'^yi'^'.r- I ., '.^^' i.^^ n^'^i^ •j ^1^ >v^ t^'y ■'^i,t::;^u^>. « -^ •i.^i'-o ;*/. IS iHSli :J*{J1 fi!!?! .?. '»^l ^^ft^#l.^^,-'4^-^^^ I^M E ■ ^ THE JOURNAL OP THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE OF VICTORIA. PUBLISHED FOR AND ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT BY DIRECTION OF THE HON. GEORGE SWINBURNE, M.L.A., Miniater Jor Agriculture. VOLUME Y. 1907. LIBRARY NEW "V POTAf-. Editor:— T. CHERRY, M.D., M.S., Diiector of Agriculture. Assistant Editor : — A. T. SHARP. 6? antfjortti)-. J. KEMP, acting GOVERNMENT PRINTER, MELBOURNE. 1907. 161.30. COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Vic- toria are protected by the provisions of the Co-pyright Act 1890. Proprie- tors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter contained in the Journal are at liberty to do so, provided the usual acknowledgment is made. The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy Threepence. A limited number of the issues comprising Volumes II. (1903-4), III. (1905) — 10 parts each — and Volumes IV. (1906) and V. (1907) — 12 parts each— is at .present in stock, and will be supplied lat the foregoing rates. Sub criptions should be forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne. THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMEiNT OF AGEICULTURE. VOLUME Y. Parts 1—12. xis r).ii:x. Aburuoa lu Cattle, Contagious *opp i, opp. 128, opp. 576, opp. 704 Abscess Lancing ... Acacia Hedge Actinomycosis ... opp. Adcockj G. H. — Vines Distributed and Available for Distribution, 1906-7 African Box-thorn Agricultural Education — Agricultural Classes Agricultural High School Experimental Maize Plots at Colac Grant to Agricultural Societies .. Outlook for Agriculture ... Present Day Problems of Agricul ture State Veterinary Education Agricultural High School, The Agricultural Societies, Grant to .pp. 35, ^75' 'i ne . . . 60 104 Si-! 382 720 247 236 129 n5> opp 478 487 247 498, 768 Agriculture — Outlook for ... ... ... 129 Present Day Problems ol ... 478 Three Years' Progress in ... 193 Ailments of Animals — - Actinomycosis ... opp. 512 Blackleg ... opp. 128, opp. 640 "Blown " with Lucerne, Cow opp. 384 Bots in Horses ... ... opp. 448 Capped Elbow ... ... opp. 57(7 Contagious Abortion opp. i, opp. 12S, opp. 576, opp. 704 Cracked Hoof ... ... opp. 570 Diseases of the Foot ... 635, 641 Diseases oi the Urinary Organs ... 765 Enlargement on Wither ... opp. 704 Fluke ... opp. 512, opp. 640 Gripes Lameness in Horses, Lampas Lock-jaw Lump on Udder Lumpy Jaw Mammitis Mange on Dogs Navel Rupture opp. 704 211, 257, 364, 415, 513 opp. 44S opp. 576 opp. 57b opp. 385 op£. 448 opp. 512 opp. 64, opp. 128, opp. 320, opp. 576 Obstruction in Cow's Throat opp. 44S Pimples on Stallion ... opp. 640 Pleuro-Pneumonia ... opp. 576 Protruding Rectum ... opp. 576 Red Water ... ... opp. 512 Retained Membranes ... opp. 512 .\ilments of Animals — continued. Ringworm ... ... opp. 704 Scabs on Horse ... opp. 768 Scour (Calves) ... ... opp. 128 Scour (Horses) ... ... opp. 576 Strangles ... ... opp. 704 Swollen Udder ... opp. 640, opp. 768 Veterinary Operations, Methods and Practices ... 55, 65 Water Gripes ... ... opp. 192 Worms in Horses ... opp. 576 Amaryllis, The ... ... ... 724 Anaesthetics ... ... ... 58 Analyses — Manures 13, 106, 180, 277, 428, 655 Soils ... ... ... 130, 450, 492 Anemone, The ... ••. •-. 541 Animal Physiology, Elements of 80, 231,' 337, 462, 586, 686, 761 Antiseptic Surgery ... ... 55 Ants, White ... ... opp. 512 Apples — Black Spot of Apple ... 362, 722 Codlin Moth ... ... 616, 721 Commerce Act and Fruit Exports 89 Export Season, 1907 ... ... 385 London Pippin or Five Crown Pippin ... •■■ ■•• 48 Newtown Pippin ... ... 174 Painted Apple Moth ... opp. 192 Problems affecting Fruit Transpor- tation and Marketing ... ... 612 Scarlet Nonpareil ... ■•■ 654 Sturmer Pippin ... ... ••• 362 Trade with Great Britain and Ger- many ... ... ••• 745 Woolly Aphis ... ... •■• 126 Apricot Scab ... •■• ■•• 722 Arabic covered Roof opp. 640, opp. 768 Archer, R. T. — Development of Dairy Shorthorns 348 Overrun in Butter Factories ... 399 Artesian Bore ... opp. 376, opp. 768 Artificial Impregnation Back Raking Bacon Factory, A Co-operative Bandaging and Massage Baracchi, P. — Rainfall in Victoria 127, 319, Bees — Foul Brood of Non-swarming Robbing Box Hives Betheras, J. H. — Agricultural High School, The 67 76 50 74 510, 703 664, opp. 73.S 768 105 247 Cover opposite page 1. index. Page Beuhne, R. — Foul Brood of Bees .•• 664, 735 Robbing Box Hives ... ... 105 Bio-Chemistry, Elements of ... 80 Birds— Coach-whip Bird ... ... 209 Vellow-breasted Robin ... ... 78 Blackberry Bramble ... ... 438 Blackleg ... ... opp. 128, opp. 640 Black Spot of Apple Experiments ... 362 Bladder Affections • Bleeding, Arrest of Blistering Boiler Testing ... i, o\>\). Border Leicester Sheej^ Boric Acid 766 60 75 384 ••• 759 opp. 512 576, opp. 768 opp. 448 Boring for Water opp- Bots in Horses BoviU, W. E.— Export of Flour ... ... 357 Box-thorn, African ... ... 720 Briar, Sweet ... ... ... 336 Broom — Cape ... ... ... ... 137 English ... ... ... 230 Brown, A. A. — Conditions surrounding the Export Trade in Lambs ... ... 631 Buckscraper, The ... 321, 52S, 705 Buffalo Grass ... ... opp. 256 Buildings — Concrete Floors ... Cool Chamber ... opp. 449, Cow-shed Floor ... Dairy Farm Fruit Storehouse ...opp. Mortar and Cement Old and New Milking Sheds Seed Potato House Silo Building ... ... 499 Use of Concrete for Silos and other Farm Bull, Sterility ot ... Burney, M. d'A. — Reconstitution in the Gironde Butter- Boric Acid in Export Trade Factories, Overrun i,i Factory, A Model Fat ... ... opp. ] Pasteurising Home Separator Cream Pure Lactic Acid Culture for Ripening Cream Cabbage Aphis ... ... opp. Cabbages as Fodder for the Dairy Herd Csesarian Operation Call, O. H.— Heytesbury Farm Report Callusing Vine Cuttings ... opp. Calving ... ... ... opp. Cameroi , S. S. — Dairy P'arm Buildings ... Diseases of Farm Animals opp. opp. 256, opp. opp. opp. opp. 408 76S 384 320 281 228 617 401 128 313 512 391 399 768 524 702 384 297 62 675 704 704 55> 65, 635, 641, 765 Pajre Cameron, S. S. — continued. Examination of Stallions ... 74(1 Insanitary Milk Cans ... ... 575 Lameness in Horses 211, 257, 364, 415, 468, 513 Maize Cultivation ... ... 128 Soundness in Horses ... ... 152 Staggers or Forage Poisu.iing in Horses ... •■. •■. 242 Campbell, A. G — Re-making of an Orchard ... 8 Canker ... . . ... ... 637 Canna, The ... ... .• 100 Cape Broom ... ... ... 137 Cape Weed ... ... ... 606 Carroll, P. J.— Cabbages as Fodder for the Dairy Herd ... ... ... 297 Perishable and Frozen Produce Exports ... ... ••■ 511 Castella, F. de — First Progress Report on Vilicid- ture in Europe ... 694, 712 Castor Oil Plant ... ... opp. 256 Casiration ... ... 63, 205 Catheter ... ... 76, 766 Cattle — Actinomycosis ... ojip. J05, opp. 512 Foul in the Foot ... ... 649 Lick ... ... ... opp. 6/" Pleuro-Pneumonia ... ()||_. 37b Ringworm in Young ... opp. 704 Rupture ... ... opp. 64 Speying ... ... ... 64 Throwing ... ... ... 58 Cement and Mortar ... opp. 320 Chamber of Agriculture, Fifth Convention, July, 1907 — I. Present Day Problems of Agriculture ... ... 478 IL Possibilities and Limitations of Veterinary Science ... 484 III. The Soil : Considered as the Farmer's Chief Asset ... 490 IV. Importance of Tree Planting 560 V. Pork-raising for Export ... 563 VI. Some Law (as it more par- ticularly affects Farmers) 569. 733 VII. Breeds of Sheep influencing Lamb-raising ... ... 625 Charlock, Wild Mustard or ... 28 Cheese — Cheddar Cheese in Great Britain 282 Competition at the A.N. A. Exhi- bition ... ... 183, 731 Making (Derby, Cheshire, Leices- ter, Port du Salut, Cleveland, Little Gloster, Caerphilly, Wens- leydale, Gorgonzola) ... ... 598 Production in Victoria, Possibilities of ... ... ... .. 409 Victorian, Export of ... ... 73^ Cherry, T. — Agricultural Classes, 1907 ... 45 An Exhibit of Farm Products ... 701 Outlook for Agriculture ... ... 129 Index. Cherry, T. — continued. Present Day Problems of Agri. culture •■ ■■■ ■■■ 47^ Three Years' Progress in Ayr.eul- ture ... ... ... ••■ 103 Chicken Pox .. ■■•3^9, opp. 512 Chinese Scrub ... .-■ ••• 49^ Chloroformi-ig ... ... ■■■ 58 Clearing ... ... opp. 640 Closer Settlement Studies — A Suburban Dairy Parm ... 6 230, 276, 336, 438' 498> 606, 680, 720 292 281 49 57^ 94 93 478 709 49 761 192 358 677 206 512 320 136 158 576 358 704 161 676 II 257 65 76 I 230 337 537 737 224 28, 54O' Index. 4495 547. 163, Britain Trade Trans Experimental Farms — Heytesbury Wyuna Experimental Fields — Fodder Cropa ... Maize Plots at Colac Potato Wheat Export — Apple Trade with t'.reat and Germany .■• •■• Breeds of Sheep mtiuencmg Lamb-raising Commerce Act and Fruit Conditions surrounding the in Lambs Dairy Produce Trade Ducks for of Eggs of Flour Fruit, Season 1907 Problems affecting Fruit portation and Marketing Trade, Development of the 01 Victorian Cheese Export bidtistics — Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, Grain, &c. •■■ 1^6, 320, 5ir, Grain and Produce Oversea ••■ ••• '93' Perishable and Frozen Produce 320, 511. False Quarter Farm — Animals, Diseases of 55' 211, 257, 364, 415, 513' 635, 641, A Suburban' Dairy Buildings, Dairy ■•• "7' Cheap Motor Power on the Farm Engines and their Care Heytesbury Nhill Competition Products, An Exhibit of Tatura Competition Wyuna Farms — Progressive Dairy State Fencing Fern Tree Gully Shire, Dairying in the Fetlock Lameness ... Firing Five Crown Pippin Flies — Attacking Horse's Eyes ... Fruit ... ... Flour — - Export of Milling Properties of Wheat Moths ... Flower Garden 17, 103 _ 290, 334' 437' 497. 543' 609, 671, Flowers — Amaryllis Anemone Canna 449. Re]~)ort on opp. opp. 173. 675 67.3 195 236 649 240 745 625 89 631 391 158 161 357 yzi 612 201 731 704 384 20.2 179. 704 642 65' 765 660 281 509 I 675 19 701 29 673 595 199 569 292 365 66 48 768 301 357 167 512 223, 726 724 541 100 opi: opp full opp. Flowers — continued. Fuchsia Gladiolus Iris Lily Nerine Pansy Petunia Salvia Sweet Pea Violet Fluke Fly Blister Fodder — Cabbages foi iht Dair\ Chaff ... Clover ... Crops for Lambs Crops to Provide Ration Cultivation of Irrigated Blocks for the Dairy Herd Experimental Maize Plots at Colac Fattening Lambs ••• opp Feeding Draught Horses opp Feeding Rye to Cows in Calf opp Forage Poisoning in Horses Improvement of Soils Improving the Milk Yield Herd ... opp. 192, opp. balanced opp. Paare IS 173 43 ■ 66q 333 494 221 288 606 494 640 75 297 768 320 631 453 482 236 576 640 256 242 610 59J opp. 128, opp. 256 opp. 192, 453 128, 291 opp. 64 opp. 64 opp. 320, opp. 768 ••• 567 opp. 64 opp opp opp opp opp Japanese Millet Lucerne Growing Maize Cultivation Mangolds, Hilling Melilotus Molasses for Pigs Prairie Grass Rape and Fodder Crops for Lamb- raising Rape and Peas ... Rape for Summer Feed ... Rotation of Crops Saltbush, Propagation of Setaria viridis ... Silage for Breeding Ewes Silage Notes Silo Building Silos and Silage Stack Silage Summer Crops ... Turnips for Dairy Cows ... Fomentations Foot — Lameness Rot in Sheep Wounds Forage Poisoning in Horses, Staggers or Forestry — Importance of Tree Planting Pollarding Sugar Gums ... opp Tree Planting and Forest Preser- vation Wattle Growing W^attle Seed Foul Brood of Bees Foul in the Foot of Cattle 667 480 512 704 576 256 768 623 ... 617 ... 499 opp. 320 opp. 641 opp. 512 375: 418 644 642 242 560 704 224 ■ •• 432 opp. 768 664, 735 ... 649 Index. vii Coach-whip Bird 20Q Fruit Flies 301 Yellow-breasted Robin ... 7S French, C. jun. — Pumpkin Beetle 743 Froggatt, W. W.— Insect Pests in Other Lands 682, 716 Fruit — Exports. Commerce Act and 89, 722 Export Season, 1907 385 Flies 301 Industry 204 Storehouse ... ... opp. 256, 380 Transportation and Market ing> ProlDlems affecting 612 Fruit Trees — Apricot Scab Black Spot of Apple Codlin Moth Description of Apples 362, Destroying Suckers Grafting Insect Pests in Other Lands Leaf Curl of Peach Lemon and Orange Seeds Orange Phytoptus Painted Apple Moth Peach Aphis Pear Slug Preservation of Ladybirds Pruning Red Spider Re-making of an Orchard San Jose Scale ... The Orchard (Monthly Notes) 12:;, 102, 318, opp. 384, 427, 616, 6S1, 744 Woolly Aphis Fuchsia, The Fumitory, Common Furze, The Gamble, W. — Tatura Farm Competition, rgo Garden Notes 15, 100, 171, 333' 43S> 494' 54i. 606, 66q, Gaskin, Lameness in the ... Gastrotomv Gladiolus,' The Gorse. Grubbing ... Government Cool Stores, Scale Charges Tirading and Levelling 321, Grafting Grant to Agricultural Societies jqS, Grass Tree, Destroying ("tripes ... opp. 192, Grubbing Gorse ... Guava Fruit Fly ... Guildford Grass, or Onion Grass 722 opp S76 722 616 , 721 48, 174. 362, 654 opp 704 opp 512 682 716 722 opp 640 opp 320 opp 192 512 721 opp 704 opp 576 opp 384 512 8 721 47. 512, 5/6, 126 15 opp. 640 276 6... 2Q 221, 288, 734 472 71 171 opp. 256 of 698 52S, 705 opp. .SI2 175. n|)p. 768 opp. 768 opp. 704 opp. 256 308 Ham, H. W.— Border Leicester Sheep ... Breeds of Sheep influencing Lamb- raising Rape and Fodder Crops for Lamb- raising Hammond, A. A. — Orchard Pests and Diseases Hart, A.— Ducks for Export Hawkins, H. V. — Chicken Pox Egg Production and Cool Storage Poultry for Export Report on Agricultural Classes, 1906 Silver Dorking, The Success in Egg Culture ... Heat, Animal Herbs, Cultivation of Herkes, W. A. — Pasteurising Home Cream Heytesbury Farm High School, The Agricultural Hip Lameness Hives, Robbing Box Hock Lameness Horses — Bots ... Capped Elbow ... Continuous Urination Cracked Hoof ... Death of Diseases of L'arm Animals Separator 474' b35, opp opp opp opp opp 55 641, opp, opp, opp. Enlargement on Wither Eyes, h"lies attacking Feeding Draught Grant to Agricultural Societies , 49^^, opp- lnspe;lion and Exammation of Stal- , li«"s i3«, 347, 485, Lameness^in 211, 257, 364, 415- 513 Lampas Lockjaw Navel Rupture 537 opp. 128, Pimples on Stallion Report by Mr. S. O. Wood his Mission to Europe ... Scabs on Scour Severed Artery ... Soundness in Staggers or Forage Po soning Stiffness in Hind Legs ... Strangles Throwing Tonic for . . Water Gripes Welsh Ponies ... ... 138 Worms in 635, opp. opp. opp. opp. opp. on opp. opp. opp. in ... opp. opp. opp opp. opp. opp. Page 759 625 667 721 158 3«9 676 544 35 677 II 462 19 524 675 247 468 105 S^i 448 576 3«5 576 640 65. 7^0 704 768 640 i75> 7b8 740 468 641 448 576 320 576 640 13S 768 576 704 152 242 640 704 57 . 64 192 768 576 vm Indtx. Page Identification of Plants opp. 192, opp. 256, opp. 320, opp. 4485 opp. 512, opp. 640, opp. 704 Inspection Methods in New Zealand, Stock ... ... ... 273 Internal Lameness ... ... 523 Iris, The ... ■■■ ••• 435 Irrigation — Drainage and ... ... ... 206 Grading and Levelling 321, 528, 705 Orchard ... ■■• opp. 128 Wyuna Farm ... ... ... 449 Jacob, H. — Improvement of Soils ... ... 6ro Japanese Millet ... opp. 128, opp. 256 Jarde ... — ••• 5^9 Kendall's Emasculator ... ••• 205 Kendall, W. T.— Possibilities and Limitations of Veterinary Science ... ••• 484 Kenyon, A. S. — Drainage and Irrigation ... ... 206 Kvperimenlal Farms. No. i, Wyuna 449 Farm Engines and their Care ... i (;rad-ng and Levelling 321, 528, 705 Silage Notes ... .-■ ••■ 623 Silo Building ... ■■• ■•• 617 Silos and Silage ... •■■ 49') Use of Concrete for Silos and other Farm Buildings ... ■■• 401 Kidney Disease ... ... ••. 7^5 Kitchen Garden (Monthly Notes) 18, 104, 174, 223, 291, 335, 438, 497, 544, 610, 672, 727 Knee Lameness ... ... •■• 259 Knight, J.— drain .md rrodx-cc l-.vp.orts ... 384 Lactic Acid Culture for Ripening Cream ... ... ••• 702 Ladybirds, Preservation of opp. 576 Lambs — Breeds of Sheep influencing Lamb- raising ... ... ••• 625 Conditions surrounding the Export Trade in ... ... ... 631 Early ... ..■ ... opp. 704 Fattening ... ... opp. 576 Fodder Crops for ... ... 481 Rape and Fodder Crops for Lamb- raising ... ... ■•■ 667 Scale of Charges, Government Cool Stores ... ... ■•■ 69!^ Lameness in Horses 211, 257, 364, 415, 468, 513, 63s, 641 Contracted Tendons and Knuckling Over ... ... ••• 521 Definition and Descri])tion ... 21 t Detection of ... ... -.• 212 Diagnosis of Obscure ... ■■■ 215 Elbow ... ... ... ... 257 Fetlock ... ... ... 365 Foot ... ... 375' 415' 635, 641 Gaskin ... ... ... 472 Hip ... ... ••• ••• 4^8 Page Lameness in Horses — continued. Hock ... . . ... 474> 513 Internal ... ... ... 523 Knee ... ... ... ... 259 Loin ... ... ... ... 468 Pastern ... ... ... ... 369 Rheumatic ... ... ... 522 Shoulder ... ... ... 216 Sore Shins ... ... ... 364 Splint ... ... ... ... 266 Sprain of the Back Tendons ... 260 Stifle ... ... ... ... 470 Laminitis or Founder ... ... 417 Land Crabs ... ... "PP- 384 Lang, J.— Description of Apples 48, 174, 362, 654 The Orchard (Monthly Notes) 47, 125, 192, 318, opp. 384, 427, 5r2, 576. 616, 681, 744 Lawns, Sand Mounds on ... ... 728 Lee, F. E.— Efl'ects of Manures on Potato Yields ... ... ... 556 Experimental Maize Plots at Colac 236 Nhill Farm Competition, r9o6 ... 19 Report on the Harvest Returns of Special Wheat and Oat Experi- ments, 1906-7 ... ... ... 240 Report on the Harvest Returns of \Vheat Varieties. 1906-7 ... 163 The Soil : Considered as the Farmer's Chief Asset ... ... 490 Legislation — Artificial Manures Acts ... ... 106 Cr)mnierce Act and Fruit Ivx- ports ... ... 89, 722 Fences Act ... ... ... 569 Fruit Cases Act ... 48, 89 Milk and Dairy Supervision Act 200 Pure Foods Act ... ... ... 398 Travelling Stock ... ... 733 Levelling and Grading opP- 12S, 321, 528, 705 Lick, Cattle ... ... opp. 64 Lilydale Shire, Report on Dairying in the ... ... ... 94 Lily, The ... ... ... 669 Lock-jaw ... ... opp. 576 Loin Lameness ... ... ... 468 London Pippin or Five Crown Pippin 48 Lucerne — Growing ... ... opp. 192 for Small Irvirrated j^reas ... 4C^ Tree, Treatment of Seed opp. 768 Luff m inn, C B. — Fruit Stores ... ... ... 380 Lumpv Jaw ... opp. 385, opp. 512 McAlpine, D. — Experiments with Black Spot of Apple ... ... ... 362 McFadzean, J. 3. — A Milk-Producins? District ... 94 Dpiryingf under Difficulties ... 292 Progressive Dairy Farms ... 595 Index. Machinery — Cheap Motor Power on the Farm 509 Farm Knguies and their care ... i Motor Engines ... ... opp. 192 Oil Engine for Ploughing opp. 256 McMillan, J. G.— Cheddar Cheese in Great Britain 282 Ciieese Competition at the A.N. A. E.xhibition ... ... ... 183 Cheese Making ... ... ... 598 Impressions of Denmark ... 49 Possibilities of Cheese Production in Victoria ... ... ... 409 Magpies, Destruction of ... "I'p- 384 Maize — Cultivation ... ... 128, 291 Experimental Plots at Colac ... 236 Mammitis ... ... "PP- 448 Mange on Dogs ... ... opp. 512 Mangolds, Hilling ... opP- 64 Manures — Analyses, Artihcial Manures Acts 13, 106, 180, 277, 428, 655 Application of Superphosphate opp. 768 Effects of, on Potato Yields, 1906-7 556 Invoice Certificates ... ... 7 New Sources of Available Nitro- gen ... ... ... 328 Notice to Importers, Manufac- turers, Vendors and Dealers ... 675 Problem of Phosphoric Acid ... 131 Unit Values for 1907 106, 180, 277, 428, 655 Value of Stable Manure opp. 576 for Vegetables ... opp. 704 Wood Ashes ... ... opp. 64 Markets for Australian Produce ... 134 Massage ... ... ... 74 Mediterranean Fruit Fly ... ... 301 Meeking, E. — Apple Trade with Great Britain and Germany ... ... 745 Problems affecting Fruit Trans- portation and Marketing ... 612 Melbourne Royal Agricultural Show, 1907 ... ... ... 577 Melilotus ... ... opp. 64 Mercury Blister ... ... ... 7^ Milk— A Milk-Producing District ... 94 Cans, Insanitary ... ... 575 Development of Dairv Shorthorns 348 Follicles ... ... opp. 1^76 Impressions of Denmark ... 40 Necessitv for Inspection of Some Dairies ... ... ... q-< Pink ... ... ... opp. 128 Testing ... ... opp. 64 Yield, Improving the ... ... 591 Molasses ... opp. 320, ()]>])■ 768 Morris, E. G.— Old and New Milking Sheds ... 2S1 Mortar and Cement ... opp. 320 Mosquito Pest ... ... ... 685 Motor^ Engines ... ... opp. 192 Power on the Farm ... ... 509 16130. h Paye Muscle ... ... ... ... 341 Mustard, Charlock or Wild ... 28 Navel Rupture opp. 128, opp. 320, opp. 576 Navicular Disease ... ... 423 Nerine, The ... ... ... ;i^;t. Neurotomy and Neurectomy ... 68 New Hebrides Fruit Fly ... 308 New Sources of Available Nitrogen 328 Newtown Pippin ... ... 174 New Zealand, Stock Inspection Methods in ... ... ... 273 Nhill Farm Competition, 1Q06 ... 19 Nitrate of Soda Fields ... ... 329 Nutrition, Animal ... ... 586 Oat Experiments 1906-7, Special Wheat and Oil Engine for Ploughing ... opp. Guildford Grass or opp. opp. 682, opp. 125' 576, Onion Grass Onion Pest ... ■■• opp. Operations, Veterinary Orchard — Destroying Suckers Fruit Flies Grazing in Insect Pests in Other Lands Irrigating Pests and Diseases Preservation of Insects ... Re.making of an The (Monthly Notes) 47 318, opp. 384, 427, 512, 681, 744 Tobacco for Spraying ... Osborne, W. A. — Elements of Animal Physiology 231. 337, 462, 586, Outlook for Agriculture, The Ovariotomy Overrun in Butter Factories Pansy, The Paracentesis Parasites, Insect ... ... 682 Pastern Lameness ... Pasteurising Home Separator Cream Peach — Aphis Leaf, Curl of ... Pears — Commerce Act and Fruit Exports Export Season, 1907 Slug ... ... ... opp Trade with Great Britain and Ger- manv Peppard, P. T. — Export of Eggs Periosteotomy Petunia, The , ••• Phvsiology, Elements of Animal — TV. Elements of Rio-Chemistry V. The Proteins VI. The Enzymes VII. Muscle VIII. Animal Heat IX. Animal Nutrition X. Digestion and Absorjition 68t Picklintr Wheat ... ... opu 240 256 537 55' 65 704 301 51-^ 716 128 721 768 192, 616, opp. 512 80, 761 129 64 399 494 70 716 369 524 721 89 .3S5 704 745 r6i So 337 341 462 :;86 761 ZC.6 Index. Pigs- Bacon Factory, A Co-operative ... Fattening ... ... opp Feed for ... ••■3575 opp Pork-raising for Export ... Protruding Rectum ... opp Separated Milk for ... opp Service of Sow ... opp Sick ... ... ... opp Sow with Retained Membranes opp Pleuro-Pneumonia, Contagious Ploughing, Depth of Pork-raising for Export ... Potatoes — opp opp Page 50 640 768 563 576 768 64 576 576 448 563 Cultivation Experimental Seed Seed House Poultices opp. Fields 384, opp. 512, opp. 704 547, 640 opp. 64, 540 ... 228 ... 78 Pox Egg-lavint ...389, opp. Competition, Poultry — Chicken Dookie 1906-7 Ducks for Export Egg-eating Egg Production and Cool Stora^ for Export Export of Eggs ... Inbred Ducks ... ... opp. Moulting ... ... opp. Potatoes for ... ... opp. Protrusion of Egg Passage opp. Scale of Charges, Government Cool Stores Shrinkage of Combs ... opp. Silver Dorking^ The Success in Egg Culture ... Power, J. W. — Some I>aw (as it more particularly 358 158 opp. 704 676 544 161 576 640 705 6qS =;i2 6— affects Farmers) 569, 733 Prairie Grass opp . 64 Pregnancy, Ascertaining opp. 128 Present Day Problems of A gri- culture 478 Preserving Insects opp. 768 Pricked Foot 642 Proclaimed Plants of Victoria — Acacia Hedge ... 104 African Box-thorn 720 Blackberry Bramble 43S Cape Broom 137 Cape Weed 606 Chinese Scrub 498 English Broom ... 230 Furze 276 Guildford Grass, or 0 nion G rass 53/ Ragwort 680 St. Barnaby's Thistle 540 Sweet Briar 336 Wild Mustard or Char lock 28 319' 510, Lamb- opp. opp. Pye, H.- Dookie Egg-laying Competiton, 1906-7 Wheat Judging Card Wheat and Wheat Breeding Queensland Fruit Fly Quittor Ragwort Rainfall- Influence of Forests on ... in Victoria ... 127, Rape — and Fodder Crops for raising for bummer Feed Reconstitution in the Gironde Red Water Reed, J. M.— Importance of Tree Planting ... Reeds for Silage ... Reports — Agricultural Classes, 1906 Dairying in the Lily dale Shire ... Harvest Returns of Wheat Va- rieties, 1906-7 ... 163, Heytesbury Farm Horse-breeding, Mission to Europe (Wood) Insect Pests in Foreign Lands (Froggatt) ... ... 682, Inspection of Dairies in the Fern Tree Gully Shire Stock Inspection Methods in New Zealand (Colebatch) Viticulture in h^urope (Castella Wvuna Farm Rheumatic Lameness Rhubarb Cultivation Ringbone Ringworm in Young Cattle River Frontages ... Robinson, G. H. — Take-all and its Control Robin, Yellow-breasted Roof-cooling Compositions Page 358- 605 43 305 643 680 694: opp. opp. Rotation of Crops Rugging Cow.s Rumenotomv Rupture opp opp Proteins, The Pruning Pumpkin Beetle opp. 231 743 Rushes, Destrov^ng Rust in Wheat St. Barnaby's Thistle Saltbush, Propagation of Salvia Sand Crack Sand Mounds on Lawns San Jose Scale Scarlet Nonpariel Scour ... ... opp Seed — Lemon and Orange Table for Seedsmen, and Market Gardeners Tree Lucerne Wattle opp. opp. opp. opp. 64, opp. 320, opp opp. opp. 128, opp. opp. Farmers, opp. opp. 703 667 512 313 512 560 623 35 94 240 675 138 716 292 273 712 673 522 729 372 704 512 253 78 640, 768 704 384 70 128, 576 320 447 540 576 288 639 728 721 654 576 640 111 768 768 Indtjc. Seedy Toe ... ... ... 641 Sesamoiditis ... ... .. ^bb Seymour, G. — Potato Experimental Fields 547, 649 Seed Potato House ... ... 22S Sharp, A. T. — Melbourne Royal AgricuiUirul Show ... ... ••• ... 577 Sheep — Border Leicester ... ... 759 Breeds of. Influencing Lamb- raising ... ... ... 625 Conditions surrounding the Export Trade in Lambs ... ... 631 Early Lambs ... ... opp. 704 Fattening Lambs ... opp. 576) Fluke ... ... opp. 512, opp. 640 Footrot in ... ... ... 644 Rape and Fodder Crops for Lamb-raising ... ... ... 667 Rape for Summer Feed ... opp. 512 Selection of Ram ... opp. b4o Silage for Breeding Ewes tjpp- 7^'^ Silos and Silage ... 500, 503 Ticks on ... .-- . opp. 76S Shivering ... ... ... 522 Shorthorns, Development of Dairy 348 Shoulder Lameness ... ... 216 Show, Melbourne Royal ... ... 57; Sidebone ... ... ... ... 376 Silage — for Breeding Ewes ... opp. 768 Cabbages for ... ... opp- 448 as u Factor of .Success ... ... sQi Notes ... ... ... ... 623 Pit 593 Silos and ... ... ... 4()() Stack ... ... ... opp. 320 Silos — Blowers ... ... opp. 448 Building ... ... ... 617 and Silage ... ... ... 499 Use of Concrete for ... . 401 Slinging . . ... ... 78 Smith, W.— Pork. raising for E.xport ... ... 563 Smoother, The ... ... ... 1; Soils — Echuca ... ... ... 492 Improvement of ... ... 610 Stirring the Sub-soil ... ... 481 of Victoria ... ... ... 130 Wyuna ... ... ... 450 Soil, The : Considered as the Farmer's Chief Asset ... ... 490 Sore Shins ... ... ... 152 Soundness — in Horses ... ... ... 364 Inspection and Examination of Stallions ... 138, 347, 485, 749 Spavin — Blood ... ... ... ... 513 Bog ... ... 475, 513, opp. 640 Speving — Cattle ... ... ... ... 64 of the Mare ... ... ... 63 Pase Splint Lameness ... ... ... 266 Sprain of the Back Tendons ... 260 Staggers or Forage Poisoning in Horses ... ... ... 242 Stallions — Grant to Agricultural Societies 175, 498 Inspection and Examination of 138, 347' 4^52 749 Report by Mr. S. O. Wood ... 138 Soundness in Horses ... ... 152 Statistics — l^ruit. Plants, Bulbs, and Grain — Exports ... 126, 320, 511, 704 Grain and Produce — Exports ... 384 Live Stock ... ... opp. 257 Perishable and Frozen Produce — p]xports ... 179, 320, 511, 704 Rainfall in Victoria 127, 319, 510, 703 Three Years' Progress in Agricul- ture ... ... ... 193 Stifle I^ameness ... ... ... 470 Stock- Inspection Methods in New Zea- land ... ... ... 273 Travelling ... ... ... 733 Strangles - .. opp. 704 Strapping ... ... ... 56 Stringhalt ... ... ... 522 Sturmer Pippin ... ... ... 362 Suburban Dairy Farm ... ... 660 Summer FodJer Crops ... opp. 641 Suturing Wo\mds ... ... .•• 7^ Sweet Briar ... ... ... 336 Sweet Pea ... ... ... 606 Take-all and its Control ... ... 253 Tank, Excavating ... ... opp. 448 Tatham, A. — Wattle Growing ... • . 432 Tatura Farm Competition, 1906 ... 29 Tenotomy ... ... ... 73 Thoroughpin ... ... ■.. 474 Three Years' Progress in Agricul- ture ... ... ••■ 193 Throwing Horses and Cattle ... 57 Thrush ... ... ... ••• 636 Ticks on Sheep ... ... opp- 768 Tobacco for Spraying ... opp. 512 Tolley, G. H.— Wvuna Farm Report ... ... 673 Tovey, J. R. (Ewart, A. J., and)— Proclaimed Plants of Victoria 28, 104, 137, 230, 276, 336, 438, 498, 540, 606, 680, 720 Tracheotomy ... ... ... 72 Travelling Stock ... ... ■ ■ 733 Trepanning or Trephining .. 73 Tree Planting— and Forest Preservation ... 224 Importance of ... ... ... 560 Trevis or Crush ... ... ... 56 Turner, J. G.— Commerce Act and Fruit Exports 89 Fruit Export Season, r907 ... 385 Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, and Grain — Exports ... 126, 320, 5ri, 704 Turnips for Dairy Cows ... opp. 512 Index. Page Twitch, The ... ... ... 56 Udder, Swollen opp- 5~6, opp. 640, opp. 768 Unit Values for 1907 106, 180, 277, 428, 655 Urinary Organs, Diseases of the ... 765 Veterinary- Operations, Methods and Prac- tices ... ... ... 55, 65 Science, Possibilities and Limita- tions of ... ... ... 484 Villitis ... ... ... ... 423 Vinegar, Fining ... ... opp. 704 Violet, The ... ... ... 494 Viticulture — Callusing Vine Cuttings ... opp. 704 in Europe, First Progress Report on 694, 712 Industry ... ... ... 204 Reconstitution in the (iironde ... 313 Vines Distributed and Available for Distribution, 1906-7 ... 382 Water — Artesian Bore ... opp. 576, opp. 768 Excavating Tank ... opp. 448 Clearing, in Dam ... opp. 576 Irrigating Orchard ... opp. 128 Roof Cooling Compositions opp. 640, opp. 768 Wattle- Growing 432 Seed, Treatment of opp. 768 Welsh Ponies ... 138, opp. 768 Wheat- Depth to Drill ... ... opp. Judging Card Milling Properties of ... Nhill Farm Competition Northern Experimental Fields, 1906-7 and Oat Experiments, Special 163, Pickling ... ... opp. Take.all and its Control Tatura Farm Competition Varieties 1906-7, Harvest Returns of and Wheat Breeding White Ants ... ... opp. Wild Mustard (or Charlock) Wilkinson, W. P. — Analyses, Artificial Manures Acts, 106, iSo, 277, 428, Unit Values for 1907 106, 277, 428, Windgalls Wood Ashes as a Fertilizer opp. Wood, S. O.— Report on Mission to Europe ... Page 512 605 167 19 163 240 256 253 29 163 439 Wood .Sorrel, South African Woolly Aphis Wyuna Farm Vellovv-breasted Robin Zante Currants opp. 449> 13. 655 [80, 655 367 64 138 640 126 673 opp. 576 By .\uthoiit..\ : .). Kkmi', .\cfiii;- (iovn-miienl F'riiiter. .Melbomiie. FARM ENGINES. Vol. V. Part 1. [Retfistered at the General Post Office, Melbourne, for transmission by Post as a Newspaper.] THE ENGINE ON THE FARM PRICE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subscription— Victoria, Inter-State, and N.Z., 3/-; British and Fu, THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CONTENTS. - Farm Engines and their Care ... Manure Invoice Certificates ... The Re-making of an Orchard Success in Egg Culture Results of Analyses of Samples of Artificial Manures Garden Notes — The Fuchsia ... Nhill Farm Competition, 1906 The Proclaimed Plants of Victoria — Wild Mustard or Charlock ... ... ... A. J. Ewart Tatura Farm Competition, 1906 Agricultural Education — Report on Classes held during 1906 ... Classes for 1907 ... The Orchard Description of Apple — London Pippin or Five Crown Pippin ... Impressions of Denmark Diseases of Farm Animals — VI. — Veterinary Operations, Methods and Practices ... Answers to Correspondents ... Agricultural Education in Victoria ... ... ... A. 8. Kenyan ... A. G. Camjihell ... H. V. Hawkins ... PAQB 1 7 8 11 W. P. Wilkinson ... 13 J. Cronin ... 15 F. E. Lee ... 19 and J. R. Tovey ... W. Gamble ... 28 29 H. V. Hau-kins ... 35 T. Cherry ... J. Lang ... 45 47 J. Lang ... J. G. McMillan ... 48 49 S. S. Cameron ... 55 inside front back cover cover REGISTERED UNDER THE COPYRIGHT ACT 1890. SECTION 21. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter contained in the Journal are at liberty to do so, provided the usual acknowledgment is made. The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy Threepence. A limited number of the issues comprising Volumes II. (1903-4), III. (1905) — 10 parts each— and IV. (1906)-:-12 parts — are at present in stock, and will be supplied at the foregoing rates. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. The Staff of the Department has been organized to a large extent for the purpose of giving information to farmers. Questions in every branch of agriculture are gladly answered. Write a short letter, giving as full particulars as possible, of your local conditions, and state precisely v/hat it is that you want to know. All inquiries must be accompanied by the name and address of the writer. Butter Fat. — J.C.A. inquires whether the quality of the food consumed by cows increases the percentage of butter fat. Answer. — The most reliable experiments have shown that the proportion of butter fat in milk is fairly constant, and is not influenced in any great degree by the quality or nature of the food consumed. Foods rich in protein, however, such as bran, peas, beans, clover, lucerne, and the like, appreciably increase the quantity of milk yielded, and are, therefore, profitable to feed, though not under all circumstances. Contagious Abortion.— D.W.H. writes — " Some of the cows have taken the bull as often as five and six times, but are not in calf. I have removed the bull, and will not let him go with them until June. He has been thoroughly washed with lysol, and his sheath has been well syringed. Would there be any danger of contagion if he is put with another herd ? " Avswer. — There certainly would be a danger of the bull infecting a fresh herd of cows. The disinfection of sheath and genitals should be repeated two or three times, and the bull nob used for service for three or four months. (Continued on inside back cover.) THe JOURNAL? OF Tfie ©eparfment of Moncufiure. !BRARV NEW ':' R'OTv. ■ Vol. V. Part 1. 8th January, 1907. FARM ENGINES AND THEIR CARE. A. S. Kenyon, C.E., Engineer for Agriculture. Legislation lias recently been passed providing for the inspection of all boilers within cities, towns, or boroughs, and within such shires or portions of shires as may be ordered by the Governor in Council, and for the reporting of any boiler explosion or accident in any joart of the State. The necessity for such legislation has arisen through a number ofi more or less serious accidents, due to negligence or ignorance. Steam engines are now in common use on dairy and other farms. Through ignorance, more than, as a rule, through carelessnesss, their boilers may be sources of danger to those working near them ; may become worn out long before they should ; and may consume much more fuel than necessary. The following paper, by Mr. E. R. Meekison, late Senior Inspector of Mines for Victoria, will give many hints worth noting: — Boiler. — The most dangerous part of steam machinery is the boiler, and the greatest care should be exercised in giving proper attention to it. After a boiler has been in fair work for about 20 years, more or less, according to the original quality of the iron or steel, and of the feed water used^the plates begin to change from a fibrous to a granular or cast-iron character, and when this change takes place a boiler cannot be worked with safety, as it is then in a dangerous condition and liable to accident at ajiy moment. In some cases, however, boilers have been worked for periods of over 30 years, but in such cases there have been exceptionally favorable circumstances under which they have been used. A few years ago I examined a boiler over 20 years old, which had been offered for sale. The plates, angle irons, and rivets were not corroded to any great extent, but on trying the edge of the plates with a chisel the iron broke off short, just as cast-iron would have done. There was no fibre in the plates, and a cast-iron boiler would have been just as reliable as the one I refer to. Every boiler should be fitted with the most approved appliances to insure its safety, but the best appliances cannot be relied upon without an experi- enced and careful driver being in charge. In fixing boiler mountings a good plan is now in general use, and that is tO' fix them to cast-iron or steel seatings riveted on the boiler. The surface of the seatings which receives the mountings being flat in all cases, thev can be faced, and consequently 13554. A Journal of Agriculture. [8 Jan., 1907, V a perfectly tight joint can be easily made. Doubtless many have at times experienced a great difficulty in making joints on flanges, which are sup- posed to be cast to the circle of the boiler, but which, in the majority of cases, do not fit correctly. These seatings are sometimes objected to on the score of expense, but the money would be better expended on seatings than in attaching domes, which, besides being often useless appendages, weaken the boiler by requiring so large a hole to be cut in the shell. The seating used for the man-hole dooT would also strengthen that part of the boiler round the man-hole door. Water Gauges. — Glass water gauges should be fixed on every boiler, and the best plan is to have two on each. I consider wheel scavenger cocks I0 be the best — especially where bad water is used. I have known the com- mon plug cocks require grinding every week, and they have only lasted a short time. When these cocks have been replaced with scavenger cocks, the latter have worked under exactlv the same conditions as the foxmer for \ears, and have not required to be ground. In many cases I have found the glass gauges fixed too low down on the front of the boiler, and some of them would show water in the glass when it was off the top of the tube. This is a most dangerous position in which co have gauges fixed. The bottom mountings of gauge glasses should never be fixed lower than 2 inches above the highest part of the tube; this would give about 4I inches of water over the tube when the water was at the lowest visible point in the glass. Try Cocks. — The bottom try cocks sho'uld be fixed at the level of the bo'tcom of the glass, and when there are 4 inches of water over the tube, the bottom try cocks should blow steam. By fixing the cocks at this height, if through any cause the water should disappear from the glass, there \Tould be no danger as long as water came out of the bottom cock of the gauge mountings, but as soon as it is below the bottom cock the driver should draw his fires. There are several automatic appliances to give warn- infj when the water is gettimr too low in the boiler, one of the most generallv used being a float placed inside the boiler, and connected with a steam whistle. When the water gets too low the float opens the whistle. None of the appliances have, however, come into general use through their liability to get out of order, and if thev were depended upon thev might prove a .source of danger instead of safety. All the taps should be tried several times in each shift, and pipes should be fixed to all of them so as to carry the water clear of the boiler front. Safety Valve. — The safety valve should in all cases be large enough to admit of the escape of all the steam which can be generated in the boiler without raising the pressure at which the valve is set more than 12 per cent. The safety valve most used is the lever valve. This lever should not press down the valve by a projection welded on the under side of the lever, nor should it be fixed so as to press directly on the top of the valve, but th':^- ' should be a loose pin under the lever, and secured thereto with a double e\ e and bolt. The pin should be pointed to fit into a countersink on the top of the valve ; it should bear onlv on the point, and be clear of the counter- sink everywhere else. This plan does away with the lateral thrust, which is mostly caused by other arrangements. Care should be taken that the nins do not get rusted, that they work freely, and that the guard over the lever (which is placed opposite the fulcrum) does not press- on the side of the lever, as is sometimes the case, and an increased pressure thereby put on the boiler. Lever safety valves are easily tampered with, as in many 8 Jan., 1907.] Farm Engines and their Cure. 3 cases the le'ver is made much longer than is necessary for the blowing off pressure with the weight provided. Additional pressure is often put on boilers through the engine-driver shifting the weight further out on the lever; to prevent this, the lever should only be of such a length that when the weight is at the end, it gives only the pressure allowed on the boiler. The practice of hanging additional weights on the lever, as is often done, should under no circumstances be allowed, and a good plan is to have a notice fixed in the engine-room, stating the working pressure allowed on each boiler, which should not be exceeded. The necessity for a locked safety-valve is now universallv recognised, and those most approved are constructed so as to admit of the valve being moved every day to prevent it from sticking, but no additional pressure can be placed on the valve. Pressure Gauge. — A reliable pressure gauge, fixed with a syphon, should be placed on everv boiler, but the practice of working them for years without being tested, renders a gauge of but little value. I frequently find where two boilers are connected with steam, that the two pressure gauges show a difference of from 10 to 15 lbs., and I am unable to determine which gauge registers correctly, or whether both are wrong. No one knows, in fact. The practice of shifting the weight on the safety-valve lever so as to make it correspond with a pressure gauge, which may be faulty, might put an unnecessary pressure on a boiler which it might be unable to stand. No pressure gauge should be allowed to be in use for a longer period than twelve months without being tested. At the Ballarat School of Mines there is a quicksilver testing machine. The charge for testing and for giving a list of the variations of the gauge from the correct pressure at different pressures, is only 2s. 6d. per gauge. By having a spare one at hand a gauge could be tested at any time, if there were a doubt as to its correctness. Check or Retention Valve. — Every boiler should have a check or retention valve, and if it be fixed on the top of the shell, it should have a diD-pipe leading down into the water. This pipe should be of such a length that it will deliver the water about one inch below the lowest water level, and a T coupling should be fixed on the end of the pipe. Short pipes should be screwed into each end of the coupling to deliver the water horizontally and distribute it equally. In case an accident happened to the check valve, and the pipe were fixed in the manner I have mentioned, the Avater could not be blown through the dip-pipe below the top of the tube. This might, however, occur if the pipe were carried down near the bottom of the boiler. The best place in which to fix the check valve is on the front of the boiler, about an inch below the lowest water level. Steam Stop Valve. — A separate steam stop valve should be fixed on each boiler, and when the steam is being turned on to the engine, it should be done slowly. Boilers should not be connected when steam is up until the pressure in each boiler is equal. The water in a boiler should be kept as nearly as possible at one height, and only as much feed should be pumped in as wdll supply the water used in generating steam, and will allow the boiler to be "blown down " once in each shift. The plan of working the water down low and then turning all the feed into a boiler, should never be adopted, as it prevents regularity of steaming, and causes an unnecessary expenditure of fuel. If more than one boiler is used they should never both be fired at one time. One boiler should always have a good bright fire in it when the other is ready for firing up. By adopting this plan vou will be able to keep the steam nearly to the one pressnrp. a 2 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Jan., 1907. A good driver will always have the water and steam as near tO' oqe point as possible. Blow-off Cock. — In "blowing down" a boiler, the blow-off cock should always be turned backward and forward two or three times before it is fully opened. This prevents it from sticking, as it might do if opened " full " at once. Cleansing and Testing Boilers. — Every boiler should be carefully examined inside and outside whene\er it is cleansed, and it should be tested by hydraulic pressure once in each twelve months, to not less than 50 per cent, above the pressure at which the safety valve blows off. In doubtful cases, boilers should be subjected to a test of double the pressure at which the safety valve blows off. The best means we have of ascertain- ing the safety of a boiler with any degree of certainty, is by applying pressure, for even if a boiler be well proportioned, and be made of the best material, there is always the possibility of the existence of defects, such as bad welding or riveting, plates having been burned in flanging, or cracked in bending, or the plates may have been badly punched, and when put to- gether the iron is either cut away so as to bring the holes fair to one an- other, or the plate is strained by a drift having been driven in the holes to allows the rivets to enter. The rivets may be little, if any, more than half their proper size where the plates join. After a boiler has been riveted the defects I have mentioned can onlv be detected by a hydraulic pressure test. Some years ago I saw in a boilermaker's yard a boiler, all punched and plated, and ready for riveting — nearly all the l]oles were half-holes. After the boiler was finished it was tested, and at a pressure of only 70 lbs. per square inch the flue came down. I have seen the gusset stays put in between the double angle irons on the front and the shell with the iron nearly all cut away between the holes and the edge of the plate. These defects could, as I have stated, only be discovered by testing. When the construction of a boiler will allow\ it should always be examined and sounded with a hammer before the hydraulic test is applied. All boilers should be thoroughly examined and tested before they are built in position, and I may mention that a hydraulic test and a steam test are equal in pressure and, strain on a boiler. Boilers could, however, be constructed which would stand a greater pressure of water than ofi steam. If a boiler has been resting on damp walls, especially where the dampness results from the use of mineral water, the parts where the boiler has been so resting are often corroded, and the boiler should be carefully examined there. I have seen the plates of a boiler reduced to less than one half-their original thick- ness, owing to the cause mentioned, while the remaining part of the boiler was in good condition. The chief cause of explosions is the unsafe con- dition of boilers through age, corrosion, wasting, &c. , which necessitates undue working pressure. There are now at work in this State many boilers which have been in use for over 20 years. Some of these boilers have been at work at different places, and have been fed with different waters, and extra care and caution are required in working, examining, and testing them. Strain upon a Boiler. — To show^ the amount of strain upon a high- pressure boiler 26 feet long. 6 ft. 6 in. diameter, 3 ft. 6 in. flue, working at a pressure of 50 lbs. per square inch, or 7,200 lbs. per squaie foot, we have only to multiply the number of square feet of surface exposed to pressure, namely. 863 feet, by 7,200, and we find that a boiler of the dimensions I have given has to sustain a force of 2,773 tons. This calcu 8 Jan., 1907.] Farm Engines and their C^re. 5 lation is instructive when worked out, as it shows the resisting power required by boilers in dailv use, and too much cannot be said about the necessity ofi engine-drivers giving all possible care and attention to the boilers under their charge. BuiLDiNG-iN Boilers. — The best plan in building-in boilers that are fired in the flue is to make them with split flues, and then into the bottom flue, as there will then be the same heat on both sides. With a wheel flue, the side w^hich receives the draught first must be hotter, and will expand more than the side round which it goes before entering the chimney. A boiler should be set with a projection of 4 inches over the front wall, and as little brickwork as possible should be in contact with the shell. The side walls of the bottom flue on which the boiler rests should not have a greater bearing on the boiler than three inches. The side flues should not be higher than the lowest water level, and both side and bottom flues should be large enough to admit of a man going through to clean and examine them. It is a saving of firewood to have all the flues cleaned and swept out once in every two or three months, and the cost of so doing will be amplv repaid by the saving in firewood. Feed Pump. — An important part of an engine, in connexion with a boiler, is the feed pump. The feed tank should, if possible, be fixed at such a height as will admit of the suction pipe being always full of water. The delivery valve, and check or retention valve and deliverv pipe, should have a larger capacity than the suction pipe and valve. This will prevent anv undue strain on the various parts of the pump. If more than one boiler is in use, it is a good plan to have a safetv valve fixed on the feed pipe so as to prevent it from bursting, which sometimes happens when one stot) valve is shut before the other one is opened. Miscellaneous. — I would strongly urge all drivers to always keep the flue under the fire clear of ashes, and to never let them lie against the front of the boiler. The ashes should be raked away clear of the boiler before water is put on them. When you kindle the fire in a boiler never force it, but let the steam get up gradually. Never blow off a boiler and fill it up with cold water before it has had time to cool. If the water in ilx)iler should get too low, never throw water on the fire before drawing it. but draw the fire in the first instance — then if possible keep the engine at work as long as the steam will drive it, and reduce the pressure in that manner. This is a safer practice than that of lifting the safety valve and allowing the steam to escape suddenlv. If the tube is heated, and the water is below the top of the tube, allow it to cool before putting water in the boiler. The following short instructions to men in charge of boilers are com- piled from numerous lists, &c., issued by boards and associations. (These mav be divided into three — danger to life of men, danger to life of boiler, and loss in fuel.): — I. 1. Safety valves. Trv valve each morning by hand to prevent it sticking. 2. Water gauges and cocks. Keep the glass half -full if there be no mark on the boiler for water level. Blow through bottom cock about every hour, and the top one twice a day. Too much attention to the water gauge cannot be given. 3. Feed pump or injector. Keep in good order. Make regular in- spection. Listen for check valve, and make sure feed is working. Journal of Agriculture. [8 Jan., 1907.. 4. Pressure gauge. The gauge should show zero when no steam, and should read the blow-off pressure when valve works. If it does not, have it examined. 5. Fusible plugs. Keep clean both furnace and water sides. Change them every twelve months. 6. Short water. If the water has only just gone out of the glass the fires should be drawn at once, and the safety valve eased. Open furnace doors. It is better not to turn on feed, interfere with engine, or lift safety valve until the fire is drawn and the boiler cooled. Then open manhole d(X>r and thoroughly examine. II. 7. Never allow leaks to continue. Have them repaired. 8. Do not empty boiler under pressure. Let it cool down : open blow- off cock. 9. Do not put cold water in or on a hot boiler. 10. Do not allow any dampness in settings or in fire-box. 11. Get up steam slowly. Fire regularly. Use air-holes in door for a few minutes when firing up. Keep a good bed of coals on the bars, and stir up the fire occasionallv. Feed at the front, and work towards the back. Black spaces in the fire show entrance of cold air. 12. When laying up for some time, empty right out, and get dry by keeping cocks and holes open to insure a draught, or fill right up, putting in a few handfuls of washing soda. Give outside exposed surfaces a coat of raw oil. 13. Keep all brasses bright. Do not allow anv accumulations of ashes, and have no moisture about. III. 14. Clean out boiler at frequent intervals. The length depends upon the water and the type of boiler. Open hand-holes, and examine inside until necessary period is ascertained. Neither scale inside or soot outside should ever exceed i-i6th inch in thickness. Brush out tubes, and clean out smoke-box regularly. 15. If boiler primes, shut off steam for a while. If dirtv water, blow off a few inches, and pump up again. 16. vSee that no air gets in except through the fire. 17. Blow off every morning when not using steam. Open scum cock two or three times a day while engine is running. See that water is at right level when using scum cocks. 18. Do not use anti-incrustation compounds without due inquiry. If used, put in feed water in small quantities. Oil Engines. The term oil engine is applied here to engines using heavy oils ; that is, in general, kerosene or other oils of .8 or over specific gravitv, and with flash points of 100 degrees to 300 degrees. The lighter oils — naphtha, gasoline, &c. — are used in the " motor " types of engine, which are, as yet, not much used bv farmers. The first essential to the economic working of an oil engine is the understanding of the principles on which it works, and of the conditions necessary to insure complete explosion and combustion in the cvlinder. The principles vary with the different makes, but the conditions are practically the same for all. The kerosene oil is first vaporized into a hydrocarbon 8 Jan., 1907.] Farm Engines and their Care. 7 gzs, and then a proper proportion of atmospheric air drawn in by piston is mixed with it. The piston on the backward stroke compresses the mixture, which is ignited by the heat of the vaporizer, by a red hot ignition tube, or occasionally by an electric spark. The ensuing explosion sends the piston forward. If the engine is running well, the exhaust should be practically colour-- less ; the piston should keep clean ,; there should be no knocking, and the speed, i.e., the number of revolutions per minute, should be practically constant, whether running light or with full load. The explosions should be regular and uniform, and without a coughing sound. Smoky exhaust, with black sticky piston is a sign of incomplete combu.stion, due to too much oil, or too little air. In such a case, have a look at the oil-feed valve, and also see that exhaust and air valves are working freely. The exhaust valve is always worth looking at. The next likely source of trouble is the ignition. If a tube, see that it is clean internally, and that it is kept red hot. In the case of the hot wall igniter, there will be trouble unless the compression is correct. This may vary for different brands of oil, so that a change should not be made withO'Ut a trial run. An incorrect proportion of air will also interfere with the ignition. Per- haps the cause is that the supply of oil is blocked. The vaporizer has to be brought up to the right heat in the first place. There may be leakage in the rings or piston itself, or in the valves. This will interfere with the air supply. Try if tight by turning engine backward. Blocking of the oil supply may be due to leakage in pipes or in pump (if supply is raised). The filter in the tank (overhead supply) is a probable source of trouble. Look out for hot bearings. Lubricate well, and use a good oil. A light oil with high flash and fire tests is the best. Knocking means worn or loose bearings in the connecting-rod, piston or crank pin end ; loose keys ; or igniting at wrong part of stroke. The last cause of trouble needs an expert to remedy. For the first, take up bearings by filing; be careful not to make too tight when screwing up. Draw out the piston occasionally by uncoupling the connecting-rod crank and bearings. Be careful not to break the rings ; let piston slide out on to a Avooden bed. If necessan^, clean well with kerosene both piston and cylinder. Complete instructions are supplied by the various makers, and can be obtained from them or their agents. They should be carefully fol- lowed, and then, with cleanliness and good lubrication, there should seldom be any cause for complaint. Battery troubles in case of electric ignition need too much space. Broken connexions, dirty terminals, bad insulation of plug, are the chief causes, while the battery may be run down altogether. MANURE INVOICE CERTIFICATES. Farmers are advised to retain, for a reasonable time, the invoice certificates supplied to them by vendors when purchasing manures, with the object of assisting officers in the work of protecting farmers from possible imposition. Journal of Agriculture. [8 Jan., 1907. THE RE-MAKING OF AN ORCHARD. A. G. Campbell, Assistant. School of Horticulture, Burnley. Apart from all the efforts that are being made to plant and rear new orchards in several parts of the State, it is interesting and instructive to find that science has been able to reclaim and rejuvenate an orchard which was stated on all sides to have seen its best days. The case I wish to refer to is that of the "Strawberry Gardens," Portland, the property of Mr. T. J. Smith, who states that full publicity can be given to all the statements which follow, in order that the public may know what can be done with discarded fruit trees. When he took over the orchard four years UNPROFITABLE GROWTH OF A PEAR EQUALLY UNPROFITABLE GROWTH TREE. SECURED BY AN IMMENSE AMOUNT OF CUTTING. a£ro, it was admittedly in a very bad state — full of tangled and im- poverished growth, harboring untold quantities of codlin moth, mussel scale, and woolly aphis. In fact, its complete destruction was contemplated. The Means Used. Mr. Smith writes: — "My orchard, everybody can tell you, was very dirtv four years ago; now it is clean, and this season I harvested 1,600 cases of fruit from 2\ acres of fruit trees." Mr. Smith was quick to see that some of the methods explained bv Mr. Luffmann, when the State demon- stration block at Portland was planted in 1902, would suit his case, and he adopted them. The first year he thinned out with the saw, tons of branches, so that light and air could play more freely fn and about the old and diseased trees. The trees were thinned only, especially in the tons, and none of the leaders, or growing points, were cut back at all. By this method the first step was taken towards insuring the growth of fresh fruiting wood throughout the whole length of the branches. Further, the thinning of the old trees allowed access to the spray pump, which was no less an important instrument of succour than the pruning saw. 8 Jan., 1907.] The Re-Making of an Orchard. The trees were at once spraved with strong salt and sulphur mixture, made on the following plan: — In a kerosene tin slake 5 lbs. of lump quicklime, ad.l 5 lbs. sulphur, and boil for one hour, keeping well stirred ; then in another tin slake 5 lbs. quicklime, and JONATHAN APPLE, BORE 5 CASE.S, PEAR TREE IN DEMONSTRATION BLOCK, 1906. PORTLAND, REFILLED WITH FRUITING WOOD BY TLIINNING BRANCHES. GRAVENSTEIN APPLE, BORE 1 7 CASES IN I905. add 3 lbs. salt; mix the two tins, and keep hot. For use, take one part of this and add four parts of hot water : strain well, and apply hot. Journal of Agriculture^ [8 Jan., 1907. This is a splendid insecticide, not only killing all diseases like scale, woolly aphis, and red spider, that harbor on the bark, but cleaning off all moss and lichen growth as well. The new spur and shoot growth that comes in spring has then every possible opportunity of maturing well. Then in Xovember, for the codlin the young fruit was sprayed with a patent mix- ture, which is prarticallv arsenite of soda, made in the following way: - In an enamel pan boil i oz. white arsenic and 2 ozs. washing soda crystals in a quart of water for about fifteen minutes, stirring well. Pour this on 2 lbs. lump quicklime, and add more water, if necessary, to well slake it. After standing half- an-hour this, when strained, will make 20 gallons of spray. This spray was gi\en four times, at intervals of nine davs. But all ihrough the summer anv fruit missed by the spray that was seen to have o grub in. was picked off for the pigs, which also got any infected ones that had fallen to the around. As the result of this simple but effective ALEXANDER APPLE, BORE II CASES, 1906. treatment, the old fruiting spurs on the trees became fruitful again, and new spurs showed themselves in the lower parts of the branches. The winter pruning from this onward consisted of still further thin- ning the tops of the branches and cutting away any very old spurs that were obviously worn out. The salt and sulphur mixture was again anplied, and from then till now the apple scale, which before was a scourge, is very difficult to find. In the following spring the trees were sprayed with 6 lbs. bluestone, 4 lbs. quicklime, 50 gallons of water for black spot, and the trunks bandaged for codlin moth, but the latter pest, it was soon found, is best coped with by spraying, as above indicated, in November, and destroying any grubby fruits wherever found. The Results. Last season the crop taken from the trees, which are mostly apples and pears, but also include apricots and plums, was 1,600 cases of good 8 Jan., 1907.] Success in Egg Culture. fruit, the total number of trees in bearing being 390. This is a splendid, and, needless to say, a profitable return for the labour expended in clean- ing and rejuvenating the orchard, and a fine testimony to the value of simple but effective methods of pruning and spraying, whith can only be judged by such results. One pear tree bore twenty-three cases of fruit, two apples seventeen and eleven cases each, and several others up to five cases. Some of the success of this orchard, it must be admitted, is due to the natural conditions obtaining. Artesian water can be tapped at 33 feet in depth, and with two small pipes, let down at the highest part of the garden, an unlimited supply of excellent limy water can be obtained. Mr. Smith says he watered three times last summer, two days each time, allowing the water to run into channels with closed ends. SUCCESS IN ECIG CULTURE. H. V. Hawkins, Poultry Expert. As an evidence that duck farming pays when carried out on proper lines, the following mav be of interest to readers of the Journal. The first agri- cultural farmers' classes held in Warragul, not quite three years ago, resulted in keener interest being taken in the farming of poultry in that and the surrounding districts. Mr. Donald Grant, of Drouin (a regular student), was one of the first to put into practice the lessons taught at the classes. Having only a small area of land (8 acres), mostly under fruit, he set to work to add to his income by farming ducks for egg production onlv. He constructed pens of 150 feet x 50 feet, in each a house 6 x 10, made of galvanized iron, with 3x2 hardwood for the framework, at a cost of 17s. per house; the fronts all face the east, with wire doors, which are locked at night on account of foxes. Being portable, they are moved occasionally, thus guarding against filth and dampness; the average number of ducks kept in each is forty. One pen, situated on the best undulating piece of land, contains siicty birds, from which he has obtained forty eggs daily all through the winter (when eggs are scarce), and they are still going strong. The birds on the place total 390 ducks, 20 drakes, and 50 fowls, not including the young stock hatched this year, which is in itself a big asset. The cost of feed, all purchased, for the six months ending 30th Sep- tember, was ^85 9s. 4d. This also included feed for eighty voung ducks hatched in Julv, and also feed for 350 chicks (incubated) for six weeks. The return.s amounted to ^139 i8s. 4d. for the six months, made up as follow: — April, ^26 15s.; May, ^t^t, 9s. 3d.; June, ;^i8 los. 6d. ; July, ;^i6 4s. 8d. ; August, ^19 4s. 8d. ; September, jQ2^ 14s. 5d. Many uf the ducks went into a second moult, thus to a large extent spoiling what was promising to be almost a record ; they fell away to seventy-two eggs H dav at the latter end of June, and at the earlv part of July most of them had a month's spell. The greatest number of eggs gathered in one day was 368 on 1 8th September, and the total for the six months amounted to 2,905 dozen, or 34,860 eggs. Journal of Agriculture. [8 Jan., 1907, The manure alone is of considerable value to his orchard, and should find a place in the balance-sheet of every farmer. Its value is of the highest order, the more so on account of the manner in which the ducks are fed — i.e., on a highly nitrogenous ration, which is the only one to produce eggs in abundance. Ducks, like fowls, must have the raw material, by which they can convert one form of food into another, viz., eggs or flesh. Even with green food, the best was used right through — i.e., lucerne chaff, purchased by the cwt. from Bacchus Marsh; this fodder is of double value to any other grass, being so rich in proteids. Pollard, bran, and dry blood (best obtainable), with a handful of salt, two or three times a week, was the principal food given ; and in extreme cold weather a handful of maize was fed midday. Ducks, like fowls, must be given more than a mere subsistence ration if we expect them to return us any product over and above maintaining simply an existence. This has been Mr. Grant's experience, and scores of others who have put into practice the lessons taught at the short-course classes to farmers and their sons and daughters. If eggs are desired, an excess of proteids must be fed ; a duck or fowl should no more be fed on wheat alone than a man on bread alone. The universal need of a mixed diet is applicable to the ducks or fowls as well as CO those in whose care and keeping they are. For example, in J oz. of wheat there are, roughly speaking, six one-hundredths of an ounce of protein, but an egg contains 5 oz. of protein. Under these conditions, there is then available for each day only one-fourth of the protein required for each egg. Then, as to the other constituents, the | oz. of wheat referred to contains one and a half as much carbohydrates and fat as the egg con- tains. In short, the hen or duck is supplied with enough carbohydrates to make an egg and a half a day ; but, mark you, she has only enough protein to make one single egg in four days. Wheat and maize are therefore one- sided rations, the latter especially so, being much too rich in fats, and as a consequence predisposes the hen or duck to lay on internal fats. No grain by itself can produce eggs ; hence the great necessity to feed ducks and fowls on a mixed diet, or a properly balanced ration, as I have de- scribed to students at the agricultural classes, and which Mr. Grant and others have amply proved bv actual test. Even in cold Drouin poultry- farming will add materially to the farmer's and fruit-grower's income. It requires intelligence and a thoughtful overseer, and success will follow the enterprise. Mr. Grant, in his letter to me, say^s, " I am satisfied poultry-farming pays when treated properly." Each day the eggs are gathered, graded, and at once packed in special divisional boxes. The boxes are forwarded direct to the agent, and returned empty ; scarcely any breakages occurred through- out the season. Another element in the success achieved by Mr. Grant is the fact that he sticks to one agent, which creates mutual confidence, and results in top prices being obtained. i> Jan., 1907.] Analyses of Artificial Manures. 13 lit O < H » «l> O O O O »ft 10 O GO '^ ^ .-H :o rH ■>] ai »o t- -H Ci Ci --I O. CO (N CO 1-t ■>) CS i-H O ^1 00 ^ CO • \a w H 0 H >-) •-) 0 u H U »J -tI H « hJ w ;?; « ■«i & g "5 ij g o Q t3 P5 § o m PS H Ph 02 c3 ■" 00000 00000 (M 'N 5-1 IM rN <:0 too 00 1^ t^ r^ o CO CO 05 T-t CO cocoo CO O CO GO to Oi GO to t4* ^ 00 oro t*to lor^t^ o -^ <:> to OS IM N OS O t^ r^ irt u^ lO N (M (M(N(M 003 "H .-I rt O I.H (M i-l(N (N (M i-H O IM 00 QOOOO O O iniOT* 00 O O CO iM CI t^ 00 to T-l •>] i-l O O O .-1 ^H CO trt 10 to t* (M to M 1-t ic a> to Oi ^H t^ o 00 iMia 1010-* 00000 O 000 ''^ o 00 00 000 i-H 00 OOQOO ^ ^^^^ rH 1-H O CM CO CO CO C ^ to 00 "* lO 10 if^ to -^^ -* ^ CO T-< r-^ O O to O ^ 00 T-l O ^ -M O r-l '-^ 01 00 w 10 00 t^iO 00000 o 0000 00000 O O O vft 1ft ITS 0000000000 00 X 00 00 00 to e-i o o o (M 10 o OJ'* o-*o to ai in i-H t^ C7i X t^ Oi ^ 01 r^co t^ o 1< T-( CI to 00 00 Ci O 0 05 COIN ma> Oi -^ CO 00O-* 0.-1 rHrHO w CO (M -^ »ft (N r-((M (N vo t~ s o •S . 3 ' „ 'a ■saSsf go -o .3^ 3 .3 3 SB 3 3 r £000 w 005 s :;:3 • 1^ o : ^ t3 'S 0 6 s ■rt p^ a 03 03 ^1 - • a -73 " rt i:S y ^^ s m>. • coun to tH r-t »M i-t =8 0 . - - . . 0 H ■6 \ ,-((M OrH 3 0 CO Til CO I> OSCQ rH 0 OS I> 05 CO W (M rH rHr^>-l 3 . ! COOt>'S< cs .^ 0 0 lO iO(M 01.-I d c^ tp 1 ^ to rH l-lN 3 o 1 "2 1 r^O 0 0 "iio .* " 1 S «> 3 I> 1000 QO'*I> 0 \ Tf •* t-. OS to ■* CO 0 CO 0 •* ^ Q0a0rHrH00(Mr-lr-ll>'*OS 3 .-H CO 00 CO CO 03 to CO 05 to 05 0 1 CO CO CO X CO CO CO CO t^ CO CO P^ 1 s 3 [ to 1000 iOOO • ■ -t^tOtO -oocoo «^ 1 00 CO CO CO rH (M CO 0 _2 1 C0C000rHiOC0'*O WOCO ^ 1 rH rH 0000 -HOOOOiM coo 3 1 00 CO rH CO C C*'^ CO O-^ 0 0 1 COCOCOrHCOCOCOCOOJCOCO 0" < 0 w - ri 0 to to to 0000 to 0 to ^.Q COOOOOQOCDOOIMCOO(N SS rHOOOrH r-|rHT)lOI>Q0 §.S IM sq IM CO t^ rH t* 00 0 n PL, 5 OSOt^rHOSrHo'oiOCOOS C 1 r-H(MrHO]rHaq(NN(Nr-trH Is H 0 0 a 12; ^-1 1 050000 QOOJ ooot^oo fj% 1 oooootniotoosoo § 5 1 n< •*' Tt T)< T)< N 04 N CO CO CO 0 'S 1 t^ 00 t^ 00 rH 00 CO t^ -* 05 CO g 1 00 rH to CO rH to I> 00 IN CO 00 P 1 CO CO to CO ^ OI 04 Co' ^' eing accompanied on either side by growth buds. The latter should be removed as earlv as possible without damaging the flower bud, which is known as the second crown bud. No liouid manure should be applied to plants in prepared beds before the end of February. Carnations may be increased by layering the growth after the flowering period. The layers root readily in light soil well supplied with mois- ture. Flowering shoots should be removed from plants of tree carnations designed to bloom in winter. Seeds of pansy and Iceland poppy should be sown at end of January to supply plants that will flower early in winter. A special shade or cold frame should be provided, and the seed sown in light soil in boxes, or in shady borders. One of the best strains of pansv procurable is Bath's " Empress." A fair proportion of finely marked fancy varieties of large size may be expected. Iceland poppies are easily grown, and are speciallv valuable during winter and spring for garden decoration, or as cut flowers. A new strain producing flowers of various shades of pink is advertised, and should be worthv of a trial. The colours of the older varieties are white, yellow, and orange. Ground should be prepared for the reception of bulbs and corms of winter and spring blooming plants, such as Narcissi. A late batch of rorms of gladioli may be planted for autumn blooming ; the ground should be deeply worked and Avell manured for their reception. Gladioli that are showing flower spikes should be staked and liberally watered. Kitchen Garden. As in the flower garden, the principal work should be the maintenance of a moist soil, and watering where necessary. Land should be prepared for future cropping as soon as cleared of crops. A liberal dressing of 8 Jan., 1907.] Nhill Farm Competition. 19 stable manure should be incorporated and thoroughly mixed through the soil. The best way to raise a stock of herbs, such as sage, thyme, and marjoram, is to procure a few plants and propagate them by divisions or cuttings. Seeds of several herbs, including those mentioned, are procur- able from Melbourne seedsmen, and may be raised with little trouble, but are some time coming to maturity. Thev would require careful culture during the first season. Old plants may be divided during autumn, and planted in rows to admit of horse or wheel hoe cultivation if a quantity is required. The land should be drained, well worked, and manured before being planted, after cultivation being digging or ploughing between the plants in winter, and cultivating well in summer. A moist, but sweet, situation is most suitable. Beds should be prepared for the reception of seeds, and seeds of tur- ning, cauliflower, French beans, peas, and various saladings should be sown. Early varieties of potatoes mav be planted for an autumn crop, and also plants of cabbage, celery, &c., from former sowings. NHILL FARM COMPETITIOX, IDOO. F . E. Fee, Agricultural Superintendent. Report to the Secretary, Nhill Agricultural Society. Having accepted the position of judge in such an important competi- tion, it may be of interest to define the aspect from which I investigated all the matters brought under my notice. Impartiality may be taken for granted, the object in view being to determine which of the competing farms or crops I would have selected had I been offered a choice of the whole lot in each section. Criticism of the details appertaining to each farm is reflected in the points awarded, but it is hardlv necessary to observe that criticism does not by any means imply disparagement. There were doubtless good reasons which prevented some of the com- petitors from showing their farms to the best advantage, but with these a judge has nothing to do ; he makes his awards to the best of his ability on the facts actually presented. In the judgment of wheat crops, the previous weather conditions must be taken into account, and some dis- crimination should be made for soil differences. ■ During the whole in- spection there were onlv two crops which were found impossible to walk through on account of boisterous weather, all others were thoroughlv in- vestigated on foot. Best Farm of over 640 Acres. In this section there were onlv three competitors. ~Mr. Joseph Morris withdrawing prior to inspection. The points awarded are as follow: — Name. J. Dufty & Son G. Batson G. Crouch ... Address. A. B. c. D K F. G. H. I. J. K. Lorcjaon 12 .10 2 7 12 Ifl 20 10 10 .30 20 Huyeroft 14 !'• 0 5) 14 12 16 8 9 2) 18 Kaiiiva 13 8 2 8 12 14 17 i» 6 25 16 14*< .140 ISO Journal of Agriculture. [8 Jan., 1907. It appears to me, that as a matter of general interest, the above-men- tioned awards are worthy of more detailed analysis. (A) The Best System of Cultivation, Rotation, etc., -pursued on each Farm — 15 Points maximum. — The three competitors are very close to one another ; Mr. Batson, by reason of the efforts he has made by means of lape and r3'e grass, shows enterprise in providing feed for his sheep, and incidentally introducing a much needed break in continuous cereal cropping. The large areas held by competitors in this section enables them, after a crop of wheat followed bv oats, to leave the land out in grass for several years, a svstem which contributes materially to the cleanness of the subsequent wheat crop. The system of cultivation, that is to say, the manner in which the cropping and fallowing, are done, is much the same in all cases. It may be remarked that the large areas cropped are responsible to some extent for the fallowing being done on the late side, which in a dry year is a drawback. {B) The Best Svstem of Manuring the Land , Names of Manures, and Quantities used per Acre — 10 Points maximum. — The use of superphos- A 350-ACRE WHEAT CROP. phates of various brands is universal. The particular name of the manure carried no weight with me whatever, but I learned with satisfaction that the a,pproximate weight per acre used now is nearer 56 lbs. per acre than it was in 1903 when I judged previously. In all cases a little extra manure was given on red ground than on black ground. The use of stable refuse on poor patches is a practice to be commended. I am well aware that manv practical northern farmers refuse to recognise the value of stable refuse, but if one reflects that this material controls the power of the soil to hold moisture more than anything else, its value will soon be admitted. Well-rotted material, such as comes from a covered pit, is not onlv easy to handle and spread, but has not the drawback of keeping the soil open and dry, nor does it spread weed seeds. (C) The Best System of Saving Stable and other Manures on each Farm — 5 Points Maximum. — In this section a great deal more could be said of what has not been done, than of what actually takes place. It will be noted that Mr. Batson is the only one of the competitors Avho receives full points. The curiosity of the visitors who accompanied the judge was in 8 Jan., 1907.] Nlull Farm Compclition. itself suffident evidence of the fact that nowhere else in the district was there any similar attempt made at conservation. The addition of a few handsful of gypsum scattered about the stalls would absorb and fix the liquid manure, thus preventing the escape of the most vailuable portion of it, viz., the ammonia. As a top dressing for grass land, for mulching purposes, in the vege- table and flower garden, and in the orchard, the stable refuse is well worthy of everv farmer's attention, no matter how large or small his holding. {D) The Best and Cleanest Groining Crop — 10 Points Maximum. — In this item there remains not much else to be said than that the crops were uniformly good, and almost as uniformly dirty. The presence of the wild oat ds easy enough to detect at this time of the year, and it is to be seen everywhere. I might remark that while the wild oat thrives as well as it does on the roads, there is little hope of keeping it out of the fallow and cropped paddocks. One feature of the crop is worth noting here, viz., the prevalence of barlev and foreign wheats. Hardlv one field is WHEAT EN ROUTE FOR THE RAIL\\AV STATION. free from these impurities, and in some cases it is particularly marked. It the foreign varieties ripened at the same time as the bulk of the crop, little harm would be done, but as they invariably mature earlier, they are of no other value than as contributors to the rubbish already in the ground. (£■) The Best System of Falloiving and Working of Fallow — 15 Points Maximum. — In this section, I found that this season, no very high standard could be set for the fallow. The winter has been unusually wet, so that a great portion of the fallow is grassy, solely on account of the impos- sibility of putting implements and horses on it. The conviction that the fallow system is the only possible one in northern wheat farming is now so strongly rooted that there is no necessity to refer to its advantages. The difficulty exj>erienced in working the fallow is evident from the low 22 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Jan., 1907. condition of many of the farm horses. Frequent cultivation will be necessary during the coming summer if the fallow is to be kept in any- thing like good order. {F) The Best and Most Profitable Classes of Live Stock kept on each Farm — ij Points Maximum. — I regard this item in the farm competition as being of the very highest importance, because on the well being and utility of his farm stock the wheat farmer is entirely dependent. Horses. — -As the points indicate, the horses shown by all competitors were of good class. Messrs. Duftv and Son's fine mares and foals, as well as the general excellence of their other horses, deservedly rank first. Mr. Crouch is also the possessor of some particularly fine animals, well suited to their work. Mr. Batson's horses are a, more mixed lot, good useful sorts, but hardly showing the same quality as the others. Sheep. — The establishment of the lamb industry has already made its mark on the class of sheep kept bv farmers in the Wimmera. The Shrop- shire on cross-bred or come-back ewes seems to be the most popular line of breeding for big-framed, early -maturing lambs. Judging from the prices realized for lambs already sold, there must be a good margin of profit in lamb raising in the Wimmera, and too much care cannot be taken in main- taining tlie sound lines on which the industry is being conducted. I might here point out the value of rape as an adjunct for lamb fattening, and also of ensilage for feeding breeding ewes. Overstocking is perha,ps the greatest trouble likely to eventuate in the future, but the previous experiences of northern farmers ought to make an annual insurance in the way of fodder reserves imperative. Cows, Pigs, and Poultry. — As adjuncts to the farm, these three classes of stock are of the highest economical importance, not only for the milk, butter, bacon, and eggs they furnish, but also as the medium for the utili- zation of a great amount of feeding stuff that would otherwise go to waste. I can conceive no^ farm so badly equipped and conducted as the one which does not include the above-mentioned domestic stock. {G) The Best Implements and Machinery kept and used on each Farm — 20 Points Maximum. — ^From the purely agricultural aspect, the factor which controls the productiveness of the soil as much as anything else, is the class of implements used. Speed, durability, and etficiency are the three things demanded in a farm implement. The improvements in im- plements have made such great strides Avithin the last few years that now- adays the pattern of a few years back is almost obsolete to-day. To keep pace with the times in the matter of implements needs money, but I am glad to say that I saw little to criticise in this respect among the larger farms. Messrs. Dufty and Son's farm equipment is, I think, the most comprehensive T have seen for a property of its size. In addition to this the services of a blacksmith and wheelwright are permanently employed, and besides all mechanical repairs, most excellent waggons are made on the place. This fine property, situated as it is some 18 miles from Nhill, is compelled to be independent of the busy country mechanic, and it is most pleasing to see the well furnished smithy and shop. Messrs. Batson and Crouch are well equipped in all the ordinary farm implements, but living nearer to the town, their repairing outfit is not such a prominent feature. I might re- mark that in no farm, inspected bv me. was there any evidence that in the " off season " the implements served the purpose of hen roosts, nor were the angles of the paddocks the resting place for derelict machinery, as is unfortunately too frequently the case. 8 Jan., 1907.] N hiU I- arm Competition. 23 (//) The Condition and System of Fencing — 10 Points Maximum. — One feature of the competition continuously .being brought under the judge's notice is the condition of the fences and particularly the gates. The de- velopment of the sheep industry and the well-known propensities of the crossbred sheep to ramble has had the effect of bringing about an improve- ment in this direction. The majority of the boundary and subdivisional fencing is sheep proof, viz. : — 5 or 6 wires and a barb wire. Messrs. Dufty and Son's light and simple home-made gates call for especial notice. Messrs. Crouch, and Batson, both of whom have recently added to their properties, are not so well off in this respect. (/) The Best Kept Kitchen Garden and Orchard — 10 Points Maxim 11 m. — The housewife, for the most part, is more responsible for this detail than the farmer himself. It is, I am glad to state, a noticeable feature of each farm under review. Messrs. Dufty and Son and Batson have water laid on to their gardens and orchard, and are thus independent of the season. As a consequence, one finds flourishing not only all the common kinds of vegetables and fruit, but a growth of gav flowers as well. The utilitv of the garden is, to my mind, one of its minor attributes on a farm. There is nothing more refreshing to the eye, and perhaps more elevating to W;ii?f^' mtki DAIRY cows IN THE WIMMERA. the senses as well, as the appearance of a trim, well kept garden, reflecting the love of the beautiful and the enthusiasm of the ladies of the establish- ment. The visitor notices these things, perhaps, more than the owner does, and nothing adds more to the pleasure of a visit than the general attractive- ness of the homestead. (I) The best Provision for a Water Suptly. — jo Points Maximum. — There is nothing more educati\e in this direction than the lesson of a severe drought. Water is the one thing which all life, whether human, stock, or vegetable, cannot do without. The plans of each property, fur- nished at my request, indicate that the farmers of the Nhill district are fullv alive to the advantages of an adequate water supply. Unprovided by channels to depend upon should an unexpected dry spell arise, the chief source of supply comes from dams. The sites of these have been well chosen as regards catchment, and facilitv of use. Windmills and watering troughs, especiallv on Messrs. Duftv and Son's propertv, expedite the water- ing of stock and prevent needless fouling of the water. At the present time all the dams are brim full, so that their holding capacitv in drv 24 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Jan., 1907. weather could not be gauged. In allotting the maximum number of points in this section to Messrs. Dufty and Son, I do not wish to imply anv lack of provision on the part of Messrs. Batson and Crouch, but the former gentlemen have more windmills and troughs on their property, and their dams are, if anything, of slightly larger capacity and better located than in the two latter cases. The domestic or house supply of water is a matter that calls for comment. However good dam water may be the catchment from an iron roof is better for human drinking and cooking purposes ; in each case ample provision is made for a house supply, by means of the ordinary galvanized iron and underground tanks. {K) Best Arrangement and System of Dwelling and Farm Buildings — 20 Points Maximum. — In this detail Messrs. Dufty and Son are better situated than the other competitors. A typical farm homestead, commodious and well furnished, surrounded by its garden and orchard, shaded by well grown trees, easy of access to the farm outbuildings, it would be difficult to find a more useful or elegant home. Mr. Batson's homestead is on a smaller scale, but of no less attractiveness, while that of Mr. Crouch — both inside and out — reflects the progressive farmer. In the matter of outbuildings, Messrs. Dufty and Son have, perhaps, the greatest number, but in construction and design there is little to choose between the competitors. Large pole sheds, with thatch roofs, are without doubt serviceable, cheap to construct, cool, &c., but they cannot by any stretch of imagination be called elegant. To mv mind, this class of farm outbuilding represents a regime that is past, and where it is possible to do so, they might with advantage be replaced with more modern buildings with iron roofs and latticed sides. The planting of sugar gums about the yards and the excavation of a pit for the stable manure are two matters worthy of attention. A silo for the conservation of surplus green feed, or else to be used for storage of chaff or grain should be an additional feature to every homestead in the Wimmera. Best Farm of over 100, but not exceeding 640 acres. There were only 3 competitors in this class, which is to be regretted, as there are any number of farms which could conform to the conditions. On the small farms the judge does not look for the same scope of opera- tions, nor does he expect to find the same outlay in machinery, stock, &c., as is demanded in the larger farms — hence the number of competitors should be larger. It is not always the size of a man's operations that places him in the front of his neighbours, but rather the general manner in which the property is worked. The details on which the awards were made are identical with those ruling for the large farms: — Name. Address. Haycroft A. 10 B. 8 C. 1 D. 10 E. 13 F. 11 G. 18 H. 9 I. 10 J. 25 K. IS Total. C. Voitit ... 133 E. Fritsch .. William 11 9 2 7 LS 12 16 8 9 24 20 131 C. Sherwood Haycroft 12 9 2 7 12 13 16 9 8 26 16 ISO 8 Jan., 1907.] NJiill Farm Competition. 25 It will be noted that while the total number of points is very close, each competitor in one detail or another is ahead of the others. For example, Mr. Voigt only gets 10 points in (A) because the bulk of his crop this year is being carried on elsewhere on shares. He beats the other two competitors in the number and class of implements, and also for the best kept garden and orchard. Mr. Fritsch is given the highest points for his homestead and buildings, but only received 7 points for his crop, which is very dirtv. Mr. Sherwood leads for the best system of cultivation, rotation, &c., the best stock, and also for the best provision for water supply, but he is low down for the crop and also for the garden and dwelling. In coming to a decision for the small farms, I am_ largely guided by the general circumstances of each, property and the evidences of progres- sive ideas shown. For example, Mr. Voigt has a small stack of ensilage which he will find valuable later on ; his two small orchards are models of cleanness, and the trees are healthv. The bacon curing house, smithy, and grain barn all point to up-to-date ideas. Mr. Fritsch has a well- equipped smithy, his stable is roofed with iron, and the water conserved. Mr. Sherwood has recently had a windmill erected, and supplies his house and garden with water. His sheep dip is shared in conjunction with a neiehbour. CUTTING ALGERIAN OATS FOR HAY. All of these three farms are admirable examples of what can be done bv industry and enterprise, and the owners are to be complimented on the lines of work thev forecast for the future. Three-fourths of Farmers' Wheat Crop on Fallow Land. In this section, there were 10 competitors, representing north, south, east, and west of Nhill. Unfortunately, Mr. Crouch, of Kaniva, was com- pelled to withdraw his crop on account of its having been beaten down by a heavy storm. In awarding points, I have adopted the following standards : — Cleanness 10 points, trueness to type 10, freedom from rust, smut, whiteheads, and "take all " 10; apparent yield i point for each bushel. 26 ] ounial of Agriculture. [8 Jan., 1907. Name. Address. Cleanness. Trueness to type. Freetloni from l.'isea.se. Apparent yield. Total. Bushels. Couzens and Ward Nhill ... 9 9 9 23 50 H. A. Dahlenberg Salisbury 9 8 9 23 49 C. Voigt and Son Winiani ... 8 9 9 22 48 G. Batson Haycrofl 9 9 8 21 47 J. Morris Yauae 8 9 9 20 I 46 J. Bond Broughton 8 9 8 20 ' 4o D. Morris Yanac 7 8 i ' 17 39 T. Ervin Kiata 7 8 8 14 37 As these crops represent the best ones in the district, thfere is very little to choose between them. The wet winter has been responsible for a great many patches in which the wheat has died out altogether, occasional small areas of " take all," and the widespread presence of whiteheads, all com- bined will, I fear, reduce the sanguine estimates that manv farmers have made of their crops. Six and seven-bag crops are exceptionally good ones at any time, and it is unreasonable to look for such high averages from a large area. The prevalence of whiteheads through every crop calls for scientific investigation. Mr. D. McAlpine, vegetable pathologist, states that " take all and whiteheads are both different stages of a diseased condition of the wheat plant, caused bv one and the same fungus, which occurs at the base of the stem and on the roots." The fungus is further stated to be found on spear grass, the destruction of which is recommended as a means of mitigating the disease. Time did not permit me to observe closely enough if any one variety of wheat appeared more subject than another to this pest, but the opinion was frequently expressed by farmers in my hearing that the Purple Straw varieties were the most liable. The invasion of many of the wheat crops bv the small white daisy is due no doubt to the seed blowing in from the roadside. It appears, how- ever, to me that the daisy is much more prevalent throughout the district than when I judged the crops in 1903. Those paddocks which have been out of cultivation for eight to ten years are, as might be expected, much freer from wild oats than those which have been more frequently cropped. In my opinion, the wild oat is the 'farmer's friend, just as much as his foe, and provided the farm practice permits the fallow being kept clean by sheep, there is little to be feared from the wild oat. If the silo becomes firmly established in the north, the wild oat will form one of the cheapest fodders for ensilage. The Best 100 Acres of Wheat Grown on ^NIallee Land. This section, which I understand is a new departure since last year, brought out ten competitors. The same standards were adopted in judging the crops, but the kind of jSIallee, length of time under cultivation, and appearance of " shoots " were also noted. The points awarded are shown on the opposite page. The Mallee crops are uniformly good as regards yield, but the pad- docks are man\- of them badly infected with whiteheads. It must be re- membered that I only judged the picked 100 acres out of the whole crop 8 Jan., 1907.] NJiill Farm Competition. 27 in each case, and the remainder as a rule was much poorer both in yield and cleanness. Freedom Apparent Name. Address. Cleauness. to type. from yield Total disease. per acre. bushels. W. Krella Yanac 10 9 9 20 48 J. Dart Woorak West 9 8 9 20 46 Roberts Bros. Gerang 8 9 8 20 45 T. Cunningham Baker 8 8 9 18 43 D. Roberts, Senior ... Gerang 3 9 8 16 42 W. Avery ... Antwerp 9 8 9 16 42 J. C. Dufty... Lorquoii West 9 8 8 16 41 Chappina and Dillaca . . . NhiU 9 8 8 16 41 C. Cramer ... Yanac 7 8 7 16 38 T. Hornsby... Tarranginnie... 8 S 8 14 38 Summary of the whole Competition. Viewing the whole competition from an outsider's stand-point, there are several matters which excite most favorable comment. First, the i> *L'> JUDGING A FARMER S I iOMlCS I KAD AND GARDEN. f riendU manner in which the competition was carried out ; second, the healthy spirit of emulation among the competitors ; and third, the general excellence of the farms, both large and small, as well as the crops ex- hibited. I venture to express the opinion that the district generally has gone ahead considerably since 1903, which was the last occasion I had an opportunity to thoroughly inspect it. There is all-round evidence of im- provement in farming methods, stock, and the general appearance of the farms. The recent good seasons are, no doubt, responsible for this to some extent, but I ascribe no small portion of the general improvement to the healthv stimulus of the Farm Competition itself. 28 Journal O'f ^agriculture. [8 Jan., 1907. In view of the amended regulations concerning the Government grant to Agricultural Societies, the farm competitions, as carried out by your Society, are likely to assume an important aspect. The conduct of experi- mental fields, the holding of farmers' classes, certificates of soundness for stock, and the carrying out of farm competitions are some of the matters which country societies must take up in the future m order to secure the Government grant. Your society has already fulfilled most of these regu- lations, and I have no doubt vour methods in conducting these matters will form the basis of inquiry from other societies in the near future. Conclusion. This report would be inadequate without some i-eference to the excellent arrangements made for inspection of the farms and crops. During the eight days the judging was in progress no less than 240 miles were covered by \ehicle, and something like 8,000 acres of crops inspected. I am per- sonally indebted to yourself for the arrangements made for my comfort and also to the numerous gentlemen whose hospitality was so freely shown. In conclusion, I trust that your Society will soon take its rightful place as one of the leading educational media in agricultural affairs in the Stare. THE PROCLAIMED PLANTS OF VICTORIA. {Continued from page 736, Vol. IV.) Alfred J. Rwart, D.Sc. Ph.D., F.L.S.. Gover)nnent Botanist; and J. R. Tovey. Herbarium Assistant. Wild Mustard or Charlock. Brassica sinapistr'nm, Boiss ; Sinapsis arven<.is, L. {Cruciferee). A coarse annual, i to 2 feet (30-60 cms.) high, with a few stiff spread- ing hairs. Leaves rough, with very short hairs, the lower ones usually with one large oval ox oblong coarsely-toothed segment, and a few smaller ones along the leafstalk, the upper ones often undivided, oblong, or lanceo- late. Flowers rather large and yellow. Pods more or less spreading, -0- to 1 1 inches long, of which rather more than a third is occupied by a stout beak, often containing a seed in its base ; the valves glabrous, or rough with stiff reflexed hairs, the lateral nerves prominent. A native probably of Southern Europe, but now one of the most abundant weeds of cultivation throughout the world. It should be pulled up before the seeds mature, or hoed when voung during dry weather. Spraving is less effective, but 5 lbs. of copper sulphate dissolved in 25 gallons of water, and sprayed over an acre in fine weather, while the charlock is voung, has been found to reduce the evil. When the plant is growing among cereal crops, and ammonium sulphate is used a's a manure, it has been recommended in Germany to apply 20 to 25 lbs. per acre as a spray in dry weather while the crop is young. The foliage of other crops than cereals is, however, apt to suffer injury by this treatment. Ground full of seeds should be fallowed, and the seedlings ploughed in as often as they appear in quantity. Proclaimed for the whole State. PJ.ATE 8 OWauerfid* WILD MUSTARD J kiempAcHJiq hOvPTrmUr 8 Jan., 1907.] Tatura Farm Competition. 29 TATURA FARM COMPETITION, 1906. W . Gamble. Report to the Secretary, Tatura Agricultural Association. Section A. — Small Farms. In the small-farms section one farm only was entered — that of Mr. Gardom, situated about two miles from Byrneside Railway Station. On inquiring along the road the location of Mr. Gardom' s farm, the ready answer came, " That place where you see the rows of pines and pepper trees." This was an apt description, and in the distance we could see trees extending all around the farm homestead. On arrival we were told that tree-planting formed one of the features of the farm work each year. The yaung trees are raised from seed and planted out the following season ; pines, peppers, sugar gum and lemon-scented gum are intermixed, making a beautiful contrast, and providing shade from the burning rays of the sun, and shelter from the cold winds in winter. Mr. Gardom believes in beautifying his farm, and when told, on one occasion, that trees would not wipe the debt off the farm, his reply was — " The trees will be there when the debt is paid off." Mr. Gardom -gained his farm experience bv working for farmers, his first wages being onlv 5s. per week ; he then took work at fencing, grubbing timber, harvesting, or anything whereby he could earn an honest penny, and it is creditable to him to have such a model and unique farm to enter in the competitions. The area of the farm is 240 acres, subdivided into eleven paddocks, ranging in size from 4 to 50 acres. A glance at the neatly-fenced and kept yards, good subdivision fences and gates, comfortable home surrounded bv an orchard, vegetable and flower garden, shows everywhere the result of hard work and good taste. On the farm dairying and cultivation are the two chief sources from which an in- come is derived. The rotation followed is, first year fallow, second wheat, third oats, and, by adopting this system along with thorough cultivation, there has never been a failure. This year there is a splendid 50-acre paddock of v/heat with very few wild oats or dirt, and well up to the standard of any of the wheat crops entered for the competition. There are also 30 acres Algerian oats, with another 30 acres for hay, this paddock being one of the oldest cultivated paddocks in the district. It was broken up 32 years ago, and will yield a good return this vear. There are two lucerne pad- docks, 10 acres each, which are grazed in rotation; these are handy to the irrigation channel, the water being obtained at a cost of 2s. per acre for three waterings. With the application of water lucerne grows rapidly, and gives plenty of green succulent feed during the summer months. The one difficulty in irrigating this land is the number of depressions or "crab- holes " where the water collects, and is held as if in a basin bv the retentive clay underneath. This causes the lucerne to wither and die, and consequently most of the paddocks show bare patches. It is quite evident that this class of land requires preparation for irrigation, so that the water mav be distributed evenlv over the surface. Mr. Lockwood, the President of the Agricultural Societv, is anxious that experiments be .made to deter- mine the cost of levelling down the surface, so that the water will not 30 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Jan., 1907. collect in pools, for with the high temperature in these northern areas the water becomes heated, and all plant life is destroyed. With the aid of lucerne and silage, dairying in these districts is making good progress. In fact, I was surprised to see the quantity of milk coming into the local creamery, and of home-separated cream going away by rail. Fifteen cows are .milked on this farm. Farm Buildings — Some Novel Ideas. On the Northern plains the summers are hot, the flies troublesome; when winter comes round there are cold winds and muddy yards to contend with. To meet these inconveniences a large shed has, been erected covering the whole of the yards (81 feet by 84 feet). It is built of forks and spars, covered with straw and neatlv thatched, the thatch being covered with wire netting. The. shed is closed in on two sides. The cows are brought in, and stand about in comfort, quietly waiting to be milked, none of them requiring to be bailed up. Everything about the shed is neat, clean, and tidv. A shed of this kind is a good example of a cheap, but effective, covering, cool in summer and warm and dry in winter, and one that anv farmer may con- struct, and when done properly is not unsightly. Another shed which attracted attention was a straw-covered one, used as a store for wheat, and capable of holding 1,500 bags of grain. Mr. Gardom claims that in this shed there are no mice, no weevils, and that no rain can get at the grain. On going through at the time o'f my visit some 900 bags of grain were stored, and not a broken bag was to be seen, a most unusual thing in ,a stack of wheat, for mice play havoc with grain in the Northern areas. Around the sjied sheets of plain galvanized iron are placed lengthways ; these sheets are 2 feet wide, and sunk into the ground about 3 inches, thus preventing mice getting in. Above this iron wire netting is stretched to allow free plav of air through the building. The bags of grain are stacked five high on their flat, each row just touching the other. This plan leaves interstices through which the air plays freelv, and a cat (one is kept continually in the shed) can get around every bag. The sparrows, another pest on wheat stacks, are kept down bv abundantly feeding them on poisoned wheat during the months of July and August, when feed is scarce; conseauentlv, none were to be seen. This storage shed is well worthy of a visit by anv one interested in the matter. The losses of stock in the drought of 1902-3 proved a lesson to many farmers to save their straw, and when travelling through the country it is noticeable that on nearly every farm large straw stacks are fenced in for future use. This farm is exceptionally well provided for. having six large straw stacks, some of which are of Algerian oats. As this is nearlv equal to hav for feeding purposes, a stand-bv of this kind is invaluable where dairying is carried on, and the possibilit\' of droughts has to be "faced. All the crops this year will be cut with the reaper and binder, the object being to keep up a supply of fresh straw. The older stacks are fed out to the cattle in winter; much of it is eaten, the balance being tramped down, making manure, which is carried out to the lucerne paddocks and spread over the low-King patches. This assists the lucerne, and prevents the soil becoming hardened and caked. Where irrigation is nractised. the ore.inir portion of the soil is washed out or used np bv the plant to such an extent that the soil soon tends to become consolidated, and when drv it appears more like half-burnt bricks. To remedy this, ploughing in green manure, 8 Jan., 1907.] Tatura Farm Competition. 31 such as peas, rape, cow-peas, lentils, &c., will have to be adopted, or else abundance of farmyard manure provided, or the land will become partialh sterile for the want of humus. On Mr. Gardom's farm the by-products are used up for fattening pigs, raising turkeys and fowls. The returns shown me from these were bj no means small, and it is strict attention to these minor details in connexion with farming that very often turns the financial balance on the right side. Other instances of careful farm practice were to be seen in the cut thistles, not one being allowed to es.cape the hoe. The fences were all in good order, the old fences being gradually replaced by new ones, consisting of two barbs and four plain wires — top heavy barb, next plain wire, then a light barb drawn through i-inch auger-holes, and below this three plain wires. The effect of the middle barb is that it prevents stock rubbing and loosening rhe wires. Each year old stumps are burnt out bv means of cocky chaff, and gradually the whole farm is becoming cleared of valueless and unsightlv stumps. When visiting a successful farmer's holding it is noticeable that a definite system is carried on in all things pertaining to the farm, and success is attributable, to a great extent, to systematic work in all things. There are places for everything, and each week or month brings round work which is done thoroughly and at the right moment. And in this respect Mr. Gardom is well ahead ; his farm is not only well worked, but well managed. Section B. — Wheat Competition. It is desirable to encourage farmers in everv possible wav to improve their methods of agriculture, and any advance with regard to wheat-growing is of special importance. The production of wheat in Victoria is one of our staple industries, and too much care and thought cannot be bestowed on anv system that will tend to increase the yield per acre, especially if this can be done at the same, or even at a reduced, cost. There is no more effectual way of doing this than by offering inducements to the farmers or producers to improve their cultivation methods, clean their land, and raise pure seed. Competition in grain-growing throughout the world is so keen that it is essential that we should use our utmost endeavours to increase production and minimize the cost. A moment's reflection upon the changed conditions under which farming is now conducted, as compared with those which prevailed a few vears ago, brings home to us the fact that continual improvement in our methods is necessarv if we are to keep abreast of the times and compete with other countries in producing cereals. The world's markets are now easily reached by all wheat-producing countries ; extensive railways are opening up new countries, so that to-day we are in competition with those who will spare no efforts in encouraging production, and will sell at the smallest margin of profit. It is to the credit of Victorian fanners that they have made many improvements in their methods of cultivation in order to comply with the fresh demands and new conditions forced upon them, and a crop mav now be produced and harvested at a much less cost than a few years ago. But we must go on improving, and where farm and wheat competitions are being held under proper conditions a healthy impetus is given to im- provements. I should like to see more Agricultural Societies take this matter up, and offer encouragement to farmers to produce not only better crops, but to raise pure and tvpical seed of whatever crop they may grow. 32 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Jan.. 1907. There are few farmers who have not at one time or other had to complain of the bad quaHty of the seed obtainable, and in some instances the partial failure of the crop can be traced to seed which is deteriorating. Speaking generally, the failure of a crop can be traced to certain conditions viz., bad cultivation, unsuitable preparation of the seed bed, time of .sowing, adverse climatic conditions, and faulty seed. In many cases where the seed is at fault experience has shown that the trouble and expense entailed could have been avoided if the farmer had made a careful selection and examination of his seed. It should be the aim of every grower to steadily improve his seed, as the selection of a good sample, together with thorough cultivation, will cause the ensuing crop to grow more regularly, withstand weather con- ditions better, ripen more evenly, and yield a greater return of produce of superior quality. In several cases when ,going thrO'Ugh the wheat crops, I noticed .many of the ears were small, stunted, and punv — a sure sign that the plant is on the down-grade or "running out." This can be remedied only by selection, and I would advise wheat-growers to pay strict attention to this, and not re-sow any grain from such a crop. The seed grader which has come into more general use will do a great deal towards keeping up the standard of our wheat, but there is plenty of room for seed raisers to hand select small quantities from a growing crop, taking care to secure ears that are thoroughly typical of the variety (not necessarily large ones), but those that show symmetry, evenness, and compactness in their formation, and contain a full plump grain. Other .attributes of the plant must be taken into consideration when selecting, such as strong, upright straw and growth, tillering propensities and liabilitv to "shake." Strength of straw is one of the most important features, as in most of our wheat-growing districts high winds prevail, and modern methods of harvesting make it desirable that the straw be upright. Where large areas are under cultivation por- tions have to remain unharvested until late in the season, and with strong straw varieties the risks of " lodging " are lessened. To become a specialist in growing seed wheat presents no difficulties that the ordinary farmer can- not surmount ; but I would point out that any one undertaking this class of work must be enthusiastic, and must personally supervise all operations most carefulh-. so that everything produced will be a pure varietv and the best of its kind. T would like to see some of our prominent voung farmers take this matter up, and devote some of their time to selecting and raising pure seed. Such labour would be well repaid by the demand that would be created for seed of established merit. There is another point in raising seed wheat that should be of interest to farmers, but which, so far, has been left to scientific experimenters, such as Mr. Pye, of Dookie College. I refer to what is known as the "strength" of wheat, which means the presence of gluten in sufficient quantities and of the right kind ; experiments have proved that it is possible to increase this constituent, and, therefore, raise the value of any variety of wheat as a food-stuff. Another point that should be kept in view in these competitions is the encouragement of farmers to put up a good marketable product ; the tendency is to allow everything to run into the bags for sale, and experience of sampling at the port of shipment leads me to say that a great deal of what is sent forward could be greatly improved before leaving the farm by careful grading, and if this were done farmers would be the gainers through the enhanced price of the product. The wheat crops throughout the Tatura district are, this season, extremely dirty, and in fact the whole of the Goulburn Vallev crops are 8 Jan., 1907.] Tatura Farm Comfeiition. 2,2> affected in this wav, owing to the wet season germinating wild oats, which have lain in the ground awaiting favorable conditions. Fallow and ploughed land are alike, and even some of the virgin land shows a sprinkling of wild oats, thistles, &e. Generalh', the crops are heavy, with rust showing on the blade, but little or none on the stem, not enough being present to affect the development of the grain, except in isolated cases. The yields will be above the average. The following table shows the scale of points, the prize-takers, and the results in the order in which they are placed : — ■a 0 0 =« 0 ■B ""S ^ 2 s c 5 . g*8 c c3 "3 ^ 0 > ° 2 % P. 0 0 3 ir^S-a H 0 Sh'-O if. B Maximum points 20 12 20 14 15 12 15 30 100 1. A. Martin, Ardmona 11 25 74 2. A. Manning, Harston 17 12 8 13 20 70 3. H. Goodson, Harston 9 10 12 12 25 68 4. A. Martin, Ardmona 7 15 13 8 24 67 5. Geo. CraM^ford, Harston ... 12 10 12 12 19 65 The scale of points is the same as that used last year, and again I have paid particular attention to the second item, " Trueness of type and character," for in this direction there is room for great improvement. Mr. Martin, of Ardmona, who secured the first prize, had a very fine paddock of the Purple Straw variety on red loamy chocolate land, which was cropped with wheat last vear. Previous to that it had been sown down in lucerne, and grazed for about ten years. This season it was ploughed about 45- inches deep, harrowed twice, rolled, and the seed drilled at the rate of 4J5 lbs. per acre, together with 50 lbs. superphosphate, in the third week of May. The crop was not eaten off during winter owing to the excep- tionally wet state of the land. Like all the crops, wild oats showed up here and there in white dried patches, but the crop was well headed and fairly true to type, and I estimate the yield at fully six bags per acre. Mr. ISIartin obtained his seed last year from Quat Quatta, N.S.W. Some very fine and typical ears of the Purple Straw varietv were to be seen in the crop, from which it would repav any one to make a selection and re-sow for a future supply of seed. In wheat-growing Mr. Martin is an enthusiast, and I hope he will use his utmost endeavours to improve the varieties he is growing. The second prize went to Mr. Manning, Harston, who showed portion of a 70-acre paddock, virgin land of a light loamv character, with a little iionstone gravel, fallowed and worked during early summer. Again, the variety was Purple Straw, sown with the drill at the rate of 40 lbs. seed with 30 lbs. superphosphate. This crop was the only one I saw that was free from wild oats, and gained highest points in that item, but lost heavily in evenness, as it was inclined to be patchy. The type was only medium, some of the ears were narrow, and showed only two rows of grain, and stray ears of other varieties appeared up here and there. Competitors 13554. B 34 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Jan., 1907. must look to their seed, and sow none but a pure seed. I understand the difficulty there is in securing this, but why should not each man raise it on his own farm ? Most farms have a variety of soils, such as a light sandy and heavy chocolate or clay, and by hand selection of seed, then change of soH, together with thorough cultivation, ,any varietv of grain may_ be improved. I am not advocating this system as a theoretical one, but as one that is practical, and which will, in the near future, become the practice with all up-to-date farmers. Wx. Manning secured his seed from Stanhope, Victoria, where large areas of new country have been recently broken up for cultivation. The apparent yield of this crop is about five bags per acre. The third prize was secured by Mr. Goodson, Harston. who exhibited a portion of 160 acres of very heavy crop. The variety was the same as the preceding, and grown on a free loamy chocolate soil. This crop is the third grown on what was previously new land. Last season Mr. Goodson grew four varieties and found this one — Improved Purple Straw — gave the best vield. He saved the seed and re-sowed it, but some of it has become mixed, as I noticed a few heads of Dart's Imperial and several other varieties in the crop. You will notice this crop lost points heavily in clean- ness, as it contained a great deal of foreign matter. Portions of the crop were lodged badlv. but with all these disadvantages I considered it will give the highest yield of anv crop visited by me, but the points lost in the other items pulled it down to third place only. Mr. Martin's crop of Steinwedel gained higher points in trueness to type and character; the ears were especially even and typical, with none of the small, weedv heads so often seen in our crops at the present time. Un- fortunately, take-all, white heads,, and rubbish debarred this crop from being placed. Mr. Crawford showed a paddock containing :i^2 acres of Red Purple Straw on unfa 1 lowed land and unmanured. The points for the crop run out very consistently, and I have no doubt, had it received about 30 or 40 lbs. superphosphate, it would have been placed. In every case the seed wheat was pickled for smut and bunt, \ lb. of bluestone per bag being used ; some adopt the dipping method, others sprinkling and turning over on a floor. None of the crops were eaten off this season. I am of the opinion that feeding-off has a very beneficial effect on wheat crops at all times, and it is a pitv we have not any data extending over a period of years showing the effects of eating down in the winter. There is a considerable undergrowth ir all the crops, principally clover of two varieties — woollv clover (Tri folium iomentosuni) and native clover {Trifolium glomcratuyn) — and it is surprising to see how rapidly these plants have spread over the Goulburn Valley during recent years. Both provide excellent feed during winter and snring, but dry up early in the summer, leaving the ground bare. Horses and sheep lick up the seeds and pods from the ground, but cattle do not adapt themselves to this mode of feeding so easily, and, consequently, these clovers are looked upon with a certain amount of disfavour by dairy farmers. These small clovers have a very beneficial effect on the soil on account of their power of absorbing nitrogen from the air and con^'erting it into compounds that supply nitrogenous food to the plant. I have to thank the President (Air. Lockwood), Secretary (Mr. Clarke), and members of the committee for their kindness and assistance in getting around the district to the various farms. Mr. Clarke carried out all matters of detail expeditiously, and no time was lost in getting to work. 8 Jan., 1907.] Agricultural Education. 35 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. Beport on Classes held during 1906. H . 1'. Hatukius, Organizing Officer. At no time in the world's history has there been greater need than now for the farmer to keep himself in touch with its progress in agricul- tural matters, for we live in a time of improved methods, and in farming, as in all branches of production, it is absolutely necessary that we should be "up-to-date" in order to obtain the best results. To stand still now- a-days means retrogression. The series of Classes for Farmers organized by the Department of Agriculture during the past year have been so successful in point of attend- ance and interest of the students, as well as in the excellence of the in- struction given by the various lecturers, that it is evidert that the farmers are fully alive to the necessity of equipping themseb )s with the latest practical knowledge and ideas ; in fact, so great has been the demand for instruction throughout the State that the Department has had no little difficulty in coping with it. These classes were started in 1902 with three centres; in 1904 the number of centres increased to 7 ; in 1905 they rose to 11 ; while in the year under review there were 17, exclusive of a special course of lectures given at the Bairnsdale School of Mines. The number of students en- rolled at the whole of the centres amounted to 1,321, an increase of 247 on the preceding year. There is one point to be borne in mind when considering the number of students enrolled, viz. : — That, as the number of centres is increased it is only tO' be expected that the average number at each centre will in some degree be affected, because the more centres there are, the closer they will be together. On the other hand, it will be an advantage to the farmers to have more centres, as they will then have less distances to travel. In this connexion it is interesting to note, as evidence of the interest displayed, that at several centres some of the students came from distances as far as 30, and in a few cases 50 miles. Taking these figures into consideration and the nature of the instruction given, the importance of the classes is at once apparent. Not only do the students go back to their farms with new ideas and methods for prac- tical application, but they must necessarily, to some extent, spread the knowledge acquired to others, and soi extend the good work carried out by the Department. Another feature of the work worth commenting on is the fact that the classes bring the farmers into closer relationship and afford them an opportunity for discussing ideas and methods, old and new, and thus mutually helping one another ; and, further, create a spirit of inquiry and emulation, as well as a feeling of friendliness, and do something at all events to break the monotonv of country life. During the past year it has been found advisable in one or two centres to raise the standard of instruction given. iNIany of the students who attended previous courses have again presented themselves, and, naturallv, look for advanced knowledge. This, of course, is a pleasing feature, but it has one drawback in that it deprives the '' raw recruits " of the B 2 S6 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Jan., 1907. important elementary instruction which is given in the first place. This point will require careful consideration in the future working of these classes. Classes held during 1906. Classes were established at Nhill, Warracknabeal, Colac, Sale, Drouin, Leongatha, Castlemaine, Bendigo, Wedderburn, Numurkah, St. Arnaud, Donald, Wodonga, Shepparton, Geelong, Varrawonga. and Echuca, the term of each being two weeks. The lecturers were as follow : — Dr. Cherry — Introductory Lecture. F. E. Lee — Manures, Cultivation and E^xperimental Work. A. S. Kenyon — Agricultural Surveving and Water Conservation. R. T. Archer — Dairying and Dairv INLanagement. H. V. Hawkins — Poultry Breeding and ALanagement. Dr. Brown — Sheep Ailments. J. Cronin — Fungus Diseases. H. S. Rudduck — Veterinary Science. C. D. Strong — Veterinary Science. W. Kenneallv — Practical Farriery. W. Haile — Wool Sorting and Classing. E. E. Lazarus — Agricultural Surveying. The following tal)le gives an analysis of the attendance and results of examination for each centre, the large number of visitors (numbering 4,130 attendances in all) who attended more or less regularly not being included in the return : — Number of Averase Number of Percentage of Centre. Students Daily Examination Marks gained by enrolled. attendanee. Papers. each Centre. . Nhill 49 38 103 68.24 Wanacknal)eal 54 26 37 27-68 Colac 90 28 45 32-39 Sale 52 35 70 48-83 Diouin 52 35 73 46-54 Leongatha ... 44 19 Nil Castlemaine .. 53 21 23 19-10 Bendigo 70 24 73 48-54 Wedderburn 63 31 28 13-48 Nunuirkah ... 82 23 10 6 55 St. Ainaud 170 124 81 41-11 Donald 64 27 22 17-25 Wodonga 140 121 45 25-54 Shepparton ... 50 19 50 25-24 Geelong 76 42 102 59-01 Yariawoiiga... 93 65 48 30-87 Echuca 119 71 45 31 44 Examination Results. Examination papers were set bv Messrs. Lee, Hawkins, Archer, Ken- yon, Rudduck, Strong, Haile, and Cronin, and Dr. Brown. The short time allowed for each examination did not permit of more than three com- prehensive questions (except in wool classing) being set bv each lecturer. 8 Jan., 1907-] Agricultural Education. 37 Regarded as a test of how the instruction had been received, the results on the whole are very satisfactory, and are an indication that the majority of the students possess a good general knowledge of the leading features of each subject. The following are the detailed results for each centre. It is to be noted that the percentage of maximum marks is based (as in previous years) on the maximum for the six subjects combined, which, of course, adversely affects the averages of those students who did not compete in all subjects : — Nhill. student's .3 S I- 2 a Name. 'ai ■a ^ --J s o-S J is W _LJ S '3 0 H Perc age Max Pilgrim. P. 92 100 86 9 5 g 5 99 557 92.8 Dahlenberg. W. E. 90 95 73 9 3 c 7 100 541 90.1 Oldfield, W. W. . 60 94 65 9 0 4 95 448 74.6 Langtry, L. 45 88 77 9 6 9 80 425 70.8 Baird, S. 56 90 70 9 0 5 401 66.8 Meagher, J. 62 92 58 9 0 98 400 66.6 Dahlenberg, P. 53 90 66 9 0 2 70 391 65.1 Welsch, W. 72 95 50 9 0 0 60 377 62.8 Bond, A. 25 90 76 9 0 90 371 61.8 Peaps, G. 88 90 28 9 0 2 65 363 60.5 Rintoule, D. 60 60 55 8 5 t7 65 362 60.3 Ward, C. 37 85 72 6 0 2 68 334 55.6 Gniel, J. W. 55 75 62 8 0 2 60 334 55.6 Duthie, G. 42 75 57 6 0 4 64 312 52 Batson, G. 20 60 60 5 0 4 65 269 44.8 Barber, Mis.s M. 90 8 5 175 29.1 Wohlers, Miss E. . 75 9 0 165 27.5 Luhrs, P. 47 88 . 135 22.5 Fitzell, L. 45 80 125 20.8 Macpherson, A. 25 92 117 19.5 Dahlenberg, V. 5 90 95 15.8 East, W. '. 95 95 15.8 Dahlenberg, Miss M. 92 92 15.3 Steer, H. 50 32 '. 82 13.6 Warracknabeal. student's M Percent- age of Maximum. Name. 0 T3 3 Cm < p d \4 6 ■3 3 Bennett, Jas. 95 88 86 95 99 463 77.1 Bartrani. R. 95 90 80 95 100 460 76.6 Bryant, T. G. 91 100 70 98 85 442 73.6 Reed, A. W. 65 70 73 50 85 92 435 72.4 Reed, E. H. 65 80 55 75 80 45 400 66.6 Clarke, W. J. 60 25 85 90 260 43.3 McDonald, A. 75 65 67 50 257 42.8 Nottle, R. 60 50 110 18.3 Note. — Two papers unsigned have been omitted. 38 Journal of Agriculture. [S Jan., 1907. COLAC. Student's i J d i 3 Name. iA ■! 3 fr! 3 S I 6 _; c^ a % Hi ^ 1 W P 1 1 a ■3 w 0 Nicholas, J. W. 95 62 ^ 6 91 69 95 488 81.3 Stephens, A. 85 60 7 3 97 60 80 455 75.8 McRae, A. 65 78 1 8 90 70 60 441 73.5 Selwood, W 65 98 7 2 60 55 80 430 71.6 Fenton, C. H. 85 80 I >8 80 50 353 58.8 Fisher, A. W. 75 I »5 87 37 65 319 53.1 Sherren, W. E. . 70 i )0 65 185 30.8 Murray, R. N. 30 70 100 16.6 Murray, Miss J. 100 ■ 100 16.6 Hayes, Mrs. 98 98 16.3 Sydenham, Miss . 92 92 15.3 Jenkins, Miss C. 88 88 14.6 Jenkins, Miss A. . 86 86 14.3 James, G. 73 73 12.1 Sale. Student's , ^ S Name. ^ d a p ^ _• S-S.S 1 ce W a '3 W 1 369 61.5 Morton, W. H. . . 75 80 8 5 90 28 368 61.3 Young, P. W. . . 90 78 8 0 70 21 353 58.8 Coster, C. 70 68 8 0 85 y. 348 58 Harkne^s, W. S. 65 72 g 5 91 3C ) 343 57.1 McNeiUy, W. . . 100 53 £ 0 70 28 341 56.8 Harkness, W. A. 40 78 i g 5 90 21 > 318 53 Russell, E. 75 45 6 5 70 3C ) 315 52.5 Maynard, C. H. 75 60 g 5 60 2c > 305 50.8 Young, G. 65 55 g 7 65 21 297 49.5 Kroschel, F. . . 70 66 e 5 35 4£ 281 46.8 Rogers, L. E. . . 75 48 S 7 35 21 . 270 45 Kelleher, E. J. . . 45 62 8 0 53 28 ! 268 44.6 Grant, D. 100 82 182 30.3 Higgs, G. 80 68 148 24.6 Higgs, H. 60 70 130 21.6 Stephens, J. . . 65 50 1 . 115 19.1 Wedderburn. Student's i .ii , a Name. to 3 Arcner Brown to ■3 0 H ^ a> rf Gray, A. 70 100 t )0 50 8( ) 390 65 Lang, G. S. 75 80 15 170 28.3 Nixon. A. 65 78 25 168 28 Edgar, T. 55 76 15 146 24.3 Gould, Wm. 45 50 40 135 22.5 Roberts, E. 45 54 20 119 19.8 Lang, R. J. 45 52 105 17.5 Patterson, J. . . 45 44 15 104 17.3 White. J. F. 30 10 40 6.6 Note. — Owing to heavy floods in tlie district many of the students found it impossible to attend throughout. NUMURKAH. Student's i ii a ^ 3 Name. 3 3 . - gt..§ 5 a T3 3 g 'S 0 2^g to pS < n to B PmS^ Mortimer, J. . . 55 63 85 50 60 313 52.1 Bedwell, F. W. . . 70 72 142 23.6 Chapman, R. C. 60 75 135 22.5 Williams, A. 80 80 13.3 40 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Jan., 1907, Bendigo. student's A 0 a Name, j •5 < 0 c a 2 pa 6 3 0 0)0 .5 P-l csS McRobert, W. G. . . 90 90 95 80 60 98 513 85.5 Richardson, H. V. 94 78 90 75 60 100 497 82.8 Carter, F. 92 80 60 80 60 92 464 77.3 Warne, F. N. 75 84 70 96 35 80 440 73.3 Warne, S. E. 98 75 80 35 35 80 403 67.1 Grelis, T. M. 100 65 60 37 40 90 392 65.3 Hayhurst, R. 75 50 70 55 28 75 353 58.8 Clarkson. Ja.s. 55 50 80 30 40 65 325 54.1 Taylor, A. W. 88 70 80 87 325 54.1 Gardner, A. 65 40 50 60 15 60 290 48.3 Yeaman, C A. 50 50 50 70 220 36.6 Gittins, H. 65 86 151 25.1 Bennett, Harold . 70 76 146 24.3 Mueller, R A. 95 43 138 23 Bennett, Herbert . 65 63 128 21.3 Anderson, R. 45 45 90 15 Read, H. J. 80 80 13.3 St. Arnaud. Student'! Name. :1 Cj fi ^ % 1 ^ S. « w P^ W A M H 82 52 9 5 75 ( 0 65 429 72 55 9 7 50 / 5 74 423 65 80 9 0 50 A 5 80 410 65 58 9 6 60 p 0 70 399 75 74 9 5 30 7 0 50 394 25 70 9 8 35 S 2 60 370 30 32 9 0 45 f 0 85 342 50 50 9 0 60 r >0 40 340 25 30 9 0 60 2 55 292 35 25 8 8 40 s iO 30 238 80 86 166 65 84 149 60 64 124 50 58 108 35 60 90 95 90 25 55 78 80 78 15 60 75 14 54 60 30 68 60 40 30 » 0-" Duggan, B. Duggan, P. J. Hawksley, T. E. Hudson, G. King, A. C. Eckersley, W. H. Gleeson, E. Hodgson, J. Boyle, D. Wright, B. A. Lang, G. S. Armstrong, H. O. Cunningham, J. H Giles, A. J. Dyke, J. McDonald, J. Mawallack, T. Mathieson, D. Chisholm, J. J. Reid, G. . . Langdon, W. Gleeson, J. Reid, P. . . 71.5 70.5 68.3 66.5 65.6 61.6 57 56.6 48.3 39.6 27.6 24.8 20.6 18 15.8 15 13.3 13 12.5 11 10 6 3 8 Jan., 1907.] Agricultural Education. 41 Donald. Student's s ^ , a Name. i£ 3 0 oj ^ g-s.§ T3 3 £i ^Sg W rt < W W H P^tS Pearse, W. N. . . 70 86 96 80 96 428 71.3 Hep worth, W. . . 75 88 99 69 92 423 70.5 Adams, A. W. . . 70 70 90 75 94 399 66.5 Pearse, E. E. . . 68 65 100 65 95 393 65.5 Tyson, A. 56 62 118 19.6 ^ NOTE. — Owing to heavy floods in the district many of tlie students found it impossible to attend throughout. WODONGA. student's a Name. o i£ o 13 a CU _■ 55 ■^. a < 9- a. W O o Ut '3 W 1 McGeoch, J. H. 100 100 89 70 85 100 544 90.6 Keam, — 96 52 90 62 70 65 435 72.5 Tobin, W. 97 55 80 25 65 85 407 67.8 Kurrle, 0. 93 50 70 25 25 45 308 51.3 Mason, C. 65 35 67 15 50 40 272 45.3 Muller, W. 60 35 17 25 20 50 207 34.5 Patterson, A. , . 87 50 45 182 30.3 Nunan. A. P. 55 50 40 145 24.1 Murphy, J. 22 45 40 107 17.8 Geei.ong. student's a a w 3 Name. a .^ o o ^ S^S-S o o < 'S a Tota Grace, F. C. 100 100 80 96 50 90 516 86 Hennessy, J. M. . 75 70 58 90 80 92 465 77.5 Pawsey, C. 90 80 72 85 65 65 457 76.1 Horwood, T. 85 75 70 90 20 85 425 70.8 Jackson, J. 70 70 40 80 80 80 420 70 O'Brien, J. 85 92 35 85 23 90 410 68.3 Robb, T. 70 70 50 93 90 373 62.1 Batson, E. P. 55 80 20 85 20 99 359 59.8 Wilson, H. J. 72 72 98 98 340 56.6 Tozer, H. 75 80 35 85 20 40 335 55.8 O'Brien, B. 50 60 15 80 60 45 310 51.6 Batson, S. E. 50 45 15 70 20 95 295 49.1 Batson, H. A. 20 72 15 70 20 96 293 48.8 Jackson, P. 35 45 15 85 20 92 292 48.6 O'Brien, M. 20 65 10 93 20 60 268 44.6 Weitnauer, E. 85 85 170 28.3 Capstick, H. 5 70 40 115 19.1 Craike, W. D. 60 40 100 16.6 Anderson, G. M. . 60 20 80 13.3 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Jan., 1907. Sheppabton. student's Name. a !5 W Archer. a 0 a a 0 W a' 0 H Prideaux, H. 85 90 89 20 80 50 414 69 Horan. G. 80 85 57 85 40 347 57.8 Coldwell, E. 68 87 73 30 40 20 318 53 Vincent, A. 60 80 70 45 20 275 45.8 Gibbs, J. 50 80 42 30 50 20 272 45.3 Gibb. R. 60 80 36 15 35 15 241 40.1 Erwin, A. 45 80 32 5 30 30 222 37 Cahill, A. J. 72 84 40 196 32.6 Allan, J. J. 50 80 21 10 20 181 30.1 Jones, A. J. 85 30 111 18.5 Note. — Owing to heavy floods in the district many of ttie students found it impossible to attend throughout. Two papers unsigned have been omitted. Yarrawonga. Student's V 3 ^i a Name. JD .M 0 g tD _; 5?=S,t? e < a 2 ■3 0 S .3 0 H Perc age Max Gemniell, A. 92 90 70 50 96 85 483 80.5 Wallace, G. A. . 90 84 90 32 75 85 456 76 Chappell, A. B. . 87 88 70 15 80 70 410 68.3 Chappell. A. R. . 85 86 70 15 ,75 55 386 64.3 Gemmell. E. 80 65 60 20 90 40 355 59.1 Bruce, R- 85 50 25 60 40 260 43.3 Lane, A. G. 90 ■62 70 222 37 Hicks, A. 60 58 95 213 35.5 Daymond, H. . . 90 35 60 185 30.8 McKenz'e, J. ■ 60 60 60 180 30 ECHUCA. Student's Name. 98 § 1 Hawkins. a p a' milk is required for cheese-making the new milk is not pas- teurized previous to separation, but only raised To a suitable temperature for skimming. The cream is then pasteurized at 194 degrees Fahr., cooled in the usual way, and run into large tanks in a special room. Here the pure culture starter is added, and ripening allowed to proceed. There are six large churns, each making about 400 lbs. butter. An hour is allowed for the churning process. The butter-milk is run off through pipes into a large tank, and from thence forwarded to customers, or to the cheese-making room when it is used largely. After the butter-milk is drawn the butter is given two washings, and is placed on the worker, which is of stone, and salt added. After a slight working the butter is placed in large wooden tubs containing cold water ; whilst here the salt dissolves and the butter firms up. After a short interval the working is completed, the turning of the butter being entirely done with the bare hands. The finished product is then placed firmlv into casks, which are lined with parchment paper or muslin. No preservative other than salt is allowed to be used. Most of the work is done bv women, superintended bv a master. There are several cool rooms, in which the butter is placed im- mediately after packing. The butter is sent to England three times per week, via Esberg, which is the quickest route, thus arriving on the British market in a verv fresh condition. About 30,000 lbs. butter are made every {To he continued.) 8 Jan., 1907.] Diseases of Farm Animals. 55 DISEASES OF FARM AXIMALS. {Continued from page 755, Vol. IV.) S. S. Cameron, M.R.C.V.S., Chief Veterinary Officer. VI.— VETERINARY OPERATIONS, METHODS, AND PRACTICES. I. Opf.rations. — Precautions Prior to Operations, Preiiaration, Antiseptic Surgery — Control during- Operations, tlie Twitrh, tlir Side line, Striqipini; l.imlix. {\w Trevis or Crusli, Operating Tables, Throwing Horses, Thruwini: Cattle Anastliet ii-s (Clili.iMti.i mini;). General Anaesi.hesia, Local Ansesthesia — Abscess Lancing- Arrest ot rjlecdiiii: Aniimtalicin i.t llic Penis — Blood-letting— Caesarian Operation — Castration, Recumbent Piisition. Met liodN (Scaring, Caustic Clanis, T.nsinn, Ecraseur, Forceps and Emascvilators) Standing opcial ion. I H toward Results (Ilaaiioi rh;!-, . Alter swelling, Septic Peritonitis, Rupture or Scrotol Hernia), Castiation .)f Hulls and Lanibs, Ca-tiatiun of Ruptured Horses (the Covered Operation)— Castration or Speying of Mares— Spej ing Cattle— Embryotomy— Firing- Impregnation (Artificial)— Neurotomy and Neurectomy— Rumenotomy and Gastrotomy— Suturing Wounds— Tracheotomy, Tenotomy — Trepanning. n. iMethods and Practices.— Bandaging and Massage— Backraking— Blistering— Catheter (passing the) — Enemata — Fomenting, Bathing, and Poulticing — Slinging. In writing on animal diseases, reference needs to be frequently made to what may be termed common operations and to various methods and practices in common use by veterinary surgeons in their calling. These concern both diagnosis and treatment, and it is here proposed to describe shortly the more ordinary of them. I. -Operations. Precautions Prior to Operations. Preparation. — Animals that are to be the subjects of major operations involving throwing or chloroforming, should be specially prepared for a few days beforehand by dieting. The food should be non-heating and reduced in quantity. Animals in store condition are the best subjects for operation. Those that are gross or fat, or in a highly-trained condition, should be reduced by the giving of purgative medicine and suitable exercise. If time will permit of choice as to weather conditions, opera- tions should not be performed in bleak cold or wet weather, even though the animal is to be kept under cover subsequently. Antiseptic Surgery. — Nowadays, the risk that used to accompany many operations is done awav with bv the adoption of strictly antiseptic surgery. This involves: — (a) The sterilization of all iiistninicnts used. — This mav be best secured by the washing and boiling in water, to which a little carbonate of soda has been added, of all metal instruments immediately after use. On being put aw^ay they should be smeared with carbolic oil or some other rust-preventing antiseptic. Instruments composed of material that will not stand boiling, such as rubber and gum elastic, may be isterilized bv soaking in a strong antiseptic solution. The boiling above described, or sterilizing with dry heat in an oven, or bv passing through a bunsen flame, ought to be repeated immediatelv prior to use. {b) The cleansing of the seat of tlie operation. — Close clipping or shaving of the hair is essential to thorough cleansing. A subsequent Avashing with soap and water should be carried out, and. immediatelv prior to operating, the part should be rendered a-septic by sponging, with alcohol or other antiseptic that will blend w^lth the skin. 56 Journal of Agriculture. [^ Jan., 1907. (c) The sterilization of the hands of the operator. — Thorough washing with soap and water is necessary, especial attention being paid to the nails ; after which the hands should be sponged with alcohol or smeared with carbolized oil, according to the requirement of the operation. If possible, the operator should not himself assist in the throwing or securing of the patient, or in any work likely to contaminate hiis hands. {d) Avoidance of contamination of operation wounds. — Clean straw- makes the most suitable bed for operating on. It is almost impossible to carry out strictly antiseptic surgery if beds of dusty tan or sand, or manure are used. The particular part to be operated on may be protected by having towelling or sheeting placed under it, particularly in chloroform operations. {e) Tlie antiseptic dressing of operation wounds. — Methods Nvill be described later on, when the treatment of wounds is being dealt with. The Control of Animals During Operations. Various devices have to be used to control animals during the per- formance of operations, not only for the avoidance of risk to the operator, but also that the part to be operated upon may be fixed or exposed in proper position. The most essential requirement in this regard is perhaps that the man in charge of the horse's head should be a knowledgeable horseman, strong, active, alert, handv, and, above all, game and fearless, for on him will it often depend to give warning, and, by hits handling of his charge, to prevent danger to both the operator and the animal. The Twitch is a common means of controlling horses or attracting their attention during the performance of minor operations. It consists of a stout stick ha\-ing a loop of cord at the end which is twisted round the part to which it is applied so causing compression and certain amount of pain. The twitch is usually applied to the upper lip or muzzle, a part extremely well supplied with sensory nerve filaments, which are apparently iDenumbed bv the operation. It is sometimes also applied to the ears and to the lower jaw behind the incisor teeth. The Side Line is a loop of rope passed round the neck in front of the shoulders, and having a free end, which is passed round the hind pastern and back to the neck loop. When adjusted and drawn up fairly tight, it pre\ents the free use of the leg round which it is passed, and so allows of some operations being performed without risk of kicking. If it is required to control both hind limbs, double side lines are used. (See Fig. i.) Strapping the limbs in various positions is often adopted, a stirrup leather being a most useful instrument in this connexion. A horse cannot well kick if made to stand on three legs. This may be done by bending one fore leg, up and strapping it by means of a stirrup leather round the pastern and upper part of the arm. The hind limbs may be hobbled together by applying the stirrup leather round both, either above or below the hocks. Punching may be prevented bv hobbling the fore limbs in like manner. The Trievis or Crush. — A favorite method of securing horses and cattle for operations in Australia is the fixing of them in a crush, the construction and uses of which are familiar to most stockmen, seeing that such a structure is to be found erected in almost every stockyard throughout the land. Many of them are very ingeniously designed, so that they may 8 Jan., 1907.] Diseases of Farm Animals. 57 be adapted for the use of different kinds of animals and different opera- tions. A trevis is merely a crush provided with back and belly straps, breast straps, and breeching, and with rings and rope holes for the more effective securing of the animal in suitable positions for operation. At times it is necessary to improvise a method of fixing animals for operations when no crush is available, and when, for various reasons, it is considered inad\isable to throw the animal. One of the handiest and best ■means is to rope the animal to a stout post-and-rail fence in the manner advised in connexion with operations for fistulous withers. Operating Tables. — Very effective operating tables have been designed for larger animals, but their great cost is a bar to their general use. In most of these, the top of the table is made to swing over into the vertical position, and the horse is ranged up alongside and strapped to it. The table is then returned to the horizontal position, and the animal fixed in any position that is desired by means of straps and other ingeniously arranged fittings. An equine operating table of the most approved pattern (Dollar's combined) is in regular use at the Veterinary Hospital estalDlished by Mr. E. F. J. Bordeaux, G.M.V.C., Moonee Ponds, Victoria, who speaks highly of its effectiveness and suitability. Fi". I. — Side lines and breast collar in position Throwing Horses. — The "side-line" method of throwing horses is de- scribed in connexion with " Castration." Various other methods of throw- ing are adopted in Australia, but they are likely to be so well known to most readers, that it is not intended to occupy space with descriptions of them. It will be appropriate, however, to say that many of the acciclents which constantly occur nowadays might be avoided if more gentle handling was practised during the " roping down " of horses, and if a soft throwing bed was provided. Especial care should be taken with very old horses whose bones are fragile, and with young horses suffering from nasal disease or other general bone complaint. In such cases, there is less risk if throwing hobbles are used ; indeed, veterinary surgeons always prefer to use the patent hobbles when throwing for operations, because not only is the fall effected less heavily, but there is always the great advantage that any limb that is required can be set free and fixed in any desired position, Journal of Agriculture. 1^8 Jan.. 1907. without the necessity of disturbing the other limbs or loosening any tie- ropes. A point essential to safety when a horse is thrown is, that the head should be constantly kept down on the ground. With the head kept down, horses invariably refrain from struggling or attempting to rise, in fact, they are pow'erless to rise when the head is close on the ground. This latter statement ought tO' be qualified somewhat in regard to horses that are under the influence of chloroform, because in the delirious stage of chlorofoTm anaesthesia, the controlling influence of keeping the head down is often not apparent. Fie. Throwincr hobbles. Throwing Cattle. — To safely and easily throw calves for castration or other operation, attach a strap or rope round the pastern or above the fetlock of the fore and hind limbs of the iside on which it is desired the animal should lie ; then pass the ends of the rope to the opposite side and pull on them, at the same time giving the bodv a push over from the pulling side. To throw bulls or non-pregnant cows, advantage is taken of the fact that when they are nipped or compressed round the flank and chest they will almost invariablv roll o\-er or lie down. A long rope is required, and it is attached by one end round the horns or neck, or tO' the halter. It is then passed along the top of the neck, and given a half hitch round it. A second half hitch is made round the chest, but with the direction of the hitch reversed, and, aga'n reversing, a third half hitch is made round the loins and flank, just in front of the hip points. A backward haul is then made on the rope end, so as to tighten the hitches and compress the chest and flanks, and the animal will quickly go down, and may be secured in any position desired by roping the limbs. Anaesthetics (Chloroforming). General Anaesthesia. — The use of anaesthetics in veterinary practice has become very general latterly, and for all major operations oii valuable animals the patient is almost invariably first placed under the influence of chloroform. The A.E.C. mixture (alcohol, i part; ether, 2 parts; and chloroform, 3 parts) i.s sometimes used, it being claimed that the ether counteracts the depressing action of chloroform on the heart (the 8 Jan., 1907.] Diseases of Farm Animals. 59 alcohol merely acting as a blending agent). Methylated chloroform is found to be as safe and effective for veterinary patients as pure chloro- form, and it is much less expensive — a consideration that cannot be ignored in view of the dose required for the larger animals. Fig. 3. — Chloroform mask for horses. Horses to be chloroformed should always be first thrown. The effect of the drug in some cases is to produce a primary delirium, during, which the animal becomes unconsciously violent and uncontrollable, and there is therefore considerable danger to both the operator and the patient if the latter has not been previously secured properly. A speciallv constructed chloroform inhaler is sometimes used (see Fig. 3), but the simplest method of administering chloroform to horses or cattle is by inhalation from a sponge saturated with the drug. The sponge is placed over one nostril and kept in position by means of a towel. The other nostril should be left free for the inhalation of air. By restricting the amount of air so inhaled with the hand, the inspiration of chlorofoTm through the other nostril can be increased. A varying amount of chloroform is required for different animals, some horses becoming, insensible with 2 ounces, while others require as much as half a pint. It is advisable, therefore, to give it gradually, using about 2 ounces at first, and replenishing the sponge with half that amount from time to time, until (in from 5 to 15 minutes) insensibility is produced. This is best ascertained bv noting the reaction of the eye to the" finger touch. The internal angle of the eye is most sensitive, and if, when the haw is touched in this position, there is no winking, it may be concluded that the anaesthesia is complete. The tail also becomes flaccid, and there will be no sensibilitv to the prick of a pin or pen knife at other parts of the body. While the animal is under the influence of chloroform, the pulse should be noted to be full and strong, and the breathing deep and slow. If 6o Journal of Agriculture. [8 Jan., 1907. the pulse fails or the breathing becomes shallow and distressful, the ad- ministration of the drug should be stopped, and steps taken to revive the animal. A full current of air should be allowed ; the animal should be turned over and a cold douche applied to the head. Rhythmical movement of the fore limbs, with the object of inducing artificial respiration, may be tried, and the inhalation of the fumes of strong ammonia may require to be resorted to. Horses, howe\'er, are not so liable to become asphyxi- ated under chloroform as human patients, and they more quickly recover from its effects. Sometimes they may lie for an hour or so " sleeping off the effects," and they may require a little help and manual steadying in rising, and until "they find their legs." To dogs chloroform is usually administered from a sponge in a pill box applied to the nostrils, and they usually require from a dram to an ounce, according to size and temperament. In dogs the respiration is always more embarrassed and fatalities more frequent than in horses. Local Anaesthesia is also largely availed of in performing operations on animals. A 4 per cent, solution of cocaine in sterilized water is the agent usually employed. Its action is to paralyze the sensory nerves of the part to which it is applied, and it is particularly effective in producing insensibility of mucous membranes. It is therefore very useful in opera- tions on the eye. Its action on the skin is more tardy, but it neverthe- less produces sufficient local insensibility as to permit of minor operations being performed without trouble. A more pronounced effect is produced locally if the solution is injected under the skin adjacent to the part toi be operated on. For this purpose, a stronger solution (8 or to per cent.) may be used. The addition of morphia (i to 2 per cent.) or of eucaine, is stated to considerably accentuate the action of cocaine as a local anaes- thetic. Adrenalin and stovaine, particularlv the former, have also recently come into successful use in veterinarv practice. Abscess Lancing. The opening of an abscess or cyst is a very simple operation. A large incision is usually preferable, as it affords better means for complete evacuation of the contained matter, and also for subsequent dressing or cleaning by means of antiseptic injections. The incision should always be made at the lower part of the abscess, or, indeed, of anv sinus or wound that is being lanced, so that free drainage of matter may be effected and " pocketing " avoided. Arrest of Bleeding. Internal Bleeding. — When haemorrhage from an internal organ is suspected, the golden rule is to keep the animal as quiet as possible, and to this end a stiff dose of opium or other sedative medicine is advan- tageous. In such cases, opium has the added merit that it mav act as a styptic or astringent, and so assist in stopping the bleeding. Another medicine which has a powerful effect in arresting internal haemorrhage is ergot of rye, which may be given by the mouth or injected under the skin or into the blood stream in the form of liquid extract of ergot, the dose of which for a horse or cow is from half an ounce to an ounce. The most marked sign of internal haemorrhage is a sudden paleness of the visible mucous membrane. External Bleeding. — Except it is excessive to a degree likelv to become exhausting, external bleeding is not such an alarming affair as is usually thought. Unless the bleeding vessel is a comparatively large 8 Jan., 1907.] Diseases of Farm Animals. 61 artery, it is surprising how quickly it will close if the animal is kept still. Much apprehension need not be felt unless the blood is spurting in jets. The bleeding from an operation wound is usually much more serious than that from an accidental wound, because in the latter case the vessel is usually torn asunder, while in the former the cut is usually a clean one, and there is no tendency for the vessel to become plugged by the tiny shreds of torn tissue round which clotting occurs so quickly. In the case of a large vessel being cut during an operation, the safest plan is to secure the bleeding end with a pair of forceps, and either apply a silk ligature, or twist the vessel until the end is almost torn off. Failing this, the wound ishould be sluiced with a solution of perchloride of iron, plugged with cotton wool or antiseptic tow, and stitched up. The object of this procedure is to get a quick clotting of the blood, by which the cut vessel ultimately becomes plugged. The application of cold water or ice to the part, bv producing contraction of the blood vessels supplying it, is also' helpful. Cold water continuously played on the loins is par- ticularly useful in bleeding from the cord after castration, or from the womb after calving or foaling. In the latter cases, the flooding of the womb with cold water, or e^'en the insertion of a chunk of ice, mav have to be resorted to. When the bleeding is from one of the large vessels of the limbs, the application of pressure abo\'e the seat of bleeding by means of a tourniquet or tight Bandage is very effective. If pressure is applied directly to the main vessel of supply, bv means of a cork, plug of grass, or some such substance, held in position with the bandage, the bleeding will cease almost directly ; but an exact knowledge of the vascular anatomv of the part is necessarv' to effectively accomplish this. To avoid excessive bleeding while operating on the limbs, it i'S always advisable tO' apply a bandage or tourniquet to the limb above the seat of operation. For operations in other parts, the prior injection of adrenalin has recently been practised extensively to produce a transient bloodless- ness, but its use in those cases which have come under the author's observa- tion has not been so completely succes.sful as was expected. Amputation of the Penis. For this operation the animal will usually need to be cast, especially if a bull is the subject of operation. A catheter is passed intO' the urethral tube and retained in position by a tight ligature round the penis behind the seat of the proposed amputation. A circular incision is then made, cutting down on to the catheter. The ligature and catheter are allowed to remain in position for at least twenty-four hours — the former to prevent excessive bleeding, and the latter so that the discharging, urine may not be interfered with. It is not necessary to stitch the edges of the wound. Ordinary wound treatment will suffice to complete the healing. Blood-Letting. Bleeding" or the extraction of blood, which was commonly practised for a number of diseases in days gone by, is now only advised in cases of passive congestion of the lungs and some few other conditions. It is most easily done by opening the jugular vein at the upper third of the neck. A cord or strap (a stirrup leather does very well) is first applied tightly round the neck about midwav between the head and chest, so that 62 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Jan., 1907. the pressure will impede the flow of blood, and distend the vein. The vein is opened either with a lancet or fleam. When using the lancet the skin is first cut and the vein exposed, the lancet being then inserted lengthways of the vein. With the fleam the skin and vein are incised at the same time, the fleam blade being placed lengthways along the distended vein, and given a smart stroke with a billet of wood or other solid instrument. When sufficient blood has exuded (about a gallon is usually considered a fair bleeding), the strap is loosened and the blood at once ceases to flow the current being now unimpeded, it passes direct along the \'ein. The wound should be closed by a pin suture — made by inserting a pin through the lips and tying it by v/inding horse hair round the ends. C^SARiAN Operation. The Caesarian operation, so called because of the tradition that Julius Caesar was brought into the world in this artificial way, or, as Shakes- peare has it, "ripped untimely from his mother's womb," is performed on domestic animals, most frequently on small bitches whose alliance with dogs of larger size has resulted in the formation of foetuses too large to be born in the natural way. It may also be performed with success in those cases in which the passage is so tumified and swollen as to prevent natural parturition, and also in many cases of difficult parturition, in which malformations or monstrostites are known or suspected. In difficult parturition of the sow, either from misplacement or abnormality of the foetuses or from maternal weakness, the Caesarian operation is very fre- quently successful, not onlv in preserving the lives of the young, but in the majority of cases, of the mother also. The operation is best perfornied under chloroform, and the instruments and apparatus required are a scalpel, probe-pointed bistuory, and scissors, probe director, suture needles, catgut, broad linen bandage, and a large calico sheet, all rendered aseptic. The animal should be laid on its side with the hind limbs tied and drawn backwards. The abdomen and teats must be washed and rendered aseptic in the usual manner. A horizontal incision from 3 to 5 inches long is then made in the abdomen, from \ inch to i inch above the line of demarcation formed by the mammary glands, any large vessels cut being either twisted or ligatured. The peritoneum is then punctured with the finger, and the opening enlarged as required with the scissors. The intestines are then pushed forward and the uterus brought outside and laid on the calico sheet previously soaked with creolin solution. The uppermost horn of the womb is then incised lengthways for 3 or 4 inches, and the fcetuses contained in it, with their membranes, extracted. The hand is tlien passed into the womb through the incision, and the foetuses contained in the other horn similarly removed. Any blood clots and torn membranes should also be removed, and the womb carefully cleaned with antiseptic solution. The incision in the wall of the womb is then sutured with aseptic catgut, and the organ returned inside the abdominal cavity. Concerning the external wound, the abdominal muscles and the skin should be stitched separately. This wound should be dusted over with an antiseptic powder, and the broad linen bandages then applied as a compress for six or seven davs, during which the diet should consist of milk, water, and other light foods. 8 Jan., 1907.] Diseases of Farvi Aminals. 65 Castration. An article bv the present writer on " Castration of farm animals " appeared in the Journal of October, 1906, q.v. There will be found a description of the use of the instrument shown in F]g. 4. Fig. 4. — Castrator. Speying or Castration of the Mare. On accO'Unt of the great liability to fatal peritonitis following upon wounds in the abdomen of horses, the operation of speying mares is only safe when performed per vaginum. The mare may be chloroformed, or local anaesthesia may be produced by inserting a cocaine-soaked pledget of cotton-wool into the vagina, as far as the neck of the womb, a little time before commencing. The strictest antiseptic precautions are neces- sary ; the operator's hands and arms, the instruments to be used, and the external parts being disinfected with a lysol solution (i in 100) or cor- rosive sublimate solution (i in 1,000). Before proceeding, the rectum should be emptied. Fig. 1^. — Chain Ecraseur. Two instruments are necessary — a roncealed bistoury and an ecraseur. With the bistoury a puncture is made in the upper part of the vagina Lhrough the vaginal wall, in the middle line, immediately above the neck of the womb {os uteri). The finger is inserted into this wound, and" it is enlarged by tearing until the hand can be introduced. The ovaries are then searched for. grasped, and pulled through the opening, when they can be removed with the ecraseur, for operating which see article on " Castration "" in October, 1906. issue of the Journal. 64 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Jan., 1907. Speying Cattle (Ovariotomy). The most suitable age for speying, cattle is prioT to^ the first calf. At this period there is the minimum risk of mishap. If older cows are to be speyed, they should be in store condition, and not in calf. In-calf cows often slip their calves after speving. The operation should not be performed on cows in season, nor within a month after calving. The most suitable time for speying is the earlv summer, when the nights are warm and dry. The subjects for operation should be kept short of food for twenty-four hours before. There are two^ methods of operation in vogue, viz., the flank operation and the operation per vaginum.. Where considerable numbers are to be speyed, the flank operation is usually preferred. The cattle are secured in a long narrow race or crush, with fence-work sides, so that the operator can work through the rails. When the numbers are few, they may be tied or strapped, right side on, to an ordinary three-rail fence. The seat of operation through the flank is on the right side, in a position similar to that described for gastrotomy, and the incision is made in the same direction, downwards and forwards across the direction of the hair down to the peritoneum. The right side i'S chosen in preference to the left, because the operator's manipulation is not interfered wi.h by the presence of the distended paunch. Before making the incision, the hair should be clipped off an oblique strip, and the part washed with an anti- septic solution. The hands and arms of the operator should also be similarly washed between each operation. The peritoneum or thin membrane lining the abdominal cavity should not be broken until the hsem.OTrhage from the outside wound is somewhat allayed. It is then cut through, and the hand introduced into the abdominal cavity in search of the ovaries. The one furthest away (the left one) should be grasped first, and removed from its corded attachment bv snipping with knife or scissors, or, if it is desired to avoid haemorrhage totally, the ecraseur is used. The right ovary is then grasped and removed. Some operators stitch the p^itoneum, the muscles, and the skin separatelv, but this is scarcely necessarv'. Usually the wound is stitched with three or four strong sutures, taking, in a half- inch of skin at each side. A dressing of carbolized oil or tar is then smeared over the surface, and the operation is complete. The vaginal operation on cattle is performed as described above for mares, except that it is not at all necessary to use chloroform or local anaesthetics. {To be continued.) ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS— co^^^m^^^^/. Prairie Grass. — Lucerne writes stating that he has sown lucerne in drills 9 inches apart* and asks it' it is advisable to plant prairie grass between the rows to provide winter feed. An'rought into a normal condition bv treatment. II.— Methods and Practices. Bandaging and Massage. Apart from the ordinary circumstances under which it is practised as a stable custom and method, bandaging plavs an important part in the auxiliary treatment of many diseases of an inflammatorv character. Woollen bandages are, for instance, verv useful in maintaining equable circulation in the limbs, and so retarding internal congestions. Straw- rope bandages are also applied for the same purpose. Facility m properly applying bandages can only be attained by prac- tice, but the advice may be giveni that both edges of the bandage must alwavs be kept taut, either bv slanting the bandage to suit the inequalities of the limb, or bv making a half-turn of the web. Most difficulty is experienced in bandaging joints capable of great flexion, such as the knee and hock, but if the above advice is adhered to, a firm and comparati\elv immovable bandage may be applied. Just a word mav be here said on the common practice of bandaging the legs of light horses. The application of a moderatelv tight bandage after work is an advantage, in that it assists in supporting the wearied joints and tissues at a time Avhen they are temporarily played out. and so tends S Feb., 1907.] Diseases of Farm Animals. 75 to prevent filling of the legs, incipient windgalls, and other swellings. But they should not be kept on for more than an hour or two. unless the work has been inordinately excessive. By continuous bandaging, such as some racehorses are subjected to, the joints, tendons, ligaments, and tissues become so used to the artificial support that they lose their natural tone and strength, and bandaging comes to be a permanent requirement, instead of ■a temporary help, to the passing circulatory fatigue of the parts. Hand-rubbing and Body Friction. Closely akin to bandaging as a means of relieving leg weariness and preventing filling or " stocking " of the extremities, is the practice of hand- rubbing. It is a means of applying smart friction to a part so as to induce vigorous circulation, and to be of the most benefit must be carried on for half an hour or more. Body friction by means of wisps of straw, brushes, or towels is a form of massage directed to the maintenance of evenness of circulation in the surface of the body in cases of colic and internal inflammations, where the tendency to- " breaking out into a cold sweat "' is observed Blistering. Blisters constitute a ver\- frequent form of external treatment in animals, particularly in limb affections. In all cases they excite a determination ■of blood to the part, causing a surface inflammation ; and are applied to uninflamed sprains and enlargements for the purpose of hastening the process of repair, or promoting abso^rption of an exudate. Other cases in which blisters are applied have been referred to throughout the text. The blisters in most common use are the " fly blister " or cantharides ointment, and " mercurv blister " or biniodide of mercur\ ointment. These are made respectively as follows: — • Fly Blister. — Hog's lard or vaseline, 8 parts; powdered cantharides or Spanish fly, I part. Gently heat the lard or vaseline till melted. Then stir in the cantharides a little at a time till thoroughly incorporated, and allow to cool before use. Mercury Blister. — Hog's lard or vaseline, 8 parts; biniodide of mercury, i part. Thoroughly mix the biniodide with the lard or vaseline by means of a spatula on a slab. Any irritant medicament mav be used as a blister, and powdered euphor- bium, sulphuric acid, and such like are often added to " strengthen " the blister ; but in Australia the use of these latter irritants is extremely dan- gerous, and often results in permanently blemishing the animal. Blisters may be more effecti\elv applied if the hair of the part is closely clipped. The severity of action of the blister largely depends op the vigor with which, and length of time, the ointment is rubbed in. As a rule, a smart rubbing with sufficient ointment to keep the skin and b.ands well lubricated for a period of five or ten minutes is sufficient to produce the desired effect. If the blister does not " rise" bv the fol- lowing dav, bathing the blistered surface with hot water will expedite matters, or a little more of the ointment may be rubbed in. When a fly blister is used, the surface should not be extensive, as the active prin- ciple of the blister (cantharidine) is liable to become absorbed in sufficient quantity to produce inflammation of the kidneys ; indeed, fatal results have at times followed on the blistering of all foru" limbs at one time. After the blister is applied, the horse should be tied up short, so that he may not be able to reach the part with his mouth when the itching com- mences. If he is to be turned out immediately, a " neck cradle ' sh<~)uld 76 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Feb., 1907. be worn for the same reason. After the lapse of a week or so, when the exudation has dried up, the blistered surface may be oiled or smeared with lard, tO' prevent cracking of the skin. When the action of the blister is too excessive, the part should be washed clean with luke-warm water, and a cooling liniment, such as equal parts of Goulard's extract and sweet oil, applied. Back Raking. This term is applied to the removal of the foeces or dung contained in those parts of the bowels which are reachable by the hand and ann. Back-raking is usually done as a preliminary to the giving of an enema in cases of colic, constipation, and other bowel complaints. The arm and hand introduced into the rectum should be well oiled, and no unne- cessary violence used, so that subsequent straining and irritation may be avoided. Passing the Catheter. A catheter is an instrument used for withdrawing urine from the bladder., Male catheters for the larger animals are made of flexible gum elastic, and are from 4 to 5 feet long, while those for females are about 18 inches. Passing the catheter in the horse and mare is a com- paratively simple matter. In the former case, the horse having been secured, as elsewhere advised, and a twitch applied, the point of the penis is drawn gently out of the sheath with one hand, and the rounded end of the catheter inserted into the urethra with the other, the instru- ment, which should have been previonslv smeared with vaseline, being pushed as far as the bend of the urethra into the peh'is below the anus. .An assistant should direct the point round this bend, and shortly after- wards the bladder will be reached, when the urine will commence to trickle away. The* urethral opening in the mare is on the floor of the vulva, about a finger's length from the lips, and is covered by a fold of rriucous mem- brane, which requires to be lifted with the finger to allow of the passage of the catheter. In the cow there is an obstacle to the free passage of the catheter in the shape of a small cul-de-sac at the entrance to the urethra on its lower side. The point of the catheter needs to be directed past this cul-de-sac vith the finger, otherwise its introduction will be arrested. Im the bull and ram, the passing of the catheter is a somewhat difficult operation, in that there is a peculiar S-shaped curve of the urethra in the region of the scrotum, past which the catheter cannot be pushed while the penis is in a flaccid condition. It is, therefore, necessary to produce a partial erection, and withdrawal of the penis, so as to temporarily obliterate the curve before the catheter can be passed. Enemata. An Enema is an injection of fluid into the rectum or end gut. Irv cases of constipation, impaction of the colon, inflammation of the bowels, and diarrhoea, an enema is a valuable auxiliarv to the general treatment. Warm water, in which sufficient soap has been dissolved to form a copious froth, is usually used. It is injected by means of a force pump and hose (Reid's enema pump is specially designed for the purpose), or a large syringe or a large funnel with the tube at right angles to the bowl. (See Figs. 15 and 16.) 8 Feb., 1907.] Diseases of Farm Animals. 77 The quantity of fluid injected varies, but it is inadvisable that the rectum should be over-distended, as in that case the fluid will be quicklv parted with. The most benefit accrues when the injection is held for a time. The fluid to be injected may be medicated ^vith opium in cases. of violent abdominal pain, or with anti septirs in cases of flatulent colic. Fig. 15. — Funnel Enema. Fig. 16. — Pump Enema. Fomenting and Bathing and Poulticing. Fomentation, in the strict sense, means the application of hot water to a part, but the term is also commonlv used in reference to cold appli- cations. Somewhat diverse opinions are held by practitioners as to the occasion on which hot or cold applications respectively are indicated. A good general rule to be guided by is that when pain is great, hot appli- cations are best, inasmuch as by the swelling they tend to produce, the pain is relieved. On the other hand, cold applications are best for sprains and the like injuries, if the pain is not great, as they tend to retard swelling. Cold applications are also indicated in wounds, such as open joint, open tendon sheath, compound fracture, and the like, where liability to septic infection is great, or almost inevitable. They then act beneficiaJly by retarding the multiplication of bacteria in the tissues.. The so-called " drawing " action of poultices and hot applications is to a- great extent due to the multiplication of bacteria under the favorable influence of warmth and consequent ina-eased suppuration. Hot Fomentations are applied to the feet and lower parts of the- limbs by placing the foot or feet in a strong bucket or tub of warm Avater ; to the limbs by means of flannel bandages ; and to the chest, abdomen, loins, or other part by means of a blanket wrung out of hot water, and closely applied to the part. The heat in the latter case may be con- tinuously replenished by pouring hot water gently on to the upper portion of the blanket from the spout of a teapot or kettle. As a rule, the appli- cation of hot water should be persisted in for one or two hours at a time, or until the pain or distress is obviouslv relieved, and on ceasing, the parts should be protected from a " chill " by covering or bandaging with 7 8 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Feb.. 1907. dry flannel or by the application of a mild stimulating liniment. The proper temperature of the water for hot fomentations may be best gauged by the hand. It should never be hotter than can be borne without pain or scalding when the hand is dipped in it. Cold Applications to the feet are best made b} standing the animal in a foot bath. Where the limbs are concerned, the easiest method of application is by means of the hose, the end of which may be lightly bandaged in the position in which it is desired that the water should play. Cold applications should be continued for one or two hours at a stretch, two or three times a day, and the parts should always be rubbed dry and bandaged on ceasing. Ice, in the form of chunks or rough powder, may be bandaged in position, and serve to quickly reduce the heat in cases of severe sprain. Poultices are most frequently used in veterinary practice in foot cases — laminitis, pricked foot, corns, quittor. and inflammatory injuries. In addition to other more or less problematical benefits, they serve to soften the horn, thereby relieving pressure, and also rendering operations and ' searching" of the foot much easier. Scalded bran applied hot is the most commonly used material, but linseed meal, boiled turnips, and hops have each their advocates ; the latter substance has the advantage of being very light, and is, hence, useful in poulticing the udder, under-side of jaw, or other part where the poultice is likely to " sag " with its own weight. Cow dung, so frequently used by the ignorant as a poulticing material, because of its supposed possession of special " drawing " quali- ties, is an abomination, and frequently causes an otherwise healthy wound to become septic. Care should be taken that the poultice remains '• sweet." If soured in the least, it should not be re-applied. To pre- vent souring, powdered charcoal is sometimes added to the poultice, and an addition of a little anti-septic solution, such as Ivsol or carbolic acid, to the water with which the poultice is being made, is a useful pre- caution. Slinging. The use of slings for supporting horses when suffering from various injuries has been largely adopted in veterinary practice. The author's experience of their use, however, has been so adverse that it is not intended to suggest even that advocacy of them which would be implied in detail- ing the usual methods of slinging. Occasionally it may be advantageous to place slings under an animal that it is required to keep standing, so that he may "rest" in them, but, as a rule, by the systemic irritation thev give rise to, their interference with respiration and digestion and other untoward resultssible to say. The polysaccharides differ markedly from the sugars of which thev are composed ; they are not sweet to the taste, they do not ferment with veast, they do not give the copper sulphate reaction, many are in.soluble in water, and only a verv few can be obtained crystalline. When boiled with an acid a polysaccharide breaks up into its sugar components, in some cases readily, in some cases with great difficulty. 1. Starch. — Of the wide distribution of this carbohydrate in the vege- table kingdom and its importance in animal nutrition little need here be said. Starch occurs in nature in the form of microscopic grains which vary in size and shape according to the plant from which they are derived. It is insoluble in cold water, but soluble in hot, forming a paste which sets into a jelly on cooling. When treated with a solution of iodine it gives a rich blue colour, a reaction which can be used as an analytical test. When boiled with an acid it passes through a number of transition stages, includ- ing the dextrins and maltose, and is finally transformed into dextrose. When acted upon by the ferment diastase it passes through the dextrin stages, but ends as maltose, as has already been noted. Though important as an animal food, starch is not found anyAvhere in the animal body. 2. Dextrins. — These bodies represent steps in the splitting up of starch under the influence of acids or a ferment. They are all soluble in cold water, and give nO' colour with iodine, except the highest members of the series which give a chestnut tint. 3. Glycogen, also called Animal Starch. — This polysaccharide rather resembles the higher dextrins than starch. It is soluble in water, and gives an intense chestnut brown colour on treatment with iodine. Diastase transforms it into maltose, but acids can carry it further, like starch and the dextrins, into dextrose. It is found in the liver and in muscle tissue and in manv li\ing cells. It functions as a store of. fuel food on which the body can draw at need, just as starch, and to some extent the celluloses act as reserve material in the plant kingdom. 4. Cellulose. — This substance makes up the greater part of wood, vegetable fibre, and the walls of vegetable cells. It is familiar in the form of cotton wool and filtering paper. It is insoluble in water, cold or hot, and is acted upon by dilute acids only in a ver}- slow manner. Strong acids transform it into dextrose. In alkaline solutions it swells up and becomes .semi-transparent. The property of being insoluble in water renders cellu- lose eminently fitted for the purpose to Avhich it is put in nature, namely, to build up the greater part of the framework of the walls of vegetable cells, of vegetable fibres and of wood. Its insolubility, however, makes it extremely difficult of digestion in the anima! bowel ; in some mammals it passes through practically unchanged, in others a small percentage is dissolved by the combined action of bacteria and a special ferment. The Hemicelluloses differ from true cellulose in that they are not so resistant to solvents, and can be digested a little more readily; more- over they also differ in their chemical composition, for. whilst cellulose 8 Feb.. 1907.] I\lciiiciiis of Aiiiiual I'Jivsiology. ' 87 proper vields onlv dextrose on treatment with acids, the hemicelluloses give rise to mixtures of various simple sugars. Thev are found in the outer covering of cereal seeds and in the reserve cellulose of plants. The substance lignin may he mentioned here. It is found in wood and in coarse woodv fibre, and is a still more resistant substance than cellu- lose. Its chemical constitution has not been made out, and its chief physio- logical importance is that it passes through the animal bowel unchanged. The cellulose group is quite unrepresented in mammalian tissues. 5. Pentosans. — ^These polysaccharides are compounded of pentoses, as treatment with an acid testifies. They are found chiefly in vegetable gums, but are also present in woody fibre. Pentosans are not found in the animal body, and their food value is very low. Fats and Lipoid. Under the term fats we include not only ordinary animal fats but also the animal and vegetable oils, for these latter are simplv fats that are linuid at ordinarv temperatures. The term, however, does not include the mineral oils such as kerosene and paraffin oil, nor the " essential oils" of plants, which belong to totalh- different chemical groups and can neither act as foods nor take any part in forming the structures of the animal body. As common characters of fats which are well known we might mention that they are insoluble in water, and refuse to mix with it, and, as thev are lighter weight for weight, they float on the surface of water. Thev boil at a temperature which is generally higher than the boiling-point of water, and thev are readilv inflammable. Qualities not so generally known are the following : Thev are soluble in ether, chloroform and benzine. They are soluble in hot alcohol, but, as J rule, separate out in solid form on cooling. When liquid and when shaken with water containing even a small quantitv of soap- thev break up into a multitude of droplets of microscopic size. These droplets, on account of their minuteness, rise to the surface so slowlv that the fat may exist for a considerable time evenly distributed through the mixture — such a mixture being termed an emulsioft. This formation of an emulsion in the presence of soap not only accounts for the detergent or cleansing action of this sub- stance, but is, as we shall see, of the utmost importance in the digestion of fats. Before we can understand the chemistry of fats mention must be made of the FATTY ACIDS. These acids contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the carbon and hydrogen being greatly in excess of the oxvgen. A large number are known to the chemist, and are classified in a regular series, the lower members of which (such as acetic acid) being liquid at ordinarv temperatures and soluble in water, the higher members (such as stearic acid, present in certain candles and quite erroneously termed stearin) being solid at ordinary temperatures and insoluble in water. Between these extremes are intermediate forms, but the majority have solubilities like the fats; are, namely, insoluble in water but soluble in ether or hot alcohol. Manv of the fattv acids possess a characteristic and often a verv unpleasant smell. Now, when a fatt\- acid forms a chemical compound with an alkali the result of the union is a soap; but when the fattv acid forms a chemical compound with glycerine the result is a fat. That fats are so compounded is shown by man\; facts and experiments. Fats, when subjected to the Jounial of Agriculture. [8 Feb., 1907. action of superheated steam, break up into glycerine and fatty acids ; the same decomposition can occur through the action' o'f bacteria or of a special ferment found in the mammalian bowel. When fats are boiled with an alkali, glycerine is produced, whilst the fatty acid unites with the alkali to form a soap. Of the many fatty acids known to the chemist only some five need be mentioned here — Stearic acid which is solid at ordinary temperatures. Palmitic acid ,, solid Oleic acid ,, liquid Caproic acid ,, liquid Butyric acid ,, liquid Now — Stearic acid united to glycerine gives the fat stearin Palmitic acid ,, ,, ,, ,, palmitin Oleic acid ,, ., ,, ,, olein Caproic acid ,, ,, ,, ,, caproin Butyric acid ,, ,, ,, ,, butynn Fats, as they occur in the body, contain always two or more of the fats above given, mixed together. Stearin and palmitin, when mixed, often go by the name of margarin, and the more of these two a fat contains the more solid will it be. On the other hand, olein, caproin and butyrin are liquids, and the larger the amount in which they are present the more fluid will be the fat. For instance, suet is chiefly composed o'f stearin and palmitin ; olive oil contains olein as its chief ingredient, whilst milk fat or butter con- tains a considerable proportion of butyrin as well as some of the solid fats. When a fat gets rancid what happens is that, through the agency of bacteria, the fat is split up into glycerine and fatty acid, the latter being readily detected by its odour — the smell of rancid butter, for instance, being due largely to butyric acid. In addition to this there is a slitrht oxidation of the liberated fatty acid and the consequent formation of otiiir bodies which are not only odorous, but also harmful to the body when taken in food. An interesting property of fats may be referred to here. When a liquid fat is shaken up with sodium carbonate it forms an emulsion exactly the same as if it had been shaken with soap. The reason 'for this is that in most fats there is always a small amount of free fatty acid which unites with the alkali in the sodium carbonate to form a soap, and it is this small amount of soap that conditions the emulsion. Lipoid. — Lipoid is a substance found in the wall and in the protoplasm of every living animal cell, it forms the envelope of the red corpuscles of the blood, and also makes up the chief bulk of the myelin or insulating material of nerves. It possesses much the same solubilities as fats (soluble in ether, chloroform, and hot alcohol), but differs from, them in this, that it can absorb water, and though not dissolving in the water, can mix with it. As a constituent of the cell wall, it carries out a most important func- tion in controlling the permeability of the wall, allowing some bodies through more readily than others. Lipoid is composed of a variable mix- ture of at least two substances, lecithin and cholesterin. Lecithin is in reality a modified fat. Whilst fat contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, lecithin contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus, and Is in consequence often spoken of as a phosphorized fat. Lecithin can be 8 Feb., 1907.] Commerce Act and Fruit Exports. 89 prepared in considerable quantity from volk of egg and from brain. Cholesterin. — With this body must be included the compounds it forms with fatty acids. Cholesterin can be prepared from brain, but the readiest source is wool -fat or lanoline. The compounds with fatty acids are much less readily broken up than fats, and, in consequence, do not become rancid so easily ; hence the importance of lanoline as a basis for ointment, and hence the presence of cholesterin and its compounds in the natural ointment of most mammalian skins. Cholesterin is also found in the bile, and when, by any chance, it is no longer held in solution it forms a gall-stone or biliary calculus. Cholesterin is a compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but its exact chemical nature has not been fullv made out. THE COMMERCE ACT AXD FRUIT EXPORTS. /. G. Turner, Inspector under tJie Commerce Act. The relation of the Regulations of the Commerca Act to fruit exports is, to some extent, misunderstood by many of those who intend shipping this season. This, no doubt, is due largely to the complex nature of the regulations, applying, as they do, to so manv different goods. It is in- tended in this article to briefly set out the requirements of these regulations as applied to fresh fruits exported to London and other extra-Australasian ports. Apples. — These may be put up in cases containing one bushel net. The case most suitable for this is the one set out in the recently-passed Fruit Cases Act of Victoria. By adopting this case shippers will save the trouble, time, and expense of weighing or counting the contents of each Cleo, -Ihm. APPLES. JOHN SMITH, VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA. 1 bushel net. case. The measurements given in the second schedule to the Act referred to are 18 x 14 x 8| inches (inside measurements). No' divisions are allowed in such cases. A case of this size under the new laiw is deemed to contain 2237 cubic inches, and to have a capacity of not less than one Imperial bushel, so that exporters using cases of the standard size may safely mark them as containing " one bushel net." A smaller case, half the size of the one just described, is included in the schedule, but is not likely to be much used. 90 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Feb., 1907. It may here be pointed out that although the Fruit Cases Act does not come into force until ist July of this vear, and therefore there is, at pre- sent, no necessity to comply with that Act, exporters must remember that the Commerce Act is now in actual operation. Thus the sizes set out in the Act of the future mav be utilized for the benefit of growers shipping under the Act of the present. Fruit intended for export must be marked " Apples " or " Pears " (or such description as the contents mav warrant), together with the net weight or quantity; the word " Australia,'' the name of the State where grown, and the name of the exporter or his registered brand. It is recommended that the old-established practice of marking the variety of the fruit be adhered to. The size in inches should also be given as formerly. A case marked as above should look like that on the preceding page. The address of the grower may be included, if desired. The whole of the above brand must be marked on one end of the case, with the exception of the first line (variety and size of fruit) which is optional. The word "net " is also optional, but nevertheless the weight or quantity given must be net and no other. Port marks or consignees' l>rands may be aflfixed on any other part of the case — the other end preferably. The use of a brand or initials is prnhibitecl. unless such are registered. Application has to be made to the Comptroller-General of Customs for the registration of brands, and only brands which have been registered as trade marks under a State or Commonwealth Act are eligible for regis- tration with the Comptroller-General. When making application, it is advisable to quote the number of the registration, so as to facilitate check- ing. It is urged that different brands should be placed on fruit con- signed to different ports, or to or through different agents, otherwise mis- takes are frequently made at the port of discharge in parcels reaching the wrong agents or consignees. Port marks or consignees' brands need not be registered. Having packed and stamped the cases, in accordance with the above directions, it will be necessary to notify the examining officer as to the time and place of examination. This may be done bv advice note, or by simply filling in and forwarding a Notice of Intention to Export (Form 2). This form applies more particularly to single shipments, but another form (Form 4) mav be sent to cover shipments for the whole of the season in advance. Should this latter form be used, shippers must take care to notify the officer if any alterations are made as the season progresses. When making out these forms, the exporter will make a declaration as to the condition of the fruit as to soundness. (See Forms 2 and 4.) This declaration may be made before a justice of the Peace, or before any Customs officer. The officer inspecting the fruit is a Customs officer, and a declaration given to him will suffice. Another form (Form 5), requesting the officer to certify and mark the goods with the Commonwealth stamp, must also be sent with the Notice of Intention ; but if a shipper does not desire his fruit to be certified and stamped, this form is not required. Specimen copies of these forms are given at the end of this article. With regard to this last instruction, it must be explained that when an exporter does not desire his fruit to be certified to or stamped, the fruit nevertheless must undergo the usual examination by the Government officials. All the other conditions must be also fulfilled, as previously ex- plained, and in addition to this the cases must be marked so as to show the condition of the fruit as to soundness. This throws upon the 8 Feb., 1907.] Commerce Act and Fruit Exports. 91 exporter additional responsibility with regard to the correctness of the de- scription of his igoods, and therefore it is urged that special care be given to the packing of none but sound fruit. Pears. — The same regulations apply to these as to all other fruits intended for shipment under the Commerce Act. The cases used for pears are usually made up of trays cleated together. Under the Fruit Cases Act, pears must be exported in cases of the same size as for apples ; but if sent in travs. each trav must show the weight or number of the contents ; or the case (made up of trays as before described) may be marked " One Bushel." If packed in the Farrah-Thomas patent case, the number of fruits will be marked on the case. This case is suitable for nearly all fruits, and its use is sanctioned under the Fruit Cases Act. The attention of exporters generally should be given to the penalties and forfeitures prescribed bv the Commerce Act in regard to false trade descriptions, the omission to applv prescribed trade descriptions, and in respect to other infringements of the law. Further details as to fruit export under the Commerce Act may be obtained from the Inspector of Fruit Exports, Government Cool Stores, Melbourne. Specimen Copies of Forms. FORM 2. Commonwealth of Australia. Commerce Act and Regulations. A'otice of Intention to Ex-port Goods other than Butter. To the examining officer at Melbourne. Port of Melbourne. State of Victoria. Doncaster, s'jrd February, 1Q07. Notice is hereby [jiven that I intend to export the goods as set out hereunder. The goods will be sent to the above-mentioned appointed place, and will arrive there at 9 a.m. on the 26th of February, 1907. JOHN SMITH, Exporter. If in Packan-es. If not in Packages. Export Shiji and Destination. Goods. No. ot Pkgs. Size, Weij^-ht, or Measure, and Number of Contents. Number. Date ot Sailing'. AppltH 100 / liiishel net. — Orontes, London. 2(jfli Fehruanf llHIl. I declare the above-mentioned "oods to be sound. (This part to be tilled in bv the officer.) Goods examined, marked, and forwarded for shipment. JOHN SMITH, Exporter. Examinin" Officer. 92 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Feb., 1907. FORM 5. Commonwealth of Australia. Commerce Act and Regulations. Request to Classify, Certify, and Mark Goods with an Affrcved Stamp. To the examining officer at Melbourne. Port of Melbourne. State of Victoria. Doncaster, 2^rd February, 1907. I request that the good referred to in the accompanying notice of intention to ex- port may be classified, certified, and marked with an approved stamp, in accordance with the Commerce Regulations igo6. JOHN SMITH, Exporter. (In respect to fruit the word " classified "" should be struck out). FORM 4. Commonwealth of Australia. Commerce Act and Regulations. General Notice of Intention to Export Goods other than Butter during a Stated Period. To the examining officer at Melbourne. Port of Melbourne. State of Victoria. Doncaster, 4th February, 1907. Notice is hereby given that I intend to export goods in the quantities and manner as set out hereunder. The goods will be sent to the above-mentioned appointed place for examination. JOHN SMITH, Exporter. If in Packages. If not in Packages. Number. Export Ship and Destination. Date of Sailing. Goods. Number of Packag-es. Size, Weig-ht, or Measvu-e, and Number of Contents. Apples ... 100 200 100 1 bushel net II II II 1 / Orontes, London Marmora, Lon- don Ophir, London 26th Feb., 1907 5th March, 1907 36th March, 1907 I declare the above-mentioned goods to be sound. JOHN SMITH, Exporter. 8 Feb.. 1907.] / lis pi-i //!>// of Dairies. 93 94 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Feb., 1907. A MILK-PRODUCING DISTRICT. Report to the Chief Veterinary Officer, Dairy Supervision Branch, ON Dairying in the Lilydale Shire. /. S. McFadzcaii, Dairy Supervisor . In the Shire of Lilydale, which covers an area, roughly speaking, of about 200 square miles, there are some 200 families handling an approxi- mate total of 3,000 cows for the production of dairy produce, and the number of both is increasing yearly. There is an abundant supply of pure water from spring, creek, and river ; a good annual rainfall ; and the soil is naturally fertile over practically the whoie district. The richness of the Yarra flats is well known ; ancl most of the thickly timbered and scrub land of the hills, which is occasionally spoken of as worthless, has only to be cleared and well broken up, when a good first crop can be obtained without manuring. All through the rough countrv of the Shire there is evidence of this fertilitv. Almost every mile of bush country has clearings, where fruit trees, bush-fruits, crops of oats, peas, maiz^e, potatoes, &c., are giving good returns; and, where the settlers have been any length of time in occupation, and the rotation of crops has resulted in a few acres of grass land being laid down, small herds of good con- ditioned milking cows are giving fair returns. The difference in the ex- tent of the grazing areas on the flats, as compared with those of the hills, is accompanied bv a variation in the class of stock used, and the branch of dairying followed by the residents of each part. The Lowland Dairy Farms. The large herds on the old-established pastures of the lowlands are mainlv comprised of large framed stock, usuallv crosses of the Ayrshire and Shorthorn or Holstein, but there is also a fair number of pure stock of each breed, the Ayrshire largely predominating. These farms are mostlv engaged in supphing the metropolis with milk, for which business they are most favorably situated, being within 35 miles of the city, and having an early morning and evening train ser- vice. For about eight months of the year the cattle are fed at milking time with either ensilage, or steamed chaff, enriched with bran or molasses. The grazing is thus supplemented, and full use made of such milking qualities as the cows possess. The two last-mentioned food-stuffs are practically the only ones used in conjunction with chaff ; very few use the molasses. Bran is looked on as the indispensable adjunct of chaff, and in ?. general way this is a correct view ; but there are times, when an animal is in low condition, and with a plentiful supply of green grass available, that the bran diet acts rather in the nature of an aperient than a food. In such cases as this, some fattening food stuff, such as pollard, maize- meal, barley meal, or oil cake, might be used with advantage, as a substi- tute for or as a mixture with bran for a short period. The milking sheds are on the whole well fitted, floored, and lighted : and are kept in good clean working order. The owners appear to strive to insure the sanitary handling of the milk from the cow to^ the consumer, and are usually fairly successful. One of the principal drawbacks to the attainment of this end is the difficulty at some seasons of obtaining reliable 8 Feb.. 1907.] A Milk-Producing District. 95 milking hands. The casual or nomadic milker is not usually over-cleanly either in his milking methods or his personal habits, and the knowledge that his services nevertheless are in keen demand during good seasons ren- ders him intolerant of suggestions in this regard ; but, where the milking is done by families on the share system, or by members of the owner's family with onlv one or two hired hands, or where an employer has suc- ceeded in getting together a few steady reliable men, the milking opera- tions are conducted in a business-like manner. Apart from the fre- quent non-observance of the practice of washing dirty udders, one point where laxitv is in many cases shown is in not straining the milk before passing it to the cooler vat. Milk should be strained directly from the milking bucket to the receiving can, and the strainer cleansed frequently; for, after unstrained milk has l>een repeatedly mixed up in a can by other bucketfuls being added to it, the dirt becomes broken to very fine particles, and subsequent straining will collect only grit and hair, and not the fine particles of filth held in suspension. The milk is cooled on all these farms immediate! \ after milking, and is forwarded straight awav tO' its destination, except in the case of those fanns which supply the Willsmere Certified Milk Company. This firm has recently erected a receiving depot, with refrigerating plant, at the Yering railway station, on the Healesville line, the centre of this district, for the use of those shareholders of the company who' ai'e its milk sup- pliers. The milk received at this depot after having been cooled on the farm to an average temperature of 60 degrees, is further reduced to 45 degrees or under, and then forwarded in cool trucks to the city twice daily ; the morning's milk reaches Melbourne in the evening, and the even- ing's milk next morning. There is another similar plant on Mr. D. Syme's farm at Killara, on the Warburton line, froin which milk is abso forwarded to the same compan\-. This sale of new milk finds most favour with farms milking 50 head of cows and over, Init, where the herds run nuich below that number, the separating of the milk on the farm, and forwarding the cream tO' the fac- tory, is by far the most popular wav of dispoising of the produce, the skim milk being used for calf-raising or pig fattening on a small scale. Near the Lilydale township Mr. D. Mitchell's cheese factory at Cave Hill uses a good quantity of the milk from the neighbouring farms, in addition to tliat from the home herd of o\'er 100 head. The bacon factory on the same farm is also- a remunerative market for all dairy-fed pigs, and is the desti- nation of practically every porker of this class for many miles round. There are se\eral silos of various sizes in the Shire. Their use has been attended with such success that each season sees an increase in their number, and they bid fair to become general before many years. Maize is the crop most generally grown for ensiling. Between Lilydale and Yering there are a number of farms milking from 60 to 100 head. When more than 100 head are milked the herd is usually divided for convenience of handling. This allows of the cattle travelling more quietly to and from the sheds, and in each lot being a shorter time off the pasture. The extra labour the division of herds in- volves is, in this way, soon paid for. Probably before long some of the larger of these estates will be subdiyided, and their carrying capacity should consequently increase, for. in addition to closer and therefore more effective management, the loss of enerfrv involved in the walking of cattle c)6 Journal of Agriciiltiire. [8 Feb., 1907. some two or three miles to and from the sheds twice daily means a corre- sponding lessening of milk yields. This decrease can be best avoided by having more sheds and more milking hands, which is usually only prac- ticable in the economical sense where subdivision takes place. Upland Dairy Farming. Turning from the large farms of the lowlands to the smaller holdings of the hilly country, we find the Jersey, either pure or of a fair grade, is almost universal. Where a cross is used, it is Jersey- Ayrshire. The smaller areas compel the farmers to turn their attention to a greater extent to the class of animal that will produce most milk and butter for the quan- tity of food it consumes, and leave the raising of heavy vealers or beef to others more favorably situated. The Jersey, with its heavy and rich milk- ing qualities, smallness of frame, and docility of temnerament, has proved itself pre-eminently fitted for this purpose. These latter characteristics are no small items in this connexion ; for, on account of the length and coldness of the winter, the milkers are housed at night for more than half the year. Fruit growing is the principal business of the upland settlers ; but one harvest a year, and that — owing to the increase of insect pests — a doubtful one, as against the weekly receipts from dairying, is resulting in a gradually growing extension of this latter branch of farming on many places. Timber being plentiful, a. rough slab shed, with iron roof and slab floor, and brackenfern for bedding, has been the general class of housing accommodation up to the present. In most cases this flooring is being now replaced with brick or concrete, while others prefer the slabs, set in cement or tar to render it impervious to moisture, as being a warmer floor for the cattle to lie on. A method followed on one small farm to insure cleanliness in housing the cows may be mentioned. 'Ihe stalls are fitted with both bails and head-chains. Finding that, with every care in bedding down, some cows always got dirty overnight, the plan was adopted of leaving all of them bailed up after feeding and milking till about 8.30 to 9 p.m., or about the time for feeding the stable horses. The stalls were then swept down, the head chains put on, and the cows released from the bails, when they almost immediately lay down on the cleaned floor, and arose clean in the morning. Still, whatever methods are emploved, the cows are on the whole cleanly kept, and the dairying work is usually carried on under fairly clean conditions. The points where divergence from this rule is most marked are in the tendency to use the dairy as a general storeroom for household commodities and sundries, instead of for dairy produce only ; and in the placing of the rest of the farm buildings, such as styes and stabling, in too close proximity to the dairv buildings for wholesome sanitary requirements. Another fault that has been general is to set aside one regular day, weeklv, for making butter or forwarding cream to the factory, without taking into consideration the possibilitv of variation in the condition of the cream through atmospheric changes, and the consequent necessity of keeping it a lesser time to prevent c\er-ripeness. The result has been an untoward but inevitable variation in the quality of the produce. Chaff, bran, and chopped green stuft", with occasionally: ensilage, is the usual night ration for the milkers, which go out in the day time to pastures sheltered by the surrounding bush. 8 Feb., 1907.] A Milk-Producing District. 97 The majority of the farmers raise and fatten their own pigs, and many are the ideas expressed as to tlieir housing accommodation, which varies all the way from a full complement of fresh air and ventilation in raised log styes, to close confinement in darkened sheds. However, as long as suit- able food is given, and reasonable cleanliness observed, the pigs appear to fatten sufficiently fast in any class of stye which satisfies the ideas of individual owners. The cattle in the hilly country are exceptionally sound, a blind quarter or any sign of disease being rarely met with. To some extent this may be accounted for by the stock being almost all locally raised, cows passing through sale-yards or dealers' hands seldom finding their way here. As a rule, the settlers are fairly well posted in advanced methods of farming — manuring, draining, rotation of crops, pruning, spraying, &c., all current topics being intelligently discussed. There is further a considerable amount of good-fellowship towards each other displayed, in that, should accident or illness seriously interfere with any one's work, a day is appointed by the neighbours for a working-bee to repair the misfortune. It has been found that by these acts of friendship the workers themselves are in no way the losers, since the gatherings present splendid oppor- tunities tor the discussion of various subjects of mutual interest, and the knowledge gained therefrom more than repavs the time spent in rendering such neighbourly assistance. The Advantage of Recording Yields. In considering the various phases of milk farming, as presented by a comparison of the herds of the district and their management, the one point that stands far out from all others is the disadvantage the herds labour under through not having the inferior milkers culled out. Every other item of management appears insignificant when compared with this often spoken of, and y/et much neglected, matter. In this, as in every dairying centre, there are some farms where culling is regularly practised. In consequence, these farms show much increased returns per cow, but their number is lamentably small. A practical dairyman cannot afford to overlook the fact that, no matter how. high-class their breeding, there are some cows that are not profitable to keep as milkers ; and, only- by the systematic checking of the results from each, can these be discovered. Occasionally may be met a man who mentally retains such a close know- ledge of his stock and their individualities that he can give them in detail at a moment's notice. But very few: men possess, this gift ; therefoire,^ for the average farmer there is no mo re sure, road to the improvement of , his herd than by keeping complete written records of their individual milk production and their breeding. He" must follow up the keeping of records by weeding out those cows shown to be inferior as milk producers, and must also rear for milking purposes onlv the calves from the best cows. The marking down of the milk yields of each cow on sheets, which may be procured for 6d. per dozen from the Department, or from any of the supervisors, does not take up much time, and the interest that is awakened in the doings of the herd, and the profitable and reliable knowledge that is gained is ample compensation. In starting to breed or improve a milking herd, too many farmers think they have done all that is necessary if they have purchased a pure bred bull with a stud pedigree. This is certainly a step in the right direction, but there is more to- be dwie. Purity of blood in a bull is of com- 155. D Jouriial of Agriculture. [8 Feb., 1907. paratively small value to the dairy farmer unless it is backed up by a record of the milk yield of his dam, and his sire's dam. A stud pedigree is usually evidence that at least some attention has been given to the characteristic points of that particular animals breed in the mating of its progenitors, but, if there is added to this a record showing that, in con- nexion with these matings, the production of milk or butter has been given special consideration for even two generations previously, the animal con- cerned should be of highlv increased value to the dairyman. The owner of such a bull cannot afford to mate him lo unprofitable stock, hence a further necessity of knowing the capabilities of each cow in the herd to the end that, as the worst milkers are culled out, they can be replaced later on bv heifers whose breeding is a fair criterion of what may be expected from them. Lessons Furnished by Good Farms. Among the milk-farms of this Shire, those of ^Messrs. D. Syme, of Killara, R. Blair, of Mooroolbark, VVhitlev and Smith of Lilydale, and T. Mclntvre. of Yering, are woa-thy of special mention, as their returns all demonstrate the attention that has been given to the improvement of their stock, as compared with those of other farms of the district ; the appearance of the cattle on each place is as much to their credit as is their milk yield, they being of good even quality, and in good condition. Before going intO' figures, it should be mentioned that the averages are from early spring yields, when few of the cows were in full milk; still, as at that period the selling value of the milk was considerably in advance of what it is noAV, there would not be much variation in the cash returns. Indivi- dually these four farms stand with but a fractional difference between them ; and together, from a total of 340 cows, they show an average daily production of i8f lbs. per cow. Looking do'wn mv list, the next highest individual score is 16^ lbs., and, including this one, the next eight farms together show an average return of 15 lbs. from a total of 656 cows. Here is a difference of a full 3! lbs. per cow daily in favour of the culled herds. If this point is carefullv looked into, it will be seen that ct man with 80 cows, ginng i8f lbs. daily, will get the same total milk return as one wit'h 100 cows, averaging 15 lbs., Sihowing very plainly that one cow in every five on these latter farms (or even, it may be said, on all the farms in the district, excepting those specified) is being kept at a dead loss. This actual cash loss in labour and feed can be worked out best by each farmer for himself. The difference in the A'alue of the dailv vield between the two classes of stock, when totalled up for twelve months, will represent a sum so large as to arrest attention and demand consideration and remedy. Comparing the herds indicated, it will be found that 3f lbs. extra dailv from each of a herd of 80 cows makes an increase of 210 gallons per week, which, estimated at 5d. per gallon, amounts to a yearly sum of £,221 los., or a balance in favour of the culled herd of £^2 1 6s. io|d. per cow ! Surely nothing can speak plainer than this in support of the necessity of every dairyman keeping a strict record of each cow's yield, and culling out the low yielders. It should te enough, at all events, to show that this work is one of the best paving items on the farm. When the benefits of the weeding out of poor stock are so apparent in connexion, with large farms, how much more so must thev be to owners of smaller farms, with more limited grazing areas, and to whom even one un- profitable cow on the place must be a very serious drawback. In a herd 8 Feb., 1907.] A Milk-Producing District. 99 of ten, one such cow means 10 per cent, loss on the yearly o]^)erations, and no farm can stand this. It is like paying a bank voluntarily 10 per cent, on the total capital invested in. cows. In the case of those who are engaged in the sale of butter or cream, the difference between each cow^ with regard to the quality of their milk has more particularly to be attended to, and when this can so easily and satisfactorily be done by the use of a Baboock milk-tester, at an outlay of less than 30s., it seems strange to find that farmers are so slow to take advantage of this little machine, which has done so much towards increas- ing dairymen's profits in every progressive dairying country. Some allow themselves to be deterred from the purchase of this testing apparatus through a groundless fear of its possible complications ; but the fact is that anv one with sense enough to run a separator will find no difificulty whatever in proving each cow's capability as a butter producer by this means. Among those farmers who are using the separator may be men- tioned three who have succeeded in putting together herds of about twenty head that in both appearance and results are much superior to other herds of similar size in their districts, viz. : — Messrs. F. B. Lithgow, of Cold- stream, R. Hill, of Lilvdale, and G. Feidler, of Crovdon. There are also occasionally met others with smaller lots of verv nice stock that are a credit to their owners, and an object lesson to the neighboiurhood. Prevailing Cattle Diseases. Having been a cattle raising district for very manv years, it is not to be expected that the Lilydale Shire has been altogether free from disease ; tuberculosis, contagious abortion, and pleiiro-pneumonia have each caused loss on some farms. It is claimed that owing to the Shire inspection and the perhaps harsh but effective practice that has been followed of sum- marily destroying all animals suspected of tuberculosis, this disease is less frequently met with. Following on the advance of scientific knowledge of stock diseases and its distribution among those most interested, contagious abortion is getting to be better understood, and its chances of causing extended losses are being reduced. As regards the primary cause of outbreaks of this disease, it is significant that one farm that has suffered considerably in this respect is the one that is exceptionably noticeable for the rough driving of cattle to the shed, which matter the owner appears to treat as of little import. Pleuro has broken out in this district intermittently throughout a period of over thirty years past. The most recent reappearance of the disease occurred about twelve months since, and it has not vet been completely controlled. During this period some fifty head of cattle ha\e been destroyed on one farm, and .some half-dozen head on each of two adjacent holdings. The mortality on the former might conceivably have been much less had more reasonable precautions been exercised. The disease was con- fined to the milking herd and its grazing area, and these animals alone were inoculated. Subsequently newly-calved cows were repeatedly brought into the herd without having been inoculated, and these invariably con- tracted the disease. When a new milking shed was erected on clean ground for the fresh cows the trouble ceased. On the two other farms every beast on the place was inoculated as soon as the disease showed itself, and it was thereby confined to those that had contracted it pre- viously. Byi the quarantining of the affected paddocks and herds the Stock Department has so far succeeded in preventing the spread of the Journal of Agriculture. [8 Feb., 1907. disease beyond these three farms ; but, considering the laxity displayed by the Shire in allowing cattle to wander on the adjoining roads, the restric- tion of the disease to these areas would appear to have behind it a strong element of luck. Mammitis is a disease in connexion with which altogether too much risk is taken by owners here, notwithstanding the pointed information and emphatic warnings on this matter that have been recently published in the Jotirnal of Agriculture under " Diseases of Farm Animals." Special mention is there made of the chances of loss which stock owners run through neglect of ordinary precautions in connexion with this and other diseases, yet very' few farms have any provision for the keeping of affected or injured animals by themselves, or milking them separately. Even com- mon humanitv alone should be sufficient inducement to provide such accom- modation, for any suffering animal is alwavs horned about by the stronger and healthier members of the herd, and its recoverv is thereby so much longer retarded. GARDEN NOTES. y. Croiiin, Inspector Vegetation Diseases Acts. The Canna. Canna, the Indian Shot plant, is a family of herbaceous perennials, found native in Brazil and other parts of South America, and in Eastern Asia. vSome of the species have been cultivated in English and European gardens as stove plants for a considerable time, C Indica and orienialis flowering in England in 1570. About 1820 a number of species was introduced from Brazil and other countries of South America, but for some time little progress was made towards improving the canna as a florist's flower. Some of the species were stately foliage plants, but the flowers were small. Of late, florists, in France and Italy especially, have paid special attention to the canna, and have effected a marvellous change in the size and colour of the flowers. The hybrid varieties now produce spikes or bunches of beautiful flowers, a most decided contrast to the insignificant inflorescence of most of the species. The foliage in many kinds is large, and varying in colour from purplish red to bright green. There are, among the later introductions, two types, known as the "orchid- fiowering " and the "gladioli-flowering" Cannas, that surpass, and are generally grown to the exclusion of other garden forms. The orchid- flowering varieties are taller in growth, and produce larger individual blooms than the gladioliflora type, but are more tender and easily affected by hot winds. They are specially suitable for pot culture, for green- house or verandah decoration. Some of the finest varieties bear highly coloured foliage, and are conspicuous plants in the garden, and worth cultivating for that alone. The gladioli-flowering type is of a much dwarfer habit of growth, and generallv hardier. The flowers are more freely produced, and though smaller individually, are borne in larger 8 Feb., 1907.] Gardett Notes. tiusses. This type of canna is undoubtedly one of tlie finest classes of plants grown for mixed border decoration, producing bright flowers freely during the greater part of summer and autumn. In gardens in most parts of the State it thrives and blooms well, often under most unfavorable conditions. Canna blooms are not often used as cut flowers, the florets dropping too quickly, but last well on the plants, and after a hot wind has si>oiled the blooms that are open, a .fresh supply is produced in two or three days. Soil — Situation — Culture. A cool friable loam is the most suitable soil for cannas, although the plants will thrive fairK' in ahnost anv kind of soil if well supplied with AUSTRIA. CANARV YELLOW. ORCHID-FLOWERING TYPE. manure and water. They are often grown in special beds that are pro- tected by a fence or hedge from heavy winds but exposed to full sunshine, and in such positions, when well manured and watered, bloom freely for months.. To get best results the soil should be deeply worked and well manured, half-rotted stable manure and bone dust being suitable fertilizers. Cannas are specially suitable for planting in bold groups, or as speci- mens on lawns, in the mixed border, among rockwork, at edges of ponds, &c. Wind-swept and overshaded positions are unsuitable. The plants are propagated by dividing the roots or rhizomes. A small piece of root, bearing two or three eyes or buds, is sufficient to produce a large plant during the season, if well provided with nourishment. The l>est and strongest eyes are produced at the extremities of the rhizome. The plants may be divided in August or September, and the divisions ro2 Journal of. Agriculture. [8 Feb., 1907. planted into their flowering quarters immediatelv, or thev mav be potted to plant out later. Where the plants must be grown continuously in one plot of ground, the best plan to adopt is to lift the plants after they are cut down by frost in winter, and plant them temporarily in some other place — under trees or any corner will suffice — but they must not be allowed to become dry and wilted. New soil and manure can then be deeply worked into the bed, and divisions of the plants set out in spring. Pieces of root should be planted aliout two inches beneath the surface. Subsequent cul- FLORENCE VAUGHAN " , ORANGE YELLOW. SPOTTED SCARLET. FLOWERING TYPE. GLADIOLI- tivation IS, principally, supplying and maintaining moisture in the soil. Where water is_ scarce, a heavy mulch of stable manure should be applied early in the season, and the plants liberally watered during hot dry weather. Stems that have flowered should be regularly rut awav. Varieties worthy of Culture. Orchid flowering (mostlv of tall habit of growth) :— Italia, Austria, Alemannia. Africa, America. Bavaria, H. Wendland, Pandora Suevia, Cuba, Heinnch Seidel. .Mont Blanc. S Feb., 1907.] Garden Notes. 103 Gladioli flowering and other types : — Florence Vaughan. ^radame Crozv. Papa, Paul Lorenz, Edouard Andre, Alice Guilfovie, Queen (Konigin) Charlotte, Emilie Lorenz. Souvenir de Antoine Crozv. Sou\enir de President Carnot, L. E. Bally, Doyen Jean Lihaud. Flo^ver Garden. Dahlias, chrysanthemums, and other plants that bloom during autumn will require special attention during February, if the best results art,' desired. Dahlias planted about end of December will begin to bloom about end of March if unchecked in their growth. The growths will need to be thinned if exhibition blooms are desired, about eight shoots being enough to leave. These should be securely tied to stakes as growth advances. When the buds appear, they also need thinning, and may be *' timed " to produce the blooms at intervals by selection of buds of varv- ing size. The largest bloom is generally developed from the central bud of the shoot, but there is nothing like the need of sa\ing " crown " buds on the dahlia as there is on chrysanthemums. In the latter case, if the crow^n bud is lost, all hope of the shoot producing a first-class flower is gone; but the dahlia will produce good flowers from almost any bud when well-grown. Where the plants are not growing satisfactorih , although watered, a solution of nitrate of soda, or sulphate of ammonia, used at rate, of i oz. to 6 gallons of water, will probablv be of benefit. The plants must be forced to grow freelv this month to produce good flowers in season. Chrysanthemums grown for large blooms produce their late crown buds this month. The.se must be "saved" as soon as the shoots surrounding the buds can be safelv removed. The flower bud is placed in. the centre of the point of the shoot, and is'easilv distinguished from the growth buds. A brighter-coloured and more refined bloom is developed on the second crown bud than on those produced earlier. The larvae of a number of small moths attack the buds in most places. A rolled leaf is an indication of their presence, and they should be carefullv sought for and destroyed. A light dressing of> some complete manure may be applied and lightly worked betw-een the plants about the end of the month. Peru\-ian guano is one of the best manures for the purpose. 'Roses mav be pruned lightly and started into free growth by application of water. The plants, when, so treated during Februar\\, produce good blooms early in autumn, and if supplied with some liquid manure, or quick-acting artificial manure, will often give more satisfaction than in spring. This is particularlv the case with plants of the tea and hybrid tea sections. In summer pruning of roses, the plants should not be beheaded as in wdnter, a thinning of the weakly and very soft shoots and light topping of the remainder being all that is necessary. As much foliage as possible should be saved ; and where mildew and aphis are usually found to attack the plants, a spraving with liver of sulphur or " nikoteen "' should be applied on the first appearance of either. Dusting with flowers of sulphur is a substitute for spraying with liver of sulphur (sulphide of potassium) against mildew. Carnation lavers should be kept moist. Strong young plants will thus be a.vailable for planting earlv in autumn, and will become well established before the ground becomes cold in winter. Fine flowers may "be expected from such plants in spring. I04 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Feb., 1907. A number of spring and autumn flowering bulbous plants may be planted, including Amarvllis, Brunsvigia, Xerine, Ixia, Narcissi, and many others. Ground should be prepared for the reception of seeds of hardy annuals. These may be soAvn in beds or boxes, the young plants being afterwards transplanted into their flowering quarters. Kitchen Garden. Growing crops will require as much water and cultivation as possible. Free, unchecked growth is necessary, or thie produce will be tough and poor in quality. Where water is scarce, only a limited quantity of hardy vegetables should be grown, and these should be well cared for. Ground should be prepared for receiving crops that will mature in winter and spring. After any crop is gathered or cut, the soil should be deeply dug and well manured, even if cropping is not immediately intended. The soil will be in good growing condition when required, and :he fertilizing properties in the manure conserved. Seed of cabbage and cauliflower mav be sown in beds for transplanting. In preparing beds for such seeds the soil should be finely worked and well enriched. Seed should not be sOiwm broadcast on dry soil. The beds should be firmly rolled and pressed, and watered prior to sowing. The seed should be covered with light soil to a depth of about half-an-inch, and lightly mulched with hoTse droppings. Should aphis attack the young plants in the seed beds, thev should be sprayed with a solution of fir-tree oil. No old plants that are liable to be affected by cabbage aphis should be allowed to remain in the proximitv of the beds. Succession sowings may be made for peas, beans, and saladings, and transplantings made from former sowings. THE PROCLAIMED PLANTS OF VICTORIA. {Coii'timied from page 28.) Alfred J. Ewart, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Botanist; and J. R. Tovcy, Herbarium Assistant. Acacia-hedge. Acacia armata, R. Brown. {Legiiminosd). A bushv shrub, with angular, striate (grooved) branches. The flat- tened leaf 'stalks resemble leaves (phyllodes), and are semi-ovate, oblong, often wavy, with a central midrib, about i inch long. Stipules spiny, 4 to 5 lines long. Flower-stalks as long as the phyllodes, bearing globular heads. Pod i| to 2 inches long, 2 or 3 lines broad. Seeds oblong, the funicle forming" three or four folds. Indigenous to Australia. This v^'ell-known hedge-plant varies considerably, sometimes attaining to a height of 10 feet or more, and, being perennial, is difficult to eradicate; it should be dug up before flowering. Proclaimed for the shires of Dundas, Frankston and Hastings, Hamilton, and Portland. PLATE d OWcruer,l)eLt' JRJmiy ,DireJ:U, jKtmp.ActiAf Govt'PrviUr f, ,, ,, blood manurt- ... 11 o }, ,, ,, fine bonedust ... n o y> ,, ,, coarse bonedust ... 9 6 If an in\oice does not state whether the nitrogen in the manure is in the form of nitrate, or sulphate, or blood, or bones, it is to be assumed to have the value of bone nitrogen. Unit Vakie. s. d. I per cent, of water soluble phosphoric acid ... ... 46 I per cent, of citric soluble phosphoric acid (Thomas phosphates, nitro-superphosphates, ordinarv super- phosphates, guanos) ... ... ... 40 I per cent, of insoluble phosphoric acid (Thomas phos- phates, nitro-superphosphates, guanos) ... 3 o I per cent, of insoluble phosphoric acid, in ordinary super- phosphates ..■. ... ... ... 10 In a bone-dust — I per cent, of ])hosphoric acid in fine bone ... ... 40 ,, ,, ,, ,, coarse bone ... 3 o ,, ,, potash ... ... ... ... ^ (^ The average commercial \alue per ton of a manure sold in Victoria is obtained by multiplying the percentages stated of the fertilizing substances by the corresponding unit values fixed therefor, and adding the separate values together. Examples: — 1. Sulphate of ammonia. Invoice certificate. 18 per cent. nitrogen — Calculation: 18 x 14s. 4d. ... ... ;£*2 j8 o Calculated value per ton ... ... 12 18 o 2. Superphosphate — In\'oice certificate 20 per cent, phosphoric acid (watt^r soluble;. ,, ., 2\ ,, ,, ., (citrate soluble). ,, .. \\ ,, ,, ,, (insoluble"). Calcula:ion — Phosphoric acid (water soluble), 20 x 4s. 6d. ^4 10 o ., ,, (citrate soluble), 2j x 4s. o 10 o ,, ,, (insoluble), i|xis. ... 016 Calculated value per ton ... ^5 r 6 Bonedust — Invoice certificate, 5 per cent, nitrogen, 20 per cent, phosphoric acid. Mechanical condition : 30 per cent fine, 70 per cent, coarse. io8 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Feb., 1907. Calculatiou — Nitrogen — Fiue Coarse Phosphoric acid — Fine 5 X 30 rz 1.5 X I IS. =r 100 2 ^ — 3.5 X 9s. od. 100 20 X 30 100 =r 6 X 4s. >-, 20 X 70 Coarse '- =r 14 x 3s. £ s. d. 016 6 = I 13 3 =z I 4 o =: 2 2 o Calculated vahie per ton ... ... ... £5 15 9 It is of interest to compare the unit values for fertilizing substances in the various States of Australasia. The table below, prepared by the Australasian Association of official Agricultural Chemists (1906 confer- ence), shows that the values are, on the average, practically in favour of Victoria, while in the case of superphosphate the table indicates that Victorian agriculturists possess a decided advantage over those of the other States and New Zealand. In New Zealand a ton of superphosphate guaranteed to contain 20 per cent, water soluble phosphoric acid, and \\ per cent, insoluble would be valued at ;^6 5s. 3d., as against a value of ;^4 IIS. 6d. in Victoria. The same manure would be valued at ;^5 3s. loW. in New South Wales. Table I. COMPARATIVE UNIT VALUES FOR MANURES OF AUSTRALASIA, I906. Nitrogen. Phosphoric Acid. Potash as — _J 0 '5 6 s s Is ii 1 6 a <-^ 0 ^& Om .ss Mi» hS A", d. s s. d. s. d. .s. d. s. d. S. d. .s. d. 8. d. s. d. s. d. Tasmania 15 0 15 0 12 0 5 6 4 6 3 3 2 6 5 6 New Zealand ... 17 0 17 0 13 0 6 0 3 6 3 6 3 0 5 0 ... Queensland 17 0 15 0 14 6 5 6 4 0 3 0 5 6 5 0 West Australia 17 0 17 0 14 3 5 2 3 10 3 0 2 7 6 0 6 0 New South Wales 15 7 13 9 13 8 5 0 ... 2 10 2 7 5 2 4 5 Victoria 15 6 14 4 11 0 4 6 4 0 4 0 1 0 3 0 Insol. P2 0.5 5 6 The values fixed for fertilizing substances in the United States (Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Maine, Vermont, and New Jersey Stations Conference)* are given below Table II. They are in- structive, and indicate that the agriculturists of Victoria are quite as well supplied with phosphatic manures in regard to trade prices, as the agricul- turists of the above American States. For nitrogenous manures, the American \alue is much higher than in Victoria. In California, as shown in Table II., the cost of manures of almost all classes is higher than in Victoria, the cost of nitrogenous fertilizers being half as much again as in this State. * Bulletin No 111. Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, July, 1906. 8 Feb., 1907.] Artificial Manures Acts. 109 Table II. UNIT VALUES OF FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS IN MANURES FOR CALIFORNIA AND MASSACHUSETTS, CONNECTICUT, RHODE ISLAND, MAINE, VERMONT, AND NEW JERSEY STATIONS. Other States Call for Valuei Ilia unit :*, lOUO. mentioned above as adopted bj- Conference, 190C. \'ictoria unit Values, IDOG. ■V. d. s. d. s. rf. Phosphoric Acid. Water soluble ,s 7 4 3 4 6 Citrate soluble Citrate insoluble 5 7 3 I 9 lOg 4 I 0 0 In fine bone and tankage 4 2 3 q 4 0 In coarse bone fish and tankage 3 3 2 10 3 0 Insoluble in mixed fertilizers 2 4 I 10^ 3 0 Nitrogen. Inorganic. In ammonia salts 16 9 16 4 14 4 In nitrates 15 5 15 .S •5 6 Organic. In dry and fine ground fish, meat, and blood 17 3 17 3 II 0 Mixed fertilizers 16 () 17 3 Fine bone and tankage 16 Q 16 9 1 1 0 Coarse fish bone and tankage 13 0 12 I 9 6 Potash. As Sulphate ... As Chloride 5 4 7 8 4 8 II 5 5 6 6 The practical utility of the unit value system is that it enables a farmer to readily ascertain if the price asked for a manure is its reasonable com- mercial value. The term used the "commercial value" must not be confused with the " agricultural value " of a manure. They are quite distinct. The commercial value represents the value of a manure according to its composition. The agricultural value of a, manure is measured by the extent of the increase in quantity and quality produced bv it in a particular crop grown in a particular soil, under certain conditions. The agricultural value of a manure may vary quite extensively. A parti- cular soil, for instance, may not give an increased crop return after applica- tion of nitrogenous manures commensurate with the cost of the fertilizer. On another soil an application of superphosphate may not increase the yield. In both instances the manures would have no positive agricultural value. A practical illustration of this point is afforded by the effects of ordinary applications of nitrogenous manure in wheat-growing in the northern areas. Such applications are generally unremunerative. The "commercial value" of a manure is determined bv the percentage of certain constituents in its possessing fertilizing properties and their unit value. The assumption is made that the manures are all prepared from materials of the same quality and value, but this is not strictly in accord with practice as each manufacturer has his own source of supply of materials. In the table of unit values it will be seen that that the value for citrate soluble phosphoric acid is quoted as 6d. less per unit than the water soluble. The general result of Victorian experiments shows that water so'luble phosphoric acid has a higher agricultural value in wheat grow- ing that citratle soluble phosphoric acid, and it is generalK' assumed that its solubilitv enables it to come more easily within range of plant roots. In any case, after application to the soil, the water .soluble phosphoric acid no Journal of Agriculture. [8 Feb., 1907. becomes " reverted. The rate at which this change proceeds depends on the composition of the soil to which the fertilizer is applied, the reversion being most rapid in soils containing carbonate of lime. A special feature of the Victorian Artificial Manures Acts is the require- ment of a label or tag attached to the bags declaring the guaranteed composition by analysis of any manure sold in the State in quantities exceeding 56 lbs. at one sale. This is provided by section 7 of the principal Act, and, as a further measure of protection to farmers, it is made com- pulsory, under section 5, for vendors to deliver to all purchasers of manures, an invoice certificate declaring the guaranteed analysis of the manure sold. No farmer in Victoria should take delivery of manure unless the above conditions of sale are complied with. Substantial assist- ance would be rendered in the enforcement of the Act if farmers would immediately report anv irregularity observed in the sale of manures to the Chemist for Agriculture. Additional control of the sale of manures has been provided by the amended Act, loth October, 1905. Under section 4, sub-section (i). officers of the chemist's branch may collect samples of manures at railway stations and farms throughout the State. The results of the analysis as to the percentage of fertilizing constituents found in a manure, and the percentage claimed by the guarantee on tag and invoice certificate are published side bv side along with the calculated value. These analyses are published in the Government Gazette and in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture from time to time, and should be read by all users of manures. During the past season — (Februarv, 1906, to January, 1907): — 163 samples of fertilizers were collected and the analyses published. It is quite noteworthy that almost without exception the whole of the samples in this large collection of manures were well up to guarantee, and in many instances were in excess of the percentages of fertilizing constituents guaranteed. This may be legarded as a proof of the honest endeavour of manure vendors in this State to comply, in a straightforward manner, with the requirements of the Artificial Manures Acts. It is necessary, in order to carry out the Act, for the chemist to occasionally require purchasers of manures to forward copies of the invoice certificates supplied to them for his inspection. It has fre(]uently been found that purchasers do not retain the invoice certificates in their posses- sion. Every purchaser of manure is required by section 24 of the Act to keep any invoice certificate supplied by the vendor of manure for failure to produce the invoice certificate when required to do so by the Chemist for Agriculture, renders purchasers of manures liable to a penaltv not exceeding £\ for the first offence, and not exceeding £^ for any subse- quent offence. An amusing instance of want of knowledge on the part of a farmer of the protective objects of the Manures Acts arose during the past season. A farmer, who was asked to forward the invoice certificate supplied to him in connexion with the sale of a parcel of manure, wrote back:— -"I am not long out from the mother countrv, and what the Artificial Manures Act is I have no idea. It is hard enough to buy manure without being threatened with a fine. M-,- little experience of 1 arming in this State has been anything but pleasing, and some of the.se odd days I will set forth my experiences as a warning to intending emicrrants." The protection afforded by the Artificial Manures Acts is now thoroughly appreciated by Victorian agriculturists, and instances such as the above are extreme exceptions. Feb., 1907.] Artificial Manures Acts. 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[8 Feb., 1907. •d t3 a ^ i >A a ■§ 5 a 1 0, : : -; 0 - - -T1 >^ a aJ- « o SL| 2 tn ■s t: a" g ^ bi'a, 0 6 0 60 3 H2 «-S^ -S « ^ i) 1 .1 0 1 . - 0 . . 0 a 1 ■^^'^ SB'S "So g .^ fe £.S aS g >;«;—■" a 0 ■3 i a 2 §^0 ^'p^'^ |£5" 3 0 hj H H^d Wi-it-iS ^fci-s" XrHCOt0050 om 0 ^ l3 CO OCO Mai-* -^ XOltOMtOOStOXtOO II* t^ X ^ ^S£ a ■■A 10 in ic 10-* in in inincoin-*co-*ininto in com CO . . .2 S aj CO (M 0 0 CO >M * ^ ^illl lO rH C^J rt l> X in cos-itot^x^oiinosos ■*005 CO 0 to rt to 0 to t^ tOT-^rHOir^i>os XXX OS gtO"*-*^XtOtOO 0 rHCO ! 00 CO osininocotointococo 0^l> I-I CO S a oSg ffl W "M C5 in CO CO oot~inino]i>xot3s OS Oto to 0 0 SI 0 OS OS 00 c-i C5 1^ in X coi>osinco] -+ rtCOOXO]rtrt(MCOr-l CO rHCO OS t> 05 C-l 0 i>osininintoxotDO ^ rH-* I> 0 rH (M 0 CO (M Oi-lOOOOOrHOO] OrHO 0 OJ 3 n 2 0 0 00000 0 ooof-^ooooo 000 0 0 oooinco C-l xoocoi>rHtoino tototoosxtotot^x^ t3S inx t> .■ ■ 0 « S 0 000 0 Ch S ^Ei( p5 1 0 01 00 Oint~ X sqootO(MOSTfinx<3s ■*OSCO m 05 X rf to in OS i>'*i:~inosin(Mi>toto OS to 0 in l— ' 01 CO •* — ■-; COCOCO r-icOCOfMi-Hin — 7^ Ol 0 s a ,^ ^ 1 ^ X rt 01 X CO too:'*coint-i'1<(NcOi-H in t~ (N ^ 0 ii:-i 0 -* i-( in 0 lO in OtOr-dnXOSOOSXi-l CO 01 to 0 W^ Tl< CO CO rH 0^1 01 ^ "* »1 0.1 T-l (M 01 CO CO CO -* CO a-] CO 50 1 1 00 oinco in 0 0 xotocoocoincjsxto tOXrH t~ III 10 t^ 0 CO X lO X OS 0 s-i 01 CO X rH r-i in ;:s 01 X 0 -M in int-inxxt~x-*rHiM om rH 01 rH *i* oi oi ■* in XOlO-*CO(NrH-*tOrH t-00 CI '"' rHrH z to in 01 X in OS X otoint^xosinosxx 0^ rH 0 C5 § 2 -> .-H IM CO IM N CO rHIMO'llrHOrHrHrHrH (MrHN " , . 1 on tOO^OOSrHOt^tOX rH-*CO m S C Btl 1 to CO in rHt^ to t* X otoinr-iXt^stoososto (N in to in in to OlinrHOSOjT-lOlCOCOCO ■* Svl-* CO 11 , . 1 in CO oto to 0 I>I>rHrH^OJXCOXOS tjs i> m OS II ?« 1 to to to Th 0 to to XOOCOtOOSX^^IM mmto 1-1 to inoi '*•* in rHtor^ostoi>incotoin IN, to Ti* ;::; -e .••!-(• T3 -8 ^M s &: P g => tT -a 3 ^ '^ .S"gn lO as "5 50 in 10 to ctoio c<5(Mio(M-Hooo 00 o ^ --1 o ;5*J3 miom'Oioiniocoioin'nto Mm-* ■rfi fM o -c t- 35 ■* o^ o^ ■* ^ t: SS'^S (ji N r^ (N d ej ei toi>co05c-(Mcoo cotoo ocoooocoosooooiosco ;2^'-' ^ CO CO CO CO CO CO 03 CO CO CO •* tHCOCC .r^OrHOi-HintOrHCOCOOOl-l SH^fS eo'NMOC^ioqint^ooN o«M oQoot-in'>^°>'oo;::;"° <»^rH m t- rH -* on> o c- o in ;^ ^ "^"^^ ^^^^rH,H(Mr-l(Mr-li-lr-l ^MtH t^ to (>5 CO t- in 22 ^ o 2 'tj ^- gg;i; cin ^oo->* 3 _¥ "^ , bD ... !/3 mill -t3 15 fri Ti t3 T3 a § c § a § 000000 cq cq fl pq fq fq cqW 1 0 s I a a5 1 Ti 0 * " •° C8"3 t3 03 ^ " ^ ^ S 1 0 1 13 (D 1 0 .11 > 1 S£ = - - r :; 0 Price asked for Manure per ton Delivered at Local Railway Station. -8 <=> 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 t*l to to to to in 00 •2- 02 a ■a ;:; 05 CO CO 10 -H a 0 =^ a ec "^ Oi (M T-< 03 in ; ^^ '"' *"* "^ « m in to in -*i> Ti . Estimate Value in One ton of the Manure. ■«• CO 0 CO 00 1 CO °'' ir^ to OOJ i I ' 0 C4J rH 0 r^ OIN ■ N to t~ in S|§, o> 1^ on 00 00 Ph 0 S^ in r^ "^ - l"l?^£ "«■ '~' t> IN 0 INt- a § a,-^ d ^ CO r^ ^^ CO cn to 0 H |>o°l =+J CO ■* ■* '^ -#IN 00 1^ ^ CO OCO Ph 0 c3 in -iin Q ^ 0 j « '-' 0 - 0 00 I ,_, fn to in (NOO < i> 00 IN O'* 0 0 S w) 03 in ,H CO t (N 0 ?, a « . 1 ~J 0 0 0 00 I> Estimat Value i One to of tlie Manure to 0 W |. IN ^ tH 0 ^ 3| 1 =*! 0 0 0 0 0 ,-1 to (Min ^-■§=3 1 C» in ■* Tin rH (S8^ 1 ° 0 0 00 !•- 0 s £ j-a '^ r-l OJ eo ini> a_a 4,^ d II 1 ^ 0 1 « N 0 CO CO CO eoci , -»^.d 3 d d m"^ a 1 oi 0 to 0 ■* 00 •Ol PS I^ t~ (5 PM S™ 1 ° '-' ^ '"' IN CI t~ in -f CO .2 P t<-S ai 1 °° h- 00 "* II ^f^ 1 *" d 1> en ^in 6 a il'S • g % ; 0 a d "^^f : f^ ^ |h S N 1^ 0 M S S S^r-^ 3 !>?-,.§ ^ 1 0 R 2 c3 a ci f^ a a 3 .2 0 ing Ni phoric Ai. Potato Mai .C 0 a a tfj r. ~ 2 c3 - ' 0 5 « ■^ a- J ii6 Journal of Agriculture . [8 Feb., 1907. i^S £ a> a p "5 ;- . „ =(5 sago rt =? 3 0 a ™ ^ r^-1 1> ft S_3 •:3 a'H =? :5o=s 3>0 3,:g ■g rt a C 3 0) ""5 a ,S>0 5| cl •5 a 3 ■3 S S a tie iS o s 00 o 000 a> M cc o 00000 o o o>n o o o CD eo -* ^ O 5D CO 50 oco o 00 lA c>i CO 00 IC CD t> CD lO O CO ^ -^ CO I> 00 CD O in CD "^ CD lO O o 000 0 t~ t^l-H OJ O COS-JrH OOt^ OCO rH I> COt^I> 00 CD Ot-i oi-i o o o 00000 i-H Oino CO ■*t^ii 05 lO 0 rH O 00 O i-H coos 10 O COCD r-IT* rH CO I-l 0 05 00 CD -C ■* Ol CO i-HrH ^ ift to O O 1-t -^ O ^Cl CO rH I> CO CO CO 7-1 CO CO \n Cl lo lo 00 5J00IM t> X CD Oi I> CD O ■* CO O fM 0 rt CO Tt, ^+4 t^ o COCD O C. r(< CS CO o 000 00 -* 00 ■^rH CO CO Tt* Ol CO 00 rH O O O' O O rH O-I Oj 00 t-H in in O rH (M rH CO 01 C-1 in CO rH CO o (M rJH fM rH O 1~\ r^r^^ r^^i t- in t- rHOO (M CD e-i in o 000 t~ in oco o •* COrH -* CO o o e-i o o — ■ CO 01 01 CO CD O -* < CO t rHOO- I O rH rH CO 00 inoo CD (NCO O CO rH OCO t^Xt~ —I M 01 o (M CO O rH t^ X -CO CO rHO NrH -H OS n rHr). O OS t^I> IM ^^ CO ** rH CO rH CO Cl rH CO CO O 01 in CO in CO O ox CO -HO rH rH rH X 01 c^s in 01 OS OS OS CO CO • p S|s==~ :% P S 3 2 3|S % I" N O cS^ 3 s ° o S PhHSh 3 S sgs as a o 3j5 o 5h ' S ° ^•ss ,1o- .2 — 'a £ 00 02 3 a a o a a ti % o.Sg^gp5 ^g fH O ce Q s^r- l> ;^ HJ -U 0 nalys and tierais w < Q hJ ^^ !=i ~ ^ <^ d w 0 w 0 P^ 1-- o ^i o^ o =5 ^ O 8 Feb., 1907.] Dairy Farm Buildings. 117 DAIRY FARM BUILDINGS. S. S. Cameron, ilJ.R.C.V.S., Chief Veterinary Oificer. A glance at the first two of the accompanying illustrations, and a com- parison of them, will convey some idea of what it is hoped will be accomplished on many dairy farms as a result of tliat close contact of experts with dairy farmers Avhich is made possible under the Milk and Dairy Supervision Act. The transformation of the scjualid insanitary cow-shed, sloppy and slushy in wet weather, and dusty in dr)', which has been all too much the vogue in the past, into a convenient and cleanly building, in which the comfort of both the cows and their caretakers is provided for, is a change demanded alike by sanitary and commercial considerations. The dairy farmer is often loth to concede that these two considerations are compatible. He is prone to think that outlay on sanitarv requirements is a needless and unprofitable expenditure. But such thoughts are onI\- entertained by thoise who ha\e had no experience of the benefits that are unquestionably derivable from the provision of adecjuate milking and housing accommodation for the herd! Once a man has tackled the job, either through the promptings of his own better sense, or the importunities of the much-maligned inspector, and the impro'vements have been effected, his testimonv in favour of the change is unqualified and complete, A case rises to mind in which some time back a certain dairy farmer was " dragooned," on fear of the law's rigour, into reflooring and reroofing his milking shed, and paving his cow-vard. It was done with a bad grace, even though the yard Avas knee-deep in mire and mud, and the cow-shed floor so cut up and filth-soaked that members of the family were con- tinually bickering and quarrelling amongst themselves because of the dis- comfort attendant on the work of milking and bailing up. Thev were a bedraggled, careless^, and resentful lot, well matching the lean tucked-up herd of scrubbers that were daily hustled out of the yard bog into the rickety bails, and the " old,' man " was often left to do the milking " on his own." It can easily be iraagined that under such circumstances the busi- ness was not a paying one and the said old man's cup of bitterness was persistentlv full. The overflowing stage was reached when Iv'r. Inspector came along and insisted on new this and extra that, repair here aiivl improvements there. Riven between exasperation and fear, a decision to conform to the requirements of the Act was come to. The fast-diminishing hoard of earlier years w\as widely broached, and the improvements effected. The squalor of the "old order" gave place to the cheerfulness of the "new." Two years later I (the aforesaid inspector) was the most heartily-wel- comed visitor to the place, and many times since have I been called blessed for the part I played in effecting the change. It w^as a change for the better all along the line; for, with the advantages of the new shed proven, with the family pulling together, the wife and girls cheerfully and regularly taking their part in the milking, leaving the boys more time for fodder cultivation, and with the farm "paying, sir." as the old man gleefully announced, it was a somewhat easy matter to impress further advice. ' Recording daily milk yields, culling the herd, intensixe cultivation ii8 Journal of Agriculture, [8 F;EB., 1907. of fodder crops, and their preservation in a silo, hand-feeding, and winter housing, have been successively and successfully adopted. The herd has been nearly doubled in numters, and its quality improved four fold _; so that now there are few more comfortable and prosperous dairy farms in the State. While the change from poverty to prosperity cannot be wholly credited to the initial improvement of the buildings, it was, nevertheless, the " new shed " which gave things a start on the up-grade, and made all the other advances possible. The moral is obvious, and if it has been clearly pointed, the unintended digression from a description of a modern cow-shed, as herewith illustrated, will have been justified. The principal features of the shed illustrated are: — I St. Sim f licit y and Cheapness of Construction, whereby, in addition to a 24-bail closed-in cow-shed, two calf pens or hospital cow boxes, a commodious loose box and an implement shed are provided under one roof ^:^^^h^^'- " THE OLD ORDER on land 40 feet x 54 feet. It will be noticed that the construction through- out (stalls, partitions, principals, rafters, studs, &c.), are arranged on what may be termed a " 4 ft. 6 in. plan." This, while providing adequate strength of structure and the proper width of stalls, results also' in the saving of a considerable amount of timber. It mav be said, in fact, '1 that there is not an inch of useless timber in the building, nor yet is there an inch short of what is required to insure stability. 2nd. Smooth Internal Wall Surfaces, secured by the adoption of the somewhat novel plan of placing the wall iron on the inside of the studs instead of the outside. The accumulation of dirt, debris, chaff, litter, cobwebs and the like in the corners and angles formed by the studs and battens when on the inside, is thereby prevented, and the sweeping of the floor near the wall foot, and cleaning of the wall surface near the floor are greatly facilitated. The need for lime-washing is done away with, as the smooth surface can be more quickly and effectively cleaned by swabbing it at required intervals with a cheap and odourless disinfectaiut solution, such as Condv's fluid or formalin solution. A further advantage of the adoption of this plan is that, incidentally, it provides a perfect 8 Feb., 1907.] Dairy Farm Buildings. 119 system of protected air inlets, the full width of the studs and wall plates all round the building at the eaves. Two objections may be raised by the thoughtless against this innova- tion, and it may be as well to anticipate and dispose of them at once. They are, firstly, that the stud timbers are exposed to the weather, and will not last ; and, secondly, that the appearance of the builcBng is spoiled, 'j'ouching the first of these objections, the fact is \'0uched for by experi- enced architects that the life of hardwood timber so exposed, and without being painted, tarred, or dressed in any way, will be as long as the iron and other parts of the building can be reasonably expected to last ; and if tarred before erection, it will certainly outlast the remainder of the building. The aesthetic objection will at once be seen to be groundless by a glance at the photograph ; for it can scarcely be denied that the relief to the eve afforded bv the chequered design of the outside studs is infiniteh' more taking than a bare expanse of plated iron. A.XLi IHK NEW . 3rd. Perflation, Ventilation, and Light. — Mainly because of the large open space above the partition dividing the cow-shed from the implement ^ihed and boxes, copious perflation and ventilation is provided, without draughts. The shed has been in use for a year and housed a full com- plement of cows for five months during the winter, and the experience has been that at no time has it been stuffy, or cold, or other than sweet and free from cowy odours. The ample area of air inlets has been referred to above. Sufficiency of light is maintained largely bv means of reflected light through the space above-mentioned. Two panes of corrugated glass, in the form of skylights in the roof, are also provided. That the light is adequate will be seen bv reference to the photograph of the interior, which was taken on a dull day, with the usual exposure and without artificial aid. 4th. Platform Stall Floors, and Guttered Gajigway.- — The construction of the floor is unusual, but with a dailv experience of its practical effective- ness, and the facilities it affords above all others for cleanliness, I am prepared to uphold that it is absolutely the best formation of floor for a cow-shed, whether used for milking only or for night-housing, or for milking and night-housing combined. Journal of Agriculture. [8 Feb., 1907. The floor, as shown, provides a raised kerbing, dung space, and drainage gutter at the rear of the cow. This is a modification of and improve- ment on the upright sided rear gutter that I have advocated for years. In a pamphlet prepared by me, and published by the Board of Public Health in 1901, I wrote as follows: — " Surface drains or gutters or grips should be constructed at rear of stalls. These grips should extend the whole length of the building, and should be 12 inches in width. When constructed with a flat bottom and upright sides (see Fig.) the removal of the dung and fluids is greatly facilitated, the too'ls used being a square-faced shovel, a wooden scraper or rubber "squee-jee," and a suitablv-sized whale-bone brush. Another advantage of the flat-bottomed and upright-sided grip is that it prevents excessive splashing nf the urine and soft dung, and, further, when the INTERIOR OF COW SHED. cow lies down, her rump, quarters, and udder lie clear of the contents of the grip. Although this style of open drain or gutter or grip is seldom seen in Victoria, it is almost universally adopted in byres and cow-sheds in the British Isles, European countries, and New Zealand, and for the reasons above stated is found to be a much cleaner, more satisfactorv, and WWWVV^ IZ r \\\v\v<^ SQUARE-BOTTOMED GRIP. convenient drain than the "three-brick" or sloping-sided drain. The objection most commonly urged against it on first impressions is that the cows would be likely tO' step into it on entering the stall, or their hind feet slip into it when standing in the stall, and that injury would thereby result. As a matter of fact, cows more frequently slip when the sloping- 8 Feb., 1907.] Dairy barm Buildings. 121 !^ided drain is provided, and they very quickly become accustomed to step- ping over the upright-sided gutter. During a veterinary and dairying experience, extending over twenty years, I have never known of a case in which the grips described were responsible, directly or indirectly, for injury to a cow." The square-bottomed and upright-sided gutter, however, has the disadvantage that when dung has been deposited in it, the urine is prevented from flowing along it. In the floor now advocated> and showan in the photograph in which the gangway is at a six-inch lower level than the kerb of the stalls, the urine drops hack into the small gutter, and flows away past the dung deposited in the dung space. The gutter, in fact the whole floor, has a fall lengthways of i inch in 9 feet, giving a total fall of 6 inches throughout the length of the building (54 feet). ■'■ ■ n dm. ^ vi^iiliiiaSyii %^- INTERIOR VIEW', SHOWING AVERAGED-SIZED COWS STANDING ON THE PLATFORM STALL IN A SPACE 5 FEET FROM TYING POST TO KERB. An essential feature of the platform stalls is that they should not be too long. Five feet, or at the very outside, 5 ft. 6 in. from the bail or chain post is ample for the biggest shorthorn likely to be milked, while not more than 4 ft. 6 in. should be allowed for the smaller cows and heifers. If longer stall space is given the cows will drop their dung on the platform floor instead of over the edge of the kerb into the dung space. The measurements given will seem all too small to most people until they are told, or find out by actual measurement, that it is a very big cow indeed which will measure more than 5 ft. 6 in. from behind the ears to the root of the tail. Reference to the plate showing the interior with cows standing in the stalls, which, in this instance, are 5 feet from chain post to kerb, will show that ample standing room is given. All three cows shown are big-framed Jer.sevs, certainly up to the average in size of the dairy_ cows in this State. The hind feet of the first one are seen to be 9 or 12 inches forward from the kerb. She is standing somewhat forward thmiigh cringing from the camera, but when standing comfortably hi milking position she has ample room. The second cow is standing slightly 122 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Feb., 1907. LOCALITY PLAN. o Feb., 1907.] Dairy I' arm ■Buildings. GROUND PLAN. '.-> c ELEVATION. 124 Journal oj Agriculiiire. [8 Feb., 1907. backward, with her hind legs in milking position, and the feet are on the edge of the kerb. She has recently passed dung which is seen to- have dropped over the edge of the kerb and clear of the standing floor, so that it does not get paddled about, and the floor is left clean in case the animal lies down. The usual position of the droppings is also shown behind the third cow. 777T7y777 xcrrn n 1 1 1 k' W^'.^k'^ SECTION OF GANGWAY AND STALLS, SHOWING PLATFORM STALLS, DUNG SPACE AND GUTTER. Out of twenty-four cows continuously stalled over night in this shed during the winter, fourteen regularly passed their droppings and urine over the kerb into the dung space, and their quarters were maintained in a clean state throughout. Six others were erratic in this respect, while the four remaining ones (heifers) were habitually " dirty," always dunging forward on the stall floor. Some question may be raised as to cows not being all the same size, and therefore variation in the length of stall floors would appear to be necessary. In the shed under review the stalls on one side are 5 feet from the chain post to kerb, and these are used for the biggest cows. The smaller cows and heifers are on the other side, where the floor is 4 ft. 6 in. from post to kerb. Every chaui post is, however, capable of being moved 6 inches either way, forward or backward, so that stall lengths varying from 5 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. can be arranged for in a 'few minutes. The chain posts are simply bolted on to the rafters and stall frame, and the bolts can be readily withdrawn and placed in holes provided either forward or backward. Of course, this adjustment of stall lengths cannot be arranged for if the cows are fastened by bails. It is difficult, however, to see what advantage bails have over chain fasten- cLaY ^-2-5 *-|6-^ O i I I I n ETE DETAIL OF PLATFORM KERB, DUNG SPACE AND GUTTER. ing. Personally, I never saw a bail until I came to Australia, and my previous experience of cow-sheds in England and Scotland had been life- long, and gained in widely-separated districts. 5th. Short Stall Partitions. — It will be seen from the interior photo- graph, that the partition frames between the stalls on one side are very short, extending only 5 feet from wall, and 2 ft. 6 in. from chain post, so leaving a space of '2 feet between the heel post and the kerb. On the other side the stall partitions are alternately long and short, the former extending backward to the edge of the kerb. This was a necessity of construction, the principals to carry the roof being placed 9 feet apart, and constituting the heel post of each alternate sLall. Short stall parti- tions serve the same purpose as those extending a long way behind the cow, and they have at least three advantages over the latter. In the 8 Feb., 1907.] Dairy Farm Buildings. first place, the cost of a considerable quantity of timber is saved. Secondly, they are certainly more sanitary, in that they do not become fouled with dung. The heel posts of the long partition are usually the dirtiest surfaces in a cow-shed, and require most scraping and cleansing. With the short partitions, again, the milking machine may be installed without any altera- tions being required. It may be said that heel posts extending a long wav backward are needed for leg-roping. Well, if leg-roping is required (and I am one of those who believe that it is not required, and should be abandoned, except perhaps in the case of 5 per cent, of cows at the outside), it (^an be provided for by having .a wooden block containing a spike and ring placed in the floor of the gangway at the proper distance to the rear. As with the use of bails, so with leg-roping it was not until my arrival in Australia that my first experience of that practice was gained. In this shed the feed tubs are moveable, and are placed on a raised platform 2 ft. 6 in. wide on one side and 3 feet on the other, running the whole length of the building. The platform is made of 6 in. x i in. hard- wood, with a plinth of similar dimensions to keep the tub in position. When not containing food the tub may be upended on the feed platform, so leaving space for the feeding of hav or other long fodder. Incidentally, a final glance at the interior photograph is requested, and attention invited to the towel rack, the water drum and tap, the spring balance, and the milk records board at the far end of the building, the regular use of all of which should be obvious. A locality plan, given along with the ground plan and elevation of the shed illustrated is not in any way to be taken as a model of arrange- ment of dairv farm buildings, but to show the relationship of the other building to the cow-shed in question, and to give an idea of the compact- ness which O'Ughit to be aimed at where choice of arranging the location offers. THE ORCHARD. James Lang, Harcoiiri. Gathering and marketing the fruit will occupy a great deal of the time of the orchardist for the next three months. Thte export season opens this month, the first shipment leaving by the s.s. Britannia on the 19th inst. In view of the many complaints that have been made as to the condition in which the early shipments of apples have arrived in previous years, shippers should be ^■ery careful in selecting and packing only sound fruit. The trouble has been bitter pit, which seems to develop in the cool chamber on tSfe voyage ; apples apparently clean and sound when shipped have arrived in a bad state from this disease. Later shipments do not develop it to anything like the same extent, the fruit being better matured. So far r.o remedy has been discovered that will keep the disea.se in check. From advice to hand from London, the market there will be pretty well cleared of American apples by the time the first shipments arrive from Australia, so that a favorable market is likelv for all fruit arriving in good condition. Continue spraving for the codlin moth. Where this has been constantly attended to the fruit will be verv free from the grub, and 90 per cent, should be clean and fit for market- In carrying out the work of the orchard, spraying is very apt to be neglected, on account of other pressing work. It is a great mistake to do this, as spraying should be done regu- larly, no matter what other work has to stand aside. It is an advantage 126 Journal of Agriculture. [8 >EB., 1907. to spray up to the beginning of March, so that the second brood of moths is destroyed. In many orchards this season the woolly aphis has been vmusually preva- lent on the apple trees, being caused by the moist state of the ground in the early spring. It is very difficult to combat this pest during the summer months, as the different insecticides in use have very little effect upon it v/hen sprayed. The best time to cope with it is in the winter, just after the trees have been pruned. The best remedv is as follows: — Take 2 lbs. of potash, and dissolve in half a gallon of water, then mix in 2 lbs. sulphur ; when these two are thoroughlv mixed add sufficient raw linseed oil to dilute it to the consistency of paint. If the mixture should get thick after standing some time, add more linseed oil to thin it down. The mixture is applied by using a small paint brush, and rubbing Avell in on the parts affected. This may seem a very slow process, but it is effectual. About a month after the first dressing go over the trees again, and if anv blight is showing, treat the spots affected. If this course is carefullv carried out the woolly aphis will not give much trouble for some years. The writer has used the remedy for t.hirtv years, and has always found it effective. Spraving with red oil and kerosene emulsion is not nearlv so effective and lasting. STATISTICS. Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, Grain, &c. Imports and Exports Inspected during Quarter ended 31 st December, 1906. Imports. Exports. 1 Imports. Exports. Description Description of of Produce. Austral- Over- Austral- Over- Produce. Austral- Over- Austral- Over- asian. sea. asian. 289 sea. asian. sea. asian. sea. Apples 12,4.56 920 1 Beans .. 2,285 84 Apricots ... 24 — .5,719 163 Cucumbers 10,267 — 283 45 Bananas, b s. 158,563 1,348 — — Melons 114 — 6 — Bananas, c/s. 5,122 — 1,71s 38 Onions .. 1 — 102 — — Blk. cumants 42 — — — Peas 611 25 — — Cherries ... 126 — 2,951 3,680 Potatoes .. 1,164 — 47 2 (4ooseberries 59 — 236 — Nuts 73 419 — — Oranadillas 1 — — — Nutmegs — 2,708 — — Lemons 1,984 5,8.55 738 514 Seeds 581 14,699 — — Loquats ... 1,687 — 55 — Barley .. .3,287 — — — Mandarins — — — 6 ]Maize 112 15 — — Mixed fruit 109 12,575 5 271 Wheat 13 — — — , Oranges . . . 76,577 4,117 1,805 202 Rice — 49,797 — — Passion fruit 1,164 — 47 2 Plants 75 153 51 6 Peaches 24 — 213 62 Bulbs — 232 — Pears -^ 27 3 Jams — _ — 668 Pineapples 8,700 — 248 86 Sauces — — — 2 Plums 9 _ 99 163 Pickles — I Ked currants 1 — — — Canned fri s. — 1 — — 1,167 35 25,684 1 Tomatoes ... — 445 108 Total Packages } 310,498 93 490 14,911 7,185 Total number of packages inspected = 426,084. J. G. TURNER, Inspector Veijetation Diseases Acts and Commerce Act. 8 Feb.. 1907. Statistics. 127 Bainfall in Victoria. Fourth Quarter, 1906. Table showing average amount of rainfall in each of the 26 Basins or Regions con- stituting the State of Victoria for each month and the quarter, with corresponding monthly and quarterly averages for each Basin deduced from all available records to date. October. November. December. 1 3 .S Basin. j^- be c bo c io a 3 (S s g g ^ £ ^ ss £ 2-£ s cS t v s •<2 < ■Ss < An j 19C > < li <£ Glenelg and Wannon Rivers •2.98 2.75 4.09 1.74 0.47 1.53 7.54 6.02 Fitzroy, Eumerella, and Merri 3.24 2.91 4.31 1.82 0.50 1.59 8.05 6.32 Rivers Hopkins River and Mount 3.63 2.76 4.43 1.97 0.44 1.51 8.50 6.24 Emu Creek Mount Elephant and Lake 3.69 2.67 4.15 1.87 0.71 1.S9 8.55 5.93 Corangamite Otway Forest 4.73 3.66 4.48 2.39 0.44 1.89 9.65 7.94 Moorabool and Barwon Rivers 3.9t 2.56 3.73 2.03 0.62 1.56 8.29 6.15 Werribee and Saltwater Rivers 3.45 2.68 2.51 2.18 0.69 1.69 6.65 6.55 Yarra River and Dandenong 4.55 3.23 4.29 2.86 1.57 2.59 10.41 8. 68 Creek Koo-wee-rup Swamp 5.05 3.49 4.32 2.66 0.85 2.14 10.22 8.29 South Gippsland 6.01 3.49 4.24 2.80 1.44 2.59 11.69 8.88 La Trobe and Thomson Rivers 4.85 3.53 4.44 2.79 2.78 2.56 12.07 8.88 Macallister and Avon Rivers 3.44 2.82 2.62 2.34 2.81 2.26 8.87 7.42 Mitchell River 3.73 2.91 2.20 2.25 3.97 2.12 9.90 7.28 Tambo and Nicholson Rivers 3.93 2.77 2.42 1.96 4.00 2.15 10.35 6.*<8 Snowy River 4.34 3.03 3.16 2.49 2.51 3.09 10.01 8.61 Murray River 2.99 1.92 3.59 1.58 1.45 1.35 8.03 4.85 Mitta Mitta and Kiewa Rivers 5.37 3.05 4.84 2.48 3.32 1.94 13.53 7.47 Ovens River 4.56 3.86 4.6S 2.95 3.73 2.36 12.97 9.17 Goulburn River 4.00 2.42 3.60 1.99 1.53 1.48 9.13 5.89 Campaspe River .•!.04 2.29 3.00 1.83 0.87 1.50 6.91 5.62 Loddon River 2.39 1.72 2.67 1.53 0.58 1.13 5.64 4.38 Avon and Richardson Rivers 1.67 1.42 2.42 l.-^5 0.32 0.98 4.41 3.65 Avoca River 1.77 1.67 2.15 1.39 0.63 1.05 4.. 55 4.11 Western Wimmera ... 2.08 '2.05 3.08 1.25 1 0.51 1.17 5.67 4.47 Eastern Wimmera ... 2.64 2.42 3.87 1.59 0.58 1.40 1 7.09 5.41 Mallee Country 1.19 1.20 1.49 0.92 0.40 0.76 3.08 2.88 The wliole State 3.15 2.36 3.17 1.80 1.24 1.56 7.56 5.72 Figures in tliese columns are subject to alterations wlien the complete number of returns for December lias been received. P. BARACCHI, Governnunt A atronomer. Journal of Agriculture. [8 Feb., 1907. MAIZE CULTIVATION. The illustrations on this page are eloquent of the advantages of growing maize and such like summer fodd^er crops in rows, whereby inter-row cultj- vation may be carried out at frequent intervals. A soil mulch is thereGy continuously maintaiaied, and surface evaporation of moisture prevented. While, when grown in rows, the number of plants to the acre is considerably less than when broad-casted, ne\'ertheless the total bulk of fodder produced TWO MONTHS GROWTH BROAD-CASTED MAIZE. per acre is greater. Other advantages are that little more than one-fourth the quantity of seed is required ; that one-half the quantity of artificial manure will suffice, the manure being placed in the drill or furrow, where it is at once available when the rootlings are formed ; and, finally, that the TWO MONTHS GRO\VTH IN DRILLS, WITH FOUR INTER-CULTIVATIONS. maize crop may be always made a certainty of independent of the condi- tions of rainfall, irrigation, ox the like. The crops shown in both illustrations were sown on 7 th November, and the photographs were taken on the same day (5th January). The same seed was used, 20 lbs. to the acre, in rows, aJnd \\ bushels (84 lbs.) for the broad-cast crop. Two hundredweights of superphosphate per acre were applied to each crop at the time of sowing. The drilled crop was scarified between the rows four times between the sowing and the taking of the photograph, while the broad-casted crop was merely harrowed and rolled after sowing and left. — S. S. C. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. The Staff of the Department has been org'anized to a large extent for the purpose of giving information to farmers. Questions in every branch of agriculture are gladly answered. Write a short letter, giving as full particulars as possible, of your local conditions, and state precisely what it is that you want to know. All inquiries must be accompanied by the name and address of the writer. AscKRTAiNiNG PREGNANCY. — T.B. asks if there is any way of finding out whether a cow is in calf. Answer. — In the great majority of instances it may be practically decided that a cow is in calf if, after being bulled, she does not come in season again. External examination, and observation and manipulation, are only useful in determining the point when pregnancy is somewhat advanced. In the earlier stages an examination through the rectum, or end gut, is required, but unless done by an experienced person there is considerable danger, and the decision as to tlie presence of a fceius in the womb is not easily arrived at. Death of Calves.— Middle Creek writes : — "Kindly state the cause of death of some two months' old calves which have recently died. The symptoms were bleeding at the nostrils, followed by creamy, sticky discharge ; sunken eyes ; a dazed look when walking ; difficulty in breathing. Death occurred about 24 hours after first symptoms observed. Po^st morttm examination showed all organs healthy, save a slight inflammation behind the kidneys." Aifi^oer. — The disease is " JJ ackleg," a description, including prevention, of which was given in the July, 1906, number of the Journal, which see. Scouring Calves.— H.J. P. inquires how to prevent (1) calves from scouring after they are weaned, (2) white scour in calves ? Ansiver. — 1. The metliods to be adopted to prevent scouring will depend on the circumstances giving rise to it, and without particulars as to probable causation a satisfactory reply cannot be given. 2. White scour in calves is promoted by insanitary bedding and surroundings and contami- nated food, and, except the causes in these respects are removed, treatment is of little avail. A good anti- diarrhoea mixture, to be given with the milk, is equal parts of wood charcoal and prepared chalk. Dose — A teaspojnful to a tablespoonful, according to age and size. Pink Milk. — H.J. P. asks how to prevent pink milk in cows. Answer. — This condition may be overcome by two or three injections, at daily intervals, into the teat duct of a lukewarm solution of boracic acid — 1 part in 20 of water, A proper teat syringe should be used, and great care taken that the internal surface of the duct is not injured. Sterility OF Bull. — D.J.H. writes: — "Will you inform me how to make the bull — a 22 months i'lfi pedigreed Jersey, take to the cows properly? The cows served by him come again in season. The bull and cows are in good condition." Answer. — The bull complained of may be sterile, but this condition is not at all common except temporarily, and it is likely that if he was lemoved fiom contact with the cows for three months, and his condition lessened, the trouble would cease. Slipping Calves. — E.F. desires information relative to treatment of cows that have slipped their calves. Answer. — The subject of abortion in cows was fully dealt with in the August, 1906, number of the Journal, which see. LttVELLiNG. — A.C. asks for a practical and efficient method of le%'elling land (crabholey). Ansicer. — So much depends upon the character of the land itself, and the uses to which it is to be put, that a direct answer is impossible. Presuming that ordinary cultivation, ploughing and harrowing with a log drag, is insufficient, the split log or beam smoother, the "Perkins " or Buck scraper, or the plough and scoop will be needed. A description, with drawings, of the manufacture and use of the smoothers and scrapers will be given in an early issue of the Journal. Robbing Box Hives. — H. F. T. writes—" Can you inform me how to rob bees that are in a case without destroying the bees. I have not got the patent boxes for taking the honey ? " Answer. — See article by Mr. R. Beuhne on page 105. Japanese Millet. — New Chum asks whether the feeding of Japanese millet has a bad effect on milk for cheesemaking purposes. Ajiswer.—l^o, not directly. The only way in which it may be said to indirectly affect the quality of the milk is by making it a little harder to keep the cows clean— all forage crops make the dung soft and semi-fluid, and hence there is more danger of particles of it getting into the milk. Gassy milk is generally due to this cause. Strict attention should be paid to the cleansing of the cows' udders and the milkers' hands. Irrigating Orchard.— Embryo Farmer has an orchard of 2^ acres (Gembrook) which he desires to irrigate. There is a creek about 9 chains away, and some 30 feet below the orchard. He says wind power means extensive storage, steam power is too costly, whilst hydraulic rams or water wheels are out of the question as the stream is too small. Answer. — The area to be irrigated is so small, and the requirements in such a locality so incon- siderable, that any ordinary water-lifting machinery would not be economical. Failing the windmill or ram, a horse-works— if the ground permits -and a three-throw pump might be installed. With an economical system of distribution, pipes and flumes, a discharge of 1,000 gallons per hour, well within the power of one horse, should be amply sufficient for all purposes. Navel Rupture.— E.B writes:— "I have a two-year-old filly with a navel rupture large enough to fill a small sized cup. It began to show a few weeks after birth." Answer.— A.-D. operation, which it is risky to perform without previous experience, will be necessary for the prompt reduction of the rupture, but most oftfn navel ruptures subside naturally with age. Agriealtaral Edaeation in Vietom. DOOKIE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. (About 18 Miles from Shepparton and Benalla.) The College offers every facility to students to become competent agriculturists, vigneri>ns, and dairymen. The work is carried out on a large commercial scale, the plougliiijg, drilling, manuring, harvesting, threshing, and shearing being done by students under competent instructors. Over 2,001) sheep and lambs, 150 head cattle, 50 horses, including stallion, are on the fai'm. Fees — £-8 5s. per annum. ScHOLAKSHirs — Six : Value from £25 to £75. New Session begins first week in March, 1907. Applicants must be sixteen years of age or over. LONGERENONG AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. (8 Miles from Horsham.) One aim of this institution is to till in the gap between the State School and Dookie, i.e., to take students between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years. Resident students take both class and farm work. Non-resident students attend, the College for class work only, on alternate days, their practical work being carried out on their fathers' farms, or as apprentices on farms recommended or approved of by the Council of Agricultural Education. The farm contains an area of 2,386 acres, and is admirably adapted for demon- strating what can be done in farming with irrigation. There is a large area of the farm under cultivation, and the orcliard and vineyard cover an area of 30 acres. Fees — Resident, £18 5s. per annum ; Non-resident, £5 per annum. Scholarship — One : Value, £25 per annum. New Session begins first week in Mai'ch, 1907. BURNLEY SCHOOL OF HORTICULTURE AND SMALL FARMING, MELBOURNE. The School Course includes regular lectures in Agricultural and Horticultural Science, Veterinary Work and the Management of Animals, Dairying, Pig and Poultry Management, and kindred subjects. Permanent students may enter for a general course of instructiou or select one of the following divisions : — I. Fruit Farming. II. Dairying, Pigs, Poultry, and Fodder Crops. III. General Gardening (Garden Design, Flowers, Vegetables, &c.) Fees — Permanent Students, £5 per annum ; Wednesday half -day Students, £1 per annum. School year commences 11th February, 1907. LECTURES ON AGRICULTURAL SUBJECTS. Agricultural or other Societies wishing to have one or more public lectures- delivered during 1907 are requested to make early application, so as to permit of a complete syllabus being drawn up. Many of the lectures are illustrated by limelights views. The hall, advertising, &c. , must be pi'ovided locally, free of cost, but all other charges are borne by the Department. Staff — The Director, and Messrs. Archer, Cameron, Carroll, Colebatch, Cronin,. Crowe, Gamble, Hart, Hawkins, F r^yon, Lee, Luffmann, McMillan, Robertson, Seymour, and Smith. AGRICULTURAL CLASSES, 1907. The Course will last a fortnight, two lectures and demonstrations being given eack afternoon and four limelight lectures during the Course. At least forty stu-dents, exclusive of school children, must be enrolled at each centre, the rent of the hall and all local charges to be paid by the Agricultural Society under whose auspices the Class- is held. Subjects (First Week). Principles of Agriculture (Compulsory). Sheep Breeding and Management (including wool classing and lambs for export) or Dairy Farming. Second Week. Care of Farm Animals (Compulsory). I Agricultural Engineering, or Poultry Breeding and Management, or | Orchard and Garden Woik. Evening Lectures. The Agricultural Resources of Victoria. Victoria's Progress in Poultry Raising. The Points of the Horse. Irrigation in Victoria. The Wool Industry. The P>uit Industry. Exported Products. See full particulars on page 15, January Journal. Applications relative to the above Institutions, Lectures, and Classes to b& sent to the Secretary, Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. 6irfijOOK FOR AGRICULTURE. Vol. V. IMPROVEMENT IN HORSE BREEDING. Part 3. (Uejfisr.ered at the General Post Office, Melbourne, for transmission by Post as a Newspaper ] THE SIRE"WHArS WANTED. PriloE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subscription— Victoria, Inter-State, and N.L, 3/-; British and Foreign, 5/-.) THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 8 MA.R,CII, 1907. CONTENTS. PAGE The Outlook for Agriculture ... ... ... ... T.Cherry ... 129 The Proclaimed Plants of Victoria — Cape Broom A. J. E wart and J. R. Tovey Improvement in Horse Breeding — Report by Mr. S. 0. Wood Soundness in Horses ... ... ... ... ... S. S. Cameron Ducks for Export ... ... ... ... ... A. Hart Export of Eggs ... ... ... ... ...P. T. Pep par d Report on the Harvest Returns of Wheat Varieties — Northern Experimental Fields, 1906-7 ... ... F.E.Lee Garden Notes — The Gladiolus .. ... ... J. Cronin Description of Apple — Newtown Pippin ... ... J.Lang •Grant to Agricultural Societies Statistics — Exports of Perishable and Frozen Produce ... R. Crowe Artificial Manures Acts— Supplementary List of Unit Values, Season 1907 ... ... ... ... W. P. Wilkinson Cheese Competition at the A.N. A. Exhibition .. ... J. G. McMillan The Orchard ... ... ... . . ... J. Lang Publications issued by the Department ... ... inside front cover Answers to Correspondents ... ... ... ... inside hack cover Agricultural Education in Victoria ... ... ... bach cover 137 138 152 158 161 163 171 174 175 179 180 183 192 REGISTERED UNDER THE COPYRIGHT ACT 1890. SECTION 21. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter contained in the Journal are at liberty to do so, provided the usual acknowledgment is made. The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy Threepence. A limited number of the issues comprising Volumes II. (1903-4), III. (1905) — 10 parts each — and Volume IV. (1906) — 12 parts — is at present in stock, and will be . supplied at the foregoing rates. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. Applications to be accompanied by Postal Note covering Price and Postage. Destructive Insects of Victoria, Parts I., II., III. By C. French. 2s. 6d. each. Postage — Parts I. and II. , 4d. each ; Part III. , 5d. Fungus Diseases of Citrus Trees in Australia. By D. McAlpine. 2s. Postage, 3d. Fungus Diseases of Stone Fruit Trees in Australia. By D. McAlpine. 165 pp., 10 coloured plates. 2s. 6d. Postage, 4d. Rusts of Australia. By D. McAlpine. 10s. Postage, 8d. Australian Fungi. By Dr. Cooke. £1 Is. Postage, 8d. Year Book of Agriculture for 1905. Cloth, 3s. 6d. ; paper, 2s. 6d. Postage — Cloth, 9d. ; paper, 8d. Milk Charts (Monthly- and Weekly). 6d. per dozen. (See article in Journal, 8 May, 1906.) 1^ THe JOURNAL OF T'fis department of Vol. V. Papt 3. 8th March, 1907. THE OUTLOOK FOR ACIlUOl LTIRE.* T. Clicrry, M.D.. M.S., Director of AgricitlUirc. «OTanjc In taking a survey of the agricultural outlook for Australia at the present time, I wish first to briefly summarize some of the main facts which will determine the future of our agriculture ; then to take a glance at the position of our leading products in the world's markets; and, .Anally, to briefly sketch the main lines on which, I think, we can maintain agriculture — the ultimate basis of a country's prosperity — in a healthy and flourishing condition. I need hardly remind vou that the true measure of the fertility of the land is the readiness with which the plant food of the soil is made available for plants which serve as food for animals or man. It is true that a certain amount of agricultural wealth consists of timber trees, and fibre plants ; but, on the whole, these form accessory rather than staple products. The plant uses the energy of the sun to build up compara- tively simple chemical substances into much more complex ones. These latter serve as food for the animal, and the energy of thd animal is derived from the process of turning them Ijack again into simple ones. Ultimately they are returned again to the earth or the atmosphere, and sooner or later undergo such changes that thev may once more serve as food for the plant. It is in connexion with the preparation of the food for the plant that the most far-reaching generalization of recent agricultural science has been made. This is the discovery of the part played by microscopic plants or bacteria in producing and maintaining the fertility of the soil. Not only do thev break down the excreta and dead tissues of animals into forms available for the plant, but they cause the free nitrogen of the atmosphere to combine with oxygen, and so begin the wondrous ascent which leads to living protoplasm. I am inclined to think that the best measure of the fertility of the soil is the number of micro-organisms contained in it. The soil is looked upon no longer as dead and i'lert, _ but as alive and active. No small part of the activity of soil bacteria is ^ seen in the extent to which they form" acids and alkalies from woody fibre ■^ *Presidential address delivered before the Association for the Advancement of C*«3 Science, January, 1907. CC 1315. E CL 13° Journal of Agriculture. [8 INIarch, 1907. and other carbon compounds, which they use as food. Probably most of the carbonic acid, which forms one of the chief solvents in soil water, has its origin in this way, and the chemical substances formed by bacteria which are even more active, not only help to complete the weathering of the rocks, but also to change the potash and phosphoric acid from insoluble to soluble forms. All plant life is dependent on the water supply available in the soil. How this may best be conserved and regulated is too large a question for me to enter on at present. I would only remind vou that in order to produce one ton of sun-dried \egetation from 300 to 500 tons of water have to be absorbed bv the roots and transpired through the leaves. That is, one ton of dried material per acre requires the utilization of the rainfall to the extent of four or five inches during the growing season. Tht The Soils of Victoria. following table gives the result of analysis of 178 samples of soil and sub.soil made within the last three vears at the laljoratory of the Department. For comparison I append the average results of a number of samples of ten different types of English soil (Hall), and of a very large number of American analyses (HilLgard). It will be seen that our soils are Avell al)Ove the recognised limits of efificiencv in nitrogen — (100 parts per 1 00.000) — but verv close to the limit of inefficiencv as to jihosphoric acid. European and American authorities look upon 50 parts per 100,000 as the limit below which it becomes unprofital)le tp work the soil. Potash and lime are so abundant in most of our soils that thev call for no remark: — AvRKAGE Results of Victorian, Exolish, and Amkricax Soil. Soils. Subsoils. CI 0 0 % 1 i/. 0 .c 0 1 0 P^ 2.32 i . Victorian Clay Soils (30) 149 63 205 176 100 66 155 Wlieat Land (34^ ... 112 61 422 1.072 89 60 706 2,487 Coastal Plain (85) .. 178 61 185 903 106 46 247 380 ., Volcanic (24) 272 61 277 588 103 42 170 1,649 Mallee rS) 113 47 380 2,426 Engliyh Typical Soils 175 98 463 ... American Arid (466^ ... 117 729 1,36 2 Humid (313) ... 113 216 108 ,, Sand (all averages) . 12s 157 115 124 143 96 Clay ,, 207 214 1,761 ... 159 344 1,481 Considering first the soils of Australia, I presume that so far as they go, the results obtained from tie analvsis and experiment with those of Victoria are fairly applicable to the rest of the continent. We have to consider each of the three chief constituents — nitrogen. phosphoric acid, and potash. So far as results of analysis are available, it appears that on the a\erage our soils are as rich in nitrogen as those of Europe or America, and nitrifying processes seem to go on with such rapidity that for the most part, especially in dry areas, there is no need to add this 8 March, 1907.] The Outlook for Agricitltiire. I3r element to the soil in the form of .artificial fertilizers. On the wheat lands the addition of nitrogen actually diminishes the yield. Where the rainfall is above 25 inches the addition of nitrogen increases the yield of grain and also the total weight of the crop, but the former effect is not so marked as the latter. For the most part the soil appears to be abundantly furnished with nitrifying bacteria ; all leguminous crops flourish luxuriantly, and so far as our experiments have gone, the addition of nitrogen-fixing bacteria to the seed has had no apparent effect in assisting the crop. Considering that all animal excreta and farm-yard manure are proportionate! v very rich in nitrogen, it appears practicable, by good farm methods, not onl\ to keep up, but also to rapidly increase the amount that exists on \irgin land. The nitrogen problem is important, but bv scientific methods it may easily be solved, and at present I think there is no indication that it will become as important as it is in Europe and America. While we are not yet able to explain all the phenomena, it appears certain that in this respect we are favoured either by the soil or the climate ; nitrates seem to accumulate rapidlv. For market garden crops and potatoes, esneciallv on the lighter sandv soils, it is found that a light dressing of nitrogen, in readily available form, insures a profitable crop ; but for cereals, and for ordinarv fodder crops, the cost of supplying the necessarv amount of nitrogen is not a serious problem to the farmer, and it appears to me that with improved farm practice, it will become even less formidable as general farming takes the place of cereals alone. The presence of lime in suitable amount facilitates the process of rendering the nitrogen a\ai]aljle, as will be noticed later on. The Problem of Phosphoric Acid. Turning next to phosphoric acid, we may look upon this constituent as being, in a special sense, the controlling factor in the development of plant 'life. It is remarkable that the world supply of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and lime at present available for the use of existing plants and animals has all been combined and rendered available by past generations of living things. Originally all the phosphoric acid of the soil formed part of the most ancient rocks in the form chiefly of apatite. It has graduallv become concentrated on the surface of ihe soil li\ the inter- vention of plants and animals. Comparatively little is lenehed out of the soil by the rain, onlv the barest trace being present in sea water. In the case of rock phosphate, the seaweed growing in shallow depths has collected this trace of phosphoric acid from the sea water, just as the coral and other organisms have collected the lime. From the sea-weed the conversion into rock phosphate is accomplished through the medium of the fish and birds. We are at the present time drawing on the accumulations that have been made in past geological ages. In the case of the phosphoric acid of the soil this has been gradually accumulatmg in the surface lavers through the medium of the plant, but its concentration is brought about through the intervention of the animal. The neadv insoluble phosphate of lime of the bones of vertebrates cfrers striking analogies to the similarl\- insoluble carbonate of lime of the shells of invertebrates. It is often asked if there is not a certaintv in the e:nl\ luture that such soils will l)ecome exhausted of their supi)lv of jjlant AkjiI. .and liecorae unprofitable. So long as live stock are kept in considerable numlx'rs. this is not likelv to happen. I take it that Australian soils owe their small K 2 1^2 Journal of Agriculture. [8 March, 1907. i)hO'sphoric acid supply to the fact that the continent has never been heavily stocked by large animals of any kind. In Victoria we know that previous to settlement by white men the number of kangaroos and emus was much less than the number of sheep is at present. Periodical droughts reduced them in the north ; vast areas were so densely timbered that there was little herbage for them to eat. There were never very many natives in Victoria, but there were quite enough to keep the large animals from becoming numerous on the open plains. Now the animal is the great factor in concentrating phosphoric acid in the surface layers of the soil. It is true that where no animals are present nearly all the com- ponents of the plant are returned tO' the soil by the process of decay. But the animal stimulates the plant to increased growth. As the flower shoots ir {^articular are browsed off, fresh efforts are made to produce a new crop of seed. Hence more phosphoric acid is drawn up by the roots from the deeper layers of the soil. The animal concentrates the phosphates chiefly in the bones, and when death occurs the bones are slowly but surely incorporated in the earth. In addition, phosphates are being coi'tinually returned to the soil in the excrements. The carcass of one sheep to the acre represents the application of 2 11 )s. of phosphoric acid, or about 10 lbs. of ordinary superphosphates. This quantity does not appear very large, lAit when^ the process is repeated vear bv vear for centuries the amount steadily accumulates. As phosphoric acid becomes .available in increasing quantities the growth of plants of all kinds is stimulated, and consequently more animals can be carried in a given area. Nature's methods throughout all bygone ages are precisely what every thoughtful farmer aims at imitat- ing at the present day. Just as living plants and animals have slowly accumulated the potash and lime from the sea water till they form vast m.asses of dry land, sO' the nitrogen and phosphoric acid have been gradually made available for existing plants and animals bv the^r prede- cessors throughout all the geological ages. The soils of Victoria are jast beginning to be improved bv animals. The transformation of the hill country which is brought about by the introduction of Merino sheep, may be studied about Alexandra or Tallangatta, where a few years have already made great changes. Judging by what has already occurred, I think we may have no misgivings for the future. The average chemical composition of Victorian soils as taken from the preceding table bears out the inferences drawn from the examination of .&oils of various localities. Judged bv European standards the amount of ■fertility is often small. When it is attempted to make an estimate of the amount of plant food in readily available form (soluble in water or citric acid solution), the results are very disappointing. Yet the practical results are precisely the opposite, and it may well be doubted if any soil in the world is more prolific. The total amount of agricultural products consumed locally and exported is valued at over ^-,^2 0,000, 000, or an average produc- tion of nearly ^400 per farm. As only one acre out of every eight of the occupied part of Victoria is at present under cultivation, the above results are achieved to a very large extent simply by grazing the natural pastures. The soils from Mildura, in the JMallee, are much below the average in phosphoric acid and nitrogen, yet under irrigation 10,000 acres support a population of 5,000, or 330 persons to the square mile. Here again development is just beginning, for with the application of more labour the returns from the irrigated land could be vastly increased. From the strictly chemical point of view, much of the wheat land appears to be in danger of early exhaustion, yet after many years of grazing and cropping 8 March, 1907.] Tlic Outlook for Agriculture. 133 it is more valuable than ever. Similar instances could be quoted from everv part of the State. Reverting to the total weight of each ingredient [)resent in the surface foot of each acre, it will be seen that rich soils contain in this amount of soil 3f tons of nitrogen. 3 tons of phosphoric acid, and 8J tons ■of potash. One of the poorest contains i ton of nitrogen, 6 cwt. of phosphoric acid, and 9 cwt. of potash. As a 20-bushel crop of wheat (straw and grain) removes only 35 lbs. of nitrogen, 14 of phosphoric acid, ^nd 25 of potash, it will be seen that even poor soil contains materials for generations of cropping if the proper ingredients can only be made avail- able. The phosphoric acid would last about 48 years. There is, how- ever, the sub.soil to draw on, and we have seen that phosphoric acid is nearlv as abundant in the subsoil as in the .surface. With intelligent farming there is no question but that the amount of plant food will st(\a(lilv in crease. The striking results produced by the application ^J. 10 lbs. of phosphoric acid in the form of superphosphate have been already referred to Such a small amount (\innot perceptibly increase the total' per acre. At the most, it can only give the young plants a good start, because from what we know of the residual effects of such applications, it is fairly cer- tain that the whole of the added phosphoric acid is not ab.sorbed bv the growing crop. There must, therefore, be certain changes going on in the soil during the growth of the crop which rapidly render the latent plant food available. What these are we are not in a posi- tion at present to state precisely. The marvellous growth that occurs everywhere when the rain comes after a dry spell shows that there are forces at work during the months of bright sunshine which are \ery friendly to the husbandman. The fact that applications of nitrogen actually reduce the yield in the northern plains contirms this, view. IMany acres of the poor sandy soils within 20 miles of INIelbourne are bought and sold at from j^20 to ^40 per acre, after they have been under cultivation for a few years, and where such improvement is daily taking place it is certain that it will follow on the same metlhods being apiplied tO' more remote dis- tricts as population increases. The absence of land animals accounts at once for the luxuriance of our primaeval forests and tihe scarcity of phos- phoric acid on the surface of the soil. Had the herbivora been well re- presented in the past thev would have destroyed the young trees and at the same time have concentrated the vjlant food. The existence of den.se forests proves that Victoria contains no barren land, for soil that will produce such trees will most assuredly produce a bounteous harvest when its forces are controlled by the intelligence of man. With regard to the relatively large amounts of potash and lime in the northern soils in Victoria, these substances have been shown to have a very important influence in a number of ways. First of all they favour the growth of micro-organisms in the surface soil, and in this way lead to the rapid oxidization of organic matter, and the consequent formation of hiutmus. They have, therefore, a direct effect in rendering both tht^ nitro- gen and phosphoric acid more readily available for the plants. A soil well supplied with humus is in the best possible condition^ for maintaining a proper amount of moisture in readily available form in its superficial layers, and hence it follows that soils well supplied with lime and potash are, in proportion to their rainfall, in a good position to have practically the whole of the moisture available for the plants, fn the coastal districts where the rainfall is heavier, and conse(]uently the amount of soluble 134 Journal of Agriculture. [8 March, 1907.- material which is washed away in the course of each year is considerably greater, we find that the amounts of both plhosphoric acid and potash are- such that the addition of both these substances gives profitable results. In addition to this the rainfall is sufficiently heavy to allow the plant to make use profitably of a larger percentage of nitrogen in readily available form, and hence it follows that the addition of nitrates or ammonia salts- causes a large increase in the vields. Markets for Australian Produce. Turning next to the question of the disposal of the agricultural pro- ducts raised in Australia, several points challenge attention. The first is that during the last half centurv there has been a steady increase in the consumption per head of food stuffs by the great mass of the population of most civilized countries. A trifling increase each year means an immense- expansion in the total amount. While production has been advancing very rapidly, consumption has been advancing at an accelerated rate, and what has happened in the case of European communities will probably also- follow in the case of the Eastern nations. It need hardly be pointed out that a slight change in the dietary of these nations, which constitute one- half the population of the earth, must have a profound influence on the- demand for any given article of diet. Speaking broadly, I think there is no doubt that wheat and wheat products, animal food and animal pro- ducts, are steadily displacing less nutritious articles of food all the world over. Wthile the demand for agricultural products, such as those which form the staple industries of Australia, is likely to increase, w'e have only to turn to the importations into Great Britain over a series of years tO' see the market — practically unlimited in extent — which is open for us to- exploit, and of which up to the present moment we have only touched one or two lines. The fodlowing table shows the average value of importa- tions into Great Britsiin in millions sterling during each of the last six vears. The total amounts to ;^224,ooo,ooo. Of these items, Australia contributes a large proportion of the wool, a fair amount of the hides, horn, andtallow% and a small percentage of wheat, dead meat, butter, and rabbits. Of the ^224,000,000, our annual contribution has averaged ^/^20, 000.000. Value of Imtoktations into Great Britain in Millions Sterling. (Average of last six years.) Wheat, Flour ... ... ... 38 Fruits and Vegetal )les ... ... 14 Dead Meat ... ... ... 38 Live Animals for Food ... ... 10 Butter, Cheese, Milk ... ... 31 ; Cattle and Horse Food ... ... 9 Other Grains and Meal ... ... 25 j Hides, Horns, Tallow .. ... 6 Sugar and Farinaceous Foods ... 25 1 Rabbits, Poultry, Eggs ... ... 4 Wool ... ... ... ... 24 I Total ... ... 224 As will be seen a little later on, I look upon the steady extension of the area of cultivated land as being essential for the continued expansion of our agricultural industries. Wheat is the crop wj-iich lends itself most favorably tO' Australian requirements and conditions. As will be seen from the following table, Australian exports have onlv on one occasion reached to per cent, of the total amount of wheat consumed in Great Britain in nnv single year, and it is clear from the following tables that every effort must be made to increase the wheat vield of Australia if we are to make a substantial advance in this direction, especially in view of the enormous strides that have been made in recent vears bv the Argentine- S March, 1907.] The Outlook for Agriculture. 135 Republic botih withi regard to the amount of wheat shipped to Great Britain and also with regard to the total area placed under cultivation. Imports of Wheat and Flour into Gre.\t Britain. (Percentage from each Country. ) 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 Argentina ... Russia United States 'Other Foreign Countries 19 4-6 58-2 5-9 8-2 2 5 66-2 3-8 4-2 61 60-2 5-9 12-2 14-8 40 6 73- 18-5 20-1 15-7 6-5 60-8 21-1 21-8 12-7 6-7 Total Foreign 87-7 80-7 76-4 62-3 Australia Canada India Other British States ... 3 8-1 1-2 6-9 8-7 3-3 1-4 3-9 11-3 8-2 •2 12-4 14-G 9-6 7-6 21-6 •4 101 7-3 20 •3 Total British grown 12-3 19-3 23(5 27 39-2 37-7 Cultivation of Wheat in Millions of Ackes. (Averages for past twenty-five years.) 1881-5 1891-5 1901 1905 Argentina 0-6 5 8-3 121 United States 37 36-4 49 48 Canada 2-4 2-7 4-2 6 Australasia ... 3-6 4 5.9 6.5 What, then, are the main points which (ha.ve to be kept in view in order to keep Australia advancing in the van of agricultural progress? The first thing is the utilization to the utmost of the rainfall. We have pushed the limit of cultivation, experimentally at least, ui) to the fringe of the arid region, and farmers are tempted to chance a rroi> of wheat year after year in spite of the probabilities of failure, simpl>- because the cost of growing and harvesting the crop is so small that a good year means a handsome profit. The average yield of wheat in Australia is very low ; but it must be remembered that in no part of the world is the cost of growing it low^er per acre, and nowhere is a crop produced on such a lov.- rainfall. Nearly all the wheat grown in Victoria is produced in the driest part of the State, very little of it receives more than, 20 inches of rain, and there is no doubt that the limit of profitable production through- out Australia will gradually be advajiced to the lo-inch line of rainfall. The Future of Agricultural Practice. The future of agricultural practice in all parts of Australia mu.st depend for its success on the judicious combination of animal husbandry wdth increased areas under cultivation. We have already seen the fundamental principles which are inx'olved in this combination, and also the extent to which both are dependent on the proper use of the available water supph . 136 Journal of Agriculture. [8 March, 1907^ The details of the ways by which these objects can best be attained vary- in everv district. It is the skilful use of his opportunities that makes the successful farmer. But a number of points are so important that they each require a few woTds. 1. Irrigation. — The population of Australia is at present too scanty to allow us to do anything more than play at irrigation, because successful irrigation means small holdings and compariati\ely intense culture. All irrigated land should carry the equivalent of one cow to the acre, and to superintend this amount of production — whatever mav be the form it may take — means the utilization of a far greater amount of labour than is at present available in Australia. The area capable of irrigation is so vast that it must always be one of the chief factors in the agricultural develop- ment of Australia. It is estimated that the Murray and its tributaries alone will supply water for 8 million acres of land. In addition, it may be said that in the regions where the rainfall is above 30 inches suiiicient water now runs uselessly into the sea from each square mile to irrigate another 40 acres. The success which has already been achieved in different parts of Victoria by using this water to form a small private irrigation scheme indicates the immense possibilities in this direction. The most practical way to promote closer settlement is by establishing irrigation colonies for dairv farming. Forty acres of land under lucerne and maize on the banks of the ^lurray would thus easily keep a family in affluence. 2. hnprovcment in- Dry Farming Methods. — The best wav to carry out the fallowing, and the right amount of superphosphate to use, are points about which we are obtaining more information from year to year. At the same time, the question of the most suitable variety of wheat and the giowth of green fodder crops for sheep is engaging the attention of all progressive men. Australian wheat is grown with a lower average rainfall^ and at a lower cost per bushel, than that of any other country of the world. At the same time, more importance needs to be attached to the growth of deep-rooted and leguminous plants, and to the rotation of crops. It is here that sheep worked in with the wheat is a financial success- Lucerne, rape, peas, clovers, oats, and barley are tv])es of the crops that wherever possible should be grown along with wheat. They are not to be sold in the .market, but to be fed to sheep and cattle, and the prolit will come from the formation of humus, and the consequent steady increase in the fertility of the land. Lucerne starids unrivalled as a summer crop^ the others are l>rought tO' maturity by the winter rains alone. Then, again, the sheep conduce to clean farming, grazing off the early wheat, and pre- vent the wild oats from seeding. In every wav the crops keep the sheep and the sheep keep the crops. The extension of lucerne and rape into the drier areas, and the introduction of allied plants that can be grown with even less rainfall, are two of our most pressing prol)lems. 3. Conservation of Fodder. — In all parts of Australia certain months are marked by the luxuriance of the herbage, of which the live stock are unable to consume more than a small fraction. The monsoon rains cause a growth that appears almost incredible in the warmer parts of the continent while the spring growth is often of the same character in the southern States. Here, again, we want labour to make it practicable, but, givers' labour as efficient as that which raises our wheat crop, and the possibilities in the direction of hav and silage are immense. The surplus of a good season might then be carried forward to meet a time of drought. ,.\TK II' r A p - ! ■ R 0 0 M S March, 1907.] Proclaimed Plants of Victoria. 137 4. Iniprovoncnt of Poor Soils. — The use of sui)erphosphates and the .adoption of some such system of rotation as oats, peas, rape, barley or wheat, most of the produce tO' be fed to live stock on the farm, will at once start a man on the up-grade. Grass land top-dressed with super- phosphate or bonedust will rapidly increase in stock-carrying capacit\. Conclusion. But suppose our present bright prospects of profitable markets dis- appear, there is no question but that with our present small population over production would ensue, and much of our existing industrial buoyancv would disappear also. But the farm, as a home, would remain, and would offer even a better field for well-directed energv. Under such ■circumstances, in comparison with trade and manufacture it is probable that agriculture would be more highlv thought of than it is in periods of prosperity. Its attractions to the most progressive units in the population would be greater than ever. There is the old saying that the farmer is the most independent of men. The endless modification of the details of successful farm practice offers ample scope for everv one to de\'elop along his own special line. He mav vary the piurposes for which, he uses his land and still be quite as successful as his neighbours. If enthusiastic at his work he mav follow his bent to its full scope and still be successful. It makes nO' difference whether he specializes in crops or animals or simply holds to all-round farming. There is the life-long satisfaction of feeling that voiui are making progress from year to year. That next season vou •will make the poorer part of your land a step nearer to the best. That you W'ill weed out the least profitable of vour live stock and replace them with something better than your best. That after you have weathered one bad vear vou will lie in a stronger position to meet another. In a Avord, it is the privilege of the farmer to know that his future is more in his own hands than is tihe lot of most other men. That if he keep on sound lines Nature will be true to him. and that his upward progress, though it mav be slow, is not the less certain to lie sure. THE PROCLAIMED PLANTS OF VICTOIUA. {Continued from page 104.) Alfred J. Eivart, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Botanist; and J. R. Tovey, Herbarium Assistant. Cape Broom. Cytisus canariensis. Steudel {Leguminosce). A hardy evergreen shrub, 4 to 10 feet high. Branches' angular; leaves, with three leaflets, and, as well as the branches, clothed with soft hair or down, leaflets obovate-oblong. Heads of flowers, terminal, \ellow, pod clothed with white hair. A native of the Canary Islands. It should be dug up before flowering, and, being perennial, the root, as well as the stem, should be removed. Proclaimed for the Shires of Creswick, Glen- Ivon, Heidelberg. Kyneton, Kilmore, Lilydale, Lexton, Afalmsbury, and Springfield. 138 Journal of Agricultitre. [8 March, 1907^ IMPROVEMENT IX HORSE-BREEDING. ACTIOX BY VICTORIAX GOVERNMENT. Report by Mr. S. O. Wood, V.S., on his Mission to Europe. With a desire to furnish some practical means of arresting the generally recognised deterioration in the horse-breeding industry, the Honorable the- Treasurer, towards the end of 1905, allotted the sum of £3,000 as ?. grant to be devoted to the improvement of horse-breeding. Subsequent to a conference between the JNIinister of Agriculture (Honorable Geo. Swin- burne) and rei)resentative horse-breeders, a committee was appo nted, con- sisting of Mr. Robert Clark, Mr. W. J. H. Campbell, the Director of Agriculture (Dr. CherrN), the Chief Veterinarv Officer ''Mr. S. S. Cameron. M.R.C.V.S.), and the Chief Inspector of Stock (Mr. ]• R- Weir), to advise the Government as to the best means of applyino- the grant. As a basis of discussion for the Committee, the following outline of three schemes was prepared bv the departmental officers: — 1. Free Government Certification of Stallions standing for Public Use — T. The Government to undertake to have all stallions .standing for the use of public examined for soundness, free of cost, by qualified \eterinarv surgeons selected for the purpose. 2. The examinations to be conducted at certain ad\-ertised centres in each district throughout the State during the months of June, July, August, and September in each year. 3. The examining veterinary surgeons to .re|X)rt_ tO' the Department, and, in the case of staliicjns to be certified, the official Department of Agriculture certificate of .soundness to be issued within fourteen days of the examination. 4. Certificates of .soundness to Lh? issued in the case of all stallion.s not found to be affected with hereditary unsoundness. Unsoundness the result of work or accident, and blemishes not liable to l)e transmitted, are not to disqualifv. 5. A condition of the Government grant to Agricultural Societies in the future to* be that none but certified stallions shall be awarded prizes in breeding classes. II. Institution of District Premiums for Stallions — A. I. For stallion premium purposes the State to be divided into (say) fifteen districts. 2. In each of these districts a parade of stallions to be held on a date- to be fixed during the month of July or August, at which all stallions f-ntered for competition will be judged by a committee of three expert judges appointed by the Government. 3. The first prize-winner in each district (or po^ssibly, in the case of large districts, the two^ first) to be awarded a premium of £200 on the following conditions: — a. That the premium stallion be travelled through the district according to an agreed route and fixed daily time-table. h. That the services of the premium stallion be made avadable for the service of at least 60 mares (the bona fide property of farmers whose 8 March, 1907.] Improvement in Horse-breeding. 139 freehold or leasehold property is valued at less than -^2,500) for a foi of £2 per single mare, ^3 los. per pair, or ^1 10s. for three or more mares. B. — Alternative Premium Scheme — 1. As in A (i), but providing twenty districts. 2. The districts to be selected from amongst those from which appli- cations are received from the local Agricultural Societies offering to supple- ment by the sum of ^£50 a Government grant of ;^i5o, so as to make a premium of ;^2oo, to be awarded as in A (2), except that the judges be nominated by the Agricultural Societies concerned, with a Government representative as veterinary referee. (N.B. — In (his sclu-mc a committee A TYPICAL WELSH COB. Selected bv Mr. S. O. Wixjd, :ind imported bv Mr. O'Keefe, " ]3arholm, " Oakleij,di. of farmers subscribing the amount of ^50 might take the place of the Agricultural Society.) III. Purchase of Stallions for Leasing — 1. S'ix stallions (or more) to be purchased at an average cost of ;^5oo. 2. During the off season these stallions to be kept at some existing Government institution, say Dookie College. 3. Stallions to be leased for the season (ist August to 31st December) to a farmer nominated by the Agricultural Society of a district on the following tenns : — a. That the lessee have the free use of the stallion for mares his own -hand 'fide property. 140 Journal of Agriculture . [8 March, 1907. b. That the lessee be allowed to stand and travel the stallion for the use of not more than 60 mares the property of farmers (whose property is valued at less than ^^2,500) at a maximum fee of ^2 per single mare^ ^3 IDS. per pair, and ;Q\ los. each for three or more mares (or jQi los. per single mare, ^2 los. for each of two, and ^i 5s. for each of three or more). c. That the lessee effects an insurance on the stallion for the period of the lease and pays the premium thereon. d. That the lessee gives an approved guarantee (or is guaranteed by the Agricultural Society nominating him) for the safe keeping and proper care of the stallion while in his possession, and for re-deliverv of it to the Government 00 the termination of the lease in satisfactory condition anii health. (The judge of condition and health in this case tO' be the Govern- ment Veterinarian.) X.B. — A modification of this scheme, wlr.ch would nro\ide a fund for the keep- of the stallions during the idle season, and for the purchase of other stallions, would be to lease for a guaranteed payment to the Govern- ment of the service-fees of, say, 25 mares at -Q2 each, and allow service of, say, 50 other mares, whether belonging to the lessee or the public^ stipulating in the latter case that the service-fee should not exceed ^2. Comments on Schemes. ^ — These schemes mav be adopted separately^ or two or more of them mav be carried out simultaneously. No. I scheme should in any case be adopted. Xo. 2 can onlv be adopted with success if the grant is tO' be co'ntinue(J annuallv. The giving of premiums for one year only would be merely a flash in the pan, and would not result in much permanent good. The results woiuld scarcely be observable — would certainly not be observable to an extent sufficient tO' judge of the success or failure of the scheme, or of the advisability and profitableness of continuing it. No. 3 is more suitable for adoiption if the grant is an isolated one and its continuance problematical. The effect of the scheme wxiuld, of course, not be so wide-reaching as under No. 2 ; but it has the advantage that it could be extended at anv time as funds were made available, and, on the other hand, it could be dropped at any time without appreciable loss in case it was judged to have failed. Report of Committee. — The Committee, in its reoort, expressed the opinion that ^3.000 was- too small a sum to make a profitable commence- ment along anv line of policy, and that it might be well to defer action until the amount could be increased to ^^8,000 or ^^10,000. Alternatively,, the Committee recommended — 1. That the ;z^3,ooo be expended on only one scheme. 2. That scheme No. 3 be adopted, providing for leasinL^ Government stallions to persons approved by Agricultural Societies. 3. That for the current year a number of Welsh ponv stallions be im- ported, and. in addition, from four to six mares of the same breed Stallions to be leased in accordance with scheme No^ ^, and the mares- kept at Dookie, or other suitable centre, in order to form the nucleus of a pedigree stud of this breed. It will probablv be necessary to send a man to England to purchase- these horses. 8 March, 1907.] Improvement iu Horse-breeding. i4[ After further conference with representative horse-breeders and others interested in the trade, the Minister decided to spend tht^ vote as recom- mended bv the Committee. On the announcement of the definite intention of the Goxeninu'iit to import a number of Welsh cob stallions and mares, much public interest was manifested, and a considerable amount of criticism i)rofFered throuj;h the press. The various views thus ])ut forward wrtc commented on in the following memorandum to the Minister b\ Mr. S. S. Cameron, M.R.C.V.S., Chief Veter'narx Officer, on :21st March, 1006:-- " The scheme for utilization of tho. Government t^'rant of ^,,2,000 towards the improvement of horse-breeding, which was formulated bv the Committee appointed bv the Honorable the ^Minister, namelv, tlie importa- tion of a numlter of Welsh cob entires and m.tres. has now Infii iicFori^ 1 \I I'OklKli WKL.MI i'dW. ■ ■ Alol N IAIN III':K(J. Property of the late Hon. J. H. Connor, M.L.C. Cliamjiion prize-taker of .Australia. the public three months. The scheme has l^een criticised from all quarters, and, in the main, it may be said that the amount of adverse criticism ha.s not been so great as the Committee expected. The subject is one cm wdiich all sorts of opinions are held, and it is safe to say that there is not likely to be unanimity, even amongst experienced men, as to the best means ot attaining the object. It is noticeable throughout all adverse criticism that it is of a destructive character, and not constructive. That is to say, while in some quarters the scheme has been broadly condemned, no better way of expending the money has been put forward. Indeed, nothnng has been suggested in this connexion but what had previously received careful con- sideration by the Committee before deciding on its recommendation. On the other hand, the support which the scheme has received is gratifving. 142 Journal of Agriculture. [8 March, 1907. and the weight of opinion in its favour preponderates largely over that against. For instance, of some 44 correspondents to the Argus newspaper, 24 expressed themselves a^. in favour of the Government scheme, twelve others were opposed to the scheme, and eight were neutral on the point. It is true that of these same correspondents three only favoured the use of Welsh pony stallions direct for the breeding of Indian remounts; but it must be remembered that the object of the Government scheme is rather to add weight and bone to the present type of mares, in order that the progenv, on being put to a thoroughbred, may get the animal suitable for the Indian trade. Again, decided opmions in favour of the scheme have been expressed at meetings in different parts of the countrv. and notably at a meeting at Nhill, at which the favorable opinion was emlx)died in the form of a resolution. A number of applications have already been received bv the Department for the hire of the stallions when available. These appFications have been from individuals, and also from Agricultural Societies and other bodies. It should be remembered that the object aimed at in this scheme is to establish a stallion-breeding stud which w^ould produce animafs continuously for leasing purposes. In regard to thoroughbreds and Clydesdales, this object is being attained by private enterprise, and it is questionable whether the Government could in anv way improve matters By adooting the.se breeds. While it is admitted that the Arab stallion is very suitable for the purpose desired, it is not feasible for the Government to establish an Arab stud that would make Arab stallions continuously available, the reason being that under the present conditions it is practically impossible to obtain pure Arab mares. Therefore, if a continuous scheme of leasing is to be carried on, a continuous scheme of purchase of stallions would be neces- sary. Given that the selection and the purchase is placed in reliable hands, the scheme for the importation of stallion cobs still stands as the most feasible method for the utilization of the grant.'" At this stage Mr. S. O. Wood, V.S., who was about to leave on a visit to Europe, intimated his willingness to act in an honorary capacity for the Government while in England in the matter of selecting the animals required, and his services w'ere accepted. The exact scope of Mr. Wood's mission will be best gathered from the appended extracts from his letter of commission: — " Having reference to vour offer to assist the Government of this State in the matter of the selection in England of a number oi stallions and mares for importation here, I beg to inform you that the Government has accepted your services in this regard, and I ha\e now the honour to submit to vou the following suggestions for your guidance and instruction: — " That the sum of monev to be expended in purchasing should not exceed ^2,400 or thereabouts, so that a balance of -f,6oo out of the ^3,000 made available bv the Honorable the Treasurer mav be kept to meet the expenses of purchase, shipment, and insurance. " That your attention should be directed in the first instance to the carrying out of the scheme advised by the Committee on Horse-breeding, and assented to conditionallv by the Cabinet, viz. : — The purchase of animals of the Welsh cob l>reed. 14 hands high (or thereabouts) and up- wards, of stout build, vigorousi, with good actio.n -i ami (Iranil ("hamjiion ]irizes. that in this regard \our own judgment will have to be largely depenlin Horse Show. Welshpool. Clonmell Thoroughbred Studs. Llanfair. The Curragh Thoroughbred Studs. Garthmyl. Montgomer\ shire. Waterford. Idandella (Jones's Manoravon Newmarket Blood Stock Sales. Stud). Ascot Blood Stock Sales. Cardiganshire. Doncaster Blood Stock Sales. 8 March. 1907.] I nipro^'cmciU in Horsc-brecd'nig. 147 Efforts at Improvement in England. The deterioration of the Enj;lish army horse is exercising the minds of the English Government to such an extent that at the present there is a Commission sitting with respect to the question. The phan at present in operation in England to encourage the improvement in horse-breeding is the awarding of King's premiums for competition amongst thoroughbred horses, arranged bv the Ro\al Commission on Horst^-bri-cding, under the following conditions: — king's premiums. Twenty-eight " King's Premiums," of £^^^0 each, are offered for thoroughbred stallions between 4 vears old and not exceeding 20 years old. It shall be a conditinn that each stallion winning a premium shall serve not less than 50 half-bred mares, if re(]uirf^(l. iluring the season, and shall A DESERT-EORN ARAB. l'ro])ertv of Dr. Spooner Hart. Stand or travel, as the Commissioners mav direct, in the district b)r which he is exhibited, at a fee not exceeding 4s. for each mare, and 2s. 6d. to the groom. The season will commence on April 2nd, and terminate on July 31st. It shall be a condition that no King's Premium stallion shall be allowed to be exhibited for comfetitiou during the season of service. It shall be a condition that a stallion which has won four Uueen\s or King's Premiums in the same district class shall be ineligible for entry again in the same class, but shall be eligible for an\ other district class. For the purpose of this exhibition, each district will constitute a separate class, to be stvled " District Class." 148 Journal of Agriculture . [8 March, 1907. Stallions shall compete onl\ in the " District Class " for which they are entered, and exhibitors may not enter more than one stallion in each class. The Commissioners reserve power to award to a stallion unsuccessful in the district class for which he is entered a premium in the class of any other district provided the exhibitor enters the stallion on these terms. Should a premium be awarded in such other class, the obligations as to location and service shall apply to the district for which the premium is awarded, instead of the district for which the stallion is exhibited. The Commissioners are of opinion that the following diseases s.hall disqualifv a thoroughbred stallinn for the purposes of this Commission, viz. : — Roaring — Whistling. Navicular Disease. Ringbone. Spavin (Bone). Unsound Feet. Cataract. If any stallion winning a i)remium should not serve at least 30 half- bred mares during the season, the Commissioners reserve the power to reduce the premium, as provided bv the rules and regulations. The 23 premiums are distributed over 12 groups of counties in Eng- land and Scotland; two groups having four premium stallions allotted, five other groups three stallions, and the remaining five groups one stallion each. I have a ro[)\ of the regulations governing the awarding of the premiums, which I will be pleased to make available at any time. Continental Methods of Horse Culture. In order to learn what is being done by other countries for the improve- ment in breeding of pure stock, I visited France, and there inspected M. Blanc's stud; also the National Stud, at Le Pin Normandy, the latter being one of the Government stud stations. Here I had the pleasure of seeing 300 stallions, comprising thoroughbreds, half-bred Normans, Venerdens, qualified trotters, English hackneys, draught sires, Percherons, Boulonnais. The horse now being bred by the French Government for general utility purpose is the Norman horse. This is a distinct type produced by the French after 60 years of careful breeding on practical lines, and can be depended upon to breed true to type. He is a class of horse between the thoroughbred and draught, showing plenty of pace and action. The methods adopted' by France can be realized somewhat from the following facts, which I obtained from personal inspection and inquiry and from perusal of Sir Walter Gilbey's notes on " Horse-breeding in France.'" It being the object of the Government to foster and encourage the breeding of horses of classes most useful to the people of the country, there is in every public stud considerable variety of breed, and therefore the owner of a mare may exercise his own judgment in selection of a sire. The turf in France has always been made subservient to the serious national work of breeding useful horses. Public money is not spent in encouraging weeds onlv capable of carrying six or seven stones over a five- furlong course. Under the law of the 29th March. 1874. the horse-breeding establish- ments of France were re-organized. It was then enacted that the State should purchase stallions at the rate of 200 per year, until a total of 2,500 had been reached. In 1892, other legislation was passed sanctioning a 8 March, 1907.] huprovcinoit in Horsc-brccdiiig. 149 further increase in the number of State stallions by annual additions to the number of 50. Finally, in 1900, a third enactment authorized the purchase of 50 stallions a year until the number owned by the State should reach a gross total of 3,450. France, for stud purposes, is divided into six districts, w.hich contain 22 Government studs for stallions. At these studs, on the ist Januarv, 1905, 3.267 stallions of different breeds were available for distribution among 689 local covering stations for the public service. The stallions are divided into three classes, and the strength of the studs at the beginning of 1905 was as follows: — Thoroughbreds — Thoroughbreds ... ... ... 244 Arabs ... ... ... ... 102 Anglo-Arabs ... ... ... 233 Not Thoroughbreds — Southern Half-breds ... ... ... 200 Normans and Vendeans ... ... 1.451 Qualified Trotters ... ... ... 307 English Hackneys ... ... ... 120 English Hackney (Cross-ln-eds) ... ... 74 Draught — Percherons ... ... ... ^01 Boulonnais ... ... ... ... 71 Ardennes ... ... ... ... 98 Bretons ... ... ... ... 66 3,-^67 The service charged to owners for these stallion.s varies from a minimum of 5s. to 1 6s. per mare. During the year 1904, there were 3,213 stallions belonging to the State in actual work. These covered 175,956 mares. Looking more clo.sely into the returns of service, it is found that in the thoroughbred class (English, Arab, and Anglo-Arab), 583 stallions performed 25,577 services., or about 44 each; the half-bred class, 109,271 services, or nearly 52 each; and the draught sires, 41,108, or over 79 each. The stallions at each local covering station are changed frequentlv. Besides the 3,213 stallions belonging to the State, there is a large number in the hands of private owners. Any stallion whose services are available to the public must be licensed by the Government as belonging to one of these classes: — I. "Approved" stallions, which are considered good enough to im- prove the breed of horses. These are sub-divided into two classes. Sires which can earn over 100 francs (^^4) per service constitute the first class; the.se receive no bountv from the State. The second class consists of sires, for whose services less than 100 francs is charged by tlie owner; these receive an annual premium of from ;£,\2 to ^80 a venr. In 1904 there were 1,479 approved stallions, viz.: — Thoroughbreds, Arabs and Anglo-Aral) ... 306 Not Thoroughbred ... ... .-■ 459 Draught ... ... ... ■•• 715 1.479 15° ' Journal of Agriculture. [8 March, 1907. 2. ''Authorised" stallions, which receive no premium, but whose progeny are eligible to compete at shows subsidized by the State. There Avere licensed of these in 1904: — Thoroughbrds. Arabs and Anglo-Arab ... 23 Not T.horoughljreds ... ... ... 28 Draught ... ... ... ... 202 253 3. " Accepted " stallions, which ha\e nothing to recommend them but a certificate of freedom from roaring and intermittent ophthalmia. In 1904, 7,629 stallions were "accepted" by the Committees charged with the duties of examination. During the same year, the "approved" stallions performed 75,717 services, and the "authorized" stallions 11,945. Xo record is kept of the covering by the third class, or "accepted " stallions. Stud Farm. — There is only one Government Stud Farm, and this is at Pompadour, where 60 mares are kept. English thoroughbred, Arab and Anglo-Arab, horses are bred at Pompadour, and the farm is onlv a small factor in the general scheme of breeding. Impro\ement is sought princi- pally through the provision of good stallions. Bounties are also given for brood mares, fillv foals, and a prize for horse-breaking at public competitions. These measures encourage owners to retain possession of the best breeding stock for the benefit of the nation, and stimulate endeavour among the people to achieve skill as horse master.s. About ;^3o8.ooo of public money is spent annuallv in France in horse breeding. The expenditure includes the maintenance of the stallion studs and depots, purchase of horses, premiums to private stallion owners, prizes given at races and local shows, &c. About ;^ioo.ooo of this total is derived from the tax or percentages on the pari-mutuel or betting organiza- tion, which tax is ear-marked by the Treasury to devote to horse-breeding. What I saw of breeding operations in France gave rise to the following reflections : — There must always be a large proportion of disappointments in stud work : the number of failures or misfits will always exceed the good ones bred ; and the misfit got by the thoroughbred from, sav, a light half-bred mare is only too often a misfit in the fullest sense — a disappointment to the breeder, too light for farm work, and scarcely fit for anv useful pur- pose. It is a weed in e\ery sense of the term. France at the present time can, after 60 years of careful selection, show us distinct and well- marked breeds of horse (Normans), which can be depended on to breed true to type. France breeds for business, and not for pleasure. The aim is to pro- duce the highest class of useful horse. With this definite object in view, the authorities have for the past 60 years been purchasing English mares, free from bias in favour of one strain or another. The shape and not the pedigree of the mare guides the purchase so long as the breeding is pure. They also -buy sound \oung mares for work with the \iew of breeding from them after. The point worthy of notice is that owing to the methods pursued on the Continent the foreigner's misfits are unlike ours. The foreigner's is useful for general purposes, if it is not of sufficient quality to sell in the most remunerative market as a carriage ,horse. It was a surprise to me to 8 March, 1907.] lm\provement in Horse-breeding. 151 learn that hundreds of pairs of carriage and coach horses have been sold every \ear in London for jQioo to ^500 a pair, the purchasers being quite unaware of their foreiijn origin. If any one should take the trouble to trace their origin, it is stated that then they would find that thev came either from the horse-breeding districts of Normaii(l\ in JMai^ct-, or from the Oldenburg Province of Germanv. Australian Material for Improvement. As L)earing on the subject of the suitability of the Australian thorough- bred for producing horses for foreign markets, the result of experiments in India extending over 12 and 22 years are interesting. In a paper l>y the late Vet. -Colonel J. H. B. Haller, who was the general superintendent of horse-breeding operations in India, he states: — " Of the stock got by Australian sires, the young stock often prove better boned in limb than the stock from thoroughbreds imported from England." These observations were made after the system had been tweh-e vears in operation. Colonel ()ueripel, the Inspector-General in India, 22 years after the system had been in operation, complains that the English thoroughbreds of the stamp required to get remounts grow scarcer and harder to obtain each year. Breeders aim at long-legged, striding animals, which are exactly what India does not require. On the other hand, a Ijetter stamp of thoroughbreds has been procured in small numbers from Australia. Several imported during the otlicial year 1897-8 were between 15.2 and 152- in height, girthed from 68 to 72-^- inches, and onh one had less than 8 inches of bone below the knee. It is interesting to note the proportion of prizes won by the progenv of each class of stallions when mated Avith the light native mares. These figures cover a period of six years, and show the stock of half-bred English sires first, Australian stallions taking second place, English thoroughbreds third. Eigures relating to subsequent vears show the thoroughbreds im- ported from Australia in the first j^lace. Recommendations . As a result of mv inquiries, I am more than satisfied that the improve- ment of the Australian horse can l>e largely contributed to bv displaying that great care and attention in the iudicious selection of stallions and mares as is exhibited by other horse-breeding communities, the necessary material being at ])resent ol)tainable in the Commonwealth, though juobablv in limited quantities. I would suggest— 1. That the Government purchase a number of short-legged, thick-set, thoroughbred stallions, from 15 to 15.2 hanfls high, of the type being shipped to India, their racing performances Ijeing taken into consideration only SO' far as thev convev a guarantee of constitutional soundness. They should be distributed throughout the State for service of half-bred mares only, and made available at a small fee to farmers and others. The merits of this plan are at least twofold. It wonld prevent the loss to the State of a verv desirable type of stallion, and would encourage the production of a greater number of horses suitable for export or general utilitv purposes. 2. That premiums be offered annually for stallions suitable for im- proving the breed of horses, the condition l:>eing that the winners shall stand in districts to be allotted, at a reasonable f^e. to be fixed b\- the (jovern- ment, and to be available for ser\ice of at least thirtv half-bred mares Journal of Agriculture. [8 March, 1907. annually at such fee. This would encourage the private ownership of stallions of a sta-ndard approximating to that of the Government-owned stallions. 3. That all stallions be licensed subject to approval of a qualified Board, and no unlicensed stallion be allowed to stand for public service for fees. 4. That the Government gi\-e earnest consideration to the great need for discouraging ihe exportation of mares. This might in part be accom- plished by reserving the option of purchasing from each shipment collected for export such mares as it is desired to retain at a fair market ])rice, with the object of selling them to breeders on terms of two, three, or four annual pa\ments. I have the honour to be, sir, Your obedient servant, (Signed) S. OCTAVIUS WOOD. SOUNDNESS IN HORSES. S. S. Cameron, 3/.R.C.V.S., Chief Yctcriiiary Officer. Definition and Explanation — Classification of Ihisoundnesses, hereditary unsound- nesses— Examination for soundness, preliminary examination, manual examination, completing examination. " Freedom from any abnormality which at present interferes, or in the future is likely to interfere, with an animal's usefulness." Such is a work- able definition of the term soundness as applied to horses. Technically, of course, to be sound, a horse must be free from anv disease, defect or abnormality whatsoever; but it has been held in the" English courts that soundness is a question, not so much of disease, as of usefulness. For instance, while a simple sore on the side of the neck would not necessarily constitute unsoundness, a similar sore behind the withers in a saddle horse or on the shoulder in a harness horse or on any place where it would inter- fere with the natural usefulness of the animal for the purpose for which it was used would certainly amount to an unsonndness. Consequentlv, in deciding on the soundness or otherwise of a horse, consideration must be given to the nature of the work he will be called upon to perform. Side- bones, for example, constitute unsoundness in a light horse performing his vvork at a trot, but in certain stages they may be "passed " in a draught farm horse used on soft land at a walking pace. Again, there are manv diseases or ailments which at one stage may render the animal decidedlv unsound, but at another are not likely to do so. Splints when forming frequently cause lameness, but when "set" they seldom do so, and their presence in an aged horse should not go against him. Age also, and many other features have to be taken into consideration, so that it Avill be seen the subject is largely one in which individual oninion and judgment h.'ive to be depended on. 8 March, 1907.] Soundness in Horses. 53 It will be convenient, nevertheless, to suiimit a tahulatetl list setting out : — (a) those diseases or defects the existence of which renders a horse absolutely unsound, and (b) those which may, or may not, constitute unsoundness accordint: to circumstances. In these lists the italicized w^ords indicate those conditions which are generally and authoritatively classed as hereditarv unsoundness. (See p,age 269, May, 1906, Journal.) CONDITIONS CONSTITUTING Atrophy (local). Blindness (complete or jjartial). Bowed tendons. Broken-wind (asthma). Break-down. Canker (foot). Cataract. Corns. Cough (chronic). Crib-biting. Curb. l'"alse Quarter. Fistulous withers. Founder or Lamiuitis. Grease. Heart Disease. Hernia (rupture). Lameness (of any degree). Lymiyha7tgjtis'(\\e.ed or shot of grease). Mallenders. Mange. Melanosis. Nasal Disease (osteo-porosis). DEFINITE UNSOUNDNESS. Navicular disease. Neurotomy or unnerving (evidence of). Paralysis (localj. Poll evil. r)uittor. Rheumatism. Rickets. Ringbone. Roaring (grunting, whistling, and thick wind). Sallenders. Sandcrack. Scirrhus cord. Seedy toe. Sesamoiditis. " Shivering." Sf.avin (bone, bog, ami blooil). Sprains (back tendon, suspensorx- liga- ment, &c.). Strin<'halt. Speedy Cut. Wasted shoulder. Wind-suckin'T. CONDITIONS USUALLY, BUT NOT NECESSARILY, CONSTITUTING UNSOUNDNESS. Broken Knees. Parrot mouth. Brushing or Cutting. Sidebones. Capped elbow Capped hock. Contracted feet. Cracked Heels. Crib-biting and Dropped Hip. Filled Legs. Fired Limbs. Galls (tumified). Jaundice. wind- Sitfasts. Skin Diseases. Sores (saddle or harness). Sore Shins. Splints. Thoroughfin. 'J'hrush. Tumors. Warts. Wind-rails. Examination of Horses for Soundness. Preliminary Examination. It is always advantageous to first see the horse in the stall or box where he has been at rest for a considerable time, so- that signs of weaving, crib-biting, wind-sucking or other such stable habit may be detected, ard the " pointing " or " favouring" of any limb observed. If the horse is made to " stand over " suddenly in the stall, that suspicious bending of the hocks or '"' clicking up " of the hind limbs, which is frequently associated 1^4 Journal of Agriculture. [8 March, 1907. with bone spavin and stringhalt, may be observed, as also the quivering of tlie tail of a " shiverer." The double flank heave of a broken-winded horse may be looked for at this stage. After such a casual examination, the horse should be brought out with the bare halter on and straightway trotted at a gentle jog trot for the detec- tion of lameness, which is in most cases more pronounced immediately after rest. The method of examination foT detection of Lameness is to be fully dealt with further on, and it will suffice here to say on this subject that the horse should be trotted as many times as desired to and from the examiner, who should stand fairlv in front or behind accordino- as the horse is ap- proaching or going away from him. Particular notice should be taken when the horse is turning, as then any "halting" which has previously escaped notice may be obser\ed. Manual Examination. The jogging having been completed, the examiner may proceed to a de- t;;iled and manual examination of the horse, and it may be well here to observe that, in the carr\ing out of this, there is a ricdit way and a wrong wav — the one methodical and stylish, and the other slipshod and slovenlv. Except the examination is gone about with some method the examiner is apt to become confused and overlook various points. Apart from being m.ore stvlish and horsemanlike, the observance of method saves time by avoiding numerous useless turns of the bodv and re])eated handlings. When a particular method of examination is adopted, it should always be adhered to, and the examiner should always have in his mind the unsoundness which mav exist in the part being handled, and should not allow his atten- tion to be distracted by the casual observation of anvthing imusual at any other part, or bv the conduct or remarks of bystanders which often have a sinister object. In this wav the likelihood of failing to note an unsound- ness is reduced to a minimum. One of the best methods of manual examination, whereby the work can be expeditiouslv done without making any unnecessarv turns or movements of the bodv, and in which the attitude of the examiner and his use of hands and arms is easy and natural, is that taught l)v the late Principal Williams, of the New Veterinary College, Edinburgh, whose smartness and neatness in " going round a horse ".w^as the admiration of successive classes of students, and a fitting achievement to emulate. 1 purpose to represent this method by indicating the action of the examiner and the object of such action in juxtaposed columns. In this way the co- relation of the action and object will be more clearlv grasped, and with viva voce repetition of these during repeated practice on a few quiet horses the desired " finish " and style will soon be acquired. Smoothness and (juietness of motion are essential throughout the examination ; jerky or sudden movements, or any action likely to upset, excite or bustle the horse should be avoided. Action. Object. Walk slowly round the horse from To get an imjiression or mind picture near to off side at a distance of 3 or 4 of the horse's make and shape, and con- yards, with eyes directed successively sequently to opine likely unsoundness ; to each part of the animal. and to observe any weakness of confor- mation, exaggerated deformity, or ob- vious unsoundness, such as wasted shoul- ders, broken knees, bowed tendons, dropped hip, curb and the like. 8 March, 1907.] Soundness in Horses. 155 Ac lion. Stand directly in front, facing the horse's head, placing the groom on the near side, and standing the horse fair and square, with equal distribution of weight on all four limbs. The horse should be kept in this attitude till the manual examination is comiileted. Object. To observe the bi-lateral symmetry of all parts in view — ears, eyes, face, nos- trils, jaws, chest, shoulders, forearms, knees, cannons, fetlocks, pasterns, and feet; and to delect paralysis of ears — eyelids, nostrils, lips, or facial muscles, nasal disease, wasting of shoulder muscles, broken knees, splints, enlarged fetlocks, ringbone, sidebone and sand- crack. Place the groom in front, with a rein in each hand. Step to near side of head, and stand sideways, facing the head. Stroke the nostril and eyelids to establish the horse's confidence ; open the lips with both hands, and examine the teeth, lips and gums. Use the left hand for examining forelock, forehead, face, nose and nostril, lifting the flap of the left nostril with the thumb. Use the rieht hand for examining poll, ear, choke, jaw, jowl and curb, and for lift- inor the near eyelid. To ascertain age and sex (canine teeth), to examine tongue and to detect presence of wolf teeth, lampas, ulceration of mouth, nasal disease, nasal catarrh and ulceration, poll evil, ear fistula, en- larged jjarotid duct, presence of bot-fly eggs on jowl, bit and curb abrasions, and condition of conjunctiva of the eye. (N.B. — If there is champing of the teeth or dribbling of saliva or an undue amount of saliva in the mouth, a special examination of the molar teeth should be made to detect jaggedness, decay, or fracture of the teeth.) Step laterally to near side of neck and examine it, using the right hand. With the left hand examine the windpipe, and with the fingers press into the jugular gutter and raise the jugular vein. To detect injuries and to see that the jugular vein is not occluded as a result of "bleeding," which is usually prac- tised on on the off side "or the side on which the mane lies. Step opposite to the near fore limb, still facing sideways, and examine the withers and shoulder, using the right hand. To detect fistulous withers, collar galls, sore shoulders, wasted shoulder, shoulder tumors and enlargement of shoidder joint. Turn half round, facing towards the horse's head, and with the palm, thumb, and fingers of the right hand examine the breast and front of the near limb, passing the hand 'iteadily and deftly down the front of the .shoulder joint, the forearm, knee, cannon, fetlock, pas- tern, coronet, and hoof. The examiner should not more than slightly bend his knees while stooping for this operation. Squatting down with the knees and hips bent is unsightly and dangerous. To detect rail raps, bursal enlarge- ments, broken knees, splints, sore shins, enlarged fetlocks, ringbone, quittor- sandcrack, false quarter and laminilis. Turn full rountl, facing the horse"., hind quarters, and ^\illi the left hand examine the posterior aspect of the limb from the elbow to the foot. To detect capped elbow, sprained muscles, thoroughpin of the knee, mal- lenders, speedy cut, sprain of the check ligament, fle.xor tendons or superior suspensory ligament, bowed tendons, splints, scars from unnerving, windgalls, sesamoiditis, brushing, sprain of the in- ferior suspensory ligament, cracked heels, sidebone, bruised coronet and quittor. 156 Journal of Agriculture. [8 March, 1907. Action. Plr.ce the left foot between the horse's hoofs from the front, with the left knee jjressed firmly against the front of the horse's near knee. Bend over to- wards the back of the limb, and with the thumbs of both hands press upon the seat of sidebone. The pressure against the horse's knee insures that his full weight is thrown upon the foot during the mani])ulation of the seat of side- bone. Object. To detect sidebone by !he absence of springiness of the lateral cartilages on each side of the coronet when the horse's foot is firm on the ground and bearing weight. Lift the horse's foot by tugging at the fetlock with the left hand, or preferably by grasping the pastern with the right hand and at the same time pressing the muscles above the arm half-way be- tween the shoulder and elbow with the left thumb. When this pressure is ap- plied most horses will relax the joints and give up the foot straight away. With the left hand grasp the toe of the hoof underneath and bring the foot forward until all the joints of the limb are fully extended. While the limb is thus straightened out, press upon the front of the knee and fetlock with the right hand. To examine the under surface of the shoe for " clicking," and of the hoof for contracted heels, wasted frog, thrush, canker, seedy toe, corns and bruises, dropped sole and laminitis. Ex- cept the shoe is removed examination for corns and bruises is unreliable. To detect impediments to the full ex- tension of the limb, and to put the flexor tendons on the stretch, and so de- tect any flinching from sprain. Return the foot to the former position, and, while still held up, hand it to an assistant to hold, with the knee and fet- lock flexed until the examination of the near side is almost completed. To prevent the horse kicking while the hind parts are being examined. Taking a step rearward and facing sideways on to the horse, with the left hand examine the back from the withers to the loins, and with the right hand examine the brisket, flank, abdominal wall and sheath. To detect sore back, saddle galls, sit- fasts, warbles, girth galls, rupture, warts and abnormality of external geni- tals. Turn half round, facing forwards, and with the right hand examine the front of the near hind limb from hi]) to hoof. To detect dropped hip, dislocation of the stifle-cap (patella), bog spavin, bone spavin, sallenders, splints, &c., as in the fore limb. Turn full round, facing backwards, and with the left hand examine the croup, quarters and posterior aspect of the limb down to the heels. To detect muscle sprains and wasting or shrinking of the croup or quarters, thoroughpin, caoped hock, curb, sprained tendons, &c., as in the fore limb. Allow the fore limb to be dropped. Lift the near hind foot bv bending down and tugging at the fetlock with the right hand, and at the same time exerting a slight tilting pressure with the left hand on the point of the hip. When the limb is lifted, press it back- wards, and support it bv allowing the fetlock to rest on the left thifrh. To examine the under-surface of the foot and detect defects and unsoundness as in the fore foot. 8 March, 1907.] Sotiiidiiess in Horses. 157 Action. Straighten the fetlock by bringing the foot forward with the lefi hand, as de- scribed for the fore liinh. Bend the ])astern backwanls, and bv lifting the limb upwards, put the fet- lock and hock joints in a position of ex- treme flexion. Push the limb back bv pressure of the thigh to a position insuring extension of the hock. Release the foot, and stej) to the rear of the horse. Lift and examine the tail, anus, and vulva. Stand square behind, facing forwards. Object. To detect im])cdiments to the full ex- tension of the hind fetlock, and bv tensing the back tendons to detect flinch- ing due to s])rain. To detect [Jain or stiffness in the hock from bone s|)avin, and in the fetlock from anthritis. To detect ]iain from spavin and im- jiediments to extension of the hock. To detect melanotic tumors, docking wound, injury or imjjerfection of the anus or vulva, or the jiresence of worm- indicating scurf round the anus. To observe bi-lateral symmetry of the croup, hips, quarters, stifles, thighs, hocks, hind cannons and fetlocks. Proceed then to examine the ofi'-side in the same fashion, making the manual examination with the op];osile hand; for example, in handling the front of the off fore limb, the left hand is used instead of the right. Completing Examination. The manual examination having been completed, the examiner should smartly turn the horse round both wavs and back him sharph-, when, often- times "halting " of the hind liinbs, or " shiverincr," will be noticed. The horse should then be placed alongside a wall or fence and tested for grunt- ing or roaring. This is done by taking a firm short hold of the halter or bridle with the left hand, facing towards the bodv of the horse, and making a sudden feint tO' strike him. When cringing from the threatened blow a roarer will emit a distinct grunt or groan. Special examination of the eyes and feet follows, to be carried out as will be described when the diseases of the eyes and feet are being respec- tively dealt with. Next, the hor.se's wind should be tested. For this purpose light horses are given a smart gallop, ])referabl\' on heavy going up-hill, and the exa- miner who rides ^he horse himself in this test gallop is at a distinct advan- tage in detecting such laryngeal defects as roiaring and whistling and such lung affections as "broken wind." Draucht horses are usually voked to a load and subjected to a sharp up-hill pull, which quickly manifests any abnormal respiratory distress. Finally, it is a safe plan to have the horse jog-trotted a second time when he has rested for an hour or so after the gallop or wind test, for then any undiscovered lameness or stiffness will be likely to lie made more evident. Journal of Agriculture. [8 March, 1907- DUCK8 FOR EXPORT. .4. Hart, Poultry Expert. A Profitable Industry. The (luck-breeding and rearing industry in our State at present offers verv favorable prospects. We have one of the most suitable climates in the world for this purpose. Our other advantages are equally favorable, and the present prices of grain, root crops, milk, and all other foods must he taken into consideratiiin, and weijih LarLrelv in favour of this industry. DUCKLINGS PACKED 1 uK hAlokl. The local trade in ducklings could, no doul)t. be much increased by a necessary improvement in the breeds, qualitv. (!v:c.. of the l)irds reared. We have also an unlimited market in Great Britain and South Africa for properly-fattened poultry of all kinds. Ducklings are specially suitable for the purpose of export, and there is every reason tO' believe that this industry, if properlv fostered and developed, ^vill result in the establishing of a very large and important trade in the near future. There is, how- ever, one point which must be regarded as of the most importance in this industry, and that is the proper feeding of the ducklings intended for market or export. It does not matter how suitable the breed or cross may be, or how large the frame, if proper faod is not given liberally such stock are worthless for the table, and failure is certain. S March, 1907.] Ducks for Export. 159 The accompanying illustration shows ducklings jjacked tor fXi)ort. There are twelve birds packed in each crate. Six are- |)ackfd in each half of the crate, which is then folded together and fastt-ned in the middle. This allows all of the birds to be seen if occasion re<|uires. and is specially suitable to the London markets. The liest months for export are from December to March. All ducklings sent in for exj)ort should not be less than 4^ lbs. each Jixe weight. Thev should be as uniform in size and quality as possible. An Aylesbury and Pekin cross is jjrefer- able, the Aylesbur\ drake and Pekin ducks being the most favorable way of mating. A Successful Duck Farm. An instance of the success of rearing ducklings for table purposes is to be found on the farm of Messrs. Goldsmith and Coleman, of Kvneton FATTENING .SHED OF MESSRS. GOLDSMITH AND COLEMAN, KYNETON. These breeders ha\e been engaged in the industr\ for se\eral years. The success the\- ha\-e achie\ed is all the more creditable by the fact that they are a long distance from market, and their district is not nearly so suitable fo\ this purpose as in many other parts of the State. Their annual out- put runs into several hundreds of ducklings. The breeding jwns are made up of Aylesburv drakes and Pekin ducks ; one drake to three ducks. These birds are housed in sheds specially adapted for warmth, rajiid growth, and fattening. Thev are kept in lots of twenty ducklings in each pen. These pens are built in a ver\ large sh«-d with a passage running right down the centre of the building. The yards are made of closely-battened hurdles 2 feet high. The feeding troughs, which are V-shaped, are placed outside of the pens, and run down the whole length of the building on either .side of the passage. The feeding is performed from three to four times a dav ; for the first month thev are fed lour times daily, and i6o Journal of Agriculture. [8 ^Iarch, 1907. after that three times. The food is all good and sound. During the first week, the food is given fairly dry and crumbly, and after that moist. Bran, pollard, vegetables, and root crops are the .staple foods. Skim milk is used, and all food is scalded with Ijoiling water and allowed to cool before feeding. Grit and green food are given liberally, and are always at hand. The grain used is wheat and barley, which are mixed with the soft food. The troughs are always well cleaned out after each meal, and care is taken to have all other surroundings perfectly clean. The ducklings are placed in pens according to age and size, and this point is strictly adhered to right through. The feeding is on a very liberal scale, and the fattening process is completed in from ten to twelve weeks. The cost of the food for ten weeks runs into is. 7d. per pair. The weight of the ducklings at this age will aNerage from 9 to 10 lbs. per pair. At the average price of 6d. per 11). live weisfht this would return 4s. 6d. and 5s. per pair. Adding the value oA the eggs (which would be about ikl. each) to the cost of food, would make the outlay is. lod., PEKIN AND AYLESBURY DUCKLINGS. 10 weeks old. Average weight, 6 lbs. Fattened by Mr. P. Briggs. leaving a margin of from 2s. 8d. to 3s. 2d. per pair. The cost of housing, attention, &c., would not l)e large, especiallv when a large quantity is kept. At the early part of the season, ducklings would bring up to 7|d. per pound for local consumption; but this would only be for a limited number. It must be remembered, however, that on no account should a breeder tiv to rear more stock than he can hou.se, keep, and look after properly. This fault of over-crowding, accompanied often bv under-feeding, is re- sponsible for many failures in both ducks and poultrv. A Successful Breeder. Mr. P. Briggs, of South Brighton, whose name is a household word in connexion with the breeding of pure-bred Aylesburv and Pekin ducks, 8 March, 1907.] Ex-port of Eggs. 161 has been in this Hne for many years, and his success is too Avell -known to need any comment. His system of feeding is a little more expensive than that of the first-named breeders, but, on the other hand, the results are better. Although the figures given are for the rearing of pure .stock foi exhibition and breeding purposes, they can be applied eciuallv in the case of rearing crossbred birds for table. The cost of feeding the duck- lings reared by Mr. Briggs up to ten weeks old is estimated to be 2s. 6d. per pair. The weight would average about 6 lbs. each, valued at 3s., at 6d. per lb. This amount, less the cost of eggs, feeding, attention, &c., would leave a very satisfactory margin over the outlay. Wx. Briggs keeps and feeds his stock on the most approved and up-to-date lines. The food given is somewhat similar tO' that given by Messrs. Goldsmith and Coleman, with the exception of blood meal, also lucerne and young green maize chaff. The blood meal is used when they are three weeks old, and pro- duces excellent results. A pound of blood meal mixed in the soft food is given to each pen of twenty ducks about three or four times a week. The lucerne and young green maize chaff are added regularly to the daily food. All food is scalded and mixed with separated milk. Shade and regularity in feeding are, in the opinion of Mr. Briggs, the most important points in the rearing of ducklings, and he attributes his success, to a great extent, to careful attention to these points. A Warning to Breeders. In conclusion I would call attention to the deterioration of ducks for table purposes through being crossed with the Indian Runners. The latter are certainly good layers, especially in the winter months, but they are altogether a failure from a table point of view, and are sold at auction for verv low prices. They are also useless as a cross with the larger varieties, and breeders should be careful not to introduce an_. of their blood ijito stock intended for breeding ducklings for table purposes or export. EXPORT OF EGGS. The following report relative to the consignment of 305 cases of eggs fiom Victoria, which arrived at London, per R.M.S. Britannia, in Decem- ber last, has been received from Mr. P. T. Peppard, Inspector of Products, through the Agent-General. A quantity of eggs from South Australia was also carried by the same vessel: — " The e-^'-o-s were in cases containing 20 dozen each, and were packed m cardboard'fillers and paper shavings. The South Australians substituted kiln-dried husks for the paper shavings. The eggs were graded mto four classes, namelv:— i. large brown; 2. brown; 3. large white; 4- white In the South ' Australiian consignment the infertile eggs were packed separately. The eggs were carried between 33 and 38 degrees Fah., and there is every reason for shippers to be pleased with their condition on arriynl. 1315. F ]62 Journal of Agriculture. [8 [March, 1907. I saw tht eggs being discharged from the ship, and found the cases clean, and the handling carefully done. On examination in the Cool Stores, the eggs had the appearance of new laid, and ' candled ' satis- factorily. There was little or no shrinkage, and on breaking open some eggs the yolks were quite firm. I was also able to see tlie South .-Aus- tralian eggs in the Cool Store, and I must say that I prefer the husks to paper shavings for packing. The husks work down into the compartments cf the fillers and prevent the eggs from oscillating. The custom of the trade here in shipping eggs to South Africa is to pack in husks. Owing to few of the egg merchants having had an opportunity of seeing this consignment of eggs up to the time of writing this report, I have not been able tO' form anv definite idea as to whether the size of our package is suitable for this market. So far, the idea seems to prevail that it is too small. The eggs sent from Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Germany, Austria, and other Continental parts, with the exception of France, are usually in cases containing 1,440 eggs, and packed with wood wool, and straw ; a trade allowance is .made of 60 eggs for breakages. Sometimes the cases only contain. 960 eggs. The French case generally contains 720 eggs, but may only, especiallv in the case of fresh heavy eggs, contain 360 eggs. The only package differing materially from those sent from the Continent is the Canadian case, containing 360 eggs, packed in fillers, and this package has lieen suggested to me by one or two egg merchants as a suitable one to copy. A soecimen case has been sent to ]\Ir. CroAve, Super- intendent of Exports, Melbourne. Judging from inquiries instituted, there seems to have been no previous effort made to pack infertile eggs separately, but. nevertheless, the idea is one worth a little further experiment. The theory, of course, is that the eggs \vill keep longer in good coaidition, and, should this prove to be the case in practice, the system would l)e a commendable one. Eggs are sold here l)y the ' Ion? ' hundred (120 eggs). During the months of October, Xovember, and Decemlx-r. there is usually a scarcity of supply. The market prices to-dav (T4th December) are about as follow : — Danish and French j8 lbs. per mo eggs 17 lbs. 16 lbs. Italian ... ... 17 lbs. ,, ,, ... ... j6 lbs. ., ... ... 15 lbs. Russian ... 1 5 lbs. Canadian Russian cold-stored eggs It is expected that prices next ^yeek will be 2s. to 3s. lower, as buyers have already laid in a .stock, and will l)e busy then with poultry and the Chri-stmas trade generally. I learn that some of the aljoy" euro's h.aw realized up to 12s. per 120. but shippers will, no doubt, be advised by cable of the complete sales. " IQS. 6d. iSs. 9d. 17 s. 9d. 17s. od. 14s. 6d. 13s. 6d. J3S. od. 9S. 6d. TOS. od. to ITS. od 6s. 9d. to 7s. 9d, [Note.— Accoidintr to the account sales received by the consignors the prices realized for the Victorian shipment were as follow :— Large brown, 12s. per long Inindred ; large white, ii>. ; brown, qs. 6d. ; white, qs.— Editor.] 8 March, 1907.] Harvest Returns of \Vhcat Varieties. 163 IIEPORT OX THE HARVEST RETrUXS OF WHEAT VARIETIES. XORTHERX GRAIN EXPERrMEXTAL ElEEDS. SEASON I 906-7 . /■'. E. Lcc, Agricultural Supcriiitciid.iit. In onler to recall the attention of the reiujer to the imi)ortan;'e of the harvest returns of the wheat \arieties undt-r review, some little explana- tion is necessary regardinj^- the ronstitutinn of the experimental wheat fields and the ohjectives of the work in hand. The season to which these returns refer is the second on the northern wheat experimental fields, the full term of which is seven vears. In the first vear the whole area (10 acres) was sown down in wheat, oats, and fodder crops, the complete report of which appears in the Journal fc March. 1906. That portion previously under fodder crops was sown with wheat \arieties last season, the remainder of the field being fallowed. The Objectives of the Experiment. The main object, broadlv speaking, of the whole experimental work is the search after wavs and means bv which the average yield of wheat for the State mav be improved. There are three distinct and separate channels through which this is being attempted. \iz., improved methods of cultivation, the intelligent use of artificial fertilizers, and the intro- duction of new and impro\ed varieties. The results of the two or even three seasons are hardlv sufficient to establish more than general prin- ciples, and I must therefore ask the wdieat farmer to display patience in following the development of the trials projected. The work of the first season largelv confirmed previous experiments with artificial fer- tilizers, inasmuch as it showed the superiority of the suj)erphosphate over other forms of phosphatic manures, and further emphasized the inutilitv (up to the present time) of the addition of nitrogenous and potassic manures to the wheat .soils in the north. The trials of improved methods of (niltivation were naturallv indicative of nothing in particular in their first vear, but with the approaching season, three separate metliods of fallowing (ordinarv bare fallow, rape fallow, and sub-soil tallow) wdl be tested side by side. That the result will be watched with the keeneist interest bv northern wheat farmers may be anticipated, and perhaps more particularlv so because it is proposed also to test the capabilities of the' " Soil Packer," a new implement, which is said to have given a great impetus to wheat farming in the dry areas in America. Mv experience leads me to believe that the most satisfactory, permanent, and economical .solution of the problem of improving the State yield of wheat lies in the direction of better cultivation, therebv promoting better storage and con- servation of soil moisture. This will not necessarily mean a new equip- ment of implements, but the altered conditions, in my opinion, will graduallv tend to more concentration of effort ; in other word.s. the present large areas put under crop will graduall\ lie reduced, and the same F 2 1 64 Journal of Agriculture. [8 March, 1907. Harvest Returns of Wheat Varieties, No Name and Address of Experimenter. Varie Mallee a\d mallee Fringe. Mudge, J. Sea Lake Williamson, W., Boort lanLs, D. B., Rainbow Barber, A., Birchip Allen, James, wil- lenabrina Lavery, .T., Watchem Bennett. J., Warrack- nabeal . . Witney, J., Jeparit . . MUbourne, J., War- racknabeal Average yield per acre WuniERA Dl.STRICT. Tepper, Mrs. J. p., Coroniby Feery, J., Dimboola Nowatna, C, Jung Gibbins, E., Wail Boyd, A., Minyip . . Hutchings, A., Lubeck Average yield per acre Northern axp North-Easterx. Pollard, H., Glenloth Carter, J., Marong Sproat, W., Donald.. Hunter Bros., Elmore Trewick, .7., Elmore Nixon Bros., Edding- ton Bray. W., Merrigum Sharp, T. R., Gooram- bat Average yield per acre Average for whole State 16.3 17.1 4.3 4.6 8.4 10.5 10.8 16.8 15.7 7.3 6.0 9.0 8.3 15.6 1* 8.5 7.6 10.0 9.8 9.5 15.3 14.9 5.9 7.0 5.8 10.0 9.0 17.0 17.9 7.6 8.7 8.2 12.0 10.6 16.3 17.2 7.1 8.0 6.0 10.1 10.6 15.5 19.2 7.1 7.5 8.2 9.0 7.3 13.5 17.0 7.7 7.7 8.5 10.8 9.1 12.5 12 17.0|l6 10 7.5 7.3 11.8 8.0 17.5 13.0 10.8 13.0 10.5 12.3 17.8 Cut for hav 10.0 10.2 9.9 6.4 15.0il6.6;24.2 10.211.3 9.811.710.710.5 9.911.3i 7.7 9.4 9.511.0 20.920.0 17.8 9.0 13.3 23.8 7.5 8.313.0 10.2110.4 13.4 20.0i25.6 26.8 10.4 15.3 13.5 12.5 15.3 15.6 13.1 12.8 15.6 16.6 17.0 5.7 7.5 13.0 14.6 18.3 9.4 13.2 9.5 5.0 6.0 3.2 12.3 14.1 3.5 5.7 7.0 10.0 13.1 14.6 13.5 Cut for hay Destroyed by storm 20.0 18.7 21.4 28.0 20.0 18.6 21.0 29.8 26.5 25.8 21.1 22.5 36.0 29.0 25.0 12.1 15.3 8.1 5.6 7.6 8.6 8.0 7.5 7.6 5.3 4.0 7.614.2 14.5 14.0 18.9 20.3 30.6 25.9 16.6 11.3 16.313.1 17.6 25.8 20.3 23.6 20.8 22.1 13. 0 11. 5 16.0 13. 5;17. 0 10. 5 11. 5 15. 5 9.5 19.6 19.3 16.3 17.6 21.0 18.6 23.6 18.8 19.1 34.6 24.3 24.5 22.8 28.0 24.0 24.8 25.3 27.6 Destroyed by sparrows and cut for hay Cut for hay 12.5 14.7 17.7 12.2 4.5 13.9 25.0 18.5 17.1 24.6 11.0 15.0 23.6 13.0 16.3 23.6 13.3 11.3 25.0 17.0 18.8 25.8 24.3 12.8 15.2 15.3 15.6 13.2 12.4 19.7 16.8 20.2 18.6 12.9 13.5 12.1 16.5 18.3 16.5 23.6 26.3 10.9 8.1 16.5 16.9 18.3 24.3 33.0 20.5 23.8 29.8 13.8 14.5 18.8 11.0 11.0 18.0 21.0 16.8 8.0 11.6 14.5 18.3 25.9 27.3 28.2 25.0 11.7 22.7 19.1 18.6 28.3 14.0 18.6 23.5 13.7 21.5 18.1 8 March, 1907.] Harvest Returns of Wheat Varieties. i6s RTHERN Experimental Fields, Season 1906-7, ^ s 1 0 m 0 1-5 5 If 1 1 I S 1 a, a 1 CO Ph -§ ^ a 1 'A i 3 CO s 0 0 pq d 1 a; P. S M 1 3 H s 2 3 3 cq "S 0 'S 0 11 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 11.5 8.8 10.0 12.8 11.8 13.3 16.8 15.3 17.1 14.3 17.0 16.5 15.0 13.3 14.8 16.1 15.5 14.8 11.3 15.5 8.6 13.8 23.5 16.6 17.6 19.1 14.1 22.4 11.6 11.8 U.O 13.3 22.5 16.0 15.6 12.0 10.6 14.1 16.0 14.5 19.6 11.6 11.8 5.8 9.3 6.6 12.3 11.5 11.7 10.8 9.1 10.3 11.5 13.6 17.8 15.1 15.5 8.3 11.3 12.0 12.7 10.5 13.4 15.2 16.6 8.0 7.6 7.6 9.6 9.6 12.6 11.3 9.6 10.5 6.3 13.1 15.5 10.5 11.3 9.5 13.8 15.6 15.5 12.8 U.l 12.1 10.9 U.O 10.6 11.7 12.0 13.3 16.7 11.6 13.5 12.5 13.0 20.3 12.8 14.5 5.0 11.4 13.8 9.6 11.8 6.5 5.8 5.4 15.6 15.3 10.1 15.3 11.8 14.8 20.3 11.2 12.3 11.5 16.3 20.5 17.5 16.3 12.3 13.5 13.3 17.3 21.6 18.3 10.8 13.6 .10.8 14.6 13.0 15.1 12.5 11.1 18.1 14.6 12.5 10.1 19.6 25.6 19.5 18.8 15.3 20.6 20.0 21.5 12.0 17.0 13.3 11.3 3.5 4.4 3.0 4.1 5.1 8.3 U.O 8.3 12.9 8.6 12.0 12.1 12.3 14.0 9.5 10.4 14.0 10.6 9.6 13.0 U.O 7.6 5.0 5.0 U.O 5.0 9.1 5.0 11.5 5.3 10.9 14.1 12.5 13.0 16.6 11.9 17.1 13.1 10.8 10.7 15.5 14.8 20.5 19.0 10.8 14.3 16.0 15.0 9.6 10.7 13.0 13.4 18.0 15.1 17.5 15.0 10.3 12.7 10.8 13.9 13.3 11.3 18.3 9.4 15.6 12.0 13.0 14.1 15.0 18.3 21.1 23.6 25.0 18.6 22.5 18.3 23.8 28.8 25.0 25.8 16.0 23.3 23.3 20.8 24.6 20.8 18.8 .14.2 6.7 7.5 10.0 11.9 9.0 9.1 10.5 12.2 10.9 13.7 13.0 9.7 13.1 6.8 10.6 11.5 7.6 6.1 7.1 3.5 7.8 26.5 28.0 18.8 32.4 32.2 29.7 36.1 19.7 31.2 23.8 36.7 42.9 39.1 33.8 15.5 34.3 35.7 33.2 22.8 17.5 32.1 32.1 19.7 25.9 23.2 29.1 27.0 Cut for hay 22.5 21.6 16.6 23.3 22.5 22.5 21.3 27.1 25.0 23.6 30.0 37.5 23.0 28.3 21.6 25.8 30.8 20.0 18.6 20.0 16.6 20.0 9.9 16.4 16.7 10.0 15.0 23.0 27.8 21.6 31.3 18.8 29.9 28.1 27.5 30.0 16.6 33.3 33.3 35.0 25.0 24.6 16.6 25.0 17.6 18.7 16.3 20.5 11.6 21.7 23.8 19.5 24.4 19.0 26.8 30.0 24.8 26.2 15.3 25.4 26.9 23.3 19.4 20.0 17.5 21.2 17.0 21.0 16.3 19.5 13.6 17.0 14.6 13.6 14.8 10.1 16.3 20.6 14.2 15.8 11.1 15.0 13.6 15.0 11.3 14.5 3.6 :23.5 21.5 13.1 22.3 24.8 19.6 26.1 15.0 23.5 16.0 25.6 31.1 26.0 23.0 8.1 23.3 25.6 24.1 21.6 18.3 13.5 16.6 25.0 15.8 16.6 29.3 29.3 30.0 35.3 22.5 32.3 22.6 30.0 40.3 30.0 31.6 12.3 30.3 33.8 32.0 20.0 28.3 21.6 29.3 16.0 27.5 15.5 17.5 21.0 15.5 24.0 16.5 24.5 15.0 19.5 24.5 32.0 30.0 14.0 18.0 27.0 26.5 20.5 25.5 17.0 20.6 15.3 19.1 27.3 16.5 24.1 27.5 17.1 22.6 17.3 26.1 33.5 29.1 28.5 11.5 18.1 25.8 17.5 41.1 20.3 20.8 23.0 29.5 29.6 19.6 30.8 31.1 29.8 30.9 13.5 33.8 20.6 35.6 41.3 40.0 38.0 10.3 37.6 38.1 34.5 34.3 31.3 23.6 32.1 13.7 13.1 9.5 10.6 9.9 9.6 11.9 6.9 6.5 11.4 13.7 18.5 14.9 13.0 5.2 8.6 7.5 6.9 12.7 10.0 5.1 11.8 8.6 7.3 3.5 7.0 10.0 9.7 10.5 6.1 9.7 6.9 9.2 13.1 9.7 7.6 1.9 5.2 7.1 4.8 4.2 2.2 2.0 3.2 .19.2 18.8 14.1 20.5 19.5 23.6 23.6 13.9 20.9 14.9 22.0 27.8 24.4 23.4 9.3 19.5 22.3 20.1 18.2 18.8 13.4 19.3 15.0 15.7 12.3 16.9 16.7 17.0 20.3 14.1 18.4 14.6 20.1 23.9 19.7 20.0 11.2 18.3 20.4 18.7 16.2 16.6 13.4 16.8 66 Jonnial of Agriciili/irc. [8 March, 1907- amount of laboiUr put into a smaller area, will have the result of pro- ducing the same amount of wheat at a prohabK' lower cost per bushel than is the case at present. It seems generally accepted that wheat and sheep farming are two industries which are interdependent; such being the case, an alteration of methods entailing the growth of such crops as rape, peas, or other fodder plants is being forced on the wheat-grower in order to insure the success of the lamb-raising industry. This establishes a rotation of crops, and at the same time brings about a most desirable end in the restoration of humus to the soil bv medium of the refuse of thle crops themselves and the droppings: of the sheep. The use of artificial" fertilizers and the introduction of ncAV wheat varieties, both highly im- portant in themselves, are immenselv assisted when the physical condition- of the soil is such as to allow of more perfect aeration, nitrification, abso.rption and conservation of moisture. Without these latter, a large part of the monev expended bv the farmer in the purchase of manures- and seed is rendered u.seless by the inability of the soil to respond. The main features then of the wheat experiments being made clear, we mav proceed to inquire what so far has been the progress in the direction of the introduction of new Avheat varieties towards the solution of the main problem. Harvest Reti-rns of Wheat Varieties. .\11 seed was graded and pickled with blue stone previous to sowing, at the rate of 50 lbs. per acre. vSuperphosphate at the rate of ^6 lbs. per acre was used uniformlv on all A'arieties. Sowing took place during the months of April and Mav, and in all cases was carefullv and accuratelv done bv the officers of the Field Branch. During the progress of growth, the crops were regularlv inspected and field notes made, to establish the habits of growth as well as anv particular characteristics- of the dift^^erent varieties. It will be remarked that die vields of plots i to 13 inclusive, are in the majoritv of cases lower than the remainder of the field. I attribute this, not so much to the varieties themselves, which were all early wheats, but rather to the fact that this portion of the field bore different fodder crops in 1905. and was thus practicallv cropped two consecutive vears. Criticism of the Returns. One cannot study the above returns without being impressed with the fact, that under identical soil and climatic conditions, some varieties, show a marked superiority over others. That this superiority is fairlv uniform in all districts, is to my mind complete evidence of the universal suitabilitv of these varieties, and mv opinion is confirmed bv the fact that, out of the ten leading varieties last year, nine of them again occupy the leading plaices. This should be sufiicient to establish the claims of these \arieties, viz.. Federation. Jade, Dart's Imperial, Australian Talavera. Sussex, Siher King, Tarragon, White Tuscan, Frampton and ^Nlarshails Xo. 3, to more extensive trial bv farmers themselves, on a larger scale than the scope of the plots allows. Some of the maximum yields ha\e been truly magnificent, and out of a total of thirtv-eight varieties, no less than thirtv-one have vielded from 8 March, 1907.] Harvest Returns of Wheat Varieties. ,67 6 to loi bags per acre. The following classification shows the \ariet;es in their order of excellence: — Xame of Wheat. Maxi- mum Yield. Mini- mum Yield. Average Yield of all Dis- tricts. Name of Wheat. Maxi- mum Yield. Mini- mum Yield. Average Yield of all Dis- tricts. Federation Bushels 4-2.9 Bushels 12.1 Bushels 23.9 Bobs . . Bushels 29.5 Bushels 3.5 Bushels 15.0 Dart's Imperial 38.1 7.1 20.4 Schneider 30.6 7.1 14.8 Australian Talavera 39.0 9.1. 20.3 Smart's Pioneer. . 26.8 5.3 14.8 Jade 36.7 9.2 20.1 Warrick 23.6 9.4 14.8 Sussex 38.0 7.6 20.0 Petatz Surprise . . 23.8 6.3 14.6 Silver King 36.0 8.5 19.8 Newman's 27.1 6.1 14.1 Tarragon . . 40.0 9.7 19.7 King's Early 25.0 4.5 13.5 White Tuscan 35.0 4.8 18.7 Manitoba 32.1 2.0 13.4 Frampton 33.8 6.5 18.4 Nut Cut 24.0 6.0 13.3 Marshall's No. 3 . . 37.6 5.2 18.3 Wilkinson's E. P. 24.5 7.6 13.2 Farmer's Friend . . •28.3 8.0 17.9 Straw Majestic . . 30.0 8.3 17.0 Terkin 27 . 6 4.0 12.9 Hudson's Purple 32.4 4.1 16.9 Cumberland 34.6 4.3 12. S Straw- Fan 29.8 5.7 16.9 Outpost Steinwedel 24.3 22 . 8 5.6 5.8 12.6 12.4 College Purple Tardent's Blue .32.1 31.3 5.1 2.2 16.7 16.6 Gluyas . . Boomerang 23.2 21.6 3.0 1.9 12.3 11.2 Steer's Purple Straw 28.0 Is'.o 16.4 Waddy 16.6 3.5 9.1 Kubanka 34.3 4.2 16.2 Ranji . . 15.0 1.1 7.2 Improved Steinwedel 28.0 7.6 15.8 Farmer's own 32.1 3.2 16.8 John Brown 29 . 6 4.4 15.7 Wheat It is particularly interesting to compare the average yield of the farmer's own wheat (plot 39) with the leading varieties. There are no less than fourteen varieties showing a higher average yield than the seed provided bv the farmer (mostly Purple Straw and Dart's Imperial), and no less than sixteen varieties showing a higher maximum yield. These facts are given prominence in order to urge the introduction of new varie- ties of proved suitabilitv. It is gratifying to find such well-known -wheats as Dart"s Imperial and Marshall's No. 3 occupying leading places, and the high position of White Tuscan and Frampton should bring these formerly well-known varieties again into popularity, more particularly in those districts where the rainfall is sufficient to support tiie flaggy growth peculiar to them. The Milling Properties of Wheat. Although the general purpose of the wheat experiments has hitherto onlv been in the direction of improving the yield, there are other and equallv important considerations to be kept in mind when new varieties are advocated. It is. I think, generally understood that some varieties of wheat are better flour producers than others, and milK-rs have done much to urge farmers to take up those varieties which produce a '' .strong " flour. The farmer, however, from his point of view, often knows little or nothing, alx)ut the flour-making properties of the wheat he sells, and probablv cares less, nevertheless a mutual advantage is to be gained by both miller and farmer in the growth of tho.se varieties, whose character- istics lie in the direction of flour production of a high quality. i6» Journal of Agrkiiltiire. [8 March, 1907- It is stated that in some parts of New South Wales millers offer a premium of from 3d. to 6d. per bushel for wheats of special flour-pro- ducing quality. If such is the case, there is no reason why Victorian farmers should not secure similar extra payment for the same varieties. In the absence of any consecutive ofificial series of anah ses of the milling qualities of wheat by this Department, I extract the following notes (of varieties under review) from an article published by Mr. F. B. Guthrie, Agricultural Chemist, New South Wales, whose research work in conjunction with the late Mr. Wm. Farrer, wheat experimentalist, is so favorably known. The milling notes are taken from samples milled at Mr. Guthrie's laboratory, and represent the average of a considerable- number of samples. The figures for gluten are the percentages of gluten dried at 100 deg. C. Those for " strength " are the number of quirts cf water absorbed by a 200 lb. sack of flour, to produce a dcugn of suitable consistency for bread-making. Results of New South Wales Experiments. {From Agricultural Gazette of N eiu South Wales, January. 1907.) Cross-bred W lieats. I' ederation. — A cross between Purple Straw and Mr. Farrer's Fife- Indian wheats. The cross was designed to improve the flour strength of the original Purple Straw. It is early ripening, drought resisting, very prolific, and holds its grain well. It is best suited to warm districts, and prefers fairly rich soil. It is not rust resistant, and is inferior for hay on account of the shortness of the straw, which is otherwise of good: quality . Jade. — A cross between Jacinth (of Purple Straw descent) and Early Baart. It is extremely liable to rust ; is a fairly early wheat, a heavy yielder, and does not shell. It withstands drought well, is a hardy wheat, and gives good results on poor soil in drv districts. It is a good hav wheat. Cumberland.. — A Purple Straw Cross, grows quickly, and is a pro- lific yielder ; it does well in hot, dry climates, and is a good hav wheat. Schneider. — A cross containing three-quarters Purple Straw blood with a little Fife and Ward's Prolific; it is suited to warm, drv districts, resists drought fairly well, and is a fairly prolific vielder. Bobs. — The result of a cross between a sport from Blount's Lambrigg Mid Bald Skinless Barley (Nepaul Barley) 3 is regarded as the best rust resisting wheat we have, is a quick grower, good cropper and drougnt resister.. It thrives best in moderately cool climates, and on soil that is not too rich, is susceptible to frosting if sown too earlv, has a slight tendency to shell and is a good variety for hay. It is liable to infectiDni by bunt, and therefore pickling should be carefully done. Fife-Indian Wheats. John Broicn. — A cross containing the blood of two Fife wheats and Australian Talavera amongst others. Resists rust well, is a heavy and reliable cropper, and holds its grain well. Is especially suited to warm and fairly warm districts, and is fairly drought resistant. It ripens in mid season, and is a good hay variety. The grain is rather liable to bunt. •8 March, 1907.] Harvest Returns of Wheat Varieties. 169 Tarragoi/.—A cross between Tardent's Blue and Im])roved Fife, with Australian Talavera. Resists rust well, is a iieavv cropper, a good niilling wl-ieat, and also good for hay. Is rather a 'late variety, and is best Milling Characteristics, Variety. Milling Xotes. Federation . . Jade Cumberland Bobs John Brown Tarragon Steinwedel . . Farmer's Friend Australian Talavera Dart's Imperial Marshall's No. 3 Kubanka 62 04 62 63 61 62; 63 62 63 62 /o 14.5 13.0 0/ 0/ /o /o 14.5 15.0 12.0 16.0 70 70 78 72 72 73 15.5 15.0 13.0 13.0 13.0 10.0 14.5 15.0 10 49 11 11 12 9.013 13.010 15.0 17.0 62 72 14.0 14.0 63 1 73 113.0 72 19.0 14.0 9.0 11 12.5 15.0 47 54 49 48 48 54 Easy to mill. Hvan larse and clean. Pollard clean. Semo- hna, white and soft. Break- flour, 25.8 per cent. Easy to mill. Bran and i)ol- lard, clean. Flovir ])arts easily. Semolina, white and slightly gritty. Break-Hour 30.5 per cent. Easy to mill. Bran, clean, large, and flaky. Pollard fairly clean. Semolina, white and soft. Break-flour, 17 percent. Fairly easy to mill. Bran and pollard clean. Semolina, yel- low and gritty. Break-flour. 17 per cent. Bran and pollard, fairly clean. Semolina, white and slightly gritty. Break-flonr, 20 i)er cent. Bran and pollard, very clean. Semolina, vellow and slightly gritty. Break-flour, 6 i»er cent. Bran and pollard, fairly clean. Flour clings to bran. Break- flour, 25 per cent. Flour clings to bran. Bran and and pollard, not very clean. Semolina, white and soft. Break-flour, 30 per cent. Bran and pollard, clean. Semo- lina, slightly yellow and gritty. Break-flour. 18 per cent. Bran and jioUard, clean. Seuio- lina, white and soft. Bicak- flour, 30.9 per cent. Easy to mill. Bian and ))ollard, clean. Semolina, white and rather gritty. Bi-eak-ilour, 22 ])er cent. Rather ditticult to mill. Bran and pollard, clean. Semolina, yellow aiul very gritty. Break-flour, 7 per cent. Journal of Agriculture. [8 March, 1907. suited to highlaml and cool climates. Does not resist drought Avell. and is rather weak in the straw. Other Wticats. Stcimccdel. — Originated in South Australia: resists drought well, and is suited to hot dry districts. Is very early, stools well, and yield.s heavily, ijut the grain shells badly. Fanner' s Friend. — A Purple Straw variety derived from the old Red Straw ; stools strongly, resists drought, very proliiic, ripens in mid season, and holds its grain well. Does well even on poor land, but on rich soils and in moist seasons is liable to suffer severely from rust. Australian Talavera. — Belongs to the Lammas group; is a hardy, prolific, free stooling wdieat ; is fairlv drought resistant, and withstands cold- weather. Is fairlv rust resistant, a good hay wheat, but rather liable to shell. Dart' s Imperial. — Originated from seed selected bv ]\Ir. Dart, of South Australia. Is of the Purple Straw type, but rather Later than most. It is liable to rust, but resists drought well and is suited to hot climates ; stools freely, and gives good yields of grain and hav. ^FirsliaW s Xo. j. — A variety originated by Mr. Marshall, of So-uth Australia, and is derived from Ward's Prolific. It is rust resistant, fairly prolific, moderately good drought resister, and ripens medium to late m the season. Has a tendency to make a large flag, and is a good hay wheat. Kubanka {Ahiearoni Wlieat). — One of the best of its kind. Is a bearded variety, and unsuitable for hay. Is a good drought resister, stools weakly, is not a prolific vielder. Its chief advantages are that it will yield in seasons when other wheats are killed out bv drought. To reduce the figures on previous page tO' common terms, it will be seen that the strongest flour wheats of those grown on Victorian experimental fields are Bobs, Kubanka, Tarragon, and Federation, while the weakest in that respect are Cumberland, Dart's Imperial, Farmer's Friend, Steinwedel, and Jade. It is hoped that this information will prove of service to farmers having the desire to improve the auality as well as the quantity of wheat thev produce. Projected Departmental Inquiry. The w^heat-growing industry is too valuable a one to the State to allow of any scientific investigation being left undo^ne which might jeopardize the extension of the industry, and also of our growing export trade in flour. The development of markets for flour in the East and South Africa, and the keen competition of other countries demand the improve- ment of our wheat varieties by everv means possible. It is hoped before long to mature a scheme whereby the systematic and continuous analyses of Victorian wheats will be undertaken by the scientific staff of the Department, with the \iew of affording information of advantage both to the local miller and wheat producer. Meanwhile the experi^mental fields serve the \ery useful purpose of sorting out the varieties both suitplile and unsuitable to the varying climatic and soil conditions of our northern districts. :8 >iARCH, 1907.] Garden Xotes. lyt GARDEN NOTES. /. Croiini. Jiispccior Vcgctatioit Diseases Acts. The Gladiolus. Gladiolus is a yenus of bulbous rooting, perennial jjlants, chiefly found native in South Africa. Some few species have been disco\-ered iii South and East Europe and West Asia, but the majoritv, and the most important, are natives of Cape of Good Hope. The original species are rarelv found .growing in gardens, except in botanical collections. ha\-ing been superseded by hybrid varieties of superior character as ornamental plants. During the last 50 years hybridizers in various parts of Europe, and latterlv in England and America, haw i)aid special attention to the gladiolus, and GLADIOLUS : KELWAY HYBRID TYPES. have produced varieties of a greater diversitv of colour in the flowers, larger individual and finer marked flowers, and more robust and larger spikes. There are se\'eral recognised types, noted for some distinctive marking or characteristic, among the most important being the early flowering section, a hardy type that will endure severe frost ; Lemoinei, red and \ el low varieties with a large, purplish blotch on the lower segments, of the flowers; Childsii, an American raised type, Avith flowers of great size and bright colour ; and Kelwayi. an English strain producing large spikes, of finelv coloured flowers. Many of the finer new varieties are raised from Gan- davensis and Xanrieanus. both hvbrid tvpes, of which improved varieties Journal of Agriculture. [8 March, 1907. are also being raised. The range of colour embraces almost all shades of white, crimson, yellow, and purple, many kinds being finely blotched or marked with other colours. The gladiolus is one of the most effective plants, for garden display in mixed groups of plants, the bold, bright flowers — borne on long spikes., and; lanceolate leaves — harmonizing with most types of foliage. Tne flowers are speciallv useful for cutting, being highly decorative and easily arranged. If the blooms expand during hot, dry weather they do not last well, but the spike may be cut when the lower blooms are opening, and if placed, in water in a well lighted room every bud on the spike will expand. The course usually adopted by florists is to cut the spikes, and place them in water on the appearance of the first flowers, and hasten or retard the open- ing of the blooms by admitting, or preventing admission, of light. The most suitable soil is a rich friable, well-drained loam, although the plants Avill succeed fairly in heavy clay, or light sandy, soils, if well: drained. The soil should be deeply worked and manured. Well decayed horse or cow manure is suitable, but no manure should be allowed to come into contact with the bulbs. For the production of exhibition flowers- specially prepared beds are necessary. These should be in a fairly open position, sheltered if possible from north wdnds, but not over-shadowed or invaded by roots of large trees. Special attention to the manuring and working of the beds prior to planting will be compen.sated by specially fine spikes of bloom in season. The builds of the early varieties, of which '' The Bride " is an example, mav be planted during autumn in clumps, or patches in the mixed borders, or in separate rows if grown in quantity. The bulbs of this class are small, and should be planted at a depth of about 4 inches. These may be left undisturbed for several years, in which case slightly deeper planting is advisable. About 3 inches apart in the clumps IS a sufficient distance to plant. The Lemoinei varieties succeed the early kinds, and if planted during August or September will bloom about end of December. They will well repay special treatment, and as thev make their growth, and bloom during dry weather, as a rule, require a fair amount of manure and water. The bulbs of this section should be planted at a depth of 6 inches, and should be lifted annually. The larger flowering kinds may be planted at var\ing periods from November to January. The bulbs of these should be planted about i foot apart and at a depth of about 9 inches, when grown in beds for exhibition. About 2 feet should be allowed between each row of bulbs. The beds should be mulched, and when the flower spikes appear the plants should receive a good supply of water if the weather is dry and hot. The plants should be staked as a protection against heaw Avinds. After the flowers are cut the usual practice is to let the plants finish their development without fur- ther cultivation. This practice is wrong, and is the principal cause of degeneracy in gladioli. The beds should be cultivated, and the plants kept green as long as possible, to insure a thorough development of the bulbs for the following season. After the plants die down, the bulbs should be lifted and stored in a cool dry place until the next planting .season. Although the gladiolus is usually termed a bulb, it is really a corm, i.e., a solid bulbous root bearing a surface bud. new corms being produced on top of, the old ones. As these corms increase thev should be divided. They are also increased from the small bulbils that are produced at the base of the old corms, or at the ends of roots, in some kinds. These sihould 8 March, 1907.] Garden Xotes. 173 all be saved and rowed out separately in season when the largest will pro- bably bloom the same year, and the remainder the following season. Thev will be identical with the parent varieties. New varieties are raised from seeds. Seeds should be saved from the finest varieties, cross fertilized with the pollen of other fine distinctive kinds. Seeds shouhl be sown in spring in beds or boxes of light soil, where they may be grown for the first season, afterwards being lifted and treated as the bulblets. .\Ian\ wiU bloom during the second season after sowing the seeds. A number of hybrid varieties is annually raised from seeds, and dis- tributed when proved to be meritorious. There is, however, no check on the nomenclature of the gladiolus, as in the case of the rose, chrvsan- themum, &c. A fair collection should include the Lemoinei, Childsii, Nancieanus. Kelwayi. and Gandavensis types. Flower Garden. Roses, dahlias, and chrysanthemums, grown for specially fine flowers, will require to be watered and fed with< liquid manure, and the flower buds or shoots thinned. Frequent reference is made in these "notes" to the above plants, chiefly because they are the most popular among florists' flowers, thrive in most parts of the State, and are general Iv catered for at Horticultural Shows. The results of the treatment accorded them should also be an object lesson in special culture in any branch of agriculture or horticulture. One of the most important matters is the feeding of such plants with manure in a liquid form. Such an application is without doubt the most prompt and economical method possible. The plant food is applied to the roots of the plants in the only form that they can absorb it quickly, it spreads evenly to all parts of the root system, and in the preparation the various ferments that are needed to make it available at once occur. In some cases highly concentrated preparations are dissolved and applied at once to the plants. In others animal manures are em- ployed, and although less pleasant in the preparation and application, are much cheaper and generally more effective than the chemical manures. Fresh manure should be used, dry old horse or cow manure being value- less. Cow manure is generally advised, chiefly because it is the leasf Iiarmful, but it is not nearly as valuable for the purpose as fresh horse manure Drainage from stables and cow sheds is more valuable tl an either, but must be allowed to stand for a fortnight at least, and be highly diluted before being used. Liquid manures should be used very carefully, beginning with weak solutions and gradually increasing their strength. Occa.sionally an application of clear water is necessary. Soot, fowl manure, blood manure, and guano, are all valuable for making liquid manure, but, excepting soot, are liable to "burn" the roots unless used very carefully. All animal manures used in liquid form should be allowed to stand several days after " mixing " before being used. The usual plan is to place the manure in a sack and susj^end it in a tub or other vessel, diluting the resulting liquid before application. About 30 lbs. of horse manure soaked in 30 gallons of water will, after standing for a week, produce liquid ready to dilute at rate of t part to 20 clean water. Chrvsanthemums and dahlias should be fairly forward and should be securely tied as need arises. Dahlias will need to be thinned in their growths and flower buds. Anv lateral shoots that occur on the selected shoots should be removed to within a foot of the surface. The lower shoots mav l:>e allowed to grow and will nrnduce fair blooms later on. 1/4 ] our )ial oj Agriculture. [8 March. 1907. Roses started into growth during February should be kept growing steadily. The plants will lie benefited bv the application of liquid manure once a week. Where a number of weakly shoots occur they should be reduced to one or two. On the first appearance of mildew the plants should be " dusted " wdth flowers of sulphur, choosing earlv morning while the dew is on the plants for the application. Carnation layers should be ready for remoyal from the plants, and may be planted out in their flowering quarters, or rowed out, to plant later. They should be attended to in regard to watering and cultiyation should the weather be hot and dry. Seeds of hardv annuals, biennials, and \'ario'Us perennials, may be sown, and herbaceous plants dixided and replanted. Seedling pan.sies, Iceland po]}pies. and other plants raised t-arlier may be planted where it is in ended they should l)loom. Kitchen Garden. Ground should be pre[)ared. if not already done, for the reception of various winter crops. In low, moist situations the beds for various vege- tables should be narrow and ele\ated. With an earlv start, and narrow, well ridged beds, many kinds may be grown that would otherwise fail. Growing crops will need to be kept free from weeds and be well cul- tivated, especially where water is not available. Seeds may be sown of cabbage, cauliflower, early varieties of peas, and various saladings. Plants from former sowings may be transplanted. A dull day is most suitable for such \vork ; if the soil is dry it should be watered a day or so previous to planting. DESCRIPTION OF APPLE. James Lang. Harcourt. Newtown Pippin. Fruit medium size ; about 3 inches at the base. 2\ inches high, and sometimes oblique from the stalk. Skin greenish vellow, and occasionally a rich golden yellow, dotted over with minute russet dots. Eye closed, set in a shallow plaited basin ; stalk short, inserted in a wide, deep cavity lined with russet, which entirely covers the base of the apple. Flesh yellowish white, tinged with green, crisp and juicy, with a rich aromatic flavour. Tree a moderate grower, and forms a large spreading head ; crops well. This is a dessert apple of the very highest excellence, and is considered by many experts to be the finest flavoured apple in cultivation. In season from April until October, being one of the best keeping varieties of apples we have. It is also one of the very best varieties for export, and should always be forwarded with the latest shipments. It is an American variety, having originated at Newtown, Long Island, U.S.A. Downing says that there are two varieties of this apple, the green and the yellow, the difference being in colour only, but from the experience of the writer he is oif opinion that there is only one variety, the difference in colour ari.sing from the situation of the trees. In his own orchard, trees worked from the same stock show a marked difference in the fruit, some ripening a beautiful golden yellow, whilst from other trees the apples are always a greenish vellow. a. Q. O Hi z 8 March, 1907.] Grant to Agricultural Societies. GRANT TO A(tIUCULTUU AL SOC'IETIKS. The following details of the conditions undt-r which the grant to Agri-J'ihural Societies will he distributed in the future arc puhhshfd f, ]• general information. Conditions A and B are compulsory . and either C or D must also be fulfilled. A. COMPULSORY The prizes to be awarded in all classes of horse stock at the annual show shall be svibject to an examination of such horses for soundness by a veterinary officer approved by the Minister. (i.) Appointment of Examining Officer — The veterinary officer is to be nominated bv the Agricuhnral Socict\- and approved by the Minister. The Department will pav his rail and coach fares in travelling to and from the show. An\ professional fee charged for the examination is to be paid bv the Society. At a limited number of shows each season the Minister will allow one of the veterinary officers of the Department tO' act, a fee of ^2 2s. b-.-ing charged for his expenses. In special cases, such as newly-formed societies or societies in out-of-the-way parts of the State, the Department may send the vere-rinarv officer free of cost. Societies wishing to have the .seryices of the veterinary officers of the Department must make apj)lication at least two months before the date of the show. (ii.) Methods to be observed on Show Grounds — a. In addition to the first, second, and third awards, the judges are to be instructed to place one reserve number in all classes where the entries are below eight, and two reserve numbers in classes where the entries exceed eight. No prize ticket to be handed out till after the veterinary examination. b. A special steward to be appointed for each horse-ring to see to the tiansference of the placed horses from the judging rinp- to the vetei"'narv ring, and to maintain their identity by numbers or otherwise. c. A special veterinary ring to be provided to which all placed horses are to be brought for examination immediately on being judged. d. A ^'cket steward to be appointed to: attend in the veterinary ring and distribute the final award tickets on completion of the \eteruinrv examination. B.— COMPULSORY That the Society takes an active interest in the work of agricultural education either by (a) arranging for the holding of agricultural classes with an attendance of at least 30 students, svich classes to be conducted by the Department of Agriculture ; (b) arranging a series of lectures and demonstra- tions, to be approved by the Department, on agriculture and live stock matters throughout the year. {a.) Agricultural Classes.— The agricultural classes will last a fort- night, two lectures and demonstrations being given each afternoon, and four limelight lectures on evenings to be arranged for bv tiie Secretary of each Society. The 30 students enrolled must be exclusive of school children. The rent of hall and all local charges are to be paid by the Agricultural Society ; all other expenses by the Department. Arrangements must be made to insure the uninterrupted use of the hnll during the time the lectures are going on, and tables or desks provided so that students may take notes. The conditions uncier which medals and prizes are 176 Journal of Agriculture. [8 March, 1907. awarded to the students are to be subject to approval bv the Department. One course each week is compulsory, the second subject being chosen by the local committee from the following list : First Week. Compulsory Subject. The Principles of Agriculture. Optional Subject. One of the following: — (a) Sheep Breeding and Management (including Wool Classing and Lambs for Export) ; or {b) Dairv Farming. Second Week. C ampul sorv Stfbject. The Care of Farm Animals. Optional Subject. One of the following: — (a) Poultry Breeding and Management; {b) Agricultural Engineering ; {c) Orchard and Garden work. SYNOPSIS OF LECTURES. Principles of Agriculture. 1. The plant food of the soil. 2. Cultivation methods and management. j. Principles of manuring. 4. Valuation of artificial manures. 5. The management of the farm. 6. Experimental plots and their lessons. Evening Lecture. — The Agricultural Resources of Victoria. The Care of Farm Animals. 1. The structure and care of the horse's foot. 2. Brood mares and breeding mishaps. 3. Colic, con.sitipation, and other bowel complaints. 4. Ailments of dairv cows — milk fever, impaction, udder complaints. 5. Some notifiable diseases — abortion, blackleg, tuberculosis, &c. 6. Ailments of swine, or ailments of sheep. Demonstrations. 1. Examinations for age, lameness, and unsoundness. 2. Horse shoes and their uses — practical shoeing. 3. Castrating and operating. Evening Lecture. — (Lantern) — The Points of the Horse. Sheep Breeding and Management. 1. The breed'ing of sheep for wool. 2. Wool sorting and classing. No. i. 3. Wool sorting and classing, No. 2. 4. Raising fat lambs. 5. Management of flocks. Evening Lecture. — The Wool Lidustrv. 8 March. 1907.] Grant to Agricultural Societies. Dairy Farming. I. Breeding and management. 2. Dairy buildings. 3- Dairy management. 4- Milk testing. 5- Foods and feeding. 6. Pig breeding, &c. E' vening Lecture. — Exported Products. 177 Practical Poultry P>reeding and Management. 1 . The poultry industry : its importance. Locality — suitability or otherwise. 2. Housing (construction of. materials, insect proof, aspect, &c.). HoAV to select stock. 3. Breeds: payable or otherwise, viz., eggs only. Breeds adapted for export — modes of crossing. 4. Turkeys : their care and management. Chicken raising and care. 5. Poods and feeding (practically demonstrated). 6. Common ailments of poultry (with demonstrations when necessary). Incubation — natural and artificial. Evening Lecture. — Descriptive of Victoria's Progress during the last three years. (Illustrated with 90 lantern slides.) Agricultural Engineering. 1. Water conservation. 2. Irrigation. 3. Drainage. 4. Surveying and measuring. 5. Levelling and setting out. 6. Silo constructiion, making and using silage. Evening Lecture. — Irrigation in Victoria. Orchard and Garden Work. 1. Fruit growing: sorts and localities. 2. ^Manuring and cultivation. 3. Pruning and management. 4. Insect pests. 5. Fungus diseases. 6. The farmer's garden. Evening Lecture. — The Fruit Industry. Five of these lectures will be given in each course. The one considered least important for local conditions will be omitted. ib) Lectures on Agricultural Subjects. — Many of the lectures are illustrated by limelight views. The hall, advertising, &c., must be pro- vided locally, free of cost, but all other charges are borne by the Depart- ment . The course shall consist of at least four lectures or practical demon- strations during the vear, and the Society must take sufficient interest in the m.atter to insure "a good attendance. It is requested that application be made as earlv as possible, so as to permit of a complete syllabus being drawn up, and the subjects of most interest to the district are to be men- tioned. The Department will arrange for the lecture to be delivered as 1-8 journal of Agriculture. [8 ]\Jarch, 1907. nearly as. possible on the date mentioned by the Society, but modifications maA' be necessary in order to carry out the complete programme. The day of the week most suitable for each locality should be mentioned. Staff. Veterinary Science, Stock Management, Dairy Sanitation — Messrs. Cameron, Colebatch, Robertson, and Paterson. Agricultural Engineering, Suryeying, Irrigation, Silos — Mr. Ken\on. Principles of Agriculture, ■Manures, Cereal Culture — Mr. Lee. Subjects connected with the Dairying Industrx and P>xport Trade — Messrs. Crowe, Archer, and Carroll. Orchard and Garden Work — Messrs. Luffmann, Cronin, and Campbell. Sheep Breeding and Management, Lambs for Export — Dr. Brown and Mr. H. W. Ham. Elax Culture and Demonstrations at Shows — Mr. Knight and staff. Poultry Breeding and Management — Messrs. Hart and Hawkins. Potato Culture — Mr. Seymour. Cheese-making — Mr. McMillan. Tobacco Culture — Mr. Templt Smith. Pig Breeding and Management — Mr. W. Smith. C. FIRST OPTION That the Society arranges for carrying out field experiments on an area and in a locality to be approved by the Department. These experiments shall be carried out by the Department of Agriculture, and the expense, or a portion thereof, shall be borne by the Society. The plot of land should be about 5 acres in extent, so that the amount of produce may be of yalue tO' the Society. It is desirable also that arrangements be made for the use of the land for a number of years, so that a definite scheme can be worked out ; the Society to furnish the land, with a wr>'tten guarantee from the owner that it will be available free of charge to the Department. Members of the Society to plough, harrow, and do the main part of the cultivation. The Department will supply the manures and the seed free of cost, and superintend the sowing and harvest- ing, two-thirds of the produce to belong to the Society, and one-third tO' the Department. A committee of the Societv to be appointed to arrange the details of the work in conference with an officer of the Department. This committee toi inspect the crops at stated intervals, and to sitrn the report drawn up by the officer of the Department. It is suggested that one or more experimental plots should be developed in each district. Three main lines of investigation may be carried out ; first, the determination of the manurial requirements of the district ; second, the introduction of new methods of management and of new crops ; third, bv introducing new varieties of crops not already grown in the district. A supply of seed will be foTthcoming for distribution amongst members of the Society. The area of land selected should be typical of the district, if anything, rather on the poor side. The location of the plot should be such that it can be seen Ijv as many farmers as possible. An area adjacent to the principal town, or close to the railway station of the district, is therefore suggested. The details of the experimental work carried on bv the Department are published from time to time in the lournal, and will be furn'shed for the information of members on application to the Secre- tary for Agriculture. 8 March, igoy.] St afi sties. 179 D.— SECOND OPTION-A substantial prize, the amount to toe approved by the Minister of Agriculture, shall be offered by the Society for improvements in farm practice or the cultivation of special crops in a district, the details to be approved by the Minister. In carrying out this section, the words " substantial prize " are to be interpreted in proportion of the income and prize list of the Society. It should amount to from 2| to 5 per cent, of the total amount distributed in prizes at the show. The objects aimed at should be to make a distinct advance in farming methods as carried on in the district, and it will there- fore be advisable to state the amount of the prize and the purpose for which it will be awarded several years in ad\ance. Several Societ:;es at present award prizes for the best-managed farms respectively under and over 200 acres ; others for the best farm under irrigation. These Societies fulfill all the conditions required. Such subjects as — (a) The best 10 acres irrigated by a private scheme ; (b) The best 5 acres of lucerne, maize, or other fodder crops grown with or without irrigation ; (c) The best-managed dairy herd of ten cows or upwards ; or (d) The best 5-acre crop of fla.x or beans, &c., &:c. Two or three objects should be suggested by each Society in taking up this condition. The T)epartment will, as far as possible, assist by arranging the details of the competition, give instruction as to the best methods in attain''ng the object sought, and, if required, an officer of the Department will judge the competition, and a full report, with criticisms and suggestions for improvement, will be forwarded along with the award. STATISTICS. Perishable and Frozen Produce. QUARTERS ENDED 31st DECEMBER. 1906 AND 190ri, RESPECTIVELY, Deliveries from the Exiiorts from the state. Government Cool Stores. Description of Profi ice. 1906. 1906. 1905. 1905. Butter . lbs. 23,995,196 19,624,117 17.525.704 14,072.968 Milk and Cream cases 9,071 5,722 532 131 Cheese . lbs. 253,200 246,240 9,100 Ham and Bacon 737.280 576,960 Poultry head 21,260 18,630 3>042 3,219 Eggs . . . dozen 26,740 24,260 6,225 Mutton and Lamt) . carcasses 589.166 421,021 117,264 94,720 Beef . . . quarters 2,368 850 Veal . . . carcasses 2,572 3,405 472 20 Pork . . 385 448 15 303 Rabbits and Hares pairs 110.910 288,276 44,118 114,670 Fruit cases 24.211 13,442 108 Fruit Pul)) 1 ,554 2.253 Sundries .' lbs. 19,671 V8,961 R. CROWE, Superinfendent of Experts. Journal of AgriciiUiin [8 March, 1907 I — I O H ;?; o 0 tf <5l Uj w k; c/? ^ S ;_> CT> fc '"' 0 w -•x a: w H t^ ^J o C-i w 1-3 a. r/r 'w 0 _i^ ■o 05 - 3 3 1 3 1° 0'-' a S "3 >. CD .a . ■3P5 >> 3 C8 > S 0 0 > s* s d 0 - a "3 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 3.'° °* -a 0 0 §1 -S 3 "3 ■31-' 53 ^ a - ■3 3 "3 as-s 3 ij 1^ 1 -< 0 <^ H 1-5 ^ 0 Qj s a> g^a ■«■ 0 0 0 => 0 0 t-l o_g.2 lO 00 0 0 in in Ah t*l "* CO .^ £.2 C3 (U £ ■«■ 0 in 0 ^ ^ "S c ° 3 S J 2 0 '-^ 0 0 0 CO 0 0 tv 5 £ •5S 00 0 t^ 6C 01 3 « 03 =e .a e 3 pq 2 a -*^ ^ 0 ■§ >5 0 f- ^ .S£ 2 "E-e 1 'n .s s U a S J In ■g £ a 1 tH >o " §■§< 0 0 r- 3 gc. 0 0 s t^ W 8 March, 1907.] Artificial Ma//// res Acts. ]8[ 'ts TS ■a* Ji do." ' qo h) ; ^^ 5 a •i" ■| 0 0 .3 J 0 "is . a 0 a: — 0 U -^ :: "3 r s ^•-5 1 4i i; 3 s |5a 0 < <7) i 0 3 : G a : 0- g j3 o^'^^5 ■a 0 a> p m g-^ -P «C=M ■~-i t~ k. 0 _> " 0 •^ en f 1 a t ^ a f a ts -1* &« 3 _ = (3 (3 >''-=^ t^ '~ H « = S 0 S = .2 ^ ■3S : M 5 <»! Z < 1 S t" H si S (-1 Ti H =3 ■^ aQ t5 M CO 13 0 00 0 0 tu S 60 ^4 0 cj t^ --*) 0 00 (MCO 0 0 CO "S « a • ■e M < -H ^H I— t "0 S a a a 1^5 °l t*l in CO S '3 ^ 5^ 0 2 d ■a « I> -* ^ CI a c = «=l «■ .0 -* m CO Til H K . ^1 . "to Z 63 0 ca trt ■* o\ ■* to ■^Sl Oh S c3 10 «.S =^ .s 6 ■«■ -* IM ^ => J W g CO* CO •* "7^ 5 = 0;^ a So i^ 1 ps^s ■~rt to ^ G a i>5°l ^ FM 0 to 0 to Q 0 a S a si a ■m' 1 to "> 0 0? l~|s2 3 a a*' a =0 t •z 0 2 a>-^S 3 i> CO US id 0 S3 03 0 0 Cn |1 §1 -■*t 0 S a 6 CJ tj z a a> c to £^^ C5 0" 1 )-H 0 50 IN ^ 1 |-9ggg -• IN 'tf ^ El. 0 0 ^ a ^; •s 022 aSo,-«d CO in Tfin CO M-2 s!^ 5 ■5 =3 a 0 ^ trt in sis 'X 03 H -^ i-H n D Z 0 000 1 PL, 0 C3 CM g =3 0 0 t-00 1 ''J H "2 a a „; ^ ^ — < — t 65 i S a oj"" a ^ ' ■^ 00 ■||. Ill :d 1 4^ • ; z fega to 05 &:. en 0 ee ' 0 — ^ CO •2? £ ii,-e » 0 <£i5° CO ^3 3 a c« i ai ^ S S" Co Q) - la's a Pi Z t: 1-1 0 .& a Si g '3 0 a a 0 c3 0 s Cs i 0 0 2 -2 0 Cl, 0 9 a "0 1 •So 1 0 'a 5Z 1 _2 13 1 CST3 1 ~-i'S D X ■3 t. 0 z3 3 X Q 0 J oiinial of Agriadtiirc. [8 March. 1907 1-1 > o 0, Oh D ;/5 a c >. 1 J- obo I 3 ■JlJ ■so 1 0 . pjfe s "S-g" H -w - 1 ^§ (15 a c a S i^ 0 ca.H !D csii g "Si S-5 lo 1 «-! .^ ■a c c 00 1^1 g| «• »c c lO 0 ^^S,Q «!» « >n in mm l| 3 0 •?s 03 C 0: c-i 0 — ta t- J" c*l •+ tK r- 0 0 ^SS?d « -' (M eq 0 0 1^ eJ 1 ^ V oJ 1 « 0 0 00 d H S c'« a 0 1 IM OS to S S PMg^fe «a 1 ^ 0 00 si aj • 0 iL-e °§§ 0 C 0 lO w 00 M into S S s|5m cn 0 inrH r^ .n 1 -- ■ C 0 0 lO (M 0 m 5 s 3J-- 0 — " if'E=H 0 0 ffi ^ 00 0 C3 '^ •-+< (N -f 0 §2 1^ l-S § . £ S S m C «5 OS CO CO IM to toco Cm 00 0 t^ in OS OS ''3 fi a 'S 0 0 0 in fei ^ ^ *^ 2 • .-H "-C OS ■* H 0 -»^ =S - 0"-H 0 P3 H ,j>o °« '-H ^ ■^ T-IO S 01 OS -* COr-l .2 » 00 00 to 0 CO 00 ,-1 t^OS ■e ^ S e C; "a ■a c* 'S S 3 '^ '^ 1 •c •c ■c it a § ^ ^" g a, 1 1 'g crj _^ 8 §'•2' •5 a; . , . s ia; << 0 6 PQ '/:, (T) 0 'fi (^ « bc 1— I ^t* • 1— > a 0 < >► ^_ ^ — ^i >^ „ 0 K ci 0 H Ph ^ .3 o ^ 3 .>! ^ ^ ri rt ta 0 _2 ■5 C3 U ^ 01 0 ^ 0 8 March, 1907.] (' lie CSC C niiipctiiioii. CHEESE COMPETITIOX AT THE A.N. A. EXIIIIUTIOX. Judges: Jas. .Sawers (Cheese Expert, New Zealand), J. G. McMillan (Cheese Expert. Victoria), and W. W. Thomas (R. G. Wilson iV Co.). Although it was decided at the last moment to hold this competition, and consequently the notice was rather short, this was. perha])s, an advan- tage from the point of view. of the industrv as a whnlc. The number of PORTION OF EXPORT CHEESE EXHIBIT. entries proved very satisfactory, and, except in the export class, the cheese for exhibition was taken from the ordinary stock of the factory, tliere being too little time to prepare a special exhibit. The to:al number of entries was 94, but of these 12 were not forwarded. an(j 4 (jthers arri\ed after the awards had been made. The specifications were as under : — Class G : i ton export cheese, not over 3 months old. ,, H : 300 lbs. cheese, any age, not under 40 lbs. each. ,, ] : ill lbs. loaf ciieese, an\ age, not over 12 11 is. each. Prizes and Awards. Class G. — Prizes: — i. Government Gold Medal, A.X.A. Exiiibiliiui Certificate, and ^20; 2. £io ; 3, £s \ A, 5- ''^'""^ 6- Cerriflcates. Aimrds. — i and Championship, Noel Bros., Kolora. 2, Cobrico Cheddar Co-operative Coy. 3, Clachan Cheese Dairy, Cororooke. Very highly commended: Boisdale Butter and Cheese Coy.. Upper Maffra Co-operative Butter and Cheese Cov., Newry, Warrnambool Cheese and Butter Cov. Highly commended : R. & J. Crothers, Eden- dale Factory, 'Wangoom,' Sutton Grange Cheese Factory, Hugh Hennessv, Bena. A special prize of ^10 is also to be given for the ton of cheese wdiich arrives in London in the best condition for the English market, to be judged b\ an En^ilish expert. 1 84 Journal of Agriculture. [8 March, 1907 Class H. — Prizes: — i, ^5 and A.N. A. Exhibition Certificate; 2, jQ^; 3, ^2 ; _|, 5, and 6, Certificates. A^cards. — 1, Xoel Bros., Kolora. 2, Bonnie Vale Dair\ . 3, Clachan Cheese Dairy, Cororooke. Very highly commended : Sutton Grange Cheese Factory. Highly commended : Wolseley Park Co-operative Dairy Coy., New South Wales. Commended : Warrnamhool Cheese and Butter Coy. PORTION OF NOEL BROS. EXHIBIT. 1st ]'rize and ( "hamiMonship of .Australia, Class G. Class J. — Prizes. — Same as for Class H. Aicards. — i, Cobrico Cheddar Co-operative Coy. 2, Bruthen Factory (J. Reid), Tambo Upper. 3, Sutton Grange Cheese Factory. Very highly commended : Wattle Hill Co-operative Cheese Factory. Highlv com- mended : Peter Irvine, Orbost ; Clachan Cheese Factory, Cororooke, McConachy Bros., Cororooke. Commended : Boisdale Butter and Cheese Factory, Wolseley Park Co-operative Dairy Coy., New South Wales. The value of the prizes probably had much to do with the success of the exhibition, but another factor was, undoubtedly, the method adopted of judging on the point system. The adoption of this method would pro- bably increase the interest taken in the cheese exhibits at the Royal Agri- cultual Shows, the educational value of [he pnint system being every- 8 -March, 1907.J Cheese L'ompeiition. 185 where recognised. The points awarded enalile a- cheese maker to see at once wherein he has achieved success, and also what is the nature and the extent of the defects in his, exhibit. In judging each class it was thought inadvisable for each judge to act independentlv, as this would mean extra boring of the cheeses, and the less of this that is done, particularly in the export section, the better it is for the consignment. Mr. Sawers' opinion on each exhibit is valuable, as it enables our makers to form an PORTION OF COBRICO CHEDDAR CO-OPERATIVE COY. S EXHIBIT. 2nd Prize, Class G. estimate of the quality of their cheeses as compared with the New Zealand standard for export. The notes which are appended to the awards, when read in conjunction with the points awarded, will enable each exhibitor to know wherein he failed. Such criticism is intended to be of direct educational value, and it by no means implies disparagement. We are sure the different exhibitors will take the remarks made on their cheeses in good part. The maximum points obtainable were as follow: — Flavour. 50; tex- ture, 30; colour, 15; finish. 5. It was very noticeable in nearly all exhibits that the curd had been taken from the whey in a soft condition. The judges agree that it would be advantageous to cut the curd smaller. When Mr. Sawers was at Terang 1 86 Journal of Agriculture. [8 jNIarch, 1907. Class G. — Export Cheese, not Competitor. Points Awarded. C'liemical Analysis. Fat. ICaseiii. % Salt. 138 a 138b 138 c 138D 139 140 142 143 144 145 146 147 14S 150 151 152 154 156 157 158 Boisdale Factory . . Boisdale Factory . . Boisdale Factory . . Boisdale Factory . . Boisdale Factory . . H. Hemiessy, Bena P. Irvine, Orbost . . Upper Maffra Factory, Newry Welshpool Factory. Welshpool R. and J". Crothers, Wangoom Cobrico Cheddar Co. Clachan Dairy, Cororooke . . B. Conlon, Terang .T. Baker, Foxhowe .T. J. Meredith, Larpent McRae Bros., Larpent McC'onachy Bros., Cororooke A. McRae, Larpent Noel Bros., Terang Tandarook Factory. Cobden Warrnambool Factory. ALlaus- ford Sutton Grange Factorv, El- phinstone 40.5 41 42 44 42.5 43.5 42.5 43 40 40 42.5 42 43 27 27.5 27.5 27 26.5 27 27 27.5 26.5 42.5 I 27.5 44.5 I 23.5 44 . 27.5 42 26 . 5 42 27 45.5 28.5 40 I 26.5 14 14 14 14 14 14 14.5 14 14.5 14.5 14.5 14 14.5 14 14 14 14.5 14 27.5 ! 14.5 i 27.5 ' 14 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 5 4.5 4 4.5 4.5 87 88 89.5 87.5 89.5 92.5 00.5 86.5 86 8S 4.5 86.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 40.5 23.2 ' 31.6 38.3 38.1 38.5 36.4 36.0 34.0 37.4 23.2 24.1 26.7 24.9 24.5 23.4 23.2 31.0 31.9 30.0 31.2 33.7 36.3 36.3 36.1 I 25.4 32.3 35.7 I 25.4 I 32.9 36.4 ; 25.4 31.7 37.0 23.2 32.8 23.6 36.4 24.3 33.7 24.2 34.0 37.1 33.0 35.2 2.03 3.19 2.34 2.59 2.20 1.58 1.69 1.74 2.04 1.29 1.63 1.77 1.44 1.35 1.67 35.3 25.8 34.5 1.30 32.3 25.2 37.7 1.35 34.5 26.0 30.2 2.06 34.8 25.4 35.3 1.64 35.4 25.2 33.3 1.65 36.3 24.1 32.4 1.76 he complained of the curd knixes being too wide between the blades, and recommended them being made much closer. With cutting the curd smaller a firmer bodied cheese is obtained. It is a great mistake to make the quality of a cheese suffer simply to obtain a large quantity. The aim of the cheesemaker should be, first, to obtain quality, then quantity. In the export class this defect was more noticeable, because the cheeses being of a large size, should be made firmer, as a soft curd is so liable to develop acid after salting. Cheese which we ha\-e termed " OA-er acid " has not been too acid at the time of salting, but has developed it later on. One- inch threads in a soft curd may produce a more acid cheese than two-inch threads in a firm curd. Cooking more does not necessarily mean higher 8 March, 1907.] Cheese Corn-petition. 187 OVER Three Months old. Judges' Coniiiieuts. 138 F. Not clean ; little more salt wanted. T. Short. C. Irregular. F. Cloths too long, showing cracks in skin and mould. 138A F. Too much acid. T. Rough, body fairly close. C. Irregular. F. Good, but with same faults as 138. 138B F. Clean, but too acid. T. Rather short. C. Slightly bleached. F. Similar to 13? and 138a. 138c F. Fairly clean, but slightly acid. T. Short, but body soft. C. Irregular. F. Good shape ; cloths rough on ends and too long ; skins cracked and showing mould. 138D F. Clean, but too much acid. T. Short, body open. C. Irregular. F. Good, but with same faults as 138, 138a, and 13SB. 139 F. Irregular, lacking cleanness as a rule. T. Short, body too soft; curd should have been cooked firmer. C. Dead. F. Fair ; cloths too long, and badly pressed in on ends. 140 F. Fairly clean; more acid required. T. Body fairly close, but too soft; curd iiisulliciently <'ookc(l. C. Irregular. F. Fair ; cloths too long. 142 F. Fairly clean ; more salt rec[uired ; cheese very green. T. Body fairly close, but too soft. C. Dull. F. Sides good, but cloths too long and not pressed into cheese, some out of shape, some good, others " off." 143 F. Strong, evidently due to containniate.l milk ; will get worse with age ; more acid and a good deal more salt reciuireci. T. Short, ami In. il\ soft. C. Irregular. F. Very nice, being clean andattractive ; owing to soft nature, some out nt shapi-. 144 F. Fairly clean, but rather insipid ; more acid required. T. Body open, but velvety; get curd firmer. C. Fairly clean. F. Soiled ; cloths too long and ruffled. 145 F. Lacked cleamiess ; more salt required. T. Body very close, but lacking silkiness ; slight tendency to rmighncs-i. ('. Good. F. Excellent : the finest looking lot in the Exhibition. 146 F. (tooiI. Iiiit sii^riitiy bitter ; a little more salt required. T. Body close, but too soft ; should be lirnu'r. C. Dull, (iH'iug to soft body. F. Good, but some cloths too long. 147 F. Without cheesy flavour, and Licking aci lity ; rinn-ilv for hitter — cut curd smaller, allow it to be firmer in whey, and allow more acid to df\il i|. intore salting. T. Body open and weak, lacking character. C. Dull. F. Bad, having roumliMl ciiycs and being jjuft'ed ; cloths too long. 14S F. Very strong, due to coat iminated milk ; more acid and salt required. T. Body fairly close, but too soft ; more I kiiii; nrcessary. C. Fair. F. Cloth-; too long and ruffled. 150 F. Tendency to bittrrucss ; more acid and salt required. T. Body too soft and open. C. Dead. lacking brijthtness. F. Fair as regards skins, but sizes irregular ; some cheeses out of shape. 151 F. Distinct l\ over acid ; more salt required; curd was too soft when salted, acid developing afterwards. T. Short and rough ; body soft. C. Irregular, due to excess of acid. F. Shape good, but cloths too long. 1 52 F. Some good, some '" off " ; mors silt wanted ; too much acid ; it seems as if excess of acid had not been developed at time of milling, but owing to curd being soft it had developed in the curing room. T. Rough, owing to excess of acid ; body fairly close. C. Dull. F. Fair; skins were good, but cheeses dirty. 153 F. Lacking in cleanness ; more acid and salt required. T. Body soft and open ; insufficiently cooked. if made firmer would have been of a dift'erent character. C. Fair. F. Skins smooth and clean, but cliths too long ; some out of shap? and size irregular. 154 F. Marked for cleanness and regularity. T. Body rather open, hut with silky feel. C. Good. F. Cracks in skin, showing mould ; cloths well put on. liut too lom; ; regular in size. 156 F. Consid?rably '• off," eviclentlv due to contaminated milk ; additional acid would have counteracted ill effects of milk. T. Body fairly close, but too soft ; curd insufficiently cooked, causing shortage of acid. C. Irreguhvr. F. Good shape, but cloths too long. 157 F. Slightlv bitter : would have been improved bv firmer cooking and development of more acid ; more salt required. T. Body fairly close, but rather soft. C. Dull. F. Cloths too long and cheese mouldy, but of good shape. 158 F. Wanting in cleanne>~. T. Body rather soft, but fairly close. C. Irregular. F. Good shape, but. mouldy appearauc". temperature. Mr. Sawers recommends a longer time after milling hL-fore applying salt, and also more salt, 2\ to 2-\ lbs. to loo gallons milk. In consequence of the judges having taken a different stand-point from that usuallv adopted in Victoria, the result.s of the competitions have come as a surprise to many. A numl)er of prize-winners at ocher shows failed to score. One gentleman was incensed at some fricnci of his not getting a mention, hut. on cutting, had to admit that the lot in (jues.ir)n was unwoTthv of a prize. He still maintained, however, that such cheese would top the market. Unfortunatelv, this is the case. As long as a cheese is soft, no matter what the flavour, it will realize a price. Dairv produce salesmen and growers sihould discourage this class of cheese. By refusing Journal of Agriculture. [8 March, 1907. Class H. — Cheese c Competitor. 0 in 0 > Points Awarded. 0 0 rH ■5 c H Chemical Analysis. be 1 d CO 3 H 10 "o 0 in Fat. 0 Casein. 0/ Water. Salt. 159 Geo. Mathiesoii, Moyarra 44.5 28.5 14.5 4,5 92 39.1 26.9 27.2 1.78 160 Benaml)i'a Factory 42 28.5 14.5 4.5 89.5 30.8 27.3 34.9 1.78 161 BoL^dale Factory . . 42 27 14.5 4.5 88 36.0 24.7 32 . 3 1.90 161a Boisdale Factory . . 41.5 27.5 14.5 4.5 88 34.6 26.9 32.4 2.19 161B Boisdale Factory . . 43 27.5 14.5 4.5 89.5 34.8 23.5 34.0 2.01 162 M. Diinlop. Koo-wee-rup 42 27 14.5 4.5 88 36.1 24.9 32.5 2.05 163 H. Hennessy, Bena 40 27 14 4.5 85.5 33.1 24.7 33.8 1.82 163A H. Hennessy, Bena 43 27 14 4.5 88.5 35.7 24.7 33.5 1.72 164 P. Irvine, Orbost . . 43 27.5 14.5 4.5 89.5 33.8 24.3 35.5 1.58 166 Cobrico Clieddar Co. 42 28 14.5 4.5 89 36.4 26.7 30.5 1.45 167 M. McLennan, Cororoolve 44.5 28 14.5 4.5 91.5 35.9 24.1 34.4 1.59 168 Gazette Factory, Penshurst 40 27.5 14 4.5 86 35.2 26.3 35.0 1.82 169 J. Baker, Foxhowe 41.5 28 14.5 4.5 88.5 35.1 26.3 32.9 1.95 170 Hay Bros., Colac . . 42.5 27.5 14.5 4.5 89 33.3 25.6 33.8 1.83 171 P. Kenna, Framlingham 43 27.5 13.5 4.5 88.5 33.7 25.8 31.7 1.81 17-2 174 Lower Gollibrand Factory, Princetown K. McDonald, Xoorat 43.5 43 27.5 27.5 14 14.5 4 4 89 89 33.3 33.5 28.0 24.5 30.7 35.5 1.80 1.65 175 McRae Bros., Larpent 43.5 27.5 14 4.5 89.5 32.7 26.0 33.1 1.77 176 Noel Bros. , Terang 45 28.5 14.5 4.5 92.5 32.5 26.7 32.9 1.99 176a 176b Noel Bros. , Terang Noel Bros., Terang 42.5 43.5 27.5 27.5 14.5 14.5 4.5 4.5 89 90 37.2 35.7 24.1 25.2 31.7 31.3 1.95 2.03 179 Leach Bros., Penshurst 41.5 27.5 14 4 87 36.09 20.6 33.7 1.79 180 Warrnambool Cheese Factory 43.5 27.5 14.5 4.5 90 36.0 26.0 33.7 1.69 181 Wattle Hill Factory, Prince- 42.5 27.5 14 4.5 88.5 34.0 26.3 32.9 1.72 182 town Lade Bros., Strath Creek 42 26.5 14 4.5 87 33.9 23.0 36.0 1.61 183 Sutton Grange Factory 44 28 14.5 4.5 91 36.4 25.8 33.0 1.71 184 Manns Factory, N.S.W. 41.5 27.5 14.5 4.5 88 35.8 24.7 30.9 1.90 185 186 Wolseley Park Dairy Co., N.S.W. Circular Head Factory, Tas- mania 43.5 42.5 28 27.5 14.5 14.5 4.5 4.5 90.5 89 35.2 31.0 23.0 26.3 32.8 33.2 1.76 2.11 to have anything to do with such they will soon help in improving the quality. There is an outcry against a firm cheese, but it by no' means follows that because a cheese is firm it is poor in fat. The variations in the percentages of the ingredients will be noticed in the analvsis columns, 8 !March, 1907.] Cheese Competition. 189 40 LBS. A\D OVER. Judges' Comments 159 F. Verv nice. T. Good, but rather open. C. Clear, Init with tendeucv to irrcaularitv at open jjarts. F. Fair. 160 F. Weedy, otherwise a good elieese ; the milk supply should be looked into ; a little more salt would iniinove flavour. T. Good, but lacking silkiuess. C. Good. F. Soiled appearance, and cloths rough on ends. 161 F. Unclean. T. Body too soft. C. Dull. F. Cloths rough on ends, cracks with mould on outside. Could have done with more cooking and acid. 161a F. Decidedly strong; contaminated milk is evidently the cause. T. Close, but soft. C. Dull. F. Mouldy, and cloths too long. 161B F. Not clean enough. T. Kather soft in body and lacking silkiness. C. Dull. F. Outside of cheeses mouldy. 162 F. Lacking acidity ; a whey smell due to too much whey being retained. T. Body very soft, owing to presence of whey. C. Fair. F. Fair, but soiled ; improvement can be achieved by cooking better and developing more acid. 163 F. Distinctly " off," due to contamination. T. Too short, soft and open in body. C. Irregular. F. Cloths too long. Besidis the dirty flavour, there was a lack of salt ; curd not sufficiently cooked and lack of acid is responsible for body, the softness in turn is responsible for the irregular colour. 163A F. Fairly clean. T. Body too soft and open ; more cooking of curd required. C. Irregular, due again to excess moisture. F. Nice, except for clotlis being too long, and cheese wanting in good shape. 164 F. Fairly clean, but rather insipid ; more acid and salt required. T. Body too soft ; better cooking of curd necessary. C. Dull. F. Fair. 166 F. Strong, evidently from some fault in the milk ; too little salt. T. Body close, but lacking smoothness. C. Dull. F. Cloths rough on ends and soiled. 167 F. Good, but lacking salt. T. Body close, but soft. C. Dull. F. Cloths too long ; with more salt and firmness this lot would have scored higher. 165 F. Verv much " off " ; due to contaminated milk; strict examination of utensils and water supply should be made ; also see that the milking is done cleanly. T. Fair, but soft. C. Irregular. F. Clotlis too long. . . 169 F. Strong, evidently due to contamination of the milk. T. Good, but lacking silkiness. C. very Sau'. F. Verv fair. 170 F. Would be Improved by developing more acidity in conjunction with better cooking. T. Body open and soft. C. Slightlv "irregular. F. Fair, but cheese a little out of shape owing to softness. 171 F. Fairly clean. T. Body close, but too soft ; cook higher to obtain a firmer body. C. A cry motley. F. Not good, cloths being too long. t^ T^■ * 172 F. Lacking in cleanness ; could have done with more acid. T. Body open. C. Motley. i. Dirty looking appearance, and covered with dark mould ; evidently knocked about in transit. 174 F. Slightly weedy ; a little more salt wanted. T. Body open, but fairly firm. C. Fau'. F. Batl, being covered with a dark mould ; bad outward appearance. „ ^ . , , 175 F. Kather too nmch acid. T. Close in body, but rather rough. C. Slightly bleached. F. fair, bur cloths too long and outsides soiled ; evidently the fault of this cheese is that saltmg was done m curd in too soft a condition, and insufficiently cooked. , j i • 176 F. Good clean. T. Body silky, but rather open. C. Good. F. Mouldy appearance and cracked skm, but of good shape and regular size. , , j „ ,, c n 176A F. Too much acid. T. Close, but lacking smoothness. C. Dull. F. Skin cracked and full of mouKl. 176B F. Fair, but beginning to go " off." T. Body close, but soft. C. Dull. F. Cracks in skin spoiled appearance. , . , 179 F. Strong. T. Body soft. C. Irregular. F. Bad, with dirty appearance ; more cookmg ana more aridity rc(|inred. , .1 , -i.* ^ t\ w v 180 F. Slluht tendency to being strong. T. Body rather soft and inclined to be gritty. I. iJuii. r. Mi>ulilv iipiiearance. ,, , . . ^^ ■ l i.-.,,. 181 F. Slightly " off " ; little nior(> salt requU-ed. T. Body close, but too soft, due to insufficient cooking. 182 F. *" Weedy ;^ more^acidity^ind s\iltrequii-ed. T. Body fairly close, but too soft ; more thorough cooking required. C. Irregular ; due to excessive moisture. F. Fair. t- <^ 1 1 .,f c„iio,i 183 F. Hardly clean enough. T. Rather short. C. Tendency to irregularity. F. Good but soiled apiiearance. „ „ . , ^ 11 /. r'„„ri v 184 F. Distinctly weedy : remedy is to take good milk only. T. Fair, but open m body. ( . (.ood. i. \Ah F.^yi'ckfii'gTu d'eanness. T. Good, but rather open. C. Rather high. F. Very immldy ; the finish spoilt tills exhibit. 186 F. A trifle weedy. T. Short. C. Fairly good. F. Cloths too long. and it will be seen that the softness is generally caused by excessive mois- ture. The consumer does not want to pav for moisture, and by glancing over the table he will find that, while thinking the softness was due to rich- ness in butter fat, he was onlv paving for water. The variation in butter I 90 Journal of Agriculture. [8 March, 1907. Class J. — Loaf Cheese, 187 188 189 190 190 a 190b 191 192 193 194 198 199 200 201 202 20:! 204 20.1 206 207 208 211 212 213 214 215 216 C'onipetiTor. Points Awarded. m m G. Mathiesoii, Moyana .. 42.5 27.5 Benambra Factorv . . 42 28 Jas. Eeid, Bruthen .. 44.5 | 28 Boisdale Factory . . . . 42 . 5 27.5 BoJsdale Factorv .. .. 42.5 27.5 Boisdale Factory .. .. 43 27.5 M. Dunlop, Koo-wee-rup .. 41 26.5 J. Fitzpatriciv, Heyfield .. 41 26.5 H. Hemiessy, Bena ... 42.5 27 P. Irvine, Orbost . . . . 43 . 5 > 27 . 5 Toora Factory . . . 40 26 . 5 Welslipool Factory .. 40 26.5 E. and J. Crotlier.s, Wangooni 42.5 27.5 Cobrico Cheddar Co. .. 44.5 29 Claclian Dairy, Cororoolc? ..43 27.5 Gleiicoe Factory . . . . 41 23 Hay Bro<., Colac .. .. ] 42.5 27 P. Kenna, Frcimlingliam 43 27.5 D. and J. McRae . . .. 43.5 27 McConachy Bros., Cororoolie 4 3 2S A. McRae, Larpent .. i 42.5 27 Warrnambool Factorv . . ; 43 | 27 Wattle Hill Factory ■ .. : 43.5 2-! Lade Bros., Strath Creek ..43 27.5 Sutton Grange Factiry . . 44 28 Manns Factorv. X.S.W. 42.5 27.5 Wolseley Park Co.. N.S.W. . . 43 23 Circular Head Fact )ry, Ta5- 43.5 j 27.5 mania 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 13 14 14 14.5 14 14 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14 14.5 14 14 14.5 14 14.5 14 14 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 5 4.5 4. .5 5 5 5 4 4.5 5 4.5 4.5 4.5 14.5 14.5 4.5 4 14.5 4.5 91.5 89 89 89.5 85.5 86.5 88 90 85.5 85.5 89- 92.5 90 88.5 89 90 83.5 89 93.5 89 89.5 Chemical Analysis. /o Fat. Casein. Water. 90 43.5 32.2 35.2 35.9 36.0 36.5 34.9 35.4 36.6 34.5 34.8 35.3 34.0 37.1 35.4 36.1 33.4 34.2 34.8 34.9 33.1 37.0 34.2 37.4 35.4 35.6 34.7 24.4 27.6 24.9 26.0 25.2 24.7 24.9 27.3 24.9 24.5 24.3 25.4 28.0 8.0 24.7 25.4 2 J . -l 25.6 5.6 4.1 25.2 26.3 25.8 25.4 24.6 34.8 32.7 31.8 30.5 29.6 33.6 31.8 31.6 34.2 33 7 33 ? 34 0 28 0 33 . 9 31 .3 36.0 32.8 3?..0 32.7 34.3 32.4 ■ih . 1 31.0 30.2 32.6 33.3 % Salt. 1.94 1.49 2.01 2.33 1.87 2.39 2.06 1.71 2 20 1.66 1.67 1.14 1.83 1.93 1.75 1.85 1.89 2.07 1.79 1.84 1.50 1.80 1 .00 1.63 1.89 1.72 2.04 23.6 35.4 1.91 fat was 12.7 per cent. ; casein, 7.4 per cenr. ; water, 13.1 per cent. The values of the different cheeses will be obvious to e\ery one. In conclusion, it may be suggested that all agricultural and similar societies who have dairy produce exhibitions should award prizes only when merited. The habit of awarding ist prizes to cheese where there is only one exhil)it is a bad one. unless the cheese is worthy. Unless, the exhibit comes up to a certain standard no prizes should be awarded. A visit to manv of our countrv shows will show this s\ stem toi prevail, cheese win- ning a prize that probably would not score jnd-grade marks. The e\ils of such a system must be obvious to all. 8 ^Farch, 1907.] Cheese Competition. 191 NOT OVER 12 LBS. Juilges' Comiiiciits 187 F. Two sizes of cheese ; largest good, smaller distinctly " off." T. Body open. ('. Dull. F. Fair. 188 F. Weedy, due to contaminated milk ; little mxire salt required. T. Good, but lacking silkiness. C. Hardly clear enough. F. Fair, but dirty appearance. 189 F. (iood. T. Silky, but too open. C. Bull. F. Fair ; cheese knocked about in transit. 190 F. A little too much acid. T. Short. C. Slightly bleached. F. Cloths too long ; cracks in skin mouldy. 190a F. Weedv. T. Too soft. f. Dull. F. Same faults as 190. 190b F. Impruvement on Lot 190A. T. Inclined to be short. C. A bit dull. F. Same faults as 190 and 190 A. 191 F. Bad ; devoid of any cheddar flavour : more acid wanted. T. Soft body ; more cooking required. C. Very motlev. F. Good. 192 F. Too much acid ; greater care should be taken with the milk, which has been allowed to become too acid before renneting. T. Short, rough. C. Bleached. F. Very good. 193 F. Slightly over acid. T. Short. C. Bleached. F. Fair. 194 F. Clean, but insipid ; a little more acid should be allowed. T. Body open ; curd should be cooked more. C. Dull. F. Fair. 198 F. Distinctly strong and •• off " ; causes, bad milk, insufficient acid and salt. T. Body soft and open. C. Irregular. F. Very gnod. 199 F. Very bad ; causes same as 198. T. Weak ; open body ; curd insutticiently cooked. C. Irregular. F. Very good. 200 F. Weedy. T. Body open. C. Dull. F. Black on ends, and cloths too long ; a little more acid in conjunction with higher cooking would have improved this lot. 201 F. Hardly clean enough in some cheeses. T. Body very good. C. (iood. F. Irregular sizes, and dirtv on ends. , t^ t^ n * 202 F. Hirdlv clean enough. T. Close, but too soft ; curd requires better cooking. C. Dull. F. Excellent. 203 An •• off •■ flavour, evidently due to contaminated milk, otiierwise cheese well made ; inquiry should be made /■« source of milk. , 20-t F. Unclean ; allow more acid. T. Weak open body ; cook more. C. Irregular, owmg to soilness. F. Very good. _ ,, 205 F. Fair, but a little acid. T. Body soft, and lacking smoothness ; hardly cooked enough. C. Dull. F. Bad, having a dirtv untidy appearance. 206 F. Too much acid. T. Rough. C. Bleached. F. Good but dirty on outside. , , „ , , 207 F. Rather too much acid. T. Bodv close, but wanting in smoothness. C. Bleached. *. \ ei-j gooa. 208 F. \ot clean ; more acid and salt wanted. T. Soft open body ; more cookmg requu-ed. J-. Good. but a rather soiled appearance. , ^ ,, . 211 F. Over acid. T. Body open, and lacking smoothness. C. Bleached. F. ^ ery gooa. 212 F. Fairly good, but hardly clean enough ; a trifle more salt wanted. T. Too soft ; more cooKing would' have considerably-improved this lot. C. Rather dull. F. Cloths too long. 213 F. Fair, a little more salt and acid required. T. Body soft ; the curd should be cooked a bit firmei. C. Irregular, due to softness. P. Fairly good. t,.,-,.,,,,!-,,- 21 -t F. Hardly clean enough in some cheeses. T. Body rather open, and without sdky teel. C. iiicguiai. 215 F. We'edy." T. Lacking silkiness. C. Rather dull. F. Good, but black appearance. 216 F. Lacking cleanness. T. Body close and firm, but not silky. C. Good. F. Bad, haMng a daik mouldv appearance. , ,. ..;.. .,i c h,,m 217 F. Not dean enough; more acid wanted. T. Open soft body: more cookmg requucd. I. Dull. F. Cloths dirty, and too long. The results of the compelitions are highly sarisfactory. and prove that cheese can be produced in this countrv to compete with that of any other country in the world. That Mr. Sawers should express himself m the highest terms on the exhibits generally should give an impetus amongst cheesemakers to produce the best article. llie success of Noel Bros, has been almost phenomenal. Thev owe their success to strict attention to cleanliness, attention to everv detail, a careful study of the work, and maintaining the cheeses at an even temperature afterwards. Let others but follow their example, and there is no fear of the ultimate result of the cheese industry in Victoria. 19- Journal of Agriculture. [8 March, 1907. THE ORCHARD. James Lang. Harcourt. The export season for fruit is now in full swing, and, judging by the quantity of cool-chamber space engaged, the season promises ro be a recor.l one as far as this State is concerned. The quality of the fruit is good, the seasonable rains we had in the latter part of January and beginning of February having helped to swell the fruit to a good average size, ro that there should be no complaint about undersize when it reaches Covent Garden Market. The crop of apples this year is very much above the average, so that those growers who ship to oversea markets are likely to do better than those who realize locally. Pears are still an unsatisfactory fruit to ship on account of the l)ad co'ndition in which many consignments arrive; still, growers must persevere with small consignments until the conditions become more satisfactory. The chief difficulty lies in the temperature of the cool chamber, which should be as near as possible 35 degrees, and not exceed 40 degrees. Pears should be placed in a separate compartment, so as to i:)e more under the control of the refrigerating engineer. The method of packing pears also requires attention ; the best results so far have been obtained from those packed in trays. Three trays, tacked together by cleats at the ends, form a package about the same size as the bushel case. Each tray holds about 2)^ fruits, making 108 fruits in each package. There is no reason whatever Avhv pears should not carry as safely, and arrive in as good condition, as apples. The varieties which so far have given the best results are Winter Nelis, Josephine d'Malines, Beurre d'Anjou, Beurre Clairgeau, Vicar of Winkfield, and Broompark. There is a good market for pears in London provided thev arri\-e in satisfactory condition ; prices last year ranged from IDS. per case to 30s. per case. The shipping companies are now taking more care of the pear consignments than they have hitherto done, so that it is to be hoped thev will be able to land pears in as good condition as they do apples. When thev are able to do so, a very lucrative market will be opened up to pear growers. It is verv much to be regretted that the fruit-flv pest has obtained a footing in manv Victorian gardens. On account of it being fo'Und in so many centres, the danger of it spreading throughout the State is ver}' great, and, therefore, it is hoped that the Government Erstomologist and his in- spectors will be successful in their efforts to stamp out the pest. Orchardists should, in their own interests, assist the inspectors in every way, both in locating the pest and carrying out instructions in regard to its destruction, no matter how drastic they may appear to be, because, should the fly obtain a footing in our orchards, the result will be disastrous to the fruit- growing industry. It has been the opinion of many growers that the fruit-fiy could not live in Victoria on account of the cool climate, but this opinion has now been completelv shattered, and we will be extremely fortunate if the pest is stamped out at the present time. The great source of infection is the imported fruit from New South Wales and Queensland, and the question whether prohibition should not be enforced against soft fruits coming from infested States will now have to be seriously faced. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. Water Gripes.— H.M. S. asks how to relieve water gripes in horses, &q. .4?iSi<;er.— So-called water gripes is of extremely rare occurrence— that is, colic is seldom due to any trouble in the kidneys, bladder, or urinary apparatus. Colic is essentially a bowel trouble, caused, in the majority of instances, by indigestion. A (bench usually eti'eciive is as follows :— Sweet spirits of nitre, IJ oz. ; tincture of opium, 1 oz. ; raw linseed oil, ^ pint. Repeat in an hour if necessary. Motor Engines.— H.W. asks if oil engines of the motor type are suitable for small farm work where the user has some mechanical skill. Answei'. — The motor type engine is essentially one of small weight and higli speed. It uses " light " oils, and from its construction takes as much oil running light as at fnlT load. It is also -entirely dependent upon spark ignition either by a battery or a " magneto." They will, speaking generally, develop their listed horse-power at big number of revoUitions onl\', and the gearing down to the usually slow motion of farm macliinery is not easy. Unless the farmer has a very con- siderable experience in nieclianical work, or lives near an expert in this class of engine, it cannot at present be recommended for adoption. Clover, etc.— J.M.M. writes :—" Under separate cover I forward two botanical specimens for identiiication. The clover-like plant is a free grower, and does well almost anywhere it is planted. The other umbelliferous plant has established itself on several flats, and has spread with great rapidity, putting farmers to great expense in coping with it. Please suggest some means of keeping it in check. " AnMver.— The clover is Medicago scutdlata, Bauhin. It is an annual, but is a good fodder plant, and the seeds, not being prickly, do not adhere to wool, and are eaten by the sheep in time of drought. A valualile plant for new dry unmanured pastures, and for bare exposed ground. Seeds freely. Sometimes called " Snail Clover." Introduced. The "umbelliferous" plant is a composite, Achillea miUefolium, L., a common weed of the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. This is one of the plants recommended by Baron von Mueller for naturalization. It is of no value for fodder, its astringent taste and bitter flavour making it unpalatable. It is perennial, with creeping underground shoots, seeds freely, and holds firmly to ground where it is once established. Altogether a troublesome weed, likely to become a great nuisance if unchecked. The only remedy is to keep infested land ploughed and under crop (not grain) until clear. Keep roadsides and waste places clean. The taller grasses and clovers will keep it down on good moist soil, but not on drier pastures. Destroying Docks. — Inquirer asks for information re. destroying docks on rich river flats subject to floods. Answer. — Dock roots are able to produce adventitious buds, so that any portion left in the ground will start a fresh plant. On a small scale, the plants can be suppressed by digging up and destroying the roots, and by preventing all formation of seeds. Land of the character mentioned should, if drained and deeply ploughed, yield very rich crops. After ploughing, rake off and pick off all pieces of roots. A close leafy crop like potatoes, maize, or a root crop, would give the remaining pieces little chance of forming strong plants. Bare fallow has less effect with docks than most weeds, unless coupled with the removal of the roots. If the land is needed for pastui'c or fodder, and the above will entail too high a labour charge the best plan would be to grow strong moisture-loving pasture plants. These would keep down the docks if the thicker patches of the latter were cut down occasionally and kept from seeding. Plants to be recommended for this purpose are :— Italian Rye fxi'ass [Loliuin italicum), the Marsh Bird's-foot Trefoil {Lotus cornicnlatus var uliginosa), any of the moistui'e-loving Millet Grasses {Panicum Crus Galli, P. miliacenm, P. jirolifermn, P. spectabile, P. striatum, P. Texanum). The larger grasses are best cut and fed as green food or silage to stock, but the Bird's-foot Trefoil is a good plant for direct pasturage by stock. Lucerne-growing. — Alfalfa writes: — "Last spring I sowed lucerne (a small patch) in drills 1 ft. 6 in. to 2 feet apart, and have cut some of it twice. Please advise whether I should plant a row between existing rows this autumn. Also, what is the best time to apply manure. The labour of keeping the plot free of Meeds has been great." Answer.— With, regard to your lucerne plot, 2 feet apart is rather wide and 9 inches is a little too close — probably 15 inches is about the best for the drills. The stable manure should be applied in autumn, and the ground thoroughly hoed between the rows towards the end of winter. The first cutting usually contains a lot of weeds, but the subsequent ones are nearly pure lucerne. When once lucerne becomes established it is not easy to get a satisfactory growth in between the existing plants, but on your small plot there will be no harm in trying the experiment. When extending the area make the distance between the rows 15 inches. A top-dressing of manure after the first cut serves the double purpose of enriching the land and preventing evaporation by acting as a soil mulch. Apple Pest. — J.T. writes: — " Unden separate cover, lam forwarding specimens of insects which are very prevalent on some of the young apple trees, destroying the leaves of the latter. Please furnish method of treatment." Amwer. — The trouble is caused by the larvae of a moth {Ttia anartoides), an insect which Js described in Vol. 11. of French's Destructive In.74 1.319.047 1.278,11" 1.638.125 Wheat and Flour . . 74.742 3,050,708 2.<)28.-J64 2.763.987 Meats — Frozen 342,233 355,000 51S..543 (i33.468 Wool 3,147,829 5,347,607 5,314.31(i 6.(l26,i»40 Hides and Skins 007.244 480,523 729.282 928,767 Tallow 46,499 93,177 137,65(1 204,776 Total of Seven Articles 5.136.482 10,727.491 10.734.796 12,370,788 Increase since 1!)03.. £7.234.306 ; or 140 ]icr cci r. Allowing for tlie special conditions during the South Atrican War and the drought (which had a marked temporary influence on the exports of live stock and fodder), satisfactory expansion has taken nlace along everv line of production. This is specially marked as regards wool, frozen lamlis, and dairy produce. The area of land actually under crop is about 3,200,000 acres, but the annual fallow has increased from 500,000 to over r. 000, 000 acres, and the area under artificial pastures from 565,000 to 1,250,000 acres. The more general adoption of the " rape fallow " system has had its effect on the fat lamb industry, and experiments are being tried l)y the 3230. G 194 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 Department with the object of finding what crop can be best substituted for rape in districts where the rainfall is below 17 inches. Exports of certain Rural Products to other Australian States. Value of Exports during — 1904. 1905. 1906. £ £ £ Live Stock (Horses, Cattle, and Sheep) 729,175 861,848 1,166,826 Butter and Cheese 319,920 371,946 455,293 Bacon and Hams 120,253 97,730 133,642 Oats 62,214 97,660 109,255 Wheat and Flour 107,702 74,847 115,252 Hav and Chaff 48,061 95,938 136,366 Potatoes ■ . . 27.485 107,503 179,349 General advance has been made in farm methods during the past three years. The yield of wheat has averaged 12 bushels per acre, as against "jo.6 bushels in 1892-4, which were the three highest consecutive crops for any period during the past 20 years. This result is still more striking when it is considered that at the former period there was very little wheat grown in the Mallee. The advance in wheat is paralleled bv similar ad- vances in sheep, cattle, and dairy farming. The results now obtained are far more profitable than a few years ago. Part of this result is attribut- able toi the use of phosphatic manuring and improved methods of cultiva- tion and fallowing, and the greater number of live stock kept on farms is also producing its effect in keeping up the fertility of the land. Ujiwards of 15,000 farmers are now keeping flocks of sheep less than 2,000 in number, representing 43.5 per cent, of all the sheep in the State. It is this steadv advance in mixed farming which is the best assurance of the permanence of our agricultural prosperity. With this satisfactory record of progress there is, howe\er, another side to the question. The number of live stock, especially sheep, horses and pigs, in Victoria has shown comparatively little expansion during the last 25 vears; while the poultry industry is still looked upon by the majoritv of farmers as being too insignificant to be worth attention. We have not vet realized that it is the area under cultivation which determines the number of live stock that can be kept on a given farm and that on the whole it is essential to keep large numb)ers of live stock in order to main- tain the fertility of the land. With regard to wheat, while the yields appear to be increasing, there is no steady advance in the area under crop, which has remained stationary for the past eight years. The same remark is also true of oats, a crop which should be grown chieflv for consumption on the farm, in the shape of hav and grain, and of which comparativelv little should be put on the m.arket at all. In regard to barlev we find that the present area is less than half what it was in 1894, while the cultivation of peas and beans is only one-third of what is was 25 years ago. There is a widespread tendencv amongst farmers to trust to the returns that they are able to obtain from grazing alone, and they have failed to realize that it is onlv bv a combination of cultivation with grazing that the value of the grazina; land can be rrraduallv 8 April, 1907] Three Years' Progress in AgncuUiirc. 195 raised. How great are the possibilities of expansion in Victoria may be seen from the fact that in the two central counties of Bourke and Grant less than 10 per cent, of the land is at present under cultivation; while in the Western district, comprising an area of 8,760,000 acres, only 236,000 acres (2.75 per cent, of the whole) are under cultivation, nearly half of which is located in the wheat-growing areas of the Countv of Ripon. Contrasted with this mav he mentioned the Mallee County of Tatchera in which 40 per cent, of the private land is under cultivation each year. No doiubt the difficultv of obtaining farm labour is one reason whv land is allowed to lie comparatively idle, and it is a question worthy of serious consideration whether we have not in Victoria nearly reached our limit of production with the amount of labour at present available. Two branches of the export trade alone — fat lambs and fresh pork — offer almost unlimited fields for expansion. The example of New Zealand shows what can be done by growing fodder for lambs on comparatively small areas, and it may be further mentioned that in Great Britain on the same area of land as Victoria, and in spite of its crowded population, the number of sheep is maintained at from 25.000,000 to 30.000,000 — more than twice the number depastured on our comparativelv unoccupied terri- tory. Direct Experimental ^?Vork by the Department. Fodder Crops. During 1903-4 special attention was given to the growth of fodder crops for the benefit of the dairymen living in the southern portions of the State. A large number of experimental fields, embracing every available class of green summer fodder crop, legumes, and root crops was established, to which various artificial fertilizers — singly, and in combination — were ap- plied. The results were highly satisfactory as regards the production of heavy crops of green fodder for direct feeding or ensilage purposes. The various members of the Sorghum and Millet familv. grown side by side under identical soil and climatic conditions, revealed wide differences of yield and feeding quality. Comprehensive chemical analyses established information of great benefit to dairymen desirous of compounding an eft'ecti\e and economical ration for dairy cows. The superiority of the Amber Cane, Planters' Friend, Kaffir Corns (Sorghums), and Jrapanese Millet brought these crops into prominence, with the result that thev rapidlv took the place of less nutri- tious varieties hitherto grown. Hay Growing. Considerable attention was also given to tlie ha\ -growinsjr industry in Southern Victoria, and nearly 100 experimental plots, embracing 24 sepa- rate manurial combinations, were established throughout Gippsland, the Western and Central Districts. The results established the fact that, while the dominant deficiency of the southern soils was phosphoric acid, the commercial forms of fertilizers supplying this ingredient were, alone, in- sufficient to meet the demands of heavy crops of hay. The addition of nitrogen in the forms of sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda in almost every case stimulated the yield, and left a material advantage in favour of a combined dressing. From a monetary point of view, it was effectively shown that an expenditure of 12s. to 15s. per acre in manures produced an additional yield of hay worth at a low estimate from 30s. to 40s. per acre. 196 Journal of Agriculture . [8 April. 1907 Wheat Growing. A marked step in advance was taken in 1905. The immediate necessi- ties of the northern wheat farmer had been previously met by means of the lessons of the small experimental plots wadely established throughout the grain areas, but there w^as a growing feeling that a more systematic and con- tinuous series of experiments was necessary, during the course of w^hich the pioblem of improving the general wheat vield of the State might be effec- tively studied. It Avas decided to approach the problem in three separate directions, viz. : by means of improved methods of cultivation, the intelli' gent use of artificial manures, and by improved varieties of wheat. Arrangements were entered into with some 30 representati\e farmers throughout the principal wheat-growing districts to each furnish 10 acres of land for a term of seven years. The Department undertook to supply the seed, manures, and supervision, and tO' furnish an annual payment of ^15. These fields were sown in 1905 with 40 varieties of wheat, and, moreover, included trials in deep cultivation, green manuring, and the growth of fodder crops. Results of First Two Years' Experiments. The results of the first year's experiments (published in the Journal, March, 1906) were considered satisfactory; they confirmed previous manure experiments in a similar direction, and established the superiority of the superphosphate over other forms of phosphatic manures. The addition of nitrogenous and potassic manures was shown to be (at present) unneces- sary. The yields of the wheat varieties indicated p-reat possibilities, and many of them pro\ed superior to the farmers" own wheat crops growing in the vicinity. The following table shows the varieties producing the best results : — Maximum Minimum Average Yield. Vield. Yield. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Feder.T.tion 42.19 12.1 23.9 ^ Dart's Inii»erial 38.1 7.1 20 . 4 Australian Talavera 39.0 9.1 20 . 3 Jade 3(i.7 11.2 20.1 Sussex 38.0 7.6 20.0 Silver King- 36.0 8. .5 19.8 This average em- Tarragon 40.0 9.7 19.7 braces the Wim- White Tuscan 3-5.0 4.8 18.7 - mera. Mallee. Goul- Frampton 33.8 6.. 5 18.4 burn Valley. Marshalls' Xo. 3 37.6 5.2 18.3 Central and North- Farmers' Friend 28.3 8.0 17.9 Eastern Districts Majestic 30.0 8.3 17.0 Purple Straw . . 32.4 4.1 16.9 Fan 29 . 8 .). 7 16.9 Farmers' own seed 32.1 3.2 16.8 , The fodder crops were hardly a success, and did little more than em- phasize the necessity of deep cultivation and constant after attention for this class of plant. In 1906, portion of these wheat fields was again sown with wheat varieties, the remainder of the field being put under three distinct methods of fallow, viz., ordinary bare fallow, rape fallow, and subsoil fallovv". The results of the season just past are regarded as excel- 8 April. 1907] Tlirec Years' Progress in Agriculture. 197 lent. Out of 38 varieties, tliere are no less than 14 showing superior yields to the seed provided by the farmer himself and sown on the plots, and no less than 16 varieties show higher maximum vields than the farmers' wheat. The above varieties are the ones which gave the maximum yields in the first season also, which may be taken as evidence of their suitabilitv. In the coming season, the effects of the improved methods of cultivation will be demonstrated, and it is. moreover, intended to put the " Soil Packer '"" recently imported from America into operation. Improvement of Pastures. A new line of inquiry, attempted for the first time in 1905, was the treatment of grazing land with artificial manures. Over 400 acres of medium to poor land, in areas of 5 acres each, have been treated through- out the Gippsland, Southern. Western, Central, and North-Eastern Dis- tricts, with a view of improving the stock-carrying capacitv. Replies from experimenters to hand indicate that in the majority of cases the\' are well satisfied with the results of the trial, which has in no way interfered with the land, the manures having been merely harrowed in without disturbing the grass sod. It is expected that two or more vears must elapse before the merits of this treatment can be decided, because as soon as the growth of the grass is stimulated the stock graze it down quicklv. The manures showing the most fa\orable results so' far are — superphosphate and bone- dust. Fodder Fields. The necessities of the dairvman and mixed farmer have not been lost sight of. and trials of fodder plants, grasses, legumes, and flax and onions are included in the 5 -acre forage fields distributed throughout Southern Districts. The 5-acre fields are worked as miniature farms, and the opera- tions of rotation, soiling, and grazing are carried out from vear to year. In their own localities they ser\e a most useful purpose for trials with im- plements, nianures, seeds, &c. , and have excited considerable interest among the neighbouring farmers. Potatoes. Within the last two years especial attention has been given to the potato industrv, and experimental plots of an acre each are situated in all the leading potato-producing centres. Some 30 imported varieties have been grown, some of which have given heavy vields. The distribution of seed from the best varieties is carried out every year, and, in time, the potato-grower will be furnished with some varieties of a more constant, pro'lific, and reliable type than some he is now growing. A special officer was appointed to superintend this work, and it is believed that the instruc- tion which has been given in culti\ation methods, and especially in regard tc the steps that each grower must himself take in order to prevent the de- terioration of the seed, will do much to maintain the industry in a flourish- ing condition in Victoria. Owing to the appearance of the potato blight in Xew Zealand, importations from that countrx have been prf>hibite(l. Artificial Manures Act 1905. In 1904 and 1905 imp.ortant amendments were made in the Artificial Manures Act of 1897, aimed at securing the j^rotection of the farmer by the prosecution of vendors on detection of fraud. Another method was adopted Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 in the Artificial Maii\ures Act 1905. which authorizes the regular publica- tion of the results of analyses of all samples of manures taken in any part of the State, and the real value per ton of such manure. This amend- m.ent has brought the interest of the farmer in this respect into a most satisfactory state. The cost of artificial fertilizers has steadily diminished in this State during the last fi\e years. The most important artificial fertilizer used is superphosphates. ' A super valued at /^6 i8s. in 1900 now costs ;^5 3s. 6d., a drop of ^i 14s. 6d. per ton to the farmer. A further noteworthy fact is that superphosphates are cheaper in Victoria than in any other Australian State. The Victorian farmers get their phosphate manures just as cheaplv as the American farmers, and nitro- genous manures cost the Americans half as much again as they cost the farmers of this State. The quantity of artificial manures used in Victoria is increasing very rapidly, not only in the Northern wheat-growing areas, but also in all districts. The latest figures available show that it rose from 41,000 tons in 1903 to 54,700 tons in 1905. The estimated amount for 1906 is approxi- mately 75,000 tons. Development of Poor Land. Experiments have been conducted on extensive areas of unprofitable Land with a view of testing its capabilities under proper treatment and fertiliza- tion. At Stawell, on waste mining land, a fair crop of wheat and an ex- cellent crop of hay, yielding u]) to 2% tons per acre, has been grown with the aid of artificial manures. At Munro a w^heat crop grown on sandv soil, hitherto considered as too poor for grazing, produced moderately suc- cessful returns, and it is intended to renew the test next season. Arrange- ments have been made to establish plots on the waste heath land at Port- land, Casterton, and Foster (South Gi]jpsland). The poor mining land between Beaufort .and Ararat, and the lisht timber country to the north of Heathcote will also receive attention. The mountain country in Eastern Gippsland has produced excellent crops of oats, maize, and fodders, with the aid of manures, under the superxisinn of the Field Branch. Heytesbury Forest Land. A very extensive area of Crown lands, consisting chiefly of grass-tree country, has hitherto been looked upon as too |)Oor for settlement. A small experimental farm w-as established eighteen months ago, 20 acres being cleared, drained, and cultivated. With the aid of a light applica- tion of artificial manures, chiefly superphosphate, good crops of oats, peas, maize, and roots have been groAvn. The chief difificultv to be overcome arises from the dense network of fibrous roots from the low scrub which ■grows on the land. This renders steam ploughing the onlv method by which the surface can in the first place be broken up. When exposed to the atmosphere for a summer the soil weathers into a friable sandy loam. The results obtained from the first year's operations have been such as to warrant the work of reclamation being undertaken on a larger scale. Accordingly, 1,000 acres have been drained and the clearing is now pro- ceeding. Tenders have also been accepted for ploughing this area, and it is anticipated that the land will be ready for settlement early next year. S April, 1907] Tliree Years' Progress in Agriculture. 199 State Farms. 1. '\YyiiJia. — In coniit^xion with the siil)(li\isi()n of the W\una Instate, it was decided to establish a farm at the old homestead. The area is 500 ■acres, about one-half of which will be worked under irrigation, and the re- mainder by dry -farming methods. Substantial progress has already been made, 250 ewes, with their lambs, were fattened last spring, and there are now on the farm a herd of 50 dairy cows, with ample provision of silage and fodder crops to carry them on for several months. It is anticipated that this farm in the centre of one of the chief irrigation areas will prove of great value in enabling settlers on small areas of irrigated land to adopt sound and profitable methods from the start. 2. Ruthergleu. — Attached to the Viticultural Station is an area of 800 acres of rather poor box country. It has been decided to work this as a general farm, and at the same time to utilize the buildings originallv in- tended for a college as an educational centre for the orphans from the Neglected Children's Department. Twenty-two boys are now being trained to farm and vineyard work, and are at the sa,me time receiving a sound school education. Preparations are now complete for receiving fifteen more boys. One hundred acres are cultivated, and there are 300 sheep and 70 ■cattle, chieflv dair\ cows, on the farm. 3. Whitfield. — An abandoned block of 140 acres in the Whitfield Estate has been taken up, and the experimental tobacco farm formerly at Edi, a few miles distant, transferred to it. Before this farm can be developed it requires to be thoroughly drained. This work is now nearly complete. The experience gained at JEdi proves that this district is well adapted for the growth of tobacco, broom corn, maize, and lucerne. 4. Ballarat. — An area of 120 acres has been transferred tO' the Depart- ment bv the Ballarat East Town Council for a period of 21 years. The l;uid is stringvbark clav country, typical of all our chief mining centres. This farm will serve to show what can be done with a small area of land hitherto regarded as nearly valueless, or at the most only adapted for the growth of timber or fruit trees. Agricultural Education and Pioneer Work. The movement in fa\our of agricultural education is becoming deeper and more widespread, and there is ample evidence to show that it will prove a source of interest and profit not only by the lads on tlie farms but to older and more experienced men also. Farmers' Classes were organized by the Department of Agriculture in 1902. when they were held in three centres. No' classes were held the following vear, but in 1904 the number of centres increased to seven, in 1905 to eleven, and in 1906 to eighteen. During the present year arrange- ments have already been made for conducting the classes in 26 centres. Last year the number of students enrolled numbered i,3-°- T'lt" P''<">' gramme adopted this year comprises a fortnight's instruction, consisting of lectures in the afternoon, demonstrations in the morning, and illustrated lectures in the evening. The classes are arranged for bv the Agricultural Societv or a local committee, who have the choice of half the sul)jects lec- tured on each week. The present programme is, first week: — Compulsory subject — "The Principles of Agricuhurc. " Optional subjects — Either {a) "Sheep Breeding and Management," or (h) " Dair\- Farming.'" 200 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April. 1907 Second week — • Compulsory subject — " The Care of Farm Animals." Optional subject— One of (a) " Poultry Breeding and Management," {h) "Agricultural Engineering," {c) "Orchard and Garden Work." These classes are already beginning to have an influence on the practice of agriculture in various centres. As an example of the effect of the prac- tical instruction now given to farmers, it may be mentioned that small clips of wool are now often prepared for the market as carefully as those of large stations. Consequently, the price obtained by the farmer is propor- tionately much better than formerly. The development of the short courses of instruction for farmers promises to- become a marked feature in agricultural education. Agricultural High Schools will be opened at Warrnambool, Sale, and Wangaratta within the next few months, and active steps are being taken to establish others at Ballarat, Bendigo, Shepparton, and other centres. The conditions Laid down for the establishment of these schools are that half the cost of the buildings shall be provided locally, together with 20 acres of land, and that an attendance of at least 50 pupils be guaranteed at a fee of ^8 8s. a year each. Flax and Sugar Beet. The calls on the services of the lecturers and experts of the Department are steadily increasing; such inquiries cover matters connected with drain- age and the impro\'ement of land, and the development of new lines of pro- duction for export. The cultivation of flax and sugar beet are two ques- tions which have received much attention during the last twelve months. A large number of farmers are growing small areas of flax with good returns both from the linseed and fibre. A plantation has been established at Leongatha for the propagation of New Zealand flax, and it is hoped that in a few years a trade which represents ^^700. 000 a year to New Zealand will become a profitable industry here also: During the past three vears experts have been appointed to take charge of the following branches of the Department: — Potatoes, poultry, cheese, sheep, and pigs. The scientific work of the Department has been represented bv further volumes of Mr. French's work on " Destructive Insects," and of Mr. McAlpine's on the " Rusts of Australia." Dairying Industry. For many years the importance of legislation to foster and control the Dairying Industry had been recognised. The passing of the Milk and Dairy Supervision Act 1905 promises tO' have great influence in raising the general standard of work amongst the farmers. Nearly all the recom- mendations of the Butter Commission are embodied in this Act. The educational aspect of the work has been emphasized, and the inspections carried out without friction. The Act has been in force in the Metro- politan Area, and in Ballarat, Bendigo, Castlemaine. and Geelong since ist July, 1906, and it has recently been extended to 47 shires for the most part adjoining the milk areas. Already 25.000 cows have been examined twice, and the condition of each one, as to general nrofit and to freedom from disease of the udder, has been noted. The professional staff of this 8 April, 1907] Three Years' Progress in Agrieiiltiire. 201 branch now consists of a chief veterinary officer, three assistant veterinary officers, and sixteen supervisors. The latter are appointed after a tliorough and searching examination as to knowledge and suitabilitv for carrying out the requirements of the Act in a tactful manner. It is satisfactorv to note that dairy farmers generally are welcoming the visits of the supervisors, and that there appears to be a bottd fide intention to carrv out the require- ments as far as necessary improvements on the farms are concerned. This being the case, no orders or notices to enforce compliance with the Act have up to the present been issued. During the first six months of the oj)era- tion of the Act, 313 cows reported by the supervisors were examined bv the veterinary officers, with the following result ;— Prohibitions removed, 157; prohibitions extended, 87 ; prohibitions made perm,anent. 69. The tees received for the same period amount to ^3.^s8. and the- expenditure to ^1,988. Silage. The use of silage is progressing, the methods of making it put on a sound basis, and over 200 silos erected (70 of them bv the Department on a system of deferred payments). Experience during the past five years has shown that well-made sil.age is an economical and satisfactory food for stock, especial] v for dairy cows, and that many acres of wild oats and other kinds of undesirable herbage may thus be turned to profitable account. It is useful on the farm both in summer and winter, while as a provision for the next period of dry seasons in the North it is of as great importance as is the supply of dry fodder in the form of hay and grain. The results obtained where the silo has been properly filled under supervision of an officer of the Department have been such as to justifv the expectation that this method of conserving fodder will come into general use throughout Victoria. Our experiments in this direction have attracted considerable attention, and a similar type of silo has been adopted in all the eastern States of the Commonwealth. Live Stock Interests and Veterinary Work. Of recent years there has been comparatively little in the wav of epi- demic diseases amongst live stock in Victoria, as of 489,879 cattle examined, only 647 cases were found ; and of 200,088 pigs, only 659 suffered. A scheme for a complete system of veterinary education and for the establishment of a stock institute in this State is now being considered. Practical demonstrations on veterinary work and the care and management of farm animals held in connexion with Farmers' Classes have attracted the greatest amount of attention. A further step towards improvement in the breeding of horses has been taken bv the Department in requiring all stud horses to have passed a veterinary examination for soundness with regard to hereditarv tendency to disease before being awarded prizes at agricultural shows. The veterinary staff of the Department, which now consists of four experts, organized originallv with a view of carrving out the provisions of the Milk and Dairy Supervision Act, is taking an active part bv means of investigations into cases of disease, and by lectures and demonstrations, in furthering the live stock interests in these respects. Development of the Export Trade. The direct assistance to the export of frozen produce wln'ch has been given to the producer bv the establishment of Cool Stores, and by the Journal of Agriciiltiire. [8 April, 1907 C -t--35Tt- 1-^ X CO CO 01 LO 10 _r of 0 CT> X SOOOi-OOOiO X 0 X CO 0 0 r 01 0 t^ 0 0 '^" >-o 01 5 LO^ '~ "^^ '":: ^'i ^ ^ CO 0 01 .9' 2 ;A o-^oi^ — _. ."ti l-T ^ 0' 'O" X ^ r£ 0' X' - ^ g 3 -* '^'5 0 -; g ^-i Oi 01 co' 10" ■^ 10 '^l -^ — -* S 10 CO ^ -H X c^ Si' ■"' 0 ^ r-* X -t-tl — t^coxco _ , CO 10 X ^ CO CO ■CO 't ."B" CO 01 — S"- — ■ -t 'O 0 -»• 01 — ' CO c^ 0 X X -H • s; X --c 01 CO CO — 10 CO 10 -* Cj 'O 10^ l~; 01 01 'S 5 ■ '-^ -t -o i~oi -'-t'co' •^' 10 — 00 sT 0" -* 0" *"* >=^ -f 01 01 •+ — t^ X X -+ 5 ^^ •35 fjH "^ 1~ *. "" 01 ^^ CO of TJ 0 rt CO. £ 0 0 0 0 0 -. 0 -H =■ -H 0 -t< 01 0 Ol 0 01 5 ^ '- ~t * '^^ "^ ^ CO 0 CO CO 2 0 0 0 (U >-. lO CI 0 0 t- 0 ."til 00 _, of 1 o" \a co' 0 'Co' 0' . of co" lo" 10 of . ^ Ch "ti -+ :z^ c- 01 -* '*< CO 01 01 0: g 0_ CO^ LO^, - CO 2 5 ^ 35 -* ct c? '" CO o* co2 ""^ -^ -' ^ lO c " — ' 1— 1 0 CO 0: CO' -t 01 CO CO != -o 01 1 — V '- 'o — CO -t^ 10 0 -t 0 ^ CO M-J l^ 0 t- CO -f 10 C5 0 0 0 — , '-'^, "t *. "-^^ *., """^ ^ _r 01 of 01 0: CO co" i~ CC _- 0 01 -t LO o: CO ^ 01 LO' of l^ -!■' co" uo" — H CO' CU i:* f? -t -t< 01 X X 2 '^^ X 0 CO '* ^H X .ii > 01 -+ 01 f-^ 35^ 't/2 ^' p_, D ' ' 0 OS — 1 ^ 01 C' X m 10 0 0 0 0 t- 35 0 X Cc^ocot^cn-*'* a:. 0 35 X 0 1 — 1 X 0 CO -f -t CO a: 01 0 T-^ 2 0 5 '^ ^ £ i2 ^ . 01 ^ 0 s X 0 of-*' CO -J X 15^ -.' of ^f 01 ^1 oi j2 <«' "^" ^-' = _:. T- X A r '■ s "§ £ : ;, r. r '5 "rt 1 -P rt 0 1 ■ ■ '^ ■ ■ s * * "g 5 • p r. +i 1 ^ 0 ^_ cc ^ :_», -^ 33 0 •" 1-5 ^ ni c 1 ^ "^ 3:, ■y Pro utter . ilk an Dultry am ai ork eal 0 IS il^ ■sec SSp^iIhK^;^ "ci ■gpso; a s 35 EJH f April. 1907] Three Wars' Progress in Agricidtiirc. 203 Dau-3' Produce Meat Rabbits and Hares Fruit Grand Total- Summary of Value of Export.?. 190.3. 190+. 190.5. £ £ £ 1,482,993 1,875,341 1.898,055 .. 187,179 189,938 339,027 204.230 210,679 267,860 111.994 114,286 69.0.54 19()(). £ 2,386.917 541.826 249.398 81.143 1,986,396 2,390,244 2,573,996 3,259,284 Inspection of Exported Produce. Year. Grain and Flour. Fodder. Potatoes. Onions. Miscellaneous, 1903 1904 1905 1906 bags. 25,690 472.132 639,139 775.160 packages. 16.314 36.202 153,786 149,660 bags. 98,872 19,753 35,356 225.693 bags. 89,726 19.736 19,241 24,240 packages. 5.243 3,423 12.255 educational work carried on by the Department, has been extended bv the introduction of a complete system of grading. The grading was voluntary up to September, 1906, when the introduction of the Commonwealth Com- merce Act made it compulsory. The preceding tables will give some idea of the proportions of the trade at the present time, and it mav be men- tioned that during the four months ending 31st January, 1907. about 17., 000 consignments of butter alone were examined and graded bv officers of the Department. A contract with the White Star, Aberdeen, and Lund Lines, made in 1905, secured a reduction of 50 per cent, in the freight on frozen produce for three years. With the present volume of exports a reduction of the rate from fd. to fd. per lb. is equivalent to a saving to the producer of ^70,000 per annum. At the same time, the space available is enlarged, the temperature lower than ever before. Early this year two Commercial Agents were appointed, for a period of three years, to promote trade between Eastern Countries and Victoria, Mr. J. M. Sinclair being sent to work in the Malay States, India, Burma, Java, Sumatra. &c., and Mr. Levien in Japan and China. Many desirable connexions between Victorian Exporters flnd Eastern merchants have been established, and already considerable advantage has been gained. Mr. Sinclair has succeeded in persuadine the Indian Goyern- ment to try Victorian foddt^r for Army purposes, and a trial order has now been received. Compared with other States, Victoria is at a disad\antage in its trade relations with such places as Singapore, Batavia, Malay States, and sur- rounding centres, as there is no regular shipping service from Melbourne to such ports, while both Sydney and Adelaide enjoy a three-weekly service. The Government is determined, however, that this disad\-antage shall not continue, and has called for tenders for a monthly service of steamers, with a view to encouraging Victorian trade. 204 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 Viticultural Industry. ■ Both the number of growers and the area under vines have diminished somewhat during the past few years. The quantity of wine produced is remaining about the same, while there has been a great increase in raisins and currants. Xuniber Year. of Growers. Area. Wine made. Raisins. Currauts. acres. gallons. cwt. cwt. 1903 2.347 28,374 1,547,188 35,534 3,722 1904 •2,260 28,513 2,551,150 53,447 7,490 1905 2,253 28,016 1,832.386 30.295 5.974 190G 2,009 26,402 1,726,444 42,975 6,403 Tlie principal centre of the wine industry is Rutherglen, and, unfor- tunately, this district is suffering from the ravages of the phylloxera. The only way to cope with this pest is to replant the vineyards with American resistant stocks, on which there are grafted European vines of the variety required. In the work of reconstruction we follow chiefly on the lines of the French vignerons. In consequence of the phylloxera, the yield of French vinevards fell from an average of about 1.300 million gallons in the seventies to 528 million gallons in 1889. It is now as large as it was before the onset of the disease, and in the chief wine-producing districts as much as 90 per cent, of the area under vines has been reconstituted. At the Viticultural Station, Rutherglen, the Department has undertaken the work of supplying the State with resistant vines. A small vineyard has also been replanted with the grafted vines wath very successful results, the vines bearing most prolifically, and the wine produced is of high quality. Up to last year the number of vines grafted was greater than the require- ments of the affected districts ; but with the advance of the phylloxera there has been a sudden increase in the demand. It is generally recognised that the whole of the infected area must be replanted within a few years. Steps have been taken to meet this emergency as promptly as possible. A well-equipped grafting-house has been erected, and the nurseries greatly ex- tended. At present there are 230,000 grafts, and 100,000 slips are in the nurseries, and the numbers available will be doubled next season. It is necessar) to have the land on which the resistant vines are planted deeply worked in order to insure successful growth. It is therefore pro- posed to supply the vines onlv to growers who will fulfil this condition, and at the request of the vignerons an officer has been appointed to superintend the work of reconstruction. The Fruit Industry. Since 1903 all branches of garden and orchard work have made steady progress. Satisfactory yields are obtained with greater regularity than formerly, and the systematic measures which are now taken against the different fungus and other pests have resulted in a general levelling up of the condition of the fruit when it reaches the market. Numerous in- 8 April, 1907] KendalVs Emasculator. 205 stances are now reported in which apple orchards are yielding from 700 to 1,000 cases per acre. Cool Stores for Fruit. A store for the cool storage of fruit at Doncaster was erected by the Department in 1904, and the experience obtained last season indicates that the experiment will prove a decided success, the charges made being more than enough to cover working expenses, interest, and sinking fund. Area under Orchards. During the Last ten years the area under orchards has increased from 45,000 acres to 60,000 acres, and much of the increased area is now coming into full bearing. In consequence, there has been an increased demand for the services of the inspectors of the Vegetation Diseases Branch. Practical demonstrations are regularly given by the staff in spraying and other means of combating orchard pests. Oversea Export. The export of fruit to oversea markets has increased from 12,000 cases in 1900 to probably 130,000 cases during the present season. As showing the extent of this market in the United Kingdom, it may be mentioned that in the year 1905 the value of the imports amounted to ^11,000,000. Of this, Victoria contributed less than ^^25,000. As most of the fruit shipped to the United Kingdom comes from America and other parts of the northern hemisphere, where the apple season occurs at the opposite period cf the year to ours, an immense extension of the fruit export trade mav be easily attained. KENDALL S EMASCULATOR. The above is an illustration of Kendall's Emasculator. which was re- ferred to in the article on " Castration of l'"arm Animals " in the October, 1906, Journal. 2o6 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION.* A. S. Kcuyon, C.E., Engineer for Agriculture. Cultivation without irrigation has been stated to be preferable to irri- gation without cultivation, and there is no doubt that there is a great deal of truth in such a statement. In our State, caireful and progressive farmers have raised larger and better quality crops than others have achieved with the same rainfall, and with the aid of irrigation water in addition. Much of the improved result was, no doubt, due to better cultivation methods ; but these improved methods also meant, to a slight extent, drainage. The American teachers tell us that irrigation and drain- age, or raither drainage and irrigation, are inseparable, drainage being the more important. Our experience, now that we have had some years of irrigation, is leading to the same conclusion. At Mildura, where irriga- tion on a large scale and to an extent replacing rather than supplementing the annual rainfall, was first put in operation, the early years did not teach the lesson, owing to the fact that, with other mistakes apparently unavoidable in the foundation of new occupations and hioustries, the varieties and classes of trees planted were not generally suitable either for the natural conditions or to give profitable returns. Seepage, of course, both black and white, early made its appearance; trees died out in the immediately affected parts, and general consternation ensued. Blame was, however, imputed to the leakage from the channels only, and not to the lack of drainage. Naturally, of cour.se, the first evidences of over-saturation of the soil occurred near the channels, while the dying- off of trees in soils not giving surface indications of seepage, was ascribed to all sorts of other causes. Now^ that all the early inferior trees have been got rid of, and the limits of direct seepage from the channels ascer- tained, much more definite knowledge of the effects of over-watering is a\ailable, and a considerable amount of attentioai is being paid to the drainage problem. Shafts have been sunk through the surface sands, loams, and clays into beds of drift, and drains of various kinds led into them. These are only partially effective, and there is evinced a decided tendency to instal complete systems of tile or agricultural pipe drains, absolutely on the lines of old-world methods. The value of full-bearing, well-selected orchards in Mildura now reaches to over ;^ioo per acre, so that the comparatively heavy initial outlay is not so severelv felt. The spectacle, however, of a country like the Mallee frontage to the Afurray River, at INlildura, requiring sub-soil pipe drainage is sufficiently startling, and must inevitablv give much food for thought to those en- gaged in either carrying on or advocating irrigation in our arid areas. Mildura has, like all the Mallee areas, soils ranging from almost pure sand to sandy clay, with beds comparatively near the surface of pure drift sand. The sub-soil is frequently almost pure rubbly limestone (so-called) — being generally the sulphate and rarelv the carbonate form of lime — while in all case's lime in its various compounds is largely present. The •'' water table," save in beds of lagoons or swamps — where water collects in the rainv seasons — is generally at depths of 80 feet or over. The rain- fall is on the average about 12 inches per annum only. The contra is necessarily the volumes of water used in irrigating. These are large, * A paper read before the Adelaide Meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, January, 1907. 8 April, 1907.] Drainage and Irrigation. 207 though probably not excessive, the average addition to the i)erennial crops, such as fruit trees, being about 24 inches net, i.e., without allowing for water seeping from the distributary channels. Considering that there are many light showers which do not get into the sub-soil, the result of such heavy watering is equivalent to being in a zone of rainfall of about 40 inches per annum. Hence the raising of the water-table to within a few feet of the surface, injury to the growth of the trees, and the necessitv for sub-soil drainage. In the fruit-growing areas in the south, pipe draining is becoming more and more the rule, whether a limited amount of irrigation is practised or whether the natural rainfall alone is relied upon. Fruit trees show more quickly than any other crop the injurious effects of a shallow " water- table." In the Goulburn Valley, it will not be long ere drainage will Ije compulsorily resorted to by the orchardists. Already the warnings are being given. The evil day is being staved off by good cultivation, bv " liming," and bv careful and economical use of water. Even where, as at Pendigo, only comparatively small additions of water are made bv the irrigators, the season just past — one of rainfall much beyond the average — has shown the need for drainage. man\ trees having either died or received a severe set-back. So far, these remarks have dealt almost wholly with fruit trees, which receive considerable attention, much cultivation, and — most important — are watered by furrows and not li\ flooding. The case with regard to flooding irrigation is more marked. The almost invariable practice is to water all cereal crops, lucerne, and grasses by flooding. Apart from the injurious effects of submerging to a greater or less extent the growing plant, and pre\'enting the natural processes of atmospheric action — markedly injurious under the high temperatures characteristic of our sum- mer season — the inadequate preparation of the land calls for the applica- tion of a great excess of water to parts in order to cause the water to reach the higher lands. Consequentlv, the sub-soil is filled with water, and, especially where a " plough-pan " exists — as is usually the case in old cultivation ground — becomes water-logged and sour. The soil bacteria are deprived of their revivifying oxygen ; their beneficial effects cease par- tially ox wholly, and the soil becomes "adobe" or "brick." The sub- soil loses largely its capacity to retain moisture in its capillary or useful state, owing to the small particles cohering to form larger ones ; within ten days or so, the crop shows signs of distress, and another watering — as wasteful as the previous — is required. Small wonder need be felt when assertions are heard that the life of lucerne is not more than five vears — at other times, eight years is the statement — and that at the end of such a period, replanting is necessary. The crv that " irrigation does not pav " is justified by the results achieved under such methods. It is not, of course, claimed that drainage, and drainage alone, will prove the sovereign remedy for all ills attendant upon irrigation. Far from it. Drainage is, however, a first essential, and the irrigationist em- ploving or introducing drainage will rarely be found deficient in other respects. For orchard lands, and for like crops where the capital value of the producing land is high, there is nothing to excel the tile or agricul- tural pipe system. Its cost is high, as much as £^6 or jQ'] per acre, though its general adoption should lead to the establishment of tile- making works in the locality, and consequent cheapening of the tiles. Besides, a complete system is necessary for trees and vines, it is a matter 2o8 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 of life and death ; lucerne, although a deep rooter, is rather a gross feeder, while the annuals are content with a much shallower root system. They do not need such a perfect system as the orchards. For them a system sufficient to keep the soil bacteria lively, to keep the soil particles small, and to prevent the accumulation of the soluble salts — principallv soda and lime — at the surface bv capillary action, should suffice. Such a result should be capable of attainment by, first, better methods of watering — the use of furrows for watering or properly graded and small checks, if flood- ing be adhered to<; secondly, by sub-soiling — breaking up of the " plough- pan " — and allowing the water into the sub-soil, along with its fertilizing agencies; and, thirdly, combining with the sub-soiling a few open or closed drains to insure movement of the water in the sub-soil. Such a system, on a very elaborate scale, is employed at the Werribee Sewage Farm, ISIel- bourne, and has proved highly successful both from the financial and hygienic stand-points, in dealing with a moist difficult problem — the disposal of large volumes of sewage matter, which, unless an efficient system of drainage were in vogue, would form most objectionable and useless marshes. In our shallow soils, with sub-soils of a highlv clavey nature, great care must be taken in sub-soiling not to bring much — none, if possible — of the sub-soil to the surface, as the sub-soil, though chemical analvsis shows it practicallv as rich in plant foods as the surface soil, is known by bitter experience to be useless to plants for many years. The effect of sub- soiling to a considerable depth upon the unlocking of these unavailable plant foods is a problem which, apart from the question of drainage, offers considerable allurement to the in^•estigator. and profitable returns to the communitv, should it be successfullv solved. It mav be predicted that sub-soiling, combined with proper surface cultivation and sub-surface packing, will render as much service to our farming community as the introduction of phosphatic manuring. Experiments to determine the movements of the soil moisture in the surface and sub-.soils are being carried on at the Wyuna Government Irri- gation Farm in the Goulbum Valley District, Victoria. Samples of the soil at the surface, and at every 6 inches in depth down to z feet, are taken at frequent intervals of time, depending upon climatic conditions, to ascertain the amount of moisture present. The samples are taken from virgin land of various classes, land cultivated on ordinary methods, land subsoiled, and land irrigated, embracing as far as possible all cases of variation of soil moisture mo\'ements due to man's interference. These in- vestigations are, as yet, in their initial stages onlv ; but thev promise to yield much of interest. Reference has been made above to American ideas as to the relati\-e importance of drainage and irrigation. An authoritative Indian Commis- sion on the effects and causes of alkali in the Aligarh district of Northern India reported in effect that the introduction of irrigation iricreased the alkali areas, both by seepage from the channels, and by excessive use of water in irrigating, and that where the removal of such excess Avaters was mainly due to evaporation, the result was a destructive accumulation of alkali. The remedy proposed bv the Commission was subsoil drainage. Apart from the injury to the productive power of the soil, much ill effect on the health of the residents has been caused throughout the irrigation dis- tricts of India. " The high fever death rate is largelv due to the stagnating water in the soil." Mr. D. H. Anderson, editor of the .'8 April, 1907] Drainage and Irrigation. 209 Irrigation A.ge, Chicago, says: — "The constant pouring of water upon the soil in many of the older irrigated districts has resulted in creating a water table near the surface; so near, in fact, that formerly fertile tracts of land have become converted into swamps. Hence, drainage has become a problem necessary tO' be solved if fertile lands and profitable orchards are to be saved from destruction, and it is gradually dawning upon the minds of irrigators that where there is a system of suii-irrigation ■there is also a system of drainage ready to hand. . . . According to the common understanding, drainage means carrying oft an excess of water from swamps and cold, over-moist soils for the purpose ot reclaiming cthem or converting them into fertile fields. But since irrigation plays so important a part in farm economy and profitable plant culture ; indeed, -since it has become an absolutely essential element of success in the arid and sub-humid regions of the United States, and is gaining ground in the humid regions, it has been discovered, through costly experience, that •drainage and irrigation are inseparable systems." One further factor in the problem remains to be considered. Our • older schemes of irrigation were almost wholly designed upon the principle of carrying water to the land along the ridges or high ground, and above the level of the land to be watered — in fill, to use the technical term. No, .or but little, provision was made for drainage of surplus waters, the channels, as constructed, being manifestlv unfitted for such use. Neither is there legislative provision whereby an irrigator can obtain an outlet for his drainage system through the land of another owner. In the reticula- tion of the Wyuna Settlement, an area of about 20,000 acres — the latest ■system of distributary channelling carried out in Victoria — ample pro- vision has been made for drainage channels in the low Iving ground to carry off the surplus waters, though not providing for each individual irrigator's requirements. The need for the construction of collective drainage works and for legislation for the individual's needs, will not, however, arise until such improved methods of irrigation have been adopted with such consequent great improvement in profits that the cost will not prove so great a burden as it at present appears. The experience of all other irrigating countries warns us that it is -essential to drain to achieve the best results. In laving out the farm, as well as the great State schemes, this fact should be borne in mind, and ample provision made. The result will be less water required for irriga- tion, and much greater profits. Already we know that as great profits can be achieved here, as in any other country ; that areas supporting a few sheep can be made to support as many, nay, more, men ; and that living can, in our once arid inhospitable regions, be made a jov instead -of a punishment ; but this can only " be done by the use of much labour, and of the best methods of irrigation, of which drainage is not the least important. THE COACH-WHIP BIRD. Psophfldes crepitans (Vigors and Horsfic/d). C. French, F.L.S., F.E.S., Government Fnton/ologisf. This valuable insectivorous bird is generally found in the deep gullies and creeks at the foot of the mountains, and is very shy. Its well-known -note, resembling the cracking of a stockman's whip, can be heard in the Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 Dandenong and other ranges within easv distance from Melbourne, also on the Dandenong, Olinda, and other creeks. In fact, in the southern part of Victoria, especially in the mountainous country, it is a fairlv common bird, and lives on all sorts of noxious insects and their laivse ; the native slugs also constitute part of its food. The nest is an open structure, composed of .small twigs, bent round and lined with Cassytha and other wiry plants, also rootlets and bark. It is about 2 inches in depth, and generally placed a few feet from the ground in very thick undergrowth. On the Dandenong Creek nests are often placed between the forks of the tea tree {Leptosfermum), and as the twigs composing the nest resemble those of this tree it requires a ^'ery keen observer to disco^•er it. Two eggs usually constitute a set ; they are of a lieautif ul bluish-white colour, blotched all over with black markings, and, according to ^Ir. A. J. Xorth, usually measure 1.07 x 0.77 inch. In New South Wales the eggs appear to be much darker in colour and larger than those found in Victoria. In this State the breeding season is generally October, November, and Decem- ber; but, according to Mr. A. J. Campl>ell, eggs have been taken in Jul). According to Mr. A. J. North, the coach-whip bird is found in Southern Queensland. New South Wales, and Victoria. The following description is taken from Gould's Birds of Australia: — " Ailult Male. — Head and nape black, remainder of upper surface olive- green ; upper wing-coverts like the back ; quills dusky brown, the outer primaries narrowly edged with brown, the remainder, also the secondaries, margined externally with olive-green, increasing in extent towards the inner- most secondaries, w^hich have both webs olive-green ; central tail feathers olive-green, the remainder blackish-brown, washed with olive-igreen on their outer webs, but less distinctly on the three outermost feathers on either side, which are tipped with white; lores, feathers below the eye, ear-co\erts, and sides of the neck black; cheeks and sides of the throat white; chin, centre oi. the throat, and breast, black ; some of the feathers on the throat slightly edged with white, and those on the centre of the breast and abdo- men broadly tipped with white, forming a conspicuous patch ; sides of the body and abdomen ashy-brown, slightly washed with olive-green ; under tail coverts dull olive-green ; bill black ; legs and feet dark reddish-brown. Total length in the flesh 10.75 inches, wing 3.7, tail 5.75, bill 0.8, tarsus 1.25. "Adult Female. — Similar plumage to the male." ^Ir. A. J. North, in his ^■aluable work, Nests and Eggs of Birds found breeding in Australia and Tasmania, 'has the following interesting note regarding the coach-whip bird : — " The note of this species, from which it has received its vernacular name, is uttered by the male, and resembles ' chuk chuk,' followed by a rather prolonged and gradually rising hissing Avhistle, terminating in a loud, clear, and vigorous ' w^h — p,' the female answering immediately with a 'chuk chuk," which would lead one to imagine that the response was part of her consort's note. Occasionally it is varied with a low squeaking or whining note, common to both .sexes. In autumn the male usually utters only the beginning of his call, and does not conclude with the whip-like sound." This is a bird which should be encouraged where\er seen, as it ranks amongst the most valuable, for its size, of our insert-destrovinc birds. C C .BnitUbankM C.Frmdi,cU,rfjc' THE COACH-WHIP BIRD (Psophodes cr&pvtans, - Vw/ors oMHorsfuiii.j S April, 1907] Lameness hi Horses. LAMENEHS L\ HORSP]S. 5. S. Cameron. M .R.C.V.S., Chief Ycteriiiarv Oificer. Definition and Descrijition. Habit lameness. Keflex lameness. Detection •during rest, during movement, lameness in front, lameness behind, cross lameness. Diagnosis of obscure lameness — local anaesthesia. Shoulder lameness — shoulder slip, sprain of the flexor brachii or biceps muscle, shoulder joint injury. Elbow- lameness. Capped elbow. Knee lameness — sprain of superior check ligament, thorough-pin of knee, speedy cutting, spavin of the knee, capped knee, broken knees. Sprain of the " back tendons "" — the inferior check ligament, the tendons of the flexor muscles, the superior sesamoidean or .suspensory ligament. Splints. Sore shins. Fetlock lameness — arthritis, sesamoiditis. Wind galls. Knuckling over. Pastern lameness — sprain of the inferior sesamoidean or suspensory ligament, break- down, split pastern, ringbone. Foot lameness — sidebone, corns, laminitis or founder, villitis, navicular disease. Lameness in the Loins — sprain of the lumbar muscles, sprain of the psoas muscles. Hip lameness — sprain of the gluteal muscles, hip joint injury, fracture of the pelvic bones. Stifle lameness — dislocation of the patella. Lameness in the gaskin. Hock lameness — thorough-pin, bog spavin, blood spavin, bone spavin, curb. Contracted tendons and knuckling over. Rheu- matic lameness. Shivering. Strin'dialt. Internal lameness. DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION. Lameness (A. S. lem or Iama = \\e?i\i) may be understood to be imperfec- tion of action of a limb or part. It is not in itself a disease but is a sign, manifestation or expression of pain, weakness or inability in one or more limbs or parts concerned in locomotion. It is usualh- a sign of disease but is not necessarily so, for lameness may exist for some short time from the pressure of a stone on the frog or from a tight-fitting shoe or from a nail driven, too close to the " rjuick," simply as the result of pain alone without disease. It may be also that lameness while result- ing from disea.se is not indicative of pain, as in the case of anchylosis (welding together of the bones) of the hork joint, in which case there is marked lameness from stiffness or inabilit\ to flex the joint, but no pain. Conversely in some cases of stiff joint there may be extensive disease but no pain or lameness ; this occurs in connexion with joints in which there is ordinarily not much flexion — for example, the lower pastern joint when affected with a "set " ringbone. Again, while it may be generally taken for granted that lameness is a sign of pain or disease or both, this is not always the case ; for instance, a stone may become wedged between the frog and the shoe and cause imperfection of action, not because it must necessarily give rise to paim, but because the thickness of the stone raises the foot above its fellow, and makes the horse limp. Here it may he well to intimate that lameness, whether arising from disease or not. or whether caused bv pain or not. is regarded legally as umsoundness. Habit Lameness. Peculiarity or habit of gait must not be confounded with lameness. A horse, especially a youngster, when trotted and held short bv the head on the near side will move with a "left-shoulder-in " kind of action, and on account of more weight being thrown on the side to which the head is Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 turned he will appear to favour the off fore limb as if he were lame on it. Arm\- and police and riding school horses, from being exercised in a circle, acquire a habit of throwing more weight on the " inside ' ' limb and consequently appear, even for a time when trotted straight, to be lame on the "outside" limb. These peculiarities or habits, by which the inexperienced are apt to be deceived, are called " bridle lamenesses." The often-observed " three-cornered walk "" of lazy young horses when going down hill is merely awkwardness of action; the animal seems to slide along with the body swaying to one side as if he wanted to get down the hill hind-quarters first, but a touch of the whip or spur will arouse him sufficiently to prove that it is not lame action, but only slovenly habit. Reflex Lameness. Sometimes the cause of lameness is not in the limb or part in which the lameness is manifested, but in an organ or part more or less remote, as is seen in lameness of the off shoulder from liver disease, in which case there is always an associated yellowness or jaundice of the lining of the nostrils and eyelids. In some diseases of the brain and spinal cord and of the heart and arteries there is lameness from what is termed " reflex pain," that is. pain felt in the limb but transmitted by reflex nervous action from the seat of disease. Another instance is lameness of the near hind limb from disease or enlargement of the spleen, in which case the advancement of the limb, bv forward pressure on the flank and abdomen, causes pressure on, the aft'ected spleen (or other abdominal organ, as the case may be), and consequent nain and halting action, the limb- being " stopped short " in the act of advancement. DETECTION OF LAMENESS. Lameness may be manifested when at rest as well as when in motion. Indeed, some forms of lameness are apparent in some stages only when the animal is at rest, the merest movement being sufficient to do away with all signs of it. It is consequently always advisable to .see the horse in the stable before commencing the examination proper. Examination when at Rest. It is important to observe the position in which the limb is placed when standing, for oftentimes the attitude is a valuable indication of the seat of lameness and in some cases actuallv diagnostic {i.e., whereby it may be definitely determined or ascertained). The lame limb is usually held more loosely, from a desire to avoid pain ; less weight is thrown upon it, and when tapped imexpectedly from behind the joints will slacken uer- ceptiblv. In the great majority of cases the pastern of the lame limb will be more upright and that of the sound limb will be more oblique than natural, on account of the correspondingly increased weight to be borne. Lameness in Front. — In fore lameness, when a horse "points" — that is, stands with the lame limb in advance of the sound one with the toe re.sting on the ground and the heel slightly raised — it generally indi- cates that the seat of lameness is below the fetlock ; but if he places it in a line with the sound limb, ox behind it, the disease can be relied on as 8 April, 1907] Lameness in Horses. 213 being above the fetlock. When both fore feet are '' pointed '' alternately, navicular disease or some lameness involving both feet ma\ be suspected. In shoulder lameness, the limb is allowed to swing semi-pendulous, and the foot rests behind its fellow. In elbow lameness, the elbow is usuallv depressed, the knee greatly flexed with the foot either level with or behind the other. In founder (laminitis) of the fore feet, both are thrown for- ward at one time with the weight borne on the heels, and the hind feet are at the same time advanced to partly ease the strain of weight on the inflamed and painful fore feet. In this case, the horse rests on the heels because the inflammatory pain is in the region of the toe or front part of the hoof, while in navicular disease the seat of pain is in the navicular or shuttle bone at the back of the coffin bane {os pedis) towards the heel, which is consequently raised to relieve the strain of the tendon passing over and pressing on the diseased navicular bone. Lameness Behind. — When lame behind, if the foot is placed in ad- vance of its fellow, the lameness is below the hock. If the lameness is in both hind feet, they are advanced and the fore feet are placed nearer the centre of gravity. Disinclination to urinate on account of inability to '"stretch" without pain is often evident in stallions and geldings when lame in both hind feet ; and death from uremic poisoning, preceded bv acute fever, may result from the retention of urine so caused. To avoid this it is often advisable, in laminitis and other such acutely painful diseases of the hind feet, to relieve the animal of its weight by slinging. " Knuckling over " at the hind fetlocks — a common evidence of lameness or " wear " — may be best observed in the stable before the horse has been "warmed up" by exercise, as may also be the "carrying" or continuous holding up off the ground of the limb in cases of acute pain in the foot. Some horses manifest lameness when "put over" in the stall. This may be the only objective sign in some occult cases of bone spavin, in which on sudden movement the weight is more quickly shifted on to the sound limb; and in such cases this sign may be corroborated by keeping the hock fully flexed for a minute or two when acute pain will be evinced on straightening. Shivering and stringhalt may also be detected by sud- denly moving the horse from side to side in the stall. Any undue wear of 'the shoes at the toe or heel resulting from lame action; anv special method of shoeing for corns and sand crack and the like, and for the avoidance of clicking, over-reaching, brushing, and speedy-cutting; as also objective signs of these, may be best observed when the animal is at rest. Examination when in Motion. Close observation of the animal when he is being- brought out of the stable is very necessary ; for, in the incipient stages of such diseases as bone spavin and navicular disease, the slight lameness exhibited on first moving may quickly disappear. On the other hand, when lame from corns, and from splints in some positions, the horse comes out of the stable apparently sound but shows lameness after going for a time, and of course the observation of this sequence of events is of material assist- ance im " spotting " the seat of lameness. Many horses in quite a number of lamenesses, and most horses in some forms of lameness, mav go quite sound in the walk. For the detec- tion of the lame limb, when m motion, an easy jog-trot is the best gait. 214 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 The horse should he led in a halter or snaffle bridle at a pace the slower the better, so long as it is a trot, and with tlie halter or rein held loosely, so that the free movement of the head and neck may not be interfered with ajnd that it may not be inclined or pulled to one side, in which case, as previously pointed out, a confusing " bridle lameness " may be ap- parent. A short, tight hold of the rein or the use of a curb bit enables the groom, if so inclined, to make the horse toss his head and prevent him from exhibiting that " rwidding " of the head which is so helpful in locating the lame limb. Like disadvantages attend the riding of a horse at a canter, amble, or jerky trot, or continuously on the praince and dance, and such like "tricks of trade"; besideSj the rider or groom may, by exciting the animal, niggling at the bit or "catching him bv the head," cause a lame horse to go comparatively sound for a time. Examination for detection of lameness during movement should be made on hard ground with a smooth, e\eni surface, level or with a slight incline. A macadamized road is admirable. In cases of doubt, a change to soft ground is advantageous, in that, a marked amendment of a gait previouslv considered suspicious is eloquent ; sometimes also the lighter impress of the lame foot on soft ground can be distinctly observed. Sometimes lameness is only develo}>ed on resting after smart exercise, and at Irish horse fairs it is the iinvariable custom tO' give the animal a smart gallop or other severe w'ork, and then allow him to rest quiet an hour or so before commencing an examination for lameness. To ascertain w'hich is the lame limb, the horse should be taken at an easy jog-trot to and from the person inspecting it for a distance of 30 \ards or so, and anv halting or faulty steps when being turned should be looked for. If the lameness te in one fore limb, the motion of the head should be observed as the hoTse is approaching, when it will be found to " nod," its descent accompanying the sound limb as the foot strikes the ground. This dropping of the head is especially noticeable in splint and elbow lameness. If lame in one of the hind limbs, the motion of the croup and quarters should be watched, as there is a drop- ping of the sound quarter, while the lame one appears to be raised. In lameness of the hind parts there is less dropping of the head. In shoTt. a lame animal ahuays comes to the ground ivitli more weight on the sound limb than the lame one, and tries to avoid muc'i motion of the part affected on account of the pain consequent on movement. For the same reason, the step of the sound limb is shorter, the animal getting it to the ground as quickly as possible, in oxder that he may be enabled to raise the lame limb without delay and so get relief from the pain of sustaining weight. In other words, he "dwells " perceptibly on the sound limb. When lame in both fore limbs the animal may seem to go as if sound, for he has level action. Various devices to deceive are based on this. If a horse is lame on one foot, it is a not uncommon practice among un- scrupulous dealers to pare the other foot close to the quick so as to make l)Oth equally tender in action — " beaning " it is called ; but careful observa- tion will detect a stiffness or want of freedom, shortness of action or " grogginess, " a rolling motion of the body, or other suspicious feature. A horse lame in iDoth fore is apt to pick his hind legs up quickly, giv- ing the impression of jerky action, simulating that of stringhalt. In spavin and in cracked heels and sand-crack l)ehind there is also a " click- ing up " of the limb, which might be mistaken for stringhalt, but which may be distinguished from it bv the fact that the limb is put down again slowly, which is not the case in stringhalt. 8 April, 1907] Lameness in Horses. 215 It is somewhat confusing to apparently tind a horse going himt- on one limb when coming to you, and on the other when going from )oii. but in such cases it is pretty certain be is lame on both. What is known as "cross lameness" is also confusing. Bv this is meant an apparent lameness in a fore limb, accompanying an actual lame- ness in a hind limb, and accounted for by the fact that when- lame in a hind limb more weight is thrown on the diagonal fore limb, with the con- sequent suggestion of lameness in the fore limb of the same side as that on which there is actual lameness behind. The next step in the examination for lameness should be the sudden turning or twisting round of the animal to the " right about "' and the "left about " in as short a space as possible. 1 his is best done bv the examiner him.self, who will, while so engaged, be able tO' detect any " faulting " in either of the fore or hind limbs and any dropping of the loins and quarters. Sometimes a horse that has gone apparentlv sound in the straight trot will be found so lame on being smartly swung round as to> hop round on one leg — the sound one, "'carrying." or never touch- ing the ground with the lame one. The horse should next be smartly backed to discover signs of stringhalt and shdvering. In the latter affec- tion, if the indications so afforded are so alight as to be non-committal, backing the horse from the edge of a shallow pool into the water will render them sufficiently pronounced to enable a conclusion to be definitely come to. It must be remembered a.lwa)s in examining for lameness that when there is an ob\ious unsoundness it does not always follow- that the lame- ness is produced thereby. Oftentimes a horse lame behind may have a spavin so clear and distinct that a groom might say "he could hang his hat on it.' and still the lameness be due to some other cause — a pricked foot, a fracture of the navicular bone /^or even of the pelvic bones), or some other obscure cause. In practice it is always advisable to eliminate lameness in the foot first of all ; and, to be completely on the safe side, in all cases of lameness the shoe should be removed and the foot examined. This was the never- ceasing advice of the ever-famous Professor Dick, of Edinburgh — a man who was reputed to be so gifted and so expert in detecting lameness as to h^ able, when lying in bed in an upstairs room, to correctly decide by sound alone the limb on which a horse passing along the neighboiuiring street w^as lame, and sometimes under the same circumstances to be able to conclude as to the seat of the lameness. And that tO' follow the advice is sound practice, even wheni the cause of lameness is abundantly obvious, is demonstrated by the classical illustration' — also Dick's, — of a horse with a broken leg being found, on removal of the shoe, to have a fester- ing wound in the foot, caused by a gathered rusty nail ; in which case the barren honour of diagnosis of a broken leg was glorified by the dis- covery of the cause of the stumbling which douljtlcss led to the fall and fracture. DIAGNOSIS OF OBSCURE LAMENESS. It is not an unusual thing to meet with cases of lameness in which the diagnosis is a matter of extreme difficulty. The limb may present no abnormality, there is no apparent increase or decrease of heat or sensi- tiveness in any part, and no resting or easing attitude of the limb. Fur- thermore, when the lameness is only slight, the character of the "action" 2i6 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 during movement is not sufficiently pronounced to assist definitely to a diagnosis. In such cases, diagnosis can be confirmed' or otherwise by the hypoderaiic injection of a local anaesthetic over the course of the nerve supplying the part suspected of being the seat of lameness. The operation is simple, and no bad results should follow, or swelling remain, if ordinary antiseptic precautions are taken. Considering the assurance which such a plan gives against the inevitable mistakes of guess- work in diagnosing obscure lameness, it is surprising that it is not more often adopted. Of course, a correct knowledge of anatomy — -the situa- tion and course of the nerve to be injected — is fundamentally essential to the success of the method ; without this the result may be oftentimes mis- leading and disconcerting. The composition of the anaesthetic injection mav be varied, according to the experience of the operator, but a mixture of cocaine and morphia solutions is used with success. Twenty minims (drops), each of i in 10 solution of hvdrochlorate of cocaine and hydrochlorate of morphine, mixed in 30 minims of sterilized water, would constitute such an injec- tion. The injection should be made over the course of the nerve immediately above the part suspected of being diseased. For instance, if the foot is suspected, an injection is made on each side of the pastern over the course of the internal and external digital nerves ; if the fetlock, the seat of injection should be at the lower third of the metacarpal region (cannon bones), over the inner and outer metacarpal nerves, or opposite the trans- verse anastomotic branch joining the tw^o ner\es at the back ; if the knee or splint bones, then inject at the bifurcation of the median nerve to form the two metacarpals on the inner side of the forearm above the knee, and also at the upper part of the bend of the knee, behind where the cubital nerve bifurcates; and similarly in corresponding situations when the hind limb is concerned. It is necessary to inject on both the inner and outer aspects of the limb in all cases, because cocaine acts only on the direct fibres with which it comes in contact. It has no action on those nerve filaments ramifving in the part which are recurrent branches of the opposite nerve, and which therefore still retain the power to transmit painful impulses. If both sides are injected, however, both the direct and recurrent fibres of each side are pre\ented from transmitting sensation. Complete anaesthesia of the nerve and part should result within half an-hour at the outside, but it often comes on within five or ten minutes ; and this may be tested bv pricking the parts below with a pin or pen- knife, when no sensation will be felt. If the suspicion as to the seat of lameness has been correct, the animal should then be free from lameness. If, however, lameness is still shown, and the injection h,as been properly made, it may be safelv assumed that the speculation as to the seat of lameness was wrong, and the operation should be repeated next day in another suspected situation. The effects of the injection will pass off in a couple of hours, and by that time sensation will have become re- established, and the lameness will have returned and be as pronounced as ever. SHOULDER LAMENESS. It is an impression commonly held bv " the man in the street," or the horsey variety of that ilk, that lameness in the shoulder is of common 8 April, 1907 Lameness in Horses. 217 occurrence. Such an impression is entirely erroneous, for, in point of fact, lameness in this region is comparatively rare. The impression has arisen on account of the tendency to ascribe all obscure forms of lame- ness to some occult condition of the shoulder, and veterinarians cannot be altogether held blameless for this commonly held^ but mistaken, belief. It has been, and perhaps is, too much the fashion, when non-plussed as to the seat of lameness to, tentatively at all events, blame the shoulder; and having put it (the lameness) on to the shoulder, the putting of some- thing else on, in the shape of a blister, is forthwith proceeded with. While it might be perhaps unfair to say that the object of such procedure is tO' gain time, there is no doubt that the most salutary eifect of blistering in Cartilage at top of shouldfr blail Antea-spinatiis muscle . . . , Shoulder joint Seat of sprain of flexor lirai-hii -^V 'I W \\ Flexor brachii Extensor muscles of knee and- .. - foot Knee joint - Subscapulari'i muscle. Teres internus muscle. Caput ma'.;num musrlc .. .. Caput Tncdinm mus^'lc. Klliow joint. r"le\or muscles of foot and knee. Perforans and perforatus tendons. Fi;: -Dissection of Fore limb — internal asi)ect. — (After Chauveau. such cases is to allow of lapse of time during which one of two things frequently happens. Either during tte enforced rest which a blister usually necessitates, the lameness disappears — the injury causing it having been naturally repaired; or, certain positive symptoms l>ecome developed, whereby a correct estimate of the seat and cause of the lameness may be made. It is certain that the number of blistered shoulders (and loins, hips, and stifles, too, for that matter) that may be met with in a hospital paddock is out of all proportion to the number of cases in which shoulder trouble is the actual cause of lameness • and it is amusing or annoying, according as you are the owneir or (as the la,w\ers have it) the "person in charge" of the case, to, later on, find your horse that is blister-bald at the point of the shoulder oozing matter from the coronet as the result of the three-weeks-gone prick in shoeing that had hitht-rto not obtruded any definite sign of its existence. 21 8 journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 When a horse is lame in the shoulder, it is usually a one-side lame- ness only, and is a result of one of three conditions, which are : — (I.) Shoulder Slip. (II.) Sprain of the P'lexor Brachii or Biceps Muscle. (III.) Injury to the Shoulder Joint. Shoulder Slip. The term "shoulder-slip" is apt to convey the impression of a dis- location or partial dislocation (luxation) of the joint formed by the blade bone (scapula) and arm tone {liurncrus^. In so far as it does convey any idea of that kind, it is misleading ; dislocation of the shoulder joint being a matter of very rare occurrence indeed. The term rather refers to an outward slipping or oscillating movement of the shoulder joint at each step when the weight is thrown on the affected limb. Why this slipping movement occurs wnll perhaps be understood when it is explained that the particular affection known as shoulder-slip occurs as a result of a sprain of the muscles (the antea- and postea-sfinati muscles) covering the shoulder blade and passing over the shoulder joint to be inserted to the upper end of the arm bone below the joint. These muscles act as bind- ing ligaments of the joint, and w-hen they are sprained and therefore comparativeily powerless tO' firmly hold together the bones forming the joint, the latter is apt to slip and oscillate uncontrolled during move- ment. Causes. — Shoulder-slip, or more correctly shoulder sprain, is most frequentlv caused bv over-strain or jerking during pulling. It is most common in \oung farm horses being broken in to plough, which, by their awkwardness and the unevenness of their footing, are likely to pull jerkily. Wrenching of the muscles mav also occur on sudden and unex- pected turning, or bv slipping when turning on uneven ground, or when cantering over crab- holey country. Symptoms. — It must be borne in mind that the action of the muscles which are strained is to draw forward the arm, and so assist in advancing the hmb, and consequently, as a result of their powerlessness, the most marked symptom during movement is a dragging of the limb, which is swung outw^ards as it is brought forward. A " tied-up " action of the shoulder joint, in the evident attempt to avoid much motion ; and the oscillating motion pre!\douslv spoken of and explained, are also notice- able. There is but slight droipping of the head, as there is little pain w^hen the limb is brought to the ground. It is during action that the pain mostly exists, and that the inabilitv is; most evident. When at rest the limb hangs loosely, with the joints below the shoulder partly flexed, so as to relieve the tension on the sprained muscles, and the foot rests on the toe, and is placed a little behind its, fellow. The sprain, which is at first shown by local pain, heat, and perhaps swelling, is quickly followed bv a wasting of the muscles involved, which makes the spine of the scapula stand out prominentlv. and gives the shoulder a shrunken or wasted appearance when compared with its fellow. This shrunken- ness and the accompanving absence oi bi-lateral svmmetry is well seen bv standing straight in front and comparing the two shoulders. Lifting the limb and forciblv flexing the shoulder and elbow joints, by putting strain on the injured muscles, causes pain, evidenced bv flinching. 8 April, 1907] Lameness in Horses. 219 Summarized, the main symptoms are: — {a) Dragging the toe and bringing the limb forward with an out- ward swing so as to describe an arc, thus ''^ . and ti\ing to avoid much motion of the joint {b) A kind of outward slipning or oscillating movement of the shoulder joint at each step, when the weight is thrown on the affected limb. {e) When standing, if the lameness is severe, the knee ami fetlock joints are parti v bent, head elevated, and toe resting on the ground — no pointing. {d) Ini some instances, actual lameness does not occur until the affected muscles have become wasted or shrunk, when there will be a hollow- space on each side of the scapula or blade bone. {e) Pain, heat, and perhaps swelling in the sprained muscl<-s. and tenderness evinced on the application of pressure. (/) Flinching on extreme flexion of the shoulder and elbow ioints. Treatment. — In the earlv stages, hot fomentations, continued for about an hour, if the injury is obvious by local pain, heat and swelling, should be applied two' or three times a day, after which "white lotion " or other cooling application should be sopped on. Complete rest should be enjoined, and a high-heeled shoe should be put on to relieve muscular tension. The food should be soft and non-heating, and the bowels should be kept open bv giving 2-oz. doses of Epsom salts in the drinking water twice daily. Later on, when the heat and other local symptoms have disappeared, the parts mav be blistered with a fly blister {vide page 75). The blistering may require to be repeated two or three times.. A lengthened spell at grass (three to six months) is advisable, because, after the lameness has disappeared, the muscles are still weak and liable to a recurrence of sprain if the horse is put to work too soon. Sometimes the wasted condition of the muscles referred to above re- mains permanent, in which case there is always more or less inability, evidenced by a dragging or swinging action, and the horse qualifies for the appellation of "three legs and a swinger." This permanent shrunken- ness occurs when the muscular fibres have become completely destroyed or diminished in number bv wasting (numerical atrophy). If the shrinkage has onl\ Ijeen in size of the fibres, and none have been de- stroved (simple atrophx ). then complete restoration of power mav be expected. Sprain of the Flexor Brachii or Biceps Muscle. This muscle is situated in front of the arm bone {humerus), running down from the point of the shoulder blade to the upper end of the bone of the fore arm in front of the elbow, and its main action is to assist prominentlv in bringing the upper part of the limb forward. The seat of the sprain is usually in the sinewv or tendinous part of the muscle, at its upper end, near the front of the shoulder joint, where it passes over the groove in the head of the humerus, and where also it is liable to bruising and other injury from external x-iolence, such as may be sus- tained by bumping against trees when galloping through the bush, or against a fence-rail or wall when jumping, or in a collision or other accident. Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 Causes similar to those giving rise to shoulder-slip may also result in sprain of this muscle. Rheumatic localization, as a cause of lameness in this region, is not uncommon. Symptoms. — These are generally the same as those of shoulder-slip, except ib) and {d), but they are likelv to be more acute. The dragging action is more marked, the local signs of pain, heat, and swelling are more intense, the part is tender to the touch and greater pain and more pro- nounced flinching are exhibited when the elbow and shoulder joints are forcibly flexed. Wasting of the muscle does not usually occur, and except there is the formation of a bony deposit in the substance of the muscle permanent lameness or disability is yery rare. Treatment should be on the same lines as that recommended for shoulder-slip; and, although the condition is at first apparently more severe, better results follow the treatment more quickly. Shoulder Joint Injury. The shoulder joint is formed by the head of the arm bone {humerus) fitting into the shallow cup-like cavity at the lower end of the blade bone (scapula). It is seldom dislocated, but is liable, partly on account of its prominence, to injuries sustained in the manner aboye described. The edges of the joint bones may become bruised or inflamed or actually chipped off, and the articular cartilage and capsular ligament of the joint may also be injured. Rheumatic affections may become localized in the joint, especially after injury in the case of old horses. Symptoms. — Apart from pain and local swelling, which latter, in the case of ulceration of the articular cartilage or thickening of the capsular ligament, depends upon distension of the joint Vv^ith joint oil (synovia), and is very difficult to remove, the symptoms are principally those of stiffness and pain in the joint — i.e., absence of much, movement. The dragging action is exhibited ; in this case not so much on account of muscular inability to bring the limb forward as that the movement in the joint accompanying ad^■ancement causes pain. Treatment. — That recommended for the two previously described con- ditions may also be followed in this case. It involves first of all the reduction of the inflammation bv fomentations and rest, to be followed by repeated blisterings to assist in completing the process of repair and in the remoiyal by absorption of any excess of joint oil or other sw^elling. (Shoulder lameness may also occasionally arise from sprain of the chest muscles {fectoralcs), or from fracture of the first rib.) (7> /;,;' continued.) S April. i907[ Garden Xofes. 221 GARDEN XOTES. /. Croiiiii, 1 uspcctor, Y egetation Diseases Acts. The Petunia. Petunia is a genus of dwarf perennial plants found native in South America.. Tlie present garden forms are assumed to be hybrids from P. nyctaginafora, introduced into European gardens in 1823, and P. vio- lacea, introduced in 1831. Originally the petunia produced single flowers only, and it is due to the skill and care of the hybridist that the present popular double forms were evolved. The habit of growth was also im- proved by careful crossing and selection, and the hybrid \'arieties were soon cultivated to the exclusion of the original species, their flowers being more varied in form and colour, and of larger size and greater substance. Some years back the petunia was a popular plant in Victorian gardens, and very fine varieties were raised, named, and distributed by some of the nurserymen of that time. Fine specimen plants grown in pots were often seen at the horticultural shows, and the plants were largelv used also for bedding. Their popularity has decreased largely, but lately they are again coming into favour, the introduction of new, large, brightly -coloured strains being mainly responsible. The petunia is one of our best, 'hardiest, and most easily grown border plants. The plants endure heat and drought well, and continue to produce their attractive blossoms for a long period during summer. The single-flowered varieties are most suitable for border decoration, or for massing in schemes of colour. They are not suitable for cultivating in places specially liable to dust, or where the atmosphere is heavily charged with grime or smoke, their viscid leaves becoming coated with such substances, which are difficult to eradicate, and which check the vigour and bloom of the plants. Propagation -Culture. Petunias are usually treated as annuals, except in the case of specially fine varieties. The plants are raised from seed annually, and when their blooming season is over are thrown away, and a new stock raised from seed for the ensuing season. Most of the double kinds are propagated from cuttings, though there are strains of seed that will produce about 25 per cent, of double \arieties. The seeds may be sown in autumn or s])ring. Autumn sowing is preferable, except where severe frosts occur in spring. The plants are strong, and will bloom early and continuously if well culti- vated. The .seed is very small, and should be sown in light soil in well- drained pots or boxes. The soil should be rather moist, and the surface firmlv pressed and even before sowing the seeds. A very light covering of soil should be applied, and the whole watered very gentl\- and lightly to present the seed l)eing washed together in heaps, after which the pnts or boxes should be transferred to a close frame, or a sheet of glass should be placed closely over them till the seeds germinate. This co\ering should be removed gradually as the plants grow, being finally remo\-ed when they are \ inch in height. The plants should then be potted into single pots, or transplanted into other boxes of light soil, and grown on till spring, when thev should be planted out. When the seeds are raised in spring ihey mav be allowed to remain in the seed-box until ready to plant out where it is intended the\- should bloom. ] oitrnal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 Cuttings of the young shoots that develop Literally along the stems, or at the base of the plants, root readilv in a cold frame, or under a bell-glass or a closelv covered box, if inserted in sandy soil during April. The cut- tings should be about 3 inches in length, the leaves trimmed from the lower half of the cutting, and the cuttings inserted around the edge of the pots of sand. The pots should be well drained, and the sand washed, to remove anv fermentirjg medium. A box (like a butter-box) should l:>e Tilled to within 6 inches of the top with light soil, sand, or ashes. Holes should be bored in the Ijottom to permit of drainage. The cuttings may be in- serted, sav, six in a 5-inch pot, always inserting cuttings around the edge, in preference to the centre of the pots. Four such pots will be accommo- dated in a butter-box. and after the cuttings are inserted should be plunged to the rims in 1 he material in the box, lightly watered, and covered closely witti a nicelv fitting sheet of glass. In such a frame a number of cuttings mav be rooted during the season. After the cuttings are rooted, they SINGLE PETUNIA — '" GIANTS OF CALIFORNIA." DOUBLE FLOWERING PETUNIA. should be potted into small pots and grown on till spring, when they may be either planted out in the border or re-potted and grown on in larger pots. Petunias succeed well in pots, and nice bushy plants may be de- veloped bv occasional! V pinching the leading shoots. The soil for \>ot culture should be light and porous, and the pots should be thoroughly drained. The most suitable soil for growing petunias in the open border is a moderatelv rich light loam, but the plants will thrive fairly in any fair garden soil. Excessive manuring will produce large plants without a cor- responlding increase in the number or quality of the flowers. A fairly open position should be allotted them, and ordinary border cultivation, including watering during dry hot weather, will suffice to bring the plants into a condition that will enable them tO' produce an abundant crop of flowers. S April, 1907] Garden Notes. 223 Varieties. Most of the nurserymen ha\"e ceased to catalogue petunias under name, though thev have named varieties in stock. A proportion of double flower- ing kinds mav be expected from some of the special strains of seeds, of which Render and vSons" double-fringed is one of the most reliable. "" Giants of California " is a noted large-flowering single strain, although manv gardeners prefer the smaller fringed varieties, especially for bedding purposes. Flower Garden. With fairly moist weather conditions, April is generally a suitable month for planting out plants grown in jx)ts, divisions of herbaceous plants that have finished blooming, and layers and cuttings propagated during summer. Carnations will thrive better if planted out now than at anv other period. The soil being warm and moist, the young plants soon become established, and bloom freely in spring. If it is desired to produce speciallv fine blooms, the plants should be set out in specially prepared beds, and strong young plants, either spring struck cuttings or layers rooted during summer, selected. The beds should not be over-shaded, but pro- tected from hot north winds. Narrow beds that will accommodate two or three rows of plants are most suitable, the plants being set out 2 feet apart each wa}-. Cuttings of tree carnations will root readily in the open ground if inserted in sandv soil this month. Should the weather be dry, select end of the month for preference. One of the largest growers in the State produces practically all his plants of tree carnations from cuttings planted in narrow torders near his boundary fences. The soil for the purpose should be sandy and unmanured. Where the natural staple is heavy and retentive, a little sand placed at the base of the cutting will facilitate propagation. The cuttings are best set out in rows, about i\ feet between the rows, 3 inches between each cutting. Short lateral shoots about 3 or 4 inches in length are usually developed along the shoots of the plants. These will root readilv, and will make nice sturdy plants. The only preparation necessary is tO' trim off the leaves for about half the length of the cutting, insert it to that depth in the soil, firmly press the soil around it, and water after insertion. Should the weather pro\e dry after planting the cuttings, they will need to be watered occasionally. Autumn planting of hardy plants that will resist frost, whether raised from seeds, divisions, or cuttings, is to be specially recommended where a supply of water is limited. Such planting enables the gardener to have well-grown plants early in summer, which, by good surface culture of pre- pared beds, may be expected to bloom satisfa,ctorily. A number of spring- blooming bulbous plants may be planted. In every case no animal manure should be allowed to come into contact with bulbs or corms. Manure may be worked deeply into the soil, but the base of the bulb should rest on sweet soil only. Ground should be prepared for the planting of deciduous trees, plants, and shrubs. Drainage should be a primary consideration. Half-rotted manure should be well mixed through the soil where it is intended to set out permanent plants. Seeds of hardy annuals ma} be sown for transplanting, and .seedlings raised previously planted out. Kitchen Garden. Ground should be prepared for the reception of various vegetables for spring use. In low. moist situations, narrow beds, well ridged, are >24 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 preferable to those wider and flatter. A greater surface is exposed to the influence of the sun and wind, and the roots are working in a more aerated soil. Onion seed may be sown for transr)lanting. The seed should be sown thinly, and pressed firmly before covering. Seed mav also be sown to use green in spring. Cabbage and cauliflower plants may be set out. and seeds of earlv varieties sown. The cabbage requires a well enriched soil, stable manure being considered bv market gardeners the best manure for the purpose. The ground .should be deeply worked, and the manure mixed well through. A sowing of earlv peas should be made. Provision for staking the plants is considered necessary bv most market gardeners, especially during winter. Ground should be prepared for successive sowings. Moderate manuring is preferable to heavy for the winter, the latter producing a superabundance of haulm. Divisions of various garden herbs mav be planted out. Seeds may be sown of annual herbs that will stand frost, and of various salading plants that may be required. TREE PLANTING AND FOREST PRESERVATION. Alfred J. E-ivart, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Bolamst and Professor of Botany in the University of Melbourne. In Mr. Reed"s admirable article on this subject in the December num- ber of the Journal of Agriculture, due stress is laid upon the importance of this question as a factor in the agricultural future of Victoria, and a list of the advantages to be derived from systematic tree planting' and preservation is ' given. In addition to these advantages, how- ever, two others are worthy of mention, especially as they rarely have their proper importance attached to them. They are the influence of trees in maintaining the fertility of the soil, and their anti-spasmodic action on rainfall. The Influence of Trees in Maintaining the Fertility of THE Soil. This action is three-fold in character. The deeply penetrating roots which most trees form over a part at least of their root-system draw up water from the deeper layers of the soil, to which the roots of ordinary crops do not penetrate. This water contains all the mineral constituents of the plant's food in varying proportions, and these salts are very largely stored up in the leaves and bark as waste products after the}' have been utilized. In this way they ultimately reach the surface of the ground again, while the leaves, bark, and fallen dejecta of the tree slowly rot and add to the percentage of humus in the soil, so increasing its capacity for holding water. Ordinary crops have comparatively s,hallo\v root-systems as compared with most trees. Thus the roots of barley and mustard usually penetrate to a depth of i vard, while those of the perennial clover and wheat mav extenrl to :; yards beloAv the surface, and those of the everlasting pea 8 April, 1907] Tree Planting and Forest Preservation. 225 and lucerne may reach a depth of 3 yards. The roots of old, well- established deeply -rooting trees, on the other hand, may penetrate to a depth of 20 yards ox more, although the greater part of the root-system will be at a considerably less depth. In addition, the root can draw water laterally or upwards from neighbouring moister regions of soil, and the finer the soil the greater the distance over which this action may extend. In the case of soils with a friable, open surface, the whole of the rain drains into the soil, unless the rainfall is extremely heavy. Each shower of rain washes downwards a part of the soluble constituents of the soil held by surface absorption on the soil particles. These soluble materials, for the most part, are washed past the crop root-svstem, and join the ground water in the deeper layers of the soil, which, in the absence of trees, drains away to the rivers or to the subterranean water-systems. These, for the most part, pour into the sea the calcium, jjotassium, and magnesium nitrates, sulphates, and even traces of phosphates leached from the soil, together with various other mineral constituents not required for plant food. The roots O'f trees catch these mineral constituents to a large extent, suck them in along with the water they absorb, and pass them up to the leaves. It is worthy of note that it is mainly the useful soluble salts which are absorbed with the water, whereas as soon as the plant is clogged with the useless salts further absO'rption of these is checked. In other words, the tree selects toi a certain extent the salts it requires, and sends them up to its leaves, and these salts are precisely those which crops require. During its whole life, the leaf of a tree contains a nearly constant amount of potassium, magnesium, nitrogen and phosphorus, while the calcium usually steadily increases. Although the percentage of the first four elements usually decreases somewhat before the leaf falls, which takes place ultimately whether the plant is deciduous or an evergreen, a relatively large amount remains in the ash of the fallen leaf. As these salts are set free by the decomposition of the leaf and other dejecta membra of the tree in the soil, the ash constituents partly reach superficial root-systems, partly deep root-systems, and partly are washed out of the soil. The amount of mineral manure circulated in this way by a tree during its average life-time is considerably greater than that retained by the tree in its wood, which in most cases contains a very low percentage of nutrient mineral substances if calcium is excluded. It follows, therefore, that belts and clumps of timber on a farm help the farmer to retain on his own land the manure he puts into it, and so reduce the annual loss by drainage of the soluble constituents of the manures applied to the crops. As Mr. Lee has shown in the December number of this Journal, the crops are usually only able to catch and absorb a small fraction of the essential elements supplied to them in the form of manure. Belts of timber on the banks of streams are of the utmost importance, not merely in preventing the erosion of the banks, but also because their roots form a filter through which the drainage water from the soil must pass, and be in part deprived of its mineral matter. At the same time, the effect is to hold up the ground water on each side, and prevent over rapid and erosive drainage from the soil. The branches and leaves of most trees contain from one to foui parts of ash per 100 of dry weight, whereas the dry wood usual] \ contain less 3230. H 2 26 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 tlian I per cent, of ash. Some idea of the relative proportions of the \aluable ash constituents can be obtained from the following comparati\e values per loo parts of ash: — ^iP^e^* Leaves. ^J'^.^n' Potatoes. Straw. Grain. Potash ... ... 10 ... 20 ... 30 Lime ... ... ... 6 ... 12 ... 3 Magnesia ... ... i ... 6 ... 11 Sulphuric acid ... ... 2 ... 4 ... --,■■■ 5 Phosphoric acid ... ... 5 ... 9 ... 48 ... 10 The nitrogen practically does not appear in the ash, but in ordinary decomposition in the soil it is slowly set free as nitric acid, which combines with the bases in the soil to form soluble nitrates. T/ie value of Trees as humus-producers can hardly be over-exaggerated, for the benefits conferred upon soil by the presence of humus in it are many and various. It increases the water-holding capacity of the soil. Thus a soil containing a fair quantity of humus will hold from two to three times as much water available for tihe plant's use as a pure sand. The presence of humus, and in this respect the humus formed from the decaying leaves of trees is especiallv valuable, increases the chemical actions in the sail, and causes more of the insoluble constituents of the soil to be rendered soluble and available for mineral plant food. In addition to this, the humus itself has a special power of retaining these soluble constituents in such a manner that the loss by washing from the soil by rain is reduced to .a minimum, while at the sam«e time they can still be absorbed by the roots of the plant, and ha.nded over as they are required. Finally, humus lightens heavy soils, and favours their aeration. A simple experiment to show the beneficial action of humus upon the roots of plants is to place on a heavy soil or clav surface a layer of leaf mould or wel!-rotted manure an inch or tw"o thick, and cover this with 3 or 4 inches of clay or clayey soil. Soaked seeds planted on the surface soon strike doiwnwards, and if the plants are dug up and examined by the time the stems are half-a-foot to a foot high, it will be found that the greater part of the root-system has been de\eloped in the layer of humus. This is especially well shown by the garden " Nasturtium," but also by cereals and other agricultural plants, although, w'hen the plants are older the roots are forced to strike deeper in search of water. In warm climates the decomposition of humus in the soil is rapid, and hence there is little danger in this State of any excessive accumulation of humus leading to souring of the soil. The latter can, in fact, always be overcome b\ drainage and liming, and such soils, when properly handled, often pro\e to be of great fertility. Forest fires, b\ I)urning the humus off the soil, do incalculable damage, which, under primitive ancestral con- ditions, appears to have been made good in the following way : — After a severe bush fire had burnt off the humus and left the naked inorganic soil more or less fully exposed, seeds of Acacia and other plants lying dormant in the soil, and thus brought near to the surface, germinated. Acacias and other leguminous plants, bv the aid of their root-tubercles, are able to obtain nitrogen from the air, and so develop readily in inorganic soils in which humus is deficient or absent. It is only in humus or organic soils that supplies of nitrates are continually being formed, any slight production of nitrates in, or addition of nitrates to, an inorganic 8 April, 1907] Tree Planting and Forest Preservation. 227 soil being soon washed out by the rain. The acacias and similar plants gradually add humus to the soil and enrich it, so that the original forest of Eucalyptus or other trees may slowly re-establish itself. Bush (ires are not modern things, but were certainly frequent before the advent of civilized man in Australia, and were probably frequent before the appearance of aboriginal mankind. There can be little doubt that this cycle, taking a hundred or more years to complete, has been repeated countless times over widespread areas. In fact, we are probably correct in regarding the thick, fibrous, difficultly-inflammable bark developed on the bases of the main trunks of manv of the larger Eucalypti , as well as the absence of branches for a considerable height above ground, as being, in part at least, adaptations by the plant to constantly-recurring plutonic conditions, and these adaptations enable such trees to survive the effects of the bush fire which roars its way beneath. The danger of devastating forest fires is natural h greatest where a continuous area of forest exists, whereas, Avith belts and clumps of timber this danger is more localized, and the agricultural value of the tree-planting better fulfilled, especially if the borders and fringes of the plantation con- tain such plants as acacias or the tree lucerne, Medtcago arbor ca, i.e., nitrogen-fixing plants of economic value. The Influence of Forests on Rainfall. A full account of the evidence on this point is given by ^Ir. Maiden in the September number of the Agricultural Gazette of Neiv South Wales, the general coaiclusion of the meteorologists being that forests do not in- crease the general a\erage rainfall, but do affect local rainfall. It must be remembered, however, that the rain-gauge, on which the meteorologist pins his faith, is a verv crude instrument, and that it is utterly impossible to measure the rainfall .accurately in a forest by means of it, wherever the rain-gauge may be placed. In fact, many of the comparative observations are about as valuable as it would be to attempt to detect a leak in the roof by placing a rain-gauge in the garden. In any case it is not a question of the total rainfall, but of what becomes of the rain. If the rain rims off the surface, ten times the rain- fall will not keep the ground as moist and fertile as when it soaks in. An excessive rainfall is as bad as a deficient one, and renders a climate equalK' unfitted for agriculture, as witness the west coasts of Tasmania, Ireland, and Scotland, where humus forming conditions prevail to excess. A dry climate can be improA-ed bv irrigation, but an excessively wet one cannot lie appreciably ameliorated. In an ordinary climate trees bring back the moisture and dissolved minerals from the deeper layers of the soil, and retain them largely in local circulation. The effects of the rain and the rain itself are made to last over a longer period, and the moisture conditions of the district made more equable, instead of torrential leaching and erosive rain, alter- nating with devastating droughts. A forest is a sponge, to suck up moisture when it rains, and gi\e it out again slowly when drv. and in the term "forest'" all permanently -wooded bush or scrub land is to be in- cluded. Tliis brief statement by no means exhausts the subject, Init tin- evidence to show, for instance, how the methods of deforesting adopted in clearing the land for agriculture, and still more for sheep pasturage have favoured the spread of injurious weeds, is reserved for a subsequent i)aj)er. Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 SEED POTATO HOUSE. George Seymour, Potato Expert. In an article on " The Care and Preparation of Seed Potatoes," which appeared in tlie Journal for November, 1905, it was stated that the best way to keep potatoes intended for seed was, in the absence of cool storage, to spread them out on a piece of firm drv ground under the shelter of pine Or other evergreen trees. As such a spot is not alwavs available, the necessity for a suitable place prompts me to again refer to the matter and endeavour to furnish growers with a satisfactory solution of the difificulty. On most farms the tubers intended for seed are kept in pits. This may do verv well for hardv sorts and late-maturing varieties, but it is decidedlv ^f^i^ "/ ' Ad^e-f7s cfi eefffe ; - -)<- /lairiitood cka/- ; i \— Stump \ J : : L.I i ! SECTION OF SEED POTATO HOUSE. injurious to the. early ones. I am satisfied more injury is done to the yield of the crops bv the improper way in which seed tubers are kept than by any other single cause, and that more benefit will be derived from a proper method of keeping the seed than from a change of seed which has in many instances proved disappointing. I feel sure it would pav every grower to erect a structure, however rough, tO' keep his seed in. The result would be a more even crop, with stronger and more vigorous plants, which play an important part in the yield of a crop. The chief requirement is a cool dry place where the tubers can be exposed to the light as much as possible; the space should be sufficient to spread them out thinlv, the thinner the better. The onlv thing to guard against is frost, and if this be avoided when they are first spread out, there will be little danger, as they will soon become green. Tubers kept in this way do not bud so quickly as when piled together in a heap, and, when the buds do start, the growth is very ■slow ; the shoot will be strong, and of a green colour. If s€fed for early crops is kept in this wav, allowed to sprout, and planted when the ground is warm, better results Avill be obtained than at present. The practice is to plant in the middle of winter, when the soil temperature is low, with 8 April, 1907] Seed Potato House. 229 the result that the plant has to struggle against adverse conditions. For the potato plant to flo'urish, a temperature of over 60 degrees is required. In support of this I may mention a parcel of Early Rose and Carman No. i seed planted in my own field. The seed was dug early in April, spread out all the winter on the barn floor, cut mostly to a single eye, and planted on the 6th December. They were above ground in ten days, and before the 6th January many of the plants were in bloom. By the end of the first week in February, or under ten weeks after planting, there was a crop of tubers large enough to lift, but, of course, toO' green to handle. It should be remembered that the fine texture and early varieties are liable to injury if stored in pits, especially so in districts where plant- ing cannot start until the end of October or the beginning of November. By this time the days are lengthening, ajid the temperature is increasing /y-arres /hr/nec/ o/" 3x/ '^/-Mos. coieneJ SIDE ELEVATION. daily, causing the tubers to throw out their buds, and, as they are closely packed together, the air cannot circulate through the heap. The result is that the potatoes soon become a mass of sprouts, and long shoots force their way to the open air. Further, in- this unventilated cond'tio-n they heat, and soon begin to rot. Tubers kept in this way will, when cut, im- mediately turn black inside, and, if planted, are sure to rot. while whole tubers are very little better. Instances have come under my notice this season where crops of early potatoes have failed or missed badly. Had the seed been kept under proper conditions, this would not have occurred. The accompanying illustration of a shed for storing seed potatoes will give some idea of what is required. The posts are 4 ft. 6 ins. out of the ground, carrying a plate at the top to take the rafters. The material of the roof should be of thatch or bark, and should project at least 2 feet over the sides of the shed. The floor should be 6 inches off the ground at the outside, and slightly raised at the centre; it should be composed of i|-in. X I -in. battens, laid on edge, and fastened to the joists,_the battens being spaced at such distances as not to allow the small sets to 230 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 pass through. Tlie tubers will require turning, and for this wotIc a wooden fork should be made. The prongs of the fork should correspond with the spaces between the battens, so that in turning the tubers thev will run in the spaces and not injure them. If poultry can get at the tubers it will be necessary to protect them with wire netting fixed to frames as shown in the sketch. The shed may be constructed of any mattr'al ayailable on the farm, and in addition to the floor shown in the illustration could be made to take one or more tiers of trays, thus nroviding a much larger space for storage under the same roof. Trays can be made from the cases in which galyanized iron is piacked cut to a handy size, about 2 ft. by 2 ft. 6 in. If trays are used it will be necessary tO' put in uprights to carry them. The space to accommodate a ton of potatoes spread out to a depth of 5 inches is about 10x12 feet. Seed tubers are in the best condition for planting just when the bud starts ; this condition is hastened when the temperature of the atmosphere reaches in the day time to 60 degrees and oyer. Consequently tubers dug- in the summer are usually ready to plant in from 5 to 7 weeks after dig- ging, but the sprouting can be retarded for long periods by keeping the seed below 40 degrees. In the cooler districts along the Diyiding Range potatoes dug in April are usually ready to plant in tJie same district by Septelmber, but may be planted during July and August in the earlier districts near the coast. THE PROCLAIMED PLANTS OF VICTORIA. • {Continued from page 137.) Alfred J. Ewart, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Botanist; and J. R. Tovey, Herbarium Assistant. English Broom. Cyiisus scoparius, Link {Lcgnminosce). A shrub of 2 to 6 feet, nearly glabrous, but the younger branchlets and leaves silky, Avith numerous long, straight and erect, green, wiry branches prominently angled. Lower leaves shortl\;_ stalked, with three small, obo- vate leaflets ; upper leaves sessile, or shortly stalked, the leaflets often reduced tO' a single one. Flowers large, bright yellow, solitary or in pairs, on slender pedicels, in the axils of the old leaves, forming handsome leafy racemes along the upper branches. Petals all broad, the standard .broadly orbicular, the keel deflected. Pod i| to 2 inches long, flat, brown, or black, hairv on the edges, but glabrous on the sides, the seed? attached tO' a line considerably within the edges of the pod. A native of Europe, Northern Asia, the Canaries and Azores. This hardy, deciduous shrub is very difficult to suppress ; it should be dug up before flowering, and the root-stock removed from the soil, or it will grow again. Mowing wdll prevent the seedlings from re-establishing them- selves, but not grazing. Proclaimed for the Shire of Glenlyon, July,. 1902. PLATE II OWau£r,Vd ENGLISH BROOM (CyU^-iwj scopa/-vus , Lmh'.) S April, 1907] Eleiiicuts of Aii/i/tal Physiology. 231 THE ELEMEXT8 OF AMMAL PHYSIOLOGY. IF. A. Osborne, M.B., D.Sc, Professor of PhysioIoi;v and Histology, Dean of tJie Faculty of Agriculture in ilie Uni-'crsitv of Melbourne. {Continued from page 8g.) CHAPTER V. The Proteins. We have seen in the preceding chapter that complex polvsaccliarides, •such as starch, are formed by the union of many units of a comparatively simple sugar, namely dextrose. But the proteins with which this paper deals are immensely more complex than any carbohydrate, for they are formed, not by the union of a number of units of a single substance, but by the union of many units of many substances. We have seen that a complex carbohydrate, when boiled with an acid, splits up into its com- ponent parts ; the same occurs with a protein, and the chemist is able in this manner to determine what the constituent groups are. Now% the simple bodies into which proteins can be decomposed, and from which they can be built up by the plant or animal, all belong tO' the class of bodies called AMiNO-ACiDS. These are soluble, crystalline substances, weakly acid in •character, and containing nitrogen as well as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Tt would be inadvisable here to give anything like a complete list of the .amino'-acids which can enter into the composition of proteins ; the im- portant ones only will be mentioned, and these are — ■ Leucin, which crystallizes in spherical lumps, and is gritty, like sand. It can often be seen as a sediment in pancreatic extracts, Glycocoll, which has a sweetish taste and is formed in quantity when gelatine is boiled with an acid, Tyrosin, found in considerable amount in cheese, and hence its name {Greek, turos = cheese). This important amino-acid belongs to the same great c^ass of chemical bodies as carbolic acid and benzoic acid;, that is. the class of aromatic compounds. Tryptophane, this body is the mother substance of nearlv all the pig- ments of the animal body : in itself it possesses no colour, but when its structure is slightly modified it can yield substances of very rich tints — the colour -of blood, bile, of urine, all being due to this body; even' tihe green colouring matter in plants is a close ally. Moreover, it is largely to tryptophane that the evil smell of a putrid animal bodv is due, as also the smell of the faeces of carnivores, for tryptophane, under the action of bacteria, can pass readily into chemical bodies (indol, skatol. &:c.), which have a penetrating and disgusting odour, Cystin, this amino-acid contains not only carbon. h\drogen, oxvgen, and nitrogen, but also sulphur, and it is to cvstin that the sulphur content of protein is due. Cystin, when attacked by bacteria, gives off its sulphur as sulphuretted hydrogen, a poisonous gas which some peonle regard as having a most objectionable odour, and being reminiscent of rotten eggs, Hexone AMINO-ACIDS, thesc contain more nitrogen and have much weaker acidic properties than the amino- acids mentioned. They are pre- sent in all true proteins, and are obtained in considerable quantity from the soft roe of fishes. 232 Journal of Agi'iciiUiire. [8 April, 1907 This list, it must be remembered, is by no means complete, it omits many of the amino-acids (such as asparagin), but, as stated, it gives the important ones. Now, if we imagine a large number of representatives of these amino- acids united to each other and forming an enormous mo'lecule — a veritable tangle of amino-acid groups — we shall have something resembling a pro- tein. The building up of a protein from its groups is performed rapidly and with ease bv the animal or nlant, but, so far, the chemist has not succeeded in performing this task in the laboratory.^ Proteins differ from each other, not only in the number of the groups present, but in the manner in which these components are arranged. There is practically an infinite variety of proteins possible, and we according! v find a wide diversity between the proteins contained in living cells, of which they constitute the greater portion of the solid matter present. Proteins in dry form are white and tasteless ; a few can be prepared m crystalline form, for instance, the albumen of the white of egg, but only by very special treatment. Drv protein heated over a flame chars and gives off fumes that smell of burnt feathers; this smell, indeed, tells us that nitrogenous groups are present. The charring protein will readily take fire, and the char, which is chiefly carbon, will, if heated stronglv enough, burn slowly away, leaving a very small residue of mineral ash. It is still a matter of debate how far these mineral salts enter intO' the com- position of the protein ; certainly no protein appears in the animal body that does not contain such salts, and the presence of the latter seems to be of vital importance ; but, by suitable methods of washing, the amount of mineral matter may be reduced to a. \-ery small fraction of what was originally present. A protein in solution tends to break up into a mixture of its amino- acid components. This is a very slow process, and can onlv be detected after the lapse of years, yet it is noticeable in tinned meats and preserved milk that have been stored a long time. This decomposition can be greatly accelerated, in fact, it can be completed in a few hours, by various means, one of which has been already stated, namely, boiling with an acid. A very interesting property of proteins, and one which has a very important practical as well as theoretical application is their inability to pass through a membrane composed of parchment paper or gelatine. If, for instance, we place white of egg in a bag made of parchment paper and dip this bag into pure water, the salts and sugars of the egg-white can diffuse into the water, but the protein remains behind as in a trap. If the water be renewed continuoiusly, a time will come when nothing remains inside the bag but protein and water. This procedure is termed dialvsis, and can be emploved with a number of substances which, like protein, have large and highly complex molecules. Proteins in solution can be thrown out as insoluble precipitates by means of various reagents. A number of these precipitations are frequently given as tests for proteins. Anything which precipitates protein destroys life if it gains access to the cell. The poisonous pronerties of corrosive sublimate, blue stone, sugar of lead, and most metallic salts are due to this fact, whilst a number of antiseptics owe their utility to their power of precipitating a part or all of the protein in bacteria. 1 It may be safely prophesied that this problem will shortly be solved by Dr. Bmil Fischer, who appears to be within measurable reach of success. 8 April, 1907] Elements of Animal Physiology. 233 Proteins can be precipitated by — {a) Salts of heavy metals, for instance, mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate), copper sulphate (blue stone), lead acetate (sugar of lead), iron chloride, &c. {h) Strong mineral acids, notably nitric acid. {c) Addition of ammonium sulphate to saturation point j the protein is here thrown out of solution in the same manner that soap is curdled bv adding common salt to its solution. {d) Certain reagents, like tannin or i)icric acid; the precipitation here produced depends upon the presence of the hexone amino-acids in the nro- tein complex. (<-) Alcohol, which precipitates all proteins except a few occurring in the plant kingdom. (/) To the above we might add the coagulation produced by boiling ; the number of proteins thus precipitated is small, but the two chief animal proteins (albumens and globulins) possess this character. In addition to these precipitation re-actions, proteins vield a number of colour tests when treated with certain re-agents — (rt) Due to the presence of tyrosin. — When protein is warmed with nitric acid, a yellow colour is produced ; if the mixture is then cooled and ammonia added, an orange tint is, developed. This reaction is frequentlv observed with young chemists who spill nitric acid over their fingers, a yellow stain is formed, which darkens with ammonia. {h) Due to the presence of tryptophane. — If to a solution of protein a small quantity of strong acetic acid (which has been kept some time) is added, and then large excess of strong sulphuric acid, a splendid purple colour is produced. (c) Due to the presence of cystin. — If protein, strong potash, and lead acetate be boiled together, the mixture darkens owing to the formation of sulphide of lead. The darkening of a silver egg-spoon is similarlv due to the formation of silver sulphide, the sulphur being derived from the cvstin of the albumen. {d) Due to the manner in which the amino-acids are linked together. — If to protein solution some strong potash is added, and then a few drops of weak copper sulphate solution, a pretty violet-pink colour is produced ; this colour can be readily distinguished from the bluish shade which would be formed if the protein were absent. The percentage composition of dry protein depri\ed of mineral matter is generally given as follows: — Carbon ... ... 50.6 Hydrogen ... ... 6.5 Nitrogen ... ... 15.0 S'ulphur ... ... 0.3 Oxygen ... ••• ^i-5o It will be seen that carbon constitutes more than one-half, about a sixth of the whole. Classification of Proteins. ALBUMENS. — Albumens are present in blood, milk, eggs, seeds, and bioplasm generally. The albumens differ but slightly from one another, and are named according to their origin. Thus, lactalbumen is found in milk (but in small quantity compared with its chief protein caseinogen), 54.5 per cent. 7.3 per cent. 17.6 per cent. 2.2 per cent. 23.50 jDer cent. m one-half, and nitrogen 2 34 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907- SERUM ALBUMEN in blood, whilst EGG ALBUMEN Or OVALBUMEN COnstitUtCS- the chief solid constituent of white of egg. Albumens are soluble in water, and are coag-ulated by heat as is familiar to us. in the cooking of an egg. GLOBULINS. — Globulins accompan\ albumens wherever these are found. The chief protein in muscle is a globulin, and the more important vegetable proteins belong also to this class. Globulins, like albumens, are coagulated by heat, witness the cooking of meat, but, unlike albumens, are insoluble in pure water. The addition of a small amount of salt to the water renders them soluble, and in tliis wav thev can appear in bioplasm, blood. &c., in dissolved form. PHOSPHO-PROTEINS.— These are more complex than the two pre- ceding, and, as the name implies, are rich in phosphorus. The most important phospho-protein is caseinogen,^ the chief protein in milk. Caseinogen is insoluble in water and dilute acids, but soluble in weak alkalies. If to a solution in weak alkali sufficient acid be added, the caseinogen is thrown out as a precipitate. This explains the curdling of milk when it sours or when acid is deliberately added to it.^ Caseinogen in solution is not coagulated by boiling. Another imjjortant phospho-protein is vitellin, which is found in yollc of egg. NUCLEO-PROTEINS. — These are present in large amount in the nuclei, and, to a lesser extent, in protoplasm ; they are also found in certain body-fluids, particularly in the bile of the ox. The structure of the nucleo-proteins is extremely complex, as no less than two complete protein molecules are linked on to a complex acid called nucleic acid. This nucleic acid is itself fairly complex in structure, and^ though not comparable with protein, has nevertheless several groups of bodies present, amongst which we may note a sugar, phosphoric acid, and some compounds of carlx>n. hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, which are closely allied to uric acid. Nucleic acid united with one protein grou]> gives NUCLEiN, with two protein groups, nucleo-protein. The nucleo-proteins have many properties in common with caseinogen. for example, thev are not coagulated by heat, are insoluble in water and weak acids, but soluble in weak alkalies. GLUCOPROTEINS. — These are compounded of protein and a carbohvdra.te. The chief glucoprotein is mucin, the glairy adhesive material which is found in the inner wall of most canals and ducts of the bodv. It is present also in large quantity in the slime of snails and in the saliva of most mammals. If to saliva we add some dilute acid, the mucin is thrown out as a stringy precipitate, which can be redissolved by adding sufficient alkali. The solubilities of mucin are the same as those of caseinogen and nucleo-proteins. CHROMOPROTEINS'.— The chief chromoprotein is hemoglobin, which is a compound of protein and a substance called haematin. This- ' An unfoi'tuiiate confusion exists as to the nomenclature of tills protein. In Englaml flic term caseinogen is used for the chief protein of milk, and casein is restricted to the product of rcnnin il' it ting ; in Germany, kasein is used for the former and parakasein for the latter. The Americans and some English chen;ists follow the German nomenclature. In accordance with the views of tiie committee appointed jointly by the Chemical and Physiological Societies of England the term CASEIN is used for the rennin product and caseinogen for the unaltered protein as it occurs in milk. ^ The reader must bear in mind the fundamental difference between the clotting of milk by an acid and the clotting prorUiced by ferments, such as reraiin. In the former case, the caseinogen is rendered insoluble by the acid, but is not chemically altered and can be brought back again into the soUible form. With remiin a distinct chemical transformation occurs, and the product casein camiot by any means be made to revert to caseinogen. S April, 1907] Elements of Animal Physiology. 235 haematin contains iron, is rich in derivatives of tryptophane, and is red in colour. We tind haemoglobin in the red corpuscles of the blood, and constituting; about 40 per cent, of their weight. INFRAPROTEINS. — When proteins are treated with dilute acid or alkali in the cold, products called acid-albumen and alkali-albumen respectively are formed. These are soluble in the acid or alkali emploved. and do not coagulate on heating. If, for instance, a piece of meat .is placed in dilute hydrochloric acid, a considerable part of the protein is •dissolved out as acid-albumen; this acid extract can be boiled without for- mation of a coaguilum, but, if it be neutralized with alkali, a curdv pre- cipitate at once forms. If alkali be employed to extract the meat^ Lhe solution is rapid. PROTEOSES, PEPTONES, and POLYPEPTIDES.— When pro- tein undergoes disintegration- into its component amino-acids, a number of steps can be traced by the loss of one true protein property after another. When coagulation by heat is lost, and when copper sulphate and potash give a rose-pink instead of a violet, the product consists of a mixture of PROTEOSES. When, in a further stage of disintegration, the property of being precipitated bv ammonium sulphate is lost, and the substance can penetrate through parchment paper, the product is termed peptone.^ Below the peptones come the polypeptides, which no longer give anv dis- tinctive colour with copi)er sulphate and potash, and finallv tlie amino-acids themselves. SCLERO-PROTEINS (called by some authors ALBUMINOIDS').— These are compounded of amino-acids, but, unlike the previously-men- tioned proteins, contain little or no tyrosin or tryptophane. They are all insoluble in cold water, and are fairly resistant to chemical reagents. They cannot be substituted for protein in food, and are used in the body, as constituents of connective tissue, horn, hoof, &c., on account of their physical properties. 1. Keratin, the basis of hair, feathers, horn, and the outer layers ot the skin. It is very tenacious and resistant to chemical attacks. It con- tains more cystin, and, therefore, more sulphur, than ordinary protein. 2. Collagen, generally present in the form of fme fibres or sheets which make up the greater part of connective tissues (see Chapter II.). Collagen is a colourless inelastic substance, insoluble in water, and of re- markable tenacity. When boiled with water, or treated with dilute acids, it swells up and changes into gelatine. 3. Chondrogen, closely allied to collagen, and forming the basis of cartilage (gristle). 4. Ela'stin, also closely allied to collagen, but differing in its physical properties. It is a highly elastic substance in the sense that indiarubber is elastic, and forms the basis of elastic fibres, such as are found in the Ugamentum mucha, &c. VEGETABLE PROTEINS.— These, which occur widely distributed throughout all plants, and which are of special imjiortance in connexion v.ith the question of fodders, are partly globulins, partly albumens, and pjartly proteins which cannot well be classified. Some of them possess the remarkable property of being soluble in alcohol. Generally speaking, they are insoluble in water, and require much more salt for their solution than do the animal globulins. 1 The article on the market called Witte's Peptone contains vsry little true peptone ; it is chiefly a mixture of proteoses. 236 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907. EXPERIMENTAL MAIZE PLOTS AT COLAC. F. E. Lee, Agricultural Superintendcut. It is seldom that a better opportunity presents itself to emphasize the necessity and demonstrate the utility of proper cultivation and correct fertilization of a growing crop, than occurs in connexion with the present small experimental plots of maize, conducted by boys in the Colac and surrounding districts. Notwithstanding the many lectures that have at different times been given in country districts on the reasons for, and bene- ficial effects of, cultivation, there remains still a tenacious adherence to n^ethods sanctioned by time, but otherwise having no logical or common- sense foundation. L'LOi CLLli\.\TED BY LESLIK .SELWOOD. When prices of produce were two or three times what prevail to-day, and land was perhaps one-half its present value, there was possibly some justification for methods demanding a minimum of trouble, but the world moves, and a newer set of circumstances demands improved methods, or the falling out of the race. With possibly this knowledge as the primary motive the Colac Progress Association was recently impelled to bring home to the rising generation of the district, the practical worth of advanced ideas applied to the ordinary practice on the farm. As might have reason- ably been expected in such a localitv where dairying is the paramount industry, the most obvious matter requiring investigation was the improve- ment of the yield of green-fodder crops and maize in particular for the continuous production of milk during the dry months at the end of the summer. The co-operation of two leading firms of artificial manure vendors was enlisted, one firm furnishing not onlv all manures to coni- petitors free of charge, but donating also the substantial sum of ^10 in rash for prizes. Tt was re(juired, however, that all (T)mpetitors must have attended the short course agricultural classes conducted by the Department of 8 April, 1907] Maize Plots at Colac. 237 Agriculture, and must moreover have become the purchaser of the Vcar- Book published by the Department. It is suthcient evidence of the popu- larity of these classes to state that the original number of entries was nearly 50, of which no less than 28 crops survived accident and neglect, and, as indicated by the illustrations, attained complete maturity. The prizes attached to the competition were on a viz. : — ■f. First prize ... ... 5 Second prize ... ... 2 Third prize ... ... i Fourth prize ... ... i Fifth prize ... ... i were on a most liberal scale^ s. d. 0 0 cash. 0 0 cash. ]o 0 cash. 10 0 ca.sh. I 0 worth of seeds. PLOT CULTIVATED BY DONALD RANKIN. The fourth prize was for the best essay on the way the competitor actually grew his i)articular crop, manures used, &c. The area of the experiment, although small, being only 18 feet x 30 feet, was sufficient for the purpose. The growing crop was required to be inspected by a iud^e, who would later award the prizes on the basis of (]uantitv and quality of the shelled grain from the area. The Appearance of the Plots in February. The variety of seed uniformly used and furnished bv the Department of Agriculture was " Yankee Doodle," one of a number of maize varieties recently imported from the United States, where it has the reputation of being a prolific yielder and capable of withstanding droughty conditions well. So far as could be judged at that ])eriod' the variety appeared much more suitable than the one generally used by the farmer for his ordinary crop (mostly Ninety Day). The seed having been hand planted in rows 3 feet ajiart had ample room for development, and in a number of the jjlots insjjected was from Journal of Agr'icnltiirc. [8 April, 1907. 6 to 9 feet high, cobs forming freelv and vigorously. The plots were in all manner of situations, some in the corner of the area sown by the boy's parent, some in backyards, and some within the playground area of PLOT CULTIV'ATED BV RAYMOND COLE. the State schools. Inquiry elicited the fact that the small plots had been hoed regularly, generally once a week, since the crops had appeared above ground. When it is stated that the natural rainfall between the dates of sowing and inspection was under half-an-inch, the preservation £^i^ jwbtf •Ai ff^^ 'S^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l i f. ^ ---C^^^ -J^^HSfl^^^^^^^H K^^M^^^^BBBPWrfHMil i» ^^1^ 1 HH IB^^^^^^^H^- ' J PLOT CULTIVATED BY FRANK INGLIS. of the soil mulch can be credited with almost phenomenal powers. Those plots situated alongside the fanner's larger area of 5 or 6 acres stood out at least 3 to 4 feet above their surroundings and showed a greener colour. 8 April. 1907 Maize Plots at Colac. '■39 It was especiallv remarked that whereas the farmer's own crop, which had either been sown broadcast or else had never been cultivated, had suffered severely from frost and the drying effects of wind, the small ]>lots were not affected in the slightest degree. This immunity to drought and frost may be ascribed to the healthier and more vigorous develojjnicnt of the plants, enabling them to withstand abnormal climatic changes. It was moreover remarked that some stalks showed promise of success- fully devloping as manv as six cobs, which is a prodigious number. Some Opinions expressed by Parents of Competitors. Naturally, where situated along the roadside, the maize plots have excited considerable attention from passers bv, and in the friend-! y chaff FOREGROUND AND BACKGROUND — A LOCAL CONTRAST. of neighbours, utterance has been given to remarks which are calcuhitcU to exercise no small influence on the cultivation and manuring of future crops. One farmer wished " he had 50 acres of maize as good as his son's." Another " always knew maize would not grow through a drv summer, but aS he had alwavs broadcasted his seed, he could see now that it was a better way to drill it in and keep the cultivator going through it."' Still another parent, had not previously come across the Agricultmal Journal, which the entry of his son into the competition compelled him to sul)scribe to, and on reading it he found a fund of useful information relating to his business as a dairyman and farmer. These o])erations are eloquent testimony to the valuable lessons already taught by the com- petition. So widespread has the attention been that in(]uiries have been made from Svdney and other places as to the manner of carrying them out. The success of the competition confirms the Departmental belief .that in country districts there is more than a passing chance of materially bene- fiting the local agricultural practice, by medium of small plots demonstrat- ing the correct principles of cuIti\ation, manuring and rotnfion, carried out it may be in the grounds of the local State sdia"> y manuring on this field, that the growth of straw was stimulated evidei-.tiv to the detriment nf the grain. Confirmation of this is shown in the diminishing returns of plots 5, 6, and 7. The action of the Thomas phosphate has been disappointing, and little better than the unmanured section. The low retuDi of the unmanured plot 4 was to be expected, but, at the same time, it is illustrative of what can be done by the aid of artificial manures. There is evidently a danger, when a crop is grown on this soil for grain, that over-liberal manuring may stimulate more straw than may be desirable, but if the crop is grown for hay. then the more liberal dressings might be given with advantage. Oilier Fields. — Experimental areas of 5 acres were also established on the farms of Messrs. J. Down (Longwood) and J. English (Traralgon), both of which were failures, the former owing to an abnormally wet season, and the latter owing to the owner selling the property, and the buyer not being wuUing to continue the experiment, which was grazed off bv stock. Oat fields were also established on the properties of Messrs. W. Nickells (Drouin) and E. O. Francis (Stratford), the harvest returns of which are too poor to be of anv value. Complete explanation of the causes of failure is furnished in each case. An experiment of top dressing a crop at Stratford, planted two months pre\'iouslv. gave conflicting returns., which, in mv opinion,, are due to errors in weighing, which was carried out bv the farmer himself. Summary. — The above experiments ma\ , on the whole, be said to have been successful, and will prove educative to the neighbouring land-owners in each localitv. Indifferent preparation of the land is the principal cause of low vields, but in some cases, notably at Longwood, Drouin, and Traralgon, imperfect drainage would alwavs militate against success. "STAGGERS" OR "FORAGE POISONING" IN HORSES, 5". >S. Cameron, M .R.C .V .S., Chief V eterinarv Officer. The somewhat extensive fatalities which occurred amongst horses at Carapooee, near St. Arnaud, during the -early part of January, have served to draw public attention once more to the occurrence, at periodic intervals, of outbreaks of equine disease which a perverse public is pleased to designate as "obscure" or "strange." Nearly three vears ago I col- lected and published information in regard to these periodic outbreaks which should have established, once and for all, that in them we had to deal with a disease well and definitely known, so far as diagnosis is con- cerned, both in Europe and America, but which had either onlv mani- fested itself at infrequent intervals in Australia, or had been Avrongly diagnosed. Since that time, characteristic outbreaks have occurred at Yarrawonga, Charlton, Minyip, Rochester, and other places, which have (or should have) been definitelv diagnosed as Forage Poisoning or Staggers. Still, when in tlie St. Arnaud outbreak the syrhptoms. historv, progress and surrounding conditions were such as are invariably associated with forage poisoning, the obvious diagnosis was publicly questioned, until the falsitv of various theories concerning "salt poi.soning." " cvanide iX)isoning."' " silage poisoning," and the like was tardilv realized. [8 April, 1907] . Staggers in Horses. 243 Summarized, the history of the St. Arnaud outbreak is as follows: — A crop of oaten hay had been har\-ested and stacked towards the end of December. When the stack had been completed it was found that on the lowest land, which had been left till last, there were still about two loads of hay remaining in the paddock. This hay, the sheaves of which were heavy in the butt on account of the rank growth of moisture-weeds, was carted into the chaff house and immediately chaffed. The chaff was left in a heap, unbagged, and the feeding of it to the farm horses was com- menced straightaway. Within a few davs all the horses fed on it became ill ; two died, and four others showed characteristic symptoms of staggers or forage poisoning, at the time of investigation into the affair bv Mr. E. N. Wood, V.S. Prior to this anthrax had been suggested locallv as the cause of the outbreak, and when the diagnosis of forage poisoning was communicated it was not regarded , with sufficient confidence to prevent continuance of use of the suspected fodder. Hence the continuance of the outbreak until thirteen horses had become affected, eight of which died. The only common factor in all the cases was the eating of the par- ticular lot of chaff before mentioned. Tho.se horses — and those only, and all of them — that had been fed on it became affected. It would appear that something in the nature of an obscure fermenta- tion or fungosis, giving rise to the formation of a toxic element, had pro- ceeded in this distinct lot of chaff — how originating, wherefor arising, is beyond the present limits of scientific knowledge to determine; but the occurrence of which is, nevertheless, logically and properlv deducible from the general facts associated with this and other well-studied outbreaks. It is to be inferred that the month's delay of the renresentative people of the St. Arnaud district to accept the diagnosis, and to take the preven- tive steps which such diagnosis so clearly indicated, was due to the inability of its sponsors to demonstrate, microscopically or otherwise, the particular germ, mould, fungus, ferment, or what-not which was held to be the cause, and also to the added inability to prescribe completely effective treatment. If so, it may be well to say here that veterinarv science is in exactly the same position in connexion with this disease on these two points as medical science is in regard to cerebro-spinal meningitis or " spotted fever," a disease of man allied to, or, it may be, identical with, "staggers" in horses. In neither disease has the exact causation been mastered, and, if anything, treatment is somewhat more effective in the equine ailment than in the human. It was an interesting coincidence that while this St. Arnaud affair was on the tapis, the daily cal)les were chronicling extensive fatalities from " spotted fever " in man in various cities of Great Britain ; vet, though the inability of medical science to control its spread might be abundantly inferred, the medical profession at Home had not to suffer any unjustifiable charge of incapacity or scientific backwardness such as was levelled at the veterinary profession here. The fact is that, until increased facilities for research in the domain of animal pathology are provided and fostered, stock-owners will have to remain content with the efforts which are at present being made available unto them ; efforts which are, it may be, but partially effective at times, but valuable and honest always. In the meantime, it may Ije well to re-publish the following article, which Was written by me for the Pastoralists' Review, July, 1904, and 244 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907. which, as above indicated, may be taken as epitomizing the present avail- able information on the subject: — ■' There has been reported, during tlie last few months_i^ from various parts of Australia, a number of cases of the so-called ' spotted fever ' of mankind. Technically, the disease is known as cerebro-spinal meningitis, i.e., an inflammation of the covering membranes of the brain and of the spinal cord. So far as its course, symptoms, and morbid changes are concerned, this disease is identical with the cerebro-spinal meningitis of horses and other animals, which is known under the common name of ' staggers,' sometimes differentiated as grass .staggers, stomach staggers, and mad staggers. This term has reference to the most prominent symptom, viz., a staggering gait produced bv the want of co-ordinative power of the muscles resulting from the interference with nervous action caused by the pressure of inflammatory products at the base of the brain and spinal cord, or by derangement of the locomotor nerve centres. On account of outbreaks of the disease being in most instances associated with a particular set of feeding or grazing conditions, the disease is also gene- rally known as ' forage poisoning.' "The interest which has been created by the occurrence of so-called ' spotted fever ' in widely-separated parts of Australia,, and the fact that during the past year there have been two or three occurrences of disease amongst horses, and one, at least,' amongst cattle in Victoria and South Australia, the history and character of which have been strongly sugges- tive of outbreaks of forage poisoning or staggers — these circumstances appear to warrant that interest will be taken in a short recountal of such reliable information as is available regarding the disease in animals. " Natup.e of the Disease. ■ " Neither the common name, staggers, nor the technical name, cerebro- spinal meningitis, conveys a correct idea of the nature of the disease. The former refers to one of the symptoms only, and the latter to a condition of inflammation of the brain coverings, which does not always exist — in the horse at all events. The disease is essentially an affection or derange- ment— probably a poisoning — of the large nerve centres, the brain and spinal cord, which are the principal seats of nerve-motor and nerve-sensory power. As a consequence of their derangement their functions are sus- pended or aberrated, and there, succeeds a train of symptoms, all of which are connected with those functions of the body controlled by the nerves given off from the brain and spinal cord. Thus, according as certain parts of the latter organs are affected there will be paralysis or loss of muscular power, drowsiness and stupor, or great excitability, delirium, and madness. It used to be considered that these conditions were the result of irritation reflected by so-called ' sympathy ' from thd stomach or bowels to the brain or spinal cord, because in most cases there is some derange- ment of the stomach or bowels — either impaction, irritability, or some such trouble, hence the name ' stomach staggers.' But it is now known that these stomach symptoms are the effect, and not the cause, of the brain troubles. " Causes. " Experiments and observations bv European veterinarians have forced the conclusion that the disease is caused by a perm, but, whether or not, the one giving rise to the disease in horses and other animals is [8 April, 1907] Staggers in Horses. 245 identical with that which is considered to cause the disease in man (the diplococcus intracellular is meningitidis) is a question that is still un- decided. According to Nocard's latest work (1903), the German veterinary, Johne, concludes that they are identical, but Ostertag, another German, denies this, and Nocard remarks that ' the very incomplete descriptions furnished by Johne and Ostertag will not, from a bacterio- logical point of view, allow of the deciding of the question.' In the meantime, it may be observed that the disease changes in the brain in man and in the horse have not always everything in common. In man, inflammation of the brain covering (meningitis) is constant, but in horses it is not so, there being many cases in which no changes in the brain coverings can be discovered. The germ is supposed to belong to the family of 'moulds' or saprophytes, i.e., those which usually live on dead matter. They exist in the soil, and are conveyed to the animal either by water, food, or bedding, but the exact mode in Avhich the germ invades the body and penetrates into the nerve centres (brain and spinal cord) has not been determined. It has been suggested that it may pass direct from the no'strils through the nasal apertures (in the • ethmoid bone) to the biain. " When animals become affected while at grass, it is in that season of the year when the herbage is dry and ripe, and it used to be considered that in over-ripe grass there was developed, in certain seasons, a poisonous or narcotic principle, which caused the disease, in much the same way as prussic acid is developed in sorghum during certain stages of its growth. It is more probable, however, that when in a certain stage of ripeness or deadness the grass- — more particularly rye grass — becomes attacked by the germ or mould which causes the disease. Amongst stabled horses, the disease attacks those housed in damp and badly -ventilated buildings, and the connexion between the occurrence of the disease and the eating of musty and mouldy forage, or the drinking of slimy water, has been in many cases distinctly traced. Under such circumstances, it will be easily understood how, without being transmitted from one animal to another by infection, the disease attacks a number of animals placed under similar conditions of food and water supply at the same time, and assumes the cliaracter of an outbreak. " Symptoms. " Whatever may be still undecided regarding the pathological pheno- mena and nature of the disease, the records of observations regarding- its s> mptoms and progressive manifestations are fairly complete and accurate. The usual symptoms are at first a drowsiness and aimlessness of move- m.ent, the appetite is not lost, but the animal eats slowly and mechanicallv, the breathing is slow, deep, and often snoring, pulse less frequent than natural, a sleepiness comes over the animal, which, if suddenly disturbed, is followed by shivering and evident excitement or fright. If made to walk, the gait is straggling, and there is want of proper control of the movements of the hind limbs, which are often crossed, the body wobbling meanwhile and sometimes falling. The animal places its head against a wall, or fence, or tree, or anything solid, and paws the ground automati- cally, or moves the limbs as if walking. These symptoms are succeeded by those of approaching delirium or convulsions. There will be great excitement, the head will be tossed; horses will whinny and cattle bellow; spasmodic twitchings of the muscles ofi neck, breast, and hindquarters will 246 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907. be noticed. The legs and ears are alternately hot and cold, and perspira- tion is profuse. Violent convulsions now come on, the muscles all over become stiff and rigid, the eyes stand out fixedly, the limbs are stretched stiff, and the tail cocked towards the back ; urine and excreta may be forcibly ejected. During the attack, the pulse is frequent and hard, and the breathing catchy and difficult. All this is succeeded bv muscular re- laxation and placidity, and the animal may relapse intoi a state of uncon- sciousness for a time. These alternations of frenzy and stupor may con- tinue for ,a day or more, but, as the disease advances, the attacks are shorter and sharper, leaving the animal in an increasinglv enfeebled con- dition until it either succumbs during a violent convulsion or collapses during unconsciousness. If the spinal cord is the seat of the affection, the paralvsis of the limbs will be more pronounced, but. if the brain is in- volved, there will be paralysis of the muscles supplied bv the cranial nerves ; the lips and ears will hang pendulous, the tongue will be pro- truded, there will be loss of the power of swallowing, and snoring will be pronounced. "In some cases in' which the stupor is very great there may be no delirium ; in others, the delirium is continuous, and the animal knocks itself about in a fashion beyond all control, and thus mav sustain fatal injuries ; in others, again, the convulsions or fits come on suddenly, with- out anv warning and are often mistaken for symptoms of poisoning. In the two latter cases, death may occur in a few hours from attack, but in most cases it is two or three days before the symptoms which presage death are developed, or before signs of recovery are shown. " Treatment. " This is one of the diseases in which the beneficial effects of bleeding are often very marked. Bleeding from the jugular vein relieves the over- charged blood vessels of the brain, and so lessens brain pressure. From 4 to 6 quarts of blood mav be abstracted with aavantage in the early stages, but, later on, when actual inflammation has succeeded the con- gestion, blood-letting is useless, and even harmful. For the constipation which exists a purgative ball or drench may be gi\'en (for the horse — aloes, 6 drams ; calomel, i dram ; ginger, i dram. For cattle — Epsom salts, 1 lb.; powdered jalap, i oz. ; tartar emetic, | oz.). Enemas of warm soapv water should also be given. For the delirium, extract of bella- donna, in j-oz. doses, is the most suitable sedative, and it may be re- ])eated every few hours. It wall be two or three days before there is any marked response to the treatment, and during this time the patient should be kept in a loose box, and disturbed as little as possible. Full recovery of the locomotive powers often takes a long time, but it mav be hastened bv the giving of \-oz. doses of iodide of potassium in the drinking-water ; these assist in the absorption of any effusion at the base of the brain or in the spinaf canal. A course of strvchnine is also sometimes advan- tageous, but it should onlv be given under professional direction. " Prevention. '■ Having regard to the causes previously described, it will be obvious that for the prevention of the disease or the suppression of an outbreak change of food or pasture and of water supply is essential. Amongst stabled animals, attention should be directed to the removal of any un- \\holesome conditions of drainage, filth, mouldiness, or dampness." 8 April, 1907] The Agricultural High School. 247 THE AGRICULTURAL HIGH SCHOOL. /. //. B ether as, M.A.., Inspector of Schools, Warniainhool District. In the establishment of Agricultural High Schools there is a fine oppor- tunity to " Ring out the old, ring in the new " in educational aims and methods of their attainment, to lessen the scholar's burden by discarding everything that does not tend to development of interest, power, and useful knowledge, and to take him straight along the road that leads to an active, useful, progressive life. The new school need not be trammelled by tradi- tion that culture means an easy and dignified repose from work, that farm life is essentially dull and uninviting, hard and mind-deadening ; it should seek to exalt the doer, to greaten and glorify a cultivated common sense in matters of field lal)Our, and to place success in the science and practice of agriculture in the ver\ forefront of our country's satisfaction. The school must be for training rather than for learning. In the near future, a much greater honour will be given to every resourceful man of action. The direct aims of the Agricultural High School include the following: — 1. To give to boys such education as will direct their interest specially towards the land as an excellent means of gaining a livelihood ; and, fur- ther, to afford the practical experience and scientific training necessary for success. 2. To magnifv agriculture as an occupation and a profession. The boy mav leave the school as an interested labourer, or for further study and practice in Experimental Farm, Agricultural College, and University. 3. To provide a central institution for the dissemination of agricultural information by evening lectures, conferences, and literature. 4. To superintend the Government experimental plots, to record and interpret the results. 5. To provide a Summer School in Agriculture for primar\- school teachers. To insure success, it is necessar\- to weld together the efforts of the different assistants, the directors and administrators, the local Advisory Board, the teaching staff, honorary helpers and general public. There must be a supply of well-trained teachers, a carefully-prepared syllabus, an up-to-date equipment, a reference library, a reasonable examination, and a preparation in the primary school, especially in a proper organization of nature-study and school -gardening. The Advisory Board is of great importance, more particularly in the establishment of the school. It may be at first a local committee, widen- ing afterwards into a Board representative of the district agricultural and kindred societies', town and shire councils, farmers, and general public. Its work will be to arouse public interest in the need for such a school, to satisfy the Government requirements, and to enrol scholars ; afterwards to keep in touch with the Departments of Agriculture and Education, and act as advisers in matters pertaining to the welfare of the school ; to select farms and dairies for the visitation of the scholars ; to arrange for evening lectures by honorary and other helpers; to hold farmers' conferences; to superintend the expenditure of the maintenance allowance. The ex- perience at Warrnamhool showed the value of such a committee in over- coming the many difficulties which arose by the way. It had the advan- tage of being guided by the energetic and influential mayor of the town, 248 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907. Mr. G. S. Mackay. By the personal efforts of the members of committee; public inertia and opposition to scientific instruction as such were overcome ; pockets were reached ; parents were persuaded to allow their boys, so useful at home, to be enrolled as scholars ; and with the aid of an efficient lecturing staff and by means of circulars information as to the scope and aims of the school was sent to all parts of the district. It was by no means an easv task. It should be mentioned that the A.N. A. Society rendered good assistance to the committee. Among the reasons assigned for the need of such schools were the following: — The advance of other countries in obtaining school power in the direc- tion of agriculture and the splendid results obtained thereby ; the consequently keener competition to which the coming farmer will be subjected in every open market ; the need for intense cultivation and for a more uniform and better quality in production ; the desirability of changing the attitude of boys to city life and posi- tions by giving them an interested knowledge of the country, of farm occu- pations, and of machinery ; the value of capable, well-informed labourers, and of scientific experts ; tliat a large body of progressive agriculturists meanis an increased wealth tO' our country ; that interest and knowledge will make farm life attractive and satis- fying. The intention is to catch the scholars young, and give earlv a rural bias to their inclinations. The children in the lower classes of everv State primarv school have nature-study as a subject of the ordinary course. This is not the old object-lesson under a new name, but is " nature studied in its relations bv the child from the child's standpoint by the teacher with the children."' It makes the child know and love his surroundings; it leads him to appreciate what he receives from nature, and what he owes to nature. Each child tecomes an interested investigator. The Director of Education strongly encourages the school garden as a necessary adjunct to every school. As an educative agency, the school garden has great possibilities, but much of the teacher's energy has been wasted for lack of systematic organization and expert superintendence. Seeds and trees have been planted, in many cases, without due regard to satisfactory experiment or design, and consequently with not a tithe of the good that should have resulted from the labour. However, the interest has become so general that there are now but few Victorian schools where the children have not more or less pride in their garden plots. It is to be hoped that an organizer of school gardens, as recommended bv the Director of Agriculture, will soon be appointed, and will systematize and direct the efforts of teachers and scholars. The senior classes in the State schools may, if the teacher wishes, take agriculture as the science subject. In schools where this is being done, the results are gratifying. A handful of soil has become an object of interest ; it is a storehouse, it is a laboratory- . Teachers and children display special liking for the lessons; the school life is connected with the home life ; the children are in contact with real life and its betterment ; thev ha\-e a manual training and get good physical exercise ; they learn to^ re- spect labour and the labouring man ; their mental alacrity and reasonin"- powers are developed ; the whole schoo^l life is quickened ; there are direct. 8 April, 1907.] llie Agricultural High ScJiool. 249 personal observations, school excursions to farm and field, simple experi- ments, practical training and studies in theory. Some experiments made bv the scholars of the Mortlake State School are given as exam.ples : — 1. {a) Placed pulverized local rock in well-drained pot. {b) Placed pulverized local rock with some decayed organic matter (rotted weeds) in another pot. Sowed bean in each. In {a) the plant died at the end of six weeks ; in (b) plant attained maturity and produced ten well-filled pods. Deduction. — {a) Local basaltic rock contains all plant foods except or- ganic matter ; ih) organic matter is necessary to soil in order that the soil organisms (bacteria) may assist plant. 2. Placed equal weights of sand, and of clay mixed with sand, in two tins. Same weight of water was added to each ; tins were exposed to air for a week. The mixed clav and sand was found tO' be the heavier. Deduction. — Evaporation is greater from sand than from a mixture of sand and clay. 3. The above experiment was performed without the added water. The tins were exposed for one night, and were weighed in the morning. The mixture was heavier than the sand alone. Deduction. — (a) Clay in soil assists its absorbing power; {h) soils absorb moisture from air. 4. Placed bean seeds with embryo up, on side, down ; seeds with embryo down appeared first above the ground ; seeds with embryo on side were next. 5. Experiments with potatoes. Sets cut ; some were placed with "eyes" upward, others downward. In every case those with "eyes'" upward appeared above surface of ground from 5 to 14 days before the others. 6. In March, planted potatoes at varying depths, 3 inches, 5 inches, 8 inches. Those planted at 8 inches came up first, then tho'se at 3 inches ; many of those at 5 inches failed altogether. The potatoes at 8 inches received benefit of dampness conserved below. A slight shower moistened surface 10 days after planting and helped the 3 inches potatoes. 7. Placed an India-rubber tube over cut-off stem of balsam. Attached a glass tube; poured small quantity of water in tube. In 36 hours, sap had risen in tube f inch. Showed effect of root pressure. 8. Stripped off all leaves from hardwood plant ; in some instances death followed. Stripped off all leaves from soft-wood plant — ^none died. Deduction. — Hard-wood plants depend almost entirely on leaves for breathing and digesting food; in soft-wood plants this work is also per- formed bv the stems. 9. Cut four kerosene tins into halves, two transversely, two longitu- dinallv ; put same weight of soil in each ; added to each same weight of water (stirring soil well). In Numbers i cut transversely and 2 cut longi- tudinally, the surface was stirred daily for 14 days; in the other tins the surface was not stirred. At end of time. Number 1 weighed the heaviest, Number 2 next. Deduction. — Surface stirring breaks capillaries, and acts as a mulch, preventing evaporation. Deep cultivation tends to assist in conserving moisture. 10. Performed experiments with wheat, oats, barley, and mangolds. In every case, deep cultivation gave results, varying from i| to 4 times th(i weight of material over shallow cultivation. 250 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 11. Performed experiments with millets. Those in which the surface was sitirred to a depth of 3 or 4 inches averaged 4 feet high, and those with no surface-stirring averaged 2| feet. 12. Experimented with fertilizers. Crops all responded to the addi- tion of phosphates, but showed no improvement with potash. 13. Cauliflowers and brocoli in July formed much larger heads when cincturing was performed than in the case of those wdiere the operation was not performed. Cincturing was done at the time the flower was just forming. It is thought that by this linked instruction in nature-study, .school gar- dening, and elementary lessons and experiments in agriculture very many pupils of the primary school will be induced to- proceed to the Agricultural High Schoo'l. There a great deal will depend, of co'urse, on the efficiency of the teaching staff and the teaching: methods employed. The headmaster ought to be in close touch with the Departmental and other agricultural experts, and in correspondence with similar establishments in other coun- tries. He O'Ug-ht to be allowed opportunity to see for himself what is being done in other agricultural schools and colleges. In the exit examination, the value of the student's work will probably be estimated from the headmaster^s report, the farm manager's report, and the result of examination by an outside expert. The syllabus of the Agricultural High School is as follows: — Principles of Agriculture. The soil, its origin, elements and resources, its texture, moisture capa- city, tillage and enrichment. Trees on the farm. Plant food of the soil and its relation to {a) Bacteria, {h) The higher animals. Victorian soils. Cultivation of cereals, grasses, fodder plants and vegetables. Rotation of crops. Fertilizers. Drainage and improvement of soils. Irrigation. Feeding and general management of farm live-stock. Ensilage. First aid to animals. General principles of the valuation of — (^) Fertilizers. i^h) Milk and cream. (c) Farm crops. {(i) Animal products. Agricultural vScience. Each section includes laboratory practice. Special attention will be paid to practical work. All scholars must keep laborato-ry note-books. I. PLANT-KNOW^LEDGE. Such an amount as is contained in an elementary work such as Gillies's First Studies in Plant Life in Australasia, together with an outline of the nutrition and respiration of plants ; an outline of the life-historv of a moss, a mushroom and a fern. Structure of the higher plants, root, stem, leaf, fungus, flower, fruit. Physiology of plants, absorption, elaboration and utilization of plant food. Reproduction. Cross-fertilization. Diseases of plants. Plants detrimental to Agri- culturists. 8 April, 1907] Tlic Agricultural High School, 251 2. ANIMAL-KNOWLEDGE. The course will include lectures and demonstrations on animals bene- ficial and injurious to the agriculturist. The following will be studied in detail : A one-celled anim.al e.g. amoeba or paramoecium, liver-fluke, eaithworm, snail, grasshopper, blights, scales, ladybird, bee, ant, wasp, codlin moth, wireworm, apple-borer^^ and other commoo local insects. The spider, tick, fish, frog, bird, domestic fowl, rabbit, sheep, horse, cow, pig- 3. CLIMATOLOGY. The seasons. Atmosphere. Fo^ms of water. Thermometer. Baro- meter. Hydrometer. Systematic weather observations. Weather predic- tions. The weather of Victoria and its causes. 4. PHYSICS. — Measurement of \'elocity and capacity. Acceleration. Laws of motion. Mass. Weight. Specific gravity. Momentum. Force. Principle of moments. Equilibrium. Measurement of work. Matter. Energy. Power. Transmission of pressure. Boyle's Law. Pump, artesian well, cream-separator, Babcock's tester, milking machine, farm implements. Heat and temperature. Specific and latent heat. Expansion, evaporation, ebullition. Convection, conduction, radiation. 5. CHEMISTRY. Practical exercises in the following : Common materials, water, principal salts, rocks and earths. Properties of liquids and solids. Acids and their properties. Air and its properties. Acids and metals. Rusting of iron. Burning. Limestone. Ammonia and other alkalies. Interaction of acids and alkalies. Equivalent weights. Hydrochloric acid and chlorine. Combination h\ Nolume. Molecular weights. Carbon and its .com- pounds with oxxgen. Common organic substances, e.g. sugar, starch. Compounds of nitrogen. Sulphur and its compounds. Phosphorus and some of its compounds. The chemistry of carbonate of lime and quicklime; common salt; sodium ; caustic soda and sodium carbonate ; sulphurous acid, sulphuric acid, hydrogen sulphide, sulphur and sulphates ; magnesium, magnesia and magnesium sulphate; bone-ash, and phosphoric acid ; clay, silica and alumina. The fundamental chemical laws. Use of chemical formulas and equations. Simple chemical calculations. PHYSICAL.— Geography. Simple methods for determining the shape and size of the earth ; changes of time and place of sunrise and sunset. Meridian altitude of sun at different times. Movements of the earth; proofs and eftects of its rotation and revolu- tion. Determination of latitude and longitude by simnle methods. Con- ditions governing climate. Trade winds, land and sea bree/es, monsoons, cyclones, anti -cyclones. Buys Ballot's Law of ike Wittds. The principal ocean currents. 252 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 Rivers, river-valleys, history of a river-valley. Springs and wells. Description and mode of formation of the principal land forms. Rocks of the crust. Sedimentary. Igneous. Metamorphic ; their description, formation and relation to soils. Geological succession of the stratified rocks of Victoria. Disturbance of strata. Weathering. The physical structure of Victoria and the continents. Study of the locality. Field excursions. POLITICAL AND COMMERCIAL. A knowledge of the important political divisions of the world ; their economic products and their area relative to Victoria. Chief trade and cable routes from Australia. Australian imports and exports with their places of origin and con- sumption. Mapping ; Australasian States ; Australia. Farm Practice. The farm will be worked and cultivated in such a way as to illustrate the practical application of the principles laid down in each section of the syllabus. The farm will be also used bv the Department of Agricul- ture as a centre of experimental work. Every effort will be made to have the interest of the progressive farmers of the district focussed upon the work of the farm. English. Grammar. Accidence. Analysis. Composition. Correspondence. Essays, reports, abstracts. Bookkeeping. Double entry. Farm accounts. Farm records. Re- cords of farm experiments. Literature. Study of prose and poetry as for Junior Commercial Examination. Directed reading of bulletins and magazine articles relating to agri- culture. Mathematics, arithmetic. — Invoices. Fractions, decimal and vulgar; percentages; insurances; profit and loss ; interest ; stocks ; averages ; square root ; approximations. mensuration . — Plane rectilineal figures, circle, solid figures; excavations; earthworks; haystacks ; silos ; water flumes. measurements. — Timber, logs and planks ; measurements by chain and compass of straight lines ; angles ; areas. Solution of triangles. Plane-table surveying. algebra. — Elements of algebra. Factors^ fractions, simple equations, quadratic equations, problems. Drau'ing. first year. Model drawing and drawing from objects and from nature, on black- boards and on paper. Practical geometry, plain and solid, and its ap- plication in drawing to scale, simple plans, elevations and sections. 8 April, 1907] Take-all and its Control. 253 SECOND YEAR. More advanced model drawing and explanatory sketching. Elementary mechanical drawing and elementary building construction, to be connected with the practical wood-work and metal-work executed in the school work-shops. Sloyd and Farm-handiwork. During the first year, students will work through a slightly modified course of Sloyd wood-work as practised in State schools, and, when they have gained sufficient knowledge of and dexterity in the use of tools, will proceed to more difficult exercises including the joints and a study of the methods used in constructing farm-buildings and the construction of .such m.odels and articles as may be included in the general term " farm-handi- work." TAKE-ALL AXD ITS CONTROL. G. //. Robinson. Assistant to Vegetable Pathologist. A dry summer followed by a wet winter seems to aiford the most favorable conditions for the development of take- all and whiteheads in our wheat crops, diseases which have been shown to be due to the attacks of a fungus known as Ofhiobolus graminis Sacc. Take-all is the result of a virulent attack of the fungus, arising from infection at a very early stage in the life of the wheat plant and it is scarcely possible to mistake the disease for any other. If ]>atches, not being clay pans, are seen on which nearly all the plants are dead, a number of stools both large and small should be lifted and the earth carefully washed away from the roots. If in a considerable proportion of the plants thus washed the buttsfor an inch or so appear quite black and low down on the inside of the outer sheaths small black bodies about the size of pinheads are seen, then it is practically certain that the take-all fungus is the destructive agent, par- ticularly if the roots have a tendency to break off close to the butt when the plants are pulled. The blackened appearance of the butt, it may be noted, is much more easily seen when quite wet. A milder attack of the fungus, producing the disease known as whiteheads, is not so readilv recognised since it is often confused with tip-burn, a condition in which the upper portion of the head turns white and fails to produce grain while the lower jDortion of the ear yields normal grain. In whiteheads however the whole of the ear is white and of much the same colour as the rest of the plant and what little grain is produced is poor and shrivelled. Tip- burn thus is the death of a portion, rarely the whole., of the ear, the other parts of the plant remaining alive, and is due to a scorching wind during the flowering period, while in whiteheads the whole plant dies as the result of the attack of a fungus on the roots and base of the stem. Though much has been done in working out the life-historv of the take- all fungus, still our knowledge is incomplete, and as a consequence the measures recommended for its suppression might perhaps be improved upon as the result of sustained investigation and experiment under ordinary farm conditions. Laboratory work is an essential to success, particularly in the early stages of an investigation, but sound practical measures for 254 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 the control of diseases are what our farmers and fruit-growers require and these can only be devised as the result of comprehensive field experiments. At present we know that the take-all fungus produces little black flask- shaped bodies,' called perithecia, on the sheath of the wheat, containing an immense number of spores, and these spores are capable of germinating at once if sufiicient moisture and air be present. As was shown by experi- ment three years ago if diseased stubble be placed in a pot and healthy wheat sown with it, the young seedlings are seen to- be diseased almost as soon as they appear abo've ground, and in as short a time as two months from date of sowing the plants may be all dead and their blackened butts covered with the perithecia of the fungus. Thus if wheat be sown on land bad with take-all the previous year we may expect the resulting crop to be diseased, in all probability much worse than in the first case, since the conditions favoring germination of the seed also favour, germination of the spores. As this result invariablv occurs in farming practice it is clear that the disease known as take-all arises from the spores of this fungus remaining in the ground from the previous year. Some consideration will be given tO' the methods generallv adopted for combating the disease and an effort made to show the reasoning on which they are based. Summed up the measures may be described as starving the fungus, which is achieved as follows: — (i) Avoiding wheat after w-heat. (2) Burning badly-affected stubble. (3) Early fallowing with thorough working after rain. (4) Replacing wheat with some crop, such as oats, not liable to the disease. The Value of Early well- worked Fallow. Of late years the practice of taking off only one wheat crop every three vears has become fairly general in the Northern districts, the stubble being allowed to stand after harvest, such feed as. may spring up serv- ing as pasture. In the second winter or spring succeeding the wheat crop, the land is fallowed and in the following autumn wheat is again sown. This year take-all has been worse than in any year since 1903 when, the first wet season after the drought was ex- perienced. Bearing in mind the frequent practice of one wheat crop in three vears we find that many of the paddocks in which take-all was so bad this year were seriously affected in 1903. Taking such a paddock to illustrate our argument the conclusion is obvious that the fungus has bv some means survived in that land for three years, for we are certain it is not carried by the seed. What we have to find out is, Ho'W has it survived ? We have a few facts to guide us in seeking an answer to this question but must depend largely on conjecture. We may dismiss at once the possibility that any of the spores produced on the wheat stubble of 1903 have survived till the autumn of 1906 and then infected the newVy-sown wheat-, for the remains of that crop, stubble, fungus, and all, must long since have been merged into the general substance of the soil. Of course during the year the paddock was in grass there must have been a number of self-sown wheat plants many of which would be diseased. These would give us, on their dead remains, spores in the autumn of 1905, capable of attacking wheat but there is no likelihood that there were anv Ihnng w^ieat plants in the paddock during 1905 for these spores to attack, so that unless the fungus was able to grow on some plants other than wheat it would be starved out, hence we should expect a year in grass 8 April, 1907] Take-all and its Control. 255 and a year in fallow to banish the disease. This, however, as all farmers know is not often the case but an explanation is afforded bv the fact that two, at least, of our most common grasses, both practically worthless or at best not so valuable as others capable of growing under similar conditions, are known to be attacked by this fungus. They are the spear grass {Bromus sterilis) and barley grass {Hordciim muriniim) while a third, sometimes called silver grass {Festuca bromoides), is strongly suspected of being affected also. The two former unfortunately are rarely if ever absent from our wheat paddocks, and it would be safe to say there is no district in Victoria where they are not abundant. These two grasses known to be attacked form a considerable proportion of the herbage spring- ing up in stubble paddocks, while the silver grass is far and away the most common on such land. Doubtless spear grass and barley grass serve to carry over the disease, in cases such as that cited, to the autumn of 1906, furnishing spores ready to attack the newly-sown wheat. But, some may argue, the bare fallow in 1905 would have destroved all the gra.ss long before the wheat was sown. Certainly after a year as pasture an early fallow before any of the grasses had time to mature their seed or the fungus to produce its spores, a fallow well worked through the sum- mer, would go a verv long wav towards starving out the fun- gus, but owing to various causes much fallowing is done too late to be of any service in this direction and still more, perhaps, is ne\er touched at all till just before seeding. A late fallow permits the fungus to mature its spores on the grass and these spores would form the souice of infection for the crop sown in 1906. Hence the importance of early fallow to check take-all and the uselessness of a late one. Working the land after rain through the spring and summer is almost as important as earliness in fallowing. Even in an early fallow there is the probability that a few autumn-grown grass plants would have a small proportion of spores formed on them and the only wav to destroy these spores is to set up conditions similar to those existing in a good seed bed. By working the land after rain air is admitted and moisture conserved, furnishing conditions favorable to the germination of these spores and since there is nothing for them to grow upon they soon perish. On the other hand if the ground remains unworked it quickly becomes dry and hard so that it would be impossible to conceive conditions more favorable for the preser\ation of these spores uninjured and in a fit condition for attacking newlv-sown wheat in the autumn. Burning Stubble. Burning stubble is not such a common practice as it once wa,Sj the growing recognition of the value of the straw being responsible for the change. Badly affected paddocks are best burned off, but this operation must be carried out vvith some understanding of the object in view, the destruction of the spores of the fungus. In the first place the usual method of burning off is quite useless, since the take-all patches being almost bare of anything in the wav of dry straw a proper burn is never obtained over the parts where it is wanted but only where the disease has not appeared. The harrows should be run over the stubble to draw straw to the bad patches and the burn off accomplished as early as possible m the season. Replacing Wheat vi-'ith a Crop not liable to the Disease. Oats are frequently grown after a badlv-affected wheat crop often wit'i considerable success in starvintr out the fungus but occasionally the results 256 Journal of Agriculture. [8 April, 1907 are unsatisfactory. We know that the fungus cannot grow upon oats and its reappearance after oats in some cases has led to doubts being cast upon this method of controlling the disease. These varying results no doubt arise from the different conditions under which the crop may be sown and the cleanness of the seed. In the first place the seed of spear grass is present to a greater or less extent in practically all samples of oats. Hence as a rule a proportion of spear grass is sown with the oat crop and as there is already some in the soil of nearly every paddock we are not pursuing a wise course in sowing oats after wheat and then wheat again without an intervening fallow. By all means use oats where practicable but be careful to sow clean seed free from spear gra.ss and preferably after an early fallow and not directly after wheat. Sometimes however it becomes necessary to follow wheat with oats in which case wheat should not again be sown without an early fallow in between. In very badly infected paddocks it is well to replace wheat with oats for once in the ordinary three-year rotation of grass, fallow, crop, the succeeding treatment depending largelv on the nature of the season and the financial requirements of the farmer. Take-all on New Land. One point alone remains to be discussed and that is why land never in wheat before sometimes gives a crop badly affected bv take-all. There can be only one explanation and that is that the grasses which it carried before must have borne the disease. The necessity for early fallow is again shown and thorough working to prevent the growth of weeds which may carry over the fungus, and to cause the germination and destruction of the spores. Conclusions. From what has been alrea.dy said regarding the prevalence of the disease on spear grass and barley grass which are practicallv always pre- sent in our crops and on our headlands there would appear to be no use in allowing affected paddocks to remain in grass for one year in three so far as destroying take-all is concerned. It would be a much mo^re rational course to burn off the stubble thoroughlv and fallow early, work the land well and then put in oats to be followed by another fallow and then wheat. The second fallow might be omitted if the season promised well and the autumn rains had been sufficient tO' insure a, good germination of the self-sown oats and various weeds. Of cour.se where rape or any other green crop can be grown with anv degree of success it might be used in place of oats since it would answer as well or better. The only reason for suggesting oats is that on a large section of our wheat lands the growth of any crop but a cereal has been regarded as next to impossible, and this one at least is not susceptible to attack by take-all. To sum up as far as our present knowledge goes take-all can onlv be controlled by starving out the fungus which causes it, and this is best done bv fallowing early and working the land thoroughly after rain and for a time i;eplacing wheat with some crop not subject to attack. For each and all of these measures there are sound reasons as we have seen, and the degree of success achieved will depend largely on the care bestowed on the work. Note. — Bulletin No. 9 on " Take-all and Whiteheads in Wheat," with illustrations, can be had gratis on application to the Secretary for Agri- culture. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. The Staff of the Department has been organized to a large extent for the purpose of giving information to farmers. Questions in every branch of agriculture are gladly answered. Write a short letter, giving as full particulars as possible, of your local conditions, and state precisely what it is that you want to know. All inquiries must be accompanied by the name and address of the writer. Feedixg Rye to Cows in Calf. — F.J.D. asks whether feeding green rye is injurious to ■ cows in calf. Answer. — If the rye crop is unaffected with ergot no injurious effect is likely to result. Green rye is seldom so affected, but the ears frequently become ergotised when the ripening stage is approached. In such cases there is danger of abortion being brought about by the action of the ergot if consumed in large quantities. Japanese Millet. — F.C.G. asks (1) whether Japanese millet is likely to grow in height .after the seed stems have formed ; and (2) whether it is likely to be afifected by early frosts. Answer. — (1) Not much after seed heads are fully out. (2) Will not grow in cold weather, and a severe frost will blacken it. Oil Engine for Ploughing. — Incognito writes : — "I am thinking of ploughing with an oil engine instead of horses. My idea is to mount a, say, 4 h.p. oil engine on a strong four-wheeled frame, and either haul the ploughs behind or arrange them underneath. I am a mechanic, and have lathe, &c., so could gear down to suit the slow speed necessary. Would the vibration over rough ground suit the slow speed, affect the working of the engine, governor, &c.? I am referring to one driven by kerosene." A7iswer. — The horse-power stated, 4-brake, is too small to pull more than, say, two furrows, and allows no margin of strength for emergencies. In any case, the ordinary oil engine is not ■designed to work satisfactorily under such conditions. Buffalo Grass. — J. A. P. forwards for identification a specimen of grass growing in his ■orchard, and asks whether it is suitable for transplanting on to poor lands as fodder for dairy cows. Answer. — The plant sent is Stenoiaphrum Americanum Schrank, (the Buffalo Grass), a good grass for lawns subjected to hard wear, and for consolidating loose sand. Its bitter taste makes it not generally liked by stock, but cows will eat it when other pasturage is not available, and hence it is worthy of trial on poor ground like that mentioned. It would be best used with such other pasture plants as Cynodnn dactylon (one of the Couch grasses), Setaria viridis, Medkago lupidina, M. scuiellata (Snail Clover), Trifolium glomeratum (clustered clover), and T. subterraneum, all of which can be grown from seed, grow well on poor soil, and, taken together, will yield pasturage all the year round, while steadily improving the soil. Grubbing Gorse, Etc.— D. McC. writes :— " Will you let me know the proper time to grub gorse, briars, and wattles ? " Answer.— The grubbing out of all three plants may be done at any time of the year which may be convenient, and if all pieces are removed from the upper foot of soil there is little or no fear of the plants striking out again. Naturally, it is advisable not to allow the plants to seed before grubbing, but otherwise the best time is early in spring or in winter, after rain, while the ground is moist and soft, but not wet. Strongly-growing grasses on pasture land, or root crops on cultivated land, will give the weeds little chance of establishing themselves again from the seeds in the soil, but if the ground is at all neglected the season or two after grubbing the labour and money expended will have been wasted for the greater part. Infested ground should be kept well coveted with other vegetation, or especially well tilled and cropped before it is handled like ordinary clean ground. To be able to do this effectively, the ground needs to be manured with stable manure, since burning the .grubbed out plants, which is necessary to get rid of them, tends to leave the soil poor in humus. Castor Oil Plant.— H. E. W. asks whether the castor oil plant would thrive on sandy, bracken land at Frankston. Answer.— The castoY oil plant would thrive, and should do well on sandy soil near Frankston if not too much exposed to sea breezes. It grows well in dry localities if warm and not too much exposed to wind. There are several forms of this plant, some recognised as distinct species. The smaller annual form yields the best oil, the larger shrubby perennial form yields a less valuable oil. The latter would be a troublesome plant to get rid of when once established. A full account of the plant, its cultivation, treatment, the mode of extraction of the oil and other products, with profit and loss Ijalances, is given in the Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, a copy of which can be seen ;it the Herbarium Library. It should only be planted where pasture animals cannot reach it, and <;are should be taken to avoid its spreading to pasture land. Fodder Plant.— S.C.B. forwards for identification a specimen of grass growing at Emerald, and states that it is in good growth for the greater part of the year. It is much relished by stock of all kinds. . u u • Answer.— The grass sent is a form of Setaria viridis (variety imherhis), which has the hairs among the flowers less developed than the type form. Though an aimual, on good ground and when cropped or grazed it becomes more or less perennial. It is especially valuable for covering bare, -sandy, or calcareous soil. Seeds freely and maintains itself readily. A good pasture grass for dry localities, but gives the best results when mixed with other grasses, since the yield_ of feed is then more equable all the year round. The presence of clovers, trefoils, or a little melilotus aids m the improvement of the pasture and of the ground. The plant is an introduced one now naturalized m jnany parts. Seeds should be procurable from the leading seedsmen ; many farmers could collect it. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS-r^;///>?/.tv/. Manure for Cabbagiis, Etc. — A. D.W. inquires re suita1)le manure for cabbages and' cauliflowers. Answer. — See article on "Artificial Fertilizers and their Use in Market Gardens," by Mr. F. E. Lee, in the Journal for December, 1!)06. Fruxt Store. — J.W. asks which is the most suitable kind of storehouse for fruit. Answer. — Your letter shows that you are iiaformed of the comparative cost of various materials which may be employed, and that you recognise the value of a neat and durable chamber. A brick or stone building, composed of double walls, with wide and well-ventilated air-spaces between, is undoubtedly the best ; but as you may find either of these too expensive, a combination of wood, clay, and bark, or Egyptian brick, with a deep straw or grass thatch would serve your purpose. It is inadvisable to make an actual cellar or cave in the side of a hill, as such chambers are invariably too damp, badly ventilated, and therefore difficult to keep clean and sweet. The main points to be kept in view are a house which will secure a low and even tempeiature ; pure air by means of a high- pitched roof and ventilators in the walls and doors ; plenty of light should be obtainable in all parts, and shutters provided to keep the chamber dark when necessary. The interior iittings should l)e of non-absorbent material, and so arranged that plenty of space exists for storing fruit in cases. The^ house should stand on a platform or liave a well-raised floor and well-formed guttering outside in order to secure perfect drainage and cleanly surroundings. Pickling Wheat. - S.J. A. writes : - " What quantity of formalin should be added to 4 gallons of water to pickle two bags of wheat, dry pickling ? Would it injure seed to pickle a month before sowing, bagging immediately after pickling ? " Answer. — Formalin is used for pickling wheat at the rate of 1 lb. of Schering's formalin in 40 gallons of water, so that the quantity to add to 4 gallons of water would be one-tenth of a 1-lb. bottle. It is not advisable to pickle the seed a month l)efore sowing. Mr. McAlpine, Vegetal)le Pathologist, recommends that it be treated, if possible, the one day and sown the next. Seed-wheat which was treated with bluestone for sowing last season was sent to Mr. McAlpine, who found the percentage of germination so poor that it had to be discarded. The method of pickling, as carried out by Mr. McAlpine, is to soak the wheat in the formalin solution in bran bags about 5 to 7 minutes, then drain for some time over the tubs and shoot into dry and clean cornsacks. flGRlGUIiTUHM CLASSES, 1907. Arrangements have been made for opening Classes at the undermentioned centres on the dates specified. The Course at each centre will last a fortnight, two lectures and demonstra- tions being given each afternoon, and four limelight lectures during the Course. Yarram April 8 Stawell ... July 1 Terang- »> 15 Kaniva .. „ 9 Camperdown ... >» 22 Bendigo ... „ 15 Penshurst >> 30 Kyabram ... „ 22 Redesdale May 7 Sea Lake ... „ 31 Beechworth ... >> 13 Tungamah ... August 5 Euroa )> 20 Moorabbin ., 12 Colac >> 27 Seymour „ 10 Mildura June 10 Swan Hill ... Sept. 10 St. Arnaud ... > > 18 Maldon ... „ 16 Ararat >> 24 Kyneton ... „ 23 Classes have already been held at Ballarat, Ingle wood ^ Korumburra, Traralgon, and Warragul. For full partii ulars re sutjcots, see page 45, January Journal. Vol. V. FRUIT FLIES. Part 5. (Registered at the General Post Office, Melbourne, for transniission by Vost as a Newspaper ] The great factors in increasing the fertility of Victorian lands are— LIVE STOCK. CULTIVATION. PHOSPHORIC ACID. The following table indicates an advance in farming methods- LIVE STOCK IN VICTORIA. Horses Dairy Cattle Other Cattle Sheep Pigs 1905 372,379 632,493 1,053,483 10,167,691 286,070 1906 385,513 649,100 1,088,590 11,455,115 273,682 1907 406,840 701,309 1,103,014 12,937,440 220,452 Every farmer should aim at improving the quality of his Horses and Cattle, and doubling the number of his Sheep and Pigs. This can only be done by better feeding, which means more cultivation. Now is the time to decide about Fallowing. PRICE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subscription— Victoria, Inter-State, and N.L, 3/-; British and Foreign, 5/-.) THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 8 M^Y, lOOT'. CONTENTS 257 273 Lameness in Horses ... ... ... ... S. S. Cameron Stock Inspection Methods in New Zealand ... W. J. Colebatch The Proclaimed Plants of Victoria — The Furze A. J. Ewart and J. R. Tovey Artificial Manures Acts — Supplementary List of Unit Values, 1907 ... W.P. Wilkinson List showing Results of Analyses of Samples collected in the State ... ... .. ,. W.P. Wilkinson Old and New Milking Sheds ... ... ... .. E. O. Morris Cheddar Cheese in Great Britain ... ... ... J. G. McMillan Garden Notes — The Salvia ... .. ... ... J. Cronin Maize Cultivation ... ... ... ... ... /. Clifford Dairying under Difficulties ... ... ... J. S. McFadzean Cabbages as Fodder for the Dairy Herd ... ... ..P.J. Carroll Fruit Flies ... .. ... .. ... ... C.French Reconstitution in the Gironde ... ... ... M. d'A. Bumey The Orchard ... ... ... ... .. ... J. Lang Statistics — Rainfall in Victoria ... ... ... ... ... P. Baracchi Exports of Perishable and Frozen Products ... .. i?. Croive ■ • Imports and Exports of Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, Grain, &c. J. G. Turner Publications issued by the Department ... ... ... imide front Answers to Correspondents ... ... ... ... inside hack cover Practical Instruction in Butter and Cheese Making, Session 1907 ... hack cover Agricultural Clas,ses, 1907 ... ... ... ... ... hack cover 276 277 279 281 282 288 291 292 297 301 313 318 319 320 320 cover REGISTERED UNDER THE COPYRIGHT ACT 1890. SECTION 21. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wisliing to republisli any niatter contained in the Journal are at liberty to do so, provided the iLsual acknowledgment is made. The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payal^le in advance and incki les postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy Threepence. A limited number of the issues comprising Volumes 11. (1903-4), III. (1905) — 10 parts each — and Volume IV. (1906) — 12 parts — is at present in stock, and will be supplied at the foregoing rates. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. Applications to be accompanied by Postal Note covering Price and Postage. Destructive Insects of Victoria, Parts I., II., III. By C. French. 2s. 6d. each. Postage — Parts I. and II., 4d. each ; Part III., 5d. Fungus Di.seases of Citrus Trees in Australia. By D. McAlpine. 2s. Postage, 3d. Fungus Diseases of Stone Fruit Trees in Australia. By D. McAlpine. 165 pp., 10 coloured plates. 2s. 6d. Postage, 4d. Rusts of Australia. By D. McAlpine. 10s. Postage, 8d. Australian Fungi By Dr. Cooke. £1 Is. Postage, 8d. Year Book of /Agriculture for 1905. Cloth, 3.s. 6d. ; paper, 2s. 6d. Postage— Cloth, 9d ; paper, 8d. Milk Charts (Monthly and Weekly). 6d, per dozen. (See article in Journal, 8 May, I'.KVJ.) THe JOURNAL OF T'Re department of Mgricutture. Vol. V. Part 5. 8th May, 1907. LAMENESS IN HORSES. ^\ .S'. Cameron, HI .R.C.V .S., CJ/ief Yctcrinary Officer. {Continued from page 220.) ELBOW LAMENESS. LIBRARY fciW YORK • TaNICaL Elbow Lameness is not very common in horses. It may arise from rheumatic or otl^ier disease of the joint ; from sprain of tiie ligaments sup- porting and binding the joint or of the muscles attached in its vicinity — which latter usually occurs as a result of accidental slipping ; or from frac- ture of the head of the small bone of the forearm {ulna) which constitutes the "point of the elbow " and which is the seat of that common and un- sightly blemish known as "capped elbow." Symptoms. — From whatever cause arising elbow lameness is character- ized by the fo'l lowing symptoms: — {a) The horse stands with his knee raised and bent ; the toe rests on the ground, the limb being apparently useless. {b) When the animal is moved he makes a sudden drop on the sound limb and appears as though he would fall at every step ; there is a jerking kind of motion in the joint and the limb is greatly bent at the knee when the weight is thrown upon it. {c) When it is " the point of the elbow " that is injured the horse is able to stand quite well, but is lame when mO'ved. {d) There is generally heat, pain, and swelling in the region of the joint. Treatment.- — The principles of treatment laid down for shoulder lame- ness should also be followed in regard to elbow Lameness. |s^ Capped Elbow seldom causes lameness. Although an unsoundness CD it is the result of an injury and will be more fittingly dealt with under ^that heading. I 4535. I 10 Journal of Agriailture. [8 May, 1907. Dissection of Fore Limb of Horse. tc'\ rl' Fio. 2. — Muscles of the fore limb — external view; a, antea-spinatus ; b, pos- tea-spinatus ; c, teres externus ; d, caput magnum; e, caput medium; /, flexor brachil ; g, extensor metacarpi magnus ; h, extensor metacarpi obliquus ; f, flexor metacarpi externus; /fe, extensor pedis; /c', its tendon ; h' , fibrous band from the suspensory ligament ; /, extensor suflraginis; l, its tendon. (After Strangways.) Fig. 3. — Internal view of the deep muscles of the fore limb; a, caput par- vum of triceps extensor brachii ; b, Aexor pedis perforatus; b' , its tendon; b" b'" , slips to the pastern bones; c c, flexor pedis perforans and its tendon; c' , radi- alis accessorius; c", ulnaris accessorius ; c'", inferior check ligament; d, per- forans tendon leaving the sheath formed by perforatus tendon. (After Strang- ways.) 8 May, 1907.] Lameness in Horses. 259 KNEE LAMENESS. Sprain of the Superior Check Ligament. Just above anfl beliind the knee there is a short broad band of fibrous tissue, springing from the tendon of one of the large flexor muscles of the foot {f-exor pedis perforatus) and running downwards tO' be attached strongly to the lower and back part of the bone of the fore arm {radius). I: is intended apparently to prevent the muscle from being subjected to overstrain — hence the name of " check " ligament. The strain put upon this ligament by the immense muscular power exerted by draught horses when pulling heavy loads up hill is sometimes such as to cause it to be sprained ; in which case pronounced Lameness results. It is but seldom that this form of lameness develops in light horses, and when it does it is usually of rheumatic origin. Symptoms.- — The lameness is most often accompanied by obvious pain, heat and swelling. The animal stands with the knee slightly flexed and toe resting on the ground ; he has great difficulty in flexing the knee joint, and when this is done forcibly the acuteness of the pain is made apparent. When moving, the animal " goes on the toe " ; he avoids putting weight on the heel or allowing it to touch the ground as that would put the muscle and check ligament on the stretch and cause pain. Treatment. — Strict rest should be enjoined ; and in the first instance when the symptoms are most pronounced the treatment should be directed to the subjugation of the inflammation by hot fomentations applied in the manner described at page 77. A high-heeled shoe should be put on to re- lieve the strain on the injured ligament, and cooling medicine should be given in the food. Later on cold applications should be used — frequent hosing or allowing cold water to gently trickle on to the part from a hose bandaged in position. When the acuteness of the symptoms has subsided a blister and lengthened rest should be prescribed. Complete recovery from the lameness may be confidently expected, but the horse should not again be used for purposes involving strenuous pulling ; otherwise the lameness is very likely to recur. Thoroughpin of the Knee. This consists in a puffy enlargement on each side of the limb just above the knee, caused by a distension with synovia of the sheath through which the flexor tendons pass. The distension mav be pressed from side to side ; pressure on the outside enlarges the inside distension and vice versa. The condition is often associated with, and mav result from, sprain of the superior check ligament, and if it is accompanied by lameness the same symptoms are exhibited and the same treatment mav be applied. It is, however, usually a chronic condition without actual lameness ; and the only treatment that is of any avail in regard to reduction of the swellinc;- is a lengthened spell at grass and repeated blisterings with red mercury blister. If the horse is kept at work, tight bandaging at night over the enlarge- ments tends to reduce them somewhat. "Aspiration " (i.e., sucking out the fluid with a syringe), as also " puncturing " are sometimes practised when the contained fluid has not become coagulated or flaky. Such operations can only be successfully performed bv the skilled veterinary surgeon, who will see that they are carried out aseptically and that the necessary subse- quent treatment is appropriate and properly conditioned. I 2 26o Journal of Agriculture. [8 May, 1907. Speedy-Cut. This is an injury, sometimes involving great lameness, inflicted on the inner aspect of the knee. Speedy-cutting is allied to " brushing," and occurs in " in-knee'd '" and " lady-toe'd '" horses with free action, the part being struck by the inside or shoe of the opposite foot. The bone is fre- quently injured and an abscess may form. A thickening of the skin and subjacent tissues often remains permanently. This thickening increases the liability of the part to be struck by the other foot, and a speedy -cutting horse may become practically useless. He is very often lame, and be- comes unsafe for either riding or driving. To PREVENT the injury a leather bout may be worn on the knee, and care should be taken that the shoe does not protrude beyond the horn level of the wall on the inside. Treatment should aim at reduction of the inflammation in the first place, to be followed by red mercury blisters. In case of abscess forma- tion an incision should be made at the lowest part so as tO' allow of drain- age of the cavity. An injection of glycerine (8 parts) and tincture of iodine (i part) may then be used and the parts bandaged moderately tight. Spavin of the Knee. This consists in a bonv formation and enlargement between the head of the inner splint bone and the lower bones of the knee. Its occurrence is often due to the same causes as produce splints, and the lameness which it causes greatly resembles splint lameness and may be treated in the same way. Capped Knee. This is a condition in which there is a chronic enlargement in front of the knee. It may be brought about bv the puncture of a thorn or like foreign body, but is most commonh associated with that condition known as "rail rap" resulting from the ''hitting" of fences or other form of violence. On this account and also because it seldom causes lameness it will be more properly dealt with later on under the heading of injuries. Broken Knees. This condition of the knee has also greater claims to be considered under another heading — that of wounds. SPRAIN OF THE "BACK TENDONS." This term is applied to three different conditions which for reasons of a practical character it is as well to keep separate. They are: — I. Sprain of the Inferior Check Ligament. II. Sprain of the Tendons of the Flexor Muscles (-flexor pedis ■perforans and flexor pedis, perforatus). III. Sprain of the Superior Suspensory or Sesamoidean Liga- ment. All these structures are situated behind the cannon bone between the knee and the fetlock, and during severe exertion they are subjected to a con- siderable amount of strain which when over-applied results in a sprain, causing lameness. There are similarly arranged structures in the hind limb, but they are not so liable to^ sprain as those in the fore limb because the weight of the rider on the back, which largely determines sprain in the fore parts, has little or no incidence on the hind limbs. While the 8 May, 1907.] Lameness in Horses. 261 lamenesses produced have many characters in common, it is nevertheless desirable for the sake of accuracy in diagnosis that their causes and symptoms should be treated separately. The treatment required for each is practically the same and will be f:;iven after the following descriptions. Sprain of the Inferior Check Ligament. This ligament is situated at the upper end of the posterior aspect of the cannon bone, lying in the depression between the two splint bones. It is strongly inserted to the lower row of knee bones, from which it passes down and becomes attached, at aboiit the middle of the cannon bone, to the tendon of the principal muscle flexing the foot {fiexor fedis -perforans). It has a function analogous to that of the superior check ligament, in that it checks over-strain of the tendon tO' which it is attached. Sprain of this ligament is most commonly met with in cart horses, although it also occurs in other horses as a result of some sudden jerk or strain, as when getting up in the stable or when galloping O'ver " crab-holev " country. lC\tt-ii^i>i' pedis I'ei-fiirat'.is ten '.on. ■,''n;:ir\ Ii;^aiiu-iit,. ■'.livs from suiierior li-an.rut. Fig. 4. — Dia^^r.un of bones, lemlons, and lij,'aments of near fore leg. (After Hayes.) Symptoms. — Local pain, heat and swelling are usually quickly de- \eloped and if the swelling is at all pronounced it mechanically interferes with the bending of the knee, the action of which is consequently "stiff." The sprain most often occurs at the junction of the ligament with the tendon, i.e., a little above half-way between the knee and the fetlock, and the enlargement is therefore moTe pronounced at this spot. When standing the knee and fetlock are slightly bent, the pastern is upright and the heel a little raised. This posture is assumed in order to lessen the tension on the sprained ligament. When moved there is an obvious want of free flexion of the knee accompanied by a stumbling gait with a tendency to stab the toe into the ground and to bend over at the fetlock. 26: Journal of Agriculture . [8 May, 1907. Spraiq of the Flexor Tendons, Sprain of the perforatus tendon occurs in horses " tied in " below the knee and is often spoken of as spraip of the sheath of the tendon. Such a description is only admissible if the perforatus tendon is regarded in the light of a sheath through which the perforans passes. The perforans tendon is the strong, round, corded tendon which ru,ns down posteriorly immediately underneath the skin, and it is this tendon which is most commonly sprained ; especially in horses with long, oblique pasterns, in which by increase of leverage the strain on the tendon is correspondingly greater than in a straight pasterned horse. The seat of the sprain is usually slightly above the fetlock as the tendon passes over the sesamoid groove at the back of the fetlock. A sprain in this situation, when " cal- loused," produces the familiar "bowed tendons" of the race-horse, the steeple-chaser and the hunter. In these animals it is caused bv the sudden strain put upon the tendons when they are extended in the gallop, carrying heavy weights, or when landing over fences. In the latter case at the (Alter Hayes.) Fig. 6. — Sound back tendons. (After Hayes.) ' Bowed tendons.' Alter Hayes.) moment of contact of the fore feet with the ground the whole weight of both horse and rider is momentarily thrown on the structures at the back of the fetlock. Symptoms. — The physical symptoms — heat and swelling — will be obvious in a short time after the sprain is sustained. The attitude when standing and the action during movement closely resemble those presented in the lameness last described — sprain of the inferior check ligament. (See Figs. 5 and 7.) Sprain of the Suspensory Ligament. This ligament (more definitely described as the " superior suspensory " or "superior sesarnoidean " ligament) is a strong band of fibrous tissue lying in the groove between the two splint bones in contact with the pos- terior surface of the cannon bone and extending from the knee to the fet- lock. It is attached above to the lower row of knee bones and below it bifurcates and becomes attached to the two small bones at the back of the fetlock joint — the sesamoid bones. These branches are continued as 8 May, 1907.I Lameness ni Horses. 263 fibrous slips which wind round to the front of the pastern bone and unite with the tendon of the extensor pedis muscle forming what is known as the broad ligament, which expands over the front of the short pastern bone subjacent to the junction of the hoof with the skin. The suspensory ligament acts as a pliable stay to keep the pastern bones and fetlock joint in position and to prevent the latter from being borne down to the ground Pei-fnrans tendon. —. Clicrk ligament. _. I'evforatus tendon. .^ Suspensory ligament. • _« Insertion of perfonitus tendon. .^ _^ _^ __ Perforans tendon. — -- f 'iiiiiion bone. — — - Evtensor tendmi ■ < Inter liranrli of susjiensory ligament. Fig. 8. — Side view of bone.s, tendons, and ligaments of olf fore leg. (After Hayes.) when undue weight is thrown upon the limb. It is that portion of the ligament between the knee and fetlock which is usually sprained — most often one of the forked branches just above the fetlock joint ; and it is in the gallop, particularly towards the end of a tiring race, that the sprain occurs. This is because during the gallop the leadinfr fore leg has, at one part of each stride, to bear the full weight of the body ; and the strain 264 Journal of Agriculture. [8 May, 1907. on the suspensory ligament at such moments is tremendous ; especially, if, when the horse is fatigued, the muscles are too tired tO' assist in supporting the Aveight or relieving the tension on the ligament. Symptoms. — On the occurrence of a slight sprain there may be no lameness evidenced in the walk and the horse may stand level and bear weight on the limb; but in the trot, lameness will be at once apparent and the more severe the sprain the greater will be the lameness. Its principal characteristic is that the toe is always brought first to the ground and the fetlock is never allowed to go back to its natural position. When at rest the pastern is more upright than its fellow and the fetlock is held Icoselv Fig. 10. — Deep sesamoidean lignments; a, inter-sesamoidean ligament ; b, crucial or .Y liga- ment. Fig. (). — Sesamuideau and digital ligaments — posterior aspect ; a, superior suspensory liga- ment; b b b, external and middle inferior sesa- moidean ligaments. The central bundle is the 1', the two lateral ones forming the V ligament ; f, annular sesamoidean ligament ; d d, posterior ligaments of the pastern joint; e e, lateral; and /', inferior, navicular ligaments. Reversion to ori forward so that no strain is placed upon it at the back. If the ligament is actuallv ruptured, which however seldom occurs, the fetlock pad may descend almost to the ground. There will always be some local heat and swelling and pain on pressure of the sprained part, and the amount of these will be proportionate to the severity of the sprain. In old standing cases the ligament becomes thickened and corded to an extent plainlv evi- dent to touch and sight. Treatmerit. — In the treatment of the conditions just described, as in fact of all sprains, complete rest is essential ; in the first stages at all 8 May, 1907.] Lameness in Horses. 265 events. Sloppv food should be given with an occasional dose of laxative medicine if the bowels become costive. Sluggishness of the bowels in such cases is best relieved bv the giving of three or four ounce doses of Epsom salts mixed with the food once or twice a day as long as necessarv. Purgatives of the aloes type are apt to be erratic and dangerous in Aus- tralia. If the pain is great, hot fomentations as advLsed for shoulder sprain should be applied; if not painful, cold hosing as previously described is to be recommended, on account of its cooling and tonic effect. Between fomenting or hosing, whichever is resorted to, continuous pressure by means of bandages should be applied. In order that the bandages may not chafe, and also that the pressure may be evenly distributed, a roll of cotton wool should be first apolied, and then a cotton or " stocking " bandage wound round somewhat loosely. On the top of this apply a second bandage pulled tight. Thr undr-rneath bandage will prevent the top bandaiie from fc 1' ift- 13- — ^-'iillon wadding' a])plied lightly to a fore le y^ y -) 5 3 0 0 1 « s E ~ -^ 1 *f _- : O" £ ., 1 ^ 1 ^ a -• "? - — 0 0 1 —-^ :: __, ^ fc4 , ^ Price asked for Manure per ton Delivered at Local Railway Station. £ s. d. 4 0 0 4 0 0 400 4 0 0 4 0 0 3 10 0 Estimated Total Value of Manure per ton. £ i. d. 4 to 9 4 16 4 4 10 8 3 10 3 3 15 2 3 7 3 0 H Estimated Value in One ton of the Manure. £ s. d. 4 10 9 4 16 4 4 10 8 3 10 3 3 15 2 3 7 3 Per- cent- age. 20 . 73 21.95 20.44 18.37 19.47 17.67 CID. oluble. Estimated Value in One ton of the Manure. £ s. d. 0 0 6 0 0 8 0 0 3 0 9 7 0 8 2 0 10 2 )RIC A Ins Per- cent- age. 0.49 0.63 0.28 3.1c 2.72 3.40 Phosphc Citrate Soluble. Estimated Value in One ton of the Manure. £ s. d. 0 6 9 0 1 8 0 1 9 3 0 8 3 7 0 2 17 1 Per- cent- age. 1.68 0.42 0.45 15.18 16.75 14.27 fe 0 Estimated Value in One ton of the Manure. 4 3 6 4 14 0 4 8 8 ■^cc Per- cent- age. 18.56 20 . !) ,1 19.71 Mois- ture. Per- cent- age. 11 .90 11.31 14.01 1 3 .2 2 ^ 1 1 1 1 ? ? ■ i" s 1 ■ ' i" 1 ^ .f K K H H X Journal of Agriculture. [8 May, 1907. «} D CO 1 .a John Adams, Doreen Boyle, Williams, and Henderson, Echuca J. K, Sporn, Nhill Price asked for Manure per ton Delivered at the Local Railway Station. £ s. d. 4 0 0 5 5 0 6 0 0 Estimated Value in one ton of the Manure. £ s. d. 4 0 4 5 1 2 4 17 8 0 g 3 a; 0 0 0 w S EM 0 n CL, Per- cent- age in Coarse Bone. 9.98 12.44 6.68 Per- cent- age in Fine Bone. 4.57 7.01 10.92 0 Per- cent- age in Coarse Bone. 2.21 2.29 1.23 h4 Per- cent- age in Fine Bone. 1.01 1.28 2.03 0 Per- cent- age 01 Coarse Bone. 68.60 04.00 38.00 Per- cent- age of Fine Bono. 31.40 36.00 62.00 s . gs CL, Estimated Value in One ton of the Manure. »• Qt lO CO 1 Crf NCO CO Per- cent- age. 14.55 19.45 17.60 Z' O 0 Estimated Value in One ton of the Manure. £ s. d. 1 12 1 1 15 10 1 14 0 Per- cent- age. 3.22 3.57 3.26 Mois- ture. Per- cent- age. -5 3 S a c _'S. a CoNTAi.NiNG Phosphoric Acid AND NITROGEN. Phosphoric Aci'l DiiJicuUl'i Soluble. Bonedust No. 1 Bonedu.st, " fichucn Bone " Bonedust &J0 ;^ (13 0 _c w 0 '^ to 1— ( w 'Z, 1— I ^ TS >^ cS 0 S3 M Ui W P-( .it t> ^ 3 o < 0 CTj c: 0 i— ^ 0 :_ CS 0 hJ o 8 May, 1907.] Analyses uf Samples of Manure. 279 < H . H CO OH wo 8g o ^' I— I I— I t_l f^ q (N (M rKNG^M G<»(NM C^ (N ! rM (>) ^ ^ ^ ,-r w •puno^ i iM 94/M 7 1 •: 1 71 :] T 171 •>! (M eg 1^] eg i-H •p89;^u'ei^ino iftiOvriiCiriinoooooooOrH I I— (OXtO^I>-00>I>Ol'M05 7-lfMTf< OS «o ■r^tX' 'puno J v^-cccoi-tcc:Dcoc^ico-*-t«(Mcoirtt- 00 x CO(M i t^-*»n«5l>C^ ^f-i0'-l000000'^000« •paa^uBi^ng 050500iC5a^05C5C10C10iCiC100 •puno^ •OSCOCOi— lr-(COiC-+tOCOi— lOCil^OSO 00 r* 00 OS OS 3S GS OS 01 01 CS OS OS OS t^ CO o ■p99;umBno •puno^ •9jn:^sioiii[ OOi— <(M.no5i>'^ost^i-Hm'«^>:ocOt-< i-h lO »o qOO OS CO CO QC i-«CD l> CO Tf ^ O b- i> -^ ^ Eh 0 0 • 0 , . - - ^ t* ^ , - • 13 p ■■3; ►1 « ~ A M 6 .^ ^ 0 ^*^ ' - ^ , -— ^ ^ p p V ufacturer to s tc c CT-. g ~ 0 ■S: c 6^ s g s . >- ■— .T3 ~ . . >— . .--!;; ;-l OS 0 ss g !^ 3 <: 0 0 0) Oi ■o- ^ ■^3 t4 C3 5 § 2 -5 cu- cS 0 ^ ; 0 S — ^ rt in 5 =- 0 • - ■■% - . : :^ 0 ts^ 0 ■;. ss. ^ ■= ap aj 1- ■Ji .2< i! 3 2 ' ifi; 'n fl d ' ' ' p. ^c" - 5^ ts 3 0 a ' c WfR ^ !« '^ ao H H iOWeOcOOSO>0"^<^ 0500"00r~ f»5 ^ i^ N m •OK lUpa'O OOO'-i'-'OOiOOCO-^^O'-'^DCS C5 0» cnoi 00X000000X00X00 V5 00 05 00 X 00 '^ 00 00 0000 ■ON pqui o-i-»ot^05^«5i^noo -f-H -f -f 7^1 71 CO coininrMMMcc^DWcoy^:© in "^ a; » J ournal of Agricidtitre . [8 May, 190^ "C! 1 -«■= 1 ^ -(^ a J 9 n H ! •ps3iUB.n;i\ 0 :H1§PAV ;8J^ 1 1^ •punoj wSpM i^X ;= T-i ■^ ^ s 13 0 ai •paa^uBJBriQ ^ g S 0 0 0 p 0 0 1 0 Q 0 •punoj d H ^ 63 0 •p89^UBIBl'19 ^ ? i£ < H D 0 S ■pimo^q; 0 5?° < 00 ^ 0 0 ^ 3 •p88:>u'BiBno S59 iJ 0 ^• 1 "^ | ^ ij ^ < ^ S5 h^ -11 £ i ''' p^ ;-) 3 0 :3 1 '^ VI c 1 c H '^ 1 ^ J c ' P D ct "3 m ^ 1 ■*^ B w P^ 1 '~^' C!^ !Z 1— 1 ^ 1 -t^ 0 ^ v; a: S •e e c 1 (K 1— 1 ^ 3. 0 1 ^ BO 1 ^ I CO •0^ imowc 1 ^' J _'^ ._ •Oil laq'BI o P5 w ' Jh 0 -l-> s 0 « > '^ -< <4H ;-( 0 Vi >^ -p cvl C <1 OJ 4J 0 o; bn H C fl ■j3 y > <1 0 fl cS tA < 0 -1^ 05 0 OJ CTl ^ Hi 0 -U 0) b t^ c aj > 0 0 8 -May, 1907.] Old a)id Xezv MilkiH" Sheds. OLD AND XEW :\[ILKINCI SHEDS. E. G. Morris, Dairy Supervisor. The accompanying illustrations represent the old and new milking sheds on the farm of Mr. B. W. Pung, Ballan, and show that the bare require- DIRTY AND DILAPIDATED. ments of the Milk and Dairy Supervision Act concerning milking sheds on small dairy farms may be effected at almost a nominal cost. Little need be said regarding the old building; a glance at the photo- graph will suffice to show the state of things that existed generally. Not -SIMPLE AND SANITARY. onl\ is the state of the shed in evidence, but that of the yard also, which is low-lying and without even a natural drainage. But in and about the new building a different state of things exists. There is seen a neat, Journal of Agriculture. [8 May, 1907. comfortable shed, sheltering the milkers from the rough weather, and with a well drained, impervious floor — a shed that meets all the requirements of the dairy farmer in a small way, for milking purposes. The cost of this shed was ^^9 10s. without labour, and there is scarcely need tO' employ outside labour to erect a simple building of this kind. The size is 26 ft. x 11 ft. The woodwork is all sawn timber, with the exception of the main bail posts, and these are of split timber 8 in. x 4 in. X 7 ft. long. The stall partitions are comprised of two lengths of 4 in. X i| in., the heel posts of 3 in. x 3 in., the bail " sticks " 3 in. x 2 in., and the " runners" along the top and bottom of the bails of 4 in. x li in. "(all hardwood). The Avails are of 6 in. x \ in. weatherboards nailed to studs 3 in. X 2 in. There are 4 stalls 5 ft. 6 in. wide, thus taking up 22 ft. of the 26 ft., and leaving a space of 4 ft., which is partitioned off from the stalls, and in which are placed the milk cans, the spring balance for weighing the milk, the milk records sheet and the necessary appliances for washing the hands after each cow is milked. The floor, which is of concrete, has a fall of i in. from the bail to the drain, and is raised about 9 in. above the level of the yard. Over a foundation of large stones and rubble, "blinded" with sand, is placed a layer of concrete (i in 6) 3 in. thick, and over that a 2 in. layer (i in 3). There is a drain just behind the heel posts, which empties itself into a larger drain well awav from the shed and vard. CHEDDAR CHEESE IX CIREAT BRITAIN. Present Methods of Manufacture. /. G. McMillan, N.D.D., Cheese Expert. On arrival in England one of the first places visited was the British Dairy Institute at Reading, managed bv Mr. Miles Benson, a leading dairy authority in England. At this institution the evening's milk is cooled down to 65 degrees Fahr. In the morning a quantity of pure culture starter is added, after the morning's milk is in. When the correct amount of acidity is developed and the temperature of the milk from 82 to 85 degrees Fahr. (depending on the season of the year, the atmospheric condition of the day, &c.), sufiicient rennet is added tO' bring about a firm coagulation in 45 to 60 minutes. Usually about 4 ounces are required to each 100 gallons milk. When the curd is sufficiently firm it is cut fine with the American knives. Heating is begun about 40 minutes from the time cutting commences, taking about 45 minutes to raise the temperature to 97-102 degrees Fahr. (depending on the season of the year and quality of milk). The curd is allowed to be shotty and hard before being permitted to " pitch," when after fifteen minutes a rack is put over the curd and weighted with a 56-lb. weight for every 100 gallons milk. Thus the curd remains until it is consolidated or begins to mat. It is then cut up the 8 May, 1907.] Cheddar Cheese in Great Britain. 283 centre with a long knife, rolled to the upper end of the vat and the racks and weights placed on as before. When the curd shows about g to :^ inch threads on a hot iron the whe}- is drawn off, weights rernoved, and the curd cut into small blocks and spread over the bottom of the \at, where it is reweighted and allowed to lie ten minutes. It is then placed on the curd sink and weighted again, opened and turned every twenty minutes. When the curd is firm and tough it is cut into 2 -inch cubes, tied intO' a bundle like a plum pudding and weighted ; opened out and separated every half-hour until ready to grind when it shows i|-2 inch threads on the iron. It is claimed that this method of manufacture crives a more open and meaty cheese than that obtained by the Canadian system. A close mvestigation of the industry reveals the fact that the methods of manu- facturing Cheddar cheese are asi numerous as are the localities in which it is made. The various methods differ so much that it seems quite im- possible that practically identical results can be obtained by such divergent means. Yet in all cases the result is Cheddar cheese. There is however this difference between the cheeses made on the various systems : Some will ripen more quickly than others made on another system, while a third system may produce a. cheese taking still longer to ripen. Thus a rapidly ripening cheese will be ready for the market three months after it is made, others will take six months to ripen, while formerly it was the custom to keep a Cheddar cheese twelve months before it was considered ripe. Hence the extreme methods have become known as rapid and slow-ripening systems. In flavour there is not much variety due to the differences in the systems of make. The texture of a Cheddar cheese should be abso- lutely uniform and solid. Some methods tend to produce this result far more than others. Some systems tend to produce a bad cheese, others a soft and mellow product which is considered of importance as regards quality. The Candy, the Cannon, the Joseph Harding, and the Canadian systems, or modifications of them, are the principal methods practised throughout Britain. The Candy System. The evening's milk is not allowed to become cold before coming into the dairy. It is then placed in deep vessels so that it will not fall below 68 degrees Fahr. by morning. If the milk has been properly kept and ripened overnight it is not considered advisable to further carry on this ripening where the two milkings are mixed together. The desired tem- perature for renneting is obtained by heating the morning's milk only and then mixing with that of the evening. The rennet is added at 84 degrees Fahr. — about one teaspoonful to 8 gallons of milk. The rennet is stirred in for about six minutes, the who'le being allowed to rest and covered over to maintain the temperature. To facilitate testing whether the milk is sufficiently set or not a bowl is left floating upon the top of the milk, and when the curd is firm enough it will come away quite clean when the bowl is slightly raised on one side. If it does not the curd must be left until sufficiently firm, which should take about 45 minutes from the time of adding rennet. The top of the curd is now turned over by the use of the skimmer, the surface being cut to a depth of about 2 inches. The vat is covered over with a cloth and allowed to remain until the whey rises. This should not take more than about fifteen minutes. The break- ing of the curd is done either with the American knives or by the old- fashioned breaker. The makers on this system like the curd when breaking 284 Journal of Agriculture. [8 May, 1907. is completed to be in a very fine condition, angular and not rounded but in sharp-edged fragments. When this system is adopted round vats are mostly used, the whey being heated in boilers for the purpose of scalding. The curd is heated up to a temperature of about 160 degrees Fahr. It is then allowed to settle in the bottom of the vat until the whey is ready to draw, when it should be firmly matted together. When the whey is drawn the matted curd lying in the bottom of the vat is cut into foot siquares, turned over and left for five minutes. Each square of curd is now cut into \\\o pieces and taken to the cooler. If the acidity is low these slices are placed close together to keep in the heat, but if the acidity is develop- ing rapidly they are not packed so closely. The curd is turned upon the cooler after 20 minutes, again after 30 minutes and once again before cutting. It is then cut into pieces about 3 inches square, packed closely and covered with a cloth. It is opened up_and turned at the end of 30 minutes and again in 40 minutes when it should be readv for grinding. The curd is then milled and left for about two to two and a half hours when it is salted. The curd is vatted at 70 degrees Fahr. The Cannon System. In this a starter is used in the form of sour whey and rennet is added at a temperature of 84 degrees. Scalding is done in a similar manner but not to such a high temperature as in the Candy system. When the whev is drawn the curd is cut into blocks, about 6 to 8 inches square and piled in the bottom of the vat. It is covered' over with a cloth and left to drain for about ten minutes when the amount of acidity present should be about 3 jjer cent. Half of the curd is then taken to the cooler, broken with the hands into small pieces and tied up tightlv in a cloth ; should an excess of acid be present the curd is not tied up immediatelv but allowed to lie about fifteen minutes before doing so. The remaining half is treated in a similar manner and the two bundles are then placed one on top of the other, well covered and subjected to pressure. It is left for half-an-hour, then taken out and cut with the knife into oblong pieces, mixed together, and again tied up in cloth; taken out again after half- an-hour, cut into small pieces and again subjected to pressure. This operation is carried on until the curd is ready to grind. It should then be drv and solid when cut through, leathery and flakv when torn asunder, of good taste and smell and sufficiently acid, showing about 8 per cent, acid in the whev. It has been mentioned that round vats are used but it does not follow that they are essential, in fact the rectangular vat is used in factories where the Cannon system is practised. The Joseph Harding System. This is one of the oldest methods ; home-made rennet is used prin- cipally and the milk is set at 80 degrees Fahr. An hour is allowed for coagulation, the curd when firm enough is broken on the top and allowed to settle for some time to allow the whey to rise, which is drawn off for the heating process. The curd is then broken into small pieces with shovel breakers. When completely broken as much of the heated whey as suffices to raise the mass to 80 degrees Fahr. is mixed in, bringing the mixture to the same temperature at which the rennet was added. Nothing more is clone for an hour. A few buckets of whev are then remo\-ed, heated and l)oured into the mass. During the pouring in of the whey, the stirring 8 May, 1907.] Cheddar Cheese in Great Britain. 285 is activelv continued in order to mix the whole regularly and not to allow any portion of the curd to be overheated. The temperature is raised to 100 degrees Fahr. and stirring continued until the curd is firm; left half- an-hour to subside and when settled at the bottom the whey is drawn off. The curd is then heaped in one end of the vat and left with no other pressure than its own weight. After this interval it is cut across in large slices, turned over and lef't in a heap for half-an-hour, the whey coming away freelv. The curd should then be fit for pressure and its tempera- ture should be about 60 degrees Fahr. ; if not cool enough it is broken l)v hand and placed on a cooler as long as necessary. It is then placed in hoops and subjected to moderate pressure for half-an-hour ; then taken from hoops, put through the curd mill and i lb. of salt added to every t6 lbs. curd. This system is not verv often seen in use. the makers having graduallv died out or adopted more of the Canadian stvle. The Canadian Process. This is now well known in Victoria and has been full\ described in the Journal of Agriculture, so that it is quite unnecessary to give details. It is worthy of notice, however, that the process was first introduced into Scotland by Mr. R. J. Drummond, a Canadian who is now head of the Dairy School for Scotland. This method has now gradually gained ground, until it is generally recognised as head and shoulders above all other systems. The reason may be that as Canadian cheese is gradually taking the lead on the British market the British chee.semaker recognises that he must produce the best if he is to have sale for his produce at all. Many who were strong opponents of the method when first introduced are now among its leading exponents. Last year at the London Dairy Show the cheese made on this principle swept the prize list. There are of course some makers who do not carry out all the details as suggested by the introducer, but most do sO' at the principal stages. The cry was raised by certain merchants that Scotch cheese was deteriorating owing to the changes of system. The success of makers on the Canadian system at London and other leading shows tends to disprove the statement. Pro- tessor Drummond repudiates the statement and is of the opinion that the cry w^as raised to keep down the prices of cheese. It mav be said that Professor Drummond would be prejudiced in favour of cheese made on the method practised by himself. Mr. James McAdam of Craigley, Castle Douglas, was asked his opinion on the matter. He expressed himself as follows: — " I reckon that years back there would be found superior out- standing lots, but the cheese made under the new method is far more uniform in quality. I also consider that the starter, when used judiciously, is a boon and a blessing to- cheesemakers. I am further of opinion that the recent outcry about the deterioration was quite uncalled for." The use (or abuse) of the starter made from pure cultures was blamed, and it was decided to conduct experiments as to the safest quantity of starter to use. A scheme was drawn up. and the experiments were con- ducted in Wigtownshire, Kirkcudbrightshire, and Ayrshire, as well as at the Kilmarnock Dairy School. Ex-periment A. — Cheese to be made with the aid of a ripening agent prepared by the development of a pure culture in milk pasteurised at a tem- perature of 165 degrees Fahr. one-half per cent, starter to be used. Starter in every case to be procured from the Kilmarnock Dairy School. •86 Jour>ial of Agriculture. [8 May, 1907. Experiment B. — Identical with former except that onlv one-quart?r per cent, of starter was to be used. Experiment C. — The ripening agent to be a pure culture in whey whicia had been heated tO' a temperature of 165 degrees Fahr., one-half per cent, of this starter to be used. Experiment D. — Identical with C, except that the quantity of starter to be used was one-quarter per cent. Experiment E. — The cheese was to be made in the way ordinarily followed in the dairy, but the curd was to be drained in the vat. Experiment F. — Identical with E, but the curd to be drained on the racks. In addition to these experiments control cheese was to be made after the manner regularly followed. The object was to discover not only under what conditions and with what starter the best results were obtained, but also whether cheese was better quality when the curd was dried in the vat or on the rack. To find out how the cheese suited the trade they were tested from time to time by Messrs. A. Clement, sen., and Osborne, both large cheese factors in Glasgow, and their judgment of each was recorded at each visit. Mr. Clement considered that some of the cheeses made with starters at the beginning of the experimental period were better than those made at the end, one going back in taste and quality, the other going forward. On the whole the experiments are not considered very con- clusive. One thing however was made clear, namely, that all the lots of cheese were considerably better when the curd was dried on the rack than when dried in the vat. The scores were as follow: — Wifiton . Kir •nflbr J4llt. k\\: Kil marnock. How JIade. May, June, .July. May, .J uue July. May, June July. May, June July. A. 4% P.C. in milk ... qcl 90, qo 9'4 96, 94 82, 8^, 9' gs, 94, 92 B. r/o .. q«, 91, 92I 91, 92, 881 88A 83, 90 96, gs, 97 C. hX P.C. ill ^vhey ... 9S, 90, 92* 9', 92, 90 881 8^, 90 96, 94, 88 i). i% ,, „ ... 93, 8S, 92J, 924 90, 88 «9, 89, 82I 97, 87, 96 E. Curd (h-ained in vat QO 91 93 F. Curd drained on rack (JonUol CAecsv. 9>i 92 ... 95 G. First date 91, 81, 88 Q2, 93, 9' 79, 72, 90 97* 94, 95i H. )Second date 92, 8+, 85 93, 89, 92i 81, 87, 88 98.^ 93, 9>4 From the abo\e table it appears as if one man produced the best result when using the starter made from sour whey, while another did best when using starter made from pure culture in milk. It seems as if it depends more on how the curd was handled than on the source of the starter used, whether from sour whey or milk, provided the maker knows how to manipulate the curd. Some makers prefer the use of the milk starter because thev can distinguish more readily when it is in a fit con- dition by the thickness of coagulum, whereas in whey there is no coagula- tion and therefore the degree of acidity is not so readily arrived at. If the dairyman obtains a pure whey in which to cultivate the starter there is no reason why good results should not be obtained. No hard-and-fast rule, however, can be laid down regarding the amount of starter to use. 8 May, 1907.] Cheddar CJiecse in Great Britain. 287 It must be varied from time to time. While one-half mio-ht do at one season of the year, one-fourth or even one-eighth per cent, will be suffi- cient at another. The personal enuation is the most important factor in cheesemaking. Cleaai milk manipulated bv an expert maker will give first-class results whatever the source of the starter employed, provided onlv the starter is pure. ?\Ianv of the best makers add a few drops of starter in the evening, the amount varying according to atmospheric conditions. Bv thus doing a slower ripening occurs; this it is alleged gives a finer cheese than when a large quantitv of starter is added at a time and the ripening of the milk unnecessarilv hastened. One particularly great advantage is that the intro- duction of a few drops of starter in the evening aids in the development of lactic bacteria, and thus the multiplication of obnoxious kinds is re- tarded. A great benefit claimed is that gassy cheese is seldom known. It is unnecessarv to state that the greatest care must be exercised in prac- tising such m.ethods. Just to give an idea of how little is added, I may mention that Ish. McAdam who had 230 gallons of milk per day put in I J drachms in the evening (the milk being cooled to 76 degrees Fahr.) and 6 ozs. in the morning two hours before rennet was added. There is no doubt that an excessive amount of starter is dangerous, and in our warm climate it must be used in moderation. It is evident that the more starter added the quicker the ripening, and the earlier deterioration occurs, and vice versa, even though the aciditv at renneting be the same as when little starter is added. In other words, the quicker the ripening of the milk before renneting, the sooner the cheese will ripen and vice versa. One good maker informed me that he did not use the pure culture starter, his method being to keep back as much milk as he thought suffi- cient a.s soon as the milk Avas readv toi rennet. By next morning this would be thick. I tasted this starter and it was good. This of course is right enough when the milk is good. Evidentlv the maker in question finds it so, as he has gained manv prizes at the leading shows throughout Grear Britain. Still it will probablv be the safest wav tO' stick to the pure culture starter. In addition to the experiments just mentioned, some were made to ascertain the best quantitv of rennet to use. Several cheeses were made at the Kilmarnock Dairy School. (A) 2 J ozs. rennet added to each loo gallons of milk. {B) 5 ozs. rennet added to each jog gallons of milk. (C) 7 ozs. rennet added to each 100 gallons of milk. The judges who had tested these cheeses along with^the former experi- mental lots gave an a.vera.Q-e of 95 points to the cheese getting the small amount of rennet. After an interval of a few months, however, the cheese that received 5 ozs. per 100 gallons received the highest marks. It is generally thought that 4 ozs. is about right. {To be coiitiiuicd .) Journal of Agriculture. [8 May, 1907. GARDEN NOTES. /. Croiiiii, Inspector I'dictat/on Diseases Acts. The Salvia. Salvia is a large and widely distributed genus of plants, including annual and biennial, perennial herbaceous, and evergreen species. The salvia has been found nati\e in \arious parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and SALVIA AZUREA. Pale blue. SALVIA, GLOIRE DE STUDGARDT. Bright scarlet. America, some of the most ornamental species being natives of South and Central America. A numlier of the herbaceous species have been culti- vated in Victoria, many of which were insignificant as ornamental plants, while others, as S. azurea and patens, are, on account of the beautiful shades of colour of their flowers, most worth v subjects. The most popular salvia cultivated here is " Bonfire," a garden variety specially valuable for its display of bright scarlet flowers during the summer and autumn months. " Gloire de Studgardt " closelv resembles " Bonfire,"' being somewlvat heavier in type of flower and habit of groAvth. Either 8 May, 1907.] Garden Notes. 289 kind is valuable for decoTation of .mixed groups or for lifdding purposes. The flowers do nnt last long on the bushes, l:)ut the ealvx. which is about half an inch in length, is also bright scarlet, and Lasts for a considerable time. There are several other shrubby kinds that are worthv of a place in the garden, being free blooming plants, and nf easy culture. The common sage, 6'. officinalis, is a member' of this genus, and is not more hardv than se\eral varieties grown for their flowers. Culture — Propagation — Varieties. ^lost of the salvias will grow into nice bushes from 3 to 5 feet in height, and flower well in any fair garden soil. " Bonfire " mav be seen growing in the public gaaxlens and nurseries in anv j)art of the metro- politan district, thriving splendidly in the most widely dift'erent soils. If llie plants are given a fair amount of water during the summer, and are .sheltered from devastating winds, thev will grow practically anywhere. S. patens requires a cooler soil and more shaded position to attain per- fection than other kinds. It is one of the mO'St beautiful of the genus, pro- ducing spikes of bright blue flowers. This variety is tuberous-rooting and is propagated bv divisions of the tuberous roots in spring, or from cuttings of the young shoots in a hot hO'Use or hot bed frame. It iiroduces seed freelv and young plants raised in spring in pots or lioxes of soil placed in a cold frame will bloom during autumn. 6*. azurea produces flowers of a pale blue colour, and will thrive under ordinary border treatment in almost anv kind of soil. The habit of growth is loose and straggling, the plants requiring to be staked and trained as growth advances. Propagation is effected bv di\isions of the crowns in. spring, the plants producing sucker-like growths like a chrysanthemum. In' many gardens salvias " Bonfire"' and " Gloire de Studgardt " are treated as annuals, young plants being raised each season from seeds. The plants seed freely during summer, and this method is undoubtedly the easiest. Seed should be sown for early planting in heated frames, for later in cold frames. The plants are cut down bv frost in winter unless protected. In the various metropolitan plant nurseries, thousands of young plants are propagated each spring from cuttings taken from plants that have been grown in glass houses during the winter months. The plants are watered sparingly during winter, and are placed in heat and started intO' growth early in spring. Cuttings of the voung growths about 1 inches long are inserted in sandy .soil and root readily, after which they are potted and kept growing, and gradualK' hardened preparatory to being planted out in October and November. Such plants will bloom early m summer, successive plantings till early in January ensuring an abundance of bright flowers until winter. In places where frost is not severe the old plants will survive and break into growth near the base in spring. They mav be pruned back to the young growths, and will make large plants during the summer, Ijut on the whole, young plants each season, whether from seeds or cuttings, are more satisfactory. Other shrubby kinds worthy of culture are: — Bethelli, bright rosy pink flowers, tipped with whiter Bruanti, scarlet; Hoveyi, dark purplish blue; Grahami purpurea, purplish crimson ; Rutilans, majenta ; and splendens, scarlet. These are evergreen shrubs that may l)e ])ro]iagated from cuttings inserted in sandy soil iu autumn. 45.30. K 290 Journal of Agriculture. [8 May, 1907. Flower Garden. r reparation of ground for winter planting and material for enriching the soil according to the needs of plants groiwn are important at present. Most of the summer and autumn blooming plants will continue to flower jnore or less this month, and little can be done but maintain neatness until the time arrives to prune, store, or transplant the different classes. In preparing new beds one of the most important considerations is, that the whole area is well under-drained. It is of even more importance than the character of the soil, for no matter what plant food a soil may contain, it remains inert and useless unless an effective system of drainage exists. Well drained soil when cultivated is always warm and moist — conditions positively necessary for the perfect development of plant growth. Organic matter in the soil is decomposed and made available for plant food by the action of air, with its elements ox^ gen and carbonic acid gas, which is constantly in attendance on water moving through the soil. The proper depth to set the drainage material varies according to the depth of the c]a\ or other sub-strata. In heavv retentive soils with a strong clay i lOttom, shallow drains set a few feet apart are best ; in deep light soils the pipes or other drainage material will need tO' be placed in the clay no matter how deep it may be, to be thoroughly effective. Where possible a compost heap or pit should le made, in which leaves, stems, and general garden rubbish may be partly decayed before being dug into the soil. Stable manure should be mixed through the compost and the whole mass occasionally turned over and watered if dry. Lime should not be added or any ammonia that may be present will be dissipated. Mr. B. V. Rossi, nurseryman, Coburg, is one of the most successful ex- hibitors of rcKses in Victoria, and it may interest readers of the Journal to know how his rose beds are prepared. Initially the soil is thoroiighh drained bv means of agricultural pipes set at a depth of about 2% feet below the surface. Then the ground is trenched to a depth of alx>ut 2 feet, the bottom broken, and a layer of stable manure of about 3 inches in depth placed over the bottom of the trench. About 6 or 8 inches of soil are pla''ed over the layer of manure, and another layer of manure follows, then soil again, and again manure, the top spit from the next trench being placed as the surface of the prepared bed, which is raised several inches oyer the former level by the working and addition of manure. The last laver of manure is placed at a depth of about a foot below the surface of the bed. Mr. Rossi describes his operation as 3, or 4 sandwiches, as the case may be. A Large amount of manure is used, probably at a rate ex- ceeding 200 tons to the acre. When thoroughly settled by rains, the beds are planted, August being chosen as the most suitable time to plant. The soil is heavy black volcanic loam., and the plants receive no artificial watering. Seeds of sweet peas may be sown now. The most suitable soil is a fairlv heavy, well drained loam, although quantities of splendid blooms are produced on sandy soils near Melbourne. Stable manure is the most suit- able fertilising agent, a little bone-dust, or superphosphate, also being of great benefit. Plenty of space should be allotted each plant, the most common mistake being sowing the seeds too thicklv. Plants of hardy annuals raised earlier in the year may be transplanted to their flowering quarters. A fair amount of room should be allowed for each plant, a greater number of and far finer, blooms being produced bv a few plants well grown than by a quantity over-crowded and half-starved. Bulbs of \arious summer-l>looming species may be planted. 8 May, 1907.] Maize Cultivation. -91 Vegetable Garden. Ground should be prepared as it becomes vacant, for future cropping. A dressing of lime to soil that has been cropped for some time is most beneficial. The staple of the soil may often be easily improved, sandy and light soils by the addition of clav or strong loam ; heavy soils by the addition of ashes, lime rubbish, coarse manure, weeds or any material calculated to make it more open and porous. Asparagus tops should be cut away as thev wither, and a dressing of short manure worked into the beds. A dressing of salt mav be applied later in winter or earlv in spring. Plantings mav be made from former sowings, and seeds sown for a succession of various saladings, &c. MAIZE CULTIVATION. Mr. J. Clifford, .Sarsfield, writes: — "About fifteen months ago, I re- ceived five small samples of maize gratis from the Department of Agri- culture. I grew the lot, and picked out the Eclipse varietv as being the best; this season I have grown about 10 acres from the seed saved. The photograph of the accompanying illustration was taken on 26th February, less than four months after sowing. The plants had then attained to a height of over 13 feet, and were cobbing w^ell. " This crop is the seventh consecutive one of maize on the same land, which was unmanured. The cultivator w^as run through the rows four times before the end of Deceml^er. The rainfall was as follows: — No- vember, 2.20; December, 1.86; January, 1.37; February. 0.53." 292 Journal of Agriculture. [8 May. ipo'; DAIRYING IJ^DER DIFFICULTIES. (From Report to the Chief Veterinary Officer on an Inspection of Dairies in the Fern Tree Gully Shire.) /. .S'. McFadzeaii, Dairy Supervisor. Acreage Farmed. That the Fern Tree Gullv Shire is limited in its present dairying ca;-a- bilities can be understood when it is noted that, out of an aggregate area of about 21,000 acres on which this is the principal branch of farming engaged in. only some 3.000 acres have been cleared for cultivation. About 1,500 acres of this are laid down in grass, 900 acres are used for the growing of hay and green feed, the balance (600 acres) being taken up by fruit trees and potato crops. Of the remaining 18,000 acres which form the larger portion of the farms held, practically the whole is as yet rough bush land. Necessity for Cultivation and Rotation. Considerable portion of this is from time to time subjected to a burning- off, which temjjorarilv clears the ground of brush and leaves, and encou- rages la fresh growth of native grass, having in its young green stage some nutritious quality. Some attempts have been made in a rough way to introduce English grasses tO' these areas bv sowing the seed on the burnt ground in the autumn ; l)ut, though the seed germinates f reelv under these conditions, the strong growth of scrub and ferns that springs up com- pletely smothers the young grass. The only effectual wa\ to establish pasture land here is bv first bringing it under the plough ; even then the paddocks need constant attention to keep down the scrub that inevitablv re- appears after the ground has rested a few .seasons, and which, if neglected, soon develops into a forest of saplings. This really means that to keep the pasture land at its 1 est it requires re-cultivating and re-sowing peri- odically ; and this is what the Department of Agriculture has always advocated as being most profitablv effected in connexion with the rotation system of cropping. Besides the farms which together form the abo\'e acreage there are several places cleared, and others partiv so, that are used for grazing pur- poses for sheep and voung cattle. These latter are usuallv the propertv of dairymen carrying on business nearer the metroDolis, and whose limited home accommodation necessitates their looking further afield for pasture for their growing stock. The Class of Soil. In a general wav the soil of the shire mav i)e classed as from fair to good. Of this latter class, the valleys lying between Fern Tree Gully township and Lysterfield are exceptional. The bulk of the hillv country that runs between Upper Fern Tree Gullv and Menzies Creek, and across the Sassafras to Olinda, is of a loose chocolate-coloured volcanic nature, and may also be classed as above the average. The more low-lving portion of the shire extending from Eavswater through Scoresbv towards Dandenong is generall\ more of .a gre\ -coloured, slightlv sandv, but hard setting soil, 8 May, 1907.] Dairying under Drfficiilties. 293 but from which fair returns are obtained in most instances. It is here, and in the valleys previouslv mentioned, that the principal dairy farms are situated. Fruit growing may perhaps be said to be the principal occupa- tion of the majority of the residents. Many of the orchardists, ho\ve\er. also milk a few cows, and, as a sequence, pig raising and fattening to a limited extent are also engaged in. The Dairy Cows. Most of the cattle are raised on the farms, and the separator is in almost universal use where there is work for it. Excepting for the use of this machine, which in many cases has but recently been purchased, the dairying methods and accommodation are \ery primitive. Practically no records of milk or butter production are kept, and comparatively few cows are met with that would suggest that much thought had been given 'to their breeding or selection. Still, as the majority of the bulls are pure bred, and as the general expressed intention is towards better stock, some noticeable improvement in the future ma\ lie anticipated. Some of the old estab- lished herds of the shire, however, show that general evenness and quality that are usually characteristic of a paying dairy farm. As in other neigh- bouring districts the principal cream suppliers' stock generally show more or less of the Jersey ; the notable exception being Mrs. Quinn, of Lyster- field, whose herd of 80 head is the largest amongst those who are using the separator regularlv. Together with the tw'o Largest milk suppliers, viz., the Salvation Army farm at Bayswater, and Messrs. Selman Bros., of Pern Tree Gully, whose herds also' average about 80 head, this owner is, judging from the cattle, more in favour of the A\rshire Ivreed. For number, evenness, and quality combined, Messrs. Selman Bros.' Willow Vale Ayrshire herd stands alone in the shire ; the farm itself viewed from the surrounding hills as it lies in a beautiful fertile valley is really a picture. Mr. Allan Selman of Blackwood Park also has a select herd of some 20 milking A\rshires in which he has developed udder capacity and size of teats well on towards perfection. Mr. Cecil Davies of Bayswater, who is a new- comer to this district, has brought with him some high-class Jersey stock that should prove of great value in assisting to raise the general grade of dairy cattle in the neighbourhood ; for, in addition to the distribution that \s\\\ be effected by the prospective sale of young stock, he has generously agreed to allow the service of his stud bulls to those about him at a reason- able fee. This owner is exceptional here as one who keeps individual records of the work of his cows. Amongst the smaller dairies those of Mrs. Nickless, and Messrs. Monk, Friberg, and Pigdon of Fern Tree Gullv, and Grant of Monbulk, show results which though not in themselves surprising are still well in ad\ance of those generally obtained by the farmers in the shire, being from 15 tO' 17 lbs. of cream weekly per cow' in January. Mrs. Nickless, wdth nine cow^s on 40 acres, 3 acres being cultivated for green stuff, and 27 in grass with a running creek frontage, has succeeded up to the stage of having bred an even lot of crossbreds bearing something of the old Alderne\ in appearance, and returning 150 lbs. of cream weekly. Mrs. Dobson of Baysw-ater and Mr. T. Dobson of Scoresby have also well-cared-for herds of some 20 head that give fair returns. There is a milkiniz machine in use at Mr. G. W. Chalmers' farm at Upper Fern Tree Gully. This owner states that he had difficulty with hired labour, but is now^ able to put through his 32 cow^s in 1 1 hours, and be satisfied that the milking is done properly. A double 294 Journal of Agriculture. [^ ^May, 1907, set of tubes is used. The udders being washed, the tubes are fixed to the first two cows, with the receiving can between them. The next two cows are then seen to. and, as soon as the flush of milk is drawn from the first two, the tubes are moved on to the second pair, and he strips the first cows out by hand ; and so on, using the machine to its full working capacitv. The cows take kindly to the innovation, and a leg-rope is seldom used. Want of Forethought and Forework. The water supply of the shire is its especial feature. The springs of the hills form creeks for the lower ground ; and there is a fairlv well distributed rainfall sufficient for all requirements. This abundance of water probablv is the principal reason for the farmers making almost no provision for conserving green feed ; the silo being a regrettable raritv. The last two summers, however, proving exceptionally dry, have found those least favorably situated totallv unprepared ; and a diminution of dairying returns has resulted. It is possible, therefore, that some good effect mav be brought about bv this, for the lesson thus severely taught may be the means of inculcating the principle of being prepared as far as possible for all seasonable variations, which can most easily be effected bv the use of the silo. Extent of Dairying. Altogether there are some 140 farms engaged more or less in dairying in the shire, Avith an approximate total of 1,300 milking cows, or aliout an average of nine cows per farm. Of this total the hilK countrv has about 400 head on 60 farms, or an average of less than seven per farm. This refers only to farms which sell dairv produce, for on nearlv everv place some stock is kept, if onlv to supply the household with milk and butter and raiise a vealer. Here, too, the stock is in most instances of a decided mongrel appearance. Where ancestry is at all discernable it is the usual Ayrshire or Jersey. The latter have decidedly the best of it both in their coat and udder capacity, and the owners affirm that their appearance is backed up by results. Limitations through dependence on Grazing. In this hilly country the extent of the dairying operations is strictly limited by the area which each farm has sown to grass and cultivated for green feed or ha v. The principal mistake which new settlers in the dis- trict are apt to make is in not taking this fully into account, they being thus apt to err through overstocking. Acreage of bush land with native grass has very small value here when gauged by butter retiu-ns, for, though a limited number of young dry stock will keep in fair condition on it, it will starve down a milker in remarkably short time. With clearing and cultivation, however, the fei-fility of the soil becomes apparent. Cocks- foot and clovers are the grasses most commonly sown ; and the red clover especiallv can be depended on to- make good growth and establish itself permanently. Marketing Produce. Potatoes and fruit growing are the other branches of farming mostly taken up by the settlers in this district; and, when the difficulties of marketing this class of produce are compared with that from dairy farming, the latter would appear to be the most suitable. The roads are 8 May, T907.] Da/rvii/g iiinicr Diificiiltics. 295 both steep and rough, and railway freights are high through the break of gauge on the Gembrook line necessitating re-handling at Fern Tree Gull)-. Both these items are of greatest moment when maxketing such bulky products as fruit and potatoes, and are of least import when moving such concentrated produce as cream and butter. These latter products have also everything in their fa\'our in their weekly returns and more settled market value. Necessity for Manure Conservation. Again the dairy farm, when properly attended to, is practically self- supporting in the item Oif manure, an item of considerable magnitude on other than first-class land ; whereas both fruit and potatoes, if not farmed in conjunction with dairying, call for some portion of their monetary returns to be expended in purchase and freight of artificial manures. Several instances are met with in this district, where the lack of attention to the conservation of the farm-yard manure is allowed to lessen the profits. This most valuable product is left lying in the stock-yard to be broken to dust and blown away, or washed down h\ each shower to the nearest water-course ; while the owner purchases artificial manure to, in some measure only, replace it. Where stock is kept the necessity for purchasing fertilisers should be reduced to a minimum. Winter 'Care of Cattle. Although the advantages of housing or rugging cattle in winter have been trumpeted throughout the length and breadth of the land, it is strange to find that here, where if anywhere, those advantages would be most marked, the matter has been altogether overlooked. The majority of the milking cows are perforce allowed to dry off in the cold months through want of attention in this respect, combined with the neglect to grow succulent fodder, which has l)een previously commented on. Dairy Sanitation. Where the milking stalls have been floored it has usually been with roughly-laid slabs, and the results have not been satisfactory, as the urine undersoaks and stagnates beneath them, giving rise to odorous emanations which cannot but affect the milk prejudicially. There are, however, good grounds for the hope that, as a result of personal conferences between the farmers and dairv supervisors, this defect will in great measure cease to exist. As showing that where there is. a will there is usually a way to be clean, mav be cited the case of a farmer in an out-of-the-way corner of the shire where flooring material, other than wood, is difficult to obtain. Though the flooring is of the usual wooden slab formation, provision had been made in this instance for carrying off the drainage by leaving the slabs at the rear of the stall movable, and placing an underneath flooring at that part of corrugated iron laid crosswise beneath it. After sweeping, the flushing of the slabs carried all dirt down this iron drainage way, and a little drv lime scattered on the floor assisted to keep the shed clean. The tarring of the corrugated iron on both sides considei-ably lengthens its term of usefulness. It would also be a considerable improvement to soak the wooden slabs with toiling tar before layijig them. But above all tO' secure imperviousness or pre\-ent under soaking of a wooden slab floor, the slabs require to be squared evenh , so that close joints may be secured. Then, if these joints are grouted with tar and sand, the job 296 Journal of Agriculture. [8 May, 1907. is almost as effective from a sanilarv point of view as a brick floor, cement grouted. Groundless Fears. As has been noted by super\-isors in other districts, there has been here also a certain amount of apprehension among farmers as to the possible requirements of the Department in the direction of construction and situation of dairy bnildings, and some most erroneous and even foolish reports had gained currencv. To some extent this had resulted in a certain amount of stagnation in the industrv, for owners, instead of [jroceeding with such improvements as the\ liad intended to make, had allowed matters to stand over till the supervisor called, in case — as thev said — that those improvements should not be " in accordance with the Act." If it were not for the loss of time which has resulted to manv people who thus worried themselves bv doing nothing, this matter might be treated lightly ; but to' find men, within daily postal communication of the Government Offices, suffering themselves to be deluded into Ix-lieving that the Department of Agriculture would deliberatelv put any one of them to unreasonable expense is hardlv concedvable. But such has been the case, with the result as stated, and those who failed to allow their dairying operations to make their normal advancement now find that thev are in several ways losers through their want of confidence or inactivity If these farmers, instead of listenijig to idle talk, had communicated direct with the Department, or had even carefully read the Journal of Agriculture, they would have soon been made aware that the intention of the Act was to obtain cleanliness and hygenic conditions i,n dairying with as little expense as possible, and sO' to assist the industry instead of hinder- ing it. In actual practice, it has been found that where a dairyman has kept his animals under reasonable cleanly conditions, by providing a reasonably dry and sanitary floor surface, and by arranging for the proper removal of manure and drainage from stalls and styes in order to pre- serve the atmosphere surrounding the dairv buildings in as pure a state as possible, and has also kept his separating and cooling rooms clean, anv suggestions that may further be offered for the more convenient handling or improvement of his produce are appreciated, and acted upon. On the other hand, where those very necessary conditions have been gi\en little or no attention, and the farmer has carried on his dairying amidst filthy, bad-smelling surroundings — as unfortunatelv manv do — then truly there are .some drastic and immediate alterations necessarv and demanded, and, as might be expected, it is by this cla.ss of dairyman that improve- ment is looked on in the light of iniustice. Even then, however, the required alterations are not always necessarily expensive, for there are few locations which do- not naturallv furnish gravel, stone, or timlier; any of these, with the addition of cement or lime and sand, can at a small outlay, be worked into an impervious flocfing, and the facilitv with which the cleaning up and general work can be executed under the im[)ro^■ed conditions more than repavs the cost of construction. Healthy Stock. Comparative! V little disease has been known in the stock of the shire for some vears past. Tuberculosis — externallv evident — has on recent inspections been found in only about i per cent, of the milking cows ; so the district may be said to be in a comparatively healthy condition in this direction. 8 May, 1907 Cabbai(cs for the Dairy Herd. 297 Commendable Features. There are two items deserving of special notice in connexion with the milk supply farms before mentioned. One is the systematic handling of the milking, cooling, and subsequent washing up of utensils as carried out by the Selm.an family on the Willow Vale farm. The work is so well apportioned among its several members that the milk is cooled and in the delivery waggon starting for the station, and the dair\- again clean and tidy, before the last of the rattle is out of sight of the milking shed. On the Salvation Army farm the extreme quietness of the cattle is a prominent feature. Here the herd i,s put through the milking process in a shed of 54 bails Avithout any of them being fastened up. The shed is fjlled, and the entrance door closed, and each cow stands free in her stall till all are milked, when, the large doors being again opened, thev all back quietly to the passage way and walk out. to be replaced by the rest of the herd. When it is mentioned that the milking is done bv some fifteen lads, from about ten tO' fourteen years of age, under the supervision of a. shed manager, who places no undue restraint over their naturallv bovish mirth so long as the work is done properlv, it speaks \olumes for the consistent treatment of the cattle to see them chewing the cud so con^ tentedlv while the lads scud about amongst them. CABBAGES AS FODDER FOR THE DAIRY HERD. p. J. Carroll, Dairy Expert. There is always a blank in the green food sujjpl}- of the farm between the time when the last of the spring growth is exhausted and the first of the summer crops is fit" to use. In otht^r words, between the time when FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD. the oats and green grass are finished and the maize or sorghum is fit to cut. To meet this annuallv recurring want no better method can l)e adopted than to plant a small area with some variety of cabljage. Journal of Agriculture. [8 May, 1907. Recently I paid a visit to Mr. D. Clarke's farm at Xoorat, and inspected a plot of " Drum Head " cabbages grown for fodder for the dairy herd. This crop provides a large amount of succulent fodder for summer use. SOME HEA\Y W LiGill: and in a favorable season the \ield eclipses that of most other fodders. One advantage which is considerable when compared with root crops is the fact that no preparation is required, the cabbages being greedily con- sumed in their natural state bv the dairv cows. I was informed by Mr. 40 TONS TO THE ACRE. Clarke, jun., that the dairy cows were fond of cabbages as foo(l. and, as far as he could learn, no injurious effect was produced in the milk. As an evideince of the amount of fodder produced on a small area, I mav mention S May, 1907.] Cabbag,es for the Dairy Herd. 299 that a space of 50 x ^2 yards provided for 140 cows for ten days. Of course, the cattle had the run of the ordinary dry pasture as well. Accord- ing to the al)Ove, a little less than i acre would furnish 30 da)-s' fodder for this herd, or the field of 4 acres would serve four months. From an average spot in the field, 12 feet x 12 feet measurement, 24 heads of cabbage were cut, weighing from 4 to 22 lbs. each, a total weight of 301 lbs., or an average of 12 J lbs. each. The actual vield per acre would be .about 40^ tons. Cabbages measuring 3 ft. 6 in. in diameter, and ■weighing up to 37 lbs., were to be found in the paddock. The land, previous to planting, was thoroughly cultivated and treated -with a libera] dressing of farm-yard manure. The plants were grown from seed, and transplanted in the months of September and October in drills 3 feet apart, with about 2 feet between each plant. It is said that two A GOOD SPECIMEN. men can plant an acre a day. The area selected for cabbages should be well manured, as few farms have richer land than this near Noorat. As a matter of convenience the acre or two selected should be near the house, as the care of the young plants after transplanting can often be made to fill in odd half hours. All young crops respond to nursing in their early stages, and it pays better to get a heavy crop off a small area than half a crop off a large area. The nursery bed for raising the young plants should be in a sheltered corner of the garden. An area of 100 square yards is sufficient to plant iin acre, the seed being planted in drills i foot apart. It takes about I lb. of seed to plant an acre. A little superphosphate ot bone dust scattered along the drills will make the plants grow more quickly. JMr. Clarke has been growing cabbages for his cows for a good number of years, and is thoroughly satisfied with the result. He states that he has had much better crops, the season just passed not being as favorable as previous ones, owing to the excessive rainfall in the early part of the season, and the absence of anv rain in the latter part, with the result that Journal of Agriculture. [8 ;May, 1907. the growth was not so rapid or so^ good as usual. There are other fodder crops, kale and maize, grow'n on this farm, but they are likewise very light, and not even as good in proportion as the cabbage. From observations, I should sav that every dairy farmer would do well to plant a few acres of " Drum Head " cabbages for the use of his dairv herd, as it insures a large quantity of succulent fodder at a time of the year when it is most needed. THOUSAND HEADED KALE. On the same farmi was tO' be .seen a small paddock of lucerne fullv \2 inches high, looking healthy and green — a striking contrast to the parched - up paddocks around. It is astonishing that more of this magnificent fodder is not grown in the Western District. Any question as to whether lucerne can be grown successfully should be settled bv a glance at this paddock, and I feel sure that if many of the dairymen in the vicinity of Noorat were to make an inspection of the crop referred to at the present time, they would have no hesitation in putting some of their land under lucerne. 8 May, 1907.] Fruit Flies. ^01 FRUIT FLIES. C. French, F.L.S.; l-'.F.S., Govcruiticnt F)itoniologist . The Mediterranean Fruit Fly. Halterupliora capitata. Wicdmaim. [Diptcra.) This terrible scourge of the fruitgrower is l)ecoming but too familiar in Victoria, the larvse having been found in peaches, pears, quinces, apri- cots, plums, nectarines, guavas, oranges, lemions, apples, citrons, loquats, mangoes, pumpkins, l;ananas, tomatoes, pineapples, and persimmons ; so vhat it will easily be seen that hardly anv fruit can be .said tO' be exempt from its attacks, and of all the fruitgrower's enemies the fruit-fly is un- doubtedly the worst. As this article is written especially for the growers, technical terms and descriptions art- avoided where at all possible, so that the coloured plate drawn from nature will be the more easily understood. Unforcu- nateK for Victoria, we are now ha\ing a very practical experience of this pest. Numerous cases have occurred, so far most of them in private gardens in the northern districts of our State. The danger ;has, we hope, been grappled with, and the pest, at least partially, stamped out, by the adoption of drastic measures. One great danger lies in the fact that man\- well-intentioned persons suppose, or profess to suppose, that fruit-flies will neither live nor thrive in Victoria. This is a mo.st mischievous, as well as a dangerous theory., as the writer knows from actual experience that in Victoria the larvse and also the flies will live for weeks exposed to the air by day and night, during both summer and winter, and, as showing the vitality of the larvae, these have l)eea kept by Mr. Fuller, Government Entomologist of Natal, for over three weeks in a freezing chamber, and at the expiration of this time, the perfect insects ha\-e been reared. It is toi be hoped that none but the must careful will trv to rear these flies artificially, for should this pest obtain a footing, which is extremely probable, the fruit-grower will have to pack up and be oft, there being, at present, no known remedy. But nature mav provide, in the shape of some parasite, a means by which the fl\ nia\" be kept in check, if not stamped out altogether ! In writing of the above insect, Mr. Froggatt, Government Entomologist of New South Wales, who, with Mr. Tryon, of Queensland, has had constant opportunities of watching fruit flies in the orchards and elsewhere., remarks that this fly is rjuite a modern importation, as it was not until 1897 that it was disco\-ered in orchards near Perth in Western Australia,, and shortly after this, Mr. Froggatt found them flying about in the breed- ing jars from peaches supposed to be infected with the Queensland Fruit Fly {DacHs trvoni) which had been obtained at the Sydney Fruit Markets, Mr. Froggatt further remarks in his valuable treatise Notes on Fruit Mag- got Fly, ■' That though pre\iously unknown in the Colonies it had a wel'l known record in Europe as far back as 1826, when it was described by Wiedmann as an orange pest, under the name of Citriferda capitata; and a few years after by Macleav, who published a large coloured plate of the perfect insect. In this paper he, Mr. Macleay, stated that fully one-third of the oranges shipped toi London from the Azores were rendered unfit for use before reaching their destination through the presence of this maggot when thev were oacked. 302 Journal of Agriculture. [8 May, 1907. '• Early in 1890, an article appeared in a publication known as Insect Life where the fly was described and figured as a peach pest in the Ber- mudas. It was said to attack green and half-ripe peaches and mandarins most, and one correspondent reported that the larger oranges were not attacked. •' In 1892, J. H. Cook gave an account of the Orange Fruit Fly, in Malta. He stated that the whole of the oranges had been destroyed during the last two years by this maggot, and that a Commission had been appointed bv the Governor to report on the best means of checking this pest. In the following vear a pamphlet was published in the Mediterranean Natu- ralist by Professor N. Tagliaferro at the expense of the Agricultural Society of Malta to give the orange growers a popular account of the fly. He advised them to ' smear a. few oranges on each tree with honey, so that the adult fly would in gathering round them be caught and destroyed.' " Miss Ormerod in Notes and Descriptions on a few injurious Farm and Fruit Insects in Soutli Africa records Halterofhora cafitata as one of the serious pests of the fruit-growers in South Africa. In Malta, as has already been stated, we are informed that the Mediterranean fly does great damage to the orange crops, and according to the Revd. Mr. Henslow, its attacks appear to be confined to oranges only. In a late number of the Agricultural Journal of the Cape of Good Hope, Mr. Lounsbury gives an account of how the trees are netted to protect the fruit from these flies. But unless fruit is much more valu- able than it is at present in New South Wales, it would not pay to treat the trees in this manner, as he says it costs about 3s. per tree to protect them b\- this process from the flies. Mr. Fuller, formerly an Australian, but how Government Entomologist of Natal, gives the following account of the habits of this insect, as observed bv him, and which was for some time known to us in Victoria as tne West Australian Fruit Fly: — "The eggs are laid in the fruit by the female fly, and the larvse are soon hatched from them and commence feed- ing. When thev are full grown the maggots leave the fruit and enter the soil to pupate, that is to change into the last stage prior to their emergence from the soil as perfect insects, and great numl)ers are carried to the ground bv the falling fruit. After having rested in the soil as pupae for about twelve days the flies hatch and make their wa\ to the surface and continue their destructive work." The following is an account of some experiments, dealing with the Mediterranean fly, which were carried out bv the Assistant Entomologist (Mr. C. French, jun.) and myself during 1906. The results of similar experiments made by Inspector Farrell at my recjuest are also given. The larvae of this fly were found in bananas imported from Queensland on the 14th August, and on being placed in the breeding jars pupated on the 20th August ; the perfect insects emerged on the 4th October and lived for several w'eeks, water, with a little sugar added, being the food placed at their disposal. Larvae were detected in oranges from Marvborough (Queensland) on the 19th September, and pupated on the 24th September; the perfect insects commenced to emerge on the 26th October, and continued emerging till the 30th. On the 2nd Noivember several cases of Seville oranges were sent from Sydney. These were badly infested with larvae of the Mediterranean fruit fly ; on being placed in the breeding jars they pupated on the 6th November, and the perfect insects were hatched out on the 3rd December. No less than 60 flies were hatched from two Seville 8 May, 1907. J Fruit Flies. 303 oranges and the perfect flies lived ten days without food. The Mediter- ranean fly has also been reared from tomatoes sent from Queensland. The larvae of the fly curl up and by a muscular movement jump fully one foot. I placed various fruits Avith these flies, but could not get them to deposit eggs in them. These flies are verv active at night if exposed to light, and possibl) might be attracted by placing a lamp amongst the trees, the lam]) to be placed in kerosene. Inspector Farrell repoTts the results of his investigations in connexion with the Mediterrajiean Fruit-Fly and its habits as follow: — "I placed fully-grown larvae in a jar on the 12th February. Flies batched out on the 25th, i.e. thirteen days later. These were placed in a tin box containing some earth and covered over with a mosquito curtain ; sliced tomatoes and peaches were put in with them, and the box was left out in the open air. Flies fed on the tomatoes, but punctured peaches and deposited eggs in them. The flies died on the 21st March, twenty-five days old. Other flies which were hatched out on the same day but got no food, died on thir^ I St March, four days old. I reared from the peaches a number of larvae which went into the chrysalis state on the 15th March, and I expect them out on the 30th or 31st March. On the 15th March I saw a flv on a peach in Constable Collins" garden. The fl\ must have just laid. I secured the peach and kept it under observation. At first there was no puncture visible, but afterwards one became pronounced. I reared five larvae from this peach ; these were fully grown on the 25th March and went into chrysalis on that date. In connexion with egg-laying I find that from four to seven eggs are laid in each puncture or chamber, and not alone does the flv jnincture the fruit, but it also constructs an oval-shaped chamber which is apparently lined with a tough brownish substance. Mr. Carmody and I, at Numur- kah, found four tinv elongated eggs of a dirt\ white colour and these when seen under the lens shone similarl\ to the body of a young larva. The eggs lay parallel to each other, and occupied about half the capacity of the chamber. The voung larvae hatched out on the following day, but we did not succeed in rearing them. I have found four larvae each in a number of peaches which had apparentlv only one puncture each. I have also found twelve larvae in peaches where onlv three punctures each were visible. Then again I have found five, six and seven larvae in peaches, each of which had apparently only one puncture, but I have never found less than four larvae in any peach. Therefore it is only reasonable to conclude that from four to seven eggs are deposited in each chamber, and that four are more frequently laid than any other number. Flies are apparently not fit to lay until they are four days old. An analysis of the above will show 1st. — That from the time the egg is laid until larva is fully grown is 12' days. 2nd. — That the chrysalis stage is 13 days. 3rd. — That the life of the perfect insect when fed is 24 da\s. 4th. — That from the time the egg is laid until insect which it con- tains dies of old age is 50 days. 5th. — That when the flv is not fed the 50 days are reduced to 29 days. I have not been able to determine the term of the eggs' incubation." In Western Australia, Mr. Fuller remarks, " the fruit is attacked directK it begins to sweeten and before it ripens, green fruit lieing seldom 304 Joiinial of Agric lilt lire . [8 May, 1907. if ever attacked. The eggs are laid in the fruit by means of a very sharp needle-like organ called the ovipositor borne on the extremity of the abdo- men of the female. The maggots are soft, yellowish white in colour, some- what shining and limbless worms, and somewhat resemble those of the meat fly. The pupa and chrysalis are oval and stout, at first a golden yellow but subsequentlv changing to a reddish brown. The flies are pretty little insects with two wings only, about half the size of the common house fly. I'hey have very large and lustrous eyes, the thorax is mottled with grey and black, and the abdomen is of a brownish yellow and crossed by thin stripes of a silvery grey colour. The wings are large and simple. They are transparent, strongK \eined, and marked \y\ several clouded bands of grev and vellow colour. In walking the fl\ always carries its wings in a drooping attitude. It is a very difficult thing to find the fly in an infected orchard, although they may be present in large numbers. If however a maggoty peach be put aside in a box for a few weeks the flies can be reared and easily obser\ed."" Explanation of Coloured Plate (Drawn from Nature). Fig. Description. 1. Mediterranean Fruit Fl\'. Natural size. 2. Mediterranean Fruit V\\. Enlarged. 3. Larva of Mediterranean Fruit Fly. Natural size. 4. Larva of Mediterranean Fruit Fly. Enlarged. 5. Pupa case of Mediterranean Fruit Fly. Natural size. 6. Pupa case of Mediterranean Fruit Fh-. Enlarged. 7. Queensland Fruit Fh', variety (.'ucumis. Natural size. 8. Queensland Fruit Fly. P^nlarged. 9. Larva of Queenslanil Fruit Fly Natural size. 10. Larva of Queensland Fruit Fly. Enlarged. 11. Pupa case of Queensland Fruit Fly. Natural size. 12. Pupa case of Queensland Fruit Fly, Enlarged. 13. Peach showing larvic of Mediterranean Fruit Fly. Natural size. 14. New Hebrides Fruit Fly. Natural size. 15. New Hebrides Fruit Fly. Enlarged. It has frequently been stated in Queensland and New South Wales that the flies will not attack green fruit. This is a mistake, as I have on ma,n\' occasions proved eggs to have been deposited in green bananas before shipment, as no half- ripe bananas are ever shipped from Queens- land to Melbourne. This fl\ would appear to be more numerous than are the other kinds here mentioned. No less than 60 adult specimens^ have been reared at our office from two specimens of the bitter or Sevil It- oranges which had been sent from one of the northern ports of Queens- land. The indications of the presence of the fruit-fly larvae in such fruits as the citrus family are, although easily detected by the practised eye, upon the whole not well defined. The skin of oranges, lemons, and limes being more ox less of a rough granulated texture renders the task of finding the infected fruit, where large consignments have to be handled, bv no means an easy one. In Victoria, at least, it is astounding with what rapidit\ this fly destroys the fruit in the orchard, only a few days, in the case of peaches, elapsing before the whole of it is rendered unfit for human consumption, it, the fruit, being absolutely decomposed and discolonred. In Victoria, our experience has taught us that the first fruit to be attacked are apricots, then peaches, then, as the broods hatch from the ground, other fruits, as apples, pears, persimmons, &c.. are attacked in succession. From obser- vations miade in the field, I am speaking of the nurth-east part of Victoria, C.C:S/yY/'/e<:^„A- -^een found to- have been caused by insects wiiich have nothing in common whate\er with the true fruit-flies, either in point of size, or general appearance. When, however, we take into consideration the terrible ravages for which the real fruit-flies are respon- sible, (I am afraid to quote Mr. Tryon on some of these losses) it is no wonder that growers are on the alert, as thev undo'ubtedlv should be, and that upon the faintest suspicion of the pest in the orchard or elsewhere, it is earnestly hoped that the entomologist will be immediately communi- cated with so that the pest may be tackled prompth' as was done here on a previous occasion, also in Tasmania, where this scourge of the fruit- groAver has been stamped out, let us 'hope, for good. The grave importance of the subject of the ravages of fruit-flies must be my excuse for having devoted so much space as is here allotted to it. I feel sure that as we are now called upon to face the fruit-fly difticultx . we are at least armed with the best experiences which have been obtained both in the orchard and in the field. The improved methods of examining fruit imported into our State, and which methods are now at our disposal, will without doubt minimhze the danger of introducing, through the agencv of fruit or cases, fruit-flies of any kind whatever. The Mediterranean fruit-fly has now made its appearance in New Zealand, and when we know that this pest thrives in the elevated Armidale district of New South Wales it is idle to suppose that it will not thrive in the comparatively genial climate of Victoria. In conclusion, it may be pointed out, that the use of second-hand fruit cases may become a prominent factor in the distribution of the fruit-flv throughout fhe State. In dealing with the fruit-flv trouble now amongst us, the co-operation and assistance of all growers is solicited, and growers may rest assured that this new pest will receive no quarter at the hands of the Entomological Branch ; we must rely upon the patriotism of growers in present unaffected districts to looic with a friendly eye upon the apparent neglect for a time of more fortunate growers, as the Field Inspectors will have all lihey can do to prevent this pest from being firmly established in our State. 8 May, 1907.] Reconsfituiion in the Giroude. 313 RECO^STITUTIOX IX THE GIROXDE. M. d^k. Biirucy. It was in the department of the Gironde that phylloxera was first discovered in France, and it was alsO' here that the American vine first became largely used, even though it is still and always will be held in abhorrence in certain favO'Ured districts where insecticide treatments and submersion ha\'e been successful in safeguarding the old French vines. Where opinions are so distinctly divided one may expect to ihear much on both sides, but it is quite evident that the American vine has come to stay, and that its culture is now in everv way as successful as was the culture of the ungrafted vine before the invasion of phylloxera. Spending a holiday in the Gironde, after an absence of some twelve years, I could not but be struck by the enormous increase of vineyards all through the districts with which I was familiar. Throughout the valley of the Dordogne from Fibourne to Bergerac the train passes through a perfect sea of vines, e\'en covering the steep slopes of the hills overlooking the valley. Often the ground was even terraced as in the Rhine Valley, but always the expense of carrying back the earth washed down from the steep slopes by the rain is an item of considerable trouble and expense. Just before the \intage began the vineyards had an exceptionallv fine appearance. Vividly contrasting with the rest of the land, which was parched by an excep- tionally dry summer, they were beautifully green and bearing a reasonably large crop of verv perfect grapes completely free from, all fungus diseases. T saw a few cases of Cochvlis, but the damage was inconsiderable. In the plain on the rich gravelly banks of the Dordogne I saw crops that would certainlv yield 800 to 1,000 gallons to the acre, but this is, of course, distinctly the exception, and the wine resulting is of but very poor quality. Roughly speaking, if these exceptional spots are not con- sidered, the average vine-grower will get a vield of between 250 to 300 gallons per acre. This would be above the average in the Medcc, and particularly so in many of the famous classed growths where high prices are always available. But speaking of the a\erage grower who sells his wine new, unless he can get a crop bordering on 250 gallons on the aver- age, his profits will be very small indeed. With working expenses, mount- ing up to nearly ^6 per acre, and wine being worth but 6d. per gallon at first racking, the grower's lot is hardly an enviable one just now. Plenty of this season's wine has been sold on the vines for delivery immediately after vintage for 5d. per gallon, casks not included, for a red wine, very light of course, from an Australian stand-point, but quite marketable in France. White wines are worth a good deal more, but although I speak of actual sales representing the produce of perhaps 10 to 15 thousand acres the prices are really in a sense fictitious through growers teing forced to sell almost at any price through the partial or complete failure of all other crops, in the vine-growing districts, from the drought. The excessively low prices are by no means confined to any one district in France, but almost without exception the\- are caused by the intense cultivation of very heavy bearing varieties, which flood the market with most inferior wines so poor and thin that they must lie consumed before they are twelve months old. When the advantages of reconstitution were realized, and ])rices were high, many growers aimed at (|uantitv rather than quality, with the result that viticulture in France is passing 314 Journal of Agricidiure. [8 May, 1907. through such a crisis as has not been previously experienced. Every variety was planted that would vield large quantities, and e\en American fruit- bearing vines which make most objectionable wine through the peculiar, .and, to many, repulsive flavo'ur of the fruit. One grower was showing me his vineyard with pride, which was admirablv cultivated, and asked me whether I had ever seen in Australia anything to equal it. Not wishing to hurt his feelings I told him I certainly never had, and inwardly hoped I never would, as more than half his vines were Othello, Herbemont and Jacquez. His wine was peculiarlv repulsive, owing to^ an abnormal acidity and a very strong flavour, which the French call foxy. The choice of varieties is now as important for Victoria as it has been for France, and I cannot but urge growers most strongly to profit by the lessoni now .so visible of French viticulture, and keep onlv to the choicest varieties and increase the vield. first by the \igour of the American stock, and, secondly, by reasonable manuring and cultivation. It would be w.aste of time for me to discourse at length upon the most successful European varieties and those most suited to Australian conditions, but I would like to mention that I have just driven through acres of Caber- net Sauvignon, bearing very large crops and yet ha\ing received no rain for over four months. The conditions this summer in France were so very similar to an Australian summer that if Cabernet can yield 300 gallons per acre with ordinary, and often by no means good culture, it is by no means a variety to be despised in Victoria. There is hardly a variety which is its equal for finesse and flavour, and it should take a foremost place with Shiraz and Malbec in future plantations. Of the two' varieties of Cabernet <'omimon in Victoria there is so' very little difference both in the quantity and quality of the fruit that thev mav be looked upon as variations rather than distinct varieties. I had the opportunity of tasting wines made separately from the Cabernet Franc and the Cabernet Sauvignon grown on the same vineyard and the difference was very sm.all indeed. So small, in fact, that when I changed the glasses a well-known taster mistook one for the other. Of the white varieties I am still a believer in the Semillion and Sauvignon, both imi:)orted a few years ago by me into Vic- toria. Of the other red varieties imported at the same time the Gamav should succeed in Victoria, but the coloured juiced varieties will all retjuire to be tested careful! v. Perhaps more of interest would be some remarks upon how the different American stocks bear and particularly how thev stand the drought. Con- trary to usual experience in the South of Fr.ance the Riparia Gloire is much appreciated in the Gironde, even on dry hill sides. This \ery much bears out our experience at the Viticultural College at Rutherglen, and as it is the m.osfc productive of all American varieties it will take a leading place in all rich soils. Riparia Glabre is entirely neglected as it is by no means as fruit bearing as the Gloire with the same disadvantages. Nothing can equal the favour of the hybrid 3309 for all dry climates. Almost as heavy-bearing as the Riparia Gloire, even in Algeria and the extreme South of France it is not affected by droughts. The 3306 can be classed under the same categor\ , and although not quite so popular as the 3309, the only possible objection to it that I could hear of was that it does not strike so freely. The other Riparia and Rupestris hybrid most in favour is the loii^. Really these three can be classed together for all practical purposes. Of the Rupestris the du Lot is the m.ost popular, but there is a very strong feeling indeed against them now. As storks, they produce vines of extraordinary vigour, but wliitii have a tendencv to run to wood 8 May, 1907.] Rcconstitution in the Girondc. 315 instead of to fruit, hut tlie most serious objection to them of all is that they are not as long lived as the Riparia or Riparia Rupestris hybrids. When grafted oii Riparia the European vine is always very much larger than the stock, \et at 25 vears of age there is not the very slightest sign of failing. This is not the case with vines grafted on Rupestris, which through then- extraordinary vigour during the first ten years seem to run themselves out and become unprofitable to cultivate, and even die before they are 20 years old. If this is not an absolutely general opinion it is certainly a. very commonlv expressed one, and as such should recei\-e very serious considera- tion. This opinion is perhaps as much applied to the Metallica and the Martin as to the Rupestris du Lot, and it is \ery noticeable that neither of the first two varieties appears in any nurseryman's new catalogue. Putting these two varieties then out of the question for the moment particu- larly as one of them, the Martin, has already proved a failure in Victoria it would be of interest to briefly review the peculiarities of the Rupestris du Lot. First, I would refer to Messrs. Wilkinson and Dubois'_ excellent translation of Viala and Ravaz work on American vines. In it readers will find a carefullv detailed description of each varietv of American vine. In the first place "Rupestris du Lot has a peculiar root system and its roots are verv deep-sinking. It is for these reasons that it has been pre- eminent! v chosen for very dry land. Now it can be easily understood that this tendency of the roots towards deep-sinking may occasionally lead to difficulties where the subsoil is uncongenial to the vine. The main roots may work through the arable land and find themselves deprived of the nourishment which is necessary to them, or else the subsoil _ may be too moist to suit the peculiar requirements of the roots. During the first few years the roots are drawing upon the cultivated land and the vine is immenseh- vigorous, and later, if fresh surface roots are not TOntinualh- thrown out, there is a lack of congenial sustenance and the vine suffers. I look upon this theorv as being far more reasonable in explaining the short life of the grafted Rupestris than to put down the lack of longevit\- to the peculiarity of the vine in exhausting itself during its youth. Care- ful pruning would no doubt enable the Rupestris grafts to be prolific, but on the average the fruit does not set quite as well as upon vines grafted on the hvbrids and on Riparia unless when grown upon the Yery_ poorest and stoniest soils. Confining then the above arguments to Victorian con- ditions, Rupestris du Lot should be planted on the dry hill tops, the hybrids on the slopes and the Riparia Gloire on the fiats. Rupestris ^ietallica should be classed as perhaps second to Rupestris du Lot for the driest stony ridges as it has already shown signs of becoming well acclima- tized in Victoria. Rupestris Ganzin is now entirely neglected except in its hybridized form as Aramon x Rup. Ganzin. This variety and the 1202 ]\Iourvedre x Rupestris are much cultivated and appear absolutely resistant to phvlloxera. Thev are largely used as stocks for Muscats and other s])ongy, pithy wooded varieties which are grafted with difficulty. They are most prolific and so far have shown every sign of longevity. For all ordinary conditions then these two varieties can be safely used, and par- ticularlv for the drying sorts. Coming to the question of aflfinity. The ordinary wine-making varieties offer no difficulties at all. Usually the firmer the wood and the denser the tissue the better the strike. Gordos and Muscats and also Zante currants have been as yet but little grafted in France, but their lack of aflfinity with the American vine is well recog- nised. This lack of affinity is due to the wood being very spongy and pithy, and to lessen this difficulty it would be as well to grow vines 3i6 Journal of Agriculture. [8 May, 1907. specially for scions. The vines should he iiruned well back and no grapes or laterals allowed to grow, the ends of the shoots to he nipped off so as to assist the perfect: maturing of the wood. Much in fact as has been done in growing American stocks at the Rutherglen College. As for grafting methods there is but little to be learned in the Gironde. Grafting machines are not very extensively used, as labour is cheap and the simple cleft graft is more popular than an\ other, largely on accoimt of the union being more easily discernible, when imperfect, than with the whip-tongue graft. With the latter the two tougues may not unite com- pletely and the vine will suffer eventually through having scars, .so to speak, at the point of union. One nurseryman told me he had discarded machines as the cut was never clean as with a knife, and the strike in consequence suffered. The machine must be very perfectly adjusted and the knife kept absolutely sharp in order that a satisfactory result may be obtained. In callusing the grafts, manv nurserymen use no ligatures at all. The grafts are carried direct from the bench to the callusing beds and there placed in position and kept until callused. Usually they are not taken from the callusing beds until much later than has been possible at the Rutherglen nurserx', water shoots being cut off carefully and the grafted vine planted in the nurserw Here comes in the chief difference between French and Victorian methods. Xo^ nurseryman will attempt to strike vines unless in most suitable free sandy soil. They insist upon the soil being sufficiently sandv to be worked in all weathers and would no more dream of trying to strike vines in a stiff clay soil as at the Rutherglen College than a Ballarat farmer would try to grow pineapples instead of potatoes. Suitable nursery land is the very first consideration and fetches high prices. It must be sufficiently free for the vines to be planted when tliev are actualh* callused. The callusing must not be hurried for fear of the land setting arid becoming unworkable. The soil must never crack, but more especially must there never be any hard lumps which may touch the graft and disturb it during disrooting and hoeing. When I described the soil of the Rutherglen nursery I was at once pitied for having had to live in such a wretched country where even the nursery land would not even grow potatoes. It is my opinion, which I ha^•e often expres.sed before, that if reconstitution is to be carried on successfully in Victoria the Government nursery should be specially chosen for the purpose. So long as unsuitable land is used so long will the results be inadequate and unremunerative. One Victorian grower, as full of enterprise as e\"er, tells me that ;he is starting a nursery on Murray River flats where he has suitable soil and water handy. There is surely no reason wdiy with the land at their disposal the Victorian Department of Agriculture should not find a spot more suitable for growing grafts than the land now used at the Rutherglen College within a get-at-able distance of the present grafting and callusing plant.* I was jjarticularly interested in hearing the percentage of strike is seldom above 40 per cent., and when above that it is put down to the rich- ness and friability of the soil. This year as there was no rain for four months and irrigation was scarcely considered necessary or provided for the average strike will not exceed 30 per cent. From these figures it will be seen that Victoria has not a great deal to learn from France in the matter of grafting methods, except in the matter of the choice of soil, * A suitable block has now been seouied as a nursery at Wahjfunj ah. —Editor. 8 May, 1907.] Rccoiisfitntioii in the Girondc. 317 and that in the choire of varieties the chief i)oints of interest may l)e summarized .as follows: — I. 3309, 3306, 101^^, for all average soils. 2'. Rupestris du Lot and Metallica, for all dry soils. 3. Riparia Gloire, for all moist soils and ordinarv flats. 4. J 202' and Aramon x Ganzin, for all average .soils for drying varieties. This choice is realK the recommendation of the very best to the exclusion of all others based upon the fruit-bearing qualities of the vine when grafted, its longevity, affinity and adaptation. I have not considered limestone .soils as they are uncommon in Victoria. All wine-making \arieties will take equallv well with an\ of the above-mentioned American \arieties, and their affinity seems to all intents and purposes the same, if onlv the Muscats are excepted, for which the American and Vinifera Inbrids are to be recommended. These, although only half Americaai. have so far in France shown complete resistance to phylloxera, which fact will l)v now be amplv demonstrated in the plantations at the Rutherglen College. Much has been said concerning the grafting affecting the quality of the fruit, and nearlv 30 years' experience in the Gironde has conclu- sively proved that, given the same treatment, the grafted vines will produce wines of quite equal quality to ungrafted vines. The opinions commonly ex- pressed in France of the deterioration of the French wines is as unjust as it is erroneous. Certainlv there is a general deterioration in the quality of the common types of wine in the Gironde, but that is not due to the American resistant roots, but to the use of inferior fruit-bearing scions. Large areas have been planted in very heavy-bearing ^■arieties which can, whether grafted or ungrafted, never produce wines of any class. Also American fruit-bearing varieties have been mixed with the others .and the qualitv of the whole contaminated. Where, however, onl\ the best varieties have been grafted. Cabernet, Merlot, Malbec, Verdot, &c.. the qualitv of the wine is everv bit as good, if not better, than what was made from the original European vines. I was able to taste two white wines made in 1900 from adjoining blocks in the same Aineyard, one from the old vines which had been saved from phylloxera, and the f>ther from vines grafted in 1884 from cuttings of these upon American roots. Any difference that did exist was entirely in favour of the wine from the grafted vines, which appeared to be slightly more flavoured and softer than the wine from the old vines. The alcoholic strength w.as the same, although the grafted vines gave a yield one-third greater than those ungrafted. The tendency is always to increase the yield, and largely for this reason I cannot too strongly impress upon growers the necessity of using onlv the very best wine-making varieties. Common poor wines there are in plenty, but good qualitv wines will always command a ready sale at remunerative prices to the grower. Having strongly recommended the importation of grafted vines from France to Australia I naturally made all po.ssible inquiries concerning the export of grafted vines from France to other countries. The general opinion of growers was that with ordinary care in disinfection there can be no possible reason whv grafted rooted vines should not be sent from France to phylloxerated areas. In France growers will buy and have l>ought from nurseries infested with Black Rot, Oidium, Mildew, Cochylis, &c., and planted the vines among their own healthv vines without there being an\ contamination from these diseases. Vines have been sent from 3i8 Journal of Agriculture. [8 May, 1907. France to Roumania, Greece. Switzerland, Portugal, Spain, Chili, Peru, ^Madagascar, &c., and ordinary disinfection is considered amply sufficient. This is not the opinion of nurserymen who would, of course, be biased, but of thoroughly competent vine-growers having a thorough knowledge of vine diseases in all their phases and whose personal interest the success or otherwise of Australian \inevards could not affect. THE ORCHARD. Jtwies Lang, Harcouri. By the end of the month, most of the fruit, e\en in the latest districts, will be gathered. The crops of all kinds of fruit have been unusually heavy this season with the result that prices have been kept at a very low level throughout the whole of the .States, leaving a \'er\ small margin of profit after expenses were paid. Where it is intended to sow peas for green manuring the orchard, the work should be taken in hand at once. The ploughing and sowing should be done as early in the month as possible, in order that the peas niiay have a good start before the cold weather sets in ; this is most im- portant, because, if delayed until June, the weather is so cold and damp that several weeks elapse before they come through the ground, and subse- quent growth during winter is also slow. When sowing, superphosphate sihould be applied at the rate of 2 cwt. per acre. In cases where it is intended to extend the orchard, the ground should be prepared by plough- ing to a depth of at least 8 inches and scarifying well in order to reduce it to a fine tilth. Advantage should be taken of a slack time to do odd jobs about the orchard, such as repairing fences, cleaning out drains and the outlets of underground drains. The silt and rubbish removed from the drains should be fulh- utilized by the orchardist, as they make good manure ; surface scrapings and soil from odd comers form valuable additions to the soil of the orchard. Where good yirgin loam can be obtained, it makes a splendid dressing, and is very lasting in its effects. Remove the codlin moth bandages from the trees, and w^ell scald them to destroy- any grubs that may be harboring in them ; then dry carefully and put away until next season. In order to reduce the number of hiding places for the grubs, the trees should be well scraped, all loose bark taken off and l>urnt, and the holes and cracks stopped up with putty. The export of apples and pears this season has been a record one from this State, about 130,000 cases having been shipped to England and Germany. This is double the quantity of any previous season, and should the prices realized be good, a great impetus will be given to the export trade in apples. It is also to be noted that New South Wales and Western Australia have both entered the export trade this season for the first time, showing that these States will soon be able to supply their own require- ments, and so further limit the oaitlet for Victorian fruit. A large quantitv of pears has been ship^ped this season, and it is to be hoped that the con- signments will arrive in better condition than they have hitherto done, as there is no reason why pears should not carry as well as apples. Orchardists should bear in mind that the new Fruit Case Act comes into operation on the first of Juh . All fruit sold by the case must be packed in bushel or half-bushel cases ; w here other sized cases are used the net weight of the contents must l>e marked on the outside. 8 May, 1907.] Statistics. 319 STATISTICS. Bainfall in Victoria. First Quarter, 1907. Table showing average amount of rainfall in each of the 26 Basins or Regions con- stituting the State of Victoria for each month and the quarter, with corresponding monthly and quarterly averages for each Basin deduced from all available records to date. January. February. Marcli. Basin. c oi ^•■ if ^s be p c3 5 03 p ^ .— ^ ca 11 > < ^2 > < C 1^ II s > < Tota Firs Avei Firs Glenelg and Wannon Rivers O.CKi 1.51 0.69 0.77 0.96 1.55 2.31 3.83 Fitzroy, Eumerella, and Merri O.SO 1.64 0.41 0.89 0.86 1.82 2.07 4.35 Rivers Hopkins River and Mount 0.78 1.72 0.86 1.05 0.73 1.84 2.37 4.61 Emu Creek Mount Elejihant and Lake 0.99 1.79 0.66 1.16 1.11 1.86 2.76 4.81 Corangamite Otway Forest 1.24 3.29 0.66 1.66 1.43 3.22 3.33 8.17 Moorabool and Barwon Rivers 0.40 1.57 0.67 1.22 0.91 1..55 1.98 4.34 Werribee and Saltwater Rivers 0.77 1.67 0.71 1.58 0.87 2.00 2.35 5.25 Yarra River and Uandeuoug 0.86 2.79 0.96 1.70 1.46 2.44 3.28 6.93 Creek Koo-wee-rup Swamp 0.54 2.71 0.82 1.39 1.69 2.21 3.05 6.31 South Gippsland 0.49 2.77 0.82 2.12 2.0L 2.47 3.32 7.36 La Trobe and Thomson Rivers 0.52 3.05 0.75 1^92 1.93 2 . 33 3.20 7.30 Macallister and Avon Rivers 0.61 2.25 0.56 2.28 0.88 1.47 2.05 6.00 Mitchell River 0.98 2.79 0.73 2.94 1.15 1.49 2.86 7.22 Tambo and Nicholson Rivers \.m 2.88 0.67 2.62 0.92 1.37 2.95 6.87 Snowy River 1.91 3.26 0.65 2.75 1.57 2.11 4.13 8.12 Murray River 0.70 1.31 0.64 1.37 0.87 1.68 2.21 4.36 Mitta Mitta and Kiewa Rivers 1.98 2.01 0.65 2.47 1.16 2.46 3.79 6.94 Ovens River 0.91 2.32 0.81 2.37 1.74 2.37 3.46 7.06 Goulburn River 0.75 1.49 0.85 1.29 1.23 1.65 2.83 4.43 Campaspe River 0.71 1.32 1.31 1.13 0.72 1 .86 2.74 4.31 Loddon River 0.29 1.10 1.30 0.91 0.51 1.30 2.10 3.31 Avon and Richardson Rivers 0.08 0.92 1.09 0.69 0.28 0.96 1.45 2.57 Avoca River 0.05 0.91 1.19 0.67 0.4^ 1.17 1.66 2.75 Western Wimmera ... 0.19 0.99 1.13 0.52 0.38 0.94 1.70 2.45 Eastern Wimmera ... 0.15 1.25 0.96 0.66 0.51 1.18 1.62 3.09 Mallee Country 0.01 0.88 0.69 0.76 0.14 0.87 0.84 2.51 The whole State 0.60 1.67 0.81 1.32 1.05 1.58 2.46 4.57 Fis::ures in these columns are subject to alterations when the complete number of returns for March has been received. P. BARACCHI, Government Astronomer. 320 Journal of Agriculture. [8 May, 1907. Perishable and Frozen Produce. OUARTKKS ENDED 31ST MaRCH, 1907 AND 1906. Exports from the Slate. Deliveries from the Government Cool Stores. Description of Produce. 1907. 1906. 1907. 1906 Butter 1I)S. 15,895,1.32 12,018,622 11,422,433 8,415,288 Cheese " 301,680 211,200 46,660 20,543 Hani and Bacon // 702,240 629,520 Milk and Cream cases 7,742 3,923 1,137 3S3 Poultry head 13,590 15,570 3,285 4,109 Eggs ... . . . dozen 6,480 6,390 17,013 16,066 Mutton and Laml) carcasses 256,011 251,105 62,971 56,501 Beef ... fjuarters 1,825 2,598 295 Veal ... carcasses 877 1,279 Pork... n 778 2,456 364 844 Ral)bits and Hares pairs 510,960 1,037,364 304,302 .508,474 Fruit cases 127,513 66,182 7,861 54 L „ Pulp ... „ 973 1,774 Sundries lbs. 16,581 10,123 R. CROWE, Shi eriiit€)ulent of Exports. Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, Grain, &c. Imports and Export.s Inspected during Quarter ended 31st Mabch, 1907. Imports. Exports. Goods. Imports. Exports. Goods. ' Inter- Over- Inter- Over- Inter- Over- Inter- Over- State. sea. State. 912 sea. 92,.57l State. sea. State. sea. Apples 133 Quinces.. 6 _ 23 Apricots 30 — 4,471 60 il Tomatoes 504 — l,17i 81 Bananas, b s. 116,091 — — — Plants ... 76 200 6 14 Bananas, c/s. 4,174 205 1,251 68 . Bulbs . . . 9 232 2 — Blackberries 518 — 1 — Barley .. 26,389 7,432 — — Blk. currants 3,166 — — — Beans .. 158 24 — — Cherries ... — — 772 623 Turnips 42 — — — Cucumbers 49 — 89 — Nuts ... — 558 — — Grapes 390 — 961 — Nutmegs 219 — — Lemons 193 104,462 288 66 Oats 2,590 4 — — Melons 733 — 17 — Peas 142 25 — — Mixed fruits 76 1,794 27 2,237 Potatoes 2,981 184 — — Nectarines — — 13^* — j Rice — 42,17^ — — Oranges ... 249 7,880 23f 5 ,| Seeds 3,803 9,11C — — Passion fruit 2,116 — 2b 2 Wheat .. — 1 — — Peaches 32 3,151 144 Cnd. fruits — — — 2,261 Pears 130 — 2,589 9,. 386 Jam's — — — 743 Persimmons Pineapples 18,703 1 185 162 Drd. fruits 2,586 — 285 Plums 3 — 688 162 j Total ... 184,626 177,100 17,007 108,870 Total number of packages inspected = 487,603. J. G. TURNER, Inspector under the Commerce and Vegetation Diseases Acts. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. The Staff of the Department has been organized to a large extent for the purpose of giving information to farmers. Questions in every branch of agriculture are gladly answered. Write a short letter, giving as full particulars as possible, of your local conditions, and state precisely what it is that you want to know. All inquiries must be accompanied by the name and address of the writer. Silage. — W.F.J, requests information re keeping qualities of silage. Answer. — Stack silage depends as to keeping qualities chiefly on the size of the stack, the condition at the time it was put up, and the weight applied. At the end of a year there is often from 30 to 50 per tent, of waste. Chaffed silage well packed in a proper silo, if made from fairly mature crops, will last the season with very little waste. Our aim is to pack it so well that it comes out in the same condition as it went in. Any waste round the sides is due to its not being packed tight enough. Shoulder Lameness. — A.J.S. asks what is the best treatment for a horse that is very lame in the near fore leg, the trouble being apparently in the shoulder, on which a lump about i inch 111 diameter has formed. Answer. — For nature and treatment of shoulder lameness see April issue of the Journal. Navel Enlargement. — T.H. writes: "I have a colt foal which has an enlargement of the navel ; it appeared shortly after birth, and is increasing in size. What treatment is recom- mended? The colt is now six months old." Answer. — If unassociated with other general symptoms the enlargement is probably a navel rupture. It is usual that these decrease in size with age, and are not noticeable by the time the colt is a year or eighteen months old. In any case it is not advisable to interfere iintil that age. A description of the operation necessary will shortly appear in the Journal. Orange Trees. — P. J. P. forwards diseased orange leaves and asks for information as to treatment. Answer. — The trouble is caused by the Orange Phytoptus. Spray several times with a I in 15 kerosene emulsion. Drainage^ Etc. — Olinda asks: — (i) Is coke as good a material for placing in drains as > 13 Kyabram „ 22 Euroa >> 20 Sea Lake „ 31 Colac >> 27 Tungamah ... August 5 Mildura June 10 Moorabbin „ 12 St. Arnaud )) 18 Seymour „ 19 Ararat >> 24 Swan Hill ... Sept. 10 Stawell July 1 Maldon „ 16 Kani va *t 9 Kyneton „ 23 Classes have already been held at Ballarat, Camperdown,. Inglewood, Korumburra, Penshurst, Terang, Traralgon, WarraguU and Yarram. For full particulars re subjects, see page 45, January Journal. DAIRY SHORTHORNS. Vol. V. GRADING AND LEVELLING. [Registered at the General Post Office, Melliourne, for transmission by Post as a Newspaper 1 Part 6. PRICE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subscription-Victoria, Inter-State, and N.L, 3/-; British and Foreign, 5/-.) THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 8 jxj:ne, leoT'. CONTENTS. Oracling and Levelling New Sources of Available Nitrogen Garden Notes — The Nerine The Proclaimed Plants of Victoria — Sweet Briar A. J. The Elements of Animal Physiology — VI. The Enzymes ... VII. Muscle Inspection and Examination of Stallions IJevelopnient of Dairy Shorthorns ... J'roni Other States Dookie Egg-laying Competition, 1906-7 Description of Apple — Sturmer Pippin E.xperiments with Black Spot of Ap])le Lameness in Horses — continued Fruit Stores Vines Distributed and A'ailable for Distribution Grain and Produce — Exports during Quarter ended 31st March, 1907 J. Kniyht ... 384 The Orchard . . ... ... . . ..J. Lang ... i)i side back cover Journal of Agriculture — Copyright Provisions and Subscription Rates inside front cover Publications issued by the Department ... ... ... inside fro7it cover Answers to Correspondents ... ... ... ... ... back cover A. S. Kenyan ,. 321 W. J. Colebatch .. 328 ./. Cronin .. 333 Ewari and J. B. Tovey . . 336 W. A. Osborne 337 W. A. Osborne .. 341 .. E. G. Duffus .. 347 It. T. Archer 348 ... W.E. Bo rill .. 357 H. Pye .. 358 J. Lang .. 362 ... D. Me Alpine .. 362 S. S. Cameron .. 364 C. B. Luffmann .. 380 G. H. Adcock .. 382 REGISTERED UNDER THE COPYRIGHT ACT 1890. SECTION 21. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are })rotected b\' the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter contained in the Journal are at liberty to do so, provided the visual acknowledgment is made. The Journal is issued monthly. The suV)scription, which is payable in advance jind includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zeahmd, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy Threepence. A limited number of the issues comprising Volumes II. (1903-4), III. (1905) — 10 parts each — and Volume IV. (1906) — 12 parts — is at present in stock, and will be ■supplied at the foregoing rates. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. Applications to be accompanied by Postal Note covering Price and Postage. T*estructive Insects of Victoria, Parts I., II., III. By C. French. 2s 6d. each. Postage — Parts I. and II., 4d. each ; Part III., 5d. Fungus Diseases of Citrus Trees in Australia. By D. McAlj)ine. 2s. Postage, 3d. Fungus Diseases of Stone Fruit Trees in Australia. By D. McAlpine. 165 pp., 10 coloured plates. 2s 6d. Postage, 4d. Trusts of Austialia. By D. McAlpine. 10s. Postage, 8d. Australian Fungi By Dr. Cooke. £1 Is. Postage, 8d. Year Book of /Agriculture for 1905. Cloth, 3s. 6d. : paper, 2s. 6d. Postage — Cloth, 9d. ; paper, 8d. JVIilk Charts (Monthly and Weekly). 6d. per dozen. (See article in Journal, 8 May, 1906.) TH6 JOUHNAI^ OF Tfie ©eparfmenf of ^gricuffure. Vol. V. Part 6. 8th June, 1907. GRADING AND LEVELLINa. A. S. Ken yon, C.E., Engineer for Agriculture LIBRARY NEW YOIRI BOTANICa GARDEN. It is a trite saying that all production comes from the soil ; but it is not so well recognised — at least not in practice — that with a given quality of soil, production is in direct projiortion to the lahciur put into it. THE BUCKSCRAPER FILLING. CD Amongst other minor operations of cultivation, grading and levelling have R? not received perhaps their due amount of attention. Our shallow soils, par- j ticularly those of the northern areas, render the necessary operations CO especially delicate. In unskilled or careless hands there is considerable C£3 5735. L 322 Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. danger of exposing the cold, useless subsoil and spoiling, more or less, the paddock. For the irrigator, grading and levelling — whether he waters bv flooding or by furrows — are essential ; while for closer settlement, though not for the extensive farmer, thev are advisable. The operations are not costly, while the implements required are fairly cheap and mostly within the power of a man of ordinary mechanical skill to make. With rough, bumpy ground, whether level or sloping, the surface must be levelled by removing bumps and filling in depressions, to enable the irrigator to get the water over all his cultivation. In extreme cases of high bumps grading is impracticable, and fluming or banked channels must be availed of. Grading mav be much reduced in amount by taking advantage of all natural features to run distributarv channels, thus also facilitating the work of watering. TIPPING AND DISTRIBUTING. The preliminaries of setting out and pegging are onlv necessarv in cases of heavy work or where the slopes are so small as to necessitate very accurate and careful grading to prevent accumulation of excess water and consequent souring and surface baking. If an instrument to determine the levels be used, pegs should be put in fairly frequently ; the tops giving the desired surface levels. If the ground be high, a hole is dug deep enough to let the top of the peg down to the correct level. On the accuracy of this part of the work and on the skill of the operator depends the class of grading achieved. A suitable instrument for setting out the pegs at the required levels is described and figured in the Journal for February, 1906. A good deal of useful work in levelling can be done with the plough and harrows ; but in most cases, special appliances are called for. These are the ordinary scoop, the buckscraper, the leveller or smoother, the clod crusher, &c. The scoop is rarely used here, being replaced almost en- tirely by the buckscraper, which, indeed, has successfully challenged it in its own particular domain of banking and road forming. The original form of the buckscraper had the handle or tail board at right angles to the bottom and consequently the implement could only be worked in the 8 June, 1907.] Grading and Levdlniz. Z^^ upright or cutting position except when tipped over. This was soon altered to the present position of the handle, where the scraper rides .vc>^ .S«^ A dXU fj ^i-^ C- ^-F ^-LB E — 0 Strap J X ^ X 2C Fivets spaced 3 -r '}-^ ^ [^ B 4"yj' 4'/'_ J Or--?" iHardnootf— 0-~' ~^ P ^/("lyets Spaced 4-" 3=- 5rcf^ i' bi'Mffm //6 ' stee/ phi-e m ane piece Back ^ ' 5f-ee/ p/ate Ang/e ,rpn //i xy,£" SEVEN FEET SIZE. GENERAL PLAN. on the skids when the handle is on the ground and is not filling. With this arrangernent filling is much more readily controlled by the operator and distributing rendered easier. For a long time the scraper was constructed of timber with cutting and exposed parts shod with iron. A lighter, stronger, more durable and 324 Journal of Agriculture. [8 June. 1907. easily manipulated scraper can be made from steel jjlate and some varie- ties are here figured. Thev are made in various sizes, about 4 feet being the smallest and 8 feet the largest, the measurements being taken along Section at" A.B. (r» ff- "x-" f ^^.^^^ '^ 0 ' ~ 1 = 1 l^^r'-'^^ ^ i 1 i4;~7^ "f= U M'f Countersunk i'So/H / \ Inside nd. 2~ Hardyy^ood fillma piecQ Scclion at" C D SECTIONS. SEVEN FEET SIZE. the cutting edge. Two horses will work the smallest size and five the largest. For general work, the team shoulci be voked in two halves, each W- Plan .^^' A^' % ' ,•■ ^j" ,. ferae in one piece ,; -(■ 0- |<- l\ _^_ si' >; ^j{sl-eel plain Attach a ctiain 3 lonq over -x all with j- linl\<, >' 3 W 5^ ^ Ve"E>< 3UT Vsevc BolW / ^ ^^-■x-l" HAaDwooD EIGHT FEET SIZE. SECTIONAL VIEW. It would take almost as long to describe fully the use of the buck- scraper as it would to learn its actual use in the field. Two plates are given showing the scraper being filled and distributing or levelling. For filling the driver holds the handle slightly raised until the scraper is full, its capacity being about \ a cubic yard. If the load is to be gradually distributed, the handle is lifted as required, the earth being more or less quickly deposited over the surface. If wanted in one spot, the scraper is tipped over in one action, the rope on the handle being used to pull it back into working position again. The manipulation is more easily learnt than explained. It is not difficult and the user quickly becomes proud of the excellence of the work done by the scraper. 8 June, 1907.] Grading and Levelling. 327 It is well to couple the horses by straps at the hames and to use back- bands. The connecting chains may be fairly long and not less than shown. The scraper should be brought square on to the work so as to equalize the draught. t 5"*%" Ie-on Handle — ^t^ ya'boi i'g'k '/a" bTCE l Plate /' Vs" -^eye bolt'^/A'^-^c-^ 4^' ^1" HAE.DWOOD Chain Attachment TcoNT View SIX FEET SIZE. With this implement intelligently used the whole paddock may be graded and roughly levelled. In irrigating or for any fine work, a further step is required and the ground has to be levelled or smoothed. The implements for this work will be described in a subsequent paper. (To be continued.) 328 Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. XEW SOURCES OF AVAILABLE NITROGEN. ir. /. Colcbatch, B.Sc. {Agr.), M.R.C.Y.S. Recent European and American researches into the question of im- mediately available nitrate nitrogen have opened up a very extensive field of possibilities in regard to the economic manufacture of nitrogenous fertilisers. The, Australian farmer has happily little experience of soils that respond readily to nitrogenous applications ; in fact, under certain ciicumstances, such practice has resulted in depletion rather than en- hancement of yield. Nevertheless it is unreasonable to argue that the original store of soil nitrogen, even though supplemented by bacterial nitrification of soil constituents and crop residues, will always suffice to promote the maximum growth of vegetation that it is desirable to produce. A day must arrive before long when the measure of fertilfty of some of our southern and western soils will be determined by the percentage of available nitrogen as well as of phosphoric acid. The experiments con- ducted by Dr. Howell, late Chemist for Agriculture, have demonstrated the advantages of supplementing the phosphatic dressing with a nitrogenous fertiliser in certain hay-growing districts of the coastal plain and naturallv where potatoes, root, and fodder crops are a feature of the farm practice, still more importance wall attach to this subject. In the northern areas, except where irrigation is carried out, nitrates or indeed any of the nitro'- genous manures are legitimately discounted ; but, viewing Victoria as a whole, and bearing in mind the effects of the Closer Settlement polic\ on the methods of soil culture and farm practice generally, the necessity of keeping ourselves closely in touch with the investigational work and pro- gressive pronouncements of Continental and other authorities becomes dailv more apparent. It is with this purpose in view that the question of available nitrogen, which has been absorbing the energies and interests of many eminent scientists in Europe of recent years, has been revised and amplified in the light of the latest announcements in current literature. Nitrogen occurs on the manure-market in at least four distinct forms — 1. Organic nitrogen — In dried blood, bone dust, &c. 2. Ammoniacal nitrogen — In sulphate of ammonia. 3. Cvanamide nitrogen — In lime nitrogen. 4. Nitrate nitrogen — In nitrate of soda, lime nitrate, &c. Of these the last mentioned has the highest commercial and agricul- tural value owing to it being immediately available to plant rootlets. The presence of nitrate nitrogen in the soil is due either to bac- terial action or to the application of artificially prepared materials ; in some cases to a combination of these determining factors. The importance of bacterial action on organic, ammoniacal, and nitrate forms of nitrogen . is fullv appreciated, yet the manifold advantages accruing from the utilisation of an immediately soluble form of nitrogenous fertiliser, under favoring conditions, have established beyond argument the wisdom of aiding and supporting the root nodule and nitrifying micro-organisms by the judicious emplovment of a suitable form of a\ailable nitrogen. It is remarkable that for over three-quarters of a century the world's supply of nitrate nitrogen has been drawn solely from the South American nitrate of soda fields. During the last few vears, however, the artificial 8 June, 1907.] New Sources of Available Nitrogen. 329 manufacture of "nitrate" on a commercial basis has been successfully accomplished, and several different systems are now being adapted to fac- tory requirements. These innovations will be discussed seriatim, Init it may be well to preface such remarks by a reference to the conditions relative to the field operations and export trade of the Chilian " nitrate " plains prevailing at the present dav. XiTRATE OF Soda Fields. These fields occur at an altitude of 3,000-4,000 feet in the provinces of Tarapaca and Atacama in the Chilian Republic. They form extensive waste, treeless, shrubless plains on which rain falls but once in every four or five years, and even then in meagre quantities. The earliest known despatch of a parcel of nitrate occurred in 1820, yet less than 15,000 tons per annum reached Europe during the five years ending in 1844. Fully 50 years elapsed after the trial shipment before the Peru\ian Government (to whom the Pisagua and Iqueque de- posits then belonged) recognised the enormous value of these fiekls, and took steps to insure a rapid increase in their productivity. Prior to the rupture between Chili and Peru in 1879-80, the yearly output had reached about a quarter of a million tons, but after the Chilian authorities obtained control the export trade advanced l)v leaps and bounds, attaining in 1884 to almost a million tons. Alarmed b\ the enormous development of the industry, the manufac- turers sought to control the annual yield of the fields by forming a union amongst themselves, but individual interests proved too powerful, and after three years the trust control lapsed. Abortive attempts to' regulate the exportation were also made in 1891 and 1896, but in 1901 the pro- ducers successfully combined to form the " Nitrate Syndicate," the members of which agreed tO' submit tO' a limitation of their productive capacity in order to secure themselves against the dangers of over- production. Some interesting statistics illustrative of the effects of this agreement are given in a recent issue of the Journal of the Board of Agriculture. The average price per cwt. for the five years preceding the syndicate control was 7s. 8Jd., and for the subsequent five years 9s. 6|d., an in- crease per ton of ^1 i6s. 8d. It is further pointed out in the Economist that owing to the difficultv of obtaining suitable labour on the nitrate plains the amount of fertiliser exported is likely to fall considerably short of the tonnage available for shipment bv the terms of the syndicate committee. In March of last year the agreement amongst the manufacturers was extended for a period of three vears, 1906- 1909, and the maximum annual output was then estimated at 2,750,000 tons. The syndicate, however, has limited the producers to 1,960,000 tons for the current year. Still it is onlv just to remark that no restrictions are placed upon the indi\idual firms in regard to the fixing of prices or methods of business, and again it should be noted that although in the year 1905-06 the syndi- cate prescribed an exportation of not more than 1,755,000 tons, yet only 1,543,120 tons were available for this purpose. This lends colour to the opinion that the greatest obstacle after all to the expansion of the " nitrate " trade is liOt the regulating influence of the Nitrate Syndicate but the scarcitv of labour. Over twenty years ago it was estimated that at the rate of 1,000,000 tons per annum the fields would provide the 33° Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. world with nitrate for about a quarter of a century, but the yield has steadily increased, and yet we find the trade to-day in a more flourishing condition than ever it was. This is perhaps to be accounted for by the increased value of the finished article, it being possible now to turn into profit the inferior grades of the raw material or "caliche" in the pre- paration of the 95 per cent, product. Artificial Processes. Nevertheless the exhaustion of the South American deposits is in- evitable, and in view of its high agricultural value the withdrawal of this commodity from the market can only be regarded in the light of a calamity unless other ready sources of supply are discovered. Cognisance of this danger has given the necessary stimulus to scientists throughout the world with the satisfactory result, as stated in the introductory paragraph, that several rational suggestions have been submitted, the practical worth of which has yet to- be appraised. It is significant that these discoveries have been made in those coun- tries that have maintained their position in the vanguard of agricultural progress. The more prominent processes in vogue at the present juncture may be tabulated as under: — I. Oxidisation of atmospheric nitrogen by hydro-electric process. a. Lovejoy and Bradley, Niagara. b. Birkeland and Eyde, Notodden. II. Compounding of atmospheric nitrogen and calcium carbide by electric furnace. a. Cyanid Gesellschaft, Berlin. III. Bacterial oxidation of ammoniacal compounds in peat. a. Muntz and Laine. Still in the experimental or laboratory stage. Lime Nitrate. — The oxidisation of atmospheric nitrogen by means of electricity has been an established fact for many years, but the difficulty of obtaining cheap power has hitherto been regarded as an insurmountable obstacle to the economic production of nitric acid by this process. How- ever, the utilisation of cheap water power would appear to have met this difficulty, as we find that both the Niagara (U.S.A.) and Notodden (Norway) factories are dependent for their success on the rights they have secured over the adjacent waterfalls. Professor Birkeland and Mr. S. Eyde have obtained the sole use of the Svaeljfos fall, the strength of which is estimated at about 29,000 h.p., and they also hold a right of purchase over the Rjukfas falls which will supply an additional 220,000 h.p. The essential feature of the hydro-electric process is the continuous transmission of an electric flame through ordinary air by which means nitrous and nitric acid vapours are generated. These are then passed into towers where they are absorbed and transformed into nitrate of lime. This crude product is next converted into a basic salt which keeps quite dry, and so flows readily through the feeders and coulters of the drill. The advantages claimed for the Norwegian process are its simplicity and the employment of a special flame discovered by Professor Birkeland. Experiments to test the value of this fertiliser are not yet published, but it is anticipated by those who have inspected the trial plots at the Nor- wegian Agricultural College that it will compare very favorably with the alkaline nitrates particularly on soils deficient in lime. 8 June, ^907. New Sources of Available Nitrogen. 331 Lime Nitrogen or Calcium Cyanamide. — For the last seven or eight years there has been manufactured by the Cyanid Gesellschaft, at Berlin, a compound called " lime nitrogen " calcium cyanamide. It is prepared by passing deoxidised air into an electric furnace filled with calcium carbide. The carbide absorbs the nitrogen forming a fine black powder ■ — calcium cyanamide — which contains from 19-20 per cent, of nitrogen, or almost as much as sulphate of ammonia. Reviewing the experiments conducted by Dr. Haselhoff at jNlarburg, Professor Wagner, Darmstadt, and A. D. Hall at Rothamsted, it would seem that the manurial properties of lime nitrogen are of the highest order, though in its present form its use can never become so cosmo- politan as that of either nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia. Tested side by side with the latter on barley and mangolds, Hall found that the nitrogen in the cyanamide to be practically equal to that in the ammonia salt, though the latter would appear to come more rapidlv into use. The c\ anamide has first to be decomposed into ammonia and car- bonate of lime. The actual figures obtained from the field experiments conducted in England, Scotland and Germany are here given in tabulated form: — I. Barley test (N. D. Hall)— Manure. Sulphate of Ammonia, 200 lbs. " Lime Nitrogen/' 210 lbs. II. Rye test (Dr. Haselhoff) — Manure. Unmanured Nitrate of Soda " Lime Nitrogen " III. Oat test (J. Hendrick) — Manure. Unmanured Superphosphate, 2 cwt. . . . Potassium Chloride, i cwt. Nitrate of Soda, 142 lbs. Superphosphate, 2 cwt. ... Potassium Chloride, i cwt. " Lime Nitrogen," i cwt. IV. IVIangold test (A. D. Hall)— Grain. 37.5 bus. 34-3 .> Straw. 24 cwt. .. 19 ,, Grain. 10 cwt. 3 qr. . 17 ,, ^ ,, ■ 14 M li,, . Straw. 30 cwt. I qr •• 39 >, 3 '' • • 38 „ I „ Grain. 3.580 lbs. . Straw. .. 3,800 lbs. 3,790 ,. •■ 4-73° » 3-950 " ■ • 4^670 ,, Manure. Roots. Leaves. Sulphate of Ammonia, 300 lbs. ... 23-5 ■ .. 4.9 " Lime Nitrogen," 315 lbs. 22.0 •■ 4-5 Potato test (Dr. Haselhoff)— Manure. Tubers. L'nmanured ... ... .. 126 cwt. 0 qr Nitrate of Soda, 127 lbs. .. 138 ,, I ,, " Lime Nitrogen " ■■ 138 ,, 3 - The conclusions to be drawn from the Marburg experiments are that the lime nitrogen interferes with the germination of the seed, but when 33^ Journal of Agricidturc. [8 June, 1907. once the necessary interactions between it and the soil constituents have taken place its fertilising properties are almost equivalent to those of Chili saltpetre ; the relative values ma\ be numerically expressed as 94 to 100. It is clear then that we have in this black powder a store of valuable nitrogen, and though it requires more careful and judicious handling than the other materials of this class, its manurial properties are such as to warrant favorable consideration in the future. As Hall has remarked, " the chief practical drawback to the use of cyanamide lies in the fact that it cannot be mixed with manures like superphosphate, but must be sown separately and scuffled into the soil some days before the seed is sown." The cause of this injurious action, if sown along with or within a day or two of the seed, is believed by Wagner to be due to the presence of excess of free ammonia or to a small amount of the dicyanamide which is distinctly unfavorable to plant life. To avoid this the lime nitrogen should be applied at least a week before sowing. On argillaceous and peaty soils, in fact in all those deficient in lime salts, this calcareous compound should yield excellent results. Peat and Nitrification. — An attempt has been made by Messrs. Muntz and Laine to solve the nitrogen problem without invoking the aid of electricity^ — always an expensive power to employ. In their earlier experiments they obtained nitrates by saturating bone-black with a weak ammoniacal solution, and allowing time for the nitrifying organisms to perform their function. Subsequently they hit upon the notion of sub- stituting peat for animal black as being of a more open porous nature, and therefore more favorable to rapid bacterial action. In this process the peat is broken up, mixed with lime, infected with bacteria and soaked with a weak solution of ammonium sulphate, and it is found that the drainage water contains nitrates which can be obtained bv evaporating the liquor. At first the drainage water is not rich in nitrates, but if the ■' filtration " be repeated several times — weak ammonia solution being added to the drainage water each time — up to 22 per cent, of nitrates may be obtained. However, the nitrification of ammonia in this wav has very little bearing upon the expansion of the field of origin of the world's nitrates for the same process is operating at a slower rate in practically all our soils, and there is moreover no reason to expect that the artificial nitrification of ammoniated solutions can ever be turned to profitable account. The feasibility of their latest suggestion, namely, the utilisation of the peat nitrogen which amounts to about 2 per cent., instead of weak solu- tions of sulphate of ammonia, deserves further consideration. By means of the wet process of distillation, in which a current of superheated steam is employed, from 80-90 per cent, of the constituent nitrogen has been extracted from peat, so that we may fairly hope in the near future to hear of still further advances along this line of investigation. 8 June, 1907.] Garden Xoics. 333 GARDEN NOTES. /. Croiiiii, 1 uspcctor, V cgcfation Diseases Aets. The Nerine. Nerine is a genus of deciduous bulbous i)hints indigenous to South Africa that bloom during the autumn months, producing umljels of beautiful flowers that are borne on long stiff stems in most of the species and their varieties. This genus was formerly included in Amarvllis and the species described in the early botanical works were known under that name. Lycoris aurea and radiaia, natives of China and Japan, were formerly classed as Nerines, which they closely resemble in flower and habit of growth. For gardening purposes they mav l)e still known as nerines, and are considered as synonymous by some authorities. Nerines are undoubtedly a most beautiful class of bulbous plants, and being hardy in most parts of this State should be much more largely grown than thev are at present. They will thrive under practically the NERINE ALBA, WHITE. NERINE HUMILIS, PINK. same conditions as Amaryllis bclladoiiiia. a plant that is found to grow well in most districts. Either as pot plants or to grow in the garden they are worthy of a place in any garden. The bulbs are deciduous and require no water during summer, a fact that makes them specially suit- able subjects in localities where the supplv of water for gardening pur- poses is limited. The range of colour in the flowers is fairly wide, com- prising most brilliant shades of scarlet, n^e, pink, and white, and, in- cluding Lycoris, golden yellow. The number of kinds procurable from nurserymen and seedsmen in Victoria has been limited until lately, but now many fine kinds are included in some of the catalogues, a large number of them being very beautiful and unknown to the majority of gardeners and amateurs. 334 Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. Soil — Situation — Culture. The most suitable soil is a warm sandv loam, but the plants will grow well in most soils if thoroughly drained. If the soil is poor the plants will benefit by the addition of some well-rotted manure, worked into the soil some distance below the surface ; the addition of lime, rubbish, sand, or charcoal, is of benefit if the soil is of a heavy retentive nature. When preparing a site for the bulbs care should be taken to select a place where they may grow undisturbed for several years and where there will be no need to apply water during summer to other plants — during summer the plants are at rest and water in quantity is injurious toi them. They flower freely when the bulbs are growing thickly together. The situa- tion is of more importance than the soil, as although the plants may exist in damp and shady positions for years thev will not produce flowers freely. The most exposed and warmest position m the garden is the most suitable. Planting should be done during summer when the bulbs are at rest; at that time they may be procured from seedsmen and nurserymen. The soil should be trodden and thoroughly settled before planting the bulbs, to obviate settling afterwards, for one of the conditions of successful culture is that they must not be buried deeply. The neck of the bulb should be placed at about the settled level of the surface ; if planted in clumps place the bulbs about 3 inches apart to allow for increase, which is effected by oft'-sets from the original bulbs. Care must be taken when cultivating that no implement is allowed to damage the bulbs which must be freed from weeds &c. by hand picking. The only means of increasing nerines are by off-sets or seeds. Attempts have been made to cross nerines with other genera without isuccess, but the different kinds or varieties may be cross-fertilised and .new varieties raised — a most interesting proceeding. The kinds procurable in Melbourne are : — Sarniensis (the Guernsey lily), Fothergilli, corusca, excellens, elegans, alba, large flowering kinds; amabilis, crispa, flexuosa, humilis, filifolia and erubescens, species bearing smaller flowers. Lycoris aurea and radiata are also available. Flo"wer Garden. Manuring and digging beds and borders, pruning and planting de- 'ciduous trees and shrubs may be performed at this season. The greater part of the small prunings of shrubs and herbaceous plants, and all leaves, should be dug into the beds if room for the purpose is available. If this cannot be done without damaging roots of plants growing in the beds the prunings &c. may be heaped and mixed with soil and manure to decav and to be worked into- the soil later. Where bulbs such as narcissi, tulips &c. are grown in special beds, the surface should be lightlv worked and cleaned to obviate the necessity of such cleaning later in the season, when the foliage will be much more extensive, and the work will be difficult to perform without damaging the leaves of the plants. It should be remembered that the leaves of a plant perform functions similar to those performed by tlie skin, lungs, and stomach of an animal, and that their destruction or even injury must have a detrimental effect on the plant. When the leaves are ripening and falling their work is done, but young growing foliage should generally bt carefully nurtured. 8 June, 1907.] Garden Notes. 335 Roses may be planted now, but pruning is not advisable until next month. Where cuttings are required for propagation they may be taken without entirely pruning the plants. If the soil in which roses are to be planted is light or sandy, the addition of clay is necessary to insure success. In deep sandy soils rose plants often produce very strong shoots early in the season that fail to ripen and often die back in winter. This would be prevented in a measure if the soil was rammed hard before planting the rose. Any manure used when planting should be fairly rotted, and worked into the soil below and around the site intended for the plant, but should not be brought into contact with roots. Rose- growers are usually anxious to know the probable value of the new varieties that are distributed each season by the nursery trade. Several of the new kinds offered this season are very promising including Mrs. Myles Kennedy, silvery white, flushed and edged with pink; William Shean, pink, a very promising variety ; Mrs. Peter Blair, deep yellow, may not be large enough for exhibition, but a good rose for the garden ; Madame Constant Soupert, yellow, shaded peach ; Mrs. G. W. Kershaw, |,ink, resembling Belle Siebrecht ; Ladv Rossmore, reddish crimson ; Warrior, deep red, a decorative rose resembling Papa Gontier, but much darker in colour ; and Lena, also a decorative variety, producing long buds of a bright apricot colour. Chrysanthemums should be removed from the beds where they were grown to produce large blooms, and should be replanted in an open position in unmanured soil. The sucker growths may be infested by aphis and should be cleaned before being replanted. The easiest and most effective method is to divide the stool or crown and dip the divisions in a. strong nicotine solution. As dahlias die down the tubers mav be lifted and stored in a cool dry place, free from draught. Where dahlias are ripening their seeds and the weather is continuously moist, damping of the seed heads is likely. It is well to remove anv that are at all ripe, and to clean the seeds and dry them before a tire, otherwise the whole may be lost. Carnations should be tied to stakes. The winter blooming kinds should now be showing flowering growths freely, and will be benefited by a light application of blood manure or other rapid acting fertiliser. Disbudding is necessary if fine blooms are desired. Kitchen Garden. Soil should I)e prepared for the reception of the various crops that will be needed to supply the requirements of the cultivator during spring and summer. In limited areas the cultivation of various vegetables that require to be used when freshly gathered should be specially aimed at. Most kinds require a cool, rich, well-drained soil to attain excellence, and while many will succeed in light, sandy loams, others are produced in fine condition with little diflficulty in soils of opposite character. In the light warm soils at Brighton, cabbage, cauliflower, early potatoes, and onions are grown in quantity ; at Coburg, in stiff clays, the best celery in the metropolitan district is produced ; while the Burwood gardeners, from soils of a loamv nature, provide a large proportion of the peas sold in the market early. Large quantities of manure are applied regularly in all classes of soils, due regard being paid to proper rotation. 336 Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. Onions mav be planted out from early sowings. The soil should be thoroughly worked, and brought to a condition of fine tilth l)efore planting. Unless the soil was heavily manured for a previous crop the addition of manure is necessary. Onions need constant and perfect surface cultivation during the growing period. Seeds may be sown for later transplanting or for salading. Successional crops of peas, lettuce &c. may be sown. Some fine specimens of a new rhubarb were shown at the autumn horticultural exhibitions. It is named " Stone's Ever-bearing Ruby," and is a locallx - raised variety. The stems are of good colour, large but not coarse, and are freely produced during winter and summer. THE PROCLAIMED PLANTS OF VIOTORL\. {Coutiiiued from fage 276.) Alfred. ]. Eivart, D.Sc, Pli.D., F.L.S., Government Botanist; and J. R. Tove\\ Herbarium Assistant. S^^eet Briar. Rosa nihiginosa. Linuc {Rosacea). A tall often dense shrub, branches erect or arching, with large hooked prickles flattened laterally, and smaller, straighter ones intersi>ersed with glandular hairs. Leaflets 5 to 7, roundish or egg-shaped, doubly toothed, glabrous above, hairy, clothed with rust coloured glands beneath, from which when bruised is emitted the peculiar sweet-briar odour, for which the plant is noted. Flowers i or 3 together, concave, pink. Sepals pin- nate and bristly. Fruit orange-red, roundish or ovoid. This hardy deciduous shrub has been introduced from Europe, and has spread over a considerable area of the State. The plant should be dug out, the roots removed and the whole dried and burnt. This should be done before the plant has fruited. Proclaimed for various districts comprising nearlv the whole State. FLATR \:\ JP.JoYei/.StrtxU Kernfi, jirtx/u^ Cm 'PrC'iUr SWEET BRIAR ( Roscu rubi^hnoscv , Linne ) 8 June, 1907.] Elements of Animal Physiology. 337 THE ELEMENTS OF ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. TF. A. Osborne, M.B., D.Sc, Professor of Physiology and Histology, Dean of the Facidtv of Agriculture in the University of Melbourne. {Continued from page 2jj.) CHAPTER VI. The Enzymes. The changes denoted bv the word fermentation have long l)een a mystery to the human mind. The most familiar example of this process is the transformation of sugar into alcohol and a gas (carbon di-oxide) bv the action of yeast. The salient feature in all fermentations is the large amount of substance which is changed bv a small amount of ferment without anv loss of power being incurred by the ferment. To explain this mystery many crude theories have been put forward from time to time such as the philosophers' stone, spiritual agency, &c. The great I-iebig fell into the blunder of regarding it as a simple chemical trans- formation unconnected in any way with life. It was the brilliant work of Pasteur that proved conclusivelv that yeast was a living thing — a plant in fact. He showed that putrefaction was caused by living bac- teria and that the souring of milk and kindred changes were due to living things. Before Pasteur's discovery a few observations had been made on certain products of living things, but themselves not living, which could produce changes allied to fermentation. Thus, in the saliva, a ferment W'as discovered which, though present in minute amounts, could transform large quantities of starch into sugar. In the gastric juice a ferment pepsin was found which, in conjunction with an acid, could digest protein. Independentlv of these workers the chemists had dis- covered a number of reactions in which small amounts of substance could produce changes in immensely greater quantities of other substances with- out themselves undergoing any change. Thus it was found that hvdrogen and oxygen would unite almost instantaneouslv in the presence of a minute amount of platinum, the platinum remaining unaffected and capable of producing the same change apparently for all time. To such reactions the name contact reactions was given and later the name catalysis. The number of catalytic reactions known to the modern chemist is very great and catalysis is being more and more employed in the laboratory and manufactory. But the mere naming of a reaction did not do away with the mystery. A step in the solution of this problem was made when it was shown that in all catalytic reactions the essential feature is a hastening, an acceleration of a change w^hich is normally going on but in a very slow manner. Hvdrogen and oxvgen mixed in a test-tube at ordinary temperatures are reallv uniting to form water, but the change is so slow that the life time of a man would be insufficient to show any appreciable diminution in bulk; introduce a tinv speck of spongy platinum and the reaction is over in a fraction of a second. Hydrogen peroxide is continuously decomposing into oxygen and water but at a slow rate ; introduce a drop of water in which finely divided platinum is floating and the decomposition gains enormously in rate even though the amount of platinum added can only be expressed in millionths of a grain. 338 Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. If pure copper be dipped into pure nitric acid no reaction is at first observed, but introduce an unweighably small amount of sodium nitrite and the copper is immediately attacked bv the acid. Catalytic reactions are checked by cold and increased bv heat and show a marked sensi- tiveness to the presence of certain other bodies for which the term poisons has been borrowed from medical science. Thus a minute amount of prussic acid will stop the catalytic action of platinum on hydrogen per- oxide and mere traces of arsenic will hinder the catalytic action of the same metal as it is emploved in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. Xow this idea can be extended to the ferments of saliva and gastric juice. The action of the diastase of saliva or of malt extract is simply an acceleration of the change from starch into sugar which is normally progressing at a very slow rate. The same may be said of pepsin. It has been noted in the previous chapter that proteins tend to disintegrate even when sheltered from bacteria, but that some vears must elapse before this is noticeable. Now all that pepsin does is to bring about in an hour or two what might otherwise take a full century to accomplish. Neither the diastase nor the pepsin does any actual work ; their action may be compared with oiling the axles or removing the brake from a truck which is slowly crawling downhill. To catalvsors such as diastase and pepsin, which are products of life but not themselves living, the term ENZYMES has been given. But what of the fermentations like the alcoholic which apparently demand the existence of life in their midst? In 1895 a discovery was made that yeast may be killed and an extract made from it w^hich can carry out the alcoholic fermentation in a rapid manner. It had alreadv been shown that sugar solution placed in sunlight shows traces of alcohol after a lapse of a considerable time. Clearly the yeast when it trans- forms sugar into alcohol does so by means of an enzyme which accelerates a process already in action. Kindred discoveries were made with various bacteria and with living organs so that we can now state that a large number of the reactions carried out in the animal body are due to enzymes, which enzymes are specially made by living cells for those particular reactions. When we consider the immense number of chemical substances which are made or transformed bv living things we cannot but be amazed at the ease with which these activities are conducted and in the face of so many difficulties. A chemist in his laboratorv can employ high and low temperatures, high and low pressures, he may use strong acids and alkalies, he may crystallise, volatilise and sublime, yet even in the mam- malian body, highly as it is organised, all reactions proceed within a temperature range of a few degrees, pressure is everywhere constant, the reaction is neutral or only very faintly acid or alkaline, crystalliza- tion, at least in animals, is never resorted to, and volatilisation and sub- limation are impossible. Despite this heavy handicap the body can pro- duce, rapidly, accurately and economically, a host of chemical com- pounds which defy the utmost resources of the chemist even to analyse. As research in physiology has proceeded it has been found that many chemical reactions which were formerly thought to be due to mysterious powers of life can be classified as catalytic. The mysterious part remains in the fact that the cell makes anew the proper catalysor at the proper time and in the proper place. This is but another response to change in environment. 8 June, 1907.] Elements of Animal Physiology. 339 Single-celled animals have but a small equipment of enzvmes to liberate, as compared with higher animals where special sets of catalysors are relegated to special organs and the total number thus made very great. Some special characters of enzymes may now be described in detail. 1. Enzymes are probahh- closely related to proteins in constitution. Chemical reagents which precipitate proteins destroy enzymes. They are, like albumens and globulins, altered by heat, in fact no enzyme in solution can stand a temperature of 7o"C. and manv not even 6o°C. Thus it happens that an enzyme has an optimum temperature, i.e., a temperature at which it acts most rapidly. If the temperature be in- creased from zero upwards the activity of the enzyme increases too, but when the heat becomes sufficiently great to injure the enzyme its activity begins to fall off and will eventually disappear. With the majority of enzymes the optimum temperature is just a little above the temperature of the mammalian body. Unfortunately no enzvme has ever been isolated in a pure form, in fact we have no idea, when we have a solution of an enzyme, how much of the solid matter present is impuritv and how much is ferment. 2. Enzymes act specifically. An acid, as we have seen, can split up all disaccharides, all polysaccharides and all proteins, but such uni- versal application in an enzyme would be disastrous to the bioplasm. We find for instance that the enzyme which accelerates the splitting of cane sugar into dextrose and levulose, fails utterly to act on any other disaccharide, not to mention polysaccharides and proteins. It is highlv probable that each enzyme unites at first with the body acted on and has ii structure related in some way to the structure of the latter as the wards of a key are related to the lock. We find many instances of an enzyme acting not on one but on a small number of bodies, yet when these are investigated it will be found that they all present some striking similarity in chemical structure. Thus the alcohol-producing ferment of yeast or zymase, as it is called, can act not only on dextrose but on levulose and another sugar called mannose. 3. Enzymes determine the direction of change. One enzyme will transform dextrose into alcohol and carbon dioxide, another will change it into butyric acid and hydrogen, a third will transform it into lactic acid. Here we have a quality which seems at variance with the law concerning the accelerating action of enzymes. This point has not vet been properly investigated, but the probable solution of the difficulty seems to be that dextrose of itself tends to decompose into carbon dioxide and water, whilst alcohol, butyric acid and lactic acid are all steps towards this end. This brings us to the next property. 4. Enzymes, much more than inorganic catalysors, tend to halt at some stage of change. An acid will carry starch through dextrins and maltose into dextrose, but the enzvme which acts on starch (diastase) will carry the change as far as maltose and then stop. 5. Enzymes like catalysors generally may be poisoned by minute quantities of other substances. Prussic acid even in minute doses stops the action of all enzymes and to this its great poisonous action in the body is due. 6. Enzymes, like other cataly.sors, may be the cause of extensive changes though present in very minute amounts. Owing to the reason already given the amount of an enzvme in solution cannot be determined 340 Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. but even granting that all the solid matter were enzyme the amount of change which it can produce is surprising. Thus one part by weight of rennin can transform 100,000 times its weight of caseinogen into casein. 7. As enzymes accelerate changes, which normally occur but slowly, it can be shown that all these changes are from a condition of a higher to a lower potential energy. The enzyme does not put work into the system that it acts on ; on the contrary it liberates available energy and allows work to be done. The transformation of sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide is accompanied by the formation of heat ; we may liken the sugar to a reservoir of water on a hill side and the action of the enzyme zymase to the opening of a tap which allows the water to run down into another reservoir at a lower level. The action of an oxidising enzyme which transforms alcohol into water and carbon dioxide we can further liken to a second tap which allows the water in this lower reservoir to rush down to the sea. Enzymes are found wherever there is living bioplasm and withov enzymes life is impossible. In most cases, if not all, a number of enzymes working instantaneously or in succession mav be observed. Thus the yeast plant, if placed in a cane sugar solution, can make no use of its zymase unless the cane sugar is first of all split up by another enzyme called inveriase. In the same manner the yeast plant produces maltase which transforms maltose into dextrose and allows the zymase scope for its activity. But most of the veasts employed have no enzyme which can accelerate a change of lactose into dextrose and galactose and hence in a solution of this sugar no alcohol may be produced. In many cases we can show that the free enzyme does not exist as such in the cell ; it is present in an inactive form, a mother substance or fro-cuzvnic which we may liken to a knife in a sheath or a gun at half cock. Probably this is the case with all enzymes. We see that living bioplasm does not merely store bodies at hiij;h potential energy and let them degrade into bodies of low potential energy ; it can accelerate this degradation and for all we know may be able to check it at the right time and in the required direction. To make a very rough analogy the molecules of food may be likened to a number of wound-up watch-springs, whilst the cell is composed of a number of complicated clockwork mechanisms. Tlie fell then places each spring in the proper machine and sets it going or checks its action when changes in the environment induce it to do so. Only a limited number of springs can be employed, namely those that fit the various mechanisms. We find enzymes not only in the food canal where thev are of service in digesting food ; in the tissues for the liberation of energy, the getting rid of waste and the formation of new compounds ; but also in every living cell where they have the power of digesting and destro\ ing the cell should the latter be cut off from the circulation. If an organ, say the liver, the spleen or a piece of muscle, be cut out of a living animal or one recently dead, it will begin to disintegrate and its proteins be changed into amino-acids even though bacteria be rigidlv excluded. Thi : process has been termed autolysis or self digestion. If the organ were heated to boiling point then no autolysis would occur and the proteins present would remain intact for many years. Autolysis explains the softening of meat when it is hung and is of immense importance in the digestion of food by horses and ruminants. We see nutolvsis also in 8 June, 1907.] Elements of A/riiiial PJiysiology. 34i an organ \vhich remains in its normal condition but from which the blood supply has been cut off. The probable reason for this strange occurrence is that during starvation the body has to live on itself, that is, has to digest its own substance as food, and that cutting an organ away from the circulation is onlv an extreme form of star\ation. CLASSIFICATION OF THE MORE IMPORTANT ENZYMES FOUND IN THE ANIMAL BODY. a. Those that act on carbohydrates — Invertase which changes cane-sugar into dextrose and levulose. Maltase which changes maltose into dextrose. Lactase which changes lactose into dextrose and galactose. Diastase which changes starch, glvcogen and dextrin into maltose. b. Those acting on proteins — ■ Trypsin which changes protein into amino acids. Pepsin (in conjunction with an acid) which changes protein into proteoses. Erepsin which changes proicoses into amino acids. c. Those acting on fats — Lipase which changes fats into glycerine and fatty acids. (/. Those which accelerate the oxidation of substances — Oxidases, probablv manv in number, and each fitted for the oxidation of a particular substance. e. Those which produce clotting — Thrombin (called also fibrin-ferment) which changes soluble fibrinogen in the blood into the clot fibrin. Rennin (called also lab) which transforms soluble caseinogen into the curd casein. CHAPTER Vn. Muscle. Muscle we mav regard as the tissue which is responsible for all intrinsic movements in the higher animals whether of the body as a whole (running, swimming, jumping, &c.) or of individual parts of the body (circulation of the blood, movements of eyes jaws stomach &c.). As has been alreadv stated, the essential elements of muscle are cells in which contractilit\ is highlv specialised. All muscle-cells are longer than they are broad and when thev contract the length is diminished whilst the breadth is increased. The change is therefore one of shape and not of size. Skeletal Muscle. The subdivision of muscle into three classes has alreadv been given. The first class which is called striped, voluntary or skeletal muscle, and which is familiar to us as the flesh of an animal, possesses certain char- acters already implied in these names. Such muscle on microscopic examination is seen to consist of cells which are striped horizontally, the stripes being due to rows of little prismatic bodies which by their change of shape determine the total change of shape in the cell. The second 34- ] onrnal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. name implies that they are under the control of the will. They are set into activity solely by nerve impulses which come to them from the central nervous system and are more dependent on the central nervous system than any other form of tissue, for, if the nerve supplying the muscle be cut and not allowed to heal, the muscle rapidly undergoes atrophv and dies. The third name informs us that such muscles are attached, at least by one end, to bone and by their contraction can, in most cases, make certain bones to move with respect to each other. A glance at the illustration on page 344 will make this clear. Here two muscles are shown, the tibialis anticus and the gastroaiemius, which have each a double bony attachment. In each of these types there is a broad Ri'-.illhiiri Pig ^o. — Part of a contractile cell of skeletal muscle. The cross stripes are due to the rows of prismatic bodies. A wave of contraction is seen passing along the cell. (After Schafer.). origin and a narrow insertion by means of a tendon or sinew, but these features are by no means universal amongst muscles. Now if the gas- trocnemius alone were to contract, the calcaneum would be drawn nearer to the femur, in other words the hock would be opened out or extended, and the stifle somewhat flexed. If the tibialis anticus alone were to contract, the hock would be flexed. With respect to the hock these two muscles are therefore antagonistic in their action and similar arrangements will be found if we examine any other joint, one set of muscles being extensor 8 June, 1907.] lUciuculs of Aiiiiual Plixsiology. 343 and the other flexor. The necessity of such an arrangement is obvious, for a muscle, whilst it can pull cannot push, and furthermore delicate and skilled movement of a limb can be best brought about by having both sets contracted and allowing one set to act a little more powerfully than the other. In ball and socket joints such as the hip, shoulder and eye we find sets of muscles on four or more aspects so that the range of move- ment may be increased. Nature of muscle contraction. — A muscle is in realitv an engine for transforming energ\ into work. Each muscle is continuallv drawing on the blood with which it is copiouslv ]:)erfused for a supply of nitrogen- free carbon compounds with a relatively high potential energy. When the muscle contracts these compounds are broken down and energv is liberated. A sufficient supply of oxygen is also essential. It was for- merly thought that these carbon compounds were burned by the oxvgen with the formation of heat and that the heat thus produced made the prisms in the muscle cell contract, just as stretched catgut will contract when its temperature is raised. But muscle works far too economicallv for this to be the case. More probably the carbon compounds, bv a partial disintegration, give rise to electric energy which is transformed into work ; then these break down products, which if allowed to accumu- late would check the production of electric energy, are burnt up by the ox\gen. Whatever be the exact nature of the transformation, we know that the final chemical products of muscular activitv are water and car- bonic acid. If oxygen be withheld from the muscle the latter can go on contracting for some time but weaker and weaker until it eventual) \ ceases to respond to even the most urgent ner\e impulses. If we examine a mu-scle in this condition we shall find that it is acid in reaction, and that this acidity is due to the presence of lactic acid which possibly represents one of the break down products which normally are burnt off. The carbon compounds which bring ]X)tential energy to muscle can be derived from either carbohvdrates, proteins or fats. In the case of pro- teins the nitrogenous parts 0:6 the molecule are previously split off, forming urea which leaves the body by the kidn^^y, whilst the more carbonaceous part can be used as a muscle fuel-food. There is some evidence to show that the carbon compounds derived from proteins can yield their energ\- to muscle at a quicker rate than those derived from carbohvdrate and fats. An ox, for instance, whose diet is largely carbohydrate, may do far more work in a dav than a tiger, but such work is performed in a com- paratively slow and regular manner. The tiger, as a protein-eater, can command a sudden liberation of energy in its muscles and can in conse- quence drag the ox clown, kill it, and run off with it. The same thing is shown in horses which are put on a liberal protein ration ; they become spirited and fresh and are better able to produce the swift and p'owerful muscular contractions that are needed in a race. It has been stated that a muscle as an engine works eronomically. Speaking generally a mu.scle can transform 30 per cent, of the energy it receives into work, the remaining 70 per cent, taking the form of heat which warms the muscle and escapes into the blood and surrounding tissues. Another way of stating this fact is to say that muscles supplied with a certain amount of carbonaceous matter will produce only 70 per cent, of the heat which these same compounds would give rise to if burned elsewhere. Now this 30 per cent, efficiency of a muscle places it far above any steam engine as an economical machine. It is not however 344 Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. so economical as some of the latest forms of oil engines which ha^-e an efficiency of close on 40 per cent. From the foregoing facts we can now state that, when a muscle con- tracts, it uses up nitrogen-free carbon compounds and oxygen, gives off water and carbonic acid, and produces heat. Factors that influence muscular contraction. — -Even though a muscle mav not be contracting visibly we shall find that in a conscious Fi^. 41. — The muscle on the right is the gastrocnemius, that on the left is the tibialis anticus. (After Hagemann.). animal it is shorter than if the animal were narcotised or asleep. This slight, but constant, contraction, which keeps the muscle taut and readv at a moment's notice to contract forcibly in response to a stronger nerve message, is called ' ' muscle tone. '" ' The greater the resistance to be overcome the greater is the force of contraction. This can be seen even in a muscle which has been cut out of a recently killed animal ; within certain limits it liberates more energv and contracts more forcibly, the more it is hampered in its contraction. Then again we are aware that by our will we can make a muscle act strongly or weakly as we are inclined. That is to sav, the force of a muscular contraction will vary according to the nerve message the muscle receives. 8 June, 1907.] Elements of Animal Physiology. 345 It is an every day experience to find that exercise increases muscular power. This is due to two factors. First, the exercise itself actuallv makes the muscle either bigger or more efficient; and secondly, when an exercise is repeated and learnt, unnecessary muscular exertion is avoided. When an animal performs a skilled action for the first time (a man doing an athletic exercise, or a horse jumping or in harness) a number of superfluous muscles are called into play and antagonistic muscles are too forcibly contracted. When the exercise is learnt the requisite muscles and no more, receive the nerve messages calling on them to contract, and hence the work is done more economical I v and with less fatigue. When -a muscle, acting under the influence of the will, and opposed bv a re- sistance sufficiently great, continues contracting until fatigue has set in and the resistance can no longer be overcome, we find that the contractile substance of the muscle is still capable of doing vigorous work. Tf for instance a weight be lifted by the flexion of a single finger until utter fatigue has set in, and the muscle, or its nerve, be stimulated in the arm by an electric shock, the weight will be lifted, and can continue to be lifted, for a considerable time. Fatigue, in fact, is most strongly marked in the motor nerve-cells of the central nervous system, much less strongly marked in the receptive substance of the muscle, -and still less in the contractile mechanism of the muscle ; for a muscle if stimulated directly can contract long after it has ceased to contract on stimulation of its nerve. That muscular power is different in different individuals ; is less in the female than in the male ; and is greater in adult life than in youth or old age, is well known. These differences are due, i)artly to the differences in number and size of the muscle cells, and partly to the \ariable efficiency of the contractile elements. Chemical composition of muscle. — The contractile cells of muscle are arranged on a scaffolding of fibrous connective tissue. Moreover con- nective tissue sheets pass through and through the muscle marking off the muscle cells into bundles. With the connective tissue there is always some fat. As the amounts of connective tissue and fat are very inconstant, the chemical composition of muscle substance varies within wide limits. As an average of the figures obtained for muscle which has been freed from fat as far as the eye could determine we mav take the following as useful : — Per Cent. Water ... ... ... ... 75 Proteins ... ... ... ... 18 Chondrogen and fat ... ... 2-^ Mineral matter ... ... ... 1-2 Glycogen and various extractives* ... 0-5 We have seen that muscle requires carbon compounds as sources of energy, but it also requires true protein for repair. A muscle, like any other machine, is constantly losing some of its substance from wear and tear, but this (unlike the machine) is constantly being replaced from the proteins of the blood. This amount of repair protein is very small as compared with the amount of carbon compounds used as energy supply. By the term extractives is meant those simple chemical substances which make up the main part of meat extract. 346 Journal of Agriculture. [8 JUNE, 1907. Death of muscle. — When an animal dies and the circulation stops, the muscles continue to live for some time, as is shown by their contracting on stimulation by electricity ; but as no oxygen is brought to them the breakdown products, including lactic acid, accumulate and make the re- action markedly acid. When these substances have been heaped up to a certain degree, part of the protein of the muscle coagulates and this coagulation produces a shortening of the muscle so that all the limbs of the dead bodv become for a time quite rigid. This death stiffening is termed rigor mortis. We may summarise the condition of a muscle in rigor mortis by stating that it is more opaque than normal, is acid in re- action, is in a contracted condition due to coagulation of certain proteins, and is no longer responsive in anv way to stimulation — in other words is dead. Then autolysis or self digestion sets in, the rigidity disappears, and, in the case of an animal killed for food, the flesh becomes more tender. Bacteria of course find autolysed muscle a suitable habitat and will complete the breakdown, aided bv the larvge of various insects, if the muscle (meat) be left exposed to the air. Heart Muscle. Heart muscle differs from skeletal chiefly in the fact that its con- trations are rhythmic in character, are short and quick, and further, that thev do not depend for their existence on the central nervous system. As we shall see later, the nerve impulses that pass to the heart from the central nervous system, only modify the rate or force of the contraction ; if the nerves are cut, the heart continues to beat and, unlike skeletal muscle, shows no sign of atrophy. Whether this power of beating rhythmically is a property of heart muscle or is due to a nervous me- chanism embedded in the heart substance, is still a debatable point. The heart resembles skeletal muscle in using nitrogen-free carbon compounds as sources of energy and in requiring a liberal supply of oxygen ; it also contracts more forcibly the greater the resistance it encounters and it passes into rigor mortis in much the same manner. It is unlike skeletal muscle in being less dependent on the central nervous system, in not being under the control of the will and in the much more restricted range in the variation of its force. Involuntary or Smooth iNIuscle. Smooth muscle is peculiar in that it can remain almost indefinitely in a tonic state of contraction without displaying fatigue. This state of contraction is subject to rhythmic alterations. Both tonic contraction and rhythmic change can exist if all connection with the central nervous system is cut off; they are conditioned by an intrinsic nervous mechanism or are actual properties of the muscle itself. Nerve impulses passing into smooth muscle from the central nervous system can increase or diminish the force of the contraction. These properties of smooth muscle make it of service in the walls of arteries and veins and in hollow viscera like the stomach, gut and uterus, &c., where sustained contraction is essen- tial. It is also found in the iris, constricting or dilating the pupil ; within the eyeball and concerned with the focussing of the lens ; and in the skin producing ruffling of hair, fur or feathers. As one of its names implies, it is not under the control of the will, but like the heart receives nerve impulses via the autonomic system. 8 June, 1907.] Inspection of Stallions. 347 INSPECTION AND EXAMINATION OF STALLIONS. Government Certificate of Soundness. I'he following circular letter relative to^ the inspection and examination of stallions has been forwarded to the various Agricultural Societies throughout the Stale. Department of Agriculture, i^Ielbourne, 24th May, 1907. SlR; In accordance with one of the recommendations of the Horse Improve- ment Committee and in pursuance of the policy of assisting the small breeder towards a more valuable result in horsebreeding operations, the Minister of Agriculture (the Hon. George Swinburne) has decided to issue, free of cost, a " Government Certificate of Soundness and Approval " to all stallions standing for public stud service which, on inspection and examina- tion by one of the Government Veterinary Officers, are found free from hereditary unsoundness and defective conformation. The certificates will be given for all breeds — draught horses, light horses and ponies, and it is especially provided that blemishes or unsoundnesses, or defects of con- formation the result of accident, external injury or overstrain and over- work, will not disqualify. The main advantage that is expected to accrue from the carrying out of this scheme is that the Government certificate will become the "hall- mark" of soundness in stallions; and owners of mares will be aided in the choice of a sound sire and so be guaranteed that the progeny will not be depreciated in value by the inheritance of unsoundness. Conversely a means will be afforded of avoiding constitutionally unsound and trashy sires. The proposal is to have the inspection conducted at Parades held at some convenient centre in the different district areas usually travelled by stallions, on some suitable date (whether Show day or otherwise) prior to the commencement of the forthcoming season — preferably in July or August. The Minister will be glad if your Society could undertake the arrange- ments for holding such a Parade either alone or in conjunction with other Agricultural Societies in the travelling stud areas of your district. A very sensible arrangement, and one which it is suggested might be adopted with advantage bv closely neighbouring societies, has been come to already by three societies in one prominent horsebreeding district. They have agreed to hold the stallion parade in July at their different centres in turn, so that each centre will have the parade triennial ly. F^xcept to the extent of announcement and advertisement, the Parade and Examination will be carried out without expense to your Society and no conditions other than those indicated above will be imposed. I am directed to ask that the matter be laid before your Committee at an early date so that if the Parade is decided on, it may be held before the commencement of the stud season and that clashing of dates may be provided against. I will be glad to receive your reply in due course. I have the honour to* be, Yours obediently, E. G. DUFFUS, Secretarv for Agriculture. 348 Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. DEYELOP.MEXT OF DAIRY 8H0RTH0RXS. R. T. Archer, Dairy Expert. A study of the records gi\-en below of a herd of Shorthorns will go a long way to place that magnificent breed in its true light with regard to the dairy farmer, and will be particularly interesting to those who kno\\- the value of Shorthorns when a proper system of management is ai)plied to them. Some vears ago-, Mr. Manifold determined to develop a dairy herd o-it of his station bred Shorthorns. The system adopted is to weigh the milk of each cow one day in e\erv month, and take that as the average for the whole month ; to take a composite sample of the milk of each dav for a whole week in each moaith. When these results are compared with the returns from the factory, it is found that thev correspond approximately. These that do not give satisfactory returns are sent back to fatten. All low test animals are culled and the result is very evident in the annual " Nellie, SOME TYPICAL SPECIMENS. Stella," ■■ Tansy," " Flo," " Corkscrew.'' average test, the lowest of which is 3.7. while the highest is 6.2. Very few come below 4.0, and one (Xo. 123). for four successive years averaged 5.2, 5.5, 6.2 and 5.0 respectively, which will compare favorably with the rich milking Jerseys. This cow's return for the four periods of lactation were : — 330 days in milk, 395 lbs. butter ; 240 days, 339 lbs. ; 270 days, 353 lbs. ; 210 days, 259 lbs. ; she must have been 9 or 10 years' old then, for none of them calve the first time till three years' old. Many lessons may be derived from a study of the records. Last year 13 heifers on their first calf milked altogether' on 3,820 days, and totalled 3.769 lbs. butter, or a fraction under a pound a day. One gave 403 lbs. of butter in 365 days. In 1905 the averages of the 13 heifers were as follow :— In milk, 293 days; milk, 583 gallons; test, 4.53; butter, 289.9 lt>s- ; return at lod. per lb., ^12 is. 7d. By the records it will be seen that some of the cows milked over 500 davs without a break, and averaged nearly a pound of butter a day for the whole time. No. 473 in 8 June, T907.] Dcvclopiiiciii of Dairy S/iortJionis. 349 six periods of lactation, milked on 1,850 days, and gave 5,335 gallons of milk, 2.390 lbs. butter, at lod. = ;^99 us. 8d. or over ^16 per year. Her dailv averages were: milk, 2.88 gallons; test, 4.08; butter, 1.29 lb. No. 193 in six periods of lactation milked 1,955 days. and. gave 2,242 lbs., just over a ton of butter at lod. = -/C93 8s. 4d. — a daily average of 1.14 lb. What would bulls from such cows be worth? They are what we want at the present time for the general impro\ement of our herds, nnd to put money into the dairymen's pockets. If our breeders of pure stock, whether Jerseys, Ayrshires, Shorthorns, or any other dairy breed, would only adopt a similar system, there would be unlimited sale for \earling bulls at 30 to 50 guineas. The trouble is that few of our breeders keep records of their cows, and dairymen have to take the risk as to whether thev get a bull that is going to improve their average returns or not. Until we menel our ways we cannot hope tO' approach the returns of Denmark, Holland, and those other countries which have already got the lead of us h\ ten vears. In two years gave 360 gals, milk and 163 lbs. butter, and 480 gals, milk and 271 lbs. butter respectively. The cattle under review have never been pampered in anv way and were in rough winter condition when the illustrations were obtained. They also looked their worst as the photographs were taken on a verv cold stormy morning. The group of six cows which appears on page '348 includes " Stella," " Nellie," and " Corkscrew," whose returns are given under the illustrations of those particular members of the herd. The other cows in the group are " Star," '■' Pansy," and " Flo," whose respective returns are as follow: — "Star" (No. 1302), in milk, 3 years; yearlv average, 661 gallons milk and 297 lbs. butter. " Pansy " (No. 456), in milk, 6 }ears; yearly average 695 gallons milk and 338 lbs. butter (at lod. per lb. = £'^A)- "Flo" (No. 981) gave 304 and 32 r lbs. l)utter respectively during the oast two vears. 35° Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. RECORDS OF MR. W. MANIFOLd's THREE YEAR OLD PEDIGREE SHORTHORN HEIFERS, YEAR 1905-6. Herd Number. 1367 1700 1766 1804 1851 i8s4 1556 1278 1181 1286 1373 1689 1 65 1 D;iys in milk Gallons. Test 300 570 4.1 300 •• 365 - 365 750 840 - 653 4.2 4-3 4.4 270 297 5.4 270 300 540 660 4.4 4.2 330 300 617 630 4.7 4-5 300 450 5.2 210 240 400 640 4.7 4-5 270 S40 4.4 583 Retui ns. (10c • pe rib.) Butter lbs. I S. d. 2SI 10 15 0 350 14 II 8 403 lb 15 0 320 13 b 8 173 / 4 2 26s II 0 10 308 12 lb 8 325 13 10 10 3-^7 13 4 2 265 II 0 10 211 8 1=; 10 326 .. 13 II 8 255 10 12 b 289.9 ^■12 I II ■ ■ S-iliLLA. ( -\u. I .O- ;. * In milk b years, produced 2,001 lbs. butter from 4,239 f^jals. milk ; average per year, 70b gals, milk, 7,1,- lbs. butter. (At lod. per lb. =2 14 per year). These are all three year old heifers on their first calf, and when the results are compared with the requirements of the various American cattle clubs for admis.sion to the advanced register it will be seen that the above Shorthorn heifers figure very favorably. For instance a three vear old Guernsey would have to give in the yeai- 335 lbs. of butter ; the Jersey 350 lbs. butter ; and in the case of the Holstein Friesian the requirements are 10 lbs. butter for a seven days' test. Mr. Manifold does not like his heifers to come in before three years old ; those that ha\e done so by accident have never made as good beasts as the others. 8 June. 1907.] Development aj Dairy Shorthonis. 351 The followini^ are records of individual cows for several years :- Herd rnlf. I);ns in milk. Gallong. Xumber. 471 1st 180 276 2nd 480 861 3rd 300 534 4th 365 • 792 5th 270 .. 670 6th 300 510 473 ISt i^o 735 2nd 300 735 3rd 420 1254 4th 270 ■• 837 5th 260 qio 6th 270 864 474 1st 240 393 2nd 420 654 3rd 240 564 4th 390 .. 836 5th 240 672 '■2,3 3rd or 4th... 330 673 5th 240 544 6th 270 495 7th 210 459 48 1 ISt 240 360 2nd 300 552 3rd 360 753 4th 365 730 5th 420 904 6th 240 744 543 ISt 300 555 2nd 270 551 3rd 420 849 4tli 273 573 5th 395 829 193 ISt 2,30 768 2nd 390 945 3rd 300 750 4th ^75 550 5th 330 900 6th 330 792 40 ISt 270 445 2nd 300 ■• 758 3rd 420 1035 4th 420 1050 5th 300 840 456 ISt 330 591 2nd 270 632 3rd 330 801 4th 240 666 5th 275 ■ ■ 870 6th 210 630 7th 270 621 8th 2S0 ,.. 756 "3 ISt 270 ... 636 and 420 939 3rd 270 609 4th 300 504 5th 510 1020 124 ISt 210 2SS 2nd 300 689 3rd 330 735 4th 330 864 5th 330 957 Test. 4.1 4.4 4.8 4.2 4-7 4.2 3-7 4-5 3-9 4.2 4.0 4.2 4.0 4.4 4.2 4.0 4.0 5-2 5-5 6.2 5.0 3-7 4.0 3-8 3-7 4.1 4.2 4-3 4-5 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.4 4-3 4.0 4-3 4-3 4-3 4-3 4.2 4.2 4-3 4.2 4.2 4.1 4.4 4.2 4.2 4.0 4.2 4.1 4.4 4-3 4.2 4.0 4.4 3-8 3-8 4.1 3-9 4.1 Bnttei- lbs. 136 424 289 369 354 238 282 370 542 391 403 402 178 322 264 368 297 395 339 353 254 150 245 317 21)8 411 34-.l 240 660 4th 240 672 5th 240 744 1&23 ISt 270 420 2nd ii'^ 660 3rd 330 660 4th 210 420 976 ISt 300 393 2nd 365 6s8 3rd 365 800 4th 270 594 1022 1st 300 396 2nd 300 630 3rd 330 720 4th 210 SSo 5lh Hi 8S5 1027 ISt 300 507 2nd 590 .. 1180 3rd 300 900 4th 330 920 654 ISt 300 690 2nd ^75 530 3rd 300 660 4th 300 600 1460 ISt 270 Sio 2nd 210 650 3rd 180 34^ 819 ISt 270 540 2nd 300 690 1203 ISt 300 510 2nd 260 430 3rd 240 432 92 ISt 240 648 2nd 210 630 3rd 300 630 512 ISt 270 756 812 1st 365 620 2nd ii» 693 1305 ISt 240 600 1345 ISt 270 520 2nd 210 5^5 Bulls. — GoMPr NSATION (rec 1).— Bred 3 9 4 0 4 I 4 0 4 2 8 4 I 4 0 3 ') 4 3 3 8 4 1 I (1 — 0 4 0 4 0 4 4 4 I 4 6 4 3 4 7 4 4 4 2 4 2 4 7 4 0 4 4 4 4 4 I 4 5 4 I 4 3 4 I 4 5 4 4 4 6 4 b 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 7 4 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 I 4 4 4 0 4 5 4 5 5 Alex- 1V1 0 f'l^onc 7n all, Butter. lbs. 204 296 450 2,72 ^6s 408 346 300 169 415 277 304 3-21 186 292 348 191 203 315 423 292 185 204 380 243 432 279 539 454 419 331 251 295 418 336 176 265 339 269 201 212 317 309 302 343 327 305 302 262 295 Sire. V Returns. (lOd. \WY lb.) £ S. d. 8 10 0 12 6 8 18 15 0 15 10 0 14 8 4 12 13 13 7 12 3 4 14 10 o 7 19 0 8 9 2 M 2 6 17 12 6 12 3 4 7 14 2 15 5 0 15 16 8 10 2 6 18 18 4 17 9 8 13 15 10 10 9 2 13 lb 8 17 18 4 14 00 1 1 0 10 14 2 6 1 1 8 4 2 6 8 13 8 13 12 4 17 2 6 13 1 1 8 14 5 10 13 12 b 12 14 2 12 1 1 8 10 18 4 C. (imported), 60108; by Lord Chesterfield, 43491- G.d. Cuzco, by Major Booth, 6790; G.g.d. Countess of Kvneton, bv Lord Lale, 18274; G. g.g.d. Countess, 64th imp., b\- The Nob. Russel's Florest 9TH. Calved 1895. ^^ed by John Deans, Riccarton, Christ- church, N.Z. Sire, Sir Lord Russel gth ; dam. Flower of Brunswick 6th, by Duke of Gunterston ; G.d. Flower of Brunswick 4th, by Earl of Brunswick 2nd. Western Laddie. (Red). Calved 1901. Bred by W. T. Manifold. Sire, Western Lad (imported); dam, Queen of England, by Astronomer, 68162; G.d. Queen of the Woods. Western Lad (imported), 75887. (Red). Calved 1898. Bred by John Hosken, Loggan's Mill, Hayles, Cornwall, England. Sire, Treforrest, 63452; dam, Baroness, 29th, by Duke of Leicester, 15th. 8 June, 1907.] Development of Dairy Sliorthonis. 353 Professor Drummond of Ottawa, Canaila, sa\ s that the average iiniount of butter produced per cow per annum is 115 lbs. In 1892 the cows in Denmark averaged about the same amount. Then testing asso- ciations were started and two associations tested 300 cows. Xow there aie 367 associations ami the number of cows tested is 142.447 or 13 per Cent, of the cows in the co-untry. When these associations were started Den- mark exported to Britain ;^3, 800,000 worth of butter and in eight vears the ^-alue had increased tO' ^5,800,000 from about the same number of cows. The cost of making the tests was from is. 8d. to 2s. 6(1. per cow. The Government of Denmark pro\ided the sum of ^6,400 a vear for ten years and the expenditure of this ^64,000 was the means of in- creasing the annual returns bv ^2,000,000. "NELLIE."" (Xo. 1,022.) Averaged 636 gals, milk and 306 lbs. butter for five years. Below are given the requirements for admission to the advanced register of the American Cattle Clubs, together with the rules adopted by the Wisconsin Experiment Station in connexion with testing cows ; these should l)e useful as a guide to the dair\ cattle societies in this country. Amkkicax Cuernsey Cattle Club. Seven days' record. — Two years old, 10 lbs. The increase per day required is .00456 lbs. fat [)er day up to five years or over when the amount is 15 lbs. fat for seven days. Yearly record. — Two years old or under at beginning of the record, 250.1; lbs. butter fat and an increase of i-ioth lb. per day for older cows to five years and over, when a cow has to produce 360 lbs. fat to be eligible for entry in the record. American Jersey Cattle Ci.cn. Seven days' return. — 12 lbs. of butter fat. Yearly record. — 30 months old or under at commencement of test, 260 lbs. buttet fat ; 2^ to 4 years, 300 lbs. ; 4 to 5 years, 350 lbs. ; 5 years and over, 400 lbs. 5735. M 354 Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. HOLSTEIX FrIESIAN ASS( ICIATIOX. Seven days' test. — Two years old, 7.2 lbs. butter fat; three years old, 8.8 lbs.; four years old, 10.4 lbs. ; five years and over, 12.0 lbs. For every day by w^hich a cow, at the time of calving, exceeds two, three, or four years respectivelv, the retjuirements are increased by .00439 of a pound. There is no increase in the requirements for higher age at the date of calving in the case of cows in full-age form. The Holstein Friesian Societ)- offers a prize for the cow giving the best weekl} record eight months after calving. Rules Adopted ix the State of Wisconsin for Conducting Official and Semi- official Tests of Dairy Cows. ,1. — Khics regarding the conduct of ojficial tests of dairy cows, Wisconsin Agricut- tiiral Exferiment Station: — The Agricultural Fxperiment Station of the University of Wisconsin, working in conjunction with the various breed associations, will conduct official tests of pure- bred or other dairy cows on the following conditions : — 1. All tests will be conducted by authorized representatives of the station. A two weeks' notice of the desired test shall be given by the owner. 2. It is understood and agreed that the ])erson for whom the test is made will jiay all expenses in connexion with the lest. The compensation for the station re- presentative conducting the test shall be at the rate of two dollars (8s. 4d.) per dav for each day of the test. The person for whom the test is made will also pay the iiecessary travelling expenses, and provide for the accommodation of the station representative while conducting the test. The station representative will present a bill of expenses to the owner of the cow or cows tested on completion of the test, ;ind will send a duplicate of same with his report to the station. This bill must oe paid to the station by the owner before the report of the test is transmitted to the association. The station will pay the funds so received to its representative. 3. .The station will furnish its representative with the necessary apparatus to conduct the lest. This will consist of — (1) A sj)ring balance for weighing the milk. (2) A Babcock tester and accompanying complete ajjparatus for testing the milk. (3) A 25 c.c. pijjeite for taking composite samples. (4) A clinical thermometer. (5) Blanks, affidavits, &c., for making the returns. Sul])huric- acid, fruit jars, and other materials needed for the tests are to be fur- nished by the breeder for whom the test is conducted. 4. ]5elore the test of a pure-bred cow is started, she should be registered in the herd book of the breed association, or proper application for such registry should be made. If registered, the station representative of the test shall satisfy himself that the cow answers the description given in the Certificate of Registry. If a])pli- cation for registry has been made, and the certificate has not yet been received, the supervisor shall take a description of the' animal, and retain the same for com parison with the certificate when received. In no case shall the station representa- tive certify under! oath to a report of a test unless the cow answers the description • if the animal as given in the C'ertificate of Registry. 5. The station rejjresentative shall fill out all blanks furnished bv the station as recjuired, and shall make oath before a notary public to such statements as are re- <|uired by the station in conjunction with the authorities of the various breed asso- ciations. 6. If required, the station representative shall make a rejiort on the kinds and quantities given during the test, and on the description and measurements of the cow or cows tested. He shall also, if required, take the body temperature of all cows tested once a day during the first three days of the test, ])referably between 2 and 3 ]).m. and likewise later when it seems desirable to do so. 7. No station representative will be detailed to conduct dairy tests at the same farm for more than thirty consecutive days, except where cows are entered on six- months tests, in which case the time limit shall be two months. The station reserves the right to change the men detailed on the tests at any time before the expiration of the time limits here stated, when it is deemed desirable to do so. 8. The largest number of cows that may be tested at a time on a seven-day or longer test is six. There is no objection to testing more than six cows for one or two days at the beginning of a test, provided it can be done without violating rule 8 June, 1907.] Development of Dairy S/wrtlwrns. 355 No. 3 under Directions for station re[)resentatives in conducling test of dairy cows (see below under C). 9. The station reserves the right to make public in its reports and bulletins, or b\- other means, an\- and all tindings secured while conducting official tests. B. — Rtih's for the Conduct oj Semi-0 fficiaJ Yearly Tests: — The preceding general rules adopted bv this station for the conduct of official iry cows shall • overn the tests of cows entered for semi-official \-earlv tests of dc records. 2. The tests of cows entered for yearly records shall be conducted f(jr two con- secutive days each month, at such times a.-> are arranged for by the staiicjn in each case. The supervisor shall be ])resent and see the cows milked dr}' at the last milk- ing jirior to the beginning of the monthly test. The last milking on the test shall in all cases be made exactly forty-eight hours after the preliminary milking. 3. The supervisor shall report the weights of the milk of the cow, and the per cent, of fat in the milking of the monthly test, on blanks furnished for this i>ur- pose, which report shall be sworn to before a notary ]niblic. 4. The average yiex cent, fat calculated from the total yield of milk and the total fat for the two-da\- test, as reported by the supervisors, will be taken to re- ] 'resent the average fat content of the milk of the cow during the calendar month when the test was conducted (with the exce))tion as noted in |iaragr.ipli 7I. " CORKSCKKVV {i III [),i 1 1 1 d ). For five jears averaged 5S4 gals, milk and 242 lbs. butter. 5. The owner shall furnish a sworn statement, on blanks furnished bv this station, as to the yield of milk by the cow for each milking during the month, and shall also furnish such other information in regard to the cows as is called for on the blanks. If the record for the weight of one or more milkings is lost, the missing weights may be calculated by this station from the yields preceding and following the period of which no records are at hand, provided a satisfactory explanation in regard to the missing figures accompany the monthly report blank. In no case will the credits be given for missing weights that are not explained at the expiration of the month in which they occurred, or for the production bv cows prior to the first month of testing, except for cows that freshened after the last monthly test in the herd was conducted, in which case the per cent, of fat found in the first two-day test shall also be used for the calculation of the yield of butter fat during the preceding month. 6. The sum of the monthly milk yields for the full year, or for the part thereof during which the cow is milked, and the sum of the monthly credits for butter fat which the cow has received during this period, sliall constitute her year's record for milk and butter fat respectively. A certificate of the record made bv the cow 356 Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. (luring the rear will be issued to the owner by the director of the Experiment Station at the expiration of the testing period if he be satisfied that the monthly reports furnished by the owner and the supervisors of the dairy tests are correct and true, to the best of his knowledge and belief. 7. When a seven-dav or thirty-day official test of a cow entered for yearly record is conducted, the average \)er cent, of fat on this test may be used for the calculation of the production of butter fat during the month, instead of that ob- tained on a separate monthly test. 8. Yearly records may begin with llie fo.irth dav from calving, but no monthlv test of a cow shall, as a rule, be made prior to the twelfth day from calving. 9. No more than eight cows in any one herd shall be tested at one time on monthl)- tests, if the cows are milked three or four times a day, and no more than ten cows where thev are milked twice a day. 10. The expenses connected with the monthlv tests will be ;^i a month, and the necessary travelling expenses of the supervisors. The latter expenses will be appor- tioned e<]ually each month among the breeders for whom such tests were conducted. A charge of /. i will be made for each certificate of ^■earlv records issued by the station. 11. All cjuestions not covered by the general rules governing official tests of dairy cows, or by the preceding sjjecial rules for semi-official yearly tests, shall be decided by the officer of the Wisconsin Experimental Station in charge of dairj' tests, whose decision shall be final. C- — Directions for Station Kcfresentatives in Conducting Tests of Dairy Cows: — 1. The station representative shall be present at the last regular milking preced- incr the beginning of the test, and shall satisfy himself that the cow is milked dry a that time. He shall note the hour at which this milking is made, and the final milking of the test shall be made at exacth' the same hour. 2. He must be present at each and every milking during the test, and satisfy himself that at the close of each milking the pail contains nothing but the milk drawn from the cow on the test. 3. Under no circumstances shall more than cue cow undergoing test be milked at the same time. The station representative must in every case be in jiosition to observe the milker during the whole milking. 4. Immediately after the milk is drawn at each milking he will take charge of the pail and contents, will weigh the same on scales provided by the station, and enter the exact weight of milk at once on his records. He will then take a correct sam])le of the milk for his own test and for the composite sample to be sent to the station, in accordance with the directions given below. 5. As soon as the milk has been weighed, it is thoroughly mixed bv pouring it from one vessel to another, or by means of a dipper, and a pint fruit iar is imme- diately filled about two-thirds full of milk for the test sample. The station repre- sentative takes charge of and is personally responsible for this sample, which is l:e])t under lock and ke\- until tested. The test is proceeded with as soon as con- venient after the milk has cooled to ordinary room temperature. 6. Eat determinations are always made in duplicate, and the average of the two determinations recorded in the record book. The sample taken of any one milking IS not thrown away until a jjcrfectly satisfactory test of the milking has been obtained. The station re])resentative will enter at once the results obtained on the proDer blanks, in ink or indelible jiencil, on comi)letion of each test. 7. If any of the milk or the test sample from a milking is accidentally lost, the missing weight or the test credited to this milking is to be obtained bv taking the average of all corresjionding milkings during the whole tests, i.e., if the evening milking is lost or the test sample therefrom, the average of the weights or tests of i-ll evening milkings during the, seven-day test is taken as the yield or the test for the one lost. It must be stated on the re])ort that the data so obtained are esti- mated, and not actual. 8. ("omjjosite-Test Sample. — At the time the test of the milk is made, a sam|)le comprising as many cubic centimetres of milk as the number of pounds in the milk- ing, is placed in a j)int fruit jar, containing a small rjuantity of ])reservative, for the composite-test sample to be sent to the station when the test is completed. A 25 c.c. glass pipette for taking this sample is furnished with each outfit. The station representative shall be responsible for the proper care of the composite sample, and shall send it by express, charges prepaid, immediately on the comple- tion of the test, to Prof. E. W. Woll, Agricultural Experiment Station, Madison, Wis. 8 June, 1907.] From other States. 357 q. The station representative is not at libert)- to decide as to which stipulations contained herein are essential and which are not, but is recjuired to observe these directions in all details. He shall report promptly any irregularity or unusual occurrence in connexion with the test which he may observe, and shall, in general, take all possible means to conduct a fair and equitable test of the cows placed inifler his supervision. PORTION OF THE HERD. FROM OTHER STATES. W. E. Bovill, Di'vonport East, Tasmania, writes as follows : — " I would like to thank you for the extremely valuable information contained in the Joitrual and hope vou will feel I am onh wishing to supplement that information if I make one or two- observations. '' As regards export of wheat, cannot .something be done toi reduce this and export flour instead?* Roughly speaking, every bushel of wheat (60 lbs.) produces a bushel (20 lbs.) of mill offal, with which the English market is glutted; consequently thousands of cwts. of our bran and pollard are ' dumped,' I believe that is the correct phrase, on the English market and the Victorian farmer pays for sending it there, at any rate he has to take al)Out 8d. per bushel less for his wheat than it is worth in Mark Lane. Sc our Danish and Scandinavian competitors for their butter, bacon, &c., get our mill offal at about half or less than that of what we have to pay; we pay nearly all the freight for them and then have to pay freight on the butter, (S:c.. afterwards. " I notice that lucerne, rape, «Sz:c., are recommended as feed for bacon pigs. From mv experience this is right enough if the pig is not turned into ])ork with such tucker inside him. Pork killed off rape will knock you over at 20 paces. Lucerne aiid red clover also taint the meat and mangolds are not too^ nice. Rape will even make eggs almost uneatable. Cow grass and white clover are fairiv right, but as the best bacon is half made before the pig is killed, I iind barlev meal is the king of tuckers. Boiled potatoes and pollard with some soaked peas once a dav is grand stuff but barlev meal and skim milk is best of all to finish uj) with, and I can always easily get id. a lb. over the market price." * The rjuestion of the export of flour has, we believe, been dealt with in the recent report to the Commonwealth Government by the Conference of State Representatives on the Bounties Bill. — Ed. 358 Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. DOOKIE EGG-LAYINCI COMPETITION, 1906-7. H . Pyc, Principal Dookie Agricultural College. In common with the other laving competitions held in the different States, the above has demonstrated that by care and attention to breeding and feeding, the production of eggs for the market can be made a pro- fitable business, and that a comfortable living can be made from poultry- farming, provided that a business spirit pervades in conjunction with a thorough practical knowledge of the work to be done. As a business in itself, poultry-farming is only successful when carried out by persons of special ability and aptitude for the work. As an adjunct to the farm, the extent of its profitableness is determined by similar conditions, also market facilities and the cheapness of the food, though pollard and bran may now be got reasonablv in most parts of the State, whilst wheat or maize is as a rule grown on most farms. It is evident that the White Leghorn breed of fowds has inherent in it great laying qualities, yet by observation it is noticeable that some pens cf the breed do not gi\e much encouragement. M\ impressions as regards the White Leghorns seem to indicate that the old type of birds is the more prolific. By the old type, I mean the medium-sized businesslike bird, which has no game blood in it. as seems to be noticeable in some of the present-day English show birds. The small American tvpe bird also has good laying qualities, but as a rule the eggs are of a small or medium size. The advantages of earlv hatching, judgment in mating, and regular and I)]oper feeding ha\e l>een drawn attention to bv most writers on poultry. It sometimes happens that healthy birds of a good laying strain do not do justice to themsehes owing to the different climatic conditions and feeding fostering too frequent moulting, and this happened in several instances in this competition, as a number of the birds are through their second moult and in full profit just as they are leaving, hence the advantage of a two years' test, especiallv so as it is generallv recognised that about two seasons is the economic period of a laying hen's life. The competitions have demonstrated that strains of breeds, and not altogether breeds tliemsehes, stand out paramount for laving qualities, and this in a measure is to be expected. It is well for the poultrv farmer, perhaps, that such is the case. It gives interest in the hobby or business, and enables him to work out the ideal profitable bird of his fancy breed. In a measure the competition.s have demonstrated that the White Leghoi'ns held their own very well as winter layers, provided that thev are bred to time and under healthy conditions. Both of these conditions apply to the heavier breeds, which are generally recognised as the better winter lavers. The prizes awarded have been, firstlv, for the number of marketable eggs, in order to impress the necessity of prolificness ; secondly, for the greatest weight of eggs, in order to bring under notice the advisability of developing both size and prolificness of eggs; thirdly, the " winter test,'' in order to ha\'e fresh eggs when the market is thin and prices are good ; ond, fourthlv, prizes for the highest market value of the eggs for the year. The last-mentioned prizes need not necessarilv be w'on by the pen laying the highest total of eggs, as the bulk of the eggs may have been laid when eggs were chea]>. The prizes given for the heaviest weight of eggs were awarded in order to foster both weight and prolificness, as alread\- men- tioned. To' gi\"e prizes for the pen laying the heaviest eggs only would not be conduci\'e to practical gfXDd. The result of the experiment in export- ing to England 200 dozen eggs from the competition pens demonstrated that size was an important factor in both brown and white eggs, and that 8 June, 1907.] Dookie Egg-laying Competition. 359 there was a variation in price between large brown and ordinary brown eggs of 2jd. per dozen, and between large white and ordinarv-sized white eggs of 2 i-iod. per dozen. The larger eggs of the consignment averaged 27 1 oz. per dozen; the smaller ones weighed not less than 26 ozs. per dozen, though the eggs of other consignees may have weighed less. Size also must influence the careful buyer, provided the eggs are fresh and clean, and therefore, though in a general wav size ma\ not appear to influence the price, yet indirectlv it does, esi>eciailv if the eggs are under 24 oz. to the dt.-zen. Where white eggs and brown bring relativelv the same price. colo'Ur 0 •oui^A M^I-i^IM •(•ddy) u9zo(j J8d •(nod J9d spJKi 'ludy ■AJb'H.I'lDJ 'J9qTU9AO^ ■jaqt'^DO ■J9qiU9;d9S *;srtgny 9Aq^l9^ iM (M (N (M !N CN (M -r* ooiniC'O'^coi-Hooci i:c CO c-J 01 '-' .-H r hOOO O O O O O O O O O O 3i Xl>CiI>I-^OiiOI>i— iXt> fMI>-CDOSC0vrtI>Cccas:D'^co eo«DcDi>'*OTt((Mcooiia i-iOi-iaiOXOOSXOSi-( I— ii-(Oil>OSOQO(MOOO>GO -* Tti O Tt* CO Tt< O O O CO 00 OJ OS CO X Oi i-H Tj< ,-( Cvl (M i-« rHl>OJCOi— lOOi— 11— 1^1— I Oi— r-lOlOO OSXCOirtiMX'-'O'MrHTtt eOI>TtCO^ (NOOCO'MOt-HOC>]t^---l COCOXI>OrHO(NI>CDI>- '*infMC0(M0SvrtC0XlO':0 r-(lOQ0inr fMOSXtMOOii-HOC^^-OS Ot^OS^XXOXClO' >— i:0^1C)'^C0O»A'-H:Dr>- ^DOOCOr-tXiOfM^'-liftCO Oimt^I>OJG>l;OCOTtOO OSCOt^Our5r-lQO'^XI>X 3Wrt -.7-1 c33 ^"-^ -y .^~ i-i '^^ T-H(MC*3^l«!Ot^XOSO^ (MCO-^lftlftC^OOOSOrHO] 8 June, 1907.] Dookic Egg-laying Competiiion. 361 a Oi M ooOiCiQOXXaoX't^i>-[-^r-i>-!:DC--vrio:D\n'0:ovn coco »0 >n »0 >n • *n >n T*< tJ< ITS ^ m 'O -1* -^ "^ • tI* v£5 H«'jO O'^'ft 'in^Ot^'n -rt^^O Ol M M 01 ■ M G>1 (M M M "M M fM M M M * (M M M (N M M M • M (M M M MM ■rt =5 t- 00 I> t^ l> t-!0 in CO 33 03 MI>C003I>TtlrJIOX!M001>I>r-CO— ll>COOia3!M G>1^rHC:3C:3050303XI>in!>],-iC33XXXCOinin^Tt< O303Oi,Q0X00XXXX00XXI>I>I>I>'>t^I>t^I> cb 0-1 coco CO — 4 *^ t^ l^ •+ 0 -t>— 1 X -+co-»*r^^oit--^oo-+x:oinoT-i^33o-+co-:>co in -f — 1 -)< -n in CD 01 .n -c oi rn oi .n -< co oi m rn CO -H 1 S3 CO (N « » -*< CO 0 iNt--inincoooo-*-*r-<33cocoi:~inoocoooo CO CO rH in CO in (N ^ iH CO r-l T-l (M rH T-H in rH cooq CO(N t~ CO OS -n •= ■M CO CO 01 0 X -+ CO 0 covn^cocoot>oico^^in'McocO'*in--inint^i>r-cocoin COt^ xm 0 JX33CO0-lcOX'*-^(MC0'4*Xin'^-^i-lOl-H33-H-+ XX03^C3r-(X?Mi-HOXO>a300a3003t-C33XX S3 0 X X in in in X 0 —1 0 32 CO 00 -M 3> X 3J35 COO 33 CO CO'+COt^X'+330CO'MX-HXC7:T-H'M-OC00 01COO 03[--^olxol33coo'^^xo-^o■^^33o-o33'^l^~(^] 0 0 003 CO X o_^ CO X ,-^ CO r^ 0 in CO O] in XOCO-t-XCOXC3t^t-Xt^t^X 03C- CO CO in X X 0 os03X'-HcoTiHocO'no3\ncox COtH CO ■* 0 X i -M -PCI CO 0 33 CO -t<^c33t~inincococoo33inoin0333XOcoocO'M ocooxocoxxin^33coa3inin-+oicO'icococot*0'*incoxwoi^xcoincoin -*x c-1 CO CO -rt 31 33 X coo in CO in c:3iooox-frH-HO'-ixXrtXcoo'Mcoio--iinx oir-tin-tcooi *+coin.-Hin.-H-ii'* oi-noico^ 0 ^ X in X bCi'g c "2 3 ! 60 1 be o:^-^ C3 bc_g ■S g ogog c o '^ o 'g o ci ^ r — 3 — c»o5£ .!» - ^ '-' ci c S -.be =* ho 2 ^'S be « 00 cq ^ : o =■ '^ bo o^ 3 d; p c o ixa: S-^-sJ J3 cS — -£ cj .5 bo ,oda3g-2°,;-3;sHi,S ,--i^ fc- be ^ JO ^ o -^ o cj > MS 362 Journal of Agriciiltitre. [8 June, 1907. DESCRIPTION OF APPLE. James Lang, Har court. Sturmer Pippin. Fruit abo\e medium size, uliout tliree indies in diameter at tlie widest part, and two- and three-fjuarter inches high ; roundish and flattened nar- rowing towards the eye. Stalk about three-quarters of an inch long, in- seited in a round deep cavity line witli russet. Eye closed set in a shallow irregular basin, sometimes with five prominent angles. Skin green becoming vellow as it matures, and dull brown on the side next the sun dotted and netted with russet. Flesh yellow, crisp, and juicy. Tree is a good grower and makes a fairly large tree ; crops well and keeps a long time; in season from March till October. This is a good export apple for late shipments, and has a good reputa- tion in England as one of the best apples of its season. Hogg savs " Tht^ Sturmer Pippin was raised 1>\ Mr. Dillistone, a nur.servman at Sturmer, near Haverfield, in Suffolk, and was obtainerl \)\ impregnating the Ribstone with the pollen of Nonpareil." EXPERIMENTS WITH BLACK SPOT OF APPLE. D. Mc Alpine , Ve get able Pailiol agist. To improve upon existing methods in the treatment of disease is alway.? a laudable object and if cheapness and efificacv can be combined with simplicity, there is a decided gain in the use of such means. It is now a well established fact that Bordeaux mixture is a satisfactorv preventive for Black Spot in apples and pears, but there is no reason whv other sub- stances should not be used, if they can be shown to be equally effective and cheaper. In 1905, I was requested to test Little's fluid dip as a spray for Black Spot and the results showed that trees spra\ed with this dip had less absolutely clean fruit than the trees which had been left unsprayed. Notwithstanding such a decidedlv unfavorable result, Cooper and Nephews requested that a trial shoiild be made of their fluid sheep dip for the same purpose. Accordingly I arranged with Mr. Hatfield to have the test made in his orchard at Box Hill on selected trees of the Yates variety, of about the same size and age and as nearly equal as possible in every respect. Cooper's fluid sheep dip was used as a sprav in com- parison with Bordeaux mixture and Copper soda and trees alongside were left unsprayed to serve as a check. It was suggested that a strength of I gallon of fluid to 250 gallons water should be used for spraving and a weaker solution of i gallon of fluid to 300 gallons of water was also tried. The spraying took place in the beginning of October, when the blossom buds were hardly showing colour and thus a little earlier than usual. 8TURMER PIPPIN. 8 June, 1907.] Experiments with Black Spot of Apple. 2>^2> There was not a great development of spot during the season and con- sequently none of the plots was very bad, but by taking the absolutelv clean fruit for comparison, the merits of the respective sprays were shown. The ripe fruit was carefully picked from each tree and weighe:! and then the clean was separated from the spotted. The details of the experiments are gi\en in the accompanying table from which it is seen that there was practically no difference between the check or unspraved plot and that sprayed with Cooper's sheep dip. Both Bordeaux mixture and Copper soda, however, yieldeu respectively 76.7 and 77.3 per cent, of absolutelv clean fruit, while in both 95 per cent, was practically clean, that is to say there was only an occasional small spot on the fruit not exceeding one-eighth of an inch in diameter. In a large proportion a tiny speck could onlv be detected around the eve about the size of a pin's head and it would gene- rallv ha\e passed unnoticed. It was noticeable in the unspra\ed plot that there was not such a good sample of fruit as in the others, the leaves bemg more severelv attacked and the trees altogether deficient in vigour. Details of Expkrimknis, 1906-7. Absolutely Siisihtlv Barllv Pel Ce..t. Per Cent. Treatment. Clean. Spotted. Spotted. Total. Clean. Jfarket- able. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1. Cooper's Dip (1 in 800) 29 74 2 105 27-6 98 2. „ ,, (1 in -250) 21 39 1 61 34-4 98 3. Check ... 29 68 2 99 29-3 98 4. Copper Soda, 6.8.40 82 24 — 106 77-3 100 5. Bordeaux, 6.4.40 158 48 206 76-7 J 00 If the present experiments are taken in conjunction with those of the previous season, it is conclusivelv shown that Sheep dius, Phenvle and such like preparations are not to be compared with Bordeaux mixture or Copper soda as a treatment for Black Spot. Although the two seasons were verv different as regards the prevalence of the disease yet the results in both cases and on the same varietv of apple, bear out the contention that copper compounds are still far and away the best and most reliable for orchard treatment. Details OK Experiments, 1905-6. Absolutely Slightly Unmarket- able. Per Cent. Percent. Market- able. Ti-eatnient. Clean. Spotted. Badly Total. clean. Spotted. lbs. 11.S. lbs. lbs. Little's Sheep Dip (1 in 120) ... h 33 li 35 1-4 Po ,, (1 in 160} ... •) 63 H 664 3-0 98 Check 2^ 61 4 67i 37 95 Copper Soda, 6.8.40 ... 27 45 — 72 37-5 100 Bordeaux Mixture, 6.4.40 25 57 h 82i 28-6 991 Phenyle [I in 160) ... u 38 2i 41| 16 M4 Phenoline (1 in 160) ... 2 61 n 68 3-0 93 Crude Carbolic (1 in 160) 2 03 51 701 2-8 92 Oil of Tar (1 in 160)... 2 ., 57 o 64 3-1 92 364 Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. LAMENESS IN HORSES. .S". .S". Cameron, M.R.C.V.S., Cl/ief Veter'niary Officer. {Coiit'nuied from page 2"] 2.) SORE SHINS. The condition known as " sore shins " consists of diffuse inflamination of the bone covering or periosteum at the lower third of the cannon bone. It usually affects the cannons of both fore limbs and extends all round the bone, but is most severe in front. The parts are at first hot and tender to the touch and a soft fluctuating swelling develops. Subsequently the swelling becomes doughy (oedematous) and if it, and the inflammation which gives rise to it. are allowed to persist a deposition of bone takes place and the swelling hardens and becomes permanent. (See Figs. 22 and 23.) Causes. — Sore shins takes the place in racehorses of splints in road- sters and trotters. The affection is almost solelv confined to young ijjs. 22 anci 23. Sore shins; the arrows indicate the pernranent bony enh\rgements. racehorses and is essentially an effect of the over-strenuous exertion in\ol\t'd in the training of immature and growing two- and three-year-olds. When extended in the gallop the concussive shock of the body-w-eight when the foot is brought to the ground is, on account of the sloping angle of the l)astern at the moment of contact, transmitted to the lower extremity of the cannon bone just aV)ove the fetlock. (It has l:>een explained that in trotting the weight shock is sustained, on account of the more upright action, by the splint bones just below the knee.) 8 June, 1907.] Lameness in Horses. 365 A word may here be said O'li the subject of shoeing during' training. In my opinion, if only that the liability to sore shins may be decreased, young horses should be trained in three-quarter shoes only, in order that the full benefit of the elasticity of the frog in the minimizing of co-ncussion may be gained. Symptoms. — In addition to the local s\mptoros given above, and per- haps prior to their being observed, it will be noticed that the horse goes " short " in the gallop, and pulls up " sore." These signs will be accen- tuated if the " going " is hard and they will become more severe if exer- cise is persisted in, until on resting after a gallop the horse will be so sore as to be almost immovable, and the local symptoms will become more exaggerated. Treatment. — If, on the tirst appearance of soreness, the horse is rested and the shins fomented with hot water and bandaged, the attack may not develop acutely. When the swelling and local inflammation are more pronounced, the object tO' be aimed at is to get the " heat " out of the part as (]uickly as possible in order that an absorbent blister may be applied to remove the swelling before it hardens and becomes transformed into bone. Hot fomentations and cooling lotion (see page 77) should therefore be persistently and continuously applied for a few davs. durin^ which febrile symptoms should be checked 1 '\ laxatixe food and medicines (see page 219). Immediately the acuteness of the inflammation is checked red mercury blistering ointment (see page 75) should be smartlv applied. In \erv acute cases there is great danger of death of the bone (necrosis) occurring through the circulation being arrested bv the ]>ressure of the inflammatory exudate between the bone and its sensitive fibrous covering (the periosteum). In such cases the operation of periosteotomy (see page 272) should be- jjerformed without delay so that the pressure may be removed. The incisions may be matle at the j)arts where the swelling is greatest, but care should be taken that the sheaths of the extensor tendons {extensor pedis and extensor swffraginis) are not opened. After recoxery from an acute attack of sore shins, the horse should be indulged with a lengthened spell in order that the parts may become strengthened and the bone better matured. If the horse is put into work too soon a recurrence of the attack may be looked for. The likelihood of recurrence is lessened if on resuming work the exercise is confined to walk- ing and trotting for a time. At these paces, as previously explained, the con- cussive strain on the shins is not so great. When galloping is resumed it should, until all danger of soreness is past, be limited to short distances, for the reason that the effect of the jar during galloping increases in ratio to the length of time it is continued, and consequently the longer the gallop the greater is the liabilitx to recurrence of soreness. FETLOCK LAMENESS. Lameness of the true fetlock joint — Arthritls — is rare except in old and deformed horses, but certain of the structures in the vicinity of the joint are often the seat of lameness. Of such lamenesses those as.sociated with Sesamoiditis and Windgalls are the most common. Sometimes the buiding ligaments of the joint become sprained and cau.^e marked lameness. It is however usually of a transient character although it ma\' result in "knuckling over " for a considerable time. 366 Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. Detection of Fetlocl^ Lameness. The features by which lameness in the rej^ion of the fetlock can he detected are : — {a) The habitual resting of the limb, which appears to start forward at the fetlock. {b) Local swelling, heat and tenderness and the appearance of windgalls. {c) Bending the joint fully causes intense pain as alsO' does full extension. The lameness caused by " cutting "' or " l)rushing." that is, hitting the jiside of the fetlock with the toe or quarce^' of the opposite foot, is usually painful but transient. The sudden, and for a time seyere, lameness which comes on during exercise and passes awa\ quickly is often caused by a hitting of the fetlock oyer the course of the j)lantar nerve, which for a time is thereby paralyzed. Fetlocl^ Arthritis. Inflammation of the true fetlock joint is a common complication in such diseases as rheumatism, navel-ill, septicaemia and other blood disorders, the associated symptoms of which are sufficient to establish the connexion. In such cases local treatment of the lameness is of little value and its acuteness will subside along with the sul)sidence of the systemic conditions which give rise to it. Sesan]oiditis. The sesamoid bones are the two pyramidal shaped bones situated at the back of the fetlock which act ,as a fulcrum for the flexor muscles of the Lai-ge liietacaipal or cannon bone. - lyonn- pastern bone {as; snlf'raginis). ■- Sliort paslern bone (ox caroiin I'edal or coffin bone (us prilia).^ — ■Sesamoid bones. Navicular bone. Fi^. 24. Bones of the fore digit ; posterior aspect. foot. (See. Fig. 24.) The tendons of these muscles pass over the sesamoid groove formed by the two sesamoid bones. This groo\e is lined by synovial membrane which forms a closed sheath or bi/rsa enclosing the' tendons. Sesamoiditis is an inflammation of this bursa which is accompanied by acute lameness. There is usually little to indicate the seat of" lameness, i>ut a .small tense swelling may be detected protruding on both sides above the sesamoid lones. Kxcept when associated with rheumatism, sesamoiditis is a rare condition but a grave one. It is very difficult to cure on account of the movement continually occurring when the flexor muscles act. The bursa may become ulcerated, or iibrous adhesions may form between the tendons and the cartilage covering the Ijones, Treatment consists in the putting on of a high-heeled shoe to relieve the pressure of the flexor tendons; complete rest to avoid tendon friction; 8 June, 1907.] Lameness in Horses. 367 and the application of cooling remedies (cooling lotion, cold water, &c.). After the subsidence of the acute inflammation a blister should be applied. Windgalis. Windgalls are puft'y swellings situated al)0\e and at the sides of the fetlock joint, caused 1)\ a distension of the bursae extending upwards from the capsular ligament of the fetlock joint. (See Fig. 25.) Thev seldom Radius or arm -bone. Inner small nietararpal or siilint-bone, (seat of " splint""). Large metacarpal or cannon bone._ M — Synovial bursa extending- upwards from, . fetlock joint (seat of " wiiidgaU'"). Tendon of extcnxar pedi-K muscle Anterior sli}is of suspensory li^anienf joining- «ith cxiPiixiir pedix tendon — I.a'oial litrr'.iiK'nt of jia^^tPrn join Tendon sheath of flexor metacarpi internus - muscle (seat of " thoroughpin of the knee"'). Sheath of flexor tendons. Tendon oi flexor j/edis- per/drami nuis<'le. Tendon and sheath of jlcxar pfdls pi'i-ftn-aiia nuiscle. Superior suspensory lifiament (seat of spiain). Synovial bursa extending- upwards from sesamoid sheath (seat of " windgall"). Syno\ ial l>ursa? of pastern. Lateral carfcilai,'e (seat of "si:istern fracture of long |iastern tudinal fracture. bone. bone. bones, and perhajjs crepitation (grating) of the fractured surfaces mav be felt or h-^ard. After a time some swelling in the hollow of the pastern Fig- ?i?i- Split ])astein, side fracture. Fig. 36. Split ])astern, fracture ie|. aired. ma\ develo}), ami later on when the •'callus" forms the whole pastern will be thicker than its fellow. In rases where the bone is splintered or where considerable displacement of the fractured })ieces has occurred. 372 Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. there will most likely be a large amount of swelling extending from above the fetlock to the hoof. The causes and treatment of split pastern will be dealt with in the chapter on fractures. The illustrations (Figs. 32 to 35) indicate various directions in which fracture of the long pastern hone {os sufraginis) may occur. Ringbone. Ringbone is a term applied to a bon\- enlargement {exostosis) around the pastern or above the hoof in front and at the sides. (Figs. 37 and 38.) The enlargement may exist in gradations from a mere roughening on the long pastern bone {os suffraginis) to a mass of bony growth extending all round the pastern, embracing the tendons behind and invohing the pastern joints to a degree causing their complete bony union. Ringbon'- is almost solely confined to the heavier breeds of horses, and to those lighter horses which are coarse-bred and round-boned. The cimdition is as common on the hind as on the fore pastern. Fig. 37. I'roiuiiient riuj^bduc (lu out.^iile t iy. 38. .Slij^lil iiuylju;.^., u.i laside of of off fore pastern. both jjasterns. — The arrow at knee indicates a bony enlargement at seat of " speedy cut." It has been the custom in times past to describe two forms of ringbone — true and false, but the division would appear to be superfluous seeing that the so-called false ringbone is nothing more than a natural condition -a somewhat pronounced development of the natural roughenings of the long pastern bone to which the tendons and ligaments are attached. A decision that such roughenings are natural and not bony disease growths can easilv be come tO' if. on comparing the two pasterns, the prominences on each are similar in size, shape and position. A more legitimate classification of ringbones is that which di\ides them into high ringbone and low ringbone, according as the enlargement is situated on the long pastern bone or on the short pastern bone {as corona). The enlargement in high ringbone occurs a little below midway between the fetlock and the top of the hoof, while that of low ringbone surrounds 8 June, 1907.] Lameness in Horses. 373 the short pastern bone immediatelv at the junction of hoof and skin. Being so situated low rin}i;bone is a much more serious affair than high ringbone on account of the fact that the bonv outgroAvth is compressed between the bone and the unyielding rim of the hoof. The pain and lameness are consequently extreme; the irritation, kept up continuously by the compression, prevents the inflammation from subsiding. Conse- quently the ringbone seldom "sets" and the bony outgrowth spreads until the pastern joint (just aboye the hoof) becomes involved in the process and finally stiffened by bony union. Rendering the horse practically use- less for a long period, as it does, it is fortunate that low ringbone is the less common of the two forms. (See Figs. 39, 40, 41, and 43.) Causes. — Th-? causes of ringbone are not so well defined as most other bone lamenesses. It has been held that concussion cannot be a comm.Mi ^'^n- i''- Il'f^I^ ringbone with complete union of the long and short pastern bones. Fif,'. 40. Low ringbone with complete union of short pastern bone and pedal bone. cause because the fore ])asteins are not more frequently affected than tli * hind, if as frequently ; but holders of that \iew fail to recognise there is a difference between " weight-shock " and " jar," and that the latter affects the hind limbs as much as the fore. Anyhow it is ahvavs in horses with short and upright pasterns that ringbone occurs, and in these the jarring of the pastern during progression is much greater than in horses with long and springy pasterns. The occurrence of ringbone on the hind pastern is often associated with contracted tendons in which the pastern is kept more upright and toe is stubbed into the ground at each step. In such cases there can be no doubt that the concussive jar on the upright column of bones is the cause of the ringbone. Other causes include sprain of the ligaments of the pastern and coffin joints, stich as is sustained diu-ing a sidewards slip or wrench. 374 Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. Symptoms.— -Lamepess mav Ije present l>efore there are any objective i,igns of ringbone such as swelUng or bonv enlargement. The cause of (he pain in such cases is the inflammation which is going on, and which will ultimately result in the formation of a bony deposit. It may b • from a month to as long as three months before the outgrowth of bone has developed to a size appreciable to the touch, and the slower i. is in de- veloping the less is the amount of heat and tenderness of the part, and the )f ]iastern joint. g'"''ater therefore the difficult\ of diagnosis. When standing, the heel is slightly raised, and the toe rests on the ground, but during progression the heel is brought to the ground first, and there is a stiffness about the mo\ement of the pastern. The lameness is always worse on hard ground and usually increases with exercise. Forcible bending of the pastern +0 the extreme limit and sudden twisting of the hoof on the pastern generalb cause pair, evinced b\' flinrhing. Pain is also often evinced on thumb and bones Fit 43. 'I'vpiral a(l\anced ringbone. .:; _'4. T-ong and short pastern bones with rinji bone. Fig. 42. Fon short pastern — uormaL pressure being applied at the seat of ringl)one. When fully formed a inig()one m.av f)e easily felt and seen, and during the formation there mav be more or less soft swelling and heat due to increased vascularity. Along with any or all of the above signs absence of other diseases or in- juries which cause the horse toi go upon the heel — such as laminitis, sanil- crack, and .seedy toe — is of assistance in enabling the conclusion to ])e arri\-ed at that the horse is probably going to throw a ringbone. S June, 1907.] Lameness m Horses. 375 In some cases of hind ringbone where the pasterns are very upright the horse knuckles over at the fetlock at each step, and the toe is brought t'> the ground first. Treatment. — In the earlv stages the object of treatment is to redm-e the inflammatory activity and therefore rest should be enjoined. The application of cold, l)\ means of frequently changed cold water bandages or bv allowing water to drip from a hose bandaged in position, \\\\\ often arrest the in.cipi-nt inflammation and prevent structural change or the deposition of bone. The shoe should be taken off ami the heels rasi)ed down if the foot is good ; if not a thin heeled shoe should be put on, or a bar rocker shoe, if the frog is good. Many horses with high ringbone will work sound for years with a thin-heeled shoe. Subse(}uent treatment will depend upon tlie persistence of the lameness. If it passes awa\ after a blistering with red mercury ointment (.see page 77) nothing further will be needed; but if it persists or recurs |X)int firing (see page 66) should be carried out. Where the lameness proves intractable to these measures i' can be overcome by performing the operation of neu- rectomy (see page 68). This oj)eration, while always attended with certain risks and drawbacks, gives T>?rhaps better results in this disease than in any other. Of course it should never be attempted if the horse has weak heels or soles or other condition of the font, such as corns, which may give rise to suppuration or abscess formation. FOOT LAMENESS. Lameness of a more or less pronounced character is associated with most of the diseases of the foot. Many of these diseases are however of such great importance economically and of such distinctive character patho- logicallv as to warrant extended consideration and it has therefore been decided to deal with them in a chapter speciall)' devoted to diseases of the foot. It will however be convenient and apposite to describe here those general characteristics which are associated with Lameness in the foot and also to consider in detail those diseases which are most commonly associated with foot lameness (to wit, Sidebones, Corns, Laminitis, Vil- litis and Navicular di-sease) and the meajis wherel)y they can be detected and differentiated. For Thrush, Canker, Contracted heels, Sandcrack, False quarter. Seedy toe. Keratoma, Pricks in shoeing, Quittor, and other diseases in which the cause of lameness is obvious reference is directed to the chapter on Diseases of the Foot which follows. Characteris'tics of Foot Lameness. In addition to the particular symptoms of each disease of the foot, there are general signs which are characteristic of foot lameness. When standing, the pain caused bv pressure of weight causes little or no weight to be borne Ijy the lame foot and the pastern is kept more upright. The lame foot is generally placed in advance of its fellow, that is, it is '■ pointed "' and if both feet are affected they are advarced or pointed alternatelv, except perhaps in laminitis when both are pushed forward. During movement, the action is natural and free when the limb is raised, there is no inabilitv to advance, straighten or bend the limb ; but imme- diatelv the lame foot comes to the ground and has weight thrown upon it there is great flinching, and an evident desire to get the sound foot to the ground and the weight transferred on to it as quickly as pos.sible. In >76 Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. walking, the horse mav lake a step of the ordinary length with the lame limb but -will step short with the sound one on account of the quickness with which he desires to relieve the lame foot of the weight of the body. The lameness from pricks in shoeing, gathered nails &c., may le detected bv gently tapping the sole and wall all round the nail holes with a hammer. The horse flinches palpably when the foot is tapped at the part oyer which the pain is. Sidebone. This consists in an ossification of the lateral cartilaofes of the pedal bone, evidenced bv the formation of a hard knorr\ unvielding enlargement above the hoof at the sides. t 1 Fig. 4v Showing the Literal cartilage and its relations, a, os suffraginis or long pastern bone; b, os corona or short pastern bone; c, os pedis or coffin bone; oung horses than in aged ones. In the latter the sidebones have become set, and although there may be stiffness of gait, lameness is not sufficiently pronounced to be a hindrance. In horses with good open "feet, wide at the heels, sidebone lameness is not troublesome ; it is seldom severe and quickly passes away if flat shoeing is adopted. It is in horses with narrow feet and contracted licls that the lameness is most persistent ber^ause in " ■ t. J^^rM ^V ^^H "^- iH 1 ^P^ ^^((P?S%» m H» ■ - --^ ^^A ^^^1 ■■ fe^;*^ ^HH H^l ^^H BmB-:-^ " .^m ^^^^1 ■ Hi H Fit 47' The tluunb is on the seat of sidebone. The method of handlinj: indicated is awkward and incorrect. these there is no room for the 1)on> growth to expand and pain is cau.sed by its compression against the hard unyielding wall of the hoof. When the ossification process is confined to the Lateral cartilages and does not expand J our 11 al of Agrictilture. [8 June, 1907. l)evond them the degree of unsoundness mav be considered slight. But when, in addition there is an exostosis or outgrown enlargement of bone in anv direction the unsoundness is unquestionable. Such outgrowth of bone extending from the lateral cartilages mav cause a bulging of the wall of the hoof giving it an uns\ mmetrical ai)pe,arance when held up and examined from behind. (See P'ig. 47.) Hereditary predisposition to sidebones is fully pro\-en ; and, so long as their presence in brood mares and entires is not regarded with disfavour 1)\ tlie manafrement of live stock shows, the stead\ increase in the number tig. 48. Pedal boae (normal) with lateral cartilages removed. (After Haves.) i'"ig. 4(). Slight sidebones. Haves.) (After of animals affected, which has been noticeable of late years in Australian draught stock, will be maintained and most likely accentuated. Causes. — Concussion bv putting the lateral cartilages continuously on the strain is likelv to be one of the causes of sidebone. but that it is not the principal cause is evidenced bv the fact that horses in which the con- cussive shock is the greatest and most frequent — trotters, roadsters and gallopers — do not contract sidebones so readily as those which work at a more moderate pace. Fig. 1^0. SidelxMie on one side onl\-, (After Haves.) t'ig. 51. Typical Haves.) lebones (After The principal cause would seem to be in the method of shoeing adopted for cart-horses. These are practically the only horses that are shod with calkins or high heels. One effect is that the frog is raised from the ground and the downward pressure ujxju it, instead of being relieved by the con- tact of the frog widi the ground, is exerted on the plantar cushion and 8 June, [907.] Lameness in Horses 379 lateral cartilages Avhich latter are thereby ke]:)t continuously under siriiin. To enable the cartilages to withstand this continuous strain Nature strengthens them bv a deposition within their substance of bony matter o~ rather b\ actually transforming them into^ bone. (See Figs. 49 to 53.) The process In which this transformation takes pb.ce is an infiammatorv c:ne and it is during the activity of the inflammation that lameness occurs. The inflammation, once started, will continue as long as the cause con- tinues to act ; and hence, except the horse is rested and shod flat so as to give frog pressure, the bone formation goesi on and tlie sidebone continues to grow larger. In support of the contention that calkin-shoeing is the chief cause of sidebone it may be added that it is not until draught horses are shod and put to work on the roads that the conditions develop. As long as the\- remain unshod or are kept to ploughing or other work on soft ground (even if shod) sidebones are never formed. Another cause likely to induce inflammation of the lateral cartilages w hereby sidebones mav result is external \-iolence or injury such as max be sustained bv cart-horses bv the dropping of the cart stiafts when unyoking in such a manner as to hit the sides of the feet. Stepping on the inside of one foot with the other font or treads from other horses often produce \ V. Fu Shovvinj; variet\- in sliape ot sidebones. (After Hayes. su<-h an injur\-. and ( ajitain Haves has recorded that horses sliipped fron Australia to India often develop sidebone as a result of injury sustained ii\ the tread of other horses when over-crowded on board ship. Symptoms. — The natural elasticity or springiness on pressure of the cartilages at the coronet on the inside and outside of the foot is lost, an:', instead, a hard unyielding bony enlargement may be felt. The absence of springiness may be best ascertained when full weight is sustained on the foot by thumb pressure applied in the manner described at page 156. Tn some rare cases the lameness precedes the formation of bone and, bemg inflamed, the part will be hot to the touch a;nd pain will be evinced on pressure. During progression the animal moves with a short stilty stejj and has a tendency to stumble from an attempt to 4avoid shock on the heels. " Going on the toe " is marked and is evidenced by the wearing away of the shoe at the toe. Treatment. — Rest is necessary. With the object of relieving the ten- sion on the lateral cartilages bv getting the frog to come to the ground and so assist in weight bearing the shoe should be removed; or, if the frog is well developed a bar shoe should be put on so as to get frog pressure. 380 Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. Lameness will usually continue until the change of cartilage into l)one is completed and the sidebone is " set," i.e. so long as the inflammatory activity and bone formation or ossification continue ; and one of the objects of treatment should be to hasten this process. To this end blistering is of assistance. The red mercury ointment may be rubbed in round the coronet at intervals of four or five davs for a fortnight or so. Failing this firing may be resorted to and. as with ringbone, point firing is likely to be most effective. For inveterate lameness due to sidebone the operation of neurectomy is to be recommended. For cases in which the bony enlargement continues tc increase in size and is accompanied by great lameness on account of the compression of the soft tissues between the bone and the hoof fall, Colonel Fred. Smith of the British Army Veterinary Department has introduced a method of surgical treatment by which the pain is mechanically relieved. The operation consists in the cutting of two niches or grooves in the hoof wall lengthway O'f the horn fibres from the coronet down to nearly the ground surface. One niche is made in front of the bony enlargement and the other posterior to it near the heel. Both are cut sufficiently deep through the wall as to allow of pressure of the enlarged bone from within to cause the part cf the wall i.solated by the niches to be sprung outwards. With the relief nf pressure so caused there is also cessation of irritation, the ir.flammation sulisides and comparative freedom from lameness results. Of course an ugly appearance of the foot is brought about, but in horses virtually crippled with sidebone the operation is successful to the extent of R'ndering the animals wnrkabh sound. {To be continued .) FlU IT STORES. C: Bogue Luffmanii. Principal Burnley School of Horticulture. A cool store room enables the orchardist to keep fruit far into the winter and thereby supply the local and Inter-State markets when as a rule prices are extremely good. The co-operative cool chambers now established in some districts will meet the wants of many growers whilst one or two large private establishments have erected cooling and refrigerating plants of their own. It will scarcely pay to build a fruit store where the orchard is small or say less than five hundred bushels could be relied on each year. The only fruits likely to pav for special storage are apples and pears. Late ripening fruit of firm texture and perfectly sound, especially about the eye and stalk, are the only kinds which should be selected for storing. The cooler and more regular the climate in which fruit is grown the better it will keep. Soil and the degree of exposure given to fruit during its various stages of growth have also a great deal to do with its keeping qualities. No fruit rooms should be thought of (unless supplied with a refrigerating plant) in the hottest parts of Victoria. In the elevated country passing from 1,000 to' 2,000 feet; in the Western District; and, in Gipps- land. a great deal of fruit is grown which is cajjable of being stored. 8 June. 1907.] Fruit Stores. 381 The ordinary requirements of a fruit room are that it shall be propor- tionately long and narrow ; have wide doors at each end and a high pitched roof; these features securing ample ventilation and an e\en temperature. INIeans shoiuld exist for admitting daylight to every part ; but the light must be excluded when fruit is stored. Double walls secure the lowest natural temperature obtainable. The roofing should be as thick as possible and the eaves brf)ad. Thatch or bark makes the coolest outer covering of the r(iof. The building should where possil)le Ije placed on a well raised and solid platform so as to secure perfect drainage. The chamber floor should be composed of clean clav and sand, tamped hard and well graded, or laid over with concrete. Tar nor anv other odorous material should never Ije used on the floor or any other part of the building. No paint is needed inside, fruit being highly susceptible and easiK tainted where tar paint or vegetable odours abound. The materials for building will always depend on the natural resources and demands of the district ; and the means and tastes of the owner. A high narrow barn-like building with deep verandah sheds on three or all sides proves sufiicientlv cool for a store in late districts. Hot winds and direct sunlight from the north and west should be excluded by trees, or b\ selecting a site open caily to the cool east and south. Where fruit is to be stored for market it rerjuires to be carefully selected, graded and cased so' as to avoid the expense of further handling. This means that few or no fixtures are necessary in the commercial fruit store. The chtnice and control of temperatures for various fruits and during different seasons can be decided only b\ experience. Certain it is that no one natural temperature will serve for all fruits or seasons, all depending on the water content ; the degree of ripeness ; humidity of the atmosphere ; its temperature without the chamber; and the degree and quality of the light available. Ripe fruit demands the lowest temperature and cleanest surrounding air, very little if any light and a comparatively dry atmosphere. On the other hand if green or undeveloped fruit is placed in a very low tempera- ture it stagnates and so fails to develop into a marketable condition. Further, where fruit is decidedly watery the air should be fairly dry and frequently changed ; but, if the fruit is close and hard and also on the green side, the house should be damp enough to prevent the escape of the natural moisture of the fruit, otherwise it will waste and shrivel. A strong fruit\- and gas-like odour is a certain sign that the chamber needs ventilating. The cool period of the day is the best time at which to ventilate. Very dry moms need a Imcket ot two of water standing on the floor to exhale moisture ; very damp rooms need frequent ventilating and the burning of sulphur. Where a chamber fails to preserve well selected fruit we may infer that there is something wrong in its construction, or, that the method of stackinir and ventilatiu'r has not been well observed. 38: Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. VINES DISTRIBUTED AND AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION, 1906-7. VITICULTURAL COLLEGE, RUTHERGLEN. UNGRAFTED. Variety. jSTo. Variety. ^o. Riparia Gloire (de Montpelier) ,, Grand Glabre Rupestiis du Lot ,, Ganzin Martin 2 . . Metallica 1,500 4,500 11,000 11,000 8,700 8,100 Hybrids 101 1* „ 3306 „ 3309 Mourvedre x Rupestris 1202 . . Total 2,500 10,500 11,300 2,000 71, KX) CALLUSED. (Supplied.) Variety. Stock. No. 1,500 1,000 1,500 1 500 i Variety. Malbec Chasselas Stock. 3309 . . Rupestris du Lot Total No. Siiiraz Brown ^luscat Tokay Riijiesvris Ganzin Martin 2 1202 . . 3300 . . 500 2,000 7,000 GRAFTED. Variety. Stock. No. Variety. Stock. No. Shiraz Rupesiri.s Metallica „ du Lot 11,188 435 White Hermit- age Rupestris Metallica 1,974 ,^ ,, Ganzin 10,193 ,, Ganzin 931 M ,, Martin 2 2,468 ,, Hybrid 101 1^ .. 1.828 Hybrid 3300 1,159 ,, „ 3306 1.003 ,. 3309 514 — _ ,j „ 101 i-i .. 795 ' Total . . 5,736 )j „ 1202 26 Pedro Rupestris du Lot 1,104 Total . . 26,778 „ Martin 2 83 1 Metallica Ganzin Aramon x Rup. 269 480 1,030 Brown Musca': Rupestris du Lot 8,472 Ganzin Metallica 825 Hybrid 3306 1.52U ,, Hybrid 1202 6,839 „ 3309 439 „ 3306 529 1202 508 " „ 3309 660 ., 1011^ .. 175 Total . . 17,325 Total . . 5,608 8 June, 1907.] Vines for Distribution. Grafted — covtmvert . Variety. stock. No. 224 A'ariety. Stock. No. Malbec Rupestris Metallica MuscatHanibro' Solonis 273 Martin 2 545 I Riparia Grand 334 ,. Hybrid 44-01 .. 220 Glabre „ 33(t'.t 904 ' Riparia Gloire . . 245 ,. Kin^ .. 90 : Total . . 852 Total . . 1,983 Centennial . . Rupestris du Lot 292 Roussillon Rupestris Metallic; 710 ,, du Lot 110 Lisbon Rupestris du Lot 142 ,. ,, Ganzin 1.515 ,, Martin 2 302 Red May Rupestris du Lot 276 Hybrid 1202 9 Red Prince . . Rupestris Metallica 0 Total . . 2,64(i ,, du Lot 35 Riparia Grand 68 Tokay Rupestris du Lot 29 Glabre ,. . . Riparia Gloire . . 6 Total . . 105 ,. . . Hybrid 3306 1.022 Ladies' Fincrers Riparia Gloire . . 440 Total . . 1,060 , ,, GrandGlabrt 50 Gouais Hybrid 3306 18 Total . . 490 3309 89 5, • • 1202 66 I Wortley Hall Hybrid 1202 3 ' \. Riparia Gloire . . 162 Total . . 173 il Total . . 165 Chasselas Rupestris Ganzin 14 ! J, Metallica 144 Gros Colmar . . Riparia Grand 96 ?, • • „ Martin 2 659 Glabre " Rijjaria Gloire . . 355 Raisin des Dames Riparia Gloire . . 632 Total . . 1,172 Doradilla Riparia Grand 56 Glabre Black Priuce Riparia Gloire . . 606 Black St. Peter Riparia Grand 76 ^, Hybrid 101 1* .. 3 Glabre „ Hybrid 101 1* . . 4 Total . . 609 . Total . . 80 White Muscat Riparia Gloire . . 14 1 Zante Rupestris Metallics 5 Waltliam Cross Riparia Gloire . . 1,378 ., du Lot 2.368 ,, GrandGlabre 104 11 ,. Riparia Gloire . . 71 '1 .. „ GrandGlabre HI Total . . 1,482 Total . . 2,555 Sultana Rupestris Ganzin 7 ., Riparia Gloire . . 100 Cabernet Riparia Gloire . . 7 " „ GrandGlabrc 70 j ., „ Grand Glabre 4 Total . . 177 Rupestris Metallica 3 (xordo Blanco Hybrid 3306 3 Total . . 14 ^, „ 1202 6 '„ Riparia Grand 327 1 FoUe Blanche Hybrid 1202 (i Glabre 1 Rupestris du Lot 82 Total . . 336 Total . . 88 38J Journal of Agriculture. [8 June, 1907. (; RAFTED- -continued. Variety. Stock. No. Variety. Stock". No. Ancarot Riparia Gloire . . 9 Teret Bouscliet Rupestris du Lot 19 Riesling Riparia Gloire . . 12 Alicante Bous- cliet Grand Noir de Rupestris du Lot 125 Chasselas Mas- Hybrid 1202 3 Rupestris du Lot 100 que • la Calmette Aramon Rupestris du Lot 97 Bowood Mus- Riparia Gloire . . 2 cat Aspiran Noir Rupestris du Lot 71 Baxter's Sherry Riparia Gloire . . 5 Cinsaut Rupestris du Lot 38 Lady Down's Rupestris Metallic^ 4 Plantes parde^ Rupestris du Lot 44 Seedling Auxerrois Black Hambro' Solonis 9 Braddick's Hybrid 1202 4 Hauibro' Syrah Riparia Grand Glabre 580 Alnieria Hybrid 1202 3 Total . . 72,258 Seaiillon Rupestris du Lot 85 Sauvignon Rupestris du Lot 12 SUMMARY. Ganiay Noir Rupestris du Lot 17 Ungrafted (su))|)lied) 71,100 Aramon Bous- Rupestris du Lot 70 Callused (sujiitlied) 7.0(l(t chet Grafted Rootlings (on hand) 72,258 Petit Bouscliet Rupestris du Lot 7 1 To tal 50.358 These vines were grafted to order and will be distributed fro rata during Jul amongst the vignerons whose applications were recorded last year. G. H. ADCOCK, Principal, Viticulfural College, Rutherglen. GRAIN AND PRODUCE. Quantities exported under Government Certificate during the quarter ending 31st March, 1907. Product. Package?. Destination. Product. Potatoes .. bags Packages. Destination, Wheat . . bag-s 156,359 South Africa 36,023 Inter-State and ,, .. ,, 30,159 South America New Zealand Oats 51,764 Inter-State ,, 400 Honolulu ,, . . ,, 3,547 New Zealand ,» 2,656 San Francisco ,, .. „ 750 South Africa Onions . . ,, 58,512 Inter-State and Barlev .. ,, 100 South Africa New Zealand ,, .. „ 350 Inter State »» . . J, 1,902 Manila Flour 1,0-20 South Africa • ) • • ,, 500 San Francisco Maize „ 60 Inter-State Compressed Fodder ,, . . „ 130 South Africa bales 3,005 South Africa " 50 New Zealand " 600 Manila J. KNIGHT, Inspector of Farm Produce mider the Commerce Act. THE ORCHARD. James Lang, Harcourt. Up to the present the weather has been unusually dry, retarding ploughing operations and preparation of ground for f urtlier planting ; this work should now be pushed on where practicable, in order to get the land in good condition for planting. Planting should be proceeded with as soon as the ground is ready, early planting being at all times advisable. Clear off the surplus suckers from raspberry plantations, leaving not more than six of the strongest canes for fruiting next season. Strawberry beds should also be gone over and cleaned up, and all runners taken away. Further planting of citrus fruits should be left until the spring time when the ground will be warmer. A start should be made this month with pruning, commencing with plums and cherries, as these are of the first to drop their leaves. The woolly aphis on the apple trees has given a good deal of trouble < luring the past summer, the very wet winter of last year and the cool summer following being the cause. This matter was referred to in the February number of the Journal, and a numljer of letters has been received by the writer asking for further information. The potash mentioned in the recipe is what is known in the trade as American potash ; it is in lumps like pieces of bluestone and requires to be poinded up finely to dissolve readily in water. Caustic soda (Greenbank's 90 per cent.) has been used where the American potash has not been obtainable. The trees should be dressed with the mixture as soon as pruning has been completed, and just before the buds burst, they should be gone over again and any spots of aphis show^ing touched with the brush. If this is follow'ed up two or three times during the summer, aphis will give very little trouble afterwards. The present generation of fruitgrowers has very little idea of the havoc and destruction caused amongst apple trees in the early sixties by the ravages of the woolly aphis. At that time it was almost impossible to grow an apple tree free from it, the roots teing more affected than the upper part of the tree. In a year or two the roots rotted off and the tree died ; trees old and young were alike affected, even seedlings in the nursery bed rotted off the first year, and nurserymen were at their wits end to know how to raise young apple trees free from the blight. Such was the state of affairs when the late Mr. Thomas Lang, of Ballarat, introduced the Majetin blight-proof stock. Mr. Lang, who had noticed for some time that the Majetin variety of apple was not affected by the woolly aphis, thought that if the branches of the INIajetin tree were rooted, they would form a stock that other varieties of apples could be grafted upon, and after a number of careful experiments he proved that the roots were immune from the attacks of the aphis. This discovery quite revolutionized the cultivation of the apple, as it was found that when the roots w^ere clean, it was a comparatively easy matter to keep the tops clean. The fruit- growers of Victoria are under a deep debt of gratitude to Mr. Lang for discovering the blight-proof T^tock. After a time it was found also that the Northern Spv apple resisted the attacks of the aphis, and it also was used as a stock. This variety was found to possess a quantity of fibrous roots that made it more suitable for a stock than the Majetin. The Spy stock has now entirely superseded the Majetin as a blight-proof stock, being universally regarded by the nursery- men as the best. Account sales of the three first shipments of Victorian apples have come to hand showing that the prices realized have been very good, better even than last vear. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. The Staff of the Department has been organized to a large extent for the purpose of giving information to farmers. Questions in every branch of agriculture are gladly answered. Write a short letter, giving as full particulars as possible, of your local conditions, and state precisely what it is that you want to know. All inquiries must be accompanied by the name and address of the writer. Cow "Blown" with Li'CERne. — T. Bros, write: — "Is there any way to make a cow break the gas instantaneously when blown with lucerne? We have tried baking soda, tar, and other so-called remedies. Sometimes a cow has been blown for fully three-quarters of aa hour before we could get her down." Answer. — Sometimes the injection into the rectum of a couple of ounces of pure glycerine by means of a syringe is effective, causing " breaking of wind," but by far the quickest pro- cedure is to puncture the paunch at its most prominently extended part, as described in the Journal for February, 1907, page 70. Boiler Testing. — Smeaton is about to start a steam chaff-cutting plant, and inquires if it is necessary to have the boiler tested, and to have an engine-driver's certificate. The plant will work in a shire only. Answer. — Under the circumstances no testing or examination of the boiler is required by law, nor is a certificate necessary. Magpies. — W. F. writes : — " The magpies in this district (Fern Tree Gully) have proved terribly destructive to many kinds of crops — young maize, onions, peas, &c. ; a specimen of the damage done to the pea crop is forwarded herewith. Is there any method of poisoning these birds? They are too cunning to allow one to shoot them." Answer. — Although the so-called "magpie" does some harm to crops, it is probably the most useful insect-destroying bird in the State, and should neither be shot, poisoned, or other- wise destroyed. Firing with blank cartridges will keep them away. Land Crabs. — F.G.C. requests information re the best method of killing land crabs on drained swamp land, which in winter is covered with mounds of earth thrown up by them. The holes are about 25 feet deep. Answer. — Sulphuric acid might be tried, and as it will boil when in contact with water, the hole into which it is poured should be immediately covered. If the holes are fairly dry, or could be temporarily dried, bisulphide of carbon is recommended. Potato Growing. — ^Gembrook writes : — "What is the best depth to break up the land for a first crop of potatoes. It is red soil, and two years ago was covered with heavy green timber and undergrowth." Afiswer. — If the field is a tough giass sod, pare to 35 inches; work up thoroughly, and plant crop 42 to 5 inches. If loose and friable or bracken land, plough 4^ to 5 inches, work to a good tilth, and plant crop 55 to 6 inches. Cabbage Aphis. — Constant Subscriber states that a small grey insect infests the cabbages- in his garden. The insects get in groups, and the young leaves curl. Some call it " aphis." A neighbouring farmer's crops of rape and turnips have been similarly affected. Answer. — The insect in question is no doubt the " Cabbage Aphis " figured in Part I. of French's Destructive Insects of Victoria. The pest being so difficult to get at is a hard one ta combat successfully. The best plan is, boil i lb. tobacco, i gallon of water, and 5 lb. soap together; then add from 12 to 14 gallons of water, and spray the plants, being careful to reach the under portions of the leaves and the inner parts of the cabbage. Rape and other members of the order of Cruci ferae are also liable to attack. Pruning. — A.M.G. writes : — " Please let me know how to treat the following fruit trees as regards pruning : — Almond, cjuince, cherry, plum, fig, orange, lemon, and walnut." Answer. — Your questions are so vague as to indicate that you do not grasp the first prin- ciples of this subject. It would take many pages to give precise information on all that your questions involve. In previous issues of the Journal we have published several articles on the principles and methods of pruning various fruit trees. If you have not the back numbers, get a book on general orchard practice. You should also take a weekly paper which gives season- able notes on and methods of carrying out orchard work. Quinn's book on pruning fruit trees, IS., will also be of use to you. Cowshed Floor. — B.D. inquires (i) whether a cowshed floored with sawn or split timber would meet the requirements of the Dairy Supervision Act? (2) Whether the floor of the stall should be level? Answer. — A cowshed floor of wood may be made effective : (i) if care is taken to saw or fine-axe the edges of the boards before laying in order that the joints may be close and not admit of percolation of fluids, (2) if the timbers are soaked in hot tar before laying or if the joints are grouted with tar and sand so making the floor watertight. — There should be no space underneath the board floor. A fall of about i inch or i^ inches in the length of the' stall, towards the gutter at the rear, should be given. Rugging Cows. — J.E.S. asks what is the normal temperature of a healthy cow in full milk, and whether there is any advantnge in rugging cows when the temperature of the air is under 60 degrees. Ai7S7ver. — From 101.5 to 102 degrees, a little higher in the evenings and a little lower in the mornings. The rugging of cows during cold weather is advantageous in that the external bleakness is ]irotected against, and a radiation of external body heat is, in a measure, prevented. The rug should be removed on warm sunny days and at intervals of a day or two in any case, to allow the animal to lick herself and to prevent chafing of the skin. It should also be removed and replaced with a dry one after heavy rains, otherwise the expenditure of animal heat in the drying of the rug is very great. In other words, the cow is for the time being literally encased in a cold wet blanket without any means of drying on sunless days other than the body heat of the animal. DAIRY PRODUCE EXPORT TRADE. Vol. V. WHEAT AND WHEAT BREEDING. Part 7. [Rejcistered at the General Post Office, Melbourne, for transmission by Post as a Newspaper.) PRICE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subscription— Victoria, Inter-State, and N.L, 3/-; British and Foreign, 5/ THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 8 JULY, 1907. CONTENTS. /. G. Turner H. V. Hawkins E. Crowe R. T. Archer A. S. Kenyan J. G. McMillan S. S. Cameron J. Lang W. P. Wilkinson Fruit Export Season 1907 Chicken Pox Dairy Produce Export Trade Overrun in Butter Factories The Use of Concrete for Silos and other Farm Buildings The Possibilities of Cheese Production in Victoria ... Lameness in Horses — continued The Orchard Artificial Manures Acts — Sup[jlementary List of Unit Values, 1907 List showing Results of Analyses of Samples collected in the State W. P. Wilkinson Wattle Growing ... ... ... ... ... A. Tatham Garden Notes — The Iris ... .. ... ... /. Cronin The Proclaimed Plants of Victoria — Blackberry Bramble A. J. Ewart and J. R. Tovey Wheat and Wheat Breeding ... ... ... ... H. Pye Journal of Agriculture — Copyright Provisions and Subscription Rates i aside front Answers to Correspondents ... ... ... ... inside front Agricultural Classes, 1907 ... ... ... ... ... back Uookie Agricultural College ... ... ... ... ... back Longerenong Agricultural College ... ... ... ... back 385 389 391 399 401 409 415 427 428 430 432 435 438 439 cover cover cover cover cover REGISTERED UNDER THE COPYRIGHT ACT 1890. SECTION 21. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copj'right Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter contained in the Journal are at liberty to do so, provided the usual acknowledgment is made. The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy Threepence. A limited number of the issues comprising Volumes II. (1903-4), III. (1905) — 10 parts each — and Volume IV. (1906) — 12 parts — is at present in stock, and will be supplied at the foregoing rates. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. " Crippi.es." — Nux Vomica writes : — " Please state what is wrong with my cows. Symp- toms : — Gradual loss of condition; excrements, hard balls covered with slime; weakness in the limbs. Post-mortem appearances : — Stomachs contain a considerable quantity of undigested food." Answer. — The symptoms given are the prominent ones in the affection widely known as "Cripples" or the impaction phase of that complaint. The subject is fully dealt with in the October, igo6, issue of the Journal. Lumpy J.\w, etc. — D.M. submits the following queries (i) What is the best treatment for lumpy jaw? (2) What is the cause of a horse dragging nind toes on ground when trotting? (3) Can a horse whose urine is continually dropping be successfully treated ? The horse in ques- tion has been affected for over a year and is worse in cold weather. Answer. — (i) Lumpy jaw may be cured in mild cases by cutting out and dressing the wound with iodine liniment at the same time griving doses (2 drams each) of iodide of potassium in the food twice daily. (2) Horses with spavined hocks drag the toes and wear the front of hoof wall. (3) There is an irritation of the urinary passa^^es for tb*j exact location of which ar- examination would be necessary and without which it would be unsatisfactory to prescribe. (Continued on inside back cover.) THe JOURNAL OF NEW YORK BOTANICAL Tfie ©eparfment of Mgricuffure. Vol. V. Part 7. 8th July, 1907. FRUIT EXPORT SEASOX 11)07. /. G. Turner, Inspector under Coinineree Act. The fruit export season just concluded has been chiefly remarkable for the great increase in the quantity exported. The total quantity shipped through this season, to date, amounts to 131,083 cases of apples and 5,017 pears, .as aga.inst an output of 49,580 cases of apples and 2,486 cases of pears for last season. This represents an increase of 161 per cent. Taking the history of this industry for the last eight years we Imd that in the first \ear of that period onlv 11,000 rases were exported as d. 1 %:^^-' - ■ i ,. -^ -nj ^:'-*-^l4 "^■0^ 'in '..A tis'-T -f ■ '■■■■- . '■ ' \ ' 'It " _>J5P *^ Mil. A STRING OF TRUCKS. 13,000 cases of fruit are represented here. ngainst the abovementioned figures for the present season, showing a mag- nificent and encouraging increase of aver 1,100 per cent. Another point to be considered is that in addition to the export of green fruits a new development has come about in the export of dried fruits. Prior to this season little or no dried fruit was exported from this State excepting small lots for inter-state trade. For this season the figures are likely to rival in point of average yearly quantity those representing the green fruit trade. Viewing these two departments of the frtiit trade as a whole the increase 6809. N ijj 386 JoiirnaL of Agriculture. [8 July, 190; in the total quantity exported bids fair to amount to no less than 2,000 per cent, on the quantity exported in 1900. The whole of the fruit shipped for this season was exported under the provisions of the newly instituted Commerce Act. Despite the gloomy predictions of most of those concerned in the industry the regulations were found to te easily workable. The Victorian output has been, in every instance, dealt with under Form 2 (Request to Certify and Mark with an Approved Stamp). The method of dealing with goods for export is left to the exporter. If he choose he may send his goods away under an Export Permit. The; latter method has been unanimously adopted in South Australia and Tasmania, but the Victorian growers have found that the uniform excellence of their goods, combined with the application of the official stamp of approval, has done so much to enhance their profits that the\ were loth to abandon the benefits accruing under the old svstem. SORTING A MIXED TRUCK. When the Commerce Regulations came into operation with provision for official stamping of packages it was feared that the stamping and its accom- j.anying examination of the goods would entail much extra handling and consequent damage. Shippers therefore decided to ship under the Export Permit as was being done in- other States. It was found, however, on the morning of the first shipment of the season, that their fears were ground- less— the fruit was received, examined and despatched with less handling than was necessarv in previous years. The growers and agents were quick to grasp the possibilities afforded by the storage accommodation provided b\ the Department and a reaction set in. From that hour every shipment was dealt with under the system of certification and stamping. [n order tO' cope with the work involved in this system the Department of Agriculture has secured the lease of a commodious shed at Port Mel- bourne capalile of containing many thousands of cases. The floor-space 8 July, 1907.] Fruit Export Season igoy. 387 lias been found to be a great advantage to those shippers who, after for- warding their goods to the Port, have discovered that no vessel was avail- able owing to changes in the time-table &c. By arrangement with the Department the whole of their fruit was run into the shed and carefully stowed away from weather, pillage, damage &:c. ; it was also found that !he system did away with the costly demurrage charges which otherwise would have been imposed bv the Railways Department for the delaying of the trucks pending the arrival of the steamers. The greatest of care was exercised bv the Departmental officers in seeing that fruit, although in many cases wrongly marked or badlv mixed in the trucks, was properly sorted and branded ; a watchman was told off to guard the fruit at night and agents were promptlv notified of any shortages or incorrect markings and other faults. The result of all this was that most of those who " came to scoff " at the new svstem were the first to come forward and acknowledge its advantages. The quality of the fruit was, on the whole, far in advance of previous years. Very little was condemned bv the inspectors and in every instance Bitter Pit was the offending disease. This defect was more noticeable in the Cox's Orange Pippins sent forward, Cleopatras coming second. The Jonathans showed up very favorably except that here and there a form of disease known to growers as Skin Pit was in evidence. With regard to Cleopatra and Cox's Orange Pippin varieties, growers will do well to rememl)er that in forwarding extra care should be taken that large sizes are excluded, for, in nearlv every instance where the inspectors had. to reject these varieties, the grower asserted that at the time of packing there was no noticeable trace whatever of the disease. In spite of that, however, the larger fruits almost invariablv showed up badly in this respect. A hard medium sized apple should be the standard. With regard to Codlin Moth, very little was noticed ; the same applies to scab and other diseases. One of the best all round varieties in point of freedom from disease was Munroe's Favorite. This apple has been exceptionally good during the past season. The cases used gave more satisfaction than thos^e used in previous years. The compulsory marking of the words " One Bushel " demanded that cases should approach something like uniformity, and this, coupled with the knowledge that the new Victorian Fruit Cases Act would come into operation on the ist July, 1907, tended to bring about the desired uni- formity. This Act is designed more particularly to deal with export ; the case prescribed is slightly larger than that set out by the Commonwealth Government, containing as it does 2,236! cubic inches as against 2,218 cubic inches in the case recommended by the Commonwealth authorities. This should insure good weights in every package and should do away with any cause for complaint from foreign markets in future. Among various faults noticed in shipments, one stands out prominently and that is the use of soiled wrapping-paper and newspaper shavings for padding. The practice cannot be too strongly condemned. The aim of every grower should be to put up his goods in as attractive a manner as possible. It is recommended that in place of newspaper packing onlv clean, white paper shavings, cork shavings, or wood-wool be used. All ragged edges should be clipped off after the case is nailed down. Loose packing must also be strictly avoided as a loosely-packed case does not contain the full bushel demanded by the law. Growers Avill do well to bear in mind that the inspectors are provided with a set of weighing N 2 Journal of Agriculture. [8 July, 1907. machines, foot-rules &c. in order to check any attempt at short weights and measurements. Another thing to be remembered is that such short- comings only involve extra delay, more handling and vexation to the city agent, who, often at the last moment, is called upon to correct the errors of his client. In the illustration on page 386 the discharge of a fruit-truck into the shed is shown. It must not be inferred from this picture that every truck arriving at the shed has to be discharged for examination as is here shown. The extra and really unnecessary handling is compulsory in this instance for two reasons. The first is that most of the growers will insist on stacking their export pears in the furthermost corner of the truck; the second, that fruit for two, or e\'en three, steamers is some- times stowed in the one truck. With regard to the first reason, it is necessary to explain that when a truck reaches the steamer's side all jx-ars AT THE SHI I' S SIDE. Improved square slings in use. are retained and put aboard last of all. After the apples are taken out the pears remain in the trucks and are shunted up and down the pier until perhaps the next day. Under the new system this is all avoided. Pears are carefully taken out immediately on arrival at Port INIelbourne and stored in the shed under lock and key for the night. Thus it will be seen' that if pears are stacked by the growers so that when the door of the truck is opened, the inspectors and staff may take them out at once without having first to remove some hundreds of cases of apples, and much unnecessary handling will be avoided. The reason why pears must be separated and loaded last is that thev are usually carried at a lower tem- perature than apples, and therefore must be placed in that portion of the vessel's hold set apart for them. With regard to the second reason as to why trucks have sometimes to be emptied, it has been found that many growers (no doubt from moti\'es of economv or expediency) are in the 8 July, 1907.] Chicken Pox. 389 habit of stacking in the same truck several lots of fruit intended for con- signment by different boats. When it is considered that often some of these boats are not yet in port when the fruit arrives at the pier the necessity for the removal of the fruit into a place of safety is apparent. To sum up ; stack all pears immediately in front of the doors of the trucks and do not mix lots for different steamers in the same truck. Another point to which I have referred in previous articles is that, when possible, " louvre " trucks should alwavs be used. This truck is known to railwav men as a " U " truck. Failing these an " H " truck should be used, but on no account should fruit be stacked in open trucks (usually covered with tarpaulins) except in cool weather, as the tarpaulin draws the heat of the sun and converts the truck intoi a veritable hot-air chamber. It was also noticed that through the tarpaulins being damaged or worn through, some of the fruit was wet when examined. The use of the word " sound " on cases containing fruit which landed in London in a rotten condition has occasioned a good deal of comment. Unless the fruit is being shipped under the Export Permit beforementioned there is no necessity to apply the word "sound." As the wdiole of last season's shipments was examined, certified, and stamped by the ofiicials it is safe to assume that next year's procedure will be the same ; if so, growers need not stamp their cases with the word above referred to. CHICKEN POX. H. V. Hawkins, Poultry Expert. Numerous inquiries are reaching me concerning a disease not uncommon at this time of year — Poultry Favus — or what is usually known amongst poultry keepers as Chicken Pox. As the outbreak this year is apparentlv so widespread, it would appear opportune to briefly describe the symptoms and methods of treatment, as by neglecting the disease in its early stages the birds become emaciated and fail to respond to treatment. One of the principal causes of this complaint is that of over-crowding in damp or filthy runs and houses. The disease usually attacks young birds, especially those hatched late. It rarely affects adult birds ; and the breeds which are most subject to it are: — The Cochin, Brahma, Orpington and Wyandotte, and very often those breeds which carry heavv combs, such as the Leghorn, Minorca, and Dorking. Many fine specimens of the latter breeds lose the tip of the spike, especially if the affected birds are not hobbled. The disease is one that greatly irritates, and the more the birds scratch the parts affected, the more rapidly do the spores spread, until the birds become a mass of sores, or, what appears to the casual observer, warts. The first symptoms which every amateur may detect are loss of appetite and a great thirst. The birds should at once be isolated and allowed no water for two days at least, and be given onlv soft food (pollard and bran moistened with skim milk) and plentv of finely cut raw onion. Minute, pale yellowish spots, cup like but irregular in form, appear on the comb, often on the wattles and at times on the eyelids. The latter are the most troublesome to^ deal with, and it is absolutely necessarv that the birds should be hobbled. This can be done by tying a piece of rape around the ankle — the joint just above the foot, and below the fourth 39° Journal of Agriculture . [8 July, 1907. toe— except those breeds having five toes such as the Faverolle, DoTkinc; and Houdan breeds ; in these cases the tving should be between fourth and fifth toes so as to prevent the tape slipping up the shank. Remedy. — Bathe the head and face with a weak solution of pennan- ganate of potash. Make a paste of the following and apply to all parts affected: — Sufficient sulphur to fill a small pill box, enough boracic acid that will go on a threepenny-piece and five drops of eucalyptus oil with sufficient soft soap or vaseline to make a paste, mix thoroughly together and apply with a small camel hair brush. Do not allow the hands if cut or scratched to come in contact with the crusty wart. A good and safe preventive from contagion' is to use an antiseptic, consisting of either a 3 per cent, solution of phenyle or lysol, in which the hands should be rinsed. All houses should be thoroughly fumigated with burnt sulphur and floors sprinkled with lime. With care there need be little to fear, but children should on no account be allowed to handle the fowls so affected, neither should any person with an injured finger, as the disease is far from pleasant. The irritation and sudden sickness which follow are most distressing. Four to five days will effect a cure when it will be seen that the crusts will fall off and the birds' appetites will return. A tonic in the water should at once be given viz. : — To 2 gallons of water add 80 to 90 drops of sulphuric acid (poison) and i| to 2 ozs. of sulphate of iron ; allow same to remain a few hours, after which stir well and give all the birds on the farm as much as they will leadily drink. This will prevent the disease spreading and will tone up the flock. Although the complaint is not serious, yet if neglected it is sure to turn to that dreaded disease — roup — attacks of which are more often fatal than any other ailment of poultry in Australia. Damp houses are the primary cause ; crowded yards, such as are often noticeable in our subur- ban areas, are also responsible for serious complaints, especially at this time of year. I would again remind cottagers of the absolute necessity of sweeping up the droppings daily and of the urgent necessity of sprinkling lime about the yards ; not more than twenty birds should be kept in a yard cf less than 50 x 25 at least, the more crowded they are the less profitable will they become. Remember, that a few good birds of a noted laying strain will return a greater number of eggs than a large flock kept to- gether. This has been exemplified over and over again, at the egg-laying competitions throughout Australia. To those desirous of keeping a few birds to supply the requisite morning egg, I cannot do better than urge them to secure a broody hen as soon as possible, and thus secure the early (iiick and immunitv from chicken pox. 8 July, 1907.] Dairy Produce Export Trade. 391 DAIRY PRODUCE EXPORT TRADE.* R. Crowe, Superintendent of Exports. LEADING FEATURES. Victoria tiie Principal Dairying Country in the Southern Hemisphere. 701,309 Dairy Cows in Victoria, an Increase of 52,200, or 8 per cent, for the Year. Milk Production, over 200,000,000 gallons. Butter Production, 33,611 tons. Cheese Production, 1,918 tons. Export of Butter, 20,883 tons from 1st July, 1908, to date (lOi months). Increase, 2,743 tons as compared with the total for last Season. Distinct Improvement in Quality. Steps to prevent Butter Faking. SUGGESTIONS. Further Improvement in Breeding, Feeding, and Management. Unremit- ting Cleanliness. . k^: -.^J^i-.;^-.,.;^ ^i-i':-i^a,. .. -s.:^^' -/k^^:: Losal and Export Butter to_be Separately Branded. Churn Marks^to go on Boxes. » -, , ^^ , Adoption of Grading with i Brands Masked. Raising the j Minimum Points for the Grade " First Class " from 85 to 88 Points. The season 1906-7 now approaching a close has been the best for dairying ever experienced in Victoria. A fair beginning was made in August-September last, production during the spring and early summer reaching a higher level than ever. The growing popularity of dairying is evidenced by the fact that the number of dairy cows has increased during the last twelve months by 52,200, the total now being 701,309, a gain of 8 per cent., whilst the average yield has also improved. The latest statistics for 1905 show an average of 328 gallons per head, a comparatively low yield for the length of time our dairymen have been engaged in the business ; it should be at least 25 or 30 per cent. more. However, the fact that they have made money at dairying despite the competition of other countries indicates that, when the stress of fight is felt, our latent resources will be drawn upon to balance matters and they will be as well off in the near future even though prices may be lower than the abnormally high values obtained hitherto. The exports from the ist July 1906 to date are nearly 25 per cent, more than for the corresponding period of last season. For many years past I have held that in competition with other countries Victoria's future success in dairying depends mainly upon a policy of development, the cheapening of production, and the continual improvement in breed and Paper read at the Fourteenth Annual Conference of the Australasian Butter Factories Managers' Association, held May, 1907, at Melbourne. 392 Journal of Agriculture. [8 July, 1907. intelligent and progressive methods of feeding, rugging, winter shelter, and general treatment. The marked falling off in supplies after the month of March shows that to a lamentable extent our dairy farmers have done very little to prolong the period of lactation by conserving the surplus growths of spring in the shape of ensilage, or hay, or by cultivating green summer fodders such as maize and sorghum, or autumn root crops, mangolds, beet, &c. Those who could show that they had honestly attempted to grow or pro- vide summer fodder but had failed for the want of rain would deserve sympathy, but the striking and successful exceptions to be met with in every district only serve to point and emphasize the moral. The yield of maize, cabbage, or other fodder is of course not so heavy as in favorable seasons but still from two-thirds to three-fourths full crop is not uncommon and those who secure it not only maintain the flow of milk but — what is of far greater importance — preserve the health and condi- tion of their cattle so that thev may weather the winter successfully, and enter the new season in full profit. This matter demands earnest and immediate attention. At the moment it is regrettable to hear of dairy cattle in certain places dying of starvation and it is well worthy of con- sideration whether the recent suggestion of a friend of mine that " any man permitting cows to starve should be punished for crueltv to animals " should not be adopted. Foundation of Successful Dairying. A consistent system of testing individual cows in each herd by weighing and recording yields is the foundation of success and everv dairyman who has done this has succeeded far bevond his most sanguine expectations. The Government Statist's return for 1899 indicates that records were sup- plied him from 164,238 cows whilst in the year 1905 returns for only 75>727 cows were made available. It would appear therefore that the practice of definitely recording the quantity and quality of milk given by herds is declining notwithstanding the Agricultural Department's constant recommendations to the contrary. It is remarkable that the second highest average return is recorded in the Gunbower district where there is an annual average rainfall of about 12 inches only; this good return is no doubt largely due to the adoption of irrigation in the district referred to. Absolutely the lowest returns are those from the counties of Tambo and Follett where a rainfall of 30 and 25 inches respectively is recorded. Our climate would therefore appear to be too favorable in one respect and not severe enough in another. Were either regular periods of drought or severely cold winters the rule, people would be compelled to conserve fodder or grow summer or winter crops and provide shelter in order to carry on at all. The total production of butter in Victoria for the season is approxi- mately 75,288,640 lbs. or 33,611 tons worth ;^3,5oo,ooo, of which 20,883 tons exported, at iocs, per cwt. c.i.f., realized ^2,088,300. The cheese production for the last year was 4,297,350 lbs. or 1,918 tons, worth ^"107,433, of which ^^26,896 worth was exported. The milk produced for consumption in the natural state and concen- tration amounted to 30,633,130 gallons or ^^733, 418 in value of which ^36,142 worth was exported. The value of milk, butter and cheese produced totalled ^4,340,851, and the portion exported realized, including expense of conveying to market, i;2, 15 1,338. 8 July, 1907.] Dairy Produce Ex-port Trade . 393 Including pig and poultry products (ham and eggs come under the heading of dairy produce) which for the year are valued at ^2,469,214, the grand total production for the year reached ^^6, 810, 065. That thi.s estimate of production is below the mark is evident. It takes about one gallon of milk to make one pound of cheese and two and one-third gallons for a pound of butter. The total yield of milk on this basis will amount to 208,205,311 gallons whereas if the number of cows be multi- plied by the average yield given for those returned for 1905, the result will reach over 230,000,000 gallons. Unlike exports, it is impossible to secure an absolutely correct estimate of the production, but those two results are arrived at from data procured from different sources. The industry next in importance to the State is grain, with production under ^5,000,000, meat and wool following with less than ^^4, 000, 000 each and gold slightly over ^^3, 000, 000. Victoria ships about half the butter exported from the Commonwealth and about 25 per cent, more than New Zealand. Last year New Zealand exported 8,145 tons of cheese at a value considerably in advance of that ruling for butter. However, combining butter and cheese returns, Vic- toria has still a good lead as the principal dairying countrv in the Southern Hemisphere. Where the Butter is Produced. It is interesting to note which portion of the State is making the greatest headway in dairying. The following table shows the arrivals (including butter ex cream estimated at 40 per cent.) in IMelbourne by rail and steamer for the last five vears : — Name of District. 1902. lbs. 10,715,040 5 305,440 1 ,402.240 13,254 080 1903. 1904. ' 1905. 1906. Western and North-Westeini North -Eastern Northern ... Gippsland lbs. 14,169,120 7,035,840 1,999,200 15,051,120 lbs. 16,764,160 10,731,840 5,139.680 18,449,760 lbs. 15,655,360 10.428,320 6,292,600 17,120,320 lbs. 19,449.920 13.224,960 8,395.520 19,063,520 Grand Totals .30,676,800 38,255,280 51,085,440 49,496,600 60,133,920 Of course 1902 will be remembered as the drought year when produc- tion was at a low level, although Gippsland and the Western Di.strict were not affected to anything like the same extent as the North and North- Eastern District. The 1906 returns show that the Western District's contribution has practically doubled, the Gippsland returns have increa.sed by over 50 per cent., v/hilst the North and North-East combined gained three and a half times as much, leading each of the other two districts for last year by 2,000 tons. Growth of Exports. The exports for 1902 to all destinations were 15,052,551 lbs. and in 1906 they reached 46,012,002 lbs. a three-fold gain during the five years. The United Kingdom serves as the great safetv valve bv taking our sur- plus shipments, some thirty-three and a half million pounds in 1906. The shipments to South Africa and eastern and other ports are on a steadv 394 Journal of Agriculture. [8 July, 1907. Destination. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. ! lbs. United Kingdom ... 1 1,3^4,276 South Africa... ... 3,825,085 Inter-State ... ... 9,0C:0,517 Eastern and other Ports 742,673 lbs. 15,908,342 3,554,560 7,735,601 1,181,378 lbs. 28,9.o0.187 3,962,181 3,729,928 1,305,820 lbs. 25,935,310 3,; 49,664 5,527,420 1,104,814 lbs. 33,412,996 3,771,796 7,517,408 1 ,309,802 Grand Totals ... 15,052,551 28,379,881 37,948,216 35,917,208 46,012,002 level and average about 5,000,000 lbs. whilst the inter-state trade, which showed a decline during the first two years, is reviving and has doubled within the last three years. It is not generally recognised that Victoria has a regular export trade to destinations other than Great Britain ivhich amounted last season to 5,62s tons, equalling more than the whole of Queensland's shipments to the United Kingdom even during her pre- sent most prosperous season. Some idea of the ramifications of the trade may be gained from the fact that 540 complete shipments were made from Victoria during the last twelve months of which 212 were to the United Kingdom and other oversea ports and 328 inter-state. Quality of Butter. It is most pleasing to have to record a distinct improvement in the qualit\ of Victorian butter for the season as compared with either, the last or the year before. The highest average score was 98.36 points against 97.98 for 1905-6 and 97.64 for 1904-5. Twelve factories .scored over 97 points as against nine factories last season and six for 1904-5. One hundred and fifty -five scored an average of over 90 points against 132 for 1905-6 and 116 for 1904-5. During the month of October last, over 40 per cent, of the butter shipped to Great Britain was unsalted and the proportion for the whole of the season amounted to nearly 34 per cent. For the first time weekly statements which were highly appreciated l)y the trade were published by the Department showing the proportion of salted and unsalted, so that the quantitv of unsalted might be regulated. Prices. The prices realized on the London market were not as high as for the preceding season. Although the highest touched 122s. per cwt. the great bulk brought about loos. The best average so far available was 104s. 9d. therefore we are rather below the mark in fixing it at loos. Commerce Regulations and Grading. The Commerce Regulations came into operation on the ist Occober 1906 and the consequent stupendous re-organization they entailed, nearly every brand in use having to be remodelled, has been effected with a minimum of friction. Although grading is optional, the classification, and the issue of grade certificates have become so popular that less than i per cent, of the butter shipped since the coming into operation of the Act has been unclassified. Almost all the shippers have taken advantage of the voluntarv classification svstem and have had their butter graded and branded with the grade certification number ; in addition over 30 per cent, of the exporters have had their butter grade-stamped with the words 8 July. 1907.] Dairy Produce Export Trade. 395 '• First class superfine," " First class," or " Second class," as the case may be. Owing to the late beginning and the large quantity of butter coming forward for export and the extent to which the classification sec- tion has been availed of, the Department was unable through being under- manned to put into operation clause 17 : — " The exporters shall give to the officer any information desired bv him as to the date of churning of any butter . . . submitted to him for in- spection.'' Needless to say this section will be enforced in the future. Hitherto, the practice has been to select three boxes from each brand at random. It can easily be understood that samples so selected may not in some instances be truly representative. As far as possible the brands were hidden from the graders but in the height of the season with a limited staff this procedure could not be invariably followed, and when it is stated that as manv as 12,000 boxes of butter were received in a single dav the difficulty of so doing can be appreciated. It is intended to have all brands hidden from the graders in future by having tin covers fitting neatly over each sample box with a 2 -inch hole in the centre for the trier. These covers will be numbered and the graders will only recognise a box by its number, a clerk afterwards connecting it with the brand. Factory managers when despatching consignments will require to indicate in the advice note the number of sub-marks included in the consignment and the number of boxes bearing each sub-mark. This will enable one box of each mark to be taken as a sample for the grader to examine, and a truer verdict as to the quality of the w^hole consignment arrived at. As there are a few who do not yet understand the interpretation of grades as prescribed in the regulations, it will be well to m.ention that " First class superfine" is a butter that no one can find fault with. It may be perhaps to some extent deficient in fine characteristics such as a full, nutty flavour, and aroma that go to make up a perfect butter, but if the butter has no apparent defect it comes into the " First class super- fine " grade. Highest scoring butters receive 98 points; 99 and 100 being reserved for those but rarely encountered. Ninety-eight shillings per cwt. is practically lOjd. per lb., 94s. per cwt. a full lod. per lb. ; the mini- mum for this grade is 94 points so that " First class superfine " is covered by a range in value of |d. " First class " embraces that which is fit for any good table and which although marred by any one or more of the defects usually found in butter such as " Slightly cloudy moisture," " Slightly mottled," " Slightly stale in flavour " &:c. is — taken on the whole — a good sound butter. As alreadv stated it is such as the better class consumer would tolerate on his table at a price below the top ; 86 points, the minimum awarded to this class, if put in shillings, means 9. 2d. per lb. and 93s. 4d. per cwt. (93 points is the maximum) equals lod. per lb. so that the first class butter is covered by a range in value of |d. per lb. " Second class " includes that fit for table use by those who are not very particular in this respect. On the one hand consumers with decent palates would not care to have it on their table, and vet a verdict that it was a " Pastrv " butter and conserjuentlv unfit for table use could not be justified. The minimum points are 75 and as 75s. equals 8d. per lb. this class of butter is covered bv a range in value of nearly i|d. Fortunately these interpretations agree with the actual difference in value on the local market when it is in a healthv condition, that is to 396 Journal of Agri cult arc. [8 July, 1907. sav pastry butter usually sells at 2|d. below top prices for choicest. In a recent controversy some of the critics implied that the line between pastry and that fit for table use should be drawn at 90 points, but I pointed out that it was immaterial whether the line was drawn at 75 points as provided in the Commerce Regulations, 90 as suggested by some, or at the unit, one point. In the last-mentioned proposal " Second class " butter would be covered by a range from i to 50, " First class " from 51 to 80, and the " First class superfine " from 81 to 100. Again, on the other hand if 90 points were the minimum then 90 to 94 would cover the " Second class," 95 to 98 the " First," and 99 to 100 " First class superfine " ; but graders would in that event be obliged to use decimal points. The recent conference of dairy experts recommended that the first class minimum should be 88 instead of 86 points from the ist July next. It is intended to further raise it to 90 points at the earliest opportunity. I have no hesitation in attributing the substantial improve- ment in quality tb grading. Grading is carried out by the Government chieflv, indeed almost wholly, for educational purposes. It is recognised that if the quality be improved higher prices will be commanded. It is estimated that nearly ;^5oo,ooo worth of business was done on the basis of grade certificates. As the Department has done nothing to encourage the use of certificates for buying or selling purposes, that it has been voluntarily availed of to such an extent is evidence of its value, even in the trading or subsidiary aspect. Composition of Butter. The average percentage of moisture of all the samples analyzed during the season was 13.925 per cent., an increase over last year's which was 13-725. The districts compare as follows: — North and North-Eastern 14.122; Gippsland, 13.955; Western 13.818; and City 13.885. The quantity intercepted from shipment on account of containing more than 16 per cent, moisture amounted to 12 tons as compared with 5 tons for the season 1905-6. In connexion with this question I may quote the following extract from The Illustrated Western Weekly N eivs of England, dated 23rd iNIarch 1907 : — "BUTTER ADULTE'RATION. TAUNTON FIRM HEAVILY FINED. At Bath, on Wednesday, I. J. Wright and Co. Butter Factors, Taunton, were summoned for having sold, to the prejudice of the i)urchaser butter which con- tained 16.4 per cent, of water, and which was in course of delivery to the Bath Co-operative Society. The proceedings were instituted by the Sanitary Committee, for whom the town clerk appeared. Mr. C. P. Clarke, of Taunton, was the de- fending solicitor. The case had been adjourned on several occasions and a fort- night ago the adjournment was granted in order that an official from Somerset House could attend to support the Government analysis. A sample of butter having been submitted the analyst of the Government authorities and their cer- tificate put the water at 15.82. Mr. Gatehouse, Bath city analyst, said the varia- tion between 16.4 which he certified and 15.82 was due to the natural evaporation of the water between the time of his analysis and the further analysis. His evi- dence was borne out by Mr. G. Stubbs of the Government Laboratory, London. The magistrate imposed a fine of ^50 and costs amounting to ^8 6s." The average boric acid contents were .252 per cent. North-East butters show an average of .245, Gippsland .190, Western .32, and City .253. Ten tons were stopped for containing more than .5 per cent, boric acid as compared with 28 tons for the season 1905-6. One hundred and eighty-five tons were stopped on account of short weight as against 8 July, 1907.] Dairy Produce Export Trade. 39/ 133 tons last season. The shippers in most instances unboxed the butter, and spread another half-pound or one pound as required on the bottom of the lump. Although the mere fact of this being insisted upon is tending tc minimize the prevalence of this practice, sooner or later, probably very soon, action will be taken to effectually preclude the use of a false trade description. The latest report at mv command showing the composition of New Zealand butter for 1,903, gives the average moisture contents at 10.33 P^"^ cent., or 3I per cent, less than for Victorian export butter. I am in- formed New Zealand's percentage is now up to ii|- per cent., or nearly 2^ per cent. less. This would account for almost the whole of the dis- parity in prices. Composition of Exhibition Butter. The average composition of 139 samples of butter exhibited at the recent A.N. A. Exhibition was as follows : — Fat ... ... 84.286 per cent. Highest per cent, fat in any one sample... 90.22 Moisture ... 12.791 per cent. Lowest ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, 81.15 Curd ... .742 per cent. Highest ,, ,, moisture ,, ,, 16.0 Salt ... ... 1-378 per cent. Lowest ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, 8.0 Boric acid ... .188 per cent. Highest ,, ,, curd ,, ,, 1.15 Lowest ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, 0.30 Total ... 99-685 per cent. Highest ,, ,, salt ,, ,, 3-15 ■ Lowest ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, 0.22 Highest ,, ,, boric acid ,, ,, 0.39 Lowest ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, nil Brand Mutilation. Although in framing the Commerce Regulations it was sought to cover all undesirable practices, and have the trade properly and honorably con- ducted there is still one thing that does not meet with my support and that is the removal and substitution of other brands, a practice not un- common. A factory forwards some butter for sale on the local market bearing the same brands as for export. Some of it is bought by ex- porters, the original brands scraped off, and their own brand put on the package. All that the regulations stipulate is that the words " Pure Creamery butter " or other description should be indelibly impressed on the box together with the name of the exporter or his registered trade mark, .so no exception can be taken in the meantime. No matter how well the planing is done, the boxes bear a mutilated appearance and the sub- sequent branding cannot be as well done as in a press. Even though in most cases the alteration is made from good motives, it is possible by this means to build up a reputation for a brand that may be afterwards utilized for exploiting purposes. Another undesirable feature is that there is no connexion between the manufacturer and the product to its ultimate destination, so that he is denied the credit due to him if it is of superior quality and shirks the odium attaching to that of a low standard. The best way out of the difficultv is for separate brands to be used on butter marketed locally from that exported ; then, when an exporter purchases on the local market he can ship it abroad without bringing it into compe- tition with that from the same factory forwarded direct for export. I recognise that many factories have bv this time a good- will and it may mean a temporary loss for them to change their local brands, but if the qualitv is all right no loss whatever may be encountered. 398 Journal of Agriculture. [8 July, 1907. Butter Faking. A Bill regulating the sale of butter in the United Kingdom has passed its second reading and gone into Committee in the House of Commons. Although good and calculated to regulate the trade it contains a most objectionable and dangerous clau.se. It provides that the water per- centage in margarine and butter is not to exceed 16 per cent, of moisture but butter imitations may have as much as 24 per cent. The adoption of the latter provision will practically mean the legalization of milk-blended butter and other like products. The Minister for Agriculture (Hon. Geo. Swinburne, M.L.A.) has taken a deep and active interest in this sub- ject and has secured the co-operation of all the States in the Common- wealth and Xew Zealand with the view of having the objectionable clause eliminated. Pure Foods Act. The Pure Foods Act came into operation on ist day of this year and provides for a lower moisture content and smaller percentage of boric acid than is employed for export. It must be conceded that this is a step in the right direction ; although I do not consider myself competent to express an opinion as to the effect of boric acid on the human system [ am quite content to accept the assurance of Dr. Xorris, Chairman of the Board of Health, that the less used the better. It is employed to prevent decom- position ; digestion is a form of decomposition so if boric acid prevents the one it must impair the other. I am well aware that butter containing up to .5 per cent, will keep better than that which does not contain any or a fractional part of .5 per cent, but a remedy lies in the adoption of a higher standard of clean- liness right through at every stage during production and manufacture and lower temperatures during transit of the produce to the consumer. Factory managers would do well to aim in this direction in order to meet the re- quirements of the period. The more frequent collection of cream is a matter which should have the closest attention. Only yesterdav I was informed that a certain fac- tory was .sending out collectors with testers, scales, and monev to buy the cream, test it in quantities, large or small, at the farmers' doors and pay them cash on the spot. The frequent collection of cream is a matter of vital importance. In a climate such as ours it should be placed in the hands of specialists such as factory managers who are provided with refrigerating appliances to control the temperature and direct the subse- quent fermentation so as to make the very most of it from a quality point of view. Wherever a comprehensive scheme of cream collection has been juit into operation, the improvement of quality has been marked. Essential Economies. In some parts of Victoria it is not uncommon to find cream-collecting waggons employed bv different companies travelling along the same route. It is the producer who has to pay for this duplication of service, and co- operative companies are almost as great sinners in this respect as private and proprietary firms. Surely a plan can be formulated wherebv pur- chasers of cream may agree not to overlap each other's territory. Dairy Inspection and Experiments. Unfortunately little personal instruction in dairying could be provided during the height of the season, but as soon as the rush was over graders 8 July, 1907.] Overrun in Butter Factories. 399 undertook instructional work among the factories, and, in addition, a large correspondence involving nearly 20,000 communications was de- spatched during the vear. In each case the instructors reported an im- provement in qualitv before they left the factories ; if their recommenda- tions are followed this will be maintained. It goes without saying that with six months' experience in grading, officers are better qualified to act as instructors on the one hand, and with six months' experience as in- structors they are still better fitted to again carry on the duties of graders on the other. Certain experimental work has al".5o been carried out, particularly in the pasteurization of home-separator cream and the use of pure cultures during the season, with, in most instances satisfactory results. These were provided, through the Government Cool Stores, by the University and an extension of the system of pasteurization and the use of cultures is certain. As various officers of the Department will be giving papers on the above and other subjects during the Conference, the subject need not be now enlarw that on the farmer depends much of the success of a factory ; unless cleanliness is strictly observed by him the difficulties uf making a first class article are increased, as with impure milk even the efforts of science and skill are of little avail. With the factory manager and the dairvman properly trained and realising the responsibilities that devolve upon each the success of the cheese industry is assured. Good buildings, not necessarily elaborate, are of course essential. The rooms should have high ceilings and good floors, be well ventilated and lighted, and have walls tha.t will not be too susceptible to changes of tem- perature. The ripening room is the most important. It should have \,ell insulated walls so that the temperature may be kept as near 55 deg. as possible. To the keeping of cheese in bad curing rooms may be attributed the cause of many spoiled lots. No matter how well the article may have been manufactured, subsequent overheating renders all previous care futile. To the cheesemaker who cannot afford an expensive building, I woidd commend the use of thatch roofs washed, after being put on, with a solution of lime and salt which renders the thatch less sus- ceptible to fire. In hot weather it would be advisable to send the cheese e\'ery week to the Government Cool Stores, where the storage charges are very moderate, and are covered bv the saving in, weight and quality. The cheese plant should be of good quality and well arranged so as to avoid all unnecessary labour. No plant is complete without a Mann's Acidometer test, it being of material l>enefit at the drawing of the whey, salting and pressing ; by its use uniformity is obtained, especially when used in conjunction with the rennet and hot iron tests. The object of the cheesemaker should be first to obtain flavour and quality, then quantity. The aim of many cheesemakers has been to obtain a large quantity of curd b;- the retention of an excess of moisture at the expense of quality. At the A.N. A Exhibition, the evil effect of this practice was very noticeable in the weakness of body, and also the tendency to over acidity. With a soft curd there is always a danger to over aciditv in the ripened cheese. Cheese made from soft curd will also lose more fat in the press and more weight in the curing room, not to speak of flavour, than that made from a curd of proper consistency. The more moisture retained in the cheese the greater is the liability for it to gO' wrong. Ever since I started giving instruction in Victoria I have recommended the smaller cutting of the curd. Bv doing this it is easier to expel the moisture, and the maker has more control over the cooking process. It is also not necessarv to scald to such high temperatures. If carefully manipulated, the loss of fat will be very little more than if the curd is cut into large cubes. I could mention several leading makers who have adopted this plan wdth great success. I noticed when in Great Britain last year that in most dairies the curd was cut almost as fine as wheat grains, yet a more velvetv bodied cheese was obtained than would be found generallv in Victoria. The whole secret lies in controlling the acidity. When allowed to go too far in a soft curd an acid cheese is the result, but in a firm curd probablv 25 per cent, more acid may be developed, giving a velvety bodied cheese. The length of threads in the hot iron at salting is no criterion to go by, unless the consistency of the curd as regards retained moisture is taken into consideration. The Department of Agriculture has endeavoured to bring the quality of our best Victorian cheese before the public at recent Royal Shows, and also through the A.N. A. at the late Exhibition. The public generallv 412 Journal of Agricitlturc. [8 July, 1907. expressed surprise to know that we produced cheese of such quality and that it was as good as New Zealand. Little do the housewives know that when they are purchasing a piece of cheese with a card bearing the words " New Zealand Cheese " that the article was really made in Victoria. One has only to look at the windows of certain of our shops and see cards marked " New Zealand Cheese and others " the others and New Zealand being mostly of the same make. The duty on New Zealand cheese is 3d. per lb., the shop-keeper obtaining this extra price by fraudulent description. Some time ago I was informed by the Secretary of one of our cheese factories, that one large shop has two counters, one for New Zealand cheese and the other for Victorian, the cheese on both counters coming from the factory referred to. By putting on the word " New Zealand " the retailer commands probably 3d. per lb. more, yet I think this is too high a price to pay for the compliment of having Victorian cheese sold as New Zealand, and it is high time this public imposition should be checked. To the uninitiated, I may say that there are no loaf cheeses imported from New Zealand, in fact, hardly anything under 60 lbs. in weight, so that if your grocer offers you a cut from a loaf cheese as New Zealand you will know that you are being imposed upon. I would advise cheesemakers to brand each cheese conspicuously, in this way advertising their factories and bringing Victorian products before the public generally. Shows, in a sense, bring cheese under public notice, but many defeat the object they have in view. In many cases the exhibits are few in number, and the awarding of prizes in such instances is not justified unless the cheeses are really of a high class standard. In judging at shows. I would recommend that the judges do not see the exhibits until after the awards have been made for flavour, texture and color. Samples on triers, together with a piece cut out of one cheese in each exhibit should be brought to them into a well lighted room. The points for flavour, texture and color should be recorded, and then the cheese examined for finish, the whole being superintended by two stewards. By this means, judges would be freed from any accusations of partisanship. If we want to develop our cheese industry we must establish an export trade. Such a trade has been important to the butter industry, and it is just as necessary for the allied branch. We have sent some to London this year, but owing to difficulties arising with the shipping companies, I am afraid the result will be disappointing for various reasons. The cheese will land in London when the market for foreign produce is at the lowest, and it will also be too old. Next season we must take time b\- the forelock and send a shipment about the middle of October so as to arrive in time for the Christmas Market. It is to be hoped also that the Butter Committee will see to conditions being inserted in the carrying contract, so that cheese will be carried whenever desired, and not, as at present, at the pleasure of any ship that may have room. It is hardly necessary to mention that the consumption of cheese in Great Britain is very great, in fact, almost incredible, amounting to over 200,000 tons per annum. Of this, Canada sends about 100,000 tons, New Zealand 8,000 tons, the remainder coming from the United States, Holland, Ger- many and France, and that manufactured in Great Britain itself. We have the advantage of being able to place our cheese on the home market when there is very little competition from other sources, as Canada at the time we are sending is in the depths of winter. The principal variety imported into Great Britain is made on the Cheddar principle. It is 8 July, 1907.] Cheese Production in Victoria. 4^3 therefore evident that we will have no difficulty in placing our surplus product. We must, however, send the best quality, and as the London merchant is amenable to reason, and in a sense has a brotherly feehng towards the Colonies, he will purchase colonial products in preference to foreign, provided the price is right and quality good. That cheesemaking is profitable is evident from the fact of Canada and New Zealand going in so largely for its manufacture. New Zealand's output in 1905 was 82,421 cwts. ; 1906, 107,825 cwts. ; 1907, 162,913 cwts., or 100 per cent, more than in 1905. Mr. Sawers was rather astonished that we did not turn out more cheese considering the extra profit. He pointed out places where, if in his country, he would make cheese instead of separating. From him also I learnt that many creameries in New Zealand are being converted into cheese factories. We need not hope to produce the same amount as Canada, but I think there should be no difficulty in imitating our nearest sister Colony. I do not say turn our butter factories into cheese factories, but I do say that every milk receiving factory in the State should have a cheese plant. In the spring months, October, November and December, part of the supply should be made into cheese, and it will be found more profitable. As an example let us take milk containing 3.8 per cent. fat. It is calculated that 5,360 gallons of milk of this quality will produce one ton of butter. The manufacturing and marketing of this quantity in London, costs, according to the balance sheet of the Colac Dairying Company, i.98d. per lb., or a total of ^18 9s. 7d. on the consignment. The average price for the best butter in London during the past season was 104s. 9d. per cwt. = ^104 15s. per ton. Deducting the ^18 9s. 7d. a balance of ;^86 5s. 5d. remains, allowing 3.86d. per gallon, 9.24d. per lb. butter, and io.2_6d. per lb. fat to be paid suppliers. This is paying everything to the dairy- man and not allowing anything for dividend or depreciation. Five thousand three hundred and sixty gallons of milk of same quality made into cheese would produce about 5,300 lbs. of cheese, which at 56s. per cwt. would realise a total of ;^i32 los. The number of 70 lb. cheeses would be approximately 76, requiring 38 cases at is. 8d. each =- ^3 3 4 Labor, Manager los. per day, 3 assistants at 6s. treating 1,700 gallons dailv (3 days) ... 4 4 o Firewood ... ■■• ••■ ••• 060 Rennet ... ... ... ... • • • o 1 1 o Color ... ... ... ... ... 050 Cloth ... ... ... ... ... 090 Salt ... ... ... ••• ••• 060 Carriage and cartage to Melbourne at 30s. per ton 315 o Carriage to London at |d. per lb. ... ... u o 10 Commission, Bills of Lading, etc. ... ... 4 10 o ^28 10 2 Deduct these expenses and allow £^°A to divide amongst suppliers, not providing for dividend etc.; this equals 4--65d. per gallon, ii.i4d. per lb. butter, i2.37d. per lb. fat. In favor of cheese .79d. per gallon, i.9od. for butter, and 2.1 id. for butter fat. The cost of producing and marketing cheese in London is approximately 1.3d. per lb., the amount being reduced or increased according to quantity of milk dealt with. The average price for New Zealand for season ending 31st March last was 55s. 3d. per cwt., and 162,913 414 Journal of Agriculture. [8 July, 1907. cwts. were exported. For the past seven seasons, the amount of cheese exported from New Zealand was 709,933 cwts.. the money value being ^1,722,983, or an average of 48s. 6d. per cwt. Taking the same amount of cheese, viz., 5,300 lbs. at 48s. 6d. per cwt. [=^114 15s. 8d., less ^28 IDS. which gives a balance of ^85 5s. 6d. leaving almost exactly the same to be given suppliers as for butter. The prices for butter, how- ever, have been considerably over ordinary rates. Taking the average price of export butter at iocs. (;^ioo per ton), the same expenses would leave a balance of ^81 los. = 3.64d. per gallon. 8.73d. per lb. butter, and 9.7od. per lb. butter fat. Taking this year's "over average" price for Victorian butter and cheese bringing same average price as New Zealand, the difference is i.oid. per gallon, 2.4id. per lb. butter, and 2.67d. per lb. fat in favor of cheese. For the local market, it costs the Colac Company to manufacture and market id. per lb. allowing the butter to bring iid., 102s. 8d. per cwt. The amount available to sup- pliers for a ton of butter would be, after paying expenses without allowing for dividends etc., ^88 13s. 4d. = 3.97d. per gallon milk, 9.5od. per lb. butter, and io.o5d. per lb. butter fat. The cost of manufacturing and selling cheese on the local market would be about .7d. per lb. a total amount on 5,300 lbs. cheese of ;£i5 9s. 2d. The cheese realises 5d. per I'u. = ^iio 8s. 4d. leaving ;^94 i8s. 2d. for distribution amongst sup- pliers; without other deductions = 4.25d. per gallo'n, io.i7d. per lb. butter, ii.29d. per lb. fat i.e. .22d. per gallon, .67d. per lb. butter and i.24d. per lb. fat, in favour of cheese. In this calculation the best ruling prices for butter and a medium average for cheese are taken. Lately I visited a factory where part cheese had been made during the half year ending 31st December, and it was estimated that if all the milk had been converted into cheese almost ifd. more per lb. fat in the milk would have been paid. I could give instances of farmers who make cheese averaging 30s. to 50s. per cow over the neighbour who separates. One farmer in the Western District thought he would give up cheese- making. He had about fifteen more cows than his brother on the same sort of land. His cheques were so much below his brother's that he cal- culated he had incurred a loss of over ;£2oo. He has re-started cheese- making. I do not sav give up buttermaking, but I do contend that every milk receiving factory should have a cheese plant, and manufacture a few tons at certain times of the year. We have Queensland and New South Wales becoming keen competitors on our own markets. They might be able to produce as good butter, but it is questionable whether they will ever attain to a great position with cheese. It would also be beneficial for settlers in the back blocks, where it is difficult to get produce away, at least when they can cart milk, to manufacture cheese in place of the more concentrated article. The plant also costs about one-fifth that of butter making so that there would be a much smaller outlay at the beginning. 8 July, 1907, Lame>iess in Horses. 415 LAMEXESS IN HORSES. {Co)itiiiiicd from page 380.) S. S. Caiiierou, M .R.C.V .S., Chief Veterinary Officer. Corns. Bruises of the sensitive structures underlying the sole in the angle formed by the bar and wall of the hoof at the heel, are termed corns (see Fig. 54, seat of corns). The sole corn is very thin at this part, and is therefore less able to protect the sensitive structures underneath against injury from pressure of the shoe or other violence. The bruisei is evidenced b\ the blood-staining, softness and sponginess of the horn of the part, which will be moist or may even discharge matter if the bruise has been a severe one. It is onl\' in rare instances that corns are found on the hind feet, which ha\e seldom the flat conformation of the fore feet. The heels are stronger, the soles more arched and the wall is therefore better able to support the shoe without the necessity of allowing it to rest partly on the bars. Thi inner heels of the fore feet are the most frequent seat of corns on account Fig. 54. — Ground surface of hoof. a. Seat of "Corns." b. Horny bar. Fk -Ilodf sIkkI for corns three-quarter shoe. ith mainly of the horn on the inner heel being weaker than that of the outer. The practice of fitting the inner web of the shoe to the wall whereby part of its bearing is on the seat of corns is also responsible in some degree. This practice is adopted presumably to prevent brushing, but it is un- necessary, as in brushing a horse does not touch with the heel but with the quarter or toe. Causes. — Corns are seldom seen in bush horses in Australia, and as the majority of horses in the country are never shod it is not unreasonable to conclude that the disease is associated with the practice of shoeing. It mav be not altogether the fault of the shoeing-smith either, for the owner,' by neglect to have the shoeing attended to at reasonably frequent intervals, often contributes in large measure to the causation of corns. On this subject the remarks of the late Captain \l. H. Hayes, F.R.C.V.S.. who is widely experienced in regard to it, are so apposite and informative that the liberty is taken of quoting him at length. He says: " ^i-- The 4i6 Journal of Agriculture. [8 July, 1907. common and pernicious practice of cutting away the bars, undoubtedly, disposes the foot to contract this ailment ; for the wall at the heels, when it loses the support afforded by the bars, is apt to bend inwards and to press on the seat of corn. It sometimes happens that, when " preparing " the foot, the smith rasps down the wall at the heels without also reducing the horn over the seat of corn, which then bears the greater part of the pressure, with the natural result of this injury. Again, when the heels of the shoe are "sprung " — that is, when a space is left between them and the horny heels — grit and particles of stone are apt to work in between the web of the shoe and the " seat of corn," and, consequently, to hurt the latter on account of its being constantly hammered upon by the former, whenever the animal moves. 56. — Slipper and bar shoe combined for corns on both sides. (After Hayes.) " The principal manner, however, in which horses get corns from shoeing, i? undoubtedly the practice adopted with hunters and other saddle-horses, of having the shoes on the fore feet short at the heels, and of making the outward edge of the inner heel of the shoe to coincide with the outward edge of the wall of the hoof at that part, or even ' set ' slightly inside it. Here, although the position of the shoe is perfect for the time being, it does not allow for the continued opening out and lengthening which the heels undergo during the downward growth of the hoof. Consequently when a shoe is applied in this way, and is allowed to remain on, say for six weeks, the heels of the shoe, instead of exactly covering those of the foot, will be found to be a little within their outer margin and somewhat in front of their rearmost point. As the horn of the ground surface of 8 July, 1907.] Lameness in Horses. 417 the foot is hardest on the outside and at tlie extreme end of the heels, the heel of the shoe in the case just described, will, as a rule, be more or less embedded in the comparatively soft horn invaded by it, with the probability of a corn being formed. " The use of calkins may cause corns bv localising, on the heels, the effects of concussion with the ground. In some rare cases, corns are produced by the horse treading on a stone or other hard body, which is a result that will very seldom occur if the sole be not ' thinned.' When the ground surface of the foot has been reduced too much, the sole may become bruised at any part pressed upon by the web of the shoe, especially, if the animal is worked at a fast pace and on hard ground. As pre- viously mentioned, some horses have such weak feet that it is almost im- possible to prevent them getting corns bv any system of shoeing ; for in their case, the concussion produced bv the iron on the wall of tne hoof ar the heels, appears, when the animal is worked on hard ground, sufficient to set up an irritable state in the seat of corn, which condition will be manifested by more or less Lameness, even when the characteristic red mark in the horn is not present. " Narrow-heeled shoes which rest onlv on the wall at the heels, al- though recommended bv some for the prevention of corns, are not, as far as I have seen, efficient for that purpose ; for, bv taking off the pressure on the bars, they throw too much weight on the wall, and hence are liable to set up irritation in the sensitive sole at the angle between the wall and the bars. If an ordinary shoe is used the web of the shoe at the heels should be broad so that the concussion received from the ground may be distributed over a large surface. In all cases the bars should be pre- served intact. If the animal is peculiarly liable to corns, tlie seat of corn may be slightly eased off." Symptoms. — The/ lameness, which consists in a shorty stilty, stumbling step is most apparent on hard roads and increases with exercise. When at rest the animal has a tendency to " point " the foot, with the heel slightly raised, toe resting on ground and limb bent. If there are corns on both feet there is alternate pointing or frequent change of the pointed foot. Although the lameness is not likely to be mistake;n for navicular disease it is perhaps well to mention that, unlike navicular lameness, that from corns increases with exercise. Treatment and Prevention. — The spongy bruised horn should be pared away so as to allow any effusion or matter to be discharged. The spot should then be dressed with Friar's balsam, butyr of antimony or other antiseptic and hardening agent. It is essential that pressure should be kept off the part, and to insure this a horse with corns ought to be shod with slippers the heels of which should not extend beyond the quarters (see Fig. 56), or if only one heel is affected then a three-quarter shoe. (See Fig. 55.) In case of a corn discharging matter, after paring, the suppurating surface may be lightly cauterized with a red hot iron and afterwards treated with Stockholm tar, quicklime, carbolic powder or other antiseptic dressing. The parts should be kept dry, and on no account should "stoppings" of cow dung, clay or other softening material be used. Laminitis or Founder. The word laminitis means literally an inflammation of the laminae or leaf -like structures which cover the sensitive parts of the foot and are interleaved with the horny laminae lining the inner aspect of tTiewall. But, 6809. O 4ii Journal of Agriculture. [8 July, 190; while the lammse are specially involved, the inflammation in most cases affects all the sensiti^■e blood-vascular structures of the foot and the term " peditis " (foot inflammation) would more aptly describe the condition. The disease affects all classes of horses and although all shapes of hoof are liable, the predisposition to attack is strongest in the case of horses having wide flat feet with weak heels and flat soles. The two fore feet onlv are mostly affected. Sometimes all four feet are involved, but of the hind feet it is seldom that more than one is affected at a time. Laminitis is one of the most painful affections that can be imagined because the inflamed structures are confined within a hard unyielding case of horn and there is consequently no room for the expansion of the swelling which accompanies the inflammation. The pressure upon the sensory nerves of the foot is therefore such as to give rise to excruciating pain, by which the grave constitutional svmptoms which often accompany an attack are caused. Even in the early stages, or in mild cases when there is no actual inflammation but when the blood vessels are merely over-full or congested, the pain is very great and accounts for the peculiar Fig. 57. Section through foot of horse — normal. (After Ha\es.) method of progression on the heels which will be described, and also for the great disinclination of the animal to move. Causes. — The most common cause is concussion, especiallv when the circulation is weakened by over driving. Horses most frequentlv become foundered by being driven long journeys on hard roads when out of condition. When in this state the heart's action is weak and the circula- tion sluggish so that congestion of the blood vessels of the foot is easily brought about and inflammation supervenes. Laminitis is also frequently associated with or occurs as a sequel to inflammation of the bowels, lungs and womb ; and verv often superpurga- tion, caused by an overdose of physic or the giving of purgatives when the bowels are in an irritable and colicky condition, is followed bv an attack. In these cases the inflammation is said to " fly to the feet." The phe- nomenon of this change of situation is called " metastasis." What defi- nitely determines the change is only vaguely understood but in this con- nexion it requires to be borne in mind that the mucous lining of the bowels, lungs and womb is continuous, through the skin, with the sensitive laminae of the foot. A congestion in one part of a continuous membrane is apt to be transmitted to another part some distance away, as is well seen in irritation of the skin following indigestion in man. This crude statement of a generally accepted view regarding metastasis is supported by the fact that in laminitis so brought about it is onlv the sensitive laminae that are involved and not the whole of the vascular structures of 8 July. 1907-] La 111 cm ill Horses. 419 the foot. It is when the bowel inflammation or the bronchitis or the inflam- mation of the womb is of a septic character that laminitis most usually supervenes and it is in these cases that all four feet are affected. Such metastatic cases are not unusual after a severe foaling in which the womb has been torn or inoculated with septic matter, or following on which there has been retention of the after-birth. The\ also sometimes follow on the giving of strong purgative medicines or the engorgement of the stomach with a full feed of wheat, oats or other expansile grain or meal. Horses on shipboard often become foundered. In these cases the attack is induced by the want of exercise resulting in sluggishness of the circula- tion in the feet and a consequent tendency to congestion. Furthermore when large numbers are shipped there is the inabilitv of the animal to lie down and so remove the strain on the sensitive laminae caused by the weight of the animal. This strain is increased if the horse has overgrown hoofs and the whole of the weight has in consequence to be borne by the rim of the wall without anv assistance from the sole. Before shipping horses for a long voyage it is therefore a wise precaution to have them unshod Fig. 58. Section through horse's foot affected with chronic laminitis showing the deposit of exudate between the front of the jiednl bone and the hornv wall, whereby the front of the wall has become " dished " and the jiedal bone ]iointed downwards. (After Hayes ) and the wall rasped down to the level of the sole so that sole pressure can be assured. It is for the same reason — the insuring of sole pressure and the consequent lessening of liability to founder — that the provision of some yielding material, such as cocoa-nut matting, to stand on has in late years come into vogue when shipping valuable horses. This con- tinuous strain on the feet may have something to do (in addition to metas- tasis) with the occurrence of laminitis as a sequel to chest diseases during which animals are always averse to lying down. It is certainly the cause of those attacks of founder affecting one foot, especially the hind, when the opposite foot or leg is injured or diseased in such a way as tO' prevent weight being borne by it. In all such cases the horse should be placed to stand on straw or other yielding surface or material and the weight-bearing foot should be left unshod and have the wall rasped down so that the weight can be distributed and borne by the sole, frog and wall equally. One attack of laminitis always predisposes to a subsequent attack and with horses that have been foundered great care should be taken that they are not over-driven or subjected to inordinate concussion or other of the causes detailed. No matter how slight the attack, a horse that has suffered from laminitis is always to be considered as unsound. Symptoms. — In acute laminitis there are certain systemic svmptoms of a febrile character, which assist materiallv to a diagix)sis. The respiration 420 Journal of Agriculture. [8 July, 1907. is quickened, the pulse is full, strong, and frequent and there is often pro- fuse perspiration. The feet are hot and there may be a slight depression or sinking above the coronet. In a few hours the coronets become full, the puffiness 'often extending as high as the fetlock and the arteries of the pastern throb in a manner easily felt on handling. When the fore feet only are affected the animal stands with them well in front of him and, resting upon the heels, the hind feet are placed very much forward so as to take as much weight off the fore ones as possible. It is a difficult matter to get the horse to allow one foot to be lifted because of the great pain caused when increased weight is put on the opposite foot. He is very much disinclined to move and when he is made to, he goes stiffly and on the heels. The weight is never brought forward over the toes _ on account of the great pain due to the compression of the inflamed lammse and sensitive structures at the front part of the hoof. The action is always cramped and the want of freedom of movement gives rise to the impression amongst inexperienced observers that the muscles of the shoulder and chest are implicated, and this along with the distressed breathing promotes the idea that the animal is suffering from inflammation or congestion of the lungs. Hence the term " chest founder," a purely conjectural term, the condition which it is sujiposed to describe having no existence in fact. ig. ■,y. nuibe s loot atteciea chronic laminitis showing convexity of sole — " pumiced sole." (After Hayes.) Fig. 60. Horse's foot affected with laminitis showing excessive heel- growth of horn with horn rings thickest at the heels. (After Hayes.) When a foundered horse is made to back the action is very characteristic. He throws his body back with a swinging movement as if the feet were glued to the ground, and then draws or slides his feet after him. To turn round is a feat only accomplished with difficulty, and in effecting the turn- ing movement the weight is kept on the heels all the time. At the onset of an acute attack the horse has a decided aversion tO' lying down but when once the feeling of relief, from the lemoval of the weight of the body off the feet, is experienced he will lie contentedly and easily and is often very much benefited by the consequent amelioration of the pain. When the hind feet are affected great difficulty is experienced in the attempt to pass urine, on account of the pain caused by placing the hind feet in position for staling. In such cases the urine should be drawn away at frequent intervals by means of a catheter. On recovery from an acute attack of laminitis there frequently remains an abnormal condition of the foot which constitutes an unsomidness and which although not accompanied by actual lameness is always associated with a peculiarity of gait indicative of the previous disease. In both the walk and the trot the fore limbs appear to be advanced unduly or •8 July, 1907.] Lameness in Horses. 421 thrown further forward than natural, and the heels always come to the ground first; this with the object of avoiding weight being put upon the toe, where there still remains some sub-acute inflammation and pain. At the same time the length of the step is shorter than usual although the exaggerated action gi\es the opposite impression. Another feature of lame- ness from laminitis is that the lameness increases with exercise whereas with some other diseases of the foot — navicular disease for instance — the lameness passes away when the animal is "warmed up." There are also chronic changes in the shape of the hoof which are usually so well marked as to stamp the animal at once as having been foundered. These changes result partly from the original disease and partly from the manner of progression above described. At the time of the existence of the inflammation the swelling inside the hoof around the pedal bone causes pressure to be exertt-d oii the front part of that bone "I Fig. 61. Gi- on horse's hoof. (After Hayes.) whereby it is given a downward direction. (See Fig. 58.) The sole is consequently pressed downwards and becomes flatter than natural. In some cases the downward pressure of the pedal bone causes the sole to become convex and the condition known as " dropped sole " or " pumiced sole" is produced. (See Figs. 58 and 59.) On account of the fact that foundered horses "go on the heels " a more active growth of horn at the heels is induced and the heels therefore are deeper than normal. At the same time the front of the hoof instead of maintaining the natural straight contour from the coronet to the ground surface, becomes " dished " or concave in contour and the toe has a tendency to turn upwards. This increased growth of horn at the heels is intermittent and consequentlv there are produced a succession of rings round the hoof which differ from " grass rings " in that they are wider at the heels. (See Figs. 60, 62, and (i2>) Often they may be one-half or three-eighths of an inch in thickness at the 42 2 Journal of Agriculture. [8 July, 1907. heels and fade away to nothing at the front of the hoof. {Note. By a " grass ring '"' is meant a ring of more prominent growth of horn extending e\enly all round the hoof and resulting from the more ^'igorous growth of horn which takes place when horses are turned out tO' grass for a spelL There are signs of ring-like growth of horn on most horses' hoofs. These result from the fluctuation of the \igor of horn growth corresponding to the varying activity of the growth of the coat at different seasons of the year). (See Fig. 61.) Treatment. — The shoes should be immediately taken off, the rim of the wall rasped down level with the sole so as to take the strain off the inflamed sensitive laminae by allowing the weight of the body to be partly borne on the sole. It is surprising how quickly relief from mechanicar pain will follow on the provision of sole-pressure. The horse should then at once be placed in a foot-bath of cold water, in which he should be allowed to stand continuously until the acuteness of the pain subsides. At any rate, eighteen hours on end out of the twenty-four is not too long a time for the horse to be in the foot-bath, and if he is removed, the in- tervening six hours should be spent lying down. If he is averse to lying he ought to be forcibly put down by some quiet method. Failing a foot- bath or suitable stall in which one can be improvised, standing the horse in a stream or waterhole or dam, or even the bandaging of a trickling hose on to the limb above the feet may be resorted to ; but, however it is done the water must be applied continuouslv and it must be cold. This cold foot-bath treatment deserves to be strongly and unhesitatingly advocated, for, when it is applied in the early stages and persisted in,. Fig. 62. Hoof showing laminitic rings ^ 'g- (^i- Laminitic heels dressed to and excessive growth of horn at shape and shod. (After Dollar.) heels. (After Dollar.) it is seldom that recovery does not take place in a few days or that any permanent deformities or untoward sequelae, such as follow on other methods of treatment, are experienced. Compared with this, hot fomen- tations, poulticing, bleeding at the coronet, and such like methods of treatment, are unsatisfactorv and obsolete. Some internal treatment is often necessary. When the fever is high a laxative do.se of Epsom salts (six to eight ounces) mav be given as a drench along with ten to twenty drops of tincture of aconite (Fleming's) or a small handful of salts and a dose of aconite may be added to the drinking water daily. The aconite is very useful in modifying the pain and distress when the irritative fever is acute. Strong purgatives should not be given as the artificial diarrhoea which they produce often tends to intensify the inflammation in the feet. Food should be given but sparingly. It should consist of soft bran mashes and easily digestible green stuff with a little boiled linseed jelly every other day. A teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda or saltpetre mixed with the mashes will assist in controlling the fever. 8 July, igo;-] Lameness in Horses. 423 After the subsidence of the acute symptoms the treatment should con- sist in allowing spells of walking exercise three or four times a day — at first not more than a few hundred yards at a time, but increasing gradually until recovery is complete. When the lameness or tenderness in action peisists the application of a fly blister (see page 75) round the coronets is often ad\antageous. A horse that has been foundered should always be shod flat with broad-webbed shoes and careful attention should be paid by the farrier when dressing the hoofs to the maintenance of its natural form. (See Figs. 62 and 6^.) Villkis. Inflammation of the coronary band, from which the outer laver of the hoof wall is secreted, is called " Villitis." It is a form of lameness which occurs mostly in cart horses and is predisposed to by the practice of shoeing with calkins. The character of the lameness much resembles that of laminitis but the gait is a shuffling or gliding one. The wall of the hoof at the top near the coronet becomes dry and cracked, both ver- tically and horizontally, and ultimately may be likened to the roughened back of an aged tree (see Fig 64). Later on. as the diseased horn grows ■down the wall mav break awav. 64. Hoof affecteu willi md scah' horn growth. vuuUs ' sliovving roiiglient'i (After Hayes.) Treatment. — Mild blisters applied round the coronet will assist in promoting a more healthful growth of horn. Oily dressings may be ap- plied to the hoof to minimize the tendency of the horn to crack and split. Navicular Disease. This is one of the few diseases which has no regularly used common name. The terms " grogginess " or "groggy" are sometimes used but they have reference to the character of the; action of horses suffering from the disease. The word " Navicular " means boat-shaped (L. navis — a ship) and refers to the shape of the small shuttle-like bone situated inside the hoof at the back of the coffin or pedal bone over which the main flexor tendon of the foot {-flexor pedis ferforans) passes before it is in- serted to the under surface of the pedal bone. (See Figs. 57 and 65.) Nature and Causation. — The pathology of navicular disease was for a long time obscure ; and now while its characteristics are well understood 42 4 Journal of Agrlcnliitrc. [8 July, 1907. its causation stands in needs of more elucidation in many aspects. When affected with navicular disease the surface of the bone over which the tendon plays becomes inflamed and ultimately affected with caries or bone ulceration. The ulcers are often two in number, ooe situated on each side of the middle line of the bone (,-Figs. 66 to 70). Some authorities state that the disease commences in the tendon and ex- tends to the bone and that the tendon becomes lacerated, but throughout numerous ■post-mortem examinations the author has never seen this. He consequently inclines to the view that the disease originates in the bone, or in the pad of fibro-cartilage covering that surface of the bone over which the tendon plays, and has as a cause, that concentration of pressure and concussion at this particular spot which occurs in horses having a par- ticular conformation of hoof and pastern — the narrow upright hoof and vertical pastern. Horses with oblique pasterns seldom have navicular disease and it practically never occurs in the hind feet where the concus- sion is less but where the strain on the tendon is just as great as in the- fore. Neither is navicular disease at all common where horses are not used on hard roads. Although it is vet bv no means so common an Fig. 65. Inferior aspect of pedal and Fig. 66. Inferior aspect of pedal and' navicular bones showing tendon navicular bones with tendon drawn passing upwards over latter. (After back to show ulceration on navicular Hayes.) bone. (After Hayes.) affection as in England, it is a gradually increasing quantity in the cities and towns of Australia. It was .seldom met with even among Melbourne- horses until the early nineties. Its increase in the cities has been con- current with the extension of wooden paving and macadamizing of the thoroughfares. This observation strengthens the conclusion that, in horses hereditarily predisposed to it bv particular conformation of hoof and pastern, concussion plays the chiefest part in its causation. Excessive paring of the frog, by which, in shod horses, that anti-con- cussive pad is prevented from contacting the ground, greatly increases the jar on the navicular bone and is therefore a fertile contributory cause of navicular disease. This practice of mutilating the frog — a practice which is fortunately gaining disrepute amongst farriers— prevents the performance of two of Its most important functions, viz. : — the lessening of concussive 8 July, 1907.] Lameness in Horses. 425 shock and the providing of an elastic impetus to the elevation of the foot ; and the suspension of these functions is a considerable factor in the causa- tion of navicular disease. In Norway and Sweden this disease is almost unknown and the immunity is ascribed to the fact that in these countries horses are never shod with heels or calkins — as horses working at any pace beyond the walk never should be shod. Rheumatism sometimes settles in the navicular bone and causes navi- cular disease. In such cases there is no ulceration of the bone but a porcelainous matter is deposited in it. The age period of navicular disease is from five years onwards. Symptoms. — As a rule this disease affects only light-bred horses having naturally undersized and narrow or " muley " feet. When the disease is well advanced the heels become contracted or " wired in " and the frog and hoof generally present a shrunken appearance; this, apart from the natural narrowness of the hoof to begin with. The most characteristic feature of this form of lameness in the usual run of cases is "pointing" described on page 212. (See Fig. 71.) This sign may be noticed for perhaps months before actual lameness is observed. Pointing is also habitual in lameness from corns but in that case the heels are flat and expanded rather than upright and contracted. tu 7'j. -\;Lvicular bones (inferior aspect) showing various stages in the process of ulceration constituting navicular disease. The horse may appear to walk sound but lameness is pronounced at the trot. It is most marked when the horse is first moved from the stable in the morning and, unlike the lameness of laminitis or corns, it may dis- appear after he has become warmed up at exercise. When put to a trot the animal goes with a tripping, vet cautious, gait stepping short and on the toes, in consequence of which the toe of the shoe is always the part most worn. The larneness is always more pronounced on hard ground and when the horse is ridden. The horse appears afraid to go down hill, and when doing so the lameness, and the gingerly " cat on hot bricks " style of gait, is very distinct on account of him trving to avoid putting weight on the heels. A new mcchanicaL met/iod of detecting navicular disease has recently been practised in France. It is based upon the principle that when the navicular bone is subjected to pressure from the contraction of the tendon passing over it there will be flinching from the pain caused. The horse is made to stand with the suspected foot on a wedge of hard wood, about 426 Journal of Agriculture. [8 July, 1907. 8 in. by 6 in., .sloping backwards at an angle of about 18 deg. so that the toe is elevated. The tendon is by this means put upon the stretch and causes pressure on the navicular bone, which pressure will be increased if the opposite foot is lifted. On this being done if the horse is affected with navicular disease he shows acute pain and endeavours to get away. Some horses may show discomfort from the position in which the foot is placed, apart from the presence of pain and it is therefore prudent to- make a comparison with the same method on the opposite foot. The disease seldom occurs in horses under five years old. It is slow in developing and many of the characters above described are so gradually manifested as to render the diagnosis a matter of very great difficulty. The negative evidence afforded by the absence of other causes of lameness is of value in coming to a conclusion but oftentimes it will be found more satisfactory to apply the cocaine test as described on page 58. A horse affected with navicular disease is always a dangerous animal to ride, on account of his great liabilitv to stumble. He is apparently afraid to lift his feet to a suflficient height to avoid stumbling, because of the fact that the higher the foot is raised the greater is the shock on the heels, and the greater therefore is the pain experienced, when the heels- are brought to the ground. Fig. 71. Attitude when " pointing." Treatment. — When navicular disease is su.spected, some good may- be done towards arresting its progress by removing the shoes and rasping the ground surface of the wall so as to give frog pressure before turning the horse out for a spell on. soft lowland pasture. But once the disease is established no treatment has yet been suggested that has any curative effect. The palliative effect of blistering round the coronet is evanescent. The lameness may be modified somewhat by shoeing with a broad- and thick-heeled shoe, but for its complete removal the onlv method of any value is the operation of neurectomy (see page 68). This operation (the cutting out of portion of the sensory nerve of the foot) will enable a horse with navicular disease to be used for a considerable time but it does not stay the progress of the disease. It merely removes the lameness and by obliterating the pain renders the horse less liable to stumble and therefore safer to ride. A horse operated on by the author some vears back was regularly hunted for three .seasons afterwards and seemed good for another three until one day he unexpectedly flung off one of his hoofs and had ta be destroyed. For other diseases of the foot — those in which the cause of lameness- (if any) is obvious- — see chapter on Diseases of the Foot. (To he coui'niucd.) S July, 1907.] T/ie Orchard. 427 THE ORCHARD. James Lang, Harcourt. Pruning will require to be pushed on Avith all speed during the month. In pruning young trees, regard should always be given to shape. Three bra;nches are enough to start with ; these will form the foundation, and subsequent branches should radiate as nearly as possible at equal distances apart, so as to form a well balanced tree. In pruning the main branches, remove about two-thirds of the growth and cut back to an outside bud. leaving one-third to form the future branch. Where an orchard is in an exposed situation and subject to strong winds blowing from the one direction, trees are apt to grow one-sided. This should be counteracted as much as possible when the trees are \oung bv pruning to an outs.ide bud on the windy side, and to an iniside bud on the lee side, and so' throw the tree against the wind. Good judgment will be required in cases like this, but always have in view that \our trees sho'uld be well balanced ; nothing looks worse in an orchard than to see trees leaning to one side. Old trees should be regulated l)y having some of their branches cut out ■where they are rather close ; this allows a free circulation of air, and is also an advantage in spraying. Fruit spurs on old trees should be judiciously thinned out and shortened back ; this will allow the trees to hear a much better quality of fruit than in cases where this treatment is neglected. Tree planting should also be pushed on. In .selecting the varieties of apples and pears for planting, preference should be given tO' export varieties, as we must look now tO' our export trade to make fruit-growing remunerative. Jonathan, Cleopatra, Munroe's Favorite, Newtown Pippin, Esopus Spitzenberg, London Pippin, Rome Beauty, Sturmer Pippin, and Dumelow's Seedling, are the best varieties, and bring the most remunera- tive prices. In pears. Winter Nelis, Josephine de Malines, Glou Morceau, Beuire Clairgeau, Beurre cl'Anjou, Beurre Diel, and Vicar of Winkfield, are the best. It is a matter for congratulation that pears have carried well this season, very few being returned as rotten. This is in striking contrast to the experience of other years, when the bulk was returned as rotten and wasty ; it points to more care being exercised by the shipping companies, who now generally allot a small chamber for the carriage of pears at a lower temperature than for apples. The prices realized this season will encourage grower's to ship pears on a much larger scale than has hitherto been the case. All kinds of small fruits should now be planted. Strawberrv planta- tions that have been more than three years planted should be renewed. 428 Journal of Agriculture . [S July, 1907. Q <1 o o 1^ O CO CO CO t3 &H X CO 3 0 .0 S .a ■C r^ 0 an 0 Q 1 " ^agfl Hf^S CO 05 askec 3 per ed at y Sta 1>(M Price Manur Deliver Railwa c . Ml ce aj 0>r^ Pm a C3 .g ^^ 0 n. t3 c 0 ^ 0 c ^ 0 ■r^ Ss 0 £ Si 41 Q -w 0 C3J3 S03 ^ o" - " i-i PM 3 d "o 0 03 a T3 - - 3 '3 ce » S ^ [^ 0 0 t) 0 - :; S ^ § 1 m S-o - ^ S -:l S g ° Manure per ton. Delivered at Local Railway Station. •«■ 0 0 0 ■w in 0 in 0 in 'O ^ -2— 0 p a' ■«■ ■* 0 t> Estima Tota Value Manui 5 »• »-( -^ cc p. trt in in in TS ^ 'tt 0 M « ^ Estim Valu One of t a Co in 0 "* c3 0 H c3 til ■* ■* tK 1 t^ «o^ in f_, ca a5 in t~ ° S =rt '-' 0 0 C 1 ^ ^ 05 0 s >1a P-l 0 C3 00 05 in Q ~ w "d _ _ Hi 0) a a -tj— ' 0 Q^ oj ^- ^; ^ '"' 0 u a 6 ci D-i3.a 3 = o"^ 3 I-- [^ CO CM £_3 pa'"-' 3 ^ 0 0 0 ■ jv i^ t~ ' *-< C <1^ 05 i> t^ 2i & tiC - D-i 0 c3 '-* '"' 0 "S^a^, ^• in ^ 0 fj « 3 a 00 ■-^ (M ■s5 feo |>"o° c3 « IM cc CO 1 ^ ■» i^ 02 t^ 3 a3 t> !0 1 PM S c3 0 ■* CO T3 a; 0 t* (N 0 coco 0 i » 1-H tHO -' M 0 0 000 0 s cq 0 t^ COOS i> . . .3 « 0 0 00 0 AHg^f^n 0 i>-o i> CO cow (M 0 "Sac a 3 CO 0 rH OS s . g3 ^. w lO IC OS c*l CO CO coco CO 0 w 01 01 un io 0 Oh S3|to w 0^8 « CO OS C-J C-l 0 01 i-H O-l (N IM SJ ■^ a a So'*^^ a ^•0 (M l> !0 CO i « rH rH rH rH ■-< . J.^- 10 rH Ot~ n •e S-e :«T,j 3 ^•s a «° 0 §• 0 a ■« 0 «; So % 2; § a pq S Q 3 - ^ _ 0 3 5 f^ "S = '•5 2 3 0 M H W a 2 &a d .a '3 0 0 .2 Ph 0 0 .J3 ?1.Sf -"■^jI SPqogosh^! ^, :^ s ■e® 0 0 a. S « fe^^'S^ ec ■mS Cq-gDiM C^CO >n Estimated Total Value of Manure per ton. oo'OO ct)in in ■S.e a ^ ■^s in a a a;^ a cJOl in H 0 Oh S^ool VI 0 0 sga in 00 CL, 0 o! "Sao • -£■=' 0 li £ ^•°^ IN "3 '0 a§"-l « CO c*l-r'— g 0 << "o crtO 0 OS s|s. 00 t~ Bj 0 a CM 8 Ph " c4 in « a fl „; ■S-a 0 2 £ ■«•'- § a § 0^ i =0 °° 5?o-»l c+JCO HJ . s fe= a3 § 60 Ph u (S ■*' r- CO 5 b a3 a a ^5 Ph 8 « CO 0 £ a si T3 a §|§ > tS S-e ■q 0 S g-'S S OT a 0 a _o 0. 1^1 S -S s| ^ il b i -e a ■a fin >> Q ^ 0 w be „ F 0 0) Q 7a bD 1— 1 M ■4.S 0 yA < 1— 1 ^ '^ a 0 .s" ^^ e3 a o o ^ o o 430 Journal of Agriculture . 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'S-o "S ^1 Hi :h5 :;'-:;:;:::- t-TJ : r : : :; = :2 r - - ^P= ^P^ go S S g S 0 cS s S 0 'd 5r c ' ' 3 • 0 ^ 0 .2 £ a, "S Uj3 tT : : :;:;:::;r:;::^ 'E =3 2^ ci c^ 0 d5 :C ^ ' ' ;:;-::; I :.* ' ' 0 0 ^ frt CO 0 1X1 C-l lO r-< ini^ f>] t^ •aaqi uiiN 1^ PWO 0001 r— 00»OlOr-.COCDt^l—» CSOSOOrHC^CllNOO cDcoina5,-iocoi> IV t~ 0000001050050200 X050505050505X X CO •J8 imn^ pqtJI 1 CD 03 f»0 CO lO t^t~rHooiocncoort in-*t^i>xo-ioo5co INCOC0O5iO-*t^O5 CDl>I>t^05C005CO 0 1-1 8 July, 1907.] A!?alyses of San/ pies of Majiures. 431 CO in 4 9 6 4 8 9 4 14 6 4 9 7 4 13 7 4 14 8 4 15 4 4 10 10 4 11 0 4 5 6 (Nr- 00 in ^ T« (N IN in IN '* ■* in t~ (N rHOS m m 00 rH m -* t^m OS t^ 3 13 7 rt" 't -t -1* -t* (M 01 ->! 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'2^ J. A. Dundas, Dyn road, Footscray The Colonial Maiiu as 3 ■3 a 3 0 J2 M S ..-..§ ;= d J s 0 -Q t t-. 3 0 !S g^ S % ;-, f^ d =d >> P=i 3 s 0) d 0 g C3 < 0 s - - " "'3 _o "o 0 0 t3 " ca g £ 1 : be a 0 8 = 73 - fc-i " c! 3 0 1 3 0 Superphosphate ary Superphos- te, Federal _ . . . C3 ft 0 ... - ft - - - - t- ft :3 33 h ^^ - CO -J3 bo ft c5 - CI W > ca ft 0 -ft t-, ft 3 3 d c« 0 I bo ftcs 3 ust and Super- sphate as " Star" Phos- ft 3 in •^ OS 3^ C3 C8 OS ft ft :: :: "CO rt « d *- '"o - 0 0 ft 3 5 ca 2; - s 2 a ftft feqo ^ CO 0 !?: pq W W H IN OS 0 OS CO m i^ to m t^ rH CO CO >IN CO t— CO OS -* rH r^ OS OS 0 CO OS om 0 rHOS OS OS I — ^ rH CO OS rHO rH 0 111) ooos OS OS 00 00 OS OS OS 00 OS OS 3S OS OS OS OS GO c»ao OS 00 OS ^^ r^ ^^ ^^ r~^ ^^ •-4 ^^ ,-i ~^ ^^ 1-1 -H ^^ ^^ -H rH rH rH — 1 rH rH r-* lO OS -* CO -tl rH 0 0 CO CO CO IN 01 rti CO coi> 00 00 m 30 l> 3S OOOS 12; 0 0 so iyi c 'r^ H-3 1— 1 -^ hH T3 1— 1 la ^ cS SJ kH 'j^ 0 « 0 w> (^ ^ o Sg c O 432 Journal of Agriculture. [8 July, 1907. WATTLE GROWING. A. TatJiam, Gisborne. Wherever the black wattle {Acacia decurrens) grows naturally in Vic- toria, it is possible to cultivate it. On most properties there is always an acre or two of land that fox some reason or other vields no return, and there is no reason why the\- should not be made to do so through wattles. Cultivation. It would be difficult to find a soil in Victoria that would not grow this tree, provided moisture was sufficient. But if any can be specially selected perhaps the granite country would gain first place. Those soils that are rich in humus are most favored, and often in granite localities, where the soil surface is made fairly free by the disintegration of the rocks, a dense vegetation of low-growing species, especially bracken fern, is found, caus- ing an annual deposit of decaying vegetable matter. The wattle in its young state is tolerant of shade, and in fact thrives well in partial shade, or under a high leaf canopy. But to be at its best as far as bark pro- duction is concerned it should have no overhead shade, but plenty of under- growth. Its natural locality is a valley, but where the rainfall is 30 inches and over it is found growing w"ell on ridges. The wattle seeds profusely once in three years. To collect the seeds, the pods should be gathered just as they ripen, but before they open, as they will do on a hot day, and so shed the seed. The pods can be laid on sacks or rick cloth in the sun, where they get brittle or split ; place all in a sack and beat it briskly with a stout stick, and the seed will be threshed out. If the sack is held up, and gently bounced on the ground it will be found that the seeds sink to the bottom and can easily be collected. The area having been selected, the seed can be sown anv time in the early autumn. The cheapest and easiest way to do this is to strive to get a locality that has trees growing on it ; if bracken fern exists all the better. Do not attempt tO' remove any rubbish in the shape of logs or dead limbs, leave all alone — it is an excellent site for wattles. Before the autumn rains, throw the seed broadcast over the area ; it requires no pre- vious preparation, if plentv of dry vegetation is present. Half-a-pound of seed is ample for an acre, in fact a quarter of a pound will suffice, but is difficult to sow, except it is mixed with a bucket of saceous plants found native in various parts of Europe, Asia. Africa, and America. Tliere is a large number of species, manv of which have been cultivated in European gar- dens for centuries, and from which garden forms that are superior in many ways to the types from which they originated have been raised by inter- crossing and selection. The types being so numerous, and the geographical distributiiiii so widr, flowers of some sp>ecies or varieties of iris may be IRIS STVLOSA ALKA. IRIS FLORENTINA PURPUREA. seen in bloom at almost any season of the year, and under most varying conditions. Some kinds require a warm dry situation, with abundance of light and sunshine, while others are denizens of swamps, and require moist and shaded conditions to bring them to perfection!. The flowers of most species are very beautiful, and are extensi\'ely used for decoration in Europe, where, in addition to the varieties grown in the flower garden, bulbous kinds are grown in pots and forced into flower premattireh- in heated glass houses. Orris root, used in medicine and perfumerv. is derived from Iris -ftoreiitiiia a species worthy of culture as a garden plant. Irises are divided intO' se\eral sections, but for the purpose of these notes it is sufiicient to mention the principal groups only. The most generally grown in this State are the Flag irises {Iris Germaniea and its 4^6 ]oitr)ial of Agriculture . [8 July, 1907. varieties), in wliich are included other types and their hybrids. The chief characteristics of this group are: — The foHage is broad and in most varieties dwarf, rising from a creeping root-stock or rhizome, and the flowers large, generally blue, purple, and white in coloxir. They are all hardy and will thrive in almost any situation. Flowers of this section are produced in spring. The Japanese iris (/. Kcempferi) is fibrous rooting, and produces tufts of foliage 3 or 4 feet in height when well grown, above which the large distinct flowers are borne during summer. There is a greater range of colour in this, thao in any other section. It grows to perfection when planted beside water-courses and in other other damp places, but will also thrive fairly in ordinary borders if the soil is of a loamy nature. It may be seen blooming during the summer months in the mixed groups and borders at the Melbourne Botanic Gardens. The Director of the Gardens, Mr. W. R. Guilfoyle, has caused irises of various species to be planted in almost all conceivable situations, and has suc- ceeded in producing fine plants that bloom freely in most unlikely places. The Spanish and English irises (also known as XipJiioits) with other species, including reticulatum alatum and junceum, are true bulbous plants that produce their flowers during spring and summer. In the so-called English irises, the original types of which are natives of Spain and Portugal, the colours of the flowers are white and purplish shades ; while the flowers of the Spanish irises are vellow, broiize, white, and lilac in colour. The foliage of this class is usually narrow and rounded. The irises are plants worthy of much more extended culture in this State, being in most cases very hardv and easily grown — thriving without artificial watering. They produce beautiful flowers, which are excellent for general decorative purposes, and totally unlike those of anv other hardv plant. Soil — Situation — Culture. The Flag iris will succeed in almost any kind of soil, that of a loamy nature being most suitable. No manure is required unless the soil is very poor and shallow, when some well rotted cow^ or stable manure should be incorporated. Good drainage and sunny positions should be provided. The plants are increased by divisions of the root stock. A piece of the parent plant may be cut off with roots attached, and planted at about the same depth as originally occupied ; the bare covering of the creeping shoot — as it really is — being sufficient. The soil should be firmlv pressed and afterwards watered as in the case of planting out generallv. After culture is mainly cleaning and weeding. 7. Kamfferi is an example of herbaceO'Us iris with fibrous roots, and is propagated bv dividing the parent crown or tuft. This class requires a cool moist soil, and grows to perfec- tion in some of the gardens and nurseries at Upper Macedon. While damp, or even wet situations are suitable, it niust not be assumed that thev will succeed in sour soil. They will endure abundance of moving water, but not that which is stagnant. Divisions of the fibrous rooting kinds may be planted during autumn or early spring. The bulbous section should be planted in- autumn in well drained and rather light soil. They are increased from olfsets of the bulbs. The bulbs should be planted at a depth of 4 to 6 inches, and about 4 inches apart to allow for multiplication. They are most effective in the garden when planted in large patches, and may be allowed to grow undisturbed for three or four vears. 8 July, 1907.] Garden Notes. . 437 Selection of Varieties. A number of varieties of many of the types undermentioned are avail- able in Melbourne, from the nurserymen or seedsmen. Iris Germanica, many varieties ; Ksempferi, many varieties ; fimbriata, fiorentina, pavonia — the peacock iris; Xiphium — Spanish iris, many varieties; Xiphioides — English iris, many varieties; ochroleuca, pallida, reticulatum ; stylosa, and stylosa alba — winter flowering species ; bicolor, and many others. Flower G-arden. The continuance of manuring and digging flower borders, and the pre- paration of beds for special subjects, and pnming roses and other plants may be styled routine work for the present month. Beds for chrysanthe- mums and other plants cultivated for specially fine blooms should be pre- pared now, as far as adding stable manure and roughly digging to sweeten the soil. If the plants previously grown in the beds were infested with aphis or other insects, a dressing of gypsum (sulphate of lime) is advisable. It will destroy many insects and act as a manure also, and is a cheaper and better dressing than the slaked lime so commonly used. Roses may be pruned during this and next month. Hybrid perpetuals should be pruned first ; hybrid teas and teas later. The hybrid perpetuals are practically without leaves now, and may be cut hard back without detriment. Many of the tea roses are still in full leaf some even making new growths, and though they may be thinned it is not wise to behead them too' early in winter. A deal of improvement is noticeable in methods of pruning flowering plants generally, which is in a great measure due to the various horticul- tural societies in the State. Lectures are delivered, papers read, and practical demonstrations carried out by competent persons at meetings arranged by these societies, and information on important matters is spread over a greater range than would be likely from a few larger asso- ciations. Combined exhibitions may be wise and even necessary, but nume- rous, if small, societies and frequent meetings are undoubtedly of benefit to cultivators of all grades. The most common fault in pruning roses is overcrowding of shoots, especially in the top of the plant. More thinning, i.e. entire removal of shoots, and less shortening back of those allowed to remain would be of benefit. The centre of the bushes should be fairly open, and old and weakly wood pruned away leaving a few strong well arranged shoots. In shorten- ing the shoots that are reserved, the pruner must be guided by the vigor of the specimen dealt with, and in a measure with the characteristics of the variety. Weakly shoots must be cut back much harder than strong ones, and the plants will be better, much larger, and will produce finer blooms than if an excessive number of branches was saved. In the case of climbing varieties, old shoots should be cut right away, and the voung shoots that have developed tied or trained in their stead and lightly topped. This treatment should not be applied to the Banksian, Fortune's Yellow, and ether early blooming kinds, which should not be pruned until after flowering in spring. Newly planted roses should be pruned hard at time of planting. Sweet peas may be sown for late blooming, and bulbs of early gladioli planted. Summer blooming liliums may also be planted, care being 438 Journal of Agnciiltiirc. [8 July, 190^ taken that no organic maraure comes into contact with the bulbs. Hardy annuals may be transplanted, and where such are growing thickly in patches where it is intended they shall bloom, they should be thinned and kept free from weeds. Kitchen Garden. Preparation of soil for future planting, and spwing seeds of various vegetables for spring use may be done. Planting out onions and aspara- gus from earlier sowings ; preparation of manure for hot-bed where it is intended to raise tender plants early ; and weeding and cleaning growing crops are seasonable operations in this department. THE PROCLAIMED PLANTS OF VICTORIA. {Continued from page 336.) Alfred J. Ewart, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Botanist: and J. R. Tovev, Herbarium Assistant. Blackberry Bramble. Rubus fnitieosus, Linne. (Rosacece.) The struggling stems arise from a perennial rootstock, without underground creeping shoots ; the flowering stem, biennial, or of a few years duration, sometimes nearly erect, but more frequently arched, straggling or prostrate, often rooting, and forming fresh plants at the ex- tremitv, usually armed with prickles, either stout and hooked or thin and straight, with stiff hairs, or glandular bristles, or a short down, all variously intermingled or occasionally wanting. Stipules awl-shaped, or linear, inserted a short way up the leafstalk. Leaflets rather large, and coarse, either 3 or 5, the 2 or 4 lower ones inserted together at some distance below the terminal one, egg-shaped toothed, more or less downy, the midribs as well as the stalks usually armed with small hooked prickles. Flowers white or pink, in panicles at the ends of the branches. Fruit black, or very rarely dull red, not separating readily from the receptacle, the calvx usually turned down under it, or seldom closing over it. An introduction from Europe and Asia. This hardv deciduous trailer has spread to a great extent, and is difficult to eradicate, especially when in hedges. In open ground it is easily kept under by cutting down to the base twice a year. Systematic eradication involves however the re- moval of the rootstock and the prevention of flowering and fruiting. Proclaimed for various districts. PLATE 14 n.Waiurfiel BLACKBERRY BRAMBLE (Rui)ib.s fruthcosiis . L inn e) 8 July, 1907.] W/wat and \\ Jicat-Brced'uig. 439 WHEAT AND WHEATBKEEDmG. H. Pyc, Principal, Agricultural College, Dookic. The advancement of science has had the effect of drawing special attention to the improvement of wlieat and otlier cereals. Wheats are botanically named according to distinctive characteristics. Thus we have Triticum vulgare practically embracing all the wheats grown in Australia ■for commercial purposes ; T. turgidum embracing such as Australian Poulard. Laidley, and Mummy or Miracle Wheat ; T. durum (Desf) embracing such as Medeah, Belotourka, Kubanka and Velvet Don, principally grown for macaroni making, and now more extensively grown in some countries for blending purposes in the making of high class bread, biscuits, pastry, &c. T . polonicum or Podish wheat is a very distinctive one and is sometimes known as Mammoth Rye ; it has very large glumes and long grains, and these are noticeable in many of the seedlings produced by crossing it on Medeah, Avhilst some of the seedlings resemble Medeah very much. T . cotnf actum is the name applied to some clubbed or square headed varieties of which there are a good many. T. sfclta (L) includes the Spelt or German wheats; T. amvleum or dicoccum, includes the Emmer wheats, and T. monoccum (L) is represented by the one-grained wheat. The last three sub-species are not generally grown for economic purposes, but are to be found only at Experimental Stations. Some authorities classify the sub-species stated above as really distinct species and not sub- species. Emmer and Spelt wheats are not of any commercial value in this State, but for feed purposes for stock they would in many instances prove useful. They are difficult to thresh, the ears just breaking up, through being very brittle, whilst the chaff holds tightly to the grain. A few odd grains may thresh out but the flo'ur from these grains is not much used, although it is useful for the purpose of blending with other flour to make special doughs. Emmer wheat with the chaff attached would possiblv be useful for feeding stock in the drv parts of the State where oats would not succeed, and no doubt pigs would thrive well on it. It fields well but the bushel weighs only about 40 lbs. In using the abo\'e wheats for crossing purposes I have not had anv particular success. The ears of the progeny seem brittle, in most instances, and unsuited for general crop pur- poses ; whilst of these crossbreds I have not procured a variety that is suitable for the harvester, and equal to or better than varieties already grown. Wheat Breeding. As a commercial product wheat stands among the most preeminent, and its production will continue to be a vital matter affecting the economic and social welfare of the people of the Commonwealth. It is not intended to enter deeply into the scientific aspect of wheat breeding, but it is in- tended to give an outline of this interesting work, a work which is more interesting now than, say fifteen vears ago when the rural public had not begun to appreciate its general importance, and its bearing on a huge industry. Times have changed. The agriculturist is perhaps the one individual that the world at large needs most, and it is now doing its 440 J oitnial of Agriculture. [8 July, 1907. best to make him fulfil his destiny for the betterment of all classes of men. A decade or more back and there were many farmers who smiled with incredulity at the efforts of the wheat-breeder. But after a few years the' object of the work began to be understood. Then from hun- dreds, the number of farmers that annually visited the Dookie Agricultural College wheat plots, increased to over two thousand and they gradually began to learn that experiments in wheat In-eeding could be of some prac- tical use to them. For instance, to put a girder around the straw of a variety and strengthen it, also to shorten the straw for the farmer 00 the wind swept plains who does not need length of straw, are two points that appeal to the practical grower, as also does the tightening of the chaff around the grain of some prolific ^•ariety that showers its wealth o\er the field with every puff of wind or summer breeze. The adding of an additional fertile floret to every spikelet, and increasing the number (^f spikelets ; the implanting of higher feeding qualities to the grain, and CROSS-l-'KRilLIZlNG WllKATS AT TlIK DOUKIE AGRICULTURAL CULLLGE. making the loaf a real staff of life to the poorest, also the effort to wrest from Nature her secrets so that all soils may be productive of this great staple article of food must convince not only the farmer but every citizen of the Commonwealth that scientific wheat-breeding should be encouraged. The greed for yield has dominated the growth for quality. To combine the two is the grand problem for the wheat breeder, but when so many other properties are to be implanted in the variety, the task of reaching near perfection is on a parallel with that of the breeder of stock who wishes to produce the perfect general-purpose cow, or the hen that lavs abnormally large quantities of eggs and has toothsome flesh besides. Wliether it is possible to raise varieties of wheat that will combine in them all the neces- sary virtues depends much on how high the standard of perfection is placed ; still from past experience we can confidently say that a great future lies before the plant breeder, and that he will accomplish much that will encourage the belief that varieties will ultimately be produced suitable to the special economic conditions of each wheat-growing countrv. 8 July, 1907.] ]VIicat and Whcai-Breeding. 44^ Yield of Wheat. Yield, natural! \, is a prominent virtue, and it is the one more amenable to the will of the grower than perhaps any other. It is not to be inferred that the quality of prolificacy is not more inherent in one variety than^ in another, for such is not the case, yet one variety may be very prolific in one country and a failure in another, due to other forces acting detri- mentally to its development. However, if a variety is suitable to the climate and soil, its yields are dominated by those physical conditions of the soil that are dependent on tillage operations, and it has been proved conclusively that with so hardy a plant as wheat, profitable crops may be grown on land that would scarcely produce any other marketable economic plant, simply by introducing a proper system of rotation in which the bare fallow plays an essential part. Importance of Humus. The humic and the moisture contents of ordinary soils are very strong^ factors governing their fertility, the excess in a few localities being detri- mental. Over the great northern areas, and ini fact southern areas also, the humic content of soils is far too small, and leaves them more sensible to every change of temperature and checks the action of the natural forces that unlock the plant food imprisoned in the soil. Practically the insuffi- ciency of humus or decayed vegetable matter in the soil is seen in the co'ld appearance of the latter, in the manner it sets after rain^ and in the regulating of the depth of ploughing, for deep ploughing cannot be entertained when the humic content of the soil is low, and what little there is, is confined to the first two or three inches at the surface. Thus the humic content of the sail is essential to lasting success, and stubbles, grass, rape, peas or any other form of humus-supplying agents should receive the deep attention of every farmer. There is too much speculating with the soil, and more so in regard to not supplying it with humus than perhaps anything else. Working the bare fallow at the proper times, and ploughing for it during the winter and early spring have con clusively demonstrated that the conservation of the natural rainfall in most instances supplies the all essential moisture for a satisfactory crop of wheat in every part of Victoria, if the land values be considered. These few words in reference to humus and moisture are stated in order to impress the student of the part he, as a farmer, must take in determining the prolificacy of his wheat crops, and that his management is really the essen- tial to success. Prolificacy may be inherent in the variety, but unless the conditions favorable to that quality are present, it is just as possible for the crop to give a fine yield, as it is for cows to yield a profitable return of butter or milk if the herd is kept in an enclosure with a straw stack, when, in the adjoining fields or in the silo and barn, there is an abundance of milk- producing food. Unless the wheat plant has the food in the soil avail- able, and the essential physical conditions are present, it can no more prove its worth than could the cows in the dairy herd under the conditions men- tioned. Hence it is not likely a variety of wheat will be produced that will meet the needs of speculative farming. Prolificacy mav be a great factor in a wheat, such as Stein wedel, yet from the exceedingly great loss by shedding its grain the returns from a crop of it may be too frequently unsatisfactory. Undoubtedly then such a wheat would be quite unsuited for windy localities. 442 Journal of Agriculture. [8 July, 1907. PnosPHATic Fertilizers. It was determined at this College that the phosphatic fertilizers were the most essential for the soils of this district, and the results obtained li\ Mr. A. N. Pearson and Dr. Howell, Agricultural Chemists, over a wide area of Victoria conclusively bore out this experience, and since that time the yielding powers of the northern soils have been considerably enhanced by the general use of this fertilizer in conjunction with bare fallows, especially in the driest parts, and with rape and such fodders in conjunction with sheep in the more favoured parts. The experiments car- ried out fourteen years ago illustrated the effect of phosphatic fertilizers in inducing early ripening, which was more marked when experimenting with Ijarley than Avith either w^heat or oats. The following are some rotations that fit most northern: conditions where sheep are kept to feed down the rape : — Wheat, grass. fallow with or without rape ; wheat, oats, grass, fallow with or without rape; or wheat, rape on stubbles, oats or barley, fallow. Under some conditions peas may enter into the rotation, and in course of time a higher system of management will be general. Where permanent pastures are desired top-dressing with fertilizers should be carried out. The Preparation and Crossing of Varieties of Wheat. The operation of crossing one wheat with another is a very simple one. The chief difficulties are: — fixing the type, and determining whether the variety has all the qualities that a good wheat should possess. The time for performing the operation is determined by watching the mother plant, and as soon as the stamens are showing in one or two plants, or the w-heat is flowering, the time for work is at hand, for wheat is a self-fertilizing plant hence one variety may be grown next to another without crossing, llie ear whose florets are intended to be fertilized is taken in hand before the anthers have burst, and just as they have the appearance of approach- ing maturitv, which is known by the deeper yellow colour. Previous to this they are of a light yellow and brittle, but when ripe the least squeeze and the anthers burst, and spread the pollen over the feathery stigma, which of course would spoil the floret for crossing purposes, and a new one must then be selected. By means of a fine pair of pliers or forceps, the three stamens, with the anthers intact, are taken out, sometimes in the one operation. The test pliers for the purpose are those that open when pressed, and shut immediately the pressure is off^. The accessories useful in carrying out the work are a seat that can easily be arranged near the plants, a stand to hold the note book, and few articles such as cotton wool, gauze, paraffin paper, soft thread and scissors. Every care should be taken to keep the point of the forceps free from the wrong pollen grains, hence the point should be well wiped with a piece of soft cloth or it should be clipped in benzine or spirits of wine kept in a small bottle. The seat and stand may be simply small flat pieces of wood sufficientlv strong fastened in the centre to a sound stick about 2 feet 6 inches long and pointed at the other end in order to drive it into the soil T use two old wickets that are iron shod ; on these are fixed the flattened parts, about 6 inches by 8 inches, to act in the one case as a seat, and in the other as a table for the above; articles. To one end of a piece of cord or tape the forceps are tied, the other end is fixed by a loop to a button or tied through a button hole to the vest, so that en releasing the forceps they are easily picked up again. 8 July, 1907.] ' //('(// (///(/ \\ l/caf-Brecdiui 443 The ear selected is first examined in order to determine if it has not al- ready been fertilized, or is too unripe. If ready the central florets of those to be fertilized are pulled out or cut off, which leaves more room for working at the outside florets. A little pressure on the ends of the pales, or what the farmers call chaff, and the floret opens. The three stamens may then be seen, and by the aid of the spring forceps the stamens are grasped and the slightest pull breaks them off with the anthers attached. If an anther bursts, of course this particular floret is spoiled and may be cut oa- broken off. A second floret is then operated on and so on until as many as are needed have been completed. The next operation is to pre- pare the ear from which the pollen to fertilize the stigmas of other florets is to be taken. This is simplv done by cutting with a pair of scissor? 67 » 9 ]0 SOME OF THE APPARATUS USED IN THE CROSS-FERTILIZING OF and 2. Emasculatinj,^ forceps. 3. Strong pair of forceps. 4. Pocket magnifying^ glass. 5. Scissors. 6. Ear of Medeah. 7. Ear of Bobs. 8 and q. Bobs prepared for cross-fertilizing; (8 shows where floret has been broken off owing to self-fertilization dnring the process of cross-fertilizing). 10. Florets wrapped around by cotton wool to prevent insects, &c., carrying the pollen from other wheats, ii. Fertilized florets with cap of butter-paper and fixed to a support. the tips of the florets, when, in a short time, if the pollen is ripe, the stamens appear. The anthers may be taken out similarly to the manner in which tho.se of the florets to act as the mother parts were emasculated. The pollen cases open at the top, hence if placed downwards in the pre- pared floret, the slightest pressure against the sides of the pales causes 444 Journal of Agriculture. [8 July, 1907. them to burst and dust the pollen srains over the feathery stigma ; thus fertilization is effected. Some experimenters gather pollen and dust it over the stigmas, but this is more troublesome than dusting from the anther direct, especially if there is the least breeze. In regard to densely packed ears it follows naturally that some of the rows of spikelets have to be removed in order to give room, and to prevent self-fertilization should the pollen in the variety to be made the father be not sufficiently ripe at the time of emasculating what are to be the mother florets ; for should there be any floret not emasculated the pollen from it would possibly find its way into those emasculated and spoil the work done. Personally I carry out the fertilizing as soon after emasculating as possible, though some- times it has been necessary to wait several days fox the pollen tO' ripen before fertilization could be effected. No florets but those worked on are allowed to remain, and I find that in order to check wind and insects from carrying pollen to the emasculated florets, a little strip of cotton wool wound around the operated ear is the best means of preventing fertilization. I cover the whole with a little gauze, or grease-proof paper if desirable. 1 found frequently that if a floret of oats or wheat were cut through half way down a grain would develop and in fact chance crosses were sometimes obtained. The cotton wool protects the emasculated florets well, allowing, owing to its elasticity, more room for expansion ; it filters the air from pollen grains, and allows moisture transpired to pass off readilv. A cap of waterproof paper of some kind is useful under some conditions, but here the climate is very favorable for the work. The operation of crossing wdieats is not a difficult one, and is well within the powers of women ; in fact, with their delicacy of touch and patience they should find the breeding of new varieties of cereals and flowers an interesting occupation, and a new field of useful work would be open to the intelligent woman. At harvest time the grains should be carefully gathered, labelled, and at sowing time planted singly in rows 2 feet apart and 8 inches to a foot apart in the rows in order that every characteristic of each individual plant may be studied, such as nature of early growth, the tillering properties, flag, straw, ear and colouring. The plants of the first cross during the first season do not vary as a rule much from the mother, but the second generation shows a. more or less wide variation of type according to the variations in the parents being many or few respectively. Thus Bobs or Medeah produced in one season from one ear of the second generation twenty-two different coloured or different shaped ears, six being bearded, the remainder being bald or with tip awns only. Of the six bearded seedlings one tended to become club-tipped and had the dark colouring of Medeah but not its solid straw, the second more nearly approached the Medeah type but was narrower and had straw not solid though more so than the first. Number three bearded had black awns like the others but the chaff on the whole was white except the extreme tips. Number four bearded had more the appearance of Bobs with chaff and awns cream coloured, whilst five had the dark awns. Number six was partly bearded, having the edges of the pales and glumes fringed with slate blue colour. The great difference between this ear and all the others was its tendency to branch like the Mummy wheat, though not to the same extent. The straw was fairly solid but not as much so as Medeah. Five of the bald selections were essentially of the Medeah type in colouring and six approached nearer Bobs in type but were splashed at the apex of the pales and glumes with the faintest dark markings ; the remaining five had no markings and took after Bobs in type, but all were 8 July, 1907.] Wheat and \N heat-Breeding. 445 more or less slightly tip-awned. The influence of Medeah was marked throughout, except that, as is mostly the case, the bald seedlings pre- dominated, as thev do as a rule whichever is selected as the mother, that is Bobs or Medeah — the former being perfectly bald and the other much bearded. In some few instances I have lost varieties apparently bv the want of pollination, only odd florets being fertile ; and lastly, none fertile, though a well formed ear has been developed. Of the twenty-two seedlings obtained from Bobs crossed with Medeah, only one was solid-strawed, and that a bald seedling. In the reverse cross of Bobs on Medeali there were, out of 34 different seedlings, two with quite solid straw, one a bald seedling, the other a bearded one. Another bald seedling was much more solid than the remaining ones. This is the usual experience that I have so far noted, viz. : — the hollow straws predominate in a cross between hol- low and solid-strawed varieties. The above applies to the crossbreds of the first variable generation in each case. There are other modifications during succeeding generations, and it is necessary to single out the types 1 I 7 ^1 4 I ITT SEEDLINGS OBTAINED BY CROSSING BOBS BY MEDEAH. B. Bobs. M. Medeiah. whose characteristics it is intended to fix. In some instances it is difficult to fix a variety, in others it is comparatively easy, much depending on the distinctions between the parents being many or few respectively, also whether in the individual seedling the elements of variability are such that there is what might be called a oneness of sympathy between the particular cells that give rise to a harmonious blending, for it sometimes happens that the type selected will not fix, but will die out ; at least it is an experi- ence I have had, and which other experiments may or may not confirm. Weak straws seem to predominate in varieties produced by crossing a weak-strawed prolific variety with a strong-strawed variety for the purpose of obtaining strong-strawed prolific varieties, but I have not carried out exhaustive tests in this direction, as a rule working only with early weak- strawed Indian varieties and with crosses from these. The sponginess of the straw of some thick coarse-strawed varieties is increased bv rapidity of 446 Journal of Agriculture . [8 July, 1907. grrnvth. and these do not generally stand against the wind and weather. There are other properties that are inherent in some coarse-strawed varie- ties that enable them to stand, whilst the ability of the strongest-strawed varieties to stand, as every farmer know'S, also depends on the cultivation, richness of the soil and the amount of moisture present. It has been stated that the bald wheats have the prepondering influence when crossed on or by a bearded variety. In the instances noted, Medeah on Bobs, six out of twenty-two different seedlings Avere bearded, and in the case of the reverse cross there were eight bearded forms out of thirty- four. Medeah is a Durum with longish, hard, dark, somewhat horny grains, dark awns, chaff mostly dark-coloured, compact medium-sized ears, long solid straw. Bobs has a small tapering bald ear with light-coloured PROGENY OBTAINED BY CROSSING MEDEAH WITH TRIPOLA. Upper Row — Pioj^'env of the I'olish type. Outside ears are the mother (M) and father. Lower Row — Progeny of the Medeah ty])e. chaff, small somewhat translucent light-coloured grain of fair hardness, and slender straw of medium length and fairly good strength. If we examine the grain from each of the seedlings of the above when crossed it is noticeable that almost every one of them is longer than Bobs and more approaching in characteristic Medeah, but is generally softer. A few were larger than Medeah with a more starchy character than either parent. The progeny took more after the horny character of Medeah ; however, had there been a better development, in a few instances there might have been others approaching more nearly the starchy tvpe. The colouring of 8 July, 1907.] lV//cat ami \V Jicat-Brccdiiig. 447 Medeah was strongly marked in three seedlings, fairlv strong in seven, slightly in four, and very slightly in eight, whilst twelve were not marked ; that is, out of thirty-four different seedlings of the cross Bobs on Medeah twenty-two had traces of Medeah colouring. In the reverse cross, Medeah on Bobs, sixteen out of twenty-two seedlings were marked with Medeah colouring and six were not. Most of the seedlings, in fact almost all, had close or fairly close ears, but where an open-eared variety is used most of the seedlings tend to acquire the same characteristic. The pre- potency of brown or red-chaffed varieties is stronger than the light-chaff varieties, and in the crossing of Tardent's Blue, a velvet chaff", on Tripola, a variety obtained by crossing IMedeah on Polish wheat, the velvet chaff was in evidence in ail the bald seedlings but not in the others ; however in most other cases the velvet chaff predominated, if one of the parents was a velvet-chaff varietv. Early Ripening. The ripening of the seedlings varied within several days of each other. Most of them ripened later than Bobs and a few after Medeah. I do not think that either parent dominates to a great extent. There are more individual plants earlier than the later ripening parent than there are after it and there are fewer seedlings that ripen earlier than the early ripening parent thani that ripen after it. Unfortunatelv the hot winds of November frequently spoil these experiments in earlv maturing bv ripening the straw in less than a couple of hours. Rust in Whex\t. One of the most rust-resistant varieties that I have grown is White Fife from Canada. It does not yield as well as the Purple Straw varieties, but it grows with a fine' clean straw of good length. Most of the wheats suitable to the Northern areas are subject tO' rust, though some are more rust-resistant than others. Bobs was fairly rust-resistant here but in the coastal districts it does not appear to Avithstand the disease. Medeah is also fairly rust-resistant and possibly one or two of the progeny may be also. Whether it is possible to produce a varietv that is absolutely rust-proof is a debatable question. It is possible to produce varieties practically rust-resistant for a district, but the same variety often becomes rustv when grown in another district where the conditions differ. The most rust- pesistant varieties here are those with clean bright straw in which the tex- ture appears close and not spongy. Possibly inherent in every plant there is a power of producing products that act as preservatives against disease and that when the conditions of climate are such that there is a diminution of the natural preservative the disease may begin to assert itself. At times, owing to the favorable conditions for the growth of rust, there is more chance for it making headway, and thus we find rust-resistant varieties more or less attacked bv it. Whether the smooth hard-strawed varieties are less subject to the attacks of rust than the coarse spongy varieties I am not in as good a position to observe as those in places where rust troubles are prevalent. The spontaneity of its attacks would almost make one consider that it was inherent in the plant ot resting in the humus of the soil waiting its chance to throw out the deadly spores. Conclusion. Noting from a fairlv long experience here, that over a series of years, the small-grained \arieties are as a rule not so prolific as the larger-grained 448 Journal of Agriculture. [8 July, 1907. ones, principally because of climatic conditions, I have paid more attention to producing strong-floured varieties with larger grain. My principal rea- son for this is that when a small grain is shrivelled, even a little, its market value seems to be very much reduced compared with that of a shrivelled large-grained variety. The climatic conditions of the wheat growing areas of Victoria are more favorable to the growth of the more starchy wheats, and the better the season the greater appears to be the percentage of starch compared with that of gluten. The Fife wheats such as Red Fife, White Fife, Stanley, Preston, and Percy are all small-grained, aind include some of the best Canadian strong-flour wheats. I have grown them for a few years but cannot say that on any occasion they have proved profitable compared with Purple Straw and the wheats of a similar nature. There was always too great a loss in winnowing, and much more so in grading. This applies to small-grained varieties in general. Where the climate is more equable this trouble would not appear, except during rusty years, but until millers pay for wheat according to quality and amount of gluten, the farmer will grow the most prolific saleable varieties. Occasionally we hear of millers giving threepence per bushel more for a strong-flour variety, but it is not generally done, and in course of time when the special wheat is grown oi^er a larger area, the price per bushel does not exceed that of a Purple Straw variety, which often is more prolific than the lietter quality wheat. No doubt the time will come when wheat will be sold in bulk lots on the test, and graded according to its bread-making properties as regards quality, and quantity of loaves made per sack of flour, or, in other woros the strength of its flour. I could scarcely close my notes without referring to the splendid work of the late Mr. William Farrer, of New South Wales. He died, as he wished, working to the last. He did an immense amount of patient and profitable work, and inspired a number of others to study the wheat i)rob- lem in its many aspects. My first association with him dates back fifteen or sixteen years ago, since when I have had the pleasure of carrying out numerous experiments in conjunction with him, some of the latest being in connexion with the effort to produce bunt-resisting varieties of wheat. Mr. Farrer 's great object was tO' produce a perfect wheat. I am endeavouring to achieve the same object, yet I find that without a testing-mill much of the work carried out at the College has to be confined to a narrower sphere than I desired, and fewer complete results are available. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS -confm«ed Mammitis. — Mai.lee Farmer writes : — " About a week ago I noticed that one quarter of a cow of mine was quite hard. It got harder and now it has broken out and smells very bad. "What is the matter with the cow?" Answer. — The ailment is "Mammitis" or inflammation of the udder, caused either through an injury or local chilling having been sustained by the udder. When the inflammation is acute, as indicated by heat and swelling and secretion of curdled milk, the best treatment is to apply warm fomentations accompanied by massage or hand-kneading of the udder for a period of 2 or 3 hours at a stretch. A slmiulating liniment .-.hould be rubbed in at least twice a day until recovery is effected. Obstruction in Throat. — H.S. asks (i) what is the best method of getting a potato out of a cow's throat? (2) How is " lampas " in horses cured? Answer. — (i) When a cow is chokmg from the presence of a potato or other such body in the gullet it depends on the situation of the obstruction as to what means should be adopted to remove it. If near the throat the potato may be extracted by the fingers through the mouth which is held open meanwhile by a gag. If further down the attempt should be towards push- ing it down into the stomach by external manipulation and by the use of a probang, stiff hose pipe or buggy whip handle. Before doing anything, an oil drench should be given so that the lining of tlie gullet may be well lubricated, and throughout great gentleness is necessary as the tissues are easily torn. (2) "Lampas" or swelling of the ginnbars behind the incisor teeth is a normal condition associated with and almost always present during dental changes. Unless the svNeJling is excessive it ought not t.-< be interfered with. In any case nothing more than lancing at two or three places with a sharp penknife should be attempted. " Bots." — Strezleckie asks (i) How the piesence of " bots " in horses ean be determined? {2) What crops should be grown to provide a full balanced ration for stock? (3) For any other information that will be helpful to a beginner. Answer. — (1) The presence of bots at this time of 3'ear can only be definitely ascertained by discovery of the pupa; or chrysalids in the manure. Curative treatment is of no value but with a view to prevention it is advisable to clip the long hairs from beneath the jaw and cover the clipped area with a piece of bagging. The "bots" leave the stomach each year of their own ucccrd. (2 and 3J. See article " the General I'urj'ose Farm " in the Chapter on " Closer Settlement Studies" [Year Book of Agriculture for 1905). Chapters on "Feeding of Farm Animals" and "Dairy Farming" in same volume should also be studied. SiL.'iGE. — Burwood asks whether cauliflowers, cabbages, and cape weed will make good ■silage. He also proposes to put in some u.o^^^- Answer. — Cabbages and others of the Brassica family, turnip, rape, &c., do not make good silage unless in the seeding stage. Cape weed should not be mcluded unless in comparatively small proportions. Gorse as a mixture with other fodder should give good results if only young shoots are used. Sxi.AGE blowers. — Heyfield in(|uires whether small blowers for attachment to silage cutters of a capacity of say 4 tons per hour and capable o[ being driven by a 4 h.p. steam engme are obtainable. Answer. — The only blowers on the market are either attached to, or form an integral part of, ensilage cutters imported from America. None of them works with much less than 10 brake horse power; but all will handle considerably over 4 tons per hour, running up to 20 tons per hour. Local makers are, however, experimenting with a machine on the Imes mentioned in the question. The ordinary cham and box elevator is cheap, costing £6 to £'& lor lengths of about 25 to 30 feet, and will handle over 4 tons per hour ; but it is not so portable as the blower. Plouching. — YouXG Farmer wishes to know how deep roots should be run in cleaning land and also what depth the ground should be ploughed. Answer. — Roots should be run to a depth of at le.^st 12 inches or until they can be broken by the hand. The depth of ploughing is governed by the nature of the soil, the kind of manure to be used and the length of time it can lie fallow. Generally speaking, 4 to 5 inches will be deep enough for the first turning up. ii^xcAVATiNG Tank. — Waitchie asks for surface dimensions and depth of an excavated tank having end slopes 6 to i, and side slopes 3 to i, with a capacity of 1,000 cubic yards. Answer. — The greatest depth feasible under such conditions is 7 feet and the dimensions of surface would be 92 feet by 92 feet. It is not advisable, however, to make such a tank. A tank 100 feet by 56 feet on top and 10 feet deep havinir 3 sides with a slope of 2 to i, and one watering slope of 4 to i will contain the required volume and conserve water with much less loss by evaporation. Specimens of Plants. — T.C. forwards specimens of plants for identification. Answer. — No. r is Erechtites quadridentata, DC, a native weed found over nearly all parts of Australia. One of the Compositse, allied to Senecio (Ragwort &c.), spread by its air- borne fruits, but apparently not a serious weed, though of no appreciable economic value. Sometimes but wrongly known as cotton weed. No. 2 is Pimelea stricfa, Meissn ("Rice flower"). A native shrub, having a certain decorative value, but no particular economic value apart from that. Moulting. — E. W. G. writes " My pullets, hatched in August and September, started to lay in March, but most of them are now moulting. The morning mash is composed of cabbage, apples, oil cake, bran and pollard and wheat is given in the evening." Answer. — It is not uncommon for pullets to moult late in the season, especially those that have laid heavily. Giving too much oil cake predisposes to moulting. Feed on 2 parts pollard and I part bran, with f to i oz. of animal matter per bird added ; 10 per cent, of raw on'ons cut finely should also be given, the whole to be mixed with hot water. Discontinue the oil cak^ as it is too fattening for laying hens or pullets. At night equal parts of short oats and wheat should be fed. Plenty of sharp grit should be provided. RGHlCUWUHflli CliflSSES, 1907. Arrangements have been made for opening Classes at tho undermentioned centres on the dates specified. The Course at each centre 'will last a fortnight, t-wo lectures and demonstii- tions being given each afternoon, and four limelight lectures during the Course, Kaniva ... July 9 Moorabbin ...August 12 Bendigo ••• „ 15 Seymour „ 19 Kyabram ... „ 22 Swan Hill ... Sept. 10 Sea Lake ... „ 31 Maldon „ 16 Tungamah ... August 5 Classes have already been held at Ararat, Ballarat, Beech- worth, Camperdown, Colac, Buroa, Inglewood, Korumburra, Mildura, Penshurst, Redesdale, St. Arnaud, Stawell, Terang, Traralgon, Warragul, and Yarram. MRIGUliTUHAL GOliliEOES. DOOKIE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. (About 18 Miles from Shepparton and Benalla.) The College offers every facility to students to become competent agriculturists, vignerons, and dairymen. The work is carried out on a large commercial scale, the ploughing, drilling, manuring, harvesting, threshing, and shearing being done by students under competent instructors. Over 2,000 sheep and lambs, 150 head cattle, 50 horses, including stallion, are on the farm. Fees — £28 5s. per annum. Scholarships.— Six : Value from £25 to £75. New Session begins first week in September, 1907. Applicants must be sixteen years of age or over. , - LONGERENONG AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. (S Miles from Horsham.) One aim of this institution is to fill in the gap between the State School and Uookie, i.e., to take students between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years. Resident students take both class and farm work. Non-resident students attend the College for class work only, on alternate days, their practical work being carried out on their fathers' farms or as apprentices on farms recommended or approv^ed of by the Council of Agricultural Education. j . , , The farm contains an area of 2,386 acres, and is admirably adapted for demonstrating what can be done in farming with irrigation. There is a large area of the farm under cultivation, and the orchard and vineyard cover an area of 30 acres. FEE.s^—Resident, £18 5s. per annum ; Non-resident, £5 per annum. Scholarship— One : Value, £25 per annum. • New Session begins first week in September, 1907. Applications to attend either of the above Colleges should be forwarded to the Secretary of the Council of Agricultural Education, Public Ofiaces, Melbourne, and offers of vacancies for students will be made in accordance with priority of application^ SILOS AND SILAGE. Vol. V. PRESENT DAY PROBLEMS. [Reyisterett at the PTCiieral Post Ottioe, MellionniH, for tratianiissinn bv Hn-t qs a New.si.,i|.. Part 8. PRICE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subscription -Victoria, Inter-State, and i;.Z,, 3,-; British and Foreign, 5/-.) THE JOUKNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 8 ^XJaXJST, ±oo^. CONTENTS. PASS Experimental Farms—No. 1, Wyuna ... ... A. S. Keinjon ... 449 The Elements of Animal Physiology — VIII.— Animal Heat .. ... ... ... "'■ A. 04wrne ... 462 Lameness in Horses — continued ... ... ■■. •"''. S. Cameron ... 468 Pit\h Convention of the Victorian Chamber of Agriculture, June, 19(J/ — I. —Present Day Problems of Agriculture ... .. T. Cherry ... 478 II. —Possil)ilities and Limitations of Veterinary .Science IT. T. Kendal L ... 484 III.— The Soil : Considered as the Farmer's Chief Asset F.E.Lee ... 490 Garden Notes-The Violet and the Pansy ... ... J. Crouin ... 494 The Proclaimed Plants of Victoria — The Chinese Scrub A. J. Eirart awl J. H. Tovejj ... 498 Orant to Agricultural Societies ... ... ... ... E. O. Duff us ... 498 Silos and Silage ... ... ... ... •■■ -L .*>'. Kenyon . . 499 Cheap Motor Power on the Farm ... ... ... J. M. B. Connor ... .'iOg Statistics — Rainfall in Victoria ... ... ... ... ... P. Barucchi ... 510 E.xports of Peiisliable ard Frozen Produce ... P. J. Carroll ... 511 Imports and Exports of Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, Crain, &c. J. (f. Turner ... 511 The Orchard ... ... ... ... ■•■ ... •/. Laug ... 512 Journal of Agriculture — Copyright Provisions and Sul)scription Rates in.nde front cover Answers to Correspondents ... ... ■•■ ■ inside front cover REGISTERED UNDER THE COPYRIGHT ACT 1890. SECTION 21. The Articles in the .Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected bj' the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapeis wishing to repjublish any matter contained in the Journal are at liberty to do so, prodded the u-iual acknowledf/ment is made. The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes [)ostage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and .js. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy Threepence. A limited number of the issues comprising Volumes II. (1903-4),' III. (191)5) — 10 parts each — and Volume IV. (1906) — 12 })arts— is at present in stock, and will be supi)lied at the foi-egoing rates. Subscri[)tions should be forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture, ^IcUiourne. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. Cool Ch.\mber. — Di.^mond Creek asks (i) The best way to make concrete walls for an underground cool cliamber watertight, the proper quantities of materials, size of stones, whether soft stone will answer; and what thickness should the concrete be for walls 8 feet high? (2) Which is the best explosive for blowing out old stumps of trees, and how placed? Answer. — (i) It is difficult to make any underground wall watertight in wet ground, unless of an impracticable thickness. A brick and cement wall, 9 inches thick, with a" 4^ inches wall some few inches in from it, and the space filled up with well-rammed tarred sand, should prove effective. If of cement concrete, make the wall 6 inches thick at to]) and 12 inches at the bottom, with flooring 6 inches thick. The article on "The Use of Concrete" in last month's Journal will give the rest of the rer|uired information. If by soft rock is meant a schist or sandstone working down into a cla\ey mud, it is not good enough. '■ 1) Rickarock, dynamite, gelignite, en blasting powder. Bore a hole about 2 inches in diameter belaw the butt into the parts where the roots branch out. Charge ^ to ^ lb. dynamite. Detonators and fuse are required. Great care has to be exercised in doing anv work by ex- plosives, and it is not recommended as especially economical for removing stumps. [Continued on inside back cover.) THG JOURNAI9 OF Tfie ©epartmenf of Agriculture. Vol. V. Part 8. 8th Aug>ust, 1907. EXPERIMENTAL FARMS. libp/ The Work at ^Vyuiia. BOTAf .4. 5. Kciiyon, C.E., Engineer for Agriculture. QAIte In 1905, the Lands Purchase and Management Board jjiirchased the Wyuna Estate from Messrs. Finlay Bros. Its area is, in round figures, 22,500 acres, and it includes almost every variety of soil tvpical of the Goulburn Vallev. The best land, amountiniT to about one-half, is timljered THE HOMESTEAD. ::rwith box with occasional sandy ridges growing Murray pines. The plain , land IS of the usual character,' a fine but shallow surface soil of a sandv -~f,nafure, a sub-surface soil to about eighteen inches below the surface and a 86.^.=). P 45° Journal of Agriculture. [8 August, J907. stiff, cold, uninviting, red clay sub-soil from that depth downward. A similar description applies to the timber soil, although it is, on the whole, somewhat freer and less clayey. Analyses show about the average pro- portions of plant foods for our Northern areas, a striking feature being the apparent equality in this respect of the surface and sub-surface soils, though it is a well recognised fact that the ploughing in of the surface and bringing up of the sub-surface soil mean ruin to the producing quality of the land. Whether these stores of plant food in the sub-surface soil are capable of being made available is another matter and will not be dwelt upon here. The following are the typical analyses of the Wvuna soils and the average of the Northern areas. Wyuna Soils. Parts per 100,000. Timbered Land. From surface to 6 inches depth From (j inches to 12 inches deptli From 12 inches to )8 inches depth From 18 inches to 24 inches depth Plain Laud. From surface to 6 inches depth From 6 inches to 12 inches depth From 12 inches to 18 inches depth From 18 inches to 24 inches depth 96 71 88 55 71 95 64 48 Phosphoric Acid. 66 67 68 81 52 58 52 64 Potash. Lime. 459 174 918 166 1,080 182 1,060 290 261 134 614 218 1 609 190 1 568 686 i Chlorine. 9 14 5 14 Average Northern Soils. Surface Sub-soil 100 75 60 45 4.50 800 1 00 3,000 4 10 9 7 12 The Estate, with the exception of a few blocks let upon the share system for wheat growing, was devoted to wool raising and carried nearly one sheep to the acre. After its acquisition bv the Board, the Estate was divided into 141 lots, 12 of about 20 acres for agricultural labourers, 24 of about 100 acres for orchards, and 105 for farms varying from 100 acres to 442 acres, averaging under 200 acres each. With the exception of a portion near the River Goulburn, and subject, at times, to flooding, the whole estate is suitable for irrigated culture, the country being generally flat with a gentle north-westerly fall. It is situated within the area to be supplied with irrigation water "by the Goul- burn-Waranga national scheme of water supply. It was at once seen, that with areas of land averaging from one-third to one-fourth of those of the surrounding farmers, different methods of farming would have to be followed, and the Government took steps to reticulate the estate with the most complete and systematic scheme of channelling yet adopted in Victoria with a view to" providing irrigation supplies to each block and in volumes permitting of a considerable propor- tion of irrigated culture. The supply to this system of channels is to be drawn from the main eastern channel from the Waranrra Basin ; this channel is, unfortunately, not }et complete enough to afford a supply of 8 August, 1907.] Experimental Farms. 451 water. Meanwhile, a somewhat uncertain supply is being derived from the channels of the Rodney Irrigation District. Although irrigation had already proved successful in the Goulburn Valley, it was either in associa- tion with small areas under intense culture or with large areas relying upon it to a small extent only. Here at Wyuna with over 100 settlers on moderate sized farms who would have to depend principally upon irri- gation for their returns a new problem presented itself, and the Minister of Water Supply, the Hon. Geo. Swinburne, M.L.A., decided upon a notable departure, viz., the establishment of a Government Farm where the feasibility and profitableness of working such small areas could be demonstrated. In fhe initiation of any new method, in Agriculture as in any other pursuit, work must be at the outset largely experimental. Now it is not for the individual to undertake experimental work. It is not a fair burden for the individual ; he is not as a rule fitted either by temperament or by training for such work ; the cost of the failures, inevitable in any new departure, is considerable ; and more important, the results are not avail- able for the general public. The experimental farm is absolutely necessary to the prosperity of irrigated culture. Nor can the bogey of State Socialism be successfully raised, the cost and the benefits in such a case being shared by the whole community. There is no country in the world where nature has bestowed her gifts of fertile soil and perfect climate with a more lavish hand than in Vic- toria. Yet these bounties are not to be obtained without hard work. To cause arable lands to unlock their stores of wealth, many questions have yet to be asked and answered. The proper rotation of crops, the selection of improved \arieties of seeds, the times for sowing, the methods and thoroughness of tillage, the values and suitabilities of manures, the breeding of stock, the selection of dairy cows, the improvement of pastures, the perfecting of dairy and butter factory methods, ,are but a few of the problems besetting the farmer. After giving him all the praise for the strides he has made, not only as compared with past methods in this State but with present methods in other countries, it must be admitted that there is still much to learn. In the Northern areas and to some extent in the South, the full use of the land can only be made by means of irrigation. Experimental farms and plots conducted under Government supervision are urgently needed for the investigation of all agricultural problems. The experts attached to the Department of Agriculture have then a chance to demonstrate the practicability of their own ideas and proposals as well as to investigate suggestions of others. The Agricultural Colleges and Schools cannot efiiciently carry out such work and at the same time successfully perform their own particular functions. In short the establishment of farms for enquiries undei practical working conditions into new methods of agriculture are essential to maintain our present high position in production and to take the fullest advantage of great natural resources. It must, however, be remembered that as Rome was not built in a day neither can reliable results be obtained at once in experimental work. Whether in the field, in the cultivation paddock, or in the stalls, results must necessarily be subject to frequent revision and alteration; the factors of_ soils, seasons, and markets being so variable that long series of experiments giving average results are called for. It is now time, however, to return to our immediate subject, the Government Farm at Wyima. An area of 540 acres including the Home- stead block and one adjoining on the west — allotments 3 and 6, section 45- Joiirnal of Agriculture. [8 August, 1907. A, Parish of Tongala — was reserved from applicants and transferred to the Minister of Agriculture bv the Lands Purchase Board. The total value was set down at ;^3,79o, a little over ^^7 per acre including improvements; these were valued at ^1,000, giving an unimproved value of ^5 3s. per acre. Operations on the farm are directed bv the Engineer for Agri- culture under the supervision of an Advisorv Board consisting of Dr. Cherry, Director of Agriculture (Chairman), and Messrs. G. Pagan, irrigationist and farmer, Ardmona, and W. Orr, grazier and farmer, Shepparton. The direct management of the farm is in the hands of Mr. G. H. Tolley, formerly manager of the Mildura Irrigation Companv. an expesrienced and practical horticulturist, and a well trained engineer and surveyor, who was for many years engaged in the actual laving out of many of our larger irrigation and water storage Avorks. Besides managing the farm itself, his services are available for settlers in lavinij out their CLEARING OPERATIONS. Pulling down trees with the engine. land for irrigation distribution and for general advice. It will be ad- mitted that the representation of local interests and experience on the management by the appointment of two of the most successful farmers on the Goulburn is a step in the right direction and one that should be repeated in connexion with future establishments. The objects of the farm are, as previouslv stated, mainlv to show the profits to be made by working small areas under irrigation. It was at once recognised that the groAving of foodstuffs for man, mainly fruit, had already been proved at Mildura, Rodnev, and elsewhere to an extent that left little room for improvement. Besides, the problem was the working of small farms and the farmer is rarely a success as an orchardist, the two avocations not being, as a rule, easilv worked in conjunction. There remained then the growing of fodder for consump S August, 1907.] Kxferimeiital Farms. 453 tion by stock. It was held by the Department and by the Advisory Board that for small areas the most. profitable method of disposing of the fodder raised by tillage atld irrigation would be its feeding to dairy cows, the product of which in cream, and the by-products in calves and pigs, would return the farmer his income. The main object, therefore, of the farm is the raising of the greatest amount of fodder which the land and water will permit, and its disposal, by means of the cow, as animal products, butter, meat, &c. Throughout all operations, however, the question is put at each turn, Will it pay ? and any work, the profitable- ness of which is not beyond question is treated as an experiment, its cost charged to a separate account and the farm debited with the yields. It is hoped, therefore, to present farm operations and accounts in a practical form, so that the farmer may apply the lesson to his own case. Mr. Pagan, in an address to the Wvuna Progress Association on the possi- CLEARING OPERATIONS. The trees pulled down showing the butts ilragged clear of the holes. Inlities of small irrigated blocks, ga\e such practical advice that it is worth reproducing. He said, " In his opinion, holdings of ico acres of good land, with irrigation, were sufficient for a man and his familv to make a living. That area was certainly ample to start on. He would advise that as a beginning 40 acres be put in with wheat and if the land had been fallowed previously or cultivated, to sow lucerne with it. If new land, then the settlers would have to wait another year for the lucerne. His idea was that lucerne was the best crop. It was the thing to make small areas pay. Then 10 acres should be devoted tO' other crops such as Cape barley, a most excellent winter fodder, a crop one could cut and cut again. On the land which had grown barley, a crop of maize ot ambercane could be raised for the summer, making two crops off each one piece of ground. An acre or an acre and a half of mangolds should not be forgotten. It was a magnificent yielding crop and did 454 Journal of Agriculture. [8 August, 1907. the ground good, but it required heavily manuring, particularly stable manure. Then 10 acres should be devoted to buildings and yards, bull paddock, calf paddock, and pig paddock. A small orchard and some vegetables should be grown, if only for home use. He had totted up results for the first year's operations, for the financial results were the main thing after all. Of course, he had estimated for everything going on well and smoothlv. The wheat should return ^^loo, to cows grazed on the 40 acres of grass left after cropping, etc., as advised, should bring in ;^ioo, pigs and calves he reckoned out at ^50. That gave a total of ^£250 for the first vear. He admitted it was pretty high, but believed it capable of attainment. Xow for the second year. Wheat and lucerne sowing should proceed until all available land was under it. He advocated sowing w^heat with the lucerne because it gave immediate returns. Well, for the second year he would put in another 40 acres of wheat and lucerne. The other crops might be the same as in the pre- vious year, not forgetting the mangolds. Manuring must not be forgotten and stable manure should be particularly looked after, as it was much better than any chemical manures. The returns might be with favorable conditions — wheat ,-/^ioo. 15 cows. ^£150, calves ^£$0, pigs ^^50 or ^350 in all. The farm would then consist of 80 acres of lucerne divided into- 10 paddocks with 20 acres devoted to barley, ambercane, mangolds, buildings and yards. The lucerne paddock should be ploughed up say, every eight years. The size of the paddock recommended was 10 acres, which would allow one paddock tO' be ploughed up each year. The ground would be too rank for wheat but was splendidlv suited for oats or barley, which could be made into ensilage. In the third year he would increase the number of cows to 30 and would give up growing grain and go in simply for fodder — barlev, oats, lucerne, ambercane, maize, mangolds — • all food for cows and calves. The returns for the third year should come to — cows ^300, calves ^100, pigs ^100, a gross amount of ;^5oo. People would think the amount set down for calves prettv stiff. There should be 30 calves and the general idea of value of poddies was 20 or 30 shillings. He had seen yearlings sold from ^4 to ^5 at 15 months old. He thought these figures could be reached bv all, and that his estimate was reasonable. He would hand feed the calves, using hav or ensilage. They should not be kept too long. He was of opinion that calves were a good asset, and bv breeding pigs he reckoned ^100 could be got. He thought the total of ^500 from the 100 acre holding was good enough. As to irrigating there were two different systems, the first for lucerne and the second for mangolds and similar crops. For lucerne he advocated flooding the .surface. The land should be marked out into certain widths, say two to three chains, with channels along the side. The strips should if possible follow the run of the country. The main channel should cut across and supply the smaller channel. With this system almost any kind of ground could be watered. On small holdings he would not have lands too wide. He thought two' chains the most in those cases. He did not advocate grading, but would use the leveller for filling up crab holes, etc. For mangolds, furrow irrigation was necessary. In this, he used short lengths of say i in. pipe put through the bank. They governed the amount of water running into the furrow and one could go away easy in mind after setting all tlie furrows knowing that things Avould be all right on return. He used the Planet junr. cultivator or an orchard plough to make the furrows. There was great benefit in small outlets. S August, 1907.] Expcrimoiial Farms. 455 He sowed 8 lbs. lucerne seed to the acre in the autumn, towards the end of April being the best time. He sowed broadcast, using the drill with the tubes taken off. Mangolds should be planted in September, the best varieties being the Long Red and Yellow Globe. The seed should not be sown deep and it was better to steep it in water for 24 hours allowing it to dry enough to run freely through the drill before sowing. It would show up in a week but would require watering three times in a season or oftener on a small patch. Land for mangolds should be well cultivated, the disc harrows being the best for the purpose. The width between the drills should be 2 ft. 6 in. (or 2 ft. 8 in. sowed with the drill, the sowing to be as light as possible). As to the best autumn or winter grass for dairying, he favoured prairie grass, although the results would not be great. A better plan was to put in Cape barley. If sO'Wn in March, it would be ready in June, and it suited cows better than anything else. Lucerne hay made a good winter feed. For small holdings, he advocated feeding by hand. It took work, but it paid. He advocated a cross between Ayrshires and either Shorthorns or Here- fords. Better calves were obtained from the fattening breeds. Lucerne should not be sown on the waterlogged parts of the plains, but on the red light land it was safe enough. Lucerne could be cut three or four times in a season. He had heard of six. It grew very quicklv ; three weeks after being eaten down and then watered, it was ready for another •cutting. There was a risk in feeding cows on lucerne when it was too young. It should be in full bloom before the cattle were turned in, but for small holdings he urged cutting. Maize should be sown in October in drills 2 ft. 6 in. apart, as it had to be cultivated." Settlement of the Wvuna Estate under the provisions of the Closer Settlement Act commenced on the ist of March, 1906, and the work of the farm commenced forthwith, and is being developed simultaneously with that of the settlors. With few exceptions the original purchasers are still in possession of their holdings and have made great progress in reducing them to good farming condition and effecting permanent and substantial improvements and are enthusiastically and intelligently striv- ing after success. The community as a whole will be one of contentment provided that there is an ample supplv of water, a generous treatment in the matter of instalments of payments for the first few years and ample school facilities. No statistics of areas cultivated or permanent impro\ements made, have been collected, but upon their completion there will be room for general satisfaction. Owing to the lateness of the season when operations began and to the abnormal rains the areas sown were small and the results poor. This season the rains have been very light, causing considerable difficulty in breaking up and preparing the land ; nevertheless a much larger area is under crop and showing good growth and a soaking rainfall now would leave little to be desired as regards the prospects of the coming season. While the farm mav have been admirably adapted for working from a sheep farming point of view, it required and still requires a great deal of remodelling to make it suitable for the purposes of an Experi- mental Farm. It was amply provided with buildings with the exception of those pertaining to dairying ; this defect is being remedied as fast as convenient. A number of existing buildings and fences have been dis- mantled or removed and utilized in other places and a system of sub- dividing into small working paddocks commenced. As far as possible the fences are being made square to the farm boundaries. All the 4 5^ J(h'ir//al of Agricultun [8 August, 1907. buildings that are being retained have been renovated and painted ; a 60-ton silo has been erected, a temporary cowshed adapted, and the framework of a modern cowshed tO' accommodate 22 cows is finished. Besides the fencing of paddocks for crops, a horse paddock of 12 acres, pig paddock of 4 acres, calf paddock of 4 acres, and bull paddock of 5 acres, are complete and so arranged as to admit of further subdivision as occasion arises. The old station orchard has been uprooted and an area of about i acre graded and planted with most varieties of the best fruit trees and vines, and half-an-acre devoted to vegetables, nursery, and experimental purposes. The ornamental side of gardening is represented bv a series of small flower beds and lawns interspersed with a little rustic work. At starting, the principal cultivated paddock of 150 acres was hand cleared of standing dead timber ; the logs suitable were converted into fencing and building material. The residue was hauled by means of the traction engine and sledges to a depot and stacked for future use. CULTIVATING Ui'LRAl 10.\h. Ploughing by steam. Elleven mould board furrows. a saw bench for that purpose having Ijeen installed ; a further area of 30 acres of similar standing timber was dealt with by the engine, the operation of pulling down and removing bodily from the holes lasting three days and involving a little more than the labour of three men, or a cost of ^3 as against a contract rate for similar work of ^18. The area fallowed comprised 140 acres of the cleared timber paddock, 88 acres of which were sown broadcast with a mixture of about 4 lbs. Dwarf Essex rape and \ \h. mustard per ^cre, one half the area being manured with 56 lbs. superphosphate per acre and the remainder unmanured ; the balance — 52 acres — was bare fallow only but was several times worked with double disc harrows. Although the rape was sown so late as Sep- tember, favorable rains resulted in a splendid growth especially on the manured portion. This was eaten down by a flock of 320 ewes and lambs which realized very satisfactory prices at the Melbourne sheep sales. Soon after they were gone another fair rain occurred resulting in 8 August, 1907.] Ex-perl mental Farms. 457 a splendid even growth over the whole paddock and it became one of the sights of the district. It was visited by numerous practical farmers and information has been continually sought as to methods pursued. The main object in sowing this crop was for the benefit of the root action on the soil for future operations, but it became necessary at Christmas time to secure 200 wethers to assist the cows to eat it down. The sheep when fat were sent to Melbourne and realized about their cost, the market being depressed. During and after this period the bare fallow was thoroughly worked and graded and eventuallv sown to lucerne in various weights per acre, with and without manure and cover crops and broadcast and in drills of varying widths. The cover crops are wheat and oats and are sown both in the same and in alternate drills and the whole area is showing a very even growth. When the rape was nearly eaten off the engine was set to work to plough and, drawing 11 furrows, achieved highly satis- factory results at a very moderate cost. To show the condition of the ground a neighbour found it impossible to work a full day with 6 horses in a 2-furrow plough. The engine could have been loaded with another 4 furrows had such been available ; as it was, the cost came out at less than half of that of horses. Had it not been for stumps the work may be said to have been perfect. This area is now sown to wheat, oats, barley, and prairie grass for grain and silage purposes and is showing a good even spring, but like the rest of the district sorelv re- quires a good soaking subsoil rain. Forty-four acres of plain land were fallowed to rape and, though not giving so good a result as the timber land, yet yielded good pasturage. This has now been ploughed in and a crop of Federation wheat sown in various quantities both of grain and manure, the manures being superphos- phate and Thomas' phosphate either alone or mixed. This paddock is also showing a good germination, and with favorable weather conditions should yield w^ell. Thirty-two acres of old cultivation land were sown to Algerian oats and manured with 84 lbs. superphosphate. Circumstances caused the sowing to be late and the crop was very dirty. This when cut vielded 6 tons of hay and 5-:^ tons of silage. The paddock has since been ploughed and worked and 5 acres sown to Dun peas (2 bushels per acre), 12 acres to a mixture of rape and peas, and the balance to rape only for grazing off. Fifteen acres of plain adjoining the homestead were .sown to wheat under the same disadvantages as the previous paddock, and yielded abouf 5 tons of hay and 15 tons silage. Subsequently the land was worked and graded and a maize crop of 5 acres sown, but inability to get water for irrigation when required prevented this being a success and it was eaten off by the cows. The paddock was worked again and sown to 5 acres of Algerian oafs and 15 acres Cape barley for silage purposes; the latter is showing verv fair promise. Eight acres of land were sown for experimental ^nurposes in 2 -acre lots with maize, sorghum, Kaffir corn and millet, but the yield was small owing to lack of water. With an acre plot of amber cane sown elsewhere 18 tons of silage were made. The plot has now been worked again and graded preparatory to sowing mangolds and tick beans. Four acres of the old pig paddock were sown experimentally with amber cane, cow peas, soy beans and mangolds. A fair amount of fodder resulted from the cow peas ; the soy beans were attacked and destroyed bv aphis, the amber cane was treated as above, the mangolds yielded a very henvy and profitable crop and are a grand fodder for cows and pigs. The 458 Journal of Ai^riciiltiirc. [8 August, 1907, plot was the subject of much interest and enquiry and it is certain quite an impetus has been given to growing mangolds in the district. A small plot of land treated heavily with stable manure wall yield surprising results and a quantity of the very best fodder when the dairy farmer most wants it. It is easy to grow and to harvest and requires abundance of water and cultivation. The farm pigs have had little else since the mangolds were fit to pick and are in good killing condition. On I acre devoted to fruit trees and vines a few misses occurred, otherwise the tree growth is satisfactory. A careful selection of the best commercial fruit trees suitable to the locality was planted and it is hoped to demonstrate the capabilities of the district as a first rate fruit pro- ducer. The vegetable garden has been a great success and always carried a wealth of succulent growth of all the best varieties. A patch of lucerne ( i acre) was sown, but lateness, grasshoppers, and want of water pretty well ruined it ; it wall be replanted. An experi- ment of sowing lucerne at various depths was tried in the garden. A plot of land was prepared and manured and 6 drills sown at depths- HRICKMAKING. The engine running the plant. of \, I, i|, 2, 2|, and 3 inches respectively. It was then watered and received no further treatment afterwards. The first 5 rows came up simultaneously, the last 3 days later, and the most successful growth is in those rows planted 2 inches and 2| inches deep. This must not be taken conclusively, as apart from the soil being richer than usual, the slugs and grasshoppers had their say. Upon starting the farm a herd of 21 cows, mostly Ayrshire strain, was purchased, the services of Mr. S. S. Cameron, the Chief Veterinary Ofiicer, being enlisted ; at the beginning of the year 26 additional cows were obtained. Two shorthorn bulls were added, one of which has since been dispensed wnth. The pedigree of the present one is as follows: — Hayle, Duke of Pentland, calved 27.6.05, by imported milking shorthorn Hayle Duke (Champion Melbourne Show 1903 and 1905) out of Jessamine II. (Champion Melbourne Show, Milking Shorthorn, 1905; record 62 lbs. ^ August, 1907.] Expenniciital /• arms. 459 milk per day for 9 weeks after calving). From this it will be seen that the Ayrshire-Shorthorn cross is aimed at. So far the progeny con- sists of 35 calves 12 of them being heifers. The whole herd is in first rate condition and only i cow has been lost. The average number milking has been 20 and the yield has averaged throughout slightlv ■over li galls, per cow daih . The daily yields are all tabulated and the milk from time to time tested with a Babcock tester, the use of which is available to settlers. Cream is also tested as a check against the Butter Factory which is local and co-operative, and no discrepancies have yet arisen. From the beginning of the vear the milking cows have had a daily ration of 40 lbs. of silage which they eat with avidity. The silage has from time to time been varied with mangolds, cow peas, growing maize, and similar crops, and the pasture has been rape and natural grasses. It is the practice to rug all the milkers. It is the intention to largely increase the herd when the season's crops are gathered. BRICKMAKING. Operations at the wire cut machine. Turning out 9,000 bricks per day. to establish milking machines and to erect an up-to-date dairy and provide motive power for its working. The results from 6 of the best cows are as follow: — Total lbs. £ X. (/. Amy — ^lilkint ++ weeks . .. 6,040 ... A verage per day, i9i Iks. Test 3-8 10 9 0 Brindle ,, 40 .. 6,q8o ... ,, ,, 23i „ ,, 4-4- 13 =; 6 Nellie ,, 38 .. 5,320 ... ,, , , 20 ,, ,, 5-2 ID 12 0 Rose ,, 37 .. 5,310 ... II 11 2oi ,, ,, 4.0 9 14 6 Snowy ,, 44- .. 6,310 ... 11 II 20i „ 4.4 12 14 6 Topsy 37 ■ 5.700 ••• • I II 22 ,, ,, 4-1 I I 8 6 The value of the butterfat has been set down at iid., the average re- turn received for the vear. A small herd of pigs is kept and has proved nearly all profit. New styes and yards have been designed ; upon their completion and fodder 460 Journal of Agriculture. [8 August, 1907. being available a pedigree boar will be purchased, and the raising of pigs undertaken seriously. Poultry raising is also to be undertaken in the forthcoming year, and yards and shelters are about to be erected. A feature of the farm will be the planting of shade and ornamental trees, and about 500 will be set out this season. A wire cut brickmaking plant driven by the traction engine and capable of turning out 9,000 bricks per day has been installed. The bricks will be largely used for building and paving and will also be available to settlers at cost price. The first kiln will be ready for burning shortly. The actual cost is so low, the clay being excavated by plough and scoop and the fuel being obtained from clearing operations, that they will be used for all building operations. The cost Avill he about the same as weatherboard and considerablv less than timber and iron. A first-rate set of farming implements has been provided on the farm. These have been made available to settlers at a low charge and made much use of. Great satisfaction has been expressed with the tools used for grading and ditching and also with the double disc harrows, spike roller, and disc seed sower. The most important machine on the farm has proved to be the traction engine. The greater part of the ploughing and of the clearing, besides all cartage, has been done by it. It has also run the brickmaking plant, saw bench, chaff and silage cutters, cen- trifugal pump, and numerous smaller jobs. The fact that a team of four horses has been sufficient to do the rest of the work speaks volumes for the use made of the engine, which was bought wnth the principal object of giving a thorough test to an efficient system of subsoiling. Experiments in this direction will be made during the coming summer, as it is not considered advisable to subsoil while much moisture is pre- sent as there would be considerable risk of " puddling " and injury to the land. Gradually the farm is being reticulated with a system of supply and distributory channels fitted with drops, stops, and sluices to efi^ectively regulate the flow of irrigation water. In other places drains are to be cut to relieve swampv patches. A tank having a capacity of 7,000 cubic yards has been constructed to act as a standby for irrigating adjacent land should there be any failure in supply from the channels. The silo erected is of 60-tons capacity, and has proved the standby of the farm. It was filled mostly with a crop of w-ild oats and finished off with about 10 tons of wheat all cut in a green state. After it had been used for a depth of 11 feet, 5 feet of maize, sorghum, amber cane, Kaffir corn and millet were siloed and immediately used for feeding. Upon first filling the silo, the contents were covered wath about a foot of old straw and a cloth made from old bags. On that bags of earth weighing about 4 tons were added and remained for five weeks. The silo was then opened and feeding the cows began forthwith. The sample was excellent and remained so from start to finish ; about 2 inches around the edges were somewhat discoloured but there was absolutely no waste. Very few of the cows wanted asking more than tw-ice before becoming ravenous for silage, and the silo soon became their Mecca. A Xo. 2 chaffcutter was used for chaffing the silage with a cut of half-an- inch. An ordinarv chain elevator was run with a belt from the machine and the whole driven bv the traction engine. Once in order the plant ran very sweetly and it would have been quite possible to fill the silo in 3 days or perhaps less if strength had been available for carting the crops from the field. However, longer time was made the rule in order 8 August, 1907.] /•'..xpcriijiciifal Farms. 461 that the silage might have effective trampling. Like the implements the chaffcutter and engine are available for settlers who may erect silos. The silo has created much interest and many farmers from far and near have inspected and expressed their intention to have a silo at the earliest possible moment. In addition to the cropping operations mentioned, the programme for the ensuing season includes among other things the erection of an up-to- date dairy, with boiler ajid turbine separator, milking machines, and motive power, brick pigstyes and accessories, calf pens and shelters, cattle shelters, wire netted boundary fence and subdivision fences. A combined corn-crusher and mangold cutter and a seed grader are also being installed. The rainfall for the past twelve months has been as follows : — 1906. July 13 Auj lb ^3 28 30 18 23 25 27 28 31 3 6 14 19 28 •03 .70 • -13 .11 .07 • -^7 .11 = 1.42 .1 1 . .07 . .06 . .40 . .09 .20 .10 .10 . .67 = 1.80 ■ -43 . .OS . .86 . .48 • -23 .20 • -79 I 906. Oct. 1907. Feb. Nov. 24 30 3 4 5 14 19 29 30 •30 .18 •13 .29 .02 = Mar. Apr. •53 = .71 • -53 .02 ■ -3^ = •Q3 2-52 ■03 .12 .02 1.40 .40 .08 •25 .27 .42 .05 = 3.04 23 29 May 24 •43 .61 .06 .02 •05 .10 =: 1.2- .12 •OS •75 .02 = ■94 June Dec. II 24 31 •03 •59 •03 •03 = .68 •45 ■49 1907. Jan. 15 16 Total •63 .19 •05 .21 •05 .04 .04 = i.ai ... 18.12 and meets A Progress Association has been formed on the settlement regularly once a month in the farm barn, and the attendances are large and growing. Its objects are chiefly to promote co-operation, to assist in every movement likely to benefit the settlement, and to promote social intercourse. Organized bodies for the acquirement of accurate and up- to-date information on agricultural matters are as necessary to the farmer as the experimental farms, for in such associations the results obtained on the farms can be demonstrated and discussed. A pleasing feature of the Progress Association Meeting has been the lectures and demonstrations given by departmental officers, including Dr. Cherry (Director of Agri- culture), Mr. S. S. Cameron (Chief Veterinary Officer), Mr. F. E. Lee (Agricultural Superintendent), Mr. R. T. Archer (Dairy Expert), Mr. H. V. Hawkins (Poultry Expert), and Mr. G. H. Tolley (Farm Manager.) Much appreciation as well as some candid criticism has been expressed by the progressive farmers who have visited the farm. The visitors have in fact been so numerous that a considerable portion of 462 Journal of Agrictdture. [8 August, 1907. the manager's time has been taken up in showing them round and ex- plaining methods. It must not be imagined, however, that visitors are unwelcome ; the main object of the farm is to demonstrate certain things, and inspection will teach more, far more, than mere printed reports. Consequently visitors are always welcome. It cannot be said that the past year's operations have yielded much from an irrigation point of view. Inabilitv to obtain water at the right time precluded useful experiments. What has been done, however, is .to show the settlers the value of rape and mangold crops, the use of silage and its advantages, the preparation of land for irrigation, and utility of a traction engine upon a farm with operations big enough to justify its employment. The manager has proved himself in this first year an indefatigable and practical worker, a keen enthusiast as to the results of irrigation, and has evinced much tact in arousing the interest of the settlers on the estate. To him much of the success which is confidently anticipated will be due. THE ELEMENTS OF ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. W. A. Osborne, M.B., D.Sc, Professor of Physiology and Histology, Dean of tJie Faculty of Agriculture in the University of Melbourne. {Continued from page 346.) CHAPTER VIII. Animal Heat. It has long been recognised that from the stand-point alone of tempera- ture animals can be divided into two great groups. The popular terms for these groups namely cold-blooded and warm-blooded are based upon very profound differences, but they are not too well chosen, fo' a so-called cold-blooded animal, say, a snake, may occasionally have a temperature exceeding that of a so-called warm-blooded animal, say a man or a horse. The true distinguishing point is this that, in one class, the temperature of the animal is never far removed from the temperature of the environment, and that it varies within wide limits and parallel with the changes in temperature to which the animal is exposed. The temperature of such an animal is in fact determined by the temperature of the environment in which it lives. Such an animal we may call an animal of variable tem- perature or, to use the technical adjective, a poikilothermal animal. But when we examine a bird or a mammal we find that its temperature varies within extremely narrow limits, is independent of ordinarv changes in en- vironment and has a marked tendency to remain constant. Birds and mammals are therefore constant-temperature animals or homoiothermal. The homoiothermal animals by virtue of their constant temperature possess manv advantages over the poikilothermal. It has already been stated that the activities of all cells increase or decrease as the temperature of the cells rises or falls. Thus it is that a lizard is active on a warm dav but 8 August, 1907.] Elements of Animal Physiology. 463 sluggish on a cold one. The vitality of such a creature is constantly changing with the weather and the animal has but feeble powers of resisting extremes of temperature. A homoiothermal animal on the other hand can remain uniformly active despite extensive changes in climate or season and is not compelled on the onset of cold to abate one jot of its activity ; on the contrary, for a reason we shall shortly see, it is actually stimulated by cold to more energetic movements. The temperature of a mammal or bird is never absolutely constant ; it shows distinct oscillations, but these oscillations are small and within fairly fixed degrees of temperature. The temperature of a man at 6 o'clock in the evening is generally about if degrees* F. higher than that taken shortly after midnight, but the average temperature remains remark- ably constant. When we speak therefore of the normal temperature of a man or any other mammal we mean a temperature which lies well within the daily range of oscillation in health. Thus the normal temperature of a man is given as 98.4 F. in England, but as 98.9 F. in Germany; both are right for both are within the daily range of rise and fall. Another difficulty in giving a fixed value to the temperature of a homoio- thermal animal is the fact that all parts of the body of the same animal have not the same temperature. Stated generally the more central organs are warmer than those nearer the surface, the maximum being found in the blood flowing from the fiver. As a rule the readings of a thermometer placed in the rectum may be accepted as giving a good idea of the internal temperature of an animal. The following values may be taken as approxi- mately correct for the normal rectal temperatures of various domestic 101.7 F. 107 — 109 108 — no 107 109 It is interesting to note that the temperature of most homoiothermal animals is onlv a little l>e]ow that temperature at which the enzymes act most rapidly ; this is doubtless the chief reason why we find such a temperature in the highest evolved animals. As man and most domestic animals belong to the homoiothermal group attention mav be confined exclusively to this class and the methods by which a practically constant temperature is maintained, may be discussed under the headings, the source of heat, the distribution of heat, the loss of heat, and finally the physiological variations in an animal's temperature. The Source of Heat. — In every living cell of the body heat is pro- duced, but the amounts formed in the smaller organs, such as the salivary glands, may be very minute and scarcely detectable. It is to the skeletal muscles that we must look for the main source of animal heat. In an animal apparently quite at rest the breathing muscles are active and moveover the other skeletal muscles are mostly in a state of tautness or "tone" which implies chemical change and heat production. During violent exercise the heat produced mav be so great that the animal cannot get rid of it quick enough and a passing rise in temperature may be noted. On the other hand if an animal is drugged with chloroform, ether, or alcohol, muscle tone is greatly diminished and the animal's temperature wall fall unless the surrounding air be kept sufficiently warm. An animal * Throughout this chapter temperature is measured in degrees Fahrenheit, as this system, for some inexplicable reason, is more popular in English-speaking countries. animals: — horse 100 — 102 F. cat cow 101.5 — 102 fowl sheep 104 — 105 duck pig loi — 103 goose dog 100.2 — 10Q.9 turkey 464 Journal of Agriculture. [8 August, 1907. whose muscles are rendered inactive by tlie poison curare will, if kept alive by artificial respiration, gradually sink to within a few degrees of the temperature of the room and become to all intents and purposes a poikilo- thermal animal. Next in importance to the muscles may be placed the liver where chemical transformations are continually occurring most or all of which liberate heat. As has been stated the blood leaving the liver is the hottest in the body. Next in importance to the liver, as heat producing tissues we may place the heart, and the smooth muscles particularly those in the digestive tract. The Distribution of Heat. — The heat produced in any muscle or organ tends by ordinary physical conduction to spread to adjacent organs, but the chief factor in heat distribution is the blood-stream which is constantly perfusing each tissue and organ and passing thence tO' the heart. The Loss of Heat. — The chief loss of heat is from the skin, con- cerning the structure of which a few words may be said. The skin or integument can be divided for descriptive purposes into two parts. The superficial part is epithelial and is composed of closely packed epithelial cells which are constantly being renewed and pushed up from below and as constantly being shed at the surface. This layer has neither blood vessels nor nerves. Special outgrowths of this layer form hair, feather, nails, claws and the bloodless parts of hoof and horn. The second or deeper part of the skin is formed of connective tissue, is rich in blood vessels and nerves and possesses special sensory nerve-endings. This layer contains two sorts of glands with ducts that pierce the epithelial layer and pour their secretion on the surface. The sweat glands secrete a fluid sweat, consisting chiefly of water and containing traces of salts, urea and fatty acids. The sehaceons glands secrete a semi-solid, olea- ginous substance (sebum) which consists of lipoid and a little protein and water. The sebum acts as a natural ointment keeping the skin and hair soft, and preventing them from being injured by rain and moisture. Both these glands are constantly secreting, though their activity is subject to considerable variations in intensity. In the connective-tissue part of the skin, or below it, we find a layer of fat. The skin has many functions to perform ; it protects the muscles and other organs beneath it from mechanical injury and from rain, strong sunshine, &c. ; it helps a little in getting rid of waste matter and excess of water. The skin possesses sensory nerve-endings which are responsive to heat and cold, to injury, and to contact with bodies or to movements of hairs. Only under abnormal and rare conditions can it absorb fluid from tvithout. But one of the most important functions is its blanketing action m keeping the heat of the body from escaping too rapidly and bv allow- ing changes to be made in the rate of heat escape. In the first place the layer of fat already mentioned is a very efficient non-conductor of heat. This layer is, in consequence, enormously developed in those animals which live in the ocean, and particularly in cold latitudes, as, for instance, porpoises, seals, whales, &c. It is also well developed in the pig. The epithelial portion is likewise a feeble conductor especially when it is thick, as it is in the elephant, &c. Then, as outgrowths from the skin, we find in the majority of homoiothermal animals, hair, fur, wool or feathers which act, not so much by their intrinsic feebly conducting powers, as from the fact that they contain large volumes of air enclosed in myriads of tiny spaces. Now air, thus divided, is a very poor conductor of heat and to air is due the chief value of these natural coverings, as well as that of 8 August, 1907.] Elcmoiis of Animal PJtysiology. 465 the artificial clothing of human beings.* When a bird ruffles its feathers in cold weather it merely adds to the enclosed air and this acts as an extra layer of clothing. The same action may be obser\'ed in many mammals. Heat is lost from the skin in three ways. First by radiation, in the ■same way as a fire in an old-fashioned fireplace radiates its heat into the room. Secondly by conduction, that is by warming the air with which the surface of the body is in contact ; thus a stove in the middle of a •room not only radiates heat, but also conducts heat by warming the adjacent air. Loss of heat by conduction is great when the air is cold, greater when the air is cold and moist, and greater still when the air is cold, moist, and in rapid movement. The third method is by evaporation •of water or sweat. Sweat glands are found in great number in man and the horse ; very much less in sheep and swine ; and still less in cattle, dogs and cats. In man and the horse the amount of sweat secreted is generally just enough to balance the loss by evaporation so that the sweat just comes to the surface of the sweat pores and no more. When the evaporation is checked by certain conditions of the atmosphere, or when excess of sweat is secreted, as in violent exertion, certain diseases and disorders and nervous disturbances, the sweat accumulates and trickles down the surface, particularly from those regions most abundantly supplied with sweat glands. The cooling action of evaporation is familiar in the various devices for keeping drinking water and butter cool in warm weather as by porous clay or damp cloth. Evaporation is greater the drier the air and the quicker the air movement. If the air is saturated with water vapour then no evaporation can take place from a moist surface no matter what the velocity of the air is, or its temperature within the limits that occur naturally. Heat is also lost in the lungs and respiratory passages by warming the air breathed in, or inspired, as also by the evaporation of water from the lining membrane of these tracts. This loss of heat from the lungs, etc., plays a more important part in the feebly-sweating animals (cattle, dogs, tcats) than in the sweating (man and horse). Some heat is also lost by the warming of food and drink which are -generally cooler than the stomach which they enter. The Regulation of Temperature. — We have now to explain how it -comes about that all mammals which are found both in tropical and polar regions are able to maintain a practically constant temperature which -varies very little with species and variety. We shall find that homoio- thenmal animals in cold latitudes have an extra thick coating of fur or •subcutaneous fat to retain the heat. Some such, as the bat, adopt the artifice of becoming poikilothermal during the winter and spending the <;old months sleeping in a sheltered retreat. Then too we are familiar with the seasonal shedding of fur or feathers and the growth of a thicker coat for winter. But the most interesting problem is the maintenance of a constant temperature from day to day in each animal despite great changes in heat production and the atmospheric conditions that influence heat loss. Most people are familiar with the principle of the common incubator for hatching eggs. Here there is a mechanical arrangement by which, when the tempera- ture rises a little above what is described, the heat supply is automatically *A given volume of flannel or woollen cloth contains a larger volume of air than the same volume of linen or cotton stuff, hence its high value as a clothing material. 466 Journal of Agriculiiirc. [8 August, 1907. reduced. An instrument on the same principle, but far more delicate, is the thermostat of the chemist which can be kept constant to within a one fiftieth of a degree Fahrenheit. Here too the flame yielding the heat is reduced when the temperature of the thermostat rises only a small fraction of a degree. But the incubator or thermostat must be kept in a sheltered room and cannot be exposed to rain and snow and frost ; more- over the combustion in the flame cannot be alloiwed to fluctuate within wide limits. The superiority of the homoiothermal animal to such a mechanism lies in the fact that not only can it regulate its heat supply but also can regulate its heat loss. How is the heat supply regulated ? When a mammal or bird is exposed to atmospheric conditions that check heat loss and therefore tend to allow the heat of the body to accumulate we find that, through the agency of the nervous system, the muscle tone is reduced and that the animal instinc- tively avoids strenuous exertion. There is less combustion in the body as can be shown by the diminished consumption of food and the decreased output of carbon dioxide. Conversely when the animal is exposed to cold its muscle-tone is reflexlv raised, it instinctively takes exercise, and its consumption of food and output of carbon dioxide may be more than doubled. That play of muscles which we call shivering is a muscular effort for the sole purpose of raising the temperature. A bat waking from its winter sleep resorts to shivering to Avork up its temperature rapidly and animals in fever show the same thing. How is the heat loss regulated? An animal mav be called upon to do strenuous work irrespective of weather conditions ; moreover there is in the resting animal sufficient combustion going on to make the temperature mount up if the heat loss from the skin is seriously interfered with. We shall find in the homoiothermal animal that there are continual adjustments of the heat loss to suit the altered combustion within and the altered state of the air without. In the first place, if, through anv reason, it is neces- sary to check heat loss the blood vessels in the lower layer of the skin contract, so that less blood flows through the skin and less heat is lost by radiation and conduction. We also find in most Inrds and mammals that the little muscles attached to the roots of the hairs or feathers, con- tract so that the external coat is ruffled and made therefore a poor con ductor of heat. Man possesses these muscles, but their contraction in cold, producing goose-skin, is useless as he has lost in the process of evolution his hairy covering. Many animals reduce the surface of the exposed skin by cowering or huddling the limbs together. If however the heat of the body threatens to accumulate then various devices can be brought into play to facilitate heat loss. The superficial vessels can be enlarged and the skin flooded with quick flowing blood so that radiation and conduction are increased. In man and the horse sweat can be poured out in great volume over the skin. Further, the breathing may be increased so that loss of heat from the lungs and air passages and even mouth may be increased ; this reaction is more marked in the non- sweating animals, witness the lolling tongue and panting respiration of a dog after vio'lent exertion or even when artifically heated. The exact mechanism by which heat is regulated is not clearly under- stood. There is undoubtedly in the central nervous system and most probably in the medulla oblongata a nerve centre exquisitely sensitive to changes in temperature and from which nerve impulses can pass to the skin, blood vessels, muscles, etc. 8 August, 1907.] J'Ucmcnts of Animal P/iysiology. 467 The Variations of Heat. — The capability of regulating the tempera- ture within narrow limits varies with different species. In the non-sweating animals and paiticularly with those that have a thick woolly covering (sheep) or a thick layer of skin-fat (pig), exertion in warm weather may readily bring about an accumulation of heat in the body which is often dangerous. Man and the horse owing to their rich supply of sweat glands are far better off in this respect than cattle. The wonderful endurance of the horse is in large measure due to this provision; it can keep on trotting without any marked rise of temperature whereas a bull after a few rushes mounts up to fever-heat and shows distressed respiration. This same provision is also responsible for the fact that man and the horse can stand temperatures much higher than that of the body, provided the air be dry and in motion. Under these conditions a man can readily stand a tempera- ture above the boiling point of water. If however the air be warm, moist and calm, thus giving little play to conduction and evaporation, violent exertion in all animals wil] bring about a rise in temperature which is often serious and occasionally fatal. When an animal is exposed to cold so extreme that it cannot be com- bated by increased heat formation and decreased heat loss, the temperature of the bodv sinks, the animal falls into a deep sleep, and eventuallv dies. Recovery can occur bv artificial warming if the temperature has not fallen below 50 degrees F. If a part of the body be frozen, gangrene generally results and the frozen part is lost. As tO' the highest internal temperature which the animal body can stand the limit usually given is; 113 degrees F. The highest authentic case in man followed by recovery was in degrees F., which occurred in rheumatic fever. The temperature of an animal varies slightlv with age being higher in extreme youth and also, according to some observers., in extreme old age. Starvation tends to lower temperature, and the taking of food tends to elevate it. In all diseased conditions where there is true inflammation a rise of temperature is observed. In conclusion a few points mav be noticed some of which have a prac- tical interest. Cold is not well borne l)y animals that are thin or by animals that are small in size. In this latter case the surface of the body is much greater compared with the weight than it is in larger animals. Clipping or shearing throws a great strain on the heat regulating mechanism particularly in moist, cold weather. Animals may actually show a higher temperature after clipping than befoTe — this means a' very great increase in the heat production. Animals exposed to cold eat more food than if not so exposed, as part of the food is used in the body for heat formation. Animals that sweat feebly, and particularly those with heavy coats or with much skin fat, are very liable to develop a high temperature; they invariably do so if over exerted. Moisture in cold air aids conduction, moisture in warm air hinders evaporation. Air that is moist and warm is specially harmful if impure through defective ventilation. 468 Journal of Ao^nciiUurc. [8 August, 1907. LAMENESS IN HORSES. {Continued from page 426.) 6". .5. Cameron, M .R .C .V .S.. CJ/ief Veterinary Offixer. LAMENESS IN THE LOINS. Apart from the partial or total paralvsis of " broken back," which \\\\\ 1)6 described later on, and that of spinal congestion or " Kumree," a disease especially prevalent in India, lameness in the loins may result from either of the twO' following conditions : — I. Sprain of the Lumbar Muscles, principally the longissimus dorsi muscle overlying the loin and constituting the " upper cut " in the sirloin of beef. In these cases the animal may be able to- walk or trot in a straight line- but it has great difificulty in turning round. In attempting the turning movement the hind legs are thrown about in an awkward manner as if imperfectly controlled, the hind quarters reel from side to side and the animal may fall. There is also great difficulty in backing. II. Sprain of the Psose or Sub-lumbar Muscles. — These muscles are situated on the underside of the loins and constitute the part known as the " under cut " in a sirloin of beef. When sprained the condition is often mistaken for broken back, but may be distinguished from it by the animal being able to move his hind limbs backward and forward when lying down. Symptoms. — In severe sprain of these muscles the following symptoms are shown: — When down the animal is unable to rise; but if raised by means of slings he may stand moderately well and may be able to control the movements of the limbs to some extent. When made to walk the horse drags his limbs, the feet being but slightly raised, and there is a tendency to knuckle over at the fetlocks and to drop the hind quarters at every step. If the hand be passed into the rectum, heat and swelling will be felt under the loins, which, in a few hours after the accident may extend to the fundament. In some cases only one side is affected. Causes. — These sprains mav be incurred : — {a) during an operation {e.g., castration) when the horse is struggling on the ground with the hind limbs fixed, {h) During a supreme effort when pulling a heavy load, or when jumping a fence from a boggy " take-off." {c) When the hind limbs slip from under the horse backwards. Treatment. — As in the treatment of all sprains rest is a prime neces- sity. In severe cases the horse should be encouraged to lie down and pre- vented from rising. A cooling laxative drench should be given and, if there is excessive local heat on internal examination, warm water enemas should be injected three or four times a day. In less severe cases when the horse can stand fairly well, slings may be put under him so that by their sup- port he may get an occasional rest at will, but if he hangs in them con- tinuously it is better that he should be allowed to go down. In all cases only soft and laxative food should be given. After some weeks when the acuteness of the sprain has been got over a blister, or " charge " of Stockholm tar, may be applied over the loins and a lengthened spell at grass allowed. HIP LAMENESS. As with shoulder lameness being popularly considered to be a common condition of lameness "in front," so likewise lameness " behind" is often 8 August, 1907.] Lameness in Horses. 469 erroneously and vaguely put down to hip lameness. In point of fact it is a form of lameness comparatively rarely met with. For present purposes "the hip" may be regarded as including all that portion of the anatomy from the loins to half way down the thig^h bone, midwav between the hip joint and the stifle joint ; and having for its most prominent features {a) the "point of the hip" (the anterior spine of the ilium bone of the pelvis) showing out very prominently in " ragged hipped" horses, {b) the "point of the croup" comprising, in the middle line, the sacrum bone and on each side of it the posterior spines of the ilium, the lot forming an eminence immediately behind the loins in the middle line over which the crupper strap passes — sometimes called the " bump behind the saddle," {c), the "rump bone" or "ipoint of the buttock" (the tubero- sity of the ischium bone of the pelvis) which stands out on each side of the' tail and is the most posterior prominence of the region, and {d) the "round bone " (the true hip joint) so called because of the shape of one of the bones (the head of the femur or drumstick) entering into the formation of the hip joint, which is situated a little to the rear of midway between the point of the hip in front and the point of the buttock behind. Lameness in the region usually has its seat in either the muscles, the joint, or the bones of the part and a convenient classification will be : — I. Hip Sprain, i.e.. Sprain of the Muscles of the Hip and Croup (the gluteal muscles). [I. Disease or Injury of the Hip Joint. III. Fracture of the Pelvic Bones. Hip Sprain. Sprain of the Gluteal Muscles or of their tendons of attachment occa- sionallv occurs when a horse's feet slip from under him in a forward direction. There is generally swelling externally above the hip joint which may be detected by comparison with the opposite quarter. Tender- ness may be exhibited on pressure. The horse will not lie down and when standing the limb is held loosely and pendulous with the joints flexed so that the sprained muscles may be slackened and the pain of stretching them avoided. During progression the horse steps short with the lame limb and there is a want of movement of the whole quarter which is carried forward with a kind of swinging or hopping action. Treatment.- — Perfect rest and hot fomentations applied three or four times a day are requisite in the early stages. A stimulating liniment should be rubbed in after fomenting, and the quarters clothed so that a " chill " may be avoided. When the acute pain has subsided a strong fly blister (see page 75) should be applied and a full cure encouraged by a lengthened spell in the paddock. Hip-joint Injury or Disease. The hip joint is a favorite seat for the localization of rheumatism. In such cases the bone surfaces entering into the formation of the joint become roughened or, it may be, ulcerated, and bony growths may be thrown out from their edges whereby the free movement of the joint is restricted. The injuries that may be sustained by the joint include chipping of the edges of the articular surfaces of the joint bones and rupture of the binding ligaments of the joint. The latter condition occasionally occurs to horses on shipboard when the hind limbs slip wide 470 Journal of Agriculttire. [8 August, 1907. apart, the ligament usually injured or torn being the fubio-femoral. When this happens the seat of the injury is obvious, for the horse cannot draw the limb to his side. An animal to which such an accident has happened is described as being " spaldered." Treatment. — For the rheumatic condition general treatment with anti- rheumatic medicines must be followed and a blister may be applied. Beyond rest, little can be done for joint injuries. Counter-irritants in the form of blisters or strong liniments may be useful and in some cases point firing has been resorted to with good effect. For the " spaldered " condition slinging may be necessary if, as is justifiable in the case of valuable breeding stock, treatment is decided on, and the limb may be kept in position by strapping it to its fellow. Fracture of the Pelvic Bones. The character of the lameness will vary slightly according to the par- ticular part of the pelvis that is fractured. In most cases however, while the horse may be able to bear weight well on limb when at rest, during movement a difficulty in advancing it is evident. The different kinds of fracture of the pelvis and their causes and treatment will be dealt with in the Chapter on Fractures. STIFLE LAMENESS. Apart from dislocation of the fatella or stifle-cap, lameness in the region of the stifle usually results from an injury to some part of the stifle jomt in which the articular surfaces become inflamed (arthritis) or from a wrench of the joint causing sprain of some of its ligaments. The Symptoms are pretty much the same in either case and are these : — • {a) Avoidance of motion in the joint ; {b) the limb is carried in a stiff extended manner sometimes in advance of its fellow and the toe is dragged on the ground ; (c) stepping short and bringing the foot forward with a swinging outward movement ; {d) an inclination to "knuckle over" at the fetlock; {e) pain on manipulation, and perhaps swelling and other local signs. Lameness in the stifle never disappears or lessens with exercise but in hock lameness this frequently happens. Treatment. — In the acute stages of the lameness hot fomentations should be applied and rest enjoined. Later on blistering the part at in- tervals of three weeks or a month will be most likely to promote recovery. It should be mentioned that lameness in the stifle is not by any means so common as is usually supposed. The part is often wrongly credited with being the seat of lameness of obscure character and blister patches in the region are seen so often as to raise a smile on the part of those who know how infrequently blistering is necessary. Dislocation of the Patella or Stifle-cap. The fatella or stifle-cap corresponds to the knee-cap of man and, like it, is liable to dislocation or partial dislocation (luxation) by accident. The condition is a rare one and occurs principally in foals or young im- mature horses when galloping or curvetting on hilly side-bank ground. It may also occur however in horses of any age through a bump of the 8 August, 1907. Lanuinss in Horses. 471 stifle against a door-post or other solid object, as when passing through a stable door or colliding with trees on timbered pasture. On account of the shape of the lower end of the thigh bone {femur) over which the patella plavs it is almost impossible for the dislocation to occur in an inward direction. The bone is displaced outwards and may be seen and felt as a prominence behind and to the side of its usual Fig. 72. Reprint of Mayhew's illustration of the attitude in dislocaticn of patella. position. Comparison with the normal stifle of the other limb or of another horse will make the displacement more obvious. Symptoms. — My observation of the potsition of the limb when at rest and the action during progression when this condition exists is somewhat at variance with the usual written description in text-books and at all events at variance with the impression given by any drawings I have seen. It is stated for instance that " the affected limb is kept pointed to the rear, straight and stiff " {Hayes) or " the limb becomes stretched back- wards " {Williams), and this imaginary position of the limb is depicted in Mayhew's illustration, of which Fig. 72 is a copy given for the purpose of comparison with Figs. 73 and 74, which are reproduced from instan- taneous photographs of a case which T had some years ago. Fig. 73 repre- Fig. 73. Dislocation of patella — position at rest. Fig. 74. Dislocation of patella- position during progression. sents the iposition of the limb when at rest. The fetlock is bent completely over and the foot rests pendulous on the front of the wall on the ground, the anterior border of the limb from the point of the hip to the hock being almost in a straight line. The whole limb is apparently lengthened, the fetlock and hock being lower than their fellows. Fig. 74 represents the action during progression. The foot is swung from the hip outwards, and is dragged forward until it leaves the ground, when it is jerked up towards the fore leg. It appears rigid and straight, the hock and stifle taking little part in the action. The photograph was taken just at that moment when the limb was advanced furthest forward. 472 Journal of Aoricidtiire. [8 August, 1907. Treatment. — The displaced bone must be forcibly pushed back into its place but this can only be done when the limb is fully extended, i.e., stretched forward. To enable this to be done a rope should be looped round the pastern and taken forward and attached collar-wise around the neck so that the limb may be retained in the position shown in Fig. 74, until the bone is pushed or jerked into its place with the hand. The rope may then be slightly relaxed until the toe just touches the ground with the limb well forward, and this position should be maintained prac- tically continuously for a few days. If a blister be applied to the stifle the resultant swelling will act as a bandage and retard movement. When the limb is released the foot should be shod with a long-toed shoe and a rest prescribed. It mav be advisable to put on a long-toed shoe before attempting to reduce the dislocation. In cases where the displacement is so great as to have caused rupture of the internal lateral ligament of the patella, complete recovery never occurs; the lameness is permanent and, except in the case of mares and stallions which may be used for breeding purposes, the patient may as well be shot. LAMENESS IN THE GASKIN. Lameness in this region is uncommon. It may occur when the leg bone {tibia) is fractured without displacement of the fractured bones taking place. Williams refers to cases of rupture of the muscle in front of the tibia (the -flexor metatarsi), the symptoms of which are quite characteristic, viz. : — a straightening of the hock and pulling back and lifting up of the whole limb, on account of the uncontrolled action of the posterior muscles of the leg. Fig. 75- Rupture of Gastroc-nemeii. Shows the position of the limb when the animal was standing. When moved the hock descended three or four inches (as far as the stretching of the skin would allow) below and behind the position as shown in the sketch. The author has elsewhere recorded^ an unusual case of lameness in the region resulting from laceration of those large muscles behind the tibia (the gastroc-nemeii) corresponding to the muscles of the calf in man. In this case the action was similar to that of a hamstrung horse, in that, 1 The Australasian Veterinary and Live Stock Journal July 1890 and The London Veterinary Record i8go. 8 August, 1907.] Lameness in Horses. 473 when standing, very little weight was thrown on the limb and the hock was flexed and " let down " three or four inches behind and below its fellow, (see Fig. 75). When made to walk, at each step when attempting to spring off that leg, the hock descended almost to the ground and it was evident that the structures which support it were torn, and that the ex- tensor muscles of the hock were powerless and evidently relaxed. There was a fullness about the lower part of the quarter and symptoms of general Fig. 76. Rupture of Gastroc-nemeii. Preserved dissected limb showing the torn muscles and the stripping of the periosteum from the front of the femur. distress were pronounced. The cause of the rupture was evidently either a sudden slip forward of the limb with the hock partly bent, causing an excessive strain on the gastroc-nemeii muscles (a very general occurrence on the slippery wooden block pavement in the streets of Melbourne), or a very severe effort of these muscles to extend, that is straighten, the hock in an attempt to " lift " a heavy load — such an effort as more commonly results in the springing of a " curb " or a sprain of the back tendons. Figure 76 is a sketch of a dissection of the part of the limb involved showing the torn muscles. 474 Journal of Agriculture. [8 August, 1907. HOCK LAMENESS. The most frequent seat of lameness in the hind limb is the region of the hock. It is not only that there is a number of affections of the hock which cause lameness, but also that these are each of common occurrence, and that they all constitute definite unsoundnesses. The principal lame- nesses of the hock are caused bv thoroughpin. bog spavin, bone spavin, and curb. Thoroughpin. This is an elastic swelling, simulating that of windgall, occurring at the upper part of the hock at the back on each side of the tendinous band known as the hamstring (the tendo-achilles). The swelling is a distension with lubricating fluid (svnovia) of a bursa through which the tendons pass. This bursa extends from the inner to the outer aspect of the tendons, and the swelling can be pushed from one side to the other by pressure of the hand — hence the name "thoroughpin" or " throughpin." (See Fig. 77.) Fig. 77. Thoroughpin — the arrow points to tlie enhirgement which in this case is slight. Causes. — The condition is usually associated with straight hocks, and is more common in draught than in light horses. It is frequently due to sprain of the tendons or of their sheath at this part. Young draught horses with straight hocks, when first put to work, often develop this annoying unsoundness. Symptoms. — The lameness is not usually very pronounced, but there is a stiffness of action of the hock which is likelv to wear off with exercise, the cause of which is apparent in the movable swelling. Treatment. — The application of pressure on both sides when the horse i.s at rest by means of pads adjusted with straps often results in temporary reduction of the swelling. Daily hand-rubbing is also beneficial. As a blister, to be repeated at weekly intervals for a time, the red mercury ointment (see page 75) or a ten per cent, mixture of oleate of mercurv and sweet oil may be used. 8 August, 1907.] Lameness in Horses. 475 Bog Spavin. Bog spavin is a distension of the capsule of the true hock joint with synovia (joint oil). The condition exists most frequently in those horses which have either very straight or very crooked hocks, and it is fairly ^ '&• 79- Position of bog spavin indicated by dotted line. (After Hayes.) Fig. 78. External view of bones of near hind limb. i, Tibia; 2, calcaneum ; 3, astragalus ; 4, cuboid ; 5, cuneif orme magnum ; 6, cuneif orme medium ; 7, great metatarsal (cannon) ; 8, external small metatarsal (splint) ; g, os suifraginis (long pastern bone); lo, sesamoids; ii, os corona (short pastern bone); 12, os pedis (coffin bone) ; 13, os naviculare (nxvicular bone) ; 14, wing of os pedis. (After Strangways.) common in young cart horses when first put to work. The distension is evidenced in the form of a soft elastic swelling, resembling that of thoroughpin or windgall, standing out prominently on the inner aspect of the hock towards the front. (See Figs. 8r, 82, and 83.) Like thoroughpin. 476 Journal of Agriculture. [8 August, 1907. when this swelling is pressed upon it may be reduced, and a smaller dis- tension appears on the outer aspect of the hock towards the back (Fig. Fig. 80. CltMii lid.k. (Alter Hayes.) Fig. 8i. lk)g spavin (slightly). (After Hayes.) 84). The increased quantity of oil which causes the swelling is the result of friction beween the articular cartilages covering the ends of the Figs. 82 and 83. Bog spavin (pronounced) seen fiom behind (After Dollar.) bones entering into the formation of the joint, the excess of joint oil being secreted to prevent or lesson that friction. 8 August, J907.] Lanu'f/ess in Horses. 477 When the friction is very great it may give rise to actual inflammation of the joint, in which case the lameness is intense ; the chief symptom beirtg a stiffness or lack of bending of the hock during progression. In most cases however the lameness is not very marked, and oftentimes there may be a permanent distension of considerable size without any lameness being iihown. In the latter case it is sometimes held that the disease should not be regarded as an unsoundness, but where the swelling is distinct and apparentlv permanent or where the slightest stiffness or lameness accom- panies the swelling, there can be no doubt on the point. Bog spavin, thoroughpin, and windgalls are often associated in the same animal, and the tendencv to the development of these synovial distensions is undoubtedly transmitted hereditarilv. Bo:4 >iKoin lul^in.:; oxteiiially. Fig. 84. Distension on outer aspect of liock from bog s{)avin when jiressure is applied from inside. Treatment. — When well established it is not practicable to perma- nently remove a bog spavin. In the early stages, and when lameness exists, most benefit results from the giving of complete rest. To insure this a blister may be applied, but the permanent value of blistering is very questionable. Direct pressure from a padded bandage would be advantageous if it could be continuously applied, but it is next to impossible to apply a bandage to the hock in such a manner that it will be retained in position for any appreciable length of time. Temporary reduction of the swefling may be effected by drawing off the fluid by means of an aspirator, but as it is likely to collect again in a short time the treatment is not often followed. Besides, unless the operation is very skilfully performed under completely a-septic conditions there is verv grave risk of an open- joint resulting. {To be coiifiiuicd.) 478 Journal of Agriculture. [8 August, 1907. FIFTH CONVENTION OF THE VICTORIAN CHAMBER OF AGRICULTURE, JUNE, 1907. I. PRESENT DAY PROBLEMS OF AGRICULTURE. T. Cherry, M.D., M.S., Director of Agriculture. The Department of Agriculture of Victoria enters perhaps more fully into the every dav acti^'ities of the farmer than that of any of the other Australian States.' We attempt not only to control many of the conditions of the farm bv means of inspectors, but we take the responsibility of ad- vising farmers what to do from season to season, and try to get our very definite ideas about successful farm management put into practice. In a word, I hold that what is most necessary at the present day is not the discovery of new scientific facts, but a general levelling up of farm practice so as to bring the average up to what we know is capable of being accom- plished by a man of average industry and common sense. Hence I am very glad of this opportunity of placing some of the ideas wdiich guide the policy of the Department before your convention. Now, there can be no question about the general prosperity of the Victorian farmer. The value of farm land can be best judged by the numbers of live stock that it carries. In two years there has been an all- round increase of 17 per cent, in the numbers of live stock carried in Victoria. At this rate the number will be doubled in less than nine years. At the same time the average returns from each head of cattle and sheep are steadily improving. Anv business which is in such a position is un- doubtedly healthv and prosperous. What w^e aim at doing is to hurry up the process and to place it on the soundest possible basis. We hold that the three great factors in increasing the fertility of Victorian lands are live stock, cultivation, and phosphoric acid. We are on surer ground in being dogmatic in this respect than ever before. Indeed, the matter is now removed from the region of doubt and speculation to one of certainty. The Secrets of Progress. There are three points on which we are able now to make definite statements which clearly explain the reasons for some of the oldest and best-established lines of farm practice. First, it has been known for ages that the crop which follows one of the pod-bearing plants is on the average more than usually prolific. In some way the pod-bearing or leguminous crop has left something behind it which has increased the fertility of the soil. Nowadays we can say definitely that the pod-bearers have the power of taking hold of the nitrogen of the atmosphere, changing it into some- thing equivalent to nitric acid, and leaving this with the stubble in the soil to serve as food for the next series of plants that grow on the same soil. Hence the importance of peas, beans, lucerne, clover and trefoil. Further, such crops not only enrich the soil, but they supply the most valuable food for live stock that can be raised on the farm. Second, as to phosphoric acid. The experiments of the Department continued from year to year go to show that phosphoric acid is the one dominant require- ment of Victorian soils, and that for northern land the best results with wheat were obtained by using 56 lbs. of 20 per cent, super, to the acre. Then again we can make a broad generalization which with a few trifling 8 August. 1907.] Fifth Convention, Chamber of Agriculture. 479 local exceptions admits of no doubt or dispute. Such a definite statement is very different from what could only have been put forward cautiously as the best working hypothesis half-a-dozen years ago. Third, the value of animal manure — either obtained by grazing or as ordinary farm yard manure — may now be explained in a way that was not possible a few years ago. The surface soil is regarded no longer as being dead, but alive. Millions of invisible microscopic plants are in every particle of it, and are at work preparing food for next season's crop. Animal manure is the great means of replenishing this legion of effective workers, and the turning over of the surface soil bv cultivation reinvigorates their growth. Hence you see the different effects of keeping sheep and cattle (so as to pass much of each year's crop through the animals) as compared with trusting to wheat growing alone with the usual annual burn off. These, gentlemen, are fundamental problems, and our belief and confidence in them will decide the general direction of farm practice. Phosphoric acid enables us to start poor land on the up grade. Cultivation vastly increases the amount of fodder that can be won from any given area of land. Live stock transforms the produce into the most valuable form of soil fertility. Thev complete the circle and enable us to explain why it is possible not only to win a good living from the soil from year to year, but also to leave the farm after a lifetime's work vastly richer than when we began. The Need of Educational Efforts. To place the rising generation of farmers in a position which will enable them to have clear ideas on these points needs a development of our educational methods. Every country lad should grow up with an assured confidence in the success of country life. We require improved conditions in the school, on the farm, and in the home. One of these conditions wall to some extent at least be met by introducing lessons in agriculture in the State schools, by extending the farmers' classes, and bv establishing agricultural high schools. During the past year marked progress has been made in all these directions. The high schools opened at Sale and Warrnam- bool have already won a large amount of support from the surrounding districts, and extension of the buildings is already mooted in the case of Sale. Four others will probably be opened before the close of the year. In some quarters the Department is criticised for not establishing experi- mental stations. As a matter of fact we have farms at Rutherglen, Whit- field, Wvuna and Ballarat, all of which will develop into centres for original work in everv branch of agriculture. Progress in Rural Production. Oversea exports of farm products from Victoria ha\e risen from ^10,725,000 in 1904 to ^12,370.000 in 1906. When it is remembered that the former year was far and away the most favorable as far as season and rainfall are concerned of any we have ever experienced, it will be seen that progress has been both steady and satisfactory in every line of rural production. Added to this, the fact that similar lines of export to the other Australian States rose from ^1,400,000 in 1904 to ^2,300,000 in 1906, and it will be seen that our progress may be described as phenomenal. (The map which was exhibited showed the area of culti- vation in each county drawn to scale.) Yet this map makes it clear that agricultural development in Victoria is only just beginning. All the culti- vation worth speaking about is north of the Hue of 20 inches of rainfall. In one or two of the wheat-growintr countries, such as Moira and Tatchera, 480 Journal of A\^ncidiurc. [8 August, 1907. one acre in five is under cultivation, but for the most part the development of our resources is only in the earliest stages. In Gippsland and most of the Western district the amount of land that has been brought under the plough is insignificant. Yet it has been abundantly proved that land which in its natural state will only run a sheep to the acre will carry three or four times that number when brought under a good system of rotation of crops. At the present time 260 acres of land near Dandenong are carrying 1,500 sheep. The Question of Over-production. With increasing wealth and better wages throughout the Northern Hemisphere there is little danger of over-production in any of our staple products. Great Britain alone has averaged importations to the amount of ;^224,ooo,ooo in each of the past six years. The average contribution of the whole of Australia has only been about 10 per cent, of the whole. The list is as follows: — Value of importations into Great Britain in millions sterling. (Average of last six years.) Wheat, flour, 38; dead meat, 38; butter, cheese, milk, 31 ; other grains and meal, 25; sugar and farinaceous foods, 25; wool, 24; fruit and vegetables, 14; live animals,, for food, 10; cattle and horse food, 9; hides, horns, tallowy 6; rabbits,, poultry, eggs, 4. Total, 224. With such a market in one country alone, I do not think there is much danger of a sudden slump in prices. On the contrary, our true policy lies in increasing the production of wheat, wool, butter and lamb. The prices of all these commodities are ruled by the London market. In comparison with the world's production Victoria pro- duces so little that a few million bushels or a few hundred thousand carcasses will make no appreciable difference. In wheat there are a number of varieties that have consistently given good results in our experimental plots. While the average yield for the State is less than 12 bushels, we have ten varieties which last season gave from 18 to 24. Our averages in the Mallee and the North-east have been 50 per cent, better than the average of the surrounding farms on the same class of soil. Then, again, it is evident that we want a general improvement in farm methods. The choice of a good variety and careful grading of seed may help ; superphosphates are undoubtedly another very important help, but besides these we want to get into a system of rotation, to change the sequence of the crops and to admit of increased grazing. More sheep will not only mean more profit, but the manure from the animals will restore the huimus to the soil and increase the fertility of the farm. Rape and Peas. Rape is rapidlv coming into favour for this purpose, but in districts where rape cannot be relied on I would call attention again to the points in favour of the field pea as a fallow crop. Rape requires early autumn rains, peas may be sown up to July. Rape occasionallv fails to flourish, while peas succeed in nearly every district in Victoria. Rape may not be ready to graze till there is abundance of green fodder in spring. Peas may be left in the field till January or February, when the sheep w'ill readily eat the whole crop, including any grain that may have fallen on the ground. In ad- dition, peas increase the nitrogen supply of the soil, while rape does not. Yxova. experience in South Australia and from small plots in many parts of Northern Victoria, I am inclined to think that a hundred acres of peas would be a good experiment for most of you to try on vour farms at once. 8 August, 1907.] i'lftlt Convention, Cliamber of Agriculture. 481 Stirring the Sub- soil. At the Metropolitan Farm, Werribee, a plough has been in use for some years which stirs the soil to a depth of thirty inches without bringing any of the sub-soil to the surface. To all appearance the land is simply loosened and raised about six inches higher than the former surface of the soil. The cost of the operation is less than ;^i per acre. The Rutherglen vignerons are taking steps to applv the same method to their vineyards before replanting. Xow, I don't suppose that it will be advisable to work the wheat land so deep as this, but if we could stir the northern soils for 15 or 18 inches it is probable that great benefit would result. More of each winter's rain would be absorbed and retained for next season's crop. Just in the same wav as the best crops in a dry \ ear are secured from sandy land, so a deep stirring would put all the land in much the same condition. With a machine like that at the Werribee there would not be much difficultv from old stumps and roots, most of which would be broken or else rooted out bodilv bv so powerful an implement. If further experiment shows that the cost per acre is not excessive, I think the Oliver plough may help to improve our wheat yields. In this connexion the value of the well-worked fallow is becoming more apparent vear bv year. As a means of conserving the moisture and facilitating earlv plant- ing, it is unrivalled, and should it be found impracticable to work it along with the pea crop, then I think the method will be to secure the benefit of both by growing a smaller area of wheat each year. The effort to grow a large area and consequentlv to half work the fallow is largely responsible for our small vields. Plain Lands and their Treatment. In many parts of the north plain land may be purchased at half the price of the adjacent timber country. While this difference in value appears to correspond with the difference in grazing capacity, it is also a fact that the values of the two kinds for cultivation are not nearly so far apart. Cultivation is the wav to get the best returns from the plain land, the fallow being followed bv wheat and then by oats. If peas are inti'oduced so as to increase the nitrogen (in which the plain land is deficient) and two or three years grazing follow the oats, the probability is that the difference between the twO' kinds of soil will disappear. The use of superphosphates is often blamed for burning the crop and exhausting the soil. These effects are due not to the super, but to bad management. Call in the assistance of a green crop, graze off this with sheep, and adopt some such rotation as that mentioned above, and the land will be kept in better heart for each succeeding crop. It is bv some such system as this that the success of wheat growing in Northern Victoria is assured. The Lamb Trade and Fodder Crops, The question sometimes asked, "Which pays best, wool or wheat?" does not admit of an answer in Victoria. Here the one is the complement of the other, and both must be raised if we are to make steadv progress. We have seen how the wheat provides for the sheep in regard to grazing off the early crop and how the rape and peas lead to increased fertility through the sheep. But it is not sufficient to stop at these crops. Wherever possible lucerne should l)e raised for the stock, and in addition oats should be grown and provision made for succulent fodder in the dry weather. Particularly for raising fat lambs the conditions should be ' such that 8655. O 482 Journal of Agriculture. [8 August, 1907. they receive no check from the first. This means that the ewes must be able to supply them with the proper amount of milk, and as in the case of dairy farming this is all a matter of feeding. In many districts we can find instances of farmers regularly hand feeding flocks of several thousand ewes, and I believe that tliis will soon become the regular practice. The details of the experience in feeding silage at Wagga, N.S.W.* shows that it does not cost more than 6d. per month when large numbers have to be handled. Suppose feeding goes on for three months in summer the cost would be is. 6d. per head, aiid there is no doubt tha.t this sum would be recovered several times over in the additional profit on the lamb and the wool. The oat crop may be fed either as chaff or grain. Silage ;may be made of self-sown wheat and wild oats. In districts with a rainfall of more than 20 inches a paddock may be laid down in a mixture of fodders and grazed for three years before breaking it up again. At the farm near Dandenong already referred to the standard mixture is rape, prairie, rye grass and alsyke clover. The former two grow rapidly and furnish the winter fodder ; they are suc- ceeded in the spring bv the r\e grass and clover, Avhich with the prairie form next year's grazing. Some such mixture as this is capable of wide application. One has only to see the results at the Werribee sewage farm to realize the value of superabundant feed for the sheep. In the hilly districts of Gippsland turnips should be grown. Thev form one of the chief supports of the industry in New Zealand. Fodder for the Dairy Herd. Similar considerations apply to the cow and the pig. The food must be sufficient in quantit}- and contain the right amount of the flesh-forming constituents to give the best results. One crop alone is not suitable. Some such catalogue as oats, peas, beans, maize, and mangolds ought to be provided. Possibly in some districts lucerne and maize alone will do, l;ut variety has many and great advantages. Then again both dry and juicy food are of special importance to the dairy cow. Grazing on or- dinary grass alone a cow will, on the average, eat from 15 to 18 tons of green fodder in the course of the }ear. She ma}- be able to get plenty in November and December, but as soon as the seed is shed the quantity is small and the quality poor. In fact the dry grass, as soon asi the seed shakes out, becomes grass straw instead of grass ha\-. This is the reason why milk production all over Victoria rapidly falls off at the end of the sprmg. If autumn rains are delayed then the financial losses suffered by the farmer are so great that they would ruin any other industry. Take the following characteristic paragraph, which shows that the dairy farmers have lost ^45,000 in a single month as compared with INIay last year: — Returns of the arrivals of butter in Melbourne, and of the exports of perishable products, for the month of May show a jxreat decrease in the production of butter. The total quantity of butter received in Melbourne was 827 tons, as compared with 1,271 tons for the previous May. The N^orth-Pl'astern district showed the greatest falling ofF, while the West and South-Western district is faring the best. Among the exports for last month were 117,952 lbs. of New South Wales butter and 349 lbs. of O'ueensland butter, which was tinned in Victoria and reshipped to Eastern ports and Africa, bringing down the butter of Victorian manufacture exported to 976,856 lbs., or about half the total shipped for May, 1906. The * See page 500 of this issue of the Journal. S August, 1907.] Fifth- Convcniion, Cliambcr of Agriculture. 483 following are the particulars of the arrivals of butter in Melbourne for May, 1906 and 1907 : — Ma\-, icioO. May, 1907. District. Tons. Tons. North-Eastern ... ... ... 275 ... 108 Northern ... ... ... ... 100 ... 57 Gippsland ... ... ..• ... 50S ... 296 West and South-Western ... ... 388 ... 366 Total Cultivation is Essential. The time is past when land in Victoria might be obtained so cheapl\ that it would pay to trust to grazing alone. Everyone who takes up land must make up his mind that seed-time and harvest-time are to come round year by year with the regularity of the seasons. Part of the produce so raised may be sold direct as such, but the greatest part is to be fed to the live stock on the farm. If it is said that it will not pav to grow food for live stock the following facts should be carefully weighed. Granted a man with one horse and single furrow plough broadcasting both seed and manure in the old fashioned way. Under these circumstances the cost of putting in the crop will be from 15s. to j[^i per acre. In the suburbs of Melbourne you may get any little irregular paddock cut with the reaper and binder at los. per acre. The total maximum cost therefore is from 25s. to 30s. Suppose the harvest yields 20 bushels of peas, or 30 of barlev-, or a ton and a half of oaten hay. Grain at a shilling a bushel or hay at £^i per ton is so cheap that it is impossible to feed them tO' anv good class of live stock without securing a handsome profit. On the score of profit every farmer should use his plough. But there are two other equally cogent arguments. The Australian climate is dead against continuous grazing. The superabundant growth of spring soon dries up in summer, and as we have seen, inste-^d of grass hay there is nothing but grass straw tO' be found for the stock. Then again, by long centuries of selection the most prolific plants are those which are cultivated, and with the single exception of lucerne it may be said that an acre of cultiation will yield from four to eight times as much fodder as the same acre of land under grazing. These ideas with regard to the importance of the question of fodder for the dairy herd have been emphasized bv the information received from several parts of the State since the passing of the Milk and Dairy Supervision Act. The purchase of bran at the present time absorbs much of the profit from the cow. In some cases dairy farmers supplying milk to the cities require to secure returns of ;!^io tO' ;^i2 per head before they begin to make any profit. A small area well cultivated is the remedy for this state of affairs. In countrv districts the profit from the pig should pay the expense of growing the crops for the herd. It will be seen then that I look upon the production of more fodder whether for sheep or cattle as the chief problem in the immediate future. The results already obtained are so good in both these branches of agri- culture that there is no doubt about the success of the movement. A man with rich land may venture to trust to natural conditions alone; but all our second class land requires the plough to start it on the up grade. All our great export staples may thus be easilv doubled. Q 2 484 Journal of Agria/lfnrc. [8 August, 1907. II. POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. 11'. T. Kendall, M.R.C.V.S., Principal, Melbourne Veterinary College. Had the Chamber of Agriculture served no other purjiose than that of obtaining a proper recognition of Veterinary Science by the State it would still have justified its existence. P'ortunately its able and persistent ad- vocacy of those claims was brought to bear upon a Minister whose training enabled him to appreciate the value of applied science and the result has been the establishment of a nucleus of a State Veterinary Department under the direction of Mr. S. S. Cameron, M.R.C.V.S. Another outcome has been the decision to provide for State Veterinary Education in connexion with the University of Melbourne, and the establishment of a Research Institute where diseases of animals will receive scientific investigation. The value of these inno'vations can only be estimated when we consider the enormous losses the country has sustained in the past for want of them. It was owing to the absence of veterinary inspection and quarantine regulations that scab in sheep, pleuro-pneumonia in cattle and other infec- tive diseases were allowed to be introduced by imported animals, and make such ravages amongst our flocks and herds ; and it speaks well for the effectiveness of fhe system now adopted that no serious disease has since gained a footing in this manner. Notwithstanding this there never was a time when greater vigilance was needed than now. The increasing trade relations and rapid transit Ijetween Australia and South Africa, South America, India, Japan, Java and the Philippines, where more serious diseases exist than any hitherto experienced here render due precautionary measures imperative. I need only mention cattle plague, horse-sickness, nagana, glanders, epizootic lymphangitis, dourine, surra, and mal de caderas among the diseases affecting domesticated animals in these countries to show the extreme risk we are running. The greater danger is from travelling circuses and menageries for, although the animals may be free from disease, they are travelling about in countries where infective diseases exist and may become bearers of infection. Some years ago- glanders was found to exist among horses connected with an American circus which were about to be landed in Sydney, and had it not been for the vigilance of Mr. Stanley, the Govern- ment Veterinarian, the disease would in all probability have been well established in Australia. Fortunately it was correctly diagnosed in time, the diseased animals were slaughtered and the rest quarantined on an island so that they ne\-er reached the main-land and were re-shipped to America. There should be uniform quarantine regulations in all the States or, better still. Federal quarantine laws. In the event of any disease showing itself in imported animals, or even a suspicion of such, the shortest methotl of dealing with it should be made possible ; for, like putting out a fire, everything depends upon an early start and no round-about red tape methods would allow of this. The possibility of disease being intro- duced from abroad by other means than by diseased animals was proved a few )ears ago when two^ or three outbreaks of anthrax were traced to feeding the cows on bone meal made from imported bones. There is, however, no further risk of this as such bones have now to be sterilised before distribution. 8 August, 1907.] tijtli Convention, Chamber of Agrieulinre. 485 The old saying that " health is wealth " applies to domestic animals as well as man and the l:)est use to which a knowledge of veterinary science can be put is the prevention of disease. As there are something like thirty ■diseases of domestic animals that are directly communicable to human beings to say nothing of others that injuriously affect the flesh as well rne out by the chemical and mechanical analyses of a large number of representative types, of soil. To put the matter upon an easily understandable basis, we can regard the soil in the light of a banking account of greater or less m.agnitude according to its physical condition, and the amounts of the elements of plant food stored therein by Nature. Good farming means the utilization of this wealth in such a manner that not only is the original capital not S August, 1907.] Fiftli ConvcHtion, Chamber of Agriculture. 491 diminished but, if anything, is increased, while a profitable income is derived from the various products of the soil. It is the interest on our soil capital which we should live u,pon and not on the capital itself. This being" so it is somewhat surprising that many farmers operate on only such a small proportion of their soil capital ox in other words only give the crops they produce such limited feeding ground by imperfect methods of cultiva- tion. In order tO' completely understand what is meant by the fertility or producing power of the soil the following influencing factors may be named : — 1. The water holding capacity which is largely controlled by the presence of organic material. 2. The porosity or natural drainage which depends upon the size of the soil particles. 3. The capillary power or power to move water from the subsoil tO' the surface. 4. The temperature which is regulated bv the natural powers of drainage, colour, and texture of the soil. 5. The presence of plant foods. You will note that prominence is given to those factors which have to do with the storage and retention of moisture. The most fertile soil in the world is powerless to produce crops if moisture is lacking, and for that reason, I direct pointed attention to the need of improvement in that direc- tion in many of the heavier types of Victorian soils. Shallow cultiva- tion of soils having: a stiff impervious clay subsoil means only a limited storage of moisture and hence the yield is regulated almost entirely b\- the amount of moisture at tlie disposal of the crop. The ploughing in of the remains of crops and grass roots, at all events, occasionallv. is something of a set off to the extravagant burning of the stubble, so unfortunatelv common in the wheat growing districts. The growth of crops suitable for ploughing in or feeding off and the return of animal manure to the soil are all means h\ which an improvement is effected in the water holding power of the soil. Soils vary within wide limits as regards fcheir natural powers of drainage, sandy soils being of course the quickest in this respect and clay soils the slowest. Extremes of either type are not the most prolific producers of crops. It is liowever by deep cultiva- tion drainage and the use of lime, where necessary, that clay soils may be assisted to store up moisture in greater quantities without rendering the land cold and unproductive. Sandy soils have only poor capillary powers and for this reason we sometimes find shallow rooted plants suffering from want of moisture, although there may be an abundance within 2 feet of the surface but unable to rise up to the roots of the crop. Clay soils on the other hand have very strong capillary powers, and we invariably find that this type rapidly forms a crust on the surface and loses m.oisture rapidly in warm or windy weather. The loss of moisture is checked to a large extent by keeping the surface mulched or loose thereby minimizing evaporation. The temperature of the soil plavs a much more important part in the production of crops than many farmers give credit for. Poorly drained land is always cold and slow to respond to the genial influences of spring. The reason is not far to seek. Evaporation is always a cooling process and when the surplus moisture has to be evaporated bv the sun's warmth in the spring, growth only proceeds slowly until the land becomes warm enough to permit those wonderful activities to take place which we are so familiar with under the name of spring growth. The germination of 49^ Journal of Agriculture. [8 August, 1907. most seeds is beat effected at a soil temperature of from 60 tO' 65 degrees. Drainage therefore, whether by natural means or otherwise is no unim- portant factor in regulating the amount of production. A highly interesting confirmation of this fact is being shown at the present time on ttie subsoil section on the experimental fields throughout the wheat growing areas^ Germination has been more rapid and growth is more vigorous on these deeper cultivated portions of the field than where the land has been culti- vated in the ordinary fashion, due no doubt to the better drainage con- ditions. So far we have viewed the physical condition of the soil and seen how- far-reaching are the effects of proper cultivation and soil treatment generally. The presence of the four most important elements of plant food — nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime — is equally important, and it is in this direction that the Agricultural Chemist has given such valuable assistance and which in m) opinion, merits still more detailed systematic investigation in the future. EcHucA Soils. For the purpose of illustrating the practical value both to the individual farmer and the State generally of acquiring more information in connexion with our Victorian soils, I have had collected some sixteen samples from the Echuca district, which are representative of fairly considerable areas of each tvpe Avithin 10 miles of the town. It is not claimed that these are the only tvpes in this district, but they are sufficient in numbers to be eloquent testimony of the need for a better understanding of the whole question. The ten samples represented in the glass tubes show the greatest \ariations in colour and texture. CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF SOILS IN THE ECHUCA DISTRICT, 1907. Chemical. MECHANICAL. Name and Address. Deptli. Classification. c 0 be 0, ji .1 — ■ •| i p od C .a 1 c3 1 S a^-. en '^ 0 ^ lC 5 OS' Miss Robertson, Wliarpurill.x [Soil \ Sub. Clay soil , . .226 .036 .433 .428 .013 .12 26.78 59.69 7.0a .081 .0§6 .696 1.392 .005 .43 14.93 70.07 5.99 Miss Robertson, Wliarparilla ( Soil Sandy loam .142 .054 .250 .304 .008 .05 62.60 30.44 4.85 ( Sub. .067 .064 .249 .170 .008 . . 53.10 38.84 4.12 MiUs Bros., Wharparilla /Soil tSub. Sandy soil .036 .012 .104 .148 .008 .54 89.66 8.10 1.12 .018 .044 .188 .210 .008 .39 66.65 26.51 2.45 McSwain, S., Wliarparilla f Soil clay soil . . .131 .078 .633 3.410 .011 16.05 64.51 9. 38 1 Sub. .037 .062 .501 3.818 .007 .15 14.50 65.10 9.18 McSwain, S., Wharparilla . . ( Soil 1! .056 .040 .450 . 235 .113 .0> 19.25 64.35 7..L5. ISub. .039 .049 .457 .410 .213 .11 2.70 80.02 7.15 Dobson, G. R., Mil'ewa / Soil .106 .087 .855 1.024 ,036 .20 9.95 72.04 8.29 1 Suj. .031 .048 .773 1.148 .014 .47 9.51 72.91 6.9a McDonald, D., Torriimbarry rsoil .031 .076 .274 .136 .012 .09 8.05 65.61 3.86 1 Sub. .053 .057 .269 .170 .010 11.95 72.29 6.82 Braund Bros., Wharparilla / Soil .131 .081 .417 .170 .006 !40 14.75 74.50 6.49 \ Sub. 056 .030 .480 .162 .013 .40 8.15 78.40 5.16 Mactier, A., Echuca North f Soil clay loam .179 .060 .348 .484 .003 .25 25.70 63 . 72 6.07 1 Sub. .075 .048 .462 .324 .006 .90 23.35 64.49 5.03 Mactier, A., Echuca North /Soil Loam .075 .078 .319 .202 .003 .65 46.85 46.80 2.96 I, Sub. ., .05.S .013 .451 .276 .007 .35 28.55 58.02 4.97 Sandy soils . . Over 80 per cent. sand. Clay loam . . 25-40 per cent. sand. Sandy loams . . 60-75 per cent. sand. Clay soils . . 60 per cent. clay. Loam . . . . 40-60 per cent. sand. 8 August, 1907.] Fiftli Convention, Chamber of Agriculture. 493 A criticism of the chemical composition of these soils reveals a series of highly interesting facts and throws a flood of light on the question of correct methods of cultivation and manuring. Fot example, the average composition of the surface soils and subsoils is as follows: — — Nitrogen. Phosphoric Acid. Potasli. Lime. Surface soil ... Sub-soil •116 •OoG •057 •047 •40S •452 •626 •808 These figures confirm a fact which has long been known to investigators of Victorian soils, viz., that many of the northern subsoils are almost as well furnished with plant foods as the surface soils. This plant food, however, is of little service with the present shallow cultivation continued year after year at the s.ame depth. What appears to be necessary is either a system of cultivation which will stir the soil deeper without bringing the subsoil to the surface or else the growth of tap rooted plants whose habit of growth will permit them to find food at a depth of 8 or 10 inches from the surface. This idea of deep cultivation is by no means new, and as al- ready stated has formed part of the Department's experimental work in the wheat districts during the past three years. The results are sufficiently far advanced to say that in the northern and north-eastern plain districts this mode of cultivation has shown sufficiently increased yields to justify the extra cost of preparation. It will be noted in particular that the subsoils are nearly as well supplied with .phosphoric acid as the surface soils, and this Ftore' of plant food in the former should be unlocked by cultivation. It is astonishing to find what an enormous cash value per acre the plaiii foods in the surfr.ce 30 inches of soil represent. Allowing a value of 9s. 6d. per unit for the nitrogen, 4s. for the phosphoric acid, and 5s. 6d. for the potash, we can say that the average commercial value per acre of the plant foods in the samples shown in the glass tubes is as follows: — Nitrogen ... ... ... ^85 Phosphoric acid ... ... ... 17 Potash ... ... ... 37 ^139 This is not, of course, the commercial value of an acre of land, but it represents the potential wealth locked up in the soil which can only be gradually drawn upon by intelligent working. There is little need to pursue the subject further. The object of this paper will have been well served if it succeeds in fixing the attention of the farmer more on the cultivation of his soil, as being the most economical way of assisting it to yield up its latent wealth. As the population of the State increa.ses and the ])rice of land rises there is little doubt that a demand will be created for more knowledge of the potential wealth of the soil. To meet that demand, it will, in my opinion, be necessary for the Department I represent, to accumulate such information bearing on the chemical and physical condition of the soils of every district in the State. By this I do not mean to convey the idea that anything in the nature of a comprehensive soil survey is necessary, but I look forward tO' the time when every Agricultural Society and rural body in the State will have a collection of the typical .soils of their district 494 Journal of Agriculture. [8 August, 1907. mounted as you see them together with all the information possible to collect, bearing on the economical fertilization, coTrect methods of culti- vation and suitability for special crops. This may appear ai stupendous task, but in reality it could be very easily carried into effect by securing the co-operation of the farmers themselves as honorary collectors of soil samples. The classification and analytical portion of the work could be carried out by the Department sufficientlv promptly to enable the prevailing types in several districts being published every year. As an assistant to the important problem of closer settlement, I venture to say that the work outlined would be of immense value to the State in placing people on the land under conditions which would permit of its affording them an income proportionate to the amount of skill and energy brought to bear upon it. The Convention Papers will be continued in tlie September number. GARDEN NOTES. /. Croniri. I us feci or Vegetation Diseases Acts. The Violet and the Pansy. The garden forms of violet and pansv have been derived from Viola, a genus of dwarf plants, mostly perennial in growth, species of which VIOLET, SINGLE FLOWERED. PRINCESS OF WALES. lave been found native in many parts of the world. There is a great number of species of violas, but only a few are cultivated except in botanical collections. All are low growing plants, and naturally occur in cool and shadv situations. S August, 1907.] Garden Notes. 495 The sweet violets, Yiola odor at a and its varietv alba are nati\es of Britain, and are found growing in tlie fields and hedge-rows. The present garden tvpes of violets have been raised from this species, and whiles the flower has long been popular on account of its perfume and time of blooming, the interest in it has largely increased of late years owing to the improvement that has been effected by gardeners in increasing the size and introducing more varied colouring in the flowers and vigour in the plants, without diminishing the characteristic perfume. The single varieties in particular have been greatly improved. The double flowered violets have been produced from a variety of the common violet, Viola odorata var. pallida plena, the Neapolitan violet. The double tvpes, though not as hardv as the single kinds, are also' popular garden plants, flowering freely under suitable conditions. The flowers are delightfullv fragrant, in many varieties the perfume resembling that of the wall- flower. Violets thrive in the Southern and elevated districts of this State but require some protection in the hot No-rthern districts, ]:)articularlv where the soil is of a sandv nature. Thev endure a deal of heat if the soil at the roots is moist and cool. The violet succeeds best in a fairly heavv soil that has been deeply W'Orked and moderatelv manured. An excessive quantity of nitrogeno'us manure wdll cause the production of an excess of gross foliage and very little bloom. The usual position assigned to violets is that of edging plants, for which purpose they are specially suitable. The single flowered varieties will thrive in any aspect excepting an excessively shaded one, bur the double varieties require a rather shaded position unless the soil is cool and moist. Red spider is the principal insect pest of the violet and is difiicult to exterminate owing to its attacking the under surface of the leaf. When the plants are badly affected the leaves become \ellow in colour and should be cut off and burned; in the case of plants newly set out, the application of water is necessarv. Violet plants bloom freely for two seasons, after wdiich the\- become weak and straggling in habit, and the flowers produced are poor and few. The plants should be renewed after the second year, fresh soil being necessary to insure success. Strong sturdv runners with roots attached should be selected, and planted either in the spring or autumn. The plants should be mulched with rotted manure early in summer. The principal varieties are: — Double flowered: Neapolitan, and De Parme, pale mauve; INIarie Louise, lavender blue; New York, violet; Lady Hume Campbell, mauve; Count Brazza, wdiite ; Madame INlillet, rose; and King of Violets, dark blue. Single flowered: Admiral Avellan, purplish red; California, violet j^urple ; La France, violet blue; Italia, violet; Mai^garet, violet; John Raddenberrv, pale blue; White Czar, white; and Princess of Wales, violet purple, the popular market variety, and the best violet in cultivation. The pansy of to-day is a descendant of Viola tricolor, also a native of Britain. Like the violet it succeeds best in cool districts, Init can be grown to produce its flowers during winter and spring in any part of the State. Pansies are divided into three sections, viz., the Show, Fancv, and Tufted or Bedding pansy, the latter being also known by the generic name Viola. The show pansies are mostly self-coloured white, black, yellow, &c., and are of medium size. The most popular section here is the fancy pansy, the plants being stronger, and the blooms larger and more varied in their colouring and markings than the show varieties. The fancy pansy is of Continental origin and has been greatly improved of 496 Journal of Agriculture. [8 August, 1907. late years by English horticulturists. The tufted pansies partake more of the character of the show .pansy than the fancy, but are hardier than either, enduring a deal of summer heat without injury. The pansy thrives best in a fairly porous loam that has been deeply worked and enriched. Heavy dense soils need an admixture of sand, grit, or ashes, to make them sufficient! v friable and porous, while light and sandv soils will be rendered more suitable by the addition of clay or strong loam, and cow manure. Although a perennial plant the pansy is usuallv treated in Victoria as an annual. The increase of specially fine varieties is effected by striking cuttings, — produced in the centre of the plants after blooming — in sandy soil in a cold frame, or by dividing the plants. Generally a fresh batch of olnnts is raised from seeds .each season in most parts of the State. The PANSY, FANCY TVI'E. plants are nearly certain to be attacked by red spider during summer, and it is considered more profitable to destroy the plants and raise a new supply from seeds, than to attempt to cope with the pest. To raise plants that will begin to flower early in winter, the seed should be sown about the end of January in boxes of light soil placed in a sheltered situation or cold frame. The seedlings may be transplanted into beds and sheltered during very hot weather until the autumn, when they should t>e planted in their flowering quarters. The position selected should be open and sunny, the edge of an exposed border being suitable. Seeds sown in the open ground during winter or spring will produce plants that will bloom during summer and autumn if the position selected is sheltered a-^d moist. Plants intended for late flowering should be mulched and liberally watered during summer to promote growth and check the red spider. Several strains of pansy seeds are offered for sale by local seedsmen, one of the best being Bath's "Empress" a noted strain of fancy pansies. 8 August, 1907.] Garden Notes. 497 Flower Grarden. Pruning of roses should be completed by mid-August in the greater })art of the State. In cold and late districts the operation may be deferred till later, Imt when the growth buds are showing prominently along the shoots, the dormant season has passed and pruning should be finished. Roses were badly infested by aphis during autumn and winter, and close observation will probably show that the buds on the shoots that remained after pruning are still infested. The plants should be cleaned at once, and prunings burned or l)uried deeply. A strong soap or tobacco wash, or a mixture of each, will destroy the aphides, and no harm will ensue if the application is sufficient to drench the soil at the base of the plants. An infusion of tobacco should be used, not a boiled and comparatively useless solution. One thorough spraying is necessary, which should be repeated if any aphides are present a few days later. Divisions of herbaceous plants may be planted. Many of the finest summer flowering plants are of this class, and will repay, by abundance of fine flowers in season, a thorough preparation of the soil before planting. The tall and large leaved kinds, such as cannas, require a deep and well enriched soil to assure a supplv of moisture at the roots, sufficient to maintain a large evaporating surface of foliage during dry weather. Plants with abundant leafage need abundant moisture and cool soil during summer. When the plants are set out and sufficient water applied to settle the soil around them, a mulching of stable manure will lessen the need of after watering. The surface should be reduced to a fine condition before applying the mulch. Herbaceous plants suitable for most parts of the State are delphinium, jjerennial phlox, canna, pentstemon, helianthus, dielvtra, shasta daisv, oriental poppy, peony, tritoma, hemerocallis, rudbeckia, salvia (herbaceous). Bulbs of gladioli may be planted to flower earlv and divisions of dahlias for the same purpose. Seeds of hardv annuals may be sown, and transplantings made from sowings in autumn. Vegetable Garden. Ground should be in readiness for planting out from former sowings, and sowing seeds of most vegetables in demand during the summer. In limited areas, if the soil is suitable, vegetables that require to be used quite freshly gathered tO' give satisfaction should be grown. Herbs and sala dings are worthv of consideration and can be grown well in small gardens. The class of vegetables grown should be changed as often as possible. Better results are obtained bv a quick rotation, and also greater immunitv from insect and fungoid attacks. Growing crops should be thinned, and kept free from weeds. The hoe should be kept going between the rows, and the soil brought to as fine a condition as possible. 498 Journal of Agriculture. [8 August, 1907. THE PROCLAIMED PLANTS OF VICTORIA. (Continued from page 438.) Alfred J. Ewart, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Botanist; and J. R. Tovcy, Herbarium Assistant. The Chinese Scrub. Cassinia arcuata, R. Brown. {Comfosita.) An erect shrub of 5 or 6 feet, the branches and undersides of the leaves thinly woollv. Leaves narrow linear, rounded at the ends, or with short recurved points, the margins closely rolled back. Flower-heads small and numerous in a long loose, terminal panicle. Involucres cylin- drical, often curved, not 2 lines long, straw coloured, white or brown, the bracts very thin, smooth and shining. Florets two, three, or rarely four. A native of Victoria, New South Wales, South and Western Australia. It should be dug up before flowering, and burned. Proclaimed for the Shire of Waranga, June 1894. GRANT TO AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. The following circular letter has been forwarded to the various Agri- cultural Societies throughout the State : — Department of Agriculture, Melbourne, 20th July, 1907. Conditions re Government Grant to Agricultural Societies. Sir, — Adverting to previous communications on the above subject, and to the circular of ist March, 1907, setting out the conditions to be complied wLth, I have the honour to inform vou that it has been decided to modify the conditions in the direction of making all four optional ; that is, none of the conditions are to be compulsory, but any three of the four set out may be selected. Also, concerning Condition A (Examination for Soundness in Horses), it has been decided to modify the method of examination so as to allow of the examination being made con- currently with (he judging of the classes, so that the condition will now read as follows : — ii. Method of Examination.— The veterinary officer to be in the judging ring at the time of judging, and to act with the judge so far as the deter- mination of the question of soundness or otherwise of any exhibit is concerned, and to make, and be given facilities for making, such examination of any exhibit as he deems necessary to arrive at such determination. The decision of the veterijiary officer on the matter of the soundness of any exhibit shall be final, and no exhibit deemed by him to be unsound shall be awarded a prize. I shall be glad if your Society will take this modification of the conditions into consideration at an early date, and let me know which three of the four options are chosen. Of course it is now competent for you to alter any previous choice made if you so desire. I have the honour to be, &c., E. G. DUFFUS, Secretary for Agriculture. The Secretary, Agricultural Society, % f' PLATE 15 , It C 'Wautr,])eL- JS Toveu .Sirex J.JCenfiJcUna CovtPnnter CHINESE SCRUB (Cassuwcb (irGuaici,Roi Brown.) 8 August, 1907.] Silos 071 d Silage. 499 8IL0S AND SILAdE. A. ^. Kenyan, C.E., Engineer for Agriculture. In the Journal for December last were printed the personal experiences of several farmers in the making and use of silage. Since then much more testimony has been received, and as the season for making spring ensilage is approaching, the present is a suitable occasion to place extracts from those letters before the farming community. That they do not all sing praises, and that most point out room for improvement, merely confirms what has already been noted that in silage making there is still a deal to be learnt. The conditions for its successful manufacture vary with the climatic conditions and the locality. Fodder cut too green becomes at times slimy ; cut too late, there is a tendency to mould. Still the use of silage is fast on the increase. The additional sums provided last year by the Honorable the Treasurer for the assistance of farmers in the erection of silos have been all expended. It is proposed to allot the sum of jQi.ooo for the present year. Many applications for silos are alreadv in. CLIMAX ENSILAGE CUTTER AND BLOWER. Last April, a trial of a new American silage cutter and blower was made. It is named the " Climax Ensilage Cutter and Blower." The cutting of the green stuff is done bv blades with straight cutting edges. The blades are attached to^ a wheel similarlv to those o-f an ordinary chaffcutter; the cutting edges are not radial, but inclined forwards. The effect is to give a chopping action instead of the draw-knife motion of the chaffcutter. Other American makes of silage cutters have spirally curved cutting blades revolving round a spindle much after the style of a lawn mower. Neither sort is capable of producing a decent sample of chaff, however efficient they may be at cutting green stuff. In the '' Climax " cutter^ the fans of the blower are attached to the cutting Joiirual of Agriculture. [8 August, 1907. wheel on the opposite side to the blades, and the whole is cased in. In the other makes, the blower is separate. The trial which was held at the farm of Mr. F. Wimpole, Preston, showed the advantages as well as demonstrating some of the drawbacks of the machine. It cut green maize well and quickly up to the rate of 20 tons per hour, and elevated it without trouble into the silo. It took approximately 10 horse power to run it, the greater part of the power being needed for the blower. Con- siderable strength, beyond that of the ordinary farmer, is required to cut, cart in, and feed as much fodder as the machine can handle. It is not. in short, suitable for the average farmer, though well adapted for a large one or for cutting bv contract with a complete travelling plant, engine, waggons and teams. ^lessrs. H. V. ]\IcKay & Co., the local agents for the " Climax Cutter," are experimenting in the construction of a machine which will cut both chaff and silage, and blow up the cut stuff. It Avill cut about 4 tons per hour and should be driven by the ordinary motive power at a farmer's disposal. It is understood also that the CHAFFCUTTER FITTED TO CHAIN ELEVATOR. " Ohio Cutter " representatives, Messrs. Welch, Perrin & Co., are getting out a small sized cutter and blower which will be free to a great extent from the objections to the larger sized machines. Meanwhile it is well to know that the chain and slat elevator is effective; is cheap; and requires but little power to drive it. The method of connecting it to the chaffcutter is simple and easily contrived. The accompanving illus- tration gives a good idea of how to do it. What is probablv a record in silage for Australia, if not for the world, has been experienced at Euronyhareenyha Station, near Wagga. This station is owned by the Australian Mortgage, Land and Finance Co.. and during the past three months 19,000 sheep and 400 head of cattle have been fed almost entirely on silage. During the past four good seasons, reserves of silage were accumulated on the station, and when the drought set in at the .end of last summer a quantity of 3,000 tons was available. The silage was made chiefly from the mixture of barley, grass and lucerne, which forms the first growth each season on the irri- 8 August, 1907.] Silos and Silage. 501 gated paddocks. Various methods were adopted for preserving the silage. A 500 ton silo was built, on the plan introduced by Dr. Cherry, and filled with the above materials after they had been passed through a chaffcutter. Pits were scooped out of a sandhill, and stacks of silage were built, with and without additional weighting. As a result of the feeding, not only has the station maintained all its own live stock through the drought, but 5,000 sheep from another property have been drafted to it. The condition of the stock has been well maintained, and lambing is progressing with satisfactory results. The average cost of making the silage was about 5s. per ton, and, allowing a similar amount for the cost of feeding it to the sheep, the total expense works out at less than 6d. per month per sheep. If this silage had not been available it would have been necessary to have trucked nearlv all the stock for at least 200 miles tO' get it out of the drought area. Recent rain has started the grass, which is now assured for this season. Dr. Cherry is satisfied that in another year considerable improvement may be made in the quality of the silage. So far the sheep have not eaten it so well as the cattle, but the success of this year's work shows the possibilities of future developments along similar lines. It is probable that the peculiar nature of the silage was due to its being made at a time when the barley grass which forms a great part of its bulk was in a green and very watery condition. This accords with similar experience elsewhere. The success of the experi- ment may, however, l)e measured by the fact that through its aid, accord- ing to the General Manager of the Company, in Melbourne, an outlay of ;^io,ooo was saved. The results of silage making at the Government P'arm, Wyuna, are detailed in another part of this issue. Mr. J. Briggs, Cudgewa, built his silo himself. He writes: — ■ I built my silo, and it is a great success. I put in about 40 tons chaffed maize and it is in splendid order, no waste at all, being sound and sweet right up to the iron. I made an improvement on the tinsmith's rivets. I found it very difficult to make a close joint, so in the last two rows of horizontal joints, I filled in between the studs with short pieces of 4 x 2, well fitted and nailed, and those two joints will never leak as I nailed them with the clout nails and made a splendid job of it. This is where the value of \w\ innovation comes in. The silage below the three bottom rows of iron is all perfectly sound right up to the iron, while all above that was mouldy five or six inches in. It must be obvious to the most casual observer, that a solid nailed joint must be much more sure of being air-tight than any tinsmith's rivets could make it, and, whatever silos I may build in the future will be built that way. The studding presented a wider space outside than in. I dressed the corners of? with a sharp tomahawk, and thus got the struts in fair and square, and they also brace the whole structure and make it very firm. Although it appears from this that the present system of making the horizontal joints of the iron is not perfect, yet the many examples of successful silage with joints made in the usual way with rivets _ tell a contrary tale. It is intended, however, to put the hoops opposite the horizontal joints of the iron inside instead of outside the studs as usual, and to nail the joints to the hoops. With such an arrangement any doubt as to the air-tightness of the joints ought to disappear. The extra cost will be trifling. Mr. J. F. Reedy, Dandenong, has an experience which is against a suggestion fornierh put forward that the sun's heat affected the silage through the iron walls. He writes : — We have got on very well with our silage. We are feeding 28 cows twice a day and they do well on it, both as a warm feed and for milking. We had 502 Journal of Agriculture. [8 August, 1907. about 60 tons of silage made from green oats. But one thing I cannot understand is this : about three inches all round the outside of silage were no good being black and useless. The silage was trampled tightly in the making and it did not fail away from the sides after being finished. The silo is lined out with sheet iron and weather-boarded outside and has a good roof on it. The only thing that I can account for damaged silage is that some of it was a bit rustv when put in silo. Mr. A. Brebner, Newstead. goes intO' practical and valuable details: — • After the silo was erected, I set a No. 2 Buncle chaffcutter and horse-works at it and commenced filling it about the middle of October, 1906, with a crop of rape in flower and seed, from 4 feet 6 inches to 7 feet high. To every three small loads of rape I put in one of Cape barley out in ear. This took up about 4 to 5 feet, well trampled by foot between each load. Then followed a couple of loads of each of the following alternately ; a mixture of spear grass, trefoil, and lucerne, thousand headed kale, marsh mallows, and thistles (both sow and varie- gated). After that, I put in wheat with a good deal of undergrowth, followed by 3 acres of Algerian oats in the milky stage. As it was getting somewhat dry towards the end, I occasionally put in a bucketful of water, finishing up with a load of old straw made very wet, ehalfed, and then again watered well, trampled solidly and about 4 tons of cord wood packed on top. I had a pipe inserted whilst filling and kept thi; temperature about 95 to 105 degrees from 2 to 3 feet from the surface, cutting and filling when the temperature got up to the 100 degrees and letting it stand when it went down below 90 degrees. After being weighted the glass stood at 122 degrees for three weeks, then gradually receded to 106 degrees when it was opened on the 9th of January of this year. It had sunk 22 inches only, and the coat of wet straw chaff had formed a mould which appeared to be practically air proof, for there was not 5 an inch of waste between the two, and only an occasional patch of mould now and then near the iron, the bulk being good right up to the wall. I have not yet got through the oats, although feeding g cows, 4 calves and 4 horses, the latter get a bucketful each per day. Of course they also have the run of the paddock, which does not contain much nourishing feed now (February). Six of the above are milking cows. As to the cost of filling, it is only a rough estimate, as I cut a good deal with the scythe in out of the way corners ; getting to the paddock I used a mower and horse rake. It was cut one day and chaffed the next. One horse carted, and another worked the cutter and elevator at short spells. The silage was well trampled between each load, especially the outside edge, which was kept about i foot higher than the centre. Roughly speaking, I consider the cost of filling at 6s. per ton, apart from the cost of crop. Through the lower 10 feet, I spread i cwt. of fine salt, a layer now and then, but cannot judge of the benefits or otherwise for a time, not having reached it yet. I con- sider that one cannot tramj)le it too much whilst filling, so as to press out the air as soon as possible. It is turning out good quality and it is not an easy mntter to keep the cattle away from the silo. I am feeding at the rate of 40 lbs. per day to a full grown beast. After Mr. Brebner's experience, there should be no hesitation in putting almost any kind of crop into the silo. It should be noted that his cost for filling includes that of harvesting. Mr F. C. Curlewis, Rutherglen, is not perfectlv satisfied but is observing closeh' with a view to improvement: — I have the silo about half emptied. The barley part of my ensilage is not as satisfactory in appearance, etc., as the white oats part; it is drier and much more liable to mould and has retained its heat right through, whereas any separate [latches of white oats are quite cool and much greener and sweeter. The cows eat it all very greedily, but during January and February they did not do so well as one was led to expect by the reports. Our dairy herd is not yet a repre- sentative one as we onlv started milking last May and in this, a non-dairying district, it is not easv to pick up good cows and as most of the heifers were young or else calved during April or May, we cannot really judge of the merits or demerits of the cows or of the ensilage. There is no question, however, that compared with other suppliers to our creamery, our returns have gone down very little and less so since we have fed on bran and reduced the ration of ensilage 15 to 20 lbs. per cow to 5 to 10 lbs. according as the cow is freshly in or not. 8 August, 1907.] Silos a//d Silage. 503 Mr. T. R. Xicholls, Drummartin, is not a dairy farmer. His ex- perience with the sheep confirms the fact that for sheep, silage has to be made both well and from good fodder. We opened the silo the second week in Murcli and have been usinj^ it con- tinuously ever since. The first two weeks we fed i6 bullocks. I then sold them and started to feed 160 ewes and 6 head of cattle, and have fed them daily ever since. The cattle had a small dray load of damaged stuff daily, and the sheep a somewhat larger quantity of the best ensilage. The cattle ate it well from the start, but there was a good deal of waste on account of its being damaged. The cattle kept their condition fairly well. The three cows we were milking got hay chaff twice daily in addition. ' The ensilage did not appear to make much difference in the yield of milk, but kept them in good health, being fine in their skins. We had more difficulty with the sheej); for the first week they ate very Tittle. We laid it on the ground in rows, but they ran over it and destroyed the greater part. We then got some iron troughs and got on much better feeding them then. Sheep like it well cut. We had ours cut with an ensilage cutter, r-.nd it was cut long. The sheep would pick out the fine and the long stuff we used to take home for the cattle. Another year we will cut it with a chaffcutter. We found a good deal of waste in the silo. I should say one-third was damaged, on an average i foot to 15 inches around the outside was very inferior, and there were patches further in apparently mildewed. We had a man in the silo whilst filling. I think he did not trample it evenly. After every load was out, three or four men would go in and trample it mostly on the outside, which I now think was not a good thing. What is wanted is an even pressure all over it. Next time when filling, I will have a shoot to run the ensilage into the centre of the silo, and after every load is cut, gO' in and trample it evenly all cxver. I find in making ensilage or hay, the better the quality of the material the better the ensilage or hay. A neighboTir helped us when filling the silo, and then we helped him fill his silo. The material we used was wild oats, with a mixture of wheat about 5 feet long. The wild oats were a bit on the dry side. My neighbour's was Algerian oats about 3 feet hiph and fairly green. His sheep were very fond of it, and would run to meet the dray when they were bringing it out. He fed it on the ground to them and had very little waste. In the silo the damage was much the same as in ours. I hope, next year, with the ex- perience we have gained this time to turn out a better article. My neighbour had an unfortunate experience of spontaneous combustion with his stack ensilage. Here is his account : — The crop cut for ensilage was self sown wild oats ; 27 acres were cut with a mower and carted and stacked while being cut. The crop was out in ear and beginning to turn in colour. Twelve winding drums with ratchets and levers were used, six on each side of the stack. There were six heavy logs put underneath the stack and the drums were bolted down to the ends of the logs. The six cables were made from three fencing wires (No. 8) twisted together and put over the stack and fastened to the drums. The drums were then turned with the levers (both on the same cable on each side of the stack at one time) until very tight, and levers were shifted to the next two drums until all were tightened. The stack was pulled down every day for a while, and then every few days, then every week or so. It had not been pulled down about a month before the fire, and as the stack had been built over three months, we considered it would be set. Fifteen days after the fire there was a big heap of stuff just smouldering away in flakes. A few days after the fire we removed 3 feet off part of the top to see if there was any of it not burned but the fire had apparently got through it all, as it was all black and smoking. We had to water it well to be able to stand on the stack to take any off. The fire was blazing at 6.30 in the morning before any one noticed it. There must have been many tons weight on the stack as we broke two of the cables pulling it down and it was good wire. This is an unusual occurrence and speaks in favour of weighting which gives a continuous pressure. Messrs. Swan 8c Sons, Londrigan, write : — • Although all grass has dried up our cows are keeping up well on the ensilage and are also in splendid condition. The top part of the silo was rather unsatis- factory but we think this was due to using it too soon, and not using enough at each feeding, owing to maize and other green feed being plentiful. There is 504 Journal of Agriculture. [8 August, 1907. also a good deal of waste round the outside, but nowhere else. We are feeding about 30 lbs. to each cow with about 3 lbs. of bran, and the cows never looked better. We are milking 25, and 13 of these are heifers. At present we are getting 41 gallons of milk per day with a 4.3 test. There are no mouldy patches. We think we made a mistake in using it too soon after filling especially as we had plenty of green maize and a good naddock of lucerne. On the whole we are well satisfied and shall fill the silo next season taking care to finish off on top more carefully than we did this season. We kept four men constantly trampling the ensilage during the filling of the silo and frequently had seven or eight trampling at intervals, but we made the com- mon mistake of not keeping the sides higher than the middle. We did not put any weight on top, or seal in any way, but started using immediately after filling. The waste occurred we think through not using it in sufficient quantities, thereby having too much surface exposed to the air for too long a time. Mr. Henry Foster, Whitfield Estate, says: — I filled my silo three parts full of maize and broom corn — all it was possible to get in as it was getting too drv. I lost about 18 inches all round the walls, and a little through the bulk, but, on the whole I was very pleased with the result. The cows got quite fond of it, and in the spring came in quite fat, and had no leeway to make up when they calved and started milking. I am just on the point of again filling my silo with maize and broom corn. The broom corn referred to is the stalks left after cutting for the market. Owing to its woodv nature, it is of very little use if left in the field for the cows to eat, but made into ensilage it is fairly good feed becoming soft and succulent. Mr. H. Jacob, Mildura, writes at some length, but to great benefit. The following is extracted from his letters, one in March and the other in May : — I have had the floor of the silo cemented, as before it was only covered with bags; I now hope to have the silage good right to the bottom. The bag chute previously mentioned is now working, and I find it quite satisfactory. It saves moving the stuff as I can guide the chute to any part. Also I believe it will make better silage as it is evenly mixed and sets firmer ; before, the leaves or flag being all together were spongy. I am keeping it well trodden especially around the sides. The maize is at its best, being well cobbed, and just beginning to get hard, but the stalk and leaves are green. I am filling at the rate of t, tons a day so it will take me a fortnight to complete. No extra help is employed so we are only able to put in five hours a day at one ton per hour. There are three working at it, one carting, one cutting, and one chaffing. The extra cost, charging the ruling rate of wage at 8d. per hour, is 2S. per ton, so £6 for filling a 60-ton silo is not very expensive. The silo is serving its purpose as a guide to others, as another dairvman has one erected. He came here for particulars, but he seemed to think it could be built much cheaper, so he has had one built partly on his idea and partly on this one. The changes he made I do not agree with. They are as follow : — Only three wooden bands 6 feet apart, using fencing wire between. The 6-feet sheets of iron standing upright around the sides. No foundation posts, but a round trench dug in which he places the uprights, which are of redgum, and without bands to hold them in place I had 54 tons when finished, but now I have reduced it bv 6 feet. I find hardly any waste aroimd the sides, the average being only 3 or 4 inches, and, about half way round good right up to the iron. The good quality and the small waste I put down to using the chute and ramming the sides. I used an old cog wheel i foot in diameter with a stick in centre for handle and after treading well I found with ramming that I could force it down 6 inches or more. Also the chute lets the stuff fall without dividing, the grain, stalk, leaves, and small chaff falling together fit closer, thereby excluding the air. Further it saves levelling and makes better feed, as each cow gets her proper proportion of grain, leaves, &c. The sides of silo, I covered with a thick lime-wash. The joints in iron I made to all appearances, air-tight, by well smearing them, and as they face upwards, it is very easy to do. In your table of the different ages of maize, the older it gets, the better it is for ensilage. Would the extra 8 August, 1907.] Silos and Silage. 505 nourishment be produced by the ripe crop? If so I should like to know if we get the advantage of that. As I find the manure full of grains not digested, would it be better to cut it a little younger? I see no occasion for waste around the sides presuming they are air-tight. I noticed in reading about silo filling, tliat it was done in a few days. The impression gained thereby was that if too long a time were taken over it, the stuff would spoil. I think I am the longest; from start to finish it took three weeks. Being shorthanded through illness, I lost over a week, three days being the longest period of not cutting. But I find no trace of any ditlerence in suage, as I have passed the place where stoppage occurred. I started to feed as soon as silo was finished, so did not cover or have any waste on top. Lucerne hay and maize ensilage make an ideal feed for dairy cows. I have cows milking up to 16 and i8 quarts a day with no other feed. The silo I look upon the same for preserving green feed as the hay stack for dry, and it would be just as reasonable to leave our hay exposed to the weather and cut it when wanted as to leave the maize growing until required. I think I mentioned before that it cost me 2s. a ton to fill the silo. I thought some might think it was a misrepresentation on mv part. The facts are as follow : The distance to haul was about 200 yards, and the crop was heavy, standing from 9 to 10 feet, some 12 feet. (These are some of the advantages of irrigation and small areas.) One person cut and placed in heaps of about 5 cwt. each, whilst another carted. We use a trolly bed, rS inches off the ground, so one person can [)ut on the whole load (10 cwt.) without any help. At the chaffculter I have a table 8 feet by 6 feet, level with the feed-box. On this the carter places the whole load at once, with the butts towards me, so that I can cut up the whole 10 cwt. without moving from my place. They were able to keep me well supplied and it worked very well ; I did not have one stoppage for want of feed. The horses work by themselves. ^\s I am close by, any attention they want, I am able to see to at once. As we cut i ton an hour, three persons employed at 6s. a day, or 8d. an hour, makes the 2S. per ton. The actual cash cost to me comes out at 6d. per ton. One boy receives £1 a week and keep, and the other los. Many farmers having sons are quite able to do the same, so there is no' occasion to fear that the expense of filling a silo with chaffed maize is too expensive. Wheii mentioning the 6d. per ton, no allowance is made for my own services. I think your Department has done a good work in bringing the matter well before the farmers, and with the experiences collected and ])ub- lished, will be quite sufficient to dispel any doubt which any one may have in regard to the advantage of having a silo. Mr. W. J. Chinn, Rural View, Clvdebank, writes: — As a fodder I must say that I like ensilage very well, but at the same lime there is far too much waste with the mouldy j)atches. In my silo there is always a waste of about 3 to 4 inches all round the sides, really rotten wet stuff. The mouldy patches I work in with the good, so that it is not altogether waste. At the present time I am feeding on ensilage made of oats with a little hay chaff mixed with it. I give each cow one milk-dishful night and morning with about r pint of bran mixed with each feed; 28 cows fed thus give from 44 to 48 gallons of milk daily. Mr. John F. Fortune, Yunclool, says: — I have not yet started feeding ensilage, but shall do so about the middle of this month. I had the following in for green feed : — Japanese millet, 4 ; Amber cane, 17; Planter's Friend, 9; Teosinte, 10; Cow peas, 15; and pumjikins, 2 acres; total, 57 acres. As the cows will go direct from grazing on cow peas to ensilage I cannot anticipate an increase in yields, rather the reverse, I fancy, as for the last three years, cow peas have proved the best milk and butter-fat producers of all the green fodders, but the silage will doubtless maintain the supply for a prolonged period. Mr. Fortune is about to erect another silo as he finds is indispensable for the profitable working of his herd. Mr. James Bennett, Warracknabeal, writes: — We opened our silo on the first of March and have found it in a very satis- factory state. There are about 4 inches of waste under the sand and a little around the edge of the iron for about a foot down. I am feeding to dry catde 5°*^ Jour7ial of Kgriciiliitrc. [8 August, 1907. once a day and two milch cows twice a day, about one kerosene tin at a feed. The cows have the run of a stubble paddock and so far are keepinj^ up their milk which I was not able to do last year on the irrigated green stuff. ^fr. James Baker, Gheringhap, adds to his previous report: — I have been waiting to see if the sheep would take to it, which I am glad to say they have done, and I hope to be able to speak well of it for feeding sheep later on. I have got a nice crop of maize coming on to refill the silo. Feeding results : — I have been giving about 25 lbs. of barley silage to steers 2^ years old to keep them in good condition which it is doing well. Loss through 'damaged sides : — On an average about 6 inches, being mostly at the joints, and in places good to the side in the centre of sheet. All the rest is coming out in good con- dition, no mouldy patches. The crop of barle^ was very coarse, 4 acres filling the silo, 15 feet by 21 feet, which settled 4 feet before being opened. As far as my experience goes more care is needed to make silo airtight than for maize, and I am going to put in more rivets before filling again. Tlie settlement in this case was too great, more trampling \vhile filling is advisable. jNIr. J. L. Todd, Bulleen Road, writes: — I started feeding it to about 50 cows on the 2ncl December and fed two Vjig bucketfuls to each cow every day. It lasted till the qth March. I ahvays had from 48 to 52 cows feeding on it, so consider it lasted marvellously well. This was no doubt due to it having been so w'ell trampiled. There was practically no loss except at the bottom where there were about two bags of a mouldy patch. When the silo was filled no weights were placed on the top of the silage at all. The excellent condition, which was uniform throughout, was due I think to the great amount of trampling which Mr. Connor of your Department insisted on having done. Although filling the silo seems to be a great labour at the time, I consider it a lot less libour thrin having to stook your hay, then stack it, and finally to cut it into chaff before you can feed it to your cows, and it also saves the cost of bags. Of course it is needless toi say the cows were exceedingly fond of it. The thing that struck me most about the silage was the length of time it lasted. ]Mr. John R. Orr, Murchison, writes : — We filled the silo with dirty oats, &c., chaffed up, and finished filling about 14th November. About i foot of earth was put on top for weight. It was opened about the 6th of February. Under the dirt, about i inch of silage in the centre, and around the outsides about i foot, was rotten till it got down about 3 feet. Then there is about i inch all round the walls that has never turned into silage, being quite green, and 4 or 5 inches in from that again are musty (it is empt.ed down 7 feet from top). The cows have eaten the silage well, including the bad and rotten stuff, it being all cleaned up. About twenty cows have been fed on it at the rate of about 20 lbs. a cow per day for about a fortnight. Since then we have been feeding on green maize and sorghum. These w-ill be done in about two or three weeks, when we will go back to the silage. There is more butter per week from the silage than there is from the maize and sorghum. I think the wall of the silo is not thick enough, it will not hold the heat in long enough to turn the stuff around the sides into silage. Have there been any silos built yet with a double wall and filled up between the two walls with charcoal or sawdust, or some other material that will not rot the timber in the walls? The thickness of the wall has nothing to do with the matter. The bright green colour is due to the chemical effect of the lime Avash while the damaged stuff inside that is due to air escaping as the silage settles. Well trampling and well weighting will reduce this to a minimum. It is not, however, waste as if not in great (juantity it is as readily eaten by the cows as the rest of the silage. Messrs. Gray Bros., Wedderburn, say: — We started filling silo on 23rd October, with 12 acres of crop, half wild oats and half wheat, oats well out in ear, and wheat budding — no dry flag. We com- pleted filling on the 27th. The crop was cut into chaff with stearn cutter, ordinary length, and elevated with chain elevator. The cost of cutting, carting, chaffing. S August. 1907.] Silos and Silage. 507 and 5 per cent, on cost of 65 tons silo was 4s. 3d. per ton. One man was continually in the silo during filling, and sometimes three or four for one hour. \Ye filled at the rate of 6 feet per day. Trampled round the sides well on finishing and sprinkled 15 gallons of water over silage, which was covered with old bags, and 8 inches of pulverized loam. The silo was opened on 23rd March. There was a layer of mould 6 inches in centre to 10 inches at sides, and a layer of mould around sides 15 inches thick. Have been feeding to lambing ewes at rate of 2 lbs. per head, and after a day or so, they seemed to do well on it. Whilst regretting the waste round the sides, we are, on the whole, convincerl of the advantages of silage for this district. A later letter states: — There are now 7 feet of silage in the silo, and the mould round the edges of the silo has reduced to 4 inches, and in parts only of the outer edge of the silage is any mould to be found. Mr. J. M. B. Connor, Dairy Supervisor, reports having visited Tatura on 17th April to open the silo erected under this Department's supervision at the farm of Mr. Henry Lock wood of Harston. The crop grown consisted of 4 acres of maize ; 2 acres were manured at the rate of twenty loads of farm-yard manure to the acre, the balance of the land receiving no manure. Where the land was manured the crop grew 3 feet higher and yielded about 3 tons more fodder to the acre. Fifty tons were taken off the 4 acres, and filled the silo in within 4 feet of the top. The crop from appearance was cut slightly on the ripe side, but as there was plenty of water used, the silage turned out a splendid sample, with practically no waste on the top surface, the top being covered with a layer of saturated old chaff, which was then covered with a foot of sand. During the filling the fodder was well trampled and about i cwt. of salt spread. The silage is being fed to 30 cows, which are very fond of it. Mr. George Sloss, Bacchus Marsh, writes : ■ — I put one u;i on the plan you laid down in the Year Book of Agriculture for iq.05. Mr. Kenyon was up and gave me a few hints, and, when I was ready to fill it, Mr. Connor came and lent a hand for the first day. Both his and Mr. Kenyon's services were very acceptable. Unfortunately I did not have enough maize to fill the silo. W'hen it was all in, it was not 8 feet high. However, it did not settle down much, and for the last four or five weeks I have been feeding 22 cows on it, twice a day. The cows say it is good, being very fond of it, leaving none their tongue can reach, and with the help of the ensilage and the nice green grass, they have nearly doubled their milk supply. Farmers desirous of having silos erected upon the departmental terms must apply in accordance with the following form, copies of which can be obtained on application. APPLICATION FOR THE CON.STRUCTION OF A SILO. 190 The Seceet.ary for Agriculture, Melbourne. I hereby apply for the construction of a Silo aud of an Flevator to fill same, and I hereby agree to comply with the conditions set forth hereunder. Signature. Name of applicant in full — ■ Name of parish and No. of allotment — Postal address — Nearest railway station — Capacity of silo required — No. of Stock to which silage is to be fed. Cows^ Sheep — Crops propo.sed to be grown for silage— No. of acres — Make and No. of chaffcutter — Diameter of cutter spindle — Or particulars of proposed filling arrangements — Proposed method of payment — In full on completion of silo or in three equal annual instalments secured by promissory notes — CONDITIONS. The applicant must either pay in full the amount claimed by the Department of Agriculture as the cost of supplying and erecting the silo upon presentation of 5o8 Journal of Agriculture. [8 August, 1907. the account, or he must give three promissorv notes, each for one-third of such amount, the first payable on the ist of June next after completion of silo and the second and third payable on each following ist of June respectively. The applicant must cart the silo material — weight about 3 tons for standard 60-ton size — from the nearest railway station to the site ; must meet the Builder when advised, convey him to the work, board and lodge him and provide him with the necessarv assistance (three men) while building — four to five days. The green fodder must be chaffed and the silo filled and weighted under the supervision of an officer of the Department, or in accordance with instructions issued by the Department. Full records must be kept of the results obtained from feeding the silage and a report made to the Department. DETAIL.S OF DiMEN.SIONS , C.4PACITV, AND MATERIALS Required. Approx. Weigrlit. Length of Trammel. Ins'de Diameter. Height. Capacity. Studs. Battens for Hoops. Iron. 6 X 3 X 24g. Black. 6 X 3 V 945,. Galvd. Ft. In. Ft. Tons. Sheets. T. C. Lbs. T. C. (ir.s. 1 21 4o 66 17 ft. 6 X 1 49 0 7 0 0 8 3 6 9 12 10-^ 24 56 29 fi9 ,, 56 0 8 0 0 10 0 I 30 80 81 ,, 70 0 in 0 0 12 -2 14 sJ 21 GO 63 18 ft. 6 x-i 56 0 « 0 0 10 0 7 8 24 73 33 <)9 ,, 64 0 9 16 Oil 2 1 30 100 81 ,, 80 0 11 44 0 12 1 ( 21 76 83 17 ft. 6 X \ 63 0 9 0 0 11 1 S 7 16 C- 24 94 37 91 ,, 72 0 10 32 0 12 3 \ 30 130 107 „ 90 0 13 0 0 16 1 Notes. The ordinary horseworks and chaffcutter are suitable for cutting and filling silage. 'i'he silo should be well white-washed inside with a thick wash made of lime and skim milk. This can be done each evening after filling, the silage serving as a scaffold. The crop should not be cut until it has reached the proper stage of maturity. Trample the silage as much as possible, esj)eciallv round the sides, keeping the centre high. Fill in not less than 5 feet and as much as 12 feet per day When filled, put on a 12-inch layer of chaffed straw well wetted, and load over whole surface with 3 to 5 tons of earth, stones, or other convenient material. It is better to chaff the green stuff on the dav that it is cut. Keep the bottom hoop clear of earth and rubbish. 8 August, 1907.] Cheap I\lotor Power on the Farm. 509 CHEAP MOTOR POWER OX THE FARM. /. M . B. Connor, Dairy Supervisor. When inspecting the dairy farm owned by Mr. W. J. McVeigh at Craigieluirn I was greatly taken with the novel and ingenious method adopted for working the chaffcutter. M'he arrangement is JNIr. McVeigh's own idea, and the work of erection has been planned and carried out by him. It consists of a motor-bicycle, 2f H.P., driving a two-bladed chaffcutter, with a 9-in. mouth, which cuts for a herd of 30 cows, and something additional for neighbours' requirements. From the motor, an ordinary separator cable drives on to a separator intermediate wheel, two feet in diameter, from whirh a i^-in. pu'lev dri\esi on tO' a rnillev of similar size on the chaffcutter. The motor is kept cool, b\ the ingenious fixing of a pair Oif 12-in. fans, driven at an angle of 45 degrees, with a flexible shaft at a speed of 1,500 revolutions per minute, w'hich keeps the motor cooler than during the ordinary use on the road. The motor is fixed in a convenient stand from which it can be dismantled and made ready for road use in a couple of minutes. Chaff is cut at the rate of 15 cwt. per hour at a cost of pd. per ton. On my arrival at the farm Mr. McVeigh had just finished cutting 30 bags of chaff for one of his neighbours, so I had an opportunity of seeing evervthing going at full speed ; about an hour afterwards I noticed him riding the motor along the Sydnev-road at the rate of about fifteen miles an hour. The illustration attached is from a photograph taken at the time, and will convev some idea of the fixing of the mechanism. 5IO Journal of Agriculture. [8 August, 1907. STATISTICS. Rainfall in Victoria. Second Quarter, 1907. Table showing average amount of rainfall in each of the 26 Basins or Regions con- stituting the State of Victoria for each month and the quarter, with corresponding monthly and quarterly averages for each Basin deduced from all available records to date. April. -May. Ju le. ^ U ■£ lA b e8 Basin. :3 •2 a. a c fcc s tao c bJ) «2 'c fcro-B < 2.33 5 So o3 > < 0 J^ S 0 1.40 A vera Total Secon <. CO Glenelg and Wannon Rivers 3. 96 2.69 2.-56 3.64 8 . 05 8.53 Fitzroy, Eumerella, and Merri 4.. 52 2.52 2.97 3.13 1.79 3.86 9.28 9.51 Rivers Hopkins River and Mount .3.30 2.37 2.65 2.45 1.32 3.23 7.27 8.05 Emu Creek Mount Elephant and Lake 3.27 2.19 2.07 2.33 0.86 2.95 6.20 7.47 Corangamite Otway Forest 3.96 3.64 3.. 36 4.51 1.39 5.09 8.71 13.24 Moorabool and Barwon Rivers 3.-52 2.35 2.02 2.55 1.27 2.85 6.81 7.75 Werribee and Saltwater Rivers 2.73 2.41 1.12 2.56 1.71 3.05 5.56 S . 02 Yarra River and Dandenong 4.23 3.15 2.17 3.33 1.47 3.67 7.87 10.15 Creek Koo-wee-rup Swamp 4.20 3.41 2.18 3.73 1.09 3.81 7.47 10.95 South Gippsland 6.58 3.61 1.71 3.71 1.21 4.56 9.50 11.88 Latrobe and Thomson Rivers 4.94 3.24 2.05 3.49 1.32 3.69 8.31 10.42 Macallister and Avon Rivers 1.97 2.86 0.63 2.10 2.38 2.46 4.98 7.42 Mitchell River 1.95 3.34 0.89 3.14 3.51 2.61 6.. 35 9.09 Tambo and Nicholson Rivers 1..53 3.01 1.02 2.70 3.19 2.71 5.74 8.42 Snowy River 2.15 4.04 2.27 3.14 3.64 4.45 8.06 11.63 Murray River 1.20 1.80 1.03 1.95 1.75 3.20 3.98 6.95 Mitta Mitta and Kiewa Rivers 1.98 2.38 1.90 3.13 2.40 5.29 6.28 10.80 Ovens River 2.68 3.04 2.48 3.54 3.75 6.S6 8.81 12.93 Goulburn River 2.42 2.05 1.45 2.41 1.61 4.00 5.48 8.46 Campaspe River 3.05 2.12 0.81 2.66 1.21 3.69 5.07 8.47 Loddon River 2.13 1.73 0 . 98 1.87 1.37 2.78 4.48 6.38 Avon and Richardson Rivers 1.55 l..'S3 1.57 1.53 1.05 2.30 4.17 5.36 Avoca River 1.63 1.69 1.20 1.67 1.24 2.74 4.07 6.10 Western Wimmera ... 3.. 56 1.86 2.61 1.88 1.29 2.82 7.46 6 . 56 Eastern Wimmera ... 2.30 2.06 2.60 2.14 1.34 3.S4 6.24 7.54 Mallee Country 1.39 1.27 1.31 1.22 1.08 2.37 3.78 4.86 The whole State 2.59 2.26 1.76 2.35 1.70 3.39 6.05 8.00 Figures in tliese columns are subject to alterations when the complete niini))er of returns for June iias been received. P. BARACCHI, Government A stronomer. 8 August, 1907.] Statistics. Perishable and Frozen Produce. Quarters en'ded 30th June, 1907 and 1906. Exports from the State. Deliveries from the Description of Produce. Government Cool Stores. 1907. 1906. 1907. 1906. Butter lbs. 2,771,296 4,349,644 911,568 1,702,064 Cheese // 249,601 376,360 111,489 46,731 Ham and Bacou II 928,800 531,800 Milk and Cream cases 7,161 3,616 ISO Poitltry head 15,870 15,400 2,438 1,823 Eggs . . . dozen 9,156 7,830 45,549 38,372 Mutton and Lamb carcasses 30,914 20,840 9,221 851 Beef ... quarters 410 888 Veal carcasses 2,899 1,920 213 Pork II 462 1,272 122 561 Ral)bits and Hares pairs 600,864 1,846,644 402,972 845,874 Fruit cases 37,725 52,765 3,582 643 /, Pulp ... II 654 491 Sundries lbs. 27,473 36,148 P. J. CARROLL, Artiiiif Superintendent of Exports Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, Grain, &c. Imports and Exports Inspected durixg Quarter ended 30th June, 1907. Goods. Apples Bananas, b/s. Bananas, c/s. Grapes Lemons Mixed fruit Oranges . . . Passion fruit Peaches Pears Persimmons Pineapples Quinces Tomatoes ... Plants Bulbs Totals Imports. Exports. Inter- Over- Inter- Over- State. sea. State. sea. 36.^ 1,132 28,425 85,922 — — — 4,560 136 571 — 9 — 627 — 591 — 277 1,298 564 — 123 1,806 44,2.30 21 442 813 2,046 — 65 21 — — 279 21 119 — 690 2,491 26 — 6 7,552 5 114 105 — — 125 / — 26 405 l;]5 23 344 21 44 — 146,417 343 4, .500 .35,324 Imports. Barley 0 rain Maize Beans Nuts Nutmegs Oats Peas Potatoes Yams Rice Seeds Wheat . Drd. fruits Cnd. fruits Jams, Sauce, etc. Total Inter- State. 4,093 ,^0 151 342 2.8.32 V,13I 47,210 28 4,619 61,4.56 Over- sea. 36 1,088 135 50 107 188 62,7.32 6,401 51 7,453 78,243 Exports. Inter- State. Over- sea. 62,061 4,455 1,066 67,582 Total number inspected — 393,865 packages. J. G. TURNER, Inspector under the Commerce and Veiji'tafion Diseases Arts. 512 Journal of Agriculture. [8 August, 1907. THE ORCHARD. James Laug, Harcourt. Planting operations should be completed as early as possible this month, especially as the weather is unusually dry for the time of the year. If delayed too long the voung trees will not get fairly established before the dry weather sets in, when they will make but weakly growth. Pruning also should be finished as soon as possible this month, otherwise if delayed until the sap begins to rise and the buds to swell the trees are weakened. It will be necessary to use the spray pump in order to deal with mussel scale and red spider. The latter insect does far more injury to the tree than many orchardists suspect, and is far more prevalent than usual this season owing to the dry autumn and winter. It can be observed on the underside of the small branches and fruit spurs, appearing red like brick dust. Kerosene emulsion and red oil are about the best remedies to destroy it. The red oil should be made into an emulsion as follows: — Take an empty kerosene tin ; put in a gallon of soft w' ater and bring it to boil, dissolve i lb. soft soap in it, take the can off the fire and add i gallon red oil, place on the fire again, and stir continually until it just com- mences to boil. Then lift off the fire and work it through a small spray pump for a period of not less than three minutes and make up with cold water to 15 gallons. This sprav can only be used in winter and should not on any account be used in spring or summer. It is also necessary that a complete emulsion should be formed, otherwise the free oil floats on top and comes through the spray pump at the last, wdth the result that it will most certainly kill tree and branch where it comes in contact. Peach trees will require spraying for Ijlack aphis. The old remedy, tobacco and soft soap, is about the best to use. Put i lb. tobacco i.n a tub and pour four gallons of boiling water over it, cover it over and allow it to infuse for an hour or two. Then dissolve 2 lb. soft soap in 2 gallons of water, add this to the tobacco water, and make up the whole to 20 gallons of spray. Kerosene emulsion is also good for the peach aphis. Where the trees are badly affected wdth the aphis they should be sprayed every week to keep it well under. Strawberry plantations may still be renewed ; clear off all the runners in the old beds, and dig or plough between the rows. Raspberries and gooseberries may still be planted, but it is not advisable to plant too late. Old and worn out trees, provided the roots are healthy, can be renewed by cutting them well back ; they will soon shoot again with renewed vigour. If the present varieties are not suitable for market requirements, the trees can be regrafted early next month with varieties better adapted to locality or market purposes. but V. M, a IS apt t.) to I best airv cuvvs lime to ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS— coM<;;ua(/. Identification . would like to know how to prevent white ants doing damage to buildings. Anszucr. — Tainting with Creosote is almost a specific against white ants. All slumps used for foundations should be tarred (two coats) to about 6 inches above the soil, and the joists, &c., should be painted with either Creosote or the "White Ant Specific" (Brooks, llobin- son, and Company, Melbourne). Wooden buildings in districts infested with white ants should be closel)' watched, especially at the swarming time, about end of Januarv. Fi.Ol'R Moths. — C. F. inquires as to the best method of getting rid of moths which infest bin containing fowTs' feed. Forwards specimens. Ansrarr. — The specimens sent are the larvae of the well-known Flour Moth [EpJicstia] which also attacks grain, bran, jnepared cereal foods, &c. The best method of dealing with this pest is by the use of Bisulphide of Carbon evaporated in vessels containing j lb. or 5 lb. each, and it is applied in air-tight bins at the rate of i lb. or I5 lbs. to i ton of grain. For small ((uantities of grain, &c., 1 oz. to each 100 bs. of infected matter should be evaporated. As the vapour of Bisulphide of Carbon is inflammable, every care should be taken. The crevices should be sprayed with Benzole. Ch\rcoai. Drains. — .4. E. S. wishes to know how to i-onvert timber into iliarcoal for making drains. Answer. — When used for draining, timber is not converted into true charcoal, but charred in order to keep off insects and decay. Labour is usually dearer than material, and as pipes are onl\- about £2 per 1,000, such a slow and expensive system as charcoal drains should not le thou'jjlit of. Crafting. — A. E. S. asks whether it is advisable to graft (i) plums on cherry trees; (2) apricots on peaches. W. C. inquires re grafting cherries on plum stocks. Answer. — (i) No; the grafting of cherry trees must be confined to their own species. (2) Apricots are sometimes worked on peaches, but thev thrive best on their own seedling stock, ■excepting in cold and wet regions, where the cherry plum is best. Red Water. — B. D. states that red water has been prevalent in his herd for several rears. Inquires as to cause and treatment. W. B. makes similar inquiry. Answer. — Occurs in drv stock and dairy cows. The form that occurs in connexion with calving is due to an impoverished condition of the blood brought about by injudicious dieting. The non-parturient form w-hich occurs in either dry stock or dairy cows is "enerallv due to a blood parasite. Give raw linseed oil until the bowels loosen, and supplement this with a ('rench containing ammon. carb., 2 oz., nux vomica, \ oz., sodium bicarb., i oz. This should be given twice daily in a quart of warm beer. Sow with Re'tained Membranes. — T. S. writes — " A sow of mine littered, and the fol- lowing morning I found that she had not cleaned. I tried to help her, but found it im- liossible to remove everything. The sow died about an hour later. What should be done in a case like this"? Ansiver. — Give from 3 to 6 oz. of a mixture of equal ])arts of raw linseed oil arid •castor oil. Rejieat, if necessary, in twelve hours' time. If there is a foul smell about the dis- charges, the genital passages ought to be flushed out by injection of Lysol solution (i part in 100 of water), or other antiseptic. Gentle inilling on ' the extended membranes will assist In ■their exjuilsion. FUKE.— Shepherd asks whether there is any cure for fluke in sheep when the stage of swelling under the throat and around the head is reached. Ansicer.So medicine can remove the flukes from the liver, but the general health may be Improved, and convalescence hastened by giving a tonic mixture in troughs, say, i part of sul- phate of iron to 3 parts of common salt. The same lick— given in a dry upland paddock by preference — will form a good preventitive medicine. Rape for Summer Feed. — Sheep Farmer (Tallangatta) would like to know (i) the best time to sow rape seed for early summer feed. (2) Whether there is a cure for sheep badly affected with fluke. Answer.— (i) Try about ist September. This .vill succeed south of the Divifle,_ but it may not come off every season in your district. Still it is worth the risk. See article on ""Experimental Farms" in this issue. (2) See answer to "Shepherd." Whe\t Cultivation. — W. C. asks wdiat is the best depth to_drill wheat. Answer. — Depth varies according to soil, about 3 inches is the best average. BoRi" Acin.— Diamond Creek wants to know how much boric arid may be added to 1 lb. of butter. .Answer. — T'n.ler the Pure Foods Act the amount of boric acid or saltpetre allowed must mot exceed one-fourth (0.2:^) per cent, (by weight). [Continued on lack cover). ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS— cone evinced by the animal lifting the leg up, but this is not a reliable test, as a fidgety horse will do this under any circumstances. The " action," how- ever, of spavin lameness is usually of so distinctive a character as to enable a diagnosis to be made, and the peculiarities may be summarized as follows: — {a) When standing in the .'Stable the weight is taken off the affected limb, which is placed in a forward position, the heel being raised from the ground continuously. This causes the back tendons to gradually contract, in consequence of which, and of the lack of bending of the hock during progression, the toe of the shoe is always the most worn. (b) When a spavined horse is made to " stand over " suddenlv in the stall, he exhibits lameness by a sudden dropping and quick jerking up again of the lame limb ; he also always steps over on his 9 Sept., 1907.] Lameness in Horses. 517 toes. If he is shaiply turned "in hand," i.e., within his own length, he exhibits the same flinching action as when " put over " in the stall. (c) Most lameness is shown when the horse is first taken out of the stable in the morning or after a rest. It lessens with exer- cise, and may pass away to a great extent after he has gone a mile Fi". 02. Hm After Hayes.) or two, but there alwavs remains an apparent stiffness or lack of complete bending of the back joint, and apparently also of the stifle joint. {d) The lameness consists in carrying the hock stiflly, and going with a hopping or tripping action on the toe, a mode of progression that has been ai)tl_\ likened to that of a running hen. There is r Al'ttr Haves. apparent dragging of the toe and a consequent wearing of the hoof at that part. (See Fig. 92.) Percivall has it that the lameness " consists in a sort of spasmodic ' catching up ' of the spavined limb the moment the heel of the foot comes down upon the ground, some- thing; after the manner of stringhalt." Journal of Agriculture. [9 Sept., 1907. {e) When the affected limb has been held up for some time in- a state of flexion, as in shoeing, it is brought to the ground again with very great difficultv, and, if the horse be moved on im- mediately, the lameness 'is extreme for the first fe\v_ steps, the characteristic "hen-running" action being very distinct. As a doubt-relieving measure this test is very reliable. (See Fig. 93.) The visible enlargement at the seat of spavin, when present, is, of course, a valuable aid to the determination of the cause of lameness. (See Figs. 90, 91, 95, and 96.) It may be best seen when standing opposite the shoulder at about an arm's length distance. When viewed from this position the inner line of a sound hock is usually straight (see Fig. 94) ; but when a spavin is present there will be a fullness or bulging of the line towards its lower end. Such fullness may appear in a perfectl}- .s-ound horse which has rough or " coarse " hocks, but in such a case it will be present on each hock. In judging of the existence or other- ^1 Fig. ()4. Clean hock. (After Hayes.) wise of spavin, this question of bi-lateral symmetry, i.e., the sameness of shape and contour of both hocks, is an important one. In the absence of any of the characteristic symptoms detailed above it is a sound rule to decide "no spavin" when both hocks are exactlv alike, no matter the size and shape of the fullness, especially in horses of " bony '" type. Treatment. — The object of treatment is to hasten the completion of the inflammatory action by which the bony deposit is formed — to hasten the union of the bones involved into a so'lid mass ; so that the exciting cause of pain and lameness, w^hich is the attrition or rubbing together of the inflamed bones, mav be removed. To this end, either blistering or firing is the most effective procedure. Neither should be attempted if there is- a great amount of local heat or pain, but this is not common. As a blister, red mercury -ointment is perhaps the best. It should be rubbed in vigorously, and will in most cases require to be repeated at intervals of a few weeks. Failing success from blistering, firing should be resorted to without hesitation ; in fact, were it not for the permanent <9 Sept., 1907.] Lameness in Horses. 519 "blemish caused by firing it would always be considered the more satisfac- tory treatment. It is of a surety always the most certain. Point firing is to be preferred before line firing, and the punctures, of which from three 10 five will usually suffice, should be sufficiently deep as to penetrate into the bony growth. While complete rest is not absolutely essential, any work which imposes a strain on the hock will retard the completion of the bony union. Conse- quently it is advisable to turn the horse out for a spell of two or three months, during which time the foot of the affected limb should be shod with a high-heeled shoe, so that strain on the hock may be lessened. Jarde. This condition, sometimes designated " false spavin," is a bony enlarge- ffnent of the head of the outer splint bone corresponding in situation on Figs. 97 and 98. Jarde the outer aspect of the hock to spavin on the inner aspect. (Figs. 97 and 98.) Though unsightly it is a condition of little importance as it is seldom or never associated with lameness. Curb. Curb is the common name given to an enlargement situated at the back and lower part of the hock. (See Figs. 85, 100, and ici.) It is best seen from the side, and appears as a Imlging (about three to four inches from the point of the hock) in an otlherwise straight line from the point of the hock to the back of the fetlock. The enlargement is consequent on a sprain (with swelling) of a ligament (the calcanco-ciihoid ligament) which runs down- wards from the point of the hock and is inserted into the lower liones of the hock and the up])er part of the cannon bone posteriorly. One function of this ligament is to keep the hock bones in position, and in severe cases of curb when it has been inordinately sprained the lower bones of the hock, particularly the cuboid and small cuneiform bones, tmav be actually displaced and spring backwards. Journal of Ai;r/ciilf//n\ [9 Sept., 1907. Causes. — As with spavin, curb occurs most frequently in horses with defectively formed hocks. The formation most fertile in inducing curb is that in which the point of the hock (the summit of the calcaneum bone, corresponding to the heel-bone of man) is largely developed, while the hock is narrow or " tied in" at the lower part. In such hocks, the muscles attached to the point of the hock, under the influence of great or sudden exertion, cause such a strain to be put upon the calcaneo-cuboid ligament as to severelv sprain it or tear it partially from its lower attach- ment. It is under such circumstances as springing out of boggv or holding ground on the " take-off " side of a jump or when drawing heavy loads uphill that the strain inducing curb most often occurs. Cuibs seen in young unbroken horses are the result of sprains sustained while " at play " in the paddock or in jumping. Fig. 99. No curb. (After Hayes. 100. Curb. (After Hayes.) The term "curby hocks " as implying a condition of soundness with the shape of curb is a misnomer ; there is either a curb or there is none. If by the term is meant a shape of hock predisposed to curb (as, for instance, " sickle hocks ") it may be admissible. Symptoms. — In most cases the enlargement is evident from the first, and may be most distinctly seen when standing at right angles to the horse, the straight and perpendicular line from the point of the hock to the fetlock showing a bulge at the seat of curb. Old standing curbs seldom cause lameness, the parts having been strengthened by the swelling they have undergone, but newly-sprung curbs often cause great lameness. In such 9 Sept., 1907.] Lameness in Horses. 521 cases when the pain is acute the animal stands with his limb flexed and the toe resting on the ground in order to take the tension off the back part of the hock. When put into motion he advances the limb normally, but flinches when the weight is thrown upon it, and there is a consequent dropping of the opposite quarter. Y'v^. loi. Curb. (After Dollar.) Treatment. — Blistering with either red mercury or fly blister is usually efficacious. In obstinate cases it may have to be repeated or firing may have to be resorted to. Line firing is most advantageous. Until lameness is completely remo\ed rest should be enjoined and a high-heeled shoe put on. CONTRACTED TENDONS AND KNUCKLING OVER. These two conditions frequently accompany one another and are fairly common in the hind limbs of old horses that have been subject to a lot of wear and tear. Horses used for heavy draught uphill, and half-bred horses with upright pasterns and rourtd fetlocks are the usual subjects. In the first place there is sprain of the back tendons (see page 262) and consequent thickening and contraction. The knuckling over follows on the straightening of the fetlock by the .shortening of the tendons, and is often responsible for stumbling. Treatment. — To cut short the tendency to contraction after sprain, line firing of the back tendons Ijetween the knee and fetlock is to be recomm.ended. No beneficial results follow any attempt to stretch the tendons by shoeing with thin heels and keeping the toe long. The object to te aimed at isi rather the relief of the continuous strain on the tendons, and for this purpose high-heeled shoeing should be adopted. Journal of Agriculture. [9 Sept., 1907. SHIVERING. The nature of this affection of horses and the symptoms of the asso- ciated lameness or irregularity of gait will be fully dealt with in the Chapter on nervous diseases. Its detection has already been referred to- when methods for detecting lameness were being dealt with. (See page 212.) STRINGHALT. Considered as an " imperfection of action ' ' this affection is entitled to be dealt with under the heading of Lameness. (See Fig. 102.) Its- nnportance, however, from an Australian stand-point, in view of its great Fig. 102. Stringhult. (After Dollur.) prevalence, its epizootic character and the variation in course and symptoms^ from the standard type of stringhalt met with in other countries, demands separate treatment, which will be given in the Chapter on diseases of the nervous system. RHEUMATIC LAMENESS. Lameness from rheumatism in horses is of two kinds principally : — First, that which is fleeting or erratic, following on an attack of acute- rheumatism or rheumatic fever ; and secondly that which has its permanent seat in a joint in which rheum.atism has " settled " termed rheumatic ARTHRITIS or RHEUMATIC JOINT DISEASE. Acute Rheumatism, In this case the lameness is intermittent and metastatic or migratory in character. A horse may be lame for a day or perhaps a week, and then appear to go quite sound for a time when the lameness will suddenly develop again in an obviously different part of the limb or in another 9 ■Sept., 1907.] Lameness in Horses. 525,. limb altogether. Sometimes the lameness is accompanied by swellings or pufifiness of tendons ox joints, and the symptoms will vary with the location of the lameness for the time being. Treatment. — In the case of intermittent rheumatic lameness the treat- ment should be by systemic means and should aimi at getting rid of the rheu- matic poison (see page 219). The avoidance of draughts and chills should be attended to and regular but gentle exercise given. Hand rubbing of the part for the time being affected, or the application to it of a stimulating liniment is often advantageous (see page 75). Rheumatic Arthritis. This may occur in almost any joint though it is rare that joints other than the hip, stifle, hock, and fetlock are affected, and as a rule only old horses are subject to it. Different symptoms are exhibited according as one or other of the joints is affected, but the lameness is usually more painful than that arising from other causes. When the joint is forcibly moved a "creaking" sound may be emitted. The articular surfaces of the joints are involved for the most part. Thev lose their covering of cartilage and become roughened on their opposing surfaces, which become hardened by a deposit of a calcareous or porcelainous character. Later on swelling of the bones takes place and they become united (anchylosed). Treatment of the rheumatoid arthritis is usually of no avail. Some- times the pain may be lessened by the application of a fly blister or, when very acute, temporarv relief may be afforded by the hypodermic injection ■of morphia (see page 60). INTERNAL LAMENESS. Occasionally cases of lameness are come across which completely baffle all attempts at diagnosis. The lameness may be persistent and may appear to exist in a particular region, but, even after the lapse of considerable time, no change of structure or other sign of disease is found to develop. For instance there is a form of lameness affecting the right shoulder which is supposed to arise from disease of the liver. It may be accompanied by .a jaundiced condition of the visible mucous membranes, but usually, except the cause is guessed at, it remains obscure until death, when on post mortem examination the liver is found to be cirrhosed. In like manner thrombosis (or blood clot) in the large trunk veins of the hind limb (the iliac veins) gives rise to a form of lameness the cause of Avhich cannot be definitely ascertained until examination after death. Elsewhere^ I have recorded a case of obscure lameness in a horse •caused by infiammatoTy disease of the spleen with enlargement. In this case the most prominent symptom was a stiffness in gait or lameness of the near hind limb (the same side as the spleen) the action of which was peculiar. On advancing the limb, which was done stiffly, the animal seemed to cringe as if pain was caused and the limb was bUddenly stopped short of a proper step. Intermittent colic was an associated symptom. This lameness was evidently caused mechanically by the pressure of the abdominal contents against the spleen causing or increasing the pain when the limb was advanced. 1 The Australasian Veterinary and Live Stock Journal, Janiiarv, i8qi. 524 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Sept., 1907. PASTEURISING HOME SEPARATOR CREAM.* \N . A. Herkcs, Dairy Expert. During the past exjx>rt season, the greatest fault found in butter manu- factured at many factories handling home separator cream was its irregu- larity of flavour, that is, when taking sample boxes for examination, three different butters were often found, and hence a difficulty in arriving at an average value has been experienced. In these times when the British and other oversea buyers are demanding uniformity, we must, if we desire to hold our markets, produce an article which is uniform in flavour, texture, aroma, colour, &c. Buyers here have continually told us that they cannot touch certain butters as they cannot depend on getting the same quality from day to day. Now, so far as I am able to judge, there are two methods by which this desirable end can be attained. One is the attachment — compul- sory if necessary — of a cooler to all home separator plants and quick delivery, and the other is the pasteurisation of cream at the factories. The two combined would, I feel sure, go far towards levelling up our output lo a considerable extent. My paper to-day will deal with pasteurisation and its possible application to home separator cream. Some five years ago I had my first experience in this system of pas- teurisation, the cream treated being the very worst obtainable, and while the results were slightly in favour of pasteurisation, it seemed to me that if an improvement however slight could be made with poor cream, how much greater theoretically would the improvement be in cream of good and fair quality. One or two factories have since that time adopted the principle in treating their home separator supply, and I hope the managers of these factories will make known the results of their experience. Some twelve months ago I was instructed by the Superintendent of Exports, Mr. Crowe, to carry out experiments at various factories, and after demonstrating at one factory — being called to other work — the matter was for a time laid aside. After the close of the export season, the matter was again taken in hand, and I propose to give vou a short resume of the experiments made, and to recommend for jour discussion a few of the problems I have met. I may state that so far as we went with the plant at the three fac- tories visited, reports, with one exception, have been favorable to the pasteurised butter. However, you will this morning have the opportunity cf judging the various samples of pasteurised and non-pasteurised butter, and thus forming your own conclusions. Prices with one exception were ^d. to fd. per lb. higher than for the same cream manufactured without pasteurisation. You will see by this that it will be well for us to discuss this question as fully as possible. In our experiments the usual supply received at the various factories was treated. Coming to the principle of pasteurisation, it is hardly necessarv to say that it means the heating of the matter treated through a continuous heater, up to a temperature of 155 degrees P., or over. This heating, as *Paper read at the Fourteenth Annual Conference of the Australasian Butter Factories' Managers' Association, held May, 1907, at Melbourne. 9 Sept ., 1907.] Pasteurising Home Separator Cream. 525 you are no doubt aware, destroys a large proportion of the living organisms contained in milk or cream. This being effected, we have a fair field in which to cultivate our pure lactic organisms which, so far as we at pre- sent know, give to butter not only its best flavour and aroma, but its lx?st keeping qualities. According to McKay and Larsen {Principles and Practice of Butter- making), the Danish Government compels the pasteurisation of milk, cream, and skim milk, with the object of checking the spread of disease, in addition to securing uniformity in manufacture and better quality. Be- fore going further, I wish to make myself understood on a matter that may appear contradictory, viz., I believe that as good butter can be made from home separator cream as from milk supply, and I unhesitatingly assert that the greater proportion of inferior butter exported is the product of the home separator. Under proper conditions, choice butter is made, but under improper conditions and unhealthy competition the reverse is the result. The efficient pasteurisation of this product removes taints of various fodders, grasses, &c. ; in fact when cream is in anything like good condition, there is no question but that an improvement can be made. Just how far we can go I hope to be able to in some measure tO' show you, when what I say is taken in conjunction with the various samples shown to-day in the room. Coming to the practical results of the experiments, I have foimd that it is possible to go much further in the pasteurisation of cream from an acidity point of view than has been commonly supposed. Of course, the fiesher the condition of cream, the better, but even sour cream, say of an acidity of .55, can be pasteurised if over 40 per cent, fat, but to look ior good results from cream of this acidity would, as a rule, be an error. Before going further I want to draw your attention to one peculiarity in connexion with jpasteurising home separator cream, and I think it largely assists in the .success of the system. It is this: — -the heating of cream to 160 degrees F., or over, considerably reduces the aciditv, as shown by the titration test, and the higher the temperature and the more acid the cream, the greater the variation. The explanation given is that certain volatile acids are driven off in course of pasteurisation, and such being the case, it is reasonable to suppose that if we can reduce cream showing an acidity of .4 to .3 or .35 we can then successfully culti- vate another lactic acid ferment which will assist in the manufacture of a higher quality butter. The advantages of pasteurisation are: — 1. Improved flavour. 2. Improved texture. 3. Improved price. 4. A butter that can reasonably be expected to keep longer. 5. The uniformity from day to day of a factory's output. 6. Freedom from all, or nearly! all, disease germs. With regard to the advantages, the securing of uniformity from day tc day, week to week, and prol)ably from factory to factory (that is if \ve could systematise our methods and use the same cultures from factory to factory and I believe we can), would enable us to produce a butter which would hold its own in any market in the world. I want you to recognise that the only difiicultv in the way of pasteurising four-fifths of the supply received at country butter factories can be overcome by a little ccr-operation between factory and supplier. 526 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Sept., 1907. Reverting to our trials. I found that cream of an aciditv up to .35, if sound, could be manufactured into choicest butter. Cream up to .45, allowing for a reduction in acidity, could be made into a good keeping and carrying butter, or, to put it more plainly, I am of opinion that all 93. butter can be made superfine, and a large proportion of our 92. butter can also be made superfine, provided efficient pasteurisation and pure cultures are used. The plant required for pasteurising is simply a heater, but pasteuri- sation must be followed by quick cooling. We must remember that im- proper pasteurisation is worse than no pasteurisation, and pasteurisation withO'Ut proper cooling is just as bad. In treating cream at various acidi- ties, I believe that 160 to 165 degrees F., is the best temperature at which to run cream under .35 acidity, and for cream over this aciditv a tempera- ture of 170 to 175 degrees F. You will find that with this latter temperature there will be very little danger of coagulation in the pasteuriser. A cream which will go stringy or coagulate at 145 to 150 degrees will be found to go through easily at the higher temperature, and that is the main difficultv in pasteurising home separator supplv. This particular aspect of the question should not be lost sight of. When we have decided to pasteurise, we must also decide to use pure cultures ; they necessarily go together, and the making of a pure starter is, under ordinary circumstances, the most difficult thing in the svstem. In the preparation of starters it is expedient to use either a commercial culture, or one received from some reliable source, such as the University Labora- tory. The small bottle received is first of all propagated in two gallons of skim milk which has been pasteurised for an hour in the water tank at from 170 to 180 degrees F., and cooled to 90 degrees F. This is allowed to stand from 14 to 16 hours at a fairly even temperature when it will be found coagulated. Of course sterilised vessels must be used, and kept covered with clean butter cloth. When the starter is coagulated, it nmst be skimmed, thoroughly broken up and then added to, say, 20 gallons cf pasteurised skim milk cooled to 90 degrees, which, on the following day is ready for use in cream. Suflficient should be kept over from day to day to propagate enough pasteurised skim milk for use each succeeding day. The starter should be always of smooth texture, not lumpv, and should not be used if showing whey. If proper care is taken a starter may be used for as long as three months, and if it lasts six weeks it is evidence of good work. The quantitv of starter must be reigulated by the temperature, length of time of ripening, &c. Personallv, I would cool in the vicinity of 60 degrees F., and 8 per cent, starter, and have ready Tor churning in 14 to 16 hours, at a temperature of 56 degrees F. Coming to the cost of the system. I would like to have the experience of those managers who have' been practising the .method. There is the extra labour, heating and cooling. I have been given to understand that cne horse plant is sufficient for heating 300 gallons per hour and driving the necessarv machinery. I have found it impossible in mv experiments to arrive at the cost of heating. Storch, in working it out, puts it at one-fifth of a farthing iper lb. of butter when milk is treated. Where there is plenty of water available, the cost of cooling is practicallv nothing. I have reduced the temperature of pasteurised cream as much as 100 degrees with water circulation alone. Another method is to have jacketed tanks. Still another method is to have agitators in the cream vats. One other point is that cream which has been pasteurised makes a butter of better texture. 9 Sept., 1907. J Pasfcnrisiiig Home Separator Cream. 5-'7 and can be churned cleanly two degrees higher than' the non-pasteurised. This would be a considerable item in the output from a big factory in regard to refrigeration. There are two things that we must keep in mind, one is that milk sugar, from the breaking up of which lactic acid is formed, does not according to Richmond disappear in milk or cream in the same ratio as lactic acid makes its appearance, and the other is, as stated before, the reduction in aciditv during pasteurisation. To summarise, factories which have heating and cooling power at command, and are troubled with irregular quality, should have no hesita- tion in inaugurating this system, but unless temperatures are under control, and care exercised in the making of the starter, the work is best left undone. There is another stand- point from which managers should look at this system. If as we are given to understand, pasteurisation is going to make so great an improvement that jd. per lb. more can be obtained, and ii being recognised that considerable improvement must be made in many of our co-operative factories with regard tO' appliances and fittings before they attempt pasteurisation, managers, would, I think, do well to move tr^eir directors towards this much to be desired end. One more advantage which would tend towards helping co-operative factories in the country is, that with uniformitv and a id. per lb. higher price, they could compete on more advantageous terms for supplies. In conclusion, I will state mv opinion of the system. Given proper pasteurisation and reason- able delivery of cream to factoiies, and with the use of pure cultures and fibsolute cleanliness, we have the solution of the home separator question with regard to the greater proportion of material received at our country butter factories. If, as I believe, a better keeping article which meets the taste of the British buyer can be produced, this must react to the benefit o\ the industrv, and also of the producer, who, once he finds it will pay him to deliver to factories more often will assuredly do sO', and thus do ids share to remove what I stated at the beginning of this paper to be the greatest fault of our home separator butter, viz., its irregularity of flavour from day to day. 5-^J Journal of Agriculture. [9 SErx., 1907. GRADING AND LEVELLING. {Continued from page S^T-) A. S. Tvenyon, C.E., Engineer for Agriculture. The buckscraper (see the Journal for June) appears under a great \arietv of forms. Reference has already been made to its original form with the tail-board at riijht anc;les or nearly so to the bottom. To show THE SMOOTHER AT WORK. the adyances made in the construction and use of this implement, a draw- ing is here given of a scraper used in California some 18 to 20 vears ago. THE AMERICAN BUCKSCRAPER. The length is 9 feet, and the vertical height of the face-board in working set, is about 20 inches. The planks are 2 inches thick, and bolted on to the lower edge is a steel plate, 12 inches by ^ths of an inch, projecting 6 or 7 inches below the woodwork. At the ends, cam-shaped wooden skids. 9 Sept., 3907.] Grading and r.evcUiiig. 529 faced with iron plate, serve for the scraper to ride on when tipped, and serve also to facilitate the pulling back into working position when re- quired. The tail-board is long, 3 feet 9 inches, and is hinged to the planks. The cutter may be set at different working angles by means of a tie rod as illustrated. In use the driver .stands on the tail-board, his weight pressing the cutting edge into the ground, which has been ploughed SIDE VIEW. 1^ l^■'^l* OCECON BACK VIEW 1 1 V.-.- 012tO 3N ! " W/V.iy,"ANC.LtlllON m f i I '' i ! ■sUTR^tt l.N» '••f- : . ■ ^"l ■ .l'''A"TL»I,ta ON^'^HOt , 6 O' SECTION AB ?"ROM FRONT. PLAN LDOKINC DOWN. THE PERKINS .SCRAPER. if too hard to be shifted without. When his weight is removed, the drag of the team turns the scraper over and distributes the load. As shown, it will shift over one cubic \ard a trip, and is a heavy working tool for a four-horse team. This form has but few of the merits of the steel scraper alreadv described, and will not, except in very light sandy soils, do such cheap work in muck shifting as the scoop 53° Jo'.irnal of Kii^ricidture. [9 Sept., 1907. Another form of the buckscraper which cannot be used on skids and consequently is only of ser\'ice with a short "lead," that is, where the dis- tance the earth has tO' be transported is not great, is the " Perkins " scraper, a Victorian invention. As will be seen from the description of its use, it is made as light as possible, the face-boards being i-in. Oregon only, fastened to i|-in. angle iron braced to the shafts with half-round iron. The shafts are long, and have two handles coming over the hind cross- bar. The draught chains are attached to the angle irons by a trace link at the bend. A strip (3 inches) of \-m. steel is attached to the lower face- board tO' form a cutting edge. As the essence of this scraper is in the backing, saddle and breeching are required for the horse and travellers on the shafts. The mode of using is as follows: — The ground to be shifted is first ploughed, shallow for preference. The multifurrow- plough i;: the most economical as the scraper will not cut much more than 3 inches deep at a time. One horse only is emploved, and a separate driver is required. The man working the scraper puts his weight on the handles to press the cutting edge into the ground and the horse moves forward. When filled, which means about -^-th of a cubic yard, only sufficient weight is kept on if to prevent it rising above the dirt. At the end of the lead, the man turns round, grasps the handles, lifts the scraper — the w'eight being about 60 lbs. — and walks back to the ploughed ground the driver backing the horse at the same time, and the operation is repeated. As many as five trips a minute can be made with a short lead. The vvork is difficult and not effective in cloddy ground or with steep slcjpes. The sandy soils of the mallee afford this scraper it's greatest field. An im- provement is the substitution of a light steel plate for the Oregon boards, as the implement will then take a deeper cut. It is, however, harder work for both man and horse. The non-riding type has many forms, ranging from the section of a round log to the somewhat more elaborate form figured herewith. The A USEFUL SCRAPER. I 9 Sept., 1907.] Grading and Levelling. 531 _i 0 f 0 (i:: ^"XT." ROUNDED "" ri) r 1 WROUGHT IRON HANDLE - - < a 1 L. : 0< ) B 1 1 1 k " 6' 0" A BACK VIEW. n I'/axi'/l x/e"^ 1 ^WROUGHT IRON n -> >t 1 ll->- EYE BOLT FOR CHAIN 1 FRONT VIEW. h ''^" i SIDE VIEW. 532 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Sept., 1907. dimensions, &c., were kindly supplied Ijy Mr. R. G. Wilson of Whittle- sea. It is a useful two-horse implement, and will do good work in most soils and in most paddocks. It is, in fact, a sort of cross between the buckscraper and the smoother ; but fails to combine all the good ^ — II"— ->|2yi< - 5' o" SIDE VIEW. I'A" X ^/4." PL.4N. THE HANDLE. qualities of both. It mav readily be made on the farm, the ironwork being procured from the local blacksmith. The log or cutter is of red gum, and the rest of hard wood. Both edges are shod with iron, one to serve when the other wears out or gets broken. No description is required of its manufacture as the illustrations clearly show the method. The cutting edges are secured by stout screws. Reference has been made to the timber buckscraper, and the steel scraper was stated to be superior. The wooden form has, however, the THE TIMBER BUCKSCRAPER. merit that it can be made by an unskilled person and costs .somewhat less. The accompanying figures give a clear idea of the arrangement. All the timber should be of oregon except the handle, which is hard- wood. In all practical details this scraper is identical with the steel scraper already described, (pp. 323-4). It is the same length, 7 feet, and requires a four-horse team, worked in two pairs to separate swingle-trees. The handle, which has to meet considerable strains, needs securely fasten- ing with iron plates above and below as shown. Where the Oregon joins the cutting edge, a strip of light gauge, about 20, steel is bent round 9 Sept., 1907.] Grading and Levelling. 533 the edge of the timber for about 4 inches each side and secured with clouts. This scraper was first introduced here at Alildura the design being brought over from California. It has since spread over the whole 'M HoLEi roR v^^ -. RlMObOLTi 1; CHAIN H_ 7' 0' .7 'A". 'A bou '-+r.'/4.' ^ 4l'/i'»Ji.'STiiAP V4'/*VA-Stbe,_ SzM 4"k'/4 SrteL PkATU kiaci < COTTlA -/ 3 - THE SMOOTHER. To give those farmers who are not acquainted with the levelling and grading implements described, a set of the more important has been made for exhibition at the various Agricultural Shows should the Societies desire them as exhibits. Exhibitions of the implements in work will also be arranged in suitable localities if local provision of teams and prepared ground is made. (To be continued.) 9 Sept., 1907.] Guildford Grass. 537 GUILDFORD GRASS, OR ONION GRASS.* Romulea cruciata, Ker-Gawl. {Iridea). Alfred J . Ezmrt, D.Sc, Ph. D., F.L.S., Government Botanist. This pretty little Irid, the sudden appearance of whose pink flowers in grass, turf, ,path borders, and similar situations in spring, draws perennial attention to it, has undoubtedly become a troublesome weed in many pas- tures, its somewhat grass-like leaves hiding its presence until flowering occurs. Owing to its small perennial subterranean corms, its free seeding, and its generally resistant character to extreme conditions, the eradication of the plant from land of which it has once taken possession is impossible by ordinary methods, except at a prohibitive cost. Hence I have been reluctant to advise the proclamation of the plant in spite of the frequent complaints as to the serious damage it does to pastures until it was ,possible to give practical methods of keeping down the weed. Proclamation under the Thistle Act does not necessitate immediate eradication, since conviction may be suspended provided that the Justices are satisfied that the person affected has used and is using all reasonable exertions to destroy the plants in question. Since the methods given at the end of this article will insure the complete or almost complete sup- pression of the weed on agricultural land at the end of two or three years without any cost which is not represented by an increased value or yield from the land, no further objections to the jproclamation exist, and its presence may be used as a lever to secure better methods of cultivation. The following is an extract from the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, Vol. XIX., page 43 (1906), in regard to this plant: — " I. This widely-spread Irid with rose-lilac flowers, and tough grass-like leaves, is commonly known as Guildford grass or Onion-grass, and was originally referred by F. von Mueller as Romiilea bulbocodium, L. It is given in Rodway's Flora of Tas- mania as Trichonema roseum, Ker., which is a synonym for R. rosea, a South African plant. Both the species, however, have the style longer than the stamens, whereas our plant resembles the R. cruciata, distinguished by Ker. Gawl. (Botanical Magazine, 1802, plate 575) from R. rosea and R. bulbocodium, by the style shorter than the stamens and the hairy filaments. Baker, in the Flora Cafensis, makes this species, R. longifolia, Baker, but the three purple stripes on the outer perianth segments given by Baker are absent or very feebly developed, and the spathe segments are smaller (^ cm. long in flower to i cm. in fruit), the inner segment having a broad scarious margin. The leaf, as in the type specimens of R. cruciata, often has a fifth groove on one edge for a portion of its length. The character of the spathe segments justifies the recognition of an Australian variety of R. cruciata." " There can be no doubt that the short style with its six very short stigmatic arms, which separate as the stamens shed their pollen, is an adaptation for self pollination. The flowers, which are strongly thermonastic, only open on warm sunny days and do not seem to have any regular insect visitors. The plant grew abundantly in the neighbourhood of the Botanic Gardens over 40 years ago, and may date further back still, for its increase is favoured by the conditions attendant on the presence of civilized man. Probably if specimens had been collected from the early part of last century we would have received evidence of adaptive modi- fication on the part of this plant, but whether R. cruciata var. Australis is derived from R. bulbocodium or R. rosea is impossible to say. In any case the whole genus of Romulea is badly in need of revision. Lxperiments on the extermina- tion of this weed are in progress at the Herbarium and in the Domain grounds. The use of pigs has been suggested to root out the corms fronr. the ground, and * Proclaimed under the Thistle Act for the whole State, August, 1907. 538 Journal of Ai'ricultiire. [9 Sept., 1907. T. S. Hall has recorded before Field Naturalists' Club, that white cockatoos •coming north from the Otways have performed the same office, and by digging out the corms have cleared patches of ground infested by the weed. " Mr. C. French, jun., reports that he has often seen children eating the bulbs, although to the novice the taste is by no means pleasant. A quantity of the corms crushed and washed through a fine sieve yielded an abundance of fine quality starch,' so that, were it not for the expense of collecting the bulbs, they might form a profitable source of starch. The seeds are also highly nutritious, and it is owing to the sparrows and other birds which eat the seeds that the plant is so rapidly and widely spread. Future investigations may show some use for the seeds. The stalk of the fruit capsule is strongly geophilous, and curves down towards the ground during ripening. In loose ground it is some- times partially or completely covered before the seeds are shed." To the foregoing the following accounts of the experiments on the eradication of tliis plant may be added. Plots of land were selected in which the weed was very abundant and uniformly distributed. These were marked out into areas one yard square. Some were treated with poisons and manures, others were cut or pulled, others mechanically treated by digging, and still others planted with other plants to see if they would suppress the weed. Suppression by Pasture Plants. — In the hard, dry, pooT soil in which Romulea flourishes, no good pasture plant appears able to suppress it according to field obsen^ations. Plants actually tried were Lucerne {Medicago sativa) ; Black and burred Medick {M . lupuUna, M. deniicu- lata); Birds foot Trefoil {Lotus cornkulatus) and various clovers such as the white, red, and subterranean and strawberry clovers {Trifolium repens, T. pratense, and T. siibtcrraneum and T. fragiferum. Poisons and Chemical Manures. — These were applied on i6th Sep- tember, 1906, i.e., before any new seedlings were established, and the final countings made in June and July, 1907. The results are well shown in the appended table: — Substance. Ammonium Sulpha! e Potassium Nitrate ... Untouched Plots Common Salt Sulphuric Acid Ar.senite of Soda Amount per Sq. Yard. ilb. ilb. lib. 2 lbs. ilb. lib. 1 oz. 2oz. No. of Plants remaining- in 1907. S60 820 5.jO-9(H> 320 260 400 280 360 250 Condition. Darker green About normal Stunted Stunted, bare of other vegetation Nearly normal Stunted, and ground nearly bare Apparently normal Somewhat greyish green Evidently poisons are quite ineffective except at a prohibitive cost and in quantities which would render the ground useless for long periods of time. Nitrogenous chemical manures encourage the Romulea as much as they do neighbouring pasture plants. Mechanical Methods. — To loosen the soil and pick out the corms is impossible on a large scale. The corms occur from near the surface to nearly 6 inches depth according to their age and to the character of the soil, so that it is a day's work to pick out all the corms from a square rod ■of badly infested ground, which equals a labour charge of over ;£ioo I'cr acre. A plot was selected containing approximately 460 — 500 plants per square yard. One square yard was dug over and a top dressing of 9 Sept., 1907.] Guild ford Grass. 539> I inch of horse manure applied. After one yeaV it contained 260 plants of Romulea. A second plot, dug over only, contained 320 plants. A third was dug over 12 inches deep, so that the top 6 inches v/ere placed at the bottom, and the plants covered with at least 6 inches of soil. It con- tained after one year 210 plants. A similarlv treated plot was covered with an inch of horse manure. It contained after one year 160 plants only. Evidently therefore the weed can be best suppressed on pasture land by manuring, ploughing, and bringing the land under cultivation for a time. A leafy crop like potatoes is tlie most suitable at least for the first year, since Romulea loves hard, dry ground where it receives plenty of sun, and with potatoes the ground is well worked and kept open. Romulea develops its leaves, however, from April to October, so that to cut light from it a cold-resistant <'rop like winter wheat is best. It is often curious to notice how Romulea follows hard tracks along roads without passing into the fields through the soft ground by the wire fences, and enters the fields through the gates where the ground is trodden hard, and the other vegetation is short. A mere wire fence under which the ground is soft and the vegetation longer than outside or inside suffices to keep the plant out of a field for a considerable time after it has tra\'elled or been carried down a road. Loosening the soil and keeping the stock from it for a time would have the same effect in the open pasture. Mr. Cameron has suggested that stock carry the corms on their feet from place to place, and hence into the fields, but this is very unlikely, although seed might be carried in this way. The chief agents in spreading the seeds are birds, however, and the corms maintain the plant wherever it has become established without aiding in its spread. The abundant presence of this plant on pasture land may be regarded as a sign that the pasture is in poor condition, and that the soil needs opening, loosening, and manuring. No plants with single bulbs or corms flourish under a system of rotation farming, and they only prove realh serious on overstocked natural unimproved pasture land, where no pro- visions are taken to restore the balance of nature disturbed by the presence of the stock. The weed, though preferring dry ground, can also stand a good deal of moisture, so that flooding land is of no avail in its extermination. In fact, of a number of corms kept under water for two months, and then air dried for two months, over 60 percent, produced new leaves when planted. The mere encouragement of a heavv growth of grass by resting the land, by top dressing with stable manure (not chemical manures) coupled with a scarifying of the surface to loosen the soil aids greatly in keeping down the weed, and such treatment pavs in results for its cost. Treatment for Lawns and Cricket Grounds. — The tough wiry grass- like slightly channelled leaves appear above ground usually in April, and are actively assimilating food until September or October. Flowering begins usually in August, and seed are formed until October or even November. Hence the leaves must be kept closely cut all through winter, and this steadily exhausts the plant. The grass should be cut closely or mown with a machine as often as the leaves attain any length, and when- ever any flowers appear. This should be done in as dry weather as possible to avoid compressing the soil by too much trampling when moist. If necessary light top dressings mav be used, of short well decayed stable manure, and two years of such treatment should practically free any cricket ground or lawn from the pest, or greatly reduce it. 540 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Sept., 1907. PatJis and Roadsid cs .---Along the borders of (paths the weed does no very great harm and forms a pleasant and pretty harbinger of spring. If seeding is prevented bv cutting the flowers, or by passing a hoe through the leaves and young flower stalk, an inch or so below the ground in August or September, the plants are kept under and prevented from increasing or spreading. Along the hard borders of broad stock roads the sod should be turned bv ploughing either once in July, or in May and September. It would pay in most cases to allow the neighbouring land owners to take in the useless breadth of most of these roads on condition of keeping them clean from weeds. Roadside tree planting of evergreens is also of use. Romitlea will not grow beneath closely planted Acacias, and such planting would add greatlv to the beauty and comfort of many of our bare countrv roads. All factors which loosen the soil, enrich it in humus and cut off light in winter time, aid in keeping down the weed. Pigs are of some use in rooting up and eating the corms, but methods of this kind are always more or less untidy and patchy ways of cleaning land. THE PROCLAIMED PLANTS OF VICTORIA. {Continued from page 498.) Alfred J. Ewart, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Botanist; and J . R. Tovey, Herbarium Assistant. St. Barnaby's Thistle. Centaurca solstitialis, Linn. {Compositce.) A stiff, erect annual, one to two feet high, with few branches, and covered with a white cottony wool. Radical leaves pinnatifid (like a feather) ; upper leaves small and linear, decurrent in long, narrow wings along the stem. Flower-heads solitary at the ends of the branches, nearly globular; the innermost bracts ending in a small shining appendage; the intermediate ones in a long spreading prickle, with one or two small ones at its base; the outermost usually with only a few small, palmate prickles. Florets of a bright yellow. Fruiting heads with a soft white pappus. An introduction from Southern Europe. It should be dug out with a hoe or mattock before the seeds mature, piled and burnt. It often flowers after cutting if fairly old and left too long. Proclaimed for the Shire of Wodonga, April, 1899. PLATE 16 QWaiMrfiA J.EToveyPtrei JKemp/.ctmjGoY*'Prmttr. STBARNABYS THISTLE (Centaurea. solsbitboUs, Linae) 9 Sept., 1907.] Garden Notes. 541 GARDEN NOTES. /. Crouin, Inspector. Vegetation Diseases Acts. The Anemone. Anemone is a genus of dwarf, perennial, herbaceous and tuberous rooted plants, indigenous to portions of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. A large number of species is known ; many are highly decorative, the flowers being of varied form and colour, while others are of little value as garden plants. The average height of the tuberous rooted species is less than I foot, some of the herbaceous kind attaining a height of 4 feet. The so-called florist's anemones have been derived from anemone coronaria, the poppy anemone, a native of South East Europe, florists having raised from this species numbers of types and varieties that produce large blooms of varied form and colouring, combined with increased vigour in the growth of the plants and more profuse blooming. The anemone was at one period largely grown and freely exhibited, but like other garden flowers its culti- vation, for some inexplicable reason, was abandoned for some time, but of late years the plant has again become a favourite subject of cultivators chiefly on account of the excellence of some of the newly distributed types, of which the St. Brigid strain. Crown anemone, is a cons)picuous example, the flo^vers exceeding in size and brilliancy those of the older varieties. In this State the anemone is regarded as one of the most eifective and easily cultivated of spring blooming plants, growing freely in most soils, and not requiring to be watered to produce its growth and bloom, owing to the fact that during the dry and hot period of summer the plants are in a state of rest. The tuberous rooted varieties are specially suitable for cultivating in places where water is scarce, a fine display of bloom being obtainable for little trouble and outlay during August, September and October. Anemone Japonica and its varieties are also valuable garden plants. The original species is a native of Japan, and in no way re- sembles the spring blooming kinds. The plants are fibrous rooted, her- baceous perennials, and the growth and flowers are produced during summer and autumn. The flowers are white, and rose in colour, and are borne in umbels on stems from 2 to 4 feet in height. Although classed as a hardy plant this anemone requires cultivation and moisture during the summer months. Culture. The most suitable soil for anemones of the tuberous rooted class is a moderately light loam which should be well drained to insure success. The addition of clay, or heavy loam to light sandy soils, or sand, ashes, or well decayed manure to heavy soils, will bring them to a condition suitable for the culture of these plants. They may be grown in beds specially prepared for them, or as patches or individual plants in beds or borders. The most important point in their culture is that no manure should come into contact with the tubers or even near them, or their destruction is inevitable. In very poor soils some old and well rotted cow manure may be thoroughly mixed with soil at a depth of below 6 inches from the surface, but no fresh manure should be used. The tubers may be .planted from February to May ; where blooms are desired early an open and sunny position should be selected. Tubers should be planted at a depth of 2 inches in heavy soils to 3 inches in light, care being taken that the crowns are placed uppermost. When the plants are grown in 54^ Journal of As,riculture. [9 Sept., 1907. special beds the tulxrs should be set out in rows from li- to 2 feet apart, allowing from 9 to 12 inches in the lows for each plant. The same amount of room is advisable between each plant when anemones are grown to produce patches of bloom in beds or borders. Except in ver\- dry places, or when planting is deferred till late in autumn, the spring blooming anemones will not require any artificial watering during a normal season, and the only cultivation required is to hoe between the rows or patches, and keep the plants free from weeds. When the plants have finished blooming, and the stems and leaves are withered, they should be lifted, and after being dried, stored away until the planting season arrives. Plants allowed to remain in the ground will flower early in winter, but fine weather is essential for the production of blooms of good tvpe and quality. Hfc^^ W^ H ^B^v '"^ 1 1 ANEMONE, JAPONICA. ANEMONE, CORONARIA TYPES. Anemones of spring blooming types are increased bv dividing the tubers, and from seeds. After the plants are lifted and dried, thev should be divided, before storing, into pieces, each containing one or more eyes or buds. Seeds should be saved from the finest types and flowers, which may be crossed fertilized with ease. The anemone produces seeds freely, the seeds being clothed wdth a woolly covering and clinging together. They should be separated before sowing, the easiest wav being to mix with them' a quantity of dry sand or other gritty material, and rub them until they separate. Thev mav be sown as soon as ripe, in small beds or boxes of fine soil. The young plants soon appear, and should be kept free from weeds and watered during dry weather, which will enable them to develop into fair plants, many of which will flower during the same year. After dying down they should be stored and replanted in season ; when the tubers are very small, sifting from the soil is the common practice. If a good selection of seed is made some fine varieties may be produced. A Mel- bourne nur.seryman has made a specialtv of anemones of the St. Brigid strain, and by careful crossing and rigid selection has produced varieties much superior to any imported. His displays of cut flowers at the spring shows, and in the beds at his nursery, were a revelation to gardeners and the flower-loving public. Seeds and tubers of single and double forms of a. fulgens, hortcnsis, and coronaria, are procurable at Melbourne seed warehouses. 9 Sept., 1907.] Garden Notes. 543 The Japanese anemones will thrive and produce their blooms freely under ordinary border conditions. The plants are increased b\ divisions of the crowns, which may be done in autumn or earlv spring. Varieties available in Melbourne are : — A. Japonica, rose ; a double form of the same kind; a. Japonica, alba, white; and Honorine Joubert, and Whirlwind, white, larger and finer than the type. Flcwer Garden. The breaking of the rough surface left after digging is the most important ground operation at present. Where the soil is heavy and retentive it will be found that a coarse lumpy surface is best attacked while comparatively moist, and after being pulverised a fairly smooth sur- face can be readily maintained in a loose condition and the moisture in the soil conseryed. A perennial gardening task is the destruction or prevention of insects and fungi, the work being greatly minimized by attacking the parasites earlv in the season. Flowers of suljphur dusted on plants of roses known to be liable to mildew ; or sulphide of potassium used as a spray wash, at the rate of i oz. to 3 gallons water, against rose mildew and rust on carnations are well known preventives of such fungi. Tobacco or soap washes are effective against aphides, the most general of the insect enemies of garden plants in spring. A most thorough application is necessary, the aim being absolute extinction if possible. Beds for the reception of chrysanthemums grown for exhibition should be ready by the end of this month. If properly prepared during winter a digging will be sufficient, the main object being aerating the soil and thoroughly mixing the manure through it. Where a choice of plants is possible, moderately strong and sturdy plants should be selected, avoiding extra large and sappy, or weak and spindly specimens. Of the new varieties grown last season a few of the most promising are: — Richard Seddon, terra-cotta red ; Miss Alexander, rosy cerise, reverse silver ; Mrs. Jas. Whitton, white; Mrs. Bischoffsheim, deep yellow, overlaid with pink and red; Mrs. C. Beckett, white; Valerie Greenham, pink; W. A. Etherington, silvery mauve ; Lady Conyers, rose pink, silvery reverse. Plants of chrysanthemums intended to^ produce large numbers of flowers may be planted at once. Three suckers planted about i foot apart in a triangle, will produce fine large plants before their season of blooming. Carnations should be staked, the growths tied regularly, and an excessive amount of shoots reduced to a few if fine flowers are desired. The buds on the selected shoots should also be thinned, the large terminal bud being selected to remain in most varieties. In many varieties that produce large flowers that invariably lose form by bursting the calices, a secondary bud should be saved, the flower resulting being smaller but of much superior form. Seeds of tender plants may be sown in boxes, or in beds if provision is made for sheltering the yonng plants from frost, if necessary. Seeds of dahlia, and a number of annuals that would be killed by frost if raised earlier may be sown at the end of the month. A finely pulverised and firm surface should be prepared for simall seeds, and some light soil, well mixed and sifted should be at hand for covering the seeds. Plants of hardy annuals and perennials raised from seed earlier in the year may be planted out when large enough. Another batch of gladioli may be planted, the Lemoinei varieties, if selected, producing their flowers in December and January. Divisions of dahlia tubers may be planted for early blooming, a piece of the stem with the tuber attached lieing sufficient to produce a 544 Journal oj Agriculture. [9 Sept., 1907. large plant. A spot sheltered from hot winds should be selected if possible, as the plants will flower in mid-summer. A liberal allowance of manure should be deeply worked into the soil for each plant. The Pompon dahlias are useful for summer blooming, and resist hot winds better than the Show and Cactus types. Kitchen Garden. Ground should be prepared, as recommended for flower garden, for transplanting and sowing seeds of vegetables required. A condition of fine tilth is necessary to insure a fair amount of success, the after cultivation being also much easier if the soil is thoroughly pulverised before being planted or sown. Gfowang crops should be kept free from weeds which grow rapidly at this season, and the surface should be stirred as frequently as possible. Seeds of a number of vegetables may be sown including peas, beans — French beans at end of month in warm places — cabbage, x:auliflower, celery, carrot, parsnip, &c. Plantings from former sowings may be made as plants are ready. Tomatoes mav be planted out, but should be sheltered from cold winds and frost. Most market gardeners of experience hold the opinion that little is gained by planting before ^October. The contention is that the plants are not likelv to receive a severe check, and accordingly early fruits are produced with less trouble. A test of a number of varieties was made in the garden of a prominent cultivator last season, to determine the best early varietv. Key's Prolific was the earliest to produce ripe fruit, followed closely by Earliana and Early Jersey. The last named is a promising kind, the fruit being of fair size, good quality and borne freely. POULTRY FOR EXPORT. H. V . Haivkins. Poultry Expert. Reduction of Railway Rates. For some considerable time farmers have complained of the poultry freight rates charged by the Railway Dejpartment, with the result that the matter has been favorably considered by the authorities. Poultry (living) in crates, coops, and cases, formerly in Class I., is now charged under Class " C," subject to " Smalls " minimums. Taking the mileage rates fer ton for the two classes it will be seen that there has been a substantial reduction. Miles Class I. ,, C. For empties the rates have been amended as follows: — r- ,. I if Not over loi miles, :!d. each L rates an'l coops, empty ',1 J ^ J- 102-IC0 ,, 6d. returned, not exceednig - „ j " jj u- fi. ^1 Over ii;o ,, qd. ,, 17 cubic it. measurement ^, ri • • ^ , , ' 'v, or Class is, muimiuni 6d., w^hen cheaper. r- t 1 , r Not over 100 miles, 6d. each Crates and coops, emptv , J J- 102-1S0 ,, qd. returned, exceedmr' '- - -' " ^5 50 100 150 200 2 so s. d. s. d. £ s- d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. q 0 .. • 17 3 ■ .. I 14 0 . .. 2 10 6 . ■330. •• 3 IS 6 7 b .. • 13 9 • ..163. .. I 18 9 ., ,.280. .. 2 17. ..3 u- X,- , Over i^o ,, 1 - cubic it. measurement r-i -o ■ ■ r •, \ or Class B, minimum 6d. when cheaper The above rates may also be charged for new empty crates and coops sent (o the country to be filled for return by rail. 9 Sept., 1907.] Poultry for Ex-port. 545 Now that the reductions have been made it behoves the farming com munity to show its appreciation by placing poultry raising on a proper basis. Many things should be done, viz., renovating old houses, replacing perches, new ones to be 3 inches wide and 18 inches high, repairing fences, getting rid of the old crossbreds and starting anew on good sound lines. By these means the farmer will increase his returns and the export trade will be developed. There is no need to fear a glut in the market as Great Britain will take all we can supply. So far we have only touched the fringe of the poultry trade. The Department of Agriculture by lectures, demon- strations and articles has left no' stone unturned to disseminate information relative to the requirements of the trade, and the producer has, therefore, no ground for excuse. A LIGHT AND SERVICEABLE CRATE. The aoccimpanying illustration is that of a crate weighing 46 lbs., which has been approved by the Railway Department and will be found very convenient and serviceable. The size over all is: — length 4 feet, width 2 ft. 7 in., height i ft. 3 in. The frame consists of 3 x i and 2x1 deal battens, with ribs of i| x | deal to protect the wire {\\ in. mesh), whilst the floor is made of 9 x | deal. The door is 12 x 9. Crates at present in general use weigh at least 65 lbs. each, sO' it will be seen that a large reduction in weight has been secured ; at the same time there will not be any increase in cost. Requirements of the Trade. Farmers generally know by this time that the consuming public requires eatable poultry — not feathers and legs but white meat. I would again remind my readers l:hat the breeds which will meet the requirements, and bring top prices in Melbourne and London, are those having length of body and short legs, the latter to be white, with no feathers thereon, and free from scales. The order of merit in which, in my opinion, the breeds 989S. s 546 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Sept., 1907. should be placed and the average weight of chicken they will produce when crossed are as follow: — Preerls on P'emale side. 1 r, J w , • , Number of Bleeds on Male ?ule. ^p,,^ vernricd. Average weight of Progeny ai 5 months. 1. Silver Dorking (2nd season) •2. Buff Orpington ... .3. White Orpington Indian Game ... 6 Indian Game ... 6 Indian Game ... 8 7i lbs. 7"lbs. 6j ll)s. The foregoing is based on the results of experiments carried out by me last .season. It should be distinctly understood that Indian Game hens are very poor layers ; they should therefore not be used unless there is a difficulty in securing the other breeds enumerated. One of the main factors in farming poultry is to secure stamina, without which there is sure to be a loss at the end of the season. The above breeds embrace all those characteristics which go to produce the desired results. Always aim to reduce feather and remember that feathers require feed, and that there is no pavable market for feathers, whereas there is always one for good flesh. Food to Produce White Flesh. Chickens should not be fed until quite 24 hours after hatching. Then give hard-boiled egg (shell included) chopped up finely with double the Muantity of breadcrumbs, every two hours for the first few days. Give a little and often, but on no account should any be left as sour food is disastrous to young chicks. When a week old, change the diet to coarse oatmeal and broken biscuits, slightly moistened with sweet milk — avoid making it pastv ; add a little charcoal and very finely pulped raw onion. It is also very necessary to place on .some clean boards ample coarse sand, line gravel and a very small quantity of pure bone meal, as these are most essential to the chicken's proper development, i.e., to make bone and to keep the gizzard in a vigorous condition. Digestive disorders of all things should be guarded against ; therefore avoid giving green bone as there are more chickens killed by this than any other thing that I know of. At my own place where I conduct experiments many people, on seeing the healthy, well -feathered, young chicks, have asked wdiat food I use. I have used a variety of grains, and my experience is that it is not so much what the food is as how it is supplied, providing it contains the necessary constituents. In nature, small seeds, insects and grass furnish food for <"hickens. These are most abundant in the spring and summer months, and it is at this time that chickens thrive. To secure the best results, foods simulating both the composition and the mechanical character of these should be supplied. For instance, in the summer the tips of grass are > oung and tender and are easily broken by the chickens. For green stuff to be easily assimilable, some plant should be supplied which may be easily broken. Hanging a head of lettuce in the brooder by a string will furnish the desired want and be greedily taken by the chicks. Sifting the cracked grain scraps and cracked wheat through sieves, so as to remove lioth the meal and larger pieces, gives favorable results. Millet seeds, hemp seeds, rolled oats, and other grains of this character are greedily eaten and well digested. 9 Sept.. 1907.] Potato Expcnnuiital l-iclds. 547 POTATO EXPERIMENTAL FIELDS, 19()()-;. George Seymour, Potato Expert. The experiments conducted durin^; 1906-7 are largel\ a continuation of the pre\ioiis year's operations. They are so entirely as far as the manure dressings on the varieties planted on the 5 acre forage fields, where artificial manures, lime and farmyard man'jre comprised the dressing, are concerned. But as artificial manures has not hithertoi given satisfactory results on the rich volcanic soils, and there being instances on record where the \ ield was greater where no^ manure was used, it was accordingly decided to trv a combination of farmyard and artificial manures for this class of soil. Three plots were laid out for this purpose; one at Mr. Lane's farm at Koroit ; another on Mr. Walter's farm, Coghill's Creek; and the third at Mr. T. A. Park's farm, Romsey ; the latter field had also a subsoiled .section. The results may be considered encouraging, but as it is impossible to form definite conclusions from one year's operations, it has been considered advisal>le to carry on the experiment for another season. Artificial manure and lime separatelx were used on the plots where little or no farmyard manure is available, because it is recognised that any scheme of manuring tO' be of practical value shall be of such a character that where results prove it to be profitable farmers in the district will be able to adopt it. Plots of this class were situated at Kinglake and Emerald. The plots at Turkeith and Kilmore were also treated with the same (iressing. Brieflv stated the manuring was as follows: — 1 . Artificial manure, lime, and farmvard manure. 2. Farmvard and artificial manure in combination. 3. Artificial manure and lime. The results of these experiments are dealt with by mv colleague, ^\x. F. ¥.. L(^e, Agricultural Superintendent, on page 556. In dealing with the plots generally it must be borne in mind that some of them are not on potato land and the only hope of obtaining a moderate crop is meeting with the most favorable weather conditions during the whole growing period of the plant. It may not be out of place to state that anv soil can be converted into a potato producing soil and much can be done artificially to combat unfavorable weather conditions but the cost is out of all proportion to the average value of the crop. One of the fields of this character is that at Mr. Anderson's farm, Digger's Rest — on- of the 5 acre forage fields. The section used for potatoes was under cereals during 1905-6, was worked up to a very good tilth and, when planted in August, was in very satisfactory condition. The soil may be described as a clay loam with coarse gravel, having clay patches here and there throughout. This field was planted on 3rd August when the soil temperature ranged up to ^5 degrees at noon which may be con- sidered satisfactory for the season. Four weeks after planting a heav\' fall of rain occurred — 5 inches or over fell in a couple of days — and destroyed all chance of a crop. The next field to suffer from similar conditions was Mr. Wylie's at Turkeith. This field is a clay soil with a slight admixture of fine sand and is very tough and sticky when wet. It was planted on 19th Octol^er, which may be considered late for this district, but owing to hea\-y rains in Septemljer it was impossilile to prepare 548 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Sept., 1907. it for earlier planting. The results although poor were better than might have been expected. A portion of Mr. Wylie's crop beside the plot was a total failure, and I attribute whatever success was obtained to Mr. Wylie's efforts to restore the land to a proper condition after the heavy rains. The most disappointing field was that on Mr. Walter's farm at Coghill's Creek. This plot was to have been planted early in October but weather conditions interfered with the preparation of the land and delayed the work of planting until the 13th November. The crop came through well but met with dry weather during the growing period and early frosts checked the growth. The soil on this field is of superior quality, a chocolate volcanic, but lack of humus made it too sensitive to weather conditions. Influence of Humus. The accompanying illustration of a nimiber of tubers taken from a field that was in first class condition when planted as far as tilth was concerned will show what effect heavy rains have on a soil that is deficient in humus. Every tuber is pressed out of shape, some are about two inches diameter and little more than a quarter of an inch thick. Although the MISSHAPEN TUBERS. EFFECT OF SOIL DEFICIENT IN HUMUS. plant will sometimes thrive fairlv well under such conditions it is im- possible for it to produce a crop of tubers. IMuch stres.s is laid by all writers on the preparation of the land for a potato crop on the necessity of reducing the soil to a fine tilth, but where the organic matter of the soil has been exhausted by constant cropping, without a proper rotation, the finer the tilth the worse the conditions become under the influence of heavy rain, for the soil runs together and the water lies in pools all over the surface instead of soaking into the land, and if the rain continues long enough, it courses down in little rills till it gathers in volume carrying away whole breadths of the field. It is impossible to over estimate the influence of humus on crops, especially the potato crop. Probably the greatest decline in the fertility of the soil is brought about by constant cropping Avith grain. It may not be out of place to give the results of experiments at the Experiment Station, Minnesota, U.S.A., to compare the influence of continuous cropping with wheat and that of a rotation of crops on the humus content and fertility of the soil. On one plot each wheat, oats, barley and maize were grown continuously for four years ; on another plot the following rotation was practised, wheat, clover, wheat, and oats ; and on another plot, oats followed by clover, barlev, and maize, with manure, were grown. The gain or loss of humus 9 Sept., 1907.] Potato Experimental Fields. 549 during the four vears in the different plots is shown in the following table : — System of Croiipiiiy. Humus at beginning'. Ilumus at end of 4 years. Gain + Loss — per cent. per cent. per cent. 1. Whe4t continuously^ 3.30 3.00 - 0..30 2. Wheat, clover, wheat, oats 3.30 3.80 + 0.50 3. Oats, clover, barley, maize 3.30 3.50 + 0.20 4. Maize continuously 3.30 3.10 - 0.20 5. Oats continuously ... 3.30 3 08 0.22 6. Barley continuously 3.30 3.10 - 0,20 With continuous wheat cropping there was an annual loss of i,8oo lbs. of humus per acre whilst on the rotation plan of maize, oats, and barley there was a gain of above 1,500 lbs. and in the other rotation with clover over 2 tons. As humus is one of the principal sources of nitrogen, in the case of continuous wheat growing the annual loss of nitrogen was 146 lbs. over and above that utilised by the wheat crop or for every i lb. used by the crop 5 .lbs. were lost to the soil whilst in the clover rotation there was an annual gain of 6i\ lbs. A glance at the above table will show what an important factor clover is in the renovation of the soil. Heavier yields of potatoes and a better quality of tubers are largely bound up in this question of a proper system of rotation and especially one including clover. If larger areas of the best potato lands of the State were utilized for dairying and grazing, a little more than half the present area of potatoes would produce as heavy a return of marketable tubers. Selection of Seed. The importance of the selection of potatoes for seed recei\ed careful attention during the harvesting of the crop, 1905-6. The varieties were culled and notes were made of the proportion of rejects. This selected seed was used in the 1906-7 fields and reference to two or three lots will suffice to show the influence of a proper system of selection on the quality and yield of the crop. , The .varieties which have suffered most through want of care are the red skinned. This may be accounted for by the fact that they have been longest in cultivation ; the practice of taking small or undersized tubers for seed year after year without any regard to the plant which produced them is responsible for much of the decline of this variety. One parcel of seed of this variety was taken from a plot planted by Mr. Jellie of Woodford with the following results: — Average yield — 6 tons per acre. Wild plants, 25 per cent. both rejected. Yellow tleshed jjlants, 50 per cent, j The return of market and seed tubers per acre was i| tons and of Tejects 4I tons. The selected seed was planted in Mr. Park's plot at Romsey, and the results are most striking. The gross return of the section was 7 tons 10 cwt., made up as follows: — 6 tons 18 cwt. marketable seed, and 12 cwt. small. The money value of market and seed potatoes at 50s. per ton and of small at 20s. would work out as follows per -acre : — £ s. d. Market and seed, 6 tons 18 cwt. at 50s. per ton . . 17 5 0 Small, 12 cwt. at 20s. per ton . . . . . . 0 12 0 Total 17 17 0 5:)^ ] oiirnal of Agriculture. [9 Sept., 1907. The value of same if planted in similar conditions to the plot of 1905-6 would haAe heen — - £ s. d. Market and seed, 1 ton 17 cwt. 2 qrs. at 50s. per ton 4 13 t» Rejects sent to market, 3 tons at 30s. per ton . . 4 10 0 Small. 2 tons 12 cwt. 2 qrs. at 20s. per ton . . . . 2 12 6 Total Balance in favour of selected seed 11 16 £6 0 9 PIT SHOWING PRODUCE OF SELECTED SL 1- D. The effect of selection on what mav be considered a good strain is. shown by a parcel of seed from selected plants and a parcel of ordinary seed taken from a bag ready for market, as follows: — Selected Seed. Market and seed, (3 tons 18 cwt. at "iHs Rejects, 1 ton 3 cwt. at 30s. per ton Small, 9 cwt. at Is. per cwt. per ton Total Or dinar y Seed . Market and seed, .1 tons 10 cwt. at .50s. per ton Rejects, 2 tons 3 cwt. at 30s. per ton Small, 19 cwt. at 20s. per ton Total £ s. d. 17 5 0 1 14 (i 0 9 0 1,9 S 6 £ s. d. 13 1.1 0 3 4 (i 0 19 0 £17 18 (> 5 Sept.. 1907.] Potato Exferimcutal Fields. 551 In the above calculation the 5I tons of market tubers are put down at the same price as the selected, viz., 50s. per ton, but there was fully 7s. 6d. per ton difference in value; again the rejects of the selected are put down at 30s. the same as ordinary, but they were quite los. per ton above them. With this alteration in prices, it raises the gain of the selected from j[^\ los. to ^4 14s. 3d. per acre in favour of selected seed. It should be stated that the crop from which this parcel of seed was selected was at the time of selection bringing the top price in ^lelbourne. Another instance ma\- lie quoted. The parcel of seed used in this test was selected from a field of the following standard — 70 per cent, rejected as wild or bad colour. The following letter, dated nth July, 1907. which I have received will testify to the improivement by selection: — " From selected seed (that is, selected as you showed me in 1906) I got •91 bags. I measured the ground, and it worked out at 5 tons per acre. They tut beautifully, and you will see by the photograph that they are all market- able potatoes. From the same measurement on either side of this block I •sowed potatoes carefully selected from pit, and I got 72 bags on one side and 73 on the other. The potatoes fi'om these two were not half the quality, and also in the 72 bags there were nearly six of them small, and in the 73 there were six bags small, and a great quantity of seed size. The photograph shows the potatoes as they are in the pit, just as dug, big and small together; there are very few small, as you w^ill see. ' ' The illustration shows the condition of the crop from selected seed as it appears in the pit, and the market value of the crop will be seen in the following statement. The other illustrations will make the matter perfectly clear. The produce of the ordinary seed is shown in the two bags a and h, and the selected in c and d, each lot weighing 79 lbs. : — Selected Seed. C, Market, 71 lbs. 1)., Small, 8 ll.s. = 79 'bs. Ordiiiarv Seed. A., ^Nfarkft, .H7 lbs. B., Small, 42 ll)s. = 79 lbs. The yield and mavket value per acre of tlio two parcels are as follow : — Selected Seed. £ s. d. Market, 4 tons 8 owt., at 50s. per ton Small, 12 cwt., at 20s. per ton Total Ordinary Seed. Market, 1 ton IS cwt., at 50s. per ton Small, 2 tons 1 cwt., at 20s. per ton Total In the above calculation a is given the full benefit of top market .price but could not be considered worth within 5s. to 7s. 6d. per ton of c The photographs and calculations should be sufficient proof of the advantages to be gained by adopting a proper method of selecting seed potatoes. While it may be more advantageous to buy a good strain of seed than lose a couple of seasons working up a grower's own stuff, it must be borne in mind that a method which will raise a crop from 30 per cent, of good plants to 90 per cent, in one season will if applied keep the standard up to a high level. It may not be practicable and .. 31 0 0 0 12 II .. £11 12 0 £ s. d. 4 15 0 .-> 1 (1 .. £() l(i (1 J on Dial of Agriculture. [9 Sept., 1907. indeed is not necessary to- apply this rule to the whole crop. The follow- ing plan is suggested — Suppose a grower plants 20 acres of potatoes ever}' PRODUCE OF SEED. A and C, Marketable; B and D, Small. (A and B are from Ordinary Seed, and C and D from Selected Seed.) year; let him at digging time select about ij tons of seed which should plant about three acres. The produce of this should be sufficient to plant GRADED FOR MARKET. Produce from Ordinary Seed, the Avhole 20 acres next season and by this means the whole area will be planted with the produce of selected seed every year. As regards change of seed, which in the ordinary acceptation of the term means selling out and buying some one else's seed sometimes inferior GRADED FOR MARKET. Produce from Selected Seed. to one's own, if a grower is careful in the selection of his seed it would be l>etter to send some of his own to another district where it could be- "9 Sept.. 1907.] Potato Experimental Fields. 553 grown on a different soil and in this way he would improve the constitu- tion of the plant and the tubers produced by it. Instances could be given where growers have kept their produce up to a very high standard for upwards of 25 years without changing their seed, but this can only be done by careful selection. Green or Immature Seed. For some years past the most progressive potato growers in Great Britain have advocated the use of immature seed. This is obtained by lifting the tubers while the plant is still green. In saving seed in this manner it is advisable to let the tubers lie on the ground till they become green ; if the weather is hot cover them with the haulm to protect them from the sun, but if the potato moth has made its appearance they should l>e gathered at once. During last season this experiment with " green v. ripe" seed was carried out on two plots, and was distinctly in favour of the green seed. The parcel of green seed used in the experiment was kindlv provided by Messrs. Birtchnell Bros., of Swanston-street, Melbourne, -and formed portion of a show of tubers exhibited in their window in December, 1905, and removed to the Government Cool Stores in January, 1906, where it remained till the following November. When the seed was taken out it began to throw out buds in a few days, the shoots being : strong and healthy. The variety used w-as Beauty of Hebron, grown by Mr. Lynch at Carrum. One test was caried out at Mr. P. J. Duif's farm, Carrum, wifh the following results: — - Tons cwts. qi'S. Green or immature seed . . ..583 per acre. Eipe seed . . . . . • .. 4 0 3 per acre. Yield in favour of green seed . . . . 1 8 0 It must be stated that the produce of the green seed was a much better sample with less small and undersized tubers. The second test was carried out at Mr. Gray's farm, Emerald, but for some cause, not apparent at the time of planting, 23 &ets out of 156 missed while 7 of the xipe seed also missed. The return per plant was again in favour of im.mature seed. The green seed gave a return of 3 tons 6 cwt. 3 qrs. while the ripe seed yielded 2 tons 8 cwt. per acre, or a gain of 18 cwt. 3 qrs. These experiments are to be continued in next season's plot. The above results were also confirmed by a small experiment carried out by Mr. J. McLennan, Head Teacher of the Emerald State School, where the immature seed gave double the yield of the ripe and more than twdce as manv large tubers. Altogether' the experiments may be considered to point to the fact that immature seed will give the most satisfactory returns. The Varieties. The heaviest individual yield of any section of the plots was obtained on .section (h) of Mr. R.'l. Argyle, M.L.A.'s, plot at Kyneton which gave a return of 16 tons 8 cwt. per acre with an average of 13 tons 10 cwt. over all sections. This variety was planted under the name of Blue Prolific and is identical with Coronation and Kinglaker;' it was also planted at Emerald and Kinglake. At the lat^ter place it was planted ^ for com- parison with Kinglaker and at both places it gave rather a light yield, but when compared with Brown's River in these tests it appears a very suitable variety for both districts. At Kinglake it gave a return of 2 tons .2 cwt. per acre; Brown's River gave the same weight but produced a 554 Ji'itnial of Aoriinliurc. [9 Sept.. 1907. little more than twice as many small, the weights being Blue Prolific small 14 cwt. I qr. 24 lbs. per acre; Brown's River small i ton 10 cwt. 25 lb., The followin'j table will show the market \alue of the two varieties: — Variety. (jtoss Yield. Tons cwt. qr.s. 2 2 0 2 2 0 2 19 2 3 2 0 Weight of Small. Tons Cwt.ql'S .lbs. 0 14 1 24 1 10 0 25 0 8 0 3 1 4 3 0 Value ta SOs. per ton. Weiuht of Seed and .VJarket ^'alue (a: 50s. Total Value. Kinqlake. Blue Prolific ... Brown's River... Emerald. Blue Prolific ... Brown's River... £ s. d. 0 14 6 1 10 0 0 8 (5 1 4 9 Tonscwt.qrs.lbs. 17 2 4 0 11 3 3 2 10 3 0 1 17 3 0 .£ 3 1 6 4 ,t. d. S 9 9 4 0 10 14 3 £ .V. d. 4 3 3 2 19 0 (5 15 4 5 19 0 A gain of 23s. iid. per acre is shown at Kinglake and i6s. 46. at Emerald. The market value of both varieties is put down at 50s., but the Brown's River produce was not worth within 5s. to 7s. 6d. per ton of Blue Prolific. During the last few vears there has been a great increase in the number of white skinned varieties, many of them not being suitable for local trade, while there have been practically no new reds, except The Gem of the South, a new red skinned variety raised by Mr. Russell Kidd of Invermay, Tasmania. A few small plots were planted last season and from reports to hand appear to have done well. Actual Aveights were supplied in one case only and then the yield was equal to 15 tons 15 cwt. 3 qrs. per acre, with a very fine sam.ple of tubers and scarcely any smaller than seed size. This variety pos.sesses all the points of a first class Brown's River and it is to be hoped that it will receive a fair trial in the coming season ; should it prove a much heavier yielder than the latter it will be welcomed in the late districts. Another dark-skinned variety planted under the name of Black Prince gave satisfactory returns; it has a dark purple skin, and if not identical with the Blue Derwent, it bears a strong re- semblance to that variety. It is rather liable tO' second growth, and consequently requires a favorable season, so that the tubers may develop without a check. Sometimes thev develop a purple ring inside, but this disappears in cooking ; a number of tests as to its cooking quality was made at all stages of growth and from all kinds of soil, the results being entirely satisfactory. Among the white-skinned varieties planted, Up-to-Date, Sutton's Abundance, and Clark's Main Crop gave good yields; the latter produces a large number of tubers, and unless it meets with favorable conditions, produces too many undersized tubers, Up-tO'-Date on the other hand has very few sma.l]. Fox's Seedling, which is an earlv variety, proved a heavy cropper, and of good quality. Cook's Favourite, Avhich is a sport of Carman No. i, is proving a heavy cropper. It is a verv vigorous plant, resists frost well, and is a late maturing potato of good quality ; it cuts very white and cooks well. This variety was planted in only one plot. Mr. Argyle's at Kyneton, where section {d) gave a yield of 10 tons 6 cwt. per acre with 8 tons 10 cwt. for all the sections there being 7 tons 5 cwt. of marketable and i ton 5 cwt. small. The amount of small seems large but nearly half the weight was- 5 Sept., 1907.] I'otato Expcrniicntal Fields. 555 due to heavy culling. Several favora])le reports regarding this potato on the lighter soils have also come to hand. Of all the white potatoes grown at the present time Carman No. i is probablv the best. It is of superior quality and is a good cropper, superior in nearlv every point to the New Zealand Pink Eye, and worthy of more attention in districts where early crops are grown. At Mr. Walter's farm at Coghill's Creek this variety Avas tested against the New Zealand Pink Eye with the following results: — Carman No. 1 — Market .Siu-vll Total •1 tons 2 cwt. (at 60s. per ton), £0 6s. ... 3 cwt. 1 (ir. (at £1 per ton), 3s. Od., £6 9s. 9il. New Zealand Pink Eye — Market. .Small. Tntal. 1 ton 11 cwi. (at 40s. per ton), £3 23. ... 12 cwt. (at -tl per ton), 12s., ... 1'3 I4s. SUBSOILING. As the potato grows during that period of the year when least rain falls anything that t'ends to promote or conserve soil-moisture should prove beneficial to the crop. With these objects in view a section of Mr. Park's plot at Romsey was subsoiled to a depth of 12 inches. The crop in this section, however, did not show any increase in the yield, in fact it was slightly in favour of the non-subsoiled, Init as no satisfactory con- clusions can be formed from one year's operations it has been decided to continue the work for another season. This experiment is interesting inasmuch as it is in accord with similar tests carried out in America. Other Experiments. A number of minor experiments and tests was carried out during the season in a garden plot where 44 different lots were planted ranging from 3 .sets to 38. Most of these had teen sent in by growers for identi- fication and resulted in the names of many being fixed. The dry weather or hot winds interfered with or prevented the blooming of some varieties and no results were obtained regarding them. As opinions differ regarding the value of the stem ends of tubers a field experiment to test the merits of stem and crown sections was carried out. For this purpose 500 tubers were selected of about 4 oz. weight and cut crossways into two sections. No. i, stem; No. 2, crown. The stem sections were all planted in one drill and the crowns in the next drill with the following results. The crown sections, which many contend are the best for seed, were very irregular and produced 140 green plants bearing many inferior tubers whilst the stem sections produced only 44 green plants but the yield and general appearance of the crop were decidedly in fa^'our of the stem sections. This experiment will be repeated or a larger scale during the coming season. Conclusion. The seaso'n was not altogether a favorable one as man\- districts suffered from a spell of dry weather at a critical period in the life of the plant. This was the case at Kinglake, Emerald, and Coghill's Creek, •especially at Emerald, where onlv 66 points fell in 10 days in January and were distributed over the whole month, the heaviest fall being 25 points on the 29th. February was a little better, the heaviest falls being on the 6th, and 7th, 31 points and dd points respectively, but such light falls are of little value to the crop. Many districts were visited by frosts as early as the first week in February. The area planted in Victoria in 1906-7 was largely in excess of the previous vear which was over 2,000 acres below the previous Journal of Agriculture. [9 Sept., 1907. season, the area for 1905-6 being 44,670 acres and 1906-7 55,372 or an increase of 10,702 acres. These fluctuations are brought about by high prices ruling when crops are light, and low prices when yields are heavy. The average per acre for last season was 3.01 tons per acre, the increased yield being 51,487 tons. It would be well for growers to work their potato areas on a rotation plan which would bring about the same quantity of land under potatoes every year, and thus as far as possible avoid a glut in the market. A report, dealing particularly with the imported varieties, will appear in the next issue of the Journal. The Effects of Manures on Potato Yields — Season 1906-7. F. E. Lee, Agricultural Supcriiitoidoii. The interest excited by the potato experiments of the previous season brought about an extension of the work during 1906-7. The fields embraced most of the recognised potato growing centres. A slight variation was made in the manurial treatment to meet changing conditions of soil. The returns below are grouped according to similarity in manure dressings : — Variety. J. Anderson, Digger's Rest. J. Ferrier Castertoi . J. Cameron, C'ondah. E. s.raui, lona. J A B C D E F A B 0 D E P A B C D E F A B C D E t' Bismark Satton's Abundance Carman No. 1 Up-to-Date . . Prolific (White) Fox's Seedling, Early . . Scotch Grey Beauty of Hebron Lap-'tone Kidney Brown's Eiver Black Prince Brown's River, No. f . . Clark's Main Crop British Queen Bruce Blue Prolific . . Scottish Triumph Tasmanian Bed Copperskin Roses Warrior Early Rose Late Rose Fox's. Seedling, Late .. Snowflake (Local) Average 1.4 1.0 .4 1.3 .8 1.2 2.0 .4 .4 .9 1.5 1.9 .8 2.7 1.7 .8 1.7 .8 .6 1.3 .4 1.2 .6 1.7 .8 .6 .3 .3 .3 .6 .7 1.7 .S 2.0 2.2 .8 .9 .6 .7 1.1 .5 1.0 .5 1.1 1.2 .7 1.2 .6 .4 .8 .4 1.5 .7 3.0 1.3 1.8 1.2 1.2 .6 1.3 3.2 5.0 3.1 2.3 3^3 4;.3 4.5 2^5 2.2 3.0 2.1 3.6 4.1 8.6 3.4 i'.k, 7.0 3!7 4.2 5.5 3. '2 2.1 3.0 3.6 4.3 3.9 8.0 1.6 3.0 5.1 4!6 o'.Q 3.0 l!5 1.5 i.5 3.0 3.5 2.4 4.5 1.4 l!5 4.1 2!4 3.6 2.5 I'.i 1.6 1.5 2.0 2.6 .5 1.6 !9 l!3 •■ 1.2 1.0 .7 .9 !5 i.i .9 .8 3.7 4^2 4^2 2.6 1.6 3!3 2.2 i'.b 2.2 2.3 .8 3.0 2.8 5.0 3 .'4 z'.b 3.2 1.4 3;7 3.3 4.3 3.2 3.5 1.0 4.5 3.3 2.3 2!6 2!6 2.5 .6 2.'.2, 2.2 3.0 2.5 2.6 .5 1.6 4.4 3.2 z'.z 3.7 1.7 z'.k 3.2 4!6 2.1 3.2 .8 4.0 3.1 2.7 2.5 2."3 2.3 1.1 2.'.\ 1.5 2^2 2.0 2.5 .5 2.3 2.0 2.1 2!i 3!i 2.2 .7 lis 1.4 l!4 1.5 3.0 .3 2.0 1.7 4!6 2.0 2;7 3.0 4.1 2.1 4.5 2.3 2.5 2.7 3.0 5!7 2.4 4 .'2 3^6 3.6 3.8 5.6 2.3 3.6 2.6 3.7 4.'7 1.3 z'.o 3.1 3.1 3.2 1.6 2.0 1.6 2.6 7^5 2.3 3.'8 3!6 4.0 3.1 5.5 2.3 2.6 2.1 3.6 5^8 2.3 2!7 sie 3.2 3.0 5.6 1.4 2.5 1.9 3.2 3.2 4!6 7'.0 6.0 4.6 5.8 3.1 4.2 4.1 5.1 Manurex used. — A. 2 cwt. Superphosphate. B. 2 cwt. Superphosphate, 1 cwt. Nitrate of Soda. D. Same as B, and § cwt. Potash Sulphate. E. 5 cwt. Lime. F. Farm manure. C. No manure. Disregarding altogether the question of variety, we find that the effect of manuring on the yield of tubers has been as follows : — A. B. C. D. E. F. Tons per acre ... 2.5 ... 3.1 ... ^.i ... 2.6 ... 1.7 ... 2.2 These figures confirm pre\ious experimental work in a similar direction and point to the necessity of a supplementary application of nitrogen to the phosphatic manure. The addition of potash has caused a falling off 9 Sept., 1907.] Potato Ex-perimental Fields. 557 in yield, except in the case of the lona field where the soil was a deep peat. Tlije effect of lime and farm manure, particularly the former has been disappointing, but there are indications that both of these amendments must be accompanied by artificial manures. The next group of fields differs only from the preceding in the substitu- tion of sulphate of ammonia for nitrate of soda and the elimination of the farm manure dressing. Variety. J. Wyhe, Turkeith. J. J. Ryan, Kilmore. J. Gay, Emerald. J. Gray- Kinglake. A •z.i 3.6 •i.i 2.5 3."6 4.2 5.6 1.6 .8 1.6 2.5 1.5 1.7 2.6 B 2.5 2;6 3!6 2.i 2.4 3. 4 3.4 5.5 1.3 lis 1.7 .8 1.2 2.3 C 2.'5 2^7 •2.'.-2 2.2 2.0 3.6 2.4 3.5 .9 .5 1.1 1.7 .8 1.1 1.9 D 2.3 2.'8 2!4 2.4 3.4 3.6 4.6 .9 .5 1.3 2.1 1.2 1.2 2.2 E 3.'i 3.2 3.0 2. '7 2.1 3.4 2.6 4.5 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.7 .8 1.2 2.2 A 6.0 4.4 4.9 6.'4 6.2 6.4 7.2 8.3 3. '5 3. '4 7.5 5.2 9.9 5. '2 6.0 B 5.2 5.0 o.'i 5.'i \.- 4.9 7.0 5. '9 5.'i 3.5 4^9 6.9 5.2 5.5 i.i 5.2 c 5.2 4.4 ■i'.Z 5.'i 5!9 5.3 6.2 6.4 2.4 2. '2 5.4 5.9 5.9 4.'3 4.8 D E A 2.2 3.5 3.5 3.4 .7 4.2 3.5 4.3 2. 7 4.6 ■t.5 3^5 3.7 3.3 3.4 B 3.4 3.6 4.1 4.0 1.2 4.2 4.0 4.2 3.3 4.4 4.4 3.4 3.2 2.3 3.5 0 1.5 2.5 2.4 2.6 1.1 2.3 3.4 2.7 2.3 1.9 1.2 1.1 1.4 1.5 1.9 D 3.4 3.3 3.6 3.5 1.1 4.2 3.4 5.2 3.7 3.7 4.2 6.7 2.5 2.6 3.6 E 2.4 2.1 2.7 1.7 .7 2.6 3.2 2.6 2.6 2.1 2.6 2.0 1.6 1.7 2.1 A 3.7 2.7 3. '6 2.5 2.7 3.7 lis 3.1 2.1 1.1 1.3 2.4 B 3.5 2.9 2.1 2.5 2.5 4;7 2'i 3.6 2!7 1.1 1.4 2.7 C 2.7 1.5 3^5 1.0 1.4 2A 2A 2.2 lii .7 1.0 1.8 D 3.3 2.1 4.'i 2.3 2.4 3.0 214 3.4 1.9 1.0 1.5 2.5 E ProHfic (White) .. Brown's River Brown's River (Illowa) Bismark Early Rose Copperskin Queen of the Valley Black Prince Blue Prolific Brown's River (Local) Clark's Main Crop Daniel's Sensation Lynch's Green Seed Lynch's Ripe Seed Scotch Grey Bruce Up-to-Date Carman No. 1 British Queen Goodfellow Fox's Seedling Rose Royal Kidney Late Rose Sutton's Abundance Tasmanian Red . . Orr's Wonder (Local) Vanguard Beauty of Hebron Duke of Rothesay Brown's River, No. 2 Average 4.2 5.0 5!2 5!o 7!3 5.2 6!4 16.3 .3 .'3 2.2 6.3 5.3 10.6 i'A 5.7 3.1 4.3 4."i 4.4 5. '9 2.6 5.0 5. '3 :: 3.0 i.'e 5.5 4.2 7.2 3^ 4.2 2.2 1.9 2."8 1.5 1.5 2;i 1.'5 2.0 'J .9 .7 1.6 Manures used. \. 2 cwt. Superphosphate. B. 2 cwt. Superphosphate, 1 cwt. Sulphate of Ammonia. C. No manure. D. Same as B, and 1 cwt. Potash Sulphate. E. 4 cwt. Lime. The returns from this group of fields do not show any striking dif- feiences for various manure dressings, but they strongly emphasize the value of manuring by the production of an extra ton of potatoes per acre over ground not manured : — ■ A. B. C. D. 3-5 E. Tons per acre ... 3.8 ... 3.4 ... 2.6 The third group of fields comprises rich volcanic soils. The manure dressings are identical with the preceding group, but the lime is replaced by farm manure in section E. The average yields for the different sections do not show considerable varietv. A. B. C. D. E. 6.1 Tons per acre 5-5 5-0 5-3 Wliile it is not surprising to find a yield of 5 tons per acre from un- manured ground, it is gratifying to find that even on these rich soils, manures rationally applied can still increase the yield by over one ton per acre, as on section D. The effect of the stable manure has also brought :>:>' ] ounial of Agriculture . [9 Sept.. 1907. about an improvement in yield, due, no doubt, to the moister condition ot the soil thus treated. Variety. Fox's Seedling Daniel's Sensation Clark's Main Crop White Prolific British Queen New Zealand Pink Eye Bismark Black Prince (subsoiled) Black Prince (not subsoiled) Sutton's Abundance Brown's River (Warrnambool Seed) Brown's River (Romsey Seed) . . Brown's River (Local Seed) Up-to-Date . . Copperskin . . Xasmanian Red Tasmanlan Red (Ordinary) Tasmanian Red (Selected) Brown's River (Selected) Brown's River (Jellies) Lapstone Kidney Up-to-Date (Local) Carman No 1 Average T. A. Parks Romsey. T. Lane. Koroit. 6.5 5 9.7| 8 S.2! 7 5.6 9.2 S.6 9.6: 9i 8.7 7 10.0 1 10.1 9.7 9.5 8.9 7.1 8.7 4.9 6.5 8: 5.8 51 8 9i 8.4 .4; 6.8 .9| 8.5 .5, 7.2 .0110.3 .21 9.2 .710.3 8.2 2.3 6.9 5.1 4.1 6.9 5.7 4.4 7.5 5.1 5.7 4i 7.0 5 10.7 9' 7.3 9! .. 6.1 7.6 3.5 8.7 6.81 5.6' 9.9! 7.0 7.3 9!6 6.0 9.6 6.5 2.6 6.9 6.5 3.9 7.9 5.6 7.4 9.7] 6.1 11.9 10.5 7.9 6.8 8.5 3.4 10.3 7.5 5.1 7.9 7.5 7.0 12.4 7.3 7.5 8.8 12.2 7.5 7.5 3.4 8.0 5.6 4.9 7.8 4.9 6.3 8!5 7.6 10.9 8.0 W. Walters, Coghill's Creek. B C D E 3.03.5 2.52.3 2.4 2.4 2.3 1.2 3.0 1.7 1.2 1.4 2.3 2.6;2.3 2.513.4 2.7'2.2 2.412.1 1.6 1.4 1.42.32.1 Manures vsed.—A. 2 cwt. Superphosphate. B. 2 owt. Superphosphate, 1 cwt. Sulphate of Ammonia. C. No manure. D. Same as B, and 1 cwt. Potash Sulpliate. E. Stable manure. Kyneton Field. Mr. Argvle, M.L.A., carried out an experiment on the following lines : — Variety. Mr. Argyle, M.L.A., Kyneton. A B C D e Up-to-Date . . Brown's River Cook's Favourite Bis mark Queen of the Valley Blue Prolific . . Vanguard Carman No. 1 Brownell's Beauty Average 9.5 4.4 9.0 4.9 3.7 14.6 6.1 4.2 6.5 6.9 11.6 4.5 6.1 4.6 10.4 16.4 5.4 4.6 7.0 7.8 8.2 5.3 9.0 5.2 6.4 14.6 5.5 3.4 4.5 6.9 4.4 3.4 10.3 5.9 9.0 10.4 5.0 3.6 4.7 6.2 7.1 3.9 8.5 6.3 8.0 11.7 6.0 4.3 5.3 6.7 Mannn>>: iisi/d. — A. ■> cwt. Supeiphosjihate. B. -i cwt. Sujierpliosphate, 1 cwt. I'ntasli .Sulphute. ('. No manure. I). 4 cwt. Lime. E. .Stable manure. The yield for all sections was extremelx good, the most noticeable feature being the increase of .section B (superphosphate and potash sulphate) over the unmanured section C. Nearly an extra ton of potatoes per acre for an expenditure of 13s. 6d. is worth consideration, and potato growers with land of a similar class would do well to note the effects of this manurial combination. The stable manure shows need for a supplement of superphos])hate. General Review. The date of preparation of the soil, time of planting, and varieties sown, somev.hat complicate the question of potato manuring. Then again 9 Sept., 1907.] Potato Experimental Fields.. 559 the projjortion of marketable seed differs with varieties and this no doubi: is influenced by the manures used, so that to make a definite statement that any particular manure or combination of manures is the best for potatoes is courting criticism. The following digest of all potato fields, disregarding varieties of tubers sown and lo:-alitv, offers some jieneral information: — Yields per Acre. Ldcality. "§ III .2 2 6.7 Average . . 4.0 4.6 3.1 3.4 2.6 4.8 7.8 2.6 3.9 It will be noted that 2 cwt. per acre of superphosphate has produced an increase of .6 tons (12 cwt.) per acre over the unmanured land. Adding i cwt. sulphate of ammonia to the superphosphate further in- creases the improved yield to i ton 4 cwt. per acre. The further addition of I cwt. of potash sulphate to the superphosphate and sulphate of ammonia shows an enhanced increase of i ton 8 cwt. per acre. To put the matter on a commercial basis, a dressing of 2 cwt. superphosphate. 1 cwt. sulphate of ammonia and i cwt. potash sulphate costing approxi- mately 37s. 6d. per acre has produced an extra yield of t ton 8 cwt. of potatoes:, which at £^2 los. per ton would be worth ^3 los. over and above what was produced from the unmanured land. Manuring therefore pavs handsomely. The cost mav seem rather high, but if potatoes were worth ^c^ per ton instead of ^2 los., the profit would have been double for the same expenditure in manures. Attention might be drawn to the fact that farm manure alone has produced an increased yield of .5 tons (10 cwt.) per acre, which mav be taken as evidence of the virtue of this much neglected material. Had the farm m.anure been supplemented by artificial fertilisers, the results w^ould have probablv been much more prominent. The Field Branch recognises the value of these manuring trials with potatoes, but advises caution in the use of excessive dressings, which might stimulate a too abundant growth of tops to the detriment of the tubers. It is perhaps superfluous to add that the cultivation of potato land must alwavs regulate the action of the manures. 560 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Sept., 1907. FIFTH CONVENTION OF THE VICTORIAN CHAMBER OF AGRICULTURE, JUNE, 1907. {Continued from page 494-) IV.— THE IMPORTANCE OF TREE PLANTING. /. M. Reed, I.S.O., Surveyor-General. According to the returns of the Government Statist there are in the State of Victoria over forty-three thousand individual holdings of over 30 acres in extent, and when it is considered that the large majority of these land-owners are active agents for the destruction of trees it will be realized how vast a work of destruction has been and is in progress. The question naturally presents itself as to what will be the ultimate effect of this immense clearing of timber cover. Can it be continued without being productive of injury to the State? Some thoughtful observers anti- cipate serious disaster and point to severe climatic changes, droughts and floods as the veritable results that will follow. It has been clearly established that by the clearing of the country the flow of streams is affected, springs disappear, and, by the rapid discharge of the rain water from the cleared surface into the watercourses, whence it passes away and is largely lost, the benefits of the actual rainfall are minimized. The experience of the countries of the Old World should afford striking object lessons. Spain, France, Italy, and Turkey may be quoted as instances. In Russia the reduced volume of the River Volga is attributed to the cutting of the timber along the valley. The very ex- tensive and reckless forest clearing in India was found to be productive of harm, and in America, too, the clearing has been enormous and the need of planting has been realized. Australian eucalypts have been intro- duced into India and have done remarkably well, their rate of growth being much faster than that of the indigenous trees. Again the effects of wind action merit serious consideration. It must be admitted that effective pro- tection from the cutting winds of winter and scorching blasts of summer can be productive only of good to the farmer, and yet how many fail to give any attention to the preservation or creation of timber screens. The progress of settlement and the development of our agricultural and grazing industries necessarily involve the clearing of the country, and tim- ber growth has to give place to products of various kinds. The reasonable aim should be to see how far timber cover can be preserved or promoted consistently with the demands for land for other uses. If the forty-three thousand land-owners previously referred to could be induced to become active agents for the promotion of tree growth, what a transformation would be accomplished. There are estates well known in Victoria where, largely as the result of systematic tree planting, the grazing capacity has been raised and the idea that land devoted to tree growth is so much waste is a decided fallacy. In these days of improving dairying conditions, too much attention cannot be given to stock protection, and what better pro- tection can be afforded to stock than that furnished by well arranged plan- tations. It is no uncommon sight to see dairy stock in the most miserable condition, suffering the ill effects of exposure, and how much of the loss of stock and of stock returns might be avoided by the provision of suitable cover. 9 Sept., 1907.] Fifth Convention, Chamber of Agriculture. 561 Quoting from a previous paper * I take the following summary of advantages which may be claimed as the result of careful attention to tree growing. " The improved condition of the homesteads, both as regards the personal comfort of the occupiers and the attractiveness of the home. The improved condition of stock resulting from the comfort of the effective shelter from the extreme of heat and cold. The increased returns from stock. The protection of pasture lands from the drying effects of strong winds. The protection of cultivated lands by break-winds. The increased value of farm lands. A well planted farm is cer- tainly the more valuable. The ultimate assured fuel supply and timber supply for farm pur- poses." Of course in different localities the conditions will be found to vary, but in every district there is full justification for careful attention to this provision. It has been written " Whenever we plant a tree we are doing what we can to make our planet a more wholesome and happier dwelling place for those who come after us, if not for ourselves." Unfortunately the time factor essential to tree production operates in the minds of many persons to- deter them from plantmg and speedy returns from other cultivation are deemed of more importance. Victoria is a young State and the actual results of timber growth cannot be freely quoted. But even the com- mercial test may to some extent be applied. I have endeavoured to procure specific instances. One is furnished by the Ballarat Water Commission on whose reserved areas the Pinus insignis, an admirable shelter tree but generally despised as a timber tree, was extensively planted about 30 years ago, and during recent years a large quantity of timber has been disposed of. From the State plantations at Creswick, pine timber is being sold for fruit cases, and the available supply will give a very satisfactory return. On Mount Cairmel Estate, Redcastle, pine planks 12 inches wide were cut from trees planted in the year 1872, and were used on farm buildings. Mr. W. Gill, Conservator of Forests in South Australia, in an official report, stated that Pinus insignis plantations after twenty-one years growth give a net return of ^100 'per acre. These figures show that from a revenue consideration tree planting is not to be lightly regarded, and, in addition, the incidental advantages of shelter, &c., are fully enjoyed during the period of growth. On some of the estates in the Western District, where extensive plantations have been formed, the actual timber value is very substantial. A leading institution, now familiarly known as Arbor Day, is becoming more and more popular in our State, Borough and Shire Councils acting in conjunction with the Education Department in a most praiseworth) manner to promote the success of the movement. I presume in this audience there are many gentlemen who are councillors, members of Boards of Advice, and of Agricultural Societies. If all such would take an active interest in this work, and encourage the young people to become planters, the good effect throughout the State would be speedily evidenced. *"A Plea for Tree Planting and Tree Preservation," page 707, Journal of ihc Defartment of Agriculture, December, 1906. 562 ] oHrnal of Agriculture. [9 Sept.. 190; Arbor Dav was originated in America, in 1872. bv the Nebraska State Board of Agriculture, at the instance of Mr. J. Sterling Morton, and from its inception has been remarkably successful. Nebraska was later, by legal authority, designated the " Tree Planteir's State." Throughout the United States, Arbor Day is now systematically observed, and bv securing the active co-operation of the schools, colleges, and universities, a great interest in tree planting has been fostered, and a wonderful success achieved ; in many States, Arbor Dav is a recognised public holidav. It has been officially recorded that the inauguration of this mo\'ement by Mr. Morton, Avho subsequently became Secretary of Agriculture, "has done more for the protection of forests and the encouragement of tree planting than all our legislation." I venture to suggest the introduction of the competitive system in Victoria. Would it not be an appropriate work for Agricultural Societies in their respective districts to arrange competitions, offering prizes for the l>est planted farms, and framing suitable conditions under which the prizes would be awarded. In the year 1883, Dr. L. L. Smith read a paper before the National Agricultural Society of Victoria, in which he pointed out the evil results likely to follow the wholesale destruction of timber, and submitted a very ambitious proposal to provide a large fund by subscriptions from all classes for the purpose of giving very generou.s. prizes for the best tree plantations. His proposal, however, met with ver\ little encouragement or support, though consistent planting has been vmder- taken by many land-owners. In the United States, practical eft'ect has been given to the idea of competitive planting. Valuable prizes are offered for the planting of certain varieties of trees. Australian eucalypts, particularly the blue gum, are extensively planted in California, and the State laws of Ulonois, Missouri, and Iowa, specially encourage tree planting. Again, the scrupulous protection of trees growing on country roads is worthy of the attention of Municipal Councils, and I commend to the notice of councillors present, the action of a certain Shire Council, which, having decided by a majority vote, to sell for milling purposes, the fine red gum trees growing on country roads, resolved, on the remonstrance of the Lands Department, not to permit any trees to be removed, unless tc meet the requirements of traffic. INIany years ago, in the State of California, the County Boards were empowered to authorize land-o>vners to plant trees of specified varieties on the public highwaxs, and, after four years, if conditions as to spacing, distance from road formation, and satisfactory growth were certified to as having been complied with, a payment of one dollar per tree could be made. This is in marked con- trast to our Victorian experience, where the trees on so' many of our j-uljic roads are ruthlesslv sacrificed to the greed of the land-owner, by whom a more or less scanty growth near his boundary line is regarded a.^ iull justification for secret ring-barking. The clearing of river reserves, particularly in our northern districts, should be discouraged in every possible way. Be if ahvavs remembered that a well-grown tree represents nature's work of man\ years, and to needlessly destroy such a work is utterly wrong. This clearing of reserves is a distinct illegality, and treated as such. The notes prepared, at my request, by Mr. Johnstone, officer in charge of State Plantations, at Creswick, were published with my previous paper, and are well worthy of careful i)erusal, as they indicate what, when, and Avhere to plant, and are the ojoinions of an expert. A farmer 9 Sept., 1907.] /■'ifi/i C<>ii:iiifio>i, Cl/amber of Agnadtiirc. 563 who begins to plant either by sowing broadcast on well prepared land, or by forming propagating beds, will very speedily develop an interest in such work, and experience a gretat satisfaction in looking after the seedlings, and then seeing the good results that will so soon follow his well-directed efforts. One tree that is finding special favour in Victoria, merits particular notice. The sugar gum, pronounced to be a fair timber tree, is the most rapid grower of all the eucalypts, has a very fine foliage, makes a good clean trunk if allowed to run up, and if cut back in its t-arly growth, forms an excellent shade tree, and grows well in almost any situation. It seems to be particularly adapted to the northern dis- tricts, where, with the well-known pepper tree, it can be safelv planted. The opinion of i)lanters in the dry northern districts has been sought. Mr. William McXab, of Corack East, after twelve years' experience, is well satisfied with his results, and considers the sugar gum takes first place. His trees are 30 feet high, seem to resist white ants, pro\'ide effective break-winds, and alreadv supplv valuable material bv thinning. His method of planting is by broadcasting seed on well fallowed and carefully prepared ground. The fallowing gives the vcning plants a good start, and enables them to survive the drv season (luring early growth. Mr. O. H. Roediger, of Lorquon, confirms this opinion, but he raises his plants in seed l)eds, hardens them off in early spring, and plants in September, on well-prepared fallow'ed ground, taking the further pre- caution to make with a crowbar, a hole, w'hich, when filled with sandy loam, leads the tap root down into the sub-soil. These methods have given excellent results, and should encourage growers, even in the verv dry areas, where shelter would be most valuable, to make the attempt. In the matter of the cost of tree planting, no difficulty presents itself. Seed can be obtained from Melbourne seed merchants, at the low price of 2S. 6d. per ounce, and the labour of sowing and protecting the plantations represents a verv small outlay. With such manifest advantages to be derived from thoroughlv systematic tree planting, of benefit both to the grower and the general community, it should not be necessary to urge our land-owners to undertake the work. It is hoped that the few notes now submitted will l>e productive of good results and influence some, at least, to take a keener interest in the subject, and become earnest planters. v. — PORK RAISING FOR EXPORT. ir. Smith, Pig Expert. The importance of bringing the matter of pork-raising for export under the notice of the farmers of Victoria has, for some time past, occupied the attention of the Department of Agriculture, whose desire is to give every facility to those who will interest themselves to make this special line of trade with other countries a success. The Depart- ment deserves the thanks of the community for the assistance it is rendering. I see no reason why Victoria should not export pork in very large quantities, and raise proportionally as large numbers of pigs as do the United States of America. I say proportionally, for, of course, Victoria does not contain as much territory or population as the United States ; but she compares very favorably with that country, for the quality of the soil is. on the average, better than in the U^nited States. Under the terms of my appointment. I will visit the various districts 564 Journal of Agnciiltiire. [9 Sept., 1907. and assist the growers with my experience, deliver lectures, and give all the information in my power to forward this particular branch of trade, and thus enable the farmers to realize the grand prospects there are of making the industry of pork-raising for export a profitable business. Some Statistics. The following statistics will give you some idea of the enormous volume of trade done in the United States of America in connexion with the pig-breeding industry: — " The number of pigs packed in the Western States during the year ended ist March, 1907, was 25,430,000, or 145,000 less than the maximum attained in 1905-6. The marvellous- growth of this industry is shown by the fact that the number did not reach 5,000,000 in any year prior to 1872-3, while it was only a little over 9,000,000 as recently as 1882-3, and it was not until 1897-8 that a total of 20,000,000 was reached. The money paid for the Western pigs in 1906-7 amounted to 361,840,000 dols. (_^75,483,ooo), being the greatest sum on record. Including an estimate for the Eastern States, the total value of the pigs sold is 433,840,000 dols., or ;£90,383,3oo. Higher prices were paid for the pigs during the past year than in the previous twelve months, for though the number was slightly less the value was greater by 66,353,000 dols. The average price in the West last year was 6.36 dols. per 100 lbs. live weight, as compared with 5.33 dols. for the previous twehe months. The quantity of green meat from the 25,430,000 pigs of last year was 3,175,955,000 lbs., and that of lard 824,442,000 lbs." Oversea Markets. This will give you some idea of the possibilities of growth in this trade, and I unhesitatingly affirm that Victoria will not only hold its own with the United States proportionately (taking the difference in the size and population of the two countries into account) but that our little country will produce more pigs and establish a name for our produce, which will be of wide-world fame, and profitable for all. This statement is borne out by the fact of the superiority of our soils, and the consequent greater producing capabilities of our land, backed up by a genial climate un- paralleled on the face of the earth. We suffer none of the excesses of climate other lands are subject to. We are not snowed up in winter nor prostrated by heat in summer. We are favoured by genial weather, and everything is conducive to health in both man and beast. Hence, it is apparent to any level-headed man that Victoria is an ideal place, capable of breeding and raising hundreds and thousands of pigs annually, and to do so profitably to the farmer and enable him with fair freights and charges, to compete with any country in the world's markets. And see what a field there is for our products ! Africa, India, China, Japan, the Continent of Europe, and England, who now take our wool, grain, beef, mutton, butter, and who will only be too glad to take our frozen pork also. Shipments have already been sent with profitable results, and it is evident it only requires the farmers of this State to go into the pork-raising industry with vigour to make the trade a brilliant success. Slow Progress. At the present time Victoria is just in the same position as she was thirty-five years ago in regard to the pork-raising industry. Quoting from the Australian Meat Trades Review, I find that as far back as 187 1 there 9 Sept., 1907.] Fifth Convention, Chamber of Agriculture. ^^S were 180,000 pigs in Victoria. These figures rose to 240,000 in 1881, 282,000 in 1891, and 350,000 in 1901, but have now dropped back again to 220,000, the falling off being undoubtedly due to the fact that farmers have had to rely almost entirely on the local and Inter-State markets, but now that there are standing orders for any quantity of fresh pork at 4d. per lb., dressed weight, advertised in Melbourne. Portland, and other freezing centres, there is no reason why the pig business should not as- sume very large proportions. I would like to point out some of the many advantages attached to the rearing of pigs. Increasing numbers are beginning to find out these advantages. For instance, in Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana, cattle- raismg was the only industry for many years. Then the country was invaded by sheep-farmers, as it was found the sheep yielded more profit than the cow. But now a new departure is taking place in the States named, for the pig is proving that he yields a higher profit than the sheep. As we all know, it is necessary to grow peas, beans, and barley for the satisfactory feeding of pigs, and the fact that peas and beans extract nitrogen from the air, and transfer it to the soil, gives these crops a special value to the farmer, for they enable him to maintain the fer- tility of his land without being put to the expense of buying nitrogenous manures. And in regard to inferior or discoloured grain ; this, which is so often sold at a sacrifice, could be better utilized on the farm for pig-feeding, thereby saving cost of carriage. Besides, the benefit derived to the land by way of manure in allowing the pigs to feed on such grain is considerable. Then again, the spare time of the farm-hands can be utilized in the regular feeding of the pigs, cutting bedding, cleaning styes, &c. In fact, the pig pays for his own board and lodgings right handsomely, and he is a reallv valuable adjunct to the butter industry, in so far as the disposal of skim milk is concerned. Skim milk, properly treated by fermentation, and mixed with pollard, is a most satisfying, and fattening food. The Best Breed. There are manv breeds of pigs, but the Berkshire stands boldly out, being remarkable for conspicuous features, and having been thoroughly tried, his suitability for this country is beyond question. I cannot speak in too laudatory terms of this magnificent animal, his leading character- istic being to fatten quickly, aye, quicker than any other, that is, to be ready for market. He is also more prolific, whiLst taking less food, and is held high in the estimation, not only of the breeders, but, owing^ to his shapely conformation and thick flesh, of the butchers and bacon- curers also in this and every other State of the Commonwealth. The Berkshire stands at the head of all breeds, not only for consumption in this countrv, but for export, and hence he is the most remunerative to the farmer. In mating the pig, get good half to three-quarter bred sows. Mate these with young, pure-bred boars. In picking your sows, let them be at least ten months old ; the boars to be of the same age. You will then have the prime of their lives. See that the sows have at least twelve teats. They should not be allowed to get too fat during the time of gestation, and this may be avoided by restricting their food somewhat. In choosing your boar, see that you get one with good constitutional vigour, breadth of chest, width of loin, chine and ribs also good width, depth of carcass and l>eautv of form ; head not too long, dished face. s66 Journal oj Agriculture. [9 Sept., 1907. fine snout, full cheeks; the ribs, loin and rump of uniform breadth, back straight, chest deep, broad and prominent, ribs well set and springing well from the chine ; shoulders widely extended and thighs inside and out very thick ; short legs, the bones of which must be fine and the joints small ; skin thin and supple, without looseness ; fine soft hair, which is an indication of sound constitution. Keep this description in your mind, get the boar as near to it as possible, and you will have the ideal Berkshire. The breed of the boar is of more importance than that of the sow, as the progeny take more after the male than the female. Bear in mind that both boar and sow will be in condition for breeding purposes at ten months. If used earlier, the generative powers of both will become deteriorated. Gestation lasts sixteen weeks — 112 to 114 days — and it is therefore advisable to mate them so that the sows will have their litters in time to meet with good markets. The height of summer or the depth of winter, should be avoided in the littering of sows. The .sow may be BERKSHIRE BROOD SOWS. allowed to run about with other pigs up to ten days or a fortnight of parturition. Then pen in comfortable sty, and feed her on soft food. Make her bed of short straw or leaves, but not too much, lest she smother her young by lying on them. Always remember that if the parents are kept healthy, they will tran.smit health to their offspring, and by breeding your stores, you are using ever\ precaution against disease from outside. Castrate the \oung pigs when three weeks old. They can be weaned at eight weeks. Feed them three times a day with warm food, such as skim-milk, butfer-milk, whey, &c., and in about a week they will take the ordinary food with the others. The\' thrive best when fed with regularity. A sow will continue to be prolific for five or six years, and cases are known where they have been so for eight years. It is there- fore, wise to keep a good breeding sow as long as possible, that is, if she is a good mother as well, for young pigs often pro\e poor mothers. Uniformity in Feeding and Breeding. Xo class of stock pays better than pigs, if well looked after, and great saving is affected by constant attention. Pigs can be fed econo- 9 Sept., 1907.] h'iftlt C onicutlon, C haiuhcr of Agriculture . 507 mically on a good deal of waste stuff often regarded as rubbish. Fre- quently food is thrown to them all at once, and thev waste more than they eat, when, if only a small portion was tossed oAer at regular in- tervals, the extra ]al)0ur incurred would be more than compensated by the saving effected. By regularity in feeding, the pigs are contentedly employed during the day, and a placid temperament is thereby encouraged in them. By an established export trade, the price of porkers and baconers would be steadier the year around, whilst the qualitv of the pigs sent to market would be of a higher standard of excellence, for most farmers would feed their pigs similarly, and hence they would command an equal and more certain market on which the producer could rely, that is, for those sold to Victorian consumers. It would then be patent to the pro- ducer to breed and feed pigs of the right sort only, tbt- dav of the mongrel-bred animal would be a thing of the past, and the pig-breeding industry would be an object-lesson to those who have well-bred and good milking cows, but are satisfied with any sort of a bull. jJiikKSHJRi: baloneks. Best Feed. — In order to obtain food for the pigs, plant such crops as- your land will best produce. Pumpkins, turnips, carrots, melons, sugar- beet, grain (not forgetting peas) are the best to grow. And in regard to the latter especially, you will find no way of securing better returns from your land, for the growing of peas not only cleans the land, but takes little out of it. Yes, as I have said before, fattening pigs is a money-making venture. For instance, take a sow at ten months old. In two years she will produce fi\e litters of an average, of, say, eight pigs a litter. Keep them on vour farm, fatten them, and when fit send to market, and \o\\ can rely on her returning you a gross ;£40 or more a year. Is this not a grand return? If you retain the young pigs until they become baconers, the result will be equally good, for taking the ordinary rate of improvement, the ])ig will go on increasing in weight until he reaches 120 or 160 lb., at which weight he is most in demand by Victorian bacon-curers. Above all things vou must go about the fattening process in a systematic manner. Don't start before vou are ready. Grow such foods for them as will best suit, and provide such accommodation as is absolutely necessary. Then the result will be satisfactory. Of course there are many swamp lands in Gippsland where pigs thrive without artificial 568 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Sept., 1907. food, and when penned up at the right age as stores, and fed with good food ripen rapidly. But every one is not possessed of such places, and my remarks are directed to those who have land and soil that can grow root and grain crops. To these, I say, the most profitable animal you can rear is the pig. Let me warn you against feeding pigs on clover and some of the _grasses. For argument sake, suppose you have a dozen pigs or so, half or three-part fat, which have been running out on the clover. Then put them in the sty, top them up with the very best food, be it grey peas, milk, or any other equally good, and what will be the result ? I will tell you. They will turn out as fishy as if they had been fed on shark meat ! The proper thing to do in such a case is to let the pigs go back to poor stores, then top up, and the new meat thus made will be all right. Don't imagine you can hoodwink the bacon-curer. He knows his way about, and if he finds you have put in a few fishy ones, he will say nothing, but will wait, and when your next draft comes to hand, you will know all about it by the returns you get. In Warrnambool years ago, it was usual to keep the pigs on the clover as long as they were thriving, and then top off, but they never brought prices equal to or approaching what reliable farm-fed pigs brought, for the reason I have given. If you have maize, which is a good fodder, be sure and mix it with other foods (peas, &c.), and don't feed them on maize alone, 'for if you do the bacon won't keep. It goes rusty very quickly, and eventually finds its wav to the auction rooms. Pig-breeding is not carried on here in a proper manner. Take your cue from the United States of America, and you are on the right track. Weights to Breed. — Coming to actual requirements, as far as weight is concerned, those most in demand for either export or home consump- tion are pigs which range in weight from 60 to 80 lb. dead weight, for pork, and from 120 to 140 lb. for bacon, for Victoria, and from 80 to 100 lb. for bacon for export, quality being, of course, a great desidera- tum. In some instances as high a weight as 160 lb. is permissible in Victoria. For export, pigs to 100 lb. can be taken, and I have authority for saying that shippers will establish a definite rate per lb. for all pigs properly slaughtered in Melbourne, and delivered at the freezing chambers, that is, of course, if farmers will study their own interests, and go in Avhole-souled for breeding, not only to meet Victorian requirements, but fbr export as well. There should be no apathy shown, and my efforts have been brought into requisition for your special benefit. Owners of outlying lands and properties situated far from railway stations, where carriage of produce is heavy, will find the fattening of pigs a money-making venture, for the pig will fatten on the produce and carry it to the market himself, and this especially applies when the produce is in any way discoloured, and the price for same not what it might be, and all should bear in mind that the cost of carriage of any class of produce is always an expensive item. Dont's for Pig Breeders. Up to this point I have mainly been telling you what you should do in regard to the breeding of pigs. Now to conclude with a few " dont's." Some of these " dont's " I have touched on already, but they will bear repeating. Don't give the pigs skim-milk fresh from the separator. It is aerated, and acts deleteriously to young ones especially. Let it remain until next dav. 9 Sept., 1907.] Fifth Convention, Chamber of Agriculture. 569 Don't give the liquor in which potatoes are boiled to the pigs. If you do they will never fatten. The tannin destrovs the lining of the stomach. Don't keep pigs in confined places up to their bellies in mud. They are not dirty in their habits except you make them so. Don't feed your pigs solely on maize, as pigs so fed do not command the prices that peas-fed pigs do. The bacon from maize-fed pigs rapidly turns rusty, and the curer cannot stock it. Don't send discoloured grain away ; it will pav \ou better to give it to the pig, and let him do the carting. Don't discard pea-straw, cavings, or any straw stuff that will do for bedding. It will give comfort to the pig. and ultimatelv make good manure for the farm. Don't breed bad stock. Don't forget to feed the pigs regularly, and, finally. Don't forget that, by following out what you have heard to-day, you are doing something for your country, not only by improving the breed of stock, but by bringing Victoria prominently l3efore the commercial world, and doing something for which \ our sons will thank you in time to come. VI.— SOME LAW (AS IT MORE PARTICULARLY AFFECTS FARMERS). /. Wcldon Poivcr, Horsham. I have been asked by our President to deal with two branches of the Law as it affects farmers, viz., Fencing and Travelling Stock.* Before going further I wish . to distinctly state that this paper must not be regarded as a treatise, even as far as it goes, upon the law involved, but is intended to explain the operation of such law to my present audience ^n general terms, and without anything like the accuracy of language or of statement of propositions demanded in a treatise. Fencing. The law relating to fencing is two-fold in character. First, the Com- mon Law, which for our purpose is to be gathered from the decisions of the Courts in many disputes over fencing and boundary questions, and, second, the Statute Law, which is to be found in The Fences Act 1890. Fortunately or unfortunately, it depends entirely on the point of view from which you look at it, the framers of The Fences Act — which comes down to us from only 1874 — have allowed the great bulk of the Common Law to still remain applicable to fencing. This side of the question, however, mainly affects the rights of a land owner to call to his aid the provisions of the Fences Act so as to compel hiss adjoining owner to fence, and the consequences flowing from neglect by an adjoining owner to maintain fencing which he ought to maintain. Under this Common Law it is quite possible for certain lands to become and remain burthened with an obligation on the part of the owners and occupiers thereof to fence, or rather maintain fencing, for the benefit of the adjoining land. In fact, notwithstanding that the Fences Act in practically the same form in which *Owing to want of space the portion relating; to Travelling Stock has been held over until a siibseqnent issue. — Editor. J our)tal of Agriculture. [9 Sept., 190; it now stands has been Statute Law since 1874, the great bulk of the fencing since selection began in 1869 has been erected outside its pro- Aisions. For practical purposes it has, in the vast majority of cases, remained a dead letter except in so far as that by fixing certain minimum standards of fencing, it has operated as a sort of coercive measure under threat of resort to which, an owner has Ijeen able to induce his adjoining owner to agree to fence up to these minimum standards. The underlying principle of the Act differentiating it from the Common Law has, howe\er, not caught on. This principle is that under the Fences Act, fences for their whole length become, so to speak, the joint propertv of the adjoining owners, whereas under the older system, each adjoining owner owns a certain portion of the fence, subject to certain rights in the other to have the fence maintained. To illustrate what I mean: — vSuppose A and B each own selections divided by a boundary running east and west i mile long. If they resort to the Fences Act and put up a fence under its provisions, then the whole line is assumed to be done by them both jointlv for the common benefit, not half each. That is, either a contract is let to a fencer and they each pav half, or they each provide half the materials and labour and do the work either themselves or with hired labour. True they may divide the work and each put up a portion, but the fence all the same remains a common fence, each being liable for half cost of repairs whether in the portion put up by him> or not. That is a fence under the Fences Act. If instead of resorting to the Act thev c(jme to an understanding and agree to a kind of fence and A agrees to put up and maintain the fence on the west half, and B that on the east half, then there is an agreement under the Common Law with these results. — First, A"s land acquires what has been termed a " Spurious Easement " over B's land, that for the future the owners of B's land adjoining B's east half of the fencing shall be bound to maintain B's half of the fencing, and in turn A's land becomes .subject to the same sort of " Spurious Easement " in favour of B's land, for the west half of the fencing. Then suppose B sells the west half of his selection to C, and the east half to D. As regards the fencing, what will happen will be this, — C, as the new owner of the west half of B's selection, is not only not under any obligation to maintain half of the original west half, but is entitled to insist that A shall maintain the full length of such half. Further, D cannot call on A to maintain any portion of the east half, — that was B's original liability, but D must, at the risk of consequences later referred to, maintain the east half for its full length. This does not work any hardship on A so far ; he has to maintain one original half, and gets maintained the other original held. But according to the ideas of most people, it is pretty rough on D, who has to maintain the full boundary between him and A without contribution from A. Next. if A sells the west half of his selection to E, E will find that he will have to maintain the full boundarv line l)etween him and C. This state of affairs is not generally known, luit it crops up now and again, to the great annoyance of purchasers of land who find out after they have bought that the whole burthen of maintaining certain lines of fencing falls on them. Broadly speaking, if an owner is under obligation to maintain a par- ticular line of fencing and allows it tO' become out of repair, the suffering adjoining owner cannot fetch him under the Fences Act to compel him to repair, for the reason that the machinery provided onlv deals with the joint fencing as referred to alcove. The suffering owner, though entitled under the original fenc^ing agreement to the " Spurious Easement " giving 9 Sept., 1907.] h'ijlli Conicuiiou. CJiambcr of AgricuUiire. 571 him the right to compel the defaulter to maintain the fence, can only resort to the summary provisions of the Fences Act at the cost of aban- doning the Easement and himself accepting for the future the burthen of half the defaulter's line, while he may himself be subject to a '"Spurious Easement " to fence the remainder of the original line. He may. however, resort to the Countv Court to enforce the original agreement, l)Ut it would be l)etter for him, nine times out of ten, to repair the whole line and say nothing more about it. The defaulter, however, incurs some disadvantages. If the adjoining owner's stock accidentally trespass on the defaulter's land through the defaulter's defective fencing, then, generally speaking, the defaulter mav not impound, nor may he recover damages for tresspass. And further, if owing tO' getting caught in the broken wiring of the defaulter's fence the adjoining owner's horse gets his leg or his neck i)roken, the defaulter will most likely be answerable in damages, par- ticular! v if the adjoining owner had directed the defaulter's attention to the defecti\e fencing and requested repairs and these were not effected within reasonable time.. But that way lies litigation, a worse evil under the circumstances than the loss entailed by keeping the neighbour's fence in repair. This, that I call the Common Law relating to fences, affects parties every time they mutually agree to divide a line of fencing between them and to erect and repair each " his half," and dd in fact erect each his half. The question whether such agreement must be in writing naturally arises. The safest answer for vou is, it ought to be, and take it from me as gcx)d advice, don't put a post in the ground till you have the other man's signature to the agreement. But if a verbal agreement has been acted on and the fencing has been put up bv both parties, the necessity of writing to evidence the agreement is done away with. It then becomes a question merely of proving that there was an agreement made. If you had obtained and kept the writing, your proof would be ready to your hand ; but without it you mav have to relv on witnesses. But when land has changed hands many times what happens? Well, a great deal of uncertainty, but the old Common Law still applies if either you or the other man can prove the original agreement. The fact that it is difficult of proof only adds to the uncertainty. It becomes a question of e\idence. If it can be shown that for a long period of -s-ears one adjoining owner kept a certain length of fencing in repair, then an agreement will — probably- — be inferred that he or his predecessors in title agreed to do so and the Common Law, not the Fences Act, will rule — particularly if it can be shown that the other adjoining owner kept a corresponding other length in repair. Turning now- for a moment to the Fences Act. The policy of this Act as a whole is opposed to the principle underlying the practice ruling under the Common Law. There the idea is to divide the fencinginto lengths, and each man to be responsible for his own length, but giving to the other the benefit of the right to have that length maintained as effective fencing free of cost to him. Under the Act the fulr line of fence is treated as a whole. It is to be erected at the joint cost of the adjoining owners, and all rei)airs are to be effected at the joint cost even though, as I have said abo\e, each ])arty for mutual convenience erects a portion. For instance, if a wire gets broken, section 17 has to he cal]("d into opera- tion. A formal notice has to be served and both paities ha\e to meet on each side of the. fence, agree how it is to be repaired, and in solemn form do the job. I may say right here that the fact that this section has not provoked endless litigation is no credit to the draftsman who conceived it. The infrequency of such litigation may be testimony to the neigh- 57- Journal of Agrictilfitre. [9 Sept., 1907. bourly fair-dealing of farmers generally, but more probably it is evidence of that deserved, but what most certainly ought to be unwarranted, dread of the law which makes a man put up with heaps of annoyance rather than resort to its aid. If this paper reaches print, I will have part of this section set out as a foot-note and invite any farmer, who may fancy his ability to handle the simple looking proposition set him by the drafts- man of preparing a notice under it, to prepare such a notice as will support proceedings under the section if the other man chooses to evade his obliga- tions.* Common sense suggests that the notice should appoint a time, but the section does not so empower, and what is to prevent the other man from actually going, and later saying he went, to the fence several times within the week ready and willing to assist, but the " Noticer " was not on hand ? The main difficulties that face a man when he desires to resort to the Act to compel a neighbour to fence are, first of all, to be sure that a Common Law agreement does not alreadv rule, and second, to be sure as to whether it is a question of construction of a new fence or of repairing an old one. I have already explained how an old agreement may affect his land as a "Spurious Easement." Now to illustrate these difficulties. Take a line already fenced, but the fence on which is, to a man who likes good fencing, " dead to the world." You may serve a notice requiring your adjoining owner to erect a new fence. You may get an order of Justices prescribing the kind of fence and directing how it is to be erected, and relying on such order you may erect the fence, the adjoining owner lying low all the time and saying and doing nothing. Then, when you take proceedings to recover half the cost, you mav be met with either or both of these practicable defences, — ist, That you were bound under an old agreement by former owners to fence the line yourself ; 2nd, That the fence already there should have been repaired and did not require a new fence. Further, you may be met with a variety of technical defences in the way of faulty notices, &c. If you have not retained a solicitor you are bound to- have made some error in procedure that will knock you out. If you have retained a competent solicitor, then nine times out of ten you will never get as far as sueing, as your solicitor will have shown you so many difficulties and uncertainties that you will have decided to have put up with the loss and not risk proceedings. To show how the second defence above indicated may defeat a just claim, — Take the case of a post and rail fence many years old, fortified in places with old No. 6 wire — as so many of them are, and in other places with No. 8, and with from 50 to 70 per cent, of the posts rotten and a large percentage of the rails past efficient service. Well, here are the relevant sections: — Section 5 — " The occupiers of adjoining land not divided by a sufficient fence shall be liable to join in or contribute to the construction of a dividing fence between such lands in equal proportions." By the way, " a sufficient fence " means there, a fence up to one of the standards fixed by the Act as to which I will speak later. Now, Sec. 16 — " When any dividing fence made or to be made shall be out of repair or became insufficient, the occupiers of land * Section 17. The occupier of any land separated from any adjoining land by a dividing fence may serve a notice upon the occupier* of such adjoining land requiring him to assist in repairing such fence and if such occupier shall refuse or uegleet for the space of one week after the service of such notice to assist in repairing such fence it shall be lawful for such first- mentioned occupier to repair such fence and to demand and recover from such other occupier half the cost of repairing the same &c. * Ofcupier includes " owner." 9 Sept., 1907.] FiftJi Convention, C/ianibcr of Agriculture. 573 on either side thereof shall be liable to the cost of re-pairing such fence in zgiial proportions.'' Next study Sec. 4, Sub-sec. i, defining post and rail standard, — " A post and rail fence at least 3 ft. 6 in., in heigJit of substan- tial material firmly erected. . . . i^t'c." The old fence in question is -clearly not now of " substantial material," though it may have been, nor is it " firmly erected " because a large percentage of the posts is rotted through, mortises split, and rails wasted and broken. Therefore it is apparently not "a sufficient fence," and you are entitled to a new one. But hold on, it is not a fence " out of repair," or a fence " become insuffi- cient." If it should be either of these, then, no new fence, it is a question of repairs. Make up your mind which it is, but remember the thing that cuts the ice 13, not wli^t you think or vour friends think, but what the Court thinks after the other man and a " sufficient " solicitor shall have had a go. As the Statute stands the better opinion would be that it is a case for repairs. Remember, however, another most unsatisfactory state of affairs under this Act, you cannot compel a man to put up an efficient post and wire fence. The relevant Sub-sec. of Sec. 4 is, — " A substantial wire fence at least 3 ft. 6 in. in height having wires tightly stretched with no greater distance between each of the three loivest zvires or the bottom wire and the ground than 6 inches and the posts. ... 6-=^." Well how do you measure the height, — to the top of the posts or to the top wire? The posts are as much part of the fence as the wire. Well, suppose it is the wire, then you only need four wires to comply with the Act. The section speaks of three, and you give in another to make a top wire so as to have the height of the fence capable of definition. If a man be reduced to the .choice of continually tinkering an old post and rail fence or putting up a new four wire fence, the Act is not of much use to him. It leaves him at the mercy of a neighbour who may be a waster or a captious crank. Scores of times I have had to tell clients to go and do the job single handed or make some sort of a compromise in favour of the other man. This weakness in the Act as regards the specification for a wire fence renders the whole construction clauses, even where not blocked by Common Law Agreements, quite useless. The only practicable fence now-a-days is a post and wire fence, and if you cannot get a sheep-proof post and wire fence under the Act, what is the good of the Act to you ? Other forms of fences which might be sheep-proof would amount to more for your half of the line than the whole cost of the post and wire for the full length of the line. This, then, being the present unsatisfactory position of the law relating to Fences, what is to be done? The thing to do is to cast the law into such shape as that people may resort to its aid without fear as to its cost, and with certainty as to that aid if the case be just and reason- able. To do this entails — i. Giving certainty as to the existence or non- existence of fencing agreements, that is, easements under the Common Law. 2. To face and decide the proposition whether such agreements or ease- ments shall run with the land so as to affect subsequent purchasers or fall to the ground as against such subsequent purchasers. 3. To make the Fences Act available to compel new fencing or repairs according as the above proposition may be decided, and with certainty as to whether it shall be a new fence or a repair job. 4. To recognise and make the Fences Act suit the almost universal practice as regards country lands any way, whereby adjoining owners have divided the line into lengths, each taking a portion and being more or less responsible for the maintenance of that portion. 574 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Sept.. 190; 5. To brinj; the minimum standards of the various kinds of fencing allowable up to date. To take these in detail. The second proposition, if derided one way disposes of the first. If the bull be taken bv the horns and it be decided, no matter what agreements mav affect lands as easements, such agreements and easements shall be abolished, and that adjoining owners for the time being must erect and repair dividing fences in equal shares, the main diffi- cultv now and in the future will be got o\er. In mv judgment it would be best to take the bull by the horns. If not. then the first i)roposition must be faced. How is a man to know what easements affect ? There is onlv one way and that is bv having same noted on the title in the same way as a mortgage ; and if it be not there, then nO' easement. To work this out would involve some such process as this: — First, an owner desiring to have his fencing business placed on a business footing, would serve notice on his adjoining owners, specifying his idea of anv existing allocation of fencing lengths and easements; or, if there he no such allocation, then specifying a proposed allocation. Then, if the adjoining owners do not within a limited time reply objecting, the first man or the objectors — when ser\ed with notice — may take out a summons before a magistrate to have the point decided. The magistrate would make an order, and this order would become a record of the ar- rangement and would be filed in the Titles Office and be noted against the affected titles. On the titles would be marked the portion of the boundaries allotted to each. A time should he allowed for the Act to be brought into operation — sav 12 months or two years. In all cases not taken in hand during that period the Act would declare that no easements shall be taken or be allowed to exist binding on subsequent owners without express notice of them. Having regard to the large amount of trouble that would be entailed by this process, and to the fact that, for all practical purpases in the great majority of cases, adjoining owners have accepted the position that each adjoining owner for the time being is bound to fence or contribute to the cost of fencing half the actual lines separating them, irrespective of the fact that before a new adjoining owner bought, the whole of the boundary of what he bought formed the half of an original fence that the former adjoining owner ased to- repair, I do not think that the game would be worth the candle. I do not know if I make this clear. Take the two sections already referred to. A had the west half of the fence; B the east half. When B sold the west half of his selection to C, C became A's adjoining owner along the Avhole of the west half of the fence that A used to repair. Invariably in mv experience C assumed that he had to fence half of the line between him and A, though as a matter of fact C's land had an easement over A's which would entitle C to compel A to keep the whole of the boundary fenced. Assuming, then, that the Law would be that adjoining owners for the time being must fence and repair, and that agreements cease when a man sells his land, and that the Act will rule ir every case between the originil adjoining oAvner and the new owner, subject to an\- agreement they ma\' then make to continue during their seAcral ownerships, the position is reduced to a simple one, viz., to frame legislation to place the fencing relations of adjoining owners on a simple and easih' worked footing. The shortest way to explain how this can be done would be to draft an Act for the purpose. To do so before you get the support of the Minister for a scheme of amendment would be work thrown awav, apart from the fact that there is a proper official whose dutv it is to attend to such matters. The Convention Papers will be ccntini-.cd in tlie October number. 9 Sept., 1907.] ] nsaiiitarv Milk Cans. 575 INSANITARY MIJ.K CANS. The accompanying illustration of a milk can is published to draw pointed attention to a prominent defect in the manufacture of most milk cans. The taps are usually as in this case soldered on to the taphole and supported by a metal flange which is also soldered round its border. If the soldering is imperfectly done, as it often is, the milk percolates into the space between the flange and can, and there putrefies. The dark surface shown alxive the taphole in i\\v illustration reprt-sents a mass of oo'zy, stinking, putrescent and partlv solidified milk; and the hole in the can giving access to it was large enough to insure milk passing into the cavity and leaving t'he putrid surface whene\er the can held milk. There was thus a continuous means of contaminating every bulk of milk held in the can. Taps should l>e screwed into a threaded brass taphole so that thev mav he removed and washed when tlie can is being cleansed. — S.S.C. 576 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Sept., 1907. THE ORCHARD. James Lang, Harcourt. General rains having fallen during the past month, the ground is now in good condition to facilitate operations in the orchard. Where peas have been sown for green manuring they should be ploughed under as soon as they are in bloom. In the event of the weather setting in dry the ploughing in should be done at once, as it is very difficult to make a good job when the ground gets hard ; this applies more especially to those districts north of the Dividing Range, where dry weather sets in fairly early. To choose the right time for this work the orchardist must, generally speaking, be guided by prevailing weather conditions in his district. Where it is intended to apply artificial manure to the orchard, it should be done just before ploughing. Attention is again drawn to the table of manure values published in the February number of the Journal. By consulting this orchardists can always obtain the best value for their money in the purchase of manures ; regard should be given to the quantity of potash contained in the orchard manures offered for sale — a larger percentage of potash would be an improvement. Pruning should be finished earlv in the month, even in the latest districts. Planting also should be completed. It is better to defer plant- ing till next season than plant too late, for the trees as a rule do not establish themselves before the dry weather sets in, and cannot therefore make a satisfactory gro'Wth unless well looked after in the way of watering and mulching. Grafting should also be done this month. Any old trees of unsuitable varieties should be headed back and regrafted with a variety more suitable to present market requirements ; this should not be neglected, as there is no profit in growing fruits that will only realize a low price in the market. Spraying will occupy a good deal of time during' the month. Where red oil or crude petroleum is being used, do not apply them after the buds burst, or great injury will be done to the trees ; these are winter sprays and should not be used during spring or summer. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture for Black Spot {fusicladium. dentriticum) will also require attention towards the end of the month ;■ the spray should be applied just when the trees are bursting into bloom. The Black Spot has been more than usually prevalent during the past season, and has appeared in some districts which have been free from it for many years. No time therefore should be lost in checking its spread. Where the Black Aphis has put in an appearance peach trees will need spraying. Kerosene emulsion and tobacco wash are the best remedies to keep this pest in check. For curl in the leaf, spray with Bordeaux mixture as soon as it appears. Bordeaux is also the best remedy for the shothole in the apricot and should be applied just when the buds are bursting. Citrus fruits may be planted, and they will do better now than if put in during the winter. Strawberry beds may still be formed ; there will be less trouble with weeds now, but fruit during the first season will be verv little. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. liL'iU.NG.— Pi.ODDER_ wants to bore for water cheaply, and suggests a method. Answer. — Something like the method proposed is practicable, but the best course will be ■to :idvertise for a man with a light boring plant to do the work by contract, or else for a plant Oil hire. Spraying. — J. L. & S. state that they intend cisnig copper soda in lieu of Bordeaux mix- ture for black spot of the apple and peach leaf curl. They want to know (i) whether it is "ood for sliot-hole? (2) "SVheiher the arsenite of lead spray for codlin motl; will keep as a stock solution? Answer. — (r) Copper soda may be used for black spot and also for peach leaf curl, althou'^h Bordeaux mixture is generally employed for that disease. The san.e applies to shot- hole, but in cases where it is caused by bacteria or microbes, the copper compounds do not act. ' [2) Yes. See article, page 729, December, 1906, Journal. Sai.tblsh.— W.L. in(|uires how "Old Man" saltbush can be propagated? Ans-cucr. Over liftv saltbushes [Rhagodia, Airiflex, Chenof odium) are known, and the following plants are known as " Old Man," Artemisia abrotanutn, Cereus senihis, Chenof odium album, "^Rhagodia farabolica. The last named is probably meant. It is a useful native "saltbush, easilv destroyed by over grazing or continued grazing, but readily recovering if stock are excluded, and the paddock rested for a time. It can be propagated by cutiings of the younger wood planted in autumn or spring, and seeds freely if left to itself for a time. Like all good servants, the plant needs an occasional rest to keep in good condition. Valle of Stable Manlre, etc. — F.D.X. asks the value of (ij stable manure {a) taken from stable to orchard, [b] rotted in a heap; (2) fowl manure; (3) leached wood ashes (gum and box sapling obtainable at the mines) ? Ansiver. — (la) Approximately los. to 12s. per ton; {\b) About iss. per ton, but the material will lose weight during rotting. (2} About i6s. to iSs. per ton. The material should be applied fresh and unmixed with lime. (3) From 4s. to 5s. per ton. (Unleached, from 6s. ■to 7s. per ton.) Z.ANXE Currants. — L.H. inquires which is the correct way to trellis Zante currants. Anstver. — The trellis would be better north and south, especially in districts where the lieat is great and hot winds prevalent and severe. Ladybirds.— L.H. wishes to know, if he uses the vacuum spray oil for woolly aphis, -whether the ladvbirds, which are verv numerous on his apple trees, will be destroyed? _ Answer —Red oil, when projierly prepared and applied is one of the most reliable reme- dies when used on fruit trees and hard-wooded shrubs. By "jarring" the trees over an expanded umbrella, mo -.nd Answer. -X careful investigation of the state of the teeth the nature of %^^'^^'^^t:Sl the general clinical signs is imperative before treatment can be suggested. 1 rocure proies- ^'°"'^ Com-AGious PLEURO-PNEUMONiA.-N.T.P. asks (i) Is there a disease called ^C^^^^^^ Pleura''? (2) What do the following symptoms indicate :-Head bent down, ^J-j Jj,^ ^^un he up, hair dry and standing out, breathing heavy, the calf gradually sinking and d.MUg in about a week ? r i i ^«3Wfr.— Consult article, page 559, September, 1906, /ournai wu^^her worms WORMS -IN HORSES.-N.J.P asks (I) For remedy for worms m horses? {2) ^^ hether ^^orms ■svould make a horse act as though sore about the belly? 1 , r »i,„ f^llr^wincr mi\- Answer.-{,) Give a loz. powder daily in the food (for a week of '^^^ . "j^^Ve "^ h 1 ture :-Sulphate of iron, gentian; and ginger, equal parts. On the eightl moining gue a full ish, and go -nto a fit or cramp and die. (i) What is the cause? (2) What is the proper food for laying ducks? Whilst sick they should be allowed free access to water?" Answer. — (i) They are inbred and lack st.imina ; leg v^eakness is one of the first symptoms. Whilst in the condition mentioned give ^ .grain quinine (in pill form) twice daily, give skim rnilk instead of water for four days, avoid wheat and oats and provide only soft fo6d ; house at night on dry litter. Reading of article on "Ducks for Profit," page 371, July, 1905, Journal, is advi-.ed. (2) Particulars are given in article quoted. (3) No. Clearing Water in Dam. — F.N. asks what is the best method of clearing water in x large dam. Answer. — Use i lb. of ordinary alum, dissolved in i gallon of water, to every 600 gallons of water in the dam. Pour the solution of alum around the edge of the dam, and then mix the water by drawing a pole through it. DOOKIE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. The College offe7\s every facility to .student.s to become competent agriculturists, vigneron.'s^ and, claiiymen. The Mork is carrierl out on a large commercial scale, the ploughing, drilling,, manuring. har\estine, threshing, and shearing being done by students under competent instructors. Over 2,000 sheeji and landjs, loO head cattle, 50 hoises, including stallion, are on the farm. Fees — t'2S ."i^ per annum. LONGERENONG AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. One aim of this institution is to fill in the gap between the State School and Uookie, i.e., to take students between the ages of fouiteen and sixteen years. The farm contains an area of 2, .386 acres, and is admirably adapted for demonstrating what can be done in farming with irrigation. There is a large area of the farrri under cultivation, and the orchard and vineyard cover an area of 80 acres. Fees — Resident, £18 5s. per annum ; Non-resident, £5 per annum. Applications to attend either of the above Colleges should be forwarded to the Secretary ot the Council of Agricultural Education, Public Offices, Melbourne. Copy of Prosfiectus of either College will be posted on receipt of post-card. The new session begins lOfch September, 1907. SILO BUILDING. Vol. V. LAMBS FOR EXPORT. [Re.ifistered at the General Tost (Iffice, M.-lbounie, fm- transmission by Post as a Neusiia]ier.] Part 10. PRICE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subscription— Victoria, Inter-State, and N,Z,, 3/-; British ard Foreign, 5/-.) THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 8 OCTOBER, 1907'. CONTENTS. PASB The Melbourne Royal Agricultural Show, 1907 ... ... A.T.Sharp ... 577 The Elements of Animal Physiology — IX.— Animal Nutrition ..." ... ... ... W. A.Osborne ... 586 Improving the Milk Yield ... ... ... J. M. B. Connor ... 591 Progressive Dairy Farms ... ... ... J. S. McFadzean ... 595 Cheese Making ... ... ... ... ...J. G. McMillan ... 598 Wheat Judging ... ... . ... ... H. Pye ... 605 The Proclaimed Plants of Victoria — The Cape Weed A. J. Eicart and J. R. Tovty ... 606 (iarden Notes— The Sweet Pea .. ... ... /. Cron.in ... 606 Improvement of Soils ... ... ... ... ... H.Jacob ... 610 Problems affecting Fruit Transportation and Marketing ... E. Aleekin;/ ... 612 The Orchard ... ... ... ... ... ... /. Lang ... 616 Silo Building ... ... ... ... ... ... A. S. Kenyon. ... 617 Silage Notes ... ... ... ... ... ... A. S. Kenyon ... 623 Fifth Convention of the Victorian Chamber of Agriculture, 1907 — VII. — Breeds of Sheep influencing Lamb-raising ... H. W.Ham ... 625 Conditions surrounding the Export Trade in Lambs ... A. A. Brown ... 631 Diseases of Farm Animals — Diseases of the Foot ... ... ... ... S. S. Cameron ... 635 Journal of Agriculture — Copyright Provisions and Subscription Rates im^ide front cover Publications issued by the Department ... ... ... inside front cover Answers to Correspondents ... ... ... ... inside back cover Dookie Agricultural College ... ... .. ... bark cover Longerenong Agricultural College ... ... ... ... back cover REGISTERED UNDER THE COPYRIGHT ACT 1890. SECTION 21. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to rei)ublish any matter contained in the Journal are at liberty to do so, provided the mual acknoidedgment «*• made. The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copj' Threepence. A limited number of the issues comprising Volumes II. (1903-4), III. (1905) — 10 parts each — and Volume IV. (1906) — 12 parts — is at present in stock, and will be supplied at the foregoing rates. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. Applications to be accompanied by Postal Note covering Price and Postage, Journal of the Department of Agriculture. 3d. per month, 3s. per annum. Post free. Destraciive Insects of Victoria, Parts I., II., III. By C. French. 2s. 6d. each. Postage— Parts I. and II., -kd. each ; Part III., 5d. Fungus Diseases of Citrus Trees in Australia. By D. McAlpine. 2s. Postage, 3d. Fungus Diseases of Stone Fruit Trees in Australia. By D. McAlpine. 165 pp., 10 coloured plates. 2s. 6d. Postage, 4d. Rusts of Australia. By D. McAlpine. 10s. Postage, 8d. Australian Fungi. By Dr. Cooke. £1 Is. Postage, 8d. Year Book of Agriculture for 1905. Cloth, 3.s. 6d. ; paper, 2s. 6d. Postage — Cloth, 9d. ; paj^er, 8d. Milk Charts (Monthly and Weekly). 6d per dozen. (See article in Journal, 8 May, 1P()6 ) THG JOURNAL OF 7^6 department of Agriculture. Vol. V. Part 10. 8th Oetober, 1907. ^ ~~ LlBKAt NEW Yt THE MELBOURNE ROYAL ACIRICULTURAL SHOW, botani OaRDB A. T . Sharp, Assistant Editor. The Melbourne Royal Agricultural Show is the great annual gathering ground of the agriculturalists of the Commonwealth. Old acquaintance- ships are renewed, experiences are exchanged, and one and all obtain a greater insight into the many branches of agriculture. As on previous occasions, every effort was made bv the Council of the Roval Societv to 6o TON SILO ERECTED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ^■.. meet the convenience and comfort of both exhibitors and sightseers. With ~^_ the exception of the gales which blew on the Thursday and Friday, satis- — factory weather conditions were experienced, and the public fully availed j:-^ themselves of the opportunity afforded of seeing the best collection of r—istock, machinery, implements, etc., yet exhibited in the Southern Hemis- , _ phere. The Show was open for five da\s, and the attendances totalled ..V 11518. T .-/' Journal of Agriculture. [8 Oct., 1907. no less than 125,000. There were 6,504 entries, those in the competitive classes being as follow : — Horses Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Dogs Carriages In a brief review such as this, it is impossible to deal with the whole of the exhibits, so it is only proposed to refer to the dairy breeds of cattle, and the pavilion of the Department of Agriculture. 677 Harness 24 782 P'arm Produce 121 599 District Exhibits I 90 Dair\- Produce ... 181 S38 Wines ... 244 146 Pruits, Preserves, (.Vc. ... ,p 260 Dairy Breeds of C.'VTTle. Since dair\ing is a verv important feature of Victorian production it i-^ gratifving to note the large number of entries of dairy breeds of cattle CHAMPION AYRSJIIRE BULL, LORD DOUGLAS. at the recent Show, the figures being: — Avrshires, 227; Jerseys, 124; Milking Shorthorns, 122; Holsteins, 7; Dairy Cattle (any breed) 30; total, 510. Those who had the privilege of witnessing the parades could not but be struck with the splendid stock shown. The illustrations of the respective champions in the Ayrshire, Jersey, and Milking Shorthorn sec- tions will bear this out. Victoria has made great strides in butter pro- duction, the exports for last year being valued at ^2,208,050, but still our dairy farmers can do much to increase this total if they will only see the necessity of working on right lines. Culling out the wasters and securing the services of sires of proved milking strains should be con- sistently carried out l)y all. and then, provided due attention is also paid 3 Oct., 1907.] Royal Agricultural Show. 579 to conservation of food and water, Victoria will rise from her present proud position to a still more exalted pinnacle. The Show has proved conclusively that we have good stock in our midst, and that there is no need to breed from nondescripts. The Ayrshire division is undoubtedly entitled to first reference. It embraced the largest number of entries, and, moreover, the champion Ayrshire cow, " Laura 4th." was also awarded the championship of all dairv breeds on the ground, another representative " Ada 2nd. of Glen Elgin, being the reserve champion. The Ayrshires continue to be de- servedlv popular. They are good milk producers, and, l/eing uaturallv hardy, are general favourites. The champion bull, "Lord Douglas,"' is by " Holehouse Brown Prince," out of " Lady Jean 2nd." and is 3^ years old. He is the pro- perty of Mr. G. L. Wilson, of Berwick, by whom he was imported. In Scotland he had an unbeaten record, and in March last he secured the coveted championship at the Sydney Royal Show. This magnificent CHAMPION ANR SHIRE COW LAI. KA 4TH. specimen shows more of the Australian type of Ayrshire than any other previous importation. He has a typical Ayrshire head, with fine horns, and is beautifully tempered. His chief characteristics are great length and depth of body, great width across the loins, and, particularly, length from hip bone to pin. "Laura 4th.,'" is owned bv Messrs. Gumming and Brisbane, of Weerite, and was sired bv " Luminous of Oakbank," her dam being " Laura 3rd." bne is under four years old, and shows strong Ayrshire characteristics, as well as dairy points. Like " Lord Douglas," she has a good head nn^' fine horns. The length of the quarters shows plenty of weight behind, running off to the fore, being a good example of the wedge-shaped dairy r 2 580 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Oct., 1907. cow. She has a good escutcheon and breech. The milk vessels fill up the hind legs and extend well along the bellv, the teats being of uniform length and set well apart. The Jersey section contained some notable representatives, both locally bred and imported. ()uite apart from its value as a butter producer, the natural grace and beauty of the Jersey ever command admiration. Although regarded by some as rather delicate for the rough and tumble of the average farm, there is no doubt that with reasonable treatment this breed is found exceedingly profitable. Mr. George Woodmason's "Golden King" was the 1907 champion. He was calved in October, 1903, and comes from a good milking strain; his dam " Favie ist." is now over twenty years old. " Golden King " is certainly a fine animal, and has worthily upheld the reputation of the Woodmason family as breeders of high-class Jerseys, beating at least two imported bulls in the contest for championship honors. He has a typical head and mouth — in striking contrast to the light under jaw of most of 1 JTi^'- ' l~' 5**^^ ii"'iif ■1 i»i ■j^llfci^^^Bfc ^^T'^BP^^^^H CHAMPION JERSEY BULL, " GOLDEN KING. the imported Jerseys; an animal with a godd mouth is more capable when I)ut on the pastures of maintaining his condition, and is naturally stronger in constitution. The breadth across the muzzle is also marked, and the horns are splendid. He has a big deep body, is straight in the back, very broad across the loins and lengthy from hip to pin, is well sprung in the ribs, and has fine withers. The nipples are well set and of great length. An imported row " Fancy 14th.," belonging to Mr. G. T. Chirnside, of Werribee Park, annexed the red white and blue on the female side. She i.s fawn coloured with w^hite markings, has a beautifully dished head with typical turned-in horns, open docile eyes, and broad expanding nostrils. The neck is very lean and thoTOUghbred, the shoulders razor-like, long and slanting, whilst she has a deep, well-sprung body and fine broad loins. She is very long from hip bone to pin, and altogether i? a fine framed cow. The milk veins are very prominent, and the tail is well set. A week before the Show (30 davs after calving) her test was 8 Oct., 1907.] Ro val AgricuUiiral Shoiv. 581 2lbs. 120ZS. butter for 24 hours — from 45 lbs. milk, 44 ozs. butter were obtained. Milking Shorthorns claimed a good deal of attention, and to those breeders who like two strings to their bow, they have much to commend them, but at the same time their value to the dairy farmer is a moot point. The aim of the dairy farmer is, or should be, milk production, and consequently only reliable milk producers should be bred and kept by him. Whilst it is admitted that practically every herd of Milking Short- horns contains some good milkers, as will be seen by reading the article by Mr. R. T. Archer on page 348 of the June Journal, the small farmer particularly cannot afford to take any risks ; his business is milk production and not beef. From a dairyman's puint of view the exhibits were disappointing, show- ing, as they did, too much coarseness and beefy tendency. Chief honours went to Mr. Albert Miller's imported bull " Redvers," and to " Nancy 2nd," belonging to Mr. T. Lidgett, of Ballan. "Redvers," 2J years. f% iM P \ m '&^ & r r i^^'^^ W V OH mm^? CHAMPION JERSEY COW, " FANCY 14TH. is a deep, rich coloured bull with a mellow coat. He lacks some of the chief characteristics of a dairy bull; for instance, his head is steer- like in appearance, whilst the neck and shoulder are coarse and the general conformity of the body too compact, the desired wedge-shaped appearance being absent. " Nancy 2nd," 8 years old, is a rich strawberry roan, and has a full open eye, and a mellow skin with soft hair. She has the char- acteristic Shorthorn head, and a beautiful deep body, but has the same drawbacks as the bull, being too beefy and coarse in the neck and shoulder. The Holsteins were few in number, and, with one exception, were exhibited by Mr. David Mitchell, of "Cave Hill," Lilydale. Amongst the Dairy Cattle were some good specimens, but none of sufficient class to out-distance the thoroughbreds in the " best dairy cow " contest. 58-' Journal of Agriculture. [8 Oct., 1907. Departmental Exhibits. As usual the pavilion of the Department of Agriculture was one of the leading features of the show, and the various exhibits were closely inspected by all the visitors. The management was in the hands of Messrs. Crowe and Knight, and the arrangement of the exhibits reflected great credit on those concerned. Manv of the principal experts were in. attendance, and dispensed valuable information to inquirers. The Dairy and Export Branch was very much to the fore, attention being strikingly drawn to the production and export of butter, cheese, mutton, pork, preserved meats, poultry, and eggs. Mr. Crowe is always- keen on putting facts into concrete form, and this year, in simple figures, the value of Victorian production in 1906 was prominently exhibited; Vic- CHAMPION MILKING SHORTHORN BULL, REDVERS. toria's exports, and Great Britain's imports for the same period were also shown. The following are some of the principal figures :- — Product. Victorian Victoria's Gie.it Bniain's Production, 1906. Exports, 1906. £ Jmpnts 1906. £ £ Butter 2978,860 2,208,050 2.3,466,252 Cheese 116,860 26,896 7.607,641 Meat •2,480,226 550,627 30,163,113 Pig Products 325,381 83,.S97 24,253,330 Poultry and Eggs 1,500,550 16,716 8,083,594 Rabljits ... 249,.S98 1,000,786 Rabbit Skins 128,440 (30,000,000 skins) 589,696 The cheese exhibit was of special interest, seeing that the whole of the cheeses, both Cheddar and fancy, had been manufactured by the -■8 Oct., 1907.] Royal Agricultural Slioiv. students at the Leongatha cheese class, conducted bv Mr. J. G. jNIc^FiHan, cheese expert, during June, July, and August. The display \vas very effective, and Mr. McMillan had every reason to be proud of the results achieved. Connoisseurs were loud in their praise of the qualitv and ■finish of the various cheeses. Prominence was given to the pork-raising industry. In addition to a good collection ot bacon and other pig products, some fine carcasses of Yorkshire-Berkshire crossbreds, four and a half months old, averaging 140-150 lbs. each, were on view. Mr. Hart had a series of good exhibits illustrative of poultry-raising .and egg production, and ranging from a model poultry yard to the grading of eggs. Until recently it has been customary to grade eggs according CHAMPION MILKING SHORTHORN COW', "NANCY 2ND." to colour, but the latest advice from Great Britain, apparently in the interests of the small retailers, is to mix the eggs to a certain extent, so that the brown will help to sell the white. Daily demoistrations of poultry dressing were given by Mr. Hart and his staff. The exhibits under the direct control of Mr. Knight were varied and interesting. Flax cultivation was well advertised, and the subsequent treatment — threshing, breaking, and scutching — was demonstrated by Mr. Rol)illiard. Exhibits of apples, kept in good condition by Little's Cool Air Process, and by the Meakin system of fruit storage, were closely inspected by orchardists. Fruit crystallizing and preserving were carried •on by Miss Mendcza, whose labours were watched with appreciative interest by large numbers of visitors. Mr. D. McAlpine (Vegetable Pathologist) had an effective display, •consisting of specimens and photographs of the various fungus diseases affecting cereals, fruit trees, potatoes, lucerne, vegetables, flowers and 584 Journal of Agriculiiire . [8 Oct., 1907. wattles; whilst the Government Entomologist (Mr. C. French) made a specialty of the various useful and destructive birds and insects that are PORK FOR EXPORT YORKSHIRE-BERKSHIRE CROSSBREDS. the friends or enemies, as the case may be, of the fruit-grower. Mr. French has added .1 large number of life histories of insects to the CHEESE EXHIBIT. exhibit, and these, with his collection of Victorian gall insects, destruc- tive to native timber trees, attracted much attention. S Oct., 1907.] Royal Agricultural Show. 5^5 Professor Ewart (Government Botanist) and Mr. F. E. Lee (Agri- cultural Superintendent) had good exliibits. Tiie former showed speci- mens of the various noxious weeds, and models of plants, whilst the exhibits of Mr. Lee consisted mainly of soil cores, mechanical analyses of soil, and a collection of wheat, oats and barley grown on the experi- mental plots during the past season by the field branch. Messrs. G. Seymour and T. Smith (Potato and Tobacco Expert re- spectively) were present throughout the show, and gave much informa- tion to growers. The publication branch was in charge of Mr. Kemp. Mr. H. V. Hawkins, Poultry Expert, exhibited specimens of the improved poultry crate described by him in the September Journal. EGGS GRADED FOR EXPORT. In the annex attached to the pavilion, the exhibits from Dookie and Longerenong Agricultural Colleges were located. The products shown were striking evidence of the practical work done at these institutions. Outside, under the direction of Mr. Kenyou (Engineer for Agricul- ture) demonstrations of silo building and filling were given. A 60-ton silo, costing ;£^o, was erected, and cutting and filling were done with the chaffcutter and elevator, and also by silage cutters and blowers as described in the August Journal. Sections of concrete silos were shown, and the making of blocks demonstrated. There was also a collection of buckscrapers and smoothers, and the sub-surface packer, recently imported from America, was on view. There is no doubt that the practical work done and the explanations given will mean a great increase in the number of silos throughout the State. 586 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Oct., 1907. THE ELEMEiNTS OF ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. TI'. .4. Osborne, M.B., D.Sc, Professor of Physiology and Histology,. Dean of tlie Faculty of Agricilturc in the University of iMelboiirne. {Continued from page 46"/.) CHAPTER IX. Animal Nutrition. An animal that has reached adult life and is not increasing in weight must nevertheless eat, digest and absorb food which, as we have seen, serves as material for renewal and repair and for the supply of energy. In dealing with this subject it will be advisable to consider, the essential ingredients of food, the adventitious ingredients of food, the essential qualities of food, food required for growth, and finally the composition of various natural foods. The Essential Ingredients of Food. . I. Repair Food. — Every living cell in the bodv is in a state of con- stant repair requiring a continual intake of fresh material. Moreover there- are constant losses of complex material from the skin, such as the protein of sebum, hairs, and the outer layers of the skin itself. In lactating. animals the secretion of milk is a heavy drain on many constituents of the body. Water is continually being excreted by the kidney, lung, and skin, and salts leave the body in the urine. All these materials must be present in the food consumed. Water is present in all foods. Hay may contain as much as 13 per cent., oats about 18 per cent., green fodders vary between 60 and 80 per cent., and roots and tubers as much as 90 per cent. If the water taken in these foods is not sufficient then thirst is provoked and water is in- stinctively taken by the animal. The rule holds with the domestic animals as with man that the water supplied for drinking purposes should be pure and fresh and above suspicion. Salts of soda, potash, fime, magnesia, phosphorus, and iron are all in the body, are constantly leaving the body and so' must be supplied in the food. The various foods eaten by different animals are all fairly rich in salts, but with grazing animals there is sometimes a danger that too little common salt or sodium chloride may be present ; for vegetable foods, though rich in potash salts, are poor in soda salts. This is par- ticularly the case the more distant from the sea the grazing country is. Hence the instinctive relish with which most herbivorous animals lick common salt if placed within their reach. In lactating animals there is a considerable loss of lime in the milk, for this fluid contains actually more lime than does lime water. The amount of lime in oats and maize- kernels is very small, roots also are somewhat poor in this constituent, but clovers are rich and to a lesser degree the grasses. Animals fed on salt free foods die speedily ; even a poverty in one salt constituent will lower vitality and cause emaciation, skin trouble and feeble resistance to disease. Equallv dangerous is a salt content much above what is in the animal's natural food. S Oct., 1907.] Elements of Animal Pliysiology. 587 Protein is a very important repair food for out of protein most of the solid matter of living cells is composed. A certain amount of protein must be taken in food to cover the constant loss through wear and tear of the body machinery. Protein in excess of this amount is used by the animal as fuel food and it is always advisable to have such an excess. Not all the protein eaten is digested and absorbed ; this is especially the case when the protein is of vegetable origin, part passing through the •digestive tract and leaving the body with the faeces. Carnivores and omnivores obtain rich supplies of highly digestible protein from the animal substances they eat, but vegetable feeders have more difficulty in obtaining their protein. The following table gives the approximate percentages of proteins in Tarious foods : — Roots and tubers ... ... ... 1 \ — 2 Most green fodders ... ... 2 — 3 Cows' milk ... ... ... 2)\ Clovers and alfalfa ... ... 4 — 5 Hay from mixed grasses ... ... 75 Hav from mixed grasses and clovers ... 10 Most grains ... ... ... \o\ — 12% Wheat bran ... ... ... 16 Meat ... ... ... 18 Cotton seed (whole) ... ... i8i Flax seed ... ... ... 22\ Beans and peas ... ... ... 21 — 34 As has been stated the proteins vary as regards their digestibility. The animal proteins are almost wholly digested but the vegetable proteins show marked differences in this respect. The percentage of protein digested is relatively high — 70-88 per cent, in grains, seeds, clovers, legumes, and cereal by-products; medium, 50 to 70, in green fodders, hays and silage; and low. 20 to 45, in straws and potatoes. As a general rule the proteins are less digestible the coarser the fodder. A term frequently employed in animal dietetics is the mitritive ratio which means the ratio of the pro- tein in the food to the remaining digestible organic matter expressed as ■carbohydrate.* Nutritive ratios are described as narrow, i to 5^ and under; medium; and wide, i to 8 and over. It has been found by ex- perience that animals thrive better on a certain daily protein intake. Animals at rest or doing moderate work require i^ to 2 lbs. protein per 1,000 lbs. live weight, with severe work, or with growing or fattening animals, or in the case of cows yielding over i6 lbs. of milk -per diem, or ewes suckling lambs, 2% to 3I lbs. per 1,000 lbs. live weight are required. It must be clearly understood that only a fraction of what is absorbed from these amounts is required for bodv repair (in the case of a man less than •one-third of the total daily consumption) the remainder being used for energy supply and for the laying on of fat or flesh. 2. Fuel Foods. — All vital processes require an expenditure of energy which is derived solely from the food. Moreover the animal's temperature must be kept up, and this, too, must be met by the heat produced from the oxidation of food in the body. The more work an animal does, and the colder its surroundings, the more fuel food is required. The energy * Fat can be expressed in terms of carbohydrate by multiplying its percentage by 2.4. Journal of Agriculture. [8 Oct., 1907. value of any food stuff can be calculated by determining the heat produced by burning' a definite weight of the substance and measuring this heat. Such a determination is carried out in an instrument called a calorimeter. The unit of heat is the kilo-calorie which is approximately the quantity of heat which will raise one pound of water four degrees Fahrenheit.* The unit weight is the gramme whirh is roughly one-twenty-eighth of an ounce. In this way tables can be prepared giving the number of calories produced bv burning one gramme of each food-stuff. Thus: — Food. 1 grin., dry. Kilo-calories. Food. 1 j,'rm., dry. Kio-ealories. Cane sugar ... ... 3.96 Wheat gluten ... ... 6 Starch ... ... 4.2 Mixed hay ... ... 4.5 Cellulose ... ... 4-- Sugar beets ... ... 3.9 Egg albumen ... ... 5.7 Linseed meal... ... 5 Caseinogen ... ... 5.9 Butter ... ... 9.2 Gelatin ... ... 5.2 Fats and oils... ... 9.4 A correction has to be made in the case of proteins because these sub- stances, unlike fats and carbohydrates, are not oxidised completely in the animal body, and are represented in the urine by urea and other bodies which have a calculable energy value. Making this correction and striking an average for the various proteins, carbohydrates-, fats or oils, we may- state that — One gramme of protein will give rise to 4.4 kilo calories. One gramme of carbohydrate will give rise to 4.15 kilo calories. One gramme of fat or oil will give rise to 9.4 kilo calories. A further correction must be made for the amount of each food stuff which escapes digestion. Thus, 1,000 grms. (2!- lbs.) of starch which,^ if fully digested, would yield 4,183 kil these must be added small quantities of nitrogenous bodies, amides, and amino- acids, which are not proteins but which are closelv allied to the products formed from proteins during diges- tion. It will be miderstood from what has been said that part of the protein is u.sed for repair and part for fuel. Protein must alwavs be present in the food liut carliohydrate can replace oil or fat in a large measure. If an animal eats more fuel food than it requires for heat and work, it either lays on fat or gets disturbances of digestion. If it eats less tharr is required it becomes emaciated. 3. Ballast. — In everv animal a jiortion of the food remains undi- gested, and, bv its presence, helps the howf>l to force its contents towards the rectum. This undigested residue has been named ballast and is essential for the health of the animal, k ralibit fed on pure protein, carbohydrates, fat, salts, and water will die of inflammation of the bowel, but will live if indigestible material (say horn shavings) be added to its food. Carnivores require little ballast but that little is essential. In dogs *More accurately defined, the kilo calorie is the amount of heat which can raise one kiloijramme of water from 4 decrrees to c; defjrees Centiirrade. + It should be noted that "[clatine cannot act as a repair protein, as it does not contain tyrosin or tryptophane. 8 Oct., 1907.] Elements of AiiiviaL Pliysiology. 589 the phosphate of lime from bones acts as ballast ; in cats the skin or hair or feathers of their victims. In both animals some earth is. generally eaten with their food and this acts in the same way. In omnivores, such as man and the pig, ballast is present in the form of cellulose and woody fibre in the vegetables eaten. Grazing animals eat enormous masses of material which escape digestion and they have special digestive mechanisms to deal with this residue. The coarse fibres in fodders are only feebly digested and even the fine cellulose of vegetable cells only partially so. The silica of plants is also feebly absorbed. If a herbivorous animal be given a fodder poor in fibre or with fibres too finely chopped, digestion is impaired, the contents of the bowel tend tO' become stagnant and putre- faction by bacteria takes place giving rise to poisonous products which are absorbed. This is well exemplified in cows that " lose their cud " when placed on a fodder too rich and digestible. 4. Organic Acids. — It is doubtful if carnivores require organic acids but omnivores and herbivores certainly do, and grave constitutional dis- turbances follow upon their disuse. Fortunately all the ordinary vege- table foods are rich in these acids or their salts. Fruits are exceptionally rich in organic acids and to this, as well as their ballast content, is due their beneficial action in man and other omnivores. 5. Flavouking Substances. — If food is unpalatable, no matter how suitable it is in other respects, it is badly digested. The greater the relish with which an animal eats its food the greater is the amount of digestive juices secreted. The palatableness of foods is largelv de- pendent upon the odours or flavours they possess and these are due to chemical bodies which, though they do not come into any of the categories mentioned, are nevertheless essential constituents of normal food. 7. Enzymes. — Carnivores and omnivores do' not require any enzymes in their food but with herbivores, and especially the ruminants, these are essential ingredients. As we shall see in the following chapter on digestion, one of the first transformations that food undergoes in the alimentary canal, is an autolysis, or self digestion, bv means of enzymes existing in the living cells of plants. Hi-nce it is that fodders which have been steamed or boiled mav, under certain conditions, be not so well digested as the natural plant substances. There are other essential constituents of diet but their exact composi- tion has not been worked out, for mere traces of them are apparently sufficient. It is highly probable that the bodv is dependent for its supply of hormones on certain chemical substances which are present in food though only in small amounts. The effects of deprivation of these bodies are onlv' seen in laboratorv experiments. Adventitious Constituents of Food. In the food of carnivores there is little that does not come under the headings already given. In the case of omnivores and herbivores vari- able quantities of substances are taken and absorbed which are either harmless and pass out of the body unchanged in the urine or have their harmful properties neutralized in the liver and leave the body as innocuous compounds. Herbivorous animals absorb from their food considerable quantities of substances allied to carbolic acid, and other substances allied to camphor, also sugars that have little or no fuel value. Useless mineral matter (nitrates, silicates and sulphates) may be absorbed in small quan- tities and excreted in the urine. 59° Journal of Agruitltiire. [8 Oct., 1907. The Essential Qualities of Food. Each food must be suited to the species of animal and e\-en to the individual. It must have the proper digestibility and palatableness and have the amounts of ballast, etc., to which the species, through myriads of generations, has been accustomed. I'he essential constituents enume- rated above must be present and in the proper ratios to suit the animal's needs. In most, if not all, of the domestic animals, variety in the food leads to better results than if one ration be too exclusively relied on. If food be insufficient in quantity the animal has to draw on its own fat and flesh which are actually digested in the body by the ferments they contain, and sent into the blood-stream to make good the deficiency. An animal when completely starved loses nearly all its fat, a great por- tion of its muscle and spleen, a small portion of its heart substance, but hardlv anv of its nervous matter. During violent exertion an animal rarelv eats enough fuel food ; it draws on its supply of fat and glycogen (the latter present in the liver and muscles) and makes good the loss in these bodies during the rest which it ought to have after the exertion is over. Underfeeding with any of the above-named essentials- will injure the animal, the most common instance being underfeeding with protein in the case of the ruminants. Overfeeding when it exceeds what the animal can retain as fat and flesh, causes digestive disturbances. Excess of protein (an error Avhich rarely occurs with ruminants) leads to- putrefactive changes in the bowel by which poisonous products are produced and absorbed, causing muscular weakness and loss of fat. Food Required for Growth. A voung animal requires protein, salts, and fuel food, in excess of its repair and energy needs. The milk of each animal suits the needs of the young of that species. Thus comparing cows' milk and human milk, we find in cows' a larger amount of lime salts to suit the quick bone-growth of the calf, whilst in human milk we find a larger amount of lipoid to suit the quick brain-growth of the human infant. Protein in excess of the repair amount is needed for the building of muscle and gland ; fuel food for the formation of fat ; lime and phosphorus for bone; lipoid for nerve, etc. Proteins and carbohvdrates can be transformed and laid on as fat in a fattening animal. In a pregnant animal the -growth of the voung in utero has to be considered. An animal with rapidlv growing wool requires more protein. An animal recovering from fever or starvation requires fuel food and protein in excess. Constituents of .Some Foods. To give here an extensive list of food-stuffs with their chemical content would be impossible. To obtain such information special treatises on the subject should be consulted. A few food-stuffs may however be given as types ; the values, which are expressed in percentages, to be taken as approximate only. It must be understood that a chemical analysis only gives the per- centage amounts of each constituent in a particular food and gives little or no indication how much of each can be actuallv absorbed bv the animal. This is particularly the case with proteins and fibrous residue ; a fraction of the latter being digested and a fraction of the former 8 Oct., 1907.] I luproi'iiig the Milk Yield. 591 remaining undigested. The absorption of fat and digestible carboliydrate is on the contrary fairly good. It is however always necessary for each food material, not only to be chemically and calorimetrically analysed, but to be administered to the animal and estimations made of the com- position and energy coiutent of tlie fseces so tliat the amount absorbed and its energy value may be armn-atelv calculated. Food. Meat . . Cows' milk Separated milk Eggs wathout shell Potatoes Cabbage Pasture grass Hay from mixed grasses Oat straw Turnips Oats Horse bean Wheat bran Cotton seed (whole) 18-19 10-16 3.5 3.5 12 2.2 2.5 3.5 7.4 4 1.1 11.8 26.6 15.4 18.4 Fat I Digestible or Carbo- Oil. hydrate. 0.0 0.7 11 0.2 0.4 0.8 2.5 2.3 0.2 5 0.1 4 20 o 5 5 2(.) 5 9.7 42 42.4 6.2 59.7 50.1 54 24.7 Ash. Water. l-l-S 64-07 0.7 0.7 1 1 0.8 9 87 1)0 75.5 76 90 80 15.3 9.2 90 . 5 11 11.3 11.9 10.3 Indigestible matter. 0.8 0.9 4 27 35 1. 9. 7. 9 IMPROVING THE MILK YIELD. /. ;]/. B. Connor, Dairy Supervisor. Silage as a Factor of Success. The more I am brought into contact with the dan-y farmers supplying milk to our large cities, the more I am convinced that silage is an im- mediate and necessary requirement that deserves more than passing notice. I do not suppose that any section of the community is so conservative in its methods as the dairy farmer. Certainly none is so difficult to move out ot a groove, no matter what that groove leads to. It is this alone, to my mind, that prevents the sensible course of growing plenty of feed for their dairy herds from being carried out. I find when inspecting herds in different parts of the State that the question of the preparation of silage as a necessary stand-by is occupying much attention at the present time amongst the daindng communitv. With this in view, and the fact that a heavy growth of grass and other favorable conditions may be rea- sonably expected this season throughout Victoria, I wish to draw attention to the benefits which can be obtained by seizing the great opportunity which the fields and pastures afford ; for it is surprising how many know little or nothing about the process or method of preserving and converting into silage the green succulent grass which is so plentiful everywhere durinc snrinc: time. 592 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Oct., 1907. If dairying is to hold its present position as being one of tlie chief industries of Victoria, there will have to be more attention given to this important matter of preparing fodder all the year round for the dairy herds. The trouble is always in the summer and winter months; the summer scorches up the pastures, and leaves the grass ^ery scarce, so that when the autumn rains come, and the winter sets in early, it takes the dairy cows all their time to live without being expected to produce milk. This experience has been dearly learnt by the majority of dairymen and owners. It is then that they have begun to realize how the constitutions of the herds become undermined by poverty. If the owners of milking cows have not the welfare of their animals at heart, and do not devote time to discovering their needs, they will never realize that the cow is an animal with peculiarities and feelings that must eventually be consulted, if the owner ever expects to be possessed of a first-class dairy herd. Give your cows abundance to eat and drink all the year round, and the profits will be considerable, besides the pleasing sight of seeing the cows sleek RF.SULT OF CAREFUL BREEDING AND FEEDING. and healthv. If this is done we would not be sO' continuouslv hearing and reading of, and seeing the different so-called diseases in the various dis- tricts we visit, which in reality are brought about bv no other cause, in many instances, than poverty and starvation. Somehow when things are at their best, as in the spring, and there is a flush of grass, dairymen seem to forget that we are likely to have more dry summers, and that droughts will come again. Therefore, the question at the present time for all dairymen to consider is — What are they going to do with the rush of grass and surplus fodder that they are likely to have? Leave it to be trampled down during summer, or let it go to waste, as they have been accustomed to do, and then repent of their folly during the cold winter months to follow. This mode of procedure would be nothing new, for the very same thing goes on around us every year. It is a mistaken policy to ever allow a heavy milking cow to become low in condition, either when at the pail or at pasture, for if she is not permanently injured as a milker 8 Oct., 1907.] Im-proving the Milk Yield. 593 thereby, she will gi\'e a considerably less quantity of milk when she comes in next season as a contra account against the bad treatment she has received at the hands of her neglectful owner. Underfeeding has a serious tendency in producing stunted calves, and if we are to ha\e good dairy cow^s, we must certainly breed them. Silage versus Hay. It must not be surmised that the main object of converting into silage the green succulent grass and fodder, which is so plentiful in all parts of the State during the spring of the year, is because there is any risk of its being spoilt by bad weather if made into hay. It is because by prac- tical experience it has been shown that by ensiling a crop much more of the nutriment is preserved than if dried into hay, and that a given acreage will carry more stock ; also by converting it into succulent silage the crop i-i available for jxir poses for which hay by itself would not be suitable, viz., for milk producing or fattening stock, without going to the expense and trouble of growing root crops to mix with, the hay, to make the equi- \'alent nutritive ratio. The advantages to be gained by the use of silage have been proved wherever used, and it is within the means of every industrious dairy farmer to have a quantity of green fodder all the year round dn the form of silage. The most suitable time to cut for silage is when the fodder has reached its highest state of maturity, and before there is any chance of its entering into the ripening stage. The overhead silo is now to be seen in most dairying centres of the State, but as this is beyond the means of large numbers of dairy farmers at the present time, it is necessary for them to know that holes any shape, simply dug in the ground where you can depend on the earth being sound, may be used with the greatest success. From my own knowledge, good silage can be produced by putting into the pit the green fodder, chaffed or loose, and simply covering it with 2 feet of earth,; in six or nine months' time it will come out succulent and sweet. All kinds of weeds or thistles, if pitted whilst green and succulent, have been turned out six months afterwards in excellent condition, and during the cold winter months stock have devoured them ravenously. By saving the green fodder by this system, 30 to 40 tons can be silaged off one acre, thereby allowing a dairyman with a little land to keep a large number of stock, and at one-half the cost of other foods. I have known animals to fatten as well on silage as they would on the best of spring pastures. Another important factor is this, that the greater the number of animals you can keep on a small farm, the more manure you can save, and thus be in a position to put back into your land what the crop has taken out, and thereby keep up the fertility of the farm, and enhance its value at the same time. In building a silo, whether overhead or under ground, the best form of a silo is one small in circumference and deep ; the contents can then be removed from the whole of the top surface, and waste is thus avoided. Chaffing the fodder, if convenient, is the best method, as it presses tighter together, and thereby takes up less room than it would do if loose, and the mass subsides more evenly. If a crop is grass, loose filling will do; but if maize, or any prepared crop, it is advisable to cut into chaff for the reasons stated above. Barley, tares, and beans sown immediately after the first rains are very suitable crops for the first filling, as under ordinary circumstances they are ready to pit about October, when the same land zg4 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Oct., 1907. can be at once manured with the farm-xarcl manure, and reploughed and sown with maize or Japanese millet, which would be ready to pit aliout l-ebruarv, thus returning two crops off the same land. Importance of Good Cows. It has been prowal without a doubt that it is a fallacv to expect a common-bred cow, e\en if she is continuously scuffed with plenty of nutritious food, to produce as much milk of a rich and profitable quality as a cow bred from a milking strain. Hence the necessity of breeding from a sire descended from a strain of both quality and quantity. A cow's biography is expressed, not in good deeds, but in quarts of milk. Dairy- ing can only be expected to pay where conducted on right lines. Like otner pursuits, there are many wrong ways, but only one right wa\-. The foundation of the whole business is in possessing good cows. This can only be brought about by a systematic method of testing the whole herd of cows, and when the dairyman realizes this there will be some startling revelations, and ideal cows in the owners' estimation will go down hope- lessly before the stern logic of practical test. Testing cows individually, and treating them on the merits of that test only, is the only sure and profitable way of increasing the output, and consequently the banking account of the dairyman. It is very often found that a cow which is an inferior producer is a large consumer of food. Say, for instance, the supposed best coavs are large producers of a poor quality of milk, and e\'en if this were not the absolute truth it often is, would it not be far more profitable to obtain the same quantity of butter or cheese from a less number of cows? So plain, simple and inexpensive a thing as testing the cows has no difficulties, except the obstinacy of the dairyman himself, and in the near future the regular system of testing every cow in- the herd must inevitably be a part and parcel of the operations of the successful dairy man. What steps have been taken by the general run of dairymen in the past to secure this end ? In the majority of cases that have come under my notice, none whate\er. They seem to be content with any mongrel of a sire ; their chief aim seems to be in getting their cows in calf, forgetting the plain and solid fact that for the dairy cows of the near future they will have to depend on the butter-producing qualities of the calves that are reared by themselves. In the future breeding and feeding, coupled with shelter (whicu '' sadly neglected on the majority of dairy farms inspected by me), will be the dairymen's stand-by, for without green succulent food the cows can give neither quantity nor quality of milk. My experience has been that the production of butter from a cow is in nine cases out of ten de- jiendent on her breed, for there seems to be a structural limit to the richness of cow's milk, and if a cow is fed to this limit no feed seems to increase the butter yield. The character of the food no doubt has a good deal to do with the quality of the butter produced, but even here it would appear that the breed has a still greater influence on the quality of the butter; therefore, it becomes obvious that the future of our dairying methods depends a great deal upon breeding, feeding, and shelter, and if the dairvmen would insist on buying only pure-bred sires descended from a milking strain, and securing heifer calves selected from good butter-tested cows, the milk of the latter, when thev came in, would be rich in butter fat. In conclusion. I sav it is not possible to make dairying nav without providing abundance of green succulent food for the dairy herd throughout the year, a wholesome water supply, and plenty of shelter. 8 Oct., 1907.] Progressive Dairv Farms. 595 PROGRESSIVE DAIRY FARMS. /. S. McFadzean, Dairy Supervisor. The accompanying illustrations are from the farm of Mr. F. Haworth of Mannerin, which is 16 miles from Geelong on the Queenscliff line. This property, when j)urchased about six years ago, was practically a A DAIRV FARM HOME. wilderness of cutting grass and ferns, and a breeding-ground for rabbits ; and although the cleared portion of the farm is not yet being worked up to its fullest capacity, still sufficient progress in its cultivation has been made to demdnstrate its possibilities. There are altogether 400 acres in GOOD DAIRYING COUNTRY, the farm which is subdivided into several paddocks of varying sizes. A small gully winds its way through the property, and carries to three dams sufficient water for the requirements of the stock. Four paddocks 596 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Oct., 190;; of about 70 acres ha\e been laid down in rye, cocksfoot, and cow-grass. Eighty acres are under cultivation ; three of mangolds, twenty in barley, six recently sown with lucerne, and the balance sown for hay. This country grows wattle naturally ; and the uncleared paddock which has been cleaned of much of the rubbish and undergrowth, and now used as grazing for the young cattle, also returns a fair amount in cash for the bark stripped from it. What hay is needed for the stock is chaffed on the farm and the rest sold. The only expenditure for fodder for the stock is in the purchase of some two bags of bran weekly during the autumn months; and it is hoped that when established the lucerne will render the dairy farm in- dependent of even this. Fifteen cows were milked through the past year and, from the particulars supplied by Mrs. Haworth, the gross returns from them averaged ^n 14s. 3d. per head. The milk is separated and the butter made on the farm and sold in the Geelong auction market weekly. QUANJITV AND QUALIl V A ROBUST JERSEY TYPE. The skim milk is mainly fed to the calves and any surplus is used in mixing the food foT the poultry. This latter branch of the farming is given more than average attention here with corresponding success. The cattle show a lot of Jersey blood and the sire of the young stock is a Geelong prize-winner with a milking pedigree — being by Lohengrin from Waterlily — and was bred on the St. Albans Estate. His progeny are a well shaped lot of young stock with neat well balanced udders. The management of the herd is in the hands of Mrs. and Miss Haworth who with the assistance of a lad do the whole of the dairy work ; Mr. Haworth taking no part whatever in it, or the poultry yard. The water for the homestead is from the roof catchment and is conserved in a very large underground tank. It is raised by windmill to tanks as required, and piped over the buildings. The dairy and milking shed are kept in excellent order ; the stock are quiet and well cared for ; and the dairying generally is an example 8 Oct., 1907.] Progressive Dairy Farms. 597 of what can be achieved by reasonable care without making the work laborious. Another example of results obtained solely from proper care of milking stock is to be seen on the farm of jMr. C. Govett of St. Albans, near Geelong. There are 800 acres subdivided into some 20 paddocks ; 40 acres are sown for hay which is not used for the dairy stock. Four acres of maize and 5 of lucerne were cut and fed tO' the cattle in the paddock. The grazing paddocks are laid down in English grass and well sheltered by hedges. No rugging, housing or manger feeding is done. The returns for cream supplied to the Geelong Butter Factory for the year 1906 amounted to ^1,345 12s. 3d. or an average of ^12 9s. 2d. per head of the 108 cows. Besides rearing the heifer calves, a number of pigs are raised and fattened on the farm as an adjunct to the dairying. The noteworthy part of this return is that until some three years ago Mr. Govett was unable to obtain an eflficient dairvman to take charge of this HOUSING DAIRY CATTLE. branch of the farm ; and as the herd was not paying its working expenses, the owner was contemplating turning his attention solely to grazing, when he met his present manager, Mr. Lucas, with the above result to date. Up to the present only rough culling has been practised. The cattle have all been tested as to the butter-fat contents of their milk, but no systematic recording of their individual yields has been carried out. However, the encouraging results of the past season have created a desire for im- provement bv everv possible means, and increased returns without additional outlay are anticipated, so this testing of individual merit is to be made full use of. The five hulls on the farm are Jersevs and are descendants of " Angler's Bo'v." Two of these stand out as typical sires of the breed, possessing both show and milking points. The cows are Jerseys, Shorthorns, Avrshires and crosses, and the heifers and younger cows show the Jersey blood largely. 598 Journal of Agricidure. [8 Oct., 1907. This property possesses great possibilities as a dairy farm ; for almost the total area is capable of being irrigated from the BarAvon River at small cost. A PROFITABLE ADJUNCT. CHEESE MAKIXCt.* /. G. McMillan, N.D.D., Cheese Expert. Derby Cheese. These cheeses are made to weigh about 30 lbs each and are flat snaped. The milk is thoroughly strained. The evening's milk is cooled down in summer to about 64 deg. Fah., and the cream is skimmed off in the morning and heated to 90 degrees, mixed with the new milk, and returned to vat. i he mixed milks are heated to 84 degrees in winter and 82 degrees in summer. One-quarter per cent, of starter is added ; the milk is then tested for acidity by means of the rennet test — 25 seconds is gene- rally a fair tesc but depends on locality etc., 3 ozs of rennet are added to each 100 gallons of milk and stirred in the milk for 6 or 7 minutes. The top should be stirred occasionally to keep down cream until the milk begins to curdle ; 45 to 50 minutes are allowed for coagulation which should be firmer than for Cheddar. The curd is cut to about' the'size" of broad beans by specially wide American knives. The curd is stirred with the hands for half an-hour while the heat is raised to 90 degrees, then with the rake until it reaches 92 degrees in summer and 94 in winter. The heating process should take about 40 minutes; the curd must be just beginning to get a little firm when allowed to pitch. When the whey is fit to draw it should test about 16 per cent, acid and the curd draw fine threads about Yq inch in length. About I to i|- hours from cutting until whey is run off should elapse. When this is completed the curd is lifted on to a cooler and slightlv stirred ; excessive stirring will make it too dr\. At this stage the curd should *When Mr. McMillan visited Great Britain he was commissioned by the Depart- ment to inquire into the various systems of making cheese, and to furnish a report concerning the same, which was duly carried out. The accompanying description of the manufacture of the various cheeses is extracted from the report and ^mblished for the information of cheesemakers and others. — Editor. 8 Oct., 1907.] Cheese Making. 599 resemble a huge jelly \ibrating at the least motion. It is left for a quarter of an hour, then cut into blocks, turned and piled. This is done every 15 minutes, redoubling each turning. In an hour it should be ready for milling, when it should be tough, leafy, tear, and draw i-inch threads. After milling, the salt, i oz. to every 4 lbs., is added almost immediately, the curd being well stirred in. The curd is then hooped and very light pressure applied at first until it reaches a ton. Acid of drippings from press should test .60 per cent. These cheeses are ripe in about six weeks ; some were made for experi- mental purposes into loaf Cheddar size and tasted very nice at the end of six weeks. Derbv keeps good for three or four months if kept at a fairly low temperature. The hoops for these cheese are 6 inches deep and 16 inches in diameter. The texture should be fairly close ; when toO' tight, too much acid has lieen developed. To make a long-keeping Derby, cut smaller, heat higher, and develop less acid on cooler. Cheshire. This is one of the most popular cheeses in England, being next to the Cheddar, which it resemlDles. l)ut is softer and more open. There are three different kinds of Cheshire : — (a) Early ripening variety, ripe in i month's time. (b) Medium ripening variety, ripe in 2 to 3 months' time. (c) Long ripening variety, ripe in 3 to 4 months' time. The following table shows the temperature, amount of rennet, &c. — — Temper;! fure at reimeting. Amount of rennet to 45 gallons milk. Time to coagulate. Temperature in scald. Amount of salt to 20 lbs. curd. A Deiirees. 85 ozs. 2 Minutes. 35-40 Degrees. 90 ozs. 5 B 84 H 40 60 92 6 C 84 1 40-60 94 i The milk is ripened in the same way as for Cheddar, most acid being developed for the early ripening. Curd is cut larger in the early ripening, smaller in the medium, and finest in slow. In easv ripening, at drawing of whev, there should be ^-inch threads, and less for the other varieties. Place on cooler and turn at intervals of 20 minutes until fit to mill, when it should be put through twice, one pound salt to 56 lbs. curd. After salting, the curd is hooped and placed in an open oven 75 toi 80 degrees Fahr. and turned in the evening. It remains in the oven for 24 hours without any pressing, is then put in press, i ton up to i| tons being applied. The main differences in the three classes are quicker ripening, larger percentage of cheese, marketable earlier. The disadvantages of quick ripening are that if not of best quality, the cheeses soon deteriorates if kept on hand. This cheese might be made in Australia in winter but in summer there would be great danger of rapid fermentation owing to its soft nature. Leicester. To make two cheeses 92 gallons of milk are required, to which is added one quart of starter. This cheese is very highly coloured, 25 6oo Journal of Agriculture. [8 Oct., 1907. drachms of annatto being added to the quantity of milk stated. The settling temperature is 84 to 85 degrees, and 4 ozs. of rennet are added. The rennet test should be about 26 seconds, the acidity not being high. As the cream rises very quickly until coagulation begins, the surface is stirred occasionally. It should coagulate sufficiently in about 45 minutes ; then cut three or four times with each American knife, the cutting being done very finelv. Heating is then commenced and stirring done with the hands for r^ minutes or so. The rake is then used and the process of heating should last 55 minutes, or until the temperature is 93-96 degrees. In half-an-hour the curd should draw a little more than ^-inch threads. The whey is drawn and the curd lifted on to a cooler, where it is stirred, all lumps being broken. The curd is not allowed to mat in the v-hev. After 20 minutes the curd is cut into blocks, then piled and turned, and piled every 20 minutes. There should be about i inch threads when ready to milk, an hour after being placed on cooler. The curd is milled twice and is quite granular when milling is finished, the object being to have an open cheese. After stirring for 5 to 10 minutes, salt is added at rate of i oz. to 3I lbs. curd, which is then vatted and only slight pres- sure applied for the first three hours. Ripe in 10-12 weeks; hoops are 6f inches deep by 18 inches in diameter. Port du Salut. This is a cheese, as yet unknown* on the Australian market, that can be easily and profitably made. It is also one that will appeal to the public taste, not having the strong odour of the French soft cheeses, but being more of a texture resembling Cheddar. To make two cheese, 100 lbs. of perfectly sweet milk are required ; temperature at setting to be 90 degrees, and 2f drachms of rennet should be added. Milk should take about 50 minutes to coagulate ; the curd is cut once with the horizontal knives and twice with perpendicular, stirring is then done with hands while the tempera- ture is rising to 104 degrees Fahr., which should take 45 minutes. It is then allowed to lie ten minutes. The curd should have a rubber-like feel at the drawing of the whev. When the drawing is done, the curd is placed in moulds lined with strainer cloth. When the curd is all in, place the cloth neatly over, put on a wooden follower, and place on a weight of 7 11:)S. Allow to lie a quarter of an hour, then turn, replace weights, and turn again in another hour and again in another hour. It is turned about 5 or 6 hours after, and left until next morning. The hoop is then removed and a little salt rubbed all over, a verv small amount at first, otherwise a skin is formed preventing subsequent saltings from penetrating. Leave until the next day and rub on more salt. The following day place in brine (i lb. salt to everv gallon water) for 15 minutes. The salting is sometimes done whilst in the curd state, one ounce salt to 5 lbs. being incorporated. After turning, the cheese is placed on straw in a fairly cool room at a temperature of about 60 degrees, and is ripe in about six weeks, but can be prevented by heating higher in scald. When ripe Port du Salut should have large holes, similar to those in Gruyere, and it should be soft in texture. The moulds are 10 inches in diameter by 4I inches deep, with perforations in sides 2 inches apart. * Some made under the fiipervision of Mr. McMillan at Leongatha recently were on view at the Royal Show in September. — Editor. 8 Oct., 1907.] Cheese Making. 601 Cleveland. Perfectly sweet milk is set at 94 degrees Fahr. ; one drachm rennet is added to 4 gallons milk and stirred in until rennet shows signs of acting. When firm, cut the curd with American knives to about the size of beans, clean the sides of vat and allow to settle for 10 to 15 minutes. Stir for 10 minutes, then raise temperature to 96 degrees and continue stirring from 20 to 30 minutes. Pitch for 10 minutes, then draw off whev and put curd in cloths in the cooler to drain, using pressure com- mencing with 14 lbs. up to 35. Open every hour or so and cut into 2-inch tubes and leave exposed to the air fox 10 to 20 minutes. When curd is ready for hooping it should be firm, dry, and draw threads of I inch on the hot iron; the curd is then weighed and milled and to every 4 lbs. one oz. of salt is added. Line hoop with cloth and when full put to press with a pressure of 10 cwt., gradually increasing to 15 cwt. In quality these cheeses are similar to a small Cheddar ; the hoops are 4 inches deep by 6| inches in diameter. Little Gloster. Take, say, 40 lbs. fresh milk and heat to 86 or 90 degrees, add z] drachms renaet and cut with a large knife. When coagulation is complete with particles about the size of dice, clean the sides of the vat with a perforated skimmer, occasionally using your hands until curd is small enough and the pieces all about the same size. Ladle out into dry strainer cloth and tie cloth loosely at first ; leave to drain, tightening occasionally. Break up the curd in the strainer once or twice with the hands ; when curd is dry enough to break up with fingers, place it in the moulds, pressing gently but firmly, the top to be left level and fine. Turn cheese when moulded half-an-hour, and again when bottom is firm. The first and third day salt all over, then take to cooling room. This cheese will ripen in ah)out six weeks. Caerphilly. Take 85 lbs. milk; set at 85 degrees, and add half-a-pint starter. Rennet, 3 drachms to above quantity of milk, is then added. When the curd is firm it is cut once with horizontal, and twdce with vertical knife. Stir up gently with hands for a few minutes, then allow to settle half-an- hour; stir again and heat up to 90 degrees, taking 30 minutes to do so. Allow to settle another half-aurhour when the whey is ready to draw. The curd is lifted into a cloth and tightened every half-hour, having been cut into slices frequently. When the curd is ready to set it should draw 1 1 -inch threads on iron; if the curd is dry dO' not cut up or turn so much. One oz. salt is added to every 4 lbs. curd, which is broken up by the fingers for salting. The curd is then put in a mould which has a false bottom. Pressure is applied gently at first, gradually increasing to 10 cwts. Caerphilly is a splendidly flavoured cheese, and one that should take on with Australians. The moulds are 10 inches wide by 4I inches deep, with perforations about 2 inches apart. Wensleydale. This is a blue- veined cheese of splendid flavour. Take, say, 14 gallons of milk and bring same to a temperature of 84 to 88 degrees Fahr., accord- ing to weather. Add one drachm of rennet to every 4 gallons of milk. 6o2 Journal of AgricvUiire. [8 Oct., 1907. The curd is ready to cut in 60 to 75 minutes, and is done with the American knives to about the size of beans. Stir carefully from bottom and sides of vat for about five minutes ; then allovsr to settle for half - an-hour. Stir again for 20 minutes and raise temperature about 3 degrees over that which it was set at ; allow to settle for 20 minutes, then run whey off and ladle curd into two cloths on a rack, tying up immediately it is all in. Cut and turn at intervals of about 20 minutes until curd is dry enough. When ready to salt it should draw about quarter-of-an-inch threads. The curd is broken up by the fingers, and to every 4 lbs., i oz. salt is added. The curd is then put in a hoop lined with clolh and kept as near a temperature of 65 degrees as possible ; it is turned over in the evening, and next morning is put under 3 to 4 cwt. pressure for about four hours, then taken out and bandaged, placed on a wooden shelf and turned daily, taking about six months to ripen. The whey at cutting should show .ii to .12 per cent, acidity, and .16 to .18 per cent, at hooping time. The moulds are 7j inches diameter and 12 inches deep, and have false bottoms. GORGONZOLA. Probably of all the blue-moulded cheese, the above-named is best known to the Australian public. It is, however, imported, and fabulous prices are charged for it. Now, there is hardly any cheese so easily made, and it is therefore quite unnecessary to import — every pound should he made within the State. The method of manufacture is as follows: — -Take 55 lbs. of evening's milk straight from the cow, and when at 90 degrees add 7 drachms of rennet and stir in for two minutes. The curd should be firmly coagulated in 15 minutes, and is then ladled into two cloths and hung up to drain overnight in a room about 60 degrees. Next mornimi a similar quantity of warm milk is set with 8j drachms rennet ; when firm enough the curd is cut into squares about 2 to 2^ inches, placed on a rack lined with cloth for about an hour, being twice tightened up. The obiect is to obtain a dry, as well as a warm curd. The evening's curd is salted slightly, about 2 ozs. being added ; a little old Gorgonzola is also put in tj give flavour. The hoop is placed on a board and lined with a cloth, a little of the warm curd is placed in first, then cold, and' so on in alternate layers. The dry curd should always lie put in the centre. The time of sinking is irregular ; if curd sinks more in centre than at sides, the sides mav be slightly pressed to make an even surface. It should be mentioned that the hoop is in two pieces — lower part 6f inches, top part 5I inches and 10 inches diameter. Invert as soon as curd has sunk to the level of lower tier. The cloth may be removed from the cheese as soon as the latter is fit to keep together. On day following vatting, the cheese is salted by rubbing a teaspoonful or more on the upper surface. In the afternoon the sides and ether end are salted. Too much salt should not be applied or else a tough skin is formed preventing the escape of moisture and subsequent saltings from taking effect. Salt every day for six days, then place in brine for three days (10 per cent, brine) which should be 75 degrees Fahr. The curd should never be allowed to get chilled, otherwise draining is checked ; the nearer the temperature is to 65 degrees, the better. 8 Oct., 1907.] Cheese Making. 603 Allow cheese to^ stand until surface shows red orange colour, when it may be removed to a cooler room. The surface should be firm and tough, being at the same time greasy and smooth, without cracks. Red mould should gradually cover the cheese, de\eloping best at a temperature of 50 to 55 degrees Fahr., in a cool, dark cellar. Gorgonzola should be kept free from mites, which will not thrive when there is an excess of moisture. Short details of the making of the cheeses mentioned have been given^ for the following reasons: — 1. Because every one of them, particularly Derby, Leicester, Cheshire, Cleveland, Port du Salut, Caerphilly, and Little Gloster, can be made in the State of Victoria. 2. That all these varieties keep well, having no strong smells so apparent in French soft cheeses, and for this reason will suit the palate of the Australian. 3. jNIost important of all is the fact that Caerphilly, Cleveland, Port du Salut and Little Gloster can be made without much outlay by people having a small number of cows. 4. In each case a larger quantit\ of cheese is obtained than when Cheddar is made. For makers on a big scale, it is advisable to stick to the Cheddar, as it is, without a doubt, the best keeping when well made, and its sale is almost unlimited ; whereas with the other varieties the sale is limited,, and it is better to leave such to smaller makers. It is hardly necessary to mention that while iTi London I made inquiries as to whether there was a good prospect of an opening for Australian cheese. Reputable firms such as Clement and Son, and Lovett and Christmas, and many other cheese factors, who, while saying that Canadian and New Zealand were splendid cheese, see no reason why Australia should not have a good share of the market. The following is a letter from a London firm on the subject: — The question of shipments of cheese from Victoria has been one which we have thought might be taken up, but the Victorian shipper has been so successful with his butter that we have hesitated to suggest any change, always bearing in mind that the shipments of cheese which have come from Victoria have not been altogether satisfactory. To go over the ground in connection with the make, position, &c., of the cheese would really, w^e feel, be going over old ground, because no doubt you have got hold of all the works issued by the Canadian Government in connection with cheese-making, and these we should say are the most up-to-date of anything in print, as the various compressors in Canada and people there have made a study of cheese-making and brought it almost to a science. The great point to be borne in mind in connection with cheese for this country, is this, that we must have a mild cheese. Some people would almost call it an insipid, flavorless cheese, but anvthing which is strong or full flavored, buyers do not like, and if it is on the market, it has to be sold at a less price than it otherwise would. As to opening up a trade in cheese on the London market there seems to us to be no difficulty whatever. You are not starting a dairying industry now, as all the difficulties in connection with it have been overcome through the opening up of the butter trade, and we have no hesitation in saying that any consignments which are sent to this market, whether they are received by ourselves or any of our competitors, would receive weighty care and attention. It is hardly necessary to remark that the im]X)rt of cheese in Great Britain is considerable. The following table will give the reader an idea : — 6o4 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Oct., 1907. ^< Q P5 ^ S w o ^ I ■H. CO -* ^ CO 1 01 1 ,^ -+ c^ CO _ 1 C5 0 o C) 0 CO 1 CI CO rH 10 00 § 1 tj QO c^ 00 ) ^ CO C5 CI -* X '-<" ^' -*^- 0' 1 C-) ^ ,_, CO ut 0 Tf , 1 _ »o CO 0 cc -t c*^ c: r— 0 CI I^ 02 C4 00 jj no CC It 0 (M i.t LC 0^ 0 I>- ^ C '■4j 0 -t" CO (M CO CO co- CO CO ^^ ■* c: 0 cr- Lt co CI a-. LO 1^ C^ (-H CJ3 o_ ,-~\ X Oi 0 cT -* •* r^ ^ -+ , 1 C5 c< I- , , CO C5 CO ^_, ^ 00 ^H CO CI T) CO CI CI 0 * cc i-H CO CI ^ y. 03 o_ OC ,-^ 'O^ 0 0 0; « cc 00 ?c T—i (M ~* CO p^ rH co" Cl CD 03 rH CO 1^ CO 0 c^ CB !M "^ 05 0 CO -+ -+ 53_ CO cc I- — (M ^ , ■* t^ 05 0 Gi X CO 00 CO CO r^ I- -+ CO Hf 'O o_ cs CO 00 1- -t co^ X CO " '^ l^ oT M ■* "* 15 co' 1-^ 1^ " 2 -* C-l CC t^ 0-. c; Oi ^„ t- (M "^l CO co__ X •^ cT co" CO CO fC 05 -* t^ CO 0 01 CO t^ CO s? C^ OC 00 (M 10 ^, CO CI CO C2 OC rX 0 rC' 00' r- 01 0 CI co__ 1^ CO CO § > -+ -f cc i— 01 00" X r--. c^ 6 01 CO '^ I-- 0 r- 10 X CO C5^ cf , 1 -f c»c CI 0 ^ C-. CO i-O X t-- .^ S CO 't CO ^H ^; ZJ •r*< -* 05 u: CC 'Tl 0 cr. ^ 16 1^ Cl^ (M -* 0 cc CC Tt< -•• X ■*' CO Tl^ Cl 6 CO -* 0-1 CO s X g -!' '-^ 0^ 1^ CO l^ r-^ ■3^ CO X -* ^ 0 0 GC CO CO X irj --t< 0 05 G « CO l^ x__ Oi co__ ^"^ ^" c4" 0 C^l ^^ (N c. ^ ,, I- uo 0 >o CI (M t^ ^ CO 1- ci 0 i^ CO -* X y* P cc CO l^ 'f CO 1- X LO_ "*„ 55^ 0: > -*" 0 CO" 0 C) -fn" rH C2 rH CO 0 CO 1-- CC as CO '-C c^ CO ■* CM CO 1- t^ t^ cf CO ^ CO -* (M tH ,^ -f C5 1^ 0 t^ 'M 1- CO ^ -+ X c; CO kO CO ^ C5_ X 1^ l-H 1^ 0 l^ CI 0 X g ■f; l-t" -*" CO' 0" cf — ■ ^"^ Ir-^ t^ co" ^ 6 r-i 1^ ox '* >o i^ -+ CI 00 fC »o Oi 10 CO to -<" ^~ cf , ^ ifj _o xn .2 !C c; m 0 CD to to 0 3 0 p CO fM ^ 0 « 6 ,J^ p .to ;!. C/! ii CO _3o ^ "Is "S rtii s 0 0 +3 w 0 s QJ r^ fc c« cS m ';2 H s CJ £ +i ^ 'ib >J +J OJ 0 r^ OJ 0 -*-J s "-^ '^ ^ H ^ ^ t-i 0) § ^ I-H t3 6 0 0 8 Oct., 1907.] W/ieat Judging. 605 WHEAT JUDGING. Mr. H. Pye, Principal of tlie Dookie Agricultural College, has furnished vith various kinds of refrigerating cars. The more successful of these are fitted with appliances whereb\' cold air mav be forced through the car from the cool stores at the railway sidings bv means of connecting tubes. This insures the top tiers of fruit in the cars being cooled as rapidlv and effectively as the lowest tiers. A mixture of salt and ice is used tO' maintain the lowest temperatures possible during the time occupied in transit by rail. Trouble and Expense Justified bv Results. All the trouble care and attention given to these and other items has- of necessity entailed the outlay of much money. The question naturally arises, has this expenditure been justified? In 1899-1900 only i per cent, of the total crop raised in the United States was exported. In 1903-4 this had risen to 4.75 per cent. The figures for 1905-6 are not yet available but a further increase was anticipated. This has resulted in easing the pressure in the local markets and has given the producer a chance to dispose of his surplus stock. Better prices have resulted and a large influx of foreign capital has been caused. It has also given a great impetus to the export of other fruits than apples, notably in fruits of the citrus family. In 1876 California sent away its first car-load of 300 boxes of citrus fruits. In 1905 10,000,000 boxes valued at 27.000.000 dollars (^5,625,000) wert SL^nt all over the United States, •8 Oct., 1907.] Fruut Transportation and Marketing. 615 Canada, and Europe. Peaches and other soft fruits are now successfully exported from Georgia, West Virginia and Connecticut to Europe. Export Trade. New markets have been formed in Europe by the agents of the above- mentioned companies and associations, and in all instances a large and profitable trade has been established. These agents have made it their business to discover what kinds and varieties ""of fruits are favoured in •different countries. Bv this means a promiscuous dumping of fruits on unsuitable markets has to a large extent been avoided, and a wider distri- bution has been secured. For instance, it was founc chat m Paris highly coloured varieties of apples did not meet with a ready sale, but .that a good market was available for yellow and russet varieties. Another advantage gained by this distribution of markets is that each locality oi the exporting country can make a speciality of growing the varieties suitable for each market. If Cleopatras for example sell well in a ■certain market the locality where that variety can be most successfully grown should cater for that market. In a country like ours where so many varieties of apples can be raised this should easily be accomplished, and we would not then witness a repetition of the deplorable slump which occurred through 170,000 cases of our fruit being dumped on one market as happened during one memorable fortnight of our export season just concluded. The requirements of a successful export trade in fruit seem therefore to be : — 1. Careful harvesting and packing; the speedy cold storage of fruits in low temperatures after picking, and the maintenance of these low temperatures during transportation, as well as during the time the fruits are in storage. 2. A study of the phvsiological and chemical changes which take place in fruits in all stages of their existence, in order to explain why differences exist in the keeping qualities of individual fruits even when subjected to similar treatment with regard to cultivation, harvesting, packing, storage and transportation. 3. The regulation of tlie disposal of our fruits in markets where they find a readv sale. 4. The reduction of transport freights by land and sea. 5. Prices in local markets to be regulated, and gluts avoided by storage of excess fruits, thus obviating necessitv of placing these hurriedly on the markets. 6. The formation of companies or co-operative associations with sufficient capital to deal with these problems, and to place the trade beyond the reach of untoward circumstances. When the difficulties under which our trade at present labours through Avant of attention to these details have been successfullv grappled the fruit-growing industry should become one of the State's main assets and the exporter should then be enabled to obtain a good profit if receiving anvthing above 6s. per bushel for his apples or pears in the markets of the United Kingdom and Europe. 6i6 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Oct., 1907. THE ORCHARD. James Lang, Harcourt. The weather has been unusually dry for this time of the year, and so as to push on with the ploughing of the orchard advantage will need to be taken of any rain that may fall ; once it is well ploughed it is an easy matter to keep a good tilth with the scarifier throughout the summer. Those who have no means of irrigating their orchards during the summer should keep the surface of the ground loose and friable, and so conserve all the moisture possible. By doing this, trees will have a much better chance of maturing their crops than if the ground is allowed to become hard and weedy. From present appearances we are likely to have a very drv summer, with very drying winds. The latter soon dry up the moisture unless a loose surface is kept up throughout the summer. Woolly aphis will now be showing in spots here and there on the trees that were missed at the winter dressing. The trees should again be gone over with the potash and sulphur remedy and all spots showing should be touched with the brush ; this may seem a slow process but it is effective, and it is astonishing how quickly by continuous effort one can get over the trees. If this is done now, and again in a few weeks, the aphis will give very little trouble for some time. Trees that have been sprayed with red oil should also be gone over with the potash mixture, and any aphis showing brushed off. Spraying for codlin moth should be attended to durmg the month ; the first spraying should be given just when the petals fall from the calvx, and before this closes up. Repeat at intervals of not more than a fortnight ; the first few sprayings are the most important and should not by any means be neglected. One grub of the first brood destroyed is the means of preventing many hundreds later on ; orchardists should therefore see the necessity of making the first sprayings thoroughly effective. The arsenite of lead has been the most successful spray used in the Bendigo and Harcourt districts during the past two seasons, and it is not so liable to burn the foliage as many of the other arsenical sprays. It is made as follows: — take x lb. white arsenic, 2 lbs. of washing .soda, and one gallon of water ; boil for half an hour, then take 7 lbs. of acetate of lead and dissolve in 2 gallons warm water. When using take i quart of the arsenic solution, and 2 quarts of the lead solution, pour these into a bucket, and a thick creamlike liquid will be the result ; (his should be put in the spray cask with 80 gallons of water and will then be ready for use. Spraying apple and pear trees with Bordeaux mixture for black spot .'-hould be carried out. It should be done just before the bloom opens. The standard formula for making Bordeaux is 6.4.40 (bluestone, 6 lbs. ; lime, 4 lbs. ; water, 40 gallons), but in the drier districts 50 gallons should be used. Peach trees will need looking after for the curl in the leaf and black aphis ; spray with Bordeaux mixture for the former and tobacco wash or kerosene emulsion for the aphis. Young grafts should be carefully inspected, the ties loosened, and the scions properly secured to stakes to prevent them being blown off with the wind. Strawberry plantations should be well hoed and scarified to destroy weeds ; a mulching of clean straw will keep the fruit clean and free from sand and grit. S Oct., 1907.] Silo Jhiilding. 617 SILO BUILDING. A. S. Kenyan, C.E., Engineer for Agriculture. Since the publication of the specifications for the construction of a ^o-ton silo in the Journal for February, 1906, some slight alterations and modifications have been adopted. It is well, therefore, to publish the specifications and quantities now being worked to. These are, of ■course, not final. Many suggestions from esteemed correspondents have been adopted and more will be welcomed. The use of a preservative coating of tar or similar compounds on the inner face of the iron lining has been abandoned as the action of lime is antagonistic to such sub- stances. As the lime wash is essential, even more care has consequently to be employed in seeing that it is well and thickly put on. It is advisable even to limewash as the silo is emptied to preserve the iron before refilling lOO-TON SILO AT MILL PARK, NEAR MORANG. 30 feet high, 14 feet 8 inches diameter. Erected on the latest approved methods. takes place. Successful silage making depends upon the faithful obser- vance of the details of the directions for filling and successful construction is also a question of careful work. None of the points laid stress upon are unimportant. They are all the fruits of experience and have been carefully thought out and tested before being recommended. Specification.s for the Construction of a Silo 14 feet 8 inches inside diameter and 2 1 feet high. All the materials used are to be of approved quality and the best of their kind. The timber is to be specially free from knots and gum veins. The foundation posts and the iron sheets (one side only) are to be tarred before commencing erection. The Foundation. — Roughly level site for a diameter of i6 feet, making provision if on slope for drains to* carry off anv fiow of water. Prepare eight foundation posts (6 by 4 redgum) according to drawing 6i8 Journal of Agnciiliure. rs Oct., 1907. herewith. Bolt the sole and post together edgeways and halve the strut in both sole and post. Secure with \ inch bolts. Fix a peg in the centre of site selected for silo and wi'th a trammel 7 feet 8 inches in length describe a circle. Sink posts 3 feet in ground so that the inside face of t-i"' (■ Stop ^f^^^ Stod FRONT VIEW Y 1' 10' >j PLAN k r,o" H I I J L SILL 6"a I '■ PLAN OF SILL DETAIL OF FRAMING DETAIL of DOOR FRAMING AND PORT HOLES. each post is true to the end of the trammel. Keep tops of posts to one level and faces truly perpendicular. Well ram the earth put back. From the centre line of face of post to the same line in the next post is 5 feet \o\ inches measured straight. Put the posts in to suit line of roof ridge which should suit position of chaff or silage cutter and elevator. The elevator should go in at top of silo in line with the ridge. The Treble Hoops. — Nail three of the 6 by J boards to the inside of the posts, carefullv springing the first of them to the circle of the tram- mel (cut half an inch, the thickness of the board, off trammel). Make 8 Oct., 1907.] Silo Building. 619 butt joints and let each successive hoop break joints. Keep tlie first treble hoop 3 inches clear of the ground. A similar treble hoop is fixed so that Its upper edge is 36 inches from the ground. These two treble hoops are used to fix studs in upright position. The Studs and Single Hoops. — First bore and check studs as shown in drawing. The thirty-two studs (6/24 and 26/21 — 4 by 2) are to l)e bored for bolts, and countersunk h inch deep, f inch clear, for heads of bolts. The first hole is to be 5 inches from the bottom, the second i8| inc-hes, the third 32 inches, the fourth 53 inches and thence at intervals of 35 inches the ninth being at 19 feet; the tenth and last is 20 feet 6 inches from the bottom and 6 inches from the top of the 21 feet studs. The first and third holes are to be bored for ^ inch bolts and all others for | inch. Ail studs are to be checked out 6 inches wdde and 5 inch deep on the same side as the countersinking ; from bottom of stud tO' bottom of first check 2)~h, inches; and from bottom of first to bottom of second 35 inches, and so on to 17 feet 35 inches from the bottom. 6 checks in all. JOINT OF INNER HOOPS. Before setting up studs decide ujx)n position of portholes ; these to the number of three, if the first is in the second row of plates or four, if the first is at ground level, must be vertically above one another, and should be so located as to make the transport of the silage to the feeding place as ea,sy as possible. The first stud to be erected should foirm one side of the row of port holes. The port holes need not be in line with ridge. They may be at any part of the silo. The studs are fixed to the hoops on the flat, every fourth one coming opposite a foundation post to which they are bolted with two 8i by J inch bolts passing right through the studs, treble hoops and posts. The intermediate studs are bolted to the treble hoops with 4 by | inch bolts. The bolts are all inserted from the inside, keeping the nuts on the outside for access w'hen screwing up later on. The spaces between the studs except at the port holes, are 135 inches clear measured between the inside edges of the studs. Cut a template 13-Jr inches long using it as a gauge to correctly fix the studs. Drive a 4 inch nail three inches above the centre of the third hole from the bottom of the stud. When erecting stud, let it rest by this nail on top edge of upper triple hoop; then nail stud to 620 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Oct., 1907. treble hoops with two 3 inch nails at each. These will hold stud until ready to bore for bolts. It is well to try every fourth stud with a sheet of iron to see that lap comes correctly. ' Following these directions, the whole 32 studs are erected, the last, however, being put up 22 inches distant from the first instead of 13^ inches; this is to leave space for the port holes. The distance between the last stud and the last but one will be less than 13I inches. For the purposes of the roof, put two 24 feet studs opposite one another and attached to foundation posts. Place the 4 other 24 feet studs at the third stud position each side of these two. The next operation is the putting on of the single hoops. These are alternatelv on the inside and outside of the studs, the inside hoops taking the horizontal lap of the sheets of iron forming the lining and falling into the checks made as already described. At the top of the silo the last hoop is kept on the outside, there being no horizontal joint to make Light. First put on a single hoop between the two treble hoops. Next put on the others carefully adhering to the' following directions. :Mark the hoops for positions of studs before putting up, by bending them round on top of the upper treble hoop and against the outer faces of the studs. The hoops should be fixed to the same studs as marked. This need not be done for each hoop, every fourth one will be sufficient. Unless this is done carefully, the silo will most likely have different diameters at different points and trouble will ensue when putting on the lining. The outside hoops should lap over so as to cross two adjacent studs. They are secured at each stud with 2| by | inch bolts and at laps with 3' by | inch at first stud of the lap and 3J by g inch at the last one, there being a plate washer 5 inches by i^ inches by fV inch with I inch hole in centre at the end bolt. The inside hoops are scarfed 3 inches for a length of 3 feet 2J inches to cover three studs and butted, see sketch, and they are fastened to the studs with 2 inch nails. Care should be taken not to have the joints vertically above one another. Short pieces of 4 by 2 inch hardwood are put in between the portholes and between the porthole studs alongside row of portholes. Nail short pieces of 3 by i inch for the width of two studs opposite to the inner hoops ; these will serve as a ladder for access to the top and the portholes. The Lining. — Six feet by three feet 24 gauge galvanized flat iron is used, tarred on one side as already directed. The tarred side is kept on the outside against the studs. If the studs and hoops have been erected as described, the sheets will have a lap of 3 inches vertically on the studs and one inch horizontally on the hoops. Carefully press the sheets out to the line of the circle before nailing, and start at the centre stud working out to the side stud. This will make the iron set better. Nail with i^ inch clout nails on the studs, 3 inches apart at the laps and 6 inches on the other studs. Nail with f inch clouts to hoops at horizontal laps, putting clouts \ inch up and down alternately to avoid splitting hoop. The upper sheet in each lap is put outside the lower to keep the weather out and prevent rain working in. The Roof. — Bolt two purlins, 20 feet long, to the centre 24 feet roof studs at the top, letting purlins project in order to attach block and tackle, if required. Centre purlins are bolted to the third studs each side of ridge studs, which are 24 feet high as directed and bottom purlins are bolted to ordinary length studsi — the sixth from the ridce studs. The centre purlins are fixed to suit the pitch given by the ridge studs. 8 Oct., 1907.] Silo Building. 621 Cover with 9 feet sheets of 26 gauge corrugated galvanized iron, allowing a lap of one and a half corrugations, with spring head nails at every third corrugation. Fix three lengths of 14 inch galvanized ridging. Fix- four battens from studs to ends of bottom purlins for supports. The Port Holes. — Port holes are made in every alternate row of iron, the sill of the first being preferably at the top of the first inside hoop. The sills are made of 6 by i inch hardwood, as shown in the drawing, fixed to the top of an inside hoop and supported on two short pieces of 4 b\- 2 inches nailed on to outer face of studs. The sides are formed by four 2 inch pieces planted on studs, notched for ends of out- side hoop and secured with two 4I by | inch bolts. The stops are 3 by I inch hardwood set i inch back from the inside face. The doors are SLAT OR BUCKET SECTION. CHAIN AND SLAT ELEVATOR. made from the piece of sheet iron cut for the port hole, backed with three pieces of 3 by i inch Oregon, 22 inches long, to fit close in to stops. They are held in position by the pressure of the silage. The Elevator. — The length of the elevator will vary with the local conditions, whether the ground is sloping, whether the cutter is mounted on a stage and so on. In general, the length necessary is about 27 feet. A box having sides made of three 6 by i inch tongued ard grooved flooring boards with top and bottom floors of two similar boards, with a 622 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Oct., 1907. covtT of 6 by \ inch lining boards is all that is required. The sides and bottom floor are secured by cleats of 3 b\ i inch oregon at 6 feet dis- tances. On the upper floor, which is 5 inches below the upper edge of box It is advisable to nail two 6 by | inch boards cut down to 5^ inches to form a groove for the chain to run in. The adjustable bearings sent with the elevator chain, slats and sprocket wheels are attached by bolts. The end of the box is put in as far as jjossible below the chaffcutter, an(l a shoot made with pieces of sheet iron or of wood to connect to cutter, tho whole being boxed in as far as possible. The drive from the cutter will send the slats up the top or the bottom floor according to the side fed from. Looking towards the silo, if the feed be from the right hand, the elevator will work up the bottom floor. This is the most advisable, as the throw of the cutting wheel is then assisting to run the cut stuff clown into the foot of the elevator. It will, however, work satisfactorily, feeding from the other side, so that the cutter may be put where most suitable for feeding. The following is the list of material required for the 60-ton silo specified. Some of the items are slightly in excess, in order to meet con- tingencies : — Red gum, 8/6, 8/5, 8/4, 6x4. Hard wood, 6/24, 26/21, 1/20, 2/18, 7/ ib, 4 \ 2. Hard wood, 60/18, 6/12, 6x5. Hard wood, 2/16, 3 x i. Hard wood, 1/8, 6 x i. White deal, 10/10, 10/20, 6 x r, 1'. and G. White deal, 8 14, b x J, T. and C Oregon, 4/15, 3x1. Iron, galvanized sheets, 56/6, 36-in., 24-gauge. Iron, corrugated galvanized sheets, 16 (), 2b-gauge. Iron, 14-in. ridging, 3 lengths. Nails, 2 packets, spring head. Nails, 12 lbs. I;t inch clout. Nails, 3 lbs. | inch clout. Nails, I lb. 4 inch, 4 lbs. 3 inch, - lbs. _• inch, 3 lbs. \ly inch. Bolts, nuts, and washers — 16 95 -X 5 in. 16 8 x 2 in. 8 6i5 X A m. 8 5^ X 3 a in. 12 4 a m. 72 3i S 111. 4^ 3 8 in. 94 4 X 8 m. Plate washers, 24/5 inches by I5 inches by s-ib inches with f-in. hole in centre. Tar — 8 gallons, with long handled brush. Elevator gear. — 54 feet chain, i 9-16 inches pitch, with 27 oregon slats iif X 3^ X ig attached. Two 8f-in. sprocket wheels. 17 teeth, with 185 and 26-in. spindles, i^-in. 4 adjustable bearings, i 125-in. 27-teeth sprocket wheel, i s-in. 10-teeth sprocket wheel. lo-ft. chain, I5 inches ])itch. The cost may be computed from above list. The present contract price for all the above is ^30 2s.. but the operation of the proposed tariff which is still under discussion, has raised the cost 27s. mainlv on the iron items. The cost may now be set down, on trucks, Melbourne, at ^31 los., of which ^5 8s. is for the elevator. With an experienced builder assisted by three handy men, the whole work of erection, including construction of elevator, should be completed within four or five days. After the silo has been erected some time, and the greenness of the wood considerably lessened, the Avhole of the woodwork, and in anv case, the lower 3 feet, including I)oth treble hoops should be tarred, the tar being applied hot. The inside of the iron should be lime-washed as it is nailed 8 Oct., 1907-] Silage Xotes. 623 (in. Support.s, such as blocks of redgum, bricks, (!<:(\ , should be put under centre stud in each bay, a-nd it is as well to put such supports under every stud except those, of course, bolted to the foundation posts. To guard against risk from exceptionally heavy winds, a Xo. 8 black wire mav be run over each slope of roof above bottom jnu-lin, and fastened on to a convenient hoop. It is advisable, also, to stay the whole silo with three or four guys made uf twisted No. 8 wire, taken well out from the silo, so as not to be in the road when carting in. These stavs are of most service when the silo is empty. To raise the height of an existing silo, the new studs should be halved for a length of al)out 2 feet, and bolted on to the existing studs on their edge, so that they show the narrow instead of the flat face to the iron. They should be bolted with two 4 by | inch bolts. This will allow of boring and fixing the new studs without removing anything except the roof. The hoops close to the ground must not be covered with earth ; they are an essential portion of the structure, and should not be weakened by rot or white ants. The floor may be the earth levelled off, or a concrete floor mav be put in as described in the July number of the Journal. A .SILO IX THE MALLEE. SILAGE NOTES. A New Source of Material. .4. .S'. Keny. C./i., lii/i^iiiccr for Ai^^riciiltiirc. There are many sources of material for the making of silage. Thistles, grasses, and weeds of all sorts are well known as silage makers, but the swamp reed, Arundo phragmites, has not up to the present been utilized. The greener portion of the reed, which grows all over the State, in lagoons, billabongs, and swamps, has always been known to attract anmials, but it was not generally considered a valuable fodder. Last year a sample of the whole reed taken from Launching Place, Upper Yarra, was analyzed, and gave most surprising results. The following are the figures compared with those of a typical maize. It must be borne in mind that the quantities given are gross, their nutritive values being considerably less. Per Cent. Krhci- Ash or l-',\trart Jlinenil. nr F:il. 2.2 ... 1.2 . 1.6 ... .9 ... 2.2 ... 6.5 Moisture or Water. Reeds ... 50.6 Maize ■•• 73-7 Carl)o-nyf] rates. Nitroffen Protein. Crude fil)re. Free Kxtraot. 3.0 ... 15.3 ... 18.6 624 Journal of Agriculture. Oct., 1907. Attention was thus directed to their utilization and an opportunity occurred of making a practical test. At Mr. Justice Hodges' farm, at Carrum on drained land still growing reeds in profusion, a silo was erected and filled with the reeds. A considerable growth of grass was cut with the reeds, the lower portions of which for about 12 inches in height were very hard and dry. Separate samples were taken and analyzed with the following results : — Moisture or Water. Pkr Crnt. Ash or Mineral. Ether Extract or Fat. Carbo-Hydrates. Nitrog-f-n I'rotein. Crude fibre. Free Extract. Mi.xed grass and reeds as filled Lower portion of reed stalks Upper portion ... Reed silage 53-4 41.0 56.7 40. S 4.9 6.4 6.1 3-^ 4.2 4-3 4-1 15.0 21.6 10.9 20.8 21.6 32.2 20.7 25.0 The last line gives the resulting silage sampled some time after filling. It will be seen that the Carrum reeds give even more favorable figures than the Upper Yarra ones though this is no doubt largely due to difference in the season at time of cutting. As to the actual value in feeding, let the manager's report speak for itself. Here it is : " I filled in about 60 tons of reeds, and commenced to eat back at once. The cows eat the silage readily and milk better than when fed on bran and chaff. I fed about two-thirds silage to one-third of chaff, mixed together and well steamed. There was no waste until I got near the bottom, when I lost about 6 inches round the side ; but I think I can overcome that in next filling by closing up all joints with carbon paint to entirely exclude the air. I am thoroughly con- vinced that for a cheap and nutritious food, you cannot beat the reeds growing in this district. I intend to fill the silo to its fullest extent. Others have seen the advantage of it, as the results have been watched closely. I am more than pleased, and intend to go on with plenty of reeds and maize silage for a winter food." Reeds mav be kept growing in partially reclaimed land by ploughing or cultivating after cutting. Without that, continued cutting or grazing will eventuallv kill them out. 8 Oct. ,1907-] FiftJi Convention, Chamber of Agriculture. 625 FIFTH CONVENTION OF THE VICTORIAN CHAMBER OF AGRICULTURE, JUNE, 1907. {Continued from page 57/.) VII.— BREEDS OF SHEEP INFLUENCING LAMB-RAISING. H. TF. Ham, Sheep Expert. The reports on Australian export himb of last season were on the whole favorable to Victorian shipments. Complaints were made that there were sent a good few quite second-rate carcasses, sheep-like, with too much merino type in them ; some lambs, too, were under normal standard. It has also been recently stated that Australian lamb does not look as well frozen as that of other countries. There are certain shapes and breeds of lamb that never can be made to look well, no matter how fed, and this trouble can be remedied more by the flock-owners than by the people who handle the carcasses. In view of these reports we have to take into consideration the various breeds chiefly concerned, com- mencing with the merino. Merinoes. With the exception in some districts of the pure-bred flocks of English breeds, the merino is the chosen sheep of Australia, and his influence is seen for better or worse in all our crosses of sheep. Merinoes are valued chiefly for wool producing, and mutton is secondary. There are a few breeders who pay strict attention to the shape of their sheep, and this point, as will be shown later on, has the chief bearing on our bemg able to raise export lamb of the shape and qualitv to compete successfully with other countries. The merinoes are seen to best ad- vantage in districts with a fairly light rainfall, and when care is shown in keeping an eye to depth and width of girth, they are found to hold out in droughts, and to travel well to water and to railways and markets. When experience and care are exercised in breeding them for wool, thev are the most profitable sheep for making the best use of areas of country distant from railways and markets, wool being light in carriage and valuable in small space as compared with other produce. It is as well to see how the late controversies on " plain versus wrinkly " merinoes affect us, for as before stated, the merino is our foundation stock, and must be considered. There are breeders who favour merinoes of the foldv type, and you will notice that the breeders who are most successful with this type of sheep are wide awake to the fact that width of frame is to them of great importance. To come to technical points, it is fullness of girth and a level and even shoulder that are watched for in individual sheep ; this really means constitution, but there are two classes of constitutional shape, and we will consider later which class has the best influence from an export point of view. The second class of constitution is found in the wide and deep chested, high-withered section; he is usually more leggy, is not made prime so quickly, but can stand any amount of long-distance travelling, privation and hardship. It will be seen that, if merino breeders overlook this full- ness of girth and level shoulder, and produce the narrow, sharp-shouldered class, our efforts to turn out fleshv lambs from ewes bred from crosses from these sheep are greatly affected. Now it is not because a sheep is foldy that he is bad, for if he has all the recognised qualities of fleece and is above all a thriver, then 626 Journal of Agriculture. |3 Oct. ,190^ he is the most valuable to a stud breeder, but if he be not a good thriver then he is a curse to any man. Many of our foldy sheep look good girthed, but you will often notice they are filled out with folds, and if these were removed they would be very narrow, and here is where many breeders have been trapped. These folds shomld be watched for as standing outside the level from arm to sides. The plain-bodied class of sheep, and it is difficult to draw the dividing line between folds and plainness, is more easily managed, and needs a deal less attention. It is the widest established class, and considering the number of owners, large and small, engaged in sheep-breeding, it has perhaps the greater number of fanciers. Some breeders of this class are turning out very u.seful sheep, level made and profitable wool -cutters, just the class to be of great benefit in crossing later on for export lamb trade, but still there are used annually many thousands of rams and ewes of this class, light and bony in the fore-quarter, wedge-shaped, and when inspected the first impression is that they are light cutters, and that it is taking them all their time to grow well what wool they have. From the better class of merinoes we get the greatest value in our cross- breds ; level shoulders, good girths, and good fleeces can be bred as well from descendants of the foldy studs as from the plain. Extremes of either should be avoided. The few recognised breeders of foldy sheep breed plain ones, and the breeders of smoridi-bodied sheep shovv us their best with deep neck folds, and full, thighs, and by the time the flock sheep from these studs and others influenced by this style of sheep, are at prices within our reach, we find them very suitable for our purposes of crossing. With the cull sheep from either type, whether foldy or plain, we can expect verv little satisfaction ; they are, in the foldy type, wrinkly and yellow fleececl, and worse still, bony and narrow ; whilst the culls of the plain-bodied type are mostly wasty and thin woolled, bony and wedge- shaped, although perhaps the better thrivers of the two. Merinoes to be of greater assistance toward export lamb, should be less bony than we are accustomed to, and as full girthed as we can get them ; in short, we w^ant them level shouldered, good thrivers, and fair wool- cutters. T-INCOLNS. Although of the opposite grade of wool the Lincoln must be considered our next greatest wool producer, and for crossing on the merino' for wool and carcass purposes it must be given the choice of place. In good country with heavy rainfall this sheep succeeds. The LincO'ln fleece lies like thatch on a stack and with its natural grease keeps out heavy rain, when with the shorter stapled and more upright woolled breeds it goes in. We have considered merinoes from the view of shape and constitution, and next to the merino the Lincoln, with many breeders, has also been neglected in these respects. Some breeders when selecting their sheep for breeding purposes pay most attention to wool i)oints, and covering of fleece, and do not give the consideration to good girth and level shoulders that others do, ■and so it is that with inferior Lincolns as with inferirir merinoes we find this narrowness of girth and fore-quarter giving a bonv shouldered bad doer, quite opposed to the first principles of correct freezing lambs ; and if this class of Lincoln be mated with the same class of merino ewes, what hope is there for good results ? The Lincoln as bred bv our best breeders is undoubtedlv the best cross on merinoes for the better grazing areas with fair rainfall, close to railways, where it is found desirable to combine wool-growing with fattening. They are often spoken of as bad sheep as Oct., 1907.] I- i nil Convention. Cliamher of .\griciilture . 627 weaners ; but in the class of countrs just mentioned there is often more or less worm and other troubles natural, to country with reliable rainfall, and when this breed and its crosses are bred with the view to constitution, they will be found to do as well as any other; it is well known that robust-shaped good constitutioned sheep will throw off more of these ailments than the narrow ones. The crosses of this breed with merinoes make ideal wethers, and the Lincoln-merino ewes when joined to the right class of ram throw suitable lambs for the exi>ort trade ; so apart from the object in favorable seasons of getting the lambs of this cross away as freezers, there is the later object to be gained bv wool-growing and fattening the wethers and selling the ewes to farmers and others for fat lamb raising, which in itself is becoming now almost as profitable to the grazier as the actual fat lamb business. The ideal ewe for the small grazier and farmer is the three-quarter bred Lincoln or Leicester. This ewe crossed with a good shaped Shrop- shire or Southdown, produces the ideal lamb, the three-quarter bred ewe having size and gooci milking properties, and the Shropshire giving the thickness and qualitv of flesh and early maturing properties. If a good fleeced Shropshire be used a good fleece can be grown as well, by those who can keep their best ewe lambs each season to follow on with. So now it appears that there is room for all three classes of sheep, Merinoes, Longwools, and Downs ; and that it is not so much a matter of breed, as it is the shape of the sheep used. We hear breeds of sheep condemned to-day by men who have tried them unsuccessfully, and next day you meet men who are making a success of those very breeds, and who are runri'mg down other Ijreeds. It is our fault, and not the animals, half the time ; we bring them in for a purpose for which they are unsuitable. Lincolns, Merinoes, and their crosses are really graziers' sheep and not so much farmers', lait of course it is hard to draw the line between a grazier and a farmer for manv farmers are both, and here it is that a man must judge for himself. If he is in any doubt of not being able tO' get off his crop of lambs for export annually, then he is better with the Longwool crosses and not the Down crosses, for it is impossible tO' supply the demand for good fleeced, correct shaped, clean skinned sheep at present ; so many ill shapen, black and brown faced culls, are about that the Shropshire breed is now suffering for its rightly earned popularity, and it is now becoming the same with Lincolns and Leicesters, anything that will pass for these breeds in name is being used to catch the profit passing. One thing we should try tO' do is to keep all our best shaped and fleeced ewe lambs each season, say 30 or 40 per cent. It is perhaps not possible for every farmer tO' do it, but with many it is, and it is done mostly by those who take pains to select the best ewes and rams they can to start with, for they cannot buy as good ewes as they can breed themselves by this means. One thing that seems to be promising in Victoria is, that we are not likely to get so badly off for suitable ewes for raising good lambs as the New Zealand farmer has been. The demand for rams of the Longwool breeds by large land-holders points to the fact of there being a better supply of the right class of ewes for the farmer. We have a large number of land-holders, in Northern Victoria and Riverina, who are not likelA again to trv Shropshires. as thev are in a climate that is inconsistent, and it is safer \york for them to go intO' Longwool breeds ; when the season is favorable they have a good export lamb, and when otherwise they have a good wool cutter. As the farmers who grow artificial crops of rape, 628 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Oct., 1907. &c., increase, the demand for the half-bred and three-quarter ewes will increase also, and so this demand, brought about by the freezing trade, will counteract the sole objection to these coarser grades that existed before, viz., growing a wool that was often of low value. English and Border Leicesters. These breeds of sheep a,nd their merino crosses come next from a grazier's point of view of wool producing, and now we get into breeds of sheep that have been bred by our English fathers with the view to shape of carcass first and wool second. This is one reason why the larger grazier who relies on natural pasture to get his lambs away, is beginning to value these two breeds. I'hey are level shouldered and good girthed naturally, and good thrivers consequently, and being clean faced and legged, and tall lengthy sheep, are good travellers for water and feed, and to market. They are fairly early maturing as lambs, perhaps a little leggy, and if anything rather inclined to more fat in proportion to the lean than the Down breeds. As a rule, they are finer in grade of wool than Lincolns, and consequently finer in grain of mutton, but not so fine and firm as the Downs. The Border Leicesters are not quite so well covered from a wool view as the English Leicesters, but are generally finer in grade of wool, although when the influence of the ewes they are mated with is taken into account, there is but very little to choose between them for the lamb-raiser. These are two breeds that are very suitable indeed for the graziers and the larger farmers, who mix farming and grazing. The crosses by these breeds are good wool-cutters, and very hardy ; the secret of their thriving and hardiness is the inherited thickness of ribs and girth especially. At the present time there are to be seen many sheep called by these breeds that have no right whatever to the name, although perhaps pure bred and pedigreed. They are wretchedly shaped and as badly fleeced, having shallow fore-quarters, and being thin and wasty in the wool. These much to be desired breeds are now coming to the same thing that has brought the Shropshire a bad name ; we must have shape and fleece both to succeed. Better to ha\'e a. good shaped and fleeced sheep of aaiv grade or cross for lamb-raising than be tempted to take an inferior weak girthed one of a fashionable breed for this reason only. These pure and pedigreed ill- shapen rams are the most dangerous of all, usually throwing truer than grades, and consequently throwing more ill-shapen offspring, whereas in actual practice a well-bred grade of correct shape throws better and more even lambs. Shropshires. Of the Downs breeds the Shropshire is the better fleeced, and has the advantage of being in grade of wool between the Merino and Loogwool, although of not the same style a,nd character. The chief desire of the breeders of this sheep has been to maintain qualitv and firmness of flesh, and to have lean meat greater in proportion to fat, at the same time encouraging early maturity and ability to thrive ; and further in regard to wool, to main- tain it at a medium grade, and to cut as much as could be made possible without neglecting these other good qualities. Of late years there has been a desire to breed Shropshires to what was termed suiting Australian conditions ; that means more wool and better covering. A few of our best breeders raised a sheep with a verv woollv head and well covered arm and thigh, &c., and still kept a strict look-out not to neglect girth and 8 Oct., 1907-] Fifth Corwention, Chamber of Agriculture. 629 shape, but many new brt'eders were led astray by this ; they saw only the w(X)lly head and other show points and forgot to watch the thin neck and weak shoulders that were creeping in, and now the country is over- run with dark-faced sheep of all shapes — anything witli the least appear- ance of the colour of a Shropshire was sold as such. There is no doubt that as a farmer's sheep for using on crossbred ewes too far advanced towards the coarser breeds these Shropshires give every satisfaction for export lambs, but they must be of the right shape. Shropshires when fat are not good travellers. With the small farmer this breed will be found very necessary later on when a large proportion of three-quarter-bred ewes is available. When getting towards pure, these three-quarter ewes, if crossed with pure Longwools again, will throw lambs too coarse in grain of mutton, especially if kept over the milk lamb stage, and are inclined to lay on fat more in proportion to lean. If coarse grades of wool become of low value again, good fleeced and shaped Shrnp- snires are the best cross to bring about a medium grade of wool, and at the same time keep early maturing properties and quality of flesh and shape. SOUTHDOWNS. These neat and very early maturing and quick thriving sheep, have not as yet come into favour as they deserve. They are particularly suited for farmers on second-class country close to markets, are especially well able to throw off diseases if given any liberal treatment at all, being of all breeds the best constitutioned. They are rather small, but are very weightv and are plenty large enough for poor country. They cross to perfection with Lincoln and Leicester cross ewes that have been bred too coarse in the wool and flesh. That the demand for this breed, of correct shape and fair fleeces will grow is assured, and will increase as the Longwcol breeds are more used and there comes about a larger number of the coarser sorts, for wool itself of the coarser grades must some day be again of low value. Small farmers cannot have the merino ram even if of good shape, as his lambs are slower maturing. It is the quicklv grown milk lamb that pays the average farmer best, and the export people can make it look to perfection also. In addition to this it brings the best price on the home markets. Selection of Stock. Rants. — When full woolled and fat, rams with a tendencv to narrow- ness and bony shoulders are not so' easily detected. A ram for the purpose of fat lamb-raising should always be handled to see if he is full girthed and even fleshed ; the easiest thing to find is the high sharp shoulders. Judgment must be used, and the condition and treatment of the sheep allowed for. In plain merino rams a fair idea can be gained by outward appearance when walking at a little distance, but it is alwavs wise to handle them. In stud rams, folds filling up the narrowness behind the arms must not be mistaken for width of girth. In Longwools, rams should hQ handled as the wool, especially in flock rams, will part on the top of the shoulder and down the back, and being a long staple will hang over the sides, the locks overlapping one another and giving the sheep a round appearance. The wool, being open and thin on the back, gives the idea of being broad and level. In Shropshires and Southdowns, especially the former, the sheep should always be handled. Their wool lends itself willingly to the 630 Journal of Agricuh'i^rc. [8 Oct., 1907. practice of cutting into siiape, which is really dishonest trimming; the top of the shoulder and backs of these sheep are by some sellers levelled off with the shears, and the sides cut level with tlie forearm or thigh, giving the sheep a level and full girth appearance. Care should be taken, but not too much attention should be paid to woolly heads and outward appearance. In flock rams, good girth is first — thick neck and level shoulders and good quarters are nearly always associated with it ; clean bright skin, and a good useful fleece come second. Good leg of mutton, bone, head covering, colour, and the many necessarv and valuable points in a stud ram that go to make a type, are not necessary to the lamb raiser. He wants the results of stud breeding as gained by constitution and not the fancy points ; without the ability to thrive we can have none of these, for it all comes from the good use of the feed given, controlled by judgment in mating. Eives. — Good ewes in any class of sheep-breeding are half the battle, and indeed more so, for they have the rearing of the lamb after, apart from their influence in blood. We will be dependent on the larger grazier to a certain extent for a supply of the right sort of these in future. Correct rams without correct ewes are not sufficient; in ewes more so than in rams, it is, as before stated, not so much a matter of breed as it is tne shape of the sheep used. Where possible, farmers should keep their best shaped and fleeced ewes ; a ewe can grow a fleece to more than pay for her keep, and leave the lamb clear. The point is, when once you get good shaped and wool-cutting ewes why sell the best ewe lambs ? Why not keep increasing the good qualities alreadv procured ? Pure versus grade rams. — There is plenty of evidence to show that there are not sufficient of the correct shape pure breeds of English sheep to supply the demand for rams, and that graecial fodder crops, lambs superior to those produced in any other country in the w^orld could be placed on the London markets bv 632 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Oct., 1907. Australian graziers. But in the matter of pro\iding ample, succulent, and nourishing feed, we tind graziers very neglectful, and consequently they cannot expect to obtain high prices for indifferent lambs. Fat lambs fetch high prices and so it pays to grow special fodder crops to feed them. Well fed mothers always produce good lambs, and, if the mothers are not sufficiently fed, it cannot be expected that they will furnish the quantity of milk necessary to keep the lambs in forward condition. In certain districts, and at certain seasons, our lambs are likely enough to get very much damaged by grass seeds, and until holdings become smaller and special grasses and fodder crops are generally grown the mischief will prevail. Carcasses damaged by grass seed lose their bloom, and consequently their value is greatly depreciated. Every year large numbers of Iambs are rejected for export on account of injuries sustained by grass seeds. Nature provided for the pioneer pastoralist of Australia, wide tracts of salt-bush, and there are two dwarf varieties {Atriplex scinibac- catum and A. vesicarium) which rank amongst the best of fodder plants for sheep. There has been ruthless destruction of these valuable plants and even now it is not yet too late for pastoralists to retrace their steps. Nature has indicated to us the drought-resisting properties of the salt-bush family, and I have seen salt-bush growing in seasons of drought when practically all other fodder plants had perished. The best salt-bushes to feed sheep upon are the two dwarf varieties mentioned. They approach lucerne as regards their feeding value ; lucerne has a nutritive ratio of I : 2.5, and dwarf salt-bush has a nutritive ratio of i : 3.9. Two of the best kinds of the taller salt-bush to grow are the Rhagodia hastata and Atriplex nnmmularium . In arid districts particularly salt-bush should be extensively planted and if the plants receive care, they will prove of untold l>enefit when bad seasons come. Not only in arid districts but in every district salt bushes should be grown and fostered, since they are anthelmintic or worm expelling in their properties. Salt-bush country is splendid for sheep, and the salt-bushes, along with natural grasses, will produce excellent lambs. Special fodder crops are absolutely necessary for getting lambs into prime condition as rapidly as possible. The growing of special fodder crops which is a marked feature in New Zealand husbandry, is not yet extensively practised in Australia, where the condition of the lamb is allowed to depend almost entirely on the seasons. The vagaries of the seasons exert an influence on the fodder crops, as well as on the pastures. Wherever, then, rainfall is certain, or irrigation possible, fodder crops should be extensively grown. Besides the indigenous dwarf salt-bush there are certain exotic fodder crops eminently suitable for fattening sheep, and in districts where such can be readily cultivated, every endeavour should be made to establish them. Lucerne is one of the best of fodders for fattening sheep. Rape which has a nutritive ratio of i : 5.7 is far excellence a late autumn and winter fodder. Thousand headed kale (nutritive ratio i : 5.2), maize (i : 12.6), turnips (i : 7.7), and mangolds (i : 5.1), could be grown in favorable situations. Prairie grass, which springs up earlv in autumn and grows splendidlv in the winter and early spring, is a capital fodder for sheep, and so also is the Plialaris commutata which provides prolific feed. There are only a limited number of plants suitable for winter fodder in the northern districts of Victoria, but cereals, if put in earlv and the sheep allowed to graze over the paddocks, will give excellent results. 8 Oct., 1907.] I'.xport Trade in Lambs. 633 Towards spring the sheep should be removed, the harrows put over the field, and the crop allowed to come away. Maize and millet are excellent summer fodder crops to grow, if conditions are favorable. It is not possible to lay down permanent grass pastures in the arid northern districts. Grasses cannot withstand the prolonged summer heat or droughts. In any case exotic grasses are unsuitable. Permanent pastures, however, can be established bv growing lucerne and salt-bush and thereby the stock carry- ing capacity of the land will be increased. In the southern and western districts permanent pastures can be established, and a mixture of grasses that will provide succulent food throughout the greater part of the year should be sown. This object can be achieved by sowing grasses that ripen at different periods; rye grass, prairie grass, meadow foxtail, meadow fescue, timothy, cocksfoot, crested dogstail, white clover, nlsvke clover, and cow grass, will grow well and make a good pasture. Importance of Shelter. Another factor tending to produce deterioration in our lambs is ex- posure to cold and wet. As exposure makes great demands upon the animal economy, the flocks should be sheltered, if the best results are to be secured. One sees so few graziers providing shelter for stot'k. Belts of trees such as currijongs, bluegums, tree lucerne, and coral trees, should be established to protect stock from inclemency of season. Animals pro- perly sheltered thrive well, and the vigour of their health is consistently maintained at a high level, and so their bloom is preserved. In New Zealand, the importance of shelter is fully recognised and shelter belts and hedges will be found on the various holdings. Breeds. Locality has a bearing on breeds of sheep. The climate of the southern one-third of Australia is more adapted for sheep for meat pur- poses than the northern two-thirds. Much has already been gained by actual experience as to the breeds that will thrive best in paiticular localities. The black-faced breeds are regarded as being the best for lamb export purposes. They mature early ; fatten quickly, and are better adapted than other types to graze over artificial pastures 01. small holdings ; also, if killed within reasonable time after removal from the pastures, they maintain their bloom longer. In Australia, a special type of sheep is not generally grown for export. Here and there onlv can it be said that lambs are specially raised to meet export trade requirements. The question may be put does it pay better to breed Down crosses ot Longwools for export. In this connexion the skins have a great influence with the exporter. He HKes the skins that give him the most value and he somehow looks upon the meat as a secondary consideration. Last year showed that any differ- ence in price between lambs of the same weight and condition was due to the skin. Experience in Victoria shows that the breed or cross which gives the best weight of lamb in a given time, and yields a good skin is the one to employ. Contrary to previous experience the black face last year was of no advantage in selling lamb. The main points considered were condition, weight in a given time, and skin. Animals from poor pastures do not furnish the same quality of meat as those from rich and sound ones. They may, indeed, in some seasons, appear plump enough, but there is not the solidity and weight in them as 6^4 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Oct., 1907. m those from localuies where the food is more nourishing. Climate has a o-reat (ieal to do with the production of superior meat. The meat produced in a bracmg climate is better than that produced in a hot district, all other thhigs bemg equal. The tallow tests indicate that the New Zealand titre is higher than that of Victoria, Victoria higher than New South Wales, and the latter higher than Queensland. 'I'he special feeding practised in New Zealand, as well as the bracing character of the climate, accounts for the difference in the tests. In New Zealand special types are bred for the mutton and lamb trade, Lincolns and Leicesters and crosses thereof are raised extensively. Slaughtering. A little time before slaughter, sheep and lambs travelled long journeys .should be watered so that dryness ot skm may be avoided. When the skin is dry, the slaughterman is liable to tear the tissues beneath. More- over there is an absence of bloom in the animal deprived of water, so particular attention should be given to the watering of stock. Animals should be skilfully butchered, and the carcasses rapidly drained of blood. If thoroughly drained, the carcass presents a brighter appear- ance than when badly drained. The dressing should be carefully done. Removing the skin should be done with care so as to avoid tearing the tissues and thereby depreciating the carcass. When the skin is dry it is difficult to avoid tearing, so water should be i)rovided. The washing of the carcass with clean tepid water by the butcher should be carefully done. Chilling and Freezing. The carcass should be thoroughly chilled before being removed to the freezing chamber. The operation of chilling requires care. Hot winds take oti the bloom, so chilling rooms should be provided with shutters to admit of their manipulation to exclude them. The frozen carcasses should be baggeu in clean material, and should not be roughly handled. Shippers should insist that the stevedores should exercise greater caution in the handling of carcasses and in their stowage in the ship's chambers; they should compel workers in the ship's hold to muffle their boots, since they must mo\-e over stowed carcasses in carrying out their duties. Many carcasses are damaged by the rough boots of the workmen. The freezing chambers on the ships should have smaller hatches for loading frozen meat, and means should be devised whereby the meat already stowed coi. be protected from the hot outside air. Exposure by open hatchway methods as at present, damages the consignments. It is a common report that superior Australia mutton and lamb are sold in London as of New Zealand origin, and that onlv average quality carcasses are disposed of as Australian. Firebranding the carcasses would get rid of this practice, but would lower the price for primest sorts, and the cost of inspection would be materially increased if it were made com- pulsory. The application of lead seals to the carcasses is an expensive matter, as experience in Victoria has proved. Firebranding, although adding to the cost of inspection, would not be as troublesome or as ex- pensive as the application of lead seals ; they could, of course, be cut away, but could not be placed on other carcasses, whereas the wires attaching the lead seals to the carcasses could be manipulated, if there was a desire to do so. 8 Oct., 1907.] Diseases of I'' arm Anifiials 635 DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS. 5. S. Cameron. M.R.C.V.S., Chief Veterinary Officer. DISEASES OF THE FOOT. Contracted Heels — Thrush — Canker — Sand crack — False quarter — Seedy toe — Pricked foot — Foot wounds — Quitter — Foot-Rot in Sheep — Foul in the Foot of Cattle. The important diseases of tlie foot of tlie hor.se associated with some obscurity of lameness, viz.: — Sidebone, corns, laminitis, villitis, and navicular disease, have already been dealt with in the chapter on Lameness (p. 211, et seq.) There remain for consideration those diseases which are not necessarily associated with lameness, or in which the cause of lameness is patent, and there are also to be considered foot affections of cattle and sheep. Contracted Heels. This is an abnormal condition of the foot in which the heels become contracted or " wired in," the frog dry and shrivelled, and the growth of horn at the heels uneven, soi that the coronets at the heel are not on the same level. (See Fig. 103.) Fi-. Hayes 103. Sliod hoof witli contracted heels showni;^ shrinkage of froj. (After Causes. — The primarv cause of this condition is absence of frog pressure, brought about b\ injudicious paring of the frog, and improper shoeing. So long as the frog is allowed to come in contact with the ground some amount of pressure will be exerted on it through the weight of the animal; and so long will it continue to retain its proper size and 636 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Oct., 1907. structure, and to perforin its function as an elastic wedge to lessen con- cussion and maintain the heels apart. If, however, the frog is raised off the ground it ceases to perform its wedge function, and commences to atrophy and contract, the contraction being largely brought about by the side pressure of the heels. As it contracts the heels become approxi- mated and curled in, so much that the frog may be lost to view. If, on account of the existence of pain, as in navicular disease, or for any other reason, the horse goes on his toe, there will be loss of frog pressure and liability to contracted heels. Sometimes actual lameness results, in which case the condition is an unsoundness {vide Greenway v. Marshall, Baron Pollock, Eng., 1845); and in most cases there is loss of freedom of movement proportionate to the extent of the contraction. Treatment. — The remedy lies in proper and skilful shoeing, whereby the frog pressure is continuously maintained. In the early stages benefit may result l)\ running the horse at grass unshod for a few months, or if work has to lie continued an artificial rubber frog pad fixed to a leather sole mav be used. There are many such frog pads patented. If the condition is at all advanced, and the frog much shrivelled, there is little likelihood of a cure, but the constant aim ought to be to have the foot so shod that the frog will come to the ground. Thrush. Thrush is the term given to a condition in which there oozes from the horn and fissures of the frog a foul -smelling irritant discharge. The condition is really one of inflammation of the horn secreting (keratogenous) membrane of the frog, whereby a softened and degenerated horn is formed, instead of the tough elastic horn which is natural as a covering of the frog. The altered horn has a cheese-lilie consistency, lacks coherence, and can be easily scraped off with the thumb nail or any blunt instrument; in severe cases it rots off completely, leaving the vascular tissues exposed and raw, so that rough contact causes them to bleed and ulcerate. Thrush is an unsoundness, vide Barrett v. Preece, Shrewsbury County Court (Eng.), 1858. Causes. — The most potent cause of thrush is exposure of the frogs to filth and damp. Neglect to remove the " balling " of horse dung or soiled bedding, tan, or sawdust from the shod foot is a fruitful source. Such substances quickly undergo a moist fermentation, whereby solvent fluids are formed, which at first moisten the horn and destroy its texture, and afterwards penetrate and inflame the sul^iacent tissues. Hence horses kept in filthy stables are most liable to thrush, and the hind feet are more often affected than the fore, because of their more continuous liability to contact with urine and dung. Paring of the frogs by farriers doubtless acts as a predisposing cause, both because of the ex- posure of immature horn and the abolition of frog pressure. The per- nicious practice of " stopping " the feet with cow-dung or such like decomposable material is also responsible for many cases of thrush. Treatment. — Diseased or loose portions of horn should be removed, and the degenerated horn scraped off. Then some drying and disin- fectant dressing should be applied to the surface, and pressed into the fissures two or three times a day until the discharge ceases, and a healthy, natural-smelling horn growth is brought about. Calomel and powdered inirnt alum are useful agents for this puri)ose, or an antiseptic wound 8 Oct., 1907.] Diseases of Farm Aiii Dials. 637 powder may be used. A mixture of equal parts of tincture of myrrh and butyr of antimony is a good dressing in the first stages of treatment. Thorough cleanliness is essential tO' a cure, which should be brought about in most cases within a fortnight. In severe cases, with rawness of the sensitive structures and ulceration, the part will in the first instance need to be treated like an ordinary wound. Canker. This very intractable disease is a sub-acute inflammation of the horn secreting membrane of the .sode and frog, resulting in destruction of the texture of the formed horn, and in the formation of a soft cheesy -looking horn and fungoid granulations, from which exudes a foul -smelling, irri- tant, ichorous, and infective fluid. It is, in fact, an aggravated con- dition of Thrush, involving the whole of the ground surface of the foot, and is usually due to the same causes when acting intensely. The pro- gress of the disease is slow and insidious, and not accompanied by much pain, But it is very persistent and diflirult to cure. (See Fig. 104.) Fig. 104. Hoof affected with c inker. The disease has involved the frog and part of the sole at one heel and has extended to the coronet at the back. The diseased part is now a mass of spongy moist and foul smelling horn. (After Reeks.) Treatment. — The essential point in treatment is the removal of all diseased horn and tissue of any kind, even to the extent of stripping the sole off completely. Strong 'antiseptic dressings of such substances as creosote, calcium carbide or corrosive sublimate are sometimes employed with success. Caustics, such as bluestone (sulphate of copper), bichromate of potash, or caustic lime may be used, but they are seldoin in themselves permanently effective ; nor is the application of the hot iron. Such treat- ment needs to be accompanied by sole and frog pressure applied by means of carbolized tow packings, or in some other way. In this connexion the records of a case I treated with full success some years ago may be profitably quoted. 638 Journal of AgricuUure. [8 Oct., 1907. The first procedure was the removal of every particle of diseased horn witii the drawing knife, laying the horn serreting membrare bare all over. The paring of the diseased horn should lie commenced at the part of the foot most dependent when it is held up, so tliat the unavoidable bleeding will be below the part still to be operated on. If this simple plan is not adopted, the removal of all diseased growth, on which success almost entirely depends, will be a matter of considerable difficulty. The e.xposed surface, especially tlv clefts of the frog, was then dressed with liquified crystals of pure carbolic acid. The horse was then placed in a shallow foot bath of partially slaked lime, the consistence of thin paste, and al- lowed to stand in it fox from four to five hours daily for a week, his feet being dressed every alternate day wdth carbolic crystals. At the end nf this time it was noticed that those portions of the frog and sole which had received pressure were much less congested and swollen ; there was an absence of fungoid growths and cheesy horn, and the surfaces were har- dened over and healthy in appearance. On the other hand, the sides and bottom of the V-shaped cleft between the frog and sole, 00 wdiich no pressure had been exerted, were in almost as bad a state as ever, except that the foulness of the discharge was less marked, and evidently of a less irritant character. Taking the hint from this casual observation, it was speculated that the application of an even pressure toi every part of the affected surface would have a salutary effect. Accordingly, a set of bar shoes, dished so as to rest wholly on the snund wall, was made and ad- justed, the bar crossing from one heel to the other. The diseased surface having been thoroughly cleansed, painted with carbolic and dusted with zinc oxide, a plaster-of-Paris cast was run in level with the <:rround 8 Oct., 1907.] Diseases of Farm Animals. 639 surface of the shoe all round and allowed to set while the foot was being held up. This remained /;/ situ three days before being removed, the horse standing on tan bedding meanwhile. The decrease of the excessive vascularity of the exposed parts was satisfactory, and the pressure treat- ment was continued for two weeks — a half-and-half mixture of Portland cement and plaster-uf- Paris being substituted on account of the brittle- ness of the latter when used alone. The casts were removed everv three days and the soles dressed with an astringent and antiseptic powder (car- bolic crystals, zinc oxide, and calomel), and at each removal a gradual cessation of the fluid secretion and cheesy fungoid growths was evidenced. The soles and frogs dried up rapidly, and during the second week became covered with a dry layer of horny matter which seemed to be healthy and impervious to the slight discharge now issuing from the frog clefts. The astringent and antiseptic dressings were continued, and within a month the horse was put to work, and continued uuite sound, and without new development of either thrush or canker. Sand Crack. By the term "Sand Crack" is meant a crack or fissure in the wall of the hoof, running verticallv down from the coronet in the same direction as the horn tubes, and extending through to the laminae and sensitive structures. They usually occur on the inside quarters of the fore feet and at the centre of the toe in the hind feet. Horses with brittle or shelly "hoofs" are much disposed to sand cracks, and in that sense heredity is a j;ronounced predisposing cause, such hoofs if shod un- evenly, so that the pressure of body-weight is not equally distributed on all parts of the wall, sole, and frog, will readily crack during fast trot- ting 00 hard roads. Occasionally a sand crack is the result of a tread or injury at the coronet, whereby the proper formation of wall horn is in- terfered with. Horse-coper's tricks include the filling of sand crack with wax," putty, or other stopping, and showing the horse with mud-caked hoofs. Treatment. — If lameness is pronounced, poultices of bran or cold water bandages should l>e resorted to for a day oj ieed is advisable ? Answer. — No, not alone. You should give 2 parts pollard and x part bran with 20 per ■cent, of green food such as lucerne, lettuce, cat)bage, 6i;c., and at least f of an oz. of animal food to each hen daily. If given occasionally, a small quantity of boiled potato is good. Pro- vide plenty of grit and broken oyster shell and see that the water receptacles are daily refilled with fresh water and kept in the shade. Identification of Plants. — K.N. submits specimen, and states that a crop of rape sown by him has turned out a failure, but instead of the rape the weed forwarded has covered the paddock. The rape seed was obtained from a seedsman. Answer. — It is the Common Fumitory, Fumaria officinalis, L., a. cosmopolitan weed some- times grown in gardens. It is non-poisonous, but becomes troublesome if allowed to spread. It contains Fumaric acid and a bitter tonic principle, which gives an unpleasant flavour to the milk and butter of cows eating it, but it has no present medicinal value. It can be sup- jjressed by cultivation and frecjuent stirring. The seed are a little like those of rajie, and last some time in the soil. W.P. forwards specimen of a plant which is spreading over his land, and requests information concerning it. Answer. — It is the South African Wood Sorrel, Oxalis ccrnua, Thunb., and is a trouble- some weed, especially in sour land fairly rich in humus. Aeration, drainage, liming, good cultivation and rotation farming all aid in suppressing it. Direct eradication by poisons and hand methods is impossible. It would be advisable to at once plough the land and keep it fallowed and well stirred for a year, particularly during the dry, hot portion, as by that tiuic the seeds and perennial parts will be largely exhausted. After that the great thing is to keep the ground well covered with a leafy crop and the soil open and well stirred. Water from Arabic covered Roof. — R.G. inquires whether terra cotta Arabic applied to iron for cooling purposes will injuriously alTect the rain water used for drinking pur- poses. Answer. — The rain water caught off^ such a roof cannot be recommended owing to the liability of the Arabic acting as a collector of both germ and vegetable debris. This being washed off the roof by the rain and collected affects the water injuriously. Apart from this, the composition of Arabic is an objection to its use for covering roofs intended to catch water for domestic use. Selection of Ram. — H.C.F. writes, "I have a small number of two-tooth evvts by fiure Shropshire rams out of comeback and crossbred ewes. I would like to keep and iareed suitable breeding ewes from them, and, therefore, ask your advice regarding a ram." Answer. — This cross is a good one for the small breeder, especially so, if good round- shouldered crossbred ewes and good wool-cutters as well are selected and mated with good fleeced and shaped Shropshires. There is no way to maintain and improve it, only by using good shaped and fleeced Shropshire rams again, and as Shropshires are at low water mark it is possible now to get this class of ram at a reasonable price. To maintain the breed any ewes of ill shape, such as narrow forequarters and high shoulders, no matter how good the fleece, muh,t go; also any ewes not profitable wool-cutters, no matter how good the shape. The others, to Shropshire rams as mentioned, will throw specially good thrivers and good profitable wool-cutters, with a grade of wool always in demand. In practice none of the other breeds are so easily worked into a dual purpose sheep. A fair knowledge of selecting the ewe-lambs, and of buying the right shape of rams is indispensable to success. H.C.F.'s aim in keeping best ewes and improving each generation is what should be done far more than it is. I.EMON AND Orange Seeds. — F.D. asks what is the proper time and method of sowing lemon and orange seeds? Answer. — They are sown in late winter (in boxes or frames in cool regions) so that they burst into growth in early spring. Next, they are petted and grown under glass or in bush houses, or set out in nursery rows till grown large enough for either budding or grafting. One or the other of these processes has to be carried out if a fruitful tree of a specific type is desired since the seedling is not a transcript of its parent but distinct and usually inferior. Victoria is too cold for the successful raising of citrus trees — all our commercial stock coming from the more northern and warmer States. F.D. may raise plants from seed for purely decorative purposes, but should not attempt to raise fruit-bearing kinds in com- mercial quantities. ! Fattening Pigs. — W.T. inquires what fojd will give the best results in fattening pigs? Answer. — If potatoes are used, cook first and drain off the water; then mix with barley meal or pea meal. Give this to young pigs for, say, three months; then top up with dry peas, with [)lenty of clean water, in separate trough. If separated milk is used, be sure and fer- ment it first. When wheat or barley is available, crush and soak in milk or water ])rior to using. Pollard is not recommended when barley or pea meal can be obtained. Feeding Draught Horses. — F.J.W. asks the following questions : — (x) What is a fair quantity of oats per day for a draught horse doing constant work on a farm? {2) Will too much oats cause sore shoulders? (3) Does it improve the feed when the oats are damped or steeped ? Ansrver. — (i) From 8 to 10 lbs. per dav, but the amount depends largely upon the •fjuartv of the stufi^. (2) No. (3) Damped improves digestion; steeped does not. {Coiitimicd on back pa'^e.) ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS-com^.mW Blackleg. — J.J.H. writes : — " Several of our voung calves hnve died rather suddenly. Symptoms — in great pain, is prostrated, eyes becom." dull and nose dry, death occurrin ■ in a few hours. I have seen them take their evening meal, apparently quite well, and the follow- ing morning have found them dead. On -po t mortem, the bladder contains urine red like blood, sometimes almost black, and the kidnevs have a dark appearance on the outside." Answer. — The symptoms suggest Blackleg, which is incurable, but may be prevented from spreading by inoculation with " Blacklegoids " or " Blacklegine " and attention to sanita tion. See article in the Journal for July, r9o6. Swollen Udder. — Inquirer states that he has a heifer with first calf that has had a swollen udder since calving. Although it is very hot, inflamed, and hard the milk comes easily. Answer. — Gentle massage with castor oil will reduce the swelling, which, as the milk is not altered in character, is not a serious symptom. Pimples on Stallion. — Minyip writes : — " I have a stallion, on whose body there are a lot of pimples or small boils, which appear to be itchy- He has the run of about half an acre, and his feed consists of oaten chaff, oats, and bran, with occasional carrots and molasses and hay." Answer. — Give Epsom Salts i oz., Bi-carbonate of Potash 5 oz., Sulphate of Iron 2drs., Gentian 2 drs., twice a day in damp feed. Food should be of cooling variety — not too much oats or barley. Rubbing a mixture of equal parts of methylated spirits and castor oil into the irritable parts will be useful. Stiffness in Hind Legs. — A.B. writes : — " I have a 3-year-old filly, which has been broken into farm work. When in the paddock she suffers from stiffness in the hind legs, cannot lift one leg, goes over on the fetlock, and drags the ground. Sometimes both legs are affected and she is unable to walk for half an hour. She is perfectly healthy, works well, and never refuses food." Answer. — The symptoms are those of some interference with the action of the hock. An examination is necessary to decide both the exact cause and treatment. She may grow out of it as she becomes older. Fluke. — W.Mc. states that he cannot get his sheep to lick the salt or sulphate of iron, and asks whether one can do any good with drenching with a bottle, using salt and sulphate of iron dissolved in water. He also asks whether any other treatment is recommended. A7iswer. — Try the following : — Sulphate of iron 2 lbs., phosphate of lime i lb., aniseed I lb. A dessertspoonful twice a day is a dose, and may be given in a little bran. If not taken, drenching may be tried. If these methods are unsuccessful it is suggested that sowing pure coarse salt (as one would sow grain) on the grass for a few chains around the lick should be tried ; it may educate them up to it. Death of Horses. — P.B. writes: — "Two of my horses have died. I made a fast viprtem^ and foimd all the lining off the stomach. That was the only part that appeared to- be affected, the heart, liver, kidneys and bladder being normal. The horses were fed on steamed chaff and bran mash for about fourteen days previously, and all the unexpelled manure seemed fermented. They ate well until about twelve hours of their decease." Answer. — The mucous membrane of the stomach of the horse in a healthy state has the appearance of being "eaten away" (ulcerated). Half of the membrane is white and raised, the remainder being pink and soft and below the white area, so the condition mentioned does not depart from the normal and some other cause must be ascribed — possibly simple coli( ^rom indigestion. Bog Spavin. — S.L.C. writes : — " In the case of Bog Spavin, would there be any danger if a fine needle were inserted in the enlargement so as to reduce it?" Answer. — Yes, there would be great danger. In the hands of a sur'^eon the fluid could' be drawn off with a needle, but the result is not satisfactory, the sac filling up again. Clearing Land. — Young Farmer (Dandenong) is clearing a paddock of rather poor land, and would like to know whether it would be better to plough it and let it remain fallow until next spring or crop it now. He also inquires what is a good mixture of grasses ta make a permanent pasture as the land will be used for grazing. ^w^wer.— Fallowing is advised. Let the ground lie idle throughout the summer, and about April next work it up well and sow a /nixture of cocksfoot, rye, and clover. One cwt. of superphosphate per acre would insure a good early growth of the grass. DOOKIE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. The College offers every facility to students to become competent agriculturists, vignerons,. and dair3'men. The ^vork is carried out on a large commercial scale, the ploughing, drilling, manuring, harvesting, threshing, and shearing beinc'done by students under competent instructors. Over 2,000 sheep and lambs, 150 head cattle, 50 ho'-ses, including stallion, are on the farm. Fees — £28 5s. ])er annum. LONGERENONG AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. One aim of this institution is to fill in the gap between the State School and Dookie, i.e., to- take students between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years. The farm contains an area of 2,386 acres, and is admirabl^'^ adapted for demonstrating what can be done in farming with irrigation. There is a large area of the farm under cultivation, and the orchard and vinej'ard cover an area of 30 acres. Fees — Resident, £18 5s. per annum ; Non-resident, £5 per annum. Applications to attend either of the above Colleges should be forwarded to the Secretary of the Council of Agricultural Education, Public Offices, Melbourne. Copy of Prospectus of either College will be posted on receipt of post-card. VITICULTURE IN EUROPE. Vol. V. INSECT PESTS IN FOREIGN LANDS, part li. [Registered at the General Post Office, Melbourne, for transmission by Post as a Newspaper.] SUMMER FODDER CROPS SHOULD BE PLANTED AT ONCE. Sow thinly in drills at least 3 feet apart, and keep well cultivated throughout the Summer. MAIZE ... ... ... 20 to 28 lbs. per acre. JAPANESE MILLET | SORGHUM, AMBER CANeJ^ *° ^° ^^"- ^^^ ^^^^• PUMPKINS ... ... 3 seeds in hills 10 feet apart. PRICE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subscription— Vicioria, Inter-State, and N,Z., 3/-; British and Foreign, 5,-.) THE JOUI^NAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 8 NOA^EMBER, IQOT'. CONTENTS. PAGE Diseases of Farm Animals — Diseases of the Foot (continued) ... ... ... jS^. >S'. Cameron ... 641 Potato Experimental Fields. — Imported Varieties ... G. Seymour ... 649 Description of Apples — Scarlet Nonpareil ... ... J. Lanrj ... 654 Artificial Manures Acts — .Supplementary List of Unit Values of Maimres, ] 907 W. P. Wilkinson ... 655 Lisf, siiovving Results of Analyses of Samples collected in the Stale of Victoria ... ... ... W. P. Wilkinson ... 656 Closer Settlement Studies — A Suhurhan Dairy Farm ... ... ... J. M. B.Connor ... 660 Foul Krood of Bees ... ... ... ... ... R. Beahne ... 664 Rape and Fodder Crops for Lamb-raising ... ... H. W. Ham ... 667 < harden Notes— The Lily ... ... ... ... J. Cronin ... 669 Farm Reports — Wyuna Irrigation Farm ... ... ... ... G. II. Tolley ... 673 Heytcshury Farm ... ... ... ... ... 0. H. Call ... 675 Notice to IiDiJorters, Manufacturers, Vendors, and Dealers in Artificial Manures ... ... ... ... ... 675 Egg Production and Cool Storage ... ... ... H. V. Hanihins ... 676 The Silver Dorking ... ... ... ... ... H. V. Hawkins ... 677 The Proclaimed Plants of Victoria — The Ragwort A. J. EwartandJ. R. Tovey ... 680 The Orchard ... ... ... ... ... ... /. Lang ... 681 Insect Pests in Foreign Lands ... ... ... ... W. W. Froygatt ... 682 The Elements of Animal Physiology — X. — Digestion and Absorption ... ... ... W. A. Osborne ... 686 First Progress Report on Viticulture in Europe ... ... F. de Castella ... 694 Scale of Charges, Uovernment Cool Stores ... ... ... ... 698 An Exhibit of Farm Products ... ... ... ... T. Cherry ... 701 Pure Lactic Acid Culture for Ripening Cream ... ... R. Crowe ... 702 Statistics — Rainfall in Victoria ... .. ... ... P. Baracchi ... 703 Exports of Frozen and Perishable Produce ... ... R. Croive ... 704 Imports and P'xports of Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, Grain, &c. J. G. Turner ... 704 Journal of Agricidtwre — Copyright Provisions and Subscription Rates inside front cover An.swers to Correspondents ... ... ... ... inside back cover REGISTERED UNDER THE COPYRIGHT ACT 1890. SECTION 21. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wi.shing to republish any matter contained in the Journal are at liberty to do so, provided the usual acknowledgment is made. The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is paj'able in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy Threepence. A limited number of the issues comprising Volumes II. (1903-4), III. (1905) — 10 parts each— and Volume IV. (1906)— 12 parts— is at present in stock, and will be supplied at the foregoing rates. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne. THe JOURNAL OP ^f[Q department of M^ncufture. Vol. V. Part 11. 8th November, 1907. DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS. S. S. Cameron, M .R.C.V.S., CJiief Veterinary Oificer. DISEASES OF THE FOOT. {Continued from page 640.) Seedy Toe. LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN. Seedy toe is the name given to the formation of per\-erted horn at the union of the sole and wall on the under surface of the toe. It may spread round towards the quarters and heels and upwards towards the coronet. The horn appears structureless, soft, powdery, and easily scraped awav. Figs. 109 and no. Seedy toe. Vertical and transverse sections of loot, showin< f"^ the horn fibres [a] separated from the horn laminae. (After Axe , ^ The Cause is somewhat obscure and has been ascribed to the attack Q^ of a parasite ; but the condition frequently follows on an attack of laminitis C\) and doubtless is occasionally also caused by the pressure of an over tight toe clip. d 12469. X 642 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Nov., 1907. Treatment comprises the remo\al of all the perverted horn and the application to the part of a dressing of tar or mixture of Venice turpentine and lard. False Quarter. This is a condition of the hoof in which portion of the wall is com- posed of weakened or improperly formed horn. It results from cessation of horn secretion at the coronet, the crumblv horn covering the part affected being derived principally from the sensitive laminseL It is caused usually by a severe injury to the coronary band, such as may result from a tread or " quittor. '' Tieatment is not usually successful in completely restoring the nor- mal horn growth. Blistering with fly-blister at intervals is most likely to effect this. Pricked Foot. Pricking of the sensitive structures of the foot is a comparatively fre- quent occurrence when horses are being shod by careless or unskilful farriers. The "quick" may be actually penetrated or the nail may be merely driven close to it. In both cases pain and lameness may be shown either immediately or in the course of a day ot two. In cases where the pain is associated with the foTmation of jjus (matter) the development of lameness may be deferred for a fortnight or more ; so that it is not safe tO' elimn^iate a pricked hoof as a cause of lameness even when a consider- able time has elapsed since shoeing. " The injury done by ' drawn nails ' is generally more serious and always mort- difficult of detection and treat- ment than when the offending nail has been left m. A 'drawn nail ' is the term used to denote a nail which, in the first instance has been driven \w a wrong direction (inwards) and then removed." — {Hayes.) The discovery that lameness is due to a prick often requires most care- ful exammation. Tapping with a hammer on the clinches or on the ground surface of the shoe and applying the pincers to the crust and sole m the region of the nails, may cause flinching. On removal of the shoe the nails should be examined to see if any one is wet or stained with blood or pus. Sometimes a little pus will ooze out of the nail hole follow- ing the drawing of the nail, or the nail hole may be stained. Increased heat may sometimes be felt on the pricked side. Treatment. — In all cases, but especially when there is suspicion of the formation of pus, the puncture should be pared out by following up the track with a drawing knife or searcher. This is necessary in order that any pus which may form or has formed ma}- be allowed to escape. If tne pus is kept imprisoned (and it cannot penetrate horn) it will, as It increases in amount, be forced upwards through the soft tissues enclosed by the horny box until it reaches the coronet where it will " break out " and very likely form a " nuittor " or fistula. On giving the pus " vent " through a channel pared in the horn, the part mav be dressed with a wound lotion, and the hole lightly plugged with carbolized tow. When tlie pain is great, indicating suppuration, poultices may be applied for a (lay or two, or until obvious relief is given. Foot Wounds. Wounds of the .sole and frog, otlier tlian pricks in shoeing, are usuallv caused by " gathered nails," sharp stones, brokesi glass or slates, wood 8 Nov., 1907.] Disrasis of Far/// A//////als. 643 splinters, and iron pegs. Sometimes tlie wound may penetrate to the bone or into tlie coffin joint, in either of which cases the results may be very serious, because of the hindrance to exit of pus and foreign matters caused by the closure of the wound in the elastic horn. The principles of treatment to be followed, after removing anv foreign body, and cutting an efficient exit opening in the horn, are the same as those indicated for pricks. Quittor. Quittor or fistula of the coronet is one of the most grave affections of the foot. In the early stages it partakes of the nature of an abscess situated on the coronet, but the contained pus is prevented from being evacuated completely on account of the hard unyielding horn which forms part of the wall of the abscess. Fluids cannot get discharged upwards ; they remain imprisoned and act as irritants producing extension of the inflammation ; so that, later on, the abscess, at first soft and fluctuating, becomes hard and much increased in size ; openings, from which a little pus exudes, may form at different parts, and these are connected with pus canals running through the mass of tissue and deep down into the soft structures of the foot. The lateral cartilages may become involved in the inflammatory process and a hard swelling of considerable size becomes established on the coronet. Causes. — As previously stated, quittors often result from neglected pricks in shoeing. Thev may also result from any womid in the foot from Avhich pus cannot escape through the horn. As a direct cause, injuries to the coronet, such as may be inflicted by "tread," over-reaching or external violence of anv kind, mav be mentioned. Fig. III. Hoof affected with mild "quittor," showing fistulous openings at coronet, from which discharge is issuing. Treatment. — Nothing short of bold surgery can insure success in treatment. Sometimes blistering the surface of the quittor, and nitroducing caustics such as arsenic and corrosive sublimate into the sinuses or canals, may effect a cure; but. as a rule, time is only lost bv the adoption of such methods. It is, in most cases of well established quittor, the safest and (luickest plan to excise the whole mass of diseased 644 Journal of Agncidtiire. [8 Nov., 1907. tissue, and so form an open wound with healthy tissue surfaces, which may be treated in the ordinary way. It may be necessary to make an opening through the horn, either of the sole or wall, to meet the wound made by the excision superiorly, so that efficient drainage may be insured. Care must be taken in performing the operation that the coronary band is not cut away ; as if this is done, there will be no subsequent formation of wall horn. FOOTROT IN SHEEP. Nature of the Disease. After nearly a centurv of discussion, experimentation, and investiga- tion engaged in by a host of world-renowned scientific and practical men, the conclusion has now been arrived at that there are three forms of foot- rot, viz. : — (i) Simple footrot, the ordinary widespread non-contagious form; (2) contagious foot eczema, or eczema epizootica, the "mal de pied'' of the French ; and (3) infiammation of the inter digital duct. Such a con- clusion is satisfactory, and may be taken as settling the question of the contagiousness or non-contagiousness of footrot, about which so much con- troversy has centred. It seemed inexplicable that such keen observers as Youatt and Fleming, on the one hand, should pin their faith to its con- tagiousness, and that equally shrewd and experienced investigators like Dick and Williams should be convinced of its non-contagiousness. The former were swayed largely by their knowledge of the evidence of the contagiousness of a similar disease in France, where it is now known that contagious eczema of the feet of sheep, sO' closely identical in its symptoms and effects with simple footrot, is verv rampant. The issue was cloudeil somewhat by the fact that sheep suffer sometimes from the " foot and mouth disease " of cattle, and doubtless at times this extremely contagious disease was mistaken for footrot. The first correct note, as foreshadowing a reconciliation of the diverse views that were held, was struck by Spooner, who considered the opinion that the disease was always, or even generally, contagious to be undoubtedly erroneous, but who stated his conviction that some outbreaks that he had experience of could not be explained other- wise than by contagion. Later on. Brown, who followed by researches which established the fact of the contagious nature of one form of disease, stated that this virulent form of footrot, recognised generallv on the continents of Europe and America, was not often observed in England. Hogg, the Ettrick shepherd, when he recorded that he had known simple driving of a flock o\er a particular farm cause footrot in the flock, must have encountered the contagious eczema and mistaken it for simple footrot. Similarly, it is likely that those outbreaks of so-called footrot which have been recorded at different times in Australia — particularly the Queensland outbreaks in the early nineties — and of which there is abundant proof of contagiousness, were in reality a visitation of the contagious foot eczema, which is closely allied to the contagious " foot and mouth disease " of cattle, but which possesses anatomical and other features whereby it may be comparatively easily distinguished from the more common and ordinary kind of footrot that is the bane of some localities in all seasons, and of additional localities in some seasons. It will be seen later that it is only in the first stages that the two diseases can be accurately distinguished, and that when established the lesions produced are practically alike. ?. Nov., 1907.] Diseases of Farm Animals. 645 Colour has been lent to the arguments of those theorists who hold that all footrot is contagious by the circumstance that the disease occurs epi- zootically ; that is, it affects a large number of sheep simultaneously or successively, but such occurrence is in many instances satisfactorily accounted for h\ the fact that the whole flock is placed under similar operating causes. The disease being contracted by sound sheep on being introduced amongst affected sheep proves nothing more than that what will act as a cause in one sheep will also act as a cause in others that may be exposed to it. Finally, in these days of germs and germ-seekers the absence ■of any positive evidence of bacterial causation is significant, for it is now necessary, when claiming a specific or contagious character for a disease, to affirm its bacterial nature by incontrovertible proof, and as regards the ordinary footrot this has not been done. Simple Footrot. Simple footrot can only, then, be considered contagious in the false sense that a septic wound or running sore may be contagious ; that is, the caustic discharges and horn scales from affected sheep, by being trampled and paddled upon by other sheep, and so brought in contact with the soft, tender horn between the toes (perhaps already inflamed and sore), may •cause such irritation as will serve to set up inflammation of a character which, fostered by the natural dirtiness of the situation, develops into footrot. While not at all likely to terminate fatally, footrot is, nevertheless, a source of heavy monetary losses to pastoralists, in that the pain and irrita- tive fever which accompany moderatively severe cases prevent that' rapid growth and thriving condition which are essential to profitable sheep culture. The fleece suffers from the unthriftiness, and fattening is tardy for the same reason, and also because there is disinclination to " forage " for the best " picking." Nature and Causes. — Footrot is essentially an inflammation of the tissues of the foot subjacent to the horn, varying in intensity from a mere erosion or sore to a sloughing ulceration, and caused by an injury of some kind. It is often primarily caused by a softening of the horn of the feet, particularly that thin and naturally tender horn on the inner aspect of the claws, whereby it becomes greatly more prone to injury of any kind. It is hence particularly prevalent in low-lying, marshy, or undrained situa- tions, where the feet are Likely to be kept continuously soft and spongy. When in this state the slightest injury from rough grass, stubble, stones, -or uneven ground, soon becomes a sore, and through inoculation with dirt and decomposing organic debris, ulceration and under-running of the horn with matter quickly follow. Footrot is also met with in sheep grazing on high, gravellv land, or which have travelled long distances over hard ground, and in these cases the disease is simply an extension of footsore- ness. Again, when found on loose, sandy soils its occurrence is due to the fact that on these soils there is little wear of the horn ; the claws be- come long and overgrown, and subsequently mechanically inflamed. As a general rule, the disease prevails most on moist land in wet weather, and on dry land in dry weather. Symptoms. — Lameness or apparent difficulty in walking and frequent inchnation to rest are first noticed ; in a few days the hobbling, painful gait is accentuated, ana the sheep begins to fall away in condition and assume a lank appearance. On examination the affected feet will be found 646 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Nov., 1907. to be hot ana painful when pressed, and a moist, foul-smelling discharge will be noticed between the claws, the thin horn on the inner sides being swollen, i^ater on the soft tissues above and around the foot will become swollen and inflamed, and a strong pulse may be felt in the region ; the discharge between the claws increases and becomes purulent (mattery) ; tne horn becomes crumbly and disintegrated, being eaten away, as it were, by a kind of dry rot process, and the sore may spread until the whole of the side and under-surface of the claws becomes involved in the ulceration. J. he sensitive blood-vascular laminas which secrete the horn are by this time exposed, and may produce fungus-like gro\\ths (proud flesh, really) which bleed on the slightest touch, so forming along with the offensive discharge a soft scab, which rubs off easilv. By this time the sheep has no inclination to walk; it " scrafiles " along on its knees or belly according Fii,r. 112. Footroot in early stage, showing disease commencing between the claws. (After Armatage.) r'ig. 113. Advanced footrot, showing growth of spongy horn. (After Arma- tacre.) as the fore or hind feet are affected, and, partly from want of food and partly from febrile pain, soon becomes a lean, pitiable object. In extreme cases the claws mav be shed, but as a rule, with reasonable care and treat- ment, the more serious of the conditions above described are not ex- perienced. Treatment. — The object of treatment is primarily to render the parts clean and sweet, and keep them so by destroying the septic germs which are responsible for the spreading ulceration and irritating discharges, then to allay irritation, and finally to promote a healthy horn growth. To euect this it will be necessary that, whatever application is used, it should be given a chance to get at the innermost and uttermost ramifications of the ulceration where tne festering germs are, and consequently the rough-and- ready method adopted on some stations of depending solely on foot-baths is often ineffective. It may do in the early stages when the disease has not under-run the horn, but if such has oxurred all loose and under-run 8 Nov., 1907.] ■ Diseases of Farm Animals. 647 horn requires to be pared away, otherwise the medicament cannot reach the seat of the operations of the germs which it is intended to destroy. Various agents have been used with success in treating footrot — butyr of antimony, nitric acid, creosote, carbolic acid, arsenic, and many others. These are all antiseptic and caustic in their action, and perhaps the most consistently successful of them is butyr of antimony, which, when mixed with an equal proportion of tincture of myrrh, forms a first-rate footrot lotion to De kept in stock. This or other fluid dressing should be applied to the affected parts with a feather or brush, so that the adjacent skin is not needlessly burnt. When footrot has become established in a flock the treatment should be prompt, methodical, and thorough if heavy monetary loss is to be avoided. The flock should be yarded, and all sheep showing the slightest halting or lameness should be caught and turned, their feet examined, and the necessary paring, to expose the sores and shape the claws, cleanly and tlioroughly done. To be on the safe side the whole flock should be gone through in this way once at least, if practicable. The sheep should then be turned directly into a race foot-bath, about 10 or 15 feet long, and allowed to pass loiteringly through on to dry ground. An arsenic solution is generally used for the bath, and it is effective if the paring has been sufficiently thorough. It is made by boiling together 2 lbs. of white arsenic and 3 lbs. of carbonate of potash (or 4 lbs. of washing soda) in 14 gallons of water until all the arsenic is dissolved. The solution is placed in the bath to a depth of 2 inches, and replenished as required. The procedure may require to be repeated two or three times, at intervals of a fortnight, ivecentlv I had occasion to suggest a line of tieatment for a footrotted flock, and a solution of formalin as a foot-bath, followed by paddling on quicklime, was adopted wdth great success. Schering's formalin was used in the proportion of i to 50 of w'ater (5 lbs. of formalin, costing 8s., to 25 gallons of cold w^ater), and the sheep were passed from the foot-bath along a wooden platform on to the hard floor of a woolshed, which had been covered to a depth of about an inch with powdered quicklime. On this the sheep were allowed to paddle for an hour or two. and when turned out on to a dry, bare paddock they carried with them caked on the diseased feet, a packing of antiseptic and caustic quicklime, which so promoted healing that it was only necessary to repeat the procedure once again at the end of ten days. Special Treatment wdll require to be adopted in the case of individual sheep badlv affected. After paring and cleansing, the raw surfaces should be cauterized with burnt alum nitrate of silver (lunar caustic), or bluestone, or chromic acid, to reduce the soft, fungoid growths and to stimulate the formation of healthv horn. Thev should then be given a dressing with Stockholm tar, whicli, in addition to being antiseptic, forms an adhesive covering to protect the sores ; in manv cases it is ad\-isable to protect the dressed feet from dirt and air by bandaging, or applying a specially made " stool," to be tied on with tapes, and which will also help to keep the dressings in position. As improvement takes place the abo\-e strong caustics should be discontinued, and the milder stock lotion previously mentioned applied. It must be borne in mind that treating the disea.se without removing the conditions which promote it will alwavs be unsatisfactory. A chang2 of I)asturage, whether from wet, l>oggv land, or from soft fir gra\-ellv country, according as each mav have l>een in use, is always advisable. 648 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Nov., 1907.. Contagious Foot Eczema. The differential diagnosis of this affection from simple footrot can onl) be made in the early stages, and depends upon observation of the starting, place of the disease. In this disease the first tenderness, heat, and swelling occurs round the coronet at the junction of the horn and skin. This is followed by the formation of a ring of soft, spongy, crumbly horn near the coronet, and the disease then spreads to between the claws and other parts of the foot. From this out, mainly on account of the parts becoming infected with dirt or septic matter from the ground, the progress of the disease and the appearances and symptoms resemble ordinary footrot, except that there is usually more swelling of the tissues above the claws, and there is a tendency for the claws to slough off. The local treatment for the affection should be the same as that advised for simple footrot, but the stronger caustics are not usually required. Inflammation of the Inter-digital Duct. Situated in the skin between and just above the claws in front is the opening of a duct, called the inter-digital or inter-ungulate duct, which leads from a small gland situated between the pastern bones. The gland secretes a semi-solid oily substance of a greenish opalescent hue, which is conveyed by the duct and is discharged on to the delicate skin and horn Fig. 114. Foot of sheep. The opening of the inter-digital duct is marked at [a].- (After Armatage.) between the claws, which are thereby lubricated and protected from wet and dirt and friction. On soft, clayey land, and on gravelly land, the duct opening is liable to become blocked with mud or grit, and two untoward results may follow — the tender skin and horn, being unprotected, may become dry, irritated, and inflamed, and the duct itself may become inflamed by the irritation of the foreign body blocking it. In either or in both of these events the inflammation soon involves the soft structures- beneath the horn, and, again from inoculation with septic matter and dirt, the sequence of all the progressive stages of footrot may be commenced. When blocking or inflammation of the duct is observed in the earlv stages, the cutting away of the blocked portion or the slitting of the duct and removal of the foreign body will usually result in recoverv. Otherwise the- treatment to be followed is that previously outlined. ■S Nov., 1907.] Potato Experimental Fields. 649 FOUL-IN-THE-FOOT OF CATTLE. This is a disease of liie feet of large cattle resembling ver\ much foot- rot in sheep. It is induced largely by the softening of the' horn of the claws, resulting from standing continuously in manure and filth, such as frequently happens in ill-kept byres, where cattle are kept housed, as in Northern countries, during the winter months. In Australia, where cattle are for the most part kept continuously at pasture, and only housed at milking time, the disease is rare. The treatment requires to be on lines identical with those recommended for footrot in sheep. POTATO EXPERIMENTAL FIELDS. Imported Varieties. George Seymour, Potato Expert. In submitting the following report on the varieties of potatoes im- ported by the Department of Agriculture, from Messrs. William Davie and Co., potato growers and .seedsmen, Haddington, Scotland, it should bt mentioned that the whole parcel was composed of white-skinned varieties only one having any distinguishing marks, viz. — King Edward VII., which is tinged with pink at the eyes and crown ends. This parcel of seed con- sisted of 25 varieties, and arrived in Melbourne early in February, 1905. The potatoes were planted as an autumn crop by the following growers in the Metropolitan area, viz. : — Messrs. H. Brown (Mordialloc), Clement i^Ormond), and Kitchen (Glen Huntly) ; and in the country districts by Messrs. W. Crowe (Koroit), W. Goldie (Port Fairy), and John Newton (Kingston). The produce of these plots was planted the following spring at Mrs. Bland's (Yarram), and Mr. Hill's (lona). Both plots met with adverse weather conditions, the yield in each place teing very light. (See Journal for August, 1906.) The seed obtained from the Yarram and lona plots was planted in November, 1906, on my farm at Romsev. Yields are included in the table on page 654. The produce of the 1907 crop has been distributed in 28-lb. parcels, containing four \arieties (7 lbs. of each). In this way the different varieties have been widely distributed throughout the State, and it is hoped that every grower will furnish the Department with particulars of the results obtained bv him, and state which varieties are best suited to his particular district. The whole of the varieties have been planted at the Agricultural High Schools at Sale and Warrnambool, and further opportunities of ascertaining their respective merits will thereby be afforded. None of the varieties can be considered superior in quality to many of the old sorts grown in Victoria in the past. This may be accounted for in a measure by the fact that the potato^ most in demand in the old country is the one that resists disease ; this means robustness of habit which is often accompanied by a lower quality of tuber. The varieties most likely to find a place among those already grown in this State are Warrior, The Factor, Table Talk, Scottish Triumph, Main Crop, British Queen, Sir John Llewellvn, Roval Kidney, and Duke of 'Rothesay. Many of the varieties spoken of highly in Great Britain do not seem suited to this climate. Some of the seed was in a wasted condition when 650 Journal of Agricnliiire. [8 Nov., 1907 receivea, and did not crop well the first season. In spite of every care, three have dropped entirelv out of the list, viz. : — Diamond, World's Fair, and Foundling. The first year's produce was as follows : — Diamond, 2 lbs.. World's Fair, 1 lb., Foundling, 4 lbs. ; in 1905, these were planted i Mr. Hill's plot at lona, with no better results, and last season I planted them in my garden, with the result that the two first mentioned failed completely, whilst the Foundling produced a few small tubers. After arrival, five or six tubers of each variety were placed by Mr. Knight in a cool chamber, and kept at a temperature of 40 degrees ; some of these have shown considerable vitality, having been upwards of nine months in the chamber when handed over to me. They were planted on 24th November, 1905, and nine out of twenty-five varieties grew. The following results show that Early Puritan, Duke of Rothesay, and General Kitchener were the onlv early ones to survive. No No Name. of sets of sets Keinaiks. planted. that grew . Early Puritan 3 1 Few very small tubers; plant good Duke of Rothesay 5 1 Six nice even-sized tubers Scottish Triumph 6 1 Plants strong ; very good tubers Table Talk 2 0 Very good ; strong plant S^ ■aj in in ■a _ 0 -g"" 0 2 £ ^s zi H 3 1)"" a Co 0 0 c a r 0 ■po°^ It) « - M-*^ g5 35 CO to 00 CLi D a to (^ S =s CO 06 1-1 ^•9§o£ •a Ol 0 •!§:-§ 1« CO 0 L.O w 0 0 « po°^1 trt z S » 3 wi 00 CM S =« 01 ^ ■=^ i^gs, CO S 5 c^ g ^ '^ CO ■53 ■s> ■^ 0 •?* J^ -«: 0 ^ 3 ft, a H? 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[8 Nov., 1907. CLOSER SETTLEMENT STUDIES. A Suburban Dairy Farm. /. M . B. Connor, Dairx Supervisor. Business ability amongst farmers in general, and producers of specialities in particular, is more common than is generally recognised. This has been demonstrated again and again in the successful manage- ment of small areas, where intense cultivation has been thoroughly gone in for, and a systematic rotation of fodder crops grown and maintained on strictly business lines, the underlying principles of the work undertaken being always borne in mind. The feeling amongst small holders in favour of intense cultivation is rapidly gaining ground, the system having already accomplished more than has been claimed for it, as shown bv the handsome returns obtained from the small area described in this article. (,i:M;K.\L \ ii'.w (Ji I ill. ill ii.iiixc;. Small grazing paddock and siielier slied in foreground. The " farm " in question has an area of about two acres, and is owned and cultivated by Mr. W. F. Darke, of Church-street, Richmond, an enthusiastic and practical worker, who does not spare himself when there is any work to be done. His methods are plain and simple, no expensive tools are used, and in fact no effort is made for the mere sake of appearance. His accounts are kept in two books, an expense book and a sales book. The former contains a complete record of both household and farm expenses, and the latter records all sales from produce of cows, orchard, and poultry yard ; giving in each instance the date of the transaction ana the price obtained. These accounts are balanced from time to time, and are closed at the end of the year. It is an effective system for keeping an account of the income and expenditure without much trouble. Everything sold from the farm is credited to it, and everything paid out in any way in its management is charged against it. The 8 Nov., 1907.] Closer Settlement Studies. 661 advantage gained by the system adopted by Mr. Darke lies in the fact that it shows exactly the returns not only from the farm but also from each particular crop or product, and it is a very valuable record to have on a small farm especially in the case of mixed farming where saleable pro- ducts are numerous and diverse. A careful record of the year's work might show that several of the cows were expensive luxuries and that some crops were being grown at a loss. The two acres of land under review are subdivided into five small paddocks varying in size from less than a quarter of an acre to one acre in extent. Half an acre is laid out with profitable fruit trees, the space between the rows being utilized in growing fodder crops. Each paddock is provided with an adequate water supply. The crops grown on the tarm, with the purchased foodstuffs to the extent stated below, have maintained three rows, one hundred fowls, twenty ducks, returning ^100 I2S. 5d. as the year's income, i.e. over .^50 per acre, in addition to the produce used b\ the household. Receipts. Exfenditure. Milk • .£9i 6 8 Purchased foodstuffs • i.15 Poultrv 21 3 3 Casual labour 2 Fruit 326 ^117 12 _5 ^17 How THE Land is worked. The satisfactory result mentioned has been brought about by always having abundance of green nutritious fodder crops growing for the cows, irrespective of the seasons, by means of intense cultivation, rotation of crops and a plentiful supply of water. The crops grown in season are as follow, viz. : — Maize, sorghum, barley, oats and tares, or mixed oats and barley, mangolds, sugar beet, potatoes, and vegetables. In addition there are permanent plots of clover, prairie grass, and English grasses. Mr. Darke believes tliat a combination of barley sown with oats or tares produces a heavier forage crop than anything else that can be grown for early consumption. Owing to the difference of habit of growth in point of quickness of growth and stooling properties, the barley matures more rapidly, and provides the greatest bulk of feed the earliest; the oat crop comes on later and stools out freely, not only prolonging the feeding period but having the additional advantage of providing an appetising change in food. Mr. Darke is satisfied from experience that a crop of oats or barley mixed with peas or tares provides a heavy yielding crop in well balanced proportions as a general ration for producing milk and at the same time keeping the cows in good heart and condition. The land is heavily manured at a trifling cost and brought to a high state of fertility by the following system : — Last year in the way of manure, besides what was made by his own cows, eight loads of wood siftings (from the local wood siding), delivered at one shilling per load were bought. These were all sieved by Mr. Darke and put into two heaps, wood chips which were used for household use and wood dust which was daily sprinkled thickly under the fowl roosts and cleaned out every morning with the fowl droppings and put into a heap with the cleanings from the cow bail. A few cartloads of elm leaves gathered from the streets were packed and allowed to rot and form leaf mould; a couple 662 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Nov., 1907. of loads of sand and a few loads of street sweepings were also secured, the whole, with the exception of the wood refuse costing nothing but his own labour. The various manures were all well mixed before being used. The land was then thoroughly trenched to a depth of eighteen inches, and given a heavv dressing of manure in the trench prior to sowing the respective crops. Barley and tares are sown early in February and watered, the oat crops in March, April, and May. No further sowing is undertaken until August when maize, mangolds, and sugar beet are sown, and as soon as one crop is harvested another is put in, two- crops being taken off the same land each vear. The last crop of maize was sown during January, and lasted until the winter. The grass plots are cut three times yearly, during the autumn, winter, and spring, and are top-dressed with manure between each cutting. The crops are all forced when requirerl by water with sprinklers, and the expense is nil, as the quantity used is kept within the rating limit. How THE Cows ARE MANAGED. The three cows now in milk are of no particular breed, being a cross hf'twtn^n the A\rshire nnd Jorscv straitis : the\- were- bought for ^30, and IN PLEASANl are never allowed off the premises. Wiien freshly calved thev yield from twelve to fourteen quarts of milk each, dailv, and average twenty quarts aaily during the milking season of ten months. The whole of the milk is sold at 4d. per quart. The cows are not allowed to become in calf ■until they have been milking for at least three months; then thev are milked for seven months and turned out for two months before again calving, thereby keeping them in profit for ten months of the vear. Bv this means the owner finds he has onlv to sell and replace his cows about every three years, a good deal depending on the age of the cow. They are fed at regular intervals four times daily, during milking hours and at II a.m. and 9 p.m. respectively. On one day each week, thev receive one kerosene tinful of 1 oiled potato skins (thrown away by most people) 8 Nov. 907.] Closer Scttlciiieiit Studies. 663 mixed with one bucketful of brewers' grain, the same quantity of chaff, and two dippersful of bran, divided equally amongst the three cows. For the balance of the week the fodder consumed is i bag of chaff, costing 2S. 6d. per bag, 2 bags of brewers' grains, costing is. 6d. per bag, 3 bushels of bran, costing 8d. per bushel. The amount of feed purchased varies during the year according to the supply of other fodders grown under intense cultivation, but the total cost of outside feed does not exceed 7s. 6d. per week, and then only for short portions of the year. The grasses are cut three times each year, and until thev have wilted in the sunshine for a few hours, are never fed to the cows ; this precaution is adopted to avoid any fear of the cows bloating. Half an hour each day they are allowed to graze in one of the small grass paddocks, and are then turned back into a nicely sheltered small paddock until milking time. The owner bought six loads of meadow hay from the park close by and cured it on the premises at a total cost of ^i 2s. od. The hay is stored in 150 clean bran bags ; bv this means it is kept free from dust and mice, is safer in the event of fire, and the handling of it is facilitated 'vhen required fior use. Rock salt for the cows to lick is alwavs available Hi a convenient place. A SHELTERED POULTRY RUN. The cows are in splendid condition, thoroughly contented and nicely rugged. When they are brought into the bail to be milked the rugs are removed, and just before milking operations the owner washes his hands. The flanks and udders are washed with a clean damp cloth and thoroughly dried, a separate towel being used for each cow. A light clean hessian covering two yards square is then placed over each cow, to prevent the flies from annoying her, or any dust or dirt from falling into the bucket and contaminating the milk. The first squeeze of milk from each teat is thrown away. The milk after being drawn from the cows under these cleanly conditions is taken to a nice clean brick dairy, partly lined with white tesselated tiles and is there thoroughly strained into white enamelled milk dishes, and allowed to stand until .served to the customers. The 664 Journal of Agriailiiire . [8 Xov, , J 907. utensils are thoroughly scrubbed with boiling water and soda, and placed out in the sunshine on a rack made for that purpose, thereby keeping them sweet and free from germ life. The Poultry. Upwards of 100 fowls are kept, comprising Brown Leghorns, Buff Orpingtons, Langshans, and until recently 20 ducks. The owner goes to no end of trouble to keep his stock clean and free from vermm. The brick fowl house, which is limewashed at intervals, is cleaned out daily, thickly dusted with wood siftings, and is a treat to look at. The roosts are scorched twice a week by running lighted })aper along them, and the brick f]oor washed out at intervals and sprayed with phenyle. The returns for twelve months from eggs and young stock sold amounted to jQii 3s. 3d. The Orchard. The orchard contains a nice lot of profitable fruit trees, well pruned and cared for. Last season the produce sold amounted to 8 cases Japanese plums, i case walnuts, 2 cases apples, 2 case.s' pears, 7 dozen oranges, 3 dozen lemons, 3 cases quinces, and i case damsons, the total value being ^,^3 2s. 6d., irrespective of what was used for household requirements. FOUL BROOD OF BEES. R. Bcuhne, President, Victorian Apiarists' Association. Foul brood is, as the words indicate, a disease of the brood or larva^ cf bees, although to some extent the adult bees, under certain conditions, are also affected. The destruction of colonies of bees is usually brought about bv the failure of the brood to survive the chrysalis stage in suflficient numbers to replace the adult worker bees dying a natural death, and thus a colony affected with foul brood dwindles away more or less rapidly accord- ing to the greater or lesser virulence of the disease affecting the larvae. To describe the appearance of brood affected with this disease, so as to enable any one not well acquainted with bees and their habits to detect it, it is necessary to first describe the appearance of healthy brood. If a brood comb is examined there will be found cells with eggs in them, and others containing grubs of all ages from the newly hatched larvge of the size and shape of the small " c " of ordinary print to the large grub com- pletely filling the lower part of the cell. There are also cells, covered over with a cap, which contain brood in all stages from the full grown grub to the young bee readv to gnaw its way out and emerge from the cell. If the brood is healthy the grubs have a pearly white appearance with a glossy and tight-looking skin, and the cappings of the covered cells are the shape of a watch glass or at least straight. When foul brood is present some of the grubs will be yellowish in colour, flabby looking and not curled up so much, while the cappings will be flat or sunken and perhaps here and there show irregular holes. If these cells are opened a brown mass is visible which when probed with a jtraw or match is of a gluev or ropy nature. This ropiness or brown 8 Nov., 1907.] /•'(-'/// Brood of Bees. 665 matter is the principal means of identifying tlie disease, and should be looked for whenever the- unhealthy appearance of the grubs or the sunken or perforated cappings of sealed brood cells gives rise to suspicion. I should like, however, to point out that some of these symptoms, or all of them excepting the ropiness, may be present and yet the case may not be one of foul brood but one of starved, chilled or overheated brood which' with the disappearance of the cause will right itself. The brood of a colony of bees which from any one of these causes is in an abnormal con- dition is, on the other hand, verv liable to infection should the germ of the disease {hactllus alvei) be introduced intO' the hive, and it is therefore well to watch for developments and occasionallv to examine it bv probing any sunken, suspicious looking cells. Black bees are more predisposed to foul brood than Italians or Cyprians ; at any rate, from some cause or other they contract it fre- quently whilst, on the same spot and under the same conditions, Italians keep free from it. This fact is probably due to the lesser inclination of black bees, as compared with Italians and Cyprians, to remove foreign matter, dead larvae, and intruders from the hive. As an illustration of this a brood comb from a colonv of black bees infested with the grubs of the wax moth, when given to a colonv of Italians, will be promptly cleaned of the wax moth grubs. Foul brood is now pretty well distributed all over Australia, with the exception, perhaps, of Queensland, or portion of that State. It is more or less virulent in different localities according to the different conditions of season and food suppl\- or the hereditarv constitutional vigour of the race and strain of bees. Practically, the rules which apply to animal life in general in connexion with diseases, also apply to bees. Where con- stitutional weakness, semi-starvation, unsuitable food or abnormal condi- tions of temperature exist, it only requires the introduction of the germ to cause a,n outbreak of disease; and in combating foul brood it is necessary to bear these factors in }nind, otherwise success in treatment will be merely a matter of accident and cannot be expected with anv degree of certaintv. Treatment. There are three methods of dealing with foul brood, viz. — 1. Destruction. 2. Elimination of the disease. 3. Chemical treatment. 1. The destruction of bees, combs, hive and fittings is of course an effective method and where only one or two hives are affected and the disease is of a malignant type it is perhaps the quickest and best method to adopt. It is, however, wasteful, as the bees, wax, hive and frames destroved have a value of from los. to 30s., and the utter destruction of the diseased colonies is no guarantee against the appearance of the disease in other and new hives even though all hives, healthy as well as diseased, are destroyed. Destruction, usuallv brought about by burning the hive, bees and all, after all the bees have returned for the night, is therefore not to be commended, except for an odd case of a virulent nature. 2. The elimination of the disease is effected by removing the bees from the infected hive and combs. Put them in a temporary hive placed on the spot occupied by the old one previously, and leave them without food for 24 to /^8 hours but with the exception of the queen allow them 666 journal of Agriculture. [8 Nov., 1907 liberty. The queen may be caged* to prevent the bees swarming out and absconding, or, as they wiU sometimes do when deprived of brood, entering a neighbouring hive. After the lapse of 24 hours they may be fed with syrup made by dissolving sugar in an equal weight of boiling hot water, the syrup to be given warm (about blood heat) and if there is a scarcity of nectar not till after sunset so as to avoid attracting robber bees from other hives. If a honey flow is on, feeding may be dispensed with. In three to four days the bees will ha\e built some pieces of comb on the bars of wood which instead of frames have been placed in the hive and from which the cage containing the queen is suspended. The bees mav now be returned to their foTmer hive which in the meantime has been thoroughly cleaned bv being immersed for several minutes in boiling water in which soap and soda have been dissolved, and allowed to dry in the open air. If the same frames are to be used again they should, after ihe combs have been cut out and boiled down for wax, be treated in the same way. When j^roperlv dry the frames are supplied with starters or full sheets of foundation. The temporary hive is moved aside, the cleaned hive with the frames put in its place, and the bees transferred to it by shaking them out on to a cloth placed in front. The queen may be kept caged with advantage for a day ot two more till the bees have again settled down and commenced to build comb. If any comb has been attached to the cage it will be best to transfer the queen to a fresh cage. The comb built by the bees during their stay in the temporary hive is treated as in- fected and boiled down. If the bees cannot obtain a liberal supply of nectar from flowers im- mediately after this treatment feeding should be continued for a while, because although they may not be actually starving it is necessary that they should raise the greatest possible amount of brood immediately after being established in the clean hive, otherwise the small number of bees emerging from the new combs after twenty-one days will not be sufficient to replace the old bees then rapidly disappearing from old age. It is not absolutely necessary that the bees should build their own combs. Instead of frames with foundation, finished combs, stored with honey and pollen, may be given from clean hives which have a surplus and as soon as there is brood in these a comb of sealed brood from another hive may also be given them. This will dispense with feeding and prevent the colony declining too much during the first three weeks after treatment. ^ The cage employed for this purpose should have an opening, covered with a piece uf queen-excluding zii c such as is used in honey boards which will prevent tile queen leaving the cage but will allow the workers access to it. Otherwise the bees are to all intents and purposes queenless and mav leave the hive. {To he conti lined). 8 Xov., 1907.] Rape and h' odder Crops for l.aiuh Raising. 667 RAPE AND FODDER CROPS FOR LAMB RAISING. H. 11'. Ham, SJiecp l-'.xperi. Rape and barlev, rape and oats, turnips, &c., for turning ewes on to just after lambing, with the object of getting the lambs away at about four months old are being found most profitable crops and at the same time a means of cleaning and manuring for successful grain crops to fol- low is secured. To be most profitable, an effort should be made to have these fodder crops well established just as the lambs are from two to three weeks old. A mistake often made is, that the crop is fed off too soon ; it should be stocked up about three weeks or a month before com- mencing to run tO' seed. A few sheep to even off the crop may be allowed on all along, but never to- the extent of checking it. Rape and barley in some districts are found to produce the greater amount of feeding from start to finish, and when there is a grass paddock close by fox the ewes to go into, or a straw stack that they can get at, the sloppiness of the rape in showery weather is counteracted. The best results in fatten- ing sheep and lambs have been obtained when the sheep have had access to pea-straw while on rape and barley. Rape and Algerian oats also give a large amount of feeding. Oats finish best, being good feed when out m ear, but with barlev it is not so. Rape alone is mono- tonou^^ and sloppy in showery weather; mustard, if added, is of advan- tage tO' counteract this, but is usually eaten out early, and, with first showers after being eaten out does not come again with the rape. A mixture of barlev or oats with, the rape, together with a straw stack or pasture for them to go to is preferable. Nothing gives more feed in root crops than turnip-s, and this crop also allows of a fair area to be grown. Further there is no other crop that will make the sheep leave more manure per acre. In a crop sown under right conditions, the tops come equal with the rape, although wdien once eaten down will not shoot again like rape. Turnips and rape together give a lot of excellent feed and will fatten a surprising number of sheep, especially if they have access to good pea or oaten straw. In forward oaten and wheaten crops, when sown with fertilizers, it is possible to fatten off a few lambs all through the winter. Care should he taken not tO' check the crops too much, and the sheep should be removed when the paddocks get very wet. The fattening is especially possible when the paddocks have been sown to rajie the season before. In the latter case, a forward crop is assured, and it is then found to advantage t> keep it in check by a few ewes and lambs being fattened on it. It will, when done with care and good judgment, also* assist in improving the (luality of grain, there being less straw and flag to be fed by the fer- tilizer through winter and spring. When rape is sown with, the object of running it through the summer tO' catch showers for summer feed it is best sown with fertilizers in early spring. It must lie watched closely, and stocked with ewes and lambs or store sheep, just as the foremost part of the paddock shows the smallest signs of seeding in the fork of the leaves. When this is checked and eaten down sufificiently to stop the seed- ing, the roots will be thoroughly established, and the paddorks can be easehades of colour, and the long period during which the many kinds pro- duce their flowers. A few kinds are grown in gardens in many parts of this State, the most generally noted being L. candidum (the Madonna lily), L. longiftorurn (the Christmas lily), L. tigrinum (the Tiger lily), and L. speciosum, commonly known as the Japanese lily. These kinds thrive under extreme conditions of climate and soil, and many others are equally hardy. At Macedon, Wandin, and other mountainous districts near Melbourne, fine clumps of lilies of various species are grown, including the splendid L. auratum {the golden-banded lilv of Japan), and produce quantities of beautiful flowers in season. In the cool districts many kinds of lihes would suc- ceed in almost any position, but would be difficult in the hotter parts of the State unless grown under special shade conditions. Soil and Situation. The most suitable soil for the majority of lilies is a light and open loam that is thoroughlv drained. A few kinds require a sandy, peaty soil to 6/0 Joitnial of Agriculture. [8 Nov.. 1907. bring them to perfection but as a whole thev thrive fairly in a sweet, un- manured, light garden soil. The most conimon cause of failure is un- doubtedly the addition of fermenting animal manures to the soil they are grown in. Poor soils benefit bv the addition of leaf -mould, or some very old cow manure in moderate quantity, but even in such soils if unmanured a fair measure of success is certain ; while, if heavily manured with gross manure, the bulbs are nearlv sure to fail. A situation where the ground is shaded partiallv from hot sunshine is an important consideration. The majoritv of the lily family are found growing in forest regions and in garden practice it is found that they thrive best when lightK shaded from hot sunshine by being planted among dwarf shrubs or plants, or protected bv a trellis. The earliest blooming kinds flower in spring, others succeeding them during summer and early autumn, and root action again begins after the flower stems die. In mixed groups and borders where the soil is maintained in a cool condition during summei many kinds will succeed if undisturbed bv digging and other gardening operations, and the soil is sweet, fairlv porous, and unmanured. An occasional top-dressing of well rot!ed leaf mould is beneficial. Propagation and Planting. Lilies are propagated from offsets from the parent bulb — small liulbils that are produced in the axis of the leaves in some kinds, and LU.IUM BKOWNJI. White inside tube, chocolate without. I. ILIUM TKJKIMM. Orange scarlet, spotted ]:iurple. occasionallv, from scales of the bulbs. After the flowering is over and the stems die to the ground is the proper time to plant lilies and to effect an increase. The bulbs are practicallv dorm.ant then, but soon begin to produce roots again for the following season, and an attempt to propagate after the roots are far advanced would result in damage to both bulb and offset. When the leaves on the flower stem have matured, the small i- Nov., 1907.] Garden Xotes. 671 bulbils occurring there on L. tigrinum and other kinds are ready for re- moval. Thev should be planted in beds of light soil, where they may be allowed to remain until large enough tO' produce flowers. Propagation from the outer scales of the bulbs is resorted to by nurserymen to increase certain kinds. The scales can be removed without damage to the bulbs and are sown in the manner of seeds when small bulbs are formed which are grown on as in the case of bulbils. Autumn is the general season for planting most lilies. Trade growers lift the bulbs at the right season, replant the offsets at once, and store the bulbs in a cool, dry place, often in dry sand, to retard root action. Where an increase of plants or patches is desired the* plants should be lifted after blooming, and death of the stem, and be replanted at once, but, unless an increase is wanted there is nothing to be gained bv disturbing the bulbs. Lily bulbs should be planted at a depth of six or eight inches, according to size of bulbs, species, and soil conditions. Large bulbs of the taller- growing kinds may be planted at a depth of one foot with safety in hot but well drained soils. Fair room should be allowed for each bulb when grown in patches, about eight inches being sufficient for most kinds. In florists' gardens some lilies are grown for the cut flower trade, the prac- tice being to grow them in rows in cool soil and not to^ disturb them for years unless for sale of bulbs. Selection of Kinds. Several species of lilies may be procured from thp local nurser\ men or seedsmen, and will be found to be generally locally grown and acclima- tized bull)s. Importing and acclimatizing lilies ancl other Ijulbous plants is not an amateur's work, and it is better to buy local bulbs. A fairly representative collection should include Liliums candidum. Brownii, croceum, Thunbergianum, longiflorum, tigrinum, and its varieties, splendens. and tigrinum fll. pi, auratum, pardalinum, speciosum. and varieties. Flov/er Garden. The absence of .soaking rains during winter and spring in most districts will cause the death or failure of plants in places where water for garden- ing purposes cannot be obtained, unless special measures are taken to con- serve the moisture in the soil at present. Frequent hoeing of the surface and mulching wdth stable manure are the readiest means of effecting this purpose. When water is available it should be applied in sufficient quan- tity to thoroughly moisten the whole of the soil. If followed by cultiva- tion immediately after the soil is dry at the surface, such watering will suffice for weeks, but light sprinklings are of little, if any, benefit. Flo'wering stems of delphiniums, phlox, gladoli, and other plants should be .securely, but not tightly, tied to stakes as they develop. At this stage such plants will benefit largelv bv a supply of water or weak liquid manure. Divisions of dahlia crowns, or young plants struck from cuttings, will bloom at mid-summer if planted now. For utunin blooming such planting should be deferred until late in December. A number of fine new varieties of cactus dahlias were imported bv various nurserymen last season, and plants are available now. Several of the new kinds were ex- hibited at th.e autumn shows, among them l;eing a few indispensable for 672 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Nov., 1907. exhibitors of this popular flower. The best noted are: — Beauty, Ben Nash, H. Shoesmith, Iris, Mrs. McMillan, Mrs. H. Shoesmith, Nelson, William Marshall, Daisy, and Mrs. S. Gaskell. A few new Australian raised varieties are quite first class, and include : — Mrs. C. T. Richardson, T. A. Kerslake, Earl Likely, Simplicity, Mrs. Chas. Wood, and Miss Minnie Walker. Bulbs of spring blooming plants such as hyacinths and others of a like nature, and also crowns of anemones and ranunculi, may be lifted after the foliage has died, and after being dried should be stored in a cool, dry place until planting season. Plants of various bedding kinds, and annuals raised earlier in season from seeds may be set out. Bulbs of gladioli may be planted, and seeds of tender annuals still sown. Kitchen Garden. Where water is scarce, the remarks in regard to conservation of moisture for flower garden apply here. In many places the subsoil has not been moistened during winter, and a supply of vegetables of fair quality cannot be expected unless moisture is present. The surface should be hoed regu- larly or mulched with stable manure. As the early crops are harvested, the soil should be liberally manured and deeply worked in preparation for the succeeding sowing or planting. Rotation should be observed where possible. Advantage should be taken to plant out cabbage, celery and other plants raised earlier from seed when the weather is suitable. Seed mav be sown of cucumber and other mem- bers of the melon familv. lettuce, French beans, celerv (to transplant), and saladings. Lateral growths should be removed from tomato plants as they develop, and the leading shoots tied to stakes. When the fruit has set liberal watering will be beneficial. 8 Nov., 1907.] Farm Reports. 673 FARM REPORTS. Quarter ended 30TH September, 1907. "Wjoina Irrigation Farm. G. H . Tolley, Manager. Rainfall. — Although established as an irrigation farm it is regretted that up to the present water for that purpose has been almost unobtainable. The rainfall for the quarter has been : — July 1.91 inches, August .86, September .39. Whilst the intervals between rains have not been of long duration, the amounts registered have generally been a few points, and invariably each rain has been succeeded by continuous high winds. Stock — Horses. — No addition has been made to the number of horses — 4 draught and 2 buggy horses. They are in good condition and kept constantly at work. Cows. — There are 45 cows, and the average number milked daily is 21. Calves have increased by 4 heifers and 2 bulls. The want of natural pasture has necessitated some feeding with bran and chaff, and on the 26th September the milkers were turned into a 30-acre paddock sown with peas and rape, as there was no hope of the crop coming to anything. From all appearances it seems likely that this course must be adopted to utilize as far as possible the remaining 140 acres of crops. Pigs. — These are Berkshires and have done very well. There are now 3 brood sows, 2 of which are just ready for breeding. Of a litter of 8 voung ones 4 sows are being retained for breeding purposes. The pigs sent to the Kyabram sales topped the market at ^3 7s. each. A high-class boar was secured from the Kew Asvlum stud on the 31st July. Poultry. — At present there are only a tew fo'wls and ducks, but it is intended to at once develop this industry. Crops. — To obviate as much as possible the effects of the season the growing crops have been well rolled and harrowed, but it is now obvious that very little result will accrue; even with heavy rain the sanguine hopes of the early part of the season will not be realized. In every case germination was all that could be desired, and there is very little appearance of disease. Small areas of lucerne have been sown and land worked and graded for planting summer crqps in anticipation of possible irrigation. Of the main area sown to lucerne (48 acres) 40 acres were irrigated from 16th to 21st September and have responded well. From the various cover crops sown with the lucerne it is anticipated that a fair amount of ensilage will vet be secured. The lucerne was sown in almost every conceivable way and with varying quantities of seeds and manures and will later on furnish a valuable object lesson. Provided the new channel from the Waranga Basin is shortly completed and irriga- tion made a certainty, a sufficient fodder yield to carry the stock through the summer is anticipated. Tree Planting, etc. — About 300 shelter trees have been planted along the various boundary fences, and it is intended as opportunity offers to plant trees in every available spot. To this end trees are now being raised from seed in the farm nursery. The shelter trees and also the orchard trees are being watered by hand from time to time. A large number of rooted vines, shade trees, vegetable plants and herbs have been raised and distributed amongst the settlers. The orchard trees and trellised vines have made a good start. In the garden a constant succession of 12469. Y 674 Journal of Agricultttrc. [8 Nov., 1907. vegetables is grown, water being available by means of a windmill, and the small flower garden and lawns are showing good promise. Buildings, etc.- — The new milking shed — to accommodate 22 cows — has been completed, and the adjacent yards substantially fenced. These are now l>eing paved with bricks and in a short time will be ready for occu- pation. Arrangements are concluded for installing a milking machine pl.int, and plans for a brick dairv and separator house are nearing completion. The dairy will l)e fittrd w irh a turbine separator and complete milk testing plant ; an efficient water sui)ply will be provided. The buildings are so designed as to admit of ready extension as re(]uired. Nearly all the old interior fences and useless buildngs on the farm have been removed and convenient yards and paddocks erected in their place. An ornate drive to the homestead has been fenced with sawn timber po3ts and planted with ornamental shelter trees. iConsiderable work has been necessary to maintain the old boundar\- fences, Imt these are about to be replaced by a, substantial wire-netting fence. Brickmaking. — This has proved a success ; the sample turned out was of good quality and burned specially hard for paving purposes. The first kiln was fired on the 15th August and the second on the 27th September, whilst sufficient bricks are made to immediately fill a third kiln. Each kiln yields about 30,000 bricks. About 7,000 bricks have been sold to settlers and there are many inquiries for more. The plant used is known as a wire cut machine and has a cai)acit\ of 1,000 liricks per hour. The motive power is provided by the traction engine. The latter is simply invaluable for pulling down trees, ploughing, and scarifying, drawing heavy loads, shifting buildings, pumping, sawing, chaff and silage cutting, &c. Sundries. — Nearly all the labour on the farm is done by settlers, and while none of it mav be classed as skilled in the ordinary .?ense, little recourse to outside help for tinsmith, blacksmith, carjx-nter or building labour in necessary. The ordinary work of the farm bexond that already referred to comprises timber splitting for fencing and firewood, carting, drain making, repairing plant and harness. A new farm drav fitted with a large frame has been purchased. Every advantage has l:een taken In the settlers to hire the farm implements — a convenience much appreciated. Models of grading tools have been prepared to assist lecturers and a complete set of grading tools was exhibited at ^Melbourne and other shows. Numbers of surve\s have been made for settlers ; irrigation ditches laid out, and advice given on irrigation subjects. A considerable amount of valuation for the Lands Purchase Board has also lieen done. Educational. — Scarcely a day passes without some visitor seeking in- formation or advice. Lectures have been given at the farm as follows : — loth July, Demonstration " Tree Pruning," G. PI. Tollev. 30th July, " Pig Raising and Bacon Curing," W. Smith. 24th Aug., " Diseases of the Horse." W. J. Colebatch, B.Sc M.R.C.V.S. 27th Aug., " Artificial Fertilizers," F. E. Lee. Board. — During the (juarter the Advisory Board met at the farm on 5th July and 27th September; and in .Alelbourne on 6th September. On 26th September a large number of settlers assembled to meet the Hon. Geo. Swinburne, M.L.A. (Minister of Agriculture and Water Supply) and the Hon. D. Mackinnon. M.L.A., to explain their difficulties in securing a supply of water. 8 Nov., 1907.] Farm Reports. 675 Heytesbury Farm. 0. H . Call, Manager. PloiigJiing, etc. — As earlv as possible after the land was cleared of growing crops everv advantage was taken to get the ground ploughed and exposed to the weather for as long a time as possible before resowing. In ploughing small (narrow) lands were made and the land ploughed up leaving the furrows between as deep and clear as possible to take off any surplus water. The whole of the gro'und turned up wry well, but was full of roots and grass tree rubbish ; as a proportion of this is still growing it must prove harmful to any crops, besides keeping the ground sour. The best results will not be obtained until the roots and rubbish are all picked up. As the scrub was getting verv unsightly on portions of the farm which had not been ploughed, principally along the fences and drains dug tefore the j^loughing was done, it has been removed and will le burnt up as time permits. Advantage was taken of a spell of dry weather to clean out the bottoms of the open drains which were getting dirty with rubbish falling in. Orchard. — On 2'6th Jul\ a small orchard was planted out with 55 assorted trees, which are all doing well. Small fruits, comprising straw- berry, gooseberrv, raspberr\-, red and black currant, and blackberries, were planted out near the house at the end of August. They have struck well and promise to^ make good growth. Crops. — Weather conditions have not been favorable to growing crops, as with the exception of a few warm days early in SejAember it has been verv rough and ccAd. Manure for this season's cropping has just come to hand, but owing to weather conditions has not vet been used on anv of <:he land. Last week a land of r\e was cut and stacked as ensilage. A small stack 9x9x7 was built and weighted with timber and will be referred to in a later report. Three acres have been prepared for more oats which will be put in as earlv as the weather will permit, and three acres are readv for peas to be sown as soon as the oats are in. Three acres which were sown in rye, barlew and vetches are being ploughed in readiness for potato planting about the middle of November. The growing crop of Algerian oats is locking onlv fairly well, but if the warmer weather comes soon it will be satisfactory. The grass plots are doing remarkably well, but the clovers and lucerne are still backward. Stock. — Another horse has been added to the farm stock which are all dointr well. NOTICE TO IMPORTERS, MANUFACTURERS, VENDORS, AND DEALERS IN ARTIFICIAL MANURES. Attention is directed to Section 18 of the Artificial Manures Act 1904, and Section 2 of the Amending Act of 1905 which prescribe that samples of manures which are to be offered for sale during the coming season must he sul)mitted during the months of October or November to the Chemist for Agriculture, together with the usual declaration, and regulation fee for analvsis. GEO. SWINBURNE, 23rd October, 1907. A/ia/stcr of Agriculture. X 2 676 Journal of /Agriculture. [8 Nov.. 1907. E(IG PRODUCTION AND COOL STORAGE. H. V. Hawkins, Poultry Expert. Throughout the wide world eggs have gradually increased in value during the past five years. Each year new industries in which the egg plays an important part are being inaugurated. Consequent on the coming into operation of the Pure Foods Act in this State there will be an increased demand for eggs. Formerlv thousands of tins of egg powders were used by pastrycooks and others but nnw the authorities demand, and rightly so, that " light pastry " shall be unadulterated. This means that eggs must be used and the question naturally arises " Where are they to come from? '" The answer should be " Out of the Cool Stores." Is it not time that the poultr\- farmer, who often pays big prices for his foodstuffs, should make an effort to protect himself? He disposes of his eggs at 5d. and 6d. per doz. instead of utilizing to the fullest extent the benefits which cool storage offers to him. If poultry breeders would only co-operate the price of eggs should never be less than is. per doz. Mr. Crowe, Superintendent of Exports, states that practicallv the whole of the eggs produced in this State will be required by the local factories and consequently few, if any, will be left for export. This to my mind is a good sign as it will be possible in a very short time to mcrease the output. The low price obtained from the storekeeper for eggs is a matter which greatly concerns the producer. Now that the latter knows there is a good demand at remunerative rates he should arrange to deal direct with the Co-operative Butter Factories, some of which are already collecting eggs as well as cream. The drv season that has set in will be an opportune one for factory managers to reserve cool space for eggs and thereby minimize the decrease of receipts occasioned bv the shortage of cream. If complete .success is to be attained nothing but infertile eggs, absolutely fresh, should be placed in cool storage, the temperature of which should be from 30 to 32 degrees Fah. The chamber must be kept free from all foreign odours and if so the eggs will turn out after a lapse of four months as fresh as when first stored, with the exception of a very slight evaporation. When egg preservatives are used the white of the egg becomes darkened and there is a peculiar taste, quite different to those kept in cool storage. The cost of storage is infinitesimal as compared with the higher prices realized later on. The charges at the Go\ernment Cool Stores, Flinders- street, Melbourne, are as follow : — Per case of 25 dozen, for first two weeks or portion thereof ... 4d. ,, ,, for each additional week or portion of week ... 2d. Per case of 36 dozen, for first two weeks or any portion thereof ... 6d. ,, ,, for each additional week or portion of week ... 3d. Whilst the local outlook is bright it must also be remembered that there is a good market in Great Britain for anv surplus that we may have. Victoria is peculiarly adapted for poultrv keeping. An advance of this industry has taken place in recent years but is trifling to what may be reasonably expected in the near future. The folio-wing figures, -« Nov., 1907.] The Silver Dorking. 677 -which have been compiled from tlie latest returns, will give some idea of the exports of other countries : — EXPORT TRADE OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES. Eggs. Poultry. Total Values. Country. Year. Total Total To United To United Total To United Eggs and Poultry Exported. Export. Export Kingdom. Kingdom. Export. Kingdom. Quantities. Values. Monthly. Values. Values. Values. Gt. Hds. £ Gt. Hds. £ £ £ £ Hurope — United Kingdom 1906 28,938 28,938 Austria ,j 100,124 tons 3,760,466 4,856' tons 182,382 620,415 *16,250 4,380,881 Belgium 1905 1,207,636 472,716 152,620 62,276 35,153 3,770 507,869 Bulgaria 10,042 tons 364,507 36 tons 1,601 364,507 Benmarli 3,455,000 1,368,062 3,393,333 1,343,770 1,368,062 Prance 1906 212,000 cwt. 559,000 180,000 cwt. t474,500 598,300 1203,714 1,157,500 Germany 1905 1,231 tons 67,700 88 tons 4,850 61,480 2,660 129,180 Hungary 1906 2,960,000 281,403 2,573,642 187,267 5,533,642 Italy 1905 652,913 cwt. 2,253,710 186,353 cwt. 643,253 547,253 88,780 2,800,963 Netherlands . . ,. 78,683 cwt. 150,000 11,132 cwt. 21,290 150,000 Portugal 1906 220,650 60,491 61,425 18,367 60,491 Russia 26,941,666 5.615,200 7,132,925 2,344,256 300,000 185,035 5,915,200 Servia 1903 320,358 76,097 100 396,455 Spain 1905 331,445 Ivil. 10,035 331,445 Ivil. 10,035 10,035 Sweden 1906 141,444 54,783 54,783 Turliey 28,083 9,200 9,200 _A.frica — Cape Colony . . 62,750 43,282 114 62^ 148 43,910 Egypt ^j 520,691 108,815 505,'l41 105,566 108,815 Morocco 97,693 cwt. 244,648 158,766 54,840 244,648 America — Canada 1905 148,505 13,764 162,269 United States 1906 495,206 216,385 18,257 2,026 291,042 268,023 507,427 Australasia 1906 513 121,268 1,000 6,662 652 127,920 * Nine montlis only, March to December, 1906. t Tlie figures given with respect to exports fiom France do not agree with tlie British Trade and Navigation Returns, which show tlie following values for 1906 :— Eggs, £623,119 Poultry, £203,714 ; Total, £826,835. X Taken from the Trade and Navigation Returns, 1906. Europe Africa America Australasia Eggs. ^18,026,228 406,745 364,890 121,268 /i8,qi9,i3i Poultry. ^4,841,278 628 304,806 6,662 ^5.1533374 Total. ^22,867,506 407,373 669,696 127,930 ^24,072,505 THE SILVER DORKINCI. H. V. Haivkins, Poultry Expert . Silver Dorkings are pre-eminently English fowls, and take their name from the old-fashioned town of Dorking, in Surrey, which is the great centre of their production. Dorkings are fine, handsome birds of much avoirdupois, some of the male birds weighing 14 lbs. each, and in tenderness and succulence there is no fowl to equal them. In colour they vary from white to silver-grey and dark, but in all cases the skin and legs are white, two very necessary points for the table. A peculiarity of all Dorkings is that they have five toes on each foot. It is a breed of which England is rightly proud, and it is held in high esteem as the farmers' all-round utility fowl. It is also recognised by all the leading authorities as the breed -par excellence for crossing purposes, and in addition it is a splendid layer, very many reaching 175 eggs per annum. 678 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Nov., 1907^ Although not as popular as many other varieties in the Common- wealth, its usefulness may be seen bx the many excellent new breeds which have been built up by the introduction of the Dorking. One of the principles to be observed is to hatch the young in July, August, and September, and no la/cr. Five second season hens are sufficient for one male bird, and he should l)e a vigorous cockerel about 10 months old and unrelated. Dorkings will not stand close breeding, and it is as w-ell thev do not, otherwise thev would soon lose their size like the Silver Wvandottes recentlv exhibited, manv of which were bred for feather oniv — even tvpe appears to have been disregarded. Farmers have by far the largest specimens in manv breeds, for the good reason that they do' not usuall\- exhibit, their one nbjert bein' to obtain eggs or flesh. ^ll.\t:K DORKING COCK. The Silver Grey Dorking hen is a perfect model in form. She walks and stands erect, her head well uji, and has a fine tapering neck from the full flowing cape over the shoulders. The comb is single and of fair size, evenly serrated and falling o\er on one side in front part for about half the length, whilst the back half is straight up without twists or side sprigs. Although few hens have as perfect a comb as the one described it is the ideal bird, not only for appearance, but to breed fronr. It is important to have a good comb on the female for the sake of its influence in breeding for males, as well as females. Manv a breeder has been disappointed in the combs of his male birds, when the fault has been due to the combs of the hens — weak combs, falling over the entire length, twisted, or side sprigs. These faults are too often overlooked in the hens. Ear-lobes, wattles, and face, should be bright- red, with smooth, even tenure. The head is rather large but not coarse, and, with the neck, is silvery white. Feathering of neck full ; and here Nature insists on one of her own prerogatives. The feathers of the neck have a dark stripe in the ■8 Nov., 1907.] Tlic Silver Dor kin". 679 centre and no amount of selection changes it with the other colours of the body ; but the narrower the stripe the lighter is the colour of the Deck. As the feathers approach the head the smaller the stripe, till the head feathers are all silvery white, and this is best without a tinge of brown towards the throat. The neck should be well arched, the full feathering sitting well over the shoulder. As in all Dorkings the eyes are red, or to be strictly correct, the colour is a deep orange or light red. Body should l:>e deep, long and broad; breast salmon colour, blending to grey on the sides. The term salmon colour, or salmon red, is often misunderstood; salmon colour is a reddish pink, softened an the Dorking breast with the least tinge of grey in it which gives it a subdued shade. The deep red of some hens is toO' dark for silver grev hens; that was the colour of the old "Grey Dorking" before the Silver Greys were bred. Too light or faint colours are also defective. A good, rich, soft, salmon colour, with as little light shafting and edging as possible, and SILVER DORKING HEN. ^b^ 3 years 9 months. Record 61 ^ Kggs. entirely free from dark spots, or tip feathers, is the handsomest breasL. A good evenly coloured breast is a point of great desirability in a Silver Grey Dorking hen. This colour is not found in anv other breed of fowls, except Game and then it is seldom as rich. For the sake of getting light backs and necks, the breast colour is often overlooked or under-estimated in the Show pen. Many hens and pullets are awarded prizes on account of their backs, while their breasts are ]JOor in colour. The breast colour should be more regarded, as it is a distincti\-e Dorking feature. We now come to the colour of the back of the Silver Gre\- hen, which gives the name to the breed. It is not a solid colour, but when looking at it closely we see a very fine mottling of deep grev and light grey. On examining a feather we find it is made up of verv fine etchings, short wavy lines and fine longish dots, neither round spots nor straight lines. Some term it ])encilling, Init pencilling is more applied to fine lines on the edges of feathers. This mottling is very beautiful anrl is seen in some species of wild birds especially game birds, but in none purer than in the Silver Dorking. The light and -dark are about equal in quantitv ; when the dark predominates the colour 68o Journal of Agriculture. [8 Nov., 1907. is defective. The shafts of the feathers are light, but the less conspicuous the better. Very few birds are seen without the light shafting ; yet there is a possibility of breeding out the light shafts, so that the back would resemble a piece of broken steel at the fracture. There is reason to believe that this result can be brought about, as we have seen in Partridge Cochins, which once had light shafts to a great degree, but still nO' other quality should be sacrificed for the absence of shaft colour. I have seen small, inferior birds awarded first prize over largt ones with good backs, fine in all other respects. Many birds have lighter or darker tips to the feathers, which mar the even steel colour. A shade of brown or drab often appears, and in the latter part of summer most backs incline that way in the old faded feathers before moulting, but come out bright and clean in new feathers — under part of body and fluff are grey. There is a tendency on the shoulder and upper wing coverts to have a reddish tinge. This is a persistent feature of this breed and it should be avoided in the Show pen and bred out as much as possible at all times ; it is gradually dis- appearing, but is a decided bore to breeders of Show birds. The wings should be closely folded and carried well up. Coverts and bow, silver grey with white centre lines. Primaries and secondaries, upper webs brown, lower webs slatv, mottled with grey. The tail of fair size to match the body colour, and carried in a fairly elevated position. The large feathers are grey on the outsides, dark brown on the insides. Thighs strong, also grey in colour. Legs white, and the fifth toe must be perfect in form and development. It will be seen that a bird with such fine colouring, form and size, is not one to be overlooked, for added to all this, it is a bird of fine carriage, graceful movement and symmetrical proportions. THE PROCLAIMED PLANTS OF VICTORIA. {Continued from page 606.) Alfred J. Eivart, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Botanist; and ] . R. Tovey, Herbarium Assistant. The Bag^wort. Senccio Jacohaa, Linn. {Compositce.) An almost cosmopolitan herb with a root-stock short and thick without creeping shoots. Stem two to four feet high, erect, scarcely branched, except at the top. Leaves divided into ovate, obovate, or narrow segments, coarsely toothed or again divided, the terminal segments large and joined together, the lower ones smaller and distinct, sometimes with a loose woolly down, especially on the under-side. Flower-heads rather large, of a bright yellow, in a handsome, compact terminal corymb. Involucral bracts tipped with black, the outer ones few and very small . Florets of the ray from twelve to fifteen, linear-oblong, and spreading. The seed-like fruits of the disk are covered with short hairs, those of the ray with none. A native of Europe and Asia. Having a perennial root-stock, the Ragwort is difficult to eradicate ; care must be taken to remove the root-stock from the soil, otherwise the plant will grow again. Since it seeds freely, and the seeds are easily carried by the wind, it should be destroyed before flowering. Proclaimed for the Shires of Phillip Island and Woolamai, Wooryal, Poowong and Jeetho, South Gippsland, Mirboo, and Colac. PLATE 18. OWauerM J.R,To\'e^;I)iTti.r.t JKemp,Actect pests. The question of parasites introduced by the Entomologist of the Sugar Planters" Association on- the Lantana Scrub is a much more complicated business, and I travelled oyer a great deal of country to see for myself the actual conditions of the lantana and the insect pe:^ts that have been introduced from ?\Iexico, America and India. It has been claimed that the lantana is entirely destroyed in some districts through these insect parasites, but, though there is no doubt under certain conditions its growth has been checked and great quantities of the flowers, and seed buds destroyed, it is not dead and the bulk of it will liave to be removed when clearing, bv mechanical methods, (luite a number of different insects were propagated on latana ; two moths, a, leaf mining fly, a gall making fly, and a small leaf bug. The latter is one of the most effective, attacking the under-sur- face of the leaves and causing them to drop off. On the very dry shallo^v soil on hill tops the lantana is very sick. This bug, howeA-er, is. verv closelv allied to our native olive bug, whii^h destroys the foliage of the cultiwated olive, and we could never allow it to be introduced -8 Nov., 1907.] Insect Pests in Other Lands. 683 in Australia under any conditions. The pest, however, that in my opinion, after very close observation has done more damage and is still at work on the lantana is the "" Maui Blight" {OrtJiesia insignis) one of the Mealy Bugs, known as a very destructive pest to the tea plant and other shrubs in India and the East. It must be stated, however, that the entomologist did not introduce this doubtful pest ; it was accidentally introduced on the island of Maui, but has been widely spread all over the other islands by the ranch men, and is attacking other jilants and may be a very grave plant pest to reckon with in the future. I therefore strongly advise that under no conditions should we introduce anv of these insects intO' Australia to kill lantana; even if thev killed everv bush out, our conditions of plant life are so different that it is hard to sa\ where the pest insects would stop after the original host plant died out. The Hawaiian Islands are the adojjted home of a great man_\ cosmo- politan pests, and though many useful inserts, among them Australian ladybird beetles, have from time to time been introduced, the injurious ones are very much in evidence. Among those most e\-ident in the beauti- ful gardens that surround Honolulu are the two foliage pests, known as the "Japanese Leaf Beetle " {Adoretiis umbrosiis) and Fuller's Rose Beetle {Aramigiis julleri) the latter an American importation. If b\ any accident either of these beetles were ever introduced into Australia with plants from America, Honolulu, or Japan, which could very easily happen in soil round the roots of plants, the nurserymen and rose growers would have twO' verv formidable pests to deal with. At the request of the manager of the American Sugar Company, accompanied bv Mr. Van Dine, I visited the Island of Mooliki and spent several davs on their ranch to see t'.ie damage caused to their stock by a species of flesh fly allied to our sheep maggot flies, and also to stud\ the habits of the " Horn Flv," which was introduced from America some \ears ago with stock and has spread all over the place. It is one of the worst I)lood-sucking flies, breeds in cattle manure, and co\-ers the shoulders and sides of tlie cattle in thousands and infes^ts horses but slightly, but does a great deal of damage to sheep, for scab is common on most of the ranches and wherever there is a sore or wound on the sheep these flies swarm and keep it from healing. Most of the old sheep have a raw sore up to 6 inches in diameter on some part of the bodv, the combined result of scab and horn fly, so that they have little chance to get fat or grow wool. This also is a pest that we should be on the watch for in Australia, as it is exident by its introduction into Hawaii that it could be brought into Australia, and a native of Texas would soon flourish in similar climate and conditions. I also found " Horn PTv " abundant in all dairies \-isited about the town. The great industry of the islands is, as you are aware, sugar planting, which produced 137,750 tons of sugar last year. The Economic Entomo- logists working at the Sugar Planters' Experiment Station therefore confine their attention to the sugar cane pests in which the planters are particularly interested, and have carried out mnn) interesting experiments in ch.ecking injurious insects that have damaged the sugar cane crops. Some years ago a e-mail leaf hopper {Perkinsella saccharicidd) made its appearance as a pest in the cane fields, and about 1902 swarmed in such numbers — sucking up the sap and depositing their eggs both in the leaf stalks and the cane stems — that the whole fields were black wiUi fumagine, and through the injuries tbiey caused rust and fungi damaged the tif»sues of the stalks. These injuries caused a great loss in the vield of juice, and Messrs. Perkins and Koebele came to Australia (whence much cane had been introduced 684 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Nov., 1907. into Hawaii) to see if they could find the home of the pest, and its parasites if any. In the middle of 1904 they found this pest common in the North Queensland Plantations, and also discovered a small hymenopterous para- site destroying its eggs. The infested eggsi were sent in cane stems to Honolulu, anu the parasite is now so well established that the leaf hopper is kept in check. Still there is a good number of the destructive leaf hoppers to be found, and it will be interesting to watch later developments. It seemsi incredible that the parasites have mastered the hoppers in such a short space of time as two years, and spread to all the sugar cane, how- ever carefully they have been spread by the entomologists of the Sugar Planters' Association. There can be no question about the value of this parasite and another since introduced from Fiji, but there may be also other agencies at work in checking leaf hoppers, one of which is the return of some of the companies to the old method of cleaning up the cane fields by burning up all rubbish. Harder stemmed varieties of cane are also not so subject to the attacks of leaf hoppers in the stem. At the present time there is an agent of the Sugar Planters' Association in India and Java looking for a parasite for the cane weevil {Spl/eiioporns v the presence of irritating matter in the stomach, though it ma\- also' l)e due to nervous diseases and disturbances. Defascation is the act of extrusion of faeces through the anus. When the fsecal mass accumulates in the lower colon it excites reflexlv a strong peristalsis by which it is carried through the rectum. The anal sphincter then relaxes and a strong contraction of the rectum drives the faecal mass outwards. This action is generalh- helped by the abdominal muscles contracting and exercising a pressure as in vomiting. Rumination will be discussed under digestion in the stomach. BLOOD SUPPLY OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL.— All parts of the alimentary tube are lichly supplied with blood vessels that bring red, arterial blood from the aorta. A remarkable peculiaritv is present in the parts of the tube that lie in the abdominal region. The blood which has traversed these portions, together with that from the pancreas and spleen, instead of passing into veins that flow direct to the heart, is collected by a sxstem of veins which join into one great vein called the PORTAL VEIN. This portal vein runs towards the liver and breaks up into myriads of branches in that organ so that the blood is brought into the sphere of action of the liver cells. Then from the liver it passes by the ordinary route of the veins to the heart. Thus all the l:)lood drained from the abdominal digestive organs and from the spleen must pass through the liver before it can reach the general circulation. Tlie great importance of this we 'shall see later. 692 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Nov., 1907, The lymphatic vessels or lacteals placed centrally in the villi com- municate with a smaller number of larger lymphatic vessels and these pour their contents into the largest lymphatic vessel of the body, the THORACIC DUCT, which passes up close to the spine and empties into a vein near the heart. There are therefore \.\\o paths b\ which a substance, absorbed from the gut, may get into the general circulation ; namely by the blood vessels of the gut, in which case it must run the gauntlet of the ''ver ; or by the lymphatics, in which case the absorbed substance can enter the general circulation without passing through the liver, but its progress is much- slower owing to the sluggish stream in the lymphatics. NERVES OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL.— In the intestines, and to a lesser degree in the crop and stomach, we find a local nervous system which reminds one of that present in the lowest invertebrate animals. It consists of a plexus or nerve-network with ganglia, in between the muscle layers and in the submucous coat. This system can work independently of the central nervous system and can carry out the peristaltic and rippling movements of the walls of the canal. Under normal conditions, however, it does not work independently, but is under the direct subordination of the central nervous system through autonomic nerves. In the first place the thoracic autonomic or sympathetic system sends nerves to the canal from oesophagus to rectum which can exert two functions, they can tighten up or constrict the small arteries in this region, and secondly, can slow down or stop the various movements of the canal muscles. On the other hand we have the cranial autonomic system, through the vagus nerve, innervating the pharynx, oesophagus and all the abdominal portions except the lower colon and rectum. Impulses passing down the vagus increase the muscular movements of the canal and can bring aljout forceful contraction of the entire musculature of the stomach ; they can also start and increase secretion in the glands of the stomach. In the lower colon and rectum the vagus is replaced by sacral autonomics passing out of the spinal chord by the second and third sacral nerves. The alimentary canal is also supplied with afferent or sensorv nerves, giving in the mouth sensations of touch, taste, heat and cold and pain, but, in the main portion of the canal, pain is the onlv sensation obtainable except the special sensation of thirst and probably of hunger. The salivary glands in the mouth region have each a double nerve supply, sympathetic and cranial autonomic ; the former have fibres which constrict the blood vessels thus lowering the blood flow whilst the latter have fibres which dilate the blood vessels thus increasing the blood flow. Each has fibres acting on the gland cells but their distribution has not been worked out with sufiicient clearness. It is known however that certain nerve impulses can influence the composition of the saliva fitting it for the particular substance in the mouth which has reflexlv excited its flow. The nerve centres which regulate the movements of the alimentary canal are all in the medulla oblongata, with the exception of that regulating uefgecation which is in the lower part of the spinal cord. They are excitable by appropriate afi^erent impulses due generally to the food itself ; thus food in the mouth starts afferent impulses which excite the centres for the salivary glands and for the secretion of gastric juice; food in the pharynx excites the centre for' swallowing; faeces in the b Nov., 1907.] Elements of Animal Physiology. 693 rectum excites the centre for defsecation. But the centres are excitable by other afferent nerves and by impulses coming down from the brain. Thus, increased intestinal peristalsis may be caused by fright, and vomiting in the human being mav be due to many factors other than those connected with digestion. Voluntary control is possessed by the animal over the first stage of swallowing and over the relaxation of the s-phincicr ani but all the other nerve mechanisms are independent of the will ami are effected bv the autonomic system. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL.— The first important function of the alimentary canal is the digestion of certain ingredients of the food by rendering them soluble, and soluble in such a form that they can pass into the columnar epithelium of the mucous membrane and so be absorbed. The second important function is the absorption of the digested food. These are the fundamental functions but thev do not exhaust the list. Thus the lower part of the alimentary canal in all animals has excretory powers, i.e., it gets rid. to some extent, of waste matter or foreign materials from the blood. Further, in many animals, we find some part of the canal functioning as a reservoir of water which can tide the animal over long marches between one drinking place and another. DIGESTION IN THE MOUTH.— The shape and arrangement of the teeth vary in different animals according to the food they are fitted to eat and their manner of eating. The differences in the method of chewing and mastication are fairly obvious and need not be described here. In all mammals the tongue is a muscular organ covered with a rough and thick layer of stratified epithelium ; it is richly supplied with end-organs for touch, and at its back has special t-nd-organs for taste. The saliva is the mixed secretion of a number (generally three pairs) of salivary glands. Its composition \aries according to the composition of the substance in th.e mouth which has excited the flow. Thus sand or an irritating chemical in the mouth excites a flow of very watery saliva suitable for washing the substance away ; water excites the flow of a very thick saliva rich in mucin, whereby the water is rendered semi-gelatinous — generally speaking the saliva excited is the best for that particular sub- stance which enters the mouth. Saliva keeps the mouth moist, and by wetting the food can help the teeth and tongue to grind or roll the food into a mass fit for swallowing. In the saliva of omnivores and herbivores, especially w'hen these are eating foods containing starch, the saliva contains an enzyme diastase or ftyalin which can convert the starch into the sugar maltose. The main ingredients of saliva are water, over 99 per cent., mucin to make the saliva adhesive and viscid, salts, and particularly lime salts, so that the saliva shall not absorb away the lime of the teeth (in fact lime salts are often deposited on the teeth as tartar) and diastase as mentioned. In saliva are also found some round white cells or salivary corpuscles, the function of which is not known. The functions of the mouth as regards digestion are therefore the prehension of food ; the mastication of food, by which the surface of the food is increased and the food made into masses fit for swallowing; the selection of food by taste; and the mixing of the food with saliva. No absorption of food occurs in the mouth. {To be continued.) 694 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Nov., 1907. FIRST PROGRESS REPORT ON VITICULTURE lis EUROPE. /•'. de Cast ell a. I reached Marseilles on 22nd July, and on the following day proceeded to Alontpellier, in the neighbourhood of which town I spent o\-er a fortnight visiting vineyards, nurseries, collections of vines, and experimental plots. From Montpellier I proceeded via the vallex' of the Rhone tO' Switzerland where I arrived on 22nd inst., after breaking my journey at various pointb of viticultural interest, and also visiting Aubenas and Vallons on the Ardeche, and Vaucluse on the Sorgue, which I reached by branch lines from the Rhone. The main centres I called at on the Rhone were A\-ignon, Montelimar, Tain, Valence, and St. Vallier ; in the neighbourhood of each of these towns I made numerous excursions. Montpellier and its neighbo'Urhood presents a vast field for the study of modern viticulture and more especially of reconstitution on resistant stocks. Its vinegrowers were among the first to recognise in the use of the American vine the true solution of the Phylloxera problem. The question was studied in the most thorough manner possible both by private growers and by Government institutions, chieflv the National School of Agriculture of Montpellier, which is now everywhere looked upon as the final Court of Appeal in matters viticultural. The influence of this celebrated institution is everywhere evident in tlie neighbourhood — the enlightened vineyard proprietors of the region eagerK co-operated, assisting bv every means in their power, but chiefly by the establishment of exix?rimental plots on such a scale that the whole countr\ [iracticall)- became one vast experimental field. The results obtained, carefully compared and studied by the leading viticultural authorities of France, have placed matters on such a footing that growers in the district are new alile tO' r>lant with certainty of satisfactory results. The question of the use of American stocks is most complex and its study in different centres often presents strange contradictions — it is only by experimental work in each locality, extending over a series of vears, that the true value of each stock, for any given locality, can be accurately determined. It is the thorough manner in which this experimental work has been carried out that has made Montpellier the centre to Avhich all countries ncyv turn for the latest viticultural information. This result has net been achieved without frequent failures. Thousands of acres have , been replanted several times o\'er ; the stocks first used proving unsatis- factory, the},' were replaced by others on which brighter hopes \vere founded. Reconstitution has been an established fact for nearly 30 years. Of the stocks first used, the vast majoritv (which are unknown in Au.stralia) are now obsolete. Until recentl}-, the vine was by far the most profitable culture in this part of France. From Cette, on the West of ]\Iontpellier. to Lunel, on the East, the whole country is one vast vineyard; every available acre, except a few stony outcrops, being under vines. Seen from the train, even at this dry time of the y&2.x, it presents the appearance of a sea of green, only interrupted by an occasional village, the roads, dustv and white in the strong sunlight, and the cellars, farm luiildings and dwelling houses of large estates, numerous in these parts. Aubenas is chiefly interesting as the home of ^I. Couderc well known as the raiser of several of the best grafting stocks such as Nos. 3306, 8 Nov., 1907.] Viticulture in Europe. 695' 3309, 1202', (S:c. I spent three days with M. Couderc, whose long practical experience and scientific attainments gi\-e great weight to his opinions. In addition to experimental plots and collections, he owns vine\ards and makes wine on a commercial scale. He is an indefatigable raiser of new varieties and h\i)rids, and has raised no less than 300,000 seedlings, some of which have i)roved of very great value. At Vaucluse I visited M. Tacussel, a large grower of wine and table grapes, who'se magnificient collection of the latter comprises 800 varieties. M. Tacussel is a large shipper of table gra])es, especially to England and Germany ; he also makes annually some 20,000 gallons of wine. Many of the varieties he cultivates largeh are new to Australia ; several would be distinct acquisitions, and should, I think, be introduced into Victoria. On the Rhone, T visited man\- vine\ards, breaking m\- journey at the places alreadv mentioned. The Rhone valley is interesting tO' an Aus- tralian for several reasons. Its soils, like those in many parts of Victoria, are poor in lime. The (juestion O'f a(la})tati()n in calcareous soils, so important near Montpellier, is no longer a vital one here. The chief variety cultivated is the Syrah which is identical Avith our Red Hermitage or Shiraz, so largely cultivated in Victoria, and which forms the basis of our exiport wdnes. The Marsanne, the leading white variety, is the same as our White Hermitage. The wines produced are more similar to our best Australian than those of Southern France. The celebrated Hermitage, Cornas, St. Peray, Condrieux, &c., both red and white, are of fuller bodv and higher alcoholic strength than most French wines and remind one of our best Victorian. Before proceeding further I must place on record the very cordial manner in which I have been received bv those with whom the work of my mission has brought me in contact, without a single exception. Noi thought of commercial rivalrx or competition has e\er prevented those whom I ha\'e had the good fortune to meet, officialh" or iprivately, from doing their utmost to aid me in every way in their power. I ha\e been fortunate in the way of letters of introduction, through my father and other friends, but the generous aid I have received has exceeded m\ most sanguine anticipations and greatly facilitated mv work. With regard to the late " Viticultural Crisis '" it will reassure our growers to learn that it is chiefly the cheap " Vins ordinaires '' wdiich have suffered. The glut in these wines has had a depressing effect on the market generally, but the choicer French wines are still selling at payable prices. Phylloxera. Except in a few out of the way ])laces, phylloxera is now seldom heard of in France. It is, of course, always there, but with practically the whole country reconstituted it is powerless to injure an\- but vines grafted on stocks'^ which are not sufficiently resistant. I have seen some vineyards where phylloxera has been combated by other means than graft- ing, viz., plantation in sand, by submersion, and by the cultivation of direct producers. In isolated cases one or other of these may be of use with us. I have collected full information. But the true solution of the phylloxera problem is now and probabK always will be grafting on resistant stocks. Grafting on Resistant Stocks. The onl\- ix>ints discussed now-a-days, are in connexion with the choice of stock, in view of conditions of soil,' climate, and scion. Resistance to phylloxera is the first and most vital requirement. Many of the early stocks we're wanting in this, and if not killed outright, they suffered from the insect, at least when grafted, to such an extent as to render their use 696 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Nov., 1907. unprofitable in all but a few soils unsuitable for the life of phylloxera. These stocks are now obsolete. Opinions concerning adaptation and affinity and the influence of the stock on the quality of the wine, differ greatly. The advice given in one district is sometimes quite the reverse of that to be obtained in another. This renders the greatest caution necessary. The following notes on the chief stocks we use in Victoria, and some others, may prove of interest. RiPARiA. — This was the first pure American species used in France on a large scale. Selections were made from the wild vines shipped from the State of Missouri, U.S.A., among which Riparia Portalis or Gloire, as it is now more generally called, soon proved its superiority. It is the only Riparia now used in France on a commercial scale. Though I have not been able to learn anything very serious to the detriment of Riparia Grand Glabre, excejpt that it is generally held inferior to Gloire, there does not seem to be much inducement for us to continue its propagation in Aus- tralia, since it has been abandoned in France. Riparia Gloire, in common with Riparias generally, combines good qualities with some serious defects. It knits its grafts well and cuttings strike readily. Vines grafted on it commence to bear early and are remarkable for the regularity and abundance of their yield. The time of ripening of the fruit is also hastened. The defects are serious. As its name denotes it requires a free, rich, deep and well drained soil — what is known in France as Riparia soil. Planted in soils which do not suit it, it makes but little growth and bears poor crops. It is a short-lived variety and even in suitable soil, after a few years, it loses vigour and ceases to give profitable results. I have seen blocks which through excessive production had become almost sterile at as early an age as seven years. In some cases vigour has been restored by exceedingly short pruning for a year or so. Large areas O'f Riparia on unsuitable soil have been and are now being uprooted annually and replaced by vines on more suitable stocks. Even in suitable soil, a vineyard proprietor considers 20 to 25 years to be the life of a vineyard grafted on Riparia. In our drv Australian climate it will be well to employ Riparia with caution. Vines grafted on it must not be pruned too long or they will rapidly exhaust them- selves. In the majority of cases, as is now generally being done in France, it will be better to select other stocks in its place even in Riparia soils.* In these the hybrids 3306 and loi^'* give equally satisfactory results combined with greater durability. They seem to retain, in a high degree, the precious qualities of the Riparia parent without its most serious defects. A few years ago Riparia was employed in France far more exten- sively than any other stock; now-a-days, though still largely used, its popularity is distinctly declining. RuPESTRis. — Of the numerous Rupestris at first selected and exten- sively propagated, only one is now; used on a large scale in France. This is the Rupestris du Lot or Rupestris Montico'la, by which name, as well as several others, it is also kno>wn. The other Rupestris, such as R. Ganzin, R. Martin, R. Metallica, &c., are now looked upon as obsolete. I cannot hear of any definite! charge being brought against them, but am assured on almost all sides, that they have been found inferior and discarded. I shall therefore confine my remarks' to R. du Lot. This stock has recently given rise to more discussion than perhaps any other, and even now it is impossible to accurately judge its true value. Owing to its extraordinary vigour it has many friends and has been planted very extensively. Some growers who have cultivated it for years prefer it to all other stocks and use it for new plantations, and for replacing * [Note. —Riparia stocks are only used at Rutherg-leu A'iticultiual Station in tlie case of vines specially ordered for planting in deep alluvial soils. —Ed. ] 8 Nov., 1907.] Viticulture in Europe. 697 faulty or dving vines in their vineyards. Others give it a bad name, saying that it fears drought more than Riparia, and that it is much given to set badly the fruit of \ines grafted on it. Some again, amongst whom I may mention no less an authority than M. Couderc, question its resistance to phvlloxera. I have seen cases of vines affected in his vineyards near Aubeinas. In the Montpellier district this stock is very highly thought of and largely used. In the majority of cases it is preferred to other stocks in all soils, excapt those which are too moist, or which contain, an excess of lime. Soils containing more than 25 per cent, of carbonate of lime are not suitable for this stock. I have seen R. du Lot grafted with many different scions, both in the vineyards on a very large scale, and in single rows in experimental plots, alongside of rows on other stocks. In soils which suit it, at least near Montpellier, it has always been able to hold its own. The vigour of its grafts is very fine and their fructification very satisfactorv, though, as a rule, somewhat less than that of vines on Riparia stock in their prime. As regards durability it far surpasses Riparia. Though a later importation than the last named stock, it has now being used on a large scale for a sufficient number of years to abundantly prove its value in localities for which it is suited. Near Montpellier I have not been able to find a case of insufficient resistance to phylloxera on R. du Lol. It is, as has beetn said, a very vigorous stock — excess of vigour is some- times for imperfect setting of the fruit. This is one of the chief faults found with Rupestris stock. If grafted with varieties liable to set badly, the crop is usually light, especially when the vines are young — long pruning remedies this to some extent, but as a rule it is an unsatisfactory stock for shy bearing sorts. This tendency is very evident in experimental plots where rows of different stocks grafted with the same scion are tO' be seen growing side by side. Take for example, Aramon on Rupestris and on Riparia. The bunches of the former are distinctly looser and more scattered than those of the latter. With such a heavy bearer as Aramon this is of little importance, the big loose bunches borne on Rupestris vielding as much wine per vine as the more compact ones on Riparia. But with less prolific " cepages '' this pecularity must not be lost sight of; also in the case of table grapes, many of which set their fruit badly. On the other hand, certain table grapes with too' compact a bunch may be im- proved by this tendency to scattered berries. Vines grafted on R. du Lot ripen their fruit usually a week later than the same kind on Riparia. This point should be taken into consideration when selecting stocks for table grapes. From what I have seen near Montpellier I am convinced that in this particular locality, and grafted with the heavy bearing cepages of the region, Rupestris du Lot gives absolutely satisfactorv results in the vast majority of cases. The soil about here is deep and usually gravelly or stony and easily penetrable bv the roots of the vine. Where the sub-soil is clayey or otherwise impenetrable results are less satisfactory. Though growth may be sufficient, vines grafted on this stock are apt to lose the leaves near the base of the canes prematurely, thus exposing the grapes tO' sunburn|. In such cases R. du Lot may suffer from the drought even as much as Riparia. At Vaucluse R. du Lot is almost as papular as near Montpellier. M. Tacussel nses it as a stock for table grapes, especially for such kinds as are too close in the bunch. At Aubenas and at Vallons this stock is held in less esteem ; at the latter place, it is said to suffer from drought even more than Riparia. The case of insufficient resistance to phylloxera at Aubenas has already been referred to. It occurred in a block of mother vines grown for the production of grafting wood — several depressions were noticeable. 698 Journal of Agriculttire. [8 Nov., 190;; On the Rhone, at the Hermitaye, St. Peray. Cornas, &c., this stock is also unpopular. Syrah (our Shiraz or Red Hermitage) grafted on it takes too long to come to full bearing, and often suffers from the partial non- setting of its fruit, known in French as Millerandage. Here again I was informed that Rupestris suffered from drought more than Riparia. On the Rhone, Hybrid No. 3309 is found to be the best stock for Syrah. All new vines planted are grafted on it. R. du Lot is rather susceptible to Pourridie or root rot in soils liable to this disease. From the above it is evident that R. du Lot is a stock which should not be too extensively planted without careful consideration. Growers must avoid being led away bv its remarkable vigour (as happened frequently in France) to preferring it to other sta:ks which, in certain soils at least, *-ill give better results. In soils which suit it, such as the deep soils of Montpellier, and for suitable scions, it can confidently be recommended as one of the most vigorous, most durable and generally satisfactory stocks. It will be most interesting to see in what esteem this stock is held in Spain, Portugal, and Algeria. It will be noted from, what has already been said that in the warmer Southern part of France it is more popular than in the cooler central positions. {To be continued). SCALE OF CHARGES, GOVERNMENT COOL STORES, MELBOURNE. Produce. Treatment, &c. Rate. Storage.* Butter or Milk Per box, for first two weeks, or any portion thereof, including handling, freezing, and shipping 3d. Ud. Butter Per cask, for first two weeks, or any portion thereof, including handling, freezing, and shipment (kl. 3d. Cheese Per case of 1 cwt.. for first two weeks, or any portion thereof . . 6d. 3d. Ditto For rijiening, per large cheese, first week Ud. Oid. Ditto For ripening, per loaf cheese, first week . . old. Oid. Eggs Per case of 25 dozen, for first two weeks, or any portion thereof . . 4d. 2d. Ditto Per case of 36 dozen, for first two weeks, or any portion thereof . . (id. 3d. Ditto Per dozen for export, including grading. packing, case, and 14 days' storage Ud. IW. Poultry — Chickens, Per pair for export, including grading. Fowls, Ducks killing, dressing, iiacking, case, and 21 days' storage 8d. Ud. Geese and Turkeys Per pair for export, including grading, killing, dressing, packing, case, and 21 days' storage Is. lid. Game Per pair (12 to i.4 pairs to case), including grading, killing, dressing, packing, case. and 21 days' storage 2d. Ucl. Ditto Per pair (25 to 50 pairs to case), including grading, killing, dressing, packing, case. and 21 days' storage Id. Ud. Ditto Per pair (over 50 pairs to case), including grading, killing, dressing, packing, case, and 21 days' storage ow. Ud. * Per Package per week following, or portion of week. 8 Nov., 1907.] Scale of Charges, Cool Stores. 699 Scale of Charges, Government Cool Stores, Melbourne — continued. Produce. Rabbits — Furred Ditto — skinned Hares Mutton Lamb Pork Ditto Veal Ditto Beef Beef Ditto Meat Ditto Ditto Fruit Diito Treatment, &c. Per crate of 12 pairs for export, including grading, packing, crate, handling, brand- ing, and shipping, and 21 days' storage Per pair, for export, including as per Furred Rabbits Per pair, for export, including as per Furred Rabbits Per carcass, including handling, freezing, loading, bagging, calico wrap, and 21 days' storage Per carcass, including handling, freezing. loading, bagging, calico wrap, and 21 days" storage Per carcass, including handling, freezing. loading, bagging, calico wTap, and 21 days' storage . P'"* side, including handlira freezing. loading, bagging, calico wrap, and 21 days' storage Per carcass (under 100 lbs.) including handling, freezing, loading, bagging, calico wTap, and 21 days' storage Per side (uncler 50 lbs.), including handling, freezing, loading, bagging, calico wi'ap, and 21 days' storage Per body, including handling, freezing, loading, bagging, calico wrap, and 21 days' storage Per quarter, including handling, freezing, loading, calico wrap, and 21 days' storage Per piece {\ of carcass), including handling, freezing, loading, calico wrap, and 21 days' storage Sundries, per 50 lbs., including bags, hand- ling, &c. (cases extra) Kidneys, packed in cases of 20 dczcn. including case Kidneys, packed in cases of 10 dozen. including case Per case, for export from date of receiving, and two weeks' storage Per case, for storage for first two weeks, or any portion thereof Rate. Is. lOd. Ud. 4d. lOd. 8d. lOd. 6d. Is. 9d. lid. 10s. 28. 2s. 6cl. 6d. Is. 3d. 3d. Is. 2d. Is. Id. 9d. OAd 3d. U,d 3d. lid STORAGE.* Ud. lid. 2d. Ucl. Ud. Ud. Ucl. Note.— Extra labour incurred by Double Bagginy of mutton, lamb, pork. veal, cr beef will be charged for at the rate of \d- per carcass or piece. Quarters cf beef, -kl. each: or bodies of beef, 2d. each. Hessian wrappers will be charged for extra at Schedule prices. Weighing of mutton, iamb, pork, veal, beef. &c., up to 10 per cent, included in above scale of charges. Additional weighing will be charged for at the rate of ^d. per carcass of mutton, lamb, veal, pork, or pieces of beef ; W. for quarters, and id. for bodies of beef. Carcasses of veal over 100 lbs., and sides of over 50 lbs., will be charged for at the rate of 6d. per 50 lbs. or jiart thereof. Re-branding of crates, cases, &c., including removal of other brands, id. extra. Additions to brands cf crates, cases, &c., not including removal of brands, Jd. extra. Butter, &c., arriving at the Cool Stores, and taken delivery of the same day, befcre being put in freezing rooms, will be charged Id. per case. All charges must be paid by the Shipper or his agents, together with freight. &c., before obtaining delivery of bills of lading. Per Package per week following, or portion of week. Journal of Agriculture. [8 Nov., 1907. 8 Nov., 1907.] An Exhibit of Farm Products. AN EXHIBIT OF FARM PRODUCTS. As an illustration of what can be accomplished under conditions which are generally considered as very unfavourable is seen in the collection of farm products exhibited by Mr. T. Bound at Nhill. Mr. Bound's farm consists of 640 acres of third-class land, in the " Little Desert," 13 miles south of Nhill. The soil is of the usual light sandy character, and the rainfall averages 18 inches. Only about one-half the selection has up to the present been touched, the remainder still being covered with the •dwarf scrub, which yields very little fodder of service to the farmer. Mr. Bound has about 300 acres under cultivation, of which 200 are cropped ■each vear as follows: — 100 acres wheat, 40 oats, 12 peasi, 15 market gar 'en vegetables, and 20 orchard. Beside the team of horses, the live stock comprises eight milking cows and a small flock of sheep. Usually at least 40 pigs are fattened each year. The accompanying illustration gives some idea of the wide range of products raised on the farm. The sheaves of wheat, oats, barley, peas, and melilotus indicate the chief products of the broad acres. It is interesting to find that the wheat yield is well up to the average in the north-west, the sandy soil giving relatively very good returns in dry years. The leguminous crops grow well, the peas giving almost invariably a. satis- factory retuni. The melilot appears to have secured a good hold on the sandy soil. Pigs and pig products form important items in making up the yearly income from this farm, and consume the greater part of the peas and root crops, as well as the waste of the orchard. Butter and cheese are produced from the dairy herd. The " market garden " area yields roots, cabbage, and kale for the pigs and cows, and potatoes ajid tomatoes to be placed on the market. It is seldom that the potato is raised in large quantities to the north of the line of 25 inches of rainfall, but Mr. Bound has demonstrated what can be done in this direction. Four acres of tomatoes are raised every year, most of the yield being made into tomato sauce on the farm. Onions form another crop not usually grown in the north, but which is one of the most successful on the farm under review. In the large orchard almost every kind of fruit flourishes with great luxuriance. Apples, grapes, and apricots are the three kinds chiefly cultivated and not only vield well but are also unusually free from pests of all kinds. The fruit is partly placed on the market in the fresh state, and partly bottled, or otherwise preserved. In fact the display of jams, jellies, raisins, and dried and preserved fruits is one of the features of the exhibit. No' better display can be found of the wide variety of products of economic value which can be grown and prepared on an average Vic- torian homestead, and there is no doubt that if this were the rule instead of the exception farmers would be much more independent of the markets and of the season. Diversified production not only develops the resources of the farm, but renders the home nearly independent of the storekeeper. More than 90 separate products come from this single Wimmera farm. It will be seen that it is not necessary to have rich land or heavy rainfall to make a prosperous home. — T.C. 702 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Nov., 1907. PURE LACTIC ACID CULTURE FOR RIPENING CREAM. Directions for Use. The bottle containing tlie pure culture must be kept firmly corked in tne case and in a cool place. It should not be opened until ready for use. The milk to be used for a) " starter " should be the best a.vailable, free from taint and ill-odour, and obtained from selected dairies. It is essential that special care be observed to secure absolute fclean- liness, both during the process of milking and in the subsequent treatment of the milk. The first tablespoonful from each teat should be rejected. The milk ought to be cooled and aerated immediately after milking. At the factory it should be slowly run through the se;parator in order to separate the cream and remove as much of the impurities as possible. After leaving the sepairatOT, pasteurize at a temperature of about 180 degrees for one hour. This can be readily accomplished by standing the vessel in o/ vat of water heated by steam. During the heating process stir the milk occasionally with a sterilized or clean glass rod. Cover the can with scalded butter-cloth, four-fold thick, to exclude air organisms. Cool down rapidly to 80 degrees Fah. The lx)ttle of pure culture is sufficicuf for about 4 gallons of pasteurized skim milk. Agitate the culture well and gradually add to the milk, stirring freely with the glass rod. Repeat the stirring operation at least three times during the first hour ; then set the vessel in a suitable place,, ^vhe^e a temperature ranging from 70 to 90 degrees Fa;h. can be maintained. It must be kept covered with the butter-cloth, and the atmosphere ought tc be pure. It will Ix" found that the " starter " is coagulated in from 18' to 24 hours, when it will possesSj an agreeable sweet odour. If required coagulation malv be hastened by raising towards the higher temperature. As soon as coagulation is complete, the " starter " should be trans- ferrefl to a cool da,rk room, with a temperature not exceeding 60 degrees Fah., until it is required foT use. It is advisable to skim the surface of the " starter '' ; break it up freely with the glass rod, and add from 5 to 10 gallons to 100 gallons of cream, at a temperature not exceeding 70 degrees Fah., w-ith continuous stirring. The cream should be gently stirred at least twice a day in vat. The cream room should be clean, well lighted, and ventilated to secure healthy and even ripening. Special care must be devoted to the sterilization of all the vessels and utensils used by applying steam to them. To continue the " starter " it must be renewed from day to day by adding 10 per cent, of the previous daiy's " starter " to the freshly pasteurized skim milk. The "starter" improves by repeated inoculation or daily renewals, provided strict care be taken to prevent contamination, and only fresW, pure, clean, sepairated milk be employed. Under such conditions the " starter" may be maintained in full and healthy vigour for a month or longer, when it will be necessary to olbtain ai fresh culture from 'the Department's Laborator\-. Applications for same should be addressed' to the Superintendent of Exi)orts, Government Cool Stores, Flinders-street,, Melbourne.— R.C. 8 Nov., 1907.] Stalistics. 703 STATISTICS. Rainfall in "Victoria. Third Quarter, 1907. Table showing average amount of rainfall in each of the 26 Basins or Regions con- stituting the State of Victoria for each month and the quarter, with corresponding monthly and quarterly averages for each Basin deduced from all available record? to date. July. Aug ust. September. Total for Third Quarter. Dasin. I2 1 < = 5 1 > < 5 0 1- II Average. Average lor Third Quart( Glenelg and Wannon Rivers 3-70 2-91 :i-86 3 10 1-21 2-71 8-77 8-72 Fitzroy, Eumerella, and Merri 3-53 3-37 :;-98 3-19 1-80 3-08 9-31 !) • 63 Rivers Hopkins River and Mount 2 • r.9 2-29 .•]()5 2-43 1-32 2-55 6-96 7-27 Emu Creek Mount Elephant and Lake 2-29 1-90 3-20 2-34 1-77 2-39 7-26 ()-63 Corangamite Otway Eorest 4:0 3 • 68 .:-28 401 1-89 3 52 10-47 11-21 Moorabool and Barwou Rivers 2-36 2-31 ;;i4 2-38 1-08 2-60 6 -58 7-29 Werribee and Sal twater Rivers 1-76 211 L^04 2-48 0-53 2-39 4-33 6-98 Yarra River and Dandenong 3-35 310 r, 42 306 1-49 3-26 8.26 9-42 Creek Koo-wee-rup S«amp 3 -.51 2-94 4 41 2-94 1-46 3 26 9-38 9-14 South Gippsland :V48 3-41 4 8.5 3-95 2-27 3 66 10- 60 11-02 Latrobe and Thompson Rivers 3-54 2-71 4 62 3-53 2-31 3 • 36 10-47 9-60 Macallister and Avon Rivers 0-81 1-53 2 09 2-45 1-56 -08 4-'46 6-06 Mitchell River 0 66 1-91 1-67 2-65 0-62 2-33 2- 95 6-89 Tambo and Nicholson Rivers 0-66 2-20 1 54 2-61 102 2- 15 3-22 ii-96 Snowy River 0-81 3-44 1 91 3-27 117 3 • 06 3-89 9-77 Murray River 217 1-86 1-66 2-26 0-70 1 •8-1 4-53 5 -95 Mitta Mitta and Kiewa Rivers 3t)-5 3- 11 :;-42 3-33 105 3 (15 812 9-49 Ovens River 412 3-89 3-91 4-29 117 ■^ ■ 99 9-20 12-17 Gnulburn River 2-97 2 34 2-76 2-83 106 2-31 0-79 7.48 Campaspe River 2-88 2-24 2-51 2-69 1-27 2- 18 6 • 66 7-11 Loddon River 2- 16 1-48 1 -86 1-92 071 1-54 3-73 4-94 Avon and Richardson Rivers 2-30 1-28 •J 00 1-68 0 84 1-33 5- 14 4-29 Avf)ca River 2 09 142 1 -80 1-74 0-49 1-35 4-38 4 51 Western W'immera... 2-69 2 14 2 83 2-27 0-.57 1-84 609 l)-25 Eastern Wimmera ... 3-34 216 •-' • 89 2-37 0 • 53 1 -88 6-70 ()-41 Mallee Country 1-65 rin 1-76 1-37 0-43 1 .06 2.21 3-84 3-58 The whole State 2-47 2-21 2-67 2-51 0-99 6 13 6-93 Figures in these oolumn.s are subject to alterations when the complete number of returns for September has been received. P. BARACCHI, Gorcrvmnit A x/royimflr. 704 Journal of Agriculture. [8 Nov., 1907. Perishable and Frozen Prodnce. Quarters ended 30th September, 1907 and 1906. Description of Produce. Butter Milk and Cream Cheese Ham and Bacon Poviltry Eggs... Mutton and Lamlj Beef ... Veal ... Pork... Babbits and Hares Fruit „ Pulp ... Sundries lbs. cases lbs. head dozen carcasses quarters carcasses II pairs cases lbs. Exports from the State. 1907. 1906. 3,779,800 11,998 220,440 671,040 4,365 30,870 9,454 225 1,559 243 2,007,432 6,41 — IV — Cross Section showing Pitch of Handle. ■H r < s/a .^r 4 ■ "i"' '/s W I Back View. CoTTiNo Iron ^V 11 M'A'^/-^. LIT bACK 1^'at ENDS TCDNED DOWN & bOLTEJJ '/i'* 'A' w I ORE.CON 6- J Cross Section at End a-.s/eWL l< il'/V — Detail of Skid. Plan. THE LESTER BUCKSCRAPER. American type of wheel scoop with large wheels and complicated arrange- ments for lifting &c. is not recommended as the saving in draught is more than balanced by greater complexity and consequent trouble in working. tjaving made a satisfactory job of the grading and levelling pre- paratory to laying down in irrigated crops, the next thing to do is to 7o8 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907 9 Dec, 1907.] Grading and Levelling. 709 construct the needed distribution works. From the outlet in the main supply channel, a distributary channel has to be made with minor dis- tributaries depending upon the area, slopes and other conditions. If these are of large size the buckscraper may again be called upon, or if the ground be light and sandy, the Perkins scraper will do the best work. In ordinary cases, the V-shaped scraper, delver or crowder is the implement. The bed of the channel must first be ploughed for its full width, and the scraper is then run along, the lighter and shorter plank acting as a mould-board, pushing the loosened earth to one side to form a bank. Bv running in one direction only, the earth may be placed all on one side; bv alternating, both banks may be made. Channels 2 ft. 6 in. deep with banks of 2 feet in height may be made in this way ; but, of course, without any berm or cess from the edge of the cutting to the toe of the bank. The channel is in fact V-shaped, like the implement making it. GENERAL A"1E\V WERRIBEE SEWAGE FARM. The drawings very fully show the method of construction while a very little experience will teach its use. The mould plank or lighter board, may with advantage be hinged just behind the extension arms, if working in crab-holey country. The timber is preferably redgum, on account of its weight and resistance to hard usage. The delver may be made in any size although that figured is the most generally useful. The strength of team required will of course, vary with the work. In light ground three horses will work the figured size; but generally four will be wanted. Rougher implements may be fixed up to do serviceable work, the original type being merely a forked tree or sapling, adzed down to sometliing like shape and protected here and there with pieces of iron. Joiinnd of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907 From the illustrations given in this and the preceding articles, the- *ra ^ P M^ 'fK^'r fllB^^^ THE BUCKSCRAPER IN POSITION FOR DISTRIBUTING. ordinary handy man with the necessary tools and a forge should be able to make sufficientlv serviceable implements, getting in all probability,- THE BUCKSCRAPER DISTRIBUTING. some of the iron- work done by the local blacksmith. As a guide, the ^ Dec, 1907.] Grading and Levelling. 711 following prices are quoted, as ha\ing lieen paid for implements to use on the Wvuna farm. 7 -ft. Steel Buckscraper 7-ft. Wooden ,, 9-f t. Delver Smoother ^700 4100 300 3 10 o In conclusion, too great stress cannot be laid upon the necessity for •careful grading and levelling of paddocks intended to be irrigated. Whether water is to be distributed by simply flooding, by checks or by furrows, loss of time, loss of water, loss of temper and loss of crop will always attend attempts to water uneven ground. The removal of the surface soil from one spot to another will, to some extent, lessen the fertility at one place though increasing it at another; but with careful THE DELVER. use of water and liberal employment of manures, little if any effect of the levelling operations should be visible in the growth of the irrigated pro- ducts. The operations are not costly and the increase in yields and improvement in quality due to ability to water evenly and thoroughly will in mosL seasons repay the initial outlay. Very good work can be done under favorable conditions for a few shillings per acre, not including, of course, the cost of the distributing channels, checks or laterals. Ten :shillings per acre implies heavy work, though in exceptional cases of river flats of very high quality, much bigger sums have been spent. If land by proper grading can be made, under irrigation, to give returns only equalled under natural conditions by the richest of our river flats, it would seem rank folly not to endeavour to get the best results, the outlay being more than repaid in the increased capital value of the land alone. Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907 FIRST PROGRESS REPORT ON VITICULTURE m EUROPE. F. de Castella. {Continued from page 6g8.) Hybrids. RiPARiA X RuPESTRis. — By crossing these species it has been possible to raise seedlings retaining the characteristics of both parents. As the result of the most rigorous selection a few have been sorted out which have inherited the qualities without the defects of the parents. Chief among these are three vines which certainly rank among the most valuable resistant stocks and which are those most largely used in Victoria. They are Nos. 3306 and 3309 of Couderc and No. loi^^ of Millardet. In France also these are the best known Riparia Rupestris hybrids. No. 3309 is perhaps one of the most valuable stocks we possess. During my travels I have come across it very frequently both in vineyards on a large scale and in ex- perimental plots. I have not in a single instance heard any complaints con- cerning it. It is one of the rare stocks which seem to give good results everywhere. In the numerous experimental plots near Montpellier I have always found it to be one of the best, both as regards vigour and fruit- fulness. In the Hermitage district it is now used exclusively as the stock for the Syrah (Shiraz or Red Hermitage). It resists drought in a high degree, being the best of the three for drv situations. From what I have seen I think it safe to predict a great future for this stock in Vic- toria. It will be interesting to note the opinion formed of it in Spain, Algiers and other dry countries. No. 3306 is usually to be found alongside of 3309 in experimental plots. It is as a rule equally satisfactory though of slightly less vigorous growth. No. 3306 takes rather more after its Riparia parent and 3309 after its Rupestris one. This is probably the cause of the slight su- periority of the latter in most experimental plots for these are usually established in soils where the effects of drought are felt and not in Riparia soils where almost any American stock will thrive. Though both these stocks have a wide range of adaptation, leading authorities consider 3309 best suited for dry hill-sides, and 3306 for stiff clays and sour, wet soils ; for these it has displaced Solonis, a stock which will be referred to presentlv. No. loi^* seems to be the one of the three which most resembles its Riparia parent. For this reason it is usually inferior to the other two in the dry soils of most experimental plots. It is nevertheless a stock of great value in soils which suit it. These are deep, rich, moist and well drained — "Riparia" soils in fact. In these it is to be preferred to Riparia Gloire chiefly on account of its greater durability when grafted. I have occasionally seen 101^^ giving disappointing results, but onlv in soils where Riparia did not thrive. It bids fair to supplant Riparia in Riparia soils. Solonis. — This is a rather complex hvbrid which was verv popular in the early days of French reconstitution. It possesses some valuable quali- ties such as fruitfulness of its grafts and adaptability to limestone soils, 9 Dec, 1907.] Viticulture in Etirope. 713 but has been generally discarded owing to its insufficient resistance to phyl- loxera (14 points of a maximum of 20). It was long in favour for damp and even brackish soils in which most Americans will not grow. Even in these soils it has now been discarded in favour of No. 3306, which possesses its qualities without its defects. Hybrid No. 1616. — This is a Solonis x Riparia which has, I think found its way to Victoria. Like its Solonis parent its grafts are fruitful and it is recommended for sour and brackish soils. Near Montpellier, No. 3306 is now generally preferred to it even for these special soils. I'ranco-American Hybrids 1202 and A.R.G.i. — Franco-American h\"brids are those resulting from the crossing of French \'ines with one or other of the American species. They are chiefly represented in Australia bv No. 1202 and Aramon Rupestris Ganzin No. i which for convenience we may refer to as A.R.G.i. These Franco- American hybrids have been Yery extensi\ely raised in France. By a rigorous selection it has beeii possible to sort out a few combining in a high degree the good qualities of both parents, that is to say, the resistance to phylloxera of the American with the facility of adaptation to difficult soils of the European parent. One of the chief advantages of these stocks is the affinity they possess, owing to their partly European origin, for bad scions — that is, for sorts which do not thri\'e when grafted on most American stocks. For a long time it was feared that their resistance to phylloxera would not be sufficient, that they would inherit from their Vinifera parent some of its \'ulnera- bility, or lack of resistance to the insect. These fears appear to have been groundless so far as a few at least of these hybrids are concerned. After years of experimenting and practical use on a large scale their re- sistance to phylloxera has been proved to be amply sufficient. No. 1202 is a Mourvedre x Rupestris. Its European parent, the Mour- vedre is none other than our Australian Mataro. A.R.G.i results from the crossing of the Aramon with the Rupestris Ganzin of the various seedlings resulting from this hybridization; Nos. i, 2 and 9 showed their superiority and have alone been used on a large scale. No. i is the one which has been introduced to Victoria. Here I have repeatedly seen both these stocks both in vineyards and experimental plots under varied con- ditions of soil and climate and have carefully examined them and made inquiries as to their resistance to phylloxera. In only one single instance have I seen 1202 suffering slightly from the attacks of the insect. T have never seen A.R.G.i affected. The case where 1202 was damaged was at the experimental plot of Mas de las Sorres, and in exceptionally bad soil. The expert viticulturist who was with me at the time considered it to be the result of last year's drought and that the damage, which was slight, was only temporary, the phylloxera always doing more damage in a ilry \ear. I merely place it on record as the dryness of many parts of Victoria renders extreme caution necessary. In large numbers of other cases have I seen 1202 growing in the midst of phylloxera frequently among other vines, such as hybrids of insufficient resistance, which were dying from the attacks of the insect. 1202 was always remarkably vigorous and healthy. I have so far been unable to hear of a second instance where its resistance was not amply sufficient. 1202 is used on a very large scale and every- where gives great satisfaction. It is, in fact, a favorite stock for difficult soils and for scions which have ]xx)r affinitv for American vines. _ As a rule the fructification of its grafts is good, though it shares to a slight extent an excessive vigour of its Rupestris parent which sometimes interferes with 714 J ournal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907- proper setting of the fruit. A.R.G.i shares the qualities of the previous- stock. Its grafts seem to set their fruits slightly better, but on the other hand it is perhaps a little more difficult to graft. On the Rhone, at St. Peray and Comas, A.R.G.i is preferred to all others as the stock foT the- Viognier a choice white cepage of that district which possesses poor affinity for most American stocks. Both these hybrids are most valuable stocks which have in all pro- bability a great future in Australia, especially for such difficult scions as- Gordo Blanco. Poor Affinity of Gordo Blanco. On all sides I hear complaints as to the difficulty of finding a suitable stock for the Muscat of Alexandria. The close relationship of this vine to our Gordo Blanco renders this fact interesting to our growers. No' raisins are grown in France, but the Muscat of Alexandria is much cul- tivated as a table grape. Grafted on Riparia it only lasts a few years and on Rupestris it bears no fruit. Strange to say other Muscats such as that of Frontignan and Snow's Muscat Hambro' do not share in this defective affinity, but thrive on several different stocks. In Spain I hope to obtain some useful information as to the stocks used for Gordos, but so far as can be learnt from French experience our raisin growers may have trouble in suiting their Gordos with a stock. So far as I have been able to ascertain the stocks which give the least unsatisfactory results in- France are A.R.G.i and some stocks which are as yet unknown in Aus- tralia, notably 420A, 62-66, 84-3 &c. Stocks New to Australia. Hitherto I have confined my remarks to stocks which have been intro- duced into Victoria. In addition to these there are several as vet unknown to us, which have within a few years come rapidly to the fore, and in certain conditions of soil and climate are now proving themselves superior to several of the older stocks. Hybrid No. 93-5, a Vinifera x Rupestris, is proving of the greatest value in the very dry compact soil of Oran, Algeria. Several other hybrids, some of which contain some sap of Vitis Cordifolia and Berlandieri in their composition are rapidly gaining in popularity and bid fair, especially in drier situations, to supersede some of the older stocks. Vitis Berlandieri and its Hybrids. Vitis Berlandieri was first studied in France on account of its adapt- ability to extremely calcareous soils. It was soon found to possess in addition several other most valuable qualities; amongst others, strong affinity for most European scions, thus insuring great durability for its grafts. These are also remarkably vigorous and fruitful, and the quality of the fruit is excellent. It shares with Riparia the property of diminish- ing couliire or non-setting of the fruit, but is free from the defects of that species. V. Berlandieri grows wild in the driest and most barren parts of the State of Texas. It is therefore one of the most drought-resisting species. Wherever I have seen it the vigour of vines grafted on it has been remark- able, as also the quantity and quality of their fruit. Its one defect is the 9 Dec, 1907.] Viticulture in Europe. 715 difficulty with which its cuttings strike ; this renders its propagation on a commercial scale almost impossible. But for this fault V. Berlandieri would certamly be one of the most popular stocks. This difficulty has been overcome in an indirect manner by the raising of hybrids between V. Berlandieri and other species which retain in a high degree the precious qualities of the Berlandieri parent, whilst they can be stiuck and grafted almost as easily as Riparias, or Rupestris. Among the most promising of these are the Berlandieri-Riparia hybrids Nos. 420A, 34 E.M., 1 57-11 and 161-49. Several Vinifera Berlandieri hybrids have, like the other Franco- Americans already referred to, proved .themselvesi resistant to phylloxera. The Nos. 41 B., 333 E.M., and 62-66 are deserving of special note. These Berlandieri hybrids are excellent for scions of faulty affinity. It is probable that one suitable for the Gordo Blanco may be found among this group. This fact, as well as their resistance to drought renders their introduction, as well as that of a few others, into Victoria, exceedingly desirable. Introduction of New Varieties both for Stocks and Scions. In my instructions I have been directed to report as to the desirability ■of introducing the more modern stocks referred to above. From what I have already seen I am of opinion that the importation of the latest stocks is urgently needed. In Victoria we have not the high percentage of lime in our soils which gave so much trouble in the early days of French reconstitution. We have however occasional long periods of dry weather and also in many cases stiff clay subsoils, both of which are undesirable for the majority of American stocks. It is therefore of the greatest importance that we should keep quite up to date and the importation of a limited number of all the more promising new stocks for experimental purposes is earnestly recommended. As regards those new stocks which have proved their superiority and are no longer in the experimental stage, I am of opinion tliat a sufficient number of rooted plants of these vines should be secured to' enable plantations of mother vines to be immediately made. If the decision to propagate in Victoria all the grafted vines needed for Victorian reconstitution bei adhered to, a vast amount of grafting wood will be necessary and the number of our mother vines will have to be con- siderably increased. At the present stage it is unnecessary to finally decide a; to which stocks should be ordered and my experience in hot countries such as Spain, Portugal, and Algiers may somewhat modify the list. I beg further to recommend that arrangements be made for the imme- diate purchase of sufficient of each new stock to permit of the establishment of experimental plots in different districts. I feel sure that these can be carried out with the co-operation of leading growers in each district, as has been done in France, and that they would be the means of acquiring the most valuable and reliable information on the subject. I also beg to recommend the importation of several French table and wine varieties which would, in my opinion, be very desirable acquisitions in addition to the importation of the choicest wine varieties of Spain and Portugal asked for bv the Viticultural Society of Victoria. I am •convinced that this latter importation will be of great importance to the Victorian wine industrv. 7i6 J ouriial of Agricidiitre. [9 Dec, 1907 INSECT PESTS IN FOREIGN LANDS. Second Progress Report by Mr. W . TF. Froggatt, F.L.S. {Continued from fagc 685.) I have the honour to report that I reached California on the 21st August and as soon as I landed presented my credentials to Mr. Bremner, Acting Oflficer-in-Charge of the State Board of Horticulture. The insectary consists of a few jars and breeding cages in a small room adjoining the main office and is not more than 12 feet square, whilst the chief insects are the codlin moth parasites that Mr. Compere brought over from Spain, which have been bred in captivity in large numbers by placing thousands of codlin moth grubs among half-a-dozen strips of wood tied in bundles of half-a-dozen. The ichneumon flies {Efhialtes carbonarius Zach.) puncture the enclosed codlin moth grubs and deposit their eggs in the body of the grub where they hatch, feed, pupate and emerge in the cages as perfect wasps. In the afternoon I went on the wharves with Mr. Bremner to see the methods of passing fruit under their regulations. The chief fruit upon the wharves was bananas, each bunch being rolled and tied up in leaves. None of these are inspected, as bananas are not grown in California. A large shipment of pineapples also came over from Honolulu from the United States ExjDerimental Station to Mr. Higgens, the Hawaiian fruit expert. These were not inspected in any way, but a number of small consignments in large boxes closely packed in grass were stacked on the wharf, an oiled sheet thrown over them, and an unmeasured charge of cyanide, acid and water placed in a jar under this sheet and left there for half-an-hour ; the sheet was then dragged off, and the carriers removed them. There were a number of other stacks of fruit around on the wharf which were removed without fumigation, but Mr. Bremner informed me these would be fumigated by the fruit merchants in their own warehouses. All plants and little lots of fruit brought by passengers on boats outside Californian ports are treated in the same manner. Xext day I went across to Alameda and found Mr. Koebele, and also with him Mr. Giffard, head of the Sugar Planters' Association of Hawaii. Mr. Koebele has been able tO' give me a great deal of general information on parasites and has given me the free run of his large entomological collections. He is going down to Mexico to collect parasites for the Hawanan Planters' Association next month, so I expect after leaving Washington to go southwards and meet him at El Paso and while 1 am in Mexico will have his knowledge of that country, which will be an immense advantage in working at the fruit flies attacking the oranges there. As the town of San Francisco is in such a disorganized state I came across the bay and made Alameda my headquarters; the same day I visited Berkeley University and met Dr. Woodworth who is Professor of Entomology. He has been very kind and gone with me to several interesting districts to study insect pests. With him I visited Watsonville and spent a long day in the apple orchards of Pijari Valley, which is sicuated between Monteroy and Vera Cruz, and contains about 14,000 acres of commercial apple orchards. The fog sweeps on from the sea for the greater part of the year and the conditions of codlin moth and spraying are remarkable, as in different altitudes the codlin moth is very variable 9 Dec, 1907.] Insect Pests in Foreign Lands. 717 in its attacks, but during the last season a series of experiments have been carried out by Mr. W. H. Volck (County Entomologist). Spraying is universal throughout this section, the growers sprajing with arsenite of lead from three to five times in the season; 30,000 lbs. of this material have been sold and used in this district, which Mr. C. H. Rogers (County Horticultural Commissioner) informed me had produced last year fruit valued at i^ million dollars. No bandages are used on the trees for codlin moth when systematic spraying is carried on, but in many places the trunks of the apple trees were bound round wdth rope soaked in stickfast to prevent the tent moth caterpillars getting up into the trees, which unlike the tussock moth caterpillars cannot be killed with arsenical sprays. Mildew of the apple foliage is another trouble sometimes, and up tO' the present no fungicide has been found effective. Where spraying is not carried out, codlin moth is just as bad as in Australia; in this valley a number of the codlin moth parasites {Efhialtes carbonarius) were turned out over a year ago, but none of the residents have ever seen them since. And I might state that I have been unable to find any instances in which this ichneumon parasite has been found in an orchard. Mr. Isaac (Commissioner at Sacramento) said he found two in his garden a few weeks before where a great number had been turned out in an infested apple tree, but I could find no traces- of them, though codlin moth grubs were very plentiful. I asked all the officers of the State Horticutural Depart- ment if they could send me into an orchard where I coiild see this parasite working under natural conditions, but they did not know of any. The general opinion of all the apple growers, with whom I talked, is that this parasite is a failure up to the present time in California, and will not make the least difference in their spraving w'ork. My next visit was to Marysville, a centre of the peach and raisin grape industry, west of Sacramento. ,This town is famous for the " White Fly " scare {Aleurodes citri), a serious orange pest in Florida, which was dis- -covered in many gardens in the town. Though there are no oranges grown in the neighbourhood a tram line runs through the town into an orange district some miles distant; a scare was started by these growers, the whole force of the Horticultural Commissioners Avas mustered, and notices were served by post on 600 residents informing them that they would have to top, cut down, or defoliate all the different kinds of trees known to be the food plant of the white fly, not because there was anv danger to their gardens but on account of the danger to the orange growers miles away. The powers of the Commissioners are so great that all these householders had at their own expense to do all this w^ork, destroying to a great extent many of their finest shrubs and whitewashing the remains. It cost a good many thousand dollars, and though the Horticultural Commissioners in some cases had to call on the police only one man took his case into the law courts and he lost it. It is now claimed that white fly is exterminated in Marysville. I quote this instance to show what powers the State Horticultural Commissioners have in California. In this district I visited Yuba, went through a number of vineyards where raisins were being dried, and several orchards ; one large but neglected apple orchard w^as found to contain plentv of codlin moth. From here I went on to Sacramento and met Mr. Isaac the Horticul- tural Commissioner in that town, who gave me a lot of valuable informa- tion regarding the insect pests of this district, introduced me to many of the leading exporters and, arranged for me to visit several orchards. 7i8 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907 On the apple trees at Mr, Cutter's I saw a leaf aphis that is unknown in Australia, covering the underside of the leaves and causing the foliage, young wood and even the stem to look as if it had been painted with oil. Here I might notice that woolly aphis is common in all apple orchards, but does not seem to do anything like the damage it does with us, even when neglected. No apples as far as I could learn are ever grafted on blight proof stocks, which are hardly known in most districts. Very fine peaches are grown in this district, but for the last three years a powdery mildew has attacked and killed back much of the young wood and when I saw them most of the trees had a couple of feet of defoliated wood at the tip of each branch, but were otherwise healthy. The question of the bacterial disease known as " Pear Blight "' is one of the most serious propositions that the fruit-growers of all parts of America have to deal with, and it has spread all through this country, all the pears are more or less affected, dying back from the tips. I was told that there are 2,000 acres of once fine pear orchards that are doomed. If such a regulation does not exist I would suggest that the importation of all kinds of pear- wood stocks, &c., be prohibited from any part of America, as it was introduced from the east of California, and is very easily spread. No remedy is known except cutting back bit by bit each dead branch and this is only a temporary check. From Sacramento I went on to Lodi the centre of the table grape industry ; some 50,000 acres of vines are growing in this part of the country, some wine and some table grapes. No irrigation is needed as the water is within 4 feet of the surface. Though phylloxera is well known all over California little or nothing has been done in planting the new vineyards with resistant stocks, as the growers say that by the time the vine louse reaches them they will have made the value out of their vines and saved the extra expense over cuttings. My next visit was to the south of Los Angeles, stopping at Fresno to see Mr. Geo. Roeding in reference to the fig industry and the caprification of the Smyrna figs. Mr. Roeding sent me out to his manager who took me all round the fig plantation and showed me the methods they employed in introducing the Blastophagina among the Calimyrna figs. He considers that one insect is sufficient to cross fertilize a fig. I also went over the fig drying grounds, and saw a great number both of figs and grapes spread out to dry in the sun. Since the Pure Food Act has stopped to a very great extent the use of sulphur in the treatment of raisins and prunes a very large quantity of the grapes is not dipped in lye but simply spread in the sun. Leaving Fresno at midnight I reached Los Angeles early next morning and went up to the Capitol where I found the County Horticultural Commissioners Ofiice and introduced myself to Mr. Jeffrey, who, after giving me a general account of the district, gave me an invitation to attend the monthly meeting of the orchard inspectors about ten in number. After they had read their reports I gave them an address upon our work in Australia and we had a general discussion. As you are probably aware each of the fruit-growing counties of California has a County Horti- cultural Commissioner, who is appointed by the Supervisors (Councillors or Aldermen) ; he reports upon all insects, pests or other matters dealing with the fruit industry and is paid so much a day while doing horticultural work. He can appoint one or more inspectors who can visit orchards and instruct persons what to do to destroy pests, and in cases of neglect 9 Dec, 1907.] Insect Pests in Foreign Lands. 719 notify in writing what action an orchardist must take. If the trees are not cleaned within a certain time the inspector can employ some one to do the work and recover the cost from the owner. In Los Angeles a large sum is expended in inspection, and over 9,000 orange trees were fumigated this season by the inspectors. The system of the County Horticultural Commissioners is very irregular in its administration, as many of them hardly do any inspection. The Lieutenant-Governor in Sacramento told me that he was going to bring in a Bill to make every fruit producing county pay an Entomologist to act as inspector and adviser to the Horti- cultural Commissioner. On the following Monday accompanied by Mr. Jeffrey I went out by electric tram to Govina, where we met Inspector Bemish and drove all day through the orange groves of the San Gabriel Valley which contains about 8,000 acres of citrus orchards. We found a considerable amount of red and yellow scale upon old trees, but as the greater part of all these orchards had been fumigated during the last year they were generally very clean. The whole of this valley is irrigated by water from the adjacent mountains. The walnut orchards of Santa Barbara were visited next day on my way back by the coast road, and I reached San Franciscoi next day at 2 o'clock in the morning. My last expedition was to Santa Rosa northwards with Mr. Koebele round the orchards of that district where purple scale was said to be killed by a parasite. We sent our cards into Mr. Burbank, but did not see that gentleman. I also visited Paulo Alto to see Mr. Kellogg, the Professor of Entomology at Leland Stanford University, and obtained his opinions on entomological work in California, and saw the working of his office. The observations made during my three weeks' investigations among the insect pests of the orchards as to the value of parasites, and the opinions of the leading men interested in the industry, all point to the same conclusions, namely, that in spite of the money and work that have been expended during the last twenty years in the State of California upon the introduction and propagation of foreign parasitic insects to destroy scale and other injurious insects, with one or two exceptions, they have very little commercial value, for unless they are effective enough to render the work of spraying and fumigation unnecessary they might as well not exist. I have found all the orchards and garden pests (with the exception of fruit flies) quite as abundant and destructive in California as in Australia, and wherever the orchards are neglected they suffer in the same manner. Even with the drastic powers held by the officers of the State Board of Horticulture the orchards have to be cleaned by spraying and fumigating. In Los Angeles wherever one goes he finds fumigating tents. At Watson- ville there are a dozen steam sprayers and many smaller outfits spraying for codlin moth ; a large factory is established at Bernecia which does nothing else but turn out a liquid form of lime and sulphur wash, called "Rex," used for spraying San Jose scale. The small green chalcid wasp {Scutellista cyanea) introduced from South Africa through Mr. Lounsbury to destroy brown scale, though it has to a great extent cleared off this cosmopolitan scale from the pepper trees and other ornamental garden trees, has made little or no difference to olive scale in the orchards. All the orange trees in the parks and side walks are covered with red scale, smut and aphis, and yet one can see many small native parasitic wasps crawling about on the leaves among the scale of which thev have no doubt destroyed a certain percentage. 720 ] our nal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907 The contention that where parasites were introduced, it would not be necessary to take any mechanical methods to destroy insect pests, is certainly not borne out by the present conditions of orcharding and orchards in California. There is no question that the native, and not the introduced chalcid wasps parasites, are doing as much work in devouring the per- centage of scale insects that are their natural food, but as for either native or introduced parasites exterminating a pest when once it is firmly estab- lished, it has never happened yet. In Mr. Carne's list of flie Coccidcs of California, he enumerates about 135 species a 100 of which are more or less thoroughly established in California, and a dozen of which are serious orchard pests. There is one curious thing in connexion with the Asfidiotus auranti, the red scale of orange common both to Australia and California, and that is that here they claim there is a second species that is known as yellow scale {Asfidiotus citrinus) which is ne\er found upon the stems or young wood, but only upon the fruit and foliage, and thus it never does the injury to the trees that the true red scale can in killing back the young wood. The only difference that I can find, is in the colour and flatness of the disc of some of the scale vipon the foliage. The codlin moth parasite, as previously pointed out, in spite of Mr. Compere's accounts of its work, and the offer of a colony by the State Board of Horticulture to several of our States for ;^i,ooo each, has done nothing outside the office insectarium. In conclusion I have' to thank Professor Woodworth of Berkeley College for arranging and accompanying me on country visits, the officers of the State Board of Horticulture at San Francisco, Messrs. Elehoun, Bremner, and Cairns, for a great deal of valuable information, Mr. Isaacs of Sacramento, who showed me round his district, and the County Horti- cultural Commissioners whom I met in different districts. THE PROCLAIMED PLANTS OF VICTORIA. {Continued from page 680.) Alfred J. Etvart , D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Botanist ; and J. R. Tovey, Herbarium Assistant. The African Box-thorn. Lycium Iiorridum, Thunberg, Solaiiaceoe. A shrub growing to a height of twelve feet. Stem, stiff, much branched ; branches, grey, ending in a spine ; leaves, obovate, fleshy, glabrous, in tufts of three to seven, flat above, convex beneath. Flowers, single on a short stalk. Corolla white, or tinged with purple. Fruit, a berry, globe-shaped, orange-red. This spring hedge-plant is very variable in height, and being perennial, is difficult to eradicate. It should be dug up before flowering and burnt. An introduction from South Africa. Proclaimed for the w^hole State, April, 1907. IM.ATK 13 O.Wmsrfid JRTov^DireM J Kemp, Acting Gov "Prmkr AFRICAN BOXTHORN (Lychwru hoTThdibm . Thjunberg j 9 Dec., 19C7.] Orchard Pests and Diseases. 721 ORCHARD PESTS AND DISEASES. Short Instructions to Fruit-Growers. A. A. Hammond , Inspector, Vegetation Diseases Acts. CoDLiN Moth. All natural harbors for grubs such as loose bark, dead or broken limbs, old stakes, and props must be removed from trees and burnt not later than 15th September and holes in trunk or liml)S must be stopped with putty or otner suitable material. Bandages must be placed on all apple, pear and quince trees not later than I St December and should be remo\ed and cleansed weekly till ist May. All fallen fruit must be gathered and infected fruit picked and destroyed by boiling. Spray with arsenite of lead when fruit sets and spraying should be repeated sufficiently often to keep fruit protected by mixture whilst it is on the tree. If no rain falls 14 to 21 days may elapse between sprayings. Spraying need not be done after 15th Alarch for late fruits and fourteen days before picking for earlier fruit. Arsenite of Lead Formula — i lb. white arsenic, 2 lbs. w'ashing soda, 7 lbs. acetate of lead, 360 gallons water. Directions for preparing stock mixture. Boil arsenic and soda together for 30 minutes in \ gallon water. Dissolve acetate of lead in i gallon of warm water. When cool pour arsenite of soda slowly into acetate of lead solution. Stir and bottle. Use i pint to 30 gallons of cold soft water. The mixture should be applied with a fine spray. San Jose Scale. Affected trees must be cut well back at pruning and all suckers and prunings burnt. Spray with lime sulphur and salt, or red oil emulsion in winter and give at least two sprayings befoiie buds swell. Lime Sulplnir and Salt Wash Formida. — 30 lbs. unslaked lime, 20 lbs. sulphur, 15 lbs. coarse salt, 60 gallons water. Place 10 lbs. of lime and 20 lbs. of sulphur in an iron vessel and boil for i\ hours in 16 gallons of water. Slake remainder of lime with hot water and add salt whilst slaking. Add this to boiling mixture and boil for \ hour longer. Make up to 60 gallons with fairlv hot water. Strain tlirough hessian and applv with coarse nozzle. Red Oil Emulsion {Winter Strength). — i gallon red oil, i lb. soft I lb. soft soap, 14 gallons of water. Red Oil Emulsion {Summer Strength). — 1 gallon red oil. i 11). soft soap, 30 to 32 gallons water. Boil I gallon of Avater and in it dissolxe soap. Remove from fire and add oil. Replace on fire and bring to boil, stirring occasional! v. Then churn for 5 minutes with a garden syringe or by jnmiping mixture into itself through nozzle. Make up to required strength with tairlx- hot water. Peach Aphis. Spray with tobacco wash as soon as aphis appears. Tobacco Wash Formula. — i lb. waste tobacco, \ lb. soft soap, 5 gallons water. Steep tobacco for 24 hours. Heat remainder of water Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907 and in it dissolve soap. Add tobacco water and spray when warm. Note. — Never boil tobacco as the nicotine which is volatile is evaporated. Black Spot on Apple and Pear. Spray with Bordeaux Mixture as leaf buds are opening and again just before flower buds expand. Bordeaux Mixture Formula. — 6 lbs. bluestone, 4 lbs. fresh unslaked lime, 50 gallons of water. Slake lime with small quantity of water and then make up to 25 gallons. Dissolve bluestone in 25 gallons of water. Run evenly into third vessel through strainer. Stir well and apply with fine spray. Leaf Curl of Peach. Spray wim Bordeaux Mixture, double strength (6.4.25 formula) about ist August and again before buds open with 6.4.50 formula. Apricot Scab. Spray as directed for leaf curl of peach and in bad cases give two sprayings after fruit sets with 6.4.50 formula. THE FRUIT EXPORT TRADE. During the past season about 200,000 packages of fresh and dried fruit have been inspected under the Commerce Act. Subjoined are notes and observations from officers of the staff engaged on the work of inspecting products intended for export as furnished to the Chief Inspector : — Inspector Meeking writes : — • In reply to your request I have the honour to submit notes and obser- vations on the work performed by me under the Commerce Act from ist October, 1906, to 30th June, 1907. When the Commerce Act came into operation last year the fruit export season to the United Kingdom and Europe had finished. The busiest period of the export trade to New Zealand was just about to start and it was in connexion with this that most of the work under the new Act com- menced. All exporters concerned in the above-mentioned trade cheerfully complied with the regulations. A few hitches occurred at the outset re- garding early notification of the ofiice in connexion with intending ship- ments but these soon lessened and eventually ceased. The fruit exported to New Zealand was mostly of uniform excellence both in respect of sound- ness and general qualitv. The shippers engaged in this trade exercised much care in the selection of their products. Much of the fruits sent to New Zealand, notably cherries, is shipped direct by growers. The manner m which some of these products are put up reflects great credit to the senders. The work in connexion with the inspection of fruits shipped at Port Melbourne and Willi amstown for export to the United Kingdom and Europe, owing to the necessary exercise of care in checking trade descriptions &c. was greatly increased. Although the whole of the ship- ments were handled by this Branch both in regard to the work of tallying^ 9 Dec, 1907.] The Fruit Ex-port Trade. 723 and delivering, as well as of inspection, everything passed off without a hitch and in no instance did any delay occur. The bulk of the products which came under my notice was of good quality, well packed, and put up in conformity with the regulations. The most noticeable fault was the over-use of packing material in the cases. Some of the most successful exporters use no packing whatever, a plan which I consider very good. The inspection of jams and fruits in liquid occupies a great deal of the time of the staff. This work is mostly performed at the various jam factories, &:c. The method of inspection is as follows : — The oflficer opens samples promiscuously to see that no fermentation is present, the cans con- taining the goods are closely inspected for leakages and also weighed to see that they are of the weight specified on the label. No samples have been submitted for analysis as a standard has not been provided for these goods in the regulations. I am of opinion that if such were done the quality of these products would be benefited and the work of the inspectors strengthened. I think also that provision should be made for grading green fruits and that a scale of classification should be included in the regulations. The work allotted me in assisting you in the supervision of the duties of the staff has been rendered lighter than it would otherwise have been owing to the willingness of all the officers to carry out their duties promptly with as great a regard to the interests of trade as is consonant with the performance of strict duty." Inspector Cleland : — " I beg to report, regarding my work under the Commerce Act, that although this measure was an entirely new departure and was viewed with alarm in many quarters prior to its inception little or no friction has occurred between the exporters and the officers of this Branch, despite the fact that this has been the heaviest export season to date. All the apples and pears which were exported beyond the Com- monwealth were, with few exceptions, of excellent quality and of the full weight and size as required by the regulations. Our work was rendered much heavier owing to the additional duties which we were called upon to perform in measuring and weighing cases and in checking trade descriptions. Although the new Fruit Cases Act did not come into operation sufficientlv early in the season to influence the export trade in a legal sense, most of the exporters put up their products in compliance with its provisions and used the cases specified in the schedules of that measure." Inspector Mallett : — " I beg to report that from the ist October 1906 I have been engaged on the examination of shipments of fresh, dried, and canned fruits for export under the Commerce Act. The fresh fruits, with few exceptions, were of a very high grade and mostly free from disease. The principal disease noted in those apples which were rejected was 'bitter-pit.' Some of the exporters however, have a good deal to learn as to the general ' get-up ' of the cases. Some of these are constructed of rough timber with paper labels pasted on them with the details written in pencil or ink. These labels are liable to be washed or blown off and would suggest that the ' trade description ' be neatlv stencilled on in future. I have noticed also that in connexion with the export trade to New Zealand the use of second-hand cases is very prevalent. ' Manv of these cases are so black with use and old age that the brands are scarcely visible. This is a very reprehensible practice, but its continuance should cease with the application of tlie provisions of the new Fruit Cases Act. Regarding the fruit, I notice there is room for improvement in the grading and packing, some cases being packed very looselv." 724 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907 Inspector W. H. G. Keys : — " My appointment as an Inspector under the Commerce Act being contemporaneous with the opening of the export season to Europe only I cannot report as to the condition &c. of fruits exported prior to that time. Regarding my work of inspection in connexion with the above-mentioned season I have the honour to report that as the task of handling shipments was wholly taken over by the Department this season much extra labour thereby devolved upon the staff. The work was so heafvy as to oftentimes necessitate the attendance of the staff for 50 ho'urs without a break. Much of this occurred through the inadvertence of the consignors loading consignments of pears and apples promiscuously in the same truck. In other instances again, consignments belonging to two, three, or more senders would be mixed indiscriminately in the trucks. This necessitated unloading these trucks and shifting the consignments in order to check the quantity stated on the way-bills. The trucks provided were also in many cases unfit for the carriage of perishable produce. In- stead of forwarding consignments in the ' U ' loinre truck these were often sent in open ' I ' trucks with merelv a tarpaulin thrown over osten- sibly to keep out wet. They did not even answer this purpose effectually in every instance as cases often occurred in which consignments arrived in trucks with water covering the floor owing to the unsound condition of the tarpaulins. In hot weather moreo'ver the temperature under these coverings in the truck often exceeded 120 degrees.'' Inspector Cole: — " I have the honour to submit my report concerning work done by me under the Commerce Act. Regarding the fresh fruits, the chief fault I have noticed is in connexion with the packing. Much of this has been loosely done and more apples could often have been put in the cases. In other respects the products have been up to the require- ments. Concerning dried fruits it would be well for exporters to note that many of the cases are too fragile and the wood too brittle. Some of the cases arrive at the port of export with half the covering lid missing. 1 his of course is attended to when practicable by the coopers attached to our staff. The spaces moreover, between the slats are often too wide and allow the dirt to fall through to the detriment of the fruit. Jams and fruits in liquid have been put up in much stronger packages than those above-mentioned and have been packed and marked in accordance witli the Commerce Act." GARDEN NOTES. /. Crouiii, I u sped or, Vegetation Diseases Acts. The Amaryllis. Amaryllis is a genus of deciduous bulbous plants found nati\e in South Africa, consisting of a single jpecies, A. belladonna, of which there are several varieties. The genus at one time included plants now known under the names of Vallota, Sfrekelia, ZefhyrantJies, and Hippeastrnm, the last mentioned being still included in Amaryllis in many garden and trade collections. Amarvllis belladonna — the Belladonna lily and its varieties — produces its blooms without foliage during summer and autumn, the leaves developing after the flowers die. The growth of foliage continues throughout winter and spring, the foliage dying and the bulbs resting during the greater part of summer. Hippeastrums are natives of Brazil 9 Dec, 1907.] Garden Notes. 725 and other parts of tropical South America, and the islands adjacent, and vary greatly from Amaryllis in the production of their flowers, and the flowers also, which develop with the foliage during spring and summer, the bulb resting during winter. Hippeastrums have been greatly improved by horticulturists, various species being hybridized with success. The hybrids are far superior to the original types in size of flowers, range of colour, and form. Sprekelia is also a native of tropical South America. The only species cultivated in our gardens is S. formosissima which bears singular but beautiful flowers of a bright crimson colour. Vallota fur- fiirea, a native of South Africa, flowers during autumn, and is one of the most beautiful of bulbous plants, the blooms being large, cup-shaped, and of a brilliant scarlet shade of colour. Zepl/vrajithes are small, bulbous, plants. HIPPEASTRUM HYBRID. AMARYLLIS BELLADONNA, MAJOR. producing white and pink flowers. The whole of these are hardy plants in the greater part of tliis State, and may be grown successfully in most of our gardens. Culture. Amaryllis belladonna is probably the hardiest bulbous plant cultivated in Victoria. It requires an open position and good drainage and under such conditions it will thrive in most soils with a minimum of attention. It is a splendid subject for large dry borders, producing its delicate pink flowers, which are borne in umbels on long stiff stems, freely for several years without special assistance. Bulbs should be planted during summer at a depth of about six inches below the surface in unmanured soil. They are most effective when planted in patches containing many bulbs, which should not oe disturbed for several years except for the purposes of increase which is effected by offsets from the large bulbs. The bulbs should be planted sufficiently apart to provide for increase, about six inches being enough. There are several fine forms of the belladonna lily including A. blanda and Baptisti, white; magnifica, major, rubra, multiflora, and purpurea, of various shades of rose and purple. These are scarce, and fairly expensive, and usually receive much more care and attention than the ordinary type, though requiring practically the same treatment. 726 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907 Hippeastrums are magnificent plants for the borders, requiring a sunny position and well-drained soil of rather light texture. Unless the soil is very poor no manure is needed, and even in poor sandy soils an admixture of clay or strong loam is preferable. If manure is added to the soil it should be thoroughly decayed cow manure, and should not come into contact with the bulbs. Planting should take place during late autumn or winter, the proper depth to plant being that occupied by the bulbs before removal viz. : — The crown or neck of the bulb showing at the level of the surface. Hippeastrums require fairly moist conditions during the season of active growth, and as little water as possible when at rest. They are admirable subjects for pot culture, some fine specimens being occasionally seen at horticultural meetings. An evergreen species H. reticulatum bears foliage striped with white in the centre, and flowers of shades of pink. Several fine hybrids have been raised between this and other species, retaining most of the characteristics of reticulatum. In most of the local nurserv and seed catalogues hippeastrums are referred to as Amaryllis hvbrids, some of the finest varieties being comparatively rare and expensive. Vallota purpurea requires almost identical treatment with hippeastrums, and is specially suited for pot culture. Several bulbs should be grown in a fairly large pot in well drained loamv soil. Thev should remain undis- turbed until the pot becomes too small owing to the increase of bulbs. Over-potting and disturbance are the most general causes of their failure to bloom. The soil should never be allowed to become dry. Bulbs of vallota are plentiful and fairly chea^p. Zephyranthes require a moister situation than the hippeastrums, other- wise the culture is practically identical. Z. carinata is one of the best kinds. Flower Garden. The rainfall of early November should insure a fair amount of spring growth where the surface soil was culti\'ated before it dried, as frequently advised in these notes. Frequent light cultivation will keep the soil in a condition tending to the maturation of such wood growth. In many gardens the plants are prevented from producing ripened growths and perfect flowers bv being incessantly watered during the whole of the summer months. Such watering causes a forced growth from buds that normally would remain quiescent during the greater part of summer, and would have steadilv developed and produced fine bloom in season, while the soft forced growths are usually destroyed bv the great heat and hot drying winds of summer. Roses are often treated thus, instead of being allowed to assume a state of comparative rest during Januarv and February, after which, if lightlv pruned and thinned, and thoroughly watered the teas and hybrid teas will develop growths that will produce an abundant supply of flowers, fine in character. Newly planted roses, and other plants and shrubs, not thoroughly established, require watering during summer, as also do such plants as phloxes, bouv^rdias and others that normally- produce their flowers at that time. Thrips caused the destruction of most of the light coloured roses in the metropolitan district this spring. For the past three vears this destructive pest has attacked all flowers developing during the greater part of October and the whole of November and has completely spoiled most of them. It is responsible too for the partial failure of the fruit crop this season, despite tne application of various insecticides. Manv devices and means are employed by growers of roses for exhibition to save their blooms from 9 Dec, 1907.] Garden Notes. 727 the pest with but little beneficial result. The insects are beyond the reach of spray washes generally, and there seems to be no way to deal with them successfully when the conditions suit them. The most promising of many washes tried this season is " Soaperine," a locally prepared mixture con- taining a large proportion of soft soap. This was fairly beneficial when applied before the blooms were opening, destroying any insects within reach. As a preliminary to any application of spray washes, all infested flowers and buds, should be cut, and immediately covered with boiling water, or burned. Beds for the reception of dahlias intended for the production of blooms- for autumn exhibition should receive a final digging or hceing now. If the ground was deeply worked and manured earlier, a light stirring of the surface will be sufficient; if not, a moderate dressing of rotted stable manure should be thoroughly mixed with the soil to a depth of about 2 feet. Light sandy soils should be thoroughly trodden before planting, especially if they contain, as they should, a fair proportion of manure. If the soil is too free and open a coarse heavy growth will follow with flowers lacking quality. Dahlias require a fair amount of room, and when grown in beds should be planted in rows three to four feet apart, with two to three feet between the plants. When planting dahlias from pots care should 1)6 taken that the ball of soil is not broken by the removal, a likely con- tingency if the soil in the pots is dry. The plants should be thoroughly watered an hour before planting is attempted, when a sharp rap on the edge of flie pot, held inverted, will detach the plant without disturbing the soil. Plants should be set out slightly below the surface level, and sufficiently watered to moisten the soil thoroughly. Tender plants should be shaded from hot sunshme for a few days. The last fortnight in De- cember is usually selected for planting dahlias for autumn exhibition in the metropolitan district. Divisions of crowns are equal to green plants fox all purposes. Chrysanthemums should be staked and the growths supported as they progress. The shoots should be reduced to four or five at most if large blooms are desired. Any lateral growths or suckers occurring should be removed. Artificial watering will not be necessary at this stage, unless the soil is of a very dry nature. Daifodils require to be replanted in fresh soil occasionallv. Three years are considered long enough for the bulbs to occupy a bed or patch. The bulbs may be lifted after the death of the foliage, and be immedia- tely replanted, or dried and stored until February. Ground for the reception of the bulbs later should be prepared soon. In very poor drv soils a dressing of cow manure may be dug deeply into the beds or patches, and a little bone-dust worked through the soil nearer the surface. Annual and biennial plants approaching the blooming stage should receive sufficient water to thoroughly moisten the soil during dry weather. Bulbs of gladioli may be planted for late summer flowering. Thev require deeply worked and well enriched soil to produce good flowers. Kitchen G-arden. Ground should be prepared for future cropping as soon as anv crop is harvested. A heavy dressing of stable manure should be worked into the soil,_ and the surface be rolled or trodden firmlv. In addition if the ground is not required for cropping at once, ordinary surface cultivation 728 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907 should be carried out. Any moisture in the soil or manure will be con- served and the soil be in a condition of fine tilth when required. Succession crops of French beans and jieas and various saladings should be provided. Seeds of beans and peas should be sown at this season in shallow trenches, in thoroughly moistened soil. A light mulching placed in the trench is decidedly beneficial to the plants, and diminishes the need of watering, in addition to neutralizing the action of the hot sunshine on the soil. Tomatoes should l^e tied to stakes or other support as growth advances, and all lateral shoots regularly removed from the selected shoot or shoots. Two shoots to each plant is considered sufficient. Where the fruit has set well tlie plants will need a fair supply of water, but where large gross growths and foliage are the only produce of the plants, water should be withheld. SAND MOUNDS ON LAWNS. j\Ir. T. W. Pockett, Head Gardener to the Malvern Town Council, writes as follows : — " For several years during spring and autumn, particularly the latter, many people have complained about sand mounds suddenly appearing on their lawns. Some thought they were caused by caterpillars or grubs. I attributed the cause to a black beetle — about 2| inches long when full grown. About two years ago, after considerable trouble I managed to trace a few by following the holes made by them. Mr. C. French, Govern- ment Entomologist, was also satisified that the beetle referred to was the cause of the trouble. Knowing that this beetle is not to be found in any lawns where the soil is retentive, and that a very stiff soil, or clay added to lawns as top-dressing, is very beneficial for a deep sandy soil, cau>^ed me to try the experiment for the purpose of both. The result has been highly satisfactory. No beetles have appeared where the lawn has been treated with about 2 inches of clay, and the lawns being composed of Kentucky blue grass, and buffalo mixed, there was a good turf a few weeks after. This season I have just covered about 2 chains more with clay, and shall be pleased to give the result later on, but anticipate that this also will be immune from the pest. Where the beetles exist, they appear to lay their eggs (at least I take them to be eggs) on the leaves of the grass on damp dewy nights about the end of October or early in November. The eggs are quite round, nearly the size of turnip seed, and are mostly rather dark. I think there are from 200 to 500 eggs in each patch, which is about 3 inches in diameter." 9 Dec, 1907.] Rhubarb Cultivation. 729 RHUBARB CULTIVATION. /. Croiiiii, Inspector, Vegetation Diseases Acts. Rhubarb is the most important and popular perennial vegetable culti- vated in Victoria. A considerable quantity is consumed at certain periods of the year, and since the introduction of the variety Topp's Winter — a practically evergreen type — supplies are available if required at' all seasons. The area of land devoted to rhubarb culture for market has decreased during the past ten years, the increased supply of early fruits being responsible for the decrease. The greatest demand exists in spring, before the gooseberries and other fruits suitable for culinary purposes similar to rhubarb are brought to the markets, and during which period the finest rhubarb is produced. It is estimated by officials of the Market Gardeners' Association that during the period from late September to end of November from four to five thousand dozen bunches per week are offered and readilv sold in the markets from which the supply of Melbourne and suburbs, and some country towns, is dis- tributed. At other seasons the demand is limited, except when a scarcity of fruit occurs. The average price for the whole year is estimated at nine pence to one shilling per dozen bunches, so that the revenue derived from rhubarb culture is large, considering the limited area under the crop. Unfortunately, there is no market outside this State for rhubarb, the rapidity with which it loses its moisture and crispness, the factors that make up quality, militating against its long carriage. The limit of suc- cessful carriage of rhubarb is about 100 miles, and even then it often arrives in poor condition in warm weather. The greater part of the rhubarb offered for sale in the Melbourne markets is grown in the shire of Moorabbin, the principal gardens pro- ducing it being situated at and near East Brighton. Smaller quantities are grown at Ballarat, Bendigo, and Warragul, from which districts in times of scarcity in Melbourne supplies are drawn ; while market gardens near important towns in manv parts of the State produce sufficient for local requirements. The present garden varieties of rhubarb are a great improvement on the original species, Rheum Rhafonticum, a native of Eastern Asia; the im- provement having been effected by culture and selection, and also inter- crossing with other species. Soil Suitable for Rhubarb. The soil at East Brighton is a deep sandy loam, and is eminently suit- able for the plant. Strong, retentive, or shallow soils, or soils such as the deep porous loams of some of the hilly districts, where the soil moisture is soon lost are not suited to the needs of this plant, unless considerably ameliorated by the addition of large quantities of stable manure in the case of the latter, and deep trenching, draining, and manuring, in the former — operations too costly for the profitable culture of rhubarb for sale. For home use almost any soil can be prepared to grow a supply, a small bed of plants being sufficient for the needs of an average household. The object of the cultivator should be to produce large, juicy, leaf-stalks, and to that end a fairly open deep rich and well-drained soil is a necessity. 73° Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907 !\1anuring — Preparation — Planting. Stable manure is undoubtedly the best fertilising agent for any plant requiring a deal of moisture and plant food for the production of large foliage. In preparing land for rhubarb a liberal dressing of partly decayed stable manure should be worked into the soil some time before planting. There is little danger of over-manuring dry and poor soils for rhubarb. It is important that the preparation should be thorough, as a bed or planta- tion well prepared should last for many years in full profit, if treated in a proper manner*. After the plants are established annual dressings of stable manure in autumn are necessary, to which artificial manures may be added, or be lightly worked into the surface soil at end of winter. Blood manure and bone-dust are popular fertilizers in the district where the plant is most ■extensively grown for sale purposes, being applied in July and lightly ploughed into the soil. Rhubarb is propagated from divisions of the crowns and from seeds. Seedlings vary considerably, many being very inferior, and are not worth raising unless new varieties are aimed at. A piece of root with one eye ■or bud attached is sufficient to produce a good strong plant. These divisions should be planted in autumn before the soil becomes cold, at a ■depth of about three inches below the surface. The best plan is to -olant in rows about four to five feet apart, allowing from three to four feet for €ach plant in the rows. The soil may be worked into narrow lands or ridgecl along each row of plants. Either method assists in gathering the crop and also insures drainage of excessive surface moisture. During summer the soil should 1)6 kept in a loose fine condition at the surface, or in heavy soils mulched with stable manure, &c. The mulching may be worked into the soil during May, at which time the plants are at rest. An open situation is necessary. Gathering and Best Varieties. The plants are fit to " pull " during the second season of growth, if strong and large. Usually a fair crop of stalks is available during the third year, only the largest and best stalks being pulled. The leaves are pulled, and detach readily at the point of insertion on the crowns. All small leaves should be allowed to remain to exercise ordinary leaf functions, and after the spring season the whole of foliage should be allowed to grow, except on very strong plants, or where they are becoming crowded. The Crop of a future season depends largely on strong leaf growth during summer. Weakly plants should not be pulled, and flower stalks should be destroyed as they appear, to conserve the energy of the plants for leaf and root production. There are several varieties of rhubarb catalogued by nurserymen, but only two are grown generally by market gardeners, viz., Early Albert and Topp's Winter. Early Albert is the finest rhubarb in cultivation here, producing large juicy stalks of good colour. It is also the earliest of the spring rhubarbs, and a vigorous variety. Some of the finest stalks are produced during January, when a reasonable number may be pulled for home use if required. Myatt's Linnaeus is the only other summer variety grown by market growers, succeeding " Earlv Albert," and being of good quality, though deficient in colour. Topp's Winter is also fairlv largely grown for sale purposes. It is very hardy and prolific, and requires less room than the other varieties. The stalks are much smaller, but the colour 9 Dec., 1907.] Export of Victorian Cheese. 731 and quality are good. It is a first rate variety for small gardens, pro- ducing leaves for pulling over a long season under fair conditions. A newly distributed variety, Stone's Ever-bearing Ruby, is said to be a cross- between Albert and Topp's Winter. It is a very promising variety, pro- ducing large highly coloured stalks during a great part of the year. EXPORT OF VICTORIAN CHEESE. At the Cheese Competition at the A.N. A. Exhibition held in Melbourne at the beginning of the year a special prize of ;^io was given in Class G (i ton export cheese, not over three months old) for the ton of cheese which would arrive in London in the best condition for the English market, the judging to be done by an English expert. Eighteen out of the twenty-two exhibits were shipped per s.s. Devon and duly judged by Mr. A. Rowson of Messrs. Rowson, Hodgson, and Co., Ltd., whose report, received through the Agent-General for Victoria (Hon. J. W. Taverner), is published herewith. An extract from Messrs. C. F. Par- tington and Co.'s circular is also given. The awards at the Melbourne competition, together with the comments of the judges, are given on page 183 of the March issue of the Journal. Rowson, Hodgson, and Co., Ltd., Cotton's Wbarf, 35 Tooley-street, S.?]., 31st May, 1907. Dear Sir, Having at your request e.xamined 18 lot.s (i ton each) Victorian cheese ex s.s. Devon, I now beg to enclose my reports as to flavour, texture, colour and finish of the individual parcels, and trust same will be useful for the objects you have in view. Two lots stand out very much in front of all the others {viz. Nos. 4 and 10) and are certainly more nearly akin to the matured development of the New Zealand production than any of the others. Flavour. — The flavour appears to have suffered from heat, but whether this was developed at the time of making or afterwards, I cannot say. Texture. — The texture as a rule is broken, and the cheese would not cut out well on the counter. Colour. — In a general way there is an absence of defined colouring, in fact, the cheese are entitled to be called pale (not to say white) ; this remark does not apply to Nos. 4 and 10. When not manufactured without colouring, it is better to aim at a defined colour, which gives the cheese a better chance of selling in competition' with New Zealand and Canadian. Finish. — The finish of the lots as a whole is not smart, the edges being too round, or I may say, not sharp enough. General Remarks. — -The small sizes do not as a rule bring as high a price as the larger sizes, and unless quality is superior to the latter, makers may rely on getting IS. to 2s. less on the open market. On a scarce or awkward market, many of the foregoing defects are minimized, but on a fairly even or sluggish market they count for a great deal adversely. If there is anything further you wish to interrogate me upon in connexion with the Victorian cheese, please command my services. Yours truly, (Signed) A. ROWSON. The Agent-General for Victoria, 142 Queen Victoria-street, E.C. 732 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907 Points Awarded. 6 Competitor. 6 t lO lO 0 0 Judge's Comments. 3 3 0 > 3 3 0 J3 "3 w S H § '£ 0 H 1 J. J. Meredith, Larpent . . 40 20 5 3 68 F. Fair. T. Good. C. Poor. F. In- different. 2 H. Heunessy, Beua 40 15 5 4 64 F. Fair. T. Too rough. C. Undefined. F. Good. 3 D. and J. McRae, Larpent 40 15 5 3 63 F. Fairly good. T. Broken grain. C. Undefined. F. Fair. 4 Cobrico Cheddar Co. 40 25 15 5 85 F. Good, though somewhat advanced. T. Good, close cutting. C. Good and regular. F. Very good. 5 P. Irvine, Orbost 35 15 5 2 57 F. Somewhat heated. T. Broken grain. C. Poor, almost white. F. Poor. 6 McConachy Bros., Coro- rooke 20 15 5 3 43 F. Rank. T. Fair. C. Indifferent. F. Fairly good. 7 A. McRae, Larpent 30 10 5 3 48 F. Warm. T. Weak body and loose cutting. C. Very irregular. F. Badly finished on edges. 8 Warrnambool Cheese Fac- tory 35 15 10 5 65 F. Very fair. T. Broken curd, irregular. C. Somewhat irregular. F. Very satis- factory. 9 R. and J. Crothers, Wan- goom 35 20 8 ■ 3 66 F. Little weedy. T. Good, but open. C. Too pale. F. Very fair. 10 Noel Bros., Terang 40 25 15 3 83 F. Good. T. Good, somewhat holey. C. Good. F. Very fair. 11 Claehan Dairy, Cororooke 35 20 5 3 63 F. Very fair. T. Very fair, little holey. C. Bad. F. Too round on edges. 12 Upper Maffra Factory . . 30 15 5 4 54 F. Rank. T. Some soft, some brittle. C. Bad, too pale. F. Fairly good. 13 Sutton Grange Factory . . 35 15 5 4 59 F. Poor. T. Broken curd. C. Bad, too pale. F. Good. 14 Boisdale Cheese Factory. . 35 20 10 4 69 F. Strong. T. Very fair. C. Verv fair. F. Good. 15 Boisdale Clieese Factory (A) 30 15 10 3 58 F. Strong. T. Some soft, some brittle. C. Regular, but rather pale. F. Fairly good. F. Strong. T. Good. C. Undefined. F. 16 Boisdale Cheese Factory (b) 30 20 5 3 ■58 Fairly good. 17 Boisdale Cheese Factory (c) 30 15 8 4 57 F. Over ripe. T. Some soft, some brittle. C. Fair. F. Good. 18 Boisdale Cheese Factory (d) 30 15 8 4 57 F. Over ripe. T. Perished ; some soft, some brittle. C. Too pale. F. Good. Wellington Chambers, AUSTRALIAN CHEESE. London Bridge, London, 30th May, 1907. By invitation of the Agent-General for Victoria, Australia, about 18 tons of Victorian cheese just landed ex s.s. Devon were inspected by members of the trade on Wednesday' 29th inst., at Hay's Wharf, Tcole-i-street, S.E. The cheese vary in shape from about 30 to 70 lbs. each and are packed in crates — 2, 3, and 4 in a crate. The qualit)' is rich but most of the lots have been overkept and are ilavoury and nearly all have a "twang" peculiar to the district. They are very slightly coloured, which is a fault, as the trade prefer either white or good colour. The condition shows signs of heat and most of the crates do not fit the cheese, but with care these matters can soon be improved upon. Owing to the small stocks of cheese here at the moment, and the absence of undergrades these Victorian cheese will probably sell at from 60s. to 64s. per cwt., which is misleading when compared with the price of finest Canadian and New Zealand. C. F. Partington and Co., Insurance Brokers. 9 Dec, 1907.] FiftJi Convention, Chamher of Agriculture. 733 FIFTH CONVENTIOX OF THE VICTORIAN CHAMBER OF AGRICULTURE, JUNE, 1907. VI.— SOME LAW (AS IT MORE PARTICULARLY AFFECTS FARMERS). (Co)itiii/ii'd from page J/./.) /. W'cldfli! Power, Horsham. Travelling Stock. As I understand this matter, the point of view from which it is desired to discuss it is that of the control of travelling stock and the prevention of the practice now so prevalent of droving stock along the roads of the State for the purpose of grazing such stock. The question is a large one, just as large as the nuisance itself, and that is saying a good deal. I must coiicede at once that existing legislation is in my judgment quite inadequate to keep the nuisance within reasonable limits. Theoretically the existing law is no doubt adequate ; at least It is clear enough, but like a great many other things when wrong-doOTS set themselves to e\ade the law, the latter will remain a dead letter because of the expense of attempts to enforce it and the uncertainty of being able to proveyup to the standard of proof required by pur Criminal Courts, any breaches Of the law. The matter in hand, however, does not merely stop with the question of controlling and repressing the nuisance. That is a simple enough matter. Behind this is the question of the nuisance itself, how it comes into existence, why it exists, how it affects the slock producer, and how its abolition will affect him. The main roots of the evil are the dealer without bond fide pasture, the stock-speculating auctioneer, and the occasional but still existent greedy grazier. Such dealers and specu- lating auctioneers may be regarded as one root. To eradicate this root is a simple matter and one for the stock-breeders and owners to determine foi themselves. The question is, shall the root be eradicated? What is involved in its eradication? The dealer is practically always in the market, always more or less ready to buy, at a price, stock which the stock-owner is for the time being unable to carry. If the dealer be wiped out, stock-owners must be prepared to carry their stock to the legitimate consumer either in the shape of the direct fat-stock market or the direct stores buyer ; or, if there be no stores buyer, then to the tallow vats. In favour of the dealers it must be said that they come in handy and relieve the stock-owners of the worry of getting into touch with the direct con- sumer. The point is reached on a falling market when the stock-owner must reduce his head of stock or get pasture. It seems invariably to happen on such occasions that there is a scarcity of feed in the stock- owner's own district, and the direct stores buyer there, is not out to buy. The owner does not care to take the risk of consigning to distant markets, and he does not like the illegitimate device of putting the stock on the roads on pretence of travelling them to such markets. Here the dealer comes in and takes the stock off the owner's hand.s — at a price. On the other hand is the price the stock-owner has to- pav for this handiness and relief. Consider the army of dealers and hangers-on that is supported by the margin between the stock-owner's selling price and that paid by the legitimate consumer or purcha.ser. Consider how on a rising or steady 734 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907 market the legitimate price is put up by the dealer a;gainst the botid fide stores purchaser. The latter has the cost of his land to clear ; the former has the roads for the cost of droving, and we know what tha;t amounts to. Consider the raiding of the roads and the resulting enhanced difficulty for the legitimate stock-owner in getting his stock to distant markets. Consider the " absorption " of stock from the paddocks by the travelling mobs in the hands of unscrupulous men. All that comes out of the stock- owner's pocket. The evil has grown to huge dimensions and is now a serious handicap. Is the game worth the candle ? I should say not, but I am not a stock -owner. It seems to me, as an economic proposition, that the results on the average are against the stock-owner. It should be better for the stock-owner to secure legitimate values and face legitimate losses rather than pay for the services of the dealer the price represented by the margin of waste entailed by the support of the army of dealers and hangers-on. As regards the other root, the " Greedy Grazier." By " Grazier" I do not by any means mean " Squatter." In my experience anyway it is not squatters' sheep that " hog " the roads. But the same remedy that will clear the dealer off the roads will clear the greedy grazier. This remedy would lie in travelling permits. Refuse a travelling permit to a man who has not pasture to which to take his stock or who' cannot show that he is consigning stock from his legitimate pasture to boiid fide sale. If a legitmiate stock-owner or breeder be forced to travel stock from a dry district for pasture elsewhere, he should secure his pasture in advance, otherwise he is stealing public grass. If he cannot carry his stock at home and cannot rent pasture abroad, it is a bad position for him, but he is just then holding bad property. In the long run the economy in wiping out the army living on the margins would enable him to pay for legitimate pasture and his position would be better. Next, on a travelling permit, no drover should be allowed to make a contract on the basis of finding feed and be paid for his work at per head of stock delivered. This form of contract, though convenient to the owner ir> immediate difficulty, sets a premium on raiding roads and " absorbing " stock. The contract should be at daily wages and with obligation to hire feed, and the hire of feed to be paid for spot cash. The drover could be provided \yith cash or credit. As long as the present droving system of payment by results is allowed the evil will grow. Honest men will be forced by competition down to the standard of the lowest and least scrupulous type of drover or travelling sheep cadger. Inspectors should be empowered to direct that travelling mobs be paddocked forthwith if their condition shows " starving," and failing securing paddocking, then be consigned to the nearest sale yards for prompt sale, with appeal to a Police Magistrate or Senior Inspector or some such officer. All this involves restricting the roads to the legitimate user, with the certain result of the disappearance of the dealer. He exists by reason of the facility obtaining for illegitimate use of the roads. Make the wrongful use of the roads unprofitable and risky, and the illegitimate operator will be closed out, and, to the advantage, to mv thinking, in the long run, of the legitimate owner and breeder. The moral is — " You cannot eat your cake and have it." Continue the dealer and you must shut your eyes to grass stealing and road-lifting of stock. If you want relief, give a mandate that the roads shall be kept for their legitimate purposes. Legislation to that end is easy to evolve, but its administration will entail 9 Dec, 1907.] Foul Brood of Bees. 735 some expense and a certain amount of trouble in the wa\- of detail to stock -owners when they themselves desire to use the roads. To discuss amendment of the present legislation before \ ou have decided the important question whether the dealer is to go or to stay is waste of time. This much is certain — }Ou cannot have both the unrestricted but legitimate use of the roads and at the same time the convenient dealer. The two things cannot co-exist. You cannot keep grass and rabbits in the same paddock. Therefore decide the main question and urge the Executive to take action accordingly. FOUL BROOD OF BEES. R. Beuhne, President, Victorian Apiarists^ Association. {Continued from -page 666.) 3. Chemical treatment has been abandoned by most of those who have practised it as unreliable and involving too much labour. It consists in either feeding medicated syrup, fumigating, or leaving some chemical in the hive to evaporate. Medicated syrup is made by adding i part of carbolic acid to 600 parts of syrup, made of sugar dissolved in an equal weight of water. The acid should be dissolved in the water before the sugar is added. When salicylic acid is used instead of carbolic, i part of the acid is first dissolved in 8 parts of alcohol. This is the stock solution, of which 100 to 120 drops are added to each pint of syrup, and well stirred in before the syrup cools. Formic acid (pure), i part, is dis- solved in 10 parts of water ajid a teaspoonful added to a quart of syrup. Before feeding medicated syrup any combs not containing brood are best reuroved from the hive, placing empty combs next to the brood into which the bees may store the syrup. Besides the amount of labour there are several other drawbacks to feeding medicated syrup. If honey is coming in freely, the bees may refuse to take the syrup, and during a dearth continuous feeding may attract robber bees from other hives which will demoralise the infected colony and perhaps carry disease germs back to their own hive with them. A cure by feeding can only be expected when the outbreak of disease has not long taken place. A colony which has had foul brood for some time is sure to have disease e:erms in its stores of honey and pollen, perhaps sealed up, and a fresh outbreak may occur any time when these reser\'ed stores are being consumed for brood rearing. Giving medicated food is therefoire in most instances onlv a temporary remedy. Fumigating a hive is very effective in destroying germs wherever they can be reached by the fumes, but in this instance also the spores in sealed honey and pollen escape destruction. Salicylic acid is the most convenient chemical for this purpose. The hive operated on is set on a framed wire screen to prevent the escape of bees, and small quantities of salicylic acid on a piece of tin placed under the screen are evaporated by means of a small spirit lamp which should be regulated so that the acid is slowly melted and evaporated, not burned, which would destroy its efficacy. Of the substances placed in the hive to act as a preventative against an outbreak of disease, naphthaline and carbolic acid and tar may be mentioned. A piece of naphthaline, the size of a large pea, is placed in ■'36 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907 back corner of the floor of the hive and replaced with a fresh one when it has disappeared. When carbolic acid and tar are used, equal quantities of the acid and Stockholm tar (wood tar) are mixed and placed in a small shallow tin covered with a piece of woollen cloth and put under the frames at the back of the hive. Both these, as well as other remedies of a like nature have however the disadvantage that they taint the honey (for the time being at any rate), and surplus honey from colonies treated could not well be used for human consumption. The use of chemicals in the treatment or prevention of foul brood involves such a lot of labour and patient attention that in commercial bee- keeping it is almost impracticable. I have not used any drugs for many vears, but have dealt with the outbreaks that occur occasionally by elimina- tion, generally known as the starvation method. In conclusion I should like to point out the most common causes of infection and the spread of foul brood. There is no doubt whatever, that box-hive men, bee hunters and careless or ignorant frame-hive men are responsible for most of the losses brought about by this disease. It is a common practice when box hives are being robbed to leave the dark comb and refuse about or to purposely put it outside for the bees to clean up to save whatever honev may be in it. Now if one of the hives robbed con- tains foul brood it will probably be spread to all the hives which share in cleaning up ; but that is not all, habits of robbing are engendered in the bees and when the supply offered becomes exhausted they will look round for weak colonies to attack. They will find these on a neighbouring farm or in trees in the bush and as diseased colonies become weak and demoralized they are raided and disease carried home. Bee hunters also usually leave refuse about and thus spread infection. Some of the bar frame hive bee-keepers are however by no means blameless ; diseased hives, in which all the bees have succumbed are left standing to be cleaned up by other bees. , Brood combs possibly containing disease, are extracted and indiscriminately distributed in the apiarv and bees allowed access to honey and refuse causing robbing, stinging, general demoralization, and the spread of foul brood. In many countries special laws have been enacted to deal wnth foul brood, making practices such as those enumerated liable to penalties. In Victoria we have no' such law and an apiarist settling in a new locality can do nothing better than deal with the disease as it breaks out in his apiary until, after some years, the sources of infection which surround him become exhausted by the process of the diseased stocks in his neighbourhood being robbed bv his bees, the disease brought home and dealt with by him in his own apiary. 9 Dec, 1907.] Seed Table. 737 SEED TABLE FOR SEEDSMEN, FARMERS, AND MARKET GARDENERS.* Compiled by Alfred J. Ezvart, D. Sc, Ph. D., F.L.S., Government Botanist and Professor of Botany at the Melbourne University. The following tables give data in regard to the seeds of the more common culinary vegetables and farm seeds, and though taken mainly from European sources should prove of value to Australian seeidsmeni, horticul- turists, and farmers, as well as to the general public, until they can be replaced or modified by data obtained under local conditions. The first column gives the weight of a pint in ounces and the second the number in I ounce. It is understood that in all cases the weights are approxi- mate and will be affected by the ripeness of the seed and the amount of moisture they contain. The size of the seed also varies greatly in many varieties of the same plant (haricots, peas, &c.), or in the same form under different conditions of cultivation. The term seed is used in the technical sense, even where the commercial product is really a fruit (celery, parsnip, beet, &c.) The third column gives the number of years during which the percentage of seeds germinating remains more than half what it was when first collected, provided that they are placed under good keeping conditions (dry, cool, dark, well- aired). The fourth column gives the longest time in vears during which any seeds remained capable of germination. The sign f means that some of the seeds remained living beyond the number of years given. Duration of 1 Vitality in years. Botanical 2^aine. Common Name. Weight of No. of ■0 9 1 pint Seeds Average Ex- t£ in ozs. in 1 oz. over 50 treme a per cent. Limit. 1 Agrostis stolonifera, L. Fiorin 11 70,000 4 8 2 Allium Cepa, L. Onion 11 7,000 2 7 3 Allium fistulosum, L. . . Welsh onion, red . . 11 8.400 2-3 7 4 Allium fistulosum. L. var. Welsh onion, white 11 14,000 3 8 5 Allium Porrum, L. Leek 12 11.200 •2 6 6 Anethum graveolens, L. Dill 7 25.200 3 5 7 Angelica officinalis, Hoffm. Angelica . . 3 4.700 1-2 3 8 Anthriscus Cerefoii'um. Hofim. Chervil . . 8 12,600 2-3 6 9 Apium gi-aveolens, L. . . Celery 11 70,000 8 lot 10 Aracliis hypogea, L. Peanut . . 9 56-84 I 1 11 Arctium majus, Bernh. Giant edible-rooted burdock 14 2,240 5' 6 12 Artemisia Absinthium, L. Artemisia vulgaris, L. . . Wormwood 15 322,000 4 6 13 Mugwort 14 224,000 3 5 14 Astragalus hamosus, L. Worms . . 5 168 196 3 8 15 Asparagus officinalis, L. Asparagus 18 1,400 5 8 16 Atriplex hortensis, L. . . Mountain spinach . . 3 7,000 6 7 17 Avena sativa, L. Oats 10-14 900-1120 2-3 3-6 18 Basella alba, L. Common white ba- sella 10 980 5 6 ik ConiDiled from Vilmoriri-Andrifi ix's PlantiTaTofcaareres. and Nobbe's Samen Kiin de, with a clditional data. 14698. 738 Journal of Agriculture . [9 Dec, 1907, i^Duration of i Vitality in years. R Weight of 1 No. of t Botanical Name. Ctommon Name. 1 pint Seeds Average , Ex- ■M in ozs. in 1 oz. over 50 treme ^ per cent. Limit. 19 Benincasa cerifera, Savi. Wax-gourd 7 588 10 lot 20 Beta vulgaris, L. Beet 5 1,400 6 lot 21 Blitum capitatum, L. . . Strawberry Blitum 18 140,000 22 Borago officinalis, L. . . Borage . . 11 1,820 8 lot 23 Brassica alba, Boiss. (See Sina'pis alba) White mustard 17 5,600 4 lot 24 Brassica campestris Napo-Brassica, D.C. Swede 15 10,500 5 10 25 Brassica Caulo-rapa,'D.C. Kohl-rabi 15 8,400 5 10 26 Brassica chinensis, L. . . Chinese cabbage . . 15 9,800 5 9 27 Brassica juncea, Cass. . . Chinese large-leaved mustard 14 18.200 4 8 28 Brassica Napus, L. Turnip . . 15 12.600 - 19,600 5 lot 29 Brassica nigra, Koch. . . Black mustard 15 19,600 4 10 30 Brassica oleracea, L. Cabbage . . 15 8,960 5 10 31 Brassica oleracea ace- phala, D.C. Borecole . . 15 8.400 5 10 32 Brassica oleracea Bot- rytis, D.C. Cauliflower 15 15,400 5 10 33 Bunias orientalis, L. Hill mustard 11 980-1120 3 6 34 Campanula Rapunculus, L. Cannabis sativa, L. Rampion . . 15 700,000 4 8 35 Hemp 10 1.850 2-3 3-5 36 Capparis spinosa, L. Caper tree 10 4,480 37 Capsicum annuum, L. . . Capsicum 10 4,200 4 7 38 Cardamine pratensis, L. Cuckoo-flower 13 42,000 4 39 Carum Carvi, L. Common carraway 9 9.800 3 4 40 Chserophyllum bulbosum, L. Chenopodium Bonus- Tuberous chervil . . 12 12,600 1 1 41 Goosefoot 14 12,000 3 5 Henricus, L. 42 Chenopodium Quinoa, Willd. Wliite quinoa 15 14,000 4 5 43 Cicer arietinum, L. Chick pea 17 84 3 8 44 Cichorium Endivia, L. Endive . . 8 16,800 10 lot 45 Cichorium Intybus Common chicory . . 9 19,600 8 lot 46 Cirsium oleraceum Meadow cabbage . . 7 14,000 6 47 Claytonia perfoliata, Don. Cuban winter purs- lane 15 61,000 5 7 48 Cochlearia officinalis, L. Scurvy grass 13 42.000- 50.000 4 7 49 Corchorus olitorius, L. Bristly-leaved cor- chorus 14 12.000 5 10 50 Coriandrum sativum, L. Coriander 7 2,500 (5 8 51 Crambe maritima, L. . . Sea-kale . . 5 420-500 1 7 52 Crithmum maritimum, L. Cucumis Anguria, L. . . Samphire 3 9,800 1 3 53 West India gherkin 12 3,600 6 7t 54 Cucurais citrullus, Ser. Watermelon 10 140-160 5 lot 55 Cucumis colocynthus, L. Fancy gourd 10 560 6 lot 56 Cucumis melo, var. flexu- osus, L. Snake cucumber . . 10 1.120 7-8 lot 57 Cucumis melo, L. Melon 8 980 5 lot 58 Cucumis prophetarum, L. Prophets cucumber 11 3,200 (> 59 Cucumis sativus, L. . . Cucumber 11 980 10 lot 9 I )ec., 1907.] Seed Table. 739 Duration of i Vitality in years. o Botanical Name. Weigh o Common Name. of No. of i 1 pint Seeds Average Ex- .2 in ozs. in 1 oz. over 50 treme rt per cent. Limit. 60 Cucurbita maxima Pumpkin or squash 9 84 6 lot lot lot 61 Cuciirbita melopepo Custard marrow . . 10 280 6 62 Cucnrbita moschata Neapolitan pumpkin 9 196 6 or squash 63 Cucurbita pepo Vegetable, gieen, and custard mar- rows 10 160-220 6 lot 65 Cumiiium cyminum, L. Cumin 8 7,000 1 5 66 Cynara Cardunculus, L. Cardoon . . 14 700 7 9 67 Cynara scolymus, L. . . Artichoke 13 700 6 lot 68 Cyperus rotundus, L. . . Nut-sedge* 13 560-840 3-4 5 69 Daucus carota, L. Carrot, bearded and green spotted 4 19,600 4-5 10 70 Dolichos Lablab, L. Lablab . . 17 140-182 3 8 71 Eruca sativa, Mill. 15 15.000 4 9 72 Ervum Lens, var. Lentil 16 280-420 4 9 73 Ervum Lens, var. 19 1.120 4 9 74 Ervum Lens, var. 18 980 4 9 75 Ervum monanthos, L. Auvergne lentil 18 420-560 3 8t 76 Erysimum prsecox, Sni. American cress 12 26,000 3 5 77 Fedia cornucopise, Gaertn. Horn of plenty 3 7,000 4 7 78 Festuca ovina, L. Sheep's fescue 7 15,000- 20.000 2-3 4-5 79 Festuca pratenis. Huds. Meadow fescue 8 11,000 2-3 4-5 80 Festuca rubra. L. Red fescue 6 18.0C0 .1 3-4 81 Foeniculum dulce, D.C. Florence fennel 7 6.400 4 5t 82 Foeniculum vulgare, Gaertn. Bitter or common fennel 10 8.600 4 7 83 Foeniculum vulgare. Gaertn. var. Long sweet fennel . . 4 3.500 4 7 84 Fragaria vesca, L. Strawberry 13 22.000- 70,000 3 6 85 Glycine Soja, Sich. et Zucc. China soja bean 16 140-280 2 6 86 Hisbiscus esculentus, L. Okra 13 420-500 5 lot 87 Holcus lanatus, L. Honey grass 11 65.500 4 5-6 88 Hordeum sativum, Pers. Barley . . 11-15 700-840 3 4-6 89 Humulus Lupulus, L. Ho]. 5 6,400 2 4 90 Hyssopus officinalis, L. Hyssop . . 13 23.000 3 5 91 Inula Helenium, L. Elecampane 10 14,000 5 6t 92 Laetuca perennis, L. Perennial lettuce . . 6 22.000 3 5 93 Lactuca sativa, L. Lettuce . . 10 22.000 5 9 94 Lagenaria vulgaris, Ser. Bottle gourd 8 2s:o 6 lot 95 Lath3TUS sativus L. Chickling vetch 16 110 5 96 Lavandula vera D.C. . . Lavender 13 26,000 5 6 97 Lepidium sativum, L. . . Garden cress 16 12.000 5 9 98 Levisticum officinale, Koch. Lovage . . 4 8,400 3 4 99 Linum usitatissimum, L. Linseed . . 15 4.400 3-5 5-10 100 Lotus tetragonolobus, L. Winged pea 18 420-500 5 lot 101 Lycopersicum esculen- Tomato . . 7 8.400- 4 10-12 tum. Mill. 11,000 102 Malva crispa, L. Curled-leaved mal- 12 8.400 5 8 1 low** * Proclaimed for Victoria but often grown in gardens in Europe. 2 A 2 74° Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907. 1 DuratioB of "; Weight vitality in years. 0 of No. of £ Botanical ^N'ame. C'ouimoa ^Jfame. 1 pint Seeds V in ozs. in 1 oz. Average Ex- 1 over 50 per cent. treme Limit. 103 Marrubiviin vulgare, L. Horehound 15 28,000 3 6 104 Martynia proboscidea. L. Unicorn plant 7 560 1-2 105 Medic ago scutellata. All. Snail clover 3 110 5 9 106 Melissa officinalis, L. . . Meliss balm 12 56.000 4 7 107 Mesenibryanthemum crys- talliiium, L. Ice plant . . 17 150,000 5 108 Myrrliis odorata Sweet-scented chervil 5 1.120 1 1 109 Nasturtium officinale, R.Br. Water cress 13 112,000 5 9t 110 Nigella sativa, L Black cumin 12 6,100 3 6 111 Ocimuin Basilicuiu, L. Large sweet basil 12 22,000 8 lot 112 Ocimum Basilicum, var. mini mum, L. Bush basil 11 25,000 8 lot 113 Ocimum gratissimum, L. Tree basil 13 42.000 8 lot 114 Oenothera biennis, L. Evening primrose 8 16,000 3 5 115 Onobrychis Crista-galli, Lamk. 2 250 5 7 116 Origanum Majorana, L. Sweet marjoram . . 12 112,000 3 7 117 Origanum vulgare, L. . . Common marjoram 15 336.000 5 rr 118 Paspalum dilatatum, Poiret 5-6 22,500 3 5t 119 Petroselinum sativum, Hoftm. Parsley 11 16.000 3 9 120 Peucedamim sativum. Benth. & Hook Parsnip . . 4 6.100 2 4 121 Pliaseolus vulgaris, L. . . Kidney or French bean 14-19 21-224 3 8-10 122 Phleum pratense, L. Timothy grass 13 50.500 4-5 6-8 123 Physalis peruviana, L. Cape Gooseberry . . 14 28.000 8 lot 124 Picridium vulgare, Desf. Cultivated sowthistle 5 33.000 5 125 Pimpinella Anisum, L. . . Anise 7 6.400 3 5 126 Pinus sylvestris, L. Pine 11 3.000 3 5 127 Pisum sativum, L., var. arvense Grey field peas 15-18 140-224 3-4 8 128 Pisum sativum. L. Pea 16-18 110 3-4 8 129 Plantago Coronopus. L. Buck's horn plantain 16 112.000 4 9 130 Portulaca oleracea, L. . . Purslane 13 70.000- 84,000 7 lot 131 Poterium Sanguisorba, L. Garden burnet 6 4.200 2 6 132 Raphanus sativus, L. . . Radish . . 15 3.300 5 lot 133 Rheum officinale, L. Rhubarb 2-3 980- 1.600 3 8 134 Rosmarinus officinalis, L. Rosemary 9 25.000 0 135 Rumex acetosa, L. Sorrel 14 28.000 0 4 136 Rvimex Patientia, L. Patience dock 13 12.500 4 6 137 Ruta graveolens, L. Rue 13 14.000 4 6 138 Salvia officinalis, L. Garden sage 12 7,000 3 5 139 Salvia Sclarea, L. Clary 14 6.400 3 140 Satureia hortensis, L. . . Summer savory 12 42.000 3 / 141 Satureia montana, L. . . Winter savory 10 70.000 3 6 142 Scolymus hispanicus, L. Golden thistle 3 8.400 3 7 143 Scorpiurus vermiculata. L. Caterpillar plant . . 4 84 6 lot 144 Scorpiurus muricata, L. Caterpillar plant . . 4 160 6 lot 145 Scorzonera hispanica, L. Scorzonera 6 2.500 2 7 146 Secale cereale, L. Rye 13-17 1,280- 2.000 2-3 4-6 9 Dec, 1907.] Seed Table. 741 Duration of 0 r.otanio.il Name. CoDiinon Xanie. Weig-ht ot No. of Seeds Vitality in years. 0) 0 1 pint in ozs. in 1 oz. Average Ex- ^ over 50 treme ^ per cent. Limit, 147 Sinapis alba, L. Mustard . . 19 4,500- 5,600 4 8-10 148 Sium Sisarum, L. Skirret . . 9 16,800 3 4 149 Solanum Melongena L. Egg plant 11 7.000 6 10 150 Solanum nigrum. L. Nightshade 15 14,000 5 8 151 Spilanthes acmella, Murr. Para cress 4 95.000 5 7t 152 Spinacia oleracea, L. . . Spinach . . 8 2,500 5 7 153 Spinacia oleracea, B.L. Round spinach 11 3.000 5 7 154 Tanacetum vulgare, L. Tansy 7 196.000 2 4 155 Taraxacum officinale, Weber Dandelion 6 25.000- 47,000 2 5 156 Tetragonia expansa, Miirr. New Zealand spinach 7 280-330 4 8 157 Thymus vulgaris, L. French thyme 15 168,000 3 7 158 Tragopogon porrifolius, L. Trapa natans, L. Salsify . . 5 2,800 2 8 159 Water chestnut 11 2,800 1 1 160 Trifolium pratense and repens Glover 18 15,500 3-5 5-lOt 161 Tciticum vulgare, L. .. Winter wheat 12-20 840- 2,000 3-5 5-10 162 Tropaeolum majus, L. Tall nasturtium 7 190-220 5 5 163 TropaeoUim minus, L. Dwarf nasturtium 12 330 5 8 164 Valerianella eriocarpa, Desv. Italian cornsalad . . 6 28.000 4 165 Valerianella olitoria, Moench. dornsalad 6 2.800 5 10 166 Valerianella olitoria, Moench. var. Large-seeded Dutch cornsalad 5 19,600 5 lot 167 Vicia Faba, L. Broad bean 14-17 11-32 6 lot 168 A'icia sativa, L. Vetch . . 16 300 35 6-10 169 Zea Mays, L. . . Sugar maize or sweet corn 14 112-140 2 4 170 Zea Mays, L. . . Other varieties 13-15 100-150 •1 2-3 10-12 Index of Common Names. Angelica, 7. Anise, 125. Artichoke, 67. Asparagus, 15. Barley, 88. Basella, common white, 18. Basil, bush, 112. Basil, large sweet, 11 1. Basil, tree, 113. Bean, broad, 167. Bean, kidney or French, 121. Beet, 20. Blitum, strawberry, 21. Borage, 22. Borecole, 31. Burdock, giant edible rooted, 11. Burnet, garden, 131. Cabbage, 30. Cabbage, Chinese, 26. Cabbage, meadow, 46. Caper-tree, 36. Capsicum, 37. Caraway, common, 39. Cardoon, 66. Carrot, bearded and green spotted, 69 Caterpillar plant, 143. Caterpillar plant, 144. Cauliflower, 32. Celery, 9. Chervil, 8. Chervil, sweet-scented, 108. Chervil, tuberous, 40. Chick, pea, 43. Chickling vetch, 95. Chicory, common, 45. Clary, 139. Clover, 160. Corchorus, bristly-leaved, 49. Coriander, 50. Corn, Indian, 170. 742 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907. Index of Common Names — continued. Corn, sweet, 169. Cornsalad, 165. Cornsalad, Italian, 164. Cornsalad, large-seeded, Dutch, 166 Cress, American, 76. Cress, garden, 97. Cress, pal a, 150. Cress, water, 109. Cuckoo-flower, 38. Cucumber, 59. Cucumber, propliets, 58. Cucumber, snake, 56. Cumin, 65. Cumin, black, no. Dandelion, 155. Dill, 6. Egg plant, .149; Elecampane, 91. Endive, 44. Fancy-gourd, 55. fennel, bitter or common, 82. Fennel, Florence, 81. Fennel, long sweet, 83. Fescue, 78-80. Fiorin, grass, i. Gherkin, West India, 53. Gooseberry, cape, 122. Goosefoot, 41. Gourd, bottle, 94. Hemp, 35. Honey grass, 87. Hop, 89. Ho rebound, 103. Horn of plenty, 77. Hyssop, 90. Ice plant, 107. Kohlrabi, 25 Lablab, 70. Lavender, 96. Leek, 5. Lentil, 72. Lentil, Auvergne, 75. Lettuce, 93. Lettuce, perennial, 92. Linseed, 99. Lovage, 98. Maize, sugar, 169. Mallow, curled-leaved, 102. Marjoram, ~ common, 117. Marjoram, sweet, 116. Marrow, custard, 61. Marrows, vegetable, green custard, 63. Meadow fescue, 79. Meliss balm, to6. Melon, 57. Mugwort, 13. Mustard, black, 29. Mustard, Chinese, large-leaved, 27. Mustard, hill, 33. Mustard, white, 23, 147. Nasturtium, dwarf, 163. Nasturtium, tall, 162. Neapolitan pumpkin, 62. and Nightshade, 150. Nut, sedge, 68. Oats, 17. Okra, 86. Onion, 2. Onion, Welsh red, 3. Onion, Welsh white, 4. Parsley, 119. Parsnip, 120. Paspalum dilatatum, 118. Patience dock, 136. Pea, 128. Pea-nut, 10. Peas, grey field, 127. Pine, 126. Plantain, buck's horn, 129. Primrose, evening, 114. I'umpkin, 60. Purslane, 130. Purslane, Cuban winter, 47. Quinoa, white, 42. Radish, 132. Rampion, 34. Red fescue, 80. Rhubarb. 133. Rosemary, 134. Rue, 137. Rye, 145. Sage, garden, 138. Salsify, r58. Samphire, 52. Savory, summer, 140. Savory, winter, 141. Srorzonera, 145. Scurvy grass, 48. Sea-kale, 51. Sedge-nut, 68. Sheep's fescue, 78. Skirret, 148. Snail, 105. Soja-bean, China, 85. Sorrel, 135. Sowthistle, cultivated, 124. Spinach, 162. Spinach, mountain 16. Spinach, New Zealand, 156. Spinach, round, 152. Squash, 60, 62. Strawberry, 84. Swede, 24. Tansy, 154. Thistle, golden, 142. Thyme, French, 157. Timothy grass, 122. Tomato, loi. Turnip, 28. Unicorn j)lant, 104. Vetch, 168. Water-chestnut, 159. Water-melon, 54. Wax-gourd, iq. Wheat, 161. Winged-pea, 100. Worms, 14. Wormwod, 12. 9 Dec, 1907.] The Pumpkin Beetle. 743 THE PUMPKIN BEETLE. [Aitlacofhora oliveri.) C. French, ]nr., Acting Government Entomologist. The Pumpkin Beetle is a yellowish insect, a'bout \ inch long by \ inch broad, the head and thorax being yellowish and having two black spots on each wing case, the two lower spots being larger than the upper ones. This species {Aulacopliora oliveri) is also variously known as A. punctata and A. hilaris. The insect belongs to the Gallerucides, several members of this family being very destructive to various plants and trees; for in- stance, in America the Elm Leaf Beetle {Galerucella Inteola) has caused thousands of pounds worth of damage owing to its depredations among the fine elm groves in New York and other places. During the past month residents in many parts of the State and also in Clare (S.A.) and Corowa (N.S.W.), have forwarded specimens of the beetle, often erroneously called the Ladybird Beetle, and have reported that considerable damage to pumpkins, melons, vegetable marrows, Turks' caps, and cucumber plants was being done by the pest. Nearly every writer states that the beetles suddenly appeared in thousands, eating leaves and flowers of the plants mentioned, and leaving only a piece of stalk in the ground. One grower at Castlemaine stated that he counted fifty beetles on one plant. In December, 1895, we had a similar visitation, and they were also very prevalent in New South Wales, but of recent vears thev have appeared only in small numbers in isolated places and have caused very little damage. This season unfortunately appears to be a favorable one for insect pests, as the Thrip, and Jassids (small green insects commonly known as froghoppers) have caused considerable damage to late apple crops, raspberries, beans, tomato plants, &c. The Cutworms {Agrotis) have also been very destructive to tomato, potato, and other crops. Inspector Wallis has just reported to me that in the Wangaratta dis- trict cherries have also been attacked. As far as I am aware this is the first instance on record where fruit has been attacked bv the Pumpkin Beetle. Among the most effective remedies used against this pest are the follow- ing : — Paris Green. — i lb. to 200 gallons of water. First mix a little water with the Paris Green to the consistency of thin cream ; then pour into the larger quantitv of water, constantly stirring to prevent it from settling to the bottom. To insure an even and regular distribution the mixture should be constantlv and smartlv stirred while being used. It is advisable that the Paris Green should be used in drv weather, so that it may not be washed awav before it has time to destroy the beetles. Kruse's Insecticide. — This is recommended on account of it being fatal to the Pumpkin Beetle in from one to three minutes. It will be found rather an expensive remedy where melons are largely grown, but persons having only a few plants would do well to give it a trial. White Hellebore. — The proportions of this mixture are one ounce of powder to one or two gallons of water. Kerosene Emulsion. — Kerosene 2 gallons ; or 2 pints ; pure dry soap ' I lb. ; or I oz. ; soft water i gallon ; or i pint. Thoroughly dissolve the soap in boiling water and add it while boiling to the kerosene. Churn the mixture violently by means of a force pump or syringe until in 5 or 10 minutes it forms a thick cream-like emulsion, which thickens into a jellv on 744 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907. cooling and adheres without oiliness to the surface of glass. The agitation must be violent and the hotter the mixture the easier the emulsion is formed. This gives an emulsion of about 65 per cent, strength. For use add one part emulsion to from 4 to 20 parts of water. Four parts of water to one of emulsion is a 13 per cent, kerosene wash, while 20 of water to one of emulsion is approximately a 3 per cent. wash. Air-slaked Lime. — Dusting the plants with this has proved effectual. Arsenite of Lead. — The formula used for the destruction of the Codlin Moth has been tried with good results. THE ORCHARD. James Lang, Harcourt. The rains during the past month, though light, have been of inestimable benefit to the fruit crops, and will go a good way towards insuring the fruit growing to a satisfactory size. The unusually dry weather which prevailed in the early part of spring dried up all the moisture in the ground, so that the recent rains were very welcome and saved the situa- tion. Fruit crops generally are light throughout the State. This is accounted for by the heavy crops of last year, and the prevalence of late froists in; some districts. Cherries are only medium ; plums very light in most districts ; apricots will on the whole be a; good crop, although in some districts they are a failure. Pears will be the lightest crop for many years ; Winter Nelis will be a complete failure, but Williams' Bon Chretien will be a medium crop. Peaches are very good in some districts, whilst a,pples are only a medium crop throughout the State. The season is much earlier than it has been for the past two or* three years, cherries ripening over a fortnight earlier than last year, and this Avill apply to all other fruits aJs well. Weeds .started by the recent rains should be kept under by means of the scarifier, which should be kept going. Spraying for the codlin moth should not be neglected. Manv growers through press of other work at this season do not spray as regularly as they should. This is a great mistake. In order to get the best results it is advisable that spraying should be done every week until the end of December. 'Most of the grubs hatch out during the latter part of November and December, and attention to spraying during that period effectually checks the spread of the moth. Bandaging the trees should also be attended to at Once, as the grubs will soon be making their appearance. The bandages should be examined every ten days and all grubs found destroyed. Woolly aphis is now making its appearance. The trees should be gone over and dressed with the sulphur and potash remedy given in the February number of the Journal (page 126). The season for export will soon be here, and growers who intend! shipping should make their arrangements as soon as possible by securing the necessary cool chamber space. There is no alteration in shipping freight this year, but in view of the maiil contract entered into with the Orient Company a substantial reduction in freight will be made shortly. Recently-planted citrus fruits should not be allowed to suffer from the dry weather. A good watering should be given them occasionally to keep theim growing. 9 Dec, 1907.] The Afple Trade with Great Britain. 745 THE APPLE TRADE WITH GREAT BRITAIN AND GERMANY. Prices obtained. 1907 Season. Ernest Meeking, Inspector under the Commerce Act. The apple export season for 1907 was remarkable not only because the total quantity shippeu far exceeded that of any previous year but also on account of the high prices realized on the London and European markets. The lightness of the American apple harvest was partly responsible for this, but the opening up of new markets on the Continent and elsewhere, causing the fruit to be more widely distributed, un- doubtedly contributed in bringing about this satisfactory result. This emphasizes the necessity of our fruit exporters giving immediate and close attention to this side of their business and pushing it for all it is worth. The necessity for this immediate attention ma\ not at first seem very obvious, but it should be considered that the improved methods of har- vesting, handling, storing and transporting fruits have of late vears considerably lengthened the period over which apples may be kept after harvesting. This is causing the marketing of American apples to extend over a longer time each year. In addition, the areas under cultivation in Cape Colony, Natal and the Argentine are every year on the increase. These countries are situated much closer to the European markets than •we are and by reason of their fruit season occurring at the same time of the year as our own, threaten to become serious competitors in the trade. It behoves us therefore to "get on early" and capture as many markets as possible, remembering, that the old adage concerning posses- sion applies with equal force to business as it does to law. The principal foreign market patronized by Victorian exporters so fai^ has been Ger- many. The quantity shipped to that country last season was far in excess of any previous year. The appended list of prices will show that the results well repaid those who were venturesome enough to ship to German ports. That this direct trade might with advantage be established with other continental countries has been clearly proved in the case of America which, within the past few years, has opened up a large and profitable trade with many European ports until recently untouched. The great drawback to Australia copying this example is the want of a supervising agency to search out new markets, to furnish reports of the coming output and demand (to both growers and buyers) and to control distribution according to requirements. The necessity of cold storage at each distributing centre and an extension of transport facili- ties to other than the present centres (Eondon and Hamburg) is becoming more pressing year after year; in fact there is, in addition to what is here outlined, many other questions in this connexion which demand urgent attention. It IS unfortunate that for the forthcoming season the Victorian apple crop will probably be a light one, particularly in view of the fact that prices on the London and European markets will doubtless be again high owing to the exceptional lightness of the American crop. Last year the United States and Canadian crops yielded about 75 per cent. of the average. This year according to the latest advices 49 States expect to average only 44 per cent., while Canada, in eight out of the 746 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907. ten fruit areas, will produce only light to medium crops. Should such results justify this anticipation higher prices even than those obtained last season should be realized. The list given below may be taken as typical of the prices obtained throughout last season as they are extracted from shipments extending over the whole season oommencing with the s.s. Britannia, which sailed on i8th February, and ended with s.s. Omrah, one of the last boats of the season to take any large quantity. Vessel. Britannia Date of Sailing. I Destination. 18th Feb. London Orontes Marmora 26th Feb. London 5th March London Variety of Fruit. ^4 pples. Jonathan Cox's Orange Pippin Cleopatra King Pippin . . Munroe'.s Favourite Ribston Pippin Reinette de Canada Rome Beanty Bisniarck Pears. Beau jean Vicar of Winkfield Highest Average Price. Price. IS 0 \5 fi 15 6 15 0 14 6 12 G 11 () 9 6 9 3 11 6 9 0 d. s. d. 9 6 10 6 12 O 11 6 10 3 9 6 7 6 9 0 8 6 10 Hi 9 0 Apples. , Cox's Orange Pippin . . 17 0 13 4 Jonathan 16 6 1 1^ 0 Cleopatra 16 0 12 9 Annie Elizabeth 15 6 1 11 6 Dnnielow's Seedling 15 (i 13 6 Ribston Pippin 15 0 12 6 Munroe's Favourite i 14 0 12 6 American Pearmain 13 6 12 G Reinette de Canada 12 6 10 5 Rome Beauty 12 0 11 0 London Pippin 12 0 11 6 Rymer 11 G 11 3 Ponime de Neige 11 6 11 6 Bismarck 11 0 10 5-1 Graven stein . . 10 G 10 1 Pears. Beaujean 16 0 12 9 Vicar of Winkfield 12 6 10 7 Beurre Clairgeau 6 6 6 6 Apples. Jonathan 15 t) 11 6 Cox's Orange Pippin . . 15 0 14 0 C!leopatra 15 0 13 6 London Pippin 13 0 12 9 Annie Elizabeth 15 0 11 6 Munroe's Favourite 13 0 11 6 Rome Beauty 9 9 9 3 Reinette de Canada 12 6 10 6 Esopus Spitzenberg 12 0 9 3 Pears. Vicar of Winkfield J 8 3 3 4 9 Dec, 1907.] The Apple Trade icith Great Britait 747 Vessel. Solingen Sarpedon Westphalen Date of Sailing. Destination 9tli March fjennany 16th March 23rd March Ophir Somerset Omrah 26th March 24th April London Germany London 28th April London and Germany London Variety of Fruit. Apples. Jonathan Munroe's Favourite Cleopatra Reinette de Canada Rome Beauty London Pippin Apples. Jonathan Cleopatra Munroe's Favom-ite Scarlet Nonpareil Rome Beauty London Pippin Annie Elizabeth Apples. Cleoiaatra Jonathan Munroe's Favourite Scarlet Nonpariel Rome Beauty London Pippin Annie Elizabeth Aj}ples. Jonathan London Pippin Cleopatra Rome Beauty Scarlet Nonpariel Pears. Vicar of Winkfield Winter Nelis . . Broom Park . . Apples. Jonathan Rome Beauty Munroe's Favourite Cleopatra Scarlet Nonpariel Newtown Pippin Apples. Cleopatra Jonathan London Pippin Rome Beauty Scarlet Nonpariel Pears. Winter Nelis . . L'Inconnue Highest Price. s. d. 19 9 20 6 19 9 13 9 12 6 15 6 15 6 15 0 14 6 9 3 10 6 14 0 13 6 17 6 15 9 16 6 9 9 11 3 16 6 15 0 15 0 11 6 14 6 II 0 11 0 14 0 17 6 15 6 5 0 9 6 8 6 11 6 6 6 10 0 12 6 10 0 10 0 9 0 9 0 22 0 10 6 Average Price. s. (I. 13 10 16 14 11 8 1 10 0 11 0 13 0 12 3 9 0 9 6 9 6 12 0 14 6 13 3 13 6 9 0 8 9 14 0 12 9 12 3 10 8 13 0 9 10 10 9 11 3 15 9 14 0 4 3 5 0 7 0 7 9 6 0 10 3 8 9 9 0 8 2 8 3 9 4 9 4 748 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907. The object of the list is to indicate how the better-known export varieties of apples and pears sell in the different markets at various periods of the export season. It will be noticed that the average em- braces a wide range of figures from 4s. 3d. to i6s. for apples and from 3s. 4d. to 22s. 6d. for pears. The varieties for which the best average prices were obtained were Cleopatra, Munroe's Favourite, Jonathan, Cox's Orange Pippin and London Pippin. The Rome Beauty, although such a favourite export apple^ brought on the whole rather disappointing prices. One contributing factor to this unfortunate result was the extreme sappiness of this variety which adversely affected its keeping qualities. The extreme humidity prevailing in many apple-growing localities last season was pi^obably responsible for this so far as the London market was concerned. The chief cause which affected the price on the German market was the dis- taste which the Germans entertain toward apples possessing such a sweet flavour as the Rome Beauty does. Cleopatra, London Pippin and Jona than seem to command good figures both in the London and German markets. A noticeable feature is the fine prices obtained for Munroe's Favourite. This apple is justly coming to the fore of late years and is from many points of view a most desirable apple for export, being a good keeper with an attractive appearance and very free from disease. It will be noticed that prices rise from the beginning to the middle of the season and then fall off as the season nears completion. The prices realized on the German markets have, on the whole, been in advance of those obtained on the London markets. This is probably due to the fact that the quantity sent to the latter exceeds the former out of proportion to their different demands, because the bulk of the Tasmanian fruit is sent to London. Most of the shipment sent in the s.s. Somerset went to Germany, being transhipped from London. Of course it is not meant to infer that the prices obtained on the German markets indicate in any manner that those prices would be maintained if much larger quantities were shipped there. Any rash increase would probably mean a big slump in prices. The method of sending fruit in large quantities to markets where good prices have been obtained without fully ascertaining the requirements of those markets has been the bete ndire of the fruit trade in the past. "First find your markets and their requirements and then supply accordingly" should be the maxim to follow in building up our export trade in fruit. ■I^H 1 j^^^i^s^ ■Kr ■,-- ■-•-4. . iTi'i ¥• ' "^t. '^^r^:-^ ,,,„0^; ' -^S^-:^-,^ ■■■■■■■■i!^'-."' ' ; *" .^'■- ■■^^^" .-v-.-' ■^M- ::5i=^;:::r: ■" ^**»«»^ ' ' ^> "^yjBB . ?"» ___ ■ , ■^^^fe:?. 9 Dec, 1907.] Examination of Stallions. 749 EXAMINATION OF STALLIONS. Report on the Veterinary Examination of Stallions for the Government Certificate of Soundness and Approval.* S. S. Cameron, M.R.C.V.S., Chief Veterinary Officer. Initiation of Scheme. The system was inaugurated to meet in some degree the general demand tliroughout the State that some measure of control should be exercised over the horsebreeding industry with a view of arresting the generally recognised deterioration that is taking place amongst most classes of Australian horses. A resolution passed by the Chamber of Agriculture at the Sale Convention and conveyed to the Minister on i6th August, 1906, crystallized this general demand into a specific request " to the Alinister of Agriculture to arrange on the voluntary request of any Agricultural Society or Parade Council for the free examination for soundness of stallions standing for public service by a)p proved veterinary experts and for the granting of Government Certificates of Soundness." After full consideration of the desirability and practicability of carrying out the suggestion, the Minister decided to adopt it. Accordingly on 24th May, 1907, the following circular was sent to all the Agricultural Societies in the State suggesting the holding of Stallion Parades at which the veterinary examination could be made : — Department of Agriculture, Melbourne, 24th May, lyoy. Sir, In accordance with one of the recommendations of the Chamber of Agriculture, and in pursuance of the policy of assisting the small breeder towards a more valuable result in horsebreeding operations, the Minister of Agriculture (the Hon, George Swinburne) has decided to issue, free of cost, a " Government Certificate of Soundness and Approval" to all stallions standing for public stud service which, on inspection and examination by one of the Government Veterinary Officers, are found free from hereditary unsoundness and defective conformation. The certificates will be given for all breeds — draught horses, light horses and ponies, and it is especially provided that blemishes or unsoundness, or defects of conformation, the result of accident, external injury or overstrain and overwork, will not disqualify. The main advantage that is expected to accrue from the carrying out of this scheme is that the Government certificate will become the "hall-mark" of soundness in stallions; and owners of mares will be aided in the choice of a sound sire and so be guaranteed that the progeny will not be depreciated in value bv the inheritance of unsoundness. Conversely, a means will be afforded of avoiding constitutionally unsound and trashy sires. The proposal is to have the inspection conducted at parades held at some con- venient centre in the different district areas usually travelled by stallions, on some suitable date (whether Show Day or otherwise) prior to the commencement of the forthcoming season — preferably in July or August. The Minister will be glad if your Societv could undertake the arrangements for holding such a parade either alone or in conjunction with other Agricultural Societies in the travelling stud areas of your district. A very sensible arrangement, and one which it is suggested might be adopted with advantage by closely neighbouring * With the exception of the figures, which have been brought up to date, this report is a copy of a report to the Hon. the Minister of Agriculture, written on 2ist October, 1907, as a result of a request in Parliament " for results of the initial examination of stallions to date, together with any evidence that had been forthcoming during the examinations bearing on the question of proof of the hereditary transmissibility of the unsoundnesses held to warrant refusal of the Govern- ment certificate." On 21st October, 1907, the report was laid on the table of the House of Legislative Assembly and by vote of Parliament was ordered to be printed. — S.S.C., 30th November, 1907. 750 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907. societies, has been come to already by three societies in one prominent horse- breeding district. They have agreed to hold the stallion parade in July at their different centres in turn, so that each centre will have the parade triennially. Except to the extent of the announcement and advertisement, the .parade and examination will be carried out without expense to your Society and no condition other than those indicated above will be imposed. I am directed to ask that the matter be laid before your Committee at an early date so that if the parade is decided on, it may be held before the commencement of the stud season and that clashing of dates may be provided against. I will be glad to receive your reply in due course. I have the honour to be, Yours obediently, (Signed) E. G. DUFFUS, Secretary for Agriculture. The Secretary, Agricultural Society. It was intended that this scheme if successful might take the place of the various proposals that have at different times been made for the taxation or licensing of stallions, for it was felt that a voluntary system would be more likely to be acceptable to those engaged in the industry than a method involving compulsion. The scheme required for its successful initiation, firstly, the support of the stallion owners to the end that a fair proportion of the stallions standing for (public service should be submitted for examination and "hall-marked" so to speak; and secondly, that breeders or owners of mares should accept the guidance afforded by the certificate and loyally patronize the certificated stallions. Although the past season campaign is not yet completed, sufficient experience of the working of the system has been gained to show that in respect of both these requirements success may be confidently anticipated. Number of Parades and Examinations. Fifty-six societies in different parts of the State responded to the invitation — many more than was anticipated — and up to the present 49 parades and 29 shows have been dealt with. At these parades and shows a total of 889 stallions have been examined for the Government certificate to date. It may be confidently anticipated that upwards of 900 stallions will have been submitted for examination before the season closes. This number represents as near as can be estimated between 70 and 80 per cent, of the stallions standing for public use in the State and it is significant of the appreciation with which the scheme is regarded by the horsebreeders of the State that so large a percentage of horses should have been voluntarily submitted for examination during the first season. In districts in which examinations have been made the certiftcated stallions are dominant and in those of such districts through which I have travelled since the parades, the owners of mares are loyally patronizing the certificated stallions. Districts Supporting the Scheme. A return is attached showing {a) the centres at which parades have been held, {b) the number of horses submitted — draughts, lights and ponies at each centre, (c) the numbers in each breed and the total numbers granted certificates and refused certificates and {d) the initials of the examining officer. From this it will be seen that the scheme has been strongly supported in the Wimmera, the North-Western, and North- 9 Dec, 1907.] Examination of Stallions. IS^ Eastern districts ; and moderately well supported in Gippsland and the Western districts, the only important horsebreeding centre in which the welcome has been equivocal being the northern end of the Goulburn Valley. I am hopeful however that the example set by the enterprising breeders in the Wimmera will be emulated next season by the equally prominent breeders in the Goulburn Valley. Examining Officers and Results. The veterinary officers engaged in this work and the jparades and shows the\ have attended and the number of stallions they have examined with results are set out in the following table : — Parades. Shows. Stallions examined. Certified. Refused. Per- centages refused. Mr. S. S. Cameron, M.R.C.V.S., Chief Veterinary Officer . . Mr. W. J. Colebatch, B.Sc, M.R.C.V.8., 1st Assistant Veterinary Officer Mr. W. A. N. Robertson, G.M.V.C., Assistant Veteri- nary Officer Mr. Norman . MacDonald, G.M.V.C.. Assistant Veteri- nary Officer IG 19 8 6 10 7 8 4 369 •283 1(37 70 270 •241 1-24 49 99 42 43 21 •26.82 14.8 •28.14 30.00 Totals . . 49 29 889 684 205 23.05 Hereditary Unsoundness. The following ten conditions have been regarded as hereditary unsoundness, the existence of which in any degree would warrant refusal of a Government Certificate : — Broken Wind. Roaring. Cataract (eye). Nasal Disease (osteo-porosis). Ringbone. Sidebone. Bone-spavin. Bog-spavin. Curb. Thoroughpin and bursal en- largements. I have explained elsewhere that an hereditary unsoundness is one in which the tendency to the disease is inherited, and not the disease itself. That is to say, animals with such tendencies will develop such diseases on the incidence of slight exciting causes, whereas in other animals such causes would be ineffective. If such exciting causes are withheld, the hereditarily-disposed animal may escape the affection altogether. When an inherited tendenc\' to disease has not manifested itself by the develop- ment of that disease in a given animal, it often happens that in succeeding generations, on the occurrence of influences favorable to the development of the disease, it will be produced. It is frequently observed in regard tO' such diseases as ringbone that the disease does not occur in the progeny until it reaches the age at which the parent became affected. This may simply mean that similar conditions of life experienced during the same age period, may produce similar results in an animal having a tendency- towards such results. 75- Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907, Rejections for Unsoundness. Of all horses examined 1.5.17 have been refused certificates on the ground of hereditary unsoundness solely. This percentage is small and shows that our horses compare favorably with those of other countries in respect of hereditary unsoundness. But it must be remembered that in deciding as to rejections the examining officers have been the opposite of drastic in their determinations For instance no horse has been fejected for "founder" (laminitis) although it might be contended that this bane of draught stallions is predisposed to by hereditary influence. Neither have there been any refusals in respect of the first two unsound- nesses on the above list (broken wind and roaring) for the reason that under the circumstances that examination is conducted at Parades there is no opportunity for carrying out the necessary tests. Of the 889 stallions examined 684 have been given certificates, and 205 have been refused. The percentage of refusals is thus 23.05. Of these 70, or 7.88 per cent, were refused on the ground of their being defective in conformation, nondescript in type, or below a reasonable standard for Government approval — scrubbers in fact of which, it is regrettable to state, a far larger proportion are, in my opinion, not worthy to be certificated. The officers concerned, however, have preferred not to arrogate to themselves the function of judging type, merit and excellence except in the case of those stallions in respect of which it would have been, for them, a matter of shame to have signed a certificate in favour of. The remaining refusals, viz. : — 135, or 15.17 per cent., were made on the ground of hereditary unsoundness solely. As a preliminary to comment on the unsoundne'sses met with, it will be instructive to submit the following: — Analysis of Defects op Horses Refused Certificates. DRAUGHTS. LIGHTS. PONIES. Totals. >f umber Number Number 1 u 1 examined— examined — examined — III ^t Defects. 385. 297. 207. |z;PMffi e a i-auffhts. Exd. C. NC. I.ijfhts. Exd. C. NC. Exd. C. NC Totals. Exd. C. NC. By whom examined. 4. Dookie, 27.7.07 5. Traralgoii, 31.7.07 „ Show, 13.11.07 6. Hopetoun. 3.8.07 7. Pyramid Hill, 3.8.07 . „ Show, 23.10.0 8. Swan Hill, 7.8.07 9. Colac, 7.8.07 „ Show. 24.10.07 10. Murtoa, 9.8.07 Show. 27.9.07 11. Melton, 10.8.07 12. Donald, 14.8.07 Show, 11.9.07 13. Euroa, 14.8.07 14. Warraeknabeal, 14 8.07 „ Show. 4.8.07 15. Wangaratta, 15.8.07*. . 16. Sea Lake, 15.8.07 17. Yarrawonga, 16.8.07 18. Maffra, 16.8.07 Show, 24.10.07 19. Benalla, 17.8.07 20. Hamilton, 17.8.07 Show, 19.9.07 21. Wvcheproof. 20.8.07 . . „ Show, 4.10.07 22. Minyip, 21.8.07 Show, 1.10.07 23. Birchip, 21.8.07 •24. Yarram, 21.8.07 Show, 20.11.07 25. Nhill, 21.8.07 Show, 9.10.07 26. Cobram, 23.8.07 27. Lilydale, 23.8.07 28. Tatura, 24.8.07 29. Sliepparton, 24.8.07 . . 30. Echuca, 24.8.07 31. Elmore, 26.8.07 Show, 25.9.07 32. Kilmore, 27.8.07 33. Kaniva, 28.8.07 34. Casterton, 28.8.07 . . 35. St. Arnaud, 28.8.07 . . 36. Seymour, 29.8.07 Show, 11.10.07 37. Mansfield, 30.8.07 Show. 21.11.07 38. Geelong, 31.8.07 Show, 30.10.07 39. Warrnambool, 10.9.07 40. Alexandra, 14.9.07 . . Show, 14.11.07 41. Morwell, 16.9.07 42. Stawell, 18.9.07 43. Daylesford. 20.9.07 . . 10 10 W.J.C. S.S.C. W.R. W.J.C. S.S.C. W.R. W.R. S.S.C. S.S.C. W.J.C. S.S.C. S.S.C. W.J.C. W.R. S.S.C. W.R. N.McD. S.S.C. N.McD. S.S.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. S.S.C. W.R. N.McD. W.J.C. W.R. W.R. N.McD. W.J.C. N.McD. W.J.C. S.S.C. S.S.C. N.McD. W.J.C. W.R. S.S.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.R. S.S.C. N.MoD. W.R. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. N.McD. S.S.C. S.S.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. N.McD. W.J.C. W.R. W.J.C. 9 Dec, 1907.] Border Leicester Sheep. 759 Stallion Parades AND Sh ows — (continued). Draughts. Lights. Ponies. Totals, Rj' Place. whom examined. Exd. c. JSC. Exd. u. m. Exd. c. JS(J. Exd. c. NO. 44. Rupanyup Show. 20.9.07 3 3 1 1 2 2 6 3 3 W.R. 45. Camperdown, 26.9.07 4 4 2 1 1 3 3 9 8 1 W.J.C. 46. Kyneton, 26.9.07 11 6 0 7 6 1 3 3 21 15 6 W.R. Show, 26.11.07 4 3 1 2 2 6 5 1 W.R. 47. Dimboola Show, 11.10.07 .. 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 5 4 1 s.s.c. 48. Numurkah Show, 9.10.07 . . 5 5 2 1 1 2 2 9 8 1 W.J.C- 49. Jeparit Show, 16.10.07 5 3 2 4 4 1 1 10 8 2 W.J.C- 50. Maryborough Show. 16.10.07 .. 7 5 2 4 4 3 3 14 12 2 s.s.c. 51. Ballarat Show, 17.10.07 5 4 1 13 12 1 S 7 1 26 23 3 s.s.c. 52. Murchison Show, 30.10.07 .. 3 3 2 2 2 2 7 7 W.R. 53. Maldon Show, 30.10.07 5 2 3 1 1 6 3 3 s.s.c. 54. Sale Show, 31.10.07 . . 3 3 3 3 W.J.C. 5,5. Coleraine Show. 6.11.07- 1 1 i 1 2 2 4 4 W.J.C. 56. Miscellaneous 4 3 1 6 6 4 4 14 13 1 Totals 385 2C0 125 297 243 54 207 181 26 889 684 205 BORDER LEICESTER SHEEP. H. W . Ham. Sheep Expert. The Border Leicester is one of the best of our long-wool breeds of sheep, and is a variation in type from the old English Leicester and Lincoln. The breeders of this sheep in the old country have made shape of carcass their principal aim, as seen in the good girths and shapely forequarters in all flocks of any merit. While the Border Leicester has been evolved with these desirable points, breeders have recognised that quality of flesh must be kept in view also ; they could see that the coarser the wool fibre, the coarser the grain of flesh below, and so by selection and judicious mating they have brought about a rather finer grade of wool than existed formerly, and with better character also. By encouraging a finer grade of wool and better character in fleece, they have also as a result toned down the coarseness of flesh, and now on all well-bred sheep we find the bright pink skin that is at once an indication of quality of flesh, and upon which, as a general rule, nice wool will grow. A Border Leicester is not, however, a well covered sheep from a wool man's point of view, but the absence of excessive covering is one of the reasons whv the breed excels in constitutional points. Had the old breeders made for excessive covering also, they could not have evolved the Border Leicester sheep. 760 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907 One of the recognised points of the breed as being true to type is, no wool further forward than where the neck joins the head, and to a great degree, in any breed, this really is where the flesh ends. By keeping SOME RECENT IMPORTATIONS BORDER LEICESTER RAM AND EWES. the head and ears clear it increases their comfort, especially towards shear- ing time in full wool, and' wHen grass seed is bad. The bareness of leg in times of grass seed is an advantage to them. The idea in wool-carrying capacity is to carry as much as possible of a good style of stuff on the 9 Dec, 1907.] Elements of Animal Physiology. 761 body parts only, and not encourage it on the extremities. In shape of head and ears, they should (in outline only) resemble very much the hare, having clean-cut eyes, bridge of nose, and ears, or in other words, should show a defined well-bred appearance. In colour they should have white faces, ears, and legs, but not the hard kempty white often seen in second rate sheep, and not the slatey blue tinge we see in so'-called Border Leicesters with a cross of the other long-wool breeds. A few rich, black spots on ears, and often near the eyes, are not wrong, providing they are not a common dull brown, or dirty black. A rich black spot is called by breeders who have made a success of improving and of individual mating, a " beauty spot." Length of head is a valued point by many Border Leicester men ; they consider it gives less trouble in lambing. Sheep of this breed are good travellers for feed and to water, and stand a lot of hardship. They cross well on merino ewes of a shapely class, and the lambs make good freezers. They are very suitable to graziers who have coontry suitable for fattening lambs off the natural pasture, and who depend entirely on the season, for if attention is paid that none but sha^^ely good doing rams with fair fleece qualities are used, the lambs if held over, will make profitable wool growers, and when the good shape exists, easily fattening sheep also. It is very dangerous to the good name of this breed that a keen demand now exists for them. They are a breed easily reared, and easily worked up from half-bred and three-quarter bred ewes so as to appear true to type to the ordinarv sheep man, but if all rams in the wool were handled before purchase, and high shouldered and hollow girthed ones rejected, it would do a lot towards keeping the good name now possessed. The sheep illustrated were imported, per s.s. Salamis, by Mr. H. M. Sutherland, of Elcho Estate, Lara, in October last, and arrived m first-class condition. They vi^ere' bred by Mr. William Gumming, of Allanfearn, Inver-ness, and purchased by Mr. Sutherland during his recent visit to Scotland. The ram, one year old, was awarded first prize at the Nairn Show, held in August last, whilst the ewes, one year old, secured the first, third and fourth prizes at the Northern Counties Joint Show held this vear at Dingwall. The first prize ewe was Champion Leicester at Dingwall and also at Nairn. THE ELEMENTS OF ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. W. A. Osborne, M.B., D.Sc, Professor of Physiology and Histology, Dean of the Factdty of Agriculture in the University of Melbourne. {Continued from Page 693.) Digestion and Absorption {continued.) DIGESTION IN THE CROP AND STOMACH.— The food, when swallowed, enters the crop or proventriculus, which, as we have seen, is a dilated portion of the oesophagus. In man and the carnivores this organ is wanting, and the food therefore enters directly the fundus of the stomach. In ruminants the crop is represented by the large rumen or paunch (first 762 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907. stomach) with its attendant reticulum or honeycomb ; in the horse and pig the crop is joined to the fundus without any narrowed portion or neck between. In the crop the food gets warmed up to the temperature ot the body, and gets thoroughly macerated with the saliva. Moreover, the diastase of the saliva continues its action on any starch which may be present. A very important action is the digestion of the food by the Fig. 47. Diagram of stomach of horse, pig, and do<^ ventriculus ; F., fundus; Py., pylorus; D., duodenum. O., CEsopiiagus ; P., pro- ferments which it already contains. This autolysis is also aided by harm- less bacteria, and in consequence of this combined action, the food mass, which is constantly being rotated and stirred bv the movements of the muscular wall, is subjected to a partial digestion which affects most of the food ingredients. Starch is partially transformed into sugar, proteins into proteoses, whilst oils and fats are acted upon only slightly. But the most important action is a semi-digestion of cellulose and woody fibre, by which the vegetable ir.ass is softened, and the contents of the vegetable cells made more accessible. The carbohydrates in the food produce con- siderable quantities of acids, like lactic acid and butvric acid ; and gases, Ji ^ ^'^^^^~ Fig. 48. Proventriculus and Stomach of Sheep, i, la, and ib, Rumen; 2, Re- ticulum ; 3, Omasum ; 4, Abomasum or true stomach consisting of a fundus tapering into a pylorus; 5, Beginning of duodenum. (After Hagemann.J like hydrogen and carbon dioxide, are also liberated, so that the whole mass in the crop may have a spongy look and feel. Sometimes, as with 9 Dec., 1907.] Elements of Animal Physiology. 763 young wet clover, the gases produced bv fermentation are excessive, and a dangerous distension of the crop (hoven) may be produced. In the horse and pig, the contents of the crop pass readily into the fundus, the two being practically confluent. But in the ruminants, the passage into the fundus is roundabout, and involves a return to the mouth. In the process of rumination (chewing the cud) the contents of the rumen are forced in small poxtions at a time intO' the oesophagus, and by a reverse peristalsis into the mouth. The mass is then subjected to a thorough grinding by the teeth., and is once more swallowed. This time, however, the food mass is not delivered into the rumen by the cesophagus, but by means of a double fold on the roof of the rumen which, closing over, becomes a tube, it passes into the omasum or manyplies. The character- istic feature of this organ is the presence of strong muscular leaves lined with coarse stratified epithelium which, by their movements, rasp the food and if they do not actuallv break up some of the fibres, at least roll thi ■ and work them so that the food mass is fit to enter the remaining portions of the canal. The omasum contains a few glands, but they are of little importance. The reticulum or honeycomb acts as a reservoir of fluid, moistening the food mass which is to be ruminated or passed into the omasum. Its exact significance, however, has not been fullv worked out. There is no true digestive secretion, nor is there any absorption from the proventriculus. In the fundus of the true stomach (abomasum of ruminants) we find that the lining membrane is secretorv and capable of pouring out a diges- tive fluid called gastric juice. Gastric juice consists chiefly of water, but it has also some very important ingredients, namely, hydrochloric acid, pepsin and traces of other ferments. The amount of hydrochloric acid varies with different animals, and even in the same animal with different diets ; generally speaking as much acid is secreted as the protein present can absorb, and frequentlv a little more, making the free acid present equal to 0.2 to 0.4 per cent. The uses of hydrochloric acid are : — 1. To combine with the proteins and so alter them that they can be attacked by pepsin ; 2. To act in the duodenum as an exciter of the pancreas, liver and dueodenal glands ; 3. To act as a bacteria-trap killing many, but by no means all, bacteria. Pepsin is an enzyme which can transform proteins into proteoses (albumoses and peptones) which latter are much simpler bodies and better able to be absorbed. Pepsin however can only act if the protein be altered by treatment with acid and hence the significance of the hydro- chloric acid. Traces of lipase or fat-splitting enzyme are also found in the gastric juice but the activity of this ferment is very small. Another enzyme frequently described as occurring in the stomach is rennin which clots milk, changing the caseinogen into casein; but it is very probable that this action is produced by the pepsin, in fact it seems to be a property of every enzyme acting on protein. In herbivores and omnivores one always gets lactic acid in the stomach, but this most probably is derived from the carbohydrate of the food b\ fermentative change.^ Salts are also present, the same as are found in the blood, namelv chlorides and phosphates of soda, potash, lime and magnesia. ■64 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907. In animals that possess no proventriculus, namely in man and carni- vores, the masticated food enters the fundus directly. If the amount of food be great the gastric juice may not penetrate through the mass for some time and so the saliva may continue to act on the starch. When however the food mass is saturated with the acid juice the action of the saliva on the starch is stopped. In such animals autolysis of the food practically does not occur. Fats in the stomach are acted upon only very feebly ; but as the envelopes of the fat-cells are digested, when the fat is of animal origin, a liberation of the fat occurs so that it is prepared for subsequent digestion. Carbohydrates are unchanged in the stomach with the exception of that due to the saliva before it is acidulated. Summarising the digestive processes so far we may state that in mammals food is ground and its surface multiplied by the action of the teeth. In animals with a proven- triculus all food constituents are slightly digested by autolysis and bacterial action, but the main action is a loosening and softening of the fibres and cellulose cell-walls. Complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides and notably starch) are partially broken down into sugars by the action of saliva and by autolysis in the crop. In the fundus of the stomach proteins are saturated with acid and sul>jected to pepsin ; bv this means all solid protein that is not retained within the woodv envelopes is dissolved or pulped, being broken down into the simpler proteoses. In addition to these functions we may describe some others. The proventriculus or the stomach acts as a reservoir of food so that while the latter may be eaten intermittently (this is especially the case with carnivores) the intestines receive a continuous supply. In most animals the stomach never becomes actuallv empty and, by this reservoir action, can tide the animal over short periods of starvation. Another important action is the dilution of strong solutions down to a fixed concentration. or converselv, of strengthening weak solutions up to the same standard. Thus a syrup of sugar or a draught of Epsom salts is diluted, but pure water has salts added to it. This is an important action for the delicate lining membrane of the intestine is readilv disturbed by concentrations above or below the standard. It is verv doubtful if anv absorption occurs before the small intestine is reached except as regards highly diffusible bodies such as alcohol. &c. The glands of the stomach are stimulated into action by the advent of the food. In man and carnivores gastric juice is poured out in the act of eating or even at the sight or thought of food, just as the human mouth will proverbiallv water at the bare mention of a lemon. But the food has also a further and direct stimulating influence when it reaches the stomach. In ruminants a response of the stomach before the food has entered it is probably absent. The pylorus of the stomach is characterised by strong peristaltic waves that drive the stomach contents, when these become sufficientlv pulped or digested, through the pvloric sphincter into the duodenum. The glands with which the pvlorus is supplied act chieflv bv adding some more pepsin to the food ; thev do not add acids as the proteins have already been saturated with hydrochloric acid in the fundus, {To he cotifiinicd .) 9 Dec, 1907.] Diseases of Farm Animals. 7^5 DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS. 5. S. Cameron, M .R.C .V .S.. Chief Veterinary Officer. {Continued from page 649.) DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. Kidney Diseases : — Inflammation or Nephritis — Renal abcess- — Renal calculus. Bladder Affections : — Inflammation or cystitis — Spasm of neck of bladder — Gravel and bladder calculus — -Enlargement of prostate gland. Stone in the sheath (Preputial calculus). Retention of urine — Bloody urine — Thick urine. Diseases of the kidneys are comparatively rare in the lower animals. Thev are affected occasionally as a result of some other disease; for instance, their activity may be increased beyond normal limits in affections of the liver when they take on the function of excreting from the blood various matters that are usually excreted in the bile; but, excepting nephritis and renal ab.scess and calculi, the kidnevs are not prone to disease, and even those mentioned are rare. KIDNEY DISEASES. Inflammation of the Kidneys (Nephritis). Although inflanrmation of the kidneys is a common diagnosis for obscure lameness, and also in cases of colic and of partial loss of power in the hind extremities, in point of fact it seldom occurs except as the result of the administration of excessive dose of diuretic or staling medicine given ignorantly with the object of " clearing the water." Odd cases have been recorded as following on the blistering of a large skin surface, through the irritation produced bv the absorption of cantharidine, the active principle of a fly blister. Symptoms. — The active symptoms simulate those of colic, with total suppression or diminution in amount of urine ; but, contrary to his action in colic, the horse stands continuously, arches his back a great deal and straddles stifily on being moved. Later on there may be unconsciousness, convulsions, and other signs of ureamic poisoning. Treatment. — The liver, bowels and skin should be got to act fully by the giving of purgatives and diaphoretics. Hot fomentations to the loins and warm clothing of the body and limbs will be beneficial in distributing the cinculation. Ten-drop doses of tincture of aconite may be given as a febrifuge. To relieve the pain, which is at times intense, hypodermic injections of morphia mav be given. Renal Abscess. Abscesses may occur in the kidne\ from pysemia. They are occasion- ally seen in sheep affected with multiple abscesses, but they appear to occasion few ill effects and no marked symptoms are shown. Renal Calculus. Stone in the kidney is occasionally found in horses and cattle, but dogs and sheep appear to be most prone to it. The calculus usually forms in the pelvis of the kidney, gradually increasing in size through the accretion of salts deposited from the urine. As it grows it assumes the shape of the cavity in which it lies, having projections on the surface corresponding to 766 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907. the openings of the uriniferous ducts. It distends the pelvis and by pressure mav cause absorption of the kidney tissue to an extent to interfere with the function of the organ. In such cases the animal becomes debilitated, but as a rule there are no noticeable symptoms during life. It is con- ceivable that renal calculi might be removed by surgical operation, but no cases of such have been recorded. The fact that the diagnosis can be little more than suspicion would scarcely warrant operative interference. The ureters or tubes leading from the kidneys to the bladder are little subject to abnormalities. Occasionally a renal calculus, or fragment of such, may pass from the kidney into the ureter and become blocked in it. This mav be a rare cause of apparent-colic. BLADDER AFFECTIONS. Inflammation of Bladder (Cystitis). This also is a rare affection and seldom occurs in animals, if ever, except from overdoses of irritant drugs. The Symptoms are those of distress from pain and fever ; there is frequent straining to pass a small quantity of thick blood-tinged slimv urine. In females, excitement of the external genitals is obvious. Figs. 115 and 116. Male and female catheters for farm animals. Treatment. — In addition to sedatives internally and the giving of as much water as the patient will drink, the local treatment should include the injection into the bladder by means of a catheter of soothing fluids. Infusion of poppies or opium, warm solution of bicarbonate of soda or boracic acid (half an ounce to the pint), clear linseed mucilage or jelly and solutions of gum or starch are suitable agents to inject. Spasm of the Neck of the Bladder. This sometimes occurs in association with spasm of the bowels during an attack of colic. It will usually pass away without treatment on the subsidence of the colicky pains. If the spasm persists however it may be counteracted by applying a stimulating liniment to the skin immediately below the anus in males or by injecting warm water into the vagina in females. Gravel and Bladder Calculus. This occurs rather frequently in sheep and also in horses. It may take the form of a collection of sand-like calcareous matter (sabulous mat- ter), lying in the cavity of the bladder, or the lime salts may concrete into a calculus or stone. In the former case the urine will be frequently thick from the suspension in it of a quantity of the sabulous matter. When a calculus is present it may wound the lining membrane of the bladder at times and cause the passage of blood-tinged urine. Treatment. — Removal by operation is the only effective treatment. This is comparatively easy to accomplish in the mare, as with the aid of cocaine and atropine the mouth of the bladder (urethra) may be easily dilated to allow of the passage of the operator's hand. In the horse the operation (lithotomy) is more difficult and dangerous and should not be 9 Dec, 1907.] Diseases of Farm Aiiiinals. 767 resorted to except bv an expert. A catheter is passed into the bladder through the urethra. The canal of the urethra is then opened by cutting down on to the catheter just below the anus and in front of where it winds forward from the ischial arch. The opening is made sufficiently large to admit of the exit of the calculus, which should be manipulated with the hand in the rectum. Special lithotomy forceps may be required to grasp and remove a calculus but the sandy deposit may be removed with a specially shaped spoon. The risk of the operation lies in the difficulty cf getting the wound to heal, and a fistulous opening through which the uiine passes will often remain. Enlargement of the Prostate Gland. The prostate is a small gland encircling the urethra at the neck of the bladder, and in verv fat dogs — pet dogs principally^ — it frequentlv becomes enlarged and the subject of fatty degeneration. In these cases there is painful and frequent urination, or there may be complete retention of urine. Stone in the Sheath (Preputial Calculus). Bulls and rams are sometimes seen with the long hairs surrounding the point of the sheath encrusted with a whitish calcareous deposit. This is due to an excess of saline matter, generally lime phosphates, being deposited from the urine as it trickles slowly from the sheath. Although the de- posits cause little inconvenience in bulls it is advisable that the pasture should be changed or the diet modified as their presence is an indication of the liability to the fonnation of calculi internally. Wether sheep are frequently affected with the same condition, and in them it is a much more serious affair. Retention of Urine. By retention of urine is meant the non-expulsion ot urine already formed and contained in the bladder, not the scantiness of urine on account of its non-secretion. It may be due to various causes, the principal of which are : — (i) Loss of power of the bladder to contract and expel the urine. This may occur from over-distension as when a horse has been driven all day and has not staled. The wall of the bladder may become stretched to such an extent as to lose its power of contraction. (2) Nervous atony, as seen in the paralysis of the bladder in milk fever in cattle. (3) Spasm of the neck of the bladder as in cases of colic in horses. (4) Constriction of the urethral passage by enlargement of the prostate gland as seen in pet dogs. (5) Stricture of the urethra, occurring as the result of an inflammation or pseudo-gonorrhoea. (6) Blocking of the urethra by a calculus (this is a fairly common occur- rence in sheep) or by pellets of wax at the outer opening. (7) Various surgical conditions such as phymosis and paraphymosis. Symptoms. — The chief indications of retention of urine are: — Un- easiness, lashing of the tail, shifting and paddling of the hind limbs and feet, frequent posing as if to urinate, and perhaps colicky symptoms. Exploration with the hand through the rectum in males and through the vagina in females manifests the distended state of the bladder. In dogs the distension mav be felt on manipulating the abdomen just in front of 768 Journal of Agriculture. [9 Dec, 1907^ the pelvis. The distension is a fluctuating or resilient one. The longer the condition is left unrelieved the more urgent will be the symptoms on account of the continuance of the secretion of urine, and, if left unrelieved ureamic poisoning may result as previously described. Treatment. — Sometimes pressure with the hand through the rectum or vagina will cause expulsion of the bladder contents. If this fails the catheter should be passed without delay and about half the urine removed- If the distended bladder be wholly emptied at one time serious results may follow. The blood vessels in the lining being suddenly deprived of the support caused by the pressure of the contained urine, to which they have become accustomed, will become dilated and many actually rupture, causing immediate discharge of bloody urine and ultimately, perhaps, a serious in- flammation (cystitis). Bloody Urine. The presence of actual blood in the urine must be carefully distin- guished from the presence only of the colouring matter of the blood such as occurs in so-called red water. In the former case the red blood corpuscles should be easily distinguishable on microscopic examination. Bloody urine may be due to any of the causes previously mentioned or to a rupture of the lining of some part of the urinarv passage caused by overstrain during exertion. Treatment. — Tincture of iron (perchloride) in one or two dram doses may be given in a pint of starch or linseed mucilage, along with three or four drams of dissolved aloes. The iron to lessen the haemorrhage, the mucilage as a soothing agent, and the aloes as a laxative to mitigate the tendency to inflammation. The iron and mucilage may be repeated twice a day until the condition is overcome. In obstinate cases a sedative and styptic fluid may be injected into the bladder by means of a catheter, e.g., Tincture of iron half an ounce, decoction of poppies one ounce, warm water, in which is dissolved half an ounce of gum arable, one pint. Thick Urine. This term is applied to the urine when it contains (a) excess of urea and other urine salts causing a powdery sediment to deposit on standing, {})) excess of albumen or mucus causing it to be slimy and to deposit a mucoid sediment. Excess of Urea, &c., results from unusual exercise imposed suddenly, and is merely a sign of considerable tissue-change in the body, the kidneys being called upon to quickh^ remove the large amount of waste products resulting therefrom and circulating in the blood. It need not be interfered with except it persists over a few days when a tablespoonful of saltpetre mixed with a mash will usually set things right. Albumen is also found in the urine after hard work and except it is present in excessive quantity, which is a rare thing, no alarm need be occasioned. An occasional dose of sweet spirit of nitre diluted with water used to damp the feed will be beneficial in such cases. (The remaining urinary organs are common to the generative organs,, and their diseases will be dealt with under that head.) The Index of Vol. v. will be supplied with the first number of Vol. vi.. viz. 8th January, 1908. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS— ton^mu^t/. Non-swarming Bees. — R. R. writes : " (i) I'lease <,nve j^eneral directions to clieck swarm. ng. (2) What book on 'Bees' (Australian, if possible) would you recommend? I have Roots' -A. B.C. on Bee Culture. (3) I should be glad to learn how to breed almost non-swarm. ng Italian bees." AnsTver. — (i) To check swarming, nothing is so effective as giving the colonies plenty fully ibuilt-out empty combs, and dispensing with the honey board until the swarming season is over. When finished combs are not available, frames with sheets of foundation may be given, which,, iowever, are not nearly so effective. Breaking out all queen cells once a week w-ill postpone swarming for a time and with a change of temperature may prevent it. (2) There is no dis- tinctly Australian book on bees available, at any rate none of a comprehensive nature. As you already have the American standard work on bees you should subscribe to one or more of the Australian Bee Journals. Helpful articles also appear in this Journal from time to time. (3) 'To breed a practically non-swarming strain of bees is very difficult and almost impossible in an apiary worked for honey yields. Swarming may, however, be considerably reduced and brought -imder control by a proper system of management and by continuous select breeding of queens from stocks, which, while equal to the best, show but little or no inclination to swarm. The initial difficulty is that even amongst 200 to 300 colonies there may not be a single one which possesses all the requirements of vigor, racial purity and honey-producing capacity, as well as the non-swarming characteristic. Even when such a colony has been found the breeding of the young queens, their mating and the fixing of the non-swarming character by inbreeding, &c., is surrounded by so many difficulties, that only an experienced beeman could undertake the "task with any chance of success. Roof-cooling Compositions. — Country Resident asks for further information regarding the effect of Arabic and roof-cooling compositions on water for domestic use. Answer. — It is claimed by the makers that Arabic is non-injurious to drinking water as far as its chemical composition is concerned. As stated in the October issue of the Jourval it is the dust caught by the rough surface of any roof-cooling composition that is undesirable in drinking water. Plain galvanized iron has a smooth surface and does not catch so much -'^, >;?'.^ ♦■ V- %«. V * . i ^'*^ .»•' '^fr^''^- '' i '^f ' i^'' ■ li-i ' , --^ He • V _3I ' .irL Jr\ AM tidKflt- ^ 4 :7f-*^n #, ;'n «i ' -,> M.. .*■ *^ r.^^ ^ • *'i. mI'^' ^■'^.y ^'V -**. A ,. f.- .-,i;