

Potash

0-52

0-57

0-54

0-63

"Available" Potash ...

0-025

0-019

()-0.H4

0-025

Phosphoric oxide

0-078

0-114

0-117

0-055

"Available" Phosphoric

0-012

0-021

0-028

0-021

oxide

822

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Table YII — {continued).

Classified Summary of the Princi'pal Features of the Witkoj) Soils

— (continued).

Farm of origin

Witkop

Paardenverlies

Kalkfontein

Kraaifontein

Sample number

r.I7

614

610

618

Underlying strata ...

Molteno Beds

Molteno Beds

Molteno Beds

Molteno Beds

Surrounding strata, which

Volcanic

Dolerite

Red Beds and

Red Beds

probably also have in-

Beds, Eed

Dolerite

fluenced soil composition

Beds, Cave
Sandstone,
and Doler-
ite dykes

Local name for soil-type ...

Black turf

—

Vlakte

—

Colour

Black

Black

Dark brown

Dark brown

Indigenous vegetation

Blau vvsaad

Blauwsaad and

Rooi platblaar,.

Kweek and

and kweek

rooi platblaar

rooi ruigte,

blauwsaad

grasses,

grasses veith

and suurrooi

grasses and

kamferbos,

some clover

grasses with

some clover

and some

and sour Kar-

a few suur

clover

roo bosjes

Karroo bosjes

Crops found most suitable

Wheat and
potatoes

Wheat

Excellent graz-
ing

Wheat

Degree of fertility ...

Good

Good

—

Fair

Altitude above sea-level

(5100 ft.

oSOO ft.

.59.50 ft.

6000 ft.

(approximate)

Period under crops

Virgin

Virgin

Virgin

Virgin

Analytical : —

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Fine earth

100

100

100

100

Coarse sand

13-7

8-4

9-2

6-6

Fine sand

30-0

33-1

31 -r,

32-2

Silt

13-.5

14-1

2-. 5

18-3

Fine silt

U-9

lf!-l

26-4

19-3

Clay

20-7

20-0

23-8

15-0

Solubility in N/.5 Hydro-

1-24

0-71

1-37

1-89

chloric acid

Reaction ...

Acid

Acid

Acid

Acid

Carbonates

0-042

O-OO;-)

0-02.5

0-025

Humus ...

5-.'i0

S-CiH

3-20

2-96

Loss on Ignition

7-70

.-. - 50

4-00

4 - 90

Moisture

3-](.

1-96

1-18

1-58

Permeability

0-43

0-34

—

0-.30

Reteutiveness

39-3

33-9

—

35-5

Nitrogen ...

0-21

0-1.5

0-11

0-12

Insoluble inorganic mat-

74-4

83-7

84 -.5

87-5

ter

Lime

0-87

0 - .53

0-54

0-42

Magnesia...

0-.52

()-50

0-45

0-35

Potash

0 • 5.->

0-47

0-58

0-51

"Available" Potash ...

: 0-013

0-033

, 0-022

0-027

Phosphoric oxide

0-082

0-l()0

(l-(»n3

0-047

"Available" Phosphoric

0-013

U-018

0-019

0-003

oxide

1

Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province.

823

Table VIII.
Average Composition of the three Principal Types of Witkop Soils.

feandbult.

Mixed Sand
and Turf.

Black Turf.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Fine earth

99-2

100

100

Coarse sand

- 19-7

5-4

10-4

Fine sand

54-7

55-4

29-0

Silt

5-(l

10-0

10-0

Fine silt

■i-7

9-0

11-3

Clay

11-2

13-0

22-7

Solubility in N/o HCl

0-71

0-81

3-4

Reaction

Acid

Acid

—

Carbonates

0-018

0-03

—

Humus

l-,5l

3-4

5-7

Loss on Ignition

2-98

4-45

8-7

Moisture

0-71

0-90

3-32

Permeability

8-1

(1-9

0-27

Retentiveness

26-0

33-4

40-6

Nitrogen

0-08

0-15

0-25

Insoluble inorganic matter

90-0

86-8

75-0

Lime

0-27

0-4fi

l-7tj

Magnesia

0-22

0-37

0-75

Potash

0-38

0-46

0-57

"Available" potash ...

0-()14

0-026

0-025

Phosphoric oxide ...

()-048

o-oc.e

0-092

"Available"' phosphoric ox de

0-003

0-015

0-021

Taking- the " clieinical " Hgures first, it will be ubseivfd —
excepting- the fig'ure for " insoluble inorganic residue," a figure wl.'ich
represents that portion of the soil which is insoluble in strong a;ids,
and therefore of little or no use to the plant for food purposes — that
the figures are lowest for the sandbult type, intermediate for the
mixed type, and highest for the black turf group.

Coming to the " mechanical " differences, a study of the tallies
will show that there are clear differences between the three typos.
For example, as one proceeds from the sandbult to the mixed type,
and thence to the black turf type, there is a marked increase in ;he
humus content of each group; clay likewise increases, similarly al;-o
the silts and the retentiveness to water. On the other hand there ai-e
decreases in the sand content, the sandbult type containing most and
the black turf least — decreases which are, as was to be expected,
accompanied by a diminishing permeability to water.

In passing, it may be pointed out that (113 would fall und(>r the
mixed type did it contain more humus ; so also would 614 come under
the black turf type had it a higher humus content.

No attempt will be made at this juncture to trace the boundaries
of soil types ; to do so at all accurately would necessitate much more
field work. Speaking approximately, the sandbult type occupies the
bults, the mixed turf and sand soils occupy the lower slopes of the
hills and mountains, while the black turf soils are found in the valley
bottoms, in vleis, and in kloofs.

824

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Since the general reader may find it somewliat difficult to follow
figures, Table IX has been compiled in which, in place of figures, the
terms " fair," " good," and so on have been used.

Table IX.

Sandbult Type.

Mixed Sand and
Turf Tj'pe.

Black Turf
Type.

Fertility

Colour ..
Situation

Organic content

Clay and silts ... ...

Sands

Permeability

Retentiveness ...

Plant food

Crops found most suitable

Very low
Reddibh brown
Bults I

Low

Rather low

Very high

H'gh

Fair

Low

Oats and rye

Very fair
Daik brown
Lower slopes of
mountains, etc.
Jledium
Medium
High
Medium
Good
Fair
Potatoes and wheat

High
Black
Vleis, kloofs, and

valley bottoms
High
High
Medium
Fair

Veiy good
Good
Wheat

The soils which are the most fertile are evidently those which,
owing to their high proportion of humus, are black in colour and
which contain a good amount of plant food and considerable quantities
of clay and silts ; all of which points to the utility of the laboratory
investigation of the soil.

The reddisli brown soils are without exception highly permeable
to water and only fairly retentive ; they lack humus and are poor all
round in plant food. In the experience of the farmer they are very
poor crop producers. Again the experience of the farmer and
laboratory investigation are in agreement, as is also the case with the
mixed dark brown type. In this connection the writer would like to
express the opinion that laboratory investigation, based on careful
work in the field, is of much assistance to farmers ; that it is only
where the field work (as, for instance, the sampling which, in the
writer's experience, the average farmer is not good at, notwith-
standing clear v/ritten instructions) has not been properly done that
analytical methods are likely to fail.

So far we have only alluded, liere and there, to the influence of
geological origin on the fertility of the soil. Nothing very definite
can be said on this point, but it is obvious from Table VII that the
best soils are those in the formation of which there would appear to
have been lava or doleritic influence. The nearer the volcanic beds
or dolerite the better are the soils. In this connection the following
is of interest with reference to the sale in portions of a Witkop farm.
The portion of the farm on which there is a large mass of volcanic
beds was sold for £13. 15s. per morgen ; lower down, where the soils
overlie Molteno beds, but are doubtless still subject to lava influence,
the price fetched was £11 per morgen ; lower down still the price
dropped to £8 per morgen.

The record of the vegetation given in Table VII is perhaps not
very complete but is the best the writer could do unaided by a
botanist. From the data therein set down it would appear that the
best soils are those which carry the greatest variety of plants; that

Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province. 825

soils monopolized by simr rooigras en blauwsaaci gras are poor; that
the platblaar and ruigte grassevs are indicative of good soils. A point
worthy of note in connection with the indigenous vegetation is that
clover grows very well in many localities if protected from stock ; its
roots were invariably found to be well infected with the nodule-
forming bacteria.

Reflections.

There is not the slightest doubt that the development of the Wit-
kop area is being held back owing to transport and haulage difficulties
which is a pity, because, owing to its considerable acreage of excellent
wheat lands, the valuable national asset we possess in this area is only
partially developed. The climate is also particularly well suited to
wheat culture. True, a large area of the district is taken up by the
infertile sandbult soils, but even these could be made fertile by a
proper system of farming which would involve the application of
phosphatic manures and incidentally the transport of them.

Plate No. IX. Dankfontein's Nek.

Volcanic beds surmount the hills. Bo"land sampks were taken here. The small
pine trees in the foreground came through the very severe frosts of last winter
well.

As in most other parts of the Union ploughing, harrowing, and
transport are dependent on the ox. Transport to and from Witkop
is a matter of considerable difficulty ; the railway is far distant
(Burghersdorp is the nearest station) and the road is very heavy,
especially when there is most call for transport, i.e. from January to
April, months during which most of the annual rainfall is precipi-
tated. These are the months when the farmer sends his grain to
market. To enable him to do so he has to reserve for grazing for his
oxen large areas of what could be turned into some of the best wheat
lands of the Union. Under present conditions a span of oxen cannot
make more than three journeys per month to Burghersdorp without
getting seriously knocked up. Thus it happens that not only is there
a minimum of good wheat land under cultivation, but, also, the
ploughing and harrowing that should be done during those months to

826 Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

conserve the rainfall and prepare the seed-bed for April-May sowings,
cannot be iindertaicen. Following- on this, seeding time is delayed
owing to the necessity of waiting for rain to enable ploughing to be
done. Thus it comes about that there is much spring-sown wheat.
Late sowing not only means reduced yields on account of the lateness
of the sowing, but also the risk to the crop of being covered up with
sand blown by the heavy winds of August-September. What applies
toi the wheat crop in respect of cultivation also aplies in a considerable
degree to other crops; one of the great needs of the Witkop area is
more thorough cultivation and better preparation of the seed-bed.

It is difficult to see how the farmer is to cultivate better under
present conditions ; but since the development of wheat-producing
areas would seem to be a matter of national importance, it is per-
missible to point out how the position would be improved. Clood
roads that would bear heavy wagon traffic in wet weather are not to
be despised; so much the better if they would also bear heavy motoj

Plate i\'o. X. Vaalkop.

From the rock fragments of various sizes which cover it sides it is evident that this
kop is weathering. The soil below the kop is a mixed sand and tuif type.

traffic, for this would iree the oxen for other purposes and
incidentally would lead to an increased acreage under the plough,
part of which increased acreage could be devoted to the production of
fodder crops. Tractor ploughs would also be very useful. Best of
all, of course, would be a railway.

Shelter for stock is badly needed and would of itself make the
grazing go further, because when animals are well sheltered they
require less food for maintenance. Many kinds of trees grow well in
this area; one wonders therefore why the farmer does not plant shelter
belts, which would, besides protecting his cattle from the biting- cold
winds, enhance the value of his land. The writer gathers that the
principal reason why tree-planting is not indulged in away from the
homesteads is the necessity to fence in the young trees against the
animals u'razin"' on the farm.

Agriculture and Soils op the Cape Province. 827

A few words concerning^ crops that are not grown at Witkop, but
which would probably do vrell. will not be out of place, especially if
they are crox>s that will help the farmer to carry more stock and
plough more acres. Of such crops mangel wurzel, swede turnips,
and white turnips should do very well. Mustard should also succeed
as a seed crop. Clovers, sainfoin, vetches, rye grass, and teff grass are
likely to succeed as hay crops and soil improvers. Horse beans and
field peas are crops that sliould do well and provide not only an
increased store of fodder, but also a source of income from sales.

The climatic conditions would appear to be very suitable for the
apple and the pear, for ordinary and for greengage plums. Of
smaller cultures blackberries, raspberries, currants, gooseberries, and
strawberries are among those that might be expected to thrive at
Witkop.

In conclusion, I have to thank members of my staff (particularly
Mr. W, Torrance, who made most of the analytical determinations)
for the assistance they rendered in connection Avith the above work.

APPENDIX

Methods of Analysis, etc.

1. Samplivg. — This was done in accordance with the official
instructions of the Department of Agriculture (vide Regulations and
Tariff for Chemical Analyses of Agricultural Materials).

2. Chemical AnaljisiK. — (a) Nitrogen by Kjeldahl's method; (h)
lime, magnesia, phosphoric oxide, potash, and insoluble inorganic
matter were determined, after extraction of the soil, for twenty-four
hours in a boiling water bath, with hydrochloric acid, sp.g-. 1.112;
(c) "available" potash and phosphoric oxide were determined after
extraction of the soil according to D\pr's method.

3. Mechanical Aiialysis. — -A. D. Hall's beaker method was
employed.

N.B. — (1) Humus in the analysis represents the loss on ig*nition
of the clay fraction. (2) Carbonates were determined by the method of
Hutchinson and Maclennan (/. Afjr. Set., 1914, p. o23).

4. Permeability to Water. — 100 grns. of air-dried fine earth are
made slightly moist and then packed into a brass cylinder having a
00-mesh gauze bottom, and provided with a detacliable snugly fitting
funnel. The height of the cylinder is 4^ inches and its diameter
Ih inches. The soil having been packed into the cylinder, it is covered
with a circular piece of filter paper. Distilled water is then added in
definite quantity and the cylinder covered.

After the water has commenced to percolate well, water is added
to restore the original head above the soil column and the time noted.
Percolation is allowed to proceed until about 40 c.c. have been
collected and the time again noted. A graduated cylinder is used to
collect the percolate.

Finally the rate of percolation is calculated, i.e. c.c. water per-
colated per sc|. cm. soil surface ])er houi',

828 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

5. Retentiveness. — Any water remaining" above the soil column at
tlie conclusion of the above described percolation experiment is
removed and the covered cylinder allowed to drain for twenty-four
hours. By weighing before and after, and by taking into account the
moisture contents of tlie air-dried soil, one calculates the percentage
water retained by 100 grns. of oven-dry soil.

Neither the figures for permeability nor for retentiveness are to
be regarded in any way as accurate. They have been found, however,
to furnish very useful comparative data.

{Succeeding articles of this series iciJJ deal iritii the Agriculture
and Soils of the Elliot District.)

Sterilization of Grain.

An article in the August, 1919, issue of the '' Monthly Bulletin "
of the California Department of Agriculture tells of difficulties
encountered by the American Government in guarding against the
accidental introduction of new plant diseases in connection with
emergency importations of cereals during the war. Maize from
Asiatic countries, it is stated, was permitted to enter after steriliza-
tion by heat. A temperature of 212° F. was applied for a net period
of three minutes and found to destroy disease spores and improve
the quality of the maize. "This treatment," the article continues,
" applied to barley, oats, or rye, does not interfere with the value of
the cereal for stock feed. It does, however, kill the germ of the seed,
making it useless for planting. Experiments completed and in i)ro-
gress show that the value of wheat for flour and bread making is
also seriously impaired. Heating wheat with dry heat to 140° F.
destroys all insects, but injury to the quality of the flour for baking
begins at 160° F., and is completely ruinous to good break-making at
212° F. The loaf decreases in volume as the heat is increased, wliile
at the same time the colour becomes more yellow and the texture
more brittle. The effect of live steam is even more pronounced. Live
steam at 212° F. applied for three minutes reduces the loaf volume
one-half, and otherwise renders it unfit. No application of heat which
does not seriously injure the flour for bread-making will destroy the
fungous spores, and, conversely, all applications of heat which destroy
the spores completely ruin the flour for bj-ead-making."

Irrigation Enterprise in America. 829

IRRIGATION ENTERPRISE IN THE UNITED
STATES OF AMERICA.

Wonderful Engineering Achievements: Agricultural

Disappointments.

Ix any couuliy like ours, witli its wide stretches of arid land and
uncertain rainfall, irrigation figures prominently as a question of
great importance. It calls for skill and forethought, for an irrigation
scheme requires the consideration of many factors, each of far-reach-
ing importance. Irrigation is considered by many to be the concern
of the engineer only. How mistaken this conception of irrigation is
may be gauged from the fact that water supply is only one of the
following' factors, all of which are equally important in plant growth :
(1) oxygen, (2) light, (3) temperature, (4) water supply, (5) food
supply, and (6) absence of harmful factors. Then, also, a matter
of first importance is the type of water available for use, whether it
is saline (which is inadmissible) or whether it is suitable for the class
of soil to be irrigated. Indeed, the agricultural and chemical side
is of no less importance than the engineering aspect in the planning
of any irrigation scheme. It is to be expected, therefore, that all
schemes, many presenting new features in themselves, are not
uniformly successful and that some are failures. The story of
irrigation enterprise is one of varying fortunes. In fact, it is no
exagg'eration to say that by irrigation many thousands of acres of
once fertile land have been made barren, owing to insufficient thought
as to whether the land would hear irrigation and whether the water
was suitable for the purpose. A valuable object-lesson is obtained
from the history of irrigation undertakings in the United States, as
outlined in an interesting article in the " Geographical Journal" for
October, 1919, by R. H. AVhitbeck, Professor of Geography at the
University of Wisconsin, Madison. The article brings out most of
the troubles besetting a country which is entering upon the more
advanced stages of irrig-ation enterprise; in many respects we are
having troubles of a similar nature in the Union. Professor
Whitbeck's article refers to some extraordinarily bold engineering
schemes most diverse in character, but such engineering feats, it may
be added, are not confined to the United States of America. It must
be admitted, for instance, that for courage and diversity of engineer-
ing problems the most recent irrigation enterprise undertaken in
northern India, the great Punjab Triple Canal Scheme, is not sur-
passed in any other country.

In opening his article Professor Whitbeck states that 500,000,000
acres in the western half of the United States are very sparsely
peopled, and normally produce no crops because of a lack of water.
In the arid south-western parts of the country the Indians practised
irrigation in a crude way centuries before the white man came. Then
the Spanish settlers employed irrigation, and the practice gradually

2^

830 Journal of the Department of Agricultlre.

spread with the influx of population. By 1889, 54,000 farms, having
a total area of 3,600,000 acres were under irrigatioi\ ; but the
areas were not' large, and the construction work was of a temporary
character, the undeitakings being carried out and managed by the
settlers themselves, or groups of them working co-operatively. Tlie
first settlers had the choice of land, and selected, of course, that
which could easily be irrigated. The method often took the form
of a crude dam thrown across a stream from the mountains, flowing
across an alluvial stretch whose soil wanted water only to make it
productive. Some undertakings, however, required a large amount
of capital and were managed by commercial enterprise ; but it often
happened that they were over capitalized and that the profits of the
company were studied rather than the service to th.e farmers.

The following extract from the United States Census, 1910.
shows the acreage irrigated by various classes of enterprise in 1909,
and shows that nearly 90 per cent, was cairied out under the condi-
tions referred to above, viz. : —

Percentage of
Class of Enterprise. Total Acres

Irrigated.

1. U.S. Reclamation Service 2.9

2. U.S. Indian Service 1.3

3. Carey Act enterprises 2.1

4. Irrigation districts 3.8

5. Co-operative enterprises 33.8

6. Individual and partnership enterprises 45.5

T. Commercial enterprises 10.6

100

Representing a total of 13,738.485 acres.*

Of the other four methods of conducting irrigation enterprises
(vide Nos. 1-4 in the foregoing table), only one — the U.S. Reclama-
tion projects — has had any considerable development. The Reclama-
tion Service (and from the term " reclamation " it must not be
inferred that land which has been ruined is necessarily implicated :
the word is more often used in the sense that good land lying idle
through want of water is being reclaimed for the service of man) for
carrying out irrigation works by the Government with money received
from the sale of public lands, began its undertakings in 1902. Thirty
great projects, scattered over a wide area, were undertaken, each with
at least one major engineering problem for whose solution there was
scarcely a precedent, and each with its own difficulties of labour,
transport, and climate. Professor Whitbcck gives the following
examples : —

" In North Dakota, in the Williston unit, the engineers found it
impossible to secure water from the Missouri River by gravity
methods, but lignite beds existed on Government land a few miles
away. Here they installed a modern electric generating plant, using
the lignite for fuel, and sent the current to a pumping plant installed

* According to the 1918 Census, the irrigated area in the Union of South Africa was
938.823 acres, and tlie area irrigated and irrigable was 2.318.056 acres.

Irrigation Enterprise in America. 831

on a barge anchored in the river, whence the water is pumped into a
reservoir and is distributed by gravity to the land. Government coal
of a quality too poor to ship was to irrigate 30,000 acres of previously
waste land. This project has not, however, proved very successful.

" In Western Colorado is the Uncompahgre Valley, with a broad
alluvial plain traversed by a small stream. Some miles away in a
parallel valley is the larger Gunnison River flowing in a canyon.
One A'allej^ had land without water, and the other water without land.
The engineeis drove a tunnel six miles long through a mountain
range and brought the water of the Gunnison to the valley of the
TTncompahgre, and it is irrigating 140,000 acres.

" In the Yuma project in California-Arizona, the main canal
has to be on the California side of the river, where there is less land
to irrigate t'nan on the Arizona side. An enormous inverted siphon
passing under the river has been constructed, and the surplus water
is carried to the east side, where it is distributed.

" In the construction of dams for the reservoirs, a wide range of
problems was presented. In several of the projects dams were built
across deep and relatively narrow mountain gorges where the dam
had to be very high but could be firmly anchored at the bottom and
sides in solid rock. The famous Roosevelt dam in Arizona is solid
masonry 280 feet high, 235 feet long on the bottom, and 1125 feet
long on top. So great is the pressure of the impounded water that
the dam is 180 feet thick at the base. A roadway on top is wide
enough for three automobiles to travel abreast.

"The Arrowrock dam in Idaho is 349 feet high, and the Sun
River dam in Montana is 329 feet high; the Elephant Butte dam,
in iS'ew Mexico, 318 feet ; and the Shoshone dam, in Wyoming, 328
feet. Other dams have been built in broad, open valleys, where
great length and thickness but small height were requisite. The
Hondo dam. in Xew Mexico, is only 25 feet high, but has a crest
length of over 3 miles. The Xelson Reservoir dam, in Montana, is
39 feet high and 4 miles long.

" Xo two undertakings were alike. The ingenuity and resource-
fulness of the engineers were tested anew with every project. No
case illustrates this better than the Salt River project in Arizona.
The topography of the region led to the adoption of a dam site
60-70 miles from the land which was to be irrigated. The nearest
town of any size was TO miles away, and the nearest railway 40 miles.
The site selected for the dam was in almost inaccessible mountains.
From the railroad to this site a road had to be constructed, miles
of it cut into the precipitous face of the mountains. This road alone
cost a half-million dollars. The expense of getting timber and
cement to this remote region, involving a wagon haul of 40 miles,
would have been prohibitive. Moreover, labourers could not be
induced to go there to work. Yet the building of the dam required
a vast quantity of materials, a great number of workmen, and a
large amount of mechanical power.. The engineers decided to develop
hydro-electric power at the dam site, and they built a power canal
15 miles long, costing a million and a half dollars, installed a power
plant, and produced their power on the spot. They erected a cement
mil], quarried the rock for making the cement, and manufactured

<S32 Journal of the Department of Agriculture,

their entire requirement, 300,000 barrels, at the dam site. They built
a wagon road 20 miles through the mountains to Government forests,
cut their timber, erected a saw-mill, and sawed the necessary lumber.
About the only inhabitants of the region were half-civilized Apache
Indians, who despise manual labour, yet the Government officials
actually induced hundreds of them to don overalls and wield the pick
and shovel for daily wages. In fact, the major part of the unskilled
labour was performed by these red men. So difficult was it to secure
food supplies that Government employees raised a considerable part
of the food needed for the men. Thus it was that power, cement,
timber, labour, and food were wrung from the mountains and the
desert, and the great dam was finished. It stores enough water to
irrigate the dependent lands (200,000 acres) for two years, even if no
rain fell in its catchment basin in that time. This project has 800
miles of canals; it cost over |12, 000,000 to construct; the power
plant now sells electric power to the value of a half-million dollars
a year, and a large part of the cost of the project may be paid for
from this income."

The Other Side of the Picture.

While these bold engineering achievements fill one with admira-
tion, it is a sad fact that although some have seen their ultimate
object attained, others have not, and there are instances where the
agricultural gain is in no way commensurate with the effort and
expense involved. Indeed, it is not unlikely that in some parts
brought under irrigation the evil of waterless land has merely given
way to, perhaps, the greater evils arising from the improper applica-
tion of water. Thus, in Utah, dry-farming methods are succeeding
to-day on lands lying above the furrows that led to the ruin of the
irrigable areas below them.

The problems of an irrigation scheme are not all solved when
the reservoir and distributing system are completed and water can
be led over the lands. The method of applying water and the quantity
applied are of supreme importance. The desert soil is porous, water
quickly percolates through it, and in a few years an excess of ground
water accumulates and spreads to the lower land. This results in
water-logging, possibly ruining the land for crops, so that drainage
and pumping have to be resorted to' at great additional cost.
Nearly every project in the United States is presenting
this problem in a greater or less degi'ee, and large sums
of money are needed to remedy it. Thus, uncertainty re-
garding the final costs to be paid by the water users is deterring
many from taking up the lands under the U.S. Reclamation projects,
nearly all of which have unoccupied land. Had these projects been
other than Government enterprises, all, Professor Wliitbeck states,
would have gone into bankruptcy; the money they bring in from
water users would pay a fraction only of the interest charge ; the
majority are not paying to the Government the operating and main-
tenance cost, and large numbers of irrigation farmers would be ruined
if Government laws and contracts were rigidly enforced. Lucerne-
hay, it may be mentioned, is the largest crop grown under these
projects, occupying about 40 per cent, of the area taken up and
yielding 36 per cent, of the value of all crops.

Irrigation Enterprise in America. 833

In regard to the value of the land, Professor Whitbeck states :
■"It is fully established that it costs more to produce crops on our
irrigated land than it does on good land under rainfall. ... It
seeins clear that general farming under irrigation offers the average
farmer little more than a living for his labour." There are, hoT\'-
ever, conspicuous cases of success, especially among the fruit growers
of California, where a large portion of the crop is grown under
irrigation. Here most of the irrigation is under private control, and,
having been in progress more than fifty years, is firmly established.

The construction of the irrigation works has been very expensive,
tind far greater than was predicted when the Reclamation Act was
passed. " To many Americans," the author states, '' it appears that
the Government entered upon its extensive irrigation enterprises too
soon and on too costly a scale. Millions of acres of farm lands in
the humid part of the United States are unused ; millions more are
producing but a fraction of their possibilities. There was no lack of
good land that required no irrigation and would produce nearly as
much as the irrigated land after great sums had been expended merely
to bring water to it."

This huge experiment in irrigation, says the writer, "may cost
ihe United States Treasury from a hundred million to two hundred
lUiillion dollars, but it will not all be lost: a good deal of benefit
will come from the undertakings."

" If the question is asked, Has irrigation in the United States
been a success? the answer is neither Yes nor IN^o." It has been an
unquestionable success in many enterprises, a reasonable success in
others, while many cases also of financial failure have resulted.

Farmers are aware of the several irrigation schemes of the Union,
and the brief outline given above of the story of irrigation enterprise
in the United States will bring with it this lesson, that each irrigation
scheme has its own problems and difilculties. Some schemes originally
pregnant with brilliant possibilities may be found in the course of
time to be adversely affected by forces, some beyond the power of man
and others unforeseen, which may reduce them to failure or consider-
ably modify the good originally anticipated. Therefore let it be
iDorne in mind that an irrigation scheme cannot be entered into
lightly. -It calls for the most scrupulous care, skill, and foresight.
The oversight of any of the problems involved in a scheme, or lack
of due regard thereto, may lead to disaster. As indicating what may
happen, readers are referred to an article appearing in the April,
1920, issue of the Journal, entitled " Brak in its relation to Irriga-
tion," which discloses some of the danglers to be considered in irriga-
tion enterprise.

Export of Grain, etc.

The exports of grain, etc., for the month of October, were as
follows: Maize, 40,526 bags; maize meal, 37,484 bags; hominy chop,
11,160 bags; oats, 830 bags; lucerne seed, 150 bags; and kaffir corn,
10 bags. For September the figures are: Maize, 8111; maize meal,
■650; hominy chop, 6352; oats, 125; and lucerne seed, 216. The total
number of bags exported from 1st July last to 31st October was :
Maize, 58,667; maize meal, 38,854; hominy chop, 17,512; oats, 955;
l)eans, 138; lucerne seed, 366; and kafiir corn, 10. Stocks on hand at
all ports on 31st October, 1920, were, in bags: Maize, 88,630; maize
meal, 61,685; hominy chop, 5409.

834 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

A SOUTH AFRICAN GUM

(iCOMBRETUM ERYTHROFHYLLUM, Burch.).

By K. A. Lansdell, Division of Botany, Pretoria.

In recent years much difficulty lias been experienced in obtaining
supplies of "Gum Tragacantli," whicli to-day is selling- in South
Africa at 22s. per lb. Gum Tragacanth is used extensively in
tanneries, and the prohibitive price and lack of material suggested
that local sources of a substitute should be investigated.

Mr. Chas. Maggs, of Pretoria, approached the Division in
October, 1919, for assistance in this matter, and the subsequent
investigations of Dr. I. B. Pole Evans resulted in an excellent native
substitute for Gum Tragacanth being brought to light in the shape
of a half-insoluble gum produced by a local tree — Combretvm
erythrophylUim. A sample, 2 lb. in weight, was submitted to Mr.
Maggs for trial, and he reported as follows: " I have carefully tested
the sample and am very pleased with the result. The gum is soluble
with difficulty, and when applied as a coating is elastic, quite unlike
Gum Arabic, whicli powders and crumbles when dry. I consider that
this gum is a good substitute for Gum Tragacanth, as it is tasteless,
and so far as I am aware does not possess any injurious properties. I
shall be very pleased if you could inform me where I may obtain
trees or seeds of the tree for planting."

Mr. Maggs further states that the local gum has been used by
him as an elastic non-cracking varnish for finishing uppers and
other leather; previously he had used the imported Gum Tragacanth
exclusively, but finds the local product every bit as effective, and,
especially now that Gum Tragacanth is such a prohibitive price,
infinitely cheaper. The gum is applied in a solution of water mixed
with various dyes : the strength of the solution varies with the nature
of the surface under treatment. As there is a large demand for gums
of this nature a sample of the local gum was submitted to the Imperial
Institute for valuation on the London market, and the following
report has been received : —

" Descriptioii of Sample. — The sample weighed 2 lb., and con-
sisted of small irregularly shaped tears, many of which were elongated
and stalactitic in form. The tears were pale yellow to pale yellowish-
brown, and had an average weight of about 2 grammes. The sample
was in fairly clean condition, and contained only a small amount of
adherent bark.

" Results of Examination. — The gum was analysed, with the fol-
lowing results: —

Per cent.

Moisture 11.2

Ash 2.6

Acid val ue 7.1

A South African Gum.

835

Plate I.

Combretum Erythrophyllum, Burch.

(FLOWERINO BRANCH.)

K. A. LANSDELL,

Division of Botany,
Pretoria.

836 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Combretum Erythrophyllum, Burch.

K. A. Laxsdell,

Division of Botany,

Pretoria.

Plate II. Fig. 1. — Fruiting Branch. FiCi. 2.— Cross-section of fruit showing the
folded cotyledons. Fia. 3.— -Embryo removed from the fruit showing the two
folded cotyledons and the cylindric .radicle. Fig. 4. — A stage in germination.
Fig. 5. — Seedling showing a surface view of the cotyledons. Fig. 6. — Seedling:
showing a side view of cotyledons and plumule.

A South African Gum. 837

" Witli ten parts of cold water the gum formed a pale-coloured
jelly, wluch was fairly clean and transparent and practically without
odour or taste. On heating with water, the gum readily dissolved
and furnished a permanent homog-eneous solution. A 10 per cent,
solution obtained in this way was, after filtration from insoluble
matter, a brownish, slightly cloudy liquid with a viscosity of 83. T, as
•compared with 1 for water and 7.0 for a 10 per cent, solution of
"Gum Acacia made under the same conditions. The solution possessed
fair adhesive power.

" Commercial Valuation. — Samples of the material were
forwarded for valuation to brokers and merchants in London, who
did not consider it likely that the gum would be saleable under
present conditions except at a very low price. Both firms, however,
suggested that a trial shipment of the gum might be forwarded in
order to test the market.

"Remarks. — This gum is superior in quality to previous samples
of Combretum Gum received at the Imperial Institute from other
sources, being pale in colour and easily rendered soluble by heating
with water. The solution is also of fair adhesive power. As stated
above, it is doubtful whether the gum would be saleable at the present
time in the United Kingdom at a remunerative price, but in order
To ascertain this definitely a small consignment of a few cwt. might
be forwarded to the Imperial Institute so that further inquiries and
technical trials can de made."

Descriptio>'.

Comhretum e ry thro phy Hum, Burch., a tree 15.20 feet high, or
bush 8-10 feet high. Branches opposite, greyish, smooth; branchlets
densely pubescent. Leaves opposite or sub-opposite, 4.5-7 cm. long,
1.5-2.5 cm. broad, elliptic or elliptic-lanceolate, shortly acuminate,
acute, narrowed at the base, pubescent above and beneath. Inflor-
escence axillary, more or less globose, on tomentose peduncles up to
2 cm. long. Pedicels and receptacle tomentose. Petals spathulate.
Fruit 1.3 cm. long, 1.2 cm. broad, 4-winged.

This tree, locally known as " Rodeblad Vaderlands Wilg," or
Bosveld Wilg," is found in the Transvaal, East Griqualand, and
Xatal. It grows xdentifully in the valley of the Aapies Hiver in the
neighbourhood of Pretoria, and produces fruit freely. The smaller
trees or bushes growing away from the river " gum " more copiously
than the taller trees on the river bank. In the Fountains Valley,
near Pretoria, three natives gathered 5| lb. of gum in 3^ hours.

The fruits are often infected with a grub, but sound fruits
germinate readily, and at present no difficulty can be foreseen in
establishing a plantation of this Combretum in suitable localities.

Samples of the gum and specimens of the tree yielding it may
be seen at the Division of Botany, Pretoria, and any further informa-
tion which the Division may receive regarding this gum may be had
on application to the Chief, Division of Botany, P.O. Box 994,
Pretoria .

838 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

BREEDING SHEEP FOR THE EXPORT TRADE.

By 0. EiVEES, Officer iu Charge of Slieep, Potcliefstroom School of

Agriculture.

During the past live yeais much has beeu done by cattle breeders to
improve breeds with a view to meeting the requiremeut-s of the export
trade, and they are certainly going the right way to work to breed
beef suitable for the European markets, although, of course, it will
take some years yet before any great number of the right class of
cattle will be available after our wants are supplied. The war has
retarded to a great extent the importation of the best beef sires, but
there is every hope that as shipping becomes more plentiful in the
near future large numbers of good beef bulls will be imported to carry
on the work so well begun.

Why is it that our sheep farmers never seem to think of the
possibilities of the great trade in mutton that can be worked up in
considerably less time than it takes to grow the right kind of beef?
Is it because they are so well satisfied with what they are doing-
already or because they are indifferent to the enormous outlet they
have for the right class of sheep? At the present time, and for some
years past, there has been the greatest opportunity for South Africa
to participate in this trade, yet up to the present, if we take the
number of carcasses of mutton exported as a guide, there has not been
anj^thing like the progress there ought to have been, nor is the number
increasing.

South Africa has now some of the finest parent stock on the
female side to work on that can be found anywhere in the world. I
refer to the few million Persians and Bastards we have. These sheep
will sell as they are in Europe, in fact almost anything will sell there
at present, biit it is not for the present we want to work, but for a
sound export business in the future, so that in due course we shall be
able to hold our share of this great trade against all comers.

For some years past experiments in crossing Blackhead Persian
ewes with Suffolk rams have been carried out at Potchefstroora, and
the results have been very satisfactory, and many farmers who have
seen what has been done have been so struck with the results that
they intend taking up this line of cross-breeding in future in
preference to going on with the Persian, as they are fully alive to
the advantages that the crosses have over the pure breeds, not only
for the local markets of South Africa, but also for export.

The

Benefit to the Fakmer

of crossing Suffolk rams with Persian ewes has been conclusively
proved ; the first cross are of a very good shape and carry the fat
evenly distributed all over the body, the lambs commanding a ready
sale at first-class prices. They are very hardy and thrifty and grow
out to good marketable weights at five months old, if given anything

Breedtng Sheep for the Export Trade. 839

like a tail' chauce to do so, and care is taken to keep tlieni free from
worms. This is absolutely necessary if the best results are looked
for. This cross also g-ives a fleece of black wool which is of a good
hosiery quality and has brought up to 19 kl. per lb. Tlie average
weight of fleece for twelve m^onths is about 2 lb.

The second cross, breeding from the first cross ewes with Suffolk
rams, is even better; they mature earlier, and as lambs at five months,
kept under exactly similar conditions, average from seven to eight
pounds heavier, while their fleece is superior in quality, and a large
percentage are white-woolled sheep. The weight of fleece is also
nearly double, and the price obtained for the wool much better.

With winter-fed lambs on green feed (oats and green lucerne)
some excellent results have been obtained at Potchefstroom, where
20 first-cross lambs at nine weeks old at the beginning of July, off
veld, weigiied an average of 44J lb. each (890 lb. total weight), and
12 second-cross, of the same age, averaged 53 lb. each (636 lb. total
weight), the average weight for the 32 lambs being 47.69 lb. each.
These lambs were fed on crushed mealies, bran, and oats at a cost of
2s. 3d. per head for ten weeks, in the same paddock of green oats or
lucerne. The first-cross gained 33.5 lb., or nearly half a pound a day,
finishing at 78 lb. each (total weight of 20 lambs, 1560 lb.). The
second-cross gained 39.75 lb. each in the same time and on the same
feed, and finished at the remarkable weight of 92.75 lb. each, a gain
of over half a pound a day (total weight of 12 lambs, 1115 lb.).

These lambs would have sold on the Johannesburg market at
anything from 35s. to 40s. each, and at the present time would fetch
considerably more.

Seventeen similar lambs — 10 of which were first-cross and 7
second-cross — whose total weight was 743 lb., or an average of
43.75 lb. each, kept as controls, and fed entirely on green oats or
lucerne with no artificial feed, did remarkably well. They started
on the green feed at the same time as the fed lambs, and ten weeks
later had gained 27.25 lb. each, the total weight of the 17 being
1200 lb., or an average of a fraction less than 71 lb. each, and were
all fit for market.

In CoMrETiTiox.

During the past three years trial lots of these cross-bred lambs
have been sent to London for sale, and have been very highly thought
of by the leading salesmen there, who say they can do with any
quantity of similar lambs. As these salesmen are not backward in
criticizing anything that is considered unsuitable, it is sufficient proof
that lambs of the above kind will always be welcome, and that the
grown sheep are of the type wanted.

Picked lambs of the first cross of this type (actual age 4 months
20 days) won first prize in the under-six months class at Johannes-
burg Fat Stock Show in 1917; first and champion in 1918; while
second-cross got first prize, with first-cross second, in September, 1919,
and were beaten by lambs one year old for the championship, seem-
ingly an unfair comparison in view of the differences in the ages of
the competitors. In 1917 the first-cross lambs averaged 74 lb. ; in
1918, 78 lb.; and in 1919, 83 lb. The second-cross, exhibited only
in 1919, averaged at the same age (4 months 23 days) 93 lb. live
weight. These weights speak for themselves, and comment is needless.

840 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

The

TiiiKD Cross

favours the Suffolk very much, is a ijarcly good doer, and carries a
good fleece of wool weighing up to 6 lb., with very little grease in
it, consequently bringing in a good price per lb. Hamels of this
cross at 2| years have averaged 85 lb. of beautiful mutton, the fat
being very evenly distributed ; a few hamels that were shown at
Johannesburg Fat Stock Show, 1918, were killed during the winter
of 1919, giving from 90 lb. to 115 lb. of dressed carcass.

These weights and the quality of mutton will command the atten-
tion of the best buyers on the London market, and if farmers will try.
even on a small scale, this class of cross breeding, they will be so
satisfied with the results that in a very short time there would be
many thousands of sheep fit for export. One of the great advantages
in breeding crossbreds from the Persian ewe is that the progeny
appear to inherit all the good qualities of their dams, being resistant
to most of the many diseases unfortunately found in this country,
and their fattening qualities are in no way diminished nor their
hardiness, while, in addition, they have a more symmetrical frame.
They will thriA'e and do equally well as their mothers on the veld,
and neither grass seed nor ticks worry them much, although it is
much better, of course, if the latter can be kept down, especially as
these sheep can be dipped in almost any kind of dip at fortnightly
intervals without doing the wool any harm, thus assisting in cleansing
the farm from ticks.

Another great advantage is that even the third cross do not grow-
any belly wool to speak of; their points are also, comparatively
speaking, bare, and the head is quite free from wool, so that in a
country where it would be quite impossible to keep Merino sheep
successfully because of the grass seeds, the cross will thrive and pay
much better.

Of the April, 1918, lambs which were fed all the winter on
green feed until September, and ever since out on rough hill veld
country, with very little grass and a little thorn bush, the majority
at the beginning of 1920 were fit for market and have all
grown out well. This shows what ad^^erse conditions they are able to
stand. Another point worth consideration is the Suffolk ram; he
is just right for this cross, seems to nick very well, and is, in the
opinion of the writer, about the best of the English breeds for the
purpose, as he has the frame and covering of flesh, the good thick
thigh, and is a hardy, active, thrifty sheep; taking him all round,
he seems to adapt himself to adverse conditions in a way that shows
he has come to South Africa to stay.

Suffolks are, at the present time, very scarce, the supply beiug
far from equal to the demand, and there is an excellent opening for
a few breeders of rams, who will not only be making money them-
selves but be assisting other farmers who wish to push this line of
cross-breeding but find it impossible at present to get rams at any
price.

Farmers must not be tempted to use half or three-quarter bred
Suffolk-Persian rams for cross-breeding purposes, as they wdll not
give the results obtained by the use of the pure Suffolk ram.

Breeding Sheep for the Export Trade.

841

The above experiment has not yet been concluded, but lias ^-jne
far enough to prove without a doubt that its application ns a cini-
mercial proposition assures success.

Other experiments have still to be conducted with some of the
Eno'lish breeds of sheep on our native stock to ascertain which cross
will give the best results. There are large areas where millions of
more or less nondescript native sheep are being depastured, and the
result of crossing them with a desirable mutton sheep will have a far-
reaching eifecr on the lamb and mutton export trade of South Africa.

Elsenburg School of Agriculture.

Winning Friesland Group, Rosebank Show, 1919.

Lucerne Seed.

There are no regulations in force providing for the examination
of lucerne seed prior to shipment, but when requested to do so by
shippers the Department undertakes the inspection of such seed to
ascertain its freedom from dodder, and carries out a germination
test, the charge for the service being 3d. per bag. Each bag is
stamped with the Government's mark to show that it has been
examined, and a certificate is issued to the effect that the seed is
free from dodder and stating the percentage of its germinal power.
Capetown is the only port at present where such tests are carried out.

It may be mentioned that the requirement of the Cominonwealth
Government that 5 per cent, of the total bulk of lucerne seed imported
into Australia must be stained with saffarin has been withdrawn for
the present.

842 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

A CHEAP SERVICEABLE HIVE MADE FROM
PARAFFIN BOXES.

By S, H. Skaife, M.A., M.Sc, Entomologist, School of
Agriculture, Cedara, Natal.

At the recent agricultural shows held at Pietermaritzburg and
Durban a double-sided hive for Hoffman frames was shown as part of
the Cedara School of Agriculture exhibit. This hive, which was
made entirely out of empty paraffin cases by the students at Cedara,
attracted a good deal of attention, and many inquiries were received
concerning the details of its construction. The following directions
are, therefore, given more especially in the interests of those desirous
of keeping a few colonies of bees, who are deterred from making a
start by the initial outlay involved. These directions are not intended
for the skilled carpenter, but only for the average man who has little
time or skill to devote to the elaboration of dove-tailed joints and
other refinements of the highly finished article.

A photograph of the complete hive, in use in the apiary at the
above school, is shown in figure 4. Its construction is simplicitj-
itself ; the only tools required are hammer, saw, and plane, and the
materials from which it is constructed consist of a few empty paraffin
or petrol boxes. The component parts of the hive are shown in
figure 5.

The paraffin box is just of the size required for the brood
chamber, and this fact does away with much tiresome measuring and
ensures a certain degree of accuracy otherwise difficult to attain. The
brood chamber (figures 1-3) consists essentially of an empty paraffin
box from which the sides have been removed, the lid replaced, and
the whole turned on its side. The box, when taken this way, will
just accommodate ten Hoffman brood frames, but the sides are too
thin to afford the requisite amount of strength or of protection for the
bees, hence they must be reinforced.

Narrow strips of wood are nailed along each side, as shown in
figure 2, and on top of these a second side is nailed securely (figure
3). This not only greatly strengthens the box, but at the same time
makes a double side to the chamber with an air-space in between,
which keeps the bees cool in summer and warm in winter, a very
important factor in successful beekeeping. But the exposed ends
(figure 3e) are insufficiently protected from the weather and would
soon warp, hence these have to be bound in strips of tin cut from
empty paraffin tins (figure 5c). These strips are cut out wdth a pair
of tin shears to the shape shown in figure 7 and nailed on with half-
inch tacks. Binding the corners in this way renders them impervious
to the weather and makes the joints as strong as any dove-tailed joint
could be.

To complete the brood chamber, pieces of wood have to be nailed
on the inner side of each end to form ledges for the support of the
frames. A longitudinal cross-section of the brood chamber, with a

A Cheap Serviceable Hivf.

843

1.

a.

£>.H-5>

Fig 1.— Brood Chamber, 1st Stage in Construction. FiG. 2. — Brood Chamber, 2nd
Stape. Fig. .3.— Brood Oiamber, 3rd Stage.

844

Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

Hoffman frame in position, is shown in figure 6. The inner pieces (a)
measure 8| inches by 14 inches by f inch, and are cut from the sides of
a paraffin box. They are nailed on the inside of each end, flush with
the bottom, and seven-eighths of an inch from the top. A narrow
strip of iron, such as is used in binding packing cases, is now nailed
along the top edge of each of these end-pieces so that it projects
above the edge for a quarter of an inch (figure 6a). The edge of this

Fig. 4. — Photograph of one of the Hives in use in the Apiary, Ceilara School of
Agriculture. Danzenbaker Hives in the background.

iron strip forms the only point of contact between the frames and
the sides of the hive, hence the bees are unable to gum the frames
fast with propolis, or bee-glue, a feature which greatly simplifies the
manipulation of the frames. At the same time a passage-way is left
for the bees beneath the ends of the frames, and this prevents their
being crushed when the frames are moved.

The Hofi^man frames are turned out so cheaply by machinery
nowadays that it does not pay to make them at home. They can be
bought of any dealer in beekeeper's appliances, and cost aboTit 5s. 6d.

A Cheap Serviceable Hive.

845

a dozen. Ten are required for each brood chamber, so five dozen
would be sufficient for six hives. The copper staples shown at (c) m
iio-ure 6 are supplied with the frames, and serve to keep the frames

Fig. 5.— Complete Hive, showing component parts. <>. Stand, b. Bottom Board.
c. Brood Chamber, d. Queen Excluder, c. Super. /. Cover.

accurately spaced from the ends of the hive. They should project
a quarter of an inch from the sides of the frame, and m nailing them

^4:6 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

A Cheap Serviceable Hive. 847

in position a notclied piece of wood, a quarter of an inch in thickness,
should be used as a guide (figure 10).

The porch over the entrance, shown in figure be, is not absolutely
necessary, but it gives a finished appearance to the hive and also
affords some protection from the weather, so it is worth the little
troubio entailed in nailing it on. Two coats of white paint are now
all that is required to complete this portion of the hive.

The " super " (figure be) is made in exactly the same way as
the brood chamber, only in this case the box has to be cut down to
the required width. The Hoffman extracting frame is only five and
three-eighths inches in depth, so the super must be made five and five-
eighths inches in depth, the extra c^uarter of an inch being allowed
for the bee space at the top. The ledges inside must be so arranged
that when the frames are in position the bottoms of the frames are
fiush with the bottom of the super, and the tops are a quarter of an
inch down from the top edge of the super. It is necessary to pay
careful attention to this spacing in the making of any hives, for if
spaces less than three-sixteenths of an inch wide are left anywhere
in the hive the bees are liable to fill them up with propolis, and if
spaces wider than three-eig^iths of an inch are left bur-combs may
be built in them and cause trouble. Thus, in providing for passage-
way's for the bees, it is usual to leave spaces of a quarter of an inch
in depth. Shallow extracting frames for the super cost 2s. 6d. a
dozen, and ten are required for each super.

The lid can be made to any desired pattern, but that shown in
figure 5/ is simple in construction and aft'ords arhple protection from
the weather. It is double, slopes from front to back, and is covered
with malthoid or similar material. The bottom board is also double,
and so made that the floor of the hive slopes gently downward from
back to front. The sides of the bottom board must be made of wood
at least three-quarters of an inch thick in order to afford a firm base
to support the bodj- of the hive. They can be made from the ends
of paraffin boxes cut and joined as shown in figure 9. The stand
(figure 5a) is easily made and needs no detailed description.
Finally a sheet of queen excluder zinc must be purchased, cut to
fit the top of the brood chamber, and bound round the edges with
wood three-eighths of an inch thick (figure bd). In placing this queen
excluder on the hive, the wooden frame is placed uppermost ; thus
there is a space three-eighths of an inch wide left at the bottom of the
super when it is placed in position, and this forms the bee-way. If
the beekeeper intends to go in for comb-honey production only, the
queen excluder is unnecessary, as the queen rarely enters supers filled
with section-boxes and separators.

The Journal aims at keeping farmers informed of what the
Department of Agriculture is doing, also of such matters affecting
their interests as come under its purview. The Journal contains
original articles for the guidance of the faimer on the many and
diverse problems which face him. Every farmer should read it and
keep it.

848 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

PRICKLY PEAR AS A STOCK FOOD.

By Chas. F. Jtritz, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C., Agricultural Eesearcli
Chemist, Capetown.

The prickly pear, like all piajits which contain much water, is of
great service to drought-stricken stock in arid countries, but it follows
of necessity that because it contains so much water it cannot at the
same time contain much solid nourishment- Those green stem-joints,
which are also called sections or cladodes, but which we generally —
but wrongly in the case of the prickly pear — call " leaves," often
contain as much as 90 per cent, of water, and, accordingly, form too
one-sided a diet for stock unless more "solid" food is given at the
same time, in order to keep up the balance. Animals may be kept
aliA-e for some time on prickly pear alone, but they lose in condition.

The value of prickly pear lies in its capability of being used as
a roughage in. normal times, and as a supplementary food for eking
out a scanty supply of other food-stuffs under drought conditions.

Mr. Ingle, when Chief Chemist of the Transvaal in 1908, pointed
out how refreshing and welcome a winter stock-food the prickly pear
would prove in the Transvaal, and he recommended burning olf the
prickles from the leaves (as for convenience sake I shall continue in
this paper to call the stem-joints) by means of a blow-lamp, and then
slicing the leaves in a turnip cutter.

Many analyses of the leaves of various kinds of prickly pear have
been published, showing* that the amount of water which they contain
when fresh is about 90 per cent. Of the remaining 10 per cent.,
which constitutes the dry matter, mineral substances like salt and
phosphates make up nearly 2 per cent., about 3 to 4 parts per thousand
consist of albuminoid or nitrogenous matter, and one part in a
thoiisand is oil or fat. The fibrous material in the fresh prickly pear
leaf does not make up much more than one per cent. The quantity
of sugar in the leaf is g'enerally under one per cent., and about 2 to 3
per cent, is made up of mucilage or gum-like substances.

If the prickly pear leaves are chopped up and allowed to dry out
they become relatively more nutritious. The amount of moisture
contained in them may drop to about 10 per cent. Of this dried leaf
14 or 15 per cent, may be mineral substances, 3 per cent, albuminoids,
or proteins, as they are now more generally called; oil or fat would
be nearly one per cent. ; fibre about 10 per cent., sug.ir 5 or 6 per
cent; and mucilage approximately 18 per cent.

As regards the fresh fruit of the prickly pear, it is estimated that
the husk constitutes 37 per cent, and the seeds 4 per cent. The
husk contains about two-thirds of its weight of water, and the shelled
fruit slightly less. The whole fruit contains between 6 and 7 per cent,
of proteins and about 11 to 12 per cent, of sugar.

In the New Mexico Experiment Station, some 14 or 15 years
ago, the possibility of using a certain variety of prickly pear, Opuntia
lindheivieri, in making up a stock ration was investigated. The

Prickly Pear as a Stock Food. 849

nutritive ratio, that is to say, the ratio of muscle-forming- to heat-
giving- constituents was found to be 1 to 18. This is too wide for
milch cows, which need a ratio of about 1 to 6, and it was, therefore,
sugg-ested that the prickly pear should be balanced by other food, for
example in such a ration as the following : —

Prickly pear, 40 lb. ; wheat bran, 10 lb. ; maize stover, 12 lb.

Another ralion suggested was: Prickly pear, 60 lb.; brewers'
grains, 14 lb. ; cotton seed meal, 1 lb.

This would probably need a little more widening by the addition
of coarse, dry fodder.

Yet another ration was suggested by Dr. R. F. Hare, namely: —
Prickly pear, 50 lb. ; wheat bran, 10 lb. ; lucerne, 10 lb.

As an emergency farm crop for use in periods of drouglit. and of
value in dairy farming, the planting of prickly pear has been
recommended in the United States both on account of the hardiness
of the spiny plants and the small amount of handling which they
need, as well as for the other advantages possessed by such a crop,
namely, its practical immunity from injury by wild animals, and the
absence of any need for fencing it.

As indicated above, dried prickly pear contains more nuliiment
than when fresh, and in some parts of India the dried plant is
moistened with salt and fed to cattle. Proposals have been made
in India for the importation of dried prickly pear leaves into other
provinces ; in South Africa for the manufacture, under patent, of
dry fodder balls ; in Australia for the preparation of a finely-ground,
sun-dried material. In none of these cases is there any record of the
actual adoption of the proposals ; this may be due partly to the extra
cost of preparation and parily to doubts regarding the feeding value
of the materials.

Various attempts have been made in India to use unmixed prickly
pear as an ensilage, but not with very much success. More satisfac-
tory results were achieved by alternating layers of prickly pear and
maize or sorghum. In South Africa the experience has been similar;
the prickly pear ensilage could not be used alone, and grass or linseed
meal had to be fed along" with it. In Queensland it was found that
alternate layers of prickly pear and maize made an excellent ensilage.

There are objections on the part of many to the use of prickly
pear as fodder. When fed alone the fibre tends to form balls in the
digestive canal. Many believe that the prickly pear causes general
debility and purging, and, furthermore, the animals by passing the
seed broadcast soon infest large tracts of countiy. Evidence was
given before more than one Select Committee of the Cape House of
Assembly to the effect that cattle are frequently so scoured out by
prickly pear that death results, and that the small spines of the fruit
cause inflammation of the mouth, gullet, and even stomach, until the
whole internal lining of the digestive organs becomes a mass of
thickened and inflamed mucous membrane.

The small spines, too, often get into the animals' eyes and blind
them. Although cattle, sheep, and goats take to prickly pear leaves
which have been deprived of their spines by singeing, scouring is
apt to occur in such cases as well, but the tendency may be lessened by
giving the stock coarse feed or dried grass.

The spiny character of the leaves naturally gives rise to a great
deal of trouble, and in the United States the most common practice is

850 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

to remove the spines by singeing. Then the leaves are chopped up
or the cattle turned loose into the prickly pear paddocks. For singe-
ing, either a plumber's blast-lamp or a bush fire is employed, or else
the leaves are boiled or steamed for some hours; conversion into silage
is also said to soften the spines.

There is no question that, apart from its disadvantages, the prickly
pear has often been of service in South Africa for ostriches, o.ren, and
pigs. The last named have been found to relish the plant, which,
when mixed with dry grain, afforded them a fairly fattening food.

Some years ago the Cape Agricultural Journal described a
successful experiment in pig-feeding carried on during a lengthy
period on a New South Wales farm. Prickly pear leaves were boiled
for some hours with meat and fed to nearly 200 pigs for several months
without any of them developing the least internal trouble from the
spines or bristles.

Althoug'h the aperient nature of the plant at times proves a draw-
back, it was the custom in South Africa, as long as thirty years ago,
to feed ostriches on prickly pear leaves denuded of their spines, and
so enable them to withstand severe droughts. The late Hon. A.
Douglass, whose life was so closely associated with the rearing of
ostriches, used to feed the chopped up leaves to his birds and milch
cows during drought and general scarcity, with marked success, and,
according to Mr. Burtt-Davy, Mr. H. Abrahamson, of Longhope.
Cape Province, lost none of his ostriches during a period of drought,
because he fed them on prickly pear leaves and fruit, but his neigh-
bours, who neglected to use the prickly pear, although they had it on
their farms, lost heavily. In India, it was found that caution had
to be exercised in feeding prickly pear to ostriches, because of the
danger of intestinal trouble. Mr. P. W. Thornton, experimenting
at the Robertson Station, Cape Province, found that ostriches did well
on prickly pear in all cases, but best when lucerne ha^v was added.
Draught cattle did fairly well when idle, but lost in condition when
worked. Neither milch cattle nor pigs did at all well on unmixed
prickly pear. In the Eastern Province Mr. J. Martin, of Persever-
ance, pulped the prickly pear so as to render the spines harmless, and
then fed it, together with rakings from forage lands and mealie meal,
to slaughter oxen which had become poor through drought. After
two and a half months of this feeding the oxen were found in first-
class condition.

In the Canary Islands cattle have been kept alive by feeding on
prickly pear; in Cyprus, Spain, on the Barbary and Syrian coasts,
and in fact in nearly all the Mediterranean countries, it is used as
fodder for animals, the smooth-leaved varieties being prefeiTed.

On several occasions during* periods of famine, prickly pear has
been used in different parts of India as an emergency food-stuff
for cattle ; for instance, cattle in the extensive Bellary district, in the
Madras Presidency, were kept alive in the great famine of 1876-1877
by a mixture of one part of rice straw and 40 parts of pear leaves,
which had been cut up after removal of the spines. Similar experi-
ences were repeated at intervals until as late as 1912, when the plant
was used as an emergency feed in the Poena district. As an example,
it is recorded that on the latter occasion a herd of cattle was kept alive
for eight months on a daily ration of 1000 lb. of prickly pear and 60 lb.
of cotton seed. One of the latest recorded stock-feeding experiments

Prickly Pear as a Stock Food. 851

with prickly pear was carried out at the Governinent Civil Dairy,
Pooua, in 1914, when it was shown that singed and sliced prickly pear
mixed with 6 per cent, of its weight of cotton seed enabled animals
which had become very poor from semi-starvation to regain condition.

In its application to milch cattle in particnhir the effect of prickly
pear feeding has been shown to increase the quantity wliile maintain-
ing' the quality of the milk. In Corsica, and Sardinia a daily ration
of about 50 or 60 lb. per cow, comprising prickly pear finely cut up,
mixed with bran or dry grass, was fed to impoverished cows, which
had almost ceased their supplies, with good results. Mr. Martin,
whose experience in feeding prickly pear to oxen has been quoted above,
found his milk supply greatly augmented by utilizing prickly pear as
a feed for his milch cows. In Mexico, milch cows maintained their
yields, in spite of the increasing coldness of the season, when fed on
prickly pear, thus minimizing the need of purchasing expensive winter
fodders.

The main points to be noted in connection with feeding prickly
pear to stock are the following: — The leaves consist mostly of water,
and hence are useful in times of drought. F^r the sam.e reason they
are not rich in nourishment unless dried. The spines on the leaves
should be removed before feeding to stock, and the thorns on the fruit
are likewise a source of danger. During drought the prickly pear
forms a valuable emergency ration, but cannot be advantageously fed
to stock unless mixed M-ith more concentrated food. To such food,
however, it is a valuable accessory.

Pure Salt for Hides.

The following is extracted from " Hide aud Lpather " of 1st May,
1920: —

Hides should be salted only with clean, pure salt, free from
alum, according to a recent statement of th.e Bureau of Chemistry,
United States Department of Agriculture. This Bureau is making a
study of the best methods for skinning farm animals and curing hides
in order to produce a high-grade leather. Salt containing alum partly
tans the hide and sets the hair so that it cannot be removed. Hides
which cannot be unhaired properly bring a loss to the tanner and
prejudice him in future purchases against hides from the same source.

Tanners recently submitted to the Bureau of Chemistry green
salted hides which could not be unhaired after liming in the usual
way, in order to find out the cause. An examination showed that on
the basis of the dry hide unhaired spots contained 0.8 per cent, of
alumina, and the portions where the hair was not loosened contained
1.25 per cent, of alumina. The portions of the hide which contained
0.8 per cent, alumina unhaired with difficulty, while the portions
containing 1.25 per cent, could not be unhaired even on the beam.
An inferior salt containing alum had been used in salting the hides
and had set the hair.

This incident illustrates the importance of attention to details in
the handling and curing of hides and skins. Farmers, country
butchers, and dealers are advised by the Department to use only clean,
pure salt in salting hides. The presence of alum in salt is especially
objectioDable, and as little as 5 per cent, in Ihe salt can be detected
usually by its astringent, bitter taste.

852

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

PARASITIC ATTACK ON EUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS.

A Note on Stereum hirsutum in Plantations in the

Transvaal.

By A. M. BoTTOMLEY, B.A., Mycologist, Division of Botany, and
K. A. Carlson, Conservator of Forests, Transvaal Conservancy.

Before proceeding with the actual account of the damage caused
by StereuTu hirsutuTn on Eucalyptus globulus trees in Transvaal
plantations, a few preliminary remarks with regard to the organism

Plate I. (PJioto hy 1. B. Pole Evans.)

Stereum hinsutinii on living EiaalijjHu^ (jlohuhiit at " Cliffendale."

itself may not be out of place, and may be of some interest to those
to whom the fungus may be unfamiliar and who are concerned with
growing gum plantations as an industrial proposition, e.g. as timber
for mine props.

Parasitic Attack on "Eucalyptus Globulus." 85.3

Stereuvi hirsutum is very widely distributed and is one of our
commonest saprophytic fungi. Its fruiting- bodies or sporopliores
may usually be found growing in bracket-like fashion on dead
trunks, stumps, etc., though occasionally and, in fact, usually in
the early stages of growth it forms a yellow crust on the wood on
which it develops. As a rule these sporophores are produced in large
numbers forming successions of brackets one above the other, close
together, but seldom overlapping (Plate I). Each individual fructi-
fication consists of a thin but firm leathery structure with a lobed
margin. Its upper surface is dingy ochraceous to grey in colour,
faintly zoned, and covered with fine grey hairs, while the under-
surface, the region which produces the spores or reproductive bodies
of the fungus, is smooth and bright ochraceous in colour. Under
moist conditions the fungus is expanded at right angles to its point
of attachment, but on drying it contracts and curls over.

The fungus under discussion is one of a very large number of
fungi belonging to the genus Stereum. With the exception of a few
which grow on humus, the members of this group occur on wood and
are generally considered to be saprophytic, i.e. depend for their
existence on dead organic matter. Some few, however, though
usually saprophytic are known at times to be active parasites, and
as such cause a considerable amount of damage, though even in these
cases it is very probable that the fungus starts as a saprophyte on
dead wood, such as is found in dead branches and wounds, and
spreading from this to living wood eventually becomes parasitic on the
latter. Amongst the best known of those parasitic Stereums which
are of economic importance, are S. jxurpureuvi — said to be the cause of
" silver-leaf " disease in the plum, peach, apricot, etc. — *S'. rugosum
which parasitises the cherry laurel to such an extent in some parts as
to preclude its cultivation — S. frustulosuvi which attacks oaks in
Germany, causing a rot known as "partridge wood " — and lastly the
fungus under discussion, >S'. hirsuturrv, the well-known cause of
" white-piped " and " yellow-piped " wood in oaks in Europe.

It has been suspected for some time that S. liirsutuvi was respon-
sible in this country for damage to various trees other than oaks,
e.g. peach trees, but no clear proof of its parasitism has been forth-
coming. Eecently, however, this fungus has been found growing on
the living stem tissues of Eucalyptus globulus, the ordinary blue-gum,
in plantations on the farm Cliffendale, near Eoodepoort, Witwaters-
rand. So far, however, the fungus has not been found on living tissues
except at Cliffendale, though careful examination has been made of it
in gum plantations on the farms The Willows, District Pretoria, and
Lions Glen, near Amsterdam, District Ermelo, where it is abundantly
present as a saprophyte.

The following observations were made on the attack at the three
places mentioned : —

Cliffendale.

The plantation is situated in a sheltered valley, about five miles
north of Eoodepoort, on gently sloping ground with a north aspect,
sheltered from the south wind, and at an elevation of between
4600 feet and 5000 feet. The soil is a red sandj' loam of good depth,
probably resting on shale or quartzite. The rainfall is estimated at
between 30 and 33 inches, and the situation is hot in summer with cold

854

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

nights in winter. The species grown are Erie. gJohulns, E. rohusta,
E. tereticornis, E . aviygdalina, E. longifolia, and E . rostrata. About
two-thirds of the stand contains E. glohiihis, fairly pure with a
sprinkling of the other species, while in tlie remaining third the other
species predominate.

Originally planted in 1890, the whole area was clear felled in
spring, 1911. In 1917 an unhealthy appearance was observed in the
second growth of trees, some of which were dying back in the tops.
This was at the time attributed to something unsuitable in the subsoil.
In 1919 the larger of the unhealthy trees, 8 to 10 inches in diameter,
were felled, but the wood of many of these was found to be useless,
being rotten inside. It was then discovered that many dead old
stumps of the trees cut in 1911 were covered with fruiting bodies of
the fungus Sfereum hirsutinii, which had also spread on to the living
stems of the second growtli. Microscopic examination of the latter

Plate II.

{Photo by I. B. Pole Eraiin.)

Stump of E. glohvlux showing discoloration and soft dry rot in centre
caused bv S. hirmtum.

revealed the presence of fungal threads or mycelium, i.e. the vegetative
part of the fungus, in the living tissues of the stem, causing a
yellowish-brown discoloration and in advanced stages of infection a
disorganization and destruction of the tissues resulting in a typical
soft dry root. (Plate II.) The fruiting bodies of the fungus were
not, however, always present on infected trees, and it was only on
telling that the rot inside was disclosed, showing the insiduous nature
of the disease.

As a result of careful observation it was concluded that the disease
had originally started in the stumps, where it had gained ready
.entrance through the exposed cut ends. From these it had then

Parasitic Attack un " Eucalyptus Globulus.' .s5;j

spread to living tissues, either by means of the mycelium invading new
shoots directly from the infected stumps or by dissemination of the
spores of the fungus which are produced in immense quantities by the
sporophores, and which through the agency of wind and rain, on
finding suitable lodgment in any wounds that may be present, germi-
nate and set up new infections.

The above conditions were observed in the two blocks of nearly
pure E. globulus. Immediate felling of these blocks was recom-
mended, to be followed by piling and burning all debris of leaves and
branches on top of the infected stumps to destroy the sporophores and
thus prevent infection spreading by means of the spores to the adjoin-
ing block Painting stumps with carbolineum or tar was also
suggested as an alternative preventive measure.

The recommendations were carried out, and on inspecting the two
blocks, in June, 1920, a crop of coppice growth l)ad again sprung up,
and of fairly normal appearance, except for a somewhat dingy colour,
from 2 to T feet in height.

The stumps were again covered with an abundance of fruiting-
bodies, showing that the bxirning process had only a temporary effect
and did not destroy the fungus inside the stumps. The young coppice
shoots growing from diseased stumps showed light brown discoloured
streaks on the bark directly adjoining the stump. Examination of
these revealed the fact that the discoloration penetrated as far as the
cambium and as traces of mycelium were found in this area it was
concluded that this discoloration was probably due to the fungus
spreading from the stump into the new shoot.

In a corner of one block some trees had apparently been cut after
the felling and burning of the main portion, the 'inner wood of the
stumps of which also disclosed a light brown discoloration and the
soft dry rot characteristic of the action of the fungus. (Plate II.)

Although the fungus had attacked dead wood in the stumps of all
species, a careful search failed to discover it on the living tissue of
anj' other species than E. globuhts, either on young shoots or live
stumps.

In the third block the various species are more or less confined to
pure groups with only a small percentage of E. globulus. Felling was
here only recently begun and so far confined to E. rostrata.

Here again there was no sign of the fungus on living tissue
except on E. globulus. Practically every tree of this species was,
however, badly attacked, the lower part of the stems being generously
covered with fruiting bodies to a height of several feet, while the
cambium of young shoots was jienetrated by the mycelium.

The Willows.

Local conditions in this situation differ very slightly from those
at Cliffendale. It is ten miles east of Pretoria, in a wide open valley,
at an elevation of about 4500 feet with a north aspect and A^ery gentle
slope. The soil is here also of a sandy nature, but the shale is more
pronounced and nearer the surface. The rainfall which averages
28. oG inches is probably a couple of inches less than at Cliffendale.
The principal species in the area, where the fungus was found, are
E. resinifera, E. rostrata, E. tereticornis, and E. sidetoxyloiri.
E. globulus is confined to an avenue and a few scattered specimens.

850 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Felling' of second growth was in progress here also. The fungus
was present on dead stumps, though less abundantly than at Cliffen-
dale, but m no instance could it be found on living wood, even in
E. globulus, though diligent search was made among old and young
coppice shoots growing directly from heavily infected old stumps.

Most of the wood felled at time of inspection was E. resinifera and
E. rostrata; all of good quality. Growing trees were healthy and
vigorous looking.

Stumps of felled trees were sprayed with "winter spray," but
less than a year later, previously infected stumps were again produc-
ing fresh sporophores, proving that the spray is quite ineffective in
destroying the fungus inside the wood.

Lions Glen.

Lions Glen is situated about five miles from the Swaziland border,
north of Amsterdam, at an elevation of about 5600 feet, with an
average rainfall of 35 inches, and frequent mists.

The plantation in which the fungus was here found is on a slight
slope with an east aspect. The soil is granitic and open. The stand
is composed of pure E. globulus, about 25 to 30 years old, and
ranging up to about 24 inches diameter breast high. A number of
these trees have at some time been killed by ring-barking, and the
dead wood is now badly infected with the fungus. From this source the
infection has spread, through the medium of sporophores, to the outer
bark of a large number of the living trees in the stand, which is now
covered with both fruiting bodies and the mycelium of the fungus in
large quantities. Specimens of both dead and living bark were
examined, and it was found that while the dead bark was heavily
infected with the fungus, showing not only the discoloration and dis-
organization of the tissues characteristic of the organism in question,
but tlie presence of its mycelium ramifying through the tissues, the
living bark on the contrary could not be definitely stated to be infected
owing to the absence of any mycelium. Owing to the fact, however,
that discoloration was starting in the living tissues adjacent to the
infected dead bark, and further that all discoloured cracks in the
living tissues contained an abundance of mycelium, it was thought
quite possible that the fungus might be encroaching into this part.
However, no prediction as to what part the fungus would play in the
future could be made as the virulence of the disease seems to be
directly dependent on the general health of the trees and on climatic
and soil conditions. Actual observation of the trees in question over
an extended period is therefore the only means of discovering this
point.

Conclusions.

The chief conclusion to be drawn from the above investigations is
that attack by Stereum hirsutum, on living tissues of eucalypts is
probably confined to the species E. globulus.

So far the parasitic form of the fungus has only been discovered
in the Cliffendale plantations, though infection of dead wood has been
found in widely separated areas. It is not unlikely, however, that
attack on living wood may exist in other blue gum plantations, and a
thorough investigation of all such, especially those that have under-
gone felling operations at some time or other, should be made.

Parasitic Attack on " Eucalyptus Globulus." 857

Pending a thorongli investigation of other plantations, and
correlation of all the evidence as to local conditions, etc., it is difficult
to assign the canse of the attack at Cliffendale with confidence. The
most obvious thing is to ascribe the outbreak to lack of vigour of the
trees due to unsuitable local conditions of soil, or climate, or both
these factors, and if so the reason for immunity of living tissue at
The Willows where these conditions differ only slightly from Cliffen-
dale is not clear. On the other hand, at Lions Glen, where the local
conditions approach those of the natural habitat of the blue gum more
than at either of the other two places there is at least a suspicion
that living tissue may shortly be attacked. Possibly the explana-
tion may be found in differences of strain of the fungus, a supposition
that can only be verified by introducing the fungus from one place to
another or by experiments in the laboratory.

Recommendations.

Meanwhile it is advisable to take such steps as suggest them-
selves at our present stage of knowledge to prevent loss of a serious
character.

In its saprophytic form the fungus is, of course, harmless to
living trees, even though the outer dead bark is attacked. As there
is no way of detecting the difference between this and the parasitic
form until living tissue is actually attacked, it is advisable to watch
blue gum plantations carefully and take the earliest possible steps to
destroy the fungus as soon as it first appears. If the trouble is
allowed to attain extensive proportions destruction of the fungus
becomes too costly to be practical.

As far as is known, the mycelium does not spread in the soil but
in any form of woody debris including twigs and roots, all of which
must be destroyed round the infected spot. Experience at Cliff'endale
shows that mere charring of the outside of the stumps is insufficient
to destroy the fungus as the mycelium inside remains unaffected and
soon develops fresh fructifications. The whole stump and root system
must be consumed by fire, and the following method is recommended
for this purpose : —

For large trees bore a hole 18 inches deep and 1 inch to 2 inches
diameter vertically into the infected stump, put in 1 to 2
ounces of saltpetre, fill with water and plug up. After a
month or two put a little kerosene oil in the hole and set it
alight when the stump will smoulder away to every part of
its roots. For smaller trees, holes |-incli to f-inch diameter
will suffice, and | to 1 ounce of saltpetre.

The debris should at the same time be placed round the stump
and burned. The above plan is, of course, only practical on a limited
scale.

Spraying with " winter spray," as applied at The Willows, or
painting the stumps with some disinfectant, such as carbolineum or
tar, which was tried at Cliffendale, is no more effective than charring
the outside of the stumps.

When infection has reached a stage beyond which the above
method of destruction becomes impracticable, the only remedy is to
convert an infected plantation of E. gJohlulus to an immune species
naturally adapted to local conditions. In the case of Cliffendale the
best species would be E. rostrata.

858 Journal of the Department of agriculture.

To effect this conversion the best plan is to fell the blue gums and
convert the wood into charcoal, leaving plenty of debris, in the form
of branches, twigs, and leaves, on the ground, and to burn this
shortly before replanting is undertaken. If the original stand was
deuse enough to eliminate quick grass, no further preparation of the
soil should be necessary. The newly burned soil makes an excellent
planting bed and promotes rapid growth of the young transplants.
It may be necessary to slash away coppice growth from the blue gum
stumps once or twice during the first year or two, but if the E. rostrata
have been correctly spaced, no further treatment should be necessary
until the time for first thinning arrives.

When laying down new plantations, it is advisable to exclude
E. fjlohulus in doubtful localities. In forestry it is always safer to
select species which are known to be naturally siiited to the local con-
ditions. Others may appear to do well for a time, and quickness of
early growth is an almost irresistible attraction in this respect, but if
the local conditions are foreign to the nature of the species there is
always a tendency to invite disease.

The attention of the reader is invited to Forest Department
Bulletin jN'o. ] of 1920, relative to The Growing of Mine Props on the
High Veld, which appeared in the June, 1920, number of the Agricul-
tural JouJ'iioI.

Preparation of Hides and Skins.

The following is extracted from a list of instructions circulated
by a well-known local tannery for the benefit of farmers and others,
in the flaying and preservation of hides and skins. The advice is
sound and worthy of careful attention : —

The hide or skin of any animal worth flaying is worth the trouble
of doing it properly.

Do not delay flaying until the hide or skin is semi-putrid ; avoid
cutting it unnecessarily and immediately salt it thoroughly; don't
spare the salt.

Wet Hides. — Fold hide carefully, flesh side inside, and let
remain for twenty-four hours, then drain off the water, lightly
sprinkle the hair side with salt, and again fold up icith hair side
inside into a small bundle. It will then keep without damage until
it reaches the tannery.

Dj-y Hides. — If the hides are to be dried thoroughly, open them
out after they are thoroughly salted and allow them to dry in the
shade and not in the hot sun. When they are nearly dried fold them,
with hair inside, double only, so that they lie flat and unwrinkled.

Skins should be thoroughly salted with fairly fine salt and dried
in the shade, and, when dry, should be packed carefully one on top
of the other.

Don't allow your natives to make sleeping mats of the skins or
to walk on them. The smallest scratch or crack on the grain of the
skin reduces its value very considerably. You won't notice it, but the
buyer will, and you will suff'er loss.

Don't spalk or peg out any hide or skin in the sun or even in
the shade.

Thk Mally Fruit Fly Remedy. 859

THE MALLY FRUIT FLY REMEDY.

For the Prevention of Maggots in Fruit by the
Destruction of the Parent Flies before eggs are
laid.

There are two closely related flies in South Africa, one a native
species, the other introduced from abroad. The native species pre-
dominates in Xatal, the introduced in tlie Cape and Free State, and
both abound in the Transvoal. Both flies are brio-htly coloured and
in g^eneral appearance similar to one another ; they are somewhat
smaller Dian house flies with iridescent spotted wings, shining metallic
eyes, and grey and yellow-brown bodies. Together they are spoken
of as fruit flies, and constitute one of the principal fruit pests of
South Africa. Almost all kinds of fruit are attacked, more especialh'
apricots, jjeaches, nectarines, apples, pears, quinces, mangoes, guavas,
and oranges. The damage begins when the female fly deposits its
eggs in the fruit, from which come the well-known maggots that spoil
the fruit for ordinary purposes.

Fruit flies are very ])rolific, and during the summer months a
generation will mature about every four weeks. It is therefore easy
to account for the great abundance of maggots during the summer,
when stone fruits are abundant. During autumn and winter — the
citrus season — they do not develop so rapidly. Under natural condi-
tions they are no doubt able to wait for some time for fruit to ripen.

Experience in South Africa has shown that by persistently using
the Mally Fruit Fly Eeniedy, fruit growers in town and country
alike need not suffer the loss of their fruit on account of the fruit fly.

The remedy consists in sprinkliiig a very small quantity of
poisoned bait — a dilute syrup rendered poisonous by the addition of
arsenate of lead — at frequent intervals over the trees whose fruit it is
designed to protect. The remedy acts by fatally poisoning the flies
that would otherwise sting tlie fruit and deposit eggs that would
develop into maggots and -spoil the fruit. The bait sliould be pre-
pared as follows : —

Sugar, 2h lb. or 25 lb.

Arsenate of lead (paste). 3 oz. or 2 lb.

Water, 4 gallons or 40 gallons.

The lesser quantities are for a paraffin tin. the I'lrger for a barrel.
The arsenate of lead should be thoroughly mixed with a small quantity
of water and then stirred into the bulk. The sugar may be poured into
the full amount of water and stirred till it is all dissolved. The pro-
portion of arsenate of lead is more than ample to ensure the death of
flies that take the bait, and is about as much as can be used with
safety to the foliage of peach trees. Eain-water (from an ordinary
tank) is prefeiable to that from a stream.

'Made as recommended the bait does not attract bees to an appreci-
able extent, but house flies and a number of other species feed on it to
their destruction.

860 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

An ordinary garden syringe is tlie best means of distributing the
bait. A small quantity of arsenate of lead, a packet of sugar, a
barrel, tub, or drum of convenient size, an improvised pail to carry
the poison by hand from tree to tree, and a syringe are the require-
ments. The bar across the top of a parafhn tin serves as a handle,
and also prevents any animal from drinking the bait.

The finest " rose " on the syringe should be used, and only a very-
small quantity of bait should be applied to each tree — about a pint to
a tree about 10 feet high and 10 feet wide. It is particularly
important not to overspray stone fruits owing to their extreme liability
to injury. The man should walk around the tree, keeping two or
more yards awa3% and should distribute the spray in a series of short
squirts directed so that the liquid will fall in innumerable small drops:
over and through the tree, and with no more in one part than another.
A single fill of the syringe will often be enough for one tree, and
thus the man will be back at the .starting place by the time the syringe
is empty. The mixture should be stirred before each filling of the
syringe in order to ensure uniformity of strength.

The number of applications necessary to protect a crop will vary
with local conditions and with the season. The aim should be to'
have poison present as long as there are fruit flies about to take it.
Where citrus, mango, guava, or loquat trees are present they shonld
be given one or two preliminary baitings during October so rs to
destroy any fruit flies that may have harboured there during the
winter or that may arise from mjiggots in any late-maturing fruits.
This will prevent the flies migrating to summer fruit la'er on. The
first application should be made to the earliest susceptible kinds of
fruit by the time they are half-grown and repeated every seven tO'
fourteen days, depending on the prevalei.ce ( f the pest in the
vicinity. As rain will dissolve and wash off the sweet ingredient
and leave the specks of poison in unattractive form, the baiting should
be repeated after every rain or during bright spells in rainy wenther
throughout the fly season. Very likely a single application every
three or four weeks will suffice after midsummer, especially if there
has been a succession of early treatments and if neighbours close by
have also adopted the treatment, and if, at the same time, reasonable
care has been taken to collect and destroy fallen fruit. Hedges,
vines, coffee plants, and ornamental shrubs, as well as wild fruit
plants — prickly pear, passion plant, granadilla, blackberry or
bramble, Kaffir plum, Kei apple, or Dingaan apricot, etc. — in or
immediately bordering on the garden or orchard, should be treated
so that they will serve as " carriers " to keep bait available for fruit
flies that may be harbouring there or that may alight to rest on their
journey from near-by untreated premises.

The later maturing kinds of fruit — late peaches, apples, pears,
quinces — should be baited when half-grown and the baiting continued
till the fruit is all oft\ Where citrus fruit is the main crop it is
advisable to bait any late summer fruit trees for two or three weeks
after their crop is off so as to destroy flies emerging from the soil
beneath promptly, and thus prevent their migrating to the citrus
orchard. This is an important matter, because fruit flies may bring
about serious loss to shippers of citrus fruit by stinging the fruit in
attempts to oviposit and thereby injure the surface sufficiently to serve
as a point of entrance for organisms that cause the fruit to decay on

The Mally Fruit Fly Remedy. 861

the way to market. Quite a number of different species of flies try to
feed on the surface of citrus fruit, especially if there are specks of
boney-dew from scale insects or aphides present. It is possible that
they also cause injury sufficient to induce decay ; tbese the bait will
also destroy.

If grapes are attacked it is fairly certain that peaches or other
summer fruit near by has been badly infested, and that the resulting'
flies have found their way to the vineyard. Baiting the fruit trees
will do much towards preventing injury to grapes. If infestation in
grapes is feared the vines should be sprinkled the same as in the case
of fruit trees.

Experience only will enable one to decide on the necessary
niimber of baitings under any given circumstances. Advice from
those who have bad local experience should be obtained wheiipver
possible. The bait costs so little and is so easily applied that it is best
to err on the right side and bait frequently. Much depends on
convenience. All materials should be kept in a safe but handy. place
so that time will not be wasted in getting ready for work, but the bait
should always be freshly made.

AYhere town gardens or other small holdings are concerned,
interested parties should co-operate and arrange for some one to
distribute tbe bait regularly for all of them.

Caution. — There is no necessity to sprinkle the fruit itself.
Reasonable care should be taken not to put bait on to the fruit,
but if a few drops do strike the fruit there is no cause for alarm,
because the amount of poison is so small that it is impossible for any
one to eat enough fruit at one time to get an injurious dose of arsenic.

Do not leave tins or other receptacles containing bait standing
open in places where animals can get at them and drink the poison
solution.

Keep the jar or tin containing the arsenate of lead tightly closed
so as to prevent loss of moisture, and put it away in a safe place
where children or irresponsible individuals cannot get access to it.

Fruit Export.

The following is a return of fruit shipped overseas during the month
of October, 1920 :

Ex

Ex Port

Ex

Variety.

Durban.

Elizabeth. *

Capetown.

Total.

Boxes.

Boxes.

Boxes.

Boxes.

Oranges

201

4365

2050 .

6616

Grape Fruit

—

—

124

124

Total 201 4365 2174 6740

Total shipments from all ports for July, August, and September, 1920,
were 37,438, 29,365, and 24,816 boxes respectively.
29

862 Journal of the Department of Agricultdre.

PLAN OF A SMALL FARM DAIRY.

By W. S, H. Cleghorne, B.Sc, A.M.I.Mech.E., Lecturer in
Eng-ineering", School of Agriculture, Potchefstroom.

The accompanying plan is of a small farm dairy, suitable for the
farmer who sells milk or cream or makes butter. Such a dairy should
be situated conveniently near to the cow-byre ; indeed it is often
built against the byre as a lean-to or otherwise. In the drawings, a
separate building has been shown.

If more room is desired than shown in the drawings, the milk-
room and the washroom might each be made 10 feet wide, in place of
8 feet.

The building should preferably be placed so that the milkroom
is at the cool side with regard to the sun, existing shade, etc., the
position of the cow-byre also being taken into consideration.

Whenever possible the building should be on high ground with
good natural drainage. In accordance with the Dairy Industry Act,
1918, the dairy should not be less than 150 feet from any piggery,
manure heap, or offensive stagnant watei-.

The walls of the building are of stone, 18 inches thick, and the
eaves overhang 2 feet (horizontally) beyond the walls, for the sake of
coolness. Immediately under the eaves an air-brick ventilator is
built into the outer wall of each apartment, i.e. eight ventilators in
all. The rooms are ceiled and louvered openings are provided at each
end of the corrugated iron roof. As an alternative to stone, brick
walls might be adopted, hollow or cavity walls l)eing erected in order
to make the building as cool as possible. The following methods of
heat insulation may also be mentioned : —

(1) If the building is near the coast a thick layer of dry seaweed

should be laid on sheets of paper on the top of the ceiling,
i.e. between ceiling and roof.

(2) If the building- is distant from the coast the place of the

seaweed may be taken by a layer of wood charcoal 6 inches
thick.

The use of thatch for the roof, instead of corrugated iron, would
also make for coolness. With the same end in view, the windows are
set high up in the walls. Should it be necessary to shade any window
this may be done by louvered shutters outside or blue blinds inside.

The floors are of granolithic and slope towards the gutter, which
discharges through the wall in the corner of the boiler-room, either
into the drainage system from the byre, into a french drain, or on to
the veld outside. In the latter case the drainage should be led away
in an open channel of concrete or hard bri-^ks plastered with cement
mortar. As shown in the elevations, the gutter is merely a shallow
depression in the floor. In laying the floor, 6 inches of hard-core,
i.e. stones about the size of a quarter brick, is put down and well
rammed. On the top of this a 3-inch layer of 1 : 2:4 concrete is
deposited, and this is covered by the granolithic, consisting of (1) a
layer about f inch thick, consisting of one part cement to one part

Plan of a Small Farm Dairy.

863

ii '*J b

I

I-

I

864

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

clean sand to tliiee parts granite chips capable of passing a f-inch
square mesh. (2) An iipper layer I inch thick, consisting of one part
cement to two parts granite chips capable of passing a j-inch mesh.

If it is desired to finish the granolithic " red " the requisite
quantity of red oxide of iron should be added to the materials for the
finishing layer ( (2) above]. The granolithic is turned 4 inches up the
walls to form a slrirting, with the corners rounded.

A sliding door is installed between washroom and milkroom, and
also between washroom and boiler-room. The outer doors are hung

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in two heights, so that the upper half can be left open while the lower
is closed.

The v/alls are finished inside by rendering or plastering the lower
4 feet with 1 : 3 cement mortar, and the remainder with lime mortar
of the same proportions. For the lower portion, however, if expense
is no object, white glazed bricks probably form the best finish.

In the washroom a sink is provided, preferably of white glazed
stoneware, carried on a brickwork pier. The latter should be plastered
with cement mortar smoothly finished. The waste-pipe from the sink
may discharge through the party wall into the gutter in the boiler-
room. In connection with the sink is a drain-board (grooved and

Plan of a Small Farm Dairy.

865

-slopino- towards the sink) on which cans, etc., may be placed to drip
after having- been washed. In addition, a shelf of open spar-work is
provided above the drain-board, wliile in the milkrooni are two solid

shelves for the reception of dry milk cans. An open spar-work
platform is placed in front of the sink for standing on.

The hot-water system consists of a vertical boiler and hot-water
cylinder coniiected by piping, as shown ; the water circulation is

866 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

indicated by arrows (see elevation). The system is supplied from a
supply tank on the roof, from the bottom of which tank a pipe leads
to the bottom of the hot-water cylinder. The supply tank is
replenished from the main, through a ball-cock. From the top of the
hot-water cylinder an expansion pipe, for the escape of steam, takes
off, and may be either bent over the supply tank so as to discharge
into it or carried through the roof. As an additional precaution, in
case of the expansion pipe becoming choked through deposit from
highly mineralized water or otherwise, a small safety valve, set to
open at a comparatively low pressure, should be attached to the boiler.
The service pipe to the hot-water tap or taps branches off from the
lower end of the expansion pipe.

A list of some of the quantities of materials more difficult io
estimate is appended. It is only approximate, however, because the
quantities used depend greatly on the particular workman, and on
other circumstances, such as the size of stones used in building
etc. : —

Bricks for party walls, 3000 bricks. Mortar for walls. 42 bags
blue lime ; IS^ cubic yards sand. Materials for floor, 15| bags
Portland cement; If cubic yard sand; 2f cubic yards broken
stone, to pass a 25-inch ring ; f cubic yard broken granite
to pass a f-inch ring ; ^ cubic yard granite chips to pass a
^-inch ring. Materials for lintels and sills (of 1:2:3
concrete), 7f bags portland cement; 1.1 cubic yard sand;
1.6 cubic yard broken stone, to pass a 1-inch ring.
Cement plaster for lower 4 feet of walls, bh bags portland
cement; Ij cubic yard sand. Lime plaster for upper
6 feet of walls, 6i bags blue lime; 2A cubic yards sand.

The quantities of timber, corrugated galvanized iron, piping, etc.,
can readily be measured from the drawing, which is sufficientlj^
detailed for the purpose. It is better for the person who is resjionsiMe
for the work to do- so than to rely on a list of materials, because in
the former case he gets a better understanding of what each piece nf
material is for.

Seville Oranges.

Citrus growers will be interested to hear that a farmer in the
Pietersburg District who states that his Seville trees are not affected
by frost, enabling him to grow them in areas not generally accepted
as being adapted for citrus culture, sent a sample box of Seville
oranges, used for the manufacture of marmalade, to a well-known firm
of jam manufacturers in England, who report that " they prove to be
the true bitter orange, and have made an excellent product, being
very similar to the marmalade made from Seville oranges at the
commencement of the season. They are perhaps slightly more bitter,
and not quite so aromatic, but the jellying property seems to be fully
up to standard. Such good results from bitter oranges have not been
met from any other part of the world, and . . . they must have been
grown from the Seville seed."

The Poultry Yard Month by Month. 867

THE POULTRY YARD MONTH BY MONTH.

By J. J. JoRDAAN, Lecturer and Instructor in Poultry, Glen, Orange Free State.

December.

Chickens. — Watch for worms in the growing stock, and if found treat the
birds at once. Birds eating greedily and yet remaining anaemic and in poor
condition, although otherwise in good health, may be suspected. Examine the
droppings under the perch, and if worms are found treat as follows:- — ■

Fast the birds from both food and water for at least 24 hours, then dose
individually with 1 teasj^oonful of salad oil to which has been added four to
six drops of extract of male fern. Three hours later give each bird a teaspoon-
ful of epsom salts dissolved in a tablespoonful of water. After another lapse of
three hours give them a good feed of warm bran mash. If possible, remove them
the following day to a fresh run. Dig over the old run, irrigate, and plant
something on it ; keep the birds off it for two or three months. Growing chicks
will want plenty of shade and liberal feeds of green food from now on to the
end of April.

Table Poultry. — Get all old discarded and culled birds from the breeding
pens into condition and away to market before the second week is ended. Do
not wait until two or three days before Christmas ; most people want their
Christmas fowl a few days in advance in order to finish it off.

Moulting. — By the end of the second week, a start must be made to got next
year's breeding birds through the moult as quickly as possible, so as to
mate xip in x\pril and obtain early chicks, which make the best birds. The
best ones to take are the 18-month old hens ; as they are well grown and of
sound constitution, they will respond best to the treatment, and also be excel-
lent birds to breed from the following year. Their eggs being large, and the
fertility good, they are likely to produce the strongest chickens if mated to
12-month-old cockerels. Select your birds individually according to record and
breeding. Examine them closely as to condition and also for insects. If the
latter are found dip the birds, or feather eating may break out during the
moulting period. A fat bird takes longer under each treatment to get through
the moiilt than one in good, hard condition. Give each one selected a good
dose of epsom salts and then put them in a run by themselves ; add just enough
epsom salts to their drinking water daily to make it taste " brakish " for two or
three weeks according to their condition.

Feeding. — Cut the mash food out altogether and reduce the grain rations
heavily, allowing only about two oi'nces per bird per day. This feed should
be dug into the ground late in the afternoon. Give liberal feeds of green
food.

General. — All small chick brooders want to be looked over, broken parts
repaired and missing parts replaced ; thoroughly scrub with some disinfectant,
paint with solignum and store for next breeding season. Continue waging war
against insects. Early hatched turkeys will be " shooting the red," and this
is a critical time ; give them Douglas mixture in their drinking water, one
tablespoonful to one quart of water. Their sleeping quarters must be dry.
Remove birds and houses to new runs and fresh sites if run on the colony
svstem.

CORRIGENDUM.

The desciiption of Fij^. 5, omitted from tlie plate on page 762 (Article Pupiieu capensU
November Jnxrmil, should lead : — "Fig. ">, Fruit."

868 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN,

December, 1920.

By H. B. Terry, Cert. R.H.S., Lecturer in Horticulture, School of
Agriculture, Potchefstroom.

This is a busy month in the vegetable garden, for not only must late sowings
of summer crops be made, but first sowings of autumn and winter vegetables
be thought of. Some discrimination is necessary as to what should be sown in
different districts. In the colder districts the sowing of summer crops should
cease 'ind a start made to hurry along winter crops, such as Carrots, Cabbage,
Cauliflower, and Swiss Chard.

Cabbage. — Make a first sowing of Castle, Early Savoy, Mammoth, Surehead,
Copenhagen Market, and Offenham. Keep the young plants growing vigorously
right fiom the start and control Bagrada Bug.

Cauliflower. — To obtain early heads make large sowings of Gilt Edge,
Eclipse, and Snowball as the earliest, to be followed by Veitche's Autumn
Giant and Italian Giant. Treat the seed-beds and transplant in a similar
manner to Cabbage.

Broccoli. — This is a hardy type of cauliflower, succeeding in localities too
severe for ordinary cauliflower. The heads are larger but take longer to mature.
Sutton's Autumn Mammoth and April Queen are medium late; Metropole and
Self Folding are late, requiring nine months to mature. Treat the same as
Cabbage and Cauliflower.

Beet. — A good sowing of an early sort and also a long-rooting variety
should be made for succession. Do not choose recently manured soil or the roots
will split owing to the heavy rainfall, etc.

Beans. — Sow dwarf sorts fortnightly; they mature in eight weeks.

Carrots. — A good sowing should be made for autumn ; Chatenay, Altring-
ham, Danver's Yellow, and James' Intermediate are suitable varieties.

Celery. — Pi'epare for transijlanting next month ; if not already sown it
will save time to purchase plants.

Cucumber. — Destroy any plants showing mildew and make another sowing
for succession ; do not allow any fruits to remain uncut, as they prevent others
forming.

Sweet Corn. — Sow every two weeks to keep up supplies of tender cobs later
on. The rows should be 2^ feet apart, and each plant 1 foot distant.

Lettuce. — Continue to sow every three weeks ; at this period there is always
a tendency to bolt to seed during hot weather.

Melons.- — The last sowings of this season may be made; it is necessary to
select a site with perfect drainage.

Onions.- — Store any crop that may have ripened recently. Continue to sow
for green salad onions; also sow thickly for producing small pickling bulbs;
use the Queen.

Parsnips. — On ground which was manured for some previous crop, make
a good sowing. If the soil is shallow or heavily manured the roots fork. If
sown now they should provide a good supply throughout winter.

Radish. — Try the half-long varieties now. Icicle, French Breakfast, Olive
Shaped, Long Red, and Sparkler. These stand better in the heat than turnip-
rooted sorts.

Spinach. — The New Zealand variety sown in rows 2 feet apart and thinned
out to 1 foot apart will thrive better and give more food than ordinary spinach.

Marrows and Squash. — Another sowing should be made of the bush types
if a succession is required.

Tomatoes. — Keep all growing plants tied up to protect them from storms
and disease. A spraying with bordeaux mixture will be a great help in checking
disease. Seedlings transplanted now will fruit in the autumn and until the
frosts kill them off. Too late to sow now and expect fruit, except in low veld.

Potatoes. — Plant a small crop, but prepare to plant the main crop at the
end of the month or early January on the high veld. Secure the required
quantity of seed while you may. Five Towers, Up-to-Date, Factor, King of
the Blues and Carmen are reliable varieties to hold over winter.

Notes from the "Gazette." 8o9

NOTES FROM THE "GAZETTE."

Gazette.
No. Date.

1097
\098
1099
1101
1102

8/10/20
15/10/20
22/10/20
29/10/20

5/11/20

Attention is drawn to the following matters of interest which appeared
in the Vnion Government Gazette: —

(Abbreviations: " Proc." — Proclamation; "G.N." — Government Notice.)

The compulsory dipping of cattle has been ordered (a) every
five days (in the five-day dip) for portions of Weenen,
Idutywa, Alfred, Paulpietersburg, Vryheid, Tsolo, and
Durban districts; (6) evei-y seven days (in the seven-day
dip) for portions of Lydenburg and Nqamakwe districts and
the district of Eshowe ; and (c) every three days (in the
three-day dip) for portions of Pretoria. Zoutpansberg, Pieters-
bnrg, Piet Retief, and Barberton Districts. (G. N. Nos.
1829, 1870, 1909, 1954, 1996.)

1097 8/10/20 In terms of Section 21 (/) of Government Notice No. 638 of

1915, the Magistrate of Piet Eetief District has, by Minis-
ter's Order, to take a Cattle Census for that district. (G. N.
No. 1830.)

1098 15/10/20 After the 15th November, 1920, the Cattle Stealing Act, 1898

(No. 1 of 1899), of Natal, shall have force and effect in the
District of Entonjaneni, Znluland. (Proc. No. 173.)

1098 15/10/20 The reappointment of members to Local Boards of the Land
and Agricultural Bank of South Africa for the Cape of
Good Hope, Eastern and Western areas; and the Orange

Free State and Natal areas is notified in G. N. No. 1877.

1098 15/10/20 Compulsory dipping of sheep and goats under the Scab Regu-

1099 22/10/20 laLions and the vStock Diseases Act within the period 20th

October, 1920, to 20th December, 1920, has been ordered for
portions of the Cape District and the Districts of Stellen-
bosch, Paarl, and Malmesbury (G. N. No. 1868), and for
the whole of the Bredasdorp District (G. N. No. 1869) ; for
the ])istrict of Barkly West for the period l&t November to
81st December, 1920." (G. N. No. 1906.)

1099 22/10/20 By Parliamentary resolution (Session, 1920) the Qukanca
Forest Reserve, Block I (V) of Block I, Mount Frerc Western
Reserve has been withdrawn from the demarcated forest
area. (G N. No. 1892.)

1099 22/10/20 It has been ordered, in terms of the Stock Diseases Act, No. 14
of 1911, that after 1st January, 1921, no permits for the
movement of cattle Avithin the Piet Retief District will be
issued unless such cattle are tick free and certain other
provisions are complied uith. (G. N. No. 1922.)

1099 22/10/20 The British Cotton Growing Association have again offered
£250. 10s. for prizes for two cotton growers' competitions to
be held in the Union during the forthcoming season.
Competitors must send in their names before 15th December,
1920. The conditions governing these competitions are
published in G. N. No. 854.

1099 22/10/20 An allotment of Government guano will be made early in
February next. Bona fide farmers and gardeners only
within the Union will be considered, and they are to apply
. before the 18th December to the Superintendent, Govern-
ment Guano Islands, Box 251, Capetown. (G. N. No. 870.)

«7(»

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

Gazette.

No

Date.

1101 29/10/20 Regulations relating to the reservation of portions of Common-
ages in surveyed Native Locations in the Transkeian Terri-
tories for purposes of winter grazing, are now published.
(Proc. No. 183.)

1101 29/10/20 All brands for horses, cattle, ostiiches, sheep and goats,
registered under the Brands Registr;itions Acts (C.G.H.) for
the quarter ended 31st March, 1920, are published in G. N.
No. 1932, and for the quarter ended 30th June, 1920, in
G. N. No. 1933.

1101 29/10/20 In terms of Section 16 (a) of the Stock Diseases Act. the
removal of all cattle from various farms in the Lydenburg
District has been ordered. (G. N. No. 1934.)

1101 29/10/20 For purposes of the Stock Diseases Act, certain police posts
on various farms in the Pretoria District have been declared
temporary isolation pounds. (G. N. No. 1946.)

1101 29/10/20 The appointment of Mr. P. J. du Toit as Acting Secretary
for Agriculture, as from the 1st October, 1920, has been
approved of, in terms of Public Service and Pensions Act,
No. 29 of 1912. (G. N. No. 1969.)

1101 29/10/20 Applications for holdings to be disposed of on lease and
situated in the Districts of Barberton, Pietersburg, and
Zoutpansberg will be received by the Department of Lands,
Pretoria, up to the 11th December, 1920. (G. N. No. 1940.)

1101 29/10/20 Up to 10th December, 1920, applications will be received (1)

by the Secretary for Lands, c/o Surveyor-General, Pieter-
maritzburg, for various farms to be disposed of on conditional
purchase lease, situated in Zululand, Nkandhla, Lower
Umfolozi, Camperdown, Klip River, Alfred, Polela,
Impendhle, and Weenen (G. N. No. 1972) ; (2) by the Depart-
ment of Lands, Pretoria, for various farms in the Van
Rhynsdorp Division (G. N. No. 1973') ; and (3) for certain
farms in the Ermelo and Middelburg Districts (G N, No-
1974.)

1102 5/11/20 Owing to the absence of scab therein, protection, in terms of

the Scab Regulations, has been extended to certain portions
of Molteno and Maraisburg Districts and added to the
protected Steynsburg District ; and to portions of the Hope-
town District to be added to the protected District of Brits-
town for the purposes of the above regulations. (G. N. No.
234.)

1102 5/11/20 The Department of Lands, Pretoria, will receive applications
up to 17th December, 1920, for Crown farms in the
Lydenburg, Pietersburg, Pretoria, Rustenburg, Zoutpans-
berg, Kuruman, Cape, Mafeking, Vryburg, and Hoopstad
Districts io be disposed of on conditional purchase lease.
(G. N No. 1981.)

1102 5/11/20 I'p to 10th December applications will ho received by the
Department of Lands, Windhuk (S.W. Protectorate), for
Crown farms to be disposod of on conditional purchase lease,
bituated in the Otjiwarongo, Karibib, Bethany, Gobabis, and
Windhuk Districts. (G. N. No. 1994.)

1102 5/11/20 The r;onditions and terms upon which advances may b? made
by the Minister of Lands to lessees under Crown Land
Disposal Ordinance (No. 57 of 1903, Transvaal) have been
amended. (G. N. No. 2009.)

South African Produce on the Oversea Market. 871

SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE ON THE
OVERSEA MARKET.

Extracts from Report of the Trade Commissioner
(dated 7th October, 1920).

September, 1920.

Wool. — The wool auctions during the month lasted from 22nd to 30th.
The total quantity of South African wool offered at these series was approxi-
mately 10,000 bales, but only about 1500 bales were disposed of, the remainder
baving to be withdrawn. For the best descriptions of snow-whites there was
practically no demand, and prices for these were quite 20 per cent, below those
obtained in August. Medium and inferior snow-whites declined fully 15 per
cent. There was a fair amount of competition for the better styles of long greasy
combing wools at about 10 per cent, reduction, but medium and short greasies
declined about 15 per cent. The feature of this sale was the absence of com-
petition for scoured South African wools, and the bulk of the offerings has been
withdrawn. As mentioned in the report for August, the wool market at that
time showed a downward tendency, and the result of the recent auctions has
more than confirmed the forecast. The tendency is for prices to go even lower.
It has been realized for some considerable time past that a decline
was bound to set in sooner or later owing to the unsettled state of
the market. Buyers have limited their purchases to a minimum and secured
only sufficient supplies to enable them to carry out the orders they have in
hand. Sales of Australian wools were held in Antwerp on the 23rd, and here
again prices ruled irregularly at from 5 to 10 per cent, below those obtained at
the previous sales on the 9th. It is evident that the market conditions on the
Continent closely resemble those in the United Kingdom, and buyers are only
purchasing sufficient wool for their immediate requirements. The following are
the current prices for South African wool as compared with those ruling during
ihe previous sales : —

riirrPtit Pripf.5 Prices Current at

current trices. Previous Series.

per lb. per lb.

50d.-59d. 61d.-80d.

39d.-49d. 45d.-60d.

30d.-38d. 36d.-44d.

21d.-29d. 2Gd.-35d.

17d.-27d. 21d.-31id-

12d.-19d. 15d.-20d.

14d.-19d. 16d.-22d.

9d.-12d. lld.-15d.

Snow-white, extra super, 20 per cent, cheaper ...

Snow-white, super, 20 per cent, cheaper

Snow-white, medium, 20 per cent, cheaper

Snow-white, inferior, 20 per cent, cheaper

Grease combing, long, 15 per cent, cheaper ...
Grease combing, medium, 15-20 per cent, cheaper
Grease clothing, light, 15 per cent, cheaper ...
Grease clothing, heavy. 15 per cent, cheaper ...

Mohair. — The mohair market at the commencement of the month opened
with a downward tendency and business very restricted. The Bradford spinners
have only purchased sufficient to cover the orders they have in hand, which are
few and on the small side. Stocks of mohair in this country are large, and,
at the present rate of consumption, they will take some time to work off. The
market of late has been considerably depressed owing to the threatened coal
miners' .strike, but. apart from this, prospects are none too bright. It is not
anticipated that any material increase in the demand for mohair yarn will be
experienced for some little time to come. At the close of the month the
position of the market was practically unchanged.

Hides. — Auction sales were held on the 9th, and a representative catalogue
of goods was placed before the trade. The result was again disap-
pointing, as only a few lots were sold. A small number of dry Cape hides
(thirds) were sold at lid. to 12d. per lb., but dry-salted were neglected. Since

872 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

the sales there has been a slight improvement, and a small number of wet-salted
Johannesburg hides have changed hands at 12d. Dry and dry-salted have been
neglected. Prices are quite nominal, best heavy dry hides are worth 18d., dry-
salted from IGJd. to 17d.

Goat and Sheep Skins. — 329,000 Skins were offered by auction on the 1.5th,
but nothing was disposed of, although about 10,000 skins have since been sold by
private treaty. Brokers report that there was no general demand for any class
of skin. Sales were confined to kidskins and dry damaged goat, also a small
line of medium goatskins of mixed character. In addition, a few sea damaged
were cleared.

Of 180,581 Angora skins offered, 233 only were sold, comprising a sample
of extra light Capetown at 13d. and heavy Algoa Bay at 12d. per lb.

Wattle Bark. — The market for this article is very dull, and inquiries from
the home trade are few and far between, whilst the Continent has also shown
no interest. The present value of ground bark is approximately £15 ex store,
whilst chopped is offered at £14. There are large stocks of chopped bark,,
but supplies of ground are somewhat short and are being fii'mly held.

Ostrich Feathers. — Since the sales the market has continued steady, and
some lines of all descriptions have been disjiosed of. There is no improvement
in prices, and buyers have not been anxious to purchase, except for actual
requirements. The uncertainty regarding the foreign exchange, particularly
the French, and the threatened coal strike, have had an adverse influence on
feathers as on other articles. However, with more settled conditions we may
experience a better demand, as there is certainly a feeling that in the coming
fashions ostrich feathers will take a prominent part.

Maize and Maize Meal. — During the month a fairly large business was done
both in South African maize and meal. South African No. 2 AVhite Flat and
Rhodesian made 82s. 6d. and 82s. per quarter for September-October ship-
ment. The demand for maize meal was quite good, and up to £19 per ton was
secured for white. During the past week, however, the market was in a very
weak state. South African No. 2 White Flat was offered at 80s. without resiilt,
and offers of £18. 10s. for meal failed to interest buj'ors. Generally speak-
ing, the market has slumped owing to the weakness of the American market.
Argentine maize has fallen in symiiathy and is quoted at 62s. 6d. per quarter
for September-October shipment, and 61s. 6d. October-November.

Dried Fruit.- — Although a fairly good business was done in South African
raisins at the beginning of the month at prices up to 127s. 6d. per cwt. duty
paid, the market demand has slackened off considerably, and trade is ratheV
dull. At the auction sales held on the 5th October South African raisins, in
boxes, only secured 100s. per cwt., duty paid. Valencia (new crop) are quoted
at 130s. to 140s. per cwt.

Crayfish.- — Supplies are reported to be short, and brokers consider that well-
known South African packs are worth about 107s. 6d. to 110s. c.i.f. for
96 i-lb. tins.

Fggs. — The market is very weak, duo to the arrival of large quantities from
all sources of supply, consequently prices have declined. The following are the
present prices ruling: — Argentine, 34s.; Canadian 34s. to 35s.: Irish, 38s. to
40s. ; Danish, 39s. to 42s. ; English, 45s. to 46s. per great hundred (120).

Cotton. — Ameiican Spot. — For the week ended 1st October brokers report
a small amount of business on the spot; sales 19,000 bales. The basis for cotton
fully middling and over is fairly steady, but for the lower grades cotton is
pressed for sale, and low offers woald be entertained. For new crop cotton,
the basis is distinctly lower for forward deliveries ordinary 1| in. Texas
fully middling and good middling being offered on the 29th at 200 on and 45Q
on respectively. On the 23rd ult., September " futures " closed at 19.35d. and
October at 19.05d. October " futures " closed at 17.02d. The highest for
October was 19.20d., and the lowest 16.30d.

Cotton Seed. — The market for cotton seed has been somewhat neglected,
and Bombay seed to Hull September-October and October-November .shipments
are quoted at £15 sellers. Egyptian f.a.q. new crop to London September-
October shipment is quoted at £19. 10s., whilst the same shipments to Hull are
offered at £19. 5s. Several parcels of South African cotton seed are at present
in store, but so far no sale has been effected. The value of this seed on the
ba.sis of Egyptian is probably about £13 c.i.f.

Oversea Prices op South African Produce. 873

OVERSEA PRICES OF SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCE.

Market Prices of South African Produce in the United Kingdom,

CABLED BY THE TrADE COMMISSIONER, LoNDON, FOR THE MONTH

OF October.

Wool. — Extra super scoured, 45d. to 58d. per lb. ; snow whites,
26d. to 44d. per lb. ; super long deep grown, 26d. per lb. ; super
sorted, 12 months, 22d. per lb. ; super long, IS^d. per lb. ; long combings, 17d.
per lb. The remainder, greasy combings, ranged down to : Heavy faulty, 6 to
9 months, 13d. per lb.; cross-breds, 6d. to 14d. per lb., nominal; coarse and
coloured, 4d. to lOd. per lb., nominal; kempy, 9d. to 15d. per lb., nominal;
and greys, 18d. to 38d. per lb., nominal. Owing to the coal strike the next
auctions, which were fixed for the 2oth, have been postponed.

Mohair. — The ruling prices are : Summer firsts, 20d. per lb. ; mixed firsts,
lOd. to 16d. per lb, ; Basutos, 18d. to 19d. per lb. ; winter hairs, lOd. per lb.
Prices are purely nominal. There is very little demand, with large stocks.
For Turkoy and Cape mohair a further decliac in prices is considered likely.

Cape Hides. — Sun-dried, sound, 16id. per lb. ; salted, 15Jd. per lb.

Sheep Skins. — Sound combings, 14d. to 16d. per lb. ; pelts, sound, 6d. per
lb. ; Capes, salted, 100s. to 140s. per doz. ; coar.se and coloured skins, 9d. to
lOd. per lb.

Angoi-a Goat Skins. — Light and heavy sun-dried, 12d. per lb. ; bastards,
30d. per lb.

Goat Skins. — Light sun-dried and heavy, 30d. per lb.

Seal Skins. — 45s. to 60s. each.

Wattle Bark. — Chopped, £14. 10s. per ton; ground, £1.5 per ton; extract,
£44 per ton, nominal. There are sellers at above prices, ex store, London,
but there is no demand.

Ostrich Feathers. — In ostrich feathers there is very little business doing.
Prices for most of the descriptions show a distinct decline since last sales.

Maize. — -13th, La Plata October-December parcels, 63s. ; 16th, La Plata
October-November shipments, 61s. 3d. ; 21st, La Plata October-November ship-
ments weaken, but 58s. 9d. was paid; 30th, La Plata November-December
quoted at 57s. ; South African No. 2 white flat, November-December quoted
at 66s. and yellow at 58s.

Wheat. — The Royal Commission on wheat has raised the selling price of
wheat to figures ranging from 121s. for Australian to 103s. for inferior Canadian
per 480 lb. c.i.f.

Sugar. — Prices have further declined since previous month, owing to excess
supplies in America. New York refineries are working only half-time and the
outlook is uncertain. Brokers consider the fall in prices is too precipitate, and
some improvement in the near future is not unlikely.

Citrus Fruits and Baisins. — Oranges are quoted at 30s. to 40s. per case ;
grape fruits, 27s. 6d. to 30s. per case ; naartjes, 5s. to 10s. per tray ; raisins,
100s. per cwt. The market is weak.

874 Journal of the Department op Agriculture.

Mauket Puices for other Produce of Interest to South Africa.

Cotton. — 9th, American middlings, 17.75d. ; East African, good, fair, 31d. ;
23rd, American, 15.73d.; East African, 26.00d. : 30th, American, 16.33d.;
East African, 26.00d.

Mutton (good). — 75s. per cwt.

Beef (good). — 73s. per cwt.

Eggs. — 23rd, 2872 cases arrived from South Africa, quality satisfactory.
Finest selected quoted at about 46s., fine quoted at from 40s. to 44s; 22nd,
South African eggs are 40s. per 120. The market is firm, the supply short,
and there is an upward tendency. 30th, finest selected, 45s. to 46s. ; fine,
42s. to 43s.

Sunflower Seed.- — Sunflower seed is £28 per ton.

Lucerne Seed. — £120 per ton, nominal.

Flax. — There is no market for the time being.

Kapok. — -Kapok is 9d. per lb. The market is slow.

Sisal Hemp. — £40 to £55 per ton. There is a strong demand for African,
and there is a large business being done at advancing prices.

Aloes. — Cape aloes are 65s. to 82s. 6d. per cwt. The market is quiet with
a lower tendency.

Ground Nuts. — £35 per ton. The market is steady at the lower level of
prices

NOTES FROM THE DIVISIONS.

horticulture.

The Horticulturist, writing from Durban, says : The effects of hybridi-
zation which has taken place naturally between the various varieties of
pawpaws at Winkelspruit Experiment Station, Natal, have in some cases pro-
duced weird results. A depth-planting experiment of citrus trees has been in
hand for some seasons. It consists of very shallow (almost wholly above ground),
ordinary, and very deep planting of various kinds. These experiments, to be
of any use, however, still require to be continued for several years over a
variety of areas, on differing soils and under varying climatic conditions.

Of value to banana growers are the banana varieties. There are about 20
variety plots at this station to select from.

Australian apples are very noticeable in Durban and other coastal towns ;
in fact, the local fruit seems to be entirely absent. Of the varieties imported
the Dunns and Rokewoods are the best carriers, as they come through with
little waste, packed in bushel boxes made of hardwood, but not very attractive
in appearance.

Notes from the Divisions. 875

DAIRYING.

Most creameries and cheese factories are preparing for the season, and the
services of officers of the Dairy Division have been in frequent demand. The
prospects for the 1920-21 season are favourable in some districts where good
rains have fallen, but other .areas, notably the Eastern Province, are still very
dry. A factor which is likely to retard prodviction daring the early months
of the season is the calvings which appear to be vfrv laie in most of the dairy
farming districts, due no doubt to the severe drought experienced last season
when cows got into low condition. Nevertheless a good season is predicted, and
it is .anticipated that considerable quantities of butter and cheese will be
available for export towards the end of the summer. This means that ijrices
obtainable for these products oversea will largely determine those the factories
will be able to pay for milk and cream. Consequently, farmers must be
prepared for lower prices than those which prevailed last season, which did
not allow of the surplus being exported at a profit, and considerable losses
have been sustained by creameries and cheese factories who have had to export
their surplus before tha commencement of the new season.

The Superintendent of Dairying (Mr. E. O. Challis), together with Dairy
Inspector Gow, have been engaged in grading and supervising the export of
butter and cheese at Durban, while the Assistant Superintendent (Mr. E. G.
Hardy) and Dairy Inspector Allison have been engaged on similar work at
Capetown. It is not anticipated that any more butter will be exported for a
couple of months at least. All the graded butter has been purchased by the
Food Controller, London, at a, contract price, as the sale of this commodity
in Great Britain is still under control. A condition of the contract is that
the butter must be covered by a Government Grader's certificate. Only first
and second grades are accepted, and every case is stamped with the Union
Government's grade stamp before being shipped. Creameries should mark every
case of butter packed, whether intended for export or not, with a mark or
number indicating the date of manufacture and churning it is from. Grading
regulations are in course of preparation, and after they have been gazetted, no
butter will be accepted for grading unless it is marked in accordance with
such regiilations. The quality of the butter examined was not altogether
satisfactory; a good deal of it had to be de-graded to second grade, no doubt
largely due to the fact that it had been in cold storage for several months.
" Fishy " flavour was the cause of trouble in many cases. This objectionable
flavour develops in the butter during cold storage, and has still bafHed all
efforts to ascertain its cause and means of prevention. It is probably due to
an organism which is not affected by ordinary .-.torage temperatures, but has
only rarely been found to develop in butter stored below 5° F. As pasteurisa-
tion of the cref:m would appear to be the most successful means of prevention,
creameries are strongly recommended to adopt this process more generally.
The dearth of knowledge regarding the origin of this trouble is fully recognized,
and it is hoped to carry out research work in this direction shortly.

Quantities of cheese have also been exported, chiefly from East Griqualand
factories, and shipped to the open market, as the control of this commodity
has been removed. All this cheese has been carefully graded, and should
realize good prices, particularly in view of the fine advertisement obtained by
our cheese at the recent London Dairy Show. Notwithstanding this, it is,
unfortunately, practically certain that the factories will sustain a loss owing
to the high price paid for milk last season. There appears to be still a good
deal of last season's cheddar cheese held, which will probably be exported
before the new season's make comes on the market. The position, however,
has been considerably relieved, as practically all the Australian cheese imported
earlier in the year has now been disposed of.

New co-operative creameries will shortly be running at Ladysmith, Natal,
and Empangeni, Zululand. New cheese factories will open at Estancia, Trans-
vaal, and Clanville in the Dordrecht District, Cape Province.

The possession of motor cars by two itinerant officers of this Division has
greatly facilitated the performance of their duties.

Keep your Journals 1 The contents will be indexed every six
months and a copy of the index sent to each subscriber.

876 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

RECENT AGRICULTURAL LITERATURE.

By Paul Ribbink, Librarian, Department of Agriculture.

I— UNION GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS.

Miscellaneous Reports, etc., of Intbkbst to Farmers.

{Obtninn})le from the Government Printer, Pretoria.)

Number of
Prxce per copy. Publication.

Is. Excise for the Union for the year ended 31st December, U.G. 53/20.

1919, Report of the Superintendent.
5s. I<ands Department of the Union of South Africa, U.G. 45/20.

Report for the year ended 31st March, 1919.

II.- PHE AGRICULTURAL PRESS OF SOUTHERN AND TROPICAL

AFRICA.

Selected Articles.

Die Boer (Geillustreerde Landbou-byblad van de Volkste.m), Pretoria.

15/10/20 Kalkoene, deur T. B. Cross.

22/10/20 Die Wolmark.

29/10/20 Boerebymekaar te Potchefstroom. Konferensie van Graanboere.

Die Boerevrou (Posbus 984, Pretoria).

10/20 lets oor Bye en Heuning, deur G. R. von Wielligh. Pluimvee,
deur J. J. Jordaan. Skoon- en Mooimaak van 0ns Huise,
deur Mej. M. v. d. Byl. Vereenvoudiging van 0ns Huiswerk,
deur A. H. van Gent.

Farmers' Advocate, South .African (P.O. Box 247, Bloemfontein).

10/20 Gidl-sickness, by A. F. Harber. Fertilization with Carbonic
Acid, by A. Karlsori. Drv-land Farming in Utah, III, by
H. W. Turpin.

The Farmers' Journal (Nairobi, B.E.A.).

23/9/20 Flax-scixtching Machinery. Flax Seed. Plant Life in the

Tropics {continued).
30/9/20 Introducing Kudzu. The Composition and Feeding Value of

Silage.
7/10/20 Kerry Cattle, by A. Stephen.
14/10 '20 The Flax CroD and Manure.

Recent Agricultural Literature. <S77

The Farmers' Weekly (Bloemfontein).

6/10/20 South American Cattle Industry, by Dr. E. A. Nobbs. Gum

Trees lor Timber, bv C S. Hayter.
13/10/20 The Agricultural Museum of Buenos Aires, by Dr. E. A. Nobbs.

East Coast Fever, by Geo. D. Alexander. Birds and Rodents,

by F. W. FitzSimons, F.Z.S. A Home-made Tip-cart, by

" Settler." Cape Agricultural Congress, Special Report. A

Vi«it to Pirbrio;ht, by S. Y. F.
20/10/20 Ihe Railway Rates. Fast Co;(st Fever, II, by Geo. D. Alexander.

Do Animals Thiniv? by J. Saner van Pletsen. Cape Agri-

i-iTltural Co!igrcss. Conclusion of Special Report.
27/10/20 Gum L'rees For Timber, 11, by C. S. Hayter. Holland's Bulb

Industry, by S. Y. F. Birds ITseful and Destructive, by F. W.

FitzSimons, F.Z.S. Farming Conditions in Uruguay, by Dr.

E. .A.. Nobbs. East Coast Fever, III, by Geo. D. Alexander.

Principles of Poultry Breeding, by J. Fisher, B.Sc, N.D.A.

Agricultural Organization. TransA'aal Agricultural T'nion's

Propaganda.

The Independent (Salisbury, Rhodesia).

8/10/20 The Colours of Animals, bv Bemhex.
15/10/20 The Colours of Animals (covtinued). Plant Trees.
22/10/20 The Meat Industry. Auuu.tI Maizo Muddle. Meat for Export,
Smithfield Company's Visit. 'Ware Rand, Warning to Cattle
Exporters. The Research Scheme.

South African Journal of hidiistries (Government Printer, Pretoria).

10/20 Manufacturing Iron and Steel in the Union, by Prof. G. H.
Stanley. A^' New Motor Spirit, by Dr. C. F. Juritz. The
Council of Commerce. Marking of Merchandise. The
Permanent Labour Organization of the League of Nations, by
G. E. Di Palma-Castiglione. Water-power in the Union of
South Africa, III, by F. E. Kanthack. Dealing with the
Rodent Pest, by W. F. Schlupp. A New Method of Sugar
Manufacture in Natal, by W. A. Campbell. Timber Trees for
Commercial Culture, by T. R. Sim.

Die Landhouwer (Posbus 1035, Pretoria).

30/0/20 A^erboue van Tabak, III, deur P. Koch. Bolsjewisme en die
Russiese Boer (Slot). Groiidbemesting, III, deur Dr. B. de C.
Marchand. Transvaalse Landbou Unie, Verslag van die Dage-
liks Bestuur vir die termyn 1919-20 {vervolg).

Die Landbou Weekhlad (Posbus 267, Bloemfontein).

6/10/20 Landbouonderwys in die Skool (vervolg). Die Goewernements-
bosse, deur C. Trutcr. Sprinkhaanbevegting. Suidafrikaanse
Rysmiere, III, deur C. Fuller.

13/10/20 Dorre Suidafrika (y^ryo/g), deur J. D. Schonken. Die Goewerne-
mentsbosse (vervolg). Verskillende Soorte Ko-operasies (ver-
volg), deur Dr. J. E. HoUoway.

20/10/20 'n Skaapplaas in die Colesbergse Distrik. Die Inkampsisteem
vir Jakhals (vervolg), deur P. Hamersma. Die Outomobiel
(ri rvolg), deur J. L. v. d. Merwe.

27/10/20 Dorre Suidafrika (vervolg). Landbouonderwys in die Skool
(vervolg). 'n Skaapplaas in die Colesbergse Distrik, II. Suid-
afrikaanse Rysmiere, III.'

Mitteilungen dir Farmwirtschafts-Gesellschaff fur Suedwestafrika.

1/10/20 Beziehungen des Ackerbaues zur Viehzucht in Siidwestafrika,
von G. Agster. Der Ackerbau, und seine Bedeutung fiir die
Zukunft unserer Farmwirtschaft, von Hans Stier, Kunstliche
Trocknung von Mais, von Otto Henning. Ackerbau im Bezirk
Grootfontein, v^on F. Martinson.

South African Farm Neios (P.O. Box 48()0, Johannesburg).

10/20 An Industry that has fallen into Decay Een Industrie wat
Agteruitgegaan het. The Origin of British Breeds of Cattle
(continued). Genera! Farming in South Africa Cotton
Culture. Katoenbouw, door Pieter Koch.

878 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

South African Fruit Groiver and Smallholder (P.O. Box 3958, Johannesburg).
10/20 Citrus-growing in California, by Sir P. Fitzpatrick. The Fruit
Shed in Relation to the Control of the Codling-moth, by
F. W. Petty. The Spraying of Stone Fruit Orchards in the
Cape Province, with special attention to " Red Spider," by
F. W. Petty.

South African (^lardening and Country Life (P.O. Box 3958, Johannesburg).

10/20 Carnation-growing in South Africa, by A. G. Murray. Native
Plants at the National Botanic Gardens.

South African Poultry Macjazine (Bloemfontein).

10/20 S.A.R. Club^'s "Practical Poultry Week." " Forgue," Melville,
Egg Production Extraordinary — Advantages of Dry Mash
Feeding. Buying of Foodstuffs and Stock Birds, by J. J.
Jordaan. Wyandottes, by H. Moore. The Carnivorous
Animals of South Africa, by F. W. FitzSimons.

South African Poultry lleview and Small Holder (Johannesburg).

1/11/20 The Principles of Breeding as Applied to Poultry, by J. Fisher.
South African Poultry Association : The Forthcoming
Conference, Pretoria, 9th-13th November. Poultry Pests, by
S. H. Skaife.

South African Sugar Journal.

10/20 The World's Sugar Outlook. Motor Alcohol from Molasses. The
Future of the Sugar Industry, by A. Mortifee. Sugar-growing
in Natal. The Native Labour Problem, by A. E. Parkin.

The Sun and Agricultural Journal of South Africa (P.O. Box 634, Johannesburg).
10/20 Transvaal to Tangier, V. The Story of the Marquis Wheat. The
South African Maize Breeders', Growers', and Judges' Associa-
tion. Report of the Proceedings of the Annual Maize Congress
held on the 8th September, 1920.

Sunday Times (Farmers' Supplement).

10/10/20 Leguminous Crops, by J. B. Osborn. Cattle Ranching, Disease
Prevention and Treatment. Houses Everlasting, Pise de
Terre, by E. T. Bains. South African Parasites, by R.
Bigalke.

17/10/20 Tobacco Insects. Cattle Ranching (continued). Houses Ever-
lasting, Pise de Terre (continued). Some South African

P cimSltiGS ( COTitt'tXUP Cti'\

24/10/20 The Tricks of Stock Dealing. The Millets, by J. P. Sellschop.

Index to " Farmers' Supplement " for the preceding six

months.
31/10/20 Some South African Parasites (continued). By-products of the

Packing Industry, by E. K. Hall. Cattle Ranching (continued).

Houses Everlasting, Pise de Terre (continued). The Millets

(continued).

III.— SELECTED LIST OF BOOKS ADDED TO LIBRARY.

[Note. — The first number is that of the class to which the book belongs,
the last number is that of the book itself.]

GENERAL.

018,73 Bostwick, A. E. The American Public Librarv. New York, 1917.
No. 7213.

050 Peace Conference, Versailles. The Treaty of Peace between the Allied

and Associated Powers and Germnny. The Protocol, annexed
thereto, the Agreement respecting the Military Occupation of the
Territories of the Rhine, and the Treaty between France and Great
Britain respecting Assistance to France in the event of Unprovoked
Aggression by Germany. Signed at Versailles, 28th June, 1919,
London, 1919. No. 7189.

Recent Agricultural Literature. 879

240.51 Nederbracht, J. A. "Penetration Pasifique " in China, 's Graven-

hage, 1918. No. 7222.

240.52 Bosch, P. A. R. Japan in den Oorlog. T'lb^Lg, 1920. No. 7223.
240,54 Curtis, L. Letters to the People of India on Responsible Govern-
ment. 2nd Ed. London, 1918. No. 7170.

290 Aditms, C. A. Textbook of Commercial Geographv. New York, 1901.

No. 7178.
290.49.2 Brackel, (>. J. L. Dividend-Politiek en een Onderzoek naar de Toe-

passiiig ervan bv eenige Nedorlandscho Scheepvaart Maatschap-

pijen. Rotterdam, 1919. No. 7225.
290,49.2 Smith, M. F. J. Tijd-Affaires in Effecten aan de Amsterdumse Bears.

's Gravenhage, 1919. No. 7226.
320 Lamb, C. G. Notes on Magnetism. For the Use of Students of

Electrical Engineering. Cambridge, 1919. No. 7220.
370 Verrill, H. A. Knots, Splices, and Rope-work. (A Practical Treatise.)

2nd Rev. Ed. New York, 1919. No. 7186.

AGRICULTURE, LIVE STOCK, AND .\LLIED SUBJECTS.

400 MacDonald, W. Makers of Modern Agriculture. London, 1913.

No. 7174.
410 Smith, R. J. The World's Food Resources. London, 1919. No. 7180.

420 Beenhouwer, H. A. Het Onderzeesche Kabelnet. Rotterdam, 1920.

No. 7224.
420 Boelter, W. R. The Rat Problem. London, 1909. No. 7177.

430.2 Barker, A F. Wool and the Textile Industries. Raw Material to

Finished Fabric, English, French, Italian, and Spanish, with a

Technical Glossary. Leeds, 1919. No. 7187.
430.2 Victoria Department of Agriculture. Specification and Small Wool

Shed for Shearers. Victoria, N.D. No. 7206.
430.4,74 Guilford, W. S., California Hog Book. San Francisco, Cal., 1915.

No. 7210.
431 Makay, G. L., and Larsen, C. Principles and Practice of Butter-

making. 2nd Ed., Rev. and Enl. New York, 1915. No. 7215.
431 Victoria Department of Agriculture. Daily and Weekly Milk Char|.

Victoria, N.D. No. 7207.
440,42 Great Britain, Government of. Report of the Committee on the

Staffing of the Veterinary Departments in the Colonies and

Protectorates. London, 1920. No. 7204.
466 Von Knauer, F. Der Riibenbaii. 7th Ed., Berlin, 1894. No. 7184,

477,42 Great Britain, Government of. British Empire Forestry Conference.

Resolutions passed at the meeting held in London on 22nd July,

1920. London, 1920. No. 7205.
450 Weir W. Productive Soils. (Lippincott's Farm Manuals.) Phila-

delphia, 1920. No. 7176.
465 Bradbury, Fred. Flax Culture and Preparation. London, N.D.

No. 7168.
468 Smith, H. H. Notes on Soil and Plant Sanitation on Cacao and

Rubber Estates London, 1911. No. 7212.
470 Baily, L. H. The Nursery-Manual. New York, 1920. No. 7181.

470 Trelease, W. Winter Botany. Urbana, 1918. No. 7175.

470 68 Roth, J. Manual of South African Gardening. Port ElizabeJh,

1883. No. 7171.
475 Freeman-Mitford, H. B. The Bamboo Garden. London, 1896. No.

7182.
t81 King, D. W. (Edited). Homes for Home-builders, or Practical Designs

for Country, Farm, and Village. New York, 1914. No. 7188.
483 Jeffery, J. H. Textbook of Land Drainage. New York, 1919. No.

7197.
483 Lynde, C. J. Home Waterworks. New York, 1912. No. 7198.

483 Owensboro Ditcher and Grader Co., Land Drainage and Irrigation

Department. Insured Profits with Drainage. Owensboro, N.D.

No. 7169.

880

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

SCIENCE GENERA]^, PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, ETC.

500 Moulten, Lord. Science and War. Cambridge, 1919. No. 7218.

530 Honior. D. W. Meteorology for All. London, 1919. No. 7199.

542 Cramerj W. Directions for a Practical Course in Chemical Physiology.

4th Ed. London, 1920. No. 7201.
542 Fowler, G. J. An Introduction to Bacteriological and Enzyme

Chemistry. 2nd Impression. London, 1911. No. 7219.
542 Von Fischer, Emil. Untersuchungen iiber Kohlen Hvdrate und

Fermente a884-1908). Berlin, 1909. No. 7196.
545 Jordan, E. 0. Food Pcisoning. Chicago, Illinois, 1917. No. 7217.

545 Walter, E. Manual for Essence Industry. 1st Ed. New York, 1916.

No. 7200.
545.2 Moewe. Destillierkunst. 9th Ed. Berlin, 1892. No. 7183.

BIOLOGY, ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, MEDICINE, ETC.

630.69 Stitt, E. R. The Diagnostics and Treatment of Tropical Diseases.

3rd Ed. London, 1919. No. 7173.
635.2 Boelter, W. R. Household Pests and Household Remedies. London,

N.D. No. 7179.
635.2 Great Britain, Government of. Report on the Imperial Entomological

Conference (cond. 835). London, 1920. No. 7202.
638,49.2 Van Oort, Dr. E. D. De Vogels van Nederland. Deel 1-8. 's Graven-

hage, N.D No. 7221.
650 Whitla, Sir W. A Dictionary of Treatment, including Medical and

Surgical Therapeutics. 6th Ed. London, 1920. No. 7185.
651.14 Fish, P. A. Veterinary Doses and Prescription Writing. Ithaca,

New York, 1919. No. 7193.
651.5 Hoare, W. E. Veterinary Therapeutics. London, 1916. No. 7194.

671.1 Juritz, C. F. The Urgency of a Definite Forward Movement in the

Study of the Active Principles of South African Plants. Cape-
town, 1915. No. 7211.
674 Brenchley, W. E. AVeeds of Farm Land. London, 1920. No. 7229.

OUTBREAKS OF ANIMAL DISEASES IN THE

UNION.

October, 1920.

as

1

0

0

Total No. of Outbreaks.

Disease.

During

October,

1920.

During

September,
1920.

From 1st

April, 1920,

to 31st Oct.,

19-20.

East Coast Fever

Mange

Anthrax
Dourine
Glanders
Epizootic

Lymphangitis
Tuberculosis ...
Swine Fever ...

9

7
74

5

11
10

7
1

1

2S

1

7
27

10

26

139

7
1

11

78
149

7
8

(')
4

131

252

938

34

19

9
6
1

Schools of Agriculture and Experiment Stations. 881

AT THE SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND
EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

October, 1920.

CEDARA, NATAL.

Climatic. — The rainfall for the month (27th September to 26th October
inclusive) was 4.27 inches. The mean maximum temperature was 71.1° F., and
the mean minimum 50.o."l° F. The highest maximum temperature, 96.2° F.,
was registered on 21st October, and the lowest minimum, 40.5° F., on 8th
October. Occasional heaA'v mists, following close after hot winds, caused
considerable and rapid variations in the temperature. The rains were light
and well distributed.

Crops. — Potatoes (Flourball, Carman, and Up-to-Date) are showing up well
and present a healthy appearance, having benefited by the steady rains. Some
portions of the oats are well advanced and have formed grain, whilst others
are not so well grown owing to the long drought. There thould be an average
crop. The pasture grasses, paspalum, fescue, cocksfoot, and sheep's burnet,
have shown up well since the advent of the rains. The veld grasses have also
responded well and are making good growth. The kikuyu has made a rapid
and excellent recoA^ery from the effects of the winter drought and frosts.

Stock. ^Seven calves were born during the month. All of the beef cows
and young stocic have been tnrned out to grass and are doing very well. One
Ayrshire bull was received from the Potchefstroom School of Agriculture for
use in the Ayrshire herd here.

Horticulture— MoHi varieties of plums, peaches, and citrus have set their
fruit well. Thinning is now in progress. The citrus trees have been sprayed
with lime-sulphtjr (immediately after the blossoms fell) as a preventive of
fuugous diseases.

Poultry Section. — The Fourth Poultry Breeders' Conference was held at
Cedara on the 4th. Unfortunately the weather was most unfavourable, rain
falling practically all day. Nevertheless about ninety people attended from
all parts of the Province. The programme included inspection of the poultry
plant, an exhibit of various poultry foods and appliances, a set of specimens
showing the internal anatomy of the fowl, also the embryology of the chick
from the first to the twenty-first day. Mr. J. J. Jordaan, of Glen School of
Agriculture, gave a demonstration on the correct method of holding a post-
mortem; Mr. T. B. Cross on the correct inethods of administering medicines
and the treatment of various diseases. After lunch the Principal lectured on
Modern Principles of Breeding, the Entomologist on Poultry Pests, and Mr. A.
Bartlett, of Johannesburg, on the Laying Hen.

Chemical Laboratory. — Filter-press cake is a by-product of the sugar-cane
mills, and a sample of this was sent in by a coast firm to ascertain what it
was worth as a manure. The sample, as received, had partly dried out, and
the results of the analysis are as follows : —

Moisture, 32.6 per cent. ; organic matter, 47.7 per cent. ; inorganic matter
(ash), 19.7 per cent,, (a) including nitrogen, .9 per cent.; (b) includ-
ing potash, .7 per cent. ; and phosphoric oxide, 1.2 per cent.

It will thus be seen that the fertilizing value is not high, but should prove
valuable for local use on sandy soils to supply the deficient humus. In other
countries it is largely used for manure to prevent, as far as possible, the
exhaustion of the cane lands by returning the ingredients taken out of them
by the growing crops. A sample of Uba cane tops was submitted by a large
cane grower on the coast for analysis to determine their feeding value. The
results are : —

Moisture, 77.2 per cent.; ash, 1.9 per cent.; pure protein, .6 per cent.;

amides, .1 per cent. ; crude fat, .3 per cent. ; soluble carbohydrates,

12 pei- cent.; crude fibre, 7.8 per cent.

882 Journal of the Department of Acaiici'LTuiiE.

The soluble carbohydrates included 1.2 per cent, of sucrose and 1 per cent, of
invert sugar. The number of food units is only 14.6 with a nutritive ratio
of 1 to 20.2 For comparison it may be stated that ordinary veld grass in the
green state, with the same amount of moisture, would have an approximate
nutritive value (in food units) of 15.9, so that the cane tops do not comp.ire
very favourably with the veld grass as a feed for stock. If fed, however, with
some concentrated food of a high nrotein ratio, it would make a very satis-
factory item in the animal's ration.

SUidents. — Fifty-one probationers were in residence at the beginning oi
the month. Four ■':r\en were transferred to Winkle Spruit, five were admitted,
and eight men left, three obtaining positions on farms, and five left after
completing their course of training. Forty-four probationers are in residence
at present at Cedara and six at Winkle Spruit.

ELSENBURG, MULDERS VLEI, CAPE.

Climatic. — Mild and comparatively dry weather prevailed during the month.
The rainfall recorded up to the time of writing is 1.79 inch, the normal
average for October being 2.1 inches. The maximum temperature was 81.5° F.
on the 15th, and the minimum, 40.0° F., on the 4th.

Field Operations, Crops, etc. — -Small areas were planted to kafiir water-
melons, maize (for ensilage), thousand-head kale, potatoes, Sudan grass, and
sorghums during the month. Cereal crops are showing up exceptionally well
on the farm lands, especially oats and rye, and an excellent harvest is assured.
Considerable time was devoted to budding and grafting in the orchards, and
also to spraying in connection with the control of codling moth, red scale, and
fusiclndium. The vineyards received their final cultivation. The young vines
planted at Mariendahl in September have taken well, and are making satis-
factory growth.

Live Stock. — The condition of all live stock at present is highly satisfactory.
The annual stock sale took place on the 6th. In spite of the showery weather
there was a good attendance, and the prices realized for practically all classes
of live stock were excellent. Young Jersey bulls in particular were in great
demand and commanded exceptionally high prices. A considerable decrease in
egg-production was noticed in connection with the intensive poultry-house.
This is due apparently to the marked tendency of the heavy-breed hens to
become broody. It is concluded that heavy breeds of poultry are not adapted
to the intensive-house system.

Extension Work. — The annual Grain Farmers' Conference was held on the
22nd. Owing to the threatening weather conditions, the attendance was
som.ewhat smaller than expected. Close upon a hundred visitors were present
and were conducted around the rotation, manurial, and general fertility
experiments and the cereal variety plots during the morning. In the after-
noon, lectures were delivered upon various phases of grain farming, including
soil fertility, crop varieties and diseases, and much int>.'resting discussion took
place.

Investigational Wcrk. — Comparative experiment.xl trials of various insecti-
cides in the orchard are being continued by the Entomologist. An attempt
is being made to establish in the Cape Province parasites of the codling moth—
these parasites will be imported from Italy. Comparative tests are being
made by the Botanist reh.tivo to the efficacy for the control of fusicladium of
various fungicidal preparations. Numerous other investigations previously
referred to are being continued relating to soil fertility, mar.urial, and other
problems.

GLEN, ORANGE FREE STATE.

Climiitic. — On the 2nd, 24th, and 25th, 2.93 inches of rain were registered.
The maximum temperature was 95 degrees on the 22nd and 23rd, and the
minimum temperature was 33 degrees on the 8th. Frost was experienced on
the lower lands on that date. The weather has been otherwise normal for the
time of the year and the grass is now growing rapidly.

Schools of Agriculture and Experiment Stations. 883

School — Thn lotal mitnbn- of students in residence during the month was
fifty-eight, three having ieft since last month. Miss R. Oosthuizen, Lecturer
in Household Science, assumed duty here on the 15th, and Mr. G. W. Mogg-
luige, assistant stockman, on the 1st.

Farm. — With the rain on the 2nd the river came down, replenishing our
water supply to such an extent that it was possible to give the winter cereals,
as well a- the lucerne fields, another irrigation. The oat crops are promising
well, and thoso sown early in the winter which are in ear now, should mature
without any further waterings. A fairly large acreage of Sudan grass was put
in ; this is now coming up after the recent rain we have had.

Live Stock. — The health of the animals on the farm has been satisfactory,
except that the Percheron stallion Krampton is at present suffering from
laminitis. He has been very bad, but it is hoped that he will recover. Owing
to an inadeqr.ate supply of roughage, which is always very scarce at this time
of the year, there has been a marked decrease in the milk flow of the dairy
herd.

Exppy-imeTJ s.- ~Tho variety tests of the winter cereals are promising well.
The grounds for summer experiments have been properly laid out and prepared
by the Assistant E.'ipcrinientalist, and planting of such crops as kaffir corn,
peanuts, and cowpeas has been commenced.

Kngineerinij. — Tht Ijecturer in charge of this division reports that the
farm buildings have been painted, several small construction works hape been
carried out, and a considerable amount of pumping was done for irrigation
purposes.

Poultry. — The Lecturer in Poultry assisted at the Poultry Day held at
the School of Agriculture, Cedara, on the 4th October, and subsequently paid
a visit to Durban to examine some eggs in connection with the export of eggs.
Incubation is being closed down, the young stock are growing well, and, on the
whole, the birds are in good condition and laying well.

Entomology. — The Entomologist reports that a considerable amount of his
time was devoted to the destruction of flies. In connection with this work,
poison-sprayed branches were hung in the cow-byres and pig-sties. Fairly
satisfactory result? were obtained, especially in the former, where no other
food is a\ailable at certain periods of the day. Manure was also placed in
tins to tempt the flies to lay therein, and the larvae were then fed to the
chickens. This seems to be an effective method of controlling the breeding.

Horticulture. — The Horticulturist visited Grey College, Bloemfontein, and
gave advice on grafting, budding, and other matters re fruit trees. The
vegetable garden promises well, and it is expected soon to furnish sufficient
vegetables for both hostels. Lawns were laid down in front of the educational
buildings, trees were sprayed for codling moth, and fruit was thinned out.

Dairying. — This division has suffered under a great handicap owing to the
lack of facilitier". for demonstration and practice in dairying. When the new
dairy building is completed better work will be accomplished. There are still
six Frie<land cows under test for the advanced registry.

GROOTFONTEIN, MIDDELBURG, CAPE.

Climatic. — The higiiest temperature recorded was 9-1° F. on the 21sc. The
weather was very chang.^able and. frost was experienced on the 9th. T-he
rainfall was .13 inch.

Farm. — During the month, in spite of the extreme changes of weather,
the crops have made fair growth. About 60 acres of oats are now in full ear,
and the latest sown oats are doing Avell. An area of about 75 acres of lucerne
is almost ready to cut; the .students started cutting the most advanced portion
on the 25th. The veranda fencing round the first four jackal-proof camps has
been completed.

Experimental Section. — The crops in this section are fairly well advanced
considering the unseasonable weather. A few of the earlier varieties of wheats
were slightly frost-bitten The Chinese lucerne, which was cut on the 15th
September, is now well advanced, but the second crop will be utilized for seed

884 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

owing to the great vali.io of this variety due to its early spring and late
autumn growth. A new spineless cactus nursery has been established, and the
best varieties are being planted extensively in it. About 12,000 leaves were
dispatched to farmers during the month, and a number of orders for special
varieties could not be filled, but with the )iew ntiisery these varieties should
be available to a greater e.^tent next year.

Cattle Section. — The young cattle have improved in condition. Several of
the calves from " Craigie Alf," the Friesland stud bull, are showing up remark-
ably well.

Sheep Section. — The special sheep and wool students are nearing the comple-
tion of their course. Practically all sheep have been shorn, and, on the whole,
the sheep, and particularly the lambs, are looking well.

The eight hundred guinea ram imported for this institution from Australia
arrived here safely and in good condition. It is hoped that this sire will be
of great benefit to the Wanganella flock. With a thirteen months' growth he
cut 33 lb. of strong bulky wool.

The lambing of the pure-bred Karakul ewes was completed during the
month, and the result of the lambijig is given below. Total number of lambs
obtained, 88, made up as follows : • —

Specials, 10; Class 1 , Id ; Class 1-2, 12; Class 2, 1-5; Class 2-3, 12; Class 3,
22; Class 4, 1.

There are still a few pure-bred Karakul rains for sale at prices varying
from £o to £10 each.

Enlomologicnl tS'eriion.--Baiting for the destruction ol house flies has been
oomnuuiced round all the stables and byres, and all the manure from these
is being carti^d away daily. As hatchings of brown lociu.ts have been reported
from the Midlands, all farmers are advised to keep a sharp look out for
hatchings on their farms and to notify the police of i-ny which may be
observe'l.

Horticultural Section;. — Another busy month Ijas been spent in the vegetable
garden and orchard. The planting of vegetables has been conducted through-
out the month, all of which are doing well. The chief work in the orchards
has been the spraying for codling moth and the grafting of unprofitable fruit
trees. Frost was experienred tm the 9th and a considerable amount of damage
was done to the fruit crop, particularly the trees in the private gardens. A
new piece of ground has been cleared for an additional vegetable garden, and
this will make it possible to grow sufficient vegetables for the school's require-
ments.

Poultry Section. — The Poultry Lecturer was absent from the institution
for some days during the )nonth assisting in the inspection of eggs for export
at Capetown. The Assistiint Lecturer, Mr. Nash, judged the Poultry Section
at Beaufort West Industrial Show, and states that there were some exhibits
of very good quality. One hundred chicks were hatched during the month.

POTCHEFSTROOM, TRANSVAAL.

CHiiL'itic. — The rainfall for the period 28th September to 28th October
amounted to 3.26 inches, most of wiiich fell on the first four days of October.
During the middle of the month rather drv and extremely hot weather was
experienced. The highest temperature was recorded on the 20th, when the
thermometer registered 96.5 degrees. Temperatures of 95 and 94 degrees were
registered on three days, in each case during the period under review. On the
other hand frost was observed on the mornings of the 7th and 8th, the minimum
temperature in the screen for the previous nights being 37.0° F. and 35.0° F.
respectively.

Farm Section.- — Forty acres of lucerne and 28 acres of oats were irrigated
during the month. The supply of irrigation water has been good since the
rains. At this station 100 acres of land have been i)loughed and 30 acres cross-
ploughed. At Brakspruit 18 acres of virgin land were broken up and 40 acres
of ploughed land cultivated and planted to Red Cob Cango maize. A dressing
of fertilizer, amounting to 200 lb. per acre, was applied broadcast to this crop.
A clipping cf lucerne Avas made on a ihld idanted last May in order to remove
the weeds before the latter came into seed.

Schools of Agriculture and Experiment Stations. 885

Live Stock. — The rains have come in time to provide much needed grazing.
All young stock, as well as the cows of the beet breeds, have been turned out
to paddocks, and all feeding has been stopped, except in the case of certain
imported breeds with calves at foot. These are still receiving a small amount
of mangels daily. Cows calvi)ig this month did not cleanse well.

Three merino rams arrived here from Australia, one from each of the
following estates: " Haddon Rig," " Canowie," and " Bundemar." These
rams are intended for the various Schools of Agriculture, including this institu-
tion. The Wanganella stud sheep are in excellent condition. The percentage
of lambs in this flock, as well as the cross-bred Suffolk-Persian flock, amounts
to 72 per cent, and 116 per cent, respectively. The former figure is lower
than that of previous years on account of the somewhat late date at which
the merinos were mated. This year these sheep will be mated from the
beginning of November onwards, fully six weeks earlier than last year. Shear-
ing is well under way.

Experimental Section. — The Experimentalist made several crosses of Black
Don wheat Rust in plants in the wheat variety plots has not been observed
this year. Some rust has been noticed on the wheat plants in the Cape,
however. Grains from GOO ears of maize were subjected to germination tests.
The ears are intended for variety trials and siRgle-ear test plots. Investigating
the relation betweon the weight of ears and 'the germinating power of the
grain has yielded no data in support of the general belief that heavy ears show
a great;^r percentage of germination in the grain than light ears. The matter
needs further investigation.

Kngineei ing Section. — A paper on " Concrete " was written for the Irriga-
tion Association and is to be read at the next Congress. Three tests were
carried out with the gas engine using charcoal from different species of
eucalyptus. The test consisted of a six-hours run with engine and producer.
The horse-power and fuel consumption were measured, and in each case a
sample of the gas drawn off and analysed.

Horticultvinl Section. — Spraying for codling moth has been continued. Up
to the (3th the prospect of a good fruit crop was very rosy ; strong winds set
in, however, after this date, followed by the two frosts referred to, and this
resulted in scores of stone fruits dropj^ing from the trees, as also certain
varieties of pears. The section to be planted next year has been pegged off and
dynamited.

Poultri/ Section. — Stock birds are now run in a large camp and fed
reduced rations to force an early moult. A number of the early hatched
pullets have commenced to lay, so that there will be a good number of stock,
chiefly White Wyandottes and Leghorns, for early disposal. The Egg-Laying
Competition is still progressing favourably. During the seventh period of the
test, viz., 16th September to 13th October, the average daily yield was 183 eggs
for a total of 276 birds. This compares verj- favourably with previous periods,
although the production has dropped off due to an increase in broodiness
amongst heavy breeds.

The Chemist^s time has been occupied in assembling the data of his work
of the last eighteen months on Nitiification of Soils. A paper will soon be
published on this work. Twenty-four soils were tested for their " lime require-
ments " ; in addition, nine foodstuffs and five peanut varieties were analysed.

School. — The number of Diploma students enrolled to commence Part I of
the Diploma course in January now amounts to twenty. Of this number nine
are in lesidence already as practical students. Final examinations in the
following subjects for the year 1920 have been held: —

Agricultural Law, Seniors; Zoology, Juniors; Book-keeping, Juniors.

Two more students were admitted to the One-Year Returned Soldiers'
Course. Three one-year Returned Soldier students left to take up farming on
their own account.

Staff. — The Lecturer in Poulti'y was absent in Capetown in connection with
egg export duties. He returned to the Institution on the 23rd. The
Superi?itendeiit of the R.S. Hostel, the Assistant Matron, and a lady clerical
assistant were on leav^e during the month. The Farm Manager, Mr. A. C.
Pigott, has been absent on leave in Ireland since the 16th June. He is expected
back by the 1st December. The Institution has several vacancies on the
technical as well as on the clerical staff.

SS6

Journal op the Department of Agrioulture.

MEAT STATISTICS.

I. — Retukn of Beep Inspected akd Passed foe Export, October, 1920.

Cattle.

Carcasses.

Place.

Inspected.

Rejected. Passed.

Inspected.

Rejected.

Passed.

Durban

Pietermaritzburg
Pretoria
Johannesburg
Bloemfontein
Capetown ...
Port Elizabeth
Germiston ...

392

—

392

392

o.i

3S6i

Total

392

—

.392 392

5^

386i

Beef actually exported during the month of October, 1920 : Total, 2388 quarters
(_e.v Durban, 2388 quarters).

Total shipments of Beef in quarters —

1916 ... 115,992 1918 ... 123,354 *1920 ... 58,255

1917 ... 309,214 1919 ... 285,367

II. — Other Meat Exported*: Pork, carcasses inspected and passed, 7872.

III. — Return op Cattle Imported into the Union from adjoining Territories.

Territory.

Imported October, 1920.

Total from 1st January,

1920, to

31st October, 1920.

For Slaughter —

No.

No.

Rhodesia

1,798

22,731

Bechuanaland Protectorate

2,137

17,104

S.W. Africa

2.265

12,733

Swaziland

782

1,997

Basutoland ...

8

For Breeding —

Rhodesia

353

9,921

Bechuanaland Protectorate

138

14,628

Total

7,473

78,122

Summary of Imports.

Calendar Year. For Slaughter.

For Breeding.

Total.

tl916
1917
1918
1919

No.
26,580
47,970
36,767
40,574

No.

5,440
13,386
16,693

26,580
53.410
50,053
57,267

* Total from 1st January to 3l8t October, 1920. f 1st July to 31st December only.

Staff : Appointments, Transfers, etc. 887

STAFF: APPOINTMENTS, TRANSFERS, ETC.

(1) Agriculture.

1/10/20 F. J. du Toit: Under-Secretary for Agriculture, appointed Acting
Secretary for Agriculture.

(2) Agricultural Education.
7/10/20 Miss M. M. van Duyn: Assumed duty at Pretoria as Lecturer and
Demonstrator in Domestic Science.

15/10/20 Miss K. Oosthuizen: Assumed duty as Lecturer and Demonstrator
in Domestic Science at Glen School of Agriculture.

15/10/20 Gill, G. A.: Assumed duty as Lecturer in Botany at the Grootfon-
tein School of Agriculture. Mr. Gill was awarded a Government
Bursary for study at Cambridge in 1914, and has just returned
to South Africa. His studies were interrupted by three years'
active service.

MOVEMENTS OF OFFICERS.

Mr. E. Farish, who has been visiting those farmers participating in the
srheme for the determination of the cost of production of maize in the Trans-
vaal, Orange Free State, and Natal, returned to Pretoria for the Principals'
Conference on the 30th November. The object of the scheme is to determine,
for representative farmers in the chief maize-growing areas, the economics of
maize production. The work is being undertaken with the co-operation of the
Maize Bleeders' Association.

Hartebeestpoort Training Farm. — This farm is now being prepared for the
admission of returned soldiers with phthisical tendencies. The present staff
consists of : —

Superintendent, Mr. G. W. Edmunds; Horticulturist, Mr. D. J. Dreyer ;
Field Foreman, Mr. L. C. Gott; Matron, Mrs. L. G. Dodd.

Instruction will be given in poultry, horticulture, and other branches of
agricMilture suited to the needs of the students. This Department will be
responsible for the administration and management generally.

CROP AND LIVE STOCK REPORT.

October, 1920.

WHKAT. OATS. AND BARLEY.

Fiom the icpovts received it is estimated that the prospect of the Union's wheat crop
is about 3 per rent, less than September owing to drought conditions prevailing in parts of
the 'Hstr.cts of Bredasdorp and Caledon, to rust in parts of Malmesbury, and green fly in
Calvinia, the four principal wheat growing districts in the Union.

There is a slight decline ia the Transvaal and an increase in the Orange Free State,
which makes the condition of the wheat crop for the whole of the Union 8 per cent, below
normal as shown by the following statement. Oats have shown an improvement over
September, but barley has decreased slightly.

888

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

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Crop and Live iStock Rbtort.

889

DECIDUOUS FRUIT.

Crop Report Canls were issued to correspoiKleiits in the main deciduous fruit producing
•districts with a view to a'-certaining the prospects of the earlier fruits, and the table here-
under shows the condition of these at the end of October, 1920. For the purposes of
<X)mpatison, the term "very good" is regarded as re|iresenting 100 per cent., or a full yield ;
"good," 90 percent.; "fair," 80 per cent. ; " poor,"' 70 percent.; "bad," 60 percent,
•or less.

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Good.
Fair.

Poor.
Bad.

Peaches.

Yerij
Good.

Fair.

Poor.
Bad.

Oudishoorn, Prince Albert, Robertson, Middelburg (Transvaal).

Caledon, Ceres, I'inuetbe g, Swellendam, Clanwilliam, Gordonia, Ladismith,

Pretoria. Kiugersdori', Potchefstrocjui.
C.n,pe, Worcester, Riversdale, Montagu, Marico.
Malmesbury, Paarl, Stellenbt sch, Tulbagh. Van Rhynsdorp, Heidelberg,

Rustenburg.

(/ood. Ondtshoovn.

Caledon, Ca|)e, Malmesbury, Swellendam, Clanwilliam, Ladismith, Prince

Albert, Hobertson, Pretoria. MidtielV)urg (Transvaal).
Ceres, Paarl, Stellenbosch, Tulbagh, Woicester, Gordonia, Riversdale,

Heidelberg, Marico Krugeisdorp, Potchefstroom.
Piquetbtrg, Rustenburg. —

\'an Rhynsdorp.

CONDITION OF LIVE STOCK.

Compiled from Reports furnished by Sheep and Stock Inspectors.

Area.

Large Stock.

Small Stock.

Cape—

South- West

Good, to iiiediviu

Good to medium.

North- West

Good to medium

Good to medium.

South Coast

Good to medium

Good to medium.

Southern K-uroo

Good ...

Good.

Central Karroo...

Medium. Good in parts

Medium. Good in parts.

Northern Karroo

Good to medium

Good, to medium.

Eastern Karroo

Jledium. Good in parts

Medium. Good in parts.

Bechuanaland ...

Good to luediuiii. Fat in parts

Good to medium. Fat in parts.

Griqualand West

Good ...

Good.

North-Eastern

Medium. Good in [tarts

Medium. Good in parts.

Border

Medium

Medium.

Transkeian Territories...

Medium. Poor in jiarts

Medium. Poor in parts.

Transvaal—

Eastern High Veld

Mediuui. Good in parts

Medium, Good in parts.

Central

Jfcdium. Good in parts

Medium. Good in parts.

Western High Veld ...

.Vediuui. Good in parts

Medium. Good in parts.

Low Veld

Good to medium.

Goiul to medium.

Orange Frek fexATE

North-Eastern

Medium. Good in parts

Medium. Good in parts.

Nort h- West ern . . .

Good

Good.

South-Eastern ...

Good to medium

Good to mediuui.

South-Western ...

Medium. Good in parts

Mediuui. Good in parts.

Natal —

High Veld or Highlands

Medium. Good in parts

Medium. Good in parts.

Middle Veld or Midlands

Mediuui. Good in parts

Medium. Good in parts. ■

Coast

Good to medium

Good to medium.

890

Journal op the Department of Agriculture.

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The Local Market. 891

THE LOCAL MARKET.

October, 1920.

(Note. — The local market prices of certain other agricultural produce and
stock are published elsewhere in this issue.)

WOOL.

Since the issue of the previous report the market has remained inactive, and
very little business has been done. In view of the threatened coal strike buj^ers
were holding back awaiting developments, and until the industrial difficulties
in England have been settled it is not expected that business of any importance
will be done. To what extent the market will recover is impossible to predict.
There is at present a great surplus of wool on hand, and until this surplus
has been used up it is feared there will be no appreciable improvement in prices.

At the various Union ports there are at present approximately 122,000
bales unsold wool of last season's clip, consisting of about 10 per cent, super
combing, 60 per cent, medium, and 30 per cent, short wools. As there does not
seem to be any prospect of these being disposed of at present, farmers are
advised to store their wool up country so as to avoid heavy storage charges at
the ports. The forwarding of large quantities of wool to the ports at the
present time may also tend to further reduce the prices.

Cable advices from England state that at the latest wool sales held at Hull
there was a further decline of 5 per cent, for average combing wool as compared
with the previous London sales.

In view of the very depressed ard unsettled state of the market, and almost
complete absence of orders from overseas markets, it is quite impossible to quote
ruling prices for the various types of wool at the ports.

MOHAIR.

The market in mohair is lifeless, and there has been no inquiry for this
commodity of late. Reports from London state that the position in regard
to all classes of mohair remains very unsatisfactory, and still lower prices are
expected. The mohair markets of England and America are dead, and it is
difficult to effect sales. There is no demand for yarn ; in many instances orders
have been cancelled, and as a consequence the mills in Yorkshire are working
short hours. It is, therefore, impossible to give reliable quotations for mohair.

HIDES AND SKINS.

The market for all descriptions remains very quiet, buyers displaying no
interest whatsoever, and prices show a decline of about 25 per cent., with a
downward tendency. The following prices have lately been obtained: —

Sound long-wooUed sheepskins
Damaged long- woolled sheepskins ..
Sound shoit-wonlled sheepskins
Damaged short -woulled sheepskins ..
Sound pelts

Damaged pelts

Coarse and coloured, sound ...

Sun-dried, sound
Sun-dried, damaged ...

Skins.

7d.

Coarse and co'oured, damaged

... lid.

Hid.

Tratiskeis, excluding pelts ...

... Hd.

Hd.

Uoatskiiis

... lod.

Ud.

Bastards

... lid.

2|d.

Angora skins

... 7d.

Id.

Damaged goats and bastaids. each

... lOd.

3Jd.
Hi

Damaged angoras
DES.

... fid.

Ud.

Dry-salted, sound

... Ud.

7d.

Dry-salted, damaged ...

... 7d.

892

Journal of the Department of Agriculture.

GOVERNMENT WOOL PURCHASE SCHEME.

The Central Wool Committee has issued a statement to the effect that an
interim dividend of £250,706 has been received from the Imperial Government,
being the Union of South Africa's share in the profit on wool sold under the
Government Wool Purchase Scheme. As the final dividend will probably be
declared in December, it has been decided to defer payment of profits to partici-
pants in the scheme until the final amount is received in order to avoid a
double payment, provided the final dividend is received before the end of
December. In the meantime the above amount bears interest at the rate of
5 per cent, per annum. Participants in the scheme will receive their pro rata
share of profits, calculated on the appraised value of their wool delivered under
the scheme. Cheques for the amount due will be made out in their favour by the
Central Wool Committee and forwarded to them through the respective brolcers
who were appointed Government Agents under the scheme. The brokers should,
therefore, be notified without delay of any change of address in order to avoid
delay in payment.

OSTRICH FEATHERS.

During the period under review, five public sales of ostrich feathers were
held in Port Elizabeth, viz., 27th September, 5th, 11th, 18th, and 25th
October. Weights sold and the price- obtained were as follows: 23,693 lb.
sold, value £35,131; 6022 lb. withdrawn, value £92C9. During the five sales
mentioned above, one buyer took the major portion of the offerings. Specu-
lators did not operate so freely as was the case the previous month.

With regard to the prices obtained during the above sales, there has been
very little change to note. For the period covered by the first three sales
prices remained more or less steady, although the fact that one buyer was
the principal operator caused a certain amount of irregularity and lack of
competition. At the last two sales, prices for superior quality feathers were
more or less unchanged, whilst prices for medium and common grades were
decidedly weaker.

The coal strike in England appeared to unsettle matters considerably,
more especially as competition was not as general as it should have been.

The present unsatisfactory condition of foreign exchange rates, makes it
very difficult to forecast even the near future, but advices from overseas state
that there is a very great demand at present for ostrich feathers, and if the
factors mentioned above could be remedied the trade would probably again
flourish as it did in 1913.

Nevj York Botanical Garden Librar

3 5185 00265 1923